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NEW TRAILS IN 
 MEXICO 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF ONE YEAR'S EXPLORATION IN 
 NORTH-WESTERN SONORA, MEXICO, AND SOUTH-WESTERN ARIZONA 
 
 1909-1910 
 
 BY 
 
 CARL LUMHOLTZ, M.A. 
 
 MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF CHRISTIANIA; GOLD MEDALLIST OF THE NORWEGIAN 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY; ASSOCIE ETRANGER DE LA SOCIETE DE L'ANTHROPOLOGIE 
 UE PARIS; AUTHOR OF "AMONG CANNIBALS," "UNKNOWN MEXICO," ETC. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
 INCLUDING TWO COLOR PLATES AND TWO MAPS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 I 9 1 2 
 
Copyright, iqix, by 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 Published October, 1912 
 
TO 
 
 THOSE WHO LOVE NATURE 
 IN ALL ITS ASPECTS 
 
PREFACE 
 
 During the years 1909 and 19 10 I was commissioned 
 by some influential friends to look into certain economical 
 possibilities of the arid and little known country along 
 the upper part of the Gulf of California, east of the Colo- 
 rado River. My field embraced most of the District of 
 Altar, in the State of Sonora, Mexico, as well as the 
 southern part of the newly admitted State of Arizona; 
 in other words, the region which by the early Spanish 
 chroniclers was designated as Papagueria, after the native 
 inhabitants, the Papago Indians. Some of this country, 
 being the least accessible part of the Sonora Desert, 
 is singularly little known, though lying, so to speak, at 
 the door of the great empire of Yankee enterprise. My 
 mission gave me an opportunity for geographical and 
 ethnological studies, an account of which is here presented 
 in popular form. For this opportunity I am grateful to 
 my friends. 
 
 Among my predecessors in exploration of the Papa- 
 gueria should be mentioned Prof. W. J. McGee, well 
 known from his studies of the Seri Indians, lower down 
 the Gulf. In the nineties he made journeys through 
 parts of this region and he has published interesting ac- 
 counts of the desert and its natives. In November, 1908, 
 
 vii 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Drs. D. T. MacDougal and W. T. Hornaday made a 
 month's trip from Tucson, Arizona, to the Pinacate region, 
 both pubhshing descriptions which were accompanied by- 
 maps by Mr. Godfrey Sykes. These gentlemen, accord- 
 ing to their own reports, had no opportunities for extensive 
 explorations of the Papagueria, which I found of such in- 
 terest that my expedition occupied me over a year. The 
 extreme western part of this region, the sandy country 
 between Pinacate and the Colorado River, so far as my 
 knowledge goes, had not before been investigated. The 
 travels here of the Jesuit fathers during the seventeenth 
 century did not extend much south of the present Mexican 
 boundary. Some of that country probably had not be- 
 fore ever been visited by a white man, and I have there- 
 fore described that part of my journey in greater detail, 
 thinking that an accurate account may prove of value 
 and even of practical interest. 
 
 This region, no doubt, recently had a less arid climate, 
 with much greater rainfall than at the present time. It 
 seems impossible to explain otherwise the recent great 
 accumulation of detritus at Sonoita, at the origin of the 
 little river of the same name, or the marked effect of the 
 action of the water on the hard rocks of Tinaja de los 
 Papagos. That country is a desert, on account of the 
 scarcity of rain, but the soil is in places extremely fertile 
 and I doubt not that through human agency large parts 
 of it will some day delight the eye with waving fields of 
 grain and orchards of fruit. 
 
 Although most of that arid region will always remain 
 suitable only for cattle and horse raising, still there is 
 
PREFACE 
 
 more of it than people realize which can be brought under 
 cultivation. I may mention the extensive valley which, 
 south of the Mexican boundary line, runs east and west, 
 passing beyond Sonoita, the great plains north-east and 
 south-east of Pinacate, as well as the middle course in 
 most of the flat valleys; for instance, many of those be- 
 tween the Gila range and the ranges following as far east 
 almost as Silver Bell, extending in the west as far north 
 as the Gila River. The problem of water is bound to 
 be solved at some future time, as soon as the necessity 
 arises. Water may be found at a depth of from fifty to 
 a hundred feet, but at most places one would have to go 
 several hundred feet down. Judging from the extraor- 
 dinary springs I encountered on the shore of the salt 
 deposit, Salina Grande, near the coast, there must be a 
 large sheet of fresh water underneath most of that western 
 coastal desert. This inference seems to be confirmed by 
 the flow of water which was found in digging the well, 
 near Horseshoe in the Quijotoa Range. 
 
 The mineral prospects of the region, especially as 
 regards gold, are great. There are numerous large veins 
 south of Sonoita which should be examined and the moun- 
 tains of the western desert explored. Free gold which 
 undoubtedly has been encountered in the malpais in the 
 northern part of Pinacate should also be followed up. 
 
 The extraordinary adaptation to arid conditions of 
 plant and animal life, even the domesticated animals 
 of Indians and Mexicans subsisting without difficulty for 
 months without water, cannot help but interest the ob- 
 server. With the exception of the Seri and Pima Indians 
 
X 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 the natives of the desert have so far received little attention 
 from those engaged in the study of primitive races. The 
 Papagoes are the great desert people of America and are 
 remarkably stable in their racial characteristics, still pre- 
 serving traditions and habits of the past which will soon 
 disappear. There are also ancient remains left since 
 the occupancy of that same country by people who had 
 a higher state of development than the present-day Ind- 
 ians. Original documents relating to the history of the 
 region are not always of easy access, and I have not had 
 an opportunity of consulting them. 
 
 In spite of excessive heat in the summer the nights are 
 always cool, and the climate is salubrious and even in- 
 vigorating. During three months in the spring I travelled 
 without wearing a hat, which made me feel comfortable 
 and actually cooler. The one drawback to a journey 
 in those regions is, of course, the want of water, and, be- 
 cause of this, caution is necessary, but this need not inter- 
 fere with the enjoyment of the freedom of the wilds. I 
 can understand the expression of an enthusiastic person 
 who for the first time felt the charm of the desert: *'I 
 am drunk with out-of-doors!" When I, in the easy sur- 
 roundings of civilized life, read my notes from the field, 
 it sometimes occurs to me that this or that which I went 
 through was well done; but what in civilization appears 
 as hardship, privation, or risk amounts to little when act- 
 ually happening, even if one is, as the Irishman said, 
 ^'a thousand miles from home and fifty miles from any 
 place." 
 
 To the lover of nature in all aspects, this land of "si- 
 
PREFACE 
 
 xi 
 
 lence, solitude, and sunshine" cannot help but present a 
 strong fascination. The wonderful colors of the late 
 afternoon, the glorious sunsets, the peace and calm of 
 night, the thrill that accompanies the early dawn of the 
 morning are sources of constant delight to the traveller. 
 Besides, an expedition of this kind directs one's thoughts 
 into other channels than those of the ordinary humdrum 
 of life. The starlit sky, under which one sleeps with im- 
 punity, invites imagination to take flight into the infinite 
 universe, and one has time to reflect on the beauty of 
 existence and the grandeur of nature, a pleasure which is 
 denied to most dwellers in cities. 
 
 During my travels I used an Army Sketching Case, 
 designed and patented by Glenn T. Smith, topographer. 
 United States Geological Survey, and I collected besides 
 a large amount of data of geographical importance. Of 
 the region traversed by me a considerable portion appears 
 on the hitherto published maps as blank space. The 
 International Boundary Commission, which takes in 
 generally from two and a half to three miles on each 
 side of the boundary. West of Meridian iii, west of 
 Greenwich, and south of Parallel 33 only one topo- 
 graphical sheet, that of Yuma, has been published by 
 the United States Geological Survey. 
 
 In making the map herewith presented, as a base for 
 starting, the Atlas sheets of the International Boundary 
 Commission have been used. In Arizona the word 
 range" has been employed as a synonym for the 
 Spanish sierra. This is generally in conformity with 
 the usage of the South-west. 
 
xii 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The following maps and authorities were consulted: 
 
 1. Report of the International Boundary Commission, 
 
 1891-1896. 
 
 2. United States Geological Survey. 
 
 3. Gulf of California, original survey by U. S. S. 
 
 Narragansett, 1 873-1 875, the Hydrographic 
 Office, United States Navy Department, Wash- 
 ington, District of Columbia. 
 
 4. General Land Office Map, Department of the In- 
 
 terior, 1909. 
 
 5. Pima County, by George J. Roskruge, 1893. 
 While the accompanying map has been made with 
 
 all possible care and after taking into account all obtain- 
 able material, it naturally does not claim absolute accu- 
 racy. The task of preparing a map approaching perfec- 
 tion would require as many years as I had months at 
 my disposal. 
 
 I desire to express to Mr. A. Briesemeister, of the 
 American Museum of Natural History, who drew the two 
 maps, my appreciation of his painstaking and skilful 
 work. Sr. Y. Bonillas, mining engineer and surveyor 
 in Nogales, kindly assisted in giving the location of cer- 
 tain places, and to his son. Sr. Y. S. Bonillas, of the In- 
 stituto Geologico de Mexico, I owe valuable topograph- 
 ical information in regard to the Pinacate region. I am 
 indebted to Mr. G. Sykes for a tracing of the mouth of the 
 Colorado River, 1907, although I disagree with him in his 
 estimate of the extent of the Santa Clara Slough. 
 
 The photographs have with few exceptions been taken 
 by myself. I had with me three cameras, all of the so- 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Xlll 
 
 called Kodak type, made by the Eastman Company, 
 Rochester, New York. The largest carried 5x7 films; 
 the other two were Folding Pocket Kodaks, all provided 
 with high-grade lenses. The photograph of the little elf 
 owl, reproduced at page 18, was presented to me by Mr. 
 Herbert Brown, of Tucson, and that of the row of cur- 
 lews, at page 256, by Mr. Warburton Pike, of British 
 Columbia. The photograph of Casa Grande, which 
 appears on the map of the Papagueria, I owe to the 
 courtesy of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The 
 photograph of the Yaqui chiefs, as well as that of the 
 donkeys bringing bat guano, were taken by a Hermosillo 
 photographer. The clowns and Pablo I had taken in 
 Tucson. 
 
 Mr. Marius Dahlgren, my able friend of Tucson, 
 kindly contributed the painting of sunset in the desert, 
 reproduced as frontispiece. Miss Gladys Batchelder 
 Greene was good enough to transcribe the two native 
 songs. The two colored illustrations are by Mr. R. 
 Weber, and the drawings of native implements were 
 made by Mr. W. Baake, after objects collected during 
 the expedition. 
 
 The comparative vocabulary, published by the Smith- 
 sonian Institution, has been used as a basis for the 
 short vocabularies of Appendix I. 
 
 To my good friend, Hon. Franklin MacVeagh, Secre- 
 tary of the United States Treasury, I am indebted for the 
 official courtesy which he, through the State Department, 
 secured on my behalf in Mexico. 
 
 I wish to express my grateful acknowledgment to the 
 
XIV 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Mexican Government for removing all custom duties 
 for my expedition and for continuing in other ways the 
 pleasant relations of former years. 
 
 For the identification of the several plants referred to 
 in the book as well as for valuable information on botanical 
 subjects I am under great obligation to Dr. B. L. Robin- 
 son, Curator of the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University. 
 Dr. J. A. Allen, Mr. Frank M. Chapman, and Mr. W. 
 Beutenmiiller, of the American Museum of Natural His- 
 tory, New York, have identified certain mammals, birds, 
 and insects. Mr. Samuel Henshaw, of the Museum of 
 Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, has identified 
 various insects. In regard to mineralogical and geological 
 specimens I have consulted with Dr. C. P. Berkey, of 
 Columbia University; Mr. L. P. Gratacap and Dr. E. O. 
 Hovey, of the American Museum of Natural History, as 
 well as with Prof. Cyrus F. Tolman, of Arizona Uni- 
 versity, who for ten days accompanied me on the 
 expedition near Magdalena, and who has contributed a 
 sketch of the geological formation of the Papagueria, 
 presented as Appendix HI. Mr. Nathan Banks, Mr. 
 Barton A. Bean, Dr. J. N. Rose, and Dr. Leonard 
 Stejneger, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 
 have further contributed toward the identification of 
 certain specimens of natural history. 
 
 Carl Lumholtz 
 
 New York, 191 2 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Westward Bound — Civilization in the West — Tucson Past and 
 Present — Visit to San Xavier Del Bac — The Papago Ind- 
 ian Reservation — Ancient Fortifications — Native Ceme- 
 teries — Antiquities — Courtship of the Night Hawks . . I 
 
 CHAPTER H 
 
 The Papagueria — Its Natural Features — Sierras and Llanos 
 — Small Rainfall — High Temperature — Remarkable Adap- 
 tation of Plant Life — Fauna — The Papago, the Great 
 People of the Desert — First Encounter with the Whites 
 — Present Conditions 1 6 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 An Expedition into Southern Arizona — My Companion — 
 The Range of Baboquivari — Fresnal — Papago Manner of 
 Curing Disease — At the Boundary — An Unusual Relig- 
 ious Commotion — Visit to a Sacred Cave — Indian Oasis . 30 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Giant Cactus or Sahuaro — The Sahuaro Feast at Noria 
 — Dancing and Singing — The Medicine Lodge — Tobacco 
 — Well Received — Dissertations with the Indians — An 
 Adventure — An Ancient Festival — Native Oratory — Ob- 
 jection to Photography — Artistic Gifts of a Native ... 45 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Comobabi — An Attractive Indian Family — Marianita — A 
 Horned Lizard that Spurts Blood through the Eye — An 
 Aboriginal Way of Recording Events — The Papago Cal- 
 endar — Harvesting Sahuaro — How to Keep Comfortable 
 in Great Heat — A Visit to Chief Alvina 65 
 
 XV 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Horseshoe in the Quijotoa Range — Indians as Miners — Spend- 
 ing a Night under Difficulties — Delightful Natives — A 
 Woman's Game — Santa Rosa Rancheria — The Great 
 Harvest Feast of Santa Rosa 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Visit to a Very Sacred Place — The Children's Sacrifice — A 
 Meeting with an Important Personage — Anekam — Prim- 
 itive Natives — I Arrive among the Kohatk People — A 
 Wet Night — Return to Santa Rosa 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Scorpions — A Storm in the Desert — How the Sahuaro Wine 
 Is Made — The Sahuaro Feast at Santa Rosa — A Great 
 Rendezvous — Social Amusements of the Papago — Success 
 at Collecting Specimens — Stuck in the Mud — Wonderful 
 Change in the Landscape — A Valuable Vegetable — Part- 
 ing with Pablo 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 In Magdalena, Mexico — The State of Sonora — The Yaqui 
 Indians — An Attack of Dysentery — Trincheras, the Re- 
 markable Ancient Fortifications — Antiquities of the Pa- 
 pagueria — Altar — Caborca — I Start Westward — Placer 
 Mines — The Choya — Its Terrible Spines — Its Great Util- 
 ity — Cattle Which Are without Water for Months . . 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Adventure with a Coyote — Unusual Afterglow — A Meteor — 
 A Great and Fertile Valley — The Custom of Nidri — La 
 Nariz — The Papagoes of Quitovac 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 xvu 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sonoita, an Oasis of the Desert — Its Pleasant Population — 
 Lessons of the Sonoita River — Antiquities — A Lunar 
 Rainbow — Primitive Gold Mining — Prevalence of Hydro- 
 phobia — Unusual Refraction of Sunlight 1 74 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Areas of Vegetation — Fitting Out an Expedition under Diffi- 
 culties — An Old Medicine-Man Enrolled as a Member — 
 Guadalupe 1 87 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 The Old Caborca-Yuma Trail — Quitovaquita, the Place of 
 Small Springs — Old Camping Places — Pinacate and Le- 
 gends Connected with It — Discovery of Water — Our 
 First Mountain-Sheep — Visit to a Sacred Cave — Ascent 
 of the Peak — Winter Weather — Crater Elegante — Travel 
 at Night 196 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Changing Camp — Mountain-Sheep — The Useful Greasewood 
 — Palo Fierro, the Friendly Desert Tree — Los Medanos, 
 the Great Sand Dunes — Unusual Tracks — Abandoned Ind- 
 ian Camps — New Sierras — La Tinaja de Los Papagos — 
 Visit to a Crater 21 J 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Westward — Looking Back toward Pinacate — Tinajas Altas — 
 Its Dismal Memories — Sunshine and Moonlight of the 
 Early Morning — El Capitan — Laguna Prieta, a Salt Lake 
 — A Long Wait for Water — How Fresh Water Appears 
 among Bulrushes — Approaching the Colorado River — 
 Colonia Lerdo — The Indians at the Lower Part of the 
 Great River 235 
 
XVlll 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Travelling along the Gulf of California — Delightful Climate — 
 Killing a Porpoise — Fishing — Fresh Water on the Beach 
 — Unattractive Drinking Water — Fine Views — A Great 
 Salt Deposit — Extraordinary Occurrence of Springs — 
 Hard Travel — ^The Papago Salt Expeditions — Worship of 
 the Sea 254 
 
 CHAPTER XVH 
 
 A Peaceful Day — Tragedy in the Wilderness — Our Animals 
 Beginning to Give In — A Promising Soda Deposit — Last 
 Camp on the Beach — Among the Sand Dunes — Sierra 
 Blanca — The Mouth of the Sonoita River — El Charco — 
 Pronghorn Antelopes — Meeting with Indians — Return to 
 Sonoita 274 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 New Expedition Westward — Growler Well — A Hardy Old Pa- 
 pago — Disagreeable Experience with a Mexican of My 
 Party — A Valuable New Member — Papago Loyalty — 
 Pronghorn Antelope Again — Mountain-Sheep Inside of a 
 Crater — I Leave My Main Camp — My Two Companions 
 — Risks Taken by the Prospector — Deceptive Atmosphere 
 — Our Guiding Star — Reading Tracks — Solitude — Beauty 
 of the Desert 289 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 I Overtake My Men — Again at Tinajas Altas — Progress under 
 Difficulties — Exploring in Los Medanos — Astonishing Dis- 
 play of Flowers — Picturesque Camp on the Dunes — I 
 Lose My Riding Mule — Sierra Del Rosario — Travel at 
 Night— The Wonderful "Root of the Sands" 308 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 Return to Tinajas Altas — Evasive Travellers — An "Oldtimer" 
 — The Cabeza Prieta Mountains — Vague Notions of Prop- 
 erty — The Pools of Cabeza Prieta — A Rainy Day — I 
 Reach My Main Camp — The Advantage of Travel with 
 Donkeys — My Indian Companions — The Sand People . 320 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 xix 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 An Indian Hermit — Aboriginal Cooking — Again in Sonoita — 
 Ancient Village Sites Around the Altar River — A Remedy 
 for Snake Bites — I Arrive at Ajo, Arizona — Gila Bend 
 Reservation — An Ancient Fortress — The Maricopa Ind- 
 ians — The Ways of Civilization — The Pima Indians — 
 Casa Grande — Its Builders — Return to Civilization . . 333 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 Physical and Mental Characteristics of the Papago — Effects of 
 Contact with White Man — Marital Relations — Woman's 
 High Position — Industries — Divisions of the Tribe — 
 Religion and Myths — Races and Games — Fights with 
 Apaches — Sham Battles — Present Conditions and Pros- 
 pects of the Papago 344 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 I — Short Vocabularies from the Languages of the Papago, 
 
 Pima, and Cocopa Indians 368 
 
 II — Rancherias, Present and Past, of the Papago, with Inter- 
 
 pretations of Their Native Name 377 
 
 III — Geological Sketch of the Papagueria 398 
 
 INDEX 
 
 401 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 At Sunset: Santa Catalina Mountains, near Tucson. 
 
 {Colored plate) Frontispiece 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 In a Tucson garden 4 
 
 Where peace reigns supreme. San Xavier 4 
 
 Mission church of San Xavier del Bac 12 
 
 A kiln at San Xavier 12 
 
 Threshing wheat. San Xavier 12 
 
 Sierra de la Basura, Sonora. Seen from the south-west ... 18 
 
 An exceptional mountain range of the Papagueria 18 
 
 A characteristic mountain range of the Papagueria .... 18 
 
 Mocking-bird {Mimus) 22 
 
 Elf-owl (Micropallas) 22 
 
 Cotton-tail rabbit 22 
 
 Young gray fox, at burrow 22 
 
 Rattlesnake 22 
 
 Peak of Baboquivari, seen from north-west 32 
 
 Peak of Baboquivari 42 
 
 Ocotillo {Fouquieria splendens) 42 
 
 Entrance to the Sacred Cave, at foot of peak of Baboquivari 42 
 
 Barrel cactus 42 
 
 Sahuaro, or giant cactus {Cereus giganteus) 48 
 
 Single-column sahuaro 48 
 
 Sahuaro, dry, showing its wooden structure 48 
 
 Papago ethnology 56 
 
 Picture drawn by an untutored Papago 62 
 
 Using the ancient hoe 62 
 
 Mother with child in cradle. Aktjin 62 
 
 xxi 
 
xxii ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 Palo verde, near a Papago cemetery 72 
 
 The medicine-lodge at Santa Rosa 72 
 
 Showing how to swing the bull-roarer 88 
 
 Woman's game of double-ball 88 
 
 Papago woman, with her children, from Bisani, near Caborca 88 
 
 The clown at the great feast of Santa Rosa 92 
 
 My camp at Santa Rosa 92 
 
 Papago ethnology 96 
 
 Shrine of the children's sacrifice, seen from the west .... 104 
 
 Shrine of the children's sacrifice, near Santa Rosa 104 
 
 East of the shrine of the children's sacrifice 104 
 
 Papago ethnology no 
 
 Desert willow in bloom, June 120 
 
 Papago woman carrying water 120 
 
 The dam at Santa Rosa. Made by the Papagoes 120 
 
 Pablo, my interpreter. A full-blooded Papago 132 
 
 The old way of hauling freight in Mexico, now disappearing . 136 
 
 Bringing bat guano to Corral railroad station in the Yaqui 
 
 country 136 
 
 Yaqui chiefs who in 1909 made peace with the Mexican Gov- 
 ernment 136 
 
 Ancient fortifications near Trincheras, District of Altar, Sonora 140 
 
 The same side of the mountains, viewed at five miles distance 
 
 from the north 140 
 
 Antiquities of the Papagueria 142 
 
 Antiquities of the Papagueria 144 
 
 The church in old Caborca 146 
 
 Altar, seen from the west 146 
 
 A ranch, west of Altar, showing the indispensable water barrels 146 
 
 Cow eating choya 152 
 
 Cow showing vestiges of her favorite feeding grounds . . . . 152 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 Choya {Opuntia mamillata), relished as food by the cattle . . 152 
 
 Feeding on mezquite leaves 162 
 
 Papago women bringing in wood, La Nariz 162 
 
 Pictographs near La Nariz 168 
 
 Pictographs near Caborca 168 
 
 The nose of the rock which gave La Nariz its name . . . . 168 
 
 Ancient pottery vessels of the Papagueria. Excavated by Pa- 
 pago Indians near Fresnal, Arizona. (Colored plate) , . 170 
 
 Papago woman, La Nariz 174 
 
 The principal spring at Quitovac 174 
 
 Agua Dulce, a reappearance of Sonoita River 180 
 
 The channel at the beginning of Sonoita River 180 
 
 Salt loads, recently discharged. Papago pack-saddles in the 
 
 centre 184 
 
 Papago woman "dry washing" gold near Quitovac .... 184 
 
 Approaching storm. View from Pinacate top, looking south, at 
 
 sunset, January 3 200 
 
 Pinacate from the east. Commencement of the lava flow. To 
 
 the right, my camp 200 
 
 Belt of great sand-hills south of Pinacate 200 
 
 Guadalupe at the sacred cave of Pinacate 208 
 
 The lonely palo fierro 222 
 
 Greasewood bushes 222 
 
 Hauling palo fierro branches for camp fire at dusk 222 
 
 Mountain sheep, female 228 
 
 Tracks of beetles (Eleodes) on sand dune 228 
 
 Crater elegante 232 
 
 The watercourse at Tinaja de Los Papagos 232 
 
 Paso de Juana 236 
 
 Tinajas Altas 240 
 
 Clemente: Papago 240 
 
xxW ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 Filling our barrels and canteens at Tinaja del Tule .... 240 
 
 Laguna Prieta, from the east 244 
 
 In the sand dunes before arriving at Laguna Prieta .... 244 
 
 Indians burning reeds and grass on the Colorado River . . . 248 
 
 Approaching Laguna Prieta 248 
 
 A stranded porpoise 256 
 
 Row of curlews on the beach 256 
 
 The delta of the Colorado River showing clumps of bulrushes 
 
 (Tulare s) 256 
 
 Clayey sand clilFs of the gulf 256 
 
 A pozo at Salina Grande, seen from the east 262 
 
 The same pozo, seen from the west 262 
 
 Salina Grande in its northern part, showing many of the pozos 
 
 or tulares 262 
 
 A pozo at the edge of Salina Grande 264 
 
 A pozo at Salina Grande 264 
 
 Beautiful effects of wind and sand, north-west of Pozo del 
 
 Caballo 272 
 
 The Pinacate salt deposit 272 
 
 Leaving La Soda 286 
 
 Sierra Blanca, southern part, seen from the south 286 
 
 Waiting for his chance. At Los Pozitos 286 
 
 GEnothera trichocalyx, near Sierra del Rosario 312 
 
 (Enothera trichocalyx, near Sierra del Rosario. A fine growth 312 
 
 (Enothera trichocalyx, south of Sierra Blanca 312 
 
 Clodomiro digging for "roots of the sands" {Camotes) . . . 318 
 
 The "roots of the sands'^ {Ammohroma sonorce) 318 
 
 My companions, "Doctor" Pancho (to the left) and Pedro . 318 
 
 Sierra del Rosario, northern part 324 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xxv 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 Cabeza Prieta Range. An interior, looking westward. A dry 
 
 arroyo at the bottom 324 
 
 Papago: Guadalupe, my companion from Quitovac .... 344 
 
 Papago: Miguel, medicine-man from La Nariz 344 
 
 Girl. Parents: Chinaman and Yaqui 344 
 
 Boy. Parents: Spaniard and Papago 344 
 
 Pima granary. Made from twisted arrow bush 350 
 
 Hut for the isolation of women 350 
 
 Papago: Rainbow," from La Nariz 350 
 
 Designs of Papago baskets 354 
 
 Casa Grande, Arizona, before the protecting shed was erected 
 
 Printed with map showing Papago Rancherias 
 
 MAPS 
 
 Map showing Papago Rancherias, Present and Past 
 
 Map of South-western Arizona and North-western 
 Sonora, comprising the region formerly called 
 Papagueria 
 
 In pocket at 
 end of volume 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 WESTWARD BOUND— CIVILIZATION IN THE WEST— TUCSON PAST 
 AND PRESENT— VISIT TO SAN XAVIER DEL BAG- THE PAPAGO 
 INDIAN RESERVATION— ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS— NATIVE 
 CEMETERIES — ANTIQUITIES — COURTSHIP OF THE NIGHT- 
 HAWKS 
 
 In May, 1909, I found myself on a train westward 
 bound for the never-never country. Many a time have I 
 crossed the North American continent and, coming from 
 the East, have noticed the change of natural conditions 
 that takes place west of Chicago. One begins to feel the 
 freedom of the West, the air is very bracing, and the great 
 plains inspire to deeds of energy. The few people in the 
 Pullman car look intent, as if they had some purpose in 
 life. Tourists seldom travel on these trains, but very 
 often consumptives are seen on their way to the land of 
 hope, the arid regions of the South-west around El Paso, 
 Tucson, and other places. 
 
 ''Pardon me for calling you mister. Judge," said one 
 of my fellow-passengers during our conversation. He was 
 not a good judge himself, I am afraid. Another one to 
 show his good-will gave me the title of colonel, as also did 
 the negro porters. 
 
2 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 "Why do you want to discover any more animals? 
 We have enough already," said to me a wise, elderly man 
 from California, connecting in some way my proposed 
 expedition with the discovery of animals. 
 
 We pulled out from El Paso and, in a newspaper I 
 had just bought, I read these rather startling lines: 
 
 COWBOYS AND SHEEPMEN FIGHT 
 Fierce Battle at Atchee, Colo. 
 
 SHEEPMEN are TIED UP AND COWBOYS THEN SLAUGHTER 3,000 HEAD 
 
 OF SHEEP 
 
 Grand Junction, Colo., May 20. — As a result of a battle between 
 the sheepmen and cowboys on a contested ranch near Atchee, Colo., 
 yesterday, 3,000 head of sheep were killed and two sheepmen injured, 
 but not seriously. According to the reports received here the cowboys 
 dashed in upon the herders and tied them to trees and then rode among 
 the sheep, killing them. The slaughter required almost a day. In 
 order to prevent the news from leaking out, it is said, the cowboys first 
 cut the telephone wires and then made their escape into the hills. 
 Several hours later the sheep-herders were discovered and liberated. 
 
 A mining man from the West, another of my fellow- 
 passengers, cultivated and intelligent, gave me light on 
 these high-handed proceedings by explaining the feuds 
 between cattlemen and sheepmen as due to the fact that 
 cattle will not graze on ground where sheep have fed. 
 According to my informant, the sheepmen are Mexicans. 
 The cattleowners often hire renegades to do their bloody 
 work. In a battle the previous year, seven men had been 
 killed. The aggressors are masked and escape. 
 
 This incident reminded me of a request for the for- 
 bearance of the audience put up on a signboard in a far 
 
FRONTIER LIFE 
 
 3 
 
 Western town, ''Don't shoot us, we are doing our best," 
 and the advertisement of the barber in a mining camp, 
 *' Ears washed without extra charge." Such are the act- 
 uaHties of frontier hfe, but we should not be led to wrong 
 conclusions about that great Western land in the process 
 of making and its virile, hearty population. The other 
 side to the picture is a much more important one, and it 
 often remains obscure to those who do not know the 
 actual conditions. 
 
 Arizona, which concerns us here, has good laws and 
 enforces them. Its public-school system is equal to the 
 best of the commonwealths in the eastern part of North 
 America. This State, which includes not only great 
 mines, cattle, sheep, and angora goat ranches, ostrich 
 farms, etc., but a steadily growing agriculture, was con- 
 sidered a useless waste of desert less than fifty years ago. 
 
 As for Tucson, where I made my first head-quarters, 
 one is surprised at the business-like, orderly aspect of 
 everything. In Spanish times the presidio, or fort, of 
 Tucson, established in 1776 on its removal from Tubac, 
 resisted many a siege from hostile natives, numbering at 
 times over a thousand. A traveller in 1863 describes it 
 as ''the head-quarters of vice, dissipation, and crime. 
 There was neither government, law, nor military pro- 
 tection. The garrison at Tucson confined itself to its 
 legitimate business of getting drunk or doing nothing." 
 To-day on the same site one finds a cosmopolitan, well- 
 laid-out, and clean city of twenty-four thousand inhabi- 
 tants. In 1880 the Southern Pacific Railroad arrived 
 here, bringing it in more direct touch with the rest of the 
 
4 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 world. The people met on the streets or in the stores 
 are invariably civil and they are much more so than under 
 the same conditions in New York, besides being more 
 wide-awake. The citizens are public-spirited, prosper- 
 ous, and progressive, and, best of all, they respect and 
 favor learning, as evidenced by the welcome extended to 
 the Desert Botanical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu- 
 tion, for the study of desert plants, which was given land 
 in the vicinity. Tucson is the seat of the University of 
 Arizona which, from the modest beginning in the year 
 1 89 1 of a single building among the greasewood of the 
 mesa, has advanced to an institution of much importance. 
 It has a school of mines and an agricultural experiment 
 station. 
 
 The university buildings are charmingly situated in a 
 park of forty acres, where clusters of the native palo 
 verde attracted my attention, displaying in an exuberant 
 manner their yellow spring blossoms, which appear be- 
 fore the leaves. Plants peculiar to the desert region 
 have been planted in the garden, among them a maguey 
 {agave americana), the renowned mescal of Mexico, a 
 member of the amaryllis family to which the common 
 garden narcissus belongs. Members of this family the 
 so-called century plants, have large and beautiful spikes 
 of creamy white flowers which are the supreme effort of 
 their lives and after the production of which they die, 
 though able to propagate themselves by shoots. The 
 one in question was seventeen years old when it pro- 
 duced stalk and flowers. The stalk, more than twenty 
 feet high, grew, according to Prof. J. J. Thornber, in 
 
In a Tucson garden 
 
 ! 
 
 Where peace reigns supreme. San Xavier 
 
TUCSON 
 
 5 
 
 six weeks, the maximum growth in one day having been 
 eleven inches. For comparison, it may be mentioned 
 that the Virginia creeper, one of the most rapid-growing 
 plants, has been known to make four inches a day, but 
 it needs deep and rich soil and much water. 
 
 Tucson is situated on the Santa Cruz River, a small 
 stream, but important because of its permanency. A 
 fertile valley with alluvial soil surrounds its course, which 
 offered the most direct route for the early Spanish ex- 
 plorers. It disappears in the sand before reaching the 
 Gila River. Tucson is 2,430 feet above sea-level. The 
 name is a corruption of the Papago Tjukson, meaning 
 ''at the foot of {son) the black hill (tjuk),'' The word 
 tjuk"^ designates the color black, which also by inference 
 means black hill. Originally Tjukson was a Papago 
 rancheria on the river, at the foot of a small hill near that 
 on which the Desert Laboratory is now situated. The 
 climate is hot in summer, the records of 1909 showing 
 that there were only three days in the year when the sun 
 did not shine; still it is a very healthy region, and con- 
 sumptives prolong life and are even cured by living here. 
 On January 27, 1888, Tucson, according to reports, had 
 four or five inches of snow on the ground. 
 
 About nine miles south of Tucson, on the fertile 
 plains along the Santa Cruz River, is the old church of 
 the Mission of San Xavier del Bac. There has been 
 much speculation in regard to the meaning of the word 
 Bac. It is the Spanish rendering of Vak, the Papago 
 name of the locality, and means: "where the river reap- 
 
 * There should be a sHght s sound before /. 
 
6 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 pears in the sand, a 'sink'/' This fine Jesuit edifice does 
 not, according to Mr. Ad. F. BandeHer, date further back 
 than the middle of the eighteenth century, though an 
 attempt at building a church at San Xavier appears to 
 have been made in 1699. It was once a rich mission; 
 the architecture is the usual type of Spanish renaissance, 
 but better preserved than is the case with other missions 
 of the South-west. 
 
 The church is at present surrounded by a reservation 
 of the Papago Indians. The ethnologist will find these 
 Indians more worthy of a visit than he would anticipate, 
 because, owing to the half nomadic habits of the tribe, 
 natives of the interior districts are constantly to be found 
 there. From the tower of the old church I had a fine 
 view of the extensive wheat-fields which the Indians at 
 that time — the beginning of June — were harvesting, and 
 which presented a marked contrast to the barren appear- 
 ance of some settlements of poverty-stricken Mexican and 
 Yaqui families that live on low hills beyond the river, just 
 outside of the reservation. Horses were gorging them- 
 selves in the green fields of barley. Some of the Indians 
 have mowing machines that cost fifty dollars each. I was 
 told that the United States Government supplied agri- 
 cultural implements. The ambition of these natives still 
 reaches out for a hay-press, which would cost in Tucson 
 nearly four hundred dollars, and a bog-rake." ''That's 
 all we ask for," the Papago policeman said to me. He 
 had a buggy with two horses, which he lent me. They 
 were lazy and did not take any of the unexpected lib- 
 erties usual with horses raised by Indians. Sewing 
 
IN TOUCH WITH NATURE 
 
 7 
 
 machines and many of the white man's kitchen utensils 
 are seen in the houses; nevertheless, the people seem 
 very Indian. When spoken to in Enghsh they would not 
 answer me, but they would in Spanish, the women always 
 smiling when addressed in that tongue. 
 
 Some years had passed since I had been among Ind- 
 ians and I again enjoyed their gentle and sympathetic 
 manner. When I reached there, one woman was toast- 
 ing green garbanzos; she was stirring the large peas in 
 the shallow earthen-wear dish in which corn cakes are 
 baked, and she hospitably offered me a few, presenting 
 them in a beautiful tray with interwoven symbolic fig- 
 ures. Another woman offered me wheat grains which 
 she was toasting on a potsherd. They were simple 
 dishes, these, but how good they tasted because they 
 were well cooked! None of the many civilized man's 
 machine-made productions of a similar kind bear com- 
 parison with the plain cuisine of the nimble housewife 
 of the red man. Although dogs here were somewhat 
 numerous, they did not molest. Indian dogs are seldom 
 fierce, but these did not even bark when we approached 
 the houses; they would look at us unconcernedly and 
 lay their heads down again. 
 
 The dwellings here, rectangular in shape, are usu- 
 ally adobe huts or light sheds made of sunflower stalks 
 placed upright, three or four sahuaro ribs, which are 
 tied horizontally, binding these together. The walls are 
 usually plastered both inside and out with mud mixed 
 with straw; the uprights are forked poles of mezquite 
 and the same kind of pole always stands in the middle 
 
8 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 of the house to support the roof. The rafters, too, are 
 of mezquite, the roof consisting besides of a layer of 
 coarse grass called sacaton and another of wheat straw, 
 on top of which is placed mud. The roof is slightly 
 raised in the middle in order that the rain may more 
 easily run off; the floor is earthen. Huts made of up- 
 right ocotillo sticks, but otherwise similar, are also seen. 
 A window is rarely found in the houses. Generally 
 there is attached to the house a shed called in Spanish 
 jacaly a light roof resting on four or six forked upright 
 poles, which furnishes a grateful shade. Here the cook- 
 ing is done, and here the family is usually found sitting. 
 The dwellings in the rest of the Papagueria are of a sim- 
 ilar type, real adobe houses being seldom met with. The 
 dome-shaped grass huts of the natives are also not un- 
 common in the interior districts of southern Arizona. 
 
 Pottery making is the greatest industry among these 
 Indians, and wherever I went in the mornings I could 
 hear the soft hammering of the wooden paddle against 
 the clay that had been moulded into shape. A round 
 smooth stone is held by the other hand against the inner 
 wall of the vessel. All the pottery makers are women, 
 and their faces betray much quiet intelligence. The 
 pottery ware of the Papago, though of fairly good 
 quality, cannot be compared with that of the Pueblo 
 Indians, especially in regard to designs. It is useful, 
 though, and finds a ready sale in Tucson. 
 
 The Indians who live here number about seven hun- 
 dred, and they seem contented and happy. One cir- 
 cumstance which contributes to their happiness and 
 
THE BLACK HILLS 
 
 9 
 
 gives great cause for satisfaction to those interested in 
 the welfare of the red man, is the prohibition against 
 selHng brandy to the Indians. Through the constant 
 vigilance of specially detailed men the law is enforced, 
 at least on the reservation. I was informed that forty- 
 five convictions for the sale of liquor to the Indians had 
 been secured in the Federal Court at Tucson which had 
 just then closed its session. The penalty is usually two 
 years in the penitentiary, together with a fine, and still 
 there are always people willing and anxious to sell to 
 the Indians an abominable, poisonous liquor called 
 ''port-wine" at twenty-five cents a quart bottle. 
 
 Near San Xavier are five hills, running more or less 
 in the general direction of east and west, of volcanic for- 
 mation, and dark in color. They are each and all called 
 by the Papago tjuk (black). A further characteriza- 
 tion is given as to which mountain is meant, by ''the 
 black hill where the cemetery is," "the black hill on the 
 other side of the river," and so on. I ascended one of 
 these hills, situated three miles west of the mission church, 
 which, like a great many others of the South-west, is sur- 
 mounted by fortifications of ancient people. These con- 
 sist mainly of two rows of stone walls which at short 
 intervals run for about two hundred yards irregularly 
 along the northern side of the summit. The trail from 
 below cuts through them. The walls, four feet high and 
 ten or fifteen feet wide at the base, consist of loose stones 
 thrown together without any attempt at system. 
 
 On the top small enclosures, or corrals, of upright, 
 medium-sized stones were noted; here the ancients lived 
 
lO 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 perhaps during sieges, each family in its enclosure. I 
 found later that those Papagoes who lived recently in the 
 sand dune country of Sonora had similar, though cruder, 
 arrangements at their camps. In the winter, when much 
 grass is growing on the top of the mountain, the Indians 
 keep their horses there on pasture. The rest of the vege- 
 tation of the hill consists mainly of a bush with almost 
 white leaves, encelia farinosa, appropriately named the 
 white brittle bush by Dr. William T. Hornaday. The 
 leaves have the characteristics indicated by the name 
 and, with their stems, have a very strong aromatic odor. 
 The branches exude a yellow gum which the Papago 
 children use as chewing gum, for they indulged in this 
 unattractive habit long before certain classes of Ameri- 
 cans included it among the pleasures of life. The men 
 also applied it as a varnish over the painted part of an 
 arrow, warming it first. The rounded and symmetrical 
 shape of this bush is in evidence everywhere in the desert 
 region. The Mexicans call it herba del vaso, because the 
 gum is supposed to cure pain in the vaso (the left side 
 below the ribs). It is warmed and smeared on, and is 
 considered more efficacious than a porous plaster. 
 
 These bushes grow in desert fashion with such regu- 
 larity of intervals that they appear as if planted, and 
 they covered in a pleasing way the dark sides of the moun- 
 tain, especially toward the south, where also appeared, 
 here and there, the lofty columns of the giant cactus or 
 sahuaro (cereus giganteus). That wonderful creation of 
 the desert, however, does not often inhabit mountains, 
 for the reason that most of their soil has been washed 
 
BURIAL CUSTOMS 
 
 II 
 
 away, but on lesser, mostly volcanic hills like this one, 
 it is seen, though on the south side alone. Dr. D. T. 
 MacDougal informs me that farther south and east in 
 the Sonora Desert, down toward Hermosillo, before reach- 
 ing the plant's extreme limit of habitat, it prefers to grow 
 on the north side. 
 
 The hill notable for its cemetery is much smaller and 
 quite low, and rises back of the Indian houses. The 
 Papagoes wrap their dead in a new suit of cotton cloth, 
 and place the corpse on the ground, building up a small 
 artless stone chamber four feet high over it. In other 
 parts of the Papago country the natives make a hole in 
 the ground of sufficient depth to hold the dead in a sit- 
 ting position, erecting over it the usual protection. The 
 roof of the chamber consists of mezquite or palo verde 
 poles, taken from the deceased man's own house which, 
 so to speak, follows him to the grave. On top some 
 stones are heaped. Many such chambers are in time 
 joined together and form singular looking structures, 
 ugly and irregular in shape, being at the widest part 
 from twenty to thirty feet across. After the lapse of 
 some time the roof may fall in, allowing a peep down at 
 the desiccated human remains, near which may have 
 been placed objects such as arrow stretchers, plumes, 
 ornaments, and trinkets. I often later saw pottery ves- 
 sels that had contained food or drink standing near the 
 newly erected chambers. Where there are trees near by, 
 bundles of clothing for the use of the departed in the 
 next life may be seen among the branches. Four thin, 
 upright sticks of ocotillo, which had been placed in a 
 
12 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 small quadrangle, protruded about one and a half feet 
 from the middle of the roof of some of the chambers 
 near San Xavier. 
 
 Such agglomerations of mortuary chambers were lo- 
 cated on all sides of the small hill, except toward the east, 
 some low down, some high up. I counted thirty-one. 
 Most of the Indians that die in the neighborhood are no 
 doubt still adding to the number and size of these com- 
 posite burials of the Black Hill Cemetery, though a few 
 make use of the Cemetery of the Baptized, as the Cath- 
 olic cemetery is called. On the llano, at the foot of the 
 fortification hill described above, is another large heap 
 of mortuary chambers, which the Indians call the Level 
 Ground Cemetery. The dead are never mentioned. 
 The sons, and not the daughters, inherit from the de- 
 ceased. 
 
 Just north of the Indian village, on the east side of 
 the river, are several insignificant looking earth mounds, 
 where pieces of antiquity consisting of stone implements, 
 pottery vessels, etc., are constantly being found in small 
 numbers. Such ancient village sites are common along 
 the river and adjoining arroyos, and in turning up the soil 
 of the river plain the Indians encounter stone axes, etc. 
 
 It may be of interest to note that in excavating a 
 dam, fifty miles west of Tucson, a number of ancient 
 earthen-ware and stone implements were found and, with 
 them, curiously enough, two solid balls of rubber, one 
 weighing eight ounces. These no doubt were made 
 from the now famous rubber substitute of northern 
 Mexico, which is produced from a plant called guayule. 
 
Threshing wheat. Sax Xax ier 
 
NIGHTHAWKS IN SPRING TIME 
 
 By chewing the leaves and stalks the Indians were able 
 to bring out the rubber. Small quantities of this plant 
 are growing near Tucson. 
 
 At San Xavier, nighthawks, also called goatsuckers, 
 flew about in great numbers every evening at the sunset 
 hour, often settling on the ground among the greasewood 
 bushes. As is well known, their call when flying much 
 resembles that of the bleating of a goat, but seated on the 
 ground they would emit an entirely different and pleas- 
 anter sound, like that produced by water when being 
 poured out of a bottle, only very much louder. This 
 species was the Texas nighthawk {chordeiles acutipennis 
 texensis). 
 
 It was the month of June, their mating time, and 
 they were calling out so eagerly that slight notice was 
 taken of my trying to photograph them with my kodak. 
 On horseback they were easily approached within fifteen 
 feet, but it was at first extremely difficult to discover 
 their presence on the ground, so much does the bird 
 resemble its surroundings. Only by paying attention to 
 the exact spot where they had settled could I discover 
 their whereabouts; after a little while the snow-white 
 band under their throats would help to betray their 
 presence. 
 
 I was observing through my field-glass how one of 
 them, singing with much perseverance, swelled out its 
 throat each time the note was emitted, its tail and wings 
 trembling simultaneously, when suddenly another night- 
 hawk appeared behind me, darting swiftly past me to- 
 ward the object of my observation, and emitting at the 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 same time some peculiarly sweet notes. They must have 
 sounded like soft whispers of love, for they were imme- 
 diately answered by similar notes, but briefer and of 
 a more decisive character, and the bird on the ground 
 was carried into the highest ecstasy. For a second or 
 two the whole bird trembled, spreading out its beautiful 
 tail like a fan and calling out; then it took to its wings 
 and the two flew away in the happy, easy zigzags in 
 which these birds seem to revel. 
 
 They settled on the side of a small hill near by. What 
 became of the aggressive female I could not ascertain, 
 but the male continued to sound its gurgling notes, and 
 I approached him repeatedly on my horse as he sat on 
 the shady side of the hill while the sun was setting. The 
 enlargement of the pure white band across the throat 
 made it quite easy to discover him even at a distance of 
 forty or fifty feet, though unfortunately the poor light 
 precluded the possibility of a photograph. I experi- 
 enced the same thrilling joy in following the birds with 
 my camera as I formerly did when I killed them. 
 
 Part of the reservation consists of a large and very 
 fine forest of mezquite trees, some of which have grown 
 to considerable size. The Indians help to supply Tuc- 
 son with wood from these trees. In making a trip 
 through the quiet woods, I heard everywhere the call of 
 Gambel's quail Qophortyx gambeli), the most common 
 game bird in Arizona; also jack-rabbits and coyotes 
 were seen. The mezquites were at their best in their 
 light green, fresh-looking foliage, and on Sundays these 
 woods, which in less arid regions would not be valued 
 
LACK OF CONSIDERATION 
 
 very highly, are used as picnic grounds by the hard- 
 working people of Tucson. Lovers of nature find com- 
 fort among the trees although they give little shade, but 
 they are the only woods within a reasonable distance of 
 town. 
 
 Formerly some magnificent cotton trees, near the 
 Indian agency of the reservation, used to be the objec- 
 tive point of picnic excursions. There were no less than 
 twenty of these old trees that gave splendid shade dur- 
 ing the fierce heat of the summer. The crowds, as is 
 their careless habit in America, used to leave newspapers, 
 baskets, and peanuts strewn about the ground, and they 
 would throw empty cans into the alfalfa fields beyond 
 the fence. The owner, much annoyed, posted warnings 
 and prohibitions which were apparently taken lightly; 
 for, finally, to prevent this nuisance, he resorted to the 
 incredibly drastic measure of cutting down those superb 
 trees and making firewood of them. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE PAPAGUERIA— ITS NATURAL FEATURES— SIERRAS AND LLANOS 
 —SMALL RAINFALL— HIGH TEMPERATURE— REMARKABLE AD- 
 APTATION OF PLANT LIFE— FAUNA— THE PAPAGO, THE GREAT 
 PEOPLE OF THE DESERT— FIRST ENCOUNTER WITH THE 
 WHITES— PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 The Papago Indians of to-day, the principal natives 
 of the desert, hve in Arizona to the west and south-west 
 of Tucson, as far as the Growler Mountains in the west, 
 the Gila River in the north, and the range of Baboqui- 
 vari in the east. In the neighboring state of Sonora, 
 Mexico, a number of them are scattered, roughly speak- 
 ing, from the Altar River, in the east, as far as Quitovac 
 and Sonoita in the west, most of them at present living 
 near the boundary line. Until recent times they were 
 found as far as the Colorado River. They occupy much 
 the same land as they did when first discovered in the 
 seventeenth century by the Spaniards. The region was 
 early named Papagueria, or, in its greater extension, 
 Pimeria Alta. It is part of the great arid region called 
 the Sonora Desert. 
 
 The main part of the Papagueria slopes down from 
 an elevation of three thousand feet or more, in south- 
 eastern Arizona, slowly, and to the casual observer im- 
 perceptibly, for some two hundred miles toward the Gulf 
 of California ; its northern part gradually descends toward 
 the Gila River. A striking feature in its topography is 
 
 i6 
 
DESERT RIVERS 
 
 17 
 
 a number of minor mountain ranges or sierras, varying 
 from seven to thirty miles in length, and running more 
 or less in the same general direction of south-east to 
 north-west. Their usual elevation above the sea may be 
 placed at three or four thousand feet, although some in 
 the north rise as high as nine thousand, and some in the 
 south are as low as a thousand feet. The mountains 
 have undergone a tremendous erosion and at a distance 
 give the erroneous impression of being entirely devoid of 
 plant life. Often the zigzag profile of their crests re- 
 sembles a flash of lightning. There is a good deal of 
 mineral wealth in the region, the western Papagueria 
 being part of a great auriferous belt that stretches south- 
 ward from California and Nevada. Oddly enough, the 
 veins of ore very often follow the same general direction 
 as the sierras, south-east to north-west. The geological 
 formation is granite and recent volcanic. 
 
 The intervening valleys, or ahras^ as the Mexicans 
 call them, are rather flat, and are formed by the detritus, 
 which is naturally higher and coarser along the moun- 
 tain sides than in the more central part, where tillable, 
 often extremely fertile, soil is found. Few of the so-called 
 rivers retain water for more than a few hours after a 
 downpour of rain, and the few that show permanent 
 water in certain limited localities, as, for instance, the 
 Santa Cruz River in Arizona, lose themselves in the 
 desert, or, as the Altar and Sonoita Rivers in Sonora, 
 reach the sea only after a heavy rain. 
 
 The prevalence of dry arroyos with gravelly or sandy 
 beds is very marked in these valleys, large or small; they 
 
i8 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 are probably evidences of a heavier rainfall than these 
 regions now have. They either join the larger rivers or 
 disappear in sand dunes or playas. Most of the water 
 runs into the Altar and Sonoita Rivers in the south, and 
 some to the Gila River in the north. As so few rivers 
 have a permanent water supply, water has often to be 
 sought elsewhere. In the mountains it is found where 
 natural conditions favor the gathering of rains into kettle 
 holes or sockets, forming what the Mexicans call tinajas 
 (natural tanks). They are nowhere common and some 
 sierras do not contain any. In the south-western part of 
 the Papagueria, toward the Colorado and Gila Rivers, 
 such tinajas are the only water to be found. Some last 
 only a few months before evaporating; others, having a 
 capacity of a few thousand gallons, may last a year or 
 two. In the flat ''valleys" between ranges, or, to use an 
 equally common expression, on the llanos, enterprising 
 Americans have in a few places sunk wells in connection 
 with mining or in futile attempts at cattle raising. 
 
 At Tucson the annual rainfall of the region ap- 
 proaches twelve inches a year, and at Fort Yuma, on the 
 Colorado River, it is not quite three inches. The heat 
 is great during four months of the summer, a maximum 
 temperature as high as 125° F. having been recorded at 
 Yuma. In June the surface of the soil during the day 
 was so heated that I could not stand on it comforta- 
 bly unless I wore thick-soled shoes. Professor Toumey 
 found that the highest temperature of the soil at the 
 depth of one inch near Tucson reached 113° F. Its 
 average temperature for the month of July was 104.9° F. 
 
Sierra de la Basura, Sonora. Seen from the south-west 
 
 In the foreground are choyas {Opuntia fulgida) 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 An exceptional mountain range of the Papagueria 
 
 A characteristic mountain range of the Fafagueria 
 
HOW PLANTS OBTAIN MOISTURE 
 
 In winter, as might be expected, the nights are cold, 
 the temperature frequently falHng below the freezing- 
 point, but it is a heahhy cHmate and in the Sonora part 
 of the Papagueria, Mexicans have been known to Hve to 
 the age of a hundred years or more. 
 
 The plant life of such a country must present much 
 of interest yet to be discovered. Science explains that 
 plants derive their water largely from a very thin layer 
 of moisture which, by capillary attraction, surrounds and 
 closely adheres to every particle of earth and sand in 
 which the plant is growing. Even after the sand has 
 become perfectly dry to the touch this element of moist- 
 ure is present, though in a very slight degree. Where 
 the soil is compact this moisture, through capillary at- 
 traction, tends to rise to the surface, there to evaporate 
 from the joint action of sun and wind. If, however, the 
 soil at the surface be loosened, the moisture does not 
 rise so high nor so readily. In that way the loose soil 
 acts as a blanket, protecting the deeper soil from evapo- 
 rating. Methods have of late years been adapted which 
 serve to pulverize the surface, intensifying the action of 
 nature, and putting *'dry farming" on a more rational 
 basis. The people of California and Kansas know about 
 this, and practice pulverizing. 
 
 Contrary to the popular conception of deserts, the 
 one in question has a vegetation, wonderfully adapted to 
 its environment. During the year I spent there I never 
 saw any plant, bush, or tree suffering from want of rain, 
 in spite of the fact that the winter passed without its 
 customary light showers. Nothing appears scorched 
 
20 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 from the sun, for desert plants are slow to dry up as 
 well as slow to grow. Next to the healthy though som- 
 bre color of the vegetation and the scarcity of trees, 
 that which strikes the observer most when first travel- 
 ling in the desert region is the isolation of each bush or 
 plant. It is as if they were growing in a nursery. This 
 arrangement is made necessary because the plants need 
 large spaces from which to gather the scanty desert 
 moisture, sending their roots out horizontally all around, 
 or, if they grow in the bottoms of valleys where water is 
 not too far below the surface, sending the roots over fifty 
 feet down to reach it. 
 
 Whatever grows is adapted to resist the fierce heat 
 of the summer and the scarcity of rain. With some plants 
 their structure prevents loss of water, others have a 
 means of storing water, which is the case with the cacti, 
 the juicy pulp of which may save the thirsty traveller's 
 life. The water supply stored in the bisnaga, or barrel 
 cactus {echinocactus)y is enough to keep it in thriving 
 condition for years. There is no need to die from thirst 
 in the desert where this cactus grows. In the coastal 
 region of the sand dune country it is not met with, but it 
 is fairly common elsewhere. Cutting off the head and 
 crushing the inside tissue to a pulp, one may obtain a 
 liquid which tastes something like soda-water. It makes 
 a fair substitute for water, and a canteen may be filled 
 with it, though it does not keep very long; however, a 
 new supply is usually not difficult to obtain. Horses 
 and donkeys also like it. Life in this way may be sus- 
 tained for many days. I heard of a Mexican woman who, 
 
DESERT VEGETATION 
 
 21 
 
 having become demented on account of her husband's 
 death, kept herself Hving by this hquid exclusively for 
 many months until the authorities took charge of her. 
 Also water may be obtained by making holes in a sahu- 
 aro, for instance, by a pistol shot, although it is bitter 
 and unpleasant to the taste in comparison with the juice 
 of the barrel cactus. The flora of this desert, according 
 to Dr. D. T. MacDougal, does not show any structural 
 difference from species of moister regions, although their 
 mode of life is necessarily very different. He points out 
 that seeds of many of them remain wholly inactive dur- 
 ing the summer rains that are accompanied by intense 
 heat, and germinate in the winter, while others are unaf- 
 fected by the rains of winter and the low temperature, 
 and germinate in the summer. 
 
 The most common of all the vegetation here is the 
 greasewood Qarrea trident ata). It is as characteristic of 
 the region as are the many species of cacti and has a 
 much less limited area than the latter. The greasewood 
 belongs to the plains, which it sometimes covers, and 
 gives them the appearance from a distance of vast ex- 
 panses of yellowish green. It is found even on the coast 
 and in the sand dunes half buried by the sand. People 
 call it useless, but the Indians and Mexicans know better, 
 as we shall see later on. The mezquite, the palo verde, 
 and the ocotillo are all useful trees to the native, while 
 the cacti and certain bushes and plants furnish him with 
 fruits, edible seeds, and vegetable dishes, a few of which 
 are not to be despised by a more fastidious palate. 
 
 The fauna of the region includes a great many small 
 
22 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 rodents, and such large ones as the jack-rabbit and 
 the cotton-tail; further, white-tailed deer, mule-deer, 
 mountain-sheep, the pronghorn antelope, the lynx, the 
 mountain-lion, the gray fox, and the badger, as well as, 
 of course, the coyote. Among the birds may be men- 
 tioned turkey vultures, hawks, and falcons, the burrow- 
 ing owl and other owls, among them the diminutive 
 elfowl {rnicropallas whitneyt), the smallest of its kind in 
 America; further, ravens, four species of quail, pigeons, 
 the roadrunner, the cactus wren, fly-catchers, thrashers, 
 etc. Also aquatic birds, as wild geese, herons, cranes, 
 wild ducks, etc., are seen in certain suitable localities. 
 
 It has been found by actual experiment that small 
 rodents of arid regions have been able to live for two or 
 three years on hard seeds without water. The animals of 
 the desert certainly impress one as having made them- 
 selves considerably independent of the water question. 
 Holes or burrows in the ground indicating the presence 
 of rodents or of the badger are often found in great 
 numbers miles away from water, the only water being a 
 lonely tinaja in a distant mountain range, of which it 
 would seem strange that they should have any knowledge. 
 With the roving mountain-sheep it is diff^erent, although 
 Mexicans and Indians insist that they drink only when 
 rain falls. Similarly, I have it on the authority of an 
 intelligent and observant American in Sonora that while 
 the white-tailed deer in eastern Sonora do, those in its 
 western part do not drink unless it rains, which is apt 
 to be rarely. He has never seen their tracks at the water- 
 holes there, though he has observed them elsewhere and 
 
Rattlesnake 
 
ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT 
 
 often not far from water. Another American of many 
 years' residence, who had shot deer south-east of Liber- 
 tad, confirmed this. Certain it is that domesticated ani- 
 mals of arid regions are much more enduring than those 
 of moister regions. Cattle will live well for months with- 
 out any other water than that of the juice of the cacti, 
 which is, besides, their principal means of subsistence. 
 Even horses do not come in to drink of their own free 
 will every day during the winter. In my travels it was 
 the usual thing during the winter time for our animals 
 to go without water every second day; such is the cus- 
 tom of that western desert country and its animals are 
 in surprisingly good condition. On one occasion, in 
 March, our horses and mules, travelling during the day, 
 had no water for seventy-six hours. It was only the 
 horses that suffered and this was more from the quality 
 of the water than from the lack of it. There is one do- 
 mestic animal, however, man's constant companion, the 
 dog, that declines to adapt itself to desert conditions. 
 Besides suffering from thirst, the hot soil makes its feet 
 sore and it does not know on which leg to stand. Even 
 the dogs of the Indians when travelling, especially in the 
 hot season, remain behind panting in what little shade 
 there may be under the bushes, and only continue their 
 journey in the coolness of the evening. 
 
 In such an environment live the Papago Indians, the 
 people of the desert. They are a Pima tribe and speak 
 the same language as the Pima Indians with some va- 
 riations of dialect. Their number reaches perhaps four 
 thousand five hundred, of whom not over seven hundred 
 
24 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 live in Mexico. The name Papago is usually interpreted 
 as meaning "bean people." Their tribal name as em- 
 ployed by themselves is Ootam, which means ^^the people." 
 They call the Pima Indians Akimuri Ootam, ''river peo- 
 ple," referring appropriately to their habitat on the Gila 
 River. The Pima call the Papago Toono Ootarriy ''des- 
 ert people." 
 
 The early Spanish missionaries were unable to exer- 
 cise much influence over this tribe. The indefatigable 
 Jesuit, Father Kino, who in the present State of Sonora 
 in 1687 established his first mission, Dolores, travelled 
 much in the Papagueria or Pimeria Alta, as far as the 
 Gila River and crossing the Colorado. He was treated 
 kindly by the Papagoes; but they have, nevertheless, 
 been described by the early chroniclers as wild and dan- 
 gerous. According to Mr. Bandelier, there is no histor- 
 ical record left of their customs and religion beyond that 
 concerning the prevalence of witchcraft, which is still 
 much in evidence. Even up to recent years the Papagoes 
 made short work of medicine-men suspected of witch- 
 craft. 
 
 The topographical position of the missions that were 
 established was such that with the forts, or presidios, 
 they formed a barrier against the Apaches, who were the 
 main obstacle to the Christianizing and civilizing efforts 
 of the Spaniard. Some of the missions of the *' Province 
 of Sonora" grew to be very rich in cattle and cultivated 
 lands, feeding, as a recent Mexican author says, "a mul- 
 titude of pagans who flocked there and helped in the 
 work of the mission when needed." Sometimes the 
 
PAPAGOES AS OF OLD 
 
 25 
 
 missions furnished the troops with horses. In the Papa- 
 gueria proper there were well-to-do missions such as 
 Caborca, but the nature of most of that country would 
 indicate that they were generally on a modest scale. 
 There was one in Sonoita and two on the Gila River. 
 In 1 751-3 there was a revolt in Pimeria Alta, and in 1840 
 the Papagoes again revolted against the government. 
 
 With the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, and later 
 of the Franciscans in 1828, the missions as well as the 
 forts decayed and vanished. Changing political condi- 
 tions in Mexico also contributed toward their disappear- 
 ance. To-day the former missions interest few and are 
 left to the archaeologist to trace. Such has been the fate 
 also of the missions among the Yaqui, Opata, and Seri 
 Indians. 
 
 As for the Papago, the greater part of the tribe never 
 could be induced to live in pueblos, or villages, which was 
 always the policy of the Spanish missionary. In spite of 
 the efforts of the Jesuits and Franciscans, the Papagoes 
 are still living in their rancherias as of old, half nomadic 
 in habit, resorting in the winter to the sierras where 
 water is more plentiful and where their cattle, horses, 
 mules, and donkeys find good grazing ground. In the 
 summer they move to the broad, flat valleys to devote 
 themselves to agriculture which is made possible by the 
 aid of the showers that fall in July and August. They 
 do not usually pursue irrigation beyond the diverting of 
 rain water into ditches. In the summer they raise maize, 
 beans, watermelons, and squashes, and in the winter 
 when infrequent light showers usually may be depended 
 
26 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 upon, peas, barley, and lentils may be planted, all on a 
 small scale, according to Indian habits. Wheat, which is 
 grown in November and harvested in May, is now the 
 most important crop. 
 
 By scooping up the earth they make dams in which 
 rain-water is stored for household use as well as for their 
 domestic animals. This is especially the case at the 
 summer rancherias. Of late years they have also taken 
 to the digging of wells, going sometimes as deep as sev- 
 enty feet, but they have been known to find an abun- 
 dance of water at a depth of only eighteen feet. Thus 
 the Papagoes, though sedentary Indians, have distinct 
 habitations for summer and winter. The aboriginal 
 name for the summer rancherias is ooitak^ fields, called 
 by the Mexicans temporales. The winter rancherias are 
 called kthiniy where there are houses (^/), and these 
 might be called villages. In some cases the summer ran- 
 cherias seem to be considered the more important habi- 
 tations, and medicine lodges are found at both. 
 
 As implacable enemies of the Apaches, the Papagoes 
 were of some assistance to the early missionaries in help- 
 ing the presidios to fight their savage foes, and they have 
 several times, says J. F. Velasco, presented the govern- 
 ment with ears and scalps of Apaches they had killed. 
 Their innate enmity to the Apaches later gained them 
 the favor of the Americans, who received their valuable 
 assistance in campaigns against these marauders. They 
 also gained the good-will of the Mexican Government by 
 assisting in the war against the valiant Yaqui Indians. 
 
 It has been the good fortune of the Papagoes to live 
 
ADVANTAGE OF AN ARID COUNTRY 27 
 
 in a country which the white man as yet has not found 
 it profitable to exploit by cattle raising or, still less, by 
 dry farming. Therefore, they have so far been left alone 
 in their native country, and besides they have even come 
 into possession of a few wells which the Americans dug 
 in their efforts to redeem the land. These natives are 
 thus better situated than most of the tribes of North 
 America. 
 
 The Papagoes are above medium height, rather dark 
 in color, and of splendid physique. The women are in- 
 clined to be stout. They are a peaceful but at the same 
 time courageous people and show much intelligence. 
 They are hospitable, as becomes a desert people, and if 
 food is being prepared in the house when a stranger 
 comes, some of it is offered to him, be he Indian, Mexi- 
 can, or American. 
 
 In the central part of the Papagueria, especially in 
 the large valley of Santa Rosa and the adjacent Quijotoa 
 and Comobabi ranges, they live happy days without 
 much interference from the whites. Some of the sum- 
 mer rancherias astonished me by their extent of land 
 fenced by wooden piles and poles, but in outlying dis- 
 tricts many are forced to seek work from the whites, by 
 whom they are much valued as laborers in the making 
 of railroads, irrigation ditches, and in mining. The part 
 of the tribe that lives in Sonora is much more disrupted; 
 they have lost most of their lands and are largely ser- 
 vants of the Mexicans, doing efficient work as vaqueros 
 (cowboys), miners, etc. The Papagoes also know how 
 to "dry wash" gold at the placer mines, many of which 
 
28 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 are found in Sonora, and the discovery of one or two 
 large placer mines has been due to these Indians. 
 
 The Papagoes are by no means badly off, as a rule, 
 and they manage to make a good living where, so far, 
 the white man's efforts have failed. Their herds, adapt- 
 ing themselves to the arid conditions, are increasing and 
 making the Indian prosperous and comfortable. Good 
 mules now carry burdens which his wife or he himself 
 formerly had to toil under; cheese is made from the milk 
 of their cows and sold or used for their own consump- 
 tion, and, above all, they have wheat and maize in suffi- 
 cient quantities to last them all the year round. They 
 also have wheat and occasionally some head of cattle to 
 sell, obtaining in return commodities of civilized life. 
 The white man's kitchen utensils are being acquired, 
 and the women have begun to find it more convenient to 
 use flour than to grind the grain on the metate. No 
 native race, though keeping its language, can help chang- 
 ing its ideas under such conditions. In a very few years 
 there will be no more interest attached to the Papago 
 than to the native descendant of the once proud Aztec 
 in the suburbs of the City of Mexico. 
 
 Although the Papago in Arizona always insists upon 
 speaking his own language, still he is rapidly losing his 
 aboriginal beHefs, customs, and habits; even basketwork, 
 for which the women of the tribe were noted, is falling 
 into decay. Both in Arizona and Sonora the Indians 
 have completely adopted the white man's garments. 
 Some old man may still be found in the more remote 
 parts wearing his aboriginal apparel, consisting of a 
 
THE PASSING OF THE INDIAN 29 
 
 breech cloth around the loins, but this is getting to be 
 an extremely rare sight, and it must be confessed that 
 the ready-made blue overalls of the white laboring man 
 of the West, the colored shirt, a picturesque neckerchief, 
 and gray felt hat with straight brim are quite becoming 
 to the young bucks with their superb, lithe, and supple 
 figures, with somewhat narrow hips. No man wears his 
 hair long any more, but tattooing marks in the face are 
 still seen on men and women of the former generation in 
 the Santa Rosa valley, where ancient customs and beliefs 
 have been preserved longer than anywhere else. In this 
 extensive valley are also found the most important ran- 
 cherias. 
 
 I was glad to have visited these Indians while there 
 was still something of the ancient atmosphere left in the 
 more remote parts of the Papagueria. The fact is that 
 these decided changes in the conditions of the Papago 
 have come about comparatively recently, perhaps during 
 the last thirty or forty years. As Mr. Bandelier, the great 
 authority on the history of the South-west, truly says, 
 the ethnography of Arizona has not changed much since 
 the year 1600. The Apaches by their raids altered tri- 
 bal relations, but the change that most concerns us here 
 is due to the settling of the country since its annexation 
 by the United States, and in Sonora to the discovery of 
 gold. Though possibly originating in a less arid region, 
 the Papagoes, in relation to their environment, ought to 
 be a no less interesting study than the country itself. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 AN EXPEDITION INTO SOUTHERN ARIZONA— MY COMPANION— 
 THE RANGE OF BABOQUIVARI— FRESNAL— PAPAGO MANNER OF 
 CURING DISEASE— AT THE BOUNDARY— AN UNUSUAL RELIG- 
 IOUS COMMOTION— VISIT TO A SACRED CAVE— INDIAN OASIS 
 
 On June 20 I started from Tucson bound for a 
 journey of exploration of that part of Arizona which is 
 occupied by the Papago Indians. My sole companion 
 was Jose Xavier Pablo, a full-blooded civilized native of 
 that tribe, twenty-six years old. He had learned car- 
 pentry in Tucson, in which he was as proficient as any 
 white man. He was also a painter and plumber; in fact, 
 he could turn his hand to almost anything of a practical 
 nature. Thus, assisted by two other Indians, he had 
 put up the telephone line between Tucson and the Pres- 
 byterian Mission School, which he had frequented for 
 nine years. He furnished his own wagon and two hardy 
 horses bred in the desert, and before starting he shod his 
 horses himself. Pablo also served as my interpreter. 
 He was intelligent and reliable, besides being of an un- 
 usually even temper; during the two months we travelled 
 together, I do not remember ever to have known him 
 cross or to lose his temper. 
 
 In addition to the usual provisions, we had two can- 
 teens of the generous Western size, each capable of hold- 
 ing two and one-half gallons of water, and also one of 
 smaller size. Of course, the water barrel on the side of 
 
 30 
 
BEGINNING MY JOURNEY 31 
 
 the wagon was not wanting; also rifle, shot-gun, and rid- 
 ing saddle were taken along, not to mention photographic 
 cameras and the necessary scientific instruments. In the 
 outskirts of Tucson, near an old mill, we filled our barrel 
 and gave our horses a good drink at the clear, smooth- 
 flowing stream of the Santa Cruz River, which was in 
 such a delightful contrast to the arid landscape. 
 
 It had been my intention to go down first along the 
 eastern side of the Baboquivari Range as far as La Osa 
 Ranch, but the road turned out to be sandy and heavy, 
 and I was obliged to return and limit my initiatory jour- 
 ney to travelling along its western side. A happy-look- 
 ing Papago family from the suburbs of Tucson passed us 
 on their way to the sahuaros (giant cactus); they were 
 going to spend the Dia de San Juan^ midsummer day, in 
 the country picking the much coveted fruit. An Indian 
 on horseback was on his way to the hot city, Tucson, for 
 the same celebration. Everyone to his taste! 
 
 Baboquivari is the familiar name given to an exten- 
 sive range south-west of Tucson. From its central part 
 rises a peak of somewhat striking shape which gave ori- 
 gin to its name, Baboquivari being a Spanish corruption 
 of the Papago name Vavkivolik, meaning: "mountain 
 ivav) narrow about the middle {kivoliky \ seen from the 
 south, the almost perpendicular sides of the peak appear 
 slightly drawn in at the base. The peak, rising nearly 
 fifty miles south-west of Tucson as the crow flies, can be 
 seen from a great distance, from the neighborhood of the 
 Jack-rabbit mine and the Ajo Mountains in the west, to 
 Altar, Sonora, in the south. Prof. R. H. Forbes, of the 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 University of Arizona, in July, 1898, succeeded in as- 
 cending it, and by an aneroid barometer the height was 
 found to be 7,850 feet above sea-level. The ascent was 
 made from the west side, and, to quote his own words, 
 **the extreme top of the mountain is a gentle oval about 
 a hundred yards across. From this lofty vantage the eye 
 sweeps over about three hundred miles of a terrific and 
 almost untouched wilderness of rocks." There is a small 
 pool on top which holds a few gallons of water after 
 rain. In rainy weather, water drips down on the north 
 side five hundred feet below the top, where several small 
 pools were seen. 
 
 It is perhaps at the latter place that the pond is found 
 which is called by the Indians Viikan Shootak, ''Lasting 
 Water" {shootak^ water), and which in the belief of the 
 Indians was left by the sea after the deluge. At the time 
 of the making of sahuaro wine for their great feasts of 
 the summer, people go up there to get some of this water, 
 after having first sung to it, to use in the wine making. 
 
 On Friday, June 25, we approached from the west 
 the large rancheria called Fresnal, situated among the 
 foot-hills below the peak of Baboquivari, which looked 
 more magnificent from that point of view than from any 
 other I have seen. The air was very pure and transpar- 
 ent, and I took a photograph of the peak at half-past five 
 in the afternoon. Just as I cast a glance backward, 
 before making a second exposure, I was astonished to 
 see that the region toward the west and south was hazy, 
 and I had scarcely time to make the exposure when the 
 haze and a light wind, moist from the sea, arrived. A 
 
A LARGE RANCHERIA 
 
 33 
 
 few minutes later the Baboquivari Range, at a distance 
 of ten miles, was enveloped in a light fog. The change 
 was not only seen but felt, the temperature fell, and the 
 moisture of the air was very perceptible. As the wagon 
 was heavy and the road led uphill, it grew late before 
 our arrival, but the moon was half full, so we found our 
 way easily in the now quite chilly evening. The spell of 
 extremely dry air was broken and the season of rain 
 showers approaching. 
 
 We made our camp next to a big mezquite tree on a 
 slope among the ranches. The weird singing of a med- 
 icine-man sounded through the greater part of the night. 
 Few are those Papagoes who have lost faith in their own 
 doctors, and even the so-called policemen turn to them 
 for relief if anything ails them. 
 
 Fresnal consists in reality of three rancherias, and we 
 found ourselves in the middle one. They are pleasantly 
 situated among the foot-hills and look like villages. The 
 name is derived from some ash trees that grow in the 
 arroyo, the native name having the same meaning. Nat- 
 urally, the rainfall is greater here in the mountains than 
 on the llano and, according to local accounts, the arroyos 
 at times run a whole day. Occasionally the water is six 
 feet deep. The Indians say that the arroyos here carry 
 water to the Sonoita River. 
 
 The Indians of Fresnal are well-to-do; three or four 
 of the men are reputed to own as many as two hundred 
 head of cattle and fifty horses each. Wagons and good 
 horses were seen, and there were plenty of chickens 
 about. Men and women, especially the latter, looked in 
 
34 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 good condition; the young men were not particularly 
 accommodating, as their interest seemed to be centred in 
 the corral, where they were breaking in horses, separat- 
 ing cattle, etc. These natives had little to sell me beyond 
 a fine basket used for harvesting sahuaro fruit. This 
 kind of basket, which now is becoming rare, is of large 
 size, water-tight, and is carried on the head. Its decora- 
 tive designs sometimes represent the sahuaro cactus. 
 
 I visited Santiago, an old hunter, who, according to 
 reports, used to be able to overtake deer, on the run, in 
 half a day, and then shoot them with bow and arrow. 
 In the hot weather these animals are not inclined to run 
 long, as their feet become sore. Santiago is still very 
 agile and quick in his movements and every day he goes 
 out shooting quail, cotton-tails, jack-rabbits, and pigeons. 
 His bow, which I secured, is made from that beautiful 
 greenish blue bush of the desert called condalia. It is 
 strengthened by an ox-tail hide pulled over it. The bow 
 string is made from the ligaments of the back of the neck 
 of the same animal. Arrows are made from the amole 
 (yucca) flower stalk, the point being of cat-claw, tied by 
 deer sinew. 
 
 He was also willing to be photographed. He had 
 been to Tucson and there had gone through the experi- 
 ence of the camera, so he had no objection but would 
 expect some gratuity. I took three or four snapshots 
 with my kodak, and he asked fifty cents, which I gave 
 him, but he demanded fifty cents for each exposure, in 
 which I could hardly humor him. The Papagoes all 
 have a great disinclination to being photographed, and 
 
A MEDICAL PRACTITIONER 
 
 look upon It as being worth a good deal of money to the 
 one who submits to the operation. His bow and four 
 arrows, the result of much labor, he sold for ^1.25. I 
 gave him some tobacco, candy, and raisins, and we sep- 
 arated great friends. 
 
 In the afternoon I arrived at a house outside of which 
 an old medicine-man, Castillo, was singing to soothe a 
 patient, a middle-aged, powerful looking man who was 
 lying on his back in front of him. His singing was ac- 
 companied by the rasping of two sticks; one end of the 
 notched one he held by his left hand, while the other 
 end rested against an inverted basket, and he drew the 
 rasping stick each time up toward him and then down, 
 the opposite movement to the one which we should use 
 to produce the same result. Near the basket on the 
 ground an effigy of a horned lizard had been placed ; it 
 was made of wood and daubed with ochre, its head 
 turned toward the patient. 
 
 Some Indians came up smiling as if they wished it 
 to be understood that they did not believe in the per- 
 formance, for they knew that white men laugh at this. 
 One of them obligingly brought me a basket for sale as 
 well as three small ancient objects, a flint arrow-point, a 
 spinning whorl, and a small perforated stone disk, all 
 threaded on a string. In the meantime the medicine- 
 man, whom I watched from my horse, was finishing his 
 treatment by placing the effigy repeatedly on the patient's 
 leg, breathing and blowing at the same time. The man 
 had a pain in his leg which had been caused by a horned 
 lizard, for, according to Papago beliefs, all animals have 
 
36 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the faculty of making people ill except the deer and the 
 pronghorn antelope. To relieve the illness the doctor 
 had sung a song to the animal, asking it to take the 
 pain away. He then walked into his house; somebody 
 must have told him that I was a makai (doctor, medicine- 
 man), for a few minutes later, to my surprise, he brought 
 out his medicine basket, easily recognized by its long 
 shape, and came up to me. We sat down on the ground; 
 he took off the cover and began to unpack the contents 
 of his tray. 
 
 Many people gathered around us and the sick man 
 half rose from his mat in order to turn around to see who 
 the stranger was. There were many remedies of a sim- 
 ilar character to the one just described. Images of cer- 
 tain animals, accompanied by appropriate ceremonies 
 and exhortations, are thought to relieve ailments. Like 
 the native doctor himself, an animal is thought to be 
 able to cause illness as well as to cure. The turtle 
 causes stiffness, the butterfly produces vomiting, and the 
 badger gives backache. The deer makes persons cough, 
 and their voices weak, and may give consumption; but 
 a deer-tail, placed on a stick and manipulated in the 
 proper way by the medicine-man, will cure that illness, 
 for, as Castillo added by way of explanation, "it is not 
 often you see the deer thin.'* A piece of clay taken from 
 a gopher's burrow is used against excessive menstrua- 
 tion or stomach pain. The sun is apt to give fever, and 
 a patient suffering thus is relieved at sunrise; during the 
 incantations of the doctor a small wooden image of the 
 sun rests on the ground, while the patient faces the east. 
 
THE MAGIC OF A PLUME 
 
 The old man seemed glad to explain everything. He 
 was also willing to sell me some of his treasures. One 
 of them was a medicine-man's plume consisting of four 
 eagle plumes tied together so that they diverged two by 
 two. When used, these are held by the quill ends as a 
 handle and moved in the air forward and backward as 
 if dusting an object. When the young girls come of age 
 they are dusted" in this way from all evil. The imple- 
 ment was new and well made, and I wanted to buy it. 
 **The plume is very valuable," he answered; ''with us it 
 is at least worth as much as a horse or a cow." He 
 would, however, make it easy for me by letting me have 
 it for ^2.50. I presented him with a pouch of tobacco 
 and a handful of candy, the cause of much interest to his 
 little grandchildren who had been clinging to the good- 
 natured old man all the time that he was explaining. 
 He also promised to show me the so-called Montezuma's 
 Cave, in the peak of Baboquivari, some day. 
 
 In a light wagon which Pablo borrowed we started 
 on an excursion south, to be possibly extended beyond 
 the border to Pozo Verde. The day was moist and 
 warm. We passed several extensive summer rancherias 
 or temporales as they are usually called. The rude 
 fences of mezquite looked substantial and the Indian 
 ranches gave an impression of prosperity. At two places 
 there were dams also fenced in, but they were empty; 
 they had been made by scooping up the rich soil with 
 scrapers and horse-power. The water in such ponds 
 lasts only three or four months and is not for irrigating 
 purposes, but solely for the use of men and beasts. The 
 
38 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Papagoes do not bathe in them; during the rains they 
 get their baths in the arroyos, men and women bathing 
 separately. There was not a soul to be seen anywhere, 
 as the Indians were still at this time, the end of June, in 
 or near the mountains with their cattle and horses. 
 
 From a lately established summer rancheria, called 
 San Miguel, southward, the country assumes a different 
 aspect, forming beautiful grassy plains or downs. The 
 mezquites, far apart and small, take the place of grease- 
 woods and the cacti have almost disappeared. There 
 was an abundance of very dry grass of a whitish yellow 
 hue. As the air was laden with moisture, it was to be 
 expected that the coloring of sky and mountains would 
 be fine toward sunset. The western sky beamed with 
 the translucent color of light yellow or orange, while the 
 mountains, which during the glaring light of the day had 
 shown no color beyond a dull gray, appeared deep blue. 
 Much more intense than the air-blue and complementary 
 to that of the setting sun, the color extended to all the 
 mountains around the great bajio (basin), while at its 
 western edge a long narrow strip of light green, due to 
 an unusual growth of mezquites, added to the variety. 
 To most people it is not apparent that there is much col- 
 oring in any landscape except that caused by inherent 
 qualities, as by vari-colored leaves of trees; if they would 
 lie down on the ground and view the scenery horizon- 
 tally, they would probably have their eyes opened from 
 this unusual vantage point. 
 
 There is a well fifteen feet deep at a lonely Indian 
 ranch just on the border, but as the place was found to 
 
UGLY EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION 39 
 
 be temporarily deserted, and there would be no one to 
 look after our wagon, we had to abandon our Intended 
 trip to Pozo Verde, the largest Papago rancheria at the 
 present time in Sonora. Its name. Green Spring, has 
 the same significance in the Papago language, and the 
 locality is important in the native mythology. Baboqui- 
 vari rises about a thousand feet above the llano near 
 the boundary line, losing itself in Mexico in low ranges 
 and mountains. 
 
 On our return we made a detour into a rancheria 
 called Sepanovak Smell of the Coyote"), which was sit- 
 uated in a narrow valley of the Baboquivari Range. It 
 had been settled of late years and was small and unat- 
 tractive. Discarded clothing was lying about, and the in- 
 habitants looked like poor white people, although they 
 owned lots of live stock. Judging from the fine looking 
 fat horses and cattle down on the plains, a different opin- 
 ion would have been formed of the owners; it was some- 
 thing like the disappointment one feels when a smart 
 turnout of horses with driver and footman discloses or- 
 dinary-looking people inside the carriage. Natural and 
 harmonious conditions are the only ones that count in 
 life. 
 
 One interesting family, that of Ramon Cachora, lived 
 a little further up the valley from here, he, his two sons 
 and his son-in-law having been leaders in a religious 
 movement of a white man's stamp. They were so-called 
 educated Indians, and a daughter of his had been to 
 Carlisle. It was an anomalous case, for, strange to 
 say, they had become converts to the revivalism of the 
 
40 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 prophet Dowie, who a few years ago made such a stir in 
 various parts of the United States. One of his agents, 
 a lady in Phoenix, had been instrumental in bringing 
 this about. 
 
 To understand this conversion, it must be remem- 
 bered that all Indians are of a religious disposition. In 
 their aboriginal state, while never giving up their own 
 beliefs, the Indians have little objection to any foreign 
 creed; the more religion the better for them. They are 
 quite sincere about it. When these Papagoes heard of 
 the strange teaching of the modern Elijah, it appealed to 
 them. The world was coming to an end and they were 
 going to get ready; people sold what little they owned 
 and settled in the Comobabi Mountains awaiting the 
 arrival of the new Messiah. There were from forty to 
 fifty souls all told, men, women, and children. Ramon 
 Cachora, who was well off, sold his two hundred head of 
 cattle; he became the leader and they sustained them- 
 selves mainly with the proceeds of this sale. There was 
 no white man with them. They had everything in com- 
 mon and their rules were strict; brandy and tobacco 
 were forbidden. Sometimes they had services lasting the 
 entire day. For three years they waited for the Messiah 
 to come; then hunger broke up the sect. 
 
 A herd of horses and a number of cows, many with 
 calves, that had come in to drink the night before, walked 
 off again in the morning to pasture in the plains some 
 six or eight miles away. I asked a man how long a time 
 it would be before they returned and he answered: ''A 
 few will come next day, most of them the day after to- 
 
AN ANCIENT FORTIFICATION 
 
 morrow in the afternoon, and some will not return until 
 the third day." It was the hottest time of the year — the 
 end of June. 
 
 Three miles from here, just about where the llano 
 begins, there rises a small hill, four hundred feet high, 
 called La Ventana. On the west side it has been forti- 
 fied by the ancient people with half a dozen or more 
 stone walls of the usual description. The walls are per- 
 haps more massive than is the case at most places. The 
 fortifications had a remarkably fresh look about them, as 
 if they had been in recent use. On top, where blocks 
 had been broken off to form walls and parapets, the un- 
 derlying rock still looked as untouched by the hand of 
 time as if the work had been done within two years. 
 Circular or square enclosures of the usual type are seen 
 on a natural terrace near the top. A fairly well con- 
 structed track leads up to the summit where a rattle- 
 snake was resting in a cool cavity. A ground-squirrel 
 was noticed, and on the hill-side two camping places of 
 the gray fox were observed, each under a small bush, the 
 ground having been worn quite smooth. 
 
 The vast plain is impressive from the top ; the ranges, 
 enveloped in a blue haze, appeared small, Comobabi and 
 Quijotoa in the north-west being the nearest. To the 
 right of the Comobabi Range, in one place only, toward 
 north north-west, the view was unobstructed as far as 
 the eye could see. In the south-west the small hills near 
 Sonoita were visible. The many arroyos on the west 
 side of the Baboquivari Range are worthy of note; they 
 are short, quite deep, and impossible for wagons to cross 
 
42 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 until they widen out into the plains. For this reason the 
 road, such as it is, from Fresnal southward makes a 
 detour west. 
 
 At the well of Fresnal our horses, having been with- 
 out water for twenty-two hours, each drank nine buck- 
 etfuls. The bucket was not large, but contained more 
 than a gallon. A visit was made to the so-called Monte- 
 zuma's Cave, once sacred to the Papago as the principal 
 habitation with which tradition credits Sihu, also called 
 litoi, the most important mythical personage of the 
 Papago mythology, being their elder brother as well as 
 creator of the world. The cave is called Elder Brother's 
 House (in Papago, Sihuki; ki, house). It is situated at 
 six miles' distance from Fresnal. Wc climbed nearly 
 one thousand feet, and on the south side of a hill, below 
 the peak, our guide, the medicine-man, pointed out the 
 entrance to the sacred place, half hidden among bushes. 
 
 It was closed with a wall of loose stones and was so 
 small that a man could only squeeze through with diffi- 
 culty. The cave was found to be spacious and well 
 formed. At one corner was deposited several hundred 
 arrows, upright in a bunch, with nothing but the wooden 
 part remaining. No flint points were visible. There is 
 another cave on the east side of the Baboquivari Range, 
 discovered lately by Mr. Jefferson Milton, where a con- 
 siderable number of obsidian-tipped arrows were secured, 
 one of which is reproduced at page 96. 
 
 Though a few showers had fallen lately, still no grass 
 had yet made its appearance and travel began to be dif- 
 ficult. The Indians had very little to sell in the way of 
 
Peak of Baboquivari 
 
 OcoTiLLO {Fonqiiieria splcndcns) 
 
 Entrance to the sacred cave, at foot Barrel cactus 
 
 OF PEAK of Baboquivari 
 
GRATEFUL RAIN 
 
 43 
 
 straw, barley, or wheat, the usual feed for animals. If 
 our horses had not been hardy creatures of the desert, 
 we should not have been able to move about much at 
 that time of the year. I decided to return to Menager's 
 store, at present called Indian Oasis, where we might 
 succeed in securing forage. 
 
 A Papago was an efficient clerk in the store. Near by 
 was a small village of civilized Indians; the women, who 
 had been to school near Tucson, after a while responded 
 in English, very softly spoken. A phonograph, which 
 was the only one I saw in the Papagueria, was produced 
 and operated for my entertainment. Many Indians came 
 into the store from the neighboring country. As they 
 were not in the habit of carrying provisions, they were 
 hungry and looked it. I treated them to a generous 
 breakfast and my reward was the information which 
 they volunteered concerning one of their festivals, con- 
 nected with the gathering of the fruit of the sahuaro, the 
 giant cactus. It was to take place the next day at a 
 rancheria called Noria, situated in the Comobabi Moun- 
 tains at no great distance, and I decided to go there. 
 
 Opportunely for my journey, in the evening of July 
 4 unusually heavy rain fell during forty-five minutes, the 
 storm making short work of my tent which I decided to 
 leave behind here on account of its being so large and 
 inconvenient. Nearly an inch of rain must have fallen, 
 bringing about in this brief space of time a remarkable 
 change in the appearance of the landscape. The dry 
 creek ran with water and the playa below was changed 
 into a shallow lake, the frogs filling the air with their loud, 
 
44 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 welcome voices. Next day in the afternoon we pulled out, 
 though the ground, soaked with water, made travel heavy. 
 Our wagon was stuck for half an hour, but after that we 
 made our way fairly well, for the night's rain was found 
 to have extended only a couple of miles westward. We 
 arrived at our destination at dusk. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE GIANT CACTUS OR SAHUARO— THE SAHUARO FEAST AT NORIA 
 —DANCING AND SINGING— THE MEDICINE LODGE— TOBACCO- 
 WELL RECEIVED— DISSERTATIONS WITH THE INDIANS— AN 
 ADVENTURE— AN ANCIENT FESTIVAL— NATIVE ORATORY— OB- 
 JECTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY— ARTISTIC GIFTS OF A NATIVE 
 
 The giant cactus {Cereus giganteus), or sahuaro, 
 vv^hich is the direct and indirect cause of such festivals as 
 the one we were to witness, is by far the most noteworthy 
 representative of plant life in the desert, being, in fact, 
 one of the most remarkable plants on the globe. It 
 reaches a height of forty to fifty feet, sometimes even 
 more. At times the sahuaro appears as a single trunk, 
 like a column, but more often branches of nearly the 
 same thickness protrude from it, stretching upward arms 
 lifted as in appeal. The evergreen trunk and branches 
 have deep longitudinal furrows or flutes, armed with 
 spines and wonderfully adapted for retaining moisture. 
 Acting in a manner similar to that of the bellows of an 
 accordion, these close together during drought and open 
 again to receive moisture. 
 
 It avoids the great belt of sand dunes that stretches 
 along the upper part of the Gulf of California, from Port 
 Lobos westward, and ceases to appear south of the Gila 
 Range and Sierra Blanca. Often a single column, the 
 only one on a whole mountain, appears on top, re- 
 sembling a sentinel on guard. At other times such a 
 
 45 
 
46 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 single column has found the means of existence on some 
 terrace on the mountain side, reminding an imaginative 
 traveller of the ruins of a temple in Greece. Along the 
 mountains east and south of Sonoita, Sonora, this cactus 
 attains its most luxuriant grov^th. Here as well as near 
 other ranges impressive forests of these gigantic, singular 
 structures of the plant dominion appear, calling to mind 
 creations from the carboniferous period. 
 
 In May the tips of the trunks and branches produce 
 a multitude of superb cream-white flowers. Toward the 
 end of June the famous sahuaro fruit appears, the size 
 and shape of a large hen's egg. A spiny skin which is 
 easily removed protects the juicy, crimson, and fleshy sub- 
 stance in which numerous black seeds are imbedded. 
 Although possessing not quite as much flavor as the 
 related and more famous pitahaya fruit of Mexico, the 
 sahuaro is a palatable relish in the excessively hot and 
 dry climate, containing also, like the pitahaya, consider- 
 able nourishment. 
 
 The violent storms of the desert make no impression 
 on the giant cactus. However, one wonders that it can 
 exist at all, since the fruit and the plant itself prove in 
 many ways such an attraction to animals. As soon as 
 the sweet fruits ripen they are attacked by birds, while 
 those that fall to the ground are eaten by hungry and 
 thirsty animals, which prevent the seeds from germinat- 
 ing. The woodpeckers make large cavities in the juicy 
 pulp of the trunk, the plant protecting itself by growing 
 a hard tissue all around the cavity, in which various 
 kinds of owls, falcons, and fly-catchers make their nests; 
 
THE USEFUL SAHUARO 
 
 47 
 
 here also bees deposit their honey and bats make their 
 homes. Sometimes rabbits attack the stem to get at the 
 juicy pulp. 
 
 To the Indians the sahuaro is invaluable, and by 
 tacit understanding they consider it a crime to cut one 
 down. The grateful fruit comes at a time when most 
 needed, and the Indians leave their habitations to camp 
 among the sahuaro as long as the season lasts. Not only 
 does the fruit then furnish them with their principal 
 means of subsistence, but the greater part is boiled down 
 to a sirup for future consumption in the winter, serving 
 also as material for an intoxicating drink, which is used 
 at the sahuaro festival. The seeds, too, are eaten after 
 having first been ground on the metate, and they taste 
 better than would be expected; the Indians also feed their 
 fowls with them and many sackfuls are brought back to 
 the houses after the sahuaro harvest. The wooden skele- 
 tons or ribs of the sahuaro furnish the Papago with light, 
 strong, and elastic building stuff, and from the same ma- 
 terial he makes the long stick which is needed to bring 
 the fruit down from its lofty elevation, coloring the pole 
 red with the juice of the fruit. Also chicken coops, chairs, 
 traps, and similar articles of the household are manufact- 
 ured from sahuaro ribs. Even the wooden tissue bags 
 produced by the woodpeckers are made to serve as water 
 bottles or drinking vessels. 
 
 So important a part does this cactus play in the life 
 of the Papago that their year begins with the sahuaro 
 harvest. The season lasts from the middle of June till 
 the middle of July. Every rancheria is supposed to make 
 
48 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 a feast for the occasion, which will insure rain and good 
 crops. An essential part of the festival is the drinking 
 of wine, produced by mixing the sahuaro sirup in a cer- 
 tain proportion with water and allowing this to ferment. 
 The name of this greatest festival of the year is navaita, 
 derived from ndvait, their word for the wine. 
 
 Elder Brother, so their tradition runs, created the 
 sahuaro by placing beads of his perspiration in the 
 ground. He walked in ceremonial circuits around it for 
 four days, and the plant began to give fruit. He also 
 made a jar in which he put the juice of the fruit which 
 he mixed with water. ''Let us see if we can not make 
 rain with this to refresh the thirsty soil," he said to the 
 jar. And its contents became wine, and it began to 
 rain, as he thought it would. Therefore, to this day, the 
 Papago make sahuaro wine and celebrate a great feast 
 in accordance with Elder Brother's commandments. The 
 wine was given by him in order that they might get 
 drunk, and then rain would follow. 
 
 On our arrival at the rancheria of Noria we learned 
 that the wine making had been started that morning. 
 The festival was to begin in the evening, the singing and 
 dancing lasting as usual for two nights, by the end of 
 which time the wine would be ready for consumption. 
 An hour after dark, as we were preparing our supper, a 
 loud Indian voice from the other side of the arroyo on 
 which we were camped sounded forth in the dark, still 
 night, inviting people to gather for the festival. Stand- 
 ing in front of the medicine lodge, facing the east, the 
 herald announced over and over again: "Darkness has 
 
Single-column sahuaro 
 
 Sahuaro, dry, showing its wooden 
 structure 
 
BEGINNING THE FESTIVAL 
 
 already covered us a good while, it is now time to begin 
 to sing and dance, and everybody bring tobacco." 
 
 We had three Indian guests at our meal, and after- 
 ward we all went over to the dancing place, or, as the 
 Indians call it, the singing place (njuikot; njui, sing), a 
 level piece of ground always found in front of the medi- 
 cine lodge. In the dim light a long string of eagle plumes 
 hanging across the space between two upright poles from 
 east to west could be discerned. Near the western pole 
 a solitary fire was burning; two medicine-men were sit- 
 ting there with their backs turned toward it and facing 
 the east. Behind the fire, in the west, was the lodge, 
 and in front of this stood a jacal, the light shed invari- 
 ably seen near the dwelling or lodge. They sat there 
 immovable in mystic contemplation of rock crystals and 
 queer objects which were spread before them on the 
 ground, and by the aid of which rain is procured; among 
 them, my informant said, was a small stone, translucent 
 and bright, which few have seen. If rain is not near, the 
 stone is very warm and has to be cooled and purified, an 
 operation which the medicine men were about to under- 
 take. 
 
 My attention was next attracted to a long basket of 
 enormous proportions placed between east and west on 
 the ground at the foot of the western pole, near the doc- 
 tors. It was of the same oblong shape as the ordinary 
 medicine basket of so many tribes, and serves as a recep- 
 tacle for the sacred paraphernalia of the lodge. Here 
 the string of eagle feathers hanging near by is kept dur- 
 ing the year. It is provided with a cover of the same 
 
50 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 material, considered by the Indians as its blanket, which, 
 when the basket is in use, is placed on the ground for it 
 to ''sit" on. 
 
 Around these holy men and the fire and the long 
 string of plumes that stretched across, danced men and 
 women, holding each other by the hand and moving 
 around in a circle. They marched in time, with firm steps, 
 placing left foot behind right, and proceeding in this way 
 against the sun's apparent movement. They all sang in 
 unison and in time with their steps, the leader swinging 
 a rattle, and he and those nearest to him exerting their 
 lungs to their fullest capacity. There were always two 
 or three walking ahead of him, as everybody was eager to 
 be near the leader in order to catch the tune. In this 
 advance guard there was also a female leader, a soprano. 
 What a wealth of songs there is among these Indians! 
 During the two nights new songs were presented all the 
 time, not only new texts but even new, though somewhat 
 similar, melodies. People were sitting or lying around 
 the circle of dancers, stepping into it whenever their fancy 
 moved them. 
 
 When four songs had been sung, taking about an 
 hour, a short pause was made, and the performers would 
 sit down, many of them smoking. After a few minutes, 
 only the leader would rise, and, standing in front of the 
 jacal with his face toward the east, he would sing one 
 verse of the song they were going to take up next, this 
 time in a low voice, just to refresh their memories. Then 
 he would step forward, dancing again and bursting forth 
 into loud singing, immediately joined by the multitude in 
 
SAHUARO WINE-MAKING 
 
 51 
 
 their enthusiastic efforts to make an impression on the 
 gods. 
 
 The next morning, when I went to inspect the place 
 in dayhght, I found the leader and other functionaries 
 sleeping peacefully on the ground under the jacal in front 
 of the lodge, tired from their exertions of the night. I 
 was permitted to enter the lodge, where large earthen- 
 ware jars were standing full to overflowing with the pre- 
 cious sahuaro fluid. A slight cavity had been dug in the 
 ground for each jar, serving as a receptacle and covered 
 with branches of greasewood upon which the jar rested 
 neatly. The reason for this arrangement, according to 
 the Indians, was to keep the fluid warm and because 
 they had always done it in this way. Heavy spume was 
 rising from most of the jars, showing that fermentation 
 was taking place. A fire was kept up in the lodge in 
 order that the temperature of the air should be even and 
 favorable for fermentation. The solemn function of 
 mixing the sahuaro sirup with water takes place in the 
 morning hours under the jacal outside. 
 
 The lodge was a circular, dome-shaped grass hut, the 
 ancient form of Papago habitation, examples of which 
 are still frequently seen in the central part of the Papa- 
 gueria. The lodge, however, is larger than the dwelling- 
 house, hence its name Kuki, **Big House." {Ku^ big, 
 large.) This was rather a small one, twelve feet in di- 
 ameter and six feet high, and scrupulously clean inside. 
 The framework of these primitive houses consists of mez- 
 quite posts; from two to four forked uprights in the mid- 
 dle support the dome-shaped roof, which is made of sa- 
 
52 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 huaro ribs, surmounted with greasewood twigs and some 
 large coarse grass called sacate Colorado. The grass is 
 kept in place by hoops of ocotillo inside and outside, 
 placed at intervals of eight or ten inches. The top of 
 the house is covered with earth. 
 
 The entrance is small, usually only two and one-half 
 feet high and two feet wide, and is provided with a grass 
 door which, when not in active use, leans up against the 
 wall outside. To get in or out one is obliged to crawl on 
 hands and knees. The fire is made in the centre, and 
 there is no other escape for the smoke than the door, 
 there being no window; as the people inside generally sit 
 on the ground, the smoke does not trouble them; besides, 
 as the house is warm, a large fire is not needed. In the 
 summer these dwellings are delightfully cool, affording 
 also excellent protection against the violent, though short- 
 lasting, rain-storms of the desert. 
 
 Usually a light stockade of ocotillo and other kinds 
 of poles runs around the lodge to prevent the cattle from 
 eating the grass of which it is made. In this house the 
 youth are instructed in the traditions and beliefs of the 
 tribe, and here is discussed everything of more or less 
 importance, meetings being held every evening of the 
 year. The man who is in charge of the lodge and its sa- 
 cred objects is elected for life. He lives near by and is 
 called Keeper of the Smoke, which means tobacco smoke. 
 The name for tobacco is viv; when used for certain sa- 
 cred purposes it is called coyote tobacco {pan vivuka). 
 The young plants are covered with greasewood branches, 
 but the Papagoes nowadays rarely grow the weed and 
 
SIMPLE MINDS 
 
 53 
 
 usually commercial brands have to be resorted to. It is 
 smoked in corn husks. The leaves of vtopolt, a bush in 
 the foot-hills, are also sometimes smoked. 
 
 In the afternoon the leading men began to wake 
 from their slumber and, as there were many features of 
 the feast I desired to have explained to me, I induced 
 them to have a conference. Outside of the house of the 
 Keeper of the Smoke there was some convenient shade 
 and, stretched on a mat with the rest, I had a couple of 
 hours of very interesting conversation. Many years 
 amongst the Indians gave me some knowledge of the 
 fundamental traits of their religious ideas, which evi- 
 dently very much surprised those present. They had 
 such fine faces, full of determination and sincerity! 
 Ragged and poor though these people were, I could not 
 help admiring the expression of their countenances, es- 
 pecially those of the principal men, flushed with enthu- 
 siasm attendant on the festival. They gave me clear 
 and unequivocal answers. When I had finished all my 
 questions one medicine-man said: *'I suppose he is one 
 of those white men who want us to give up all our an- 
 cient beliefs and customs." Assured on this point, they 
 said they were glad to have me remain at the rancheria 
 as long as I wished. They also informed me of a cal- 
 endar record preserved by a man who lived in the Babo- 
 quivari Range. Of this I made a note as the object for 
 an excursion. 
 
 Might I see what was inside the long basket on the 
 dancing places I asked. This they could not very well 
 do. Few of the Indians themselves had seen it, they 
 
54 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 said, and they were not in a position to show me; per- 
 haps the makai (medicine-men), who were coming to- 
 night to tell when the rain would arrive, would show me. 
 But to see those things was a risky affair, connected with 
 possibilities of harm to the beholder. As we were re- 
 turning to camp Pablo said to me: ^'Probably those 
 Indians never before spoke like that to a white man." 
 
 The rest of the day was spent in a house to house 
 canvass and many baskets were bought. In the even- 
 ing Pablo and I again walked over to see the dancing 
 which had commenced anew at dusk. He soon joined 
 the dancers and evidently the *'old Adam" reasserted 
 itself within him, for he danced with fervor the whole 
 night. 
 
 As one sees everything better by taking part oneself 
 in the proceedings, I, too, broke into the circle, grabbing 
 those next to me by the hand. The orthodox way is to 
 intertwine the fingers as one may see sailors do when 
 they are ashore, or peasant girls of Norway when going 
 to a dance in their finery. My white dress made me a 
 conspicuous object in the dark night, and my dancing 
 and singing evoked merriment among those sitting around. 
 There was no difficulty in getting into the right tune, 
 and my partners on either side, as well as the rest of 
 those actively engaged, were too serious about their work 
 to be distracted. 
 
 Just about the time that I entered into the perform- 
 ance, the medicine-men who were sitting with their legs 
 crossed in front of the fire began to show activity. One 
 of them suddenly bent forward and put his mouth near 
 
HOW TO MAKE IT RAIN 
 
 55 
 
 the sacred translucent stone that was lying before him; 
 then he began to breathe forcibly and to blow over it, 
 emitting at the same time a peculiar sound, which made 
 it difficult for me to refrain from laughing. The stone, 
 which had become warm through the long drought, was 
 now being cooled and cleaned that it might attract rain. 
 For fully ten minutes he remained thus at work; then 
 both medicine men stood up and, holding eagle plumes 
 in their hands, began to run around inside our circle, all 
 the time thrusting the plumes upward toward the sky to 
 draw rain-clouds. It is curious to reflect that Indians as 
 intelligent as the Papago should so absolutely believe in 
 the power of the medicine-men to make rain. In regard 
 to man's relations to nature, the Indians have, since the 
 discovery of America, learned nothing and forgotten noth- 
 ing, and it will take many centuries to change their mode 
 of thinking. 
 
 After an hour's dancing I went alone to my camp 
 where my sleeping cot was awaiting me. It is a folding 
 one and, when put up, stands high above the ground, 
 which is convenient both in case of moisture of the 
 ground and as a precaution against noxious creatures, 
 such as scorpions, etc. The moon was shining, the night 
 was warm, and I went to sleep under the open sky, as my 
 custom is in this climate, rejoicing at the feeling of secu- 
 rity one has while among Indians who have not been too 
 much with whites. I must have been sleeping quite a 
 while when I was awakened by the violent barking of 
 my dog. On opening my eyes I beheld the disagreeable 
 sight of a tall, half-nude Indian standing beside me in 
 
56 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the moonlight. Companero,^^ he said, ejaculating a few 
 more words in unintelligible Spanish, at the same time 
 thrusting forward a big open bottle with bright red con- 
 tents, the smell of which at once made me aware of the 
 situation. He was offering me sahuaro wine as a proof 
 of his esteem. But he might have chosen a more reason- 
 able hour for his hospitality, so I bluntly answered : "'No; 
 I will have nothing until I get up." He disappeared 
 among the bushes as quietly as he had come; in fact, he 
 did not give me time to ascertain what had become of 
 him, and it seemed like an unpleasant dream. However, 
 being desirous of getting some rest before the ceremonies 
 that were sure to take place at sunrise, I fell asleep again 
 after a while. 
 
 The wine did not mature as early as expected, and in 
 the morning one of the principal men told the people to 
 gather when the sun would be half-way between noon 
 and sunset, when the culmination of the feast would take 
 place. One of the Indians confided to me that the people 
 thought I was all right; I danced with the proper step. 
 Gradually crowds began to assemble, many of the young 
 men on horseback; slender of figure but above medium 
 height, they were of prepossessing appearance, sitting 
 erect and following well the movements of the horse. 
 Everybody was in his best attire, all adopted from the 
 whites, and everybody, both men and women, looked 
 clean. But there was no hurry about anything. After 
 a few hours passed in this way, the Keeper of the Smoke, 
 who was the general manager of all the proceedings, was 
 seen to spread out blankets and mats on the dancing 
 
A NATIVE BANQUET 
 
 57 
 
 place, at each of the four corners of the world, to use 
 the Indian expression. The principal men seated them- 
 selves on the mats toward north and south; the two 
 medicine-men sat down on the eastern mat, and the 
 Keeper of the Smoke on the western. 
 
 The multitude surged forward and took their seats, 
 on the ground, I among them, all forming an imposing 
 square that symbolized the four corners of the world, 
 each of the four mats in that way remaining in the mid- 
 dle of a line of the square. Hardly had we seated our- 
 selves before the vessels containing the wine were brought 
 inside of the square from the lodge by four young men, 
 each one carrying a vessel. This wine should have been 
 carried in those large, beautiful, water-tight baskets of 
 native workmanship, but, alas, there was only one of 
 those, an indication of the declining days of the tribe. 
 The remainder of the receptacles were replaced by three 
 inappropriate looking buckets bought in the white man's 
 store, more practical, to be sure, but infinitely more ugly 
 than those superb baskets decorated with artistic designs. 
 The young men went straight across the dancing place 
 to the two medicine men in the east, who immediately 
 set to work to bless the contents, driving out any evil 
 spirit that the vessels might contain. This they accom- 
 plished by making slow strokes with the palms of the 
 hands around the vessels from in front back toward 
 themselves. They also sacrificed a little of the contents 
 to the gods, dipping their hands into the liquor and 
 throwing some of it about. It was done in a desultory 
 fashion, showing, as one man explained to me, that they 
 
58 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 did not know their business well. The tribe, as I have al- 
 ready said, is daily losing its ancient beliefs and customs. 
 
 The distribution now began. The young men went 
 in pairs, stopping before every one in his turn; each of 
 the two would dip a gourd into the wine and hand it 
 over. The recipient would, before drinking, lift it up 
 toward the young man, saying: "Navatsh!'' (friend!); if 
 he were a relative, he would address him by the name of 
 the relationship. It was evident from the beaming smile 
 on the faces of those who drank that the wine awoke 
 much satisfaction. My turn also came and I must con- 
 fess that in this dry and hot climate, the beverage, when 
 well made, and coming cool from the jars, does not 
 taste at all bad, though I soon grew tired of it. 
 
 Four times in this manner had the young men made 
 the rounds of the square, offering the wine quickly and 
 with much precision, when two old men appeared on 
 the scene. They advanced from the lodge, holding each 
 other by the hand, fingers intertwined, and, beginning at 
 the east, went in turn to each of the different mats where 
 the principal men were sitting. The mat is called vaaki^ 
 which connects us with the mythical long ago when the 
 hunter put up a small round house of that name near 
 water, in which he stayed during the heat of the day. 
 At each corner of the world is a vaaki or hunter's lodge. 
 At each such ''house" a long speech was made by one 
 of the two old men, whose name was ''Mocking Bird 
 Talk." Addressing the most important man on the mat 
 by his degree of relationship, or as a friend, as the case 
 might be, he tells him to look for a white, shining house 
 
PERSUASIVE POWERS 
 
 59 
 
 in the east, from where black clouds come. *'The black 
 clouds have many inchnations in different directions and 
 we can, by our singing, turn them toward us and influ- 
 ence the winds to make this poor earth moist" he says. 
 Then he asks for a song, and in response the group sit- 
 ting on that mat sings about rain. After having in the 
 same way soKcited songs from the rest of the groups, 
 seated at the cardinal points, and received immediate 
 and enthusiastic answers by invariably well-executed 
 songs, the old men return to the lodge. 
 
 They immediately, however, come back for a similar 
 round of visits, the speaker this time asking for an ex- 
 pression of friendship for himself. Every one answers 
 "friend!" or gives him his degree of relationship. Next, 
 the groups on the four mats sing in turn and, after that, 
 wine is again offered around four times. 
 
 The pair of old men reappear and the speaker again 
 admonishes those on the mats to look for the shining 
 house in the east, where the black clouds are. A won- 
 derful cloud reaches up to heaven and in it lives the 
 mocking-bird. He comes out, jumps around, puts his 
 head back and talks. ''Through your strength," he 
 says, addressing the mocking-bird as if present, ''come 
 all the clouds that are, all the winds that are, all the 
 lightning, all the thunder. From all the mountains 
 spring up other clouds joining the rest. It matters not 
 how wide the earth is, the clouds touch all the sides. 
 It matters not how many sierras there are, the clouds 
 cover them all. It matters not how many arroyos there 
 are side by side, the clouds cut across them; nor does it 
 
6o 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 matter how many small arroyos there are, the clouds 
 cover them all. When the rain comes down, the flood 
 carries along the sand and the loose trunks and the 
 sticks and fallen branches, piling it all up. The clouds 
 and the winds get up and stop in the west, whence the 
 rain spreads over this poor earth. When shall we see 
 this again?'* The speech was briefly answered at each 
 mat, and from either side the friendship which they all 
 felt for each other was emphasized. The singing was 
 quite enjoyable and there was a pleasing atmosphere of 
 antiquity about the proceedings. Finally, the chief arose 
 to make a speech in which he warned every one to be- 
 have properly while partaking of the wine which had 
 been brewed in the houses. 
 
 The official part of the festival now being over, people 
 repaired to the houses, where the sahuaro wine flowed 
 through the evening and night. Friends from the neigh- 
 boring country added to the merriment. Both men and 
 women become intoxicated on such occasions, and, for- 
 merly, quarrels of long standing were settled at the feast 
 according to the laws of the vendetta. Murder used to 
 be of frequent occurrence, but, to prevent the possibility 
 of quarrels ending in a fatal way, the chiefs of our time 
 are wise enough to gather up beforehand all the knives, 
 pistols, and rifles, returning them to the owners after the 
 conclusion of the festival. 
 
 It should be noted that in March, about the time 
 of the equinox, a ceremony, accompanied by singing, is 
 performed to insure a good sahuaro harvest. Seeds of 
 the fruit are ground and put in a basket into which also 
 
UNUSUAL VIEW OF PHOTOGRAPHY 6i 
 
 four sticks, taken from the dried plant, are placed, one 
 at each cardinal point. Sitting around the basket, 
 people spend a night singing, while the medicine-man 
 makes prognostications for the coming harvest. The 
 seeds are eaten by those present, and the four sticks are 
 given to four persons who later, when the season comes 
 around, leave them at the foot of a sahuaro. 
 
 As soon as the Indians were rested enough after the 
 celebrations that ended the festival, I had an interview 
 with Chief Alvina, whom I found to be conscientious 
 about the information he imparted, and in a charmingly 
 sincere way not afraid of telling anything. His father, 
 who had died two years before, had been chief before 
 him. The Papagoes declined to tell anything about their 
 beliefs and ancient customs, he said, but he could see no 
 harm in letting strangers know about them. Unfortu- 
 nately for me, his knowledge of those matters was not 
 commensurate with his liberality. Furthermore, he al- 
 ways told his people that there was no harm in being 
 photographed. Their fear he could not comprehend. 
 He had himself been photographed many times, and he 
 never inquired as to what they were going to do with 
 his photograph. 
 
 It was a very exceptional stand he had taken; as a 
 rule, the Papagoes have the greatest objection to the 
 camera. They are not afraid of it, but are intensely 
 annoyed at the photographer's efforts, because, in their 
 opinion, part of themselves will be taken away and will 
 always remain behind after death, causing much dis- 
 turbance to the departed, who in that way will be, so 
 
62 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 to speak, only three-quarters complete in the other life. 
 Usually the people ran away from my kodak, and it 
 was extremely difficult to photograph them unawares, as 
 they are very keen and in a way scent the impending 
 danger. A young, good-looking man, of whom I asked 
 permission to take a quick photograph, surprised me by 
 answering in the affirmative. He entered his house to 
 get ready for the fray, saying to his wife, am going 
 to have my picture taken. I am a man and I am not 
 afraid of seeing myself after death." 
 
 I kept the honest chief till late in the afternoon, when 
 he was obliged to go to his sahuaro camp, near the south 
 end of the Quijotoa Range. He offered to return the 
 following day, but I thought it better to look him up 
 later on. There was present at the interview a man 
 who had acted as a singing shaman at the feast, Juanito 
 by name. He owned a few head of cattle and some horses, 
 and had been much with whites, hauling wood or doing 
 similar work, but in spite of this he spoke no English 
 and only a few Spanish words. It was he who in the 
 excitement of the feast had waked me up in the middle 
 of the night. Some twelve years ago Juanito had seen 
 a Mexican make a drawing, and last year it had occurred 
 to him to try his hand at this accomplishment, which 
 had made a strong impression on him. Considering that 
 this was his first and only effort with the pencil, the prod- 
 uct was by no means discreditable. His brother posed 
 for him on horseback for half an hour, in order that 
 Juanito might get a clear conception of the subject he 
 was going to draw. Strange to say, he did not draw 
 
Using the ancient hoe 
 
 Mother with child in cradle. 
 
 Aktjin 
 
AN UNTUTORED ARTIST 63 
 
 him then, but during the following three days he worked 
 at the drawing from memory in his spare time, being 
 mostly occupied in his field and with his cattle. After 
 long deliberation, he finally consented to part with the 
 picture which is shown on plate. The horse is painted 
 with red ochre and the necktie is blue, the color having 
 been bought in an American store. The artist was 
 about fifty years old. 
 
 Following a fairly good wagon road eastward through 
 the Comobabi Mountains, I first halted at a rancheria 
 called Badger's Well,'' where I found all the old people 
 absent in the sahuaro fields. The younger generation, 
 inclined toward the white man's ways, offered little of 
 interest. They spent much of their time in laughter 
 and animated talk at the well, where they watered their 
 cattle and horses. I noticed a quail creeping stealthily 
 to drink from the overflow of the water, a few yards 
 from the well. Its thirst was quickly satisfied, when it 
 retired to safety among the bushes. 
 
 A man sold me a spur made from the cleft of a mez- 
 quite bush. It has a very sharp point, which is most 
 efficient, though cruel. Only one foot is thus provided. 
 A negro came along, a rather strange appearance in this 
 part of the country; he told of a silver mine four miles 
 east of there that he and half a dozen of his race owned. 
 It had been found by one of them who had been a 
 prospector for eight years. 
 
 There were many ants in my camp, so I was glad to 
 pack up in the morning. A visit was first made to the 
 burial place, which was of the usual unattractive de- 
 
64 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 scription, in this case almost hidden under huge piles of 
 palo verde branches. A tiny enclosure of upright oco- 
 tillo stems was pointed out to me as the modern ceme- 
 tery, due to the teaching of the missionary. Bundles of 
 clothing to be used by the deceased had been placed 
 among the branches of trees near both cemeteries. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 COMOBABI— AN ATTRACTIVE INDIAN FAMILY— MARIANITA— A 
 HORNED LIZARD THAT SPURTS BLOOD THROUGH THE EYE— 
 AN ABORIGINAL WAY OF RECORDING EVENTS— THE PAPAGO 
 CALENDAR— HARVESTING SAHUARO— HOW TO KEEP COMFORT- 
 ABLE IN GREAT HEAT— A VISIT TO CHIEF ALVINA 
 
 Our next halting place was made at the rancheria of 
 Comobabi, comprising a somewhat extensive area on a 
 beautiful slope at the foot of the mountains. Most of 
 the houses here, too, were temporarily abandoned on 
 account of the sahuaro harvest. Early in the afternoon 
 we drove up to a house which impressed us as being the 
 most hospitable looking; the family were just seating 
 themselves on the ground outside, to eat tortillas and 
 beans, the husband standing near by with his horse 
 saddled. They received us as if we had always known 
 them, although Pablo had not met them before. We 
 were invited to share their food, and, as soon as they 
 were made to understand that I wanted to buy all sorts 
 of Indian things, they cheerfully produced whatever they 
 had. I purchased two bags full of certain eatable seeds, 
 which I had much desired to procure, also a meal basket 
 made by the thirteen-year-old daughter, who had the 
 sweet-sounding name of Marianita, although neither 
 Spanish nor English was among the family accomplish- 
 ments. 
 
 65 
 
66 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 The lady of the house had in active use two of those 
 pecuhar burden baskets called kiho^ in which the women 
 carry on their backs loads of wood, gourds, or pottery, 
 as the case may be. It consists of an attractive looking 
 net-work of mescal fibre, which has been produced from 
 the leaves after they have been first boiled. The net is 
 attached to a hoop which is fastened between four long 
 poles of sahuaro ribs and is supported by a woven band 
 of strips of zotol leaves that passes over the forehead. 
 This contrivance is getting to be rare in the Papago coun- 
 try, with the introduction of mules and horses, and the 
 woman who owns one is with difficulty induced to sell it. 
 She spends considerable time in its manufacture, and in 
 an old-fashioned family like the present it is of very great 
 usefulness in every-day life. The black twine was from 
 her children's hair, which she cut once a year until they 
 were about twelve years old. I expressed an ardent de- 
 sire to buy one that was standing outside of the house 
 against the wall, and, after having thought the matter 
 over for a couple of hours, she decided to sell the most 
 used one for five dollars, though she hated to do so; for 
 an additional fifty cents she would mend the net-work 
 and put in a new plaited band for the back and the head. 
 The offer was promptly accepted. 
 
 Pablo and I made a tour of the houses of the ran- 
 cheria, some of them being three-quarters of a mile away. 
 In two of them we found only old deaf women at home, 
 the rest of the families being at the harvest of the savory 
 cactus fruit. On our return, toward sunset, our Indian 
 friend and little Marianita were busily engaged in wash- 
 
THE REAL INDIAN 
 
 67 
 
 ing a large sleeping mat, plaited from zotol leaves in the 
 usual manner, which I had also bought. Another, a 
 smaller daughter, sat near by, while on the roof the third 
 child, a boy of eight summers, was romping in a short 
 shirt, throwing stones and looking picturesque against 
 the blue sky and the mountains of Baboquivari. One's 
 photographic propensities are sorely tried under such 
 tempting circumstances. As we approached, the boy 
 descended. Pablo, at my bidding, engaged the family 
 in conversation and I tried to avoid observation while 
 taking snapshots, for, if seen, that would have put a 
 speedy end to the friendship so happily begun. 
 
 This was an attractive family that carried one's 
 thoughts back to the Indian of long ago. The mother 
 seemed the incarnation of sterling qualities, well mean- 
 ing, intelligent, and active. She had quite an eye to 
 business, but she asked fair prices. She looked about 
 fifty, the picture of health, and had borne thirteen chil- 
 dren, nine of whom were alive; many of these were 
 full-grown and the youngest was six years old. Her 
 husband, who was as friendly as his wife, or even more 
 so, had a peculiar name, Piukvaotam, *'He cannot be 
 eaten" (because bitter to the taste). This probably ex- 
 presses some characteristic of antipathy which I failed 
 to discover, the Indians being extremely critical in their 
 application of names. 
 
 It was the loth of July; for several days the maxi- 
 mum temperature had remained at about 100° F. A 
 moist wind, somewhat cooler, had been blowing too 
 gently for real comfort, but that day about sunset the 
 
68 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 air currents changed and became dry. In the evening 
 the temperature felt just right, about 85° P., and the air, 
 at an elevation of four thousand feet, had the superb 
 quality of the desert. 
 
 I had selected my camp a couple of hundred yards 
 from the house, on a sandy, level ground among small 
 mezquite trees and choyas. The sandy surface was as 
 clean as if man had never walked over It; the Indians 
 on their way to and from the distant well at the foot of 
 the mountains all followed the same track, and there 
 were no waste paper and tin cans strewn about to im- 
 pair the full enjoyment of nature, as would have been the 
 case near civilized man's abodes. 
 
 The attractive camp, the nice family we had met, 
 the addition to my collections, the peace and quiet of 
 the place made me feel happy as I stretched myself on 
 my cot under the starlit sky, which seemed so blue and 
 cool and near. A soft breeze from the west fanned me 
 to sleep, while a mocking-bird kept on singing its most 
 delightful notes in the dark night. Ye dwellers in cities 
 know not what it is to feel your freedom! 
 
 Next morning, shortly after sunrise, I strolled over 
 to the house to see what my Indian friends were doing. 
 The mother was busy at work repairing the burden bas- 
 ket she had sold me. She was just finishing a new band 
 for the back, which is plaited in the same manner as the 
 sleeping mat and from the same material. Some Indi- 
 ans rode up offering for sale a most interesting wooden 
 object that resembled a broadsword, and which may be 
 termed a hoe, made of the heavy iron-wood and accord- 
 
AN ANCIENT HOE 
 
 69 
 
 ingly very strong. This implement, which is called kiik^ 
 the same word as that for plough, had, according to my 
 informants, been found in a mound in Santa Rosa valley. 
 It is extremely rare, though I later succeeded in securing, 
 mainly in the rancherias of Santa Rosa and Anekam, 
 ten specimens more which were kept in the houses of the 
 Indians. It is not quite appropriate to call this imple- 
 ment a hoe, as it was employed solely for the purpose of 
 weeding. Although I did not see it in active use, people 
 in that section of the country know it very well. Prob- 
 ably it is occasionally still resorted to. The showers, 
 which in that hot climate make plants grow very fast, 
 bring forth in luxuriance weeds that, unless twice re- 
 moved, would choke the crops. For the more recent 
 innovation of wheat agriculture during the winter, one 
 weeding is sufficient. 
 
 When in use the wooden hoe is held by both hands 
 in a more or less horizontal position, the left hand around 
 the handle, the right on the blade, while the bearer 
 crawls on his knees and cuts in between the weeds, loos- 
 ening the roots and turning them up. I found a simpler 
 form of the same implement, smaller in size and consist- 
 ing of a flat, oblong piece of wood with edge sharpened 
 in a similar way, which was said to have been for the use 
 of women. 
 
 On returning with milk which he had bought from 
 the friendly family, Pablo told me that Marianita, the 
 young girl, had gone to the well for water, a mile away, 
 and that I might have a chance to take a snapshot of 
 her when she returned. After a while she appeared at a 
 
70 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 distance with a big tin bucket on her head, but how much 
 more beautiful my small Rebecca would have looked 
 carrying an earthen-ware jar of native workmanship. 
 There are lots of pottery vessels still manufactured by 
 the Papagoes, but the white man's implements are rec- 
 ognized to be more practical. I suppose the change is 
 unavoidable, but the bucket was distinctly disappoint- 
 ing to my photographic sense. Before she approached 
 my vantage point, an Indian met her who evidently asked 
 for a drink, for he Hfted the heavy bucket down, drank, 
 and put it on her head again. When I gave her some 
 candy after the short and unexpected ordeal, she looked 
 frightened. She stepped along quickly, showing some- 
 what that she felt the weight that she had been carrying 
 for fifteen minutes. This was six o'clock in the morn- 
 ing and, on rising, she had first helped her mother milk 
 the cows. 
 
 Half an hour afterward she again passed my camp; 
 this time she was bound for the sahuaro fields along the 
 base of the mountains. The girl of thirteen years walked 
 fast, carrying over one shoulder the long stick with 
 which the fruit is brought down. Two hours later she 
 returned with a small bucket full of the juicy fruit, on 
 which a newly arrived guest and the rest of the family 
 gorged themselves, while she sat near by resting. She 
 did not look tired, however, and I saw her later helping 
 her mother make wheat biscuits, baking them in an oven 
 adopted from the Mexicans. 
 
 It was a great pleasure to be with these natural people. 
 I sang to them my newly acquired Papago song, *'The 
 
REMARKABLE HABIT OF A LIZARD 
 
 Frog Doctor/' one that is used at the sahuaro festival, 
 and ingratiated myself in their favor. The mother, al- 
 ways busy in doing something about the house, was en- 
 gagingly free and easy in her manner. I ventured to ask 
 if I might not photograph her; she looked disturbed, but 
 after a while consented if I would promise not to show 
 her picture in Tucson. She had the burden basket on 
 her head, appropriately enough for a woman of energy 
 and activity, but her whole being had suddenly changed, 
 and it was impossible to make her walk and look natural. 
 Her face was flushed, she looked embarrassed, and made 
 a poor picture. 
 
 In spite of presents to the children, they all stead- 
 fastly declined to be photographed. However, sitting 
 down to catalogue my lately acquired ethnological ob- 
 jects in the shade of a jacal, I found opportunities for 
 snapshots while pretending to write. When Pablo took 
 the horses and my dog to the well, I hugely enjoyed a 
 rub down from my wash basin, as well as a change of 
 clothing, and soon we were off again on the road. 
 
 At this rancheria I had a curious experience in the 
 morning with a horned lizard (phrynosoma), rather dark 
 in color, which my terrier pursued for eight or ten yards, 
 when it flattened itself out and refused to run any more. 
 The dog was watching for it to move and I stepped up. 
 When put on its back it would immediately turn over; 
 stooping down, I tried in vain to tease it to run again, 
 but it remained immobile. I was just about to rise and 
 leave when, to my great surprise, a spray of what appeared 
 to be blood was dashed on my right hand, which was 
 
72 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 from eight to ten inches, not less than eight, distant from 
 the animal. I did not notice whence the fluid came, but 
 I observed that its left eye was bloody; in other ways it 
 seemed normal, and had evidently not been maltreated by 
 the dog, which feared its spines. On my return to civili- 
 zation I find that the singular habit of ejecting blood 
 from the eyes, peculiar to this animal, is known to the 
 ranchmen of the region of its habitat, both Mexican and 
 American, and that it also has been brought to the atten- 
 tion of men of science. It has been suggested that the 
 habit is practised only during the time of the shedding of 
 the skin. 
 
 The night spent at the next rancheria in the Babo- 
 quivari Range was disturbed by the constant, melancholy, 
 low howling of a dog mourning the absence of the family. 
 He was a very old dog, a black and white cur, with an 
 honest-looking face. Usually Indian dogs have little 
 reason for loving their masters, who show them small 
 consideration. After having visited a new Indian settle- 
 ment called San Pedro, in the Roskruge Range, where 
 there is excellent water in a well twenty-six feet deep, we 
 continued our trip for six miles northward along the 
 western foot-hills. There are extensive sahuaro forests 
 in this undulating country, which were unusually pict- 
 uresque in the afternoon sun. We came across one or 
 two camps of Indians who were gathering the much- 
 relished fruit. 
 
 At dusk vv^e met two young men on horseback return- 
 ing from a shooting expedition, who presented us with 
 half a deer tenderloin and some ribs. My aim was to 
 
Among its branches bundles of clothing for the departed 
 
AN OLD MAN'S NOTES 
 
 73 
 
 reach the camp of the man who possessed the calendar 
 record of which the Indians had told me. It grew pitch 
 dark before our day's journey was over, a large blazing 
 fire, which enlightened us as to the position of the 
 camp, guiding us from some distance. Our arrival 
 naturally caused surprise, but was easily explained, and 
 the man promised to show his calendar stick the next 
 morning. 
 
 This calendar, which, as far as I know, is the only 
 one existing in the tribe, is an attempt at keeping a 
 record of events by various marks on a wooden stick. 
 Made from pine board, it is seventy-nine inches in length 
 and one and one-quarter inches broad at the middle, 
 narrowing toward the ends, and about an inch thick at 
 the centre, which is the thickest. 
 
 The old man, when fifteen years of age, had taken it 
 into his head to begin a record of the events of his life, 
 giving to each year a space of about an inch on the 
 stick, separating one year from another by a transverse 
 notch. He thus made one notch for each year that 
 passed, and their number had now reached sixty-seven. 
 The events of the year are depicted by crosses, dots, 
 lines in various positions, as zigzags, angles, parallels, 
 etc., and, as they have significance and meaning only to 
 him, are less interesting from the point of view of the 
 markings than from the events recorded. More than one 
 kind of mark is rarely applied for each year. As the 
 record of happenings that appeared to him important, 
 accompanied by his own explanations, may be of inter- 
 est, I shall give here the principal ones: 
 
74 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 In 1849: Unusual snowfall, killing men and beasts. 
 
 In 1850: Successful attacks by the Apaches on the Maricopa at 
 
 Red Rock, as well as on the Papago near Magdalena, 
 
 Sonora. 
 
 In 1 851: Severe disease, called "black vomit," appeared. Its symp- 
 toms were painful fits and cramps. Dark-colored blood 
 would flow from the mouth. When the sufferer vomited, 
 it was a sign of relief. Many Indians died, including some 
 medicine-men. (This may have been yellow fever.) 
 
 In 1852 and 1853: Papagoes repelled attacks by the Apaches in 
 Arizona. 
 
 In 1854: Papagoes fought with the Apaches at Santa Ana, Sonora. 
 In 1855 and 1856: Death of relatives. 
 
 In 1857: American soldiers were killed by Mexicans at Caborca. 
 
 (This alludes to the defeat of the filibusters under Captain 
 Crabbe.) 
 
 In 1858: Birth of a girl relative. She afterward became makai (medi- 
 cine-man.) 
 
 In 1859: The Papagoes in the winter went to dance with the Pimas, 
 below Sacaton, in order to secure wheat. (It was also the 
 custom for the Pima to help at the feasts of the Papago, 
 the reward being in either case grain or domestic animals.) 
 
 In i860: Prominent chief died. 
 
 In 1 861: Papagoes in Mexico engaged the Apaches and were victori- 
 ous. The booty, consisting of shields, bows, and arrows, 
 was sold to the Mexicans for mescal brandy and maize. 
 
 In 1862: A fight with the Apaches in Mexico. 
 
 In 1863: His first marriage took place. 
 
 In 1864: His first child was born. 
 
 In 1865: Apaches captured one Papago, who later escaped. 
 In 1871: Apaches made peace with the whites at Arivaipa. 
 In 1874: Apaches attacked San Xavier. 
 
 In 1875: Ball games with foot-racing at Caborca, Sonora. He won in 
 betting, one horse, saddle, and bridle. 
 
 In 1876: Disease, accompanied by the loss of hair. Many died. (Per- 
 haps this was typhoid fever.) 
 
 In 1880: The railroad arrived at Tucson. 
 
A RECORD OF EVENTS 
 
 In 1881: A relative became crazy, killed his wife with a knife, and 
 then himself. 
 
 In 1882: First fiesta in Mexican fashion took place at a rancheria 
 which formerly existed where at present the Indian Oasis 
 is. (This means that the Indians of Arizona began to 
 adopt the social gathering in use among the Mexicans, 
 without imparting any religious importance to the festival. 
 A fiesta among Mexicans always includes dancing, which, 
 in our time, has been adopted by the Papagoes of Sonora, 
 but generally not in Arizona. On the occasion related, the 
 people danced one by one in a circle.) 
 
 In 1885: A visit to a Pima feast. Many singers went, and many 
 others, all well dressed. 
 
 In 1887: An earthquake in the "flowers disappear" moon. 
 
 In 1889: The Pima took part in a dance in order to secure cattle. 
 This was in the "dry grass" moon. 
 
 In 1890: A feast at San Xavier in the "dry grass moon." 
 
 In 1891: San Xavier Indians came to dance at Kvitatk (near the 
 "Pump-house" near Horseshoe). 
 
 In 1893: A foot-race at Kvitatk in "inner bone" moon (winter). The 
 racers starting in the middle of the day, ran as far as 
 Santa Rosa, returning at dark (about 8 p.m.). 
 
 In 1897: Foot-races at Aktjin. 
 
 In 1898: Two nephews put in prison in Yuma for smuggling mescal 
 brandy. 
 
 In 1899: Two relatives imprisoned in Tucson for stealing cattle. 
 In 1901: He was isolated at Tucson on account of small-pox in the 
 family. 
 
 In 1902: A foot-race at Tjeavolitak. 
 
 In 1903: A foot-race at Kvitatk. 
 
 In 1904: The purification of girls in the winter. 
 
 In 1907 : His friends put in jail for fighting at a sahuaro feast at Kvitatk. 
 
 In 1908: Many Papagoes that were attending the fiesta of San Fran- 
 cisco in Magdalena, Sonora, were imprisoned for resisting 
 the Mexican authorities when being pressed into military 
 service to fight the Yaqui. A chief from San Xavier went 
 down to Magdalena and helped them to get out. 
 
76 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 During recent years he has been bhnd, but a friend 
 and his wife have assisted him in placing marks accord- 
 ing to his directions. The event of this ensuing year 
 would be the visit of ''Carlos" to his sahuaro camp, he 
 said. I append here the Papago calendar which divides 
 the year into thirteen "moons," or mars at in the native 
 language. 
 
 THE PAPAGO CALENDAR 
 
 1. Tonjapik Marsat, Hot Moon {tonj, hot). 
 
 2. Tjokiapik Marsat, Rainy Moon. 
 
 3. Shopol Usapik Marsat, Short Planting Moon. 
 
 4. Varsa Kakitak Marsat, Dry Grass Moon (kakitak, dry). 
 
 5. Vihamik Marsat, Touches Mildly Moon. (The cold touches 
 
 mildly.) 
 
 6. Jomali Suipitik Marsat, Low Cold Moon (jomali, low). 
 
 7. Uta Vaokat Marsat, Inner Bone Moon. (The middle of the 
 
 winter.) It is also called Ku Suipitik, Big Cold. 
 
 8. Ovalik Marsat, In Heat Moon. (When the animals are in heat.) 
 
 9. Kihotak Marsat (untranslatable). Meaning: When the ani- 
 
 mals have lost their fat. 
 
 10. Komaki Marsat, Gray Moon {komak, gray). (When the trees 
 
 are without leaves.) 
 
 11. Tjuutaki Marsat, Green Moon (stjuutak, light blue or light 
 
 green). 
 
 12. Oam Marsat, Yellow Moon (usually suvdni, yellow). (Yellow 
 
 flowers on trees, bushes, and plants, such as the palo verde, 
 the greasewood, century plants and cacti.) 
 
 13. Hikokiapik Marsat, Flowers Disappear Moon. (Plants begin 
 
 to make fruit.) 
 
 The old man was amply rewarded for his interview 
 and consented to be photographed, though his wife, with 
 the usual Papago ignorance of money value, prevented 
 
A SAHUARO CAMP 
 
 77 
 
 me from finishing the operation by telhng him to ask 
 eight additional dollars for his consent. 
 
 Their camp consisted simply of a roof of branches 
 resting on four poles, sufficient to provide some shade 
 during the day. Early in the morning all the female 
 members of the household could be seen proceeding on 
 their fruit-gathering expedition, each armed with a large 
 basket and the usual pole, about twenty feet long and 
 made from two pieces of sahuaro rib. At the top of the 
 pole, as well as lower down, there is a kind of hook 
 made by tying crosswise in these two places a small 
 piece of greasewood by the aid of which the spiny fruit 
 is broken off. Two or three hours later they returned, 
 each carrying on her head her share of a heavy har- 
 vest. The skin with its spines had been removed in 
 the field, so the inside of the huge water-tight basket 
 presented an appetizing mass of crimson fruit pulp, as 
 well as a great amount of similarly colored juice, which 
 would keep for a few hours only. Most of the contents 
 of the baskets was immediately emptied into large jars, 
 to be boiled for about two hours, when the mass is 
 strained in order to separate the numerous small black 
 seeds. The juice is boiled for hours longer until it be- 
 comes sirup (sitoli), which is kept for future use in small 
 earthen-ware jars, each neatly sealed with a piece of 
 broken pottery and sticky mud. Being pleasant to the 
 taste and niuch superior to molasses, I found this sirup 
 excellent as part of my provisions. I also relished the 
 fresh juice of the fruit when brought in cool in the 
 morning. 
 
78 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 I had taken my notes in a temperature of 107° F. in 
 the shade of the jacal; at dawn that day the temperature 
 had been 74° F. and I actually awoke from feehng cold. 
 During the previous five days the maximum temperature 
 had been above 100^ F., and the heat still continued as 
 high for three days more. No clouds had appeared for 
 several evenings and the rains were delayed. It cer- 
 tainly felt warm as we travelled along on our return 
 journey to San Pedro. No shade, as that word is under- 
 stood in other climes, is found anywhere; the palo verde 
 is seldom very serviceable for this purpose, and the best 
 tree for shade is the mezquite, but on such days as these 
 the fierce rays of the sun easily penetrate its somewhat 
 scanty foliage, even the ground underneath the tree be- 
 coming heated. It was difficult to make the air circu- 
 late under our wagon cover, and we found ourselves in a 
 heat as great as that of a Turkish bath. Still it is good 
 policy to make the most of every favoring circumstance, 
 so we always stopped for lunch near some mezquite tree, 
 built a fire by which we made coffee, and had some 
 canned goods and puffed wheat with evaporated milk to 
 eat. The coffee especially, when made well, was very 
 acceptable. After that we continued our journey greatly 
 refreshed and actually cooler. My dog, however, did not 
 know what to do with himself, refusing steadfastly to 
 eat during the day; his favorite place was in the wagon, 
 under the seat, on top of a box. 
 
 On July 15 the oppressive heat was lessened toward 
 evening by a violent storm from the south-east, which 
 darkened the atmosphere first with dust, then an hour 
 
A LARGE SUMMER RANCHERIA 
 
 later with welcome black clouds which poured down 
 considerable rain. The storm passed from Indian Oasis 
 over Tucson, where, as I later learned, it damaged the 
 roof of the new hotel. Some more rain the following 
 evening and night made the outlook bright for continued 
 travel. We were soon on the road again westward bound 
 for Chief Alvina's sahuaro camp. After the somewhat 
 vague indication as to its location being near the southern 
 part of the Quijotoa Range, we had been left to our own 
 instincts of orientation to find it. 
 
 On arriving at the so-called Pump-house," near the 
 Quijotoa Range, I made a detour of thirteen miles south- 
 ward to the great summer rancheria Kuoitak (Big Field), 
 in order to make sure that the recent showers had not 
 already induced the chief to leave his sahuaro harvest 
 for agricultural pursuits. It was surprising to find such 
 a large cultivated area in the wilderness. It was over 
 two miles long, from east to west, and a half mile wide, 
 consisting, of course, of many small adjoining farms, all 
 fenced in by loosely made mezquite fences. The late 
 showers had certainly been eflFectual in bringing about 
 changes. Pools of water enlivened the landscape here 
 and there, and even some grass had begun to appear, 
 scarcely forty-eight hours after the rain. Birds were 
 singing in a lively manner, and there was spring in the 
 air, but evidently the Indians did not consider the rain 
 of sufficient quantity to justify them in beginning their 
 ploughing. In July or August, as soon as they are as- 
 sured of the soil being well soaked, they immediately 
 repair to their summer rancherias. So far, only one 
 
8o 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 family had arrived, so we continued our journey toward 
 the southern end of the Quijotoa Range. 
 
 In the evening mosquitoes and other insects gathered 
 around the lantern and small brown beetles crawled in- 
 side of my trousers or through my hair, reminding me of 
 tropical climates. Next morning, before starting, I had 
 a refreshing bath in a small water-hole, while a butcher- 
 bird {lanius) in a near-by bush sang with all his might, 
 apparently enjoying the changed conditions as much as 
 myself. This bird was often seen in the desert, often 
 far from water. Although the thermometer registered as 
 high as 92° F. in the warmest part of the day, still the 
 atmosphere, refreshed by the storms, felt remarkably 
 cool, and the weather was cloudy. 
 
 The southern part of the somewhat extensive Qui- 
 jotoa Range, separated from the rest, is called by the 
 Papago, Kihotoak {ktho^ burden basket; toak^ moun- 
 tain), said to be derived from its shape. The Spanish 
 name of the whole range is a corruption of this native 
 name. I was glad to find Chief Alvina in his camp, 
 which was in close proximity to great forests of sahuaro 
 on the slopes along the eastern base of the mountains. 
 He brought me as a welcome some pitahaya fruit which 
 tasted remarkably well. All the rest of the fruit gatherers 
 had already left, for the sahuaro season was over, though 
 there were still to be found pitahayas, the other savory 
 cactus fruit of the region. There was no pasture; our 
 horses fed on rolled oats, besides relishing the leaves of 
 the palo fierro (iron-wood) tree. 
 
 The chief was perfectly willing to be interviewed for 
 
DRENCHED IN THE DESERT 8i 
 
 hours. He thought the number of the Papagoes was 
 decreasing. Few old men were seen any more. The 
 food which is gradually supplanting their native dishes 
 is injurious to the health of the Papago. Children were 
 no longer obedient. The young men nowadays are 
 seized with restlessness and want to leave for other parts 
 of the country; nobody takes care of them, and they die 
 early, he complained. We took a walk together, and he 
 pointed out to me the ripe nuts of the jojobdy a bush of 
 common occurrence in that country. They are eaten by 
 the Indians and have rather a pleasant flavor. As they 
 contain a great deal of oil, they might compete with pea- 
 nuts in the oil industry of the world, were it not for the 
 slow growth of the bush. Mr. M. G. Levy, mine-owner 
 and store-keeper in Ajo, thinks that they will prove of 
 importance as cattle food and that they should be culti- 
 vated. Among the frontier population the oil has great 
 reputation as a hair restorer. 
 
 On two afternoons we had quite heavy showers, and 
 I felt some regret at having disposed of my large, though 
 inconvenient tent at Indian Oasis, taking with me only 
 the fly. Pablo and I were drenched and so were our 
 blankets. It would have been difficult to make a fire 
 but for the presence of the small resinous bush called 
 tovosoy which burned lustily in spite of being dripping 
 wet. We tore the bushes up entire and kept up a bon- 
 fire by which we dried ourselves and cooked our food. I 
 began to wonder whether this could truthfully be called 
 a desert. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 HORSESHOE IN THE QUIJOTOA RANGE— INDIANS AS MINERS 
 —SPENDING A NIGHT UNDER DIFFICULTIES— DELIGHTFUL 
 NATIVES— A WOMAN'S GAME— SANTA ROSA RANCHERIA— THE 
 GREAT HARVEST FEAST OF SANTA ROSA 
 
 After an affectionate leave-taking from good Chief 
 Alvina, we departed northward for Horseshoe, eating, as 
 we travelled along, delicious pitahayas with which we 
 had provided ourselves. Eight miles before arriving at 
 our destination we passed on the llano the pump-house 
 that had once been placed over a deep well, which, ac- 
 cording to trustworthy information, is five hundred and 
 twenty feet deep. It has an abundance of water from an 
 undercurrent and was once the pulse of a short-lived, 
 though intense, mining activity. If the information that 
 reached me is correct, the discovery of a bonanza silver 
 mine of very rich ore started a boom here nearly twenty 
 years ago. Several thousand people gathered, the usual 
 fabulous prices were paid for corner lots, and telegraph 
 and telephone lines were established with Tucson. To- 
 day the silence of death reigns here; the roads have been 
 obliterated, the houses have disappeared, as also have 
 the telegraph poles, and there is no sign of any former 
 activity. I should have felt inclined to consider the whole 
 thing a fable but for the unattractive remains of the 
 
 pump-house, which the Indians have annexed, building a 
 
 83 
 
PAPAGO PLACER MINING 83 
 
 few houses near it and naming their rancheria from the 
 tall chimney. Five miles north is a rancheria called 
 Sikulhimat ("where the water goes around." Sikul, 
 round). Here, according to the Indians, the drainage 
 of rain water flows toward the Gila River; south of that 
 place it flows toward Mexico. 
 
 Horseshoe is the name of a once noted placer mine, 
 the surface of which has been worked out. There are 
 gold mines of a similar nature around the southern end 
 of the Quijotoa Range. Judge Day has a store at Horse- 
 shoe and buys gold from the Indians, who still, during 
 the winter, keep up the "dry-washing" process here, 
 using for the purpose the machines that are common to 
 the neighboring district of Altar, in Sonora. The Indians 
 are even able to make the machines themselves. Judge 
 Day is a man of intelligence and much common-sense, 
 and, having lived here since 1893, was able to give re- 
 liable information about matters pertaining to the region. 
 According to him the padres from San Xavier Mission, 
 two hundred years ago, found the placer mines of Qui- 
 jotoa. He showed me some nice nuggets of small sizes 
 which he had lately bought. Five years ago the Ind- 
 ians found free gold in a piece of quartz which was 
 worth one thousand six hundred dollars. After that 
 eighty Papago and a few Yaqui Indians worked here for 
 half a year, taking out in value between ten thousand 
 and twelve thousand dollars. Judge Day buying most 
 of the gold. The relations between the miners — all 
 Indians — were cordial. When any of them had found 
 a rich spot, he would tell it to the others, and next morn- 
 
84 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ing the crowd would begin to work as near him as pos- 
 sible. No ill feeling or fights ensued; they would each 
 earn from four to five dollars a day. The miners when 
 coming home would always wash after changing their 
 clothes. Considering the trouble of getting water at the 
 only well, their cleanliness may be considered an example 
 even to whites. The women are particularly cleanly, 
 and wash their own clothes frequently as well as those 
 of their husbands. 
 
 Judge Day and his family, who have been living 
 here among the Indians for so long a time, gave very 
 good reports of their neighbors. He had spent twenty- 
 two years among Indians, and considered the Papago the 
 safest. "As a rule, they are honest,^' he said, though 
 there are scalawags among them, but these are discred- 
 ited by their own race. The women will steal trifles, 
 picking up a rope or the like, but the men will sel- 
 dom do that. The store often gives an Indian twenty 
 dollars on credit, and he will apologize if he does not 
 pay in ninety days. These Indians, like the Mexicans, 
 are pleased to be in debt, because they consider it an 
 honor to be trusted. If the average native says he will 
 pay his debt, he will do so." 
 
 Like all Indians, the Papagoes are kind to their 
 children, the father no less than the mother. An Ind- 
 ian couple were purchasing some articles in the store 
 while I was present; their strong and fat infant was 
 crying continuously in its mother's arms, she trying 
 vainly to stop its wails. Finally, I saw her, with a few 
 words, hand the babe to her husband, a boyish, good- 
 
THE BENEFIT OF EXERCISE 85 
 
 looking man and apparently younger than herself. He 
 took the howling nuisance gently and walked resolutely 
 off into the hot sun. I wondered what was going to 
 happen. He went straight to the well, gave the fretful 
 youngster a bath, and returned in a few minutes with his 
 purpose accomplished. 
 
 It may be of interest to note the manner in which the 
 daughter of the American family at Horseshoe, who 
 when twelve or thirteen years old was in poor health, 
 grew to be strong and well. Being brought up with the 
 Indians, whose language she speaks, she taught herself 
 the accomplishment of every Indian girl, to carry a water- 
 jar on her head. This made her healthy, and now she 
 weighs one hundred and fifty pounds. 
 
 To the north of here, only about six miles, travel- 
 ling by the track, is an important rancheria, Tjmvak 
 Where Something Decayed"), lying among low hills 
 in the Quijotoa Range, where a road passes from east 
 to west. I was desirous of seeing the best-known 
 basket-maker who lives here, but she, like the rest, had 
 just left for the summer ranch. The place looked much 
 like a village, but was temporarily abandoned on account 
 of the season, so we continued our journey northward 
 by an excellent road that had been furnished mainly 
 by nature. It was a slightly downhill drive, the coun- 
 try now almost imperceptibly sloping toward the Gila 
 River. 
 
 We arrived late at a summer rancheria with the some- 
 what disconcerting native name, ''Dead Old Man's 
 Well." Here we expected to find the people of the win- 
 
86 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ter habitations we had just left behind. The night was 
 pitch-dark with overhanging nimbus clouds, and thunder, 
 more or less distant, was heard all around us. The air 
 felt sultry and quite a strong wind had begun to blow, 
 as if warning us of an advancing storm. Big fires were 
 burning outside of the houses, which looked hospitable 
 enough. But this was a night which one would not 
 exactly like to pass out-of-doors, so I asked Pablo to 
 hurry in and see if he could not secure a house in which 
 we might have sleeping quarters. As good luck would 
 have it, a friend of ours whose acquaintance we had made 
 at the feast of Noria was here. He had come from the 
 Comobabi Mountains to cultivate the fields with the rest, 
 and he helped us to obtain lodgings for the night. A 
 small storehouse was placed at our disposal, and as we 
 drove up in the wagon some girls were busily carrying 
 things out in order to give us more space inside. 
 
 It was a tiny shed, built of upright mezquite poles 
 calked and plastered inside and outside with mud. The 
 roof, which was made of sahuaro ribs and greasewood 
 branches, with a cover of earth on top, was water-proof, 
 all care having been taken to make it secure against the 
 rain, for here the provisions of the family, their house- 
 hold goods, clothes, and other earthly possessions were 
 stored. Air had access only through the door-opening, 
 which was exactly one and a half feet wide. Owing to 
 an all-day's summer sun the storehouse was extremely 
 hot, and as I entered my lodging the temperature was 
 so oppressive that it was almost stifling; still, as the wind 
 was blowing with increased force and lightning at more 
 
A NIGHT IN A STOREHOUSE 87 
 
 frequent intervals lit up the darkness outside, the little 
 house offered protection for the night, and gave a feeling 
 of comfort such as our savage ancestors must have felt 
 when resorting to a cave just in time to escape a drench- 
 ing. Big jars, gourds, sacks containing maize, wheat, 
 sahuaro seeds, and other edible wild seeds were lying 
 about in the corners. There was not much space left, 
 but by adjusting things our baggage was safely stored 
 and we had our frugal supper while the rain poured down. 
 
 Pablo went to arrange for his bedding with the Ind- 
 ians, while I managed to place my cot backward from 
 the door-opening, filling up all the space left. Near my 
 head, in a box in a corner, a hen with small chickens 
 was sitting. She had a curious way of poking her beak 
 against the box two or three times a minute, almost with 
 the regularity of clock-work. It was as if the habit of 
 using her beak to help feed her large family had grown 
 on her to such an extent that she continued doing it 
 automatically through the night. To listen to this be- 
 came a nuisance, but I was too tired to allow it to inter- 
 fere with my sleep. After a while I awoke from the 
 intolerable heat, bathed in perspiration. I undid my 
 bed to push it through the narrow opening, and leaving 
 the hen to continue her pecking, put my cot outside 
 where the rain had ceased. The air felt cool and fresh 
 now, and at dawn even a feeling of chilliness interrupted 
 my slumber, but I continued to sleep until after sunrise 
 in spite of the cackling of fowls, the barking of dogs, 
 and the Indians moving and talking all around me. 
 
 It was Sunday morning, July 25, and I awoke well 
 
88 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 rested, though at an inconceivably late hour for that 
 country, for the sun had been nearly half an hour above 
 the horizon. The men had gone to plough the fields, but 
 lots of women and girls and a few young men had gathered 
 waiting for me to get up. They had brought many ob- 
 jects, which they understood I wanted to buy. As soon 
 as I opened my eyes two kinds of the medicine-man's 
 rasping outfits, women's games, a splendid bull-roarer 
 (see page 95), and other tempting things were presented 
 for my approval. 
 
 The attitude of the natives was an unlooked-for de- 
 light. With the exception of the men who were unavoid- 
 ably absent, the remainder of the four or five families 
 that made up the rancheria seated themselves around 
 me, showing much interest in my presence and eager to 
 sell what they had brought. I distributed candy to 
 every one, and much enthusiasm was evinced, the utmost 
 good-will prevailing. Two elderly sisters, talkative and 
 impulsive, were very intelligent in giving explanations of 
 the articles offered for sale. One of them sat down on 
 the ground and showed me how the medicine-man's rasp- 
 ing-sticks were used, at the same time rendering the ap- 
 propriate song. The other one, seizing a pair of wooden 
 tweezers, which are used in pulling off certain edible 
 cactus fruit, proceeded in a most graphic manner to de- 
 monstrate how the spines are rubbed off by the same 
 implement, whereupon the fruit is placed in a basket and 
 taken home to be cooked. Her quiet pantomime, full of 
 humor, made matters clear beyond doubt unto the small- 
 est detail, without her uttering a single word. She would 
 
DOUBLE BALL GAME WITH STICK 89 
 
 have done credit to any stage. It was a busy morn- 
 ing, and when the crowd saw us getting ready to eat our 
 belated breakfast, they considerately said, "'Let us retire 
 that they may eat." Pablo and I seated ourselves near 
 the fire, and it was a small matter that the rice had been 
 burned during the activities of the morning. 
 
 After a while, we had them all back again. The 
 implements used in a woman's game were offered for 
 sale. They comprised a small object, consisting of two 
 short, thick sticks from the cat-claw tree, linked together 
 in the middle by a twisted leather string. This ola^ as 
 they call it, has to be thrown with a thin pole, slightly 
 curved at the point, and the movement must be made by 
 applying the point between the two connecting sticks 
 and then casting it upward. The game consists in 
 throwing the object so as to reach a certain goal, the 
 opposing party trying to prevent it. At my request, the 
 woman with the imitative gift induced four young girls 
 to show me how the game was played, and they immedi- 
 ately prepared for the fray. The colored bandannas were 
 disengaged from around the head and tied around the 
 hips. The uncovering disclosed beautiful black hair, 
 well-groomed a la mexicaine^ parted in the middle, and 
 hanging in two generous braids down the back. The 
 next minute they all spat in their hands and smoothed 
 their hair, then the game started. The girls played 
 two against two. The 61a was first thrown up in the 
 air, the players standing ready opposite each other. The 
 tactics of the opponents was to run with their backs 
 turned against the others and strike the disputed ob- 
 
90 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ject with their poles. Each game was played with much 
 agility and lasted only a few minutes, the participants 
 keenly enjoying the sport. Formerly as many as twenty 
 women on each side took part in this game. 
 
 I ventured to take snapshots and, strange to relate, it 
 was not resented. A boy showed me how to swing a 
 bull-roarer, and we all had a good time. Though the 
 wearing apparel of these people and most of their uten- 
 sils came from the white man's store, still, neither Eng- 
 lish nor Spanish was spoken, only Papago. They be- 
 haved something like natives who have not been much 
 in contact with whites, and these "poor heathen" were 
 the nicest Papagoes I met on my whole expedition. The 
 entertaining crowd would sometimes retire as one man, 
 then after a while they would return again; they were 
 curious without being troublesome. One of the humor- 
 ous sisters told me that in the rancheria of Santa Rosa, 
 which was my next goal, there was much to be seen 
 that would interest me, if I made friends with the prin- 
 cipal men. She also had a house there, she said, which 
 was at our disposal, and she gave us directions as to 
 how to find it, for Santa Rosa was a big place. 
 
 It is, in fact, the largest summer rancheria in the 
 Papago tribe, and people from several clusters of win- 
 ter habitations gather here to the number of about five 
 hundred. The houses are scattered over an area of 
 nearly two miles square. Its native name is Kuatshi 
 (Big Peak). I entered this old-fashioned rancheria with 
 much expectancy of gaining further knowledge of the 
 beliefs and customs of these people. Water from the 
 
ARRIVAL AT SANTA ROSA 
 
 91 
 
 recently fallen rain was standing in pools here and there 
 in the rough road. Inside of the rude mezquite fences 
 a surprisingly large amount of weeds was flourishing, 
 and beautifully green. In the midst of this mass of verd- 
 ure the Indians were busy ploughing and sowing, the 
 weeding being done later. Here and there a rain-storm 
 might be seen at a distance, in the north, east, and south, 
 but the atmosphere as a whole was clear, and everything 
 looked beautiful in the late afternoon sun. 
 
 After some parleying and searching and travelling, 
 we found our Juan, a tall, strong-looking Indian with 
 a benign expression of countenance. Near this man's 
 house was to be our promised lodgement. He pointed 
 out to us a large, dome-shaped straw house, of old style, 
 about a hundred yards away. Crawling in through the 
 door-opening, which was not quite two feet high, I found 
 the inside very spacious. Provisions were stored here, 
 and a large granary basket gave me joy at the prospect 
 of its possible acquisition. The room was clean and 
 cool. Nevertheless, being unusually dependent upon fresh 
 air, I feared this would be a very inconvenient abode for 
 me, so I crawled out again and addressed myself to an 
 old man who was occupied outside in digging up and 
 destroying the passages of some pernicious red ants. 
 On our arrival I had noticed him clearing away rubbish 
 in front of an attractive little house near by made of 
 upright poles so that the air had access everywhere. I 
 proposed that he should rent me the little dwelling. 
 
 He readily consented, asking me to state a price, and 
 I suggested fifty cents a day, which was promptly ac- 
 
92 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 cepted. He immediately commenced to move his things 
 out so as to give space enough for my cot. The tiny 
 house had a good roof of greasewood branches covered 
 with earth. A few yards in front of the door-opening, 
 toward the west, was the usual arrangement of a jacal 
 that provided a grateful shade. The Indians had ar- 
 rived here only the day before, and the old man had 
 decorated the door-posts with fresh greasewood branches, 
 which gave the modest habitation a festive and cheerful 
 appearance. I felt comfortable in my new quarters, and 
 prepared to stay here for several weeks. 
 
 Among the friends I gradually made was one whose 
 civilized name was Simon, who became of great service 
 in helping me to get specimens and information from the 
 Indians. He made a good beginning himself by selling 
 me his clown's outfit, more or less complete, an unex- 
 pected discovery in these days when advancing civiliza- 
 tion is destroying all the sacred emblems, customs, and 
 beliefs of the natives. These were implements used at 
 the great harvest feast, vikita, which is given every four 
 years at Santa Rosa. The name is derived from the 
 word viiki, by which is designated the finest and small- 
 est plumes of the vulture. Manifold preparations are 
 made for the event, which comes off in the inner bone" 
 moon, about November or December, after the harvest- 
 ing of corn, beans, pumpkins, and melons. The par- 
 ticipants dress up and practise their parts in a large, 
 open, square enclosure of brushwood fences, where 
 afterward many ceremonial objects which were carried 
 about during the festivities are left. I was told that 
 
My camp at Santa Rosa 
 
\ 
 
THE CLOWN 
 
 93 
 
 sahuaro wine Is not used during or after this great fes- 
 tival. At Quitovac, in Sonora, an annual harvest feast, 
 called by the same name, is given in August; this is 
 accompanied by the drinking of sahuaro wine. 
 
 As the name indicates, the clowns are the funny men 
 of the occasion, and their apparel and weapons are in ac- 
 cordance with their functions. Their bows are crooked 
 mezquite roots with strings attached. Their ridiculous- 
 looking arrows, four for each, are made from sahuaro 
 ribs, with turkey feathers as the plumed part; like the 
 hunter, the clown has two kinds, but his are out of pro- 
 portion, three being thin and one very stout. His brace- 
 let may be a piece of unborn deerskin wrapped around 
 the wrist. The most striking part of the costume is 
 the mask, which is made of canvas, like a hood that is 
 drawn over the head; formerly perhaps basket work took 
 the place, at least in parts, of the canvas. Small holes 
 for the eyes have been pierced in it and the top is adorned 
 with a large bunch of plumes from the turkey, hawk, 
 and a black sea-bird. ''Horns" made of turkey plumes 
 are attached to the sides, soft down from a hawk being 
 tied to the top. The decorations on the facial part of 
 the mask symbolize clouds. Under the clown's belt is 
 tucked a wooden machete, and large strings of sea-shells 
 run over the shoulders across the chest and back. He 
 wears a huge tobacco-pouch and carries a sahuaro pole 
 on which small greasewood sticks, tied at right angles, 
 do duty as hooks. 
 
 His bare arms, as well as his arrows, are decorated 
 each with a spiral line made with chalk and encircling 
 
94 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 lengthwise, while his legs are daubed in spots, the color 
 being afterward allowed to wear off. At the feast, the 
 numerous clowns perform pranks everywhere; they visit 
 the houses, offer food, and shoot at men disguised as 
 deer. During the dancing they keep in the middle of 
 the dancing place. They neither sing nor talk, though 
 they may do so if requested. If a clown breathes on a 
 sick man, the latter gets well. The mask when not used 
 is kept in the house of the owner, usually in a covered 
 earthen-ware jar. The dignity of the office, which does 
 not imply the necessity of being a medicine-man, is con- 
 fined to certain families, the father deciding which of 
 his sons is to be the next clown. 
 
 On the wall in my lodging-room there was hanging 
 a different kind of mask, neatly made from a gourd, and 
 painted. It is worn by a singer at the same great feast. 
 I also secured this, and during the time spent at Santa 
 Rosa valley I was fortunate enough to make quite a col- 
 lection of such interesting objects. There are three sec- 
 tions of colors on the singers' masks symbolizing clouds 
 of similar hues. The upper part is painted with red 
 ochre; then comes a black band which is produced by 
 a mixture of sap from the mezquite and oxide of iron; 
 the white band is made with chalk. The zigzags of the 
 red section symbolize clouds, the dots are grains of corn. 
 The designs on the white section denote clouds and light- 
 ning. The singers {viinim) have the same kind of rat- 
 tles as the clowns, consisting of a number of the small 
 bags spun by an insect (attacus orizahajy with a pebble 
 inside of each, and attached to a band around the ankle. 
 
THE SINGER 
 
 95 
 
 The band should be cut from the skin of a black 
 dog, which is killed for the purpose in the practising 
 enclosure. 
 
 The singer has the upper body nude, his trousers 
 being turned up as high as possible and his feet bare. 
 He wears no head-dress, but attempts to appear neatly 
 attired, tying around the loins a colored bandanna or 
 perhaps a shawl borrowed from his wife. Around the 
 waist, the neck, and the upper part of the arm bright- 
 colored strips of cloth are tied. His body is smeared 
 with red ochre on which are spots of white, symbolizing 
 grains of corn. 
 
 An important part of the singer's outfit is the bull- 
 roarer, consisting of two flat pieces made of sahuaro 
 rib, the smaller one being held by the hand when in 
 use. The connecting string should be twine of native 
 cotton, which still may be found in use. They are 
 decorated with symbolic designs, such as those stand- 
 ing for lightning, clouds, turtles, grains of corn, express- 
 ing their desire for rain. The buzzing sound produced 
 should be deep, in imitation of the thunder, which 
 brings rain; if the sound is shrill, lightning only will 
 follow. 
 
 The bull-roarer is swung for the purpose of calling 
 people together and as a sign that the meeting is over, 
 both at the preliminary exercises in the practising en- 
 closure as well as at the feast itself. These buzzing im- 
 plements not only open and conclude the proceedings, 
 but they are used on the way from the practising house 
 to the feast early in the morning, also when the cloud 
 
96 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 symbols are carried about, and on similar occasions. 
 When not in use, the implement is tucked under the belt 
 at the back. After the festival it is put away not to be 
 used until the next feast takes place. 
 
 The singers are made up of the following four groups: 
 
 1. The people of Santa Rosa rancheria. Sikulhimat, 
 Aloitak, and Kvitatk join with them. 
 
 2. The people of Kvivo rancheria. The San Xavier 
 inhabitants join with these. 
 
 3. The people of Anekam rancheria. 
 
 4. The people of Aktjin rancheria. 
 
 These four groups have different masks and at the 
 head-quarters of each is a practising enclosure. 
 
 This great harvest festival lasts from morning till sun- 
 set. Ten days before the principal men begin the prep- 
 arations, fasting at the same time and drinking water 
 but once a day. Sometimes as many as fifty rancherias 
 take part. Much noise is made in the evening before 
 the feast is begun. Each group of rancherias sings dif- 
 ferent songs, in its turn, and every fourth year new songs 
 are produced. At the Quitovac meeting the same songs 
 are used year after year. The singers also dance with 
 ceremonial objects in their hands, their songs being suited 
 to the emblem carried. 
 
 Mr. Brownell, store-keeper and mine-owner at Brown- 
 ell, in the Quijotoa Range, was present at the last festival 
 given, which was in December, 1908. Though unable 
 to give me any descriptive detail, he assured me that it 
 was an unusual performance in its magnitude and bar- 
 barous display of costume, paint, and ceremonials. A 
 
I- D O > 
 •5. Si OT3 
 
 . 
 
 a p a 
 
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THE PRACTISING ENCLOSURE 
 
 few other Americans had been present, but nobody was 
 allowed to make any notes. Permission to take photo- 
 graphs would not be considered without a payment of 
 six hundred dollars. It is doubtful whether a similar 
 festival will ever take place again, for there are only 
 one, or possibly two, old men left who know how to 
 direct the complicated ceremonies. Formerly, the com- 
 plaint was made to me, the young men used to be taught 
 by the two old men, but at present nobody goes to them. 
 If another festival does take place, it would be highly 
 desirable for an ethnologist to be present. I visited the 
 practising enclosure, which is from forty to fifty feet 
 square. A great accumulation of ceremonial things was 
 left here from preceding feasts, conspicuous among which 
 were some large, triangular frames to which wads of 
 cotton were attached, symbolizing clouds. Bright blue, 
 wooden swallows, fastened to the tops of sticks, also at- 
 tracted my attention. They are carried by certain per- 
 formers. The enclosure is called a vaaki, as is also the 
 medicine lodge and the house of the leader of the salt 
 expeditions. 
 
 I was successful enough to procure two more clown 
 masks, the owners of both being medicine-men. One of 
 them, who was too old to be a clown any longer, should 
 have handed it over to his son or nephew, but he pre- 
 ferred American dollars. I was further completing my 
 collection with sets of the various articles that comprise 
 the outfit, when my nefarious activities reached the ears 
 of the principal men, who at once put a stop to any more 
 purchases. ''What are we coming to," cried the chief, 
 
98 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 selling these things? Are we not going to have any 
 more feasts?" There was some talk of having me re- 
 turn what I had bought, but the storm of indignation 
 gradually subsided. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 VISIT TO A VERY SACRED PLACE— THE CHILDREN'S SACRIFICE 
 —A MEETING WITH AN IMPORTANT PERSONAGE— ANEKAM— 
 PRIMITIVE NATIVES— I ARRIVE AMONG THE KOHATK PEOPLE 
 —A WET NIGHT— RETURN TO SANTA ROSA 
 
 All the while I had not forgotten what my talkative 
 woman friend at the last stopping place had told me. 
 *'Get an old man to show you the children's cemetery/' 
 she said, ''and you will see many things." As soon as I 
 considered my acquaintance with Simon to be sufficiently 
 well established, I asked him if he would not take me to 
 the place where the children had been buried. ''It 
 would be well to get the chief's permission for that," 
 he answered after some hesitation. Accordingly Pablo 
 and I mounted our horses and, accompanied by Simon, 
 also on horseback, started off with the prospect of an 
 interesting afternoon's experience before us. The place 
 was not far away, perhaps three miles off, but it was al- 
 ready five o'clock and, as we first had to secure the per- 
 mission, we hurried along. 
 
 Simon is very quick in his movements and, there 
 being no time to waste, we confidently followed in his 
 wake. We arrived at the camp of one of the principal 
 men, a leader of the annual salt expedition to the gulf, 
 with whom on the previous day I had had a long inter- 
 view. He was one of those old-fashioned, simple-minded, 
 
 99 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 though intelUgent, barbarians who give the serious in- 
 quirer clear, absolutely straightforward information, and 
 I had no objection to hearing from his mouth some more 
 about the ancient traditions of the Papago. He told us 
 of a spring that once had threatened to flood not only 
 the great valley of the Santa Rosa, but the whole Papago 
 country. Four children, two boys and two girls, had 
 to be put into the fountain in order to stop the water 
 from flooding. The sacrifice had availed and ever after- 
 ward this had been a most sacred locality, of which the 
 Papagoes took great care. He asked us what we wanted 
 to do there. Being assured of our harmless intentions, 
 and Simon being a great friend of his, he had no objec- 
 tions to our proposed visit, and I paid him two dollars 
 for the permission. 
 
 Our next call would be, I expected, on the chief. 
 Simon, on his quick-gaited steed, rode ahead of us, and 
 soon disappeared from view in the winding arroyo, which 
 we entered. This arroyo led among the scattered ranches 
 of Santa Rosa up to the base of the mountain range, where 
 lay the object of our trip. On an easy grade we travelled 
 quickly over the sand and gravel that the rains of pre- 
 vious years had washed down from the mountains so 
 as to fill the arroyo bed. On both sides grew thickets of 
 desert willows, arrowbushes, and a peculiar light green 
 bush with long, needle-like leaves, from which the 
 Indians make prayer-sticks. We followed this beautiful 
 arroyo for a couple of miles, and I was congratulating 
 myself on getting away unobserved by the multitude. 
 Pablo and I spurred our horses along and we gradually 
 
A SERIOUS ALTERCATION 
 
 gained on our swift guide, who suddenly left our safe 
 arroyo, now narrowing as we approached the base of the 
 mountains. We passed a couple of hundred yards above 
 the last houses of the rancheria and were making fast for 
 our goal, when a man on a brown horse appeared, com- 
 ing toward us at a furious gait, followed by a white colt. 
 Just as we reached the main road he caught up with us. 
 Although he preserved a calm demeanor, his eyes, when 
 he halted us, betrayed excitement. It was the old fa- 
 miliar case of Indians knowing in a mysterious way well- 
 nigh everything that is going on, as if they had telephones 
 and telegraphs. 
 
 ''Where are you bound?" he asked. Simon looked 
 scared when answering the question. 
 
 ''That place," the new-comer retorted, "belongs to 
 many people, and one man alone cannot give the per- 
 mission to visit it. I am the chief of this rancheria. 
 Why did you not come to me 
 
 Simon evidently had committed a serious breach of 
 etiquette by letting the matter rest with his friend, the 
 director of the salt expeditions. He tried to explain his 
 action as being due to the absence of the chief in the 
 fields. For a man with so much initiative and such un- 
 usual frankness, it seemed amazing that he should have 
 made such a blunder. Judging from the way he re- 
 peated over and over again his one line of defence, his 
 case was a weak one. The chief evidently was right, and 
 finally, turning his horse toward the rancheria and start- 
 ing back, he said he did not want us to go to that place. 
 
 This was more than I could endure, so I, with Pablo, 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 rode after him, and began negotiations in my own way. 
 He soon became more tractable. **The place is sacred," 
 he said, *'and not everybody who comes along can see 
 it.'" The Indians had gone to much trouble to keep up 
 its proper appointments. He was going to bring this 
 matter before the Big House, the lodge, that very even- 
 ing, and the people would decide in the case. The pros- 
 pect of vague and possibly endless delay was not exactly 
 to my taste, so I proposed another way out of the diffi- 
 culty, that of paying to him and to the other big man of 
 the tribe, the Keeper of the Smoke, the same sum that 
 I had already paid the first principal man. 
 
 Gratified at seeing the negotiations happily concluded, 
 I presented him with tobacco and candy, which he smil- 
 ingly put into his trousers pockets. He said we could go 
 to the cemetery that afternoon and next morning return 
 to look it over more carefully. To my suggestion that it 
 was too late in the day to continue the trip, he answered 
 that the place was close by. He admonished us only to 
 be careful not to disturb anything, and thus we separated 
 all in a pleasant mood. The cemetery was nearer than 
 I had expected; after having followed the road for ten 
 minutes, Simon told us that we had arrived. The coun- 
 try was now level and covered with greasewood bushes 
 all around. We found ourselves at the beginning of a 
 broad pass, through which the road from Santa Rosa 
 leads westward to a mountain. 
 
 We tied our horses and walked aside from the road 
 some twenty yards, when my eyes caught sight of a cir- 
 cular enclosure made from upright split ocotillo (/ow- 
 
AN INTERESTING SHRINE 
 
 quieria splendens) poles, from which the bark had been 
 recently stripped. To the north and to the south was 
 piled up at either side in a semicircle a very large heap 
 of discarded poles, in orderly array, several thousands of 
 them. I had expected to find a shrine of a more or less 
 common type, so this was an agreeable surprise and 
 worth some trouble. 
 
 I stepped up to the sanctuary, which was about the 
 height of a man and nineteen feet in diameter, with open 
 gateways toward the four corners of the world. The 
 row of ocotillo poles was placed two or three thick. In- 
 side, in the middle, was a mound neatly made of slabs, 
 six feet in diameter and two feet high; on top of it rested 
 a large sea shell, seven inches long, of a light rose color, 
 with its opening toward the east. Two thin upright 
 sticks of ocotillo had been placed at each cardinal point 
 of the mound. The shrine stands on ground that is a 
 few feet higher than the surrounding plain. This slight 
 elevation, which provides ample space for the enclosure, 
 is evidently natural, though its central part is slightly 
 concave. This may have been due to the action of a 
 spring. It looks as if the earth in some way had been 
 removed, forming a slight basin. From this depression, 
 toward the east and the west, are outlets as if water had 
 been running. The western outlet is quite short, but 
 the eastern is over one hundred feet long, and widens out 
 so as to present broad, level ground. Here it is where 
 the water finally stopped, the Indian explained, and here 
 may be observed eight good-sized single stones or heaps 
 of stones. Near each are placed two upright ocotillo 
 
104 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 sticks, one toward the east and one toward the west. 
 The four eastern stones or stone heaps have only one 
 each, placed toward the east. 
 
 Everything about the place was scrupulously clean and 
 orderly; not a trace of anything to be seen on the sandy 
 ground anywhere. The mound of slabs that kept the 
 water down in the bowels of the earth, and prevented the 
 country from being flooded, was well arranged. Though 
 mainly a prayer for rain to the sea, in a way this was a 
 monument to the four children who had been sacrificed, 
 and though devoted to a mythical event, its extreme sim- 
 plicity, relieved against a background of the simple mind 
 of the natives, was impressive, as the sun, at the end of 
 July, in close proximity to the western hills, poured its 
 strong, beautiful light over the scene. 
 
 Fearing a refusal, I did not ask Simon's permission to 
 photograph, but, putting up my tripod, calmly brought 
 my camera into action. Hardly had I begun operations 
 when Pablo shouted: People are coming! I see dust 
 rising in the west." Although photography had not been 
 included among the sacrilegious acts mentioned by the 
 chief, still it required little sagacity to be convinced that, 
 with the Papago abhorrence of the noble art, to be 
 caught photographing such a place would amount to a 
 crime. I had made a few exposures and now hurriedly 
 put my camera and tripod together. Simon evidently 
 felt very uneasy and, with his feet, began to cover with 
 sand the marks that the tripod had left, making similar 
 holes here and there with the sharp end of a pole, at the 
 same time throwing sticks of wood about, to mislead his 
 
East of the shrine of the children's sacrifice 
 
 Here the outflow of water is supposed to have stopped 
 
THE CHILDREN'S CEMETERY 
 
 105 
 
 canny countrymen. Then we started back at a quick 
 pace to our camp. 
 
 The name of this sacred place is Aalhihiani (ally 
 child; hthiariy cemetery). The enclosure's name is ki, 
 house. It is renewed at irregular intervals and, accord- 
 ing to my informant, sometimes every year. The pres- 
 ent one had been made during the preceding winter. 
 Those who make the enclosure have to come on foot to do 
 the work. After the work is done there is a feast in the 
 lodge, the whole night being spent in singing to the ac- 
 companiment of rasping sticks. The four children come 
 down from the cemetery and take part, but only the med- 
 icine-men see them. In the morning the latter tell the 
 people what they saw and what the children told them 
 about rain and crops. 
 
 The faces of the children when about to be sacrificed 
 were painted yellow with transverse black stripes, while 
 the body was painted on the front, yellow, and on the 
 back, black. A hole was dug in which the children were 
 made to stand up, while the medicine-men sang. The 
 flow of water which was stopped came from the sea, 
 threatening to flood the whole world. The Papagoes 
 worship the sea. In the subdivision of the tribe called 
 Hohola, tradition has it that a man once went down into 
 a cavity in the ground and the sea kept him there for 
 four years. His relatives, considering him dead, burned 
 his house and ate his cattle. He turned up one day, asked 
 them to make a house for him away from the rancheria, 
 and, after having taken eight baths, one every four days, 
 he began to live again as before. 
 
io6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Next morning I had an appointment with the Keeper 
 of the Smoke. Some days before he had promised to 
 make for me a shield of the same kind as the Papagoes 
 until quite recently were in the habit of making when 
 going on the war-path against the Apaches. As this is 
 a solemn act, which entails much fasting and praying on 
 the part of the maker, and also as it would mean, accord- 
 ing to Indian notions, certain risks and observances on 
 my part, we had agreed on a meeting at which I should be 
 enlightened as to my duties and dangers in the matter. 
 
 Accompanied by Pablo I arrived at the medicine 
 lodge at the appointed hour, which was ''a little after 
 the sun is over the horizon." We found the keeper sit- 
 ting under the jacal in front of the lodge and facing the 
 east. He was a stern, almost fanatical-looking Indian 
 who conscientiously observes all the rules and regulations 
 his religion imposes on him. There was no English or 
 Spanish about this man. "I do not do things from hear- 
 say," he began. Every evening I make a fire east of 
 the jacal (in the winter it would be inside the lodge) and 
 tell the people what I know to be the truth. In this 
 house I tell the people what to do, and this is the place 
 where any undertaking should begin." 
 
 He spoke for nearly an hour. The shield he would 
 make alone, and the proper precautions would be taken, 
 but he wanted to be assured that I would not trifle with it, 
 and that I should help in its making by fasting. People 
 have sold you clown's masks and singer's masks," he 
 continued; *'that is very wrong, and should never have 
 been done. The merit of the feast passes away with 
 
OTHER SACRED LOCALITIES 
 
 those things. They ought to be returned, but I am not 
 going to ask you to do that, because the things have been 
 paid for, so it would not be right to have the bargains 
 changed. But I want to tell you one thing which you 
 probably do not know. Those objects are apt to make 
 you ill, and when that happens, do not blame the Ind- 
 ians!'' 
 
 When the time came for me to answer, I reassured 
 him on the several points that caused him anxiety. The 
 things I had acquired were going to be well cared for. 
 I expressed my pleasure at the elucidation his talk had 
 given me, and told him that I should like much to have 
 another meeting with him by and by. He believed in 
 me, he answered, and would meet me here again later 
 on, but at present he was too busy making ready for the 
 sahuaro feast which was soon to come off. He was glad 
 to see me among his people, he added. 
 
 Next day, availing myself of the permission already 
 obtained, we again visited the cemetery" as well as 
 other sacred spots in the neighborhood. I was shown 
 the place where the elder men, sitting in a circle, make 
 the small, bright blue prayer-sticks for the great harvest 
 festival. One end is pointed, and to the other is tied a 
 turkey feather; about two hundred and fifty of these are 
 distributed at the feast in the interest of health, and 
 some are buried later, to keep the fields moist. 
 
 The shrine of the buried jar is situated at the cross- 
 ing of two tracks, one leading to the ''children's ceme- 
 tery," which is west of it. It is customary for those who 
 visit the latter place also to call here and deposit some 
 
io8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 offering. The jar is buried in the ground and a small 
 mound made above it, the central part of which is cov- 
 ered by a flat stone. Ocotillo sticks, stripped of bark, 
 are placed upright, two toward the east and two toward 
 the west, and empty cartridges, bits of glass, small sea- 
 shells, as well as pebbles, had been deposited here. The 
 little shrine is just outside of the rancheria, toward the 
 end of the slope that runs down gently from the moun- 
 tains near by. The rain-water, in times gone by, had 
 formed furrows and small arroyos everywhere, making 
 the country look wavy. The earth around the roots of 
 the ever-present greasewood bushes resists the short- 
 lived torrents, and they presented the same appearance 
 of growing high above the ground on top of mounds 
 which usually is due to the action of the wind. At one 
 place where the ground was level a vast number of light 
 yellow flowers were growing, forming a carpet-like cov- 
 ering among the gi(easewood. Quantities of broken pot- 
 tery were lying about to the north-east of the small shrine 
 and here, according to tradition, was the former site of 
 the rancheria. 
 
 In spite of my satisfactory meeting with the Keeper 
 of the Smoke, he seemed to have efficiently blocked my 
 purchase of any more important objects, so I decided to 
 make a tour of the several rancherias to the north, where 
 the sway of my uncompromising and despotic friend 
 did not reach; perhaps on my return conditions might 
 change. The next rancheria to the north is Anekam, 
 hardly three miles away, but it is a community distinct 
 from the preceding one and even more primitive. In 
 
UNSOPHISTICATED INDIANS 
 
 ordinary weather the inhabitants of one place can hear 
 the singing of those at the other on festive occasions. 
 The days were warm now, hardly any day registering 
 less than loo^ F. in the shade, often more. But climatic 
 conditions matter less than the attitude of the people 
 one meets, and here there was an unexpected charm 
 of simplicity and unobtrusive inquisitiveness which re- 
 minded me of former happy occasions in my life among 
 natives. A sahuaro feast had been concluded the day 
 before. People from the surrounding country were still 
 lingering and my arrival furnished an excuse for an addi- 
 tional delay. Crowds of people, fifty or more, kept 
 around me wherever I went. 
 
 The Papagoes in the Santa Rosa valley are less 
 spoiled by contact with civilization than in any other 
 part of their country. From my note-book at this time 
 I take the following remarks: have never yet met 
 with a cross Papago; they are always amiable. In my 
 quest for specimens they smilingly admit me to their 
 store-rooms to inspect their fine granary baskets and 
 other kinds of baskets and utensils, and allow me to 
 look around inside and outside of the houses as much 
 as I like. On the other hand, they have no tact; they 
 seat themselves unconcernedly in a folding easy chair of 
 mine, or go to the box in which I keep my collections and 
 take out all the things to look at. They are always on 
 hand at meal-times; they dive with delight into the box 
 of crackers set before them, and are very fond of coffee." 
 
 They were rather a crude type, but pleasant to deal 
 with, and were continually bringing things for me to buy. 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 At Anekam most of the middle-aged women and some of 
 the men had their faces tattooed. These facial markings 
 are dark blue in color and not elaborate. Common to 
 both sexes is a thick line under the eyes, passing the 
 outer angle of the eye and continuing parallel to the 
 mouth until it nearly reaches the hair. This is almost 
 becoming, reminding one of the way actors darken 
 the eyelids. Men have besides markings on the fore- 
 head, and women, on the chin, have waving parallel 
 lines descending from each corner of the mouth. Tattoo- 
 ing has been discontinued; the marks used to be ap- 
 plied with thorns from the sahuaro, taken from the top 
 of the plant, and the charcoal of greasewood. Its pur- 
 pose is somewhat doubtful. For men the reasons given 
 were to draw blood from the eye; for women, to avoid 
 getting wrinkles early. Generally women were the oper- 
 ators. After having been tattooed, salt was not eaten 
 for a month. 
 
 A curious case of a woman nursing her two children 
 of different ages came under my observation here. When 
 seated, she had the younger lying on the ground in its 
 primitive cradle with the large detachable shade, while the 
 larger one, a boy of four or five years, was playing about. 
 He would frequently run up to his mother and demand 
 his rights which were never refused. Standing up with 
 a large straw hat on his head he enjoyed the mother's 
 milk usually reserved for children of more tender years. 
 Sometimes children who are able to walk are kept in the 
 cradle. 
 
 The wellnigh universal superstition relating to flint 
 
I 
 
A UNIVERSAL SUPERSTITION m 
 
 arrow-heads is also found among the Papagoes, though 
 one would think that sufficient time had not elapsed 
 since the days when the natives themselves made such 
 objects. Their very name is lightning stone {vihom), 
 and one man who presented me with one assured me 
 that he found it by searching the ground after light- 
 ning had struck near his house. Sometimes, when 
 lightning strikes a tree, the Indians will dig in the 
 ground underneath for arrow-points. It should be noted 
 in this connection that these Indians fear lightning, al- 
 though they are not afraid of thunder. Bows and arrows 
 are still used in Anekam in hunting rabbits, quail, doves, 
 etc. 
 
 Our next stop was made at Kukomalik, fourteen miles 
 further north, a new rancheria which owes its existence 
 to a fine well left by Americans who had to aban- 
 don an attempt at cattle-raising. At only nine miles' 
 distance from there, in the north-west, is Kohatk; this is 
 the first Pima rancheria, and the principal one of four 
 rancherias or villages which are found in a small extent 
 of country hardly thirty miles long, beginning immediately 
 south of the Casa Grande station on the Southern Pacific 
 Railroad. It may be termed the Kohatk country, being 
 inhabited by the Kohatk people, who are Pimas that 
 have, to some extent, retained their originality. They 
 have, at least, been less affected by the white man than 
 their confreres at the Sacaton Reservation, and may 
 possibly for a few years offer a fair field to the student. 
 The country traversed after leaving Anekam was singu- 
 larly devoid of animal life. Not even a jack-rabbit 
 
112 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 seemed able to live here. The prevalent vegetation was, 
 as usual, greasewood with salt bushes now and then. 
 Low sand dunes were visible here and there. 
 
 The Pimas of Kohatk I found to be good-tempered, 
 affable people. The women cut their hair in front so as 
 to have bangs and they are good-looking. These natives 
 seem to be somewhat under Roman Catholic influence 
 and have abandoned their native feasts. Photographing 
 was as much detested here as elsewhere. The sight of 
 my camera would make the children take to the woods 
 and the old men hurriedly disappear on hands and 
 knees into their dome-shaped huts. 
 
 I heard neither English nor Spanish spoken, but the 
 inhabitants have adopted the frontier man's way of living, 
 frying their meat in lard and adding quantities of it to 
 their beans. They buy white flour and make unwhole- 
 some tortillas in boiling lard. This heavy, poorly cooked 
 food forms their daily regime, without any variety. A 
 small bucketful of coffee is distributed at meal-time both 
 in the middle of the day and in the evening. They pos- 
 sess cattle but, like most white ranchers, are too lazy to 
 milk the cows. The meals are appropriately served on 
 plates of cheap crockery and cups bought in the white 
 man's stores. The participants give audible evidence of 
 consuming more lard than is good for them, and, were the 
 facts known, *'to be as dyspeptic as a civilized Indian" 
 would be an adage. Think of the anomaly of leaving 
 wholesome, natural, well-cooked dishes for a diet of lard 
 and the cheapest kinds of canned goods. 
 
 Contrary to the universally accepted opinion, the cui- 
 
ATTRACTIONS OF THE SIMPLE LIFE 113 
 
 sine of barbarous Indians is excellent. To be sure, they 
 have few dishes, but there is variety enough, and an im- 
 portant fact is that the food is never killed," /. over- 
 cooked, as is the all too common habit of the poor white 
 man; the food retains a natural, pronounced flavor of its 
 own, unknown to most whites, besides having all the 
 life-giving elements. After all, nothing tastes as well as 
 the simple things, well cooked. What is better than the 
 whole wheat cakes of the Papago Indians of Sonora ? 
 They are nature's genuine gift to hungry men, furnish- 
 ing at the same time extreme satisfaction to one's sense 
 of taste. I know of an American who came across this 
 dish fit for kings in a corner of Sonora, to whom it was 
 such a revelation that he ordered two sacks of the flour 
 to be sent to his distant home. The primitive Indian 
 way of cooking beans in clay vessels without lard is un- 
 surpassed for preserving the inherent flavor of the bean. 
 No one can cook squash as my modest Indian hostess or 
 make an atole bianco (thin gruel of maize) like hers; even 
 the Mexican women cannot compete with her in this. 
 The green corn that is offered in early autumn in fash- 
 ionable restaurants in New York as a native delicacy 
 ought to bring a blush of shame to the chef's cheeks, 
 watery and devoid of flavor as it is. 
 
 Apart from the stultifying process of jumping liter- 
 ally, as the saying goes, from the frying-pan into the 
 fire in their effort to imitate the white man, there is a 
 very sad feature connected with the abandonment of 
 native dishes. Indigestion and a one-sided diet under- 
 mine the strong constitution of the Indian, enfeeble his 
 
114 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 blood, and leave him with httle power of resistance to 
 his great scourge, tuberculosis. According to my inter- 
 preter, who is an observant man, it is no uncommon 
 occurrence among the Papagoes who have adopted the 
 white's man's cooking, even to die from indigestion. 
 Next to brandy, lard is the greatest curse civilized man 
 has brought to the Indian. 
 
 After a warm and cloudy night we had the somewhat 
 rare experience of four hours of rain in the forenoon. 
 Still, in the afternoon, as the rain had not been so very 
 heavy, we decided to return to Kukomalik, thinking we 
 might get there in an hour and a half by driving a little 
 fast. We made our way very well up to about a mile 
 within our destination, when our horses began to en- 
 counter difficulties. The land here was slightly de- 
 pressed and therefore retained the newly fallen rain as a 
 reservoir on its alluvial soil. The ground became very 
 soft, and finally, in spite of heroic efforts, our horses 
 could pull no more. The night had overtaken us with 
 darkness, deep as in Egypt of old. Pablo went to look 
 for a team to pull us out, while I remained behind try- 
 ing to light a candle which the insects aggressively put 
 out. At ten o'clock the moon rose and made the out- 
 look a little bit more cheerful. 
 
 A fresh team of Indian horses after a while came 
 splashing through the water, but they proved inadequate 
 for the task, and we had to camp where we were. The 
 mud was of the kind of which adobe is made and stuck 
 to our shoes like clay, but there was no necessity for 
 walking around much. There were a few mezquite 
 
MOSQUITOES EFFICIENTLY BALKED 115 
 
 sticks lying about, and lots of resinous toviso bushes 
 were growing near, so we could make a fire and had 
 excellent beef soup. Pablo arranged a comfortable bed 
 for himself by pulling up a number of the same generous 
 bushes. I also helped my dog to secure comfort for the 
 night, his usual tactics being to lie down on top of a 
 bush, thus pressing the branches to the ground by his 
 weight. As for myself, I again enjoyed the usefulness 
 of my folding cot which, on account of its height, prevents 
 any discomfort from boggy or slightly uneven ground. 
 There were some mosquitoes about, but I slept well 
 after smearing my face and hands with an effectual 
 protection of French-Canadian origin which I can 
 confidently recommend. It consists of seventeen parts 
 olive oil, one part carbolic acid, and two parts oil of 
 pennyroyal. The humidity of the air, however, was 
 surprising, for my blankets were found in the morning 
 to be thoroughly wet, as if they had been exposed to 
 rain. 
 
 Shortly after sunrise our Papago returned with his 
 two horses and a shovel. The four horses stamped 
 timidly in the mud and could not at first be brought to 
 pull together. Through continued and frantic efforts on 
 the part of us all, the wagon moved forward again. After 
 having spent a few hours at the rancheria drying our 
 things in the warm sun, we returned to Anekam where 
 people were glad to see us again, and the next day found 
 us once more at Santa Rosa in the evening. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 SCORPIONS— A STORM IN THE DESERT— HOW THE SAHUARO WINE 
 IS MADE— THE SAHUARO FEAST AT SANTA ROSA— A GREAT REN- 
 DEZVOUS—SOCIAL AMUSEMENTS OF THE PAPAGO— SUCCESS AT 
 COLLECTING SPECIMENS— STUCK IN THE MUD— WONDERFUL 
 CHANGE IN THE LANDSCAPE— A VALUABLE VEGETABLE— PART- 
 ING WITH PABLO 
 
 My little house in Santa Rosa I found occupied by 
 guests v^ho had arrived to take part in the much-her- 
 alded sahuaro feast that was soon to be celebrated. I, 
 therefore, drove the wagon up to some erect poles, the 
 remnants of a shed, and put up my fly between these 
 and the wagon. During the night I awoke from what 
 first seemed a disagreeable dream, but which proved to 
 be an intense pain in the little toe. I applied some ex- 
 tract of rattlesnake beans, which a friend of mine had 
 induced me to take along as a ready remedy against the 
 bites of poisonous snakes and other troublesome creat- 
 ures. The pain seemed to come from the nail, as if it 
 were being forcibly bent backward, but after a couple of 
 hours it subsided sufficiently for me to fall asleep again. 
 In the morning the foot was swollen and I could not 
 wear my shoe, but after twelve hours I was all right 
 again. Perhaps the mischief was due to a small scor- 
 pion, though the Japanese doctor in Caborca, to whom 
 I related the occurrence, seemed to think that it was a 
 case of a very poisonous ant of Arizona noted for the 
 extreme pain caused by its bite. 
 
 ii6 
 
OBNOXIOUS CREATURES 117 
 
 There is a large scorpion {hadrurus hirsutus) found 
 in these parts, four and one-quarter inches long, which, 
 however, is not as poisonous as the smaller species. 
 Late one evening, while searching for something with 
 my lantern, I came across one running along the ground, 
 and which appeared at first sight to be a mouse. It was 
 killed and left in an open vessel to be put in alcohol the 
 next day. In the morning I found that the ever-present 
 and hungry hens of the Indians had already taken care 
 of it. With the exception of scorpions, there are not 
 many obnoxious creatures in the region. Rattlesnakes, 
 of course, there are, but they should not be classed in 
 the same category with the rest, because they always 
 give warning of their presence, besides being perhaps the 
 only snakes known to be good-tempered. According to 
 the Indians, few horses and cattle are bitten; they know 
 the rattlesnakes and turn away when they hear the 
 sound; dogs also know them. Children in the West 
 have been known to lift them up unharmed, and the 
 extraordinary performance of the Hopi Indians carrying 
 them alive in their mouths may be called to mind. I 
 never like to kill a rattler. 
 
 On Sunday morning, August 8, dark, nimbus clouds 
 were gathering in ''threatening" fashion, as the inhabi- 
 tants of countries with normal rainfall would say, but 
 here where the very existence of the people is dependent 
 on a few showers in July and August, they awakened 
 joyful expectations. The prospect of rain was at that 
 time uppermost in everybody's thoughts, day in and day 
 out. It means success in raising crops, the filling by the 
 
ii8 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 rain of dams and rock cavities, which will ensure drink- 
 ing water for man and beast until the next summer and 
 the growing of grass to keep cattle and horses alive. 
 People of the desert learn, however, to be very patient 
 about the arrival of the blessed water of the clouds and 
 conservative in their estimate of rain prospects. Usu- 
 ally the clouds pass away to reappear again the next day 
 and many more days, resulting often in mere gusts of 
 wind. Since early morning we had heard thunder in 
 the south-east, and later also from the north-west and 
 west. Lead-colored, heavy clouds were gathering every- 
 where. Still, when the storm came, it took us somewhat 
 by surprise. Even the Indian visitors had their bed- 
 ding left on the ground when the dust storm, the ad- 
 vance guard of the rain, fell upon us, travelling forty 
 to fifty miles an hour. 
 
 Pablo and I hurriedly rolled up my bedding, putting 
 that and a few important things that I could seize in 
 the short time allotted inside of the ancient house with 
 the small entrance. The rest, among them a camera 
 and a box containing films, I covered as well as I could 
 inside of the wagon. Pablo, as usual, did not have his 
 ropes ready to fasten the wagon cover securely, and it 
 threatened to blow away. In shorter time than it takes 
 to tell it, the rain was upon us. He threw his quilt into 
 the opening of the cover to protect the baggage and collec- 
 tions; then he hurriedly made his escape into the hut where 
 I had just sought refuge from the fierce outburst of rain 
 and wind. 
 
 The storm abated somewhat ere long, but was im- 
 
AFTER THE RAIN 
 
 119 
 
 mediately succeeded by others, and when finally, after 
 two hours, the weather calmed, the arroyo at the back 
 of the houses was roaring as if in joy at being born a 
 river again. Before the rain was over the children were 
 playing in the newly made ponds. Soon the grown-ups 
 appeared on the scene, all much animated. While Pablo 
 and I started to dry and clean our things, they enthusi- 
 astically resumed their interrupted preparations for mak- 
 ing the wine, which was to play such an important part 
 in the approaching sahuaro feast. Juan had already 
 evacuated his hut the day before in order to devote it 
 to wine making. Early in the morning men had brought 
 large earthen jars belonging to his and the neighboring 
 houses, and the jars were now resting safely in cavities 
 that had been dug in the earthen floor of the hut, twigs 
 of fresh greasewood as usual forming their immediate 
 support. 
 
 As soon as the rains ceased a procession of women 
 started off to fetch the necessary water for the wine 
 making. The cheery women, each superbly supporting 
 a shining olla on her head, looked picturesque as they 
 walked one after the other through the greasewood 
 bushes in the beautiful light after the storm. Two trips 
 had to be made and the full jars were all deposited out- 
 side of the house, to be used as soon as the clay vessels 
 containing the sahuaro sirup were opened; of these 
 there were a dozen medium-sized on hand, all neatly 
 sealed. 
 
 About one o'clock in the afternoon the solemn work 
 of mixing the sirup with water began. Two young 
 
I20 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 men seated on the ground under the jacal in front of 
 Juan's hut and facing the east began these operations. 
 The sweet stuff was first poured into a large and deep 
 water-tight basket, with symboHc designs in the weaving, 
 one placed before each young man. Water was poured 
 into this, in the proportion of two-thirds to a third part; 
 sometimes half and half is used. The operators, who 
 had their shirt sleeves turned up to the elbow, mixed 
 according to rules and regulations. Slowly stretching 
 their hands, palm down and forward, over the fluid, 
 they would immerse them and draw them along the 
 bottom toward themselves, then rubbing the hands twice 
 against each other over the fluid. This was repeated 
 several times. As a change they sometimes dipped 
 them into the liquid, lifted up what the two hollows of 
 the hands would hold, and rubbed it into foam, con- 
 tinuing rubbing until the foam disappeared. An elderly 
 man then tasted the mixture, carried the basket into the 
 house, and emptied it into one of the big jars. This 
 procedure of mixing lasted nearly four hours. In the 
 same way the brewing of the much esteemed wine was 
 commenced that day not only in the Big House, but 
 in many of the private dwellings of the great rancheria. 
 Usually several families unite forces at one house and, 
 when the official feast of two days is over at the lodge, 
 people gather at the houses to drink and get drunk. 
 
 Shortly after sunset that day, the loud voice of the 
 herald who caHs the meeting to order, sounded from 
 the lodge. His exhortations lasted several minutes, and 
 although I at a distance could not distinguish the words, 
 
The dam at Santa Rosa. Made by the Papagoes 
 
DANCING AND SINGING 
 
 I have no doubt that his voice, which rang clear 
 in the quiet night, carried over the entire rancheria. 
 What he was saying was, of course, known to every- 
 body; hearing the call was enough to summon them for 
 the important event. People were slow in assembling 
 and the dancing began late. The long string of eagle 
 plumes over the dancing place, that had been a promi- 
 nent feature in the arrangement at the former sahuaro 
 feast in which I took part, was missing here. During 
 an accidental fire in the house of the keeper with the 
 ominous name, the sacred emblem had literally gone up 
 in smoke. A band of medicine-men, some of them called 
 from a considerable distance, were making up for the 
 defect. There were four of them inside the circle, walk- 
 ing around in a row, moving their plumes and invoking 
 the rain. At times they would dance about like children 
 ges iculating wildly with their plumes. Two of them 
 wore cast-ofT garments of whites, and one in a long, 
 smart-looking mackintosh, looked especially ludicrous, 
 cutting extraordinary capers to induce the rain to come. 
 
 The dancing and singing were on a much larger scale 
 than at the feast I had previously attended, as befitted 
 such an important locality as the Santa Rosa. The 
 leading singers, as well as a few of the others in the 
 circle of about a hundred dancing and singing men 
 and women, had astonishingly powerful voices. There 
 was an atmosphere of order and sincerity and devotion 
 among the participants. Very noticeable was a woman 
 leader, who walked next to the man who, swinging his 
 rattle and singing, leads the whole procession. She had 
 
122 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 an extraordinary soprano that would have done credit 
 anywhere, untutored to be sure, but rich, sonorous, and 
 of great force. She was the wife of the Keeper of the 
 Smoke, and had a married granddaughter! 
 
 For about an hour I danced and sang, making my 
 way in among the leaders. Their singing was almost 
 
 THE "FROG DOCTOR" 
 
 A PAPAGO RAIN SONG HEARD AT THE SAHUARO FEASTS 
 
 
 r-A 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1— 1 IN 
 
 PJ 
 
 
 
 —d ^ 
 
 
 Pd - pa 
 
 Frog 
 
 ma - ka 
 
 doctor 
 
 na 
 
 Frog 
 
 -0-' -9^ -o- -0- -m- 
 
 ma - kai ka - na im nk - katsh - i nju - hu - ta 
 
 doctor continually sits sings 
 
 --it- 
 
 Va - shan 
 
 yonder 
 
 yo - pa - ka 
 
 spring forth 
 
 hu 
 
 va - ho 
 
 winds 
 
 k6 - kvin - hong 
 
 end 
 
 Si - ni - vd - os 
 
 (make) me wet 
 
 si - ta - i - ma. 
 
 (without meaning) 
 
 The frog is thought to possess powers of a medicine-man (makai). Being 
 connected with water he is, according to Indian beHef, able to influence the com- 
 ing of rain and is therefore implored to assist in bringing moisture to the earth. 
 
 deafening, and after a while I walked home to my camp, 
 enjoying the singing better at the distance of a mile. 
 The next night, near my bed time, it sounded especially 
 well; they were singing the *'Frog Doctor," a song 
 about rain and moisture that I had learned, and which 
 has the distinction of being in the major key. I could 
 
THE GODS HAVE HAD THEIR SHARE 123 
 
 follow the words at that distance. In their enthusiasm 
 they seemed to be trying to wring the rain from the gods, 
 and above them all could be heard that wonderful so- 
 prano. Every time a new stanza came around, they 
 intoned as is their custom the first words with all the 
 power of their lungs, giving the singing a triumphant 
 expression. 
 
 During the two nights of singing and ceremonies, 
 the wine was getting ready for consumption on the 
 third day, at which time people gathered outside the 
 lodge to the number of some five hundred, including 
 many who had not taken part in the exercises. Many 
 came to drink wine at the houses of their friends and 
 relatives, and had been invited from such distant places 
 as Florence on the Gila River and San Pedro in Sonora, 
 everybody first having been present at the distributing of 
 the wine at the lodge. 
 
 Young boys on horseback had been in evidence in 
 the morning, racing joyously with each other and rais- 
 ing dust wherever they went. Some of them were pre- 
 maturely under the influence of liquor, the result of the 
 inroads of civilization. It is characteristic of the primi- 
 tive Indian to be strict and formal in his religious ob- 
 servances, but after the festival, when the gods have had 
 their share, he, too, wants a good time and takes it. The 
 rising generation, breaking away from their native cus- 
 toms, make no such fine distinction. 
 
 People came on horseback or in wagons, some of 
 them in light carriages; one well-to-do Indian from 
 the northern part of Baboquivari arrived in quite a 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 smart turnout with two white horses and had a well-fed 
 dog running alongside. He wore spectacles and brought 
 his family with him. It was a curious assemblage in 
 the desert. There was as yet no shouting to be heard or 
 any other noise than that of wagons rolling and horses 
 galloping over the sandy ground, but the scene was one 
 of bustling activity that reminded one of a race-track 
 meeting. 
 
 The ceremonies began at noon and only a minority 
 of those present could sit down on the dancing place 
 and take an active part; most of them had to be spec- 
 tators, standing or sitting on their horses around the 
 square of human rows. Beyond these, wagons had 
 been drawn up which were filled with standing specta- 
 tors. The chief passed me in the throng and said he 
 was glad to see me at the feast. He hoped I would 
 make the most of it and see everything; I thought he 
 might have invited me to take a seat among those on 
 the ''ground floor." However, any one who liked was 
 free to do so if he were able to squeeze himself in. As 
 it was, I preferred to be where I stood. 
 
 People were in their very best finery, and some of 
 the women were a sight to behold in gaudy colors, not 
 exactly the cheapest stuff, for the present-day Papago is 
 well-to-do and wants the best, although he does not want 
 to pay high prices. The most conspicuous dresses 
 seemed to be made from mercerized silk, very thin, 
 and were fair copies of the prevailing fashions among 
 white women in town or on the ranch. The Papago 
 woman is clever and cuts her clothes herself, sewing 
 
WHEN MAN MAKES A FOOL OF HIMSELF 125 
 
 them on the machine, which she owns or borrows from 
 her more fortunate sisters. Petticoats are considered 
 less necessary. At Juan's ranch, on which was my 
 camp, the women folks had been working for two days 
 to get their dresses ready for this occasion. Until mid- 
 night the running of the sewing machine could be heard 
 from the little house I had at first occupied. 
 
 The ceremonies and speeches proceeded in the same 
 manner as those I had witnessed before. The wine was 
 distributed only to the fortunate ones seated in the 
 square, and there was not much of it either. After an 
 hour the whole affair was over and people dispersed to 
 the different houses, where the brew of the season was 
 awaiting them. To be present at the revelries which fol- 
 lowed was not pleasant. It was a good-tempered crowd, 
 but drunken people are nuisances, whether in civiliza- 
 tion or among barbarians. However, if anything, there 
 is some excuse for a barbarian to get drunk, for he thinks 
 it is the will of the gods, and that it helps to bring about 
 rain. Moreover, his native intoxicant, indulged in only 
 on certain religious occasions, does not do him much 
 physical harm. 
 
 There were some ludicrous sights to behold, mingled 
 with pathetic. Two women on the point of starting for 
 home were seated in a wagon, both visibly under the 
 influence of the sahuaro wine. They were conversing 
 and weeping in their effusive feelings for each other, 
 while a suckling infant at the breast of one of them was 
 adding to the wail from a quite different sentiment. A 
 thick-set, resolute woman with a nice face, an acquaint- 
 
126 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ance of mine from Anekam, took charge of her drunken 
 husband, trying to get a start for home. The board that 
 closes the hind part of the wagon had been taken out, 
 as if ready for loading; she invoked the help of a sober- 
 looking young fellow and, with their combined efforts, 
 the heavy bulk of her husband was landed safely in the 
 wagon. The young man next, in a most informal way, 
 helped the corpulent lady herself to climb up by grabbing 
 hold of one of her legs and shoving her upwards with all 
 his might, as if she were a log. 
 
 It became necessary for me to begin my return journey 
 to Tucson, and I proceeded first to a rancheria, which is 
 in close proximity to Santa Rosa. I had learned that 
 an old man who had given me valuable information at San 
 Xavier was living here, and I desired to see him again. 
 He turned out to be the most influential person there and 
 was very kind. True, he accepted an unusual amount 
 of presents in the shape of provisions, tobacco, etc., but 
 his good-will was well worth the price. The people were 
 encouraged by him to sell me what I wanted and there 
 was no loss of time from having to coax and wait or 
 having to dispel suspicions and fear. Everybody was 
 obliging and glad to sell. Some went to the practising 
 enclosure of the place and rifled it of anything I might 
 desire and they all searched their houses. It was as if I 
 had come to a primitive tribe in Australia. I secured 
 good masks and a complete clown's outfit, the best so 
 far, including a pouch in which tobacco and medicine 
 plumes are carried. 
 
 At my request a man was sent to Anekam to try to 
 
DISAPPOINTMENTS 127 
 
 procure an old shield used in Apache fights, which was 
 said to be in the possession of a young man who had in- 
 herited it from his father. When a Papago dies his per- 
 sonal effects are buried with him, with the exception of 
 his weapons which are hung in the houses of friends or 
 relatives until they decay. If the deceased had played 
 some role at the great harvest festival, his mask and other 
 sacred paraphernalia are also taken care of by his sur- 
 vivors. I therefore had hopes that my messenger might 
 return with this at present priceless object. But alas! 
 the young man to whom the shield had been entrusted, im- 
 bued with the new notions of his generation and at the 
 same time fearing that some harm might come to him 
 from keeping an object of so much superstitious awe, had 
 burned it a few years ago. 
 
 Evidently the rainfall of the night before we started on 
 our return had been heavier in the region eastward, the 
 ground in many places being unusually boggy. Our 
 immediate aim was Aktjin, a large rancheria south-east 
 of Santa Rosa, and we had been instructed about the 
 roads, which are little travelled in these parts. Unfor- 
 tunately, Pablo, who had never been here before, took the 
 wrong track, the boggy places grew more frequent, and 
 we could proceed but slowly. At one place, evidently part 
 of a wide arroyo, we travelled for fifty yards through 
 muddy water, which reached even to the hubs of the 
 wheels. The danger of being stuck fast in the mud 
 seemed imminent, but our horses were plucky and they 
 finally pulled us through. We congratulated ourselves on 
 our luck and decided to take lunch then and there. For 
 
128 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the sake of comfort, I turned up my trousers to the knees 
 and walked about in bare feet on the wet and sticky soil. 
 It did not seem possible that we were in a desert region. 
 That part of the country is extensive and uninhabited; 
 the soil is rich and it would make a splendid agricultural 
 district. Even if there were not rains like this every year, 
 one might build dams and sink wells. Our horses had 
 splendid grass to eat and we had a good lunch. 
 
 It now looked as if we were to have plain sailing and, 
 although we were on the wrong track, we hoped in some 
 way to reach before dark a small rancheria, ''Yellow 
 Caterpillar," which was near our destination. This ran- 
 cheria owes its name to the prevalence of an edible cater- 
 pillar in the neighborhood. We had not travelled long 
 when we came abruptly upon the banks of quite a deep 
 arroyo that had to be crossed. The mud was knee-deep 
 and the bank on the other side unusually steep ; however, 
 there was nothing else to do but to go ahead. Full of 
 confidence in his horses, Pablo urged them on and up 
 the steep, short bank which they very nearly cleared; 
 two inches more would have sufficed, but they fell back 
 and the heavy wagon stuck in the mud up to the axles. 
 We dug around the wheels and pushed and worked in 
 vain; the wagon was not to be moved. Then we had 
 to unload its manifold contents: boxes, bags, and bundles, 
 Papago baskets of all sizes, pottery, bows and arrows, 
 sahuaro poles, wooden ploughs, and a host of things too 
 numerous to mention were carried to the top of the em- 
 bankment. It was nearly sunset when we were again 
 able to start. Water and grass were plentiful now, so we 
 
UNEXPECTED AID 
 
 129 
 
 soon made camp among the greasewoods. After dark, 
 coyotes approached us within twenty yards, howUng as 
 if deriding us. 
 
 In the morning my dog, Mavit, the Papago name for 
 mountain lion, killed a hzard and showed his satisfaction 
 by rolhng over it in joy. He also discovered a rattlesnake 
 under a greasewood near our kitchen, but was wise 
 enough merely to bark at it. Pablo remained long look- 
 ing for his horses which had been allowed to graze at 
 large. He had walked about eight miles before recover- 
 ing them and had seen no trace of any habitation. *'I 
 wish somebody would come along to tell us the road," he 
 said as we were having breakfast. Almost at the same 
 moment, as if by magic, a party of three Papagoes on 
 horseback appeared in the distance. We immediately 
 went after them and brought two of them back to join our 
 breakfast, one being willing to guide us to the Yellow 
 Caterpillar." They informed us that we were now 
 camped on an Indian road to Silverbell. By following 
 slightly elevated ground among the greasewoods we ar- 
 rived safely at the rancheria. Here a light wagon was 
 hired, as dilapidated a one as I ever saw, to visit Aktjin, 
 an extensive rancheria in the neighborhood. 
 
 Two young men who were ploughing denied the pos- 
 session of any masks. The next house visited happened 
 to be theirs, and, on making the same inquiry here, the 
 mother-in-law of one of them obligingly brought forth for 
 our inspection a jar, the opening of which had been sealed 
 in the usual way by a piece of pottery and mud. She 
 broke it open and revealed to our admiring eyes a singer's 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and a clown's masks, which were kept inside. They be- 
 longed to the two young men. The singer's mask was 
 just the kind I needed to complete my collection, and I 
 hurriedly made a sketch of its decorative designs before 
 returning it to the owners. Nothing would induce them 
 to part with it, for they said that these things were worth 
 a great deal to them. 
 
 Owing to several showers lately, the country in the 
 middle of August had changed its aspect and was clothed 
 in the opulent dress of summer, suggesting little of the 
 desert. Leaves and grass and flowers had appeared in- 
 credibly fast. In the pools I took my baths, and around 
 the mezquite trees, where the grass was growing thickest, 
 the horses feasted on nature's bounty. The mezquites, 
 the modest leguminous trees of the arid region, and the 
 greasewoods looked beautiful in the glory of the summer. 
 The air was permeated with the scent of the blossoms of 
 the cat-claw, an acacia armed with more terrific spines 
 than any other tree of these regions. The ocotillo was in 
 leaf, yellowish-red poppies grew in the tall grass, and the 
 ground was covered in patches with a kind of small yel- 
 low marguerites which emitted a refreshing fragrance, and 
 among which it was a delight to place my cot at night. 
 This is a great country for morning glories {ipomoea) ; there 
 are at least ten species and, in the thickets along the 
 arroyos, intensely blue flowers of this kind had entwined 
 themselves around the bushes and seemed to cheer one 
 on. In three or four weeks this would be all changed, 
 the flowers turned to seed and the grass dry and gray. 
 
 In and near the fields of some of the ranches, where 
 
THE MAGIC OF THE RAIN 131 
 
 the soil was rich, the quehte, in Spanish bledo {amaranthus 
 Palmeri), grew in great profusion, sometimes presenting 
 the appearance of a large, dark, dull-green mass of vege- 
 tation. This plant, when young and tender, furnishes 
 an excellent vegetable much relished by the Indians, but 
 as only an insignificant part of the luxuriant growth is 
 utilized, in his fields of agriculture it becomes the most 
 formidable weed he has to contend with. When freshly 
 gathered and immediately cooked, this vegetable is su- 
 perior in taste to spinach, resembling more in flavor 
 fresh asparagus. In the neighborhood of Tucson it is 
 appreciated by Indians and Mexicans alike during its 
 short season, though the Anglo-Saxon, in his assumed 
 superior knowledge, has so far ignored it. Quelite, in- 
 expensive and easy to cultivate, should be accepted by civil- 
 ized households. It grows prodigiously fast and several 
 crops may be raised in a year. 
 
 On the morning that we passed north of the Babo- 
 quivari Range, the fog climbed slowly along the sides 
 of the mountains, after a while resting like snow-white 
 clouds over the crests and giving them a superb aspect 
 against the light blue sky in the pure, clear atmosphere. 
 It was as if one had been suddenly transported to the 
 moist, temperate zones of the earth. The arroyo west of 
 Robles Ranch ran full of water, as a broad river in flood. 
 Some Indians whom we met had been obliged to spend the 
 night on the bank without being able to cross until the 
 morning. As we passed the last branch of the newly 
 made river which was hurrying along to disappear soon 
 in the desert, four Mexican cowboys appeared on horse- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 back against the sky on the embankment. They looked 
 picturesque as they approached the water, but, on per- 
 ceiving my kodak, they immediately stopped and posed 
 for me, as if from a signal, for Mexicans are immoderately 
 fond of being photographed. There was no interest in 
 such a picture of men posing to look beautiful, so I put 
 my kodak away and we continued the crossing. 
 
 My last night before reaching Tucson was spent 
 mostly under the wagon on account of a shower. In this 
 part of the country, where the storms of the brief wet 
 season, July and August, come from south-east or east, 
 the wagon should be placed for the night north and 
 south on account of the protection its broadside affords, 
 as the storms are fierce, especially in July, although 
 local and limited in duration. In spite of inconven- 
 iences I had suffered from lack of a tent, the trip had 
 been a successful one. The charm of the wilds had 
 seized me again. No mode of life is equal to that of 
 camping out, if one knows how, and no life so engaging 
 as that spent in the hope of adding to human knowledge. 
 
 In Tucson I parted with Pablo who, not speaking 
 Spanish, would be less useful in Mexico, which I pre- 
 pared next to enter. He had been a pleasant and effi- 
 cient companion and assistant. It is true he was care- 
 less and could never keep things in their proper places; 
 on our trip he gradually lost most of his own belongings, 
 his pillow, his valise, and what not, but he was always 
 able to manage in some way. He had little or no sys- 
 tem, for, as long as our journey lasted, he never packed 
 and accommodated the baggage twice exactly in the 
 
AN EDUCATED PAPAGO 
 
 133 
 
 same way. Although he lost some trifling thing of 
 mine, he managed never to break or injure any of my 
 belongings. 
 
 He was not an ordinary man by any means. He had, 
 he said, read the Bible twice; the story of the creation and 
 the prophecies interested him most, as well as Christ's 
 sayings, which he did not think people lived up to. He 
 was fond of historical reading, had a great liking for 
 Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish," and ap- 
 proved of the reports of Mr. Leupp, the Indian commis- 
 sioner. He was also fond of reading newspapers and 
 magazines. His moral ideas were of the highest order 
 without being in the least artificial. Quick in action and 
 punctual in keeping an engagement, he combined respect 
 for truth with absolute honesty. Kind, hospitable, and 
 confiding, he remained essentially Indian, but his liberal 
 education and his fondness for reading had developed 
 him into an independent, thinking human being. In 
 view of the distressing, nay sickening, effect on native 
 races all over the world from contact with the white 
 man, often due to the missionaries themselves, it is a 
 cheerful sign of the times that they are beginning to 
 revise their methods of conversion. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 IN MAGDALENA, MEXICO— THE STATE OF SONORA— THE YAQUI 
 INDIANS— AN ATTACK OF DYSENTERY— TRINCHERAS, THE RE- 
 MARKABLE ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS— ANTIQUITIES OF THE 
 PAPAGUERIA— ALTAR— CABORCA— I START WESTWARD— PLACER 
 MINES— THE CHOYA— ITS TERRIBLE SPINES— ITS GREAT UTIL- 
 ITY—CATTLE WHICH ARE WITHOUT WATER FOR MONTHS 
 
 Again I found myself on the familiar ground of 
 Mexico, passing the border by Nogales, Sonora. Ten 
 days were first spent in exploring the country east and 
 north of Magdalena, a mountainous region of volcanic 
 origin, showing good copper indications, mostly in por- 
 phyry. Northward of Magdalena, for fifty miles or more, 
 the country is less mountainous, plains intervening more 
 and more, and finally affording long vistas in the direc- 
 tion of Nogales as well as of Altar in the West. The 
 vegetation in the beginning of September was yet in its 
 richest unfolding. Pink verbenas, violet ipomoeas, and 
 some extremely pretty star-shaped, small blue flowers 
 growing in beds attracted attention. The grass was still 
 green and on the plains it grew in abundance, reaching 
 up to the horses' bellies. On an alluvial flat we rode 
 through an extensive mass of quelite, which had as- 
 sumed such dimensions that it was difficult to believe it 
 the same plant which a month ago would have furnished 
 a delicate morsel for our dinner. The erstwhile vege- 
 table now consisted of thick, fibrous, or wooden stalks, 
 
 134 
 
A LOVELY VINE 
 
 135 
 
 with large appendages of branches and leaves, bent half- 
 way to the ground, but even thus reaching up to the 
 saddle and making it difficult for us to proceed. It 
 seemed curious that there were no cattle or horses graz- 
 ing in this abundance. The scarcity of wild animal life 
 was also striking, though we saw a deer once. 
 
 Before starting on my journey of exploration west- 
 ward, I first had to visit Hermosillo, the capital of the 
 State of Sonora, in order to secure the necessary letters 
 of recommendation from the government to the authori- 
 ties in Altar. I improved the opportunity by making a 
 tour of the important old port of Guaymas and from 
 there continuing on the newly made railroad to Culiacan, 
 the capital of the State of Sinaloa. 
 
 A few miles before arriving at Guaymas, the beauti- 
 ful vine antigonon leptopus, of Mexico and Central 
 America, made its appearance here and there, covering 
 the bushes and small trees with a profusion of pink 
 flowers or creeping along the ground, comparing favor- 
 ably in scenic effect with the bougainvillea, though dif- 
 ferent in color. Once or twice I saw a magnificent blue 
 creeper, entirely covering some low trees. A few strag- 
 gling and withered-looking specimens of the sahuaro 
 were observed in the neighborhood toward the south, 
 the probable limit of the southern extension of this 
 interesting cactus. The railroad, which will soon make 
 connections with Guadalajara, the second largest city in 
 the Mexican republic, will open up a country singularly 
 rich for the pursuit of wellnigh all kinds of agriculture, 
 and believed to contain vast resources of undeveloped 
 
136 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 mineral wealth. It will be one of the most important 
 of the great railroad communications of Mexico. The 
 climate is very warm and the month of September did 
 not show much abatement of the heat. In the hotels 
 ice is always served with the water and it is found very 
 acceptable. However, in this comparatively dry region, 
 which is still part of the so-called Sonora Desert, one 
 is always reminded that the drinking water served is 
 very likely to be neither clean nor wholesome. It ought 
 to be boiled before drinking. 
 
 The State of Sonora is, as is well-known, the home of 
 the Yaqui Indians and the scene of war for, more or less, 
 one hundred and sixty years between these extraordinary 
 able-bodied and very intelligent Indians and the masters 
 of Mexico on the other hand. It is the old question oc- 
 curring all over the world, whether the country belongs 
 to the native of the soil or to the conqueror, and, without 
 desiring to enter into the merits or demerits of the case 
 in point, I should like to express my pleasure at the re- 
 cent termination of hostilities which were ruinous to both 
 sides. What soldiers can compete with men who have 
 been known to make seventy miles a day on foot, carry- 
 ing as provisions only a bag of pinole ? Their campaign 
 was an instance of the destruction that a well-directed 
 guerilla force may cause. Mining and agriculture came 
 to a standstill and nobody ventured outside of Hermosillo 
 and Guaymas without an escort. The partner of the 
 photographer of Guaymas had been killed by the Yaquis, 
 and the photographer himself had been deprived of a 
 large sum of money by them, so he entertained no kindly 
 
ABLE INDIANS 
 
 137 
 
 feeling toward them, but he said that their valor was 
 superb. A Mexican colonel and friend of his went to 
 the Yaqui River with six hundred and forty soldiers. 
 Four years later his force had been reduced to one hun- 
 dred and forty, and if the authorities had not transferred 
 them somewhere else, they would soon have had to 
 transfer him alone, the colonel told him. Peace, hon- 
 orable to both parties, had been concluded a few months 
 before my arrival. The chiefs received military rank of 
 varying degrees with corresponding salaries, pledging 
 themselves in return to maintain peace and order in 
 their respective districts. 
 
 The Yaqui, besides their own language, speak Span- 
 ish and are Roman Catholic, although they keep up 
 many aboriginal customs and beliefs. As miners and 
 laborers they are preferred by Americans to Caucasians 
 or other races. They have, which for Indians is a sin- 
 gular gift, great mechanical ability and learn to work 
 machines quicker than the whites. This I have on the 
 authority of Americans themselves. When the war left 
 Sonora without working men, Chinese and Japanese were 
 imported, but their work was not half as well done. 
 Even when fifty or sixty years old the hair of the Yaqui 
 remains black and their teeth are as white as pearls. 
 
 An unexpected attack of dysentery, caused by putting 
 too much ice in my wash-tub, compelled me to shorten 
 my stay and return to Magdalena, where I was ill for a 
 week. It may be of interest to travellers to know that 
 Hunyadi Janos water, two small glasses a day, was ex- 
 tremely beneficial in my case, and was in fact my prin- 
 
138 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 cipal remedy. Outside of my rooms on the plaza prep- 
 arations were being made for the annual feast of San 
 Francisco, the patron saint, which was to begin two 
 weeks hence on the 8th of October. Two monstrosi- 
 ties of merry-go-rounds of the most prosaic American 
 manufacture, with mechanical devices for the accom- 
 panying noise of horribly loud organs, began operations 
 ahead of time, one of them being a few feet from my 
 window. The one melody of which the instruments 
 were capable — that is, if the mechanical noise could be 
 dignified by such a name — was produced over and over 
 again for hours, and it became a maddening, unbearable 
 torment which decided me, though in a weak condition, 
 to move. 
 
 With my attendant, a middle-aged Mexican from 
 Mazatlan, I arrived safely at a cluster of houses lying 
 on both sides of a street, seven miles from Magdalena, 
 called San Ignacio. An impressive old church presides 
 as usual over the village, which is remarkable as be- 
 ing Father Kino's second mission in Sonora, estabHshed 
 in the year 1687. I hoped to find a room with some 
 Mexican family here. Most of the houses had plots of 
 ground with fruit trees and some attempts at gardening. 
 The quiet, peaceful, atmosphere of the place was like a 
 soothing balm to the nerves. I stopped outside the house 
 of Prisciliano Ruiz, my former guide, to consult him as 
 to a convenient room. He himself had a small house, 
 consisting of a single room, which had just been vacated, 
 and he urged me to take it. My things were moved in 
 here and my cot put up between the small window and 
 
NATURE'S OWN REMEDY 
 
 the door, so as to ensure plenty of air, and I felt truly 
 thankful to be beyond hearing of the fiesta. Sitting all 
 day in a garden where granadas, lemon and walnut trees 
 grew, but where nature itself had done most of the gar- 
 dening, I soon began to recover; the lovely air, nature's 
 cheerful surroundings, and the unobtrusive kindness of 
 my host and hostess making me feel better immediately. 
 In a day or two I was able to share their came con caUo, 
 the Mexican pot au feu, which includes such delicacies 
 as new green corn, new string beans, and squashes. 
 
 My attendant was a cargador (carrier) whose business 
 may best be described as being that of moving goods 
 which he carries on his own back. He was one of those 
 men who can move a piano in this manner. He hailed 
 from Mazatlan, where he used to make a good living as a 
 dock laborer, but the life was hard, he overstrained him- 
 self, and he was now a handy man in Magdalena, of good 
 reputation and much employed. Though slightly below 
 medium size, when at his best he had been able to carry 
 twenty-six arrobas (six hundred and fifty pounds). Oddly 
 enough, during his work he used to consume a bottle of 
 mescal a day, for, like all cargadores, he believed in 
 stimulants; it made him stronger, he would insist. Even 
 at the present day he was capable of carrying five hun- 
 dred pounds. 
 
 After six days' stay here I felt sufficiently improved 
 in health to return to Magdalena where arrangements had 
 been made for a start westward on the same day with a 
 wagon and two men. Though the fiesta was still several 
 days off, the streets were filled with throngs of people who 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 had come to deposit money with the image of the locally 
 famous saint — thousands of dollars — gaining thus ma- 
 terial benefit, besides having a good time. The saint is 
 especially honored by the Papagoes, who gather from dis- 
 tant parts of their extensive region to do homage in a very 
 substantial way. We met two large parties of Indians, 
 men and women, riding on horseback, in their best out- 
 fits. At dusk a party of gypsies — Hungarians, as they are 
 called in Mexico — passed us, also bound for the great 
 fiesta of San Francisco. From the town of Santa Ana 
 we took the road to El Tiro gold mine, which passes the 
 village called Trincheras, which I was desirous of visiting 
 on account of its remarkable ancient structures. For 
 three or four hours we were crossing a large, low mesa 
 with a predominant vegetation of palo fierro trees, the 
 leaves of which furnish here the sole means of subsistence 
 for herds of cattle. They grow fat on this, drinking 
 water only every third day. 
 
 Trincheras derives its name from the ''trenches," as 
 the Mexicans call them, which cover one side of a long 
 mountain, at the base of which the village lies on a fer- 
 tile plain. There is much water under the sandy plain 
 and a steam pump has been erected which sends it four- 
 teen miles west to El Boludo gold mine. The ancient 
 works which I, for convenience, shall call fortifications, 
 run as walls along the north side of the mountain, parallel 
 to each other and seemingly at the same distance apart 
 though of different lengths. They presented an extraor- 
 dinary sight, made more impressive by the afternoon 
 sun, which, by its accompanying shadows, brought the 
 
NOTABLE ANCIENT STRUCTURES 
 
 stone walls into strong relief. I counted twenty of them, 
 one above the other. Roughly speaking, they occupied a 
 height of about four hundred feet measured from base 
 to top, some of them attaining a length of two thousand 
 feet. After sunset hundreds of turkey vultures circled 
 over the tops of the mountain, and finally settled down 
 for the night on the uppermost rocks. 
 
 The mountain runs in an easterly and westerly direc- 
 tion and has four tops, the highest rising over five hun- 
 dred feet above the plain; the western is the lowest, 
 being hardly four hundred feet. The fortifications are 
 found mainly in the middle region of the slope. They 
 are somewhat narrow terraces, built of andesitic lava, 
 their front presenting fairly well-laid walls rising to the 
 height of a man or even higher. The four or five that 
 are lowest down on the slope are almost on level ground, 
 while the highest, which are very short, climb to the top ; 
 usually, however, the slopes immediately below the tops 
 are left without fortifications. Noticeable in the long 
 terraces at certain places is the widening out like a 
 bastion. On the south side of the mountain there are 
 said to be a few fortifications of a character similar to 
 those on the north side. Mexicans told me that on the 
 tops were small corrals or enclosures formed by upright 
 stones in the ground, which were probably abodes of the 
 ancient people. Broken pieces of crude pottery, metates 
 (grinding stones), lance-heads of hard stone, and beads 
 made from sea-shells have been found and may yet be 
 found on the terraces. There is a report from an evi- 
 dently reliable Mexican source that in digging a well in 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the village, pieces of broken pottery were found twenty- 
 feet below the surface, water being reached at a depth of 
 seventeen feet. 
 
 In the Papagueria ancient fortifications of a similar 
 kind to these are of common occurrence, especially in 
 Sonora. On the road from Trincheras to Santa Ana 
 they are seen on a low range called Arituaba and again 
 in the neighborhood of Santa Ana. They are found on 
 the road from Magdalena to Cerro Prieto, near the vil- 
 lage of San Ignacio, near Altar and Caborca, near the 
 Indian ranch. La Nariz, on the hill-tops near Tucson, 
 Arizona, and at many other places. I have visited many 
 of these, and while, as a rule, the idea of fortifications as 
 well as habitations at the top in the shape of small en- 
 closures of upright stones predominates, it seems as if 
 here at Trincheras the extensive stone structures cannot 
 be explained by having been fortifications solely, because 
 the other side of the mountain would furnish an easy 
 access for attack. Still less probable is it that agriculture 
 was pursued on these narrow terraces, where people un- 
 doubtedly lived, judging from the remains left of house- 
 hold utensils. They here seem likely to have been of re- 
 ligious importance, serving at the same time as places of 
 refuge in case of need. This is also, I understand, the 
 opinion of Professor W. J. McGee, who first called at- 
 tention to these remarkable remains. Nowhere else in 
 northern Mexico do the trincheras compare in magnitude 
 to those seen here. The ruins of La Quemada in the 
 State of Zacatecas are of a different character. 
 
 It is useless to speculate as to what races built the for- 
 
ANTIQUITIES 
 
 H3 
 
 tifications at Trincheras beyond the certainty that they 
 were constructed by ancient people who antedated the 
 occupation of the country by the Papago. They have 
 left polished stone axes and nicely executed stone imple- 
 ments on village sites along the Altar River and even as 
 far west as Sonoita, while in Arizona ancient artifacts may 
 be found in the rest of the Papagueria, especially along 
 the Santa Cruz and the Gila Rivers. Grooved stone axes 
 are commonly encountered through this region, including 
 Sonoita. On this point Professor W. A. Holmes informs 
 me: **This is the most westerly occurrence of the grooved 
 stone axe in this latitude, so far as recorded, if we except a 
 few specimens reported from California, which, being 
 so exceptional, may have been carried from some more 
 easterly district." 
 
 Broken pieces of pottery are numerous on the village 
 sites, showing no high art, though apparently equal to that 
 of modern pueblo make. Insignificant mounds, rem- 
 nants of what once were houses or villages, may be met 
 with here and there. Pictographs on the rocks are fre- 
 quently seen through the region, often being found among 
 the fortifications, and, with perhaps a few exceptions, 
 they owe their existence to the same prehistoric people; 
 they are of a similar character as the decorations on the 
 earthen-ware of the region. 
 
 Often in my travels in Mexico do I think of the valor 
 of the early Spanish explorers and settlers — no distance 
 too great for them, no region too inhospitable to traverse, 
 no mountains too difficult of access! Valiant padres, 
 escorted by soldiers or otherwise, travelled everywhere in 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 their zeal to make converts, bringing cattle and horses 
 and introducing new cereals and new methods of agri- 
 culture. In the field of precious metals it is astounding 
 how comprehensive were the discoveries of the early 
 Spanish settlers, their inborn instinct for metals being 
 undeterred by any obstacle, and often receiving assistance 
 from the natives. Sometimes in the wilds the traveller 
 is surprised to meet with an old shaft sunk in a place 
 where he was wondering perhaps whether he was not the 
 first human being to pass. 
 
 Such thoughts occupied me as I continued my journey 
 westward with the towns of Altar and Caborca as my first 
 aim. In this north-western corner of Mexico, which 
 must have appeared to the Spaniards very inhospitable on 
 account of its scarcity of water, they discovered the great 
 gold-bearing district around El Boludo; here are the 
 great placer mines La Cienega and San Francisco, which 
 the present generation has begun to work with renewed 
 energy. Along what is called the Altar River, without 
 running water most of the year, they found soil suitable 
 for agriculture, and the town of Altar was founded as well 
 as Caborca and other settlements that took the places of 
 Papago rancherias. 
 
 At a distance Altar has a certain oriental appearance 
 on account of many tall date palms and the Moorish 
 style apparent in the church tower. Most of the town, 
 consisting of two long streets of adobe houses, can be 
 dimly discerned between clusters of trees and the many 
 milpas (cultivated fields) that surround it. Along the 
 great, dry river bed are many thriving fields, which are, 
 
SALUBRIOUS CLIMATE 
 
 145 
 
 at first sight, rather surprising, but this is due to the fact 
 that when the river, after heavy showers in the summer, 
 is running with water for a few hours, it may be for a 
 day, the water is diverted for irrigation. Besides, there 
 is always water in the sand, this being more apparent 
 further down the river at Pitiquito and Caborca, where 
 water flows permanently for short distances and is in- 
 geniously utilized for extensive fields of agriculture. We 
 must also remember that we have now arrived in a re- 
 gion where one good shower of rain in November is 
 enough to ensure a good crop of wheat in the following 
 May, no rain being needed except at the time of sowing. 
 I was shown a date palm, over ninety feet high, which 
 was said to be one hundred and fifty years old. Wood- 
 peckers had made nests in its trunk. 
 
 There are several wells or cisterns in the town. The 
 cHmate, though very hot in the summer, is dry and 
 extremely salubrious. No epidemic diseases thrive here. 
 Altar is the seat of the prefect of the large district of the 
 same name, which reaches as far west as the Colorado 
 River, and the federal government has a mining agent 
 here. I found an excellent Jonda (small restaurant) op- 
 posite the post-office; a weekly paper is published, and 
 twice a week a stage runs to Santa Ana, bringing pas- 
 sengers and mail as far as Caborca. There are several 
 stores in Altar, but commerce and general business ac- 
 tivity are less than in Caborca, situated about twenty 
 miles further down the river, and my next stopping 
 place. 
 
 An up-to-date flour mill is found at this latter town, 
 
146 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 owned by Mexicanized Frenchmen. Another mill is 
 being built in the neighboring small town, Pitiquito, 
 which is surrounded by extensive wheat-fields, and where 
 oranges thrive in abundance. The modern part of Ca- 
 borca was removed in recent times to the present situa- 
 tion, and is laid out ambitiously with streets as wide as 
 those in St. Petersburg. Dr. K. Kitazawa, a Japanese 
 physician, well spoken of by everybody, finds enough to 
 do here and among the few scattered mines and ranches 
 in the neighboring country. He did not know of any case 
 of malaria here, but there was considerable tuberculosis 
 among the Mexicans. There had been quite a number 
 of cases of pneumonia and la grippe, which among the 
 Papago and Yaqui Indians often develop into tubercu- 
 losis. 
 
 The church in the old part of Caborca is an unusu- 
 ally beautiful building, noble in its architecture. Al- 
 though the old mission of Caborca did not possess as 
 many head of cattle as that of Cocospera, which at one 
 time, according to J. F. Velasco, branded annually ten 
 thousand head, still it was equally rich. Its wealth was 
 derived from agriculture, and the bountiful crops of 
 wheat, peas, beans, lentils, and Indian corn brought a 
 profit by which the church was erected at a cost of sixty 
 thousand pesos. 
 
 Formerly the Altar River passed one-half mile fur- 
 ther east, but its strong though short-lived waters changed 
 their course, carrying away some of the bank on which 
 the convent attached to the church rests, as well as a 
 part of the building. The water is at present controlled 
 
A RANCH, WEST OF AlTAR, SHOWING THE IXUISPEXSABLE WATER BARRELS 
 
I 
 
AMERICAN FILIBUSTERS 
 
 for agricultural interests, and the small stream which as 
 a quiet brook passes back of the church represents the 
 last of the Altar River, soon to disappear into the sand. 
 
 In this church it was that the population took refuge 
 in 1857 to defend itself against the American filibusters 
 under the command of Captain H. A. Crabbe who in- 
 vaded the pueblo. The presidente of Caborca accom- 
 panied me up into the tower to show me the marks of 
 the enemy's bullets. The Americans had entrenched 
 themselves in a private dwelling opposite, maintaining 
 probably a well-directed rifle fire. A Papago Indian 
 saved the day for the Mexicans by ingeniously attaching 
 fire to an arrow which he shot from the tower onto the 
 straw roof of the American fortress, thereby succeeding 
 in igniting it, which forced its surrender. The Ameri- 
 cans were all shot, for times were rough in those fron- 
 tier days. 
 
 The Papago Indians of Caborca number eight fam- 
 ilies who live in the suburbs, most of them making their 
 living by working for the Mexicans. Two families still 
 possess nice, large fields where both maize and wheat 
 are raised and where splendid specimens of the wild fig 
 trees (Spanish, higuera) were conspicuous; this fruit is 
 gathered twice a year and eaten fresh or dried. Other 
 fruit trees here were granadas and peach trees, as well as 
 the ever-present nopal cactus, which is so useful to the 
 natives, both stems and fruit being relished. There are 
 great numbers of the giant cactus growing between here 
 and the coast, but the fruit has not been gathered for 
 several years. It appears that a feast at which sahuaro 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 wine was drunk was dependent at Caborca on the kill- 
 ing of the mule-deer (called by the Mexicans huro). At 
 the dance which was executed in a different manner from 
 that of the ordinary sahuaro festival, the men carried 
 arrows, and the singing was accompanied by the medi- 
 cine-man's rasping sticks. The same kind of festival is 
 probably still in use among Indians west of the Altar 
 River. 
 
 The Indians at this place show the usual intelligence 
 of their tribe. One young man who had been instructed 
 in the knowledge of the alphabet by an American in 
 Quitovac, taught himself how to read. He did not read 
 fluently, but had almost mastered the art. Few of the 
 Indians here can, however, be depended upon for work, 
 as they are demoralized by the mescal brandy. They 
 seem to employ their time between earning money and 
 getting drunk therewith. They are no longer able to 
 keep up their native feasts and are rapidly disappearing 
 into the body of Mexican laborers. The same is the 
 case with the remnants of Papagoes who live in the rest 
 of the towns or settlements along the Altar River. 
 
 My plan had been to fit out my expedition here, but 
 the difficulty I experienced in trying to secure riding and 
 pack animals, not to speak of men of the right sort, de- 
 cided me to continue the journey by wagon. All traffic 
 here is by wagon, and it is easy to proceed by this mode 
 of transportation as far as Quitovac and Sonoita, two 
 settlements of Mexicans with considerable Indian pop- 
 ulations in the farthest inhabitable western part of the 
 District of Altar. Even a wagon proved difficult to 
 
THE WAGON QUESTION 149 
 
 procure. The carreros (wagon owners) all seemed to be 
 away, though expected back. 
 
 Through the kind assistance of the Japanese doctor 
 I secured an acceptable interpreter, a pure-blooded Pa- 
 pago, Clemente, and finally, through a prominent busi- 
 ness man, a wagon was engaged, which was to be driven 
 by its owner, Alberto Celaya, an intelligent Mexican who 
 knew the country, having been born and raised at Qui- 
 tovac. Caborca being the last place for mail, I should 
 from now on have to depend for news of the outside world 
 upon some obliging traveller who, going westward, might 
 bring along my letters and newspapers. For the first 
 days or weeks one misses sorely one's mail, especially if 
 interested in knowing what takes place on the rest of the 
 globe, but after a while one gets used to being without 
 news, and on an expedition of this kind it is far the best 
 plan to go heart and soul into what is being done; a 
 world of one's own is created for the time being, rich in 
 events through the conquering of obstacles, the visiting 
 of new places full of interest and the observations to be 
 made, besides being a source of much delight to any one 
 who opens his heart to nature. 
 
 After so much delay I was glad to get a start. About 
 six miles from Caborca an old mezquite tree growing 
 on the eastern bank of an arroyo is passed. It has the 
 mark of a cross cut into the trunk, because this tree 
 used to be the goal of the Papago ball players of Caborca; 
 the judges are said to have been on horseback. A few 
 hours later our wagon, which was guaranteed to be in 
 first-class condition and looked it, suddenly gave us a 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 great surprise by breaking down. Clemente, the Pa- 
 pago interpreter, tall and long-legged, immediately started 
 on a fast run in order to overtake an empty wagon that 
 five minutes before had passed us rather briskly on the 
 llano. As he ran he fired three shots from his pistol to 
 attract the driver's attention, and after an hour or more 
 brought the wagon back. The goods were transferred 
 and Clemente and I made our camp near Tajitos, a small 
 gold mine, until our driver returned from Caborca with 
 a new wagon, which he had managed to borrow. 
 
 We passed Norias, a gold placer mine, where a small 
 number of Mexicans and one Indian family live. The 
 Papagoes, both father and son, had discovered mines. 
 The father's discovery had once been thought important, 
 and he had received four thousand dollars for it, which 
 was spent long ago in the usual light-hearted fashion of 
 the miner. The old man, humorous and frank, con- 
 soled himself with the fact that he owed nothing and 
 owned a wagon. Westward of this placer mine among 
 the hills toward Cozon are many now abandoned gold- 
 fields that yielded short-lasting but rich harvests to those 
 engaged in "dry washing" the surface. Bonancita, San 
 Perfecto, San Luis, and Hornitos are familiar names to 
 the few who know the history of this part of the Dis- 
 trict of Altar. 
 
 At the Ranch Garambullo (the name of a thorny bush) 
 are living six or seven Mexican families whose water 
 supply is a dam which is not sufficiently large to serve 
 beyond a limited time, when they are compelled to leave 
 for other parts. Only one family, that of Sr. Santos 
 
SPRING CACTI 
 
 Ortega, remains all the year around, and he and his son 
 gave intelligent information concerning conditions in the 
 arid region. He hauled water in barrels from the well at 
 Norias, which was mostly for household use. The cattle 
 in that western region of the Altar district do not, as is 
 well known, trouble much about drinking water, the 
 juicy cacti supplying largely their needs both as regards 
 pasture and water. Different kinds of opuntias are their 
 favorites, both the nopal cactus, with flattened stems, and 
 in particular the cylindrical forms which are comprised 
 under the Mexican name choya. There is probably no 
 plant in the desert that has such formidable supines as the 
 choya blanca {ppuntia fulgida)^ which is covered with so 
 many light-colored spines that the whole plant appears 
 whitish, and hence its name. It is dangerous to approach- 
 them, as they even pierce thick shoes, and the spiny joints 
 seem to spring at you before they are touched. The 
 spines have to be removed no matter how pressed for time 
 one may be, for they are very painful and enter deeper 
 and deeper. Cattle do not pay any attention to these 
 terrible joints, but horses try to get rid of them by kick- 
 ing or stamping violently. Dogs are much annoyed by 
 them and bravely bite them off. 
 
 On one occasion my driver, frantically chasing one of 
 his mules in attempts to lasso it, ran unawares against such 
 a choya and was speared to a terrible extent. He stopped 
 paralyzed with agony, for the joints had entered his left 
 arm as far as the elbow; his hand was literally clutching 
 one which was deeply embedded in his flesh, and several 
 were clinging to his back; the slightest movement would 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 augment the intense pain which may best be imagined 
 by any one who has been stung by one spine alone. 
 With sticks I removed the torturing instruments bit by 
 bit, while he trembled from the excruciating pain. A 
 person not accustomed to these spines and of less fortitude 
 would have been in a dangerous condition. I bathed his 
 hand with arnica and, strange to say, it was not swol- 
 len. The pain disappeared as soon as the spines were 
 taken out. He then set a match to the choya, destroy- 
 ing in this way all its spines, and went for the mule 
 again, but this time he was less violent in his treatment of 
 the animal. 
 
 Incredible as it may sound, these cacti are not de- 
 spised as food by cattle or by the pronghorn antelope, 
 although the former do not resort to them in places 
 where the other kind grows, which the Mexicans call 
 *'nude," choya pelon, on account of its fewer though 
 scarcely less terrible spines. Its color is a darker green 
 and it reaches sometimes a height of ten feet. This 
 choya (opuntia mamillata) furnishes for at least three 
 months of the year the staple food as well as the only 
 drink of the cattle of that part of the District of Altar. 
 Near the mine El Plomo may be observed the largest 
 number of these plants, covering a space some four or 
 five miles long and three broad. Palo verde, palo fierro, 
 and mezquites grow alongside of the choyas and, when 
 their leaves appear, furnish another food supply. In the 
 stretch of country that encloses, roughly speaking, Cozon, 
 Garambullo, and El Plomo, it would, according to Sr. 
 Ortega, be possible to bring together from three to four 
 
Choya {Opimtia mmnUlata), relished as food by the cattle 
 
CACTUS-EATING CATTLE 
 
 hundred head of cattle that '*do not drink water," to use 
 the expression in vogue out there. 
 
 A cow making her meals from these plants is an in- 
 teresting sight. The thick joint is carefully bitten off 
 and brought into the mouth; turning the head upward, 
 she works the sharp bit around with her tongue, chewing 
 until after two or three minutes it slips down, and then 
 she begins anew, evidently enjoying her meal in spite of 
 the pain from the thorns to which she has grown accus- 
 tomed. The easily detached cactus joints, which, like 
 gigantic burrs, fasten themselves to the head and fore- 
 part of her body, are allowed to drop off by themselves 
 after suppuration takes place in the course of four or five 
 days. In that country the cattle are almost always thus 
 decorated and they do not seem to suffer any incon- 
 venience. They are in that way instrumental in dis- 
 seminating this opuntia, sometimes at fifty miles' distance 
 from the starting point, and through their digestive organs 
 they scatter the seeds of the mezquite from one place to 
 another. 
 
 All who live in the desert region assert that there are 
 cattle which do not drink unless it rains. This seems 
 to be the case in spite of the fact that many months, even 
 half a year or more, may elapse between rains. Of this 
 remarkable adaptation to environment on the part of 
 domesticated animals, especially of cattle, I gained a 
 fairly complete knowledge during the many months I 
 spent in that arid region. In the middle of April, 1910, 
 I again had occasion to pass Garambullo. During the 
 preceding winter water in the dams ran short in December, 
 
154 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and since then the cattle had not drunk water, but they 
 were in good condition and quite fat. The daytime they 
 would spend in the shade of the trees, but at night and 
 early in the morning they would feed. In this manner 
 they would maintain themselves until the next shower, 
 which more than likely would not come before July. 
 
 Sr. Ortega, at Garambullo, is also known to have 
 milked three or four cows without giving them water to 
 drink, and in regard to this he gave the following inter- 
 esting information: After his dam had dried up at the 
 end of March, 1909, he gave the calves only water every 
 three or four days. The cows, although drinking no 
 water, yielded over one litre of milk each every morning 
 until the middle of June. Both cheese and butter were 
 made, and the milk from the cows that eat choya has the 
 reputation of being very good. He assured me that, even 
 if driven to the dam, the cows did not care to drink. 
 
 The conditions in the sand dunes near the coast are, 
 if possible, even more remarkable. Here one or two 
 species of plants which the scanty winter rains call into 
 existence serve the same purpose as the choya. In this 
 connection the beautiful cenothera trichocalyx^ called by 
 the Mexicans herha salada, should be mentioned espe- 
 cially; this is extraordinarily green and juicy and much 
 relished by cattle and horses. As soon as the uncertain 
 rains of winter have made los medanos (sand dunes) 
 "'green," as the Mexicans say, the cattle and horses are 
 driven there and remain three months, from February to 
 the end of May, absolutely without water. The cattle 
 do not gain flesh, but sometimes die from excess of fat. 
 
FAT CATTLE 
 
 155 
 
 Some have been known to yield two hundred and fifty 
 pounds of fat. Unfortunately that country cannot sup- 
 port large herds, but even the horses at that time suffer 
 no inconvenience from absence of water to drink. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 ADVENTURE WITH A COYOTE— UNUSUAL AFTERGLOW— A METEOR 
 —A GREAT AND FERTILE VALLEY— THE CUSTOM OF NIARI— 
 LA NARIZ— THE PAPAGOES OF QUITOVAC 
 
 One day, shortly after noon, as our wagon travelled 
 leisurely along, we had a curious experience with a coyote, 
 which made its appearance in the road, one hundred 
 feet behind us. The driver was ordered to stop the 
 wagon and my companions were asked to be muy si- 
 lenciososy in order to give me an opportunity with my ever- 
 ready kodak. The coyote approached us calmly, moving 
 around among the bushes and sizing us up. He walked 
 across the road and, much to my astonishment, turned his 
 paces toward us. 
 
 "Perhaps he has rabies; better kill him," said Alberto 
 in a low voice. 
 
 Just wait and keep quiet," I answered as the coyote 
 came nearer and nearer among the scanty trees and 
 bushes. He passed us within twenty feet, a thin palo 
 verde separating us, then stopped for a moment. My 
 terrier, which, on account of the heat, was in the habit of 
 never paying much attention to anything during the day- 
 time, was lying near the wagon, apparently asleep. The 
 stranger, a beautiful specimen and in fine condition, in- 
 quisitively approached the dog within ten feet, then 
 stopped again and looked at us. Probably the dog's 
 
 156 
 
AN AUDACIOUS COYOTE 157 
 
 white color seemed odd, it being so distinct from that of 
 other canines of the region; perhaps he even found it diffi- 
 cult to classify correctly the motionless body curved up 
 in a ball before him in the grass. He lifted up, dog- 
 fashion, a hind leg, assuming the same defiant air that 
 dogs do when about to meet for the first time. He over- 
 reached himself in his boldness, however, for a slight noise 
 against a low branch of the palo verde, as well as a waft 
 of an unwelcome scent, aroused my dog to instant action. 
 Quick as lightning he rose and gave chase, the coyote 
 taking to his legs of course, but in a leisurely kind of a 
 gallop, which soon made my dog tired of what he evidently 
 considered a useless pursuit. I was able to get several fair 
 pictures of the coyote while he was in the neighborhood. 
 ''How fat he was! He must have eaten many melons 
 and watermelons in the temporales!" my men began dis- 
 cussing. Perhaps good living had made him careless and 
 lazy. These animals are indeed destructive to the products 
 of dry farming; not only are they fond of eating these 
 fruits and the green corn, but they destroy more than 
 they eat, biting into melons that are ripe, perhaps fifteen 
 or twenty in a night. 
 
 In order to repair the faulty wheels of our wagon we 
 had to call at the Campana gold mine, where the super- 
 intendent, with the usual mechanical ability of the native- 
 born American, soon put us right. This mine is doing 
 development work and is finding good values of ore at a 
 depth of six hundred feet. Usually the gold mines of 
 the Altar district are blamed for having mere surface 
 values. According to the manager, the gold values of the 
 
158 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 district have been misjudged because the mines have not 
 been worked deep enough. 
 
 On Tuesday, November 2, we observed an afterglow of 
 the sun, unusual even for that land of light, air, and color. 
 After sunset we had passed the unattractive looking and 
 abandoned mining camp. El Tren. At dusk, as we 
 continued our journey toward Zoni, I noticed light reddish 
 sunlight on the ridge, not much more than three hundred 
 feet high, which the road follows for several miles. Less 
 than the upper half of the range was covered by the light, 
 the lower extension line of which was horizontal. The 
 light, gradually fading, lasted for five minutes. When it 
 first appeared my watch showed it to be 5.45 p. m. Even if 
 my watch were fast, the sun must have set fifteen minutes 
 before the phenomenon appeared. For comparison, I 
 may mention that it was 6.27 a. m. by my watch when the 
 sun rose next morning over the same low range. 
 
 It should be noted that even the night was lighter 
 than we had expected; we had no difficulty in following 
 the road, although during the last fifteen or twenty 
 minutes it grew very dark, not, however, pitch-dark, 
 and we arrived at Zoni at 6.45 p. m. I found a party of 
 Mexican engineers, as well as a young Mexican geolo- 
 gist. Sr. Y. S. Bonillas, camped on this more or less 
 abandoned ranch. They all thought that my watch had 
 the right time. 
 
 The engineers were surveying the boundary line of 
 an immense tract of land which two enterprising young 
 women of Kansas City, Missouri, had bought, the min- 
 ing land being excepted. The territory includes a great 
 
A BRILLIANT SPECTACLE 
 
 slice of the north-western part of the District of Altar 
 along the boundary line. Its delineation had already 
 occupied the engineers several months. In six weeks 
 they expected to finish their work, which would end at 
 Hacienda de Santo Domingo near Sonoita. No doubt 
 there are, as I later saw, large tracts of excellent agri- 
 cultural land that can be made profitable by irrigation, 
 but the speculation seems to me slightly premature. 
 
 At Rancho de Macias, on November 5, in the after- 
 noon, a splendid meteor was observed. The engineers 
 and the geologist had promised to dine with me that even- 
 ing in return for hospitality that I had enjoyed at their 
 hands. It was after dusk, but not quite night yet, and 
 I was unpacking some Norwegian delicacies which were 
 to serve as my piece de resistance, when suddenly loud 
 shouts of admiration were heard, Mira, mira! no mas!'' 
 As I instinctively turned my eyes over our wagon toward 
 the north I beheld a large resplendent orb, with a long 
 tail, passing slowly and majestically over the heavens, 
 roughly speaking from west to east. 
 
 The color was bluish white at the start, and the size 
 appeared as one-sixth the size of the full moon; the un- 
 usually long tail appeared as if it might be six inches 
 long, if seen near by. To our eyes the meteor moved 
 so slowly that it might easily have been photographed. 
 It grew smaller and smaller, both body and tail, the 
 latter disappearing first, when the globe itself, now yel- 
 lowish red, burst into two pieces, the smaller one going 
 upward. Perhaps a quarter of the horizon was passed. 
 The meteor covered fifty degrees, calculated by compass, 
 
i6o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 during the time seen by me. I caught sight of it at 
 about fifty degrees from north to west, and it disappeared 
 in the north. When first seen it was a httle lower than 
 thirty degrees above the horizon, travelhng shghtly up- 
 ward, then downward, and disappearing from eight to 
 ten degrees above the horizon, which from our vantage 
 point consisted of low hills toward the north. It was 
 the most brilliant spectacle of its kind that I have seen. 
 When we began dinner at seven o'clock, Venus was 
 near the horizon, and we all agreed that the meteor had 
 been at least the size of the complete light of Venus at 
 that hour. Later I learned from the newspapers that 
 the same phenomenon had been observed at Altar. At 
 Sonoita it appeared to Sr. Isauro Quiroz as if "it disap- 
 peared twenty meters above the horizon, first sending 
 one piece to the north-west and another to the south- 
 east, the latter dissolving into thirty or forty red and 
 blue sparks, and as resplendent as the sun." Sr. Bonil- 
 las, the geologist, some time before, had seen one of the 
 same size at three o'clock in the afternoon at Nogales. 
 
 At a distance the coloring of the quite imposing 
 mountain El Durasno as well as of the near-by Sierra de 
 la Manteca, appears different from the rest of the moun- 
 tain ranges, having a slightly light brown tinge. But 
 Sr. Bonillas, who ascended El Durasno, found the for- 
 mation to be as usual and brought back specimens of 
 tufa and rhyolite with much crystalline grain in it. We 
 managed to drive our wagon on a side track, which runs 
 west of El Durasno past some temporarily abandoned 
 ranches. Here in the first week of November, at an ele- 
 
GOLD-BEARING VEINS 
 
 i6i 
 
 vation of more than three thousand feet among shelter- 
 ing hills, were several plants in bloom, and much of the 
 grass nearest to the soil was still green. The cicadas 
 sang during the night. 
 
 Water is found here in a small arroyo two feet below 
 the surface. Also a water-hole had of late been opened 
 and many birds were about. There are two large gold- 
 bearing veins here. Some development work had been 
 done on one two years ago, and the other one, which 
 seemed to be less known, if at all, appeared very inter- 
 esting. We camped near a deserted small ranch. At 
 dusk four pigs that had been left to look after themselves 
 came along, bound for the corral, inside of which they 
 walked around several times as if preparing to camp, 
 but they finally continued their way. I saw them moving 
 around in circles among the bushes, apparently unable 
 to reach a decision. Clemente thought they would most 
 likely camp in the deserted house, for they were mansos 
 (tame). Every three days the pigs go to drink; my 
 companions calculated that their search for water would 
 cover at least thirty miles in going and coming. 
 
 After some forty miles' travel over the gravelly, un- 
 fertile, and somewhat hilly country that began a few 
 miles from Arivaipa, we descended gradually into the 
 broad, flat valley that stretches for eighty miles from the 
 neighborhood of Comaru in a west by north direction to 
 Sonoita, continuing as far as Agua Salada. Low moun- 
 tain ranges surround it toward the north, rising to some- 
 what higher elevations from La Nariz, westward, under 
 the names of Sierra de la Nariz, Sierra de Santa Rosa, 
 
i62 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and the Ajo range. On the south side the most strik- 
 ing mountain range is Sierra de Cubabi. This great 
 abra or valley, like the others, of recent gravel formation 
 and rising slightly toward the base of the mountains, 
 contains in its middle course a fine detritus of much fer- 
 tility. To be sure, there is no water here except the short 
 river of Sonoita. But both Mexicans and Indians find a 
 profitable field for dry farming, depending solely on the 
 few showers of the summer, and without irrigating. 
 
 The first summer rancheria we passed, which be- 
 longed to Mexicans, had all the appearances of a recent 
 harvest of plenty, both of maize and squashes, and we 
 bought superb watermelons here; still there was not even 
 a dam, drinking water being hauled from Banori, nine 
 miles distant to the east. When the harvest is gathered, 
 this ranch, Bajio del Alcalde, is abandoned until next 
 summer's scanty rains bring the families back. There 
 is a similar temporary occupation of Mexicans at Tem- 
 porales, farther west, and there are three summer 
 rancherias of Papago Indians in this fertile stretch of 
 country. The permanent settlement at Sonoita is the 
 most important occupation, but in an extensive valley 
 like this only a most insignificant part of the soil has 
 yet been utilized. Any one who has seen the marvellous 
 changes brought about in the arid regions of the Gila 
 River through irrigation will easily understand the un- 
 usual opportunity presented here for agriculture on a 
 large scale. The middle of November is the customary 
 time for the harvest, which consists mainly of maize, 
 beans, and different melons. 
 
Papago women bringing in wood, La Nariz 
 
AGRICULTURAL CHANCES 163 
 
 There should be no great difficulty in making dams, 
 and still less in sinking artesian wells. I was told of a 
 very convenient place for a large dam in the low range 
 north of Temporales, near the boundary line, three or 
 four miles away. This valley averages eight or ten 
 miles in width; a few miles east of Sonoita low moun- 
 tains draw it together, but below that settlement it 
 widens again. Only the middle part, at a width of one 
 or two miles, probably more at certain places, is ser- 
 viceable. There may be found a few sandy patches in 
 certain localities, but, taking it all in all, this extensive 
 stretch of tillable soil would be well worth investigating 
 by people interested in agricultural pursuits, and one 
 may expect at no distant date the reclamation of what 
 is now practically a wilderness. 
 
 At the first Indian rancheria which we passed here, 
 we found that some of the inhabitants had just returned 
 from a salt expedition to the Salina de San Jorge on the 
 Gulf. There were four full loads of salt lying scattered 
 outside of one of the houses. The salt had been placed 
 in discarded flour sacks, two being carried inside of a 
 packing bag of mescal fibre, which is slung over the 
 back of the animal and constitutes a load. Coarse grass 
 is wrapped around each sack for protection, and the bag 
 when in use rests on two rolls of grass, which serve the 
 Papago as pack or riding-saddle, as the case may be. 
 
 This summer rancheria as well as the next, called 
 Represa de Enrique, is quite populous. At the latter 
 place the Indians possess a large dam. Our arrival 
 caused much excitement at first, due to a misapprehen- 
 
i64 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 sion, the Indians taking us to be celadores or mounted 
 inspectors from the Sasabe custom-house, who at un- 
 certain and mostly long intervals make tours along the 
 border line. There are two hundred miles from Sasabe 
 to the Colorado River, but the inspectors seldom or 
 never go beyond Sonoita. The Indians seemed relieved 
 at being correctly informed and were kind and gentle. 
 They no doubt understand Spanish, but if spoken to 
 would answer only in Papago. Two kinds of small 
 wading birds were noticed at the dam and in the morn- 
 ing up to noon the coyotes would fearlessly come to drink. 
 Some Mexican cowboys passing by lassoed one and then 
 let it go again. 
 
 On the day of our departure we passed one of the 
 fine fields which the Papagoes have here. The maize 
 had been stored away, but two huge heaps of squashes 
 were piled on the field ; near one of them sat two women, 
 cutting them up into long ribbons. When nearly dry 
 these are folded up in convenient bundles and kept for 
 winter use. There was only one small jacal in the mid- 
 dle of this field of plenty, and thither I directed my steps 
 to buy some watermelons. Here also was a woman mak- 
 ing squash ribbons, great numbers of which were hang- 
 ing, festoon-like, to dry from the branches of a tree 
 outside. 
 
 All these women came from other parts of the country 
 and were preparing to take away as much as they wished 
 in accordance with the ancient custom which prevails at 
 harvest time of those who have sharing with those who 
 are less fortunate. If a Papago is known to have been 
 
ANCIENT HOSPITALITY 
 
 165 
 
 successful in his harvest, he will be visited by friends, 
 relatives, and many others who have no claim on him 
 other than the fact that they are Papago; they come to 
 get niari^ as they call it, many remaining with him for 
 days. He is bound by custom to give presents of agri- 
 cultural products to every one who comes. Some year 
 when he has had a bad crop, he, in turn, may resort to 
 niari. 
 
 At the locality where I found myself at present, Indians 
 will in the season come for this purpose from as far away 
 as Bisani and Quitovac. Nobody is refused, for the cus- 
 tom is binding and absolute. With the inroads of civili- 
 zation and the accompanying disintegration of the tribe, 
 many families are unable to practice agriculture at all; 
 these and others, at harvest time, go visiting and return 
 with their donkeys and mules laden with agricultural 
 gifts. Also in May, when the wheat is being cut, the 
 Papagoes gather from many parts at the places of those 
 who have anything; they help in harvesting, but receive 
 rewards even if they do not, according to the dictates of 
 ancient hospitality. Among most of the Papagoes of 
 Arizona the custom of niari has died out, though these 
 natives are always hospitable and in some regions place 
 food before the visitor even if the family is not eating. 
 ''To arrive at a Papago house is like coming to one's rela- 
 tives," said Alberto, my driver. 
 
 The woman who was sitting outside of the hut was a 
 widow from Quitovac and had no field. She had been 
 visiting the houses of the rancheria for a month, helping 
 the families a little by grinding corn on the metate, and 
 
i66 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 having a delightful time meeting friends and enjoying 
 the gifts of autumn. "When she decides to go home she 
 will receive loads of provisions of the new year," remarked 
 my interpreter. One of the principal men of Quitovac 
 was making a round of calls for the same purpose. He 
 had only a small field himself, for at Quitovac there is 
 much competition with the Mexicans, but, as an Indian 
 said, *'he has only to sit down; all is coming to him." 
 
 On our arrival at La Nariz, Thursday, November 
 II, a cold, disagreeable wind from south south-west was 
 blowing over the llano, after dark changing to westerly, 
 whereupon it suddenly became northerly and warmer, the 
 sky clearing of some threatening clouds in the south. In 
 the small hours of the morning I awoke, to my surprise, 
 from light rain falling on my tent, which lasted for half 
 an hour. I had made friends among the Indians at the 
 last place visited, and their compatriots here did their 
 best to be obliging. The next day all the men gathered 
 outside of my tent, and we had a five hours' talk on matters 
 of interest to both sides. La Nariz is an Indian rancheria, 
 its name being derived from a near-by mountain which, 
 from a certain point of view, presents the profile of a 
 human face with a well-marked nose. 
 
 There were only five families here living in rectangular 
 houses of ocotillo poles laid horizontally and plastered 
 with mud. I found them pleasant to deal with and 
 anxious to preserve what there was left to them of ancient 
 beliefs and customs. The soul of this endeavor was an 
 elderly medicine-man, the principal man of the place. 
 Two medicine lodges were noticed here, one of them 
 
IN THE MEDICINE LODGE 167 
 
 having had to be abandoned because a Papago woman 
 during a rainy night had slept there. According to the 
 notions of many primitive people, she was at the time 
 unclean, and became the cause of the building of a new 
 lodge. At the native cemetery many makai have been 
 interred who on feast occasions are invited to take part 
 with the living. 
 
 The old man's son had married a woman who was 
 reputed to be a prophet — a female makai, with whom the 
 principal men from Quitovac and other localities at times 
 consulted. She looked about thirty years old and had 
 been totally blind for three years. According to her own 
 account, she had previous to her blindness suffered for a 
 year from violent headache and pain in the eyes. I have 
 seen Indians made blind through small-pox, their eyes 
 covered in a similar way with large whitish spots over the 
 iris. In the house of this couple were held the nightly 
 meetings that usually took place at the new medicine 
 lodge, as the latter had been temporarily profaned by 
 the interference of an ox that had browsed and torn the 
 straw of which its dome-shaped roof was composed. 
 
 I proposed to my Papago interpreter, Clemente, that 
 we should attend that evening, as nothing worse could 
 happen to us than to be told that our presence was not 
 desired. A brisk fire was burning as we entered, making 
 the interior look attractive though there was no outlet for 
 the smoke except through the door. Several mats had 
 been spread on the earthen floor around the fire for the 
 participants to sit upon. Two were placed for Clemente 
 and me, on which we immediately seated ourselves, thus 
 
i68 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 being able to breathe freer in the lower stratum of air. As 
 soon as all were seated, including members of the family, 
 the old medicine-man took the word. Without further 
 formality he began to tell about the creation of the world 
 by Elder Brother litoi and about the deluge. After 
 having dwelt on these themes for half an hour or more, he 
 asked my interpreter if I believed the world was created 
 as the Papago beheve, or if I entertained the belief of the 
 Mexicans. Clemente very diplomatically answered that 
 he had never asked me of my beliefs. The lore of the 
 tribe arouses strange feelings even in a civilized Papago, 
 for an Indian is nothing if not religious, and Clemente 
 became eloquent, confessing at the start that he, having 
 been brought up among Mexicans, knew little of his own 
 religion. A man of position from Quitovac, on a visit to 
 La Nariz, expressed his opinion that surely all nations 
 have different religions and different gods, and the Papa- 
 goes were contented to have theirs, litoi. 
 
 Among the Indians who were serviceable here was a 
 man of slightly darker complexion than usual, but tall 
 and of very fine appearance, as evidenced in his name, 
 Rainbow. His family were also nice and in his house I 
 felt at home, changing films for my camera in the cool 
 shade of the dwelling and even photographing the in- 
 mates. With him I visited ancient fortifications on the 
 dark looking hill, of igneous origin, hardly four hundred 
 feet high, which gave La Nariz its name. Where the 
 trenches begin, about half-way up, there is a large stone as 
 high as a man's chest; on its flat top were small artificial 
 excavations in a row, each looking like the inside of a cup, 
 
The nose of the rock which gave La Nariz its name 
 
EXCESSIVE MEAT-EATING 169 
 
 only more shallow. On the rocks were pictographs of 
 the same kind and design as may be seen elsewhere in the 
 district, as, for instance, near Caborca. Turkey vultures 
 have a breeding place on the top; according to my guide, 
 who has seen the young here, these birds make no nests. 
 
 Inside of the houses of the Indians in these parts, I 
 often noticed skins of the peccary, called in Mexico java- 
 lin, the meat of which is much relished by the Papagoes; 
 also skins of the mountain-sheep, deer, and lynx were 
 seen. The Papagoes are exceedingly fond of meat. One 
 day at La Nariz a young steer was killed. Generous 
 parts of the carcass were distributed to those who had 
 helped to butcher it, and everybody in the afternoon, 
 including ourselves, was invited to come and ''eat meat." 
 The meat was broiled on coals, each person preparing 
 his portion for himself, and this feasting was kept up 
 until eleven o'clock that night. The participants actually 
 arose earlier than usual, long before sunrise, to broil more 
 meat and continue the banquet. Nothing else was con- 
 sumed, not even tortillas, and in the afternoon very little of 
 the beast was left. 
 
 At the so-called Temporales, where Mexicans from 
 Sonoita and Quitovac practise dry farming, besides the 
 usual forms of Indian corn, a kind of maize that matures 
 in about two months is cultivated. It is called maiz de los 
 Tumas, is white in color, and the ears are small. I saw 
 some that had been planted in the beginning of August 
 and which was ripe by the middle of October. The rains 
 rarely fall here before August. Frost usually appears the 
 ist or 2d of November. This year it came on November 
 
I70 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 14, and sometimes it comes as early as the middle of 
 October. However, frost does not injure maize that has 
 reached maturity. 
 
 Before proceeding to Sonoita, which is only twenty- 
 three miles from here, I made a trip south to Quitovac, 
 where I expected to find mail-matter awaiting me. There 
 used to be some gold mining here, but the houses that 
 make up the only street are now mostly abandoned. Two 
 or three Mexican families live there and a small store is 
 maintained. The main population consists of Indians, 
 who live all around, some of them being possessors of cattle 
 and a few having small fields. It grew dark before we 
 arrived, and while we were arranging our camp in the 
 quiet evening a young Indian rode up like a whirlwind as 
 fast as his horse could gallop, stopping as suddenly as he 
 had appeared. This is the Mexican way of showing off " 
 or making oneself conspicuous, and was distinctly dis- 
 couraging to one who was looking for primitive people. 
 My two kodaks were lying on the ground and miraculously 
 escaped his horse's hoofs. 
 
 The principal attraction of Quitovac is the sufficiency 
 of water which at all times oozes forth in various small 
 springs at the edge of the low mesa, so-called. The latter 
 is a deposit of calcareous matter which a quarter of a 
 mile wide stretches behind the houses for a mile and a 
 half in the general direction from north-west to south-east. 
 Fossil remains have been found here, as well as at a ranch, 
 Represa, five leagues east, where in making a dam some 
 large animal was encountered five feet below the surface. 
 Also at Banori and other places ''bones of giants" have 
 
Height, 6.5 ctm. 
 
 Height, 1 1.4 ctm. 
 
 Ancient pottery vessels of the Papagueria. Excavated by Papago 
 Indians near Fresnal, Arizona 
 
THE ANIMAL OF QUITO VAC 171 
 
 been found which might bear palaeontological investiga- 
 tion. At Quitovac Mexicans as well as Indians have dug 
 about a dozen small ditches, the longest twenty feet, into 
 the calcareous embankment for the purpose of giving the 
 water freer egress. Judging from these cuts, the deposit, 
 or mesa, rests here on fine sand at a depth of from six to 
 eight feet only from the surface. 
 
 The Indians have a fabulous tradition that where this 
 whitish deposit now rests there was once a square lake, 
 in the middle of which lived a big animal that ate people. 
 What kind of animal it was is uncertain for, as my inform- 
 ant, the oldest man there, said, ''those who knew are 
 dead." It was able to smell people at a great distance, 
 and when travellers came that way they never returned to 
 their homes, for they were eaten by it. In this emergency 
 the Papago finally went to the cave where litoi lived in the 
 Black Mountain (Pinacate) and asked him to help them, 
 litoi said he would come and on the road he made ready 
 his weapons {vauk)^ which were of hard stone, dark in 
 color, and very large. He made four of them, and they 
 were sharp and thin, being a kind of dagger or javelin. 
 
 ''If the animal kills me, you shall see red clouds to- 
 morrow, but if I kill the animal, you shall see white 
 clouds," Elder Brother said as he entered the fray. The 
 animal swallowed him, but he cut out its heart and made 
 his way out through its flesh, and it sank to the bottom. 
 Next day white clouds appeared around the lake, one at 
 each corner of the world, and the people understood that 
 the animal had been killed. Ever since the mesa has re- 
 mained white, like the clouds. 
 
172 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 The weapons mentioned in this story were probably 
 made from obsidian which still serves as material for the 
 making of arrow-points for ceremonial use. The obsidian 
 is worked with a bone. 
 
 My camp was on the small plain on which the medi- 
 cine lodge is situated, near an unusually well-grown mez- 
 quite tree, the shade of which is enjoyed by participants 
 in the feasts that are given. In the evening spent here 
 I could hear talking from the medicine lodge, but the 
 old man, Miguel, who is in charge, complained much of 
 the indifference of his countrymen, the younger genera- 
 tion never coming any more to the counsel house. The 
 Indians here, in fact, are much spoiled by Mexicans and 
 mescal brandy, and present to-day little of interest to the 
 investigator. The same remark applies to the Indians 
 of Sonoita, though in a lesser degree. A few, just a few, 
 of the Mexicans exploit the Indians for their own pur- 
 poses. It happens even that they ingratiate themselves by 
 giving good advice — good for their own pockets — charg- 
 ing the confiding Indian for the advice. On the other 
 hand, it must be said that the Papagoes of Sonora are 
 in general treated with much more consideration than in 
 Arizona. The Mexicans look upon them more as their 
 equals, and the result is that the so-called civilized Indian 
 is noticeably more polite in his manners in Sonora than 
 in Arizona. 
 
 The great annual harvest feast for which Quitovac is 
 famous, and to which people congregate from all parts of 
 the Papagueria, is still kept up. It is performed in the 
 month of August on a stretch of level ground half a mile 
 
THE QUITO VAC FESTIVAL 173 
 
 distant from the lodge. Mexicans who have seen it de- 
 scribe it as a gorgeous affair. Its first object is rain, and 
 then the preservation of good relations with litoi, Elder 
 Brother and Creator. The sacred paraphernalia are after- 
 ward put away in some distant cave. The feast is already 
 on the decline and as soon as the old man in charge at 
 present dies, it will no doubt pass into oblivion. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 SONOITA, AN OASIS OF THE DESERT— ITS PLEASANT POPULATION 
 —LESSONS OF THE SONOITA RIVER— ANTIQUITIES— A LUNAR 
 RAINBOW— PRIMITIVE GOLD MINING— PREVALENCE OF HYDRO- 
 PHOBIA—UNUSUAL REFRACTION OF SUNLIGHT 
 
 SoNOiTA is a larger place than Quitovac and of more 
 importance. This settlement, a short day's distance from 
 the latter, has the unique distinction of being situated on 
 a small river, which, making its origin here, runs for a 
 few miles south-west before disappearing in the desert. 
 It is called the Sonoita River and in reality originates far 
 from there in Arizona, near Cajilon, north of the Quijotoa 
 Range, gathering also water from the Santa Rosa valley 
 and the west side of the Baboquivari Range. These nearly 
 always dry watercourses unite and pass La Nariz where, 
 after making a turn, the ^^river" takes a curious short 
 course through hard rock without sand and popularly 
 called a harrancoy perhaps ten feet deep and less than 
 double that wide. From there to Sonoita the casual ob- 
 server would probably remain ignorant of the greater part 
 of its course until it plunges forth from underneath an 
 accumulation of gravelly debris as a small sparkling 
 stream, twelve feet wide and one foot deep, which pro- 
 duces a veritable oasis in the desert. In this stream are 
 found two species of the small fish popularly called min- 
 nows. One, algansea tincellay which is six inches long, is 
 common in the lakes about the City of Mexico and other 
 
 174 
 
THE FIRST WHITES IN SONOITA 
 
 waters of that republic. The other, cyprinodon macu- 
 larius, which grows only to a length of two and a half 
 inches, is common in the waters of the desert from 
 Nevada to Sonora. 
 
 The first white man to arrive here was the enterprising 
 Jesuit, Father Kino, in the year 1698. A mission was, 
 however, not established here until about fifty years later, 
 and it lasted but a short time, as it was destroyed during 
 the Pima revolt, 1751. The present inhabitants of Sono- 
 ita know little or nothing about this. Ruins of the small 
 church may be observed on approaching Sonoita from the 
 east, in the shape of two low, rather insignificant, mounds, 
 the smaller of which lies a short distance to the north of 
 the other. Mr. M. G. Levy, of Ajo, Arizona, conceived 
 the idea that gold might have been stored here, which the 
 priests in early times could easily have secured from the 
 Indians who then knew nothing of its value. He secured 
 permission to excavate at the site in 1907. The founda- 
 tions were partly cleared, showing thick walls made from 
 adobe. The floor was of hard, whitish earth. Besides a 
 few skeletons, one of them with an abundance of blond 
 hair, the only thing brought to light was a small stone disk 
 which had three colors and which was of unknown use. 
 An old Indian woman, who lives on the American side of 
 the boundary line, declares that the cattle and horses which 
 she owns have descended from those that the Papagoes 
 took from the monks. According to Papago tradition, 
 the Indians killed the priest or priests, burned the church 
 and the convent, and took possession of what was of 
 value to them, chief of which were, of course, the domestic 
 
176 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 animals. This is evidently in accordance with facts, and 
 among the ruined walls the occurrence of coal is noticeable. 
 
 The present Mexican settlement of Sonoita dates 
 only from the middle of the last century, about the time 
 of the discovery of gold in California, the first settlers 
 having come from Zoni. There are over a hundred Mexi- 
 cans all told in the oasis to-day, making an easy living by 
 irrigating their patches of field, though little is sold, for 
 there is no market for their products. Mineral salts, which 
 are included in the Spanish word salitrey occur at certain 
 places, giving the agriculturist some trouble; its chief 
 constituent is evidently carbonate of soda. Nevertheless 
 the range of food plants grown here, which includes 
 wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and onions, though raised on 
 a small scale, is wide. Lima trees give excellent fruit as 
 also do granadas, peach, and fig trees. Maize and beans 
 yield two crops a year, and peas, peanuts, and tomatoes 
 propagate themselves without being planted ; sugar-cane, 
 grapes, melons, and sweet potatoes do well, and dates 
 ripen. Alfalfa is also raised. A specialty of the place is 
 honey which is abundant and cheap; it is often used in- 
 stead of sugar, and a kind of dulce is made from it. 
 
 A considerable number of Indians — not quite a hun- 
 dred all told — who also have nice fields and water enough 
 for irrigation, live about a mile lower down. They are 
 contented and generally hold their own with the Mexi- 
 cans. With many of the Indian children it was noticeable 
 that the four upper front teeth were chocolate-colored, no 
 doubt on account of the water. It appears that the 
 coloring does not take place until the second teeth come. 
 
A CHARMING PLACE 
 
 177 
 
 Some of the Mexican children were disfigured in the 
 same way. 
 
 On my first day spent here, toward the end of Novem- 
 ber, a pleasantly warm, gentle breeze blew from the south- 
 west, and there was a delightful southern atmosphere, 
 full of sunshine, peace, and contentment, about the place. 
 I had occasion to know Sonoita well, for it became in a 
 way my head-quarters for half a year, while making 
 expeditions into the surrounding district and westward as 
 far as the Colorado River. The inhabitants are kind, and 
 theft and murder are unknown; this is largely character- 
 istic of the entire north-western corner of Sonora, called 
 the District of Altar. The towns of Altar and Caborca 
 are reputed also to be remarkably free from bad men. 
 Mexican authority in Sonoita is represented by a comisario, 
 who settles any dispute that may arise. He also marries 
 people, for there is no priest living west or south of far- 
 away Altar. 
 
 A young comisario, recently arrived, arrested people 
 twice for ridiculous offences; in one of them, for instance, 
 a man would not allow his fifteen or sixteen year old 
 daughter to marry. There is evidently little need of his ac- 
 tivities and he probably felt that he had to do something 
 to assert his authority. Sonoita does not boast of any 
 prison, so any one who may be arrested has to be tied to 
 a mezquite tree. When people are ill, they are brought 
 to the centre of the scattered population; the patient is 
 received in one of the houses, and the female part of the 
 population takes turns in caring for him or her, even 
 watching during the night. Many kinds of native reme- 
 
178 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 dies are used and food is prepared. On one occasion 
 voluntary subscriptions were made to defray expenses. I 
 was not asked to contribute, though my advice in regard 
 to the disease was sought. It was a sad case of insanity 
 which grew worse instead of better, so people finally lost 
 their interest in what appeared to them a hopeless con- 
 dition. On another occasion, when a poor Papago girl 
 was in extreme distress, the house where she had been 
 taken was for several days filled with sympathetic women 
 solicitous for her health. 
 
 Japanese have been known, though rarely, to start 
 from Sonoita westward through the desert, bound, proba- 
 bly, for the Colorado River. The people of Sonoita were 
 enthusiastic in describing the pluck of these travellers; 
 without blankets and with few provisions they walked 
 better than horses, carrying water in a Standard Oil can 
 which hung from a pole, the ends of which rested on the 
 shoulders of two men. When asking for information 
 about the right way, they showed much keenness in under- 
 standing the right directions. 
 
 My camp was pitched near the house of Sr. Isauro 
 Quiroz, the most important citizen of Sonoita and a man 
 of some reading. Both he and his family delighted in 
 showing me hospitality and attentions; he accompanied 
 me to the place in which I was most interested here, the 
 beginning of the Sonoita River. Stone artifacts had been 
 found there many feet below the surface. The river has 
 receded of late years and brought about some changes 
 in the landscape. Formerly there existed a series of 
 cienegas (swamps) immediately above the rise of the river. 
 
CHANGES IN SONOITA RIVER 
 
 extending back for about three miles. They were in 
 reaHty the river itself which, during its capricious sub- 
 terranean course, found itself obstructed at Sonoita and 
 spread out into swamps. The water filtered through at 
 one place and ran in a narrow channel which it cut 
 through the gravelly, clayish deposit, thus forming the 
 beginning of the river which flows on after this without 
 embankments. 
 
 During the night of August 6, 1891, after a heavy rain, 
 the water carried off a hard barrier, about twenty meters 
 wide, which had been retaining the swamps, and widened 
 the channel, making it recede about a kilometer. The 
 swamps dried up in three years, but the surface is under- 
 mined in places and a man and his horse are said to have 
 inadvertently fallen into a cavity caused by the former 
 action of the water. Where there had been before only a 
 llano, a forest of mezquite trees sprang up, which is visible 
 to any one who enters Sonoita from the east. An inter- 
 esting circumstance in the receding of the river and the 
 widening of its channel is that it brought to light aboriginal 
 artifacts, mostly consisting in metates (grinding stones) 
 and their attendant rubbing stones. Also many sea-shells 
 were found there, which were used as ornaments by the 
 primitive people. 
 
 I found this channel to be about two hundred and fifty 
 feet broad and from eighteen to twenty feet deep. The 
 objects that had been discovered here could no longer be 
 accounted for, one metate only was left and it was still 
 lying at the bottom. According to the location of the 
 find, as pointed out to me by Sr. Quiroz, the artifacts must 
 
i8o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 have been about twenty feet below the surface. I found a 
 metate of a light-colored stone imbedded in the embank- 
 ment twelve feet below the surface, and also took along 
 the other one that was lying at the bottom of the channel. 
 Neither of them is quite perfect; they have been much 
 used, but do not differ materially from those seen among 
 the Indians of to-day. In a climate as dry as this, where 
 rain-water has little chance, except perhaps in the month 
 of August, of bringing about changes by removing and 
 depositing the earth, it would seem as if thousands of 
 years would be needed to build up a stratum of such 
 thickness and extent, and one is led to the deduction that 
 the climate was formerly less dry than at present. 
 
 From the Indians and Mexicans of Sonoita I gathered 
 several ancient stone artifacts such as axes, lance and 
 arrow points, which undoubtedly belonged to predecessors 
 of the Papago, having the same general character as the 
 rest of the prehistoric remains found in the Papagueria 
 and already alluded to. The Indians of the present day 
 know nothing about them, but the magic qualities attrib- 
 uted to them are used for healing purposes. To this end 
 the lance or arrow points are left in water, which after- 
 ward is taken internally and applied externally, while the 
 medicine-man waves the stone object over the patient, 
 holding it by a string attached to it, and at the same 
 time he blows his breath over the sick man repeatedly. 
 
 On Friday evening, November 26, I saw for the first 
 time a lunar rainbow. At six o'clock we had a light 
 shower of rain, which soon ceased. The moon, which 
 would be full the following day, shone and the sky above 
 
The channel at the beginning of Sonuita River 
 
RAINBOW OF THE MOON i8i 
 
 us was clear, but moderate winds from the south brought 
 fine douches of rain which would often stop and then 
 recommence, seemingly more laden with moisture each 
 time. The south-west remained cloudy and dark, and 
 on the western sky there appeared a large and very dis- 
 tinct arc, caused by the moon. It was very light in color, 
 at first sight appearing almost white, but a more careful 
 examination revealed colors. At its first appearance it 
 was absolutely perfect, and I tried a quick photograph 
 of it. It seemed to be about thirty degrees above the 
 horizon and included one-fifth of it. During the half 
 hour it was seen, it faded away several times, but for many 
 moments it was very distinct, and once the northern end 
 of the arc was quite rich in colors — even astonishingly so. 
 The red formed the exterior ring of the rainbow. The 
 curve was not an arc of a circle but a parabola. On 
 account of the light showers that came and went all the 
 time, I could not keep the camera outside, and every time 
 I went into my tent to get it, the arc would be faint when 
 I came out again. The Mexican engineers, whose camp 
 I had again encountered here, had also never seen a lunar 
 arc before. One of them, as he came riding back from 
 the east at dusk, had observed that the moon was covered 
 by a cloud and that as soon as it cleared away the rain- 
 bow appeared. At first he saw only the left, lower part 
 of the arc. It appeared to him as being thirty degrees or 
 perhaps thirty-five degrees above the horizon and having 
 a width of one-quarter of the horizon. 
 
 I was desirous of starting on an expedition to explore 
 the Pinacate region and the desert west of there as far as 
 
i82 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the Colorado River. The preparations, however, had to 
 proceed slowly, because men and animals could only be 
 procured with difficulty, and caution in the selection, 
 especially of the men, was imperative. It became nec- 
 essary for my purpose to return to Quitovac from where 
 I made a visit to San Antonio, formerly a gold mine, 
 said to have been discovered in 183 1 by a Papago 
 Indian. In the same year the placer mines of Quitovac 
 were found, and at about the same time also those of 
 Sonoita. 
 
 In the western part of the District of Altar active 
 mining of gold, since the recent and probably temporary 
 abandonment of the Sierra Pinta and Juarez mines, is 
 not pursued to any great extent. As for the gold placer 
 mines found in that part of the country, silence, with very 
 few exceptions, reigns over them. The District of Altar 
 is richly mineralized and there is no reason that the western 
 part should be less so. Sixty-one years ago J. F. Velasco, 
 who represented government authority in the gold-fields, 
 writes: Suffice it to say that from the River Fuerte 
 de Montes Claros, which is the dividing line between this 
 Department and that of Sinaloa, to the Gila River in the 
 north, in the north-west to the Colorado River, and in the 
 east to the Sierra Madre, there is not a town or a ranch 
 which has not at least one vein of gold, silver, lead, 
 or copper. Almost the same is true of the placers, 
 although not so generally." Of the placer mines of 
 Cieneguilla, discovered in 1779, he relates that ''on the 
 surface gold was gathered in the same way that fowls 
 pick up corn." 
 
PAPAGO GOLD MINERS 183 
 
 The surface merely of the different placers has been 
 exhausted, and there is no doubt that in the district a con- 
 siderable extent of country is left which will some day be 
 scientifically exploited. The gold mines are of the bo- 
 nanza type and, although the pockets are remarkably rich, 
 I feel incompetent to give an opinion as to whether really 
 great mines would be found there. The western desert 
 country of Altar has been little explored by the prospector, 
 and it would not be advisable to venture a prophecy at 
 this time. 
 
 Almost any day primitive mining by the Papago may 
 be observed in the vicinity of Quitovac, and it is carried 
 on mostly by women. The auriferous gravel, which is 
 often cemented together so as to be quite hard, is first 
 crushed ; the gold is next separated without water by the 
 skilled manipulation of the wooden gold pan, the hatea, 
 the operator lifting it above his head and letting its con- 
 tents fall on an extended mat or skin. Having in this 
 way separated the coarser particles, he treats the rest in 
 the batea as if he were operating with water. The Ind- 
 ians have also the ordinary '^dry washing" machines which 
 came originally from Hungary in 1851 and which may 
 be seen in operation on those placers that are still being 
 worked in the District of Altar. 
 
 The Papago before the advent of the Spaniard did 
 not know the use of gold and has no name for it other 
 than 6/0, the native rendering of the Spanish oro. He is 
 in our day, however, a keen miner and prospector when- 
 ever he chooses to go in for mining pursuits. Up to late 
 years the Papagoes brought nuggets of gold to Tucson, 
 
i84 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Arizona, in exchange for commodities, and there is Httle 
 doubt that a few of them know of hidden values, but 
 they are reluctant to tell any outsider of such things, 
 showing more or less the almost universal belief of Mexi- 
 can Indians that if they divulge mineral secrets they will 
 die. One Indian is reputed to know of a wonderful 
 silver mine, and although an American married his daugh- 
 ter, according to rumor in order to gain knowledge of 
 the mine, his mouth still remains as closed as that of a 
 freemason. 
 
 In connection with the gold mining it may be of interest 
 to note the prevalence of hydrophobia around the gold- 
 fields of that Western country; according to all accounts, it 
 once made considerable havoc among dogs, cattle, and don- 
 keys, and has remained endemic in certain wild animals, 
 as the coyote, the gray fox, and the small striped skunk. 
 The population is now scarce and scattered, but instances 
 of deaths from hydrophobia have been known in more 
 recent times, though no case came under my immediate 
 observation. Many stories are being told of how coyotes 
 and wild foxes occasionally have bitten people or cattle. 
 Where rabies is so common, one may be certain that a 
 remedy has also been found, and especially in a country 
 like Mexico with countless medicinal herbs and the strong 
 inclination of the natives toward their use. On the Al- 
 tar River, in Oquitoa, Altar, and, above all, in Pitiquito, 
 live curanderosy who make a specialty of curing rabies, 
 the secret being confined mainly to one family. In the 
 western part of the Altar District it is the Indians who are 
 supposed to know the secret of curing this disease, and 
 
Papago woman "dry washing ' gold near (Juitovac 
 
A LONG SUNRISE 
 
 185 
 
 Mexicans when bitten go to them and are, according to 
 their own statements, cured. Having been a long time 
 among the Papago, the secret of the Indians was confided 
 to me, and I have reason to think that the remedy, which 
 is extremely simple, may be of value. On some future 
 occasion I shall make a communication on the subject in 
 a scientific journal. Hydrophobia is called in Papago 
 notakiky derived from notak, crazy, mad. 
 
 At Quitovac, on Thursday morning, December 9, sun- 
 shine was observed twenty-seven minutes before sunrise. 
 It was accompanied by an intense glow in the east, tana- 
 ger red and orange in color, enveloping the nimbus and 
 other clouds which floated over the horizon, though leav- 
 ing a clear space of ten or twelve degrees above the latter. 
 There was a fringe of very small clouds hanging down 
 from the large ones which resembled falling rain. To- 
 ward the west and in other directions the horizon was 
 fairly clear, but the sky was rather overcast and I was 
 awakened by a few drops of rain falling on my tent. 
 
 The unusual glow attracted my attention. It was 
 then 6.25 A. M., and I found the hill-tops all in sunshine, 
 just as if the sun were rising. The light on the summits, 
 first rose and then white, gradually crept down on the llano 
 and shone in my tent ten minutes later, somewhat faintly, 
 to be sure, but absolutely distinct. It slowly disappeared 
 except on the very tops of the low ranges. By degrees 
 also the intense reddish light in the east grew orange and 
 fainter, while the clear space little by little became covered 
 with stratus clouds, except close to the horizon, above 
 which the sun began to appear at 6.52 and then soon disap- 
 
i86 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 peared behind the clouds. The color was at this time 
 very faint. The phenomenon attracted attention even 
 among the few Mexicans living here, one of them who 
 rose at daybreak noticing unusual colors. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 AREAS OF VEGETATION— FITTING OUT AN EXPEDITION UNDER 
 DIFFICULTIES— AN OLD MEDICINE-MAN ENROLLED AS A MEM- 
 BER— GUADALUPE 
 
 After having secured several good animals for my in- 
 tended expedition, and also engaged the services of a 
 middle-aged useful Indian called Guadalupe, as well as 
 his three donkeys, I returned to Sonoita. This time the 
 whole outfit was sent on to Temporales, while I, accom- 
 panied by Guadalupe, made a slight detour to see a cave 
 in the Sierra de Cubabi, which was said to contain pic- 
 tographs. Southward from the south-east point of this 
 sierra runs the almost invisible divide which separates 
 the waters that run to Quitovac and Sonoita. In travel- 
 ling northward from Quitovac toward this low divide it is 
 striking to see how much higher the detritus, that runs 
 down from the mountains in a slanting, straight surface 
 line, is on the west side of the abra than on the east side. 
 The cave was shallow and small and the drawings, well 
 pecked on the inner wall, represented mainly whirlwind 
 designs. A wagon road passes near by, following the base 
 of the sierra ; it is heavy, but shortens the distance some 
 fifteen miles between Quitovac and Sonoita and is, there- 
 fore, preferable for those who travel with light loads. 
 
 From here we cut across the bush, to use an Australian 
 
 expression, and proceeding northward direct for the Tem- 
 
 187 
 
i88 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 porales, across the broad valley between Sierra de Cubabi 
 and Sierra de Santa Rosa, here more than twelve miles 
 wide, I was able to get an instructive idea of the distri- 
 bution of vegetation. We first passed through a forest of 
 sahuaro that thrives on the gravelly detritus along the 
 bases of the nude sierras. Large clusters of choyas were 
 prominent in the landscape, and became more conspicu- 
 ous as we advanced, especially the very spiny kind (opuntia 
 fulgida). Graceful and rounded in shape and densely 
 covered with long white and shining spines, these extraor- 
 dinary cacti presented a weird but attractive sight in the 
 late afternoon sun. My dog experienced much trouble 
 from the loose spiny joints that were lying about and 
 which it was impossible for him to avoid. The formidable 
 spines would cling to his feet and, as is the manner of dogs 
 of that country, he would bravely set to work to bite them 
 off, filling his bleeding mouth with the easily detached 
 spines. We had to stop again and again to help him. 
 
 In the basins or flat depressions of the cactus region 
 grass was growing and here is the home of the mule-deer. 
 The useful barrel cactus was seen to have fruit, yellow in 
 color and ripe, growing on top of the plant in two con- 
 centric circles, like small, upright bananas. These as well 
 as the fruit of the choya, also in season now, the middle 
 of December, are eaten by the Papago. Both kinds are 
 first boiled; they are acid, but agreeable to the Indian 
 palate. We followed the detritus for seven miles, descend- 
 ing almost imperceptibly toward the middle of the valley. 
 
 Next we passed into the greasewood region, where the 
 mule-deer does not appear, and soon we reached the fertile 
 
PREPARATIONS FOR AN EXPEDITION 189 
 
 alluvial plains along the more or less visible river-course 
 of the middle valley, where mezquite and palo fierro trees 
 may be seen here and there. As one turns and travels 
 westward to Sonoita, there may be observed on either side 
 the slope of detritus which presents a band of bright green 
 coloring, due to the forest of sahuaro along the bases of 
 the weather-worn mountain ranges. Dark green with a 
 tinge of yellow, betraying the presence of the greasewood, 
 is the predominant color in the rest of the valley. 
 
 The day after my return to Sonoita, December 18, the 
 sun was hidden from view during the entire day. It had 
 quite a depressing effect; the weather was cold and 
 gloomy, and in the night the thermometer registered 
 19° F., the lowest temperature that I had as yet recorded. 
 During the winter in this region there are many cloudy 
 days, though usually the sun comes out warm and pleasant 
 in the afternoon. Light snowfalls on the tops of the higher 
 mountain ranges were afterward reported; according to 
 trustworthy authority, in 1899 the snow was even four or 
 five inches deep. 
 
 The essential part of my outfit, including certain pro- 
 visions, had already been provided for in the United States 
 and Hermosillo, but as I always depend largely upon the 
 products of the country in which I travel, there were many 
 things needed before I could start from Sonoita. It is 
 not a good place for fitting out an expedition; one cannot 
 even depend upon getting barrels in which to carry water 
 on the trip. Provisions are scarce, except honey and that 
 at times gives out; beef, so indispensable a part of the 
 Mexican diet, may occasionally be bought, and usually 
 
190 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 excellent lard of native manufacture may be procured, for 
 among Mexicans a hog is killed only for the sake of the 
 lard to be obtained from it. Two of the antiquated mills 
 operated by donkeys were set in motion to supply us with 
 flour, the most necessary part of all provisions, and later 
 on I was thankful that the ordinary white flour was not 
 procurable. 
 
 To be sure it took a couple of days or more for the 
 patient burros to turn out a quantity large enough with 
 which to make a start, but waiting for this flour was worth 
 while; though the Mexicans sift out the chaff, they nat- 
 urally do not succeed in separating more than half of it 
 by their primitive methods, and the freshly ground flour, 
 slightly brownish in color, baked into the Mexican tor- 
 tillas has a flavor that defies description. The flour that 
 the Indian woman grinds on her metate, the whole wheat, 
 shell and all, ground as fine as it is possible for her to do 
 it, is still better. If she is willing to make this into tor- 
 tillas and toast them, the traveller will have the most de- 
 licious bread he has ever tasted. I have become a convert 
 to the tortilla, provided it is not served in a soft state as is 
 usually the case; even those made from the white man's 
 flour, as thin and large as a medium-sized newspaper, are 
 good when afterward toasted on the coals as they should 
 be, without any burnt or brown spots. In the making of 
 dishes au naturel, Indian and Mexican women have no 
 peers. 
 
 The side and bottom of a Standard Oil can was 
 straightened out to serve as our baking tray. At one end 
 a hole was made and a loop of wire attached by which this 
 
PROVISIONS 
 
 191 
 
 extremely useful contrivance could hang from any con- 
 venient place in the packing outfit. The ordinary comal^ 
 made of earthen-ware, is of course useless for travel, and a 
 so-called Dutch oven is altogether too heavy and cumber- 
 some, besides being of little use. I was so pleased with 
 this extemporized utensil that I had another made, and 
 both served well for many months, providing us with the 
 luxury of freshly made, crisp tortillas. 
 
 A fairly large supply of preserved goods of the kind 
 used by travellers had in due time arrived. In that dry, 
 warm climate, California canned fruit of the best brand 
 furnishes a rich and useful relish. On an expedition like 
 this, where the distances between water are great, the out- 
 fit should be movable and convenient, and heavy things 
 are to be avoided. Bacon is a necessary adjunct for the 
 preparation of game to be killed and for other reasons, 
 and dried vegetables of various kinds must not be omitted. 
 Small packages of pressed figs, dates, or other fruit, sold 
 at five cents each in New York, as also shelled nuts, were 
 found extremely useful to take along in the saddle pouch 
 when obliged to travel without stopping to prepare food. 
 Wood for making fires is often scarce, especially on the 
 coast, but does not need to be provided in advance. 
 
 As for the animals to be used on the expedition, I 
 had gradually been able to acquire the necessary supply 
 of mules and horses. The Indians were persuaded to 
 leave their comfortable huts in those chilly, windy days 
 to look for their burros (donkeys) which were running on 
 pasture in the surrounding wilds and some of these were 
 bought. The Mexicans who were to accompany me 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 furnished their own horses. Great difficuhy was experi- 
 enced in regard to pack-saddles, and a quantity of bur- 
 lap had to be bought to supply the need of saddle-cloths, 
 especially for the burros, and, because it was not possible 
 to secure material enough for this purpose. Sr. Quiroz and 
 I contributed some old clothes which answered very well. 
 
 Pinacate, an extensive field of volcanic upheaval, to 
 the south-west of Sonoita was the immediate object of our 
 journey, and Alberto was to bring his wagon that far in 
 order to furnish transportation for a Papago medicine-man 
 called Quelele (carrion hawk), who was too old to ride on 
 horseback. As he was born among the sand dunes and 
 knew well the Pinacate region, which plays an important 
 part in the tribe's traditions, I was glad of the associations 
 that his presence with us would bring. It was a difficult 
 matter, however, to induce the old man to participate in 
 the venture, although on my first visit to Sonoita he had 
 consented to show me Elder Brother's house, as he ex- 
 pressed it; in Pinacate is found one of the principal resi- 
 dences of this deity, a sacred cave to which the younger 
 generation of the tribe pays little or no attention. In 
 spite of his having left Pinacate many years ago, and as- 
 sociating much with Mexicans, he was a firm believer in the 
 ancient regime, and to him it was a fact that their Creator 
 lived there. 
 
 When I saw the old man again, on my second visit to 
 Sonoita, he had thought my proposition over thoroughly 
 and he feared to go with us; the Mexicans who accom- 
 panied me might afterward show the cave to others, or 
 Mexicans might follow our tracks later and take away 
 
OBJECTIONS OVERCOME 
 
 193 
 
 the things sacrificed there. Some evil might befall us 
 such as an illness, or a strong wind might carry us down 
 into the abysses; then a prospector had once availed him- 
 self of his services without paying him. Having been 
 reassured upon all these points, he finally said that on one 
 condition only would he go with me, namely, that on 
 arriving we should spend one night in singing. This was 
 readily agreed to; Clemente, my interpreter, knew how to 
 sing several Indian songs, and I also knew two, and in 
 addition in my camp there was Guadalupe, the Papago, 
 who sang very well. 
 
 He then declared it necessary to bring certain sacrificial 
 offerings to deposit in the cave, which it was incumbent 
 upon me to procure. The articles could be bought from 
 the Indians of Sonoita, except blue glass beads, which 
 were acquired through the kindness of his wife. She 
 sold us a piece of a beautiful large necklace which she 
 wore when she went to the annual feast of Quitovac. 
 
 One difficulty more had to be overcome, the planting 
 of his wheat, for which he desired two days, I paying a 
 man to do the work. When I rode back to my camp late 
 in the evening I felt that I had accomplished something 
 toward the success of my coming expedition; but still I 
 could not be absolutely sure of him until I had him in 
 the wagon, and it was pleasing to me two days later to re- 
 ceive his assurance that he was now ready for the journey, 
 ^'if the sun was shining." For a man nearly eighty, even 
 though an Indian, it v/as not an unreasonable demand, as 
 the weather was surprisingly chilly and so damp that it 
 interfered with the packing of my boxes. On Friday, 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 December 24, the ground was as wet as if it had been 
 raining; hght mist rested on the hills around, and the sun 
 arose in fog which completely enveloped our camp, frost 
 appearing on the ground, but the following day, Christ- 
 mas, the temperature changed and the flies stung as if 
 we had been in the wet season. 
 
 **It is the mile that begins at the door of one's house 
 that is the most difficult of the journey to accomplish," says 
 a Norwegian proverb, and the truth of it was certainly 
 brought home to me as I made resolute struggles during 
 the day to start with Mexicans and Indians who yet did 
 not know each other or the sundry animals, burros, mules, 
 and horses they were packing. To complicate matters, 
 Guadalupe, the Papago, got drunk; I decided to move 
 at any cost, and he managed to sit on his burro, though 
 swaying to and fro. Knowing how valuable he would 
 become away from the alluring and demoralizing influence 
 of mescal, I was patient with him. We did not travel far- 
 ther than to the Indian village where we made camp on 
 the dancing place of the Indians in front of Quelele's 
 house. The pleasant little plain was on a slight elevation, 
 faultlessly level and scrupulously clean. Under the jacal 
 that furnishes shade for the principal performers during 
 the ceremonies of the feast, my men spread out their beds. 
 The night was clear and beautiful, the air fresh, and I felt 
 satisfaction in having overcome such trying circumstances 
 and in the fact that I was actually on my way. My party 
 consisted of three Mexicans and three Indians; a Mexican 
 who was to act as guide from Pinacate to the Colorado 
 River was to join us three weeks later at Pinacate. 
 
A STRONG CONSTITUTION 
 
 Guadalupe suffered much that night under the reaction 
 from the awful stuff sold as mescal and in reality wood 
 alcohol and water. But with all his deplorable failing 
 as regards strong drink, he was much of a man, and the 
 next morning found him as active at his work as any one 
 else. From now on he was for many months my valued 
 companion in the desert. He was an excellent packer, 
 besides being a good cook; what he knew he had picked 
 up from the Mexicans, but he was more conscientious and 
 careful than most of them. He knew what to do and did 
 it without orders; a renowned tracker, he was also fond 
 of shooting, spoke Spanish besides Papago, and was 
 faithful, courteous, and quiet, and altogether an ideal man 
 to camp with. Still this same man, when he came into 
 Sonoita or Quitovac, where the white man's fire-water 
 could be procured, would drink like a fish, selling his 
 animals and belongings to gratify his craving. Only his 
 marvellous constitution kept him alive, many Indians hav- 
 ing been known to die from the dreadful alcohol sold them. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE OLD CABORCA-YUMA TRAIL— QUITO VAQUITA, THE PLACE 
 OF SMALL SPRINGS— OLD CAMPING PLACES— PINACATE AND 
 LEGENDS CONNECTED WITH IT— DISCOVERY OF WATER— 
 OUR FIRST MOUNTAIN-SHEEP— VISIT TO A SACRED CAVE- 
 ASCENT OF THE PEAK— WINTER WEATHER— CRATER ELE- 
 GANTE—TRAVEL AT NIGHT 
 
 QuELELE, the old Indian, joined us in the morning 
 as we started on our journey westward. From Sonoita 
 to Agua Dulce, a day's journey, we were on the old 
 trail which, passing Sonoita, connects Caborca with 
 Yuma. It follows at first more or less closely the So- 
 noita River which, after an eight-mile course, ceases to 
 exist except as a dry river-bed with a growth of mez- 
 quites at either side and streams of running water ap- 
 pearing at intervals, the last time at Agua Dulce. This 
 old camino real was the only means of communication 
 between Sonora and California in the days before the 
 Southern Pacific Railroad was built. As the country 
 traversed is fairly level, the track is passable for wagons. 
 After leaving Sonoita the great difficulty was, of course, 
 water; the custom of carrying this in barrels is of late 
 date, the travellers, mostly Mexicans, using gourds {hules) 
 for the purpose, which is very precarious on account of 
 their limited capacity and fragility. Certain of the 
 
 camps of the trail, such as Agua Dulce, Tinaja del Tule 
 
 196 
 
A NOTABLE TRAIL 
 
 197 
 
 and Tinajas Altas, are renowned in the pioneer history of 
 the district. Here water usually could be depended upon, 
 being stored after showers in natural cavities of the rock, 
 but between Sonoita River and Yuma there is no running 
 water for one hundred and thirty-five miles; when the pool 
 at Tule gave out, there would be sixty miles to cover with- 
 out water. But for the help of the Papago Indians, 
 who knew where water was, it would have been impos- 
 sible in those days to have established the trail, in the 
 following of which, moreover, hundreds of people later 
 died from thirst. Many recent authorities speak of this 
 part of the trail as the Camino del Diablo, but nobody 
 in Sonoita knows it under that name, and possibly 
 there may be some confusion arising from the name of 
 the small canon between low ranges which the trail 
 passes near the Tule well, called Cajon del Diablo, 
 
 The Jesuit fathers were probably the first white men to 
 pass over the trail in the seventeenth century, and Father 
 Kino has left us a map of it. There is no evidence to show 
 that they ever traversed the country south of it, at least 
 west of Sonoita. Bancroft's map of Melchior Diaz's sup- 
 posed route is absurd to one who knows the region in ques- 
 tion. Among Mexicans there is a persistent rumor of an 
 abandoned mission somewhere in the sand-dune country 
 east of the Colorado River, showing foundations of walls 
 near a spring with running water among the sand dunes, 
 and an old smelter connected with it. Its location usually 
 is placed near the coast south of Tinajas Altas. A man 
 from that camp, who was looking for his horses, is 
 said to have come across these ruins near the Cabeza 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Prieta Range, but the lower part of the Sonoita River is 
 assumed to be the locaHty by others. A Mexican from 
 Yuma, according to report, searched for it with persever- 
 ance for several winters. Although I travelled for many 
 months in those regions, I saw or heard nothing to sub- 
 stantiate a belief in the lost mission with its supposed 
 treasures buried by the crafty monks. 
 
 I made a halt of one day at Quitovaquita, a small 
 Indian settlement just within the United States boun- 
 dary, in order to try to procure as member of my party 
 a Papago medicine-man who lives here. He is known 
 under different names, as Cara Colorada (Red Face, a 
 translation of his native name). El Doctor Pancho, or 
 simply Pancho, and enjoys considerable reputation in 
 his profession. He is one of the few surviving sand 
 people {arenenos) who once inhabited the dune country 
 over which my explorations would lead. It was es- 
 pecially desirable to have him as guide through that 
 somewhat difficult region from the mouth of the Col- 
 orado River eastward along the upper part of the Gulf 
 of California, and no Mexican had been found who 
 knew that country. 
 
 Quitovaquita owes its native name, ''Small Springs," 
 to several diminutive springs with excellent water which 
 are found there, and which in futile attempts at cattle 
 raising and mining have been deflected into a dam, 
 now utilized solely by Indians. The tiny stream, fed by 
 the springs, carries beautiful, limpid water amid banks 
 white with mineral salts; the fresh green weeds at the 
 bottom are also refreshing to behold. When heavy 
 
THE VALUE OF PLUMES 
 
 199 
 
 showers fall, connection is made with the Sonoita River, 
 and the same minnows which were seen there were 
 splashing in the streamlet up to its very sources. The 
 dam, of only moderate size, made a charming impres- 
 sion with the surrounding trees and bushes here and 
 there reflected in it. There were a few dark gray and 
 black water hens here, one white heron and some ducks, 
 and at dusk seven fine-looking geese swooped down into 
 the pond, evidently intending to spend the night there. 
 
 It was very disappointing to have the old medicine- 
 man prevented from joining us on account of the pro- 
 tracted illness of his daughter, who needed his care and 
 presence. I interviewed him, however, as long as his 
 patience would permit, and although his knowledge and 
 horizon were limited, he gave accurate information and 
 was sincere in his beliefs. He was also willing to sell 
 me eagle plumes which I needed for my visit to the 
 sacred cave in Pinacate, bringing me for selection a 
 number of large wing feathers as well as some small 
 ones from underneath the wing. Our own medicine- 
 man, who had to be consulted on this question, said that 
 the small ones would do very well. One dollar as the 
 price of four tiny feathers, though they came from an 
 eagle, and had to the Papago much religious value, 
 seemed rather excessive, but I paid it on learning that 
 four of the big ones were worth a horse, or sixteen dol- 
 lars. 
 
 The old camping place, Agua Dulce, which we 
 passed the following day, has abundant and good water 
 always flowing, for a short distance, in the Sonoita 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 river-bed. There used to be a Mexican ranch here 
 which has been abandoned, the surrounding country 
 being entirely given up to wild donkeys, which thrive 
 here, and in the dry season make such a noise at night 
 as to prevent any possibility of sleep. Their head- 
 quarters are at this pleasant little stream, and between 
 here and Quitovac there must be about three thousand 
 of these animals which are constantly multiplying. They 
 are very fat and attempts have been made to manu- 
 facture soap from their fat, an article which is always 
 expensive in Mexico. I was informed that the late 
 Cipriano Ortega, who established the now deserted 
 Hacienda de Santo Domingo, once shot one hundred of 
 these burros which supplied soap to the value of two 
 thousand dollars Mexican currency. Some of them 
 yielded one hundred and twenty-five pounds of fat, and 
 others only fifty. There are many wild burros also in 
 the District of Magdalena. The printer in Altar told 
 me that donkey fat is the best for typographical use. 
 
 At Agua Dulce we left the old Yuma trail, proceed- 
 ing now in the direction of Pinacate, first to Agua Sa- 
 lada, five miles farther, and the-n to Los Pozitos. At 
 both localities water may be found by digging in the 
 river-bed, though the mineral salts, comprised by the 
 Mexicans in the word salitre, often cover its banks like 
 a thin layer of snow. We camped a little beyond, not 
 far from a sand dune branch that extends from the 
 coast as far as Agua Salada. The water at Los Pozi- 
 tos, though abundant and found wherever one digs in 
 the sand, is somewhat brackish and slightly muddy. 
 
Belt of great sand-hills south of Pinacate 
 
 Photographed at seven miles distance from the north 
 
FIRST VIEW OF PINACATE 
 
 The animals declined to drink and its taste was not 
 pleasant, but our experience in the desert along the 
 coast later taught us to look upon this kind of water 
 supply as almost nectar. In the evening, which was 
 December 28, we had light breezes from the south-west, 
 then from the east and finally from the north, during a 
 period of two hours, the weather changing from clear to 
 cloudy and back again two or three times. Hardly did 
 I take a note of the weather before there was a change. 
 
 A horse that strayed away during the night delayed 
 our departure until about eleven o'clock. We soon 
 emerged from the small hills that surrounded our camp 
 and entered a fine llano with an inspiring view of the 
 volcanic upheaval called Pinacate toward the south-west. 
 Very noticeable are the two cone-shaped peaks, Los Picos 
 del Pinacate, which rise from the central part. They 
 are visible at a great distance, and from our point of 
 view appeared to be side by side, the one to the left 
 being the nearer and slightly lower. The vast llano, 
 covered with sombre yellowish-green greasewood bushes 
 sparsely interspersed with chamiso, appeared as flat as a 
 billiard table. Greasewoods formed the horizon toward 
 the south-east between Sierra del Pozo on the left hand 
 and Sierra de San Francisco on the right. The soil 
 looked surprisingly rich, and the Mexicans all agreed 
 that it would be good for agriculture. 
 
 The Papago name for Pinacate is Tjuktoak, ''Black 
 (tjuk) Mountain (toak).'' The Mexican name is derived 
 from the prevalence here of a large black beetle called 
 pinacate, some species of eleoJes, which raise the hinder 
 
202 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 parts of their bodies in a peculiar manner when interfered 
 with. The locaKty is famous in the legends of the Papago 
 as being the mountain where Iitoi,or Elder Brother, landed 
 after the deluge. He knew, so tradition goes, that the 
 world was going to be flooded, and he saved himself in a 
 cask made from greasewood "gum" with a cover of the 
 same material. He also taught the coyote how to save 
 himself in a reed. He advised the pinacate to go down 
 into the ground and the vulture to rise high up in the sky. 
 Elder Brother saw how water came forth from the tops 
 of the mountains, and when it was rising he entered his 
 cask which floated four times around the world, and 
 then he landed at Pinacate and was very thin after the 
 long voyage. The coyote also drifted four times around 
 the world, and was the next to effect a landing, on a range 
 without passes, near the Gila River. The ground was 
 wet and very muddy, so litoi put up four ceremonial 
 sticks to drain the country. He and the coyote met 
 the pinacate and they all walked together. The ground 
 was so wet that they could not sit down, so they dug a 
 hole deep down, where they found the soil to be less 
 moist. Then they created the red ants which a little 
 deeper down found dry earth which they brought to the 
 surface for the three to sit on. From the presence of 
 this deluge legend among the natives of the arid coun- 
 try, one might, not without reason, deduce an argument 
 for a change of climate since the days when the legend 
 originated. 
 
 Another legend of Pinacate refers to one of the vol- 
 canic eruptions: 
 
EXTINCT VOLCANOES 203 
 
 litoi lived in Baboquivari before he came to Pinacate. 
 At that time there were many people in Pinacate. The 
 mountains were very high then, and the sun used to 
 set soon after it had risen, so the days were very short. 
 He saw that this did not suit the people, and he decided 
 to lower the mountains. He built two fires, where the 
 two peaks are found to-day, making fire by drilling one 
 stick into another one. The wind blew the ashes about 
 to all parts and made the mountains lower, covering the 
 country so as to look as seen to-day. After that the people 
 lived contented, and there was not so much shade from 
 the west. 
 
 We approached the great dark looking mass of extinct 
 volcanoes much sooner than I had expected. Small iso- 
 lated volcanoes were observed on the plain below and 
 near the main mass toward the north-west; one which 
 was soon left behind is light in color, almost pinkish, 
 hence its name Cerro Colorado, with deep furrows from 
 the top down and with an air of recent formation about it. 
 Our old guide, though he had left the Pinacate region 
 forty odd years ago, pointed out with no uncertainty the 
 place where the Indian trail ran that would take us to the 
 cave. At a considerable distance away there is visible 
 about half-way up the mountain side an abrupt declivity 
 of a descending ridge, looking something like a land- 
 slide. Below that declivity he said that water would be 
 found, and here our camp was to be. As soon as we ar- 
 rived at the lava flow the track was very hard to follow. 
 Sometimes we crossed small arroyos among the low ridges 
 with a vegetation consisting mainly of palo verde, palo 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 fierro, and coarse grass. The wagon could only proceed 
 with difficulty, and finally at dusk we made camp near an 
 arroyo where there was plenty of good grass for our ani- 
 mals, but no water. 
 
 The next day we set out to search for water, following 
 the crooked dry water-courses that ran down from the 
 mountains. As we ascended I enjoyed the fine view toward 
 the north-east, though the weather was hazy. It must have 
 rained more here than from where we came, for we found 
 several of the small arroyos slightly moist and I observed 
 half a dozen different specimens of flowers in bloom. 
 After a few miles of ascent, the presence of small birds 
 singing indicated water somewhere; it was found below 
 the peculiar declivity of the mountain slope, just as we had 
 been told, but its appearance was altogether surprising: 
 four natural dams filled with water, rising one above the 
 other in the narrow gorge. The largest was fairly accessi- 
 ble to our animals, but the rest could not be reached by 
 them. Some of the lava in the neighborhood had quite a 
 recent look, like cow dung or iron slag in appearance. 
 
 This locality used to be one of the favorite haunts of the 
 sand people. Pieces of broken pottery were strewn on the 
 ground and small circular rows of medium-sized stones 
 indicated the camping space of each family. Here they 
 came to hunt mountain-sheep and to gather the edible 
 seeds called chia {hyptis) which, when placed in water, 
 half dissolve into starchy matter and are much relished. 
 The Papago call the locality ''Many Pools,'' and I named 
 it Las Tinajas de Emilia for my friend. Miss Emily Beebe, 
 of Boston. In a country where water is so rare, travellers 
 
DELIGHTFUL CLIMATE 
 
 205 
 
 hail with deHght the sight of such picturesque reservoirs. 
 From here a trail leads across the mountains west of 
 the two high peaks to another former important Papago 
 camp, known among the Mexicans as Tinaja de los Chivos. 
 At both places the water lasts usually more than a year, a 
 longer time than at any of the other natural tanks in the 
 Pinacate region, the high rocks which surround them pre- 
 venting much evaporation. 
 
 The next day, leaving our wagon behind, we moved 
 up to our new camp, the site for which I selected in an 
 arroyo three hundred yards below the newly discovered 
 tinajas. Though somewhat limited in width, the dry 
 watercourse with its gravelly sand furnished us an at- 
 tractive camp on a small elevation in its bed. As was 
 usually the case with these sheltered arroyos among the 
 lava flows of Pinacate, there were several species of bushes 
 in flower, such as the salvia with its odorous leaves and 
 another, called by the Mexicans pinta pan, which had 
 bright, light-blue flowers. It was the last day of the year, 
 though the temperature suggested spring. The slender 
 ocotillos on the small gravelly mesa near by were begin- 
 ning to bring forth new leaves, and in the evening the 
 voices of the cicada (la chicharra), to my ear so closely 
 associated with tropical summers, mingled with that of 
 the mocking-bird. The balmy air and the peace and calm 
 of the place were delightful. 
 
 But the very next day, Saturday, January i, and for 
 many days following, we were made aware of the presence 
 of winter. A moderate gale sprang up from the south, 
 gradually turning damp and disagreeably cold, and the 
 
2o6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 sky became cloudy with occasional light showers. Two 
 of the Mexicans went out to look for came (meat), which 
 was sadly needed where so many people, all with ravenous 
 appetites, were assembled. My principal hunter, whom 
 we called Charlie because, though a Mexican, he hailed 
 from Arizona, had been promising us mountain-sheep 
 for two days. **At this time of the year," he said, ''the 
 sheep are on the tops of the mountains, where the females 
 are having their young." But scaling the tops brought 
 him no reward and he did not find even one fresh track, 
 so his compatriots began to make merry with him. 
 
 About the middle of the day, however, our attention 
 was suddenly attracted by the repeated sounds of rifle 
 shots from above in the mountains. After a while our 
 hunter appeared on top of a sloping ridge above the camp 
 and shouted for a burro to carry the quarry to camp, a 
 message which gave us all much satisfaction. It was a 
 fine, large ram which the combined efforts of three Mexi- 
 cans lifted up on the pack animal. In camp it was 
 hoisted by the hind legs to a branch and carefully skinned 
 and opened. In the stomach were found the flowerstalks 
 as well as leaves of the white brittle bush, an herb called 
 golondrina {euphorbia polycarpa), reddish in color and 
 blooming at that time, also some of the parasitic plant 
 that grows on the palo verde and palo fierro. Another 
 and smaller mountain-sheep was brought in and an es- 
 sential part of our provisions was successfully settled for 
 some little time to come. 
 
 Quelele had put in readiness all the sacrificial objects 
 we had brought along for our proposed visit to the sacred 
 
ASCENDING THE PEAK 
 
 207 
 
 cave, and he had made several improvements in the ar- 
 rangement of some. As the time drew near for our ex- 
 cursion, I felt little inclined for the vigil of one night 
 which had been agreed to, so I asked him if a couple of 
 hours' devotional exercise might not be sufficient for our 
 needs. Clemente and Guadalupe, though perfectly will- 
 ing to comply with the conditions, confessed that they 
 did not know any Pinacate songs. By this and similar 
 arguments we succeeded in changing the old man's 
 mind, and he delighted me when after thoughtful reflec- 
 tion he declared that it was not necessary to sing now that 
 we had so many sacrificial things. 
 
 I had decided to take Monday, January 3, for the visit, 
 combining with it an ascent of the one of the two peaks 
 which was nearer to our camp. In the morning the wind 
 changed to west and north-west; a chilly, light shower of 
 rain fell, but when we started from the tinajas for the 
 ascent at 10.40, the weather was clear, there being only 
 a few nimbus clouds in sight. As we followed the fairly 
 distinct Indian trail that winds its way along the ridges 
 upward, I observed the chuparosa {heloperone californica), 
 the flowers of which are eaten by the Papago, and also 
 quantities of the well-known plant chia in the small ar- 
 royos and declivities. One hour's march brought us to the 
 base of the cinder-covered cone where the cave was situ- 
 ated. Many years had gone by from the time of Quelele's 
 last visit to the sacred precinct; his hair was not gray 
 then and more than one generation had passed since. 
 He could not at once find the object of our trip and half 
 an hour was spent in searching for it in the lava flow. 
 
2o8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 There was an entrance to a subterranean cave which he 
 distinctly remembered not to be the right one, and here 
 we noticed some marks cut in a sahuaro which was grow- 
 ing near the hole that led downward. Our cave turned 
 out to be a long natural tunnel, the bottom of which ran 
 for some twenty feet below the surface. The roof of the 
 tunnel had fallen in for about ten yards just where the 
 entrance to the holy place had been, and hence our guide 
 did not at first recognize it. The passage is believed by 
 the Indians to run westward underneath the mountains, 
 then under the sea until it reaches an island where Elder 
 Brother's wife lives. The god has another though less 
 important "house" some miles from this cave on the 
 same side of the mountain, but this I did not visit. 
 
 It evidently filled Quelele with dismay that "litoi's 
 house had fallen down.'' The god himself had caused 
 this destruction in anger against the people who no 
 longer came to deposit offerings and do him homage. 
 Some old, weather-worn sacrificial objects were observed 
 around a small natural terrace down in the opening, as 
 well as in the cracks of the rocky sides. Our guide 
 was too old to descend himself, but he asked the two 
 Indians, Guadalupe and Clemente, to perform the sacri- 
 fice for him. They clambered down and Guadalupe 
 deposited in a crack of the old lava the ceremonial ob- 
 jects we had brought along. These objects were an 
 arrow, as a mark of respect and for the use of the god; 
 a prayer-stick, colored by red ochre with a small eagle 
 plume tied to its top, to secure luck in hunting; a bunch 
 of yucca fibre tied in a knot, in order that the wind might 
 
Guadalupe at the sacred cwl m J'inacate 
 
MAKING OUR VISIT 
 
 209 
 
 be favorable to us; some cigarettes for the god's personal 
 use; a piece of blue glass bead necklace, for the god to 
 use as appendages for his ears and for the septum of 
 his nose. On their own account Guadalupe and Cle- 
 mente each placed a strand of fibre in order that noth- 
 ing untoward should happen to either of them while 
 on the expedition, asking especially for protection against 
 storms. 
 
 While this was being done the old man lighted a 
 cigarette and, turning his face toward the west where the 
 sea is, though hidden from view by the peak that rose 
 above us, he made his prayer aloud to litoi, smoking now 
 and then and blowing the smoke in the same direction. 
 
 "I did not come to visit you because the weather 
 was bad," he said. *'Now I have come to leave these 
 things here. I could not find your house because it is 
 so different now. With whom are you angry ? Perhaps 
 you are angry with us because we do not visit you more 
 often. A man comes here from the other side of the 
 sea to know your house. I bring him and his compan- 
 ions from Sonoita. Give good luck to the man and to 
 us all. Give good luck to the hunters that he has with 
 him. Give them a mountain-sheep that you do not 
 need for yourself. Give me good luck on my return 
 home. Don't let it rain while I travel. Stop the wind." 
 
 The ceremonies over, he began to make his way 
 back to camp while we continued our ascent at one 
 o'clock in the afternoon. Near the rim of a small crater, 
 two-thirds up from here, quails and a cotton-tail enli- 
 vened the scene. I had expected to be troubled by 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 spiny choyas when walking in the sHppery cinders, but 
 there were none growing toward the top; in fact, I hardly 
 observed half a dozen the whole day. As we approached 
 the top the paths of the mountain-sheep were very no- 
 ticeable in the loose cinders, as distinct as if a dozen 
 men had been marching in file, and leading upward in 
 fairly good grades. The roads became more numerous 
 as we ascended, and often we saw the lairs of the sheep 
 where their bodies had left shallow hollows in the cin- 
 ders, there being perhaps half a dozen or more at each 
 place. These animals seem to select the most lofty 
 places for camping although they may never be dis- 
 turbed by human beings; even at the very top, toward 
 the east, their camps were seen, and one at only ten 
 yards from the summit. Our ascent ended at 2.40 p. m. 
 My aneroids, subject to the uncertainty inherent in all 
 those instruments, at the top showed an elevation of 
 4,400 feet, at a temperature of 41° F., and our camp to 
 be 2,475 feet lower. The other peak, which is west, 
 a little to the south, is scarcely a mile off, and visibly 
 higher, the difference being only about a hundred feet. 
 
 The view was fine and quite extensive; the upper 
 part of the Gulf of California and the sand dunes that 
 border it are not far off. The mountains of Lower 
 California seemed to stretch out in a long, even range. 
 The distant sierras and llanos looked impressive, and 
 as for Pinacate itself, it seemed to be composed of sev- 
 eral hundred volcanoes of no great height or prominence, 
 which in their mass form a sierra, as the Mexicans call 
 it, with several outlying cones and craters, especially 
 
COLD WEATHER 
 
 211 
 
 toward the north. The lava flow, which reaches from 
 the southern point of Sierra Blanca to La Playa in the 
 north, is about forty-five miles long and thirty miles at 
 the widest place. 
 
 During the hour and a half spent on top I took 
 photographs of the panorama which spread itself around 
 us, but the north-westerly wind, at first slight and then 
 increasing in strength, began to interfere so much that 
 it knocked down my tripod, breaking one of its legs. 
 The temperature steadily fell until it reached 32° F. 
 and we were all shivering with cold, one of the Mexi- 
 cans literally trembling. A small fire, which we suc- 
 ceeded in making from some remains of bushes that 
 were lying about, served to warm us up somewhat, 
 though the ache in my finger tips did not abate and 
 brought back to memory bitterly cold days of my boy- 
 hood in Norway. Toward sunset it grew hazy and in- 
 distinct, clouds began to obscure the horizon drawing 
 nearer as if a storm were approaching. We were all 
 glad to leave the top and to begin our descent, sliding 
 quickly along in the loose cinders and arriving after 
 dark at our sheltered camp. 
 
 In the night a gale from the north broke upon us, 
 bringing cold, crisp, and clear weather in its wake. It 
 felt like real winter and in the morning we had to move 
 our kitchen down for shelter into a cut of the arroyo, 
 and also to make a barricade of uprooted bushes and 
 plants against the wind. A hardy humming-bird was 
 observed hovering above the chuparosas. 
 
 Quelele, having complied with his obligations, de- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 parted during the day, Alberto being commissioned to 
 take him safely back to Sonoita in the wagon which we 
 had left at the foot of the mountains. Clemente, the 
 interpreter, went with him. He had served me well for 
 two or three months and had for some time been 
 anxious to return to his native place, Caborca, to look 
 after his private affairs. He was an able and truthful 
 Indian, who spoke Spanish well, though his extreme 
 sensitiveness to anything that he imagined savored of 
 criticism interfered to some extent with his usefulness. 
 Alberto was to return within a specified time, bringing 
 back from Sonoita the man who was to guide us to the 
 Colorado River as well as provisions. 
 
 The clear, cold weather continued for four days; the 
 water froze in our big canteens, and on the ponds in the 
 arroyo the ice was an inch and a quarter thick and had 
 to be broken in order to make it possible for our ani- 
 mals to drink. Water which was put on the fire for 
 cooking purposes was largely in the form of lumps of 
 ice, making genuine American ice-water. 
 
 Taking Charlie and the remaining Mexican with 
 me, I proceeded on an excursion to a large crater east 
 of our camp which I had seen on ascending the peak, 
 and which looked as if it were a large circular hole on 
 the plain. It is little known among the very few Mexi- 
 cans who visit the Pinacate region and had been men- 
 tioned to me as the largest and the most beautiful of all 
 the craters here. The only life observed on the road 
 was when one or two of the little ground-squirrels that 
 hold their tails erect, ran across our path, and a raven 
 
A BEAUTIFUL CRATER 
 
 213 
 
 was noticed sitting on a stump and watching perhaps 
 for some hzard to come out into the sun. One won- 
 ders what this bird can find to eat here, but there is a 
 certain tuberous plant growing on the plains called 
 covendy which furnishes a favorite food supply. 
 
 Approaching the crater from the south as we did, 
 there appears a long, low slanting ridge which is its 
 rim, rising only at the highest point from about one 
 hundred to one hundred and fifty feet above the sur- 
 rounding country. It is easy to ride up to the top of 
 this ridge. On reaching this and taking a few steps 
 forward, the magnitude and beautiful regularity of the 
 circular opening which yawns impressively before one is 
 surprising. I do not know how deep it is, for I had 
 no opportunity to attempt a descent, which is said to 
 be feasible though very difficult, and it looks difficult 
 too, for the walls have crumbled less than is the case 
 with other craters I saw later in that region. Com- 
 pared with these, I should think this would be about 
 eight hundred feet deep. The bottom is flat and the 
 talus reaches about half-way up the steep sides. It is 
 probably the deepest of all the craters there, and is by 
 far the most beautiful, so the name Crater Elegante 
 would be appropriate for it. 
 
 The bottom looks like quite an attractive country; 
 the same vegetation is observed there as above the sur- 
 face, and some additional, for, besides the patches of 
 galleta grass, there is a large bluish-white patch that ap- 
 peared through my field-glass like a growth of the arrow- 
 bush (in Spanish cachanilla). This would indicate that 
 
214 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 there is water, though probably below the surface. Sa- 
 huaros are seen to grow down there, as also choya and 
 the barrel cactus, palo verde, and palo fierro; most prom- 
 inent of all is the white brittle bush which, as white 
 dots, appears everywhere and even up on the sides of the 
 talus. According to Mexican information, a bush called 
 quaviri grows there, as well as the plant istafiate. Sal- 
 itre is said to be present in spots toward the south; it 
 occurs on the surface in small patches a mile or so be- 
 fore arriving at the crater. 
 
 To get some idea of the size of this opening in the 
 earth, we rode around it, following an old, fairly good 
 trail along the rim. The trail was used formerly by 
 the Indians in their pursuit of mountain-sheep, which 
 occasionally descend into the crater, and fresh tracks of 
 these animals were seen near by. Some of the Indians, 
 armed with bows and arrows, would follow the sheep 
 down, while others would watch for their egress from 
 above. We rode as fast as our horses could walk, and 
 accomplished the circuit in fifty minutes; making al- 
 lowance for a slower pace one-third of the way, on ac- 
 count of the stony character of the road, I think it safe 
 to say that the opening is a circle three miles around. 
 
 It was nearly six o'clock and already dark when we 
 retraced our steps. A chilling northerly wind was blow- 
 ing, but we warmed ourselves around a large fire of dry 
 ocotillo and departed. As long as Venus gave light we 
 travelled pretty well, stopping several times for a few 
 minutes to warm ourselves. It was only a matter of a 
 few moments to make a fire by throwing a match into 
 
MATERIAL FOR FIRE 
 
 215 
 
 the tall, dry galleta grass, patches of which we passed 
 now and then. The wind blew the large waves of heat 
 over us and our riding animals, which seemed to enjoy 
 the comforting warmth and even the cheering aspect of 
 it as much as we did. There is at least one advantage 
 in travelling in the desert, and that is that there are so 
 many inflammable bushes and trees. A fire can gener- 
 ally be made quicker here than in any other country I 
 know of; a match to the choya and all the bristles take 
 fire as if they were tinder, and the spines of the sahuaro 
 burn in the same way. The small bush tovoso, which 
 grows everywhere in the desert region, contains so much 
 resinous matter that it burns even when green and wet; 
 for the same reason the primitive looking canutillo 
 {ephedra) of the sand dunes furnishes a flaring blaze. 
 Dry ocotillos are often seen lying about on the ground, 
 especially along the bases of the mountains, ready at a 
 minute's notice to make an excellent flame. The sa- 
 huaro or the choya when dry burn almost equally as 
 well, and the brittle bush may serve as fuel when the 
 fire is already made. 
 
 After a while it grew as dark as night can be, and we 
 could not see each other as we walked leading our ani- 
 mals one after the other in order to keep warm. The 
 rough, black lava ridges we now and then had to cross 
 tried us sorely, and the brittle bushes were our only 
 guidance here, standing out as whitish spots among the 
 now invisible but hard and sharp lava blocks. Once I 
 stumbled down a small lava ridge, which to the eye ap- 
 peared as even ground; I swung down and down over 
 
2i6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 big blocks, landing finally with my right hand against the 
 rough lava; my escape from breaking a limb was truly 
 wonderful. 
 
 About ten o'clock we arrived in camp, tired and pre- 
 pared to eat anything in sight. The shelter of bushes 
 in the arroyo, which we called la cocina (kitchen), beck- 
 oned to us very hospitably with its substantial fire of 
 palo verde wood and the ollas, pots, and kettles standing 
 warm awaiting us. Guadalupe had retired for the night, 
 but arose to take care of our riding animals. He had 
 a splendid supper ready consisting of boiled mountain- 
 sheep with bones and consomme. I know of no meat 
 that can compare in flavor with that of the mountain- 
 sheep, even if the animal be old. Also the Indian possesses 
 the secret of boiling meat slowly, and the frtjoles (beans) 
 served were for the same reason excellent without the 
 adding of any lard; few people know what a delicate, 
 though little pronounced, natural flavor beans have. 
 Until I had been among Indians I did not know this, 
 and only extreme hunger would now induce me to eat 
 the tasteless horror of so-called Boston baked beans. 
 Guadalupe had made for me in addition some tortillas 
 of very fine quality, and I congratulated myself upon 
 having such a useful Indian with me. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 CHANGING CAMP— MOUNTAIN-SHEEP— THE USEFUL GREASEWOOD 
 —PALO FIERRO, THE FRIENDLY DESERT TREE— LOS MED AN OS, 
 THE GREAT SAND DUNES— UNUSUAL TRACKS— ABANDONED 
 INDIAN CAMPS— NEW SIERRAS— LA TINAJA DE LOS PAPAGOS— 
 VISIT TO A CRATER 
 
 On Sunday, January 9, we moved camp to the place 
 where Alberto and the guide were to meet us, in the 
 southern Pinacate Mountains, one mile from the pool 
 called Tinaja del Cuervo. We followed an Indian trail 
 descending to the llano, and as we passed an old Indian 
 camping place near a water pool, a large olla was found 
 entire among the greasewood bushes and a big sea-shell 
 used by the Indians as a drinking vessel was lying on 
 the ground. In the arroyos that run down from the 
 mountains the palo fierro grew to unusual size and 
 beauty, and quails, doves, and other birds were about. 
 I remained behind and as I rode along, taking topo- 
 graphical notes, I was suddenly confronted by a coyote, 
 dragging its hind quarters painfully along, apparently 
 paralyzed. At first sight I thought it might have rabies; 
 then, as I rode nearer to take a photograph, the animal 
 simply lay down, offering no resistance even when my 
 terrier began to look it over. It had a fresh wound in 
 the left side, which told me that it had been struck by 
 
 a bullet from my party ahead. Mavit repeatedly dug 
 
 217 
 
2i8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 his nose into its side and back, but he did not seem to 
 want to do it any harm. 
 
 After a march of about five hours, over good road 
 mostly, we arrived at our destination, an inlet from the 
 llano at the base of the mountains, well protected by 
 sheltering ridges running down from above. An abun- 
 dance of galleta grass was growing here, and hence the 
 locahty was called Galletal. Mezquites, palo fierro, and 
 various bushes indicated the course of an arroyo, near 
 which we made camp. The Tinaja del Galletal, three- 
 quarters of a mile higher up the arroyo, was found to 
 be dry, but in another arroyo, a mile north of our camp, 
 there was water in the Tinaja del Pinto, known hitherto 
 possibly only to the Indians, though trails led up to 
 both pools. I found this to be a better camping place 
 than the Tinaja del Cuervo, close by, the usual stopping 
 place of Indians and Mexicans on their salt expeditions 
 to the coast. 
 
 We had plenty of partly green grass and much wood, 
 the situation was very pleasant, and I greatly enjoyed 
 the calm and mild weather after the cold and windy 
 week we had just passed. The locality was alive with 
 quail; in the mornings after dawn they would begin 
 emitting a low cackling note while feeding in the quaviri 
 trees {lycium) that grew here and there about the camp. 
 These small, pretty trees with their light green foliage 
 seemed to be the favorite feeding ground of the quail. 
 Both the young leaves and especially the red berries are 
 eaten; the latter are also relished by the Papago, either 
 dried or boiled. It is strangely difficult to see these 
 
HUNTING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 
 
 219 
 
 birds when feeding or roosting, though they frequent trees 
 that, compared with others, have small leaves and few 
 of them. It was surprising to find that a tree of small 
 dimensions might harbor as many as a couple of dozen 
 feeding among its delicate foliage. These birds rest for 
 the night in the mezquite and the palo fierro. 
 
 It was desirable to have dried mountain-sheep meat 
 for our proposed expedition to the Colorado River, and 
 I also wanted to preserve some skins and skulls for 
 scientific use. This was welcome news to the two Mexi- 
 cans, who were very anxious to start shooting. The 
 first day's hunt resulted in ten shots being fired at one 
 animal without apparently wounding it seriously, if at 
 all, but the second day, after dark, they reported that 
 they had killed six sheep which they had encountered 
 up in the mountains four or five miles away. They had 
 shot them in the course of two hours. According to 
 their story, and this was confirmed by my experience 
 later, generally those of a flock which are not hit do not 
 run far, but soon stop to look at the intruder. They 
 are stupid, though nervous animals, and very inquisi- 
 tive; as one of the Mexicans expressed it, they lend 
 themselves very well to the camera. Our principal 
 hunter gave it as his opinion that if one shoots at a 
 mountain-sheep without hitting him, he looks at you, for 
 el cimaron es muy homhre (the mountain-sheep is very 
 courageous). These animals never attack man, but in 
 the summer the males fight much between themselves. 
 The skins which I brought back from this expedition 
 are all from Ovis Canadensis Gaillardi. It is a smaller 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 animal than that of the Rocky Mountains. The horns 
 are long and strongly incurved. Mountain-sheep are 
 found in most of the sierras of southern Arizona and 
 north-western Sonora, from Tinajas Altas to Port Lobos, 
 especially in the Gila, the Cabeza Prieta and the Mo- 
 hawk Ranges, Sierra de Cubabi and Sierra de Santa 
 Rosa. They may still be encountered in Sierra del Viejo 
 and Sierra del Alamo and in rare instances survive al- 
 most as far as the neighborhood of Hermosillo. These 
 are all one species. 
 
 We now had more than sufficient game for our needs, 
 and for two days we were kept busy bringing the quarry 
 in, skinning and cutting the meat in long strips which 
 were hung up to dry. Even dry, this meat tastes very 
 good, and does not grow hard as that of oxen. Some of 
 it which I brought to New York had preserved the same 
 pleasant flavor, although it had been cured without 
 much care and was over a year old. It is much improved 
 by sprinkling salt on the strips before drying. Alberto 
 and our guide, Clodomiro Lopez, arrived opportunely to 
 help us in our butchering. 
 
 The two Mexicans I had sent to investigate the condi- 
 tion of the small tinaja near the north end of Sierra 
 Blanca to the south of us, found it dry. It does not 
 last usually more than three months, so a contemplated 
 visit to this little-known locality had, therefore, to be 
 postponed until a more opportune time. After our 
 horses had all been shod for the hard malpais, as the 
 Mexicans call the lava flow which we should have to 
 traverse, we started, continuing to skirt the Pinacate 
 
FIRST VIEW OF THE SAND DUNES 221 
 
 until we reached the starting point for our western ex- 
 pedition. Our pack animals were eleven, four mules 
 and seven burros. 
 
 As we gained a point of vantage on the malpais, which 
 stretched widely down from Pinacate, high sand dunes 
 appeared against the overcast sky about two miles away. 
 The sea was some fifteen miles distant from here and 
 would have been visible but for the dull day. At first 
 sight the row of big sand-hills appeared as if bathed in a 
 dim sunlight, but this was only apparently so and is due 
 to their peculiar light roseate tinge, which is less marked 
 in the low dunes near the sea where the sand is much 
 lighter in color. We approached them nearer and nearer, 
 and finally travelled beside them over sandy flats that run 
 up among the low lava ridges. Among the lava small 
 green bushes, evidently owing their existence mostly to 
 moisture from the sea, made their appearance. 
 
 We still had the greasewoods with us, though much 
 more scattered ; even in the depressions between the great 
 waves of the dunes this bush ekes out an existence, 
 though often half buried by the sand. Here for the 
 first time I had occasion to see its mistletoe, a parasitic 
 plant called by the Mexicans toji; it is found only on the 
 coast and is famous among the Mexicans as a wonderful 
 remedy. A tea made from it is supposed to relieve all 
 kinds of stomach ailments from colic to dysentery. Clo- 
 domiro, the guide, found this tea so refreshing that he 
 used it as a beverage whenever he had an opportunity. 
 Parasitic plants of similar appearance also grow in abun- 
 dance on the palo verde as well as on the palo fierro and 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 on the mezqulte, but they are of another kind and not of 
 medicinal value. The one on the greasewood of the coast 
 is not very common. I have not tried its efficacy, but, judg- 
 ing from the extraordinary antiseptic properties of the 
 bush on which it lives, I am inclined to think well of the 
 remedy. Steeping some twigs and leaves of the grease- 
 wood in boiling-hot water produces a remarkable antisep- 
 tic. My dog was bitten once by another dog at a particu- 
 larly delicate place, and the wound, somewhat hidden 
 from view, caused great inconvenience after a few days 
 and was much swollen. Even after having been liberated 
 from maggots, which were found to be the main cause of 
 the trouble, the dog was very ill; he could walk with 
 difficulty and it seemed very likely that he would die, but 
 within twelve hours after the application of this simple 
 remedy he had recovered. 
 
 The greasewood is the ever-ready and unfailing rem- 
 edy of the ranchero and of the Papago for all kinds of 
 wounds. It is also taken internally in case of any gastric 
 disturbance. The Mexicans have many remedies, but 
 this is one about which there is no difference of opinion. 
 For internal use, however, the parasitic growth of this 
 bush is considered superior. The American frontiers- 
 man by steeping the mashed leaves of the greasewood in 
 water produces what he considers a wonderful laxative. 
 The greasewood supplies a few of the not very numerous 
 wants of the Papago. A piece of this wood tied to a 
 sahuaro stick, for instance, furnishes a hook for bringing 
 down fruit. The small rasping sticks which the medicine- 
 man employs when treating members of a salt expedition. 
 
Hauling palo fierro branches for camp fire at dusk 
 
THE ATTRACTIVE GREASEWOOD 
 
 are made from greasewood, while those used for other 
 purposes are made of various materials to fit the occasion. 
 The secretions of a scale insect carteria, which are de- 
 posited on the branches of this bush, serve the Papago for 
 several purposes. Handles for the awls which the women 
 employ in the manufacture of baskets are of this material, 
 which is first dried in the sun and ground, then heated on 
 a piece of crockery over the fire, and moulded into shape. 
 Also balls for the foot-races are made from it, a stone being 
 placed inside. Besides it serves for mending pottery. 
 
 The greasewood is as hardy as the cactus and the har- 
 diest of all the trees or bushes of the desert. It contents 
 itself with poor soil if necessary, but it attains its finest 
 development on the rich detritus of the llanos. Perhaps 
 the varnish-like substance which covers its leaves and 
 makes them sticky helps to protect the plant by preventing 
 evaporation and its roots probably reach down very deep. 
 However that may be, it is always flourishing, even in 
 the fiercest heat. To me the greasewood is a symbol for 
 health and an example of cheerful existence under adverse 
 circumstances. It gives out an odor which it would be 
 impossible to count among the perfumes of the world and 
 which suggested the name creosote bush contemptuously 
 applied to it. The Mexicans for the same reason call it by 
 •the uncomplimentary name hediondia. To some people 
 like myself its odor, being salubrious, is more pleasant than 
 otherwise. Though, strictly speaking, nothing in nature 
 is ugly, the greasewood could not be called beautiful, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, when covered in the spring with its small 
 yellow, jolly flowers. It may be compared to a person 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 radiant with health and good cheer, for which he is Hked, 
 though he may not be handsome. Were I a poet, I should 
 sing the praise of the modest greasewood of sterling qual- 
 ities. 
 
 Half a dozen quails looked lazily at us from the top of 
 a large sand dune as we passed along. The small reddish 
 tree called sangrengado was seen at intervals; its finer 
 branches serve the Papago as material for basket making 
 and, as well as the bark, offer tempting morsels for the 
 mountain-sheep. The fragrant odor of copal was evi- 
 dent for a little while, although we did not discover its 
 source. 
 
 We camped on the sand for the night. Although 
 there was considerable galleta grass growing here and 
 there, all the mules, donkeys, and horses gathered at once 
 around a lone but very large palo fierro tree to eat its dark 
 green juicy leaves, which they much preferred. They 
 stretched their necks like giraffes in eager competition 
 and, paying no heed to its numerous thorns, they pulled 
 away mouthfuls of leaves. We usually cut down large 
 branches, Mexican fashion, from which they could feed 
 more comfortably. The palo fierro {olneya tesota) is to 
 one who travels in the desert the most useful of all trees; 
 whenever it is to be found, his animals are sure to get 
 something good to eat, and the man who gathers wood 
 for the camp first of all directs his steps toward it. Usually 
 some of its branches are dry, and they furnish the very 
 best camp-fire, especially for cooking purposes. In the 
 cold winter, when a warm fire is needed, the traveller 
 should look for a dry log of this kind. As the wood is 
 
SAND-HILLS 
 
 225 
 
 extremely hard — hence its name, iron-wood — the easiest 
 way to fell a dry tree is to make a fire round the base. It 
 ignites easily and burns the whole night through without 
 any further attention. During many months of travel in 
 the desert, I was always thankful when I caught sight of 
 this tree which harbors so much comfort for man and 
 beast. In the spring, before the leaves come out, it has 
 beautiful flowers of the pea family. 
 
 There was, of course, no water here, but at this time 
 of the year animals that are being worked do not suffer 
 from going a couple of days without drinking. In the 
 winter at Sonoita the horses running loose in the neighbor- 
 hood come in to drink only every fourth day, and in the 
 summer every third day. For our own consumption we 
 had our generous barrels which we refilled when occasion 
 offered. The sand was temptingly clean and made a 
 soft bed, all the men delighting in it. The next day I re- 
 mained behind with the guide in order to examine the sand 
 dunes. That part of the sand-dune belt where we were, 
 south of Pinacate, starts only twenty to twenty-five miles 
 east of there. The height of a sand-hill that we ascended 
 was one hundred and eighty-five feet, both my aneroids 
 giving the same result. I calculated the length of its base, 
 which was measured by the steps of our horses, to be at 
 least two thousand eight hundred feet. There were others 
 equally high or higher. Farther west, toward Laguna 
 Prieta, are found the highest sand-hills, but they would 
 probably not be much above two hundred feet, if measured. 
 On top of the one we climbed, an absolute calm reigned. 
 Toward the west as far as the eye could detect the dunes 
 
226 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 extended, like the sea when exposed to a strong gale in 
 appearance, though with waves much more irregular. 
 The large ones, forming the extreme northern part of the 
 belt, were fewer than I expected. Southward from our 
 hill the waves first became considerably smaller, then 
 grew somewhat higher again before reaching the coast, 
 where they ended in more or less irregular sand flats or 
 low hills. The sea did not seem more than eight or nine 
 miles away. 
 
 The Mexicans use the euphonious name medanos 
 for the sand dunes, great and small; in fact, the whole 
 region along the upper part of the Gulf east of the Colo- 
 rado River is thus designated. The name has an almost 
 mystic sound, suggesting in the summer aridity and dan- 
 ger, fierce heat, rattlesnakes, and other reptiles — in the 
 winter cold wind, fog, and occasional drizzling rain. 
 
 Most Mexicans are afraid of los medanos, as they 
 themselves have told me, on account of the risk of losing 
 animals and of the troubles in general connected with 
 travel there. As is the case with all regions about which 
 little or nothing is known, the sand region is reputed to 
 harbor fabulous wealth of gold and silver in its hill-tops 
 and mountain ranges, and a lonely prospector with a 
 couple of donkeys sometimes attempts in the winter an 
 exploration for these precious metals. His expectations 
 may lead him farther than is prudent, and his canteens 
 may give out too soon for him to have time to return for 
 water. There is nothing depressing, however, about the 
 sand dunes. In the late afternoon sun, when seen from 
 the north, they look especially picturesque, running one 
 
CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR 
 
 227 
 
 after the other in long, majestic, though somewhat uneven, 
 waves of Hght roseate hue. 
 
 A curious feature of the dunes south of Pinacate was 
 a remarkable display of tracks made by the big beetle from 
 which the whole region derived its Mexican name. These 
 insects (eleoJes), of which the body may be over an inch 
 in length, were numerous at that time of the year in the 
 northern part of the sand dunes. In certain localities 
 they are the principal means of subsistence for the coyote. 
 They wander far and wide on the sand, leaving surpris- 
 ingly large tracks, most of which are fairly straight. The 
 weather had been calm for twenty-four hours at least, and 
 the tracks were even more distinct than those seen on cold, 
 hard snow. The long lines ran almost parallel to each 
 other across the great fans of sand that stretched down 
 from the tops of the dunes. Some of them ran upward, 
 for these beetles wander to the very summit. One of 
 them in coming down the slope of a drift had amused him- 
 self in going in a spiral line for many yards and then 
 continuing in his ordinary fashion. The beetle to which 
 this pictograph was due was undoubtedly a different 
 species, because its tracks were somewhat lighter and 
 the straight line less pronounced. Another one had for 
 many yards followed the ridge of a sand drift, but pro- 
 gressing all the while from one side to the other, and 
 leaving low, hanging festoons from the top of the ridge 
 in regular serpentine figure. Only one, making his way 
 very straight and quite fast up the slope toward the ridge 
 on which we stood, was actually seen. I was puzzled as 
 to why these insects should go up there on the sand 
 
228 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 dunes, but, whatever their reasons were, they certainly 
 left in their wake beautiful decorative marks hundreds 
 of feet long. 
 
 The pool called Tinaja de los Chivos was reached 
 on a slowly rising lava flow ten miles north of the sand 
 dunes. There is no grass within a mile or two of this 
 camp, which derives its Mexican name from the vulgar 
 designation of mountain-sheep as chivos^ goats. Fuel is 
 also scarce here. It is the largest of all the natural 
 water tanks of the Pinacate and lasts longer than the 
 rest. It is situated at the junction of two arroyos, and 
 at one of them, a mile away, is found another reservoir, 
 called Tinaja del Tule. The following morning the sky 
 was overcast with stratus and light nimbus clouds, and 
 the long even range of Lower California looked quite 
 impressive in the hazy atmosphere. Before sunrise we 
 had a beautiful tanager-red glow which extended over 
 the western horizon before it assumed a blue hue. 
 
 In order to reach the next place where water is 
 found, Tinaja de los Papagos, a circuitous route has to 
 be followed. In descending to the dunes again, we 
 found a very good track which led to the head-quarters, 
 four miles away, of the former sand-dune people. The 
 trail was worn a foot deep in places, and stones had been 
 removed to smoothe the path for the busy feet of the 
 women who had to go this distance every day to fill their 
 jars. We discovered two old camps at the edge of the 
 dunes, each on a low sand ridge. There were the usual 
 features of rude corrals of stones, but the sand inside of 
 them had been scooped out, leaving a hollow. Some- 
 
Tracks of beetles (Eleodes) on sand dune 
 
OPPORTUNITY LOST 
 
 229 
 
 times pits were noticed without any stones around them. 
 On a plain near hy feasts and ceremonies had in former 
 times been performed, and among them the great annual 
 festival which is now given at Quitovac. 
 
 The afternoon turned out to be moderately warm 
 and calm, the sun appearing now and then, and the 
 weather, for the middle of January, was very enjoyable. 
 I ascended a small ridge at one side of the track to get 
 a better view of a crumbling and much serrated sierra 
 which appeared in front of us, and near which we were 
 going to camp. It showed two formations, most of it 
 the usual gray, weather-worn granite, but at the south- 
 eastern end an intrusion of a reddish rock had taken 
 place, which proved afterward to consist of rhyolite with 
 an oxydized rim of red. South of it at a short dis- 
 tance stretched a low, jagged range, half buried in the 
 sand. To the north-east, south of the Gila Range and 
 far away at the end of a large llano, a single moun- 
 tain was seen. It looked deep blue and, having no 
 name, we called it Cerro Pinto, because its color is dif- 
 ferent from the rest of the mountains. The distant 
 country westward, directly in front of us, presented a 
 sea of sand dunes that seemed to stretch on indefinitely, 
 offering a fascinating vista. Just as the sun, breaking 
 through the clouds, covered them with a brilliant white 
 light, I turned around to secure my camera, and in doing 
 so was delayed scarcely a minute, but when I looked 
 again westward, while adjusting my kodak, all the 
 magic of the scene was gone — the sun was hidden from 
 view and all chance of photography over, though I 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 waited half an hour for another. An opportunity to 
 take such a picture never did return as long as the expe- 
 dition lasted. The lesson I learned from this is appre- 
 ciated by every one who is interested in photographing, 
 and that is to be ever ready at the very moment the 
 opportunity offers itself. 
 
 While our animals were taken the next day for water 
 to the tinaja ten miles away, I spent a day at the base of 
 the much serrated sierra in order to examine this moun- 
 tain range as well as the other one that is partly buried 
 in the sand. I named the first one Sierra Extrana 
 (Strange Sierra), because its gray color with a tinge of 
 green seemed so strange to us after having been so long 
 accustomed to the dark lava. It is only about six miles 
 long, running in the main direction of the rest of the 
 mountain ranges. The outer granite is crumbling more 
 than on any other sierra observed on the journey, hence its 
 native name, kokomaleke (small stone blocks). It is de- 
 void of vegetation except for a few struggling ocotillos and 
 greasewoods, and a sangrengado now and then. On the 
 south-western side the wind has blown up the sand some- 
 what on the sides, but, seen against the dark background 
 of Pinacate, the little range with its exaggerated serra- 
 tion shows to advantage. The other sierra, which I called 
 Sierra Enterada (Buried Sierra), some six miles south of 
 it, is nearly the same length, but lower, the crest reach- 
 ing an elevation of about one thousand two hundred feet, 
 three-quarters of it being buried in the sand dunes. From 
 the top we could plainly discern the fresh tracks of a 
 horse, leading westward through the great waste of sand. 
 
A FEARLESS BIRD 
 
 231 
 
 My guide thought that a sohtary Indian called Carava- 
 jales, one of the former sand people who persists in liv- 
 ing out there, had passed. This hermit makes his head- 
 quarters at the Tinaja de los Papagos. 
 
 In the low sand dunes among the greasewood bushes 
 I noticed once or twice a tiny spray of sand being thrown 
 up as if caused by an ant lion, but the insect could not 
 be found. I later came across a small representative of 
 animal life here, a roach with long legs, which was known 
 to my guide as found among the sand dunes, though 
 he said it was rare. A mocking-bird {mimus), very 
 inquisitive and which had evidently never seen people 
 before, arrived in our camp and moved about fearlessly, 
 passing my camera within four feet. It actually alighted 
 on the toe of the shoe of one of the Mexicans who was 
 sitting on the ground and next settled on the rim of a 
 large dish, dipping itself repeatedly in the water and 
 drinking of it. These birds are often seen far from 
 water. 
 
 Six miles before arriving at Tinaja de los Papagos 
 we passed numerous burrows of the badger. This ani- 
 mal, too, does not seem to care much as to whether he 
 lives near water or not. When we came to the abode 
 of the Indian hermit, Caravajales, who would have been 
 a useful man to take along through the western desert, 
 we found him to be absent. After sunset hundreds of 
 pigeons came in a steady stream to drink, settling first 
 on the rocks for several minutes before finally flying to 
 the pools, two of which at that time contained water; 
 the stony sides of the latter were literally covered with 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the birds, and after dark the last ones flew away. There 
 are three pools in this wild-looking arroyo, which at the 
 time of showers gather the precipitation for many miles 
 up in the lava flow. The middle one was dry and the 
 water in the others was low. The lower one, nearest 
 our camp and very accessible for the animals, could not 
 then, according to our guide's calculation, be made dry 
 by three hundred head of cattle drinking at one time. 
 Water can usually be depended upon at this camp. 
 
 The watercourse, from forty to sixty paces wide, can 
 easily be made out on the big hard andesite boulders 
 from a distance, and, on examining the surface, it is 
 found to be actually polished by the action of water 
 and has rather a faded color. That such should be the 
 case is very remarkable, considering the extreme hard- 
 ness of the rock and the great length of time that would 
 be needed to accomplish this effect, if the water were 
 supplied only from a few showers in July and August. 
 This seems to me another proof of the climatic change 
 that has taken place in the desert region of Arizona 
 and Sonora, the polish of the rocks probably dating 
 from a comparatively recent time when precipitation 
 was more abundant. 
 
 The next day a tour was made to a large and beautiful 
 crater, two and a half miles north-east of the tinaja, to 
 which a fairly good track leads. In the morning before 
 sunrise the same phenomenon of sunlight by refraction 
 that I had noted twice before was observed, though the 
 coloring was stronger; it was very noticeable in my tent, 
 the light beginning twenty minutes before sunrise and 
 
The watercourse at Tinaja de Los Papagos 
 
A DESERTED HABITATION 
 
 233 
 
 fading away a few minutes before the sun rose, and it 
 was strongest twelve minutes before the actual appearance 
 of the sun. 
 
 Half a mile from the pools I photographed an Indian 
 habitation, of which there are several in the neighborhood. 
 They seem to be more recently deserted than others met 
 with before; in fact, as stated above, one man still has his 
 abode there. The corral, or sleeping place of the family, 
 was made up of a few stones and uprooted tovoso bushes 
 placed in a circle. Between the stems of an ocotillo was 
 a platform consisting of a layer of white brittle bush and 
 tovoso. This had served as a shelf for jars and other 
 cooking utensils. Though several years must have elapsed 
 since this place was occupied, Clodomiro found an old 
 spade hidden under the platform and some medicinal 
 herbs, the latter wrapped in a cotton cloth. 
 
 The crater is very easily approached. The rim is one 
 hundred and thirty feet high at the place we ascended, 
 which was at its highest point. To descend either from 
 the south or the west into the crater involves no diffi- 
 culty; it took Clodomiro, the guide, only twenty minutes 
 to do so from the south. I have been down twice at this 
 side to an embankment that runs around the crater inside 
 just above where the talus begins. Measured by the 
 aneroid barometer, this is two hundred and eighty feet 
 down, and less than ten minutes are needed for the descent 
 as one slides along on the cinders. The depth, taken by 
 Mr. G. Sykes in 1907, seven hundred and thirty feet, ap- 
 pears correct. He found the diameter at the bottom to be 
 one thousand four hundred feet, and the bottom one hun- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 dred and fifty feet above sea-level. It is a beautiful and 
 impressive crater, and was first visited in 1882 by Sr. 
 Y. Bonillas, the mining engineer in Nogales. In grandeur 
 and regularity of shape it is in the Pinacate region second 
 only to Crater Elegante. There are several large craters 
 in the Pinacate region, but none as perfect in shape as these 
 two, which present very clearly the phenomena connected 
 with their structure and origin and must be of unusual 
 interest to geology. 
 
 Clodomiro tried in vain to start out some mountain- 
 sheep from below for me to photograph. He heard dis- 
 tinctly the noise of rolling stones in the great talus and 
 my attention was called in the same way. But it is 
 strangely difficult to see the sheep under such conditions, 
 as their color is so much like their surroundings, and, as 
 the Mexicans said, *'they stop behind the stones and you 
 cannot see them." Clodomiro scaled the talus almost 
 opposite to where he had made his descent, reaching the 
 ledge that led to my point of observation, from which we 
 again ascended to the rim. He saw many fresh tracks at 
 the bottom, all of them being, according to him, those of 
 females with young. During the entire year the moun- 
 tain-sheep are in the habit of going down into the craters, 
 but they are more prone to go there during the winter, 
 when they have their young, which is said to be in Novem- 
 ber. The vegetation below was the kind described at the 
 time of our visit to Crater Elegante, and in addition there 
 were many choyas seen. Both galleta grass and the fine 
 grass called sacate fino^ or sacate de lievre^ were observed 
 there. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 WESTWARD— LOOKING BACK TOWARD PINACATE— TINAJAS ALTAS 
 —ITS DISMAL MEMORIES— SUNSHINE AND MOONLIGHT OF THE 
 EARLY MORNING— EL CAPITAN— LAGUNA PRIETA, A SALT LAKE 
 —A LONG WAIT FOR WATER— HOW FRESH WATER APPEARS 
 AMONG BULRUSHES— APPROACHING THE COLORADO RIVER— 
 COLONIA LERDO— THE INDIANS AT THE LOWER PART OF THE 
 GREAT RIVER 
 
 On Thursday, January 20, a start for the Colorado 
 River was made. Our guide, Clodomiro Lopez, and his 
 brother, having first by explorations ascertained that it 
 was feasible to do so, had taken several herds of cattle 
 from Sonoita over our present camp to Laguna Prieta and 
 from there to Colonia Lerdo on the Colorado River, their 
 first trip having been made in October four years before. 
 There are about eighty miles without water by the route 
 which he chose and which is the straightest, and the 
 undertaking would have been impossible but for his dis- 
 covery of a small tinaja (natural tank) in Sierra de Lechu- 
 gilla; even thus the risks taken were considerable, and 
 many of the cattle died from thirst. 
 
 The question for us to decide was whether we should 
 follow the same route, hoping that there might be water 
 in the Lechugilla tank, or whether we should take the more 
 circuitous one over Tinaja del Tule and Tinajas Altas. 
 Clodomiro, the guide, maintained that even though the 
 tank lasts only for three months, our chances for finding 
 water there were good, and even if it should turn out to be 
 
 23s 
 
236 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 dry, we could reach Tinajas Altas in three days without 
 water. I was incHned to accept the guide's opinion inas- 
 much as our animals were in good condition after their 
 long rest in Pinacate, but Alberto, who was the owner of 
 some of them, was little inclined to take any chances, 
 and as I should be able by the safer route to cover 
 more ground, some of it of considerable interest to me, I 
 chose that one. 
 
 The sand dunes which stretch northward from the 
 main belt, at no great distance west of Pinacate, are easily 
 crossed. The long, low ridges run here in a general di- 
 rection of north and south, forming a belt four miles and a 
 half wide. The highest point reached was, according to 
 my aneroid, about one thousand four hundred feet. In 
 crossing this belt from the east one ascends very gradually; 
 after a while small ridges, from a quarter to a half mile 
 long, appear for about a mile; then for two and a half miles 
 the ridges are larger though low, a mile or two, or more, 
 long, and there is half a mile between each one. The last 
 ones are the largest. I found the sand to contain moisture 
 six inches below the surface, and at one place I gathered 
 some of the beautiful large white flowers with which I be- 
 came familiar later {Oenothera trichocalyx). 
 
 After a comfortable night spent on the outskirts of the 
 sand dunes we proceeded in a northerly direction between 
 two mountain ranges, to the east Sierra del Tuseral, about 
 thirty-five miles long, and to the west a sierra without 
 name, about seven miles long and running toward the 
 first one in an unusual northerly course. As this moun- 
 tain range looked singularly picturesque viewed from the 
 
A BEAUTIFUL VIEW 
 
 237 
 
 north-west, I have named it Sierra Nina for my friend, 
 Mrs. John Gray, of Boston. Where these two ranges 
 approach each other there are two passes, formed by a 
 small intervening mountain; the western pass is the nar- 
 rower, and I named the eastern, which is quite beautiful, 
 Paso de Juana, for my friend, Mrs. David Lydig, of New 
 York. 
 
 This pass is only three hundred feet higher than the 
 sand dunes we crossed, and the ascent is very gradual, 
 but, as one looks backward on approaching the pass, one 
 has, on account of the varied colors, a surprisingly fine 
 view, enclosed between the two mountain ranges as if in 
 a frame. The different shades of green in the desert 
 vegetation, from the light one of the sahuaro and the oco- 
 tillo to the very sombre one of the greasewood, are bor- 
 dered by these two light gray diverging sierras, and some 
 dark reddish foot-hills in the foreground add to the variety. 
 Then follows transversely the light roseate hue of the sand 
 belt and, above all, rises in the distant background, the 
 dark mass of the Pinacate Mountains, appearing quite 
 lofty through the pure air against the azure sky. 
 
 At Tinaja del Tule we were again on the old trail 
 from Caborca to Yuma, where we watered our animals 
 and filled our barrels. The pool is half a mile up a 
 narrow gorge and I was surprised at its small volume, 
 only twelve feet in diameter and three feet deep in the 
 middle. Still, as it is in sand, it contains somewhat 
 more water than is apparent, and it would cover a horse 
 standing in it. There are some smaller tanks higher up 
 in the gorge which at times have water. As soon as 
 
238 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 our thirsty crew had been satisfied and had departed, 
 two butterflies ahghted on the wet sand, one of medium 
 size and brown, the other a small blue one. It was 
 just noon and the canon felt pleasantly warm at 74° F. 
 
 The landscape which from here on presents many 
 sierras, at first near and then far, looked attractive in 
 the afternoon sun, making the mountains impressive 
 and seem much larger than they were in reality. We 
 camped on the extensive llano bordering the Gila Range 
 toward the east, near a palo fierro tree of unique size, 
 which rises in lonely grandeur above the lowly grease- 
 woods and is visible at a great distance. According to 
 the Mexicans, a whole family of fourteen was wiped out 
 here by the Papago Indians forty years ago; the Apaches 
 never came so far west. Whether such is the case, or 
 whether, as another report has it, the family perished from 
 lack of water, their graves are to be seen near by marked 
 by small stones placed in the surface so as to form crosses. 
 There is no water here, but enough grass, both galleta and 
 sacate fino, for pasture. 
 
 The soil on the llano was moist underneath the sur- 
 face which told us that during the stormy days of abor- 
 tive attempts at rain, which we had experienced at the 
 end of the year, rain had actually fallen here.* It fur- 
 ther indicated that we should probably have found 
 water in the small pool discovered by my guide in Sierra 
 de Lechugilla, if we had chosen the more direct route 
 
 * According to the reports of United States Weather Bureau, the rainfall at 
 Yuma, which is sixty miles from here, was on December 31, 1909, only inch, 
 and on January 2, 191 1, there fell j-^^ inch. 
 
A NOTED CAMP 
 
 239 
 
 to TInajas Altas. For the possible use of some future 
 traveller, I give here its location as it was described to 
 me. It is on the western side of the Sierra de Lechu- 
 gilla, at the base of the highest top, and is situated at 
 a point which from the north is one-third of the length 
 of the entire range. 
 
 As one approaches Tinajas Altas, little by little as- 
 cending from the llano that stretches northward as far 
 as the eye can follow, a beautiful view is had of the 
 mountains left behind, and among them the picturesque 
 range called Cabeza Prieta and the Tordillo Mountains, 
 both of delicate light gray color with curious intrusions 
 of very dark reddish rocks of volcanic origin. The range 
 derives its name, which means black head," from this 
 strange contrast of color. 
 
 Tinajas Altas is a landmark in the local and recent 
 history of that desolate region. It is a dismal looking 
 place and, after having been accustomed to the absolute 
 cleanliness of nature, the experience of again meeting 
 with pieces of cast-off clothing, rusty tin cans, and other 
 cheerless marks of human occupancy which were apparent 
 here was not a pleasing one. There is a large space for 
 camping at the lower end of the little valley which begins 
 at the foot of the mountains where the principal pool is. 
 An embankment of gravelly detritus shuts off the view 
 toward the east, while high granite rocks, bare and hard, 
 rise forbiddingly on the other sides. Large boulders which 
 were once detached from the rocks above are lying at the 
 base of the steep mountain sides. 
 
 As a curious bit of information from the desert I 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 may mention that at this camp, on January 23, I was 
 bitten by a mosquito, a few large ones being about. 
 The sierra is probably at this place narrower than else- 
 where, though it must be nearly a mile across. When 
 rain falls the formation is such as to favor the gathering 
 of water into one stream which rushes down the eastern 
 side and is retained in eight natural cavities, one above 
 the other. The lowest tank is very accessible, but the 
 rest are not, and there are stories of people having nearly 
 come to grief on attempting to climb the steep and slip- 
 pery sides. My guide told of a mountain-sheep that 
 once, when cornered, tumbled down in trying to escape 
 and fell into the lowest tank. A prospector in Tucson, 
 who ascended to the top, described to me a large sand 
 basin above the tinajas, a few hundred feet south of 
 which are a number of caves where pictographs are seen 
 as well as pounding-holes in the rocks. Not having 
 been there myself, I give the information with reserve. 
 The sand Papagoes had an important camp at Tinajas 
 Altas. The native name of the place is Oovuak, where 
 arrows (60) were shot (vuak).'' Two of their hero gods 
 shot arrows from each side of the range; one did shoot 
 across, but where the arrow of the other one fell the pools 
 came forth. 
 
 Until recently mountain-sheep were extremely com- 
 mon here. Travellers, who in our days pass only at 
 long intervals, used to shoot them without any difficulty. 
 On one of the three occasions that I visited this place 
 a sheep watched us from the crest above for many min- 
 utes. Their number has of late greatly decreased. Ten 
 
Filling our barrels and canteens at Tinaja del Tule 
 
NUMBERS OF MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 
 
 241 
 
 years ago, when the guide and his brother rested here in 
 the middle of the day, they noticed sheep around the 
 upper pool; the animals were having a siesta, but scenting 
 intruders began to move off, walking up the mountains 
 in a steady stream of forty-five by actual count. From 
 curiosity the Mexicans climbed up to take a general look 
 at things, and were astonished at the exceedingly strong 
 odor left in the camping place of the sheep. On an- 
 other occasion, in the winter, the brothers heard during 
 the night a great deal of noise from the tops of the rocks 
 that rise immediately above the camp. The sheep were 
 tramping on the hard granite as if they were horses with 
 iron shoes. It seemed uncanny to the men, and they 
 thought of the many dead buried here; they began to 
 imagine that perhaps the dead were moving about, and 
 wrapped their blankets tighter around themselves. Clo- 
 domiro, who otherwise is no coward, assured me that 
 he would not care to sleep alone at this place, and Al- 
 berto quite agreed with him. 
 
 The locality harbors many unpleasant memories; in 
 the days of the California gold excitement, as well as 
 later, many people passed by here, and the lowest and 
 most accessible pool did not last very long. Too ex- 
 hausted to climb higher up, many died from thirst. 
 Capt. D. D. Gaillard, of the International Boundary 
 Commission, relates a pathetic story of three exhausted 
 prospectors who perished at the foot of the almost ver- 
 tical slope; their bodies were discovered a few days 
 later, the fingers worn to the bones in their dying efforts 
 to reach water which was found in abundance in the 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 tank above. Others would fight for the possession of 
 the water and kill each other. People were murdered 
 who were suspected of carrying gold or other valuable 
 possessions. The dead were buried on the top of the 
 embankment that shuts off the view toward the east. 
 A small cross of stones embedded in the ground indi- 
 cates where a person is buried underneath. We counted 
 fifty-four of such crosses here; time has perhaps de- 
 stroyed as many more and there were many, no doubt, 
 who were buried without any sign to mark the spot. 
 Holes had been dug in the ground at three or four places 
 in the hopes of finding riches, for tradition has it that 
 travellers, their animals having given out or for other 
 reasons, buried their treasures here, and even the camp- 
 ing place had been searched for these. 
 
 On the day of our departure for the Colorado River 
 we coaxed our mules and horses in vain to drink; they 
 had satisfied their thirst the day before and did not care 
 for any more the next morning. The burros, however, 
 which on the whole seem able to take better care of 
 themselves, went to the pool voluntarily and prepared 
 for the day by drinking. The sierra is easily crossed 
 by a circuitous route a little farther north which finally 
 takes one through a natural pass. Coming out on the 
 western side, that which appears most striking is a pict- 
 uresque sierra rising boldly from among great sand 
 dunes toward the south. It can also be seen from Pina- 
 cate and from the Colorado River. It looked deep blue 
 in the hazy and calm afternoon as we began to leave 
 it behind. Though not visited by whites, according to 
 
UNUSUAL SUNRISE 
 
 243 
 
 reports, this mountain range has received various names, 
 of which the most appropriate is Sierra del Rosario. 
 
 The next morning, Tuesday, January 25, I again, 
 and for the fourth time, saw sunshine by refraction, and 
 this time along with the moonhght of the early morning. 
 The sun shone into my tent, the opening of which looked 
 toward the north-east, for twenty-three minutes before it 
 rose, and the full moon was bright at the same time for 
 five minutes. Although the coloring in general was light 
 orange red, and in the east brilliantly so, the moon was 
 surrounded by a deep blue light. During the night there 
 had been a strong breeze from the north which had 
 died out, and a light air current only from the same 
 direction remained. There were cirrus and stratus 
 clouds about; the atmosphere became more and more 
 hazy, and when the moon set, which was as far as it 
 was possible to judge correctly, eleven minutes before 
 seven, the atmosphere was so hazy that one could fancy 
 oneself at a seaport instead of in a dry desert. Although 
 a moderate northern gale sprang up at ten o'clock in the 
 morning, the atmosphere continued hazy. 
 
 We passed Monument 194 and continued our course 
 toward a lonely hill which had been visible on the west- 
 ern horizon since our exit from the sierra. For future 
 travellers this is a very important landmark; it leads in 
 the right direction toward Laguna Prieta, where the first 
 fresh water will be found after leaving Tinajas Altas. 
 I called this mountain El Capitan. 
 
 The extensive flat country over which we passed slopes 
 gradually down to the sand dunes. In parts it consists 
 
244 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 of small fertile basins where sunflowers {encelia erioce- 
 phala) and two kinds of herha del negro, sphceralcea 
 incana and j. oruttii, grew, especially the latter, which 
 appeared in great numbers. Though waterless, the re- 
 gion has in a few places, as for instance near El Capitan, 
 excellent pasturage and this favorable condition continues 
 almost up to the Colorado River; at first our animals 
 depended upon the coarse galleta grass which was then 
 green, but beyond Laguna Prieta there appeared more 
 of the delicate looking grass called sacate fino, which 
 grows desert-fashion, each plant widely separated from 
 the other, and is much liked by cattle and horses. 
 
 El Capitan is in reality several hills. Of the two 
 nearest to our approach, the south-eastern one. El Capi- 
 tan proper, consists of slate; the other one is a limestone 
 formation, in horizontal, varicolored streaks of white, 
 brown, and slate. For about a mile before reaching El 
 Capitan we crossed small mesas covered with smooth, 
 very pretty, water-worn pebbles, of jasper and quartz, 
 which my men eagerly gathered as curios. They were 
 also observed later by the thousands in similar localities 
 as far as the Colorado River, and were souvenirs of a 
 time when that whole country was under the sea. 
 
 To reach Laguna Prieta was a more laborious task 
 than we had expected. It seemed a long distance, and 
 as the guide and I rode along behind the rest of the 
 party, I expressed my astonishment at his feat of having 
 taken cattle over this route and successfully arriving at 
 the Colorado River. No tracks were to be seen any 
 more except indistinctly at one place, as the wind soon 
 
Lacuna Prieta, from the east 
 
 In the sand dunes before arriving at Lacuna Prieta 
 
A PRECARIOUS UNDERTAKING 
 
 obliterates them. Clodomiro told me the cattle were 
 driven by him and his companions from Tinaja de los 
 Papagos in a direct line over the sand dunes, passing 
 the southern point of Sierra del Viejo, to the small pond 
 in Sierra de Lechugilla, but they were too weak to reach 
 the water which is not very accessible. The horses only 
 could get at it, and a detour for water for the cattle had 
 to be made to Tinajas Altas. Six days were consumed by 
 the journey to Laguna Prieta, the majority of the cattle 
 arriving safely, though every day some dropped behind 
 to die from thirst. From sunrise to sunset the cattle 
 walked slowly in single file and scattering to eat wherever 
 grass appeared. A halt was made at night when the men 
 watched them. On a later occasion a hundred remained 
 behind, and at the last undertaking of this kind by other 
 herdsmen, the whole herd was abandoned near Cerro Pri- 
 eto, most of them finding their way back to Agva Salada. 
 
 For the last three miles before reaching Laguna 
 Prieta we crossed the western extremity of the sand 
 dunes, which attain their greatest height here, two or 
 three of the hills being at least two hundred feet high. 
 The lake is at the edge of the big dunes on their southern 
 side, and the comparatively large sheet of water made a 
 pleasing impression. Just as we descended toward it a 
 white coyote was observed running away from the shore. 
 At first sight, we took it for a peHcan; my unruly mule 
 prevented me from getting my field-glass quickly enough, 
 but the Mexican who rode behind me saw distinctly that 
 the apparition had four legs. An albino coyote, which 
 was very shy, was once seen near Caborca, 
 
246 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Camp was made on a slightly elevated ground near 
 the shore at the south-west end of the lake. Two large 
 mezqulte trees were growing here; they were rather ab- 
 ject looking as they had no leaves, but the guide had 
 seen them with beautiful foliage in the month of May. 
 Laguna Prieta is a salt water lake, but on the marshy 
 shore an abundance of fresh water may be found by dig- 
 ging in the extensive growth of typha lattpholia, popu- 
 larly called bulrushes, which are thriving here; the Mex- 
 icans call them tule. At three places the earth had been 
 dug away so as to make troughs two feet deep, twelve 
 feet long and six feet wide, which were full of clear water. 
 Many years ago, I understand, attempts at cattle raising 
 were made by people from the Colorado River with this 
 water as base for operations. The water, though slightly 
 brackish, does not taste bad, but among the Mexicans 
 of Colonia Lerdo it is reputed to have an ill effect on 
 horses, as some of them when thirsty have been known 
 to die from drinking it. 
 
 The lake is half a mile long and slightly less than 
 that distance wide, running from south-west to north- 
 east. Birds from the sea were swimming in the water 
 which, according to the guide, becomes very low in 
 May. The shores are soft and along the south-western 
 part overgrown with bulrushes and reeds, while on the 
 northern part the arrowbush is found. Our mules and 
 horses had had no water to drink for seventy-six hours, so 
 I remained here a day in order to give them a rest. 
 
 In the first evening spent here, Thursday, January 
 27, Venus on nearing the horizon shone with a reddish 
 
CONTINGENCIES OF THE DESERT 
 
 twinkling or scintillating light. I do not know whether 
 this had been the case for some time or not — perhaps 
 not, for usually in the evenings I cast a few observing 
 glances around the heavens. The following evening the 
 planet on approaching the horizon at three or four de- 
 grees assumed this same color which was very notice- 
 able when only a couple of degrees above it. 
 
 The first day's travel over low sand dunes from La- 
 guna Prieta was rather heavy, and our horses began to 
 give out. Fortunately, as we reached a llano toward 
 sunset, we came upon patches of grass. The only wood 
 available consisted in old stumps of the curious canu- 
 tillo {ephedra) which now made its first appearance. It 
 is one of the lowest types of the flowering plants with 
 only rudimentary flowers, and in spite of its appearance 
 is not related to the pines. On account of much resin- 
 ous matter which it contains, the plant enjoys a great 
 reputation among Mexicans as a remedy to be taken 
 internally against a certain contagious disease. Fuel re- 
 sources being rare on the coast, the canutillo is very 
 useful for making fire. It burns lustily for a little while, 
 but as it makes no charcoal, we could not boil beans 
 by it; tortillas, however, may be made with some little 
 trouble. I picked up two long-stalked puff balls {baU 
 tarea) which were growing in the shade of a chamiso. 
 They were dry, but the sand was moist around the 
 roots, two and a half inches below the surface. 
 
 Already at El Capitan we had seen rising in the west 
 a thick column of smoke. The Indians were burning 
 dry reeds, bushes, and old grass along the Colorado 
 
248 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 River about thirty-five miles away, and it seemed like a 
 distant greeting. As our party approached the wide 
 bed of the river, a cloud of smoke from the same source 
 again appeared as if it were being emitted by a volcano. 
 We passed through thickets of willows, mezquites, arrow- 
 bushes, etc., and then among marshes covered with bul- 
 rushes and reeds. There were also muddy places where 
 the surface had a thin layer of salitre. We found our- 
 selves near the great river which starts in distant Wyo- 
 ming, at an elevation of ten thousand feet, and, after a 
 tumultuous course of nearly two thousand miles, reaches 
 the sea through Mexican territory. Early in the after- 
 noon we arrived at Colonia Lerdo, a very small Mexi- 
 can settlement on the lower part of the river. Two 
 miles before reaching this place we had passed a small 
 river, the so-called Rillito Salado, part of the Colorado 
 River, which in May and June becomes so large that 
 boats have to be used for crossing, some of which were 
 lying on the beach. 
 
 It was the end of January and the weather was calm, 
 clear, and pleasant with a temperature in the warmest 
 part of the day ranging from 74° to 78° F. in the shade. 
 Every morning before sunrise the sonorous voices of the 
 cranes (grus) were heard as flocks of them passed by. 
 Some mosquitoes and flies were about, and during the 
 summer these become a pest. Gnats, trying to get into 
 eyes and ears, are always present here, but they were 
 not very annoying at that time. From April to Septem- 
 ber is the season when all such obnoxious insects abound. 
 The climate is very wholesome. 
 
Approaching Laguna Prieta 
 
THE MOUTH OF COLORADO RIVER 249 
 
 According to local Information, the first settlement 
 here was In 1872. A Mexican company tried to exploit 
 the agricultural possibilities of the region with Irriga- 
 tion, as well as those of a certain fibrous plant {seshania 
 macrocarpa) that grows In the delta. The enterprise 
 came to grief, and an American company which later 
 took the matter up seems to have had no better suc- 
 cess. If the Information conveyed to me Is correct, the 
 notoriously changeable river carried away three colony 
 sites, the first one situated one mile west of the pres- 
 ent one, and the second and third were a little nearer 
 to It; the fourth, and present one consists of two 
 ranches belonging In reality to one Mexican family 
 which has survived the various vicissitudes of coloniza- 
 tion. They raise cattle, wheat, maize, beans, squashes, 
 and watermelons. The soil Is rich and I was told that 
 one sweet potato grown here weighed twenty-five pounds. 
 The Inhabitants are Mexicans with the pleasant char- 
 acteristics of this people. Of late years Sr. Sandoval, 
 the banker of Nogales, had begun to keep cattle on the 
 river fourteen miles below; there were about four hun- 
 dred head and they seemed to be doing very well. Be- 
 sides the grama grass, the sacate Colorado and the 
 so-called sacate salado, the seeds of which are eaten 
 by the Indians, furnish pasturage. The cattle will also 
 eat the leaves of the chamlso bush as well as those of 
 bulrushes (tule) when green. 
 
 It was pleasant to meet at this place an Englishman, 
 Lord Osborne Beauclerk, who, accompanied by the Can- 
 adian geologist, Mr. Warburton Pike, had made a boating 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and sporting trip to the upper part of the Gulf of CaHfor- 
 nia. Lord Osborne was a much-travelled man who had 
 visited parts of Asia to shoot mountain-sheep of which 
 sport he had made a specialty. They were on their way 
 back to Yuma, and kindly replenished my depleted larder 
 with rice, sugar, and other articles which were much ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 Only three Indian families were living at Colonia 
 Lerdo, and they had no cultivated fields. They were 
 mostly old people and I found them to be Apache Tontos 
 from Lower California, who intermarry with the Cocopa 
 Indians, only one of whom was present. There was little 
 of interest to be gained from an interview with an old 
 Apache Tonto who lived here with his family. He sold 
 me his bow which is large and made of willow. Among 
 the arrows was one without plumes which is used for 
 killing fish, and with these there was a club of light wood, 
 colored red with ochre, as also a bunch of hawk and heron 
 feathers with a rattle from a rattlesnake attached. Two 
 weeks previously he had killed with a stick twenty large, 
 fat fish which had been entrapped in a waterhole that was 
 evaporating. He had dried the fish which smelled very 
 strongly of rancid oil. 
 
 The Cocopa Indians live along the lower part of the 
 Colorado River, nearly all of them within the boundary 
 of Mexico, and plant their crops in the fertile river de- 
 posits. The head-quarters were formerly some miles west 
 of Colonia Lerdo, between the Hardie and Colorado Rivers. 
 They are considered by the Mexicans of the Colonia to 
 be well off, raising wheat, maize, the ordinary brown 
 
COCOPA INDIANS 
 
 251 
 
 beans as well as the small white beans called tepari, and 
 yurimuri, black beans. They own wagons and American 
 ploughs and are able to sell some maize and watermelons. 
 Cipriano Dominguez, of Colonia Lerdo, who later served 
 me as guide, in 1900 took a census of the tribe and es- 
 timated their number then at one thousand two hundred. 
 Their principal rancherias to-day are, according to him, 
 Noche Buena, where about twenty families live, many of 
 whom seek work at Yuma and return when the river 
 rises to plant crops; Mexical with some forty to fifty 
 families, Pescador with fifteen families, and Pozo Vicente, 
 which is the largest, containing over a hundred families. 
 Formerly they all lived in Noche Buena, Algodones, Pozo 
 Vicente, and La Colonia. According to the same inform- 
 ant, they suffered little damage from the change of the 
 course of the Colorado River, though on account of it 
 many went to Pozo Vicente and over thirty families live 
 in Yuma, working for the Americans. 
 
 The Cocopa burn their dead. In case of illness the 
 patient abstains from food and drink. Persons suspected 
 of witchcraft are often killed. The tribal name of these 
 Indians is Xawilkunyavcei, which means: those who live 
 on the river (xawily river). They are reputed to be very- 
 hospitable and, to quote the same informant, "They are 
 the best Indians I know. If a Mexican or American loses 
 his way, these Indians take care of him, give him food, 
 and show him the road." The usual diseases acquired 
 through contact with civilization" are found in the 
 tribe, and many die from syphilis. Formerly the Cocopa 
 were in constant conflict with the Yuma Indians, but they 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 were friendly with the Apache Tonto, Maricopa, and 
 Papago. 
 
 Here our animals had a much-needed rest of four days. 
 One of the horses had to be left, but our mules were all 
 right, and the burros, with one exception, a young animal, 
 were in better condition than at the start. On our re- 
 turn journey along the coast, it was very desirable to 
 secure a guide, but the one man here, Cipriano Domin- 
 guez, who knew the coast for some distance, vv^as unfort- 
 unately away in Lower California with a party of Ameri- 
 can sportsmen from the Middle West. It was not pos- 
 sible to wait for his return, which was uncertain, and, 
 even without a guide, I would have attempted to reach 
 Pinacate by a new route rather than return in the same 
 way we had come. As good luck would have it, the man 
 arrived the day before our departure and was at once en- 
 gaged to go with us as far as he knew the way. Having 
 had to walk the last fifteen miles barefoot, he needed a day 
 in which to recuperate and was to overtake us the next 
 morning, it being easy to follow our tracks in the sandy 
 soil. From my experience on the coast journey from here 
 to Pinacate, I would consider it hazardous to undertake 
 the trip without a guide on account of the extreme diffi- 
 culty in discovering where there is water. It is known 
 to exist only at certain places, some of which it would have 
 been highly improbable that we should find, in spite of 
 the directions and descriptions given me by the Indian 
 medicine-man in Quitovaquita. Besides water is, as a 
 rule, found on the coast only by digging for it, and there 
 may be no indication of its presence except to one long ex- 
 
A NECESSARY ADJUNCT 
 
 perienced in finding it. A spade is an essential part of 
 the explorer's outfit for this trip. We saw tracks of a 
 man on horseback who had travelled along close to the 
 beach. He may have been a runaway from justice who, 
 according to the opinions of the Mexicans with me, must 
 have finally perished for lack of water. 
 
 In the afternoon a fire started in the dry reeds and 
 grass on the other side of the former bed of the river 
 where our animals were in good pasture, and we were 
 obliged to bring them over to our side. A strong gale 
 from the south-west increased the fire in magnitude and 
 fierceness, and in the evening it threatened to destroy the 
 houses of the Indians, when suddenly a change of wind to 
 a northerly direction brought relief, and the fire died away 
 after a few hours. The Indians no doubt had made it 
 purposely, for they were just at this time busily engaged 
 in such work all along the river, in the usual Indian be- 
 lief that smoke produces rain and clouds. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 TRAVELLING ALONG THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA— DELIGHTFUL 
 CLIMATE— KILLING A PORPOISE— FISHING— FRESH WATER ON 
 THE BEACH— UNATTRACTIVE DRINKING WATER— FINE VIEWS 
 —A GREAT SALT DEPOSIT— EXTRAORDINARY OCCURRENCE OF 
 SPRINGS— HARD TRAVEL— THE PAPAGO SALT EXPEDITIONS- 
 WORSHIP OF THE SEA 
 
 We passed a swamp known locally under the name of 
 El Doctor, where fresh water is found by digging a couple 
 of feet down among the bulrushes. On a low sandy 
 bluff which rises a few feet above the swamp, a jacal had 
 been erected, and near this our guide and his brother 
 once experimented with the agricultural possibilities of 
 the sand, water being carried from the swamp; beans, 
 maize, squashes, and watermelons gave very satisfactory 
 results. The marsh is on the edge of a great playa that 
 runs south-east of the river down to the sea, the eastern 
 limit of the delta. We followed the edge of the playa 
 until we reached the sea, travelling most of the time on 
 high ground and afterward along the bases of desiccated 
 sand cliffs. 
 
 Salitre frequently covers small plains of soft soil. 
 There was no trail to follow, though an American auto- 
 mobile from Yuma once tried to reach what is called the 
 ''harbor" of Santa Clara. The automobile had to be 
 abandoned at the edge of the playa at a camping place 
 of the same name, the Americans walking thence on foot. 
 From the "'harbor" which, according to our guide, is 
 
 254 
 
THE DELTA OF THE RIVER 
 
 255 
 
 twenty-five feet deep, runs a narrow and shallow inlet 
 or slough, passing the camp of Santa Clara and extend- 
 ing some twenty-five miles beyond, the sea at high tide 
 coming up that far. Before arriving at this camp one 
 may obtain a fine view of some of the river delta by going 
 to the edge of the bluff of sand cliffs which began a few 
 miles east of El Doctor and farther on rises for a hundred 
 feet or more above the playa. The many clumps of bul- 
 rushes (tulares) observed from there growing down on the 
 great mud-flat near the edges are a curious feature. On 
 account of the action of the wind these isolated clumps 
 of coarse plants look half conical in shape. According 
 to my guide they all contain fresh water. Tracks led 
 to some of them, the cattle having learned that water 
 should be sought here. At the foot of the bluff, before 
 arriving at Santa Clara, there is a spring of tepid water, 
 and the cattle drink this too, though it contains some 
 sulphur. 
 
 If my guide is correct, at very high tides the sea 
 washes over most of this playa, which is sixteen miles wide 
 at the mouth of the river, but fresh water may still be 
 found where the bulrushes grow. In digging among them 
 the water at the surface may be salty, but two or three 
 feet lower it is found to be fresh; he said that such is 
 always the case and my own experience on this expedition 
 confirms it. In our camp at Santa Clara on the edge of 
 the playa, it was a novel sight to behold fresh water where 
 the ground all around was covered with a deposit of 
 salitre as white as new fallen snow. There were small 
 salt water lagoons near by, but bulrushes were also grow- 
 
256 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ing, and when a hole two and a half feet deep had been 
 made in the sandy mud near the big plants, good water, 
 insignificantly brackish, gradually seeped in. The cacha- 
 nilla, or arrowbush, is also considered to be a good sign 
 of water. 
 
 On the playa were hundreds of coyote tracks. Several 
 robins appeared near our waterhole during the afternoon. 
 Thousands of old sea-shells covered the surface along the 
 lower parts of the sand ridges which were fifteen or twenty 
 feet higher than the playa. I had frequently observed 
 sea-shells through the western part of the desert on the 
 ground at a considerable distance from the coast; they 
 were found to an extent which makes it seem unlikely that 
 they could have been carried there by the Indians. Near 
 La Nariz and at La Salada fragments of dosinia ponderosa 
 were encountered. 
 
 On reaching the beach we found driftwood lying about 
 in the shape of trunks and branches of cotton-wood and 
 willow, which the river had carried along in its course to 
 the sea. Several specimens of plants in flower were seen 
 on the low sand dunes near the beach, among them 
 Oenothera trichocalyx. At times we turned off and up onto 
 these low sand-hills, but we were never over a mile from 
 the sea, during the first part of our journey, and usually 
 less. It was the first week of February, and the weather 
 was altogether delightful, remaining almost calm for 
 several days. The temperature was pleasantly warm, 
 from 60^ to 70° F. about noon, and at night it would fall 
 as low as 31° F, though it did not feel as cold as that. 
 One afternoon some nimbus clouds appeared in the west 
 
THE ENCHANTING SEA 
 
 257 
 
 against the intensely blue sky; rain fell from some of them, 
 but it evaporated before it reached half-way down to the 
 sea. 
 
 Our first camp on the Gulf was made among the sand 
 dunes a few yards from the beach itself. A porpoise had 
 inadvertently become entrapped here as the tide receded, 
 and Alberto, who was with the pack train ahead of me, 
 discovered it splashing near the sea. Actuated by the 
 savage desire to kill everything that is alive, which most 
 human beings have, he approached it and murdered it 
 with a shot from his pistol. The blood, according to his 
 description, spouted forth like a fountain, and one shot 
 was sufficient. When the sun was setting three flocks of 
 cranes passed us flying westward, the last flock number- 
 ing about a hundred. 
 
 The next day for nearly three miles at a stretch we 
 followed a lovely beach, the ripples of the sea often wash- 
 ing lazily over the horses' hoofs, while a soft breath of air 
 was wafted from the south-west. The big horse of Clodo- 
 miro, who rode beside me, stopped often to try to drink 
 from the sea, so he dismounted, unfastened the bridle, and 
 let it judge the water for itself. A great many curlews 
 were walking on the mud-flats and sea-gulls were about, 
 but all seemed to be somewhat on their guard against us. 
 As the tide came in great numbers of fish began to sport 
 at the edge of the water, often jumping out of it, especially 
 around the small rocky promontories. 
 
 By common impulse we stopped at a promising place 
 in order to replenish our larder from that wealth of ani- 
 mal life. To be sure, dynamiting is very poor sport, but 
 
258 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 under such conditions as the present ones, where one 
 could not afford to waste any time in the securing of 
 needed provisions, it seemed permissible to use this rough 
 but ready way. After the small explosions the men 
 eagerly ran out up to their waists and caught with their 
 hands the dead or stupefied fish, throwing them ashore, 
 and one of them gathered big, fat mullets in his straw hat. 
 The result was thirty-one excellent fish, all of the same 
 kind, which provided us with superb food for several days. 
 The upper part of the Gulf abounds in fish. Our new 
 guide told me that on his recent expedition with the Amer- 
 icans he had caught about a thousand fish in one of the 
 ancient stone enclosures of the Indians constructed for 
 this purpose. He repaired the corral and during one 
 night this great number was entrapped. The Americans, 
 however, not wanting so many, threw half of them back 
 into the sea. 
 
 Later in the afternoon our animals had a much needed 
 drink from a spring on the beach itself, only a hundred 
 yards from the sand cliffs. Nobody would suspect fresh 
 water here, and its discovery by Cipriano was due to the 
 actions of a coyote excavating to reach it. The water 
 showed no movement and the spring is covered by the 
 tide. In a similar manner fresh water is found on the 
 beach of Puerto de Libertad, to which people from Cab- 
 orca and Altar go in the early summer. There at low 
 tide the men come with spades to water their animals. 
 
 That night we spent behind a low ridge of sand dunes 
 at a place which our guide had named Tornillal, after a 
 number of tornillos, screw-bean trees {prosopis puhescens). 
 
LONELINESS AND DESOLATION 
 
 growing there. The screw-beans, which are considered by 
 the Mexicans to have as much nutritive value as oats, are 
 eaten by mules and donkeys, but rarely by horses. The 
 Indians eat them toasted and ground into a pinole. We 
 made camp on a patch of clear level ground which on 
 account of its clayish consistency was cracked with deep 
 furrows. In spite of a light cover of salitre which ap- 
 peared in many places, there was still among the surround- 
 ing sand-hills enough grass for our animals, although in 
 the coast country this was more scarce than before. 
 Quails were running about on the dune back of our camp, 
 and the singing of other birds was heard, but the place 
 was not attractive. The presence of screw-bean trees, at 
 that time without leaves, and of such bushes as the qua- 
 viri and the chamiso did not help to relieve the impres- 
 sion of loneliness and desolation of the landscape. The 
 sand people used to camp here on fishing expeditions or 
 on their way to the Colorado River, and I was curious to 
 see where fresh water was to be found. Cipriano pointed 
 out a shallow hole in the dry, clayish soil, under an arrow- 
 bush; there water had been found before, and by digging 
 down four feet deeper we discovered some, but it was 
 unusually repulsive, dark-brown in color though fairly 
 clear, and smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen, very salt, 
 and as bitter as any medicinal mineral water. Its color 
 was possibly due to the screw-beans, as I later on saw the 
 earth black underneath these trees. 
 
 It was the worst water used on our expedition; but 
 it did fairly well, with Liebig's extract, which requires 
 much salt, and under the circumstances we were glad to 
 
26o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 fill our barrels with it. Only one of us was ill for a few 
 days from its effect. We worked our way up to the top 
 of the cliffs, consisting of a clayey calcareous sand, which 
 attain here a height of from one hundred and fifty to two 
 hundred feet, and arrived at a hard sand mesa. A flat, 
 extensive country now presented itself to our view; across 
 it to the north is seen the picturesque Sierra del Rosario 
 among the sand dunes, while in front to the east north- 
 east Pinacate rises dark and gloomy in the distance. To 
 the east are seen two large stretches of sand dunes and 
 also one to the north-east. The vast expanse of land, not 
 quite level, with its stunted growth of bluish-gray chamiso, 
 yellowish-green greasewood, and tufts of green galleta 
 grass reminded me of certain flats one occasionally meets 
 with in the Norwegian highlands. We followed an old 
 Indian track along the edge of the mesa, sometimes pass- 
 ing only a few yards from the steep descent of the sand 
 cliffs to the beach, where two black pelicans were seen. 
 At noon a dense, snow-white fog filled the Gulf, reaching 
 up to our elevation. Above it in the west rose the blue 
 sierra of Lower California, the highest point discernible 
 being San Pedro Martiro. As the cliffs became lower 
 we again descended to the beach where we camped among 
 the sand dunes. The deep blue sky was clear, but the 
 humidity in the evening was very great, and all our things 
 felt wet. It was pleasant to be lulled to sleep by the sound 
 of the lazy waves against the beach, which awakened, I 
 do not know why, memories of a trip to that charming 
 spot. Bar Harbor, in Maine. 
 
 A distance of only three miles inland, but necessi- 
 
SALINA GRANDE 
 
 261 
 
 tating laborious travel over sand dunes, brought us to 
 the largest salina in that part of the country. As soon 
 as the top of the dunes is reached, a very small one 
 is discovered, about a quarter of a mile in diameter, 
 and near by is an arm of the large one, reaching toward 
 the south-west within a mile and a half from the sea. 
 This salt deposit has sometimes been called Salina 
 Grande, which may be accepted as its name. Surrounded 
 by sand dunes of medium size, it appears to be from 
 twenty to thirty feet above sea-level. It is two miles 
 long at its greatest length, running south-west and north- 
 east, the south-western end being quite narrow. It is 
 three-quarters of a mile wide at its broadest part, and 
 this breadth is maintained for at least half a mile, where 
 the most valuable part of it is. Walking across it, I 
 found the salt hard and beautifully white, and the middle 
 section appeared deep. This salina has been visited by 
 few people, among them Sr. Jose Y. Tapia, the mining 
 surveyor of Altar, who, as most people, entered from the 
 Pinacate region. He calculated that it contained seven 
 million tons of salt. I understand that a French com- 
 pany, which for some years worked a gold mine, after- 
 ward abandoned, near Caborca, also examined this de- 
 posit. Much fresh water is present and some day, when 
 railroad communication shall have been established, the 
 Salina Grande will prove to be of great commercial value. 
 
 As Cipriano Dominguez did not know the road any 
 further, he returned to his home, and we spent the day 
 here where the animals had good water and a rest, while 
 the interesting physico-geographical conditions of the 
 
262 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 region occupied my attention. A peculiar feature is the 
 prevalence of fresh water springs on the flat northern 
 shore of the sahna; a few of them unite and form a 
 small, gently running stream which disappears into the 
 salt. In the two mornings of our stay herons were 
 standing in line like grenadiers, along this little fresh 
 water flow. The somewhat circular clusters of bul- 
 rushes scattered on the northern shore at the widest part 
 of the salina were as usual indications of fresh water, 
 but here the water was in sight. Moreover, it was pres- 
 ent in remarkable circular reservoirs of greater or less 
 regularity of shape, the best preserved ones, stripped 
 of their plant growth, resembling small shallow craters, 
 most of which were filled by a hill in the middle. 
 
 A rim surrounded the depression about the hill where 
 fresh water is found. Bulrushes covered the little hill 
 and in most cases also the depression, or at least parts of 
 it. The composition of the reservoir was the same as 
 that of the shore or playa — sand with an apparent mixt- 
 ure of clay. These curious springs numbered sixteen; 
 not all equally distinct in their formation, but in the main 
 features their similarity could usually be traced. The 
 Mexicans had the convenient word pozo (well, waterhole) 
 for this peculiar formation. 
 
 I examined eight of these, all of different sizes and 
 recognizable at a distance by their growths of bulrushes. 
 The one which was nearest the sand dunes and at which 
 we were camped was a hundred feet in diameter; the 
 sand heap in the middle was five feet high, and the rim 
 a foot and a half. The little hill was densely covered with 
 
A pozo AT Salina Grande, seen from the east 
 
 The rim is plain; most of our animals are standing inside of it. Screwbean trees and bulrushes on the inside hill 
 
 Salina Grande in its northern part, showing many of the pozos or tulares 
 
CURIOUS SPRINGS 
 
 263 
 
 bulrushes and the depression also, but to a less extent. 
 An abundance of fresh water, only shghtly salt, could be 
 seen among the plants and there was no necessity for using 
 the spade to get at it. Other pozos were twenty feet in 
 diameter, with a depression two feet deep. The largest 
 of them was located a couple of hundred yards from 
 our camp, farther out on the shore or playa. This was 
 about two hundred feet in diameter and had a remark- 
 ably regular rim, three-quarters of which rose three feet 
 above the playa, the rest being lower. This contained 
 more water than any of those visited and looked like 
 an overgrown pond; the water here was quite nice to 
 the taste and only negligibly salt. 
 
 One of these pozos was still further out, actually in 
 the salt bed, where the soft salt cover became more 
 solid, and here the water was perfectly fresh. One 
 small pozo which contained much water had no hill in 
 the middle. An extraordinary feature of these forma- 
 tions was that water actually may be found on top of 
 the sand heap in the middle. Climbing up one of them 
 which was unusually high, about ten feet, I found that a 
 coyote had scratched a hole four feet above the depres- 
 sion, and this was filled with water. The sand on top 
 was mixed with some black vegetable matter and was 
 extremely moist; a small hole I scooped out with my 
 hand was immediately filled with fresh water. I sup- 
 pose these curious formations in the sandy soil of the 
 shore are due to the action of water that at one time 
 must have been stronger than now. There is no moun- 
 tain range nearer than the isolated Sierra del Rosario, 
 
264 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 thirty-five miles to the north. Sand dunes are still char- 
 acteristic of the country for miles further on. It seems 
 as if the presence of so much fresh water here must pre- 
 suppose its existence underneath the western area of the 
 desert of the District of Altar and extending perhaps up 
 into southern Arizona. 
 
 Besides two kinds of bulrushes (typhay in Spanish 
 tule), some arrowbushes are found growing over the 
 reservoirs and the latter looked more intensely green 
 than usual. In the depressions grew also the grass 
 called sacate salado, and sometimes also screw-bean 
 trees, a considerable number of which are present on 
 the north-eastern part of the shore where the little fresh 
 water stream originates. A plant (anemonopsis califor- 
 nica) called by the Mexicans herha del manso was a 
 singular growth in these pozos. Its large root, which has 
 a strong medicinal scent, like that which characterizes 
 an apothecary shop, is perhaps the most popular of the 
 many favorite remedies of northern Mexico. It is used 
 internally to cure colds, coughs, or indigestion, as well as 
 externally for wounds or swellings, and is employed in 
 a similar way by the Indians. Of the latter, those who 
 lived in the dune country are said to have been in the 
 habit of chewing bits of this root, as elsewhere tobacco is 
 chewed. These plants grew here in great numbers and to 
 enormous proportions; some of their roots were as much 
 as three feet long and very heavy. The root finds a ready 
 sale everywhere and my Mexicans were not long in 
 gathering as many of the plants as they could carry on 
 their animals. One of the men, whose horse was well- 
 
A POZO AT THE EDGE OF SaLINA GrANDE 
 In the foreground, visible in part, rim, fresh water, and hill. The trees are screwbeans. 
 
 A POZO AT Salina Grande 
 
 Inside hill, burned over, appears in central part. On top of hill fresh water was found 
 
BEAUTIFUL SAND FORMATIONS 265 
 
 nigh exhausted, walked himself in order to put a load 
 of fifty pounds on his horse. 
 
 Animal life seemed scarce here, though two ravens 
 darted repeatedly with angry cries toward my white 
 terrier, as if they wanted to strike him for daring to 
 compete with them in the food market, and he rose 
 each time and snapped at them. Lizards and some 
 species of rodents seem to be the most conspicuous 
 fauna in the dunes. 
 
 No one of my party knew the road to the Salina del 
 Pinacate, another smaller salt deposit, where the next 
 water would be found, but as our animals had been in 
 pasture with good water to drink, we felt no anxiety 
 about the journey. It turned out to be extremely fa- 
 tiguing travel, however, the animals working all the time 
 in the deep, soft sand, up and down the dunes. We fol- 
 lowed the crests as much as possible, which were some- 
 what harder and afforded the best means for progress. 
 It was the heaviest work of the expedition. Usually the 
 dunes formed large, irregular waves of no great height 
 but once, in a limited area, we came across some big 
 ones. We passed some beautiful formations of sand 
 made by the action of the wind, which were like ter- 
 races or fortifications extending one above the other. 
 
 We camped without water. The next day, about 
 half-way to the salina, as we followed the higher part 
 of the large sand dunes near the slough which under 
 the name of Estero del Tule runs northward, Clodo- 
 miro and I came across an old Indian camping place. 
 It was about three hundred yards from the slough, be- 
 
266 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 hind some high sand-hills on which a few mezquites were 
 growing. As I stopped to take my bearings we no- 
 ticed some pieces of wood that had been cut by an axe 
 long ago, an unmistakable sign of human activity. Per- 
 haps this had been done by the lonely Indian of Pina- 
 cate mentioned before. Fifty or a hundred yards from 
 there, on a bit of level ground, between the sand-hills, 
 which was covered with large chamiso bushes and sa- 
 caton grass, about fifty quails suddenly started forth 
 and enlivened the lonesome landscape with their defiant 
 notes. Shortly afterward we came upon a deep and 
 narrow excavation that led down to water, the existence 
 of which is known only to the Indians and one Mexican 
 who gave it the name of Pozo del Caballo, from the skel- 
 eton of a horse he found there. Considerable work with 
 a spade would have been necessary to make the water 
 accessible for our animals, and there was no reason to 
 call back our pack train which was in advance of us, so 
 we continued our journey, striking a well-marked Ind- 
 ian trail which leads northward. Small level places were 
 covered with salitre, and the whiteness of the slough, 
 which we followed for six miles, was almost blinding to 
 our eyes. 
 
 The slough finally became quite narrow, only twenty 
 yards across, and making many curves and windings. 
 After having passed two of these we found our pack train 
 waiting for us to decide in which direction to proceed. 
 The Pinacate salt deposit, which we were endeavoring to 
 reach, could not now be far off, but neither Clodomiro 
 nor one of the Mexicans who had visited it recognized the 
 
A CRITICAL POSITION 
 
 267 
 
 locality, having approached it from the direction oppo- 
 site to that with which they were acquainted. Clodomiro, 
 smarting perhaps under the feehng of having to be guide 
 without — through no fault of his — knowing that part 
 of the country, undertook to direct us and, leaving the 
 slough which now ran easterly, led us up on sand dunes 
 that seemed particularly merciless to our animals after 
 their very hard day's travel. One of the horses had to be 
 left behind after a short time. It was five o'clock in the 
 afternoon, the sun would soon set, and further marching 
 in the dunes seemed aimless. Why not follow the slough 
 that appeared to run in the same direction ? There was 
 no time to waste, so following my impulse I led the ex- 
 pedition down to the slough again. A march of an hour 
 more brought us to the salina which we did not recognize 
 at first. It appeared that the very slough we came by was 
 part of it, but, being covered with white salitre, it did not 
 reveal the whereabouts of the salt deposit until, just as 
 darkness set in, we arrived at some shallow water be- 
 tween thin layers of salt, roseate in color. 
 
 Our thirsty animals hurried into it, to be sadly disap- 
 pointed, for it was all salt. A few minutes' further travel 
 along the edges brought to our attention small heaps of 
 earth that had been thrown up on the beach. This was 
 the work of men who had been there to get salt, and we 
 hailed it with delight, for there they had dug for water. 
 To be sure the water was not very fresh, and two of my 
 men as well as two of the mules declined it. However, 
 I knew better water could be found by digging deeper, 
 which at that time we were too tired to do, and I congrat- 
 
268 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ulated myself on having saved the expedition from pos- 
 sible disaster. Next morning, by digging six feet deep, 
 fairly good water was procured on the beach of the salt 
 deposit. The two mules which were so particular had 
 been without water for over seventy-two hours. 
 
 We spent one day here recuperating and trying to 
 collect the three animals, two of them donkeys, which we 
 had been obliged to leave behind, but in this we were only 
 partially successful. Our horses were in a bad way; these 
 animals, however patient, are not serviceable for such a 
 trip, as they are too fastidious about their food and water. 
 A horse prefers not to eat rather than to try food he does 
 not know. In fact, only two of them reached Sonoita 
 again, and this was accomplished only through the heroic 
 efforts of their owners, one of them walking almost all 
 the time from Colonia Lerdo and the other keeping up 
 his horse's strength with a sack of oats which he had 
 succeeded in securing there. They were large, splendid 
 looking animals at the start, but, as my guide said and as 
 is generally true, ''the horse that enters the medanos never 
 comes back." Even my riding mule began to show signs 
 of fatigue. 
 
 The salt deposit is at a bend of the slough, and is only 
 about a quarter of a mile long, some two hundred yards 
 broad, and is apparently shallow. The salt is found in 
 layers; along the water edge it is rose-colored and in the 
 central part quite hard and fairly free from impurities. 
 The sea, which is three miles off, is said by the Indians to 
 reach here twice a year. This salina is interesting only 
 because it has from time immemorial yielded the main 
 
GOING AFTER SALT 
 
 269 
 
 supply of salt for the Papago Indians, who still come here 
 even from as far away as the Gila River. A few Mexicans 
 also, of outlying places such as Quitovac and Sonoita, 
 obtain this commodity from here. The main route fol- 
 lowed by the Indians passes over Quitovaquita, Tinaja 
 del Cuervo, and La Soda, and there is also a trail from 
 the Tinaja del Cuervo direct to Quitovac. 
 
 Guadalupe pointed out to me the place where the 
 Indian expeditions camp among the greasewood bushes 
 close to the shore. He also showed me where the Indians, 
 before attempting to gather the salt, had their ceremonial 
 race on the deposit, running four times either forward and 
 backward or one side up and the other down. He him- 
 self has been too much with Mexicans to consider any 
 ceremony necessary for fetching salt, but at Chujubabi, 
 where he often lives, he has seen Papagoes pass on their 
 way to another deposit on the coast, called San Jorge, 
 fifty miles from there. 
 
 Leaving their horses at the foot of the range of Chu- 
 jubabi, the Indians would run on foot up the hills, nude 
 but for a cloth around the loins and a ribbon tied around 
 the head. Reaching the top, they would stop in a line all 
 looking toward the distant salt, and every one would make 
 a waving motion with the right hand, from out in toward 
 the chest, one time only, and then they would descend 
 again. The old men are left in charge watching the ani- 
 mals so that they do not drink water until the return of 
 their owners. There is no water from there to San Jorge, 
 the distance being covered by the Indians in a day and 
 a half. This salina, which is said to be only a couple of 
 
270 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 hundred meters in diameter and at long intervals covered 
 by the sea, is still popular also with many Papagoes north 
 of the boundary line. Their expeditions pass La Nariz, 
 Espuma, and Chujubabi, and the time to go there is in 
 April and October. Sometimes there is no salt found, 
 when those Indians who are in the habit of visiting there 
 come to the Pinacate salina. 
 
 The expeditions to the salt deposit, where we had our 
 present camp, used to consist of thirty or forty men — ''as 
 many as when going to fight the Apaches," to use the ex- 
 pression of the most prominent leader of these expeditions 
 to-day, whom I met at Santa Rosa in Arizona. In this 
 case, however, they are all unarmed. On the road to 
 and from the salina the Indians eat and drink very little, 
 their only food being pinole, a handful to each, three times 
 a day, eaten in the morning before the start, at noon, and 
 in the afternoon. It is mixed with water, and whatever 
 little may stick to the cup after its contents have been 
 eaten is buried in a hole made in the ground. Nobody 
 drinks water without permission; they wait until the 
 leader tells them to do so, and drink only when told to 
 stop on the march. The party travels very silently, 
 only elderly men who have undertaken the journey 
 before talk, and nobody turns around either on the 
 journey out or on the return. No member of the 
 expedition can scratch himself unless he uses for the 
 purpose a special implement made from a twig of the 
 greasewood. 
 
 In the evenings going and coming they receive instruc- 
 tions from the leader concerning the care that must be 
 
ANCIENT CUSTOMS 
 
 271 
 
 taken both in the gathering and loading of the salt as well 
 as in ceremonies and sacrifices. They smoke tobacco and 
 they all pray to the sun and the sea for health, long life, 
 and for rain. 
 
 Only toward midnight do they go to sleep. The leader 
 carries with him six small sticks, pointed at one end, but 
 without the usual plumes, to deposit in different localities, 
 one in each of the two places where water is found on the 
 long trip, one at an ancient waterhole, one in the salt, 
 one ''where the sea used to be," and another is thrown 
 into the sea, which sometimes does not accept it if there 
 is menstruation in the leader's house. He has also three 
 cobs of corn of abnormal growth, flat and deformed and 
 called by the Indians ''flat-head corn." The first even- 
 ing on the road he takes grains from these, four each 
 time, chews them, and then spits into the mouth of every 
 horse to make it strong. Some meal ground from the 
 same kind of corn-cobs is carried along to be sacrificed to 
 the sea. 
 
 They arrive early in the day. After having hobbled 
 their horses each man takes off his clothing and places a 
 breech cloth around his loins, and they all walk in a line 
 down to the salt, the leader following, carrying a prayer- 
 stick. Those who have not been there before run four 
 times in the slough over the salt deposit, the others twice. 
 Quite a distance is covered and some do not return until 
 nightfall. When my informant, the old leader, was young, 
 he used to run on such occasions what would be equivalent 
 to sixteen miles. When the race is over every one rubs his 
 chest, arms, legs, face, and hair with salt and then has his 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 handful of pinole, whereupon the salt is spread out to 
 dry. The party next moves down to the sea; going into 
 it up to their knees, each man carries corn-meal in his 
 left hand and, watching for the waves, throws one pinch 
 of it, caught with all fingers, on each of four successive 
 waves. He bends forward when a high one comes lest it 
 might throw him on his back, which is a bad thing as it 
 would make him ill. They do not indulge in any sea 
 bathing, for the ocean is too clean to allow them to soil 
 it, they reverently say. 
 
 Toward sunset the salt is gathered in sacks, about 
 one hundred pounds in each, two of these making a 
 load. Great care is taken that no salt be spilled on the 
 road as this would bring about some misfortune. Every 
 one takes back with him a piece of silicious sponge which 
 is found on the beach and which is kept carefully from 
 year to year. This is considered a good remedy for ex- 
 ternal use. But the leader may take a bite of it, chew 
 it, fill his mouth with water, and spray this through his 
 lips on the men. Members of a salt expedition learn new 
 songs on the trip and they say they dream them while 
 asleep. Among the gifts of the sea may be a beautiful 
 wife, luck in hunting, or swiftness in foot-races. After 
 their return they must stay away from their houses 
 from ten to sixteen days. A good deal of their time 
 is spent in singing to the accompaniment of rasping 
 sticks, and after having taken a bath every fourth day 
 the man is able to join his wife again. According to ac- 
 counts of fifty years ago* the Papagoes supplied Tucson 
 
 * See California Notes, Fourth Series, in California Farmer, 1863. 
 
Beautiful effects of wind and sand, north-west of Pozo del Caballo 
 
 Papago salt expeditions camp 
 
 The Pinacate salt deposit 
 
 between the two dumps of greasewood to the left and in the middle 
 
INDIAN SALT 
 
 273 
 
 and a mining company with thousands of pounds of salt 
 annually. This was undoubtedly brought from this Pin- 
 acate deposit. Much of the salt used to be exchanged for 
 wheat with the Pimas. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 A PEACEFUL DAY— TRAGEDY IN THE WILDERNESS— OUR ANIMALS 
 BEGINNING TO GIVE IN— A PROMISING SODA DEPOSIT— LAST 
 CAMP ON THE BEACH— AMONG THE SAND DUNES— SIERRA 
 BLANCA— THE MOUTH OF THE SONOITA RIVER— EL CHARCO— 
 PRONGHORN ANTELOPES— MEETING WITH INDIANS— RETURN 
 TO SONOITA 
 
 Saturday, February 12, was as peaceful and quiet 
 as any sunny Sabbath day of the wilds. Though the 
 water was yellowish and smelt of sulphur, it furnished 
 me a refreshing *'tub." From the top of the sand dunes 
 above my camp there was a fine view of the landscape, 
 which resembled a mountainous country covered with 
 snow. Down among the low sand-hills near the salina 
 three coyotes came along, escaping my camera only on ac- 
 count of the presence of my dog. Never have I seen any 
 other region that harbored so many of them. They evi- 
 dently foraged on the beach all night long, and in the day- 
 time they would pass in pairs over the salt lake, remind- 
 ing one of wolves on snow fields. Three of them came 
 up to our kitchen. 
 
 Alberto, in looking for a donkey left behind, struck 
 an Indian trail which led straight across the slough that 
 we had followed northward the preceding day, and re- 
 ported that the ground was fairly hard, except on the 
 edges, where his animals sank up to their bellies. Prob- 
 ably, therefore, we should have arrived more easily by 
 
 making our way directly across the slough. 
 
 274 
 
AN INHOSPITABLE REGION 275 
 
 Clodomiro and another Mexican, who had been to 
 the coast trying to get fish, brought back a somewhat 
 ghastly souvenir in the shape of a human scapula. On 
 the beach, east of the mouth of the slough of the salina 
 and above the reach of the tide, they had come across 
 an old sailing boat, half buried in the sand. There were 
 remains of red paint on it and the mast was still there 
 intact. Very little sand was inside of it, and here they 
 found the osseous remains of a man, the head missing, 
 remnants of a gray felt hat, pieces of black cloth, a can 
 containing baking powder, and two bottles. They were 
 of the opinion that this man had been an American and 
 that the disaster must have happened perhaps ten years 
 ago. 
 
 Our start the next morning was characteristic of the 
 inhospitable region where I found myself. One of the 
 remaining horses was so weak that he had to be helped 
 onto his feet, another horse barely walked without sad- 
 dle, and my riding mule had diarrhoea. Our progress 
 over the sand dunes was slow and tedious, but after 
 six hours' journey we reached our next destination. La 
 Soda, where fairly good water was found in two shallow 
 holes that had been dug near some bulrushes on the 
 shore of a soda deposit. 
 
 La Soda is a deposit of carbonate of soda, one and a 
 half miles long and half a mile wide, running from east 
 to west. The valuable part of it is three-quarters of a 
 mile long and about three hundred yards wide. Low 
 sand dunes separate it from the sea, which is two or 
 three miles off. An American company some years ago 
 
2/6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 started to exploit the deposit, but the attempt was aban- 
 doned, perhaps on account of the difficulty of communi- 
 cation, which has to be by sea without there being, as 
 far as I could ascertain, any suitable harbor. Wood for 
 fuel is not found here. For our camp fire we used green 
 chamiso bushes and a bush called sosa, a species of 
 suceday the ashes of which are used by Mexicans in the 
 manufacture of soap; the donkeys also eat it. 
 
 Mexicans who occasionally pass here on their way to 
 the Pinacate salt deposit usually stop a day to kill fish 
 by dynamite in the sea which is near by. The fish are 
 salted and dried. Several flocks of cranes passed after 
 sunset westward bound, probably for the Colorado 
 River. Some quails and doves were observed and in 
 the morning a mocking-bird sang beautifully, but noth- 
 ing seemed to be able to dispel the gloomy impression of 
 the landscape. 
 
 We started eastward in a chilly northern wind of 
 varying force, which made the atmosphere opaque with 
 sand and salitre, darkening the horizon and hiding even 
 Pinacate from view. As we travelled over an apparently 
 indefinite number of sloughs all covered with a thin 
 layer of salitre, clouds of this stuffs would sometimes 
 whirl along and envelop us as if in white smoke. It 
 was a relief to arrive again at the beach which lay before 
 us in a straight line eastward. After a few miles' travel 
 we reached an old Indian camping place, La Choya, a 
 translation of the Indian name of the same meaning and 
 derived from clusters of the formidable spiny cacti which 
 is found near by among the low sandy ridges. They 
 
CHOYAS OF THE COAST 
 
 277 
 
 seemed to be different from the two or three species com- 
 prised under the name choya, smaller and browner in 
 color, and may possibly be another species. 
 
 A small low sand dune separated our camp by a 
 hundred yards from the beach. There is little pasture 
 here, and there was nothing from which to make a camp 
 fire except driftwood. Several ocotillos made their fa- 
 miliar appearance on top of the low sand ridges, and near 
 our camp were a few quaviri bushes; some very small 
 chamiso, evidently another species, and some dusky sosa 
 bushes completed the list of conspicuous vegetation here. 
 
 There was no doubt about the spot where water was 
 to be found. A large hole had been excavated on the 
 little plain on which we made camp and heaps of earth 
 mixed with thousands of sea-shells had been thrown up, 
 but it must have been some time ago, for there was no 
 water in sight except at the bottom of a deep burrow 
 which had been made at one side by the coyotes. We soon 
 uncovered water, however, but it was strongly brackish. 
 
 Four or five miles farther east on the beach two hills 
 loomed up on the horizon and at that distance appeared 
 as two islands, perhaps a mile long each, situated close 
 to the beach. The nearer may be connected with the 
 main-land and is probably a rocky promontory, at least 
 at low water. Sand dunes could plainly be discerned 
 there, and this was where the sand Papagoes used to 
 kill sea lions (in Spanish lohos). The other may be ac- 
 cessible from this one at low tide. 
 
 From here I turned inland toward the so-called 
 Sierra Blanca, which is south-east of Pinacate, making 
 
278 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 for a point midway between its southern extension and 
 a row of three large sand dunes that rose at some dis- 
 tance in front of us. Though the air was opaque from 
 floating sand, it often cleared and revealed the pictu- 
 resque sierra which appeared from the coast much higher 
 than it is in reality. The distance to it is only fifteen 
 miles in a straight line and the landscape presents a 
 vista entirely of sand. For the first two miles the dunes 
 look like large, low waves running in the general direc- 
 tion from north to south. They are each half a mile to 
 a mile long and only from twenty to fifty feet high, and 
 they are smooth looking as less action of the wind is 
 noticeable here. The vegetation is mainly greasewood 
 and canutillo. 
 
 For the next four miles the sand ridges were some- 
 what higher and showed much wind action, as they 
 consist of a great number of small hills, ranging from 
 five to forty feet high, the largest ridges being seventy to 
 eighty feet high. The same vegetation is found on these 
 hills and in addition mezquite trees grow in clumps at 
 the tops, and on account of the absence of leaves looked 
 as if they were dead. It was a pleasant surprise to find 
 in this belt, in the middle of February, a lovely flora 
 consisting mainly of Oenothera trichocalyx with its large 
 white flowers and also a yellow species. For a couple 
 of miles I saw thousands of them in bunches clothing the 
 small slopes and valleys between the lower sand ridges as 
 if planted in a park. The light green, healthy, and juicy 
 looking plants made me feel as though I had been sud- 
 denly transported to other regions less arid than these. 
 
AMONG THE SAND-HILLS 279 
 
 The next three miles contained some sand ridges of 
 smooth appearance, but there were no flowers, though 
 the usual vegetation prevailed. 
 
 The last five miles consisted of more or less barren 
 sand-hills, the largest of which had been noticed from the 
 coast running westward like huge waves, each approxi- 
 mately one hundred and seventy-five feet in height and 
 less than a mile in length. These form the beginning of 
 the big bare sand dunes which run in a belt toward La- 
 guna Prieta about three miles wide. We passed to the 
 right of the first one and camped behind it. A stiff wind 
 from the north had been blowing through the day and it 
 felt chilly, although a temperature of 55° F. at sunset was 
 not particularly low; still, as we camped at six o'clock 
 we found it agreeable to draw near the fire. 
 
 During the night a fresh gale from the north-west 
 sprang up and filled all my things with sand. For three 
 days it had not been possible to change the films of my 
 cameras on account of the sand that was flying about. 
 It worked its way disagreeably into rifles and instruments, 
 but did not do any damage, as it was clean and easily 
 shaken out. Clodomiro and I had followed an hour or 
 less after the rest of the party and we had occasion to ob- 
 serve how astonishingly quickly a wind of even moderate 
 force obliterates tracks. 
 
 Emerging from the dunes, one is suddenly confronted 
 at their edge with a full view of Sierra Blanca which, as its 
 name implies, is of a very light granite color; the Indians 
 too, in their language, call it the ''white range." A huge 
 lava flow from Pinacate separates it from the dunes and 
 
28o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 follows it almost to its southern point. Isolated specimens 
 of the white brittle bush grew in great numbers over the 
 dark sheet of lava in front of us, giving at first sight the 
 impression of being spots of ashes on a large field of burnt 
 grass. We had last seen this bush at El Capitan. All 
 along the base of the sierra there appears a narrow strip 
 of verdure, consisting of palo verde, palo fierro, and the 
 usual vegetation of such localities. A lonely sahuaro, 
 the first seen since leaving the Gila Range, stood on a 
 hill-top. Though no water is found on the western side 
 of Sierra Blanca, the vegetation of the standy strip along 
 the base of the range sheltered by the lava flow is luxuriant. 
 Close to my tent toloache {datura) was in flower, and a 
 creeper with lots of small leaves that smelled like mint 
 when crushed attracted unusual attention from our ani- 
 mals. 
 
 There was an abundance of grass here, but our ani- 
 mals had to be taken to water twelve miles away at Ti- 
 naja del Cuervo. Accompanied by Clodomiro, I examined 
 this small and steep mountain range, which has not before 
 been explored, ascending it in three places; its height is 
 only about one thousand five hundred feet above the 
 llano, and its crest is as narrow as any of those in that 
 western region; a stone can be thrown from one side to 
 the other of the ridge. The mountain-sheep have a well- 
 beaten path along the entire crest, although it would be 
 difficult for a man to pass over the middle section. We 
 saw a gray fox in its lair near the top. 
 
 Loose rocks and stones, which in a time long past had 
 tumbled down from above, fill the gorges or arroyos that 
 
A CONSPICUOUS WATER COURSE 281 
 
 descend from the sierra. No soil is in sight here and it 
 is almost incredible that any plant life could strike root, 
 but, in spite of this, whatever grows is in a thriving 
 condition. The steep gorges were filled with a pleasant 
 aroma from the brittle bush and sangrengado, and the 
 ocotillo was in evidence in the lower parts, all serving 
 as food for the always fat-looking mountain-sheep. Also 
 a few greasewoods, choyas, and century plants are seen 
 here and there among the mountains, which, however, 
 impress one as being barren of vegetation, except in the 
 arroyos, and such is the case with all sierras of the desert 
 region. 
 
 Standing on top of the southern part of the sierra, one 
 sees toward the north and the east a large llano with 
 greasewood growth that extends as far as the low sierras 
 of Agua Salada. Sierra de San Francisco, nearly twenty- 
 five miles across, is directly opposite us, and to the east 
 Sierra Pinta, perhaps eighteen miles away, looms up. 
 There are no sand dunes to interrupt the flatness of this 
 llano; the ground is hard and easy to travel over and the 
 soil is good for agricultural purposes. 
 
 The most interesting sight from this lofty point of 
 vantage was the course of the Sonoita River, which even 
 to the naked eye is conspicuous on account of the green 
 growth of mezquites that follow its banks. It is unneces- 
 sary to recall the fact that most of what is called the 
 Sonoita River has no water except immediately after 
 heavy showers. It has been supposed that the Sonoita 
 River never reaches the sea, but I may state here that 
 such is not the case, as it does occasionally carry its 
 
282 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 capricious waters to the Gulf. Through my field-glass I 
 could make out distinctly its course as it passes a couple 
 of miles this side of some isolated small hills, Los Cerri- 
 tos del Rioy which were conspicuous on the large llano 
 to the east south-east of us, about twelve miles away. 
 Galleta grass grew between the hills and the river, which 
 runs south from there for about four miles and then makes 
 a curve south-east continuing for about two miles more. 
 Although I could not actually follow it to its mouth, still 
 for many miles south-eastward and south its course was 
 easily traceable, and without doubt it reaches the sea, 
 which was visible in the horizon. Moreover, my guide, 
 Clodomiro Lopez, who during the expedition had proved 
 himself to be reliable, had been on the river in February 
 of the preceding year at only one league's distance from 
 the Gulf. An unusual amount of rain had fallen and at 
 that place the river-bed ran full. The bed of the river 
 was deeper than at Los Pozitos but not so wide and mez- 
 quites were growing on the banks. The mouth of the 
 river should be about four leagues west of the terminal of 
 the little railroad of the Sierra Pinta mine. 
 
 While the gravelly land stretching along the base of the 
 Sierra Blanca presents the usual smooth appearance and 
 vegetation, there may be observed farther away on the 
 plains sandy patches covered with galleta and sacaton 
 grass. Toward the south and the west at some distance 
 are seen green and yellowish patches, due to the colors of 
 flowers, for the soil is rich there. Nearer, scarcely two 
 miles off, is a small plain which presents the same color- 
 ing in its southern part, while it is red in its northern part. 
 
FLORA NEAR SIERRA BLANCA 283 
 
 due to the prevalence of the golondrina. It is a small 
 sandy basin running east and west into which many 
 streams of rain-water disappear, and hence it is called by 
 my guide El Charco. The Pinacate lava flow reaches 
 that far. 
 
 On a visit to that locality I found that the most con- 
 spicuous plants were the prickly poppy, in Spanish cardo 
 {argemone intermedia)^ sphceralcea incana^ a nightshade 
 {physalis lobata), nama stenophyllum, and plantago jas- 
 tigiata. The latter, which the Mexicans call la pastora^ is 
 considered to be the best kind of pasture. Its seeds are 
 eaten by the Papago Indians, either uncooked or toasted 
 and ground to a pinole. These several species of plants 
 were all in flower. A pair of blue birds were near and in 
 one place one of them kept flapping its wings over the 
 white flowers of a poppy plant. A falcon also made its 
 appearance here and hawks, as usual, were much in evi- 
 dence. 
 
 At the base of the sierra we startled a flock of ten 
 mountain-sheep resting at noon in a small arroyo. Most 
 of them ran swiftly up the mountain sides, but an old ram 
 took the situation more calmly and walked leisurely be- 
 hind the rest. As we rode on, keeping our eyes on the 
 craggy ridges that extended from the summit, the ram 
 was seen again on top of one of them. His head appeared 
 against the sky over three hundred yards off; he stood 
 there for five minutes looking at us, immovably as in a 
 picture, the rocks on either side of him forming the frame. 
 I was going to put up my tripod and take a time exposure 
 when he slowly walked off, following the crest upward. 
 
284 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Just as I was about to mount my mule he suddenly came 
 dashing down the steep slope toward us, as if to ascertain 
 what we were doing there; at one-third of the distance 
 down he turned, however, and trotted swiftly and easily 
 along the steep and broken slope of the mountains, ex- 
 posing his side to the camera. We saw him again in 
 another direction, nearer to us, but high up against the 
 sky, where he stood for a few seconds and then turned his 
 white tail toward us and disappeared. 
 
 Five of those beautiful swift animals, called prong- 
 horn antelopes {antilocapra americana mexicana), were 
 also seen grazing at about three hundred yards out on 
 the llano. When these animals move among the grease- 
 woods alone, they are easily discovered on account of their 
 color, which, while mainly light reddish brown, pres- 
 ents a good deal of white, the legs and under body being 
 thus marked, but the rest of the vegetation here offers 
 them much protection. The extravagant shape of the 
 choya, combined with its whitish color, often suggests an 
 antelope at a distance, and there are many old crags and 
 withered branches that look like prongs or horns. The 
 large open llano, the favorite haunt of these animals, is 
 in places covered with the golondrina and another taller 
 plant, both of a reddish hue, which resembles that of 
 the antelope. As I was dressed in white, I succeeded in 
 approaching them, but they are much more shy than 
 mountain-sheep, and they suddenly, although within easy 
 reach of my rifle, became alarmed at my photographic 
 efforts. They trotted away quickly in single file, describ- 
 ing long serpentine curves among the greasewood. 
 
MEETING TRAVELLERS 
 
 285 
 
 Clodomiro and I made a circuitous route around 
 Sierra Blanca, overtaking the pack train late in the 
 evening at our former camp Galletal. My riding mule 
 had had no water for seventy-eight hours. The next 
 day I began to retreat to Sonoita in order to replenish 
 our store of provisions. In the afternoon, as we travelled 
 along, we noticed a cloud of dust rising from the llano 
 ahead of us, a sign of travellers coming our way. They 
 proved to be three Indians from Barajita, a rancheria 
 in Arizona, on their way to the Pinacate salina. Their 
 pack animals carried little else but empty packing nets, 
 as the provisions brought along on salt expeditions are 
 meagre and of only one kind. They asked about water 
 and grass. One of them said he knew that we had 
 started for these parts two months ago. 
 
 The leader wore a fantastic white hat with a bluish 
 plume waving from the centre. The second was an el- 
 derly, cunning-looking man, who dismounted and offered 
 his hand; the third was fat and more civilized looking, 
 known by the name of Jose Juan and as a prominent 
 medicine-man. He is usually capitan, but this time he 
 was probably not, as he came last. The capitan leads 
 going out and is the last in the procession coming back. 
 They seemed intelligent and it was strange to find some 
 natives of the desert after having beheld for so long only 
 their haunts of former days. They maintained a kind 
 but reserved mien and departed after a minute or two 
 of conversation. I gave one of them the cigarettes I 
 had with me, and he asked for matches which were 
 promptly supplied. Their animals were in good condi- 
 
286 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 tlon and though the sun was low, they would reach the 
 Cuervo tank, seven miles off, in a very short time, 
 Clodomiro said. Half an hour later we saw from the 
 dust in the distance that they were nearing their desti- 
 nation. 
 
 We camped that night on the bank of the Sonoita 
 river-bed, which is much larger here than in Sonoita, 
 thirteen miles south of Agua Dulce; it is about one 
 hundred and twenty feet wide and runs in two sections, 
 separated by a low narrow ridge, each part about fifty 
 feet wide. It is rather surprising that a river which 
 carries water for only a few hours at a time can leave 
 so large a course. At certain bends of the river where 
 the sand contains clay the water may last two days. 
 There were mezquites of considerable size here, and it 
 was pleasant to see them again, as it meant wood for 
 our fire. A couple of miles before arriving at Los Pozi- 
 tos we passed a low ridge where pieces of obsidian lay 
 scattered about. If my guide is correct, this is the only 
 place where obsidian occurs in the country south-west 
 of Sonoita. Two miles from Los Pozitos a number of 
 sea-shells of various kinds were observed about six feet 
 above the river-bed. 
 
 The little stream of crystal clear spring water at 
 Quitovaquita is smaller than a brook, but it seemed 
 much alive as it hurried on in its effort to keep the dam 
 full. As I had been long unaccustomed to seeing run- 
 ning water, and for twenty days had drunk it more or 
 less brackish, the tiny brook seemed almost unreal and 
 was enchanting in its effect. It was also a delight to 
 
Waiting for his chance. At Los Pozitos 
 
( 
 
BEANS THAT ARE WORTH WHILE 287 
 
 indulge in my first real wash for nine days, for I could 
 hardly count to my credit the fact that my finger-tips 
 were cleaned morning and evening when washing my 
 cup and spoon with a little of our precious fluid. 
 
 As for provisions, meat we had not eaten since our 
 departure from the Colorado River, except for the first 
 few days, and it is difficult to keep a Mexican contented 
 without it, though the delicious mullets caught had 
 helped us out immensely; flour we had had to econo- 
 mize much, and for the previous four or five days there 
 had been an actual shortage; we had enough rice, coff^ee, 
 sugar, but our main standby was tepari, the small white 
 beans of the Sonora Indian and Mexican. The extent 
 of their cultivation in Mexico I do not know, for I have 
 not seen them outside of Sonora. I cannot myself too 
 strongly recommend them for regions suitable to them. 
 While the ordinary white beans have little flavor of their 
 own, these tepari have quite a strong and very pleas- 
 ant one, and even the water in which they are cooked 
 makes an agreeable sauce. They contain much fat in 
 themselves and they cook in a short time, which is an- 
 other great advantage. 
 
 The next day I arrived at Sonoita with a feeling of 
 satisfaction in having successfully accomplished the first 
 half of my exploration of the desert south-west of that 
 place. It was toward the end of February and spring- 
 time greeted us in the oasis. Already at a distance the 
 attractive light green color of the cotton-wood trees (Span- 
 ish, alamo) and willows were evident, the new leaves 
 being half-grown; peach, apple, and almond trees were 
 
288 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 in bloom, and the verdure of the wheat-fields among the 
 Indian houses was pleasing to the eye. 
 
 Sr. Isauro Quiroz received us with whole-souled heart- 
 iness and invited the whole expedition to a meal in his 
 house, Guadalupe sitting down at the table afterward, 
 for there was not room enough for all at the same time 
 in the hospitable little dining-room. The fresh eggs 
 tasted delicious, and I felt as if I had arrived in civiliza- 
 tion again, for everything is relative in this world. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 NEW EXPEDITION WESTWARD— GROWLER WELL— A HARDY OLD 
 PAPAGO— DISAGREEABLE EXPERIENCE WITH A MEXICAN OF 
 MY PARTY— A VALUABLE NEW MEMBER— PAPAGO LOYALTY— 
 PRONGHORN ANTELOPE AGAIN— MOUNTAIN-SHEEP INSIDE 
 OF A CRATER— I LEAVE MY MAIN CAMP— MY TWO COMPAN- 
 IONS—RISKS TAKEN BY THE PROSPECTOR— DECEPTIVE AT- 
 MOSPHERE—OUR GUIDING STAR— READING TRACKS— SOLITUDE 
 —BEAUTY OF THE DESERT 
 
 On our first day in Sonoita a fresh south-westerly 
 breeze which later changed to northerly made it impos- 
 sible to Start the patient burros grinding for us in the 
 flour mills, but the following days were spent busily 
 preparing for the new expedition, and on Thursday, 
 March 3, I was able to start again westward. My prin- 
 cipal object was to reach Sierra del Rosario, around 
 which I had travelled at a distance without having found 
 a visit practicable. Sr. Isauro Quiroz insisted that no 
 white man had ever been there, but however that may be, 
 it is certain that nobody from Sonoita or Colonia Lerdo 
 had ever gone there. By taking different routes from 
 those I had followed before, I expected to be able to 
 complete my knowledge of the desert. 
 
 My first objective point was Quitovaquita, where this 
 time I hoped to have better success in inducing old 
 Pancho, the medicine-man, to go with me. His daugh- 
 ter, whose illness on the occasion of my first visit had 
 then prevented him from accepting my invitation, had 
 
 died since. We found the place deserted, but the cattle 
 
 289 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 of the Indians were still being watered at the dam, and 
 through the herders we were informed of the where- 
 abouts of the owners, who had moved to a camp called 
 El Pozo, which was at no great distance. We accord- 
 ingly followed them and made our camp at the same 
 place. As nothing can be accomplished in a hurry with 
 Indians, I improved the occasion by taking a trip far- 
 ther up in Arizona to Bates's Well, or El Veit, as the 
 Mexicans name that locality, and which is now curiously 
 called the Growler Well. There is a copper mine here, 
 but work on it has been suspended, and the place is in- 
 habited by very few people. An American who was in 
 charge of the mine and the store received me hospitably. 
 He invited me to a square meal or two, presented me 
 with some copies of magazines and recent newspapers, 
 and, above all, helped me out with a new supply of rope 
 for my outfit, of which I was sadly in need. 
 
 The news of the day was that a week ago an Ameri- 
 can had been found dead on the playa north of Pinacate. 
 Caravajales, the Indian hermit of Los Papagos tank, had 
 come across the body which had been badly used by the 
 coyotes, and a black jacket had been found hanging in a 
 tree near by. Another report was brought to me that 
 the ''professor,'' meaning myself, had also died from 
 thirst, and that the coyotes had dragged away his head. 
 This last confused rumor probably related to the human 
 remains found in a boat by members of my party. 
 
 At this place there lives a very old Papago, Jose 
 Juan, father of a restless, unapproachable Indian called 
 Agustin. The man is reputed to be one hundred and 
 
THE WISDOM OF AGE 
 
 291 
 
 fifteen years old, and he certainly looked as if he might 
 have reached at least a hundred. As we entered his 
 house he rose to a sitting position, but was short of breath 
 and could not talk much to us, he said, owing to a re- 
 cent accident while drunk. Considering that the old 
 man had been intoxicated on the white man's brandy for 
 three days, the state of his health was certainly wonder- 
 ful. He had all his mental faculties intact, and was one 
 of those who after a sufficiently long acquaintance might 
 give a good deal of truthful information. According to 
 him, the sand Papagoes often camped in the winter-time 
 at Sierra Blanca. The Apaches in their raids used to go 
 as far as that mountain range. There was rain for- 
 merly every year, but it was no longer so, he said. He 
 spoke of some big bones he had seen among the great 
 sand dunes, and in regard to the ruins of a mission in the 
 western desert, rumors of which are current among the 
 Mexicans, he said he knew nothing about them, though 
 he had spent most of his life among the dunes. He also 
 professed ignorance concerning the existence of a smaller 
 salt water lagoon east of Laguna Prieta; however, it is 
 doubtful whether he wanted to tell the truth about this. 
 
 In regard to his son Agustin's silver mine, of which 
 both Indians and Mexicans have much to relate, includ- 
 ing the oft-told tale of pure silver being melted by mistake 
 for the making of bullets, he was less reserved, and said 
 that it was on top of the Cabeza Prieta range, not far 
 from the tinaja in the same direction as we travelled, 
 which would be west of it. He demanded kok peso, two 
 dollars, for permission to photograph him. 
 
292 
 
 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 On my return to El Pozo I had a disagreeable experi- 
 ence with a Mexican in my party owing to the story of the 
 dead American on the playa. The report might or might 
 not be true, such tragedies are by no means unknown in 
 the desert, but this one had an entirely unexpected effect 
 on the man, who was otherwise intelligent and useful 
 though shifty. He was not afraid of the corpse to be 
 sure, but connected the tragic occurrence with two Mexi- 
 cans who just before our start had passed through Sonoita, 
 on their way westward to Tinajas Altas. As travellers in 
 that part of the country are very rare, the people of Sono- 
 ita always wonder what their business may be, and some- 
 times they are suspicious of them. The two men were 
 from Douglas, Arizona, and had not found it expedient 
 to inform anybody concerning the exact aim of their 
 journey. In fact, although they looked all right, they 
 had aroused some suspicion in my Mexican by giving 
 various accounts about their destination. He immedi- 
 ately jumped to the conclusion that these two men had 
 something to do with the dead, and in the presence of all 
 said to me: ''You carry much money and had better go 
 by another route; I am not going to stand by you; I 
 will run away on my mare." 
 
 "Well, I am going to persevere, and I know the Papa- 
 goes will," I calmly answered. ''I am glad you gave me 
 notice beforehand, but you will have no occasion to do 
 as you intend," I added. 
 
 He then addressed the Papagoes to get them to agree 
 with him, but they gave no answer, and only smiled. 
 
 ''You know I carry little money, and I do not care 
 
SEDITIOUS TALK 
 
 293 
 
 whether I lose the Httle I have; my note-books interest 
 me much more/' I thought it expedient to interject. 
 
 ''The books do not interest us, do they?" he again 
 addressed the Papagoes, who remained silent. It was 
 very satisfactory to see them standing with me as firm as 
 a wall. As I walked away I heard him saying to Guada- 
 lupe, ''Really there is something in this; we ought not to 
 expose ourselves to danger in this way," and again there 
 was no answer. How disagreeable it is to discover that 
 a man is morally and physically a coward. The next 
 morning, before our start, he sat mending the cover of one 
 of my three large canteens. "I am doing good work," 
 he said; "a canteen will prove very important yonder. 
 In the desert a man would see the mouth of my rifle barrel 
 rather than that of my canteen," meaning thereby that 
 he would rather give a bullet from his rifle than water from 
 his canteen. In other ways he had some good qualities; 
 he was honest to the core, and was a very serviceable 
 cook. Discharging him was out of the question; his 
 services were indispensable to the success of the expedi- 
 tion, for in that country men are scarce or not to be had, 
 and any delay would have been fatal on account of the 
 approaching hot season. 
 
 Pancho, the old medicine-man, was induced to go with 
 us, but in the morning as we were starting he came to in- 
 form me that his donkey could not be found. Surely, if 
 it did not come, he would not be able to accompany us, 
 and I was afraid that this might be a scheme of his wife to 
 prevent him from going with us. But he was too impor- 
 tant a man for me to allow him to fail us, so I sent word to 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 the pack train, which had started already, to stop, and I 
 remained myself. An hour later, to my delight, he came 
 trotting briskly along on his small donkey. 
 
 Our first camp was made at La Papaga gold mine, 
 near the border, which is not being worked, but where a 
 good artesian well has been made. It is over a hundred 
 feet to the water, which is said to be more than that 
 number of feet deep, and it took two hours to water our 
 animals. Some American prospectors were camped here. 
 One party of them had just come in from the west and 
 reported that there was no water in the Tule well, which 
 lay on our proposed route. By digging in the sand they 
 had managed to get some for their animals, though it was 
 very bad and ill-smelling. They spoke of having met 
 some suspicious looking Mexicans at Tinajas Altas who 
 seemed destitute of everything except arms and full cart- 
 ridge belts, and were very non-committal in regard to their 
 errand. The Americans had even been led to believe 
 that they were waiting to meet me, and had given them 
 some provisions. Another party of two Americans, who 
 were prospecting in the neighborhood of La Papaga, had 
 just brought in provisions from Ajo, as well as some more 
 details of the story of the dead man on the playa. All 
 this was too much for my impulsive Mexican who de- 
 clared he would not go. ''If you go, you will have no 
 arrieros (muleteers or packers) with you!" he exclaimed. 
 
 I came to the conclusion that it was best to ensure my- 
 self against further thoughtless and cowardly remarks by 
 leaving their author behind — not here, however, but in 
 the Pinacate region. I resolved to go to Tinaja de los 
 
CHASING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 295 
 
 Papagos and establish a main camp there from which 
 with two Indians I would make the intended expedition 
 alone. I was pleasantly surprised when early next morn- 
 ing Guadalupe, as spokesman for the Indians, came to me 
 in my tent and said: ''Listen, Don Carlos, that is not 
 right. We will go with you. It is for this that we are 
 here." I suggested that it was not worth while to pay 
 attention to the Mexican. *'We did," he said, ''and it 
 did not appear to us right to talk like that." I thanked 
 him for this and he walked off looking for his burros. 
 
 Old Doctor Pancho, of small stature and riding a 
 small burro, led the way. As we were riding between 
 some low hills he suddenly showed animation, pointing 
 out fresh tracks of mountain-sheep. While we halted, 
 Pedro, a Papago who is an excellent shot, climbed up one 
 of the hills, while our Mexican, who was also a successful 
 hunter, set out to investigate the tracks, galloping around 
 the hills. Soon two shots were heard from Pedro, who 
 was running fast along the ridge; two sheep ran in front 
 of him, both evidently wounded, for he threw stones after 
 them in his anger. One fell and the other continued its 
 flight, pursued by more shots. It made its way toward 
 us and stopped, paralyzed in its hind legs, as it had been 
 shot in the spine. A third one had been wounded and, as 
 I did not like to go without putting it out of its suffering, 
 I decided to remain here over night. 
 
 The locality was quite attractive with much pasture 
 and an abundance of palo fierro. There was general 
 contentment in camp since the always vexing problem of 
 carne had been solved so quickly and easily. The even- 
 
296 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ing was agreeably warm, 70° F. at seven o'clock, and a 
 soft breeze was blowing from the north-east and some- 
 times from the south, obliging me to be continually chang- 
 ing my seat at the fire in order to avoid the smoke while 
 I was toasting my tortillas. The following day, in the 
 morning, Pedro returned with the third sheep. They 
 were all young females and the skin of the youngest was 
 preserved. 
 
 After having travelled across a large plain, part of 
 which is called La Playa and presents the unusual specta- 
 cle of greasewoods that are sickly looking, small, and grow- 
 ing close together, we passed Monument 180 standing 
 like an outpost on the great lava flow of Pinacate. We 
 then made for Tinaja de los Papagos, which, on account 
 of malpais, cannot be reached by a direct line. As we 
 were passing the rim of a great crater, only five or six 
 miles from our destination, we discovered two antelopes 
 among the desert vegetation, standing motionless at about 
 one hundred and fifty yards distant and looking at us. 
 We halted and Pedro was dispatched to try to secure them. 
 Unfortunately, one antelope was only wounded, one of its 
 forelegs being broken near the shoulder, and this did 
 not prevent it from running extremely fast on its three 
 remaining legs. In spite of a most zealous chase for 
 hours the next morning, it showed as much agility as if 
 nothing had happened to it, and finally the pursuit had 
 to be given up. 
 
 Our animals after forty-eight hours without water 
 were glad to drink; the work had not been hard and the 
 heat of the last days was never greater than 86° F. in the 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING MOUNTAIN-SHEEP 297 
 
 shade. At the tank in the evening pigeons by the hun- 
 dreds were still in evidence, and two or three shots from 
 my gun furnished me with delicious food for several days. 
 
 I was desirous of getting some photographs of the 
 mountain-sheep by visiting the neighboring crater again, 
 as perchance some might have found their way into it 
 this time. As we went toward our two previously assigned 
 places nearly half-way down, the noise from the cinders in 
 which we were sliding started out a mountain-sheep at the 
 bottom of the ample crater. He came running out of 
 the large talus to the llano below and seemed very shy. 
 
 We took up our different positions and Pedro, much 
 against his inclination, was ordered to descend the three 
 or four hundred feet that remained in order to startle 
 the animal so that he would come up and pass before the 
 camera. The effect of Pedro's arrival at the bottom 
 was to make the sheep ascend the talus, just opposite to 
 where I was seated. It then ran swiftly and sideways 
 across the accumulation of rocks as easily as a horse 
 gallops over a plain. According to Mexican accounts 
 the mountain-sheep is at a disadvantage on level coun- 
 try, and a galloping horse easily overtakes it, but among 
 the loose rocks he showed his agility to the best advan- 
 tage. Approaching in this manner the place where the 
 first exit was possible, the toro (ram) suddenly stopped 
 some one hundred and fifty yards from the man who was 
 watching there. He stood quietly for fully ten minutes 
 when I asked Guadalupe, who was placed not far from 
 me, to fire a shot from his rifle to start him again. The 
 sound, with its reverberating echoes, had the desired 
 
298 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 effect, and the animal resumed its circling of the crater, 
 this time lowering its course somewhat and stopping now 
 and then as if uncertain which way to go and how to 
 defeat the enemies' designs. 
 
 A knoll soon hid the sheep from view and made it 
 impossible for me to follow him, though I expected soon 
 to see him emerge and pass my stand. Suddenly the 
 man at the other station shouted: ^^Arriha!'' (Higher 
 up!). The animal had taken an unexpected route, and 
 I made as fast as I could for the top of the knoll, just 
 in time to catch him at forty yards' distance as he stood 
 wavering for a few seconds before continuing his flight 
 to the upper part of the crater. Swiftly he scaled the 
 slippery cinders in a straight line for the rim, and then 
 my men, who in the meantime had contained themselves 
 with difficulty, were allowed to fire, but the distances were 
 considerable and the animal easily made his escape. 
 
 On Tuesday, March 15, I left my camp to make the 
 intended exploration of the sand dune country west of 
 there. I was accompanied only by two Indians, Pedro 
 and the old medicine-man, Pancho, both belonging to 
 the sand people, the latter being one of the few left who 
 had actually lived there. He spoke no Spanish nor Eng- 
 lish and was not particularly distinguished by any pro- 
 found knowledge of the art of travel, but he was business- 
 like in his silent ways and reliable, though extremely 
 sensitive and apt to imagine a cause of offence where 
 none had been given. Pedro spoke Spanish, was an 
 efficient packer, could make tortillas, and was a good 
 all-round man, quick in his actions but often careless. 
 
INTO THE HILLS 
 
 299 
 
 He was unusually intelligent, though of an unpleasant, 
 uneven temper. We had selected the best animals, all 
 burros, with the exception of my riding mule, and took 
 along only the most necessary things, leaving my tent 
 and cot behind. Water would be scarce on the road, so 
 we filled our large canteens in addition to the barrels, 
 which usually furnished us with water for three days. I 
 was glad to be off, and felt free and ready for action. 
 
 The Indians on their trips from Los Papagos to Tina- 
 jas Altas used to go through the pass between Sierra 
 del Tuseral and Sierra Nina. I chose an unusual route, 
 skirting the latter's southernmost point, which is a more 
 laborious one on account of sand dunes to be crossed 
 there. A dry arroyo passes between this point and a 
 high wall of sand dunes and then runs west for a very 
 short distance before it is lost in the sand. Our animals 
 worked well with the exception of the ''doctor's" little 
 burro, which did not like the trip, but later mended its 
 ways. 
 
 It was somewhat surprising to find that the waves 
 of the large sand dunes reached quite up to the foot 
 of the south-western part of the Sierra Nina. While 
 looking for a camping place here, I met with the start- 
 ling sight of a pair of blue overalls, quite new looking, 
 lying among the dunes, and a few yards farther I came 
 across a red woven blanket of poor quality. The Ind- 
 ians both declared without hesitation that they had be- 
 longed to *'MeHcano" (an American). No place seems 
 deterrent to the prospector; he is lured farther and far- 
 ther away, for what he is looking for may be found just 
 
 \ 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 in some lonely hill that looms up before his eyes among 
 the sand dunes. He throws all caution to the winds and 
 only on his return does the water question become seri- 
 ous to him. This one probably had attached some hope 
 of water to the dry arroyo which is here covered with 
 sand but is traceable among the dunes by the experi- 
 enced eye. His senses became bewildered and the last 
 stage of suffering from thirst had probably been reached 
 when he began to throw off his clothes; such would be 
 the account of all those who know the desert. When 
 we made our camp near some palo fierro trees, Pedro 
 told me that Doctor Pancho had taken possession of the 
 red blanket. It was a ghastly relic to carry along, so I 
 offered him two pesos (dollars) to leave it behind, to 
 which he readily consented, laughing at the same time 
 in his quiet way. 
 
 The sand dunes, which seemed eternal, were found 
 the next morning to be at this point a small branch from 
 the main body, running in waves from south-west to 
 north-east, and they were only a mile and a half across. 
 After passing them we travelled over hard, gravelly 
 soil; on my left, south-westward, as we followed Sierra 
 Nina to its end, was spread before my eyes a vast ex- 
 panse of llanos and sand dunes, with Sierra del Viejo 
 running into it from a northern direction, and mountain 
 tops appearing here and there — a lonely vista, but not 
 depressing. 
 
 It is well known that the clear air of the desert exag- 
 gerates detail and makes distant objects look near; this, 
 of course, is undeniable, but the opposite seems equally 
 
TRYING TO KEEP OUR ANIMALS 
 
 true, for distant objects, such as mountains, again and 
 again, appear farther away and much larger than they 
 are in reahty. The sierras of the desert look impressively 
 large at a distance of from ten to fifteen miles, but, on 
 approaching them, it is found to be a small matter to 
 scale them, as they may rise above the plains only one 
 or two thousand feet. The afternoon of the preceding 
 day I had a striking example of this deception after hav- 
 ing gone through a very small pass in the southernmost 
 part of Sierra Nina; the pass itself could not have been 
 more than fifteen or twenty feet above the surface, and 
 the knoll, which was thus separated from the main range, 
 could not have been over fifty feet high, still, three- 
 quarters of a mile farther on, in looking back at the lit- 
 tle pass, the knoll and the range looked very much larger 
 and higher, and, in fact, from my point of view, which 
 was lower, they made quite an impressive appearance 
 among the dunes. 
 
 We struck the old Indian trail alluded to above, 
 which, however, is indistinct and difficult to follow near 
 the base of Sierra de la Lechugilla. Our animals all 
 seemed very determined to wend their way back again 
 to Los Papagos; this was our second day out and, being 
 thirsty, they were likely to stray, so under conditions such 
 as these, where water is found at such great intervals, 
 it is imperative to hobble the animals very carefully for 
 the night in order to secure against their loss, which 
 might be fatal to the expedition. *'We are going to 
 watch them until the moon sets," said Pedro, but he 
 was kept busy all through the night turning them back. 
 
302 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and one of them, my riding mule, had finally to be tied. 
 In this way they had little to eat and in the morning the 
 burros overran our ''kitchen,'' putting their noses into our 
 boxes and trying to bite holes in our flour bags; they 
 also attempted to remove the plugs from the water barrels. 
 
 As usual, we had begun the day in darkness. Our 
 way of knowing the time for rising was from the height 
 of the planet Venus above the horizon, her approximate 
 position being pointed out in the sky the evening before. 
 We managed to get an early start in order to reach 
 Tinajas Altas in good time, for this was our third day 
 without water. The picturesque tree, ocotillo (fouqut- 
 eria splendens)^ was noticeable everywhere growing in 
 great profusion on the gravelly soil. Its magnificent 
 vermilion-red flowers growing in tufts at the end of 
 slender branches which emerge from a subterranean 
 stem, in the manner of a bouquet, looked splendid against 
 the sombre gray background of the sierras. The flowers 
 appear before the leaves and on some of these plants 
 the leaves were beginning to show. Also a good many 
 species of cacti were observed, two of them with reddish 
 flowers. It is curious that in the wide area along the 
 coast south and west of Sierra de Lechugilla, Gila Range, 
 Pinacate, and Sierra Blanca, cacti are so rare that they 
 almost disappear. 
 
 We travelled at a good steady pace along the weather- 
 worn northern end of Sierra de la Lechugilla. In a 
 thicket of a dry arroyo I tried to take some snapshots of 
 a quail which exposed itself temptingly to my photo- 
 graphic inclinations, and thus I fell ten or fifteen min- 
 
LEFT BEHIND 303 
 
 utes behind my men. There were many thickets along 
 the sandy arroyo in which their tracks were very easy 
 to follow. As my party was so close ahead of me, I 
 did not pay much attention to the quality of the tracks 
 that after a while were found to lead across the arroyo 
 toward a valley in the northern end of the sierra. Per- 
 haps my men had made a detour to see if there were 
 water in the small tinaja which Clodomiro Lopez had 
 discovered there, and which could not be so very far 
 away. A little farther along I made out fresh tracks of 
 nailed boots; horses had passed as well as burros and, 
 as the man evidently had returned the same way he had 
 gone, it was difficult to distinguish the tracks I was fol- 
 lowing. I had to cut across the bottom of the valley 
 to make more sure of what I saw and it became quite 
 plain that two horses, three burros, and one mule had 
 passed here and that, consequently, my party had followed 
 another course, so I returned to the arroyo and took the 
 right tracks up again. 
 
 My mule not having eaten anything the previous night, 
 and having sweat much the day before, was worn out, and 
 I had walked on foot for an hour and a half, dragging my 
 animal along, when the footprints I followed halted at a 
 long, low ridge, bare and stony; here, too, the man with 
 the nailed boots and his animals appeared again making 
 confusion. I was not lost, for my '*bump of locality" is 
 well developed, and there is nothing to fear under circum- 
 stances like these if one keeps one's head cool. The only 
 thing to do was to make a large circle of the country to 
 cut the tracks, as the expression goes, but it was vexa- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 tious, nevertheless, to have all this trouble. My Indians 
 had hurried along, of course, for the sake of their animals, 
 and it would never occur to them that I should have any 
 difficulty in following them. I did not know how far 
 away Tinajas Altas was, but once on their tracks it would 
 be easy to find ; daylight was essential for this, but even if 
 I should have to stay out for the night, it would not be 
 any great misfortune, for I had plenty of water in my 
 canteen. The weather was rather sultry and there were 
 cirrus and cirro-cumulus clouds which sometimes hid the 
 sun from view, but it did not feel warm, as a soft breeze 
 from the north-west was blowing. 
 
 Having made sure that my men had travelled in no 
 other direction, I returned to the low stony ridge, and by a 
 careful examination I found that stones had been scratched 
 or turned over, indicating the way they had passed. They 
 had followed the crest of the ridge for a couple of hundred 
 yards, then descended, making for the range of the Tinajas 
 Altas. I followed their tracks up to a mile's distance from 
 the range, then I knew I was right, so I directed my steps 
 to a fresh looking palo fierro for a short and well-earned 
 rest in its grateful though scanty shade before continu- 
 ing my journey. My mule took to the green leaves of 
 this attractive desert tree, while I had a frugal lunch of 
 toasted wheat and some California dried prunes. 
 
 In my meandering course that day I had come across 
 many tracks of which the most conspicuous were those of 
 the wagons employed fourteen years ago by the Inter- 
 national Boundary Commission, and which in countries 
 other than arid might have been judged a few months old. 
 
NEWS OF THE WILDS 
 
 They had had a camp somewhere between the two sierras 
 and water was brought from Tinajas Ahas. Tracks 
 left by human activity in a sohtary region Hke this are 
 disturbing and seem to be out of harmony with the rest of 
 nature. To one who for the first time travels in the 
 desert, the attention which Indians and Mexicans pay to 
 tracks, whether of human beings, horses, or of other do- 
 mestic animals, is not understood, while those of wild ani- 
 mals seem more to the point. All tracks are to them as 
 newspapers to us, and after having been for some time 
 in the desert, one becomes equally interested in the stories 
 they tell. 
 
 What was this man with the nailed boots doing here } 
 Did he belong to the party of suspicious looking Mexi- 
 cans whom the American prospectors from Tucson pre- 
 sented with provisions in Tinajas Altas ? Or was he one 
 of those whom the imagination of my impulsive Mexican 
 credited with the murder of an American found dead on 
 the playa } The hobnails did not seem to favor either 
 theory. In this part of the continent only Americans use 
 that kind of shoes; Mexicans prefer those of lighter 
 weight. These must be American tracks and they must 
 be those of a prospector, for they lead along the moun- 
 tain sides and the prospector likes to see the formation of 
 the rocks near by. The tracks did not point to some 
 runaway, because they appeared in different parts, as if 
 the man had been on leisurely business. I felt reassured 
 as to the ''vileness of man," though surely the prospect 
 pleased" in spite of the absence of water; the traveller is, 
 in fact, apt to forget that this is a waterless region. 
 
3o6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Along the banks of the arroyo where I had my siesta 
 an exuberant growth of flowers was conspicuous for hun- 
 dreds of yards. There were only two kinds, and they 
 were both common bushes in this region, but, still beauti- 
 ful in their best spring attire and of an unusual develop- 
 ment, they presented a garden-like appearance. Here 
 chuparosas grew as high as a man and twice that in diam- 
 eter, each with thousands of labiate flowers, Venetian red 
 in color. Interspersed with them was the white brittle 
 bush bearing a dense mass of bright yellow flowers which 
 resembled marguerites. There was no dust in the walks 
 of this garden of nature, but only the cleanest, sandy 
 gravel. Spring was in the air and I had seen the grease- 
 woods that day covered with their lustrous flowers. In 
 trying to photograph the quail I had been compelled to 
 make my way through a luxuriant growth of the thorny 
 quaviri bush now in leaf and with blue flowers, and the 
 palo verde, from which my quail sent forth its defiant 
 and melancholy cry, had already half developed blos- 
 soms which a little later would appear in extraordinary 
 abundance. 
 
 The landscape gave an impression of moist sub- 
 tropics and not of a country on the greater part of which 
 no rain had fallen for nearly half a year. Probably a 
 scanty flow of water had run in the arroyo for the last 
 time on January i, when it rained at Yuma, but, rain 
 or no rain, spring in that country comes as usual, and 
 there was no indication of the lack of water. To be 
 sure, little animal life was seen that day beyond the 
 quail and two small birds which told me that water 
 
IN COMMUNION WITH NATURE 
 
 could not be so very many miles away, but there was 
 nothing to depress one in the peaceful landscape, over 
 which the sun sent its wealth of light. To me the des- 
 ert is radiant with good cheer; superb air there certainly 
 is, and generous sunshine, and the hardy, healthy look- 
 ing plants and trees with their abundant flowers inspire 
 courage. One feels in communion with nature and the 
 great silence is beneficial. Could I select the place 
 where I should like best to die, my choice would be one 
 such as this. I hope at least it may not fall to my lot 
 to pass away in New York, where I might be embalmed 
 before I was dead and where it costs so much to die 
 that I might not leave enough wherewithal to defray the 
 expenses of a funeral. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 I OVERTAKE MY MEN— AGAIN AT TINAJAS ALTAS— PROGRESS 
 UNDER DIFFICULTIES— EXPLORING IN LOS MEDANOS—AS- 
 TONISHING DISPLAY OF FLOWERS— PICTURESQUE CAMP ON 
 THE DUNES— I LOSE MY RIDING MULE— SIERRA DEL ROSARIO 
 —TRAVEL AT NIGHT— THE WONDERFUL "ROOT OF THE 
 SANDS" 
 
 My mule and I felt better for the little rest and with 
 fresh gathered strength we continued our tracking and 
 arrived in good time at Tinajas Altas, where I was de- 
 lighted to find my two Indians. Since I had been at this 
 place last some bushes had been burned in the arroyo, 
 and there had also been dug two long, deep holes in the 
 ground which served immediately to solve the mystery 
 surrounding those Mexicans we had heard of, who were 
 so strangely behaving and so well armed. They had 
 been engaged in an occupation dearly loved by many of 
 their countrymen — that of digging for hidden treasures. 
 To bury money was the usual method of guarding it 
 during the period of unsettled conditions in Mexico, and 
 rumor has it that a great deal of plata (silver) was once 
 deposited in this place for safe-keeping. People who 
 returned from California in the fifties, or people who 
 robbed those who did not return, have also been credited 
 with the burying of treasures here. 
 
 At six o'clock, after a fresh gale from the south, 
 
 there was a slight attempt at rain, which was repeated 
 
 308 
 
THE NEST OF THE LITTLE BIRD 
 
 at nine o'clock when the wind ceased and the moon 
 broke through the clouds. A few birds were singing at 
 daybreak and there were numbers of bees and also bum- 
 blebees on the blossoms of the greasewoods. In a palo 
 fierro that spread its branches over our ''kitchen" I dis- 
 covered the nest of a characteristic desert bird, the gnat- 
 catcher (polio ptila). Curious that this little bird could 
 find its way to these lonely, hidden pools, fifty miles 
 from the nearest watercourse, I climbed up to take a 
 close look at it. Though the bird on the nest seemed 
 restless, continually moving her black head to either side, 
 she still remained sitting, and only repeated warnings of 
 the male, which darted anxiously down toward her, 
 finally caused her to fly away. The nest was cup- 
 shaped and beautifully made of steel gray fibre taken 
 from the seed pods of a certain vine, philihertea linearis^ 
 of which the Papagoes eat the pods either raw or boiled. 
 Pedro, upon seeing my interest in the nest, expressed 
 concern lest I should molest it, which was rather sur- 
 prising, as he did not seem to harbor any other humane 
 feelings with regard to animals either in his hunting ex- 
 peditions or in the treatment of his own burro. 
 
 The sooner we undertook the proposed expedition to 
 the unexplored sierra the better, while our animals were 
 still in good condition, and one day's rest was all that 
 could be allowed. My mule had drained the last water 
 in the lower tank, so the Indians with a bucket scooped 
 down some eighty gallons from the one next above. On 
 the morning of our start el doctor did not succeed in col- 
 lecting the burros until after nine o'clock. Further time 
 
3IO NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 was consumed in driving them up to the tank to drink, 
 and after their loads were put on they seemed to take 
 unkindly to the road and hid themselves among the 
 greasewood bushes, giving my men no end of trouble, so 
 it was nearly eleven o'clock when we finally got under 
 way. 
 
 In order to allow my mule, which was very tired be- 
 sides having a swollen back, to recuperate, I rode a 
 burro, the first experience of this kind in my life. It 
 was not exactly pleasant, for the tiny though strong 
 animal had evidently never carried a rider on its back 
 before, as she had been only used for carrying wood. 
 She had absolutely no ''mouth" and only a garrotes 
 was it possible to make her move, and even that way 
 sometimes failed. However, she could be made to go 
 as long as she saw the other burros ahead, and by great 
 and continued use of brute force I managed to keep 
 along with the rest of the party up to the southernmost 
 point of the range. Here I had to stop a few minutes to 
 take an observation for my map, a sufficient time to al- 
 low the pack train to be lost from sight among the trees 
 and bushes, and therefore, when I again mounted my 
 diminutive ass, she absolutely refused to move in any di- 
 rection. I had to dismount and try to drive her ahead 
 of me, holding her by the rope, but only by running 
 three times as much as she did, in order to prevent her 
 from taking the wrong direction, and continually beating 
 her, could I manage to make any progress. We ran into 
 choyas, the spines of which fastened themselves into her 
 face and onto me, and there was nothing else to do but 
 
AN EXASPERATING RIDE 311 
 
 to get rid of them, as they are troublesome and painful 
 beyond description; then she would run in under the 
 strong thorny branches of the palo fierro, from where 
 she could be extricated only with the most energetic use 
 of force majeure. After having advanced in this way two 
 miles in a blazing sun, I found Pedro waiting for me 
 farther down the arroyo, not wishing to leave me be- 
 hind again. It was two o'clock and we were both hun- 
 gry, but ''A quel se fue'' — "he [Pancho] had gone on" 
 — and we decided not to lose time by eating lunch, for 
 I wanted to get as near the mountains as possible be- 
 fore night. 
 
 We passed the mountain that I call Cerro Pinto, 
 to the south of the sierra, which is of a different, very 
 dark color, and came out on the llanos south-west of it. 
 The mountain range, which was our goal, here presented 
 itself in full view. It runs in the usual direction and 
 consists of several parts, some of them single mountains, 
 stretched out for about fourteen miles. There are two 
 main bodies of the sierra, each little range being per- 
 haps four miles long; then follow mountains at both 
 ends, more or less connected, some of them, especially 
 those toward the north-west, being half submerged in 
 huge sand dunes. The shape of the mountains is the 
 usual one, the crests resembling the teeth of a saw. 
 This succession of hill-tops is conspicuous even at a great 
 distance; hence the name of rosario (rosary), which has 
 been proposed, is appropriate and it should be called 
 Sierra del Rosario. 
 
 The soil was harder than expected, and travel, ac- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 cordingly, was quite easy. A wagon track, which was 
 no doubt that of a prospector, led out in the same direc- 
 tion, but after a mile or two the wagon seemed to have 
 turned back. A belt of large, bare dunes stretched in 
 front of us, flanking the sierra toward the north. We 
 steered toward the central part where the dunes are 
 somewhat lower. 
 
 After six miles' travel from Cerro Pinto, we struck 
 again the arroyo which we had left there. Its course, 
 which lay perhaps only a mile and a half from our route, 
 was easily distinguished by the growth of palo fierro on 
 its banks, and farther down low sand dunes appeared on 
 both sides of it. 
 
 On reaching the arroyo I was agreeably surprised by 
 a magnificent display of flowers. It was again the Oeno- 
 thera trichocalyx that appeared, but on a much vaster 
 scale than anything so far seen. Innumerable plants sep- 
 arated from each other by wide spaces seemed like old 
 friends to me, as the large, pure white flowers nodded in 
 the mild, south-western breeze of a late afternoon. The 
 verdure of the plants was intense and they looked as 
 fresh as if they were growing on the highlands of Nor- 
 way. Some of the bunches were over five feet in diam- 
 eter and had more than a hundred flowers. It may be 
 that the famous rain of January the ist of an other- 
 wise rainless winter had reached here. What the vast 
 stretches of low sand dunes in that western region are 
 like, after the ordinary winter showers, may be easily 
 imagined, and a long journey to see them would be 
 worth the while of a lover of nature. Although the 
 
OENOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, NEAR SlERRA DEL RoSARIO 
 
 CEnOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, NEAR SlERRA DEL ROSARIO. A FINE GROWTH 
 
 (EnOTHERA TRICHOCALYX, SOUTH OF SlERRA BlANCA 
 
PERFUME AND FLOWERS 313 
 
 white flowers were the most conspicuous, three more 
 species were growing here. There would be places 
 where only yellow flowers grew, the smaller species 
 {baileya multiradiata) reminding one of certain mar- 
 guerites; the larger species was an encelia. Then again, 
 and this was perhaps more frequent, some flowers which 
 resembled verbena, of a deep rose purple {abronia urn- 
 hellata) would appear exclusively; they grew in beds, 
 close to the surface, and made a most charming picture. 
 These had a strong perfume such as that of night vio- 
 lets, while the white ones had only a slight scent, like 
 that of water-lilies. 
 
 It was half an hour before sunset when we entered 
 this field of beauty, the men wading knee-deep among 
 the flowers and paying no more attention to them than if 
 they were air, while the burros ate them as they passed 
 along. The air was filled with perfume during the three 
 miles we travelled through this most attractive nursery 
 of mother nature. We then climbed up on the great 
 sand dunes and, as darkness set in, made camp there, 
 a fine view of the sierra, still more than three miles dis- 
 tant, before us. 
 
 I warned Pedro to hobble all the animals especially 
 well. There was no other danger than that of losing 
 some animal in the night through carelessness in tying 
 the rope which binds their forelegs together. He as- 
 sured me that it had been done carefully, but he was 
 in a bad humor and said there was no wood, so he was 
 not going to prepare any food. It was late and he was 
 hungry and had much to do, as the ''doctor" was not 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 able to be of much assistance in kitchen" work, so I ex- 
 cused his mode of expressing himself. I went out myself 
 to gather canutillo and dry branches from some solitary 
 greasewood bushes nearby and the doctor" also brought 
 a load of canutillo. I told Pedro there was no necessity 
 for making tortillas that night, that we would open two 
 cans of corned beef and one of tomatoes. He made coffee 
 and we had a good supper. It was Pedro's habit to get 
 angry and say harsh things without warning, but his 
 wrath passed very quickly. It seemed nice to be among 
 the medanos again; the day had been very fatiguing and 
 it was pleasant to stretch oneself out on a soft bed of 
 clean sand, while viewing by moonlight the sierra we 
 were to visit the next day. 
 
 In the morning Doctor Pancho brought the bad news 
 that my riding mule had broken its hobble and gone. 
 He showed the piece of strong horse-hair rope which 
 in Mexican fashion had served as a hobble. I had my 
 suspicions that it was a matter of carelessness on the 
 part of Pedro who was as stubborn and know-it-all as 
 the burro he rode, intelligent and efficient as he other- 
 wise was. The mule probably had started back to our 
 camp at Los Papagos and, though the doctor" offered 
 to go out again and look for it, small hope could be at- 
 tached to the success of his efforts. It was an unpleas- 
 ant prospect, having to exchange my spirited young ani- 
 mal with an excellent gait for a burro, but the sooner I 
 reconciled myself to its loss, there being slight chance of 
 its recovery, the better for me. After I had taken some 
 photographs, changed films in my kodaks, and made 
 
GUARDING AGAINST MISCHIEF 
 
 additions to my map, we put the baggage together and 
 covered it with my tent fly, the two barrels of water, 
 the most important part of our outfit, being in that 
 way safe from attack from the burros; the latter have 
 a pecuHar way of removing the two wooden stoppers 
 from the barrel with their teeth and then overturning it 
 to get at the water. They are also mischievous in other 
 ways and will chew up papers, but there was nobody 
 else to guard against, and this is one advantage at least 
 that one has in the desert. 
 
 Doctor Pancho had already departed on his rather 
 hopeless quest, when Pedro and I, each mounted on 
 a burro, started for our unknown land. The sand dunes 
 lasted for three miles more, up to a distance of a mile or 
 so from the mountain range. We were still surrounded 
 by flowers in all the little valleys of the sand dunes, and 
 as the latter diminished in height the number of flowers 
 increased until at last in the low outskirts we met with 
 an unusual wealth of the purple kind, forming a carpet 
 for the greasewoods and even growing on the somewhat 
 harder soil next to the sand. 
 
 These hitherto unvisited mountains showed the usual 
 formation of light gray granite with streaks of reddish 
 color. Seen at close range, the sierras of the desert re- 
 gion, weather-worn and washed away, cannot be pro- 
 nounced attractive looking, but such is certainly not the 
 case with the vegetation, which they are instrumental 
 in bringing forth in that arid region. For the very soil 
 of its growth once formed part of these mountains and 
 may be called their detritus. We ascended a pass in a 
 
3i6 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 spur of the mountains toward the north and east and 
 returned by another, some two hundred and fifty feet 
 above the base. There was a nice view from there, 
 north-west over the Uttle valley or inlet, sand dunes 
 like huge snow fans breaking in over the mountains 
 toward the north and threatening to cover them up. 
 The dry arroyo of the inlet was surprisingly wide in its 
 short whirling course, which is edged by numerous palo 
 fierro trees, indicating that the mountain sides are capa- 
 ble of gathering much water at times. Old trails were 
 passed, and broken pottery and a pounding-hole, in which 
 the Indians had crushed mezquite beans, were evidences 
 of the presence formerly of Papago Indians, who camped 
 here at times, carrying water with them, doubtless in 
 gourds. 
 
 The odor of the stunted torote tree and other resinous 
 plants was agreeable. Along the base of the mountains 
 the flowers of the palo fierro attracted many hymenop- 
 tera, I noticed a small gray bird, perhaps a thrasher, 
 running among the stones on the mountain side near the 
 base; an unmistakable thrasher of a larger size was also 
 seen. Retracing our steps around the southern part of 
 the middle mountain, we reached through an easy pass 
 the west side of the sierra. Contrary to our expecta- 
 tions, a small llano was found here, covered with 
 greasewood growth and skirted by sand dunes at four or 
 five miles' distance toward the south. Fresh tracks of 
 mountain-sheep were seen. The shrill notes of hawks 
 startled the silence as usual and toward sunset I could 
 distinguish the singing of three different birds. The 
 
A MOONLIGHT RIDE 317 
 
 water in Tinajas Altas, from twenty to twenty-five miles 
 away, is the nearest. 
 
 It grew dark before we were able to begin our return 
 to camp. Approaching the place where we had seen 
 such a quantity of the purple flowers, their delicious per- 
 fume, which is strongest at night, was felt long before we 
 could see them. The first thing to do was to strike our 
 own tracks of the morning, else it would be decidedly 
 difficult to find the camp as the dunes looked very much 
 alike. When we had once struck them we could safely 
 leave the rest to our riding animals, for the burros with 
 remarkable ease are able to follow tracks even in a pitch- 
 dark night. Pedro, who weighed 215 pounds, dismounted 
 from his steed and put it ahead of the procession, which 
 it eagerly led home. I had begun to be reconciled to my 
 small but powerful mount; it seemed all muscle and 
 hard as a rock, as it safely and surely made for camp, 
 working knee-deep in the soft sand. 
 
 The great waves of dunes extended in almost the 
 same direction that we travelled, namely, toward north 
 north-east. The moon cast its pale light over the pecul- 
 iar landscape and made it look like winter. Travel at 
 night always seems to take a long time, and we thought 
 so, especially as the dunes grew higher. The fantastic, 
 nonchalant canutillo, a greasewood bush half buried in 
 the sand, and a tuft of grass here and there, were the only 
 vegetation apparent. Finally a small but friendly and 
 very welcome light appeared from our camp in a de- 
 clivity between two waves of dunes; a few minutes more 
 and our busy day was over. 
 
3i8 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Doctor Pancho, in our absence, had made himself use- 
 ful by gathering a lot of fuel, such as it was, and he had 
 cooked bones of mountain-sheep with tepari beans for us. 
 He had not been able to overtake the mule, but he had 
 prepared a very pleasant surprise for me in the shape of 
 four specimens of the *'root of the sands," the Indian 
 name for a much coveted dish. They lay in a row on 
 the sand and looked very interesting. I had heard much 
 of this plant, for even the Mexicans relish the camote of 
 the medanos, as they call it, but the past rainless winter 
 had held out little hope that my desire to see it would be 
 realized. This peculiar plant, which is about three feet 
 long, has no leaves and looks like a root covered with 
 scales which grow thicker toward the top. It protrudes 
 slightly above the sand, ending in a button-like excres- 
 cence on the upper surface of which there is observable 
 more than a dozen tiny light blue bells. It is only 
 found in the large barren sand-hills in the months of 
 March and April, and during this time the Papagoes in 
 former days used to gather at such localities, living al- 
 most exclusively on the plant. In May and June the 
 part of the plant which grows above the surface withers 
 and disappears. 
 
 Selecting the three best ones as specimens to be 
 taken along, I sampled one of them and found it to, be 
 a succulent and excellent food. It is more tender than 
 a radish, as well as much more juicy, and the whole 
 root can be eaten. It has a sweetish and agreeable 
 flavor all its own. The Indians usually toast these plants 
 on the coals, when they resemble sweet potatoes in taste, 
 
AN EXTRAORDINARY BOON 319 
 
 but I prefer to eat them raw. They are an especially 
 dehcious rehsh to a thirsty man, and they also quickly 
 appease his hunger; in fact, of all the many kinds of 
 edible roots that I have tried in their uncooked state, 
 used among natives in different parts of the earth, I 
 know of none which can compare with this one in refresh- 
 ing and palatable qualities. We came across some more 
 of them later in the dunes south of Pinacate, which were 
 a smaller form. They practically furnish both food and 
 drink and, after an ordinary winter season of light show- 
 ers, are found in great numbers among the largest sand 
 dunes along the upper coast of the Gulf of California. 
 They have also been found in other parts of Sonora as, 
 for instance, at Lerdo. 
 
 This extraordinary creation of the desert has the well- 
 sounding as well as appropriate name ammohroma sonorce 
 (sand food). Its native name is hiatatk (hia, sand, sand- 
 dunes; tatk, root). It was first mentioned by Dr. Asa 
 Gray in 1854 as a large and fleshy root-parasite grow- 
 ing in the naked sands of the desert at the head of the 
 Gulf of California." It had been discovered in the same 
 year by Col. Andrew B. Gray, during his "survey and 
 explorations for ascertaining the practicability of con- 
 structing a southern railway to the Pacific." Apparently 
 this highly useful plant might be transplanted to advan- 
 tage to other desert regions of the earth. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 RETURN TO TINAJAS ALTAS— EVASIVE TRAVELLERS— AN "OLD- 
 TIMER"— THE CABEZA PRIETA MOUNTAINS— VAGUE NOTIONS 
 OF PROPERTY— THE POOLS OF CABEZA PRIETA— A RAINY DAY 
 —I REACH MY MAIN CAMP— THE ADVANTAGE OF TRAVEL WITH 
 DONKEYS— MY INDIAN COMPANIONS— THE SAND PEOPLE 
 
 While it was still dark the next morning, we were 
 again in activity by the light of our guiding morning 
 star — to rise at dawn would have been a very late hour 
 for US. To the annoyance of Pedro, who always wanted 
 to hurry, an hour was spent on the road photographing 
 the flowers. It was night when we arrived at Tinajas 
 Altas, a moderate gale from the south-east blowing, and 
 we all felt tired. Four unwelcome strangers made their 
 appearance, driving up their wagon outside of the little 
 valley. They were evidently American citizens from 
 somewhere on the Gila River, most of them Mexicans, 
 and the owner of the wagon and the fat horses was an 
 unpleasant old Italian. They were not prospectors, and 
 they were a queer lot — very different from the ordinary 
 Mexicans — and they gave me an uneasy feeling because 
 of their underhanded and evasive ways. Probably they 
 were nothing worse than treasure hunters, but it was a 
 relief to have them continue their journey next morning, 
 while we recuperated here another day. 
 
 Pedro found that my lost mule had watered at the 
 
 tinaja, and after following its tracks for many miles he 
 
 320 
 
A PLEASANT MEETING 
 
 321 
 
 concluded that it had continued on its way back; a few 
 weeks later the Indians brought it to me in Sonoita. In 
 the afternoon, toward sunset, a small man on horseback 
 turned up. He was old and his face was almost hidden 
 under an immense straw hat. His horse was dragging 
 along a log of mezquite, for firewood is rare at Tinajas 
 Altas. He bowed his head to me in a genial way and 
 I saw at a glance that I had an old-timer" before me. 
 He was a prospector and his companion would soon 
 follow him in a wagon. The new-comer was such a con- 
 trast to the evasive men of the morning that his appear- 
 ance gave me genuine delight. He said they were from 
 Mohawk on a prospecting tour to Pinacate. I suggested 
 that lava fields generally were not good places to find 
 gold, although I had heard that samples of gold-bearing 
 malpais (lava) have been picked up in the region north 
 of Pinacate. It was just there that he was going, and 
 from a pouch tied to a string around his neck he brought 
 forth for my admiring eyes a most unusual sample of 
 free gold that literally studded a dark brown piece of 
 rock which, in fact, seemed to be old lava. 
 
 In the evening I spent a pleasant hour in the cheer- 
 ful camp of the two American Mexicans. The old pro- 
 spector was an entertaining man, quite at home in the 
 desert, where he had made many a journey in vain pur- 
 suit of the elusive metal. He had prospected in Sierra 
 del Viejo where Cipriano Ortega once worked a silver 
 mine which was lost later and could never be found 
 again. He had also been looking for the lost mission 
 and showed where some years ago my friend, Prof. W. 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 J. McGee, "walking barefoot/' he said, for the sake of 
 his health, had camped in a hut made among the rocks 
 near the lower tank. Their outfit was not substantial; 
 in a light wagon they carried their provisions, and their 
 water supply was kept in cast-off Standard Oil cans. I 
 told them that it would be difficult, and perhaps impos- 
 sible, to find any water at the Tule well, but their en- 
 thusiasm and determination recognized no obstacles. 
 
 As we were about to go our separate ways the next 
 morning, the old prospector brought four eggs which he 
 wanted to present to me. He urged me to accept them, 
 as they had a dozen more for themselves. This would be 
 a trivial matter in the ordinary routine of life, but was 
 touching under circumstances like these. I promised in 
 return to present him with mountain-sheep meat when he 
 arrived at Los Papagos, where he was going to establish 
 his camp and where I hoped to see him again later. He 
 and his companion never turned up, however, and I sin- 
 cerely hope that nothing untoward happened to them to 
 which his thirty years' experience in the desert was inade- 
 quate. 
 
 The weather was much cooler than I expected on this 
 trip, a nice breeze of moderate strength blowing every 
 day, and the nights were almost too cool. Even in April it 
 is still possible to travel in that region without much dis- 
 comfort. At the Cabeza Prieta range we made camp in a 
 pass near some large red trachyte boulders. The red- 
 dish looking mountains seemed to be even more than 
 usually narrow-crested and steep. We made a tour 
 through the central part and came to an interesting 
 
CONFLICTING CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 short, box-like canon surrounded by mountains that 
 seemed higher and more difficult to ascend than they were 
 in reahty. While we were considering as to which way 
 we had better proceed, two female mountain-sheep ap- 
 peared frequently on a ridge against the sky, watching 
 us for many minutes and then disappearing and return- 
 ing again. As we needed provisions, the two Indians 
 went after them, while I took a circuitous route for camp. 
 The flock consisted of seven, which I observed moving 
 about the top of a ridge in leisurely fashion for some 
 time; they were all females and three of them very 
 young. 
 
 On my return to camp at dusk, my Indians had not yet 
 arrived. At eight o'clock they slowly approached the fire 
 carrying all the meat of two sheep. They had mistaken 
 the road, and had come across an American campo (tent) 
 where they had discovered a sack half-full of onions and 
 another with potatoes. Pedro told me that the doctor 
 had helped himself from each sack and asked me whether 
 I would eat them. As I answered him with a decided 
 negative, he said they would eat them. 
 
 It was not edifying to see my men consume the stolen 
 goods, but as the heavy burden of meat they carried had 
 made it impossible for them to take away with them any 
 great quantity, I told them that Americans were huenos 
 (generous) and probably would not mind. But I was 
 very much put out when the next day, as we were filling 
 our barrels at the tinajas of the Cabeza Prieta, I made the 
 disagreeable discovery that we had two buckets instead 
 of one. "A quel [the doctor] took it from the Americans," 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Pedro said. When I remarked reproachfully that this 
 was not right and asked him with what the Americans on 
 their return would fill their barrels, he answered: "The 
 doctor said there were six or seven and, as the Americans 
 did not need them all, he carried off one." What can 
 one do under such circumstances to satisfy the require- 
 ments of ethics ? Travelling alone in the wilderness with 
 two Indians, I was to a certain extent in their power, and 
 was forced to act diplomatically; we were too far away 
 to return the bucket, for our supply of flour would soon be 
 exhausted and our animals had to be considered. 
 
 There are said to be as many as eight pools at Ca- 
 beza Prieta, each higher than the other. The four lower 
 ones were empty, and the water had to be scooped down 
 from above from one to the other, so that we could fill 
 our barrels and that our animals might drink. It is 
 tedious and rather primitive to have to depend on tinajas 
 for one's existence, and these were even less accessible 
 than usual, the entrance being through a narrow canon. 
 On entering this I had noticed six heaps of stones 
 placed in a row as if to show the way to the water and 
 had been made by the Indians long ago. Later on, at 
 the pass near Tinaja del Tule, I saw six much smaller 
 stone heaps, five of them forming a circle ten feet in di- 
 ameter. The sixth pile was outside of the ring toward 
 the west, separated from the rest by the same distance 
 as that between each of the others. 
 
 The day surprised us by being actually rainy, foggy, 
 and chilly, and the mountain tops were hidden in mist. 
 The showers came usually from the south-east and would 
 
Sierra del Rosario, northern part 
 
 Cabeza Prieta Range. An interior, looking westward. A dry arroyo at 
 
 THE bottom 
 
AN AGREEABLE RETURN 325 
 
 last only a few minutes, occurring intermittently, but 
 toward six o'clock we had some heavier rain, and when 
 we camped we were wet as well as our baggage. Three 
 days later, on Sunday, March 27, we arrived again at 
 Tinaja de los Papagos. The aspect of the landscape 
 around the arroyo in which our camp was placed had 
 changed much during our absence; it was like summer 
 now, the mezquites were in their beautiful foliage and 
 blossom, and the light-yellow flowers — yellower than 
 lemon — of the palo verde were very conspicuous, making 
 the arroyo yellow and green. The camp gave me quite 
 a feeling of home. My tent looked agreeably white, clean, 
 and comfortable among the trees, and the members of the 
 expedition who had remained behind received us warmly. 
 Guadalupe made tortillas and we were treated to a fa- 
 mous stew of mountain-sheep that tasted good though 
 it was cooked in only half an hour, the last onion having 
 been reserved for the occasion. 
 
 It had been a very hazy day; distant mountains stood 
 enveloped in a thin mist and sand was raised on the 
 llanos by an increasingly strong southern gale which 
 sprang up during the afternoon. At sunset it abated in 
 force and turned south-easterly. Though the air felt 
 damp, the moon shone brightly when I retired for the 
 night; ten minutes later, at nine o'clock, I was surprised 
 by the falling of a few drops of rain on my tent. The sky 
 was now overcast and threatening, so we had to prepare 
 for a rainy night. Hardly had we covered up the bag- 
 gage, a matter of hve minutes, when a light breeze from 
 the north cleared the sky and it was calm again. Thus 
 
326 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ended the little shower of the desert which had been 
 born from the atmospheric disturbances of a whole day. 
 
 I had been away with the two Indians for thirteen days, 
 our burros travelling nearly one hundred and fifty miles, 
 and during that time we had called for water only at two 
 places, Tinajas Altas and Tinajas de la Cabeza Prieta, 
 but our animals returned in good condition. I had 
 learned at least one thing on this short expedition, and 
 that is that donkeys are without comparison the best ani- 
 mals for exploration of the American desert. Remark- 
 ably strong and very hardy for their size, they are con- 
 tented with humble fare, making themselves at home in 
 any camp the traveller may choose in that arid region. 
 Their first move is to caress each other's necks, while the 
 horses stand about sulky and discontented; next they 
 find some bushes or leaves of trees or odd-looking plants 
 to eat, and in the winter three days without water does not 
 trouble them. They know how to take care of themselves 
 and, having once been shown a waterhole, they do not have 
 to be led to it again, but go thither at their pleasure; 
 horses usually have to be driven to the hole again and 
 again. Donkeys do not stray much and in the morning 
 the traveller will nearly always find them all together 
 ready to continue the journey. The more a burro is 
 loaded, the faster it walks, in order to reach camp so 
 much the sooner. The burro is not as rough to ride as 
 one would expect; a few have a gait as pleasant as that of 
 a good mule, but it must be confessed that there are draw- 
 backs to its use under the saddle. It is slower than a 
 horse or a mule and, although far more intelligent than 
 
EULOGY OF THE DONKEY 327 
 
 either, it is stubborn and difficult to move when one is 
 anxious to reach a certain point, to take a quick photo- 
 graph, etc. If riding alone, it is next to impossible to 
 have one's burro stop more than for a few seconds, as its 
 sole aim is to be close to its mates. In order to take 
 down notes one either has to dismount or stop the pack 
 train. This drawback could be remedied by having a 
 man following on another burro. And if the traveller 
 knows how to accommodate himself to various conditions, 
 he will find this animal invaluable for certain kinds of 
 exploration. 
 
 My two Indians, though not altogether pleasant com- 
 panions, had served me as well as could be expected. As 
 a packer and manager of our outfit Pedro had done good 
 work, even measured by a white man's standard. He 
 was a fair cook, though too stubborn and set in his ways 
 to accept any advice. He was able to repair anything 
 well that might get out of order on such a trip, and he did 
 all his work with incredible quickness. He had taught 
 himself to cut hair and exercised his dexterity on my 
 head to my entire satisfaction. Being furthermore a good 
 tracker and an excellent shot, he would make an admir- 
 able servant on any expedition but for his bad tem- 
 per; he was inclined unexpectedly to say disagreeable 
 things, but, if he were met by a decided countenance, 
 would in a few minutes be pleasant in manners and in 
 speech. It was impossible to get any ethnological infor- 
 mation from him, owing to his great disinclination to dis- 
 cuss Indians and their affairs. He was taciturn, and what 
 he had to say he uttered in a very low voice. Not much 
 
328 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 escaped his watchful eyes, however, and his physiognomy 
 betrayed brutaHty and cruelty, though he was not without 
 tender feehngs, as evidenced when he did not want to cut 
 down a palo fierro in which he discovered a httle bird had 
 its nest. His courage was undisputed, and if he Hked a 
 white man he would in case of danger stand by him to 
 his last breath. 
 
 Doctor Pancho, the medicine-man, had rather an en- 
 gaging, humorous face. He was always ready to serve 
 and he, too, was quick in his actions. He had an ener- 
 getic disposition and did good service in finding wood 
 quickly, grinding coffee, boiling meat, cleaning pigeons, 
 and such work. He was even-tempered, and only once, 
 when I, after having lost my note-book, had to ask him 
 some questions over again in regard to local names, did 
 he rise up in dignified wrath, saying with much feeling 
 that he had given me this in four books, and if I wanted 
 to hear it again I would have to ask somebody else. 
 But, taking it all in all, he was willing to give information, 
 and, what was more, gave it correctly, which was much to 
 be thankful for. There was a certain slyness about him, 
 and the Indians were afraid of him as a sorcerer. His 
 mind was always on the alert for something that might 
 prove useful to him. He used to pick up discarded papers 
 and put them away for safe-keeping. He was not very 
 good in following tracks, but knew how to trap wild ani- 
 mals, and the rapid and dexterous manner in which he 
 prepared them for eating reminded me of the ways of the 
 Australian savages. His ideas about property were not 
 highly developed and, though he was a man of a much 
 
NOTES ON THE SAND PEOPLE 
 
 nicer disposition than Pedro, in an emergency I think I 
 should rather trust myself to the brutal sagacity of the 
 latter. 
 
 Judging from these two and from a third one, Agustin, 
 that I knew, the sand people were not a pleasant lot to 
 deal with. They were rapacious and probably merciless 
 to strangers, whether Indians or Mexicans. Agustin was 
 a distant, disagreeable kind of a man, whose confidence 
 it would take years to win. According to Mexican ac- 
 counts, the arenenos formerly made the roads dangerous 
 to pass, and nobody could follow them into the sand dunes 
 to their principal retreat at Pinacate. 
 
 These Papagoes were called Hiatit Gotam, *'sand 
 people. " According to my companion, the medicine-man 
 Pancho, who spent his early life in the dunes, they were 
 not many in number and used to travel all together. 
 He asserted that a peculiar disease accompanied by the 
 vomiting of yellow and green and then blood" killed 
 most of those natives, and thought that it was brought 
 from Yuma. The course of the disease took from four to 
 ten days. It probably is the same affliction that is men- 
 tioned on the Papago calendar stick (page 74) as having 
 occurred in 1851. The remaining four families decided 
 to retire to other parts and for the last forty or fifty years 
 the sand dune country has been uninhabited. These 
 natives probably never exceeded in number one hundred 
 and fifty all told, and their head-quarters were at Hotuni- 
 kat (sunset), south of Pinacate. The great annual feast, 
 now given at Quitovac, was removed from the Pinacate 
 region before my informant's time — thus at least over 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 seventy years ago — because the old men who had charge 
 of the ceremonial objects of the feast had died, and it 
 was decided that the latter should be taken care of at 
 Quitovac. 
 
 These sand people were intelligent, healthy, and able- 
 bodied, and managed to make a good living in an abso- 
 lute desert. Their existence depended upon the knowl- 
 edge of the few places in the mountain ranges, not even 
 one in each range, where rain fills the tinajas, as well as 
 of the few places along the coast where water can be found 
 by digging for it. Once where to look for water is known, 
 the difficulties in making a living out there are not so 
 great as one would expect. In hot weather they followed 
 jack-rabbits in the loose sand until the latter were ex- 
 hausted, and caught muskrats by burning the accumu- 
 lations of cactus spines with which those animals keep 
 enemies away from their burrows. They also killed 
 mountain-sheep, which were not a difficult quarry, with 
 their bows and arrows, especially in the large craters, and 
 they were even able to approach mule-deer and antelope 
 near enough to kill them by the same weapon. Lizards 
 were eaten. At certain seasons they went to the coast 
 for the fishing, catching as many fish as they wished. 
 
 A single agricultural site may be attributed to the 
 sand people, called Suvuk, south-east of Tinajas de 
 Emilia, in Pinacate. Maize, squashes, and beans were 
 planted here by means of a stick, on a very small scale, 
 but the majority of these people had no agriculture what- 
 ever. They found good edible plant food in the dunes, 
 especially ammohroma sonora, the wonderful camotes 
 
NATURAL CONDITIONS 
 
 331 
 
 which the Indians knew how to gather all the year round, 
 though after May that part of the plant which is above 
 ground withers away. They had their season of chia and 
 used to come as far as Quitovaquita and Santo Domingo 
 to gather mezquite beans (called by the Mexicans pechita) 
 and eat sahuaro and pitahaya. Near all the tinajas are 
 seen round holes from six to ten inches deep, made into 
 the solid rock, in which these Indians pounded mezquite 
 beans. Their pestles are frequently found. The beans 
 of the palo fierro were toasted, ground, and consumed as 
 pinole. After the scanty winter rains the juicy plant of 
 the sand dunes, Oenothera trichocalyx^ was boiled and eaten. 
 
 The clothing of these people was made from the skin 
 of mule-deer, antelope, or mountain-sheep. The hair was 
 first removed with a bone taken from the lower foreleg 
 of the animal, and the skin was smeared with the brains. 
 The root of the torote tree, crushed and left in water, fur- 
 nished necessary material for the tanning process. The 
 man wore shirt and breech cloth, the woman a short skirt. 
 They killed sea lions on the rocks by hitting them on 
 the nose, and from their skins sandals and straps were 
 cut. From the badger's hair they were able to plait 
 ribbons for the hair and make twine to be used for the 
 breech cloth. Women wore sandals, but no hair ribbons. 
 The skirt was kept up by strings of buckskin. 
 
 The burden basket was not used, but they made carry- 
 ing nets as well as pottery, material for which is abundant 
 on the coast. Baskets were manufactured from torote, 
 willow, and bulrushes. In order to make bows, these 
 Indians travelled as far as the Colorado River to get 
 
332 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 willow as material. Arrows were made from the arrow- 
 bush. Arrow-points of hard stone have occasionally been 
 found in that country, but never stone axes. 
 
 They had foot-races and also practised the game of 
 throwing with the end of a thin pole two short pieces of 
 wood which are linked together. (Page 89.) In the 
 winter time they lived at a higher elevation in the moun- 
 tains where they erected grass huts. Once a year a jour- 
 ney was made to Yuma to barter with the Indians there, 
 and maize, tepari beans, and squashes were exchanged 
 for baskets and sea-shells. Remnants of these people are 
 living at Quitovaquita and the Growler Well, both places 
 in Arizona. A few families are said to live near the rail- 
 way station, Adonde, near Wellton, on the Southern Pacific 
 line. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 AN INDIAN HERMIT— ABORIGINAL COOKING— AGAIN IN SONOITA 
 —ANCIENT VILLAGE SITES AROUND THE ALTAR RIVER— A 
 REMEDY FOR SNAKE BITES— I ARRIVE AT AJO, ARIZONA— GILA 
 BEND RESERVATION— AN ANCIENT FORTRESS— THE MARICOPA 
 INDIANS— THE WAYS OF CIVILIZATION— THE PIMA INDIANS— 
 CASA GRANDE— ITS BUILDERS— RETURN TO CIVILIZATION 
 
 As we started back for Sonoita, Caravajales, the 
 Indian hermit of Los Papagos, joined us. He owns a 
 burro and a horse and plants a Httle maize, besides rais- 
 ing a few squashes and watermelons. He catches fish 
 on the coast also, but camotes, the "roots of the sands," 
 form his principal means of subsistence. In fact he lives 
 almost entirely on these camotes, and is able to find 
 them out of season. He often goes without food for 
 days, which does not trouble him, as he is the proud 
 possessor of a canteen and in his travels is never without 
 water. He confided his secrets and domestic troubles to 
 Guadalupe, who told me about them. When his wife left 
 him a few years before, he decided to go back again to live 
 in the medanos where he was born. Once a year he 
 visits Sonoita to see relatives and to get drunk. There is 
 no harm in the elderly man, but neither is he sympathetic. 
 He is thin, rather bald, and almost completely deaf, but 
 seems to be healthy. Recently he had been in Quitova- 
 quita for two days and had remained without eating dur- 
 
 333 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 ing that time; then he had ridden to get the camotes for 
 three days more without food. 
 
 On the slopes of the lava plateau north of Pinacate 
 there was a notable increase in the number of the white 
 choyas {opuntia fulgiJa), which looked at their best 
 among scattered greasewoods and other bushes. Often 
 at a distance I mistook them for the white or gray shirts 
 of my men. At least six times I noticed branches of 
 greasev/ood cut off and lying on the ground. This was, 
 according to Pancho, the medicine-man, the work of jack- 
 rabbits, which eat both branches and leaves. The Ind- 
 ians in the evening cooked one of these animals in hot 
 ashes covered with earth, on top of which a fire was made. 
 The doctor" prepared it for cooking by breaking its 
 legs with a stick (a matter of a few seconds) and then 
 singeing the hair of the whole body over the fire. He 
 had first cut off the ears, for they are considered a great 
 delicacy, and put them aside to be eaten by him later. 
 The meat of the jack-rabbit is much coveted by the 
 Papagos, who often run these animals down on horse- 
 back. Parties are sometimes gotten up for this kind of 
 hunting. 
 
 On reaching Sonoita nearly all the members of the 
 expedition were allowed to depart, each taking home a 
 sack of dried mountain-sheep meat, and I began to 
 make various excursions in the neighborhood, once go- 
 ing as far as Altar. While driving, one of our pair of 
 mules actually stepped across a fine large rattlesnake. I 
 expected to see it strike, for there was no time to stop as 
 the reptile was entwined between the mule's feet, but 
 
ANTIQUITIES ON THE ALTAR RIVER 335 
 
 for a wonder, they did not touch it and the snake made 
 its escape calmly without even the usual rattling. 
 
 I visited several ancient village sites in the Altar River 
 valley. One, at the ranch of Llano Blanco, on the bank 
 of the Magdalena River, just before its junction with 
 the Altar River, was a mile long and a quarter of a 
 mile broad. Thousands of pieces of hard stones, chipped 
 away in the making of weapons or implements, were lying 
 on the ground, and for six miles from there on until the 
 Ventana ranch is reached, numbers of potsherds were seen, 
 which may also be observed for a greater distance up 
 the river. Numerous well-made stone objects have been 
 found here as well as at Pitiquito, farther down the Altar 
 River. Small stone images have been encountered in 
 this valley; one, about four and a half inches high, made 
 of a chocolate-brown stone much like jade in texture, 
 was picked up by a vaquero on the ground near Pitiquito. 
 Large bracelets of shell have been found here, and also 
 some peculiar antiquities consisting of stone bars or 
 ceremonial wands, most of them cylindrical in shape 
 and pointed at the ends, which I discovered in houses 
 of the Mexicans as far west as the ranch Chireones, fifteen 
 miles from Altar. 
 
 In the District of Altar I heard very favorable reports 
 of a remedy for bites of snakes and scorpions. The secret 
 was conveyed to me for the benefit of the world at large, 
 and my informant had learned it thirty years before from 
 an Indian. The remedy consists of the excrements of 
 a leaf-eating ant (pogonomyrmex barbatus), common in 
 those parts and called mochomo, and a plant called golon- 
 
336 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 drina. There are two kinds of golondrina, and it is the 
 small one {amphorhia polycarpa) from the low mountains 
 that is used, and not the one that grows two or three feet 
 high in the cultivated fields. The two ingredients should 
 be crushed, alcohol added, and the thick mixture applied 
 to the wound and held there by a bandage. The pain 
 should subside at once with this treatment. The addi- 
 tion of leaves of the red-flowering oleander (in Spanish 
 called laurel) is said to be an improvement. But the 
 mochomo by itself is maintained to be wonderfully effec- 
 tive. Perhaps the fact that the ants feed on the leaves 
 of the greasewood, which are very antiseptic, may have 
 something to do with the efficaciousness of the remedy. 
 As my authority was an intelligent and judicious Mexican, 
 an examination by a competent judge, especially of the 
 mochomo, which is easily procured anywhere in that re- 
 gion, would seem to be warranted. 
 
 On my return to civilization from Sonoita, I crossed the 
 boundary into Arizona, stopping first at Ajo, the name of 
 an apparently great copper mine, on which work had been 
 temporarily abandoned. Contrary to expectation, it is 
 from the point of view of scenery a beautiful place, 
 situated as it is among picturesque-looking hills. Even 
 at a considerable distance, coming from the south, large 
 streaks of green on some of the hill-tops due to the 
 prevalence of copper are plainly visible. The weather 
 was very warm for twelve days, and from the 24th of 
 May till the 4th of June an average maximum tem- 
 perature of nearly 106° F. was shown. The highest 
 temperature was 117° F. on the 30th of May. When 
 
SEEING THE LAST OF THE PAPAGOES 337 
 
 it attained this point the sensation was that of walking 
 between great fires. However, the heat, being very dry, 
 was quite bearable and the nights were pleasant. 
 
 At Gila Bend railroad station I camped in a Mexican 
 corral, and found my camp agreeable on account of the 
 abundance of clear and easily accessible water, which was 
 all the more satisfying after my long absence from civil- 
 ized comforts of any kind. I continued my journey to a 
 small reservation for the Papago Indians north of there, 
 camping at the well of the Pelon rancheria under the 
 shade of a clump of large mezquites. From here I made 
 a visit to an ancient village known under the name of 
 ''The Fortress" (Jortin in Spanish). Crossing the wide 
 river-bed of the Gila River, on the banks of which bata- 
 motes grew exuberantly, the village is found on top of a 
 detached hill, which was admirably adapted for defence, 
 being protected on the side easiest of access by a stone wall 
 two hundred yards long, from six to eight feet high and 
 from four to five feet wide, running east and west. The 
 houses, like the wall, are made of stones well set without 
 masonry. One of the largest houses measured sixteen 
 by twenty feet, and the walls were three feet thick in all of 
 them. A dozen dwellings were found outside of the wall, 
 and nearly thirty were counted inside, standing in irregu- 
 lar groups. The Papagoes call the fortress kokulisik 
 (kokulty corral). 
 
 The Gila Bend Reservation consists of three ran- 
 cherias: Pelon, or ''lower village"; Tesota, or "second 
 village," and an "upper village," which has only a Papago 
 name, Siilimok ("burnt saddle"). There are about 
 
338 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 three hundred souls in all of them. In the "upper vil- 
 lage" I found most of the people away harvesting wheat 
 for the Pimas, for these Papago Indians are not restricted 
 to the reservation. 
 
 Arriving at the agricultural settlements on the Gila 
 River, I felt as if I had come to another country. Miles 
 of waving wheat and alfalfa fields and the smell of humid 
 earth, all brought about by the magic of irrigation, were 
 a delightful demonstration of the remarkable agricultural 
 possibilities of certain portions of the great western desert. 
 
 The agency of the Maricopa Indians was next reached. 
 It is in the western corner of the Gila River Reservation 
 and presented an attractive appearance situated among 
 cultivated fields in the height of mid-summer. These 
 were not Indian fields, as one would expect, but belonged 
 to white farmers who owned, I was told, four of the irri- 
 gating ditches, while the Indians had one. The land set 
 apart for the latter is not good — only fair — but by heavy 
 irrigation the Indians manage to make the alkaline soil 
 serviceable. 
 
 A comfortable looking cottage with red tiled roof 
 and a shady veranda on a spacious greensward indicated 
 where the agent lived, while at some distance from the 
 house I noticed a number of shelves on the wall under the 
 porch, built one above the other, and, at a casual glance, 
 there appeared to be photographs placed there for sale, 
 but as I passed through the gate I discovered that these 
 were rows of medicine bottles within a large open closet. 
 A drug store in the land of sunshine and good cheer! 
 The idea of disease seemed wholly anomalous in this dry 
 
THE WHITE AND THE RED MAN 
 
 air, bracing in spite of the noon-day heat. I knew, of 
 course, that the Indians had acquired consumption since 
 their contact with the whites, but I was puzzled to learn 
 what other diseases this array of medicines was intended 
 for. So I stepped up to a young, pleasant looking man, 
 who was grooming his horses in a shed near by and who 
 turned out to be the agent. '*Are the Maricopa a healthy 
 race ?" I inquired. "No, I don't think so; there is much 
 disease here." *'So you need all that medicine which I 
 see on the porch?" **Yes, indeed; there has been an 
 epidemic of measles and we still have ten cases, though 
 whooping cough is now the great trouble, for it often de- 
 velops into bronchial pneumonia and kills many, and we 
 have had to close the day school. There is always con- 
 sumption here, and I often have to treat syphilitic ulcers," 
 he added as he concluded the distressing list of the effects 
 of the so-called civilization on the surviving three hundred 
 members of a once healthy tribe. 
 
 The Pima Indians, for whose benefit the larger part 
 of the Gila River Reservation was set aside, are not 
 dying out, in spite of having suffered much from the 
 whites, who have been known to divert the river water, 
 the source of life to the Indians who live farther down 
 its course. Their number is rather on the increase. 
 According to information furnished me by the agent at 
 Sacaton, there were living on the Gila River Reserva- 
 tion in June, 1909, 4,086 Pima, 203 Papago, and 337 
 Maricopa Indians. They are an industrious people and 
 virile, though of a mild, even disposition. Since the 
 first days of the coming of the whites, they were of as- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 sistance to them, showing as much kindness to the early 
 explorers, pioneers, and gold seekers as the Apaches ex- 
 hibited hostility. They used to raise cotton, which they 
 still do to a small extent, and although they made blank- 
 ets as late as forty years ago, spinning and weaving 
 have been abandoned. Their basketry was noted for 
 good workmanship, though it was inferior to that of the 
 Apache, but since their contact with whites the art has 
 much deteriorated. Small circular storehouses of twisted 
 rolls of arrow-bush may be noticed outside some of the 
 dwellings. Similar structures for the storage of mezquite 
 beans may be seen on the roofs. At Gila Crossing a 
 surprising number of old-fashioned round grass huts 
 were observed. 
 
 There are several ancient ruins in or near the coun- 
 try occupied at the present day by the Pima, the most 
 important of which is the noted Casa Grande which has 
 often been described. The walls, from three and a half 
 to four feet or more thick, are made of big blocks of 
 earth or grout which when dried become as hard as 
 stone. The rafters are of cedar and the rooms are sym- 
 metrical; three stories remain, but there were four orig- 
 inally. I viewed with much interest the work that lately 
 had been done for the United States Government to re- 
 deem the original features of this place, thereby assist- 
 ing any one at all concerned in the history of this con- 
 tinent to get a clear idea of the doings of the ancient 
 people. Gratifying and necessary as is the preservation 
 of what remained of the principal part of the ruins, it 
 seems a pity that the shed erected for the purpose could 
 
AN ABORIGINAL MONUMENT 
 
 not have been made large enough to permit a less ob- 
 structed view of the grand building. It should have 
 been higher and wider. I suppose economic considera- 
 tions may have had something to do with the arrange- 
 ment that comes dangerously near preserving the ruin 
 out of sight. At any rate, its imposing character is lost. 
 Nevertheless, it is to be hoped that the ruins, now that 
 they have been cleared of debris and present a compre- 
 hensible example of ancient American architecture and 
 life, will be made an objective point for visits of people 
 interested in the early history of America. It is now 
 possible to walk around in the well-preserved rooms 
 where the Jesuit Father Kino said mass in 1694, the 
 same year that the ruins were discovered. Visitors will, 
 however, go further back and marvel at the skill of the 
 ancient builders, although, if measured by modern stand- 
 ards, faults may be found in the construction. An ex- 
 hibition of implements and weapons found during the 
 clearing up of the debris adds to the interest. 
 
 The stone implements unearthed here are of the same 
 general character as the ancient ones which I collected in 
 the present-day Papagueria. A large stone scraper and 
 a double-edged axe appear identical with specimens 
 which were secured by me farther south in Arizona, and 
 which I do not believe were made by the ancestors of the 
 present Pima and Papago Indians. It is noteworthy that 
 wooden hoes were unearthed at Casa Grande which seem 
 to be exactly the same kind as those until quite recently 
 used by the Papago, of which I was able to collect several 
 specimens in the Santa Rosa valley, south of Kohatk, 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 Their presence at Casa Grande does not in my opinion 
 necessarily imply that the ancestors of the present oc- 
 cupants of that region had anything to do with the build- 
 ing of this noble structure. Granted that the methods 
 of its makers were thoroughly aboriginal and even crude, 
 it is a far step from the Pima and Papago dome-shaped 
 grass huts, practical as they are in the desert, to the four 
 story, thick-walled building in question. The decorative 
 art of these two native peoples as compared, for instance, 
 with that of the Pueblo Indians, is mediocre, and their 
 handicraft in workmanship and finish does not even 
 equal that of some of the western tribes who live under 
 similar conditions. This certainly indicates a consider- 
 ably lower state of culture than that suggested by the 
 beautifully symmetrical, polished stone implements which 
 have been found at Casa Grande and other ruins and 
 ancient village sites of the region south of the Gila River, 
 and farther south and east than the Altar River in Sonora. 
 The lack of architectural skill evinced by the Pima and 
 the Papago and their little developed aesthetic sense 
 seem to me utterly at variance with the theory that the 
 tribe or tribes in question built the Casa Grande. Its 
 builders must be sought among their predecessors in the 
 Papagueria. 
 
 The trip from the ruins to the Casa Grande railroad 
 station was made leisurely and in a short time. Arriv- 
 ing there at sunset, I camped back of the houses among 
 several small parties of teamsters, mainly Indians. The 
 next morning I had a good wash-up and put on my best 
 apparel so that my personal appearance should be more 
 
COMFORT VS. CIVILIZATION 
 
 in harmony with the conventionahties of civihzation. 
 Two hours' travel on the Southern Pacific Railway 
 brought me again into Tucson. I had no difficulty in 
 getting accommodation at the best hotel, and was treated 
 with much courtesy, but the discomfort of having to 
 sleep within four walls, which a cloudless day had heated 
 up to an abnormal degree, was too much for me. Every- 
 thing I touched in my room was warm, and I felt as if 
 I were in a Turkish bath with no breath of air to relieve 
 the tension. People in half torpor were lying on their 
 beds with their doors open. The temperature of the 
 air outside was not unusually high, but the house had 
 been built without any regard to climatic conditions. 
 Dwellings for human occupancy in countries where such 
 high temperature prevails should not be constructed as 
 they are in colder regions. This is a very common fault, 
 and people are apt to look upon the discomfort brought 
 about by man's thoughtlessness as unavoidable or to ac- 
 cept it as inscrutably providential. To shut out air and 
 make no provision against a heat wave that lasts for 
 months is not civilization; its aim should be to make 
 everybody independent of exterior circumstances and 
 comfortable in all latitudes. Fond as I am of civilized 
 Hfe and all it implies, as I gasped for air during those 
 restless hours I could not help longing for the fresh, 
 cool, beautiful, and silent nights of my wild desert. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PAPAGO— 
 EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH WHITE MAN— MARITAL RELA- 
 TIONS—WOMAN'S HIGH POSITION— INDUSTRIES— DIVISIONS OF 
 THE TRIBE— RELIGION AND MYTHS— RACES AND GAMES- 
 FIGHTS WITH APACHES— SHAM BATTLES— PRESENT CONDI- 
 TIONS AND PROSPECTS OF THE PAPAGO 
 
 To the characteristics of the Papago which have al- 
 ready been given, I shall add here some observations and 
 notes which may help to complete the picture of his 
 present status as well as of his past. 
 
 These Indians are naturally very healthy and many 
 grow to be a hundred years old or more. A few years 
 ago a woman who went out to gather pitahaya returned 
 with the basket on her head full of fruit and a new- 
 born babe in her arms. The total weight probably was 
 not less than forty or fifty pounds. The heaviest bas- 
 kets, when loaded with the juicy cactus fruits, may weigh 
 as much as a hundred pounds. A native Indian is less 
 affected by inflammatory processes than a white person; 
 wounds heal by first intention. The following case, al- 
 though referring to a Pima Indian, may properly be 
 mentioned here, as the Papago are of the Pima tribe. 
 A woman in childbirth was unable to deliver the placenta; 
 but she recovered in a few days, though an American 
 doctor, who saw her, expressed the belief that she would 
 die. 
 
 344 
 
QUALITIES OF BARBAROUS MAN 
 
 The men frequently have sUght moustaches. At 
 present the men all have their hair cut short, but a lux- 
 uriant growth was formerly considered a standard of 
 beauty. It was occasionally washed with an infusion 
 from the roots of a vine called adofi. Sometimes these 
 natives would plaster the head with clay, to kill para- 
 sites and ensure a better growth of hair. The women 
 still take great care of this ornament to their persons and 
 are often seen brushing it with brushes made from the 
 roots of sacaton grass. With the children, it is cut so 
 that it may grow strong, and the cut hair is twisted into 
 a cord which is used in tying together parts of the bur- 
 den basket as well as in the tying of the saddle-bag. 
 Formerly the custom was to leave the children's hair 
 long on top of the head, back of the neck, and in front 
 of each ear. I saw a left-handed man and a left-handed 
 woman in the tribe. If it be permissible to draw any 
 general conclusions from the sound sleep of my com- 
 panion, Pablo, these natives sleep unusually soundly. 
 One morning, while he was with me, he woke up several 
 yards below his bedding, having rolled down a declivity 
 during the night in his sleep. The Papago avoid eating 
 food hot from the fire. 
 
 They possess much force and stability of character, 
 are quick of perception, loyal to the white man that 
 they like, and if in danger do not cry for help. Under 
 her natural bashfulness the woman hides sterling quali- 
 ties of efficiency in household work, constancy, and faith- 
 ful adherence to duty. These Indians are industrious 
 and have a remarkably even temper; thirty children 
 
346 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 may be seen playing harmoniously together, where a 
 similar gathering of small Caucasians would soon result 
 in discord, fights, and tears. The children and young 
 girls have three kinds of chewing gum; the one which is 
 most commonly used has been mentioned already, an- 
 other is procured from the pod of a vine which comes 
 early and dries in July; by squeezing the pod a milk is 
 secured which when boiled yields a gummy substance. 
 These natives never shake hands; they come and go and 
 are never obtrusive. In the circumstances under which 
 I travelled, I liked that custom; it made me feel inde- 
 pendent and equally polite. When an Indian comes to 
 shake hands with me, I know he has changed his mode 
 of life, for one may be sure that he learned that cus- 
 tom from Americans or Mexicans. Their language is 
 not sonorous, as it is full of guttural sounds and half- 
 pronounced syllables. Four is their sacred number. 
 
 In the autumn of 1909 there was a mild epidemic of 
 an eye disease among the Papagoes of Sonora as far 
 west as La Nariz. The eyes were red and inflamed, as 
 in conjunctivitis, and the pain evidently was very great. 
 They probably contracted this disease from the Mexicans. 
 
 In his changed habits of life, inhabiting houses that 
 do not admit air and adopting clothes that debihtate his 
 magnificent physique, the Papago, when he catches cold, 
 is unable to throw it off in the same way that a white 
 man does. It very often develops into pneumonia and 
 consumption, which awful disease is the scourge of the 
 tribe, nine out of ten deaths being due to tuberculosis. 
 The children bring it from school and even old people 
 
TOO SUDDEN A TRANSITION 
 
 die from it, having acquired it through contagion. 
 Although in no way a prison as to its restrictions, 
 nevertheless the school as at present conducted does 
 them harm physically. The confinement to which they 
 have not been accustomed seems to undermine their 
 health. In these days of advanced methods of teach- 
 ing some remedy for this condition no doubt will be 
 found. One absolutely necessary change is to alter the 
 construction of the school-houses so as to make them 
 sanitary through unlimited access of air. Even the 
 Presbyterian Mission, which has been of considerable 
 benefit to the Indian, has erected outside of Tucson 
 incredibly inappropriate buildings, made of brick and 
 substantial, to be sure, but singularly out of place in the 
 glare and heat of the Arizona desert. Prof. R. H. 
 Forbes, of Arizona University, told me that in the White 
 Mountain Apache school, at White River, ninety per 
 cent of the children have tuberculosis, chiefly glandular. 
 This statement was made to him by the physician in 
 charge. Would it not be better to leave the Indians un- 
 educated than to proceed in this manner ? 
 
 Not long ago the makai (medicine-men) had as many 
 as five wives each, while the usual number for the ordi- 
 nary man was two. At present it is very rare to find a 
 Papago with more than one wife, and the average num- 
 ber of children in a family is usually no less than eight, 
 but the mortality among infants is great. The position 
 of woman is equality with man. To be sure, the man 
 never carries burdens — that is relegated to the woman's 
 domain — but she is the mistress of the house. She is. 
 
348 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 in fact, the ''boss" of the household and gives her hus- 
 band as well as her child his portion of food. She is 
 systematic, while the man, in whom the characteristics 
 of the hunter still survive, has little or no order. Her 
 vigilant eyes look after everything and she is consulted 
 in all transactions. The dogs follow the woman and be- 
 long to her, the husband rarely speaking to them. 
 
 Sometimes a young man will marry a woman more 
 than old enough to be his mother since, under the 
 changed conditions of the tribe, many of the young fel- 
 lows do not know how to take care of themselves. He 
 may work for an elderly woman who owns cattle and 
 behave so much to her satisfaction that marriage results, 
 and women have in this Vv^ay been known to make manly 
 men out of flippant youngsters. The children are treated 
 kindly by the parents and are kind to each other. 
 
 Formerly a bamboo flute was played by a young 
 man, especially in the evening, to attract the attention 
 of a girl, though the ultimate choice of a partner rested 
 with his father and mother. Up to recent times the 
 sons were obedient to their parents and readily con- 
 sented to marry the girls picked out for them. A son 
 was instructed how to behave in order to find favor with 
 a nice girl with whom appearances weigh little compared 
 to the noble qualities of being a good hunter, not lazy, 
 and an efficient agriculturist. It is the girl's father who 
 makes the first advances in a matrimonial venture. He 
 talks the matter over with the father of the boy who, 
 however, sometimes may decline. But if the father is 
 able to say that his son is willing, the latter betakes him- 
 
CHOOSING A WIFE 
 
 349 
 
 self to the girl's house and stays there four nights. Her 
 mother then takes her to the bridegroom's home and 
 leaves her there. No services of the medicine-man are 
 necessary; if they mutually agree to live as husband and 
 
 PIMA SONG 
 
 USED WHEN THE YOUNG GIRLS COME OF AGE 
 
 Oi - no - - ne 
 
 Name of a mountain, usually called Oinopat, 
 near Tempe, Arizona 
 
 no 
 
 a 
 
 no - vang 
 mountains 
 (poetical designation; in prose: tudk) 
 
 
 ^-b 
 
 
 -n I 1— ==1 - 
 
 1 _A— J ! 
 
 X—^ 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 Z ^-^ 0 0 0 
 
 
 c . J ^ • - 
 
 Hon - yo - la - mo 
 
 (in prose: hodyoli) 
 alone 
 
 kuk 
 
 - 1 - va 
 
 stands 
 
 kon 
 
 td 
 
 ge 
 
 (in prose: kdgetam) 
 end 
 
 3: 
 
 kc4 - vo 
 
 hill 
 
 -9- 
 
 tam - Ming - a 
 
 (in prose: tamhaing) 
 top 
 
 of - vi 
 
 woman 
 
 Shas - i 
 
 11 
 
 nju - ke-nam kai - nju ■- na 
 
 (in prose: njuketam) (in prose: kaitsh) 
 talk (or sing) (seems) 
 
 hi - mo kvi - mo 
 
 (no expressible meaning) 
 
 This song may still be heard among the Papago, e. g., at Anekam rancheria 
 in Santa Rosa valley, but it originated from the Pima. 
 
 wife, they remain in the house of the young man's father 
 until the latter's death. The son may make a house for 
 himself near by, but he helps his father in his work. If 
 the girl does not like the boy, she may walk back to her 
 parents. Conferences between the fathers will then ensue 
 to try to adjust matters and, until recently, sometimes the 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 father of the girl would decide to whip her with a rope 
 of rawhide to bring her to the proper way of thinking. 
 
 Certain periods of female Hfe are looked upon with 
 awe, even by the civilized Papago. If a hunter touches 
 a woman at these times he will have bad luck or con- 
 tract some disease. Formerly a girl in this condition 
 could not touch her hair. If she wanted to scratch her- 
 self, it would have to be done with a stick, and even her 
 brother could not touch his hair. When the girls come 
 of age, dancing and singing are kept up for many nights 
 in succession in a very fatiguing fashion, as neither rest 
 nor food is taken. No intoxicating drinks are partaken 
 of, and one marvels at the exertions that primitive man 
 finds it necessary to undertake in order that the girl may 
 be started right in life. Formerly these ceremonies, each 
 time lasting four nights, had to be performed on four oc- 
 casions, and even thus the girl has to go for a few days' 
 seclusion to the hoholikaki, a house specially set apart 
 for women considered temporarily impure. The dan- 
 cing on such occasions consists of a forward and back- 
 ward rhythmical movement of two rows of men and 
 women facing each other and at the same time slowly 
 moving in a circle. The participants hold each other 
 by the hand, and the movements are in time with the 
 singing, four steps forward and four backward. In Quito- 
 vac where the Indians have been much influenced by 
 the Mexicans, although they have given up the dancing 
 part of the performances, the singing is kept up for eight 
 nights or more in succession. 
 
 When the woman feels that her hour is approaching, 
 
Pima granary. IMade from twisted 
 arrow bush 
 
 lIuT eor the isolation of women 
 
 Papago: "Rainbow," from La Nariz 
 
THE NAME DAY 
 
 351 
 
 she takes up her abode in the hohohkaki where she re- 
 mains for over three weeks. She bears her child ac- 
 croupie assisted by her mother or elder sister; sometimes 
 an elderly woman is specially chosen for this, acting as 
 midwife. Formerly, for six days thereafter, the food was 
 made for the mother and brought to her, the diet for 
 the first two days consisting of atole bianco, a kind of 
 thin gruel made of maize or sometimes wheat, mixed 
 with the seeds of the sahuaro fruit. Now, in imitation 
 of Mexican custom, the period is extended to twenty 
 days. The husband during this time uses a different 
 gourd from the rest of the family when he drinks water. 
 
 Twenty days after the wife has returned from her 
 seclusion the medicine-man comes to the house to give 
 the baby clay to eat and present it with a name. The 
 clay has the same name, pit, as that used in pottery 
 making, and it does not look in anywise different. In 
 the afternoon, after having mixed a small quantity with 
 water and placed the mixture in a sea-shell on the ground, 
 he takes up a position east of it, while the parents, with 
 the infant, stand to the west. He walks four times 
 toward them, the last time hooting low like an owl. 
 The parents have to take the drink first, then the baby. 
 If the child is male, the medicine-man gives it to the 
 mother first; if it is female the father drinks first. In 
 administering the drink to the child, he also gives it a 
 name, which the grandparents previously have agreed 
 upon; with his eagle plumes he makes passes over the 
 infant, and with the same object sprinkles some of the 
 water on its chest, shoulders, and back. The advan- 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 tages which the child gains are supposed to be health, 
 strength, and luck; untoward happenings are also pre- 
 vented even to the family Itself. If the birth occurred 
 In the season of thunder-storms, the danger to the child, 
 or a near relative, of being killed by lightning will be 
 averted. For four days after the ceremony the parents 
 abstain from eating salt and jack-rabbit meat, and they 
 must not do much work; the father cannot hunt. 
 
 The natural characteristic of the Papago Is to be vir- 
 tuous. According to Indian reports, a woman caught in 
 adultery used to be punished with death. In recent times 
 whipping has been the penalty and the custom of killing 
 her animals still prevails. The tribe has been notably 
 stable in racial qualities during centuries of contact with 
 whites. Intermixture to-day rarely takes place except 
 in Sonora, where the Mexicans have taught the Indians 
 new customs. In the out-of-the-way places of southern 
 Arizona a few Americans are known to have Papago 
 wives; they have children and to all appearances are 
 known to lead happy lives, for the lady of the house is in- 
 telligent, quite good-looking, clean, and very Industrious. 
 During my stay at Sonolta several couples came to be 
 married by the civil authority there. 
 
 Murder was left to the family of the murdered person 
 to punish. From an American who speaks their lan- 
 guage and lives in the central part of the Papagueria, I 
 received what I must accept as reliable information with 
 regard to unnatural vice, which perhaps may be more or 
 less restricted to that locality. Several startling instances 
 were told me by him and also by a trustworthy Indian 
 
BASKETRY 
 
 353 
 
 who was present. Even a married man with full-grown 
 daughters was subject to this depravity. One young 
 Indian wanted to dress Kke a woman, but was prevented 
 by his father. A Pima Indian, after losing his wife, had 
 a healthy child by his daughter. 
 
 In regard to the industries of the tribe, attention has 
 already been called to pottery making. Weaving was 
 formerly practised on a loom lying on the ground, but 
 the art is now lost. The Papagoes, as well as the Pimas, 
 are somewhat noted for their basket work, though neither 
 of them is as clever as the Apache in this respect. They 
 make trays and bowl-shaped ware for household work 
 and also some large, deep, water-tight baskets which, from 
 their principal use, may be termed sahuaro baskets. In 
 these is gathered the juicy fruit of the sahuaro; the sirup 
 and water are mixed for wine making and the wine itself 
 is offered at the festival. They are rare at the present 
 time. Women are the basket makers and in the best 
 ware the white material used is produced from strips of 
 young willow shoots, while the pods of the martynia 
 (devil's claw), split in two, furnish the black part of the 
 texture. The good workmanship of old is falling into 
 decline, and the significance of the decorative designs is 
 almost entirely forgotten. There is only one woman at 
 the present time who is able to do first-class basket work, 
 and she cannot tell what the designs mean. In Sonora 
 the making of basketry has ceased to exist. 
 
 Granary baskets are still in common use in the Santa 
 Rosa valley. The large ones are made inside of the house, 
 the small door-opening preventing their removal. The 
 
NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 material of which they are made was formerly a certain 
 grass, which may still be used, though generally wheat 
 straw takes its place. Strips of mezquite bark are em- 
 ployed in the binding. The granary basket has a flat 
 cover, made in the same way, which is sealed with mud. 
 Sometimes it is plastered throughout with mud as a pro- 
 tection against rats. 
 
 The pleasing designs seen in the old baskets are rapidly 
 disappearing on account of the deplorable lack of aesthetic 
 sense among those who are eager to buy Papago baskets. 
 The makers are actually encouraged to insert crude repre- 
 sentations of men and beasts in preference to the former 
 beautiful conventionalized designs which the innate ar- 
 tistic sense of the Indian had evolved. The trader also 
 teaches the Papago to make the baskets quickly and 
 cheaply, in order that more money can be made in the 
 market from ignorant buyers. A society for the preser- 
 vation of aboriginal American art is of urgent need and 
 should be attempted even at this late day. 
 
 It is difficult to ascertain anything about the origin 
 or early history of the tribe, beyond the traditions that the 
 people when returning from across the sea left ceremonial 
 sticks at Caborca, Quitovaquita, and Santa Rosa. 
 
 The tribe is divided into five groups, descent being in 
 the male line. Their names have lost all meaning; two 
 of the groups {mam and vav) are known as red-velvet ants 
 {voki ohimal) and three {okul^ apap, and apki) as white- 
 velvet ants {Hoa ohimal).'^ Any animal that has red about 
 
 * The so-called velvet ants are females of certain wasps (of the family mutil- 
 lidae). 
 
c. Martynia , /. Meaning unknown 
 
 Designs of Papago baskets 
 
PRIMITIVE DIVISIONS 
 
 355 
 
 it belongs to the red people. Members of salt expeditions 
 formerly painted on their faces the color of the division 
 to which they belonged. The red people were, according 
 to mythical tradition, the original owners of the country, 
 but Elder Brother, Sihu^ having been ill-treated by them, 
 brought the white people from the underworld and after 
 many big fights the red ones were almost exterminated, 
 and even to this day they are fewer than the white groups. 
 Much in the minority are those families whose children 
 address their father as mamekam or vavekam. The rarest 
 of the groups is vav, and the most common, apki. The 
 mounds are attributed to the red people. 
 
 The rancherias appear to have a division of their own, 
 that part of the Papagueria which is comprised within 
 Arizona being divided into four provinces. Probably the 
 present District of Altar is included in one of them. 
 These subdivisions are: 
 
 I. Anekam (name derived from a leguminous tree, 
 an) consists of the rancherias Anekam, Kukomalik, and 
 Tjuupo; in other words, the upper part of Santa Rosa 
 valley as far north as the Kohatk people, who are 
 Pimas. 
 
 II. Hohola (meaning of the word unknown) is the 
 north-western part of the Papagueria. These people 
 extend west of the Quijotoa range as far as Gila Bend, 
 including Aktjin rancheria, four or five miles south of the 
 modern Maricopa railroad station. Their original start- 
 ing point is said to have been Cacate rancheria and in- 
 cludes such rancherias as Pozos Muchos, Sauceda, Pozo 
 Blanco, and Barajita. 
 
356 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 III. Totokvan, ("Those who wear loose breech 
 cloths." Tokvan, something loose. The designation 
 alludes to the habit of the people of this section of using 
 long or loose loin cloths or breech cloths, different from 
 those worn by the other groups. They are at present 
 more frequently called by the nickname kikimay smart 
 ones.) This section comprises most of the Santa Rosa 
 valley, the Comobabi range, and extends east as far as 
 San Xavier, which place was settled mainly by people 
 from Santa Rosa. This is, roughly speaking, the north- 
 eastern part of the Papagueria. 
 
 IV. Kokeloroti (Indian rendering of the Mexican 
 Tecoloteros; from tecolote, owl). Their original name is 
 Tjukutkokam Kikam, ''owl's cry inhabitants." Tju- 
 kutko, owl's cry; tjukut^ owl, and ko, cry; kikam, in- 
 habitant, derived from ki, house. These people are said 
 to have started originally from the rancheria Tecolote, in 
 Papago Tjukutko, and extend from Indian Oasis south- 
 ward, comprising such rancherias as Fresnal, Koxikux, 
 Tecolote, Sepanovak, and Pozo Verde. This section is 
 approximately the south-eastern part of the Arizona 
 Papagueria, and, according to the information of a Pa- 
 pago otherwise trustworthy, also includes the Mexican 
 Papagoes. 
 
 Although the Papago, as we have seen, have elaborate 
 dancing festivals, their religion is not regulated by ex- 
 terior observances to such an extent as is the case with 
 many other Indian tribes, as, for instance, that of the 
 Pueblo Indians, or of the Huichols of Mexico, whose 
 whole life is ruled by ceremonies and symbols. Many 
 
CREATION MYTHS 
 
 357 
 
 still pray to the sun, which they call father. The deities 
 most mentioned are Elder Brother and Earth Magician. 
 The first of these is known under two names, litoi, which 
 means ''to drink it all," and Sihu, which was given him 
 after the deluge, when he was the first to land. He 
 helped Earth Magician at the beginning of time to 
 bring order out of chaos, and may thus be termed the 
 creator jointly with him. He created deer and other ani- 
 mals as well as the trees that bear fruit, making strong 
 roots to hold the trees. He was a great singer. As we 
 have seen, Baboquivari peak and Pinacate belonged to 
 him, and here sacred caves, in which he was supposed to 
 dwell, were devoted to his worship. 
 
 In their creation myths there are divergencies, as may 
 be expected. One version begins: 
 
 *'In the beginning was Sky and Earth. Sky came 
 down and embraced the Earth." 
 
 Another is rendered thus: 
 
 "In the beginning the world was all darkness and 
 all the time everything was moving around. In that 
 time there was born a child Tjivurt makai. Earth Magi- 
 cian, and he began to consider what to do to make the 
 world quiet. He took up some earth, mixed it with 
 water, and made a round fiat cake which he put down 
 on the world to calm it, but it was of no avail, for the 
 earth kept on moving around. He tried to steady it, 
 moving it back and forth, and in doing so he separated 
 the earth and the sky. A noise was heard and another 
 child was born, who was litoi. He came to Earth Magi- 
 cian who asked him where he was born. 'Earth is my 
 
358 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 mother and Sky is my father/ litoi answered. 'Help 
 me to put the world in order/ Earth Magician asked 
 him. litoi consented to this. They made the sun, the 
 moon, and the stars, and then in their light they set to 
 work. Earth Magician took two small beads of per- 
 spiration, which he changed into two spiders which 
 walked around the world four times, tying the earth 
 and the sky together at the edges. 
 
 "Then the two magicians made people out of earth 
 and water, but they turned out to be bad and fought and 
 killed each other. The makers turned the world over 
 and made new people, who also killed each other. Four 
 times in that way they made and unmade their work. 
 * There is something bad in the world,' they said. Earth 
 Magician went around making holes with his stick. 
 Blood came up and washed the earth, and they created 
 new people. But Earth Magician's people were queer 
 — some with one leg, others with big ears. litoi be- 
 came angry over this and disowned them. Earth Ma- 
 gician also was angry and went to the underworld and 
 stayed there. litoi remained here among his people 
 singing, but they did not like him and killed him on 
 four occasions, and each time he would be walking about 
 again the next day." 
 
 Characteristic of their social life are two kinds of 
 races, eight different games for men and three games 
 for women. The games still flourish but the races are 
 on the point of disappearing. The most important of 
 the latter is a foot-race, run by two men, in which a ball 
 usually made from mezquite wood is kicked along by 
 
FOOT-RACES 
 
 359 
 
 each contestant. The ball must not be touched by the 
 hand. One or two men on horseback assist the racers 
 in finding the balls and give them new ones in case 
 their own break or accidentally are lost. The last great 
 race of which I heard was given, eighteen years ago, 
 east of the Quijotoa Range. According to a Mexican 
 from Quitovac who was present, the Indians had brought 
 herds of cattle, mules and horses, clothing and money, 
 all to serve as betting stakes on the occasion. Fifty odd 
 Indians kept admirable order. The two runners, who 
 were nude but for a cloth around the loins and with a 
 bandanna tied around the head, started northward early 
 in the afternoon in the direction of Santa Rosa rancheria. 
 They ran seventeen or eighteen miles before turning back. 
 One of the runners became tired, which finished the race; 
 then the assistants picked them up, giving each of them, 
 in Mexican fashion, a seat behind the saddles of their 
 horses, and in that way they returned to the starting point 
 after dark. The winner was about thirty years old; the 
 other, about fifty, had some gray hair. If my informant 
 was correct, thousands of dollars were lost in bets. The 
 Barajita rancheria alone came out two hundred animals 
 short, and the Pozo Verde loss was no less. Many of 
 those who lost had staked all their live-stock and the 
 women wept. A race of less importance took place in 
 the same region some seven years ago. 
 
 The Papago, as well as the Pima, was able to cope 
 with the fierce Apaches more efficiently than were the 
 Spaniards and Mexicans. The young men were trained 
 from childhood for future combats with the enemy. It 
 
36o NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 must not be forgotten what a part the supernatural plays 
 in the Indian's life; cure for disease is sought less in 
 remedies than in magic devices, and combat with an 
 enemy means first of all a fight of magic with magic. 
 Once, as one of their tales goes, an Apache was com- 
 pletely surrounded, but the Papagoes feared to attack 
 him until one of them stepped forward carrying his 
 shield with its symbolic inscriptions and supposed magic 
 effect. The Apache fired his rifle at him, but missed 
 his aim because he was overcome by the shield's magic 
 power, which even split his thumb, so that he could not 
 fire straight This was ascertained by the Papagoes 
 when examining the body of the Apache afterward. 
 Nevertheless, the education of the boy included as a 
 matter of course ability to handle arms and the mastery 
 of all that pertained to making a good warrior. In the 
 nightly meetings at the council house, he was taught, be- 
 sides, how to practise for the races and how to hunt. A 
 considerable amount of sane advice would be imparted to 
 the young man, and I cannot refrain from quoting here 
 the late Mr. Frank Russell in his recent memoir* on the 
 Pima Indians, from whom the Papago segregated long 
 ago. He describes the exhortations of a Pima father to 
 his son in the following manner: *'If you are wounded 
 in battle, don't make a great outcry about it like a child. 
 Pull out the arrow and slip away; or, if hard stricken, 
 die with a silent throat. Go on the war trail with a 
 small blanket. It is light and protection enough for 
 
 * Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology ^ 
 Washington. 
 
ARCH ENEMIES OF THE PAPAGO 361 
 
 one aided by the magicians. Inure yourself to the cold 
 while yet a boy. Fight not at all with your comrades; 
 preserve your strength for the combat with the Apaches; 
 then, if brave, will come to you high honor. Be unself- 
 ish or you will not be welcome at the fire of the friendly; 
 the selfish man is lonely and his untended fire dies. 
 Keep your peace when a foolish man addresses the 
 people. Join not in his imprudent counsellings. Above 
 all, talk not foolishly yourself. Bathe in the cold water 
 of the early morning, that you may be prepared for the 
 purification ceremony after killing an enemy!" 
 
 When an Apache campaign was decided upon, there 
 was much preparation for the fray, and the feasts and 
 ceremonies connected with the return of a victorious 
 party were among the most elaborate, foot-races and 
 gambling forming a part. If the Apaches killed some 
 of the Papagoes, the former were believed to take the 
 clouds away, so the Papagoes had to go and kill some 
 of them in order to bring the clouds back. Sometimes 
 the Apaches would be discovered in a week, and some- 
 times a whole month would pass before the encounter. 
 The provisions consisted of pinole; bows and arrows, 
 lances and clubs were the weapons, and almost every one 
 of the party had a shield. The Apaches have been 
 credited with a superstition about fighting at night, and 
 the Pimas at least are said to have used this disinclina- 
 tion to their advantage. On returning, those who had 
 killed Apaches had to stay away from their houses and 
 bathe early in the morning before sunrise four times at 
 intervals of four days. One man was appointed to pro- 
 
362 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 vide them with water and food, of which they partook 
 sparingly. Meat and salt were forbidden. He would 
 come by night and they would smoke tobacco together. 
 The first night was spent in dancing. After sixteen 
 days' seclusion in this manner, the feast would come off, 
 but the dieting and abstention on the part of the slayers 
 lasted sixteen days more. If a man had killed an Apache 
 before, he did not need to go so far away from the house 
 or be so rigorous in his diet as the inexperienced young 
 man. 
 
 Sham battles used to be a prominent feature in the 
 social life of the Papago. The last one was given five 
 years previous to my visit to Anekam in the Santa Rosa 
 valley and there was some talk of having one again in 
 the near future. In these sham battles dummies of 
 straw are placed in the mountains, sometimes at a dis- 
 tance of a two days' excursion. In the evenings before 
 the attack the men sit for a while in a large circle, their 
 weapons lying in the centre, but they soon disperse 
 around the different fires to sleep, while some of them 
 watch. Somebody goes ahead and makes a big fire 
 near the dummies, and the attack begins at dawn. Four 
 men have been chosen to kill the dummies, only one, 
 who leads, carrying a shield; they all have feathers at- 
 tached to their hats or to specially made leather caps. 
 
 On their return there is dancing for four nights and 
 singing; the dancing is similar to that of the sahuaro 
 feast. Some of the men, who are well paid by general 
 contributions, play the part of those who kill Apaches, 
 imitating their actions; one of them carries a shield and 
 
PASSING OF THE OLD 363 
 
 the rest have ordinary weapons. The four who killed 
 the dummies keep away from the dancing place until 
 the last night. They fast, and must not drink water. 
 Pits are made in the ground, a hundred yards or more 
 away, which are a foot deep and wide enough to hold 
 a man sitting with legs crossed. Here the four warriors 
 have to sit immovable during the whole night, holding 
 the scalps of the supposed Apaches, and care being taken 
 that they do not face either the sun or the moon. Special 
 songs are sung for these men. One man looks after 
 them, and they are under so much restriction that they 
 cannot scratch their heads or any part of their body 
 with their hands, but have to apply a small greasewood 
 twig if the necessity arises. Their wives, who also fast, 
 sit in pits behind their husbands. After the dance is 
 over the four men still have to keep up the taboo and 
 dieting four days longer; then they bathe, and when 
 they go to sleep many songs come to them in their 
 dreams. Among the Pimas, when the warrior had killed 
 an Apache, his wife made a tray, with a large svastika 
 design interwoven. 
 
 The primitive condition of Papago society is giving 
 way to the new, but not without a jar. In old times in the 
 house of a prominent man, with his four or five wives, 
 no quarrels would arise. When his household was in- 
 creased by the additional families of his sons who, accord- 
 ing to ancient custom, made their homes with him, the 
 serene atmosphere continued; there was no question of 
 mother-in-law, or other disturbing factors, in their nicely 
 adjusted relations. The families were large and peace 
 
364 NEW TRAILS IN MEXICO 
 
 and harmony reigned, but now all that is changing. The 
 Indian who has to work for his living finds it hard to make 
 ends meet, and to support additional people becomes im- 
 possible, hence quarrels and unpleasant conditions begin 
 to manifest themselves. 
 
 Formerly they lived in large rancherias, but in the last 
 twenty years the tendency has been to scatter. They 
 have been touched by commercialism and are now show- 
 ing energy in acquiring cattle and other property. For- 
 merly, too, a family owned a couple of cows and a horse or 
 sometimes they had no animals, but during the last twenty 
 years the tribe has acquired a considerable number of 
 live-stock, often twenty cows and from ten to twelve horses 
 to a family. Four or five families are the individual pos- 
 sessors of a few hundred head of cattle, but there is no 
 difference in their mode of life from that of the rest. 
 
 The women are clever in adapting themselves to the 
 new conditions. I know of an instance where the wife 
 made a shirt for her husband without ever having learned 
 how to cut it out, and the garment, when finished, was 
 very creditably done. What the girls desire most to ac- 
 quire at school is the knowledge of music and dress- 
 making. Some of them have learned at the Presbyterian 
 schools to play the piano, which redounds much to the 
 credit of the schools. To develop man's sense for har- 
 mony and the beautiful, whether by music or other re- 
 fining pursuits, is as important as to teach him to read 
 and write. 
 
 The Papagoes recognize the white man's superiority 
 and have begun to make money an aim in life, which may 
 
CIVILIZING THE INDIANS 365 
 
 be the necessary step for their further advancement. 
 They have adopted civiHzed man's mode of dressing, his 
 tools, vessels, and implements, sewing-machines, and even 
 phonographs, bacon, bread, and coffee, and all the different 
 brands of crackers and canned goods. Their ideas and 
 manners are naturally changing. One prominent Papago 
 complained to me that the women were gossiping now as 
 white women do. These Indians still insist on speaking 
 their own language, but they might just as well give it up, 
 as they no longer preserve their traditions and ancient 
 customs. The future augurs well for the Papago as long 
 as the government's wise prohibition against the sale of 
 alcohol continues to be rigidly enforced. There is no 
 trouble in civilizing the Indians by education, but a great 
 step in the right direction would be to civilize the rough 
 whites first. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
368 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
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 Oh 
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 W 
 
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APPENDIX I 
 
 369 
 
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37° 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 9^ 
 
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 Xi 
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APPENDIX I 
 
 371 
 
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 t-~t^l>-t^t^.t^t^COO0O0C50O0 
 
372 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 COCOPA. 
 
 xinju. 
 metar. 
 
 wi (stone, rock) manyu 
 
 (high), 
 wixaktjul. 
 wi. 
 eshir. 
 
 pit. 
 
 shuyel. 
 shmal., 
 
 ^ktjas. 
 
 xamitsa. 
 
 kikvai. 
 
 xart. 
 
 tuma. 
 
 martkeva. 
 
 akkvak. 
 
 ^mmo. 
 
 xalxa. 
 
 PIMA. 
 
 hotjulko shootkam. 
 shaakik. 
 
 sikuli tjuurtkam. 
 60s. 
 
 hwei. 
 kove. 
 
 PAPAGO. 
 
 vdmuTi. 
 v6oshan. 
 tjuk.^ 
 kavolik. 
 
 hotai. 
 on. 
 
 vainom. 
 suosik. 
 
 OS. 
 
 koak. 
 
 hahak. 
 
 ulitak. 
 
 vashai. 
 
 hok. 
 
 hoin. 
 
 haal^. 
 
 tjuokuk. 
 
 koks. 
 
 tjotum. 
 
 shuu. 
 
 gdso. 
 
 tjursa. 
 
 tjuov. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 85 lake. 
 
 86 valley. 
 
 87 plain, llano. 
 
 88 hill, mountain. 
 
 89 island. 
 
 90 stone, rock. 
 
 91 salt. 
 
 92 iron. 
 
 93 forest. 
 
 94 tree. 
 
 95 wood. 
 
 96 leaf. 
 
 97 bark. 
 
 98 grass. 
 
 99 pine. 
 
 100 maize. 
 
 101 squash. 
 
 102 flesh, meat. 
 
 103 dog. 
 
 104 bear. 
 
 105 wolf. 
 
 106 fox. 
 
 107 deer. 
 
 108 mountain -sheep. 
 
 109 beaver. 
 
 no rabbit, hare. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 373 
 
 xn 
 
 ^a3 
 
 c3 
 
 ^ 1:5 42 ^ 
 
 a. 
 
 To ^ 
 
 O . 
 
 ^ <-! ; +j c/3 c/2 
 
 1 ,2:^ «2 
 
 O ^ 
 
 to 
 13 
 
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 d ^ 
 
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 <r3 
 
 03 
 (P. 
 
 ^03 
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 ri4 
 
 ^2 .2, 2 3 '-j^- d •■XT' 2 3 
 
 13 :0 
 
 j3 cm 
 
 03 
 
 q 
 
 C o3 
 
 <u o 
 
 k3 O 
 
 CI rO to 00 
 
374 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 COCOPA. 
 
 pvai. 
 
 xatak. 
 
 mushupd. 
 
 yupart. 
 
 tur. 
 
 Ixap. 
 
 njap. 
 
 mapun. 
 
 nirshan. 
 
 njapa. 
 
 nirshan. 
 
 pin. 
 
 shun. 
 
 samel. 
 
 ninjam. 
 
 maka'n. 
 
 kur. 
 
 xarpai. 
 
 upai. 
 
 shut 
 
 njapum. 
 
 sinyar. 
 
 njakam. 
 
 ii. 
 
 laxem. 
 ushit. 
 
 PIMA. 
 
 it 1 
 
 PAPAGO. 
 
 skuukatsh. 
 pi kuukatsh. 
 moki. 
 toakam. 
 suupi. 
 
 ani. 
 
 api. 
 
 hukai. 
 
 atjim. 
 
 apim. 
 
 hukam. 
 
 iita. 
 
 hukai. 
 
 moi. 
 
 hudai. 
 
 mork. 
 
 pi mork. 
 
 lija. 
 
 amai. 
 
 itta^'sh. 
 
 tako. 
 
 sialim. 
 
 haeo. 
 
 pia. 
 
 humako, sometimes: mato 
 (in counting). 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 i 1 jl 
 
 CO 00 M W rO"^vnMD t-CO 00 w <N <r)TfiovO t^OO OO m W ro"^ 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 375 
 
 ^- ^ :o '2 § >< a ^ 
 
 :0>tIc«c«><!P-ic«><!iW 
 ^^^^^^^^^^ 
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 ^^^^^^^^ 
 
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 C/2 CO 
 
 15 '53 'SH. 
 
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 ^' :^ ^- ^ o ^ 3 a 12 
 
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 2i 
 
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 O )-i w crt t:? 
 
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 VP :5 
 
 u- ^ 
 
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 CO W O) C +J ID 
 
 ^ ^ 3 ^ -s 
 
 C3 
 
 d o 
 
 8 . 
 
 ai w CO 
 
 OOOOOOOO 
 
376 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 COCOPA. 
 
 panak. 
 
 apuvax. 
 
 apua. 
 
 ax. 
 
 puyi. 
 
 apaaux. 
 
 nawirar. 
 
 valish. 
 
 asuney. 
 
 akix. 
 
 ausey. 
 
 uukx. 
 
 PIMA. 
 
 vohih. 
 vohih. 
 
 voho. 
 
 PAPAGO. 
 
 tatjua. 
 
 taxiva. 
 
 kukiva. 
 
 hih. 
 
 tjivia. 
 
 him. 
 
 tjikpo. 
 
 latok. 
 ma. 
 
 xiixum. 
 shosha. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 193 to love. 
 
 194 to kill. 
 
 195 to sit. 
 
 196 to stand. 
 
 197 to go. 
 
 198 to come. 
 
 199 to walk. 
 
 200 to work. 
 
 201 to steal. 
 
 202 to lie. 
 
 203 to give. 
 
 204 to laugh. 
 
 205 to cry. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 RANCHERIAS, PRESENT AND PAST, OF THE PAPAGO 
 
 WITH INTERPRETATIONS OF THEIR NATIVE NAMES 
 
 I HAVE found it convenient to treat Arizona and Sonora separately. 
 The division into winter and summer rancherias has been maintained, 
 ahhough it is sometimes difficult to make a strict distinction. Instead 
 of winter rancheria I use only the word "rancheria," which comprises 
 in the list, as indeed also in actuality, especially the winter habitations, 
 including also at times permanent abodes. 
 
 The words *' summer rancheria" designate the temporary habita- 
 tions resorted to for the purpose of agriculture during the capricious 
 showers of the summer. The Indian name for summer rancheria is 
 obitaky field for cultivation {milpa). The common Mexican expression 
 for this kind of ranch, both in Sonora and southern Arizona, is tem- 
 porales, which means ranches dependent for their water upon showers, 
 a Spanish-Americanism, also used in Peru. (Bandelier.) Rancho de 
 temporal: "ranch of rain-storm" is the name for a single ranch of this 
 kind. "Winter rancheria," used in the above sense, is indicated by the 
 letter r; "summer rancheria" by the letter s. 
 
 The four Pima rancherias of the Kohatk people are given at the 
 end of the Arizona division. At the end of the Sonora division will be 
 found the names of the principal camps of the sand Papagoes (^arenenos). 
 
 I. — Arizona 
 
 Aaivdnam, Rancheria. "Both Sides Hat." (^(3/, both sides; vdnam, 
 hat.) A mountain there looks like a hat, seen from either of two 
 sides. South-west of Santa Rosa, j-, in the Quijotoa Range, near 
 Brown ell. 
 
 Aktjin, Summer Rancheria. "Arroyo Mouth." (Ak% arroyo; /ym, 
 mouth.) Two and one-half miles south of Makumivboka, r. 
 
 377 
 
378 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Jktjin, Rancheria. Three or four miles south of Maricopa railroad 
 station. 
 
 Alitjukson, Summer Rancheria. "Little Tucson" or, more correctly, 
 "At the foot of {shon or son) small (d//) black {tjuk) hill." Three 
 miles from Artesa Range, on the north side of the road between 
 Indian Oasis and Fresnal, r. 
 
 Aloitak, Summer Rancheria. "Little Field." [Ali, small, child; ditak, 
 field, milpa.) Two miles south-east of Santa Rosa, s. 
 
 Anekam, Summer Rancheria. "Where the an tree grows." {An, a 
 slender tree, belonging to the leguminosce. It has long leaves and 
 pink flowers; may possibly be the desert willow.) Half of the 
 people are from Tjuupo, r., in the north-west. 
 
 Aquimuriy Rancheria. In Papago, Akimuri ("River," "Arroyo"). 
 East of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico, three miles inside of the 
 boundary line. Three or four families live here. There is a pond 
 here. 
 
 Barajtta, Rancheria. In Papago, Tonoka ("Knee"). Situated on the 
 east side of the Ajo Range, five miles from the northern point, near 
 the range. 
 
 Bates* s Well, also called Growler Well or El Veit. In Papago, Tjuni- 
 kdatk ("Where there is sahuaro fruit." Tjuni, sahuaro fruit). 
 Twenty miles (seven leagues) north of Quitovaquita, r. Some of 
 the former sand people live here. At present this is a mine and 
 store, a few Americans residing. Good well. 
 
 "Bitter Well,** Rancheria. In Papago Sivvdxia. (Siv, bitter; vdxia, 
 well, waterhole, also spring.) Two miles east of the Vekol mine. 
 Four to five families are said to live here. 
 
 Brownell, mine, store and post-office in the Quijotoa Range, eighty 
 miles west of Tucson. {See Aaivonam.) 
 
 Cacate, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdka ("Clearing"). South- 
 east of Gila Bend and west of Vekol mountains, about thirty-five 
 miles west of Kohatk (Pima). The population, according to in- 
 formation given me by Mr. T. Childs, of Batamote, is about two 
 hundred, old and young, and is much mixed. 
 
 Cajilon, Rancheria. In Papago, Aakta ("Horn lying." Aak, horn). 
 Fifteen miles south of the Vekol mine. This is an old rancheria, now 
 probably abandoned, the former inhabitants living in Cacate, r. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 379 
 
 Char CO de la Piedra, Temporales. In Papago, Hotashbnevo (Pond at 
 the base of the rock." Hdta, stone, rock; shon or son, base, at the 
 foot of; vo, pond). Twenty to twenty-five miles west of Pozo 
 Blanco, r. Indians come here from Pozo Redondo, r. 
 
 Comobdbi, Rancheria. In Papago, Komvdxia ("Well where the kom 
 tree grows." Kom, tree with red berries, called cumaro in Spanish; 
 vdxia, well (Spanish, pozo), or a hole dug in the sandy bed of an 
 arroyo to reach water, also spring. If it were the tree^s well, 
 then it would be called Komvdxiak). In the Comobabi mountains, 
 seven miles distant from Kavvaxiak. 
 
 Covered Well or Pozo Tapado, Rancheria. In Papago, Maish^vaxia 
 (maish^, to cover; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). Fifteen 
 miles west of Indian Oasis; one and one-half miles west of 
 Tjiuvak, r. Inhabited by ten or twelve families. 
 
 Coyote, Rancheria. In Papago, Pantak ("Where the coyote is." Pan, 
 coyote). In the northern part of Baboquivari Range. Situated 
 two miles south of the road when at two miles' distance from 
 Maishe's Well. 
 
 Cubo, Temporales. In Papago, Kuvo ("Big Pond." Ku, large, big; 
 vo, pond). It is five miles south-east of Barajita, r., twenty to 
 twenty-five miles south of Ajo copper mine, and about the same 
 distance north-west of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico. This is a 
 large summer rancheria on the llano. Indians come here up to 
 the number of one hundred and fifty souls from the rancherias 
 Sauceda, Cacate, and Barajita, and from Gila Bend, to cultivate 
 the soil. 
 
 El Mezquite, Rancheria. In Papago, Vdtjeki ("Small Waterhole." 
 
 The hole was made and water gathered by digging with a basket). 
 
 North of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico, nine miles (three leagues) 
 
 from the boundary line, in a basin near Mezquite Range. Very 
 
 old, probably now abandoned. 
 Fresnal, Rancheria. It consists of three rancherias in the western and 
 
 middle part of Baboquivari Range. 
 
 1. Koxikux (Kdxi, mulberry tree; kux, where it stands) is the 
 
 most northern. 
 
 2. ("Willow Forest." Tshtuli, willow; seik, forest). 
 One mile south of Koxikux. 
 
38o 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 3. Pitoikam ("Where there are ash trees." Pitoi^ ash tree). 
 Three miles south-west of Tshiuliseik. This latter ran- 
 cheria is the largest of them. Probably there are no less 
 than five hundred souls in the three rancherias. Nos. 
 I and 2 are situated one and one-half miles in among the 
 foot-hills, about four thousand two hundred feet above sea 
 level; No. 3 is at the beginning of the llano. 
 Giikivoky Summer Rancheria. "Where the plough was lying." {Giik 
 
 (also kiik), plough; vok, lying.) South of Indian Oasis. 
 Horseshoe, Placer gold mine, store, and post-office. In Papago, 
 Komaktjivurt ("Gray Soil." Komak, gray; tjtvurt, soil. The 
 name alludes to the presence of caliche). In the Quijotoa Range. 
 The gold digging itself was formerly alluded to as olak, "Where 
 there is gold" (oro). At present only the Indians occasionally dig 
 for gold. 
 
 Indian Oasis, store and post-office, seventy miles west south-west of 
 Tucson. (See Komoktetuvdvosit.) 
 
 James^ Ranch, Rancheria. In Papago, Vavstjuutak ("Green Rock." 
 Vav, rock; stjuutak, green). In the Artesa mountains, a couple 
 of miles south of Indian Oasis. 
 
 Jiquiboy also called Pirigua, Summer Rancheria. "Where there is a 
 rough mountain." (In Papago, Htkibon or Hikjovan. Hik, 
 rough, ridged. Hair that has been cut short is also said to be hik.) 
 Situated on a llano in a kind of basin, north-east of Ajo copper 
 mine. There are several waterholes or wells here, and the Ind- 
 ians are said to use the water for irrigating purposes. 
 
 Kditjimok, Summer Rancheria. "Burnt Sahuaro Seed." {Kaitj, seed 
 of the sahuaro fruit; mok, burn.) Another name for Santa Rosa, s. 
 
 Kakota, Rancheria. "Crooked." It is on the south-west side of the 
 Quijotoa Range, eight miles south of Horseshoe. Indians settled 
 here, falling heir to a well that some Mexicans abandoned when 
 the placer mining of the place gave out. 
 
 Kdvolik, Summer Rancheria. "Hill." Six or seven miles south of 
 Kuditak. 
 
 Kavvdxiak, Rancheria. "Badger's Well." (Kav, badger; vdxia. See 
 under Comobabi.) In the Comobabi mountains, about six miles 
 north-east of Noria, r. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 381 
 
 Kdlipatvdoka, Summer Rancheria. "Dead Old Man's Pond." (Kdliy 
 old man; pat, dead, something of the past; vo, pond.) Fifteen 
 miles north-east of Horseshoe. 
 
 Kdmalik, Summer Rancheria. "Mountain Crest." Name is derived 
 from a low ridge north of the place. Ten miles south-west of 
 Fresnal, r. It has a pond. 
 
 Kdmoktetuvdvosit, Rancheria. "Where the turtle was caught." 
 (Kdmoktet, turtle.) It is a mile from Indian Oasis and was estab- 
 lished five years ago 
 
 Kukdmalik, Rancheria. "Big mountain crest." {Ku, large, big; 
 kdmalik, mountain crest.) Fourteen miles north of Anekam. It 
 is twenty-five to thirty miles west to south of Silver Bell. The 
 village is inhabited all the year on account of a well left by an 
 American. Its fields are insignificant. The inhabitants go to 
 Anekam for religious ceremonies. 
 
 Kuditak, Summer Rancheria. "Large Fields." {Ku, large; ditak, 
 field, milpa.) Thirteen miles south of the "Pumphouse." 
 
 Kutjuupo, Rancheria. " Big waterhole in the rock." {Ku, big; tjuupo, 
 rocky cavity containing water, natural water tank; Spanish, tinaja.) 
 In the western foot-hills of Baboquivari Range, eight to ten miles 
 north of Fresnal, r. 
 
 Kvitatk, Summer Rancheria. "Mezquite Root." (Kvi, mezquite; 
 tatk, root.) Thirteen miles north-west of Indian Oasis; one-half 
 mile from the "Pumphouse." 
 
 Z^-ywo, Rancheria. "Below," "Low Down." One and one-half miles 
 north-east of Santa Rosa, s. 
 
 La Lesna, Rancheria. In Papago, Shuundkia ("Hanging Wolf." 
 Shiiu, vv^olf; ndkia, hanging). Three miles from the boundary 
 line, eleven miles (four leagues) north-west of Banori, r., Sonora, 
 Mexico. 
 
 La Moralita, Rancheria. Papago name unknown. It is ten or twelve 
 miles north-east of La Nariz, r., in Sonora, Mexico. 
 
 La Quituni, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Aktjin ("Arroyo's 
 Mouth." Jk, arroyo; tjin, mouth). North-west of La Nariz, r., 
 Sonora, Mexico, three miles from the boundary line. It used to 
 be visited by Indians from Sonoita, but has been abandoned over 
 ten years. 
 
382 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Los Camotes, Ranchena. In Papago, Shdatkam (Name of an edible 
 root). Situated three miles west of the Mezquite Range, near the 
 boundary line, northward of La Nariz, r., Sonora, Mexico. Two 
 families live here, who go to Sonoita when the water gives out. 
 
 Makumivooka, Rancheria. "Caterpillar Pond." (Mdkum, a yellow, 
 black-striped caterpillar, boiled and eaten by the Papago. It ap- 
 pears in August. F o, pond.) It is nine miles south-east of Kvivo, 
 r. (near Santa Rosa, s.) 
 
 Milpitas, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kokuli ("Corral," "En- 
 closure"). Twelve miles south-east of Pozos Muchos, r. (north- 
 ern part of the Papagueria). 
 
 Noipokam^ Rancheria. The name is of Spanish origin, meaning un- 
 known. It is north-west of Horseshoe, in the Quijotoa Range, 
 two miles from Brownell. 
 
 Noriay Rancheria. In Papago, Ndolik (Corruption of the Mexican 
 name which means "spring"). It used to be called in Papago, 
 Fipenak ("Where vipenoiy a small cactus, is growing"). It is a 
 short distance west north-west of Indian Oasis. This is an old 
 village and it has more people now than before. 
 
 Notovaxia, Rancheria. "Well where the sacaton grass grows." {Not, 
 sacaton grass; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring.) In the north- 
 ern part of the Comobabi mountains. 
 
 Ootovaxia, Rancheria. "Sand Well." (Oof, sand; vdxia, well.) In 
 the northern part of the Comobabi mountains. 
 
 Pelon or Rancheria del Pelon, Rancheria. Also called "Lower Vil- 
 lage." In Papago, Kvivo ("Below," "Low Down," namely, on 
 the river). It is in Gila Bend Papago Reservation, ten miles from 
 Gila Bend railroad station. 
 
 Pirtgua, Summer Rancheria. {See Jiquibo.) 
 
 Pisinemo, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Pi^inemoi ("Bear's Head." 
 
 Pi/in, brown bear; mo, head.) It is fifteen miles north-west of 
 
 the south end of the Quijotoa Range. 
 Pozo Blanco, Rancheria. In Papago, Komvdxia ("Well where the kom 
 
 tree (Spanish, comaru) grows"; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). 
 
 Near the Quijotoa range, eight miles south-west of Brownell; four 
 
 or five miles west of "Covered Well." It is forty miles from Pozo 
 
 Redondo, r. Four or five families live here. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 383 
 
 Pozo Colorado^ Rancheria. In Papago, Vokivdxia ("Red Well." 
 Vdk, red (usually sovdk or suvuk)', vdxia, well, waterhole, also 
 spring). Near Pozos Muchos, r. It is a very old rancheria, in- 
 habited by two to four families. 
 
 Pozo de Federico, Rancheria. {See Wall's Well.) 
 
 Pozo Redondo, Rancheria. In Papago, Sikorttjuupo ("Round Tank." 
 Stkort (stkul), round; tjuupo, rocky cavity with water; in Spanish, 
 tinaja). It is about twelve miles east of Ajo copper mine, on the 
 east side of the Pozo Redondo Range. These Indians have fields 
 in Cubo, s. 
 
 Pozo Tapado, Rancheria. {See Covered Well.) 
 Pumphouse/' Rancheria. About twenty years ago a mining com- 
 pany made a deep well and a pump with a large chimney, eight 
 miles south-east of Horseshoe, in the Quijotoa Range. The well 
 was later abandoned. Some Indians established themselves here, 
 and this small rancheria is now usually called Vdinomkux ("Iron 
 prominence." Fdinom, iron; kux, standing, prominent). 
 
 Pozos Muchos, Rancheria. In Papago, Molvdxia ("Many Wells." 
 Mot, many; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). South south- 
 east of Gila Bend, eight miles easterly of Sauceda, r. Eight to 
 ten families live here. They have several waterholes or wells and 
 are said to irrigate with this water. 
 
 Quitovaquita, Rancheria. In Papago, Alivaipia ("Small Springs." 
 All, small, child; vaipia is plural of vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). 
 South of Ajo copper mine, just within United States boundary. 
 This is a locality with many small springs of good water. It is 
 permanently occupied by one or two families. Some agriculture. 
 
 Rincon, Rancheria. Two miles north of Sepdnovak, r. 
 
 Rincon, Rancheria. In north-eastern part of Baboquivari Range. A 
 large rancheria, belonging to a civilized Papago. According to 
 my interpreter, Pablo, there are no other rancherias on the eastern 
 side of Baboquivari Range. 
 
 San Lorenzo, Rancheria. In Papago, Silinakik ("Hanging Saddle." 
 Stli, saddle, a corruption of the Spanish silla). Twelve miles east 
 south-east of Makumivooka. 
 
 San Miguel, Summer Rancheria. Five miles south from Tjuulik, s.; ten 
 miles north of Monument 143 on the boundary line. Of recent date. 
 
384 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 San Pedro^ Rancheria. In Papago, Viopoli (a kind of tobacco). This 
 is a new rancheria in the Roskruge Range, seventeen miles' dis- 
 tance north from Hayes's Well, thirty-six miles from Makumi- 
 vooka, r. 
 
 Santa Rosa, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kudtshi ("Big Peak." 
 Ku, large; dtshi, narrow mountain). The name is derived from a 
 mountain near by, to the west. In Santa Rosa Valley. This is 
 the largest summer rancheria, and is probably also to a certain 
 extent inhabited in the winter. The fields extend nearly two miles 
 in either direction. 
 
 San Xavier del Bac. In Papago, Vdk, which means "where the river 
 reappears in the sand," a "sink" of the river. 
 
 Sauceda, Rancheria. In Papago, according to information from Mr. 
 F. Wall, called Tshiulikami ("Where willow grows." Tshiuli, 
 willow). South of Gila Bend railroad station and seventeen miles 
 east north-east of Batamote ranch. This is the main rancheria of 
 the north-western part of the Papagueria. I am informed by 
 reliable authority that there are fifty to seventy houses here. In 
 1 9 10, on account of want of water for the cattle, only thirty to 
 forty individuals lived here. 
 
 Sepdnovak, Rancheria. "The smell of the coyote." {Pan, coyote.) 
 Small rancheria in a narrow valley in the middle part of the Babo- 
 quivari Range. 
 
 SiiJimoky also called "Upper Village," Rancheria. "Burnt Saddle" 
 (Sill (Spanish, silla), saddle; mok, burn). In Gila Bend Papago 
 Reservation, about eighteen miles north of Gila Bend. In 1910 
 it had fourteen families, immigrated less than twenty years ago, 
 from Sauceda, r. 
 
 Sikulhimatk, Summer Rancheria. "Water going around." (Sikul, 
 round.) Five miles north of the "Pumphouse," east of Horseshoe. 
 The water-shed is here, between water flowing into the Gila River 
 and to the Altar River. 
 
 Susuta, Rancheria. In Papago, Shdsetak ("Where water gathers"; 
 shdtak, water.) Three leagues north-east of La Nariz, r., Sonora, 
 Mexico. In the winter five or six families live here. The water 
 lasts sometimes for a year. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 385 
 
 Tecolote, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Tjilkutko ("Owl's Cry." 
 Tjukut, owl; ko, cry). An old rancheria fifteen miles west south- 
 west of Indian Oasis. 
 
 Temporales, without name yet. Nineteen miles east of M akumivdoka, r. 
 
 Tesota, also called "Second Village," Rancheria. In Papago, Uupat- 
 oitak ("Cat-claw Field." Uupat, the tree called cat-claw, in 
 Spanish, tesota; oitak^ field for planting, mil pa). In the Gila 
 Bend Papago Reservation, five and a half miles east of Pelon, r. 
 It consisted in 1910 of eight families, immigrated from Pozos 
 Muchos, r. 
 
 Tjeavolitak, Summer Rancheria. "Where the barrel cactus is." 
 (Tjedvoli, barrel cactus; in Spanish, hisnaga.) Two miles from 
 an abandoned ranch called Fresnal, between Maishe's Well and 
 Indian Oasis. 
 
 Tjiuvak, Rancheria. "Where something rotted." Five miles north 
 of Horseshoe. 
 
 Tjotomvaxtaka, Rancheria. "Bear's Well." (Tjotom, bear; vdxia, 
 well, waterhole, also spring.) In the Baboquivari Range, about 
 eight miles south of Fresnal, r. 
 
 Tjuuliky Summer Rancheria. "Corner." On the plains, south south- 
 west of Fresnal, r., six miles south of Komalik, s. 
 
 Tjuupo, Rancheria. "Rock cavity with water." Name alludes to 
 some cavity in the rock containing water, a natural tank; Spanish, 
 tinaja. In the Quijotoa Range, perhaps ten miles north of 
 Brown ell. 
 
 Toapit or ^Toapit, Summer Rancheria. "White Clay." {Toa or 
 
 ^Toa, white; pit, clay.) Twelve miles north of Jiquibo, s. Seven 
 
 or eight families come here. 
 Topahua, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdksumdk ("Burnt Dog." 
 
 Koksy dog; mok, burn). Seven miles south of Indian Oasis. 
 Tdtobitk, Summer Rancheria. "Crooked." Ten miles from Cacate, s, 
 Tshtovo, Summer Rancheria. "Long Pond." (Tshi, long; vo, pond.) 
 
 Eight miles south-west of the south end of Quijotoa Range. 
 Tucson City. Originally a rancheria. In Papago, ^Tjukson ("At the 
 
 foot of the black hill." ^Tjuk, black; son or shon, at the foot of). 
 
 The name alludes to the hill nearest to the Santa Cruz River, and 
 
 near that on which the Desert Botanical Laboratory is. 
 
386 APPENDIX II 
 
 V dmulif Summer Rancheria. " Basin " (low place where water gathers). 
 
 It is near Gitkivok, r. 
 Fdvemo, Rancheria. In Papago, "Mountain with Head." (Fav^ 
 
 mountain; mo, head.) The name alludes to a low ridge on top 
 
 of which is a rock. Ten or twelve miles (four leagues) south of 
 
 Indian Oasis. Many Indians here. 
 Fdvkux,R2Lncheri3.. "Projecting Rock." (Fav, mount^Lm, rock; kux, 
 
 standing, prominent.) In the northern part of the Baboquivari 
 
 range; three miles from Hayes's Well. 
 Fopelohavooka, Summer Rancheria. "Burro Pond." (Fopelo, burro, 
 
 donkey; vo, pond.) Ha has no special meaning; usually it 
 
 means "there" or "what." Eight or nine miles south-west of 
 
 Topahua, s. 
 
 WalVs Well or Pozo de Federico, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdokatsh 
 ("mountain crest"). Sixteen miles east of Bates's Well, right 
 at the northern point of Sierra del Ajo. There used to be some 
 mining done here, which has been abandoned, a few Indians from 
 Barajita afterward settling there and taking possession of the wells. 
 Information from Mr. Frederick Wall, who discovered and named 
 the Growler mine. 
 
 PIMA RANCHERIAS 
 
 South of Casa Grande railroad station, on the Southern Pacific, are 
 found the following four Pima Rancherias, inhabited by the so-called 
 Kohatk people. 
 
 Kohdtky Pima Rancheria. "Depression." (Literally: "Where a hol- 
 low has been made" through water or other agency.) It is situ- 
 ated due east of the Vekol mine, and nine miles north-west of 
 Kukdmaltk, a Papago rancheria. Elevation, 2,500 feet. 
 
 Tatamumerikut, Pima Rancheria. "Where the foot had run." (Tat, 
 foot; mumeriy run; kuf, where.) It is four miles north of the Jack 
 Rabbit mine, is very old, and foot-racing is said to have started 
 here. Foot-races, accompanied by betting, are still practised, two 
 or four men running together at one time. They have also races 
 called witshuta^ where a ball is tossed along, similar to those in use 
 among the Tarahumares of Chihuahua, Mexico. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 387 
 
 Tshuhutsho or Tjuitjo, Pima Rancheria. "Caves." Name alludes to 
 some natural cavities in the ground (tshuhu, cave) nine miles 
 from Casa Grande railroad station and from Vaivavo^ r. 
 
 Vaivavoy Pima Rancheria. "Cocklebur Pond." (Fdiva, cocklebur; 
 vo, pond.) Tw^elve miles north of Kohdtky r. 
 
 II. — SoNORA, Mexico 
 
 DISTRICT OF ALTAR 
 
 Agua Prieta, Rancheria. (See Pozo Prieto.) 
 
 Jkimuri, Rancheria. "The River." The present site of the Indian 
 settlement of Sonoita, the Mexicans having occupied the lands 
 where the Indians originally lived, and v^here the small Sonoita 
 River sallies forth. It is about one mile down the river from the 
 Mexican settlement and goes under the name of El Pueblo, Con- 
 siderable wheat is cultivated by irrigating with water from the river, 
 and the Indians, the number of whom varies according to season 
 but generally may be seventy to eighty or more, are well-to-do. 
 See Sonoita. 
 
 Akitaivuni, Summer Rancheria. "Where the river begins." {Ak\ 
 river, arroyo; vun, begin.) Situated six miles east of Sonoita, 
 where there were several swamps before the river, some years ago, 
 broke through the gravelly accumulations. Abandoned. 
 
 Alamito, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, 
 Vdipia ("Waterholes," "Springs"). Two miles north of the town 
 of Trincheras. There is an old church here. Miguel, an old 
 Indian of Quitovac, saw Indians living here seventy years ago. 
 
 Alamo Muerto, Mexican ranches, formerly Papago rancheria. In 
 Papago, Aupa ("Cottonwood Tree." Plural is aupa). Eight 
 leagues west of Caborca and four leagues north-east of Pozo 
 Moreneno, it is situated on the Altar River, on the llano; the 
 ranches are about north of the Sierra del Alamo, which is near by, 
 and three leagues west of Bisani. 
 
 Altar. Town on the Altar River, formerly rancheria. In Papago, 
 Vdvuk ("Where there is a mountain." Vav, mountain, or rocky 
 place). Three families live in the outskirts, making a living by 
 working for Mexicans. 
 
388 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Arlvaipa, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, 
 Alivaipia ("Small Springs" or "Small Waterholes." Ali, small, 
 child; vdipia is plural of vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). Eight 
 miles south-east of Garambullo ranch. The Papagoes used to 
 have fields here. The old men died and the young men went 
 to Arizona. 
 
 Arivaipa. Papago camp, abandoned; formerly of importance. It 
 is about thirty-five miles east of Puerto de Libertad, fifteen miles 
 from the coast. This marks the southern limit of the Papago 
 tribes' extension. A reliable old Indian, Miguel of Quitovac, 
 knows this place, of which Mr. M. Taylor, formerly superintendent 
 of the Yaqui mine, gave me the following description: "A large 
 mezquite tree is growing on the south side of the arroyo. Here the 
 Papagoes from Pozos de San Ignacio used to camp before being 
 dispossessed by the rurales. East of this tree, on the bank of the 
 arroyo, is another mezquite overhanging the arroyo; one of the 
 limbs has been cut off. Directly under that cut one should dig 
 for water which will be found eight to ten feet deep in the sand; 
 it stands in caliche, into which a two-foot deep hole has been 
 made." According to the same informant, there is a Seri well, 
 "Coyote," on the same arroyo, six miles from the coast. The 
 main camp of the Seri Indians, perhaps now numbering two hun- 
 dred in all, is said to be at no great distance from there. 
 
 Arivaipa. This name also appears on the upper Gila River, near 
 the San Carlos Reservation. Formerly the Apaches used to be there. 
 
 Atil, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Atshi ("Narrow 
 Mountain"). Six leagues from pueblo Oquitoa on the Altar River. 
 
 Bajio de Evaristo, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Htashpik 
 ("Buried"). According to tradition, a beautiful Papago woman 
 was buried here. It is situated in the fertile, long, broad valley 
 leading west to Sonoita. About fifteen families live here. 
 
 Banori, Rancheria. In Papago, Vdnolik ("Curve"). Seven miles east 
 of Mexican rancheria Bajio del Alcalde, which hauls water from 
 there. It is not far from the other Banori, both of them located 
 near the boundary. 
 
 Banori^ Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. Two miles west of 
 Cobota. It is probably the ranch which formerly was called Pozo 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 389 
 
 de Luis. Two Papago families keep animals there by permission 
 of the Mexican owner, J. Celaya. 
 
 Bisant, Hacienda. Formerly rancheria. In Papago, Viisin ("Small, 
 deep arroyo"). Sixteen miles west south-west of Caborca. The 
 extensive and fertile lands have been made into a Mexican hacienda 
 for wheat raising. Fourteen or fifteen families live here who are 
 dependent on the hacienda for work. Ruins of an old Jesuit 
 church are existent. 
 
 Caborca. Town on the Altar River, formerly rancheria. In Papago, 
 Kdvortk ("Rounded Hill"). Seven families live in the outskirts, 
 two of them possessing and cultivating milpas (garden fields), the 
 rest being laborers for Mexicans. 
 
 Cacate, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdka ("Clearing"). On the south- 
 western side of Sierra de Santa Rosa (east of Sonoita). Aban- 
 doned fifteen years ago. 
 
 Carrictto, Rancheria. In Papago, Vapktjuutshk ("Where the reeds 
 stand." Fapk, reed; tjuutshk, upright, standing). Near Rancho 
 de Macias, toward the boundary line. Nine families; the men 
 seek work in the Campana gold mine. 
 
 Charco de Chavarria, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdvoit 
 ("Badger's Field." Kav, badger; dttak, field, milpa). Four leagues 
 east of Sonoita. Papagoes used to live here formerly, and in the 
 last four years a couple of families are again occupying the country. 
 
 Charco de la Mujer, Rancheria. In Papago, Ofviavdoka ("Woman's 
 Pond." 0/^'z, woman; i;o, pond). Two leagues north north-east 
 of La Nariz, r. People from La Nariz visit it for the sake of ob- 
 taining water for the cattle. Otherwise it appears abandoned. 
 
 Chujubabi, Rancheria. In Papago, Tshuhuvaxia ("Cave Well." 
 Tshuhuf cave; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). Four leagues 
 south-east of Quitovac. It is inhabited by three or four families. 
 
 Cobota, Rancheria. In Papago, Kdvortk ("Hollow in the ground"). 
 It is on the west side of the peak of Cobota, about eight miles 
 south-east of Cerro de la Lesna, and four miles south of the boun- 
 dary. Ten families live here. When the water is consumed they 
 go to Tecolote, j., Arizona, where they have fields. 
 
 Comobabi, Rancheria. For interpretation see Comobabi, Arizona. It is six 
 leagues east south-east of Cobota. More than ten families live here. 
 
390 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Coyote, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Panvaxia ("Coyote Well." 
 Pan, coyote; vdxia, well, waterhole, also spring). A small 
 rancheria, north of Tajitos mine (about twenty-five miles north of 
 Caborca). Water is procured by digging holes in the river bed. 
 
 Cubabi, Rancheria. In Papago, Kovaxia ("Hidden Well." Ko, 
 cover; vdxta, well, waterhole, also spring). Near the Sierra de 
 Cobota, four leagues north of Plomo, mining town. Eight to ten 
 families. 
 
 Cubo, Mexican ranches, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, 
 Kuvo ("Big Pond." Ku, big; vo, pond). Thirty miles north of 
 Caborca. 
 
 Cumaroy Rancheria. In Papago, probably, Komvaxia {Kom, tree with 
 red berries, called by the Mexicans cumaro ; vaxia, well, waterhole, 
 also spring). About eight leagues west of Sasabe custom-house 
 and two leagues from the boundary. Four or five families live here. 
 
 El Durasno, Rancheria, abandoned some time ago. Situated north of 
 the mountain of the same name (north of Carricito, r.), at the foot 
 of it. Water was brought from some pools in the mountain. 
 Sons of those who lived there are still alive. 
 
 El Picu, Rancheria. In Papago, Ookobonjih} ("Tears." Ook, tears; 
 bonjik^ is euphonistic, and does not mean anything by itself). 
 Water comes up very sparingly, hence the name. It is about 
 forty-five miles south south-west of Caborca and eight leagues 
 west of Pozos de San Ignacio. Has been uninhabited for more 
 than thirty years, though some Indians from Pozos de San Ignacio 
 had a ranch here. 
 
 El Tren. Abandoned mining village, formerly Papago rancheria, called, 
 in Papago, Ltima ("Whetting Stone." In another version the name 
 Lin is a corruption of Trinidad and means nothing). Near Zoni. 
 Placer mines were formerly worked here. 
 
 Ktkimikux, Summer Rancheria. "House Standing." (Kt, house; 
 kux, standing, prominent.) It is less than one league east of 
 Cumaro, r., There are ten families living here. 
 
 La Espuma, Rancheria. In Papago, Tdtshaki ("Foam." Water 
 makes foam in the hole when being excavated in the sand. Good 
 water to drink). In the Sierra de la Espuma, south of La Nariz. 
 It is inhabited only in the winter. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 391 
 
 La Nariz^ Rancheria. In Papago, Tdak ("Nose"). It is situated at 
 the foot of the south-eastern promontory of the Sierra de la Nariz. 
 Its profile resembles a nose, hence its name. In the winter usually 
 fifteen families live here. At the time of my visit in November 
 there were five families; some were absent in Represa de Enrique, 
 others were working for the Americans (agriculture) in Arizona. 
 There is a dam here made by Mexicans, American citizens, who 
 are trying to drive the Indians away. 
 
 Lesna Vieja, Rancheria. In Papago, Kuktjuitakkux ("Palo Verde 
 Standing." Kuktjuitak, palo verde; kux^ standing, prominent). 
 It is about three leagues north-east of Bajio de Evaristo, in the 
 north-western part of the District of Altar, at the edge of the 
 basin. Abandoned about twelve years ago. Ruins of huts and 
 a broken dam can still be seen. 
 
 Llano de Juan Ramon^ Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Kdkaulivo 
 (Kdkaulty a bush called in Spanish garambullo ; voy pond. "Pond 
 among garambullo Bushes"). It is one league south-east of 
 Garambullo ranch. Has been abandoned probably fifty years. 
 
 Onaky Rancheria. Pronounced Sdnak in Bisani ("Where there is salt." 
 Ouy salt). Twelve leagues south-west of Caborca; three leagues 
 west of Pozo Prieto (abandoned r.). Abandoned in the present 
 generation. Mexicans had here formerly gold and silver mining 
 by arrastras. 
 
 Oquitoa, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Hdkito 
 ("Boundary Limit"). Two leagues north-east of Altar, on the 
 Altar River. 
 
 PitiquitOy Town on the Altar River, formerly a rancheria. In Papago, 
 Ptttskiny "Gone to Nothing." The name alludes to the annihila- 
 tion of both parties to a combat which is said to have taken place 
 on a mountain near the present town. On account of the per- 
 manency of water in this part of the river and the fertility of the 
 plain, this locality is to-day of agricultural importance. There are 
 four Papago families here, who work for the Mexicans. 
 
 Pozo Grandey Rancheria. In Papago, Kuvaxia ("Big Well." Kuy 
 big, large; vaxia, well, waterhole, spring). It is near the south- 
 western point of Cerro del Viejo, ten leagues south of Caborca. 
 Has been uninhabited for fifty to sixty years. 
 
392 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Pozo Moreneno, Rancheria, abandoned. Near the southern part of 
 Sierra del Alamo. Twelve leagues south-west of Caborca, three 
 leagues from Pozo Prieto (abandoned r.). 
 
 Pozo Prieto or Agua Prteta, Rancheria. In Papago, ^Tjukshootak 
 ("Black Water." ^Tjuk, black; shootak, water). Near the foot- 
 hills of Sierra del Viejo, two leagues from Pozo Grande. Papagoes 
 from Bisani visit it every year, but it is more or less abandoned. 
 
 Pozo Verde, Rancheria. In Papago, Tjuitakvaxia ("Green Well." 
 Tjuitak, green (also stjuitak); vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). 
 The name is derived from a fine spring at the foot of the Babo- 
 quivari Range, about a mile south of the boundary line, and a 
 few miles west of Sasabe custom-house. The largest rancheria in 
 Sonora. Twenty-five to thirty families are said to live here. 
 There is a general here in charge of all the Papagoes of Sonora. 
 The place is of importance in the mythology of the tribe. 
 
 Pozos de San Ignacio, Rancheria. In Papago, Tootavaipia ("White 
 Waterholes." Tda or ^Tda, white ; vdtpia, plural of vaxia, 
 waterhole, spring). The earth is white here, probably on ac- 
 count of the presence of caliche. It is about twenty leagues south 
 of Caborca. This rancheria was given up in 1907 after a brave 
 fight with the rurales (Mexican police), of whom eighteen were 
 killed, nearly all the Indians escaping with their belongings into 
 Arizona. Many families were living here, sixteen persons being 
 full-grown men. 
 
 Quelele Quemado, Rancheria. In Papago, Kusitmohitatsh ("Burnt 
 Carrion Hawk." Kusit, carrion hawk, with a yellowish throat). 
 One to two leagues north of Lesna Vieja, r. Abandoned long 
 ago. 
 
 Quitovac, Rancheria. In Papago, Fapk or Vdketa, "Reeds" {Vapk is 
 the name for reeds; they here grow in a swamp, produced by flow 
 from the springs). An important place in the life of the tribe. 
 Several fine springs at one locality furnish abundant water. There 
 was once mining activity here. At present only the Indians occa- 
 sionally "dry wash" the placer mines. Two or three Mexican 
 families live here and there is a store. The Indians are fairly 
 well-to-do, and in the winter as many as fifteen families may be 
 found at Quitovac. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 393 
 
 Represa de Enrique, Summer Rancheria. In Papago, Njuoport 
 (**Nighthawk"). It is situated in the fertile, long, broad valley- 
 leading west to Sonoita. Seven families have cattle here and own 
 a large pond. They come from La Espuma, r. 
 
 San Pedro, Rancheria. In Papago, Somuok ("Peak"). One league 
 south-west of Coyote, r. Four families live here. 
 
 Santo Domingo, Hacienda, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, 
 Tjutshpa, "Pounding Stone." {Tjutshpa, a rude stone vessel in 
 which mezquite beans, mescal, etc., are pounded with a stone pestle; 
 sometimes a hollow is made in the rock for the same purpose.) 
 Seven miles west of Sonoita on the Sonoita River. A large tract 
 of land was cultivated here by Mexicans, through irrigation from 
 Sonoita River, but it has been abandoned for several years. No 
 Indians live here any more. 
 
 Sartc, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, Shdarik 
 ("Pass." Spanish, puerta). Five leagues from Pueblo Tubu- 
 tama on the Altar River, near the boundary of the District of 
 Magdalena. Some Papagoes live here. 
 
 Sasahe, Mexican custom-house, formerly a rancheria. In Papago, 
 Shdshovuk ("Echo"). 
 
 Sonoita, Rancheria. In Papago, Kavortkson ("At the foot of the 
 rounded hill." Kdvortk, rounded hill; son, in Sonoita pronounced 
 shon, at the foot of, base). Sometimes the place is designated in 
 an abbreviated manner as shon only, from which possibly the 
 Spanish name Sonoita is derived. The oasis was originally called 
 Sonoitag or Sonoidac. In the reprint of Ortega's "Apostolicas 
 Afanes," Mexico, 1887, the name Sonoidag is attributed to the 
 Indians. Speaking of Father Kino's journey in 1699, the nar- 
 rator says: "They gave the name San Marcelo to a place which 
 the natives call Sonoidag, a very favorable locality on account of 
 its lands, pasture, and abundant water" (libro 2, cap. 7, p. 340). 
 The rancheria used to be near the beginning of the river, but the 
 Indians have gradually been driven by the Mexicans lower down, 
 occupying now a site one mile from the Mexican village of Sonoita. 
 {See Akimuri.) 
 
 Suvuk, Summer Rancheria. "Red." (See under "Camps of the Sand 
 Papagoes or Arenenos.") 
 
39+ 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Tubutama, Mexican Pueblo, formerly rancheria. In Papago, 
 TjiXvutam (*'High Up"). Three leagues from Mexican pueblo 
 Atil on the Altar River. 
 
 Zow/, Mexican ranch, formerly Papago rancheria. In Papago, Shdne- 
 kam ("Spring that never dries up"). Six miles from Rancho 
 de Macias in north-v^^estern part of the District of Altar. The 
 Campana mine pumps water from here. Formerly there was 
 placer mining here. 
 
 CAMPS OF THE SAND PAPAGOES OR ARENENOS 
 
 These Papagoes formerly occupied the sandy country along the 
 upper part of the Gulf of California, reaching from the lower Colorado 
 River eastward as far as Santo Domingo, near Sonoita, and north- 
 ward to Gila Range and Cabeza Prieta Range. Their head-quarters 
 was the Pinacate region. 
 
 Agua Dulce, Camp. In Papago, Ikuskaatsh {Ikus, piece of clothing; 
 Spanish, trapo). West south-west of Quitovaquita, at a place 
 where the river water appears again. A ranch was established 
 here by a Mexican, but was later abandoned. Both here and at 
 Agua Salada, three miles lower down, the Papagoes used to come 
 in great numbers to hunt or to gather sahuaro, but no agriculture 
 was ever undertaken. 
 
 Agua Salada or La Salada, Camp. In Papago, Onokshdotak ("Salt 
 Water." Ono, salt; shdotak, water). Name of a certain part of 
 the Sonoita River bed, south south-west of Quitovaquita. One 
 and one-half miles further down is Los Pozitos, the name being 
 derived from small wells that travellers make in the sand of the 
 river-bed, to get water. Drinkable water may be procured in the 
 same way at Agua Salada. 
 
 Hdtunikaty Camp. "Sunset," "West." South of Pinacate, four miles 
 west of Tinaja de los Chivos. This was the head-quarters of the 
 sand people and, to employ a Mexican usage, may be termed a 
 rancheria. Drinking water was brought from Los Chivos. An 
 annual festival — dancing and singing — was given to procure rain 
 and "make the grass grow." See page 228. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 395 
 
 La Choya, Camp. In Papago, H anammetjurtivaxia (Hdnam, choya, 
 a very spiny cactus of the opuntia genus which grows in abundance 
 here; metjurti was interpreted to me as indicating "in," "near'*; 
 vdxia, well, waterhole, spring). South of Pinacate. This camp is 
 a few yards from the beach, and fresh water is found in a hole that 
 has been dug ten feet deep. 
 
 Laguna Prieta, Camp. In Papago, Fapk ("Reeds"). A salt lagoon 
 west of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas). Abundance of 
 fresh water found among the bulrushes on the marshy shore. 
 
 La Soda, Camp. In Papago, Tjutjaka. South of Pinacate. This is 
 a deposit of soda, ten miles east of Salina del Pinacate, and three 
 miles from the sea. Fresh water is found by digging on the shore, 
 as well as three miles west at a locality called Tule. 
 
 Pozo del Caballoy Camp. In Papago, Hiatitvdxia ("Well of the Sand 
 Dunes." Hia, Hiati, ov Htatit, sand dunes, sand; vdxia, well, a 
 hole dug to reach water, also spring). This locality is about half- 
 way between Salina del Pinacate and Salina Grande. It is a dif- 
 ficult place to find, near some high sand dunes west of Estero del 
 Tule. 
 
 Salina del Pinacate, Camp. In Papago, Ono or On ("Salt"). Also 
 called Kavonoka ("Badger's Salt." Kav, badger). A small de- 
 posit of salt in a slough three miles from the coast, south-west of 
 the Pinacate region. This is the principal place from which the 
 Papagoes gather salt. Fresh water is found by digging on the 
 shore. 
 
 Salina Grande, Camp. In Papago, Murtegshdotak ("Running Water." 
 Murtegy running; shdotak, water). A large salt deposit forty miles 
 east of the mouth of Colorado River, three miles from the coast. 
 On the flat, north-western shore are sixteen fresh-water springs. 
 
 Sierra Blanca, Camps. In Papago, Tdakomalik ("White Mountain." 
 Toa or ^Tda, white; kdmalik, mountain crest). A sierra south of 
 Pinacate. A small water tank lasting three months is found near 
 the north-east point on the east side, but the Indians had several 
 camps, especially on the south side of the range. 
 
 Sierra del Rosario, Camps. In Papago, Hiatikomalik ("Mountain 
 Crest in the Sand." Hiati (also Hia or Htatit), sand; kdmalik, 
 mountaip crest). A mountain range among the sand dunes 
 
396 
 
 APPENDIX 11 
 
 south of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas). Though far 
 from water, there are many evidences of camping places here. 
 Suvuky Summer Rancheria. "Red." A hill near by has the same 
 name. In the Pinacate region, five miles south-east of Tinajas de 
 Emilia. There was some agriculture here, among the lava ridges. 
 People came from Batamote to cultivate brown beans, white beans 
 (tepart), maize, and squashes on a small scale. It is doubtful 
 whether these can be considered sand people, probably not. 
 Nearer the coast no attempt at agriculture was ever made. 
 There is a tinaja near by called tjuumikux ("Where the pitahaya 
 stands." Tjiimi, a kind of pitahaya cactus; kux, standing, promi- 
 nent). 
 
 Tinajas Altas, Camp. In Papago, Oovak ("Where arrows were shot." 
 Oo, arrow). The name originates from a legend about two Indians 
 who shot arrows from either side of the ridge. One did shoot 
 across. Where the arrows of the other fell short the pools ap- 
 peared. These well-known tinajas, eight in number, are in the 
 southern part of the Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas Altas) that 
 stretches from the neighborhood of Yuma south-east. It is on 
 the old track from Caborca, over Sonoita, to Yuma. 
 
 Tinaja de los Chivos, Camp. In Papago, Hotunikat ("Sunset," 
 "West"). The Spanish name is the vulgar expression chivos 
 (goats) for mountain-sheep. In the south-western part of Pina- 
 cate. An important camp. There is a track leading from here 
 to the former main camp of the sand people, called by the same 
 name, Hotunikat. Another track leads over the mountains to 
 Tinajas de Emilia. 
 
 Tinaja de los Papagos, Camp. In Papago, Hitjuupo ("Urine Pool." 
 Hiy urine; tjuupo, natural tank, water in rock cavity; Spanish, 
 tinaja). The name alludes to imaginary spoliation by the de- 
 parted. In the north-western part of Pinacate. In years of ordi- 
 nary rainfall the three tinajas here furnish water all the year 
 round. An important camp. 
 
 Tinaja del Cuervo, Camp. In Fap^Lgo, Havanikosh ("Raven's Nest." 
 Hdvani, Raven (corvus cryptoleucus); kosh, nest). In the south- 
 western part of Pinacate. This is a regular camp of the salt 
 expeditions. Water can nearly always be depended upon here. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 397 
 
 Tinajas de Emilia. In Papago, Moitjutjupo ("Many Pools." Mo/, 
 many; tjuupo, water in natural cavity of the rock, natural tank; in 
 Spanish, tinaja). An important camp on the slope of Pinacate, 
 south-east of Los Picos del Pinacate, in a straight line hardly 
 two miles from the top. There are four large, natural tanks here, 
 one of them fairly easy of access. In years of ordinary rainfall 
 the water lasts here all the year round. 
 
 Tinajas de la Cabeza Prieta, Camp. In Papago, jukomokamtjuupo 
 ("Black Head Pools." ^T^ywA, black; mo, head; tjiiupOy water in 
 natural cavity of the rock, natural tank; in Spanish, tinaja). The 
 Cabeza Prieta Range is east of Gila Range (Sierra de las Tinajas 
 Altas). In the middle part, on the east side, is found a number 
 of tinajasy one above the other, in a narrow gorge at the foot of 
 the tallest top, from which the range derives its name. This must 
 have been an important camp of the sand people, and certain old, 
 crude stone heaps are found at the entrance to the gorge. (See 
 P^g^ 324-) 
 
 Tinaja del Tule, Camp. In Papago, Otoxakam ("Where there is 
 Bulrush." Otoxak, bulrush (typha lati folia); in Spanish, tule). 
 A well-known pool on the old trail from Caborca, over Sonoita, 
 to Yuma, one day's journey east of Tinajas Altas. 
 
 Tornillal, Camp. The name in Papago is slightly doubtful, but is 
 probably Totshakshdotaki ("Foam on the Water." Totshak, 
 foam; shdotak, water). Twenty-five miles from the mouth of 
 Colorado River, fourteen miles west of Salina Grande, on the 
 coast, one-quarter of a mile from the beach. Screwbean trees (in 
 Spanish, tornillo) grow here, hence the name given to the locality 
 by my guide. Water has to be dug for, and is brackish and bitter. 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE PAPAGUERIA 
 
 BY CYRUS F. TOLMAN, PROFESSOR IN MINING AND GEOLOGY, UNIVER- 
 SITY OF ARIZONA 
 
 The two groups of formations most extensively developed in the 
 Papagueria belong respectively to the most ancient of rocks and to those 
 formed during geologically recent times — to the pre-Cambrian com- 
 plex on the one hand and to the Tertiary-Quaternary group on the 
 other. This great area has been studied only in spots by geologists, 
 and therefore detailed knov^ledge of the formations is lacking, and 
 they have not been matched up with those of other and better known 
 portions of the country. As far as present knowledge goes, the older 
 group consists of gneisses, schists, slates, crystalline limestones, and 
 coarse grained granites — the granites and granite-gneisses being most 
 abundantly developed in the south-western portion. The group of 
 younger rocks is made up chiefly of extrusives; volcanics represented 
 by andesites, rhyolites, rhyolite-tufFs, and basalts. These are men- 
 tioned in the order of eruption as shown in the majority of localities. 
 The most recent of the basalts, the extrusion of some of which may 
 have continued into historic times, form in cases perfect volcanic cones, 
 but the older lavas and most of the basalts appear as remnants of 
 flows in fault blocks, or better as fault strips, these upturned blocks 
 and strips forming many of the volcanic ranges. 
 
 Less widely distributed than the two groups mentioned above, but 
 important throughout the Arizona Copper Fields as ore carriers, are 
 the Paleozoic Series of limestones and quartzites. These are found in 
 the Papagueria in the eastern and southern ranges; for instance, in the 
 Tucson Mountains, the Silverbell Mountains, the Sierrita Mountains, in 
 the Vekol Mountains, in the Caborca Mountains, etc. In the southern 
 Papagueria (Altar District) a Mesozoic age is suspected for the thin 
 bedded limestones abundant in this area, but as far as known to the 
 
 398 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 author the fossil collections necessary to determine this definitely have 
 not as yet been made. Intrusive granites and porphyries, in general 
 somewhat earlier than the flov^s, intrude all the earlier formations, and 
 are responsible for most of the ore deposits of the region. 
 
 Of the many interesting physiographic features of this area, the 
 most striking is the commonly developed knife edge form of the moun- 
 tains which protrude above, and are partly buried by, the detritus of 
 the valleys. These mountain stumps are always chiselled into precip- 
 itous slopes by wind and torrential action. The valley fill is largely 
 subaerial, deposited by the withering torrents from the mountains, 
 which rarely if ever reach the gulf, or brought up by the wind from the 
 present and ancient strands of the gulf, and built into the extensive 
 "medanos" described by Mr. Lumholtz. Only temporary incursions 
 of the gulf up the valleys, in Miocene and later times, are suggested 
 by the fossils collected by Mr. Lumholtz and others, and by the nu- 
 merous abandoned shore lines of the Salton Sea to the west. 
 
 The climate of this region has undoubtedly been dominantly arid 
 during recent geological times (late Tertiary, Quaternary, and Recent 
 Periods), as shown by the physiography of the country, the make-up 
 of the desert fill, etc. Brief respites, however, due to increasing hu- 
 midity, are suggested by numerous "dry lakes," at times filled with 
 water, and more recent changes by the deserted Indian villages, far 
 from any known surface water supply. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aalihihiani, children's cemetery, 
 
 99-106. 
 Abras, 17. 
 
 Ahronia umbellata, 313. 
 Adofi, 345. 
 
 Adonde, near Wellton, ''Sand-peo- 
 ple" at, 332. 
 
 Afterglow of the sun, 158. 
 
 Agave americana, 4. 
 
 Agriculture. See under names of coun- 
 tries, places, peoples; e.g., Papagoes, 
 agriculture. 
 
 Agua Dulce camp, 196, 199-200, 
 286. 
 
 Agua Salada, 161, 200, 245, 281. 
 
 Agustin, Papago Indian, his silver 
 mine, 291, 329. 
 
 Ajo, 81, 336. 
 
 Ajo Mountains, 31, 162. 
 
 Aktjin rancheria, 127, 129, 355; 
 foot-races at, 75; singers from, 96. 
 
 Alamo, 287. 
 
 Algadones, 251. 
 
 Algansea tincella, 174. 
 
 Aloitak, singers from, 96. 
 
 Altar, District of, 83, 184, 264; min- 
 ing, 182; order and government in, 
 177; prevalence of hydrophobia in, 
 184; rancherias, alphabetical list 
 of, 387-394; water supply, 264. 
 
 Altar River, 16, 17, 18, 143, 146- 
 147; village sites on, 335. 
 
 Altar, Sonora, 31, 134, 135, 177, 200, 
 258, 261, 334; description of town, 
 144-145; ports near, 142. 
 
 Alvina, Papago chief, 61-62, 79, 80, 
 82. 
 
 Ammombroma sonorcz, 319, 330. 
 A mole, 34. 
 
 Amphorbia polycarpa, 336. 
 
 Ancient remains, 337, 340-343. See 
 
 also Antiquities. 
 Anekam rancheria, 69, 108, 355; 
 
 singers from, 96; tattooing at, no. 
 
 Anemonopsis calif ornica, 264. 
 Animals. See fauna under names of 
 
 countries and places; e. g., Mexico, 
 
 fauna. 
 
 Animals subsisting without water, 
 153. See also Water supply. 
 
 Antigonon leptopus, 135. 
 
 Antilocapra americana mexicana, 284. 
 
 Antiquities, 143, 179-180, 335, 340- 
 342. See also Ancient remains; 
 Fortifications. 
 
 Ants. See under names of countries 
 and places, also 202, 335. 
 
 Apaches, 24, 26, 29, 239, 291; bas- 
 ketry, 353; lights with other Ind- 
 ian tribes, 74, 359-3^2. 
 
 Apache Tontos, 250, 252. 
 
 Arenenos, 228, 231, 291, 299, 316, 
 329-332; camps of, alphabetical 
 list, 394-397- 
 
 Argemone intermedia, 283. 
 
 Arituaba range, Indian fortifications 
 in, 142. 
 
 Arizona, ancient artifacts and forti- 
 fications in, 9, 41, 142, 143, 341- 
 342; ants, 116; birds, 13-14; 
 Black Hills of, 9; booms, 82; 
 climate, 5, 18, 3 2-3 3 » 3 8, 67-68, 
 74, 78, 79, 109, ii4-iiS> 343; 
 fauna, 21-23, 71-72; 80, 112, 116; 
 flora, 4, 10, 12, 14, 15, 19-21,34, 
 37. 38. 45 72, 78, 80, 81, 100, 
 130-13 1 ; Indian reservations, 6-9, 
 337, 338-340; Indians, 9-10, 14- 
 15, 16 ff., 332; Indian wars, 74; 
 irrigation, 338; mineral wealth, 17; 
 
402 
 
 INDEX 
 
 mining, 82, 83, 290; progress of, 
 3; prohibition laws in, 9; rain- 
 fall, 43, 79, 81, 114,117-118, 127; 
 rancherias in, alphabetical list, 
 377-387; rattlesnakes, 117; rivers, 
 5, 17-18; roads, 114, 127-128; 
 school-buildings and hotels, in- 
 appropriate to climate in, 343, 
 347; scorpions, 117; storms, 79, 
 86-87, 1 1 8-1 19; water supply, 
 18/., 37» 72, III. 
 
 Arizona, University of, 4-5, 32, 347. 
 
 Arrow heads, flint, superstitions re- 
 lating to. III, 180. 
 
 Arroyos. See under names of countries 
 and places. 
 
 Atole bianco, 113, 351. 
 
 Aztecs, 28. 
 
 Baboquivari Range, 16, 33, 34, 39, 
 41, 67, 123, 174, 357; arroyos in, 
 41-42; caves in, 42; description 
 of, 31-32. 
 
 Badger, 22, 231. 
 
 "Badger's Well" rancheria, 63. 
 Bailey a multiradiata, 313. 
 Bajio del Alcalde ranch, 162. 
 Baltarea, 247. 
 Bancroft, 197. 
 
 Bandelier, Ad. F., 6, 24, 29, 377. 
 Barajita rancheria, 285, 355, 359. 
 Basketry. See under names 0/ tribes, 
 
 also Papagoes; Pimas. 
 Bates's Well, 290. 
 Beans. See Frijoles; Tepari. 
 Beauclerk, Lord Osborne, 249-250. 
 Beebe, Miss Emily, 204. 
 Beloperone calif ornica, 207. 
 Birds. See under names of countries 
 
 and places. 
 Bisani, 165. 
 Bisnaga, 20. 
 
 Black Hill Cemetery, 12. 
 Bonancita, 150. 
 Bonillas, Y. S., 158, 160, 234. 
 Brandy, 9, 74, 75, 194, 195, 291. 
 Brownell, Mr., store-keeper and 
 mine-owner, 96. 
 
 Bull-roarer, 88, 90, 95-96. 
 Burden basket, 66, 68. 
 Burros. See under Mexico. 
 Butcher-bird, 80. 
 
 Cabeza Prieta Ranges, 197-198, 
 220, 239, 291, 322, 323. 
 
 Caborca, 142, 144, 177, 212, 245, 
 258, 261; American filibusters in, 
 147; ball games and races at, 74; 
 church in, 146; diseases, 146; 
 fighting at, 74; fortifications near, 
 142; Indians in, 147, 148, 354; 
 old mission of, 25, 146; sahuaro 
 festival at, 147-148; town of, de- 
 scription, 145^. 
 
 Caborca-Yuma trail, 196-197, 200, 
 237- 
 
 Cacate rancheria, 355. 
 
 Cacti, 10, II, 20, 21, 151-152, 188, 
 276, 302, 310; providing drinking 
 supply for animals, 152, 153, 154. 
 See also Choyas; Sahuaro. 
 
 Cajilon, 174. 
 
 Cajon del Diablo, 197. 
 
 California, agriculture, 9, 19; dis- 
 covery of gold in, 176, 241; 
 grooved stone axes in, 143; routes 
 to. See Caborca-Yuma trail; South 
 em Pacific Railroad. 
 
 California, Gulf of, 16, 45, 198, 210, 
 226; fishing, 257-258; flora, 319; 
 Salinas, 163. See also Mexico, 
 Salinas. 
 
 California, Lower, Indians from, 
 250; mountains in, 210, 258, 260. 
 
 C amino del Diablo, 197. 
 
 Camote of the medanos, 318-319. 
 See also Sand-people. 
 
 Campana gold mine, 157. 
 
 Cara Colorada. See Pancho, El 
 Doctor. 
 
 Caravajales, Indian hermit, 231, 266, 
 
 290, 333- 
 Car do, 283. 
 Cargador, 139. 
 
 Casa Grande, 1 1 1 ; ancient ruins, pres- 
 ervation and antiquities of, 340-3 42. 
 
INDEX 
 
 403 
 
 Castillo, Papago medicine-man, 
 35-37- 
 
 Catholic Missions, 5-6, 12, 24-25. 
 
 See also under names of places; 
 
 e. g.y Caborcdy mission of. 
 Caves. See under names of countries 
 
 and places. 
 Celadoresy 164. 
 
 Celaya, Alberto, Mexican driver, 
 
 149, 212, 220, 236, 241, 275. 
 Century plants, 4. 
 
 Cereus giganteuSy 10, 45. See also 
 
 Cacti; Sahuaro. 
 Cerro Colorado, 203. 
 Cerro Pinto, 229, 311. 
 Cerro Prieto, 142, 245. 
 Change of climate. See under names 
 
 of countries and places ; e. g.y Mexico. 
 Children, cemetery, 99, 105, 107; 
 
 sacrifice of, 100. 
 Chireones ranch, 335. 
 Chordeiles acutipennis texensisy 13. 
 Choyas, 151-152, 188, 310, 334. 
 Chujubabi, 269, 270. 
 Cieneguilla placer mines, 182. 
 Clemente, Papago interpreter, 149, 
 
 212. 
 
 Climate. See under names of countries 
 and places; e. g.y Arizona; Mexico. 
 
 Cocopa Indians, 250-251; language 
 of, vocabulary, 368-376; ranche- 
 rias and customs of, 251. 
 
 Cocospera, mission of, 146. 
 
 Colonia Lerdo, 235, 248-250, 268, 289. 
 
 Colorado, 24. 
 
 Colorado River, 16, 18, 145, 177, 
 182, 194, 197, 198, 212, 219, 226, 
 235, 242, 244, 246, 248, 250, 251, 
 287, 331. 
 
 Comaru, 161. 
 
 Comobabi rancheria, 65. 
 
 Comobabi range, 27, 40, 41, 43, 86; 
 Indians in, 27, 356. 
 
 Condaliay desert bush, 34. 
 
 Consumption. See under names of 
 countries y places y peoples; e. g.y 
 Papago Indiansy consumption 
 among. 
 
 Contact with whites, its effects. See 
 under names of Indian tribes; see 
 also Consumption; Diseases. 
 
 Copper. See Mining. 
 
 Coyotes, 14, 156-157. 
 
 Cozon gold fields, 150. 
 
 Crabbe, Capt. H. A., American fili- 
 buster, 147; defeat of, 74. 
 
 Crater Elegante, 213-214, 234. 
 
 Culiacan, Sinaloa, 135. 
 
 Curing disease, 36, iii, 180, 184, 264, 
 335-336. 
 
 Cyprinodon maculariusy 175. 
 
 Dancing. See under names of tribes; 
 
 see also Festivals. 
 Daturay 280. 
 Day, Judge, 83. 
 
 "Dead Old Man's Well" rancheria, 
 85. 
 
 Deer, 22-23. 
 
 Desert Botanical Laboratory, in 
 Tucson, 4, 5. 
 
 Desert travels, cowardice of a Mexi- 
 can attendant, 292-294; loyalty 
 of Indian guides, 291-292; pro- 
 visions, 287. See also under names 
 of countries and places; e. g.y Mex- 
 ico. 
 
 Dia de San Juany 31. 
 
 Diaz, Melchior, route of, 197. 
 
 Diseases. See under names of coun- 
 
 triesy placesy and tribes. 
 Dividing ranges, 16, 18, 83. 
 Dolores, Father Kino's first mission 
 
 in Sonora, 24. 
 Dominguez Cipriano, 251, 252, 261. 
 Donkeys. See Burros. 
 Dosinia ponderosay 256. 
 Douglas, Arizona, travellers from, 292. 
 Dowie, "Prophet," converts among 
 
 the Papagoes, 39-40. 
 "Dry farming," 19. 
 Dry-washing gold, 183. See also 
 
 Mining. 
 
 Earth Magician Myths, 357-358. 
 
 EchinocactuSy 20. 
 
404 
 
 INDEX 
 
 El Boludo gold mine, 140, 144. 
 El Capitan, 243-244, 247, 280. 
 "Elder Brother" legends, 42, 48, 
 
 192, 207-208, 357-358. 
 El Doctor swamp, 254. 
 El Durasno Mountain, 160. 
 Eleodes, 227. 
 El Paso, I, 2. 
 El Pozo camp, 290, 292. 
 El Tiro gold mine, 140. 
 El Tren mining camp, 158. 
 El Veit, 290. 
 Encelia eriocephala, 244. 
 Encelia farinosa, 10. 
 Ephedra, 215, 247. 
 Espuma, 270. 
 Estero del Tule, 265. 
 Euphorbia polycarpa, 206. 
 
 Fauna. See under names of countries 
 and places; e. g., Mexico, fauna; 
 see also names of particualr animals. 
 
 Festivals, Indian. See under names 
 of countries, places, tribes. 
 
 Filibusters, 147. 
 
 Fishes. See under names of countries 
 
 and places. 
 Flora. See under names of countries 
 
 and places, e. g., Mexico, flora; see 
 
 also names of particular plants. 
 Florence, on the Gila River, 123. 
 Forbes, Prof. R. H., 31, 347. 
 Fortifications. See under names of 
 
 countries, places, tribes. 
 Fort Yuma, 18. 
 Fouquieria splendens, 302. 
 Franciscan missions, 25. 
 Fresnal rancheria, 32-33, 356. 
 Frijoles, 25, 216. 
 
 *' Frog Doctor, " Papago rain song, 1 22. 
 Fuerte de Montes Claros River, 182. 
 
 Gaillard, Capt. D. D., 241. 
 Galletal camp, 285. 
 Galletal inlet, 218. 
 Gambel's quail, 14. 
 Games and races, 74, 75, 89, 149, 332, 
 358, 359. 
 
 Garambullo Ranch, 150, 153, 154. 
 Garbanzos, 7. 
 
 Geological formations, 17. See also 
 398-399- 
 
 Geological sketch of the Papagueria, 
 
 ,398-399- 
 
 Giant cactus. See Sahuaro. 
 
 Gila Bend Reservation, 337; Ind- 
 ians in, 355. 
 
 Gila Crossing, 340. 
 
 Gila Range, 45, 220, 229, 239, 280, 
 302. 
 
 Gila River, 5, 16, 18, 24, 25, 83, 143, 
 162, 182, 269, 320, 337; Indians 
 on, 123; missions on, 25, settle- 
 ments, 338; reservation, 339; 
 village sites, 342. 
 
 Gold. See under names of countries 
 and places; Mining. 
 
 Golondrina, 206, 335-336. 
 
 Gray, Col. Andrew B., 319. 
 
 Gray, Dr. Asa, 319. 
 
 Gray, Mrs. John, 237. 
 
 Greasewood, 21; antiseptic and other 
 useful properties of, 222-223. 
 
 Growler Mountains, 16. 
 
 Growler Well, 290, 332. 
 
 Grus, 248. 
 
 Guadalajara, 135. 
 
 Guadalupe, Indian attendant, 187^., 
 
 195, 269, 288, 295, 297, 325, 333. 
 Guaymas, port, 135, 136. 
 Guayule rubber, 12-13. 
 
 Hacienda de Santo Domingo, 159, 
 200. 
 
 Hadrurus hirsutus, 117. 
 
 Hardie River, 250. 
 
 Hediondia, 223. See also Greasewood. 
 
 Herba del Manso, 264. 
 
 Herb a del Vaso, 10. 
 
 Herba salada, 154. 
 
 Hermosillo, capital of Sonora, il, 
 
 135, 136, 220. 
 Hiatatk, 319. 
 
 Hiatit Ootam, 3 29-3 32. See Arenenos. 
 
 Higuera, 147. 
 
 Hoe, wooden. See Kiik. 
 
INDEX 
 
 405 
 
 Hohola Papagoes, 105. 
 Hohola rancherias, 355. 
 Holmes, Prof. W. A., quoted, 143. 
 Hornaday, Dr. William T., 10. 
 Horned lizard, 71-72. 
 Hornitos, 150. 
 Horseshoe mine, 83. 
 Hotunikat, 329. 
 
 Huichols, religious festivals of, 356. 
 Hungary, "dry washing" machines 
 
 from, 183. 
 Hydrophobia, cure for, 184-185. 
 Hymenopterdy 315. 
 Hyptis, 204. 
 
 IiTOi, myths of, 168, 171, 173, 202, 
 203. See also Elder Brother. 
 
 Indian Oasis, 81, 356; feasts at, 75; 
 store at, 43, 79. 
 
 Indians, 6-9, 14, 15, 250, 285; an- 
 cient fortifications, 140-142; ceme- 
 teries, 11-12; consumption among, 
 339; cooking utensils, 7; customs, 
 251? 253; salt-fetching customs, 
 269-272; tribe hostilities, 251-252. 
 See also names of separate tribes 
 and under names of countries and 
 places; e. g.y Arizona, Indians; Pa- 
 pagoes. 
 
 Insects, 80, 227, 281, 316. 
 
 International Boundary Commis- 
 sion, 241, 304. 
 
 Jacal, 8. 
 
 Jack-rabbit mine, 31. 
 Jesuit missions, 25, 197. 
 Jojoba, nut-bush, 81. 
 Jose Juan, medicine-man, 285, 290- 
 291. 
 
 Juan, Papago Indian, 91, 119, 125. 
 Juanito, Papago Indian, 56, 62-63. 
 Juarez mines, 182. 
 
 Kansas, farming, 19. 
 
 Kansas City, Mo., speculators in 
 
 Mexican land from, 158. 
 Kiik, Papago weeding implement, 
 
 68-69, 341-342. 
 
 Kino, Father, 24, 175, 341; map by, 
 
 197; mission of, 138. 
 Kitazawa, Dr. K., 118, 146. 
 Kohatk Indians, 355; rancherias, 
 
 alphabetical list of, 386-387. 
 Kohatk rancheria, iii; relics near, 
 
 341- 
 
 Kokeloroti rancherias, 356. 
 
 Koxikux rancheria, 356. 
 
 Kuatshi. See Santa Rosa rancheria. 
 
 Kuk6malik rancheria, iii, 355. 
 
 Kuoitak rancheria, 79. 
 
 Kvitatk, feast at, 75; singers from, 
 
 Kvivo rancheria, singers from. 96. 
 
 La chicharra, 205. 
 La Choya camping-place, 276. 
 La Cienega placer mine, 144. 
 La Colonia, 251. 
 
 Laguna Prieta, 235, 243, 244, 245, 
 
 246, 279, 291. 
 La Nariz rancheria, 161, 166, 169, 
 
 174, 256, 270; fortifications near, 
 
 142, 168. 
 Lanius, 80. 
 
 La Papaga gold mine, American pros- 
 pectors at, 294. 
 
 La pastora, 283. 
 
 La Plaza plain, 296. 
 
 La Quemada, Zacatecas ruins of, 
 142. 
 
 Larrea tridentata, 21. See also Grease^ 
 
 wood. 
 La Salada, 256. 
 La Soda, 269, ij^-ijS. 
 Laurel, 336. 
 
 LaVentana hill, fortifications on, 41. 
 La Ventana ranch, 335. 
 Leupp, Mr., Indian commissioner, 
 133- 
 
 Level Ground Cemetery, 12. 
 Levy, M. G., 81, 175. 
 Llano Blanco rancheria, 335. 
 Llanos. See under Mexico. 
 Lopez, Clodomiro, guide, 220, 233, 
 
 235, 241, 275, 279, 280, 285, 286, 
 
 287, 303. 
 
4o6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Lophortyx gamheli, 14. 
 Los Cerritos del Rio, 282. 
 Los Picos del Pinacate, 20I. 
 Los Positos, 200, 282, 286. 
 Lunar rainbow, 180-181. 
 Lycium, 218. 
 Lydig, Mrs. David, 236. 
 
 MacDougal, Dr. D. T., 11, 21. 
 McGee, Prof. W. J., 142, 322. 
 Magdalena, 137, 139, 142; fiesta of 
 
 San Francisco in, 75. 
 Magdalena, District of, burros in, 
 
 200; description, 134. 
 Magdalena River, village sites on, 
 
 335- 
 Maguey, 4. 
 
 Maiz de los Yumasy 169. 
 
 Maricopa Indians, 252, 338; dis- 
 eases among, 339; statistics, 339; 
 wars with Apaches, 74. 
 
 Maricopa railroad station, drug store 
 at, 338-339; Indians near, 355. 
 
 Martynia, 353. 
 
 Masks, 127; clowns, 93, 97, singers, 
 
 94, 129-130. 
 Medanos. See Sand-dunes. 
 Medicine-lodges, 48, 49, 51-53, 57, 
 
 106, 120, 166, 167, 172. 
 Medicine-men. See under names of 
 
 Indian tribes. 
 Mescal, 4. 
 Meteors, 159-160. 
 
 Mexicans, fond of being photo- 
 graphed, 132; rancherias of, 162; 
 relations with Papagoes, 172; re- 
 lations with Yaqui Indians, 136- 
 137. 
 
 Mexico, afterglow of the sun, 158; 
 agriculture, I44-I55» 176, 249, 254; 
 American land-investors in, 159; 
 burros, 200, 3 10-3 11, 317, 326; 
 cattle-herds in, 244, 245, 249; 
 *'cattle that do not drink" in, 153; 
 Chinese in, 137; climate, 169, 
 189, 193-194, 201, 202, 205, 21 T, 
 212, 214, 232, 238, 248, 256, 279, 
 296, 306, 322, 324, 336; climate, 
 
 change in, 17, 18, 180, 202, 232; 
 custom-house inspectors, 164; 
 early Spanish explorers, 143-144; 
 fauna, 135, 156-157, 161, 162, 169, 
 199, 205, 206, 210, 212, 213, 217, 
 218, 219, 224, 231, 240, 245, 248, 
 257, 265, 274, 277, 280, 283-284, 
 295, 296, 297, 309, 316; filibusters 
 in, 147; firewood in the desert, 
 215; fishes, 174-175, 276; flora, 
 134, 135, 139, 147, 151-152, 161, 
 176, 188, 201, 204, 205, 207, 213- 
 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 221, 222- 
 223, 224, 234, 236, 237, 238, 244, 
 247, 248, 249, 251, 255, 256, 259, 
 
 260, 264, 276, 277, 278, 280, 281, 
 282, 283, 284, 286, 287, 295, 296, 
 297» 302, 306, 309, 310, 311, 312, 
 313, 316, 317, 318, 330-331. 335- 
 336; flour mills, 190; getting lost 
 in, 303 jf.; gypsies, 140; hidden 
 treasure hunting, 308; hospitality, 
 288; Indian fortifications in, 140- 
 141, 142, 168; Indian antiquities, 
 
 179- 180, 335; Indian remedies, 
 335-336; Indian revolts, 175; In- 
 dian wars, 74, 75; jack-rabbits, 
 334; Japanese in, 137, 146, 178; 
 llanos, 238, 247; lunar rainbow, 
 
 180- 181; mail-service, 149, 170; 
 meat-eating, 287; medicinal plants, 
 247, 264; meteors, 159-160; min- 
 ing, 140, 144, 1 50, 161, 182-184, 197, 
 
 261, 299, 300; missions, 175, 197, 
 291; mountains, 160-162, 230, 236, 
 237, 239, 242, 260, 301, 311, 315; 
 mountain-sheep, 206, 210, 219-220, 
 234, 240, 323; paleontological dis- 
 coveries, 170-171; railroads, 135, 
 136, 280; rainfall, 145, 166, 291; 
 rancherias in, alphabetical list, 
 387-397; refraction of sunlight, 
 185-186, 232, 243; remedies, 221; 
 rivers, 17; roads, 187; salinas, 
 176, 254, 261, 265 _^.; see also 
 under Salina; sand-dunes, 225- 
 227; sand-people relics, 204, 217, 
 316; soap manufacture, 200, 276; 
 
INDEX 
 
 407 
 
 soda deposits, 275-276; topog- 
 raphy, 134; trails, 196, 237, 301, 
 304, 305, 316; volcanoes, 201, 203, 
 212, 213-214, 221, 232, 233-234, 
 279, 296; water supply, 140, 146, 
 147, 150, 161, 162, 163, 170, 198, 
 199, 200, 204, 205, 225, 228, 231, 
 235> 237, 238, 241, 246, 252, 255- 
 256, 258, 259, 262-264, 266, 286, 
 302, 322. 
 
 Mexico, City of, 28, 174. 
 
 Mezquite trees, 14, 21, 78; spur made 
 from, 63. 
 
 Micropallas zvhitneyi, 22. 
 
 Miguel, Papago Indian, 172. 
 
 Milton, Jefferson, 42. 
 
 Mimus, 231. 
 
 Mineral wealth, 17. See also Mining. 
 
 Mining. See under names of coun- 
 triesy places, and particular mines; 
 e. g.y Arizona, Mexico. 
 
 Missions. See under names of coun- 
 tries, places, tribes, and particular 
 missions; see also Jesuits; Kino, 
 Father. 
 
 Mochomo, 335. 
 
 Mohawk, 321. 
 
 Mohawk Range, 220. 
 
 Montezuma's Cave, 37, 42. 
 
 Mountains. See under names of coun- 
 tries and places; see also names of 
 particular mountains. 
 
 Mountain-sheep, 22, 280, 283-284, 
 297-298. See also under Mexico. 
 
 Myths and legends. See under Pa- 
 pago Indians, Pinacate, Elder 
 Brother, litoi. 
 
 Nama stenophyllum, 283. 
 Navaita festival, 48. 
 Nevada, 17. 
 
 Nidri, harvest custom among Papa- 
 goes, 165. 
 Nighthawks, courtship of, 13-14. 
 Noche Buena, 251. 
 Nogales, Sonora, 134, 234, 249. 
 Noria rancheria festival, 48 jf., 86. 
 Norias gold placer mine, 1 50. 
 
 OcoTiLLO, 21, 302. See alsounder Flora. 
 Oenothera trichocalyx, 154, 236, 256, 
 
 278, 312, 331. 
 Ola, Papago woman's game, 89. 
 Opata Indians, missions among, 25 
 Opuntia fulgida, 151, 188, 334. 
 Opuntia mamillata, 152. 
 Oquitoa, Altar, 184. 
 Ortega, Cipriano, 200, 321. 
 Ortega, Santos, 150-151, 152, 154. 
 
 Pablo, Jose Xavier, Papago at- 
 tendant, 30/., 132-133, 345. 
 
 Paleontological discoveries, 170-171. 
 
 Palo fierro, 224-225, 280, 295. See 
 also under Flora. 
 
 Palo verde, 4, 21, 78. See also under 
 Flora. 
 
 Pancho, El Doctor, Papago attend- 
 ant, 198, 293, 295, 298, 300, 311, 
 314, 315, 318, 328. 
 
 Papago Indians, 6-9, 10-12, 16 ff., 
 32, 238, 291; agriculture, 25-27, 37, 
 91, 164, 169, 330; character, 109, 
 345; ancestors of, 341; appear- 
 ance of, 27; ball games and races, 
 74, 75, 149, 358-359; basket- 
 weaving, 23, 34, 57, 85, 120, 224, 
 
 353- 354; brandy-smuggling, 75; 
 bull-roarer, 95-96; burial customs, 
 II, 12, 127; cactus in life of, 47 ff.; 
 calendar, 76; calendar record from 
 1849 to 1908, 74-76; Catholic mis- 
 sionaries among, 12, 24-25; cem- 
 eteries, 64, 99-107, 169; chewing- 
 gum used by, 10, 346; child birth 
 and ceremonies, 350, 351; clown's 
 outfit, 92, 93-94, 97; consumption 
 among, 114, 346-347; cooking, 7, 
 112, 113, 114, 131, 169, 216, 318, 
 330-331^ 334» costumes, 124, 331; 
 courtship and marriage, 347, 348, 
 349; customs, 10, 28, 58, 60, 84, 
 324, 331, 346; dancing, 45, 54, 75, 
 121; decorative art of, 342; dis- 
 eases, 74, 75, 146, 178, 184, 185, 
 329, 346 jf.; divisions of the tribe, 
 
 354- 356; Dowie missionaries 
 
4o8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 among, 39-40; drinking, 9, 57-58, 
 123, 125, 148, 172, 195; dwellings, 
 7-8, 77, 86-87, 9i> 165; effects of 
 contact with white man, 9, 57, 70, 
 112-114, 125, 346-347> 352, 3S4» 
 364; Elder Brother legends, 42, 
 48, 58, 168, 171, 207/., 355; fam- 
 ily life, 84-85, 347-352; festivals, 
 43y 47/-» 55, 57 ff; 60-61, 74, 75, 
 92/., 119/., 172, 229, 329, 356; 
 fights with Apaches, 26, 74, 359- 
 362; harvest custom of niari, 164- 
 165; health, 344; history and origin, 
 354; honesty of, 84; hospitality, 
 165; hunting among, 34, 330, 332; 
 hydrophobia, cure for, 184-185; 
 implements, 57, 68-69, 70, 87, 88, 
 316; industries, 353-354; inter- 
 mixture, 352, 353; Keeper of the 
 Smoke, 52, 53, 56, 102; language, 
 23-24; vocabulary of, 368-376; 
 lodges, see Medicine lodges; man- 
 ners, 346; medicine-men, 33, 35- 
 37, 49-50, 54, 55, 57, 74, 88, 97, 
 166-167, 209; menstruation, 350; 
 mining, 83-84, 100, 105, 182, 183, 
 184; myths, 48, 58, 100, 105, 168, 
 171, 202, 203, 240, 357-358; nurs- 
 ing, no; objections to being pho- 
 tographed, 34-35, 61-62, 67, 70, 
 71, 76-77, 104-105; physical, men- 
 tal, and moral characteristics, 27, 
 344-345, 352;_ pottery, 8, 353; 
 present conditions and prospects 
 of, 28, 363-365; puberty cere- 
 monies, 75, 350; rancherias, 25-26; 
 alphabetical list of, 377-397; rem- 
 edies, 184-185, 335-336; revolts 
 of, 25; scorpion and snake-bite 
 cures, 335-336; sham battles, 362- 
 363; singers, 94-96; statistics, 
 339; stores among, 43; supersti- 
 tions, 35-37, 55, 58/-, 106, III, 
 140; tattooing, no; tobacco, 51, 
 52; tortillas, 190; trade, 273, 332; 
 war shields, 127; witchcraft, 24; 
 woman's position in, 347-352; 
 women's games, 89-90. 
 
 Papagueria, ancient implements in, 
 341; boundaries, 16; climate, 18; 
 fauna, 21-23; flora, 19-21; forti- 
 fications in, 142; irrigation, 26; 
 rancherias in, 25-28, 355-356. 
 
 Papagueria, geological sketch of, 
 
 398-399- 
 Paso de Juana, 237. 
 Pechita, 331. 
 
 Pedro, Papago attendant, 295, 296, 
 297, 298, 300, 311, 313, 314, 315, 
 317, 320, 324, 327, 328-329. 
 
 Pelon rancheria, 337. 
 
 Philibertea linearis^ 309. 
 
 Physalis lobata, 283. 
 
 Pike, Warburton, 249. 
 
 Pima Indians, 23, 24, 338, 355; afl^a- 
 bility of, 112; basketry, 340, 353; 
 Catholic influence on, 112; cook- 
 ing, 112; customs and character 
 of, 339-340; decorative art of, 
 342; festivals, 74, 75; fights with 
 Apaches, 363; language of, vocab- 
 ulary, 368-376; objections to being 
 photographed, 112; rancherias, 
 alphabetical list of, 386-387; re- 
 volt of, 175; statistics, 339; trade 
 with Papagoes, 273. 
 
 Pimeria Alta, 16; revolt in, 25. 
 
 Pinacate, 171, 181, 192, 194, 200, 
 201, 205, 217, 220, 221, 225, 227, 
 236, 290, 302; craters, 234; lava 
 flow, 296; myths about, 202, 203, 
 357; Papagoes in, 329; prospect- 
 ing in, 321 ; sacred cave, 199, 207 ff. 
 
 Pinacate beetles, 227. 
 
 Pinta pan, 205. 
 
 Pitahaya fruit, 46, 80. 
 
 Pitiquito, 145, 146, 184; Indian relics, 
 335.^ 
 
 Piukvaotam, Papago Indian, 67. 
 
 Plantago fastigiata, 283. 
 
 Plants. See flora, under names of 
 
 countries and places; e. g., Mexico, 
 
 flora. 
 
 Pogonomyrmex barhatus, 335. 
 Port Lobos, 45, 220. 
 Potioptila, 309. 
 
INDEX 
 
 409 
 
 Pottery-making. See Papagoes. 
 
 Pozo Blanco rancheria, 355. 
 
 Pozo del Caballo, 266. 
 
 Pozos, 262-263. 
 
 Pozos Muchos rancheria, 355. 
 
 Pozo Verde rancheria, 37, 39, 3 56, 359. 
 
 Pozo Vicente, 251. 
 
 Practising enclosure. See Vdaki. 
 
 Presbyterian Mission School, Ari- 
 zona, 30. 
 
 Pronghorn antelopes, 284. 
 
 Prosopis puhescensy 258. 
 
 Provisions. See Desert travels. 
 
 Pueblo Indians, 8; decorative art of, 
 342; religious festivals, 356. 
 
 Puerto de Libertad, fresh water at, 
 258. 
 
 QuELELE, Papago medicine-man, 
 192 ff., 206-207; his prayer to 
 litoi, 209. 
 
 Quelite, 131, 134. 
 
 Quijotoa Range, 41, 62, 79, 80, 174; 
 
 Indians in, 27, 355; mining, 83; 
 
 races near, 355; rancherias in, 85. 
 Quiroz, Isauro, 160, 178, 192, 288, 289. 
 Quitovac, 16, 148, 165, 166, 168, 169, 
 
 170, 171, 174, 182, 185, 187, 193, 
 
 195, 200, 269; festivals in, 93, 96, 
 
 172, 229, 329; mining, 182, 183; 
 
 Papago customs, 350; settlement 
 
 of, 148. 
 
 Quitovaquita, 198, 269, 286, 289, 
 331; Indians, 332, 354; settle- 
 ment, 198. 
 
 Rabbits, 14. 
 
 Rainbow, Papago Indian, 168. 
 
 Rainfall. See under names of coun- 
 tries and places; see also Water 
 supply. 
 
 Ramon Cachora, Papago family, 39- 
 40. 
 
 Rancherias, 25-26; alphabetical list 
 of? 377~?)97' ^l-^o under names 
 
 of countries and places and names 
 of particular rancherias. 
 
 Rancho de Macias, 159. 
 
 Rattlesnakes, 117. 
 Red Rock, Apaches' attack on, 74. 
 Refraction of sunlight, 185-186, 232, 
 243- 
 
 Relics, 204, 217. 
 
 Represa de Enrique rancheria, 163. 
 
 Represa Ranch, 170. 
 
 Revolts, 136-137. 
 
 Rillito Salado River, 248. 
 
 Rivers. See under names of coun- 
 tries and places and names of par- 
 ticular rivers. 
 
 Robles Ranch, 131. 
 
 Rodents, 22. 
 
 Roskruge Range, 72. 
 
 Rubber, 12. 
 
 Ruiz, Priscilliano, 138. 
 
 Russell, Frank, quoted, 360-361. 
 
 Sacaton Reservation, hi, 339; 
 festivals at, 74. 
 
 Sahuaro, 10, 21, 135, 280; descrip- 
 tion of, 45/.; feasts, 47/., 75, 
 119/., 147-148; fruit-juice of, 
 46, 77; wine, 32, 47, 48, 56-60, 
 93, 120, 123, 125. 
 
 Salina del Pinacate, 265 jf., 270, 273, 
 276, 285. 
 
 Salina de San Jorge, 163, 269-270. 
 
 Salina Grande, 261; w^aterholes at, 
 262-263. 
 
 Salinas, 163, 261 f., 265, 268, 269. 
 
 See also names of particular salinas 
 and under names of countries and 
 places. 
 
 Salitre, 176, 200, 254, 255. 
 
 Salt expeditions, 99, 163, 218, 269- 
 272, 285. See also Salinas. 
 
 San Antonio gold mine, 182. 
 
 Sand-dunes, 225-227, 236, 265, 
 277 /•» 299, 300. 
 
 Sand Papagoes. See Areneiios; Hia- 
 tit Ootam. 
 
 San Francisco, fiesta of, 138 ff. 
 
 San Francisco placer mine, 144. 
 
 San Ignacio, 138; Indian fortifica- 
 tions near, 142. 
 
 San Luis, 150. 
 
INDEX 
 
 San Miguel rancheria, 38. 
 
 San Pedro, Sonora, 123. 
 
 San Pedro Martiro Mountain, 260. 
 
 San Pedro settlement, 72. 
 
 San Perfecto, 150. 
 
 Santa Ana, 140; Indian fortifications 
 
 near, 142; Indian wars at, 74. 
 Santa Clara, "harbor of," 254-255. 
 Santa Cruz River, 5, 17, 31, 143. 
 Santa Rosa rancheria, 90 jf., 116 f.y 
 
 cemeteries, 99 festivals and 
 
 races, 92, 109, 119 ff., 359; Keeper 
 
 of the Smoke in, 106 ff. 
 Santa Rosa valley, 174; basketry in, 
 
 353; Indians, 27, 29, 355, 356; 
 
 mounds in, 69; relics, 341; sham 
 
 battles, 362. 
 Santiago, Papago hunter, 34-35. 
 Santo Domingo, 331. 
 San Xavier, 9, 13 ; Apache attack on, 
 
 74; cemeteries near, 11-12; feast 
 
 at, 75; fortifications, 9-10; singers 
 
 from, 96. 
 
 San Xavier del Bac, Mission of, 5-6, 
 
 San Xavier Range, Indians in, 356. 
 Sasabe custom-house, 164. 
 Sauceda rancheria, 355. 
 Scorpion-bite cure, 335-336. 
 Scorpions, 117. 
 Screw-bean trees, 258, 259. 
 Sepanovak rancheria, 39, 356. 
 Seri Indians, missions among, 25. 
 Seshantia macrocarpa, 249. 
 Sierra Blanca, 45, 220, 277-278, 279, 
 
 280, 282, 285, 291, 302. 
 Sierra de Cubabi, 162, 187, 220. 
 Sierra del Alamo, 220. 
 Sierra de la Manteca, 160. 
 Sierra de la Nariz, 161. 
 Sierra de Lechugilla; 301, 302, tinaja 
 
 in, 235, 238-239. 
 Sierra del Pozo, 201. 
 Sierra del Rosario, 242-243, 260, 
 
 263, 289, 311. 
 Sierra del Tuseral, 199, 236. 
 Sierra del Viejo, 220, 245, 300, 321. 
 Sierra de San Francisco, 201, 281. 
 
 Sierra de Santa Rosa, 161, 220. 
 
 Sierra Entreada, 230. 
 
 Sierra Extrana, 230. 
 
 Sierra Madre, 182. 
 
 Sierra Nina, 237, 299, 300. 
 
 Sierra Pinta, 281; mines, 182, 282. 
 
 Sihu. See Elder Brother. 
 
 Siilmok rancheria, 337. 
 
 Sikulhimat rancheria, 83; singers 
 
 from, 96. 
 Silver. See Mining. 
 Simon, Papago Indian, 92, 99 j^. 
 Sinaloa, 182. 
 
 Singers. See under names of coun- 
 tries, places y tribes; e. g., Aktjin 
 rancheria, singers from. 
 
 Snake-bite cure, 335-336. 
 
 Songs and singing, 50, 59, 70, 121, 
 122, 123, 349. 
 
 Sonoita, 16, 25, 41, 46, 143, 148, 159, 
 160, 161, 164, 169, 170, 174, 176, 
 187, 189, 192, 195, 196, 212, 235, 
 269, 285, 286, 287, 289, 333, 334, 
 336; ancient artifacts in, 143; 
 mining, 182; missions in, 25, 175; 
 order and government in, 177; pro- 
 visions bought at, 189-191; ruins, 
 175; settlement, 148, 162, 174/. 
 
 Sonoita River, 17, 18, 32, 162, 197, 
 198, 281-282, 286; fishes in, 174- 
 175; sources and course of, 174, 
 178-179. 
 
 Sonora, 16, 19, 27, 29, 46, 134, 135; 
 Apache attacks in, 74; festivals 
 in, 75, 93; flora, 319; fortifications, 
 142,168; gold in, 29; Indians, 123, 
 136; mining, 83, 182, 183; peace 
 and order in, 177; rancherias, al- 
 phabetical list, 387-397; village 
 sites, 342; water, 136. 
 
 Sonora Desert, 11, 16, 136. 
 
 Sosa, 276. 
 
 Southern Pacific Railroad, 3, ill, 
 196, 332, 343. 
 
 SphcBralcea incana, 244, 283. 
 
 Sphcsralcea oruttii, 244. 
 
 Storms. See Arizona; Cha7ige of cli- 
 mate. 
 
INDEX 
 
 411 
 
 Slice da, 276. 
 Suvuk, 330. 
 Sykes, G., 233. 
 
 Tajitos gold mine, 150. 
 Tapia, Jose Y., 261. 
 Tattooing, no. 
 
 Tecolote . See Kokeloroti rancherias. 
 Temporales, 169; agriculture at, 162, 
 163. 
 
 Tepari beans, 251, 287. 
 
 Tesota rancheria, 337. 
 
 Texas nighthawks, 13. 
 
 "The Fortress," ancient village, 337. 
 
 Thornber, Prof. J. J., 4. 
 
 Tinaja del Cuervo, 217, 218, 269, 
 
 280, 286. 
 Tinaja del Galletal, 218. 
 Tinaja de los Chivos, 205, 228. 
 Tinaja de los Papagoes, 228, 231- 
 
 232, 29s, 296, 299, 301, 314, 322, 
 ,325- 
 
 Tinaja del Pinto, 218. 
 
 Tinaja del Tule, 196, 228, 235, 237, 
 
 322, 324. 
 Tinaja del Tule camp, 196. 
 Tinajas, 18, 217, 218, 220, 228, 235, 
 
 237, 244, 245. See also names of 
 
 particular tinajas. 
 Tinajas Altas, 220, 235, 236, 239, 240, 
 
 243, 245, 294, 299, 302, 304, 305, 
 
 308, 317, 321, 326. 
 Tinajas Altas camp, 197. 
 Tinajas de Emilia, 204, 330. 
 Tinajas de la Cabeza Prieta, 326. 
 Tjeavolitak, foot-race at, 75. 
 Tjiuvak rancheria, 85. 
 Tjukutkokam Kikam. See Kokelo- 
 roti rancherias. 
 Tjuupo rancheria, 355. 
 Toji, medicinal plant, 221. 
 Tolman, Prof. Cyrus F., Geological 
 
 Sketch of the Papagueria by, 
 
 398-399. 
 Tordillo Mountains, 239. 
 
 Tornillos, 258. 
 
 Tortillas, 190. 
 
 Totokvan rancherias, 356. 
 
 Toumey, Professor, 18. 
 
 Tovoso, resinous bush, 81. 
 
 Trincheras village, 140, 142; an- 
 cient fortifications of, 140-143. 
 
 Tuberculosis. See Consumption. 
 
 Tucson, I, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 31, 
 132, 183, 272; business and order 
 in, 3-5; excavations near, 12; 
 fortifications near, 142; Indians, 
 16; plant life, 131; rainfall, 18. 
 
 Tulares, 255. 
 
 Typha latipholia, 246, 264. 
 Unnatural vice, 352-353. 
 
 Vaaki, ceremonial practising en- 
 closure, lodge; the Casa Grande 
 ruins is also thus named, 58, 97. 
 
 Velasco, J. F., 26, 146, 182. 
 
 Viikan Shootak pond, 32. 
 
 Vikitay harvest feast, 92. 
 
 Virginia creeper, 5. 
 
 Volcanoes. See Mexico. 
 
 Water supply. See under names of 
 countries, places; e. g., Mexico, 
 water supply. 
 
 White brittle bush, 10. 
 
 White Mountain Apache school, 347. 
 
 Yaqui Indians, 25, 26; diseases, 
 146; feasts, 138; language, 137; 
 mechanical ability, 137; mining, 
 137; missions among, 25; rela- 
 tions with Mexicans, 137. 
 
 "Yellow Caterpillar" rancheria, 128, 
 129. 
 
 Yuma, 197, 251. See also Cahorca- 
 
 Yuma trail. 
 Yuma Indians, 251, 332. 
 
 ZoNi, 158, 176. 
 
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