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 ■^"^^ 
 
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THB 
 
 AMC3ANA 
 
 OF 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCES, 
 
 o;?, 
 FARMERS' <J> MECHANICS' 
 
 MANUAL; 
 
 COXTAINISG A GREAT VARIETT OF 
 
 VALUABLE RECEIPl'S AND USEFUL 
 DISCOVERIES, 
 
 TIN? THE VARIOUS DEPARTMKNrS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE; 
 MAN'Y OF WHICH WERE 
 
 NEVER BRFOKF PUBLISHED. 
 
 By DP M. PAKKKU. Sf: 
 
 ' 7 
 
 ICopjj Ri^ht Secured] i^ . 
 P2i 
 
 W\SHINGTOX, PA. 
 
 p-BlSTaO Br J, CRArSON^.K. D. 1824. 
 
IflBstern J)ist. Penn. to wit- 
 
 E IT REMEMBERED, that on llie tenth day of 
 [J Jnly, in the forty-eighth year of the inflepcndencc 
 ol the United States of Ameiica, A. D. 1823, Doctor 
 ]VI. P.-\RKER, of llie said district, hnth deposited in 
 this office, the title of a hook, the right whereof he 
 claims as author and proprietor, in the words foMowinjj, 
 to \vi;:— 
 
 **77ie Arcana of jlrts and Sciences, or thg Fannerii^ 
 *^aTid Mechanics' Manual^ containitig a great variety 
 ^^of valuable Receififi and useful discoveries in the 
 ^'Various defiartments of human knowledge, many of 
 ^^which ivere never before fitiblished; — by Dr. M. Park- 
 *'er." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the congress of the Unitcr! 
 States, entitled, "An act for the encouragement of 
 Icr^rninp^, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and 
 books, to the avithors and proprietois of svich copies, 
 tlurinii the times therein mentioned." — And also totlie 
 act, entitled, "An act supplementary to an act enliilcd, 
 "An act for the encouragcmrni of learning, by sccurin;.^ 
 the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors 
 and proprietors of such copies d<iring the times thfrcin 
 nien'ioned," and extendins: the benefits ih.ertof to the 
 ans of desitjning, engraving, and ctchin-j^ liistoiical and 
 Qtiicr prints." 
 
 R.J. WALKER, 
 
 Ci'k of the nest. Dis. Penn. 
 
TO TUB 
 
 CITIZENS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 WESTERjy COUJ^TRY, 
 
 The following Pages are most respectfully 
 DEDICATED, 
 By their OhedH. Serv't. 
 
 THE PROPRIETOR. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 PREFACF, 
 
 19 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 25 
 
 Soils, 
 
 28 
 
 On the useslo which cadi soil may be most ad- 
 
 
 vamageously applied, 
 
 43 
 
 Tillage, 
 
 45 
 
 The utility of summer fallow, 
 
 46 
 
 ManuicF, 
 
 49 
 
 Manuring clay land with sane?, and sandy land wilh 
 
 
 clav, marl, £cc. 
 
 54 
 
 Con. post, 
 
 56 
 
 The cultivation of culmrfcrous crops, 
 
 62 
 
 The soils best adapted to the ^''o^vth of wheat, 
 
 63 
 
 The ctiluire required (or wheat, 
 
 64 
 
 Another method of preparing the ground for 
 
 
 wheat, 
 
 ib. 
 
 H heat — Varieties, of Seed, 
 
 6 -J 
 
 On the diseases of wheat, 
 
 66 
 
 I'gyptian wheat, 
 
 67 
 
 3\lr. Mines's description of Ihe Jones's or Lawler 
 
 
 wheat, 
 
 ib. 
 
 On steeping or pickling seed, 
 
 68- 
 
 Seed work, 
 
 69 
 
 Rve, 
 
 70 
 
 Barley, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Oats, 
 
 71 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 72 
 
 Indian corn, a 
 
 7<3 
 
 Totalocs, 
 
 74 
 
 Flax, 
 
 76 
 
 Method of watering flax, 
 
 78 
 
 Insects, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Gr.isses, 
 
 84 
 
 Clover, 
 
 85 
 
 \V hite clover, 
 
 ib. 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 Trefoil, 85 
 
 Saint- Foin, or Holy Ilay, 86 
 
 Liiserne, 7^, 
 
 Timotliy jrrass, 87 
 
 Lupenella, i^. 
 
 DYIVG, 8 8 
 
 or scarlet flying, 90 
 
 To prepare raw silk, 91 
 
 Another, H. 
 
 How to alum the boiled silk, 2(5. 
 
 To flyc silk or worsted a fine carnation colour, ib. 
 
 Another crimson for silk, • 92 
 
 General oljservations on dying crimson, scarlet, 
 
 or purple, 93 
 
 Another crimson for silk, ib. 
 
 Cheap red, fi. 
 
 An easy method ofdyinp; cotton wiib madder, as 
 
 practised in Smyrna, 94 
 
 For a deep twrkey red, or scarlet, id. 
 
 To dye 100 lbs. ol wool, or woollen cloth, a scar- 
 let, ib. 
 
 To Dye a pound of wool scarlet, 95 
 
 Tlie Dutch manner of dying scarlet, ib. 
 
 To prepare the cloth for dving scarbf, ib. 
 
 To Uye cloth a common red, 96 
 
 Another method, ib. 
 
 To dye worsted, stuff or yarn, a crimson colour, ib. 
 
 Another, ib. 
 
 A carnation for woollen, 97 
 
 To dye a carnation on silk or cotton, ib. 
 
 Another, ib. 
 
 Method of dying broad cloth a carnation colour, 98 
 
 To make a curious red water for silks, stuffs, &c. ib. 
 
 Turkey red, ^ ib. 
 
 General observations for dying cloth of a red 
 
 or scarlet colour, 99 
 
 On dying blu«, ib. 
 
 Another method for vreollen, 102 
 
 To dye Saxon blue, ib. 
 
 Dye 8 lbs. of deep blue in lineo or cotton, 103 
 
CONTENT*. 
 
 Another blue, l04 
 'i'o make a curious blue waier for silks, stuffs or 
 
 woollen, :'i. 
 How to dye wool in the jjrejse a permanent blue, 101 
 
 To dye cotton yarn a deep blue, 103 
 
 Yellow, ib. 
 
 To dye silk yellow, \QS 
 
 Dya silk a poppy colour, iiJ. 
 
 Dye siik a sinw or yellow colour, 107 
 
 Another method, ib, 
 
 Anotlier method, iO- 
 Newly discovered golden yellow for silks, coHons, 
 
 &c. ib. 
 Chinese yellow dye or stain, for silk stuffs and 
 
 paper, 108 
 
 To dye yarn a yellow colour^ »6- 
 
 A fin3 brimstone yellow for worbted, 109 
 
 A lemon colour, ib. 
 
 To dye an olive colour, ib. 
 
 To dye a golden colour, ib. 
 
 'i'o dye wool or woollen cloth yellow, 1 10 
 
 To dye cotton yellow, j*. 
 To dye 100 lbs. of cloth the finest orange yellpw^ 1 1 1 
 
 Green, i^- 
 
 Saxon greeris, - ib. 
 
 A fine green for dying silk, 1 12 
 
 To dye linen a green colour, ib. 
 
 To dve a brown led colour on silk or worsted, 1 13 
 
 liro'.vn dye, ib. 
 
 Of Blacks, 114 
 
 To dye woollen stuffs a black colour, i 15 
 
 To dye linen black, ib. 
 
 To dye woollen a good black, 1 16 
 
 Another black colour for woollen, ib. 
 
 To dvt; silk a good l)hck, ib. 
 On tiH modes of piocuung colours for dying in 
 
 tlje isi tnd, of Scios, 1 17 
 
 Iron liqiii:!, ib. 
 
 To dye bri-^tlcs a carious red for brushes, 1 18 
 
 To dye bristles or feathers a curious green, 7^. 
 
 To five bristles or feathers blucj ib- 
 
10 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 RLEACHING. 
 
 To bleach ornamental fealhers, 1 10 
 
 Bleaching cotton after the Swabian melhod, 1 19 
 Meihotiol" bleaching linen by the action of atmos. 
 
 pheiic air, 120 
 
 nieachin^r by the oxygenated muriatic Acid| 121 
 
 To bleach coUon, 1*4 
 
 .4 wash to firevent flies Jrom injuring Pictures or 
 
 Furniture^ 125 
 
 ART OF PREPARING AND MIXING 
 
 
 COLOURS, 
 
 126 
 
 Class 1st — of red colours, 
 
 127 
 
 N.uive Cinnab.ir, 
 
 128 
 
 Red lead or minium. 
 
 ib. 
 
 Scarlet ochre, 
 
 129 
 
 Common Indian red, 
 
 130 
 
 Venitian red, 
 
 I*. 
 
 Spanish brown, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Calcino, or burnt terra di sienna, 
 
 131 
 
 C. lake, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Roic pirih. 
 
 132 
 
 Red orhre, . 
 
 133 
 
 Class 2fJ — of blue colours, 
 
 ib. 
 
 Ultramarine pslies, 
 
 136 
 
 Prussian blue. 
 
 137 
 
 V.f icliler. 
 
 13S 
 
 S nc'ers hjue, 
 
 139 
 
 ( 1 s8 3d— vellow colours, 
 
 ib. 
 
 N'ples yel'ow, 
 
 139 
 
 Ye* low ochre. 
 
 UO 
 
 Duicti pink, 
 
 7*. 
 
 Enuiisli pii U, 
 
 2*. 
 
 Li till' pink. 
 
 ib. 
 
 Ganiboire, 
 
 141 
 
 Mastiiolf, 'SH^i^ 
 
 lb. 
 
 Common o^pi'^t^^HBL 
 
 ib. 
 
 Gdii ^^Hh^ 
 
 ib. 
 
 Turpcth inineraI»..''^^^^B|| 
 
 I*-2 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 11 
 
 The yellow wash from the Trench berries, 142 
 
 Turmeric Wash, ib. 
 
 Tincture of saffron, 143 
 
 Class 4ih — green colours, id. 
 
 Sap green, i*. 
 
 Prussian green, ii>. 
 
 Serra vevle, 144 
 
 Class 5ib — purple colours, ib. 
 
 Archal, ib. 
 
 Class 6th— of brown colours, ib. 
 
 Bistre, Jb. 
 
 Brown ochre, 145 
 
 Cologn or Collin*? earth, ib. 
 
 Japan earth, ib. 
 
 Umber, i6> 
 
 Extract of liquorice or Spanish juic«j id. 
 
 Class 7th~ot white colours, ib. 
 
 While lead, 146 
 
 Calcined or burnt hartshorn, ib. 
 
 Pearl white, , ib, 
 
 Spanish white, id. 
 
 ]:gg->hell white, 147 
 
 Cl.ass 8lh — ol black colours, ib. 
 
 Ivory black, ib. 
 
 Indian ink, ib. 
 Compound or mixed colours, 148 
 
 STAINING WOOD, &c. 
 
 To stain vood yellow, 150 
 
 To stain wood red, ib. 
 
 Staininj5 woo ! blue, 151 
 
 To staiii wood a mahogany colour, tb. 
 
 Stain wood green, 152 
 
 Stain wood purple, ib. 
 
 Stain wood black, tb. 
 
 Stain ivory, bone or horn, yellow, • **^ 
 
 Stain ivory, bone or horn green, ib. 
 
 Stain ivory. Etc. blue, ib. 
 
 Stain ivory, &c. purple, 154 
 
 Stain horn, so as lo imitate tortoise shell, **• 
 
 Stain ivory, bone or horn, black, '*• 
 
tiS 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 To stain parchment or paper yellow, 
 Stain paper or parcliment red, 
 Stcju paper, he. gieen, 
 Stain paper &c-. blue, 
 Stain paper., &C. an orange, 
 Stain paper, &c, purple, 
 Stctin alabaster, marble, Sec. he. 
 
 154 
 
 ib, 
 
 155 
 
 id. 
 
 id. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 The York Tan and Limerick Dye, isfc. 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 To make copal varnish, 
 A peifcctly transpment varnish, 
 Vuinifh for violinband other musical instruments, 
 A gold coloured VLniish or lacker, 
 A black varnist) ui japan, 
 A common varnish. 
 To make copal varnish, 
 A true cop^l varnish, 
 White varnish, . 
 Another white varnish, 
 A sud lac varnisn, 
 A shell lac vai nish, 
 A good linseed oil varnish, 
 Amber varnish. 
 Black varnish, 
 
 VaiKish tor copper plate prints or maps. 
 An admirable vainiiih, 
 A varnisb iti wnich may be put a*iy colours at 
 
 pleasure, 
 A Chinese varnish, suitable for all colours, 
 Water-proof varnish, 
 Varnisn lor bronzing, 
 An excellent varnish to lay on prints, 
 
 METALS, 
 Plaima— method of obtaining platina, 
 Gold, 
 
 Mti.jd of obtaining gold, 
 Gil iinj, with gold, gild brass or copper, 
 Water gilding, 
 
 ib. 
 
 156 
 ib. 
 157 
 i6. 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 158 
 -ib. 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 159 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 160 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 161 
 
 ib. 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 164 
 ib. 
 165 
 
 166 
 ib. 
 
CONTENTS. 13 
 
 'tccl gilding, gilding of glass and lea-cups, 167 
 
 ^upellation, ib. 
 
 Silver, and tlie method or obtaining it, 163 
 
 Silvering and silver plating, 169 
 
 Copper, and the method ol obtaining it, 170 
 
 Jron, 171 
 
 To convert iron into steel, 172 
 
 Lead and tin, 173 
 Mctliod of obtaining tin, tinning copper vessels, 
 
 likewise tnining iron, 174 
 
 Zinc, 175 
 
 Mercury or quicksilver, ib. 
 
 Method of obtaining mercury, 176 
 
 Tellurium, ib. 
 
 Antimony, and to obtain it, 177 
 
 Bismuth, ib. 
 
 Manganese, 178 
 
 Nickle, and how to obtain it, 179 
 
 Nicolinum, ib. 
 
 Cobalt, and bo(v to obtain it, J 80 
 
 Uranium, ib. 
 
 Titanium, columbiuro, chrome, 181 
 
 Molybdena, tungsten, arsenic, 182 
 
 Tanialium, ceriui), 183 
 
 Pdlladium, rhodium, 184 
 
 "Iridium, osmium, pewter, 185 
 
 BRONZhVG, 186 
 
 LACQUERING. 
 To make a lac^uor which will give brass th6 
 
 color cF gold, . 189 
 
 To make a cheaper kind of laerjuer, ib. 
 
 For tin, to imitate yellow metal, 190 
 
 I'or Jocks, 5cc. j^*. 
 
 Gold colouied laKjuer ior leather, 8cc. ■ ib. 
 
 Method of laying on lacquer, ib. 
 
 JAPANNING. i>^ 
 
 Coarse Tarnish lor leather or paper, 292 
 2 
 
14; CONTENTS. 
 
 White japan ground, 193 
 
 lUue japan grounds, ib. 
 
 lied japan grounds, ib. 
 
 Yellow japan grounds, 194 
 
 Green japan grouBds> ib. 
 
 Orange japan grounds, ib. 
 
 Purple jap:.n grounds, ib. 
 
 Black japan grounds, ib. 
 
 Fine tortose shell ground, by heat, 195 
 
 Painting japan work, ib. 
 
 Manner ot varnishing japan work, &c. 196 
 
 ENAMELLING, 198 
 
 ENAMEL PAINTING, 203 
 
 TEMPERING EDGETOOLS. * 
 
 Case-hirdening, ih. 
 
 To temper cold chisels to cut sickle teeth, ib. 
 
 To weld iransy or britilo steel, 205 
 To solten steel, to render iron soft and white, ib. 
 
 Method ot hardening steel so aa aot to break in 
 
 tempering, 206 
 New and improved method of welding c»st steel 
 
 to iron, 207 
 
 CEMENTS, 210 
 
 CRUCIBLES, 
 
 Berlin or Hessian crucibles," 212 
 Black lead crucibles, 214 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 On copper. 
 
 On wood, 2 1 5 
 
 2ir 
 
 ETCHING. 318 
 
 TANNING JplF LEATHER, 221 
 
 New art of Tailing Leather, 325 
 
CONTENTS. 15 
 
 A new mcthoci of tannine^ without bark, 223 
 
 Seal lcat!ier tanned in 30 dsys, ih, 
 
 Iktiiv^ hides in 2 4 hours, i!). 
 
 German method of black'.ng leather without oil, ib, 
 
 Tawin?; and colour injj of leather, 22<4 
 
 Germrin method of bUckina;, '^5. 
 
 l^cd Moi occo leather and black Morocco, iO. 
 
 To black leather without oil, 225 
 For giairj blacHing; to make shell lac varniili 
 
 for leather; to make leather water-proof, ib. 
 
 To clean boot tops, saddles, &c. 223 
 
 Chymical liquid for boot tops, ib. 
 
 DISTILLING, Sec. 
 
 or inakinp; yeast, 230 
 
 Stihiiiiute !ar common yeast, ib. 
 
 Malf, 23! 
 
 Criiidii)?, • 23i 
 
 Masl.iji^, i-i. 
 
 (3n making; Geneva, or gin, . 234 
 
 I'each and apple brjndy, 23.5 
 
 Of colouring liq^jors^, 235 
 
 Cordials, Sic. ib. 
 
 To make wine, 23 S 
 
 'J'o nnhc currant wine, 239 
 
 'J'o make beer, ib, 
 
 Rleihod of icciif)ing spliituous liquors, 210 
 
 GLASS MAKING, 212 
 Gla^ib-house and ovens, and neccssiry bulidin;^;?, 243 
 D'lnen^ioiis of the platform of a fli-il j^l-iis fur- 
 nace, to hold six pots, ' 250 
 J)in»eniions of an oven to contain 4 p^'s, 255 
 fireen glass furiucc fur wood or cyals, 258 
 Clonposiiinn lor j:;reen c:;iasj po's, 257 
 Th;; substai.coa luadc uis of i;i the compoiiiion 
 
 of g !-»««, 263 
 
 fil '^8 cumposition, 281 
 
 Mclhod ol biiveri'ig bAinp; gl ss-phtcs, 290 
 
16 CONTENTS. 
 
 JEWELLERS* SECRETS. 
 
 To imitate fine oriental pearls, 295 
 
 To form lar^e pearls out of small ones, S'JS 
 Clioice secrets Icr innilaling precious stoncb or 
 
 fcniiing artificial genis, il). 
 
 To niaUe pa^le for imitating oiiental pearls, 2'J7 
 
 To make an artificial crysoliie, ifi' 
 
 Another process i'or imiiating preciaus stones, i-?. 
 
 Secret to make a diamond of natural crystal, 2S8 
 
 To make a diamond of a sapphire, iH' 
 
 Polishing natural and counterfeit i;cm?, 299 
 The metliod of counter drawinj, on aiiincial 
 
 gem'^j Sec. ii» 
 
 VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 Gilding leather, brass and silver, SOI 
 
 Cold solder for iron, steel or pot metal, ib. 
 To remove the outer scale fi om iron or steel and 
 
 render it white, 15. 
 
 Olj irks of all kinds, 302 
 
 To make excellent crayon pencils, 506 
 To preserve cherries ;:nd cihei fruil without sugar^ iB: 
 
 To make mea'', 5C7 
 
 To gild pnper', ib. 
 
 An excellent composition to preserve wood, f/5. 
 
 Ce!f:braicr) whiie paint for fi;ie worls, 308 
 
 To render old pictutes rs fine as new, ib. 
 
 A w.,sh to clean pictuic!-, ib. 
 
 Hcd scaling wax, do. bl/itk, 309 
 
 llnw to lake stains out of tloth, Sec. if). 
 
 To reucvc iron stains, 310 
 
 Fiuil slaifis, giease 8pt)t«, i'. 
 
 To take grease spots horn bocks or paper, /<5. 
 
 To make ivaftrs, " 311 
 
 To brown ^un barrels, il>. 
 
 Ccfouiiiig and pcff j.i.'ng gloves jind skins^ i5. 
 
 To I) akc .' sr-elung bolllc,, 313 
 
 Milk ol roses, iH. 
 
 Pose waier, /J. 
 
 Ol'.o ot rcscs, ''' '/'- 
 
CONTENTS. iy 
 
 Oi'.o, or o'tar of roses, (unotiier method,) 313 
 
 A clicap a:jd excellent cosmeiic, i/:. 
 
 A \v.is!-> for tiic skin, ii. 
 
 To make the ce!c!)iatel pornac'e divine, ii. 
 
 A celebrated wash for t!ie face, See. i5. 
 
 Oo the trai'.smutiiion of metals, 311 
 
 FeriT\utaiion of lead inta silver, 315 
 
 Transrnuiation of iro!) ii)lo copper, i/,, 
 Potatoes made useof for cleanbiiig linen, cottons, &c. ifj. 
 
 Method of rcjidevinnj hats water proof, SIS 
 
 To clean oil paint iny;s, 317 
 
 Fo remove sp-jts of grease from paper, i/j. 
 
 Thunde' po^vfjer, j^,- 
 
 A p;ood varriisli for .i»reat coats or umbrellas, and 
 o.her articles cxp )sed to the weither, by wiiich 
 tiicy are rendered botii sun and waterproof, ii. 
 
 To render cloth water-proof, 318 
 
 To claiify quills, i/j. 
 
 TRUIT TR'ZES, 319 
 
 GRAZING, . 16. 
 
 An extract from the Port Folio for fattening neat 
 
 cattle, 3'1'2 
 
 On the importance of using clmfT, 323 
 
 STOCK, 325 
 
 The Devonshire breed, SJi 
 
 Dutch, or short- homed breed, ' j^. 
 
 Lancashire breed, {/,, 
 
 Hii^hland breed, or KyJoes, ?)5. 
 
 Polled breed, n,, 
 
 Alderney, or French breed, S^T 
 
 Welsh breed, lY,. 
 
 SriEEP. 329 
 
 /5/sea.STS— The scab, 5^6 
 
 The lick, 33^ 
 
18 CONTENTS* 
 
 Diseases — Anlicor, . 33g 
 
 The bot worms, 33^-/ 
 
 Fatcin, • ,-.^. / 
 
 The glanders, or horsfi diitetDpers ij^, • ' 
 
 f''5;''r 16. 
 
 Foundering, /^. , 
 
 Criveliing, 540 
 
 Callin.c;, ji,^ I 
 
 Tlie haw, /^^ I 
 
 Tlie rastingf of ihe hoof; f^. I 
 
 Hoof loosened, j^_ | 
 
 Hoof swelled, j^, j 
 
 Brittle hool, f3, ' 
 
 The lampas, 34j | 
 
 T^^c spavin, ,-5. i 
 
 Stllgcrs, 7^. \ 
 
 \y\m\ RoHs, f^, 
 
 Rovvrlling of horses^ ;5. 
 
 Splenf, 3,12 
 
 I'ihtula, y^. 
 
 The puUevil, ■ 7^, 
 
 Farcy, j3. 
 
 SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. a. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 WHEN it is consi(!ere<l liow niimeroas 
 and various are (he iJublications which arc 
 daily t^siiins; from Uip press, and li;+w few 
 of Ihem are £;enerally read I)v the e;rpat body 
 of the people, or are caicnlat^d lo promote 
 Iheir interest or happiness; it is to be ex- 
 pected that he uhoadds to the number should 
 he able to assign substantial reasons for in- 
 troducing; a new work to the notice of the 
 public. The most numerous as well as the 
 most useful part of the community, are tuose 
 employed in agriculture and manufactures. 
 Though the generality of these classes are 
 not-Hniailent enough to purchase large libra- 
 ries, nor have they sufficient leisure to pe- 
 ruse large publications if within their reach; 
 nevertheless they are capable of deriving 
 much useful information from the writings 
 of scientific men, if they ktje^v* here to ob- 
 tain what was really beneScial in their several 
 avocations without great labor and expeu'^e. 
 To render such information attainab'e by the 
 practical farmer add mechanic; in ao easy 
 
go PREFACE. 
 
 and economical manner, is tlie object of the 
 present work; and the editor trusts that it 
 will be found worthy a sliare of pnl)lic pa- 
 tronage. It is unquestionably the true policy of 
 the people of the U. States to foster aud encou-, 
 ia2;e evf^ry effort to promote national industry, 
 as the only sure way of increasinir tliC wealth 
 and securinji; the in-'ependence of ouf c^^J^ky• 
 Blessed as we are with alra<ist every variety 
 of soil and climate, living in a country where 
 the laud produces abundanlly, and where raw 
 materials for nearly all the necessary manu- 
 factures can be obtained, we confidently look 
 forward with fond anticipation to tjje tigj^e 
 when we shall be able to supply ourjgij|[^ 
 with all the necessaries of life; and every 
 true American will admit, that that which 
 can be produced on as £;ood terms at home, 
 ought not to be brought from aUri>;^iyg|gg||[|^ 
 more abundant our productions, are at home, 
 as respects the produce of the neld and_the 
 labiM' of the hand, the greater will be our 
 p'-osnerity and independence, an 1 the less 
 necessity of i^eliance on foreign nation.s«<— 
 Hence, every thing which is calcuUtp^^to 
 i'torease the former, with less toil; t>r the 
 la'tor with !♦*«!« expense, is certainly aii^^glct 
 worthy of eucourai^emcut by the i^^icrioaii 
 
PREFACE. 21 
 
 people. Little need be said to shew the 
 general utility of a work of this nature — 
 the matter itself ljein2> a suffuicnt apology 
 for introducing it to the notice of tht* public. 
 On inspecting the table cf content?, the 
 reader will perceive that the subjects treat- 
 ed of are evidently of the utmost import- 
 tance to those for whom the work is prin- 
 cipally intended; and on perusal of its con- 
 (ent«i, it is presumed it will be no less ap- 
 piflrent.it4«it the eilitor has collected a body 
 «l VfluaWe information on each of tho*«e snb- 
 jcctSr and notwithstarulins; the great variety 
 of thetii, each will he found fnll and com- 
 plete, much more so than ^o small a work 
 conld at iirst seem to promise. In the various 
 dei«^*ejUs tif scienre the'Suthor has made 
 fre<HfCi^''OT tie' encyclopaedia of the learned 
 I>r. Rf.ks and other works of tl e first order, 
 thouo;h a considerable porJtion of this work 
 is ori'i;!nal. The instvurtions here offered are 
 most of t!iem the result of actual experiment, 
 and i|M»j;.J'^PfPf^ure be confidently relied upon 
 as exhjbitifl^-thfe latest improv^menis in ma- 
 ny imoo'fnnt l)rfinches of arts and srie-«ices. 
 It \.:\.-i been a*^sourreof mucl\ complaint,. 
 th|t various pn!)licali'>ns have been p\lmed 
 upon the people, purporting to contaiQ valu- 
 
 
S^ PREFACE. 
 
 able secrets in arts and trade?, &c. whichc 
 however plausible in theory, are too expen- 
 sive to reduce to practice; nor are tiicy the 
 result of experience — many of them iner« 
 fiction. The editor feels confident that the 
 present work will not bo found liable to 
 such objections, as he has studied economy 
 and endeavored to discover the cheapest and 
 best method to accomplish the desired end. 
 The author cannot flatter himself that every 
 subject contained in ihh book will be of 
 importance to all readers; yet he fcek as- 
 sured that there are many subjects -which 
 will be intercsljng and profitable to every 
 f.imily, by enabling them to carry on their 
 doaiestic manufactures to the best advantage, 
 which alona will more than compen-sate for 
 thv? cost of the work. Durins; several years 
 residence in the western part of Pennsyl- 
 vania, the editor has been much |;;rali8e(l 
 to observe the rei;ular and proi;ressive im- 
 provements made in asjricnlture, manufactures, 
 and the mechanical arts, and he triists l!)at 
 this pul)lication, if extensively known, will 
 contril)ute in no small desjree to th^ir furthci' 
 advancement; and whih» he expresses liis 
 £;rMtitude to the public for t!ie li!)Pral pa- 
 troiiage he has received, he coucludes with 
 
PftEFACE. S3 
 
 tlie hope that the advantages \thich \vi]l be 
 derived from it will be many and perma- 
 nent, considering what a body of useful 
 information, derived from numerous and ex- 
 pensive sources, is presented to the public in 
 a cheap and concise form The editor tlierefore 
 submits it with contldence, not doubting but 
 it will meet with a favorable reception among 
 the liberal and industrious of bis fellow- 
 citizens. 
 
ARCANA 
 
 OP 
 
 ARTS AJK'D SCIEJ^CES, 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, being a science on which the pre- 
 servation and happiness ol society chiefly depends— it 
 being the stamina of us existence, too nrauch cannot b© 
 done to render it productive, to correct the nnorbidity of 
 the soil, and prepare the various kinds of seed necessary 
 for 80 useful a science. 
 
 I have therefore selected the best and tnost approved 
 methods for the culture of Wheat, Rye, Barley, OitSi 
 Indian Corn, Buckwheat, and Potatoes, together with 
 Fiax and Hemp, the various and most profit ible kinds 
 of Grass, with llie best methods of preventing the de- 
 Vasiation caused by flies, grubs, cutworms, and weevils, 
 with the best metijods of preparing the ground for 
 aeedinp. 
 
 Agriculture claims a pre-eminence above manu* 
 factuics ind cuuimerce, from its seniority and superior 
 vselulness; and may be rcKarded as the breosts from 
 which the humap family derive their support and 
 nourishment. 
 
 Manufactures and commerce originally owed their 
 existence to agricultuie; and the people in carrying 
 them on, must constantly be fed by those who are en- 
 g; gcd in the parent art. Agriculture may, thercfo'e, 
 be considered as of .he first importance to mankind; 
 because their teroporai welfare and prosperity depends 
 3 
 
S6 aghicultuiie.. 
 
 «pon receivir.g a regular and siifficicr.t supply of all 
 the ailiclcs cultivated by the agriculturist. lu an age 
 Jike the present, when the utility of agiicuUure is so 
 fully recognised, it is not necessary to dwell at* length 
 upon the advantages vvhlr.h every individual, we may 
 say every nation, must enjoy, when that art is sufficient- 
 ly understood and skilfully practised. 
 
 The theory of agriculture which is herein laid down, 
 is built upon the following fundamental principles; and 
 with one or other of them, every part of rural practice 
 is niore or less combined. 
 
 First— That Ihe soil be kept dry, or, in other words, 
 free of all superfluous moisture. Secondly— -That it 
 ought to be kept clean, or, in other words, free of noxi- 
 ous weeds. Tl^rdly- That it ougKt to be kept rich, or, 
 in other words, that every panicle of maiiure, which 
 can be collected, ought to be applied, so that the soil 
 may be kept in a state capable of yielding good crops. 
 Every person, possessed of a scfficient capital stock, 
 juay act according to the first and second principles; 
 but it is only where local circumstances are favorable, 
 that the la&t can be carried completely into effect— no - 
 more, however, being required of the farmer, than that 
 5ie shall make the most of his situation. 
 
 In the first place tlie utility, nay, the necessity of 
 keeping Lnd dry and preserving il from being inunda- 
 ted or flooded wiih water, is so obvious, -hat few argu- 
 n.enls will be required in support of this primary prm- 
 ciple. When land is allowed to remain m a state of 
 leeiness, which may either be occasioned by spouts or 
 springs in the under soil, or by rain water stagnating on 
 the surface, the earth gets into a sour state, which 
 afterwards is detrimental to the growih of pl-^ntB, and 
 ofien, in the first instance, prevents either ploughing 
 or harrowing from beiDg successfully efiected. Under 
 such circumstances, the young plants, eiihcr ot corn ur 
 grass, become yellow and sickly, and never assume 
 that thriving, vigorous aspect, which they maintain upon 
 fields differently circun.stanced. Besides, manure has 
 not the same tfTect when the earth is drowned, or even 
 jnluvcd with wetness, as when it is kegt dry and tree 
 trim superfluous moisture. Unuer-draimug »*. Ibe only 
 
AGRlCULTURtii S7 
 
 *=nethoc! of corrcclinij tlie evils arising from spouts or 
 springs; and dig!j;if)<^ out the headland and gutter- 
 arrows, the only pitventativa ajjainst surface water, 
 ■\ !iCii heavy falls of rain or sno-.v storms ensue. In fact, 
 • iihout attention to these important operationi, arable 
 and can neither be well managed, nor full crops reap- 
 ed. Terhaps tiia»gooilness or badness of farm man;igc- 
 ;ncnl may be as correctly estimated by the alieniion 
 -'.pwn to draining, as' by any other mark whatever. 
 ",Vhere draining is neglected, a sure proof i-s furnished 
 .liat'inuny other brandies of the art are imperfectly ex- 
 ecuted. U:ilcss this brancli of rural economy is assidu- 
 ously at'cnrlcd to, the advantages arising fro'n ploughing 
 ..nd manuring are only partially obtained. 
 
 In the ?econd place, the benefit arising from keeping 
 the iund clean, is sufficiently dibcernible: weeds, wbe- 
 llicr of the annual or pi^renniai kind, tmy be legardcd 
 as prsfeiabie criiditors of the soil, who will reap the 
 fii'it advantage of manure, if allowed to remain in pos- 
 session; their removal, therclore, forms an important 
 jbject of ttie husbandman's attention. It tnay be stated 
 tiiut, according lo the degree of success that follows 
 the means employed, so will the goodness or b idness of 
 llie hushandtnan's crops be regulated. If the strength 
 or nutritive powers of the soil be exhausted, or druvn 
 forth by vveeds, or such plants as the soil naturally pro- 
 duces, it is impossible that artificial plants can prosper. 
 In the third place, ihc necessity of restoring to me 
 soil, in the shape of manure, the powers drawn from 
 it by artificial crops, is acknowled.^ed by- almost every, 
 person. Manure, in fact, is the most powerful agent 
 in the hands of the farmer, and the attention bestowed 
 upon collecting, preparing, and applying if, constitutes 
 an important branch of the art which he practises. 
 Purliaps agriculturists are more behind, in this third 
 general principle, than in the others. 
 
 These three fundamental principles must hang or 
 fall together. Without laying land dry, neither the ad- 
 vantages of good ploughing, nor the benefits arising 
 from manure, can be fully obtained. When any of ths 
 other principles are neglected, similar defects will 
 !iec€83ariiy ensue; bul when they arc all acted upon, 
 
gS AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and the land is kept dry, clean, and in good heait, the 
 husbandman may expect a suitable reward for the 
 (rouble and expense bestowed on its cuhivation. An 
 agricultural code of this kind is not only a true one, but 
 has the peculiar merit of being simple and disiinci; and 
 were it carried into execution; weie the operations of 
 farmers regulated by its tenets; wer« iheir endeavors 
 constantly directed to keep the lands in their possession 
 dry and clean, and as rich as possible, then tlie counUy 
 would progressively improve. 
 
 On Soils, 
 
 Soil, strictly speaking, is the ground or er.rth wherein 
 crops of every kind are produced, and is ntiiit ed it) this 
 way merely to distinguish the surface from the under 
 stratum, or subsoil, on which the surface is incunibent. 
 The value or worth of that part' of ihe er.vth, which is 
 the object of cultivation, depet>ds materially upon the 
 nature of the under stratum; because, when the latter 
 is close or extremely retentive of moisture, the expense 
 and hazard of cultivating the surface is consiiierably in- 
 creased, whilst the growth of plants, cultivated upon it, 
 IS much impeded, particularly in adverse seasons. 
 
 The names which different agricultutists have adopt- 
 ed with regard to soils, being variable and indistinct, it Is 
 a difficult task to describe them, or to mark, with any 
 degree of accuracy, the shades which distinguish one 
 irom another, so nearly are many of them connected: 
 generally speaking, the component parts of soil, what- 
 ever may be the color, are arj^ii, silex cr sand, water, and 
 air, for into these original prfnciples may all earths i)c 
 reduced, however blended with apparently foreign sub- 
 stances. Argil is the soft and unctions part of clay. 
 The,piimitivc earth?, argil and sand, contain each, per. 
 haps in nearly equal degrees, the food of plants; but in 
 their union th^ purposes of vegetation are most com- 
 pletely answered The precise quantities of each, 
 necessary to make this union perlect, and whether 
 xhty ought to be equal, it is neither very easy, nor very 
 m?terial to ascertain, since that point is best determined 
 in practice. When the soil proves to be neither too 
 
AGRICULTCTRB. »9 
 
 uiff or adhesive, from the superabundance of clay, nor 
 of too loose and weak a texture, from an over quantity 
 of sand in its composition, the medium is undoubtedly 
 the best; but an excess towards adhesion is obviously 
 most safe. A stiff or strong soil holds the water which 
 falls upon it for a lons> time, and beingf capable of much 
 plou{;hin{^, is naturally well qualified for bearing crops 
 which strike a deep root. A light soil, or one of a tex- 
 ture feeble and easily broken, is, on the contrary, soart 
 exhausted by ploughing, and requires renovation by 
 grass, otherwise it cannot be cultivated to advantage. — • 
 Soils may ho considered and characterized, as far at lease 
 as is necessary for practical purposes, under the distinc- 
 aons of clayey, loamy, chalky, sandy, gravelly, and 
 peaty or mossy. Each of these diversities, of courscj 
 comprehends several varieties, according to the nature 
 and preponderance of the different sorts of materials of 
 v/hich they are composed. 
 
 Loam has generally been considered as an original 
 earth, though it may more properly be denominated an 
 artificial soil, produced by calcareous matters and ani* 
 Rial and vcge'.able manures. The strongest clay may, 
 In process of time, be converted into a loam by repeat- 
 ed applications of these substances, and the richness or 
 freeness of that loam will depend ectirely upon the 
 qiiantiiy of manure with which it has been supplied, 
 bandy soils may also be converted into light loams by 
 the application of lime, chalk, marl, and especially clay; 
 even peat may be converted into a black soft loam, and 
 in various ways rendered fertile and productive. Fiom 
 these circumstances, a degree of contusion prevails re- 
 specting the nature and properties of soils, which ren« 
 ders the subj-^ct more difficult than at first sight might 
 be expected. Even the admixture of surface and sub- 
 soil, by deep ploughing, creates a change of considera- 
 ble magnitude. 
 
 A cljy soil, tliough distinijuished by the color which 
 li bears, namely: blnck, white, yellow and red, differs 
 from dll other soils, being tough, wet and cold, and con- 
 sequently requiring a good deal of hbor before it can 
 be sufficicniiy pulverized, or placed in a fit state for 
 bearing artificial crops of corn or grass. Clay Uni is 
 3* 
 
W AGRICULTURE. 
 
 known by these qtialitits or properties. It holds water 
 like a cup, and once wet, U does not soon dry. In like 
 ?.; .nxier, when thoioiighly diy. it is not soon wet. In a 
 
 y svinnjH-r, c.'ay cracks, and shews a surf^ice full of 
 ., all rliinks or openings: if ploughed in a wet state, it 
 Ef i.ks to (he plough like mortar; and in a dry summer 
 ihe, plough turns it up in clods, scarcely to be broken or 
 «epiiiated by the heaviest roller. 
 
 S^nt^y soils next coiue under consideration: soils of 
 tiiis descripiicxi are manaf»ed with infinitely less trouble, 
 ai d at an eypcnso greatly inferior to what clays require; 
 but at the saroe time the crops produced from them are 
 generally of smaller value. There are many varietiea 
 ot sand, however, as well as of clay, and in some«placeg 
 the suji^acc is little better than a barren sand, wherein 
 artificial plants will not take root, unless a mixture of 
 clay or good earth is previously administered. This is 
 not the soil meant by the farmer when he speaks oi' 
 sands. To speak practically, the soil meant is one 
 where sand is predominant, although there be several 
 other eaiths in the mixture. Froni containing a great 
 quantity ot sand, these soils are all loose and crunb- 
 linof, and never get into a clod, even in the driest wea- 
 the. : this is the great distinction between sands and 
 aandy loams. A sandy loam, owing to the clay that is 
 in it, does not crumble down, or become loose like real 
 sard, but retains a degree of adhebion after wetness, or 
 drought, notwithstanding the quantity of sand that is 
 Sntxed with it. Perhaps a true s.aidy loam, incumbent 
 upon a sound 8ul>soil, is the most valuable of all soils, 
 upon which every kind ot grain may be r;ilsed with ad- 
 vantage; and no soil is better calculated lor turnips and 
 
 glrtSS. 
 
 The real sands are not favorable to the growth of 
 "Wheat, unless preceded by clover, which binds the sur- 
 r>fe, and confers a temporary strength for sustaining 
 thai grain. 
 
 I have now to speak of gravelly soils. The open or 
 porous nature of these soils disposes them to imbibe 
 nioisti.re, and to pan with it with great facility: from 
 tht huter rin ur.ist- nee, they ate snbjeci to burn, ab it is 
 teitiitd, m diy s(;A&un8. I'tie Qiaiu uifivrence between 
 
AGRICULTURE, 3i 
 
 ^•ravcl and sand is, that the former is chieflv composed 
 oi small soft stones, though, in some instances, tho 
 stones are of the silicious or flinty nature; and, in otliers, 
 -f the calcareous and chalky From these constitu- 
 '.lunal circumstances arises the propriety of deepeninp; 
 g;avel!y soils hy coals of marl or earth, and of keeping. 
 ihem fresh by frequent returns of grass and repeated 
 application of manure. Gravelly soils, fromthclighl- 
 nrss of their texture, are not expensive, oi difficult in 
 the means of cultivation. All the necessary business 
 required for eiravels, may be carried forward with ease 
 and expedition; and such soils are, in general, soon 
 brotii»ht into a proper state for the reception of crops^ 
 
 From what has been said respecting gravels, it will 
 appear that, nUurally, they are barren, unless when 
 mixed with other earths; and that the surface of most 
 o( them would exhibit the same appearance as the subr 
 lioil. or what is beyond the reach of the plough, were it 
 not changed and meliorated by vegetable matters, Tho 
 coiistitufional qualities of gravels, also point out th© 
 propiiety of ploughing them deep, so that the surface 
 soil may he augmented, and greater room given to the. 
 growth of the plants cultivated on them. A. shallow, 
 ploiiglied grave! can stand no excess of weather, howe- 
 ver enriched by manure: it is burned up by a day or. 
 two of drought, and it is almost equally injured by, an 
 excessive fall of ram, unless the p°>n, or firm bottom^ 
 which such soils easily gain, be frequently broken 
 through by deep ploughing. According to an old 
 adage, the top of cl ly, and the bottom of gravel, arc 
 best; but though we cannot subscribe to the first part 
 of the adage, being satisfied that deep ploughing is 
 highly beneficial, except where the subsoil is of a poi- 
 sonous nature, we are certain that the latter is well 
 founded, and ought never to be overlooked. 
 
 Peat earth, or moss» is the next kind of soil which is. 
 to he treated of; though it is very uncertain ivhcthcr, 
 like loam and garden mould, it ought not to be viewed 
 as an artificial soil, produced by certain substances de- 
 posited on the surface ot |he earth, and not r)ne originally 
 Cic.ted, or to be found in the early ages. Satisf-iciory 
 atcoums concerning the iormation of moss, the uses t6 
 
i^^ AGRICULTURE. 
 
 which it may be applied, an(i the means of retnovinf it, 
 have not yet been discovered. 
 
 Soils, therefore, differ considerably from each other, 
 according to the proportions of ths diif^jrent earths of 
 which they cons^^t. To determine what are the requi- 
 sites which dis'inpui'ih or constitute arable or fruitful 
 soi's, is of rrmch importance to the farmer, since vege- 
 table substances evidently imbibe from the earth and 
 surrounding atmosphere the principle of oils, mucilage 
 and other peculiar products, only tounrUn orgaoiaed 
 substances; it can hardly be doubted but that manure, 
 or the remains of decayed substances, render lands 
 fruitful by supplying these materials ready formed. 
 What remarks are offered on the subject of manure, 
 will be found under that head. I shall now offer the 
 following additional observations, which are drawn prin- 
 cipally from analytical investigation. 
 
 When a barren soil is examined with a view to il\ 
 improvement, it ought in all cases, if possible, to be 
 compared with an extremely fertile soil in the same 
 neighborhood, and in a similar situation;, the difference 
 given by their analyses would indicate the methods of 
 cultivation, and thus the plan of improvement would be 
 founded upon accurate scientific principles. If tlie fer- 
 tile soil contained a large quantity of sand, in proportion 
 to khe barren soil, the process of melioration would de- 
 pend simply upon a supply of this suhstance, and the 
 siiethod would be equally simple with regard to soils 
 deficient in clay or calcareous matter. 
 
 In the application of clay, sand, loam, marl, or chalt. 
 to land«, tliere arc no pyrticular chymical principles to 
 be observed; but when quicklime is used great care 
 must be taken that.it is not obtained Irom the magne- 
 aian limestone; for in this case it is exceedingly injuri- 
 ous to land. The magnesian limestone may be distin- 
 guished from the common limestone by its grtater 
 hardnchS. 
 
 When the analytical comparison indicates an excess 
 of vegetable matier, as the cause of sterility, it may bo 
 destroyed by much pulverisation and exposure to air, by 
 pai inm and burring, or the agency of lately made quick- 
 lime. And the defert of animal and vegetable matter 
 must be supplied by aninaal or vegetable (natter. 
 
AGRICULTURli. S3 
 
 'i'hc general in.licationa of fertility gnd barrenness 
 ';nusi nccesa?iily iliflVr in difl'ercnt climates, atul under 
 liilTercnl circuinstoiices. The pouer of soils to abiurb 
 moisture, a piinciple essenlial to their prodiictivencss, 
 Oii.qlit to be niuch p;reuiei; in v/arm and dry countries, 
 than in cold and moist oti^s; and the quantity of fine 
 o!untii>.ous earth tlicy contain should be larger. Soils, 
 likewise, that arc ^^ituated on declivities, ought to be 
 mere absorbent than those in the same climate in plaina 
 cr in valleys. 
 
 The productiveness of soih must likewise be ii.fin- 
 cnced by tht nature of the subsoil, or the earthy of 
 stony strata on which they rest: thus, a snndy soil niay 
 owe its fertility to the power of the subsoil to retain 
 water; and an absorbent chyey soil tnay occasionally be 
 jirevented from being barren, in a moist climate, by the 
 ififluence of a sub-stratum of sand or gravel. Those 
 soils that are most productive of corn, ccntain always 
 certain proporiicTis of al".minou,s earth in a finely divi- 
 cled stale, and a certain quantity of vegetable or animal 
 r.iatter. Tlie quaniiiy ot calcareous earth is, however, 
 \cry various, and in some cases exceedingly small. In 
 some cxpeiifnenls made on the composition of soils at 
 Vd\ is, it was found, that a soil composed of three-eighths 
 cf cby, two eighths of liver s.md, and three-eigliths of 
 ilic parings of limestone, was very proper ior wheat. — . 
 In general, bulbous roots require a s lil much more 
 sandy and less absorbent than tiie grasses. 
 
 Plants and trees, tli.o roots of which arc Sbrcus and 
 ' ird, and capable of penetrating deep into tlie earth, 
 will vegetate to advantage in almost aU common soils 
 tluu are moderately dry, and do not contain a very great 
 excess of vegetable matter. 
 
 From the great difTcrence of the causes that influence 
 the productiveness of lands, it is obvious, that in t!io 
 present slate ol science, no certain system can be de- 
 vised for their improvement; but there are but few 
 cases in which the labor of analytical trials will not be 
 :imj)ly repaid by the certainty with which they denote 
 i'lie best methods of melioration; and this will particu- 
 Uirly happen, when the defects of composition is lound 
 ui Uie proportions ci" the primitive eaiths. 
 
<jf AtJRICULtURtf. 
 
 In supplying snim 4 or vtwetable marrnre, a ten-.f,o 
 rary lood only is provided for plaiits, which is in all 
 cases txhansled by means of a cert..in number of crops; 
 but when a soil is rendered ol' the btst poss)bIe const! 
 tuiion \viih regard to its eaniiy parts, its fcriiliiy may 
 be considered as perrnantn'Iy csiublisljcd: if bccoTies 
 C3paV)lc of atlractiiig a very large jjortion of veRciablc 
 riouiishnient from tbe atmosphere, and of producinij iit 
 crops with conipaialively little labor and expense. 
 
 Under the head of mineral anoly>is, jiothing is of so 
 much gener.il imporlbnce as the examinuiion of soiht 
 with a view to the improven)tnt of sucii as'are less pro 
 ductive, by supplying \V,c inLjrcdients they want, in due 
 proponions, to increusc their feniiiiy. An occount ob 
 the methods to be pursued shall be slated in due course, 
 as foliows:— 
 
 The substances found in soils arc rertain tii'x'ures or 
 combinations of some of the primitive earths, or animal 
 and vegetable matter in a decoinpiising state, ctrtjin 
 Saline cotnpounds and the oxide ct iron: i!;tse bodies 
 always retoin water, and eVr^t in very dillcrent propor- 
 tions in different lands, and tlie end of analyiic.;il expe- 
 riments is the detection of their quanlitits End mode o; 
 union. 
 
 The earths commonly found in soils i^^e principally 
 silcx, or the earth of flintt; alumine, or th«i pure mat- 
 ter of city; lime, or calcareous earth; and nuignesia. 
 Silex composes a considerable prrt of hard irtaelly 
 soils, hard sandy soils, and hard suu^y Lofia. Alumin: 
 •jbounds most in clayey soils and claye-^ lonm?; but evei. 
 i:\ the smallest particles of thesj soils, it is generally 
 united with siiex and oxide of iron. Liinf alw.iys cxistj 
 in «.oils in a state ot combination, aui chii fly wiih car 
 btinic acidj when it is called carbo7iale of lime. Thii; 
 carbonate, in its hardest sta'e, is marble; in its sn/irsij 
 chalk. Lime, united with sul/i'iuric acid, is sul/ihac of 
 Hme, or t^ij/isuvi; with fiho&fihoric acicly fihosfthat ot 
 Hme, or the earth of boties. Carbonate o! lime, mixed 
 with other substances, coiDpose chalky soils and mjriE, 
 and is found in soft s.mdy soils. Magnesia is rarely 
 found in soils — when it is, i' is ccmbireci with eard(.7n, 
 kxcidy or Willi silex and alumme. Animal decomposi'ii- 
 
AGRlCULTtJRi;. 35 
 
 matter exists in OifiVreiif states, contains much carbona- 
 ceous substance, volatile alkali, itiflamn.ablc aeriforna 
 proflucis, and carbonic acid: it is found chiefly in lands 
 lately manured. Vegetable decotrposing matter usu- 
 ally contains still more carbonaceous substance, and 
 differs fron^ the preceding principally in not producing 
 volatile alkali: it lorms a great p.oporlion of all peats, 
 abounds in rich mould, and is found in larger or smaller 
 quantities in all lands. The saline compounds are few, 
 and in small quantity; they are chitfly muriate of soda ^ 
 or romrron salt; tulfihat of magnesia; muriate and 
 sul/ihat offiotash; nitrate of lime, and the mild alkalis; 
 oxide of iro7i, (which is the rusi produced by exposing 
 iron to air and water,) is found in all soils, but niost: 
 abundantly in red and yellow clays, and red and yellow 
 sands. 
 
 The instruments requiiite for the analysis nf soils are 
 few: A pair of scales, capable of holding a quarter of a 
 pound of common soil, and turning >vith a single grain 
 when loaded; a set of weights, from a quarter of a 
 pound Troy, to a grain; a wire sieve, coarse enough to 
 let a pepper- corn paas through; an Argand lamp and 
 stand; a few glass bottles; Hessian crucibles; an«J China 
 or queensware evaporating basins, a Wedgwood pestle 
 and mortar; some filters, made of hajf a sheet of blotting 
 paper, folded so as to contain a pint of liquid and greas- 
 ed at the edges; a bone knife; and an apparatus for 
 collecting and measuring aeriform fluids. 
 
 The regents necessary are rourialic acid; sulphuric 
 acid; pure volatile alkali, dissolved in water; solutiuo 
 of prussiate of potash; soap ley, and solutions of car- 
 bonate of ammonia; cnuriatu of ammonia; neutral car- 
 bonate of potash, and nitrate of ammonia. 
 
 When the general nature of the isoil of a field is to 
 be ascertained, epecimens of it should be taken from 
 different places, two or three inches btlow the surface, 
 and examined as to the similarity of their properties. It 
 sometimes happens, that on plains, the whole of th;e 
 upper stratum of land is of the same kind; and in thas 
 case, one analysis will be sufficient. But in valleys, and 
 Bicir the beds of rivers, there are very great difTerence^; 
 9i.d it now and then occurs that one p-«rt of a field ir. 
 
36 AGHICULTURE. 
 
 <;a1carcou3 and another part silicious; and in this and 
 pnaloRoiis cases, the portions different from each other 
 •shouUi be analysed sepaiaiely. Soils when collected, if 
 they cannot be examined immediately, should be pre- 
 served in phials quite filled with them, and closed with 
 ground glass btoppers. The most convenient quantity 
 lor a perfect analysis, is from two hundred grains tc 
 four hundred. It should be collected in dry weather^ 
 and exposed to the air till it feels dry. Its specific gra- 
 vity may be ascertained by introducing into a phial, 
 which will contain a known quantity of water, equal 
 quantities, say equal bulks of water and of the soiU 
 ■which may easily be done by pouring in water til! the 
 phial is half full, and then adding the soil till the fluid 
 rises to the mciutb. The difference between the water 
 and that of the soil will give the result. Then, if the 
 bottle will contain four hundred grains of water, and 
 gains two hundred grains when half filled with water 
 and half with soil, the specific gravity of the soil will 
 be 2, that is, it will be twice a» heavy as the water; 
 and if it gained one hundred and sixty- five grains, its 
 specific gravity would be 1825; water being 1000. It 
 is of importance that the specific gravity of a soil 
 should be known, as it afforos an indicaiion of the quan- 
 tity of animal and vegetable matter it contains; these 
 substances being always most abundant in the lighter 
 soils. Th€ other physical properties of soils, should! 
 likewibc be examined before the analysis is made, as 
 tbty denote, to a certain extent, their composition, and 
 serve as guides in directing the experiments: thus, sili- 
 cious soils arc generally rough to the touch, and scratch 
 glass when rubbed upon it; aluminous soils adhere 
 atrongly to the tongue, and emit a strong earthy sm* Ij 
 When breathed upon; and calcareous soils are w>ft, and 
 p.uch Jess adhesive than aluminous soils. 
 
 2. Soils, when as dry as they can be made by expo- 
 aure lo the air, still retain a considerable qaantity ol 
 Water, which adheres with great obstinacy to t^tm* 
 ai.d cannot be drawn off without considerable heat; an* 
 the firtt process of analysing is lo tree theo» '""om a»< 
 touch of this water as possible, without affecting ihcir^ 
 «empo8Uion in »»ih«r r«sp«stis: thw ^iwy be done by 
 
AGRICULTURE, S7 
 
 heating the soil for ten or twelve minutes in a ehina 
 :;asin over an ATgand lamp, at a temperature equal to 
 300° of Fahrenhcitj and it' a thermometer be noi used, 
 the proper degree of heat may easily be ascertained by 
 keeping a piece of wood in the basin in contact with its 
 bottom; for as long as the color ot the wood remains 
 unaltered, the heat is not too high; but as soon as the 
 Wood begins to be charred the process must be stop- 
 ped: the loss of weight in this process must be careful- 
 ly noted, and if it amount to 50 grains in 400 ot the 
 soil, this may be considered as in the greatest degree 
 absorbent and retentive of moisture, and will generally 
 be found to contain a large proportion of aluminous 
 earth: if the loss be not more than 10 or 20 grains, the 
 land may be considered as slightly absorbent and reten- 
 tive, and the silicious earth as most abundant. 
 
 3. None of tn^-loose stones, gravel, or large vegeta- 
 ble fibres, should be separated from the soil, till the 
 water is thus expelled, for these bodies are often highly 
 absorbent and retentive, and consequently influence the 
 fertility of the land. But after the soil has been heated 
 as above, these sliould be separated by the sieve, aftei* 
 the «oil has been gently bruised in a mortar. The 
 weight of the vegetable fibres or wood, and of the 
 gravel and stones, should be separately noted down, and 
 the nature of tlie latter ascertained. If they be calcare- 
 ous, they will effervesce with acids; if silicious, they 
 will scratch glass; if alumiaous, they will be soft, easily 
 scratched with a knitc, and incapable of effervescing 
 with acids. 
 
 4. Most soils, besides stones and gravel, contain 
 larger and smaller proportions of sand of diflercnt de- 
 grees of tiriencss; and the next operatioi» necessary is to 
 separate this sand from the parts more minutely di- 
 vided, such as clay, loam, marl, and vegetable and 
 animal matter. This may be done sufficiently by mix- 
 ing the soil well with water, as the coarse sand kvitl 
 generaily fall to the bottom in the space of a minute, 
 and the finer in two or three minutes; the sand will be, 
 for the most part, separated from the other substances, 
 Vhich, with the water containing them, must be poured 
 off uito a fillet'. Alter the water has passed through, 
 
 4 
 
j8 AGiilCULTURK. 
 
 what rcniains on the tiller must be dticd and wcighci. 
 as ii'ust also the sand, and their refsptciive quanliiic? 
 iTiiist be noiecl dowii: the water nuisi be prcberved, as 
 jl will cuniain tiie saline multtr, and ihe soluble aninia! 
 or vegetable malter, if any existed in the soil. 
 
 5. A niinuie analjbis iA the sand thus separated, is 
 seldom or never necessary; and its nature may be de- 
 fcctid in ihe same way asiliot ot stones and gravel. It 
 is always biiiciuus sand, or calcareous sand, or both loge- 
 thei. If it cons'.bi vhi.lly of carbonate of lime, it will 
 dissolve rapidly in muiiatic acid with efl'ervesccnce; 
 bin il it consists panly ol tnis and parily ot silicious 
 TDJM'er, a residuum will be left after the acid has ceas- 
 ed lo act on ii; the acid being added till ihe mixture 
 hab a suuriastt, and has ceased to efiervesce. Tliis re- 
 siduum IS ihc biiicious part, which being washed, dried, 
 and heated strongly m a truciblc. the diHertncc ot its 
 weight fiunitliat ot the whole, will indicate the quanti- 
 ty ot calcareous sand. 
 
 6 i lie hnely divided matter of the soil is usually vei7 
 con. pound in its nature; it son.etimes contains all the 
 four primime earths or soils, as well as animal and vc- 
 geuible matter; and to ascertain the proportions ot these 
 will, tolerable accuracy, is the most difficult part ot ths 
 subject, ihe fiist process to be peilormed in iiiis 
 ])arl oi the analysis, is the exposure ot the tine maiter 
 of the soil to the action ot muiuiic acid. This acid, 
 diluttd with double its bulk oi water, should be pourt-d 
 upon the earthy matter in an evaporaiing basin, in a 
 quantity equal to twice the weigbtot ihe tarihy ruaittr. 
 1 ne mixtuie stiould be often stirred, and suffered to 
 remain tor an hour oJ ..n hour and a half belore it is 
 examined. If any caibunale of linie or of magnesia 
 exist in the soil, they will have been dissolved in this 
 tin e by the acid, which sometimes takes up likewise a 
 little oxide ct MOP, but veiy seldom any alumine. The 
 iluiu should be passed through a filter; the solid matter 
 collected, washed with distilled ram water; dried at a 
 motieraie heat, and wcigheQ. Its loss will denote the 
 quanti'.y of solid matter taken up. The washings ruust 
 be added to the solution, which, if not sour to the taste, 
 must be made so by the addition of iicsn aciu, and a utile 
 
AGRICULTOIIK, i3il 
 
 oiulion ori)rusHhlc of potash must bs mixed vvidi tho 
 quor. II" a blue precipitate occurs, it will denote the 
 ■ icsence of oxide ot" iron; and the solution ol the prus- 
 ii'.tc must be dropped in till no further en'fcCt is produ- 
 ci): to ascciijiii its quantity, it tnust be collected on a 
 ."fi'.er, in the same manner as the other solid precipitates 
 and heated red: t!ie result will be the oxide of iron, 
 .nio thcHiaid freed from the oxide of iron, a solution c'; 
 :jrlionatc of potash must be poured, till all cfTcrves- 
 encc ceases in if, and till its t.'.ste and smell indicalc a 
 -•tisiJcrabie excess of alkaline sal!: the precipitate t!ia' 
 iails down iscarbnn.^^e of lime, uliich must be collecte:: 
 on a filter, dried at a heat beluw that of redness, and 
 afterwards wcitrlicd: the ren:iaining fluid must be hoiicc: 
 for a qM'.irter of an hour, when the mat^riesid, if there be 
 any, will be precipitated, combined with carbonic acid, 
 and its quantity must be ascertained in the same manner 
 as th„t of carbonate of lnnc. It any minute propor* 
 tion of alundne should, from peculiar circumstances, 
 bs dissolved by the acid, it will be found in the precipi- 
 tate with the Ci\rbona!e of liuie, and it may be separated 
 fron it by boiling for a few tninuies with soap ley, suQi- 
 cicnt to cover the solid matter, for this ley dissolvea 
 •'.lumiuc without aciin;^ upon carbonate of lime. Should 
 the finely divided soil be sufliciently calcareous to cfler- 
 vcsce very strongly witii acids, a ai nplc method of 
 ascertaining the quantity of carbonate of lime, sulTici- 
 entiy accurate in all common oases, may be adopied. 
 A-i carbonate oi lime, in all its slates, contains a delcr' 
 min.uc quantity ol acid, which is about 45 parts in a 
 hundred by weigni, the quantity of tliis acid j*iven out 
 (luring the efl'ervescence occasioned by its solution in a 
 f^tionger acid, will indicate the quantity of carbonate of 
 lime present: thus, if you weigh separately one part ol" 
 the matter of the sod, and t<\o parts of the acid dduted 
 will) Water, and mix the acid slowly in small portionJ 
 witn tue sod, till it ceases to occasion any ctl'ervescence< 
 by u'cij^hing the mixture and the acid that remains, yoii 
 will iiad the quantity of carboaic acid lost; and for 
 every lour grains and a half so lost, you will cslimato 
 • Ml gviiins ot carbonate of liiTtc. 
 
40 AGUlCULTUfflT. 
 
 7. The quantity of insoluble animal and vcgetabit 
 matter may next be ascertained with soRicietU pieci- 
 iion, by heating it to a strong red heat, in a ciuoble. 
 over a common fire, till no blackness remains in the 
 mass, stirring it frequently meanwhile with a metallic 
 %vire: the loss of weight will ascertain the quantity of 
 animal and vegetable matter there was, but not the pro- 
 portions of each: if the smell emitted duriirg the pro* 
 cess resembles that of burnt feathers, it is a certain in^' 
 ■ilication of the ptesence of sotr\e at)imBl matter, fijut* 
 copious hJue flame oltribit atw&ys denote* the pteict^fe 
 of a considerable propoftion «f vggeiflble mstltr, N}» 
 trateol cmmonia, in the propeition of twPMy ^rmm is 
 a hundred of the rfesidtjum of the soil, Mill greatly aa 
 celeratc ibis prccesi, if the epctntor be not In haste, and 
 not effect the result, as it will be dccymfosed and 
 evaporate. 
 
 8. Wbat remains after Ihc decotnposition of vf gefa* 
 ble and aninrtal matter, coi sis's ptntratiy of minute 
 particles of earthy matter, which are t(i»u«*l!y a onxture 
 of alumine and silex, with oxitJc of Utm, To separate 
 these, boil them two or three hour* in sulphytic 8f»d> 
 «iiluied with four tin'cs ii« wtiKht of water, silowing ao 
 hundred and twenty grains <;l acid for evcrj hutidred 
 grains of the residuum; if any thing rsmains utuJissoivr 
 CO by this acid, it may be coimdered as siles, aud he 
 separated, washed, dried, ami weighed i» the mn^i 
 manner; Carbonate of ammonia being added w the 
 «olutioit io quantity more than suffirteiU to «a(urate th«; 
 3cid, the aiuntine will be precipitated, and the tmfh of 
 iron, if any, may be cparatcd from the rcTO8i»>ing 
 liquid by boiUng; it. It scarcely ever happens that «ny 
 magnesia or iinie esopes sotution in mujiaiic acid; but 
 if it should, it will be found in the sulphuric acid, fron* 
 which it may be sep.iraitd as befote directed lor the 
 muriatic acid. This method of analysis is sufFici-utly 
 precise ior all common purposes; but if very ureat ac« 
 curacy be an object, the residuum, after the incinera- 
 tion, must he iieated with potash, and in the nuuiuer in 
 \vh)( n stones are auaiysed, as given in the first part of 
 this ariicie. 
 
AGUICULTURE. 41 
 
 9. If the soil r.ontijned any salts, or soluble vegetable, 
 • ani ual maiter, they u'ill be fouiul in the water used 
 ioi separHting the sand: this ^valer must be evaporated 
 to dryness, at a beat bcl'>vv boilinij: if tlie solid >nAtter 
 left be of a brown color, and latia nni jle, it nny bo 
 considered as partly vef^etable extract; if its S'nel!, 
 when exposed to Ijeat, be stroo>; and Tjeiid, it cont-iins 
 anirnl, niucilafjinous, or gelaiinous mitters; if it fje 
 wnito and transparent, it rmy ue coiiii lered as princi- 
 pally saline. Nitrate of potasb, or ot lirne, is in licated 
 in this saline matter by its sp-jrklini? when throvn on 
 Lurnin.^ coals; sijipbat of m>goesia 'Hav be detected by 
 its bluer taste; and sulphat of poiasii produces nj alter- 
 ation in a solution of carbonate of a'n nonia, but preci- 
 pitates a solution of muriate of barytes. 
 
 10. If salpbat or phospbat of line be susper.ted in 
 the soil, a particular process is requisite to detect it: a 
 given weii*ht of the entiie soil, as (our hundred grains 
 for instarice, nnust be tni"ied with one-thir 1 iis wei;^ht 
 of charcoal, and kept at a red iieat in a crucible for naif 
 an hour. The mixture must then be boileJ a quarter 
 of an hour in half a pint of water, and t!ie solution, being 
 filtered, exposed soiiie days to tne open air. It any 
 soluble quantity of sulp lat of lime, or ^ypsu n existed 
 * id the soil, a white precipitate will g' adualiy far n in 
 the fluid, and the weight of it will indicate the propor- 
 tion. Phospliat of lime, if any presen , any be separa- 
 ted Iro n the soil afier the process for gypsu a. Muri- 
 atic acid must be digested upon the soil in quantity 
 more than sufficient to saturate the soluble earths; I ic 
 solution must be evaporated, aid water poured up )n 
 the solid matter; this Hoi I will dissolve the co np oun Is 
 of earths with the muriatic acid, and leave the phospnit 
 ol lime untouched. 
 
 1 1. When the examination of a soil is completed, the 
 products should be classed, and their qua uities added 
 together, and if they nearly equal the oiiginil quantity 
 ot soil, ihe analysis may be considered as accurate. It 
 must, however, he observed, that w'aen phosphat or 
 sulphat of li'iae is discovered by the in l-pendini pro. 
 cess, N'o 10. just -neniion.d, a correction mu^t be made 
 ■"or the gencr*] process, uy subuacUug a sam equal to 
 4* 
 
25- 
 
 4:^ AGRTCULTURBp 
 
 iheir weip:ht from the quantity ot carbonate of lime ob* 
 taiiied by precipiiation from the muriatic acid, in ar-- 
 ranging the products, the form of the experiments by 
 which they are obtained— thus, 400 grains of a good 
 silicious sandy soil may be supposed to contain, 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Of water absorption,, 18 
 
 Of loose stones and gravel, principally silicious, - 42 
 Of undecompounded vegetable fibres, - . 10 
 Of fine silicious sand, - - - . , 200 
 Of mmuicly divided matter, separated by filtra 
 
 tion, and consisting of carbonate of lime. 
 Carbonate of magnesia, - ... 4 
 
 Mtttei destructible by heat, chiefly vegetable, - 10 
 
 Silex, - - ' 40 
 
 Alumine, -.--.-. 32 
 Oxide of iron, .--... 4 
 
 Of soluble matter, principally s»)lphat of potash ^ ^ 
 
 and vegetable extract, - - - . ^ ** 
 Gypsum, ..--.. . s 
 
 Phosphatof lime, - . . > . 2 
 
 Amount of all the products, » - , 
 
 Loss, ... • . . , 
 
 Total, 400 
 
 In this instance the loss is supposed small, but in gen- 
 eral, in actual experiments, it will be lound much great- 
 er, in consequence of the difficulty of collecting the 
 whole quantities of the different precipitates; and when 
 it is within thirty fur tour bundled grains, there is no 
 reason to suspect any want of due precision in the pro- 
 cess> 
 
 12. When the experimentalist has become acquaintec? 
 with the use of the different instruments, the properties 
 of the agents, and the relations between the external and 
 chymical qualities of soils, he will seldom find it necesr 
 sary to perform, in any one case, all the processes that 
 have been described. When the soil, for instance, con- 
 tains no notable propor'ion of calcareous matter, tiie 
 action of the muiiatic arid, No. 6, may be omitted in 
 examining peat soils; he will pijucipally have to aivend 
 
AGRICULTURE. 4*3 
 
 tathe operation by fire and air, No. 7, arid in the analysis 
 of chalks and loams he will lie often able to omit llic 
 experiment with sulphuric acid, No. 8. 
 
 In the first trials made by persons unatrpiainted with 
 cliymistry. they mtist not expect much precision, lor 
 many difficulties will be met wiih, but in overcominpj 
 them the most useful kind of practiial knowledir<; will 
 be obtained, and nothinj^ is saiiistractive in experiment- 
 al science as the detection of mistakes. The conect 
 analyst ought to be well pjrounded in general chymical. 
 information, but perhaps there is no better mode of 
 gaining it than in attempting original investigations. In 
 pursuing his experiments he will be continually obliged 
 to learn from books the history of the substances he is 
 employing or acting upon, and his theoretical know- 
 ledge, by being combined with practice, ^vill therefore 
 be more valuable. 
 
 Qn the uses to which each SloJf. may be most, 
 advantageously applied. 
 
 Clay sqils, when sufficiently enriched with manures; 
 sre naturally well qualified for carrying crops of wheat, 
 oats, beans and clover; but are«ol fit for barley, turnips, 
 potatoes, &;c. or even for being kept under grass longer 
 than one year. Perhaps such soils ought to be regu- 
 larly summer fallowed, once in six, or at least in eight 
 years, even when they are comparatively in a cleat> 
 state; as they contract a sourness, and adhesion fiom 
 wet ploughing, only to be removed by exposuie to the 
 sun and wind, during the dry months of summer. Soils 
 of this kind receive little benefit from winter ploughing, 
 unless so far as their surface is thereby presented to 
 Uie frost, which mellows and reduces them in a manner 
 infimtely superior to what could be accomplished by all 
 the operations of man; still they are not cleaned or made 
 free of weeds by winter ploui;binEr, and, therelbre, this 
 operation can only be considered as a good mean for 
 procuiing a seed-bed, in which the seeds of the future 
 crop may be safely deposited: hence the necessity of 
 Cleaning cbjy soils during the summer months, and of 
 having always a large part of every clay farm undef 
 
4* AGRICULTUHE. 
 
 Slimmer fallow, 'All clay soils retjuire Rreat industry 
 ant! care, as well as a considerable portion of knowledge 
 in tlie dressing or manageTient, to keep thcnn in»{^ood 
 condition; yet, when their natural toui^hness is Wn the 
 belter of, 'hey ahvavs yield tiie heaviest and mosWliun- 
 djni crops. One thiiig requisite for a clay soil, is to 
 keep it rich and lull nf manure; a poor clay being the 
 most ungrateiul of all soils, and hardly capable of paying 
 the expense and labor, after being worn out and exhaus- 
 ted. A clay soil also receives, comparatively, small 
 bniefit from grass, and when once allowed to get into a 
 sterile condition, the most active endeavors, will witli 
 difficulty restore fertility to it, after the lapse of many 
 years. 
 
 Upon light soils, the case is very different: these 
 •ilourish under the grass husbandry, and bare summer 
 fallow is rarely required, because they may he cleaned 
 and cropped in the same year with that valuable escu- 
 lent, turnip. 
 
 Upon light soils, however, wheat can seldom be exten- 
 siveiy cultivated, nor can a crop be'obtained of equi! 
 value, either in rf spect of qu.-n'ity or quality; as on cl \yt 
 and loams. The best method of procuiing wheats on ligh* 
 lands, is to sow upon a cTover stubbie, when the soil ha': 
 got an artificial sulvdity of body; and is thereby reriderec 
 capable of sustaining this grain, till it arrives at maturity 
 The same rule applies to soils of a gravelly natuie, anu 
 upf-n both, barley is found to he of as great benefit a? 
 wheat The facility with which every variety of light soil 
 is cultivated, furnishes great encour.gement to keep 
 them under the plough, though it rarely liappens, that 
 when more than one hall of such soils are kept ii: 
 ploughing, the possessors are greatly benefitted. Thin 
 clays, and peat earthy, are more friendiy to the grovvih 
 of oats than other grains, though in lavoraolc seasons u 
 heavy ciup of wheat may be obtained Irom a thin clay 
 soil, when it liaa been compl<:tely summer fallowed, an.i 
 enriched with manure. A first application of calcare- 
 ous manure is generisily accompanied with great advan 
 tagt upon these soils, but when once the eftVci ot ihi- 
 appiica'.ioij is over, it can hardly be re te. t£d a second 
 time; unless the Uud btt? been very cautiously managed 
 
AGRlCtTLTCRE, 45 
 
 iicr the first dressing. Ntilhcr of these soils are 
 
 ficndly to grass, yet tliere is a necesfeity of exercisins? 
 
 his husbandry with them; because they are incapable 
 
 ol' standing the pioiif^h more than a year or two in rota- 
 
 *iun. It is sufBcierit to say, that whcdt should be tho 
 
 predominant crop, on a!l the ricli clays and strong 
 
 •jams; and that light soils of every kind, are well cjuali- 
 
 ^ed for turnips, barley, &c. upon the thin and moorish 
 
 "oils, Oats must neces'^aiily predorainate, or prc« 
 
 --£!) vo e ftromtiirnt funkj and gr,»s<» seeds may b^ gmUU 
 
 v«(fed upon every one of ihg-n, though whlj dlflgrent 
 
 d8t|f^^'e§ of adv«»ntaj?,f, aecepJlng ia ihs wtyral iH(i 
 
 <i:iiflaiii| richness of ©aeh gull, ov w the qiuhUen whlei) 
 
 ii po86e§seg for engQUPSfflni? ib§ growth of elovef, lo the 
 
 l^i'si Jnsianee, ant} presei'viritj ihs I'oals o( ih§ pUnl alter' 
 
 wards. 
 
 On TiUagSi 
 
 Tillage, msy in ^engfBl, h© t)§35rlhsd ai an ep6ra{b;> 
 •vvherehy ihe sgil is elih«r clgjifed Ivom nonlon^ wesJa^, 
 •)}' pr«pat8(l (or leeeivinf^tbe seeds «f plants, cqltivated 
 by the husbandmap, Whpo this opfliratlon is nes;leet«d, 
 or even paitially executed, the stujl becomes fonl, hurrea 
 andunproduciivej hence, upon arable fsrms, liilti^e forms 
 the pffmilnent bfaneh of work? end aceordintj to inij, 
 peilVetion ur Inipetfeeilon with which it is esecmed, U>tt 
 props tjf the hu5i)4ndman, whether of corn or graes, arc 
 in A greBt measure reguinted. 
 
 TillBtre, in the early B.^es, W89 performed by hand 
 Ifthorj but in mQi-iern times, the plonj^h has been the 
 iii.ivefsal inhitument for execijiint; this necessary and 
 important branch of rural work. In no otlier way c^n 
 large fields be turned over, because the expense of 
 dif'ging with ihe spade, 'he only other method of lum- 
 iij^ over the j»tound, would much exceed the pr »tit 
 that could be reaped. Spade work, however, isaiinost 
 universally used in t^ar^len culture, where tiie plants 
 raised arc of greater value than those culiixated in ne 
 fields; though the nearer thai field culiurc caiv be 
 brought to what is exercised in a garden, sy much iiv.re 
 may the practice ot the art be con-i.lcied as approx!" 
 main)g in perleciioii to luui ai the other. 
 
4(5 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 On the utility of Summer Falluw. 
 
 The necessity of summer fallow depends greatly upo: 
 i.he nature and quality of the soil; as, upon sowe soils, i 
 repeiiuon of tl.is pr^ictice is less fiequenily rt-quirc'. 
 ti'.an upon ethers. 
 
 Wherever t'ae soil is incumhcnt upon clay, it is mor" 
 ("lisjiosed to get foul, than when incumbent upon a dry 
 spaveliy bottom; beii'.les, wet soils, horn being plough 
 ed ill wjnier, contract a stiffness which lessens the pas 
 ture of ariificial planie, and prevents them Irom leceiv 
 in^j; sufficient nounsitment. When land of a dry, \iv\x 
 velly quality p;etb foul, it m-y easily be cleaned witlioui 
 a plain summer fallow; since cruj)?, such as turnips, he 
 may be substituted in its place, which, wlien dii'.kul c" 
 proper intc^aj:^, aduiit of l-cinj:; ploughed as oTen ;• 
 necessary; whereas wet soils, vviiich are naluraliy linfu 
 for cari-yinj:^ such crops, n'inst, by fVeqaeni ploutijliinf-^; 
 :.nd harrowings, be brouglit into good order during the 
 L;u!Titncr months. 
 
 A well mAU-i't^cd fallow should be wrought as early i; 
 (he season as* possible, avid continually turijed over t; 
 }onj^ as the least panicle of quickens, or weeds, appear 
 It is no argument aj^ainst the utility of fallows, that the-- 
 arc often managed in a diflerent way: this militate, 
 only against the nnproprie'.y of the management, bu: 
 ijot ap;ainst the practice itself. 
 
 'J'he necessity of sumnner fallow turns upon this sinj^lc 
 point: Gan wet lands be a.ivantageously employed ii* 
 raisinpj turnips oi cabbuj^es? a question vvhich the prac 
 tical farmer, who is si.ifficiently acquainted wilh th( 
 nature of such soils, and the immense luboi required i . 
 bring them into proper tilth, will have no difficulty to 
 answer in the negative. It is not disputed that turnips 
 and cabbages wiii grow upon these soils; but the ques 
 tion is, whedier tlie extraordin.iry labor they requir 
 an-i the damage sustained by the ground, during ili^ 
 c\jnsumptiop, or carrying ofF the crops, will not exceca 
 ihfc value of the produce. 
 
 Up'in all clay soilb, (and upon such only it is under- 
 clood that a complete summer fallow would be necessa- 
 
AGinCULTURE. 47 
 
 ; ,) ilie first ploupihini; ought to be p,iven durinp; the 
 winter months, or as early in tlie spring as possible, 
 which pioniolcs ihe rotund: of liic swatd and stubble: 
 thissi)ould be clone by i;ai.iering up the ridge, which both 
 layb the ground diy, and lips up ;he tunows. As soon 
 as bcrd time is over, the ridge bhoiihi be cloven down, 
 preparatory to cross ploughing; and jfter lying a prupo? 
 tinie, should be harrowed and rolled repeatedly; and 
 every panicle of quickens that the harrows have 
 hi ought above, should be carefully picked off with tne 
 luuul. Ii is then proper to ritlge or gather it up imme- 
 diately, which both lays tUe land in proper condition Ic 
 meeting bad wcalhei, and opens up any Ja^i land ilia': 
 inay have been missed m the furrows, when the criiss 
 ploughing is given. After this, harrow, roil, and gatner 
 ihe ioot-vveed< again, and coulinue so to do till the field 
 is perlectly ilean. 
 
 Consicieiing how much weeds prevail in fields, and 
 how difficult it is, even for the most attentive farmers, 
 to prevent ^iheir crops being hu! t by them, frequent ial- 
 lowing, as the most proper method of destioying these 
 enemies, cannot be too much recommended: when we 
 have arrived at greater peileclion in the several opera- 
 tions of agriculture, and brought our lands to a higher 
 degree ol lertility than at present, Ihtn should we think 
 of introducing schemes ot perpetual cropping. 
 
 A mode of executing summer fallow and pioducing 
 a crop of turnips, in the sauje year, comes now to be 
 noticed. In this way the Und may be completely clean- 
 eo; perhaps more so than by a bare bilow; it is ordy 
 on light, dry soils, that such a mode of cleaning is eligi- 
 ble, or can be executed with advantage. 
 
 The second object ol tillage is to piepare the t^round 
 for receiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the hus- 
 bandman; and here, in general, it may be remarked that 
 the object is n.ost couiplttely accottiplishef' wlieivihe 
 ground is ploughed deep and equal, while the bottom 
 ot the turrow immediately ab.ve tiie subsoil, is ptr- 
 fecily loosened, and turned equally over wuh the part 
 that constitutes the surtate. In many places these pro- 
 perties are altogether neglected, the ground being 
 ■jvighed'in a shallow ^ay, wiiiie the bottom ot the 
 
48 AenrctjiLTUiiB. 
 
 ploughed land remains something like the teeth of- a 
 saw, having llie under part of the furrow untouched, 
 and consequently not removed by the action of the 
 plough: while these things are suffered, the object of 
 tillage is only partially gained: th« food ol plants, (what' 
 £v<r it may be.J can only be imperfectly procured, and 
 the ground is drenched and injured by wetness; these 
 bridges or pieces of land, which are not cut, pieveniing 
 a descent of the moisture from above to the open fur- 
 rows lett for carrying it off \Vhere the seed bed is 
 prepared by one ploughing, the greatest care ought ic 
 be used in having it closely and equally performed. 
 
 When two are given, they should be in opposite di 
 reciidns; so that any firm land left in the first, may be 
 cut up in the second ploughing: it is not profitable to 
 plough twice one way, if it can be safely avoided. 
 
 Another important ponl towards procuring good til- 
 lage, is never to plough the land when in a wet state, 
 because encouragement is thus given to the growth of 
 wteds, while a sourness and adhesion is communicaied 
 lo'the gro nd, whicii is raiety got the better of till the 
 . operations of a summer tallow are again repeated. 
 
 Before 1 finish the directions for ploughing, it is pro- 
 per to remark, that all soils ought not to be wrought or 
 ploughed in one manner: each kind^ has its particular 
 and appropriate mode of tillage. Ploughing, which is 
 the capital operarion ol husbandry, ought, on these ac- 
 counts, to be adminisiered according to the nature of 
 the soil which is to be operated upon, and not executed 
 accoiding to one fixed and determinate principle. On 
 strong clays and loams, and on rich gravel and deep 
 sands, the plough ought to go as deep as the cattle arc 
 able to work it; whereas, on thin clays and barren sands, 
 the bentfii of deep ploughing is very questionable, espe- 
 cially when huch are incumbent on a till bottom, or 
 wliere the subsoil is of a yellow ochre nature: such. 
 when turned up, being little better than poison to tl}( 
 surface, unless highly innpregnated with alluvial coui - 
 post, the efifect of which expels the poisonous subsian 
 ces contained in this kind ot subsoil, and gives a feriilit} 
 to the whole n»ass, more decisive and permanent thani 
 would follow a heavy application of the best rotten duijjr 
 
AGRICULTURE, 49 
 
 On cl.iy soils, where ihe ridges must be considerably 
 accliva'.ed, so that Ihe ground may be prcsei'v^d in 
 something like a dry condition, the plough, used for 
 tillage, ought to have a moijldboard considerably widei' 
 set than is required lor light Boib, in order that the 
 furrows may ue cicsecut below, and duly turned over.- 
 This meihod of consiructing the plough necessarily 
 makes a heavier draft than would be the case were the 
 mould-board placed differently; though, it good and 
 sufficient work be wanted, the necessity ot constructing 
 t!)e implement in the Wiy mentioned, is absolute and 
 indispensibls. The plough to be used on light soils, 
 or on all soils that admit what is LechnicalJy called 
 Crown ploughing, may be made much narrower be- 
 low, and yet bs capable of executing the work in a 
 peiiect manner. Perhaps on every farm, consisting oC 
 mixed soiis, two seta cf ploughs ought to be kept; 
 otherwise proper woik cannot be performed. Ail land 
 ought to lie ploughed with a shoulder, a phrase well 
 understood by ploughmen, though not easily explained; 
 and the advantages of ploughing this way are, that if 
 ploughed before winter, the surface is able to resist the 
 winter rains, and afterwards to present a tacc on which 
 the harrows can make a proper impression when the 
 seed process is to be executed: Tnis deserves particu- 
 lar attention when old g:asb fields are to be broken up, 
 as, by neglecting ii, the harrows often are unable to 
 cover the seed. It is perfectly practicable to plough 
 land with a tolerably broad furrow, say 10, 11, or 12 
 inches, and yet to plough it clean, provided the imple- 
 ment used is properly construcied; but then care in>)st 
 be taken that the furrow be of pioportional deepness; 
 btherwise it will be laid on its back, instead of being 
 deposited in an angle proper for undergoing the har- 
 rowiug process. 
 
 On Manures, 
 
 The t^rm manure is applied indiscriminately to all 
 substances, which are known, fiom experience, either 
 to enrich the different soils or contribute, In any other 
 way, to render thera more favorable to vegetation. 
 
 h 
 
 J 
 
L 
 
 50 AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 Though liitle doubt can be enacilainecl of the utility 
 and necesbiiy of such siibstances, yei the progrts-s 
 hitherto made, in ascertaining the mode in which they 
 ought to be applied; the qutniity '.hat should be made 
 use uf; and ihc soils Jur wbich they are best adapted, 
 has not i cached that perfection or certainty that coujd 
 be vvislicd. 
 
 The most superficial observations will serve to con- 
 vince any person, that, in an ai^riculuiral point of view, 
 the subject of manures is of the first magnitude. To 
 correct what is hurtful to vegetation in the dilTerent 
 soils, and to restore what is lost by exhausting crops, 
 are operations in agriculture which n)ay he compared 
 to the curing of diseases in the animal body, or supply- 
 ing the waste occasioned by labor, or the ordinary 
 evacuations of nature. 
 
 It can be easily noticed that a considerable number 
 of practical agriculturists are inattentive, not only to 
 the gathering of raw materials, but also defective in t!ic 
 several steps of preparatory process, beioie dung or 
 manure can be thriftily and suitably applied: V\ ith 
 such, very little care is us^d in cutting the corn crops, 
 •which, properly speaking, is the only source whence 
 raw materials can be got. They are also too apt to 
 dispose of any hay which may be raised upon their 
 farms, even when prices are not so high as to itmpl a 
 breach of good husbandry. They often liecp more 
 beasts on the premises than is consistent witb the quiin- 
 tily of provender on hand, thus reducing the stock ot 
 •manure in an extraordinary degree. Besides, seldom 
 is any care bestowed in laying up the dung in a regular 
 and careful way, duiing the wiater months, and still 
 less upon its state, during the cxliausting spring winds, 
 or the parching heat of summer months Instead of 
 storing up with regularity, and mixing the difiTerent 
 kinds in a compact heap, it is suffered to remain as 
 tossed from the stable, continues exposed in its rough 
 state to the weather, otten inundated with water, and 
 rarely touched till the cart arrives to draw it out to the 
 field. The middle of April is mentioned as a good 
 time for clearing the fold yard; but this does not pre- 
 vent the work from going partially forward ihrouBh the 
 
AGUICULTCRE. 5i 
 
 "Hinicr, when suitable opportuniiies occur; when driven 
 out of the fold yaril, the dun}» shoul 1 be laid up in 
 a reg;ular heap or pile, not exceeding four teet and a 
 half in heij^iit, and care should be taken not to put 
 either horse or cart upon it, which h easily avoided, 
 backinj^ the cart up to the pjic and laying the dung; 
 compactly top^eiher with a fork; it is also useful to face 
 up the exircmiiics wiiii earth, which keeps in the 
 moisture and prevents the sun ;ind wind froni doin.^ in- 
 JMiy. Perh >ps a stiDail quantity ofearth strewed upon iho 
 If>p, may also i^rove useful Dunn; when muia^ed in 
 t'lis manner, i;enerally ferments very rapidly; but if it 
 is discovered to hv. in i ba'"k\vird state, a co.npi-.te turn 
 over, about the first of May, when the weatlicr bticomes 
 varm, will qjicken the process, and the belter it is 
 shaken asunder the sooi.er will the object in view be 
 accompUsiied. 
 
 \ secluded spol of c^round, not much exposed to 
 wind, anti per!c:c'.Iy secure trom Ijeing floated with 
 water, oup;ht always to he chosen for the scitc of such 
 piles or heaps. If llie field to wnirh ii is to be applied, 
 is at haiKi, a little a'ler trouble mr\y be saved by depo* 
 siiin;^ it ihcie in the first instance; bvit it is found most 
 convenient to reserve a piece of p,iound, convetiient to 
 tlie hmiestead, for tliis purpose — l.iere it is always 
 unier the Tirmer's eye, and a greater quantity can be 
 moved in a shorter time ttian when the situation is more 
 distant; besides, in wet weather (and this is generally 
 the time chosen for such an operation) the roads are 
 not only cut up, by driving to a distance, but the field 
 on which the heip is made, may bo poached and injur- 
 ed considerably. The foreijoing is the most approved 
 metiiod of preparing dimg upon light land farms, and 
 a few words shall now be said respecting the manage- 
 ment accessary upon those of a different description. 
 
 Upf)n clay soils, the lotting of manure is not only a 
 nouhlesome, but an extensive afif'air. Independent of 
 what is consumed by the ordiniry fat m stock, thtf 
 overplus of the straw must some how or other be rot- 
 ^d by lean cattle kept in the fold yard, who either re- 
 C<-"ive the straw in racks, or have it thrown across the 
 yard, to be eaten and trodden down by them. Accord- 
 
5B AGRICULTURE. 
 
 intj to lliis method of consumption, il is evident t'nal p 
 f.lijl greater necessity arises for a freq'jent removal o' 
 this unmade nxanuve, otherwise, from the tiampliinj o! 
 bciists, and the usual want of rtioiature, it would com- 
 press so much as altogetli. r to prevent putrei'aciion. 
 To prepare fiunj^ sunjcienlly upon farrrifr of this cle* 
 scripiion, isatull times an arduous task, hut scarcely 
 pr&c'.icable in dry seasons; foj if it once gels burnt, it 
 h almost pliysically impossible to bring it into a suhabie 
 stale of picparation afterward!-; and, at all events, ii9 
 virtues are thereby considerably diminished. To pre. 
 vent such an injury, no measure can be so auccesslully 
 ii?cd as frequent removal of this unmade manure, cspe. 
 ciuUj if the weather is wet at the time. If persple can 
 stand out to work, there cannot be too yjc^t weincss 
 when cxcciilitlg this operation; for tlserc is always siicli 
 aquanaiyof the strnw that has not passed llirouuh the 
 cjurailsof iho cattle, as renders it almost impossible to 
 do injury in the first instance by an excets of moisture. 
 Jt is iherelore recomrriended, tipon every chy land 
 r^rtTi, e'spcciiilly those of considerable size, that the 
 fold yard be frequently cleaned, and that the greatest 
 care be luken to mix the stable or horse dnng in a rcf^u- 
 lir way with what is gathered in the fold yard, vr nude 
 l)y oti'.er iJj^.imals, in order that a gradual heat or fer- 
 mentation may be produced. 
 
 The hci.p, or ;)ile as already recommended, in tlic 
 firbl preparation of dung, sJiould be lormcCi in a serhf- 
 ded spot, if such can be got at hand, becau-^e the less- 
 it is exposed lo the sun or wind, so much faster wi;! 
 ft-rmentaiion proceed. It should be constructed on <\ 
 broad bafis, which lessens the bounds ot the extreir.i- 
 ties, and several separate heaps arc necessary, so that 
 too mucli may not be deposited at once; which, to a 
 certsii) cxtewf, would bring on the very evil I have all 
 along been endeavoring to avert. By shifting the scene 
 frequently, and allowing each covering or coat to settle 
 and i<. rmcm before laying on any more, the most happy 
 clTecis will lolU.vv; and these heaps (at least all auch 
 as are c-infiletrd before the first of May) may reason- 
 ably be cspccied to be in a fit condition lor applyin}.? to 
 thcsumnicr lallow fields, in the end of July or the first 
 
AGUICULTUBB. 03 
 
 ,jT August. If the external parts get dry at any time 
 durinj? the process, it will be propei" to water them 
 thoroughly, and in many cases to turn over the heap 
 compleleiy. It may be added, that much benefit has 
 been experienced from laying a thick coating of snow 
 upon such heaps, as, by the gradual melting thereefi 
 the whole moisture is absorbed, and a strong fermenta- 
 tiyn immediately follows. The same method of man* 
 a.^ement may be continued during the summer months, 
 ■■.Q far as circumstances permit; though it rarely hap- 
 pens that dung collected during summer, unless it bs 
 •iuch as is made by keeping horses and cattle in the 
 house upon green food. Perhaps, as a general prlnci* 
 pie, it is proper to thresh out all the grain before sum- 
 mer arrites, (a small (quantity of litter and other neces- 
 'iary fiur/ioses exce/ited,J in order that the full value ok 
 the raw materials, when converted into manure, may 
 be gained. Upon largo farms, where the management 
 'jf manure is sufficiently understood and practised, it is 
 an important matter to have dunghills of all ages, and 
 ready for use whenever the situation of a field calls for 
 a restorative. No application to clay soils, however, is 
 so useful as duiing the year of summer fallow, though 
 in such situations a greater stock ot manure is gathered 
 than is required for the fields under this process. 
 
 It likewise deserves attention, that dung applied to a 
 chiy fallow at the end of a summer, has full time to in« 
 corporate with the ground before the crop sown there- 
 upon stands much in want of its invigorating support) 
 consequently, though of apparently inferior quality at 
 'the time of application, may, in reality, be possessed 
 of equal powers for fructifying the ground^ as it it had 
 reached a higher itate of prepxralion. 
 
 There never ought to be moire dung or manure given 
 at one time than is sufficient to) fructify the ground, in 
 other Words, to render it capable of producing good 
 crops, before the time arrives when a fresh dose can be 
 administered. The errors of Hormer tim^s consisted in 
 giving loo great a quantity at once, thereby depriving 
 the ground of its regular nourishment, or, in other 
 Words, the soil rioted in tlie miidst of plenty, for two oi' 
 ti.'C" veatF. snd fusted and siaii ved i'>v sevui'al succcedi 
 
5:1 AGRtCULTURE, 
 
 iog ones. Hence the .q;fnt raiiiy of fulds were eUhc 
 too licji or ton poor; cither »..iuia!tcl vviili manure, or 
 con'plc'ely barren for the w,in' of i; where-is, bad sup- 
 plies been iuniisntd in an economical maimer; had the 
 qiKii\tily oi niuiiurc on hand been (iistributed with jurit;- 
 irif nt, a more imifur'n produce woijld have been the 
 cijnsecpjence. Vh'-. new system of applyiof* manure, 
 C'irrtcts a!l these errors, in so iar as local circumsian- 
 ccs will pcrnjit. Accordin{i:iy, a snj ill quantity is now 
 bestowed at once, ami the dose fVequfcotly tepcatci— 
 the ground is rej^ularly fe*, but never surfeited wiLh a 
 proiusio'i. Hence the crops constitu'.ing a rcf^ular ro- 
 tation, are uniforuWy good, and a greater proportion of 
 the va'ui'.bie giaius are raised than could be accom- 
 plished in ff>r!iier times. Th >ugh hmd cun rarely be 
 rendered too rich for carrying green crops, yet it 'a 
 wf 11 known that the sane oI>servation will not hold 
 g od when applied to wheat, barley and oats; but liiat 
 «uch may be, and often has been materiilly. injured in 
 cofseqjcnce ot heavy manming.^ Anothe" general re- 
 mark occurs -tiiat is, concerning the uliiily of spiead- 
 ing dung wi h accuracy, or dividing it in;o ihe minutest 
 p.rticlc>3, theieby giving every part of the grouiul an 
 cqu.ll supfdy of food. Tiiis practice was miserably 
 rie'itc'fl in former times, and is sliii less attended to 
 th :n its importance deserves. 
 
 On maniiriyis; Clay Lands with Sand, and 
 Sandif Tdind with Clay, Marl, ^'c. 
 
 In the first place, difTerent earths will serve to nra- 
 nure each other: thus, clay is a fertilizer of a light sar.dy 
 soil, and sand is equally a fertilizer of clay. Where 
 clay lands ure m grass, the sand should be bid on as a 
 ■fop dressing, but where they aie ploughed it should be 
 well mixed with the soil for the purpose of dtstroying 
 its adfiesion. Sand w'iich has been v\ashed down in 
 roads and c'sewhere is best. Where clay is applied to 
 a sandy soil, it simuld be caite 1 on in the lail, and 
 spread evenly on the cround, tliat the first may pulver^ 
 \zz uTJvfyrc it is raj.'iecj wait) t!ie soii in the spring. 
 
AQftlCULTUUfi* 0:- 
 
 TIjC belter ihesc t.inhs itrc inixe.d i) the respective 
 :,r>ils, l!ie more sensible ;md in-nerJiute will !)e t!ieir 
 effect's but their principaj excellence is, liul t!>ey are 
 calculatecl p<:"rm:)nenTly to i'.npr )ve the soils to vviucU 
 tl'.ev are applied. SiifF loams are also assisted by saiil, 
 liiid sjiid again by llies;*, but neither in so f;rc.>t a de- 
 ijree^as in (lie former case- Ger.eraliy, it mxy be ob- 
 -cived, ihat all light, dry soils, are improved by bein,:^ 
 •■nixed with heavy e u"J;s, and vice versa 
 
 S.iod and ft ic ni'a^el will greatly Icitiiiz^ t'le sjil o 
 h')5 meadows, and ibis eartli ai^aio is a veiy v^nad rr.^• 
 irute for upland soils; it is p.'cili .ily excellent lor lii iiin 
 rorn, w'len applied to the hilh, and is vory ji;ood for il.\x, 
 iiennp, and most odier summer crop ; like jjypsir.Tn, it 
 is fricHidly to the growth ot wliitc clover. XVhan up- 
 plied to upl-ind griS5cs, it s'lould be laid on as a top 
 (ir;'ssi:)q^. Every kind of black mud, from p Jn Is. a.ld 
 s'.va'Tips, answers a soi-ncvphal similar pyrpos.;; th»Ui>'i, 
 if the nuid be siilT and cLiyey, it should only be aj)plicd. 
 : ) a li.;bt, diy soi!.- h, ^ 
 
 Tiie different sjrts of nm:1, found in b.).^; S'.vvnp's, 
 are also excellent manures lor all upl.^n 1 soils. These 
 earths are usually found '»t tiie depih of IVo-'si one ti 
 'Jiree feet from the surf.ioc, and are either pf a white, 
 k-rey, or biDwnish colour; the forr,ier is the nr»5t effi:3' 
 :i,)us, and the letter 1I13 least so, t!it;ir stren 3jtii beiurij iii 
 'proportion to the (juanli:y of cjrb:i:ute of lirae I'lcy 
 cmt tin. It is best to tnix tiie^jc earihs with the mlsi 
 of black caitb, or h)g dirt, tlut dorms the upper s'.ri- 
 uni, in order to reduce their streni^'.h, and. when lhi=5 
 mixed, a loid of even the woaUest kind is nvive eir>:a- 
 ■ions tlwn two of barn dun^j. Tljiir operation as mi- 
 ivjres is simii -.r 'o that of Nova Scotia plaster, or Jjyp- 
 "uin; liavin^^ littie or no effjci when li;st applied to 
 \^ heal and rye, b 1;, by its afterwards cover;n;^ tha 
 ;M'Oiind wish a tluck i»rowih of white clover, it is ren ler- 
 c; 1 fit for producing l.trgely of il>ese crops. The s.im3 
 may he observed of boj dir;: like this, too, these m.irls 
 ::.re peculiarly exaellent for Indim corn, and all sum- 
 nier grains, and a less quantity is sulHcieiU. Tuey may 
 be used as top dr-Jisinjs or othcr^v'-sc, 
 
^8 AGUICULTURE. 
 
 OJ Compost, 
 
 The use of manure in the shape of connpcst, cr hi' 
 grcdicnis of vaiious qualilies, mixed together in certain 
 propcriions, has long been a bvoi ite practice with niany 
 i".u'nurs, thou|:;h it is nniy in particular situuiions that 
 the practice can be extensively or profuahly executed. 
 The ingredients used in these con posts aie chief]/ 
 earth and Hn;e, son.elmies dung where the earth is 
 poor, but time may he rc^crcied as the main ajjjent of 
 tl'C pioccss, actuig as a slinuilus lor bnnij;ing ihv pow- 
 ers of llic heap into action. Litnc^ in this view, may be 
 considered as a kind of ycabi, operating upon a heap of 
 canh as yeast docs ui)on flour or rucal. It is obvious, 
 thcrclorc, th&t unless a sufficient quantity is given, the 
 !icap may remain unfermenied, in which c.ise liltle 
 bciK'fit will bft derived iVofa it as a manure. 
 
 Tiic best kind of earth for cotapost is that of il;c 
 £.l;uvi;,l sort, which is aiw.iys o| a rich, greasy substance^ 
 oFien mixed with my'' ^'hI »u every respect well calcu- 
 lated to enrich and invigorate barrun soils, especially if 
 they arc of a liRhl and open icxture. Oil yaids, dei p 
 bead lands, and scourings of diti.hes, offer themselves 
 lilso as the basis of compost; but it is proper to summer 
 {allow them befoie hand, s'> liia; they may be entirely 
 free of «'eeds. Wlicn the lime is mixed ivith the soil oF 
 these heaps of cl ly, rejjeated turnings are necessary, 
 that llie whole may be suitably fcnncnted, and some 
 care is required to apply t.^e fermented mass at a proper 
 time to the fiild on which it is to be used. 
 
 y\sbes, as a manure, are found to be oiorc eflicacioug 
 in some parts of the country than oti»er$, generally 
 most so when applied to lands near the ocean. Wood- 
 ashes generally answers the most valuable purpose, 
 when applied to Indian corn, particularly where the 
 soil is not suitable to diis plant Where tiie soil is wet, 
 cold, loamy, or clayey, the plants are apt to get stunted 
 by the cold rains which usually fall alter planting, an^l 
 then the ashes serve to supply tl^e natural deficiencies of 
 the soil, till it becomes fertilized by the summer sunj 
 but, where the soil is natural lo the growth of the plant, 
 ind thtiie is r\p d>ng.;r of its bring stuule;] at Us,»uisetj 
 
AGKICULTURE. ^^ 
 
 ncrliapa it may be better-itp apiily ihc ashes later, so 
 that the plmts may derive the j^rcatest assisiancc IVoin 
 Miis tTianurc, wliiie the eaia aie seltins:^ and iorminjj. 
 .A!,i,f.8 s'noukl fi;'^''C>'"ny be Ufeed for a top tJictsing, ;iu 
 fluiir 9ult!3 lose nuthing by exposure to the cir, and bocn 
 find their wny into the soil. 
 
 Coal ashes are a gcod manure. They arc sown on 
 tiic lane! in the sprinij:, at tlie rate of four or five chal» 
 drons per acre. Cohl^ v/ct clay meadows are much im* 
 pioved by them- Soot is much more efficacious ilian 
 nshts — besides salts, it contuins oil. The soot of conl 
 ia esteemed equally as guod as iliat of wood; it is used 
 for top dressii^gs, and requires from forty tofit'ty bushels 
 to the acre. Wiun applies to wintar j^rain, it should 
 be sown in the sprinj^; und the same may be oljserved of 
 cshes. Soot is exccllenl for sanfoin, clover, lurcrne, 
 and for meadows which have become sour and mossy. 
 This maniiic cnn, however, only be had in constde' uble 
 qujutiiies in larj^e town^. Oi" sdts, vvliicb serve ai ma- 
 r.uics, the principal arc the common sea salt, nriue, stale 
 ofcMVile, S23 water, saltpc.re, and alki^'ine saltb— to ihe 
 lattvjr the virfufi of ishos, as a manure, is princip^dly 
 o\vt'i(t;. So?,p suds ii in pirt valuable on accouni of its 
 alkaline salts, nnd perhaps the netur.ilitad oix it contains 
 adds much to its value, h is «is.ial to throw this oi! 
 away, but this h a needless waste— it may be taken itr 
 thf watering pot, and strewed over iho vjarwcni whei«it 
 v/ill bo of great seruce as a manure, an.l in txpcllin;^ 
 insects. Common sair is considered m re e[Bcaci'>us 
 vvnen mixed in composts, than when applied i.i its crude 
 «'atc to the soih It cattle are not regulirly salted the 
 birn dung will scarce be vvorth mcvin-^'; and were it not 
 the fear of renderint; this sec;ioy too prolix, I covilc) 
 mention several profi able at^riculuiral experinnr.nts Uy- 
 means of salt. Sea water is said to contain saltpetre^ 
 6ulphur,and oil, besid<;s common salt, and is therefore 
 preferable to common salt as a manure, when put iu 
 composts or otherwise; but it is where the local situa* 
 tion of the farmer will enable him to procure it without 
 much expense, that it can be used to advantage. 
 
 Sea weed is a plant that grows upon rocks within tiie 
 jCu, is diiTen ashore after storms, and is found lo be an 
 
6S AdRlCULTUlifi. 
 
 oitcillcni eiiitle for nv»nin"iug light and diy soils, tliougr> 
 of litilo advanlage to those of a clayey dcsciiptjon. 
 Tliia erticle may be applied on xha proper s<;il ^'^'vU ad- 
 vnntap;e to any crop, and its t:{Tccis are immediate, 
 th(nigh ru-ely of lon^j: coniimnncc Seaweed i^apjiU- 
 etl at all se.'»9ons lo the smt'ice, and sometimes, though 
 rot so pt-iifitahly, It is mixed w'lh u'lrot'.en dung, llvAt 
 the procc-is of piitrf.fjctiisn nn\y t)e hassiened Cicncrally 
 spc3l;inj», it is at once applied to the soil, which saves 
 labor and prevents thit degree of waste which other- 
 wise would nccfsS'iily happen. S'a weed is, in oiip. 
 respect, preferable t« the ridiest (hm,», becau'ie it docs 
 not produce such a quinii'y of weeds. Some have 
 thoy(!;hl that the tvceds upon land which have received 
 dung, rue produced i)y seeds mixrd with die diunr; but 
 it is reasonable to p;esutv.e that the silts contained iti sea 
 w-eed, and .ipplifd to it, mty he the red cause of the 
 after clesnliuess This inav |->e i-;ferred from the gen- 
 eral ttate ot coast *side lan'ls, where sea weed i:^ used; 
 these Ir.nds arc Hmosjt cunstaiit v kept in tillage, and yet 
 are clenner and frcei from weeds than those in inland 
 situations, \vher<' the corn ctops are not so often taken. 
 Lime will reduce peat and turf to a mere ve^;etable 
 caith, but it never proceeds so fr»r in tne work ol dc- 
 ccmpoRitinn as to destroy vep;etable muter or lessen ;ta 
 qu.-'n'.ily whoe it abounds. Lrme is of sint^ular u-e in 
 destioylng the aoMiesive quality ot stilT clays, and'ii ii 
 on soils of ihi3 descrij>iion, and on cold loarr^s, that it 
 lias been consid' ff d in Ciicu Britain as most efficacious. 
 On such soils ii is usual to apply uboiit 'wo hundred 
 and forty bushels to an acre, winch is conoid rc<i a lull 
 manuring, the (ITccis ot wnich are usually rn-nilesl for 
 eight, fen, and twelve .T il^e succeeding crops. If 
 Jime be applied to the lighter anl drier lands, not much 
 mote than ha!f of 'hat allowance is given at once. 
 I/une operates equally well, whe-her -pplieil when 
 fresh slacked, or when it 1k>s been some time slacked, 
 provided the- condition of the groun } be such as to ren- 
 fler a c:. Icatcous application hf neficial It is not mate- 
 liJ wlicthcr lime he used en grass land, or su aimer 
 fallow, hm may be applied cs m.ay be most convenient, 
 especially on new clean gryss land. O.i land which has 
 
AGRICULTURE. 59 
 
 long lain in grass, it ib ilu-uglit btst lo tike one crop 
 alter breakins^ it up, and then to summer fjllow and 
 apply the lime. 
 
 Tlie linuiip of moorish lands is hazardous, unless 
 diinf.; be likewise bcstowet ; ami to repeat the opciation 
 of lirniny:, especially wlitre such soils have bein se- 
 verely cropped, is alnr.ost certain loss; and in such 
 cases, a compost of lime and rich earth is the only 
 substitute. 
 
 The strong clays and loams require a full dose of 
 lime to bring tiiem into action, as such soils are c;»pable 
 of absorbing a great quantity ol calcareous matter, and, 
 of course, the lighter soils leqoireless lime to stiii.u- 
 late their, an.i may bcinjuicd by a qu^nily that would 
 prove but moderate!) beiitficial to heavy boiis. 
 
 I ha^ealso to notice, that upon fresh Kuid, or 'hat 
 vhich is in a proper stale !or .<n addition of calcareo-.is 
 earth, lime is much superior to dung, as i'.s effects 
 continue for a longer time; while the crops thus grown 
 aic ot a supciior kaid, and are less liable to be ii jured 
 by c'roug'-.i, oi by excess of muibtuie, and tiie siifl >oiis 
 paiiiculariy are tntich easier worked when well iin»vd: 
 tliis circumssAnte jUjoe ought therefore to be a sufn;:i- 
 enl inducement lo apply lime to such gicunds, it it pos- 
 'sesses no leiMlitin^ pidpeity Finally, though s'ruiij; 
 soils require to be aniuiaicd with a gjjod dose of lime, 
 vet those ut a lighter texiuie require but little 'itoic 
 than half the allowance ol the former, especially where 
 they are fresh, or have not been before limed; still 
 judgnient is nquired in the iipplii ation. But that it is 
 generally safer to exceed the proper quantity ih<in to 
 bt below i ; for that, io this luii.cr case, the manure may 
 piove wholly usciefes, while it rarely h.ippens that the 
 ground is injured by an excess of lime, especially if 
 more or less dung be soon alter administered. Lime is 
 also of singular use in producing a liigh dej^rce ol fer- 
 mentation, in all soils which require it, and this is es- 
 sential to their productiveness in every country and 
 climate. 
 
 Chalk is used to great advantage on some wet, siilF 
 soils, having no calcareous earth; in quantity, from 
 fifiy to eighty loads per acre. Its beneficial eftects are 
 
60 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 said to last twenty years. The best method of using 
 is lo spread it early in the auiunin, in order that it may 
 be tlioiouglily diemhed with rain, and that the fVcs^ 
 may Iiave its full operation upoti it, by vvl.ich mc^ns i*^^ 
 is well pulverized when tlie thaw comes on, and wil; 
 mix the more readily with the soil. Old grass land, oi 
 M'et sandy or clayey soils, overrun with fuize or rushes, 
 are greatly in^proved by chalk; but it is to be observed; 
 ih t land once completely chalked, after its fertiJizmg 
 powers appear to be exhausted, is reckoned to be infC' 
 rioi to land that never was chalked. 
 
 Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris, is a native combination 
 of c*ilct\reous eartli vvith viiri./lic ?cid. There aio va- 
 rious species of gypsum found both in Europe and 
 America. That mostly usfd in the United Slates, 
 con.es fron. the Bay ol Fundy, thou^li considerable 
 q^ii'iitiiies are procuied from the interior ol the stales 
 of Pci nsylvani- and New York. 
 
 Tht US; s of (;;ypsum art very extensive: when it i:; 
 sufficiently compact, it is en»ployed by the architect ior 
 Cidumns and other ornaments, being easier to work 
 than marble; it is also turised by the lathe into cups, 
 ^bosons, ai-d other similar articles. When exposed to 
 a low red heat it ports wiih its water of crystalizaiion; 
 is cot)veited to a fine powder, ca'.led Plaster of Paris, 
 like meal, and this, when beaten up wiih waier to iht; 
 ccnsister.ce ol pasie, slicrt.'y after seis and becomes 
 solid; hence it is largely used for taking casts of vati- 
 cus n>agnitude, fron: a medal to a Colossal statue. It 
 tniers iiito ihe composition of many cements, and within 
 these few years has ylso become an aiticle ol gieat im- 
 portance in feitilizing soils. Ic is difl'icuit lo deter- 
 mine what quantity per acre will produce the best 
 eflects, as so niuch will depend on the weather; but io 
 general as great effecis have been produced by two 
 bushels per acre as from any larger quantity. Indeed, 
 there seems to be a certain point in the operations ©f 
 plaster which is not gained by additional quantity so 
 much as by a combination of extraneous circomstan. 
 ces, difficult to trace or account for; for almost all 
 soils, except clay lands and wet loams, this is the 
 cheapest manure that can be applied; and iis use ii> 
 
AGRlCaLTUUE. 61 
 
 this counlry Serves greatly to equ.iHz3 the value o^ 
 lands, by rendering those whiclj are naturally poor 
 almost as productive as the rich. The gypsum that 
 aljounds in Jiie inlerior of tiie state of Nc^v York, is 
 much superior to that of Nova Scotia, not only as to its 
 being a greater stimulant to the growth ot plants, hut in 
 regard to its being more general in its operation — better 
 calculated to assist the growth prf" all plants in all soils 
 and situations. It has been successfully applied to old 
 rrcavow land of tinnothy grass, to growing crops of 
 wheat, and in all cases where the Nova Scolia piaster 
 is applied with little or no efTect. In ether instances, 
 however, can be seen its inoperative qualities on timothy 
 grass, on dry loam, while it has its usual effect on clover 
 growing on the same soil. Its efllects are not always 
 the same, but most certain when applied to clover, by 
 greatly increasing that crop, and by putting the land in 
 good condition for almost any other, when the clover 
 sward is turned under. As gypsum, when scv/n or» 
 suilable ground, always produces a sprkntaneous growth 
 of white clover, and as this growth is an indication oF 
 the soil being thus rendered in good condition for a crop 
 of wheat or rye, where, therefore, either of these 
 crops are to be raised on fallow lan'ls, the belter way is 
 to sow th2 gypsum e.irly in tlie spring, and, as soon as 
 tl/C growth ol t! it> clover is prnriviced, break up the soil, 
 and prepare it for the crop by further ploughing in due. 
 season, and in this way the product will be double what 
 mighi be expected on the same ground without the ap- 
 j)iication of this manure. The most powerful operation 
 of this manure, in proportion to thequanlily used, is in 
 applying it to dry seeds, after being soiked in some fer- 
 tilizing liquor, such as a mixture otold urine, ley of woni 
 ashes, or strong soap suds, with a solution of salt petre, 
 and sown or planted immediutsly. 
 
 The effects of such treatment on seeds of Indian corrr, 
 buckwheat, peas, oats, bat ley, and perhaps flax, v?ill 
 probably he found the greatest, but, if the gypsum of 
 the state of New York be used, its effep ts may be found 
 mere generally useful. When potatoes are cut for 
 phnting, it is of singular use to the growth of the crop 
 vospiinkle on gypsum before the cut parts have diieci, 
 6 
 
6S AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and also to apply some to the hills before the seed i' 
 covered, about a table spoonful to eacli. 
 
 Indian corn is also greatly benefitied by a similar ap- 
 plication to the hills: let the Rypsutn be bcattered a little 
 in both cases. Plaster is Evifficicptly fine wiien ground 
 to produce 20 bushels to the tor; if it is iiner, it is sub- 
 ject to fly away in strewing. It should always be re- 
 snembered that calcination, liowever neccssaiy it may 
 be to make cement of plaster, lessons, it not destroys iis 
 agricultural uses. To try the quality ol plaster, heat a 
 small quantity of it pulverized in a pot over a brisk firt ; 
 if the effervescence of a sulphureous smell be consider- 
 able, it is good; if it be small, it is less valuable; and if 
 it remains inert, like sand, it is worth nothing. When 
 soils are suitable, gypsum is applied with great advan- 
 tage to every species of vegetation. 
 
 Could bone dust be procured in sufficient quantity. 
 and at a reasonable price, few substances would be move 
 advantageous as a manure. Its eflecis upon the soil, 
 though not immediately apparent, are in the highest de- 
 gree beneficial; and their dut ability does not constitute 
 the least portion of their value. Bone dust is applied in 
 agriculture in the same manner as plaster of Paris. 
 
 On the cultivation of Culmiferous Crojis. 
 
 The varieties of grain, ranked as culmiferous, are-, 
 wheat, barley, oats and rye. These varieties we are to 
 consider as bearing hard upon the soil, and it does not 
 matter much which of them are taken, because all are 
 robbers of the ground, and tend to exhaust it of its pro- 
 ductive powers. No doubt some soils are more favora- 
 ble for one sort of grain than another, as, for instance, 
 clays and loams are betitir adapted for wheat than sands 
 and gravels; while sandy or gravelly land is belter calcu- 
 lated for barley and oats than the other. It is by fixing 
 upon the most proper of each for the soil cultivated, that 
 the judgment of the farmer is correctly ascertained. 
 
 As wheat is the roost valuable grain cultitated in this 
 country, I shall treat of the several processes connected 
 with its culture in a more particular manner than may 
 be required when treating of other grains. 
 
AGRICULTURE* 6^ 
 
 I shal! P.rst speak of the soils best adapted to the 
 pjrowih of wheal; 2c!. of the cnltiire requiied for that 
 0,1'ain; 3d, of lh«8. varieties of seed^ 4th. of the way it ia 
 ■^own; 5lh. of pickling wheat so that it may be preserved 
 ';o«n being smiillcd or blacked; aud 6th. of the diseases 
 ;'j which wlieal is liable in its difierent stages. 
 
 On tliQ Soils beat adapted to tha gi^owth of 
 Wheat 
 
 Rich cluy3 and heavy loam3 are naturally well caIcu- 
 ';jted fur produci.">g wheal; but any kind of cby ;vncj 
 foamy soil, situiittu! in a prop":r ciimaie, may be anifici- 
 al!y adv-ipted to the growth tif that grain by enriching it 
 wiUi a siiTiciant qnaniiiy of manure. On soils of the 
 fiibt debcrip'inn, wheat may be cultivated almost every 
 sctond year, provi-led due care is Vakcn to keep the lanrj 
 tlcsn ttsi-l iogoad condition. A summer fallow once in 
 four, six, or tl^ht years, according to seasons and cir- 
 cur.nslances, is, luv.vever, r.etcs:iary; and manure should 
 bo appliod on that fallow for the fir^t crop ot wheat. 
 .Li>ht soils, ilious^h they will, wiih the exception of soft 
 sands, produce whcut of excellent quality, are not cor\- 
 sdtutiorjaliy disposed to the ijrowtli of thut ^rain. Sum- 
 mer fallow on them may safely he fiisptinsed with, be- 
 cause a crop ol turuip";, which admiis every brinca of 
 lite cleaninfj process to be m'>re perlectly executo'l t'jun 
 even a nakc.l or b.irc lal'ow does, uay 1)'-: profitaiiiy sub- 
 stituted. VVaeat here come'i in wiiii prupriety, after 
 turnips, thmi^i, in general cases, it mast be sown in the 
 spring moiuUii, unlaips the turnips are stored, in vvinch 
 case it may be sown it) November, or it may be sawu 
 after clover for the fourtii crop of the rotation, or in t!ie 
 sixth year, as a wav-goini; crop, after drilled peas and 
 i)eans, if the roLUtun is extended to th it length. NeilUei* 
 is it pus^iljlc to raise wlieat so extensively upon lij^ht 
 sjiis, even where they are ot the richest quality; as is 
 pructicalj^e upon clays; nor will a crop ol equal bulk, 
 upon Uie one, return so much produce in grain as may 
 be got fryni "the other* 
 
61 AGRlCULirtJftE. 
 
 On the culture required for Wheat, 
 
 On soils really calculated for v,hp,at, iIioorIi in differ- 
 cnuJegrtc'S, Eurnmcr fallow i^ the litsi and leading sicp 
 io gain a good crop, or crops of thai gcajn. The first 
 tiirrow should he given bclorc vvintei, or as eaily a» 
 otiier cptrations upon the farm will admit, and ever)" 
 altemion should be used to go ts deep as possible, for it 
 rarely happcr.s that any of the sticccedii;^; furrows ex- 
 ited the first one, in that lespect, the number of after 
 plougliings must be rc{^ulated by the condilidu of the 
 ijround end the state of the wcalhei; but in general it 
 liuay be oLserved, that plougliing in length ai:d acro^^, 
 alternately, is tlie way by which the ground will be most 
 coiisplilely cut, aiid the intctitlou of fullowin^ acconi- 
 •{>liahed. In o diy season it is almoit impraclicable to 
 reduce real- clays or to woik Ihini too snudl, and even 
 in a wet one, supposinj; they are made surface srDOoiii, 
 they will, A hen ploughed up again, ccnsolidato into 
 clods or lunip'3, afier forty-cig!it hours drought, and be- 
 come neatly as obdurate as ever. It is only on tliin soils, 
 ihathiiV* a miKtuieof peat earth, and are incumbent on 
 a bottom ia>pervious to water, tliat damage is at any 
 tiiHf suslaiued froir* over harrowing. 
 
 •Another method of 'preiiaring land for llTieaf. 
 
 In the winter season carry oo a sufficient quantity of 
 rnanuie, and as soon as the Jrosl is out (4 the ground 
 plough it over srriooth, furrow it anc^ plait it with pota- 
 toes, in hiils, leaving just roonj enough between the hilia 
 to plough both wuysy. When ihcy are grown to ih.e 
 heis^ht of two or three inches, phiugh ihcm one way, 
 turning fiit furrow upon the hiils ou eacij tide, having a 
 pcrstH 10 follow and weed therm out. 
 
 About the end of June crotiS plough them, turning 
 upon me hiil eKaiti, and let the person tollowini; the 
 plough mould the hillt; and about ilie iwcmieih of Au- 
 gust you will find that the tops will dit; then pull them, 
 for the longer ihey ren.ain ii the cati!) llje more wut!.. 
 rhey Will collect in their subii2:.c_c. 
 
AGIiiCULTCRE, (5j 
 
 As soon as the potatoes are gathered turn in yovir hogs, 
 .•.nrl let them rernrdn there till the be^iinuing of October; 
 they will by this time have torn up and mixed the cjrounti 
 I-eUer than any ploughinLj; then harrow the ground foi" 
 . jwinq; whc^t. Tho advanta{;e!j are, titnt the potatoes 
 kill the weeds and turf; and the hogs, by rootinj^ and 
 turninj;: the soil in search of potatoes, efTectually destroy 
 all kinds of vermin thit h»ve been left in the ground, bed- 
 sides a considerable savins^ iu their keeping. 
 
 Wheat — Varieties of Seed. 
 
 Whoat mny ba chissed nnMer two principal division?,' 
 ■iiO'ii^h each of these adrniis of several subdivisions: 
 The first is c;)n"iposed of all the varieiies of red wheat, 
 'i.U as such are- no^v r-srely sown, being at least fifteen 
 pounds par cen'. inferior in value to t'nose wiiich 
 aro {renerally cultivated, it is unnecesssary to say 
 ;iny thin;^ a^oul them. The second division compre- 
 hends the whole varijti«3 of white, under two distinct 
 heids, namely, thick ch.ifFod and thin ciiafTBd. The 
 thick chaffed varieties wero formerly in the greatest 
 repute, generally yicldinfj the whitest and finest flour, 
 and in dry seasons, not inferior in produce to the other; 
 but since the disease Called mildew, to which they are 
 constantly predisposed, raged so extensively, they have 
 !;radually been gnng out ol fashion; under these cir- 
 <;umstancc3, it seems unnecessary to notice them mor^ 
 particularly. 
 
 Tlie thin chaffed wheats are a hardy class^ and sel- 
 dom mildewed, unless th* weather be particularly ininv- 
 ical during the stages of blossoming, fiihnt^, and ripen- 
 in'-r; though some of ti^em are better q lalified to resisj. 
 that destructive disorder than others. A nomenclature 
 of thin chaffed wheats might be uselul, but, at present^, 
 anything of that nature is an impossible task, because, 
 even with agriculturalists, their names are altogether ar- 
 bitrary. It has often been noticed that this class of wheat 
 preserves a green healthy aspect during the coldest 
 ■weather, when other varieties assume a sickly, and 
 jaundiced hue. The resistance which it shows to tho 
 yffects of inclement weather, perhaps proceeds from 
 6» 
 
CO- AGUICULTUUE. 
 
 the stienptli of its roots, Uioiit\h the effects may bo easier 
 cle-:ciibt<l than llie caae accouiileii for. I sh'.ill, how- 
 ever, 5^ive soineUiiDg in .ul.iition, on two sirtj of wiicat 
 that hiue lateiy aitacieJ ihe attemion of ai^riculturaliats, 
 namely, the Kgr/hdaii vj/ieat, on account o\ its fccun- 
 diiy, aii.i tilt Joii:'i*3 (>u Lawler nvheat, on account of the 
 si'.if»»ii3!' properties of resisuiig tlie devastJftions of l!ie 
 Hessian fly. 
 
 On the Diseases of Wheat, 
 
 Wheat is suhjici to more diseases than other graios, 
 and ill so^ne seasons, especially in wet ones, heavier 
 Ifisses 're sijslnined from those diseases, than are felt i:i 
 the culture of auy other culmiferous crop, with wliich 
 we are acquainted. Wlieal may sud'-ir fi o n the aitjck 
 of insects ^t the rou!; Irom blight whic>i piimirii/ 
 affwCts the leaf, or sti^w; an J, ultirnatjly, deprives t!ic 
 gr/in of noMrislinien'.; from nii|tlc\v on ihs ear, which 
 operates thereon, with the force uf an apoplectic siroke; 
 and from gum of different shades, which lotl.;e« in tiu 
 chaflor cups in which the ^rain ii deposite:!. 
 
 Blight in wheat, originates from moist fofji;/ we-Uhei"- 
 ai)d from hoar frosts, the effects of wiiich, when e.<j)cl- 
 Jed by a hot sun, are first discernible on the straw, am) 
 afterwards on the ear, in a greater or lesser decree, a: 
 cording to local circumstances. 
 
 JMildcw again, strictly speaking, may bi raniied as a 
 disease which affects the ear, and is brought on by 
 causes somewhat similar to those which occ .sion 
 blight; though at a more advanced period of the season; 
 These different disorders are vjenerally accompa(»ietl by 
 Insects which are considered, though without the least 
 foundation, as the authors of the mischief that follows; 
 their appsarance, howcfver, may be attributed to the 
 diseased state of the plant. 
 
 Anoiher disorder which affects wheat, and which is 
 denominated rust, is brought on by excessive heats, 
 Which occasioj) the plants to suffer irom privation of 
 nourishment, and become sickly and feeble: In tins 
 atropnica! slate, a kind of dust g.Aihcrs on the stalk and 
 leaves^ which increase with the disease, till the i)lat« Is 
 
AGRICUJ.TUilE, 6Y 
 
 in a groat measure worn out unci esluaslsd. Tiia only 
 remedy in th.iscane, and it is one that cannot be easily 
 adininistered by »'he hand f)f man, is u plenlii'ul sui)j)ly 
 of moisture, by w'iiicli, it' it is received before tlie con- 
 svinjption is tc>6 far advanced, t!ie crop is benefited iii n 
 t!ei;r*e proa^i tion.il to tiie extent cf nourisliiriein re- 
 ceived, and*!»e s'.at^e at wbicii ti»e dissasc lus arrived. 
 
 Egi/ptlan Wheat* 
 
 The astonishin.^j fecundity of this jjrain may be gatiier- 
 cd trorn the following experiment;;: — \. M-B jowler of 
 Lincoln, three years ago plantCv! tvvcn'y-livre griin'i of 
 this wheat — the soconJ year's pro luce >va3 ten bns'jeis; 
 the third year he reaped upwards of forty q-.i trters, 
 part of which he sold shor;Iy after fjr Sve j^'iineas per 
 (](ii\rter. I am n')t abb to say who her ho deviuad 
 Iroiu the common mode of culture or not. 
 
 Mr. Mims^s description of the Janes^s oy 
 Laivlei' iVheat. 
 
 "My wheat was sown a'joiit the I0;h of Ooto'jor, an I 
 grew well, l)ivin^, as I i!io:>;^')t, a liuls of the purijio 
 appearance of rye. When it !)e^an to spread an.l shoot, 
 up, about ih'j middle of April, it ^''-^dually assumed 
 rnurj and more of what (he Tirmers term the fi-ed ap- 
 pearanco. This w.is occasioned by thi two under 'or 
 f^ronnd blades turniiii; yellow, a:id cfraiually decaying; 
 the plants, however, (»rew and shot up with vigor. The 
 two unckr blades still continued to decline, until they 
 became entirely dead in (iie early part of May, so tiiat 
 this paiticular properly df tiie wheat, wliicij at first 
 £ilarmed me, not being accustomed to the manner of its 
 Kiovvih, I believe saves it from the injury of the fiy. 
 Upon eKnminatiori, at the season when they are com- 
 mitting their depredadons, the fly vvill almost univer- 
 silly be f<)und, in its imperfect state, in tho two i?;rou5i 
 blades. Now, if these die before liioc^sjg arrive at any 
 C'jnsiderable size, they have neither picnecuon nor nou- 
 rlshnajnt, and must of necessity perish. From the>c 
 i'acts it any be concluded that Jri:s'.'} r^h::ti^ or any 
 
•• 
 
 ^ AGRICULTURE. 
 
 other species of whicU tne un;l';r hlides die cr.r'y, will 
 ■l)c proof Tc^iinsJ the Flessian flv. I 'wve navar siicii nor 
 hcurJ of ai) instance w!)cro thv- J'jK't's •wheat has been 
 injured by the fly, but I have seoi) every oHier kind; 
 even =own adjacent, and o^ ihe s.ine duy, suitaia much 
 clainuge.*" 
 
 On steeping or pickling Seed. 
 
 This process is in.iisoeiisMiiiy necessary on every soil, 
 otl)erwise smut to a cjieAier or less exicnt will follow; 
 *hoii(:;h almost nil prcii'a! facncrj are agreed tis to tho 
 necessity of picUli u?, yet they ire not so unanimous :\g 
 to tiie Oiodc of op'Matioi), nr of rha article best calcula- 
 ted to answer the intended pur;j(ise. Sl.ih; urine mny 
 be considered as the sdesl and smcst pickle, and where 
 it can be obtained in a sufficient ([u-ntity, is j^cner.'illy 
 resorted to — the mude of usins* it does not, however, 
 seeiTj to be agreed upon; for while one party conteudi 
 that the i»rain ought 'o be sieep-.'d in the urine, another 
 party considers it as S'lfficient to sprinkle the urine upon 
 ii; 3o-iiie, aj»ain, are advocates for a pickle made of salt 
 aiKl water, sufficiently strong; to buoy u]) an egg, in 
 which the grain is to be thoroughly steeped; bat what- 
 ever difTcrc'ice there may be jn oninion, as to the kind 
 of pickle that ought to be used, and the mode of using 
 it, all admit that mixing the wet seed with hot lime, 
 iresh slacked, i3f)f the greatest utility, and in one point 
 of view it is absolutely necessary, so that the seed may 
 be equally distril)iiic(': It n)jy be rcrjiarked, thai ex- 
 perience justifies the utility of all these modes, provi- 
 ded they are attentively carried into operation. There 
 is some danger from the firs'.; for if the seed steeped in 
 urine is not immediately sotrn, it will infallibly lose its 
 vegetative power. Sprinkling the urine on the seed, 
 seems tiierefore the safest rHcthod il performed by an 
 atleniive hand, whilst the last may do equally well, if 
 such a quantity of salt be incorporated with the water, 
 as to render it ol sufficient strength: It may also he 
 observed, that this last mode is often accomnaiiied with 
 smut, owing liO doubt to a deficiency of strength in the 
 pickle; whjereBsa sitJgle head with smoiM rarely discov 
 
AGRICULTURE, 09 
 
 ;jrcd when mine has been used: I shall, however, men- 
 lion ihicc cliffi,ieiit modes of stcepinji; wheal, each of 
 whicli have boen succes»fuliy prscii^ed by intelligent 
 ianners. The first is, yflcr ihe wheU is run through a 
 screen, to take out the seesls ol cockle, dii|3*i, and other 
 v.'ccd«, which infesit the crop; (care being taken, n'>t lo 
 lot the seed get any mixture of lyc m i', as it consiucr- 
 ob!y lessens t!io crop;) then wer the sceH. wiieat wel!, 
 ant! while it is wet, roll ii in gypsum or pldS er of Pari--, 
 till by reason of the moisture, a complete coxt ol ^yi)- 
 ^UTTi envelops the grain, then sow it immediately; ilu:i 
 treatment tnakcb t!ic croj^ grow larger, ripen miicU 
 earlier, und preservea it hom ri^^t or RiiUlew. T/tc 
 .-rcond meiliGd is, to bteep the see<i in the carbonated 
 liquor afforded by dunghills: It is hi;;hly esteemed 
 r,3 a stepp, which promotes the grmwih oi Iha crop, and 
 proiertf! tlie seed from injury by insac's. Thi third 
 *fifif.^i^4 Let i!*c '.vl,£-t b- Uuice ihorcu^hly \v.ibhv;d, 
 and let tfje water drain (rofti i', al'iccr the third vvas'iin27 
 :lien steep it eigiiteen h'>urs, in hriuio wrong enough lo 
 iloa* an eg<^, and spread it on a lljoir to let t!ie brine ruii 
 ^n"; but while the wheal is yet we;t, let quick li'ne b;j 
 tqudiy silted over it, s'lrritig it vefy well with a shovel, 
 and continue sifting on moie lime, untii the srlieac be 
 equally dusted with i'; in the proportion of half a gallon 
 of lime to a busiiel of wheat: By stirring it w«ii witii a 
 ohovel, the wheat will soon be dcy aud fit tor so'ving. 
 riu; produce of so.'iiC exceesii^ig suiu'ay wheat piep^reJ 
 ivs sowing in the above method, has been good, clc^o, 
 well filled grain. 
 
 Oil Seed IVorJc, 
 
 Sowing in the broad cast w»y mr,y be auid to be tho 
 mode universally practised, for the trilling deviations 
 iVoni ii can hardly be admitted as an exception. Uiy6ii 
 well prepared lands, if the seed be c'isiributed equally, it 
 cun scarcely be sown too t!)in, perhaps from a busiiel lo 
 a bushel and a half per acre ate sufiioieut; for the hea- 
 . iest crops, at autumn are rarely t'uose vvhicli show the 
 :ncst vi^oroi:3 appearance throoyli Ihe \vintor month;. 
 
^0 A'CRICULTURE, 
 
 Bye. 
 
 There is but one kind of rj'es but tttia may l3e macTe 
 either tvintcr rye, or sfirintf rye; by gradually habilu- 
 atinp it to different times of sowing. Take winter rye 
 for insuince, and sow it later and laic-, cacb fall, and it 
 may «t len{>;ih be sown in the spriog, luxl then it bucoiuca 
 cprij.tv rye. 
 
 Rjcoughtnever tobc sown on wet soils, nor even upon 
 Roady soils where the subsiod is of a releiuive quality. 
 Upon dftwns, links, and all soft lands, which Wave re- 
 ceived manure, this j^rain thrivt^s in perfection, and if 
 oiice covered in, wiil svand a drought afterwards, that 
 Tvould consume any ether ol ine cul'r.iferous ttibe. 
 The ocversl processes niay be regavdod as nearly the 
 same with Ihoss recoraincnded for wheat, with tlie 
 sinj^Ie exception of picklins^', wiiich rye does i%c-t re- 
 quire. The wiltltr seeded £ulJ.'» are trcn.r^ily U>« 
 bulkiest and most productive. It may be succeeded 
 either by sumiTicr fallovv, clover, or luri.ips. £ven 
 after oats, good crops have been raised. 
 
 Barley^ 
 
 ljarJf7 is a dry, husky grain, and requires r.onsidcra- 
 l)1e moisiure to cduse it to vejjelate; it should be sown 
 when the ground is sufficiently moisi; it rihouid also be 
 sowna« soon its the ^.■irnund can be well prepaied in the 
 sprinj:^. I'his grain receives essential benefit irom beins; 
 soaked in ley, brine, or soaia other lertilizing liquor. 
 .An Kiij^lTsh writer mentions an expeiiment some years 
 ORo, which may be worth ii^serting:— The spring bcin;; 
 very d»y, he soaked his seed barley in the black wate. 
 taken iiom a reservoir wiiich received the draininc; 
 from his dung heap and siables As the lic^ht corn 
 floated on the top, he scunimed off, and let the rest 
 stand twenty- four hours. O \ taking; it from the water. 
 he miKed the grain with a sufficient quan-ily of wood 
 ash< s to make it spicad rejjii;ar;\, and sowed three 
 fields wiih it. The produce vva< bix'.y bushels lo the 
 acre. Me bowed some in otter fields, wim the Kainf 
 dry seed; but the prodtice Wv.s very poor in comparis-'.': 
 
AGUICULTURB. 71 
 
 to the other. Adding some saltpetre to the liquor in 
 which the barley is soaked, will grently iiT-reasc iis 
 virtues. Batley may be divided into two sorts, earlj 
 and late, to which may be added a bastard variety called 
 bear or big, wliich afTords similai nuuiment or sub- 
 stance, thous^h ol iuferior quali'.y Ear]y bnrley, under 
 various names, was formerly sown upon lands tiiut had 
 been previously summer fallowed, or were in high con- 
 dition; but this mode of cul'ure being in a great mea- 
 sure renounc ed, the conimoii sort, which achniis o! being 
 sown either early or la'e, is now generally used. The 
 most proper season for seeding tins grain is any lime in 
 the month of Apiil, tliougli good crops have been pro- 
 duced when ii nrs been feown at a much laser period. 
 Bear or big may be sown stil! later than common barley, 
 because il lipeiis with gteaier rapidity; but, as a general 
 principle, where land is in order, early sowuig, of evciy 
 variety, is mos^ desirable. Tlie quantity to be sown of 
 this grain, ruay be from one bushel and a half to two 
 bushels to the acre, according to the quality of the 
 ground and the richness of the soil. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Of oats there are ten species that are known in Eng- 
 land, the names of which are, the naked oat, or piicorn; 
 the bearded, or wild oat; the rough, downy, or hairy oat; 
 the yellow oat; the meadow, or yellow leaved oa'; the 
 common oat; the skegs oat; the Tartarian, or reed oat; 
 and the Friesland and Poland oats; of which th,-»t called 
 the sativa, or common oats, is most generally cultiva- 
 ted. This species thrives almost on any soil, and being 
 extremely productive on land newly broken up, it is 
 cniinenlly adapted to most parts of the United States. 
 It is divided into three varieties, namely:^- 
 
 .st. The white oats, which are the most valuable, 
 and require a soil somewhat drier than that for the 
 other specits. This variety is chiefly cultivated in the 
 southern couintiis of England. 
 
 2d. The black oats, which are principally raised in 
 Scotland and the northern counties of England. For 
 feeding calile, ihcy are of equal quality wiih the white 
 
73 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 oats, though not aPTording to sweet a meal for cuiinai^y 
 purposes as the white oats. 
 
 3cl. The brown, or red oats, produces j^ood meal, 
 lipens somewhat earlier than either of the two prece- 
 ding varieties, and does not shed its seed. It is chief- 
 ly cultivated in the noith-wesiern ports of F.ngland 
 ior leediniT. Ail these varieties are propagated from 
 seed which maybe sown from the first of April till the 
 rniddle ol May, in the proporiion of from two to two 
 and a halt husUels to the acre, broad cast. It ib some- 
 times sown wilh grass seeds, such as clover, lay {jrass, 
 Sec. 1 lie management of this kind ol grain docs not 
 materially diflfr from ihat of barley, rye, £cc. 0<ils have 
 in some ins-tanc.es been both dibbled and dtillcd; hut as 
 this rrieiliod has net come fully into practice, its utili'.y 
 has not been fully ascei twined; tlieie is but lill'e doubt, 
 however, but that eitliei ruelhod, if propeily conduct- 
 ed, would be preleiabli; to the broad cast sowing, 'i'he 
 last iDcnlioned species, or that called the saliva, or coro- 
 jn^on oats, is raised on accoort ol its ferinncious pif)per- 
 tics. Tlic grain is given to horses, for which it aRbrds 
 a very sUtngthcning food, and, before barley came into 
 general cultivation, it was con\ cited into malt. The 
 nieal is ivac'u into cakes, biscuit, &c. cr boiled into a 
 kind of pottage. Its straw is also usefully employed in 
 feeding cattle when mixed wilh potatoes. 
 
 BucJcwheat 
 
 Is the next in order of the culmiferous tribe that is to 
 be treated of. This grain will grow with more indiflerent 
 culture than aln^ost any other kind. It should lie sown 
 at such time as it will just lipen before the fall frosts arc 
 usually to be expected. The product of this grain de. 
 pendsmuch on the weather, while the growing crop is 
 In blossom, for if the days arc moderately cool at that 
 time, it may be expected to fill well and be abundant^ 
 but it may be otherwise, should there be much warm 
 weather at that lime. Sixty and seventy bushels to tic 
 acre are scmttin es raised of this grain where tlu 
 growth is sufficiently thick Bi.d heavy on the ground, 
 it is coniiidered excellent for bees while the crop is ir 
 
A-GRICULTURB. 7^ 
 
 blossom. It may be culiivatecl yearly on the same 
 ground, and to considerable advanlage, on light lands 
 of no great value, but which are suitable to gypsum as- 
 a manure. When grounc* and boiled it is excellent for 
 fattening hogs. About three pecks of this grain is 
 sufficient to seed ay acre of land, and less if the land be 
 rich. 
 
 Indian Corn. 
 
 I deem it unnecessary to give the pr:jctical farmer 
 any directions for preparing his land foi|||nfli^n corn, as 
 I am aware it is sufficiently known to himselt. I sli dl, 
 therefore, confine myself to the choic#of seed and the 
 vegetating steeps necessary to prnmote its euly growth 
 rnd prevent the devastation occftsiontd by the cut-worm. 
 Always select the best and largest ears of corn, and such 
 as ripen first on the stalk; gather liiem by pulling off 
 the ear, husk and all; hang them op where no wet will 
 come to them, and let them thoroughly dry. By taking 
 the fiiai corn lh.it ripens, where there are two ears on a 
 stalk, for seed, you will have your crop earlier by (en 
 days or a fortnight the iollowing year, and your crops 
 considerably increased. 
 
 1st Steep. — Take one peck and a half of fresh and 
 dry wood aslies, and one perk of unslicked lime, which 
 put into a tut) that will contain about 40 gallons of water; 
 then .idd asuDuch w;\ter as will sl>ck tiic lim ', and ren- 
 der the mixture (vjliicli should be well incorfioratcd) 
 into the ci)nsis!ence of a stiff mortar. In this state it 
 should remain ten or twelve hour?. Afterwards add as 
 much wat'jr as will reduce the mortar to a pulp, by 
 s'irriutj; then fill the tub with water, which must be 
 stirred for two or lliree days; then draw off the clear 
 ley into a proper vessel for steeping the grain, and g ra- 
 dii wly put the grain into it, skimming off the light 
 e^rriin that swims on the surface. After ii has been 
 steeped let it be taken out and spread on a floor to 
 drain; when well drained, roll it in plaster of Paris, and 
 plint it immediiteiy. 
 
 2d Sleep. — Dissolve saltpetre in wat5r so as to make 
 it very strong; soak vour seed corn therein utitil it be- 
 t 
 
7'i AGIllCULl-URE. 
 
 comes swelled; then plant it in the usual way, lakinj^ 
 care not to let it be long out of the brine before it is 
 covered It will produce three times the crop, and will 
 be ripe sooner than the sanr.e sort of corn plumed with- 
 out soaking, on g;round of the same quality. 
 
 Sd Sleep.— Take 4 lbs. of soot; 2 ounces of jucco- 
 trine aloes, powdered; J lb. of gun powder, and 4 quarts 
 of plaster of pypsum: soak one bushel of coio in the 
 scot and a si.fBciency of water to make the cornsprou': 
 then add the powdered aloes and gun powder; ilien roll 
 it in plaster, and plant it moist. This not only prevents 
 the wonr.s, blips, ants, Sec. but adds j;,'really to the vege- 
 tation and giowih of the plant, by a chymical cecompc- 
 sition of the aliibspherc, or gasscs surrounding it, and 
 by producing moisture of a nitrogene quality, whilst the 
 bydrogene quality of the sulphur, carbon, and nitre, 
 combines and acts in defending the plants from the 
 coolness of the spring season; and when ihe weather 
 becomes hoi, a decomposition of an alkaline nature is 
 produced, that in good ground is equal to a coa ing of 
 horse manure. 
 
 4th. Some farmers make a steep with warm water, 
 sufficient for a bu!>hel of corn, into which they pour 
 three pints of tar, and soak the corn in this solution 
 eight houis; after taking it out and letting it drain, ihcy 
 loll it in piaster of Paris or wood ashes, and plant it 
 immediately. Though this steep guards the coin from 
 the depredations of the black birds, it is longer in com 
 ing out than corn steeped in any of the forevjoing metli 
 «ds, owing principally to the stiptic quality of the tar. 
 
 Potatoes, 
 
 This valuable esculent is a native of South Americ;; 
 and was first brought to Ireland by that renowned navi 
 gator, Sir Walter Raleigh, in the year 1565. Whei 
 first plh.'ited by the Irish, they knew so little of thr 
 mode of culture and the maturing progress of the setci 
 sown, that, instead of turning up the ground, Cas reason 
 and cxfierier.ee teaches^) they puiled oR the small 
 louiid apples that hung on the stalk, and, after cooking 
 thera, they found them so billcr that they threw ihcm 
 
AGRICULTURE. 75 
 
 a^ay, bestovi'ing their hearty and sincere maledictions 
 01) Sir Walter for being the cau^e, as they then thoui^ht, 
 of so much unnecessary and piofitless laboi'; but how 
 j/itat \V4^ their surpiizc tlie next sprinj^, when upon 
 ;)i birifj i\^<R git;nnd to fii it for tiie cultivation of other 
 t rops, to which Ihcir limiicd knowledge of" a'^ricultiire 
 then confined them, to find bidden in the soil, in a mo-n- 
 Tier inviting- their research'^.i and atimulatinc^ ihc exer' 
 else of their aearc/iing /loivera, a crop so much beyond 
 their expectation? Tii':y iiave suice, hnwcvcr, made 
 amjjle asnends for tneir want of knowjedge. 
 
 When we consider potatoes as an essential article, 
 contributing their alimentary properties to ihe support 
 of hu;nan nature, and as an article of food, next to 
 >vheit, of the grc iiest !mp;irtance, it is both necessary 
 and proper to ihusirate the cultur-i of this valuable escu- 
 lent, ihroui^h Its various stages, till the crop is dujj up 
 and ready loi inirket. 
 
 Prcfiaring the ground for CM/;ure.— Potatoes require 
 a rid) loam, and not too mo st. Wet land pro iuccs too 
 much top, an 1 waiery Iruir stron:; to the taste, and not 
 j;ood to keep liiroiiglj winiep. Very dry hnd produces 
 a small crop and knotty fruit. Land that is apt to break 
 should also lie avoided. For this crop the earth should 
 be well plou>;hed, and kept free from weeds,* and should 
 rot be bhadcdj the principal error, however, iti cuiiiva- 
 ting potatoes, is too mjch hiUin}?. Il planted in a suita- 
 ble soil, they will ilvv>iys b.;l iheniselvei at tnai lepth 
 most suitable to their jjrowih, vvhich is about f .ur inches, 
 if you are necesiil.tted lo plant tlie.n upon a hard i)ot- 
 tom, a little hi lin,^j may be useful. It has, no doubt, 
 been observed by most p«iop!e who cultivate potatoes, 
 "hat if the tops are pai tly covered with earth, small po- 
 tatoes rtiil grow upon theu); this hinders the growth of 
 he firsi crup. If the seed potatoes are not cut in pieces, 
 :u' pi inted whole, and in cross rows, the hills s!)ouid bvj 
 about thirty inches from eacli other; and in this case, the 
 dung should be ( ollccied more together at the places 
 where tl)e potatoes ure to be laid. When il)e pLints 
 have risen about six inches above ground, it is lo have a 
 good hariowing across the rows, and the hoe is to follow 
 lor the purpose of setting the plants riijht, where cover- 
 
76 AGRICULTURE* 
 
 cd, and drawing some earth round ihem. In due ftcasonf 
 a furrow, with the one Isorse plough, la to be run o!i 
 eacl) side ot the rows, with the earth thrown up to the 
 planis, which is to be fullowed with the hoe, which 
 completes the procesa fur rdibing the crop. If any 
 weeds should uliarwara's liae, they should be tut up 
 with the hoe, so that none be clicwed to go to seed ii, 
 the fall- 
 As soon as l!ie blo«Kon.i appear, they sliouid all be 
 taken off, vhich will inciease the crop considerab'y. 
 To inciease your stock of potatoes and obtain exccliciu 
 kinds, take of the balls that hang on the stalk, wlien 
 ripe hi autumn, open them and dry the seed in tlic 
 sun, so that they may be preserved throufjh the winter, 
 place these in good mellow ground in the spring, a;> ! 
 keep them clear of weeds, Etc. The first year's pro- 
 duce will be amall: take of the largest of these, unJ 
 the bcbt kinds, to plant the following year, and )ot!v 
 potatoes wlli be much improved and of great variety. 
 If you wibh tohaveeaily potatoes, put the potatoes yuu 
 intend to seed in a bed of licli clay and sand, in a warm 
 room, on a boarde<l floor, tiil they bc^-in to sprout, and 
 after tl.cy send forth shoots three or four inches long;, 
 iransplant thera into beds previously prepared for then!, 
 taking care that you ncillier break the sprouts nor cover 
 them up entiiely, but set lliem with the sprouts pcrpen- 
 dicuhu , and leave a half an inch of ibe top uncovered 
 By this method you c^n have potatces ten weeks earlier 
 ihan by following the usual mode ol culiivalbn. 
 
 Flax, 
 
 It is alrrosl ncedle^'s to descant on I'le valuable pro- 
 perMis of fljx: its uiiliiy is well k»x)vvn as an ariicle. 
 when wianufaciureri, promoting both health and c'.oan- 
 Jiuf-js. I shall thcrcfoie give the bes". directions for its 
 culiure, and management pi-fparatory to spiijning. 
 
 I'^Lx is not a severe crop on the soil w!ien pulled 
 green .s it ou^-bt to be if an article of good quality i? 
 •wished for; though, when allowed to stand for seed, it is 
 rts severe « scourge as can be ir.flicted. The soils vtiobt 
 suitable for flax, btbidcs the illuvjjl klcd, are deep, an'' 
 
AGillCULTURE. 7/ 
 
 friable loams, and such as contain a large proportion of 
 ve{;etab!e matter in tlieir composition. Stron;^ clays 
 <!o not answer well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry sandy 
 nature, but wbatfevcr be the kind of soil, it oii^;ht neither 
 •o be in too poor, nor too rich a condiiion; because in 
 ;he 1 uter cnse the fl ix is apt to {^rovv too luxuriant, and 
 coarse; and in the former case, the plant, fro n growing 
 v/eikly affords only a small produce. When jrrass 
 land isinten led for flix, it ought to be broke up as ear- 
 ly in the seas)n as possible, so that the soil may be duly 
 m'ji lowed by the winter frosts, and in good order for 
 beint? reduced by the harrow, when the seed process is 
 attempted. Ifflix is to succeed a corn crop, the like 
 care is required to procure the aid of frost, without 
 which the surface cannot be rendered fine enough for 
 receiving the seech Less frost, however, will do in the 
 list than in the first case: therefore the grass land oTight 
 always to be earliest ploughed. At seed time, harrow 
 the land well belore tiie seed is distributed; then cover 
 the seed to sufficient depth; water furrow the land, and 
 remove any stones and roots that may remain on the 
 surface, which finishes the seed process. Keeping flax 
 unwatered till the next spring, is attended with many 
 bad consequences; for when too much dried by long 
 keeping, it is not so easily nor so safely watered; the 
 quality of the flax is harsher and it is sutiject to d mger 
 from vermin, and other accidents duii.ig the winter; 
 the wa««r in the spring or beginning of su nmsr, is not 
 so soft and warm, as in harvest, and near a year is lost, 
 of tfie use of the lint, by the practice of K<-"epi;ig it over 
 winter. 
 
 When a crop of seed is intended to betaken, thin 
 sowing IS preferable, in order that the plant may have 
 room to fork or spread out the (eaves, and to obtain 
 riir in the blossoming, and filling sa^^on; but it is a mis- 
 taice to sow thin when the fl ix is intended to bo taket?, 
 for the crop then becomes coarse; and often unproduc- 
 live. From six to ten pecks per acre is a proper quan- 
 Uty. 
 
 7* 
 
7'8 ■ • ' AGRICULTURE. 
 
 JShtJiod of Watering Flax, 
 
 Wlien flax is piilicd, it onj»*it to be wTitnediately pii. 
 into the water, so ilut il nay part \^i'5i tiie lind or shove, 
 and h*t fit for the manuf'Ctunr. Stanriii>fj pools, for 
 niai'y reason'i, are most proper fur ihe purpose, occa- 
 sioiiinu" tic. fi.dV to have d better co'or, to be sooner ready 
 i'o> the ^r s!t, and even to be of superior qtialiiy in every 
 re>pt( ». VV h( 1. pvit m'o the \v;,ier it is ued upir. hccis. 
 'iwche days will answer i'l any sort of weather; though 
 it ma) be lemnrked, ihaf if is tenter to give rather too 
 liule than too much; as any deficiency may be easily 
 iTiade lip by svifTer^ng it to lie longer on the grass, 
 when an excess of water admiis of do remedy. 
 
 It ought to be ;-.lso observed that lime water will not 
 a^,^wer U.r rottint^ fl«y: water from coal or iron is veiy 
 b-t fur fix; a little of the powder of galls thrown ii»'o 
 a glass of watei, will immediately discover if it coaic:i 
 from iron by turning a daik colr.i; mote or less tingct!; 
 in proportion to the quantity of that nkincral it contains. 
 
 Insects, 
 
 Immense nunfibcrs of these prey upon tlic labors oft!!'.; 
 farmei, pjr;>inst the ravages of which it is, in many in- 
 stances (liffinull to provide adequate remedies; suchj 
 hotvcver, as have been discovere',!, shall be noticed: as 
 I shail say somelhinK of the difTerent kinds of those in- 
 sects which are foond most troublesonie. 
 
 Son e \egetables are offensive to all insects, such as 
 • the elder, especially the dwarf kind; the onion, tansy, and 
 tobacco, txcept to the worm that preys on that plant. 
 Th: jiiice of these inay therefore be applied, with effect 
 in ri'pelfiiig insecjs, and sometimes the plants them- 
 selves, while green, or when reduced to powder, partic- 
 ularly the latter, when n»dde into enuff. 
 
 Set an onion in the centre of a iiill of cucumbers, 
 squa.-hcs, melons, &c. and it will effvctunlly keep off 
 ihi ytliow btriped bug, thai preys upon those plants 
 while )oung. No doubt a plant of tob^icco, set in the 
 saine w.«y, would answer a similar put pose, or perhaps 
 to'scw a fc\T tobacco or onioD seeds in ih» hill, wbert 
 
AGRICULTURE. 70 
 
 jniir.linc^, would Ir.ve Ijie same efi'ecl; an 1 l'>e p;r >\vin;v 
 plants from these seeds coull bs taken away, when no 
 ionj^er wanted as protectors. 
 
 Ofolher substances, sulphur is pcrh:>ps th.e m^s,t ef- 
 icctual ns every kind of insect Ijas an utter aversion to 
 it. P )wdered quick" li'ne is deadly to many insects, 
 and perhaps offensive to all. The s sme may be observ- 
 ed of soot, wood jshes, and othei suhstances^ wjiicli are 
 stronr^ly alk«Iine; and also ol conunon salt finely pow- 
 dered, brine, old u'ine, Sec. Calomel is aisi de.^dly to 
 in<;ccts, and camplior and terebititiiiise subst mces, arc 
 cfTcnsive t#-thcm. After premisinjij thus much, I shall 
 now speak of insects scperalcly, and begin with the 
 
 Canker Horm. The female of this insect comes out 
 of the ground very early in liie sprmp;, and ascends the 
 tree to deposi e lier cgt^s, which she does in suitable 
 places in tiic bark; where they are brought forth, anJ 
 the youni; brood live on the li:avc5 of the tree. The 
 cinly effoctual renricdy is, So prevent the insect from as- 
 cending the tree; and this can be done in various ways^ 
 but the easiest ])erhaps as follows: 
 
 First scrape oflfthe slia^^gy bark round ihe body of lliC 
 trcr, to the width of two or three inches; then mike np 
 mixture of oil, or blnbher, with suitable proportions of 
 sulphur and Scotch snnfi"j and with a brusi) lay tiiis on 
 the scraped pnrt, formin;^ a rinq; round t!io tree an 
 jncii or two wide, and no insect will ever attem;)t to pass 
 tins barrier, as long as tlie composition has any consider- 
 able moisture left in it. Let it be repealed wlien it in- 
 clines to harden, though perhaps this is not necessary. 
 Let it be done eaily in the spring, before the insect 
 comes from the ground. 
 
 Another method, wl.ich it is bellevfd will be founri 
 equally eReciual, though attended with more trouble, _is 
 to scrape off the shaggy b4rk from the body of the tree, 
 and then whitewash the part well with lime and water, 
 nnd a little sulphur added. In place of this may be 
 taken a coir.posiiion of old uiine, kept some time for 
 the puiposc, soap suds, and fresh cow dung. Let this 
 be laid on plentifully, and it will keep off all insects. 
 
 Another method of prcveiuing the depredations of 
 insects, is to lasten a strip of sheep skin, with the woo4 
 
so AGRICULTURE. 
 
 outwards, round the body of ilie tree, takin^ care tlia' 
 no place be left for the insect to creep up between the 
 strip ■^n^ the bark. The wool should be frequently 
 combed to keep it loose. A streak or i in>; of tar made 
 round tbe body of the tree, is als<j eff^H-.tual, is lonj; as 
 the tar re.n ins -oft; but, as it soon becomes so hardened 
 on the exterior that the inseci can crawl over, it requires 
 to be repealed very frequency. Pirhaps a riag of tar 
 and oil or blubber, niixi d tnijjethrr would answer butter. 
 Lastlv, a strip of oiled p.ipcr put round the tree, with 
 the lower edge piojer.tinj? out considerably, forms a 
 bariier which the insect cannot pass; let the lower edge 
 of the paper be well oiled. 
 
 In legard to all insects which are injurious to trees, 
 by clitnbinfj thein, and committin;^ depredations on 
 them in various ways, it is believed thit by takin;ij tht 
 earth awity from the roots of the trees, very early in the 
 spriuf^, and deslroyintj whaicier m ly app-ar to be the 
 abode of any insecte, and reiuriiiu^ the earth back, mix- 
 ed with a small qu-uitity of sulphui, sprinkling some of 
 tills upon the surface, will keep any insect from ascend- 
 ing any such tree. The cfifoct ot sulphur, for tiiis pur- 
 pose, is very durable. Probably one operation of th'.'". 
 kind will last for several yeais; though on this point I 
 have no particular information. Other rcpellants of in- 
 sects may be found repellants only for a time; more oi 
 IcJS limited; but perhaps may answer the purpose for 
 one spiiiig; such as quick lime, fine salt, old mine, 
 strong soap su Is, a strong decoction of tobacco, onions, 
 Sec fxc. Let either ot ihe four Ust nieni'ioued ingredi- 
 ents be applied, boiling hot to the roots, after fiist tak- 
 ing the earth awjy as first mentioned. 
 
 Curculio. — Tliis is a bug about the size of that which 
 eats into tiie pea, and has proved very troub'esome to 
 iiiost of the smooth skinned sone fruits, and even to 
 peaches, apples, and pears, i.i dilTercru parts of the 
 country cunliguous to Pliilad.'lphia. It has also made 
 its appearance about Albany. It ascends the trees ia 
 the spring, end as the fi uit advanc«3 it makes a wound 
 in the skin and there deposiles the embryo, from whicli 
 a maggot is first produced. This preys upon the fruit 
 until it dies and falls off, tyhen the maggot makes Vr 
 
AGRICULTURE. 81 
 
 '»vay into ihc cailhi and is there changed into a ba» 
 H'hich is ready to ascend iho tree iicxt spring and make 
 ics deposit as before. 
 
 Anoiher inelhod of keeping injects from trees, is to 
 tie a small hag of coinmon sail round the tree. A ring 
 I)ut round the tree, of a mixture o{ gcease or blubber, 
 luixed with 6?lf, and om-i of the other in;»redients 
 'Tould answer a better purpose, and bs allerJed wiili 
 less trouble. 
 
 .// method of fiTcoenting the drcay of the Peach Tree. 
 ■ — Take aw;iy the dirt from around the root, and where 
 you find gum issuin;^ out, there you wiii also find a 
 '.vliiie ma^i^at, which i» careful'y to be taken a\^ay; then 
 '.vash the body and roots with strong brine, which ought 
 to be repealed now and then in the spiinpj ar.d summer^ 
 
 I shall meniion two other methods wtiich are said to 
 'e infallible (or keeping insects from trees. One is to 
 bore a hole in the body of the tree, and Bll the hole with 
 mercurial ointment, and cork it up li<;ht. The other is 
 to bore a. hole in tlic north side of tae tree, and fiil it 
 'iviih spirits of turpentine, and cork it up es before. 
 Where the latter article is put into the holi*, it should 
 be bered slanting downwards to keep the liqaor iroin 
 lunt.in;^ out l)c!oie the cork can be put \^\. 
 
 Catcrfiillars — Khe foregoing direcliins lor keepini^ 
 f'an'ier worms Irom trees, are equally applicabie to 
 ■j-.cbe JBsecis. 
 
 When a nest cf tliese is forn-ed, run a po'e into it, 
 f.viit ii round till the nest und iis conienis are :\ rapped 
 round the pole, and biiiij; the whole down and kill the 
 worms. Let this be done early in the inoini.i^, wticn 
 ilie worms are all in the pcsf. If any escape this opera- 
 lion, repeal it when they have reb.iilt their nesia. 
 
 Where tlic ncbts have been suffered to remain till the 
 ir.sccis have left them, young broods for the ensuing 
 >car, will, the uex' sjnii.p;, be f und on the uecs in 
 cl,iys;iiis staie, umrtr t!ie st;clt,.r of a dry curled leaf or 
 tvvc, buuni with fiiamciils likl^ cobwebs; these sliould 
 be searched tor and dcstr ,ycch 
 
 It is sidd that catcrpilhus take sh'felter under woolen 
 }a{,'S, wi'.en put on trees wheie ihcy resort, from v/hich 
 ihoy Cat be easily taken ans^Jestrcycd, 
 
82 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Griibs^ or large maggots from the eggs of a species 
 of bu:t< ifiv, very injurious to Indian corn, while yovin.a;, 
 by eaung tlie loota. Frequent plou^liiii^;;s, •iianurin;^ 
 tiie land wilii lime, soot, abiics, or salt, all ter.d much to 
 keep ihcm om of the soil. Most of ihc articles before 
 iTientioncd as being ofi"oi)sivs lo insects, eithci boiled in 
 or diluted wiih water, anu that applied to the hills, espe- 
 cially just befoie a rain, will quickly drive the grubs 
 away. 
 
 Tofi, or Sfiindle H orms, are white worms, resembling' 
 j*ruhs found in the central h.oie which is formed by the 
 leaves of Indian corn, and they there cat cff the •'em 
 wiiicn forms tiie top of the plant. They are mos.ly to 
 be found neai biin yards and in rich spots. They are 
 discovered by their excrement appearing on the leaves, 
 Spt inkling the corn with a weak ley of wood ashes will 
 exiirpwte them. 
 
 Black Uorms, or aslvcolored worms, wi h black 
 stripes en their backs, when full giown — they are of the 
 thic k(»esb of a goose quill, and about an inch a^id a 
 t^uarier Urns/,; they hide in the soil by day, and commit; 
 thai: depredations by n\..',ut. They eat off yovm.^ plants 
 above ground, .md frequently eudeavor to draw them 
 under. It is s;iid that m.inuiingihe ground with ialt, 
 will drive ihcm from i', and that lime and ashes wiM 
 have nearly the same effec t. 
 
 lied II arms — These nre slender, about an inch long, 
 wi;h a hard tu.n and pointed head. Tiiey eat off wheat, 
 bailey, and oj s, abo^e ihe crown of tue r.io s, an i hey 
 also eat hr ugli turnips, p.-tatoes, Sec. No acitq laic 
 remedy is kn< wn, uidess wiumring with the inanures 
 as ^eforc mentioned, wnich are offensive to all insects; 
 KuiDUjer Ibllowi'igs ire :»iso recommended, as depriving 
 Ihem of their r«q li-'ite food. 
 
 Pahner Horma — About half an inch in length, with 
 many legs, and very nimr)le. They give to apple trees 
 the s.ime appearance ih.it the canker worm dues. They 
 let themselves <lown hojil the trees by threads, si i>ilar 
 to the spider. No adequate rencdy is known. 
 
 Timber Itormit -^V[\e s;n;iiier iiind merely eat into 
 the Sip o! Wood, and turn it into powder post is it is 
 called. Felling timber abo]^ the middle of winier, the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 83 
 
 .ime wl.en it has less sap in it, will obviate this diHicuIf.y. 
 'i'he large Boring Worm tjkes its residence chiefly in 
 pine timber. They aie hatciicd in the cavities cf the 
 iiai k, and being small when they enter the wood, they 
 f:row larger as they proceed, till their borinj^ may be 
 iicard at a considerable distance. II tiie trees be scorch- 
 '. d in a liRhi flame or steeped in salt water, it will destroy 
 these worms, or prevent their entering the wood. 
 
 Hessian t'lij — Well known for its ravaj;es in wheat, 
 IvGincd) : Idiinerse the seed wheat ten or filteen tr.itiutes 
 in boilinj^ 'not w.'ter, cool it suddenly, dry it, wiili lime 
 or i>ypsum sprinkled upon it, and sow it Jmniediately. 
 This process will assist its growth, in addition to its kill- 
 ing; the nits of the flv, ivhich, by a good glass, are dis- 
 ccroiblc near the sprouts of the grains thit are infected. 
 This remi dy stands well aitesiini hy several pub ications, 
 and is believed to be elTectiiai. 
 
 ^l/u.g-ij'o^s — Tioubiesoine to the roots ot cahbages, 
 turnips, and ladishes. RcMjetly: Give the groun I a 
 previous manuring with salt, which will be found effec- 
 tual. Soine weak brine applied to the roots ot the 
 plants juit after a rain, is ;\lso recotntnended. It should 
 not be too strons,', It si u injure the growth of tlie plants. 
 
 YcUoiv-stri/ied Buc^y foimidableto the young plants 
 of cucumbei, 8cc. In addiiion to what has Uready been 
 said of the remedies for keeping "OfF these intiudcrs, I 
 would recommend sprinkling the plants with a little 
 sulphur, or Scotch smifT, which will be tcund very effi- 
 cacious. 
 
 lurni^i Fly. — This insect eats the seed loaves of the 
 young turnip plants, and thus destroys tliem. Sowing a 
 suitable proportion of tobacco seed with the crop will no 
 doubt answer every purpose for keeping off this insec; 
 l)Ut as common salt is found to be at) excellent manure 
 ior this crop, I would recommend jhout three or foar 
 bubhels of this article, made fine, with as many pounds 
 of sulphur, and perhaps a pounci or two of Scotch 
 snuff, well mixed together, to be sown on the ground 
 just as tiie plants are coming up, and this I can venture 
 to say, will be found effectual in keeping off tiiosc in- 
 sects. A flock of ducks let iiito the turnip field is also 
 very good, as they will destroy the insects without injur- 
 ing the plants.. 
 
^|j AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Garden Ilea — Very (destructive to ycuTij; cabbspc 
 plants while in llie seed leaf. Rerr^ecly: Sow some onior 
 or tobacco seeds with thcseeclh of the plant, or sprinkle 
 some sulphur or snuff on the growing plants. Soap 
 su('s sprinklei over them is also good. 
 
 J,ice. — These infest cabbages particularly, but are de- 
 stroyed by the frosts. They a-re easily extirpated by 
 sm'>kr, particularly that of tobacco. 
 
 If ecvil' — A little black bu;^:, very destructive to 
 ■wheat, cilhci in bnrns or granaries. On thrusting your 
 hand into a bin of wheat iuiested with them, ronaiclerable 
 watnith will he lelt; but ns thty arc usually collected 
 to:;ctl;er, every part of the heap or bin should be exami- 
 ned, 'i here are various ways of keeping wheat clear 
 of this insect afcr it has been threshed out ; nd put in 
 bins. It is found that si:y;,inkling of Uidc with wheat, in- 
 fested wi'h tlum in the bins, will soon drive them av.-ay. 
 Tl'iC lime can be afterwaids wiinowed out. Sulphur 
 or fr.rifi, put up in little pnpcrs or bngs, and pro|)erly 
 distributed an ong the whct^t in tiie bin, will keep them 
 out, -or drive them out when thry have got possession. 
 A plant of hei h.ne lias the same effect, and so has the 
 Icavfs, r.nd wood of the Lombjidy pcplar — a bin made 
 of bo .rcis (,f ihis wood will nevei l.a^e a weevil in it. — ' 
 Take wet linen cloths, and lay them over a heap, or bio 
 of wheat, with weevil in it, and th;y will soon come out 
 of tie wheat, aijd j^et upon the cloths, wlien, by dipping 
 these iri wnler aguiii, the insects are readily destroyed. 
 It would seem that the readiest way to keep them 
 out of mows of wheal before lliteshing, would be to 
 mix little pieces of the Loi^sbardy poplar every where 
 lhr(,ugh thk:; mow in laying the shea%cs aWr.y. Pei liaps 
 common salt is as ( ffcnsive to il.is insect as to m.ost 
 otheis; and if so, to sprinkle some among the sheaves 
 vlien laying them doV/n, might answer a double purpose 
 of keeping out the weevil and improving the straw' lo 
 fodder. 
 
 Grasses, 
 
 The great improvcimenis that arc made by sowing 
 land in tilldj^e with grass seed?, do more encourage the 
 
A-^.liIGULTURE; 85 
 
 'jrc thereof, and especinliy ihose of clovfer, Irefoil, san- 
 i'oin,an.l lusenie, to which may be added timothy, be- 
 cause ths harrovving in of grain upon on'y one ploushin;; 
 saves a v\xdi\. expense and time, l)eMCles the i>roduco of 
 large cv'ops, and as some of these grasses will suit all 
 •joih. 
 
 Clover, 
 
 Thh grass f^rows well on dry soils. About (en or 
 twelve pounds of seed are requisite for an acre. It ia of 
 I'^reat intprovcment to hnd, and most excellent food for 
 cattle, either in {^rass or hay; and the riches by wnich 
 it impregraies the ground, by the stalk and roots, the 
 former by receiving the nitruu-i dews, whicii <iescend by 
 them !o the toots and groand about ttiem; toe latter 
 also iffords a sort of dressing to the groun.1 after it is 
 ploughed up; and, above all, s:ives that expense which 
 many are at yearly lor weedmg their ground, which 13 
 by this grass entirely got under. 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 This grass grows spontaneously on dry uplands, after 
 they h;tve been manured with gypsum, or wiih bog 
 marlej Sec: it is a very sweet j^r.iss for pasture or hay, 
 but not very productive; it is generally short lived, but 
 iDay be made to last longer, by passintj a roller over it; 
 for where the 5t.-.Iks come in c osa contact vvith the. 
 t^round, new roots wiil start and descend into ii: It is 
 most useful in misinfj witii other grasses, for ttie pur- 
 pose of tliickeuiriij thu j^rov/th of the hoUom, and thus 
 ji.creasiug the product. 
 
 Trefoil, * 
 
 Lands naturally ki.^d for i;rain, and unkind for com- 
 mon grass, are undoubtedly kinJ for trstoii; and thyui^fi 
 i: be so much impoverished by long sowing, t!\at it will 
 licar grain no longer, it wiil brin;^ a crop of this grass. 
 Kxperience convinces me that it will grow io any soil; 
 even rocky, hilly, ar gravelly ground, of a very small 
 8 
 
S6 AGRlCULTURft. 
 
 value, may be improved by ihis grass; but if the land bt 
 a clav anii i' •'^ys wet, it musi be drairied, and made as 
 diy as possible. That the pasture is as j^ood and belici 
 on trefoil iban clover, lor cattTc, and especially cows 
 lor it will riot ""ly cause thtm to give more milk in 
 quantity, but belter in quality, und also makes butter 
 and ch»ese of a ddicaie yellow colour: The hay there- 
 of is nourishing, if it is made in good season: T he quan- 
 tity of seed to be sown per acre, is, if in the hull, iwc 
 bushels- but if the seed is naked ar>d clean, from ten to 
 twelve pounds is the quantity per acre; or if sown with 
 clover hall oi each. 
 
 Saint Foiv, or Holy Hay, 
 
 Which narnc is derived from its excellent nutiiiivc 
 
 ^^^There may be more beneGt reaped from this grass, 
 than any other; as it pioduces gieat crops on the driest 
 land, on hills, gravels, sand^ or even barren ground; and 
 it will so improve all those lands in such an extraordj- 
 naiy luanner, that they will bring gJcat crops of any sort 
 
 "^Thc'aua^i'ti'iy of seed, for sowing broad cast is two 
 .fcushels to the Dxrc, and (br drilling one bushel. 
 
 Luseme, 
 
 T« .i,P «;ame plant which the ancients were so fond of, 
 Y ,v,rname of Metica: Its leaves grow thiee at a 
 St'lik o"e of the clover; its fiowe.s ar« blue, and 
 IS noc c f a screw like si,ape, containing seeds like those 
 ofthe redciover.-ltis ibe only plant in the world, 
 ^vhrse h^ is equal to .he saint foin lor the iatiening Qf 
 caule' fis the .weetcst grass in the xvo.ld, but must be 
 Piven tocaUlfe with caution, and in small quantiues; oth- 
 e w "e they wi'l swell, and incur diseases irom it. 1 he 
 nantl Sid stand five inches distance m ^ngle rows, 
 £ the invervals between these rows must be eft for 
 and the invci pi^ueh; but if hand hoed one foot be- 
 
 ^:r^ r^wt win do;'fi;m one pound and a half to two 
 pounds, will be enough of seed for an acrq. 
 
/tGlilCULTURE. g^ 
 
 Timothy Grass, 
 
 Is a species of grass symethiripj like rye ^rass; and 
 makes the best hay, ancJ tho greatest quantity of any 
 known at present in this countryj it is supposed to be 
 irdigenoiis to this country. The best time for sowine- 
 the seed is from »he niiiidle to tiie latter end of Ausjusi: 
 A moist, rich land will produce from two to four tons 
 per acre; one peck of clean seed is siifTicieiu to sow an 
 acre; some sow it with grain; but the best nicihod is to 
 sow it by Itself. 
 
 Liipenella, 
 
 A small qmniiiy of this seed was sent by a gentlemarr 
 from Leghorn, in Italy, to the j^ovemor of Georgia: the 
 folii.w iii;^ is the account of tins valuable grass sent with 
 the seed* ^ 
 
 Ii IS represented as the finest {jrass cultivated in that 
 country, for thu quantity j<nd richness of the h-iy the 
 prcfcren( e felt for it by all animals; and its fettiiibinff 
 tfTtcts upon the land in which ii is ruilivated In Iialy 
 it is sown in Vlarch and October; it is cut with a sickle 
 to avoid shukin^; nffthe blossoms; bound up ii| bunJles 
 of 7 lbs. and fed to working bcas.s without grain as it is 
 sufficiently nutritive of itself. 
 
 'J'hrce years cultivation of this grass enriches the 
 poorest land so much, that two successive and abundant 
 crops of grain aie pioduced without manure. It is 
 generally sown broad cast, but drills will be more pro- 
 ductive for seed. 
 
 When sown for hay, it ought to be sown Vdck as a 
 'rertuin means of keeping the crab grass under. 
 
DYING. 
 
 IV dye Silk] JAnen^ Woollen^ Cotton, Bristles and 
 
 J'\ather£ cJl kinds of colours^ with the proficr 
 
 Mordants Jor fixing the colours, ivith directions 
 
 far v;c:king Bran and Alum Water, Iron Li- 
 
 <^uid, ^c. 
 
 THE ort of dying is so useful in a country like Anie- 
 jica, that to ssy any tliin}» in its lavor is entirely useless, 
 i'S its utility ia sufficiently kr»o\vn to the most supeiiicial 
 observer. 
 
 1 he essential point, in colouring, is a knowledge of 
 the mratis of setting the colours so pcrman(f^ilt that 
 \\'.y wil) nevei lade. In colloids, this is oi'ien a mslter 
 oi ''ffituliy; in v.oollens il is less so. The liq-iid or 
 sub&t.^nie us»cd lo set colours, is called ll»e rnordant. 
 Tht proper mordants for bines and for scarlet, or red 
 of various lines, is the sckition of tin, and is pieparcd 
 in I he {oilowin}* uicnncr: — 
 
 'i i.ki two parts of spi its oi nitre, one of fuming spi- 
 ll's of ial!; in tJ.is iiqnor dissolve one twentieth part of 
 its weight of I he purest tin that can be had, or f.iore if 
 the I'qucr v ill disbtlvt- iro-e. The titi is to be granula- 
 ted, 'which is done by melting it., and /lOuring it whilst hot 
 intt Tjater, >.riO put in b) degrees as the Itqi.ui dir^sohes 
 il. . t) '(se this mcrniint, dilute it in two or three parts 
 of clt.;a *ire!»m water, according to its strength, until 
 it lias the hciciity of vinegar oi leujon juice. 
 •*■ 
 
 7o voice Bran Hater. — Take half a peck of wheat 
 bran smd two gallons of r&in waier; put them on the 
 fire, nnd give iheai a gentle heat; then put h-.lf a 
 pound ol alum povyder ir.to it, and suffer it «o stand ; 
 week or Hiore, stirring it every day during that time. 
 If a lnrgsr quantity is wanted, it can be made in the 
 above proportion. 
 
DYING, 
 
 8d 
 
 ^(Uin llaCer. — Take one pound of alum; bruise it 
 an.l p it it into two gallons of watei* till it is dissolved, 
 adding a small piece of gum Arabic; and after giving 
 it a genile heat, scum it from froth or scurf; strain ic 
 and keep it for use. 
 
 I shall now give a list of different substances, with the 
 mordant proper for eacli, as far as I have been able to 
 obtain a knowledge oF; and which, on account of their 
 cheapness, and the ease with which they can be pro- 
 cured, will be found extremely useiul:— 
 
 Ve^gdxblcs. 
 
 Indigo, - - - 
 
 Woad, 
 
 False indigo flowers, 
 
 Blue whortleberry fiuit, 
 
 Pokevveed fruif , 
 
 Winter grape fru it, 
 Common hazel nut husks, ) 
 
 green, - - • \ 
 Hickory nut husks, green* 
 Witch hazel nut husks, > 
 
 green, - , - J 
 Sumac bark, 
 Oak trees, bark, 
 Maples, bark, 
 
 Walnut trees, bark, 
 
 Sassafras bark, 
 Madder roois, 
 
 Persimmon tree bark, - 
 
 Locust tree bark, 
 PopUir tree bark. 
 Peach tree and arsesmart ? 
 leaves, - - ^ 
 
 Store frull trees, bark, 
 
 Colours. J\fordan(s. 
 
 Blue, - Solution of tin, 
 
 do. - do. 
 
 do. - do. 
 
 ^ Mazarine 
 I blue, 
 CTyreanpur.j^^ 
 
 do. 
 
 pie 
 Violet, 
 
 Black, 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 Copperas, 
 Co.. . 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Steel, 
 Purple, 
 
 ^ Oiive and , 
 
 C brown, 
 
 Re 
 
 do. 
 
 Cri:j!50D, 
 
 Yellow, 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 5 Alum S: s^jlt 
 I of tmtar. 
 
 do. do. 
 
 '^" do. . 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Nankeen Sc , , 
 ^ do. do. 
 cmnamon» 
 
 8* 
 
90 DYING. 
 
 The mordant is to be used in two ways: Where it 
 j;ivtH r.o colour of itself, the cli^lh or yarn may be put 
 inifc tlic Biorilbnt a suitable length of iimc,and then put 
 into tiie d)t; or a siii^able ptopoiiirjn oi the mordant 
 may be mixed with the dye; l^ut where the mordant 
 givus .1 colour oi iiielf, tht cloth ©r yarn should first be 
 put iito it, und th*n itUo tlie dye. Thus, for dying cot- 
 ton bltck, she moidant commonly used is a boiled de- 
 coction ot fiiStir, which <f it^elf gi\es a yellow colour; 
 but, alter having iti cived this, will receive a permanent 
 bli'tk dye. The bark of the quercitron or American 
 black oak, will answer the samu purpose. 
 
 Of Scarlet Dying, 
 
 Scarlet dying, in j;en«ral, is a distinct and separate 
 brench of trade; the materials hcinjaj ot that delicate 
 kit d as easily to be injured by any accidentsl admixture 
 cf oil *ii joours, and part of the apparatus being some- 
 what tiiffertnt Irom common djinj*, the boilei' in which 
 the coclMnea! bath is n;?de, is generally of tin or strong- 
 ly tinned copper, because a solution of tin is the mordant 
 used in the process, and therefore no mischief can arise 
 fron. ii8 being in contact tviih the same metal. The 
 Water mad« use of n-ust be so!t and pure, hard water 
 haviiiiJ a tenccncy to produce a rose colour, which, 
 howtter, iscoirectert hy boilinj bran or starch in it. 
 The intusion of cochineal is naiurally of a fine ciicnson, 
 and wim a mordant it fixes on woollen and si:k With 
 great firmness, but weakly anc with considerable difii- 
 cull) on linen and cotton, A km was the first mordant 
 employed to fix '.he colour of cochineal on wool. It 
 sensibly alters the nature! tint, and gives a deep and 
 dur^jblr tnnriscn. It will ever restore the crimson to 
 cloih dyed scarlet by the corapaund tin mordant. The 
 effect ol tin in heighterwng the colour of cochineal was 
 discovered by a GerrD»n rhyHist named Huster, who 
 sett'itci at Bow, tiien in the \)cinity of London, in the 
 year 1543, and on Ibis accouit is called the Bow dyt 
 »here. 
 
 The vessel wherein ptirplr is dyed ought to be c' 
 pew ten 
 
OlING. 9i 
 
 To prejpare raw Silk, 
 
 Take the silk and ]put it into a bag tliat it may not 
 entangle, then to every/ pound of this silk add i lb. of 
 soap Let this boil tfogeiher two hours; then take it 
 and cleanse it wel'; them put it in alum water, and it is 
 ready. 
 
 tlnother. 
 
 Take the silk thread,, and to every pound put a quar- 
 ter of black or green sioap; then smuar it well all over 
 the silk; put thcsiik sio smeared into a linen bag; let it 
 boil six or seven hours;; ihen take the bag of silk out of 
 the water and let it cool, and linse it in river wnter 15 
 minutes, wring the water well out ol it, and then rinse 
 and dry it again. Obsserve that this process is absolute- 
 ly necessary ferallraw silks before ttiey-can be dyed. 
 
 How to tiium the boiled Silk. 
 
 Take a quarter of a pcund oi alum to every pound 
 of silk; melt it in a skillet and throw it into a sufficient 
 quantity of water to cover the silk — say 2 quarts to 
 every quarter of a pound. 
 
 To dye Silk or Wor.itpd a fine Carnation 
 colour. 
 
 First take to each pound of silk four handfuls of 
 wheal bran, put it into two pr.ils of water and boil i'; 
 pour it into a tub; and let it stand all night; then take 
 half the quantity ol that water, atid put into it half a 
 pound of alum, a quarter of a pound of red tartar in 
 powder, and half an ounce of finely powdered turmeric: 
 boil them \ogethtr, and stir thern well about with a 
 stick; after they have boiled a quarter of an hour, take 
 the kettle off tlie fiie; put iij the silk and cover the ket- 
 tle close, two hours; then rinse the silk in cold water; 
 beat and wring it on a wooden pin, and hang it up to 
 dr\; then take one-fo-jrlh of a pound of powdered nut 
 

 
 9S DYIKG. 
 
 galls, and p'ot the powder into a pail of river waler; boil 
 it for one; hour; ihcn take off the kettle, and when ihc 
 band cm be boms in it put in ibe sill; and ict it lie an 
 ho'}?; 'lif-n take it out and hang: i^ '" dry: wiien the silk 
 is dry take to (ach pound of si'.k three quarters of an 
 ounce of cochineal in pnwdcr; then put it in the paii 
 with the remaininsi; Is}', and havini^ well mixed it,, pour 
 it irto a kettle; when it boils cover i' we'l to prevent 
 any dust fionn fi'ling into it. After this, pu' in three- 
 fourths of 3 pound of alum, and two and a half ounces 
 of tartar, both fiiily powdered; let it boil for y quarter 
 of an l)our, then take it off 'he fire; let il cool a little; 
 and pot in tlie silk; stir it well with a stick to prevent its 
 being clouded, and wiien cool wrin^^ it out. If the 
 colour is not deep cnoii^h, hanp; the kettle a'^ain over 
 the fire, and when i*. kas boiled and is^'own lukewarm 
 again, repeat the stirring in of the silk; then han^ it 
 upon a woodcii pin ftstened in a post, and wrini» and 
 beat it with a stick; after this rinse the dyed silk in hot 
 ley, wherein to one pound of hiik is dissolved one ounce 
 of pure white soap; afterwards rinse it in cold water; 
 hang the skeins of silk on a wooden pin, putting a little 
 hand stick to the bottom part; and thu3 having worked 
 it, wring it and beat it round, and hang it to dry. 
 
 Another Crimson for Silk, 
 
 Takeof pood Roman alum, powdered, half an ounce, 
 sulphuric acid one quaiter of an o^ncc: put them into 
 a ptwter kettle, and pour as much water as is sufficient 
 for half a pound of tlie silk you purpose dying; when 
 it is ready to boil put in the silk, which miisl be before 
 boiled in bran ivater; boil it for an nour or more; then 
 wring It out, and put to the liquor half an oance of 
 ccchireal, fiiiely powdered, and sixty drops of sidphurit: 
 aciti; wr;en rcatJy to boil put in the siik ugiiiH, and let it 
 soak for four hours; then take clean water, drop into it 
 a little of this acid, rinse thereiw the silk; take it out 
 again and dry it on sticks in the shade. This will be ?. 
 high colour; but it you would have it of a deep crimson, 
 take, instead of sulphuiic acid, pure w^ter ol ammonl:', 
 to rinse the s'.lk in. 
 
ftymei* 03' 
 
 Gemral observations on Bi/in^ Crimson, 
 Scarlet or Furple, 
 
 The boiler or l;cit!e must be of good pewter, qolte 
 rican, and fieo i'rom'nny soil or grease. 2:1. Tt^e pre- 
 paicfl tsriar must be pui ia when the waicr h lukewarm. 
 3d. If you in;c;nd to dye wcollei» or wors'ed yiun, you 
 loay put in l!ie firut hoilinji;, and let it boil fir two Iiours. 
 4;h. When boiled take, it out, linse it, clean the kettle, 
 atsd put in the water lor the second boiling. 5;i). The 
 recond boiliiig is pcrloroicd in the same manner as ilie 
 f!!\st; then put in the cochineal, fincl} po\r;icred; when 
 ii boils stir it well about. 6lii. Now the silk, which has 
 been washed and cleanc.-i in the first ky, is to be put in, 
 on a v,in-h, which is continuiilly turned cboul in order 
 to prevent the colour fiom fixing in clouds 7ih. When 
 tlic colour ii to your mind, take it out, rinse it in clean 
 vvaier, and hang it up in a room or slndy place, where 
 it may be free from dust. 8'.h. When the acid is put 
 iiito Uie strcond boiling, it causes a coarse f>oth lo swira 
 tn the top, wliich musi be carefully taken off. 
 
 Another Crimson for Silk, 
 
 When the siik is weil hoded, ti« every pound thereof 
 trvke of crude ylum 8 ounc s; when it ii dissolved hy 
 t!,c silk in the liquor nil tiig u; the next day ri-se ii well. 
 Olid tlien prepare the dye as follows: Take i ke.-.le of 
 clear water, and to every p(jund ol silk \)\iX in 2| juncca 
 o! cochjntal, finely powdered, 3 ounces of ^c>h1s, fiueiy 
 powriciefi, 3 Oiinccs uf purified jj'.int), and one iliacho) 
 of turmeric; boil ilic silk m ibis icjiior 2 hours-; after 
 this let it reaiaiu 12 hours; hen wrinjj and dry it. 
 
 Cheap Red. 
 
 To every pound of silk lake one pound of Brazil 
 Wood; shave !he wood into suj-ill piert-s; then put it in 
 water and boil it; then wave or torn tlie silk about in it 
 till it has Eufl'iiently taken the colour; then add a httie 
 pot ash to fix the colour, and then rinse it in fair Wdlcr 
 ?nd drv it. 
 
04 I) 11 KG, 
 
 An easy method of dying Cotton with Madder 
 as 2)vaclised in Smyrna. 
 
 Boil tlie cotton in cornnion oiive oil, nr in some other 
 pure vegetable oil, and adei wards in niild alkali; wlicn 
 it is thus cleanstti, it will lake the m;iddv.r dye. Tlvs is 
 the mode <;[ procuring the fine colour so much admired 
 iu the Snyrna co'tons. 
 
 For a deep Turkey Red or Scarlet. 
 
 Take two ounces of cochinfral sncl one pound of red 
 Saunders wucid, aiul one pound of madJer, four ounces 
 of alum, and one oun^e of red arsenic ; boil all lop;cther 
 three hours, loving five gallons of the dye in the kettle; 
 put the cotton in the dye one hour. This quantity is for 
 
 5 lbs. of deep Turkey red in cotton, and 4 lbs. of scailet 
 in woollen. 
 
 To dye iOO lbs. of Wool or iVojllen Cloth 
 Scarlet. 
 
 Take 8 or 10 Ihs. of tartai; put them into the boiler 
 with a sufiicient qu'<inlitv of soit water, and 6 or 8 ounces 
 of rocliincai; afierwards 10 or 12 lbs. oi the nitre muri- 
 ate of tin are to be added; -nd ,^hen the mixvure is ready 
 to boil, the cloth previously wet is put into the dying 
 liq-ior, turned ilir(:u^h it bv t winch for an hour and a 
 half, the liquor beinj; kept boiling the whole time; the 
 cloth is liitn taken >i-it and lins-d, ..iv! Jouni by «liis6rst 
 process to have a quired a flssh coiuu'; ihe boiler is 
 licw euipt'.e'i .uid fi'lcd again \\'.\i\ (resli water, and when 
 nearly b/jiiinji fmrn 5 ;o 6 !bs of cochiiie.il mc thrown 
 in and •,vf 11 stirred; f,i\f t wu ch 10 ibs> more of the so- 
 lution of tin are added, and the dolh .hen put in and 
 turned through Ihe boilini^j liquor, at first briskly and 
 then slowly for t>all an houi; il i-. ihen washed and dried 
 in the usu»l manner. I'ue prnp9j^ii;n of coi^hineal to 
 dye a full scarlet is an ounce to a pound ot cioth, hence, 
 from the high price ol tliis article, the cochine-l dye is 
 one of the most expensive of all Uic processes of dying- 
 
Dyintg. ii5 
 
 When the brighl fl.ime co:ouf is wanted, i»li(tle yellow 
 fubtic is acMed \o U^c fiisi biUti, ur else some turmeric is 
 added to the second wiih ilic ochineal. Tlis ease with 
 which tiie alkaline and e.:rthy saIl.-> counteract ilic yellow 
 part of Ihcbt colours, wnich causes 'he scarlet cloih to 
 be chunKC'l moic or less lo a rose or cmnson by lulling; 
 if liio acailct when finished hs^oo much of an oran<^c 
 lini, mis riiny bo conec;rd by afterwards boilinj>; tho 
 cloth lu hard wat> r, or one that cf-n(«iiis an e;.rthy salt. 
 Alter the I'uli sciilet luis been jjivcs) to the clutJi, ihe 
 liquor stili leiains pan ot the CQChu.eal,' with* a'^ari^c 
 pojtion of the nujrdant, aiiid this is astci ior Uic li!;iiiei' 
 (ijc!:, vr, wnii the midiiioa of tuadc, uiaader, aid pMier 
 iof^iedieiii: , u i < rnployad fur a vast variety ot iiilNcd or 
 degraded a ' 
 
 'Vo dye a yomiil of wool Scarlet, 
 
 Boil it in a i tJ vcs'scl, uun so-net'RiM.jj Irss than a quart 
 of Water, tiiico drschins of la.r'ar, and oiic ounce and 
 a hall of coc^'ineal; when the e>iul'iiio-i be»{i')S, dd i one 
 oiufce ai)d a h;il! ni tin, say SL.lj-.ion of tin, b'UJdhe vhole 
 a quarter of an iioui; itio vcs^il 13 tli';i) («k^;n lro«n the 
 lite, and the solu;ioo poured titto a ! u :^e cijaldron of 
 boiling water, ai the iiistaijt the clot u isim'uersed in it. 
 
 The Dutch manner ofdi/in^ Scarlet, 
 
 Boil the < lotli in water, with alu<n, tarUr, rock salt, 
 nitric acid, mW pea flowers, in a p' wier kettle; then p'jt 
 into the smie kettle, starcli, tirtar a ; I cochiiiiMi, fi \c]y 
 powdered, s.irring or turning tue cloiii well abou'; thus 
 you tiijy, by a<{d!ug more or less cochineal, jaise the 
 'Colour to v' • ' '■■'^^:l you [)lcase. 
 
 To prepa^re the cloth for dijing Scarlet, 
 
 Fitsi, Tike, to oi.e |>ound of cloth, ouvi piit o; bran 
 watei and two pans of river Wi.ter; put i.ity it two 
 ou'icCa of alaia aud one ounce of tartar, when i: 
 joiis am! fi'oKis skun it an'' \)ui m the cloth, turn if. 
 
 .1,,,,,,: , , ... ,.,^ hour, then i?.l;e v. out and iin'-:e it. 
 
96 DYING. 
 
 To dye cloth a common Jhd, 
 
 Take lo twenty yards of cloth three pounds of alum, 
 one pound and a half of tartar, and me third of a pound 
 of Ci-:aik, piu them into a keltic vith water, and boil 
 then), tiivc six pounds of good m3dder, anda wine glass 
 full of vinegar, let them be. warmed together, p*i in 'the 
 cloth, and turn it round upon tiis winch, till you ob- 
 -serve It red enough, then rmsc it out and dry it. 
 
 Another Metliod, 
 
 Take four pounds of nlum, two pounds of taitar, four 
 cv.nces cf wliite lead, and hali a bushel of wheaten bran, 
 put ihe^eingreuiems together with the cloth into a kettle, 
 let it buil ior an hour and a half and leave it to soak all 
 nigh(; then rinse it^ and take for the dye, unt pound of 
 good madder, two ouucss of Orleans yellow, one ounce 
 and. a hall of lurfheric, and two (Minces of nitric acic'; 
 b(»ii theiT-, itirn the cloth on the "'\iiicii for ihiee quai- 
 teistf an hour, and it will be a good red. 
 
 To dy^ JVor&iedf Stuff or Tarn a Crimson 
 Colour. 
 
 Take, *o each pound of woislcd, two ounce? of ali ' > 
 two ounctsot white laitar, twooutites of nitric acid, ! 
 an ounce olpfwier. quarter of a pound of madder, ^i: 
 a quarter ot t pound of logwood, put ihem toj^eiher in 
 fair watcj, r)oilin\» tlje woisled ihereirf for a consideni- 
 bletiiwe; then Irke it out, and when cool rinse it in c!ej.n 
 waitr; thfju boil it agsin, and put to each pound cl v. 
 Sled a quarter cf a pound of logwood. 
 
 •Another. 
 
 Take to eight pounds of vorsied, six gallons of wa': r, 
 snt! tight huncfuls of wheat bran, le; them stand ctli 
 night to fectile, in the uiornin^ puu; it cicsrofl'and hiiel* 
 it; take thereof heif the quantity, addinij as niuc'i deal 
 water to it, hoi! it tqi, and put in one pound of aluvn, and 
 half a pcurd of tailar, then put in the worsted, and lei 
 
DYINC3. ^ 
 
 it boi! for (wo hours, stirring it up and down all the 
 while it is boiling with a stick Then boil the other 
 half part of the bran water, mixing with it the same 
 quantity of brav water at. before; when it boils, put into 
 it four ounces of chocbineal, two ounces oi finely pow- 
 dered tartar; stir it well about, and when it has boiled 
 for a liitlc while/put in your siuflTs, keep stirring it fronn 
 one end to the other with a stick, or turn it on a winch 
 till you see the colour is to your nr»ind, then take it out 
 of the kettle, let it cool, and rinse it in fair water. 
 
 A Carnation for Woollen, 
 
 Take four ounces of ceruse, three ounces and a half 
 of arsenic, one p und ol burnt tartar, one pound of aliun, 
 boil your stuffs wuh these ingredients for two hours, 
 then take them out and hang them up; '.he next morning 
 make a dye of two pounds of good madder, two ounces 
 of lurnieric, and three ounces of acqua fortis. 
 
 To dye a Carnation on Silk or Cotton* 
 
 Take three poimds o* alum, three ounces of arsenic, 
 and four ounces of ceruse, boJl the silk or cotton tlicreia 
 For an hour, then lake it out and rinse it in fair w ater; after 
 which make a l«y of eight pounds of madder, and two 
 ounces of muriate of ammoniaj soak the silk or cotton 
 therein all nigh'; boil it a little in fair water, and put into 
 it one ounce of potash, then pour in some ot the ley 
 and every time you pour the colour will grow deeper, 
 so that you may bring it to what degree you please. 
 
 •inother, 
 
 Tal^to one potind of silk, cotton, or yarn, one ounce 
 of tartar, and half an ounce of white starch, boil them 
 together in fair water, then put in one quarter of an 
 ounce of cochineal, a quarter of an ounce of starch, and 
 a quariei of an ounce of pewter, dissolved in half an 
 ounce ot aqua fortis, and mixed with fair water; When 
 the water witJ^ the starch and taitar has boilecJ for some 
 tirec, supply it viih the cochineal and the above aquafortis, 
 9 
 
08 DYING. 
 
 put in the silk or whatever you have a mind to dye ant 
 you will have it oi a Bne colour. 
 
 Method of Dyivg Broad Cloth a Carnatior 
 Colour. 
 
 Take the liquor of wheat bran, tfiree pounds of ajuni , 
 tartar two ouiices; boil ihetn, and then imititrhe in it 
 twenty yards ot broaci cloth; after it has boiltd thnc 
 houti>, cool and wash ii; lake IVcsh clear bran liquor in suf • 
 iicient quantit),anU five pounds of maddei; boil as usual. 
 
 To make a Curious Bed Hater, for Silks 
 istuffs, ^"c. 
 
 Take two quarts of lair water, four ounces of gum- 
 arabic, ore pound of woad anu set them «-v*r the fire 
 till half is boiled away; then take it <-ff the fire and put 
 in half an ounce ot Spanish green, and about thirty 
 grains of cochineal, and put ii by lor use. 
 
 Turkey Red, 
 
 Boil the cotton for three hours in pearl ash and fish 
 oi), about an ounce ot each to a pound of cotton, and 
 water enough to cover it; wash it, and tliy it, in.merse it 
 for ten tioys in fish oil, squeeze or rinse it well, and hang 
 it up to dry, run it through a hot solution of alun», in 
 the proportion of alunti one part, water forty pans by 
 weight; then run it through a mixture of cow manure 
 and hot water, again through the alum water, then 
 through a decoction of |;alls, or sumach, an ounce cl 
 galls to the pound of cotton; then through a dilute solu- 
 tion of glue ; aluu. it again after washuig it ; ^yadder it 
 witn half a pound of madder to the pound of c" .ton ; al- 
 un) ii again, and madder it again, v iih from a qharter to 
 halt a pound ot madder more to the pound ot cotton; 
 brighten it by boiling it lor half an hour in a weak solu- 
 tion ot white soap. 
 
 The lorcgoing colour may be imitated thus: Boil the 
 cctlcn in pearl ash and oil as above directed; wash it anc' 
 
'D^lN'Gi, 99 
 
 ■y li; alum it as before, an.l then run it through ths 
 I ow manure liq'ior; wash it; ia:ke the connmoa printer's 
 mordant, of alum one pound, s-jgar of lead two pounds; 
 waier one j^iUor., dissolve, add another gallon of waier; 
 i.niacrsc the cotton ior a day in ihis hat soiution; 
 
 l-.cn mailder it with thtcc quarters ot a pound of mad- 
 -:cr, snJ one ounce of jjalls to tlic pound of cotton— ihis 
 inuy he rtlieJ on. 
 
 General observations for (hjin^; Cloth of a 
 lied or Scarlet colour. 
 
 ist. The cloth must he wsll soaiicd in a ley made of 
 aium and tartar; this is comnK)nIy done wit'i iwu parts of 
 ahim and one pjrt of tartar. '2^. For streny;i honing the 
 red co!ov:r, prepjie a water ot bran or stjrcu; nra/i wa- 
 ter is thus prepared: lake five or six quarts of wtitat 
 bran, boil i' over a slow fire in tain water f(jr a q-iattur of 
 an hour, and tlien put it, wim some coid vvaiei, lu.'* a 
 small vessel, m:sinj;j it up wiih a handfui ol leave..; t/ie- 
 sourer ic is made the better. This causes the wa;sr lo 
 be sufi, and me cluUi to become mellow; n is zo n.nmV.f 
 ustd in the liisi boihng, and mixed wiin tnealmn Wdcer. 
 od. Ag^Jtic is an ingredient used m 'fyinj; ut r .'ia, bat 
 icw dyers can }»ive sny reason for its vii rue, as it is of a 
 dry and spongy nature. It ;iiay reason ihly be .-.upposeJ, 
 that it con;racls the greasmess tiial mav hajipon lo be in 
 the 'he. 4ih. Arsenic is a very dangerous injjreiiieai; 
 nitric or tnuriatic acid, may supply iss place js w;;ll. 
 5lh. Scaiitt is a vaiicty of crimson colour; me intric 
 acid is the chief ingredient in the change; mis may be 
 tried in a wine glass, wiiercin a deep crinjsoii colauris 
 pui; by adding drops of nitric acid to it, it will change 
 inio a scarlet. Gib O'jserve that you ulways lake ono 
 pi! t of tartar to two parts of alum; most dyers pretfr the 
 wliiie to the red tanar; but, however, in crimson colours, 
 and others that turn ipon ilie tjro*vn, the red tarUr is ' 
 chosen by many aS pieivnabie txj the while. 
 
 Of Dying Blue. 
 
 Blue may betlyeo wiHi -vo.^d alone, which would give 
 a permanent but not a deep blue; but if indigo be mixeJ 
 
400 DYING» 
 
 xvith it, a very rich colour will be obtained. The lor- 
 Jowmg 13 a method: — 
 
 Prefiaration of the Blue Vat. — Into a vat, about seven 
 feet deep and five and a half broad, are to be tin own 
 about 400 lbs. of wohd, bro»ten in pieces; thirty pounds 
 ol weid are bailed in a copper about three hours, in a 
 sufficient quantity to fill the vat; when this decoction is 
 made, twenty pounds of madder and some bran are to 
 be a.tded, and it is then to be boiled half an hour longer. 
 This bath is to be cooled v»iih 20 buckets of water; and 
 after it is settled the weld is to be taken out, and it is to 
 be poured into the vat, and for a quarter of an hour 
 lonf;er is to be stirred with a rake. The vat is then 
 covered up very hot and lefi to stand six hours, when it 
 is raked again for half an hour, and this operation is re- 
 peated every three iiours. 
 
 \V)it'n blue veins appear on the surfaoe of the vat, 
 eight or nine pounds of quick lime are thrown in; at 
 the same time, or immediately after, the indigo is put 
 into ihe vat, being first jjround«fine in a mill w!l!i the 
 Idst possible quaauty of water. Wiien diluted to the 
 consisieiice ot a pnp, it is drawn off at ths lower part 
 of the mill, and is tlirown into the vat. The quantity 
 of iiidi^o depends on the shade of colour required. A 
 vat vvi)U;!i contains no woad is called an indigo vat. The 
 ^.;.?i3e! used for this prepanrton is nf copper, into which 
 is pouicd water in the proportion u! 129 gullons to 6 
 pou!>ds uf potasl), 12 ounces of ui.nldor, atid 6 pounds 
 of Ijran nave been boiled; six pounds o' indijjo, ground 
 in water, are then put in, and alter carefully raking it 
 the vat is coveted mhI a slow fire kept round it; twelve 
 bouts after v is filled, it is 'o be ruked a second time, 
 whicn is to be repciated at similar intervals of lime, till 
 li corr.es to a blue., which will generady happen in foriy- 
 cichr h'luis. U tjic bulti be well managed it vrill be of 
 a G'e grt-jtn covered with c<>ppcry scales, and a fine 
 biue si:u I.. In this vat ihc indigo is rendered soluble 
 in the wiucr by the alk'^Ii instead of the linie. 
 
 A aecond method for fircfiaring a lilue Vat.— Heat 
 soft Water 111 a kettlr; put to it four or five handtuls of 
 wheat bran, toj^ether with four pounds of pot ash; when 
 Vlmt Is dissolvcdj boil it for an hour, and ad J four pound^ 
 
ftYING. iOi 
 
 o! fnadtler; bow U for an hour longer; then pour the 
 water into the vat; do not fill it by the height of a foot; 
 then cover the vat; then set it vrith indigo and vFoad, cf 
 each six pounds, and two pounds of pot ash: put this 
 into a small kettle in warm water; set it on a slow fire 
 and let it boil gently for half an hour, Stirling it all the 
 while; then pour that into the other liquors already in 
 the vat. To set a vat with indigo only, you must boil 
 the first ley with pot ash, four or five handfuls of bran, 
 and a half or three quarters of a pound of madder; this 
 boil a q'.iarier of an hour, and when settled it will be fit 
 for use; then grind the indigo in a bowl, with an iron 
 siTiooth ball, very fine, pouring on some of the ley and 
 mixing it together; when settled pour the clear into th« 
 blue val, and on the sediment of the indigo pour again 
 some of the ley. This operation should be repeated 
 till you see all the colouring matter is extracted from 
 it. It is to be observed that the madder must be but 
 sparingly used, for it only alters the colour and makes 
 it of a violet blue, which, if you design to have, coch- 
 ineal is finer for. The mixed colours in blue are the 
 iollowing: Dtirk blue, deep blue, high blue, sky blue, 
 pale blue, dead blue, and whitish blue. By mixing of 
 blue and crimson, pnrple, columbine, amaranth, and 
 violet colours are produced, and from those mixtures 
 may also be drawn the pearl, silver-gridlin, Sec. colours. 
 From a middling blue and crimson are produced the 
 following colours, viz, the pansy, brown giey, and deep 
 brown. Care must be taken that in setting the blue vat 
 you do not overboil the ley, by which the colour be- 
 comes muddy and changeable; be aiso sparing of the 
 pot ashy for too much gives the blue a greenish atjd 
 false hue. 
 
 Directions for setting' another Blue Fat, with obser- 
 vations on tue management of both Silk and Hor&led. — 
 Take half a bushc\ of clean beech ashes, well sifted: of 
 this make a ley with three pails of river or rain water; 
 pour it into a tub, and put in two handfuls of wheat bran, 
 two ounces of madder, two oun ces of white tartar finely 
 powdered, one pound of pot ash , half a pound of indigo, 
 pounded fine; stir it well toga her once every twelve 
 boursj for fourteen days succe ssivcly; when the liquid 
 9» 
 
lOS DYING. 
 
 appears prccn on tic fingers it is fit for <-'ying; stir it 
 evci y iiioriiing, and when done cover it. A\ hen you are 
 goir^^ to dye siik, fir^t wash the silk in fresh ley, wrin;:; 
 it ot.t, antl ciip it into the vat. You may dye it of wliat 
 shar f you please bv hoIdin}> it longer or short' r in the 
 clyt. When Uit! colour is lo your mind, wring the silk; 
 an' 1: iving another tuh ready at hand wiih clear ley? 
 rir.bi. ihe fe k U>eiein; tlien wa^U ;;nci beat it in fair water 
 ami iiUU^ it y.p tod'y. When tlic vat is wasted, fill it 
 with Ihe Ie\; but il it grows too weak, sujiply it with 
 liolf a poiino of pot (ish. half a pound of madder, one 
 bs^ndlul of witMi bran, and lialf a handful of while tarta:: 
 let it styn.' for ej>:;ii! d^vs, stirring il every twelve hours, 
 and it will '^e fit for use. 
 
 •Another method for Woollen. 
 
 Fill :i kettle with wattr, boi' it, and put pot ash into 
 j'; alter it has boiled with that a little, put ii) two or 
 three handfuls of hrau; let it boil for a quaitcr of an 
 hour, and then cover ii, lake it olT the fire, and let it 
 settle, pound indj^o as fine as (lour; then pour ihe 
 flbove i«y to it, stir and let i' settle, and pi.ur the 
 clear ley into the vat; then pour more ley to the sedi- 
 nient, slirit, ard when settled pour that into the vat also 
 — repeal this till tlio indigo is wasted. Or, take a quar- 
 ter of a pound of indigo, half a pound of pot abh, a 
 quntpr ol a poutid of madder, and three handful* cf 
 bran: let them bnil for half an hour, and then settle; 
 with this ley grind the indigo in a copper bow!; put 
 this iM an old vat of indigo, or on a new one of woad; 
 and It will make ii fit for use in twenty-four hours. 
 
 To dye Saxon Blue, 
 
 Twke four parts of sulphuric acid, and pour on one 
 pan of indigo, in fine powdes: let the mixture be stirred 
 lor S' Pie litne; and having stood twenty-four hours, one 
 part of dry powder is added; the whuje is to be again 
 well siirrtd; and hnvinjj stood a day awd night, more or 
 Jess water is wdded gradually. To dye cloth with it, it 
 tntisi be pteparctl wi'.h alum and tartar. A greater or 
 
DYING, 103 
 
 less proportion of indigo is put intol'ic Nith, according 
 as ihe shade rccjuirt'd is deep or ligjl t. For deep simdes 
 the stufF most be passed several tinn'^s tluough the baih. 
 Lighter shades may he dyed after the deep ones, but 
 ihcy hnvc mere lustre when dyed in a fresh bath: rnerc 
 should be a false bottom ready 'o put into the vat over 
 the sctdings: this bottom should be pierced w\U\ a num- 
 ber of holes, so as the nssetjtial parts contained in tiie 
 settlings may intermix with ihe dye without disturbing 
 them; or if the false bottom is not used, tlie cloth should 
 be laing on a wincli, or manipulated in such a manner 
 CIS neither to disturb or touch the settlings, and this rule 
 must be observed in all cases. When the vat is thus 
 prep^^red, the siufF previously wrunj^ out of warm water, 
 is put into it, and kept a lonijjer or a shorter time, ac- 
 coiding to the degiee oi" strength that is to b'i imparted 
 to the colour. When ijken out, its green colour, which 
 it has imbibed in the bath, is instantly charvged by the 
 iiCtion of the atmospliere. 
 
 In dying Saxon blue, a mordant is used of three ounces 
 and lliree quarters of alurri, and two ounces and a quar- 
 ter of cream of tartar to one pound and a quarter of 
 cloth. After being boiled in this composition an hour, 
 I'.ie stuff is left in about twenty-four hours longer. The 
 colour bath is pre[)ared by pourings into boiling water an 
 ounce, or rathei less,, of the solution of inc'igo in su!- 
 pliuiic acid, to one pound and a quarter of cloth, which 
 ii boiled in it twenty or thirty minutes, and- after beinj 
 taken out, is careluily washed. 
 
 Receipt to dye 8 lbs. of Deep Blue in Linev^ 
 or Cotton. 
 
 Take 4 ounces of indi;^o and grind it fine, 2 ounces of 
 madder, 8 ounces of copperas, 8 ounces of pot ash, 4 
 uuriccs of lime, and I ounce of alum: mix all together 
 uiih five gallons of soft water. The dye is fit for use 
 the second dav. Scald cotton before you colour it. Stir 
 ^he dye morning and evening. Thie quantity is for 8 
 !hs. of deep blue in linen or cotton. 
 
Another Blue, 
 
 A vat wiib caustic alkali can be made thus: To a 
 pound of indigo well washed, add one and a half pounds 
 of pearl ashes, and two pounds of lime, fresh slacked, and 
 about iwo gaUons of water; boil iliem for two hours, then 
 add about twenty gallons of hot water, and a quarter of 
 a pound of green vitriol, vitriol o^ iron, and as much 
 red arsenic; stir it frcqoejftly; wiien a green freth is risen 
 it is ready. Or grind a pound of indigo in urine, fresh 
 or stale, add to it about forty gallons of urine, stir it 
 •with a rake till the green scum rises, and the indigo ap- 
 pears dissolved. Dip the cloth in this, till the vat is 
 exhatwted. 
 
 To make a Curious Blue Water for Silks^ 
 Stuffs, or Woollen* 
 
 Take three parts oi soap boiler's ashes, and one part 
 of unslacked lime, make a ley of them and sufTcr them 
 to se'tle, then decant off the thinner part and add one 
 pound of bolemin, stir them well over a gentle fire, ad- 
 ding a pound of woad and half a pound of in.Iigo, dip» 
 ping whatever is to be coloured into it, when very hot 
 till it takes the colour. 
 
 How to djjp, Wooly in the Grease, a Perm a-, 
 nent Blue* 
 
 Take four ounces of indigo, reduced to powder and 
 passed through a silk sieve; lor every ounce of indigo, 
 take twelve pounds of wool in the grease, and put the 
 whole into a copper large enough to contain all the v\;_ool 
 intended to be dyed. Begin by covering the bottom of 
 the copper, with a thin layer of powdered infligo, on this 
 put a layer of wool, on this a second layer of indigo, and 
 so on ellernalely to the boiler is full, taking care that 
 the fiist and hst layers be of indigo, and the wool be 
 well separated in layers of equal quantity, A ley of 
 •wood ashes or pot ash should be previously prepared, 
 strong enough to be:ir an egg, and in sufBcient quantity, 
 tp fill the boiler, and e|^irely to coverthe materials.-— 
 
DYING. 105 
 
 Before the ley is poured on it should be warmed, but 
 not so as to prevent the manipulation. As soon as the 
 boiler is filled, the wool is to be pressed down equally all 
 over, an-1 vrorkcd with the hand, so that it may imbibs 
 tlie liquid uniformly; a gentle heat must be kept up till 
 the next day, with small coals, or hot ashes, thro.vn under 
 the bailer. Allontion must be paid lo raise tlie degree 
 of heat, before and during the manipula'ion, and Vo 
 work the wool every day for a week, for the more lab->r 
 bestowed on the manipulation, tiie greater uinformity 
 and intensity of colour will it acquire. As soon as the 
 requisite colour is obtained, the wool is to be dried, and 
 Mils completes the operation. A light blue may be had, 
 by diminishing tue q inntity of indi.^-o. Tae liquor re- 
 maining alter dying, may be again used to produce light 
 blues. — This is the most simple and economical proce^'S 
 that can be used for dying woal of » hlae colour. 
 
 To dye Cotton Yarn a Beep Blue. 
 
 Take one ptmnd of logwood chippeJ hue or poundcdj. 
 boil it in a soiTiciciU quantity of water tid the whole 
 colon iiig mstler is extiaced, then lake about hill a 
 gailoii of this liquor and dissolve it in an ounce of ver- 
 digris, and about the like quantity of alum, boil the yarn 
 in the mean lime, in the lugsvood water, (oroide hour, 
 wining it well antl keeping it loose. Take out liic yarn 
 and mix the half gallon containing the vcrdigiis and 
 :d im with the otl-.er, then put the jarn into the mixture 
 and boil it four hours, stirring it and keeping it loose all 
 the time, and taking it out oticc eveiy hour lo give it 
 air, after which dry it, ihen boil it in soop and wutcr and 
 it is done. The ubove prepiraiion will dye six pounds 
 of cotton yarn, a deep blue, -after wliioh put as much 
 yarn into the sime liquor and l»jil it ttirce hours, Stir- 
 ling it a-i be'ore, and ii will give a good pale blue; or if 
 you want an elegant green, boil liickory feark in the 
 liquor and it wih produce it. 
 
 Fellow 
 Is usually imported to woollen substances by a de- 
 cociion of woad, bat as ibis plant yields its colouring 
 
106 DYING. 
 
 principle wiih difiiciilty, alkUics etc cmplorcd to aSSidt 
 in its extraction. Alkalits are used chiefly for this pur- 
 pose 111 flyinj of linen or cotton, and tlieir pUice must 
 be Bupplied by salt, sal aminor.i^jr, nn 1 aia%i; when 
 Nvoad is to bo applied to animal bobstaiKcs whicli are 
 cissnlvcd in alkalies, lime is sometimes ucd, to 
 heighten the colours. A good yellow of riiffitreni tin's 
 jT)ay be procuied by hoiiint; wo.u.1 with uitrine s.vlt, 
 lime cr alum; the salt produces the deepest aliade; alum 
 icndtrs the colour brii-hitr; an^monia imparts a gicen- 
 ish hue to the bath; tart ^r j^ivcs a very pale shade; and 
 copperas changes it to a btown. 
 
 To dye Silk Yellow, 
 
 Silks intended for a yellow colour, are boiled in the 
 propoiliou e»f about one pound ol soap to about five 
 pounds ot silk; they arc atttiwartls washed, alumcd, and 
 fcxpobed on rods. The >ellow baih is prepared by 
 boiiiue two pounds and u quarter of wiad lo the pound 
 ol s-ilk about a quarter of an hour. Tnis bath is sir-iin* 
 cd through a stevo, and let cool till the hand can be 
 kept in it, beloie tlie silk is mimerKed in the vat. A 
 golden hue may be imparted to silk by means of annalio. 
 
 To dye Silk a Fopiiy Colour, 
 
 The most bccutiiul rcc i:»par,ed to si.k is that term- 
 ed poppy. This colour i^ prcp .cd by precipitating on 
 stuff, bastard ScifTion, [■■.cm/? wrt] held m a solution ot 
 pot r.bh, uith this xuw, w! en the silk is v. ashed and 
 put oi: rods, citric |_5cfron] juxe is poured iuto the 
 b»th t,ll i- acquit es a ciieriy colour, it is i!;cn well stir- 
 red, :.nfi tl.< silt; ti-pealedly letdown into it til! it has ac- 
 quirtd Hs^niciei.t colour. To produce a ftiii poppy 
 colour thcsdk is wrun- o-, cotniog outcf tnefi.si tiaih, 
 which it exi,a.is>s, and ts ti.en p..t into the second. 1-ive 
 01 s x b ihs .re requisite to im.i.rt to u a fl ■....e colour. 
 The pop,,y cohui is hutii>-.ened by pulun^^ the s^ilk 
 through upid uater addul-Hted w^v^ lemon juice. A».- 
 natto, iincf or lour shaoes paler itu-.n uuroia, is req ns- 
 itc for silks bclore expo5ii>K them to the colouring ptm- 
 
ciple of bastard saffron. — The poppy colour eommuni- 
 caied by this last clyc may be iiuiiaied by Brazil wood. 
 
 To dye Silk a Straw Colour Fellow, 
 
 Take sik, aliun and liobe it as b»-toro direclcJ; then 
 boil to each pouiid of silk one pound of fuMic, and let 
 mem bland for a quarter of an iiour; put hita a tub 
 large enough lur the quantity u! si k, with a buHicient 
 qiian'iiy ot Icy and fun wsitet; in (his rinse tuu hnkj fill 
 the ktlilc ajiiiin with vvaiej, and let it buil for cnc hour, 
 and having wrung the silk out of the first hquui, .lud 
 Iiuns it on sticks, picpare a stroni-;er icy thtn tne ficst— 
 ;n this dip your s ik iiiiiht cni ur »^i-;tc(i loi ibob-ined, 
 
 Another *,ii(:thod. 
 
 Put into a clean Kettle, to c^t h pound of silk, two 
 puunrls <t fustic; let it boil for ..n hoir, then put in six 
 ounces of galis; Itt them boji to^i' ihei hftif an hour 
 longer, and bavinp: wrun^ij the siik. out of the fiist iiquur 
 and hun^ it on sticks, prepare a stionger ley than the 
 firbt — in tijjs dip the silk' tul the dehircd colour is ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 Put into a clean kettle, to each pound of silk, two 
 pounds ot fustic; let it boil for an hour; rh -» put in six 
 ounces ot gall'-; let ihcr« buil tujjethjr nalt an hour 
 loiif^er. The siik being hliunetl and rinsed, is turned 
 about 'n this colour; tijnn take it out ot tiie Keltic and 
 wring 1'; dip ii in pot ash ley, and wrirsj.^ u oui .i^<<«iri; 
 then put it into the keitlc; let it soak a whoie ni(^iit, and 
 in the niornins; rinse it; then beat it out and hang it up 
 to diy. 
 
 Beautiful newly discovered Golden Fellow 
 for ^ilkSf t'ottonSf ^c. 
 
 This fine, lively, yellow dye, has been disceve ed by 
 Mon. Lastyre. It is obtained from the shaggy sponk, 
 the boletus hirsniusy a specie* of mushroorn or fungus, 
 
108 DYING. 
 
 growing chiefly on apple or walnut trees. This vegelabic 
 substance is Fepltte vith colouring matter, which must 
 be cxprtssed by pounding in a morihr; after which the 
 liquor thus acquired is boiled about a quarter of an hour. 
 Six pints of water may be well tinged for dying by a 
 single ounce of the expressed fluid. This being strain- 
 ed, the silk, cotton, See. intended to be dyed must be 
 immersed and boiled in it for fifteen or twenty minutes, 
 when fiiie siik, in particular, if it be alteiwards passed 
 through soft soap water, will uppcar of a bright golden 
 yellow hue, equal in lustie to silks imported from China. 
 
 Chinese Yellow Dye or Stain for Silk Stvffs 
 and Faper, 
 
 Poast over a clear and gemle fire, ma very clean copper 
 pan, lialf a p<:und ol the acc'.sia, oi, (an it is called in 
 Jmerica,J the loiust fli wcrs, befoxe they are full 
 blown, continually siiiring them with t' brisk motion, 
 ard when they hegin to turn yellow, pour over them a 
 little watci, and let i\ boil lill U becomes of some con- 
 sistence, and has also acquired a detper coluur; then 
 straining the liquid through a piece of coaise silk, add 
 to it half an ounce of finely powdeied alum, and an 
 ounce of finely calcined ^nd 4)owdcred oyster shells; 
 mix the whole wtll togolhtr and keep it for use. 
 
 Another Vegetable Yellow Dye, 
 
 Cut off the yellow flowers on poatne tops; bruise 
 them and press out the juice. Linen or woollen soaked 
 in this liquor forty-eight hours, takes a fine, solid, and 
 pern)antnt yellow colour. If the cloth be afterwards 
 plunged into a blue dye, it then acquires a bcauiilul per- 
 manent green. 
 
 To dye Yara a Yellow Colour. 
 
 In a kettle of siiong ley put a bundle of woad and lei 
 It boil; then pour off the ley, and take to one pound and 
 a half of yarn half an ounce of verdigris, and half an 
 ounce cf alum, boiled with ley; stir it well together 
 
DYiNG. 4.6% 
 
 and po'ur it in, and mix U with Ihe woad ley; in this 
 soak the yarn over nijjht, and it will be a very good 
 yeltow. 
 
 Jl fine Brimstone Yellow for Worsted, 
 
 Take three pouniis of alum, one pound of tartar, 
 ?\nd three ounces of salt; boil the cloth wiih these ma- 
 ;erials for one hour, pour off the water, anl poor Jresli 
 into the kettle, make a strong bath of weld, let it boil, 
 then turn the cloth quickly upon the winch twice o" 
 thrice, and it will have a fine brimstone colour. 
 
 A Lemon Colour, 
 
 Take three pounds of alum, three ounces of ceruse, 
 .md three ounces of arsenic: with these.ingredients boil 
 the cloth for an hour and a half, pour 'off the water, 
 and make a ley of sixteen pounds oi' yellow flowers, 
 and three ounces of turmeric; then draw or winclj yur 
 cloth through quickly, and it will be of a fine lemon 
 colour. 
 
 To dye an Olive Colour, 
 
 To dye this colour, observe the directions for dying 
 orimstone colour, then make a ley of gall nuts and 
 vitiiol, but not too strong, draw your stuff quickly 
 through, three or four times, according as you would 
 have it either deeper or lighter. 
 
 20 dye a Golden Colour, 
 
 Having first dyed the silk, linen, woollen, or cotton, 
 of a yellow colour, take to each pound of the couk^o- 
 dity, one ounce of yellow chips and one draciin of pot 
 ash; boil for half an hour, then 'put in your siik, and 
 turn it till the colour required is produced. Weld is 
 considered by most dyers as the yellow which unites 
 beauty with durability in the highest degree, 
 
 10 
 
no l^YIXG. 
 
 To dye Wool or Woollen Cloth Tellow. 
 
 iTIie wool is first cleansed and then passed througfi 
 a bath of about four parts alum and one of taitar, to 
 every sixteen parjs ol wool. It is then dyed in the wck! 
 bath, for which from three to four paits ot weld are 
 Aised to one of wool. A golden yellow, with more or 
 less orange, is given by a weak niarldcr after the weld- 
 ing. Silk is dyed cf a golden yellow generally with 
 veld alone. The stuff is first boiled in soap water, 
 alumed and cashed, then passed twice through a weld 
 bath, in which, the second time, some alkitli is dissolv- 
 ed, which gives a rich golden hue to the natural yellow 
 ot the plant. A small quantity of annatto still furll.ci 
 deepens the colour. The solutions of tin apply well t" 
 silk, and with weld give it a bright clear yellow. 
 
 To dye Cotton Yellow. 
 
 Tt !s first cleansed with wood ashes and water, rinsed, 
 alumed, and dried, Mid then passed lhr^ugh a yellow 
 bath, in which the weld at least equals the cotton in 
 weight. When the colour is suflSciently taken, the 
 cotton is thrown into a bath of sulphate of copper and 
 vvater, and kept there for an hour, after which it is boil-. 
 ed in a solution of white sooj^, and finally washed and 
 dried. If a deeper jonquil yellow be required, the 
 alumit'g is onMtted, and in stead, a little verdigris is 
 added to the weld bath, and the coHon fiiiished in soda. 
 In givinp; the lively, greenish, lemon yellow, weld is 
 preferred to all other materials. Wool may be d)ed 
 a i:.st yelhw colour with quercitron, black oak bark, by 
 being fiist cleaj)sed, and then boiled lor an hour, with 
 one-sixth part of its weight of slum in water; then, 
 withuot rinsing, transferred into the vessel containing a 
 di:f oction of as much quercitron baik as there was 
 used of alum, and turned through the boiling liquor 
 over the winch till the colour appeats to have taken. 
 Chalk or I'lkali is of great sen ice in yellow dying, whe- 
 ther with weld, quercitron, or any otlier colour when 
 the mordant is alum,^as this addition helps te brirg out 
 
DYING. lit 
 
 sTid heighten Ihe dye. The salts of lin, being povvetful 
 
 ..lortlams for almost every colouring matter, may be 
 
 scd v.iUi aJvanta'je in .lying yellow of the iiiiw-st 
 
 .olours. 
 
 To dye 105 lbs, of Cloth tlie finest Ora:i^^e 
 Yellow, 
 
 Tal^e ten pounds of quercitron bark, tie il up in a 
 bag, put it in'.o ths boiler, and when boiled a few min- 
 utes, put in ten pounds of the nitro muriate of tin, stir 
 and mix both well logclhev; then the cloth, bcin^ pre- 
 \iot!3ly scoured and wet, is passed briskly through the 
 hnuor over a winch far about a quarter of an hour. 
 
 . Green. 
 
 To dye woollen green, either a blue or yellow dyo 
 may be first i^iven to it, but the fiist is genetally used 
 because the yellow dye of the stulF would injure the 
 bice bath. The intensity of the blue must ever be pro- 
 p,)riioned to the shade of green required. When ih.e 
 blue dye is given, the yellow is given by some ot ths 
 processes already d'jscribed. Tne cloth haviutj the 
 proper ryround, is washed in the fullin(» mills aiv:i boiled 
 as for the couiinon process o! welding; but when the 
 shade is to be ligiit, the proportion of salts soould lie 
 less. In ttiis case, the quaniity of weld used should 
 also be less; but for all other shndcs it should be great- 
 er than ior dying simple ycUow. 
 
 Sajpon Greens 
 
 Are obtained from the sulphate of indigo. From six 
 'o eight pounds of queicilron, biack oak bark, cnciused 
 •;i a bag, s'lould be put into the buh lot every 100 Ijs. 
 of cloih, with only a small proportion ot water. Juhi: 
 as n begins to grow warm, when the water boih, six 
 pounds of miirio sulp'nate ot tin should be put in, and 
 in a few (^.linutes after about four pounds of aluT.; these 
 having boiled five or six minutes, cold water should be 
 added and the fire diminished, »o as lo bring down the 
 
iia DYING. 
 
 heat bF the liquor nearly to what the hand can beafj. 
 after this a« much sulpbaie of incligo is *,o be added as 
 Will siifBce to produce llie bbade required, taking care 
 to mix i*. well wjiii tiie bath. The cloth having been 
 previously scoured and moistened, should then be expe- 
 ditiously puf into tlie liquor and turned very briskly 
 thiuugh it for a quarter of an hour> that the colour n»ay 
 apply itself CTenly in evciy part. By tliis method beau* 
 t>ful gieens may be dyed in half an hour. 
 
 A fine Green for dying Silk, 
 
 Take to one pound of silk, a (^uarlGi' of a ponr.d of 
 alum and two ounces of white tartar; put them together 
 in hot water to dissolve; then put in your sill: and let it 
 soak all nij»lii; take it out tho next morning and hao'^ it 
 up to diy; then take one pnui.d fif fustic and boil it m 
 four gallons of water for an hour; (ako out the fustic 
 and put into the kettle half an ounce ol finely powdered 
 Tcrdi^rib; stir it about for a quarter of an hour, draw it 
 off into a tub and let it cool; then put into that colour 
 an ounce of pot ash; stir it together with a stick, dip 
 the silk tiierein till you think it yellow enough; rinse it 
 in fair water and hang it up to dry; tl',cn dip it in the 
 blue vat till you think it enough; rinse it aj^ain and beat 
 it over the pin and hanjv i^ "P ^o '^"y* Thus you may 
 change the shades of green by dipping either more or 
 I«'Ss in the blue or yellow. For tho greets, take, to one 
 podiid ol silk, three ounces of verdigris \h fine powder, 
 intuse it in a pint of wine vinogar for a i»ighi; then put 
 :t on the fire; when hot, stir it with a siirk and keep it 
 from boilinj,'; in this put 'he silk two oi three hours; or 
 if it is to be ol a liglit colour, let it so:ik only half a!> 
 hoiu; then take sr.aldin;» hot water, and jn a trou**!., 
 •.liUi soiip, beat £!!d work up a clear lather; in tliis rinse 
 fnu: ilk; then hang it up to dry; rinse it ai^ain in river 
 watci; beat it well, and wlien u is well cleaned ane 
 dried, dress it. 
 
 lo dye Linen of a Green Colour, 
 
 Soak your linen over night in stiong alum ^ater; then 
 take it cut and dryii; take woad, boil it for an hour; 
 
DYIVG. 118 
 
 lake out the woad Ani put in one oance of powdered 
 verdigris, accordinec to the quantity you have to dye; 
 stir it together brislcly witit the linen; tlien put in a piece 
 of pot ash, the size of a hen's egg, atjd the linen will 
 be of a fine yellow colour, which, when dried a little 
 and put into a blue vat, will turn green. Cotton and 
 linen are, in another process, scoured in the usual way, 
 r\nd then first dyed blue; after being cleaned they arc 
 dipped in the weld bjth to produce a green colour. As 
 it is difiicult to give cotton velvet an uniform colour m 
 the blue vat, it is first dyed yellow with turmeric, and 
 the process completed by giving it a green by sulphate 
 of indigo. 
 
 The different shades of olive, Sec. are given to cotton 
 thrnad, after it has received a blue ground by galling it, 
 dipping ii in a weaker or stronger bath of iron liquor, 
 thqii in the weld bath, and afterwards in the bath with 
 sulphate of copper; the colour is lastly brightened with 
 soap. Yellow colours are rendered more intense by 
 means of alkalies, sulphate of lime and ammoniacal 
 salts; but they become fainter by m»ans ol acids and 
 solutions of tin and aluoi- 
 
 To dye a Brown Red Colour either on Sille or 
 Worsted, 
 
 First, after the silk or worsted is prepared in the. 
 manner directed for dying of red colours, boil it in 
 madder, then slacken the fire, and add to the madder 
 liquor prepared as will be shewn for black, then stir the 
 fire, and when the dye is hot work the commodities that 
 are to be dyed therein till they are dark enough; but 
 the best way to dye this colour is in a blue Tat; there« 
 fore, choose cither lighter or darker, according as 
 you would have the cloth lighter or darker; then alum 
 and rinse your silk or cloth in fair water; then work it 
 in (he kettle with madder till it is of thu desired colour. 
 
 Brown Bye, 
 
 wain' 
 
 >ot, S 
 
 10* 
 
 The rinds and roots ef walnuts, saunders wood, elder 
 bark, sumac, and «YeD soot, Sec. arc used iQ this dye» 
 
11-4 DYIN«. 
 
 ■JlIv. Ill ds of tvalniits ere the husks which cover (he 
 n\jti<. Of all ii.urtdieiils for a brown dye, lliis is coii- 
 siflcieii tht best, and i.exi to ibe rind ranks the roots of 
 the Walnut tree. The superiority of the walnut rind 
 dyi conr partd with the others, consists in its shades 
 beiiiu finer, the durnbility of its colour, and i;s proper- 
 ly of softening the wool and tendering it of a better 
 quality, as well as easier worked. To make use of 
 this nnd a copper is half filled with soft water; and 
 when it bepins to grow warm the rind is added in a 
 quantity suited to the jjoods and Xbf^r intended depth 
 of colrvu; the stuffs in llie mean tiire having been 
 dippfd in warm water, are put into the copper as soon 
 as tl'.e ingiediems have boiled about a quarter of un 
 hour, where they are worl^ed, 'ill they have acquired 
 the colour intended, bein^ aired as usual to cool them, 
 Ihev arc dried and dressed. ^Vhen the shades are re- 
 quired lo be very exactly rnalched. nnd the goods arc 
 spi:n wool, a small quantify of the rind should be firit 
 put in, aiK' the lighter niade; then n;orciind being add- 
 ed, the decj)est. But with stuffs in general the dccp< st 
 are commonly made first; as the liquor diminishes, the 
 lightest aie dipped. Foraying; with the root, a copper 
 is ihiee quarters filled with river water, and the requi- 
 site quantity of roots cut into small pieces and boiled 
 moderately, onre always being had to leave in it soinc 
 dying substance. 
 
 Of Blacks, 
 
 The black commonly i^iven to all kinds of stuff is 
 that which is produced by some vegetable astringent, 
 ptiiticuliiily ^alls, with the salts of iron; but many cir- 
 ci.nisiances must be attended to in order to produce a 
 full mid jjood colour. Wool takes this,3tind of black 
 wiih much mote ease than linen or coilo^. For every 
 ■fiiiy pouiicis of cloth take t.ight pounds cf legwood and 
 83 rr.Dch g*lls, buth biuised or powdered; tie them 
 loosely in » bap, an»! b( i! in a moderate sized copper lor 
 about twelve hours, with sufficttnt quantity of water; 
 put one ihiid of this dcociion, with a pound of verdi- 
 gri.^, into gnothcr coppei, apd soak the ciotji in it, fof 
 
^ DYING. 113 
 
 two hours, keepinf? ll-c liquor scalding hot, but not 
 boilin}^. Take out the cloih, acid to the sume copper 
 another lliircl of the satne decoction, with four pounds 
 o{ vitriol or sulphate of iron, and bring it again to a 
 scalding Iiea?, and soak the clotli in h for an hour, stir- 
 iinj; it well all the lime; then take out the cloth, and 
 :\d(i the remaining third of the decoction, with eight or 
 ten pounds of sumac; boil the whole, lower the heat 
 with a little cold water, add a pound nlorc of vitriol, and 
 leturn the clotli for an hour longer. The cloth is then 
 wa'shcd End aired, and returned to the baih agnin for an 
 hour; after which it is well washed in running water 
 r.nd lulled. It is lastly passed llirough a yellow bath o.f 
 weld fur a short liiTic to give a hiijher gloss and sofincsij 
 to the black. 
 
 To dye Woollen Stuffs a Black Colour^ 
 
 Fine cloths and stuffs ;is will bear the price, must be 
 first dyed a deep blue, in a fresh 'va.t of pure indigo; 
 alter which boil the stufTs in alum and tartar; then dye 
 in madder, and lastly with galls of Aleppo, sulphate of 
 iron, and sumac, dye il black. To prevent the coiouf 
 soiling when the cloths are made up, they mus', before 
 they are sent to the dye house, be well scoured in a 
 scouring miii. Middling stuffs, after they lijve bten 
 piopared by scouring and drawn through a blue val, are 
 dyed black with gall nuts and vitriol. For ordinal y 
 wonl or woollen stufls, take of walnut tree branches and 
 shclh a sufficient cpianliiy, with this boil your stuff to a 
 brown colour, then draw it through the black dys, made 
 with bark of elder, iron oc copper filings and Inaian 
 woad. 
 
 
 
 To dije Linen a Black Colour. 
 
 Take the filings of iron, wash them, nnd add to therw 
 the bark of elder tree, boil them up together, and di[> 
 the linen therein. 
 
116 DYINjB, ^J* ! 
 
 > I 
 To dye Woollen of a good, Bideldj. 
 
 First take two pounds of j^all nuts, two poarils oF the 
 bark of drier tree, one pound and a h-xS of \elld\v chips; 
 boil tlicin for three hours, then put in the stuffs, turn 
 ihern Well on tVte winch, and when you perqeive the 
 goods black enough, take tiiem out and r.o\\ them; 
 lake an ounce and a half of muriate of amrnoi ia; with 
 this boil the suifT for one hour, turnintj it on lie winch 
 all the Wiiiie; take it out and lot it coul; t^ke two 
 pounds and a i)alf of vitriol, a qiiatter of a phund of 
 sum ir, boil tiic stuR' therein for an hour, then qool and 
 i-insfc it, and it will ne a good black. 
 
 Another Black Colour for Woollex 
 
 For i' f tirsi boilinij tike iw;) ptmnds of grtll niils, half 
 a pound oi Brazil wood, two pounds and a half of mad- 
 der; boil the cloth in these ingicdients for th ee hours, 
 then take it out to cool. For the second boiiinfj take 
 one ounce and a half of sal ammoniac, and for the third 
 two ounces of vitriol, three quarters of a pounq of Bra- 
 zil wood, and a quarter of a pound of tallow. 
 
 To dye Silk a good Black, 
 
 In a kettfe containing six puiis of water, pot two 
 pounds of beaten gall nuts, four pounds of sumac, a 
 quarter oi a pound of madder, half a pound of antimony 
 finely powdered, four ox galls, four ounces of gum tra- 
 gacanth dissolved in fair water, fine beaten elder bark 
 two ounces, and one ounce t.nd a half of iron file dust: 
 put these ingredients into the water and let them boil 
 for two hours, then fill it ui^with a pail full of barley 
 water and let it boil lor an hour longer, put in the silk 
 and let it boil for half an hour sUwly, then take it out and 
 rinse it in a tub with cl«an water, and pour that again, 
 into the kettle; the silk being rinsed in clear ruD?jin[; 
 water, is then hung up, and when dry put into the cop- 
 per 5tgain, boil it slowly for half an hour as before, then 
 rinse it in a tub, and again in rain water; when dty take 
 good lye, put into it two ounces ol pot ash, and when 
 . they are dissolved rinse the silk therein quickly, then in 
 
 i 
 } 
 
DYING. 117 
 
 ,»unning water; this clone, Iiang it to dry, and order it as 
 vou would other coloured silks. This colour will also 
 (lye all sorts ol manufuciured woollen stuH's. To give 
 •he black silk a finer rIoss, you must lor each pound 
 put in onp ounce ol isitiglass, dissolved in water, for the 
 last dipping. 
 
 On the modes of procilrins^ Colours for dying 
 ifi the island of Scios* 
 
 The women irt Scios pfocurc a gol-'en colour from 
 the branches of the oriental nettle tree and troiii tha 
 jeaves cf the hcima or Egypiian privet; a brigiu yfelloxv 
 from the fio'-vers of the broom and the sienjs of the 
 silvery leafed diiphnc; the roots of the apple tree yield 
 them a pale rose calour; the wood of tha quince tree 
 iurnial.ea them a very bright Hesh colour, and they ex- 
 tract from the branches of the peactj tree a bright 
 green, and frprn i's Jcuvea a decrj. In orilar ifj clitaitv 
 the several colours they cut the liginous substances into 
 small pieces an^ steep iheon in water two d^ys, boil 
 them the third day tiU the liquor is reduced one half, 
 they then strain it through a cloth, and add a little alum 
 thereto, and bet it again over the fire; as soen as tlic 
 liquor boils they steep theii- s;iks in it for a longer or 
 shorter tine, according is tiiey want a deeper or pf'ci' 
 colour. The red peelings of the onions tuTord thetn a 
 telerabiy bright orange colour — in order lo obtain it 
 they put iheiTi to scale lour or five days, then boil them 
 with a little alum. Whtn they wish to havt; a beautiful 
 red they add a sp-jonful of cochineal or of kennes. 
 
 Iron Liijuid. 
 
 In any vegetable acid dissolve an oxyd of iron, and lo 
 the solution add iiori in a rrteialhc state, which is there- 
 by di>soivcd and forms an iron liquor — for example, 
 take l-pcitiish brown, V •n^ti;,n red, or any other vegeta- 
 ble acid, broU(.;ht to a b<.ilini; heat or nearly so, and 
 when the solution has taken plai e, pour it upon piece"? 
 or lumps of iron, let thenj letitain together for (wenty- 
 
liS^ DflNG.- 
 
 iour or ihirty-six hours, then boil the liquor a sccoik! 
 lime wiih the saae or Iresh pieces of iron, and wben 
 ci:ld p'.Ku it off i"»r use. By lliii proccbs l!ic iron liqvior, 
 which f)y the coiuniosi nieiiiod uow in use nquiits as 
 much as seven weeks lo bring ii to peifection, may biS 
 co:i pisted in two or three days. 
 
 To dije BrUths a Curious Red for Brushes. 
 
 Take one ounce of Lrazil wood in powder, half an 
 pun:c of al«!Tn, a quarter of an ounco of venniilioii and, 
 a pint of vinfjjai, boil ihem op to a moderate thickness, 
 er.d dip the biiblles in when very hot, sufferini; ihem to 
 contiri'je for some time in the liquor, and ijiey will be of 
 a curious red colour. 
 
 5b dye Bristles or Feathers a curious Green, 
 
 1 ;ke one ounce of verdi^iis, one oiir.ce of verditer, 
 and i<nc pint of i^um water; mix-thcin wcil together, 
 and dip tht bristles or feathers tnerein, they having been 
 fiibl soaked in liot wuter. 
 
 To dye Bristles or Feathers Blue, 
 
 Take an ounce oi indi^^o, one ounce of bice, and the 
 siz;' n! a hickoiy nut ol alum; put \heni into Kom wrter, 
 nnd dip tho nioteri.ls in'.o it hot, hantj ihem up to dry, 
 and cidp '.herrj well ihat they my open; and by ch-jn^- 
 in^j the culouis, you may in tiiis niaiiner f!ye the afore- 
 said materials of i.ny colour — as lor black, use Iogwot)d 
 and 1,'ails; lor put pie, lake an<l indig< ; for carnation, 
 vermilii'n and snah; lot yellow, J-'n:iiCh beirics and 
 synVt.ri, with a liule tartar n:inglcd or dissolved in the 
 gum water. 
 
JBLKACHINa 
 
 *ro bleach Ornamental Feathers. / 
 
 FEATHERS can be efTectu.iIIy hlcachtd by simply 
 jmmersing thetn lor a few hours in pure water acidulated i 
 "vvith oi! of vitriol, inthr proportion of six oreiglit drops' 
 of vitriol to every ounce of water, tlien dry the feathers 
 in the stin or by the fire The l)leachin£5 of plumes 
 may be t fleeted in a very simple manner, without much 
 difTirully, in the following manner: Mix in a bason 
 equal parts of red lead and common sdt, or in prefcr- 
 ciice manijanese of the shops, to this mixture add about 
 half its weight of oil of vitriol previously diluted with 
 a small quantity of water; take the plume to be whiten- 
 ed, and after wetting it in water, expose it to the fumes 
 or gas arising from the mixtui e. 1 n Jialf an hour or less 
 lime, the feather will become beautifully white. This 
 plan hcis been repeatedly tried, and, frcm its simplicity, 
 is recommended to feather- workers From the nature 
 of the nrii Vsrials, it is olvious that the oil ol vitriol disen- 
 gairts the marine acid from the common salt, which 
 then becomes oxygenated from the red lead or minga- 
 ncse. The gas, ihcrefore, disenpaged, is the oyymuti- 
 atic. By combining with the wa'er on the feather, it 
 forms liquid oxyn>uriatic acid, and discharges the co- 
 lour.-- Vat legated plumes n)ay be cleaned and restored 
 to their JornitT biighincss, by gently wiping with a soft 
 sponge dipped in spii its of wine, and after having been 
 gradually dried, by moistening the downy part with a 
 a filteied snluiion of gum arabic or trjgncanth; then 
 cautiously exposing the tops and sides to the heat of a 
 bright fire in order to curl their exii emity. 
 
 Bleaching Cotton after the Svvahian method. 
 
 Take two measure* of quirk lime, and place them ip 
 a heap in a corner of a wwikshop, taking care, that there 
 fs no wooden floor on Uue spot, nor waiiiscotiing to the 
 
420 BLEACHING. 
 
 wall against wbich the lime is thrown; cover the limo 
 gradually with ten rncpsures of good ashes, by siltinj?; 
 them equally over it; sprinkle with water lightly be- 
 tween every layer of ashes, and take care to fill up 
 with wet ashes the crevices that are constantly formed 
 by the heat and moisture of ihe mass. When tlic lime 
 is slacked and the mass thoroughly cooled, make the 
 ley with cold rain or river water, in which there is little 
 or no admixture of iron; carefully untwist the skeins of 
 xot'.on, lie them in parcels, ard immerse them cold in 
 this caustic alkali, in which leave them for six hours, 
 turning them about from lime to time. The ley when 
 exhausted, is generally throv/n away as useless, but it 
 mJglit perhaps be better employed in slacking a fresli 
 quaniuy of lime. After taking the skeins out ot the 
 ley, wash them iu a running str«am. 
 
 Method of bleacbing I jnen by the acliou of 
 Atmoi»pheric Air. 
 
 This method, though tedious, is very convenient 
 for private families, being mnci) cheaper than the n»e- 
 thcd used by manufacturers, who arc under ihe neces' 
 sity uf employing ixpttisive apparatus to carry on their 
 work ex'ensively, 
 
 Afic! the linen comes from the loom, it is boiled or 
 stetped in a weak ley, made uf wood ashes, or rather of 
 a solution of pot ashes in water, lor the purpose of re- 
 moving the weaver's size or dressing, atier which H is 
 (Irieci, and then undergoes the operation ol bucking. 
 
 For this purpose, a ley is prepared by dissolving a 
 quantity of pot ash in soft water, to which some soap is 
 added. This liquor is heated to about 100°, and poured 
 on the pieces fjt linen in a large tub or other suitable 
 vessel, (but be sure that it be not of iron.) After the 
 cloth is well covered with the ley, and it is a little cool- 
 4«d, It is drawn ofl and heated a little higher than be- 
 fore, and then agaiii poured on the cloth. This epera- 
 tion is continued for several times, still increasing the 
 ^f heat a liule higher, and allowing it to remain a little 
 longer on the cioth for five or six hours. 
 
KLEACUING. i»Jl 
 
 Then the cloth is left steeping for thfee or four hours, 
 when It is taken out, well rinsed and taken to the lieldi. 
 Here it is spread upon the grass, and water is sprinkled 
 on it, so as not to let it become entirely dry for some 
 hours. After it has lain half a day, the sprink'ini; is 
 less frequent, and at night it is left out to the full circct 
 of the air and dews. On the succcefUng days it is 
 watered three or four times a day, if the weather be 
 dry, and then it remains in the field tiil the air seems 
 to have little effect upon it, when it is again brought to 
 the tubs or coppers, and bucked again with a ley some- 
 what stronger Itian the last, rinsed, and again spread on 
 the field. It is thus alternately bucked and watered lor 
 ten or fifteen ti.nes, according to the weather, making 
 the bucking stronger and strongsr, till about half 
 bleached, and then weaker and weaker towards the 
 finishing. 
 
 It must now undergo the process of scouring or steep« 
 ii)g in some acid liquor. That usually employed is 
 formed by a fermentation of liran and water, or some- 
 times sour whey has been used, and common butter 
 riiilk; but sulphuric acid Coil ot vitriol) diluted with 
 water till quite weak, has been f«und much preferable 
 to either of them. 
 
 If the bran or milk acid be used, the cloth is kept in 
 it five or six days; but it need not be kept in the sul- 
 phuric acid and water more than three or four days. 
 The cloth is then rubbed with soap, particularly the 
 selvages. The cloth is then again bucked, rinsed, 
 watered, and exposed to the air, end these processes 
 continued till it has the desired whitene&s. 
 
 Bleaching hy the Oxygenated Muriatic Acid, 
 
 This method is now generally practised in the prin- 
 cipal manufactures of Europe, especially in Great Bri- 
 tain, Ireland and France. 
 
 The process is too complicated, and the apparatus too 
 expensive for the use of private families; but as it is so" 
 much more effectual in producing a clear whitecolourto 
 the linen, as well as economical iq regard to time, it is 
 
±22 BLEACHING, 
 
 perhaps proper in this place, to say a few words by 
 w»y of explaining the process. 
 
 This acid is prepared by chymists, and may soine- 
 tinrics be purchased ready prepared for Mse; but to save 
 the expense of first preparing the acid, the usual practice 
 is to mix with oxyde of manganese, common salt and 
 sulphuric acid diluted with water. The sulphuric acid 
 acts at once upon the salt and the oxyde of mpnganese, 
 and disengages from them chlorine or oxymuriaiic acid 
 gas. 
 
 At Manchester the usual portions of the ingredients 
 
 are, 
 
 Manganese, - • - - 3 parts, 
 
 Salt, 8 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ... 6 
 
 Water, • - - - 12 
 
 Tn Ireland the following is the usual proportion: 
 Manganese, .... 6 parts, 
 
 Salt, 6 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ... 5 
 
 Water, .... 5 
 
 In France and Germany: 
 
 Manganese, .. - - 20 parts, 
 
 Salt, 64 
 
 Sulphuric acid, ... 44 
 Water, ... - 54 
 
 And minium or red lead is sametimes substituted (p» 
 the manganese, 
 tor Cotton take of 
 
 Manganese, . - - 30 parts. 
 
 Salt, 80 
 
 Sulphuric acid, . - - 60 
 Water, .... 120 
 
 The oxymuriatic gas produced by this mixture is 
 made to pass by means of pipes, or a kind of funnel, 
 into a solution of water end quick lime, which is kept 
 in agitation during this process, to prevent the lime 
 from settling to the bottom of the veshel. The gas is 
 generally distilled off in a retort made of lead, in the 
 form of a gourd, and the operation kept up until no 
 more gas will pass off, which is known by the bubbling 
 Tjoiae io the lime waVer ceasing, the retort, &g. bcin^^ 
 
rery light to prevent a loss of the gas. This combina- 
 tion is used 33 :i bleacmng; liquor in \rhich the licne is 
 steeped, and uheii its viriuea hecoms extracted by tlic 
 cloth, whicl) is known by mixing a little of the liquid 
 v.ith a small q,iantity of a solution of indigo in water, 
 ^which it will discolour while Its power remains,) it is 
 removed by a fresh combination of the matet ials. This 
 liquor attacks powerfully the vegetable matter contain* 
 cd in t!ie cloth and dissolves it. In sjmc places they 
 pass the cloth over rollers and ihrouf!;h tl;e liquid in a 
 manner somewhat resombiinij that practised by fui.ers 
 in colourinj^: Their woollen cloih; in others, they have 
 wliat are called dash ivheeh and squeezers^ whicii work 
 the cloth in the liquid so as to give it the proper effcc!; 
 wliije others work it by their hands, frequently stirrinj;: 
 it that all parts may receive the benefit of the liquid 
 cquilly. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that no iron should coma in 
 contact with tiic liquor during any part of the process. 
 
 At the great bleach fields in Ireland, four leys of pot 
 ash are applied alternately, v/iih four weeks exposure 
 on the grass, two immerbions in the above liquor (oxy- 
 r^enaled muriate of iimc,S^c.) a ley of pot ash between the 
 uvo, and tho exposure of a week on the grass betiveen 
 each ley and the immersion. 
 
 Dui ins summer, *^^'o i^ys "md fifteen days exposurs 
 are sufFicicnt te pteparc cloth for the action of ths 
 oxygeniied mnrr.te, tiicn three alternate leys, with 
 immersions in the 1 qior will be sufHcicnt for complete 
 bieachinq;; notiiinj; ;hcn will be n ctsjary but to wind 
 the cloth through the diluted s-jlphuric acid. 
 
 Mr. Higijins recommends [set: '-Higgins' Bleaching 
 Liquor,' p^ge — ,] the steeping of the cloth after ths 
 we^iver's dressing has been removed by t'ne weak ley of 
 pot ash, for 12 or 14 hours in his bleaching liquor, (see 
 pjire — ,) and then wished and dried This process is 
 to be repeated six limes, that is, six alteruitc immer- 
 sions in the liquor, and six in the ley, which has been 
 found sufiicient to whiten linen; which must then be 
 passed through the weak acid, worked and dried. 
 
 For the use of private families, whtn linen id soiled 
 by perspiration or grease, it will be of great service to 
 
i^ BLfeACHlNG, ^ 
 
 wards letuleiinj^ it ^vhite, lo steep ll Tor sotno time in ix 
 clear liqooi, m^de by TDixing one quart of q«)ick lime 
 in ten gallons of water, letting the mixture stand 24 
 Jiours, and then using the clean water drawn fioin the 
 lime. After the linen has been steeped in this liquor, 
 it should be washed in the usual manucr, but will rC' 
 <:juiie much less soap to be used. 
 
 To bleach Cotton, 
 
 First scour it in a weak alkaline solution, tv rather 
 expose ii to ttio bicam of weak pot ash ley. It is after- 
 wards piU into baskets, and rinsed in running water, or 
 press it down in a weak solution of sulphuric, acid, and 
 then wash it in clean water to remove tl'.e acid, lest by 
 too long exposure it injtwes the fibre of the cotton. 
 Cotton will bear the action of acid better than fkx, or 
 with less ii jury. Being washed fiom the acid, it is then 
 boiled in soap suds, washed and then immersed in oxy- 
 muriatc of lime. The washing in aoap, and steeping in 
 the oxy muriate is repeated till the cotton or stuff is of a 
 pure white, when it is to be scoured anS washed in pure 
 water. 
 
 The new discovered method of bleaching by the s/ca?;; 
 of an o/yta/ine solutionis very expeditious bn effectual in 
 whitening linen; and though tooexpcnsiv* for an individ- 
 ual fajr.ily, yet might be used by several families who 
 Jive near each otntr, uniting their interests, and employ- 
 ing some skilful person to attend lo the process of 
 bleaching their linen, 
 
 For this purpose a vessel should be provided large 
 f.nougb to contain the linen to be bleached at one time, 
 vith several galloJts of wnter untlet it, asd a considera- 
 ble space between the liquid and the linen. 
 
 In llie bot'.om of the vessel (which should be of cop- 
 per) is to be put a strong ley, or solution of pot ash or 
 soda in water, (^after the carbonic acid has been ex- 
 ttacted irom the alkali by lime) ai.d the cloth or thread 
 hung in the vessel over the solution in folds, or in such 
 a loose manner as to expose its whole surface equally to 
 (he siearn rising fiom the boiling solution, and the ves- 
 sel being covered very light; and having a safety-valvf 
 
BLEACHING. 1S5 
 
 at the top, is caused to Uo>'> so as to raiss th« tempera- 
 ture very high, and to ba kept so for several hours. By 
 this means the alkaline iieam is caused to act pavverfuJ- 
 ly upon the vef^etable mittcr contained in the linen, and 
 to dissolve it enlirelv, anl sepnrate it iw a few hours. 
 After this nothing more is necessary than to wash and 
 expose it upon thts grass a few days, and it will be of a 
 beautitul clear while colour, after being cleansed in the 
 manner heretofore described. It is said that five or six 
 hours exposure to vapor, raised by heat to a very higb' 
 degree, has been found sufficient to complete the pro* 
 :cssof bleaching. 
 
 •A wash to prevent flies from injuring Pic- 
 
 tures or Furniture, y 
 
 Take 3 ounces of lignum quassia and 2 ounces of 
 houselick, finely pulverised, and put them into a alosed 
 vessel with water, and boil them moderately for an hour; 
 then strain off the liquor for use. If this liquor be fre- 
 quently brushed over pictures, 13*0. it will prevent the 
 ilies from injuring them. 
 
 If you put I quart of alcohol in a glass jar ot wide 
 mouthed bottle and add 4 ounces ot refiucd camphor 
 pulverised, setting it in a roosn and leaving it uncover* 
 ed, the evaporating fumes rising therefrom, will keep 
 iles out of the room. 
 
ART OF PREPARING AND MIXING 
 COLOURS. 
 
 IT will now be proper to explain in an easy man- 
 ner, the methuds of preparing the various bodies em- 
 ployed by painters, lor producing the difference of light 
 and shade, which may be termed either i^igmeras or 
 Holds, as they aresoiid or aqueous, and are distinguish- 
 ed in their several kinds, according to the mauuer o^ 
 working them, as oil colours, water colours, enamel 
 colours, See. but their variety are too numerous to be 
 in general use; most painters, therefore, select a set out 
 of them, and become very unjuiiUy prejudiced against 
 those they reject. It is no little impediment to iheir 
 improvement in the profession, that they are not more 
 extensively acquainted with all the ingredients fit for 
 their purposes. 
 
 Those colours which become transparent in oil, such 
 as lake, Prussian blue, and brow pink, are frequently 
 used without the admixture of white, or any other 
 opaque pigment, by which means the tint of the groui.d 
 on which they are laid retains in some degree its force, 
 and the real colour produced in pain'ing is the combi- 
 ned effect of both; this is called glazing, and the pig- 
 menis endued with the pioperiy of becoming transpa- 
 rent in oil sre called glazing colours. As colours arc 
 obtained from various substances, the means of prepa- 
 ring theim are consequently various; some being of a 
 simple natuieand requiring only to be purified and re- 
 duced to a proper consistence of texture, and others 
 being compounds of different bodies to be formed only 
 by complex processes, it is therefore very difficult to 
 give such general directions tor the making every sort 
 of colour as may be intelligible to all, the methods to 
 be pursued »% well as the utensils employed being such 
 ^belong to different trades. 
 
 Where, nevertreless, simple means and the use of 
 such utensils as. -ue generally known may be sufficient 
 to ptrform what is wanting, it is best to aroid all tech- 
 
ABT OF PREPAUINa AND MIXING COLOURS. ^g^ 
 
 tiical terms and more complex methods of operation, 
 adopting such a mode of distiiiction as may be univer- 
 sally inielligible. VVc now proceed lo the nature and 
 preparation of the several colours as ihey follow in their 
 classes: — 
 
 Class 1st.— 0/ Red Colours. 
 
 Vermilion is one of tlie most useful ki id of colours 
 in every kind of painting except enamel or on gbss, as 
 it is of a moderate price, spends to great advantage, and 
 stands or holds iis colour extremely well; it may be ■ 
 prepared in great perfection bv the following process: 
 
 Take of quick silver 18 pounds, of flour of salphur 
 6 poundf^, melt the sulphur in an earthen pot and pour 
 in the silver giadually, beinj^ also gently warmed, and 
 stir them well together witli liie small end of a tobacco 
 pipe; but if, irom the effervescence on adding the latter 
 quantities ot" quick silver, ihey take fire, extinguish it 
 by throwing a wet cloth, which should be had ready, 
 over the vessel; when the mass is cold powder it so 
 that the several parts may be well mixed together; but 
 it is not necessary to teduce it, by nicer levigaiion to an 
 impalpable powder; having then prepared an oblong 
 glass body or sublimer by. coaling it well with fire, lute 
 over the v-hole surface of the glass and working a pro- 
 per rim of the same round it, by which it may be hung 
 in the furnace, and let the powdered mass be put into it 
 so as nearly to fill the part that is withio the furnace, a 
 piece of broken tile being laid over the mouth of the 
 glass, sublime the contents with as strong heat as may 
 be used without blowing the fumes of the vermilian out 
 of the mouth of the sublimer. When the sublimation 
 is over, which may be perceived by the abatement of 
 the heat towards the top of the body, discontinue the 
 fire, and after the body is cold take it out of the furnace 
 and break it; collect then together all the parts of the 
 sublimed cake, separating carefully from them any 
 dross that may have been left at the bottom of the body, 
 as also any lighter substance that may have formed in 
 the neck, and appears to be dissimilar to the rest; levi- 
 gate the more perfect part, and when reduced to fine 
 
128 ART OF PREPARINC 
 
 powder it will be vermilion fit for use; but on the pef 
 feciness of levigation depends ia a great degree the 
 brightness anrl goodr)css of the vermilion. In order ic 
 perform this, it !s necessary ihat two or three mills oi 
 difTcrent closeness should be employed, and tlie last 
 should be of s;cel and set as finely as possible. It is 
 common, perhaps genetal, for dealers to sophistica'e 
 vermilion with red lead; but lo detect with ceu.iinty the 
 fraud, both wiih respect to the general lact and t!)e 
 proportion, use the following moans: Take a small, but 
 known quantity of vcrmiiion, suspected to be a<lultcra- 
 tcd, and p<it it into a crucil)le, having first mixed with it 
 about the same ej jantity in bulk ol charcoal dusi; put 
 the crucible into a common fire, having first covered it 
 with a lesser crucible, inverted into it, and give it a heat 
 suRi' lent to fuse tiie lead; when the crucible, bein^ 
 taken out of the fire, should be well shaken by sirikin;^ 
 it against the ground. It the suspected adulteration has 
 taken place, the lead will be found in its metalline state 
 in the bottom of the crucible, and being weighed and 
 compared with the quantity of cinnabar that was put 
 into the crucible, the proportion of the adulteration 
 may be then certainly known; but il iio lead be found 
 in the crucible it may be safely inferred that no red lead 
 had been commixt with the vermilion. 
 
 J\raHve CinndBar 
 
 Is found naturally formed in the earth, though seldora 
 so pure as to be fit for the uses of painting, at least 
 without beinj; purified by sublimation. The mistaken 
 notion that it would stand better than vermilion because 
 it was of natural production, has made it to be coveted 
 by painters who are curious in colours; it is, however, 
 not worth their while to be solicitous about it, as it never 
 excelled the best vermilion in brightness, and what i? 
 generally sold for it is a pigment compounded of quick 
 silver and sulphu'-. 
 
 MeA Lead or Minium, 
 
 The goodness of red lead may be seen by its bright- 
 Dcss, and a mixture pf any kind will make it of a dul! 
 
AND MiXING COLOUtrS. i^ 
 
 .appearance; it is on this accourtt not so liable to be so> 
 phisticDted as white lead or vertniiion. It is lead cal- 
 cined till it acquires a prcper degree of colour by expo* 
 i'UiQ it wiih a large surface lo the fire. 
 
 Scarlet Ochre 
 
 Is an ochreous, earthy, or rather irony substance, and is 
 the basis of green vitriol, separated fiom the acid oflhe 
 vitriol by calcination; it is a kind of orange scarlet 
 colour, and rivals any of the native ochres Irom its cer- 
 tainty ol standing and the extreme strength and warmth, 
 either as a t;round or in tlie shade ol carnations; it is 
 used as a colour in any kind of painting. The manner 
 of preparing it is as follows: — 
 
 Take green vitriol or copperas, any quantity, and be* 
 ■lig put into a crucible of which it will fill iwoihirds», 
 set it on a corwrnon fire to boil, (akittg care (hat it do 
 not boil over, till the matter be nearly dry, when ii will 
 be greatly dinjinished in quantity; fill then the crucible 
 to the same height again and repeal the boiling and re» 
 plenishing till the crucible be filled with dry matter; 
 take it then from the fire and put it into a wind furnace, 
 or if the quantity be small, it may continue in the same 
 fire, iheco^ls being heaped up round it; lei the contents 
 he calcined there till they become of a red colour; 
 when cold, which must be examined by taj^ing a liulc 
 of the matter out of the middle and suffeiing it to cool, 
 for so long as it remains hot the red colour will not ap- 
 pear, thougii it be sofliciently calcined; when duly 
 calcined take the ochre out of the cruc ible while hot, 
 and put it into water, in which the parts ol the broken 
 crucible may be soaked likewise, lo obtain more easily 
 what shall adhere to thenn, and stir the oc\\t§ well tbout 
 in the water, that ail ihe remaining yitriol^may be melt- 
 ed out of ii; let it then sttile, and when the water ap- 
 peals clear, pour it ofT, and atid a fresh quantity, taking 
 out aii the broken pieces of the crucible and proceed as 
 belorc, repealing several times this treatment with fresh 
 quantities of water; then purify the ochre from any 
 remaining foulness by washing over, and having brought 
 it to a proper slate of dryness, by draining it off by a 
 
A30 ART OF lPUEtARIN» 
 
 filler, ill which ihts papcf must be covered tvUh a linen 
 clolhj lay il to dry on boaius- 
 
 Common Indian Red 
 
 Is substituted in place of ihe real kind brought from the 
 Eaft Indies, ser\in^ tqtial:y vvcil for comnicn purposes, 
 giving a lint verging vo scarlet, varying from the iriu: 
 Indi..n red, which is greatly inclined to the puipic 
 and on account of its warm, though not biij:;ht colour, it 
 is much used, as well in fiiier as coarser pointings in oil; 
 it is atrosded chca^., ^nd may be thus managed: Take cf 
 the ca[)ut morluuoi, or ochic, left in the iron pots after 
 the distillation of i qua fonis Irotn nitre and \i(iio!, two 
 part>^, and of the caput mortuum or colcother left in the 
 long necks after the disill'.iiun nf oil of vitriol, otic 
 part, breaking the lumps found among them, and put 
 them in water; and inving let ihem stand a day or two, 
 frequently stirring them well about, lade off us much 
 water as can be gt^t clear of iheni, and add a nosh 
 quantity, repeating the >ianie quantity till all the salts b-; 
 washed out, ;>nd the water conies of!" nearly insipid; the 
 red powder which remains mustihen be washed over, and 
 being fieed from the watc-, laid out to dry. When chi ; 
 is designed for rioer purposes, it should be washed over 
 again in bas-^iis, the gross manner of lading it out of enc 
 tub into anothtrnoi fining always completely to such ends, 
 
 Venitian Red: 
 
 Useful to house painters in imitating mahagony, an;l 
 J5 a native ochre i .ciinimx to scarlet, c<nd easily prepa- 
 red by mixinj^ it with 'he colcother or caput mortuunv 
 taken out ^f the aqua fortis pots and washed over, it 
 requires no QiJier p:tpHraiion for use than to be well 
 ground with oil unless when used in miniature piinung, 
 when it should be wcs'ied over with ihc utmost care. 
 
 Spanish Brown 
 
 Resembles the Venitian red very much in colour. 
 but IS fouler; it is a native pigment, and is used muc: 
 
AND MIXING COLOURS. iSJ 
 
 in the same slate nature produces it, being dug up in sev- 
 eral parts of England, no oilier prejiaration is necdiul 
 than ireeing it well from stones an<i liltli, and grindin{*- 
 it well with oil to render i'. fit for colourmcn, in liic 
 preparation of cloths for pictures and other coarse 
 v.ork. 
 
 Calcino or Burnt Tenmdi Sienna, 
 
 Is originally yellow, but when moderately calcined, 
 becor.ics an orange red, though not very bright, it is a 
 native ochre, brought hither from Italy in the state in 
 which it is naturally found, it is calcined by putting 
 lumps of It cither in a crucible, or nakid in a common 
 fire and continuing it. there till the colour be changed 
 from yellow to led. It is exceedingly nsefol in oil 
 paioling, and admits of no alteration; ii may be dislin- 
 guislted from other ocherous earilis by its semi-trans- 
 parency. 
 
 C Lake. 
 
 The best th^t is commonly sold is made from the 
 colour extracted IVom scarlet rags, and deposited on the 
 cuttle fish bunc, which may be done in the loliowing 
 manner: — Take a pound ofthd'best ptarl ashes, and, 
 having dissolved them in two quarts of water, puriTy 
 them by filtering them through p^per, add then to this 
 solution two more quarts ot wuter, and having put 
 in a pound ol scarlet shreds procured from tlic tailor's, 
 'w/iich must be entirely clean, boU them in a pewter 
 boiler till the shreds appear to have wholly lost their 
 scarJet colour, take them out of the solution and press 
 them well, dipping them after in wa'.er and pressing 
 them again that ail the fluid they had imbibed may be 
 got from them, in order to be put back to the rest. 
 Take then another pound of the scarlet slircds, and re- 
 peat the like treatment oi them in the same solution, as 
 also a third and a fourth pound; while tliisis doing dis- 
 solve a pound and a half of cuttle Osh bone in a pound 
 of aqua foriis, in a glass receiver, adding more of the 
 bone if it appear to produce any ebullition in the aqua 
 
43S 
 
 ART OF PREPARIN* 
 
 foriis, and having strained off the solution through flan- 
 nel, pour it into the other by degrees, observing wheth- 
 er it produce any effervescence on putting in the last 
 quantity, vehich if it do in any great degree, more of the 
 cuttle fish bone must be dissolved in aqua fortis, and 
 the solution very giadually added till no ebullition ap- 
 pear to be raised by it in the mixture. If this be 
 |)ropeily managed, the fluid will boon becooie clear 
 and colourless, and the tinging substanc* extracted 
 from the shreds, together with the cuttle fish bone, will 
 subside to the bottom and form a crimson sedhnent, 
 which is the lake; the water must then be poured off, 
 and two gallons of hard sprinj? water n.ust be put to 
 the l»kc, and well stirred about to mix them; this be- 
 -ing likewise poured oR^ after the lake has again seit4ed 
 to tl-e bottom, must be replaced by another two gallons, 
 and the same method must be repeated four or five 
 tim.es; but if hard wattr cannot be procuted, or the 
 Jake appear too purple, half an ounce of alum should 
 be added to each quantity of water before it is used. 
 When the lake is thus purified or freed from the salts, 
 it must have the Avater drained irom it in a filter cover- 
 ed with a linen cloth, which has been so worn as to 
 have no nap or down remaining on its surface. Alter 
 the lake has been drained to a proper dryness, it must 
 be dropped on clean boards by means of a proper fun- 
 nel, through which the drops being suffered to pass, 
 and rest on the board at proper distances, they will be- 
 conjc small cones or pyramids, in which form the lake 
 is suffered to dry, and the preparation is then com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Rose Pink, 
 
 The basis of this pigment is principally chalk, and 
 the tinginf substance extracted from Brazil or Cam- 
 peachy wood. It will not stand with oil or wator, and 
 IS seldom employed but for the coarse work of house 
 painters or for paper hauging, unless secured Irona fly- 
 ing with varnish, when, if good, it may be substituted 
 for lake. It is prepared as follows: — 
 
AND MIXING COLOURS. iS^ 
 
 Take Brazil wood bix pounds, or three pounds of 
 Brazil and three of Campeacby wood: boil them an 
 hour with three gallons of water, in which a quarter oi 
 a pound of alum is dissolved, purify then the fluid by 
 straining through flannel and put back the wood into 
 the boiler with the same quantity of alum and proceed 
 as before, repeating this a third time, mix then the 
 three quantities of tincture together and evaporate 
 them till only two quarts of the fluid remain, which 
 evaporation must be performed first in the pe.vtcr boil- 
 er, and afterwards in balneo mariae, prepare in (he 
 mean time eigut povmds of chalk by wasfnng over, a 
 pound of alum being put into the watei useJ for that 
 purpose, which, after tho chalk is washed, must be 
 poured off and supplied by a fresh quantity, till the 
 chalk be freed from the salt formed by the alum; after 
 which it must bo dried to the consistence of stiff clay; 
 the chalk and tincture, as above prepared, must be men 
 well mixed by grinding, and afterwards laid out to dry 
 where neither sun nor cold air can reach it, though, if it 
 can conveniendy be done, a gentle heat may ba used. 
 
 Red Ochre 
 
 Is a native earth brought chiefly from Oxfordshire, and 
 burnt afterwards by those who prepare it in large ovens, 
 till by calcination it becovnes red. It is very useful as 
 well in the more delicate as coaiser paintings in oil, for 
 it stands infallibly. For nicer purposes it "should be 
 washed over. 
 
 Class Sd. — Of Blue Colours. 
 
 Ultramarine is a bright blue colour, of the highest 
 value in every kind of paintiiij^, being equally servicea- 
 ble injjl, even in enamel; it has a transparent effect in 
 oil, aid in some degree in water, and will stand without 
 the Icist hazard of flyin;;; by reason of its high price, 
 Prusslin blue has been much introduced to the preju- 
 dice u' painting in general, as the skies of landscapes 
 and miny other parts of modern pictured shew the loss 
 of ultiamarine, by theii changing from a warm or clear 
 12 
 
13i ART or PREPARIKG 
 
 blue, to a faint green or olive tint. The rr.ctliods have 
 been ccnlinually varied by those who have aileinpleti 
 U) prepare tliis pigment. The following is the best c'. 
 the niore modern: — 
 
 Take lapis lazuli, and break it into very small piecesj 
 or rather a giosb powd«i; put it into a crucible, and 
 cover it securely to prevent the coals from filling amonjx 
 it; calcine it in a stronjj heat for an hcur if there be 
 any large quantity, or less time in proportion; qutncii 
 it when taken out of the fire in vinegar, stirring them 
 well together, and suffer it to remain in that stale for a 
 day or two; pour off then the vinegar, except what 
 may be ncccssaiy for moistening the calcnicd lapic 
 lazuli in grinding, which operation it must tlien undergo 
 in a mortar of flint or glass, till reduced to the greatest 
 degree of fineness those means may efiect; but if it 
 appear yet too hard to be ground, give it another short 
 calcination and quench it a second time in vinegar. 
 The vinegar must then be washed olT from the powder 
 by putting to it several succesiive quantities ol clean 
 water, each ol which must be poured off, when the 
 lapis ii'.zuli 13 well stirred about in them, and is attain 
 settled to the boltoTi. It must then be ground on a 
 porphyiy stone with a muller, till it be perfectly impal- 
 pable, and then dried, in which state it is duly prepared 
 to nriix with the following cement: Take of Burgundy 
 pitch nine ounces, of white resin and Venice turpentitic 
 six ounces, of \irgin wax one ounce and a half, and of 
 linseed oil one ounce and a quarter, mix them together 
 by melting in a pipkin over the fire, and suffer them to 
 boil till they acquire so stiff a consistence that, being 
 dropt into water while of this boiling heat, they will not 
 spread on the suiface thereof, but form a roundish mass 
 or iunop. The cement being thus formed, may be 
 poured out of the pipkin in water, and made into cakes 
 or rolls for use. Of this cement take an equal weight 
 with that of the calcined lapis lazuli, und melt it in a 
 glazed earthen pipkin, but not so as to render it toe 
 liuid; then add to it the calciiied matter by very slow 
 det»rees, stiriir.g them together with an ivoiy spatula, 
 till the whole- appear perfectly mixed. Being thus 
 m'xed, heat the composition to a degree sproethinr 
 
\i;d MlxixG coLour^s. 135 
 
 greater, and cast it into a bason fu'l of cold water; 
 n'lien it lias cooled to a consisicnce to bear such treat- 
 nicni, knead il well like tlic cloiii^'n of bica'', with the 
 h.>n']^i rubbed over wiih linseed oi', till all the parts !jo 
 
 lioroughly incorporated uidi eaclj other; tlien niakfi 
 :1c mass into u p.^ste or cake, wl-.ich ir.ay be cither 
 kept till some other convenient time in cold water, or 
 in»mo(iijteIy piocceded with in the followin;^ manner: 
 Put [he cake into an cartlicn disii or bason, ilie bottom 
 oi' which shonld ba rubbed widi linseed oil, and pour 
 on it water of the warmth of biood; let it s;and a quar- 
 ter of an hour, and as the water solicits the cake \\ will 
 let loose the fihcst p-»rts of tiie calcined matter, w'dch 
 on gently s'irring the water, but wilhyul brcikin;:; ths 
 cake or separalini; it into lesser parts, will be suspend-, 
 ed in the water, and must be poured ofT with it into 
 another vcsiel; the quutitiiy of water must then i>vi re- 
 newed, and llie same operariotJ repeated a second or 
 llnrd time, and as the mass appears slack in affording 
 tlic colour it must he moved and siirred it> the manner 
 of kneading, wiih the ivory spaula, but not broken into 
 fras^mcnts or small p.'^rts; and when so much ot the 
 colour 13 extracted as to render it necessary tor theofc- 
 ta!nii>j> more. Die heat oi the water must be increased 
 to the greatest dej^rec, the quantities of the calcined 
 i^ialtcr f Tjhich is noiv the ultramarinej that were first 
 washed off and appear of the same degree of deepness 
 and brightness, muy be put together, and the same 
 of the second degree, the iast washings making a 
 ihiiiJ; the water then beinj; poured off from each of 
 these [jarceis, put on a lixivium formed of two ounces 
 of salt ot tartar or pearl ashes, dissolved in a pint of 
 water, and filiercd throu}!;ii paper after the sohuiou 4s 
 cold. This lixiviu'it »nust be put on boiiin;j hot, and 
 liie ultramarine stirred well about in it, and ihtn the 
 niixluie set to cool; tho powder being subsided, the 
 clear lixivium must be poured ofT and cIcjm water 
 inuit he put in its place, wiiich must be repeated till 
 the whole ot the sals of the lixivium are washed awa/; 
 the ultramarine must afterwards he dued, and will 
 be duly prepared for use. Ultramarine is subject to 
 be adulterated on account of its great price. This is 
 
136 ART OF PREPARING 
 
 frequently done by a precipiialion of copper made by 
 alkaline salt, anfi is veiy injuiious, because ll.e mai^is- 
 liy of copper (if the nltrtn^iariy^e so/ihisticated Kith iC 
 be Ufed in fiaintiiig either with cil or wutcrj nill change 
 its hue and turn black, and in cnan)el painting as soon 
 8s Ruxed it will become, and consequently make the 
 tfitctcfthe ultramarine vary from what is intended; 
 this Iraud may be easily delected by pouriiiK some dilu- 
 ted spirit of nitre on a small quan'.ity, which, if there 
 be any copper will soon dissolve and a greenish blue 
 solution. 
 
 IHtramarine Ashes. 
 
 AHer (he ultramarine I;r,sbeen extracted from the lapis 
 lazuli the lesiduum or remains form this pi.::;mcnt, and 
 when iliC operation of extracting the colour has not 
 succeeded well, a consider&blc share of the ullrarnarinc 
 tv'ill be lei', with the recrement and greatly enhances 
 the worth of the ashes. It is prepart^d as {ollows: — 
 Take the cement of the ultramarine whicli remains 
 ali«^.r the colour is extracted and m,ix it with four times 
 its wfciglit of linseed oil; let the mixture be set in a 
 gj: zed pipkin over the f;ic, and when ii is thus boiled 
 ^ short line, put it into a glass vessel sufficiently laige 
 1.0 contain ii, of a cylindiical figure, of which vessel the 
 diameter must be small in proportion to tlie length; but 
 care must be l-iken iliat the matter wi-en put intothis glass 
 be looi i:nounh not to endanger the bicakinfj it Th.ia 
 gloss is then put inio a balncutn marics, which must be 
 macie ;is Iiot ns possible without boiling, and k'.:ptti!tre 
 till the coiour appears to br. ail subsided to ihc tjotiom. 
 The oil must then be poured offtili the coiour begins 
 to rise with it, tno llie remainder with the colour m iC 
 must bt' pu! into aiiOthei glass cf the s-ime kind with as 
 uajclj tresh oil i-s will ri!^c five or six inches above the 
 colour.* 'I his glass must be treated in the same man- 
 ner KS the fiist, cbs( rvin;< wi tn the colour has subsided 
 the oil must be poured eft" and a fresh quantity put in 
 its place; this having been likewise poured ofl, the co- 
 lour must then be well v.'ashed to free it from the re- 
 maining oil, first in boiling water and afterwards in sonic 
 
 J 
 
ANi> MiXlSr. COLOURS. 137 
 
 of the lixivium before menlioiicl made boiling hot also; 
 as much of the iiviviu'ii bein;^ poured off, when the co- 
 lour bus subsided, as can be separated from it that way, 
 the roloiir must be lhoruj;>hIy freed from the remain- 
 derby frequent ublutio'ii with clean waterjafier which, 
 the water must be taken olF by the means before direct- 
 ed for the uitraiTHirine, till the matter be of a proper de- 
 gree of moisture fur ijiindin^;; it must then be ihor- 
 ouglily well ground on a porphyry stone and wishctl 
 over, that a!! the harder and itviunicicntly calcined p.^rts 
 mny be reduced to an inipalpable power; in order to 
 wliich, iho remsinint; grosser parts, after the finci" 
 have been separated, must bo agaiti ground till th;j 
 wliole be perfectly fine. Dry it as before dircrteJ fof 
 uUramarifi','. 
 
 Prussian BliiSy 
 
 Is the earth of alum combined with fixed sulphur of 
 any animal or vei.;eluble coal and may bo made frcn 
 •ahn'jst any aniin.\l substance, but is generally made 
 iVom the coal of blood only: it is useful in all kinds of 
 paintin;j except cnsmel, and prepared to different dc- 
 p;rocs ul brigJitness and strength. The common kind 
 iound in the s!iops and sold at very low prices can be 
 Intic depended on in paintings of consequence, there, 
 tore it should be prepared perfect an 1 in the true man- 
 ner, and then considering th 3 higii price of ultramaiinc 
 and the foulness of indigo it may be truly dectned a 
 veiy valuable acquisition to the art of piiniing. 
 
 Take, of blood, any quantity and evaporitc rt to dry- 
 ness; of this dry blood, powdered, take six pounds, and 
 ulthe b:3t pearl ashes two pounds; mix them well to- 
 gether in a glass or stone mortar; then put tho mixed- 
 matter into crucibles or earthen pot?, filled abo'it tvva 
 thirds, the crocks or cruciblei bein.; covered with a 
 tde, but not luted. The cnlcimiion should be cantin*:- 
 ed as long as any fl ime arises from the matter or rather 
 till the llame becomes slender and blu;?, fur if the fire 
 be very strmg a small fli|me would arise for a vei-y longj 
 time and great part of tHe tinging matter would Ij3 dis- 
 sipated and lost. When tlic miwer has bue 1 sulBci^n'.- 
 IC* 
 
i38 AllT OF PREPARING 
 
 ly calcined take tlic vessels wliich contain it cut of tlic 
 fire and as quickly as posssible throw it into two or 
 three gallons n( vvytcr, and ss it sosks break it with a 
 wopclrn spatula that v.o lumps may remain. Put it 
 then into a proper tin vessel, and hoil it for the space of 
 three quarters of tm hour or moie; filier it while hot 
 lhr«>u.c;h pyper in tin cullinders, atid pass some water 
 thiotivih the tiller when it is riin diy to wash out the rC' 
 niuincler of the lixi'^ium of blood end pearl ashes— the 
 earth renifciiiing in tlie Cher may be then thrown away. 
 lii tise mean time dissolve of clean alum four pounds, 
 and of preen vitiiol ur copperas two pounds, in three 
 gallons of wHier; add this solution {gradually to the fil- 
 tered lixivium sw long £S any cft'eivcscence appears to 
 BriAC on the mixtuve; but when no ebulliiion or fermcr.t 
 follows the .ulmixture, cease to put in more. Let tiie 
 rrtjxtuie then stand at rest, and a green powder will be 
 precipitated; from which, when it has thoroughly sub- 
 tidrd, the clear part of the fluid must be poured ofl' and 
 Iresh water put in its place, and stirred well about with 
 the green powder, and after a proper time of settling 
 this water must be poured off like the first. Taks then 
 of spiiit of salt double the weight of the green \itriol 
 which was contained in the quantity of solution of vitriol 
 and alum added to the lixivium, which will soon tuin 
 the green matter to tt blue colour; and after some time 
 add a proper quantity of water, and wash the colour in 
 the same manner as has been directed lor lake, 8cc. and 
 when properly waslied, proceed in the same manner to 
 dry it in convenient lumps.. The brightness, deepness, 
 and coolness of Ptussian blue, are proofs of iis good- 
 ness; 't)r, with these qualiiiea, it may be depended on for 
 standing well. Sophistication, or any thing amiss, may 
 be seen by its being more foul snd purple. 
 
 Verditer, 
 
 Take any quantity of cbalk, and having rendered it 
 sufficiently fine by washing over carefully, add it gra- 
 dually to the solution of copp^ so long as any change 
 appears to be produced by it l^om the ebullition exci- 
 ted, or the dut proportion may be perceived by the fluid 
 
AND MIXING COLO^^S. 130 
 
 / 
 losing its grccn tin^e aiul bccoii.ine^ colomless. Let it 
 then bland at rest till tlie sedimcn' be subsided, and poui- 
 off the clear pan from xhc sediment or powder, adding 
 in ils pl.*cc clear water, whic'i must no several times 
 jcnencd till the salts be entirely washed out. The 
 hcdiment, whicli is the verditer, musi be afterwards 
 irced fioui the Iluid b\ filtering ihroni^h paper covered 
 '.vith a cloth, and hid out in lumps of a midditng sizs to 
 dry. 
 
 Tliose who desire to make vciditer themselves, may 
 prepare the solution of copper l)y adding copper Biin.L^s 
 L'.radually to aqua fortis of any kind, or putiing plates 
 of copper in it, and proceeding as for refiner's solution. 
 
 Sander's Blue. 
 
 Dissolve copper in aqua fortis as above directed, add 
 tc it starch finely powdered, the proportion of one-sixth 
 of the weight of tne copper dissolved; (uake i!icn a 
 solution of pearl ashus and filter it and put gruduaiiy lo 
 the solution of copper ab much as will pr8ci|)itate the 
 \\ hole of the copper, which may be known by tne fluid's 
 t)eco;ninjj clear and colourless, though before highly 
 tinged wi:h gicen wash; the precipitated pov.'der in the 
 manner direr.ied for lake, and dram it well from watei' 
 by means of a filter, lay it out to diy. 
 
 Class 3d. — Yellow Colours, 
 
 King's Yellow. — Take of aisenic powdered and flour 
 of sulphur in the proportion ot tweniy of the first to 
 (jne of the second, and having put them into a sublimer, 
 sublime them in a sai-d heat; the operation being over, 
 the king's yellow will be found in the upper part of the 
 glass, which must be carefully separated from any 
 caput mortuum or foul parts that may be found in the 
 glass with It — it must be afterwards reduced to an equal 
 powder. 
 
 Miaim Yellow 
 
 
 Is a yellov.- rather incfniin|; to the orange red found in 
 ■!:e neighborhood of Naples. There must bs no iron 
 
110 A^T OP PREPARING 
 
 allowed lo touch it in the wor!;ing; theielore, wlicn 
 gioun;!, it inubt be worked w'vh an ivory spatula. 
 
 Yellow Ochre 
 
 Is a njineral earth, found in rlilTerent jduces, of various 
 decrees of puriiy. There is no other prejjara'.ion ne- 
 cebsiry but IcNi^alion ami freeing it properly from dirt 
 and other maiter. 
 
 Dutch PlnJc. 
 
 Take of Frcnt ii bcrii-.;s ono pound, and of turmeric 
 root pcwdeicd t:)iii yuncesj boil iheni in a gallon of 
 water t .vo Iiouis, and then slr/u) ttiem ihroui^h Umtie!, 
 rnd boil it aj^.iin with an ounce of alum till it be evupo- 
 rated to one cjuart; prepare in the niea.i limt> four 
 pounds of chalk by wisi^inij it over, :iud afterwards 
 diyini» i- , and mix the c!>alk witli the tincture bv diy- 
 ing, say };;rindinp[ it with it, au'l tlien lay out the Dutch 
 pink tiiuH made to diy on boards. It should be a full 
 ijold colv/ur yellow.. 
 
 Knzlish Fink 
 
 *:3 
 
 Is prcpired in the same ma'oner as the foregoinj^ and 
 with the same iii^tedient?, ouiy incre.^siuij tlie quantity 
 of chalk to rentier it of an iufetior quality j it being the 
 same, only lighter and co'^rser. 
 
 Light Pink, 
 
 Takeoi French berries one pounl, boil thcui with a 
 [gallon of water for an hour, an! hjvin» striinsd o!T tiie 
 iluid, ad(l to it two pounds of paarl ashes, diss lived aid 
 jHirified by filteriui; through pap^r, precipitate wit'.i 
 alum dissolved in water,, by aJ ling the so'u.ion gralu- 
 ally so lonj; as any ebullition shall ap^iear to bj raised by 
 the niixtuic; when tha sc.liTi^t has Ihoroa^hly subsi- 
 dsd,-pour oif the water from JH||ld wash it withseveral 
 ica§\ved qu?»ntiiics of WAter, proceeJing as has hce') 
 
AND MIXING COLOURS, 141 
 
 icforc <lirei..!od in Ihe case of lake, drain off tiie 
 emaioing fluid in a filter, wiih a paper covered with a 
 
 iinen cloih, and la&ily dry n on boards in small scjuaic 
 
 i/icccs, 
 
 Gamboge, 
 
 No yellow is cf greater service in water colours, 
 cahily dis^nlvin;; to a n:i!ky consistence liom t!ie state 
 in which it ariives. it is a p;uni produced in the East 
 Indies, and nothing but the addition of water is wantir>g 
 to pjepaie it for use. 
 
 JUasticofe 
 
 Is made by putting while lead or flake white on an 
 cartlien or stone dish bv the 6re, or belore a soonif fire 
 till it becomes sufficiently yellow. The calcination be- 
 ing finished, the parts which arc of the desiicl tint must 
 be picked out from the rest and put together, lor with 
 the gieatest Cdre it is difficult to calcine the whole. 
 Kqnaily grinding v.-ith oil is the only preparation neces- 
 sary to thu using it. 
 
 Common Orpiment, 
 
 It is generrjliy dis^igreeubic lo meddle with. This, 
 en account of its nauseous smell and poisonous quality, 
 being a fossil body, composed of tirscnic 4nd siilphiii', 
 with a inix'ure IVf.qucntiy of lead ant sonieiimes other 
 metals in its unrtfi.jed state, it is only useful to colour 
 lie nuittcd body or bottoms of chairs, or other coaisa 
 ./oik; but if puriiied by sublimation, it becomes a 
 king's yellow. 
 
 Gall Stones. 
 
 The real kind are lound ni the gall bladder or like 
 ducts of beasts, an<l require nothing more than rub- 
 bing vvitii Uoicr fii^e gamboge) lo dissolve them to a 
 dark war.ii yellow; but as ihess arc not easily procured 
 
1-i^ ART OF preparing' 
 
 a ficiiiious kii)(J, of equal serwcc, may be made a3 
 follow-: — 
 
 rake a quart of the bile of an ox, as fresh as possi- 
 ble; put it into a proper pewier vcskcI, and set il to boii 
 in a bohieo insiiac; havin'j!^ added to it a quarter of an 
 ounce of clear ginu Arabic, evaporate itie whole to 
 about an eij;htii, and tlicn remove it ir.tn a china cup or 
 bason of proper $\z<i, and evaporate it to dryness, col- 
 lecting it into a mass as it becomes ol' a sti.T cor.sistpncc, 
 
 Turpeth Miner ah 
 
 Take of pure quicksilver and oil of vitriol, cacli six 
 pounds; put then into a reton, luwl.ich (being filaced 
 in a 8!ind bath ) fit a receiver, and dis'.il tiiem uiih a 
 etront; fire while any fumes appear to aiise into t!ie re- 
 ceiver, urj^jpc; it at last wi'.h as ^reat heat as the furnace 
 will bear, when tise retort is again cold, remove it out 
 of the S'-'od bath, and havinjj!^ hioken it, take the white 
 mass which wdl he found at the bottom of it, und break 
 it to a groas po-.vder, and having put it in a glass mortar, 
 pour wa\cr on ii, wtiich will immediately convert it to 
 \\ yellow colour; let it next i)c tiioroughly ground in 
 this moriar wiih water, and afterwards washed with 
 several successive quantities; it must then be thorougldy 
 veil lcvi;;atcd on a stone, and dried. 
 
 T]\Q Yellow IVash from the Frmch Berries^ 
 
 Take one pouh-t ot the Frencn berries, and put to 
 them a gallon of water, wiili half an ounce ot aluuri: 
 boil them an hour in a p wter vessel, and tlicn fiber oli' 
 the Huid, tiirougli paper, it it be dchij^ned for nicer 
 purposes — (lanncl fur inora ordinary. Put the\r) a,t;iiii 
 into the boiler, and evaporate the fluid till i!ic colour 
 appears of the s reiij^tu desired; o:- part may be laken 
 out while less svrourg, and ihe rest evaporated lo a prp- 
 pcr body. 
 
 Turmeric IVash. 
 
 Take two ounces of proof spirit, and ad<Wo it one 
 otince of waici: put into a proper phial, add 2 drachms 
 
AND MIXING tJOLOtJRS. 14S 
 
 of (urniciic root in powi.cr. Sbaku thtm well togeil-.cr* 
 and let them siand ihice or four days, shaking it often; 
 and a stioJig tincture wiil be formed. 
 
 Tincture of Saffron 
 
 Is made by sleeping saflVon leaves in hot water, and 
 alierwards filtering through a cloth, and ibcn kept in a 
 p/nid-l. 
 
 4th Class. — Green Colours. 
 
 Verdigris is made by dissolvini^ copper in strong; vin- 
 ct^ar or other ycids; but as it may be procured at any 
 ul the shoi>b cheaper thun it can be inanufactuicd on a 
 'i.^Klll scale, the piocess isJuMc omitted. 
 
 Saj) Green* 
 
 Take a quantity of btickthnrn berries, before they 
 are ripe, and press out the juice; strain it tluoui^ii 
 ilannel, and' let it stand totettle. Alter it has settled 
 pour otr the fluid from ilie sediment. Put this iluid 
 iuio a glass or earthen vessel, and evaporate it to thick 
 consistence, then remove it to a pewter vessel, and fin- 
 ish the evaporation in a balneo mariac, or water buth, 
 collectintj the matter into a mass when it is thick enoueh 
 to form into cakes, 
 
 Prussian Green, 
 
 Proceed in all points as in tbo process given for 
 ^ russtan bhie, liH the solution of alum and vitriol be 
 mixed with that of the pearl ashes and sulphur of the 
 ctjai, and the green precipitation made. Then, instead 
 ot adding the spirit of salt, omit any further mixture, 
 and go en to wash the sediment, which is Prussian 
 sree?tj and afterwards dry it in the same manner as is 
 'Jjiecied for the blue. 
 
dt^ ART OF PREPARING 
 
 Serra Verte, 
 
 This is a native earth, ot a coarse texture, and needs 
 no other preparation but to be well levigated and wash- 
 ed over. 
 
 Class 5th, — Purple Colours. 
 
 2 rue Indian lied. — This is a native ochreous earth, 
 and needs no preparation but that ol gijhding and wash- 
 ing. There is a fictuiaus kind, kiiovvn by the same 
 name, but it is not a good purple. 
 
 ArcliaL 
 
 This colour is not in high repute; but it may be nsade 
 in the following manner: — Take 1 oz. of aicl)al weed 
 or moss, and bruise it wtli; put it in a glass phial witii 
 hall a pint of weak spiiit, M sal ammoniac, distilled 
 with lime. Stop the phial close, and leave the archal 
 to infuse till a strong bluisii purpie tiiicture be formed. 
 
 Class 6lh. — Of Brown Colours, 
 
 Brown rink. — Take Frcnclj Denies I lb. fustic wood 
 in chips hall a pound, and of pe.irl asiics I pounc!: boil 
 the«n in a tin boiler, with 1^ gallons ol water for an 
 hour, and then strain o(T the tincture th.ouv;h ilannel 
 wl)iie boilmg hot. Having prepaied ni tlic mean time 
 a solution )t a pound jntl a half ol aium, put it gradu- 
 ally U) tnc tinrtiiie so long as cbuilition shall appear. 
 Pioceed then to wash the sediment in the manner di- 
 rected for the lake colours; and lieing b; ought to a 
 proper consiai«nce by fiueiing through a paper with 
 cloth, diy it on boards in cakes cu' balls. 
 
 Bistre. 
 
 This is a good brown for wa'.er colours, and is made 
 as follows: — Take a quantity ol soot, made by burning 
 dry beech wood; put u mio watci, two pounds to a gal- 
 lon, and boil it half an hour; then let it. stand a little to 
 
AND MIXING COLOURS. 145 
 
 settle, and pour off the ciear part while yet warm from 
 the sediment at the bottom; and if, upon longer stand- 
 ing, it forms another earthy sediment, pour off as before; 
 but this must be done while the fluid is hot. Evaporate 
 this fluid to dryness, and it will be good bistre, it the 
 soot was good. 
 
 Brown Ochrey or Oker. 
 
 This coloDr is commonly procured fcom the shops, 
 after which it should be well levigated and washed over. 
 It stands well. 
 
 Colo^n, or Collirt's Earth. 
 
 This is a foisil s ibstance, of a blackish brovrn colour, 
 and needs no pieparatioi) except that of grmding it 
 very line with water. 
 
 Japan Earth* 
 
 This is a gummy kind of substance, extracted frort 
 2 vegetable. It is to be dis->olTed in water for use, but 
 does not mix well with oil. 
 
 Umber 
 
 Is much used with drying oils, for japanning, gold size, 
 black oil lacquer, &c. but it must be burned, levigated, 
 ^nd washed over before it works well with water. 
 
 Extract of Liqu9rice, or Spanish Juice, 
 
 Is used for a brown, and answers the purpose of bistre, 
 but is not so good. ^ 
 
 Class 7th.— 0/ IVhite Colours. 
 
 Flake lihite. — This colour is much used for oil or 
 Tarnish painting, where a very clear white is wanted. 
 It is a kind of ceruse^ or lead^ corroded by acid. It is 
 best to procure the white flake in the lump (which is 
 sold at a moderate price) and then levigate, and^dd_sp 
 
 13 
 
145 AUT OF PREPARING 
 
 much starch to it while grinding, as will render h'.m'i 
 ble to work with. 
 
 JVhite Lead. 
 
 This is also made by corroding plates cf lead witli 
 acid. It is procured at a moderate price, and ought to 
 be washed over. It is sometimes adul'crated witli 
 chalk, and is infeiiov to the white flake. Used with oil 
 for painting on wood, &c. 
 
 Calcined or Burnt Hartshorn, 
 
 Take homes or bones, and burn ibem in a common 
 fire lill they become a ceal, or calcined lo whiteness; 
 free them from dirt or coal that mt<y stick to the.-?«, and 
 reduce to coarse powder; then put them in a vessel of 
 the form of an earthen dish of ground crucible and 
 Stout bridge clay, well dried, put the whole in a power's 
 oven, or futnacp,as long a time as would suflice lo bake 
 their pots. After this, the horn or bones being now 
 well calcined, should be well levigated with water, and 
 then washed over. This is superior to flake white, or 
 white lead, for painting. 
 
 Pearl White, 
 
 This is the purest, and whitest part of burnt oyster 
 shells, well levigated, and washed over. It is much 
 used in miniature painting. 
 
 Troy Tf'hitPf or Sjjanish White, 
 
 May be used in WiitfU^colours, and is prepared as fol- 
 lows: — Soak a pono<:l of cfcaik well in water, and wash 
 over all the fine part; then having poured off the first 
 water, add anothtr in which two ounces of alum have 
 been disselvtd Let them stand for a day or two, stir- 
 ring every 6 or 8 hours. Wash the chalk over again, 
 till it be renciered very fine, aijd pour off ibe water, 
 taknig away the rest of the dissolved alum by repeated 
 quantities ot fresh water. Alter the last water is pour- 
 
AND MIXI>fG COLOUttS. 147 
 
 cd cfF, put the cli.\lk into a cuUiiicler filler, with a linen 
 cloth over the paper, and when the moisture has been 
 sufRciemly thaiacd off, lay it out in lumps to dry on 
 
 paper or a board. 
 
 Eggshell White 
 
 Is made of the finely powdered egg sliells after the 
 iiiiici- skiu has been peeled off. It should be washed 
 over before used, and is then preferred by snme to 
 Hake while. 
 
 Class m\,— Of Black Golours. 
 
 Lam/i riack. — This is the soot produced by burninc^ 
 Oil in a cotifned place. It mixes well with either oil 
 or water, and is the principal bhch used in the fiiier 
 
 l.iiids of painliiig. 
 
 Ivory BlacJc, 
 
 Take chips, or shu\ings of uory, and soak them In 
 iaiseed oil. Put them into a vessei that will bear the 
 ijie, and cover it with a lid m.^de ot cl-y and sand, 
 which bh >uld be dried, and the ciack stopped before 
 the vessel be put into the fire. Put this vessel in a 
 furnace, such as a potter's or pipe-maker's, and let it 
 icm.^in there one of their heats. When taken out well 
 burnt, it must be very finely levigated on a stone with 
 waitr; and if it is vyashed over, it will be siill better 
 itijn without M'ashinj. 
 
 Indian Ink. 
 
 The best Indian ink is brougrtt from China in small 
 c;.kc3; but an imitation of this is made as folUws: — 
 
 Take 6 ounces of isiuKlass, dissolve to a size in 123 
 of water over the fire. Take Spanish liquorice one 
 ounce; dissolve it in 2 ounces of water, a:ii1 grind it up 
 with one ounce ol ivory block prepared as above. Acid 
 this mixture to the size wuile hot, and stir the whole 
 t:ll the ingredients are well incoiporated. Evaporate 
 
148 ART OF PREPARING 
 
 away the water, and make up the lesiduum into balls, 
 or cast it in moulds made of lead, and greased befors 
 UBing. 
 
 Of Compound, or Mixed Colour$, 
 
 Calcined f»ieen colours, to be loUl on firints, must be 
 ground with vincj^nr; but other Cf-loiin are generally 
 gnujnd up in e;\\m water, and by a proper iijiwure of 
 the loregoing firime colours, a very great variety of 
 compound, or intetmediate coIourB may bo rT)adCi'«> 
 Thus: 
 
 Blue and yellpw make a green; 
 
 Blue am! red, purpie; 
 
 Yellow and red make an orange, &c. 
 
 1. For the human face, a mixture of white and ver- 
 milion; for the lips, a mixture of lake and veritiiiion, 
 and sliades are made with white, vern>ilion and umber. 
 
 2. Tor fair hair, much white and a little umber; a 
 varietv of colours, take yellow ochre and brown red. 
 and shade with bistre and lake if light, only mix »om« 
 black, white and umber. 
 
 2, Clothes of linen, while and a little blue; shades, 
 with ^ size mad?: ol white lead and a little black toge- 
 ther. ReH cloth, use vetmiiion in the lighter parts cf 
 ihi- TolN, lake and vermilion lor the lighter shades, and 
 lake alone for the d;irikei shades. 
 
 4. A pae yellow lor lij^his is made with white maisi- 
 cc!. The chiaro obscnro, with massicot ami umber. 
 The dark shade witi umber >lone. 
 
 3. Orange colour is^ made with black lead for the 
 lights, and shade wnh lake. 
 
 6 Lake is used very clear for lights, in draperies, 
 and tiiitker for the shades. 
 
 7. Purple is made with blue, white, and lake for the 
 lights, and blue and Inkc for the clear shades, and indi- 
 go and blue for dark sha^'es. 
 
 8. Pale blue is used for lights, and for clear shades a 
 little thicker. 
 
 9. A gold-like yellow is made with yellow massicot 
 for the iij.»hts; and the clear shades with a mixture of 
 black lead and massicotj the darker shades with lake. 
 
AND MIXING COLOURS. 149 
 
 yellow ochre, and a very little black lead; and (he 
 darker with Cologn earth and lake. 
 
 10. Greens are of two sorts. The first njade with 
 massicot and liiuo, or blue and white; and Tor the shades 
 make the blue predonomate in the mixture. The other 
 is made with'calcined green; and Fiench berries' juice, 
 mixed and calcined green, and shaded by the addition of 
 indigo. 
 
 1 I. For trees mix green and umber together. 
 
 12. Grounds are made in the saije way. VVhere 
 there are any greens, lako calcined gree.j and French 
 berry juice. 
 
 1 3. For distant skies, mix green and blue; and moun- 
 tains are always of blue. 
 
 14. The skies are also made with blue; pui a littlo 
 yellow is added near the mountains; to •nike'ttte transi- 
 tion between that and the blue, mix a little lake and 
 blue together to soften it. 
 
 15. Clouds are made with purple; if they are ob- 
 scure, you may mix lake and indigo together. 
 
 16. Stones are made with white and yellow mixed, 
 and shaded with black. 
 
 17. For horses, take bistre, ochre, and white. Dark 
 brown horses require a Utile black. Grey ones, bistr© 
 and white only. 
 
 18. Red lead, massicot, and a little whiting, make a 
 /lame colour. 
 
 19. Spanish brown and white, a /;ay colour. 
 
 20. Indigo, white, and Spanish brown, a purple. 
 
 21. Smalt and pink, with a little white, make a light 
 green; without the white, deep green. 
 
 22. Indigo and white ra »kc a sad or lead colour. 
 
 23. Indigo, lake, and white lead make a violet, 
 
 24. White and a little yellow make a straw colour. 
 
 IS* 
 
OF STAINING WOOD, &c. 
 
 To Stain Wood Yellow, 
 
 1. TAKE any white wood, lind brush it over several 
 times with a tincture ot turmeric root, made by pi>liin^ 
 an ounce ©f the root in powder to a pint ofspiri'; and 
 aficrihey have stood &ome days, straining od' the tinc- 
 ture. If ihe colour be desire! of a reddish cast, a 
 little dr^goii^ 6lood may be added. Or, 
 
 2. Riiti ovtt the Mood several litnes with a tincture 
 of the French berries, (scs the. ^'■Ycllcw Hash" fiagc 
 142, J niftde l)oilii)g hoi. After the wood isagarn dry, 
 brush it over with a weak alum water, used colt*. 
 
 For lesser pieces of wood, they may be soaked in the 
 tinctures instead of being brushed over. 
 
 3. Wood may also be cslored yellow by brushing it over 
 xvithaqun fortis; if it be used fiure^ and tbcs wood coUl, 
 it will produce a dark or brown colour; but if it be 
 diluted with water, or the wood warm while using it, 
 the colour wi!l be lighter. It is by this method that gun- 
 stocks receit'e a beautiful yellow or orange colour. A 
 little oil IS rubbed over after tne aqua fortis has set the 
 colour and the w«»od sgain become dry. 
 
 ^crrietirres a coat of sud or shell lac vaniibh is laid 
 on atitr ihc colouring, which renders ihem both dura- 
 ble and beaulitui. 
 
 To Stain Wood Red, 
 
 1. Put one poQOd cf Brazil wocxl in a gailcn of vine- 
 gat, stale urine, or water in which an ounce of pearl 
 ashes has bef n dissolved. Let this infuse for two or 
 three days, stirrin<i it of^en. It should be brushed over 
 the wood while boiling hot, and then while wet, brushed 
 over with alum water ol a coiisisvence of two ounces of 
 alum to a quart of water. 
 
 2. Dissolve 1 ounce of dragon's blood in a pint o.i 
 spirit of wine. This is nearly equal to a lacquer. 
 
STAINING. 151 
 
 3. For a pink red, add 2 ounces more of the pearl 
 .Tjhcs to the above solution of Brazil wood, and brush 
 often over will: a sirongor alum water Then varr.ish 
 when dry. 
 
 Staining Wood Blue, 
 
 1. Take the soliiiion of copper, (see Sandei'j IJIae, 
 pacje 139,) and brush it over while hot, several times; 
 then lake 2 ounces ol' pearl ashes to a pint of water, and 
 brush it over after il;e other till it produces a fine blue 
 cplour. 
 
 2. Wood may be stained green hy verdigris, and ihen, 
 turned to a blue by the pearl asties, as above. 
 
 3. Take indif;;t) prepaied with soap lees, as used hy ■ 
 the dyers, and brush the wood with it while boiiiujj; hot. 
 Then boil 3 ounces of while t:irtar or crea ti of tartar, 
 to a quait of vvarer, to solution, and biush it over ciip:- 
 ous!y before tlie in^liijo tincture be qui'.c dried out of ths 
 v.ood. 
 
 These colours may afterwards be varnished as the 
 } el lows. 
 
 To stain Wood a MaJio^ang Colour, 
 
 1. For lii^ht mahot^'iDy colour, take half a pound of 
 madder, and a quarter of a pound of iustic wood, 
 ground in water, say one gallon; (o"-, instead of the 
 fosiic, one ounce ot the French berries may be used.) 
 This must be brushed over the wood while hot, till the 
 desired colour be obtained. 
 
 2. Nearly the same effect may be produced by the 
 tincture of dragon's blood, and turmeric root in spirits 
 of wine. By increasintj or diminishing the proportion 
 of the ingredients, the brown colour may be varied to a 
 more red or yellotu cast at pleasure. 
 
 This succeeds better upon dark than upon light- 
 coloured wood. 
 
 3. For the dark mahogany colour, take the infusion 
 of madder as above, and two ounces of logwood instead 
 of the fustic; and when the wood has been several times 
 brushed over with it, and then dried, it must be slightly 
 brushed over with water in which pearl.ashes have been 
 
153 STAININa. 
 
 dissolved, in proporilon of about one-fourth of an ounce 
 to a quart of water. 
 
 Sevtial intermediate colours may be made by vary- 
 ing liic proportion of the fyrenr»entioni.'d ingredients; 
 and lor very fine work, two or three coats ai aud lac^ or 
 for ci)ar8er work, of s/iell lac and resin varnish should 
 be laid over the colours, and then tubbed over with 
 drying oil. 
 
 To fitain Wood Green, 
 
 Dissolve verd'k<tis in vuieji;^!, or crystals of verdigris 
 in water; and while hot, brush it over the wood till it 
 be duly stained; then alter it is dry, varnish, 8cc. as 
 aboTe. 
 
 To stain Wood Purple, 
 
 Take one pound of logwood to one q-.iatier of a pound 
 of Brazil wood, and one gallon of water boiled an hour 
 or more, and brush ovsr the wood till <* proper colour is 
 given; alter which pass over ii a solution of pearl ashes, 
 (say one drachm to a quart of water.) This solution 
 must be used with caution, or it will change the colour 
 from the brown red to a dark blue purple, if too plenti- 
 fully used. 
 
 To stain Wood Black. 
 
 Brush the wood over with the decoction of logv/ood 
 above several times, but without the Brazil wood in it. 
 Then prepare an infusion of one fourth of a pound of 
 powdered galls, in two quarts of water, set in a warm 
 place for two or three day», and brush the wood over 
 with it three or four times; then with a solution of green 
 vitriol of two ounces to a quart of water, pass over the 
 wood again This is a cheap method. 
 
 2 Brush the wood over several times with a solution 
 of aquafortis ,\nd copper, and afterwards with the de- 
 coction of logwood, which must be repeated till the 
 colour is sufficiently deep, and the greenness produced 
 by the solution of copper, wholly overcome. 
 
STAINING. 153 
 
 Tt may be observed, that if the wood be soaked in the 
 solutions prepared for the several colours, instead of 
 being brushed over, the Goloura will bo more perma* 
 ncntly tet in the Bubstanca. 
 
 Ats9, thm ihe wotnl shsitld be dritd bfltween each of 
 the brushlnuej and rauy be vaiHished or oiled after the 
 bst bruihing und is well dried in. 
 
 To Stain Ivory^ BonBf or Horn Tellow* 
 
 1. Doil them in » aolutinn of alum in prop')rt!on of 
 one pound to two quarts of" water; and then prepare a 
 tincture of half a pound of pounder! French berries to 
 a jjallon of water, with a qvuirter of a pound of pearl 
 oshcs. After this has boiled about an hour» put the 
 ivory, &c. in it, and let it remain there half an hoar. 
 
 2. If turmciic root be used instead of the French 
 berries, a brighter yellow will be obtained; but in this 
 cast, the ivory, £cc, must be again dipped in the alum 
 water after it has been taketJ out ol the tincture, other- 
 wise an oran.ijje colour ins'eail of a yellow, will be obtain- 
 ed, from the effect of ttif pearl ashes on the turmeric. 
 
 To stain Ivory, Bone, or Horn Green, 
 
 Put half a pound of ti^e raspings of Brazil wood m 
 a gallon of strong lime water, and let them boil for an 
 hour; then put them in the ivory, Sec. (Iiaving beer* 
 previously boiled in tl>e alum water as above, lor the 
 y«llow,) an^l lei it continue there ui.til the colour is set 
 jn. It it verge towards a crimson or purple colour, 
 dip it again \n the alum water. 
 
 To stain Ivory, i^c. Blue, 
 
 First stain h ' ;, ten, ts above dir^n^d, and then dip 
 it in a solution <!! p».'arl asdts, made strong -nd boiling 
 hot; but do not lip any ofiener, nor let it continue long- 
 er than just to turn the green to a bine. 
 
 2, Ivory, 8cc. maybe hailed in a tincture of imligo, 
 as prepared by the dyers, ai.d then in a solution of tartar 
 made as directed for staining wood. 
 
To stain Ivory, &c. Purple, 
 
 Treat them in the same manner as for red, except 
 ihet logKVOod must be used instead of Brazil vjoocl, and 
 the ii,se o! the alum water entirely omitted. 
 
 2. For a redder purple, use a mixture of logwood and 
 Brazil wood, instead o! the logwood a'une. 
 
 To stain Horn, so as to imitate Tortoise Shell. 
 
 After the horn is pic»scd into a proper form, make a 
 paste of two parts quick lime and one part liili3r;;e 
 (mixing: ^ \'M\c whiting on that uhich is to cover such 
 parts of the horn as \^ to be left of a lighter shadu) and 
 cover such parts of the horn u'ith tlie paste as you wib!i 
 to h:ive the dark colour. Ln this remain on t!ic lioin 
 till 'Jry, and ihcn brush ii cflT, when the parts which 
 vere thus covered will resemble tlie colour of the shell. 
 
 To stain Ivory, Bone, and Horn, Black. 
 
 Proceed in thc-sstme manner as direced for wood. 
 
 To stain F'arclinac^or Paper Yellow. 
 
 1. Use tit tincture of P'enth bci ries; or 
 
 3. Intuse one ounce \A turmeric root in a j/int of 
 spirits oi' wine; and if you wani it of a redder colour, 
 add a liule annatto or dragon's bio id tti the tincture 
 
 In staining paper or parrhment, il io best to pu^ tlie 
 tincture over it with a brunh. 
 
 To stain Paper or Parchment Reil, 
 
 Procer«t uS fur wood, or use red ink, oi a tincture of 
 dragt n's blood, or a lincture of Indian K<ke in spirits of 
 wine, Infused for a few da)-s, will give a beautiful crim- 
 son colour. 
 
STAlKlNfl. 155 
 
 To stain Paper, &c. Green. 
 
 U^e an iniusioii ul verdigris in vint^ar, or crystals of 
 vciciijTris water, or a soIulio» ol copper in aqua foilis, 
 adding filings of copper till the cbuUmon ccasies. 
 
 To stain Paper, &c. Bltie. 
 
 First m .ke it a greci"', and liien uirn ;t to a blue as Ji- 
 rectcdfur ivooci, i.r by the use of indigc. 
 
 To stain Paper, &c. an Orange. 
 
 Fiist itr'iii i( a ytl;*jvv, nivi Ihcii biu^ii it over with a 
 soiuiiou of hiilf an ounce of pcjrl ashes or salt of tar- 
 tar in a quart ot water, and filicrinj; the !:oU)^on. 
 
 To stain Paper, &c. Purple. 
 
 Make use ci arciial, or lincturc ot ojiwood, (as for 
 staining wood) or the juice of ripe privtl berries. 
 
 To stain Alabaster, Marble and other Stones, 
 &c. 
 
 These may le made any colour, the same as directed 
 for wood; but ihe liquid suould be /loured vw Ihern [}o'\\- 
 in); hot iiihiead of biusliing n over VViicn tinetuies of 
 spirit of wine is used, it must be cold, otiierwise it will 
 evaporate and leave the colourb imperfect. 
 
 The York Tan and Limerick Dye, &c. 
 
 These f iSidonablt. coiouis are set m v^i.-v; s, icatheri 
 &c. by stcepinjj saffron in b'.i ing hot water for twelve 
 houis; and having me gloves, Stc. sewed up to krcp 
 the colour from getting to the inside, they are brushed 
 or rubbed t ver with a sponge dipped m ihe tinctuie. 
 
 The sirangth ot ttye colour dcpeitds upon ihc qiiiOti- 
 ty ol saiTion used; but a tei.cup full si the infusion is 
 sufficient for a single pair of gloves. 
 
VARNISHES. 
 
 VARNISHKS ate iliose sniooth, glossy, enamel- 
 like coverings which are laid on n-^etals, wood, leather, 
 paper, &c foi the purpose of adding to the beau'y of 
 thcii surface, and to preseive them irom the tfftcis of 
 ■dan ppcsf, dust, &c, 
 
 Thub ai.qtitrs, Japan licjii-.rs, &c. are a kind of var- 
 nishes, &6 wtll Its those usen by rabiiiet-m<»kers for their 
 fuTnituie, and the ntap and pu iurt-makers to preserve 
 their works from being soiled b) dust, flies, &c. 
 
 To mcke a good Ccpal Varniahf say i gallon, 
 
 iC:>^ 1. T^ke three fotirihs o< a pound of clean rosin pul* 
 veiized, t nc quar« of linseed oil, one pound of ^um 
 copal pulveriaed, a quiirttr of a pound of su^ar of lead: 
 mix tlirni all together, dissolve, and boil over a clear, 
 slow fire, till ol a prt pei consistence; ttien add two 
 quai's of spirits ol luipeniine when about to use the 
 yarniah. 
 
 It may be observed that all articles used for var- 
 nishes, should be of the purest and best kind which can 
 be had. 
 
 J. perfectly Transparent Varnish, 
 
 2 Dissolve gum copiil in a warm place, with^ie 
 essenlral «'il o( bergamoite, lavender, oran>;e, lemon, or 
 rosemary, (the last of which is the cheapest;) then dilate 
 it with twite its quantity of highly rectified spirit of 
 wine. If the oil ot rosemary is adulterated with tur- 
 pentine, it will not succeed well. 
 L 3, Oil of tuVpemii.e digcs,ied on copal in a small re- 
 
 ^ tort and a lamp heat tor 12 hours, hcs been found to 
 produce a veiy good colourless varnish. 
 
 4. To one quart rectified spirits of wme ac d two 
 
 X < ounces ol mastic, in drops, and six ounces ot sandaiac; 
 
 when well cissolved, add four ounces ol pure Vei ice 
 
 turpentine. Very good for toUclte boxes, he. 
 
VARNISHES. lay 
 
 o. To a quart of spirits of wins put six ounces of 
 .-:ai\clarac, two ounces of gum lac, half an ounce of gum 
 clcnni, and 2 ounces ol clear white rosin. 
 
 I'his is a very jjood varnish for furniture, canes, Sec. 
 
 Ji Varnish for Violins and other Musical 
 Instruments, 
 
 6. Take one quart of spirits of wine, four ounces of ^ ^ 
 sandarac, two ouiices of gmu lac, two ounces of masitic, 
 
 and one ounce of gum clemi; and when well incorpor*- 
 • cd, add two ounces of good turpentine. 
 
 r4 Gold-coloured Varnish, or Lacquer i 
 
 7. Take 8 ounces of amber, 2 ounces oPfsc; melt \ )( 
 Ihem, and add 8 ounces of drying oil: after this add oil 
 
 of turpentine coloured with gamboge, annalto, s..frrun, 
 and dia«5ou's blood, according to the tinge you wish 
 the varnis'i to have. 
 
 A Black Varnish or Japan. 
 
 8. Melt 8 ounces of amber, and (separately from tha 
 amber) 4 ounces ©{' asphaltum, and 4 of rosin; wlicn 
 melted, add 8 ounces of boilinj? oil (say linseed) and 
 then 16 ounces of oil ot turp-nline- After this, stir in 
 near an ounce ot lampblack, and boil it a little more. 
 
 *1 Common Varnish, 
 
 9. One pound of rosin, one ounce gum elemi, eight ^ 
 ounces linseed oil and one pound of oil ol turyeniiiie. '^ 
 
 1o mafce Copal Varnish, 
 
 10. Take one pound gum copil, three fouMhs of a 
 pound of rosir; dissolve them toi;elli«r over r, slnv fire: 
 when completely dissolved, add otie quart of lin'ced oil, 
 well boiled; then boil them over a siov!^ fin. fcr fii'etn 
 niinutes; then add one -md three louitii ovinocs sujjar 
 of lead; then boil u about five njiuutcs more, stirring 
 
 J4 
 
1^8 VARNISHES, 
 
 it well, and it is completed. Reduce it to a propc? 
 consistency. with spiiits of turpentine. It will rcqans 
 about two quarts of turpentine, and you will have a 
 gallon of good varnish. 
 
 •3 True Copal Varnish, 
 
 y^^^ 11. Take 2 parts of gum copal, reduced to a fine pow- 
 ' der; wash it repeatedly to free it Irom its woody fibres. 
 Pul it into a bottle, over four parts of pure oil of rose- 
 mary: digest the mixture in a moderate heat for three 
 or four days; then add as much spirit ol wine as is ne- 
 cessaiy, und let it stand till all the impurities subside, 
 ^nd then decani off the varDish. 
 
 To make a White Varnish* 
 
 ^ 12. Dissolve gum sandarac and gum mastic in spirits 
 oi wine, and let it *«ttle 2 or 3 days; th*n strhin it 
 through a clean linen cloth, and let it stand ior some 
 time; after which pour off the clear liquid and bottle 
 it for use. 
 
 Another White Varnish. 
 
 X^ 13. Take lj| oz. gum sandarac, ^ oz. raaatic in 
 drops, i toz. gum ekmi, and J oz. ©il ol spike lavender; 
 put the whole into a half pint phial, and fill it up with 
 best spirits of wine. Let the whole stand in a warm 
 place till the gums are dissolved, and then pour off the 
 varnish into a clear phial for use. 
 
 J. ISud Lac Varnish, 
 
 1 4. Take I quart spirit of wine, put it into a wide mouth 
 beule, and add 8 ounces of sud lac, bright and clear 
 let it stand 2 or 3 days in a warm place, often shaking 
 it; hen strain it through a fl^nDCl into another bottle.- 
 and it is fit for use. 
 
VAUNlSUliS* 159 
 
 A Shell Lac Varnish. 
 
 5 5. Take one quart Rood spirits of wine, 8 ounces 
 jf thinnest and most transparent sheU lac; mix and 
 r>hako them well together, and let thenri stand two days, 
 and it is ready for use. 
 
 This is soAer than the sud lac varnish, but does very 
 ■veil to a^i:; wiih it for varnishing on wood, 
 
 A good Linseed Oil Varnish, 
 
 15. Take ona pound of well pulverized and sifted 
 iiiharge,fo\ir ounces finely powdered white viirio', nnd 
 one quart of good linseed oil. Put the whole into an 
 iron pan that will not be nnore ihtn half full Mix well, 
 and boil them till the muisiure is evaporated, wliich 
 iTiay be l^nown by a goose quill which wiH then burst if 
 lhru3t to the botluin of the boiling varnish. Take it olT 
 the fire and pour off the clear liquor carefully so as lo 
 leave the thick pirt wiiinh is at ihe bottom. W'ule 
 Doiling, it should bo stirred several linnes round, that 
 the litharge may not fail to the bntlo.Ti; but stir il con- 
 stantly, else superfluous litharge will be dissolved, and 
 i'.e varnish bscoine loo thid? 
 
 Amber Varnish. 
 
 17. Take half a pound of melted or roasted aniber, 
 one pound and a hall of the above linseed oil varnish, 
 an:l two pounds of turpentine oil. Mix the atTiber and 
 oil varnish in a deep cast iron vessel that wiif not be 
 more than one-third fuil, and keep over a slovir fire till 
 the amber is dissolved, which may be known by its 
 swelling up; then take it froui the fire, and when cool 
 add the tnrpentino oil, stirring continually as y©u pour 
 it in. Then let it stand till well settled; then pour off 
 the clear varnish, strain it through a piec«of linen, and 
 put it in a boule for uss. 
 
 C«re should be taken to have a vessel ready, if the 
 varnish should bnil over, to set the boiling vessel in and 
 preserve what would otherwise be wasted; and a board 
 or iron cover sbocld be at hand to lay over the top of 
 
IfiO VARNlSHIiS. 
 
 the boiling vessel, for the purpose of cxlingulslihig ihe 
 flame in case it should take fire wl.ile boiling. 
 
 Another Black Vanfisli. 
 
 \ 'r 18. Gum lac i ounces, santlarac otie ounce, black 
 rosin one ounce — pulverize all separ;tiely. Dissolve 
 the rosin in a sufficient qnaniity of spirit of svinc, and 
 then add the sandarac to it, and when it is melted add 
 the gum lac, and stii well till it is melted; strain through 
 a cloth; put a drachm of ivory black to each ounce of 
 the varnish, and boil a liiile more in a clean vessel. 
 
 y A Tarnish for Copper Plate Prints or Maps* 
 
 19. First by onacoatot Water (Inwiiich somo ising'ass 
 has been dissolved) with a very fine brush; ihcn another 
 made of true "Spirit of wine, half a pound; gu-.ii elemi, 
 two drachms; and sandarac, three drachms, dissolved 
 together. 
 
 An Admirable Varnish. 
 
 V ' 
 
 ■^ 20. Tal;c uhite mastic and linseed oil a sufHcient 
 
 quantity; a little turpentine, pounded 5<!ass, burnt ver- 
 di^fris, and pounded amber. Boil and melt the whole 
 togethetin a new earthen pot. 
 
 A Varnish in which may be put any Colours 
 at |)leasure, 
 
 Jj^ 21. Take oec ounce aspic oil one do. turpentine, four 
 ^'- drachms clean sandarac pulverized, two drachsns gum 
 copal: the wh )lo being well pulverized, jjut it into a 
 niairass and acid half a poun^l of spisiis ot wine, and 
 set it in.a bahieo niariac (or vessel of liot wuter,) When 
 tlie aiiolc js dissolved, strain it, and put in a glas^ bottle 
 well corkvd for use. 
 
 A Chinese Varnish, suitable far all Colours. 
 
 2J ; i ue I .z. white amber, ^ oz. gum suidarac, 
 ^ oz. gum copal: pound ihcnti together, and put them 
 
VARNISHES. 161 
 
 Jry into a mafrasc-: then to each- oixice of tliis mixlure 
 put ihrce oui.rcs of spirit ol wine, then stop the vessel 
 well, atjfl boil it over the embers '.ill the whole is dis- 
 solv'-'J Then di"44olve your colours in aqua vitx with 
 soiTic i'^in^jlrtss, and lay it on tiie article after it has been 
 Weil polished. When the colour is dry, lay on two or 
 n.ree coits of the above varnisn, allowing time to dry 
 between each coat; and then polish over with olive oil 
 and iripuiy, and rub the oil with a ra;j;. 
 
 *1 Water-proof Varnish. 
 
 23. To !lb of pure linscei oii in a clean glazed ear- 
 then pipkin, add |:b of rosin, (he purest that can be had; 
 and boti well over clear coaU of fire, (it should boU 
 moderately lest it should run over) till well dissolved, 
 and till a little of it taken oiit on the end of a stick will 
 draw out like a thread. If il be too thin add a iitila 
 more rosin, but remember that botli the oil and iho 
 rosin musf bo very pure, and boi;ed a loni^ time or tlio 
 varnisli msy not be gootl. This varnish rnust be dri;id 
 in, in the sun shine, as the shade is not sufii.ient to do it 
 in due time, 
 
 A beautiful Chineife Varnish, 
 
 24. To one ounce of while ambor, or wliUcst guoi' 
 copul 4iul 4 drachms of santhrac, add 2 drachms oi fins 
 mastic, in drops; reduce all to a fine powdor an i )ut 
 i:Uo a glass bottle, then pour over it enough of fi.iest 
 oil of turpentine, say one ounce. Stop with a co> k, 
 and tie a piece of svetted bladder over ir; let these iijfuse 
 over a slow fire for 12 nours: Un -orU Vm bottle, let ic 
 cool, an I then pour in gently 6 ou )ceb of pure spirits of 
 wine, and cork up as before: Then put it into a vosjjI 
 of hot water for 12 hours more; when tiiu spirits will 
 have dissolved the j^ums, and bcf.)re it jjcs co>l, s rai;i 
 it oir, and put ic in \ bottle ind corit it well for uij. 
 
 A Varnish for Braiizi.15. 
 
 25. Ona ounce of finest siiell iac in very fine pj-,fdar 
 ^s to be pat iiiio a- boitls of 1 i pint siz.;, an I h ilf a pi:u 
 
 14* 
 
46S VARNISHES, 
 
 of best spirit fif wine added; stop it well, and set it h'i a 
 cool p'ace for four days, that the lac may dissolve slow- 
 ly, shaking the bottle four or fi»e times a day, and if 
 not then d ssolved, set it in a warmer place. 
 
 JVote. — Pour the spirit of wine on leisurely, a little 
 at a lime, shaking between each lime that it may mix 
 well. 
 
 1. It should be remembered, that in making spiric 
 Tarnishes, the vessel should never be more than three 
 quarters fuP, and that, in general the balnco-mariae or 
 hot water fiath is the foost proper heat for diasolving 
 the L'unis in the spiiit; while a sand bath or good clear 
 fire may be used for oil varniahcs: but in every case the 
 matk.iials should be kept entirely free from all dust and 
 filt'ii, and that none faut the purest kind should be used, 
 if good varnish is wanted. 
 
 2. ll is a common practice of those who make var- 
 niahts for sale, to leave them loo thick for immediate 
 use; in which case it is neccbsary to add a little tnrpan- 
 tine spirits or other proper inpjredient to bring them to 
 a proper consistency for working well. 
 
 3 ll is customary for workmen, espacially cabinct- 
 niakers. first to stain their furniture fsee staining' of 
 Kvopd, fia^e 1 50,J some suitable colour, and then to 
 Jpy a light-coloured varciish otct it. 
 
 An excellent Varnish to lay on Prints. 
 
 One quarter of a pound of good Venice turpentine, 
 diluted »ith a gill of spirit of wine: if too thick, pat 
 in a little more spirit; if too thin, a little more turpcn- 
 tini., so as to Tnake it of the apparent thickness of milk, 
 and lay on onc^ or, if necessary, two coals on the fase of 
 the print, or piap, and it will Wand wat^r. and *hine like 
 glass. 
 
METALS. 
 
 AMONG ihe simple substances which present theni- 
 clves to our view in examining the products of natufie, 
 Lherc arc none of whicli the study is more InDportant 
 than thaiof MEPAi-S. Their utility is highly interesting, 
 and they nnay be considered as the great inbtrurpenis 
 of human industry. 
 
 We arc at present acquainted with twenty-nine 
 -netals, essentially differing from each oiher, namely: — 
 
 Platina, Antimony, Molybdena, 
 
 Gold, Bismuth, Tungsten, 
 
 Silver, Manganese, Arsenic, 
 
 Copper, Nickel, Tantalium, 
 
 Iron, Nicholinum, Cetium, 
 
 Lead, Cobalt, P.illadium, 
 
 Tin, Uranium, Rhodium, 
 
 Zinc, Titanium, Iridium, and 
 
 Mercury, Colu,mbiuni, OsmiuiTi"^ 
 
 Tellurium, Chrome, 
 
 or each of which I shall now give a short natural his- 
 tory, together with the art or method used in extracting' 
 them from thoir ores, £cc. which is usually called 
 •vietallurgy. 
 
 All metals arc found in the bowels of the earth, and 
 sometimes on its surface. They are met with in dirfsr- 
 enl combinations wi-.h other metals, -such as sulphur, 
 oxigen, and acids; particularly with the carbonic, inu- 
 1 iatic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids. They are also 
 found combiaed with each other, and sometimes, though 
 rarely, in a pure metallic stale. The ores of most 
 metals are usually found in mountainous countries, and 
 often running in a chain lor a considerable distance. 
 Some moun'.ains indeed have been found to be almost 
 entirely composed of iron ore. They are so.nnetiaies 
 found in strata or veins, in the crevi»€s ot rocks, and in 
 some instances in low level lands. 
 
 The art of distinguishing ores, and the method of de- 
 scribing them with accuracy and precision, ia called 
 
164 METALS. 
 
 "MintMalo^y,' and tlio .v.\. oi" rxtraclin;^ the i^istals 
 iberefrom is called "MetalUr.-y." 
 
 Plalina. 
 
 Vo Tr.inc of platina has ever yci been discovered. It 
 is IoviikI ill niiure ouly ii» a mctailic state, in small 
 KrainSi combined with palladitim, ihoJiiim, iridium, 
 osmium, iron, copper, &c. the largest pieces not cx- 
 ceedioi:^ in sizs a pii^eon's egg. U is found in many 
 places in Souiii America; but u-us nol known in Eu- 
 rope before the rear A. D. 1748. Pure platim is ot a 
 white colour, between that of silver and tin: it is the 
 hardest and heaviest ol all metals; its specific gravity 
 beJnt; at 20.6 to 23, pure water bein;; at 1.0. It is 
 malleable, ductile and lamioiible, like gold, and maybe 
 drawn into wire of not more than the Iwo-thcDsandth 
 pari ol an inch in diameter. 
 
 Method of obtaining Platina. 
 
 1st. Take equal parts of platina in grains, and acidu- 
 lous taririte of pot ash; put the mixture into a well- 
 luted crncible, and expose it for two hours to a violent 
 heat. The platina fuses, but. becomes brittle, and 
 whiter than its common colour; then expose it to a very 
 strong heat under a muftle, by which means all the 
 arsenic combined with il will be disengaged, and the 
 platina will remain behind in a mdleable state, 
 
 2d. Platina maylikewise be obtained puie by decom- 
 posing the nitro-muriatic solution of common platina 
 by mutiateof ammonia, heating the precipitate miense- 
 ly, and stamping it when of a wiiiie l»eat itfto one mass, 
 or by assisting the lusion with a stream of oxigen gas. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold is found in nature only in the melallic state, 
 mobt corumotdy in grain*, ramifications, leaves, or 
 rhomboidal, octahedial, or pyramidical crystals. It is 
 found also in the sand oi rivers in Alricj, F.irope, and 
 South America, in u .lit.-, icrc^uiar graii>i, called gold 
 dust. Soine Si^lUiuiniiiiis luve bma foa;ii in vir- 
 
METALSfe 1(55 
 
 iiiia and olhcv places in lbs United States.. The hrgcst 
 A'lCe of nalivc i^ulJ hiiherta touric! in T^uropa was dis- 
 (uver'jd in ihc couiry of Wickiow in Ireland, weijj'iin^ 
 2 ounces, aI,T\ost pare. Sjtnc French cbymis'.s luve 
 ;'.^iacd g'>ld fro;Ti ihs ashns of vcgeta'jles. 
 (/old is of a brilliant yeiiow colour, and is the heavi- 
 est substance known, plaiinj excepted, its specific yra- 
 vity bein-; 19.3. Its dactili;y is so fjrcat i!iat a wire of 
 (•no-tenth ofan ioch in diameter will siipipDri a weiglu of 
 500 pounds, whicii is much more than any other inRtal 
 'A'ou'.d support, and it is also more malieable than any 
 ether metal, h has been proved lh:»t one grAinofgold 
 may be divided into 28,030,030 of puts '.vhich will all 
 be visible to the rnked eye; and that 16 ounces ot i^fold, 
 which, in the form of a cube, would not cxcctvJ \^ 
 inch ill diameter, would gild a silver wire of sufficient 
 length to go round the whole earth like a hoop. 
 
 Method of obtaining Gold. 
 
 Native {*o!d (which is nearly pure) is, together vviilt 
 i;s m itrix or s-.ibsiance which iiicloses i(, to be pounded 
 line and well washed with water, by running it over a 
 piece of cloth with a lon^ nap, which vviill'retain the 
 heavy particles of {^olJ while the others are carried oif; 
 it is then snixed with l-!0'.h mercury, and tiilurateJ in 
 f.n iron or copper vessel containing boilinj* water, until 
 the mercuiy has absorbed all the Oirticies of gold. 
 The mercury thus containing tlic j^old in sol'jtion, h to 
 be separated first from the water, and ncKt from t!>e 
 catthy panicles, and then from the sind, by throwing 
 t!ie wliole upon a tabij, placed in an inclined position; 
 the mercury chartjed with gold, bu* hUil vivid, v.iM, 
 when assisted by a little stiiriig, run oir il>e tahlc and 
 leave llie sind behind. Tiie naercury is mew separated 
 from the j^jo.d and silver (i[ any) by cxposin^; the alloy 
 ii) earthen retorts, to such a he.t >» will occasion -.ivi 
 mercury to distil off', and is collected again \n i receiver 
 with Witer. rsic gal I not being volatile in fire, is thus 
 left behind, j^n 1 is afterwards fuither freed from the 
 beteroj^cncuus irnperlcct mctaliic substances by the pro- 
 cess of cupcilation. (See Cu/iellatian J 
 
i6ft METALS. 
 
 When gold ore is free from sulphur, it r^ay, zftc. 
 being pcvii'.ded and wssliec', b« mellcti wiih one antl i 
 lialf pans of bemi-viircQ\j» oxytla of lead, and ihrc; 
 pans of glass, in a crucible coverecJ wiih muriate oi 
 eoflo. By this ujieiation all ihc beierogcncuus metals 
 will scorily, and set the gold free. 
 
 Gilding iritk Gold. 
 
 Gold may be applied to oilier substances as a cover- 
 ifng, by a metaliic mixture as a pigment; or by friction, 
 tis with black lead or cbalk; or by the cbymical precipi- 
 lation of gold from mercury, or some other solvent^ 
 and, lastly, by gluinjj or fasioning gold leaf to the sar- 
 iace intended to be gilt. 
 
 Gold Gilding hj Friction. 
 
 Steep a fine linen rag in asulura'.ed solution of muri- 
 ate of gold, till it has entirely imbibed the fluid; thi^ 
 rag must then be dried over a tire, and Bfterward* burnt 
 to tinder. When anything is to be yili, it must be pie- 
 viously well burnished; a piece of cork is then to ba 
 dipped first into a solution ot salt in water, and after- 
 wards iu'.o the black powder, aiul tba piece, alter being 
 itibbed with it, must be burnished. This powder is very 
 suitable for gildinjj^ dtlicat^ articles of silver. 
 
 To Gild Brass or Cojjper. 
 
 Brass may ije.g4H by dipping it into a solution ot 
 mutiale of jjold, which is free frona excess of aciJ, 
 several limesj atid then burnisbin;? it. 
 
 Water Gilding. 
 
 If a solution of gold be copiously diluted withard^ei>t 
 spirits, a piece of polisned steel will be giit by belog" 
 tepeatedly steeped therein. 
 
METALS. 167 
 
 Steel Gildings 
 
 Poor into a solution of gold with nitro-muriatic acid 
 cibout twice as mucb sulphuric eUier. This mixture 
 applied to well polished iron or slee! with a fine brush 
 or pen, will leave ihercon a gilt figure of whatever is 
 drawn; ».i)e other evaporating, will leave ihe gold on the 
 suriace of the iron or steel. 
 
 Po'ishcd iron or steel may also be gilt in the follow- 
 inj;; tnannci: — Heat it until it is of a biue colour, and 
 lay on it a piece of ;old leaf and burnish it down ligiit- 
 ly; then, if more is necessary, heat it again and lay on 
 another leaf; and lastly let it be well btnnished. It is 
 common to lay on two cr three thicknesses of the gold 
 leaf in this manner for very valuable works. 
 
 Gilding of Glass. 
 
 This is cotDmoiily eftected by covering the part witfj 
 a solution of supci -baturated borate of soda, and apply- 
 ing gold leaf upon it, kvhich is afterwards fixed by 
 burninK. 
 
 Edges of Tea- Cups, ^c. 
 
 Are gilt by applying u very thin coat of ataber varnish, 
 upon wliich gold leaf is i<, be fixed, and when the var- 
 nish is dry t^e gold .jris; ,ie burnished. To gild wood, 
 the gold leaf IS usually laid on a coat of size, or boiled 
 oil, and afterwards burnished 
 
 €upellation. 
 
 If gold be alloyed with rr.ppor, lead, fecit is purifi- 
 ed by the process called cufieliation, in the following 
 manner: — The alloyed gold is put with about twice its 
 weight of silver, and some lead, in.o a crucible mndo of 
 fc ver> porous substance, such as bone ashes, and called 
 a cu/iel Ihev are all exposed to a considerable heat, 
 which oxidates or converts it into a semi vitreous oxyde 
 of lead or lith irge, enabling it likewise to ferm a similar 
 kind of aubataoc.e with the other metala in tho alloy. 
 
168 METALS. 
 
 1 lis glassy fluid soaks into il)e pores of the cupel, 
 while the lemainins niixturc of {^okl and silver js left 
 behind in the vessel. The silver is then separated as 
 follows: — Add to the mixture three tirres as much sil- 
 ver, and ir.elt the who!? together, and then throw on 
 some sulphur. The sulphur will con-bine with the 
 silver, and the' gold will lall to the boitom. This last 
 opcri-.vicn is called fiarting or quartation. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 This metal is found both native and mineralized, and 
 combintd wilh Ici^d, copper, mercury, ccbah, sulphur, 
 arsenic, &c. It is found in diflercnt parts of the earth. 
 'I'he H'ines cf Mexico, ond Polosi in Soudi Ameiica are 
 the nicst noted; bul tiiver is also found in some parts of 
 Kuropc, nnd small quantities of it in some places in the 
 United Siates. The colour of native silver is while, 
 ar.cl often tarnished. Silver \»hen combined with gold 
 is of a yellow ifeh whUc, and lornis what is called the au- 
 uierous native silver ore. 
 
 Siivtr is very btillic-nt and sonorous: it is the most 
 isplcntlid ol all metals, and very hcav); its specific f^ra- 
 \il> being iiom 10 475 to 11.091 accoiding to the stute 
 ol jts density. It is also exceedingly ductile laid tena- 
 cious, and n ay be bt&t into leaves of only 1- 100,000th 
 pait ol an inch in thickness, and drawn into wire of i 
 only 1-lCOOili part ol atsinch in diameicr.,# 
 
 Method of ohiaining Silver, 
 
 In Mexico and Ptru, the mineral containing the 
 silver, &.c. is,.pounded, roosted, washed, and then liitnr- 
 ated wiii> mtrcitry in vessels filled with water. A n.iil 
 is enr; ployed to keep the whole in agitation. The silver 
 combirits by these means with the mercury. The alh-y 
 thus obtained, is aiieiwaids waslied, to separate a^> 
 foreign m;Uier Irom ii; and then straintd and pressed 
 through leather. This> being done, lieat is applied un 
 til the mercury is diiven off, leaving the silver behitif' 
 wbich is then melted and cast into bars. 
 
METALS. 169 
 
 in order to exlracl silver from sulphurated or vitre- 
 ous ore, the miner«l is to be roasted, and then meltad 
 with lead and borax, or same other flux to assist tho 
 ■ •uon. By tlie first operation ihe sulphur is volati!- 
 
 vd, and by the second the silver is obtained, though 
 cummftnly raixed with alloy of somo other metal, from 
 which it is separated by cupellation, or fusion with 
 lead or bismutti. 
 
 Silvering, 
 
 There are various methods of giving a covering of 
 silver to the surface of bodies. Thus copper may bs 
 silvered over by rubbing it with the following powder: 
 Two drachms of acidulous tartritc of pot ash, tne same 
 quantity of muriate of soda, and half a drachm of sul- 
 piiate of alumine> mixed with fifteen or tweiity grains 
 of silver, precipitated from nitrae of silver by copper. 
 The copper becomes white when rubbed with this 
 powder, which may afterwards be brushed ofl", and 
 polished with leather. Or thus: Take half an ounce 
 of feilver that has beenprecipitated from nitiate of silver 
 by ihe addition of copper, muriate of soda anJ muriate 
 of ammonia, of each two ounces, and one druchm 
 of muriate of mercury, are triturated together, and 
 made into a paste with water; with this copper utensils cf 
 every kind, that have been previously boiled wiih acid- 
 ulous taririte ol pot ash, and sulphate of alumine, aio 
 rubbed; after which they are made red hot, and then 
 polished. 
 
 Tne d^ plates of clocks, the scales of biromelers, 
 Dnd ottier similar articles arc silvered by rubbing upon 
 them a mixture of murine of silver, muriate of soda, 
 and acidulous tartiiie of pot ash, and afterwards carii- 
 fully wasliiog off the saline matter with water. This 
 must be repealed, and the article heated, to make the 
 silvering datable. 
 
 Silver Plating, 
 
 The covering of copper wit'i silver is performed in 
 the following manner: Upon small ingots ot copper, 
 15 
 
470 METALS. 
 
 plates of silver aie bouucl whh iron wire, in propoilicn 
 of about one ounce ol silvt-r lo twelve of copper. TiiC 
 suifurc of llie silver plale-being something smaller thai) 
 tl)at of tfie copper; upon ite uncovcicd id^je of whicli 
 a Jitlle borax is 4>ut, and by cxj)ohifig t!ie whole to a 
 strong heat, the borax melts, and in melting, contrib- 
 utes lovvarc's the fusing of the siivci near wiiich it is 
 bid, and to attach i\ to the copper: Tlic whole is then 
 passed heiwcen bleel lolleis until of^ prcptr tliicknets 
 to be cut into small pieces for buttons, or such other 
 miicic as it is intended to form. 
 
 Sometimes the i)lating is not left n-.orc than the 
 1 "OOth part cl an iuch thick; but it soon v/cars off when 
 made so thin. 
 
 Copper* 
 
 Copper is found in the earth in variotjs states. It is 
 found native (Virgin Cc/j/)frJ possttsitig the red co- 
 lour, malleabiiiiy, and many of its other properties; 
 but seldom entirtly peie, being generally mixed with n 
 smsll portion of gold or siivci: Its ores are olicn mixed 
 with tuiphur, Bistnic, S:c. kc. Copper is found ia 
 msiiy places in ELrope, and in the United S'.Mtcs, par- 
 ticularly in New Jersey, and in vjst quantiiics near lake 
 Superior. 
 
 Copper is of a rose red colour; sooorous, tenacious, 
 diictie, Kiid malle;'>bic. Its specific gravity is from 
 7 788 to 8. 584, It is a good conducior of clecuicily 
 end galvaijism, snO mixes freely with som.e other me- 
 tals. W hen mixed with zinc, it torms biys^nd pinch- 
 beck, end wiih tin it foims bellmctal, hroizc, Ecc. 
 C< pper is poisonous to tlie human system, especial;', 
 uh^n taken into the stomach. 
 
 Method tf obtciTiins Co/i/i(r. 
 
 Copper is obtained from its ores by difTerent prr 
 ceases, according lo the nature ol tlicse oies. If they 
 contain n^uch si.Iphui, aftti being pounded and waviad, 
 llcy are uifs?ed in the cipen air, tu dispel the sulpl.ur. 
 1 he ere is cfteiwards ross-.cd cnce or twice more, lUid 
 
METAL3. i7i 
 
 rmel'.ed i;i on open fire into a nus-J, cailcd a mat of 
 I opper. In tl.ii state it stiil coniains sulphur, which is 
 to bo diipelltcl by repealed roasliugs, and by fusion, un- 
 til it ac(iuiiC)a cerlai;i decree of purity, an i is then 
 c\i!!ed bhc!i copper, whii-h is s^oir:e\vhat fnillcjble, 
 
 Iijui'dci lo iiuiiiy it complcceiy from any rcinaiode4' 
 of sulphur, iron or other mixture, ii is hastily fused 
 with thice limes its weight of lead. The lead unites 
 with the copper, and expels the iron, S:c. The copper 
 is afterwards refiDed by kccpin.j^ it heitcu in crucibles 
 for a coDsidcrjblo tiin«, so that it may throw up all iho 
 ioreign substances in the (•n-.n (A scoria. It i-s exam- 
 ined occasionally by immersing iron rods into it, which 
 beconje coloured with a smali quantity of copper; the 
 puriiy of wiiich is judged of by the bviiiiaj^t redness of 
 the specimtns on the rods. 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Of aU the mctala, there is none wlilch 13 so copiously 
 L.nd so vasiju'ily dispersed thiouj^h mturo as \ron; not' 
 is thers any other msial so generally known and so 
 abundantly useful to m; nkinJ. In annnals, in vemeta- 
 lies, and in all parts of the mineral kingdom, (ho piss- 
 ci!ce of iron niuy be delected. There ia a great vaiieiy 
 of iron ores ciuinierated by chemists, and fiisinguishcd 
 by names according to their comainations wiin otnet* 
 S'a)star.ccs; t)ut the two kinds must common, and iio a 
 whicniron is generally m,!nufactured, are tne lum/i '.t 
 kl.lney ore, ahich is well known in western Pcnnbyiva- 
 nia. It very much resembles iiie common linjcsiona 
 in outWcird iippcaraoce, being generally covered witli 
 yeilow oxoi(.l, vvuiclj btcomttsiea oy roasting orbuning. 
 T'hs kind of ore cuntams sulpnur, and ofte:i a poilion of 
 sder. It is tiomeiiaits lou'id on trie surface of tho 
 gr-.nnd in I mips, but geneially at a lew feet t>elovv tne 
 s 11 face, extemling ift veins, or b-e*-is of coi>bi<Jcrd>lo 
 icii). . h, atxl oi<cn luniiUiij nearly honz ntai. Some 
 veins cf 11 ure (uun 1 tx'eniiing like a b>Mtl round a lull, 
 01 w.v(y piece ot gro<ind nisep.raic luf'ips, some of 
 them ol 100 pouUvis wtij^Mt, or more. 'Ihc oth'.r ki id 
 is-ih4i wmcii ii ijeuvTaliy used iu ui« uuiiu^yny yifi ^ 
 
i72 ^ METALS. 
 
 :>Jew Jersey. It rest inbks the mineral coal of Pilts- 
 hwTv; more ihan it does tiie hmip ore of Fayelte couniy. 
 ItisvMy licb—sonie arsenic, sulphur, load stone, or 
 nsitural magnet, &c. U.c.. ere ofien found with it. This 
 kind oiure often lies very deep in the ecrih, running In 
 solid vf ins like mineral coal, and so hard that th© n.incvn 
 are in the hMnt of boring, and biowinj!; it cut with pow- 
 der. Pure iron is of a whitish Rrey, or bluish colour. 
 Its specific gravity is from 7.5 7.8. It is very hard 
 ;ird elastic, and so ductile that it m&y be diawn into 
 %vire as fine as human hair. 
 
 The common m.ethod of obtaining; iron from its ore-^, 
 is first, to roast them to a strong heat, which expels 
 tlie sulphur, carbonic acid, &c. It is then pounded 
 into small pieces, which are exposed (o ihe intense heat 
 of a furnace, ^hich causes the oxi^cn to combine with 
 the cnrbcn, forming carbonic acid goss durint? the pro- 
 cess, which reduces the oxoid (or powder) to its metalic 
 stcjte, when it is cast into such a form p.s is warned. 
 
 To obtain the iron more pure, or to free it from the 
 caibon with which it iscombuied in this state, it i? mcL 
 !cd, and kept in fusion for a ctjnsiderable time, duiiiig 
 v.-:v.c,T 1-. ii I;r.C?dcd and stirred, until the p,as is expelled 
 and the metal becomes viscid and stiff: The operation 
 cf rollers or a large hammer then forces cut most of the 
 remaining oxoid and oilief inipuriiics, and briiigs it into 
 the convenient form cf bars, &c. iov u!>e, but is not y.:t 
 cr.iiitly pure^ 
 
 To convert Iron into Sieeh 
 
 Alternate layers of charcoal antl bars of iron arc 'ail 
 in a close furnace, and exposed to strong heat for five 
 crsix flays, or more, after which the fiie is ex inguiaii- 
 cd, ai'd the btns left to cool gradually for several days, 
 Ti b forms biislered iftcel. ft is then hammered iuio 
 sn.iller bars, oi 9 mt'inies f«v8e<>, and cast iiuo sm;.!! 
 hvis, which are called cast steel. Ihe mote can i:> 
 iiitrciiiiicfo the n.ore biinlc will the steel be. If »ttt 1 
 hv titaied un.il it is near its fusing piint, aiid then c st 
 q' ick \ in'i) vciv Cf* <! wu'er, i" insn bf mack so hvd ; 
 to bCiuich ^uss like'ci uictmund. li u ii«4viei' iluu it v.- 
 
METALS. 178 
 
 To dutin':;uuh Steel from Iron. 
 
 D'on a little dilute'l nitric acid upon a bir or plite, 
 and let it remain a lew minutes, and then wash it off. 
 It 1 l)larU spot remains ic is sieel, but if the spot be 
 wnitisti i^rev, it is iion. 
 
 Iron, ;»nd its properties being so generally known, it is 
 d -eiTiud unnecessary to ttsy any thing fuiihet oa tne 
 subject. ^ 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Lead is Tound in tnany p^rt9 of the earth. Tt exists 
 in vaiio-.is forms, but seldom, if ever, in a pure nietalic 
 state. The greatebt mines of the lead ore known at pre- 
 sent are in tisa new state of Missjuri, on the Wisconsin 
 river, and in other parts uf the north westein parts of 
 tilt United States. 
 
 L -ad ore t^enerally contains a small portion of silver. 
 Ai th« mines in Missouri, ii is dug up much in th« 
 same mannei us the lump, or kidney iron ore of Penn- 
 sylvania; and to obtain (he lead nothing more ia r<q jir- 
 c;l than to break the ore and to expose it to a heat of 
 such a degree as wili melt it, and the lead runs dovvn, 
 a'ld li cast into pigs or boils, pure enoigh for m )St 
 use^: but to abt.dn it pure, it must be dissolved in nuric 
 acid, and the solution decotnposed by addin.^ thereto 
 gradu dly, a seUition of sulphate of s )di, or sulpiiurtc 
 acid, so loDg as a precipitate continues to fall T us 
 p'.ecipitale m'ist be collected and rcpeatelly wrasaed 
 in disidled Witer, and then dried; after »vh!ch it is to be 
 m xcd with two or three times is weight of black flax 
 in a crucible, and exposed to a red heat. 
 
 Leid is of a bluish w;»ite coiour when fresh cut, but 
 soon tarnishes in the air. It is n dieable, though not very 
 ductile Specifir, j^riviy 1 1.435 Lead and tin tiSixcd, 
 form a compound called plu nbars s >! ler or pew er, 
 wiiichis more eawly tused ihaii ciiuci* wnmi stsparaie. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 The native oxoid of tin or tin ttoney occurs both mat- 
 aive and crysuiibeiJ. Irs colour i» a dark brown; 
 15» 
 
i7^i Ml'.TALS. 
 
 sttnptirr.es vellnwls'i gtty. Wlien crvs'iiliscd i' id 
 grirt u hrtt III iisp 'leiit. 'I'^eivoud tiu orr is a vmitty 
 eft I e n tiv( oxcicJ. haviijj^ a fil)i.ius 'cxtuie This Vdr:- 
 eiv is found id C on. wall, in l'3nf>;lan(l. It is louiul in 
 fiHgaitntf, tr<neraJly iftiiiid, aixi of a yellowisli l)sovvn 
 c.>!<)\jr. It is also so'ne limes fuuiifl mixed with a iiiie 
 sulphur, with ir*>n and copper. Tin is> of a b'illidUl 
 v^hitfc colour, rtsembling silvt^r. h is one ol the li^iU- 
 cs' «'f 'T'* tals, iisspetifii. j^rnviiy btinii. whi ii hauuiitie'l; 
 on y 7 ?99 It is very boft, #nd nijy bo reduced lo 
 Icuciut l-100;h ai an inch inick. 
 
 Method of Qb'airA}!^ Tin. 
 
 NoiKing n-!ore is necessary than a mere fusion of the 
 ore wih ( harro; 1: but to purify tin it is dissolved in 
 rJliii a» id with hent. Thus s- me of the n ctals it ni.y 
 contain, will **e held in soluiic^n, otheis ox<-idattd; I-ul 
 n vniaticjor \A ro-muriatic arid, or diKesti<;n, will i.iiie 
 up ihesf, and leave the tin whirb n av afrervvaids be 
 lechrced by jnixing it when piiUci ised wi'h flox foimcd 
 ot tqual parts of pitch an.l lior x, imd pnitinsj it in\o a 
 C'vtitd cruribb;, lined wi-h chi:rcoul, «nd heaiintj it 
 siioni^iy ior a quiintrol an hour. 
 
 linnivg Copper Vessels, 
 
 The interior sur'ace of the vessel nius' be scraped 
 rerv clean, and rubbed ovei with muriate of arnmi «ia. 
 Ti e vffescl is then heated, end a little pitch or msin 
 llnoun into it, gnd allowed to ^pread on its surface 
 'ihtn a little tin is rppiitd over the smfare, which in- 
 st^nily ssstnnes a silvery whiteness Tlrs is i,suj)ily done 
 t( pi( ven' the poison of the copper from mixing wi'.b 
 the food, or drink which is used in such vessels. 
 
 Tinning of Iron. 
 
 Pieres ©f iron are immersed in water, acidulated 
 Tiiiih «ulphuiic cr inui iatic acid, which cleans ih-^n:! 
 frt-.iely trom ru:t. Sec- and they ar« then to be- tcouted 
 blight aiid piaced in a *eb&el filled wnb nicUcU UR. 
 
MRT\l.S. 173 
 
 whose "HTfacc is covered wiili a cont of -suet pilch, op . 
 r.jsj.j, to pitjvetii «he sulfide »■ t!ie ti.i.beiu;^ <>\i la cd. 
 'I'lui places of iron beinH; posed through the li; , .vil, 
 when diU'.vn out, be cyveicl ^'Ul» u Uiiu cual of lUu lia.. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Z'nr is f.mnd in nature toinbined with oxisjen. CM-'tf 
 flic d. kI, au'l sulpliiiiic acid, and mineralised hy suiprmr, 
 Ii i'i kno.Tn I>y various nnifs accorriinir to i>s c<j ui'i is- 
 tiijhs ttitli other s'lb'ii metis; ^s, rolammr, vit-ioun znc 
 ore, or nafive carbonate of zinc, suljiliate oj zinCy aui' 
 fi'n et oJ zmc^ os blend , isfc. 
 
 Z.. c is of a Wfiit s:> coiuur with a bluish tiut, ai.d 
 w! en biolien, its (iacturo hjs a crystal \k^ appearance. 
 It IS in some decree ductile, and when heated mj^v bo 
 flattened betwt en r'jller.">. lis specific ^Tivity is 7 190. 
 It casj y iinius-vvith several otiicr incials, gcneialiy. 
 nukiiig heai inore btiiile. 
 
 Toobnin zmc, the ore must be tarrific!, asid minted 
 nith hall its wci;^nt of cliaicoii powder, anl dis'illed in 
 an eatthon retort Uiree q i-uleis full, fund to ;*hich a 
 receiver is iuie'l,") in a s'n<i>t? Iieat, ^^radualiy incjeised 
 for some ho irs. The zinc in i's inetaiic form ts thetl 
 fo\iriil in the neck of tho tetoit. To piiri^ zin<:, dis- 
 s.iveit In <iiiiile;l.Mili^huric acid, and boil tiie coDcen- 
 t!:itid so)utii>n for a few minutes U;Jon i^ranuliiel zinc. 
 I'hcn filter it, and precijiitt'o it by so la. C idect 
 an I wasn the prtcipitate, and when dry, mix with luff 
 iis wei^lit of charcodl powder, and snbmiT it to a red 
 heat, in an earthen retort. Pore zinc wdl then be 
 found in tne neck of ihe retort. Z. iC mixed wiii) cop- 
 per forms braSs. 
 
 Mercury or Qu'cJcailvpr, 
 
 THis mnriate is loond ui five dilfe ent states in nature. 
 i. Native mcrrnry in small (jlohnks on the surfice ol 
 
 rinnsbar o es, or S)'neti lies anjoo;^ stones 
 3. U;vi ed to silver ni the ore, ani i^i ihca cailed amaU 
 gdtuii cf bilverj^ 
 
176 M'^TALS, 
 
 3. ComMrecl with sulpimr, and c^Uc^ nn'ive rinmbTr, 
 «>'• siilp'-urtt ot mercur}: tins is the inosi com- 
 mon nf its cno binaiioiis. 
 4 U.iilsfl with iniirja ir. or suiphuiic acid, and is ihen 
 
 called horse quicksilver. 
 5. Uiiitefl to oxis^en, it oiibtimtes an ore culled oxoid 
 (A' mercury. 
 In the furegoinpf forms nierriiry is ro'.iiid in nvjny 
 parts ol the world, i^s in Spain, China and Souili Ame- 
 rica. 
 
 Mercury is the onlv metal (hat remains fliid at the 
 orrtinaty tempera'uie of the atnio.sp'ieie, in whicl) it iias 
 ihe appearance "f mdted lead, but at a rediiced tempe- 
 riit(jre (aV)o»t 40** .f F^h.) it dssu-nes a solid form, and 
 !•> then due ilc :>ikJ malleable, an I is less in volume ihin 
 when fluid. Mercury is a veiy jjjood conductor of eli-.c- 
 triritv 'nd galvains !■». lis specific {gravity is about 13. 
 561. It is divisible into ve»*» sm.dl globUiCS, and at 
 about 600** oi Fabieni.eii ii is voLtilized. It m capable 
 of inixin;^ with various other metals m-ikinc!: them ^i-'n- 
 crally soH, or brutle when the pioporlion of mercury is 
 Ijrge. 
 
 Mechod of obtaining Mercury. 
 Reduce two parts ot cinnabar (red sulpburet of mer- 
 cury) to a powder, ..nd mix one part of iton filincfs; p^it 
 the mixture into a sione reton. and direct tbe neck <.t it 
 iutg a bottle, or receiver filled water, and apply b<!at 
 U'ltil the rttort is red hot. 1 lie mercury will then be 
 obtained in a sialc ot p'lniy. 
 
 Tellurium 
 
 Is a new metal lately discovered. It is generally fonnd 
 with oie which cont.iins i^old. It ts of a w >iiish colour 
 like tin, mciininpj lo a ^ley, with a texture Irtmelatt.d 
 like antimony. Ii is one cf tbe most fusible of metals, 
 meltins^ as easily as tin, and when volatilized emi s an 
 odour like that ol radishes. Specific !»ravity, 6 115. 
 Tellurium is ob aincd in the following mannei: 
 Mix the oxoid oftclluiium inio a pisiewith a little 
 Uaitccu oil, ahd put into a ci ucibb or btnall glaea r&tui t; 
 
METAtS. 177 
 
 :. iht oil bocomes decompobctl, biilliant rnetalic drops 
 y\ colieclin the upper pai't of l^e vessel, 
 
 jS,ntimony, 
 
 Antimony is sclc5om round in is" native slate, but ia 
 Iht^nof a rnetalic liislre, »nd found In masses or lunr^pa 
 of vanoua aizis, of a colour between thai of tin and 
 Silver. It is also found in the slate ofun oxoid or anti- 
 monial ochre^ but most commonly combined with sul- 
 phur (the grey ore, or aulphuret of antimony) in which 
 state it is of a bluish or steel g.ey colour and uia beau- 
 tiful metallic bistre. Specific gravity 8.702. \yhep 
 obtained from its ores it is brittle, and so bard ihat it 
 will scratch most other metal?, and by tusion will unite 
 v/iih them (except with mercury,) rnaliing them brit- 
 tle. 
 
 To obtain Antimony, 
 
 Heat 52 parts of iron filings to redness, and project 
 on them by degrees 100 parts of antimony, (the ore,) 
 and when the whole i» in Fusion, throw on it by degrees 
 20 parts of nitrate of potash, and after a few minutes 
 quiet fusion, pour it into an iron melting cone previous- 
 \y warmed and grc2secl; or. 
 
 Melt 8 parts antimonial ore with 6 parts nitrate cf 
 potash and 3 of acidulous tarlrite of potash, gradually 
 [>rojccted into a red hot crucible, and fuse it. 
 
 For some uses antimony needs a further purification 
 after the above proc*?^s. 
 
 This metal is one of the principal ingredients used in 
 casiing printing types. 
 
 Bismuili. 
 
 Bismuth is often fouMd in its natiie state, in solid mass- 
 es, and also \n smaii i->a''ticlts atnco^^ sti nrs, kc h is 
 someti'iies combined with oxi(*en (called oxoiii of his- 
 niiiih or bismuth ore) ol a l>liiish ov yellowish grey co- 
 lour. It hcis also beei) found co.Tibiijed with sn!pi"ir 
 ami arsttuic. VV iier» obii if.d ii is ot a silver white in- 
 clituiii> to led, rtttfl easi.y tariusnts; 's biiitlc, . nd soft 
 tjnougU to be cm wiltj a Krule, and lusebur uiciu ttiuiost 
 
i7S metals; 
 
 as easily as lin. Specific graviiy 9.800. To obtain i.S 
 iuse the oic whh an eighth part ot white flux in a clossd 
 vessel. It is iheh ptuifiud us fullo'<\t: Po-.vcler, an ! 
 dissolve it in pute r.itiic acitl, nr.tl piccipiti.t« it by ati 
 dirifj Winter to iho solution. Collect the prccipitaio on 
 a filter, form it irUo a p.'.aic wi'.h uWj ai»d iusu il rdpiJly 
 Willi black Sux in a cioHed crucible. 
 
 Manganese, 
 
 This metal is found mixed with many other substan 
 ces, and its ores are veiy cort;mor, but always in tho 
 forrr. of an oKoid, varying in the decree of oxidation. 
 Its combinations h^ve jjenerally an earthy it.xture, of a 
 blackish, bro-vn, or grey colour, and will soil the fin- 
 g«' s like soot. 
 
 Wl-en obtained, manganese is of a wlifish prey co« 
 lour, its fiacture rough and uneven and of a mtljlic 
 Lrilli.^ncy, but soon tarnishes in the air. Specific gr;i- 
 viiy 6 850. It is hard ar.l very brittle It requires a 
 l-.eatol at least 160° Weclgwoocs's pyrometer to melt i:. 
 Ii is the most combustible ol metals, I'.s oxidability is 
 so rapid, even in the air only, that it is kept uiider <jil, 
 ardent spirits or water. It has the property of disco- 
 I'uring gl"SS tl;at is tinged wivh iron, and is therefore 
 us^d ill the rr-anufactnte ot white or flint gkss. It 
 combine? re&dijy with some metals, but not with othcjc. 
 Ii 1? ubrained as follow^: Mix the bl ck oxaid (finely 
 powdejcd) with i;itch, mAkinj; it into a bull, and put 
 into a cru':ib!e, wt!n powdeiel charcoal, 1 lOiiiofan 
 inch thick at the bides and I 4Ui of an inch deep at the 
 bottom. The cnip y sp.ce is then to be fii ed wiiii 
 cliaicoal powdeied fine; a c.jver to be inied on, aii'l the 
 ciucible ex;>osed l^r an hour to a very strons* he.it. 
 
 Or — div^tsi the bl ck ox >id of mangantse icpeatedlv, 
 wiih mc addition ol 1 lOui ol su^i^r? iu »i!ric aci ; di- 
 lute: the mixture wi.ii ihice tinics lis bulk ot v\a n; fil- 
 ter it, antl dt compose it by the addiiiun oi potasi ; «u!- 
 Isct the precipitate, lonn u iaio a paste vviin oil, and put 
 it in o a ( rucib.e well lined vidi tnarod. EspuHt ihe 
 crucible for ol least two hours lu ihy strongesi heal ui 3 
 forgo. 
 
METALS. 179 
 
 Or — prepare a saturated sokitiun of sulphate of man- 
 [^•ii)i:sc; bring it to a boiling lieat, and add to it f;raflu- 
 ;/lly a solution oi' lartriie of jjotash, until no luriher pre- 
 cipitate ensues; then filter the solution and wash the pic- 
 (cipitate in water, and wl)en dry, make it into a paste with 
 oil, and proceed as above. 
 
 I JVicJccL 
 
 I This metal is sometimes lound in a melalio state, and 
 
 [ -in form of an oxoid, generally combined with some 
 
 \ other mctalic substance, as arsenic, sulphuret of iron, 
 
 cobalt and copper. lis ore is ol a coppery red colour, 
 
 and generally covered, with a greenisli grey cfflvres- 
 
 cence. 
 
 Nickel, when free f'om any other substance, is of a 
 pale flesh colour: wiien fresh broken, has a strcn;^ lus- 
 tre, is fine grained and compact, and can be a little 
 fl tied with a hammer like cas> iron. Specific gravity, 
 7-o80. It requites a veiy intense heat to melt it. Long 
 exposure to the air covers it with a r»refi)ish oxoid. 
 When heated with oorax, it produces glass of a liya- 
 cinth colour It unites with iiuld, silver and pl<iina, 
 but not \>iih meicuiy. his nut magnetic, t)iit has iiiis 
 singular property, that a \ery suiall alloy ot irofi Viill 
 iiiuke it as powerfully magnetic as it ttie whole mass's 
 was steel. 
 
 To obtain J\xckeL 
 The ore is ro:i«ted to expel the arsenic and sulphur, 
 \vi\ich leaves it in form of an oxoil, which is mixed with 
 three par's oi black flux, and put into a criicibjtr, cov- 
 ered with dscripitdted muriite of soda, and brought to 
 a slate of fusion by a very stning heat. \ small lu'up 
 of nickel (when the crucible ii broken) wih be foun'l in 
 \ the bottom; this is afterwards purified to clear it eniiiely 
 . from other matter. 
 
 <J\*icolmm. 
 
 This is a metal generally obtained from nickel or i's 
 ores, h resembles that metal in several respects, wbile 
 
180 METALS. 
 
 it is entirely dilTercnt from it in others. Its spcLif;. 
 gravity is from 8.55 to 8.60. 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 When cobalt is separated from its ore or other mat- 
 ter it is of a steel grey colour. It is not formed pure 
 in nature, but is generally tliscovcred in ihe stale of an 
 oxoid, alloyed with other metals in form of a sulphurci, 
 or combined with an acid. When found in an oxoid i' 
 is called black cobalt ore; when alloyed with other me- 
 tals it forms dull white cobalt ore, which contains iron 
 arsenic, &c with sulphur, it is called white cobalt on . 
 Cobalt has a redish tinge with the grey colour. It is 
 ea!=iiy broken and pulverized, bpecific gravity, 7.7QC 
 to 7 800. It uquircs nearly as strong a heat to fuse :' 
 as lo luse cast iron When united with other metals : 
 renders them rigid and brittle. It unites readily by tu 
 sion -Aith platina, gold, iron, nickel, copper and arst-nic 
 but not wili> silver, ledd, bismuth or mercury. It is 
 supposed to be in some degree magnetical, and it co- 
 lours glass a fine blue. 
 
 Method oj obtaitiing Cobalt. 
 
 The ore is tonified itn the open air, lo separate the 
 arsenic and sulphur, which lej-ves a kind ot black ox- 
 oid. This oxoid is mixed with three parts of black 
 flux and one of decrepitated n uriate oi soda and a lit- 
 tle resin. A crucible is then filled 2-3 full of the mix- 
 tuie^nd exposed to a gentle heat until the resin ceases 
 to burn, when it is raised to a while heat, and kept up 
 uiiiii the niixture is entirely fused. When co6i, the 
 crucible is broken and the cobalt separated from thf 
 bluti scoria. 
 
 The cobalt in this stale is not pure, but contains a 
 small poition of iron. 
 
 Uranium, 
 
 This is a scarce metal: i.s ores are of a blackish ( 
 lour, generally containing iron, sulphur, lead, silex, I: 
 The metal is of a grey colour on the outside, and p. 
 
hrnwn inside. It is very porous, and so soft that it nxAy 
 be cut wiih a knife; but more tlifTicuIi to [use than even 
 niangjncse. Specific gravi'v, 6 400. It combines with 
 t\ lew of the ether metals. To obtain uranium^ the 
 oic is heated to separate ti.e sulphur, and then careful- 
 ly cleared of impuiitics, alter which it is dii>eMte(1 in 
 nitric acid, wliich dissolves the metallic matter: the 
 solution is then precipitated by a carl)onated alkali. 
 Tl>is precipitate, or carbonate, (which is yellow,) is 
 then made into a p stc with oil, put into a crucible 
 lined with charcoal, and exposed to a violent heat. 
 
 Titanium, 
 
 This metal is of a redibh yellow colour, and cryslai- 
 litic texture, brittle afW refractory. Specific gravity 
 4.2. It is found in Iomti of an oxoid, with iron; aiso, 
 in an ore of a prismatic appearance, and in some other 
 forms. It is one of the must inlusihie of rnetals. To 
 obtain it, the ore or oxoui is mixed with pot ash and 
 meltrd; and when the mass is cold, it is dissolvcdl^h 
 w.iter, which throws down a white prtcipifate; this is 
 carbonate oi titanium, which is made into a paste wili 
 oii, pit into a crucible, fiiied wiih powdered charcoal 
 and a little alumine. The wnole is then to be exposed 
 to a strong heat foi seve al hours, when the titanium 
 will be lound in form of a blackish puffed up substantc, 
 of a metallic appearance. 
 
 Columbium, 
 
 This is a nowly discovered metal, the properties, See, 
 of which is but little known at present It was firit 
 discovered in Massachusetts, in aii ore of a da-k biown- 
 ibh {jrcy, e:x:Cernally, and inclining to an iron grey inter- 
 natly. Tho metal consists of an acid combined with a 
 small portion of iron, Specific gravity, 5.918. 
 
 Chrome, 
 
 This metal Is very scarce, and exists in a kind of 
 metallic oxoid. Ii has been found mixed with iron, 
 16 
 
183 METALS. 
 
 lead, silex and aluroine, ol" » ledish, nnd sometimes oi 
 a brown colour. The metal ia of a whitist) colour, in- 
 clining to yellow: very hard and brittle. Ii is obtained 
 by mixing its acid with charcoal in a cruciule, and eX' 
 posing to a strong heat. 
 
 JHolybdpna, 
 
 The ore of this metal is scarce. It has been fouml 
 mineralized by sulphur. It very mucl» resembles black 
 leav.1 or plutubago. It is of a light lead grey colour. 
 It may be cut with a knife. The metal is gene ally a 
 blackish powder, or friable mas>, wii ? 1 ttle n:et 1 i lus- 
 tre. It conibines with some other mvU s, >im ia very 
 difficult to fuse Specific gravity, Irom 6.600 to 7 500. 
 It IS obtained by difficult process; which 1 shall not de- 
 scribe here, because the nature of the m«lal is but little 
 Known, and therefore unimportant at present. 
 
 Tungsten, 
 
 This metal ia of a steel. gie> colour; specific gravity 
 about 17.6 It IS one of the hardest of metals; very 
 brittle, and almost as infu&ible as platina. It is one of 
 the scarce metals, sometimes found united with iron 
 and manganese. Its uses are yet but little known, ex« 
 cept the piopeity which il possesses of fixing colours in 
 some substances wljjch the most subtle acid cannot re- 
 move. 
 
 The method of obtaining tungsten is as jet but very 
 imperfectly understood, even by the most experienced 
 cbymisis. 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 Arsenic is a common metal, found with various other 
 m«5tals, as sulphur, iron, cobalt, antimony, tin, copper, 
 lca.\ &c. kc. The sulphurei or sulphurized arsenic 
 ore (orfiimcnt) is of a yellowish colour, or sometm.es 
 redish (ruby arsenic) according to the proportion of 
 its coo.punent parts. Arsenic is a very btittle, un- 
 while, or Uad-coloured metal, ifbicb, by exposure to 
 
the air, becomes dull or black. lis specific gravity is 
 fiom 5 763 to 8 SIO, accf)rfling to its texture. When 
 heaicfi it emin a smell like i»arlic It combines with 
 various other metals, generally lenderinj; Ihem very 
 biiuie. It turns copper white; is a deadly /uison; and 
 to preserve it in its metallic form it must be covered 
 uiih water, or r iher alcohol. The arscMic of com- 
 merce is comironly an oxoid or while powder, wliich 
 may be reduced to its metaUic form as follows; Mix 
 two parts of the powder wuh one part of black flux, 
 (ob ained by dtlonatint^ I part of n!^ra/<r of potaah» with 
 two of acidulous taririie of pjtash) and put the mixture 
 in'o a crucible, and covet it with another, which must 
 be luted on with a liule clay aud sand, and a red heat 
 applied. The oxoid will tnen be reduced, and found 
 lininjj the upper crucible, in small crysttils ot a me- 
 tallic brilliancy. After this il is further purified by an- 
 ether, and diflerent process. 
 
 Tantalium. 
 
 This metal exists in a mineral called Gadolinile, ami 
 also in a species of tin ere, or oxoid of tin, and is, in the 
 first case, united with oxoid of iron, and manganese. 
 It is distinguished from all other metals by being in- 
 soluble in any of the acids. It is acted on only by alca- 
 li'js. It is of a greyish black colour, and when heated 
 by cmrcoaljit acquires a matalli% aspi c:, a -d its frac- 
 tur • is brilliant. Specific gravity, 6.500, his, in some 
 itsj^e Is, similar to tin, (migsien, and tiCaniuniy but 
 differs from them in others. Ii is a metal but little 
 kn>iwn; and therefore does not require a more p<»rticu- 
 !ar DuUce in this place. 
 
 Cerium, 
 
 This metal was discovered in Sweden, in a kind of 
 powder called cerf/e", somewhat transparent, and of a 
 flesii colour. When in the mass, the stone is of an ir- 
 re^uiir form, and its fracture is a little brilliant, with 
 obtuse cd^>,cs. It is capL>.blo of being turned to a pow- 
 der, or oxoid, by heating m a certain manner, and is 
 
IM METALS, 
 
 then cf the colour of brick. Cerium has been ohtainctl 
 in the followini; manner:. Pure cerite was dissolved in 
 nitro-muiiaiic acirt, and after saturatinfj the clear roIu- 
 lion with alcdli, was piecipitatcd by tarftile ot poiaslij 
 the precipitate well waslied, heated and digested in 
 acetous acu), contained the pure cerium. 
 
 The metallic globule of cerium is harder and noove 
 brittle thun casi iron. 
 
 Palladium, 
 
 Palladium is found in the ores of platina, and resem- 
 bles thdi metal very much, only it is'of a duller white. 
 It is mulleubie, and iray be drawn into wire ol consid- 
 erable fineness. Specific gravity from 10.972 to 
 1 1 .482. Its power of conducting caloric is nearly equal 
 to, and in expansion by heat it sui passes that of pljlina. 
 .After fusii-n it becomes ofanash^^rey colour, and is 
 harder than iron. Palladium is obtained by dissolving 
 piaiina ore m iiitro-muriaiic acid (lemovinp; any excess 
 cf ccid, by evapoiulion, or by an alcali) and min^;ling 
 the solution vvith prtcipitate of mercury, until no tur- 
 iher cloudiness ensues.; and lei.ving it to st^nd a lew 
 minutes; whin a yellowish white precipitate will lull 
 flown, (called firussiale of fialladium) winch, wi^en 
 heatec to redmsb, w ill )ield «b6ut five-leiilhs per tcI^t. 
 ef the ore used, in pure palladium. 
 
 Rhodium, 
 
 Tliis metal i3 also found in the ore of platina. Its 
 specific {jraviiy js wboiat 11.000. It mixes readily with 
 n)ost other metals. It is a metal as yet but imperfectly 
 known, and somewhat difTicult to separa'e from the pla- 
 tina, pallvdium, &c. wnich it contaiRS. It h ut fi^'st 
 obtained in a black powder, which acejuires a nictnliic 
 lus're with borax, but cannot be fused by the gieaiest 
 heat without the ai^ency of aisenic, or sulphur. It Is 
 not mallcabie^n its common form. 
 
METALS. 185 
 
 Indium, 
 
 Iridium is found in form of a black powder after 
 WO! king the ore of platina. Its metal is of a white co« 
 lyiir, perfectly infusible. It does not combine with 
 aisenic or sulphur; but will combine with lead, copper, 
 silver, pold, 8cc lis ore is harder, and heavier than 
 tha' of plaiina, viz: as, 19.5 to I"', 7. — The process for 
 ohuiiiingthe metal is somewhat difficult, and, pcrtiaps, 
 not of importance sufficitot to demar.d a particular 
 explanation m Uiis work. 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Also exists in the state of a black powder with pla- 
 lina. It is not acted on by any of the acids. The na- 
 iurean.i properties of osmium are too little known at 
 present, to auihoiike a minute description. 
 
 Pewter 
 
 Is a compound metal, whose basis is tin. The best 
 pewter consists o! un alloyed with a quantity not exceed- 
 ing onc-iwentieih of copper or other metallic bodies, 
 whicii renders it hard and improves its colour. The 
 inferior sorts ot pewter contain much lead, hare a blue- 
 lih colour and arc soft, 
 
 U»' 
 
BROMZING. 
 
 BRONZING is colourinp: by metalline powdersj 
 plaster or oiher busis and fiirurea, in order to make 
 Ibem appear as if cast of copper or other n)et<«ls. 
 
 Tliis is sometimes tlona by nicans of cement, and 
 sometimes wilhovit, in the instance of plaster figures, 
 but the bronzing is more durable and secure when ce- 
 trient is used. Gold powder and aurum Mosaicum, 
 are frequently employtd for this purpose; but the pro- 
 per bronzing ouRht to be of a deeper and redder coloui ; 
 inoje resembling copper, which effect may be produ- 
 ce ■ by grinding a tery small quantity of red lead wiih 
 these powders: , , i 
 
 Or— the proper powder of copper may be uscti, ana 
 snay be prepared as follows; — 
 
 Take filings of copper, or slips of copper plateS; 
 which dissolve in any kind of aqua forfis, and put in'.c 
 a ytass receiver, or other proper formed vessel. W her 
 the aqua fortis is saturated with the copper, take out 
 all the slips of the plates, or, if filings were used, pour 
 eff the solution from what remains undissolved; anc 
 uu' into it smt.ll bars of iron, which will precipitate (he 
 copper from the aqua fortis in a powder of the proper 
 appearance and colour of copper; pour off the wate: 
 iber. from the powder, and wash it clean from the salts 
 bv several successive quantities of fresh water. 
 
 The uue gold powder may be well and easily made 
 
 "bv the following method: — 
 
 Take any quantity of leaf gold and grind it with vir- 
 ein honey en a stone, till the texture of the leaves be 
 perfectly broken, and their part, divided to the minu- 
 ses decree; then t«ke the mixture of gold and honey 
 Iff the stone, and put it into a china or other bason 
 tvith water t'hen st' it well about that the honey may 
 be M.ehed, and the gold by that means freed from u^ 
 Let the bason af.erwards stand at rest nil the gold be 
 «ubs ded, and >vhcn it u so, pour off the waier frorr> 
 
BRONZING. 187 
 
 it, adding; fresh qu::i!nni;» nil the honey be cnihely 
 Tvaslsed aWciy; alter which the gold may be put on pa- 
 per jdJ dried for use. 
 
 The aurum mosaimim, wliich is lin-r.oloured, and 
 rendered of a fliky or pulverine textute by a chyi)»ical 
 process, so as ;>ieaily to resemiilc gold powder, is pre- 
 pared in the loiiowin^; manner: — 
 
 Take of tin one pound, of flour of sulphur seven 
 ounces, and of sal ammoniac and purifi\:d (|nick silver, 
 ca( 1» half a pound. Melt the tin, and add ti>e qvMck 
 jiilvcr to it in that stale; and when the (nixture h be- 
 come cold, powder it, and f^rind it '■vith the »il ammoniac 
 and sulphur till the whole be thoroughly commixed; 
 Ccilrine them then in a mairass, and tho other ingredi- 
 tnts bubliming, the tin will be converted into '.he aurunra 
 mosaicum, and will be found in the but'.orn of the grass 
 like a mass of bright flaky gold powder; but if any 
 black or discoloured parts appear in it, Ihty must be 
 careluliy picked or cut out. 
 
 Where the appear mce of brass is designed, the f^old 
 powders or aurum mosaicum may be mixed with a 
 liule of the pow«!er called argenlum musivum; the 
 pieparation of which is treated of uuder the article 
 Silvtring: Where the appearance of silver is wanted, 
 ibf argenlum musivum is the best and cheapest me- 
 thod, particularly as it will hold its colour much longer 
 tlian the true silver used in either leaf or posvder. 
 
 Where no cement is used in bronzing, the powder 
 must be rubbed on the subject intended to be bronzed 
 by means of a piece of soft leather, or fine linen rag, 
 till the whole surface be covered or coloured. 
 
 The former method of using c«ment in bronzing was 
 to mix the powders with strong gum water or isinglass, 
 and then with a brush or pencil lay them on the sub- 
 ject; but at presenl some use the japanncr's gold size, 
 and proceed in all respects in the same manner as m 
 gilding with the powders in other cases, lor which am- 
 ple directions will be given. 
 
 This is the best method hitherto practised, lor the 
 japanner's ijold size binds the powders to the ground, 
 without the hazard of peeling or falling oft', which is 
 liable to happen when gum water, glovers, or isinglass 
 
188 imoNziNG. 
 
 sues are used; though notwiihstan'iing Uic autliority of 
 the old practice 16 the contrary, even these cenjents 
 will much better secaie ihem \vl«en they are laid on the 
 grounrl, an;l the effect psriicuiarly of tlie aurmn mo- 
 saicum, will be much better in this way than the other^ 
 the gold size should be suffered in this case to approach 
 much nearer to dryness than is proper in the case of 
 gildin;; with leaf gold, as the powders would otherwise 
 be rubbed agaitist it in the laying; on. 
 
 The fictitious powder, called argentum musivum, 
 may as above mentioned, be applied in the manner of 
 bronze, by those whose caprice disposes them to silver 
 fijjures or bus's; but it is the only kind of silver powder 
 tliat should be used in this way for the reason above 
 f^iven, and all such kind of silvering is better omitted, 
 ior tlie whiteness icself of plaster figures or busts, and 
 much more a shining whiteness is injurious to them or 
 to their light effect, by its eluding the judgment of the 
 eye with respect to the proper form and proportion of 
 the parts from the false and pointed reflexions of the 
 lights and the'too feint force of the shades, to remove 
 which inconvenience it is probable was the first induce- 
 tncm to bronzing. 
 
 IL 
 
LA^CqUERIXa 
 
 LACQUERING is the laying either coloured or 
 iianspiireiit va' t)is>h on niclals in order to prod\ice a flif- 
 fnent colour, and to preserve the metal IVom rust or the 
 efficts f.f the weather — thus, glass is made ol the co- 
 lour of goll, and tin is made to resemble yelioiv met- 
 als, U.C. 
 
 The principal int^redient for tiie best larqaer Is siid 
 lac; but a cheaper kind is irado with resin, turpentine,, 
 &c. 
 
 Receipt to malcp a lacquer which will give 
 Brass the colour of Gold. 
 
 Take of turmeric one ounce and of saffron and Spa- 
 i)i*h annf.tto, each two draclims. Put (hem into a bot- 
 tle, with a pint of hi^;hly rectified spirits of wine, and 
 I'lace U in a moderate heat, shaking it often for several 
 dsys, when a very sironi^ yellow tincture will be formed, 
 wiiith nuisl be strained thiough a coarse linen cloilj, 
 and put again into the bottle; then add three ounces of 
 good sud lac, coarsely powdered; place the bottle a^ain 
 ill a moderate heat, and shake it as before, Dniil the 
 Slid lac is dissolved; after wliich it mus- be again strain- 
 ed, put into a bottle, and well coikcd for use. By 
 adding to the quantity of armatlo, the colcur will be 
 ot a warmer or redder colour, and I)y liimir/is/iing its 
 quaniity the licquer will be of a yellower colour, ac- 
 cording to the quantity added or deducted. Hut with- 
 out the aniiaito proceed as follows: — 
 
 T(? make a cheaper kind of Lacquer, 
 
 Take ol turmeric roof, ground, one ounce, best dra- 
 gon's blood half a drachm: put thein in a pint of spirits 
 ol wine and proceed as above. This is but li'tle vve- 
 ri-.r to the first; md if the qu-ntity of draii;o(.'8 blood be 
 di winjbhe.s the varnish will b« of a redder or truer 
 yeiJow colour. 
 
190 l.AcaORftlN*0. 
 
 J. Lacquer fov Tin to imitate Yellow MetaL 
 
 Tak* o» turmeric rool one"ounc6, dragon's btood 
 two firachms, spiiisol wine one pint, and a sufficient 
 quaniiiy of sud he. 
 
 *1 Lacquer for Locka, i^c, 
 
 Sud lac varnish alohe, or wiih a little dragon's bloodj- 
 or a compound varnish of cquil p^ris of 8ud lac and 
 resin, either with or without the dragon's blood, accord- 
 ing as the colour wasted. 
 
 *2 Gold-coloured Lacquer for Leatherf ^c. 
 
 Take of fine white resin four pounds and a half, of 
 comrrion resin s«tTie quantity, of gum sandarac two 
 pounds and a half, atul ot aloes two pounds: mix them 
 together, (alter bruising those which are large or 
 coarse,) and put them into an earthen pot, over a good 
 fire whtre there is no flame. Melt the ingredients 
 well, sliriinj^ them that they may be well mixed and 
 may not stick to the bottom of the pot. When well 
 melted and mixed, add gradually to them seven pints 
 of linseed oil, and stir it well while the whole is boiling 
 to prevent it sticking to the vessel. When it has boi'td 
 nearly enough, add gradually half an ounce of litharge 
 or half an ounce of red lead, and when they are dis- 
 solved strain the whole through a linen or flannel cloth. 
 It generiUy lequires six or eij;ht hours to coinple'e 
 the varnisli; and to know when it is done take a little of 
 it from the vessel, and if it is sufliciently boiled it will 
 appear ropy, will stick to the fingers and dry on them. 
 It must he boiled until it acquires these qujlilies. 
 
 Method of laying on the Lacquer, 
 
 The metal to be lacquered must be made perfectly 
 clean and bright, and then made nearly as hot as the 
 han i can bear it, by a clear fire or in a suitable vessel, 
 ani ihb lacquer ihi-n laid om ,vith a broslj as other var- 
 nish, and the arucle warmed again until the iacqaer i% 
 
LACQUERING. iM 
 
 tliorouphly dry; after which, lor fine work, the opera- 
 tion is repealed until the coating is as thick on ihc 
 metal as is desjiecl. 
 
 Note — It is sovxetimes necessary to clean the metal 
 with aqua fonts. 
 
JAPANNING. 
 
 JAPANNING is the art ol varrishing and painting 
 colouis, or ornaments on various substanceb; as, wood, 
 metals, leather, paper, Ecc. &c. 
 
 In order to prepare the article for japanning, the 
 surface ;ilter being iTiade smncth, is sometimes covered 
 with some kind of size or paste to fill up the pores and 
 make the }i;round eveii: tliis melliod is the cheapc^, as 
 it requires less varnish to ornament the surface which 
 has been "pr'meri," than that which has not; but this 
 method is not used by the best workmen, as it is less 
 durable than that which is laid on without the pi inning. 
 
 Wood, or metals do not require ^ny other prep.ua- 
 tion than that o{ n>aking ti.eir suriace entirely sniooth; 
 but leather should be strained very tight in a frame, and 
 paper rendered siifTand hard by a coat of bome kinii of 
 size alter being sircined tii^ht. Paper is, however, sel- 
 dom japanned until it is ccnvorted into 'he stiff to> m in 
 which the Ficnch call it ^'■/in/^ier mache" '1 he prim- 
 ing lor j:;paD work should be of a consistency between 
 ♦.he common kind of piste and glue, and mixed with 
 so much Whiting as will give it a body sufficient to hide 
 the surlace upon which it is laid, but no more. The 
 coatings, or primings ii ust be repeated till the surlace 
 is entirely smooth, or the inbqualiiies fi.'ed up, and 
 then the work cleaned oIT with dutch rushes, and pol- 
 ished witn a wet rag. 
 
 A Coarse Varnish for Leather or Paper* 
 
 Take 1 pint rectified spirits of wine, coaise sud lac and 
 resin, «ach two ounces, and dissolve them in the spiri'j 
 then strain it well. This varnish should be laid on 
 w-rm, and the article varnished kept waim; a? either 
 coiri or dampness chills the vainish, and prevents it 
 from taking piopcr hold on the paper or leather. 
 
 As metals r&\er require to be undurcoated with 
 whiting, th«y may be treated in the »ame manner as 
 woed or leather. 
 
JAPANNING. 193 
 
 The colours used withlhe shell lac varnish, may be any 
 pigmcut wnich will ^ive ihe lini to tho srouud desired. 
 
 Of WTiit3 Japan Ground, 
 
 The meihod of making a perfectly white japin 
 ground, is not yet publicly known; but ihe jneUiod of 
 aiaki g the best inutation of a fierject white, is as fol- 
 lowb: — Take of flakt wliiie, or wbiie lead washed over 
 ar.d ground up wiih one-sixth of its weight of staich, 
 and then dried, and temper it properly for spreading 
 wiih mastich varnish. Aiier this i» laid on the body to 
 be j ipanried, h is to have five or six coats of the follow- 
 ing vainish; Take two ounces of the clearest and whit- 
 est grains ol good sud Uc, and of gum animi 'hrce oun- 
 ces, and dissolve tnem in a quart of spirits ot wiiie, then 
 straio off the clear varnish. 
 
 Blue Japan Grounds, 
 
 Blue japan g^rounds aru formed ol light Prussian blue, 
 or verdiier, glazt-d over by Prussian blue or smalt. Tnc 
 Cttlours to be mixed with shell iac varnish, and bi ought 
 tu a pnlishiiig state by five er six coats of vamun ot sud 
 lac. This will however bt mure liable to gi»e ihc co- 
 lour • gieenish catt than the varnish abcve, wnich isii- 
 recied tvr the white grounds. 
 
 Red Japan Grounds, 
 
 For scarlet coloured grounds, vermilion may he used; 
 but is not so bbautiful as that of cnuisuii pnxluocd oy 
 gi zing it over with cai miue or tine lake, or even with 
 rose pink. Fn a veiy fi.ie b.ignt ci uson, Imli.n Ukc 
 should be used, dissuiveii m tnu spirit ol w'>icn tiiu var- 
 nish ift Compounded; and in this case, instead of gtoziug 
 vith the shi.'li lac varaish, ibe upper coats n'-cd ouiy be 
 u->ed, IS u.ey will tq -ally rwctive anO toiivey me i.tge 
 ot ne Indian Lke, wiir.h ur y be ditsotve i oy ftpiii s uf 
 iviitc, and tnis wiii be chtapcr Ihait waen t.te CdMiiine is 
 used If toe tii^iiest dci;>ee ut biightiicsa i«> lequired, 
 the WAUo v<trui«(ii luusi be used. 
 
 17 
 
49* JAPANNING. 
 
 Tellow Jaj[)an Grounds. 
 
 For blight jxllow giouh^.s, king'H ytiicw, or lurpcth 
 mmtriil ib ustd, cither wjih or uiihoui a inixiure <,{' 
 JJuicli pink; and ilic colour may be brij;htened by lay- 
 ing on a codt ol lurn.eiic lool disboUed in Bpiri ^ of 
 wine, and s'r»ii>ed off betort the sue lac is rddcd to it lo 
 form a varnish. 
 
 Duich iMnk forms a cheap, but not a bright yellow 
 colc-ui, tviihout the king's jtllow, or the turpeth a.iii- 
 eral. 
 
 Green Japan Grounds. 
 
 Green jap.'n giounds aie pioduccd by irtixiiig king's 
 yellow, or luipcth niinertil uith Piu!r»ian blue. 
 
 A cheaper kind is mjide ol a iinKiure ol vcidigiis 
 vith the yellows abovt or with Dii ch pink. Bui wien 
 a very bijghi j;reen is wanted, trysials ol vtidi^^i s or 
 disiilled \tidii;iis tbculd be used and Isid on a erc-und 
 ol Icuf gold, «hjcb rendeiii the colour exuen»ely biil- 
 liant. 
 
 Oravge Japan Grounds 
 
 Are formed by udxing xmniiion or red lead with hint's 
 yellow CI Dutch pit k; ov the orpnge lake, wnicb vill 
 pioduce ti blighter ciange ground than can be made of 
 cny mixtuie. 
 
 Purple Japan Grounds 
 
 Are produced by irixii^ I'lUbHar blue and lake, or a 
 1«?>6 valuable kind ot vein iliou or.d Piussiiin blue — • 
 7 hey nay be treated as the othctb \>iih istpcct to the 
 vainish. 
 
 Black Japan Grounds 
 
 Are formed of ivory black, or lamp blurk, laid on with 
 shell he %»rn!Bb, and tbtir upper or politbujg coats ct 
 sud be varnisb. 
 
JAPAXNIKO. 193 
 
 Iru'i ci' copper is covered vviili a black q;roiin<l as 
 r<)lIoAs: Piiiit \'.i Buifucc over witli diyirj.tj oil ani a 
 litlis lamp black, and when of a inodordto diytjcsi ex- 
 pose it in a stove to a rejjiilar heat, sucn as ivill mrn ilia 
 oil black, b»»t not so hot as to bun or blister it. If iha 
 3i')ve is but little warm when the arir?o is put in, and 
 then slowly inert ased, and kept at the proper de^jree of 
 heat for a tonij time, the gronnd will Dccoine very firm 
 and hard, and need no poUshin.^. 
 
 Fine Tortoise Shell Ground, by Heat, 
 
 Take of good linseed oil one gallon, of uiTJbel half a 
 pound: hoU thsm to[;cthcr till the oil becomes very 
 brown and ihicU; strain it thrTiL'li coarse cloth, and set 
 it on attain to boil, until it acquires a pitciiy consistence, 
 when it will be fr for use. 
 
 To lay on this variilsh, first clenn well the iron or cop. 
 per plate, to be j.pinnol, and then lay vermilion, 
 tempered with shell lac varnis'i, or wiih tlrying oil di« 
 !u e t wuh oil of turpcnvine, very thiuly on the places 
 intended to imitate ths more transparent parts of the 
 torioiio shell. 
 
 VVhcn the vcrmiiion is dry, brush over the whole 
 %vilh blHck varnish, duly tempered with oil of turpcn- 
 line, to a proper consistence, and wlien it is set ind 
 film, pur the woik in a stove, and give it a stronjj hejt 
 for a considerable time— the lontjer the bciter, it it 
 were a mon'h or more. 
 
 This is the method used in En;T!arid for japannin^ 
 those elegant articles of tea ware wtiich are brougiit 
 from Birmingham. Tiiis ground is so. neiimes decora- 
 ted by pamtin^ of various colours, esptcially on tha 
 borders of the article, and then giving it another and a 
 more gentle heiting. 
 
 Painting Japan Work, 
 
 This ought to be done witii colours in varnish; but 
 for the sake of disputch in fine work, the coloum aro 
 commonly tcuipered wiin oil, in wtiich one four h part 
 of gum ammi has been dissolved} or gum sandarac or 
 
196 JAPANNING. 
 
 gum mnstic will answer, it ihe other cannot bo obtained, 
 Iftlicijilbe diluted wiih oil of luipcniine, it wHl lay on 
 tlie evenci, and f'ewci of the uu<tr co«t8 oi vartiish \vili 
 be lequiicd. 
 
 Id soiTie cases water rolonis are mixed with isinplass 
 size or Bugarcur.ny, and laid on aa othtr paints blioulii 
 be. 
 
 JSlavrter nf Yarvhliirts; Japan IVorJc aftpv it 
 is painied, or on a jjtain giound without 
 ornament, 
 
 Thie is in pcrcial done best with common sucl lac 
 varnish; bvit where bngfltnt^s is a muttiial j)oint, sett e 
 of the whiter or more funsp^vcnt pfun-s must be used, 
 as the sud lac h .s a tendency to give a ) cllow iiDi^e. II 
 a considerable dtprcc ot tenacit) end liatdress is esst fi- 
 lial, at least a p-.tri of sud lac should enter into th.c com- 
 position of the varnish, vising otily the uhi'e&t or tlearist 
 lumps. The varnish in most esteem is made us foilov\t': 
 
 Take of sud lac three ounces, and wash it icpeated- 
 ly in wiitcr to clear it from sticks, Sec. Dry it »nd 
 powder it coarsely, and then put ii auo a pint of recti- 
 fied spirit of wii e in a bottle which will holdat least 
 thiee pints. ShcUe the bottle occasionally, aitd keep it 
 warm until (lie iac b^ dissol>C('; then pour and blrain it 
 off thiouf^h a coarse cloth, und put it m a bottle vvJ'.ith 
 must be \<«!1 corked lor use. II the spirit ot wine is 
 very sttorg it will dissolve a gretiter portion of tlie si:d 
 lac, but it it be weak it nr-ay be rendered of th« first 
 dcjfree of s:rei)t;th as loilows: 
 
 Take a pint of common rectified spiiit of wine, and 
 put it into a bottle holding at lia^l thiee pints, and i.aif 
 an ounce of pearl ashts, salt of tartar, or any other 
 alkaline salt, heated icd hot, r<nd powdeicd as well as 
 m y be «i h. iii injuring it by tco n.uclj heat, (making 
 it only red hoi.) Shuke t!iC nixiure hcquentiy lor h^'if 
 an hour, when the phlegtn be connected with the 
 undissolved pait of the salt at the botioin of the bottle. 
 It must -hen be poured off t:om the phie^ini, Etc ;>l 
 the bottcnn, and an ounce ot pearl ashes heated, pound- 
 
JAPANNING. 197 
 
 J and ptil into it qs befora, and treated in tlie same 
 wiy. If ihcre is stil! a quantity of phlegm collects at 
 the bottom, the process must be repeateJ a third or 
 '.r-eii a founh time. An ounr.e of alum made hot, and 
 put into the bottle, must he suffered to remain there 
 some hours, and frcqiu-ntly siuken, after which the 
 spirit rxiay be poure I off. end will be fit for use. 
 
 When the varnish is finished, it is laid on in the fol* 
 Iovvin[» manner: 
 
 The piece of work to be varnished is held near a fire 
 or placed in a stove roo<n until it is well dryed, nnd 
 then the varnish is laid on with a proper brush, boi>;i«> 
 nin^jj in the middle and moving the brush towards tlie 
 end of the article; then from the middle to the other 
 end, 8cc. The brush sliould not pass twice over one 
 piace in givinj^ the same coat The article is then 
 ayfdio dryed and the coatings repeated until of a suffi- 
 cient thickness to leave a polish without rubbing bare 
 the paintins:;s or ground colour; the work is ilicn pol- 
 ished with a cloth dipped in tripoli, or rotten stone fine- 
 ly powdered, usinej a little oil with ihe stone dust to- 
 wards the last, and finaWy oil alone to clear off the dust 
 of the s'one. Sec. In cases wnerc white grounds are to 
 be polished, instead of the rotten stone use a litll« fine 
 putty or whiting on the cloth. 
 
 17* 
 
ENAMELLING. 
 
 ENAMELLING consists in the applica'ion cf a 
 smooth coriiir.g ol vitrified or glossy mrtlter, (transpa- 
 rent cr opaque ; and without colourinij, figures, or oilier 
 oniamerts) to a biiglit, polished inctalHc substunce. 
 
 It is thercfoi e a kind of varnish mac'e of glass, and 
 melted upon the substance (o which it is applied, nnd 
 alfordiftg a fine uniform u;roun'.', lor an infinite vaiieiy 
 of oriianieots, which t»re pIso laic! on by heat. 
 
 Tl.o peBera) principles en wliich cnamellihe; is 
 founded, arc, on the whole, very siiriplr, but perhaps 
 there is nor.e of all the c/ie mico- mcc/ianical ari^y whicli 
 reqviire for tlic finer parts, a greater det^ree of practical 
 skill and dexterity; hud of peiient and accurate atten- 
 tion to minute process, 
 
 Thouj?h the term eramrllinsi is usually confined to 
 the ornamenial glpzing of metallic surfoccs, it strictly 
 applies to the gh-ziiig of pottery or p^rrelain; the rtifTer- 
 ence being only, that in the latter tlic surface is baked 
 cliiy instead of metal. 
 
 The only metals in common use for enamplling are, 
 gold and copper; and with 'he latter the opaque enamels 
 only are used. When the enamel is transparent and to 
 be coloured, the metal chosen should be of such kind 
 08 not only to have its suiface unalterable when eirpos- 
 td to a red heat, but also, to be in no degree chemiia!- 
 Jy filtered by the close contact ot melted glass, contain- 
 ing an abundance of some kind of metallic oxoid. The 
 simplest kind of enamel is that fine white opaque glass 
 which is api liod to the dial plates ol watches. The 
 process of laying «t on, (which may serve as a general ex - 
 ample of the ari^ is as fo.low;: A thin piece ol copper 
 is hammered to the proper convexity; cut into the pio- 
 per size ^nd shapt, and a hole drilled through its centrr. 
 for the axis of the hands to pass through, and thf n m;ule 
 perfectly bright with a watch brush. A small rim is 
 ihtn made round the circumference with a thin brass 
 band rising a Utile above the IsveK and a bimilar rim 
 
ENAMELLING, 
 
 190 
 
 round ihe margin of ilie centre hole. The use of ihese 
 rims is to confine the enamel when in fusion, and keep 
 the ecigps ot the pbte quite smooth and even. 
 
 The substance ot" the enamel is a fine white oprqiie 
 t>;lnss, the materials of \vl>ich will be presently mei:- 
 tionecj. 'Ihis is bought in the lump by the ent>mellers, 
 and is first broken with a hammer and then ground to 
 a sufdciently fine powder, with some water in an egaie 
 mortar; t!;e supeiduous water beintj then poured oiT, 
 tl)e pulveiized enair.el remains like wetf«d sand, and is 
 spread very evenly ovci tlie surface of th.e ccpper pla;?, 
 which must be done with repeated nianipulatior*. The 
 oiiier side ot the plate also reciives a thinner coat of 
 the same to prevent the plata fiom spi inging out of its 
 proper shape when cooiii)}». The whole is then warm- 
 ed and tiioioughly dryed; then gently set upon a thin 
 earthen rinj;, wliich tout lies only the outer et'^cs of tlic 
 plate, and put gradually into the red hot miiflU- ot the 
 cnamellcr's t'urnace, and heated until the enatoel runs 
 together in a uniform pusty consistence, and rxtemls 
 itself evenly over iha surluce, shewing a fine polished 
 face, carefully avoiding so great a degree of heat ar, 
 would endanger the melijng ot the thin metallic plate. 
 
 ^Vhen the enamel is thus seen to a-tueal dovjn as it 
 were, to a smooth, glossy., uniform glazing, the piece 
 is crraduallif withdrawn trom the firi: and cooled. It 
 must be gradual to prevent the sudden effects of the 
 air from cracking the enamel and causing it to fly nfi". 
 After this a second coating of the finest powder of the 
 enamel is put on in the same manner, which makes the 
 plate resdy to receive the figures and lines. 
 
 Fhe*e arc made of black enamel, ground in an agate 
 mortar to an impalpable powder, worked up with oil of 
 Sjnke or lavender, and laid on wiilj a very fine brush or 
 hair pencil. 
 
 The whole is then sfoved to evaporate the oil, and 
 the figures burnt in as before: finally, it is polished 
 with liipoli, or sometimes with rotten stone. It may 
 be observed that if the heat is too low, the enamel does 
 not spread and vitrify as it ought to do; if too liigh, it 
 may melt the metal pUte itself, whose fusing poiiii ii 
 but little above that of the enamel paste; or, what is 
 
SOO ENAMELLING. 
 
 equally injurious, may in a moment melt down, unci 
 ruin the delicate fiiijures, kc which have been laid on 
 wiih so much care, and consequently spi)il the whole 
 work '^y lenHeiine; ihft faca a ridiculous mixture ol 
 lines, fissures, &c. run totjether. 
 
 Tiifc eflamel is generally purchased oF persons whose 
 business it is o make it. It should be of a clear fine 
 while, of a consistence to run freely in a moderate heat, 
 extend ilseU with an even elofsy suiface wiihout molt- 
 inr inii> a ^'^i" t^lass. The followinj^f is the method 
 somi^imes used to make this kinri of ennmel: 
 
 Mix 100 pans of pure lead with 20 to 25 of t!ie best 
 tin, and brmfj; ihem lo a low red hc.u in an ©pen vessel. 
 Tlie mixture then burns nejriy as rapidly as charco.'I, 
 and oxidates very fast Skim oCT the crusts of oxoul as 
 they form, till the wiiole is thoroughly calcined. 'I'hcn 
 mix all the skimmint^s. and ap[ain heat as before till no 
 flaue arises Irom them, and the whole is of an uuifoim 
 grey colour. Take 100 parts of tliis oxoid, 100 of sand, 
 and 25 or 30 of common salt, and melt ilic whole in a 
 moderate heat. 
 
 Tfiis gives a greyish mass, often porous, and appa- 
 rently imperfect, but which however runs to a jjood 
 enamel when afterwards heated. 
 
 This is usetf (or fiorceiain, but for metals and finer 
 work the sand ia previously calcined in a very strong 
 heat, with one-fourth of its weight, or, if a more fusi- 
 ble compound is wanted, as much of the oxoid of tin 
 and lead as of salt is taken, and the whole melted to 
 a white poroos m iss. Tnis is then used mstead of ihc 
 rouRh sand in the above mentioned p:ocess. Th« sand 
 should be of a kind which contains about one-fourth 
 part of mica. 
 
 Aiwther kind of Enamel, 
 
 Calcine SO p rta nt lead wiiti 33 of tif;, with the pre° 
 cautions before mentioned. Take ot this caU;);>ed 
 rnixturc or oxoid 50 pounds, and ais" 50 pi>unds of pow- 
 dered flints, (prtpared by beitig thrown mto water 
 wficn rel hot, an'( then ground to pnwder,) cind eij^ht 
 ounces of salt of tartar: melt the mixture in a strong 
 
ENVMF.LLIVG. 201, 
 
 Iical kept up for ten iiours, and then reduce the masi to 
 powcicp. 
 
 Ti)ls is the common material for opaque enamels, 
 and is ol a pjreyish white colour. 
 
 To make a fine white enanicl, mix 6 lbs. of this ma- 
 tci'ial with 48 i^raiusof the best Slacli oxoil of mdn;<a- 
 nese, and oieli it m a clew fire. When fuily fused 
 throw it into cold water, then remelt it as befuie, two 
 or ihiec times, m- till the enainel is quite white and fiue, 
 
 A common Ghzhis; for Dclf or IVkite 
 Mat then Ware. 
 
 Sixty parts of lihaige, 10 parts clay, and 20 ol 
 ground flinis in a tub of water, l)roui;ht to al)oiit the 
 consiitence of cream. Whf.n the article is finished, 
 and hiked in the form in which it is Cilkd biscuit, it is 
 dipped into the above n»ixture; and when ta^en out, 
 enough f)f the m'xture is attached to it :o ^ive it a very 
 uniform co\t of glSzinj; when ii has been healed: it is 
 then fixcfl in the kiln, and at a very m-iderate heat, it 
 assumes a very flossy and sinowth <• ppcaiance. 
 
 The enamel of dell ware may be coloured by addinj> 
 V rlous nunallic ox .ils to the compobinon. TTic tol- 
 lo'.vinjj recripis have been ijjiven for ihdl piup.)Si.': 
 
 l5t. jlzure Blue — Thice ounces ol z;if[\ r, and sixty 
 grains f<f calciotd copper added to 6 pounds ol me 
 en niel ct)mpositioii. 
 
 5 1. Ittrkish RlUK. — Six pounds of whi'e enamel, 
 Ihito ouocca oxiditcd Copper, 98 grains z^Scr, and 43 
 gryiiis of ma!i,5im.s«. 
 
 3fJ. Green, — Six pnundi> of while enimt I, 3 ounces 
 of oxidytr-d copper, and 60 jj'ains of iron fiim^^-*. 
 
 4th. Shining fitack, or Dccfi Blue — Six pounds of 
 white enamel, three ounces zaffer, and three ounces of 
 m^n;>anese. 
 
 5th Verij Brilliant Black.— Six pounds of white 
 enamel, six ounces red tartar, and three ounces of 
 manganese. 
 
 6 h. Purfile — Six pounds ol wiiite enamel, and thiee 
 ounces of rnanganese. 
 
203 ENAMELLING. 
 
 7i!i. Yeil'jiL'. — Six poutids ol wl.iiG enamel, three 
 cui ces ut lai tar, t tvi 72 ^taiiia uf man^antse. 
 
 8ili. Sea Green. — Six pounds of whita cnnmel, 3 
 ounces of «ix<)i<l of copper, jnd 60 grains of zaffer. 
 
 9!h. ^io/<?f — Six pouiuia of wl>iie enanoel, two oun- 
 cea ol niani>anese, ancl 48 grii.ins of oxoid of copper. 
 
 In all c^-scs the enamel is poun'led fine and tliloted in 
 Nvjter, and the vvater holding;; tlie enamel in susptnsiori, 
 is cast over the vessel: fur porcelain or wliite ware, ii i-s 
 moderately baked beloie the waicr, 8cc i* put on it, anJ 
 tlitn, after bein^ covered witli the couiposiiion, it re- 
 ci ives another and sitoni;er heat to mcU the en.»mel) 
 and fix it to the surface of the vv ire. 
 
 Another kind of YpUow Knamel or suhsiance 
 Jar Glazing, 
 
 Take 1 12 lbs white lead, 24 lbs. of ground flint, and 
 6 ibs. ol ground lliiit f^Uss, mixed in wjter to the con- 
 sislcnce of cream. This is son)eiirvcs used on queens- 
 warfi. 
 
 The ename', or ghAzing frT common crockery waro, 
 is mide principally of the oxoids of lead, and <.ftcr t'nc 
 ornaa.tiual painting is finisi.ed and dryid on the i.ni- 
 c'«,it is washed ovt r with the liqnid j»l zinjj, niid atter- 
 wards bsked in a kiln, with such a heat as vitrifies the 
 en mcl, iiiid fixes it to 'le surface. 
 
 Under the head of Glaus- M,:kirf^^ more will bf ssid 
 rcsptctinsj the var'O'i'* niisiuies <.f ciiiths, inc. &c. 
 wiiich Hie used as enamels, and for the purposes of 
 
 gloZUig, &c. 
 
ENAMEL PAINTING. 
 
 THIS difieis from all ollur kinds ol i)jii)tin> in tlie 
 ^chicle eiiijilu^cd foi the coiouis, (to liold the p its to* 
 {^cttiei, and bind ihtm to tlie yTound which ility are 
 upon.) Ttiis is i^lasb, cr a \itih)us body, which htin.yj 
 iTiiscd with ihecolouis, iind fubtd, or i« tiled by heat^ 
 until it btconies fluid, and having incoi })oi<i ed witn the 
 colouib in that st iie, loiins to^elhei with llicn a hard 
 injs-! when giown cold; ii acswtMb, theixluie, the smie 
 end in this, as oil, ^t.m watti, bize, or va.nish, in the 
 othei kini's of paicaing. 
 
 So much haviic; alfesdy Ijet.n b:>id respecting the 
 compounds for the vaiious colours, it is odiy mcesfiary 
 failher to itniaik, 'hat by a piojitr n.ixiuic of ihtse 
 coloiirs, a very t^ieal variviy of Jmeioicdiaie ones may 
 be made, 
 
 « 
 
TEMPERING EDGETOOLS. 
 
 TO 2 lb». of talli'W, melted over a slow fire, add 
 2 dra. hn s of dr<i{jou'b blood, pulverized fine, xvl.ile 
 ti.e tallow IS warn,; th*en take the veshcl Irum ii>e fire, 
 and Slip Uie n.ixture tiir cold. Tlu.n, having the tool of 
 a proper heat lor lempeiing, dip ii firsc uilo this mix- 
 ture so a» to rover the steel, and then put it inio clean 
 cold water, or Salt and water, isnd i: will neitber spring 
 nor crack. 
 
 CaKe-Hardemng 
 
 Is cfiected in the lollowing maimen — Take of the 
 powoei of burnt neat's hool 2 dtachnis, soot I drachm, 
 tsait 2 drachm*, old shoe lea her 1 drachii., pulverized 
 charcoal 2 tlr-tchnis, and as much stale urine as will 
 nibke the whole iii'o a paste, wiih whith the article 
 iiiust he covered pretty thick, und inclosed in a wooilcn 
 rag. Tii« whole is then t© be put into an iron ladlo, 
 and held on a clear fiio long tnough to produce the 
 desired efi'cct, which may be Ironi 15 to 60 or 73 n in- 
 utes, accorc.'juji to the depth you wish the casing to ex- 
 tend, aiid then piuiig;c it irito pure cold wa'er 
 
 When matiy siiiall ariicltR are to be case-hardened, 
 they may be inclosed in a coat of chiy instead ot ti.e 
 rag, ar<d then a hole h ay be n>ade >n it» stice after he^t- 
 inn a tt hiile, and son e small aiticlff taken out and plung- 
 ed in watei, by which neai.s you may know whether 
 the heiti has been continuco loi<g enough ur nut, «n if 
 the aiticle thus tiied dots not ;ippeai h^>id. ti.e rtmuin- 
 4er may be a little longer continued on the fire, and 
 then put in water as above. 
 
 To temper Cold Chiaels to cut Sickle Teeth, 
 
 Put 2 drtchms of bets.vv/x in a ladle, and when the 
 cbiKCi IS btou^ht to a piuper iicai put it into the wuk, 
 
TEMPERING EDGliT09£S, &C. g03 
 
 and let it ren\ain till cold; il ii piove too hard, reduce 
 k at the fiic in ibe common injnner. 
 
 To weld Franzj/ or Brittle Steel, 
 
 Take 3 ox. quick Untie, 2 oz. biy salt, 2 oz brick 
 tlnsi, 2 .^z ot t^iiss, 1 (Jrachin ol boi'ax: pulvci iz« tlie 
 whole verj fine in «*n iron m jrtar. and vvuen the sieci is 
 lioi rub It III this compuun'l as ilie smiths do tiicir iron 
 in puundcd clay winle taking a welduij; heat. 
 
 To soften Steel. 
 
 Pot it in melted lead and btir it about for 15 or "0 
 miiiuics. 
 
 To render Iron very soft and white. 
 
 Put the ir-ji> in the smith's fire ..s usual, nil it is heat- 
 ed to a strata colour; then open tlie fire and put in the 
 bosiora ol it some dry /lor&e mariute, (or dun-^;) lay in 
 the iro!) and cover i' vviui the Same; then draw over lUe 
 coal again and blow up a pre'.ly biisk. fire tor fil'teen' 
 rr.iuuies; then cover the fiie over* wi.h wet ntauuie, 
 blow a ("ew minutes, and then stop the pipe ol llit bel- 
 lows witti wet tow, and let al teiniin in <n!s wav for 10 
 or 12 hours. Tiic iron will then be white, and almost 
 3S fcolt as lead. 
 
 Another method of softening Iron, ^'c, 
 
 1 ake chalk and alum and bruise them together, and 
 while wet wul) the juice ol onion-., daub it o^cr the 
 iron or sreel a fiu rer tl)ii k, and men put it in hi fire, 
 a:i keep it there burning till ii becomes clear, and it 
 will be Very s/t. 
 
 To soften Steel or Crystal, 
 
 Soak il 2i iiouia in a ley mule oF equal parls of un* 
 slacked li.;,e anu boap-boileis' ashes. 
 18 
 
gC6 TEMPERING EDfiETOOLS, &C. 
 
 Method of hardening hied so as not to crack 
 in tew j)f ring. 
 
 Mix oi!of spike and tiiution suet toge|her, and when 
 ihe tool is hot first lun the bieel part into ihis roixiure, 
 and then plunge it in "waier. 
 
 Another method. 
 
 It is said, that if salt peire and copperas, in eqwal 
 parts, powdered, and strewed over tools when hot 
 enough for tempering, and then plunging them in water 
 in which shell snails have been boiled, will make them 
 ol a temper that will cut iron, copper, &c. 
 
 Another method. 
 
 Mix juice of laciishes in ley ot wood ashes, and when 
 tooU ore red hot, it is said ibis is a proptr liquid to 
 haiden them in. 
 
 A Receipt for Urcwning Iron, 8^c, 
 
 Five or 6 drops ol spiiits ol nitre, 6 giiiins ol ccp- 
 pe|a^, and 1 pint of ram waitt; then varnish over with 
 a little sud li-c, dissolved in akohol. 
 
 Remark worthy of tie attention of White- 
 snnths. 
 
 11 snch tLols ;>s have the sxcl U.id on one side, such 
 as tliibtls, kc be hamnicicd in such a wa) that ihe sttcl 
 side or f-^ce of the article be kept ttexi the anvil wlien 
 han.Tr<iiij{», the grain vl the steel will be nuch finer 
 and sounuer than ii the hamnier is used on the lace of it. 
 
 To keep iron or t<teel frim rusting, wilhovt 
 tihint away or CLVtruig lis brightness uith 
 hivwrnvg 
 
 Rub cvci a bright t»un barrel, &c. neat's foot oil or 
 the giease of a Iricd tci, ana l«l it stand t.u hour or two, 
 
 1 
 
TEMPERIXG EDGETO0L3, &C. 20? 
 
 after wlikh tub ii o^> ^ h will remain bri^lu for a long 
 titno. 
 
 A new arid improved method of Welding 
 Cast Steel to Iron, 
 
 DirecHons and Observations. — Take crude or raw 
 bor.'x, heat it so tfiat it will run like melted cinder or 
 Wax, in a clem iron ladle or black lead crucible, pour it 
 on a clean iron plate; when it is cold pulverizt; it to the 
 consistence of C()3rsc meal, tn a cletn iron moitar; 
 care should be taken to ket-p it clean from particles of 
 coal and d ist while fusiofj. 
 
 In in.ikini; an axe, ni-ike the head or poie in the usual 
 way, and wdd the iron Brmly wheie the hteel i-» to be 
 piiced, then, with a thin cliisel, split the iron about 
 one inch deep in the nriiJdle; then heat t!ie iron tiiat iias 
 been split, an I hammer it to blunt bevel, 8i that the 
 iron may be thin on each side ol the steel. The chisel 
 should be entered once more to open the iron, whicli 
 slioald be nearly white hot; when opened tak« som: of 
 the calcined borax and d.>sh ii on alon^ trie vacancy; 
 Ihco put your steel in an I close your iron getitiy, so 
 that the steel will keep is place umii the welding htat 
 is taken. It may be proper to observe, mat tl;e steel ii 
 cut or hacked on tie p^rt that enters tn« iron, so as, to 
 hold It fiiiii in its pi <ce. Ihe ax« is put carefully imo 
 the file and laid nonzontally, and wii.i cicarj coaIs and 
 bl jvv.i penily until it becoines a brijjht re(!; then raise 
 it up and turn ii ovei; 'he heat shoulj be rdsed mostly 
 between the ed^c ind the lower part ol the steel; care 
 ini'.s! be taken tint the edge ol the steel is not so iiot as 
 to sparkle, by rcmoviiii^ the co ds Irom ilie «d(je or cor- 
 ners of the axe. \Vncn the iron and ^iteel are brought 
 to a hritjht red, or so hot that a fl lid appears on ti»c aur- 
 far.e, an*! a snoke h seen to rise, it is then in a proper 
 s' ! c to hammer; be pa ticula:' to observe, when the 
 ax ■ i-i fiisl taken out of the fiic, the steel must be driven 
 in o the itou !)y driving iiie cilije ol the axe sr»aJ'^1y 
 d'lwn upon toe anvil several ti nes, at the same lime 
 holding die tongs perpen licular, s'> ihai the sitel is vveH 
 set into the iron; then quickly lay your axe horizuntal- 
 
^08 TEMPERING EDGET0019, &C. 
 
 ly, und at lh«t insiant biin^,' on jnur har.tl hammer and 
 oie or two s eciges heavily and cjuickl); then put on a 
 lit'.lc nirre of the calcined borax on tacli suie of the 
 axebla(!e if requiiccl, %>» as to be sine lo weld the tliin 
 edge ol ilie iion to the stttl. For tools where it is ne- 
 Cfssaiy lo lay the steel only on one side, the calcit;ed 
 bcrax is applied to the rtd lirt iion, and the blcej is 
 placed on cold, held to its place by longs, then healed 
 and hamnicicd .is before nienlionod. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering, 
 
 All tools should be heated slow and ret^ular for liaril- 
 eninfi, as dcsrtii)ed for wcMinj^s, say a duk red or as 
 low as will I ke a si.flicicnt degrc-c f)* hardness. Tak« 
 one (gallon ol sail and six gallons of water and temper 
 in. 
 
 When an axeornn) similar thins is 'o be liardeneiT, 
 jjlunfiC ii in ne r;y under watPi; Mien I'.Tuw it gently 
 oui about h.ir wav; when sufficitnily (oM, pu; it in* 
 sian'ly l)a( k into the fiie for about thtee sccondb, then 
 brighten the steel to see the ch.nge of colour. 
 
 To reduce the Temper. 
 
 For stone au5;crs an i mill picks, to a straw colour; 
 tor broad ixes, s<yihes, drawinj; ki i»es, |>Iane ircins, 
 tuinii)j» and cold chi,*>els, to a purpltj for ship catpcti- 
 teis' axes, coopers' broad axes, and morticiiij,^ chisels, 
 b« twcen a put pie m! a blue; tor ciioppinj; axes, a p^.le 
 bfue ojspiii'u; temper, heated enoui^i) to burn wood; it 
 is then co -led a little at a time with fresh water until 
 cold, to keep the temper the same; soak yyur tools in 
 runrijrip water to prevent them from i uslinji^. 
 
 It is said ibat cast steel marked thus, ^'JVailor and 
 Ranclers' cast stte/, -warranted" is the best kind that is 
 to be iound. 
 
 Case-hardening, 
 
 Some artirlrs, as cr'Ut ai'ks, ke, require the hardness 
 of b^ecl and il.c loughiiCbb ol iion ut tue s^me time^ but 
 
TEMPERING EDGETOOLS, &C. 209 
 
 -as steel when very hard is briule, the followinpf process 
 used upon iron will give its <tiirface the hardness of steel, 
 while the inner parts will rsnnain soft and prevent it 
 breaking: — 
 
 Take cow's horn, or hoof, or even old leather, and 
 bake it till thooughly dried, and then pulvctize it; to 
 this afid an equal ciumiity of silt: mix ihem with cham- 
 ber ley or vinegar; cover the iron with this mixture, and 
 enclose the whole iu loam or a cake of clay, and lay it 
 away till dry; then put it in the lire till of a blood-red 
 heat, and no higher; after which it is to be immersed in 
 water. By this process the surface becomes steel, 
 while the inner parts continue to ba iron. The lons^cr 
 the article is continued in the lire, the greater portion of 
 It will be converted into steel; but if it is made too hut, 
 the coaling of horn, 8cc. will be consumed before it has 
 Us proper effect upon the iron. 
 
 18* 
 
/ 
 
 K 
 
 / 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 1st. t'TflHT parts resin and one o\ w^x, melted to- 
 gether and mixed with a little plaster ol Paris, is a good 
 cenct't for stones. The stones shonld be warm entujgh 
 to melt the compnsilion, and pressed so close ttjgetlier 
 as to leave but a very ;bin layer ol the ■ cinent between 
 them. 
 
 2d. Melted biisr stone, u-^cd in the same manner, 
 n> kf s a tolcruble cement, but mnch weaker than the 
 alove. 
 
 3;'. Jewellers sometimes cement ilieir precious 
 ' stones lOLrethcr wiib vuoi inabtic, the stones being pre- 
 >i(;ii^Iv mode warm enoHj^h to melt it. 
 , . 4ih. Ornan'.ents are fixed on watch cases and trinkets 
 with a cement made v\ith isinL-las^, soaked in water till 
 It swells up and bt conus soft, arnl then dissolved jn 
 Fitnch brandy or mm, so as to form a strong j^liie. 
 '1 wo smull bits of gom yalbanuio or .^um ammoniacum 
 /ire dissolved in two ounces of this by trituration, and 
 five or six bits o" mastic, as largje as a pea, bein^ dis- 
 solved in as much alcohol js will render them fluid, are 
 to be mixed with this by means of a (penile heat. 'Ihis 
 cement is to be kept in a phial, closely stopped, and 
 when used is to be liquifie I by immersing the phial in 
 hot water. It will resist moisture. 
 
 5 h. A solution of shell lac in alcohol, added to a 
 »o!(ition of isintjla^s in pioof spirits makes a cement 
 Ih.t will resist moisture. 
 
 6'.h. Common (^iue, melted with half its weifjli' of 
 
 resin, without water, and a In lie red ochre added to i<ive 
 
 it -i body, is used to re'uent hones to their frames, 8cc. 
 
 y, 7ih, Clay and oxoid of iron» mxed with oil, foim a 
 
 ' ce-nent that will harden under water. 
 
 y.. 8ili. Cheese d skimmed nulk, cut in small bits, 
 
 (afte^hc rind is peeled off,) and boiled to a stronpj ^luc, 
 
 and the water poured (-fT, i-j lob; w shed in lold w.iter, 
 
 and thep kntatk-i in wain. Wa'er. This process must 
 
 be repeated several ii»r!e2, and the glue then put warm 
 
CEMRVTS. 311 
 
 an a leviijatint; ston ■, \\fi kiii Jel with qnick !i i)e. 
 T lis cernenti if use I wirm, will juin luriilc, siriu 
 or eirt-ien wire, so th?t ihe jjinin)^ can scarcely be 
 seen, and will stand fir or Wiier. 
 
 9'ii. Tvv.) on ices of -miijie oFa'nmonii, one of fl )ur 
 of siilp'nir, an'I sixteeit of cist iron filings, well niix-ti in 
 a mDPtar, and kept tlry. One pirt of tl)i>i nixture and' 
 twenty of cleun iron filinijfs or bfiriojjs, Tounl to^^eilicr 
 ill i nortar, and mixed wlh water to a proper consist* 
 ence, aiid sp,>lied to iron, will unite vvitn it into one sulid 
 :ti tss. This is an cxcelleni cement lor iron culin try 
 vessp s> stoves, 8cc. Ecc, 
 
 lOtl) Six j).rt3cl4y, one of iron filin>;s, and linseed < 
 oil sufHcient to forn a lous^h pabte, is used lor stoppiii"- 
 era. ks in iron boilers. 
 
 1 Itii. Biat up the while of e£jG;s very clear, and mix // 
 tin : powdered (irne witb it. riiis is an CKcellent ce- 
 ment for china or ear hen ware. 
 
 12th. B)!l a piece of white flint plass in river water - /I 
 for five or six minutes, then beit it to a very fine pow- 
 der, and grind it up with the white of Ci^j;'*. Tins is 
 used by the Chinese to nend ih<-ir ware, and is one of 
 ih;: best kind known for that purpose. 
 
 13tli. Take equal parts of isin^;liss, mis'ic, and tur- > 
 p'.n'.ine, and beat them up inasione mortar tilltijey are 
 well mixed. This is a very good cement for Chins or 
 qutd/sw ne. 
 
 14ih. Pieces of amber are joined to.a:ether by anoint- 
 Jnnt'iem with linseed oil, and holding then by the fire 
 vill t'lev stick, .nd then set them by to cool md dry. 
 
 15th. A puny made of while load and oil, also makes 
 a pr.tty good cenjent for earthen ware. It saouid be 
 nuide thin or soft with the oil. 
 
 16th Two pounds o each, litharge and bole, and of \ /^ 
 yell jw ochre and rosin each four ounces, nutton suet 
 fii*-; ounces, mastic and tur,)eniiiie eich two ounces, 
 and oil of nuts enough t > render the whole ol a proper 
 C'lniistency. 'I he-.o .11 worked together inake an ex« 
 celleni cement for damp walls, &ic, 
 
CRUCIBLES. 
 
 CRUCinLES are made use of for mehinjj and re- 
 fini'iijf metals; loitryinf; and rnaJtinj; colourifie intjieili- 
 enis, an J for makins^ coloured ,?U-»s on a stnall scale. 
 I siiall lUerefore give some of the beat compositions lor 
 making them. 
 
 The Berlin, or Hessian CrudbfeSf 
 
 Are mide of one part of good rctracory clay, mixed 
 with Sand of a mlddlinj fineness, from wiiicli the Guest 
 p;rt has been silted, that is if the sand is sifted through 
 a No. 16, and then through a No. 26; all the sand that 
 will not pass through 26 is that fit lo be used. This 
 admixture of sand with the clay riMiders the clay leaner 
 and prevents it from cracking while the crucibles «re 
 dtying. 
 
 Another, 
 
 Seven ounces of raw cluy, 14 ounces of burned clay, 
 sifted througii No. 12, and i)ne drachm of calx of vitriol. 
 This mixture is said to stand fire extremely well. 
 
 Another. ^ 
 
 Eighteen parts burned clay, sifted through No. 12, 
 the same quantity of- raw clay, sifted througli \o 20, 
 and one p^r! of fusible -ip-r. This must not be exposed 
 to too sudden a heat. Thesa crucibles are capabk- of 
 beini? used for tnehiog gtas* of lead, and cm be made 
 more durable by strewing powdered borax over them 
 Wliile they are moist. 
 
 Another, 
 
 Twenty-four parts of «nr..jrnt day, 4 parts of burned 
 chy, sifted tnrougU Nj. 10, and one part of chalk. This 
 must be armed. 
 
CRUOiBLESr* S13 
 
 Another* 
 
 Ten ounces of unbnrnt clay, 10 ounces of grossly 
 powdered burned clay, and 3 dtachnis of cilcioed sul- 
 p .ai oliron. Tiicse cruciblfs are C)i)3bleof retaining 
 intliedinetais, but .ire pervaded by j^lass of lead. 
 
 Tests for S'ncltin^; me'ah arc mulu of burnt bone 
 ashes, sifted tfiruui^h No 8, and ihc lixivated residuum 
 oi" wood aslies; there is only enoiii»li of the ashes ad- 
 mitted as will give the bo:»c ashes a due degree of 
 tenacity. Tiiesc tests bein^ porosis, the (luxes readily 
 pi'-s through them in ail directions, leavin<5 the metal 
 in a perfect button in the test. 
 
 Annin[» crucibles CDDsists in coatiug tbcin insi le 
 '.vith burnt clay diluted with water whie they are moist, 
 an (, on t*,e outside wim unbunit cl .y diluted in the 
 sanrje manner. Tiiis prtpiratioti renders theitj more 
 refractory, and capjbie of enduring hoih t!ie action of 
 ihe fire and coriosiou of ihj fluxes for a much longer 
 p* rjod. 
 
 Other substances used as (jiazinijs on the insi !e sur- 
 A\cc of crucibles, have been found to add to their dura- 
 bilfy, and resist the coi robion of all fluxes except lith- 
 arge. 
 
 flume alum, powdered and tnixed with the white of 
 sgijsand watei, beinpj applied to the in.ernal surf.ce of 
 a Messiin crucihle, renders it cap.tblc of cuntuining 
 yl ss of lead a lonj; tiuic. 
 
 One part of city and two parts of Spanish chalk will 
 make t;ood crucibles. 
 
 Eijjht parts Spanish chalk, as much burnt clay, and 
 one p irt litharge makes a s-jli<l ci u- i'jie. 
 
 Two parts SpMoish chalk and one part powderod to* 
 bncro pipes makes a good corn position lor lining cru- 
 cibles. 
 
 Ciuciblesare rendcre<l very durable by soaking t'>cm 
 in linseed oil for two d -ys, then wiping; the oil off as 
 cle n as possible, and -.trewinj^ p .wdered borax o pnw- 
 de ed >^reen glass over them. Crucibles should lie 
 gidflu.ily dried and 'hen tempeieH by )riu»»inoj|iihein ro 
 a While heat. Titey should be gradua.ly cooled' aj^ain, 
 
' # 
 
 SUf CRUCIBLFS. 
 
 and s'lnulcl, when put into the oven for tempciing, be 
 placed boUom upwards, 
 
 IMie mix uie of which crucibles nre farmed sh«)uld 
 rot be too inoi-it, for if so, when dried and ieu» parcel 
 thty will not be svifficicntly compaci; they should ihcre- 
 foie be wnrked as stiff as possible, and made in brass 
 or wooden n^oulds. 
 
 What 13 herein bcfnre given as a composition for 
 crn«ibl(S, is only sufiicicnt, in some cases, foi one or 
 tv. ' ; but ihe proportions can be inci cased in tue same 
 r^lio to make as many as you please. 
 
 Black Lead CruclbJes, 
 
 Crtjcibles inienc'ed for the fusion of mefals may be 
 ninrh impri'Vcd by the addi ion of pUimbaj^o. This 
 snbsiance is inlusible, and beiiifj |)ro5ected from thcj 
 aciion of the air by bein^j coated witli cljy.its carbonh- 
 ceotis in^^reilient esc.ipes cooibistion. It has the addi- 
 tional advant^s*^ "' havinyj no afii lity whatever vvilb ihe 
 edrll)s, and tiierefoie does no*, fiisposo ihem to fusion. 
 The unctious sottness of this m^'cnai jjives a great 
 suiooilmeas to the surface of the crucible, which pre- 
 vents it from rcidinintr any pari of the melte i metal 
 when ponrinj» out. The mmnei- of makinj; is the same 
 as ih:it of the Hessian cruci'ile, only addnu; onetuiid 
 of tiie weiglii of both the^clsy and sund in the 'coii»po« 
 siiion. 
 
 Crucibles made in this manner will bear a sudden 
 heating or cooling 'setter t'^an any o htr. It is so soft 
 that it may be cut with a Unite or sawed la pieces; l)Ut 
 is im^t t-i retain ativ saline fluid on actounl of the porous 
 niituie of its suiface. 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 ON COPPER. 
 
 ENGRAVING, or graving^ as it is sometimes 
 called, is the cuuing of lines upon a copperplate, by 
 raeans of a steel iiisi/unient, called a graver, williout 
 the use of aqua forlie. 
 
 The tools necessary For this art, are, gravers, a scra- 
 per, a buiiiishcr, an oil stone, a sand baj^, .in oil rubber, 
 and sou»e charcoal. The gravers are instruments of 
 tempered hieel, 6 ttd into a short wooden hanflle, and 
 aro of two sorts, square, and lozenge shaped: the fiist 
 is used in cutting very broad strokes, the other iov 
 n.orc fein: and delicate lines. The scraper is a tltrcc- 
 edged tool, used lor scraping ofl" the burr raised by tlie 
 graver. The butnishei is used lor rubbling do.vn any 
 lines that are loo deep, oi for bunushin>i out any 
 scTatches or holes that may be in th« copper plate: lUey 
 are oJ veiy hard steel, well rounded and polished. 
 
 The oil stone is used lor whetting the graver, etch- 
 ing point, Sec. The sanr-ba^, or cushion, is tor laying 
 the plate upon, for the convenier.cy of turning ii lound 
 iri anj' direction: There is a kind of table sonicti.ics 
 used for this purpose and to which the plate is scrt;tved 
 fast, and so fuimcd that it can be placed in i.ny position 
 to suit the worUniai»*s convenience by means ul hinges, 
 &(• 8cc. Ttie oil rubber and chaicual aie iur pulisliing 
 the plate wncn ncccssaiy. 
 
 Great care is fiqciied to whet the graver nicely , 
 particular y the belly of il, and caie must be taken 
 to lay the two angles ol the Kfo'er which are to be held 
 next the plate, flat upon the stone, and rub them steadi- 
 ly till the bcliy rises gradually above the plate, so 
 as that, when you lay tuc graver flat upon it, y 
 
 ou 
 
 may just ptrceive tiie light under the point, otherwise 
 it will dig into the copper, which will make the woik 
 irregular, and injure ihe point. 
 
 In order to wi.el the late, place the flat part of the 
 liaiidlc, in ike bolicW ot ibc h«u(J, with me belly of the 
 
Si6 EKGRAVING. 
 
 i;ravcr upwauls, end rvih ihe txiitmiiy upon Ihe &!or.c 
 iiniil it lias an txtrtn.cly fcbaip ponit, wlncli you n»ay 
 prove by U)inj< it en iIk; ihi.nib nail. The l-tlly ol the 
 j;r.ivcr ought to ii«nge nearly wlili the bandit; thtrtio c 
 it is sonietinics iicctssary to cut ofl' that sice cl \lc. 
 bundle nil iissurlace will ncaily r»ngc in a line with tiic 
 gryvf r. 
 
 Tiic £;raver may be tempered ss follows: — If too 
 ha:tl, heal ii on a Ikh pokei, oi ai a candle, till ii is cl a 
 sMawcoltiu, snd ibtn Cip the poini into cool oil or 
 talicw; if loo solt, it n.ust be haidtned, and thtn 
 biouj,'lit lo iia proper temper as above tiiiecttd. 
 
 Alier the cuppci plate is ditsstd cff anci polibhcd 
 sn.ooth, ti.e dtsn^n of \vl)at is to be mgiaved is laiu ors 
 in ll'.e foUoning n'.ai.nci: — 1 be plate is iiiac!c warn» 
 enLii5.',h lo null AU^iin wax, cl wliicli a tliin coat is laid 
 cvtiiiy oxer il, and ilit lines, &c of the design-woil< 
 In initiated o\it wiih black le,.d, aie laid on Uie wax- 
 ed pl«ie and prts^td evetjiy down, or rubbed ovei wi'h 
 llie buir.isbtr, \\h;cl) (susts, the Wfix to recover ibe 
 black Icid tiiibt trom ihe dcsip^n, and to give a tTcod 
 cullme cf tiie woik, which may be then worked ofl" with 
 tlie >^iavei, (aher ir- tiiij^ ihtoiigh the u.'X v\iili a thdip 
 poinieel tool to rvfrtk ilie plate, aiiil then havjn;» taUeii 
 the WiX (ff) as tellovij-: Hold the hani Ic ai li.c gr^vir 
 in tne hollow ol joui hsne, and, txteniiing your loic 
 finiei lowaK's the pcint, let li lesi en the br-eU of U.e 
 gia%er iliai jou niiy gninc it flat unci p.rallel wilh iliC 
 pl;.ie, and ciiretnl y keep the fit)j;eis liom s^'^'' g bc- 
 twttn tbe haiidle and the ph>ie, as thai irij^ht i>ievent 
 or hinder the CHri>ing the gravcr Ic\e!, and nioUi-.ig u 
 clean and bmooih siiohe. 
 
 F( r iiiaighi feiiokts, Ihe pate is to be held fit in on 
 the sjin(l-b«g wilb the leh hand, and the lig'it, witii ilie 
 giaver, nio%ed regularly foiward For circular, or 
 ciooktJJ Ij/ics, (he' plate or the hand are nioved as niay 
 be most ctiiivtnierii, holditgtiic graver firm and stcai:). 
 
 Aiiy loiighntsb wbich may atiseon tlic work ni*y be 
 taken cfT with the fccriiper, being caretol not to scratch 
 t! c jdalt; and it it ifc tubbed over wi'h tiie i/il rubber, 
 ii will tcke ofi the glare of the copper, and ihen tix- 
 Vol k will be plainly seen. 
 
ENGRAVING. 217 
 
 To prevent any obstruction from too great a degree 
 jf light, a piece of transparent paper is used, placed 
 sloping and at a proper disiance^betwecn the li^hi and 
 ilie work — when the sun shines, this is veiy necessary 
 to preserve the sight. 
 
 ON WOOD. 
 
 Engraving on wood is a process exactly the reverse 
 of ef.gmiijg on copper. In the latter, the strokes to 
 be printed are sunk, or cm into the co])pcr, and a roll- 
 ing-press is used lor fwiniin^ it; but in engraving on 
 wood, all tne wood is cut away, except the lines to be 
 printed, which are left standing; up like types, and the 
 nnocfc of printing is the same, as that used in l«ttcr- 
 piess. 
 
 The wood used for this purpose, is geherally, box- 
 wood, or some oilier hird, close grained wood; such as 
 dogwood or beech, is sometimes used for coarse work. 
 The wood is first planed veiy smooth, and the design is 
 then dravrn upon the wood itself with black lead, and 
 all the wood is then cut away with gravers, or other 
 proper tools, except tlie lines tliat are drawn. In some 
 the design is drawn upon pjper, which is tlien pasted 
 upon the wood, and liien cut us before. This kirfd of 
 engraving answers (or cms, Sec. for books; but it is not 
 in geneial use on account oi ilie difficulty attending the 
 ];)roper execution ot the work, and on account of the 
 supeiiority of the copperplate engraving* 
 
 19 
 
ETCHING. 
 
 ETCHING is a manner of engraving on copper, in 
 which the lines, instead ot being cut uiih a graver, are 
 corrtided in with aqua loiiis. 
 
 Inaireiost all the engravings on copper, that ere ex- 
 ecuted in the stroke or line manner, etching and grav- 
 ing are combined, the plate beinj; generally begun by 
 etching and finislicd \vi\h the graver. 
 
 The copperplate must be planished off, and then 
 rubbed (all oiic wny) with pun. ice-stone and water un- 
 til it is as smooth and level as you can get it; and then 
 finely polished with charcoal and water, which will take 
 out the scratches made by the pumice-sloui : final- 
 ly, with charcoal dust very fine, and a little oil. 
 
 Etching points, or needles, are made of sieej, about 
 r,n inch long, and fixed into handles of hard wood, 
 i.bout six inches in leng;h, and of the thickness of a 
 goosLquill. They should be well ■.eiripercd, and fixed 
 accurately in the centre o! the end of the hunnle. 
 They are brought lo an accurately conical puinl. It is 
 :xc(^sary to i)ave several ttcliiiig needles, some aqua 
 lottis, turpentine varnisli, bordeiing wax, and alsu a 
 pdir of compasses and a parallel ruler. 
 
 IJordeiing wax is made as folluws: One-third becs- 
 v/ax, & two liiirdsol pitch, melted k poured into waim 
 Water, then moulded until all the water is squeezed out, 
 and then formed into suitable rolls 
 
 Etching v,i'Lund is made as lullows: Take of virgin 
 V. ax and i.sphaltuni, each 20 ource?; of.black pitch and 
 liurgundy pitch, each hall an ounce: tiielt the wax and 
 pitch in a new gkzed pipkin, and add by dei;rees the 
 powdered asphaltum. Let it boil until it will break 
 when bent two or thiec times with the fingers, aUer 
 being cooled, in the same manner as a shoemaker 
 would tiy his wax^ only this must be dropped on a 
 plate to cool. 
 
 When sufTicienlly boiled, t.<ke it off the fire, and 
 aliei tooling a little, pour it imo warm water and vork 
 it into balls for use. 
 
ETCHING. Si 9 
 
 To lay on the elcSini^ grounrl, the plate is first wipc-d 
 pciftclly clean, and niacie j-ist wui ni enough to mtit 
 the L^rtjiin.!, and hi such manner as not to soil the pl.»te, 
 ';,e eichiiTg t;;round (behnr enclcfeed in a bit of laffVta to 
 < cp cvctj- thini? but tt.c pure ni'punvl gcitini^ to the 
 i.late) is ni'-i!)Oci evenly ovci ilie Hurl'ice t.f ihe plate until 
 it h;(8 feccivdd .1 liiio uLllorm c<>vc!i(^^ ol'liic f^roni.cl; it 
 is tlicn blackciiO'l willithe HUtokc of a wux taper, carfelul- 
 ]y, so as nu to tnult the grounfl in any place, nor to at. 
 t'ach a?,y ilusl to it. Tho rtchign is then laid on the 
 [ground, afiCP it has cooled, in the fr)l!ovvioq; mnnncr; 
 A pijcc ci'iliin paper, rubbed over with red chalk, is 
 laid over the i^round, (^hc chalked side being next tho 
 varnish.) Die design is <!raun on oiled paper with ink 
 ontyinini? a liale ox {^all, wiuch causes it to set on the 
 oiled paper; und this is laid on the chalked paper, and 
 fjstened there uiih a little of the bordeiin-^ wax. When 
 liius prepared, take a blunt- pointed etching needle and 
 }»o ^e-itlv ov^r all the lines of the dcsi,<n, which pr ;Si 
 <hecha!U'5d piper on the ground, »«ndt]\ereby transfer 
 l!:e dtsi::;n to the j^round, by leRving a tracuv^j of the 
 c ulk when tl-.e paper is retno'VcTj. Tlv-'se lines 'jre 
 t!:en traced throu^ib the ^;round to the plite with tho 
 ctc!v:n's» needles, o'' sizes suitable to the s'.rength of iba 
 lines required. Tne mar.i^in is now bordered round 
 \iith a linvj of the border wax to keep the aqua (nrtis 
 uum runnin-.j over. After this, tne squa furtis is pour- 
 c1 'in and all ).ved to re na>n on until it corrod;.s or bt'es 
 siifficieDtly deepinto the piate If the aqua fortis bites 
 ra lidly a great numbcP of small bubbles will arise alon^; 
 the lines; bui if it is we k, t;je tnibbles will rise moder- 
 ate y, and then the liquid must remain lonj^er on the 
 plate to complete the operat on. If, upon pourint^ off 
 :1 e i-qua foriis, any of the lines should not be corroded 
 deep enoujj;h, those which aie so noust be cciVered with 
 ihe turpentine varnish, and ilie others being left open; 
 aqua loriis nvust be a^ain poured on, &c. until the 
 whole woik is as deep and broad as requireil. The 
 bubbles us ihcy rise hhL.nlf| be brushed oR' with a fea- 
 ther. After ttie biting u fitiished 'he boidcr wax is re- 
 moved by hea'ing the plate with a pit ce of IJRhied 
 taper applied to the opposite side of the plate. Oil of 
 
SSO ETCHlNe. 
 
 tu pentine is now poured on the plate, and the plate i» 
 rubbt-d Willi a linen raj; to lake off ihe ground, and 
 then cleaned with wliittning. 
 
 After tills ii is coinn)on to j;et a firoo/, taken by z 
 copper plrttB printer, and if the work is deficient ii i: 
 fiiii{incd uiih ihe graver or by what ia called re-biting 
 
TANNING OF LKATHER. 
 
 THE {oil. .wing tahle contains the respective quanti- 
 ties of tinnitijj (natter containeti in several kinds of 
 wofx] and bark (in i;r;iifis) in half a pint of t!ie infusion, 
 aid a;-) ounce of the solution of galls: 
 Bark of elm, 2S Sallow, 59 
 
 Oik in win cr, 30 Mjtintain ash, 60 
 
 Horse cUesnu*, 30 Poplar, 7o 
 
 Beech, 31 Hazlc, "^9 
 
 Willow j_bouL;h?,] 31 .Ash, 82 
 
 Elder, 41 *^pjnish chcsnut, 98 
 
 Plum tree, 53 Smooth oak, 104 
 
 ^V^llow [ trunk,"] 52 Oak, cut in spring, 103 
 
 Sycamore, 5 3 Leicesterahire willow, 109 
 
 Circh, 54 Sumach, 15S 
 
 C'ltrry tree, 59 
 
 Mr. Hatchet recommends the followinp; process for 
 taiinin^ Skins. The skins arc to be kept sep irately 
 immersed in running wuier, till the lymph or serum is 
 extracted, vvh:ch time may be known by heating a 
 smdl bit of the skin in water. If it contains serum, 
 this will estiact i', and it will rise in a scum on too 
 w.iicv; b'it if no scum arises, the skins may then ba 
 considered as cleaiisod from the lymphatic matter. 
 
 These washed skins are men iransieired to boilers, 
 adapted for the purpose: water is th(?n added and heat 
 applied to brinq; the water to about 60 degrees of Fah- 
 rcntieit, and to remain so one liour. 
 
 Tiie skins are then taken out and worked in the 
 'idual manner to clear them of their impuii'.ies. 
 
 After this ihey ^re ajjain placed in boilers, so dispo- 
 sed that a constant stream of water at the temperataro 
 yf 167 dep:ree3 of Fahrenheit, shall enter by one cock, 
 and pass off by anoiiier at the opposite side beneath. 
 
 I'he skins to remain iti this till the water coning oil" 
 contains no vestige of animal jelly — to be known by 
 evaporating a small quantity of it. 
 19» 
 
S2S TANNING, 
 
 They are then taken out and cleaned in the usual 
 mannet of the cellular membrane and flcb'iy pMts. 
 
 Lastly, ihey are to be washed in ronnii.f^ vvaier, and 
 replaced in a boiler, and covered wi h a saturated de- 
 CdCiinn of tanin or oak hark, the suue degree of he it 
 Bpi»lied and continued till the skins are perfectly tanne!, 
 adding occasionally a little tresh decoction to supply 
 the wastage and keep up the ptinciple, which would 
 otherwise becoine too weak. If it is exhausted it niay 
 be known by not turning: black when a few drops of a 
 sulphate ol iron are added. 
 
 JVeio Art of Tanning Leather. 
 
 To 40 si'Jes of soal leather^ 75 sides of upper lea'her, 
 or 150 calf skins take alter liminj* and well worked 
 throBgh the bait to prevent the grain from runnini;, 
 put in half a pound of salt pcire; then fill a vjt part 
 fuH ol water or enougl) to covei the hides, then put in 
 one bushel of salt and four lb. of salt jjetre; this will 
 kill the gum in some measure, the salt petre will pene- 
 trate the hides, the most essential thing for soal leather; 
 take one pint of the spirits of silt, put in 4 oz. of 
 the sui»ar of lead, that will kill the poisonous nature of 
 the spirits of salt, so that the leather will not be injured 
 by it, the spirits of salt will kill the gum and brace the 
 pores and keep them open; then take half a pail lull of 
 pok>- root, dry the same, and leach the strength out with 
 hot waterj this will set the liquor to work; when the 
 Jiquor works skim »ff the scum, and if there is the 
 least particle of lime left in the hides the liquor will 
 take it out when the liquor works and the above articles 
 in; then put in your hides, 24 hours for calf skins, 48 
 for upper, 4 days fer soal; then take them out and han- 
 dle tr.em ^n strong bark liquor: in 48 hours your skins 
 will be tanned, 4 dnys lor upper and 20 d.ys lor soal 
 leather will be complete. Remember jasi before your 
 soal leather comes cut of the bark liquor, say 48 hours, 
 put in 2 quarts of ^p^rita terebintn; this will close the 
 fl ;sn and mike the leather solid so thai it wiil not glv^e 
 under the hammer. 
 
T\NNIN6. §33 
 
 Jl N^m Method of Tanning without B2rk. 
 
 After your hides hjve fjone throug^ii the dluve men- 
 tioned liquors, take 3C0 il). of aiseinart, cureJ in tne 
 same manner is you would hay, ind leach the strength 
 ou'. with hot water; the liquor will come out black as a 
 cherrv; and there is mora real strent^jth ia 500 |)ounds of 
 this weed than there is in four cords ol bark, and wiil 
 make better -pper leather than any kind of bark. This 
 liquor is suRjcient salt, salt ")etre and poke root for 
 upper — for calf skins salt petre, spirits of salt, spirits 
 of terebinth and poke root. 
 
 Soal Leather may be Tanned in 30 days by 
 the fottoivin^ process: — 
 
 Take good blai k oak bark, ground as fine as pos- 
 sible; (hen put it into a hogs lead with a hole m the bot- 
 to n; then fill the hogsliead with soft water, ai^d draw 
 it off once a day for thirty days, and handle your, aides 
 in the liquor for the time stated and your leather 
 sh ill be compUle. 
 
 Fur Bating Hides in 2i hours— 'Upper Lear 
 ther or Catf Skins, 
 
 For every 20 calt skins taka Ualf a bushel of hen 
 dunjj, and put it in bating water; put yom skins in a 
 b rrel; then add a gallon of the above solution, as warm 
 as you can tramp ihem; then put them in fresh wjter 
 over night; then work them v»ut. Yuu may tan upper 
 leatber and calf skins in from 6 to 8 days, as above di« 
 lected, for soal leather. 
 
 German Method of Blacking Leather with- 
 out Oil, 
 
 T^ke two ounces logwood, one handful whit* hazel) 
 1 ounce; nut galls, to one gill of water; put the ingre- 
 dients into an earthen pot and Irt them boU to balf a 
 gill; Uieaadd half a gill of viQegar. 
 
S24i 
 
 TPANNING. 
 
 Tawing, f^ohuring, i^c. of Leather. 
 
 When skins arc to he tawed, they must first be clear- 
 ed of tlie hairs or wool by "some proper process, and 
 iifler beinir c^eanerl from lime, &c. they arc put into a 
 suiuu-Ji of ahim anc! salt in warm water in proportion of 
 3 lb. ol alum & 4 Ih. of salt to 120 com-non sized sheep 
 or fjo^^t skiiis< arid vvoikcd therein till they hive absuibcd 
 a sufficient (juanlity of t'e solution. They are then 
 taken out and washed, and put into a vat and allowed to 
 ferment for a li ».e, till most o( the alum and silt is taken 
 ou! and the Ihiiikninj; produced by them reduced; after 
 wliich ihey are luing up in a siove room to dry. 
 
 After ll)istl)(y must be af»iin so^k< d in witerto take 
 out more of the alum, 8cc. and then put in a vessel 
 containing yo'k of eggs beat up in water and trodden 
 for y lonj; liine, oud t-ien hun^;: up to dry; after which 
 they are finished by glossing with a \var;5) iron. 
 
 German method of Blacking Leather. 
 
 The Germans use a solution of iron in vegetable acid; 
 which they rub repeatedly over their leather till it at- 
 tains a f»dl and beautilul bla< k. It must be observed 
 that tliis is only used on what is cumminly called the 
 grain or bbir fcide of the skin, «s the flesh side is tjencr- 
 ally blacked wi:h oii and lamp black. Copperas is the 
 most usual form in which the iron is used; sometimes 
 filings, scales, or even small pieces of iron are dissolved 
 io a vat of the acid; but it n)ust not be so strong; as to 
 act very rapidly upon the iron lest it should render the 
 leather stiff' and liable to ciack. Vata made in this 
 manner m^y be kepi for hundreds of years by adding a 
 due poi lioQ of the int^redients when ihe liquor becomes 
 too weak. After the leather is blacked ui this manner.; 
 a {-loss is given to it by the common process of brusl:- 
 ing over a size n>ade ot gum, vviiiieof eggs, neat's loo' 
 or other suitable m-jtcrial, and a small portion of oil oi" 
 the (lesh side to m^ke it pliable and soft. 
 
COLOURING, &c; Of LEATHER, ^29 
 
 Another method of making a fine Btackf 
 
 Is to put an ounce of ivoiy black into a pint of small 
 beer, wUh half an ounce each of brown 8Uk»ar and gum 
 orabic. This will give a bcnufihil black, after whtcii a 
 gloss Hiay be put on the leailier, made of gum arable or 
 a size made in vinegar. 
 
 There are various methods of «;ivlnK a black to the 
 grain aide of skins, used by thw Germans; but perhaps 
 none tnoie siHtple and convenient than the ibregoing. 
 
 lied Morocco Leather, 
 
 ATter the skins are cleansed in the usual way, and 
 taken from the lime water, the thickninp: occasioned 
 theieUy is taken down by a batli ol doj^'s or pii^eou's 
 dung diffused in water, where they remain till well 
 suppled and the lime i-* q'lite got out and they become 
 cletin white pelts. They are then sewed uD in form of 
 a sack, with the grain side outwaid (that side only to be 
 coloured) and then imnjersed in a bath of cochineal, as 
 warm as the hand can hear it, and worked about until 
 they are .ufliciently and evenly coloured. Tl>e skin sack 
 is theo'^pui into a vat containing sumach intnsed in 
 warm water, and kept there some hours till suirr-icntiy 
 tanned, and finished off after being dipped in a weak 
 bulh of S'jffron water. 
 
 Black Morocco Leather, 
 
 The skins to be blacked are sumached without dying 
 first, and then brusned overwith an iron liqtiid which 
 combines with the pdlic acid of the sumach, forms a 
 deep black. They are then rubbed o»er with a little 
 oil to supple ihem, and rubbed with a glass ball oi a 
 p.-rticul«r shape to polish 'hem, and fioally creased with 
 a piece of boxwood cut for the purpose into small evea 
 grooves on ita surface. 
 
 Chamois Leather 
 
 Is generally sheep s^^m, and nud • much in the same 
 m^'uner us the foie>»oing, except i hai it is finished off 
 WUh 0)1} and will thcrelore bear washing. 
 
S26 COLOURING, &C. OF LEATHER. 
 
 For Blacking Leather without OIL 
 
 To blt^ck 6 cal! sk'nstakc 1 pint of sofi soap and -oCC 
 6t fficient quaniity ot lamp black to irix itj tlieD add .. 
 • gill of water and it will make a good black. 
 
 Take one pound o! tl c baik o! w'jich hfZf"!; to t^ct 
 add tiuce {tbIIoiis el uhty, and put Ihem ii) a rag and let 
 ihtm stand a njonth in a warm place in the sun. 
 
 To make Shell Lac Varnish for Leather, 
 
 T. ke 2 1 z. aiiell lac atiH 1 oz, Venire turpcniine, '. 
 pint highly rtctififd spirits of wine then first dissolve 
 the Ijc in the wine, which will take two day?; then acid 
 the tiJiptniki<i— t' will dissolve in one day. Then, il 
 you want »jrack vainish pnl in a little lamp black. 
 
 To make Leather IVater-Proof, 
 
 Melt 1 lb. of tallow with 4 oz. ho<*3 lard, 2 oz tur- 
 pcntitc, and 2 > z beeswax, ;uul put on plentifully wlulc 
 w im and the ler.ther ciem and tliy. Or, 
 
 Of beeswax, Byi i»unf1y pi'ch, and turpentine, each 2 
 cz tallow 4 ' z C)|> 
 
 Uceswax i lb. rosin i -b. and beef snet i \b. applied 
 wl.ilt witrm on cle n drv boots or shoes. 
 
 ^n excellent CompnsHvm In render Leather 
 Mart r- Proof. 
 
 Take 2 gdlons lii.se.d oil, 1 • .. ol wh>ile oil. ^ tlv of 
 hi.tsf tjrejst; rrin^'lc tnen> wnl 4 lb. t.f finely r..und 
 Pius-ian biof, ar.i 4 tb la!.:), black, ;ind nm\ tht; whole ^ 
 over a sironj? fi.c a.hiinR 1 lb. fi-.,-. ground be rizoin ' 
 gnm, previously well ndngled w'nh 1 Kollon linseed otl, 
 of wh'chont haU Ji> to b« put in the above when the 
 coulpo^!lion has boiled haU an ho"r, an" the otier b.ilf j 
 whrn 'he b ilin^ is finished It is sufficiently boiled I 
 when -t wdl not fa'l in dot t. from ;.nv ihnu': tnat is dipt 
 into it, and when cold is fit for use. This com pa- 
 
COLOURING, &C, OF LEATHER. S27 
 
 aiiion gives llie leailier a fint; black, kee,.s oui tite water, 
 il adds to its durabiliiy; ii will even kcej) out hot 
 Mixliiig; li(;Uois fio:D iujuiing eitiier Jcalher or wool- 
 
 liU eloth. 
 
 Blacking, kc. for Boots and Shoes. 
 
 Take one piit gtirji that isbucs from the goat thorn 
 in sijiunier, 4 paiis river water, 2 parts neat's foot oil, 2 
 parts fine ivoiy black, 2 pans deep blue prepared from 
 iif,n and copper, and 4 p'Hs brown sugai candy; evapo- 
 !jte the water iiA liic co uposiiion is of a coinislcnte to 
 be formed into cakes. This is a good iiquirl blacking, 
 and may be dissolved in water gr vii)egar lor use. 
 
 Frankfort Blacking , 
 
 Ii made of the lees ot wine, i)iiii)\ in a well closed ves- 
 sel, and the rtsiduum reduced lo powdei, and u.isad 
 will) water, is imme.Juc y fit lor u^c. 
 
 Another and Letter kind. 
 
 Take 1^ oz. ^ulu .udUic, ^ oz. c«)pp.r.is, 2 oz. spit it 
 of Silt, 4 ( z jvory ulack, luuiiiciied with J i>z oi oil of 
 \iMioI in 1^ cz of water: mix thcin well together, and 
 i;d 1 4 uz. s>u4;uc ivty, i^ 'Z swe^oi, an;i 3 pints of 
 vinegar I'liis, s!i:ikeii 'A;i!, put over ooaJs, atid rubbed 
 v.iih r» siifT brusli, gives a snininjj jc b ack. 
 
 Ui.^solve t oui'Ce of }:;iiiO in a quart oi wa«er; ad'l 4 
 ounces ivt>ry bijck, iJ or 3 ounces ol ssiii^ar; mix tliis 
 with li solution of j^ufij ci.isijc and los.ii, j.-repared with 
 t;pint of turjiemine <ind Imsccd oil. 
 
 "A et the icatner with a strong decoctio.t of ojk bark, 
 end then af)ply'ltie above coaiposiiion ancT loi it dsy, 
 i.l or wnicli tiie water wi;l nut^^ds ituou-^h Lmjp 
 block will answer as a &i.;i;slit;iic iur tlse ivosy blac'.t. 
 
 One pound Imgs i.tic,, 4 ounces lurpcniinc, b;.csvvaTi, 
 olive. oil, ii ounces each, to be meilcd ;mil lubbed on 
 (he boots the evening beloie uiing iiiem, wi I keep out 
 the water. 
 
 In all cases the leat!)cr should be midc clean brfore 
 'he composition is spplicd, and also dry gr nearly so. 
 
COLOURING, &C. OP LEATHER. 
 
 Ivoiy bhck, two ounces, brown sugar 1^ ounce, 
 sweet oil, halt a spoonful; ntix all well, and add hall a 
 pint of small beer. 
 
 One part guni-liagacanth, 4 parts river water, 2 parts 
 senna suit oil, 2 pans ivoiy black, 1 pan Piutsirtn blue 
 or incligo, in powdei, and 4 parts sugar-canii); boil 
 all together, and lorm into cakes to be dissolved io 
 vinegar. 
 
 JBlacJc ISallfur Boots, 8^c. 
 
 Take mutton suet, 4 ounces, beeswax 1 ounce, 
 sugar- candy and gunn-arabic 1 drachm each, Jn fine 
 powder; melt the whole over a gentle fire and add 
 thereto a spoonful of turpentine, and as m-jcu ivory 
 or laaip black, as will i^ive it a i;ood black. 
 
 Then have a piece; of wood turned in the foi m you 
 Wf.ni ycui balls, and wrap a pitce o! paper around the 
 stick and push jt into damp sand or as!ves placed in a 
 box, and when you dtavv out the stick, it will leave the 
 paper, forming a mould imo which you pour the melted 
 jTiixiuie belore it gets cool, or cast ii in tin moulds, 
 rntdt for the purpose, or mould it into cakes wl)cn 
 nearly cold. 
 
 To clean Soot Tops, Saddles, ^c. 
 
 Boil 1 quftrt of mi.k and let it cool; then take 1 
 ounce of oil vitriol, 1 oz. spirits of saU, si.akc thcni wtll 
 lo}i;etl.cr, and add 1 i udck red lavender, iht white of an 
 cg}» beat to 2 froth, and half a pint ol vinegar. With 
 this mixture and a eponge, wash the leather over light 
 ly, ana let ij, dry in the shade. 
 
 Chemical Liquid for Boot Tops, i^'c. 
 
 Mix in a phial, one tiiachm of oximuiiaie ol polaGi. 
 With two ounces ol distilled, or rain water; and when 
 the salt is dissolved, add two ouflces of muriatic acid; 
 then shake well tegether in another phial 3 ounces rec- 
 tified sj)irits of wine with hall an ounce of essential oil 
 of lemon. Then unite the contents of the two phiaU 
 
COI-OURING, &C. OF LEATHER. S29 
 
 If this is applied with a clean sponge, and lUe leather 
 dried in a gentle heat, it will remove all stains, and the 
 leaiher when rubbed or pulished over, will look as well 
 as when new. 
 
 One pint ot drying oil, 3 ounces beeswax, 2 ounces 
 turpentine, and halt an ounce of Burgundy pilch, melt- 
 ed slowly, and put plentiiuUy on new boots or 
 shoes, will prevent the water Irom penetrating the lca< 
 iher. 
 
 SO 
 
DISTILLING, &c. 
 
 Of making Yeast, 
 
 VERY good siock yeast is made as fo)low?-*~Pirt 
 cne gallon of good bajley malt into a clean end well 
 scalded vessel, and pour on 4 gallons of clean scalding 
 \v,\'ei; thenstji it weil witii a clean scalded slick; alter 
 which, cover it with a clean cloth fur halt an hour; then 
 take offtlie cloth and set it away three or foui hours to 
 setiJc, and when the sediment has fallen to Die bottom 
 pour ofI"the thin part that rerriains on the top carefully, 
 (fti)hout distuibiijg the thick pait at the bottom) into a 
 clean scoured ircn pot, and add 4 oz. of hops and cover 
 with a clean cover; then set it on a hot fire of coals un- 
 til it has boiled down one third pirt or more, andsiiwin 
 it through a clean hair sieve, into a clean glazed CiTlhen 
 Clock; then siir into it wiUi a clean siitk, us roich fine 
 flour as will make it about hull thick, and sin- uptil no 
 lumps remain; then cover it close for hulf an hour, af- 
 ter which, uncover it, and s'ir it frequently till ii is 
 about milk warm only; then add. half a pint ol verj^^cd 
 yeast, and stir it until it is well incorporated, ip-cr 
 which it must be coven d, and set in a warm place if it 
 be cold wiriier weather, but in a cool place if it be sum- 
 mer weu'her. When it be^^ins to work, stir it two or 
 three times at inervals of aijoot half an hour, ind set 
 past to work. All extremes of heat or cold musi be 
 avoided while hetping, and in sumtner it is j^onieiinnis 
 necessary to ^>ei the crock in the spriifig-house, and 
 nearly to it? top in watei. 
 
 *i Substitute f(r Common TeasU 
 
 Rrtfrfi pounds of potutof s in conAmon water as if foi 
 eating, and mash lhen> fine; then mix with it while- 
 warm, two ounces ol honey or sugyr and one quart ot 
 l^ood yc-is'; this uill be sufficient (or one gallon. Or, 
 if you boil a handful of hops in ihice pints of waic: 
 
DISTILLING, Si31 
 
 till one pint h spen'; then strain and cool ii, and a;lfl a 
 pint of good malt, and mix well with the pot^tocd, Sec. 
 end while yet vvarm put in halt^ a pint of honey or mo- 
 lasses, and cover ir, and let it stand in a warm place. 
 It will be fit iur use in Hvc to eight huurs, wilho'Ul the 
 quart of yeast oa above dirocted. 
 
 Take a snriall bunch of hops with the thumb anJ 
 three fingrera, and boil them well in a quart of water, 
 ptit in a few slices of apple or pumpkin; then pour off, 
 and strain the liquor throuj^b a cloth and add three 
 spoonsfull of molasses, and stir in as much wheat flour 
 us will make it into battel ; then cover it, in a proper 
 tcniperatute, and it will be fit for use in 6 or 8 hours. 
 
 Boil two ounces of hops in one gallon of water, to one 
 quart; while bni, strain, and thicken it with rye flour, 
 end when coo! add one quirt of pood yeast, and lei it 
 rise for twenty four hours; then mix as mucli fine Indian 
 meal as will mako it into douL'h, which cut mlo slices, 
 and by away to get perfectly dry. This will keep a 
 1 jns* time, and should be made in cool weatlier. 
 
 Good yci'.st ihickentd witli chopped rye, and a littJe 
 wiiiskey added, tlicn when dry, rub it into crun»bs and 
 put it into a ciose box oi piper bafj;. rhi-i may be kept 
 a long lime, and is very convenient for dai.y i;se. 
 
 Jlalt. 
 
 Birley is the best grain lor maltinp;; but wlie.it 
 an 1 r\e are someti;ijcs used in the follow in jc manner: — 
 
 A proper quantity of the gr .m is put ii.lo a larj^o 
 tiough or olhtir vessel, and coveied wiili wa'er until 
 the ti;r.>iij bfcconies so solt as to be easily mashed be- 
 tw^.en the finj^era, wnen the water is drawn away, 
 and the ^rain sprend on ^meartiien door about horn one 
 to two feet thick (if the qumliiy U sufficient) until it 
 begins to sprout, and then spread to ;\:jom six inches m 
 depth, and of;en stirred tliat tlie 8piouiin(> may come 
 on regularly in all the grain In cold weather ii is 
 sometimes necessary to cover it with a blankei, and put 
 a Ii tie warm water over it by spii;ikiincj, to hasten the 
 s^fOiHiuv; When the sprout (or root) is about as long 
 as tne grain, and before the blade appears, it must be 
 
233 DISTILLING, 
 
 Spread thin upon a dry floor to prevent the further pro- 
 gress of the sprouting, and in from 30 lo 50 hours it will 
 be fit for xhe kiln to wliich it must be removed, and 
 While on the floor, and the fire is under, it must be re- 
 peatedly stirred^ that it may be completely and evenly 
 dried. 
 
 Grjnding. 
 
 For the purposes cf disiiliinj?, Indian corn should be 
 ground very fine, but rye, wheat, oats, &c. should not 
 be ground o flour, but to a medium between the cliop- 
 ed aiid the floury degree of fineness. 
 
 Mashing, 
 
 By nnashing is understood the operation of duly mix- 
 ing the water, meal, yeast, See. in such manner as to 
 produce a fermen'ation, and prepare iJie mixture lor 
 distilling in the best form, or so as to produce the great- 
 est quantity of spirituous liquors. 
 
 To mash 45 lb, of Corn and 40 Ih. of Bye. 
 
 Mix 4 gallons of boiling and 4 gallons of cold ivater 
 in the mashing tub (incieasirif^ the proportion of hot 
 water in cold water, or ol ccKi water in warm walei) 
 and after a few minutes stir in 45 lb. of In^Jiart mejil; 
 cover the tub and let it stand nearly two hours; then 
 add 15 gallons cl boiling water, s'.ii it well, and add 12 
 gallons more of boiling water, (or more i! the weather 
 be very cold;) cover it hall an hour, and then add 35 
 lb. of rye meal ant^ 10 lb of malt, and stir it well until 
 all the lumps of meal are broken; then cover the tub 
 for 20 niriutes; then uncover it and stir it frequently 
 for 3 or 4 homs in wiiuej and 5 oi 6 in summer, w!;en 
 it will be fi. to ronl off. In win'«r it should be cooled 
 ofi" vviih about C5 stations of retum^i and as much water 
 as to bting the warmth to about 80 or 90 den. of Fah- 
 renheit, in Mrinter, ^nd 75 dcr;. in summer; ai.d the \\\h 
 should be nearlv fn'l. To this add one. quart of goc d 
 yeast, and in 50 ct 60 hours ii will be ready lor the btili 
 
DISTILLING. 233 
 
 Another Rule for Mashing, 
 
 Pi't 10 gallons of boiling water into the mash tub and 
 ?0 lb. of Indian meal; stir it well and arid two gcll'ins 
 SI. 'lie of boilina; water, an'l stir if; then add 20 j^ullons 
 more of boilirnj water jpf! 40 lb. of rye meal, and work 
 or stir it wtl'; then strew over it five pounds of malt 
 meal and cover it for six l.ouis; then cool off with 
 w.tter, addmm one quart of ytast, and cover it. In 60 
 hours it wil' be fit for the stiji. 
 
 To maah tico4hirds Corn and one-third Rye, 
 
 The same as when mashing equal paits of each, only 
 Tising; I* liule more water to soak 'he cnrn at first, and 
 the water not raised higher than 160" of Fahrenheit. 
 
 Indian Corn alone. 
 
 Corn by itself does not fsrdient well, as It is apt to 
 sink to t'.ie bottom of the tub; but the followinj^ pioress 
 nlay be used:— Put 12 gallons of water (at about 1 lO'*) 
 into a hogfchead, and add 75 lb. of corn njeal; stir it 
 veil and let it stand near two hours; then arid irom 20 
 to 25 J^allons of boilinsr water; stir it and cover it for half 
 an •'oui; ihen add malt and stir it frequently till fit to 
 cool off", which must be done a little warmer than when 
 mixed with other grain, and it also requires a little 
 fnore ye.ist. 
 
 To 30 irallons of water, at 163 dej*. Fahrenheit, add 
 20 tb. of fine malt; stir it and let it stand I 5 m'nutcs; ihcn 
 add 70 lb. ot rye mertl, «ncl stir until it is well mixed. 
 The mash should then be at about 150 decree;-; let it 
 st-^nd fi om 3 to 4 hours as the weather miy require, 
 stirring it occasionally; then add from 20 to 25 gallons 
 of t-eturns which have stood until settled and cleii; stir 
 it ;<nd fill up with Witsi to reduce it >(> \ pioper de^^ree, 
 and then add the yeasu In about 50 to 60 hours it will 
 be ready for tbe still. , 
 
 20* 
 
S34 DISTILLING. 
 
 7 mash Rye alone. 
 
 Twe p,ailor)s of cold Hnn 4 gallons of boiling \vat«e.' 
 jtie to be put into the tub, and 1^ buslicls of rye meal 
 siiricd in; iet it stand five minute'-;, then »dii two gal- 
 lons cold water and one gallon malt, and stir it well; 
 let it stand till your water boils, and then add 16 gallons 
 of boiling water; stir it cfTectualiy; then put lo each 
 hogshead a pint of salt and a shovel full of hot coals out 
 ol the furnace, (wl.irh will dispel or absorb all swur- 
 ness, 8cc. which may be in the tub or the meaM stir it 
 well every fi'.t( en minutes, keeping it covered till scald- 
 ci^ sufTiciently, when it may bt uncovered. If the above 
 q'luniity of w;ater does not scald it we'l, more must be 
 added. After the covers are removed, it must be Irc- 
 quenily siirreo till ready to cool off 
 
 Ii ii siiid that the dis'illers in Holland use a vessel 
 closed up, except a small hole, ever which a kind of 
 valve is fixed, by wliich means the fine spirit which 
 would evaporate while the fermenlitinn is provcressing 
 in the usual way, is nearly all preserved by being con- 
 tien'red, and attaching to the upper part ol the vessel 
 and the valve, fioni whence it drops back into the bet,r 
 in the vessel; the valve being of such a weight as to raise 
 oniy when the air in the vessel becomes considerably 
 raiified, when it fortes up the valve, finds a vent, and 
 the valve then lalls back and closes the opening, until 
 the air a«ain collects sufficient strength toiaise it, &c. 
 The following table shews the proportional cju-.iiiiiiy 
 ol spirits, vvhich, by a due process, may be obtained 
 fron> sever-jl kinds of grain: — 
 
 1 bushel ol Rice, 70 lb. 14 to 16 quarts. 
 
 Wheat, 60 
 
 Rye, 60 
 
 Corn, 60 
 
 Bat ley, 45 
 
 Oais, 32 
 
 lijit^wheat, 33 
 
 On mhTcivg Geneva^ or Gin, 
 
 Tlie coiTDior. nt ii u is U) put ubou' 20 pounds of 
 juniper btrries to 100 gallons of singlmgs, mid run 
 
 12 
 
 l& 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
DISTILLIN^G. S35 
 
 them over in the usual method. Eitlicr more vJ 'ess 
 in quantity of the berries may be required according to 
 Ih. ir goodness; zi\i\ it js believed that if they coold be 
 gtound ot pounded and rnixed with the other materi- 
 als while mashinf^, the essence of the berries \fould be 
 mere completely incurporatcd with the liquor. 
 
 •Another method of malcing Gin^ >, 
 
 Is to mix oil oi jumper berries wiih the spirits, and if 
 the oil be pure the gin will be very good when it has 
 had time to ripen; bottbe better way is to mix the oil 
 with pure alcohol, and after it has stood a few days the 
 m xture may be put into proof spirits. Five gills of 
 oil will in this manner make as much gin ae 20 pounds 
 of the berries; but the proper quantity in every case 
 can only be known by repeated trials, until the strength 
 of the oil or the berries is accurately known. 
 
 Peach and Apple Brandy, 
 
 In New Jetsty, where this business is carried to 
 great exttni, it is customary for all the farmers of a 
 settlement to carry their fruit to one place, where it is 
 made into cider or brandy on certain terms, by persons 
 fuIiy provided with all the iiecebsaiy appaiatus. 'J'he 
 usual (erms are one barrel of cider or two gallons of 
 brandy for every ten bushels of apples. 
 
 Good cider is kept in cisterns or other large vessels 
 until It has undtrgone the fermenting process, immedi- 
 ately after which it is put into lartje stills, seme of them 
 holding 1000 gallons, and run off" as other spirits are. 
 This product is called "cider brandy," and is much 
 better than the "a|)ple brandy," which is made by dis- 
 tilling off the spiiil from a mixture ot the ground ap- 
 ples and water after it has fermented Peaches and 
 apples are commonly treated as in the latter method, in 
 this country Sometimes the cider is distilled, and 
 aliei wards water is poured on the pomage and left to 
 fennen', and then stilled oflT; hut this latter pricess 
 will scarcely produce spirit enough to pay tor the 
 labor, &c, of making it. 
 
gS^ DISTlLLlJje. 
 
 To know when the ci-ier, Uc has u;K]cr£»one the f'er 
 mftiit ilinn c'lwjpltte y, run h clean stick into the cask o: 
 whatever co'Hains the cid«'r» and if upon lakins it out 
 anfl applying it to your enr, it tinkes a kind of liissioj; 
 noise, the terraentadon is nu' over; but if no such noise 
 can be heaid. it i** ready f-ir the still. 
 
 >. Of Colourins; Liquors^ 
 
 There are varidus kin;is of colouring matter for sale 
 at the shops; but those who d; n-T wish to purrhase 
 them, may give their liquors a very good colour in the 
 following manner: - 
 
 Burn or parch a handful of wlieat, and put it in a 
 barrel of whiskey— or, 
 
 Burn or boil down in an iron pot, about a pint of 
 brown sugar, or rather loal sugar, and put it in a barrel 
 as above — or. 
 
 Digest o.^k shavings in alcohol or spirits of wine, ;ii>d 
 the:i put in so much of it as wHi give the liquor a good 
 colour — or, 
 
 Put into a barrel a few handsfull of dried peaches — 
 
 or, • • f 
 
 Dieest the shavinpjs of logwood in a small quantity ol 
 spirits, which put into iho ban el— or, 
 
 If the inside of a new bariel be chirred or luirnt 
 black, it will add nouch to the flavor, and will also s^ive 
 a irood colour to the liquor. 
 
 Burnt sugar is made use offer whiskey and new rnm. 
 
 A pint ol burnt wheat will tjive a barrel ol whiskey a 
 very beautiful colour and will improve the flavor. 
 
 CORDIALS, 8cc. 
 
 To make Clove Water, 
 
 Take 4 pounds of bruised cloves, J lb. of alspice, 16 
 gallons cle.r proof spi-ils: digest liie whole mixture in 
 a K«ntle hent, and thc^n 1-aw off 15 -allons bv a brisk 
 heaw This may afterwards be coloureJ and sweetencu 
 vriib refiued sugar. 
 
DlSTItLlNG* feSy 
 
 Lemon Hater, 
 
 Take 4 pounds dried lemoo peal, lOj gallons proof 
 spiriis, Bod 1 do. pure watert draw or pistil off 10 gal- 
 lona a» nbove) 8tc. 
 
 Citron Water, 
 
 Take 3 pounds ol" dry yellow rinds of citron, 2 do4 
 orange peel, | do. bruised nutmegs, lOi gais. proof 
 spiiits, 1 do. water: digest in a moderate heat, draw off 
 ten gallons) and duIcKy as above. 
 
 Orange Water, 
 
 Take 5 pounds fresh orange peel, 10 J gals, proof 
 spiriis, 2 do water; digest and a' raw off ten gallons. 
 
 Lavender Water. 
 
 Ten gallons rectified spirits of wine, I do. wafer, 
 14 do. lavender flowers; draw off 10 gallons; wbich 
 should be done in a water bath. 
 
 Compound Lavender, without distilling. 
 
 Fill a gallon jug with lavender flowers; then pour the 
 jug full of French brandy on tbc {lowers; coi k it up 
 an<i set in a vvarm place, or in the sunshine for a month; 
 shaking U often, and then pour it off for use. 
 
 Peppermint Water, 
 
 Ten gallons proof spirits, 1 do water, and 14 lbs, 
 diy panpcrmint leaves: digest and then draw off 10 
 gallons by moderate heat. 
 
 Compound Gentian Water, 
 
 Inluse in 6 quarts proof spirts and 1 do water, 8 
 ovjDCfS «il leaves and flf)Hcrs ot the lesser centuary, 3 
 pounds biiced gentian root, 6 ounces of orange peel; 
 
S38 DISTILLIKG, 
 
 draw off until the frui's begin to lise: tl)is is a preven- 
 tative against the fever and ague. 
 
 Aniseed Water, 
 
 Take 3 ounces cat roway seerle, 6 do. aniseed', 1 {jal. 
 •Water, 4 dfi. proof spiiii; ml'iise in the still over rij;(>t, 
 snd thet> djw oflP as much as proof will bear, witli a 
 slow fire — diilcil'y witli wh>ie sugar. 
 
 Or thus: — Ftii two lbs. bruised aniseed in one gal- 
 lon of w.ter, with 12 gallons of proof spirit; draw 
 off 10 gallous by o sbw fire, and dnlcii'y as above. 
 
 To malce lied Ratafia, 
 
 Take 24 Ihs. black heart chenies, 4 do. black cher- 
 ries, 3 do bliyw^enies. 3 »1e. raspberries; bruise them 
 and let them sand 12 hours; press it out, and put 2 lbs. 
 of sujjar lor carh gallon of the juice. \Vhen the sugar 
 is dissolved, strain ii an.i add 3 quarts of proof spiii's. 
 Then take 4oanccs of cinnamon, 1 do mace, 2 drachms 
 of cloves; bruise them and put (hem inio the still wih 1 
 gallon pioof spirits ind 2 quarts of water, and draw t fV 
 a gallon by a brisk fii t: atjuut one quart f)f this addtd to 
 the above will make il ot an excellent 11 »vor. 
 
 To make an Excellent Wine, 
 
 /^ / Take cider fresh from the press, and strain it before 
 it has fernienlod; then put in as much ^ood honey a3 
 will c. use it to bear an egg. W hen il begins to fer- 
 riicnt, pour in as much cider as wijl kerp the vessel 
 lull, that the fiih m^y work ou't when it is done 
 working, bung jt up loosely iliat ;he. vessel may not 
 bu«s ; \n about six weeks add the while of eight or tin 
 ct'ijs, well beat up wiih a lint of clean sand, (this is 
 S'.ifli i.fit fur a baircl) aud .,|-,er mixing them wi:ll with 
 {lie (idei, 8cc. put <he whole into a cltan vessel »nd 
 buii).> it wtli froni O tober (which is the nroper time 
 for milking) until April, when it may be racked off into 
 kigs or'houles for use, and wi.t be neoi H tq^altotne 
 btsi in. ported wine, allbough il will iiut coat tibove half 
 tne price to make it. 
 
DISTILl ING, ^39 
 
 Tliere ont»ht to be ab«ut one tjallon of cider-spints 
 put jmo ejch clean barrel in which it is kept, and on 
 \vi:irh it ib to be poured alter mixiiij* the eggs, &r 
 
 A vtiiy good cider nine is made by evaporating 
 3Hav, in a broad brewing vtsbel, about one half of 
 any quantity «{ fresh cider, and piitiins; the re'iaming 
 halt into a woortcn cooler with a little yeasi (or into a 
 cask) anrl lermented in the usual way, &c. 
 
 It good cider be exposed^ to a severe frost, imm^di- 
 ntely after fernienlanon, and expostd to the cold until 
 one h. If is congealed to ice, &«. and the remainder then 
 drawn off into a clean vtsi'el, and cNiscd up well for a 
 few months, il will be nearly tquul to the best wine. 
 
 To make Currant Wine, 
 
 To 14 lbs. of clean, ripe currants add three gallonc 
 of waicr, and mash the fruii wcil; then stir il once a day 
 .f<-r ihree days; then strain *iff (he liquor, and add 1^ lbs. 
 of ^lood su^ar (dissolved in a s nail quantiiy of tt.e ii- 
 q"ffi)an(J 1st il stand abuut U days, withoii a bung, 
 afier which it. may be bunged up tight, acidin^j I qu <rt 
 ct French brandy to every 10 gallons of the liquoi; and 
 about Christmas it may be bottled uft for use. 
 
 Honey jnay be substituted lor the sugur, pulling in a 
 liulti more \n wci};;ht, Sd> 15 oi 16 pounds. 
 
 To make Beer, 
 
 Procure a large tub witii a tai*e bottono with a num- 
 ber of holes, not lari^e enough to Ic tut malt tliroi,«.»; 
 put into il one bushtlof malt coi^rsely ^r«,und, and I ^ 
 gallons of wji.cr (hcv 7^ gdis boilm,^ and 3 f;;ils cjIiI) 
 stir ?n<l let it stand three hours; draw it off Dy d hoie «t 
 the bo'tom, and then put on 6 ^Mluns more ot vvuei a 
 li'.tle jn-anner ihyn before; siir u, and ui i-wo ;iouis dr^w 
 it ffT; thoti 4 gals, mure, sliil hotter, and in ooo hour 
 draw it off'. 
 
 Put Hie two first liq-^ors on (o boil, and as they boil 
 
 down, fi,! up the kcttlt with the oiKcr liq or, anU boil 
 
 ^'bout two 01 throe hours, or till ihc wioh. i» reduced to 
 
 ^ gatlons; then strain atid cool it to 7^°, tUcu udd a tea- 
 
 > 
 
240 DISTILLING. 
 
 cup full of good brewers yeast, and as it works over, fill 
 up the tub three times a day for two days and a half> 
 then bung it up and in ten days it will be fit for use: a 
 Imle of the beer will run over while fermenting; this 
 ought to be saved to fill up with. 
 
 ^ Recti Jication, or Purifying Spirits, §'c. 
 
 Tlie prime object of rectification is to fiee the spirit 
 from the essential oil of the article from which it has 
 been distilled. 
 
 Many pretended secrets have been »poken of, and 
 even patents taken for supposed discoveries of differ- 
 ent processes by which the object might be obtained, 
 which it is not deemed necessary to enufTiernie; I shall 
 therefore barely state some of tr»e most simple, con- 
 venient, and yet effectual snethods now known. 
 
 If the liquor be run off by a slow and moderate 
 heat, it wUi curuain a much smaller ptirtion of the oil 
 than wlien a strong neat is applied and the still ruu uff 
 'in haste. In this case tne oil will remain behind in a 
 great measure, and what does come over is much more 
 easily separated alurwards tliyn when it is completely 
 blended with the spirit by lapid disiilltitioo. 
 
 If a quantity of pounded charcoal be mixed with 
 the spirits, and the whole put into ttie still and run off 
 a second time, it will be almost entirely clear of the 
 oil, when it co'i-es over moderately. 
 
 In A. D 1803, Ur. Allison oi New Jersey obtamtd 
 a patent for a new method of iectif>iiig or put living 
 spiiits; and as his patent mtis have expired in IS 17, I 
 shall v^ive the process which he reco iimeods. 
 
 Procure a barrel orotl.er vessei, wii* two heads let 
 in one end, about three inches Iruni tv<ch other, and 
 the inner head bure-.l lull ot small hoics. Over this 
 place one or two pieces c>i flannel cloth, cut su as to fit 
 closely around the sides »! the vessel, liien procure 
 some clean charcoal, ol ch' snut or niapl ; pound it 
 Very fine and make a pjsttr ot ii with some ot tlie liquor 
 «o be rectified, and wiih this paste cyver the fl -nuel 
 evfiily over, ahnut an incii in ihickn«.f.s; then lay over 
 it a piece ot gauze oi other ibiu &iuff| muu a tmaU light 
 
DISTITXING, 2U 
 
 oard on the niiddle of ii lo prevent Ihe liquor at fiist 
 poured in fiem disiuibii)^ tlie coil. Mix tlic liqvjor to 
 i)tj icctified Willi as inucii fi le coal as will ma^e ii as 
 dell k Dearly as ink, and Wien pour it gentiy on the board 
 fill you have it so deep as not to a^iiute the coal paste 
 by Iho pouMog; after uhicli fill up tiie vessel, and 
 diaw oil' at the boUoni by a small hole nia4e iit the si le 
 between the bottoms'. The above is the substduce ol" 
 the process leconirnended by Dr. Allison, and is per- 
 haps the best now known for rectifying ot spirits, <»s it 
 is near y pure when it h.is passed ttiroujjh the coil, 
 Which ei'her neutradzv^s or retains the oil. Tne same 
 process may be used for cider i:nmediaiely after press- 
 ing; ofT, and the benefif received vvill amply repay tha 
 expense to tne lover ol goodciler. It is said tnai clean 
 •Washed sand may be used for cider instead ol the char- 
 coal, with very ^ood effect; but it is likely that a ini*- 
 tuie of coal ana sand wuutd be preteiable to the sand 
 alone. 
 
 If the business of rectificition be carried on in a 
 lartje scale, it would be necessar) to i^rinJ the coal, as 
 the pouudiDg would be tedious and expensive. 
 
 21 
 
i 
 
 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 IT would not be consisient with the plan and object 
 of this woik, to cmer veiy deeply into the hibloty of 
 glass and glass making; but it n)U8t lie observed, that 
 so far from its being a modern inverition, it was known 
 in the days of Aristotle, who flourislted 350 yens be- 
 fore the Christian era, and uho gi>es two problems 
 iipon glass, of which the fiisi is wfiy wt see ihrouph ii? 
 The second, why it is nut malleable? In the time of 
 Strabo, who lived in the fiist century of the Christian 
 era, (he maiiufacture of glass was undoubtedly v^e'l 
 \indei stood, and had becone a considerable article of 
 trade. Seneca, who lived in the st-me century, sctma 
 not only to have been well acquainted with glass as a 
 irarisparent substance, but bIso undeisood i's m^gtiify- 
 ing powers when foimef) into a convex shape. Pliny 
 relates ihe manner of the discovery of glass. It was, 
 he says, first made of sand foui.d in the iiver lielus, a 
 small stream of Galilee, running from the foot of 
 MoMnt Carm.el. The report ol the discovery was, that 
 a Pi ccuicinn merchant ship, laden with nine oi mineral 
 alkali, being driven on the coast, and the crew going on 
 shore for provisiotis, and di easing ihtir victuals upon 
 the sands, made use ol some lunips of alkali to supputt 
 their keltlet: hence a vitrification of the sand beneath 
 the fire was produced, which afforueil a bint lor the 
 manufacture. 
 
 As glass csnnot be properly manufactured without a 
 furnace ^nd pots made of a particular kind of clay, I 
 shall begin with a desctiption of the various kinds 
 hitherto fotind fit for the put pose: — 
 
 Refractory clay, so -ailed from its long and stubborn 
 resihtance to the houest fi.e, is of gieat use to gla!,9 
 manufactuiersand o'bcrs; for, without it, thoy would 
 never be able to stand the Rieat expense attendant on 
 the frequent renewal of furnaces, &c. Clay for making 
 fire bri( k pots and glass furnaces, is found in various 
 parts ol the world; it is found in gre»'. plenty m ber- 
 
GLASS MAKIXG. 643 
 
 many, France, and England. The best clay is ihat 
 joiind at Stourbiidj^e in Eni^land, hy the side of a bed 
 oJ cual; it ib of a pale blue coluur, and pretty hard and 
 heavy, and qiiite Iree from any p irlicles of siiex or iron. 
 I'oi' pots it 18 ground, finely sifted and mixed wiiliuut 
 buiwi^ burned. Pois made o( this claj h ive been known 
 to stand eighteen months in a tumacc. For btick they 
 mix half burned clav or put shells, and hi.t!f ra.v cliiv, 
 and build their furnaces in England vvitb these brick 
 case-hardened. 
 
 There are $;rear varieties of refractory clay found in 
 America, and some oi them of a very ^ood quality, 
 tiioiigh there his been none yet found so durable as the 
 Stanrbridj^e chjy. 
 
 The cljy most in use in An>eiica is got at New B;ir- 
 lint^ton, on Delaware rivtr; the next at New Caslie, in 
 Dehiware; thtt next ai Soul'i Amb ;>•; and another kind, 
 of interior qialiiy, on tl>c river Elk, in M iryland — 
 There has L;iely been <!iscovcrcd a vein ot very i^ood 
 clay at lie-ivei, on the O -.io, and :ils') anothei at S.::\v- 
 ickly, near Piitshurj^. Tne Sewicklv clay is interspers- 
 ed will! fibrous roots ind iron ore, hut whi-n caietuily 
 divested of these ■eubstances, stands Qre cxceedint^ well 
 in pots or brick. 
 
 The clay »;ot at Burlington is du;» up out of the river 
 at low waier. It has a Mriy Diuish appt;arance wi)i!e it 
 is wet; but when drv, looks oC a fine pale wlnte, inter- 
 ndxed with red oc'iri-; it is scraped clean from dirt or 
 sand, and Irt-ed from tlie ochre very carvtnlly, at least 
 the p.irt of It intended for m iking pots. Bui with re- 
 spect to the chiy intended for brick, the diit and smd 
 are only scrape I , ff, vvnich is deemed sufficient A.'cr 
 the cf.y is ihu* prepircd, it is put lo dry, and whaiecr 
 qumiiiy of i' is deemed sufficient is jjrounti in its taw 
 sia.e, eiiher by a water or horse rniil. Another p-mi ,n 
 o the clay is put into an oven, and the lire gradually 
 in'-i cased from the first to the fo^irtn Muy; (or if th< fire 
 is laised too q .ick, ilie clay wilt fly into sm^ll pieces. 
 Wlien the fire has been raised to a white heat on ihe 
 fourth da>, keep is so tor three days -norc, making iri 
 the whi.de seven days Af er w'uch ti.'ue the c|j> will 
 ho so well ourntd tDat il two pieces ot it are strugjc 
 
g44 GLA!»S MAKING. 
 
 against each olher ti.ey will ruu like tretal. Tlii':. 
 civy, thus prepared, is also rj-ouiu] fine in a mill inid 
 pvit by lor use. 1 he sieve made use of for llie raw 
 cl- y is liom No. 20 lo 55; that for burned clay, fron) 
 Ko, 16 If 20, if !or po"^; but if the clav is lo be mixed 
 foV buck, No. 12 ami !6 will be most pnper. The old 
 brirk of (he furniCt-, &c. »re always saved and rtj- 
 gr(>und to be mixed with mw i lay to tviake brick; hot 
 the broken pots sre cie^riatd from ihc glass and j'la- 
 2::u's, and tlitn jjround up to he mixed 1 r iviKkinc pots. 
 
 The ir-ixiure for brirk is 2 busheli of r;.w cl-!y to 5 
 b'lsl els of burned, bifud through No. 12 and 16, and a 
 half a bushel rl burned brick sified throuirh No. 10. 
 These prop< rtn.ns are con'iirutd lil! there is a sufBcie-nL 
 qu<<ntity pui into the trough, It is then wet i:nd uci! 
 mixed; a clnh is then laid over it and then tiic woodei: 
 lid o( the trough. 
 
 This clay is worked twice a day with a wooden spit, 
 •which is n-.ade use of to cut it into thin slices, no iron 
 tool btinj; peinn.incd to tout h it lor the space often or 
 {our'.ccn days, and at every time the cl..y is so turned it 
 is well trodden with clean hare lect, alter wl ich tisne it 
 is fit to mould into bii( k. Tha pot cby is mostly mix- 
 ed after the followinj: tnannci:— I'wo bushels and a hi'.! 
 cf raw clav, sifted thro- g'l No. 25, to 2^ bushels ol 
 buined clay, sifnd t!irruii;h No. 16, and a naif a bushe' 
 of pot shfcis, Mtted throu^'' No. 20; then there is :: 
 clean clwtb put over sieve No. 25, and all the v.atc. 
 nect-ssaiy for moistenink' the po' asii passed throu ?h it 
 This clay is woikcd over from 14 to 20 days, ..ft< r the 
 same manner as the brick clay, after which period it la 
 fit to be made into pots. 
 
 SuCM, in jreneial, is the incthod of r^'w'mi clav to; 
 making furnace brick and pots for lusi-it,' kI-ss; liona 
 which, however, theie is a devia'ion in certain Cises, 
 tht ib, when the clay is either too fat or too poor. 
 What IS meant by fat cl.iy is. when it melts or fjivc 
 \\c.y lo the aciion of the fiie lo n shoit time. This m >> 
 ;iU:o be known by welching it ticfore it is put itHo il: 
 uxcn.nd wei^jhing it *der it is taken but Its silicwn: 
 p.- p!>rt es n.. V be eaisiiv asrerlnintd hy the d.fi- v "ci^ 
 cf w eig-.t, c?i>ecj:illy if uf'.er u is burned it has a ijl.z'.a; 
 
GLA.8S MAKING. JSi^jj 
 
 surficc. In this case tfid "quantity of biirnod clay aiust 
 be au'^niHritcd, and oily a sa!B:ieiu quality ofunburn- 
 c 1 clay liJrnittccJ to bin I or Hold the buincd clay toaje- 
 ll'.er. What is meant by poor clay is, that vvhejj there 
 IS too i!;reat a q liiuity of ijot shells or burned brick ad- 
 2TiiMed iotothe compoiiiion, it loses its eniciiy and be- 
 comes ^iubJect to crack and part asunder. In this case 
 a ijie^ter portion of raw clay is added. 
 New Castle clay is si.iiilar in all respects. 
 Elk. clay cannot be lelied on, as v is very apu to solit 
 fi'onn top to boftofn in the furnace, and occasions a seri- 
 ous loss of metal, 8cc. 
 
 South Arjib )y clay ii very good, though very rich, on 
 ^vhich >ccount it is mixed vfiih as much burned clay as 
 it will bear; though in soma mjnufactories Amboy and 
 New Caiile clay arc mixed togetlier, for thty correct 
 each other, that is, the fatness of the one is corrected by 
 the poverty of the other; but if the Amboy clay is used 
 alone, it will wear aw ly in a short time by' the action of 
 the fire, insomuch that the edge and side of the pot next 
 to the 6re wiil be as thin ks the edge of a knife, woilo 
 the part next to the rini^ stone generally preserves its 
 usual thickness. 
 
 Sewicklv clav, sj called from a creek near Pittsburr^, 
 HI Pennsylvania, where it is found. It is \ery i.npuie, 
 having a large qu.)niity of loam, red ochre, and rotten 
 roots mixed with it. Iron which circumstance it is sub- 
 ject to great waste in separating thcae substances trom 
 it; but when well cleaned i* bears fire well, an J must be 
 /inixed nearly half and iialf. 
 
 _ Baaver clay, it it could be procured i;i sizable lumps, 
 13 the purest and most refractory clay of any yet found 
 in America, and comes nearest in quality to the Siour- 
 bridge clay; but as it is only got in small lumps about 
 the .Mzeof a walnut, and sometimes a litilo larger, it 
 JTi.ist be wet and wade into cakes lor burning, which is 
 afterwards ground and mixed with raw cldv. There 
 are great varieties of refractory clay in America, but 
 It depends more upon acciJent than expsriment to form 
 a concise judgnaent of their gwodueas. 
 
 2I» 
 
S-tQ GLA.SS MAKING, 
 
 .i5-^-- 
 
 The Zincf.ville clay answi^^Veiy ucUf^^r !,rick,h>. 
 it cniinnt l)c iclied upon fof^ poti, Uiouyli iheie »: 
 insancts \vi)cre poib hi»vc stouti souie linit. 
 
 Wlien c!;iy is inixci] for njakiiuj pots, every car. 
 mvisi be takfin to keep it clean ami IVce iio<n d.iat, s li, 
 or arty otiier a.'lmiK'urr, even the person who ircacis it 
 liUist vvi.sh his feet cJcarj before l)e Roes into it, asitl 
 njiisi lUiB a spule of wood to cm dowsi the clay wi;;, 
 whvu it is to be trodden, vvliich oinjl-.( lo be twice a-day 
 for threife or f ujr weeks. VVilli respect lo the pots, they 
 vaty ii) sizv according to the bize ol the^fuiuare, s<)).c 
 pots holctjn;^ Iron. 4 to G cwt. and others not cpjile iwij 
 hu; dred weight. Their bhapes are also vaiious, ex- 
 cept lliut ^lass pot5., which are alwaya round and covci - 
 cd at ihe top uiih a circular dome, so thai ihoui;h .hu 
 file can play rou'itl thern, none cisn gel in, they haviui; 
 a rnouih at ti>e fiont to put the coniposuion in and gdi'-er 
 the i^lciSs out of when ready to «oik. But the pots 
 made use of for green and bof.'.e glass, are some of 
 them round, some oval, and othcss octa.c,on, and are all 
 i,o 'ethint; wider at the top than boiiom in order that 
 ;he i,rlass njiiy be ^ot out without didiculiy. 
 
 Pots are iir<i(\e in moulds in Aijncrica, France and 
 Geimany, and the moulds are ahv:«y3 lined wiih lioen 
 cloth to prevent the day from sticking t.» ihein, and 
 also to facijitaie the taking off ihe mouUl when the pot 
 is fmislicd, i.i order that it may dry re;,'ularlv. Some 
 moulds have only temporary cloths attached to iht:; . 
 others have the cloths nailed to them, but in such .. 
 manner that they may not come in contact with tnu 
 clay, as iron rust is very injurious lu pot cb^y. Whru 
 pots are to be made, the cUy is cut up into thin i] di. s, 
 Then beat well loi-ether and forn^ed mto rolls wiih the 
 hands These rol;s are cut up agam aad beat uptoge- 
 ther again into a form suitable lor putting the pot mou.d 
 over it It is then worked down m an even surtace, 
 andwo.ked out from the centre to the sides ot the 
 mould till the bottom is of a proper thickness. 1 his 
 operation forces the clay against the sides of the tm.u.d 
 to .he height of MK inches, where U is fir..dy p.accu 
 and guaged; then tl-.ere are other rolls made, and c uc- 
 fully beui upon, aiid added to the pari already loruy 
 
 :.<.i<!JSUlM^ . 
 
GLASS MAKIXG. S47 
 
 ■ i.ich is coiilinucd till ihe pot ibcarikd to il>« re qtijs c 
 -ivi;!)'. li is iheii ^jcr.ipe*.! out i»n<\ poli.->;iC(t, aic ti.c 
 ■ loiil I iiiiy bi; taken off eight or niiiu luaiis alter the 
 , "ji i^ linisiicd. I'he rcdson ot bcalir.!^ ami wDikin;.!; tbu 
 .Ir/ so p iriiciii u iy is tii aiakeit co'upaci uPid eradicate 
 i.io blistt-.rs that mMy be in the clay, as every blister is 
 Silled vi!i)ai!, Wi.ici* cxpaniis wde.-i hoi uwd buri a lae 
 P'.is ir» which sucb blisters aru. 
 
 Vhii pot room should^.b* at least 40 feet lort^ by 50 
 ;cet wi.io, with pro;j<;i uia:s <in:l trouj^iis lor h(5ldij){:j and 
 inixuifj clay. Ii oufjht to bo well secured tVoiu Uostj 
 uiici have both a stove aucJ a firo placi; and the new 
 i.'ia<!c pots sl)«uld be so placed luut c^ery part may dry 
 cqifaliy, tor if osie side ol a pi^t dries cjuicker thau ano- 
 liicr it cause* it to cruck, and in such cuks liio put is 
 rendered uselebs. 
 
 \Viiei) tne puts aie perfeqlly fiir-tlried, or caae bar- 
 iler,ei,r!f-y ate put iato the (jot-oven, and gently sinoKed 
 for 8 or 10 bo-.irs; then the firo is i;;radudlly raised dl 
 tlje pots are red, \.yhcn tue fire is raised to the iiij^hest. 
 The pots are keiit in this 'heat from 20 to 30 hours, 
 v.T.oii livey arc t ilien <ki! of die pot oven and put ioio the 
 furnacivas cpiicli as possible. Alter the djafii ut tiic 
 iurujce are optjiied, and the oots broui^ht gradually lo 
 I proper heat, there is a saffioicii; q i iniity ot brok-n 
 ;;las3 put ii.io each, vv'iich, when pioperiy ais:ted, is 
 . hered on an iron and ruboed round iiic; inside of the 
 ;;ui lor the purp^jSrf of j^'hizitiir them; aiier wiiich they 
 itic ready to receive the composition. 
 
 If a pot happens to crack uj sucn a part that the fur- 
 mce can be upened and the lir adimtud to act upon, 
 that part aloiie, the ttxteruul air hardens tue gl»ss that 
 Doz^s throUijh the crack, whicii serves as a piaiier and 
 prevents any ;noro j^lass from passini^ through. This 
 nitJiiiod of men-linij is called ''coucavinsr," and pots 
 men led in this matmer have stood in the furnace Irora 
 y to 10 'nonths in Enij;l4nd. 
 
 Brick clay is .nucn the same as pot day, s ive oniy 
 ihai 'vhat is not fit to enter into 'he composi-ion for pots 
 an:>wc!3 very well for brick; it is oltenalso mixed witli 
 harsh irdusible .sand, and sifted ihrou^h coarsor sicv.is. 
 ic is not needful to be so particular in keeping brici-; 
 
SiS OLVSS MVKING, 
 
 clay c'cin as it is ih^ ;ivji ciiy. I', cm also be ma'lc fi 
 for inoiiliiioi; in !4 claijl 
 
 Ttte in .jl Is are ^Uviys made suitable to the size ot 
 th*; br(Ck w^iiteci lor ihc iijroace an'l ovens, an I arc 
 alw ys made with keys, so that wnen a brick is .loaidtd 
 the Ueys are taken out, aticl the mould taken ofT.uid dus- 
 ted Wilt! 90. no clav, it is then put t<jj5eil)er aj^aii), anoi \he 
 sa lie princess ren'*-vved t'll the n-q'iired num'^er ot'b. icr: 
 are mo-ild'jd The b. ick rnnst be let dy perfectly.bs'uic 
 they are put to burn, for ifihey arc piit into the oven 
 wimout beii.g dry, the moisture contained in them,«x- 
 p.inds and c.iuses the brick to fly or breik to piece; in Hie 
 oven. Kvi-n vrhen tliay are well dried, iorcing the fi etoo 
 quick has the same cflTett After the brick are well 
 bullied, which will be in the course of twelve or foui- 
 teen day*, the diaf' ot the oven shoull be stopped, ind 
 the door plastered ?nd ihc brick let <ool gradually, rnd 
 after the biick ^le tjken out, if any of il»cm Iiave a 
 jjtossy apnear;<nce it should be carefully rhippeil "ff, 
 and the brick fined to iis place, before it is bedded in with 
 cement tnade of the same soil of clay. 
 
 Ofthp. Glass-houdP and the necessary Ooens 
 and Buddings. 
 
 The first thing necessary to he observed in buildi ig 
 a plass-house, is to liave it &■> situated, that theie n^ay 
 be always a free circulation of air thr'jugh the caves. 
 As soon ds the found-i ion of the glass house is laid out 
 the sitU'»tion and extent of the caves, are alsj laid nfT 
 and carried up with the foundation 'In general one 
 lontj cave runnin^i; the wh(de breadth of the nou^e i-i 
 siifiicienr in a fli It 5»lass house; but such is surrounded 
 with other buildinjrs, or is in an enclosed bi.uation. 
 Other caves, of less magniiu le, are formed opening 
 anjjularly to the eye of thefurnac« to correct any wint 
 oi draft in the main cave, and they are usually cdlej 
 cross cuves. The cave should be SJ feet wide in ttie 
 clear and 6^ feet higli, with an open space in the cen- 
 tre, left una ched, of 5 leel. Directly under this open- 
 ing, and at the botloro of ibe cave, or equal to the rest 
 
GLASS MAKING. Sli9 
 
 of Ihe foondalinn, there is a wail bcveliinq; o^t on each 
 side, ten feet wide at the bottom, and tapenns: upwards 
 to SIX loct wide; it is then wiihin iwo leet of the bottom of 
 th'j fuinaCB It must be observed llial the^e two walls 
 that are ten feet wide at the bottom and six feet wi le 
 vvilliin two feet of the bed of the furn-xc, ihoiij;h they 
 arc five feet and a IsaU" apart at the foundation, bittec 
 out rcijularly each way, to come to ll»e width ot two 
 Jeet, at the hei>rht of thiee iscl and a haJf from the 
 n )or of the cave, and within two feet of the r,rown of 
 the cave ^rch, from which distance, or where the bevel 
 s. ops, the wall is cirried up sinigfit and buili witli 
 bticU, still prcseiving the distance ol two feet between 
 ihetii. When the brick wall is carried up six inch, s, 
 lh<-re are three irons laid ir> at e ch side witn cramps 
 to them in order to lay them in secure; they a e calied 
 socket irons, and are placed U inches apart on each 
 side. The use of these irons is to lay three b^rs of 
 iron into them, with three iron rin^s or shoulders on 
 each, to act as levers in siipportiot; the iron bar and 
 hook used in separjtlint; .»nd c.emini; the j;iMies of the 
 fuinace. VV'hen the brick wall is cariicd up to within 
 five inches of tno crown of the cave arch, t leru are 
 three pieces tf halt flat iri.n lail on exli end of the 
 wall, :hat is each way liom the centre, so as that there 
 my 1)0 anopenini^ in !eni;;th of three feet lon^ md two 
 fi-tt wale, died the rye of the furnace. Upon the 
 irr>n iiais i^ove btatcH . flat aich ma-^t b: thrown to the 
 inside cxirt-rniiy or eye ,0'' the tnioace, leavint; ihi in- 
 sidf openinar ur eye uiree feet loni» Hind two feel wide 
 as beioie stated. 0.» the oi-nire of this opemoi^ is 
 pUced a cast iron bar, 2 feet 8 inches lung, 2 inches 
 ttiirk at bottom, a inch ilHc.kncis^ it bears for anincij on 
 cad) side, and ilien be»el3 foi' an incn each wa>, 10 
 a point at the lop, heing something -.imilir in shape to 
 tiio iUi> roof ot a hou->e, fourteen inches from the cen- 
 tre of this bar eac;i w »y thare is p! .ced ono rtore of 
 t!v-> fcamcik nM of b rs, 'na^in^ three in ih^ wlioK-;; their 
 use is tO>J,*y tie r inning b.irs of inch sqoare iro.i or,^ 
 v.'hicii f'jrdiUhe jjrdie m the eye of thu iurn-icc. 
 
250 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 UimpTiftions of the Sies;e or Plafform of a 
 Flint Glass Furnace, to hold six pots. 
 
 The area being a circle, its iliamtier is 7 leet G 
 inches, and as the pillar brick arc placed 9 inches in 
 on the sicq;e, it rnukes ihe semi-diameter to Ihe inside 
 point of these bii k three feet. 
 
 This circle is divided into six arches, forminR so 
 many openings into the bed of the furnace, 2 feet 8 
 inches wide oiuside, and vvi lening to the inside point of 
 the pillar brick t;) tl'.ree feel. The height of these six 
 arr hes is 3 feet six inches each The pillar brick are 
 16 inches long, 14 inches broad al the outward end 
 next to the cone, :ind 8 inches broad at the inside, and 
 8 in- hes tiiick Four of Uicse brick are placed on 
 each otiier before the arches are spiung. 
 
 The siege or pl:itlorni of tlie lurna;:e ought to be 
 built of fire biick, in three courses of eigat inches 
 ear!), m.iking the "aii-ge or platform two feel ihicU, but 
 in x^uciica it is built of a soft s indsione, that does not 
 stani tire long, rtnd must be tcnpcred or brought to a 
 Avhitc lua witlj gre.it cire, or else it will be apt tu fly 
 lo pieces on- account oS t!ie air and moisture coniuinod 
 in t!)e stone. 
 
 The expense of riising and cutting this kind of fur- 
 nace bed frequently exceeds that of a inuic lasting one 
 in-<!d of clay. 
 
 I shiil, however, give the «ize and number of biick 
 fit iw the bed or sici^e of *. flint gijss furnace: 4 '»rick, 
 2i teei vide, liy 3 feet long, nid 8 inches iliick; 3a 
 brick, 2 I'-ei 3 incnes, by 2 feet 9 inciie-^, and 8 uicn«9 
 thick; 3 brick, ,' fee 6 inches, b) 2 fest 10 inches, and 
 5 inch<» ihick; 2 buck, 3 feet long, by 2 fee\ 4 inches, 
 an>i 6 inches thick — For each of which, moulds, with 
 key- to hem as before described, must be made. I 
 have ilso given more than the neccssiry number of 
 bri:-k, in order if any are broke or ui.fi for use they 
 Hi.'y be replaced by othuis. 
 
 It IS ais.> uetessary to cut the outside courses of t'lesc 
 b-nck ro fit the ouiside of 'iie circlt? ot the siege of the 
 t'urnuce, the diatneier ol" which bcin^; 7 leel 6 inches. 
 
CLASS MAKIN<&. 2Gi 
 
 i'nc circumrerejice will be 23 feet 6;J inches, and 2 feet 
 tlitck tl.ronghcu'. I'hc eye or Kiiteofthc luinace is 
 
 3 Ice. long anil 2 fctt wide by 2 tcct dtcp, and the lease 
 hole, by which the cohIs -oic adininerl iiAio iht- luinarc, 
 is made under the top couise of brick, holiow into the 
 eye of the liiriiace, |2 inches wide and 8 inclics liigb 
 cleiii through; at tl>e nioulh of ilie tease hole there is 
 placeO, directly evtrn with the ciicle, a cust iron box, 
 12 iiKiiefe wide, 14 inches lon^j, arid 8 ii.chi'S hi^h in the 
 clear, with a Icrige upon the lioni etl^c. all »oiuid, IJ 
 inch broud, in order to st, y it in iis pl^ce. It is called 
 a (ease hole fiance, and its use is to secuie thr mouth of 
 the tease hole h(<m inju'y on tci ount oitht coals, rake 
 anfi poker, the 'icqueni entry of wisich into the furnace 
 cannot be avi>idcd. 
 
 On the bed of the furnace are placed the ptilar brick, 
 
 4 in each pillar, and 2 lect 6 ii tf es apsrt. On these 
 pillars aie siJiung unci c iritd o\er the semi-aichcs, 
 Jorriiing the six inlets ifitj, the (uinace, and -supporiing 
 the dome or crown ihi reof ai'^o The brj( k for the 
 eemi-arcies aie 9 inciies lonj;, 6 5 8 iriches thick at me 
 end, 5 int lics tliick nt the ijihei ti d, and 5 ii.rl'rs wl.-^e, 
 h;.\ii g 9 bti(k to a course, and nsiUj^ 1 5 8 inches 
 more el the outsice of the inch ih<.i, the ii.Mcie. Ju*t 
 vheie these aicl.es ure tipiun^ lioni ihe he^d v( the 
 pillar, there is a circular hole Kit nioer boti-. the screw 
 backs, and cunitd nut ihiougli the dtpih of tbe l)rii k, 
 whictiis 9 inches; .ht c fire is orjj 1^ .iieh in diarre- 
 ter; they are Ci.lled linet noles, una aie nii<de foi the 
 put pose of isccehratinj; the rr«ft of the t« rnace and 
 collecting the fiie round tlie loj) ol the puis. 
 
 'I'here ate also a nun ber ol bii<k m de, called pl.ce 
 brick, 12 ar 16 inches lor {,', 8 inches wide, and 6 inches 
 deep: there are others, 10 inches lonj;, 4 incies thick, 
 ai>d 6 inches eifcep: tl ese brick ».re generally made to 
 build up the n onth of the potaich wnh; and when lh« 
 pots ate set, tlity ate then placed htiuie the fiont o! the 
 pots, but in sucli u maniet as to let tie file play rcund 
 them. The next thing to be observed in buildjog the 
 furnace, is to have it level ail round to the heads of the 
 semi »iches, in order that the fiisi cnuise may lie ex. 
 :ictly level, lor it that course is properly levelled and 
 
25S 
 
 SLASS MAKIXG. 
 
 set, there will be no difTiculty in keeping the oilier 
 courses regular. 
 
 Nix; follows a description of ibe lising, length, 
 brciulih and bevel of the seven couiscs of the dome or 
 ciO'vnot a flint i^lass fuMiaCf: — 
 
 1st course — 36 biick for a course, 7 7-8 in thick at the 
 oulsuiL, 7 inclcs at the point, inside, bevel 6 3-8 inches, 
 knytli y in< hi s: 
 
 Sd couibt — S6 brick for a course, 6 5 8 inches thick 
 at the outsicie, 6 I 8 inches at the point) thickness ai ihc 
 inside bevel 4 3 4 iiiches, and 9 inches lon^: 
 
 Sdcouise — 5i inches tliick at the outside, 5 1 8 inches 
 at ihc point, thickness <it ihe iniide beiel 3 316, ana 9 
 inches lon>..: 
 
 4ih course— 4 4 5 inches thick at the out^ide, 5 inch- 
 es tliic k Hi the point, thitkuess at the inside bevel 2^, 
 and 9 incites lont.! 
 
 5th course— -I inches thick at the ou tside, 4| inches 
 lii-e, and 2 1 8 nirl.es at ihe pr.ini, 9 iicheh lon^: 
 
 6tl» course — 4| iuclies rise, 2 7 8 inside bevel, 1 7 8 
 in( 'xs at the puiiil, and 9 inches Ion ,: 
 
 7i' cuuist — 4 7-8 inciics rise, 4i inside bevel, 2 1-8 
 inside bevel. 
 
 Theie a'c sevtn courses, ot thirty six biick each 
 ccurse, eurli ol itien; grov\iig narn>\\er iS tiity ascend, 
 till t»e last coiwse havts an onfice in the centre of 
 7 inches dianieict at the outsi' e, ;ind 5| U'Chcs at the 
 inside, atid 9 incl.ts deep, wi>ith is filh d ny a key-stone, 
 thionjrh which tl'er« is a hole uiadt, 2 inches in <li<sme- 
 ter, called the cavil^.tor. its uss is when there is an 
 ovei-drjfi ol air, or too n uch fiie to cany off the 
 si'pt labundai.t volnnte ol fire lliio> gh the centrifn^;al 
 cr.fict; and t.n ii e coniroij, when the current of aii la 
 net strcnj; enough, t.ncl ihc fire loo sluck, the cavilaiur 
 c?n be covered t»y Uieans ol a buck kept on the cone 
 Jor the ptii pohc. 
 
 The iiiouai used in builciin{» tl^e furnice should be 
 made ol raw afif buinid c ty, niijkcd with lair Wuttr, a 
 Utile ihitker than cre^n , and a liil;e oi it spread uiuitr 
 e; rli bni k. 1 t^e hiii k sbouic: be -well ii.bb»d in aiid 
 euch jf'inttd as clobc itn possiblt ; and in ral^in^ tjie 
 dome or ciuwn ot the luiiiaee, iheie is do occasion lur 
 
GLASS &fAKING. S!d3 
 
 jentreg, as the tenacity of the cement is alone able to 
 svii)pon «ach brick, which, wlicn the course is finished, 
 su()por.s> Itself, conveigiiig in the cemie like the spokes 
 ol a Wdgon wheel. 
 
 Note, that the outside course or risinjj involution of 
 the circle, is the back part of the mould, and descrioes 
 the breadth as well as llie heijjht. Bat the inside or 
 deepning bevel, at the end ol ihe brick desctioes the 
 inside ileepniiig bevel, depressed or cohver^iiiij similar 
 each way lo an egg cut ui tuo, the uutai le sniiilai to the 
 ;xietiial lonn ot the dome, ahd tne inside, having the 
 yolK taken out and the iviuie remaining similar to the 
 lirside ut ihe dome, il we would suppose the thickness 
 ot the shell and wniie and sheil, lo t>e<ji an aualoj^y lo 
 the thiCKhess uf ihe buck in the dome of the furnace. 
 
 1st course 7 7 8 in. 35 brick 9 in. long 6 3 8 in. inside 
 
 2d 
 
 
 6 5 8 
 
 »; 
 
 36 
 
 t) 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 3 4 
 
 Sd 
 
 
 5 I 2 
 
 
 36 
 
 » 
 
 9 
 
 
 3 3 16 
 
 4th 
 
 
 4 5 8 
 
 
 36 
 
 >> 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 1 4 
 
 5in 
 
 
 3 3 -t 
 
 
 36 
 
 5> 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 6 U 
 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 
 36 
 
 5> 
 
 9 
 
 
 I 7-8 
 
 7ih 
 
 
 47 8 
 
 
 35 
 
 )» 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 18 
 
 One caviiiior or centre <r'one, 7 inches dia neter at 
 niic end, and 6 inches at ihe uUicr, and ^ inches deep. 
 
 Again — 
 
 1st course 7 7-8 inside difference in 9 inches 6 3 8 inchi 
 
 2a ,,63 8 „ 4 3-4 „ 
 
 3<l „ 4 3-4 „ 3 3-16,, 
 
 4mi ,,558 „ 2 1-4 ,, 
 
 5u» „ 33 4 „ 2 7-8 „ 
 
 6th ,,27 8 „ 17-8 „ 
 
 7ai „ 47 8 „ 2 18 ., 
 
 22 
 
2^1 
 
 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 7-8 
 
 14 
 
 63 8 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 3-8 
 
 6 
 
 4 3 4 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 •1 3-4 
 
 12 
 
 3 3-16 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 5 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 1-4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 3-4 
 
 12 
 
 2 7-8 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 2 7-8 
 
 14 
 
 I 7-8 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 4 7-8 
 
 14 
 
 2 1-8 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 3 It. 1-8 
 
 16 82 5 
 
 1 It. 11 7- 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 8-15 
 
 
 
 
 7- 
 
 1 
 
 By the foicpoinf^ calciilalion, tlie rise of llie furnace 
 outbide fiom the first course over the senii nrchet, is 
 ^ ftct iiixl 1 8 cf at) iich to the lop cl il.c taxiJatoP. 
 Tie inside lisc to the boitcini or insid&.point ol the ca^- 
 ilator is 1 foot 11 JDches afid 7-16 or iitarly ^ an iuch, 
 ti.e iJifftitr.re tlietefoie bet \^ ten the coiivtx oi the 
 <}onie and the concave theitof is I foot 11-16. 
 
 Hound the furnace, and against each of its pillo'S, 
 rre built pilars of coinmou biick, 2 leet deep, and iO 
 inches wide at the iiase, wnicii taper inwards afltr tlie 
 sixth course, foriT.ipg ilie base ol a cone or circular 
 thin;iity whicli sut rounds the lurnace, »nd suppoited by 
 Si)X archer., exactly opposite the arches oi tt:e (urnace, 
 cxtcplinj: li:at arches of the cone are 18 inches higher 
 than il;oie of the lui race, the cone, is cauiedup taiur- 
 injr till it conies to be three leet in dii.ntter, alter 
 wlvirh, it is canied up in a stiaighi circulai flue, about 
 5 kct outside the comb lA tlie building. 
 
 1 he poi ovens, for atinealintr puts should be two '" 
 rutnher, li'.tir doors, should be in Ihnt glass works, 
 levelled, that the pot caniage cari be run into the ovm 
 end under the pot and fioni tlience lun into ti»e lur- 
 1 ace. I'oi ovcris aie n>ade of vaiious diinensioiis, son c 
 to hold two pots, some four, and otlicis six pots. 1 
 shall give th.e diirensions of one to hoh iv. o pots and 
 and her calculated to hold four pots to be lempeitd 
 aiinealed wuii coals. 
 
GLASS MAXIXG. S55 
 
 The base or floor of an oven to contair) 2 pots, sliould 
 'C 9 (eet 8 incites i'l brea'.tlh, atid 7 tcet y inclie-* deep, 
 iiie asii [>ii Hl-i(.uild be suol; 20 incites belc.v tlie Huur of 
 ■':^^ oven, and when even wiib Uie tloot- of the oven, it 
 iould be I wo I'cel lon;^ and uvunn? inclies wide; un llii^ 
 asiu pit snouidbe placed two casi iron bars for sleepers 
 to iay tne jjrate hats od; ilie front wall of the oven 
 s!ujiild be 9 itiche-; tiie bide walls 2 feet, and ilie back 
 \v.il| of the oven 3 feet thick, as liie tire place ouf^lit to 
 be sloped in under one of the widis, mere O'j^.'ht to 
 bo an oul-jutiinij (lanch wall built to strengthen the 
 bide waU where the fiie place is built; alter deducting 
 the thickness ol the walls fio;n the flour of the oven 
 it wilt he 5 feel deep by 4 J in the clear; the door 3 feet 
 hij.;h dud 2 leet 4 inches wide^ there should be twu false 
 jan)b3 or pillars carrietl up two feet di;ep and 5 feet 
 ap;«rt, with an outward hevei ol 3 niches to the foot to 
 s.jpp'jit an arch, for running up a shift t!ior»jon; on the 
 bick part of this pillar, and directly on the head of the 
 oven, Which is 5 feet 9 inches outsldo, there is a semi- 
 aroi), thiown to support ihe buck o( thj shaf!, wiiich 
 b.uteis in till it comes to 20 inches, after wiiich it is 
 Ciiricd up straight. The use uf the Oick trch is, that 
 if the head or any pjri of ihe oven wants repair the 
 cliininey may st.'.nd undis'.urbed. 
 
 I)iimnsi)!ii of aa Ooea ij contiln 1 Vjts. 
 
 The floor qnd side walls are built as befoie directed, 
 hut that this (iven on account of it-* size, ouf^ht to hive 
 two fire pljjcs. It should be six leeiwile in the cle^r, 
 ati'l eik^ht feet deep in the CiCir, the out walls and snaft 
 to he carried up as before direcicd. 
 
 As there aro n\Jkny ghss faciories carried on in Atne- 
 rica with wood, I shill describe a pot oveu to suit that 
 nio.le: — If the oven is for tjicen glass pots, the 11 xjr oi 
 it m.iy be raised 2 feet fro-«i iht; floor of tne nousc, as 
 the i)>ti are taken out upon lar^jje iron biP'?; but it it is 
 f')i a Hint glass works that wo<id is used ior fueimic 
 floor uuist be -nade low enough to run the pot c:irria:^c 
 in and tie lire place and as!) pit equ.siiy dcppessfd, 
 Tne nick an 1 aide walls of the oven to be heated vviiU 
 wood; die buiii as belorc described; the arch into wiuch 
 
S56 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 the wood is put for heating tlje oven, is carried from llu 
 front cl the oven to within 6 inches of the bnck wall 
 It ought to be 14 inches wide and 22 irfches high, the 
 floor rf the flue on a level with the fioor of the house, 
 Vhen the flue is run in to about 18 inches of the back 
 pjft ol the oven, it ous^ht to baiter back as it riset. to 
 nect the floor of the oven fi inches fron» the back ns 
 btf(.re sptcifitd; the use of this batter ii to give the 
 flame a graoual ascent, and secure the back part of 'he 
 flue Irnrn the damajje that may occur fiom the volume 
 of flame that would, without such precaution, suikc 
 a(>ainst an unrisht suiface, and perhaps in place of 
 ascending ihrouKh the flue into the oven, may recoil 
 back to tiie mouth of the flue. The oritice or niouih 
 of the flue on the bed of the oven, ought to be 8 incl)cs 
 Jong and 6 inches wide, and built round with two 
 ronises of brick to prevent any dirt or other impedi- 
 metit from falling in Irom off the bed of the oven an.) 
 choaking the flue. The floor of the oven should be 5] 
 feet wide and 6 ftet det- p, and if, for giecn glass pots, i 
 feet high; but if for flint glass pors, the crown of the 
 oven should be 5 feet high. The door of the oven for 
 green glass pots should be 2 feet 4 inches wide and 3 
 feet high. The door of the flint pot oven 2 feet 6 inch 
 es wide, and 3 ftet 6 inches high. 
 
 The oven mude use of for tempering or anneaiinp 
 flint gljss is called a lear, without which flint glas- 
 cannot be tempeied or brought to any peifection. 
 
 The kar ought to be 40 feet 1 jng frotn its mouth to 
 the lower gates; Hie bed or floor of the oven or lear 
 about 3 feet high at the front, and 2 feet high at the 
 Jower end, making a depressed and t:r.idual level of 
 2 feet in the space of 40. 'I'he bed of the lear should 
 he 7 feet 9 inches, and when the iwu side walls are builf 
 thereon, a loot thick each, it would n>ake the whole 
 ground under tlie lear 9 teet 9 ii ches; hwt the bed of 
 the lear itsell as above stated only 7 feet 9 incnes im the 
 clear. In the centre ol the bed of the lear, shnu.d U: 
 carried up a nine inch w»ll, to serve as a paitition be- 
 tween both lc:irs; and when tl)is atid tin- iwosile wallj 
 me 11 inches i^-rh, tlien sl)'»ul;i be cent its set dnd arcli 
 cs cast b(.-th ways, fronn out to centre wall, for the wiiulc 
 
GL\SS M\KIN'G. g57 
 
 distance; but when the arches are turnCfl for the length 
 of 30 Itet, antl within 10 leet fioro the lower gales of 
 the lear, there are two flues left, one on each arch, tlio 
 puii)ose of vvliictj ia to let the stroke and heat cu': 
 tliey are cailecl cooling flues, and aie gcner.iily termi- 
 nated in a lijj;ht sliult. The glass in the lear has the 
 reiujinin^k? ten feet, have time to cool in its gradual dc- 
 s. eiif, for if it is pushed dt»^vn too fpiick it will infyliibly 
 crack or fly. At the U'ar mouth there is two fiie places 
 ma !e, each aj^amst the si<!e walls, 3 feet 6 inches lontr, 
 18 inches wi.ie, i\oi] 10 inches high; there ate also two 
 bevel pillars, 2 feel deep, to suppoit the bretist of the 
 cliirnney, and a filse arch to support the back of it. 
 At the mouth of the lear thcie is a strong iron fr^me 
 bedded into the brick work to haiij^ siicet iion gates on, 
 and theie is an iion b^r laid quite across the mouth of 
 the lear, to save the floor Irom b«injj iippe>l up by the 
 continiKil entrance of the pan«, and at every six feet 
 from the ou'side doors, vheie t»re cross [)ic( es of iron 
 laid, to fasten iion bars to that run the whole length of 
 the lear, there are two of these long bars in each 
 lear that the puns may run on them without touch- 
 ing the Roor of the lear. At the lower end of the I«ar 
 there are lihing gates to each Ic^r, «o lift up and down 
 when the pans want shilling. The pans are marie of 
 strong sheet iron, 18 inches wide, and 2 leet long, so 
 that 19 cf them will fill one side; but there ought 
 always to be six spare pans, f«r fear of any accidetii; the 
 pans must be strengthened at each end with iron, and 
 each pan timst have a cant hook at one end, and a place 
 to icceive such another at the other end, so that they 
 may be hooked into one another, and ijauled to the bot- 
 tom of ihe lear by a wincli placed there fur the pur- 
 pose. Shoe, an article mada oi clay, to heal the pipes 
 ill! It IS made flat el the bottom, and covered all over by 
 a kuid of hdf circle. It is made on a mould. Tho 
 mouid is 8 inches lof>g, 4j inches wide, and 3J inches 
 hi^h, consequently (he shoe will be oi ihose dmiensions 
 in the clear and | ol an inch thick 
 
 From the dimensions given of the various kinds of 
 brick wanted for a lluu glass furnace, any carpeiitcr 
 can make the nccessjry iDoulds without any difficult}'. 
 22» 
 
^68 
 
 GLASS MAKING, 
 
 Oj the Green Glass Furnace for Wood or 
 Coats, 
 
 My first object is to give a tlesciiptlon of the fur- 
 nance to be heaitd with wood, as such fmnaces are 
 iT)*ne general in many parts <;r Ameiica, than those 
 carried on with coals, owinj^ chieCy to the difliculiy of 
 pKiciiring it, and also the prejudice of certain ijluss 
 niaker«i, who alledge that the sulphur and smoke of 
 coals, tends to make the glass have a bad colour, but, 
 surh ir.convcnicTices are not complained of in England, 
 Ireland and Scotland, where all the glass made is lused 
 by means ol coals. 
 
 DcscrlfUion of the Furnace ^ or U indow Glais to con- 
 tain 12 Fctft^ each Pot coiitainini^ 130 Cylinders of' 
 18 by 14, Glaus, 
 
 Tl.c furnace is always erected in the middle of the 
 house, and is what is !i;i;nera ly termed a French fur- 
 nace, the outside form ol which is an oblonj^ square; 
 bm the inteiior is that of a square or reciai=ij!;ular par d- 
 li:U»j;rarn the bioadest sides of w'lich are occupied by 
 the [K)is, which are placed on Denciies, and oidy sp ice 
 enough left between them for the fire to play round 
 Ihem. 
 
 '1 hickness of the end walls of the furnace 2 feet 4 
 inclitjs, till it ri»*es one course over the tease hole arch, 
 where it ia coniracied to a 16 inch wall, and the scue 
 back on which the arch is sprung is fitted to turn an 
 arch of 1 lowt thick. 
 
 The length ot the benches inside the en 1 
 wal'.s, &nd which are to receive 6 pots, e^h put '22 
 inches wide at the top, aud an allowance of 1^ inch 
 space beiween each pot for fire play, is 11 tevi9 
 inches. The tone or bottom ot the iurnace is that par: 
 whereon the I'Vei flowiug and overflux of the gidss lails, 
 whilst it is nieliing and is exactly ihe length ol 'c 
 bi nchf 8, but i* liigher by three inches intheceniii^ 
 than at each » nd, wh«-re the henchcs are 2 ieet 4 inci. 
 and but 2 Ictl 1 inch in the centre, muking a o(-\ 
 
GLASS MAKIXG. 259 
 
 jach way of 3 iiicbes io 5 feet IO2 inclies, hall the 
 length ulthe tone. The use of this besel each way is 
 \o facilitate the drawioi; out ol the liard glass, and as it is 
 exiremely corrosive tlTis bevel is made 10 make it run 
 I off towards the hearih, where it is taken out with a rake 
 I made lur the purpose. Height of the beHcliCS Iron) 
 the toiic stone 2 leet 4 inches, with the excepiion of 
 the bevel before stated. IJreadlh of the lone, or bwltoin 
 of the furnace, 1 foot 10 inches, and bevelling 2 inches 
 on each side, makes the breadth between the tup of the 
 benches, 2 feet 2 inches. Breadth of the benches on 
 which the pots stand, 1 foot I<) iViches. Height of the 
 fide wall to the edge oi t'.iC ring stones, 1 foot 10 
 inches, that is, to wiihin one inch ol the bottom of th:; 
 ciicleinihe ring stone. Opposite each pot, and ex- 
 actly level with the top ot the benches, there is an open 
 space left ol 7 indies square, called a foot hole, tlie use 
 of which is, to accelerate the poi ttrtlin}*, and if the pot 
 is cracked in the sides to turn the part to the foot hoie, 
 ar.d concave it as belore dircctC'!; these holes can be 
 Slopped by a brick made for the purpose, called a foot 
 brick and tlie edges plastered. ihe ring stones beinjj 
 I six on each side, should be 18 inches wide and 14 
 S incnes high and 10 inclies tiiick, tiie outside diaineter 
 of the rn)g or circle in the stone, ihrouj^h which the 
 glass is worked is nine inches, and the inside is llared 
 so as to biiug the outside edj^e to the thickness of 3 an 
 inch, as there are always partition stones between the 
 rintj stones, and as those ate cariied to the breast wall 
 a deptli ot 14 inches from the pot's, and as only 5 are 
 Wrvnied on each side, it will take five partition stones of 
 5i inctics each, between the rnij^ stones to con^e to the 
 end walls of tf.e furnace. 
 
 .\s the ring stones are set perfectly level, there is 
 ^ then a couiseol stone, generally termed latiie stone, 
 laid wliich overjut ouiw-rds over the img sluncs 2 
 inches, taking;!; care to lay ihe^r* over the rinj^ stones so 
 as to break joint; these stones are 12 inches vvi^e, 6 
 itii hes hij;h and 18 inches lonsj, the whole m king the 
 height from the tone stone, to the 6ds,e ot the scue 
 back, 5 ictt 10 inches, ind from liie ievel of the trench- 
 es, to lite Lcue back, 3 feel 6 lochcf-; men the side »v»ii3 
 
*J0O GLASS MAKIXG. 
 
 are built upso as to form an arch oTcr ihe fuinace 1 
 feel 9 ificnes loMi^, aivJ us flat as possible in t:^c cervis' 
 so as iliai ll>e fiie may not have loo much play, but m tv 
 make tt.e ilamcs icverbeiale equally over all (he pois. 
 The length from ihe outside edi^e of the furnjce ^ates 
 to the edge ol tlie benclies is 2 Icct 4 inches, under 
 vhicli is the ash pit, in the stone or hiick, fined for this 
 ])art, there is a hole 4 inches square, into whirh the 
 r!raft enters from the ash pit, ar^d out of v\hich tlie ashes 
 full, lius is called a lufi hole; bul when the hard' glass 
 13 to be drawn, the coals a'td ashes are left to accumu- 
 late, so that this hole fnay be full of it, to prcveal any of 
 the harJ gljs^s from jreitir.g in, as il is diiTicult to gtl il 
 out. 
 
 In the sides of the furnace there are 4 air holes 
 ma'Je, 2 ot) e ich side, and opeinng into tlie lurnacc ex- 
 actly where the benches beyin, and 10 inches dbove 
 the tone stone, these air lets are called linnet holes, anl 
 fli irieir entrance into the furnace aie 2^ inches square, 
 bit outside they must t>e 10 inches by 12, in order that 
 thi y may be o[)ened or shut occasionally as the dralt 
 may require. 
 
 I'hc iurnace above desciibed, is built upoti a plat- 
 form of common mason work, 2 feet bij^h from t is 
 j^iound, with ani;ular pillars carried up at each comer 
 to support 4 ovens on, which are fed by means ol flues 
 from the lumace — Ihey aie used to burn Sinds, ashes, 
 and pot ash in, and in Kngland, Ireland and Scotland, 
 one of them is appropi idied for fritting the materials. 
 
 rhe beds of these ovens are generally on a level 
 with the squaie hcit^hi of the furnace, that is equal in 
 •ici^ht to tlie courst from which the scue buck start?, 
 these ovens are generally from 5 to 6 Icet deep, und 
 from 4 to 4i feet wi le, the Hue (hat communicates wiih 
 l!ie furnace enters these ovens '0 inches iroiii the fioor, 
 their width at i.he furnace, is 4 by 5 inches, and carried 
 lo t'lese ovens by a sloping Hue, which at its entrance 
 into the ovens is cxpai.deil lo 6 by 8 inches, and the 
 gates or doot of each o»en shouUl be similar in size to 
 the ni'juth of a cominon bake oven, and lbs height ut 
 ihrse over.s from the lloor to the ciown of the arch is 
 2 ftct 6 Hiches— they arc mostly of an oVal form ii.side 
 though somewhat irianj^uUr outside. 
 
GLASS MAKINO. 26l 
 
 In some manufaciories there are arches cast from iiie 
 pillars to the tease hole. Their use seems to l3c to 
 sirenf^then the backs of the ovens placed on ilie pillais; 
 but as they arc made sloping and compicssed lo^vaids 
 !!'.c tease holg, they aie particularly oppressive to ihe 
 uvaser, and much in the way when settir)j» pots. I ihink 
 them useless, and made only to create unnecessary ex- 
 pense. The gates of the lurniice are exactly as wide 
 as ilie space between *he bcuches, and carry ihc sime 
 fljieor bevel, and theatc'ies of them are spruiii^ vviien 
 the hci^^lii of the jambs are eqtial to the heij^ht of ibe 
 biinclies, and 2 feet 4 inchts thick, anrl a perfect circle. 
 'Ilie i^ate ol the furnace is commonly stopped with a 
 shear Cdhe, made of brick clay, the foi in ol winch is so 
 uiiivtrsally known that it needs no descripuon, thouf^b 
 it is so often subject to be broke, thot some have yot 
 cast iron gales in place of them. 
 
 t^umber of Brick fiir a Green Glass Furnace. 
 
 28 brick, 24 inches wide, 30 inches lung, and 10 
 inches thick, lor gates. 
 
 /ieric/itfs. — 12 pieces, 2ft inches long^, 2'2 inches 
 broaJ, and 9 J inches thick — IC pieces, 21 inches lony;, 
 22 iiichcs wide, and 9i incues thick — 16 pieces, 22 
 inches broid, 12 inches lon.i;, and 9. J inches tiucU — 15. 
 pieces, 9 inches lon.ij, 22 inches wide, 9.^ thick. 
 
 For sides from Bene lies ufi to ylrc/i. 
 43 pieces, 22 inches broad, 30 inches long and 10 
 inc hes thick; 60 brick, 26 inches long, 22 inches, broad 
 and 10 inci>es thick. Ring ston^js do^crlbed before. 
 
 For burjiace frori^ or lease //o/c ends. 
 60 brick, 18 by 12 inches, and 9 J inches thick. 
 
 For D:tme or Crovjn of Furnace, 
 300 brick, 12 inches wide outside, 6 loch-^s inside, 9 
 -r.ches thick at the upper enl, and 4J inches thick at 
 Iho lower end. 
 
 Hut when the benches, tone stone and crown of tho 
 fMnvjce are built of sand stoiie, the mode of bn'hJini? is 
 very (iifftMeiu with respect to int sire of the bench .t d 
 aich stone, tiie arch stone in particular are made wjil) 
 
gOS GLASS MAKI.N>.. 
 
 the ncccs-iary bevels niid ihc ccnires are phced 9 rnch- 
 cs h)\ver thati ilie surlace of llie st.it; ~tvji,» in bolh bile'; 
 and sioiie crowns. In many places it is \he cuslom Ij 
 buiid lump ci.pa or crtiuns as they «ra called. They 
 arc made in the fuliosvini; nunntsi: The centre is i>uiit 
 uiili its base to answer the base of the furnace; the 
 frame is earned up in a slopin;? direction to ilie (lisian<c 
 ot three and a halt itet from the base, each side form- 
 ing a iiiar.ole, whost base is the sides and ends of the 
 fuinace, appearioj; hi a!! respects like Ibe roof of a 
 house, pitched from both sides and ends, Wlitn the 
 centre or fraiiie is placed, ii is then lud over with tow 
 jiiien, as smootii and even as pi^ssiblc, and the prepared 
 clay is well beat in all round lo the depth ot nine incl>e-j 
 which is tried by a j^uage. After it is finished, it in 
 fine weather, ii is left to dry by tht'. action ot '.lie almos- 
 piieric air f<;r two i>r three days; but if iii moist wea- 
 thtT, small firts are made on the pilhus and luiincls 
 adapted lothe tease hole, 13 or 11 feci lonj^, into which 
 small tires are pnt lo s»nokc the inside thai it may dry 
 equally inside and outside, and a person ol jjcij^mtnt 
 fippoinied niijtit and day to attend aiici reguLtte the tiics, 
 and also to beat or hammer down the crown or cap 
 wnb a mallet to prevcHt cracks, or ii liiere aro any, to 
 close them. Heiorc t!>e centra is t.tken down, or the 
 Cap entirely diy, the nccessjiy airleis or fire veiits arc 
 cut in thecrown, and ihc linnet iioles cut locommuoi- 
 caie with the ovens on the pillars. IJut those kind of 
 caps or frowns are su;>ject to mnunncrahle casualties; 
 fi.r if the cl y i^^hoi exceedin.j; Ri-od, pjri of it will be 
 constantly dropping; into, the i;laS'!, and is a great intei- 
 ruption to ilie sla^s makers; bpesides, they alaiost always 
 cr< ck in various par-s, and renders or causes the tur- 
 rj..ce to have an unequal druft, and also very frequently 
 fall in when bioujilit to a wniie heat. 
 
 'I'ne only ditfert iice between a furnace lo be carried 
 on t>y meims oi wood, and that caiiied on by means of 
 cnaib, is, thai Hie tuinace carried on >vuh coals b s an 
 fii' drafi l)y means of loui caves, between 6 am! 8 leet 
 liiu'O.and 6 feet wich-: thesi* fom cavis unite togctl»ct at 
 riii'il an ics i' ihr ^ia!<- of Uie Inrnice, which is in a 
 12 pot lunidce, 11 leet 9 itiches loi'g, liial is frofn i:ia 
 
 ! 
 
CM.ASS MAKIN'G. gfig 
 
 ibidc cilge of one lease Jiule to the oiit&ide ctlj^c of 
 •iiu oiticr, iiiul 22 iiiclics wide. Imo lliis space a stroiig 
 iron frame is fiiiiily btclck-d, witli cross bait at a suita- 
 ble distance to hiy ti>e j^rule bars on, wliich are always 
 i^oveablc, aiifl can be taken out unit put in at pleasure, 
 'i he furnace i.-i built above Ibeiie bars, sitriiiar in ail le- 
 ! peels to 'he furnace before describecl, cxcepiiiif^ Ihdt 
 !!!!; t;raiG in this supplies the place of the lonu blone 
 r.itiiiiontc! in the oilier, 
 
 I'he small ovens lor Icrupciins; green tumblers, pit- 
 chers, &c. to go witlj coals, is buiU in a biiiiilar maimer 
 lo C(ial ovens lor heating two pots; but ii is only thiec 
 feel hi.i;h to the crown of theaich, anil the door ol the 
 oven only laby 22 incties. The small ovtns, (or tem- 
 pering t^lass wiUj vvoud fires, built after the same mai;- 
 ju. r as the poi oven healed with wood; height of arch 
 and doors liie same as ihe small ovens iieaitd vviili coais. 
 In several glass nouses in tnis count! y wii(::re llicy uso 
 wood, 1(11 y have frames and a wheelbarrow way, mads 
 ever the lurnace, and a vvay liom the wood ja(d to 
 wiieel the wood up and pile it uj^on the frames, wnere 
 the heat iioin ti»e lurnace dries ad ttie s-ap out, and it 
 then makes a strong and clear revti beiaiiny lite. In 
 o'.iitn' ^lass houses ihcy have ovens which f>eiicrally 
 hold a cord ol wood e.tch, and are so const i ucietl that 
 llitie is but one fiie to eveiy two of them. I'onr of 
 liiLse ovens dry as much wood as will be consumed in a 
 crowii j^lasb louse; and if the wood drier is expctl and 
 aclive, in cylinder ^1 iss houses he will be able to have a 
 Considerable cinantily on hand. 'I'liese ovens snwwld 
 h.ivc siro!ij( blie*;i iron danipeis, so that if ihe wood in 
 them }jot on tire, he could shut the dralt and exliuj^uisb 
 the fiie. 
 
 The next ovens to be described, and which is indis- 
 pensably neccHSiiiy where cylinder s^lass is uiaclc, ara 
 the llaisioB; and cooiin^i; ovens. As ih^^ j^lass is blown 
 tylindricyl, it could never be flattened were it not for 
 the convenience deiivcd fron» the aid ol Uaiitiiing and 
 cooling ovens. 
 
 'I'he bed or floor of the ovensi, and on which the side, 
 cutie and end walls aic buill, -is 18 teel 6 inches loiif?, 
 -* lett wide and 3 feet 6 inches high, «t rough mason 
 
^(5.4? OLASS MAKING. 
 
 wcji'i,, and in the centre of tlie flatiening end there i- 
 an C3ptnit)g left to btiild a flue, of 16 inches wide, 2 . 
 inches hijjh, aiid 4 feet long, under the flattening stones, 
 so as that the centre of the fldttening stone may rest on 
 the centre of the arch ol the flue, and the fluu to have 
 two openings on each side of the flattenin}r stones, 4 by 
 6 inches, and cnrried up Ironrj the bottom tunnel in an 
 outside slan.ing cliitction, till they come each w.iy 4- 
 inches above the head of tiie stone, and 6 itiches back 
 from il on each hide. It must also be observed the 
 opening of the first flue into the flailening oven must 
 be 6 inches in from the ecl};e ot the stone, and the next 
 opening cl the second flues must be 8 inches farther 
 in, th« bed of the cooling oven n»ust be 4 tett 10 inclies 
 is lenjjlh in the clear, and live and a i)aU lett across to 
 whcie it meets the groin arch ol the stock holt; Iroin 
 the length ol the flattening ovtn in the inside clear 
 to the inside of the bbck wall ot the cooling oven is 10 
 feet long, the back end wall and all the other walls alur 
 the mason woik is levelled are built ol brick, the end 
 Wall '2 feet thick, tront side walls 18 iniheb, hack side 
 wall having an alternate bevel, that is ii bevelsfrom the 
 mouth of the stuck hole in upon the bsck side ol the 
 Cooling ovtn from 14 inches to 9, and from the end 
 wall of the flattening oven Iron* 2 leet to 9 inclich, each 
 bevel extending 9 feet 3 inches each Wo.y, u akinj; the 
 stock hole pass from the Iowm end or buck p^rl ol the 
 cooling oven, in an angular diieclion, whose nearer 
 point is the groin arch, opening into the flattening ovon, 
 and 4 ftei 6 inches lioni tht; lower oi bai k wall of tuc 
 cwoling ovtn iheie is an opening left to build n angu- 
 lar atch whicn o'^iHis into the cooling oven, at the back 
 side of the cooling htt i>e, ihe height anO breadth ol ti.is 
 arch is sin iU-r to th.t of the fluttei.ing oven, but in 
 place of lour outlets or flues this has but ont, '.lie flucS 
 in the fl-dltening ovtn tunnel being 4, uie 4 by 6 inches 
 wide at the outlet or entrance into the oven, and the 
 head or deliveier of the cooling oven tunnel is 6 b> 8 
 inthtb and carried up over the cooling stone 8 inches. 
 1 he beo ol ilic oven being maiie of rough ii».ison 
 yoiK asbtloit siatec", and the beioit- n eononed arch*: 3 
 tuiuto, the mason work ol the walls -diui stock hole 
 
e;LASS MAKING. ^55 
 
 laid oiY, the cfay for making the floor of the flattening 
 and cot) inj' ovens oui^ht to b;; prepiriny;: 'Ann may be 
 niitde of any stiff clay and sand intermixed who a sufli- 
 cicDt proportion of hoisc luanure and. h,»y seed. Ttie 
 use of the horse dun»» and liay is to sour the clay, and 
 when laid in on the floors to pi event its cracking open 
 while it IS diying. As soon as the hack wail at t!vj inaidc 
 ol the n uieninq; and cooiiny; ovens are raised to n auffi- 
 cient licij»ht, the outside wall at the back is also cariied 
 up, wliicli is lo the height of 18 inches at the lower end 
 and 2 feet at the upper, or tnd eniering into the (laiteniug 
 oven, which entrance n>usl finish with a groin arch. 
 The centres are set and an arch turned over it till with- 
 in 2 feet of the buttom of the stock arc!?, where th^re is 
 a flue niidein the head of the arch of 6 inches square to 
 take off" the smoke and heat that enters from the Ru- 
 teninj^'ovens, and after thu centres are drawn from the 
 slock hole arch, winch is best done as the arch is turn- 
 in;?;, the heit!:!u, as before doscribexj, and the breadth 
 tiiroufjjhout 1-4 inches, there is an outside arch c^st 
 tqnal wUU the back front of the wall, where tite boy 
 puts tlie cillcnders into In front of the main stock hole 
 cici), anri as may be said blindinj^ it, only, 12 iixihes 
 hiy;h. F )ui ftet 10 inches from tiie insi»;e of tne front 
 wall of the fittteniuj^ oven there is another arch sprung, 
 direct'y ovrr where the flattening and coolini; stones 
 ] >it), 2 feet 8 inches hiq;h and 2 feet wile, wtjcii arch 
 Is fillefl witn what is called a muntlc stone, made of re- 
 fiactory clav^ as any filling made with conimou mortar 
 would vitrify and be cunsiantly droppiti^j on the i^lass, 
 "vnich passes from the flitttenins:; stone, imdc tne man- 
 *i:e sione, to the cooling htoue, wlicra ii ia sultyrc.! tf» 
 remam a short tima to temper i^radu.dly befjie u is 
 ret up. The arch to b&tunied over tlie flstli mn^ < veil 
 should be, but 3 feet 4 inches hij;h and iiio DQcioue arch 
 divides It Irum the arch of the coolinjj oven, wliicn erch 
 muHt be 4 feet 10 inches high. Diiecily in itia .'Voni of 
 ihe fl iltuniiig oven there is an arctj turned 3 leei wide, 
 end 2 feet hij^h; the base of the arch must be on a level 
 with the flalteni.ig; t)toj»e; the door of the cooling oven 
 is plared in the side wall, 3 leet fr.jtn the mantle jrch, 
 aiiU T feet frouj the bjck of the uvea. The dour is 20 
 23 
 
;iQQ GLAS3 MAKING. 
 
 inrlKS wire and 2 fee t 6 ii.r.i-,cs li'i^I', fi;ine:I with , 
 bha! }) j^ctMc ci't Ii; 1*5 inches liom ilie Icvt 1 or floor v,' 
 the oven, iherc ate hoies lelt calltd sttortp, liolcb, in the 
 from wall ol the oven, 4 inches sci'iHit, and, con•c^pon. 
 cijr.g grooves in tl'.e lack wall ol tlio oven, t»> recti'-; 
 bars of iron to soppcri the sheets of glass on; (he fii>'. 
 of'.hese holes are made 16 iiich.es I rom the inside oi 
 the bacl^ Avail o\ the oven, and, the other two, 16 inches 
 apurt. The clf/y fcr (oin-iny the bed or fl'^^r ol the 
 o^ en is laid on bs con;pact tss possible, atid in id so as to 
 be on -a levei ui h the d&(ir ol the cooling oven, and on 
 a level wivVi tie fftnt aichofthc 11 ittnii g ovtn, but 
 fare mv A be taken, to b. ave space enough, for. beddin'^^ 
 tlie n.U',ei)inc: tnd cofiiinp: stmts, \\hich ouiihi to he halt 
 pn inch hii;iierthan ejiher ficoi; whtn the floor is laid 
 it shculd be htmiriertd or br.a tuice a day uiih a wood- 
 en ir.allet, and as it diics sciTie sand sificd or it thfoiigb 
 a No. 8 sieve, airo\er tic ll:,iltriing and cooling oven 
 floor, and poi.ndtd in, vvliich ierves to sup any emsll 
 Clacks that may occur; when the suriice ol the fl.ors 
 are pretty diy, tt ty sh.onld be smoked grsdiruly »n.i 
 then the fue laisedioits full heigh;, and aiitr they cod 
 aj^ain,ihe flalttning; £nd coolii.g ittnc» should be put in 
 znd firn ly bedi»ed t.nd le%ellet!, siul aiy space between 
 il.cm arid the fl( ors filled with ncist clay, then the mat!- 
 tie &tci,e set t-nd u layer of dry raw clay s[!iead over 
 both stones, then the ovens shut up again i-nd the great- 
 est rare taken to tcnrper the stones and biing the ovens 
 oi^aintoa whJte-heasal'.erwi.ichthey ajerea);!yfor woik. 
 Thcie shov.Kl be a coal ol day, lime and hoise cuirig, 
 hrou,<ht to the ci i.sistenre of niorifr, laid pittty thick 
 over the outside of the flpttenii g and cooiing ovei.s. 
 
 Tl e flattening and cooling stones thoold be I foot 
 10 inches wide and 3 Itet loi g,. 6 inches thick each; 
 the under paitot ihcro c*.n be made of any clay lill 
 within 2 inches of llie top, when equal pans of ted and 
 burned clay n.uM be sif'ed Ih.eugh Nc 20 sieve and 
 well niixed, and then: laid on the other clay and well 
 biat it; and when nearly dry the fl .itti.ing stone sh.ould 
 be higher in the cenlie by i of an inch than at any ot 
 the angles, which must be legulaily graded or level- 
 led from Uit ctntiecuiwardf; and when brouiihi tothis 
 
 1 JWiViii • i 
 
GLASS At AKtSa. gB^ 
 
 Itvel iho S(one miisi be poHthdd .-(S smo uh as possible; 
 V\'"t Gouiincj sioiie isbi'ougiU lo a (le;it] Ivjvcl aiid IhnsljcU 
 oG'iij liie bailie tiijiiinsr. . . 
 
 Composition fur Green Pots, 
 
 Nine measJires ot b irned clay, 7 measures cf raw- 
 clay. When you have pot shells, take 4 meaau-es of 
 put shell clay, 5 of burned cl^yi and 7 of raw cljy mix- 
 ed ind moii!i!ed as belore directed. 
 
 Oi" tlie tools necessiry f'o;" niakin.:; flint glass, tlie Grst 
 is the stool or bcnci of 2 iilcli plank, vvii'i 2 arms bevel- 
 ling ootwirds; tbe rij^bt arm foi lifidd. with a thin j)late 
 of iron raised ^ an inch, to prevent it* ljurni,v^; at ihs 
 Sine end o! the slo.j|, and on he oveijiU fro'vi the right 
 arm, there is aband of iron fiied in which are pins of 
 the saii;j nr»et;i!, (o h >! I two or tiuee pair of tools, 
 made much like shce;) shcirs, but having lons^er bits 
 i'od a biont edt;;e; some are for op^niini^ tool-, an I oth- 
 ers for cotiin.^ down, and ai! have a spri»,^ whieiwna'ies 
 I'lem open ul themseivus, a s^iears-wi^ii s;o:t biis to 
 cnl glass, a irincers and callipers. Theri; o'ltjht to be; 
 ; hree pair of tihe-\r3, or preceilers, I p dr scissors a.il I 
 cailiper to each chiir. The bIowu»|> pipci are all noi- 
 low and if •:ii-!ed vvili inoasnre l| imhei round, and 
 should De 4| feet iont^, the pnn jCs arc ail solid bjt 
 thi<-ker at the hanrJIincf end ih:in t;ie other, and ol tns 
 s ime length jS the piptj*; liiere should be 6 pipes and 2 
 pnn!J2s to each chmi; i.ncre is also a smaK iron pad Me 
 with T wooden h mdie attacherl to eacn chain; tijere are 
 two marbles or phtes of metal, well po isljs I, 10 by 14 
 find i inch thick, and two small onos, 8 by 10 inchts, 
 attached to each s:de ot the j^lass house; tlure ouj^lit 
 to lii) 6V)r 8 pi.;i:st)f metal, 6 iiichcs lon^j, 2^ wide, and 
 3 inches hij^li, coniioj^ up ;o a bevel eacn way with 
 j^^ ooves in i'kmu for the i^;»n^ to turn round in woiis: 
 git'ierin.^ tlie metal or wanninjj in at the pot iiole 
 
 rhe pal carriajje is a bar of 2 inch square iron, into 
 which tliere are two tonjjues of iron faMened by nuts, 
 and a screw; on eac h tongue )4 inches ipai i in ti.e centre 
 o the cross oic, into which t >e tongues are faitencd, 
 li^erc is a lor;^ bar fi^icd at tne contrary side lio:n Ihp 
 
26Q GLASS MAKIX9. 
 
 tongues and abovil 6 feet long, to serve as a handle at 
 the extreme end v> lurcol there is a cross piece to work 
 it by; ihe wliet-ls, which also run on ilie ends ol liie niaiu 
 cicss piece should be' ei^jhi inches in diamclcr and arc 
 made of casi iron; Use squarinjT bar, pot bars, teasing 
 bars, rakes and lioes, I tliink unnectss^uy. 
 
 Tlie tools for a green glu:-s woi Us are fut mere simple 
 ihan ihcse for fl;nl woiks, llity triuht have a trefoil to 
 !-tand belore the pot end r(;st the iron on whilst they 
 warm in a block wiih water in on the bench or Siool 
 whereon they wcik, (lor they do not set down as the 
 Hint gbss makers dc,j in this block or trouc;h ttiey have 
 an iron crotch set abtnit 6 iiichca iiigli vviiile they rc-t 
 the end of the iron en it that has the jtlass on and sir.octb 
 it with an iron poddle similar to the one before de- 
 scribed; they then have another block at the (out of the 
 bench, which iis they blow at one end liie !;1jss is turn- 
 ed and fornied to tl.e required s!ii pe at the other end 
 by means of the block; a small red with a turn or hook 
 £D inch and a half lon(j;, called a picker, a pair of stiff" 
 long jcn.icd iron pincers and a cracking iron; for the 
 cooling oven there is ku iron rod to take the cyliridcr 
 out of the groin arch of the slock hole and lay it on iho 
 ilattining stone and ai-.oiher to whicli is aUachcd a Siuall 
 piece ot soft wood lo level the smfacc ol the sheet 
 with, these pieces can always be replaced v\l)en worn 
 out, at the c( Oiing oven there, is a seltins; up fork made 
 similar to a Neptune's trident, but divesiod ut the cen- 
 tre pron-j!;, 'I'here are several other sujail iions wanted 
 which it is unnecess-ry to describe, as the ncccs i'y or 
 inii.enui'.y ol th.e woikiuuu wiil always teach him iiow to 
 supply hiinstlf. 
 
 Of the siibi'iancea employed in the comjwsiiion 
 of (Hiiss. 
 
 The miiterials used to give is body to glass, are sand, 
 flint, talf, spar, cUid ione other s cncy and tertne 
 substances. Sander siluy. may be ob.ained liom vaii- 
 onssourfcs, f>nt! of different dei^irecs of p iri'v, accoid- 
 iog to ivi fineness of the gla^s required. The siHce- 
 cus mutter y.enerally used h sea s^nd, which is wtl! 
 
 ■^^jMtni'ii, 
 
GL.\SS MAKtva. 2QO 
 
 Unn\vn% Consist oJ n.iiuite round' grains of quartz an.l 
 IS itnaffy svjfTicieml)' san.li to be usied.wUhont any other 
 n^ep wdtion livan Uiat of washinfj for common gl.iss. 
 •n the infancy of j^lass makins^, flwif, ofe or fusipie spar 
 .one werfl made use of as a ptincipal stock in iha 
 hitcli, or mixing, not fr'j'n any anaIo;^y tlicy bear to 
 that sr.bsuinco, but from the readiness with winch they 
 vitriry ^n■^ am;il,:;aniate with the other alk'lir.e and 
 coloiirific in:^reilientH of which f;Ias-, is con>posed. 
 
 The }^oo(hicss ol flints must be t]i3lin,u:ujshed bv tlieir 
 unilonn black colour, and aho when they are broke 
 ii-.to thin scales that they hGco'nc semi transparent. All 
 s;ic!i as are mai b!cd with brown or yellow streaks 
 ;,lv)uld l>3 rejected for fear of iron, which freq'ientfy 
 i'.irksin Ihetn under thai appearance, and is very inju- 
 rious to iheolourof glass if it jjcts uidmission inio it; 
 jiicb pieces therefore should be carcfullv picked out 
 wtieu teuiu! in parcels of the c.icarest sort; but if the 
 f^reite&t p.ut of any parcel appears so marked, it should 
 not be used till ttial be mule of a small qiianriiy, that it 
 J nay be known whethei i!ie discoloured veins contained 
 'D the (lini would be injurious to the colour of i;iass oc 
 no!. Flints must be prepued for makin;^ ftlasa by bc- 
 injij heated red hf7t and ininriediutcly quenched in coll 
 water. The hear whitens them and the water splits 
 liiem in every direction, by which means they may 
 iifiei wards be ground in n«ills without much diHiculty. 
 i'he rounded lumps of white q'jariz found so abun- 
 dantly in the beds of rivers in many mo juiainous coun- 
 tries, are often used (or makiui; >^lass, beiny first heated 
 and gr.;un.l \o powder in the Sdme manner as the fli I's. 
 Talc of various sr)ecies has been I'kewise U5;;d ia 
 miking sjlass, bu* seldo n in large works. It sometines 
 needs a calcinition in order to its prepiraiion, fur en- 
 teiintj ii*'y ^he composition d -^I.ass, but neither so j^reat 
 a heat nor the quenchtng in cold water arc necessary 
 iar brinv»iiig it to a proper texture for leducin^ it to 
 powder. So^ne sorts of talc are murh more iusibie or 
 vinifiible than otiiers, and fusing easily with /hither salt 
 nf t;irtar or lead, m;iy therefore be used in delnuU of 
 Hints, or sand, S'liri-iintly white. But with respect to 
 lar^jcr manulaclories, the use of flints is raorc eligible, 
 23* 
 
S70 GLASS MAKING, 
 
 fs t'nev canbs procured in greater qmnt'uies wiUj more 
 certainty, and will in general require much less flux and 
 fire to brinsj; tiicm to a due state of viuificalion. 
 
 But the difTjciiJty of prncu^in.'^ and tlie cost of prc- 
 paiinp both (he flint and fusible spar, are superseded hy 
 the admission of sand in their place As the use of sand 
 is so general in slass making, I shall point out the best 
 for the purpose, and tiie methods whereby any sub- 
 stance inimical to ^lass contained in it may be discover- 
 ed. The sand now in general use in Entjland, Ireland, 
 and Scotland for making fli'it glass, is got at the Isle of 
 Wight, in liampsl^ire, where it is very pure and inex- 
 haus'ihla. Sjnd fit for glass making should be free 
 from loam or clay, iron, or any other metal, isinglass 
 or micah. In order to guard against the aforesaid mix- 
 tures it is subject to the following process, it is put into 
 an oblong trough' 12 (ect long, 5 feet wide and 20 
 inches high, in which at one end ihcro is a lifting door 
 to let out the water, loam, Sec. and two feet and a half 
 farther up in the box there is another partuion with an- 
 other lilting door into which the water, loam, and a 
 part of the sand enters; in wasliing, the sai»d subsides 
 and is drawn aside with the hoc whilst the loam and 
 other dirt that washes out of the sand passes to ihe lovv- 
 er part of the box and is there discharged. After the 
 sand is well washed, which is known when no more 
 froth arises on the water and its running of! quite clear, 
 it is well drained and then burned perfectly red in an 
 oven prepared for the purpose, and when cold it is sift- 
 ed through a sieve No. 26 or 30. If sand has iionin 
 it may be known by its colour when burned, as it will be 
 overspread with a great nunaber of brown rusty specks, 
 and il the magnet is applied to the surface of it the iron 
 will be attracted and stick to the magnet according to 
 the quantity contained in the sand. If it is impregiiat- 
 ed with loam or clay it may be known by absorbing a 
 great quantity of water in washing. But ti»is inconve- 
 nienca can be in a great measure remeflied by burning 
 the sand, for the heat will bake the clay into lu nps 
 whrr-h will not pass through tUe siller and is bv that 
 method nearly all got out; but if there yet remains any, 
 a» it will not melt into glass, it ia thrown to the top of 
 
GLASS MAKING. ^1 i 
 
 [',\G pot when the glass is in fusion, and is taken off in 
 'Jie skimming which always precedes hlo\viri}j. The 
 ju'xt injurious I)o(ly in sand is micah or isinglass; it is a 
 biii^hf, shining, unmeltable stib^laBce oT a very irregu- 
 lar form and may he seen shininji^ on its surface like 
 pulverised glass. The only remedy yet found agaiiist 
 this substance is the sieve, for whatever particles of it 
 gets, inio the mixing; \vi!| remain unaltered and is not 
 acted on by the action of either fire c4||nux,and will he 
 always seen in the njanufacturcd glass in sxall transpa- 
 rent specks. If sand impregnated with iron is used it 
 will in a j^reat measure retard the effect of the colour- 
 ific and crystalising ingredients, as it tinges glass of 
 a green colour more or less dense, according to the 
 quantity of iron contained in it. Such sand is by no 
 means fit to enter into tlie composition for best 
 flir.t glasf., pas'es, or looking gjjsscs. The sand com- 
 monly used for m;tking glass at and about Pittsburg is 
 got at Parfvopolis. The sand used at Boston and 
 Cheluisford often comes from Demarara in the West 
 Indies, and is brought there as ballast in vessels fro'ii 
 that place. The sand used at Utica and Sandy Lake 
 comes from the Delaware river, and is got both at Mew 
 C'as'le and Burlington. There is aiso a kinJ of soft 
 silicious stone, apparently like marble, found at Rome 
 in Onsida county, state of New York, that when pouiid- 
 ed, washed and burned, mchs readily and is verypure. 
 'inhere is also very good sand found at Limestone, Ken- 
 tucky, at Zanesville, and in the forks of Youghiogany, 
 and Monongahela. 
 
 Wood ashes enters into the composition of green 
 glass as a flux. It should be free from dirt and well 
 burnt. The best method for testing the goodness of 
 ashes is by weight, for well burnt ashes usually weiglis 
 one third heavier than those which are taken away as 
 (j'lick as the wood is reduced into ashes. To render 
 wood ashes equal in ail its pirts, there are ovens in 
 every glass house where they enter inio the composi- 
 tion for burning (he n. They should be burned fron a 
 light grey to a dark brown, and will be ib'Uid after 
 being pulled out of ihe oven and left to cool in lu nps 
 cf Vinous sizes, and also in minute particles, but always 
 
-73 GL^^S MAKlN'^l, 
 
 (■■{ a vini'ot'ni rlatk rolcinr. The sii'tc;!!j usi i 
 otnrht 10 be fro'n N'j 35 to 40. 
 
 P )t an I p'Jirl a^hcs arc use 1 as fl i\g? iii t^liSH i;^ 
 .diifeietn tiei^rces of purity, accord! ijj to the. qiuiity of' 
 t!ie q;l;is-i for whrch it is inJenfl;?-!. As woo I iS'ics is tne 
 hisis from Wiikir pot ,3'irl pavl ashes arc i^ot, I sh.ill 
 (icsc'iSc tiie process of cKifi^ctioc^ it. tJavin^ provide I 
 a suffioieot q lao'i^or well burnt woo'l ashes,^ anii thev 
 wo.il I fleiivc^r th«^>«ij^lt3 inore frody if lai lnptu a ne.> > 
 for (htf c or t'oi.jr inonVis, an J hiviii{» [jyrovidrfd a suiVi- 
 ©ieni niMibiM" of lu'ii maJe ofccMir or w'iiie pine, pljc : 
 the ut'is on stools 18 lor.hos or 2 fcot frO'U tf-a i»ro>ni.I: 
 tti'ii pit^a 1 vyer of slr.^w and pin:; or po,)!ar sa.v clvnt 
 i?i l!\e boliurn of eacl) tuh six inclics doep, or slrcnv 
 &)o')(i will ans'.vijr; over the strav, Sec. pl.ice a iliilMiJii," 
 hjttOTi, w licji-j on ^lit *to be lull of boles to laj the Icy 
 run thr()U'j;h on ilie straw ahrl saw dns', ,, Where liic 
 m innfictory of pot and peai) as'i i^ cai-ried^bn o:i u 
 ix:\;e scale, there oHtijbl to be from twelve to ei;.5btceri 
 vi these tubs placed in a li.ne, over which a iroija;h ; 
 I'll^ce', au'l a hole wit!i a pi'ig in eich over eveiy tub 
 in such a manner that water can be conveyed lo eith<'i 
 of the tubs al pleasntc. Fill your tubs with ushcs ai, 
 let the Water in on them, and let ihe a^ijes soak ihoi 
 ongb'y until the w uer stands above ibcnr, Itt then ci>n 
 tinuB so o^er night; then draw out tl)e faucet and re- 
 ceve tne ley in another tub, piU uodor the first for thii 
 p'lrpose; if the ley looks irovible 1 pour it dj^jin on tiv 
 ashes, and let it settle nn^il it is cle ir in I isof a.T ambc. 
 colour. Pvil tins clarified ley by, ari pojr on frcs'>, 
 w.uer; let this als ) stand o^er night; then draw it on. 
 and yon will have a weak ley, which, instead of WTte 
 pour upjn fresh ashes. After you have mule a surTi:: 
 enr qnantity of ley, pjor it into an iron cauldron, brick 
 ed np like a brevvinjf or wishing opprir; hit let it n > 
 be liiled above three pirts full. Oi the top of the brie' 
 w irk place a little barrel vviih ley, lowirds tiie botio , 
 o' winch bore' a hole, and put x snail ftucet in to let 
 the ley run }»ently into tie ciudron, in a stream as thick 
 as a sira<v; b it this must be managed accor Unj; to t;! 
 qtuntity of iht iey, for you nnsi k-.iq,w now much ilr 
 Jey evaporates and iQjke the ley in the barrel ruu pre 
 
GLASS MAKIXG. S^S 
 
 pottionah!y (o S'.ipoly iliat diminution. Cai-e must be 
 taken that tlie ley do i^ot run over in the first boilin^^; 
 but if yuu fi nl ii will, put so.-ne cold ley to it and black- 
 ' i; the fire, and let all the ley boil (»ently to a dry saii; 
 ,viien this salt is dry break it into lumps as bi^r as a 
 man's fi;t, and put it into the fritting oven, and raise 
 youi fiie by dej^rees till the salt is red hot, yet so as 
 nivt to melt it.*' If you liiini; it calcirred enoupji, take 
 out a piece and let it coo!; then break it in two, and if 
 it is thorou'^hly white it is done enju'^h; but if there 
 rcniains a blackness in the middle it must be put in the 
 calcar ag^ain until it comes cut completely white. If 
 you would have it still fiicr, you inusl dissulve it again, 
 filtrate it, Loil it, and calcine it. as before; the oftener 
 this is repeated the more will the salt be cleared from 
 the earthy particles, and it may be mide as clear as 
 ctystai rtnd as white as snow; by the addition ol pearl 
 ashes, so purific.l, with silex and other fluxes, the best 
 kind of flmt ^lass can be made. But for duimoiul p.stc 
 glass, or g!u33 rr.ade to imitate diamonds, pearl ashfs 
 must undergo a more perfect puriticttion to deprive it 
 of its phlogistic propeities, as without buinjj properly 
 puriiied it gives the glass itito which it enters a yellow 
 tin^c, which greatly injures its britrhmess and beauty. 
 Take any quantity you please oi purified pe wl ashes, 
 and giiiid or pound it fioe, then t.ke hail il■^ weight of 
 snit pelre, pounded fine, n.ix both well together, and 
 have a crucible <50 fixed that you can put it in and lake 
 it out of tha fire with ease; half fill the ci iici:)le with 
 this mixture, as on accoant wf the ebullition of the salt 
 pelre it wid bear no more; when you see that it has 
 djne b^irniiV' and is settled dowo in the crucible cieav 
 tuid pelhuiJ like mc ted (^lass, nke it out and spill it 
 u'ioii a clean iron pljte that has been wet with clean 
 v.atcr; fill )our crucible a'^^iu and lepeat tUe operation 
 as long as there is any of the mixture reruaintui^; then 
 secuie the purified pesrl ashes in earthen jrs, kept 
 close stopped from s-ir or iHMisture This is the b""-t 
 method ot pui'.fying peiil ashes, as the nitie burns (jfF 
 the phlfjgistic n.ater contained in it, but on account of 
 the expense attending this method of purlfiiation it is 
 ;n'y adiiiitied iiito the composition for pastes and locli- 
 
S7^ 
 
 GLA«<s MAKrsa. 
 
 log u'l 9i pl-d'.cs. Tlie b> St ns'ies I'jr nnlii;-*;; pot ar ; 
 peaii allies, ii^ Enj^Kitu;, are p,ot Isotn buint tliistlesai; 
 liop s'alks afier'thc hops at e j^Jlherotl, and amonc^trec. 
 liKi iiiuibeny i" rtcki:n:;cl lo affuid the b<-&{ sort. Tlie 
 most ihnrny and prickly plants arc observed to yield 
 heller and more ^ait tiian otlieis; »!so, nerb^ that ate 
 bitter, as hops, wormwood, £tc. 'rubiiCO) stalks wlitn 
 burnt produce likewise plenty ol salt; andi' is observed 
 Ihai fern ashes yjtld more salt thaii any o'lier aslic-; iho 
 st;ilks of potatoes, when cu; just as the blossoms bci^in t ) 
 drop, and laid by to dry, yield as i^ood ashes '-ind as gre .t 
 a quantity of s.dts as ai y other known subitance. B jrril- 
 irt, a plaint cultivated m Spain for its ashes, Ij-o^n whic!) 
 the pijrest niiner*^! aik«di is obtained. It is piocurcl 
 from the iiicioeration of diflerent sea plants, ciiiefly in 
 Spain and laly, wliere whola fields arc fr'.}wed nitli 
 them by lar.i'crs, to j^ood advan'^k^e, fron ibis impui- 
 und mixed inass of cindeis is ob ai'ied the marine til- 
 kali. I'ne di-icovery of the use of l!)ese plants sccnss 
 to''b'.: a present of the Suacei.s to the Europeans, ioc 
 no 'ocBtion is made of it b«!ore the M ifio-nei.m era. 
 
 Thfc injnn«'r of prcparinj; these ashes us lally is 
 thus: \Viit;n the plant h^s atiauied its lull heijjht, they 
 cut it d.iwn and let it dry; it is afterwards burjied and 
 calcined in i/iis similar to lime kilns, du^ for the por- 
 p>si', which are covered up with earth, so th«l no air 
 m 7 Comc il (he fire. The ma,terby ihis means is nut 
 only reJuced into ashes, but hy means ol the sa'li j liciis 
 united in'o a hird suli'^tcHKC, wiiich is tijseni.j.ij'i d 
 !>> ii the pits with ham'iiers. Tiie Spanish b rnlU is 
 reckoned the best and is generally so.ij^ht after iuj)ief- 
 ercnce to any other, ior tiie purpjsj ui" uu'.^i-.jj -green 
 win low glass. 
 
 K( ip, IS made from sc^a weed, thrown ashore or forced 
 fiom it>. oed in the ocean liy means of storms, ii is 
 {:;itne ed in ure^t qnantiUes on tiie sea coast of En^;- 
 land, Ireland and Scotland, pu' up in heaps when dry, 
 an' burned, lorudns; masses of different sizs, by the 
 octiois ol the salt coot dned in the plants, in a similar 
 maniit^r with Ih'; banilta, bu' not so pirn an 1 sirong;. 
 It IS chiefly used as a flux in black bo'do manurdClo. 
 . x-s, 
 
 ^iiiTfiiMiftiiiiriTTirifiiiiiiiiiri^ 
 
ctASS MAItlxG. Syg 
 
 . ^ for gL ss makinfT. «>Iiou!lI 1 c mr.f'c cf tl;c purest 
 i'onc, ijeefVoiM itoii or isingh.ss, if il is impregiiated 
 vviih iron, it gives the j!;!as3 a i^rcenibft, ye'low linj^e, 
 r'i 1 if it, contcijns iiinglahS or rnicah, i: Wi!i be seen in 
 i^'.S! gir.ss when nuMUifjCluretf, in small irai-'sparc'i.t 
 > pecks, suhjectiiifij :l'.e articles in uhicli sucli R{)ecks are^ 
 lo be i;!:<rreti, sij(?iier or !aicr, ar.c! ol'tonrsc 0^1)?' fiiithcr 
 I'se to the ©vvncis. If liitie s'oiie c»n be procured, (fee 
 from ore, lojm or nicah, ;l will take one tnn wei-^^lif, 
 to m-riUc eleven l;iiriflrec) weight o! good lime; the lime 
 that enteisiiUo the c-jniposi'ion ol glass, siiouli! ntver 
 be slnckecl wiili wattr, rnly si!_ch[ pari ol i: inubt bo 
 takt n as is siacUerl by vhe atmo^spiieric ai'', and hitied as 
 h'irp r.ei djictled, 
 
 Litiie tlnadc from Carara marble, or oyster 
 shells, is p!irer than any o'.htr Jime, and snpciior to 
 afiy ovher lor nitkiii^; ijiass. Tfic shells arc prepared 
 in '.he foUowin^ miinnei: Tiv y are well *vaslitdi and 
 pn' into an oven sinnilal' to one dtsciif'cd foi pots, to go 
 wi'lvwood, t!>e actirin of the fire i educes llreiu to an im- 
 j)alp3blc p' wder wiihont ihe aid of fiie or watery Ihty 
 xinderco a swriilar dfCoir.posiii<ii, when coals are uscdj 
 but 'he oven iiiur be on the same cynsiructioh bs thy 
 coal oven, ivv lemperini!; two pots Ailtr the lime is 
 Weil burne.t, wliir.ii if m.sde a{\s!o)>e, will take froni 
 three to three days and a iialJ^ but il the sheils are at 
 hai\cl thirty hours will be sufTtOic-nt, i' n nsi be put 
 into a clean close room free Irotn dust and inoisliirt; 
 then have a silting b -x 8 eet lontr, 4 feci wide, and 2 
 fe«t 10 ir.chts hii^b, {i".ed with a close cover, made in 
 two parts, 4 leei 2 inches looir, tme part of wiiich must 
 be m^(|||.tc> lift ccrasion.ijlj; in the box aie placed elects 
 and slides for the sdier to ru'i «jn, n' e sifier &h(;iil(l be 
 made square and ol brsss wire No. 40, and should have a 
 cover tilled lo it, and a fehitiinjj; hatidle, sufficient for 
 sd.inj? the lime in the box. Tlie ca'.ise of all this care- 
 iiiiiiess is to prevent the escape </f the 'v.o-t uscft.l and 
 finer paiis of the lime whicii would fly > tV if sifted ni 
 an open box. 
 
 Ct-nimon s ;lt, is only made use of in Ameiica, btit 
 lilt Ficnch, Sp-nisb and Germ ms, make use ot it it) 
 <vi)at they call their flint glass. Dut iheir cotn positions, 
 
S76 GliASS MAKING. 
 
 1 hough while, is not possessed of that brilliancy an. 
 weight by which ^jjass mafie with Ici.d is distinguiahct;; 
 but, though salt rtiiders '^lats 'vhite and clear, yet, if 
 admitted in two great a quantity, it will make the glass 
 very biitlie. Glass overcharged with sr-.lt, is ohen 
 known te crack or fly, wiicn empty, with a considerable 
 noise. 
 
 When eall is used in the composiii^i of glass, it 
 ought to be scorched to a redness, oi till it is dune 
 ciackiing, helore it is put to the mixing, being so full 
 of air if put to the mixirig witiiout scorching, it will 
 cause t^o great an cbulliii;)n, in the rest of the moteii- 
 a!s, that lie best part of the flux is thrown over before 
 it has time to operate or produce the necessary change 
 for which it is intended on the rest of the maleiials. 
 
 Nitre, or salt pcire, is iound granulated and inter- 
 iTiixtd with various eaitlis, in almost all parts ot the. 
 world, but no where in so great a quantiij, as the E bt 
 Indies; it is also iound in gieat abundance in Americn, 
 particulaily in a great number of spacious caves, in 
 Kentucky, 
 
 it has been msntifactured in Frarcc, and Genr.ary, 
 in great qu.ntiiit-s lioni vaiicus subsiunccs, by the h 1- 
 lovvin}:^ pioce^^: Lrtrgc quautiiies of eiirili, and rubhis.' 
 are gathered froin tl-e foundations of old houses, strtbUs 
 and barns, together wiih dried cow and horse n:anttre, 
 and horse anil cow litter, swallows i.esis, pidgeon's and 
 chicken's nianuie. All those maieiials are made up 
 indriscriminately into heaps, from four to five teut 
 high, and foui feet square i>t the boUopij terminating 
 in a point at the top. 1 bese heaps ought to bi placed 
 under ihfds which ate open atl round, and adrniia free 
 ciiculation of air, each- heap under a separate' shed; 
 they should be well Sdturated with human urine, which 
 af»er being contiiiued 12 or 14 days, will cause these 
 hejps to threw out a whitish kind of scrufl'or covering, 
 which being collected is leeched like pearLashes; the 
 water is then bnilofi, and when it hat; boiled sufficient- 
 ly, is known by fluting a drop of it on a live charcoal 
 and it will flas'i UK'j gun pnwcUr, and upon trial one 
 hundred weiglit of this liquo: contains aboiit thirty-five 
 pounds weight of salt petr«. Before its second boiling 
 
CLASS MAKING. ^7 
 
 a is filtered through wood ashes, put into tubs sified; but 
 the boliotn of the tub must be laid a foot deep, with 
 Btiaw over this place, loose boards near each oth- 
 er, and over these a li'ile more stra'.r; then fill the tuba 
 to within half a foot of the top witii wood ashes; then 
 pour the liquor as it comes scalding hot fro'n the cop. 
 per, on one tub, and after letting it stand a while, draw 
 4t off, and pour it on the other, thus continue pouring 
 it on and drawing off till it grows clear and looses the 
 thick tuibid colour it had when fiist put on. By filter- 
 tejing the liquor all i s greasy oil is left in the ;;shes, 
 and it is to be set bv lor ano'her boiling. To bring 
 away what is remaining of the liquor in the ashes pnui* 
 on common water once or twice male very hot. When 
 you begin your second boiling put first into the copper 
 the liquor ihut went last thiough the ashes, an! as that 
 boils down let the strong liquor drop into the copp«r, 
 from a tub placed over the topper on >he side of the 
 furnace, continuing the boiling till the liquor in the 
 copper be ready to shoot or c.rystalizo. You will ob- 
 serve when it is near done boiling, there will arise a 
 scum and froth on tne top, which is to be carefully 
 taken off with a brass skimmer, and the salt which falls 
 or fornns at the bottom of the o jppcr is also to be t tkcn 
 and laid aside for another use. To know wh'en the 
 liquor is ready to shoot into petre, drop a little ot it on 
 a knife or any other cold and smooth piece of metal, it 
 will coagulate like a dro|) of tallow, and not fall from the 
 knife if turned duwnwatds. The liquor will now contain 
 about 70 lbs weight of peire in every hundred weight. 
 The liquor is now to be taken out of the copper with 
 iron ladles, and put into a deep or hi^h narrow tub» 
 and when so cold that you can bear your finger in it, 
 you will find the common or cubic salt bei;in to grmu- 
 late and sick to the sides of the tub; thci at a tap, 
 placed about half a foot from the bottom, draw off the 
 ii luor into deep woolen trays or pans, which put into 
 ioiiie cool place and let stand for the salt pi 're to shoot; 
 which it docs, and of various colours, as wnuc, yellow, 
 blackish, &c. It is now ready for refining. 
 
 To lefine salt petite, dissolve it in about six times its 
 weight of boiling water; filter, fcvaporate,' and crystal- 
 24 
 
378 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 izeit as you would other sahs. The salt which sticks 
 t« the sides and bottom of the settlinjj tub is of ibc 
 nature of common salt, and should be refined by itself. 
 Il is excellent for sahing beef and bacon. 
 
 When the liquor has stood 48 hours, that part of it 
 which is not coagulated, but swims on the peire, must 
 be carefully poured off, and beintj mingled with new 
 liquors in the first cepper, must ba passed through iho 
 ashes before the second bejling. It will then produce 
 more salt petie. 
 
 JVitre^ or Salt Pelre, is a very powerful flux in glass, 
 and when it is pure and good itself, is a very great puri- 
 fier of the other materials composing the composition; 
 as it takes away the yellow colour communicated to 
 glass, on account of the impurities contained in tlie 
 pearl ashes and red lead, and is next to borax, the mobt 
 powerful flux admitted into the curiposi.ion. 
 
 Borax is a sUine substance, fuund in Thibet and 
 China. In the formtr place it is procured from a lake 
 situated among the moimtains, hrteen days' journey 
 from Tisooloniboith© capital, and entitely tupplied by 
 springs, no streams tither falling mto or flowing from 
 it. The water has a salt taste, and contains both borax 
 and common suit, and, on account of its ele\atiGn, is 
 frozen for a great part of the yeyr. The edges and 
 shallows of the lake are covered with a stratum of bo- 
 rax, which is dug up in cons-iderable nla!^s^», and the 
 holes made ore giadually filled by a frt sh deposition. 
 Frem the deeper paitsof the lake common salt is pio- 
 cured. The borax in its roagh state is called tuical, 
 and is breughl to Europe in the form of a brownish 
 grey impur« amorphous salt, or in detached crystals 
 about an inch in length, of a pale greenish hue, and in 
 the form of compressed hcxabedral prisms. Method 
 of puriScalion is to boil the borax strongly ani for a 
 long lime with waier. This solution being filtered af- 
 fords, by evaporation, crystals which are somewhat foul, 
 but may be purified by repeating the operation; Uicn 
 expose it to a low red heat, and any grease comaincd 
 therein will be burned ofH'. It jis the most poweill 
 flux for glass of all the salts, or indeed of any ki, 
 substance whatever, but co account of its great p 
 
ULAJIS MAKtKO. ^d 
 
 .an only be aJmiilsd into the composU'ion for looking 
 fjlass plates, or other purposes where a considerable 
 value can be set en the produce, or where the quantity 
 "'.anted is very small. 
 
 Red Lead is made in an oven much like a baker's 
 ven, wiih a low vaulted rool, atul on each side of the 
 lurnace or oven there are two party walls rising from 
 the floor of the surface, but not reaching to the roof; 
 in the interval between these walls and 'he roof and 
 sides of the furnace,, the grates are formed and tire 
 placed, the flame oi which draws over the top of the 
 iide wall of the grate, and striking the roof is thence 
 reflected down upon the surface of the leail which is 
 laid upon the flu(ir of the oven; the nictal soon melts, 
 and instantly becomes covered with a pellicle, which is 
 successively raked ofl" idi the whole is changed into a 
 jjreenish yellow powder. . This is taken out, ground in 
 a rr.ill, and washed, to scp irate tlie portion ot lead that 
 still remains in a metallic state, by which it becomes 
 a uniform yellow colour, and is then thrown back into 
 the furnace and constantly stirred, so as that every part 
 may be equally exposed to the action of the flame. In 
 about 48 houis ol calcination it is converted into red 
 lejd. Red lead used in a due proportion, makes a 
 tousjher and firmer glass than can be procured from 
 s Its alone, atid is yet procured at a s;nall expense; 
 btii ah the glass of which lead foiiiis a part, is tinged 
 with a yellow colour, and therefore requires the addi- 
 tion of nitre to destroy the sulphuric or plilogislic 
 matter ii contains, in order to bring it to a more colour- 
 less state, wnich addition ot nitre enhanccb the price of 
 glass; for if it wab not for the addition of salt pctre and 
 borax, ^ass would be exceeding cheap. Tnere is aao» 
 ther rcaso.i also for tiie addition of nitre or some other 
 salt to operate as a flux to the glass contpoundfcd of 
 lead, which is, that there may not be a necessity of 
 vjsing beyond a certain por ion of it, fur ii the glc^s 
 has much lead in its composnion, it will sufler a corro- 
 sion ')y naoHUS of atmospn^ric air, which gives a grey- 
 isii dijllue-,** to its aurlace that in a jjreai raeitsure de- 
 stroys us beauty. 
 
S80 CLASS MAKING, 
 
 Litharge is lead under a dilTerent name» and is pro 
 duced in rtfiniDg ihe lead, and'in separating lead from 
 silvt I', ii is of singular use in fitixiii!:» glass as it jnelis by 
 iiseit inlo a very dense, citar, ) ellow, (renspatenl glass, 
 reniaikably soft and unciiou^ to tlie touch, fusible at a 
 low red I. eat, and »lun melted, acting so powerfully on 
 all eat then vessels as to tun thiougfi the common po- 
 rous cnicibUs in a veiy short time, almost like liquor 
 jhruugha ^if vc, but vitnf>inK and C(;rioding the bottom 
 of il'.e crucible In its passage. Litharge is a most 
 powerlul flux to all earthy mixtures, and it imparts to 
 glass the valuoble qu^^lities of greater density and greht- 
 er power of retracting the rays of light and of beating 
 sucldtn changes from beat to cold. 
 
 Arsenic is usid as a flux and colourific ingredient in 
 glass. It is a sure a^^d subtle poi^ou, and if too much is 
 used in tlic comp()un<i, tie glass into which it enters is 
 JiOt absolutely safe or fit for use. Some glass»niixeis 
 Uie it in all compcunds, but it is not necessary but for 
 the following compositions. — Wliiie enamel, of which 
 it IS the ba^is; flint glass, whicii it clears and fluxes; 
 looking-glass platen, crown glass, and while cornelian. 
 Arsenic, if un.iduliei ated, is very white and even semi- 
 transparent, and very hea^y; but if ol a dull heavy 
 while, the substances with which it is or may be adul- 
 terated, are bones cafcined to whiteness, and lime; but 
 tht glass n\ixer should have it in clear semi-transparent 
 lui.ps, and grind and sift it through a No. 50 sieve 
 himself. II adulteration is suspected, dissolve the 
 arsenic lo eighty times its wei^'ht of hot water: the 
 arsenic will be held in susperision, and the panicles 
 with which it is adulterated will be precipitated and 
 fall to the bottom ol the glass. 
 
 Man-^antse, frequent y called glass makei's soap, 
 f;on\ Us great use in correcting the bad colour af glasS 
 as well as giving;; it a colour of itsc If. It is always found 
 inthe neighborhood of iron ore, and is very little differ- 
 ent IroiU it in colovir. It . ugbt lo be well burned, then 
 pounded and sifted througU a fine sieve, after which it 
 is fit ttj enter into the composition * P'roin lour to S5X 
 oui^ces of it is sufTjcitnt for a pot of glass. It aiis all 
 the other fluxes coHsiderabiy, destroys ttie phlogiston 
 
GLA.SS WAKING, ^l 
 
 or yellow, too often contained both in red lead and pearl 
 ashes, and }?ive3 to the glass, in place of the yellow 
 tinc^e communicated by these articles, a p'casinj? I'fjht 
 hlue cast,' bordering on a water colour. But if too 
 :>reat a quantity of it is admitted into the mixing, it will 
 give the glass a pnrplc colour, bordering on a dirly 
 black, which ought to be avoided. It is used in con- 
 junction with calcined copper, to make blue and sap- 
 phire coloured glass; it is also used in black, combined 
 with zafTer and iron. It is used with all the colouring 
 compounds, and if looking glass mixings have any 
 tincture of yellow it is admitted in small quantities to 
 correct it. 
 
 Jntimony. — The perfect oxyd of this metal gives a 
 full yellow to glass which ii much used, both alone and 
 in compound colours It also makes glass of a brown 
 colour, combined with manganese. 
 
 ZuffpT is used for giving a fine deep blue. Cobalt 
 jilso gives a fine fixed blue, which is unalterable by fire. 
 Cobalt and zaff.'r, combined with manganese and 
 iron, are used for some of the finer blacks- 
 
 Iron. — The shades of colour produced by the oxyds 
 of iron are very numerous. In the general account of 
 glass inaking it is observed that a very small portion of 
 iron, fully vitrified with a large body of glass, gives 
 dilTerent shades of green and yellow, and to this tho 
 colour of common green bottle glass seems to be ow- 
 ing. A larger dose of iron gives a yellow after thorougli 
 vitrification, and a still larger gives a brownish black, 
 which sceras to be only a yellow very much concen- 
 trated. 
 
 Cofifier. — All the oxyds and carbonated oxyds of 
 copper produce a fine green when thoroughly vitrified 
 Avith any kind of glass or flux, and this colour is one of the 
 easiest to produce. In experiments in the small way, 
 ihere does not seem to be much reason far preference 
 of ono preparation over the other. Those most irc- 
 c;uently employed are the carbonated oxyd produced 
 by adding a carbonated alkali to the sulphat of copper, 
 and also the aes ustum or copper oxydated and calcin- 
 ed simply by access of heat and air. This metal how- 
 ever, may be made to give a carmine red (or mixed 
 24» 
 
S82 GL^SS MAKING. 
 
 with iron a full rlecp red) liy arlding to thr p;'ass ror. 
 tsiri'np; it a quanuiy oflaitjr, when in fusion, anrl work- 
 ing ofi' in<niediately. The cxyrl of copper ninsi, in 
 llvib case, be reduced, nearly to Ibe rej^ulinc^taic. A 
 giciter coiilinijance of heat restores the preen colour. 
 The oxyd of G(3:i>per is also often mixed wi'h ipati^a- 
 iiese and iron, in the couposition of the full bodied 
 black ijhfs. This oxyd when combir^cd with thrice its 
 weiijiht of aliimine, runs in a strong lieat into an opukc 
 red en ift^el. 
 
 Calcined Tin, —The osyd of tin resists fusion more 
 stronj^iy than tliat of any other metal, from which pro- 
 pel ty it is useful to form an optike while enamel, when 
 nixed with pme glass :n fusion. 
 
 Sonie tin is mc Ited in en iion vessel, with a low red 
 heat, and the oxyd thia forms on the suiface, is suc- 
 cessively removed till enoo<»h of it is procured. Thif; 
 is then spread on a red hot inufTle, and heated for halt 
 an hoar, with frequent stirrinsr, to complete tl»e calci- 
 nation of any particles of (in that nay be entangled in 
 the cxvd. When cold it is powdered and sifted, and 
 the finrr part is as:3in calcined for sis or seven hours 
 on a muflle till it btcomes aln»os! wliite. 
 
 Gold has lon{» been celebrated for givinf; to glass r. 
 most exquisite purp!is!> red resembling the ruby, and 
 nearly eqnallin'? it in beauty. It is huth the most ex- 
 quisite, tplendid and expensive, of all the anificial co- 
 loured glasses; but the n.anugement seems to be ex- 
 tremely dilTicuU to emsure the rompletrst and most 
 uniform success, principally, as m.ty be supposed, ft on-, 
 the great tendency of gold to assume the rei^uline s'aIc 
 by mean? of heat, by i<ny carbonaceous vapor, or by 
 hydrogen. The most celebrated as well as the corn 
 monesi preparation of gold, for givini; a purple to 
 ghss and porcelain, is ^he purple precipitate of casvius, 
 or gold precipiated from its nit ro muriatic soluticn, 
 ty-^ and together with, the oxyd of tin; the usual way 
 of n^aking it is, to dilute very largely a solution of 
 gold in aqua-reuia (formed by about 3 parts of nitric 
 and 1 muriatic acid) and udd to it drop by drop a very 
 dilute nitro muriate o' tin, well saturat d wi h this metal. 
 ,The liquoia iminediutcly become of apuiphsh red 
 
GI\?iS MAKING. SS3 
 
 olour, like port wine, and b> s'andins; a precipitate of 
 ;;iis colour, with some vaiieties of shade, slowly sub- 
 i-itles. A. similar precipitate also takt?* place with 
 iUi' nitro muriate of ?^olcl, and rhe pule moiiatc of 
 i in, and also with preat certainty, by immersini^ i stick 
 t i tin in the dilute solution of pold. rhouj^b tiie ciianj^e 
 cf colour always t^Kes place when th« ni'ro muriate of 
 un is used, the precipitate sometimes fails to sepuate 
 without any app.ireut reason. This substance is a most 
 intimate mixture of the oxyds o! tin and of jiold. 
 
 Wlienever the purple precipitate by tin is used, it 
 appears to be the practice to a'ld about one sixth its 
 wcii^ht cf the perlect white oxyd of antimony by riiMe, 
 or else of !!;lass of antimony, This naturally gives a 
 yi'll'.w; and it seems by experience to be a very impor- 
 tant in.^^redient in the composition of the fine ruby glass. 
 
 Silvrr. — J'he oxyd of silver is used in gla^s nu^kuif^ 
 to ^Mvc gl 'ss a fine yellow colour. When used as a 
 colourific, the fire must not be ur}»ed too fast, as that 
 will make the colour fly, and the glass will become 
 truisparcnt. 
 
 Burnt Bones. — There are two meihods of burning; 
 uoucs — the one white and the other black. Il bouts 
 are burned in a luted crucible,, owing to the fixed <.il 
 contained in Inem they will be burned i:Uo a black 
 mass, whicii being gruund in a mill produces ivory 
 black; but if bones are burned in the open air, the oil 
 flics off', and ihsy are burnt into a white powder, which 
 being ground and sifted, will give glass that opaque 
 colour called white enamel; but in using bones and 
 arsenic, the fire must not be toe stronsjiy urged, as that 
 voluilizes the arsenic and reduces the bones to a pelii- 
 ':id glass. 
 
 GLASS COMPO.SITIOXS. 
 
 No. 1, Flint Glaus — 120 lb. of white sand, well 
 washed and burned, 50 lb. of red lead, 40 lb. of best 
 prarl ashes, 20 ot sail petrc, 5 ounces of manganese, 
 12 ounces of arsenic. 
 
 No. 2.~;20 lb. of white sand, 40 lb. of pearl ashes, 
 well purifie<l, 35 lb. red lead, 13 lb. of nitre, 4 ounces 
 of manganese. 
 
284 GLASS MAKING. 
 
 No. n.— -100 lb. white sand, 80 to fi5 Ih. of red lead, 
 35 to 40 llj ol purified pearl ashes, 12 lb. of nitre, and 
 3 ounces of nnangjanese. 
 
 No. 4 — 120 lb. of sand, 54 lb. of pearl ashes, 36 lb. 
 red lead, 12 lb. of nitic, 6 ounces of manganese. Add 
 from one to two pountis of arsenic to this and No. 3. 
 
 No. 5 — 120 lb. of while sand, 35 lb. of best pearl 
 ashes, 40 lb. (jf red lead, 1 3 lb. of nitre, 6 lb. of arsenic 
 and 4 ounces of manf»anese, or 15 pounds of common 
 salt may be substituted in place ol the arsenic. 
 
 No. 6.— 120 lb. of white sand, 30 lb. of red lead, 20 
 lb. of liest pearl athes, 10 lb. of nitre, 1 5 lb. of common 
 salt and 6 lb. of arsenic. This requires a strong fite to 
 burn off the arsenic. 
 
 No. 7. — 240 lb. of sand, 60 lb. of pood pearl* ashes, 
 28 lb, of red lead, 1 2 lb. of salt petre, 4 J lb. of arsenic, 
 5 ounces of manj;anese, and 116 lb. of broken glass. 
 
 No. 8. — 120 lb. sand 30 lb. pearl ashes, 16 lb. red 
 lead, 8 lb. salt petre, 3 lb. of arsenic, 3 ounces of man- 
 ganese, 60 lb broken glass. 
 
 No. 9 — 120 1b. of sand, 35 lb. of pearl ashes, 16 lb. 
 of suit, 14 lb. of lime, 3 lb. and 3 ounces of arsenic, 80 
 lb. of broken glass. 
 
 No. 10.--120 lb. of fine sand, 40 lb. purified pearl 
 ashes, 55 lb. of litharge, 1 3 lb. of nitre, and 4 ounceb of 
 rtanganese, to which add half the whole weight of 
 broken glass. 
 
 No. 1 1. — 120 lb. of white sand, 50 of red lead, 40 of 
 the purest pearl ashes, 20 of nitre, and 5 ounces of 
 manganese, and broken glass half the whole weight. 
 
 No 12. — 120 lb. of white sand, 54 of the purest pearl 
 ashes, 36 of red lead, 12 of nitre, 6 ounces of manga- 
 nese, and 1| lb. of arsenic, and the usual quantity of 
 broken ylass. 
 
 No. 13 — 120 pounds of white sand, 30 of red lead, 
 20 of the best pearl ashes, 10 of nitre, 15 of common 
 salt, and 6 of arsenic, 3 ounces of manganese, and 100 
 pounds of broken glass, 
 
 No. 14—100 pounds of sand, 80 to 85 of red lead, 
 35 to 40 of nitre, and 2^ ounces of manganese. The 
 lead may be reduced in this mixing, but a sufficiert 
 quantity of broken glass must be added. 
 
No. 15. — 120 pounds of clean white sand, 40 of 
 purified pearl ashes, S5 of liiharge or red lead, 13 of 
 nitre and 4 ounces of the black oxyd ol manganese, to- 
 rt hicha(id 100 pounds of bioken glass. 
 
 No. 16 — ICO pounds, of fine sand, 80 of good pearf 
 ashes, 45 of red .'ead, 14 of nitre and 2 ounces of man- 
 ganese; broken jjlass as beiore specified. 
 
 No. 17. Gernan Crystal. — 120 pounds of calcined 
 flints or pure while sand, 70 of best pearl ashes, 10 of 
 Salt petre, hall a pound of aisenic, 5 ounces of mangu- 
 nese, SO pounds of broken glass. 
 
 No. 18. — 120 pounds white sand, 46 of pearl ashes, 
 7 of nitre, J of arsenic, 5 ounces of manganese, 100 
 pounds bioken glass. 
 
 No. 19. — 120 pounds of white sand, 15 of common 
 Salt, 80 of pot ash, 1 of aisenic, 45 ot broken glass. 
 
 No. 20. Crown Glass.^-2 )0 pounds of good white 
 S'lnd, 180 of pearl ash or soda, 33 of lime, 200 of bro- 
 ken gUss, 3 ounces of manganese, and 2j pounds of 
 arsenic. 
 
 No. 21. Boston Croun Glass — 200 lb. of Dem^rara 
 or Delaware sand, 80 lb oi pearl ashes, 84 lb. ol oyster 
 shell lime, ?3 lb. ol antimony, 3 lb. of aisenic, 2| lb. of 
 antimony, 124 lb of broken glass. 
 
 No. 22, i/lica Crown Claax. — 300 lb. of good sand,. 
 100 lb, pearl ashce, 100 lb. ot lin c, 4 ib. of arsenic 4 lb. 
 of antimony, 170 lb. broken glass. 
 
 No. 23 Englisit Crown Glass — 240 lb. of sand, 100 
 of kelp or b.rrilla, 18 of silt petre, 8 ol arsenic, li of 
 antiir.ony and 60 of lime, bioken glass as before. 
 
 No. 24. Common Green H indow Glass. — 60 lb. of 
 white sand, CO ol pot ash, 10 of common salt, 2 of arse- 
 nic, 2 ounces of manganese and 80 lb. of broken glass, 
 
 No. 25. — 120 Ib, of wnne san<l, 30 of pot ash, 60 of 
 wood ashes, well burned, 20 ol common salt, anti 2^ of 
 arsenic; with this uuist be mixed half tiie weight ol me 
 wlioe cmipound ol broken glass. 
 
 No. 26. — 120 Ib. of good sand, 40 of good pearl 
 ashes, 18 oi lime, 16 of sah, 60 o. t^roken glass. 
 
 No. 27. Made at ttooiUtock in York state — 240 1b. 
 of sand, 90 ol peail ashe^, 84 of wood asaes, -:;2 oi Piue, 
 I ofuuiimuny, ^ lo. of CubdiC and 142 It), ot biuuen 
 
 glass, 
 
gS6 eLA.9S MAKiKd. 
 
 Na. 28. Green wUhout Pot or Pearl ^ahea.^-.M 
 basliels ofsand, 25 of d&htsi, 8 of bjIi and 12 ul broken 
 
 No 29. J! 9 made in most of the Gla^s ManuJaciO' 
 Tics in the Unit id States. — 6 buslith ot ^-ood clean 
 sand, 6 cf wood asl>es well buiut and sifted, 2 of potash, 
 a busliel and 3 pecks of con)rncn sjlt, >ou may add 
 bjoken ghss or not. 1 lie above ans'vera tcr a melt in 
 an eight pot furnace. 
 
 No. 30 Frederic/clown Cillender an t Bottle Glass. — 
 17 busl els ol sand, '^7 ol ashes, 8i oi Silt, 6 of pot ash, 
 and 10 of broken jilass. 
 
 No. 31. — 120 puunds of good sand, 40 of good pot 
 ash> 1 8 of lime, 1 3 ol salt, 1 oi arsenic and 60 of broken 
 glass. 
 
 No. 32. — 300 pounds of san-1, 200 of soda or pot ash, 
 33 of lime, Ir-iin 250 to 300 ot broken window glass. 
 
 No. 33.— 130 Pounds of fine sand, 40 ot purified 
 pearl ashes, 35 of litharge, 13 of nitre, 2 ounces of 
 manganese. 
 
 No. 34. — 120 pounds white sand, 50 of red lead, 40 
 of purifiod pcdrl as je;-, 20 of niire, 5 ounces oi manga- 
 Dese and 1^0 poun isof broken flini j;1jss, 1| of arsenic. 
 
 No. 35. — 1 JO poands of sand, 54 purified pearl a-^hts 
 56 ol red lead, 12 ot nitre, 6 ounces ol" manganese, r 
 pounds of aisenic, and '60 ol bioken gla^s. 
 
 No. 36. — 120 pounds ot white suiid, 35 'A best pearl 
 ashes, 40 of red leaJ, 13' of nitre, 4 pounds 4 ounces of 
 mangjnese, and hall 'iie wiiole weight of broken glass, 
 
 N J. 37. — 120 pounds of white sand, SO ot red lead 
 20 of best pearl a-^hes, 10 of nilrtT, 15 of common salt, 
 4 of arsenic, and half the whole wei'j;lil broken kI->ss. 
 
 N'). 38. — 100 p')U.»d8 of Bind, 60 ol red lead, 40 of 
 pearl .isiies, 8 ot nitre, 2 ounces ol manganese, 2 pounds 
 ol arsenic and 100 ol broken glass. 
 
 N ). 39—120 pounds of sanfl or Calcined fusible 
 sp.tr, 35 ot t^ood pojrl asncs, 20 of lime, I of antimony, 
 1 ji ol arsenic, 80 ot brok,tn g>ass. 
 
 N-i 40 Gitrn witli'jut /■'ot or Peail Ashen — Fifteen 
 bu.sheia 'if sdud, 25 of wood asnes, 8 ol sail, and 12 of 
 bruken ^U^s. 
 
GLASS MAKING. §87 
 
 No. 41. Giass tvitfi brick bats and the scoria of irott 
 boundaries. — 75 poun:Js ofbCoii;!, '25 of hard brickbats, 
 *.(5 of sand, 60 ot salt, 24 of pot ash, and 100 oi broken 
 v!,Ias3. The scoria and b:ick bats mu^t be pounded fine. 
 
 No. 42. Cheafi Green — Ei^ht bushels ©I sand, 12 of 
 :ishes, 4. J of sal», 2^ of black salts, 9 of broken glass. 
 
 No. 43- Glass made from hard j[la.ss, that is from 
 glast ladled out cf the fiots into wattr. — To every 
 bushel and a huifof this gbss well ground and sifted, 
 add half a bushel ot sand, erje- fifth of a bushel of salt 
 and a peck of pearl ash»js. 
 
 No 44. Looking Glass Mixing. — 300 pounds of the 
 -Inest sand, 200 of soda, or pc:ui sshes purified with 
 nitre, SO of lime, IS ol borax, 8 ounces of manganese, 
 
 3 rf cobalt, SOO pounds of broken lookinj; glass plates. 
 The sand, soda, linie and m insjanese are first mixed to- 
 gether with great care and then fritted together till the 
 materials underiio no further change-, the htut of the 
 calear being grad<i>?lly raised vo a white heaf. This 
 process lasts about 6 lioors, wlicn t ey are put into ihe 
 pot and the broken glass m-l cobalt added. 
 
 No. 45 Another. — 120 lb. of very pure sand, 50 of 
 pearl ashes p.irified with nitre, 20 ol borax, I, of arse- 
 nic, 60 ol broken plate glass 
 
 No. 46. Hard Glass, Jor fiastes and colours.— ]2 lb, 
 cffcjood f-and, washed and burned, 7 ot pearl ashes and 
 h lb. of borax. 
 
 No. 47. Auot/ier — 12 lb. of sand, 7 of pearl ashes, 1 
 of saltpetre, ^ lb. of borvtx, 4 oz. of arsenic. 
 
 No. 48 — CO lb. of litharge, 12 of silex, 4 of nitre, 
 
 4 of borax, and 2 of white arsenic; frit these in a 
 crucible and afterwards mell, then pour the whole into 
 Water, seperato any revised lead that may be tound,'and 
 "'.fierwards mejt again. 
 
 No. 49. — Mix 20 lb. of ceruse,.8 of silex or powder- 
 ed flints, 4 of carbonat ol pot ash, 2 of borax; when 
 melted pour into water, and remclt again in a clean 
 crucible. 
 
 No. 50. — Mix 16 lb. of red h-ad, 8 of rock crystal in 
 powder,. 4 cf nitre and 4 of carbonut ot pot ash; melt 
 ;'.nd remelt as before. 
 
 No. 51. — Treat as above directed 24 pounds of bo- 
 cx, 8 oi rock crystal and 8 cf curbohat of pot a?ll. 
 
GLASS MAKING. 
 
 No. 52. — Make a quantity of liquor of flints by fit- 
 ting together three parts of alkali with one of rock 
 crystal, which dissolve in water, and saturate with di- 
 lute nitric acid, drain off the nitric acid and dry the si- 
 lex which is converted into a Sne powder, then melt it 
 in a crucible with H its weight ol vciy fine ceruse, and 
 pour the glass into water, then break it down and melt 
 it with 1- r2ih Us weight of borax, and pour into water 
 as before; lastly, melt this latter product with l-12th 
 its weight of nitre, and the result will be a very fine 
 hard glass of extreme lustre. 
 
 No. 53. Hard Glass Jor Black Glass,— 7 pounds of 
 sand, 3 ol pearl ashesj ^ pound of nitre; dip this into 
 water, atid to every tliree pounds add one ounce of 
 noanganese, i ounce of zaffer, one ounce of calcined 
 copper and one ounce of calcined iron. 
 
 No. 54. Diamond Paste G/ois.»--Take of hard glass 
 No. 3, 7 pounds, good sand 2 J, purified pearl ashes 8 
 ounces, 1^ pound borax, 2 ot red lead; when this giass 
 fs melted throw it into clean water and add half its 
 weijjht of very pure bioken glass, ^ pound of arsenic, § 
 ounce of manganese, i pound of borax and ^ pound of 
 red lead. 
 
 No. 55. Common Dlaclc Co/ouf— Take all kinds of 
 old broken glass pounded fine anci add by ditfeient 
 quatitities zaffer and manganese to fix the colour. 
 
 No. 56. Ftne Velvet Co/our— Take crystaline and 
 pulveiine frit, of each 20 pounds, calcined end pure 
 calx of lead and tin 4 pounds, steel calcined and pow- 
 dered and scales of iron Irom the anvil 6 ounces each. 
 
 No. 57. Jthite Enamel — 120 potmda of sand, 40 of 
 good pearl ashes, 12 ot red lead, 10 of saltpetre, 16 of 
 arscnie, I 4 of burnt bone ashes, 60 of broken while ena- 
 mel. This gltass should be worked ofl' qaick, as the 
 •arsenic is apt to burn off by too long a lusion. 
 
 No. 58. ^not/rer. — 10 pounds of hard glass, 1 of 
 calcined horn, ivory or bone, or 2 pounds ol white arse- 
 nic to !0 of hard glass. 
 
 No. 59. Another.^-\^0 pounds of sand or calcined 
 flints, 70 of iVitre, 12 of borax, 12 of taitar, S of arsenic, 
 20 of powdered bone ashes or shavings of ivory. 
 
GLASS MAKING, *J80 
 
 No. 60.— 60 pounds of white sand, 40 of good pot 
 ash, 25 of finely powdered bone ashes; this glass is per- 
 fectly clear when red hot, but grows opaque as it cools. 
 
 No. 61. Glass in imitation of 0/ial.~^T»kc 200 
 pounds of hard glass. No. 3, 10 of lunar cornea, 2 ^f 
 magnetic iron ore and 40 of finely powdered bone 
 ashes. 
 
 No. 62. Blue Glass. — 100 pounds of hard glass with- 
 out lead, 2 of zaffer, and |lb. of manganese. 
 
 No 63. Blue. — A full blue may be made by adding 
 6 diachms of zaffer and 2 drachms of raangancs* to 10 
 pounds of hard glass. 
 
 No. 64. For a Cool Blue. — To 10 pounds of hard 
 glass, add half an ounce of calcined copper in place 
 of the manganese, »nd diminish the proportion of zaffer 
 one half. 
 
 No. 65. Crysolite.— -Tike 10 pounds of hard glass 
 and 1 ounce of calcined iron. 
 
 No. 66. Glass resembling Safifihire — 10 pounds of 
 hard glass, 3 drachms and 1 scrupls of zaffer, and I 
 drachm of calx cassi, or one eighth the weight of the 
 glass of smalt. 
 
 No. 67. Red Cornelian. — 1 pound of glass of anti- 
 mony, 2 ounces of calcined vitriol, called scarlet ochre^ 
 
 1 drachm of manganese, to 2 pounds of h-ird glass. 
 The glass of antiinony and manganese is first fused 
 with the hard glass And then the scarlet ochre is added. 
 
 No. 68. IVhtte Cornelian. -^'i pounds of hard glass, 
 
 2 drachms of yellow oclire well washed, 4 ounces of 
 burned bones; grind all togetiicr and fuse them or in- 
 stead of the bones 3 ounces of the calx of tin. 
 
 Nn. 69 Garnet. — To 2 pounds of hard glass, add 
 i pouno of glass of antimony, I drachm of oiangansse, 
 and 1 drachm of calx cassi. 
 
 No. 70. Gold Colour -—To 10 pounds of hard glass 
 without nitre, add 10 ounces of borax, I') ounces of red 
 tartar, ot the deepest colour, 2 ounces of manganeirC) 
 and 2 drachms of charcoal. 
 25 
 
ggO CLASS MAKING. 
 
 No, 71. Another. — 2 pounds of i;;lass of antimony.; 
 2 oi red lead, and 3 of calcined Bints; this glass look« 
 well 
 
 No 72. Saa:on Green —9 pounds of hard glass, 3 
 ounces of copper precipitated trom aqua lorlis, 2 
 drachnns ol piecipitated iron. 
 
 In nn-kinj^ hard t^Iass for colours, tbey should be 
 made on a soft basis, so as to fuse easily, because the 
 colouring matter being gcnetailj rrietallic, oxyds would 
 stsmetimes be reduced to a reguiine state by too long a 
 fuiiieii, and the colouring matter contained in them de- 
 stroyed, 
 
 \\ hen crucibles are used for fusing coloured glase, 
 they should be ainted or glazed, which is done while 
 they are moist by sprinkling some powdered borax on 
 the inside of the crucible, or some glass pounded fine 
 and sprinkled on tiie inside of the crucible, then they 
 are put into an oven and the fiie ^r^dually raised till 
 the glass or borax viiiifieson the inside sutface; after 
 which they aresufiered to cool gradually. 
 
 Methdd of Silvering Looking- Glass Plates. 
 
 Afler the. plate glass is taken out oi the tempeiiog ' 
 oven, it is kqnarcri; ihe piate ol glass is* thtn laid on a 
 thin plate ct free stoi.e, or on a long wooden frame, ol 
 about the same size with it, and cemented strong by 
 plaster ol Pans. Another plate is also cemented in the 
 same manner, and laid upon ihe lower plate, and wet 
 sand is intersper^ed bctwt en the two. 'Ihe plaics are 
 then made 'o rub against c ach other steadily ^nd evenly, 
 by a kind ol hund mill, the wheel of which is worked by a ) 
 man, and sometimes in large plates by two ipen, who ) 
 Can rtgulate the pressure of one or the other as it may I 
 be judged proper. In proportion as the suilace of the | 
 plaits wear down, the sand is used successively finer, j 
 being previously siftetl and sorted for the purpose. In t 
 general the vvoikmen avoid rubbing two absolutely [ 
 rough surfaces on the other, for fear that the great | 
 janing of the friction should produce shakes or flaws 
 in tie gl.iss, but a h U ground plate is rubbed on a 
 fresh surface, and so on successively. 
 
 J 
 
GLASS MAKIN'G. gQl 
 
 When one side of the plite is done, the plaster- 
 which cemented it is picked oB", the plate turned, and 
 the opposite side ground in the same ir.anner. Towards 
 the end o( the grinding the pressure is increased by 
 loading the upper plates with flat stones of ttifTerent 
 thicknesses. This process lasts three days, and great 
 attention is paid to finish them with surfaces pertectly 
 flat and parallel, which is determined by the rule and 
 phimb line. The ground sui faces are nuw uniformly 
 covered by millions ol scratches, and therefore nearly 
 opaque, utdess held up to the light, but still very far 
 from having the requisite fineness to receive the poiish. 
 This farther grinding is done by enieiy of different de- 
 grees of fineness, the preparatit)n and sorting ot which 
 is done in the follovving manner:— A large quaniity of 
 rough emery is put into a vessel witn water, and strong- 
 ly stirred about till the whole is mixed; but emery not 
 being sohi!)le in water, the whole will again be deposit- 
 ed in successive layers, tne coarsest puiicles ^iIiking 
 first, and the others afterwards in the inve;se degree of 
 their fineness. By standing about twenty minutes, and 
 then p'.juring off the 8uperal)undjnt liquor, tiie latter 
 holds suspended only tnc very finest particles winch 
 again scpuatc by rest for a longer liiue. More water 
 is t'nun added to the vessel, tiie cmeiy stirred again, 
 and noiv only alio ved to remain at rest only 15 minutes, 
 Tuis furnishes emery of the second degree of fineness. 
 The same opeiaiion is repeitcd twice more at the dif- 
 ferent times of five minutes and a half a minute, by 
 which two other sorts are obiained. The wet emery 
 fiom all these liquors is separately heated over a stove, 
 and when ne uly dry is matlc up into balls, in which 
 stue it is deliveicd to the workmen 
 
 The plates are tijen further ground on both sides, 
 Willi twu or ihtee emeries, beginning wiiU the coaisest, 
 an I are finished with great caie. Tiity aie now per- 
 fect ly even, with a deadening opacity on their surlace; 
 hut so fine that no scratches can be perceived. In this 
 sta'-c they are again examiried, and ii any n»aterial de- 
 lects appear below the ground suriacc, tltcy arc cut up 
 into smaller plates, rejeciing the faulty parts. The 
 next piocess is that of polishing both suriaces to tHat 
 
S9S OLASS MAKI.VCb. 
 
 perfect brightness seen in perfect mirrors, so ihat the 
 rays of light may pass through unimpaired to the silver- 
 ing on the posterior surface, and be reflected again 
 from thence by the laws of catoptrics. The substance 
 used for this purpose is r.olcothar — it is the residue left 
 in the retorts of the aqua fortis makers, and when well 
 washed and levigated, consists of little else than a red 
 and perfect exyd of iron. 
 
 Tlie polishing instrument is a block of wood, covered 
 with several folds of black cloih, with carded wool be- 
 nv ecu each fold, fo as to make a firm elastic cushion. 
 'J'his block has a handle for the workman to hold. He 
 then moistens the polisher with a wet brush, covers it 
 with colcoihar, and begins his operation by working it 
 backwards and forwards over the surface of the plate. 
 
 When one side iscon'pleted, and the reverse is about 
 to be done, the polished side, now the utulermost, is 
 entirely covered with led colcoihar, to prevent ihe 
 dazzle reflected from the white plaster, which would 
 prc\ent the workman from judging so accurately of the' 
 blate of the surfaces on which he is employed. What 
 is termed silvering of mi.rorsis applying to tlie poste- 
 rior surface a coaling of quicksilver, which metal when 
 perfectly bright and brilJiant, reflects the rays of light 
 with great accuracy and beauty; but as this fluid metal 
 could not be alone applied without great inconvenience, 
 Jt is first made to adhere by a partial amalgamation lo the 
 surface of a sheet of tin leal, and then, by the help of 
 jircspure, is applied closely to the glass in a very thin 
 Taniina, li is therefoie properly a thin sheet of leaf tin, 
 fully impregnated with meicury, that is the reflecting 
 aurface. The management ol silvering is extremely 
 simple. A perfectly flat slob of smoo'hed free slonc, 
 or sometimes of thick wood, a liitle larger than the 
 largest plate, is enclosed in a square wooden Irame or 
 box, open at toj), and with a ledge li'iing a tew inches 
 on three sides, and cut clown t\cn with the stone on the 
 fourth. A small channel or guttci is cut at boiton) of 
 Ihe wooden frame, serving to ronvc v the waste mer- 
 cuty down int«i$ a vessel set to receive it. The shib is 
 also fix!^d on a centre pivot, so lliat one end may be 
 raised by wedge?, (and of course the other depressed,]' i 
 Jit pleasure, when working freely in the box. 
 
»GLASS MAKING. 293 
 
 riie slab beinaj first laid quite iionzontal, and cover- 
 ed with Riey jjaper s'.retched tight over it, a shee^ cf 
 ;in foil, a liule bigger tlvan the plate to be silvered, is 
 spead over it, an;] every crease smootbed down careful- 
 ly; a little mercury is then laid upon it, and spread over 
 with a tic^ht roll of cloih, immediately after whicb as 
 much mercury is poured over it as will lie on the flat 
 surface witbo\)t spilling. Thit part of the slab whicb 
 is opposite tbe cut down side of the wooden frame, is 
 then covered with parcliment, and the glass plues lift- 
 ed up with care and slid in, holding: it quite horizoiitjl, 
 over the parchment, and lodged on the surface of the 
 slab. The panicular care required here is, that the 
 under surface ot the glass should from the first just dip 
 into the surface of the mercury, skimming it off as it 
 were, but without touching the tin leaf in its passage 
 which it might tear. By this means no bubbles of air 
 can get between tha glass and '.he metal, and also any 
 little dust or oxyd Hoaling on the mercury is swept off 
 before the plate without interfering. Tlie plate being 
 then let go sinks on the tin foil, squeezing out the su- 
 perfluous mercury, whicb passes into the channel of 
 ihe wooden frame before mentioned. The |)lateis then 
 coveted with a thick flannel and loaded over the whole 
 surface with lead or iron weights, and at the same 
 lime is tilted up a little, by which more of the mercury 
 is squeezed out. It remains in this situation for a dav, 
 the slope of the stone slab being gradually uicreased to 
 favor the dripping of the mercury. The plate is then 
 very cautiously removed, touching it only on the edges 
 and upper side, and the under side is found uniformly 
 covered with a soft pasty amalgan>, consisting of 
 the tin leaf, thoroughly soaked with quick silver, and 
 about the thickness of parchment. It is then set up in 
 a wooden frame, and allovi^ to remain there for sever- 
 al days, the slope of its p'osition being gradually in- 
 creused, till the amalgain is sufficienily hardened to 
 adMer« so firmly as not to be removed by slight scratch- 
 es, after whicb the plate is finished and fit for framing. 
 It IS a considerable lime before the ani«lt'-Hm gets per- 
 fectly hard, so that globules of mercury ara liequenily 
 35* 
 
1^9 1 
 
 GLASS MAKIXG? 
 
 tlstarhed from the surface of the glass or by any con^ 
 cession of the air. 
 
 It often happens in mixing glass, that there is too 
 great a flux admitted into the co.t» position; iliis is not 
 generally the fault of the mixers, as it is not possible to 
 be always a jndge of the strength of the fluxes. But if 
 the fire is well kept up, and the dralt of the furnacG 
 properly rec:ulated, it will take a Jar less portion of flux 
 to form glass, than with an indifferent fire. A good 
 fire is also the best agent for dcprivinj>: it of gall or san- 
 dovev, but if there is too great a quaniity of it on the 
 glass, the practice is in Europe, to put on two or ihrcc 
 shovels full of broken glass, taking care to hold the 
 glass long enough in the furnace, before it is dropped 
 in;o the pot, for if it is dropped in cold or moist, it will 
 make the sandover fly with a loud report, and often co- 
 vers the person not acquitinted with its quality, with a 
 hot liquid substance which on cooling assumes a ^ery 
 wliite colour. When there is too much of it on the 
 glass, it is taken off with a small lidie previously heated 
 for fear of explosion. The general practice of the 
 German and French glass makers is to burn it off, but 
 this method is very destructive to turnaces, for as they 
 commonly use open po!s, the gl.iss gall flovvs over ^nd 
 being of a very penetrating natuic corrodes both ihe 
 P'^ts and furnace as far as it reaches, acting as a pow- 
 erful flux on sjnd itone and brick. 
 
 'f on the contrary there is not a suHiciency of alkali 
 in the composition, or that from the badness of the fire, 
 ii cannot sufFicieiilly act in vitrifying the sand, it be- 
 comes what is tailed set in the pots. The only remedy 
 known for this casualty, is to reflux the glass, by hav- 
 iui^ a sufficient (juantityol ni re and arstnic prepaied, and 
 tied in m iny folds of paper, plunged into the pot of 
 glass, and stirred about in ilf these sul)stances introduce 
 thenselves throufrh the whole mass, und revive the for- 
 mer lUix, while, at the same lime, they destroy afciy 
 green tinge rommunicaied by iron, or purple c^jmnu- 
 n)catt:d by an over dose of mang mese: this op ration 
 is called ^qu^hg. If this process is not a tended 
 wnh success, the only course to be pursued, is to ladle 
 out the glass into water, and re-fill the pot. 
 
JEWELLERS' SECRErS. 
 
 To imitate Jine Oriental Pearls. 
 
 TAKK of thrice distilled vinegar, two pounds; Ve- 
 nice turpeminCjone pound; mix them together, and put 
 ihcm into a cuctirbit; nt a head and receiver to it; and 
 aftf-ryou have hitcd the joints, set it, when dry, on a 
 sind f'lrnace to distil the vinegar fiom it; do not give it 
 too nriiich heat lest the smfF slionld swell up. After 
 tlua put the vineq;ar into another cucurbit, in which 
 llieie is a quantity of seed pearl wrapped in a piece of 
 silk, bvit so as not to touch the vinegar; put a covered 
 head upon the cucurbit; lute it well, and put it in balneo 
 marine, where you may let it remain a fortniglit. The 
 heat of the balneo will raise tlae fumes of the vinegar, 
 and they will sol' en the pear's in the silk and bring 
 t!iem to the Consistence ot p^ste, which being done, 
 take them out and mould them to what size and shape 
 yot) please. Your mould must be of silv«(1p, gilt on tlie 
 inside; you must also refrain Irom touching the paste 
 with your 6ngers, but use silver gilted utensils, with 
 which fill your moulds; when they are mo-iMed bore 
 liiem through with a ho;j's bristle or gold wire, and let 
 them dry a little in a place free from d'jst; then thread 
 them on a golden wire, and put thein iu a glass, close it 
 up and set them in the sun to dry; when thoroughly dry, 
 put them in a glass matrass, into a stream ot water, ancl 
 leave them there twenty days, in which lime they will 
 co-ur.ict the natural hirdness and solidity of pearls. 
 Tntn take them out of the matrass and hang them in 
 mecury water, where they will moisten, swell, and 
 assume their oriental beauty. After which shift them 
 into a matrass, hermetically sealed to prevent the en- 
 trance of water, and let it down into a well for eight 
 days. Upon dravving up the matrass and taking out the 
 pearls, you will have such -is can with difficulty be dis- 
 tinguished from oriental ones 
 
 Mircury nvnCer is thus prepared:— Take Cornwal 
 tin, ami calcine it, and let the culx be pure and fiwej 
 
^Wj 
 
 293 JEWBLLElts' SFXRETS. 
 
 then, vv'uh one ounce of tlic calx and two ounces of pre* 
 pured mercury, make an amulgam; wash it with (aiv 
 water till the water iuns o(T insipiO and clear; then dry 
 the araalpjam thoroughly; put it into a matrass over a 
 furnace, p;ivin?^ it such a heat as is requisite for feiibli- 
 rnaiion; when the matter is well sublinied, take ofT tho 
 tmatrabs and let it cool; take out the 8nt.limate and add 
 one ounce of Venice turpentine, grind it togeilier on a 
 vnarblc slab; pui the whole tlien into another mritrass, 
 close it and set it upside down in a pail c f water; and 
 the whole mass will dissolve itself in a little ttme into 
 mcrcuiy water. Fhis done, filter it into a glti£S re- 
 ceiver, bct it on a gentle ash fire to coaj^ulate, aiid it 
 will turn into a crystaline substa"rce: this beat in a gl^&s 
 mortar to line powder, then sifted througli a fine sicxc 
 and put into a matrass, stopped close up and placed in 
 balnco mariae: there let it rcmiin till it dissolves attain 
 into water, which is the mercury water fit !oi' the above 
 use. 
 
 To form large Pearls out of small ones. 
 
 Take mercurial water 14 ounces, put 2 ounces cf 
 sulp soils into a low matrass, pour the mercurial water 
 upon it and let it dissolve and extract; then take of the 
 whitest small pearls 20 ounces, put them into a proper 
 matrass, and pour the said water on; the pearls will by 
 degrees dissolve, and at last turn to a clear calx, mucli 
 like dissolved silver calx; pour off '.he mercurial w iter, 
 boil the calx well out and dry it; then put it into a cle tii 
 crucible by itbelf, and melt and cast it into what form 
 you please; when cold polish it in the same manner as 
 you would gems or crystals, and you will have work of 
 the consistence and beauty of oriental pearls. 
 
 Choice secreta for irnltatin°; prociom Stones 
 or for mi ni^ artificial Gems, 
 
 To make a fair Rmcraed. — Take of patural crystal 
 4 ounces, verdigris 48 grains, crocus manus, prepared 
 with vinegar, 8 grains: let tlie whole be finely pulver- 
 ized an.-l sif'.od, put all togethir into a crucible, leavin;^ 
 an iach empty, lute it yell and put it into a poiiet'n 
 
jewellers' secrets. SOr 
 
 lurnace, and let it remain there for the space of 
 one kiln fire. When cold breals the crucible, and you 
 will find the matter of a fine emerald colour, which, 
 alter it is cut and set in gold, will surpass in beauty an 
 oriental emerald. If you find that the matter is not ie» 
 fined or purified enough, put it again into the same 
 furnace, and in liftin.^ off the cover you will see the 
 matter sliinin^;; you may then break the crucible, but 
 not before, for if you shoold put the matter into another 
 crucible the paste would become cloudy and full of 
 blisters. If a potter's furnace is not at hand, build a 
 small one yourstlf, sufficient to coniain 10 or 12 crucj. 
 hies, each vith a different colour, which ought to stand 
 in the furnace from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 
 
 lo make Paste for imitating Oriental Pearls, 
 
 The co'our of this stone is like water tinged with 
 saffron or rhubarb. To i(i)itate it fake prepared natural 
 crystal one ounce, of red lead seven ounces, finely pow- 
 dered and seared: mix the whole together, and put it 
 into a crucible, not quite full by an inch, lest the matter 
 should run over or stick to the cover of the crucible 
 whilst in ebullition. Then proceed as before directed. 
 
 lo make an artificial Crijsolite, 
 
 This stone is of a f^reen colour, and some have the 
 cast of gold; CO imitate which t.ike natural crystal pre- 
 pjred 2 ounces; red lead 8 ounces, crocus mirtus 12 
 grains: mix the whole finely totcether, and proceed as 
 before, only leaving it a little longer in the furnace. 
 
 Another process for imitating' precious 
 Stones. 
 
 Take of black (lint stones what quantity yoti please, 
 and put them into a pnil of hut water, and tht-n \ml 
 tHeni into a hot oven; this will prevent their flvinij into 
 p'eces; or else warm them thoroughly by dcLjiees, tiniil 
 thty are at a red heat, when 'ake them out and quench 
 tiici in cold water, aud they will look of a fine white 
 "olour; dry and pulverize them very finely; {hh mav 
 
Sr8* jewellers' skcuets. 
 
 be clone in an iron mortal ; but as it may contract some 
 of the ncrt, it will be proper alti r you take it out, to 
 pour on ii some aqua fortis, wliich wi/1 clear it of tlio 
 iron, and so disenya^e it from all filtli and impurities, 
 iben wash it in several hot waters. 
 
 This powder, thus prepared, is fit to be uced for 
 making the finest f»!ass, and for imitatiiig; the clearest 
 and most tiiinbparcni glass, and j^ems, especidly those 
 that requite the lustre of t' e diamond or ruby. As for ~ 
 sapphire, emerald, topaz, crysolie, or am«!h)st, Sec. 
 your labor with aqud f(;riis may be saved, if your mor- 
 tar be blight, and free liom rust. fSuch as have a mor- 
 tar of porphj ly, or such like stone, have no occasion to 
 use an iron one. In case hlack flir.ls cannot be procu 
 red white river pebbles will answer the purpose. 
 
 ^1 secret to make a Diamond of natural 
 Crystal, 
 
 Take the best polished ciysial, no matter whetlicr 
 small or laigo, so it he but clear and trdPspareni; put it 
 into a cro«ii3le with three times as much fixed su'phur 
 of gold, so that tht- crystal may be coveted all over 
 with it; then, af'er having hited a lid to the crucible, 
 let it anneal for thri e days and three ni^;hts in a hot fiic; 
 then take it out and quern h ii in spting water in winch 
 hot steel has been q unrhed abo<it forty times, and you 
 wi I hive a diammid which resembles a natural one in 
 every respect, and is as gaud. 
 
 How to make a Diamond out of a Sapphire. 
 
 Fill an earthen pipkin or crucible with qu'ick lime, 
 and liiy the s>apphiie it) the mid^l thereof, covering it 
 fust with a tile, and then with couls all over, blowin^^ 
 Ihem pently until you have a clear five, lo* ii it is incre:)y- 
 cd '00 soon, the stone will break. The sapphire will 
 requtre from 5 to 6 hours fire; if the blue colour is not 
 then gone, keep it in the fiie lonjjjcr. 'I'liis is the art 
 wherebv inftriyr precious stones are chin>red into dia- 
 ntohds — ihfv are alterw^rrls cut in the middle, and a 
 colour l:Ji^^ntae!•: liom hence comes the second sort 
 w! false diauioriffl or doubieis. 
 
r 
 
 jewellers' SECRET!?. S599 
 
 i4 plain direction concerning the polishing 
 natural and coantetfeit getm^. 
 
 It is lo be observed (hat ail glass or artificial stones 
 may be cut and polished alier one meihod, namely, by 
 strewing fine powdered emery upon a leaden plate, 
 nioislentid with water, holdm^; the stone firm and grind- 
 ing ii into what tbrm you please. If you throw ground 
 ttipuli upon a pcwier pliie, and throw a little copper 
 ashes amonj^ it, it vvill have the sutne elTect. Piilver- 
 ized antimony, strewed upon a smuoih plate of le^d, 
 with iripoli and viae>j;ar, polishes not only glass, ciysta!, 
 garnets, caicedont>, agates, and aaieihysis, but all natur- 
 al stones except the diamond. The diamond cari only 
 be cut with diamond powder itself Any such diamonds 
 which can be touched with emery, le id, coppei, or 
 other metals, or to be cut theiewiih, are ialse; and this 
 is a good lest to know a real diamond. 
 
 7 he method of counter drawing, on artificial Gems, 
 (he original Camieos, Intaglio's, and other Gt/ns, 
 lohich are kefit and firenerved in the several Aluaeuirs 
 in Euro/ie. 
 
 Choose the finest sort of tripoii which can possibly 
 be found, q;rind it on a maible i'Uo an i npalpabie po^v- 
 der, and as subtle as possible, add a litue water so an to 
 make it into paste; tnen put it into a small sqtare tin 
 mould with turned up edges, press well your paste inio 
 it, and smuothen the surface, and as soon as yon see it 
 begins to dry, stamp on it the seal of which you wnnt to 
 obtam Uie impression; and takin^f it off carefully from 
 the tripoii paste, let the p^iste dry ihorou^nly. When 
 you find that it is perfectly hard, and that the strokes of 
 the seal are solid, put un the impressioii some p jwder 
 of crystal, or ai»y atuficial stone y-ui please, wnelher 
 red, green, blue, or any oiher colour; then, wiin a meial 
 pipe, blow on that puwder tho flame of a candle or 
 lamp till thccrysral is perfectly melted; wiieu il..iie lay 
 something, such as a srnaii iron puiiet, oi nearly ihe^ 
 5ize ot the seal, on the melted paste, and press it ^at 
 
 
300 jewellers' secrets. 
 
 to make it take the better impression and all the turt. 
 of the design, and then let it coo); whtn you take the 
 crystal up you will find it to be a perfect design or copy 
 ot the original. You may then send it to the lapidary 
 to be cut and set, for ring or seal as you please. From 
 these very copies you may even get others by following 
 the sanr.e process ot operation. 
 
 When you have made on the tripoli paste the im- 
 pres«ion of the oiiginal seal, the safest and shortest way 
 would be to bake it \n a furnace, under a tin arch, to 
 prevent the coals from touching the impression, which 
 might hurl and damage the relief; ihcn take off the tin 
 mould, and having put on the crystal powder or other 
 fusible matter, you may place it again under the same 
 aich in the furnace, and when that powder is melted, dc 
 as beture directed. 
 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 Gilding Leather. 
 
 LEATHER is gilded either with leaf brass or silver, 
 but mobt coininonly by the latter, in which case a gold 
 coloured varnish is laid over the metal. 
 
 Tin foil is used instead of silver leaf for the less 
 perfect kind of gilding. 
 
 To gild Brass or Silver. 
 
 Take 2 ounces of gum lac, 2 ounces of yellow am-/\ 
 ber, 40 grains of dragon's blood, in tears, half a drachm 
 of saffron, and 40 ounces of good spirits of wine: infuse 
 till the whole is well iocorporatet', and then strain it 
 through a linen cloth. The piece of silver or brass 
 must be healed before the varnish is applied, and it 
 \sill then assume a gold colour, which will bear clean- 
 in'^ with a little warm water vrhcn soiled. 
 
 Cold Solder, for Iron, Steely or Fot Metal. 
 
 Take crude sal ammoniac, pulverize it fine, and mix 
 it with olive oil to the consistence of cream; then make 
 whatever is to be united blight and clean, and anoint 
 the parts that are to be united with the above composi- 
 tion; then dip them into melted block tin, or if it is an 
 instrument such as a file or the like, put the two ends 
 together and hold ihem straight, and apply the melted 
 block 'in, of a blue heat, all round the bioken parts, and 
 they will be welded strong. 
 
 To remove the outer scale from Iron or Steel 
 and render it ^hite. 
 
 Take pot or pearl ashes S oz common salt 3 oz. 
 moisten them with chamber ley to the consistence of^ 
 wolassesj coter your iron or steel ail ovcr^ wI.^mi^ 
 
 36 
 
602 VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 brought to a cherry red then put it in fui: wa'.er, :>'.;d 
 it will scale as vvliiic as silver. 
 
 Another. 
 
 Take sails amrr.or/iac, pulverized fine, mix it wiih an 
 equal qiianlily at qu'ck lime; nut them all (ogellicr in c 
 little cold waicr, ■an'l mix well; lake any iron piece 
 which you have made icd hot, pal ii in the piep jfcd 
 water, and it will become while. 
 
 INKS. 
 
 In speaking of inks, 1 s'rall not attempt to give ali 
 the receipt? which mii;l)l be scieciel, but choose from 
 among them such as appear to be most worthj oi a; 
 tention. ^ 
 
 Black InTc. 
 
 Put into a stone or glass bottle 3 oirnccs of finely 
 powdered galls, one ounce ol" clean cupperas, one 
 ounce of logwood, lliiely rasped or shaved, one ounce 
 t.f gum Arabic, and a quart of soFi water: shake llie 
 bottle well, and let it stand in a moderately warm place 
 for a week or ten days, shaking it several times ci.chi 
 day. It is then fit for use, and ought to be shtiktn hv- 
 fore it is poured into the inkstand. 
 
 If the ink is wanted lor ininiediate use, the galls arc! 
 logwood may be boiled about an hour, adding a liiilo 
 more lor waste in boiling, and strained while liot, and 
 the other materials then put in, and the ink will be lit 
 lor use in a lew nunutes. 
 
 If white wine or \iiiegar be used instead of water,; 
 the ink will be \ery fine. J 
 
 Ii is said' that a lew cloves put into ink, will keep ie 
 from tnouldipg. ^ 
 
 An iv destructible Ink, 
 
 /^ Boil one ounce of pernauibuco and tj;rcc ounccb 
 mi tiUi galls in 46 ounces of walti j down to 52 oui.ccs in 
 
VAftlOUa BECtlPTS. 303 
 
 ]. Povir lliis wliile liot upon h;ilf an our.cc ol sulphate 
 ivon or ri anial viiiiol) one qu utcr of an oiiixe of 
 ; ii:-.i Ar.i!)ir, and one qiiarter oi' an ounce of whim 
 suj^ir. Al'.er llie?e are di'sclvecl, add one ounoe an'l 
 a c;iiaHPr ci Srcly pulveiizcd imiigo, and lince (juar- 
 !cLs oj an ounce ot lamp black, or ol' smoke black, 
 previously diluted in or,e ounce of tjood brandy. 
 
 t,ln Ink to Jlark on Linen, 
 
 Rcat np an eleven penny bit of s>i!vcr, and put it in a 
 p'licil with nvo teaspoons full of acjua lorlis and one ot" 
 wa'.ci. I'iil the pliial, stopped, into boiiiii^ water till 
 the silver l)cgins to <!is:Jolvc; a'ter which appiy no more 
 hci.t lili near the end ot the optration to dissolve the 
 pun^. When the silver is di'^soivcd [_Uieic rnTisi be as 
 r.^ouli as t!,c fiqiiid will dissul'tj pi<ui oil" tl-.e solution 
 fiom the scdfnient, and put in it the t:ze of a peppet* 
 ru.in of tjuni Arabic, and put it in il;C water to dissolve 
 ibe goni. Tiicn ful a 4 ounce phijl r.c.irly fiili (,f water 
 rtid put in ir.e size of a i uirr.cg of peail ajli and six 
 ptpi'cr corns in size iT ^nni Arabic. Wlien the liiitii 
 is to be Written on, firhi wet it vvith this pearl ash solu-. 
 tien, then dry it, and write on it with the silver solu ion 
 and dry i', after whicl) wash and expose it to the sun. 
 
 .3 cheap and excellent domestic Ink, . ^ 
 
 Take ns much batk oi young maple tree (at a time 
 \v!icn the sap does not run) as when cut into small bits 
 Mill make a tiulk about cquul to one gai!(-n: put it into 
 a:) ucn keitie which will hold about 2 fjalloiis, aud pour 
 f n 1 1 eailon of rain water, and let it boil mofieratciy 
 ]( 1' about three hours, (keeping on as nuch witcr cs 
 V. ill cover li'.e baik;) alttiv<vriith take out the naik and 
 bcil sluwiy till icluccd to about a qnari; the* put in the 
 s zi' ot two lUl^e nntmei;s (-f clean copper.-^s, pulvcr- 
 ixcd, and let ii simmer a lew rriinmes; filter whuh take 
 ii 'jii, strain v. throui^h tlann »!, and put in a bottle, cork 
 
 up, and it will be innncniateiy fit lor usi w'.en cool. 
 It a SMKill poniou ol chcsnut ana wiiiie <5ak bark bo 
 I'lixcd with the maple, the nili will be itiC better, anfj 
 
/ 
 
 3()i VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 increase in blackness as it grows oklcr. The ressel 
 should be covered while boiling to keep out ilio dust 
 and asiies which would injure the ink. 
 
 Ink trade in tJiis manner possesses several advanta- 
 ges: It is the cheapest (hat can be made, as the 
 firticles can be had without any expense, and if the in- 
 gredient be duly proportioned and careluily attended 
 to, the ink will be equal to that made ot gall nuts, kc. 
 and may be made of as deep a jet black as any Indian 
 ink for drawing;; but il too much copperas is used, v. 
 yil! turn yellow on the paptr after a few months. It 
 is known to stand good on paper without changing its 
 colour for more than 20 years when well made. 
 
 China or Indian Ink, 
 
 Burn some lamp black in a crucible till the f^me 
 ceases to lisc; grind it next on porphyry or marble, 
 vith a pretty strong water of gum tragac&nth, add an 
 equal quantity of indigo, burnt and ground in tlie same 
 manner. Then. mix the two to;.:ether, and grind them 
 on the s:one for 2 or three hours. C^dthcr up the com- 
 posUion inti) 8 kind of flat cake, which you may eul 
 through into long slips or sticks, and then squeeze them 
 in * mould made for the purpose, the inside of which 
 has been prtviously rubbed over with ivory b!ack or 
 cliisl of burnt peach stones, to prevent the paste from 
 stitkiog to the mould. This should be done for every 
 slip tliat is pressed, und when moulded in tiiis manner 
 they mny be laid by to diy. It ihould be dissolved in 
 wa^cr in whirh a little gum Arabic has been dissolved; 
 when you wish to ess it. 
 
 PriniPTs^ Ink. 
 
 Printers' ink is made in the following manner:— Ten 
 or twelve gallons of nut oil are set over t\\e fire in a 
 larirt iron pot and made to boil, Ii is then stirred with 
 an irc)n bfllc, and whilst boiling tlie inflommabh- vapor 
 srisinj* from it either takes fire or is kindled and suffer 
 cd to l^iirn ahoui hilf an hour, the pot heintj pai ' 
 covered to regulate the flame, and consequently i; ^ 
 
VARTOrS RECEIPTS. 305 
 
 heat com'niinicaied to ihe oil. It is (requentlv stirred 
 that the whole may be heated rec^olarly. The fl ime is 
 that) extiosuishe'l by entirely coverin;; the pot I'he 
 oil I'y tills process has much of its unclinus quility do- 
 •■troyed, and is r^dcrcd of the corisis'ence of turpen- 
 tine when cold, and is now call d varni-i/i. f\.[\e this 
 it is made into ink by niixturc of the reqoisito quantity 
 oT k\'rp black, of «r!iicii about 2^ ounces arc sufficient 
 for 16 junces of the prcpircd oil. Some other arii lea 
 arc tli'ovvn in duiiny: liie boilinsjj, the more effectually 
 to destroy the unctious quality uf the oi;,such as crusts 
 of btcdd, onions fhced, and soinetimes turpentine, md 
 some others which are kept a secret by iliose who make 
 the ink. 
 
 To make Stucco, or an Tnkto mark on Stones, 
 and which will stand a'^ainst water. 
 
 Mix together the kind of lamp black made by burn- 
 ing: linseed oil with black pitch, ani dissolve all together 
 over a slow fire. Tliis is very suitable to be put in 
 letters or inscripiions cut in tomb-siones, &c. 
 
 Red Ink. 
 
 B >il 2 ounces of Brazil wood in a pint of water for 15, 
 minuies, and then add a little 1,'um \rdbic, and ab»ut 
 half as much alum. Surne add a littlo madder to the 
 composi'.ion. 
 
 Red ink may also be made by dissolving the cakes of 
 common water colours in jjum water, as vermilion for 
 scarlet red, and fine lako for lighter red, or even a mix- 
 '.uie of them for anintcrrnediate colour. 
 
 Yellow Ink 
 
 Is prepared by dissolving a hide alum and gum Arabic 
 in pure water, and thon infusing a sufBoicnt quantity of 
 salfron in the solution — Oc, 
 
 Boil 2 ounces of Avignon seed or French berries in 
 a quart of water, down lo Iwo-t'iirds of * "cmart, havincj 
 half an ounce of alum in the water. It stiould bcil 
 26* 
 
306 VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 slowly, and then 2 diachnis of gum Arabic, 1 oF sugar, 
 and I ot pulverized alum added. 
 
 Dissolve gamboce or kind's yellow in pjum water; 
 in like ixianncr any <;f the common water colours may 
 be used lur ink of their respective liius. 
 
 ^ Inlc Powder. 
 
 Take 10 ounces of gall nuts, 3 of Roman vitriol or 
 green copperas, 2*of alum and 2 of gum Arabic: make 
 the whole into a fine powder, arri when mixed with 
 white winebr \iiiegarj il will quickly became black and 
 be a good ink. 
 
 4hi Ink Ball. 
 
 Boll fresh maple bark in rain water, down to a very 
 'jtronj; ooze, and then to each quart of the liquid p\it 
 near half an ounce of clean copperas powdered, and 
 boil a few minute^. This is a very good i.nk, and may 
 be evaporated away to the consistence of wax, and form- 
 ed into balls, which may be again dissolved in water for 
 
 To make excellent Crayon Pencils, 
 
 Take fine grained charcoal, say of maple or sonc 
 ulher smooth wood, ^'cT saw it into slips of a proper 
 ^ize for the pencils, aad put them into a pipkin of boil- 
 ing beeswax for ^ or ^ of an hour, and when cool they 
 are Ht for use. A little roMn mixed with the wax wiil 
 iToakc them harder, and a littla tallow or butter softer 
 \b?'U the wax a'one. 
 
 These pencils write well, and ihe marks are almost 
 as permanent as those made with ink, and less liable to 
 be afTecled by dampness. 
 
 T9 preserve Cherries and other Fruit 
 without Sugar. 
 
 Fill a bottle quite full of ripe cherries, and cork \i 
 fooscly; set it in a kettle of cold water, and kindle a fire 
 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS. SO^. 
 
 under it so t!iat it will increase ia warmlh very slow'y, 
 and ijiiog il to about 170** Tor near lo boiling) in anout 
 thtee-ibiii tiis of an4joiir, and Ici it continue at ihat heul 
 tor a'ooiit half an hour Ioniser. Tlieti take out ilie but- 
 lie, uncork it, and fill it up amono; the Iruit with boiiiiii^ 
 water; after which cork il tight and lay it away on the 
 side in a safe phice until wanted for' use. 
 
 To make Mead, 
 
 Honey 68 lbs. water 17 gallons, whites of 12 epgs, 
 S)eat up with a quart of the honey and water while cold, 
 Doil the whole. I hour, skiniminq; often. Then pour 
 the boi.ing liquor on the linds of 1 dozen of Seville 
 orinf^cs, and cover it up. When only lukewarm aid 
 tl'.e juice of 100 oranges, and 6 lemons with their iinds, 
 Slir the whole well, and cover it till cooled down to Oq'*" 
 of Fahrenheit; then put in a pint of good ale yeast in 
 wliich a piece of toasted bread has been previously 
 dropped. When it has ferniented sufficiently (say 2 or 
 3 days) strain it off into clean cask?;, wlien it may stand 
 six month?, and then be bottled, l! should be drawn 
 oil" carefully, so as not to disturb the grounds. 
 
 To Gild Paper. 
 
 Take yellow cchre and giind it with rain water, an.} 
 lay a gi ound of il all over the paper to be gilded. Wlictj 
 dry, beat up the while of eggs with white sugar candy, 
 and stiike it over the ocUred surface ol the paper; then 
 lay on leaf gold, and when dry polish with a tooth. 
 
 P.^ IN TING, ^c. 
 
 An excellent Composition to preserve Wood, 
 
 Melt 12 oz resin in an iron kettle; add 3 gallons of 
 train oil, and 3 or 4 rolls of brimstone. When they are 
 melted and become thin, add as much Spanish blown, 
 or any other colour you choose, ground up with oil in 
 the usual way, as will give the colour you desiie. Then 
 lay on a thin coat with a brush, and when dry lay on 
 2Dother. ^ 
 
k 
 
 X 
 
 30S V-VRIOUS BECEIPrs. 
 
 This will preserve gite postS) weithcr boards, shir. 
 J3;les, Sec. &c. nnany years from tlie effects of the wea 
 iher, and will pieveni the rain IVoni injuring brick walis 
 
 Another Compisition^ 
 
 Three p-^rts slacked lime, two pirts wood ashes, and 
 one or fine sand, or stone eoal ashes: sift the whole 
 ihronah a fine sieve, and add as much linseed oii as to 
 make it of a proper consistence to n-ork with a brush: 
 lay on two coats, the first thin, the second as thick as 
 \v'll work with a brush. The ingredients must be per- 
 fectly mixed, and will preserve wood, Sec. many years. 
 This ia a very cheap contjposiiion. 
 
 . A cdebrated' White Paint for Fine IVoi'Jc. 
 
 I To a B;all()n of spirits of turpentine add 2 pounds of 
 \ frankincense. Let them simmer over a clear Sre till 
 . dissolved; then strain and bf.ttie it for use. To a j^allon 
 oT bleached linseed oi! add a quart ot the above, and 
 bottle it up also. Let any quantity of white lead be 
 ground u;) fine with spirits of turpentine; then add to it 
 as much of the second mixture as will make i; of a 
 consistence to work well; if it becomes too thick, add 
 a little spirits of turpentine. This is called a dead 
 whic; it will dry and cease to smell in six hours, and is 
 a most beaiitiful piint ior fine inside work; but is too 
 expensive for common use. 
 
 2o render Old Pictures as Fine as JSTeia. 
 
 Boil in a pipkin for fifteen minutes, } lb. of f3:rey, or 
 bill ash, and a little Genoa soap. When it is only luke 
 warai, Wjsh the old picture with it, and then wipe it. 
 P iss yomc olive oil over it and wipe it ofl" again, it 
 will be as fine as new. 
 
 Ji Wash to Clean Pictures. 
 
 y A ley of clear water and wood ashes; dip a sponge in 
 ■ this and pass it lightly over the picture. Chamber Icy. 
 or while wine will answer the same purposes 
 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 309 
 
 lied Sealing Wax, ,, ^ 
 
 Take 2 parts shell lac, 1 of resin and 1 of vermilion, 
 all reduced to fine powder, and meited over a moder- 
 ate fire till well iricorporaled, after which lorm it into 
 ' ;icks. 
 
 Snd lac and boiled Venice turpentine may be subsli- 
 l.ited for the shell lac and resin. 
 
 A. coarser kind is made of equal parts of lesin and 
 s'lell lac, with etjual parts of vermilion and red load, 
 in proportion of two parts of tlic latter to one of the 
 1-jrmcr articles, and proceed as above. 
 
 Jjlach Sealing [Vax, J( 
 
 Shell or sud lac, melted with half iis weight of levi- 
 fjatfcd ivory black, and some Venice turpentine are 
 melted as above, and poured on a plate or stone prfivi- 
 ously oiled, and formed into s'icks, and expo-^ed to the 
 heat till they assume a jjlossy appearance. 
 
 Soft uncolourad Sealing iVax 
 
 Is made of I lb. bechwax, 3 cz. lu.pen'ine, and 1 oz 
 olive oil; one ounce of any colouruig pigment may be 
 added if necessary, and then njeltcd, and formed into 
 cakes for use. 
 
 How tf^lkJce Sfninn out of Cloth f S^c. 
 
 Apply a solution ol oxatic, lemon, or tartareous 
 acid'- in water. This will remove ink from paper, or 
 from the most delicate fibrics witliout injunnj; them. 
 
 Lemon juice, or the juice of sorrel will also remove 
 ink, but not so completely as the c trie acid or concrete 
 acid of le ■ ons. 
 
 Put iht: size of a walnut of potash, and ons lemon 
 cut to pieces, in a quart ol Sj)riii^ water. Let it stand 
 24 hours, and then ponr ofT the rleai liqoi<l and bottle 
 it lor use. Tnis will remove all spots fro ., otn. The 
 cioh should be washed in fair water alter the spots ar» 
 removed. 
 
3iO VARIOUS REGF.IPT*. 
 
 The true spirit of sail win remove Iron maiks from 
 liiun. 
 
 Sal amrrotr.ac, with lime, *.vill rttiiove i!.c stains rr.aC'e 
 by vine, kc. 
 
 To remove Iron Stains. 
 
 AppTy tie ritnc arid, or fiilufcd rr,v)iic.tic acid. 
 
 It the Mains have been lung stiJiKlin.^, then apply a 
 scliitinn of alkilii.e s»)!p!urct, whicli nu:sl be Mell 
 washed out, and il en a liquid acid rpp'.icd, 
 
 I'rait Stains 
 
 Mr.y he rrir.cvfd by a watery so'ulion of cxiginntcd 
 n.urh'lic acid, or by that of oxiginattd n:uiiate of pci-- 
 ash, or lime, to which a little sulpluitic aciO cr cil cf 
 vitiiol ht-s been acldcd; tut these c^n rn'y be used on 
 while ai tides, fs ihcy vvculd also reniove tlie pilnleU 
 colour o( calicoes, Jcc. 
 
 Grease Spots 
 
 May he removed by a dili-.ied soluiion of poiash; but vt 
 must be used with caution to prevent ii j.ury to l!.c 
 c't»th, 
 
 White Wax or White P;- 
 
 be r 
 ether 
 
 May be removed by sp r.ts of tvirpenlineWlsulphurl 
 
 
 To take Grease Spots from Rooks or Paper. 
 
 Dii) a small b.ush in ihe essential oil nf Hirpcnlinc^ 
 he:iteil almost to ebiilliiion, sncl oiaw it fently ovti' 
 both sides ol the greastd pyper, wliich must be he; t 
 w ii m I tils nuist be repeated as often as ihe cjuoniiiy 
 o! i^i r.seor tliirUncssol tlie n iper n» ty require. After 
 the Bjiease is removed, 'he paper is res'.orcd to its pro- 
 per sci'c s follows: Dip another brush in bigl)!y recti- 
 fiei! spiii? 'it wine, ukI [)a£s it over the pnpcr unul it 
 assumes Its orii^inal whiteness. Ttiis opcraiJon will nc: 
 
\ARious Rp:cEiprs. 311 
 
 u(rcc? the wiiUcn or primeJ. Ictiers of the book alth juj^h 
 it thould pass over them. 
 
 To make W aters. 
 
 Take fine Hour and rnn: it \v1li» the wliite ofc^q;s, 
 2oin,:;i4Sb, and a litdo yeas:; mingle and boat the ^Uiole 
 well together and m iks tlie biUer thin with gum water; 
 ;.)cii spread It thin atid even on tin pUtes to c'ry in a 
 biijvc; aficr which tiiey ai.iy be cut out with a suitable 
 :.,&trument tor use 
 
 They in.vy be colojred by miKini* with tlje batter 
 a Utile vermilion or brazil lor red, a little iudigo for 
 
 To Brown Gun Barrels. 
 
 Make the barrel perfectly clean and Uright; tlien 
 : ub oa it soiue aqua fortib and spirit of salt diluted witli 
 wjter, and lay it by a week or mjre to form a (ioat of 
 rusi; then lub over a liitle oil, 2nd aficr rubbing it oft; 
 poliali with a hard brush and a lUtie bees wax. 
 
 Another Method. 
 
 IIjvc the barrel clean as above; then hy a piece ui 
 Lriuisione on some burning cor.l, and hold the barrel 
 over its smoke, torninc; it regularly, tiiat all parts may 
 be evenly smoked, aidhy ii iu a tJimp place 1 2 or 15 
 i;our«', wticn ifwill be covered wiiiia fine elTlorescence, 
 vviiich wipe oil' with a woollen rag, and oil and polish 
 :.s above, or polish with soli fine wood instead of a 
 brush. 
 
 Colouring and Perfuming Gloves and Skins, 
 
 It is cuslHniciry, in colouiing tine leather gloves, to 
 >cvv them up at the end, before liicy oie dipped 
 ;.» the coloMruijj matter, to prevent ttie dye from colour. 
 in'.;; the insitle. 
 
 Gloves and skins are coloured yellow by an infusiqn 
 of saflV<.n leaves; red by brazil woo', verniilion. Sic. a 
 pale lilbeit by a n.ixiarc ct burnt iimbcrj yello'.v, while 
 
Si'Z VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 and red; gold colour by yellow and a liu!« red; stra. 
 colour by yellow, a little \yliUe and red, with muc. 
 gum, 8ic. 8cc. 
 
 To Perfume Gloves, &c. 
 
 For this nothing more is necessary than to drop in'.; 
 a small box in which you keep your gloves, a little bei 
 gamot, or lavender, or any sweei smelling csscnc 
 which may be agreeable. 
 
 PERFUMES, isfc. 
 To make a Smellmg Bottle. 
 
 Take equal quantities of sal ammoniac and unslack 
 ed lime: pound them separately and mix them iti a 
 phial in which you have previously put 3 or 4 drops of 
 essence ot bergamot, and 2 or 3 of ether. 
 
 Milk of Koses. 
 
 To a pint of rose water add 1 ounce of oil of almonds 
 and then 10 drops of oil ot taittr. 
 
 Rose Water. 
 
 To a peck of clean rose leaves put a quart of water 
 and distil it oft* veiy slowly; then bollle it, and in 2 oi 
 3 days cork ti)e boi'le well. 
 
 Olto of Roses. 
 
 Put clean rose leaves in a K'az«-d earthen vessel, on( 
 poui on as much clean spring; water as will cover thi 
 leaves. If this be set in the sun shine in the morning 
 and taken into the house at sun set, lor from 2 to 6 or i 
 days, the oil 'ffili be on the top of the water, and may b' 
 taken up vith cotton, and squeezed into a phial. 
 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 3(3 
 
 Otto, or Ottar of Roses, (aautber method. } 
 
 Distil slowly ihe leaves and cups of roses in their 
 weif^ht of water till half is run ofl", which is set away 
 fo cool in broad shallow vessels of earthen or tin, when 
 the oil will rise on the surface of the distilled water, 
 and may be taken off as before directed. 
 
 A cheap and excellent Cosmetic. 
 
 Take ooe quarter of a pound of soft soap, melt it 
 vilh a gallon of sweet oil over tiie fire, and add two or 
 three table spoonfullsof fine white sand, and stir it well 
 together till it cools. 
 
 A wasU lor the Skin. 
 
 i*ut 4 ounces of pot ash, 4 ounces of rose water, 2 
 ounces of brandy, and 2 ounces of lemon juice, into 2 
 qtiartsof water, and when you wash put a tabic spoon- 
 lull of this mixture into the water vrhicb you use lor 
 washing. 
 
 To make tbe celebrated Pomade Diviae. 
 
 I^eel marrow 12 ounces, steeped in water ten days, 
 and aiserwards in loso water 24 hours, flowers of ben- 
 jamin, pounded florax, and Fiorentir.e orris, each half 
 Jin ounce, cinnamor^- of an ounce, cloves and nutmegs 
 i ol an ounce. The whole to be put into an earthen 
 vessel, Closely covered down to keep in the fumes, and 
 being suspended in boiling water tliree hoars, after 
 which the whole is to be strained and put in boules. 
 
 A celebrated French Wash for the face, &c. 
 
 Take equal parts of the seed of melons and punip- 
 kitis, g;)urd and cucunvbers; reduce all to a powdei; add 
 to it fresh cream, sufficient lo diiuie the powder; beat 
 tlie whole together, addintj a little milk if necessary, to 
 make it of the consistence of an ointment. Put this on 
 the lace for half an hour, and then wash it olT with 
 ■varm water. 
 
314! VAIUOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 On the Transmutalioa of Metals. 
 
 To Irarsmute silver into gold, take a new iron pan, 
 make it retl hot upon a liivii, and tlien put 2 pounds 
 ot lead into it. As soon as this is melted throw over it 
 by degrees some good salt petie, pulverized, and this 
 will melt likewise; keep it thus infusion till it is at least 
 half dissipated; should it take fire during that time, it 
 will do no harnt, and the more concocted over aj^ain the 
 salt petre is, the stionger the oil. Let this cool; divide 
 the salt petre from the lead; after having well pouncVed 
 it on a marble stone, carry it into the cellar; there it will 
 fall into a dcliquium, which you will pour into a cucur- 
 bit; with double its weight of good French spirit of 
 \v'in<«, a( d ly liUc ar.d little at a time; then 
 distil by a slow fire, giind on marble as before what re- 
 mains m the cucuibit, and being turned into deliquiujT>i 
 put it f.gain into the cucurbit with Borae more spirits of 
 wine; take of!" these dissolutions and cohobations, re- 
 pealing the same process over again as before till the 
 salt petre remains at the bottom ot the cucurbit re- 
 solved itito a true oil which congeals iisclf uo longer, 
 and this will procurcyou what is called the fixed balpi. 
 Next to that opetation you v ill make an tqua iortis 
 with equal pans of salt pcirc, diitd vitriol, md roik 
 alum; and belore you put iht rec. iver to the cucurbit, 
 add 8!ctl filings, antmiony, vcrdigiis, in subtile powder, 
 tutty, and cinnabai, ol each half an ounce, according to 
 the quantity of at)ualoiiis you want to draw; colu^b-itc 
 the spirits beven tirce&ovcr opon tl>e faeces, which you 
 will grind each time on a marble table. Dissolve one 
 ounce of silver in three ol this liquor, arid on that solu- 
 tion still drop by drop one ounce ol your iii re oil in a 
 bot'.le madfc like the hour glasses, which after the opcr- 
 ations must be at most only bftll lull; which you will 
 cover with anollier invtricd, so that the neck of the 
 under one should get into that of the upper one, or else 
 put it in a mat) ass with a long neck, which you will seal 
 hertiunically; but it you make use of bottles, take cnre 
 to lute the joints; place this over hot ashes, &i>d plunge 
 it in ihtm to the height ot six inches, give under thit^ 
 
VAR1O0S RECEIPTS. 315 
 
 lamp fire, which should not reach tl)« matter by three 
 fingers distance; you get every day to the amount of a 
 silver penny weight of silver fined into gold, and when 
 the whole shall h^ve been fined lhu^, day after day, 
 the aqua lortis, which before was preen as an emerald, 
 will become as clear as pump water; let the composi- 
 tion cool, ai)d divide the wder from the oil, vvliich will 
 never bv. the worse lor use, aiici must therefore be pre- 
 set ved. At the bottom uf the vessel you will find the 
 siher fined in o tjoUI. 
 
 Permutation of Lead into Silver. 
 
 Take fi'.e lead, calcine it with common biilt, soak the 
 whole warmly with oil of vitrirj till you make it come 
 iato :in ur.ctious paste; this yuu will put into a pot or 
 crur-i')!;--, well luied, and phtced in a p.m iuU of sand, 
 with which you vviU cover it over entireiy; make under 
 Ibis -i digesting fire, that is to s^y, such a fire hS Is ncccs* 
 siry to warm the sani': keep it so for ten days; then 
 take cITyour maiier and test ii; uut ofon^e hundred and 
 five pout.ds of lead, you will druw two pounds and a 
 half vveiv^ht of bil«-aj, capr bie to stand the test. 
 
 Trausuialation of Iron into Copper. 
 
 Iron is Casiiy chanijed into copper by means of vitrio?. 
 r.» do this, you must put your iron, stratum super 
 stratum, in a desensoiium, and set it over a btronij 
 bhsi file, pushed by bellows till the iron mt-lts and flows 
 in.o copper. You must not forget when you have 
 made bcv's f-f vitiiol, to wa'.er them a liiilo over with 
 vinei^ar, saturated ot sail petrc, alkali;)e, and tartar 
 Salts and verdijjris. 
 
 Potatoes ma'Ie u«se of for cleansing Linen, 
 Cottons, &.C, 
 
 Take as many potatoes as may be necess-ry at one 
 time; wash them clean and boil the^ ; drain the w.Her 
 from them and mash then ; after which mix them wi'h 
 fresh boiling water to the cousi'^ience of gruel, in which 
 
316 TARIOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 immerse the dirty clonics, and let them remain covered 
 will) the mixtarj tor twenty lour hours; then rub llie 
 tlotlics out of It, and rir se them ihorougiily in cold 
 water and dry ihem, when ihcy will b« completely 
 cleanser]. Potatoes used as above directed, entirely 
 )eniove grease and every kind of dirt from wliite cr 
 coloured iintn or coUon clothcF; und in j/rtparing 
 ihiead linen or j;arn for the weaver, they supersede the 
 jicccsbity oJ using soa.p or pot ashes, or ot boiling the 
 yiirn, of which c-vciy person nny be satisfied who will 
 take the tioubleof trying the experiment. 
 
 Methoil of rendering Hats Water-Proof. 
 
 Take ij thin plate or shell, m:.de of wool, hair and fine 
 beaver, ',o form ih.* crown of the liat, and another pl.iio 
 of the same materials for the tiiini. These parts mi./ 
 Le tiycd black and fii ished without gUic or other siifi'eij- 
 tzZ: '" order lUat ihey n>oy not bi; injured by the rain, 
 V, tiich in othtr heavier hats, after being exposed to a 
 heavy shower of rain, draws out the p'ue, which slicks 
 ilown tliC rap.andrisakcsit appear eld and greasy. The 
 phtc mav be njadc in one piece only, in the shape of 
 the hat, blacked deep ernugh to admit ol the brin^ cut 
 from the crown. '1 lic under sice of the plate and the 
 inside of the crown must then be made waier-prool by 
 first laying on a coat o! sizR or thin pai^te strong enougli 
 lu bear a coat of copal varnish, and when thoroughly 
 drv, anotr.er coat of boiled linsLcd oil; when dry, the 
 crown must be put on a block, and a woollen cr cotton 
 body, or siiape wove en purpose, put into the insi<ie of 
 the crown, and cemented in. When diy, ii must be 
 finished wiiha hot iron, and the cown is done. The 
 briai must in tike nunncr bf- cem( nted to a substance 
 or body made of woollen or other fi' uiaierials sufTicj. 
 cnt!y thick to malic the inside of \h^ brim. The bnm 
 and the body are now to be pressed lot^ether, ofer 
 which the under side of the biim may be covered wiU 
 anot er plute of I'.e beaver or whh sh..g The cen.ent 
 used for sticking the putts together n.ay bp made with 
 one pound f)f k^'^^ Senegal, one pound of stare i-, one 
 pound of glue, and one ounce ol beeswax liuiled u; 
 
VARIOUS RECEIPTS. 31*/ 
 
 about one qiiart of water. Hals tnade in this way only 
 require to be wiped dry after being exposed to the 
 lieavicst shower. 
 
 To clean Oil Paintinss, 
 
 If smoked or very dirty, take stale urine in which a 
 liule common salt is dissolved; rub tScm over wiih a 
 woollen cloth, dipped in that till you think them quite 
 clean; then with a sponge wash them over with fair 
 water; then dry them and rub them over with a clean 
 .:loth. 
 
 To remove spots of Grease from Paper. 
 
 Take an equal quantity of rock alum, burnt, and 
 flour of brimstone, finely powdered, toRCther; wet the 
 paper a little, and put a small quantity of the powder 
 on the place, rubbing it gently with your fioger, and the 
 spat will disappear. • 
 
 Thunder Powder. 
 
 Three parts of good dry salt petie, two parts of salts 
 of tartar, and pound them well togethei; then add moie 
 than one part of flour of brimstone; mix the whole 
 perfectly toj^cther, and put the composition in a phial 
 well corked for use; take two drachms of the composi- 
 tion and put it in an iron pan, and put it over the fire, 
 but not in the blaze. In a short time it will melt and 
 go oft' like a cannon or thunder. 
 
 J good Varnish for Grrat Coats or Umbrellas, and 
 other ariiclea exfiosed to the weather^ bt^ tvhich they 
 are 7endertdi)olh sun and rain firoof. 
 
 Roil well together 2 pounds of turpentine, 1 pound / 
 of litharge in powder, and 2 or 3 pounds of linseed oil. ^ 
 When the article it. brushed over with this, varnish, it 
 mjst be dried in the sun, alter which the greatest rains 
 will not fafFtfci it. 
 
 2r» 
 
3£S VARIOUS nECKIPTS. 
 
 To render Clolli Water-Proof. 
 
 Take ene ounce of roeltetl white wax, udd one quart, 
 of tuipcniiiie; when well mixed and cold dip in vcur 
 clolli and hantj it jup lo dry. 
 
 To Clarify Quills. 
 
 Scrape off ihe ootside film, and ciii ihe ends off's 
 •lien put ibe barrels into boiling water, whtitin )s a 
 small quantity of alum and sail; let ihcm leniain in a 
 quariei of an liour, and then dry ihcm in a hoi pan o* 
 »w)d or in V^e cverii 
 
FRUIT TREKS. 
 
 MAW conjectures linve long been r.fl oat respect- 
 j;>i,' tlie cause ot the desti action of the Iruit trees, par- 
 ticulatlv those ot the peach and p!um. Some h we 
 asciibed it lo a worm in the root— others, to an epidenr 
 io, and ».ffiri«ecl, that' when one tree was infected, tr.e 
 disarder v}^& connmunicatcd to oiheis. A Lite writer, 
 w:vi long held a different opinion, has now become fnliy 
 p. i-^fied th:it tl>e evil originates fiom the feting of arv. 
 insect comnionlv called a Beetle, evidently of the cole- 
 optera 'ribe. This insect is about the size of a larj^e 
 p..le bean, of a dark brown colour. Millions of them. 
 Ivive hisbcason appenred, and are found in s.pidinj» up 
 gardens and ploughing^. Esrly in the nnorning they 
 shmer themselves about three inches under ground, 
 where they continue in a kind of torpid state until ni}^i>tj 
 when ihev crawl out, take winj», and buz among the 
 branches of the trees like a swinn of bees. They feed 
 on the leaves and sing the tentier br;iRchesof the trees, 
 Vi'liich stint* is so poisonous as to afiVct the juices of tiie 
 wiiole iree, t.tn\ cause the leaves to luri> yellow and 
 die. 
 
 GRAZING, 
 
 Being a subject of much importance to the Amer- 
 ican larmeis, I have thought proper to dcvoie a few. 
 pa^;cs to its improvement. The practice ot feeding 
 and pasturing down grass lands with difTerent sorts of 
 block, with the intention of improving and rendering 
 them fit for the market, can be carried on to much 
 advantage in most of the United States; but there are 
 tracts ofgrazmg ground, of more or less extent, in 
 n osi ol them; ihough it may be remarked tha', there 
 are certain situations, as well as descriptions of pasture 
 ground on whicli this method of farming may be had 
 recourse to with better prufil* and more success thaa 
 that of any branch of the dair^'ing system. This must 
 
320 GRAZING. 
 
 * 
 be ihe case in all ihose districts where the proportion of 
 land in the state of iilla}i;e is very 8m;^U in comparison 
 to that of the pjsfjre kirifl; consequently the price of the 
 produce of the grass sort is trifling in compai ison to that 
 ot the fat stork. In all sections of the United Slates 
 where the grass lands are so fine and rich as to be ca- 
 ])ablc of fattenini;; large bullocks, or other cattle, this 
 system may be had recourse to with much sijccess'and 
 j)rofi', and is, perhaps, the best application to wliich tlie 
 lands can be applied, as is lully shown by such districts 
 being mostly under some management of this nature. 
 Slocking l^nd with proper cattle is one ol the nicest 
 parts of the science of farming. ^Vhere nauire is left 
 to herself, she always produces animals suitable to her 
 vegetation, from the smallest sheep on the Welsh 
 mounlai'is, to the largest sort in the Lincolnshire marsh- 
 es; from the little hardy bullock on the northern 
 Ilighl.nds to the largest ex in the richest pastures 
 of Somersetshire. IJut good husbandly admits of 
 our incieasing the value of the one in prop>r;ion to 
 that of the other. L:md improved enables us to 
 y-.eep a beiter sort of stock, which shews the double re- 
 turn the earth mukes for any judicious attcnlion or la- 
 bor we bestow upon it. The true wisdom of the occu- 
 pier is best shewn in preserving a due equilibrium be- 
 iwten this improvement of his land and stock. They 
 go hand in hand, and if he neglect the one, he cannot 
 tvail himself of the other. It should, therfefore,be first 
 cunsidered what kind of cattle or other sorts of stock, 
 will answer the purpose bes^i, on the particular descrip- 
 tion of land upon wl.ich tuey are lo graze; and next, 
 what sorts may pay the mosi in the consumption of the 
 produce. In general it will probably be found that 
 up'.nsirong6>iidp..siuresof\he driest kinMs, the large 
 s<.r!5 of caUle, wiih some of the larger breeds o; sheep, 
 vill be theniMS' suitable. And in case whe.e the gia- 
 2 (I breeds his own stock, he will have little difTicuhy m 
 selecting such of the diff' rent kin!* ay are most adapt- 
 ed to his vii wh; but where the animals aie to be pur- 
 chastd in, which must hequcntly be the case, i\iore 
 ca:e and circiimsperuon will be necessary. It will be 
 proper, tlio-igh a difficul task, lo njake a choice of such 
 95 have been well kept and arc in a ihiiving conduion. 
 
GRAZING. B2t 
 
 .IS when they iiave been siiiiteH in their Food and have a 
 coriirary appearance, they seiclutn do so wel! for the 
 I'.'is ci liie j^razier. I; will likewise be of advaiiliijje to 
 i: ive them frotn siiuatiotis in whicii the lands are infe- 
 rior in piiint of richness. It is noticed by some thit 
 many fatmeis have found great advaiitage by bringing 
 liicck Ironri il)e poorest spots, as they j^eneraily thrive 
 most wlicn tliey come into a richer pasture, like trees 
 which endure transplanting the better for coming from 
 a poor nursery. They endure Ibkling and panning 
 belter than sheep which are fed on a more luxuriant 
 soil Those farmers who think that some kind of sheep 
 will mt bear penning labor under an error. It is be- 
 Jii'ved that all lean or store sheep aie the beiter lor be- 
 inj lolded. They are generally more healthy; and when 
 such sheep are put to fatipn ttiey thrive much better 
 and faster, us oxen do that have been moileiately work- 
 ed. Ijut where the grazing lands are very n.oibt, slieep 
 ate not by any means a sort of stock to be depended 
 upon. 
 
 It is necessary to have regard to the qualities of ani- 
 mals, whatever they niay be, "^vith the intention of g>a- 
 zlni"^ thera Those kinds of sheep which have t!ie pro- 
 pel ty of keepins* theinbclvts fat, or in tolerably yood 
 condition, by the least consumption of food, being con- 
 stantly piefeired, whatever the size or breed may be, 
 as thai is a quality ol muc.'i greatt r impoi tance to the 
 grazier than that ot"mere size, cohsidercd in an abstract 
 manner. The giazier, who has fine atid rich pastuies, 
 may choose the 1 u-gest bei^sis he can find, provided they 
 are of the rigi t breed and shap' ; but let him always 
 prefer sliape to size, for it wid assuredly pay him better. 
 
 In respect to wliat relates to the soit of cattle that 
 may be c;' ployed to the t^ieatest advantage uuder this 
 sys'em, oxen and such lieifers as have been spcty^;d, are 
 in central considered by tlje best ioior t>ed ^jraziCisas 
 the best bort ot stock; asbesidts bein\; moe q>j ei, tlie 
 latter have not only the piopeity of fattening in a mure 
 ex.i'jditious manner, but with less runs impti.tti 
 of food. They ire not, h ivvever, so readily provided 
 by tlie grazier. The ox is of course ihe most com- 
 monly as well as the mosi extensively employed lor itift 
 
3SS FATTENING OF CATTLEi 
 
 purpose of ihe grazier, as havini^ the advantage of be 
 jng fattened after he lias been wrought by the farmer. 
 Cows are olten bought in by the fdrmer for the purpose 
 of fattening; those that are dry or have slipped theii* 
 calves ai an early period, or are become aged; but great 
 cauiion is necessary in purchasing this kind of stock, 
 {'or ihey generally turn out unlavorably, for when old 
 they rarely thrive well or get fat with any degree of ex- 
 pedition. The practice with some grfiziers is to pur- 
 chase their cattle in autumn, supporting ihen» thrf)UiJ:{> 
 the winter principally with straw, or sonietiiries, vviiicii 
 is a much bester practice, with a little hay mixed with 
 it, till the btginning of March, continuing their fatten- 
 ing through that and the succeeding month with somC' 
 sort of sucruVnt food, such as turnips, potatoes, or other 
 similar kitida, until the grass be in a fit state to be turn- 
 ed upouin May, on vvhich they may be canied forward 
 and comp eted accoiding to circumstances, about Au- 
 gust or ill the following month. And others purchase 
 lean beasts us soon as ihe grass lands are m a fit state to 
 be turned up»)>, and wttolly completing their fattening 
 on the grass about the latter end of tlie autuntn season. 
 In this system of ir.anagemcnt, the smaller kind of cat- 
 tle mjy be found in general the mast advaniageou?, 
 ebpecially wliere lands iite of a less fertile and luxuriant 
 description. 
 
 All extract from the Port Folio for fattening 
 tiSeat tattle. 
 
 There is a way to fittcn cattle in absence of the cons' 
 men nie!i5S, scarcely inferior to the bes', as tlie loliow- 
 ing in>tai)ce8 will prove: — I fatfci an ox and a tlir^e 
 year old heiier in the winter ol 18 J8, without either 
 Corn or potatoes, for less expense tii.^n even that of 
 common keeping, bv a preparation of cut straw. &c. 
 as follows: — I boiled about two quasts ol fl-x seed and 
 spri;>kled it on cut si raw which had !)een previously 
 scildeiJ and seasoned with salt, toge her with some oil 
 cake ;iii(l oat meal, working them together in a tub 
 with a sl^ort pitcld'oik till tiie whole becam - an uily ; 
 jBUsh. I fattened the l^eilcr first. She was of the coir.- 
 
FATTENING OF CATTLE. S33 
 
 iiion siee, and in good order to winter. I gave her 
 nDout ihree pecks, which she ale voraciously, and in 
 tiic course of four dajs when the seed was gone she 
 v.;,s visibly altered. 1 led her regularly in this way 
 al)out two months, in wliich time slie had eaten about 
 one bushtl of boiled flax seed, with tiie other ingredi- 
 ents in propoition, when she was butchered. She 
 weighed 584 pound*-, 84 lbs. of which was tallow. She 
 would not rave told l)eiore laltening for more than 16 
 tiollars. I sold two quaifcrs of her for IS dollars and 
 13 cents. She cost uic not more than 10 dollars exclu- 
 sive of the hay she ate, which was ciiitfly scalded as 
 iibove On the Ist ol February I begrn with liie ox. 
 I led h.ini about three n,onths, but not altogether as well 
 as I did the heifer. He digested about one pint of boil- 
 ed flax seed a-day, prepared as above, vvhi;h I suppose 
 formed half the fjl in llitee two cattle. The ox was 
 Bhort, measured 7 feet S inches, and when billed weigh- 
 ed 1062 Ib.s, ar.d had 180 Ihs. of tallow. He cost me 
 while fattening 25 cents a-dty; he had previously cost 
 me 35 ccnis. My net gain in fattening these two cattle 
 was more tlian I have cleared before in (a.tening oxen 
 imd cows in 15 years, and ti.is is owing, I 'hifik, to the 
 use or.f]:ix seed. I never fattened catijc tlia; appeared 
 so calm, 80 l)earty, and du-cs'td all their lare with so 
 n.uch natural ease nnd reguLrity as these. I would 
 therefore recommend the above preparation to the al- 
 tentioi) ol farmers as a good subsiiiuie for corn. I kept 
 my cows nn it alone in tiie month of March, for one- 
 tl.ird of t!je expense of hay. Ii makes lich milk and 
 excel ent butter. 
 
 On the imporiance of using Chaff. 
 
 The improved cliafF cutier is einpioyed for both hay 
 aiid straw. The chojis or cuiliugs of both arc techni- 
 cally callH chaff. 
 
 Tiiosc who top and blade their Indian coin will find 
 it amply reward mem, although in jilentiful hay seasons 
 it is not so much an object. Many cut off the wliole of 
 (lie corn plant t»ear to Uic groutid, and dry the ears and 
 stalks in open conical stacks. Tbcy will find the stiaw- 
 
324 FATTENIKG OP CATTLE. 
 
 cutter of important advantage for promoting nutrilir; 
 chaff from the whole plant alter tiie ears are taken off. 
 Cutting even the tops and blades will be more economi- 
 cal than giving them whole. These hints arc not theo- 
 ries, but the results of experience Those who arc 
 struck with its advantages will have notice in flue sea- 
 son to prepare forlhe execution of tha plan suggested. 
 Let ibcm suspend prejudice till they have tried ihe ex- 
 periment A powei ful straw-cuttGr is all-essential. 
 Additional labor is no doubt required, but the lollowing 
 extrtci will shew that the important saving of provender 
 quadruply repays it: — 
 
 I have throughout the summer kept my horses in 
 the stable, feeding them with good h;iy snd beans. My 
 oxen have, on the fftntrary, always been turned out to 
 grass when lil)erated from their work. They have had 
 the range of pood paf-tures and tlie benefit of some less 
 Valuable hay previous to their going to labor. As the 
 meadtAvs began to fail us toward the end of Septen.ber, 
 the increased consumption of hay alarmed me, as my 
 four oKcn pnd five horses consumed no less than four 
 tons within one month. This caused me to prohibit iis 
 UFe in the r;icks and to ieed all the cattle witli chafF, of 
 which a boy can cut svvfiicient for daily use in 2 hours, 
 
 One iiundrtd weight ol hay was found to yieldiwenty 
 liushels of chafl", pressed mto the measure and piled a.s S 
 high as it could safely be carried, consequently eac'u 
 busiiel weighed five and a hall pounds. It was found 
 that the tour oxen at^d five horses would eat twenty-four 
 bushels of chaff during the twenty-four hours. Ever 
 since they have been \'c(\ with chafi"only, and have very 
 evidently improved in condition. 
 
 Twenty four bushels of chufl' amount to about twenty- 
 one tons and a half yeaily, which, deducted from forty- 
 eight ton?, (the quantity we were consuming in tl.o 
 year,) gives a sanng of about twenty-six and a hulf 
 tons, or more than half. I have, however, carried the 
 retrenchments farther by cutting bean f talks to the ex- 
 tent of about a quarter of the chafT: these being laid 
 uppermost in the cutting-trough, keep the hay well 
 piessed and caase it to cut more re^ulaily. Thus we 
 now use about 2,500 weight of bay monthly, instead of I 
 four tons. 
 
How mvich superior to bean slalks those of our Indian 
 ;orn will be found, every one acquainted with both can 
 well ascertain, there being nu comparison between 
 lliem. I'lie corn stalk lar exceeds in saccharine and 
 nutricions quality; add to this the top blade and husli, 
 and our Indian corn plant as well tor its grain Oi 
 for every part oi' hs substance, must be acknowledi^ed 
 to be the most valuable ot Cerclidn grain beaiinj pro- 
 ducts. It is welcome in seasons of ptosperity and plen- 
 ty, and doubly so in those of scarcity and deficiency of 
 other e-3culenis for ourselves or provender for our 
 slock. How much more cconcmicylly the very stalks 
 and husks can be expended ii brought into our barn 
 yard or sheds for support to our cattle, instead of sijflo.r- 
 ing them to waste and tread them down at their will, 
 dropping their manure lo be given to the winds, let any 
 one delcrn)ine who has been irise enough to njakc ths 
 expeii'.nent. If it be even considered as an article to 
 be convened into niisnurc, the corn v^alk far exceeds 
 °traw or any otnersuKh cnateiial. How miserably then 
 do they mismanage who sufi'er theirsiock to wander in 
 !heir stalk fields, and wasting as much as they cat, leave 
 the greater part of the dfl'ais ol the corn plant to perish 
 uselessly and shamefully. The pretext that they are 
 ploughed in br the benefit of the jucceeding crop, is 
 idle, as few 6( the stalks can be perfectly ccveied, and 
 they have been found unrotted under the ploughing, 
 overs when partially covered, alter a crop of wheat. 
 The earth checks feimentaticn in such detached mat- 
 ter, there not being a EolTlcicnt body of them together 
 to piomote putrefaction when stalks arc scattered at 
 random as they fall over the field. li'irning them is a 
 wretched substitute for the supeiior advantages derived 
 irom hauling them into tlie yard in the fall, usinjj vvliat 
 will answer for provender an.! rotting down the residue 
 ^or highly valuable manure. 
 
 STOCK. 
 
 As (jreat caution is requisite iii stocking a farm to 
 advantage, I shall make a lew remdiks upon this sub- 
 ject. All tame animals which arc fed in pastiues, are, 
 28 
 
326 STOCK. 
 
 properly speaking, catile; but to disiinguisli the cow 
 kind from others, they are usually called neat cattle— 
 Of these are varioas breeds, which appear lobe orSgi 
 nal and distinct, though climates and soils may have 
 done sonielhing in producing ihtse vaiicties. The most 
 obvious of these is the polled breed, or tlie cattle vvitii 
 out horns. Other breeds in that country where, per 
 haps, the greatest variety is to be found, may be worthy 
 of notice:— 
 
 The Original or IMldRace of that country — Color 
 invariably white; horns tipped wiih black; ends of the 
 ears, inside and outside, redish; flesh fioe. and well 
 tasted. 
 
 Ihs Devonshire Breed — Said to be descended in part 
 from the above race; color light red, with a light ciun ring 
 round the eye; thin fact; thin skin; hips wide; tail c)uite 
 Ioh; rather small boned; horns turning upwards. The 
 cows yield good rich milk. Oxen good for draft, aiiil 
 fatten early. 
 
 Butch, or Short- Horned Breed — Hide thin; horns 
 short; tails set high; color red and white, neatly mixed; 
 tender constitutions; latten well, ond yield large quanii- 
 ties both of milk and tallow. 
 
 lavcashire Breed — With straightcr horns than those 
 of any other, spreading widely and extending forwaid^ 
 large and square built; fore quarters deep; milk not 
 abundant, but rich; the animal hardy. From an inter- 
 mixture of this breed with others, the Uishly breed was 
 obtained, which are remarkable for fattening very easily, 
 jhough they yield but little milk or tallow. 
 
 Highland Breed, or A>/cfs— Horns turned upwardb; 
 colours vjiious, chiefly bUcU, though sometimes bun- 
 dled or dun; hair long and close; bodies well shaped; 
 best suited for cold, mountainous countries; good for 
 milk, and inclined to fatten. 
 
 rolled Dreedy before roenticned— Shaped like the 
 Devonshire breed, though rather shorter; hides moder- 
 ately thick; hardy, and latten kindly on the best parti-; 
 flesh good and well mixed with fat; oxen good for draft. 
 A variety of ibis breed of cows, called the ♦'Sufi'olk 
 Duns," are excellent for the dairy. These are small; 
 lear, big-bellied, and of a dun colour. 
 
STDCK. 3^7 
 
 .liuerncy, or l*ie7ich TJrceJ— Small; Uglit red; 
 ciiiooih, neat horn; lendei consliiulions; rich milkers; 
 flesh, good. 
 
 Uelob i5r<Ti— Chiefly black; small, with thick horns 
 turning upwards; well shaped, vigorous, and well cal- 
 culated for labor. 
 
 Our cattle mostly resemble those of the Devonshire, 
 but evidently \ve have niixturcs of vaiious breeds; sp 
 much so, that no specific characters can be given them. 
 We have also the polled breed dis'.inct by itself, though 
 sometimes tliey are found mixed witli others. 
 
 Breeds of cattle are much improved by crossing; or 
 rpiixing diirerent kinds together; and it also seems essen- 
 tial that there should be no procreation between animals 
 which are nearly related. Let there be little or no con- 
 sanguinity between the bull and the cow whicii is put to 
 i-.i-m. This seems to be agreeable to the laws of Na- 
 ture; and, among men, is strongly exemplified in the 
 degeneracy of the race, wliere the peasantry of some 
 !:mall, secluded districts, constantly intermarry with 
 relatives. 
 
 In the inaprovement oFI)reeds of cattle, a due regard 
 iv to be had to the uses for which tliey are designed 
 Thus if the best milch cows are desired, select from the 
 breeds of those which arc known to be the best for that 
 use, th.u is, admitting tlie size to be equal, those which 
 yield the most of such cream as makes the best bu'.ter. 
 Biack cattle are not so remarkable fur butter as those 
 of a lighter colour. 
 
 A perfect cow sliould have a broad, smooth foreheid; 
 black eyes; large, clean Iiorus; thick skin; large,, deep 
 body; strong, muscular thighs; large, white or yellow 
 udder; four long, elastic teats; and a sbm tail, together 
 with every token requisite to a bull, allowing lor the 
 difference of the sex. They should also be young; for 
 milch kine arc not good for breeding after they are 
 twelve; though they will often live much longer if kept 
 well and free from diseases. 
 
 At the age of four years, all neat cattle have one cir- 
 cular ring at tlie root of tiieir iiorns, and one additional 
 ling yearly thereafter. When, however, ihey become 
 old, these rings grow indistinct, and no longer separaie- 
 )y perceptible. 
 
^i^S STOCK. 
 
 Ti ■ diseases of ca'ilcaie various; *r)tl fiecjucnliy ik- 
 tnd uncommon diseases occur. A farmer iniori«s u£ 
 ;hat in the winter ol 1812, he lost tluven head of cgt'.Ic 
 hy an unknown disease. The attack was indicated by 
 iRiall i)rotubcrautes apjitaiing lound the neck; and 
 after the bcests were dead, some ol these were opened 
 7ind found to bs Tuil of worms or iraggnts. The renic- 
 Jy is to o^;cn the protuberances by an incision and clean 
 I he part by a solution of Castile soap, and tlitn anoint 
 \}ys part \^iih British oil. This tseaiment (generally 
 (jllects a cure. A disorder prevails in the northern 
 jUTts of New York, t&rnicd the <'hcof ail." The feet 
 «,f the cattle appear to become diseased, and then to 
 feeze during the winter. Those wljch arc kept r^n 
 ;aims of n-.oist and rich soils, are nicst Jiuhle to this dis- 
 c idcr; but such as are fed on sandy loam or piavelly 
 firme, seldom sulTer in this way. The most tfTictual 
 preventive is to feed the cattle with plenty cf lich food 
 and keep them well littered in warm stables. 
 
 Ir» the spring, cattle which have been poorly kept 
 through the winter, arc subject to a waiting of the pith 
 (;f the hern, called the "horn cJisiemper." It is some, 
 limes in one ho*"!! only, and soiiieiinies in both. The 
 indications of the disease are, coldness ot the hoin, 
 dullness of the eyes, sluggiblmes?, want ol ?.ppc(itr. 
 2nd a disposition to lie down. When the br^in is afiect- 
 cd the animal will toss its head, groan, and exhibit indi- 
 cations of great pain 
 
 To cure the disease, bore a hole with a small pirn- 
 blet in the lower side hi the horn, about an inch from 
 ihc head, and the corrupted matier in the horn will run 
 out.. If this does not effect a cure, thiow warm water 
 into the horn with a syringe, in crder to cleanse out ihs 
 coirupied matter. 
 
 Another disease to whicii poor kept cattle are subject 
 in tlie spiing, is the "tail sickness." In t^u's case the 
 tail becomes hollow and relaxed. The cure is effected 
 hy cutting off a s-nall piece of the t«il, which wiTl be 
 aiieitdcd with a sm^dMischaree of blood; or wlien the 
 hollow part is near the en*', cut a slit in it, one or two 
 inclits lont-, and this will ( ffect n cure. 
 
 The "iriipts," nr "rholic," is m'stly trouhlesimc 
 toyoun^; tattle. "When attacked with it, they lie dovv . 
 
SHEEP. 339 
 
 j-)d rise up incessantly, and keep stiikirij; th&ir horns 
 at^aiiist any object that present?. It is amended either 
 nith costiveness or scourinfr. In the former case they 
 nie to be treated with purRativcs — in the latter with 
 restiinfjems. To stop the pnrfjinpj ^ivc them half a 
 pint ol olive oil, sweetened with sne;ar, or a quart of 
 ale, mixed wiih a few drops of hudanunri, and two or 
 three ounces of oil of sweet almonds. To promote 
 purginj? Kive them 5 or 6 drachms of 6ne Barbadoes 
 aloes, and a half a pint of brandy mixed with 2 quarts 
 of wnter piruel, in a lukewarm state. 
 
 The scouring is known in neat cattle by the frequent 
 discharge of Rlimy excrement, loss of appetite and 
 flesh, increasini> paleness of the eyes, and general de- 
 bility. The beast should be immediately housed and 
 put to dry food; and ibis, in the early stages of the dis* 
 ease, will generally effect a cure. 
 
 Cattle sometimes become *'hoven," as it is termed, 
 owint; to eatinf; too much when first turned into good 
 pastures, to swallowing: potatoes or other roots without 
 sufficient chewing, and to other causes. The stomach 
 of the animal becomes extended with wind, and if a vent 
 for this cannot be aPfurded the beast must die. 
 
 The usual remedy is to open a hole with a sharp 
 pfiinted knife, wi;h a blade thiee or four inches long, 
 between the hips and the short ribs, where the swellinej 
 lisos highest, and insert a small tube in the orifice till 
 the wind ceases to be troublesome. The wound will 
 soon heal again, 
 
 Ci«tile are soHnetinies poisoned by eating poisonous 
 plants, or by being bit with mad dogs. In the latter 
 case, if the wounded part be cut away shortly after the 
 bite, and then be kept open for some time, it is pethapa 
 the only effectual retu-edy. It is believed that any me. 
 dicine which is very anti-spasmodic, if given plentifully, 
 will counteract the effects of the bite of a mad dog. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON SHEEP. 
 
 LbY LIVINGSTON AND OTHERS.] 
 
 Tn a cold country wool is always a subject of impor- 
 ?nce to the inhabitants. In the eubtern and northern 
 
 2fi» 
 
33li sheep. 
 
 states of ibe American union, peculiarly so. I'or more 
 than sijf montlts in the year, it may be con«^idered as 
 forming the chief material of clothinp;, and during the 
 other six it entera largely into the covering of man. Id 
 such a climate, wool, and the garments made fron» it, 
 will always be in demand. 
 
 The quantity of this important anicle which the 
 wan's of the people require, will be constantly increas- 
 inpj. Jt will be cuMed for es the human race multiplies. 
 Every babe that is btoun;ht into the world is a new cus- 
 tomer to the woollen draper; and the proudest as well 
 as the meanest of mortals derives the protection of his 
 n ked body againsi the inclement elements, from the 
 sheep. 
 
 Heretofore it has been customary for the people of 
 the American states to irnport horn foreign countries 
 the principal part of the woollen clolii that they con- 
 sumed. Although the sheep lived and thrived well 
 nrrvong them, they raised the animal rather for food 
 than for raiment. The carcase was more important in 
 their csiimati(jn than the fleece. The other produc- 
 tions of a plentiful land afforded them the means of 
 paying for their imports by remittance abroad; and this 
 system of trade and cxciiange wouUl liave continued 
 for a greater length of time had not a jarring arisen 
 an ong the nations. 
 
 In consequence of commereial^misunderstanding be- 
 tween the United States and the couniiies wiience it had 
 been customary to receive their woollen manufactures, 
 it has latterly Ijeen more difficult to piocure then). 
 With the impediments of free intercourse, there haS 
 been an increase of price, and notwithstanding the il- 
 licit trade carried on by smugglers, the augmented oust 
 of foreign cloin is a serious considcialion to the wearci'. 
 /amidst these restrictions on the intercourse of n ilions, 
 it lias been found expedient to begin a wool. en manuiac- 
 ture at home. Our diplomatic connexion with Fr mce 
 and Spuin has been productive of this favorable result. 
 Twu gentlemen whom our government had sent to Ma- 
 drid and Paris, possessed a patriotic enlargement of 
 soul. They looked beyond the eiitjuette of courts and 
 liivees, and made those ccremootes subservient to a fur- 
 
SHEEP. 3-^1 
 
 (her and noMcr end. Availing themselves of t!ic favor- 
 able opinion tney had excited by their manner and their 
 talents, they obtai.icd leave to send home a selection of 
 sheep from the best flocks in the two kinfjdoms. To 
 Livin3;ston and Humphreys, their country is indebted 
 for that breed of sheep which bears the material for the 
 finest fabrics. The first animals of this race were two 
 pair bought in France by Dr. Livingston and sent to 
 New York under the care of one of his own servants, 
 where they arrived in the spring of 1802. Ahervvards 
 he obtained permission to ship others, chosen fiom the 
 highest bred flocks in that kingdom, by pemission of 
 the minister of the home department. AH these de- 
 rived their pedigree from tlie stock given by the Span* 
 ish monarchy to Louis XVI, in 1785. Mr, Humphreys 
 obtained his sheep directly from Si)ain. A numerous 
 flock arrived" in good health at New York- The com- 
 mittee appointed to investigate the advantages of intro- 
 ducing the Merino breed into the United S'ates thought 
 it to be their duty, first, to ascertain wiiether this breed 
 of sheep is supt^rior in intrinsic value to the several 
 species bred among us; and, secondly, wiiether, if pro- 
 pagated here,^they would be likely to retain their origi- 
 nal qualities It is in proof to the committee that this 
 race of sheep is inferior to none in the value of the car- 
 cases or in the facility of management. They are health' 
 ful and fatten easily in our climate. The superior ex- 
 cellence of ^eir wool is fully attested by comparison 
 and an attentive examination of the fabiics wrought 
 from the fleeces grown in this country. Indeed the 
 Tvell known fact, tliatthe wool of the Merino sheep has 
 been for a long lime contended by artists and manufac- 
 turers throughout Europe as indispensable to the cow- 
 s ruction of the finer woollen fabrics, is in itsell an in- 
 comestible evidence of its superior fineness. Whether 
 sheep of the Merino race, if propagated here, will be 
 likely to retain their original qualities, has appeared to 
 the committee to be the main question of practical im- 
 poriance. Upon this pjint the committee are not left 
 to doubt or conjecture. The evidence that the wool of 
 the impoi ted Merinos ftas not deteriorated is conclu- 
 sive. Gentlemen ol the first intelligence and iniegnty 
 
333 SHEEP. 
 
 Inve attenlively watclicd the proj>;ressive stale of Co!. 
 Humphreys' imported flock, and concur in attesting; 
 the facts, that the wool of the original stock retains all 
 its siiperifir value in quality and quantity; that the full 
 blooded profjeny produced in this country is in no re- 
 spect inferior to the stock imported from Spain. VVerc 
 the proof derived from the observation and experience 
 of respectable ciiiz^ns, in any dej^ree incomplete, the 
 fact that the Merino race is capable of enduring all the 
 eCTects of a northern climate, wi hout detcrioralion, 
 Would be apparent from multiplied experiments made 
 in different countries. They have been successfully 
 propagated in Great Britain, France, Holland, Swit- 
 zerland, Germany, Denmark and Sweden. In these 
 new and various situations, their fleeces, on the experi- 
 ence of many years, have bee.n found augmented in 
 quantity and not diminished in fineness. On this com- 
 bined view of f.icia, the committee do nat hesitate to 
 express a decided and unanimous opinion that the cli- 
 mate of the northern states is not unfavorable to the 
 propagation of this valuable breed of animals. 
 
 The committee deem it necessary to suggest the 
 importance of melioratmg our breed of sheep particu- 
 larly in the article of wool. The opportunities that 
 are wow offered of crossmg the blood and producing a 
 mixed progeny, as also of preserving and exiendini:; 
 the full blooded breed to an uulirr.i'ed degree, are, in 
 the opinion of the committee, advaniage^^of high im- 
 portance. Tha wool of the mixed breca surpasse 
 that of the ordinary sheep of the country in a svirprising 
 degree, both in quantity and quality. It is found to be 
 very useful in the hat manufactory, and is eagerly 
 souglit for at an advanced price. Its value to the citi- 
 zi nsol this stale is very great for the domestic fabric 
 ol homespun garments. 
 
 Many of the citizens of this and other states in the 
 union are convinced of the intrinsic value of this breed; 
 and the legislature of the state of New York, desirous 
 of securing the staple of the woollen manufacture, 
 h.ve considered the extensive spread of the Merino 
 sheep in and over their state, to be of so much in»por- 
 tauce as to encourage it by assurances of liberal pect: 
 niary advancenaenl from iheir public treasury. 
 
S«EEP, SBB 
 
 i'l js desirable ihat our country should be stocked 
 ■ i.ii various kinds of sheep, in order to supply i.scif 
 '•.:;h (he various sorts of cloths. In England tlicy have 
 ''■\e Tceswatcr, the Lincolnshire, and the Dartmojr 
 breeds, which yield fleeces of long coarse wool, vvejg>h- 
 ing on an average from eight lo eleven pounds, and liis 
 weight of their carcases from twenty -five to thirty 
 pounds. The wool of these sheep, and of the Heath, 
 KxnDere, and Beikshire.breeds, which are smaller and 
 have coarser wool, is proper for the manufacture of 
 rarpets, 8cc, 
 
 The Bakevvell, Carlwold,and Romney Marsh breeds 
 iiavc also long wool, but finer, being belter fitted for the 
 manufacture of worsted fabrics; and the average weijjht 
 of their fleeces is from eight to nine pounds; the weight 
 of iheir carcases is from twetity two lo iwenty-four 
 rounds. 
 
 The Bakertcll is an improved breed, and was en- 
 niii'icd upon some cf ilu>se before mentioned, and are 
 l.ighiy esteemed for tlic fa'ness of their carcases and 
 -•or the fine taste of their mutton. . 
 
 In addition to tliese tne Kn^lish have various othe? 
 kinds, ijcsifles the Merino, yii^ldiny: fleeces of short 
 wool of various qunmiiies and qualities, the finest of 
 '.vhjch arc the Dunfared and S i<.i!and bjeeds, and the 
 next finest is the Mereford or Kye'and breeds, and tlie 
 next the South Down. The latter resemble our com- 
 mon slicep,, Having wool equally fine, and are esteemed 
 next to the Oakewell i)reed. 
 
 Mr. Custis, of Virginia, is raising a new breed, 
 which he calls the Arlington sheep, that yield fleeces 
 of long wool. They are a rnl^{tu^e of the li ike^viU 
 bleeds with a lonij wonled PtMsian ram. He hag also 
 i'le Smitli's Island s.'ieep, w- ich are remarkable on 
 arrount of the largeness and fineness of their fleeces, 
 T ey- arc shorn twi'.e a-ye ir, and some of the fleeces 
 weigh four pounds at each shearing. 
 
 The Otter sheep, so called on acco'int of the length 
 of their bodies and the shortness of their legs, have 
 wool of an inferior qiir\Iity. 
 
 'i he IJroadtailed sheep are found in nlmnst etery 
 luartcr of the globe. They are of dilTcrent kinds, and 
 
334} SiiEEP. 
 
 yield fleeces of (lifTcrcnt qualities in dlfTcrent climaiei; 
 Tl)ey are fjenerally larger tlian the European sheep, 
 and the tails of one kind weigh in many instances fifty 
 pounds, beinp; so weighty that the shepheids are obliged 
 to place two little wheels under the tail to prevent its 
 beinp dragged on the ground. 
 
 Thecomprisitionof thisexcresence is said tobe a mix- 
 ture of flesh with a gicat proportion of fat, and to be 
 very delicate food; but the animal has little other fat, 
 (lie tail being in him the repository of Ibat fat which 
 lies about tl^e loins of other sheep. , , 
 
 The Cashmere breed, in eastern Asia, surpasses {he, 
 finest fleeces of Spain for the exquisite delicacy of the 
 wool. 
 
 A yearling sheep has at its first shearing two broad 
 teeth bei'nie, besides its narrow teeth; when sheared the 
 secor.d time it has four; tlie thiid time six, and the fouMli 
 'lime eight; they are then said to be lull mouthed. The 
 teeth of ewes begin to decay at the age of five 5 cars; 
 those of wethers at seven, and of rams at eight. — At this 
 nge a ram should be castrated and turned ofl" to fatten 
 with other old sheep. Ewes will fatten faster during 
 j)rcgrancy than at any other time. Those set apcirt for 
 fatting should be kept separate on good feed, and have 
 some Indian r cal daily. U is said that a sheep is never 
 made very fat hut once, and that then is the proper time 
 for killing if; but perhaps this is not founded on truth. 
 
 The proper time for shearing is when the weather 
 has set in pretty warm, but sooner where the wool is 
 falling off. The wool of the merino sheep must be 
 washed after shearing, as it cannot be washed to any ef- 
 fect while on their barks. The shearing of these sheep 
 may be later as iheir wool nevei falls off. Sheep of 
 the common kind may have.il.eir wool wushed while on 
 their backs, but in that case they sl>ould be kept some 
 days previous to shearing in a clenn pasture, in oider 
 that their wool m.ay again imljibc some of the oil which 
 J3 lost by washinii, which will render ihe stealing more 
 easy and require less oil to be afterwards added for 
 spinning. 
 
 In shearing care should be taken not to tut them, 
 and this is more particularly necessary with the merino 
 
SHEEP. ^330 
 
 «heep, whose fleece is so close as to render this opera- 
 tion much more slow and difljcult, double the titnc at 
 least being requisite for shearing one of these ihat is ne- 
 cessary tor one of the common kind. During cold or 
 rainy weather, after sheoring, they should be placed 
 where they can go into their place of shelter when they 
 please, as they know best \yhen t!>ey want shelter and 
 when they become so warm as to require the open air. 
 
 The wool of yearling sheep should be kept by itseU', 
 because not having the same texture or sirengih that 
 the wool of older sheep has, it will make the cloth 
 shrink unequally if mixed witu such wool. Tne oiher 
 fleeces may be toited at shearinj^ time, making sepa- 
 rate parcels of ihe thighs, the bellies and the back aud 
 sides. V/ool should not be kept long without washing, 
 as in that case it is liable to torment aitd spoil in tiot 
 weather. 
 
 Sheep require but little water if they feed when the 
 dew IS on the grass, but in winter tliey should have 
 tree ncccss to it. Feedintj each with about half a gill 
 of Indian corn per day is very beneficial — it keep* iho 
 flock in a thriving conJiiion, it enables the e>ves to rear 
 their young much better, and it prevents the wool from 
 fdliiog ofF in the spring. For early lee<ling for lUc ewas 
 which have lambs a field of rye, thickly sown, is very 
 good Sheep thrive much better by bein.^ changed 
 frequently, but those will be most benoEited vvtiich arc 
 taken from poor pastures and put into better. 
 
 Livingston observes that fiom twenty-nine common 
 sheep, he had upwards of one huulred and fourteen 
 pounds of vvool, which he sold ibr thirty-seven and an 
 lialf cents per pound. This, allowinjj one dollar and 
 filiy cents for the expense of keeping each sficsp ior a 
 year, fell short three cents oti-each Heece of payinj I'ci* 
 their keeping. ' 
 
 Eighty-three half blooded ewes gave upwards of 
 three hundred and ninety-three pounds; and forty- seven 
 half blooded wethers gave upwards of two hundred and 
 ihiriy-six pounds. This wool sold for seventj-five cents 
 per pound: Clear profits on the fleece of each ewe, 
 two dollars and three cent?; on the fleece of each wu- 
 'her, two dollars and fifty-five cents. 
 
836 SHEEP. 
 
 Thirty-:hrec fourth blooded ewes gave upwards cF 
 one hundred !ind fid) -six pounds, snd ihree wetliers oi" 
 the same blood guve upwards of sixteen pounds. This 
 wool sold for one dollar and tweniy-five cents per 
 pound. — Clcpr profits oh the fleece of each ewe, four 
 dollars and seventy cents; on the fleece of each wether. 
 l\vu dollars and tweiny-five cents! 
 
 Seven full bred ewes gave upwards of thirty-si:: 
 pounds, and one tarn fourteen months old (;avc u])war(.!3 
 of nine pound.*. This wool sold for two dollars per 
 pound. — Clear pryfiis on the fleece ol each ewe, eight 
 dollars and seventy-five cents; on the rani, keventeer. 
 dollars and (wentyfive cents. This wool was ail sold 
 at ihe above prices without bein^ washed. 
 
 If these sheep be thus piofi'.able lor their wool 
 they are at least as profitable as any others ftjr fallen 
 ing. 
 
 Mr. Young took a merino, weight eighty-foc: 
 pounds; a half South Down, quarter liakewell, and quar- 
 ter Norfolk, weight o!ic hundred and lorty-one pounds 
 and a Houih Down, weight one hundred and thirty- six 
 ■pounds; these were feci together a certain length of 
 liiT.e and then weighed. J he firtt wtiglied onehur. • 
 dred 'Kjuuds, the second one hundred ai.il forty-e'glU; 
 and Hie last one bundled r.hd ioiiy-four poundis, 
 Thus the n)trino; gained more than double the quiuitiiy 
 of flesh whicli the Dlber two gained. — lie also makes it 
 appear that a mtnno oniy eats in pioporlion to its sizf 
 
 The diseases of sheep are not so nun>erous in this 
 country as tiiost otheis. 
 
 The most prevalent among grown sheep are as fol 
 Jews: — 
 
 'ihe see') appears nrst by ilie animal rubbing th'.: 
 patt aflecied, ami pulling out the woo! in that pait 
 with its tteili, or by loose locks ol wool rising on its 
 back »nd shouUiets. 
 
 Ihe sheep infected must be taken from the flock and 
 put by itself; then take the wool off the pert afi'ectcd, 
 as far a« the skin feels hard to ttie fingti; !tl it be 
 washed with soap tuds and rubbed hard with a shoe- 
 brush, so as to cleauic and bicak the scab, rhtn anuisit 
 it with a decoction of tobacco water, mixed with the 
 
HORSES. dsy 
 
 .hird of Jey of wood ashes, as much grease as this ley 
 will dissolve, a small qiianliiy of tar, and about an 
 eighth of the whole mass of the spirits of turi)cmine. 
 The ointment is to be rubbed on the part aHectcc!, and 
 for same little distance round it, at three di'flerent timer, 
 with an interval of three days after each washing; witii 
 limeiy precautions this will always be found sufliciont. 
 
 The Tick occasions a constant scratching;, and proves 
 injurious to the wool. 
 
 f'lcre. — Cause tobacco smoke to be conveyed into 
 eveiy part of the lleece where the ticks are. 
 HOUSES. 
 
 The marks of a good horse are: a high.neck, full 
 breast, a lively eye, a stronsj back, stiff dock, full but' 
 tocks, ribs reaciiinsj near to ihe hips, aad j^ood hoofs. 
 
 Mares thai aie very fat and gross are not so likely to 
 conceive as those that are moderately fat. 
 
 A stallion should not cover before he is six years old. 
 nor after he is fifteen. A mare should never be cover- 
 ed beloie she is three or four years old.- About ihe 1st 
 of June is the proper time to put her to tlie liorse, auci 
 every ninth day after till she refuses to take him. — 
 Mares go with toal eleven months and as many days over 
 as they are years old. \Vi)ile with foal they should be 
 housed pretty early in the fall and be well kept till 
 foaling. I'hey should not be rode swiftly, nor put to 
 drawinj^ or carryinj^ burdens, for a month or two be- 
 fore foaliojj. i"he smell of a hide newly taken off will 
 make a mure lose her foal. When about to foal they 
 shouid be kept in a yard by themselves. . It is essential 
 that Jhey should give plenty of milk in order that the 
 colts have a good first summer's growth. 
 
 Horses should have a dry pasture, and a [j;oo(I shadj 
 in it; and for wat)t of water they frequentiy learn t i 
 feed in the night when the dew is on, wliich renders tho 
 grass more nourishing. 
 
 Clover, whether green or dry, is considered as one 
 of the most suitable grasses for horses; hut if clover 
 hay be fed to Ihsm for some time, it producci 
 too great a degree of loflfeeness. Clover and timothy 
 together are therefore the best. 
 
 A horse's a^e may be best ascertained from hij 
 •eetl- : The first year he has only small grinders an i 
 29 i. 
 
338 HORSES. 
 
 f»atheicrs, of abiightish colour, which are called foar-- 
 leeth; the seconrl year he chanj^es his foremost teeth, 
 viz. two above & two below, and they appear browner 
 and bigger than the rest; the third year he changes the 
 teeth next these, leaMnjj no apparent foal's teeth bc- 
 fore, but two above and two below, which are all briglit 
 and small; the fourth year he changes the teeth next 
 these, and leaves only one foal's tooth above and one 
 below on each side; the filth year his foremost teeth 
 are nli changed, and the tushes on each side are conr- 
 pletc, and those which iucceed the last foal's teeth are 
 hollow, with a small black speck in the middle, which 
 is called "the mark in the horse's mouth," and con 
 tinues till' he is eight years-old; the sixth year there 
 Appears new tushes, near which is visible some yonnij 
 flehh at the bottom of the tush; the tis^s being whi\t, 
 small, short and sharp; tiie seventh year his teeth arc 
 at their full growth, and the mark in his mouth appears 
 very plain; at eight all his teeth are plain, full, and 
 snioolh, and the black mark just (liscerniijlcj the tushes 
 looking more yellmv than ordinary; the ninth his lore- 
 most teeth shew longer, broader, yellower, and fouler 
 than before, the mark quite disappearing, and the 
 tushes bluntisf; at ten no holes are found in ibe inside 
 of the upper tushes, which till then arc easily felt; at 
 eleven his teeth are very h)ng, yellow, black, and foul, 
 and stand duecily opposite each other; at twelve the 
 teeth of his upper jaw hung over tfiose of his under; at 
 thirteen bis tushes are worn almost close to his chaps if 
 he has been rode much, otherwise they will be long, 
 black and io^A. 
 
 As the horse is subject to many diseases, this work 
 would be in»perf9Ct without making some remarks re- 
 specting them. . 
 
 jitiCicor^h a dangerous disefse» proc'teding fjom a 
 fulness or inflammation ol the blood, occasioned by 
 high feeding without exeicise, or liy hard ruling. In 
 this distase the corrupt and innamcd blood raises a 
 swelling in the middle of the bre«st, juht against the 
 heart. Upon its fii st appearancelake a large quantity 
 of blood Iron) the palate veiriS, or, if they be hid, from 
 both sides of the ntck; then give to drink diapente 
 whh beer, adding an ounce of sugar candy ancl halt an 
 
HofiSES. 339 
 
 ounce of molasses to it; anoint the sweUin;^ evci y xlay 
 with a inixiure of basilicon and hog's laid;an(! \^en 
 the swelling is soft let out the mailer, washing 'v»,\viih 
 copperas water; tiien heal the sore. JM 
 
 The Bol Horms bieecl in the straight gut, ,<;/3r the 
 fundanient. To prevent them, give youi" Ijonifes iti the 
 spring and fail one ounce of powdered amauony and 
 three cuiices of the flour of brimstone, ancT at tiaiea 
 mix ihc lea of spicettood with the horses fecil, ^■d.'^eovv 
 am! then a p;!)t of flax seed. By this mtihoCT f^ui- 
 horse will be kept -sealthy and free frooi bolls. 
 
 '1 he animal makes signs of this disease by frequent- 
 ly looking behind it and frisking iis tail. Cur&-r-Gi\a 
 the horse a few doses of linseed oil a pint each time, 
 aii<l it will quickly eflect a cure. 
 
 Farcin proceeds from different causes, as fronli un- 
 wholesome or high feeding, from hard riiling, attended 
 wiih sudden heats or colds, or Iro.m i:)icction. It h a 
 kind of venom or corruption of the blood that appears 
 ill l"oim of knois or cords along tUe veins, or l)y ulcers; 
 these last are curtd with a red hot iron, and the former 
 by bleeding, purging, and proper excicise. 
 
 The Gianclera, or Horse Disiem/iery is accompanied 
 with a discharge of mailer from the nostrils and a 
 swelling of the glands under the throat and tongue. In 
 ihe first statjcs of this disease ils chief seat is in little 
 soft spongy tlesh, which is easily dilated by tlie least 
 iiiflux of blood; but treatment in the second stage Is to 
 make use of purges, diaphoreiica, and roweling in ihe 
 breast or hinder purls. In the la«t stages ii is generally 
 incurable. To clear the nosuils, pass fumes (;f burnt 
 b imstone* or leather inio the nose of the horse; and 
 alicr liie matter has been discharged, syringe his nos- 
 tills with brandy or red wiue; afterwards cleanse the 
 ulcerated parts. 
 
 Gigs — Little tumors or bladders, filled wiih matter, 
 in the mouths of horses. The cure is to slit them open 
 and then wash them with salt and vinegar. 
 
 Foundering' is caused bj^aling too laige a quantity 
 of hard! grjin at once. Ttii^legs and feet bcconve slifl* 
 ened and S)re. The best remedy fur tliis is exercise 
 by ridisig; and in addition to this let the bits of his bri- 
 llc be bound round \\}lh a rag, ialo which let as much 
 
3-10 HORSES. 
 
 1 yr.nnj (dLre Lc pi:l os it >nil holi^ I'vit llijs in iiis 
 nicii'.li i i.d let liini chew ii wliile ridir.g him, and indue 
 scast n rtpeat the dose if i ccessarj*. 
 
 draxcliivg is caused by liltle gravel stones f!;e{li!)g in 
 l.ctwecii the hoof and the shoe, wliich settle to the 
 ruicU, mid fester the part, h is cuicd by picking ou 
 !lic giavel Hid di awing the place to the quick, thci- 
 '■opl'ing up the loot wi.h hcise jjrcase und hot impen- 
 tir.c. 
 
 C^ifcl|''is cccasioncd by bruises with the saddle, 
 C'/aiP-Kub the swelling witli good brandy, laying on a 
 ]!3prr socked in it. If the skin be btokc!), n njixturc 
 t/l led wine and sallad cil is a good remedy. 
 
 'J'he JIaiv is -a giiatle fjwSwing between the nether 
 ryc!id ocd tliC eye, which, if not extirpated, will pol 
 ;!5e eye entirely oijt. It origin-Ttcs from phleginatic 
 liumcrr, which, iiilling from the l-.ead and miiiing loge- 
 '. hei, form at last this infirmity, 'i'hc cure is as follows: 
 Hold tlie creature fast, r.r.d tl.iiist a needle with a 
 strong tliread through the t ycbd, and tia it to the mane; 
 i!icn a needle uith a longtluead must be thrust througii 
 the haw, and the skin cut routid it wiih a sharp knilt; 
 the ha?^ is plucked out byiieans of the tliicad; aficr 
 Wiiich the eye must be cleansed Irom (he blood, and 
 v.sS.td vMih beer with s;j1i dissolNcd in it, 
 
 "i he Casting of the flocf arl'ies fion> some prick, 
 for.ndeiiog, surbating, &c. wliich causes aajmposthu- 
 rnation in the fuot, vlicreby llie l-oot, and "Sometiines 
 Ibe c< ilin bene, Iveing spungy, fjlis ofi in large pieces. 
 
 IIooJ /oo.vfwrrf/— If ihr pai tit g be icjund abom tiie 
 coronet, caused by foundeiing; ii in part, then by z 
 jiiick, quittei bi.ne, gravelling, kc. 
 
 h'coj nivelled.—'liws btfds )oung horses, whcp. 
 viought bard, which mukts the h:«cf swell by reason 
 cf ;he blo(jcl Idlling down and sctiline then, and if not 
 speedily remove i bejrets a wet spavin 
 
 i'he Brittle I/cof. -The hnof in this distemper 
 cracks and llakes oil on cveiy slight occasion. . 
 
 'i lie curt in these sever 1 disorders of ilic hoof is as 
 fo I ws: T.ike bee's w;;x, rt&^ed turpentine, si.ei, and 
 hog's htid, ol eycli four ounc^; s:illad oil a quaner of a 
 j.ih', and a half a pound of dog's gre-isc; Iti iSe wiio'c 
 Lc nitlltd logelhcr and sticintd tl.roujih a iietc cl car.- 
 
HOliSE'3. 3lil 
 
 -ass into a c;anipot. Anoint the hoof well with this 
 twice every day, especially at the loo; and it there are 
 .ny lare;e cracks, they must be filled up at every 
 liessinp: with a mixture of equal parts of Cow's dunjj 
 uiifl hog's hrcJ. 
 
 The Lammas is a swelling in the roof of a horse's 
 mouth, which hinders him Irom icedinj^j Young horses 
 are most liable to it. A cure miy t)e effected by apply* 
 in^ a hot iron to the swollen pjrt, and 3fllM|^rds 
 anointinij; the place »\ith olive oil. ^^r 
 
 The Spavin is a disease of which there are four 
 kinds. Two of then:i are sealed on the inside at the 
 bottonti ol the ham; the other two on the inside of the 
 lioof, under the joint. The two former are called the 
 ox and dry spavin, and the two latter the wet and the 
 boney spavin. The ox spavin is a callous tumor, hard 
 as a bone, and very painful. The dry spavin is iiiorc 
 easily perceived by the horse's raisinc; the le^j with a 
 twitch higher than t!ie other. The blood spavin is a 
 Soft tumor which grows through tha ho )f, and is usually 
 full of bloody matter. The bone spavin is a crusty 
 substance, growing on the inside of the hoof, under 
 the joint. The ox and dry spavin is occasioned by a 
 kick cr hurt, and the blood and bone spavin by some 
 infirmity in the hoof. The method of curing it is by 
 blistering ihe part; but if there is blood or other mat- 
 ter, you nfiay apply restringeiits and a, bandage tightly 
 drawn round the part. Should this fail of cure, you 
 m-»y make an incision into the bajj and let the matter 
 discharge, and dress the part with lint dipped in British 
 oil every day until a cure is effected. 
 
 Seairifers.—-'Vhe method of cure is to take a quart of 
 blood from the neck, drench him well with flax seed oil,^ 
 and likewise give him one ounce ol the tincture of assa- 
 faetida every six hours for twenty-lour hours. If no 
 relief, bleed again, which method will often cure the 
 worst stages of the disease. 
 
 Jfiid Ga//s.— The method of cure is to open the 
 swelling about half an^ch and press out the matter, 
 and apply the decoctior^w birk to the wound and band- 
 age it up very tight, and a cure will be effected in a 
 short lime. 
 
 liowelling of Hora€9~-'\% a method of cure frcquent- 
 29» 
 
313 HORSES. 
 
 ]y ha^rccoursc to in inwaid straiiis or hard sweUings 
 not easi'y remoted. 
 
 S/i/ent is a callous, hard, insensiljJe 5\vcllinc: winch 
 breeds on or adheres to t!;e sliank bone of the horse; ic 
 fif'cntimes grows »eiy large so as to spoil ti.e shape o! 
 ihc leg The best remedy is blistering and the applica- 
 tion irf mercuiial ointmenr. 
 
 Fistula When the horse is first attacked a cure will 
 Vq ca^lMj^ected by hlecdirg, rovvetingand physicking; 
 likei^pipe horse must be kept from heating his biood 
 and apply cider oil as hoi as it can be borne every 12 
 houis. If the ulcer is formed the part should be laid 
 open and the matter discharged and the wound cleansed 
 uiili a solution of castilc soap, thr pirt anointed with tar 
 and scneca oil,lia!f and half, applied about blood warm, 
 when a cure will be saon efTected. 
 
 The FoUevH — 'I'he cure is effected in the same way 
 as the fistula above described. 
 
 Farcy — A cure is effected by bleeding and purging, 
 and turning biai on fresh pasture. 
 
 SUBSCRIBERS NAMES. 
 
 Wm. Connor, Daniel D Gviren, Jnstph Ver^, Sam'I. 
 Clure, II. S. Stow, John B'.rkliy, John Hunt,'\Vm. 
 Shannd), Thomas Hooper, David Johnston, James B. 
 <21ow, James Fakin, Joseph Ltird, James Alleson, 
 John R. Shannon, John Allison, Samuel Porter, Wm. 
 Poller, John J. Mrller, Henry H. Sanith, Samuel Smith, 
 Robert Darab, F.Ii Kvans, James Crawford, Samiici 
 Jones, Wm. Reno, Oliver Phillips, Isaac Walker, 
 William V. Smith, John Pugh, J. M. Luckey, Jon, 
 Evans, Schaler Stone, John Klinober, Samuel Sayer» 
 Adam Ralston, Thos. Giiswold, David Harper, Levi 
 IM'Contel, Jacob Towntend, Wm. W. Hoon, Wm. 
 Beiiconi, jr. John C. Scroggs, John A. IJiIos, Joseph 
 Dnuthitt, Roh't. Wallace, Thos. Officer, Thos. Karr, 
 David Hull, James Wilson, l*ter M'Failand, Thomas 
 Hunter, Jan^es Sprolt, Peter^^rowl, John Anderson, 
 Robeit .Vl'Caltry, Abel Lodge, Jonathan B. Ferrall, 
 Thos. C. Morgan, John Pnchett, John Barett, Broj. 
 Ferrall, G. M'Cook, W m. Moise, George Enuly, 
 
SLIJSCRIBEUS NWIES. 343 
 
 Maclion B.-.Rgos, D:ivid Watson, Jacoh s)iouke, jr. John 
 'Jhonison, Joseph Richan'son, John B) rns, John Cal- 
 flon, jr. Daniel Smith, Eclvv;irr1 Carroll, George Atkin- 
 son, John Haston, Cicorce Wadsworth, yudson Can- 
 fielrl, Thos. Carroll, Chailes Sampson, D. IJam- 
 sry, Jacob Arlcr, John Morri^.or, Jacob Crowl, Jo!>n 
 Kee, Baltzer Crowl, Henry Breker, Jacob Rumeli, 
 Samuel Lam'-.ern, Hermon Crane, Wm. Emrcy Rns- 
 sfl. Cook Fitch, A/arrron CarfieW, Trurnan W. 
 ■Wiiitinp;, Andy Way, Wm. Hogg, William Blylhe, 
 Shaclrach Bostwich, A. Hill, Wm. LincJa, I'nech W. 
 Heaton, VVitherson Haton, Stephen Recs, James A. 
 Nelson, A. Adams, H. Stevens, W. Croxton, A. Suiher- 
 land, Horace Rawclcn, N. Brown, Lesier Cone7 ^Vm. 
 M'F.irlanc, Snmiiel Tyler, J. Rawdn, Wm.CulIen, Hen- 
 ry Siiles, S. Seely, E. R. Thomp-^on, John B. Harmon," 
 G. Hapgood, Wm. Biishnell, Tracy Bionson, Jacob 
 II. Baldwin, Peter Allen, Elijih Flowers, Henry Man- 
 nine;, Noah Z. Brook way, Fi)aniel Barns, Rob't. "M'- 
 Farland, Lewis Reeves, Asa Low, Scth' Thompson, 
 Samuel Raney, James Vangorder, Pratt Teit, Ricliaru 
 Iddinj^s, Cyrus liywor'li, John Hersh, A. Stevens, 
 Isaac Lee, Joshua Henshaw, J. P. Danford, John 
 Brown, Ira Spencer, Allen Humason, E. Spear, Almon 
 Jaknc, John Mullen, Wm. Gilmore, James Walt, Geo. 
 Qiiij5ley, David L. Cooe, Francis Freman, J. E. Wood- 
 bridge, Jonathan Smith, William Morris, A. U. Bissell, 
 Josiali Palleyr, Wm. Stewart, Benj. R, Hull, Philip 
 Kinne, Hervey Wicke, John B^^rcl.^y, Robert Hartley, 
 Alex.nder M'Kinna, Chauncy R Fowler, John C. Ar- 
 nold, Jared Kiriland, Willis Bixley, Joseph Hisey, John 
 Jioose, Willi-Jm ^'arson, Samuel Beans,. D^ivid B shop, 
 Jacob Moyl, Richard Limbu, William Beans, William 
 Case, Robert Chamberlin, John C. Smith, Jacob Clap- 
 sadle, Oi!h he, Strohn, George Duck, Joseph Ledlie, 
 William Watson, John Stevens, Fisher A Blocksom, 
 Stmul S. Henry, Jacob Helman, John Kenny, Joseph 
 Gillmjjham, Willi im Cnmpbell, John Campbell,. John. 
 Ware, Jacob Cook, Jg|» Webb, jr. Isaac T. Gilbert, 
 Daniel Hitrbaugh, Hti|^^pina;er, Benjamin Pritchard, 
 Oliver J Korsenhurgh, William Frederick, Isaac 
 Jenkinson, Gollbid Northdurft, Samuel Watson, James 
 Wilison, Bciry & M'Ardle, Neel k Allen. A. Buch- 
 anan, Davis & M'Carty, James Maiiicide, James Dare, 
 
S-th SUBSCRIBERS NAME9. 
 
 «<■ 
 R H. Cashcll, Wiliram Irwins, Zacheiis Punohry, 
 
 Wiirnm M.iihers, George Diilty, J-mes W, Rnhle, 
 P W. Ketineflay, J. Evana, ^sa Ricliards, Oeort^e 
 Hoec", ^'Iic'^iah Wel-^'infr, Nrithaniel Detrell, (ieorq[e 
 J. RTiMleit, Gad Evans, ■».rchibalfl S. T fUl> John Kel- 
 ly. D. n. Rayless, Isaac Lewis, Samuel Brewer, At- 
 kinson Tlill, Alexanfler \\'ishaTt, John C. Dorvall, 
 Pefer (""f^oVj, Jnhn ^T. l^alden, Tames Moody, Ezckiel 
 Davis, Henry M'Kennv, John M'Mullen, Freeman 
 VVhi'ini^, Flihu '^Varner, Charles Tiofhy, Eli J. 
 Bonghton, John Bri-Me, Ri h-^rd Fitch, Walter Smith, 
 William Bottom, Porret H i ilv, jr. Joseph Tuttle, 
 Ezra Gilber*, Benjamin H H. Cyrus Ward. William 
 Chapman, Joseph Si^mner, C'l^rles Sumner, Julius 
 Sumner, John Sumner, JacoH H-uh, Luther Hirshill, 
 n trt Syurre, Josepli Beal, John II uton, James Prijon, 
 Joseph Brashears, Jonathan Binns, Thomas G. Lamb, 
 Amos Giffith, James Meek, John R^he, Jacob Crowl, 
 Joseph Mills, Ge-rpe Mair, George Hutchinson, Ma- 
 tbis Thompson, Washington Hxit^h, Joh\> Lyon, Peter 
 Hutzog, Wm. 8. Cannon, Robi. D ivis, Frmcis Beal, 
 sen. Robert Ranson*, Robert M'Louarhline, Wasliing 
 But, O Watson, Jicob Barnes, H^wirr Goumer, Jjmea 
 A. M'Clellan, Arthur D ilv, David Hunt, John Jick- 
 son, Samuel Woolverton, John Johnson, Hugh Smart, 
 P'eter H .Ideman, Benjamin Watson, George Syers, 
 George Kinkeade, George Rbby, John R. Johnston, 
 Jnhn Blochcr, Joshua Johnston, James Bryant, Samuel 
 C. Covvden, Jeremiah Boyd, John Greer, John Mii- 
 chel, J mes Campball, John Morred, John Shotwell, 
 James Howden, Richard Crooks, Galmor Ludiaton, 
 LerH gar, Joseph Frost, George Millftr, Peter Shirer, 
 Thomas Brown, M. Shafer, Samuel Denison, John 
 Cox, Wm. Masters, Robt. Palten, C. Smith, Robert 
 C. Hagen, W;n. H^llara, John Hallam, John Rapp, 
 Henry Smith, W u. M. H >mes, Alexander Homes, 
 Bendiche Roads, Richarl Richardson, Henry Galla- 
 her, Andrew Burget, W n. M'Cready, John Owin, 
 Richard Stevenson, John Stjgknson, Samuel Glass, 
 Nastnu Hickney, Samuel H triTO, J. Cochran, Andrew 
 Luch, Henry Veen, Thomas MCag, John Clark, 
 Thomas Barrtngton, John Shradcr, Thomas Barrin^j- 
 ton, George Scott H.rshe, Robt. Moore, James Mor- 
 gan, James Mac Kull, Samuel Carothers, William 
 
SUBSCRIBERS NAMES* 345 
 
 Ewing, Thomas Laughlui, John Grayson, Mosca 
 !.)Ie, Abialiam Van \'oihcs, Isaac Vance jr. Samuel 
 Ik'ss, James Cinfiiih, Occl Sc;uicr, Daniel L. fioble, 
 Jolm l/uidley, John Walt, Win. Mioniken, "VViiliam 
 ilemey, Eliphas Perkins, Isaac N. Neeson, Ira Knigs- 
 Icry, Amos Crippoij 'i"honias IJrice, Janies (Jilmoie, 
 '>\'m. H^rt, S. Huston, Janies Siscon, H. AV, Flemin.q;, 
 John li iidest, John llcdton, Adam Hall, John Men it, 
 J. li. Iliiris, Wai. Piiillips, L.Johns, Caleb Hii ford, 
 Samuel Johns, Jot>allian Morns, Elijah i'hillips, Wfu. 
 lleilor, Wm. Rice, Adalph Huil, Moses Zoc^reder, 
 l)Li\i(l White, John Wever, James A. Crawlord, John 
 Oawford, James Neal, Tlio. Ncal. Samuel Iloaton, 
 John M'Shary, I'etet Sharpnut, Abner Mundti, Jacob 
 I'rench, Wm. Devali, Joseph Snivtiy, Ahntr, Mille- 
 binn, 'I'hos. Kyrould, Cornelius O. Conner, Samuel 
 l^nse, Luis Sin.kins, Jesse Coxe, Isaac- Rrison, Volun 
 Nichols, M. Diil, Da\id Davidson, Julin Mulligan, 
 Silas Ilathewi*}', Levi Hart, Satnuci Mossier, Elijah 
 (iladden, JacoU Uoss, Stephen WaUcs, (icorgc Rice, 
 J. C. Simonson, J. Kniglit, "W^iliaui Au.sjdon, John 
 CJulheier, Andrew Kees, John Mi;chell, Thomas H. 
 ]'o\vler, Thos. Hall, Samuel Ilfghe, Aaroo Eentot», 
 Daniel Cooper, James M Ji ;tn, John D .j;ij, Jaines 
 Stevens, John H. Wau^li, Jonn S. Clarrett, Edward 
 Slraney, Daniel AValiz, Peter Wole, Auia-j-Johnston, 
 }{, W. Hirding, Alexander Monioch, W n. S. B. 
 M'Liure, Samuel J. Rowley, W . . S> ii.ms, Chailcs 
 AV. Dougherty, Aaron li vyjue, J i-iils Kitstnan, Arthur 
 Ham er, lleniy Jack, J. Wnue, I'.dwara Jones, Samuel 
 Snnih, Jolin Jocknian,, I'lnlip '1 homas, Harvey Scnot, 
 Tlios. G. Cii!>on, Al)rahan> E.y, .Simon Jack man, 
 Sauiuel Snatplc^s, Wm. S<aipie8s. Joel Museum, 
 J^mes Crec, J. Ad^Us. David Viil tr, Geortje Grew, 
 Jo.iii Kiylioi, JolinWii.te, I'.iisllu Pears, Wm. ."injhe, 
 Cojilea De rlai.b, tlii}<h Wilson, Joseph Wlierrv, Ja- 
 coi) M'i ar.and, John Gaitiner, J icob V' Seaman, John 
 C'usser, J mts 1 uckei, C nnaid Smith, Thus. I'lem- 
 ifi}^, Andrew Siitlon, I'.zcmcI Ciarke. Azarian S;nulls, 
 Suiucl Con ic , Hitu^y Carter, %muel Andiews, 
 liowkiiis Hand, J alcMis, 1^ L. 'i'hompson, VVdiium 
 1" iiley, J )shua Emery, Jei emiah Einer>, J.imes Greer, 
 J <iin IJ. 1 hompson, VV iitiam Ciibson, John M'Kinney, 
 'olin VV aisoii, Jonalti.tn Lcaihcrman, Josepii I'aike; 
 
346 SliBSCRlBERS NAMES. 
 
 •V, JjmesAl'Clc&key, John Kelly, John While, 
 jin. .-. C. M'Dowell, Jo!in INIiilcr, Hugh ScoU, Rich- 
 ard Cliapman, W. W. Irons, \rchibal(.l llunler, Uobt. 
 Cunimen, E. Bugard, Jas. Caughey, Robt.M Cotlay, 
 John Sievenn, VVjiliam Smith, Kobt. Bourbnd, David 
 Jiiuce, Stephen F« Day, Wni. Creswc'.l, James Dur.- 
 j:an, Robert Moore, George Ciocshoni, Juhn* Hatch, 
 Archibald Harper, James Roberts, Abraham S. Parr, 
 Mcs<;s Goodrich, Joseph Hemphill, V., Ran>sey, Daniel 
 lladorn, David Sumers, J. Conrad, Mahlon T. Stokes, 
 John M' Double, George Brown, Wm. CoUin, E. 
 Colman, J. AUendcr, Thomas Bulked, H Kerns, A. C 
 Johnston, G. B. Craft, A'i. B. Porter, R. Williamson, T. 
 L. Rogers, Hiram Hcalon, 'I'hos 11. Beard, Chaiica 
 Porter, Joseph 1 hnrnion, Alcxr, Beard, Sol. G Gripps, 
 A. Stuart, Wm. Wcyjie, Robi. Estep, Samuel E.vans, 
 Dar.icl Rogers, John §t. Clair, John W. Philips, Joel 
 C. Ball, Abm. Balding, And. Dempsy, Jacob Gaddis, 
 David Aiild, G. W. Miller, Lewis Marchand, John 
 Hoge, Thos. Manfield, Jos. Reynolds, James A. Yaikc, 
 Kwing Brownfitld, Robt Curiy, ChrisJan KclToid, 
 Jolm Shaw, Morris Mnriis, EliuS Jelleris, Joiepb Kib- 
 lef, Clement Hood, Yetui I>en!on, Harvey Runnels, 
 Wm. Stephens, licj. Wood, Jacob liyifoibuuuh, An- 
 drew M'Mastus, Denis Sprii^ger, H. W. Btason, Ab- 
 ncr Greenland, Wm. Miller, Ji>mes Gie.a;g, Jolm M'- 
 Fee, John Hacknty, Christopher Balsiiv^er, Joshua 
 Woodward; Richard Miller, Wm. I'lnley, John Jack- 
 son, Hugh Gilmote, Bejn. Craft, Enoch Freixh, Mo- 
 ses A- Ross, James Wilson, Alender Wilson, FremaD 
 Lewis, Thomas Wilson, Saml. Garden, John Overtinfl", 
 Wm. Grove, Altxr. Lucky, Robt. Ailcnd,.r. Da^id 
 RotMson, Elijah Crawford, Eiisha Allen, Thos. B'own, 
 J.'mrs M'Sharry, Thos. M'Kibbin^-, James Ridd, Ju^h- 
 uai L'liid, D H Cnallant, Saml. Fiizsirnens, John Rog- 
 ers. Shepar.'l Conwell, Jonson Vankitk, John C. Siinch- 
 tOTnb, John Cunningham, Daniel Craft, Andiew Davis, 
 JaiTiis Gipsun, James Snp, Samuel Porter, John Har* 
 per, Joseph Ridi;e^(\.!exander Davidson, Denis Riley, 
 Jonathan Hoge, 'n.omas Etlw^H^, Maien Newbuii), 
 Thomas Hatfield, Thoma" Reed, James Lewis, Sam- 
 uel Lewis, Alexander Brown, William Elwood, 
 Jain:.s Cunningham, Presiey N. Miller, John Moore, 
 iliorr.as Ligijc, jr. Levi Crawford, Gideun Jjhn. 
 
SUBSCRl 
 
 J«mes Kearns, Braley 
 Laughlin, Henry //eaton 
 Lawver, James Meetkerk 
 35edell. //uRh Biiday, W 
 sey^ Isaac //ammon,-Tjohn C 
 David Crafi, SatTnicl Vlille 
 riel R. Cannon, . Joseph T. N 
 Joseph Roberts, Benjamin 
 David Jackson, Lewis Switze 
 Langley, James E'. Breading,.' 
 Dearlh, George Craft, Lot 
 Thomas Burson, Samuel !'.>-> 
 Green, James Golden, A 
 Thomas Ims, John Bjoz:*, 
 
 : Sanf^Ieis, John /leaton, F ff. B 
 Samuel Ifest, ^^m. Litaenberger, Mi 
 Moriison, John Vcves, Joseph Ailes, Clar 
 •M'Uline, Jay Thompson, 7irrmial) Jennings, 
 MoR'ett, James Anderson, David C. liurnell, 
 Miller, Thos. Siiarn, Samuel /jighinbothan. An 
 Gregg, Jaraes.B.irns, John W. Lynch, Jesse Lmru 
 Thomas Conwell, Wm. Wort, John Whitecotton, 
 O'Ven Fraser, JjoiesGreer, Jacob //oge, 77 ram Dur 
 na/, Bjlh Al'Cormick, Jotin Dearth, Wm, Moor, 
 Maxcl Dearth, ^arnebas Vanhorn, AJam Randolf, 
 James Murpliey, Jojm M'Cregg, J«ieniah DowqI. 
 Siniuel Cochran; James (»allaher, A\;xaiid(r Ful- 
 ton, Richard Wells, John S. Parker, M irtin Turnert 
 jr. //cnry A-raham<, J.)hn Arnold, John Conwell, 
 Septimus Arnold, Simuel Ntialon, Auanits Simkios, 
 Benedict Kimbcr, Joshua Vcrnoii, Robl Kimocr, Ed- 
 ward Campbell, jun. Wm. R. Campbell, Cti. //meSv 
 Wm. M'F ly, Gilbert S iiith, John M'Cjriney, Jonas 
 Ciombaclier,J lel Root;r's, James Cox, Elisha D. B\r- 
 nei, Ja m H. Polsley, S nucl JaCKSon, J ):<eph Davis, 
 Jacob Polslcy, J v>hM F Johnson, J >l»n S aliv, //cinry 
 M'lrphy, Thomas B.akeluy,JjCobM'ss, //. F. Cetnn, 
 Creton M'Cauly, Wm. Rogers, B-ii Laughcad, flm. 
 M 'Clelland, John Lorwdale, I'homas ]^ It allace, J. /F. 
 //addcn, Th. Luyton, A^pn^ .'/ays, TiiVois Irons, /( m. 
 Inghram, Robert ./^dums, /Vaivey Jalntson, t)')adi3h 
 VanHiie, Simon Rinchart, J;ihn RoicU^ fiiyrew IHI- 
 son, David Thompsoii, Joseph //. Ker!>v, J )S']jh J.)ncs, 
 Carey M'C'ielland, Ephraiin Sigcr, Samuel Mickle. 
 
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 . John 13. Stump, .Ton:i 
 , J no. Fienc, Jv)b //arvtv 
 1 1 arc, William //awkin 
 'lliaon; Samuel Allen, Isaac 
 Abia Allen, Allen Stock- 
 in Crawl, Merihia^A'Iensworih, 
 !Jeorpe Cltho, Sanrmel JJ inters, 
 //tnry, /^ m. Lgiser, Cliiis- 
 [Morg.in, Thus, S, /laymond, 
 Ion, Esqr. Green, Jonathan Try, 
 'hbs, Caleb WooilwanI, Martin 
 J^artiidge, Herman Tyr^'', 
 Zalor, Richard Ixui^/ 
 ;i Neno;>, Seiii Idtod, (Itniy 
 M'DeriTii', Edward ^.'albeit, Wn: 
 Ihitil, Stephen Pa- kcrson^^rho'. Ilaj 
 vl.Chaprnanv John Murrey, Jas. W. TiaiV, 
 Crchran, Dnvid Flick, yosialiU )yer, Josph. Piijerj 
 J. Steel, y/ibeit GuUatin, S.e.ihon ^Jood, Isjiac: 
 rVhcat, v/rlbur Fitch, M m. Everhart, Jimcs Dtsnhp, 
 Kuhert Can[>pbel!, Dr. fiettan, fKm. IJ.)on, Jos. H.)on, 
 J/m. F<^!8'er, \Vm. Mai'sheii, John Dehah, James' 
 Collins,^. Ci. Fulrchi.d, Ciarrct C/opor^ Ja-nei //jJ 
 drtk, John Gitsindiner, Krael ruylv-^r, J.ihn Of, Enc 
 ^^C^^ Hand, Joseph Dch.df, John ^. U^vis, J iS. Ilubin- 
 sor, -Thomas Kelly, Louis Lowry, John.Jur.es, Juseph 
 I?j!|, Elisha Ciinnjntjham, John Seaman, ^osepli Keep- 
 ei8, Richard Crop'and, VVni. G. rurncr, I'homas Kil- 
 p^trick, Mori is M'Gormkk, ^-<her Snitn, Michael 
 Lonfisdorf, Heniy Echar ), John Sailey^s, Isaac Wood, 
 Ajhn (i. Turner, ./oseph B II, David F. He^^r', George 
 .'arret, Andrew Oenicr, Wm. Linn, ./ames Snniih, 
 ./ohn Gae, Stenhcn Maxon, jiin. Hiii^h-C. Ford, Adam 
 Wiiucr, yohn Bowermaster, yames Partman, Perlyman 
 Conwell, Jo\i\i Chuter, yosiah Lanke?ittT, Sunnel 
 •Sin^'.h, Will. Bill, Sfth Ely, y.ime8 D. Cope, Gcor^^e 
 Cracton, Wm. /ohnbtou, yoseph/ones, /onstunHvvarts, 
 yohn B( na, yos^h 'I orrena, Edwin Reedor, yoscph 
 ^trickier, Eben»"< Holiday, Wni. Salter, yohn Bitlev 
 Charlf'S King, Robt. D.Moore, Tho3. AtUInson., yame 
 ''.oberson, Isaac Sharp. 
 
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