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ON THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF LIGHT, 
 
 AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THOSE 
 
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 MATTER, 
 
 RADIANT AND FIXED, 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN HOWARD KYAN. 
 
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 Genesis, Chap. I. vcr. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, ORME, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMAN, 
 
 PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 1833. 
 
n 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 LONDON : 
 Printed by W. Clowks and Sons, 
 Stamford Street. 
 
ADDRESS. 
 
 To the Scientific World generally, I beg leave to observe, in 
 defence of the startling assertions I am (with such 
 apparent presumption) about to present for their most rigid in- 
 vestigation, that I have been solely influenced by the unconquer- 
 able love of Truth with which I am impressed, and by which 
 I am urged again to proclaim opinions I have entertained, with 
 but little modification, for a period of nineteen years ; during 
 which, every one, without exception, of the important discoveries 
 that have been made, that bear upon the subject of Light, 
 Heat, Electricity, the Voltaic influences, and Magnetic forces, 
 (and more particularly the identity of the three latter,) have 
 all conspired to substantiate my hypothetical views, and to 
 support and confirm the opinions I entertain of their rectitude. 
 I feel it my duty thus to submit the following " Theory of 
 Light " to the proper ordeal ; and, in addition to the testimonies, 
 analagous, collateral, and direct, which are at present adduced, 
 there is one unerring, and above all Evidence of Human 
 Philosophy, on which I confidently rely — 
 
 And God said, Let there be Light: and there was Light." 
 
 Genesis, chap. i. v. 3. 
 

 IV 
 
 ADDRESS. 
 
 As an Admirer of Science, I offer my humble acknowledg- 
 ments and thanks to " The Ladies of the British Isles," who 
 visit our Philosophical Associations and Institutions, and, by 
 their cheering presence, do so much for the encouragement and 
 cultivation of the Sciences, and the beneficial p.ias of the 
 public taste for intellectual enjoyments, (which the elucidations 
 of truth are so well calculated to inspire,) and for still more, 
 their inestimable example to the rising generation, over whose 
 destinies those fair arbiters are so happily appointed to preside. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 Cheltenham, 
 Glh January, 183S. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The subject which I have undertaken to bring before the 
 consideration of the scientific reader is one of acknowledged 
 importance, and requires, to do it justice, the exertion of talent, 
 time, and application, beyond my humble pretension. I there- 
 fore wish it had fallen to more efficient hands to bring it 
 forward, with the requisite advantages due to the merits of 
 such a discussion. 
 
 There is a cautious negative system of tactics in strong 
 alliance with our present School of Philosophy, valuable as to 
 the preservation of our views within the bounds of well-defined 
 and "pace-worn" paths, macadamised, with a host of stubborn 
 incontrovertible facts, which guide the erratic investigator, and 
 prevent his soaring above their horizon, and perchance losing his 
 way in the inviting mazes of speculative inquiry — and this is so 
 far beneficial ; but its disadvantages are equally obvious from 
 its powers of restriction and contraction, which keep enchained 
 the inspiring spirit of investigation, from which, in the bare 
 collision of adverse opinion, some new facts of benefit to science 
 may be derived. 
 
 If, on the other hand, we rest satisfied with the limits of our 
 meandering ways on the verge of an immense circle, to the 
 centre of which we are only to approach by parallels as formal 
 
,Vi4"/v*-J 
 
 ■s 
 
 sc 
 
 VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 and regular as those adopted in military investments, it is not 
 likely that we can (with all our efforts of industry) reach the 
 desired Magazine of Physical Knowledge, under a lapse 
 of time that would dishearten the most undaunted and per- 
 severing amongst us to contemplate. 
 
 Since Mechanical Science has flourished by attaining the 
 increased velocity of locomotion, I am desirous to learn, may 
 we not search for, and find, the genius of a Brunel in our 
 Physical Section, to give us an impetus? — some practical 
 Analytical Operator of eminence, who, not content with 
 minutiae, will afford us experimentally, and with mathe- 
 matical Jiccordance to truth, the grand, the sublime simplicity 
 of a System of Physics, which will expose, overturn, and 
 discard, the irrational complexity, that is but too apparent in 
 our present code of elementary, or undecompounded consti- 
 tuents. 
 
 It is to seek the aid of such a genius, (and many there are 
 to be found amongst ourselves, and our pre-eminent and distin- 
 guished brothers in philosophy on the continent?) that I have 
 thus stepped out of my sphere, to intrude my views and 
 opinions on the notice of the Public. 
 
 The Author. 
 
It may be necessary to give some explanation of the Frontispiece, lest 
 the reader impute to it a mystic, symbolical character, other than it is 
 intended to convey. 
 
 No. 1 represents the Spectrum produced by the Newtonian Prism 
 with the prismatic Colours, and the emblematical representation of the 
 Magnetic forces. 
 
 No. 2 exhibits the appearance of the Aureola, obtained by the action 
 of the Lenticular Prism of Field, on a black spot, on the white 
 ground. 
 
 No. 3 is the Aureola from a white spot, on a dark or black ground, 
 by the same instrument ; — for the explanation of the back-ground of the 
 lower Diagram, the reader is referred to the first ten verses of the 1st 
 Chapter of Genesis, and subsequently to eh. ix. v. 13. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 63, for " Del Cemento," read " The Del Cemento 1 ' — being a 
 Scientific Association. 
 
 Page 65, heading, for " not reflexible," read " most reflexible." 
 The note in page 115 ought to have been placed in page 56. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Address ....... .iii.iv 
 
 Preface . . , . . . . . v, vi 
 
 Frontispiece explained . . . . . . vii 
 
 Introduction ....... 1-5 
 
 Theory of Light — Elements (primary rays) three, countervailing qua- 
 lities — Transition continuous — Equilibrium preserved, all solids, 
 fluids, and gases (save three), are compounds — Carbon — Diamond 
 Inflammation of the gases — Polarity, — its diversity — Vegetative 
 bodies — Crystalline forms assumed by metals, evince their com- 
 pound nature — Qualities not innate, depend on polar influence. — ■ 
 Polarity of Molecules — Condensation — Relative weight of elements 
 — Density equalized — Molecules relieved from pressure become 
 isolated and repulsive — Separation of constituents produces elec- 
 trical, galvanic, magnetic forces — and gravitation — its hemi- 
 spherical envelopes — their positions — electrical currents — equili- 
 brium disturbed — aurora borealis — laminar atmospheric currents — 
 restoration of quiescence. — Light, identical with caloric, pervades 
 all matter — velocity of light — undulation, and emanation, how to be 
 reconciled — conjunct action produces projection — its consequences 7-12 
 Light — materiality of — sources from whence derived . . .12 
 
 Triangular prism of Newton — seven prismatic colours, reduced to four 
 by Wollaston, but three homogeneous coloured rays, according to Sir 
 David Brewster and Mr. Field — the intermediates produced by 
 obliquity of conjunction, evident by inequality of tint . . 13 
 
 Field's convex and concave prisms — their action on solar light — three 
 original coloured rays in annular form — refraction of black spot on 
 white ground, of white spot on black ground, by convex lens — 
 synthetical composition of light by concave prismatic lens . 14 
 
 Heat a consequence — oxydatirig power of the red ray . . .15 
 
 Nature of explosion — nitrogen essential to light — red ray identical with 
 oxygen, with positive electricity — presence of the three elements 
 produce perfect light — oxygen and hydrogen produce much heat, 
 and little light— why ? . . . . .16 
 
V 
 
 ■ IP ■ 
 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Economic light produced and applied by Messrs. Enderby — colour of 
 
 flame, its diversity how occasioned — rose-coloured light produced 
 
 by positive electricity, by Mr. Abraham, of Sheffield . . 16, 17 
 
 Gravitation — chlorine a compound, nitrous oxide gas — compounds of 
 nitrogen — action on fibrine — bleaching properties of chlorine — 
 evidence of its composition — muriatic acid — aqua regia . . 18 
 
 Homogeneous gases resist liquefaction — chlorine gas reduced to the liquid 
 state — alkalescent matter, properties, colour, yellow — bleaching 
 property of iodine . . . . . .19 
 
 Alkalies (in excess) produce yellow light — bromine — the alkalies — 
 
 sodium, sulphuret of, nitrate of, phosphate of — phosphate of silver . 20 
 
 Borate of soda, action on vegetable blues — potassium — action of alkalies 
 — potassium inflammable in oxygen, in chlorine gas, — mineral 
 chameleon . . . . . . .21 
 
 Hydrogen produces malleability in metals — blue (hydrogen) ray most 
 refrangible — least density — coolest portion of spectrum — why ? 
 hydrogenating and magnetizing powers — authorities — produces 
 faint light — specific gravity — presence essential in all liquids — con- 
 stitutes malleability of metals . . . . .22 
 
 Terrestrial light — Nature of phosphorus — Gold resists action of ter- 
 restrial light, — why ? — Hydrogen extinguishes ignited bodies, — 
 on what account? — Inflammation of oxygen and hydrogen — light 
 feeble, — heat intense, — on addition of alkalescent earth produces 
 splendid light — Phosphorus . . . . .23 
 
 Positive and negative electricity — Oxygen-positive electricity — Gravita- 
 tion, — hypothetical system of — Sun and its atmosphere . . 24 
 
 Magnetic attraction — Immense magnetic power produced by Professor 
 
 Faraday, &c. . . . . . .25 
 
 Carbon a compound — Vegetable origin of the diamond — Sir David 
 
 Brewster . . . . . . .26 
 
 Diamond a compound — Lateral adhesion — Crystals : glass — Adhesive 
 attraction dependent on polarity — that of compound molecules pro- 
 duces greatest fixity and cohesion — Qualities of compounds depend 
 on polar arrangement .... 27, 2S 
 
 All solids compound — Forms of crystalline bodies . . .29 
 
 Innate law of conformation — Spherical form of atoms, — proved by 
 liquids — Metals in fusion — Transition of sphere to cube, and angu- 
 lar forms in solids . . . . . .30 
 
 Native copper, — arborescent and cubical — Primitive form of crystals — 
 Parallel between colour and sound, by Mr. Field in his ^Esthetics, 
 1819-20, and by Mr. Gurney's Lectures, 1823 . . 31, 32 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 Page 
 Analogy of colour and tone . ' . . . .33 
 
 Prismatic colours of terrestrial light — Heat and light identical 34, 35, 36 
 Light : Opinions and disputations of Hooke, Huygens, Euler, Newton, 
 &c. — Antiphlogistic doctrine of Lavoisier and his opponents, Stahl 
 and others — Volcanic and Neptunian systems of geology — Agen- 
 cies of both needful . . . . . .37 
 
 Consumption of light by absorption — Provided for, by restoration of 
 
 matter from a fixed to a radiant state . . . .38 
 
 Velocity of light accounted for . . . . .39 
 
 Undulation — Gravitation never for a moment suspended . . 40 
 
 Proportions of differential interferences — Black lines — Attempts to ac- 
 count for — Confusion of polarity — Black circle — Field's lenticular 
 prism — Connexion between blue and shade — Heat a consequence of 
 light — Transmission of heat governed by refraction . 41 — 46 
 
 Analogy of heat and light by the various experiments of Sir W. Her- 
 schel, Dr. Wollaston, MM. Ritter, Buckman, and De Laroche, 
 Professors Powell and Forbes, Mr. Lloyd, MM. Malus, Berard, 
 Leslie, &c, Mrs. Somerville's Connexion of the Physical Sciences 49 
 Voltaic electricity — Professor Faraday's experiments . . .51 
 
 Electricity — Mr. Field's chromometer, and the application of his prisms 
 — Radiation of caloric — Mr. Leslie's scale — Chemical changes pro- 
 duced by radiant matter — MM. Gay Lussac and Thenard, Dr. Dal- 
 ton, Sir H. Davy, T. Ritter, Dr. Wollaston, and M. Berthollet — 
 Maximum of heat at positive pole of Voltaic circle — Health of 
 vegetation depends on the presence of light . . 57, 58, 64 
 
 Red ray most reflexible and least refrangible — Rays deemed impon- 
 derable — Intensity of light depends on repulsive force . . 65 
 Atoms require pressure to produce condensation — Undulatory system 
 
 rests on contraction . . . . . .68 
 
 Repulsion of light promotes transition to fixity . . .70 
 
 Heat and light in the atmosphere; the former a modification of the 
 
 latter . . . . . . .71 
 
 Light produced by the agency of electricity . „ . .72 
 
 Combustion of ammonia in chlorine . . . .73 
 
 Matter of the simple gases always combined . . .74 
 
 Expansion of matter in a gaseous state . . . .75 
 
 Experiments on solar phosphori . . . . .76 
 
 Combination of specific light with other bodies . . .77 
 
 Conversion of common into radiant matter — Sir H. Davy's opinions . 78 
 On one species of matter — Newton's observations — Sir H. Davy's . 79 
 
 Evidences submitted in support of the Theory here presented, No. 1 
 
 to 11 . . . . . .80 
 
mm ■ ■ 
 
 xii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Colour denotes properties and constitution, combination of light with 
 steel ....... 
 
 Each ray changing its qualities — Priestley — Boyle 
 
 Oxygen discharged by light — ignition in ammonical gas 
 
 Constituents of light in alkalies and acids, their effects on vegetable 
 juices ...... 
 
 On vegetation ...... 
 
 Iron — traces of compound nature, analysis of, by Dr. Thompson 
 
 Chlorine destroys colour of indigo, as does the yellow ray imparted b 
 the Voltaic circle ..... 
 
 Sulphur — blood, arterial and venous — Priestley, Hazzenfratz, Davy, 
 Dr. Beddoes, Fourcroy, Dr. Thompson . 
 
 Elements of the ancients ..... 
 
 Elements of the moderns, 54 in number — test of originality — but three 
 are found to afford it 
 
 Consequent doubt of correctness in denominating the 51 other bodies 
 — undecompound ..... 
 
 Order of polarity to constitute light — Chemical qualities of terrestrial 
 light differ from those of the solar beam — carbon in the former, 
 nitrogen in the latter — why gold resists the one, and submits to 
 the other — application of oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe with lime, may 
 afford a solvent volatilizing power 
 
 Investigation importuned — not establishment of hypothetical views 
 
 Absorption and discharge of light without combustion — Beccaria — 
 C anton's phosphorus — composition — phenomena of pbosphori 
 
 Oxygen derived from light — Priestley, Iiigenhouze, Scheele, Beethoiet 
 
 Supporters of combustion — bodies in a state of ignition extinguished 
 by hydrogen gas — pure carbon — charcoal 
 
 Carburetted hydrogen — when mixed with oxygen gas in certain propor- 
 tion, combustion is extinguished — carbonic acid <ras — whv incom- 
 bustible ...... 
 
 Electrical machine surrounded by carbonic acid gas — greater excite- 
 ment than when insulated in hydrogen gas. Hypothetical ar- 
 rangements of composition, exactitude of polarity essential — sup- 
 porters and combustibles form incombustibles 
 
 Carbonic oxide — purplish blue flame — order of polarity imputable to 
 inflammables and incombustibles 
 
 Combination binary and ternary — transposition of positive pole on the 
 compound. Spherical atom — lateral poles inert, unless in exces- 
 sive cohesion ....... 
 
 Intensity of fixation governed by polar arrangements — nitrogen — not 
 incombustible, yet so termed — four-fifths of the atmosphere 
 
 Page 
 
 SI 
 S2 
 S3 
 
 S4 
 S6 
 87 
 
 SS 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 92 
 
 93 
 94 
 
 95 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 9S 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 102 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 Page 
 
 Its protective power imputable to aggregation — chloride of nitrogen, 
 iodine of nitrogen — binoxide of nitrogen — oxygen extinguishes 
 combustion. Equality of expansion of gases — rays of light simi- 
 larly effected . . . . . . .103 
 
 Effect of proportion — Phosphuretted hydrogen gas — with chlorine — 
 colour of light — Phosphorus — Phosphuretted azotic gas — Oxygen 
 combined with sulphur — -Nitrous oxide — Mineral acids and oils — 
 their analysis. — Dr. Ure ..... 104 
 
 Influence of light on vegetation — Aliment of plants — Carbon derived 
 
 from light — How? — Vegetation in tiie absence of light . . 105 
 
 Latent heat — Various authorities — Temperature of the lungs — Latent 
 
 light— Water . . . . . .106 
 
 Voltaic polar determination — Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, — how 
 
 determined to the respective electrodes . . .107 
 
 In analysis of the brain — Phosphorus a constituent — Qualities (intellec- 
 tual) proportional . . . . . 1 08 
 
 Glow-worm, pyrosoma atlantica, production of light without sensible 
 heat — Combustion of phosphorus prevented by minute mixtures of 
 gas ....... 109 
 
 Transition of fixed into radiant matter— Experiment of MM. Fourcroy, 
 Vauquelin, and Seguin, on oxygen and hydrogen — Deficiency in 
 result — Confutation of direct transfer from fixation to radiancy . 110 
 
 On the metals — Hydrogen radiant — Proof by colour of light, — afforded 
 by Baekhoffner's electro-magnetic machine, and Professor Daniel's 
 battery . . . . . • .111 
 
 Predicate analysis, and speculative hypothesis of composition of metals 112 
 
 Positive electricity — Red ray — Oxygen — Red light, — produced from 
 positive electricity — Identity of red ray of solar light, with positive 
 electricity and oxygen . . . . .113 
 
 Theories, how formed — Dr. Lardner's cyclopaedia — course selected in 
 
 the theory submitted ..... -ill 
 
 Mr. Cross's experiments — Productive of great benefit — Sceptical objec- 
 tions on the formation of animalculae absurd — Animation in corro- 
 sive media supports the theory now proposed . . 115, 116 
 
 Revealed religion supported by science — Bacon, Rev. Dr. Wiseman. 117 
 
 Experiments proposed . . . . .118 
 
 First subject. — Electrical state of the atmosphere, at stations and 
 
 periods prescribed. 
 Second. — Electricity positive and negative, with the gases — "With 
 
 conductors and media; (various), noting colour and effects. 
 
***#*£ 
 
 il9!l11fllHUHL»» 
 
 xiv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Third. — On decomposition of metals by Voltaic electricity — On 
 charcoal — chlorine, — to be published in some scientific peri- 
 odical work to induce trial. 
 
 Fourth. — On the refracted homogeneous rays of solar light — Their 
 effects on matter, — particularly with reference to magnetic in- 
 fluences. 
 
 Fifth. — On magnets of ascertained power — By oxygen — Positive 
 electricity — Red ray — Of solar and artificial light — To decide 
 the identity of the three latter. 
 
 Sixth. — On producing magnetic power by the blue ray and violet 
 end of the spectrum, with other matter described. 
 
 Seventh. — On the inflammation of the gases for the production of 
 light — in proportion, according to 9th article of this theory 
 and with modification, to obtain the most approved result to 
 confute or establish this theory 
 
 Appendix ...... 
 
 Original prospectus — Printed in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 181 S — In Lon- 
 don, 1820 — Explanation of its object with observations — Original 
 theory as printed and circulated, 1818. 
 
 Page 
 
 121 
 123 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The failure of so many preceding Theories emanating* from 
 distinguished authorities, and ushered into notice with such 
 sanguine expectations of their consistency, has induced a pre- 
 judice, almost insurmountable, even by those who possess the 
 most patient spirit of investigation ; and this naturally operates 
 as an impediment to the impartial examination of a subject of 
 generalization, hitherto so barren of hope, and unprofitable 
 to Science, notwithstanding its acknowledged and paramount 
 importance. 
 
 There are perhaps some considerations that may render the 
 present attempt, if not flattering to the projector, at least in- 
 noxious to others. First, that coming from the pen of one,* 
 except by his practical pursuits, little known to the scientific 
 world, no ill consequence in retarding the advance of Science, 
 in its regular legitimate course of experimental agency, can be 
 apprehended ; and secondly, that however erroneous may be 
 the principles now advocated, yet on their bare examination 
 (if deemed worthy of that trouble) something of benefit may 
 be by accident elicited (as our greatest discoveries are attri- 
 butable to adventitious causes), or perchance it may move the 
 master-mind of some eminent Philosopher j" to enlist in the 
 investigation, which may be productive of incalculable benefit. 
 
 * " Preservation of Timber from Dry Rot." 
 
 t Among 1 the many eminent names to which I allude, both foreign and 
 native, I venture to mention one, whose name, pervading- Europe, has been 
 received with that marked distinction so justly merited by a life of indefati- 
 gable zeal and undeviating perseverance in the promotion of Science — Pro- 
 fessor Faraday. 
 
Hi 
 
 2 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In directing our attention to the objects which surround us, 
 on the surface of our habitable globe, we are forcibly impressed 
 with astonishment at the infinite variety so uniformly displayed 
 in the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms, their 
 beauty in formation, their relative dependence for support, 
 and the admirable economy of arrangement, by which their 
 mutual transition from one state to another is conducted, by 
 a system of unerring laws, which preserve undiminished ad 
 infinitum the original principles of which they are composed, 
 we are lost in admiration of that Sublime and Omnipotent 
 Power to which their existence is referrible, and on whose will 
 their duration depends. 
 
 If we take of either the animal or vegetable bodies for 
 analyzation, we find their original elements of composition (as 
 generally known and admitted) do not exceed four. 
 
 On turning to those of the mineral kingdom, we are indeed 
 astonished at the discordance that appears in their accepted 
 system of conformation, imputing the existence of fifty- 
 four ORIGINAL Or UNDECOMPOUNDED BODIES for SUcll 
 
 purpose. 
 
 Should we inquire of ourselves, Is such COMPLEXITY 
 reconcilable with the beautiful SIMPLICITY so eminently 
 displayed in the physical composition of organized bodies ? 
 The reply will, it is presumed, be naturally in the negative. 
 
 The next question that would suggest itself is, in the esta- 
 blishment of a system acknowledging the existence of so 
 many undecompounded bodies as original principles^ have che- 
 mists observed the needful precautions, to insure the absence 
 of error, by correct analysis, by securing the impossibility 
 of escape of any of the probable component principles, by effec- 
 tually and hermetically sealing the chamber or apparatus in 
 which the experiments have been conducted, and by a minute 
 examination of the products, to ascertain that the gas or elastic 
 form into which the body under trial may have been in part 
 or wholly converted, is in itself homogeneous and DIS- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 TINCT from ANY of the gases already established as 
 
 ORIGINAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 Now, unless sucli is the case, how can a body be entitled to 
 the term of original element ? 
 
 It will probably be found that in many of these experiments 
 the bodies so termed have been unavoidably subjected to high 
 heats in the dry or igneous process, or submitted to electric or 
 galvanic applications, and that the residuum, alone, or in 
 conjunction with a re-agent of known composition, used as 
 auxiliary, has probably laid such claim to the notice of the 
 operator, in the production of some novel remit, that the por- 
 tion dissipated in the process, or what may have passed oif 
 in a radiant form, has totally escaped cognizance, and has 
 never been taken into consideration. This is not an imputa- 
 tion against the operator, whose views have been totally directed 
 to positively tangible, or evidently material results. 
 
 Thus, in the experiments in proof on carbon to entitle that 
 substance to the denomination it at present possesses, of an 
 original or undecompounded body, it is stated that char- 
 coal and the diamond, when ignited in oxygen gas, are con- 
 sumed, and the result is carbonic acid gas ; that charcoal, or 
 pure carbon, per se, when ignited in close vessels in vacuo, is 
 not reduced except in volume, but rendered more condensed, 
 and of an intense black colour. Sir H. Davy found that the 
 diamond yielded a volume of carbonic acid gas equal to the 
 oxygen consumed ; that charcoal and plumbago, under similar 
 circumstances (the latter an acknowledged compound), yielded 
 carbonic acid gas, with a minute portion of hydrogen. 
 
 What allowance has been made, in the operations on the 
 diamond, for the oxygen and hydrogen in their relative pro- 
 portions forming the water of crystallization, or for what has 
 passed off in a radiant state ? None. 
 
 In the various systems which have been proposed on the 
 subject of Light, in explanation of its numerous and interest- 
 big phenomena, however the eminent authors with whom they 
 
m ***** ■ 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 have originated may have failed in the establishment of their 
 premises, some little additions to our acquisition of informa- 
 tion have been usually attained, always of importance to 
 Science : occasionally a hint has been afforded which might lead 
 to the right path to that desirable portal of knowledge to 
 which the ardent inquiring eye of the lover of Science is ever 
 directed, with the same anxious hope which usually animates 
 the traveller, who looks over the interminable plain for some 
 propitious landmark to direct his way. These are the happy 
 contributions which become the solace to the laborious inves- 
 tigator, the welcome credence that assures him that he has not 
 toiled in vain. 
 
 Such have been the inducements that have prompted the 
 exertion of these humble efforts, yielding to the pleasurable 
 hope of the only expected recompence, that they may not be 
 vain ; that a scintilla of information, acquired by the investi- 
 gation, may redeem both the trespass, and the presumption of 
 the attempt. 
 
 In the year 1818, pondering on the then extremely compli- 
 cated system of Physics, and finding that the discoveries of the 
 philosophers of that day were rather yielding fresh additions to 
 the list of already acknowledged elements, or undecomposed 
 bodies, than reducing them in number (the latter in better 
 accordance with true philosophy), I ventured to enter on the 
 investigation of the subject: aware of my great deficiencies, so 
 ill suited in every respect for a task of such difficulty, and 
 without the command of the needful extent of chemical appa- 
 ratus to test the several points with critical accuracy, I resolved 
 to make my views, in their crude state, at once known to the 
 most eminent philosophers of the day ; and I accordingly sub- 
 mitted a short prospectus, explanatory of the system I had to 
 propose, for investigation, 200 copies of which were printed, 
 and one forwarded to each of the gentlemen, the most cele- 
 brated for science at the time, entreating them individually to 
 bestow some thoughts on the subject, and with the hope (as I 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 then expressed it) " to elicit from their more able and efficient 
 efforts the complete confutation, the appropriate modification, 
 or the ultimate establishment of the premises set forth." 
 
 A copy of this original prospectus, with its errors (since 
 discovered and amended by me), is now to be found in the 
 Appendix. 
 
 No notice being taken by any of the scientific parties (to 
 whom they were addressed), no doubt from the natural cre- 
 dence, that I laboured under delusion, I have waited nineteen 
 years, during which have been effected, with colossal strides in 
 the advance of Science, many extraordinary and brilliant dis- 
 coveries, reflecting due honor on the splendid abilities of the 
 most persevering promoters of the general good, from whom 
 they have emanated, and whose names will be recorded with 
 just estimation in the annals of philosophy. 
 
 From the nature of many of those discoveries, so unex- 
 pected by the anticipations of analogous comparison, an epoch 
 has at length arrived, when a subject of such doubt, of being 
 worthy of consideration as the following, may obtain impartial 
 and unprejudiced investigation. 
 
 As the sole object of the present Essay is the Elucidation of 
 Truth, the ordeal of criticism will be most acceptable; and 
 the substitution of any more rational and better supported 
 system is not only courted, but its superior merits will receive 
 the most willing and ready accordance from 
 
 The Author. 
 
HP 
 
THEORY OF L I G H T. 
 
 1. That light is a ternary compound, composed of the three 
 simple elementary principles, or undecompounded constituents 
 of matter, of which all other bodies in nature are formed. 
 
 2. By the convex lenticular prism of Field, light flowing 
 from an emanating point or luminous body, as the sun, 
 exhibits the three original colored rays of the spectrum, the 
 red, yellow, and blue, from which all other shades of color are 
 composed. 
 
 3. That such prismatic divisions of the elements of light 
 determine the identity of its constituents into 
 
 The Red Ray ; The Yellow Ray ; And the Blue Ray ; 
 
 Oxygen. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. 
 
 That the three primary colored rays possess peculiarly dis- 
 tinct and countervailing qualities, and on the proportions in 
 which they are combined in matter, and the nature of the 
 polarity exercised in their combination, the specific properties 
 of the material compounds they produce are dependent. 
 
 4. That light combines with inert or fixed matter, not 
 specifically or bodily, but partially, by the absorption of its 
 individual or separate rays, electively, from existing laws of 
 attraction, and such transition of the elements of light is as 
 constant and unceasing as the reconversion of tangible or 
 fixed matter is evidently continuous to the state of radiancy, 
 or light. 
 
 5. That such changes of form are reciprocally exercised, and 
 effect a complete and perfect equilibrium in the operations of 
 nature, the supply in both cases being correspondent with, and 
 governed by, the necessity, or consumption. All solids with 
 which we are familiar, (the metals included,) all fluids, and the 
 whole of the gases, three only excepted, are compound bodies. 
 
■ 
 
 HMMHHPHI! 
 
 s 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 6. That these three gases are oxygen, nitrogen, anil hydro- 
 gen ; the elementary constituents of light. 
 
 7. Therefore 51 in number, of the 54 at present acknow- 
 ledged original constituents of matter, are compounds. 
 
 8. That carbon, for instance, from its color, (black, 
 formed by the union of the three original prismatic colors,) is 
 composed of the three original elements, and that its being 
 obtained from the combustion of organized vegetable bodies, 
 by whose analysis it has long been established that they are 
 principally constituted of the three elements, affords prima facie 
 evidence of its compound nature. 
 
 That the diamond, which is considered to be pure carbon, is 
 not only combined with the water of crystallization, (oxygen 
 and hydrogen?) but displays its compound nature otherwise, and 
 has been pronounced on a late occasion, by an authority of great 
 eminence,* as affording strong traces of its vegetable origin. 
 
 9. That the inflammation of the three original gases, in the 
 following proportions, as to volume and weight, produce 
 
 PERFECT WHITE LIGHT. 
 
 Oxygen : 
 wt. 16. vol. 5. 
 
 Nitrogen : 
 wt. 14. vol. 3. 
 
 Hydrogen : 
 wt. 1. vol. I 
 
 10. That the order of polarity exercised in the formation of 
 light is constant and invariable ; that is, by the positive pole 
 of the one original element (oxygen) with the negative poles 
 of the two other original elements, (nitrogen and hydrogen,) 
 uniting at the centre of the compound molecule, or corpuscular 
 atom of light. 
 
 1 1 . That the reversion of matter from the radiant state of 
 light to that of flotation, by chemical combination with bodies 
 of palpable matter, is subject to a diversity of polarity go- 
 verned by the nature of those bodies, which are endowed with 
 certain influences of action dependent on their order of con- 
 stitution. 
 
 * Sir David Brewster, at the meeting"of the British Association at Liverpool. 
 
THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 9 
 
 12. That the existence of an equilibrium, as to the gradual 
 transition and reversion of matter, to and from the radiant and 
 fixed states, is not less consistent with its indestructibility, 
 than that already admitted to exist in the daily formation of 
 water, and the restoration of that body to its original consti- 
 tuents in the gaseous state. 
 
 13. That the health and vigour of vegetative bodies, as 
 well as the colours by which they are adorned, are prin- 
 cipally attributable to the transition of radiant matter to the 
 fixed state. 
 
 14. As the crystalline forms assumed by bodies are go- 
 verned by the number and position of their original consti- 
 tuents, and as no homogeneous body can consistently exhibit 
 such diversity in its atomical arrangement, the assumption of 
 such forms by the metals is one of the many presumptive 
 evidences in support of their compound nature. 
 
 15. That as all bodies, whether of the animal, vegetable, 
 or mineral, kingdom, (as here presumed^) are compounds 
 formed of the same constituents, their peculiar properties and 
 qualities are not to be considered innate, but are to be attri- 
 buted in addition to variation in proportion, to a modification 
 of arrangement inducing a polar influence, by which their 
 passage to other stages of fixity is facilitated or impeded, and 
 they are rendered applicable to further appropriate changes. 
 
 16. Thus matter is deleterious alone from an arrangement 
 contrary to that consistent with animal organization, and not 
 from qualities or properties peculiar to its constituents. 
 
 17. That when a molecule of light is formed, and occupies 
 its place in a regular line, radiating from an emanating point, 
 from whence light is projected, it assumes a polarity proper 
 to a compound sphere, putting in action but the two poles, 
 the positive and negative, at its vertical and opposite surfaces, 
 while the pole of one of its original elementary atoms, {hy- 
 drogen), being from local position lateral, on being influ- 
 enced by its condensation to assume a density equivalent to 
 
in 
 
 'i***^ ' 
 
 10 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 that of the highest {oxygen), exercises for tiie time no power 
 of polarity whatever. 
 
 18. That to equalise the density and pressure of the mole- 
 cules of light, in the radiant and visible state, the oxygen 
 occupies 16 parts in weight, the nitrogen 14 parts, and the 
 hydrogen 1 part, in each spherical molecule. — See No. 6, 
 Plate IV. 
 
 19. That when, however, a compound molecule of light is 
 relieved from the consequent pressure and polar attraction of a 
 direct emanating ray emitted by a luminous body, it is by 
 the expansion of its compound elements, (proportional to their 
 natural densities in volume,) utterly changed, exhibiting 
 one negative and two positive poles, in such angular positions 
 on its spherical surfaces, as to produce, under such circum- 
 stances, repulsive forces which occasion its complete insu- 
 lation.— See No. 5, Plate IV. 
 
 20. That the separation of the individual original constituents 
 of light, by division of each compound molecule, constitutes the 
 electrical, galvanic, and magnetic forces. 
 
 21. That the system of gravitation is imputable solely to 
 the separation of the elements of light, and the accumula- 
 tion of one species, the positive (oxygen) in excess, in a certain 
 relative space or hemisphere, while the negative (nitrogen and 
 hydrogen) occupy the other hemisphere, and they both form the 
 electric and magnetic envelope of our globe. 
 
 22. That the position of the positive electrical hemisphere is 
 always opposite the Sun, and that the negative hemisphere is 
 deprived of the light of that luminary. But that our Earth, in 
 its diurnal rotation, is always changing position, and that the 
 portion of its surface which occupied the positive electrical 
 hemisphere in the day, passes through the negative electrical 
 hemisphere during the night. 
 
 23. That such transitions occasion the continuous electrical 
 currents through our earth, which perform the accustomed 
 operations of nature. 
 
THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 24. That when the equilibrium is disturbed by alternations 
 of consumption, from combination with fixed matter, or the re- 
 solution of bodies from a state of fixation to that of radiancy, 
 the 'phenomena of lightning is rendered visible. 
 
 25. That the Aurora Borealis arises from the friction of 
 laminar currents of the atmosphere passing each other in su- 
 perposited strata, and at opposite angles of various degrees, 
 and such currents being charged with light in a free state, or 
 at large, the separation of its elements is first occasioned by 
 such friction, and a subsequent union, or restoration of each 
 abstracted portion of the molecules of light, takes place, and 
 restores quiescence by equilibrium. 
 
 26. That the matter of light produces in fixed bodies all 
 the phenomena at present imputed to caloric, which is not a 
 separate or distinct body, nor a cause, but a consequence 
 of the energy of action of the primary constituents of light, in 
 effecting their union to produce light. 
 
 27. Light, as insulated molecules, pervades the entire of the 
 atmosphere, but is rendered visible only during the action of a 
 radiating point from which additional or surplus light ema- 
 nates. 
 
 28. The velocity imputed to light in its passage through 
 space, calculated at 192,000 miles in a second of time, may be 
 rendered more easy of conception by considering that it is not 
 meant to assert that one particle has been transmitted through 
 
 1 o 
 
 such an immense distance, but that a union of the molecules 
 pervading space has been effected by their appropriate poles, in 
 a linear ray, within so short a period. 
 
 29. Neither of the systems of undulation nor emanation 
 can be separately and distinctly established to the prejudice or 
 suppression of the other, but they are perfectly reconcilable as 
 to their conjoint action, and that they both contribute to the 
 visible perfection that exists in the transmission of light. 
 
 30. The limited rotatory motion, imparted to the molecules 
 of light while under the condensing influence of pressure, and 
 
Hi HHH 
 
 12 
 
 LIGHT A COMPOUND — IS MATERIAL — SOURCES. 
 
 in attaining' their respective positions for the junction of their 
 poles, when changing from the insulated to the radiant linear 
 state, may exhibit undulatory motion, but the projection of re- 
 dundant light from an emanating point is essential to produce 
 impetus, pressure, and contact. 
 
 1st. Light is a material compound, composed of the three 
 simple elementary principles or undecom pounded constituents 
 of which all other bodies in nature are formed. 
 
 Light is that radiant state to which fixed or inert matter is 
 resolved. It is (as here presumed) a ternary compound of 
 oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, combined by one positive and 
 two negative poles, in the centre of each atom, assuming a 
 spherical corpuscular form ; the primary molecules of which 
 are readily separable from combination, and from their minute 
 state are most appropriate to enter into new and immediate 
 combinations with bodies of fixed matter, in which shape they 
 reappear, displaying in the regular series of alternate transition 
 all the beauty and variety visible in surrounding objects. 
 
 The materiality of light has been admitted since the days of 
 Newton. Its properties with respect to vision and its particu- 
 lar laws, defined under the science of optics, it is not intended 
 to discuss, although from its chemical relations, which are the 
 more immediate objects of the present inquiry, the mention of 
 refraction, reflection, velocity, &c, is unavoidable. 
 
 The sources of light are three: 1st. The sun, or its atmo- 
 sphere,\)y direct emanation. 2nd. The other heavenly bodies, 
 by reflection. 3rd. The resolution of fixed into radiant matter 
 by combustion or decomposition ; the electric or galvanic action. 
 
 Of the physical cause by which light is emitted by the 
 sun, man is likely to be ever ignorant at this side the grave; 
 it is numbered among the wise arrangements repressive of his 
 
NEWTONIAN PRISM — BUT THREE ORIGINAL RAYS. 
 
 13 
 
 vanity ; a lesson so powerful on the subject of the insufficiency 
 of human understanding, that it should teach us humility. On 
 this point it is philosophy to be silent, and to bow with sub- 
 mission to that Omnipotent Power by whose will light was 
 formed and we are in being ; but we may fairly investigate 
 the effects of light, and judge of its nature as a body, by 
 direct evidence, and by analogy, with the hope to elicit some 
 benefit. 
 
 The triangular prism of Newton displays in its usual appli- 
 cation, so universally known, that beautiful spectrum, which 
 was divided by that eminent philosopher into what are gene- 
 rally termed the seven prismatic colored rays, (See Plate I, 
 No. 1,) and which were for a long time supposed to be distinct 
 and homogeneous portions of refracted light : these were after- 
 wards reduced to four by Dr. Wollaston. 
 
 It has been, however, fully demonstrated that there are but 
 three original homogeneous colored rays, red, yellow, and 
 blue, by Sir David Brewster, whose investigations on the sub- 
 ject of light and its properties, unceasing and indefatigable for 
 years, have been rewarded by his discovery of many most valu- 
 able and interesting phenomena, recorded in the works of that 
 eminent philosopher, as well as in the various Transactions of 
 the learned and scientific Societies. 
 
 It must be evident to an observer viewing the Newtonian 
 spectrum, that except the red, yellow, and blue, all the other 
 rays are not homogeneous ; that when the yellow ray overlaps 
 the red ray, it is gradually acquiring an intensity of tints of 
 light-orange, dark-orange, and scarlet, till it terminates by an 
 exposure of the red ray distinct ; and that where the blue 
 overlaps the yellow, it is deep-green, light-green, and very 
 pale-green terminating in yellow ; on the other side> the blue is 
 first converted into deep or intense purple, and gradually 
 softens down into violet, proving the want of distinct homo- 
 geneous intensity in all the rays except the primary red, 
 yellow, and blue. 
 

 14 FIELD S CONVEX AND CONCAVE PRISMS. 
 
 There are no two colors by which we can form any of the 
 three primary colors, while we can produce all shades of purple 
 and violet from red and £/m<?, all shades of green from 6/w<? and 
 yellow, all shades of orange and gW</ cofors from yellow and 
 ra/, and from the three primary rays, in given proportion, 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 But if light is transmitted through a piano-conical prismatic 
 lens, the angle of which is 23 degrees, it invariably exhibits in 
 annular form, well defined, the three original colored rays of 
 which light is composed. See Fig. 1. Plate II. 
 
 Mr. Field observes, page 217 of his ^Esthetics, or Analogy 
 of Sensible Sciences — " In the centre of a piece of white paper 
 six inches square, form a black spot (one-tenth of an inch in 
 diameter), place it upon the stand of a chromascope, opposite to 
 the light of a window, and adjust the instrument in its vertical 
 position, so that the spot may be close to and concentrical with 
 the lenticular prism, or double convex prismatic lens ; then gra- 
 dually sliding the tube upward, looking at the same time 
 through it, the spot will appear to expand and be refracted 
 into a beautiful annular colored spectrum, or aureola. When 
 a black spot is made on a white or light ground, the rotation of 
 the colors of the iris is blue, red, and yellow. — See No. 2, 
 Plate I. 
 
 If, however, you place a white spot on a black or dark 
 ground, the position of the colors is inverted, being red, 
 yellow, and blue. — See No. 3, Plate I. 
 
 If now the double concave lenticular prism, Fig. 2, Plate III., 
 be interposed between the chromascope and the spot, the 
 aureola will be, by a counter refraction, reduced to the spot at 
 its centre. 
 
 From the action of the double convex prismatic lens of Mr. 
 Field on the refraction of the dark or black spot, it would 
 seem that the shade is composed of the rays of light in such 
 form of combination as to be black, analogous with carbon, as I 
 am satisfied it will yet be demonstrated that carbon is a 
 
HEAT A CONSEQUENCE — OXYDATING POWER OF RED RAY. 15 
 
 compound, to which I shall presently refer, under the head of 
 Solids. And the black shades which appear to striate the 
 several parts of the spectrum, may prove to he the appropriate 
 condition for the formation of carbon, and also may account for 
 the calorific rays, as it may yet appear that such a condition of 
 the rays, not being in the proper state to produce perfect 
 white light, may exert on the medium through which they 
 pass, an energy of action so intense as to afford the sensation 
 of caloric by the motion and expansion of its particles ; I have 
 therefore ventured the opinion, that heat is but a consequence, 
 and not a distinct matter, and that such is the more evident by 
 the resolution of bodies of greater fixity into radiant matter or 
 light, as from the moment that light is rendered perfect, the 
 sensation of heat which arose from the energy of combination 
 totally ceases. 
 
 The red ray, as already proved by Sir H. Davy, possesses 
 oxydating (oxyginating) and acidifying powers. 
 
 By the action of artificial or terrestrial light, the oxydation of 
 metals is produced, and the oxides resulting exhibit, in a variety 
 of instances, a red color where the oxygen is in maximum. 
 
 A mixture of chlorine and hydrogen acted more rapidly on 
 each other, combining without explosion, when exposed to the 
 red rays than when placed in the violet rays, but a solution of 
 chlorine in water became solution of muriatic acid most rapidly 
 when placed in the most refrangible rays of the spectrum. 
 
 Puce-colored, oxide of lead, when moistened gradually ac- 
 quired a tint of red in the least refrangible rays, and at last be- 
 came black ; but was not affected in the most refrangible rays. 
 
 The oxide of mercury became red in the red ray, which must 
 have depended on its absorbing oxygen. 
 
 The violet ray produced upon moistened red oxide of mer- 
 cury the same effect as hydrogen gas. — -Davy's Elements of 
 Chemical Philosophy, page 212. 
 
 The oxydizing power of the red ray effects the combination 
 without explosion of the chlorine and hydrogen, (M. Gay 
 

 n 
 
 —w — w 
 
 
 16 NATURE OF EXPLOSION — NITROGEN ESSENTIAL TO LIGHT 
 
 Lussac/jTlienard, and Dalton) ; for explosion arises, as I conceive, 
 from the presence of more elementary atoms of the same species 
 than can combine at once with a lesser proportion of the 
 elements of another species, or from the absence of the regular 
 quantum of each element in a free state to produce light, and 
 therefore explosion is rendered evident from the obstruction of 
 the regular system of polarity, which such a confusion in the 
 position of the poles of the corpuscles must naturally occasion. 
 
 The conversion of an aqueous solution of chlorine, to a solu- 
 tion of muriatic acid, by the power exerted by the blue, or 
 more refrangible rays, clearly proves their hydroginating quali- 
 ties, — M. Hitter, Dr. Wollaston, M. Berthollet, and Dr. Young. 
 While the oxyginating powers of the red ray are shown by 
 its converting the oxide of mercury red — and its similar action 
 on puce-colored oxide of lead. — Sir H. Davy. 
 
 The red ray is identical with the oxygen discharged from 
 the positive pole of the galvanic battery, and with positive 
 electricity, and with it is to be found the power of ignition 
 producing, as it is called, combustion, and therefore it is deemed 
 a supporter of combustion when applied to a body containing 
 the other elements of light; but the fact is, the presence of 
 the three original elements is essential to the production of 
 
 PERFECT LIGHT. 
 
 It is found that when the oxygen and hydrogen gases are 
 ignited, they produce much heat, and little light. Why? 
 Because nitrogen is absent. Present therefore to an ignited 
 stream of these gases a piece of lime, being an alkalescent 
 earth, and containing consequently nitrogen, and the most bril- 
 liant and perfect terrestrial light is formed, of an intense 
 white and vivid brightness, and the nearest approximation yet 
 achieved to celestial light, and divisible, like it, into the 
 three prismatic colors, red, yellow, and blue. 
 
 In the patent process for producing an economic light, from 
 the refuse of combustible matter (as practised by the Messrs. 
 Enderby, at their manufactory at Greenwich), by a current oi 
 
COLOUR OF FLAME. 
 
 17 
 
 atmospheric air, I observed very particularly whenever an 
 undue increase of pressure was put on for the moment, experi- 
 mentally, that there were exhibited the distinct colors of red, 
 bluish, purple, and yellowish light, forming separate portions of 
 the volume of flame, but that when the pressure was adjusted, 
 as is usual, and moderated to a regular proportionate supply, 
 an excellent intense white light was produced. 
 
 Such diversity of color in the flame occasioned by the excess 
 of velocity of the stream of atmospheric air, evinced the peculiar 
 color of the oxygen red, of the nitrogen yellow, and of the 
 carbon, a composition of the three original elements, produced 
 from the residuum of the inflammable bodies submitted to 
 ignition, which when first ignited burned with a dull and 
 deficient light, full of intense smoke, which latter was imme- 
 diately dissipated, and the flame expanded and projected four 
 feet high, affording a most brilliant clear white light from the 
 action of a very moderate stream of atmospheric air. 
 
 As a proof of the identity of the red ray with positive elec- 
 tricity, Mr. J. H. Abraham, F. L. S., of Sheffield, informed 
 me that in trying some experiments on lateral discharges, and 
 on the gradual and silent discharge of a battery or jar over- 
 flowing with positive electricity, he obtained sparks seven 
 inches long of a beautiful vivid rose-colored light, while I have 
 observed from negative electricity the most beautiful light- 
 green color from a galvanic arrangement operating to produce 
 a magnetic rotary power. 
 
 The accordance of these facts would show first that oxygen, 
 the red ray, positive electricity, and positive galvanic power, 
 with inflammation, are identical. 
 
 And that nitrogen and hydrogen, the yellow and blue rays, 
 affording magnetic power, the negative electricity and galvanic 
 negative essence are also identical. 
 
 That by their union they form light, and by their accumula- 
 tion to the surfaces in the pervasion of masses of matter, they 
 may (and in my opinion do) by their opposite states produce 
 
 c 
 
Hi HHHH 
 
 ■Mm 
 
 18 
 
 GRAVITATION — CHLORINE A COMPOUND. 
 
 that peculiar species of attraction, called GRAVITATION, 
 as I shall hereafter attempt to demonstrate. 
 
 Oxygen is well known to be a colorless inodorous gas, which 
 is nearly insoluble in water, does not change; the color of 
 tincture of litmus, has no effect on lime-water, and being 
 homogeneous and effectually resisting decomposition, is fairly 
 entitled to the denomination of an original element — its 
 specific gravity is 16, as compared with hydrogen. 
 
 It is always found combined with other matter and never 
 discovered originally in a solid state, which is an additional 
 proof in favour of its elementary nature. The yellow ray, 
 nitrogen, forms a colorless inodorous gas, it is incapable (perse) 
 of supporting combustion, but in union with the two other gases, 
 oxygen and hydrogen, produces the most vivid and brilliant 
 light ; its secific gravity is as 14 to 16, or 3.5, to 4»0, com- 1 
 pared with oxygen* 
 
 The nitrous oxide gas, 1 volume of oxygen to 2 of nitrogen 
 supports combustion ; nitric oxide or nitrous gas is colorless, 
 but when allowed to mix with atmospheric air, produces by 
 union with oxygen brilliant mvd fumes. 
 
 The compounds of nitrogen are apparently alkalescent, and 
 the effects of such compounds produce a yellow color, unless 
 when supersaturated or overpowered by a maximum of oxygen 
 or hydrogen ; the first as a direct acid from combination with 
 oxygen, the second as a direct acid by being compounded with 
 hydrogen and a minute quantum of oxygen, forming first 
 chlorine, which from its peculiar greenish yellow color exhi- 
 bits an evidence of its compound nature from the yelloAV (nitro- 
 gen) ray and the blue (hydrogen) ray, and muriatic acid from 
 an addition of hydrogen. 
 
 Now the effect of nitric or nitrous acid on the fibrine of 
 animal matter, (the skin of the body,) is to produce a yellow 
 color, while the action of chlorine is to bleach or discharge all 
 colors from the surface and texture of bodies. 
 
 The power to produce evanescence in colors, exerted so 
 
HOMOGENEOUS GASES RESIST LIQUEFACTION*. 
 
 19 
 
 effectually by chlorine, is an evidence of its correspondence, by 
 analogy, with that of the yellow and green rays, the latter 
 being a compound of the yellow and Hue rays, and as sulphur- 
 ous gas has very similar properties of bleaching, and indicates 
 its composition from nitrogen and hydrogen, as its predomi- 
 nant principles, muriatic acid, being of nearly the same com- 
 position, varying (as it is presumed) in its proportions, is inca- 
 pable of dissolving sulphur, being replete to satiety with 
 those elements ; but aqua regia, composed of nitric and mu- 
 riatic acid from its accumulated oxygen, readily converts 
 sulphur into sulphuric acid. 
 
 Chlorine gas can by great pressure be reduced to a dark 
 yellow oily liquid, heavier than oxygen gas, as 9 to 4. 
 
 Now we have no instance in which by experiment we have 
 been able, by pressure, or any means yet applied, to reduce 
 oxygen gas to a liquid state, nor hydrogen nor nitrogen ; as it 
 would appear, that perfectly original elements are quite inca- 
 pable (per se) of assuming either the liquid or solid forms, and 
 that all liquids and solids must, consequently, be compounds ; 
 and that, where liquids and metals exist, hydrogen must be an 
 essential ingredient of composition, and in excess affording 
 jltiiditp to the one and malleability to the other. 
 
 That where alkalescent matter exists, the yellow, or nitroge- 
 ncous ray (that neutralizing and counteracting power to the 
 acid properties of oxygen, or the red ray) must be a necessary 
 constituent. 
 
 That where the dry earths or metallic oxides exist, and also 
 acids generally, oxygen, or the red ray, must be present, and' 
 in many cases, predominant. 
 
 The power possessed by iodine to bleach, and its resemblance 
 to chlorine, and the color and odour of iodine in a gaseous 
 state, would induce the belief that it is a compound of hydro- 
 gen-blue and oxygen-red, in small proportion, giving a violet 
 color. With starch it forms a blue compound ; and the nature 
 of its other compounds would evince, from their similitude with 
 
 c2 
 
■pp 
 
 20 
 
 ALKALI LS PRODUCE YELLOW LIGHT 
 
 those of chlorine, that it also holds a minute quantity of the 
 yellow {nitrogen) ray in its constitution . 
 
 Bromine would appear to be somewhat analogous to chlorine ; 
 it also bleaches, and may have the three elements iti its compo- 
 sition from its color, reddish-brown, when boiled, exhibiting 
 the red and yellow, and iVoin the hyacinth-red solution a por- 
 tion of hydrogen, which, on addition of water as a menstruum 
 of solution, containing the red (oxygen) ray and the blue (hy- 
 drogen) ray in excess, affords the red hyacinth color alluded 
 to. 
 
 The three alkalies are composed of nitrogen, the yellow ray, 
 with various portions of the other rays. 
 
 Sodium inflames in atmospheric air. When thrown on the 
 surface of water it decomposes with a hissing noise ; disengages 
 hydrogen, occasionally exhibits a yellow flame when nearly in 
 contact with the sides of the vessel, or on its first direct contact 
 with the water. But it burns on hot water with a bright yellow 
 light. 
 
 Sulphuret of sodium. — Sulphur and sodium, when heated 
 together in a glass tube, exhibit much heat and light, and form 
 sulphuret of sodium. 
 
 Sulphate of sodium, mixed with charcoal, form an impure 
 sulphuret of sodium. It is semi-transparent, and of a flesh-red 
 color. While sulphur, boiled in a solution of caustic soda, 
 affords sulphuret of soda, in solution of a greenish-yellow 
 color. 
 
 Nitrate of soda is used to give a yellow color to the flame 
 of fireworks. 
 
 Dr. Clark has observed that phosphate of soda, when ig- 
 nited, acquires, as a pyrophosphate, new properties ; and when 
 re-dissolved in water, crystallizes in a different shape, and with 
 a different number of atoms of water, from the common phos- 
 phate. Its solutions, also, when mixed with solutions of silver, 
 yield a white precipitate of neutral phosphate of silver ; where- 
 as, the common phosphate produces a yellow precipitate of sub- 
 
POTASSIUM — ACTION OF ALKALIES. 
 
 21 
 
 phosphate of silver. See Mr. Griffin's " Chemical Recreations 
 and Romance of Chemistry," which contains much accurate 
 and valuable information. 
 
 Borate of soda turns vegetable blues green; it is a com- 
 mon principle of all alkalies ; and they have a discharging 
 power on many colors, and also by their combination with 
 mineralized oxides; as fluxes contribute much from the intro- 
 duction of the yellow (nitrogen) ray, to fuse and separate the 
 metals in combination, neutralizing the oxygen. 
 
 Potassium is inflammable to a high degree. Heated in oxy- 
 gen gas, it burns with a brilliant Tight, and an intense heat ; 
 when thrown on the surface of water it acts with great violence, 
 evolving hydrogen, which spontaneously inflames in the atmo- 
 sphere, communicates combustion to the potassium, burning, 
 while swimming on the water, with a beautiful violet-red 
 colored light, which is derived from the oxygen and hydrogen 
 of the water ; the residue of the oxygen combines with the 
 potassium and is dissolved, forming a solution of potash. 
 
 It spontaneously inflames in chlorine gas, and burns with 
 brilliancy ; this would indicate that chlorine is a compound of 
 the yellow (nitrogen) ray, the blue (hydrogen) ray, and that 
 the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere supplied the requi- 
 site portion of that element. 
 
 From the powerful action of potassium on all fluids con- 
 taining water, chlorine, or oxygen, and its general powers of 
 chemical combination, Mr. Griffin compares it to the Alcahht, 
 or Universal Solvent, so much in request by the alchymists. 
 
 The solution of mineral chamelion, manganesate of potash, 
 producing remarkable changes of color, — from deep green solu- 
 tion, to the various shades of green, blue, purple, and violet, 
 terminating in a splendid red color. 
 
 It first contains an excess of alkali, which, with hydrogen, 
 appears green, on exposure to atmospheric air ; it absorbs car- 
 bo nic acid, which decern poses a portion of the manganesate, 
 produces carbonate of potash, a precipitate of hydrate of man- 
 
■H HE H HI 
 
 22 
 
 HYDROGEN CAUSES MALLEABILITY OF METALS. 
 
 ganesc, and a new salt, super manganesate of potash, which 
 is the compound that exhihits the RED-coloured solution. 
 
 " It contains //r///'as much more oxygen, twice as much man- 
 ganese, the quantity of potassium remaining the same." See 
 Griffin's. Chemical Recreations, page 184. 
 
 The blue (hydrogen) ray is the most refrangible, most dis- 
 tended, and consequently of least density ; which is (by ana- 
 logy) to the red ray, as 1 to 16 ; to the yellow ray, as 1 to 14 ; 
 or, in similar ratio, as hydrogen to oxygen and nitrogen ; and 
 is, therefore, the coolest portion of the spectrum from its 
 comparative reduction of pressure. 
 
 The hydrogenating power of the blue, purple, and violet por- 
 tions of the spectrum, has heen proved by Davy, Hitter, 13er- 
 tholet, &c. ; and their magnetic power by Moreschini. 
 
 Hydrogen is (as is termed) combustible, but burns with a 
 very faint light (in the day-light scarcely visible), mixed with 
 oxygen : on being inflamed it explodes, and combining, pro- 
 duces water, as discovered by Cavendish — and confirmed by 
 successive philosophers, as is at present perfectly familiar 
 to us. 
 
 The specific gravity of hydrogen is .0G25 oxygen being 
 1,000, or 0.25 oxygen being 4.0 according to Griffin, which 
 appears a preferable scale for comparative densities. 
 
 Hydrogen forms, notwithstanding its levity, a ninth part ot 
 all water, and is an important ingredient in a vast number of 
 chemical compounds, of great energy. 
 
 It is an essential constituent in all bodies of the animal, 
 vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. 
 
 In addition to the fact, that there cannot exist any liquid 
 without the presence of hydrogen, neither can then; be (as here 
 presumed) any metal possessing malleability without its being 
 an identified constituent, and in excess above the equivalent 
 proportion of oxygen. When, however, oxygen gains the 
 predominancy, the metal becomes an oxide (earth) ; or if a 
 liquid, an acid. 
 
TERRESTRIAL LIGHT — NATURE OF PHOSPHORUS. 
 
 23 
 
 When nitrogen (the yellow ray) obtains pre-eminence, the 
 material becomes alkalescent, or if an acid, obtains the 
 great and extraordinary qualities of a universal solvent ; as 
 aqua regia, composed of two acids ; which, when united, as 
 the nitric and muriatic acids, give the excess of nitrogen as 
 a powerful agent from mutual contribution ; thus gold, which 
 resists cither acid separately, submits to their combined and 
 paramount power, when they form aqua regia. And, on the 
 same principle, gold resists the action of common terrestrial 
 light and flame, being formed of oxygen, hydrogen, and Car- 
 bon ; the latter being a compound substitute for nitrogen, 
 which is the indispensable, controlling, and solvent constituent 
 in celestial light ; the solar rays, condensed. 
 
 Hydrogen, in its gaseous state, extinguishes all ignited 
 bodies ; but such power arises solely from its want of imme- 
 diate combination by the exercise of the appropriate polarity 
 with the other original elements, which constitute light. 
 
 If, for instance, oxygen and hydrogen are mingled by a jet, 
 from two receivers, or vessels, holding each gas separately, the 
 flame and light are very feeble ; but the heat very intense. 
 Yet let carbon be present as carburetted hydrogen, or sulphur 
 as sulphuretted hydrogen, or phospliorus as phosphuretted 
 hydrogen gas, the light is much more perfect. But if the 
 stream of the two simple gases, oxygen and hydrogen, be 
 thrown on a piece of quick-lime (alkalescent earth), the light 
 is so intense, that the organs of vision cannot sustain its power, 
 or rest upon it ; being the most perfect approximation to 
 celestial light yet discovered; affording to the jmsvi all the 
 colors of refracted light, in the most vivid splendor. 
 
 Phosphorus obtained from animal matter, (Jjoncs, fyc), 
 appears to be a body of fixed matter, in such a state, as to 
 possess the power spontaneously to assume the radiant form of 
 light with great energy. 
 
 It must be a compound of matter in both states, of fixity, 
 and radiancy, intimately combined, possessing such polarity 
 
24 
 
 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY 
 
 in its corpuscles, as to facilitate immediate resolution into the 
 radiant date of light. 
 
 It is the link re-uniting matter in both its states ; for Ave 
 observe links of connection between all bodies of the animal, 
 vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and cannot deny the exist- 
 ence of similar points of contact and union between the solid, 
 fluid, gaseous, and radiant states of matter. 
 
 The power of easy ignition depends on the appropriate state 
 of the polarity of constituted bodies, to resolve with facility to 
 the radiant state of light ; and such bodies are denominated 
 inflammable. 
 
 But the presence of free oxygen, composing in part, or 
 wholly, the medium of operation, is necessary. For oxygen is 
 positive electricity, and exerts its power as fully in the 
 promotion of that energy of action, among the atoms of matter 
 about to be resolved into the state of light, and affording 
 thereby the sensation of caloric, as a consequence, as does 
 negative electricity, being the combined power of nitrogen and 
 hydrogen, to produce magnetic affection in the act of its con- 
 tinuous union, with oxygen, or the positive electricity. This 
 constitutes that sublime effect called gravitation according 
 to my views. 
 
 In support of this opinion I beg to state an hypothesis, as 
 follows : Suppose the sun and its atmosphere are in a negative 
 state of electricity towards our earth, and the other planets 
 of our system, that the hemispheres of our earth and of the 
 planets always immediately m opposition to the sun, are in a 
 positive state of electricity, and consequently are attracted 
 by the sun ; and that they are severally protected in their 
 orbits by having received a velocity of motion respectively and 
 proportionally great, to preserve their equilibrium in the most 
 just precision, and to retain them in their continuous move' 
 ment. 
 
 That our earth, for instance, (as an example, in all other 
 cases,) in turning on its axis in diurnal rotation, is always 
 
PRODUCE GRAVITATION — MAGNETIC ATTRACTION. 
 
 25 
 
 changing its surface in direct opposition to the sun, but that 
 the electric hemisphere in the positive state still holds its posi- 
 tion, so that that portion of the earth's surface, which was 
 positive in the day becomes negative in the night, and thus 
 continuous currents of electricity pervade the globe, or its 
 surface to a certain depth — affording all those compositions 
 and decompositions, those actions and reactions, and trans- 
 itions from one state to another, so truly necessary to perfect 
 the operations of nature. 
 
 Suppose that the surface of the moon, in direct opposition 
 to the sun, is always positive, and that she is likewise jwsitive 
 to the negative hemisphere of our earth, ivhcn opposite thereto, 
 or when in other circumstances, always retaining her positive 
 electrical hemisphere towards the sun, she observes a modified 
 gradation of her electrical state, in reference to the earth's 
 surface ; when visible by day, for instance, may she not move 
 with an accelerated motion at particular periods, subject to the 
 increased influence of the effect of gravitation, or magnetic 
 
 ATTRACTION ? 
 
 Now, I consider that the total surface of the hemisphere of 
 our earth, exposed to the opposition of the negative electrical 
 power, or magnetic attraction of the sun, is not absolutely in 
 every part and position positive, but that it is constantly 
 varying in the different localities, from the electrical state of 
 the atmosphere, which is capricious, or subservient to circum- 
 stances — but I contend that the main average affords plus — or 
 an excess sufficient to secure the mutual magnetic attraction 
 exercised by the sun and the earth towards each other ; and 
 that the same law governs the other planets, and their satellites. 
 If you can, (as has been repeatedly done by Professor Fa- 
 raday, Professor Ritchie, and others,) create an immense mag- 
 netic power, capable of sustaining tons in weight, by the simple 
 application of continuous streams of almost imperceptible elec- 
 tricity, flowing positively and negatively, from the respective 
 poles of a galvanic battery ; and that on separating the points 
 

 26 CARBON A COMPOUND. 
 
 of contact of the plat ina wires (at which alone it is visible), and 
 by which the re-nnion of the electricities had been effected, the 
 power of sustaining the weights immediately ceases ; — I would 
 ask, do not more than analogous probabilities exist, to counte- 
 nance the opinion that the combination of the two electricities 
 (as they are called at present), is the cause of that species of 
 attraction which may be termed gravitation; and it may be 
 presumed to follow, that, the electrical forces are produced by 
 the separation of the constituents of light, and that their re- 
 union produces the phenomena here described ? 
 
 Carbon is denominated and considered in all chemical works 
 as an original undecompounded body or element. 
 
 For the following reasons, I conclude it is a compound. 
 First, that it has never yet been reduced to the state of a homoge- 
 neous gas ; that it is generally procured in the form of charcoal 
 from organized vegetable bodies, which are known by analysis 
 to be absolute compounds ; that it is the residuum (and in great 
 bulk) of such bodies submitted to ignition, — that its colour un- 
 der such circumstances is black, which may be composed of 
 the three primary colored rays already described. Secondly, 
 that carbon in the state of the diamond, accompanied by its 
 water of crystallization, cannot he resolved otherwise than by 
 ignition in oxygen gas into carbonic acid gas. Why not into 
 carbonic gas? — if an original element it ought to be so con- 
 verted, but it resists (or as yet has done so,) all the powers of 
 analysis we have been able to bring against it. 
 
 The learned President of the Section A,* for mathematics 
 and physics, at the late meeting of the British Association at 
 Liverpool, informed us of his opinion that the diamond was 
 produced from a vegetable jelly, assuming a crystalline form, 
 but appearing to have laminar coats which indicated a confirma- 
 tion of his views as to its vegetable origin. 
 
 I am most ready to accord in the opinion of the learned 
 
 * Sir David Brewster. 
 
DIAMOND A COMPOUND — LATERAL ADHESION. 
 
 27 
 
 President of its vegetable origin, and when we have already 
 had proof that gold has heen obtained from the ashes of inci- 
 nerated vegetables, and that other metals, iron for instance, 
 has heen produced by similar materials, and also from other 
 organized bodies belonging to another (the animal) kingdom, 
 and these metals and the diamond are still retained in the list 
 of original elementary bodies, we have no reason to be scep- 
 tical on the subject of the vegetable origin of the diamond. 
 Crystals and glass are both transparent, they are knoicn com- 
 pounds, and why may not be the diamond, whose refractive 
 power of light is so well established, and if of vegetable con- 
 formation, why not partake of some, or most, nay, all of the 
 constituents of vegetable matter ? Glass holds in its composi- 
 tion the vegetable and mineral alkalies, and silex (a vegetable 
 product), and metallic oxides ; and glass forms a very fair imi- 
 tation of the diamond, and holds a ratio of comparison some- 
 what inferior to that of terrestrial with celestial light. It 
 wants two or three material essentials, brilliancy and adhesive 
 power, in its particles. 
 
 With respect to adhesive attraction, it does not appear un- 
 reasonable to suppose, that a solid body, if formed of but one 
 original elementary constituent, and that each atom of such 
 constituent can only be retained by the union of opposite poles, 
 (the positive and negative,) supposing the formation to com- 
 mence with a central nucleus, and radiating, ad jinitum, to the 
 extremity of the exterior surfaces ; or, supposing them to be 
 united in striated lines, laminarly, I ask, is it reasonable to 
 consider that the lateral attraction of cohesion can have a 
 chance of being so perfect as in a compound of three or more 
 constituents, eacli compound molecule of which may exert on 
 its lateral surfaces certain attractions from the polarity of its 
 original atoms towards each other laterally, — for, as the 
 constituents of compounds forming fixed bodies, are not con- 
 fined to the arbitrary law -which appears unchangeable in the 
 constitution of light, but are left at liberty to unite with a va- 
 
' 
 
 28 QUALITIES OF COMPOUNDS DEPENDANT ON POLARITY. 
 
 nation of polarity in the arrangement of composition, and to 
 which latitude of variation is to be fairly imputed the change 
 of quality, in the compound influenced by change of the rela- 
 tive proportions of the constituents, it may be rationally as- 
 sumed that the polarities of the compound molecules of bodies 
 of the greatest fixity and cohesion, may exercise, in the 
 conformation of alternate atoms, such a change of polarity on 
 their lateral surfaces as to induce a lateral attraction equal to 
 the vertical attraction, and that when such lateral attraction is 
 absent, the body has not tenacity but is frangible, or easily 
 separated by a slight mechanical force ? 
 
 Let us examine known and acknowledged compound bodies, 
 in reference to change of quality, merely from a difference of 
 proportion in the original constituents, which difference must 
 inevitably have also occasioned a change of the polarity as to 
 some of the constituents. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Acetous acid. 
 
 28 Carbon. 
 
 50.224 Carbon. 
 
 8 Hydrogen. 
 
 5.629 Hydrogen 
 
 64 Oxygen. 
 
 44.147 Oxygen. 
 
 100 100.000 
 
 All formed of the same elementary constituents. 
 
 In reference to adhesion I beg to observe, that I have assayed 
 an ore containing copper, zinc, and iron, mineralized with 
 mica, schist, sulphur, argillaceous earth, and quartz, — towhich 
 I applied the black flux, and with the usual heat of an air fur- 
 nace, and in a Hessian crucible, I obtained a large metallic 
 result, of a dark iron-grey color, with perfectly bright surfaces, 
 which evaded all the power I was capable of applying : with a 
 huge sledge on a smith's anvil, it was impossible to break it, or 
 make the smallest impression on its surface ; it came out from 
 the ordeal unhurt, exhibiting the greatest power of adhesion 
 and proving the effect of combination of many constituents, and 
 such compound evincing the most obstinate lateral and vertical 
 adhesion. 
 
ALL SOLIDS COMPOUND. 
 
 29 
 
 While I submit this fact as an example, it must be observed 
 that I afterwards operated on the same mineralized body with 
 the appropriate agents to obtain the metals in a separate and 
 pure state, which proved satisfactory. 
 
 If we reflect for a moment on the necessity for lateral cohe- 
 sion as an indispensable requisite in all solids, and that cohesion, 
 vertical or lateral, nmsi, and can only, be induced and sustained 
 by the union of the poles of the atoms of an original element in 
 opposite states of electricity, one atom must present its positive 
 pole to the negative pole of the next atom, and so on in regular 
 succession ; and consequently, if those poles are the only points 
 of chemical union or adhesion, the lateral surfaces of such 
 atoms cannot exert any attraction whatever on the surfaces of 
 similar atoms whose poles are already united to others verti- 
 cally : therefore the aggregation of molecules of one simple 
 elementary body cannot be expected to constitute a solid, and 
 consequently all solids must be formed of two or three original 
 elements in equal and various proportions, or in conjunction 
 with one, two or three compound molecules formed of the same 
 original elements, by which means the compound molecule of 
 the solid body will display in the first place vertically the posi- 
 tive and negative poles of the compound molecule so formed, 
 and next on the lateral sides will exhibit certain poles of the 
 several atoms which are the opposite poles of those engaged by 
 contact in the centre of the molecule. 
 
 From such arrangement it would be reasonable to conclude 
 that the first compound molecule of a solid is in many instances 
 a nucleus on which the other molecules form by aggregation — 
 and that supposing the compound molecule to be ternary, 
 and that the solid assumes the crystalline form, it would natu- 
 rally exhibit the tetrahedron, if composed of the three original 
 elements, the simple prism, if formed of two original elements 
 and one compound molecule, and the cube if a quaternary 
 compound molecule, which being originally spherical submits 
 to compression iC like the pristine cylindrical form of the 
 

 FORMS OF CRYSTALLINE BODIES. 
 
 honeycomb, assuming the hexagonal arrangement," so conve- 
 nient to the economy of space, so accurately described, in his 
 lectures before the College of Surgeons, by Sir Antony Car- 
 lisle, 1818. 
 
 The development of particular forms in the crystallization 
 of saline bodies, exhibits the undeviating prevalence of an 
 innate law of conformation : thus Epsom salt (sulphate of mag- 
 nesia) assumes the four sided prism : common salt, muriate 
 of soda, the cube, nitre (nitrate of potass), six-sided prism, 
 and alum, sulphate of alumina, octahedria, &c. 
 
 The natural assumption of the spherical form by all liquids, 
 and all metals in a state of fusion, indicates that the sphere is 
 the primary form of the atoms of matter, and the comparative 
 volume of such spherical atoms with each other correspond in 
 a ratio with their densities respectively ; thus the spherical 
 drop of water is of proportionally greater bulk than that of 
 sulphuric acid, or mercury, &c. 
 
 With respect to the transition from the sphere to the cube 
 or angular form in solids, and the exertion of the attraction of 
 cohesion of one cube, &c, to another, vertically and laterally, 
 it must depend on the opposite states of the electricity of the 1 
 surfaces towards each other ; the points of original combination 
 i\vei\\e poles of the spheres, but once joined and having assumed, 
 as to the corpuscles, the form appropriate, the electrical in- 
 fluences appear to extend over the whole of the surfaces in 
 contact, producing moderate cohesion. 
 
 The depositions of congealed water on glass windows being 
 sometimes arborescent and varied in a most beautiful (but to 
 us apparently irregular and capricious) shape, must yet be 
 gOvernfed by electrical influences, modified by the breezes by 
 which they are usually accompanied. 
 
 The electrical currents in mineral strata seem also to pro- 
 duce similar developments in the conformation of native 
 metallic depositions. 
 
 I observed many years since some curious specimens of 
 
NATIVE COPPER, ABORESCENT AND CUBICAL. 
 
 31 
 
 native copper at the mines of Bally murtagh, in the county of 
 TVkklow. At the depth of about 300 feet, in cutting a drift 
 from south to north, to meet the valuable lodes of copper ore, 
 to the west of the old works, a fissure was discovered running 
 diagonally across the lodes, and bearing about north north-west, 
 while the lodes ran from east north-east to Avest south-west 
 and were three in number perfectly parallel with well-defined 
 Avails, but varying in their dip; so that the most southern, having 
 less head, or being more perpendicidar, unites with the others 
 at given depths, the mineralized strata, hard killas, or argilla- 
 ceous ground Avith mica schist, and mineralized sulphur. The 
 fissure Avas filled Avith black oxide of copper granulated like 
 coarse gunpoAvder, and mixed Avith quartz crystallized like very 
 large sand. The fissure Avas frequently closed Avith a large 
 solid deposit of quartz, in the body of which Ave usually, and 
 almost on every occasion, found cavities of about eighteen 
 inches- high, six to nine inches wide, and from two to three feet 
 in horizontal length. These cavities Avere surrounded by quartz 
 crystallized in a beautiful manner ; they were also usually half 
 full of quartz in loose detached crystals, with very small por- 
 tions of oxidized copper, but having many beautiful bright 
 specimens of native copper, in a perfectly pure metallic state, 
 some of which Avere arborescent, like the heath, with here and 
 there a few cubes of native copper attached. There Avere also 
 some specimens in the form of flat narroAV riband, about the 
 tenth of an inch Avide, and eight or nine inches long, the thirty- 
 second part of an inch thick, having at regular distances, of 
 about the tenth of an inch, the most p)6rfect cubes of nearly 
 one-tenth of an inch square, all connected Avith the flat or ri- 
 band-like base. They Avere of the brightest rose colour, and in 
 the most brilliant state as to their surfaces ; and on exposure 
 to the atmospheric air resisted for some days the usual oxidation, 
 and when cut they Avere found to he pure copper in a solid state. 
 It Would appear that Avhere the oxide of copper Avas in abun- 
 dance the native copper Avas not to be found in the open parts 
 
PRIMITIVE FORM OF CRYSTALS. 
 
 of the fissure ; but, on the other hand, where the native copper 
 was in quantity in the closed cavities, surrounded by quartz, 
 scarcely could we find more than partial traces of the oxid- 
 ized copper; the other parts of the cavities were filled witli 
 water, and saponaceous matter resembling silex. 
 
 The practical researches of Rome de Lisle and Abbe Haiti/ 
 have done much in ascertaining the external forms of 
 crystals : the latter had assumed the existence of six primitive 
 forms, from the combination of which he supposed the 
 secondary crystals may be produced ; he finally reduced them 
 to three, as before observed. First, the tetrahedron ; second, 
 the simple prism ; third, the cube. These appear to be the 
 ultimate forms assumed in a compressed solidified state ; but 
 the original must have been the spherical, assuming the sphe- 
 roidical and ellipsoidical shape, according to the nature of the 
 compound molecule, and resolving itself into the tetrahedron, 
 the simple prism, or the cube, according to the diversity of the 
 compound. Dr. Wollaston has assumed the primary molecules 
 to be the sphere, the spheroid, and oblong sphere, or ellipsoid. 
 
 The extraordinary and beautiful parallel between the chro- 
 matic series of colors and the diatonic system of the musician, 
 with their several relations, accordances, and coincidences, so 
 ably described by Mr. Field so far back as 1819-20, in his 
 " ^Esthetics, or the Analogy of the sensible Sciences," is worthy 
 of the deepest attention, as well from the admirable facts in 
 which it abounds, as from the body of profound and logical 
 reasoning, in his own peculiar felicitous style, displaying the 
 erudite and accomplished philosopher, and the inexhaustible 
 powers of a comprehensive mind. 
 
 This parallel between color and sound corresponds in a 
 remarkable manner with another the tones afforded by glasses, 
 and the radii exhibited on the surfaces of the water with which 
 they have been attuned, as described by Mr. Goldsworthy 
 Gurney in " a course of lectures on chemical science delivered 
 at the Surrey Institution, and published by Whittaker in 
 
ANALOGY OF COLOR AND TONE. 
 
 33 
 
 1823" — to which I beg to refer for this and many other 
 valuable facts and observations. 
 
 Mr. Gurney states, " that having filled a large goblet with 
 two-thirds of water, and producing a tone in the usual way, 
 with the hand previously wetted — 4 points only of the circle of 
 the glass became agitated, and these of equal distances from 
 each other. 
 
 " This is called the simple or fundamental tone, when by 
 vibration, four distinct radii are seen on the surface of the 
 water. 
 
 " When the fifth from the natural tone is produced, on the 
 same glass (viz. 2 to 1) there will be 6 points of vibration, and 
 6 radii. 
 
 " But when the vibrations combine in odd numbers they 
 give 5 radii, and consequently angles of 72°. 
 
 " If now you raise the tone to the octave, 8 points of agita- 
 tion will be distinctly seen." — See Gurney's Lectures on Che- 
 mical Science, pages 96 and 72. 
 
 He also observes, page 93, that elements in chemistry com- 
 bine 1 to 1, — 1 to 2, — 1 to 3, &c, constituting perfect com- 
 pounds : so also musical vibrations combine 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 
 1 to 3, constituting perfect chords, or concords. — Other sub- 
 stances in chemistry combine in the proportions of 3 to 2, — 5 
 to 3, &c. constituting less intimate compounds : so also in the 
 vibrations of sound, they combine 3 to 2, 5 to 3, — forming 
 thirds, great sixths, &c. which are less perfect chords ; and 
 so on through the gradations of harmony of tone — exhibiting a 
 great analogy between the laws by which they are respec- 
 tively governed. — Certain tones are also produced by the ignition 
 of gases. 
 
 The inference to be drawn from both these parallels would 
 seem to establish that there appears to be a direct coincidence 
 between the colors afforded by light, and the modulations of 
 tone, and between the sounds produced by the vibrations of 
 glass vessels holding water, and the corresponding radii exhi- 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 PRISMATIC COLORS OF TERRESTRIAL LIGHT. 
 
 bited on the surfaces of the water they contain, proportional in 
 number to the symbol of intonation, — showing the analogy 
 between color, tone, sad form, and that they seem to define, by 
 such coincidence, their respective dependence as to their produc- 
 tion on elementary constituents perfectly similar in their 
 properties. 
 
 Although the intonations afforded by the ignition of carbu- 
 retted hydrogen gas may be imputable to other causes, it may 
 be right to notice them. 
 
 Mr. Gurney explains, pp. 302-307, the results of his expe- 
 riments on his blow-pipe when using carburetted hydrogen gas, 
 that having first produced by a regular moderate pressure a 
 perfect white light, that by increasing that pressure gradually 
 to a high degree, he was able to shew the light assuming the 
 several prismatic colors in rotation thus: — first, near the orifice 
 of a jet 1-1 6th of an inch diameter, first, vivid red, then 
 yellowish red — next, yellow very distinct — still increasing the 
 pressure a tint of green appeared ; and lastly, a most beautiful 
 and permanent blue. On gradually removing the weights 
 from the gasometer, by which the pressure was reduced, the 
 colors passed again inversely through the several changes until 
 the bright white flame appeared as at first. 
 
 Mr. Gurney found the heat of these colored flames respect- 
 ively corresponded with those produced by the prismatic colored 
 rays of solar light. 
 
 On holding a coil of steel wire in the blue violet flame, it as- 
 sumed a bright white heat, and with a view to extinguish it by 
 mechanical pressure by placing further additional weight on 
 the gasometer, to his surprise, instead of cooling, it instantly 
 assumed a bright appearance, and fused into globules in the 
 most beautiful manner possible. Mr. Gurney, page 306, states, 
 on placing a platina bar in the bright light, at the extreme end 
 of the flame, most distant (10 inches) from the jet, he could 
 not increase its temperature above the red heat, but on moving- 
 it gradually towards the jet, its ignition increased brighter in 
 
HEAT AND LIGHT IDENTICAL. 
 
 35 
 
 gradation, until at length having reached within half 'an inch of 
 the orihce of the jet, it fused and ran down in globules. 
 
 He observed the flame was hollow at that spot, and the 
 platina had reached the dark portion of the flame when it 
 fused. 
 
 Now this is a confirmation of what I have observed, that 
 where light is perfect, heat is decreased and terminates, and 
 that it is only in the reduction of fixed matter to its original 
 elements from the solid to the liquid, and thence to the gaseous, 
 the appropriate condition for such elements by their union in 
 the necessary order of polarity to form light, that heat be- 
 comes sensible — not as a matter distinct, but as a consequence 
 on the disturbance of the quiescent state of fixed matter, and 
 becoming intensely sensible from the energy of action exerted 
 in the re-solution of fixed matter to its original elements 
 which are the identical elements of light. 
 
 I must apologise to the reader for another quotation from 
 Mr. Gurney's excellent work, to the perusal of which I must 
 again refer. 
 
 Mr. Gurney observes, page 307, " I would here ask the 
 question, " Is not light a product of heat y formed either per- 
 fectly or imperfectly as the circumstances which influence the 
 liberation of heat, are favorable or unfavorable to its pro- 
 duction?" 
 
 " Is there not a certain temperature which is necessary to its 
 perfect formation ? " 
 
 " Does not light diminish as the temperature exceeds this 
 standard ? and is it not diminished as it falls below it ? " 
 " Reasoning (he continues) from the results of the above expe- 
 riments and the facts relative to these subjects which are gene- 
 rally known, I cannot (he observes) help concluding that it is so 
 — and also that heat itself is an effect of the peculiar change 
 and condensation of the elements of combustion into new forms 
 and definite position of the atoms with respect to each other." — 
 See Lecture on Crystallization. 
 
 d2 
 
36 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 He further observes that " light, heat, and electricity, if not 
 modifications of each other, appear to be members of the same 
 family." — See Gurney's Lectures. 
 
 Now, I consider, that to produce heat it is necessary that the 
 elements which constitute light must be ah initio present, and 
 that it is the energy of their action in approximating each other 
 by the particular individual polarity, by which alone they can 
 combine to form the compound particles of light, that the sen- 
 sation called heat producing in all bodies, whether solid, fluid, 
 or gaseous, the needful expansion or rarefaction to liberate the 
 elementary atoms from their position of conjunction or union 
 of poles, appropriate to their then state of fixation ; and that by 
 such liberation the poles of the elementary atoms are definitely 
 placed, relatively in the most favorable position to present the 
 essential poles to form by immediate conjunction perfect light ; 
 that the energy of the sensation of heat (or caloric) is propor- 
 tional to the difficulty of re-solution of the fixed body to the 
 necessary degree of attenuation, and final dissolution of such 
 fixed body to a free imcombinet* state of its elementary prin- 
 ciples ; in other words, that each original atom is distinctly 
 separated from its former combination, and ready to unite in 
 the new compound of radiant matter or light. 
 
THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 37 
 
 LI GHT. 
 
 The disputations which have arisen on the subject of light in 
 reference to its origin (as advocated by Hooke, Huygens, and 
 Euler), from the system of undulation of a highly rare elastic 
 substance, and the contrary hypothesis of Newton and his (Huy- 
 gens) followers, as particles emitted from luminous bodies, have 
 continued to perplex philosophers to the present time ; some 
 adhering to the one, some to the other, and many sceptical as 
 to the admission of the rectitude of either. 
 
 The warmth of discussion created by the antiphlogistic doc- 
 trine of Lavoisier and his opponents, Stahl and others, conti- 
 nued for years with an energy proportionate to the obstinacy 
 with which their opposing opinions were maintained. 
 
 In a similar manner, geologists contended for the establish- 
 ment of their respective favorite systems, the Volcanic and 
 Neptunian, with a resolution equally determined. 
 
 Now it would appear that the arguments advanced by geolo- 
 gists equally support both systems, and that instead of attempt- 
 ing to establish one distinctly in opposition to the other, it is 
 far more rational to suppose that the agencies of both have been 
 employed to the furtherance cf the existing state of our earth, 
 and that both were essentially necessary to its perfection — in- 
 stance the basaltic stratifications of the one, and aquatic depo- 
 sitions of the other. 
 
 In the same manner the disputations of M. Lavoisier, Stahl, 
 &c, may be disposed of through the medium of recent discovery, 
 while with respect to light, the emanating system of Newton, 
 and the undulating doctrine of his opponents, may be reconciled 
 by the necessity of the adoption of the agencies of both to per- 
 fect and support the continuance of the radiant matter of light, 
 calculating that the consumption of light by the absorption of 
 its constituent atoms by combination with fixed matter, is daily 
 
38 
 
 RESTORATION EQUAL TO CONSUMPTION. 
 
 provided for, by restoration of an equal quantity of matter from 
 the fixed to the radiant state, from the emanating points of 
 matter in visible combination, together with that which may 
 combine invisibly through solid, fluid, or gaseous media; in 
 other words, occult light of electrical generation. 
 
 The composition and decomposition of matter is solely effected 
 by the principles or elements of light, invisibly by the galvanic 
 action, or that continuous course of union which takes place 
 between the principles of light, and visibly by the combination 
 of bodies, whether solid, fluid, or gaseous, reverting in part 
 from the fixed to the radiant state. 
 
 As the system of transition from one state to the other is 
 continuous, and the reversion equally so, it would appear that 
 when fixed bodies absorb electively one constituent, for in- 
 stance, oxygen, the red ray, the compensating portions of the 
 yellow nitrogen and blue hydrogen rays are free, and at 
 large in the state of negative electricity ; while on the other 
 hand, when the hydrogen blue ray and the nitrogen yellow ray 
 arc absorbed, and chemically combined with bodies of fixed 
 matter, the oxygen red ray is set at liberty to act independently 
 the part of positive electricity, and that such alternations of 
 elective absorption and chemical combination, occasion those 
 currents of the opposite electricities pervading the earth, and 
 all bodies of fixed matter, including the surrounding atmo- 
 sphere. 
 
 It would appear that in addition to the compound molecules 
 of light possessing the three original elements of constitution, 
 in their usual inert or passive state, when not formed into the 
 radiating lines emanating from a projecting point of combus- 
 tion, and pervading our globe and its atmosphere, that there 
 are those other separated portions of the constituents of light, 
 also filling space both above and below the surface of the earth, 
 awaiting their accumulation to a sufficient extent, to require 
 their junction with the opposite constituents, to form light or 
 electricity, and restore the required equilibrium. 
 
VELOCITY OF LIGHT ACCOUNTED FOR. 
 
 39 
 
 Thus, then, when the surface of the earth is plus-positive, and 
 that the superincumbent atmosphere is plus-negative, an elec- 
 tric discharge ensues ; but it is almost always observable that 
 the direction of that discharge is to the earth's surface, imply- 
 ing the fact of the repletion of the atmosphere ; and that the 
 issue or result of such discharge, is to compensate the abstrac- 
 tion of a certain quantum of the constituents of light withdrawn 
 from the radiant state by chemical combination with bodies 
 of fixed matter, to perfect the daily operations of nature. 
 
 Although the general surface of the illuminated hemisphere 
 of our globe, when the sun is visible to us, is under the positive 
 state of electrical influence, yet, in certain localities, under par- 
 ticular circumstances of accidental combinations (equally neces- 
 sary to perform the demands of nature), an inverted state of the 
 electrical influences as regard the earth's surface and atmo- 
 sphere, respectively, may exist ; yet on most, if not all, occasions, 
 the direction of the electrical discharges is (as before observed) 
 to the earth's surface. 
 
 The velocity of light is calculated to be equal to 192,000 
 miles in. a second. 
 
 The passage of such an imponderable body, however minute, 
 through a space of such immense length (permeating an atmo- 
 sphere various in its densities), from the necessary force of 
 projection required for its accomplishiiU'iit within the given 
 measure of time prescribed, " one second" would impress us 
 with the apprehension of a probable error in supposing that one 
 molecule, or atom, of the compound matter of light, could tra- 
 verse such an immense distance without the necessity for the 
 exertion of a projectile force so overpowering, and to which we 
 would conceive it but rational to impute the capability to pro- 
 duce at the point of incidence, on the orb of vision (for in- 
 stance) , an impression far more sensible than that to which we 
 are (from experience) daily habituated to sustain. 
 
 Now it does appear far more reasonable to suppose that it 
 may require a second of time to re-unite in one continuous line, 
 
I 
 
 40 
 
 UNDULATION — GRAVITATION. 
 
 or ray, the several distinct and separate molecules, or atoms of 
 light, which were (for the moment previous) standing isolated 
 in every space, or distance, of 192,000 miles which intervenes 
 between the luminous body and the observer; and it may be 
 further added, that the emanation, whether from the sun's disc 
 or atmosphere, or from the reflection of light from other of the 
 heavenly bodies, appears to afford the same effect, that is, the 
 commencement of a pressure sufficient to place the atoms, or 
 molecules of light, within the necessary distance or space of 
 mutual attraction for the completion of the line, and its conti- 
 nuance, as long as the luminous object is visible, or the line 
 uninterrupted by the interposition of an opaque body. 
 
 The theory of the existence of an ethereal substance pervad- 
 ing space, penetrating all material bodies, and occupying the 
 interstices between their molecules, I consider perfectly sus- 
 tained, and that light, or its constituents, in their molecular 
 state, is that ethereal substance. That it exists in a position of 
 isolated independence as to its atoms, and that it is subject to 
 the following varieties of action, according to the necessity that 
 may occur for its agency in the progress of nature, or the 
 Avorks of art. 
 
 First, That by the absorption by fixed matter, of one or more 
 of its original constituents, it is decomposed. Secondly, That 
 it is separable by the exertion of galvano-electrical influence — 
 one constituent passing to one pole, and the two other constitu- 
 ents proceeding to the other pole ; and that the same operation 
 is performed by Nature, in the shape of silent electrical dis- 
 charges, keeping up those constant currents of electricity essen- 
 tial to her works always in active progress. 
 
 Thirdly, That in the necessity to supply the deficiency which 
 may have occurred on one side or the other, either of the mag- 
 netic 'powers, when minus, or plus, in quantity, the needful 
 portion of the acquired constituent is immediately afforded, to 
 keep up or restore equilibrium, so that the power of effectual 
 GRAVITATION is never for one moment suspended. 
 
PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL INTERFERENCES. 41 
 
 Fourthly, That in the constant operations of composition and 
 decomposition, its active agency is ever ready for employment ; 
 existing, as it does, as a never-failing fund of matter, reduced, 
 for the purpose of its admirable office, to the minutest state 
 (as to its original constituents), that can possibly be conceived 
 to exist. 
 
 Fifthly, That when from its treasury a sufficient quantum of 
 its material has become chemically combined with fixed bodies, 
 a further supply to repletion is afforded by emanation from that 
 luminous body, the centre of our system, or rather from the 
 effulgent atmosphere of the sun. 
 
 The calculations made as to what may be termed the differ- 
 ential interferences of light, have been brought to an extreme 
 degree of precision by Dr. T. Young. They are stated at 
 .00000258th of an inch for the red ray, and .00000157th part 
 of an inch for the violet-colored end of the spectrum, while the 
 rays (compound and simple) occupying the intermediate space 
 are of gradations proportional, or nearly, by Newton's prism, as 
 follow : — 
 
 Red. Orange. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 Purple. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 5 to 4J 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 3£ 
 
 3| 
 
 3 
 
 When two equal rays of red light fall on a sheet of white 
 paper in a dark room, they produce a red spot of double the 
 intensity of what each of them separately afford ; but to effect 
 this, the difference in the length of the two rays from the ema- 
 nating point to the paper must be .00000258th part of an 
 inch ; but the same effect will take place if the difference in 
 the lengths of the two rays are two, three, or four times, 
 &c, the quantity ; but if the difference is but one-half the 
 .00000258th part of an inch, or to its 1|, 2\, 3^, &c, part, 
 the one light will extinguish the other, and produce absolute 
 darkness where the red spot had before appeared on the paper ; 
 while if the difference be but 1-L, 2^, 3£, &c, of .00000258th 
 part of an inch, the red spot produced by the combined beams 
 will only equal one alone. 
 
42 
 
 BLACK LINES — ATTEMPT TO ACCOUNT FOR. 
 
 I 
 
 The difference in the lengths of the violet light must equally 
 correspond with the fractional part of an inch, before described 
 as peculiar to that colored ray, that is, the .00000157th ; and 
 for the other, the difference must be intermediate in the relative 
 order in which they stand in the spectrum. — See Dr. Thomas 
 Young ; Huygens, as the originator of the idea of the Undu- 
 latory System of Light ; and the admirable observations of 
 Mrs. Somerville. 
 
 The phenomena described are considered favorable to Huy- 
 gens's system of undulation. I freely admit the possibility of 
 the exercise of undulation, but consider that the action of the 
 precise and increased differences in the length of homogeneous 
 rays, and in what are called heterogeneous rays, of perfect 
 light, may be accounted for otherwise. With respect to both, 
 in their extended state, on the spectrum of Newton, as afforded 
 by his triangular prism, they exhibited the striated appearance 
 observed by Wollaston, and described with such precision by 
 Fraunhoffer, and amounting to 574 black lines distributed in 
 the 360 parts of the visible spectrum, and 26 outside, which 
 make in the entire 600. 
 
 Is there not, probably, some agency exercised by these dark 
 lines to affect, at certain lengths of distance, vibrations capable 
 in one proportional length to be out of the way of interference ; 
 at another, to reduce the intensity of the two rays directed to 
 the one point on the paper, to appear not more than can be pro- 
 duced of intensity by one of the rays only ; and in a third case, 
 at another certain distance, to obstruct illumination, and extin- 
 guish light altogether ? 
 
 May not that total obscurity be produced by the collision of 
 the black lines of each beam or ray, at a certain point of dis- 
 tance of each ray, so as to produce total darkness, in the same 
 manner as the shadows from two candles or lamps when cross- 
 ing each other produce intensity of dark shade ? 
 
 With respect to the cause of the existence of the dark lines 
 which intersect the spectrum of refracted light, as produced by 
 
CONFUSION OF POLARITY. 
 
 43 
 
 the triangular prism of Newton, it must be recollected that 
 perfect light, when proceeding from an emanating point, appears 
 brilliant and white ; that when passing through refracting media, 
 it is exhibited in its prismatic colored rays of composition ; 
 and that the order of position and extent of the several colored 
 portions of the spectrum is influenced by the chemical constitu- 
 tion of the prism, as well as by its form. 
 
 We shall for the present reason on the common angular 
 prism of flint glass, producing the three original colored rays of 
 red, yellow, and blue, and the other four from intermediate 
 superposition. 
 
 It must be evident that in the operation of refraction and 
 dispersion, the polarity of the original constituents is sensibly 
 deranged : they assume, instead of the triplicate compound, an 
 individual polarity, or one calculated to transmit a direct line of 
 homogeneous matter of the color exhibited in the given space 
 of the spectrum ; and the appearance of the dark lines may be 
 occasioned by those atoms which are unable to unite appro- 
 priately pole to pole in the individual lines, and are there- 
 fore non-luminous. According to a diagram exhibited by 
 FraunhofFer, the dark lines are numerous in the red, and 
 orange, in the blue and violet, while they are but few in the 
 spaces occupied by the yellow and green. 
 
 In the dissolution of white or perfect light into the three 
 original prismatic rays, it may occur that a confusion of polarity 
 lias been produced in some of the rays, which do not undergo 
 perfect separation as to their constituent principles, and by this 
 convulsion, instead of retaining the appropriate polarity of 
 ivhite light by the union of the positive pole of the one com- 
 pound molecule, with the negative pole of the next compound 
 molecule in succession, which, as appears by No. 6, Plate IV., to 
 be, as to the positive on the surface of that portion of the 
 spherical molecule occupied by the nitrogen yellow ray, while 
 its point of union is always with the negative pole in such cir- 
 cumstances ever to be found on the opposite surface, or that 
 
44 
 
 BLACK CIRCLE — FIELD'S LENTICULAR PRISM. 
 
 part of the molecule where the oxygen red ray is posited, 
 while the hydrogen blue ray occupies 1.31 part of the whole 
 sphere, and in its then condensed state is in a lateral position, 
 and during the force of pressure, arising from emanation, is (for 
 the time) dispossessed of all polar influence, whence light is 
 luminous. But, remove that pressure of emanation, and im- 
 mediately the hydrogen blue ray expands to its full possession 
 of 8 parts in volume of the entire sphere, as described by No. 5, 
 Plate IV. When the nitrogen yellow ray in its turn occupies 
 the lateral position and the positive pole of the hydrogen blue 
 {always connected with the production of shade) is the only 
 point of polarity to which the negative pole of the oxygen red 
 ray can possibly be (by attraction) attached, and must conse- 
 quently, from the derangement of the organised polarity, pro- 
 duce shade and darkness in place of illumination. 
 
 Hitherto we have confined our attention to the oblong spec- 
 trum produced by the Newtonian triangular prism, No. 1, 
 Plate I., we must now observe what becomes of the interfer- 
 ence of the black lines, by viewing the annular spectrum pro- 
 duced by Field's lenticular prism : this annular spectrum is 
 exhibited No. 2, Plate I. 
 
 On viewing a black spot on a white ground, there appears 
 an interior circle of blue, and next in rotation between that 
 and the red, a distinctly denned dark circle, about J in breadth 
 of the preceding blue : next follows the red, and externally the 
 yellow, as before observed, occupying with well defined lines of 
 demarkation their respective areas. 
 
 Now, it would appear that in this annular exhibition of the 
 three primary rays, the dark lines instead of being scattered 
 and diffused, as they are over the extended oblong spectrum, 
 now occupy in the annular spectrum a defined and continuous 
 space ; and where the refraction is produced from a dark central 
 spot on a white ground, this circle of shade is evidently visible ; 
 while on the contrary, on reference to No. 3, Plate I., where 
 the refraction emanates from a white central spot on a dark 
 
CONNEXION BETWEEN BLUE AND SHADE. 
 
 45 
 
 surface, it will be found that a ring of white light occupies the 
 position of the dark circle exhibited in diagram No. 2, the 
 yellow having changed place with the blue, and now forming 
 the interior circle, whilst the red and blue appear in refractive 
 succession to the ring of white light. 
 
 From this it is evident that there is a connexion between the 
 blue and shade when in a state of refraction, and that it seems to 
 exercise a power of operation by which the appropriate polarity 
 of a given portion of the compound molecules of light are 
 transmitted, in a state of privation of that luminous appearance 
 which they would otherwise exhibit, if not interfered with by 
 the hydrogenating influence of the blue ray in its abstracted 
 capacity. 
 
 It is equally evident that to the yellow ray similarly refracted, 
 and occupying the interior circle of the annular spectrum, as 
 described by reference to Diagram No. 3, Plate I., this yellow 
 circle exercises a similar affinity or power of connexion with a 
 band of white light, which accompanies it in the same rotation, 
 and occupying the same area and space, as the black or dark 
 shade is found to do, while accompanying the blue circle, as 
 shewn by Diagram No. 2, Plate I. The comparative intensity 
 of the illuminating powers of the several portions of the spec- 
 trum are in direct accordance with these phenomena, as the 
 higher illuminating power has always been attributed to the 
 light orange homogeneous yellow and light green ; while the 
 blue, purple, and violet are comparatively deficient of such ad- 
 mirable splendor. 
 
 It will therefore appear that the interferences of the blue ray 
 in its abstracted state of refraction, is calculated to obstruct per- 
 fect light by the interposition of shade; while, on the contrary, 
 the yellow ray possesses the power of promoting the effulgence 
 of light by preserving, by its influence, an adjunct band of white 
 light, retained in its regular order of polarity, in other words, 
 in an unrefracted state. 
 
46 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 H E A T. 
 
 
 The theories advanced with respect to the nature of caloric 
 aim at the conclusion, that it is a specific mutter or body, 
 which by insinuating itself into the interstices between the par- 
 ticles or atoms of solid bodies, is supposed to impart to them 
 an expansive power, by which they appear to be placed at 
 greater relative distances, which if continued with increased 
 temperature, reduces the solid to a liquid, and by a further 
 continuance of action on fluids, converts them into the aeriform 
 or gaseous state. 
 
 This contemplates the admission that there exists a matter 
 of heat, independently of a matter of light, and of that matter 
 which appears in the solid, fluid, and aeriform states; and that 
 the transition of bodies from and to the three last described 
 alternations, is solely imputable to the matter of heaftis a 
 direct cause. 
 
 Now if heat was a distinct matter, we must suppose it to be 
 of a defined quantity, occupying space in all bodies, whether 
 solid, fluid, or gaseous ; and should naturally conclude that 
 if it were specific, to be accumulated in one position it must 
 be abstracted from another, which does not appear to be 
 established. 
 
 Instead of being a cause, I would rather conclude it to be 
 an effect, arising from the energies of action exerted by the 
 constituents of light, to reunite in the form of radiant matter 
 by galvanic or electrical excitement. 
 
 Thus, for example, when you take two pieces of dried wood 
 at a low temperature with smooth surfaces, by rubbing them 
 together for some little time, their surfaces become influenced 
 by opposite states of electricity ; they inflame, and the com- 
 bustion is continued until they are in part, or wholly, con- 
 sumed ; during this combustion a portion of light is evolved, 
 a portion of the solid matter is converted into the gaseous 
 
HEAT A CONSEQUENCE OF LIGHT. 
 
 47 
 
 state, and the residuum into charcoal, and ashes, (if ignited in 
 atmospheric air,) while the sensation of heat is generated as 
 an effect only resting on the energy of the process of the tran- 
 sition of fixed matter into the radiant state of light. 
 
 As all bodies contain light in their interstices, subject to 
 the exciting powers of the galvanic or electrical forces, it may 
 be readily conceived that when the contemplated changes of 
 nature or art shall be at any time attempted, a disturbance of 
 the corpuscular atoms of latent light, by separation to the 
 opposite states of electricity, must, when simultaneously 
 exerted, produce an expansion in the solid body, which may 
 then be the seat of action ; and that the repetition of those 
 gradual and continuous galvanic or electrical discharges must 
 increase that expansion, till the usual cohesive power by which 
 the atomic arrangements of the body were originally retained 
 are finally overcome, and the body is resolved into its appro- 
 priate form, either as a liquid or a gas, or to a radiant state, 
 or one, or more of them, as the nature of the compound is 
 calculated to produce. 
 
 Thus, when a stream of electricity is transmitted by a gal- 
 vanic; apparatus, through a piece of small platina wire attached 
 to a copper wire at both ends, of comparatively large calibre, 
 the small wire attains, at first, a sensible elevation of tempe- 
 rature, amounting to incandescence, then a white heat, and is 
 ultimately reduced to a state of fusion, while the wire of great 
 calibre which simply acted as a conductor, is not in the slightest 
 degree affected, showing that heat is a consequence of the 
 rapidity and energy with which that separated portion, the 
 oxygen red ray of light, or electricity, had been transmitted 
 through a diminished volume of a metallic body, while the 
 conducting metallic body of thirty or forty, or one hundred 
 times the area, though having received and transmitted the 
 whole of the electrical force alluded to, was not in the slightest 
 degree affected. 
 
 Now if heat had been a distinct and separate matter or 
 
48 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT GOVERNED BY REFRACTION. 
 
 principle, it should first have accumulated, and have been 
 retained in the conducting metallic wire of greater area, 
 until it had been elevated to an equal temperature with the 
 smaller metallic wire which it had fused. 
 
 The existence of light, radiant and visible in the one in- 
 stance, and latent and invisible in the other, while in a state 
 of apparent quiescence pervading all matter generally, in the 
 several forms of which it is susceptible, is (it would appear) 
 quite sufficient to produce all the sensible phenomena of heat, 
 without the necessity of presupposing the existence of the 
 complex action of a second subtile, imponderable, elastic fluid, 
 for the sole purpose of affording that expansion of bodies, by a 
 separation of their constituent atoms, while under the process 
 of reduction from the solid, fluid, or gaseous state, to that of 
 radiant matter, when the whole can be so easily effected by 
 light itself, by the separation and subsequent union of its 
 constituents, visibly or invisibly, by the forces of electricity, in 
 the proportionable intensity which the circumstances of the 
 re-solution, or combination of the matter then under process of 
 nature, or art, may demand. 
 
 Professor Faraday has discovered that many bodies which 
 in the solid state do not conduct electricity, acquire that pro- 
 perty when they become fluid, and are then immediately de- 
 composed ; and this has induced him to suspect that the power 
 of conduction is simply a consequence of decomposition. 
 
 The learned Professor further shows, that when a non- 
 metallic solid is reduced to a fluid, it nearly loses its power 
 of conducting heat, while it acquires that of conducting elec- 
 tricity in a very sensible degree, giving a new proof of the 
 connexion between heat and electricity. 
 
 The general law by which glass and liquids, and other un- 
 crystallized bodies, possess the property of instantaneously 
 transmitting heat in proportion to their power of refraction, has 
 been established by M. Mellone. 
 
 The same learned philosopher found, that the coloring 
 
THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 49 
 
 matter of glass diminishes its power of transmitting heat, yet 
 that red, orange, yellow, blue, violet, and white glass, trans- 
 mit calorific rays of all degrees of refrangibility ; but that 
 green glass, on the contrary, possesses the peculiar property of 
 transmitting the lead refrangible calorific rays, and of stopping 
 the most refrangible. 
 
 The same elective action is exercised by green colored glass 
 on heat, as that of red glass on light. 
 
 The sulphates of alumina and lime produce the opposite 
 effects to those of green glass on heat, by transmitting the 
 most refrangible rays with the greatest facility. 
 
 It is worthy of observation, that heat which has been trans- 
 mitted through greoi or opaque black glass, will not pass 
 through alum, although that which has traversed glass of other 
 colors is transmitted most readily ; neither will the heat which 
 has passed through alum find its way through opaque sub- 
 stances, while abundantly transmitted through transparent and 
 colorless bodies : and this would infer that the properties of 
 heat emanating from alum nearly approach those of light and 
 solar heat. 
 
 From a review of the various experiments on heat by Sir 
 Wm. Herschel, Dr. Wollaston, MM. Hitter, Buckman, and 
 De Laroche ; professors Powell and Forbes ; Mr. Lloyd, 
 M. Melloni, as well as of those preceding philosophers, MM. 
 Malus, Berard, Leslie, &c. ; most of the inferences occur- 
 ring, they correspond in exhibiting the strong analogy that exists 
 between the properties of heat and light, and I beg to refer the 
 reader to that exquisite work, Mrs. Somerville's " Connection 
 of the Physical Sciences," which stands unequalled among the 
 contributions of modern writers, as to variety of subjects and 
 the admirable talent and grace with which they are discussed. 
 
 Now from the prolongation, the radiation, reflection, and 
 other properties of heat, exactly consonant to those exercised by 
 light — from the power of some media, solid and fluid, to pro- 
 duce a change in the nature of heat, as to its easy or difficult 
 
v* l > ' , * j f 
 
 50 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 transmission through other bodies subsequently, it would appear 
 to partake so immediately of the nature and properties of light, 
 as that I should impute to them a direct identity ; and that as 
 light pervades all bodies, and that in its separation from fixed 
 bodies in which it was temporally retained, and while approxi- 
 mating the state of visible radiancy or perfection, it may assume 
 an intermediate state of an invisible nature, affording the sensa- 
 tion and qualities of heat, without any other cause than the 
 energy of action to effect its transition, and not in the least sup- 
 porting the idea that heat is a body distinct from light ; and 
 further, that the separations that have been effected of the calo- 
 rific invisible rays from the colorific visible rays can only be 
 considered as a divisional state, produced between perfect light 
 and the residuary uncombined constituents of light, when ap- 
 proximating union to produce that splendour which celestial 
 light, in its complete effulgence, so manifestly exhibits. 
 
 It has been observed by sir John Herschel, that the heating 
 power of the solar rays gives a prima facie plausibility to the 
 idea of a transformation oi light into heat by absorption, but 
 that it is incumbered with difficulties, as the most luminous rays 
 are not the most calorific ; while, on the contrary, the calorific 
 energy is of greatest intensity in (lie feebly illuminating rays. 
 
 He also observes, that although without explanation at pre- 
 sent, we may yet have it in a more advanced state of knowledge. 
 " What becomes of light?" A perplexing question to the 
 corpuscular philosophers ! while he says the answer afforded 
 by the undulatory theory is simple and distinct; that it 
 merges on the more general question, — What becomes of 
 motion ? And the answer, he repeats, on dynamical principles, 
 is, " that it continues for ever." 
 
 Now the circumstance of the greater portion of calorific 
 intensity being afforded by the less luminous rays, is in ac- 
 cordance with the theory that I beg to advance, that heat is 
 but a modification of light, from the absence or abstraction of 
 some one or more of its original principles of composition, 
 
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 51 
 
 effected by absorption or combustion, wherein the o cry gen 
 red ray, for instance, combines with the body submitted to its 
 action, and the hydrogen blue ray is plus, at liberty to pro- 
 duce, by means of its vibrations in conjunction with the nitro- 
 gen yellow ray, (or solely, as the case may be,) certain dis- 
 turbances of the equilibrium while seeking a reunion with the 
 necessary and appropriate atoms of oxygen to re-constitute 
 light ; and by its excessive energy in its operation affords 
 the sensation called heat, and which is in a ratio of thermo- 
 metrical intensity, corresponding with such energy of action 
 as may be required to reduce the compound matter under pro- 
 cess to its original constituents, whereby such portion of them 
 as may be essential to the reformation of light, shall have been 
 separated, and in a position to assume the order of polarity, 
 requisite for the completion of the radiant state of light. 
 
 VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Since the origin of the science of voltaic electricity, by the 
 early experiments of Volta, followed by the further elucidations 
 of Galvani, the subject has been pursued with unabated ardour 
 by the philosophers of the Continent, as well as by those whose 
 talents we can claim as the particular property of our country. 
 
 But before we make reference to those splendid discoveries 
 of recent date, which have proved the now universally acknow- 
 ledged identity of electricity, the galvanic influence, and mag- 
 netic power, or touch upon the distinguished persons to whom 
 the honour of those brilliant discoveries are eminently due, 
 we shall consider some of the inferences which may be drawn 
 from the phenomena attributable to the action of the Voltaic 
 battery, in reference to composition and decomposition. 
 
 It appears from experiment that when a disc of bright zinc 
 is immersed in an open jar of pure distilled water, even there 
 
 e 2 
 
5-2 
 
 TIIKORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 without the interference of an acid, or the introduction of copper 
 or iron, or any other metal which may be in a distinctly opposite 
 state of electricity, the zinc when in contact with the water, 
 having its lower and upper surfaces in opposite states of electri- 
 city, its action in the decomposition of the water commences, 
 the oxygen being attracted to the positive poles of the metallic 
 surface ; by continual interchange elementary electrical currents 
 are produced, and pervade the metallic and fluid media, in a 
 direction exactly conformable with that produced by a pair of 
 plates of the Voltaic pile. 
 
 The power of composition and decomposition are naturally 
 increased by the introduction of a few drops of acid, affording 
 thereby a diversity of polar action, and greater intensity than 
 can naturally be produced by a fluid composed of only two ele- 
 mentary constituents. 
 
 In operations where dilute acidulous menstrua are employed 
 the polar energies are employed in a moderate ratio, and may be 
 exalted to considerable force by a further increase of acidity, 
 but by the introduction of a piece of copper wire placed in 
 direct contact with the disc of zinc, the energy of metallic corro- 
 sion is considerably increased by the metallic combination with 
 oxygen, Avhile the hydrogen of the water is discharged in the 
 gaseous state in great quantity. 
 
 Two peculiarities are observable in reference to the electrical 
 state of metallic surfaces, when one metal alone is used, (say 
 zinc, or iron, in a dilute mixture of distilled water and sulphuric 
 acid,) that is, that fountains of liberated hydrogen are dis- 
 charged from certain points only from the upper surface of the 
 metal, while the intervening spaces appear to be in a dormant 
 or inactive state, and further on introduction and presentation of 
 a wire of another metal (say copper) to within a certain dis- 
 tance of one of those fountains of gas, the discharge from the 
 fountain becomes more feeble, and on its nearer approach 
 totally ceases, the discharge being then usurped by the metallic 
 wire, as observed by Mr. Sturgeon, in his " Annals of Chemistry, 
 
VOLTAIC ELKCTRICITY. 
 
 53 
 
 Magnetism, and Electricity ;" to which excellent work the reader 
 is referred for these and a variety of other interesting phenomena. 
 
 In the powerfully-energetic action consequent on the intro- 
 duction and direct contact of two distinct metals in acidulous 
 media, and the quiescent state to which these operations are re- 
 duced by the sudden separation of contact of such metals, would 
 rather support the theory that the polar arrangements, as to 
 their molicular combination, are various and distinct in every 
 species of metal ; and that such difference of constitution, influ- 
 encing their crystalline form, indicates their compound nature. 
 
 The precipitation of metals from their acid solutions by the 
 introduction of some other metal, such as copper by iron, lead 
 by zinc, as in the instance of the lead or philosophical tree, and 
 silver by mercury, as in the case of the arbor Dianee, exhibiting 
 as they do most beautiful arborescent formations, are instances 
 of the electro-galvanic action ; and the assumption of such 
 forms are perfectly analogous with the operation of the same 
 force in the formation of organized bodies in the vegetable 
 kingdom. 
 
 In the elaborate researches of Professor Faraday, conducted 
 with his usual accuracy and precision, on the interesting subject 
 of electro-chemical decomposition, he has drawn inferences from 
 a number of experimental results, by which he has established 
 irom a series of tacts some laws of electro-chemical action of 
 high importance. 
 
 It may be as well to remark that the learned Professor has 
 adopted terms at once appropriate and expressive of their nature, 
 and derived from the Greek. For the term pole he uses that of 
 electrode as a substitute; and to convey the idea of the point at 
 Avhich the current of electricity is considered to enter the 
 decomposing body, as parallel to that supposed to exist in the 
 earth, he calls the negative extremity the anode, where oxygen, 
 chlorides, acids, &c. are evolved, and is against or opposite the 
 positive electrode ; while he uses the word cathode to express 
 that surface at which the current leaves the decomposing body, 
 
54 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 being its positive extremity, at which combustible bodies, 
 metals, alkalies, and bases are evolved, and is in contact with 
 the negative electrode. 
 
 He declares as a result of his experiments, that water, 
 though a compound, formed of very powerful affinity, is most 
 susceptible of electrolytic action, and yields up its elements 
 under the influence of a very feeble electrical current. 
 
 All known compounds being non-conductors when solid, but 
 conductors when liquid, are decomposed with the single excep- 
 tion of periodide of mercury, and even water itself, which so 
 easily yields up its elements when the current passes, if ren- 
 dered quite pure scarcely suffers change, because it then 
 becomes a bad conductor, which argues the possibility that 
 decomposition depends upon conduction, and not the latter 
 upon the former ; a point which water seems nearly to decide. 
 
 Although the mineral acids facilitate the conduction and 
 decomposition of water, that is no proof that they are competent 
 to favor and suffer these actions in themselves. 
 
 Boracicacid effects the same thing, though not decomposable. 
 
 M. De La Rive has pointed out that chlorine has this power : 
 though considered by us hitherto an elementary substance, it 
 ought to be capable of suffering decomposition or imparting it 
 to other bodies. 
 
 Professor Faraday observes, in reference to oik; standard of 
 measurement of the common and Voltaic electricity, that the 
 chemical decomposing action of a current of either is constant 
 for a constant quantity of electricity, notwithstanding the 
 greatest variations in its sources, in its intensity, in the size of 
 the electrodes used, in the nature of the conductors, or non-con- 
 ductors, through Avhich it is passed, or in other circumstances. 
 
 That exactly the same quantity of water was decomposed in 
 all the solutions by the same quantity of electricity, though the 
 sulphuric acid in some solutions was seventy-fold, what it was 
 in others. The highest strength used was of specific gravity 
 1.495, but that solutions of a gravity of 1.330 were the most 
 
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 55 
 
 uniform in results, and the oxygen and hydrogen more equable 
 in proportion to each other. 
 
 If the acid were very strong a remarkable disappearance of 
 oxygen took place : thus a solution of two measures of strong oil 
 of vitriol with one of water gave 42 volume of hydrogen, with 
 but 12 of oxygen, which favored the formation of oxy-water, 
 which M. Theynard has shown to be occasioned by the presence 
 of acid. 
 
 When solutions of potassa, or soda, or sulphate of magnesia, 
 or sulphate of soda, were acted upon by the electric current, 
 just as much oxygen and hydrogen were evolved from them as 
 from the dilute sulphuric acid with which they were compared. 
 V^hen a solution of ammonia, rendered a better conductor by 
 sulphate, of ammonia, or a solution of subcarbonate of potassa, 
 way experimented with, the hydrogen evolved was in the same 
 quantity as that set free from the diluted sulphuric acid, with 
 which they were compared. Hence changes in the nature of the 
 solutions do not alter the constancy of the electrolytic action 
 upon water. 
 
 The learned Professor concludes that the investigation he 
 has made sufficiently establishes the extraordinary principle, 
 with respect to water, that when subjected to the influence of 
 the electric current, a quantity of it is decomposed, exactly pro- 
 portionate to the quantity of electricity which has passed, not- 
 withstanding the thousand variations in the conditions and 
 circumstances under which at the time it may be placed. 
 
 The learned Professor in another part remarks, that he consi- 
 ders it established by an irresistible mass of evidence, that the 
 chemical power of a current of electricity is in direct proportion 
 to the absolute quantity of electricity which passes. 
 
 The inferences to be drawn from the great variety of experi- 
 ments described by Professor Faraday, in his interesting re- 
 searches on this subject, are — That in the bodies submitted to 
 electro-chemical decomposition, where they contain in their com- 
 position oxygen and hydrogen, as water, or acidulated solutions, 
 
5G 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 metallic or otherwise, that the positive is determined to the posi- 
 tive electrode, or anode, while the hydrogen is invariably evolved 
 at the negative electrode or cathode, as primary results ; that 
 when secondary results occur, and that nitrogen is found to ap- 
 pear at either of the electrodes, in conjunction with oxygen at 
 the one, or with alkalies at the other, it appears to be go- 
 verned by attractive influences to which it submits. But in the 
 case of ammonia (rendered a better conductor by the addition of 
 sulphate of ammonia), while hydrogen is evolved at the negative 
 electrode, nitrogen is determined at the positive electrode ; and 
 further, that in all cases of decomposition hydrogen is evolved 
 definitely from the negative electrode, and evidenced cither in 
 its discharge in a pure state, or contributing to the reforma- 
 tion of metals determined to the same electrode, and is to be 
 found in their composition when their oxides have been sub- 
 mitted to experiment by electro-chemical action. 
 
 The red ray (or oxygen) is therefore determined to one elec- 
 trode, while the Line ray (hydrogen) is evolved from the other, 
 and the yellow ray (nitrogen), whose proper electrode is the 
 same as the blue (hydrogen) ray, is, on occasions, for instance, 
 where a chloride of calcium or soda is under investigation, the 
 chlorine flies to the positive, and the base to the negative elec- 
 trode. 
 
 Chlorine is, from its appearance, color, and properties, a com- 
 pound of nitrogen in maximum, hydrogen in minor proportions, 
 and (perhaps) oxygen in minimum, — and the basis of all the 
 alkalies is nitrogen, and they are consequently determined to 
 the negative electrode ; while the metals, holding in their reduced 
 state hydrogen in excess, proceed to the same electrode, and 
 oxygen separated from oxides, acids, and water, or aqueous or 
 acid solutions, go to the positive electrode. And Avhere any 
 deviation occurs, as in secondary results, it will be found that 
 any partial quantities of hydrogen and nitrogen found to issue 
 from the positive pole, must be in a compound state, or in con- 
 junction with oxygen or compounds containing it. 
 
ELECTRICITY. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Without further reference to the contentions that have ex- 
 isted on the subject of the systems of electricity, I shall premise, 
 that I consider that electricity is exhibited by the application of 
 means through the medium of friction, to produce a separation 
 of the original elements which are combined in the compound 
 molecules of light. That in producing the decomposition of 
 light, whether by those means of friction, by the common elec- 
 trical machine, or through the exercise of the Voltaic apparatus, 
 the same separation is effected. What is called the positive 
 electricity in the one case, coming to the one pole, whilst the 
 negative proceeds to the other ; the difference being simply, that 
 in the galvanic arrangement the supply of the electricities is 
 continuous and compensating, while with the common electrical 
 machine either of the electricities, positive or negative, can be 
 collected in a battery or jar, in a state of aggregation for a 
 given period, and that the separated and compensating portion, 
 from which the collected quantity has been abstracted, is evi- 
 dently contiguous and ready to be united by the effect of a dis- 
 charging rod, or any convenient conductor applied for such 
 purpose. 
 
 When two bodies in opposite states of electricity are pre- 
 sented to each other, at a distance commensurate with the 
 forces of attraction exercised by both, they come in contact and 
 continue so for a short period, when they are found mutually to 
 repel each other. 
 
 These phenomena may be accounted for thus : — That (we 
 will say,) two balls suspended, and by being electrified, pos- 
 sessing the separated constituents of light, on approaching each 
 other, those constituents exercise an attractive power, sufficient 
 to cause them to reunite and form light, which then becomes 
 occult, and pervading the balls to repletion, afford to them the 
 

 ■ 
 
 58 
 
 THEORY OF LIGHT. 
 
 same power of repulsion as these new-formed molecules of light 
 cart exercise towards each other, from the angular position of 
 their poles, as long as they remain in an insulated state., as ex- 
 hibited by the Diagram No. 5, Plate IV. 
 
 The decomposition of light elfected naturally by the chemical 
 operations in continued action throughout our globe, produces 
 accumulated quantities of either species of electricity, in cer- 
 tain localities where the opposite species has been electively and 
 chemically combined with fixed matter, in either organic or 
 inorganic bodies. 
 
 The alternations that occur by the abstraction of some or one 
 of these elements from the compound molecules of light, effect 
 redundancies and deficiencies of quantities in localities of cer- 
 tain extension, governed by the amount of consumption of the 
 abstracted elements, and these continuous alternations produce 
 the detached and isolated aggregations of electricity of the 
 opposite species, which is never far distant, and is to be found 
 either in the adjacent atmosphere, when the reunion is exhi- 
 bited under the phenomena of lightning ; or sliould that not be 
 the case, through the medium of conduction in the body of the 
 earth. 
 
 These interferences, of a minor description, have no effect in 
 deranging the electrical envelopes of the opposite surfaces of 
 the earth, being proportional as they are in force to the mag- 
 nitude of the area of the earth, acting as they do in respect to 
 their polarity, as the minutest particle or atom is affected by 
 its proportionate quantum. 
 
 By the motion of a triangle round one of its sides as an axis 
 is formed, as it were, a circular prism, which from its uniting 
 the properties and figure of a lens with that of the prism, may 
 be called a lenticular prism, or double convex prismatic lens, 
 of which the following presents an outline. — See Plate II., 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 By a like circular motion of a triangle upon that angle, 
 which corresponds to the angle of refraction in a prism, will be 
 
LENTICULAR PRISM OF FIELD. 
 
 59 
 
 generated a similar double concave lenticular prism, opposed to 
 the above, as represented in the next figure. — Plate II., Fig. 2. 
 
 The above figures are sufficient for the present purpose ; yet 
 it is evident that they are extremes between which lie au inde- 
 finite series of intermediate figures, and that there are innu- 
 merable others, both conical and annular, generable upon the 
 boundless variety of figure and motion. 
 
 To apply the prism thus varied to the purposes of experi- 
 mental philosophy, an instrument has been contrived by Mr. 
 Field, of which the following is a brief description, and which, 
 from its power of exhibiting colors, he has denominated the 
 chromascope. 
 
 This instrument in its general form consists either of a 
 tripod, or of a base or stand, having two arms or props which 
 support the axis of a tube five inches long, at the lower end of 
 which is the lenticular prism above described (Fig 1). The 
 principal tube slides from end to end, through a short tube 
 attached to the axis, and has at top a narrow sliding tube of 
 three inches fitted with a lens or eye-glass of eight inches 
 focus. — See Plate II., Fig. 3. 
 
 By this construction the tubes may be elevated or depressed 
 above the stand, and at the same time turned and fixed at any 
 required angle of the horizon. 
 
 Such are the instrument and its parts; the design of which 
 will be rendered apparent in its application to the following 
 experiments. 
 
 Experiment 1st. — In the centre of a piece of white paper 
 six inches square form a black spot, place it upon the stand of 
 the chromascope, opposite to the light of a window, and adjust 
 the instrument in its vertical position, so that the spot may be 
 close to and concentrical with the lenticular prism — then gra- 
 dually sliding the tube upward, looking at the same time 
 through it, the spot will appear to expand and he refracted into 
 a beautiful annular-colored spectrum or aureola. 
 
 If now the double concave lenticular prism (Fig. 2) be inter- 
 
no 
 
 MR. FIELD S CHROMOMETER. 
 
 posed between the chromascope and the spot, the aureola will 
 be by a counter refraction reduced to a spot at its centre. 
 
 Remarks. — It would be difficult to account satisfactorily for 
 the production of colors in the above experiment, by the 
 analysis of light alone, since the colored spectrum would vanish 
 if the black spot were removed. It is to be presumed, there- 
 fore, that the principle of shade in the spot concurs with the 
 principle of light in the ground in producing the colored iris. 
 
 Experiment 2nd. — If the preceding experiment be per- 
 formed with a white spot upon a black ground, in place of the 
 black spot upon the white ground, a similar spectrum will be 
 produced in which the colors will be inverted. 
 
 It is not necessary that the objects and grounds opposed be 
 black and white to produce a spectrum ; it is sufficient that 
 they be lighter and darker with reference to each other ; nor 
 is it necessary that they be not colored, since a blue, red, and 
 yellow spot upon a ground lighter or darker than itself yields a 
 colored spectrum similar to the above, in which, notwithstand- 
 ing the particular color of the spot itself predominates, each of 
 the primary colors distinctly appears. 
 
 Fig. V., Plate 2, represents part of the instrument invented 
 and described by Mr. Field, and called a chromometer, in which 
 A B C D is a hollow prism or wedge, in each side of which is 
 cemented and secured by a brass frame and screws, a colorless 
 plate of glass, efgh, which glasses touch each other within at 
 the end, e g, and diverge or separate at the other ends to the 
 thickness of the wedge at f //. We thus obtain a hollow 
 prism pervious to the light and vision, which might be filled 
 with a transparent colored liquid by means of an opening and 
 screw stopper in the end ]) D. To prevent compression of 
 the liquid the stopper should be perforated lengthwise, that the 
 air may escape and the perforation be secured by the screw or 
 plug E. 
 
 It is evident this wedge being so charged with a colored 
 liquid, and viewed opposite the light, will throughout its broad 
 
APPLICATION OP FIELD S PRISMS. 
 
 01 
 
 lace present a perfect gradation of color from the utmost dilute- 
 ness or minimum, at the convergent extreme, g e, where the 
 glasses touch, to the utmost depth or maximum, at the divergent 
 extreme fli, where they are at their utmost separation. 
 
 On one side of the wedge C D is screwed a brass scale of 
 the exact length of the cavity within the glasses e f g h, 
 geometrically divided into 32 degrees, each subdivided into 4 
 others, forming evidently an accurate measure of thickness 
 increasing at each division from the point of contact of the 
 glasses, and are consequently also a true numerical measure of 
 the intensities of transparent color without the wedge. Such a 
 prism, charged with a blue liquid, will form a cyanometer, or 
 measure of blue, ; with a red liquid, an eruthrometer, or measure 
 of red; and with a yellow liquid, a oeanthometer, or measure of 
 yellow, the colors of such liquids being adjusted to a given 
 intensity.* 
 
 By the application of the convex lenticular prism, Mr. Field 
 has effected, 1st, the refraction of a beam of perfect white light 
 into the three primary colored rays of red, yellow, and blue, 
 perfectly distinct, and forming a circular iris without the 
 appearance or intervention of any of the heterogeneous or 
 compound rays which are usually occasioned by the obliquity 
 and superposition of the rays exhibited in the imperfect spec- 
 trum produced by the Newtonian or common triangular prism. 
 
 2ndly. That these original colored rays, the red, yellow, and 
 blue, are immediately restored to reunion, and form pure white 
 light by the simple intervention of the double concave lenticular 
 prism, Fig. 2, Plate II., by which the identity of these three 
 colors in the formation of light is doubly proved ; first, by 
 analysis, and ultimately by synthesis. 
 
 * This description of the instruments invented and applied by Mr. Geo. 
 Field is taken from his " Esthetics, or The Analogy of the Sensible Sciences," 
 and also from his " Chromatography, or Treatise on Colours and Pigments," 
 (published by Tilt, Fleet Street,) to which for other most interesting and valu- 
 able information the reader is referred. 
 

 62 
 
 APPLICATION OF FIELD S CHROMOMETER. 
 
 3rdly. By the application of the convex lenticular prism and 
 
 chromascope to the black spot on the white ground, the same 
 three original coloured rays are rendered distinctly evident and 
 homogeneous, showing that the prism has the power to decom- 
 pose the light which has been exhibited in the form of shade, 
 and that the same identical coloured rays are, by transverse 
 interposition, rendered anti-radiants, and consequently inca- 
 pable of reflection. But the action of the concave prism 
 immediately restores the rays so retracted to the original state 
 of shade or black spots; and that the same effects are produced 
 by the alternate application of the convex and concave prisms 
 respectively, on the white spot, on a black or dark ground. It 
 therefore appears fully established by the experiments of Mr. 
 Field, and by those of Sir David Brewster, that there are but 
 three original coloured rays in the composition of light, as 
 exhibited by the solar beam. 
 
 The black lines which striate the spectrum produced by the 
 common triangular prism, as described by Wollaston and Fraun- 
 hoffer, are not to be found in their confused state in the an- 
 nular iris produced by the prism of Field, but are visible in 
 one continuous circle always adjoining tin; blue, without inter- 
 ference or intersection of any other coloured ray in the aureola. 
 
 The three original coloured rays can therefore appear sepa- 
 rate, distinct, and homogeneous— and can form conjointly 
 white radiant and reflected light, or dark shade, capable of 
 refraction, but not of reflection. 
 
 The analogy is worthy of notice, that oxygen, nitrogen, and 
 hydrogen are distinct and homogeneous ; that they form (as 
 here presumed) carlo?/, which is black and incapable of reflec- 
 tion, but in its crystallized state, the diamond, is translucent, 
 and possesses the power of refraction and reflection. 
 
 To adjudicate the proportionate quantum of space actually 
 occupied by each coloured ray in the formation of a given area 
 of light, Mr. Field adopted his very ingenious instrument, 
 already described, and exhibited in the several Figures, 5, 6, 7, 
 
RADIATION OF CALORIC. 
 
 63 
 
 8, and 9, Plate III., which he denominates the chromometer, 
 or colour-gauge. By adjusting the graduated wedges (filled as 
 to their transparent compartments with coloured liquids, of 
 red, yellow, and blue tints, perfectly conformable in density 
 with the coloured prismatic rays), he was enabled, by looking 
 through the eye-hole, to ascertain the precise quantity of each 
 coloured liquid necessary to produce perfect white transparent 
 light, and which on examination of the tabulated wedges he 
 found to be = 5 parts red, 3 parts yellow, and 8 parts blue ; 
 which, by experiments on his instruments, with which he 
 kindly accommodated me, I have confirmed by similar results. 
 
 It would appear that the power of heating is greater in the 
 invisible rays outside the spectrum of the triangular prism, and 
 next to the red ray, and that in their ratio of intensity they may 
 he 70, lamp-black being 100. Sir H. Davy states those invis- 
 ible rays are capable of reflection as well as refraction, like the 
 other rays. 
 
 The radiation of terrestrial matter producing heat was made 
 known by Del Cemento, Hooke, Scheele, and Pictet. The 
 opinion of Mr. Leslie, that the phenomena of the radiation of 
 terrestrial heat depends on certain pulsations or undulations of 
 the atmosphere capable of being reflected, but not of being 
 refracted, is stated to have been contradicted by the result of 
 the experiments on platina wire, by heat excited by a Voltaic 
 battery in a receiver exhausted to ^, by which it was found 
 a thermometer rose nearly three times as much as when it was 
 in its natural state of condensation. — See Sir H. Davy, Ele- 
 ments of Philosophy, page 207. 
 
 This appeared to be governed by the effect of pressure, the 
 cooling power of the rarefied air ; that is, its absorption of 
 caloric being much less in its rarefied than in its natural state. 
 
 The colored bodies that absorb most light, and, of course, 
 reflect least, arc the most heated when exposed to solar or ter- 
 restrial rays — 1st black, 2nd red, 3rd green, 4th yellow, last, 
 white. 
 
64 
 
 RADIATION OF CALORIC. 
 
 The radiating power of the body heated is in the same ratio 
 with its absorbing power. Charcoal has the highest radiating 
 power of any known substance, and may, therefore, contain 
 oxygen, azote, and hydrogen. According to Mr. Leslie's inge- 
 nious researches, taking the radiating power of lamp-black at 
 100, the following radiate in the proportions thus expressed : — 
 sealing-wax 95, crown dass 90, China ink 88, ice 85, minium 
 80, isinglass 80, plumbago 75, tarnished lead 45, clean lead 19, 
 polished iron 15, tin-plate, gold, silver, and copper 12. 
 
 Of the influence of radiant matter in producing chemical 
 changes, we have an instance exemplified by MM. Gay Lussac 
 and Theynard, and Mr. Dalton. When a mixture of chlorine 
 and hydrogen is exposed to the solar beams,' they detonate, though 
 the same effect is not produced by the application of a heat be- 
 low ignition. Sir H. Davy, in explanation, says, he supposes 
 the temperature of particles of substances is raised considerably 
 and instantaneously by the rays ; but it may be likewise, and 
 with more probability, be supposed to depend upon a specific 
 and peculiar influence of radiant matter: and that such an in- 
 fluence exists, is proved by many circumstances. 
 
 "When moist horn-silver is exposed to the influence of the 
 violet ray, and those invisible rays beyond it, it is blackened, 
 and muriatic acid gas is formed, as proved by Messrs. Hitter, 
 Wollaston, and Berthollet, so that they may be termed the 
 hydro genating rays. 
 
 The general facts of refraction and effects of the solar beam 
 offer analogy to the agency of electricity. In the Voltaic cir- 
 cuit the maximum of heat seems to be at the positive pole, 
 where the power of combining with oxygen is given to bodies, 
 and the agency of rendering bodies inflammable is excited at 
 the opposite surface ; and similar effects are produced by nega- 
 tive electricity, and by the most refrangible rays of the solar 
 beam. — See Davy's Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 212. 
 
 It has been remarked that the health of vegetation, with the 
 color of plants and flowers, depend on the presence of light ; 
 
RED RAY NOT REFLEXIBLE. 
 
 65 
 
 and even animals, also, in the colon of their hair, are influenced 
 by the same power, as may be proved by comparing the polar 
 and tropical animals, and the parts of their bodies exposed to, 
 and excluded from, its presence. 
 
 The discoveries of Newton respecting the modifications of 
 light by double reflection and refraction, have, for a time, set 
 aside the hypothesis supported by Hooke, Huygens, and Eider, 
 as to the supposed existence of a rare elastic substance, which, 
 by undulation, produced the sensations of vision. As the co- 
 lored rays separated by the prism bear the same relation to 
 double refraction that direct light bears, it follows that the po- 
 larity of the different particles must be of the same kind, as 
 mentioned by Sir 11. Davy ; who also remarks, that Newton 
 attempted to explain the different refrangibilities of the rays 
 of light by supposing them to be composed of particles differ- 
 ing in size' ; and he states that this hypothesis is not contra- 
 dictory to the idea of their being regular solids endowed with 
 similar polarities. The same great man (Newton) put the 
 query, Whether light and common matter are not convertible 
 into each other? and, adopting the idea that the phenomena of 
 sensible heat depend upon vibrations of the particles of bodies, 
 supposed that a certain intensity of vibrations may send off par- 
 ticles into free space ; and that particles in rapid motion in 
 'right lines, in losing their own motion, may communicate a 
 vibratory motion to the particles of terrestrial bodies. 
 
 The rays of light materially differ in their refrangibility, 
 calorific power, and intensity of illumination. 
 
 The red ray is the most refleocible and least refrangible. 
 The blue and violet rays the least reflexible and most refran- 
 gible ; the others in the order in which they stand in the spec- 
 trum. When light passes within a certain distance of a body 
 parallel to which it is moving, it is bent towards that body ; 
 this property is termed inflection ; when it passes at a greater 
 distance it is bent from it, which is called deflection. Now 
 
 F 
 

 66 
 
 RAYS DEEMED IMPONDERABLE. 
 
 the order in which the rays stand, corresponds with that 
 of their inflexibility and deflexibility, the red possessing the 
 most, and the violet the least. 
 
 This was suspected by David Rittenbourg, but first demon- 
 strated by the ingenious experiments of Mr. Brougham. 
 Light, when passing obliquely from one medium to that of 
 another of greater density, assumes a direction different from 
 its original line, it is then said to be refracted, and bends 
 towards the perpendicular ; and if that medium is a com- 
 bustible body, the refraction is proportionally greater, as its 
 attraction for light is greater than that of an incombustible. 
 
 The refracting power of water induced Newton, who was 
 acquainted with this law, to suspect that it contained some- 
 thing of an inflammatory description in its composition, which 
 the subsequent analysis of water has fully authenticated. 
 
 The red ray communicates to bodies the most powerful 
 degree of heat Avithin the spectrum ; but it has been dis- 
 covered that there are invisible rays just without the red ray, 
 which exceed it in calorific powers, as stated by Dr. Wollastou 
 and Sir John Herschel. 
 
 " The greatest illuminating powers are in nearly the centre 
 of the spectrum, the lightest green and deepest yellow." — 
 Herschel. 
 
 Is this occasioned by the difference or excess of density, or 
 comparative specific gravity of the rays original and com- 
 bined, which occupy that portion ? 
 
 It is not within our reach to ascertain in their hio-hly 
 rarefied state, the proportional specific gravities of the rays 
 of light ; they have therefore hitherto been deemed, and are 
 called, imponderable; but this arises from the insufficiency of 
 our means to designate the weight of what requires the most 
 minute and delicate application, and to such as we never can 
 in reason aspire. But as light is admitted to be a .substance, 
 occupying space, subservient to the laws of attraction, and the 
 
INTENSITY OF LIGHT DEPENDS ON REPULSIVE FORCE. 67 
 
 effects of pressure, may we not conclude that it possesses 
 actual weight, although from its incalculable levity it may, 
 to some, appear the reverse at present ? We may therefore, 
 from analogy, presume to affix to the rays of light a ratio cor- 
 respondent to that of the particular original elementary matter 
 of which it is here submitted they are composed, to enable us 
 to judge whether the vigour of their respective action may not 
 be, in some degree, influenced thereby; and whether such 
 may controvert or support the present hypothesis. 
 
 The intensity of the illuminating power of light seems to 
 depend on the energy of repulsive force, which is governed 
 by pressure, the effect of which is proportional to gravity. 
 Now the comparative space occupied by the original rays in 
 the spectrum, obtained by the triangular prism, is as follows : 
 
 Red, 58.5. 
 
 Yellow, 91.5. 
 
 Blue, 210. 
 
 These multiplied by the respective specific gravities of each 
 of the bodies they severally represent, give the proportionate 
 intensity of their illuminating powers, thus: 
 
 Red, 9.360. 
 
 Yellow, 12.810. 
 
 Blue, 2.10. 
 
 On the nature of light, two different theories have been 
 proposed: the first by Huygens, adopted by Euler, "That 
 light is a subtile fluid, filling space and rendering bodies 
 visible by the undulation into which it is thrown ; that when 
 the sun rises it agitates this fluid ; these agitations gradually 
 extend themselves ; at last, striking the eye, we see the sun." 
 
 The second by Newton, and others, " That light is a sub- 
 stance consisting of small particles constantly separating them- 
 selves from luminous bodies, moving in straight lines, and 
 rendering bodies luminous by passing from them and entering 
 the eye." 
 
 It is presumed it can be shown that both of these theories 
 are in part reconcilable by the present hypothesis. 
 
 F 2 
 
 > N - 
 
68 ATOMS REQUIRE PRESSURE TO FORM CONDENSATION 
 
 It is not by any means evident, that the system of undula- 
 tion ean be supported as one capable of independently effecting 
 the production of light, in straight lines, and with that re- 
 markable impetus which light so eminently displays, and 
 which undulatory motion alone cannot be in reason supposed to 
 impart. 
 
 It is equally improbable that the system of emanation can 
 be sustained, without the aid of some necessary auxiliary, upon 
 tbe principle, that if emanation was continuous, from a lumin- 
 ous body in a given period, exhaustion must consequently 
 ensue, which would not appear consistent with the present 
 order of the universe. 
 
 But we can readily comprehend, that both systems, by their 
 united powers, can effect the production and transmission of 
 celestial light, and act conformably with the laws by which it 
 appears to be governed. 
 
 Thus, the undulatory system may convey the idea, that the 
 compound spherical atoms of light continue to pervade our atmo- 
 sphere, and the entire intervening space between our earth and 
 the sun, and all the other heavenly bodies ; that these atoms 
 are in their free and expanded state repulsive of each other, 
 from the angular position of the poles of their individual mole- 
 cules, exhibited on the surface of the compound atom of light, 
 see No. 5, Plate IV.; that they require ^pressure to bring them 
 into a uniform state of condensation, and also within the pre- 
 cincts of attraction, to be exercised on the proper poles (the 
 positive and negative) of the compound spherical atoms, so 
 that they may form a line of radiation ; and that such condition 
 is only to lie effected by the projectile force of the compound 
 atoms of light emanating from a radiating point of a luminous 
 body, such as the sun, or the resplendent atmosphere with 
 which that body is surrounded, and which may be replenished 
 from the free light in space so as to prevent exhaustion* . — 
 
 * Query. — May not the supply of free light, to replenish the atmosphere of 
 the sun be continuous, flowing in directly opposite lines, and intermediate to 
 
UNDULATORY SYSTEM RESTS ON CONTRACTION. 
 
 69 
 
 And as it is clear, that under all circumstances, such as have 
 been described, as well from reflecting surfaces as from terres- 
 trial bodies by combustion, producing light, the system of 
 emanation is decidedly requisite to perfect the production of 
 radiant light ; and further, that the united forces described 
 under the laws of undulation and emanation appear essential 
 to explain the imputed velocity of light in its passage through 
 space (as before observed), by substituting the period required 
 for the union of the spherical compound atoms of light, for the 
 less rational conception that one single atom of light could by 
 any projected force be carried through atmospheres of great 
 and various densities, at the enormous rate of 192,000 miles 
 in a second. 
 
 The foundation of the undulatory system may rest on the 
 appearances afforded by the contraction of the compound 
 spherical atom of light, from the expanded state in which it is 
 exhibited, in No. 5, Plate IV., and which contraction, although 
 described to be occasioned by the needful condensation of the 
 molecules of hydrogen and nitrogen to the highest density, 
 that of the oxygen molecule, by which, on calculation, the area 
 is reduced, say from 400 to 212.5, or nearly one half — although 
 that reduction has been by accident omitted to be comparatively 
 depicted as it should have been in the diagram, No. 6, Plate 
 IV. : yet it is requested that the circumstance may be carried 
 in recollection, in the future consideration of the condition of 
 condensation to which the compound atoms of light are re- 
 duced, when brought by the pressure of emanation to the state 
 of linear rays. 
 
 those of the rays of celestial light projected from that effulgent atmosphere ; 
 and may not such circumstance have an influence in producing- the black 
 lines of shade which striate the spectrum of the triangular prism, and form a 
 ring, accompanying the blue ray, as exhibited by the convex lenticular prism 
 of Field ? 
 

 70 
 
 REPULSION OF LIGHT PROMOTES TRANSITION 
 TO FIXITY. 
 
 In addition to the properties of vision and velocity alluded 
 to, of which all other bodies are destitute, light possesses 
 another which constitutes its grand characteristic as radiant 
 matter. That its particles or atoms appear possessed of repul- 
 sive force, and are therefore never found forming masses of any 
 sensible magnitude, as observed by Dr. Thompson. 
 
 On this law its capability of transition to a fixed state seems 
 founded. 
 
 It would appear that from the moment matter assumes the 
 radiant form there is a complete termination of the contact of 
 its particles, except by direct force arising from pressure, the 
 result of a propelling power equal to overcome the existing 
 repulsion they exercise towards each other ; where the influence 
 of this propelling power ceases, light is no longer visible. Its 
 combination with fixed bodies is, however, the more easily 
 effected, being promoted by the disposition they evince with 
 respect to aggregation so foreign from that of the atoms of 
 radiant matter to those of their own nature; and this circum- 
 stance may be the effect of an opposite arrangement, with 
 respect to polarity, as hereafter explained. 
 
 The polarization of light was discovered by Malus. Much has 
 been added of ntw facts on this subject, by Messrs. Bigot and 
 Arago, and by Sir David Brewster. 
 
 The colors which bodies of fixed matter exhibit when viewed, 
 is occasioned by their power of absorbing all the rays save that 
 one, or those two, or more, that form the color reflected, from 
 the bodies' surface. 
 
 This is a fact admitted, but it has not hitherto been accounted 
 for. It is, however, a part of this hypothesis to show, that it 
 arises from repletion in the visible surfaces of the atoms ; in 
 other words, that the matter of the ray or rays reflected, exists 
 
HEAT AND LIGHT IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 71 
 
 in excess in the presented surface of the fixed body y and when 
 light falls on it, all the other rays are absorbed. 
 
 The evidences in support of the position will be adduced in 
 their proper place. 
 
 The absence of caloric, in the instance of reflected light, 
 may account for the hitter's being incapable of refrangibility. 
 
 The energy Avith which caloric is communicated, is increased 
 by pressure, producing closer contact. 
 
 The intensity of light produced by the combustion of fixed 
 bodies, is proportional to the elevation of temperature acquired, 
 which is influenced by the energies with which the material 
 rays enter into combination ; and this is variable, according to 
 the particular circumstances under which they are presented. 
 
 When chemical combinations are formed by bodies in a fixed 
 state, heat is evolved or absorbed ; but generally no change to 
 that of the radiant state is effected without combustion. 
 
 But when from the mutual action of bodies combustion 
 arises, then; is an absolute transition of a certain portion of 
 fixed matter to the radiant state, and the residuum is fixed 
 matter, the qualities of which are generally quite different from 
 those it possessed in its previous form ; that difference arising 
 either from the acquisition of the matter of some ray or rays, of 
 Avhich it was deficient, or the abstraction of others with which it 
 may have been originally replete. 
 
 Heat and light both exist in the atmosphere ; the former, but 
 a modification of the latter, is the active agent of combination 
 between the light in its perfect state, and fixed, or inert 
 
 matter. 
 
 Light is evident to us when it emanates direct from a point 
 of radiation, and continues visible during the existence of that 
 point as a centre of action, and therefore appears to be governed 
 by the effects of pressure. 
 
 But the production of light does not rest on its separation 
 as a specif c body from oxygen, or the atmosphere, by the act 
 of combustion, as it was supposed by M. Lavoisier, who also 
 
72 LIGHT PRODUCED BY THE AGENCY OF ELECTRICITY. 
 
 considered that oxygen, after having submitted to combustion, 
 having parted with the light with which it was supposed to be 
 combined, was no longer capable of affording light: this is com- 
 pletely contradicted by the following experiment. 
 
 Place in Dr. Lire's eudiometer a minute quantity of each of 
 the following gases, having previously submitted them sepa- 
 rately to the electric spark, viz., oxygen, carbonic-oxide, azote, 
 and hydrogen, they will, in their dephlogisticated state (as it is 
 termed), produce light by the agencies of electricity ; proving 
 thereby that it was not previously combined with any of them as 
 a specific body, but that they each contribute to its direct for- 
 mation, and exhibit the transition of matter to a radiant state. 
 It is not here asserted that the entire of these gases will be at 
 once converted without leaving a residuum of fixed matter, but 
 it is affirmed that the nearer they are proportioned to their 
 relative quantities, the less will be the residual gases or product 
 unconverted. The quantity operated upon being so small, 
 difficulties arise in affording exactitude of proportion, which is 
 also in itself to be yet more perfectly attained by a series of 
 experiments, which require the greatest precision. 
 
 Happily, the durability of fixed matter throughout nature is 
 secured by the difficulty of producing, on an extensive scale, the 
 matter of the three essential rays under the requisite circum- 
 stances of proportion and position, to constitute their immediate 
 conversion to the radiant state. Were it otherwise, it would 
 overturn the beautiful arrangement which exists according to 
 the order of Providence, than which there can be nothing 
 more sublime. 
 
 The conversion to the one state, and the restoration to that 
 of the other, are gradual ; and observe the necessary laws which 
 effect the preservation of a most perfect equilibrium. 
 
 The spontaneous combustion of ammonia in chlorine is 
 mentioned by Dr. Thompson, vol. iii. page 47. He gives the 
 particulars of an experiment in which there appears a defi- 
 ciency unaccounted for, which is cited here as one of the many 
 
COMBUSTION OF AMMONIA IN CHLORINE. 73 
 
 instances that occur where similar deficiencies are perceptible, 
 and which are to be chiefly attributed to the hitherto unnoticed 
 transition of matter from a fixed to a radiant state. He de- 
 scribes that on making a mixture of 8 cubic inches of ammonia, 
 and 3 cubic inches of chlorine, 3.3675 wt. grains of sal- 
 ammoniac in a solid form will be obtained, and that 1 cubic 
 inch of azotic gas will remain in a gaseous state; and that the 
 gaseous product of such a decomposition amounts to 1-1 lth 
 of the original bulk of the gaseous mixture. Now 
 
 The weight of 100 cubic inches of chlorine is 76.250 grains, therefore the 
 weight of 3 cubic inches is 2.28750 grains. 
 
 The weight of 100 cubic inches of ammonia is 18.000, 
 
 therefore 8 cubic inches weigh 1 . 44000 
 
 Total 3.72750 
 
 The weight of salammoniac obtained .... 3.36750 
 
 Weight of 1 cubic inch of azotic gas 29951 
 
 Deficiency .... 06348 
 
 3.72750 
 
 which is equal to 1.522 in volume, and 0.57709 of a grain 
 in weight on the 100 cubic inches, or 1^ per cent, in volume, 
 and a little more than half a grain in weight in 34.6995 
 grains, the Aveight of 100 cubic inches of such a mixture, or 
 nearly H per cent, in weight on 100 grains. 
 
 Hitherto the attention of the eminent chemists, in their expe- 
 riments on the gases, has been principally directed to their 
 obtaining a residuum, or product equal to the amount of the 
 gases on which their operations may have been performed, and 
 they have considered that the nearer the product arrived at 
 the quantity sufficient, to account for the whole consumption 
 of the gases employed, the more they approached the deside- 
 ratum of perfect accuracy in the result. Thus it has been 
 laboured to prove, that an equal quantity of carbonic acid gas 
 has been obtained with a given portion of oxygen, from the 
 
74 MATTER OF THE SIMPLE GASES ALWAYS COMBINED. 
 
 diamond, and from charcoal, and precisely the same results. 
 It is certain that the quantum of matter actually converted 
 into the radiant state, in any one of such experiments is so 
 minute, as to be in many instances beyond the reach of calcu- 
 lation, and that it is only by a repetition of experiments on 
 the residual gases, that any idea can be formed of sufficient 
 precision to afford satisfaction ; this circumstance may have 
 caused the fact of the transition of matter from a fixed to a 
 radiant state, to have hitherto escaped their notice. 
 
 Whatever deficiency may have been perceptible to them, 
 they have imputed in preference to some accidental loss, as 
 an evident ponderable result was always the object of their 
 search. 
 
 The experiments on gases are attended with some clanger 
 from explosion, unless effected with the necessary precautions, 
 as to the quantity of the gases submitted to operation, which 
 must, from a view to safety, be so small that the results relat- 
 ing to radiant matter can but Avith great difficulty, and the 
 utmost precision, be attained. 
 
 It is not by the actual transition of matter from a fixed to 
 a radiant state, that explosion is occasioned, it is rather the 
 consequence of some residual gases unconverted, the poles of 
 whose atoms are thrown into such positions, at the instant the 
 transition ceases, that they repel each other with considerable 
 force, added to the usual expansion proportionate to the in- 
 creased temperature. 
 
 Gases can scarcely be said to be obtained in a state of purity 
 unmingled with a portion of one or more of a different nature ; 
 and this circumstance occasions frequently the imputation of 
 an appearance of a property foreign from the gas when in its 
 homogeneous state. 
 
 We never find the MATTER of the simple gases in an 
 uncombined state, we are therefore obliged to separate them 
 from other constituents with which they are associated, by the 
 
EXPANSION OF MATTER IN A GASEOUS STATE. 
 
 75 
 
 best means in our power ; and in doing so we scarcely reach 
 anything like the precise degree of purity, which we so earnestly 
 desire. 
 
 As the momentous ignition of any of the gases separately 
 fired, when placed in a close vessel, depends on the presence 
 of some one or more of the others, though but in a very minute 
 proportion, perhaps after the usual applications for purifying 
 gases by absorption, &c, the electric spark might afford the 
 best means of producing a greater degree of purity. 
 
 One per cent, of azote has been found in oxygen gas procured 
 from manganese by sulphuric acid. 
 
 The expansion of matter in the gaseous state on the appli- 
 cation of heat, is the same according to Messrs. Dalton and 
 Gay Lusac — 100 parts of each species of gas at the freezing 
 point of water is dilated to 137.5 at the boiling point. 
 
 Bodies when heated to a certain temperature become lumi- 
 nous from 752° to 800° of Fahrenheit. The capacity of afford- 
 ing light, evident to the sense of vision, is different : thus, iron 
 wire becomes red hot when immersed in melted lead, whicli 
 does not at the time afford the smallest appearance of light. 
 
 The simple gases are an exception : they do not become lumi- 
 nous at a much higher temperature, when SEPARATELY 
 treated, because they have not there the necessary requisites 
 to produce tight, which can only be obtained by a combination 
 of the matter of its rays in due proportion, and is resplendent 
 in the ratio of their precise arrangement. As to their relative 
 proportion, according to Sir H. Davy, bodies continue united, 
 or resist decomposition, because they are in different electrical 
 states ; that if we bring them into a similar state by making 
 them bot\i positive or both negative they will repel each other, 
 and of course be decomposed ; and that this is effected by the 
 galvanic battery which in his opinion will decompose any com- 
 pound. Pie has applied this theory with success to the decom- 
 position of the alkalies, showing them to be compounds of 
 oxygen with a metallic basis. Some of the earths submitted 
 

 
 76 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON SOLAR PHOSPHOR I. 
 
 to the same influence; gave evidence of partial decomposition, 
 while others resisted the greatest galvanic power he could 
 apply to them. 
 
 With respect to galvanic influence and its evident effects in 
 decomposing compound bodies, there appears to be strong indi- 
 cations of a well-grounded support to the theory of light, as laid 
 down in these pages. First, the instrument is composed of 
 metals, the menstrua of water, of acids, and alkalies ; and 
 according to the existing view of chemical analysis, it will be 
 admitted that oxygen, hydrogen, and azote are present, and 
 that we therefore have what is here asserted to constitute the 
 requisites to produce light. The result of the action is this, — 
 the menstrua and the metals are decomposed, and give a 
 portion of their component parts at the opposite extremities of 
 the galvanic apparatus. 
 
 Before we proceed further in adducing the proofs in support 
 of this hypothesis, it is necessary to present a lew of the 
 opinions in brief of some eminent authorities. 
 
 Sir H. Daw observes, that the difficulty of refracting radiant, 
 heat, may be conceived to depend on the greater size of the ag- 
 gregated particles, and that according to Newton, any matter 
 moving with great velocity in right lines, may be conceived 
 capable of communicating an expansive motion to the particles 
 of bodies. 
 
 It is also remarked by Sir IT. Davy, that if specific highly 
 rare imponderable fluids be assumed to account for the pheno- 
 mena, as many must be adopted as there are different series of 
 effects produced by different rays. There must be a matter of 
 a violet light, a matter of a blue light, a deoxidating ethereal 
 matter, a calorific solar matter and a calorific terrestrial matter, 
 
 WHICH IS VERY CONTRADICTORY TO THE USUAL SIMPLICITY OF 
 CAUSES. 
 
 But the experiments on solar phosphori render such a con- 
 clusion quite improbable. Pyrophorus, of Canton, if exposed 
 to the blue rays — pale yellow light, and not blue, as it ought to 
 
COMBINATION OF SPECIFIC LIGHT WITH OTHER BODIES. 77 
 
 be, is exhibited, ;uid it is still the same let any of the other rays 
 be applied to it. Now this circumstance is a contradiction to 
 the combination of specific light with other bodies, and the dis- 
 charge of the same identical light in a state unchanged ; in such 
 case the light should be blue when exposed to blue rays. The 
 explanation given to this phenomenon by Sir.H. Davy is, that 
 vibratory motion is communicated to the particles of the sub- 
 stance by the rays, in consequence of which, some of its own 
 particles are slowly sent off, or that the particles have been 
 formed into new aggregates, in consequence of the attraction of 
 the substance. 
 
 The latter seems to accord better, but corresponding with the 
 present views submitted in these pages, it would appear pro- 
 bable that an impetus is only required ; nor is it material 
 whether it is given by the entire, or perfect light, in a body of 
 rays, or by any one ray distinct from the rest, the phosphorus 
 containing in an occult state, the matter of all the essential rays, 
 those deficient in the application are supplied by it, and the 
 light is given out -a pale yellow in all cases. 
 
 On the existence of a specific imponderable substance capable 
 of producing light, and supposed to be contained in oxygen 
 gas, and of a similar substance in inflammable bodies, it is 
 the opinion of Sir H. Davy that the facts are contradictory to 
 the hypothesis. Kc states that iron when heated to whiteness 
 burns with amazing brilliancy in oxygen gas, throwing off 
 sparks intensely luminous, but when heated to 600° Fahr. 
 it combines slowly with the oxygen without producing light ; 
 that the chemical changes are of the same nature in both cases, 
 and that the only difference is, in their rapidity and energy. 
 
 It appears, however, only necessary to raise the heat of iron 
 to about 800° or 900° of Fahr., or a red heat, when it imme- 
 diately assumes a white heat in oxygen gas, and the production 
 of radiant matter proceeds with the most splendid combustion. 
 Now, from analogy, we should conclude that iron contains 
 hydrogen, carbon, and azote in its composition. 
 

 78 CONVERSION OF COMMON INTO RADIANT MATTER. 
 
 Carburetted-hydrogen, or bi-hydroguret of carbon, is that 
 gaseous substance, which exhales in hot weather from stagnant 
 pools and ditches of water, in the neighbourhood of towns. 
 
 Dr. Dalton first determined with accuracy its composition, 
 and Sir H. Davy published experiments on it in 1811. It is 
 colorless, has neither taste nor smell, specific gravity 0.555 : — 
 when a jet of this gas issuing from a tube is kindled in the 
 open air it burns with & yellow flame, giving out a good deal of 
 light ; when mixed with oxygen gas, and that it receives an 
 electric spark, it detonates with considerable violence. It does 
 not burn unless the bulk of the oxygen rather exceeds its own 
 bulk, and it actually ceases to burn when the oxygen is in 
 greater proportion than 2| times its volume. If mixed with 
 atmospheric air it burns, provided it amounts to l-12th of the 
 air, and it ceases to burn if it exceeds l-6th of the air. — 
 In all proportions between these two extremes, it burns with 
 violence : for complete combustion it requires twice its volume 
 of oxygen gas, and produces exactly its own volume of carbonic 
 acid e*as : the onlv remaining other nroduct is water. This is 
 according to Dr. Thompson, chap. iii. page 243, who concludes 
 that carburetted-hydrogen is composed by weight of, 
 
 Carbon 0.416 0.750 3 
 
 Hydrogen 0.0694x2 0.125 X 1 
 
 or one atom of carbon, and two atoms of hydrogen. 
 
 Sir H. Davy observes, the fire produced in a number of 
 chemical processes, particularly in combustion, on the New- 
 tonian view, may be ascribed to particles sent into free space, 
 in consequence of the repulsion excited by other particles at 
 the moment of their uniting into chemical union. Any solid 
 bodies may be made to emit light, when exposed to a blast of 
 air very hot, though not luminous, the light is always of the 
 same kind ; and this circumstance is favourable to the idea of 
 the possibility of the conversion of common matter into radiant 
 matter. 
 
 In radiant matter the particles act almost independently of 
 
ONE SPECIES OF MATTER. 
 
 79 
 
 the common laws of attraction, and by prismatic retraction 
 the difference of their actions is determined; and it seems 
 probable, that the relations of the different particles to the 
 crystalline arrangements of matter, will be found connected 
 with those powers which they possess, analogous to electrical 
 qualities. 
 
 If that sublime idea of the antient philosophers, which has 
 been sanctioned by the approbation of Newton, should be true, 
 namely, that there is only one species of matter, the different 
 chemical, as well as mechanical forms of which, are owing to 
 the different arrangement of its particles, then a method of 
 analysing those forms, may probably be found in their relations 
 to radiant matter. Newton supposed that the luminous parti- 
 cles at the violet end of the spectrum were smallest in size, 
 and those at the red end largest in size ; and those producing 
 the intermediate colors of a size proportional. On this idea 
 the calorific invisible particles would be the largest in the 
 solar beam, and the calorific particles emitted by terrestrial 
 bodies may be imagined of still greater size, so as to be inca- 
 pable of passing through the pores of dense transparent 
 media. 
 
 The rays at the red end of the spectrum tend to burn bodies, 
 or to combine them with oxygen ; those at the opposite end 
 tend to restore inflammability to bodies ; and negative elec- 
 tricity, which exercises the same functions, produces hydrogen 
 
 gas from water 
 
 and this is the lightest chemical element in 
 
 nature, and may be conceived to be composed on the corpus- 
 cular hypothesis of the smallest particles. 
 
 The latter investigations of light teach us that there is still 
 much to learn, Avith respect to the affections and motions of 
 radiant matter; and this subject, when fully investigated, pro- 
 mises to connect together chemical and mechanical science, and 
 to offer new and more comprehensive views of the corpuscular 
 arrangement of matter. See ' Elements of Chemical Philo- 
 sophy,' 222. 
 
80 
 
 ONE SPECIES OF MATTER. 
 
 I 
 
 The evidences submitted in support of this hypothesis are 
 described under the following heads, and will be treated of 
 separately : — 
 
 1st. That from the color of bodies, or that of their solution 
 in menstrua of known constitution, or of their flame in com- 
 bustion, some of their leading properties, as well as their 
 original constituents, may be ascertained. 
 
 2nd. That light is not specifically combined with bodies, and 
 that those which produce light, and are termed inflammable, 
 do not burn in close vessels, excluded from atmospheric air, 
 unless the constituents of that air, at the time, are present, as 
 component parts of the body itself, or of what has been termed 
 the supporter, or of both. 
 
 3rd. That bodies denominated supporters of combustion, if 
 mixed above certain proportions with gases which are deemed 
 inflammable, prevent their explosion and combustion. 
 
 4th. That the simple gases, having been previously purified 
 by the electric spark, are not capable of ignition when treated 
 separately in clo.se vessels. 
 
 5th. That the only simple substance in, existence which is 
 termed incombustible, forms, in combination with other gases, 
 bodies the most sensible of ignition, and productive of illumina- 
 tion the most resplendent. 
 
 6th. That at the common temperature, on the mixture of 
 certain acids of great density with oils of the lesser specific 
 gravity, spontaneous inflammation and vivid light are produced, 
 which depend on the generation of caloric of high temperature 
 by the revolution of the particles or atoms of the acids and 
 oils, by which their poles are set at liberty to combine in the 
 necessary order to form radiant matter ; and that this never 
 occurs unless the presence of the material elements of the three 
 primary rays is evidently demonstrable. 
 
 7th. That oxygen, azote, and hydrogen, when brought into 
 contact in given proportions, and fired by the electric spark, 
 produce perfect light. 
 
COMBINATION OF LIGHT WITH STEEL. 
 
 81 
 
 8th. That the influence of light; and its combination, in a 
 refrangible state, with fixed, or inert matter, is particularly 
 conspicuous in the growth of vegetable bodies ; and that their 
 health, vigour, inflammability, as Avell as essential and peculiar 
 qualities, depend on its presence. 
 
 9th. That light also combines, in a similar manner, with the 
 matter of the mineral kingdom ; and that its influence is evi- 
 dent on the animal species. 
 
 10th. That if light is admitted to have entered into direct 
 combination with fixed terrestrial matter, it is essential for the 
 economy of nature that it should be again restored to the radi- 
 ant state. 
 
 11th. That from the color of bodies, or that of their solution, 
 in menstrua of known constitution, or of their Jlame in com- 
 bustion, their leading properties, as well as their original con- 
 stituents, may be ascertained- 
 
 It has been observed by Boyle, and repeated by Priestley, 
 that diversity of colors does not denote any great difference in 
 the internal structure of bodies, yet that it was often an indica- 
 tion of considerable alterations in the disposition of their parts, 
 as appears from the extraction of tinctures, wherever the 
 change of color regulates the artist in the process of their pre- 
 paration : similar instances occur in the maturation of fruits. 
 In like maimer, in the method of tempering steel for engravers, 
 drills, springs, &c. First, the steel is hardened by heating it 
 in glowing coals ; it is not quenched as soon as taken from the 
 fire, but held over a basin of water, till it falls in temperature 
 from a white to a cherry-red heat, when it is immediately 
 plunged in cold water. The steel thus hardened looks whitish, 
 and if it is brightened at the end and held in the flame of a 
 candle, so that the bright end projects half an inch distant 
 from the flame, it will swiftly pass from one color to another, 
 as from a bright yellow to a deeper and reddish-yellow ; from 
 thence, first to a fainter, and then a deeper blue, either of which 
 succeeding colors argues such a change made in the texture of 
 
 G 
 

 82 
 
 COLOR CHANGES THE QUALITIES OF BODIES. 
 
 the steel, that if it be taken from the flame and immediately 
 quenched in tallow, whilst itjis yellow, it will he of such a hard- 
 ness, as renders it appropriate for drills ; hut if kept for a few 
 minutes longer in the flame till it turns blue, it becomes much 
 softer, and is suitable to springs for watches, which are there- 
 fore commonly of that color. Lastly, if kept in the flame until 
 the deep blue has appeared, it will become too soft even for 
 pen knives. These colors are vivid, and though superficial, 
 are completely indicatory of a change, which can be proved by 
 comparing steel of these colors. — See Priestley. 
 
 In this case it would appear that in the course of combustion, 
 a positive combination is formed between the steel and some 
 of the rags of light ; thus, first the yellow ray, then the yellow 
 is mingled with red, by a species of oxidation, which gives the 
 further facility to absorption of hydrogen, forming carbon 
 (composed of the three rays), which assumes the predominancy 
 when the blue ray becomes evident. The like transition of 
 colors was observed by Boyle, on melted lead, in the act of 
 cooling, by each succeeding pellicle assuming a rapid display 
 of colors, but not regular in their succession as the steel. Thus, 
 first, blue yellow and purple, blue green and purple, blue; 
 yellow and blue ; red, blue, green, yellow, red, purple, and 
 whatever color was displayed in the act of setting or cooling 
 below fluidity, the metal retained superficially. 
 
 Now in the oxidation of lead, it would appear that until 
 brought to a certain state of combination with the oxygen, the 
 other rays of light are partially combined with the lead, and 
 give evidence of their presence, but are ultimately driven off 
 by its affinity for the oxyginating ray. 
 
 Kircher and Boyle observe on the lignum nephuticum of 
 Mexico, that the infusion is limpid in strong light, in light shade 
 is a beautiful green, more shaded, inclined to red, in a very shady 
 place, and in an opaque vessel, green again. — Physiologia 57. 
 In transmitted light, a golden color; in reflected light, ap- 
 pears a lovely blue color ; shadow projected on it, tinged with 
 
LIGHT DISCHARGES OXYGEN. 
 
 83 
 
 a golden color and a blue; by addition of vinegar the blue 
 vanished; oil of tartar asdeliquium restored the blue. — Boyle's 
 Works, by Shaw, page 60. 
 
 Glass is affected by time .permanent prismatic colors are 
 exhibited on its surface. This may be observed by examining 
 the windows of old buildings, where it frequently appears that 
 scales or lamina have been actually removed from some parts, 
 rendering the surface uneven. 
 
 It has also been remarked that nitric acid which is colorless, 
 when exposed for some time to light becomes yellow, and a 
 quantity of oxygen gas is found floating on its top. If it be 
 then carried to a dark place, the oxygen is gradually absorbed, 
 and the acid becomes again colorless. The color of nitrous 
 acid is yellow, derived from the predominancy of proportion 
 which the azote bears to the oxygen and hydrogen in the first 
 combination ; however, on excess of oxygen in the second combi- 
 nation as nitric acid, the preponderating influence as to color is 
 lost to the nitrogen, which is then no longer in maximum, — 
 but, on the application of light, the first combination is (a 
 priori) induced by absorption of the azotic ray, the oxygen in 
 excess is separated, and appears in the state of gas ; but on 
 removal to the dark it is again absorbed, and the second combi- 
 nation is induced, and when completed the colorless appearance 
 is restored. 
 
 There is a proof also of the yellow color afforded to flame by 
 the presence of azote in a proportion beyond what is requisite 
 to constitute white light. When a burning taper is let down 
 into ammoniacal gas it goes out three or four times succes- 
 sively, but at each time the flame is considerably enlarged by 
 the addition of another flame of a pale yellow color, and at last 
 this flame descends from the top of the vessel to the bottom. — 
 Priestley, ii., 381. 
 
 The composition of ammonia is well known to be hydrogen 
 and azote, the oxides of manganese, gold, or mercury, when 
 treated with it are reduced, the ammonia disappears, and azotic 
 
 g 2 
 

 84 EFFECTS ON VEGETABLE JUICES. 
 
 gas remains, as proved by Scheele. Oxide of copper, similarly 
 treated by M. Bertholet, was reduced, one part of the hydrogen 
 of ammonia combined with the oxygen of the oxide, and 
 produced water, and the azote Mas disengaged in the state of 
 gas, — the analysis of ammonia by Bertholet, 121 azote, and 21) 
 hydrogen, Mem. Pav., 1785. By Dr. Austin, 121 azote, 32 
 hydrogen. Phil. Trans., 1788. 
 
 OF NITROUS ACID. 
 
 If oxygen gas is mixed with nitrous gas a quantity of red 
 fumes appear, which are nitrous acid. 
 
 Nitrous acid is of a brown or red color from the combination 
 of azotic and oxyginating rays ; when to this acid, concentrated, 
 a fourth part by weight of water is added, the color is changed 
 from red to a fine green, occasioned by the excess of the 
 hydroginating ray in union with the azote and oxygen in their 
 then existing proportions. Priestley has observed, that water 
 impregnated with nitrous acid, in a state of vapour, first 
 became blue, then green, and ultimately yellow : and this 
 proves the azotic ray became predominant, and caused the 
 change. 
 
 When a solution of the juice of red cabbage is made in 
 warm water, it is of a dark purplish-blue color. It contains 
 oxygen and hydrogen, which are in a measure neutralized, 
 and carbon, which is evidently predominant in coloring prin- 
 ciple* When you add to a wine glass of this liquid a i'ew 
 drops of a solution of either potash, or soda, or ammonia, the 
 color is changed to a green, proving the combination of the 
 azote, of the alkali witli the carbon, and hydrogen of the vege- 
 table solution. 
 
 When to this you add a few drops of any of the acids, 
 
13Y CONSTITUENTS OF LIGHT IN ALKALIES AND ACIDS. 8<3 
 
 (all of which are known to contain oxygen in excess,) the 
 green is changed to red; by adding more of the alkali, the 
 green is restored, and by a fresh dose of acid, sufficient 
 to neutralize the alkali, first the blue returns, and by a 
 further, the red is again reinstated : thus proving the alter- 
 nate change of color, and that it depends on the predominat- 
 ing ray, or mixture of rays then constituting the exposed 
 surfaces of the atoms forming the liquid : evincing the cor- 
 respondence that exists between the original elements, and 
 the properties, qualities, and colors they produce in matter, 
 from the proportions in which they combine to form it ; and 
 that in most instances the reflected rays accord with those 
 rays in excess, in its constitution. There is an exception, as 
 far as color, exhibited in the instance of iodine, in solution 
 in water, but there the yellow tint becomes evident by the 
 neutralization of the coloring powers of oxygen and hydrogen, 
 in their proportions to constitute water. 
 
 There are many instances in which solid and liquid bodies 
 do not exhibit in the color they assume the traces of their 
 composition, they are therefore neutralized as to the coloring 
 principle, and require the addition of agents, the component 
 parts of which are familiar to us, to cause the development 
 of their constituents. 
 
 The acids in a fluid state are, in many instances, trans- 
 parent and colorless. The alkalies are in a concrete form, 
 white, and in aqueous solution equally transparent, and free 
 from color as the water in which they are dissolved ; some 
 metallic solutions are similar. 
 
 Vegetables display in their growth a diversity of color and 
 shade ; and it would appear that the circulation of their sap 
 and juices is essential to the display of those vivid tints to 
 which they owe their tenacity. When they are allowed to grow 
 in places from which light is completely excluded, they are 
 totally white, and void of those colors which they uniformly 
 exhibit when possessed of the natural advantages arising from 
 
86 
 
 ON VEGETABLE AND MINERAL BODIES. 
 
 the presence of light, on which their perfection in properties 
 and color inevitably rests. 
 
 It would seem that they acquire all that is necessary to their 
 growth and stability, under the influence of light in the day t 
 and many plants are known (as discovered by Linnaeus) to 
 close their leaves at night, and open them again at morn, to 
 taste the genial warmth and invigorating action of the rising- 
 sun. 
 
 Plants have been taken from the open air, and placed in a 
 dark room, and having closed or folded their leaves, the apart- 
 ment has been suddenly illuminated with lamps, on which they 
 have again unfolded them ; thus evincing the influence of arti- 
 ficial terrestrial radiating matter, and proving its analogy to 
 that of the solar beams. 
 
 The general color of plants and trees in the state in which 
 they vegetate is green, importing the presence of azote, car- 
 bon, and hydrogen in their composition ; when their leaves fall, 
 and that fermentation takes place, a dissipation of iheir juices 
 ensues, they turn yellow, and often of a reddish-brown, from 
 the discharge of a portion of their carbon in carbonic acid gas, 
 the quantity sufficient to retain the green color no longer 
 exists, and they are yellow from a predominancy of azote, or 
 reddish-brown, in proportion to the acid qualities retained by 
 them, from the presence of oxygen. 
 
 Plants, in their growth, absorb hydrogen and azote, and 
 reject oxygen, but when they are no longer possessed of vege- 
 tative life, they combine with oxygen in their state of disso- 
 lution, which renders the air in forests, in that season, the less 
 adapted to animal respiration. 
 
 In metallic oxides where oxygen is known to be in combina- 
 tion, the color they assume is not uniformly red, but approaches 
 that tint in proportion to the quantity combined and corre- 
 sponding with the nature and original color of the metal 
 itself. Thus the first oxide of iron is yellow, the second ap- 
 proaching deep orange, or reddish-brown the third apiece color. 
 
IRON — ITS COMPOUND TRACES. 
 
 87 
 
 In like manner the 1st oxide of lead is yellow, the 2nd red. 
 According to Doctor Thompson the 1st, or protoxide of iron, 
 is black, and is combined in the following proportions: — 
 
 100 Iron. 
 28 Oxygen. 
 
 The 2nd, or peroxide, is dark red, and is a compound of 
 
 Iron 
 Oxygen 
 
 100. 
 42.293 
 
 The traces by analogy that iron is a compound may be 
 considered probable from the following circumstances: — 1st, 
 that it is known to combine with carbon, in many proportions, 
 j55 part of carbon forms soft cast steel ; 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 part carbon 
 
 common cast steel ; 
 
 1 
 
 TIT 
 
 >s 
 
 the same, but harder ; 
 
 1 
 
 TV 
 
 i> 
 
 ditto, too hard for drawing ; 
 
 A 
 
 )) 
 
 white cast iron ; 
 
 i 
 
 >) 
 
 mottled cast iron ; 
 
 i 
 
 15 
 
 )> 
 
 black cast iron ; 
 
 8J>_ 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 plumbago. 
 
 From Mr. Musket's Tabic. 
 
 Doctor Thompson, in his analysis of iron, communicated by 
 him at the Liverpool Meeting of the British Association, 
 shows that iron contains 
 
 as well as 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Silex 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 2ndly. That it combines with oxygen. 
 
 3rdly. That it will not combine with hydrogen, nor nitrogen, 
 in their simple state ; therefore, as constituents, they are in 
 excess. 
 
 Ithly. That iron affords brilliant light when ignited in 
 oxygen gas ; which it would not do, unless it possessed hydro- 
 gen and nitrogen. 
 
 From the hypothetical theory here presented, we may reason, 
 speculatively, on the implied composition of several bodies, 
 taking their actual color, or that of their combinations with 
 

 ob 
 
 CHLORINE — AND SULPHUR. 
 
 other mutter, as importing a direct trace by which they may he 
 defined. Thus, we may suppose chlorine to be a compound of 
 nitrogen (yellow ray) in excess, carbon (as a compound consti- 
 tuent), and hydrogen. 
 
 One reason to ground such a conclusion is its greenish color, 
 and that carbon will not combine with it. 
 
 Chlorine destroys the color of indigo, in the same manner as 
 nitric acid ; and the yellow ray imparted by the Voltaic circle, 
 which is an instance of their analogy. 
 
 Sulphur affords in its character circumstances favourable to 
 the opinion of its compound nature. 1st. From its color, 
 which is a greenish-yellow, it indicates that nitrogen and 
 hydrogen, with carbon, are constituents ; as well from the 
 color of its flame — a bright violet — in which oxyen, as a com- 
 ponent part of carbon, must contribute the reddish tinge, 
 forming, with blue (hydrogen), the violet color. 
 
 2nd. That it crystallizes at 220° of Fahrenheit. 
 
 3rd. Melted in an open vessel, and poured into a basin of 
 water, it assumes a red colour, is as soft as wax ; but when 
 exposed to the atmosphere, it recovers its brittleness, but re- 
 tains its red color. 
 
 4th. As lac sulphur is, in combination with a small quantity 
 of water, it is white. 
 
 5th. That it combines with hydrogen, carbon, chlorine, 
 oxygen, and phosphorus ; therefore, the simple and compound 
 constituents of which it is formed are numerous, and not in 
 such excess of proportion as to exclude combination with a 
 further minute quantity of any of them. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen burns with a purplish flame. 
 
 The color of arterial blood is florid red ; while that of 
 venous is a dark reddish-purple. The oxygen absorbed in the 
 act of respiration forms carbonic-acid gas, which is evolved; 
 and the alternate changes from arterial to venous blood, and the 
 reverse, while kept up during the life of the animal, are still 
 indicated by the color, evincing the predominancy of oxygen in 
 
 ^^^^■■■■^■■a 
 
BLOOD, ARTERIAL AND VENOUS. 
 
 the red, arterial, and its greater deficiency in the purple, venous 
 blood. 
 
 The action of oxygen gas on venous blood, by producing an 
 immediate change to a scarlet-red color, has been proved by 
 Priestley, Hazzenfratz, and Davy. The effect of atmospheric 
 air is similar. 
 
 Venous blood, exposed to the action of nitrogen, continues 
 unaltered in color. 
 
 When nitrous gas is applied, venous blood becomes a deep 
 purple, which may arise from a further neutralization of 
 oxygen ; for with nitrous oxide it is a bright purple ; with 
 carbonic-acid gas a brownish-red colour, as observed by Dr. 
 Beddoes. 
 
 Azotic gas, and carbonic-acid gas, gradually afford to arterial 
 blood the dark color of venous ; even the removal of pressure 
 produced the change in color, by placing arterial blood in 
 vacuo (Priestley) ; consequently, the appearance of color may 
 be in such instance occasioned by a change in the surfaces 
 exposed by the atoms, on altering the position of their poles, 
 from new acquisitions of additional constituents, or from the 
 abstraction of one, or more : in either case, the position of the 
 poles may be varied, and a fresh surface exhibited, rendering a 
 difference of colour evident. 
 
 Chlorine, when poured on venous blood, produced a deep, 
 almost black, colour (Hazzenfratz) ; while muriatic acid ef- 
 fected no change (Fourcroy). — See Dr. Thompson. 
 
 The predominant constituents affording colour, occupy the 
 upper hemisphere of the compound spherical atoms of liquids. 
 The application of the microscope to fluid bodies while under- 
 going change of colour, from addition of constituents, may 
 afford much information. 
 
1 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 The bodies assumed by the ancient philosophy to constitute 
 the original principles, or elements of matter, have been long- 
 since demonstrated, in the most satisfactory manner, to be 
 compounds. 
 
 The scientific of the present enlightened age have esta- 
 blished, by a general consent, an admission that the undecom- 
 pounded substances, from which all other matter is formed, are 
 now (by an increase of 14 since 1818) in number fifty-four. 
 
 This conclusion has been supported by the difficulties these 
 bodies have presented to the several attempts at their analysis, 
 with the insufficient means we have hitherto possessed in refer- 
 ence to their decomposition. It cannot, however, be advanced 
 in favour of such a system, that it is in desirable accordance 
 with that sublime simplicity — the acknowledged attribute of an 
 Omnipotent creative power. 
 
 It is recorded in the 1st chapter of Genesis, 3rd verse, that 
 when this earth was newly formed out of nothing, the Divine 
 Author of the universe called forth light, as if by the agency 
 of its power, to modify the chaotic embryo of this terrestrial 
 globe, and bestow on it the transcendent beauties of Nature. 
 
 Impressed with this view of the implied agency of. light, and 
 reflecting on the known combinations of oxygen, hydrogen, 
 and nitrogen, existing so generally in the animal, vegetable, 
 and mineral kingdoms ; the diversity in quality, and appear- 
 ance of substances composed of the same original principles, 
 from the simple variation of a diminutive proportion in even 
 but one of their constituents, and that many of the bodies 
 termed at that period (1818), and which are still similarly 
 considered as undecompounded give, from analogy, strong 
 traces of a compound nature, I was induced to venture on the 
 inquiry at a period so distant (1818), with the hope to effect a 
 removal of the difficulties, by enlisting in the investigation 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE MODERNS. 
 
 91 
 
 some lover of .science, to devote his time and talents to the 
 consideration, how far our present systems of physics and 
 chemistry were, or were not, arduously complex, and capable 
 of improvement by a reduction to a state of consistent simpli- 
 city, as regards the original elements ? 
 
 The following catalogue enumerates that extensive corps, 
 whose ranks every lover of science must delight in seeing 
 reduced, by the abstraction of one name which has been 
 allowed to hold a position so eminent, unless unquestionably 
 supported in its title on the basis of truth. 
 
 The reference now made, I beg to repeat, is to the follow- 
 ing fifty-four bodies, at the present time acknowledged in our 
 systems of chemistry, to be the original elements, or undecom- 
 pounded constituents, of which all other substances in nature 
 are supposed to be formed. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Lithium. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Uranium. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Tungstenium 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Barium. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Molybdinum. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Strontium. 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Mangancsium. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Selenium. 
 
 Alumium. 
 
 Chromium. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Boron. 
 
 Silicium. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Glucinium. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Ittrium. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Rodium. 
 
 Iodine. 
 
 Zirconium. 
 
 Vanadium. 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 Bromine. 
 
 Thorium. 
 
 Cadmium. 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Fluorine. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Columbium. 
 
 and 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Tellurium. 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 
 There are but three among this number which form original 
 homogeneous gases, and as that condition is the surest and 
 best test of originality, there ought to be homogeneous gases 
 of every denomination of matter, distinguished as undecoin- 
 pounded. Thus we should have an auric gas, an argentine 
 gas, &c. &c, which is not the case. On the contrary, the 
 only three gases to be denominated perfectly homogeneous, 
 
D0U1JTS OF THEIR CORRECTNESS. 
 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, are not to be found (per se) in 
 the solidified state, but are always discovered in combination 
 with other fixed matter ; which therefore would strongly indi- 
 cate that there is not any .solid whatever* which can be reduced 
 to the perfectly homogeneous elastic, or gaseous state ; and 
 thereby an evidence is adduced, that all solids- must be com- 
 pounds, and if such is the case, the propriety of admitting any 
 solid to assume the rank of an original element, docs not 
 appear to be justified ; and all the other gases, save three, are 
 evidently of a compound nature, including chlorine, which by 
 its color (green), its odour, and its chemical qualities, affords 
 every indication of being, like the others, a compound. 
 
 One of the evidences in favor of the establishment of the 
 compound nature of carbon, is the fact that it cannot be re- 
 duced to the state of a homogeneous gas, while it readily forms 
 heterogeneous elastic fluids, in conjunction with oxygen, &c. 
 Now, if it were truly an original element, it would exhibit itself 
 as such, and we should have a carbonic gas, — the attainment 
 of which has not been effected with all our efforts hitherto 
 applied ; the colour of carbon being black, and its originating 
 from the combustion of vegetable substances of known compo- 
 sition, exhibit strong proofs in favor of its compound nature, 
 while the vegetable origin so recently imputed to the diamond, 
 by Sir David Brewster, from its glutinous and laminar forma- 
 mation*, affords every reasonable expectation that carbon will 
 not long retain the appellation of an original element. 
 
 The difference which appears to exist in the constitution of 
 terrestrial, from that of celestial light, is, that the former is 
 produced from the combustion of oxygen, hydrogen, and car- 
 bon ; the two latter forming carburctted hydrogen, while the 
 
 * If it shall be finally established that the diamond is of vegetable tovvUi, 
 and that in its incipient state it is that viscous or gelatinous production occa- 
 sionally discovered in gardens and the open fields, it may be ultimately traced 
 to the beautiful dew drop, that brilliant, pure, and splendidly pelucid proto- 
 type of the diamond, we may fairly add of the fitst water. 
 
ORDER OF POLARITY. 
 
 93 
 
 first, with carbon, forms (occasionally) carbonic oxide, both of 
 which are inflammable; but pure light is produced by the 
 ignition and conversion of the three original gases, from the 
 fixed to the radiant state, by their combination in the follow- 
 ing- relative proportions in weight and measure, and constitute 
 perfect white or celestial light. 
 
 Oxygen 
 by \vt. 16. 
 
 Vol. 
 5. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 14. 
 
 Vol. 
 3. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 1. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 8. 
 
 The order of polarity exercised in the formation of light is 
 constant and invariable, being by the positive pole of the 
 oxygen with the negative poles of the nitrogen and hydrogen, 
 uniting at the centre of the spherical compound molecule, or 
 corpuscular atom of light. The chemical qualities of the solar 
 ray and of terrestrial light are in some respects evidently dis- 
 similar — while the former exerts a power which dissipates 
 giold, and reduces its constituents to the elastic or gaseous 
 state. Terrestrial light can exercise no power whatever, be- 
 yond the simple reduction of the noble metal to the liquid 
 state*. 
 
 This must be imputable to the introduction of carbon in the 
 formation of terrestrial light, which may cause a difference of 
 polarity in the molecules which cannot probably correspond 
 with the polar arrangements peculiar to gold, and may repel 
 instead of attract, the particles, and such light is consequently 
 paralysed as to its power to volatilize bodies of such con- 
 stitution. 
 
 When the matter of light, however, reverts from the state 
 of radiancy to that of fixation, such transition is effected by 
 a polarity diversified according to the constitution of the Ji,ved, 
 body by which it is (electively, as to its refracted rays,) absorbed 
 
 * The application of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, with the additional aid 
 of lime (the alkalescent earth), where the presence of nitrogen is evident, may 
 be (bund to afford (from the intense white light it produces) the solvent and 
 volatilizing powers of the solar rays. 
 

 94 INVESTIGATION OF THEORY IMPORTUNED. 
 
 and combined. The latitude is exercised of effecting not only 
 a chemical union by the poles inappropriate to the formation of 
 radiant light, but also with those which are the sole and pecu- 
 liar poles by the combination of which light can alone be con- 
 stituted ; and this affords a great and immense amplitude of 
 combination which occasions that variety so evident in the 
 constitution and properties of fixed bodies generally, in the 
 animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms ; and to such an 
 extent of diversification is it carried, that no exact duplicate 
 can he found of anything in nature. 
 
 To the youthful tyro who may be one to indulge me by 
 the perusal of these pages, I must observe, that nothing can 
 be with propriety admitted as an established law in a system 
 of science until supported by a train of incontrovertible facts, 
 in testimony of its rectitude, and therefore the strongest scru- 
 tiny is advisable on the advance of novel views, lest the pro- 
 jector may have been led away by sanguine opinions of his 
 premises, and which might terminate in fallacious conclusions. 
 
 It is not to establish theoretic views, but to induce investi- 
 gation that they are now advocated, as such inquiry (if serious 
 and persevering) may lead to valuable results. 
 
 ABSORPTION AND DISCHARGE OF LIGHT WITHOUT 
 COMBUSTION. 
 
 Light appears to enter into some bodies of a particular 
 description, from which it may be disengaged without the aid 
 of heat, or evident combustion, as shown by the early experi- 
 ments of Father Beccaria on bodies which, when exposed to 
 liirht become luminous, and when removed to a dark room, 
 give out their light for some time, and this property is renewed 
 in those bodies by fresh exposure to the influence of light. 
 
 Such is Canton's pyrophorus, or dry phosphorus, composed 
 of oyster-shell lime and sulphur, exposed to a red heat for an 
 hour. 
 
PHENOMENA OF PYROPHORI. 
 
 95 
 
 The conclusion drawn from tins circumstance was, " That 
 light is not only acted on by other bodies, but it is capable of 
 uniting with them, and afterwards leaving them without any 
 change." 
 
 If we consider, from analogy, that in oyster-shell lime, 
 which is an alkaline earth, nitrogen and carbon are consti- 
 tuents, and in sulphur, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, are 
 present, tliey, in the operation of forming the compound, may 
 absorb oxygen at a red heat. The principles of light, accord- 
 ing to the present theory, are combined in the pyrophorus ; 
 but imperfect in their proportions, and also in their polarity 
 of combination, yet possessing the power to attract and absorb 
 the whole of the rays of light, as it is admitted light is subject 
 to the laws of attraction, and consequently possesses gravity. 
 
 But if the established measure of the velocity of light is 
 granted, we must presuppose a propelling power, which may 
 be repulsion, as before alluded to ; and that force must operate 
 as pressure, and in a direct line from the radiating point ; and 
 under the influence of that force, the absorption of light by an 
 opaque body so composed, and of an irregular unpolished sur- 
 face (less capable of reflection), on removal to a dark room, the 
 direct influence of the pressure of radiant light being with- 
 drawn, instead of retaining what it had absorbed, it is now 
 disposed to discharge it, and possessing in its integral parts 
 the principles which constitute light, although these principles, 
 from want of exactitude in proportion, and other necessary 
 advantages of polarity, are not in their then position cap;ibl<: 
 of immediately becoming radiant matter without an impetus, 
 yet possess the power to develope what they had acquired by 
 attraction, during the application of pressure, and perhaps to 
 render it perfect by supplying any deficiency. 
 
 The discharge of light from the pyrophorus may be rendered 
 more evident by the aid of caloric, as in the instance of the 
 experiments on the glass globes, but consequently the one 
 
96 
 
 OXYGEN DERIVED FROil LIGHT. 
 
 immersed in hot water continued for a shorter duration in a 
 luminous state, the quantum absorbed being equal in both. 
 
 Now, if the pyrophorus had not possessed all the elements 
 of light, and nearly in appropriate quantities, the light would 
 not have appeared perfect. Mr. Wilson has proved that the 
 blue rays act with greater effect than the others, on many 
 pyrophori, and that they cause an extrication of red light. 
 M. De Grosser has shown, that the same occurs with the 
 diamond, which is a natural pyrophorus. — Journal de Phys. 
 XX., 170. 
 
 With respect to the chemical combination between light and 
 other bodies, as in the phenomena of the phosphori, it has been 
 attributed to light that it enters into the composition of oxygen 
 gas ; in proof of which, it has been advanced by Priestley and 
 Ingenhouse, " That when vegetables grow in the light they give 
 out oxygen gas ; but no oxygen is extricated in the dark, even 
 though heat be applied." 
 
 It is evident, hence, that it is not from the atmospheric air, or 
 water, that the oxygen is discharged, as both were present in the 
 dark, as well as when the plant was exposed to light, but that 
 the color of the plant, which depends also on the presence of 
 light, is green, and that the nitrogen and the hydrogen of light, 
 or the greater part of them, are absorbed, and chemically com- 
 bined with the plant, and the excess of oxygen extricated and 
 discharged. 
 
 It has been remarked by Schcele, that when the oxides of gold, 
 or silver, are exposed to light, they are reduced to their metallic 
 state, and oxygen gas evolved, as mentioned by Bertholet. 
 This may be accounted for by admitting it possible that the 
 other rays of light are absorbed by the metal, all but the oxy- 
 genating (red) ray, the excess of oxygen is discharged, the 
 metal is reduced, acquiring hydrogen in predominancy, as an 
 essential to such a state. 
 
 It can be shown, that substances termed inflammable do not 
 
HYDROGEN EXTINGUISHES COMBUSTION, 
 
 97 
 
 burn in close vessels from which bodies denominated (in our 
 chemical system) supporters are totally excluded : the latter, 
 are the atmospheric air, oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and fluorine ; 
 but one of which, by our theory, is considered simple, or 
 elementary — namely, oxygen. 
 
 Now, a common candle, the oils, resins, wax, alcohol, &c. 
 which are known to be compounds of oxygen, hydrogen, and 
 carbon, do not burn in close vessels, unless some one of the 
 supporters are present. 
 
 It will also be found that some bodies require one supporter, 
 and some another (according to their constituents) ; and the 
 only general one, is the atmosphere. 
 
 Hydrogen gas will not burn unless in contact with atmo- 
 spheric air, or its principles. 
 
 If inflammable bodies, in the state of ignition, are introduced 
 into hydrogen gas, they are immediately extinguished. 
 
 Pure carbon is not altered, or consumed, by the strongest 
 heat that can be applied to it, the atmosphere and its consti- 
 tuents being excluded. 
 
 Charcoal, although it is a compound, and known to contain 
 hydrogen, as ascertained by Davy, and oxygen, as imputed by 
 Fourcroy ; and quere, from its color, a portion of azote, as I 
 presume to assert — yet will not burn, if the atmosphere, or 
 oxygen, are not present. 
 
 Bodies composed of carbon and hydrogen, with or with- 
 out other matter in combination, are the most subject to com- 
 bustion in the atmosphere. Thus, we have in coal a familiar 
 example of a body termed inflammable, composed of carbon 
 and hydrogen, as two acknowledged constituents, combined 
 with other matter, when ignited in the atmosphere, which is 
 known to be constituted of oxygen and nitrogen, burns, pro- 
 duces light and heat ; while the absence of the oxygen would 
 totally prevent the formation of light, and would completely 
 extinguish combustion. 
 
 In the experiments made by Sir IT. Davy on inflammable 
 
 H 
 

 BOB 
 
 98 
 
 ■ OXYGEN EXTINGUISHES COMBUSTION. 
 
 gases, lie found reason to conclude, that when explosions occur 
 from sparks of the steel-mill for lighting mines, the mixture of 
 fire-damp, or carburetted hydrogen, with the atmospheric air, 
 is in the proportion required to consume all the oxygen of the 
 air ; and that it is only in about this proportion, that explosive 
 mixtures can be fired by electrical sparks from a common 
 machine. 
 
 When a taper is burning in a mixture of carburetted hydro- 
 gen and atmospheric air, in the proportion of 1 to 12, the 
 flame of the wick is seen within that of the fire-damp ; when 
 the mixture is in the ratio of 1 to 7 of the air, the flame of the 
 wick is no longer visible ; in the latter case, the color of the 
 flame is, at the lower part, green ; middle, purple ; upper part, 
 blue ; showing, that in the lower part the nitrogen and hydro- 
 gen appeared green ; in the middle the carbon, purple ; and at 
 the top hydrogen, blue, prevailed ; but, evidently, oxygen was 
 insufficient in proportion to produce perfect white light. 
 
 Now we also find that if oxygen, which is an admitted 
 evident supporter of combustion, is added in greater proportion 
 than 2i times the volume, to 1 of carburetted hydrogen, the 
 latter ceases to uurn. We also find that carburetted hy- 
 drogen burns when mixed with atmospheric air, as 1 to 7 
 (when it is most explosive), at 1 to 15 of air, and even at 1 to 
 30 ; and that a mixture of 1 of nitrogen gas to 6 of explosive 
 fire-damp, or 1 of carbonic-acid gas to 7 of fire-damp, can 
 totally paralyse their explosive poiverx. This must be occa- 
 sioned by the particular law of combination, dependent on pola- 
 rity and electrical affinity ; as carbonic-acid gas is a compound 
 of carbon, a co?nbi;xtibU>, and oxygen, a .supporter, as they are 
 termed. It would appear that the order of combination, dis- 
 played in the formation of carbonic-acid gas, by the union of 
 oxygen and carbon, is such, that the second atom of oxygen 
 interposes as a protection against inflammation, by exhibiting 
 contrary poles on the surface of the compound spherical atom, 
 to those essential for the production of radiant matter, or light ; 
 
EXACTITUDE OF POLARITY ESSENTIAL. 
 
 99 
 
 therefore, they cannot combine with hydrogen for such purpose 
 till separated*. 
 
 There is a circumstance respecting carbonic-acid gas, men- 
 tioned by Sir H. Davy, worthy of notice : — that an electrical 
 machine, totally surrounded by this gas, is capable of greater 
 excitement than when insulated in hydrogen gas. 
 
 There is every reason to conclude that such should be the case 
 when obtaining positive electricity. 
 
 Now carbonic-acid gas is (as well known j composed of 2 
 atoms of oxygen, and 1 atom of carbon. 
 
 We shall submit for selection two hypothetical arrangements 
 of composition. 
 
 1st. The positive poles of the two molecules of oxygen are 
 united to the negative pole of the one molecule of carbon. 
 
 In this case the positive poles of oxygen are protected from 
 the polar attraction of hydrogen and nitrogen, in the order 
 essential to the formation of light. 
 
 2nd. Let the positive pole of carbon be in contact with the 
 negative pole of one atom of oxygen, Avhile it is at the same 
 time united by its negative pole to the other atom of oxygen. 
 
 Can the carbon, with strict obedience to the law of electrical 
 attraction, occupy a central position, which would oblige the 
 
 * The exactitude of polarity appears necessary, as its deficiency, oi inter- 
 ruption, occasions the complete prevention of chemical union essential to the 
 transition of fixed matter to the radiant state, and causes combustion to he 
 immediately extinguished ; which is proved in the instance of wafer, as well 
 as carbonic-acid gas, and several other bodies similarly constituted, of inflam- 
 mables and supporters of combustion ; for instance, 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 and 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 and 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Oxygen "j 
 
 and > 
 
 Hydrogen. J 
 
 In Carbonic-acid <ras. 
 
 In Ai 
 
 In Water. 
 
 And oxygen in excess in gaseous mixtures oi" earburctled hydrogen. 
 
 II X 
 

 100 POLARITY OF INFLAMMABLES AND 1NCOMRUSTIRLES. 
 
 oxygen to submit to opposite electrical influences at the name 
 moment ? 
 
 It is possible that one atom of oxygen being united by its 
 negative pole to the positive pole of an atom of carbon — form- 
 ing carbonic oxide, which compound atom may unite with the 
 positive pole of another molecule of oxygen, exhibiting there- 
 fore, inappropriate polarity, in the latter instance to permit 
 transition. 
 
 There is a circumstance favorable to such an order of com- 
 bination ; when carbonic acid gas is placed in contact with 
 charcoal, and heat is applied, it loses one portion of its oxygen, 
 and becomes carbonic oxide,— which is capable of combustion 
 in atmospheric air, and burns with a purplish-blue flame. 
 Now, if we suppose the preferable pole of combination of the 
 carbon is the positive, the atom of oxygen would have its nega- 
 tive pole combined, and its positive at liberty to unite with 
 hydrogen and nitrogen, in the regular order for the production 
 of light ; and this is fully borne out by the facts exhibited 
 with regard to nolaritv under the aerencv of the Voltaic 
 battery. 
 
 This appears however certain, that bodies so constituted, 
 that their poles appropriate to the formation of light are not 
 on the surfaces, but at the centre of their compound atoms, must, 
 to enable them to undergo transition to the radiant state, be 
 first resolved into their original elements by separation of their 
 molecules, — and that in bodies termed inflammable, there are 
 facilities afforded as to the needful changes in polarity, which 
 are not to be found in other fixed matter termed incombustible. 
 The form of matter in the elastic or gaseous state, we may 
 conclude is spherical. The atoms or particles, when homo- 
 geneous, preserve their globular shape, having positive and ne- 
 gative poles at opposite points on their spherical surface. 
 
 When combined in the ratio of, for instance, of one atom of 
 oxygen with one atom of hydrogen, the positive pole of one unites 
 with the negative pole of the other, and from the attraction of 
 
ORDER OF COMBINATION. 
 
 101 
 
 cohesion, or their opposite electricities, the surfaces in con- 
 tact are extended to the utmost limit from the primary point 
 of junction, which then becomes the radius of the newly 
 formed sphere, of which the two original molecules are but the 
 hemispheres. 
 
 When formed of two atoms of one body, or element, and one 
 atom of another, the positive pole of the single atom attracts the 
 negative poles of the two others, and a sphere is again formed 
 of which the three molecules occupy compartments propor- 
 tional to their respective magnitude, and governed by their 
 respective densities which determine the position of the posi- 
 tive pole of the compound atom, and those of the molecules 
 which become lateral and superficial. 
 
 In case they are equal in area, the negative pole of the single 
 atom rests at its usual points, but the positive pole of the new 
 compound sphere is to be found on the surface immediately 
 opposite, and these two exercise power as the active poles of 
 the compound atom ; the two positive poles of the two atoms 
 of one of the elements becoming then inert (as far as direct 
 combination occurs), but may act laterally in bodies where 
 great cohesive power is exercised. 
 
 An opposite order of combination naturally occurs, where, 
 the single atom may be united to the two other atoms by the 
 opposite poles to those already described in binary and ternary, 
 and also in quaternary compounds. 
 
 Whether matter is formed of one, two, or three atoms of one 
 element, with one of another, or of two others, or in conjunc- 
 tion with other compound constituents, the same order of 
 union is observed at the centre of the compound atoms ; that 
 is, by the opposite poles of the molecules held in combination, 
 one governing the rest by its powers of attraction, to Avhich 
 the others are separately and collectively subservient for the 
 time. 
 
 The more intense the state oifiosity (occasioned by shielding 
 
BBDQB 
 
 
 102 
 
 NITROGEN IN AGGREGATION 
 
 the poles appropriate to radiant combination), the more difficult 
 the re-solution of matter, whether in the solid or fluid state, — 
 the general agent is heat or caloric, another term for a condi- 
 tion of liglit (as here presumed), by which the fixed bodies 
 are first expanded, their original constituents liberated from 
 the bonds of attraction, and they are prepared for new changes. 
 Even those solid bodies termed inflammable, require conver- 
 sion to the gaseous state to constitute their perfect combustion 
 and re-solution to the radiant state ; and combustion is but the 
 exercise of natural Voltaic electricity operating a continuous 
 change of matter from one state to another. 
 
 Inflammable bodies are usually ternary compounds, contain- 
 ing two original, and one compound constituent — oxygen 
 and hydrogen with carbon — but they are not unfrequently 
 quaternary, having portions of nitrogen, and there are instances 
 in which that element forms the chief component part in union 
 with one or more of the others. 
 
 Azote or nitrogen has been hitherto denominated the only 
 simple incombustible substance in existence; it may require 
 some explanation for giving it a place among bodies acknow- 
 ledged to possess opposite qualities. 
 
 Nitrogen constitutes nearly four-fifths of our atmosphere ; 
 and when we contemplate the duties it performs in obedience 
 to the Divine Power, we must acknowledge and admire its 
 aptitude for the purposes it is destined to fulfil. 
 
 It appears to be the selected barrier opposed to the sudden 
 transition of matter from one state to the other, operating as a 
 moderator in combustion as well as respiration. 
 
 It effectually corrects the energies of combination, which, if 
 unrestrained by its immense and merciful agency, Avould en- 
 danger the safety of this habitable globe, and render man sub- 
 ject to immediate destruction from the first accidental convul- 
 sion arising from a change in the existing state of matter, at 
 once instantaneous, unbounded, and overwhelming 
 
EXTINGUISHES COMBUSTION. 
 
 103 
 
 But it is not on its being an absolute incombustible, that its 
 powers depend, for we find, when combined with certain pro- 
 portions of other matter, it is inflammable, and explosive in the 
 highest degree. Chloride of (azote) nitrogen, iodide of nitro- 
 gen, protoxide, and binoxide of nitrogen, are instances of this 
 description. It is to the excessive proportion of aggregation 
 in which it exists in atmospheric air, Ave are to attribute its 
 negative or neutralizing powers. And we find that oxygen, 
 a well-known supporter of combustion, if in excess, for in- 
 stance, in greater proportion than 2^ volumes to 1 of carbu- 
 retted hydrogen gas (as before stated), totally prevents its com- 
 bustion ; we find also that a taper plunged into a jar of hydro- 
 gen gas, although open to the atmosphere, is at once ex- 
 tinguished, that the hydrogen only burns at the surface in 
 actual contact with atmospheric air. Let it be held in recollec- 
 tion that nitrogen is four to one of oxygen in our atmosphere, 
 and that oxygen, the most brilliant and effectual supporter of 
 combustion, at but 2^ volumes to 1, acts, in the instance of 
 carburetted hydrogen, as a decided extinguisher of combustion. 
 Not from their nature or qualities of oxygen and nitrogen are 
 such phenomena derivable, but from their opposition when in 
 a state of aggregation to permit the junction of appropriate 
 poles of fixed matter, to effect transition to the state of radiancy 
 or light. It is evident also that any of the simple gases will 
 not inflame, nor burn of themselves in close vessels, but that a 
 mixture of them with each other, or in contact with common 
 atmospheric air (composed of nitrogen, four to one of oxygen), 
 will submit to immediate combustion, often brilliant, and pro- 
 ducing much heat and light — for the former is but the latter 
 in an imperfect state. 
 
 The equality of expansion of matter in a gaseous state, has 
 been before observed, and the rays of light are similarly affected 
 by caloric, uninfluenced by their respective densities, or spe- 
 cific gravities. . : m 
 
104 
 
 PHOSPHORUS — ACIDS AND OILS. 
 
 If further instances are necessary to show the effect of pro- 
 portion in the promotion or suppression of combustion, in 
 reference to inflammable bodies and their supporters, it may 
 be mentioned that when phosphoretted hydrogen comes in con- 
 tact with atmospheric air, it takes fire and burns with great 
 splendor ; yet when mixed with oxygen gas in a small glass 
 tube, it does not undergo spontaneous combustion. 
 
 When phosphoretted hydrogen gas is mixed with chlorine it 
 burns with a greenish-yellow flame, but when one volume of the 
 former is added to three of the latter, they combine and disap- 
 pear altogether, and form muriatic acid and a brown matter. 
 
 Phosphorus burns in atmospheric air at the common tem- 
 perature, 55° to 60°, but will not do so in oxygen gas under 80° 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 When phosphuretted azotic gas is mixed with oxygen gas, 
 it becomes luminous, but when phosphuretted oxygen gas 
 and phosphuretted azotic gas are mixed together, no light 
 whatever is produced, even at the temperature of 82° Fahren- 
 heit, observed by Dr. Thompson. 
 
 When oxygen is combined with sulphur on the proportions 
 of 2, or 3 to 1 — the inflammability of sulphur no longer exists. 
 
 In like manner nitrous oxide is capable of supporting com- 
 bustion, but when oxygen is united in greater proportion, that 
 power is no longer retained. 
 
 At the common temperature, on mixture of the mineral acids 
 of great density with oils of the lesser specific gravity, spon- 
 taneous combustion, and vivid light are produced, which depend 
 on the generation of heat of high temperature occasioned by 
 the revolution of the atoms, of which the acids and oils are com- 
 posed, by the friction of which, the electricities are excited, and 
 the action similar to the Voltaic is produced, by which the poles 
 of the molecules are set at liberty, to combine and form radiant 
 matter, and this never occurs unless the presence of the three 
 elements, or primary rays (according to this hypothesis), is evi- 
 
LIGHT — ALIMENT OF VEGETATION. 
 
 105 
 
 dently demonstrable. Thus, when a small quantity of concen- 
 trated nitric acid mixed with a few drops of sulphuric acid, is 
 poured on an ounce of oil of turpentine, instant inflammation, 
 and most resplendent combustion ensues. 
 
 Nitric acid is composed of 1 atom nitrogen — 5 atoms oxygen. 
 
 Sulphuric acid ditto, 2 atoms sulphur — 3 do. of oxygen ; oil of turpentine 
 
 contains of Carbon 14 equivalents — oxygen 1 eq. — hydrogen 10 eq. 
 
 Doctor Ure. 
 Atmospheric air — 4 nitrogen — 1 oxygen. 
 
 Tims we have all the constituents of light (according to the 
 views here set forth) present at one time. 
 
 The influence of light on vegetation is so well established, 
 that it is scarcely necessary to trespass on the reader with fur- 
 ther observations. 
 
 The experiments conducted with so much accuracy by Sir II. 
 Davy, Mr. Knight, and others, to ascertain the aliment of plants, 
 their consumption and growth in a given period, sufficiently prove 
 that they owe to light not only all their beauty, but much of their 
 substance ; for it was found that a plant originally weighing 
 not more than H lb. placed in a tub containing garden mould, 
 the weight of which was accurately noted, the plant was regu- 
 larly watered with distilled water for upwards of two years, 
 while it was exposed to the sun's rays in the day, and carefully 
 inclosed with glass at night ; at the end of the period the mould 
 was taken out and weighed, when it was ascertained that out 
 of 1501b. in weight it had not lost more than 6 or 7 ounces 
 (the dust accidentally blown away) ; while the plant had in- 
 creased to about 67 pounds, having no other aliment than light, 
 and water, and atmospheric air. It is easy to conceive that 
 from the water hydrogen and oxygen were in part derived, and 
 nitrogen from the air as well as oxygen ; but the carbon did 
 not exist in the air or water to such extent, and could only be 
 produced by the action of light in combining the three essen- 
 tial rays in conjunction with the constituents of water and air, 
 to produce carbon ; for it is fully acknowledged that vegetable 
 bodies which grow in the dark, and where light is totally 
 
106 
 
 LATENT HEAT IS LATENT LIGHT. 
 
 excluded, have no fibre, but are watery and unsubstantial, 
 and never reach maturity, or their natural form or beauty. 
 
 In anhnalization, the three original constituents, oxygen, 
 hydrogen, and nitrogen, are admitted as essential, to which 
 carbon (original or compound) is also added by general 
 consent. 
 
 In respect, however, to latent heat becoming evident, by the 
 action of respiration, and the consequent change produced in 
 the blood, without presuming to offer an opinion, I beg to refer 
 to the views of Doctors Black and Crawford, and on the dif- 
 ference between the specific heat of arterial and venous blood, 
 to the facts as ascertained by Doctor John Davy, and that of 
 oxygen gas, and carbonic acid gas, as declared by MM. de la 
 Roche and Berard, with the results of the experiments on the 
 application of artificial respiration kept up in the lungs of a 
 decapitated animal by Mr. Brodie, as recited in the Philoso- 
 phical Transactions, 1812, imputing the production of animal 
 heat to the action of the brain. I shall, without more than 
 reference to opinions emanating from such high authorities, 
 merely submit the following observation, confined to the pro- 
 bable chemical action alone : — 
 
 The accumulation of caloric, or heat, appears to arise from 
 the mutual action of the surfaces of the particles or atoms, in 
 changing the position of their poles, and by consequent friction 
 eliciting those electric influences, on the exercise of which every 
 species of decomposition and re-combination depends, and the 
 energy of such caloric must correspond with the attractive force 
 which is exercised. 
 
 The temperature of the lungs is apparently modified by the 
 caloric discharged in the act of expiration of the air inhaled, 
 as well as by the new portions of venous blood, which succeed 
 the ejection of the arterial, to which is to be added the low 
 temperature of the air inspired ; and that in addition to general 
 circulation the decompositions which take place in the other 
 parts of the body, influence the approximation of an equal iza- 
 
VOLTAIC POLAR ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 107 
 
 lion of temperature throughout. In treating of caloric, or heat, 
 I wish to be understood as not considering it otherwise than 
 as a modification of latent light, which disturbed by the sepa- 
 ration of its molecular constituents, by the operation of natural 
 electrical changes, produces the sensation called heat, termi- 
 nating either energetically in visible radiancy of light, orj'a/l- 
 ingback to a state of temporary quiescence, until the equilibrium 
 shall be again disturbed by some operation of nature or art. 
 
 When we contemplate the variety of purpose to which the 
 elementary constituents of water are applicable, we cannot 
 be sceptical as to the sublime simplicity with which the beauties 
 and excellencies of all we see on earth are produced from a 
 lew original elements, — when we observe that the oxygen and 
 hydrogen gases, in their due proportions, form a limpid, translu- 
 cent, colorless, and tasteless liquid. Again, the alcoholic fluids 
 are highly spirituous and volatile, from a change of proportion 
 and an addition of carbon, then highly acetous from an increase 
 of oxygen ; it must be evident to us that those diametrically 
 opposite qualities are the consequences not only of variation 
 of proportion as to the elementary constituents employed, but 
 of a diversity in their polarity of combination. 
 
 VOLTAIC POLAR DETERMINATION. 
 
 In the operations of the Voltaic circle, it is apparent that 
 the determination of o,r/jgen is to one pole or electrode, while 
 that of hydrogen is constantly to the other, and that nitrogen, 
 which appears to occupy the intermediate position, is occa- 
 sionally diverted to one pole or the other, according to the 
 nature of the substance, or body, submitted to decomposition. 
 Thus in chlorides, the cldorine being a compound (as here 
 presumed) of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, flies to the 
 positive electrode, while the base (suppose soda, a compound 
 in which nitrogen predominates) is diverted to the negative 
 electrode. 
 
108 
 
 HEAT RENDERED EVIDENT. 
 
 It is observable that by the action of the common electrical 
 machine, no effect of heat is exhibited, except on the discharge 
 by which equilibrium is restored and light is produced. This 
 would intimate that the effect of heat is absent, when the 
 direct decomposition of light is occasioned by the separation of 
 the positive from the negative portions of electricity ; but that 
 it becomes apparent only in their re-nmon during their passage 
 through media, the constituents of which are disturbed from 
 the friction occasioned by the energy and velocity with which 
 the decomposed electricity {or light) passes to accomplish 
 re-union. 
 
 In Voltaic electrical operations where the separation and 
 re-union are continuous, it is quite different, the disturbances 
 are unabated, and the excitation progressively increases, 
 so that the sensation of heat is rendered evident, and by dura- 
 tion is productive of what is termed increased temperature. 
 
 Phosphorus, at present numbered as one of the original 1111- 
 decompounded bodies, appears, on the contrary, to be com- 
 posed of radiant matter or light, in such a loose uncombined 
 state with matter which may be deemed fixed or palpable, 
 that it is, as it were, an amalgum of both. 
 
 It has the power to emit light without undergoing com- 
 bustion. 
 
 It will spontaneously inflame on contact with hot water. 
 
 If rubbed on the hands, or any part of the body, in a dark 
 room, it will appear highly luminous, without producing tin; 
 sensation of heat. 
 
 Phosphorus is not luminous in either nitrogen or oxygen 
 gas, but is completely so in atmospheric air — being a mixture 
 of both, as one to four. It is a natural product chiefly derived 
 from animal matter. 
 
 Organized vegetable bodies, which are acknowledged to be 
 composed of the three original elements, oxygen, nitrogen, and 
 hydrogen, with carbon (here asserted to be a compound of the 
 three), become the aliment of organized animal bodies, which 
 
|MWfl| 
 
 PHOSPHORUS IN THE BRAIN. 
 
 109 
 
 are composed of the like constituents, only differing in their 
 relative proportions, and affording other compounds and their 
 consequent qualities, which it is not necessary here to describe. 
 In the analysis of the brain, however, evidence has been 
 afforded of the fact, that phosphorus is a component part to the 
 extent of certain proportions, which are in themselves relative, 
 in a measure, to the sanative state and perfection of the m- 
 tellectual powers of the being from whom the brain may have 
 been taken ; and it has been supposed that when the quantity of 
 phosphorus fluctuates from 2 to 2\ per cent, of the brain, the 
 party was possessed of sound intellect ; while, when it exceeded 
 2^ and reached 3 per cent., there was a degree of eccentricity, 
 and at 4 to 4^ complete insanity ; while, on the other hand, de- 
 scending to li produced imbecility, and to 1 per cent, to the 
 gradation suitable to animals of the lower order. 
 
 The phosphorescent power of the glow-worm and the fire- 
 fly are well known, and that of the pyrosoma Atlantica, as 
 described by M. Peron, observed by him in his voyage from 
 Europe to the Isle of France, is extraordinary and worthy of 
 notice. See Gurney's Lectures, pages 201, 209. By this it 
 would appear that a voluntary power exists in the pyrosoma 
 Atlantica to produce the phosphorescence to the surprising 
 extent described, at pleasure, for its protection and service. 
 These are instances of the production of light without being 
 accompanied by any degree of sensible heat ; and this may 
 arise from the facility of union afforded to the constituents of 
 light which are not obstructed or impeded in their progress 
 to combination, and therefore are not necessitated to submit to 
 that excitation and energy of action, which on most other 
 occasions produce the sensation of heat. 
 
 Phosphorus may be obtained in fine octahedral crystals, by 
 slow cooling in large quantity after fusion, as M. Trantween 
 describes. Doctor Turner mentions in his elaborate work, 
 " Elements of Chemistry," page 288, that the presence of 
 certain gaseous substances, even in minute quantities, has the 
 
• 
 
 110 TRANSITION OF FIXED INTO RADIANT MATTER. 
 
 remarkable effect of preventing the slow combustion of phos- 
 phorus, at 66° of Fahr. : it is entirely prevented, as observed by 
 Mr. Graham, (Quarterly Journal of Science, N. S.. vi, 83.) by 
 presence of 
 
 1 Volume of olifiant gas 
 
 1 , , vapour of sulphuric ether 
 
 1 ,, vapour of naphtha 
 
 1 , , vapour of oil of turpentine 
 
 Volumes of air. 
 
 in 450 
 
 150 
 
 1820 
 
 4444 
 
 It is rational to impute to the presence of phosphorus that 
 beautiful exhibition of prismatic colors, which is visible in 
 mother-of-pearl, &c, being phosphate of lime, &c. 
 
 TRANSITION OF FIXED INTO RADIANT MATTER. 
 In the celebrated experiment on the oxygen and hydrogen 
 
 gases, for the production of water, by three eminent French 
 chemists, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Seguin, in 1790, in 
 which 7249 grains in water, of the gases, were ignited with 
 the greatest care and precision, there was at the termination 
 an evident loss, or absence of the fixed matter under operation, 
 to the extent of 5 grains=lT?Vff t ^ 1 part of the whole. 
 
 From this and other similar operations on the gases, and 
 also from some of the many experiments of Doctor Thompson, 
 in his analytical pursuits, where results of deficiency have 
 occurred, I should venture to define the relative proportion of 
 matter which passes directly to the radiant state of light, to 
 be equal to the l-1500th part of the whole of the fixed matter 
 submitted to ignition, where the two gases, oxygen and hydro- 
 gen, are alone employed, or in conjunction with solids or 
 fluids, which require reduction to their original elementary 
 constituents. But from the excessive quantify of light pro- 
 duced by the ignition of the three gases, oxygen, nitrogen, 
 and hydrogen together, the computation of the amount of 
 direct transition to the radiant state, must very far exceed 
 that proportion, and may be found to equal 1 -500th part of the 
 gases employed. 
 
ON THE METALS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 That such a small proportion of matter as appears to he 
 convertihle from the fixed to the radiant state, not only hy the 
 customary operations of nature, but those of mankind in the 
 accomplishment of the arts, is an instance of the Divine care 
 % which presides over the universe, preserving that perfect and 
 essential equilibrium, so necessary to the existing course of our 
 system. And while an excess of nitrogen exists in our atmo- 
 sphere exceeding the oxygen, by 4 to 1, or in a ratio of 80 to 
 20, instead of being as 3 to 5, or 15 to 25, the needful quan- 
 tity of oxygen is to be found combined with matter in the form 
 of earths and water, and providential protection is doubly in- 
 sured by the hydrogen in like manner being held in combina- 
 tion, to perform the particular functions allotted to it. 
 
 Thus but small portions of the three gases essential to the 
 formation of light are to be found at any time in an appropriate 
 state of freedom and proximity, for sudden transition from the 
 fixed to the radiant state, and consequently perfection reigns 
 around. 
 
 ON THE METALS. 
 
 The existence of hydrogen as a redundant constituent in 
 all the metals is rendered more than probable by the color 
 of the light they afford, on submission to the action of Back- 
 hoffner's electro-magnetic machine, and modification of Profes- 
 sor Daniel's battery, with Palmer's arrangement of binding 
 screws, &c, thus — 
 
 Gold exhibits Whitish green-coloured light. 
 
 Silver , , Bright green. 
 
 Platina , , White. 
 
 Brass , , Green. 
 
 Tin , , Purple (bright). 
 
 Iron ,, Purplish-blue with reddish-brown scintillations. 
 
 Zink , , Bright live with red distinct. 
 
 Lead , , Violet (bluish). 
 
 Bismuth , , Bluish-purple. 
 
 In every one of the above, save platina, the blue ray or 
 

 wt^m 
 
 112 
 
 COLOR OF LIGHT FROM METALS. 
 
 hydrogen, is evident: by analogy we might venture to predicate 
 the analysis of the metals, from the colors they display in this 
 experiment ; thus (speculatively supposed) would stand the pro- 
 portional constituents : — 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Color. 
 
 
 
 xygen. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 "y 
 
 Irogen. * 
 
 Gold . 
 
 Whitish green 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 Silver . 
 
 Bright "-reen 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 Platina 
 
 . White . . 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Brass, a com-1 ^ 
 
 ' , , (Green . 
 pound metal' 
 
 • • 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 Tin . 
 
 Purple . 
 fPurplish-blue, 
 
 with 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 Iron 
 
 . < reddish-brown Scan- 
 
 8 . 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 5 
 
 
 ia tillations . 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zinc . 
 
 J Bright blue and dis-} 
 { Unci red . . 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 Lead 
 
 . Violet . . 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Bluish purple 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 We may consider it probable, that in the conformation of 
 the metals the polarity may be such that those poles appro- 
 priate to the organization of radiance may be always in the 
 centre of the compound atom, and so protected in their com- 
 bination that their re-solution, first to the fluid and then to the 
 gaseous state, is extremely difficult. Thus we may suppose 
 a molecule of oxygen united by its radiant proper pole (the 
 positive) to the tivo or three negative radiant proper poles of 
 nitrogen. That next a molecule of nitrogen is united by its 
 radiant proper pole, the negative, to the two or three radiant 
 proper positive poles of oxygen ; that a similar arrangement 
 occurs with hydrogen ; and that the metals, not noble, may 
 have arrangements in polarity, where, by the union between 
 nitrogen and hydrogen, one of their radiant poles proper must 
 of necessity (being both negative) be always exposed on the 
 surface of the compound atom, by which easier reduction or 
 fusibility, and lower specific gravity, may be occasioned. And 
 that from gradual disparities in polar arrangement of other 
 bodies increasing the exposure of the poles (I denominate for 
 
POSITIVE ELECTRICITY — RED RAY — OXYGEN. 
 
 113 
 
 brevity sake " radiant proper") on the surfaces of the com- 
 pound molecules, every degree of inflammability may be 
 attained, and that in phosphorus the entire of the poles radiant 
 proper are completely exhibited on the surfaces of its atoms, and 
 its transition is consequently voluntary and difficult to restrain. 
 
 While experimenting on BackhofFner's electro-magnetic 
 machine at Mr. Palmer's, of Newgate-street, of whom I pur- 
 chased it (and where many very interesting specimens of 
 philosophical apparatus are to be found), he was so good to 
 point out a curious phenomenon in electricity he had accident- 
 ally observed, and could not account for. On applying an 
 instrument of flat plate-glass, with the word Fire written in 
 extended parallel lines, with the usual dots of foil, and a dis- 
 charging ball of brass attached, he observed, on holding the 
 end of his thumb at about an inch distant from the foil on 
 the wooden handle, that a most brilliant and beautiful spark 
 of an inch in length, of distinct homogeneous red light, was 
 obtained, and continued to be discharged, from a common elec- 
 trical machine, with a cylinder of about 12 to 14 inches in 
 length. 
 
 The machine was charged with positive electricity, and 
 the colour of the light was of the intensity and brilliancy of 
 the red prismatic ray of the solar beam. 
 
 I repeated the experiment immediately in broad daylight, 
 and had the satisfaction to obtain an additional proof in corro- 
 boration of my views to the one kindly afforded me, by Mr. 
 Abraham of Sheffield, at the meeting of the British Associa- 
 tion at Liverpool, in September last, to which I have before 
 alluded, that oxygen and the red ray of solar light and posi- 
 tive electricity are identical. 
 
 It is in substance mentioned in that excellent work, Dr. 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia, in the volume containing that 
 admirable discourse on Natural Philosophy, by J. F. W. 
 Herschel, Esq., M. A., &c, late Fellow of St. John's, 
 Cambridge. 
 

 114 
 
 THEORIES, HOW FORMED 
 
 That the verification of theories depends much on " collect- 
 ive data," and that the inferences to be drawn from their 
 comparative coincidence afford an average of proofs, far 
 superior to that of a single (although more glaring) 
 instance, and being consequently less liable to erroneous con- 
 clusions. 
 
 Of the three prescribed ways by which we may possibly 
 arrive at the knowledge of the laws which regulate the action 
 of our primary agents, our desired ver^e causae, I have pur- 
 sued the second for the reasons I shall beg to submit. The 
 first is (briefly) by a continued series of inductive reasoning, 
 " inferring from circumstances the amount and intensity in 
 each particular case, and then by piecing together these ' dis- 
 junct a membra^ generalizing from them, and so arriving at 
 the laws desired." The second, " By forming at once a bold 
 hypothesis, particularizing the law, and trying the truth of it 
 by following out its consequences and comparing them with 
 facts." The third is, " By a process partaking of both these, 
 and combining the advantages of both, without their defects, 
 viz. by assuming indeed laws we would discover, but so gene- 
 rally expressed that we shall include an unlimited variety of 
 particular laws following out the consequences of this assump- 
 tion, by the application of such general principles as the case 
 admits,— comparing them in succession with all the particular 
 cases within our knowledge ; and lastly, on this comparison so 
 modifying and restricting the general enunciation of our laws, 
 as to make the results agree."— See (210) Discourse on the 
 Study of Natural Philosophy, page 198. 
 
 There is a degree of presumption so strongly implied by the 
 course selected and followed in these pages, that I deem it 
 needful to offer a few observations in justification. 
 
 The value of inductive reasoning in the attainment of an 
 unquestionably safe gradation of ascension to the most import- 
 ant laws ; founded on a train of incontrovertible facts, must be 
 universally admitted, and that such a system of inquiry, 
 
COURSE SELECTED — MR. CROSS'S EXPERIMENTS. 115 
 
 although slow in progress, is at least guarded by circumspec- 
 tion, and must in the end lead to the top of the pyramid. 
 
 The only objection that can be advanced against an unde- 
 viating adherence to this process is, the period required for its 
 operation, that if in our pursuits so far on our journey a pros- 
 pect lias presented itself indicating, from the data already 
 obtained, that it is not longer needful to restrict ourselves 
 further in the outworks, but that the way is now open (equal 
 to the great Western Railway), and by the train of extraor- 
 dinary and astounding discoveries of recent development, we 
 may be at once conveyed equally safe by a course of projection 
 by which we can attain the desired terminus, with much 
 greater celerity, why not let some of the daring amongst us 
 attempt the achievement ? 
 
 To those friends of science who are so disposed, I beg with 
 deference to submit this theory with the analogous, presump- 
 tive, collateral, and direct evidences with which it is accom- 
 panied — not for its establishment, but (as I have before 
 repeated) its rigorous investigation, with the assured hope 
 that some little benefit may be derived from the discussion. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Cross have been productive of great 
 benefit: they have elicited inquiry and have called the attention 
 of many scientific gentlemen to the Theory of the formation of 
 metallic depositions, by the agencies of electricity, in the con- 
 stant exercise of the unceasing Voltaic apparatus* of nature, 
 under the providential control of that Divine Power, the Author 
 of all good. 
 
 Some ill-founded sceptical objections have, I believe, been 
 very inconsiderately raised on the subject of the latter experi- 
 ments of Mr. Cross, in reference to the accidental production 
 of animalcule, from such materials as he has applied, in so 
 much as they have ever been considered hitherto in direct oppo- 
 sition to the support, as well as to the formation, of bodies in 
 
 * To Mr. Children, F.R.S., is justly due the honor of having formed the 
 first Voltaic battery of great magnitude in England. 
 
 i 2 
 

 
 116 ANIMATION IN CORROSIVE MEDIA SUPPORTS THEORY. 
 
 animated nature. The existence of independent mate- 
 riality is so universally condemned, that there is not to he 
 found an atheist on earth to proclaim himself such ; or a man 
 so daring as to acknowledge the bare contemplation, much less 
 the avowal, of such irrational opinions ; and the timorous 
 mind may satisfy itself, that the production of animalculae by 
 Mr. Cross, from the action or agency of bodies of a reputed 
 poisonous nature, is about as effectual in lessening our faith 
 in divine omnipotence, as the production of mites in cheese, 
 exhibiting, as they do by their existence, the bountiful eco- 
 nomy observable throughout the universe. 
 
 On the contrary, it would only show us the implied simpli- 
 city of the primary constituents, their paucity in number, and 
 universal application for the beneficial purposes of man, so 
 that the same constituents which in one instance have per- 
 formed their duty, as light, air, the grass of the field, the 
 sustenance of the cow, milk, cheese, passing in its stages of 
 fermentation (the putrefactive) to the formation of minute 
 animated insects, to be again (at their termination of life) 
 resolved into the appropriate forms, to resume alternately the 
 prescribed round of unceasing change. — In the second in- 
 stance we find that the same constituents having been exhi- 
 bited in the shape of corrosive acids and insipid earthy matter, 
 by mutual re-action, and by being submitted to Voltaic arrange- 
 ments mechanically applied, have produced a species of animal- 
 culee which from their organization are able to sustain life, in 
 the deleterious mediae in which they originated, and are an 
 example of the protection afforded by polar arrangement, and 
 rather a support to this hypothesis as showing the opposite pur- 
 poses to which the primary elements of matter are, by varia- 
 tion of the order exercised in their polarity of combination, 
 capable of being applied. 
 
 Bacon says, " There are two principal services, besides orna- 
 ment and illustration, which philosophy and human learning 
 perform to religion : the one consists in effectually exciting to 
 
REVEALED RELIGION SUPPORTED BY SCIENCE. 
 
 117 
 
 the exaltation of God's glory — the other affording a singular 
 preservation against unbelief and error." — De Augmentis Sci- 
 entiarum. Bacon's Works, London, 1818, vol. vi. p. 63. 
 
 If mammoths have ceased to exist, and that they have only 
 been the precursors of the elephant, and other useful mam- 
 malia which have succeeded them, who is it can question their 
 utility for a time, and the benefit of the exchange ? 
 
 The mask of prej udice is torn away, and we see and admire, 
 from the cultivation of the sciences, all that can inspire us, 
 by opening new sources of intellectual enjoyment, to confirm 
 our faithful dependence on the blessings of a superintending 
 Omnipotent power. 
 
 This is the effect of true philosophy : and its concordance 
 with religion is so well described in the " Lectures on the 
 Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion," by the 
 Rev. Dr. Wiseman, that I beg to give a short extract from that 
 elaborate and valuable work : — 
 
 " And thus Ave come to form a noble and sublime idea of 
 religion, to consider it as the great fixed point round which the 
 moral world revolves, while itself remains unchanged ; or, rather, 
 as the emblem of Him who gave it the all-embracing medium 
 in which every other thing moves, increases, and lessens, is 
 born and destroyed, without communicating to it essential mu- 
 tation, but, at most, transiently altering its outward manifesta- 
 tion. — We come to consider it as the last refuge of thought, 
 the binding link between the visible and invisible, the revealed 
 and the discoverable — the re-solution of all 'anomalies — the 
 determination of all problems in outward nature and in the 
 inward soul — the fixing and steadying elements of every 
 science — the blank and object of every meditation. It appears 
 to us even as the olive, the emblem of peace, is described by 
 Sophocles, — a plant not set by human hands, but of sponta- 
 neous and necessary growth in the great order of creative 
 Wisdom ; fearful to its enemies ; and so firmly grounded, as 
 that none, in ancient or later times, hath been able to uproot it." 
 

 118 
 
 EXPERIMENTS PROPOSED — ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 It is satisfactory to all lovers of the sciences to know, that 
 the absurd opinions of the fancied opposition of philosophy to 
 religion, have ceased to exist in the most prejudiced minds ; 
 and that discoveries in the nature of the physical laws of 
 the universe, so far from creating irreverence, promote our 
 ardent desires to pay our voluntary homage and adoration to 
 the Divine Author of our being. 
 
 I shall add a few suggestions in reference to the subjects for 
 experiment, which it had been my intention to have proposed 
 to the learned and scientific gentlemen who composed the Com- 
 mittee of Mathematics and Physics, at the late Meeting of the 
 British Association at Liverpool, had opportunity permitted ; 
 but as the Section was so very much occupied to the last hour 
 with matters of more importance, I pledged myself to Mr. Lub- 
 bock, the Vice-President, occupying the chair at the moment of 
 finally closing the transactions, that I should take the earliest 
 opportunity of placing before the Royal Institution (of which I 
 have the honor to be a member) a complete epitome of my views ; 
 and that I should publish them, for the purpose of exciting 
 investigation as soon as possible, with the hope that something 
 might be elicited by experiment, previous to the next annual 
 meeting of the British Association. 
 
 First Subject of Experiment. 
 
 That observations should be made at distant stations, by the 
 gentlemen habitually engaged in astronomical pursuits, 
 to ascertain the electrical state of the atmosphere at a 
 certain hour, say 9 o'clock of the morning, at noon, and 
 at 10 o'clock at night, for a given period*, with a view 
 
 * I had in September last, when at Liverpool, proposed to Lieut. Mor- 
 rison, R.N., to undertake, with his excellent electrometer, the necessary 
 series of observations at Cheltenham ; at the same time I had the pleasure to 
 communicate to him some of my views, as well as to other gentlemen, mem- 
 bers of the British Association ; which views I had then hoped to have imme- 
 diately submitted to that body, that more general tests as to its fallacy, or 
 rectitude, of conception, might be applied, in reference to the Theory here set 
 forth. 
 
ON ELECTRICITY — METALS — CHARCOAL. 119 
 
 to ascertain if the average was positive in the day — ne- 
 gative at night. 
 
 Second. 
 
 That experiments should be instituted with electrical ma- 
 chines on positive electricity, noting its effects on oxygen 
 gas and nitrogen gas as separate media, in which the 
 machine may be enclosed, while the discharges of sparks 
 may be given through any of the three gases, including 
 hydrogen ; the latter with due precaution against explo- 
 sion. That the color of the electrical spark should be 
 noticed, as afforded by the usual conductors, and by the 
 substitution of others of various composition. That a 
 machine should be prepared, capable of affording, with 
 accuracy and convenience, negative electricity ; and 
 the same trials instituted as to color and effects with media 
 and conductors of various constitution. Experiments on 
 negative electricity, having been but too long neg- 
 lected, if resumed, may lead to very important results, 
 and the production of very interesting phenomena. I am 
 now having one made, of which report shall be given in 
 due course. 
 
 Third. 
 
 That renewed experiments should be instituted, to effect, if 
 possible, the decomposition of the metals, or their reduc- 
 tion to the gaseous, or elastic state, which might be done 
 on very minute quantities by the Voltaic electricity, in 
 closed chambers, exhausted, or otherwise. That the same 
 should be applied to charcoal. That the first operations 
 might be exercised on iron and zinc, as holding out pros- 
 pects of easier decomposition. That also some interesting 
 experiments on the decomposition of chlorine might be 
 suggested to gentlemen familiar with analytical pursuits ; 
 and that the publication of such proposed experiments 
 

 120 ON MAGNETIC INFLUENCES OF SOLAR LIGHT. 
 
 might be afforded, through the medium of some scientific 
 periodical work, for the promotion of science. 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 That a course of experiments should be instituted by such 
 scientific gentlemen as may find leisure and disposition to 
 individually undertake them, (the more numerous the 
 better) on the refracted homogeneous rays of solar light, 
 to ascertain their effects peculiar and distinct, on matter 
 of known constitution on the metals, the acids, alkalies, 
 on the separate homogeneous gases, and on chlorine, and 
 the heterogeneous gases ; and particularly in reference 
 to the magnetic and counteracting influences by the three 
 homogeneous rays. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 That magnets of ascertained intensity of power be submitted 
 to the influences of oxygen, positive electricity, and the 
 red ray of solar light, as also the red ray of refracted arti- 
 ficial light, produced by the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, 
 with the aid of lime, alkalescent matter, and with char- 
 coal, with the view of deciding the identity of oxygen 
 with positive electricity, and with the red ray of celestial 
 and of terrestrial light. 
 
 Sixth. 
 
 That further experiments should also be attempted in pro- 
 ducing magnetic power by the blue ray and violet, end of 
 the spectrum, with and without the aid of auxiliaries, 
 such as alkalescent and hydrogenous matter, and with 
 phosphorus and sulphur. 
 
 Seventh. 
 
 That particularly on the inflammation of the three gases in 
 the proportion mentioned in the 9th article of this Theory, 
 for the product of perfect white light, and with modifica- 
 
FORMATION OF LIGHT — IN PROOF OF THEORY. 
 
 121 
 
 tions of such proportions relatively, to approximate the 
 most approved result. With a view to enable young opera- 
 tors to act with greater safety against EXPLOSION in 
 the last proposed operation, I beg to state that I have 
 procured and used for my purposes three brass stop-cocks, 
 with adapted jets of small calibre, attached to bags of 
 caoutchouc, of capacity sufficient to hold the three gases 
 separately, and by placing the points of the two con- 
 taining the oxygen and nitrogen in direct contact, inserted 
 in a small pipe or jet, so that they may combine when in 
 the act of uniting with the stream of hydrogen issuing 
 from the jet of the bag kept separately and containing it, 
 by applying distinct and well regulated pressure, the pro- 
 portions may be modified in discharge, to produce the best 
 possible composition of light, and by such other experi- 
 ments as may be deemed capable in their results, of confut- 
 ing or establishing satisfactorily, all or any of the points 
 described in these pages, as essential in reference to 
 this Theory. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The annexed Prospectus was first printed in Newcastle-onV 
 Tyne, in 1818, and afterwards in 1820, in London. From the\ 
 first, copies were sent to a number of gentlemen devoted to 
 science, with a view to excite inquiry. 
 
 I had originally intended to have published a small treatise 
 by subscription, but abandoned the idea, determining to wait 
 the period when perhaps some further discoveries in physical 
 science might create an interest on the subject, which at the 
 time did not appear to prevail. 
 
 That epoch has at length arrived ; in every new work I now 
 have the gratification to find some fact in support, or some new 
 hint or opinion advanced, which shews the correspondence of 
 the writer on one or more points, in which we perfectly coin- 
 cide in opinion, and such parallel concurrences, often from 
 particularly distinguished authorities, are most gratifying, as 
 they afford me conviction, that I am not a solitary, indulging 
 in vague and visionary fallacies, for there are hundreds who 
 think and reason as I do, on a considerable portion of what I 
 conceive it eligible to investigate, with a view if not fully, at 
 least partially, to establish. 
 
 When this Prospectus was written, in the winter of 1817, 
 the greatest correction of the errors of the Newtonian Spectrum, 
 had been confined to Dr. Wollaston's reduction of the prismatic 
 Colours from seven to four. I repeated his experiments, 
 and was concluded by the same fallacious views, as in my 
 observations, I found the red and yellow rays well defined, at 
 one end of the Spectrum, the blue and violet equally so, at the 
 
■ 
 
 
 124 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 / 
 
 other, when afforded by the triangular prism, white light 
 intervening. 
 
 I always felt strong suspicion of the want of originality in 
 the viOLET-coloured ray, and yet as I could not at the time get 
 rid of it, without injustice, from the defined position it seemed 
 to retain, and confirmed as it then stood, by opinions of such 
 high authority, I was obliged to let carbon stand as the only 
 solid element in existence, while I freely consigned to the list 
 of compounds, all the metals, from the analogous and collateral 
 proofs I then possessed, of their want of originality of 
 constitution. 
 
 My first calculations were made on terrestrial light, in 
 which carburetted hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, were used, in 
 the proportions stated in the analysis, in page 2 of the Pros- 
 pectus. I have thought it better to give the original Prospectus 
 with all its errors, as it was printed and circulated, my 
 corrected views and opinions being sufficiently declared 
 in the Theory I have now presented. 
 
 Years had rolled on, and actively engaged in pursuits 
 requiring the application of nearly the entire of my time, I 
 continued to occasionally taste the enjoyments of Science, 
 always rejoiced at her advance, but to devote no labour 
 to the furtherance of my hypothesis, until by accident, about 
 two years since, happily meeting with Mr. Field, I was, 
 for the first time, struck with his prismatic lens, and its 
 effects in establishing the reduction of the original prismatic 
 rays, to three, with which the learned President of the 
 Section of Physics and Mathematics, of the British Asso- 
 ciation, Sir David Brewster's discoveries, perfectly accorded. 
 I was consequently enabled to do, «onsistently with my 
 opinions, what I had long desired, to dismiss carbon from 
 a position of constituency in celestial light ; and convinced 
 that as it was not there to be found, and that the perfect 
 imitation of Celestial Light was to be effected experimentally, 
 by the ignition of the three original gases, Oxygen, Nitrogen, 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 125 
 
 and Hydrogen ; and that as Carbon was not necessary, though 
 commonly present in terrestrial light, it must be a compound 
 of the three, and which I expect will be shortly fully demon- 
 strated, from better authority, by its analysis. We have at 
 present the indirect testimony, that it has not been reduced to 
 the elastic or gaseous form, per se, and until such shall be 
 the case, its title to be considered an element is fairly chal- 
 lenged, as are those of the metals, and all other bodies 
 of fixed matter, the three before-mentioned original gases 
 excepted. 
 
 PROSPECTUS 
 
 Of a New Work, entitled "The Elements of Radiant and Fixed 
 Matter," Octavo Size, with Plates, containing the direct 
 evidences in support of the following Theory of Matter, in 
 which are described its presumed original Basis, with the Laws by 
 which its reciprocal Transition to and from the State of Radiance 
 and Fixation appears to be governed. 
 
 ORIGINAL THEORY. 1818. 
 
 Matter exists in four forms, — the solid, fluid, aeriform and radiant. — 
 The three first may be denominated inert or passive, and to the agency 
 of the last, aided by caloric, are to be attributed the several changes 
 evinced throughout the universe. 
 
 Light is a material compound, composed of the four* simple elemen- 
 tary principles, or undecompound constituents of matter, of which all 
 other bodies in nature are formed. 
 
 By a prism, light is divisible into four original prismatic coloured 
 rays, which, by obliquity of position in the act of extended refraction, 
 exhibit three others, which not being innate compounds, may be 
 termed laminar intermediates, partaking of partial colorific intensity, as 
 they severally approximate that point in the spectrum, where the 
 original rays of which they are composed, are as to vision, evidently 
 homogeneous. — See fig. 1, plate 1st. 
 
 * Three in the amended Theory. 
 
126 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The first four* primary coloured rays possess peculiarly distinct and 
 countervailing qualities, and on the proportions in which they are com- 
 bined in matter, and the nature of the polarity exercised in their combi- 
 nation, its specific properties are totally dependent. 
 
 The ray, or the first portion of the spectrum, possesses (as has been 
 already proved by an authority of great eminence) oxydating and 
 acidifying powers, and is here termed the oxygenating ray. 
 
 The second, or yellow ray, displays qualities which pertain to the 
 nitrogenous and alkalescent, and is therefore denominated the azotic ray. 
 
 The third, or blue ray, is distinguished by its analogy to carbon f, 
 and is here considered the carbonic ray. 
 
 And the fourth, or violet ray, is admitted to possess the dispositions 
 of hydrogen, which entitle it to the appellation of the hydrogenating 
 ray. 
 
 1. Light combines with inert or fixed matter, not specifically or bodily, 
 but partially by absorption of its individual or separate rays, electively 
 combined, from certain existing laws of attraction ; and from the colour 
 of fixed bodies, or that of their solution in menstrua of known constitu- 
 tion, or of their flame in combustion, the predominating original or 
 simple elementary rays in their composition may be defined. 
 
 Caloric influences the combination of refracted light, with fixed or 
 palpable matter, when at a temperature not exceeding from 800° to 
 900° of Fahrenheit, but affects the restoration of matter to the radiant 
 state of light, when elevated to 1000° and upwards. 
 
 2. The repulsive power evinced by the particles or corpuscular atoms 
 of light towards each other (when their active poles or those they 
 exercise in the aggregate are paralyzed), is influenced by the peculiar 
 nature of their individual polarity, being tertiary compounds, of a 
 spherical form, combined by one positive and two negative poles at 
 their centre, and therefore exhibiting on their external surfaces three 
 positive poles at such angles as to act with repulsion on liberation from 
 the influence of pressure, or that propelling power which emanates from 
 the radiating point on which the visibility of light depends. — See Jig. 2, 
 plate 1st. 
 
 The greater illuminating power of that portion of the spectrum em- 
 bracing the lighter green and deeper yellow, may depend on the higher 
 specific gravity of those rays, as by multiplying their given relative 
 
 * Three by new Theory. 
 
 t Carbon excluded in the corrected Theory. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 127 
 
 quantities, by the specific gravity of the fixed bodies they represent, 
 they afford from analogy the following data, as their comparative 
 intensity of illumination. — See fig. 3, plate 1. 
 
 Red Ray. Yellow. Blue. Violet. Light Orange or Deep Yellow. 
 9364 12789 6*593 1000 11*647 
 
 Light Green The Mean of the entire Portion. 
 
 10719 11076 
 
 3. The Galvanic Phenomena among others support the conclusion, 
 that the transition of matter to the radiant state of light, is effected by 
 the combination of one atom of oxygen, by its positive pole, in contact 
 with the negative poles, of one atom each of azote, carbon, and hydrogen; 
 and that the reversion to a fixed state, is produced by a combination of 
 the same atoms in a refracted state principally by their opposite poles, 
 with bodies of fixed matter. 
 
 4. The existence of an equilibrium as to such gradual transition and 
 reversion of matter, is not less consistent with its indestructability, than 
 that already admitted in the daily formation of water, and the restora- 
 tion of that body to its original constituents in the gaseous state. 
 
 Light is imperfect in colour and intensity, unless the presence of its 
 four original constituents is evident, and nearly in the following ratio : 
 
 In Volume. 
 Red Ray 16250 
 Yellow 25-417 
 Blue 30-556 
 
 Violet 27-777 
 
 In Weight. 
 Oxygen 55068 or 33 
 Azote 75366 = 43 
 Carbon 3*6031 = 21 
 Hydrogen 0'5880 = 3 
 
 Parts 100000 
 
 172345 
 
 100 
 
 Except one,* all solids, with which we are familiar (the metals 
 included), all fluids, and the whole of the gases (3 only excepted), are 
 compound bodies. 
 
 The colour assumed by bodies in a liquid state, on addition of new 
 constituents, is dependent on a change of position of the visible surfaces 
 of their compound atoms, arising either from an extension of their 
 spheres by the new acquisition or a diminution in magnitude from 
 abstraction of some portion of their original constituents, by which in 
 either case a direct change as to polarity is effected. This may be 
 elucidated by demonstrating the nature of the action of an acid, or an 
 alkali, on the blue colour of vegetable juices. — See fig. 1, plate 2nd. 
 
 • Meaning carbon. 
 
128 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 5. The health and vigour of vegetative bodies, as well as the colours 
 by which they are adorned, is principally attributable to the transition 
 of radiant, matter to a fixed state. 
 
 6. As the crystalline forms assumed by bodies are governed by the 
 number and position of the original constituents in their composition, 
 and as no homogeneous body can consistently exhibit such diversity in 
 its anatomical arrangement, the assumption of such forms by the 
 metals is one of the many presumptive evidences in support of their 
 compound nature. — See fig. 2, plate 2?id. 
 
 7. As all bodies, whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king- 
 dom (as here presumed), are compounds, formed of nearly the same 
 constituents, their peculiar properties and qualities are not to be consi- 
 dered as innate, but are to be attributed, in addition to variation in 
 proportion, to a modification in arrangement, inducing & polar influence, 
 by which their passage to other stages of fixity is facilitated or im- 
 peded, and they are rendered applicable to appropriate changes. — See 
 figs. 3, 4, and 5, plate 2nd. 
 
 8. Thus matter is deleterious alone from an arrangement contrary to 
 that consistent with animal organization, and not from qualities or pro- 
 perties peculiar to its constituents. 
 
 9. The order of polarity observed in the transition of matter from a 
 fixed to a radiant state, is absolute and invariable, while that of its 
 reversion from the latter to the former, by combination with bodies of 
 fixed matter, is subject to a diversity governed by the nature of those 
 bodies, which are endowed with certain proportionate degrees of 
 fixation, or resistance to re-solution, as their poles alone appropriate to 
 connection in the radiant state, are more or less protected from the 
 influence of caloric in producing a separation of their elements. 
 
 As the simple gases, when treated separately and isolated, are indi- 
 vidually incapable of combustion ; and the only one of them denomi- 
 nated inflammable, extinguishes ignited bodies when plunged into it, 
 and in combination with another gas termed a direct supporter of com- 
 bustion, forms water, a body the most opposite in its nature to those 
 which possess inflammability, while azote, the only substance described 
 in chemistry as a simple incombustible with a slight acquisition of 
 other matter, produces the most splendid ignition, — the humble indi- 
 vidual, who with the greatest deference is about to submit the direct 
 and presumptive Evidences he has collected from experiments in 
 support of this Hypothesis, entertains the most sanguine hope to induce 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 129 
 
 a liberal investigation, and thereby to elicit from the more able and 
 efficient efforts of the eminent Philosophers who are the ornament of 
 the present enlightened age, the truth of which he is in search, either 
 by the complete confutation, the appropriate modification, or the 
 ultimate establishment, of the premises here set forth. 
 
 This little work contains, as a necessary appendage, a condensed 
 review of the opinions of the most celebrated for Science, in the earlier 
 and present times, who have expressed their sentiments on the subject: 
 and refers, with due acknowledgments, to the accurate experiments of 
 many Authors of the highest authority (particularly of the present day), 
 for corroborating facts, as it is hoped, deducible in support of this 
 hypothesis. 
 
 By J. H. KYAN. 
 
 There are a variety of other phenomena connected with 
 Light, Electricity, and Heat, which, from the hurry of getting 
 this to press, with a view to lay it before the President, Vice- 
 Presidents, and Members of the Royal Institution, I am in- 
 clined to postpone till another opportunity. 
 
 One particularly, in reference to aerolites, and the nature of 
 the metallic matter in their composition, nickel, and the mag- 
 netic power possessed by it ; also, that these stones are absolute 
 concretions from the residium of gases, ignited by electric 
 currents in our atmosphere, being occasioned by surplus 
 portions of one or more of the original gases acting as a nucleus, 
 and which have no opportunity to unite in the prescribed order 
 of polarity, for the formation of radiant matter. 
 
 Upon what principle is it natural to suppose, that the three original 
 Elementary Gases, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen, are never found 
 as homogeneous bodies in a solid state ? 
 
 The answer is (by implication), they would be so discovered, but 
 that there is not any solid body in existence, established as homo- 
 geneous. 
 
130 APPENDIX. 
 
 Again, why does Zinc, a supposed element, give, with the application 
 of Backhoffner's Electro-Magnetic apparatus, two distinctly-coloured 
 points in the star of Light, one bhie, the other red? 
 
 If it were homogeneous, it could not exhibit such phenomena, which 
 evidently imply the nature of its constituents to be compound ; and so 
 we are by analogy disposed to conclude. 
 
 London: Printed by W. Clowes and Sons, Stamford-Street. 
 
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