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 DESCRIPTIVE t PICTURESQUE 
 
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POMPEII 
 
POMPEII 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE AND PICTURESQUE 
 
 BY 
 
 W. BUTLER 
 
 WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS 
 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON 
 
 MDCCCLXXXVI 
 
 All Rights reserved 
 
THE GETTY RESEARCH 
 INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
POMPEII. 
 
 POMPEII is supposed to have contained from 
 twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants. Of 
 eight gates, only three are exbavated the Er- 
 colana, Marina, and Stabiana; but further than 
 the gates themselves, only the street of tombs 
 before the Porta Ercolana is unburied. The 
 tombs give to it a handsome and somewhat more 
 of a monumental appearance than usual. The 
 gates uncovered are round -arched and plainly 
 built. In their simplicity and strength they look 
 much more reasonable and in better taste than 
 the pseudo - classic of the Porta Capuana at 
 
 Naples. That is one of the best of Eenaissance 
 A 
 
2 POMPEII. 
 
 gates, and would be an elegant and not ignoble 
 ornament in its proper place ; but its deficiencies 
 are made more manifest by the massive earlier 
 round towers at its sides. If the gateway of a 
 town is not wanted for defence, it had better be 
 away, for it only impedes the traffic. The Porta 
 Ercolana, one of the chief gates of Pompeii, has a 
 smaller entrance for walkers on each side ; one 
 to the sea, one to the left on entering ; the gate of 
 Stabia, only its one arch. Just before the Portas 
 Marina and Stabiana are niches for shrines to the 
 deities to whom the gates were dedicated. A 
 statue of Minerva was found in the Marina 
 shrine. Within the town one sees in some cases 
 in the walls of houses near the crossings of 
 streets similar niches or shrines to the Lares 
 Compitales or Viales. At the crossing of the 
 streets of Stabia and Nola, between insulse vi. 14 
 and v. 1, is on the foot-pavement of one corner a 
 very little piazza with its fountain and separate 
 Lares' altar. In modern Italy these are replaced 
 
WALLS. 3 
 
 by shrines to the Virgin. Nor is this resemblance 
 to the discredit of Romanism. The heathens were 
 wrong in making to themselves deities after their 
 own hearts. They were not wrong in thinking 
 that a higher Power was about their ways and 
 about their paths, and that their goings out and 
 their comings in were under His influence. Pro- 
 testantism banishes too much the symbols of 
 religion from its public places. Just out of the 
 Porta Stabiana is a semicircular stone bench, 
 and there are similar semicircular benches near 
 the Porta Ercolana. In the latter case they were, 
 it is known, built in connection with tombs, but 
 served on that account none the less to rest the 
 living. 
 
 The walls of the city near the Porta Ercolana 
 are built of large well-hewn blocks of stone, put 
 together in fine and solid masonry very similar 
 in their construction to the plain but solidly 
 built so-called Oscan tombs. In several other 
 parts the construction is the same ; in others the 
 
4 POMPEII. 
 
 wall is loose rubble, held together by the excel- 
 lent mortar. From the security afforded by the 
 power and order of the Eoman Empire, the walls 
 were no longer necessary; and on the sea side 
 they had been taken down at Pompeii, before its 
 destruction by Vesuvius. There were higher 
 towers at little distances apart: the circumfer- 
 ence is said to have been about two and a half 
 miles. 
 
 The streets are paved with irregularly shaped 
 blocks of stone. The walls of the Volscian towns 
 Segni and Cori are built, in parts, of irregularly 
 shaped hewn stones. The Eomans came to build 
 their walls of regular rectangular blocks ; but the 
 stones of their pavements always remained of 
 irregular shapes, and apparently of the mere 
 accidental shapes of the stones. These are flat 
 on the broader street surface, and notwithstand- 
 ing their irregular shape, are made to fit pretty 
 perfectly. In the streets of modern Italy the 
 pavement often consists of similar largish slabs 
 
STREETS. 5 
 
 of tufa, but these slabs are now cut into oblongs. 
 Unlike most of the streets of modern Italy, all in 
 Pompeii have raised footpaths at times similarly 
 paved, at times differently, according to the taste 
 of the proprietor of the house before which they 
 are. In the street of the sea gate, soon after en- 
 tering one comes to a foot -pavement made of 
 small stones just such as sometimes form a 
 court or yard in England and here they are 
 disposed in patterns. Before the house of the 
 Cinghiale the pavement is plaster, and the plas- 
 ter is crossed with white pebbles forming diagon- 
 ally placed squares. Before the house of the 
 Faun, on the pavement is mosaiced, in red, the 
 salutation "Have." The house of the Diadu- 
 meni, or of Epidius Rufus, stands back a little, 
 and besides the usual footpath, has a raised ap- 
 proach a little wider, to which you ascend at the 
 ends. But this is the only instance in Pompeii 
 of such a terrace towards the street. The streets 
 are mostly very narrow, rather lanes than streets. 
 
6 POMPEII. 
 
 Eight metres is given as the greatest width of a 
 street, including footpaths. 
 
 It is difficult to form an idea what was the 
 appearance of a street. Very seldom does any- 
 thing more remain than the ground -floor and 
 its walls. Only in one case has it been found 
 possible, by replacing the supports with modern 
 wood, to preserve the first storey. In this house 
 it projects into the street, and forms what is 
 called the hanging balcony (balcon pensile). But 
 from the appearance it is evident that the neigh- 
 bouring house had no such balcony. The side- 
 wall or projection of a similar balcony is pre- 
 served in a street near; "but here again the 
 windows round it show that it was an isolated 
 balcony. Indeed in the narrow streets two such 
 balconies, if they had existed on both sides, 
 would have left little or no space between. The 
 houses had few windows to the streets, and these 
 small and high up, to give light to rooms and 
 passages where necessary, not to look through 
 
SHOPS. 7 
 
 and see what was going on outside. The win- 
 dows of the upper rooms in the balcon pensile 
 are rather larger, but still small. It would have 
 been possible for a person standing or sitting in 
 the rooms to see through them, if open ; but they 
 were probably tilled with untransparent glass, 
 and the street being narrow and a wall opposite, 
 there would in any case be little to see, and to 
 have looked into the street the head must have 
 been put out of the windows. Shops had a wide 
 open entrance to the street, nearly as broad as 
 themselves, and serving as both door and win- 
 dow jjBt like the shops you still see in the 
 Ghetto and lower -parts of Eome, and in the 
 smaller towns of Italy. In Rome they are not 
 always shops, but may be the home of a poor 
 family. You see the bed and furniture through 
 the wide opening, and may see the woman dress- 
 ing. This is not to the lower order of Italians 
 remarkable. Indeed combing and dressing the 
 hair often goes on in the street itself. Some- 
 
8 POMPEII. 
 
 times a house is surrounded, like that of Pansa, 
 with these shops, and on the ground -floor at 
 least has only its vestibules and doors touching 
 the street. In other cases the house walls were 
 nearly entirely in the street; but in all cases 
 the rooms of the houses looked, so to speak, into 
 the inner courts, and only the blank walls and 
 a few small windows, in some cases slits, placed 
 high up, were seen in the street. These win- 
 dows seem to have been protected by iron bars 
 and grating as well as filled with untransparent 
 glass. Notwithstanding, then, that their life was 
 passed greatly in public, their houses were ex- 
 tremely private ; and their house life was almost 
 entirely cut off from the public ways. The shops 
 looked into and enlivened the streets, but the 
 houses were almost as much separated from it 
 as an enclosed monastery with its one or two 
 entrances. Not much remains of the wall de- 
 coration externally, even on the ground -floor. 
 Turning from the Nola or Thermae Street towards 
 
WALL DECORATIONS. 9 
 
 the Herculanean gate, between two shops to the 
 left, a little before the fountain, somewhat above 
 a man's height, is a brick projecting cornice : 
 the brickwork below is fine and neat, with 
 very little mortar ; above rougher, and the mor- 
 tar between the bricks is very much thicker. 
 It looks as if the brickwork had shown in the 
 lower part, and the wall had been stuccoed above 
 the cornice. At the back of the edifice of 
 Eumachia, in the little lane called Vicolo d'Eu- 
 machia, the stucco on the wall remains. It is 
 flat below, and above divided into recessed divi- 
 sions, with pediments above, by stripes or plain 
 double pilasters, and within these divisions again, 
 divided in imitation of stones incised at the edges. 
 In Abbondanza Street the divisions go to the 
 ground. In a street a little to the left of Mer- 
 cury Street a house is painted below all red, and 
 above is coloured in patterns of red, yellow, and 
 white rhomboids a few inches in length. More 
 than usual of the street decoration is still on the 
 
io POMPEII. 
 
 walls in Mercury Street itself. It is a wider 
 street than usual, leading from the Forum to the 
 town wall. In it or in its line are the arch 
 from which the statue of Caligula was taken, 
 and another similar arch, both of which were 
 cased with marble, and otherwise adorned. The 
 houses, too, are in great number, large and good. 
 The house of the great Fountain is built with 
 regularly hewn good-sized stones of tufa, incised 
 for about an inch at the edges. There are pilas- 
 ters at the door and at the ends. Where there 
 is stone (which is not very often) it seems gener- 
 ally to have been left visible, sometimes in its 
 plain blocks, and usually has pilasters with capi- 
 tals at the doors. The house of the little Foun- 
 tain is stuccoed in imitation of the stones of its 
 neighbour of the great Fountain. Passing the 
 cross street on the opposite side, on the long wall 
 of the house of Castor and Pollux the lower part 
 is divided into large red divisions by thin white 
 stripes ; above, the stucco imitates stones incised 
 
MERCURY STREET. 11 
 
 at the edges, and above these is a cornice. A 
 little lower down, the house of Meleager is 
 stuccoed flatly, and its lower part is divided 
 into large rectangles by thin red stripes: the 
 rectangles seem lined diagonally white and black, 
 but here the colour has much faded and is hardly 
 visible. At the crossing of the streets is one of 
 the usual fountains, a stone trough, with a raised 
 stone at one end from which the water came, 
 and a sculpture (in this case Mercury) on it 
 round the outflow. In the house of the great 
 Fountain are larger windows than usual, giving 
 light to the two floors. In the same house the 
 windows, where they exist, seem to have been 
 in some degree uniform, but no conformity be- 
 tween one house and another. Mercury Street, 
 though better decorated probably, and certainly 
 wider than usual, may have been made to look 
 more cared for and cheerful by its cut stones, 
 its stucco, and its colour; but it cannot have 
 looked either imposing or beautiful. Such beauty 
 
12 POMPEII. 
 
 as there was outside the houses in Pompeii, must 
 have been confined to the Forums and the public 
 buildings. 
 
 On the street wall there is occasionally a sign 
 e.g., two men carrying a wine-jar, or a phallus, or 
 the serpents (the symbol of the Lares painted near 
 the crossways), or some other bit of sculpture ; 
 but these satisfied some belief, or superstition, or 
 fancy, rather than the claims of beauty. It must 
 have been through the mind chiefly that they 
 pleased the eye. More frequently the walls have 
 some writing, generally red. From the faintness 
 of age, it is difficult to read these, and it would 
 be a tedious work, as well as one of time, and 
 require some previous study of the subject, to 
 make much of these inscriptions. They are said 
 to be sometimes a recommendation to some 
 patron, or supplication for protection ; at others, 
 the recommendation of a candidate to office. It 
 seems to me that these last, perhaps naturally, in 
 the presence of a large slave population, are more 
 
DRAINAGE. 13 
 
 decorous than many of our handbills, and hardly 
 
 come to more than our "Vote for ." The 
 
 serpents also answered the purpose of our an- 
 nouncement, " Commit no nuisance." So Persius 
 explains them for us in his lines 
 
 " Pinge duos angues ; pueri, sacer est locus, 
 Extra meite." 
 
 The atrium, or first court of a Pompeian house, 
 is always a little higher than the street, and 
 generally the ground rises from the atrium to 
 the peristyle or inner court. The drainage runs 
 the reverse way from the open channels round 
 the peristyle garden into the atrium impluvium 
 or its drain, and thence into the street, often not 
 through the vestibule, but under a room. Some- 
 times the peristyle drains direct into the other 
 street. The water ran through the street itself 
 into the river. I have only noticed one under- 
 ground drain in the streets for the outflow of 
 drain-water though, since such drains were uni- 
 versal from the house-courts into the streets, the 
 
I 4 POMPEII. 
 
 method might have been applied to the streets 
 themselves, if thought necessary. In the street 
 leading from the Forum, in continuation of the 
 Via Marina, called, from the sculpture on its 
 fountain, the Via Abbondanza, by the baths 
 called Stabianse, as it approaches the street of 
 that name the ground rises, and here a large 
 drain goes underneath the street. At the cross- 
 ing of the streets it turns down the Via Stabiana, 
 and after continuing under some distance, comes 
 to the surface and has its outflow into the street. 
 For the convenience of pedestrians in the watery 
 state of the streets, great stones the height of the 
 pathways are placed at varying distances, and 
 generally at the crossways, for people to step 
 across on them without getting wet by the water 
 flowing below. In modern Italy the streets often 
 serve also as drains, and incline towards the 
 centre or one side better to serve the purpose. 
 But they have seldom footpaths, and never raised 
 stones to step across upon ; so that if one returns 
 
CROSSING-STONES. 15 
 
 home on a rainy evening, and does not well know 
 the incline of the street, one may find one's self (as 
 I know by experience) walking in the drain part 
 of the road. At these crossing-stones the carts 
 were forced very much into one track between 
 them ; and there are often very deep ruts worn in 
 the cart-road at these points, so deep as to be bad 
 for a cart, more than unpleasant for anything 
 like a carriage. This is one among several signs 
 that carriages were little used, at least in the 
 town. 
 
 There are in most streets, generally at the 
 crossings of two, fountains such as I have men- 
 tioned in Mercury and Abbondanza Streets. 
 They are uniform and as simple as possible, 
 almost the only ornament and variation being 
 the sculpture of a god, or mask, or face round 
 the spout or outflow. Water was conveyed in 
 leaden pipes (Horace) 
 
 " In vicis aqua tendit rompere plumbum " 
 
 to the public baths (several pipes are still 
 
16 POMPEII. 
 
 to be seen in the Thermae Stabianse), to the 
 fountains and baths of private houses, and 
 where required for business, as in the fullers' 
 troughs. Pieces still remain to show their use 
 in both these last cases. But it does not seem 
 to have been customary to lay on water for 
 merely household use. The fountain was near, 
 and labour was cheap and plentiful, where the 
 supply needed was such that labour could con- 
 veniently satisfy it. Even in the present day 
 water is not laid necessarily or usually into the 
 houses ; and fountains, moreover, are not always 
 so numerous and so conveniently placed as in 
 old Pompeii. In Torre del Greco, which lies 
 between the sites of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 and is said to have 25,000 inhabitants, more 
 scattered than, but about the population of, old 
 Pompeii, there is, so far as I have seen, only 
 one fountain, and I have walked over most of it. 
 It is true that that one runs, and runs strongly, 
 out of fifty-four mouths. I suppose that many 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 17 
 
 houses have their private wells. Attention was 
 first drawn to the buried Herculaneum through 
 sinking a well for a villa. But still the old 
 Pompeians were much more practical in their 
 distribution of their water - supply than their 
 successors are in concentrating it. I should 
 say, in justice to the people of Torre del Greco, 
 that fourteen of their fifty-four jets supply a 
 covered wash-house in the centre of their foun- 
 tain. It does not appear how the washing was 
 done at Pompeii. I have noticed one shop and 
 one yard with a number of small coppers, or 
 rather their brickwork, still left. These might 
 have washed in our Northern manner; but the 
 coppers look too many for simple washing, and 
 seem to have belonged to some business. Prob- 
 ably the Pompeians washed in the river Sarno, 
 which then flowed beneath the town. Where 
 there is a natural water-supply from the Italian 
 lakes to the brooks of southern Italy, the Italians 
 use it to do their washing in. In Torre del 
 
iS POMPEII. 
 
 Greco there is no river supplied by nature ; but 
 the seven jets on each side within their great 
 fountain, and constantly running, serve as a 
 substitute. 
 
 Near the Porta Ercolana is an inn at which 
 the foot-pavement is broken into a gradual ascent 
 for carriages into its court. There are two similar 
 entrances, Nos. 2 and 8, in Stabiana Street, near 
 its gate, the latter of which is called, probably 
 from some remains found in it, " Hospitium 
 Hermetis." They were both, no doubt, houses 
 or inns at which the country vehicles could rest 
 as well as travellers: their situation and con- 
 struction at once explain their use. But it is 
 curious that these are the only houses at present 
 uncovered that have a carriage entrance. The 
 largest and richest private houses have only the 
 usual vestibule ascending from the footpath, and 
 one or more similar but smaller postici or back 
 entrances. 
 
 The public parts of the town, the Forum, the 
 
FORUM. 19 
 
 temples, the courts of justice, with the baths, 
 theatres, and amphitheatre, are the grander more 
 architectural, more solidly built, more sumptu- 
 ously adorned. The appearance of the Forum 
 at once carries us back to the time when the 
 individual was less and less considered, and the 
 public life was more patriotism being the high- 
 est amor. Christianity has given to man higher 
 hopes, higher aims, has enfranchised and raised 
 the value of the single soul. Proclaiming as a 
 practical dogma, and of general application, that 
 the truth alone can make free, and that this 
 spiritual freedom is the end of life, without 
 seeking to act directly on the social order, it 
 has knocked the fetters from the slave popu- 
 lation, which formed the majority of the 
 ancient world; it has given to them the rights, 
 the liberties, of citizens and human beings; it 
 has established the equality of all before the law. 
 It has given to all religious freedom, freedom of 
 belief and conscience, with its duties, as well as 
 
20 POMPEII. 
 
 enfranchisement. This inner is to a Christian 
 the highest life. And even in political and in 
 the material life individual liberty is, or at least 
 was till very lately, held to be, by the true mod- 
 ern, the real spring of progress and social ame- 
 lioration, the source of greater improvements, 
 greater benefits, than State organisation could 
 effect. The State's duty was, as a general rule, 
 to interfere with the individual only to prevent 
 excesses, and protect the weak from the abuses 
 of a society founded on the principle of personal 
 liberty. Certain matters of general collective 
 interest fell under its direct action. But in his 
 ordinary life and interests the State's business 
 was to secure his rights and liberty to the 
 citizen, not by its direct action to form and gov- 
 ern him. The creed of English Liberalism, when 
 at least the Whigs were Liberals and Macaulay 
 was their prophet, was that the less the State 
 restrained the free action of individuals the 
 better. Crime must be restrained, order and 
 
FORUM. 21 
 
 justice maintained ; but for the State to interfere 
 with ordinary life, beyond what was necessary to 
 secure justice to every class, and prevent clearly 
 defined and clearly preventible abuses, was held 
 to be beyond its province was thought an in- 
 terference that prevented amelioration and that 
 fettered progress. The strong must not be al- 
 lowed to oppress the weak, the rich the poor. 
 To every class, to every person within his rights, 
 liberty of action must be secured. Corporations 
 must be watched in their exercise of powers 
 given them, and the interests of the public 
 maintained. Children and the weak might so 
 far be protected that undue advantage was not 
 taken of their weakness; but it was the grown 
 man's duty and privilege to fight his own battle 
 and guide his own course, protected from definite 
 wrongs and abuses, and equally checked from 
 committing them. The "nots" were not to be 
 taken out of the Commandments, and the State 
 was not to attempt to tell men what they should 
 
22 POMPEII. 
 
 do. To try and enforce virtue would rather be to 
 corrupt it, and to destroy the basis of liberty on 
 which rested its very existence. Every English- 
 man must be able to say, " I am a freeman " ; and 
 so long as he did no wrong, must not be restrained 
 in his action as citizen, as father, and as man. 
 In these days of German disbelief, Gambettist 
 republicanism, and different kinds of socialism, 
 a different spirit is seeking predominance. The 
 State is to be replaced very much on its ancient 
 foundation. It is to be the higher power, and not 
 only to prevent wrongs, but to guide and check, 
 according to its good pleasure, religious and in- 
 dividual action. Nor do these people see that 
 they are destroying (be their flag what it may) 
 that freedom which is the spring of all modern 
 progress. This freedom still has in France, in 
 Messrs Eenan and Jules Simon, its eloquent 
 advocates, and its battle is being fought in action 
 in more than one country by the Pope and 
 Catholicism. But the life of old Eome was 
 
FOR UM. 23 
 
 built on a very different basis. Its Forum, its 
 streets, its houses, show this to any one who can 
 read the signs they give. But however we may 
 believe that the principle on which modern 
 civilisation is founded is the higher, nobler, and 
 better, it does not follow that the incorporation 
 of this principle in Christian tunes has let go no 
 good points that existed before. It does not 
 follow that modern times can learn nothing from 
 ancient, and that we cannot with advantage in 
 some particulars imitate them. Man is a being 
 of limited faculties ; his embodiment of the truth 
 in action is imperfect, and in following it he is 
 very likely, while on the whole making progress, 
 to have let drop particular advantages that there 
 was no occasion to have lost. 
 
 Pompeii being a small country town, makes 
 the appearance of its Forum and surrounding 
 buildings the more striking evidence of the 
 different place that Eoman civilisation gave to 
 the Government and its attributes. We in our 
 
24 POMPEII. 
 
 capitals and great cities erect statues to our 
 public men, have grand public buildings, and 
 honour the administration of justice by the 
 palaces in which it is exercised. But our little 
 provincial towns have little or nothing that 
 embodies the majesty of public life. It is not 
 so at Pompeii. Its Forum is a fine market- 
 place. It is surrounded on three sides by a 
 fair-sized Doric portico, with its stone triglyph 
 frieze and cornice, in parts still existing. There 
 is not a great deal of hewn stone in the build- 
 ings of Pompeii. Most are brick or rubble and 
 plaster. On the fourth side was the Temple of 
 Jupiter, also of stone, and though not large, for 
 its size a stately building, ascended to by many 
 steps. On each side of it was a triumphal arch, 
 and on the right, a little farther back, was a 
 second, which bore the equestrian statue of 
 Caligula. All these arches now show their 
 bricks, but they were clothed with marble, some 
 of which still remains. There is another base 
 
STATUES. 25 
 
 for an equestrian statue in the middle of the 
 Forum, and several at its opposite end and at 
 the sides. Before many pillars and in front of 
 the macellum are the bases for standing statues. 
 On four of these the inscription remains. They 
 were erected to tliree citizens Caius Pansa, 
 father and son, and to Marcus Eufus, one in 
 his lifetime, another after his death. They had 
 been among the chief magistrates of the town. 
 In what small provincial town of Europe now 
 should we find statues, and that in number, 
 erected to its emperors and chief officers ? In 
 Pompeii there are such statues, erected not only 
 in the chief Forum and before its buildings, but 
 in the amphitheatre, in the theatres, in the tri- 
 angular Forum which formed their promenade (to 
 Marcellus, patron), and occasionally, where the 
 room admitted it, in the streets (to Holconius 
 Rufus, duumvir and patron). These statues were 
 not erected to men who by their genius and 
 inventions adorned and benefited humanity, but 
 
26 POMPEII. 
 
 to men who filled the public offices, and whose 
 only title to honour it was in some cases as, 
 e.g., in Caligula's that they filled them. The 
 statue of Holconius Eufus is now in the Museum 
 of Naples, and is a fine work. Perhaps even 
 more fine, even taken singly, are the statues of 
 the Balbi family, and the bronzes of Mammius 
 Maximus and Marcus Calatorius, coming from 
 Herculaneum. Certainly these last, taken as a 
 whole, form in point of art a very distinguished 
 honour to be paid to the public men of a small 
 town. But perhaps the peculiar distinction in 
 which antiquity held its rulers is shown more by 
 the statue from Herculaneum to the Genius of 
 Augustus, holding in his left hand Jupiter's thun- 
 derbolt ! This is a State supremacy but feebly imi- 
 tated by the strongest Culturkampf protagonists 
 in Germany, with whatever goodwill they main- 
 tain that supremacy by insisting that its officer 
 performs the marriage ceremony, blaming an 
 official who confines himself to the merely neces- 
 
BASILIKA. 27 
 
 sary legal registration, and finding fault, as if he 
 were guilty of high treason, with the poor eccle- 
 siastic who ventures to say that it is the religious 
 ceremony which more properly conveys God's 
 blessing, and initiates into that union which 
 Christ has sanctified and taken for the symbol 
 of His mystical relation to His Church. 
 
 The Forum is almost surrounded by buildings 
 dedicated to public purposes. On one side is the 
 Temple of Apollo, including its court, of consider- 
 able size ; and across Marina Street, the Basilika 
 or Court of Justice. This is also a considerable 
 building, 67 metres long. The magistrates' raised 
 tribunal was at the end opposite the Forum. 
 This tribunal formed a room underneath, which 
 was probably used for the custody of a prisoner 
 before or during the trial. A portico goes round, 
 or it was divided by columns into a wide nave 
 and two narrow aisles ; above the aisles or portico 
 was a gallery from which the public assisted at 
 the proceedings. Its stuccoed walls are broken 
 
28 POMPEII. 
 
 by fluted half pillars, and the space between 
 divided in imitation of hewn stones incised at 
 the edges. These imitation stones are coloured 
 red or yellow. Towards the principal entrance 
 from the Forum was a vestibule, from which one 
 ascended by steps to the Basilika, and similarly 
 to it from the Forum. There are two pedestals 
 for statues at the sides of the principal entrance. 
 On the south side of the Forum are three fine 
 rooms with passages, niches, and one with re- 
 mains of marble flooring, supposed to have formed 
 other courts, or otherwise to have been connected, 
 as council chambers, &c., with the administration 
 of justice. The Basilika being hardly more than 
 a grand court-room, would seem to have required 
 attendant rooms and offices. On the east side of 
 the Forum, near the Abbondanza Street, was the 
 edifice of Eumachia. There was a shrine to 
 Eomulus, with his statue near its entrance. 
 In the Museum of Naples there are nice orna- 
 mental sculptures and arabesques from the gate- 
 
STATUE OF EUMACHIA. 29 
 
 way of this building. Its court, 37 metres by 19, 
 is surrounded by a portico, of which the pillars 
 were covered with marble ; and this portico, again, 
 by a closed covered wide corridor (called crypto- 
 porticus), with large windows towards the por- 
 tico. In the centre of the back part of this 
 crypto-porticus, in a round niche behind, and 
 following the shape of the principal or Con- 
 cordia niche of the main building, stood a statue 
 of Eumachia, placed there by the fullers. She 
 built the edifice in her own and her son's name, 
 and at their cost, and dedicated it to Concord, 
 whose statue stood in a shrine in the eastern apse 
 or niche. But what its further purpose, and what 
 the interest of the fullers in it, or whether it was 
 on its account that they erected their statue to 
 Eumachia, seems mere guesswork. It is some- 
 times called the Exchange. The windows open- 
 ing from the crypto-portico to the portico, though 
 windows, not doors, since they do not go down to 
 the ground, are as large as the usual shop open- 
 
30 POMPEII. 
 
 ings, and would have served to do business 
 through, as over a counter. Since they open 
 into a covered portico, there would have been 
 no need for the customer to enter. He would 
 have been protected in the portico against rain. 
 Next to it is the temple of the Genius of Augus- 
 tus, erected by the priestess Mamia. I have 
 mentioned already the statue to the Genius of 
 Augustus from Herculaneum. He was the in- 
 corporation of the imperial legend of that day, 
 the impersonation of the established order of 
 things, the ideal representative along with the 
 reigning emperor of the Government and empire 
 of Eome. Next to this is a semicircular room, 
 supposed to be the place where the decuriones 
 or town senate held their meetings ; and next. to 
 it a building with a large court, 37 metres by 27, 
 which had a chapel to Augustus at its end, and 
 which is with probability supposed to have been 
 the Macellum. Before it are bases for statues, 
 and in its front, looking into the Forum, are 
 
MACELLUM. 31 
 
 shops. In its centre are twelve bases of pillars 
 or statues regularly placed in a circle; to the 
 right twelve shops; at the end three divisions, 
 the centre one being the chapel to Augustus, 
 and the one to the right having counters of 
 masonry, slightly inclined, and with a channel 
 underneath for water or blood to flow off. The 
 inner walls of the court are nicely decorated, 
 being divided below by narrower stripes into 
 large white divisions, in the centre of which are 
 well-painted subjects one being Penelope and 
 Ulysses. Above them are smaller divisions, and 
 in these the subjects painted are fruits and provi- 
 sions. From this, from the appearance of shops 
 or stalls, and from the probability of such a build- 
 ing existing in this locality, it is thought that 
 this was a provision market. The lower white 
 divisions in the decoration are separated by gate- 
 ways and other architectural subjects on red 
 ground, painted in perspective, with figures 
 standing in them, &c. This fictitious architec- 
 
32 POMPEII. 
 
 ture seems an attempt to relieve the flatness of 
 the wall surface, and the monotony of similar and 
 regular divisions over a large space. In the large 
 court of the Basilika, devoted to a higher and 
 more serious purpose, light decoration was not 
 attempted, and the wall was relieved by half 
 pillars, and the spaces between divided in imita- 
 tion of hewn stones with incised edges, regularly 
 placed, but differing in breadth in their different 
 layers. A little out of the Forum, towards 
 Mercury Street, was the small but handsome 
 temple to Fortune. 
 
 The Forum Triangulare, looking over the city 
 wall towards Stabia and Sorrentum, was another 
 locality near which public buildings were grouped. 
 It was entered by a handsome portico, and in the 
 street to the left were the curia and temple of 
 Isis, the former being supposed to be a shortened 
 palaestra (in it was found the Doryphorus statue, 
 now at Naples), and the latter being well known 
 from its figuring in the novel of Bulwer, and from 
 
FORUM TRIANGULARE. 33 
 
 the frescoes from its walls, and relating to its 
 worship, in the Museum of Naples. Beyond them 
 is the small Temple of ^Esculapius. The Forum 
 Triangulare is surrounded on two sides by a por- 
 tico, of which the pillars were stone. Not far 
 from the entrance was the statue of Marcellus. 
 Farther, stood a handsome, more ancient, more 
 imposing, and more solid Doric temple. Before 
 it, towards the town wall, were two small altars, 
 and a third, still smaller, between them ; also a 
 square enclosure, which it is supposed might have 
 been for the sacrifice of beasts ; and in front of it 
 a little neat round building on pillars, within 
 which was a puteal or well. To the right of the 
 Doric temple was a semicircular seat, like those 
 near the gates, with a sun-dial in the centre of its 
 raised back. This seat would be over the wall, 
 and it is supposed over the river Sarno, which 
 then flowed close to the town. Over them it 
 looked on Mount St Angelo, Sorrentum, and 
 Capri, and when the prospect was more free to 
 
34 POMPEII. 
 
 the west, must have had a most beautiful view. 
 Its erection in that place certainly shows a turn 
 for the picturesque. On raised ground, surround- 
 ed on two sides by the portico, with the fine sim- 
 ple dignified Doric temple to its back on the left, 
 and with a view in front over the beautiful bay 
 and the mountains of Castellamare, Sorrentum, 
 and Capri, it came to me as one of the most 
 pleasing features in old Pompeii. I can fancy 
 many an inhabitant, wearied with " evil tongues, 
 rash judgments, the sneers of selfish men, and 
 greetings where no kindness is," sitting there and 
 " refreshing himself with quietness and beauty." 
 
 The temples form in area the greater portion of 
 the public buildings we have yet considered. 
 But there was in ancient Eome no opposition 
 between the spiritual and secular powers. They 
 were rather identical. The same person often 
 held the highest worldly and the highest priestly 
 office. The emperor himself was Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus, and well-established power was held in the 
 
THE A TKE. 35 
 
 spirit of the Herculaneum statue to the Genius of 
 Augustus, to carry with it irresistible proof that 
 it enjoyed the favour and received the support of 
 heaven. Macchiavelli, whose testimony may be 
 supposed to be on such a point impartial, and 
 whose perspicacity is undoubted, holds that one 
 great secret of Eome's success in better times was 
 its religious spirit, its acting under and with a 
 sense of the support of its deities. In the im- 
 perial days, before the destruction of Pompeii, the 
 ruling class had less obedience and less faith. 
 But they felt that to show a decorous respect to 
 religion, and to identify the established order with 
 it, strengthened the government, and gave to it a 
 deeper and stronger basis. 
 
 Near to the Forum Triangulare, on the left, is 
 the great uncovered theatre. The ground de- 
 scends here greatly, and has been cut to descend 
 perpendicularly. From the Forum, or from its 
 portico, you enter on a level with the top of the 
 second class of seats, at more than half the 
 
36 POMPEII. 
 
 height of the whole theatre. The spectators 
 entered into a covered corridor going round, and 
 from it passed on the level through doors or 
 wmitorii to the steps going down the semi- 
 circular seats of the second and first ranks 
 (twenty and three rows respectively), and dividing 
 them into cunei or wedges. The rows of steps in 
 the semicircle are four or five in number. They 
 could also enter on a level with the bottom seats 
 on the opposite side from Stabia Street, and 
 ascend instead of descending to their places in 
 the theatre. The third cavea or class of seats is 
 raised by a wall above the second. This class 
 ascended from the Forum Triangulare corridor 
 by several staircases to a smaller corridor, and 
 from this passed by its vomitories to the third 
 rank of seats, which are only four rows in num- 
 ber. Besides the three cavern, there is at each 
 side, between them and the stage, and over the 
 lower passages, a small platform, a kind of stage- 
 box. These were the most dignified places of 
 
THE A TRE. 37 
 
 all. Your place depended not on your willing- 
 ness to pay, but upon your position, your rank, 
 in the Republic or State : 
 
 " At Novius collega gradu post me sedet uno ; 
 Namque est ille, pater quod erat meus. " l 
 
 Sat. I. vL 40. 
 
 But you must not suppose that money had not 
 its influence. Your rank in part depended on 
 your fortune: 
 
 " Sed quadringentis sex septem millia desunt : 
 Plebseris." 2 
 
 And again Horace writes (he was a satirist) 
 
 " Rem facias, rem, 
 
 Si possis, recte, si non, quocunque modo rem, 
 Ut propius spectes lacrimosa poemata Pupi." 8 
 
 Epist. I. i. 65. 
 
 It is said that women were only admitted to the 
 third cavea, except certain priestesses, whose 
 
 1 " My colleague Novius sits behind me one step ; for he is, 
 what my father was." 
 
 2 " But if of the four hundred thousand (sesterces) six or 
 seven thousand are wanting ; you will be a plebeian." 
 
 3 " Make money, money, if you can rightly, but if not, money 
 in any way whatever, that you may see from a nearer place 
 Pupius's tearful poems." 
 
38 POMPEII. 
 
 public position entitled them to the highest 
 places of all on the raised platforms. The outside 
 wall at the top, near the Forum Triangulare, has 
 in its thick walls large recesses with semi- 
 circular tops ; but it does not appear that these 
 would have been seen except as you entered, 
 after you had left the portico of the Forum. 
 Before the stage, in its wall, looking towards the 
 spectators, are a few seats, said to have been for 
 the musicians. The proscenium is about a yard 
 wide. Behind it you still see the cavity from 
 which the curtain ascended at the end of the 
 play. The stage or scene is narrow, and has 
 three large entrances at the back. It is hollow 
 below. Its back walls have recesses or ledges. 
 They are now bare, but were once covered with 
 marble and adorned with statues. In the walls 
 of the theatre, at the back of the third cavea, are 
 attached large square stone rings with square 
 holes in the centre, and corresponding holes 
 below in the floor of the cavea. These are said 
 
PUBLIC INSCRIPTIONS. 39 
 
 and seem to be for pillars or poles which sup- 
 ported the tarpaulin or its ancient substitute, 
 that was sometimes stretched over the theatre. 
 Some of those red writings on the walls of 
 Pompeii are the old play-bills, and they an- 
 nounced when the theatre would be covered. 
 The name of the architect can still be read in 
 large well-cut letters (replaced, I suppose) on 
 the wall near the lower passage. It was built 
 at the cost of Holconius Eufus and Holconius 
 Celer, and another statue of the former is known 
 from another inscription to have stood in the 
 middle of the ascending seats. The Eomans 
 well understood the art of encouraging public 
 liberality by publicly recording it. All over 
 Pompeii inscriptions are met with recording acts 
 of public beneficence: the erection of a theatre 
 or temple or exchange, or their restoration ; the 
 paving a street, building of an altar, or adorn- 
 ment of a wall, or any other public service. 
 Sometimes the rewards were greater, and the 
 
40 POMPEII. 
 
 inscription announces the presentation of a 
 burial-plot to the benefactor, or his assumption 
 into the number of the decurions or senate of 
 the colony. There is significance in' this world- 
 colony. In all its proceedings Pompeii is the 
 offspring, the miniature, the copy in small of the 
 great mother-city Eome. Some Italians, and 
 some people who have not the excuse of being 
 Italians, talk of Eome as being, from its memo- 
 ries and associations, the natural capital of Italy. 
 Their assertion, without their reasons, would be 
 too vague for refutation. Italy may at one time 
 have been the limit within which the citizens of 
 all towns were as a rule acknowledged also 
 as the citizens of Eome. But this limit was, so 
 to speak, a matter of temporary accident and con- 
 venience, not permanent and never exclusive. 
 At another time, for political reasons, the senate 
 forbade the consul to bring an army within the 
 home province of Italy. But this province was 
 bounded by the Eubicon; and Gallia Cisalpina, 
 
PUBLIC INSCRIPTIONS. 41 
 
 and a great part almost the most important 
 parts of modern Italy, were not Italy at all to 
 the conquering Roman. The name to him was 
 hardly more than a geographical expression. 
 It was not Italy but Eome that had conquered 
 the world. Nationalities were then nothing, but 
 to be " cives Eomanus," a citizen of Rome, was a 
 great deal. The senate of Rome gave laws to 
 the empire ; from the city went forth the consuls 
 and proconsuls, praetors and propraetors, to the 
 government of the provinces. Rome, not Italy, 
 was the heart, the nucleus, of the empire. Its 
 colonies were, so to speak, its arms, which it 
 extended to embrace and rule its empire; and 
 they were all in their constitution the exact 
 copy of the parent city, as well as the fortresses 
 by which it bound to itself and held in subjection 
 its provinces. It was the wisdom with which 
 the Roman senate constantly extended the rights 
 of "citizenship" that made its rule so little 
 troubled and so durable. 
 
42 POMPEII. 
 
 Other inscriptions give us a little insight into 
 the way in which the Pompeians did their 
 public business. They record that two per- 
 sons named caused a work to be done, after a 
 vote of the senate, and that they approved the 
 work done, sometimes adding the expense. 
 
 The little theatre is close to the great, towards 
 Stabia Street. It was in part entered from the 
 same passage. It was built exactly on the same 
 pattern, except that it had a roof of tiles. Piles 
 of tiles were found near ; and it is supposed from 
 this that the roof was in reparation. The seats 
 are more perfect, and the part allowed to the 
 feet of the sitter above is incised. Here an in- 
 scription tells the name of the generous duumvir 
 who paved the orchestra with marble. 
 
 Did the comedies of Plautus or Terence hold 
 their place on the Pompeian boards ? or did 
 the Pompeians relish better works of a more 
 recent day, as the " lacrimosa poemata Pupi " ? 
 Horace speaks in a different tone of Fundanius 
 
THE A TRE. 43 
 
 as an excellent contemporary comedian (Sat. I. 
 x. 40) :- 
 
 " Arguta meretrice potes, Davoque Chremeta 
 Eludente senem comis garrire libellos, 
 Unus vivorum." 
 
 In the same passage he praises Pollio as the 
 tragedian of his time: 
 
 " Pollio regum 
 Facta canit pede ter percusso." 
 
 And (Odes, II. i.) he addresses him : 
 
 " Paullum severae Musa tragcediae 
 Desit theatris. " 
 
 These writers would come within the date as- 
 signed to these theatres ; but perhaps before the 
 destruction of Pompeii they, too, had gone out of 
 fashion. Their works not having lived, they are, 
 to us at any rate, but empty names. My guides 
 to the understanding of Pompeii do not tell me the 
 contents of those red playbills upon the walls ; 
 but from the silence, I suspect that they announce 
 plays that have equally failed to survive to pos- 
 
44 POMPEII. 
 
 terity. The taste of the time has a great deal to 
 do with a successful representation on the stage. 
 The plays performed here were written for their 
 day, and have not unnaturally passed away 
 with it. 
 
 The amphitheatre is situated at some distance 
 at the south-east corner of the town. It is smaller 
 and simpler in its arrangements than those of 
 Kome, of Capua, and of Puteoli, but quite on the 
 same pattern. There seem to have been no sub- 
 terranean works beneath the arena ; but, to speak 
 accurately, the arena itself and a good deal of the 
 building was excavated, and below the surface of 
 the surrounding ground. The descents to the 
 arena are on a steep incline. There are three little 
 chambers under the first cavea that are said to 
 have been for wild beasts. The seats are very per- 
 fect compared with those of other amphitheatres ; 
 the low stone barrier between the different classes 
 of seats or cavea nearly perfect ; and the steps as- 
 cending through the second and third ranks, and 
 
AMPHITHEA TRE. 45 
 
 dividing them into cunei, in some cases quite so. 
 So is the covered inner corridor that ran round 
 just behind or under the ground occupied by the 
 first cavea, and from which the spectators ascended 
 by frequent staircases to it, and by others to the 
 second, and through it to the third class of seats. 
 These last could also get to their places ascending 
 external steps to the top of the building, where 
 there was an uncovered way all round. One of 
 these staircases was at my visit in process of re- 
 building. From the outer gallery they passed to 
 the top of the third cavea, and also ascended by 
 steps to a small gallery at the back of it. The 
 school of the gladiators was near the theatres, on 
 their level. In the centre is a court, 47 metres 
 by 36, with its portico. In their gladiators' bar- 
 racks were found the iron stocks (now at Naples), 
 with the bones of skeletons attached to them, and 
 in another room gladiators' weapons. The Colos- 
 seum of Eome has claims to respect which the am- 
 phitheatre of a provincial town does not possess. 
 
46 POMPEII. 
 
 It is the vastest relic of old Eoman (in speaking 
 of such a building can one rightly use the word ?) 
 civilisation. It is venerable from the number of 
 ages it has survived the strokes of time and 
 interested successive generations. It is Bede 
 who, speaking of the Anglo-Saxon pilgrims, first 
 gives it the name of Colosseum. Its architecture, 
 if not properly beautiful, is imposing and grand. 
 But the restoration and cleansing that have of 
 late years been applied to it, very much take 
 from its interest as well as picturesqueness as a 
 ruin, and reduce the romance attaching to the 
 sight of it. It is, moreover, in its origin, as well 
 as its uses, a memorial of despotic cruelty. With 
 the achievements of Commodus more perhaps 
 than those of any other emperor is it identified. 
 And it surprises me that any traveller should visit 
 it without bringing away as his predominant feel- 
 ing a sense of thankfulness that the cruel amuse- 
 ments to which it was devoted have disappeared 
 from modern civilisation. Bulwer, in his tale of 
 
BA THS. 47 
 
 Pompeii, invents a far-fetched and hardly perti- 
 nent motive to attach an interest to his gladia- 
 torial contest. If one may apply somewhat 
 differently the thoughts and words of Dante, mal 
 volere and possa were never mcfre detestably united 
 with mente than when they devised and carried 
 out the training and games of gladiators; and 
 certainly Christianity " assai fe bene, quando lascio 
 1' arte di si fatti animali." 
 
 The Baths are the only other public buildings 
 of Pompeii. There are three excavated : the 
 small baths near the Forum and opposite the 
 house of the Tragic Poet, so far as visible for 
 men only; those in Stabia Street, both for 
 men and for women, and with a palaestra; and 
 a third for men, also with a palaestra, and with 
 still larger rooms, but apparently unfinished. 
 The remains of both the Stabian and Forum 
 baths are, compared with the other ruins, com- 
 plete, and are very interesting. They do not 
 compare in size or in their original magnificence 
 
48 POMPEII. 
 
 with those of Rome ; but more remains, and 
 enough, to show us a great deal of their con- 
 struction and use, as well as ornamentation. 
 To the Stabianae Thermae the entrance into the 
 palaestra or court is from Abbondanza Street. 
 There are minor entrances to it and to the 
 baths from the other streets the building touches. 
 The Palaestra has a portico on three sides. Four 
 of the pillars bear the old architrave with 
 stuccoed foliage, the ground coloured red, and 
 lines at its borders. This architrave bore the tiled 
 roof of the portico slanting to the walls. Un- 
 derneath it the walls of the portico were in the 
 lower part divided by white stripes into red 
 rectangles with yellow borders ; above simple 
 coloured pattern in lines, and under roof a 
 cornice. The portico on entrance side seems to 
 have had rooms above, in connection apparently 
 with shops in front. There is a seat against the 
 wall for spectators. On the west side, where was 
 no portico, but the dressing and ablution rooms 
 
BA THS. 49 
 
 of the gymnasts, was a little wall. What little 
 there was near the south is elaborately decorated 
 with stuccoed reliefs and painting in combination. 
 On the north side is a room, thought to have 
 been a refreshment -room; and in the passage 
 behind, several single baths, a urinal, and what 
 appear to be porters' rooms and rooms for storing 
 fuel. There still remains in the Palaestra a 
 Hermes statue or two. 
 
 The appearance of the court with its portico 
 was not properly either grand or beautiful ; but 
 they were pleasant enough to the eye, and con- 
 venient for use. The baths for the women, with 
 entrances from both side streets, are round the 
 north-east corner ; those for men occupy the rest 
 of the east side. Both are on the same model, 
 and are nicely constructed and decorated. The 
 first room is for the cold bath and the un- 
 dressing room ; round the walls are ledges, 
 formed by partitions into niches, perhaps a yard 
 each way, for bathers' clothes ; above them a 
 
50 POMPEII. 
 
 cornice in stuccoed ornament painted. In the 
 corner a large bath-basin. The floor is checkered 
 in white and black mosaic. The roof is arched ; 
 there are two apertures in arch, and one window 
 in wall. To the right one turns into the tepida- 
 rium, with arched roof and floor of white pebbles. 
 Its walls are hollowed for passage of heat from 
 furnace to warm the room. From this you pass 
 into the calidarium or sweating-room. Its floor is 
 white pebble mosaic, with a black line round near 
 the sides. The walls here too are hollow for 
 heat to pass round. The arched roof is fluted in 
 stucco. The walls are divided into red divisions 
 by yellowish -coloured Corinthian pilasters with 
 white capitals; the two ends within the arch 
 are nicely stuccoed with little ornaments in 
 relief, pillar, garland, large stone roller, &c. At 
 one end is bath basin with hole for passage of 
 warm water, and bronze pipe which once had its 
 tap for admission of cold. At the other end is a 
 fountain from which issued a jet of warm water, 
 
BATHS. 51 
 
 the Pompeian guide says increasing the heat, but 
 one would think also relieving the dryness by 
 its moisture. Beyond you see the remains of the 
 furnace and the skeleton of its arrangements. 
 
 The baths for the men are to the right of the 
 palaestra entrance. There is an entrance-room 
 rather than passage, leading to the dressing-room. 
 Its arched roof of stucco is divided into circles, 
 connected by crossed waving lines, forming a 
 convex dodecagon between themselves, and four 
 circles. These dodecagons and circles are taste- 
 fully ornamented with little figures and other 
 reliefs. I mention each decorative feature, for the 
 Roman workman loved, however simply, to decor- 
 ate his work ; and it is their decorative shape and 
 little ornaments that often give so much charm 
 to his rooms, his furniture, and his utensils. 
 On left of entrance-room is circular cold bath, 
 with walk or platform round, and four niches, 
 said to be for seats; and smaller one opposite 
 the entrance, which had a jet of water. The 
 
52 POMPEII. 
 
 niches and walls are ornamented with stucco 
 and painting. In one niche is depicted a sort 
 of garden or shrubbery. Light was admitted 
 from above. The actual dressing-room has its 
 partitions for clothes like the women's, but with 
 plainer cornice and a seat beneath. Its floor is 
 of marble, and its vaulted roof stuccoed in hexa- 
 gons and squares and other patterns, with little 
 figures and other ornaments in them. These 
 vaulted roofs call to mind the passage of Horace 
 which tells us that these rooms, besides their 
 original use for bathing, and besides being with 
 the Forum the news-room, the club, of those days, 
 were also along with it the literary school or 
 lecture-room the place where writers recited 
 their works to make known their name: 
 
 " In medio qui 
 
 Scripta foro recitent, sunt multi, quique lavantes ; 
 Suave locus voci resonat conclusus." 1 
 
 The tepidarium and calidarium are less perfect. 
 
 1 " Many recite their writings in the Forum, or bathing ; the 
 shut-in space resounds sweetly to the voice." 
 
FORUM BATHS. 53 
 
 They had, like the women's, hollow floors as well 
 as walls for passage of heat from the furnace. 
 
 The Forum baths are quite on the same model ; 
 but the rooms are smaller, and though simply 
 and elegantly adorned, are lower and less cheer- 
 ful. All the rooms are vaulted. A money-box 
 was found near the entrance. The spoliarium or 
 dressing-room has two seats at the sides, and a 
 stucco cornice round under roof ornamented with 
 griffins, jars, harps, &c. Between cornice and 
 seat are holes in the walls, apparently for the 
 support of chests or niches. The floor is mosaic 
 in white, with broad black line round in front 
 of the seat. At the end of the room you enter 
 into its circular cold bath, with its four niches, 
 platform, &c., like those in the other baths, and 
 round above a neat stucco cornice with children 
 riding and driving. The tepidarium to right has 
 its row of cupboards like the dressing-room of 
 the Thermae Stabianse ; but here they are divided 
 by little men as Caryatides. The floor is white 
 
54 POMPEII. 
 
 mosaic, with black line near the edge; the roof 
 in various divisions, with figures, &c., in relief. 
 In this room was found a large brazier for char- 
 coal fire, and two bronze forms. From it you 
 enter into the calidarium, which has bath at one 
 end, and fountain at the other under semicircular 
 ending of roof. Over the fountain are two aper- 
 tures, which the Pompeian guide says were closed 
 with wooden frames fitted with glass ; the floor 
 and walls were hollow for the circulation of hot 
 air from the furnace. The roof of the room was 
 fluted, and at semicircular end was more elabor- 
 ately divided into patterns and adorned with 
 reliefs. The floor was white mosaic, with two 
 black lines near the edge. They understood the 
 charm of variety even in little things. The 
 wall is divided by plain Doric pilasters in stucco. 
 These baths were not only a pleasure, but, 
 enjoyed in moderation, acted beneficially on the 
 skin, and so on the other organs, assisting them 
 in their healthy action and invigorating the 
 
PALAESTRA. 55 
 
 frame. An allusion of Horace points out one use 
 of them, confessing the pleasure indirectly, and 
 at the same time happily estimating its worth 
 (Epist. I. xi. 12) : 
 
 " Nee, qui 
 
 Frigus collegit, fumos et balnea laudab, 
 Ut fortunatam plene prsestantia vitam." ' 
 
 The Palaestra was one of the institutions of 
 ancient society deserving deeper respect and 
 higher praise. In England we have in our games 
 cricket, football, boating, &c., a not inefficient, in 
 some respects perhaps a better, substitute, if we 
 used with them some of the appliances of the 
 Palaestra. M. Tain, a great admirer of the an- 
 cient Greeks, pays us the compliment of say- 
 ing that a young Englishman in his freshness, 
 healthiness, and bodily vigour is the modern re- 
 production of the youthful Greek, trained in the 
 exercises, scrapings, and ablutions of the Palaestra. 
 
 1 " Nor does he who has caught cold praise baths and fur- 
 naces as giving to the full a happy life." 
 
56 POMPEII. 
 
 But it is sad to see how wholly Italian 1 and all 
 other Continental society neglects even in youth 
 all healthy bodily exercise and all proper care 
 for the body. The scholars of the priests walk 
 constantly, but that is about all. Occasionally at 
 Eome you see some ecclesiastical students, gen- 
 erally Irish, playing a game like rounders, in the 
 grounds of the Villa Borghese. Germany has 
 renewed a little of the old gymnastic training, 
 minus its ablutions ; otherwise there is lamentable 
 neglect in cultivating the corpus sanum. No 
 blind professor would ever think, like the late 
 Professor Fawcett, of rowing stroke to an eight. 
 Yet it cannot be denied that the old gymnastic 
 exercises and games, in the temperance they re- 
 quired and encouraged, no less than in their 
 
 1 Their late statesman, Signer Sella, preached to them a 
 proper athleticism, as well as it could be done ; and it seems 
 not to have been mere preaching in his case. No advice could 
 be better than his address to the Alpinists, I think, of Naples. 
 He ascended Mont Blanc when fifty -two or fifty -three, unable 
 to take more at the upper part than very diluted coffee, and to 
 the surprise of his guides getting on very well on that. 
 
PALAESTRA. 57 
 
 direct effects, were a great benefit. St Paul com- 
 pares the Christian life to them, and the contests 
 issuing out of them the difference being that the 
 Christian's reward is higher and more certain. 
 But both, in being temperate and keeping the 
 body in subjection, make it the better, more 
 ready, and effective servant of the mind and 
 spirit. It is curious that, with St Paul's illustra- 
 tions * confessing the benefits, and indirectly the 
 duty, of bodily training, it should in general be 
 left so much to chance and accident in Christian 
 education. 
 
 Pompeii is an excellent commentary on the , 
 works of Horace; and he, the most exact of 
 writers, often explains in a touch the use of the 
 things Pompeii has preserved for us, and sets 
 before us accurately and neatly the manners of 
 its inhabitants. After walking through Pompeii, 
 and seeing the porticoes of its forums, its temples, 
 its Basilika, its Palaestra, and its private houses, 
 
 1 1 Tim. iv. 8 ; 1 Cor. ix. 25. 
 
58 POMPEII. 
 
 one understands in a way one did not before his 
 words : 
 
 " Quod si me populus Romanus forte rogat, cur 
 Non ut porticibus, sic judiciis fruar iisdem." J 
 
 Though he did not follow the usual ways, and 
 was in many respects a modern, hating active 
 games, and despising the ambitions of public life, 
 sometimes with open ridicule, sometimes with the 
 modest plea that its burdens did not become the 
 shoulders of a freedman's son, none the less does 
 he exactly show us what ancient life was. What 
 he disliked and avoided, what he liked and fol- 
 lowed, show us the ways of antiquity in their rule 
 and their exception. The busy official must make 
 himself popular, be affable and gracious (plures 
 scdutandi), must take one and another friend with 
 him into the country, must keep more scullions 
 and horses, must have carriages (petorrita) for 
 himself and his belongings. He, without being 
 
 1 "If the Roman people ask me why I don't share their 
 opinions as well as their porticoes." 
 
HORA CE. 59 
 
 exposed to the charge of sordidness, could go 
 where he pleased on his cropped mule, with its 
 shoulders ulcered by the rider, its loins by his 
 wallet. He walked according to his will; he 
 chattered with the country people, inquiring the 
 price of meal and cabbage ; he visited the enticing 
 circus, or lounged at evening in the Forum (just 
 as his successors do in the Piazza Colonna and 
 the Corso); he was present at the sacred rites; 
 then he went home to his vegetable dinner and 
 cake of meal. His table was served by three 
 boys ; a stand of white stone bore two cups 
 (pocula), and a vessel for mixing (cyathus); a 
 cheap rinsing-basin (echinus) stood near, and the 
 oil-cruet with the patera (for libations), all com- 
 mon Campanian ware. These vessels explain 
 and are explained by some of those innumerable 
 drinking and other utensils in the Museum of 
 Naples. After that he went to rest without 
 anxiety for the morrow. He slept to nine or ten, 
 then he took a ramble, or, after reading or writing 
 
60 POMPEII. 
 
 what pleased him, the silent man, he was anointed 
 with oil very different from that the filthy Natta 
 stole from the public lights. When he was 
 tired, and the greater power of the sun told 
 him it was time to go to the baths, he avoided 
 the court and the game of ball. (The union of 
 the baths and the palaestra explains this con- 
 nection of thought.) Then after a moderate 
 d&jeuner, enough to enable the empty stomach 
 to last out the day, he rested quietly at home. 
 This he calls a life free from wretched trouble- 
 some ambition such a life as it was better to 
 lead than to have a quaestor for father and uncle. 
 In amusing contrast to this is the description he 
 gives, or lets his slave give (a delicate flattery 
 accompanying the laugh at himself), of his haste 
 to fulfil a sudden invitation of Maecenas. " Will 
 nobody bring the oil? Does no one hear? 
 You bawl and rage with loud voice ; and Milvius 
 and the parasites you had invited must go away 
 with imprecations not to be repeated to your 
 
HORACE. 61 
 
 ears " (Sat. II. vii.) We may suppose him to have 
 asked, confessing himself partial to the cookshop, 
 " When you are like me, perhaps worse, why do 
 you scold at me as if you were better, and wrap 
 up your own vice in decorous words ? " The 
 familiarity attributed to the slave professes to be 
 excused by its being the Saturnalia ; and thus it 
 gives an incident that might have happened at 
 Pompeii on that the most amusing of ancient 
 festivals. Without being personal or uncourteous, 
 the present Italian servants are on easy terms 
 with their masters. There is no other country 
 where there is so much social equality. Again, 
 Horace's persons had their counterparts within 
 the walls of Pompeii. Catius may stand for its 
 epicure; Nasidienus for the merchant who had 
 made his fortune, and was pleased to entertain 
 and be laughed at by the old patricians of the 
 place; Ofellus for the freedman of natural good 
 sense and shrewdness (dbnormis sapiens) joined to 
 kindness of heart. His way of living, vegetables 
 
62 POMPEII. 
 
 and a shoulder of bacon ordinarily, on a festa ; or 
 to entertain a friend, a fowl or a kid for the first 
 course grapes, nuts, and figs for the second, 
 represents that probably of the smaller Pompeian 
 shopkeeper. The exchange of courtesies at supper 
 between Sarmentus and Cicirrus gives us a little 
 insight into the way in which the scurra or ancient 
 parasites amused their patrons. Another name 
 for these hangers-on was umbrae, the word in 
 itself a social picture. The journey to Brundu- 
 sium as a whole shows how the rich then travelled. 
 One day's journey is mentioned as having been 
 taken in rTiedce i.e., four-wheeled carriages. In 
 another passage he speaks of himself as being no 
 State confidant, no business adviser of Maecenas, 
 but such a friend as he might wish to take with 
 him in his rheda on a journey, and talk with on 
 the trifles of the day. The inference from Horace's 
 mention of them, that such carriages were for 
 travelling, not for town use, quite accords with 
 the construction of the streets and houses of 
 
HORA CE. 63 
 
 Pompeii. His odes to Virgil, his letter to 
 Tibullus, are a pleasing example of the literary 
 friendships of his day. The history of literature 
 would present a different picture if such were 
 the usual terms in which poets stood to one 
 another. Often a casual allusion illustrates some 
 social institution of the times. For example, the 
 working of slavery is brought briefly but vividly 
 before us in the mention, merely incidental, of the 
 one slave "who, in taking away the dish, licks 
 up the half-eaten fish and lukewarm sauce," and 
 of the other " who buys himself grapes at night- 
 fall with the stolen strigil" These passages prove 
 that in being lord (dominus) of his servant, the 
 Koman did not get over all domestic difficulties. 
 The atria of Pompeii take a new aspect, and seem 
 filled again with life, when one remembers " the 
 soft whispers in the area at nightfall at the ap- 
 pointed hour," and the " girl's betraying laughter 
 from the inmost corner," and " the stolen kiss," 
 mentioned in the ode to Thaliarchus (Ode I. ix.) 
 
64 POMPEII. 
 
 Every letter, every satire almost, explains some 
 old custom, and is full of information that, borne 
 in mind, may fill with living persons and actual 
 incidents the ruined Forums and Baths, the roof- 
 less atria and peristyles, of Pompeii. 
 
 The frescoes on its walls, or removed from 
 them to the Museum of Naples, are another 
 book that depicts the manners of Pompeii's old 
 inhabitants. A people's art, like the language 
 they speak, may be made to reveal more of their 
 character than they perhaps intended or wished. 
 But without questioning them for any secrets, 
 the Pompeian paintings tell much on the sur- 
 face of the people's ways. Many of them are 
 direct representations of their life. We see them 
 in two thick files, with the priest at one end in 
 the middle, and another priest and two acolytes 
 at the top of the still existing steps as they 
 worshipped in the Temple of Isis. We see the 
 priests of Jupiter garlanded, and preparing a sac- 
 rifice, such as the people of Lystra wished to 
 
FRESCOES. 65 
 
 offer to St Paul and Barnabas. Another repre- 
 sents the worship of Ceres. Other paintings give 
 their Forum, with its colonnades and equestrian 
 statues, and the market -people in front selling 
 cloth, and tools, and other articles. Another 
 depicts a similar scene in a street, vegetables 
 being among the things sold. Other street scenes 
 show us a cart driven; horses led, others with 
 their riders upon them ; a blind beggar led by a 
 dog, and asking alms of a lady. A baker's shop 
 is painted in another, with its keeper, his cus- 
 tomer, and a pile of round loaves with their lined 
 tops, exactly like those that Vesuvius has charred 
 and preserved for us. On a pillar in a fuller's 
 court were painted some of the instruments and 
 operations of his trade ; and on that pillar, placed 
 in the Museum of Naples, we see them still On 
 one side is a press for cloth, worked by a double 
 screw ; beneath it some cloths hung out to dry, 
 and the working girls talking with Italian vivac- 
 ity. On another side boys fulling cloth with 
 
66 POMPEII. 
 
 their feet, in little vats, of which the remains 
 still exist in more than one fuller's court in 
 Pompeii ; the mistress, who wears hair in golden 
 net, necklace, and bracelets, receives a piece of 
 cloth from a girl, and a boy scrubs another cloth 
 hung on a pole. On the third side, painted, a 
 youth carries on his head a large cage on which 
 an owl is perched, and in his right hand a 
 brazier. The cloth was put on the cage, cover- 
 ing it, the brazier underneath; and this made 
 the primitive Pompeian artificially heated dry- 
 ing-room. In a country village I have had my 
 bed dried by a similar contrivance on a smaller 
 scale. The owl was Minerva's sacred bird, and 
 signifies that the fuller's craft is an art protected 
 by that goddess, who sprang from the brain of 
 Jupiter. On another fuller's wall in situ, but 
 faded now from exposure, seems to be depicted 
 the examination of some boys and their punish- 
 ment. We see Cupids working in a boot-shop, 
 in a joiner's shop, fishing, &c. Another picture 
 
FKESCOES. 67 
 
 represents a boy planing; two sawing, one at 
 each end ; and another being carried away dead, 
 a man looking sorrowfully on. The catalogue 
 explains this seriously ; but it looks like playing 
 with edged tools, and its consequences, in a series. 
 There is a lady being dressed by a subdued maid, 
 with two other ladies already dressed standing 
 by. In another, in Pompeii, we see a maid 
 holding one of their little round mirrors with a 
 handle, for her mistress to look at herself in it. 
 Others show us ladies sketching and painting. 
 In one a lady is playing, others are listening. 
 There are several of musicians and of revelling. 
 In one are a woman and man on a couch : the 
 man is drinking in a rhytium (a horn -shaped 
 vessel) ; the woman, who wears her hair in a net, 
 but not too much other clothing, stretches out 
 her hand to take a small box from an attendant 
 behind her. A gold hair-net was among the 
 articles found in Pompeii. The genre subjects 
 of this class are very nicely painted. There are 
 
68 POMPEII. 
 
 in a public-house room, in a rougher and coarser 
 style, pictures which show the revelling of the 
 lower class. In one, a youth is pouring from a 
 measure into a glass to a customer. Above is 
 scratched " da f ridum pusillum " (a glass of cold). 
 There are two other scenes of drinking; two 
 with people at table, eating too ; a sixth shows 
 a cart with a cask of wine. In these pictures 
 the glasses are long, exactly like those long and 
 fluted among the glass in the Museum. In a 
 house being excavated at my visit was a revel 
 of an intermediate class. The paintings are not 
 good in execution, though the decoration in other 
 respects is very neat and in nice taste, on a black 
 ground. Four persons are reclining on couches : 
 a young woman holds up a rhytium above her head, 
 a youth by her drinks out of a saucer-shaped 
 vessel, a middle-aged woman looks with interest 
 on a man (her husband) who is speaking and 
 holds a cup in hand ; above is neatly written, 
 " Facitis vobis suaviter, ego ando, est ita, vale " 
 
FRESCOES. 69 
 
 (Be jolly, I go, this is the way to take, farewell). 
 All these different drinking-vessels are in the 
 Museum. Another picture represents a boy tak- 
 ing off the shoe to one man ; another bringing 
 him something to drink ; a third boy is embrac- 
 ing another man ; a woman and girls are behind, 
 looking pleased and interested. It was said at 
 the Naples Museum that some musical pipes had 
 just been found. I do not know that it was in 
 this house, but one would think it not unlikely. 
 In another picture is a surgeon taking up a vein 
 with a forceps. The patient is said to be ^Eneas, 
 but the surgeon and his practice must be those 
 of the painter's day. Another scene is a school, 
 and its master (plagosus orbilius) is performing 
 the time-honoured operation of flogging a boy, 
 " hoisted " on the back of another, and having his 
 legs held by a third. There are nice flower-girls 
 (Bulwer took many of his ideas from these pic- 
 tures), and many very pleasing portraits. 
 
 Some of the inhabitants were not only good- 
 
70 POMPEII. 
 
 looking, but, to judge from their likenesses, culti- 
 vated and kind. Very charming are Proculeius 
 and his wife, not unworthy to be placed beside 
 Mebuhr's pair from the reliefs in the Vatican. 
 He is said, on the authority of an inscription, to 
 have been a popular baker, and to have been 
 elected chief magistrate. He looks a sensible 
 and good man, and his wife, with the stylus to 
 her lips, more charming still. Below them was 
 found a small picture of Cupid and Psyche kiss- 
 ing ; but it is not worthy of the features of the 
 portraits, and does not illustrate the virtues of 
 Pompeii. No thoughtful, cultivated lady would, 
 happily, nowadays let such a painting stand be- 
 low her own and her husband's portraits, to sym- 
 bolise their affection. In these paintings, too, we 
 see their faith : Apollo, the impersonation of the 
 sun and its beneficent workings, with halo round 
 his head, with cornucopia or sphere in left hand, 
 and with sceptre in right ; Diana, the represen- 
 tative of the moon, and goddess of chastity and 
 
FRESCOES. 71 
 
 the chase, with her sceptre and paler halo ; Venus 
 with her Cupids more frequently still; Jupiter, 
 the supreme governor, with his thunderbolts, of 
 more power and knowledge, but with all the pas- 
 sions and vices of a man; and nearly all their 
 other deities, with much of their mythology. 
 There is a pleasing little picture of the thrones of 
 Venus and of Mars. His is known by his armour 
 near; hers by a dove, standing on a cushion 
 which a genius is about to festoon with a garland. 
 We see their heroes and representative men, or 
 rather those of Greece, for the Romans borrowed 
 their art from Greece, and many of the artists 
 who executed their paintings seem to have been 
 Greek : 
 
 " Grecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes 
 Intulit agresti Latio." 1 
 
 1 " Captive Greece took the conqueror captive, and brought 
 the arts into rustic Latium." Again 
 
 " Graiis ingenium, Graiis dedit ore rotundo 
 Musa loquL" 
 
 It is true this is written primarily of literary achievements. 
 
72 POMPEII. 
 
 There is Hercules, the type of man's strength and 
 of his weaknesses, Theseus, Perseus, &c. Among 
 them is a very pleasing one of Theseus and the dead 
 Minotaur ; round him the young Athenians, one 
 kissing his hand, another embracing his feet, &c. 
 Their literary illustrations are also Greek : Medea 
 murdering her children, Orestes under the curse, 
 and the story of the ' Iliad.' Occasionally there is 
 ^Eneas's escape from Troy, the mythical origin of 
 Eome ; and once, at least, this event is caricatured, 
 and turned into ridicule. Besides their drinking- 
 vessels and their ornaments and dresses, we see 
 their deeds with their seals, their pens, their ink- 
 stands, &c. ; their birds, peacocks, parrots, quails, 
 
 But " ut pictura, poesis," is a saying of many applications, and 
 may be taken inversely. Some lines in the letter to Augustus 
 seem to show that the Romans had learnt their lesson from 
 their Greek masters, and had in Horace's days good native 
 artists (II. i. 32, 33) 
 
 " Venimus ad summum fortunse, pingimus atque 
 Psallimus et luctamur Achivis doctius unctis." 
 
 " We have come to the height of fortune. We paint, and 
 sing, and wrestle more skilfully than the oiled Greeks." 
 

 FRESCOES. 73 
 
 fowls, and innumerable others ; their animals, 
 dogs, cats, boars, monkeys, leopards, lions, deer, 
 &c. ; their fish, baskets, and dishes of their fruit, 
 with their coins, silver and gold. Their birds 
 and beasts are often represented whimsically and 
 fancifully ; sometimes with a moral in the spirit 
 of the fables of ^Esop. Finally, we see in these 
 decorations the things they loved to look at 
 what pleased their eyes, and through their eyes 
 touched their hearts. We see the evidence of 
 their taste, in some degree the measure of their 
 art, and not less accurately the measure of their 
 character and morals. But in these aspects I will 
 touch again on these paintings. 
 
 Thirdly, the ways and habits of the present 
 Italians enable us in some degree to repeople 
 Pompeii with their predecessors, and conceive 
 how they lived and acted. In innumerable points 
 we find resemblances, and these make us feel that 
 we may carry the likeness further. The same 
 climate, the same soil, the same surroundings, 
 
74 POMPEII. 
 
 naturally cause in many respects the same ways. 
 But there are points of resemblance which these 
 do not account for, and it is natural to think that 
 these come from descent. Bulwer tells us that he 
 composed his novel with the feeling that the con- 
 duct of their successors was a key to that of the 
 people of the last days of Pompeii. I have al- 
 ready noticed the likeness in some points, and it 
 will be constantly seen in others as I go along 
 with my account of Pompeii. The usual arrange- 
 ment of the closet in Pompeii is to place it in the 
 kitchen. I have only observed one exception, in 
 the house of the little Fountain, where it is under 
 the stairs. When I left Pompeii, I found the 
 same arrangement in the house at Corpo di Cava 
 in which I slept. It is said to be very usual in 
 the south of Italy ; and yet the general structure 
 of the houses now is wholly different from the 
 ancient. That has been revolutionised by the 
 invention of transparent glass, the change in the 
 position of woman, and the substitution of free 
 
ANCIENT & MODERN RESEMBLANCES. 75 
 
 for slave labour. Yet the shops, where they are 
 genuinely Italian, remain what they were. The 
 little barber's shop at Pompeii is smaller, but 
 exactly after the fashion of those of the present 
 day at Torre del Greco. The coral fishermen still 
 draw their boats at the end and beginning of the 
 season up and down the beach ; the former pro- 
 cess with the aid of a primitive windlass, turned 
 by two mules the latter manually. 
 
 The ploughshare found in Pompeii is said to 
 resemble that still used; the large shears those 
 used in silk-factories ; and lamps similar to the 
 ancient ones are not yet wholly superseded by 
 petroleum. Braziers like the Pompeian still 
 warm the sale of the Vatican. These are only a 
 few among many resemblances between the uten- 
 sils of Pompeii and those now used in Italy. 
 Again, you see clean and cultured ecclesiastics 
 riding their mule, like Horace nineteen centuries 
 ago. Indeed these and donkeys creatures very 
 superior to our Neddy do much of the local 
 
76 POMPEII. 
 
 traffic of Italy. Middleton and Blunt have 
 pointed out how many popular religious prac- 
 tices of antiquity are reproduced in the pres- 
 ent Italian Church, notwithstanding the entire 
 difference in its faith and spirit. The women 
 still carry their cloths and buckets to the foun- 
 tain, and carry them back on their heads; the 
 men still constantly play at mora, the old micare 
 digitis. These and innumerable other points of 
 resemblance make you feel that the Italians are 
 in very much descendants of the Latins, and 
 that, in observing them, you see the manners, the 
 naturalness, the quickness, the vivacity, and the 
 culture of their predecessors. Often, in your in- 
 tercourse with the Italians, you are struck by a 
 natural courtesy of manner, which Sismondi truly 
 says descends so low in the social scale in no 
 other country in Europe; and you irresistibly 
 attribute this to their longer civilisation. Mr 
 Euskin, in discussing the differences between Ital- 
 ian and Teutonic art, writes that classicism in art 
 
HOUSES. 77 
 
 sits gracefully on Raphael that he wears it as a 
 dress to which he was accustomed, and which 
 was natural to him; whereas Rubens, or any 
 other Northern, walks awkwardly in it that, 
 attempting to be classic, they are like buxom 
 lasses, who have put on for the occasion the 
 dresses of their mistresses. This seems another 
 testimony, from an altogether different quarter, 
 to the nearness of the modern Italians to their 
 ancient predecessors. 
 
 A Pompeian house is quite different to any- 
 thing modern in its kind. You enter through 
 the street door into a vestibule, or passage, the 
 length of the shops or rooms at its sides. Some- 
 times the shops at the side communicate with 
 the house, the shopkeeper and householder being 
 apparently one and the same person. Some- 
 times there are not shops at the sides, but rooms 
 entered from the atrium or court, into which you 
 pass through the vestibule. Round the court ran 
 a covered portico. In its centre was the open 
 
78 POMPEII. 
 
 impluvium, a lined basin for the receptacle of 
 rain from portico roof, and such part of the house 
 as drained the same way. It had an iron grating 
 over it in the roof as protection against thieves. 
 The large safe of the owner stood at one side 
 of this atrium under the portico. At the sides 
 of the atrium are rooms with doors into it. 
 These doors gave them much of, sometimes all, 
 their light. Little windows, sometimes merely 
 slits, placed high up, too high to look out of from 
 the ground, are, however, not unfrequent. In 
 one slit only, in the house of the Faun, have I 
 seen part of the untransparent glass that filled 
 it still in it. In several the old rusty iron 
 grating that protected them to the street is still 
 in situ. Opposite the entrance was the tablinum, 
 or reception-room, open almost the whole of its 
 ends, and said to have been formerly closed with 
 curtains. The two alee, similarly open rooms, 
 are at its sides (sometimes only an aid), or may- 
 be the last rooms at the sides of the atrium. 
 
HOUSES. 79 
 
 This was the public part of the house. A pas- 
 sa^e at one side of the tdblinum led into the 
 
 O 
 
 second, usually larger court, surrounded with its 
 pillars and portico, and hence called the peristyle. 
 Its centre square was a garden (Hor. Epist. I. 
 x. 22) 
 
 " Nempe inter varias nutritur silva columnas." 1 
 
 Sometimes in it there is a fountain, with statuary 
 round it; sometimes the fountain was a mosaic 
 niche of neat and very pretty stone and shell 
 work in the farther wall. In rare cases this foun- 
 tain is in covered room at the back of, but open 
 to, the peristyle. This was the more private part. 
 Rooms round the portico entered into it; and 
 the triclinium, or dining-room with wider opening, 
 is one of the largest. This opening explains the 
 incident of the fall of the curtains in the supper 
 of Nasidienus. The kitchen is usually small, and 
 near the triclinium. Sometimes there is a niche 
 
 1 " In fact the wood is nursed among the varied columns. 
 
So POMPEII. 
 
 for the Lares' altar in it, or their symbol the two 
 serpents is painted on its wall. This, near the 
 hearth, would seem its proper place. But it is 
 very variously placed. In the house of the tragic 
 poet, it is at one side of the peristyle garden. 
 In the house of the Diadumeni it is in open 
 room or large recess to the right of atrium, the 
 roof of which recess is supported towards the 
 portico by two Corinthian pillars at ends, and 
 two Ionic between them. This altar, dedicated 
 " to the genius of the master and the Lares by 
 the Diadumeni," gives the name to the house. 
 In No. 22 in the same street the altar is in 
 atrium itself, to the right of entrance. In all 
 these three cases it is a separate, temple-like 
 altar, stuccoed with neat ornaments in relief and 
 painting. More rarely it was lined with marble, 
 ornamented with little reliefs. In all houses of 
 any size there was a back or side entrance, 
 sometimes more than one of these postici. Thus 
 Horace concludes his quotation to Torquatus : 
 
HOUSES. 8 1 
 
 " Rebus omissis 
 Atria serrantem postico falle clientem. " 1 
 
 In large houses there is sometimes a second 
 peristyle, or portico, with xystus or garden be- 
 yond it. This is, so to speak, the normal arrange- 
 ment. But there are endless variations upon it. 
 Almost the only thing common to every house is 
 that you enter into a court with portico round 
 it, or part of it, and that the rooms round com- 
 municate with this portico. Sometimes the 
 atrium and peristyle are halved; at others the 
 peristyle is reduced to a portico on one side 
 only, or disappears altogether; or there may be 
 two atria, each with its separate entrance. The 
 house, too, and the relative position of atrium 
 and peristyle, take all manner of shapes and 
 directions to suit the ground. In the house of 
 the Anchor you descend near the tdblinum a 
 storey to the level of the back street ; and to the 
 
 1 " Leaving business, escape by the back door, the client 
 waiting in the atrium." 
 
 F 
 
82 POMPEII. 
 
 right is a portico with niches for statues round 
 it at the sides, larger niches with pediments at 
 the end, and a largish garden in centre. This 
 house in this lower part had three floors, all had 
 two. The storey is said to have been devoted 
 chiefly to the slaves. 
 
 The house of the tragic poet, in which Bulwer 
 puts his hero Glaucus, is small ; but it is famous 
 for the mosaics and frescoes taken from it, and 
 is remarkably neat in all its decorations. For 
 its size it may pass as a model house. The shops 
 on both sides communicate with the vestibule. 
 From it the celebrated mosaic of the dog, with 
 the words " Cave canem," was taken. Eound 
 that it was mosaiced with the usual white pebbles, 
 interspersed regularly with an occasional rather 
 larger black pebble. The atrium floor is the 
 same, and a very neat and simple pattern it 
 makes. 1 On left side of atrium are three small 
 
 1 This pattern occurs in the floor at the entrance of the 
 so-called house of Nero on the Palatine. 
 
HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET. 83 
 
 rooms ; on right a passage (perhaps for stairs to 
 the upper storey), a room, and an ala. In the 
 centre is the usual impluvium with a puteal. Op- 
 posite the entrance is the tablinum. In its centre 
 was found the mosaic of the tragedian drilling 
 his players, which gives the house its name. 
 On its right is passage to the peristyle. Its 
 portico has pillars with simple Doric capitals. 
 These pillars are flat, and painted red below, 
 fluted and white above (both these are not un- 
 usual features in Pompeii), and a darker red 
 line goes round under the capital. The peristyle 
 only goes round three sides, the ground being 
 too small, and the farther side cut off as it were 
 by the boundary wall. On this wall, at the end 
 of the right side, are the remains of the slanting 
 cornice that went under the tiled roof that 
 covered the portico. The architrave that sup- 
 ported this roof towards the garden still remains, 
 and has similar neat cornice on its upper part. 
 The wall of the portico is divided into red rect- 
 
84 POMPEII. 
 
 angles by yellow, much narrower stripes. On 
 the right of the peristyle passage is a room with 
 door opening into its portico. On right side of 
 portico is a narrow kitchen, and fine triclinium. 
 On its left side are two bedrooms, and the pas- 
 sage to porticus or back door. In their line, and 
 before them, is similar room entered by door on 
 left side of tdblinum. All these three bedrooms 
 have small window, about 2| feet, placed high 
 up, and looking into the street. There is a small 
 circular window in triclinium, looking over room, 
 or into the court of the fuller's house, famous 
 for its pillar. Two of the three bedrooms, from 
 the slight stucco arch or curve remaining on two 
 sides, had a slightly curved roof, though it is not 
 an arch proper, the storey floor being supported 
 on beams, and the curve below it simply orna- 
 mental. These rooms are about 12 feet high. 
 One bedroom floor is plastered, and divided by 
 white pebbles into small squares, and in each 
 square are set regularly four sets of four pebbles. 
 
HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET. 85 
 
 I mention this to show that they did not despise 
 the slightest ornamentation. All the smaller 
 rooms are decorated differently, but all in a 
 similar manner. On the lower part are divisions 
 with a little subject in centre; these divisions 
 take up most of the height of the wall. Above 
 them, not in perspective but in lines, is repre- 
 sented a kind of balustrade with towers, with 
 a bird on balustrade, or other similar turn given 
 to the design. The prevailing colours of the 
 grounds of the divisions are red and yellow, 
 but occasionally blue; and sometimes there are 
 black divisions, or a very blackish blue. They 
 are usually divided by white stripes. But this 
 gives very little idea of the effect ; for not only 
 are the colours modified by the different coloured 
 squares in juxtaposition, and by the dividing 
 stripes, and by the space above with its patterns 
 of lines and other designs, but also the quad- 
 rangles themselves are not merely one colour. 
 For instance, the yellow may have neat little 
 
86 POMPEII. 
 
 red pattern or border near its sides ; the red a 
 similar border in white ; the white division or 
 stripes may have a green centre, say entwined 
 with yellow; and there may be a green wreath 
 in centre of yellow division, framing some figure 
 in it. The whole design is really a work of 
 fancy, and there is no excessive predominance 
 of red or yellow in these room decorations. On 
 a court wall the red divisions would sometimes, 
 to our Northern notions, look glaring, and I think 
 in our climate, untoned by the more powerful 
 Southern light, would really be so. Again, the 
 yellow is usually a nice pale tint, and there are 
 very different reds. In this house there is a red 
 used in triclinium to enliven the grounds, but 
 it is a much darker red than that of the bed- 
 rooms. The triclinium floor (a very lofty room) 
 is black and white mosaic, ground white, two 
 black lines as border near the sides, and in 
 centre a square of two black lines; within the 
 square, circle in centre, and four equal semi- 
 
HOUSE OF THE FAUN. 87 
 
 circles at sides touching central circle. In two 
 of these side semicircles is a fish, in the other 
 two a duck; other figures and ornaments fill 
 up the pattern, all in black. In centre of its 
 three walls are three very nicely painted sub- 
 jects, one of them being Theseus's desertion of 
 Ariadne. From the atrium walls were taken 
 to Naples some very excellent frescoes from the 
 ' Iliad ' Briseis leaving Achilles, Chryseis being 
 sent back to her father, &c. The house has 
 always been admired for the excellence of these 
 paintings, and the good tone shown in their 
 subjects, and in the general neatness and taste 
 that pervades its decoration. A nice Lares' altar 
 with pediment, and ornamented with reliefs, &c., 
 in stucco, stands against the boundary wall on 
 the left side of the peristyle garden. That 
 garden is quite small, measuring about five and 
 a half steps by five. 
 
 The house of the Faun is much grander, prob- 
 ably the grandest uncovered in Pompeii. It is 
 
88 POMPEII. 
 
 hardly representative, for it differs in its style of 
 decoration from the others. It has few or no 
 paintings, and its walls are stuccoed in imitation 
 of slabs of incised marble. Its courts are of great 
 size, its pillars lofty, and it has handsome cor- 
 nices in stucco. Many very good mosaics 
 among the best ancient mosaics known and 
 some good statues, were found in it. But not- 
 withstanding this, grandeur rather than good 
 taste seems to be its general characteristic. There 
 is nothing noble in the imitation of marble. The 
 one mosaic left, some doves (a small mosaic for 
 centre), is surrounded by marble patchwork, to 
 me not pleasant or in good taste. Its principal 
 vestibule floor is a mosaic, or rather pattern of 
 marble triangles. Very elaborate subject-mosaics 
 seem to me, too, hardly in place on a floor to be 
 trod on. The excellence of these mosaics is, I 
 think, an uncertain and insufficient ground for 
 believing that they belong to a materially more 
 ancient date than the general mass of Pompeian 
 
STATUE OF JUPITER. 89 
 
 art. Older somewhat they may not improbably 
 have been, mosaic being in its nature more dur- 
 able than fresco. We have no great number of 
 ancient mosaics to compare them with ; but I see 
 in them no marked superiority to the parrot from 
 Herculaneum, or the comic actors of Dioscorides, 
 the Samian. Excellent as are the battle of Alex- 
 ander with Darius, the Genius of Bacchus, the 
 animals, the fish, and all about them, there seems 
 to me nothing in these subjects and in their 
 treatment that need be held superior to the best 
 art of the days of Augustus. The one thing in 
 Pompeii that it seems to me might belong to an 
 older and nobler period of art is the statue of 
 Jupiter. There is a spirit in it, something of 
 nobleness and dignity, which there is not in 
 Pompeian art in general; yet it is not so pre- 
 eminent that we must necessarily assign to it an 
 older date. The house of the Faun would seem 
 to have belonged to some one having associations 
 or connections with Egypt. One mosaic shows 
 
90 POMPEII. 
 
 the Nile, with lotus flowers, the ibis, hippopota- 
 mus, and a crocodile. There is also a mongoose 
 fighting with a cobra. These mosaics are admir- 
 able in vigour, but they are not the least like 
 paintings. They seem to me not to try to rival 
 painting, designedly to give less fully the dis- 
 tances, surroundings, and accompaniments of the 
 scene, and by this self-denial to be enabled to 
 give what they do represent with the greater 
 effect and vigour. They seem to me, too, to have 
 Mr Euskin's merit of having their pebbles infin- 
 itely varied in their shades. 
 
 Another fine and large house is that of Melea- 
 ger. The peristyle is the finest discovered in 
 Pompeii. There are four rooms opening into it 
 (two of them fine rooms) that have kept their 
 mosaic floors. One of them, called the triclinium, 
 has a colonnade at the two sides, making a kind of 
 aisles; the other grand room, which the little 
 Pompeian guide suggests may have been a ball- 
 room, has very nice wall decorations, chiefly on 
 
HOUSE OF PANS A, 91 
 
 black ground. One of the centre subjects is the 
 Judgment of Paris, well executed, and preserving 
 the different character of the three goddesses, 
 though not realising their highest representation. 
 The house of Pansa is another large house, tak- 
 ing up, like that of the Faun, an entire insula, or 
 the space between four streets, to itself, or, strictly 
 speaking, to itself and the shops facing the street 
 round it. There is a great difference between the 
 two houses in this respect. That of Pansa has 
 the wide opening rooms or shops looking into the 
 street all round : the house of the Faun, only in 
 front in line of its two vestibules ; and there one 
 is tempted to think that there were waiting-rooms 
 or outhouses of some kind, so out of character do 
 such little shops appear with so great a house. 
 The house of Pansa, built with its surroundings 
 on much more commercial principles, has three 
 shops in different parts of its square communicat- 
 ing with it, one of these three being a bakery with 
 the usual mills and oven. This bakery seems to 
 
92 POMPEII. 
 
 have been really a retail business. In the large 
 house of the Labyrinth there is a bakery attached, 
 cut off by a wall from the rest. In the passage 
 to it near are some very nice little bath-rooms, 
 and there is no trace of public shop in connection 
 with it. In the house of Siricus, next to the 
 Thermae Stabianae, the salutation written on the 
 vestibule floor is " Salve lucrum." And opposite 
 to the entrance, over the painting of the serpents, 
 was written, " Otiosis locus hie non est ; discede, 
 morator." 1 My German guide-book assigns to him 
 a bakery next door ; but there is no communica- 
 tion that I could see with it, or with any shop 
 whatever. Yet a master of such principles must 
 have had some active and profitable business go- 
 ing on ; and from the position of the inscriptions, 
 you would think in the house itself. A feeling 
 against trade as trade, when there was nothing 
 morally degrading in its actual exercise, did not 
 in all likelihood exist among the Eomans. In an 
 
 1 "This is no place for the idle ; depart, dawdler." 
 
ROMAN PRACTICAL SPIRIT. 93 
 
 amusing passage of the Epistle to the Pisos, 
 Horace contrasts with the Greek spirit, " greedy 
 only of praise," the Eoman's arithmetical educa- 
 tion, leading to more practical views, and the cura 
 peculi. And in his letter to Augustus, he repre- 
 sents it to have been the custom of the patricians 
 of old Rome not only to give legal advice to their 
 clients, but to lend money on good security 
 
 " Cautos nominibus rectis expendere nummos ; " 
 
 and to advise young men how to increase their 
 property (Epist. II. i. 106) 
 
 " Minori dicere, per quae 
 Crescere res posset." 
 
 The Roman emperors themselves had a larger 
 and more expensive household ; but, properly 
 speaking, no court with its officers and distinc- 
 tions. They were the first citizens. Up to 
 Severus the forms of the Republic were retained. 
 The government went nominally through the 
 senate. Monopolising a constant imperatorship, 
 besides other offices, as Pontifex Maximus, the 
 
94 POMPEII. 
 
 emperor could rule the senate, and if need be pass 
 by it. But ordinarily its edicts clothed his des- 
 potism. It is likely that the republican forms 
 prevailed greatly in all the details of civil life. 
 But the possession of a vast number of slaves, 
 and a system of clientship or dependency, so 
 modified all social arrangements, that it is mis- 
 leading to repeople Pompeii according to the 
 business ways of our own days. Certain elemen- 
 tary trades, the public-house, and the retail mar- 
 ket, may not have differed very much though 
 this last, probably, as to corn and the articles of 
 main consumption, would ultimately be carried on 
 much to the profit of the rich, who possessed the 
 land (latifundia), and cultivated it through slaves 
 and dependants. A fuller in Pompeii would have 
 a very different authority over the workmen who 
 were slaves, to that of his modern representative. 
 Again, an intelligent slave was often trained to a 
 trade or profession, and so became more profitable 
 to his master, as well as, from being more profit- 
 
OCCUPATIONS. 95 
 
 able, better cared for himself. Witness the in- 
 scription in what is supposed to have been the 
 imperial pedagogium at Eome, addressed to an 
 ass rudely scratched and working a mill, " Labora, 
 aselle, quomodo ego laboravi, et proderit tibi." 1 
 Horace gives an amusing account, in his seventh 
 epistle, of Sabinus, whom Philippus succeeded in 
 making a dependant, and turning into a country 
 farmer : how he lost his sheep by theft, his goats 
 by disease; how the harvest disappointed his 
 hopes, and his ox was strangled in the plough ; 
 and how, broken down by these losses, he took 
 horse in the middle of the night, and going to his 
 patron's house, begged him to restore him to his 
 former life. Such, but more successful, depen- 
 dants, as well as intelligent instructed slaves, may 
 well have been trusted to carry on a business, the 
 chief profits of which went to the master or patron. 
 A large slave household could not, if the owner 
 had wished, except by the most wealthy, be kept 
 
 1 " Work, Neddy, as I have worked, and it will profit you. " 
 
96 POMPEII. 
 
 simply to attend to the wants of the family. 
 Many, like Agrippa, like Horace himself in a 
 smaller way, drew their wealth or means of main- 
 tenance from Sicilian estates or a Sabine hamlet 
 cultivated hy slaves. But others must have em- 
 ployed slaves and patronised clients in civil busi- 
 ness and the trades of towns. 
 
 But to return to the houses of Pompeii and 
 their decorations. In the house of the Labyrinth, 
 on the floor of one room is, in the centre, a small 
 mosaic of Theseus killing the Minotaur (from 
 this is the name of the house), and round it a 
 pattern in white and black alternate lines, not 
 very pleasing. Another room has a white centre, 
 with pattern as border in straight lines, white 
 and black, with a little red and green; a third 
 room has a checkered pattern in black and white. 
 Sometimes there is marble in the centre of the 
 mosaic floor, more often a geometrical pattern, 
 but generally it has merely a border; and if a 
 pattern runs all through, it is extremely simple, 
 
MOSAICS. 97 
 
 A house in Marina Street has a floor of which 
 the mosaic is dotted with irregular bits of dif- 
 ferent marbles. This eccentric floor seems to 
 show that marble in itself was highly esteemed, 
 and thought an ornament. The colour of the 
 mosaic patterns is generally white and black 
 neat and simple, and fitting their position ; some- 
 times a little green and red. Some more elabor- 
 ate patterns, filling up the entire space, now floor 
 some of the rooms of the Museum of Naples. 
 One of these is a pretty mosaic of marine plants, 
 &c., from the villa of Diomede, chiefly black and 
 white, but some red and a little green. The 
 mosaic in the vestibule was not an indispensable 
 requisite, but it is found in many cases. It was 
 by no means always the dog with his "cave 
 canem." In the house of the banker L. Cecilius 
 Jucundus, it is perhaps not unsuitably a wolf. 
 In this atrium was a Hermes statue of Jucundus 
 in bronze, erected by the "Freedman Felix to 
 the Genius of our Lucius." In the tdblinum, the 
 
98 POMPEII. 
 
 centre subjects are nice portraits (busts) in pairs. 
 A little of the marble covering, with simple re- 
 liefs, is left on the Lares' altar. Other vestibule 
 mosaics are a boar, a bear, dolphins with trident 
 and rudder bordered by fortification, an anchor, &c. 
 The house of the Bear is small, but neatly decor- 
 ated with nice mosaics, paintings, and fountain. 
 
 The fountains are another nice feature of the 
 Pompeian house. The house of Marcus Lucretius 
 has both the fountain in niche and the basin in 
 garden, with small statues round it still in situ 
 a Faun covering his eyes from the sun, another 
 (Hermes) with goat in his arm, a Cupid on dol- 
 phin, a dog, two rabbits, two birds, a bull, a stag, 
 and a duck, and a small Satyr taking a thorn 
 from the foot of the god Pan. The large house 
 of the Citharista had also a group of statues 
 round its basin. These (in bronze) are now in 
 the Museum of Naples a wild boar attacked by 
 two dogs, a serpent, a lion, and a stag. It is a 
 great addition to the pleasure of a visit to Pom- 
 
FOUNTAINS. 99 
 
 peii, to know enough of the Museum of Naples 
 to be able to put back mentally into their place 
 some of the treasures of art taken from it. The 
 mosaic and shell work fountain niches at .the 
 back of the peristyle, sometimes so placed in it 
 as to face the vestibule, are often very elegant, 
 and a very charming ornament. The houses of 
 the great and little Fountains receive their names 
 from niches of this kind. These fountains once 
 had also their little statues spitting water. The 
 Pompeians carried this feature of mosaic orna- 
 mentation further. In a garden just outside the 
 town, in the street of the Tombs, were found four 
 mosaic columns, now hi the Museum of Naples, 
 which supported a sacrarium. In the same gar- 
 den was found the most beautiful vase of blue 
 glass, with the Fauns' heads, the vines, the genii, 
 &c., in white enamel, which is also in, and is one 
 of the gems of, the Naples Museum. The comic 
 mosaics of Dioscorides, and some groups of 
 dancers and centaurs, which are particularly 
 
ioo POMPEII. 
 
 natural and spirited, were found on the opposite 
 side of the street, in what are supposed, from an 
 inscription, to have been the fresh-water and sea 
 baths of Marcus Frugius. It is impossible to 
 describe in words the pleasantness of these pretty 
 mosaics; and when the fountains were in play, 
 and they were seen along with the foliage and 
 flowers of the garden, and the pillars and de- 
 corated wall of the peristyle, they must have 
 formed a delightful addition to a town abode. 
 In the garden of the house of Ariadne is a little 
 feature which it is touching to see after so many 
 centuries namely, the old brick tiles (in straight 
 lines and semicircles) which divided the beds. 
 
 I have mentioned the statue "to the Genius" 
 of the master in the house of L. Jucundus. This, 
 too, is not an unfrequent ornament. A master 
 had great power then, and it was advisable to 
 propitiate his "genius." In the large house of 
 the Diadumeni, it is the little pedimented Lares' 
 altar that is dedicated by the two Diadumeni " to 
 
"TO THE GENIUS." 101 
 
 the genius of our master and the Lares." The 
 columned hall, in which this altar stands, pre- 
 serves some of the lower cornice: two cornices 
 are a very frequent feature in the Pompeian 
 decoration, one about the height of the door, the 
 other at the top of the room or hall. In the 
 house of Cornelius Eufus, opposite the Stabian 
 baths, the base of the statue bears the simple 
 inscription, "C. Cornelio Rufo." It is of grey 
 marble, the bust fitted into it of white. In the 
 house of Orpheus, near the crossing of the two 
 great streets of Stabia and Nola, is in the atrium 
 the statue set this time by the " cashier Anteros 
 to our Primus." These statues denoted office 
 and rank. No doubt, of old, more such (ima- 
 gines) adorned the atria, and had their effect 
 on the minds of the people: 
 
 " Qui stultus honores 
 Ssepe dat indignis, et fauuu servit ineptus, 
 Qui stupet in titulis et imaginibus." 1 
 
 1 " Which often gives offices to the unworthy, and foolishly 
 follows fame which is dazzled at titles and statues." 
 
102 POMPEII. 
 
 It would be interesting to know, if it could 
 be ascertained, how the shops of Pompeii were 
 divided, and how they compare in this respect 
 with those of a modern town. But most of them 
 do not show on their face their purpose. Pos- 
 sibly in very many the relics found in them 
 may show what trade they were; but to such 
 information, if it exists, the ordinary visitor has 
 no access. There are many wine -shops, and 
 shops for the sale of drink and victuals. People 
 were hungry and thirsty then as now. There 
 are many bakeries with their small stone mills. 
 In others there are oil-mills. There are several 
 fullers' yards, these being, as shown by their 
 statue to Eumachia, an important guild. Per- 
 haps the water suited their business. All these 
 trades show themselves in the construction of 
 the house or court. But the vast number of 
 these rooms, with their wide doors, are just one 
 like another, and there is nothing to tell you, 
 as you walk past, the trade followed. One of the 
 
THE TANNER'S HOUSE. 103 
 
 most interesting houses in Pompeii is the tan- 
 ners'. It is not interesting for any relics there 
 are of its works for it is bare enough, and shows 
 you little but that its premises were large but 
 interesting for the thoughtful mosaic found on 
 its triclinium table. This mosaic represents at 
 top a square and plumb-line; in the middle, a 
 skull ; below, a butterfly on a wheel ; at the sides 
 of this are a shepherd's crook and an upturned 
 lance, both having cloths on them. Signer 
 Pagano, in his little Pompeian guide, thus ex- 
 plains it: "The square and plumb-line point to 
 the equo pede of death, and its inexorable justice ; 
 the butterfly symbolises the sensitive soul, which 
 has left its earthly tenement; the wheel cor- 
 responds to fortune and to fate; lastly, in the 
 cloths hung on the crook and lance, are indicated 
 the earthly goods that death takes from us." 
 This interpretation is quite in harmony with 
 much of the philosophy of Horace. The cer- 
 tainty of death and the uncertainty of life are 
 
104 POMPEII. 
 
 a frequent thought with him. See the charming 
 Ode (II. iii.) to " moriture " l Dellius, and that to 
 Leuconoe (I. xi), where he advises her not to 
 consult the fortune-tellers : 
 
 " Ut melius, quidquid erit, pati ! 
 Seu plures hiemes, seu tribuit Jupiter ultimam, 
 Quse nunc oppositis debilitat pumicibus mare 
 Tyrrhenum ; " 2 
 
 and then 
 
 " Sapias, vina liques, et spatio brevi 
 Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur, f ugerit invida 
 JEtas. Carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero." 3 
 
 And in his exquisite letter to Tibullus, he ad- 
 vises in the same spirit: 
 
 1 "Doomed to die." 
 
 2 " How much better to suffer the future, whatever it be, 
 whether it be more winters, or whether Jupiter has given this 
 the last, which now weakens the Tuscan sea with the stones 
 built up against it." 
 
 3 " Be wise, clear the wine, and cut down a long hope to a 
 short space. While we are speaking, envious time will have 
 flown. Carpe diem, trusting as little as possible to the 
 future." 
 
HORACE ON DEATH. 105 
 
 " Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum ; 
 Grata superveniet, quse non sperabitur, hora." l 
 
 It is stated on the authority of Procopius, that 
 the Komans placed a skull on their dining-tables 
 as an incitement to gluttony. One such skull 
 was found in Pompeii. This is a possible de- 
 duction from the motto, " Dum vivimus, viv- 
 amus." In more than one great plague dissolute 
 men have become more dissolute. Horace in one 
 passage (Odes, I. iv.) draws his moral more in this 
 spirit. But in general he treats the thought, as 
 in the places above quoted, with earnestness and 
 elevation, as in the tanners' more elaborated 
 
 mosaic : 
 
 " ^qua tellus 
 Pauperi recluditur 
 
 Regumque pueris, nee satelles Orci 
 Callidum Promethea 
 
 Revexit auro captus." 2 (II. xviii.) 
 
 He inculcates the use of the present in every 
 
 1 " Believe that every day has risen to you the last ; the hour 
 not expected will add itself gratefully. " 
 
 2 " The earth is opened equally for the poor and the sons of 
 
106 POMPEII. 
 
 sense, in rational enjoyment and in strenuous 
 labour; but he forbids exorbitant ambition and 
 foolish greed. It may possibly have been with 
 these thoughts of Horace, and no more, that the 
 Pompeian tanner looked on his mosaic. Even so 
 it is extremely interesting, and strikes a more 
 philosophic, a higher note, than we usually meet 
 with in the decorations of Pompeii. Still one 
 would wish to see something more in it, and the 
 emblems admit of more. The lance and the 
 crook with their cloths seem to mean all, whether 
 military or civil, with their worldly goods; the 
 wheel, the skull, the square and plumb-line, might 
 fitly symbolise life, death, and judgment. And 
 the butterfly on the wheel may not only mean 
 that the turns of fortune try the soul, but also 
 be taken in connection with the skull above it, 
 and signify that it survives the body's corrup- 
 tion. Thus taken, the thoughts are not above 
 
 kings ; nor has the satellite of Orcus, taken by gold, brought 
 back the crafty Prometheus." 
 
HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE. 107 
 
 heathenism, but are among the noblest it can 
 rise to. 
 
 At Pompeii we see more than the houses and 
 shops of the ancients, more than the paintings 
 upon their walls, and the statuary that adorned 
 their courts and fountains. In the articles dug 
 up, and now in the Museum of Naples, we see 
 their furniture, their household utensils, almost 
 all the appliances of their life in every detail. 
 There are the great atrium safes that contained 
 the treasures of their owners. There are the 
 braziers that warmed their rooms. One has 
 round it a channel for water a contrivance for 
 moistening the heat I have not seen in modern 
 use. There, in countless numbers and different 
 materials, are the lamps that gave them light, 
 and the various stands and supports for these, 
 trees and columns to hang them from, figures of 
 Silenus and others, many well and naturally mo- 
 delled, to carry them. Some of these lamp-bearers 
 are made to take in pieces, and to be raised and 
 
io8 POMPEII. 
 
 let down by a peg. There is even a night-lamp 
 with perforated lid for subduing the light. There 
 are many lanterns for out-of-door use. These 
 ordinary lamps are not yet in Italy entirely super- 
 seded by petroleum. Among these remains, too, 
 are their garden seats, their curule chairs, their 
 bisellia (an honorary seat at the theatre granted 
 to deserving citizens), their altars on their tripods, 
 their tables and instruments for their aruspicia, 
 their censers, and a sprinkler for throwing lustral 
 water. 
 
 In the little museum at Pompeii we see the 
 model and reconstruction of a house-door, with 
 its latches, bolts, and locks. These have been 
 taken in a very ingenious way. Materials that 
 decay leave a vacuum in the lava in which they 
 were buried. This vacuum has been used as a 
 mould, filled with plaster, and a model taken of 
 the article that has perished. Several models of 
 human figures have been thus taken, and are 
 extremely interesting as giving a measure of the 
 
THE MUSEUM. 109 
 
 accuracy of the method followed. In the same 
 way a door has been taken in plaster, and the old 
 latches, bolts, &c., have afterwards been fitted to 
 this. From this a reproduction has been made 
 in modern wood and materials. Hinges and locks 
 and the durable parts remain in numbers, from 
 those of town gates to those of a lady's jewel-case. 
 Their knockers may still be seen rings round a 
 Medusa's head or other ornament, sometimes in- 
 laid with silver. You see their drinking-cups of 
 all varieties, and in all materials glass, earthen- 
 ware, bronze, and silver, their spoons and knives, 
 their dinner services in brightly-glazed pottery ; 
 their urns for keeping hot wine, some quite like 
 our modern tea-urns, some as ingeniously con- 
 trived as they are artistically executed ; jugs for 
 milk and all purposes ; large vases for wine, their 
 use being concluded from their ornaments ; their 
 ladles, their funnels, their colanders. Some of 
 these last, of a bowl shape, are perforated small, 
 and very neatly executed, evidently for table use. 
 
1 10 POMPEII. 
 
 It is supposed that they were filled with snow, the 
 Italian substitute for ice, and dipped into wine to 
 cool it. Certainly the contrivance is not needless, 
 the snow being by no means free from impurities. 
 All . kitchen utensils are there shapes, pastry 
 cutters, cheese graters, frames for cooking eggs, 
 gridirons, frying-pans, trivets, spits. There are 
 many remains of their harness, bits, curb-chains, 
 &c., and the bells for their cattle, exactly such 
 as those with which cows and goats go through 
 Naples and Torre del Greco now, for the animals 
 themselves carry the milk round, and serve you 
 at your doors. Their caldrons and plugs are 
 there, and equally their smallest things their 
 needles and their pins. All kinds of toilet re- 
 quisites may be seen combs, tooth-combs just 
 like the modern, hairpins, mirrors, clasps, and 
 innumerable other articles. A couple of tables 
 contain surgical instruments; another musical, 
 including a bagpipe; another dice (some were 
 loaded), and knuckle - bones, and tickets for 
 
THE MUSEUM. in 
 
 theatres; another fish-hooks; another compasses 
 and sculptor's instruments. There is quite a 
 wonderful collection of steelyards and scales, with 
 all kinds of weights and measures. Some steel- 
 yards had a ring round the cords of the scale, 
 which, pressed down, held them closer to the 
 contents. One has a hook instead of a scale. 
 Some weights have writing on them which bids 
 you "buy and have." Their trade implements 
 are to be seen in great numbers. Ploughshares, 
 spades, rakes, hammers, mallets, shears, trowels, 
 pickaxes, wedges, planes, saws, anvils, and a key 
 for raising blocks of stone (such as still used 
 in Italy), and many more, show you the instru- 
 ments with which they worked in their different 
 occupations. In silver there are cups nicely 
 worked, dishes, shapes, buckets, mirrors, &c. 
 There is a beautiful vase, enamel, on blue glass, 
 also a great number of common vessels in glass 
 tumblers, druggists' bottles, dishes, lacrymatories, 
 &c., and a considerable collection of articles in 
 
112 POMPEII. 
 
 gold very artistic necklaces and earrings, chains, 
 clasps (fibulce), bracelets, bottle-cases, some set 
 with precious stones, and showing the highest 
 taste and skill of the goldsmith. There is a hair- 
 net of gold thread, and the India with its clasp, 
 as worn by the children of patricians. Of course 
 their curtains, their cushions, all things lighter 
 and of more perishable material, are wanting, 
 and prevent the process of mentally refurnishing 
 the ancient walls from being complete and 
 perfect. 
 
 Beyond doubt we have made great progress as 
 tradesmen on these Pompeian articles and furni- 
 ture. Our command of the resources of nature, 
 and our facility in manufacture (using the words 
 on the lucus a non lucendo principle to express 
 things not made by hand but by machine), are 
 much greater. We can furnish mirrors larger 
 and more convenient than theirs ; we can mul- 
 tiply pins and needles, and most other toilet 
 requisites, in a way that would have astounded 
 
ART AND ARCHITECTURE. 113 
 
 them; we can supply bedsteads of one pattern, 
 with which theirs could not have competed for 
 cheapness in the market. But against all this 
 gain there is great loss. The artisan is become 
 much less of an artist. Our intelligence is shown 
 in the machinery, in the mode of making. The 
 article made by the ancient showed in itself much 
 more the mind and feeling of the maker, and so 
 charms more than ours. Our comforts are in- 
 finitely greater, and we have extended them 
 lower in the scale of society. People of the 
 most moderate means enjoy now conveniences 
 which the rich had formerly to go without. 
 But the difference between the houses, the 
 comforts, the luxuries of the richest and the 
 poorest, is greater now than ever. 
 
 Comparing them with our own, what is the 
 judgment we must form of the art and archi- 
 tecture of Pompeii? What place does it take 
 with its buildings, with its frescoes, and with 
 its statuary ? Pompeii is very interesting in its 
 
H4 POMPEII. 
 
 architecture. In it we see in some degree what 
 we see nowhere else, classic architecture applied 
 on a small scale to a common house. I think 
 the hasty visitor, not accustomed to see pillars 
 and colonnades except in connection with gran- 
 deur, is apt to form too high an idea of the 
 outward appearance of Pompeii. Some of the 
 peristyles are spacious enough ; but none of 
 them, I think, could have been in themselves 
 properly beautiful or attractive. All the beauty 
 they had must have been due to their garden, 
 their pretty mosaics and fountains, their statuary, 
 and the possible brightness and elegance of their 
 mural decoration. Such dignity as there was in 
 Pompeii must have been found in the colonnade 
 and frieze of the Forum, with the Temple of 
 Jupiter at one end, with its arches and statues, 
 surrounded by the Basilika, by other temples, 
 and by public buildings. But these of Pompeii 
 were not the highest specimens of temple archi- 
 tecture. They are by no means equal to the 
 
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. 115 
 
 Temple of Neptune at Paestum. That is very 
 beautiful in its way ; but it is so different in its 
 kind that it rather contrasts than compares with 
 the grand Christian architecture of the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries. Just as a Greek play 
 in its unity of passion, in its chiselled complete- 
 ness of form and beauty, stands before a modern 
 tragedy, so a Greek temple in its simple dignity 
 and proportions is of a beauty more connected, 
 more comprehensible, more measured and com- 
 pleted, than that of a Gothic cathedral. But just as 
 a play of Shakespeare reveals more of nature, and 
 is a grander thing, of higher and nobler imagina- 
 tion, than a Greek tragedy, so is a middle-age 
 cathedral, a doge's palace, or a Gothic town-hall 
 more varied in its beauty, higher in its spirit, 
 nobler in its imagination, a fuller embodiment 
 of all the instincts and aspirations of man, 
 than the more limited, but within its limits 
 beautiful, Greek temple. And in its lesser 
 churches and in its houses the contrast is, 
 
u6 POMPEII. 
 
 I think, still more in favour of the middle 
 ages. The houses of Pompeii have nothing 
 of the external beauty of the old houses of 
 Hildesheim. 
 
 The frescoes of Pompeii are the most extensive, 
 the only at all complete remains, that we have 
 of Greek art in their branch. But they are 
 Greek art of the first century of our era, some- 
 times perhaps a little before, not of its best and 
 simplest age. They are Greek art under Eoman 
 influence. We must not transfer our ideas of a 
 small town altogether to Pompeii. Such, no 
 doubt, it was, witness its baths as compared 
 with those of Rome. Still it was part of the 
 ruling corporation of the world, a colony and 
 miniature of Eome, situated on the bay which 
 was the favourite resort of Eoman luxury, be- 
 tween Baiee-in-the-sea ("liquidse Baise") and 
 pleasant Sorrentum (" amoenum Surrentum " : 
 Hor.) Its frescoes are not superior to, but the 
 best may compare not unfavourably with, those 
 
GRECO-ROMAN ART. 117 
 
 revealed some years ago x in the house of Nero 2 
 on the Palatine, or in the villa of Livia near 
 Rome. Its statues of Jupiter, the Doryphorus, 
 the little Narcissus, together with the portraits, 
 the Mercury, and the Sleeping Faun from Her- 
 culaneum, may stand without shame by the side 
 of those found in Rome itself. The frescoes, no 
 doubt, vary very much: some are quite rude, 
 some are indifferent, but the best seem fairly 
 to represent the better art of their day. It 
 seems to me that this art rested on its proper 
 basis, nature and real life, and that it was not 
 merely academic. In its historic, mythologic, 
 and literary subjects it followed a cycle (Epist. 
 ad Pis.) 
 
 " Rectius Iliacuin carmen deducis in actus." 
 
 The same subjects are constantly repeated, and are 
 treated in a similar though not identical way. 
 
 1 These have now perished. I saw them the winter Pius IX. 
 and Victor Emmanuel died, in excellent preservation. 
 " This Nero was the earlier husband of Livia. 
 
n8 POMPEII. 
 
 The chief persons, men as well as gods, have their 
 definite character, their type of feature, just as 
 particular saints had among the early Christian 
 painters. But it was from the actual observation 
 of the human body, not from lessons in anatomy, 
 that they learned to form so vividly and forcibly 
 its image in their statues, and to paint its figures, 
 exuberant with the bloom and activity of health, 
 on their walls. Their toilet scenes are sketches ; 
 but, so far as they go, they seem taken accurately 
 from real life. Their portraits are eminently 
 truthful ; and their scenes from the market and 
 the tavern, though roughly done, still witness to 
 an art based on life and nature. They had, I 
 suppose, mechanical appliances to aid them in 
 painting their divisions and the lines of their 
 patterns ; but every pattern seems arranged to its 
 place, and they are infinitely varied as well as 
 gracious. And the birds, the fish, the fruit, the 
 things of daily life that adorn them, witness to an 
 exact, accurate, and constant observation of nature. 
 
POMPEIAN ART. 119 
 
 The great point in which this art seems inferior 
 to that of an earlier time is, that it is less 
 noble in spirit. 1 It can portray a flower-girl, a 
 dancing figure, an athlete, or a Cupid with ex- 
 quisite grace, but it fails to give a noble character 
 either to its gods or heroes. With the exception 
 of the statue of Jupiter, I noticed no high realisa- 
 tion of the character portrayed. The Venus Kal- 
 lipyge, not the Venus of Capua, is the representa- 
 tive of this art. The motive of that statue, with 
 its abuse of drapery (to frame, not to cover, the 
 form to which attention is invited), is frequently 
 repeated in Pompeii. It degrades, for instance, 
 the mosaic of Ulysses discovering Achilles in the 
 house of Apollo, and the Cupid and Psyche that 
 was placed below Proculeius and his wife. There 
 is much in the art of Pompeii that is covered up, 
 and is rightly withdrawn from the general gaze. 
 
 1 The best Greek ages are distinguished, too, by the greater 
 simplicity and ease with which they attain their wonderful 
 result. 
 
120 POMPEII. 
 
 But it is not its scenes of downright, unproduc- 
 able indecency (after all, few in number compared 
 with the whole) that make it inapplicable and 
 impossible to modern life, but because in its 
 essence it rests on what the Germans call the 
 Verehrlichung of the bodily form. That is the 
 chief, the most attractive, the acme of those grace- 
 ful ornaments which adorn its squares. Take 
 away the representations of the human form, and 
 the decorations of Pompeii become the play of 
 ' Hamlet ' with the part of Hamlet omitted. 
 There are other centres to their decorations, 
 e.g., historical subjects and the contrast of two 
 portraits. But were these not combined with 
 the graceful dancing figures, and paintings in 
 the nude, the whole decoration would become 
 much more respectable and decent, but would 
 have been to the eye of the Eoman lifeless and 
 dull. They were accustomed to the sight of the 
 almost or quite undressed figure in the baths and 
 in the palaestra ; and though their writings show 
 
SPIRIT OF POMPEIAN ART. 121 
 
 the consequences, they were unconscious of the 
 wrong, and being so, were less degraded by it. 
 We could not accept frankly the Pompeian deco- 
 ration and repeat it, without its being to us a 
 conscious stain and a deeper degradation. More- 
 over, the separation of art from trade, the costli- 
 ness and greater perishableness of mural decora- 
 tion in our climate, the change of fashion, which 
 has caused an Englishman to decorate his house 
 differently, and adorn his walls with art trea- 
 sures movable and more lasting all these make 
 any imitation of the Pompeian models difficult 
 with us. 
 
 It is not uninteresting to compare ancient stat- 
 uary and frescoes with those of modern Italy 
 before Italian art under Michael Angelo and 
 Kaphael adopted, or attempted to adopt, 1 the 
 
 1 " Die Unterordnung alles zufiilligen unter die lebendige 
 Geistlichkeit der reinen Korperform." " The subordination of 
 all that is accidental to the living supremacy of the pure bodily 
 form." Kugler, p. 421, in criticising the frescoes of Signorelli 
 (the precursor of Michael Angelo) at Orvieto. 
 
122 POMPEII. 
 
 principle of the ancient, and became directly im- 
 itative of it. The later art appears to me to have 
 far higher merits, but not to be so adapted to 
 light and graceful mural decoration. The early 
 Italians were strictly imitative of nature; and 
 though their art was still rising, and had not 
 reached its culminating point, their best works 
 Verrochio's Colleoni at Venice, the St George of 
 Donatello, and much else at Florence seem not 
 unworthy 1 to put beside the chef-d'ceuvres of 
 antiquity. You must remember that they are 
 not founded on the principle of the Verehrlichung 
 of the human body, but aim at giving a repre- 
 sentation of a contemporary general or a Christian 
 saint as seen in life. They give the outward man 
 in its truth, nature, and vigour; but they seek 
 moreover to let the character speak through the 
 lineaments and features of the face, through the 
 gestures and manner. This is that which we 
 
 1 Far more so than the unfortunate statues of Canova, which 
 are put for comparison in the Vatican. 
 
LATER ART, 123 
 
 most care and think about, and which necessarily, 
 really to please and interest us, the sculptor or 
 painter must set himself to represent. We can- 
 not go back to the ancient heathen ideas ; and 
 art, in seeking to do so, necessarily becomes un- 
 real, alien to our real life and interests. The 
 loggie of Eaphael come nearest in spirit, in light- 
 ness, and in grace to the ancient frescoes. But 
 even there the subjects relatively occupy much 
 more of the space, and the wall seems rather to 
 exist for them than they for the wall. In the 
 sale this is still more the case. And though they 
 have much higher merits (nothing, for instance, at 
 Pompeii at all compares as a picture of life with 
 the Popes and their attendants in the frescoes of 
 the sale), yet they do not form so truly a pretty 
 and ornamented wall. They are more than that, 
 and the sale have not unnaturally become a 
 museum of art rather than rooms to live in. The 
 school of Perugia divides its subjects with very 
 neat borders. Pinturicchio's ceiling in the choir 
 
124 POMPEII, 
 
 of St Maria del Popolo at Eome, and Perugino's 
 Hall di Cambio at Perugia, are instances. These 
 last are noble and instructive paintings, but they 
 take up all the wall. The borders are only nar- 
 row frames, and the subjects claim all your atten- 
 tion, on their own grounds and not as mural 
 decoration. They will well repay your study. 
 Several of them represent men of antiquity, but 
 they represent them as patterns of the four car- 
 dinal virtues Justice, Fortitude, Temperance, 
 and Prudence. They show you how these virtues 
 impress themselves on the outward appearance, 
 and from looking at them you may learn to ad- 
 mire and insensibly imitate the virtues. You will 
 learn little of this kind from Pompeii. 
 
 Eighteen eventful centuries have passed since 
 Pompeii was overwhelmed. The invention of 
 transparent glass has revolutionised the building 
 of houses ; the compass has developed navigation ; 
 the printing-press has dispersed literature; gun- 
 powder, breechloaders, and rifled cannon have 
 
RETROSPECT. 125 
 
 increased man's strength in war; mechanical 
 inventions innumerable have added to and 
 multiplied his comforts. The movement of the 
 planets, the cause of eclipses, the attraction of 
 matter, and other laws of the universe, are known 
 to us. And every science has revealed to us its 
 secrets, that were hidden to the Pompeian. But 
 all this science, all this knowledge, mechanical 
 invention, and material progress, have not been 
 an unmixed advantage; and they have left the 
 world essentially what it was before. The habits 
 of men now are pretty much the same as the 
 habits of the Pompeians were. It may be ques- 
 tioned whether the life of the Pompeian tanner 
 would not condemn the majority of ours. Our 
 knowledge and our enlightenment have effected 
 no change in the spirit of man. Our inventions 
 and our comforts have not made us less ambi- 
 tious, less greedy of gain, less fond of pleasure. 
 There are three blots on ancient civilisation that 
 have disappeared from European society : slavery, 
 
126 POMPEII. 
 
 the gladiatorial games, and that form of sensual 
 indulgence that Horace could allude to boldly 
 (Odes, I. iv.) in connection with the sentiment 
 
 b< Pallida Mors sequo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas 
 Regumque turres." 
 
 These are the triumphs of the purer, milder, 
 and more spiritual religion of Christ. Whatever 
 lesser degree of improvement there is in other 
 respects, comes from the same holy source, exists 
 amongst those imbued with its teaching or who 
 have learnt from them. The point of wonder is, 
 that our better religion should be so badly fol- 
 lowed and should not have improved us more. 
 Christianity, it is true, did not interfere directly 
 with social institutions. But it abolished glad- 
 iatorial games and slavery by the humaner 
 spirit it infused into the world; and as a 
 corollary of its principles, that we are all 
 "slaves of Christ," and all alike equal before 
 God. The third blot it had already extin- 
 
CONCL US ION. 127 
 
 guished within the circle of its disciples, when 
 St Paul, towards the last days of Pompeii, 
 touched and found brethren at the neighbour- 
 ing port of Puteoli. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS. 
 

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