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ARCHITECTURAL 
 MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
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 ho 
 
 
ARCHITECTURAL 
 
 MAXIMS AND THEOREMS 
 
 IN ELUCIDATION OF 
 
 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF 
 
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 
 
 AND 
 
 LECTURE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS LEVERTON DONALDSON, M.I.B.A., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ARCHITECTURE IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON ;' CORRE- 
 SPONDENT OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, AND MEMBER OF THE 
 ACADEMIES OF ROME, NAPLES, FLORENCE, VENICE, MILAN, 
 PARMA, VICENZA, VIENNA, ANTWERP, OF THE ROYAL 
 BELGIAN ACADEMY, OF THE COM1TE HISTO- 
 RIQUE DES ARTS ET MONUMENS, AND OF 
 THE SOCIETE LIBRE DES BEAUX 
 ARTS AT PARIS. 
 
 " Parmi les choses, que nous cherehons a connaitre, il faut consid^rer, que lesunes depen- 
 dent seulement de la m^moire, et sont purement historiques, n'ayant alors pour objet que 
 de savoir ce, que les auteurs ont £crit. Les autres dependent seulement du raisonnement et 
 sont enticement dogmatiques, ayant pour objet de chercher a d^couvrir les v6rit<5s cachdes." 
 — Pense'es de Pascal, p. I. art. 1. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR 
 
 BY J. WEALE, ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, 59 HOLBORN ; 
 AND TAYLOR AND W ALTON, GOWER STREET. 
 
 1847. 
 
PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
 RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 
 
TO THE RIGHT HONORABLE 
 
 THE EARL OF AUCKLAND, G.C.B., 
 
 FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY 
 
 AND 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE 
 
 ov 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, 
 
 THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE INSCRIBED 
 
 AS A MARK OF GRATEFUL RESPECT 
 
 B\' 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 All, who have studied Architecture in the works 
 of the masters, will have observed, that although 
 all treat of the principles, which govern the art, 
 they seldom attempt to lay down clear and de- 
 finite rules couched in simple terms. The laws 
 are not expressed in an axiomatic form or as 
 a series of distinct propositions. As many other 
 branches of learning have that advantage, it 
 may possibly be useful to the professional man, 
 to have this attempt to reduce some of the canons 
 of the art to the forms of theorems, briefly 
 expressed. The writer is conscious how imper- 
 fectly this has been realized. But perhaps the 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 idea, if a good one, will hereafter be more fully 
 developed by men better able to cope with the 
 subject. 
 
 It will be perceived, that the subject has been 
 divided into two parts — the Art and the Science ; 
 or, if it may be said with the schoolmen, into the 
 metaphysics and physics of Architecture. The 
 one comprehending the abstract principles of 
 taste in the combinations of masses or substances, 
 and the reason and understanding of the causes 
 of certain emotions produced by them in the 
 mind ; — the other treating on the qualities in- 
 herent in matter and the proper application and 
 combination of such materials in reference to 
 construction. Differing, as to Architecture at 
 all events, from the dogma of Plato, for we must 
 consider forms as not abstracted from matter, but 
 absolutely confined and determined thereby. 
 
 A number of abstruse and independent propo- 
 sitions weary the attention. The author may 
 therefore perhaps be excused in availing himself 
 of every form of expression, which can give 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 variety and animation to the subject. It is 
 with this view, and not through affectation or 
 pedantry, that the opinions of foreign writers 
 have been occasionally adopted in their own 
 languages. 
 
 Vitruvius, Alberti, Palladio, Milizia, Quatre- 
 mere de Quincy, Blondel, Rondelet, Wotton, 
 Woods, Eaton Hodgkinson, and other authors 
 have contributed essentially to the collection, and 
 the experience and suggestions of C. H. Gre- 
 gory, Esq., C.E., and Mr. C. H. Smith have been 
 of great service in the constructive axioms. 
 
 The writer's object has been to render his 
 paragraphs suggestive, rather than complete in 
 all their points : to promote discussion, and thus 
 to excite, rather than to satisfy, the thoughtful 
 reader. Some of the maxims may appear 
 paradoxical, others empirical ; but it is time, that 
 architects should apply themselves in earnest to 
 the subject, so that the first principles, such as 
 those propounded in No. V. and the note, and in 
 No. XXII. &c. should be thoroughly investigated. 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 We ought no longer to have to wander in uncer- 
 tainty, as to the laws of our art, after the expe- 
 rience and lessons to be derived from the monu- 
 ments erected during 4000 years. 
 
 It may appear remarkable that this has not 
 been done before ; but the observation of a cor- 
 respondent in the Mechanics' Magazine for April 
 last is most apposite, and explains the reason — 
 " The principles of a science are always those, 
 which are learned last. A full, clear and com- 
 fortable grasp of those fundamental notions, on 
 which a science is founded, is only attained after 
 a long course of intimacy with the working of 
 the details." 
 
 Bolton Gardens, Russell Square, 
 June 1847. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
 PART I.— FINE ART. 
 
 Page Axioms. 
 
 3. Of Architecture in general 1-3 
 
 4. Of the ^Esthetics in Architecture 4-13 
 
 8. Of the Authority of Antiquity 14-20 
 
 11. Of Proportions in Buildings 21-41 
 
 17. Of Edifices and their parts 42-73 
 
 27. Of the Architect 74-97 
 
 35. Of the History of the Art 98-100 
 
 PART II.— CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 39. Of Construction in general and some laws of 
 
 matter 101-132 
 
 46. Of Masonry 133-139 
 
 48. Of Limestones and Mortars 140-146 
 
 50. Of Timber 147-150 
 
 51. Of Iron 151-155 
 
 53. Of Gutters and Lead 156-160 
 
 54. Conclusion. 
 
 N.B. This classification is purely arbitrary, as some of the 
 subjects are absolutely inseparable. It has been thought, 
 however, better to make this subdivision, imperfect as it is, in 
 order to assist the reader to some extent. 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 ARCHITECT. 
 
 Page 
 
 Preface * 59 
 
 Importance of the Study of History 65 
 
 Biography 66 
 
 Mathematics 69 
 
 Geometry 70 
 
 Mechanics 70 
 
 Perspective and Optics .... 70 
 
 Chemistry 71 
 
 Geology 72 
 
 Aspect and Position of 
 
 Buildings 73 
 
 Ventilation and Acoustics. . 74 
 
 The Architect as an Artist 75 
 
 The importance of pure Models 78 
 
 The mode of Studying Ancient Edifices 80 
 
 The Theory of Colors , . 83 
 
 Practice 86 
 
 Contrast of the Theorist and Man of Experience 88 
 
 The Architect in relation to the Builder and his Employer 89 
 How far the independence of the Architect is to be 
 
 maintained 91 
 
 His great motive for exertion 93 
 
 The opinion of Vitruvius on the studies and character of 
 
 the Architect 97 
 
 The expediency of a superior general education in the 
 
 Architect 101 
 
 Conclusion 103 
 
ARCHITECTURAL 
 
 MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 FINE ART. 
 
 " The writing in Aphorisms has many excellent virtues, whereto 
 the writing in method does not approach." 
 
 Bacox, Advancement of Learning. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 AND 
 
 THEOREMS. 
 
 OF ARCHITECTURE IN GENERAL. 
 
 I. 
 
 " Architectura est scientia pluribus disciplinis 
 et variis eruditionibus ornata." — Vitruvius. 
 
 II. 
 
 " Architecture can want no commendation 
 where there are noble men or noble minds." — 
 Wotton. 
 
 III. 
 
 Architecture arises from a common want, is 
 cultivated from the desire of improvement, and 
 derives from philosophy its complete develop- 
 ment ; its object being to erect buildings, which 
 shall be durable, fitting, and beautiful. 
 
 b 2 
 
4 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 OF THE ^ESTHETICS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Architecture is an aggregate of the Fine Arts ; 
 if alone, she is deficient in expression ; if united 
 to one only, she is still incomplete ; and only 
 acquires all her majesty when combined with 
 both her Sisters. 
 
 V. 
 
 There are three principal gradations of propor- 
 tion in all objects : thus in nature there are the 
 tall, the short, and the mean between the two ; 
 the strong, the weak, and the mean between the 
 two. So in Classical Architecture, the same mo- 
 difications are developed in the sesthetical divi- 
 sions, known as the Orders. Strength and robust- 
 ness are characterized in the Doric — refined and 
 modified as a mean in the Ionic — and attenuated 
 to greater grace and elegance in the Corinthian. 
 The Italian masters, when they classified ancient 
 Architecture into five orders, abandoned the 
 philosophy, which guided the Greeks in limiting 
 the orders to these three leading expressions of 
 proportion and ornament. There can be only 
 
AND THEOREMS. 5 
 
 three orders of Classical Architecture and no 
 more*. 
 
 VI. 
 
 In Architecture the term Order signities pro- 
 perly, not merely the column and its superin- 
 cumbent entablature, but rather a recognised 
 principle of decoration, a systematic arrangement, 
 a certain characteristic proportion, which per- 
 vades not only the column and entablature, but 
 also all the other accompaniments in a building, 
 and all the minute details of the several parts. 
 
 * A triple division is apparent in mediaeval art — as the 
 Byzantine, the Lancet, and the Ogival styles. There are also 
 three primitive colors ; and grammarians have a like grada- 
 tion in the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of 
 comparison. The crust of the earth is mainly composed of 
 three materials — silex, argil, lime. In time, there is the past, 
 the present, and the future. It is not to be supposed that the 
 man of genius is held in unworthy thraldom by the determined 
 proportions of the three orders. Each order has in itself a 
 like triple division, as the Doric of Magna Grascia, of the 
 Theseum, and of the Athenian Agora ; the Ionic of the Ilyssus, 
 of Ionia, and of the Erechtheum ; the Corinthian of Tivoli, of 
 Mars Ultor, or of Jupiter Stator. Thus, after all, the Tuscan 
 is but a simplification of the Doric, and the Composite an 
 amplification of the Corinthian — modifications, not distinct 
 ideas. The Ogival again may be divided into decorated En- 
 glish, Flamboyant, perpendicular. The architect, therefore, 
 with a rich and well-directed genius, knows how to produce 
 an endless variety, without trespassing beyond the well-de- 
 fined limits of each order and stvle. 
 
fa ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 VII. 
 
 The three Classic Orders contain all the funda- 
 mental principles of the ^Esthetics of Classical 
 Architecture ; but Architecture comprehends 
 more than the three Orders. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 There are some, however, who consider the 
 Orders in the same light as the iEolic, Doric, 
 Ionic, and Attic dialects among the Greeks. 
 That, however, was merely a verbal or literal 
 variation, not affecting the meaning. To handle 
 the Orders, therefore, as the dialects, were to 
 lose their high purpose and essential quality. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Each style of Architecture has its conventional 
 laws of propriety, and its canons of beauty in 
 form and proportion. These cannot be trans- 
 gressed without a sacrifice of the leading emo- 
 tions and impressions, which they are calculated 
 to produce. Mediaeval or Chinese or Moorish 
 art is as imperative and arbitrary in this respect 
 as the purest styles of the Classic periods. 
 
 X. 
 
 Who shall say that Greek architecture is 
 
AND THEOREMS. 7 
 
 poor, because its mouldings are few? Seven 
 musical notes have sufficed for thousands of 
 exquisite melodies, and each nation has its own 
 peculiar airs. Who shall count the endless 
 varieties produced by twenty-four letters since 
 language first assumed its written form ? 
 
 XI. 
 
 " It was not by a multitude of different and 
 isolated impressions that the Greeks sought to 
 interest, to move the feelings, and to satisfy the 
 sensibility. They had only one leading idea ; 
 and that was a grand one : they repeated it 
 continually, and they modified it much by all the 
 fugitive adaptations of sensible and insensible 
 gradations of which it was susceptible. The 
 Greeks by this means satisfied two singular 
 caprices of sensibility, which, idle and at the 
 same time craving for something new, seeks to 
 retain the same sentiment and excite a new 
 sensation." — Dupaty. 
 
 XII. 
 
 To the like effect is the opinion of Milizia, 
 that "the ancients accomplished grand works, 
 as in their temples, by attending to the one 
 great purpose of producing a grand impression 
 
8 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 at the first glance of a building. They knew not 
 affectation or pedantry. But the moderns are 
 over- scrupulous in minutiae, lose themselves in 
 littlenesses, and consequently too often only 
 accomplish little things without beauty." 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Horace Walpole, as quoted by Woods, says, 
 " One must have taste to be sensible of the 
 beauties of Grecian architecture : one only 
 wants passions to feel the Gothic. In St. Peter's, 
 one is convinced that it was built by great 
 princes : in Westminster Abbey, one thinks not 
 of the builder. The religion of the place makes 
 the first impression." 
 
 THE AUTHORITY OF ANTIQUITY. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Whenever an antique type is adopted in a 
 composition, the sentiment of the original should 
 be adhered to as strictly as possible. But reason 
 will show, that it is right to introduce any sensi- 
 ble modifications in details, which the immediate 
 peculiar purpose of the monument and the fit- 
 
AND THEOREMS. 9 
 
 ness* of things may demand ; — but still in the 
 spirit of the original. 
 
 XV. 
 
 A cupola would be incongruous placed on the 
 Parthenon, or the porch of Rheims attached to 
 Santa Sofia at Constantinople. 
 
 XVI. 
 
 The ancients themselves were in nothing bound 
 by mere precedent. No two monuments of the 
 Egyptian, Greek or Roman artists were precisely 
 alike ; yet each was imbued with the leading 
 feature of its style or period : and this feeling 
 was progressive, not retrograde. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 The works of the ancients were founded upon 
 the finest perception of fitness ; yet the rules, 
 which guided them, are not insuperably binding 
 on the moderns. " To look back to antiquity 
 is one thing, to go back to it is another," says 
 Colton. And how full of truth is Bacon's sen- 
 tence on the same point ! — " Antiquity deserveth 
 that reverence, that men should make a stand 
 
 * Fitness comprehends not only convenience, but also the 
 appearance of convenience, suitableness to its purpose, and 
 the expression of character in union with the purpose. 
 
10 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 thereupon, and discover what is the best way ; 
 but when the discovery is well taken, then to 
 make progression." — Advancement of Learning. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 It is desirable to have the authority of the 
 ancients ; but it is not conclusive : for what was 
 proper and indispensable heretofore may now be 
 inexpedient or inappropriate. " Still we must 
 begin by observing what has already pleased, if 
 we wish to judge rightly as to what will please 
 in any future production." — Woods. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Time cannot render irregularities legitimate, 
 nor can authority justify abuses of taste. On 
 the other hand, a thing is not praiseworthy on 
 the sole ground that it is new. " Ebenche," 
 says Palladio, " il variare e le cose nuove deb- 
 bano piacere ; non si deve pero farcio contra 
 quello, che la ragione ci dimostra." 
 
 XX. 
 
 He, who talks of common sense as superseding 
 all reference to the opinions of those who are 
 gone before, had better cease to speak a cognate 
 language, abandon every known art, and invent 
 
AND THEOREMS. 11 
 
 a new order, ere he rejects the experience of ages 
 and the wisdom of thinking men of former times. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 Can it be supposed by any, who have thought 
 on the subject, that beauty of form or graceful- 
 ness of proportion, even in a moulding, depends 
 upon chance ? Some law, known or unknown, 
 rules each. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 But is there anything more difficult to define 
 than beauty? We know that there is a beauty 
 inform, in color, in expression; still, who shall 
 lay down a law of beauty, which shall embrace 
 under one head the most exquisite productions 
 of the Classic, and Eastern, and Western art, 
 and those of the mediaeval periods ? Who can 
 reconcile under one common canon the massive 
 column of the Doric and the slender shafts of 
 the Gothic periods ? Each has its beauty, and 
 that not a beauty of caprice or fashion. No 
 doubt then that there are different qualities of 
 beauty ; but still there must be some leading 
 
 / 
 
12 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 principle, of which these are but various deve- 
 lopments. " Non ostante questi gusti nazionali, 
 regna nell' architettura un gusto commune, che 
 tocca tutti ugualmente, almeno chiunque ragi- 
 ona," says Milizia, vite xlvii. 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 What is the value of Mons. Frezier's axiom ? 
 that "beauty in the arts is but a national or 
 educational prejudice, and inconstant, since it 
 depends only upon the fashion of the time." 
 Even Sir J. Reynolds contended that beauty 
 was conventional : " One man," says he, " pre- 
 fers a swan, another a dove." True ; but who 
 prefers a goose to a swan ? 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 " To produce the effect of magnificence in 
 Architecture, three things seem to be necessary 
 — greatness of dimension, simplicity of design, 
 and appropriate decoration. To satisfy the mind 
 after examination, three other things are requi- 
 site — correctness of proportion, graceful draw- 
 ing, and delicate execution. Of these six points, 
 St. Peter's has the first in a high degree, some- 
 thing of the second, and a great deal of the third : 
 the three latter it also possesses, though not in 
 
AND THEOREMS. 13 
 
 a very remarkable degree : the proportions do 
 not offend, and the drawing and execution are 
 good." — Woods, vol. i. p. 380. 
 
 XXV. 
 
 " May we not presume," says George Moore, 
 "that the sublime emotions called forth by a 
 view of the exterior of a grand building, such as 
 the temple of Apollinopolis Magna in Upper 
 Egypt, are chiefly due to the very great extent 
 of its dimensions, the massive character of the 
 composition, and the boldness and breadth of 
 all its parts?" 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 Is not proportion the principal ingredient of 
 beauty in Architecture ? And may we not con- 
 cur with Blondel, when he says (1. v. c. xv.), 
 " Toute la beaute de l'architecture, toute sa grace, 
 et enfin tout ce qu'elle a, qui peut plaire, s'ef- 
 face et s'en va en fumee aussitot qu'il n-y-a 
 plus de proportion?" 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 "For the simplest and least-embellished edi- 
 fice, if it have the merit of just proportion, will 
 produce a satisfactory impression ; whereas the 
 
14 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 most decorated buildings, if devoid of proportion, 
 can never be beautiful*." — Milizia. 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 Unity without variety produces uniformity and 
 insipidity. From variety without unity result 
 confusion and distraction. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 To be always sublime is to fail of true eleva- 
 tion. Both the mind and the eye require occa- 
 sional repose, as well as measures and degrees 
 of comparison, to appreciate grandeur. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 In each work there ought to be a progressive 
 march of effects ; nevertheless we must not for- 
 get the precept of Palladio — " Che gli edifici ab- 
 biano da parere uno intiero e ben finito corpo." 
 — Lib. i. c. i. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 An architectural object pleases the eye, when 
 its leading parts are so arranged, that the atten- 
 
 * As in a picture fine chiaroscuro, brilliant and harmonious 
 colouring, and good composition, do not compensate the ab- 
 sence of correct drawing. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 15 
 
 tion is successively and correlatively struck by 
 the most essential down to the least important 
 feature. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 Even the^accessories ought to have such an 
 appropriate relation to the whole, that they 
 should not be absorbed by the mass ; but be 
 capable of exciting distinct ideas in just relation 
 to their purpose. 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 Yet, as Woods judiciously observes, " Nothing 
 has a worse effect or has spoiled more beauties, 
 than the desire to give great consequence to the 
 subordinate parts ; for there are no positions 
 more certain, than that unity of design is essen- 
 tial to magnificence, and that in order to pre- 
 serve unity of design the inferior parts should 
 not form independent compositions." 
 
 XXXIV. 
 
 Still all dressings should have an imposing 
 size and dignity of character, adapted to their 
 purpose ; if slight and insignificant, they appear 
 merely ornamental, and no useful member should 
 be degraded to so low a purpose — as mere 
 ornament. 
 
16 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 But how absurd is the question, " What is the 
 use of ornament?" Well says Woods in re- 
 ply, " Magnificence is use when well-employed ; 
 it is calculated to produce respect and awe, or 
 at least a frame of mind which readily admits 
 those sentiments, and therefore it ought to be 
 found in public edifices, and still more in and 
 about the temples of the Deity." — Vol. i. p. 376. 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 Where all is moulded, and every moulding 
 carved, mass is without proportion, and profu- 
 sion without richness. Thus, in the later produc- 
 tions of the Roman empire, ornament is loaded 
 upon ornament, until it sickens the beholder. 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 An order, when introduced, should be the 
 predominant object, without appearing colossal 
 or gawkish*. 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 If massive columns are close to each other, 
 they appear more massive still ; and slender 
 columns, when wide apart, appear slenderer 
 still. — Milizia. 
 
 * As in the Valmarana palace at Vicenza by Palladio. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 17 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
 Intercolumniations should never be so wide as 
 to diminish the real or apparent solidity of the 
 entablature ; nor so narrow as to afford insuf- 
 ficient space for passing through. 
 
 XL. 
 
 It may be tolerable to omit a usual member 
 of architecture ; but insufferable to put it in the 
 wrong place. 
 
 XLI. 
 
 The leading canons of the art, founded upon 
 the laws which govern nature, cannot ever be 
 contravened with propriety in any style ; but 
 those law r s, which are purely conventional, are 
 binding only in the style to which they belong. 
 
 OF EDIFICES AND THEIR PARTS. 
 
 XLII. 
 
 "Buildings should have the four following 
 qualities: health, solidity, convenience, delight." 
 — Milizia. Convenience and the appearance of 
 convenience are the result of design ; strength 
 and economy the end of construction. 
 
18 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 XLIII. 
 
 The elevation is to a building what the coun- 
 tenance is to the mind, and either prepossesses 
 in its favour or prejudices with dislike. 
 
 XLIV. 
 
 There are two principles of composition for 
 elevations — the horizontal and the vertical ; one 
 of these must predominate. In the classic 
 buildings of antiquity the former prevailed. The 
 latter arose in the decline of Roman architec- 
 ture, is triumphant in the edifices of mediaeval 
 art, and reigns throughout with the upshooting 
 tendency in the buildings of the Eastern world, 
 as in the minarets of the Mahomedan and the 
 pagoda of the Chinese. 
 
 XLV. 
 
 " Art is but nature better understood ;" for 
 from the forms of nature we deduce our ideas of 
 the beautiful. Nature is consistent in useful- 
 ness and beauty : hence we find in art that the 
 slightest proportions and most graceful forms, 
 executed in hard and enduring materials, are 
 quite compatible with durability and strength. 
 Solidity does not necessarily and exclusively 
 
AND THEOREMS. 19 
 
 consist in ponderousness of bulk. The steam- 
 engine at first was a clumsy, heavy, complex 
 machine ; it is now more simple, more efficient, 
 less bulky, and more graceful. 
 
 XLVI. 
 
 A building may be embellished in three man- 
 ners : by the richness of the material ; by the 
 richness of the workmanship ; or by a combina- 
 tion of the two. 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 Each edifice, having its peculiar appropriation, 
 demands that the impress of its distinctive cha- 
 racter should be visible in its aspect. The im- 
 posing and solemn temple, the splendid and 
 commanding royal palace, the embellished resi- 
 dence of the noble, the gloomy prison, the cheer- 
 ful theatre, should immediately announce their 
 purpose and destination. If not, where is ex- 
 pression in Architecture ? 
 
 XLVIII. 
 
 " Venustatem persequitur visus," says Vitru- 
 vius : therefore to decorate an object is for the 
 purpose of developing sources of sensations and 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 impressions, in addition to those produced by 
 the simple object itself. 
 
 XLIX. 
 
 How tine and striking is the description of a 
 private residence given by Wotton at the com- 
 mencement of his 2nd part! — "Every man's 
 proper mansion-house and home is the theatre 
 of his hospitality, the seat of selfe-fruition, the 
 comfortablest part of his own life, the noblest of 
 his Sonne's inheritance, a kind of private prince- 
 dome. Nay, to the possessor thereof, an epitomie 
 of the whole world." 
 
 L. 
 
 All voids and solids should be on their re- 
 spective axes throughout : in plan for beauty — 
 in elevation for strength. 
 
 LI. 
 
 Three principles must be observed in the 
 adoption of any object or member, or detail in 
 Architecture — appropriateness — proportion — 
 form. Appropriateness comprehends the two 
 requirements of Vitruvius, " quod significandum, 
 quod significat," b. i. c. 1. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 21 
 
 LII. 
 
 Construction should be the origin of decora- 
 tion and ornament ; but in its turn should be 
 subservient to them, as in the flying-buttresses 
 of our Gothic edifices. 
 
 LIII. 
 
 True beauty cannot be apart from conveni- 
 ence. The most beautiful will be the most con- 
 venient ; but the converse proposition is not a 
 corollary thereto. 
 
 LIV. 
 
 The circular form contains beauty, conveni- 
 ence, and strength. By its graceful line it pleases 
 the eye ; it affords great facility of arrangement 
 in plan ; and by the concentric disposition of its 
 cuneiform masses or blocks, it enables the ar- 
 chitect to overcome difficulties of construction 
 otherwise insurmountable. 
 
 LV. 
 
 Staircases require to be near the entrance, 
 ready of access, easy of ascent, rarely circular, 
 and to be well -lighted. 
 
22 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 LVI. 
 
 " Each edifice has its own point of view, de- 
 pendent on its form, size, and decoration." — 
 Milizia. 
 
 LVII. 
 
 Symmetry should reign in every architectural 
 production, for Blondel (I. v. c. xv.), insists that 
 " toute la beaute d'un batiment s'evanouit au 
 moment, que Ton change quelque chose d'essen- 
 tiel a la symmetric" Still, without variety none 
 can please. " Senza varieta tutto languisce," 
 observes Milizia. 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 Where eurithmy is absent, confusion reigns ; 
 and it is only the ignorant, who will consider a 
 work fine because it is intricate and appears 
 difficult. 
 
 LIX. 
 
 There may be as much purity in picturesque- 
 ness as in forms or parts the most conventional ; 
 consequently picturesqueness is no excuse for 
 crude forms or barbarous parts. 
 
 LX. 
 
 There must be harmony in contrasts, and con- 
 
AND THEOREMS. 23 
 
 trasts in harmony : a balance of opposites to 
 produce effect. " Contraria juxta se posita ma- 
 gis illucescunt" is an old rule, observes Wotton. 
 For, as D'Aubigne says, " unity in diversity and 
 diversity in unity is the law of nature." 
 
 LXI. 
 
 " To be rich without profusion, simple with- 
 out barrenness, is the great aim of an architect," 
 said the celebrated Percier to me in 1822. 
 
 LXII. 
 
 Nevertheless Blondel is most correct, where, 
 in the 16th chapter of his 5th book, he says, 
 11 La beaute de la matiere et la delicatesse de 
 l'exeeution servent infiniment a relever l'excel- 
 lence de celle, que les proportions font naitre 
 dans les edifices." 
 
 LXIII. 
 
 The eye of the ignorant or vulgar cannot ap- 
 preciate many of the nice "nuances" essential 
 to beauty. Woods, with his usual penetration, 
 observes, that " It is quite a mistake to suppose 
 that a variation of form, not immediately per- 
 ceptible to the eye, must therefore be useless. 
 Every artist has felt, that these slight changes 
 
24 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 influence the charm of the composition without 
 being themselves obvious even to a skilful ob- 
 server*." — Vol. i. p. 337. 
 
 LXIV. 
 
 If a difference of size in parts or details exist 
 in a building, and be not discoverable unless one 
 takes a compass, a rule, a square, or a level, they 
 are no longer defects. Buildings are not made 
 for measurement, but delight. When these dis- 
 crepancies escape the eye, and minute examina- 
 tion can alone detect the irregularity, the beauty 
 of the whole does not cease to affect us. In the 
 Pantheon the angular columns are anti-Vitru- 
 vian, being smaller, instead of larger, than the 
 others. At the top of the pediment there is a 
 double modillion ; and on one side of the sloping 
 cornice twenty-four modillion s, on the other 
 twenty-two. " Bravo," says Milizia, " to him 
 who has counted them ; but piii-bravo to him who 
 turns up his nose at such microscopic criticism." 
 
 LXV. 
 
 There is no part of a building, which has not 
 the power of adding considerably by appropriate 
 treatment to the effect of the edifice. Witness 
 
 * As in the entasis and convexities of Greek Architecture. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 25 
 
 even the chimneys of the Tudor or Elizabethan 
 houses, and the lofty shafts which rise above the 
 roofs of the Tuileries, and of the other palaces of 
 the Renaissance and the Chateaux of France, as 
 given by Du Cerceau, Marot, Baltard and others. 
 
 LXVI. 
 
 There is as much of reason in the introduction 
 of light and shade and color, as in the distribu- 
 tion of the masses. In fact, as Woods remarks 
 (vol. i. p. 432), " coloring and composition 
 mutually enhance each other." 
 
 LXVII. 
 
 A subdued light becomes a church : " devo- 
 tion," as Wotton suggests, " more requiring col- 
 lected than diffused spirits." 
 
 LXV1II. 
 
 The more light there is thrown on an object, 
 and the lighter its color, the nearer it appears ; 
 but objects obscurely lighted appear more di- 
 stant than they are in reality, and the larger in 
 proportion to the weakness and obscurity of their 
 color (Milizia). 
 
 LXIX. 
 
 The more distinct the parts of an object, the 
 
26 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 nearer it seems to be ; and the more confused 
 the parts, the more distant it appears. — M. 
 
 LXX. 
 
 Are not size and color relative, and not posi- 
 tive qualities ; and contrast the only scale of 
 either* ? 
 
 LXXI. 
 
 In fact, can any effect be produced without 
 contrasts ? But all contrasts must have relation 
 to each other to produce a just effect, and a ter- 
 tium quid to prevent rude and harsh juxtaposi- 
 tions of contraries : a middle term, as it were, to 
 complete the architectural syllogism. 
 
 LXXII. 
 
 The youthful period of any new style of art 
 has certain impulses, but no fixed laws. Mature 
 age alone brings experience, and experience alone 
 is capable of establishing fundamental principles 
 and a legislative code. 
 
 * The ancients treated this point in a most masterly man- 
 ner. Most of their temples were enclosed in courts. The 
 Trajan Column was placed in a confined area. They would 
 not have placed a colossal statue on a lofty arch, at a distance 
 from every object that might give a scale, by which to judge 
 of its position and relative size. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 27 
 
 LXXIII. 
 
 " There are three leading points in every fine 
 building : its execution — its magnificence — its 
 conception. The glory of the first is due to the 
 builder ; of the second, to the owner ; of the 
 third, to the architect." — Blondel. 
 
 OF THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 LXXIV. 
 
 The Architect has much to learn — much to 
 feel — much to do. 
 
 LXXV. 
 
 Let no one in the pursuit of his profession 
 doubt, whether he is actuated, as to his motives, 
 by a love of praise, a desire of gain, a passion for 
 art, a spirit of rivalry, or the generous desire to be 
 useful. " Philosophia vero perfecit architectum 
 animo magno, et uti non sit arrogans, sed potius 
 facilis, eequus et fidelis ; sine avaritia, quod est 
 maximum ; nullum enim opus vere sine fide et 
 castitate fieri potest : ne sit cupidus, neque in 
 muneribus accipiendis habeat aninium occupa- 
 tum, sed cum gravitate suam tueatur dignitatem, 
 
28 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 bonam famam habendo. Hoc enim philosophia 
 praescribit." — Vitruvius. 
 
 LXXVI. 
 
 It should be the purpose of the architect to 
 allow no day to pass without adding a sketch to 
 his collection. His motto should be with Titus : 
 " Nulla dies sine linea." " For there cannot be 
 a more baneful error," observes George Moore, 
 " associated with initiation into art, than the 
 dangerous dogma, that the aspirations of genius 
 need not be trammeled by the labour of study." 
 (p. 35.) 
 
 LXXVII. 
 
 The life of an architect is one of continual rea- 
 soning : no two buildings, which he may be called 
 upon to design or contemplate, can be precisely 
 alike. It requires therefore an exquisite suscep- 
 tibility, unwearied patience, and sound judgment 
 to know in what respects they differ, and how 
 the necessary difference should be, or has been, 
 satisfied. 
 
 LXXVIII. 
 
 Invention and judgment distinguish the true 
 artist. The critic need only possess the latter. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 29 
 
 LXXIX. 
 
 The severest discipline of the eye and hand is 
 essential to him, who would produce enduring 
 works. 
 
 LXXX. 
 
 To study aright the monuments of antiquity, 
 the student must first scan the powerfully effect- 
 ive combinations, which produce the more stri- 
 king impressions, influencing the feelings and 
 opinions ; and then descend to the minute axioms, 
 which contribute to the effect of the whole. He 
 must distinguish the transitory and accidental 
 circumstances from the essential and immutable 
 laws of the art. 
 
 LXXXI. 
 
 The architect has to respond to each sentiment 
 of the human mind. He has to produce appro- 
 priate impressions of sublimity, awe, veneration, 
 grandeur, strength, solidity, durability, lightness, 
 cheerfulness, gaiety, comfort, convenience, 
 health. In fact, there is an expressive and 
 deep-feeling poetry in the art, which if a man 
 cannot attain, he must not aspire to be an 
 architect. 
 
30 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 LXXXII. 
 
 To be a good architect one must be a good 
 designer : but a good designer is not necessarily 
 a good architect. Vitruvius distinctly says : 
 " Architecti scientia nascitur ex fabrica et ratio- 
 cinatione." (b. i. c. 1.) 
 
 LXXXI1I. 
 
 Architecture has this distinctive feature from 
 any other department of learning, that it is es- 
 sentially composed of two divisions — Imagination 
 and Reason. Deprive it of the element of taste, 
 it assumes the form of a mere mechanical 
 science. Take away its element of sound 
 construction, its flights in the regions of fancy 
 degenerate into wild caprice and extravagance, 
 having no ennobling end or object. 
 
 LXXXIV. 
 
 How much of truth is there in the casual 
 remark of Woods, that " All becomes gold in the 
 hands of a skilful architect ; but the finest parts 
 and most exquisite proportions turn again to 
 dross in the hands of ignorance and insensibility !" 
 
 LXXXV. 
 
 Strong impressions are not necessarily correct 
 
AND THEOREMS. 31 
 
 ones ; therefore no reliance can be placed upon 
 the emotions derived from the senses, unless 
 confirmed by the reason ; but we depend upon 
 our senses, which are at the same time our mas- 
 ters and our ministers. How much caution 
 therefore is necessary in adopting them ! for, as 
 Blondel observes in the 14th chapter of his 5th 
 book : " Nous prenons ordinairement pour vraies 
 les choses, qui nous paraissent ies plus claires et 
 les plus evidentes ; sans considered, que cette 
 evidence ne vient souvent que de la facilite, que 
 nous avons a les comprendre et a nous les pre- 
 senter telles par l'habitude, que nous avons con- 
 tracted, a force de les avoir souvent considere'es 
 de meme maniere." 
 
 LXXXVI. 
 
 He cannot improve in his art, who is not con- 
 scious that he is far from perfection. " I am diffi- 
 dent," said the celebrated James Watt, " because 
 I am seldom certain that I am in the right, and 
 because I pay respect to the opinions of others, 
 where I think they merit it." 
 
 LXXXVII. 
 
 Wotton asks in his usual pithy way — " What 
 
32 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 are the most judicious artisans, but the mi- 
 miques of nature ? " 
 
 LXXXVIII. 
 
 But this "mimique" of nature is not to 
 be a plagiarist of nature. Architecture has its 
 conventional laws ; and a flower or a leaf even, 
 introduced in a moulding, a frieze, or a capital, 
 must be aesthetically modified to adapt it to its 
 application. Witness the sovereign skill with 
 which the Egyptian, the Greek, the Roman, the 
 mediaeval artist has created a botany of archi- 
 tecture. The parsley, the acanthus, and the vine, 
 engrafted on a column, have by the combination 
 acquired a new development, an imaginative 
 creation of art. 
 
 LXXXIX. 
 
 " The beau ideal is different from drawing, 
 because it depends upon the choice of subject. 
 One artist may draw commonplace forms, and 
 such as he usually sees, with perfect exactness. 
 A second may know how to select the most 
 beautiful. A third, by a careful examination of 
 what constitutes the excellence of each part, and 
 by the harmony and correspondence of one part 
 
AND THEOREMS. 33 
 
 with anotner, may improve even upon the most 
 beautiful existing figures." — Woods, vol. i. page 
 431. 
 
 XC. 
 
 In fact, good taste in ornamentation does not 
 depend upon a mechanical and superficial imita- 
 tion of any object, but upon a studied observa- 
 tion of natural objects, and of the mode in which 
 they can be applied to a purpose totally foreign 
 to their original nature. — Arch. Egyptienne, Q. de 
 Quincy, p. 156. 
 
 XCI. 
 
 He, who copies, is bound by the letter of the 
 original. He, who imitates, is bound only by the 
 spirit and essence of the type : for in copying is 
 not the most exact copy the best ? but to copy 
 is not to create, and true originality does not 
 consist merely in variation. 
 
 XCII. 
 
 ■ " It is a sterile fecundity," says Quatremere 
 de Quincy (p. 177), " whose power of production 
 consists only in changing, and changes only in 
 order to appear to produce, without any valid or 
 apparent reason for such varieties." 
 
 D 
 
34 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 XCIII. 
 
 To copy is the instinct of the mere animal fa- 
 culty ; to imitate is the property of reasoning 
 intelligence. In fact, " the proper use," as Poyn- 
 ter suggests, " to be made of the study of the 
 ancients in their works of art is not to copy, but 
 to endeavour to think like them." 
 
 XCIV. 
 
 A first idea is rarely otherwise than crude ; ab- 
 solute perfection is unattainable. But improve- 
 ment can only be realized by elaboration. 
 
 xcv. 
 
 A general impression may be correct ; a per- 
 fect appreciation however of any work of art 
 cannot be arrived at without thorough study. 
 
 XCVI. 
 
 "All license is imperfection," says Laugier; 
 and very justly, for license presupposes a depart- 
 ure from good taste. 
 
 XCVII. 
 
 He, who does not feel that beauty is greatly 
 to be desired, and that ornament well-applied 
 
AND THEOREMS. 35 
 
 enhances beauty, should give up all connection 
 with the fine arts. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE ART. 
 
 XCVIII. 
 
 No branch of architecture can be properly 
 studied, when we limit the consideration to the 
 productions of one country or of one epoch. He 
 alone appreciates the full privilege of his art, 
 who studies the class rather than the individual. 
 Each country has its illustrations ; but the whole 
 world alone contains the full development, and 
 all ages its entire history. 
 
 XCIX. 
 
 The history of architecture is not easily ap- 
 preciable, unless we keep in mind certain grand 
 periods and their dominant types, which, as lead- 
 ing features, distinguish each aspect presented 
 by the monuments of the several epochs. 
 
 C. 
 
 He, who expects to be a good architect by 
 
 d 2 
 
36 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
 knowing the history of all the styles, and the 
 phases which it has assumed through each pe- 
 riod, will find himself much mistaken when he 
 begins to practise. He may be a good historian 
 and judicious critic, but not necessarily a good 
 artist. 
 
ARCHITECTURAL 
 MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 1 Knowledge, while it is in aphorisms and observations, is in growth." 
 
 Bacon. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 CI. 
 
 To collect physical facts, to deduce laws, and 
 to apply them to circumstances, such is the pro- 
 gressive operation of the mind in the study and 
 application of construction. — Lacroix. 
 
 Oil. 
 
 Construction has for its laws the principles 
 which govern matter ; for materials, the produc- 
 tions of the vegetable and mineral world ; and 
 for its end, resistance to weight, a successful 
 struggle with the elements, and victory over 
 decay. 
 
 cm. 
 
 There are three leading points of view under 
 which to regard all construction — statical, quali- 
 tative, quantitative. Statical relates to the dis- 
 position of the masses : the two latter points 
 refer to the quality and quantity of the materials, 
 which have a mutual relation and control as to 
 solidity and stability. 
 
40 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CIV. 
 
 It is incorrect to regard decay and destruction 
 as entire annihilation of substance. Decay is 
 but a species of transition from one state to an- 
 other. The first elements of any substance, which 
 is reduced to a powder, sublimated to a vapor, 
 or converted into a gas or steam, still exist in 
 another form, assuming a new combination. 
 
 CV. 
 
 Ignorance, haste and parsimony are three great 
 enemies to substantial construction. 
 
 CVI. 
 
 The rot in timber germinates in damp, ex- 
 pands in heat, but shrinks and dies in perfect 
 ventilation. 
 
 CVII. 
 
 Green wood laid in peat will last for ages. — 
 C. H. G. 
 
 CVIII. 
 
 Expansion and contraction, the effects of tem- 
 perature, are constantly operating in all con- 
 struction the most solid, in all materials even 
 the most dense. Hence a perpetual movement 
 
AND THEOREMS. 41 
 
 destructive of cohesion, and by disintegration 
 inducing decay. 
 
 CIX. 
 
 Water is the most destructive agent to con- 
 struction. There is no quantity so small, which, 
 if repeated, is not ultimately fatal. The softest 
 as well as the hardest material must yield to its 
 insidious attack. No adage more true than 
 " Gutta cavat lapidem." 
 
 CX. 
 
 Our forefathers knew the connection between 
 moisture and decay in soft material. Hence in 
 the buildings of the districts where the soft 
 stones prevail, the bottom courses of the walls 
 will frequently be found to be formed of a hard 
 and impervious stone, the strata of which are 
 called by the quarrymen foundation-stone. — 
 C. H. G.. 
 
 CXI. 
 
 Walls, always above or always below water, 
 may under certain circumstances be laid without 
 mortar ; when between wind and water they 
 never should. — C. H. G. 
 
42 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CXII. 
 
 "All the mechanical effects, that tend to de- 
 stroy buildings, arise from weight, which acts in 
 an inverse ratio to resistance," says Rondelet. 
 How important then the study of the mutual 
 relations of void and solid, load and support, 
 action and resistance ! 
 
 CXIII. 
 
 Weight is a constant force, with which all 
 solid bodies appear to act. 
 
 CXIV. 
 
 All parts of solid bodies fall in a vertical 
 direction. 
 
 cxv. 
 
 All thrust and lateral pressure, whether in a 
 truss, a buttress, a dome, a vault, or arch, must 
 be resolved into vertical weight. 
 
 CXVI 
 
 Lines of pressure must always be at right 
 angles to the joints of the beds. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 
 
 43 
 
 CXVII. 
 
 The true strength of materials in construction 
 depends rather upon their distribution or their 
 application than upon their quantity. 
 
 CXVIII. 
 Voids over voids, and solids under solids. 
 
 CXIX. 
 
 He is the ablest constructor, who, with the 
 least surface to his points of support, upholds 
 the greatest weight, uniting strength and eco- 
 nomy. 
 
 cxx. 
 
 The Freemasons of the middle ages have 
 established this principle of construction, that, 
 with equal quantities of material, a thin wall 
 with buttresses has greater strength and stability 
 than a thicker wall without. 
 
 CXXI. 
 
 Piers with equal superficies of base, as a circle, 
 a square, an equilateral, and a right-angled 
 triangle, have the following strength approxima- 
 tive^ : 100, 93^, 86, and 76f. A square is to 
 a parallelogram as 100 : 95. 
 
44 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CXXII. 
 
 The strength of a wall depends rather upon its 
 stability, than upon the greater or less hardness 
 of the materials. 
 
 CXXIII. 
 
 The stability of solids diminishes in propor- 
 tion to the height of the centre of gravity. 
 
 CXXIV. 
 
 Strength sufficient (for the immediate purpose) 
 is not strong enough, therefore it is better to 
 have too much solidity than too little. 
 
 cxxv. 
 
 Nevertheless all unnecessary material is not 
 only wasteful, but prejudicial. 
 
 CXXVI. 
 
 No wall, nor framing, nor in fact any piece of 
 construction, ought to be charged with more than 
 two-thirds of the load which it is calculated to 
 bear : in railroads, where the load is variable and 
 concussion takes place, the law is one-third. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 45 
 
 CXXVII. 
 
 Tredgold in his Essay on Cast-iron lays down 
 two leading principles — "That the measure of 
 the resistance of a material to flexure is the only 
 proper measure of its resistance (to a straining 
 force), where perfect form and unalterable posi- 
 tion are desirable : " 
 
 CXXVIII. 
 
 And that " the measure of its resistance to 
 permanent alteration is the proper resistance (to 
 a straining force), where flexure is not injurious 
 or objectionable." 
 
 CXXIX. 
 
 It is not the fracturing weight, which is 
 required in practice ; but that weight, which 
 will not injure the material. 
 
 CXXX. 
 
 Permanent alteration of form, however slight, 
 is partial fracture. 
 
 CXXXI. 
 
 Eaton Hodgkinson, in his Supplementary Part 
 II. to Tredgold's work on Cast-iron, says, " that 
 
46 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 there is no weight, however small, that will. not 
 injure elasticity." — Page 381. 
 
 CXXXII. 
 
 A beam will bear twice as much weight dis- 
 tributed over its length, as it would do, if the 
 weight were in the middle. 
 
 ON MASONRY. 
 
 CXXXIII. 
 
 "All stones, even those of the least cohesive 
 strength, are strong enough to support any 
 weight they can be brought to bear in construc- 
 tion under ordinary circumstances." — C. H. 
 Smith. That stone must be soft indeed which, 
 laid upon a sufficiently wide basis and a perfectly 
 equal bed, can be crushed by any weight. 
 
 CXXXIV. 
 
 Materials of different powers of resistance may 
 be placed so as to counteract one another ; but 
 not to act in concert. Soft and hard stones 
 should not be laid in the same course ; but they 
 may be placed one above the other. — C. H. G. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 
 
 47 
 
 cxxxv. 
 
 Quoins of buildings and walls should always 
 be carefully protected in the foundations, and 
 well-bonded in the superstructure. At the angles 
 unequal settlement most frequently shows its 
 effects ; but when quoins are well-supported, they 
 will keep up a weak wall. The Gothic architects 
 were well-aware of this ; hence the immensely 
 projecting buttresses at the angles of their lofty 
 towers. 
 
 CXXXVI. 
 
 The material available must frequently have 
 determined the style of art. The granitic and 
 hard rocks, which line the Nile, must have 
 motived the massive piles of the Egyptians. The 
 freedom of marble doubtless influenced the Attic 
 taste ; and the coarse texture suggested the 
 heavy ponderous character of the monuments of 
 Magna Grgecia. The like consideration controls 
 the introduction of more or less ornamental 
 detail in edifices. 
 
 CXXXVII. 
 
 The greater the thickness of a block in pro- 
 portion to its base, the greater its strength ; and 
 the larger the base of a block, the greater its 
 stability. 
 
48 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CXXXVIII. 
 
 The heaviest stones are generally the darkest 
 coloured, the hardest, the strongest, the most 
 homogeneous, and of the finest grain. 
 
 CXXXIX. 
 
 Less force is necessary to split hard stones 
 than to crush them ; less to crush soft stones 
 than to split them. 
 
 LIMESTONES AND MORTARS. 
 
 CXL. 
 
 In all mortars there must be two essential solid 
 ingredients, in addition to the water : the one 
 active and chemical, that is, the calx or lime ; 
 the other inert and mechanical (?) , as grit, 
 ashes, &c. 
 
 CXLI. 
 
 Limestones vary in quality according to the 
 substance which they contain in addition to 
 lime. But all pure lime is of the same quality 
 
AND THEOREMS. 49 
 
 and strength, whether derived from stone, shells, 
 or any other calcareous substance. 
 
 CXLII. 
 
 Clay in the limestone gives strength to the 
 lime, and hence the setting properties of Mert- 
 sham, Dorking, and blue lias limes ; the relative 
 strength depending upon the greater or less 
 quantity of clay in combination with the lime. 
 
 CXLIII. 
 
 Cement is always weakened by the addition of 
 sand ; but pure lime requires the addition of sand 
 to constitute mortar. 
 
 CXLIV. 
 
 The core of lime is more easily detected in the 
 hard than in the soft stones : hence one of the 
 advantages of using the former. 
 
 CXLV. 
 
 Sand for mixture with lime should be perfectly 
 free from impurities, highly angular to render it 
 sharp, and not very minute in grain. 
 
 E 
 
50 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CXLVI. 
 
 Sand in a moist state occupies less bulk than 
 when dry. 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 CXLVII. 
 
 Oak for durability and strength ; mahogany 
 for beauty and size ; fir for utility and lightness. 
 
 CXLVIII. 
 
 To obtain the greatest strength in timber, 
 beams, joists, rafters, and brestsummers, the 
 depth must greatly exceed the width — the greatest 
 strength opposed to the greatest strain. A joist 
 6x3 will bear twice as much if put edgwise, as 
 it would if laid flat. 
 
 CXLIX. 
 
 If the weight to be supported be in proportion 
 to the length, then the width remaining the 
 same, the square of the depth divided by the 
 square of the length ought to be the same 
 
AND THEOREMS. 51 
 
 also — i. e. the depth of a joist ought to be in 
 direct proportion to the length, and for stiffness 
 the width proportionate to the depth. — Woods. 
 
 CL. 
 
 Where the question is of a piece of timber 
 supporting itself, the weight is as the length 
 multiplied by the depth, and we must multiply 
 this again by the length for a divisor. A rod of 
 fir inch square, or a plank 10 X 1 laid flatwise, 
 would keep quite straight with a bearing of 5 feet. 
 A piece of timber 10 inches square would swag 
 very much with a bearing of 50 feet. — Woods. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 CLI. 
 
 Eaton Hodgkinson* states, that in iron beams 
 the neutral axis shifts its position as the weights 
 on it are increased, and at the time of fracture 
 is near the concave side of the beam. — Page 384. 
 
 * Experimental Researches on the Strength and other 
 Properties of Cast Iron, &c. &c. , Supplementary Part II. to 
 Tredgold's work on Cast Iron, 8vo, London, Weale, 1846. 
 
 e2 
 
52 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS 
 
 CLII. 
 
 Wrought iron to resist tension, cast to resist 
 compression. 
 
 CLIII. 
 
 Cast iron resists crushing with about 6^ times 
 as much force as it does tearing asunder. — Page 
 327. 
 
 CLIV. 
 
 The deepest part of a beam must always be 
 at the point of greatest strain — a condition best 
 fulfilled by the parabola. When distributed 
 uniformly over the whole length, the form 
 should be elliptic : but when stiffness is required, 
 the beam should be of uniform depth. — Renton. 
 
 CLV. 
 
 In the three sections of cast-iron beams JL I T 
 with the same sectional areas and depths, the re- 
 lative strengths are 1, 1085, 125 : and the last 
 beam with the flange upwards -L is only *45 ; 
 the strength of the beam being in proportion to 
 the size of the bottom flange. 
 
AND THEOREMS. 53 
 
 GUTTERS AND LEAD. 
 
 CLVI. 
 
 The bottoms of all gutters, drains, and other 
 conduits for liquids or soils, should approximate 
 as much as possible the curved form. 
 
 CLVII. 
 
 Gutters should have a fall of at least an inch 
 and a half in every 10 feet of length ; not less 
 than two-inch drips at every 15 feet, and be as 
 straight as practicable. 
 
 CLVII1. 
 
 Cast lead is best for sheets of great thickness, 
 milled lead for thin ; the former is the more pure, 
 but more liable to inequality of substance. 
 
 CLIX. 
 
 All lead for gutters and fiats should be laid 
 perfectly loose, and free to expand and contract 
 by heat or cold ; never soldered, and never in 
 greater widths than 3 feet. 
 
54 ARCHITECTURAL MAXIMS AND THEOREMS. 
 
 CLX. 
 
 We opened these Maxims with a quotation 
 from Vitruvius : let us conclude the subject with 
 a most just remark of this judicious writer, 1. i. 
 c. 1:— 
 
 " Cum ergo tanta hsec disciplina sit condeco- 
 rata et abundans eruditionibus variis et pluribus, 
 non puto posse istos repente se proflteri archi- 
 tectos, nisi qui ab setate puerili his gradibus 
 disciplinarum scandendo, scientia plurium 
 literarum et artium nutriti, pervenerint ad sum- 
 mum templum architectural." 
 
ON THE 
 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 ARCHITECT. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages contain the substance of the 
 last of a course of Lectures delivered at Univer- 
 sity College, London. It may appear to some, 
 that in this closing address to the Students I 
 have assumed too lofty a tone, and adopted too 
 high a standard. But those, who are familiar 
 with the ardent feelings and generous enthusiasm 
 of youth, will well conceive how important is the 
 endeavour to excite by all means and thus early 
 in the mind of the pupil an elevated idea of 
 the profession upon which he has entered. He 
 should regard it as demanding the exercise of 
 the widest range of intellect. The teacher should 
 
60 PREFACE. 
 
 inculcate the highest elevation of taste and 
 sentiment — the noblest standard of professional 
 morals — the most dignified refinement of habits 
 and manners. Such an estimate, formed at the 
 most susceptible period of life, may supply an 
 important and operative principle. It may afford 
 a stimulus, alike powerful and active, by im- 
 planting the love of his profession as a pre- 
 dominant motive. It may impart a charm to its 
 pursuit, and a dignity to even his ordinary 
 avocations, protecting him from the influence of 
 every inferior consideration. 
 
ON THE 
 
 EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 We now approach the most important subject 
 connected with the profession of Architecture. 
 We have gone through the examination of the 
 various styles, which have existed from the ear- 
 liest periods of Egyptian art down to the produc- 
 tions of the present day. We have endeavoured 
 to analyse the principles, which have directed the 
 adoption of the proportions and forms of each of 
 the phases, that Architecture has assumed through 
 the space of about 4000 years . We have also exa- 
 mined the progressive improvements, which have 
 arisen in the science of Construction. It now 
 behoves us to consider, how these materials are 
 to be made available — by what studies the student 
 is to render himself fully master of the various 
 subjects, at which we have only taken a rapid 
 and cursory glance. We are to inquire how he 
 
62 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 is to prepare himself for the responsible and ar- 
 duous career, upon which it ought to be his desire 
 and his highest pride to enter with the utmost 
 credit ; and how he may thoroughly perfect 
 himself, so as to discharge his duties most 
 advantageously to those, who may require the 
 exercise of his talents, whether it be the state, the 
 nobility, the gentry, or middling classes. 
 
 Milizia, in his admirable work on Architecture, 
 observes, that to become excellent in any pur- 
 suit two things are absolutely requisite. The 
 first is, to deposit in the memory, as in a vast 
 magazine, many useful objects ; the other is, to 
 examine what predisposition one has for fame. 
 This combination ought to determine the class 
 of study to which we would apply ourselves. In 
 proportion as we shall have accumulated a store 
 of physical or general facts, we shall be the better 
 prepared for this or that class of study. The 
 objects treasured in the storehouse of the memory 
 are the fundamental matters for the human 
 understanding to work upon. But these remain 
 sterile and dead unless the love of fame, or the 
 no less noble desire to be useful, brings it into 
 action. It then produces an union of ideas, 
 images, sentiments and feeling, to which is 
 given the name of genius — talent. 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 63 
 
 Having then well weighed the quantity and 
 species of the objects gathered in the memory, 
 it is necessary to examine what is the leading 
 passion or natural bent of the mind before we 
 determine upon any class of study. The multi- 
 plicity of various desires produces only littleness 
 in our tastes ; we are impassioned in our feelings, 
 only when we are moved by one great leading 
 purpose, to which all other notions and actions 
 are subordinate. A strong passion is formed by 
 the concentration and pre-eminence of one pursuit 
 above all others. 
 
 To ascertain the force of that passion, if it be 
 the love for distinction or the desire to be useful, 
 it is sufficient to examine the degree of enthu- 
 siasm that we entertain for great men. Early 
 youth, which is most susceptible of intense feel- 
 ing, is also most susceptible of this enthusiasm ; 
 and it has then a most exact thermometer of 
 its love for glory. It has not then motives to 
 depreciate the merits and talents of others, for 
 it hopes, that one day others will esteem in them 
 that, which they esteem in others. 
 
 When once the degree of passion for glory is 
 well understood, we may choose any pursuit most 
 congenial to our taste. Every choice is good, if 
 in any kind or sort we have the force of intense 
 
64 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARAC1ER 
 
 desire proportionate to the difficulties to be over- 
 come. It is most difficult to excel in a pursuit 
 in which eminent men have already flourished 
 and carried it near perfection. To distinguish 
 ourselves, we must be capable of the highest 
 exertions. He, who feels himself unequal to over- 
 come great rivals, must avoid the paths already 
 trod by them and full of their trophies ; let him 
 go by other ways, and he will find new regions 
 to explore and cultivate. 
 
 A man, to render himself excellent in a class 
 of knowledge, must not distract his attention by a 
 multitude of trifling occupations ; he must concen- 
 trate it entirely upon the ideas and objects imme- 
 diately connected with the pursuit. But he must 
 not too scrupulously act up to this principle. 
 It is impossible to be profound in any subject, 
 without being somewhat acquainted with other 
 branches analogous to the one cultivated. We 
 must dwell firmly and securely for some time upon 
 the principles of the sciences, in order to consider 
 the universal concatenation, which unites all the 
 ideas of men under one general principle or law. 
 This study gives much strength and greater 
 extension to the intellect ; but it is only pre- 
 liminary and elementary. The attention must 
 be mainly fixed upon the one particular pursuit. 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 65 
 
 If a sculptor studies politics and statuary, he runs 
 the risk of failing in both. 
 
 A general acquaintance with literature is useful 
 to the Architect, on account of the necessity he 
 will frequently have of explaining his ideas by 
 words and writing. To accomplish this with 
 method, clearness, facility, and even brilliancy, 
 is a desirable, but not a common, attainment. 
 
 Vitruvius does not suggest to the Architect 
 the gift of oratory, thinking perhaps that the 
 eloquence of the Architect consists rather in his 
 works than in his words. In fact, Plutarch relates 
 of two Architects, who offered themselves to 
 the people of Athens in order to gain the super- 
 intendence or execution of some public works, 
 that one of them, more expert than the other 
 in the art of speaking, enchanted the Athenians 
 by the brilliancy of his address. The other 
 having remained silent at last said, " I, sirs, will 
 do what he has said." 
 
 The study of History is valuable to the Archi- 
 tect, as recommended by Vitruvius ; for if he be 
 ignorant of it, how can he be consistent in the 
 adoption of this or that class of art ? How can 
 he avoid anachronisms ? How can he know 
 whether the style be adapted for the purpose 
 he intends it? The knowledge of history can 
 
66 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 alone acquaint him with the proprieties, which 
 have given rise to any peculiar class of design. 
 The political institutions of a people, the predi- 
 lections of rulers, the pursuits of the various 
 classes, can alone explain the origin of the 
 leading characteristics, which reign in any nation, 
 province or city. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the 
 Romans, the nations of the middle ages, have had 
 their architecture influenced byparticularphysical 
 and social circumstances. 
 
 Biography is a most attractive and, from its 
 moral influence upon the mind, a very important 
 branch of history. It teaches us the course, by 
 which great men have attained to eminence. It 
 unveils some of the arts, by which incompetent 
 men have acquired a passing reputation. It 
 shows the trials, through which most must pass, 
 ere theymay hope to excel. It marks the influence, 
 which our art has had through all periods and 
 among all nations. It hands down to us the noble 
 and high-minded characters of those, who have 
 graced our profession ; the generous sacrifices of 
 which they have been capable ; their forbearance 
 and disregard of low motives ; their disinterested- 
 ness. Michael Angelo, in order to preserve his 
 independence, declined the stipend attached to his 
 appointment as architect of St. Peter's. And one 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 67 
 
 of the Florentine architects, being sent by the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany to Naples, where he 
 executed some fine works for the King, declined 
 any gratuity, saying that he had a generous 
 prince by whose liberality he was already amply 
 rewarded. The King would not be denied, and 
 earnestly begged him to name any object he would 
 like. " Give me then," said he, " that antique 
 statue, that I may present it to my prince, as a 
 gift worthy of his acceptance and a suitable mark 
 of my affectionate attachment to a generous 
 master." Let me refer you to Milizia's Lives of 
 the Architects, translated by Mrs. Cressy, and 
 believe me, that you will always rise from the 
 perusal of those well-written memoirs with a 
 greater love for your profession, a nobler passion 
 for glory, a greater disregard of gain, and in fact 
 a better man. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle in his opening lecture on he- 
 roes, hero worship, and heroic in history, has the 
 following words : " We have undertaken to dis- 
 course here for a little on great men ; their man- 
 ner of appearance in our world's business ; how 
 they have shaped themselves in the world's 
 history ; what ideas men formed of them ; what 
 work they did. 
 
 " A large topic, indeed an illimitable one, wide 
 
 f2 
 
68 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 as Universal history ; for, as I take it, Universal 
 history, — the history of what man has accom- 
 plished in this world, — is at bottom the history 
 of great men who have worked here. They were 
 the leaders of men these great ones ; the model- 
 lers, patterns, and in a wide sense creators of 
 whatsoever the general mass of men contrived to 
 do or to attain. All things, that we see standing 
 accomplished in the world, are properly the outer 
 material result, the practical realization and em- 
 bodiment of thoughts, that dwelt in the great 
 men, sent into the world : the soul of the whole 
 world's history, it may justly be considered, were 
 the history of these. 
 
 " One comfort is, that great men, taken up in 
 any way, are profitable company. We cannot 
 look however imperfectly upon a great man 
 without gaining something from him. He is 
 the living light fountain, which it is good and 
 pleasant to be near. The light, which enlightens, 
 which has enlightened the darkness of the world. 
 And this not as a kindred lamp only, but rather 
 as a material luminary, shining by the gift of 
 Heaven ; a flowing light fountain, as I say, of 
 native original insight, of manhood and heroic 
 nobleness ; in whose radiance all souls feel that 
 it is well with them." 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 69 
 
 The Mathematics, pure and mixed, are an es- 
 sential part of the Architect's education. He has 
 as much to do with figures as with lines ; and at 
 once to protect his employer from any want of 
 foresight or fraud, it is necessary for him to be a 
 ready calculator. It is one of the morals of archi- 
 tecture, that the Architect should never lead his 
 employer into an useless expense ; nor into one, 
 which his means would not enable him to afford. 
 It is a breach of integrity, which nothing can 
 render excusable. Vitruvius records a wise law 
 of the Ephesians. When an architect was em- 
 ployed upon a public work, he was required to 
 declare the amount it would cost, and his goods 
 were made over to the State. If the work cost 
 one-fourth more than his estimate, it was allowed 
 — if it were less, he was loaded with honors. 
 But, if the expenditure exceeded the prescribed 
 limits, his property was sacrificed to make good 
 the deficiency. It is said that Van vitelli, having 
 exceeded his estimate in a public work connected 
 with the execution of one of the fountains of 
 Rome, was mulcted in the sum of 5000 crowns. 
 
 Mathematics have been much disregarded in 
 the profession, and although we have two archi- 
 tects living, Messrs. Ware and Gwilt, who have 
 written profound works on this branch ; yet 
 
70 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 generally it is much neglected, and thus there are 
 very few qualified to investigate the mathematical 
 principles, which govern the laws of construction. 
 
 Geometry is an indispensable part of the Archi- 
 tect's study. No man can be ready in design, or 
 in the working out his conception, who is not 
 familiar with all the aids to be derived from this 
 requisite branch of science. It is not only essen- 
 tial in the numerous details, but also in setting 
 out the work and in the mechanical processes 
 connected with the execution ; and, as Milizia 
 truly observes, for the all-important doctrine of 
 the laws of proportion. 
 
 Mechanics are another branch, without which 
 the Architect is incompetent for any great and 
 important work. The laws of thrust and resist- 
 ance, weights and supports — the effects of arches 
 and vaults — machinery, scaffolding, centering, 
 come under this head : and, if he be deficient in 
 it, he will not be able to command the respect, 
 confidence and attention of the workmen, who 
 are quick to find out any points, in which the 
 Architect may not be well-prepared and they the 
 more expert. 
 
 Perspective and Optics demand considerable 
 attention on the part of the Architect. I refer not 
 merely to linear perspective ; but to that thorough 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 71 
 
 knowledge of the effects, which his edifice as a 
 whole, or the parts as subsidiary, will have in 
 execution. I have already alluded, when treating 
 of the subject of composition, to the principal 
 feature and to the subordinate portions, which 
 should maintain a due relation and form a 
 striking harmonious whole. Unless therefore the 
 Architect understands well Perspective and the 
 laws of Optics, he cannot hope to maintain the 
 proper gradation in his buildings, nor to give 
 that proportion of breadth and height and pro- 
 jection, upon which depends the harmony that 
 he seeks to produce. In a design everything is 
 relative ; and its cubical elements depend upon 
 its proximity or remoteness in itself, or its con- 
 tiguity or distance from other objects. By Per- 
 spective and Optics we are taught to estimate 
 these respective values, and to foresee the influ- 
 ence, which the design in execution will produce 
 on the mind of the beholder. 
 
 But the theory of Mathematics must be regu- 
 lated by a good dose of Physics ; for, after all, 
 the laws of abstract science are limited by the 
 physical qualities of the materials employed in 
 construction. 
 
 Chemistry therefore is of great service. We 
 should not seek to be a Faraday or a Graham ; 
 
72 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 but we must know enough of the general laws of 
 Chemistry to make us acquainted with the greater 
 or less value of stones and timber. It enables 
 us to test those stones best calculated for limes ; 
 those most adapted to resist the action of the 
 weather. It renders us familiar with the causes 
 of decay in wood, and provides us with remedies 
 to ensure its durability and to prevent the rot. 
 
 Geology opens to us a vast field of useful know- 
 ledge. It qualifies us to appreciate soils and their 
 relative fitness for foundations. It shows us 
 those most likely to retain damp, or to carry off 
 the surface-waters. It displays the abundant 
 materials, which the Architect may employ — 
 those sands, useful for his mortar — those forma- 
 tions, best calculated for his lime — those strata 
 richest in stone for his solid constructions — 
 the slates to cover his roofs, the metals to give 
 strength and compactness to his framing. The 
 Architect should visit, whenever occasion presents 
 itself, the various quarries of different sorts of 
 stones. He should take memoranda of the strata, 
 their thickness and several qualities. He should 
 note the modes of quarrying, and the various 
 appliances used by the several trades employed 
 to prepare it for application to building. The 
 forge of the smith, the banker of the mason, the 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 73 
 
 bench of the carpenter, should be familiar to him , 
 as also the various tools and contrivances em- 
 ployed by the mechanic. 
 
 The Aspect or Position of a building in reference 
 to the cardinal points is a very material consider- 
 ation. The desirableness of this or that aspect 
 for a house varies with the different parts of the 
 kingdom and of the world, in which it may be 
 placed ; nay, upon the locality in which it may be 
 situate. With us the southern aspect is essential 
 to cheerfulness and comfort. In Italy the north 
 will be preferred for its coolness. I have known 
 many houses spoiled from a neglect of the pre- 
 caution of providing a pleasant aspect. Again, 
 the principal look-out should be towards the 
 pleasure-ground, not with a court-yard, and care 
 should be taken to command a view of a range 
 of hills, a lofty mountain, a river, a church, or 
 some such striking and prominent object, which 
 may interest. The house should, if possible, not 
 be near a public road, nor a burial-ground, a rail- 
 road, or canal for traffic. 
 
 The importance of an abundant supply of Water, 
 and that of a good quality, is much insisted upon 
 by Vitruvius, Alberti, Palladio, and all writers. 
 The utmost inconvenience arises from any defi- 
 ciency in this respect ; and its distribution to 
 
/4 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 every part of a house, a palace or a public building, 
 is essential to comfort and cleanliness. In case 
 of fire also it should be so arranged, as to afford 
 the means of promptly subduing the destructive 
 element. Hence the necessity of some acquaint- 
 ance with Hydraulics. 
 
 Is there one here present, who has not felt the 
 influence, which Ventilation has upon the health ? 
 How many ingenious men are there, who have 
 advanced schemes for remedying the defects in 
 ill-ventilated buildings ! Again, how utterly unfit 
 are many of our theatres, our courts of justice, 
 churches, and other places of public resort, for 
 hearing distinctly the voices of the speakers — 
 another fertile source of scheming and contriving ! 
 Who then will deny, that an Architect ought to 
 be acquainted with the leading principles of 
 Acoustics, in order to allow him to judge of the 
 various systems, which are submitted to him for 
 adoption ? All these are important accessories ; 
 and he, who is not prepared to consider their 
 effects upon the building he is about to erect, will 
 find it deficient in many of those points, which 
 are now-a-days not the caprice, nor the luxurious 
 nor chance want of the employer, but the very 
 elements of his comfort and social happiness. 
 Without them the most splendid dwelling, or the 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 75 
 
 most magnificent public structure, may be unin- 
 habitable and useless — a source of constant misery 
 to the employer and of complaint to the Architect. 
 
 Let us now consider the Architect as an Artist ; 
 and here some will say in the first place, " Have 
 I genius ? and can I succeed without that divine 
 inspiration, in the absence of which I must be a 
 mere plodder in the profession ? " Let every man 
 consider, that the brilliant and stupendous pro- 
 ductions of genius are the results of a rare com- 
 bination of powers. " Let not him," to use the 
 vivid idea, though not the exact words, of Rousseau 
 in his Dictionary of Music, " who would possess 
 genius ask what it is. Hast thou it, thou wilt 
 feel it in thyself. If thou hast it not, thou wilt 
 never know what are its sensations. If thou 
 wishest to know, if some spark of the devouring 
 fire animates you, fly to Rome, to Athens. See 
 the Coliseum ; the Pantheon ; the Parthenon ; the 
 Theseum. If an overpowering sensation of awe, 
 admiration and delight possess your mind at the 
 contemplation of these stupendous ruins — if you 
 seek to equal, nay to excel, these wondrous 
 creations of the human mind, call up all the 
 impressions and emotions they excite in your 
 soul. Possess yourself with the same feelings, 
 
76 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 as inspired the Architects of those times. Let a 
 sense of glory animate you. Seize your pencil. 
 Give full scope to your imagination. Invent, and 
 let the glowing paper reflect the images, which 
 shine with such brilliancy in your own sensa- 
 tions." 
 
 If thou hast not genius, you may yet reflect, 
 that an honorable career is still open to you. 
 Architecture is made for the convenience, as well 
 as delight of man. If thou canst not astonish, 
 thou mayst yet please, and erect edifices, which 
 may unite convenience, comfort, and a certain 
 degree of unity of design and propriety of detail, 
 which may not offend, even if they do not delight. 
 
 True genius developes itself by the study of 
 the productions of others, and by an investiga- 
 tion into those laws of nature in which result the 
 beautiful and the sublime of material objects. 
 Transfer these laws to your art. Let your inter- 
 pretation of the principles of the graceful or the 
 grand open to others new sources of pleasing 
 thought, fresh images of proportion and fitness. 
 But this comes not of itself. A laborious course 
 of study and contemplation can alone regulate 
 the unruly crude thoughts of the mind, and re- 
 duce its first impression to any degree of order. 
 It sometimes cost Rousseau a day of painful study 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 77 
 
 to compose a page of his glowing descriptions, 
 which seem so easy and so flowing. The vivid 
 pictures of Byron's poems were frequently the 
 result of many painful strivings ; and the fervid 
 eloquence of a Burke and a Canning owed its 
 force and power to previous laborious thought. 
 But there are materials of expression, of which 
 the Architect must first render himself master, ere 
 he can hope to design well. He must draw with 
 ease, and his well-trained hand must have the 
 power to record with rapidity, precision and truth 
 the fleeting thought. This cannot be acquired 
 without years of unremitting practice. He must 
 render his merely linear representations with 
 accuracy and delicacy — he must be able to draw 
 with fidelity any object, that presents itself; and 
 know it thoroughly, not cursorily — or he will draw 
 without precision or expression. The ornamenta- 
 tion of Greek, of Roman, of Gothic architecture, 
 has each its distinctive peculiarity ; and even 
 each period of each style differs the one from the 
 other. Attica and Ionia, Rome and its provinces, 
 the Norman, the Lancet or the Florid Gothic of 
 England, France and Germany, the Eastern of 
 India and of China, has each its own impress and 
 character ; the knowledge of which can only be 
 acquired by patient and intelligent analysis. 
 
78 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 Our taste depends upon the models we chose 
 for study. It is therefore of the utmost conse- 
 quence to select those, which should suggest pure 
 first principles and produce a fixed impression of 
 correctness in our sensations. The moderns la- 
 bor under the disadvantage of having continually 
 before their eyes the bad examples of taste, which 
 have been erected in the most unfortunate periods 
 of the art. The ancients* in this particular 
 
 * The reverence for antiquity is to be no blind passion, as 
 some suppose it to be. Is it not a respect for the productions 
 of thinking reasoning minds — of great men, who, having 
 certain requirements to fulfil, pursued a train of laborious 
 thought, studied nature herself for sources of inspiration, and 
 felt that they had to realize the wants of well-informed and 
 highly- gifted men ? It was no wild caprice or loose imagining, 
 which planned the Parthenon and designed the Coliseum or 
 Pantheon. It was a grave people, who conceived and executed 
 the overwhelming and awful edifices within the sacred precinct 
 of Carnac and Lugsor. Were not these independent minds ? 
 Were these servile imitators ? But did they create these at 
 once from their own resources, or, as the phrase now is, from 
 common sense, a term identical with presumptuous ignorance ? 
 These great men studied the productions of previous periods, 
 well weighed all their own wants, and hence resulted works, 
 that have commanded the respect of every succeeding age. 
 In fact without a knowledge of the classic monuments of 
 antiquity, no one can have other than an imperfect, faint 
 image of Architecture. Egypt and Greece had an existence 
 peculiar to themselves. Independently of intrinsic beauty, 
 their art had the great taste of perfection — unity — simplicity 
 — appropriateness. In studying the fine productions of the 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 79 
 
 were more privileged than we. They had to be- 
 gin from the very commencement, and their pri- 
 mitive wants suggested simple means to supply 
 them. Thus art in Egypt may be seen in its 
 first step — massive, grand, magnificent, and im- 
 posing — yielding attention to the more important 
 requisites alone in order to produce effect. Ha- 
 ving attained this, in course of time a want of 
 further gratification for the senses introduced the 
 minor details of sculpture and painting ; so that 
 in Greece, where an exquisite susceptibility for 
 what was captivating to the taste reigned in a 
 high degree, we find the utmost refinement and 
 delicacy ; a departure from which, in search of 
 novelty unattended by the same refinement, gave 
 rise to the monuments of Rome. These, however 
 grand and impressive, still offer to the eye and 
 judgment defects we could wish to see corrected. 
 Man then continued gradually to decline, and 
 the taste became more vitiated during the darker 
 ages of the Lower Empire. To this downfall of 
 classic taste succeeded Gothic architecture, which 
 brought into play, as we have already remarked 
 
 Greek and Egyptian minds, we do not acquire merely the 
 proportions of a cap, a cornice or a column — but we intuitively 
 impress our minds with noble and sublime principles ; and by 
 the contemplation of simple and grand edifices receive im- 
 pressions, which are imperishable. 
 
80 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 in previous lectures, new laws and rules of its 
 own. It set aside the principles of a foreign con- 
 ception, as it were, and established for itself a less 
 arbitrary and less strict limitation. It seized and 
 canonized into beauties the very defects of classic 
 art, clothed it in a new garb, and gave a scope 
 to fancv. Thus unrestricted, it realized those 
 stupendous and delightful creations, of which the 
 Christian world has such just reason to be proud 
 — a new and fruitful school of art and science. 
 
 Gothic Architecture nourished during four 
 centuries ; but yielded at length to the new direc- 
 tion given to men's minds by the re-introduction 
 of Greek and Latin literature. The revival of 
 classic art, however, produced only very inferior 
 edifices ; the exceptions to which do not reach 
 the standard of antiquity. All these last bad 
 examples, in the sight of which we are born and 
 bred, unhappily influence most materially our 
 present taste : and this can only be corrected by 
 visiting on the spot the monuments of the classic 
 times. The student need not take all the dimen- 
 sions of every minute part with the elaborate 
 accuracy of a Stewart or a Deering ; but he must 
 draw them with a certain degree of precision, and 
 take at all events their general measurements, 
 in order to possess himself thoroughly of their 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 81 
 
 details, their proportions, and arrangement. When 
 he has done this, he must complete the study by 
 a contemplation of the whole as a monument : 
 and he must reason in his own mind upon the 
 causes of certain effects, and analyse the im- 
 pressions made upon him. 
 
 Palladio studied admirably the monuments of 
 Rome. He slightly sketched the general propor- 
 tions and parts, and then restored the ruin to what 
 he considered its original perfect state. I suppose 
 therefore that the student, ere he does this, has 
 thoroughly studied at home the orders and their 
 proportions ; and learned to measure accurately 
 the parts of a building. It is not enough that the 
 edifices of Greece and Rome have been correctly 
 published by others. If the student wishes to 
 know a building thoroughly, he must measure* it 
 
 * The style of those admirable restorations, which are pro- 
 duced by the French school of Architecture hold very much 
 of the antique Roman, and may be called classical gleanings. 
 They are generally made up of scraps from the ruins of those 
 venerable edifices, and the pleasure they afford is derived from 
 the propriety with which the selection is made. In such case 
 the student must take care that every portion, every order, 
 every detail introduced, be of the same aera, and authorized 
 by the best examples. For if he should chance to introduce 
 any combination of a later period, or any dissonance from the 
 custom of the time, or should perchance not sufficiently chase 
 from his mind the habits of modern years, he may fall into the 
 most exceptionable solecism, and thus spoil the harmony which 
 
82 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 himself. And the greater number he measures, 
 the vaster will be his store of useful authorities and 
 types to assist his invention and to guide his taste. 
 But to increase this store to a greater degree, 
 and thus gain an inexhaustible fund, to which he 
 may refer on any occasion, it is desirable that the 
 Architect, at whatever stage it may be of his 
 practice, should carry constantly with him a 
 sketch-book. He should make a slight drawing 
 of anything which may strike him as remarkable 
 and worth remembering. His motto should be, 
 Nulla dies sine lined. The very act of sketching 
 an object will impress it upon his memory. But 
 in addition to that result he will have a more 
 exact notion of it, and if he should forget it, he 
 has it upon record for future reference ; and cer- 
 tainly he will thus acquire the habit of more exact 
 observation. The sketches should be subsequently 
 
 alone constitutes the beauty of such compositions. How 
 harsh to the classic eye the mixture of the purity of the 
 Augustan age with the corruption of the Antoninian or 
 the barbarism of Diocletian buildings ! This shows how 
 necessary in classic compositions is the analogy of every 
 detail. And he, who proposes the attempt, has no alternative 
 but to adopt those formed to his hand, and the great merit he 
 will derive will be in accommodating each feature of the parts 
 to the general effect of the whole. He may not produce any 
 unexpected combinations, but those authorized by the severest 
 rules : the merit of the artist will consist in the skill with 
 which he combines the mechanism of the several portions. 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 83 
 
 arranged systematically in a larger blank book 
 with a proper classification of subjects, and by 
 this means he may ultimately possess a most 
 interesting series of precedents, descriptions and 
 authorities, whether in art or in the sciences 
 connected with Architecture. He will thus have 
 a collection, which will readily furnish ideas, that 
 will appear to rise spontaneously ; but which in 
 fact will only be the fruit of these seeds, which he 
 will as a student have so laboriously collected 
 in his earlier years. 
 
 It is very necessary for the student to acquaint 
 himself with the Theory of Colors, in order to know 
 at once the common laws of contrast and har- 
 mony, which govern tints, and which will guide 
 him unerringly in his selection. As much of the 
 beauty of the internal parts of buildings depends 
 upon the tones of color, which prevail, as upon 
 the harmony of the architectural proportions and 
 propriety of the details. There are none, who 
 will not remember having received pleasurable as 
 well as disagreeable sensations from the mode, in 
 which the walls, the ceilings, the floors of an 
 edifice may have been toned, and the selection 
 of tints for the furniture. The finest monuments 
 of Greece, the most elaborate details of Gothic 
 architecture, were covered with color. How 
 
 g2 
 
84 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 important then is it for us to note every instance, 
 in which we may meet with it in buildings ! But 
 it is also desirable, that the Architect be able to 
 judge of those essential handmaidens to Archi- 
 tecture, Painting and Sculpture, her younger 
 sisters, from whose assistance she may acquire 
 so much interest, expression and fitness, in ad- 
 dition to the power which her monuments possess 
 physically over the mind from their proportions, 
 size, and the materials of which they may be 
 built. 
 
 In ancient art a temple was considered the 
 dwelling of the god, embellished and rendered 
 eloquent by the sculptured illustrations of the 
 allegories and history of the deity, who was wor- 
 shiped. How considerable a portion of beauty, 
 majesty and meaning, would not the Parthenon 
 lose, stripped of its metopes, its friezes, and the 
 splendid groups of its pediments ! Vast and 
 impressive, as is the portico of the Pantheon, how 
 inferior must the impression be upon our minds 
 to that, which the ancient Roman experienced ; 
 when the rich profusion of its sculptures in the 
 tympanum, upon the apex and angles of its 
 pediment, when the splendor of its vaulted bronze 
 ceiling, the statues of Augustus, of Agrippa and 
 other noble spirits, gave it life and animation, 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 85 
 
 instead of the solemn deadness of its present 
 shorn state ! The imagination is now obliged to 
 create an image of its pristine greatness, in order 
 to realise approximatively the idea of its original 
 magnificence. 
 
 But Painting dwindles into mere furniture, as 
 it were, if its production be limited to the size of 
 a canvas and its extent be encircled by a gilt 
 frame. Carry your imagination to the walls of 
 the Vatican and to the interiors of Italian churches. 
 Conceive the sides of a vast room rendered 
 eloquent and instructive by the full-sized repre- 
 sentation of the School of Athens, of the awful 
 mysteries of the judgment- day, by the affecting 
 incidents of a battle-field, or the enchanting 
 groupings and attractive glow of the Aurora. 
 This is real painting upon its proper scale. 
 Imagine the pencil of the painter and the chisel 
 of the sculptor called in to embellish worthily 
 your architectural productions; and realise, if you 
 can, the glorious combination of the three sister 
 arts, each in its own sphere winning the admira- 
 tion of the beholder, and together forming a 
 glorious combination, as in St. Peter's at Rome. 
 In France you may feel something of this ; for 
 our neighbours are more alive to the united 
 powers of the three arts than we, and have car- 
 
86 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 ried out the combination with considerable power 
 in some of the buildings at Paris. But I cannot 
 now allude to any building in England, in which 
 the masterpieces of sculpture, painting and archi- 
 tecture find a common home, and form a magic 
 circle of enchantment. 
 
 Let us hope, that the noble daring and brilliant 
 imagination of the Architect, and the liberality 
 of the nation, seconded by the genius of our 
 painters and sculptors and the ingenuity of our 
 manufacturers and artisans, will have their full 
 scope in our new Houses of Parliament : and 
 that an Englishman, some ten or twenty years 
 hence, may be able to point to this grand mass 
 of building, as irrefragable evidence, that British 
 art can equal any of the masterpieces of foreign 
 genius, if it only be afforded opportunity to 
 display itself: despite our climate; despite our 
 atmosphere ; despite our social, our moral, and 
 religious institutions ; with which we have been 
 reproached by foreign writers, as offering insu- 
 perable obstacles to our rising to any eminence 
 in the cultivation of the arts of design. 
 
 There is another class of study essentially 
 important to the young Architect, and that is 
 Practice. He may have acquired all the principles, 
 which govern science. He may have studied 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 87 
 
 monuments, learnt the rules of proportion, and 
 made himself thoroughly acquainted with the 
 whole sphere of art. But, unless he be also 
 versed in the practical details, it would be dan- 
 gerous to himself and fatal to his employer, if he 
 undertook a building of any importance. He 
 has a conscientious duty to perform : not only to 
 design well, but to execute the work in the 
 soundest manner and with the least cost. Young 
 men, carried away by the enthusiasm to which 
 the fascinating attraction of the art of drawing 
 gives rise, find it irksome to enter into the details 
 of construction, the cost of materials, measuring 
 and valuation. But if an Architect wishes to 
 possess all the means, by which he may realise his 
 conceptions, he must go through this ordeal, he 
 must visit and study works in progress : and when 
 he becomes better acquainted with the subject, 
 he will find a growing interest in the pursuit. 
 There is no moment of his life, at which the true 
 Architect ceases to study and acquire knowledge ; 
 and no source is too despicable for him to gain 
 information. The laboring artisan has many 
 mechanical contrivances, by which he may 
 accomplish his task and execute his work. From 
 him the Architect, whether as a student or as the 
 more advanced practitioner, may learn much. 
 
88 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 In fact we must not only be satisfied that a thing 
 is done, but know how it is done ; and eagerly 
 avail ourselves of the knowledge of the workman. 
 By not being ashamed of asking questions at any 
 period of our career, we gain their respect and 
 win their confidence. How many a young man is 
 there, who leaves an office without any acquaint- 
 ance with these departments of the profession! 
 He commences business thus inadequately pre- 
 pared. His very first commission involves him 
 in inextricable difficulties. He is at the mercy 
 of the builder, the workmen, and all employed. 
 A sense of his ignorance in this respect preys on 
 his mind. He resolves to devote his energies to 
 make himself thoroughly versed in the practical 
 details of construction, and he passes years and 
 years devoted to this ; and thus employs time, 
 which, had he been better trained, could have been 
 more beneficially and honorably appropriated. 
 He had still to learn his profession ! ! 
 
 In fact there is a vast distance between the 
 theorist and the man of experience. The one 
 proceeds on the assumption, that all the facts 
 are of a definite class and limited by certain 
 circumstances : that the materials at hand are 
 homogeneous throughout and of the best quality: 
 that the workmanship is of the most perfect 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 89 
 
 description : that the season of performing the 
 work is the most favorable : and that no contin- 
 gency arises, which may not be anticipated. 
 But too frequently the most irksome incidents 
 may baffle the practical man at every step. The 
 ignorance or inattention or absence of the 
 assistant or superintendent may afford oppor- 
 tunity for the introduction of bad materials. 
 The inefficiency, neglect or dishonesty of the 
 artisan may render the work unsound, an unskil- 
 ful foreman may render it insecure. The dis- 
 honesty of the quarryman may introduce a bad 
 material, which the mason may not care to 
 observe. A quantity of dead lime or cement may 
 deprive the mortar of its cementitious quality. 
 A shower of rain, a storm or a frost unforeseen, 
 ill provided against, may produce serious evils. 
 A sudden spring, an unknown cavity in the 
 foundations, may cause a settlement. Such are 
 some of the adverse incidents, that may arise 
 and demand all the science, experience, the 
 patient endurance and energy of the well-grounded 
 Architect, to triumph over them all. 
 
 The Architect stands in a middle relation 
 between the employer and the builder. He has 
 duties towards both. He must be active, vigilant, 
 shrewd ; above all well-versed in his subject. 
 
90 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 He must see, that the prices, at which the work 
 is to be done, are reasonable. He must take 
 care, that the materials are good, the workman- 
 ship sound. He must protect his employer from 
 loss by fraud, by neglect, or carelessness. With 
 regard to the builder, he must see that he is not 
 oppressed by being required to do more than his 
 contract specifies ; that the payments to him 
 be punctual, that fair allowances be made for 
 casualties, and that he realise a just profit. His 
 motive of action must be the consideration, that 
 the first great end of his engagement is the 
 unequivocal advantage of his employer, and not 
 his own personal gain ; to be unreservedly faithful 
 to him, who has engaged his services. 
 
 There are many trying circumstances, which 
 will arise in regard to the relations of the Archi- 
 tect to his employer. He is of course to consult 
 his convenience, to adapt the building to his 
 reasonable fancy, and above all to take care that 
 it exceed not his circumstances. At the same 
 time, when once the design is settled, he must 
 not allow a meddling interference with the details, 
 nor permit a man of fanciful ideas to force him 
 to do what is contrary to good taste, and likely 
 to compromise the character of the Architect : 
 for he will in the end have to answer for every- 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 91 
 
 thing, that may be wrong. He must be firm, 
 but also respectful ; and being otherwise irre- 
 proachable will create a feeling of deference and 
 consideration for his professional acquirements. 
 We know, that we owe the Pavilion at Brighton 
 and Buckingham Palace to the low taste of 
 George the Fourth, who insisted upon his archi- 
 tects building according to his whims and fancies. 
 The consequence has been, that they deservedly 
 bear all the blame. Had they assumed a high- 
 minded independence, and declined to undertake 
 a work disreputable to their rank in the pro- 
 fession, it is possible that their firmness might 
 have produced conviction on the mind of the 
 Prince, and saved them from the obloquy, which 
 they acquired. But let me not mislead you. If 
 a certain fancy strikes your employer, it is your 
 duty to endeavor to realise it, so that it may be 
 done with good taste and evidence of skill. If 
 not, rather abandon it than peril your fair name 
 as an artist and man of science. You must 
 respect yourself, or you will not be respected : 
 for the moment you disregard your own reputa- 
 tion, you must not consider that any one else 
 will hold it in much estimation. 
 
 Vitruvius tells us that the Architect must not 
 seek for employment ; but wait till he is sought. 
 
92 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 That is carrying delicacy to a fancied pitch of 
 refinement, which is now impracticable. But he 
 must exercise a certain reserve, at the same time 
 that he is justified in availing himself of every 
 opportunity of making his talents known : and, 
 if the proper occasion present itself, of interesting 
 his friends in his favor to promote his interests. 
 He must not stay at home, and expect that by a 
 species of intuition the world is to know how 
 capable he is of undertaking a great work, and 
 how advantageous it would be to employ him. 
 But in seeking for employment he must use the 
 delicacy of a sensitive and refined mind ; and 
 utterly abhor and avoid any underhand unworthy 
 means of success. He must not urge his preten- 
 sions, unless justified by the occasion or author- 
 ized by any accidental circumstance : and his 
 conduct must be noble, open and generous. He 
 must never attempt to supplant a professional 
 brother : nor seek, by foregoing a portion of his 
 fair professional remuneration, to underbid him. 
 He must never volunteer an opinion to the dis- 
 paragement of another architect. But at the 
 same time, if called in for his judgment, he must 
 frankly and fearlessly declare the truth, whatever 
 may be the consequence to himself, or however 
 it may affect another. But it will be well to 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 
 
 93 
 
 extenuate an error or imperfection, rather than 
 to exaggerate : and to suggest a remedy, rather 
 than to leave a defect to be supposed to be 
 irreparable. 
 
 If a genuine love of his profession animates 
 the Architect, he will throw his whole soul into 
 whatever he undertakes : for there is in the fine 
 arts a peculiar source of inspiration and motive 
 to exertion, and that is the love of the beautiful. 
 He, who has not that within him, cannot be a 
 true Architect. The artist has an exquisite 
 perception of all the forms of beauty in the 
 animal, vegetable, or mineral creation. Form — 
 color — proportion — have in his mind an innate 
 chord, which responds to the harmony and beauty 
 of nature. But he also has the power to express 
 them himself, and to render these effects in his 
 picture, his statue or his building. The very 
 operation of invention — the delight of witness- 
 ing his design assume a congruous form, and 
 then to see it developed and realized in execution, 
 is of itself a sufficient reward for all his anxiety 
 and labor of thought. He will not, therefore, 
 stop to consider, whether the matter will repay 
 him for his trouble ; his first great aim will be 
 to do it thoroughly, and consistently with his 
 own character and reputation. A stern sense of 
 
94 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 right and wrong, a love of high honor will lead 
 him on. Self-love is a general passion : ambition 
 for the esteem and respect of others is to a degree 
 no less universal. But upon the clue combination 
 of these, and upon the energy, with which they 
 act upon our system, depends the sentiment of 
 honor, the love of fame. ' ' The basis of the honor 
 which we render to others," says Milizia, "is 
 utility — utility decides always upon our esteem 
 — and the man, who can be the most useful to 
 us, is the one, whom we most honor." It is a 
 general sentiment of almost all periods and of all 
 countries, that the man without honor is the one, 
 who is least capable of being useful to his fellow- 
 man. Marcellus, emphatically called the Sword 
 of Rome, five times consul and the conqueror of 
 Syracuse, who wept the death of Archimedes, 
 and erected a tomb to his memory, built a temple 
 to Honor and Virtue, connected the one with the 
 other; but so arranged, that it was necessary to 
 pass through that of Virtue in order to reach the 
 one sacred to Honor. In fact virtue is the onlv 
 true path to honor. In what then essentially 
 consists virtue ? The full development of our 
 moral and intellectual faculties combined — the 
 acquisition of knowledge by painstaking, un- 
 wearied study — the application of that knowledge 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 95 
 
 with skill, intelligence, forethought, taste and 
 integrity. Genius is truly a fire divine — an 
 inexplicable creative faculty, which if not 
 restrained, directed, instructed, will run a wild 
 mad course of useless brilliancy. But perse- 
 verance — an unchanging desire to excel — a 
 patient acquisitiveness of knowledge — will to the 
 possessor produce solid results, and lead him to 
 distinction. He may not be so brilliant, as the 
 man of genius ; he may not so much surprise ; 
 nor command, it may be, such moments of exalted 
 ideas : but he may confer more sterling benefits 
 on mankind in general, and rank among the 
 foremost in the page of history. There is a 
 wreath for every one — let then each stretch 
 forth with ardor to seize the prize, and remember, 
 that he possesses within himself the powers to 
 command success. 
 
 In the course of this series I have had occasion 
 to treat upon various branches of knowledge and 
 to call your attention to others. You will, I 
 hope, have felt satisfied, that I have not suggested 
 any class of science, as necessary or useful for 
 you to acquire, the importance of which has not 
 been amply proved during these lectures. You 
 will not feel disposed, I trust, as may some of 
 our superficial practitioners, to regard as useless, 
 
96 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 what may not have an immediate and direct 
 application. For my part I cannot consent to 
 restrict the pursuits, the acquirements, the 
 knowledge, the talents of an Architect to the 
 narrowed limits of the immediate branches of 
 professional science. This may do for the mere 
 mechanic — hut by such a rule the Architect, as 
 an artist and a man of science, cannot, ought not 
 to be measured. — Regard him as a man of science. 
 Is his attention to be merely turned to the choice 
 of this or that timber, the selection of this or 
 that metal or stone ? Would I not rather let his 
 mind be more amply developed by diving into 
 the mysteries, which regulate matter in general, 
 and by observing the geological structure of the 
 globe and the relative value of each stratum ? 
 Shall he not with the aid of Chemistry deeply 
 study the stupendous influence of heat, upon 
 which in its largest scope depends the very 
 existence of this sphere? And in the same 
 manner through every division of Physics. Shall 
 he as an artist limit, as some have done, his 
 knowledge of Architecture to a delineation of the 
 classic orders, and not rather master all the styles 
 of all ages and countries ; profoundly investigate 
 the elements of beauty, fitness and proportion in 
 each ; and perchance create a new style or design 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 97 
 
 a new order? Shall he not, as I have already 
 said, appreciate the brilliant aids, which sculpture 
 and painting afford to buildings ; and by the 
 study of color produce graceful combinations of 
 harmonious tints, in the adoption of various- 
 toned marbles and the delightful illusions of 
 stained glass ? 
 
 I have frequently had occasion to mention to 
 you the respected name of Vitruvius. I will 
 show you, that the image I have formed of what 
 an Architect should be is not peculiar nor 
 exaggerated. I may quote an Alberti, a Palladio, 
 a Milizia, a De Quincy, in support of my views : 
 but I prefer recurring to the old Roman, and 
 showing you, that my estimation of an Architect's 
 qualification is 1800 years old. The first chapter 
 of the first book of Vitruvius on Architecture is 
 devoted to the consideration of what Architecture 
 is, and what should be the acquirements of the 
 Architect : — 
 
 " Architecture is a science arising out of many 
 other sciences, and adorned with much and varied 
 learning ; by the help of which a judgment is 
 formed of those works, which are the result of 
 other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. 
 Practice is the frequent and continued contem- 
 plation of the mode of executing any given work, 
 
 H 
 
( J8 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 or of the mere operation of the hands, for the 
 conversion of the material in the best and readiest 
 way. Theory is the result of that reasoning, 
 which demonstrates and explains how the material 
 wrought has been converted so as to answer the 
 end proposed. Wherefore the mere practical 
 architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons 
 for the forms he adopts ; and the theoretic 
 architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead 
 of the substance. He, who is theoretical as well 
 as practical, is therefore doubly armed ; able not 
 only to prove the propriety of his design, but 
 equally so to carry it into execution. 
 
 " An Architect should be ingenious, and apt in 
 the acquisition of knowledge. Deficient in either 
 of these qualities, he cannot be a perfect master. 
 He should be a good writer, a skilful draftsman, 
 versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures, 
 acquainted with history, informed on the prin- 
 ciples of natural and moral philosophy, somewhat 
 of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences both 
 of law and physic, nor of the motions, laws, and 
 relations of the heavenly bodies to each other. 
 By means of the first-named acquirement, he is 
 to commit to writing his observations and expe- 
 rience, in order to assist his memory. 
 
 " Moral philosophy will teach the Architect to 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 99 
 
 be above meanness in his dealings, and to avoid 
 arrogance ; it will make him just, compliant and 
 faithful to his employer. And, what is of the 
 highest importance, it will prevent avarice gaining 
 an ascendency over him ; for he should not be 
 occupied with the thoughts of filling his coffers, 
 nor with the desire of grasping everything in the 
 shape of gain, but, by the gravity of his manners, 
 and a good character, should be careful to pre- 
 serve his dignity. In these respects we see the 
 importance of moral philosophy ; for such are 
 her precepts. 
 
 " Architecture being founded upon and adorn- 
 ed with so many different sciences, those, who 
 have not from their early youth gradually climbed 
 up to the summit, cannot, without presumption, 
 call themselves masters of it. Perhaps to the 
 uninformed it may appear unaccountable, that 
 a man should be able to retain in his memory 
 such a variety of learning ; but the close alliance 
 of the different branches of science with each 
 other will explain the difficulty. For, as a body 
 is composed of various concordant members, 
 so does the whole circle of learning consist in 
 one harmonious system. Wherefore those, who 
 from an early age are initiated in the different 
 branches of learning, have a facility in acquiring 
 
 h2 
 
100 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 some knowledge of all, from their common 
 connexion with each other. On this account 
 Pythius, one of the ancients, architect of the most 
 noble temple of Minerva at Priene, says, in his 
 commentaries, that an Architect should have that 
 perfect knowledge of each art and science, which 
 is not even acquired by the professors of any one 
 in particular, who have had every opportunity 
 of improving themselves in it. This, however, 
 cannot be necessary ; for how can it be expected 
 that an Architect should equal Aristarchus as a 
 grammarian? yet should he not be ignorant of 
 grammar. In music, though it be evident he 
 need not equal Aristoxenus, yet he should know 
 something of it. Though he need not excel, as 
 Apelles, in painting, nor as Myron or Polycletus, 
 in sculpture, yet he should have attained some 
 proficiency in these arts. Thus also, in other 
 sciences, it is not important that pre-eminence 
 in each be gained, but he must not, however, be 
 ignorant of their general principles. For surely in 
 such a variety of matters, it cannot be supposed, 
 that the same person can arrive at excellence in 
 all ; since to be aware of their several niceties 
 and bearings, cannot fall within his power. We 
 see how few of those, who profess a particular 
 art arrive at perfection in it, so as to distinguish 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 101 
 
 themselves ; hence, if but few of those, practising 
 an individual art, obtain lasting fame, how should 
 the Architect, who is required to have a knowledge 
 of so many, be deficient in none of them, and 
 even excel those, who have professed any one 
 exclusively ? Wherefore Pythius seems to have 
 been in error, forgetting that art consists in 
 practice and theory. 
 
 " Those unto whom nature has been so boun- 
 tiful, that they are at once geometricians, astro- 
 nomers, musicians, and skilled in many other 
 arts, go beyond what is required of the Architect, 
 and may be properly called mathematicians, in 
 the extended sense of that word. Men so gifted, 
 discriminate acutely, and are rarely met with. 
 
 " Since, therefore, few men are thus gifted, and 
 yet it is required of the Architect to be generally 
 well-informed, it is manifest he cannot hope to 
 excel in each art." So far Vitruvius. 
 
 It is for the Architect or Engineer further to 
 remember, that in the pursuit of his profession 
 he must not be content with merely qualifying 
 himself for the exercise of it, as the mechanic or 
 the tradesman may regard his avocation. He 
 should prepare himself for the society and con- 
 nexions, to which his engagements will necessarily 
 introduce him. It must be his endeavour to fit 
 
J 02 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 himself by appropriate accomplishments for inter- 
 course with those who will employ him. He will 
 be called upon to be associated with gentlemen 
 of rank, fortune and influence, with the nobles 
 of the land, and occasionally perhaps will be 
 admitted into the presence of the Sovereign. He 
 will have to reside as Architect for days, nay 
 perhaps weeks together, at the country seats, 
 which he may be called upon to alter or rebuild, 
 in society of the most brilliant class. Is it not 
 then proper, that he should maintain his intel- 
 lectual position, as a man of general knowledge 
 in literature and science, as well as that in 
 architecture ? The higher classes have most of 
 them a highly- wrought education, and their very 
 intercourse with the world developes their facul- 
 ties in a very superior manner, even wdien early 
 instruction may have been neglected. It is 
 important, therefore, that the professional man 
 should not limit his attention to the department 
 of knowledge, which he may profess. He must 
 refine his literary taste ; enlarge his acquaintance 
 with history ; and make himself master of the 
 topics of the day. This must proceed with the 
 early studies of his art, and he must occupy the 
 many leisure spare hours he has, by reading in 
 that class, which will relieve the tedium of close 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 103 
 
 application to the dry details of professional 
 practice. His ambition must be to be the 
 agreeable, intelligent companion, nay the valued 
 friend, of those, whose interests he may be called 
 upon to protect, and whose property he may be 
 required to improve by the results of his skill 
 and taste. He must strive to be considered as 
 something more than the mere necessity of the 
 moment, disregarded and thrown off, when the 
 time for his employment shall have passed. 
 
 We have now, Gentlemen, for two years in 
 this room pursued together the investigation of 
 the different branches of our subject. I have 
 endeavored with an earnest zeal to open to you 
 the vast and attractive studies of ancient art and 
 of modern science. It is impossible in a course 
 of lectures, however elaborated, thoroughly to 
 teach any subject. The Professor can only 
 slightly treat upon its different branches, lay 
 down the general principles, and point out the 
 course of study, which the Student must pursue 
 in his own closet, in order to investigate and 
 learn fully the laws and practice of any pursuit. 
 I trust and expect, that you will not have rested 
 satisfied with the instruction I may have com- 
 municated ; but that you will have consulted 
 other authorities, and made yourself master of 
 
104 ON THE EDUCATION AND CHARACTER 
 
 all the bearings of each subject — or at least be 
 prepared so to do. 
 
 In carrying out such a course you may easily 
 imagine the eager desire, which has animated me 
 to fulfil your expectation, and to acquire your 
 confidence. The midnight lamp in the quiet of 
 my own study has constantly witnessed my efforts 
 to prepare worthily the noble objects, which I 
 have had to bring before your notice. I have 
 disregarded the labor and spared no cost. I am 
 aware, that some of the divisions will in after- 
 years, should I be spared and meet with the like 
 encouragement, derive much advantage from 
 maturer study. I seek each year to illustrate 
 more fully some of the topics and to enter upon 
 others, which I contemplate, but which circum- 
 stances have compelled me for the present to defer. 
 But, Gentlemen, if it have been with me a work 
 of labor and research, it has also been one of 
 intellectual profit and delight. I trust that you 
 may not look back upon it with regret, nor think 
 those hours uselessly employed, which you have 
 passed in the Class-room. I shall ever remem- 
 ber with satisfaction the attention I have expe- 
 rienced from every one of you, and I trust that 
 in those years, when you are treading the path of 
 fame and are acquiring fresh laurels to grace your 
 
OF THE ARCHITECT. 105 
 
 brows, a stray thought may now and then pass 
 through your minds, recalling these hours and 
 your fellow-students, and the memory of your 
 teacher and friend, who has sought, he hopes not 
 in vain, to communicate to you some portion of 
 knowledge. It has been his endeavor to arouse 
 you to a consciousness of your own powers, and 
 to impart to you that thirst for glory, that high- 
 mindedness and deep sense of honor in the 
 practice of our noble profession, which it has 
 been his aim throughout a period of one-third of 
 a century to realise in himself. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR, 
 RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 
 
* 
 
ERRATUM. Page 52. 
 
 Maxim CLV. The third section of a cast-iron beam on the 
 first line should have been JL , and the section on the fourth 
 line should have been T . 
 
Other Works by the same Author. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES OF ATHENS and other Places in Greece 
 and Sicily, supplementary to the Antiquities of Athens 
 by Stuart and Revett. fol. PI. London, 1830. 
 The Temple of Apollo Epicurus at Bassae near Phigalia, 
 the Gate of Mycenae, the Treasury of Atreus. An 
 Essay on the Form, Arrangement, and Construction of 
 the Greek Theatre. By T. L. Donaldson. 
 POMPEII, illustrated with Picturesque Views, engraved by 
 C. H. Cooke from the original Drawings of Col. Cock- 
 burn, and with plans and details of the Public and Do- 
 mestic Edifices, including the recent excavations, with 
 descriptive letter-press to each Plate. By T. L. Do- 
 naldson. London, 1827. 
 SELECTION OF ORNAMENTAL SCULPTURES, con- 
 sisting of Vases, Altars, Candelabra and Tripods from 
 the Museum of the Louvre, Paris. Engraved by H. 
 Moses, with descriptions by T. L. Donaldson. 4to. 
 London, 1828. 
 TWENTY-FOUR SELECT VIEWS IN ITALY, En- 
 graved under the direction of W. B. Cooke, with De- 
 scriptions to each View by T. L. Donaldson. 4to. 
 London, 1833. 
 A COLLECTION OF THE MOST APPROVED EX- 
 AMPLES OF DOORWAYS from Ancient and Modern 
 Buildings in Greece and Italy, expressly measured and 
 delineated for this work, preceded by an Essay on the 
 Usages of the Ancients respecting Doorways, a new 
 translation of the chapter of Vitruvius on the subject, 
 with the original text taken from an ancient and valuable 
 MS. in the British Museum ; and copious Descriptions 
 of the Plates by T. L. Donaldson. 57 Plates, 4to. 
 London, 1833, 1836. 
 
A REVIEW OF THE PROFESSION or Life of Sir 
 John Soane, Architect, deceased the 20th January. 
 1837 ; with some remarks on his genius and productions, 
 read at the first subsequent ordinary Meeting of the 
 Institute of British Architects held on Monday 6th 
 February, 1837. By T. L. Donaldson. 8vo. London, 
 1837. 
 
 A LETTER TO H.R.H. THE DUKE OF SUSSEX, with 
 a Plan for the promotion of Art, Science and Literature, 
 by the moderate but effectual assistance of Government. 
 By T. L. Donaldson. 8vo. London, 1838. 
 
 HOW TO OBSERVE ARCHITECTURE; or Questions 
 upon various subjects connected therewith, suggested for 
 the direction of Correspondents and Travellers, and for 
 the purpose of eliciting uniformity of observation and 
 intelligence in their communications to the Institute of 
 British Architects ; drawn up at the request of the Coun- 
 cil by T. L. Donaldson, Honorary Secretary of Foreign 
 Correspondence. 2nd edition. 8vo. London, 1S4-2. 
 
 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE pronounced before the 
 University College of London, upon the commencement 
 of a Series of Lectures on Architecture. By T. L. Do- 
 naldson. 8vo. London, 1842. 
 
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The Education in the department of Civil Engineering and Architecture will be conducted 
 by the Professors of Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Practical Chemistry, Civil 
 Engineering, Architecture, Mechanical Principles of Engineering, and Descriptive Machi- 
 nery, by the Lecturer on Geology, and the Teacher of Drawing. 
 
 THE COURSES RECOMMENDED ARE: 
 
 For the First Year, Junior Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Experimental Course), 
 Inorganic Chemistry, Geology, Drawing. 
 
 For the Second Year, Senior Mathematics, Natural Philosophy (Mathematical Course), 
 Civil Engineering, Architecture, Descriptive Machinery, Geology, Drawing. 
 
 For the Third Year, Civil Engineering, Architecture, Mechanical Principles of Engi- 
 neering, Organic Chemistry, Drawing. 
 
 If the Student be sufficiently advanced in the subjects of any of the above-mentioned 
 classes he may omit the attendance on them, and pursue the other branches of his studies 
 in their higher departments. 
 
 The regulations respecting Certificates of Studentship required by the University of 
 London from Candidates for Degrees, and the Annual Examinations for Prizes, are set forth 
 in the General Prospectus of the Faculty of Arts. The proficiency and progress of pupils 
 will be tested by the Annual Examinations ; and such pupils as, after having passed such 
 Examinations, shall, for regularity of attendance and for satisfactory proficiency in all the 
 branches of study enumerated in the preceding Curriculum, obtain the approbation and 
 testimonials of the respective Professors, shall receive a Diploma or Certificate, testifying 
 the same, from the College. 
 
 It is not intended by the College that the School of Civil Engineering and Architecture 
 should supersede the necessity of the pupil completing his studies in the office of a Civil 
 Engineer or Architect; it is considered, however, that attendance on the Courses above- 
 mentioned, in addition to the usual acquirements and experience attained in the office 
 of a master, will enable him to enter with superior qualifications on his career of pro- 
 fessional practice. 
 
 While the above would be the Course which the College undertakes to give, it is by no 
 means to be understood that it includes all the studies necessary to qualify a Student for 
 either of the professions of Civil Engineer or Architect: it may rather be considered as 
 the outline of what is absolutely indispensable. It is therefore recommended that the se- 
 veral Professors should be consulted as to the proper amplification of their respective Courses 
 in special instances ; and further, it is suggested that the study and acquirement of modern 
 languages should be steadily pursued, so far as to enable the student to read the many 
 valuable elementary and practical works on Civil Engineering and Architecture published 
 on the continent. A facility of speaking those languages is further desirable, as members 
 of both these professions are continually called on to examine into and to report and ad- 
 vise upon, and even to execute, works in foreign countries. A thorough acquaintance 
 with the French, German and Italian languages is requisite for the Engineer and Architect. 
 
 MATHEMATICS.— Professor De Morgan. 
 
 Junior Class. — Lower Division, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, from 9 to 10}. 
 Higher Division, Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, from 9 to 10}. 
 Senior Class. — Lower Division, Tuesday and Thursday, from 3 to 4}; and Saturday, 
 
 11} to 12}. 
 Higher Division, Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, from 3 to 4}. 
 Fee for each Class, 71. 
 The Lower Division of the Junior Class is intended for those Pupils who possess very 
 
little previous acquirement. The subjects read are, the First Four Books of Euclid, 
 Arithmetic, and the Arithmetical Theory of Proportion ; the Sixth Book of Euclid, so far 
 as the same carl be studied with an Arithmetical Theory of Proportion ; the First Book 
 of Solid Geometry in Lardner's Euclid ; Algebra arithmetically considered, as far as equa- 
 tions of the first and second degrees. 
 
 The Higher Division of the Junior Class is intended for those whose previous reading 
 will enable them to begin the Fifth Book of Euclid. The Subjects read are the Fifth and 
 Sixth Books of Euclid ; the First Book of Solid Geometry in Lardner's Euclid ; a Review 
 of the Principles and Operations of Arithmetic; Algebra; Plane Trigonometry; and, if 
 time permit, the Conic Sections geometrically. The extent to which each subject is pur- 
 sued depends upon the progress of the Class. 
 
 The Lower Division of the Senior Class will comprehend those who have (either in the 
 College or elsewhere) passed through the Subjects of the preceding Class. The Subjects 
 here read are, Spherical Trigonometry ; Conic Sections ; application of Algebra to Geo- 
 metry ; higher parts of Algebra ; Differential and Integral Calculus. The Subjects read 
 in the Higher Division will consist of Developments of those which have been read in 
 the preceding Division, to a greater or less extent, according to the acquirements of the 
 Pupils. 
 
 It is to be understood that any pupil has the option of attending more than one Divi- 
 sion in the same Session without any additional fee. 
 
 The interval between the two Lectures on Saturday morning (from 10-^ to !!•£) will be 
 devoted to the explanation of sucli difficulties as occur in the reading of the Pupils. And 
 the Professor is very desirous that the Pupils of every Division should avail themselves of 
 this opportunity. 
 
 The Professor reminds all who enter his Class, that nothing can be more erroneous than 
 the impression that much can be done by merely attending the Lectures. Unless such 
 attendance be accompanied by regular Study of the Books recommended, and attention 
 to the Exercises given out in the Class-room, he cannot guarantee that any pupil shall find 
 himself able to keep up with the Class. 
 
 The Courses above announced, as given in the Higher Junior and Lower Senior Classes 
 of the Faculty of Arts, are amply sufficient for the ordinary purposes of the future Engi- 
 neer. In the former are taught, among other things, the higher operations of Arithmeti- 
 cal Computation ; the nature and use of Logarithms ; the ordinary rules of Mensuration 
 and Trigonometry ; and the language and elementary operations of Algebra : in the latter, 
 the rules of Spherical Trigonometry ; the Conic Sections; and the principles of the Dif- 
 ferential and Integral Calculus, to an extent which contains the application of these sciences 
 to the higher parts of Mensuration. For those who would learn more of the Mathematics, 
 in the Higher Division of the Senior Class are taught the Subjects which all must learn 
 who wish to become analysts, whether for Engineering or any other pursuit. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Professor Potter, A.M., late Fellow of Queen's College, Cambridge. 
 
 Experimental and Descriptive Course. 
 
 Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, from 4£ to 5£ p.m. Fee, 6/. 
 
 Subjects. — I. Mechanical Sciences. Statics : on the nature of Statical Forces and the 
 modes of measuring them ; the composition and resolution of Forces ; on their tendency 
 to produce rotatory motion : on the finding of the Centre of Gravity of Bodies, and its pro- 
 perties ; the principle of Virtual velocities ; on the Elementary Machines ; on the effects 
 of Friction in statical problems. These lectures are illustrated by many experiments. 
 Dynamics: the measure of Forces when they produce Motion— on bodies impinging; on 
 bodies moving by the action of accelerating and retarding forces ; on the lunar and plane- 
 tary motions, and tides; on the constrained motion of bodies; on the Dynamical princi- 
 ples; on the moment of Inertia in rotating bodies ; on oscillation ; on percussion ; on mo- 
 tion in a resisting medium, &c. With many experimental proofs and illustrations. 
 Hydrostatics : the properties of fluids ; their transmission of pressure ; their pressure on 
 surfaces; on floating bodies; on elastic fluids; on heat; on the Hydrostatical Instru- 
 ments, — the Thermometer, the Barometer, Bramah's Press, the Air-Pump, the Steam-En- 
 gine, &c. &c. The experimental proofs very numerous. Hydrodynamics : the form of 
 Jets of Fluids ; the construction of Water-wheels ; the properties of diverging and con- 
 verging streams of air, &c. II. Acoustics. III. Optics, including the properties of ordi- 
 
nary and Polarized Light; Optical Instruments. IV. Electricity, comprising Electro- 
 statics, Electro-dynamics, Electro-magnetism, Thermo-Electricity, &c. V. Astronomy : 
 Astronomical Instruments; Methods of observing ; Phenomena of the Universe. 
 
 In the above Course continual use is made of the apparatus in the Natural Philosophy 
 Museum of the College. 
 
 Junior Mathematical Class. 
 
 Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, from 9 to 10 a.m. Fee, 11. 
 
 A previous knowledge of Euclid, Books I. to IV, and VI., and the more elementary parts 
 of Algebra and Plane Trigonometry, is requisite for Students attending this Class. 
 
 The Subjects: — Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, the first three sections 
 of Newton's Principia, Optics and Astronomy. The most approved University treatises 
 are adopted as text-books in these sciences, and the Class is conducted through them as 
 high as their Mathematical attainments permit. 
 
 Senior Mathematical Class. 
 
 Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, 9 to 10 a.m. Fee, 11. 
 
 A previous knowledge of Geometry, Algebra, Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and the 
 more elementary parts of the Differential Calculus, is requisite for the Students of this 
 Class. 
 
 The Subjects: — Analytical Statics and Dynamics; the Theory of Fluids, comprehending 
 the higher Hydrostatics and Hydrodynamics, with the Theory of Sound ; Optics, to second 
 approximations, oblique and excentrical pencils of light ; and generally the higher proposi- 
 tions beyond the reading of the Junior Class : Astronomy ; by means of Spherical Trigono- 
 metry, the propositions in use in observatories, and in the applications of Astronomical 
 observations to practical uses; the Theory of Charts and of Dialling. For this Class the 
 text-books used are the higher treatises used in University education. 
 
 CHEMISTRY.— Professor Graham. 
 Inorganic Chemistry. (First Year.) 
 Daily, from 11 to 12. From October to February. Fee, 41. 
 
 The subjects of this Course will be discussed in the following order: — - 
 
 1. Heat; — its influence upon the physical condition of matter, and the laws of its 
 transmission, with the useful applications of our knowledge to domestic economy and the 
 arts. 
 
 2. Light, chiefly in its chemical relations. 
 
 3. History and properties of the thirteen non-metallic elements, such as Oxygen, Hy- 
 drogen, Carbon, &c. ; of their mixtures and combinations, such as Air, Water, Sulphuric 
 Acid, Ammonia, Coal-Gas, &c. 
 
 4. The forty- two metallic elements, such as Potassium, Iron, &c. ; their ores, oxides, 
 salts, and other combinations. 
 
 The subjects of the Lectures will be fully illustrated by experiments, specimens, dia- 
 grams, and models. 
 
 In discussing chemical laws and the properties of bodies, their bearing upon the eco- 
 nomy of nature, and their useful applications in the arts will be particularly insisted upon. 
 Hence it will be a prominent object of the Course to develope the principles of important 
 chemical manufactures, such as glass-making, pottery, common and hydraulic, mortar, 
 concrete, &c, the working of metals, gas-making, bleaching and dyeing, calico-printing, 
 and the preparation of the various chemical products used in the arts. The manipulations 
 and practices of testing will also be exhibited and applied, particularly in the estimation 
 of the value of lime-stones, alkaline salts, metallic ores, and other chemical products. 
 
 Organic Chemistry. (Third Year.) 
 Daily, from February to May. Fee, 21. 
 
 1. Before treating of substances derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, the 
 proper subjects of this Course, the principles of Chemical Philosophy will be considered, 
 including a discussion of the atomic theory, the doctrine of volumes, isomorphism, affinity 
 and voltaic electricity. 
 
 2. Composition of organic substances ; alterations of composition by natural and artifi- 
 cial processes. Varieties of fuel, manufacture of vinegar, fermentation, brewing and di- 
 stilling. Action of antiseptics. 
 
 3. Particular substances. (1.) Ordinary constituents of plants : amylaceous and sac- 
 
charine group, manufactures of starch and sugar; gluten and baking of bread. Lignin ; 
 preservation of wood, pyroxylic spirit, acetic acid. Resins and oils, with varnishes and 
 paints. (2.) Extraordinary constituents of plants : colouring matters, &c, indigo, madder, 
 dyewoods, &c, their applications in dyeing and calico-painting. Vegetable acids : prepa- 
 ration of oxalic, tartaric acids, &c. Vegetable alkalies, preparation of salts of quinine and 
 morphine, nicotine and preparation of tobacco. 
 
 4. Cyanogen compounds, including the manufacture of prussiate of potash. 
 
 5. Growth of plants and chemical principles of agriculture. 
 
 6. Animal substances, albumen, fibrin, gelatin, &c. ; with preparation of glue, preserva- 
 tion of animal food, soap-making, tanning, &c. 
 
 7. Principles of animal nutrition. 
 
 PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.— Professor Fownes, F.R.S. 
 Instruction in Analytical Chemistry. 
 
 The Council, considering the increasing importance of Chemical Science in its relations 
 to Agriculture, Manufactures, and Medicine, and with a view to a more extended course 
 of Laboratory Instruction, have instituted a distinct Professorship of Practical Chemistry, 
 and have erected a spacious Laboratory with complete arrangements for the pursuit of all 
 branches of Chemical Investigation, more especially Organic Research by the Senior Pupils, 
 and for the instruction in Elementary Analysis of those less advanced. 
 
 The Laboratory is open daily, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., from the Middle of October, 
 until the end of July, with a short recess at Christmas and Easter. 
 
 Fee, 25 Guineas, exclusive of the expense of materials, &c. ; for 6 Months, 18 Guineas ; 
 for 3 Months, 10 Guineas; for 1 Month, 4 Guineas. 
 
 The Laboratory is under the joint superintendence and direction of the Professors of 
 Chemistry and of Practical Chemistry. 
 
 Elementary Classes of Practical Chemistry. 
 Under the Direction of Professor Fownes, assisted by Mr. Campbell, Demonstrator. 
 
 Summer Course. 
 
 A Course of Forty Lessons, of one hour each, on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays and 
 Thursdays, from 3 to 4, commencing the first week in May. 
 
 Payments by Students who are Perpetual to the Class of Chemistry, 3/. By other per- 
 sons, 5/. For a second Course, 3/. These payments include the cost of Materials, &c. 
 
 Birkbeck Course, 
 
 for Persona Practically Engaged in Manufactures. 
 
 A Course of Fifteen Lessons, of two hours each, on Mondays and Thursdays, from May 
 9th to end of June. Hours 7 to 9 p.m. Fee, including the cost of Materials, &c, 21. 
 
 Each Summer Course will include the most important ordinary operations of the La- 
 boratory, according to the following Classification. 
 
 Chemical Manipulation. — Construction of Tube Appaiatus. Of the Pneumatic 
 Trough. Filtration, washing of Precipitates, and other operations of Analysis. 
 Use of the Mouth Blowpipe. 
 Preparations. — Of Gases, Acids, Alkalies, Earths, Metals, and a number of Organic 
 
 Substances. 
 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis. — Of Organic and Inorganic Sub- 
 stances. 
 All the processes and operations are repeatedby each Student, or by not more than two 
 Students jointly. 
 
 GEOLOGY.— Lecturer, Mr. Joyce, F.G.S. 
 
 First Course: — On Elementary and Practical Geology: about 10 Lectures. 
 Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, from 5? to G£, during the month of November. 
 
 Subjects. — General view of the Earth's Surface; of the nature, division, and subdivi- 
 sions of the Strata which form its Crust ; of the order of their superposition and of the 
 successive revolutions which have affected them. Details of the practical uses to which 
 Geology has been or may be applied. 
 
 Second Course: — General, Physical, and Theoretic Geology. During the 
 months of February, March, and April. 
 
Subjects. — Description in detail of the various rocks, of their peculiar character and 
 position, of the circumstances which have attended their formation, and of the state of the 
 earth at each successive period ; causes which have produced or modified the action of 
 disturbing influences. Organic Remains — their changes and importance; the most re- 
 markable fossils described and exemplified. Alterations now in progress on the surface 
 of the globe : comparison of past with present phenomena, and prospects of the future. 
 
 Fees : — First Course, 11. ; Second Course, 21. 10s. ; for both Courses, 3/. 
 
 DRAWING.— Teacher, Mr. G. B. Moore. 
 
 Geometrical and Isometrical projection and drawing, including the delineation of 
 shadows, as applicable to Architecture, Engineering, and Machinery: Perspec- 
 tive, Landscape, and the Figure. 
 
 Three Courses during the Session : — 
 
 1. From ICth October to Christmas. 2. From Christmas to Easter. 3. From Easter 
 to the end of June. 
 
 Morning Class. — Monday and Friday, from 2 to 4, Saturday, from 11£ to 1^. 
 
 Evening Class. — Mondays and Fridays, from 6 to 8-j. 
 
 Fees : — For one Course of either Class, 21. 2s. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING.— Professor Harman Lewis, A.M. 
 
 Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, First Division from 6 to 7 p.m, Second Division from 
 7^ to 8-J. During the months of February, March, April, and May. Fee: for each 
 Division, 5/. ; for both Divisions in one payment, 9/. 
 
 Introductory Lecture. Objects of Civil Engineering. Its Divisions. Fundamental 
 and Collateral Sciences. General sketch of each division. 
 
 First Division. First Year. 
 
 Introduction. — Mensuration : Areas and volumes of the principal figures and solids 
 occurring in practice. Principles of the representation on planes of bodies in space. On 
 Plans and Sections : Scales : Construction of working drawings. 
 
 A. The principal materials studied will be Wood, Brick, Stone, Iron. The different 
 kinds of wood, their decay and preservation. Brick-making : different kinds of Bricks, 
 and their application. Principal stone-quarries. The composition and resistance to dis- 
 integration of the chief Building-stones : methods for testing their capability to resist de- 
 composition. Cast and soft iron; preservation of iron: Copper, Lead, Tin, and Zinc. 
 
 Cement. — Component parts of Mortar and Cement : their preparation and proportion 
 in different cements. Hydraulic Cements. 
 
 Strength and Stress of Material. — On the resistance of bodies to extension and com- 
 pression in the direction of their length. Rupturing and crushing forces for Brick, Stone, 
 Plaster, Mortar, Wood and Iron, &c. &c. Flexure of a body by a force perpendicular to 
 its length. Theories proposed for the solution of the question. Definition of Moment of 
 Flexure: its value for rectangular, square and cylindrical prisms of substances used in con- 
 struction, fixed or supported at one or both ends, and the weight being concentrated or 
 not at one point ; on the rupture of pieces such as the above. Definition of Moment of 
 Rupture: its value for various substances. Its magnitude depends on time of action. On 
 the flexure of a prism placed vertically and loaded at its superior extremity : Experimental 
 results. On solids of equal resistance for pieces fixed or supported at one or both extre- 
 mities, and loaded uniformly or not : Practical modification of these forms. 
 
 B. Special Construction. — Foundations. — Natural and artificial. Concrete. Beton. 
 Piling. Fascines. Coffer-Dam, Caisson. 
 
 Theory of Roofs. — Construction of wood and iron roofs : pressure at points of support. 
 
 Arches. — Voussoir theory of the Arch : Polygonal theory. Flat and oblique Arches. 
 Different species of Domes and Vaults. Principles for the construction of Centres. 
 
 Slopes and Revetment Walls. — Natural slope assumed by different materials. Earth and 
 rock cutting. Nature of soil, and physical conditions influencing slips. Methods of hin- 
 dering or remedying these latter: On the contents of Embankments or Cuttings: working 
 drawings for their construction. Theory of retaining walls: Determination of the pres- 
 sure against them : Superior limit of that pressure. Prism of greatest thrust. 
 
Second Division. Second Year. — General Construction. 
 
 C. Land Engineering. — Roads: Principles guiding their route. Koad gradients. 
 Survey and Section of the route: Formation of the road. — Streets: Wood and Stone 
 Pavements. 
 
 Railways. — Selection of a line between two proposed Termini. Trial and final section. 
 Survey of the Line. Plotting the Plan and Section : Gradients, Curves : On the Gauge : 
 Earth-works: Tunnelling: Viaducts. On the Rail, Sleeper and Chair. Power as Loco- 
 motive and Stationary Engines. Atmospheric Pressure, &c. 
 
 D. Hydraulic Engineering. — Canals: Principles guiding the selection of their route. 
 Feeders. Ascent and descent of vessels : Locks, Lock-gates, Towing-path. 
 
 Water-works. — Reservoirs and supply of towns with water: Filters: Distribution: Pas- 
 sage of fluids in Pipes : Influence of the Jet. 
 
 Artesian Wells. — Origin of : Methods of boring. 
 
 Sewerage of Towns. — Nature of the sewerage-water: its utility as Manure: Methods 
 proposed to render it available. 
 
 Gas Works. — Gas from Coal, Resin, Schist, &c. Distribution of the gas : influence of the 
 Jet. Gas-meters. 
 
 River Navigation. — Rivers traced from their source to the Sea: Junction of Rivers: 
 Origin of Shoals : Method for passing a Vessel over them : Removal of Shoals : Dredging, 
 Dams, Weirs. Currents : Effects produced by placing or removing Obstructions to the 
 River Current. 
 
 Bridges. — On the Site for and approaches to Bridges : The species of Bridge, as Stone, 
 Wood, Brick, Iron : On the Catenary Curve ; and Suspension Bridge. 
 
 Formation of Docks. — Retaining Walls, and generally on the employment of Tidal 
 Water. 
 
 Mills: Mill Sites: Mills with Undershot and Overshot Wheels : Windmills. 
 
 Drainage in general : Of Land, Fens, Marshes : Machines used for Draining : Reclaim- 
 ing Land from Water. 
 
 Tides. — On the Oceanic Tide : Modification of the Tidal Wave by its proximity to 
 Land : Effects of Tides and Waves to change the shore-line of a Coast: On the Breaking 
 Wave, and its mode of action against an opposing body. Regimen of Rivers, and general 
 principles regulating any change in the Shore-line. Principles of Embankments. 
 
 Marine Engineering. — Sea Walls, Dikes, and Principles guiding the selection of Harbour 
 Sites. Means of keeping Harbours free : Sluicing, Backwater : Bars, &c. Construction 
 of Piers, Jetties, Quays, Harbours of Refuge : Breakwaters, Beacons : Theory and Con- 
 struction of Reflecting and Refracting Lighthouses. 
 
 E. — Various Engineering Questions — as Construction of, and fixing Lightning 
 Conductors and Electric Telegraphs. General Theory of Resistance : Experimental Re- 
 sults and Applications, more especially to Canal, Steam-boats, and Naval Architecture. 
 
 SURVEYING. 
 
 An Elementary Course of Theoretical and Practical Surveying, under the superintend- 
 ence of Professor Lewis, during the months of February, March, April, and May. 
 
 Tuesdays, Lecture from 10£ to 11£ a.m.; afterwards, Field Practice; Thursdays, 7 to 
 
 9 P.M. 
 
 Fee for Students of the Class of Engineering, £5 ; for others, £6. 
 
 First Part. — Linear Measurement. — Gunter's Chain and Foot Chain: application to 
 measure lines straight or curved : Plotting Lines : Offset Staff. Methods for determining 
 a right line on the ground, and for fixing a line perpendicular to a given one. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. — On the Units of Superficial Measurement. Utility of Gun- 
 ter's Chain. Areas of Triangles. Quadrilateral and Polygonal Figures. 
 
 Surveying by the. Chain. — Principles of the Survey of a Tract of Land. Principal and 
 Secondary Triangles. Tie or Check Lines. Methods for continuing Straight Lines, and 
 for measuring inaccessible distances. Reduction of Slopes to the Horizon. Plotting the 
 Survey. Scales. Meridian Line fixed. Acreage. Copying and Reducing Plans. 
 
 Second Part. — Surveying with Angular Instruments. — Construction and adjustment 
 of the Theodolite ; application to Surveying. Mensuration of Heights and Distances. 
 Traversing. Survey of Roads, &c. 
 
 Third Part. — Levelling. — Theory of Levelling. Construction and Adjustment of the 
 Y and other Levels : Correction for Curvature and Refraction. Methods of Observation. 
 Field Book. Reduction of the Levels and Plotting the Section. 
 
Fourth Part. — Trigonometrical Surveying. — General Explanation of the Principles 
 and Operations: Instruments employed: Reduction of Angles to a given plane: Determi- 
 nation of the Meridian : Refraction : Levelling : Pendulum Observations : Geographical 
 Latitude and Longitude : Figure of the Earth. 
 
 Appendix. — Mensuration of Heights by the Barometer. 
 
 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES OF ENGINEERING.— Professor Eaton 
 
 HODGKINSON, F.R.S. 
 
 Lectures on the Strength of Materials and on Machinery. 
 
 Tuesdays and Thursdays during the months of January, February and March, 4^ to 5-J-. 
 Fee, 41. 
 
 In the commencement of these Lectures will be given a short review of the progress of 
 knowledge on the subject from its rude beginning under Galileo to the present time. The 
 Course will comprise the results of theory and experiment on the resistance of materials to 
 tension, compression, transverse flexure as in beams, and torsion. The resistance of mate- 
 rials will be considered both with regard to moderate strains — within the range of practical 
 utility, the limit of which will, as far as possible, be defined — and to ultimate ones, show- 
 ing the breaking weight; the force being either simple pressure or impact. The relative 
 fitness of the different building materials, as cast iron, wrought iron, steel, timber and 
 stone, for the various purposes of Engineering and Architecture, will be shown ; as like- 
 wise the strength of each to resist the different strains above-mentioned. The best forms 
 of beams and pillars, as deduced from numerous and recent experiments, principally on 
 cast iron, with the theory of their strength, and short rules for estimating it, will be given. 
 The Defect of Elasticity, which affects rigid bodies generally, and particularly cast iron, 
 will be described ; together with the approximate law of its action, and the influence of 
 this on the general theory of the strength of materials. In these Lectures, which it is 
 hoped will include important results not previously given, the theory will be illustrated by 
 a description of a great number of original experiments, many of them on a large scale, 
 and made with very superior apparatus, upon most of the materials used in constructions, 
 including, besides experiments on cast and wrought iron, many upon the leading building 
 stones, and upon various kinds of timber, the results of which have not been published. 
 The Lectures will likewise contain an account of the Author's unpublished experiments on 
 the strength and other properties of tubes of wrought iron, and of wrought iron conjoined 
 with cast, made on account of the tubular bridge intended to cross the Menai Straits. 
 
 Another short Course of Lectures will contain the theory of various machines, as the 
 steam-engine, both stationary and locomotive, the water-wheel, &c, and the work done 
 by each of these ; theory of bridges; the construction of fire-proof buildings, &c; with 
 some other matter from Poncelet and Moseley. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE MACHINERY.— Professor Bennett Woodcroft. 
 Introductory Lecture on the History of Inventions for propelling Vessels. 
 
 Subjects of the Course. — Elementary parts of Machines : formation of those parts : 
 simple combinations of the parts with their uses in changing and transferring motion : 
 application of those parts in the Construction of Machines for Practical use : gradual 
 advance from simple to complicative machines : the manufactures produced by various 
 machines. 
 
 {Further particulars, with the Times of Lecture, fyc, will he given in a subsequent edition), 
 
ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION.— Prof. Donaldson, M.I.B.A. 
 
 This subject will be divided into four separate Courses, under two heads; — Architecture 
 as a Fine Art, A. Architecture as a Science, B. Each Course will consist of 25 or 30 
 Lectures in the year, and will be divided into three parts of 8 or 10 Lectures, one of which 
 will be delivered every week. 
 
 First year's Course, — A. — Tuesday, to 7 P.M. 
 
 B. — Thursday, 6 to 7 p.m. 
 
 Second year's Course, — A. — Tuesday, 1\ to 85 p.m. 
 
 B. — Thursday, 1\ to S£ p.m. 
 
 Fee for one year's Course in either A. or B., 3/. ; for both, hi. 
 
 Fee for two years' Courses in either A. or B., 5/.; or for two years' Courses in both, 9/. 
 
 A. — Art: Division of the Architecture of Monumental Buildings into Styles, either of 
 countries or periods, each style reducible into certain subdivisions, as in Classical Archi- 
 tecture the Orders. Constituent Members of an Order, Pedestal, Column, Entablature ; 
 classification of Mouldings and Ornament, with the peculiarities of the Greek and Roman 
 profiles and enrichments contrasted ; Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Orders, their forms and 
 proportions, and various modifications, as in the Tuscan and Composite Styles of Archi- 
 tecture, and examination of the essential differences which distinguish each. Egyptian, 
 Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Norman, Pointed, Ogival, Revival, Italian, and its Modifica- 
 tions in France, Germany and England ; Eastern Architecture, as Chinese, Indian, Turkish, 
 and Moresque; Western Architecture, as Mexican. Principles of Architectural Composition 
 with respect to Convenience, Solidity and Decoration (./Esthetics) ; rules to be observed 
 in distribution of Plans, whether in single apartments or rooms, or in a group of several ; 
 on grouping several parts of a Composition in one Building; on grouping an assemblage 
 of Buildings in Plan, and the most judicious mode of laying down a Plan for a City ; on 
 the different parts of Elevations of Buildings, considered separately or individually in them- 
 selves, and relatively with each other, as Porticoes, Colonnades, Domes or Cupolas, Towers, 
 Doors, Niches, Windows, &c. j Grouping of several Buildings in Elevation. Peculiarities 
 requisite in designing Edifices, such as Churches, County Halls, Courts of Justice, Prisons, 
 Hospitals, Houses of Parliament, Theatres, Markets, Bazaars, Public Institution, Custom 
 Houses, Government Offices, Barracks, Arsenals, Docks, Exchanges, Insurance and Bank- 
 ing Offices, Libraries, Museums, Baths, Palaces, Private Houses, and other classes of 
 dwellings, as Farms, and also Stables and Riding Houses. Modes of measuring Plans and 
 Elevations of Edifices, ancient and modern. History of the Buildings of the principal 
 Architects, and Books on Architecture. On the Education of an Architect ; his character, 
 attainments and duties. 
 
 B. — Science: Construction; Materials, their properties, and method of experimenting; 
 selection and mode of application. Materials of two descriptions — Vegetable and Mineral. 
 
 1. Vegetable. — Timber: On the Natural Structure of a Tree, and the varieties of Tim- 
 ber Trees ; different sorts of Timber, and the mode in which it is manufactured for the 
 market: on dry rot, its prevention and cure. On the Resistance or Force of Timber in 
 reference to Tension, Compression and Torsion ; of the Theory and Resolution of Forces, 
 and the practical application of these mathematical principles to Framing of Roofs with 
 king-trusses, queen-trusses, compound trusses, Gothic collar Roofs, Cupolas, Spires ; the 
 Systems of Philibert de Lorme, Mansard, Laves ; construction of Floors, whether single- 
 joisted or framed, and the framing of partitions, shoring and scaffolding, with an analyti- 
 cal investigation of different modes of scarfing, jointing and articulation of timbers at points 
 of juncture. 
 
 2. Mineral — Limestones for the purpose of mortars, which may be divided into two 
 classes, Calcareous Cements and Aluminous Cements. — 1. Calcareous Cements ; Selection 
 of stones for the purpose of conversion into lime; process of calcination; different forms 
 of kilns. Of mortars, and of the substances which enter with lime into their composition, 
 divided into inert, as sand, ashes, cinders, scoria?, and burning clay ; active, as traas, poz- 
 zolana, and metallic oxides: concrete, hydraulic mortars, and various artificial compounds. 
 On plaster and stucco ; selection of the gypsum or alabaster, and calcination and prepa- 
 ration for use ; method of application, on walls, ceilings, in mouldings, cornices, and or- 
 naments ; Patent Inventions, as Martin's, Kean's and Loriot's mastics. 2. Aluminous Ce- 
 ments : discovery of this class by Dr. Parker ; description of different sort of natural ce- 
 ment stones, their tests; mode of burning and pulverization, application ; artificial alumi- 
 nous cements, as Frost's, Pasley's. 
 
 Masonry. — Foundations in different soils, with concrete. Solid construction with stone : 
 selection of quality for different purposes, and examination of the causes of disintegration ; 
 
Brard's system of testing by salts. Granite and other plutonic rocks, stratified rocks, us 
 limestone and sandstone, Portland, Bath, Yorkshire, &c. Method of application in build- 
 ings, walls, piers, columns, arches, vaults, buttresses, staircases, "Coupe des pierres" 
 Brickwork : Different sorts of bricks and peculiar fitness for different purposes ; method 
 of making and burning; construction of old English bond and Flemish bond, and their 
 relative values; herring-bone courses; hollow walls; flues; brickwork in mortar, in ce- 
 ment, in walls : Brunei's system, with iron-hooping ; construction in arches and vaults ; 
 chimney shafts. Roofing with slates and tiles; of the different qualities and sizes of slates, 
 and proper method of laying them. Damp, its prevention and cure. 
 
 Metals. — Iron : Different qualities of wrought and cast iron ; application for bond in 
 walls, in ties and cramps for stone and woodwork, piping, guttering. Copper used for 
 monumental columns, and for covering flats and roofs, and as cramps, plugs, dowels, nails, 
 &c. Lead for roofing, gutters, cisterns, pipes, plugs, &c. Zinc for roofing, guttering, 
 pipes. 
 
 Painting. — Fabrication of colours, and application in oil or distemper ; graining in imi- 
 tation of marbles and woods. Varnishes, their composition and application. 
 
 Glazing: the different sorts of glass, plate, flatted, British plate, crown glass, and their 
 application, whether to lead lights or sashes with large squares. 
 
 Ventilation, Heating, Lighting, Acoustics, Sewerage, Drainage. 
 
 The entire Course of instruction in these branches embraces two years, and consists of 
 100 or 120 Lectures: some of the Students however attend both years' Courses at once. 
 During the Session some of the buildings in London are visited by the Classes, and their 
 construction and design explained by the Professor, and each subject is illustrated by full- 
 sized drawings of the finest examples. 
 
 Periodical Examinations will take place throughout the Course. The Students are ex- 
 pected to take notes. 
 
 A College Fee of 10s. for one Class, and 1/. for two or more Classes, is paid by each 
 Student every Session : where, however, the Course is of short duration, this fee is dimi- 
 nished. The Matriculation Fee of 2/. relieves the Student, during the whole course 
 of his study, from the College Fee. 
 
 RESIDENCE OF STUDENTS. 
 
 Several of the Professors, and some of the Masters of the Junior School, receive Stu- 
 dents to reside with them ; and in the office of the College there is kept a Register of 
 Parlies unconnected with the College who receive Boarders into their families ; among 
 these are several Medical Gentlemen. The Register will afford information as to terms 
 and other particulars. 
 
 CHARLES C. ATKINSON, FRANCIS W. NEWMAN, 
 
 Secretary to the Council. Dean of the Faculty of Arts. 
 
 July 1847. 
 
 Printed by Richard and John E. Taylor, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 
 
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