THE NEW COMPLETE 
 
 DICTIO 
 
 NARY 
 
 ARTS 
 
 AND 
 
 SCIENCES; 
 
 O R, 
 
 AN UNIVERSAL SYSTEM OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 A full Explanation of every Art and Science, whether liberal or mechanical, irl which the 
 Difficulties attending a thorough Knowledge of them are clearly pointed out, and luch Di¬ 
 rections given as cannot fail of making their Acquifition eaiy and familiar to every Capacity. 
 Exhibiting, among the various other Branches of Literature, a copious Elucidation of the 
 following, viz. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, 
 
 ALGEBRA, 
 
 ANATOMY, 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 ARITHMETIC!?., 
 
 ASTRONOMY, 
 
 BOOK. KEEPING, 
 
 BOTANY, 
 
 CARVING, 
 
 CATOPTRICKS, 
 
 CHRONOLOGY, 
 
 CHYMISTRY, 
 
 COMMERCE, 
 
 CONICKS, 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY, 
 
 DIALING, 
 
 DIOPTRICKS, 
 
 ETHICKS, 
 
 FARRIERY, 
 
 FLUXIONS, 
 
 FORTIFICATION, 
 
 GARDENING, 
 
 GAUGING, 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 GFOMETR Y, 
 
 GRAMMAR, 
 
 GUNNERY, 
 
 HANDICRAFTS, 
 
 HERALDRY, 
 
 HISTORY, 
 
 HORSEMANSHIP, 
 
 HUSBANDRY, 
 
 HYDRAULICKS, 
 
 HYDROGRAPHY, 
 
 HYDROSTATICKS, 
 
 LAW, 
 
 LEVELLING, 
 LOGICK, 
 MARITIME AND 
 
 MILITARY AFFAIRS, 
 
 MATHEMATICKS, 
 
 MECHANICKS, 
 
 MEDICINE, 
 
 MERCHANDIZE, 
 
 METAPHYSICKS, 
 
 METEOROLOGY, 
 
 MUSICK, 
 
 NAVIGATION, 
 
 UPTICKS, 
 
 ORATORY, 
 
 PAINTING, 
 
 PERSPECTIVE, 
 
 PHARMACY, 
 
 PHILOLOGY, 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, 
 
 PHYS1CK, 
 
 PNEUMATICKS, 
 
 RHETORICK, 
 
 SCULPTURE, 
 
 SERIES AND ST ATICK5 
 
 STATUARY, 
 
 SURGERY, 
 
 SURVEYING, 
 
 THEOLOGY, 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, &TC. 
 
 The Whole upon an improved Plan, the Marrow and Effence of every other Di&ionary and Work of the 
 Kind being preferved and the Superfluities and obfeurities entirely omitted. Particular Attention has been 
 given to every Thing valuable in Chambers, The Encyclopedie, printed at Paris; The Ency¬ 
 clopedia: Britankica, and other Publications of later Date. Including not only all the valuable 
 modern Improvements which have been made by feveral eminent Members of the Royal Society, the Royal 
 Academy, and the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, but all'o a great 
 Variety of other impoitant Difcoveries ; which have been made and communicated to the Authors of this 
 Work, by fome of the moft diftinguilhed Characters of this and other Nations. Eminent Engravers and 
 Defigners in the feveral Departments have been engaged at a very great Expence to unite their Abilities in 
 oroducing the moft mafterly and fuperb Set of Copper-Plates, rep relenting upwards of One Thoufand exact 
 figures, fuch as Machines, Inftruments, Implements, Tools, Plans, Schemes, Animals, Vegetables, 
 Minerals, Foffils, and other Articles relative to the Subjects treated of in a Work of the utmoft Confequence 
 to Mankind. 
 
 The Theological, Philosophical, Critical, and Poetical Branches, 
 
 By the Rev. ERASMUS MIDDLETON, 
 
 Ledturer of St. BENNET’s, Grace-church-Street, and of St. HEL.EN’s, Bilhopfgate-Street; 
 
 The Medicinal, Chymical, and Anatomical, 
 
 By WILLIAM TURNBULL, M. D. 
 
 Of Wellclose-Square, London; • 
 
 The Gardening and Botanical, 
 
 By THOMAS ELLIS, 
 
 Gardener to the Lord Bilhop of Lincoln, and Author of The G a rdener’s Pocket Calendar; 
 
 The Mathematical, &c. 
 
 By JOHN DAVISON, 
 
 Author of A Complete Course of Mathematicks ; 
 
 And the other Parts by Gentlemen of approved Abilities in the refpe&ive Branches which 
 they have engaged to illustrate. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Printed, tig UlltljOVitg, for the Authors ; 
 
 And l’old by Alex*. Hogg, at No. 16, Pater-nofler-Row. 
 

 
 
 
 
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 -a. 
 
 
 
 
 
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THE 
 
 NEW COMPLETE 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 O F 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCES, 
 
 J a c 
 
 I Is the third vowel and ninth letter of the Englifh 
 alphabet: it is all'o a confonant, and- accordingly 
 ^ has two forms. When a confonant, it is length¬ 
 ened downwards, thus J, and pronounced not much 
 unlike the foft G before e, as in gefture. 
 
 The letter I was derived from the old Hebrew Jod, 
 and is founded by throwing the breath fuddenly againft 
 the palate with a fmall hollowing of the tongue, and 
 the fame opening of the lips and teeth nearly as in pro¬ 
 nouncing A and E. 
 
 The Greeks had no J confonant, and therefore made! 
 life of the I vowel inftead of it, as IHZOTS. The 
 Englifh and French have two kinds of J confonant; 
 the firft has a fnuffling kind of found, and ferves to 
 modify that of the following vowels, as in Jew, jolly, 
 See. The latter is pronounced like the Hebrew Jod, 
 which is founded as the confonant y, as we find it Fill 
 among the Germans, See. Of this we have fome in- 
 ftances in words which are indifferently written with a 
 y or i before a vowel, as voiage, voyage , he. 
 
 The pronunciation of the I vowel is obferved to be 
 much the fame in all nations in Europe in the Latin 
 word inirnici. To denote the quantity of this vowel, 
 though it was not marked to fliew that it was long, yet 
 it was made bigger than the reft, as /Edllis, Plfo, he. 
 This i long was pronounced like ei, as divei for divi, 
 he. Lipfius fays that i was double, when it was to be 
 founded long, as dii , diis, he. 
 
 The ancients fometimes changed i intoz/, as decumtis 
 for decimus, maxtonus for maximus, he. According to 
 Plato, the vowel i is proper to exprefs delicate but hum¬ 
 ble things, as in this verfe in Virgil, which abounds in 
 ;’s, and is generally admired. 
 
 Accipiunl inimicum imbrem , rimifque fiatificunt. 
 
 J, in abbreviations and cyphers, Hands for Jefus. 
 
 I, was ufed by the ancients as a numeral, denoting 
 100, according to this ver,fe. 
 
 I. c. Comp nr erlt , et centum fignificablt. 
 
 The Greek lota, and the Hebrew Jod, Hand but 
 for ten. 
 
 JACK, in mechanicks, a portable machine for raif- 
 ing great weights. 
 
 In order to explain the operation of this machine, we 
 have given perfpeftive views of its feveral parts on plate 
 XLIV. fig. 6, 7, 8, 9, where fig. 6 is the whole ma¬ 
 chine; fig. 7, fhews the rack, and the pinion which 
 carries it ; fig. 8, dilplays the whole machinery ; and 
 fig. 9. the rack, feparately. The fame letters refer to 
 the fame parts in all the four figures. 
 
 A, is a ftrong cafe of wood, firmly bound with iron. 
 B, the open part of the cafe in which the rack moves. 
 C, the bottom claw of the jack, intended for railing 
 weights very near the ground. D, the rack, feparated 
 
 J A C 
 
 frbm the other parts of the machinery. E, the upper 
 claw, or fork, of the jack. F, a pinion of four leaves, 
 that moves the rack D. G, the winch or crank of the 
 handle. H, a hook to prevent the weight, when raifed 
 to a fufficieht height, from falling down again, by put¬ 
 ting the curved part of the hook round the handle. 
 I, a large wheel, with 16 teeth. K, a pinion of four 
 leaves, that moves the large wheel I. The power of 
 this machine is very cafily calculated in the following 
 manner : 
 
 Suppofc the winch or crank G, to be four times as 
 long as the radius of the pinion K, then will the power 
 of the machine in this part be as 4 to 1. But the pinion 
 K has only four leaves, and the wheel I 16 teeth; 
 therefore the power of the machine in this part is alfo 
 as 4 to 1. Confequcntly 4x4=16, is the power of 
 both thele parts conjointly. And as the wheel I has 
 16 teeth, and the pinion T, that moves the rack, only 
 four leaves, the power of the machine in this partis alfo 
 as 4 to 1. Confequently the whole power of the ma¬ 
 chine is as 64 to 1 : for 4 x 4 x 4=64. If therefore we 
 luppofe a man can work at the handle with a force of 
 30 pounds, he will be able to raife a weight of 1920 
 pounds, fuppoling the machine to have no fri&ion. 
 
 Kitchen Jack, a compound engine, where the weight 
 is the power applied to overcome the fridtion of the 
 parts, and the weight with which the fpit is charged ; 
 and a fteady and uniform motion is obtained by means 
 of the fly. 
 
 Jack, in a fhip, the flag which is hoifted up at the 
 fprit-fail top-maft-head, or a flag-ftaff eredted on the 
 bow-fprit. 
 
 J a c k , in falconry, denotes the male of birds of game. 
 
 JACK ALL, in zoology, an animal of the dog kind, 
 with a flender fnout. It is a very beautiful creature, 
 and fo like a dog, as to be miftaken at firft fight for 
 fome mungrel breed of that animal. Its fize is that of 
 a fmall hound ; and, in the eaft, where it is a native, 
 there are vaft packs of them, often more than 200 in a 
 company, which hunt animals they would never dare 
 to attack Angle. It is not impoflible that lions and 
 other hearts of prey may be alarmed by the cries of 
 thefe animals in their chace, and fall in and rob them 
 of their prey ; but the general opinion of their atten¬ 
 dance on the lion is fabulous. 
 
 JACOBY 6 'taff, a mathematical inftrument for tak¬ 
 ing heights and diftances ; the fame with crofs-ftaff. 
 
 JACOBI I LS, an opprobrious name given to fuch 
 of the Britilh lub lefts as difallow the late revolution in 
 1688 by king William III. and efpoufe the right and 
 interefts of the abdicated king James II. and his line. 
 
 J ACOBUS, a gold coin, fo called from king James I. 
 of England, in whole reign it was ftruck. Of this coin 
 there are two kinds, the old and new ; the former is 
 valued at 25s. and weighs fix penny-weights ten grains ; 
 
 the 
 
JAP 
 
 the l&tter, alfo called Carolus, valued at 23s. and weighs 
 five penny-weights twenty grains. 
 
 JALAP, Jalapium, 'Jalapa , in medicine, a firm and 
 folid root, of a wrinkled furface, and of a clofe internal 
 texture; of a blackilh colour on the outlide, and of a 
 duiky brown within : it is fometimes of a roundilh or 
 oval, but more ufually of an oblong figure, and confi- 
 derably thick ; but vve feldom fee it whole, our druggifts 
 commonly receiving it in flices, which are heavy, and 
 hard to break ; of a faintilh fmell, and of an acrid and 
 naufeous fade. The bed jalap is that which is moil 
 compadl and firm, and of the deeped biown colour 
 within, and the mod difagreeable to the tafle. 
 
 Jalap was wholly unknown to the ancients ; the Eu¬ 
 ropeans had no knowledge of it till after the dil'covery 
 of America. It had its name jalapium, or, as others 
 write it, jalapa, from Xalapa, the name of a town in 
 New Spain, in the neighbourhood of which it was dif- 
 covered ; though it is now principally brought to us 
 from the Madeiras. 
 
 With us it is of very frequent ufe in extemporaneous 
 preferiptions, given in the form of bolufes and draughts. 
 Its dole is from _o to 30 or 35 grains; when larger 
 quantities are found neceHary, it is owing to the ava¬ 
 rice of the druggift or apothecary, who powder not the 
 felcft pieces, but fuch as are decayed and have loll 
 their virtue. Its common correctives are ginger and 
 cream of tartar; but nature has prepared it lb well to 
 our hands, that it indeed needs no addition. The bell 
 method of giving it is in a draught made with white 
 wine, and prepared at leaf! 12 hours before the time 
 it is to be taken ; in which cafe the wine has time to 
 open the body of the medicine, and prepare it for aCting 
 with the greater eafe. It is an excellent purgative in 
 dropfical and all other calcs where lerous humours are to 
 be evacuated. The only caution neceflary in the ufe of 
 it is, that it fhould not be given in any acute fevers, 
 nor to perfons of dry hot condi tutions; for in thefe 
 cafes it is liable to the fame mifehiefs as other acrid pur¬ 
 gatives, and will fometimes bring on heat and inflam¬ 
 mations in the vilcera. 
 
 JAMAICA Pepper. See the article Pimenta. 
 
 JAMB, or Jaumb, among carpenters, is a name 
 given to door-polls, and all’o to the upright polls at the 
 lidcs of window-frames ; among bricklayers, it implies 
 the upright lides of chimnics, from the hearth to the 
 mantle-tree. 
 
 IAMBiCK Verses, are verfes in Greek and Latin 
 poetry ; fo called, from their confiding principally of 
 iambick feet. 
 
 IAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a Ample foot, confid¬ 
 ing of a fliort and long fyliable. 
 
 Epijile of St. JAMES, a canonical book of the New 
 Tedament, being the fird of the catholick or general 
 cpidles ; which are fo called, as not being written to 
 one, but to ieveral Chridian churches. 
 
 JANIZARIES, an order of the Turkifh infantry, 
 reputed the grand fignor’s guards, and the main ftrength 
 of the Ottoman army. 
 
 JANSEN 1 STS, in church hidory, a fe£l of the 
 Roman catholicks in France, who follow the opinions 
 of Janfenius, bithop of Ypres, and do£lor of divinity 
 of the univerfities of Louvain and Douay, in relation 
 to grace and prededination. 
 
 JANUARY, the fird month in the year, according 
 to the prefent computation. It was introduced by N uma 
 into the calendar, and placed at the winter foldice, 
 where March was before, which Romulus had placed at 
 the vernal equinox. 
 
 The word is derived from Janus, to whom the 
 Romans, on the fird of this month, offered folemn 
 iacrifices. 
 
 JAPANNING, the art of varnidiing and drawing 
 .figures on wood, in the fame manner as it is done by 
 the natives of Japan in the E. Indies. 
 
 The method of performing this is as follows :—The 
 wood being clofe grained and fmooth, keep it in fome 
 warm place ; then'take of the thicked feed-lack varnilh 
 fix ounces, and lamp-black enough to colour it; with 
 this mixture wadi over your piece three times, letting 
 it dry thoroughly each time, and again walh it over 
 2 
 
 J A U 
 
 three times more, as befoie : then take of the thickcd 
 feed-lack varnilh fix ounces, Venice turpentine one 
 ounce, and wafh your work over with this fix times, 
 letting it Hand 12 hours between the three fird var- 
 nifhes, and as many hours between the tnree lad. Lad 
 of all, take of the fined feed-lack varnilh fix ounces, 
 and of lamp-black a luificient quantity, which mix to¬ 
 gether,.and witht.it varnilh your work 12 times, hand¬ 
 ing 12 hours between the fird fix and the lad fix wafh- 
 ings. When it Has dood to dry fix of feven days, polifli 
 it well with tripoli and rag, till it be fmooth ; and then 
 clear it up with oil and lamp-black ; and you will have 
 a-good black japan, icarcc at all inferior to the true. 
 
 As to the colour ufed in japanning, a common red is 
 made of the thicked feed-lack varnilh and pure vermi¬ 
 lion ; a dark red, with fine languis draconis, a pale red,- 
 iwith vermilion and white lead ; blue, with the fined 
 finalt; and in like manner may be done with gold'co¬ 
 lours, or any others you pleafe. 
 
 J AR, a Hebrew month, anfwering to April and part 
 of May with us. 
 
 JASMINUM, the jafmine, or jafminc-tree, in bo¬ 
 tany, agenusof plants, the leaves of which are in many 
 lpecies pinnated ; the cup ot the flower confifls of one 
 leaf, but is divided at the top into five fegments ; the 
 flower confids of one leal, ts funn, 1-fhapcd,. and divided 
 into five fegments : the flowers are lucceeded by berries, 
 which fplit m the middle, each fide, for the'mod part, 
 containing a feparate feed. 
 
 The common white jafmine is eafily propagated by 
 laying dow n the tender branches in the ipring, which, 
 by the iucceeding Ipring, will be rooted drdngenough 
 to be tranlplanted. They may alfo be raifed by cuttings, 
 which Ihould be planted in autumn in a mold border, 
 where they may have the morning fun : but they mud 
 be fereened from the violence of the fun. in the heat of 
 the day, and frequently watered in dry weather. The 
 cuttings, thus managed, will many of them live, and 
 have roots fit to be removed in the following fpring‘; 
 but this method is feldom praflifed, the layers always 
 making the bed plants. 
 
 The two driped forts fhould be planted in a warm 
 fituation, efpecially the white driped ; for they are much 
 more tender than the plain, and arc very lubjedl to be 
 dedroyed by great frods, if they are expoled thereto : it 
 will therefore be proper to preferve a plant of each kind 
 in pots, which may be removed into the green-houlc in 
 winter, led, by expofing them to the cold, they fhould 
 be dedroyed, and the vaiicty lod. 
 
 JASPER, in natural hidory, a genus of ferupi, of a 
 complex irregular flrudlure, of a great variety of odours, 
 and emulating the appearance ot the finer marbles', or 
 femipellucid gems. The great chara&eridick of jafpers 
 is, that they ail readily iuike fire with deel, and make 
 not thedeafl eftcrvc.cence with aqua-fortis. Jafpers, 
 though common! .’ reckoned among the precious lloncs, 
 ought undoubtedly to be ranged among the ferupi; 
 being only opake crydalline mades, varioullv debated 
 with an earthy admixture: and to this lad ingredient 
 it is that they ovve all their variety of colours, as white, 
 green, red, brown, and bluilh. 
 
 The feveral kinds of nephritick done, and the lapis 
 divinus or jade, are all genuine jafpers; but the hard, 
 bright, green jafper, of the E. Indies, feems to be the 
 true medicinal kind. It is found in mafles of various 
 fizes and fhapes, but the more ulual dandard as to fize, 
 is between four and fix inches in diameter; but there are 
 mafles of it found of a foot or more in diameter, and 
 others no larger than a horfe-bean. It is generally Ample 
 and unmixed , but if it be variegated at all, it is always 
 with white, and this is dilpofed not in ffreaks or veins, 
 but in clouds. It is capable of a very fine pol Jh, and 
 when the white cloud* are well difpofed, is very beauti¬ 
 ful, and in pieces not too thick, is- tolerably pellucid, 
 when held up againff the light. 
 
 JAVELIN, ~H«fia, in antiquity, a fort of fpear, 
 five feet and a half long; the fhaft of which was wood, 
 with a fleel point. 
 
 Every foldier in. the Roman armies had feven, of 
 thefe; which were very light and flenuer. 
 
 JAUNDICE, in medicine, a difeale which is prin¬ 
 cipally 
 
JAW 
 
 cipally difcovered by the yellow tin&ure of the fkin, but 
 molt diftinttly in the coats of the eyes, where it gives 
 the firft notice of its invafion. 
 
 The fymptoms, according to Syddenham, are hea- 
 vinefs, ina&ivity, Iaffitude of the whole body, anxiety,; 
 uneafinefs about the hypochondria, ficknefs at the fto- 
 mach, oppreffion in the breaft, difficult refpiration, a 
 dry.and harffi Ikin, coftivenefs, hard white excrements, 
 yellow high coloured urine, which will tinfture linen or 
 paper with a faffron hue: there is a bitter tafte in the 
 mouth, and all objetts feem to be difcoloured. 
 
 The immediate caufe of a jaundice, fays Towne, is 
 an obftru&ed excretion of the bile from the vefica fellis 
 and liver into the duodenum, which being forced back 
 upon the liver, mixes with the blood, by which it is 
 carried into the whole body, whence the fkin and urine 
 will be tindlured with the colour of the bile. See Bile 
 and Liver. 
 
 This obftru&ion may be occafioned by any thing in 
 the du£t that plugs up the paffage, or by external pref- 
 fure which clofes its mouth ; or by fpafm, contracting 
 the fibres thereof. Hence we may fee why the jaundice 
 fucceeds the flatulent colick, why pregnant women are 
 fubjedt to it, and why fpafms of hypochondrical and 
 hysterical perfons produce the fame effedt. Sudden 
 frights, the generation of too great plenty of bile, fchir- 
 rous tumours, or ulcers of the liver, obftrudtions of 
 the menles, obitinate intermitting fevers, and the bites 
 of venomous animals, will alfo produce this difeafe. 
 
 Hoffman thinks emeticks highly proper in the cure of 
 a jaundice, if the difeafe does not proceed from violent 
 anger, fpafms of the llomach, a cardialgia, a fpafmodick 
 colick, ora {tone lodged in the cyftick dudt, exciting a 
 violent uneafinefs about the prtecordia ; and that when 
 a bilous fordes lodging in the duodenum, and clofingup 
 the orifice of the dudtus choledochus, intercepts the paf- 
 fage of the bile, or when a tenacious, moveable, and 
 not highly concreted bilious matter, plugs up the he- 
 patick dudts, emeticks are of lingular efficacy in eva¬ 
 cuating it. A lcruple of ipecacuanha, with a grain of 
 tartar emetick. will be a proper dofe; or two grains of 
 tartar emetick in a draught of generous wine, or in an 
 infufion of manna, drinking water gruel after it. 
 
 In this cafe, Huxharn, after emeticks. thinks cathar- 
 ticks will be proper, compounded of aloeticks and mer¬ 
 curials. Then faponaceous attenuants, preparations of 
 tartar, and volatiles, and lafb of all, chalybeats; but 
 the laft are not to be given till the humours are fuffi- 
 ciently attenuated, otherwife an incurable fchirrus of 
 the liver may enfue. He alfo recommends the terra 
 foliata, otherwife called tartarum regeneratum, and, 
 by the college, fal diureticus, as the greateft diffolvent, 
 and the moft powerful remedy in this difeafe. Its dofe 
 is from five grains to a fcruple, and upwards. 
 
 Saponaceous medicines are often given with the fame 
 intention in this difeafe with fuccefs, thus : takeCaflile 
 foap, three ounces; powder of the rliapontick plant, 
 and fpecies of hiera picra, of each half an ounce ; as 
 much of the firup of orange-peel as is fufficient to make 
 an eleftuary, of which the patient is to take from half a 
 dram to a whole dram twice a-day. After fome time, 
 with the above precaution, may be added half an ounce 
 of fleel-filings : or take gum ammoniack, two drams ; 
 powder of fquills, one dram; Caflile foap, three drams; 
 and a fufficient quantity of white fugar: make ten pills 
 out of every dram, three of which are to be taken every 
 morning, and as many at night going to bed. 
 
 Thel'e are attenuants which fliould be preceded with 
 gentle purgatives; for Hoffman affirms, that all draftick 
 purgatives are prejudicial, as they increafe fpafms, throw 
 the blood into violent commotions, and impair the 
 ftrength : therefore, befides thefe which Huxharn has 
 directed above, the following formula may be fometimes 
 proper. Take of good rhapontick powder half a dram ; 
 cream of tartar, one dram; Ample cinnamon-water, 
 three ounces, and firup of rofes two drams, for a 
 draught. 
 
 JAW, Maxilla, in anatomy, a bone of the face; 
 there are two maxilire, namely, the upper and the lower. 
 In the fuperior maxilla or upper jaw are eleven bones, 
 joined to each other per harmoniam, namely, two offa 
 Vol. II. No. 40. 
 
 I C H 
 
 maxillaria or great bones of the upper jaw, fituated one 
 on each fide in the anterior and middle parts of the face; 
 the two offa malarum, or offa zygomatica and malaria, 
 fituated in the lateral and middle parts of the face; the 
 ofla nafi, which are two in number, joined together 
 and fituated below the forehead ; the offa unguis or la- 
 chrymalia, which are two in number, each being fitu¬ 
 ated in the orbit, at the lower part of the internal angle; 
 the offa palati, which are two, fituated in the pofterior 
 part of the arch of the palate ; and, laftly, the vomer, 
 fituated perpendicularly between the two nafal foffie 
 backward. 
 
 The lower jaw, which in children confifts of two, 
 connetted by a cartilage in the middle of the chin, be¬ 
 comes one bone in adults, and makes the lower part of 
 the face, fomewhat refembhng a bow with the ends bent 
 upward. 
 
 The upper jaw is immoveable in man and all other 
 animals, except a parrot, crocodile, and acus vulgaris, 
 orgar-filh; it has generally lixteen fockets or alveoli 
 for the like number of teeth. 
 
 The lower jaw confifls of two tables very folid, but 
 not equally thick in all parts. It has a larger lhare of 
 diploe than any other bone of the face, efpecially near 
 the alveolary arch. The upper edge of the body of the 
 lower jaw is pierced into fixteen foffula? or fockets that 
 contain the like number of teeth. 
 
 IBEX, in zoology, an animal of the goat kind, with 
 extremely long nodofe horns, which bend backwards, 
 and are of a blackifh colour, and annulated on the fur- 
 face. The body is of a dark dufky colour, and is lefs 
 in proportion to the height than that of the common 
 goat: it has a great refemblance to the deer-kind ; the 
 legs are alfo perfe&ly, like thole of the deer, ftraight, 
 elegant, and flender. Jt is frequent in many parts of 
 Europe, and, notwithflanding its vaft horns, runs and 
 leaps with lurprifing force and agility. 
 
 IBIS, a bird which was very uleful to the Egyptians 
 for deftroying ferpents, locufts, and caterpillars ; and, 
 on that account, had divine honours paid it. 
 
 It is all over black, and about the fize of the curlew, 
 with the head of a cormorant, and the long neck of a 
 heron. 
 
 ICE, Glacies, in phyfiology, a folid, tranfparent, and 
 brittle body, formed of fome fluid, particularly water, by 
 means of cold. See Cold, Frost, and Freezing. 
 
 Ice-House, a building contrived to preferve ice 
 for the ufe of a family in the fummer feafon. 
 
 Ice-houles are more generally ufed in warm countries 
 than with us, particularly in Italy, where the meaneft 
 perfon, who rents a houfe, has his vault or cellar 
 for ice. 
 
 ICH DIEN,the motto of the prince of Wales’s arms, 
 fignifying, in the High Dutch, Iferve. 
 
 ICHNEUMON, in zoology, the name of an ani¬ 
 mal, of which there have been a multitude of idle and 
 fabulous things afferted. It is a creature of the weafei 
 kind, with a longer and narrower body than a cat, and 
 fomewhat approaching both in ffiape and colour to the- 
 badger. 
 
 Ichneumon is alfo the name of a genus of flies, 
 of the hymenoptera order, with a triple fting at the anus. 
 
 ICHNOGRAPHY, in perfpe&ive, the view of any 
 thing cut off by a plane parallel to the horizon, juft at 
 the bafe of it. Among painters it fignifies a defeription 
 of images, or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, 
 of bufts and femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, Mofaic 
 works, and ancient pieces of miniature. 
 
 Ichnography, in architedture, a defeription or 
 draught of the platform or ground-work of a houfe, or 
 other building. Or it is the geometrical plan or plat¬ 
 form of an edifice or houfe, or the ground-work of an 
 houfe or building, delineated upon paper, deferibing 
 the form of the feveral apartments, rooms, windows, 
 chimnies, &c. 
 
 Ichnography, in fortification, denotes the plan 
 or reprefentation of the length and breadth of a fortrefs, 
 the diftindl parts of which are marked out, either on 
 the ground itfelf, or on paper. 
 
 ICHOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages, ferving 
 in the feraglio. 
 
 B 
 
 ICHOR 
 
I D E 
 
 ICHOR properly fignifies a thin watery humour, 
 like ferum; but is fometimes alfo ufed for a thicker 
 kind, flowing from ulcers, called likewife fanies. 
 
 ICHTHY OCOLL A, vulgarly called iiinglafs, afolid 
 glutinous lubftance, prepared from a fifh of the ftur- 
 geon kind caught in the rivers of RuiTia and Hungary. 
 
 ICH 1 HYOLOGY, ix,Qooxoyta, the fcience of fllhes, 
 or that branch of zoology which treats of fllhes. See 
 Fish. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOCIST, an author who has written 
 profefledly of Allies. 
 
 ICHTHYS, i x, 9 us, in antiquity, a celebrated acrollick 
 of the Erythraean fibyl: theflrft words of each verfe of 
 which make up Wa Kpir&Qsx aztlvp, that is, Jefus 
 Ckrjlus Dei filius fcrvator ; and the initial Greek letters 
 form the word r/Jiv;, whence the name. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS, tixovoxharot, in church hiftory, 
 an appellation given to tliofe perfons, who, in the 
 eighth century, oppofed image-worfliip, and is Hill given 
 by the church of Rome to all Chriftians who rejed the 
 life of images in religious matters. See Image. 
 
 ICOSAHEDRON, a regular folid, terminated bv 
 20 equilateral and equal triangles. It may be confldered 
 as confilling of 20 triangular pyramids, whofe vertices 
 Imeet in the centre of a fphere that circumfcribcs them, 
 and therefore have their heights and bnfes equal; 
 wherefore the folidity of one of thefe pyramids multi¬ 
 plied by 20, the number of bafes, gives the folid con¬ 
 tent of the icofahedron. 
 
 ICOSANDRIA, the name of‘the 12th clafs in the 
 Linntean fyftem of botany, comprehending tliofe plants 
 whofe flowers are hermaphrodite. The calyx mono- 
 phyllous and concave, with the corolla fattened by its 
 claws to the inner fide of the cup ; and containing 20 
 or more ftamina affixed to the cup. The principle 
 charaderiftick of this clafs is rather to be taken from the 
 manner of infertion ; for though the number of flamina 
 arc rarely lefs than 20, yet in fome fpecies they fre¬ 
 quently exceed it. To this clafs belong the torch - 
 thittle, almond, plumb, pear, ftrawberry, myrtle, with 
 feveral other genera. 
 
 ICTERICK Disease, the fame with the jaundice. 
 See Jaundice. 
 
 IDEA, the reprefentation or relemblance of fome- 
 thing, even though not feen, as conceived by the mind. 
 
 The word is Greek, fignifying the fame thing, and 
 derived from £iJio, to fee. 
 
 As to the origin of ideas, the Peripateticks maintain 
 that external objeds emit fpecies entirely refembling 
 them, and that thefe fpecies ftriking on our fenfes are 
 by them tranfmitted to the underftanding ; that being- 
 mater ial, they arc rendered intelligible by the adiye 
 intelled, and are at length received by the paffive. 
 
 Others think that our fouls have of themlelves the 
 power of producing ideas of things we would think 
 upon, and that they are excited to this by the impref- 
 fions which objeds make on our fenfes, though thefe 
 impreffions are not images of any thing refembling the 
 objeds that occafioned them. 
 
 Others maintain that the mind, by confidering itfelf 
 and its own perfedions, can difeover all things that arc 
 without. Others, with Des Cartes, hold that our 
 ideas are innate or born along with us. 
 
 Malebranche and his followers maintain that God 
 has in himfelf the ideas of all the beings he has created, 
 and thus he fees all things in confidering his own per¬ 
 fedions to which they correlpond; and that, as he is 
 intimately united to our fouls by his prefence, our 
 minds perceive things in him which reprefent created 
 beings; and that thus we come by all our ideas : and 
 yet, fays he, though we fee all fenfible things in God, 
 we have not our fenfations in him : for in our percep¬ 
 tion of any fenfible objed is included both a fenfation 
 and a pure idea. The fenfation is a modification of the 
 foul, and it is God who caules it in us; but the idea 
 joined with the fenfation is in God, and it is in him 
 we lee it. 
 
 The Cartefians diftinguilh three kinds of ideas ; the 
 firfi innate; fuch as we have of God, as a being infi- 1 
 nitely perfed : fecondly, adventitious, which the mind 
 receives in proportion as objeds prefent themlelves to < 
 2 
 
 I D E 
 
 our fenfes; thirdly, faditious, tliofe which the -mind 
 forms by aflembling and combining the ideas it already 
 had, and thefe arc called compLx. But Mr. Locke 
 has made it appear that all our ideas are owing to our 
 fenfes, and the refledion of our minds upon tliofe ideas 
 which the fenfes have at firft furnilhcd us with; and 
 that the diftindion of the Cartefians is mere chimera. 
 
 So that a perfon dettitute of one fenfc would have no 
 idea belonging to that fenfc ; and if dettitute of all the 
 fenfes, he would have no idea at all, not even of reflec¬ 
 tion, as wanting all fenfation that lhould excite in him 
 the operations of his mind, which are the objeds of liis 
 refledion. Thus far the mind is altogether’paifivc. 
 
 Ideas only feem to be innate, becaufe wc find wc 
 have them, as foon as wc come to the ufe of reafon, 
 being in effed what wc formed from the ideas wherewith 
 the mind was infallibly filled bv the fenfes. 
 
 Ideas are divided into Ample and complex. 
 
 Simple Ideas comprize all tliofe which come into 
 the mind by fenfation; fome of which we acquire 
 purely by means of one fenl'e ; others by feveral fenles : 
 there are other Ample ideas formed in the mind both by 
 fenfation and refledion jointly. Of fome of thcle 
 kinds of ideas all our knowledge confitts. 
 
 We lhould dittinguifh between Ample idea?, as tln-y 
 are perceptions in the mind, and as they arc modifica¬ 
 tions ot tiie bodies that caul’c fuch perceptions, that we 
 may not think they arc exadly the images of fomething 
 inherent in the objed; for 1110ft of thole of fenfation. 
 are in the mind no mote the likenefs ofanv thing exitt- 
 ing without us, than the names that ttand’for them arc 
 the likenefs of the ideas. 
 
 But here the qualities of the bodies which produce 
 tlicfc ideas in us are to be dittinguilhed into primary and 
 fecondary: the former are fuch as are utterly infepa- 
 rable from the body, in whatever Hate it be, and fuch 
 as our lenles confiantly find in every particle of matter, 
 as folidity, extenfion, Nc. Secondary qualities are fuch 
 as are only powers in the objeds to produce various 
 fenfations in us by means of their primary ones, as the 
 figure, bulk, Ac. of their particles, as colour, tafte, Ac. 
 
 Now the ideas of primary qualities are in fome Jenfe 
 refemblances of them ; but tliofe produced in us by tlic 
 fecondary qualities have no refemblance of them at all, 
 being only a power to produce tliofe fenfations in us. 
 
 The mind has feveral faculties of managing thefe Am¬ 
 ple ideas, as 1. That of diftinguilliing rightly between 
 one and another, wherein confitts the accuracy of judg¬ 
 ment. 2. That of comparing them one with another, 
 as to extent, time, place, or any other cnciunttance* 
 of relation. 3. That of putting together the Ample 
 ideas of fenfation and refledion, in order to form com¬ 
 plex ones. 4. Children, having got fome ideas, by 
 degrees learn the ufe of iigns : hence the ufe of words 
 being to {land as outward marks of our internal ideas, 
 if every particular idea that wc take in lhould have a 
 particular name affixed to it, names would grow end- 
 lels. To prevent this, the mind ha faculty, 
 
 whereby it can make the particular ideas received from 
 fuch objeds become general; which is done by conii- 
 dering them as they are appearances in the mind Separate 
 from all other exittences, and circumftances of exitt- 
 ence, Ac. and this is called abftradion. Thus the 
 fame colour being oblerved to day in chalk, which we 
 obferved yetterday in paper, we, confidering that ap¬ 
 pearance alone, make it a reprefentation of all the fame 
 kind, and call it whitenefs. 
 
 From thefe four powers all our complex ideas are 
 formed : and as before the underftanding was paffive, 
 lo here it is adive. 
 
 Complex Ideas may be reduced to thefe three heads, 
 namely, modes, fubftances, and relations: modes are 
 fuch complex ideas as are not fuppofed to exift by them- 
 felves, but are confldered as dependencies on fubftances, 
 as triangle, gratitude, Ac. Of thefe there are two 
 kinds, 1. Such as are only variations of the fame Ample 
 idea, as ten, a fcore, Ac. 2. Such as arc compounded 
 of Ample ideas of feveral ibrts put together, to make a 
 complex one, as beauty, theft, Ac. 
 
 Subftances have their ideas from fuch combinations 
 of Ample ideas as reprefent diftind things fubflfting by 
 
 them- 
 
I D E 
 
 thcmfelves; in which the idea of fubftance, confufed 
 as it is, is always the firft. Relations are complex ideas 
 arifing from the comparifon of one-idea with another. 
 Of thefe fome only depend on the equality or excefs of 
 the fame fimple idea in feveral fubje&s, and thefe may 
 be called proportional relations, fuch as equal, more, 
 &c. Another occafion of comparing things is owing 
 to the circumftances of their original, which, not being 
 afterwards to be altered, make the relations depending 
 thereon as lafting as the fubjefts to which they belong ; 
 as father, mother, &c. as alfo in the relations by inili- 
 tution, as prince and people, &c. and as to moral re¬ 
 lations, they are the conformity or difeonformity of 
 men’s free actions to laws and rules, whether human 
 or divine. 
 
 Ideas may alfo be divided into clear or diftintt, and 
 obfeure or confufed. 
 
 Simple ideas are clear, when they continue fuch as 
 the objedls reprefent them ; when our organs of fenfa- 
 tion are in a good tone, our memories retain them, and 
 can prefent them to the mind whenever it has occafion 
 to confider them; and when the mind alfo fees that 
 thofe fimplc ideas are feverally different one from an' 
 other. The contrary to which is, what we call ob- 
 feurity and confufion of ideas. 
 
 Again, ideas, with regard to their objefts, are diftin- 
 guifhed into real or fantaftical, true or falfe, adequate 
 or inadequate. 
 
 Real Ideas are fuch as have a foundation in nature, 
 being conformable to that being to which they are re¬ 
 ferred as their archetypes. 
 
 Fantajlical Ideas, fuch as have no foundation in 
 •tiature. 
 
 True and falfe Ideas. —When the mind refers its 
 Ideas to any thing extraneous to it, in fuch a reference 
 the mind makes a tacit fuppofition of their conformity 
 to that thing; which fuppofition, as it is true or falfe. 
 fo the ideas themfclves come to be denominated. Real 
 ideas are divided into adequate and inadequate ; ade¬ 
 quate ideas are thofe which perfectly reprefent thofe 
 archetypes which the mind fuppofes them taken from, 
 end which it makes them hand for; inadequate are 
 fuch as do but partially reprefent thofe archetypes. 
 
 IDENTITATE nominis, in law, a writ that lies 
 where a perfon is imprifoned inftead of another of the 
 fame name, commanding the fheriff to enquire whether 
 the prifoner be the perfon, againft whom the attion was 
 brought, or not; and if not, to difeharge him. 
 
 IDENTITY, sameness, denotes that by which 
 a thing is itfelf, and not any thing elfe ; in which fenfc, 
 identity differs from fimilitude as well as diverfity. The 
 idea of identity we owe to that power which the mind 
 has of comparing the very being and exiftence of things, 
 whereby confidering any thing as exifting at any certain 
 time and place, and comparing it with itfelf as exifting 
 fit any other time and place, we accordingly pronounce 
 it the fame, or different. Thus when we fee a man at 
 any time and place, and compare him with himfelf 
 when we lee him again at any other time or place, we 
 pronounce him to be the fame w r e faw before. 
 
 To underftand identity aright, we ought to confider 
 the efTen.ce and exiftence, and the ideas thefe words 
 ftand for ; it being one thing to be the fame fubftancc ; 
 another, the fame man ; and a third, the fame perfon. 
 For, fuppofe an atom exifting at a determined time and 
 place, it is the fame with itfelf, and will continue fo to 
 be at any other inftant as long as its exiftence continues ; 
 and the fame may be faid of two or any number of 
 atoms,.wliilft they continue together; the mafs will be 
 the fame; but if one atom be taken away, it is not the 
 fame mafs. In animated beings it is otherwife, for the 
 identity does not depend on the cohcfion of its confti- 
 tuent particles, any how united in one mafs; but on 
 fuch a difpofition and organization of parts, as is fit to 
 receive and diftribute life and nourifhmcnt to the whole 
 frame. Man therefore, who hath fuch an organization 
 of parts partaking of one common life, continues to be 
 the fame man, though that life be communicated to new 
 Succeeding particles of matter vitalv united to the fame- 
 organized body ; and in this confifts the identity ot 
 igan, confideved .as an animal only. But perfonal 
 
 I D I 
 
 identity, or the famenefs of an intelligent being, con¬ 
 fifts in a continued confcioufnels of its being a thinking 
 being, endowed with reafon and reflection, capable of 
 pain or plealure, happinels or mifery, that confiders 
 itfelf the lame thing in different times and places. By 
 this confcioufnels every one is to himfelf, what he calls 
 [elf without confidering, whether that felf be continued 
 in the fame or divers fubftances; and fo far as thiscon- 
 feioufnefs extends backward to any paft aCtion, or 
 thought, fo far extends the identity of that perfon, and 
 makes it the objeCt of reward and punifhment. Hence 
 it follows, that if the confcioufnels went with the hand, 
 or any other limb when fevered from the body, it would 
 be the fame felf that was juft before concerned for the 
 whole. And if it were polfible for the fame man to 
 have a diftindl incommunicable confcioufnels at diffe¬ 
 rent times, he would without doubt at different times 
 make different perfons. 
 
 IDES, Idus, in the Roman calendar; eight days in 
 each monrii are fo denominated, commencing in the 
 months of March, May, July, and October, on the 
 fifteenth day, and in the other months on the thir¬ 
 teenth, and reckoned backward, fo as in the four 
 months above fpecified to terminate on the eighth day, 
 and in the reft on the fixth. 
 
 The ides came between the calends and nones. The 
 14th day of March, May, July, and OCtober, and the 
 12th day of the other 8 months, was pridie idus, or 
 the eve of the ides; the 13 in the 4 months, and the 
 11 th in the other eight, was called 3 idus or the third 
 of the ides of fuch months : and fo on to the 8th and 
 6th days, which made the 8th of the ides, 8 idus. 
 
 This method of reckoning is ftill retained in the Ro¬ 
 man chancery and calendar of the breviary. 
 
 The ides of May were confecrated to Mercury; thofe 
 of March were ever efteemed unhappy after Ctefar’s 
 murder on that day : the time after the ides of J unc was 
 reckoned fortunate for thofe who entered into matri¬ 
 mony ; the ides of Auguft were confecrated to Diana, 
 and obferved as a fealt-day by the Haves. On the ides 
 of September auguries were taken for appointing the 
 magillrates, who formerly entered upon their office in, 
 the ides ofJVIay, afterwards on thofe of March. 
 
 IDIOM, IcJloma, either the peculiarities of a lan¬ 
 guage, or die particular dialed of fome province, dif¬ 
 fering in fome refpeCts from the language of the nation 
 in general from which it is derived. 
 
 IDIOPATHY, in phyfick, denotes a primary and 
 proper affeCtion of any part: thus the head is affeCted 
 idiopathically, in a lethargy ; and the lungs in a pleurify : 
 but when thefe parts fuffer by confent, that is, by dif- 
 orders refiding in other parts, they are then faid to 
 luffer by lympathv. 
 
 IDIOSYNCRASY, in phyfick, denotes a peculiarity 
 of conftitution, by which one body differs from an¬ 
 other, both with refpeCt to the folids and fluids, though 
 each may be in a found condition: in confequence 
 whereof, whether in health or ficknefs, it has a more 
 than ordinary averfion or inclination to certain things, 
 and is more affeCted with them than others ufuallyare. 
 
 The diforders arifing from this peculiarity are fome- 
 times accounted incurable, bccaufe they are thought to 
 be prefent from the very firft formation of the body. 
 
 Sydenham, treating of hefterick diforders, remarks, 
 that fome women, by reafon of a certain idiofyncrafy, 
 have fo great an averfion to hvfterick medicines, which 
 are lo generally ferviceable in this difeafe, that, inftead 
 of being relieved, they are injured thereby. In fuch, 
 therefore, they are to be wholly omitted: for as Hip¬ 
 pocrates obferves, it is fruitlcfs to oppofe the tendency 
 of nature. 
 
 IDIOT, in the Engliffi laws, denotes a natural or 
 fool from his birth. 
 
 A perfon who has underftanding enough to meafure 
 a yard of cloth, number 20 rightly, and tell the day3 
 of the week, &c. is not an idiot in the eye of the law. 
 In other countries repeating the Lord’s prayer faves a 
 man from being reckoned an idiot. 
 
 Idiot, /dicta, alfo denotes, among ancient writers, 
 a perfon ignorant or unlearned, anfwcring to illiteia- 
 tus, iniperitus. 
 
 IDF* 
 
JET 
 
 TDIOTISM, in grammar, a manner of fpeaking 
 peculiar to a language, which cannot be rendered word 
 for word into any other. 
 
 IDOL, a ftatue or reprefentation of fome falfe god, 
 to whom divine honours are paid, by erecting temples, 
 offering facrifices and prayers thereto. 
 
 IDOLATRY, the adoration paid to idols and falfe 
 gods, which is due to God alone. We have no poft- 
 tive and hiftorical proof of the origin of idolatry. It is 
 very probable that idolatry was introduced by degrees, 
 and that they who made the firft ftep towards this im¬ 
 piety, did not carry it to the point at which it after¬ 
 wards arrived We mull not believe that idolatry 
 came all from the fame country; every nation fet up 
 its particular gods, and a religion after its own mode, 
 whence proceeded the monftrous diverfity of opinions 
 and worfhip, which is to be met with in Paganifm. 
 At prefent idolatry fiourifhes moft in China, &c. 
 
 IDYLLlON, in poetry, a fmall poem containing 
 the description of fome agreeable adventure. It paints 
 the objef ' it deicribes, as epick poetry narrates, and 
 dramatick a£ls them. The idyllions of Theocritus with 
 a ruflick kind of Simplicity are full of the moftexquilite 
 beauties; they feem drawn from nature herfelf, and to 
 have been dictated by the graces. The modern writers 
 of idyllions do not keep up to that original Simplicity 
 which is obfervable in 1 heocritus. Boileau obferves 
 that the Ihorteft idyllions are commonly the beft. 
 
 JECTIGATION, ‘JeStigatio , in phyfick, a palpi¬ 
 tation, or convulsive motion of the whole body, one 
 fide, or only of the heart and pulfe of a fick perfon, 
 which Shews that the brain, which is the origin of the 
 nerves, is attacked, and threatened with convulsions. 
 
 JECUR, the liver, in anatomy. See Liver. 
 
 JEHOVAH, one of die feripture names of God, 
 Signifying the Being who is felf-exiilent, and gives ex¬ 
 istence to others. 
 
 “ The Jews have had many fuperftitious opinions re¬ 
 lative to this name ; which, becaufe they were for¬ 
 bidden to mention in vain , they would not mention at 
 all. They Substituted Adouai, &c. in its room, when¬ 
 ever it occurred to them in reading or fpeaking; or 
 elfe, Simply and emphatically Styled it EDITH the name. 
 Some of them attributed to a certain repetition of this 
 name the virtue of a charm, and have had the boldnefs 
 to aSTert, that our bleffed Saviour wrought all his mi¬ 
 racles (for they do not deny them to be Such) by that 
 myltical ufe of this venerable word.” S zzHorce Solitaries. 
 A book that needs only to be known, to be admired 
 by every lover of learning and religion. 
 
 JEJUNUM, in anatomy, the fecond of the fmall 
 guts, fo called becaufe it is generally found empty. 
 This is owing to the fluidity of the chyle, the greater 
 flimulus of the bile in it, and the abundance of the 
 latteal velfels with which it is furnifhed. Its Situation 
 is in the region above the navel; it has a great many 
 Connivent glands. Its beginning is where the duode¬ 
 num ends ; and it terminates where thefe valves arc 
 obliterated. Its length is different in various fubje&s ; 
 but it is ufually between thirteen and lixteen fpans. 
 
 JEOFAILE, or Jeofayle, inlaw, aterm ufedfor 
 an oversight in pleading, or other proceedings in law. 
 
 JESUITS, or the fociety of Jelus, a moll famous 
 religious order in the Roman church, founded by Ig¬ 
 natius Loyola, a native of Guinufcoa in Spain, in the 
 year 1538, but now abolished with the confent of all 
 the Catholick powers. 
 
 JET, Gagates , in natural hillory, a folid, dry, 
 opake, inflammable fubflance, found in large detached 
 mafles, of a fine and regular ftrudture, having a grain 
 like that of wood, fplitting more eafily horizontally 
 than in any other direction, very light, moderately 
 hard, not fufible, but readily inflammable, and burn¬ 
 ing a long time with a fine greeniSh flame. It is of a 
 Sine deep black colour, very glolfy and Shining, except 
 upon its furface, where it has been fouled by accident. 
 When examined by the microfcope, it is found to be 
 compofed of a number of parallel plates, very thin, 
 and laid clofely upon one another. It is not Soluble 
 in, nor makes any effervefcence with acids. It Should 
 be chofen of the deepefl black, of a moderate hardnefs, 
 very light, and fuch as will fplit moll evenly in an ho- 
 
 I L I 
 
 rizontal dire&ion ; this being its great chara&eriftick, bv 
 which it is diftinguifhed from the cannel-coal, which 
 breaks equally eafy any way. Jet is of great ufe to per¬ 
 fumers, and is fometimes preferibed in medicine. 
 
 Jet D’E au, a French term, frequentlyalfoufedwith 
 us, for a fountain that calls up water to a confiderable 
 height in the air. See Adjutage and Fouxf aix. 
 
 JETSON, Jetsen, or Jets am, inlaw, is ufed 
 for any thing thrown out of a Ship or veflel that is in 
 danger of being a wreck, and which is driven by the 
 waves on Shore. See Flotson. 
 
 JEWEL, any precious Hone or ornament befet 
 with them. See Diamond, Ruby, &c. 
 
 Jewel-Blocks, amongfailors, certainpullieshung 
 to the outer ends or yard-arms of the top-lail yards : they 
 are ufed to hoill the Sludding-fails by. Sec Studding- 
 Sail. 
 
 Jewel-Office, an office belonging to the crown, 
 that has the charge of falhiomng and weighing the king's 
 plate, and delivering it out by warrants from the lord 
 chamberlain. The principal officer is the mailer of the 
 jewel-office, who has a Salary of 450I. 
 
 JEWS, thofe who profefs obedience to the laws and 
 religion of Mofes. When a modern Jew builds an lioufe, 
 he mull leave part of it unfurnished, in remembrance 
 that the temple and Jcrulalem now lie defolate. They 
 lay great Slrels upon frequent wafhings. 7 'hey abflain 
 from meats prohibited by the Levitical law ; for which 
 reafon, whatever they eat mull be drefied by Jews, and 
 after a manner peculiar to themfelves. Every Jew is 
 obliged to marry, and a man who lives to 20 unmar¬ 
 ried, is accounted as actually living in fin. The Jews, 
 it is faid, were formerly at the difpofal of the chief lord 
 where they lived, and likewife all their goods. A Jew 
 may be a witnefs by our law, being fworn on the Old 
 Tellament, and taking the oaths to government. 
 
 JEWISH Hours, in chronology. See Hour. 
 
 IGNIS Fatu us, in meteorology, a meteor, other- 
 wile called Will-with-a-Wifp. SeeW \ \.i.-lVith-a-IVifp. 
 
 Ignis Gehenna, the lame with the univerfal dil- 
 folvent, or alkahell. See Alkahest. 
 
 Ignis Judicii, in our old culloms, a purgation 
 by fire. See Ordeal. 
 
 IGNITION, in chvmiltry, the heating metals red- 
 hot, without melting them. Lead and tin are too foft 
 to bear ignition, which takes effedt only in harder me¬ 
 tals, as gold and filver, but efpecially iron. 
 
 IGNORAMUS, in law, a term fignifying we are 
 ignorant. This is ufed when the grand jury, impanelled 
 on the inquifition of criminal caules, reject the evidence 
 as too weak to makegood theprefentment or indictment 
 brought againft a perfon, fo as to bring him upon his 
 trial by a petty jury; in which cafe they indorfe this 
 word on the back of the bill of the indi&ment. In con- 
 fequence of which, all further proceedings againft the 
 party acculed are flopped, and the fuppofed offender is 
 delivered without further anfwer. 
 
 IGNORANCE, Ignorantia , the privation or abfence 
 of knowledge. See Knowledge. 
 
 Ignorance, in law, is a want of knowledge of the 
 laws, which will not excufe a perfon from luffering the 
 penalty infliCled on the breach of them : for everv one 
 is obliged, at his peril, to know the laws of the land. 
 An infant who is juft arrived at the age of diferetion, 
 and who may therefore be fuppofed to be ignorant of the 
 law, is punilhable for crimes: but at the fame time in¬ 
 fants of tender age, who are naturally ignorant, are ex- 
 cufed. This is alfo the cafe with reipeft to perfons 
 who are non compos mentis. 
 
 IGUANA, in zoology, an American fpecies of li¬ 
 zard, with ?. long round tail, five toes on each foot, and 
 the creft of the throat and the dorfal future denta ed. 
 
 ILEX, the Holm-Oak, or Evergreen, in bo¬ 
 tany. See Holly. 
 
 ILIACK Passion, in medicine, a pain in the fmall 
 inteftines, apt to turn to an inflammation, in which, 
 their periftaltick motion is inverted, and their contents, 
 and even the excrements themfelves, are voided by the 
 mouth in vomiting. Nothingwillpafsdown, not fo much 
 as a flatus. It is often attended with fatal fymptoms. 
 
 This difeafe, according to Hoffman, is preceded with 
 coftivenefs, which is loon followed with moft Iharp and 
 
 violent 
 
1 L I 
 
 vibient pains, and with an inflation, diftenfion, and a 
 tumour of the umbilical region, which feels hard to the 
 touch ; the body is fo hard bound, that neither Wind 
 nor excrements can pafs downwards : foon after the 
 wind firfl makes it way upward, there comes on a nau- 
 lea, and a frequent vomiting of a bilious and pituitous 
 matter; the breathing grows difficult, and whatever is 
 eaten or drank is loon thrown up again; rediffi faeces, 
 with {linking fmell, arc afterwards forced up by vomit¬ 
 ing : this is lucceeded by lofs of flrength, a preternatural 
 heat, a hard and contracted pulfe, with great third; the 
 urine is red, and is voided with difficulty. 
 
 When the cafe becomes defperatc, a hiccoughing and 
 delirium appear; the nerves are diftended, the body is 
 all in a fvveat, and violent convulfions and fainting fits 
 put an end to the patient. 
 
 his difeafe may proceed from a rupture, either of the 
 ferotum or the groin ; from poifons, from any tiling 
 that flops up the paflage through the fmall guts, luch 
 as hard, dry food, chefnuts, fea-bifeuits, quinces, pears, 
 unripe acerb fruit, when eaten in large quantities ; to 
 which drinking little, a fedentary life, and a melancholy 
 diipofition of mind, will greatly contribute : thefe all 
 tend to harden the feces ; the grofs inteflines may alfo 
 be plugged up with fcybals, efpecially if a perfon, either 
 through fhame, or want of conveniency, does not liflen 
 to the calls of nature. 
 
 As to the cure, Sydenham thinks it ncceflary, firfl of 
 all, to bleed in the arm, and afterwards, in an hour or 
 two, exhibit a powerful clyfler; the fmoke of tobacco 
 blown into the bowels through an inverted pipe, he re¬ 
 commends as the moft efficacious remedy: this may be 
 rep< rt ted fome time after, unlefs the effedl of the firfl 
 renders it unneceftary. If the difeafe will not yield to 
 a ftrong cathartick is advifable : thus, take of the 
 
 I M M 
 
 pi’! o! Ample colocynth, half a dram ; of calomel, one 
 Icruple j and as much as fufficient of the balfam of Peru. 
 Make the whole inro four pills to be taken out of a 
 fpoonful of firUD of violets, taking no liquor upon them, 
 left they gripe the patient, which they ate otherwife in- 
 clinabie to do. 
 
 As foon as the operation of cathartick is over, let the 
 patient take 25/drops of the Thebiack tinflure in half 
 an ounce of fpirittlous cinnamon-water ; and when the 
 vomiting and pain remit, let the cathartick be repeated 1 
 and if the pain returns, give the anodyne again, and 
 repeat it every fourth or lixth hour, til! the inteflines 
 are eafy, and the cathartick begins to pafs downwards. 
 When it has done working, give the following draught: 
 take of fpirituous water of cinnamon, two ounces; of 
 Thebiack tinfture, 25 drops 1 of which make a draught, 
 which is to be repeated twice or thrice a-day, till the 
 vomitings and pains quite ceafe : afterwards it will be ad¬ 
 vifable to give a paregorick, at bed-time, for feverai nights. 
 
 Hoffman advifes, that the pains are mitigated by ano¬ 
 dynes, that a cataplafm fltould be applied°to the liypo- 
 gaftrick region, to flop tile vomiting and hiccoughing, 
 which may be compofed of equal parts of old Venice- 
 treacle and expreffed oil of nutmegs, with the addition 
 of oil of mint and campliire. This done, a gentle lax¬ 
 ative of manna, cream of tartar, and oil of fweet al¬ 
 monds, may be given with a more happy fuccefs, if the 
 excrements have been long retained. 
 
 When there is an inflammation, nothing is better 
 than fix or eight grains of purified nitre, and half a grain 
 of campliire mixed with fome antifpafmodick powder, and 
 then taken in a convenient vehicle. Outwardly apply a 
 liniment of exungua-lnunana, or any other penetrating 
 fat, and a dram of campliire. 
 
 But when other things fail in the cure of the iliack 
 paflion, recourfe muft be had to quickfilver ; half a 
 pound or a pound at moft is fufficient, with fat broth or 
 oil; and the patient ihould lie on his right fide, or walk 
 gently about the room, that its defeent may be eafier; 
 but if there is an aflual inflammation, the quickfilver 
 fhould not be ufed. Opiates may be ufed to mitigate 
 the pain, provided they are exhibited in the beginning 
 after bleeding, or before there is any figns of a mortifi¬ 
 cation, Clyfters are generally very advantageous, for 
 they relax the fpafrn of the grofs inteflines, whereby the 
 excrements are more eafily dilcharged. 
 
 /ILIACUS Museums, in anatomy, abroad mufcle 
 lying on the infide of the os ilium. It is fixed by flefhy 
 
 Vol. II, No. 40. 
 
 fibres to the internal labium of the creft of the os iliiml, 
 to that of the Hope between the two anterior fpines, to 
 the infide of thefe fpines, to the fuperior half of the in- 
 fide of this bone, and to the adjacent lateral part of tile 
 os facrum. All thefe fibres, contraftiug by degrees, 
 run obliquely towards tile lower part of the mufculus 
 ploas, uniting with it; and being fixed bv a kind of 
 aponeurofis to the outfide of its tendon, all die way to 
 the little trochanter. 
 
 ILIAD, i^iag, in literary hiflory, die name of an an¬ 
 cient epick poem, the firfl and fined of thofe compofed 
 by Homer. r l he poet’s defign in the iliad was to fhew 
 the Greeks, who were divided into feverai little dates, 
 row much it was their intered to preferve a harmony and 
 good underflanding among themfelves; for which end, 
 he lets before them the calamities that befel their ancedors 
 from the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunderdandin- 
 with Agamemnon ; and the advantages that afterwards 
 accrued to them from their union, the iliad is divided 
 mto 24 books, or rhapfodies, which are marked with the 
 lctteis of the alphabet. I lie criticks maintain the iliad 
 to lie the fird, and yet the bed epick poem that ever ap¬ 
 peared in the world. Aridotle’s poeticks are almod 
 wholly taken up about it, forming precepts from that 
 poet’s practice. Some authors tell us, that Homer in¬ 
 vented not only poetry, but all other arts and fciences ; 
 and that there are vilible marks of a perfect knowledge 
 of every one of them to be feen in the iliad. There is°a 
 translation of this noble poem into our language, bv tile 
 late ingenious Mr. Pope ; being, peihaps, the mod ele- 
 gant, and moft in imitation of the original, of any at¬ 
 tempt that way in any language whatever. 
 
 ILIUM, in anatomy, the third and laft of the fmall 
 guts, is fituated principally below the navel, near tile ofia 
 ihi; whence its name. Its length is various; fometimes 
 not more than 15, fometimes 20 fpans or more. Its be¬ 
 ginning is where the valves of the jejunum ceafe to he 
 conspicuous, and its end is where the larger inteflines 
 begin ,111 which place it is, in a very Angular manner, 
 111 erted mto the left fide of the colon. It lias no other 
 valves except that great one at the end, which is called, 
 by many, valvula coli Bauhini: its glands are. in general 
 more numerous towards the end than in any other part! 
 
 IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial repre¬ 
 sentation or fimihtude of fome perfon or thing, ufed 
 eiffier by way of decoration and ornament, or as'an ob- 
 jeft of religious worfhip and veneration; in which laft 
 lcnfc, it is ufed indifferently with die word idol. 
 
 IM AGIN A I ION, a power or faculty of the mind, 
 whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things communi¬ 
 cated to it by the outward organs of fenfe. 
 
 IMBECILITY, a languid, infirm ftate of body ■ 
 which, being greatly impaired, is not able to perform its 
 ulual exercises and fundlions. 
 
 IMBIBING, the aflion of a dry porous body, that 
 ablorbs or takes up a moift or fluid one : thus, fiwar im- 
 ”" *1 a/ponge, the moifture of the air, &c. 
 
 . IMBRICATED, among botanifts, an appellation 
 given to fitch leaves of plants, as are placed over one 
 another like the tiles of a houfe. The term imbricated 
 is hkewile applied to fome of the heart fhells, from their 
 being ridged tranfverfely in the fame manner. 
 
 ™ I . f ATION - in literary matters, the a8 of doing 
 or flitting to copy after, or become like to another per- 
 Ion or thing. 1 
 
 Imitation, in mufick, a particular way of compo- 
 lition wherein each part is made to imitate the other 
 either throughout tile whole piece, which is one of the 
 kinds of canon ; or only during fome meafures. which is 
 a Ample imitation. Sometimes the motion or figure of 
 the notes is only imitated, and that often by a contrary 
 
 ' n TMMlcUi m ATF V 'f ‘ th T Ca " a "** imiathn - 
 
 l-U.UAGULAl E, fortiething without flam, chiefly 
 applied to the conception of the holy vircin See 
 
 CONCEPTION. & - 
 
 ttvL IM j AIS r E a T ’ ’ n ibg'ck- Thefcbcotmen diftinguifli 
 wo kinds of aftions, the one tranfient, which pafs from 
 
 contmue' '“rl*" pat ’ ent; the ° thcr which 
 
 continue in the agent. 
 
 MATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or 
 
 bu areirn P r : ,? UsGod ’ anseIs ’ and Shuman 
 lout, are immaterial beings. 
 
 IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing an 
 
 efiedt 
 
effeft without the intervention of external means; thus 
 we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a mediate 
 or remote one. 
 
 IMMEMORIAL, in law, an epithet given to the 
 time or duration of any thing, whofe beginning we 
 know nothing of. 
 
 IMMENSITY, an unlimited extention, or which 
 no finite and determinate fpace, repeated ever fo oltcn, 
 can equal. 
 
 IMMERSION, that a& by which any thing is 
 plunged into water, or other fluid. See Flu id. 
 
 Immerfion, in aftronomy, is when a dar or planet is 
 fo near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that we 
 cannot fee it; being, as it were, enveloped and hid in 
 the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes the beginning 
 of an eclipfe of the moon, or that moment when the 
 moon begins to be darkened, and to enter into the fha- 
 dow of the earth ; and the fame term is alio ufed with 
 regard to an eclipfe of the fun, when the dilk of the 
 moon begins to cover it. In this fenfe emerfion hands 
 oppofed to immerfion, and fignifies the moment wherein 
 the moon begins to come out of the fhadow of the 
 earth, or the fun begins to fliew the parts of his dilk 
 which were hid before. See Eclipse. 
 
 Immerfion is frequently applied to the fatellites of 
 Jupiter, and efpecially to the fiift fatellite; the obfer- 
 vation whereof is of fo much ufe for difeovering the 
 longitude. The immerfion of that fatellite is the mo¬ 
 ment in which it appears to enter within the dilk of 
 Jupiter, and its emerfion the moment when it appears 
 to come out. The immerfions are obferved from the 
 time of the conjunction of Jupiter with the fun, to the 
 time of his oppofition ; and the emerfions from the 
 time of his oppofition to his conjunction. The peculiar 
 advantages of thefe obfervations is, that during 11 months 
 of the year they be made, at lead, every other day. 
 
 IMMORTAL, that which has no principle of cor¬ 
 ruption or alteration to hinder its lading to all eternity. 
 Thus God and the human foul are immortal. 
 
 IMMUNITY, in general, an exemption from fome 
 office or impofition. More particularly it denotes the 
 liberties granted to cities and communities. 
 
 IMMUTABILITY, the date of a thing that cannot 
 change. It is one of the divine attributes, and is two¬ 
 fold, phyfical and moral. 
 
 The phyfical immutability confids in this that the 
 fubdance of God does not, or cannot, receive any alte¬ 
 ration ; his moral immutability confids in his not being 
 liable to any change in his thoughts, will, or deligns, 
 having willed what he wills from all eternity. 
 
 IMPALED, in heraldry, denotes a fhield party per 
 pale or divided into two equal parts by a line drawn pale- 
 wife through the middle from top to bottom. As the 
 coats of a man and his wife are impaled, ormarfhalled 
 in pale, that is, the hufband’s on the right fide, and the 
 wife’s on the left; and this the heralds call baron and 
 femme, two coats impaled. 
 
 If a man has had two wives, he may impale his coat 
 between theirs ; and, if more than two, they are to be 
 marlhalled on each fide of his in their proper order. 
 
 IMPALPABLE, any thing whofe parts are fo mi 
 nute, as to be imperceptible to the fenles, particularly 
 that of feeling. 
 
 IMPASTATION, Impajlatio , a rcduChon of pow¬ 
 ders or any other fubdance to the form of a pafle, by 
 means of fome proper fluid. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT of IVaf.e, a redraint from com 
 mitting wade upon lands or tenements ; or a demand ol 
 reparation for wade made by a tenant who has but a 
 limited efiate in the land granted. 
 
 He that hath a leafe without this impeachment, hath 
 thereby a property in the houfes, trees, Ac. without 
 being accountable for any wade made in them. 
 
 IMPENETRABILITY, that property of body 
 whereby it fo fills up a certain fpace, as that there is no 
 room in it for any other body. 
 
 IMPENITENCE, or I mpenitexc y, a hardnefs 
 of heart which makes a perfon perievere in vice, and 
 prevents his repentance. 
 
 IMPERATIVE, in grammar, one of the moods of 
 a verb, ferving to exprefs commandment, as go, come, 
 fiav, Ac. In the oriental languages the future tenfe has 
 frequently an imperative fignification. 
 
 IMPERFECT, fomething that is defective, or that 
 wants fome of the properties found in other beings of the 
 fame kind ; thus modes are called impeifieft plants, be- 
 caufe almod all the plants cf fructification are wanting 
 in them; and for the like reafon, is the appellation im¬ 
 peded! given to the fungi and lubmarine plants. 
 
 Imperfect Tenfe , in grammar, denotes an indefi¬ 
 nite time between the prefent and pad, as, I thought, 1 
 felt, &c. 
 
 Imperfect Flowers, thofe flowers which want the 
 petala, all'o called apetalous and Aaminous flowers. 
 
 Imperfect Numbers, in arithmetick, thofe numbers 
 whofe aliquot parts, taken together, do not make the 
 jud number itfelf, but either come lhort of it; in which 
 cafe they are called deficient numbers ; or exceed it, and 
 then they are called redundant. 
 
 IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor or 
 empire. 
 
 Imperial Chamber, one of the fupreme courts in 
 Germany, the Aulick council being the other, edablilhcd 
 for the affairs of the immediate dates of the empire. 
 
 Imperial Cities, fuch as have a right to fend depu¬ 
 ties to the diet of the empire, and own no other head 
 but the emperor. Thefe are a kind of little common¬ 
 wealths, the chief magidrate whereof docs homage to 
 the emperor, and pays him the Roman month ; but in 
 all other refpe&s the magidrate is fovereign within the 
 jurifdidlion of his own city. 
 
 Imperial Diet, an affcmbly of all the dates of the 
 empire. It is ufually held at Ratilbon, where the em¬ 
 peror and electors, commonly reprefented by deputies, 
 as alfo the fecular and ecclefiadical prelates, princefles, 
 counts, and deputies of imperial cities allid. 
 
 The diet confids of three colleges, namely, that of the 
 eledtors, where the cledtor of Mentz prefides as director; 
 the college of princes, prelates, princefles and counts, 
 where the archbifhop of Saltzburg prefides ; and ladly, 
 the college of the deputies of imperial cities, where the 
 deputy of Cologne prefides. 
 
 In the diet, each principality has a vote ; but all 
 the prelates, fo they call the abbots and provods of 
 the empire, have but two voices ; and all the counts but 
 four. 
 
 IMPERSONAL Verb, in grammar, fuch a verb in 
 the Latin as is only ufed in the third perfon Angular, as 
 libet, oportet, decct, &c. 
 
 IMPERVIOUS, a thing that cannot be pafied 
 through, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its pores, 
 or particular configuration of its parts. 
 
 IMPETIGO, in medicine, a tetter or virulent itch, 
 the fame with lichen, volatica, and mentagra. It is a 
 kind of dry and fcaly itch, which, after the abrafion of 
 the efcar, leaves bloody fpots under the ikin, and upon 
 the approach of heat produces a painful and almod in¬ 
 tolerable itching. This dilorder is mod familiar to fcor- 
 butick perfons, and thofe afflidted with a ferous cacochy- 
 my ; and if it be in a great degree, it is called a leprous 
 
 pfora. 
 
 In the word kind of this difeafe, the head is very often 
 affedled, and a crud grows all over the body, without 
 excepting even the face, lips, and hands. Befides, the 
 whole lkin becoming ulcerous, difeharges a ferous, cor- 
 rofive fanies, and the cuticula is foon after feparated, 
 fo that dry fcales may be eafily taken off, whilft the fub- 
 jacent lkin, which is of a dark red colour, difeharges 
 an acrid moidure. Hence a feetid fmell is produced, 
 and the patients having a keen appetite, complain ol an 
 infatiable third. 
 
 But if this fpecies of the itch, fuccecding a gonorrhoea, 
 buboes, and other diforders of the genitals, not only 
 feizes the whole body, but particularly the face, and is 
 attended with notes and tophi in various parrs; and if 
 the pains which accompany it, being corroding, pene¬ 
 trating, intenfe, and pungent, increafe in die night, the 
 diforder is called venereal and malignant. 
 
 The whole method of cure, and all the powers of the 
 remedy, ought to aim at dilchau . i, out of the body the 
 mafs of corrupt, glutinous and -. . id humours, by fuffi- 
 cient bleeding and abfiinenc_ , by purges, both gentle as 
 milk is; and dradick as hellebore : Then that by con¬ 
 gruous aliments and a proper regimen ol diet, juices of 
 a laudable quality and agreeable to nature may be gene¬ 
 rated ; and ladlv, that, by external, deterlive, confoli- 
 
 dating, 
 
I M P 
 
 dating, and drying remedies, the parts may be freed from 
 pains, tumours, itching and ulcers. See Itch. 
 
 1 MPETRATION, the obtaining any thing by rc- 
 queft; it more particularly denotes, in our ftatucs, t’m 
 pre-obtaining of benefices and church livings in 'Lnglanci 
 from the court of Rome, which were in the difpofal of 
 
 the king and other lay-patrons ; the penalty whereof is 
 
 the fame with that of provifors, 25. E. I II. 
 
 IMPETUS, in mechanicks, a kind of force by which 
 bodies aft, when impelled in any dircftion by any other 
 body. See Momentum. In difeales it is the lame 
 
 with paroxyfm. . _ . f f . • 
 
 IMPING, in falconry, the mfertmg of a feadrei in 
 the wing of a hawk, in the place of one that is broke. 
 
 IMPLEAD. To implead, fignifics the lame as to 
 profecute orfue a perfon by courfe of law. 
 
 IMPLICIT, whatever is contained in a diicourle. 
 or propofition, not in exprefs terms, but tacitly, and only 
 
 Reducible by confequence. 
 
 IMPORTATION, the bringing in goods from other 
 countries, and is ufed in oppofition to exportation. 
 
 IMPOSITION of Hands, in ecclefiaftical matters, 
 is at prefent confined to that impofitioil which is ufed in 
 ordination, whereby the evangelical million, &c. is con¬ 
 veyed ; as alfo to the impofing of the bilhops hands in 
 confirmation. 
 
 IMPOSSIBLE, whatever is not poffible to be done 
 A propofition is faid to be impoflible, when it contains 
 two ideas that mutually deftroy each other; thus it is 
 impoflible that a fquare Ibould be a circle; fince we clearly 
 perceive that fquarenefs and roundnefs deftroy each other 
 by the contrariety of their figure. 
 
 There are two kinds of impoffibilities, phyfical and 
 moral: the former, what cannot be done by the powers 
 of nature ; the latter, when of its own nature it is polhble, 
 but vet attended with fuch difficulties, that, every thing 
 confidered, it appears impoflible ; as that ai men fliould 
 be virtuous, or that the fame numbers fliould he thrown 
 any number of times with three dice, &c. 
 
 Any thing contrary to decency and good fenfe is alfo 
 faid to be impoflible, from this topick, Omne turpe eft 
 impoflibile ; though in itfelf very poflible to fuch as have 
 no regard to good fenfe, Ac. . 
 
 IMPOST, inlaw, any tax appointed by the love- 
 reign authority to be paid for fuch merchandizes as aie 
 brought from foreign countries ; and it is fometimes ap¬ 
 plied to a tax levied from inland goods of home produc¬ 
 tion. It is commonly diftinguifhed from cuftom, which 
 properly fignifies the duties paid for goods exported. 
 
 IMPOSTS, in architecture, the capitals ot pillars or 
 pilafters that foftain a;ches, alfo called chaptrel, being a 
 fort of plinth or little cornice which crowns a pier over 
 
 which an arch or vault commences. . , . 
 
 The Tufcan impoft is a plinth only ; the Dorick has 
 two faces crowned ; the lonick a larmier over the two 
 faces, and its mouldings often carved; the Corinthian 
 and Compofite have a larmier, frieze, and other mould¬ 
 ings. The projeaure of the impoft mull not exceed the 
 naked of the pilafter, fometimes the entablature of the 
 order ferves for the impoft of the arch, and has a very 
 {lately appearance. 
 
 IMPOSTHUME, in forgery, acolleaion of purulent 
 
 matter in any part of the body. SeeABScEss. 
 
 IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, de- 
 notes want of ftrength, power, or means to perform any 
 thing, but more particularly the want of ftrength m a 
 man to perform the rights of the marriage bed. 
 
 IMPRECATION, a curie, or wifo that evil may 
 
 befal any one. . „ 
 
 IMPRESSION, is applied to the fpccies of objects, 
 which are fuppofed to make fome mark or imprefiion on 
 the fenles, the mind, and the memory. 
 
 Impression, alfo denotes the edition of a book, re¬ 
 garding the mechanical part only ; whereas edition, betides 
 this, takes in the care of the editor, who corrected or 
 augmented the copy, adding notes, &c. to render the 
 
 work more nfefui. „ . , 
 
 IMPRISONMENT, the ftate of a per on reftrained 
 of his liberty, and detained under the cuftody of another. 
 
 IMPROPRIATION, a parfottage or ecclefiaftical 
 living, the profits of which are in the hands of a lay- 
 'man; in which fenfe, it {lands diftinguifhed from ap¬ 
 propriation, which is where the profits of a benefice are 
 
 I N C 
 
 in die hands of a bifhop, college, Ac. diough diefe terms 
 are now often ufed promifeuouily. See Appropria¬ 
 tion. _ 
 
 IMPUTATION, in general, die charging iome- 
 thing to the account of one-, which belonged to another : 
 thus, we fay, that Adam’s fin is imputed to all his pofte- 
 rity. In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of 
 Chrift are imputed to true believers. 
 
 INACCESSIBLE, -fomething that cannot be come 
 at, or approached, by realon ot intervening obftacles, 
 as a river, rock, Ac. It is chiefly ufed in i'peaking of 
 heights and diftances. See Alt itude and Distance. 
 
 INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally alie¬ 
 nated or made over to another: thus the dominions ot 
 the king, the revenues of the church, the eftates of a~ 
 minor, Ac. are inalienable, otherwife than with a referve 
 of the right of redemption. 
 
 INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul, 
 or that is not of a nature capable of having any. 
 
 INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the ftate of 
 the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to repletion. 
 
 INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of graft¬ 
 ing, commonly called grafting by approach. Sec the 
 article Grafting. 
 
 INCAMERATION, a term ufed in the chancery 
 of Rome, for the uniting ot lands, revenues, or other 
 rights, to the pope’s domain. 
 
 INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, ac¬ 
 companied with a formula of words, and tuppofed to be 
 capable of railing devils, fpirits, Ac. 
 
 INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two kinds : 
 
 1. The want of a difpenfation for age in a minor, for 
 legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this renders the 
 proviiion ot a benefice void in its original. 2. Crimes 
 and heinous offences, which annul provifions at firft valid. 
 
 INCARNATION, in theology, the aft whereby the 
 fecond perlon of the Holy Trinity atfumed the human 
 nature, viz. a true body and realonable foul, in order 
 to accomplifh the redemption ot fallen mankind. See 
 Trinity. 
 
 The generation of Chrift was miraculous, as being 
 conceived by the power of the Holy Ghoft, and born of 
 the Virgin Mary ; from the time of which blefled nati¬ 
 vity, the Chriftian a?ra commences. SeeEpocHA. 
 
 INCARNATIVES, in forgery, medicines which 
 aflift nature in filling up wounds or ulcei ‘9 with flefh ; 
 or rather remove thg obftruftions thereto. Internal in- 
 carnatives are aliments which fopply a balfamick chyle, 
 and confequently generate fleth, and produce a full or 
 plump habit. 
 
 INCARTATION, among chymifts, the fame with 
 depart. See Depart. 
 
 INCEPTIVE, a term ufed by Dr. Wallis to exprefs 
 fuch moments, or firft principles, which, though of no 
 magnitude themfelves, are notwithftanding capable of 
 producing it. Thus, a point is inceptive of a line, and 
 aline inceptive of a furface, Ac. 
 
 INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between 
 perlons who are related in a degree wherein marriage is 
 prohibited by the law of the country. 
 
 Incest Spiritual, a crime committed in like 
 manner between perfons who have a fpiritual alliance by 
 means of baptifm or confirmation. 
 
 INCH, a well known meafore of length; being the 
 twelfth part of a foot, and equal to three barley corns in 
 length. See Foot and Measure. 
 
 Inch of Candle , or fale by inch of candle. See the 
 article Candle. 
 
 INCIDENCE, in mechanicks and opticks, denotes 
 the direftion in which one body ftrikes another. See 
 Angle. 
 
 INCIDENT, in law, fomething that infeparably be¬ 
 longs to another: thus a court baron is incident to a manor. 
 
 Incident, in poetry, denotes much the fame with 
 ipifode. See Episode. 
 
 INCISIVE, an appellation given to whatever cuts or 
 divides : thus, the fore-teeth are called dentes incifivi, 
 or cutters ; and medicines of an attenuating nature, in¬ 
 cidents, or incifive medicines. 
 
 INCLINATION is a word frequently ufed by ma¬ 
 thematicians, and fignifies the mutual approach, tendency 
 or leaning of two hlie!>, or two planes, towaids each 
 other, fo as to make an angle. 
 
 Inclination 
 
I N C 
 
 Inclination of a right line to a plane, is tile acute 
 angle which that line makes with another right line 
 drawn in the plane through the point where the inclined 
 line interlefts it, and through the point where it is alio 
 cut by a perpendicular drawn from any point of the in- 
 clined plane. 
 
 Inclination of the axis of the earth, is the angle which 
 it makes with the plane of the ecliptick; or the angle con¬ 
 tained between the planes of the equator and ecliptick. 
 
 Inclination of a planet is an arch of the circle of incli¬ 
 nation, comprehended between the ecliptick and the plane 
 of a planet in its orbit. 
 
 The greateft inclination of Saturn, according to Kep- 
 “f* 1S 2 ° 3 2 ; of Jupiter, i° 20'; of Mars, i° 50' 30"; 
 of Venus, 3 0 22'; of Mercury, 6° 54. According to 
 tk la Hire, the greateft inclination of Saturn is 2 0 3 ( 
 30 ; of Jupiter, i° 19' 20"; of Mars, i° 51'00"; of 
 Venus, 3 0 25'5"; of Mercury, 6° 52'00". 
 
 Inclination of a P lane^ in dialling, is the arch of 
 a vertide circle, perpendicular both to the plane and the 
 horizon, and intercepted between them. 
 
 Inclined Plane, in mechanicks, thatwhich makes 
 an oblique angle with the horizon. 
 
 _ That 311 inclined plane is a mechanical power appears 
 iufnciently in its diminiihing the weight of a body laid 
 upon it in regard to the power which holds it in aquili- 
 biio. Let A (plat" XLI1I. fig. 2.) be a body fuftained 
 on the inclined plane BD; from the centre C'draw C F 
 perpendicular to the horizon or bafe D C, and C E per¬ 
 pendicular to the plane; then C F will reprefent the 
 whole weight or force-of gravity of the body A, which 
 is refolviblc into the two forces C E and EF , but the 
 force C E, being perpendicular to the plane, afts wholly 
 upon it, and is equally re-afted on or fuftained by the 
 plane ; the other force E F, being parallel to the plane, 
 is that by which the body defeends, or is kept from de¬ 
 fending by an equal power afting in a contrary direftion. 
 Therefore the whole weight of the body is to the power 
 which keeps it in a?quilibrio on the plane as C F to F E, 
 or (becaufejhe triangles C F E and B D C are fimilar) as 
 B D to B C, that is, as the length of the plane to its 
 height. 
 
 If it fhould be required to lift up a very heavy body as 
 W or w (fig. 3.) the height C B, it would be imprafti- 
 cable to raife it up in the line C B without a power whofe 
 intenfity is equal to that of the weight; and even in that 
 cafe very inconvenient to do it, efpecially in building. 
 But if aq inclined plane A B belaid arilingfrom the hori¬ 
 zontal line AC, from whence the weight is to be raifed, 
 a lefs power than the weight will ferve for that purpofe! 
 unlefs it pufhes the body direftly againft the plane (as in 
 the direftion W T) or draws the body away from the 
 plane (as from W towards e, /, or L) or in any direftion 
 on tint fide of the line E e. 
 
 The direftion in which the body can moft eafily be 
 drawn or pulhed up the plane is the line W w M, "pa¬ 
 rallel to the plane, and palling through the centre of the 
 weight; for whether the power divides a plane k K (in a 
 direftion perpendicular to it) along the line W M, or 
 the power Pe (by its defeent to P) draws it in the fame 
 line, the velocity of the power will be equal to the line 
 W the fpace deferibed by the centre of gravity of the 
 weight, whilft the fame weight rifes only the perpendi¬ 
 cular height ZB (~n W) or has the faid line properly 
 to cxpiefs its velocity. If the body was a cylinder, as a 
 rolling ftone, and the plane T t were to pals through 
 the gudgeons or axis of the faid ftone; it is evident that 
 the cafe would be the fame ; and as the weight P has its 
 rope running over the roller (or upper pulley) M, the 
 line P c P will be the velocity of the power. Therefore 
 in this cafe the weight (if kept in squilibrio) will be to 
 the power, as W w (= T B) to wY (= B Z) or as the 
 hypothenufe A B is to the perpendicular B C, which 
 (by Eucl. 4. 6.) are in the fame proportion; and confe- 
 quently, if the power be never fo little increafed, it will 
 draw the weight up the plane. 
 
 That the power afls with the greateft advantage, 
 whilft it draws in the line of direftion W w (parallel to 
 the plane) is evident, becaufe if one end of the faid plane 
 of direftion remainingfixed at W, the other fhould move 
 towards B, or beyond it, then the body would be partly 
 drawn againft the plane, and therefore the power muft 
 
 r n c 
 
 be mcreafed in proportion to the greateft difficulty of 
 traction : and if the end w of the line abovementioned 
 Ihould be carried to D. or beyond it, the power muft 
 be alio mcreafed, mafmuch as it endeavours to lift the 
 body off from the plane. 
 
 It the power draws in a line of direftion W B (fig-. 2.) 
 parallel to the bafe of the plane j then, in order to keep 
 the weight W in squilibrio by the power n, the faid 
 power muft be to the weight, as Z B to Z T, or as the 
 perpendicular B C to the bafe AC of the triangle AC B. 
 F or if we fuppofe the pulley R at fo great a diftance from 
 . ’ tliat the Jine ot direftion W R may not fenfibly alter 
 its horizontal pofition, whilft the body W rifes the 
 height B Z, in fuch manner that n zj (— W Y, and not 
 W w) will be the velocity of the power. So* that the 
 velocity ot the power to that of the weight will not be as 
 the hypothenufe to the perpendicular, as in the former 
 A C B° Ut aS tllC t0 tllC P er P en ^ icular the triangle 
 
 li the powers be increafed juft enough to overcome the 
 friction of the plane and draw up the body W, let the 
 pully R be lifted up gradually to r, fo as to keep the line 
 v\ L parallel to itfelf till it comes to iu r, and the power 
 will be de/cended to tt, when the weight is come to w B. 
 But IT 7 r, together with the diftance R r, is equal to n ■sr, 
 or W Y, & c. And the traftion is conftantly made in 
 the angle W BT, in this cafe. 
 
 Inclined Tounrs , thofe whofe tops Jiang fo far over, 
 as to appear dangerous to people walking below ; fuch as 
 fi °ul°gna, built in the year 11 10, and that of 
 , a 111 J 1C y car 1 \ 73 ’ Now the reafon why fuch towers 
 do not fall, is owing to their centres of gravity being 
 tupported. ^ 
 
 INCLINERS, oiTncli ned Planes, in dialling. See 
 the article Dial. q 
 
 INCOGNITO, a term applied to a perfon who 
 would not be known. 
 
 INCOMBUS TIBLE, whatever cannot beconfumed 
 by fire, as metals, ftones, and cloth made of lapis ami¬ 
 anthus, &c. 
 
 INCOMMENSURABLE, in arithmctick and geo¬ 
 metry, when two numbers or quantities, See. compared 
 to each other, have no common meafure, or when no 
 third quantity can be found that is an aliquot part of 
 both ; or when thofe quantities, See. are not to one an¬ 
 other as unity to a rational number, or as one rational 
 number to another. The fide of a fquare is incom- 
 menfurable to the diagonal, as is demonftrated by Euclid: 
 but it is commenfurable in power, the lquare of the dia¬ 
 gonal being equal to twice the fquare of the fide by 
 Euclid 1. 48. And this theorem of the incommenfura- 
 blenefs of the fide of the fquare to its diagonal was fo 
 famous among the ancients, efpecially Plato and Arif- 
 totlc, that the former lookt upon him as a beaft, and no 
 man, who ihould be-ignorant of it. 
 
 INCOMPATIBLE, whatever cannot confift with 
 another thing without deftroying it; as equal degrees of 
 cold and heat in the fame fubjeft. 
 
 INCOMPOSITE Numbers, the fame with what 
 Euclid calls prime numbers, where unity is the onlv ali-. 
 quot part to meafure them by. 
 
 INCONTINENCE, Incontinentia , befides the moral 
 lenfe, denotes, in medicine, an inability in any of the 
 organs to retain what ihould not be difeharged without 
 the concurrence of the will. It moft frequently implies 
 an involuntary difeharge of urine, the bladder in men 
 being fometimes fo debilitated that it flows from them 
 involuntarily. This may proceed from a ftone in the 
 bladder, or a palfy in the fphinfter. In the firft cafe 
 the only remedy is lithotomy, or an extraftion of tile 
 ftone. .Nor is lithotomy infallible; for that operation 
 frequently caufes the difotder. But, if it proceeds from 
 a weaknels of the neck of the bladder, urengthening and 
 nervous medicines arc moft likely to remove it. 
 
 j'ffi. NC< k R F° RATION ’ the m!xin S the particles of 
 different bodies or confiftencies fo together, as to make an 
 uniform compofition or confidence of the whole, whereby 
 the ingredients mixed cannot be diftinguifhed in any of 
 their particular qualities. This is much the fame with 
 impaftation, as pills, bolufes, troches, and plafters 
 INC ORp O R EAL. the fame with fpiritual, a thing 
 which has no body, as God, the foul of man, &c. ° 
 
 1NCOR- 
 
I N D 
 
 INCORRUPTIBLE, whatevercannot be corrupted ; 
 thus, all fpiritual fubftances, and likewife glafs, fait, Ac. 
 may be called incorruptible. 
 
 INCRASSANTS, or Incrassatinc Medicines , 
 JncraJJantia , in phyfick, fuch as reduce the too fluid blood 
 and juices to a proper confiftence, and due condenfation. 
 
 INCRASSAT1NG, the aft of renderingfluids thicker 
 t>y the mixture of other lefs fluid particles, or by expel¬ 
 ling the finer particles, and compinging and bringing 
 the grofler nearer together. 
 
 INCREMENT and Decrement, theincreafeand 
 decreafe of a quantity. See Series. 
 
 INCRUSTATION, the coating ofawall, either with 
 glofly Hones, rufticks, marble, pottery,orftucco-work, and 
 that either equably, or in pannels and compartments. 
 
 Incrustation, in furgery, the inducing of a cruft 
 or efcar upon any part. 
 
 INCRUSTED, or Incrust ated Column, is a 
 column confifting of feveral pieces or flips of feme pre¬ 
 cious marble mafticated or cemented round, a mould of 
 brick or other matter. 
 
 INCUBATION, the aftion of a hen or other fowl 
 brooding her eggs. 
 
 INCUBUS, or EpHiALTES,in phyfick, commonly 
 called the night-mare, a di(order under which the patient 
 cannot flir himfelf, but with the utmoft difficulty ; is 
 feized with a numberlcfs and fenfe of weight, with a dread 
 of l'uffocation, and an oppreffion, as from fome body fall¬ 
 ing fuddenly upon him. 
 
 The word is derived from the Latin, incumbo , in re¬ 
 gard the patients fancy they feel fomething afeending and 
 fitting upon their breaft. 
 
 This appears to be a difeafe of ftrifture, from the fenfe 
 of weight attending it; and of the chronical kind, from 
 the length of time ; and it is not always without danger, 
 for fome have died under the violence of the luffocation. 
 The incubus is oi’a bad kind, ’when it Lizes the patient, 
 though awake, in the night; but worft of all, when, 
 after molefting him in his fleep, it leaves him to awake 
 under a cold l'weat and palpitation of the heart. Such as 
 have been long and often fubjeft to it, have reafon to 
 apprehend fome dangerous diftempers of the head, as a 
 Vertigo, apoplexy, Ac. 
 
 The cure confifts in evacuations by phlebotomy and 
 catharticks. The patient muft be kept to a thin diet, and 
 avoid all flatulent food. 
 
 Incubus, a name given by the pagans to certain demi¬ 
 gods, formerly called fawns and fatyrs. 
 
 INCUMBENT, in law, a clerk refident in his bene¬ 
 fice with cure, fo called, becaufe he ought to bend his 
 ftudy to difeharge the duty of fuch cure. 
 
 INCURVATION, the aft of bending a bone or other 
 body from its natural fhape. 
 
 INCUS, in anatomy, a fmall bone in the internal ear. 
 See Ear. 
 
 1NDEFEIZIBLE, or Indefeazable, in law, 
 what cannot be defeated or annulled. 
 
 INDEFINITE, indeterminate, that which has no 
 •certain bounds, at Jeaft, aflignable by the human mind. 
 Defcartes ufes the word, inftead of infinite, in numbers 
 and quantities, to fignify a number fo great, that an unit 
 cannot be added to it; and a quantity fo great, as not 
 to be capable of any addition. 
 
 Indefinite, in the fchools, alfo denotes a thing that 
 lias but one extreme ; for inftance, a line drawn from any 
 point and extended infinitely, as alfo eternity a parte ante, 
 or eternity a parte poft. 
 
 Indefinite, in grammar, denotes fuch nouns, pro¬ 
 nouns, verbs, participles, articles, Ac. which are left in 
 an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed to any 
 particular time, or other circumftance. 
 
 1N i)E LIB LE, that which cannot be effaced. 
 
 INDEMNITY, an aft by which one promifes to 
 guarantee, or fave harm lefs, fome other perfon from any 
 lol’s or damage that might accrue to him on any particu¬ 
 lar account. 
 
 INDENTED, Indentee, in heraldry, when the 
 outline of a border, ordinary, Ac. is notched like the 
 teeth of a faw. 
 
 INDENTURE, inlaw, a writing which comprizes 
 fome contraft between two at leaft, being indented at 
 top, which correfponds to a counter-part, containing 
 fcgv double of the fame contraft. It differs from a 
 Vol. II. No. 41. 
 
 I N D 
 
 deed-poll, in that this laft is a Angle deed, and is not 
 indented. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS, a feft ofProteftailts irt Britain 
 and Holland, fo called from their independency on other 
 churches, and their maintaining that each church or 
 congregation has lufficient power to aft and perform 
 every thing relating to religious government within itfelf, 
 and is no way lubjeft or accountable to other churches 
 or their deputies. 
 
 They therefore difallow parochial and provincial fu- 
 bordination, and form all their congregations upon a 
 l’cheme of co-ordinancy. But though they do not think 
 it neceflary to aflemble fynods; yet if any be held, they 
 look on their relolutions as prudential councils, but not 
 as decifions to which they are obliged to conform. 
 
 INDETERM1N ATE, in geometry, aquantity either 
 of time or place, which has no certain or determinate 
 bounds. 
 
 Indeterminate, or In determined Problem , 
 that whereof there may be feveral, or even an infinite 
 number of (elutions. 
 
 INDEX, in anatomy, denotes the fore-finger. See 
 the article Hand. 
 
 The days on which future crifes may be prefaged, are 
 likewife called die-; indices. 
 
 Index, in arithmetick, is the fame with what is other- 
 wife called the charafteriftick, or exponent of a logarithm, 
 being the iirft number Handing on the left hand of the 
 point: it lhews how many places the abfolute number* 
 belonging to the logarithm confifts of, and of what na¬ 
 ture it is, whether an integer or a fraftion. As in this 
 logarithm, 2.523421, 2 lhews that the abfolute number 
 anfwering to it confifts of three places, being always one 
 more than the index. If the abfolute number be a frac¬ 
 tion^ then the index of the logarithm hath a negative 
 lign. See .LogarithM. 
 
 Index of a globe, a little ftile or gnomon fitted on to 
 the north pole, and turning round with it, pointing to 
 certain divilions in the hour-circle. 
 
 Index, or Indice, a congregation at Rome, Ac. 
 whofe luifinefs is to examine books, and to put fuch as 
 they think fit to prohibit the reading and felling of, into 
 an index. The catalogues thcmfelves of thefe prohibited 
 books are called indices or expurgatory indices: among 
 which fome are condemned purely and abfolutely, and 
 others, only till they be correfted. The moft cOnfidcr- 
 able of all the indices is that of Sottomayor, which was 
 made for all the Hates fubjeft to the king of Spain, and 
 comprehends all the other indices, coming down as low 
 as 1667. 
 
 INDIA proper, or Hither India, a large pe- 
 ninfula in Afia, bounded on the north by Ufbec Tar¬ 
 tary, and Thibet; on the eaft, by another part of Thibet, 
 the kingdom of Afem, Ava, and Pegu; on the fouth, 
 by the bay of Bengal, and the Indian ocean ; and by the 
 fame ocean and Perfia on the weft: fituated between 66° 
 and 92° of eaft longitude, and between 7 0 and 40° of 
 north latitude; being about 2000 miles in length from 
 north to fouth, and 1500 miles in breadth from eaft to 
 weft where broadeft ; though the fouthern part of the pe- 
 ninfula is not 300 miles broad. All the country within 
 thefe limits is either fubjeft or tributary to the great 
 Mogul. It is frequently called Indoftan, a name fup- 
 pofed to be derived from the river Indus, on its weftern 
 frontiers: it is alfo called the Mogulftan, from the im¬ 
 perial family now upon the throne, who trace their pe¬ 
 digree from Tamerlane a Mogul Tartar. 
 
 The produce of this country, and what the Euro¬ 
 peans import from thence^ is chiefly chints, callicoes, 
 muffins, fome filk, pepper, and diamonds, which are 
 purchafed by moft nations with filver ; but the Dutch 
 frequently barter fpices for them, which makes the India 
 trade doubly advantageous to them. 
 
 INDIA, beyond the Ganges, is a country bounded 
 by Thibet and Boutan on the north ; by China, Ton- 
 quin, and Cochin-China on the eaft ; by the Indian 
 ocean on the fouth ; and by the hither India, the bay of 
 Bengal, and the ftraits of Malacca, on the weft : it is 
 fituated between 92 0 and 104° of eaft longitude, and be¬ 
 tween the equator and 30° of north latitude: bein r 
 near 20CO miles in length from north to fouth, but of a 
 very unequal breadth ; in which limits are comprehended 
 the kingdoms of Afem, Ava, Pegu, Laos, Siam, Cam- 
 D bodia, 
 
I N D 
 
 bodia, and Malacca, governed by as many Indian princes; 
 only the Dutch have ufurped the dominion of Malacca. 
 In this country there are a vaft number of elephants, and 
 confequently a great deal of ivory ; our merchants aifo 
 meet with gold and precious ftones, canes, opium, and 
 luch other articles as are ulually found within the tropics. 
 
 INDICA 1 ION, Indication in phytick, denotes the 
 pointing out or ditcovering what is fit to bedone, and what 
 means are fit to be applied in any cafe, from a knowledge 
 of the nature of the difeafe and the virtues of medicines. 
 
 . INDICATIVE, in grammar, the firft mood of con¬ 
 jugating verbs, Ihewing either the time prefent, paft or 
 future. r 
 
 INDICTION, the convoking an ecclefiaftical aflem- 
 bly, or council; it is alfo applied to the feveral tcffions 
 of the fame council. 
 
 Indiction, in chronology, a kind of epocha, or 
 manner of reckoning time among the Romans, contain¬ 
 ing a cycle of 15 years. There are three kinds ofindic- 
 tion mentioned in-authors : the indiflion of Conftanti- 
 pople beginning on the firft of September; the imperial 
 or Caeianan indnftion on the 14th of September; and 
 the Roman or papal indiflion, which is that ufed in the 
 pope’s bulls, and begins on the firft of January. Since 
 Charlemaigne made the popes fovereigns, they dated 
 then ads by the year of the mdiftion, before which time 
 they dated them by the years of the emperors. 
 
 INDICTMENT, in law, a bill of complaint, for¬ 
 mally drawh up, in behalf of the commonwealth, and 
 exhibited as an acculation of one for fome offence, cri¬ 
 minal or penal, before a jury, and by their verditfi pre- 
 lented to a judge or officer that has power to certify the 
 punilhment which the law appoints 011 fuch criminals, 
 whereupon execution enfues accordingly. This accu¬ 
 sation the jury do not receive, till the party that offereth 
 the bill, appearing, fubfenbe his name, and prefer his 
 oath for the truth of it. Indiftment is always at the fuit 
 of the king, and differs from an accufation,' in that the 
 preferrer is no way tied to the proof thereof upon any pe¬ 
 nalty, if it be not proved, except there appear a confpiracv 
 INDIGESTION, Indi^'Jiio, a want ofdue coition, ci- 
 ther in the food, the humours of the body, or excrements. 
 
 INDIGO, in commerce, a preparation of the juice 
 Of a plant, called by fome anil, the charaflers of which 
 are thefe: tile cup is plane; the al* of the flower are 
 connivent at their upper edges, and arc of the fame figure 
 with the vexillum. _lt is one of the diadtlphia decandria 
 clafs of Linilatus. This plant grows to about two feet 
 high, with roundiffi leaves ; and is a native of both the 
 E. and W. Indies. Choofe the indigo of Serquiffe in 
 flat cakes, of a moderate thicknefs, neither too foft nor 
 too hard, of a deep violet colour, light, and fuch as 
 fwims on water ; and when broken, has no white fpots 
 in it; and, laftly, fuch as is copperilh or redilh on 
 being rubbed with one’s nail, and has the leaft dull and 
 broken pieces in it. 
 
 The ufe of the indigo is for the dyer and laundrefles, 
 ferving the Jaft to put among their linen. The painters 
 ufe it to grind with white for painting in blue ; for if it 
 is ufed alone and neat, it turns black ; ground with yel¬ 
 low, it makes a green : fome confe&ioners and apothe¬ 
 caries prepofteroufly ufe this to colour fugars, with which 
 to make conferves and firup of violets, by adding fome 
 orris. For the manufacturing of indigo, fee Manioc k 
 and the plale there referred to. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL, Individuum , in logick, a particular 
 being of any fpecies, or that which cannot be devided 
 into two or more beings equal or alike. 
 
 INDIVISIBLE, among metaphyficians. A thing 
 is faid to be ablblutely ilidivifible, that is a Ample benny 
 and confifts of no parts into which it may be divided’ 
 Thus God is indivifible in all refpefts, as is alfo the human 
 mind, nothaving extenfion or other properties of body. 
 
 Indivisible Secundum quid ejl, indivifible with re- 
 fpeft to what is now, is a fubftance which, though it con¬ 
 fifts of parts into which it may be divided, yet never 
 can be fo divided as to remain the fame: thus a meafure 
 or number is faid to be indivifible, for if from a foot¬ 
 line, for example, any thing is deduaed, it is no more 
 a foot-line; and iftrom the number three any thing is fub- 
 traacd, it is no longer 1 - fame number. Sec Article 
 Indivisibles, in geen.-.-try, the elements or princi¬ 
 ples into which any bee- figure may be ultimately | 
 
 I N E 
 
 refolved ; which elements are fuppofed infinitely (mail- 
 thus a line may be laid to confift of points, a furface of 
 para! e! lines, and a folid of parallel and fimilar furfaces - 
 and then, becaute each of thele elements is luppofed in- 
 diviiibie, it in any figure a line be drawn through the ele¬ 
 ments perpendicularly, the number of points m that line 
 "ill be the iame as the number of dements ; whence we 
 may fee that a parallelogram, prifm, or evlinder, is re- 
 io mbJe into elements or indivifibles, all equal to each 
 other, parallel and like to the bale ; a triangle into lines 
 parallel to the bale, but decreating in arithmetical pro¬ 
 portion, and fo are the circles which conftitute the pa- 
 rabolick conoid, and thofe which conftitute tile plane of 
 a circle or furface of an ifofceles cone. And this way 
 of confidenng things was called methodus indivifibiliutn 
 hrlt made ule of in geometry bv Kepler, and then fur¬ 
 ther extended by C’avalerio, Gregory' a S. Vincentio 
 and our countryman Bairow, preceptor to the great Sir 
 llaac Newton, who, with a fagacity peculiar to himfelt 
 extracted from thence his fluxions, fince the invention 
 of which it has been laid aiide. 
 
 , INDORSEMENT, inlaw, any thing written on tlte 
 oackofadced, as a receipt lor money received. See Bn r 
 IN DUCEML N 1 , in law, lignifies what may be al- 
 ledged as a motive: and, in our law, it is ul'ed fpecially 
 in leveral caies; as there is an inducement to actions, to 
 a trayerfe in pleading, and to an offence committed Ac 
 INDUCTION, inlaw, is putting a clerk or clergy¬ 
 man 1.1 poffefhon of a benefice or living to which he is 
 collated or prefented. 
 
 INDULGENCES, in the Romifh church, are a re- 
 nr dion of the punilhment due to fins, granted by the 
 church, and luppofed to lave the finner from purgatory 
 Clement V 1 . in Ins decretal, which is generally received 
 by the church of Rome, declares, that our Saviour has 
 eft an infinite treafure of merits, arifing f.om his own 
 i offerings, befides thofe of the blelTed virgin and the 
 laints; and that the patlors and guides of the church 
 and more efpecially the popes, who are the foverei^n 
 difpofers of this treafure, have authority to apply it °o 
 the living, by virtue of the keys, and to the dead, bv 
 way otluffrage, to difcliarge them from their refpcdKve 
 proportions ot punilhment, by taking juft fo much merit 
 out of this general treafure, as they conceive tile debt 
 requires, and offering it to God. 
 
 It was the great abufe of indulgences that contributed 
 not a little to tlte firft reformation of religion in Ger¬ 
 many, where Martin Luther began firft to declaim againft 
 the preachers of indulgences, and afterwards againft in¬ 
 dulgences themfelves : for fince that time the popes have 
 been more fparing in the exercife of this power ; how¬ 
 ler, they ftill carry on a great trade with them in the 
 Indies, where they are purchafcd at two rials a piece 
 and fometimes more. 
 
 INDULT, jn the church of Rome, the power of pre- 
 fenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by the pope. 
 
 INDULTO, a duty, tax, or cuftom, paid to the king 
 of Spain, for all fuch commodities as are imported from 
 the Weft-Indies in the galleons. See Galleon. 
 
 INERTIA of Matter , in philofophy, is defined by 
 Sir llaac Newton to be a paflive principle by which bo¬ 
 dies perfift in their motion or reft, receive motion in 
 proportion to the force imprefling it, and refill as much 
 as they are refilled. It is alfo defined by the fame author 
 to be a power implanted in all matter, whereby it refills 
 any change endeavoured to be made in its ftatc. 
 
 This power then coincides with the vis refi/iendi, or 
 power of refilling, whereby every body endeavours, as 
 much as it can, to perfevere in its own ftate, whether of 
 reft or uniform reCtilinear motion; which power is ftill 
 proportionable to the quantity of matter in any bodv : 
 foi fince natural bodies confift of a mals of matter, that, 
 of itfelf is not able to induce any change in its ftate, if 
 bodies were once at reft, it is necelfary that they Ihould 
 always remain in that ftate of reft, unlefs there is applied 
 a new force to produce motion in them: but if they were 
 in motion, the fame energy or force would always pre¬ 
 fen e the motion; and therefore bodies would always re¬ 
 tain their motion, and would always proceed forward in 
 the fame right-line with the fame tenor, fince they can¬ 
 not of themfelves acquire either reft or a retardation, or a 
 change of their direction to turn on one fide or the other. 
 Since, according to this law, a body once in motion 
 
 always 
 
I N F 
 
 always continues in that motion, the philofophers afk, 
 why all proje&iles lofe by degrees their motion, why do 
 they not proceed in infinitum ? if motion did not of its 
 own nature decay, a Hone thrown at the beginning of 
 the world, would by this time have gone through an 
 immenfe and almoit infinite fpace. And l'o indeed it 
 would, if its motion had been in vacuo, or in free 
 fpaces, and without any gravity. But fince all pro¬ 
 jectiles are carried either through the air, or on the 
 rough furfaces of other bodies, they mull be necedarily 
 retarded : for fince all bodies in motion mult drive and 
 thruft out of its place the relifting air, or overcome the 
 roughnefs of the l'uperficies upon which they are moved, 
 they will lofe all that force and motion that is conflantly 
 employed in overcoming thefe obltacles, and confe- 
 quently the motion of projectiles will be continually 
 diminifhed ; but if there was no refinance in the me¬ 
 dium, no roughnefs in the fuperficies on which they 
 were moved, no gravity that continually forces the bodies 
 toward the earth, motion would always continue the 
 fame, without any retardation at all. So in the heavens, 
 where the medium is exceedingly rare, the planets do 
 continue their motions for a very long time ; and upon 
 ice, or any other very l'mooth furface without roughnefs, 
 heavy bodies in motion are not foon brought to reft. 
 
 INFALLIBLE, what cannot deceive, nor be de¬ 
 ceived ; thus God alone is infallible ; but papifts fay, 
 the church is infallible in her decifions as to faith and 
 manners ; but where to place this infallibility, whether 
 in the pope and a general council, or in a general council 
 without the pope, as in the council at Conftance, or in 
 the pope without a general council, when he lpeaks ex 
 cathedra, they cannot determine. 
 
 INFAMOUS, in general, denotes fo me thing noto- 
 rioufiy contrary to virtue or honour. 
 
 Infamous, in law, denotes a perfon of no repute 
 in the world. There are two kinds of infamy ; fome 
 perfons being infamous de jure , or ftigmatized by publick 
 judgments ; others are infamous de faflo, as being of a 
 fcandalous profeflion, as a catchpole, hangman, in¬ 
 former, See. 
 
 INF ANT, among phvficians, implies a young child. 
 The illuftrious Hoffman lias given us the following re¬ 
 gimen for infants. 
 
 As foon as the child is brought into the worfd, it 
 ought immediately after the ligature, and cutting of the 
 umbilical vefiels, tobewafhed in a warm bath prepared 
 of water alone, ora mixture of wine and water. The 
 midwife too fhould, it there appear any thing ill formed 
 by the birth, fafhion it better, and reftore it to its natural 
 fhape. But, above all, file mull obferve whether the 
 child be ftrong and robuft, or weak and infirm, which 
 laft may be diicovered from its voice and relpiration. If 
 the new-born infant be found to be preternaturally weak, 
 it Ihouid be wafhed with warm wine, rubbing it gently 
 and breathing ftrongly into its mouth, after chewing 
 aromaticks, or giving it a fmall quantity of Khcnilh 
 wine, or cinnamon-water. 
 
 But, as the tender infant muft befecured from the in¬ 
 juries ol the air by loft linen, and commodious bandages, 
 great caution is requifite, left fome damage be done, and 
 a foundation laid for future diforders. 
 
 The next care is, that infants be feafonablv purged. 
 For this purpofe Providence has kindly furnifhed the 
 mother at firll with thin lweetifh milk termed coloftrum, 
 whole deterging and diluting quality opens the body 
 much better aud fafer than the moll lelefl evacuants. 
 
 Il the mother’s nipples be too lrnall, or too thick, or 
 if the mother have not a mind to give fuck, or have not 
 milk loon enough, it is much better for the firll four 
 and twenty-hours that the body fhould be freed by other 
 proper laxatives from its meconium, than immediately 
 after the birth to deliver the infant to a robull fat nude 
 to be fuckled. 
 
 Milk delcrvcdly conftitutes the principal and univerfal 
 aliment, becaule it lupplies both meat and drink at the 
 lame time, is grateful to the ilomach, and for this pur- 
 pole was it wilely ordered by the Creator, that healthy 
 women, immediately after their delivery, fhould accumu¬ 
 late a lufficieut quantity of it in their breails. The milk 
 of nudes lhould be pure and temperate, which is bell 
 obtained, if they obferve an exadt method of diet. 
 
 A hired nurfe fhould be healthy, in the flower of her 
 
 1 N F 
 
 age, from 20 to 30, rather lean than fat, of good mo¬ 
 rals, compofed in mind, neither melancholick, pafiionate, 
 nor a drunkard ; nor, laftly, let her milk be too Hale. 
 F ui ther, let her obferve a regular diet; and not pal's 
 from a hard and fparwig food, to one which is delicate 
 and plentiful, but rather accuftom herfeif to it by de¬ 
 grees. If fhe is deprived of lleep in the night, let her 
 repair that lofs in the morning, yet lb as not to indulge 
 it too far. 
 
 The quantity of milk to be fucked cannot be exa£lly 
 determined ; but the general pradlice is to give the breall 
 for the month every two hours ; after three or four 
 months, fix or l'even times, and at lail only twice or 
 thrice in a day, till the year is expired. 
 
 It the milk alone be not fufficient to fupport the child, 
 ihere are other aliments contrived for this purpofe luited 
 to various countries and people ; .the moil common are 
 paps made of crumbs of bread, Ac. But I very much 
 doubt, w'hether infants, efpecially the very tender ones, 
 are capable of difiolving perfectly this vifeid food, and 
 rather think that they pave the way for obfiruflions of 
 the vifcera and meientery. Nor can 1 approve of that 
 pernicious cullom of giving children pap rolled firll in 
 the nurle’s mouth, and mixed with her l’afiva ; becaufe, 
 by fuch maftication, not only the moil fubtile part of 
 the pap is fucked out, but alfo any infe&ion of the lahva 
 and corrupted teeth are eaiily communicated to the in¬ 
 fants. 
 
 In the fpace of a year, or a little more, when children 
 have arrived at fuch a habit as to digeft other aliments, 
 they may be weaned. But, at that time a large quantity 
 and variety of food, and aliments of a hard digeftion, 
 lhould be avoided. I have found nothing more ufeful 
 for the prevention of the dileales of infants, than to give 
 often to the nurfe and child, in a large quantity, infufions 
 of herbs which lwceten the blood, made with water. 
 
 To prevent the coagulation of the milk in the ilomach 
 and duodenum, abforbent powders are extremely effica- 
 ciou ; and l’ometimes gentle laxatives, if ncceffary, 
 lhould be interpoled, by W'hich the injuries from coagu¬ 
 lated milk are like wife in a great mealure prevented. 
 See We an iNG. 
 
 In f ant, in law, a perfon under the age of one and 
 twenty years ; and before that age any deed or writing 
 may be nulled ; be may purchafe without the confcnt of 
 another, but at full age may wave or Hand to it, as he 
 likes, as may his heirs. Coke on Littleton fays, ie£l. 
 405, that an infant fhall not bepunifhed till the age of 
 14, which he takes to be the age of dilcretion ; nor fhall 
 the act of an infant be imputed to him. no not in cafe 
 of high treafon, till this age : though others fay, that an 
 infant eight years of age, or upwards, may commit ho¬ 
 micide and he hanged for it, if by any other act it appear 
 that lie had knowledge of good and evil; for here malitia 
 fupplebit jetatem. At 14 he may, before a judge, choole 
 new guardians, when he will, and conlent to marriaoe ; 
 which laft a female may do at 12. 
 
 Infant, alfo in Spain and Portugal, is an appel¬ 
 lation attributed to the king’s fons, as infanta is to the 
 daughters. 
 
 INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor 
 end : in which fenle God alone is infinite. See God. 
 
 Infinite is alfo ufed to fignify that which has had a be¬ 
 ginning, but will have no end, as angels and human fouls. 
 This makes what the fchoolmen call infinitum a partepojt ; 
 as, on the contrary, by infinitum a parte ante , they mean 
 that which has an end but had no beginning. 
 
 Infinite, in mathematicks, are fuch quantities as 
 are either greater or fmaller than any alfignable one, 
 being the fame with indefinite or indeterminate, to which 
 no certain limits are preferibed 
 
 \ he do&rine of infinites has given occafion for manv 
 dilputes ; but the true Hate of the cafe is this : So long as 
 we realbn upon wrong fuppolitions, we mull never ex¬ 
 pert to arrive at truth; hut the nearer our fuppolitions 
 are to truth, the nearer will be the conclulion ; and If 
 thefe iuppofitions be infinitely near the truth, the errors 
 in the conclulion will be infinitely fmall, which being ap 
 lall thrown out of the account, the conclulion will be the 
 lame as if we had proceeded upon principles accurately 
 true. This is the true rife of infinitely fmall quantities 
 in all mathematical computations, and the true reafon for 
 rejecting them, when the operation is over; but it may 
 
 be 
 
I N F 
 
 be reafonably demanded, How do we know that thefe ... 
 finitely {mail errors in the conclufion arife from limilar 
 errors in the premiles ? And the anfwer is, becaufe thefe 
 two forts ol errors have fo mutual A dependence one upon 
 another, that one cannot be made to vanifh, but the other 
 will necelfarily vanifh with it. If it be further demanded. 
 W hat the wrong fuppofitions are from which thefe infi¬ 
 nitely fmall errors fpring ? I anfwer, in the flrft place, the 
 fuppofmg magnitudes to have quantity, which in reality 
 have none at all, but have entirely loft it, either by run¬ 
 ning into infinity on the one hand, or into nothing on 
 the other Thus, if we fuppofe the point D to actually 
 coincide with the angular point C (plate XLI. fig. 3.) 
 the line D C will not only comparatively, but abfolutely 
 be equal to nothing, that is, it will be no line at all, nor 
 can any ufe be made of it: but bv allowing the laid line 
 to have fome quantity, though extremely fmall, or lefs 
 than any that can be afligned, we tacitly fuppofe the point 
 D not to be adlually in the angular point C, but infinitely 
 near it. 
 
 A quantity, after it is reduced to nothing, ceafes to be 
 a quantity ; and if o have no quantity, neither can its re¬ 
 ciprocal or any magnitude exprefled by it, be faid to 
 have any : but the reciprocal of nothing lignifies a mag¬ 
 nitude infinitely great in the ftri£teil fenfe of the word, 
 and can no more be laid to have quantity than abfolute 
 nothing can ; and to compare fuch ma nitudes in refpefl 
 of their quantity, which a£tually have none, is contrary 
 to the definition both of ratios, and the objcdl of propor¬ 
 tion : nay, 1 know not whether the greateft part if not 
 all the difficulties that are faid to attend the idea of infi¬ 
 nity, and our inability to comprehend it, ought not ra¬ 
 ther to be charged upon the abfurdity of comparing things 
 together which in their own natures are incapable of all 
 comparifon. It is faid indeed that infinite parallelopipeds, 
 {landing perpendicular upon finite bafes, and upon the 
 fame plane, are in proportion as their bales; which is 
 true ; but this is not comparing magnitudes in refpeft of 
 the quantity they have not, but in refpe£l of the quantity 
 they have ; one of thefe parallelopipeds may be faid to be 
 broader orthickerthan another, though nothigher. Thus, 
 if r be any quantity whereof the multiplies 2 r and 3 r are 
 taken, 2 r may be laid to be to 3;' as 2 to 3, whether r be 
 finite or infinitely great or fmall; nay, though r fhould 
 fignify an impoffible quantity ; as V — 1) V —&c. 
 but then the quantity of the proportion does not depend 
 "upon the quantity r, but upon the coefficients 2 and 3 : 
 but I muft here take notice however, that if r be actually 
 infinite, I mean in the ftridteft fenfe of the word, by 2 r 
 and 3 r muft then be meant, not quantities twice or thrice 
 as big as r, in the fame refpeft wherein it is infinite, but 
 r twice or thrice taken, which is no way abfurd ; for if it 
 be poffible for any one infinite quantity to exift, that is 
 not every way infinite, it will be as poffible for others to 
 exift of the fame kind, independently of the former : a 
 parallelopiped, that is infinitely extended only as to its 
 length, and that both forwards and backwards, may how¬ 
 ever receive any addition, or be increaled or diminilhed in 
 any proportion in relpe&of its finite dimenfions, but not 
 in rcfpedl to its infinite dimenfions; and this is all the 
 proportion I can conceive infinite quantities capable of. 
 See Pbilofophical 7 ranfafliom, N°. 155. 
 
 That lines or quantities may continually decreafe, and 
 yet never become nothing, may be eafily fhewn in the 
 following manner.—Let MCLK (Jig. 4.) be an inde¬ 
 finite right line, P a given point out of that line ; from P 
 draw PC B perpendicular toMCLK, and of any length 
 at pleafure; from P draw P E, P F, P I, hcc. obferving al¬ 
 ways to make the fegments D E, T F, LI, &c. of thofe 
 lines conftantly equal to C B : from the points E, F, 1 , 
 &c. let fall upon M C K the perpendiculars E G, F H, 
 
 I K, &c. It is very evident that each following perpen¬ 
 dicular is fhorter than any of the preceding ones; and it 
 is as evident, that were the number of them ever fo great, 
 the laft perpendicular would be of a finite length, becaufe 
 Its correfponding hypothenufe does, bv the hypothefis, 
 form a finite angle with the indefinite line MCL K, and 
 docs alfo conftantly rife above it. 
 
 Mathematicians, and more cfpecially thofe who under- 
 ftand this fubjeft, are, generally fpeaking, referved enough 
 upon it, and chufe rather to be deficient than redundant 
 in their expreffions upon thefe occalions; not from any 
 diffidence in their own principles, but knowing very well 
 
 I N F 
 
 how liable matters of this nature are to be drawn into 
 disputes by fuch as lie upon the catch, and make it their 
 chief bufmefs to oppofe the truths which they themfelves 
 could never have diicovered, nor perhaps will ever be able 
 to underftand. 
 
 I n f 1 n 1 t e Series. See Sr r. i e s . 
 
 IN FIN FFIV E, one of the moods that ferve fbr con¬ 
 jugating of verbs, and exprefles things in a loofc indefi¬ 
 nite manner, as docere, to teach. 
 
 In moft languages ancient and modern the infinitive 
 has a peculiar termination, as tmttsiv in the Greek, feri- 
 bere in the Latin, ecrire in the French, ferivefe in the 
 Italian, &c. In this the Englifh is defe&ivc, being 
 obliged to have recourfc to the particle to, except when 
 two or more infinitive moods follow one another. 
 
 The ufing a number of infinitives fucccffively is a 
 common fault in language ; but, where the infinitives 
 have no depcndance on each other, they may be ufed ele¬ 
 gantly enough. 
 
 IN FIN FI V, the quality by which any tiling is de¬ 
 nominated infinite. Finite 'and infinite are looked upon 
 as the modes of quantity, and primarily attributed to 
 things that have paits, and are capable of incrcafe or di¬ 
 minution. by the addition or fubtra&ion of any the lealt 
 part. Such aie the ideas of (pace, duration, and number. 
 This idea wc apply to the iupreme Being primaiily, in 
 refpeft of his duration and ubiquity ; more figuratively 
 to his wifdom, power, goodneis, and other attributes 
 which are properly inexhauftible and incomprehenfiblc. 
 We have 110 other idea of this infinity but what carries 
 with it fome refie£tion on the number or extent of the 
 ads or objects of God’s power and wifdom, which can 
 never be luppofed fo great, that thefe attributes will not 
 always lurmount, though we multiply them in our 
 thoughts with the infinity of cndlefs number. 
 
 We come by the idea of infinity thus : Every one that 
 has any idea of any ftated length of lpace, as a foot. &c. 
 finds that he can repeat that idea, and join it to a third, 
 and fo on, without ever coming to an end of his additi¬ 
 ons. From this power of enlarging his idea of lpace. he 
 takes the idea of infinite lpace. "And in the like manner 
 we come by the idea of eternity. 
 
 We arc carefully todiftinguifh between the idea of in¬ 
 finity of fpace, and the idea of a lpace infinite. The fir ft 
 is nothing but a fuppofed endlefs progrelfion of the mind 
 over any repeated idea of fpace : but to have a&ually in 
 the mind the idea of a fpace infinite is to fuppofe’the 
 mind already palfed over all thofe repeated ideas of lpace, 
 which an cndlefs repetition can never totally reprefent to 
 it; which carries in it a plain contradidlion. 
 
 1 o make this plainer, the infinity of numbers eafily 
 appears to anyone that reliefs on it; but, how clear 
 foever this idea may be, there' is nothing yet more evi¬ 
 dent than the abfurdity of the idea of an aftual infinite 
 number. 
 
 INFIRMARY, a place appropriated for the cure or 
 nurfing of the weak and fickly. 
 
 INT LAMM A I ION, lnjlammatio , ph legmon, in 
 medicine, a dilorder fo called, as it produces effects 
 limilar to thofe of fire. An inflammation is a preflure 
 and attrition of the red arterial blood flagnating in the 
 lmalleft canals, produced by the motion of the reft of 
 the blood, thrown into violent and forcible commotions 
 by means of a fever. Its feat is every part of the body 
 in which there are reticular diftributions of arteries, or 
 the origins of lymphaiick and arterial veflels. 
 
 In the cure of an inflammation by refolution the fol¬ 
 lowing intentions are to be purfued : 1. The farther in¬ 
 jury of the veflels is to be prevented. 2. The injury 
 already done them is to be removed. 3. Fluidity and 
 mildnefs are not only to be reftored to, but alfo preferved 
 in the obftru&ing matter. 4. Or, if this end cannot be 
 obtained, it is to be forced back into larger veflels. 
 
 The further injury of the veflels is prevented, lirft, bv 
 removing or correa'ing the known produftive caufes of 
 the inflammation ; and, fecondly, by lcfiening the im¬ 
 petus of the arterial blood by means of venefeaion and 
 purging. 
 
 '1 he fecond intention is obtained in two manners, 
 either by fo relaxing the obllruaed veflels, that they 
 may tranfmit through their extremities the obftrufting 
 molecules into the veins ; or by fo conftrifting the veflels 
 by means of refrigerants, repellents, and aftringents, 
 
 that 
 
I N G 
 
 that the obftrufling matter may be repelled from the nar¬ 
 row to the large parts of the veffels. But thefe refrige¬ 
 rants, repellents, and aftringents are only lbmctim.es, 
 not always beneficial. In flight inflammations they are 
 often highly ferviceable, if applied in the beginning. 
 But when the difeafe is of longer Handing, the inflam¬ 
 matory obftru&ing matter impacted in the veflels is not 
 capable of being fo eafily repelled. In this cafe relaxing 
 medicines are of all others the mod proper. With thefe 
 anodynes, or fuch medicines as allay pain may alfo be 
 mixed. The fluidity of the obftru&ing matter is produced 
 by attenuating and diluting it, and by reftoring the elaftick 
 ofeiliations to the veflels. 
 
 Point of INFLECTION. When a curve A F K 
 (plate XLI. fig. 5.) is partly convex, and partly con¬ 
 cave, to a right line A B or point B ; the point k divid¬ 
 ing the convex from the concave part, or the end of the 
 one, r.ad the beginning of the other, is called the point of 
 inflection, when the curve being come to F, continues its 
 courfe towards the fame parts; and the point of retro- 
 grelfion, when the curve returns back again towards the 
 place of its beginning. 
 
 Let us fuppofe the curve A F K to have the right 
 line A B as a diameter, and the ordinates P M, E F, 
 &c. parallel to each other. Now if you draw the ordi¬ 
 nate F E from the point F, and the tangent F L ; alfo 
 another ordinate M P from the point M in the concave 
 part A F of the curve, likewife a tangent M T ; then it 
 is e.vident that, in curves having a point ot inflection, 
 while the abfeifs AP conftantly increafes, the part A T 
 of the diameter, intercepted between the vertex of the 
 diameter A and the point T, where the tangent meets the 
 diameter, does likewife increafe until the point P falls in 
 E, after which it continually dccreafes ; therefore A T 
 mull become a maximum A L, when the point P falls in 
 E the point fought. 
 
 In tliofe curves that have a point of retrogreflion, the 
 part A T continually increafes, and the abfeiis A P till 
 the point T coincides with L, and afterwards it conti¬ 
 nually decreafes ; whence A E muft be a maximum, when 
 the point T coincides with L. Now call A E, x ; E F, y ; 
 
 then will ALr — —a-, and the fluxion of this will be 
 
 y 
 
 f- )X . fuppofing x invariable; which (being di- 
 
 yy 
 
 vided by x the fluxion of A E) muft be equal to nothing, 
 or infinite : whence — 44 = o, or infinity; and fo mul¬ 
 tiplying by yy, and dividing by — y, there comes out y—o, 
 or infinite. Now with this laft expreflion, and the ge¬ 
 neral equation of a curve, the point of inflection or retro¬ 
 greflion F may be found : for the nature of the curve 
 A F K being given, we lhall have a value of y in x, and 
 putting that value into fluxions, with .v conftant, we fhall 
 obtain a value ofj in terms of x x ; which being made 
 equal to o, and afterwards to infinity, by means thereof, 
 in either of thefe fuppofitions, we may find A E fo ex- 
 prefled, that its correl'po'ndent ordinate E F lhall interfeCt 
 die curve in the point of inflection or retrogreflion F. 
 
 INFLEX Leaf, among botanifts, one whofe point 
 bends inward towards the Item of the plant. 
 
 INFORMER, a perfon that informs againft, or pro- 
 fecutes another, upon any penal ftatute. 
 
 INFORMIS, fomething irregular in its form or figure. 
 
 INFUNDIBULUM, in anatomy, a finall conduit, 
 fo called from its refemblance to a funnel, which pierces 
 the dura mater upon the bafis of the fkull, and finks info 
 the fubftance of the glandula pituitaria. The pelvis is 
 the infundibulum of the kidnies. 
 
 INFUNDIBULIFORM, a name given by botanifts 
 to tliofe flowers whofe corollas are monopetalous and fun¬ 
 nel-Ih aped, having a narrow tube at one end, and gradu¬ 
 ally widening towards the limb or mouth. There are 
 two kinds of thefe flowers, one the figure of a cone, and 
 the other plain or flat, fomewhat like a faucer, and 
 thence called hypocrateriform ; of the firft kind is bug- 
 lofs, and of the laft form is turnfole, With many.other 
 genera. 
 
 INFUSION, in pharmacy, a method of obtaining 
 the virtues of plants, roots, &C. by fteeping them in a 
 hot or cold liquid. 
 
 INGANNO, in mufick, is when.having done every 
 Yol. II. No. 41. 
 
 I N K 
 
 thing proper for ending a cadence, a mark of filencs is 
 placed inftead of the final, which the ear naturally ex¬ 
 perts, and is deceived. See Cadence. 
 
 INGOT, a mafs-of gold or filver, melted down and 
 caft in a mould, but not coined or wrought. See Gold 
 and Silv er. 
 
 INGREDIENTS, in pharmacy, whatever Ample 
 medicines enter the compofition of a compound one. 
 
 INGRESS, in aftronomy, fignifies the fun’s entering 
 the firft fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns, efpe- 
 ciaily Aries. 
 
 Ingress, Egress, and Regress, inlaw, words 
 frequently ufed in leafes of lands, which fignifies a free 
 entry into, a going out of, and returning from fonie part 
 of the premifes leafed to another. 
 
 INGROSSER, one who buys up great quantities of 
 any commodity, before it comes to market, in order to 
 raife the price. 
 
 In’grosser alfo fignifies a clerk or perfon who copies 
 records, deeds, or other inftruments of law, on ikins ot 
 parchment. 
 
 INGUEN, in anatomy, the fame with what is other- 
 wife called groin, or pubes. 
 
 INGUINAL, in anatomy, &c. any thing belonging 
 to the groin. Hence, 
 
 Inguinal Hernia is a hernia in that part called 
 by furgeons bubonocele. 
 
 IN H AR M O N 1 C A L R e l a t 1 o n , i n mufick, is much 
 the fame with difeord. 
 
 INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or intereft in 
 lands, inverted in a perfon and his heirs. 
 
 INHIBITION, a writ to forbid a judge’s proceeding 
 in a caufe that lies before him. 
 
 INHUMATION, in chymiftry, a method of digefting 
 fubftances, by burying the veflel in which they are con¬ 
 tained in horfe-dung or earth. See Digestion. 
 
 INJECTION, in furgery, the forcibly throwing 
 certain liquid medicines into the body by means of a fy- 
 ririge, tube, clyfter-pipe, or the like. 
 
 Anatomical Injection, the filling the veflels with 
 fome coloured fubftance, in order to make their figures 
 and ramifications vifible. 
 
 INITIATED, in antiquity, a term chiefly ufed in 
 fpeaking of perfons who were admitted to a participation 
 of the facred myfteries among the heathens. See Mys¬ 
 tery. 
 
 INJUNCTION, in law, is a writ or kind of prohi¬ 
 bition granted in feveral cafes ; and for the moil part 
 grounded on an interlocutory order or decree, made in 
 the court of chancery Or exchequer for flaying proceed¬ 
 ings either in courts of law or ccclefiaftical courts. 
 
 INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, re¬ 
 putation, or goods. See Ass ault, Trespass, &c. 
 
 INK, Atramentum , a black liquor generally made of 
 an infufioii of galls, copperas, and a little gum-arabick. 
 
 Compofition ofi common Black Ink.—‘" 1 ake one gallon 
 of foft water, and pour it boiling hot on one pound of 
 powdered galls, put into a proper veflel; flop the mouth, 
 of the veflel, and fet it in the fun in fummer, or in win¬ 
 ter where it may be warmed by any fire ; and let it Hand 
 two or three days. Add then half a pound of green vi¬ 
 triol powdered ; and having ftirred the mixture well to¬ 
 gether with a wooden fpatala, let it ftand again for two 
 or three days, repeating the flirting ; when add further 
 to it five ounces of gUm-arabick difiolved in a quart of 
 boiling water; and, laftly, two ounces of alum; after 
 which, the ink fhould be ftrained through a coarle linen 
 cloth for life.” 
 
 Preparation ofi Red Writing Ink. — “ Take of the rafp- 
 ings of Brazil-wood a quarter of a pound ; and infufe 
 them two or three days in vinegar, which fhould be 
 colourlefs, where it can be fo procured. Boil the infu¬ 
 fioii then an hour over a gentle fire; and afterwards filter 
 it, while hot, through paper, laid in an earthen cullepder. 
 Put it again over the fire, and diflolvc in it, firft half an 
 ounce of gum-arabick ; and afterwards of alum and white 
 fugar, each half an ounce.” 
 
 Preparation ofi Reel Ink from Vermillion. —“ Take the 
 glair of four eggs, a tea fpoonful of white fugar or fugar- 
 candy beaten to powder, and as much fpirit of wine : 
 and beat them together till they be of the confidence of 
 oil: then add fuch a proportion of vermilion as will pro¬ 
 duce a red colour, fufficientlv ftrong ; and keep tile mix* 
 E ■ lure 
 
I N O 
 
 ture In a fmall phial or well-dopped ink-bottle for ufe. 
 The compofition ihould be well lhaken together before 
 it be uled.” 
 
 Indead of the glair of eggs, gum-water is frequently 
 vifed : but thin fize made of ifinglafs, with a little honey, 
 is much better for the purpol'e. 
 
 Sympathetick Ink, a liquor with which a perfon may 
 write, without the letters appearing, till fome means be 
 taken to render them legible. Of this kind are the glu- 
 .tinous juices of plants, or any other thick and vifeid 
 fluids, provided they have no remarkable colours them- 
 felves; for being written on white paper, nothing will 
 appear, till fome fine powder of any coloured earth is 
 thrown over the paper, whereby the letters become legi¬ 
 ble : the reafon of this is evident, as the powder flicks only 
 to the letters formed by the invifible but vifeid liquor. 
 
 Another fort of fympathctick inks are made of infu- 
 fions, the matter of which eafily burns to a charcoal: 
 thus, if a fcruple of fal ammoniack be dilTolved in two 
 ounces of fair water, letters written therewith will be in¬ 
 vifible till held before the fire; for the fal ammoniack being 
 burnt to a charcoal, by a heat flrong enough not to fcorch 
 the paper, the letters are thereby rendered vifible. 
 
 Another fort of fympathetick inks are made of a folu- 
 tion of lead in vinegar, and a lixivium of lime and orpi- 
 ment; for if a letter be written with the former, nothing 
 will appear: but to conceal the affair flill more, fome 
 different fubjetl may be written above it, with a black 
 ink made of burnt cork and gum-water; then, if a piece 
 of cotton, wetted with the faid lixivium, be rubbed over 
 the paper, the fentence that was vifible will difappear. 
 and the invifible one, before written with the folution of 
 lead, will be feen in its place very black and flrong. 
 
 hidian Ink is a black pigment brought hither from 
 China, which on being rubbed with water, diffolves, and 
 forms a lubflance refembling ink; but of a confidence 
 extremely well adapted :o the working with a pencil: on 
 which account it is not only much uled as a black co¬ 
 lour in miniature painting, but is the black now gene¬ 
 rally made ufe of for all fmaller drawings in chiaro ob- 
 feuro, or where the effedl is to be produced from light 
 and fhade only. 
 
 Printing Ink is made by boiling or burning linfeed oil 
 till it is pretty thick, adding a little rofin to it, while 
 hot, and then mixing this varnifh with lamp-black. 
 
 INLAID-WORK. See Marquetry. 
 
 INNATE Ideas, thofe fuppofed to be damped on 
 the mind, from the fird moment of its exidence, and 
 which it condantly brings into the world with it: a doc¬ 
 trine which Mr. Lockehas abundantly refuted See I d e a . 
 
 INN OCE hIT’sD a y .afedival oftheChrillian church, 
 obferved on December 28, in memory of the maffacre 
 of the innocent children by tire command of Herod, king 
 of Judea; who being alarmed at hearing that an infant 
 was born king of the Jews and imagining that his own 
 kingdom was in danger, fent peremptory orders to put 
 all the children in Bethlehem, and the adjacent country, 
 to death. 
 
 INNOMINATA Ossa, in anatomy, three bones, 
 which together conrpofe the trunk of a human body. 
 Thefe, though they form only a fingle bone in adults, 
 are in infants three perfectly didinft bones, each of which 
 has its peculiar name; the upper one is called the ileum; 
 the anterior one, the os pubis, or os pedtinis; and the 
 poderior one, the os pubis, or os ifehiunr. Thefe are 
 joined by the intervention of a cartillage, as it were, in 
 the middle of that fingular cavity called the acetabulum, 
 and continue vifibly didinfl to the age of puberty , after 
 which they coalefce, and form one entire bone fo perfectly, 
 that there is not the lead vedige remaining that they ever 
 were l'cparate. 
 
 INNUENDO, a word that was frequently ufed in 
 declarations of dander, and law pleadings, when thefe 
 were in Latin, in order to afeertain a perfon or thing be¬ 
 fore-mentioned ; but now, indcad of the word innuendo, 
 we fay, meaning fo and fo. 
 
 IN OCULATION, in medicine, theartoftranfplant- 
 ing a didemper from one fubjefl to another, by incifion, 
 pai ticularly ufed for engrafting the fmall-pox. See Pox. 
 
 Inoculation, oi-Budding, in gardening, akind 
 of grafting praftifed in the dimmer months on feveral 
 kinds of done fruits, as peaches, neflarines, cherries, 
 plumbs, apricots, &c. alfo upon oranges, jafmines, and 
 
 I N S 
 
 various other forts of plants. The operation is performed 
 in the following manner : 
 
 Provide youri'elf with a good fharp pen-knife, with a 
 flat haft, adapted to raife the bark of the dock, to admit 
 the bud ; and fome found bals mat, which Ihould be 
 foaked in water, to increafe its drength, and render it 
 more pliable; then having taken off' the cuttings from 
 the trees you would propagate, you mud choofe a fmootli 
 part of the dock, about five or fix inches above the fur- 
 face of the ground, if defigned for dwarfs ; but if for dan- 
 dards, they Ihould be budded fix feet aboveground. Then 
 with your knife make an horizontal cut acrofs the rind of 
 the dock, and from the middle of that cut make a flit 
 downwards, about two inches in length, lb that it may 
 be in the form of a T; but you mull be careful not to 
 cut too deep, led you wound the dock; then having cut 
 off the leaf from the bud, leaving the foot dalk remain¬ 
 ing, you Ihould make a crofs cut, about half a « inch 
 below the eye, and with your knife flit off the bud, with 
 part of the wood to it: this done, you mud with your 
 knife puli off that part of the wood which was taken with 
 the bud, obferving whether the eve of the bud be left fo 
 it or not; for ail thole buds which lofe their eyes in drip¬ 
 ping, are good for nothing : then having gently railed the 
 bark of thedock with the flat haft of vour pen-knife cies: 
 to the wood, thrud the bud therein, oblerving'to place 
 it fmootli between the rind and wood of the dock, cut¬ 
 ting off any part of the rind belonging to the bud, that 
 may be' too long for the flit made in the dock; and lb 
 having exaflly fitted the bud to the dock, tie them clofelv 
 round with bals mat, beginning at the under part of the 
 flit, and fo proceeding to the top, taking care not to bind 
 round the eye of the bud, which Ihould be left open. 
 
 When your buds have been inoculated three weeks or 
 a month, thofe which are frefli and plump, you may be 
 lure are joined; and at this time you Ihould loolen the 
 bandage, which, if it be not done in time, will injure if 
 not dedroy the bud. The March following cut off the 
 dock doping, about three inches above the bud, and to 
 what is left faflen the lhoot which proceeds from the bud: 
 but this mud continue no longer than one year; afrei 
 which the dock mud be cut off dole above the bud. The 
 time for inoculating is from the middle of June to the 
 middle of Augud; but the mod general rule is, when 
 you obferve the buds formed at the extremity of the fame 
 year’s lhoot, which is a fign of their having fin idled their 
 fpring growth. The fil'd fort commonly inoculated is 
 the apricot, and the lall the orange-tree, which Ihould 
 never be done till the latter end of Augud : and in doing 
 this work, you Ihould always make choice of cloudy 
 weather; for if it be done in the middle of the day, when 
 the weather is hot, the lhoots will pcrlpire fo fail, as to 
 leave the buds deditute of moidure. 
 
 INORDINATE Proportion is where there arc 
 tlnee magnitudes in one rank, and three others propor¬ 
 tional to them in another, and you compare them in a 
 different order. Thus, fuppole the numbers in one rank 
 to be 2, 3, 9; and thofe of the other rank 8, 24, 36; 
 which are compared in a different order, viz. 2:3: : 24: 
 36 ; and 3:9: : 8 : 24. Then rejedling the mean terms 
 of each rank, you conclude 2:9: : 8 : 36. 
 
 INQUEST, inlaw, fignifies an enquiry made by a 
 jury, in a civil or criminal caulc, by examining witnefles. 
 See Jury. 
 
 1 NQU 1 RENDO, in law, an authority given to one 
 or more perfons, to enquire into fomethiag for the ad¬ 
 vantage of the king. 
 
 INQUISITION, in law, a manner of proceeding by 
 way of fearch or examination ufed on the king’s behalf, 
 in cafes of out-lawry, treafon, felony, fell-murder, &c. to 
 difeover lands, goods, and the like, forfeited to the crown. 
 
 Inquisition, in the church of Rome, a tribunal in 
 feveral Roman-catholick countries, ercfled by the popes 
 for the examination and punilhmeiit of hercticks. 
 
 INQUISITORS, in law, perfons who have power 
 by their office to make inquiry into certain cafes; as 
 fheriffs, and coroners on view of the body. 
 
 INROLLMENT, inlaw, is regidcring any lawful 
 aft, as a datute 01 recognizance acknowledged, a deed 
 of bargain and fale, Nc. in the roite of chancery, king’s 
 bench, common pleas, or exchequer, at the buffings of 
 Guildhall, London, or at the quarter-fcltions. 
 INSCONSED. in th. nnktarv art, par: of an army 
 
 that 
 
I N S 
 
 that have fortified themfelves with a fconce or (mail fort, 
 in order to defend fome pafs, 6cc. 
 
 INSCRIBED, in geometry. A figure is laid to be 
 inferibed in another, when all its angles touch the tides 
 or planes of the other figure. 
 
 INSCRIPTION, a title or writing carved, engraved, 
 or affixed to any thing, to give a more diftinrt knowledge 
 of it, or to tranfmit fome important truth to pofterity. 
 
 INSECTS, Infefia, in natural hiftory, a fmaller fpe- 
 cies of animals, commonly exfanguinous. 
 
 INSERTION, in anatomy, the infinuation and clofe 
 conjunrtionof thevetfels, fibres, mufcles, or membranes, 
 with fome other part. 
 
 Insertion, in gardening, denotes the inclonng a 
 graft within the cleft of a tree. See Grafting. 
 
 INSESSION, injejfio, infejfus , enedre, encatbifma , or 
 femicupium, in medicine, a kind of half-bath inapioper 
 decoftion of herbs, wherein the patient fits down to the 
 navel. This ferves to eafe pain, foften the parts, difpel 
 flatulent matter, and frequently promote the menfes. 
 
 INSIPID, or taft elefs, that which has nothing pun-! 
 gent in it to affert the palate, tongue, Sec. and excite the 
 fenfation of tailing. 
 
 INSOLATION, Infolatio , in pharmacy, a method 
 of preparing certain drugs, &c. by expofing them to the 
 rays of the fun, cither to dry, maturate, or fharpen them, 
 as is done in vinegar, figs, Sec. 
 
 INSOLVENT, denotes when aperfonhas not where¬ 
 withal to pay his juft debts. 
 
 INSPIRATION, Injpirath , the conveying certain 
 fupernatural notices to the foul. This is fuch an over¬ 
 powering impreffion made of any propofition upon the 
 mind by God himfelf, as gives an indubitable evidence of 
 the truth and divinity of it. 
 
 Inspiration, in phylick, that part of refpiration, 
 whereby the air is drawn into the lungs, and Hands con- 
 tradiftinguilhed from exfpiration. I his admiffion of the 
 air depends immediately on its elafticity, when the cavity 
 of the breaft is enlarged by the elevation of the thorax 
 and abdomen, and particularly by the motion of the dia¬ 
 phragm downwards. This dilatation of the breaft does 
 not draw in the air, though it be a condition abfolutely 
 neceflary to infpiration, but it is an artual intrufion ol 
 the air into the lungs. 
 
 INSPISSATING, Inspiss ation, or Covdenfation 
 in pharmacy, the reducing a liquor to a thicker con¬ 
 fluence by evaporating the thinner parts. 
 
 INSTALLMENT, the inflating a perfon in any 
 dignity. It chiefly denotes the induction of a dean, pre¬ 
 bendary, or other ecclefiaftick dignitary, into the poi- 
 feflion of his proper feat in a cathedral church. This i: 
 fometimes called inftallation. 
 
 Installment, likewife denotes the ceremony, 
 whereby the knights of the garter are placed in their rank 
 in the chapel of St. George at Windfor. 
 
 INSTANT, fuch a part of duration, wherein we 
 perceive no fucceffion, or while one idea paffes in the 
 mind. The fchoolmen diftinguilli three kinds ofinftants 
 n temporary, a natural, and a rational inftant. 
 
 Temporary Instant, a precile part of time immedi¬ 
 ately antecedent to another, as the laft inftant ot a day 
 immediately precedes the firll inftant ot the following. 
 
 Natural Instant, or a priory of nature, which ob¬ 
 tains in things that are fubordinate in afting, as flrft and 
 fecond caufes, caufes and their efterts. 
 
 Rational Inst ant, a point which the underftanding' 
 conceives to have been before fome other inftant, and 
 this with regard to the determinations ot God Almighty 
 but, as there was no real inftant when God had not 
 formed any determination, this inftant is called a ra¬ 
 tional inftant, by way ot oppofttion to an inftant o 
 time. 
 
 INSTAURATIQN, the re-eftablilhing a church, o 
 the like, in its former ft ate. 
 
 INSTINCT, Injiinflus , a natural fagacity with which 
 animals are endued, being in them fomething analogous 
 to what reafon is in mankind. By virtue ot this inftinrt 
 they know what is beneficial for them, defend them 
 felvcs, and propagate their fpecies. 
 
 . INSTITUTES, bjittutn. in the civil law, a book 
 containing the principles of the Roman law, being.the 
 laft part of the corpus juris civiiis. They are a turn 
 marv of the whole body of the civil law, compofed by 
 
 l N T 
 
 Trebonianus, Theophilus, and Dorotheas, by order 
 of the emperor Juftinian, for the ule ot young (Indents. 
 
 Institutes, likewife denote a lyilem ot rules in 
 any fcience. 
 
 INSTITUTION, in general, the art of ordaining 
 or eftablithing any thing. 
 
 Institution, in law, the art of a bifhop, or one 
 commiffioned by him, whereby a clerk is inverted with 
 the fpirituahties of a rertory or vicarage. 
 
 Institutions, a lyftem ot the elements or rules of 
 any art or fcience. 
 
 INSTRUMENT, that which is fubiervient to a 
 caute for producing any effort. 
 
 Instrument, inlaw, implies fome publick art, or 
 authentick deed, by which any truth is made apparent, 
 or any right or title eftablithed in a court of jufticc. 
 
 INSULATED, Infuiatus , in architcrturc, an appel¬ 
 lation given to fuch columns as Hand alone, or free from 
 any contiguous wall, See. like an ifland in the fca; 
 whence the name. 
 
 INSULT, Injultus , in medicine, fignmes tlic accefs 
 of the paroxyfm of intermitting difeafes. See Inter¬ 
 mittent and Paroxysm. 
 
 Insult, in the art of war, the lame with affault. See 
 Assault. 
 
 IN SUPER, over and above, a term ufed by the audi¬ 
 tors of the exchequer in their accounts; thus, where a 
 certain fum is charged to a perfon 5 s account, they lay, 
 fo much remains, infuper, to the accountant. 
 
 INSURANCE, or Assurance, in law and com¬ 
 merce, a contrart or agreement whereby one or more 
 perfons, called infurevs, affurers, See. oblige themfehes 
 to anfvver for the lofs ot a fhip, houfe, goods, Sec.~ in 
 confideration of a premium paid by the proprietors of the 
 things infured. 
 
 Iniurances are of various kinds, as on (hips or parts 
 of (hips, on merchandize fingly, and on lhips and goods 
 jointly; and thefe are again branched out to run either 
 for a time ftipulated, or to one Angle port, or out and 
 home, with liberty to touch at the different places men¬ 
 tioned in the policy. Iniurances may likewife be made 
 on goods fent by land, or by hoys, See. on rivers ; and 
 this is frequently done, more especially on jewels, antT 
 other things of great value. They may likewife be made 
 on (hips and goods, loft or not loft, which is commonly 
 done when a (hip has been long raiding; and thole vvorus 
 being inferted in the policy, oblige the underwriters to 
 pay,"though the (hip was loft at the time of making fuch 
 infurance, except the affured had then certain knowledge 
 of the drip’s being wrecked; in which cole the fubferip- 
 tion (hall not oblige, as this is accounted a mere fraud. 
 
 INTACTA, in conicks, an appellation fometimes 
 gi veil to the afy mptotes. See A s y m p t o t e . 
 
 INTAGLIOS, precious (tones on which arc engraved 
 the heads of great men, inferiptions, and the like; fuch 
 as we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, Sec. 
 
 INTAKERS, a fort of robbers in the north of Eng¬ 
 land, who formerly received the booty which their con¬ 
 federates the out-partners, brought from the borders of 
 Scotland. 
 
 INTEGER, in arithmetick, a whole number incon- 
 tradiftinrtion to a frartion. 
 
 INTEGRAL, or Integrant, in philofopliy, ap¬ 
 pellations given to parts of bodies which are of a flmilar 
 ftature with the whole: thus tilings of iron have the 
 fame nature and properties as bars ot iron. Bodies may 
 be reduced into their integrant parts by triture or grind¬ 
 ing, limation or filing, folution, amalgamation, Sec. 
 
 "INTENDMENT, in law, is the intention, defign, 
 or true meaning of a perfon or thing, which frequently 
 fupplies what is not fully exprefled : but though the in¬ 
 tent of parties in deeds and contiv.rts is much regarded 
 by the law, yet it cannot take place againft the rules of 
 law. 
 
 Intendment of Crimes ; tins, in cafe of treafon, 
 where the intention is proved by circumftances, is pu- 
 nilhable in the fame manner as if it was put in execu¬ 
 tion. So if a perfon enter'a houfe in the night-time, 
 with an intent to commit burglary, it is felony; alfo an 
 affault, with an intent to commit a robbery on the high¬ 
 way, is made felony, and punilhed with tranfportation. 
 
 INTERCALARY, Jntera.hris, in chronology, an 
 appellation civen to the odd dav inlerted in leap-year, 
 ‘ which 
 

 I N T 
 
 which was To called from calo, calare, to proclaim, it 
 being proclaimed by the priefts with a loud voice. 
 
 INTERCEPTED Axi s, inconick fedtions, thefame 
 with abfcille. See Abscisse. 
 
 INTERCESSION, in Roman antiquity, the adl ofj 
 a tribune of the people, or other magiftrate, whereby he 
 inhibited the adt of another magiftrate. The tribunes 
 had an unlimited power to interceed or controul the adts 
 of every other magiftrate, who could only inhibit the 
 adls of inferior magiftrates. 
 
 INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architecture, de¬ 
 notes the fpace between two columns, which is always 
 to be proportioned to the height and bulk of the columns. 
 Some authors have laid down the following proportions 
 for the intercolumniations, at a medium, viz. in the 
 Tufcan order, it muft be equal to four diameters of the 
 column below ; in the Dorick, to three; in the Ionick, to 
 two; in the Corinthian, to two and a quarter; and in 
 the Compoftte, to one and an half. 
 
 INTERCOSTAL, in anatomy, any thing between 
 the coftiu or ribs; as the mufcles, nerves, &c. 
 
 INTERDICT, an eccleftaftical cenfure, by which 
 the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine 
 fcrvice in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This cenfure 
 has been frequently executed in France, Italy and Ger¬ 
 many ; and in the year 1170, pope Alexander III. put 
 all England under an interdidt, forbidding the clergy to 
 perform any part of divine fervice, except baptizing of 
 infants, taking confeftions, and giving abfolution to dy¬ 
 ing penitents. But this cenfure being liable to the ill 
 confequences of promoting libertinifm and a neglcdt of 
 religion, the fucceeding popes have very feldom made 
 ufe of it. There was alfo an interdict of perlons, who 
 were deprived of the benefit of attending on divine 
 fervice. 
 
 Interdicts, in the Roman law, certain formulae 
 of words, by which the praetor, when the pofteftion of 
 any thing was contefted, forbad or ordered fometliing 
 to be done with it, till the property lliould be legally de¬ 
 termined. Of this there were three kinds, prohibitory, 
 reftitutory, and exhibitory. 
 
 Prohibitory Interdicts, by which the judges forbad 
 any one vexing another in the poflelfion of what legally 
 belonged to him. 
 
 P,eJiitutory Interdicts, by which the judges ap¬ 
 pointed any one, who had been driven out of his eftate, 
 to be reinftated, before his right was legally alcertained; 
 and this was the fame with reintegrant. 
 
 Exhibitory Interdicts, by which any thing in dis¬ 
 pute was ordered to be exhibited, as a teftament, &:c. 
 
 INI JLRDIC1 ION of Fire and TVater, in antiquity, 
 a fcntence pronounced againft fuchas were for fome crime 
 to be banifhed. By thus giving order that no body 
 Ihould receive them, but deny them fire and water, they 
 were condemned to a civil death, and this was called le- 
 gitimum exilium. 
 
 INTEREST, a fum of money which is reckoned for 
 the loan and forbearance of fome other fum lent for, or 
 due at, a certain time, according to a certain rate in the 
 hundred pounds. The fum lent or forborne is called the 
 principal, becaufe it produces the intereft, or from which 
 the intereft is reckoned. Intereft is either ftmple or 
 compound. 
 
 Simple Interest, is that which is paid for the loan 
 of any principal or fum of money lent out for fome time 
 at any rate per cent, agreed on between the borrower and 
 the lender ; which, according to the laws of England, 
 ought to be 61. for the ufe of 100I. for one year, and 12I. 
 for the ufe of 100I. for 2 years. And fo on for a greater 
 or lefs fum proportionable to the time propofed. 
 
 There arc feveral ways of computing, or anfwering 
 queftions about ftmple intereft as by the ftngle and double 
 rule of three; others make ufe of tables compolcd of fe¬ 
 veral rates per cent. 
 
 But we fhall lhew that all computations, relating to 
 ftmple intereft, are grounded upon arithmetical pro- 
 grelfion ; and from thence raife fuch general theorems, 
 as will luit with all cafes. In order to that, 
 r P —any principal or fum put to intereft. 
 j t ^ K = the ratio of the r ic per cent, per annum. 
 
 ' S fzarthetimeofthepriiifpaPscontinuingatintereft. 
 
 C A = the amount of the principal and its intereft. 
 
 Note. The ratio of die rate is only the ftmple intereft 
 
 I N T 
 
 of il. for one year, at any given rate; and it is tins* 
 found : 
 
 Viz. 100 : 6 :: 1 : 0,06 =the ratio at 6 per cent. 
 
 per 
 
 : 1 : 0,07 =the ratio at 7 per cent. Ac. 
 7,5 :: 1 ; 0,075 —the ratio at 7 and 
 
 100 : 
 
 annum. 
 
 Or 100 : 7 : 
 
 Again 100 : 
 per cent. 
 
 And, if the given time be whole years, then /=the 
 number of tliofe years : but if the time given be either 
 pure parts of a year, or parts of a year mixed with years, 
 rhofe parts mull be turned into decimals, and then t~ 
 tliofe decimals, &c. Now the common parts of a year 
 may be eafily turned or converted into decimal parts, if 
 it be confidcred, 
 
 f Day is the T ^ T part of a year=o,OQ2’74. 
 
 That ones Month is the 7 L part of a year=o, 08 53332. 
 
 L Quarter is the {th of a year =0,25. 
 
 Half a year=0,5 and three quarters =20,75. 
 
 Tliefe things being premiled, we may proceed to 
 railing the theorems : 
 
 Let R = the intereft of il. for one year as before. 
 Then 2 R=the intereft of il. for 2 years. 
 
 And 3 R = the intereft of il. for 3 years. 
 
 4 R = the intereft of il. for 4 years, and fo on for 
 any number of years propofed. 
 
 Hence it is plain that the ftmple intereft of il. is a feries 
 of terms in arithmetical progreffion increafing, whole 
 firft term and common difference is R. And the num¬ 
 ber of all the terms is /. Therefore the laft term will al¬ 
 ways be /R = the intereft of il. for anv given time Bo¬ 
 nified by /. 
 
 Then * s 5° t ^ lc * ntcre ft of il. fo is any prin¬ 
 
 cipal or given fum to its intereft. 
 
 That is, il:<R :: P :/RP = the intereft of P. Then, 
 the principal being added to its intereft, their fum will 
 be = A the amount required; which gives this general 
 theorem, 
 
 Theorem |RP + P=:A. 
 
 From whence the three following theorems are eafily 
 deduced : 
 
 Theorem 2. 
 
 . 5 -tA— = P. 
 ?+R + 1 
 
 Theorem 3.^—p- =R. 
 
 T' 
 
 Theorem e. 
 
 f A —P 
 RP 
 
 Tliefe four theorems refolve all queftions about ftmple 
 intereft. Thus if it were to be required to find what 
 256I. 1 os. will amount to in 3 years, 1 quarter, 2 
 months, and 18 days, at 6 per cent, per annum : 
 
 Here is given P = 256,5- R = o,o6. And /= 3,46599 
 For 3 years 1=3, Quere A, per theorem 1. 
 
 One quarter=o,25 
 
 2 months =0,16667=0,08333 x 2. 
 
 18 days =0,04932=0,00274x18. 
 
 Hence /=3,46599. x 0,06 = 0,2079594 = ^. 
 
 Then 0,2079594 x 256, c = 53,341 c86 = /RP. 
 
 And 53, 341586 + 256,5 = 309,8 4 i 5 86=/RP + P = A 
 'That is, 309,841586 = 309!. 16s. iod. being theanfwer 
 required. 
 
 And thus may all queftions, relating to ftmple intereft, 
 berefolved, due regard being had to the theorem relating 
 to the queftion. 
 
 C mpound Interest, is that which arifes from any 
 principal and its intereft put together, as the intereft ftill 
 becomes due, fo that at every payment, or at the time 
 when the payments become due, there is created a new 
 principal; and for that reafon it is called intereft upon 
 intereft, or compound intereft. 
 
 As for inftance fuppofe icol. were lent out for two 
 years at 6 per cent per annum compound intereft, then 
 at the end of the firft year it will only amount to 106I. as 
 
 ftmple intereft. But for the fecond year this 106I. be¬ 
 comes principal, which will amount to 112I. 7s. 2d. 
 at the fecond year’s end, whereas by ftmple intereft it 
 would have amounted to but 112I. And although it is 
 not lawful to let out money at compound intereft, vet in 
 purchafing annuities or penfions, See. and taking leafes 
 in reverfion, it is veryulual to allow compound intereft 
 to the purchaferfor his readv money, and therefore it is 
 yery requifite to underftand it. 
 
 Let 
 
I N T 
 
 I N T 
 
 f P =the principal put to intereft. 
 
 T —the time of its continuance. 
 
 ^ ,ct J A =tlie amount of the principal and intereft. 
 
 LR- f the amount of il. and its intereft for i year 
 < at any given rate, which may be thus 
 C found : 
 
 Viz. too : 106:: i : i,o6=the amount of il. at 6 per 
 cent. 
 
 Or, 100:107 :: 1:1,07 “the amount of il. at 7 percent. 
 
 And fo on for any affigned rate of intereft. 
 
 Then if R:=the amount of il. for 1 year at any rule. 
 
 R R=the amount of il. for 2 years. 
 
 R R R — the amount of il. for 3 years. 
 
 R + =the amount of il. for 4 years. 
 
 R 5 —the amount of il. for 5 years. Here/r:5. 
 
 Fori:R::R;RR::RR:RRR::RRR:R 4 :: 
 
 R + : R 5 See. in -rr 
 
 That is, as one pound, is to the amount of one pound 
 at one year’s end ; fo is that amount, to the amount of 
 one pound at two years end. 
 
 Whence it is plain that compound intereft is grounded 
 ■upon a feries of terms increaling in geometrical propor¬ 
 tion continued ; wherein / (viz. the number of years) 
 does always aflign the index of the laft and higheft term, 
 viz. the power of R, which is R. 
 
 Again, as 1 : R c :: P : P R‘ = A the amount of P for 
 the time that R l the amount of 1 1 . 
 
 That is, as 1 1 . is to the-amount of 1 1 . for any given 
 time ; fo is any propofed principle (orfum) to its amount 
 for the fame time. 
 
 From the premifes, w T e prefume, the reafon of the 
 following theorems may be very eafily underftood : 
 Theorem 1. P R'n A, as above. 
 
 From hence the two following theorems are caftly de¬ 
 duced : 
 
 Theorem 2. 
 
 Theorem 
 
 
 :R l . 
 
 By thcfe three theorems all queftions about compound 
 intereft, may be truly refolved by the pen only, viz. 
 without tables ; though not fo readily as by the help ol 
 tables, calculated on purpofe. 
 
 Annuities , or Penftom in Arrear , computed at Compound 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Suppofe arc the' firft year’s rent of any annuity with¬ 
 out intereft. Then will R u + an the amount of the 
 firft: year’s rent and intereft ; more the fecond year’s rent. 
 
 And RRa + R a-f a=the amount of the firft and fe¬ 
 cond years rents, with their intereft ; more the third 
 year’s rent, &c. 
 
 Here RR« + Ra-fic:A the amount of any yearly 
 rent or annuity, being forborne three years. And from 
 hence may be deduced thefe proportions : 
 
 Viz. U : R u :: R « : R R a :: R R a : R R R «, and fo 
 
 on in rr for any number of terms or years denoted by t, 
 wherein the laft term will always be u R‘ — 
 
 Confequently A—a R [ — 1 = the fum of all the ante¬ 
 
 cedents. 
 
 And A — u — the fum of all the confequcnts in the 
 
 feries. 
 
 And therefore it will be 11: u R :A — «R‘ — 1 : A — u. 
 Ergo A « — u u — R u A — u u R‘, which, being di¬ 
 vided all by w, will become A — u — R A — u R‘. 
 
 From this laft equation it will be eafy to raife the fol- 
 
 lowing theorems. 
 
 ^«R C — u , 
 
 l R —1 
 
 Theorem 1. 
 
 Theorem 2. 
 
 J R A —A 
 i R'-i -*■ 
 
 Theorem 3. 
 
 |RAT«-A_^ If this equation 
 
 be continually divided by R until nothing remains, the 
 number of thefe divifions will be /. 
 
 Again ^ — R —R ! — At.- If this equation be 
 
 refolved into numbers, by a converging feries, the root 
 will fhew the value of R. 
 
 By thefe theorems all queftions relating to annuities, 
 computed at compound intereft, may be ftolved. 
 
 Several ingenious mathematicians, as Dr. Halley, 
 De Moivre, Sympfon, &c. have explained the method of 
 Vol. IL No. 41. 
 
 computing the expectation, or eftimate of life ; but it 
 will be fufficient for our purpofe to mention that deduced 
 by the great Dr. Halley from the monthly tables ot the 
 births and funerals in Brefiaw, the capital city of the 
 province of Sileiia; or, as the Germans call it, Schlefia. 
 Whence he proves, that it is 80 to r a p:rfon of 25 years 
 old will not die in a year: that it is 5 -1- to 1, that a 
 man of 40 will live 7 vears : that a man of 30years old 
 may reafonably expeCt to live 27 or 28 years, See. See 
 Philof Tranf No. 196. 
 
 Now, from thefe and the like proportions, he juftly 
 infers, that the price of infurance upon lives ought to 
 be regulated : there being a great difference between the 
 life of a man of 20 and one of 50. For example, it is 
 a 100 to 1 that a man of 20 dies not in a year, and but 
 38 to r, for a man of 50 years of age. And upon thefe 
 alfo depends the valuation of annuities for lives. For it 
 is plain that the purchaler ought to pay only fuch a part 
 of the value of any annuity, as he hath chances that he 
 is living. 
 
 Interest, in law, is generally taken for a chattel 
 real, or a leafe for vears, &:c. but more fora future term. 
 
 INTERJECTION, in grammar, an indeclinable 
 part of fpecch, lignifying foine pafiion or emotion of the 
 mind. As the greateft part of the expreflions uled on 
 thefe occafions arc taken from nature alone, the real in¬ 
 terjections in moft languages, are monofyllables; and as 
 all nations agree in thefe natural palfions, fo do they agree 
 in the fig ns and indications of them, as of love, mirth, 
 &c. The Greeks confound their interjections with ad¬ 
 verbs, and the Hebrews confound them with their adverbs 
 and prepoiltions, calling them all by the general name 
 particle. 
 
 INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind 
 of confcflion to the articles of faith, obtruded upon the 
 proteftants after Luther’s death by the emperor Charles V. 
 when he had defeated their forces ; fo called becaufe it 
 was only to take place in the interim, or mean time, till, 
 a general council fhould have decided all points in difpute 
 between the proteftants and the Romanifts. 
 
 INTERLOCUTORY Order, inlaw, an order 
 that does not decide the caufe, but only fome matter in¬ 
 cident thereto, which happens between the beginning 
 and end of a caufe; as when in chancery or exchequer, 
 the plaintiff obtains an order for an injunction until the 
 hearing of the caufe ; which order, not being final, is 
 called interlocutory. 
 
 INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the 
 theatre between the aCts of the play, to amufe the fpec- 
 tators while the aCtors fhift their drefs ; or to give time 
 ot changing the feenes and decorations. 
 
 INTLRMlTTENT,OrlNTERMITTINGFEVER s, 
 fuch fevers as go off and loon return again, in oppofition 
 to thole which are continual. See Fever. 
 
 INTERNAL, in general, denotes whatever is within 
 a thing. 
 
 INTERNODIUM, among botanifts, implies the 
 fpace between two knots or joints of the ftalks of barley, 
 oats, and the like plants. 
 
 INTEROSSEUS, in anatomy, an appellation given 
 to the mufcles which move the fingers and toes, from 
 their being fituated between the bones of thofe parts. See 
 Muscle. Flexor, &c. 
 
 INTERPRETATION, among criticks, denotes a 
 fpurious paffage, inferted into the writings of fome an¬ 
 cient author. 
 
 INTERPRETER, in general, denotes aperfonwho 
 explains the words or writings of another, fo as to make 
 them intelligible to thofe who did not undeiftand them 
 before. 
 
 INTERREGNUM, the time during which the 
 throne is vacant, in elective kingdoms ; for in fuch as 
 are here hereditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as 
 an interregnum. 
 
 INTERREX, the magiftrate who governs during an 
 interregnum. 
 
 INTERROGATION, or Point Interroga¬ 
 tion , in grammar, a character of this form (?) ferving 
 to denote a queftion. 
 
 Interrogation, in rhetorick, is a figure whereby 
 the orator propofes fome thing by wav of queftion; which, 
 it mull be owned, greatly enlivens the difeourfe. 
 INTERROGATORIES, in law, are queftions 
 F wrote 
 
I N T 
 
 rcrote down, and demanded of the witnefles examined 
 in a caufe, more efpecially in a court of chancery. 
 
 IN 1ERRUPTION denotes the fame thing with 
 disjunction in proportion, and is noted thus (::) ligni- 
 fying the breaking of the ratio in the middle of four dis¬ 
 crete proportionals ; as A : B :: C : D ; that is, as A to 
 B, lb is C to D. 
 
 Interruption, in rhetorick, when a perfon breaks 
 off his difeourfe fuddenly to fhew fome pallion. 
 
 INTERSECTION, in mathematicks, the cutting of 
 a line or plane by another, or the point or line wherein 
 two lines or two planes cut each other. The word is 
 derived from the Latin inter, and feco, to cut. The 
 mutual interfeftion of two planes in a right line. The 
 centre of a circle is in the interfeftion of two diameters, 
 See. The equinoxes happen, when the fun is in the in- 
 terfeftions of the equator and ecliptick. 
 
 INTER SP1NALES Colli, in anatomy, fmall flefhy 
 mufcles of the neck, arifing from the luperior parts of 
 each double fpinal procefs of the neck, except of the fe- 
 cond vertebra?; and inferted into the inferior parts of all 
 the double fpines. When thefe mufcles aft, they draw 
 the fpines of the vertebra of the neck nearer each other. 
 
 INTERSTELLAR, a word ufed by fome authors 
 to exprefs thofe parts of the univerfe that are without 
 and beyond our folar fyftem. 
 
 INTERTIES, in architecture, thofe fmall pieces of 
 timber that lie horizontally between the fommers, or 
 between them and the fell, or refon. 
 
 INTERTRANSVERSALES Colli, in anatomy, 
 certain mufcles lituated among the tranfverfe apophyfes of 
 the vertebra?: they arife from the lower vertebra, and are 
 inferted into that next above : they are of the fame fize 
 and figure with the interfpinales. 
 
 INTERVAL, in mufick, the difference between two 
 founds, in refpeft of acute and grave ; or, that imagi¬ 
 nary fpace terminated by two founds, differing in acute - 
 nefs or gravity. 
 
 Intervals, in gardening and hufbandry, the fpaces 
 left between the feveral row’s of plants fown or let in 
 gardens or fields. 
 
 INTESTATE, in law, a perfon that dies without 
 making a will; in which cafe, a diflribution of his per- 
 fonal effate, after his debts and funeral charges are paid, 
 is to be made among the wife and children ol the de- 
 ceafed, or for w r ant of fuch, among the next of kin. 
 
 INTESTINES, in anatomy, long, cylindrical, hol¬ 
 low, and membranaceous bodies; or rather, one fuch 
 continued body or tube, reaching from the ftomach to 
 the anus. The ftruCture and fubftance of the inteftines 
 are membranaceous; being formed, in every part, of five: 
 coats ortunicks. The firfl is the common coat, from 
 the peritonceum, and is membranaceous. The fecond 
 is cellular, and is called by late writers, tunica cellulofa 
 Ruyfchii: it is contiguous with the mefentery, and is 
 to be difeovered by inflating it; this coat, in fat animals, 
 frequently contains abundance of fat. The third is muf- 
 eular ; it is compofed of a double feries of fibres, in part 
 longitudinal, and in part annular; and thefe aflift the 
 motion of the guts. The fourth coat is nervous: it is | 
 furnilhed with abundance of cellules, vafcules, and glands, 
 and is thicker than the others: from this arife the rugae, 
 and the valves of the inteftines. The fifth is the villofe 
 coat, which fuftains the terminations of the excretory 
 veflels, and the beginnings of the lafteals: hence, when 
 nicely examined, it has the appearance of a fieve : it is 
 the organ of percolation of the chyle. 
 
 The inteftines have veflels in great abundance. Their 
 arteries are from the meferaick ones: the upper meferaick 
 ferving for the fmaller inteftines, the lower for the larger; 
 and thefe make a multitude of very Angular and furpriling 
 anaftomofes. The veins are meferaicks, and go off to 
 the vena porta? and the liver. The nerves are lent from 
 the inlercoftals, and the par vagum. And befides thefe, 
 we are to obferve the lafteal veflels. See Lacteals. 
 
 The reftum, it is to beobferved, receives blood-veffels 
 alfo from the hypogaftricks. There are alfo, befides the 
 Brunnerian glands of the duodenum, other glands in the 
 inteftines, called from the name of the perfon who dif¬ 
 eovered them, glandula? Peyeri. Thefe, in the fmall 
 guts, are ufually little, congiegate, and miliary ; but 
 fometimes they are fingle. They are larger as they are 
 nearer to the duodenum, and finaller as they approach 
 
 I N V 
 
 towards the great guts. Their office is to difeharge into 
 the inteftines a liquor, which ferves for the attenuation 
 of the chyle, and for the lubricating of the inteftines. 
 In the larger guts, and in the vermiform appendage,, 
 they are fingle and large, of a lenticular figure ; and they 
 are largeft of all in the reftum. I hevhave mouths, out 
 of which there is lecreted a fluid, which ferves to lubri¬ 
 cate the fides of the inteftines, and to foften the faces, 
 that they may be evacuated without pain. 
 
 The ufe of the fmaller guts is to promote the forma¬ 
 tion of the chyle, to perfect its fecretions, and to propel 
 the remaining faces to the larger. The office of the 
 larger guts is to receive and colled the matter of the 
 faces, at a proper time to expel it. See Chyle. 
 
 INTESTINAL, fomething belonging to, or feated 
 in the inteftines. 
 
 INI RADA, Entry, in the Italian mufick, is much 
 the fame with prelude or overture. 
 
 INTRENCHMENT, oiRetrenchment, in the 
 art of war. See Retrenchment. 
 
 INTRIGUE, or Intreague, an affemblage of 
 events or circumftanccs, occurring in an affair, and per¬ 
 plexing the perl'ons concerned in it. 
 
 In this ienfe, it is ufed to fignify the nodus or plot of a 
 play or romance; or that point wherein the principal 
 characters are moft embarraffed, through the artifice and 
 oppofition of certain perfons, or the unfortunate falling 
 out of certain accidents and circumftanccs. 
 
 In tragedy, or an epick poem, there are always two 
 defigns; the firft and principal is that of the hero of the 
 piece : the fecond contains the defigns of all thofe who 
 oppofe him: thefe oppofite caufes produce oppofitc ef¬ 
 fects; to wit, the efforts of the hero for the execution 
 of his defign, and the efforts of thofe who thwart it. As 
 thofe caufes and defigns are the beginning of the aCtion, 
 fo thefe efforts are the middle, and there form a knot or 
 difficulty which we call the intrigue, that makes the 
 greateft part of the poem. It lafts as long as the mind 
 of the reader or hearer is fufpended about the event of 
 thofe oppofite efforts : the folution or cataftrophe com¬ 
 mences when the knot begins to unravel, and the diffi¬ 
 culties and doubts begin to clear up. 
 
 INTRINSICK, a term applied to the inner, real, and 
 genuine values, properties, &c. of any thing, in oppofi¬ 
 tion to their extrinfickor apparent values, bee. 
 
 INTRUSION, in law, obtains where an anceftor 
 dies feifed of an effate or inheritance, which is expeftant 
 upon an effate for life, and the tenant for life dies; after 
 which a ftranger enters before the heir, in which cafe lie 
 is laid to intrude. 
 
 INTUITION, among logicians, the aft whereby 
 the mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of two 
 ideas, immediately by themfelves, without the interven¬ 
 tion of any other ; in which cafe, the mind perceives the 
 truth as the eye doth the light, only by being direfted 
 towards it. 
 
 INVALID, a perfon wounded, maimed, or difabled 
 for aftion by age, &c. 
 
 INVECTED, in heraldry, denotes a thing fluted or 
 furrowed. 
 
 INVECTIVE, in rhetorick, differs from reproof, as 
 the latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for the 
 good of the perfon reproved ; whereas the inveftive is the 
 work of an enemy, and entirely defigned to vex and give 
 uneafinefs to the perfon againft whom it is direfted. 
 
 INVENTION denotes the aft of finding any thing 
 new, or even the thing thus found. 
 
 Invention, in rhetorick, being one of the fecond 
 divifions of invention, according to Bacon, fignifies the 
 finding out and choofing of arguments, which the orator 
 is to ufe for proving his point, or moving his hearers 
 paffions. 
 
 Invention, in poetry, is applied to whatever the 
 poet adds to the hiftory of the fubjeft he has chofen, as 
 well as to the new turn he gives it. 
 
 Invention, in painting, is the choice which the 
 painter makes of the objefts that are to enter the compo- 
 lition of his piece. 
 
 INVENTORY, in law, a catalogue orderly made, 
 of all the goods and chattels, of a perfon decealed, ap- 
 praifed by four or more credible men, which every exe¬ 
 cutor or adnuniftrator'is obliged to exhibit to the ordi¬ 
 nary’ at fuch time as he fliall appoint. 
 
 In ven- 
 
I N V 
 
 Inventory, in trade, a particular lift or valuation 
 of goods, &c. 
 
 INVERSE, a manner of working the rule of three or 
 proportion, which is contrary to the order of the com¬ 
 mon and direft rule. In the rule of three direct, the firft 
 term is to the lecond, as the third is to the fourth; that 
 is, if the fecond be greater than the third, or lefs than the 
 firft, in any proportion, the fourth is lefs than the third 
 in the fame proportion. But in the inverfe rule, the 
 fourth term is as much greater than the third, as the fe¬ 
 cond is lefs than the firft. 
 
 INVERSION, the inverting or turning any thing 
 backwards. 
 
 Inversion, in grammar, the arranging the words 
 of any phrafe, otherwife than in the natural order. It is 
 a confiderable beauty either in verfe or profe. It gives 
 vigour and variety to a fentence, and keeps the mind in an 
 agreeable fufpence and expectation of a marvellous turn. 
 
 INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the finding 
 any thing out by the prints of the feet. 
 
 Mathematicians, &c. have hence applied the word to 
 the refpe&ive refearches in which they are employed. 
 
 Investigation ofatheme, in grammar, the finding 
 out the primitive tenfc, mood, and perfon of any verb 
 that is remote from its fource. 
 
 It is abfolutely neceflary to be acquainted with this 
 method of inveftigation, in order to underftand a Greek 
 author. Clenard was the firft who introduced the term 
 into grammar. 
 
 INVESTING, the conferring on any one the pro¬ 
 perty of a fee, dignity, or office; or ratifying what has 
 been obtained elfewliere. 
 
 The emperor of Germany pretends to a right of in- 
 vefting feveral princes and ftates both in the Empire and 
 in Italy. 
 
 Investing, in the art of war, the opening a fiege, 
 and encamping of an army round a place, to block up its 
 avenues, and prevent all ingrefs and egrefs. The cavalry 
 always begins to inveft a place. 
 
 Investing, in law, the putting a perfon in pofleffion, 
 or giving him livery of feifin. 
 
 INVESTITURE, denotes both the right and the 
 aCl of inverting a vaflal. Inveftiture is either proper or 
 improper: proper or true inveftiture is when the thing 
 itfelt is delivered to the party, as when a perfon is put 
 into the pofleffion of land, by delivering him a turf or 
 lump of earth: improper, when the fame is conferred by 
 delivering a fword, fpear, banner, wand, ring, arrow, he. 
 
 INVOCATION, the aft by which we adore God, 
 and implore his affiftance. The word is Latin, Invocation 
 and derived from in, and veco, to call. 
 
 The Romanifts implore the aid of faints to intercede 
 with God for them. This is one of the grand articles 
 of difputc between the Roman catholicks and the re¬ 
 formed. The pradice began in the fifth age in the eaftern 
 church, but nothing, as far as appears, like what is now 
 praCtifed in the church of Rome, there having been no 
 canonizations, proceffions, mafles, litanies, prayers, and 
 oblations to faints at that time. 
 
 Invocation, in poetry, an addrefs at the beginning 
 of a poem, wherein the poet calls for the affiftance of 
 feme divinity, particularly of his mufe, the god of 
 poetry, or that which prefides over the particular lubjeCt 
 treated of. 
 
 INVOICE, or Invoyce, in trade, an account of 
 commodities, their value, cuftoms, provifion, charges, 
 he. fent by a merchant to his faCtor, or correfpondent, 
 in any other country. 
 
 Book a/'Invoice, in book-keepi ng, a book to fave the 
 journal from the erafures inevitable in taking accounts 
 or invoices of the feveral goods received, fent, or fold : 
 where it is neceflary to be very particular, and to render 
 thofe invoices cafier to find than they can be in the 
 wafte-book. T he invoices, here entered, are to be thofe 
 of goods bought, and fet to account of fome other ; 
 thofe of goods fold by commiffion; of goods fent away 
 to be fold on our account, and thofe of goods fold in 
 partnerfliip, whereof we or others have die dire&ion. 
 After the date the narration is to begin thus : Shipped 
 aboard the Ihip—A B matter, bound for—the following 
 goods, coniigned to—for my account, or by order, and 
 the account ot—Or, it may begin dius :—Invoice of 
 goods fhipped aboard,—&c. 
 
 I N V 
 
 INVOLUTION, in algebra, the railing any quantity 
 from its root to any height or power affigned. 
 
 The quantity a m exprefles any power of a in general; 
 the exponent ( m ) being undetermined ; and a — 01 ex¬ 
 prefles d m , or a negative power of n of an equal ex¬ 
 ponent : and a m xa— m — a m — m ~ a°—i is their pro- 
 du£t. a n exprefles any other power of a ; a w Xa n — u m -± " 
 is the product of the powers a m and a n , and a™ — n is 
 their quotient. 
 
 To raife any Ample quantity to its 2d, 3d, or 4th 
 power, is to add its exponent twice or four times to itfelt j 
 therefore, the 2d power of any quantity is had by doub¬ 
 ling its exponent, and the 3d by trebling its exponent ; 
 and in general the power exprefled by rn of any quantity 
 is had by multiplying the exponent by m, as is obvious 
 from the multiplication of powers. Thus, the 2d power 
 or fquare of a is <j 2 x 1 =<3 2 ; its third power or cube is 
 a 3 x 1 —a 3 ; and the wz th power of a is a' n x 1 —a m . Alfo, 
 the fquare of a 4 is a ax4 =:a 8 ; the cube of a 4 is u 3 x 4 
 
 — a 11 ; and the m 1 * power of a 4 is a 4 x m . The fquare 
 of a b c is a 2 b x £% the cube is a 3 b 3 c 3 , the m th power 
 a m b m £ m . 
 
 The co-efficient muft alfo be raifed to the fame power 
 by a continual multiplication of itfelf, as often as an 
 unit by itfelf, is contained in the exponent of the power 
 required. Thus the cube of 3 a b is 3X3X3 xa 3 b 3 
 Z127 a 3 b 3 . 
 
 As to the figns when the quantity to be involved is 
 pofitive, it is obvious that all its powers muft be pofitive. 
 And, when the quantity to be involved is negative, yet 
 all its powers whofe exponents are even numbers muft 
 be pofitive; for any number of multiplications of a 
 negative, if the number is even, gives a pofitive. 
 
 The power then only can be negative, when its ex¬ 
 ponent is an odd number, though the quantity to be in¬ 
 volved be negative. The powers of— a are — a, + 
 
 — a 3 , -f a 4 ,—« 5 , &c. Thofe whofe exponents are 
 2,4, 6, he. are pofitive; but thofe whofe exponents are 
 1, 3, 5, he. are negative. 
 
 The involution of compound quantities is a more dif¬ 
 ficult operation. The powers of any binomial a-\-b are 
 found by a continual multiplication of it by itfelf, as 
 follows : 
 
 a -f b —the root. 
 
 Xa +b 
 
 a 7 + a b 
 -f a b-\-b z 
 
 a r +2 a b + b % 3 k the fquare or 2d power. 
 
 X a -f- b 
 
 a 3 -f 2 a 1 b -f a b 7 
 -J- a 1 b + 2 a b 7 -4- b 3 . 
 
 a 3 -f 3 a 1 b + 3 a b 7 + b 3 — the curbe or 3d power. 
 
 Xa + b 
 
 a 4 + 3 a 3 b + 3 a 1 b 7 -fi a b 3 
 -fa 3 b -f 3 a 1 b 7 + a b 3 -f b* 
 
 a 4 -f \a 3 b + ba 7 b 7 + 4 a ^ 3 -f/» 4 crthe biquadrate or 4th 
 power. 
 
 If the powers of a—b are required, they will be found 
 the fame as the preceding, only the terms in which the 
 exponent of b is an odd niftnber will be found negative ; 
 becaufe an odd numberof multiplications of a negative 
 produces a negative. Thus the cube of a—b will be 
 found to be a 3 — 3 a 7 b-\- 3 a b 7 -^b 3 : where the 2d and 
 4th terms are negative, the exponent of b being aft odd 
 number in thefe terms. In general, the terms of any 
 power of a—b are pofitive and negative by turns. 
 
 If it be obferved, that, in the firft term of ahy power 
 of a + b, the quantity a has the exponent of the power 
 required; that, in the following terms, the exponents 
 of a decreafe gradually by the fame difference (viz. an 
 unit) and that in the laft terms it is never found : the 
 powers of b are in the contrary order; it is not found 
 in the firft term, but its exponent in the 2d term is an 
 unit, in the 3d term its exponent is 2 ; and thus its ex¬ 
 ponent increafes, till in the laft term, it becomes equal 
 to the exponent of the power required. 
 
 As the exponents of a thus decreafe, and at the fame 
 time thofe of b increafe, the fum of their exponents is 
 always the fame, and is equal to the exponent of the 
 power required. 
 
 To find the co-efficient of any term, the co-efficient 
 
J o 1 
 
 of the preceding term being known, you are to divide 
 the co-efficient of the preceding term by the exponent 
 of b in the given term, and to multiply the quotient by 
 the exponent ot a m the lame term, increased by an unit. 
 
 In general, if a-\-b is to be railed to any power m, 
 the terms, without their co-efficients, will be a m , 
 a m — 1 b, u m —' 1 b‘ 1 , ri m —' , b\ c, m — s b s , Sec. conti¬ 
 
 nued till the exponent of b becomes equal to m. 
 
 The co-efficients ot the relpeftive terms, according to 
 
 the laft rules, will be i , m, m x-, mX-—-X-—- 
 
 - ’ 2 3 
 
 m — T * m —3 m —I m —2 m —3 nt —4 
 
 x ~t~ x- 4 - ’ m x t x 7’ x 7’ x “ &c ' 
 continued until you have one co-efficient more than there 
 are units in m. 
 
 JO ACHIMITES, in church hiftory, the difciples of 
 Joachim, a Ciftertian monk, who was an abbot of 
 Flora in Calabria, and a great pretender to infpiration. 
 
 JOB, or Book of Job, a canonical book of the Old 
 Teftament, containing a narrative of a feries of afflic¬ 
 tions which befell a man whole name was Job. This 
 book is filled with thole noble, bold and figurative ex- 
 preffions, which conftitute the very foul of poetry. 
 
 JOHN, or the Go/pel of St. John, a canonical book 
 of the New Teftament, containing a recital of the life, 
 aftions, doftrines and death of our Saviour, written at 
 the defire of the Chriflians of Alia, by St. John the 
 Apoftle and Evangelift. 
 
 St. Jerom fays, St. John would not undertake it, but 
 on condition they fhould appoint a publick. faft, to im¬ 
 plore the affiftance of God, and that faft being ended. 
 St. John, filled with the Holv Ghoft, broke out into 
 thefe words. “ In the beginning was the word,” Sec. 
 The ancients affign two reafons for this undertaking : 
 the fir ft is, becaufe in the other three golpels, there was 
 wanting the hiftory of the beginning of Jefus Chrift’s 
 preaching, till the imprifonment of John the Baptift. 
 which, therefore, he applied himfelf particularly to re¬ 
 late. The fecond reafon was in order to remove the 
 errors of the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and other le£ts. 
 
 St. J o h n , s Day , the name of two Chriftian feftivals, 
 one obferved on the 24th of June, kept in commemora¬ 
 tion of the wonderful circumftances attending the birth 
 of St. John the Baptift; and the other on the 27th of 
 December, in honour of St.John the Evangelift. 
 
 JOINDER, or Jovnder, inlaw, fignifies the join¬ 
 ing of two perfons in one fuit againft another; as for 
 inftance, if there are two joint-poflelTors of goods, and 
 thefe are taken from one c 5 f them, they may both join 
 in an aft ion to recover them. 
 
 JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fitting 
 various pieces of timber together. See Carpentry. 
 
 JOINT, in general, denotes the junfture of two or 
 more things. 
 
 The joints of the human body are called by anatomifts 
 articulations. See Articulation. 
 
 The term joint is alfo applied to the feparation be¬ 
 tween the ltones or bricks of a building, ufually filled 
 with mortar, plafter, or cement; alfo by carpenters, to 
 the leveral manners of aflembling or fitting pieces of wood 
 together, as a dove-tail joint, See. 
 
 Stijfnefs of the Joints, in furgery and medicine, fome- 
 times proceeds from the bones being broken, bruilcd, or 
 wounded, efpecially about the extreme parts, which be¬ 
 ing kept in one poflure, in order for cure, the lynovia 
 of the joints becomes thick, and depraves or quite abo- 
 lifhes its motion ; or it may proceed from the bony juice 
 proceeding from broken bones, and infinuatingitlelf into 
 the joint. Hoffman fays, dileafes of the joints fometimes 
 proceed from fpal’ms of the ligament. 
 
 Joint-Executors, in law, are when two or 
 more perfons are appointed fuch by will; in which cafe 
 they are accounted but as one fingle perfon ; fo that 
 the aftions done by one of them arc taken to be the afts 
 of all, becaufe they all reprefent the perfon of the teftator. 
 
 Joint Lives, in law, is where any thing is granted 
 or given to two or more during their lives. 
 
 Joint-Tenants are fuch as hold lands or tene¬ 
 ments jointly by one title ; as where a man grants 
 lands, See. to perfons and their heirs ; fuch perfons, 
 during their joint tenancy mull jointly plead as well as 
 be jointly fued, which is common to them with copar¬ 
 ceners of lands. 
 
 I O N 
 
 JOINTURE, in law, generally implies a fcttlemcnt 
 of lands and tenements made on a woman in confidera- 
 tion of marriage. It alfo fignifies a covenant, by which 
 the hulband, or fome friends of his, affures lands, Sec. 
 to his wife, for the term of her life. 
 
 JOISTS, or Joysts, in architecture, thofe pieces of 
 timber framed into the girders and fommers, on which 
 the boards ef the floor are laid. Joifts are from fix to 
 eight inches lquarc, and ought feldom to lie at a greater 
 diltance from each other than ten, or at moft twelve 
 inches, nor ought they ever to bear a greater length than 
 ten feet, or to be lefs into the wall than eight inches. All 
 joifts on the back of a chimney ought to be laid with a 
 trimmer, at fix inches diftance from the back. Some 
 carpenters fur their joifts, as they call it; that is, they 
 lay two rows of joifts, one over another, the underinoft 
 of which are framed level with the under fide of the lower 
 girder; and the uppermoft, which lie acrots the lower 
 ones, lie level with the upper fide of the girder. 
 
 JONAH, or Prophecy oj Jonah, a canonical book of 
 the Old Teftament, in which is related, that Jonah was 
 ordered to go and prophecy the deftruftion of the Nine- 
 vites; but that difobedientlv attempting a voyage another 
 way, he vvas dilcovered by the riling of a hidden tempeft, 
 and call into the fea, where he was fwallowed up by a 
 whale, which having lodged him three days and three 
 nights in his belly, difgorged him upon the fhore; where¬ 
 upon being fenfible of his pall danger, and lurprifing de¬ 
 liverance, he betook himfelf to the journey and embafly 
 to which he was appointed; and arriving at Nineveh, 
 the metropolis of Aflyria, he, according to his commif- 
 lion. boldly laid open to the inhabitants, their fins and. 
 inilcarriages, and proclaimed their fudden overthrow ; 
 upon which the whole city, by prayer and tailing, and 
 a lpeedy repentance happily averted the divine venge¬ 
 ance, and efcaped the threatened ruin. 
 
 ION 1 CK Order, the third of the five orders of ar- 
 chitefture, and is of a more llcnder make than the Dorick 
 or Tufcan; its appearance is Ample, yet graceful and 
 majcftick; its ornaments are few; fo that it has been 
 compared to a fedate matron, in decent, rather than 
 magnificent attire. See Plate XL 1 II. fig. 1. 
 
 Among the ancients, the form of the Ionick profile 
 appears to have been more poiitivelv determined than 
 that of any other oi der; for, in all the antiques at Rome 
 (the Temple of Concord excepted j it is exactly the fame. 
 
 I he modern artifts have likewile been unanimous in 
 their opinions; all of them, excepting Palladio and his 
 imitators, having employed the dentil, cornice, and the 
 other parts of the profile, nearly as they are found in the 
 Collifleum, the Temple of Fortune, and the theatre of 
 Marcell us. 
 
 The height of the Ionick column is 18 modules, and 
 that of the entablature 4!, or one quarter of the height 
 ot the column, as in other orders, which is a trifle lefs 
 than in any of the antique Ionicks. In all the antiques, 
 the bafe is attick ; and the ffiaft of the column may either 
 be plain, or fluted with 24 flutings, or 20 only’, as in 
 the temple of Fortune. The plan of the flutings" may be 
 a trifle more than a fcmicircle, as in the forum of Nerva, 
 becaute they then appear more diftinft. The fillets, or 
 intervals between them, inuft not be broader than one 
 third of the breadth of a fluting, nor narrower than one 
 fourth. The ornaments of the capital muft correfpond 
 with the flutings of the (haft; and there muft be an ove 
 above the middle of each fluting. To render it Ihll 
 more beautiful, the volute may be made a little oval and 
 inclining. 
 
 Ionick Dialect, in grammar, a manner of fpeak- 
 ing peculiar to the people of Ionia. 
 
 Ionick Sect was the firft of the ancient fefts of phi- 
 lofophers; the others were the Italick and Ileatick. The 
 founder of this left was Thales, who being a native of 
 Miletus in Ionia, occafioned his followers to aflume the 
 appellation of Ionick. Thales was fucceeded by Anaxi¬ 
 mander, and he by Anaximenes, both of Miletus; Anax¬ 
 agoras Clazomenius fucceeded them, and removed his 
 ichool from Alia to Athens, where Socrates was his 
 fcholar. It was the diitinguilhing tenet of this left that 
 water was the principle of all natural things. 
 
 Ionick Fransmigration was anciently a very 
 celebrated epocha ; it took its rife from the retreat of the 
 Athenian colonies, who, upon the death of Codrus, 
 
 put 
 
I R O 
 
 put thcmfclves under the command of his Ion Neleus, 
 and eftablilhed the twelve cities of Ionia in Aha. Thefe 
 colonies, according to Eratofthenes, were eftablilhed fifty 
 cars after the return of the Heraclidas; and, according to 
 Iarlham, feventy-feven years after the taking of Troy. 
 
 JONQUIL, in botany, the name of a fpecies of 
 Narciffus. See Narcissus. 
 
 JOSHUA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament, 
 containing a hiftory or the wars and tranfa&ions of the 
 perfon whole name it bears. This book may be divided 
 into three parts; the firft of which is a hiftory of the 
 conqueft of the land of Canaan ; the fecond, which be¬ 
 gins at the twelfth chapter, is adefeription of that coun¬ 
 try, and the divifion of it among the tribes ; and the 
 third comprifed in the two laft chapters, contains the re¬ 
 newal of the covenant he caufcd the Ilraelitcs to make, 
 and the death of their victorious leader and governor. 
 The whole comprehends a term of feventeen, or, ac¬ 
 cording to others, of t'vtenty-feven years. 
 
 JOURNAL, a day-book regifter, or account of what 
 paffes daily. 
 
 Journal, or Day-Book:, among merchants, is 
 that wherein the tranfaftions recorded in the wafte-book, 
 are prepared to be carried to the ledger, by having their 
 proper debtors and creditors afeertained and pointed out; 
 for a more diftinCt account of which, fee the article 
 Book-Keeping. 
 
 Journal, among feamen, a certain diary of the oc¬ 
 currences that happen from noon to noon in the courfe 
 of the voyage, as winds, weather, fetting and Ihifting of 
 fails, and remarking the various courfes and diftances 
 run, which are reduced into one, and corrected by a 
 folar obfervation. Every thing material that happens to 
 the fiiip or her crew is alfo oblerved particularly in this 
 journal. 
 
 IPECACUANHA, in the materia medica, a W. In¬ 
 dian root, of which there arc two kinds, diftinguifhed by 
 their colour, and brought from different places, but both 
 polfefling the lame virtues, though in a different degree. 
 The one is grey, and brought from Peru ; the other is 
 brown, and is brought from the Brazils : and thefe are 
 indifferently fent into Europe under the general name of 
 ipecacuanha. 
 
 Thefe two forts have been by fome fuppofed to be the 
 roots of two different plants : but this is a miftake ; the 
 only difference is, that one grows in a different place, and 
 in a richer and moifter foil, and is better fupplied with 
 juices than the other. 
 
 Ipecacuanha is an excellent, mild, and fafe emetick; 
 it is alfo a noble reftringent; and, given in doles too 
 fmall to vomit, is the greateft of all remedies for a dyfen- 
 tery. Small dofes of ipecacuanha, arc an excellent re¬ 
 medy in diarrhoeas of a more fimple kind; and in the 
 fluor albus we hardly know a better medicine. 
 
 IREN ARCH A, a military officer in the Greek em¬ 
 pire, whofebufineis was to provide for the peace and fe- 
 curity of the provinces. 
 
 IR IS, i n meteorology, the rain-bow. See Rain-Bow. 
 
 Iris, in anatomy, a membrane of the eye, which is a 
 ftriped variegated circle round the pupil. See Eye. 
 
 Iris, alfo denotes thofechangeable colours that fome- 
 times appear in the glaffes of telefcopes, microfcopes, &c. 
 fo called from their refemblance to a rain-how. It is in 
 like manner applied to that coloured fpeilrum which a 
 triangular prifmatick glafs will project on a wall, when 
 placed at a proper angle in the fun-beams. 
 
 IRON, Mars , in natural hiftory, a greyifh metal, 
 foon tarnifhing in the air to a dufky blackilh hue, and in 
 no longtime contracting a yellowiffi or redifh ruft. It 
 is the moft fonorous of the metals except copper ; the 
 hardeft and moft elaftick of them all; hence its excellence 
 for mechanick inftruments : it is made into tools, by 
 which all the others are filed, drilled, and cut; and is 
 the only one that ftrikes fparks with flint. It fpreads 
 difficultly under the hammer, but may be extended to a 
 .great degree, drawn into wire, as flender as the fineft 
 hairs: it is more eafily malleable when ignited than when 
 cold; wliilft fome of the other metals, though duCtile 
 when cold, become quite brittle by heat. It is.lighter, 
 confidcrably, than copper ; and a little heavier than tin. 
 It is the only metallick body which attraCls, or is at¬ 
 tracted by, the magnet, one of its own ores. 
 
 Iron grows red-hot much fooner than any other metal, 
 Vol. II. No. 42. 
 
 I R O 
 
 and this not only from the application of aCtualiirc, but 
 likewife from ftrong hammering, friCtion, or other me¬ 
 chanick violence. It neverthclefs melts the moft diffi¬ 
 cultly of all the metals; requiring, in its moft fufible 
 ftate, an intenfe bright white heat. When perfeCUy mal¬ 
 leable, it is not fufible at all, without additions, or the 
 immediate contaCt of the burning fuel; and when melted, 
 it lofes that quality, which deprives it at the fame time 
 of the other, as if fufibility and malleability were in this 
 metal incompatible. 
 
 Solutions of iron made in acids give a yellow ftain to 
 linen, &c. and ftnke a black colour with galls and other 
 vegetable alii ingents. Thefe are very valuable properties 
 of iron to the calico-printer, the ftainer of leather, wood, 
 See. and the dyer. For linen and leather, the metal is 
 commonly diffolvcd in four whey or fmall beer; for dye¬ 
 ing, the vitriol is made ufe of. This metal affords alfo, 
 in its calces, red and yellow pigments to the painter; and 
 a fine blue in the preparation, called from the place where 
 it was firft difeovered, Berlin or Pruffian blue. A flight 
 folution of vitriol has been employed by lome as an allay 
 liquor for diftinguilhing French brandies from common 
 fpirits prepared in imitation of them; l rench brandy 
 having ufually an aftringent impregnation from the oaken 
 calks in which it has been kept, and hence linking a 
 bluifh or black colour with the chalybeate folution ; 
 whilft fpirits tinClured only with molafles, burnt fugar, 
 Sec. give no fuch colour. The principle on which the 
 blue colour depends, fhews that it is no certain teft : all 
 fpirits will exhibit it if impregnated with aftringents; and 
 French brandies will not, without fuch impregnation. 
 
 Iron is exceeding rarely, if ever, found native in the 
 earth. Mr. Lewis fays he never faw a fpecimen of pure 
 native iron ; but the lnaffes which have been fhewn him 
 for fuch, were either notattradled by the magnet, or not 
 dilfoluble in aqua-fortis. Its ores on the other hand are 
 extremely plentiful in almoft all parts of Europe; but 
 South America, fo rich in gold and filver, has little of 
 this moft uleful metal. The richeft ores of iron arecom- 
 pa£t and ponderous, of a brownifh, redifh brown, or 
 red colour; they fcarccly ever participate of perfe£l ful- 
 phur, the pyrita? excepted, and contain but little foreign 
 matter: fuch are, the magnet, the hematites or blood- 
 ftone, the common iron-ftone, and ruddle. The run¬ 
 ning down of the iron-ftone icquires no particular ma¬ 
 nagement, a ftrong charcoal fire being the principal point. 
 
 Smelting of Iron Ores .—The ores of iron are com¬ 
 monly calcined previous to die fufion; the harder ones, 
 though they fliould contain nothing lulphureous or arfe- 
 nical, requiring that procefs to render them pulverable. 
 In the large works, a quantity of the ore is placed on a 
 bottom of wood or charcoal, intermingled with ftrata of 
 the fame kind of fuel; the pile carried up to a confideia- 
 blc height, and fet on fire. 
 
 The fufion is performed in furnaces twenty or thirty 
 feet high, and eight or ten feet wide in the middle, but 
 narrower above and below. The furnace is charged at 
 top with charcoal, and the fiie excited by large bellows 
 moved by water. When the whole internal furface ap¬ 
 pears of a ftrong white heat, the ore is thrown in, by 
 little at a time, with charcoal over it, and commonly a 
 portion of limeftone, the true ufe of which is probably, 
 not as has been generally fuppofed, to abforb fulphur, 
 but to promote the fufion. The ore, gradually melting, 
 drops down through the fuel into the receiver or bottom, 
 of the furnace, where a paffage is open for taking off the 
 feum ordrofs. The metal, now in ftrong fufion, is let 
 out, by a tap-hole, into furrows made in a bed of fand : 
 the large mafs, which fets in the main furrow, is called 
 by the workmen a low, and the leffer ones pigs of iron. 
 Chimney-backs, lloves, garden-rollers, &c. are formed 
 of this rough metal taken out of the receivers with ladles, 
 and call into moulds made of fine fand. Two or three 
 tons of iron are run off in twenty-four hours : before 
 the force of water was called in aid to work the bellows, 
 lcarce an hundred weight could be obtained in a day, and 
 a large quantity of the metal was left in the drofs : hence, 
 in fome places, the flags of the old works are now re¬ 
 melted to advantage along with frelh ore. From the 
 richnefs of the flags of different ores left by former times, 
 fome have been milled into an opinion, that the metal 
 was regenerated in them. 
 
 I- rom the great confumption of wood in this, bufinefs, 
 G - and 
 
I R R 
 
 and its fcarcity in feme places where there are rich mines 
 of iron, attempts have been made to fubftitute other fuels. 
 Peat has been found to anfwer tolerably well: in fome 
 parts of England, a quantity of this has for a confidera- 
 ble time been mixed with the charcoal; and a patent has 
 been lately obtained for running down the ore with peat 
 alone. Pit-coal renders the iron hard and brittle: this 
 inconvenience is faid to be in a good meafure prevented, 
 by previoufly coaking the coal, as is cuftomary to fit it 
 for the drying of malt. 
 
 The impure iron, as run from the ore, is melted down 
 in another furnace, intermixed with charcoal; a ftrong 
 blaft of air being impelled on the furface of the metal, by 
 which its fufion is remarkably promoted. On difeon- 
 tinuing the a&ion of the bellows, the iron thickens into 
 a mafs called a loop, which is conveyed under a large 
 hammer raifed by the motion of a water-mill. The iron, 
 beat into a thick fquare, is heated till ready to melt, and 
 forged again : by a few repetitions of this procefs, it be¬ 
 comes completely malleable, and is at length formed into 
 bars for fale. A large quantity of vitreous fcoria feparates 
 both in the fufion and the forging : the rough call iron, 
 obtained from fome ores, lofcs more than half its weight 
 in being made into bars. 
 
 Preparation of Iron , in medicine, are, i. The crude 
 filings, reduced to an impalpable powder, greatly re¬ 
 commended in female diforders. 
 
 2. The crocus martis. 
 
 3. The flores martiales, or flowers of iron. 
 
 4. The fal martis, or fait of iron, which is prepared 
 thus: mix together a quart of water, and eight ounces 
 of the oil of vitriol; pour the oil of vitriol in by a little at 
 a time : put the mixed liquor into a glafs-veflel, and add 
 to it four ounces of the filings of iron: when the ebulli¬ 
 tion is over, evaporate the liquor to a pellicle, and fet it 
 to lhoot, there will then be a green vitriol or fait found 
 in fair cryflals; dry them for ule. 
 
 This fait is one of the moll powerful preparations of 
 this metal; it opens obftrudtions of all kinds, ftrengthens 
 the vifeera, is an excellent medicine in cachexies, and 
 deftroys worms. 
 
 5. Tintture of iron, with fpirit of fait, is made thus: 
 take filings of iron, half a pound ; Glauber’s fpirit of fea 
 fait, three pounds; rectified fpirit of wine three pints : 
 digeft the fpirit of fait and the filings together, without 
 heat, as long as the fpirit will work upon them ; then 
 after the faxes have fubfided, pour olf tire clear liquor, 
 evaporate it to one pound, and to this add the fpirit of 
 wine. This has the lame virtues as the crocus martis. 
 See Crocus. 
 
 6. Chalybeate, or heel-wine, is made in the follow¬ 
 ing manner: take filings of iron, four ounces; cinnamon 
 and mace, of each half an ounce; of rlienifh wine, two 
 quarts; infufe them a month, without heat, often lhaking 
 the veflel, and then'filter it olf for ule. 
 
 This wine is an excellent ilomachick and aperient; a 
 moderate glals may be drank once or twice a day, or it 
 may be mixed in apozems of the aperient vegetables. 
 
 IRONY, in rhetorick, is when a perlonlpeaks con¬ 
 trary to his thoughts, in order to add force to his dif- 
 courfe; whence Quintilian calls it diverfiloquium. Thus, 
 when a notorious villain is lcornfully complimented with 
 the titles of a very lioneft and excellent perfon; the cha¬ 
 racter of the perfon commended, the air of contempt that 
 appears in the fpeaker, and the exorbitancy of the com¬ 
 mendations, i’ufficiently difeover the diflimulation or irony. 
 
 IRRADIATION, the a£l of emitting fubtile efflu¬ 
 via, like the rays of the fun every way. 
 
 IRRATIONAL, an appellation given to furd num¬ 
 bers and quantities. See Number, Quantity, and 
 Surd. 
 
 IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from thecom- 
 mon forms, or rules; thus we fay an irregular fortification, 
 an irregular figure, See. See Fortification, Sec. 
 
 Irregular., in grammar, fuch inflections of words 
 as vary from the general rule; thus we lay, irregular 
 nouns, irregular verbs, See. 
 
 Irregular Bodies are folids not terminated by 
 equal and fimilar furfaces. 
 
 Irregular Column, in architecture, a column 
 which does not only deviate from the proportions of any 
 of the five orders, but whofe ornaments, whether in the 
 fhaft or capital, are ablurd and ill chofen. 
 
 1 S C 
 
 IS AT AI I. or the Prophecy of Isaiah, a canonical book 
 of the Old Tcftament. Ifaiah is the firlt of the four 
 greater prophets, the other three being Jeremiah, Ezekiel 
 and Daniel. This prophet was of royal blood, his father 
 Amos being brother to Azariah, king of Judah. The 
 five firlt chapters of this prophecy relate to the reign of 
 Uzziah; the vifion, in the fixth chapter, happened in 
 the time of Jotham; the next chapters to the fifteenth 
 include his prophecies under the reign of Aha/ ; and 
 thofe that were made under the reigns of Hezekiah and 
 Manaflch, are related in the next chapters to the end. 
 The itile of this prophet is noble, fublime, and florid. 
 Grotius calls him the Demofthenes of the Hebrews. He 
 had the advantage, above the other prophets, of improv¬ 
 ing his diftion by converting with men of the greateft 
 parts and elocution, and this added a fublimity, force, 
 and majefty to what he faid. He impartially reproved 
 the vices of the age in which he lived, and openly dif- 
 played the judgments of God that were hanging over the 
 Jewilh nation; at the fame time denouncing vengeance 
 on the Aflyrians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Moabites, Edo¬ 
 mites, Syrians, and Arabians, who were inllrumental 
 in inflicting thofe judgments. He foretold the delive¬ 
 rance of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon, by the 
 hand of Cyrus king of Perfia, an hundred "years before 
 it came to pals; but the molt remarkable of his predic¬ 
 tions are thofe concerning the Meifiah, in which lie not 
 only foretold his coming in the flefh, but all the great 
 and memorable circumllances ofhis life and death. 
 
 ISATIS, woad, in botany, a genus of plants whofe 
 flower confilts of four oblong cruciform petals, turning 
 gradually fmaller towards the ungues : the fruit is an ob¬ 
 long lanceolated obtufe compreficd pod, containing two 
 valves, and confilling of one cell, which inclofc an ovate 
 comprefled feed in the centre of the fruit. 
 
 The common woad which is cultivated in feveral parts 
 of England for the purpofes of dying, is a biennial plant, 
 and raifed from the feed, which ftiould be fown in July 
 or Auguft, and afterwards hoed in the fame manner as 
 is praCtifed with turnips. 
 
 A woad blue is a very deep blue, almof! black, and is 
 a blue of fo many tints, that the dyers have a fcale by 
 which they compofe the feveral calls or degrees of woad, 
 from the brighteft to the deep eft. With this plant the 
 ancient Britons ufed to paint themfelves : it is not much 
 ufed in medicine, but accounted very aftringent, and 
 effectual in flopping haemorrhages. 
 
 ISCHAEMUM, in botany, a genus of plants pro¬ 
 ducing male and female flowers ; the male is a final! bi- 
 valvular glume, placed on the calyx of the female flower, 
 which is a biflorous gloom ; the feed is Angle, and in¬ 
 volved in the calyxes and corollulae. The whole plant is 
 ofa fragrant aromatick fmell, and is accounted cephalick. 
 
 ISCHIADICK , in anatomy, a name given to two cru¬ 
 ral veins, called the greater and lefler ifehias. See Vein. 
 
 ISCHIUM, in anatomy, the name of a bone deferibed 
 under the article innominata ofla. See Innominata. 
 
 ISCHURY, Ifthuria, in phyfick, a fuppreflion of 
 urine. The word is Greek, ir%itgia t and formed from 
 icr^w, to retain, andufov, urine. 
 
 Women with child are often troubled with an entire 
 luppreftion ot urine; the moft general caufes of which 
 are gravel and ftone, an inflammation of the neck of the 
 bladder, owing to the piles; or a ftrangulation of the 
 neck of the bladder betwixt the os pubis and head of the 
 child, when it is funk down very low. 
 
 In the two firft cafes, general remedies, as bleeding, 
 emollient clyfters, and gentle purges with foftening dc- . 
 coflions, are of great ufe; but nothing gives fo fpeedy a 
 relief as a catheter. But when the head of the child is 
 funk very low, and prefles ftrongly againft the os pubis, 
 the catheter will notpafs; and then the remedy is to put 
 back the child’s head, which immediately gives liberty 
 to the urine to come away without ufing the catheter. 
 
 La Motte makes a diflindlion betwixt a fuppreflion and 
 retention of urine. In the latter cafe the patient has fre-* 
 quent motions to make water, without being able to do 
 it. But in a total fuppreflion ,of urine the patient has 
 feldom or never any inclination to make water, and if 
 any happen, it is done in a moment: this laft is the moft 
 dangerous. 
 
 To difeharge the urine by a puntture of the bladder 
 is never undertaken, when relief can be had from inter¬ 
 nal 
 
I s s 
 
 nal medicines, or the introduction of the catheter, 
 i. When the neck of the bladder is greatly inflamed, 
 whereby the urethra is contracted. 2. A caruncle, ci¬ 
 catrix, or hard tubercle mayobftruCl the paffage. 3. The 
 introduction of the catheter in old men is fometimes im¬ 
 practicable from the ItriCture or wrinkles of the urethra. 
 
 4. From the detention of its fpongy fubftance with blood. 
 
 5. From a lcirrhofity or preternatural tumour of the prof- 
 tate gland. Laftly, from a ftone lodged in the neck of 
 the bladder. Upon fuch occalions recourfe mult be had 
 to this operation ; and among the various methods made 
 ufe of, Heifter prefers the following, namely, to make 
 an inCifion on the left fide of the future of the perito- 
 naeum into die body of the bladder, fo as not to injure its 
 neck, with a trochar and cannula. After which the 
 perforator is extracted, but the cannula remains there 
 for the more ready difcharge of the urine, by which 
 means both the operation and cure are greatly facilitated. 
 Nor is it improper to pafs one or two fingers into the anus 
 for the better direction of the inftrument into the bladder, 
 and the prelervation of the reCtum. 
 
 When the caufe is removed, the tube may be ex¬ 
 tracted, and the wound healed by the application of bal- 
 fam of capivi. 
 
 ISINGLASS, fee Ichth yocoll a. 
 
 ISLAND, IJle, a traCt of land, quite encompaffed 
 with fait or frefh water : and thus it Lands contradiftin- 
 guifhed from the continent or terra firma Several na- 
 turalifts are of opinion that iflands were formed at the 
 deluge ; others think that they have been rent and fepa- 
 rated from the continent by violent ftorms, inundations, 
 and earthquakes. Tliefe laft have obferved, that the E. 
 Indies which abound in iflands more than any other part 
 of the world, are likewile more annoyed with earthquakes, 
 tempefts, lightning,, vulcanos, &c. 
 
 ISLES, in architecture, thefides orwings of a building. 
 
 ISOCHRONAL, Isochrone,oi-Isochronous, 
 is applied to fuch vibrations of a pendulum, as are per¬ 
 formed in the fame fpace of time, as all the vibrations or 
 fwings of the fame pendulum are, whether the arches it 
 defcribes be longer or fhorter : for when it defcribes a 
 Ihorter arch, it moves fo much the flower, and when a 
 long one proportionably falter. 
 
 Isochronal Line, that in which a heavy body is 
 fuppofed to defcend without any acceleration. See Ac- 
 CELER ATION. 
 
 ISOMERIA, in algebra, a method of freeing an 
 equation from fractions, by reducing them to one com¬ 
 mon denominator, and then multiplying each member 
 of the equation by that common denominator. This is 
 the fame with converiion of equations. 
 
 ISOPERIMETRICAL Figures, fuch as have 
 equal circumferences. It is demonftrated in geometry, 
 that among Ifoperimetrical figures, that is the greateft 
 which contains molt fides or angles. Hence it follows, 
 that the circle is the moft capacious of all figures which 
 have the fame circumference with it. T. hat of two lfo- 
 perimetrical triangles, which have the fame bafe, and one 
 of them two fides equal, and the other unequal; that is 
 the greater whofe fides are equal. That of Ifoperime- 
 trical figures, whofe fides are equal in number, that is 
 the greateft which is equilateral and equiangular. 
 
 ISOSCELES, Triangle, in geometry, a triangle 
 which has two equal fides, as A B C (plate XLI. fig. 6.) 
 where the fide A B is equal to A C, and a line drawn 
 from the top or vertex A, cutting the bafe into two equal 
 parts at D, is perpendicular to the bafe. 
 
 ISSUANT, ijjuing, in heraldry, when a lion or 
 other animal, in a coat of arms, leems juft coming out 
 from under a chief, feffe, lioufe, wood, &c. and only 
 fhews half his body. 
 
 ISSUE, in law, denotes the children begotten be¬ 
 tween a man and his wife ; fometimes the profits arifing 
 from amerciaments or fines ; fometimes the profits of 
 lands and tenements ; but more frequently, a point in 
 any matter depending in l'uit, upon which the parties 
 join, and put their caule to the trial of a jury, Iffue in 
 this laft feme is either general or fpecial. 
 
 General Issue, that whereby it is referred to a jury of 
 12 men to bring in their verdift, whether or no the de¬ 
 fendant hath done any fuch thing as the plaintiff lays to 
 his charge. Thus if it be an offence againft any ftatute, 
 and the defendant plead not guilty, this being put to a 
 
 J U D 
 
 jury is called a general iffue : and in like manner, if a 
 man complain of any private wrong, which the defendant 
 denies, and pleads no wrong, nor diffeifin, and this be 
 referred to a jury, it is likewife the general iffue. 
 
 Special Issue, that wherein fpecial matters being al- 
 ledged by the defendant, both parties join on this point, 
 and go to a demurrer, if it be a point of law ; or to a 
 trial by a jury, if it be a queftioii about any fa£l; as in 
 affault and battery, where the defendant pleads that the 
 plaintiff ftruckfirft. 
 
 Issues, in phyfick, final] artificial apertures made in 
 a flefhy part of the body, to drain off luperftuous or 
 noxious humours. 
 
 ITCH, a difeafe of the fkin, which is corrupted by 
 a fharp humour, and attended by a violent itching. 
 
 This troublefome difeafe is occafioned by minute in¬ 
 fers, which lay their eggs in the furrows of the ikin, 
 where they are foon hatched by the natural warmth of 
 the body, and gnaw and tear the fibres. It is eafily cured 
 by waffling the puftles often with a folution of nitre in 
 water. See Impetigo. 
 
 ISTHMIA, or Isthmian Games, icrQpta, oiig of 
 the four lolemn games which were celebrated every fifth 
 year in Greece; fo called from the Corinthian ifthmus, 
 where they were kept. 
 
 ITINERANT Judges, a name formerly given to 
 thofe judges who were fent into feveral counties to hear 
 caufes. 
 
 JUBILEE, a time of publick and folemn feftivity 
 among the antient Hebrews. This was kept every 5Gth 
 year: it began about the autumnal equinox, and was 
 proclaimed by found of trumpet throughout all the coun¬ 
 try. At this time all Haves were rcleafed, all debts an¬ 
 nihilated, and all lands, houfes, wives and children, 
 however alienated, were reftored to their firft owners. 
 During this whole year all kind of agriculture was for¬ 
 bidden, and the poor had the benefit of the harveft, vin¬ 
 tage, and other produ&ions of thp earth, in the fame 
 manner as in the labbatick, or feventh year. As this was 
 defigned to put the Ifraelites in mind of their Egyptian 
 fervitude, and to prevent their impofingthe like upon their 
 brethren, it was not obferved by the gentile profelytes: 
 
 JUDE, the cpiftle of, a canonical book of the New 
 Teftament, calculated to correft the diforderly lives and 
 impious doctrines which had corrupted the faith and 
 morals of the Chriftians. St. Jude draws them in lively 
 colours, as men giving up to their paftions, full of vanity, 
 conducting themfelves by worldly wifdom, and not by 
 the Spirit of God. 
 
 In the early ages of Chriftianity, feveral rejected this 
 epiftle becaufe the apocryphal book of Enoch and the 
 afeenfion of Mofes are quoted in it. Neverthelcfs, it is 
 to be found in all the ancient catalogues of the facred 
 writings : and Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian and 
 Origin, quote it as written by Jude, and reckon it among 
 the books of facred feripture. 
 
 JUDGE, a chief magiftrate of the law, appointed 
 to hear criminal caufes, to explain the laws, and to pafs 
 fentence according to the verdift brought in by the fore¬ 
 man of the jury. 
 
 Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Tefta¬ 
 ment, fo called from its relating the ftate of the Ifraelites, 
 under the adminiftration of many illuftrious perfons 
 who were called judges, from their being both the civil 
 and the military governors of the people, and who were 
 raifed up by God upon fpecial occafions, after the death 
 of Jolhua, till the time of their making a king. In 
 the time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral re¬ 
 markable occurrences, which are recorded in this book. 
 It acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a new genera¬ 
 tion which fprung up after the death of Jofhua, and 
 gives usalhort view of the difpenfatiens of God to¬ 
 wards this people, fometimes relieving and delivering 
 them, and at others, feverely chaftifing them by the 
 hands of their enemies. 
 
 The book of Judges is ufually divided into two parts ; 
 the one containing the hiftory of the judges from Oth- 
 niel to Samplon, which ends with the 16th chapter ; the 
 other containing feveral memorable actions, which were 
 performed in or about the time of the Judges, from the 
 17th chapter to the end of the book. The author of this 
 book is wholly unknown : fome aferibe it to Samuel, 
 others toHezekiah, and others to Ezra. 
 
 JUDG- 
 
J u L 
 
 JUDGMENT, among logicians, a fatuity, or ra¬ 
 ther a£t of the human foul, whereby it compares its 
 ideas, and perceives their agreement or difagreement. 
 See Knowledge. 
 
 J udgment, in law, the fentence of the judges upon 
 a fuit, &c. 5 b 
 
 J l'dgments for Crimes , in cafe of treafon or felony, 
 muit be by an exprefs fentence, an outlawry, or abju- 
 lation : and no judgment can be infli&ed contrary to 
 law, or that is not appointed by a£t of parliament. 
 
 J, U B G . MENTS for Debts, are acknowledged by a per¬ 
 forms giving a general warrant of attorney to any attor¬ 
 ney of the court in which it is to be acknowledged, to 
 appear tor him at the fuit of the party to whom the fame 
 is to be done, and to file common bail, receive a decla¬ 
 ration, and then to plead, non turn informatus, I am not 
 informed ; or to let it pafs nihil dicit, he fays nothing ; 
 upon which judgment is entered for want of a plea. 
 
 JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a iquarc of 120 
 Roman feet; its proportion to the Englifh acre being as 
 10,000 to ib, 000 and 97. See Measure. 
 
 JUGULAR, in anatomy, an appellation given to 
 two veins of the neck, which arife from the fubclavians: 
 1. "I he external jugular, diftributed over the external 
 parts of the head, and which in its feveral parts receives 
 different denominations from them, as the frontal, tem¬ 
 poral, occipital, See. vein. 2. The internal jugular, 
 which gives ramifications to the larynx, the pharynx, 
 the muicles of the os hyoides, and to the tongue ; thofe 
 which are under its vertex being called ranmte. But 
 befidcs thele branches, its trunk terminates in a diver¬ 
 ticulum, called a jugular Jack, and brings back the blood 
 from the finufes of the dura mater, and from the brain. 
 There are alfo certain glands in the anterior part of die 
 neck, called jugular. 
 
 JUICE, a liquid lubftance that conflitutes part of the 
 compofition of plants, being dilfuled through their folid 
 parts, and ferving for their growth, and nourifhmcnt. 
 This is the fame to plants, as blood is to animals. There 
 are juices of divers kinds, and of all taftes and colours. 
 Di. Lifter obferves, that moll juices of plants coagu¬ 
 late ; and he adds, that as the juices of plants feem to 
 be compounded of liquors of different kinds, it is pro¬ 
 bable, if the cafeous part be narcotick, the whey may not 
 he fo ; or the one may be hurtful, and the other a good 
 medicament. 
 
 Juice alfo denotes the fluids or humours in an animal 
 body. 
 
 Pancreatick Juice, a kind of liquor fecretcd in the 
 glands of the pancreas. 
 
 .JUJUBES, Jujubes, in the materia medica, the name 
 of a fruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree called by 
 authors ziziphus, which Linnaeus makes a fpecies of 
 rhamnus. 
 
 JULEP, julap , juleb, Julepus , and Julaf ium, in phar¬ 
 macy, an alterative medicine, unknown to the ancient 
 Greeks, and invented by the Arabians, compofed chiefly 
 of diftilled waters, See. and fweetened with fugar or proper 
 flrups. 
 
 JULIAN Year, in chronology, the old account of 
 the year, lb called from its founder Julius Caefar ; and 
 by that name is diftinguilhed from the new or Gregorian 
 account, which is now to be ufed in England, and is 
 followed in moft parts of Europe. See Bi ssext ile. 
 
 Julian Period, in chronology, a peiiod fo called, 
 as being adapted to the Julian year. It is made to com¬ 
 mence before die creation of the world. Its principal 
 advantage lies here, that the fame years of the cycles of 
 the lun, moon, and indidtion, of which three cycles 
 it was made to confift by Jofcph Scaliger in 1580, be¬ 
 longing to any year of this peiiod, will never fall together 
 again till after the expiration of 7980 years. There is 
 taken for the firft year of this period, that which hath 
 the firft of the cycle of the fun, the firft of the cycle of 
 the moon, and the firft of the indidtion cycle, and fo 
 reckoning on. 
 
 The firft year of the Chriftian aera is always, in our 
 fyftems of chronology, the 47 14th of the Julian period. 
 
 To find what year of the Julian period any given year 
 of Chrift anfwers to. To the given year of Chrift add 
 4713, becaule fo many years of the Julian period were 
 expired before A. D. 1; and the fum gives the year of 
 the Julian period fought. On the contrary, having the 
 3 
 
 J U R 
 
 year of the Julian period ghen, fubtiaa 4713, and the 
 remainder will be the year fought. 
 
 JULUS, in botany, the fame with what is otherwife 
 called catkins or amentaceous flowers. See the article 
 Amentaceous. 
 
 Julus is alfo the name of an infedt very common 
 among rubbilh, and called in Englilh the gally-worm : 
 it is furnilhed with a great number of feet, has the power 
 ol rolling itlelf up like a ball when touched, and is ef- 
 teemed a very valuable medicine in the jaundice and fup- 
 prelfion of urine. 
 
 JULY, in chronology, the feventh month of the year, 
 fo called in honour of Julius Cafl'ar; before whofc time 
 it was known by the name of quintilis, as being the fifth 
 month of the old Roman year. 
 
 July-flower. See Carnat io n and Stock. 
 
 JUMENTA, in zoology, the name by which Lin¬ 
 naeus calls the fixth order of quadrupeds, the charadter- 
 1 flick of which is, that the teeth of all the animals belong¬ 
 ing to it are placed in a different manner from thole in 
 the other five orders. To this order belong the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, hippopotamos, horfe, and hog. * 
 
 JUNE, the fixth month of the civil year, during 
 which the fun enters Cancer. 
 
 J U NIPER, a well-knownever-green flirub, growingin 
 many parts ol Europe, in woods and mountainous places. 
 
 The berries are fuppofed to contain the whole virtues 
 ol the plant, and fhould he chofen frefii, plump, full of 
 pulp, and of a ftrong tafte ; and thefe, when ufed in 
 medicine, are powerful attenuants, diureticks, and car¬ 
 minatives : they dilfolve vifcid humours in the firft paf- 
 lages, and are confequently a remedy for the flatulencies 
 which thele diforders occafion. They are gi\ _n in cafes 
 of the gravel and other nephritick complaints, in infrac¬ 
 tions of the vifeera, and in fuppreffions of the menfes; 
 and are often made ingredients ia clyitcrs. 
 
 The berries chewed, or the eifential oil taken only in 
 a few drops, give the urine the fame fweet iolet-lcent 
 that it has after taking turpentine. But thele berries are 
 not to be given indilcriminately; for in hot habits they 
 often counteract the very purpofes intended to beanfwered 
 bv them, and their ufe lucceeded with heat, even fup- 
 preflion of urine, flatulencies, and fwellings of the fto- 
 mach and inteftincs: therefore, in all cafes where there 
 is danger of an inflammation, either in the prim;e via; or 
 in the kidnies, the ufe of juniper-berries is to be avoided. 
 We keep no preparation of them in the fhops, except the 
 eflential oil made by diftillers with water in the ufual 
 way; and this is feldom made at home, but the imported 
 kind is commonly adulterated with oil of turpentine. We 
 ufed to keep a diftilled fpirituous water of juniper in the 
 fhops; but the vulgar getting an opinion of its being a 
 pleafant dram, the making of it became the bufinefs not 
 only of the apothecary, but of the diftiiler, who fold it 
 under the name of geneva. See Geneva. 
 
 JUNK, in the fea language, old cables cut into ftiort 
 pieces, and given to boatfwains for making fwabs, plats, 
 and nippers ; as alfo to the lhip-carpenters, and to poor 
 people, to be picked into oakam, for caulkingfhips, See. 
 
 JUNO, in aftronomy, the name by which fo me call 
 the fecond of Jupiter’s iatellites. See Jupiter. 
 
 JUNTA, Ju NTO,or Juncto, in matters ofgovern¬ 
 ment, denotes a feledt council for taking cognizance of 
 affairs of great confequence, which require fecrecy. 
 
 IVORY, Ebur, in natural hiftory, &c. a hard, folid, 
 and firm fubftance, of a white colour, and capable of a 
 very good polilh. It is the tufk of the elephant, and is 
 hollow from the bafe to a certain height, the cavity being 
 filled with a loft medullary fubftance. Thefe tufks grow 
 on each fide of the elephant’s trunk in form of a horn. 
 Each tufk is feven or eight feet in length, and as thick as 
 a man’s thigh at the bafe, and almoft folid; and both 
 together lbmetimes weigh about three hundred and thirty 
 pounds. 
 
 JUPITER, If, in aftronomy, one of the fuperior 
 planets, remarkable for his brightnefs. Ithastwofigns 
 of the zodiack, called its houfes; viz. fagettarv. and 
 pifees, X. Seep/ate IV. Jg. 9 and 12. See Planet. 
 Jupiter, inalchymv, denotes the philofopher’s gold. 
 Jupiter, in chemiftry, denotes tin. 
 
 JURATS, Juraii, magiftrates in the nature of alder¬ 
 men, that govern corporations, together with the mayors 
 or bailiffs. 
 
 JURIS- 
 
JUS 
 
 JURISCONSULTUS, by contraftionJC/af, among 
 the Romans, a perfon learned in the law, who was con- 
 fulted on the interpretation of the laws and cultonls, and 
 difficult points in law-fuits. 
 
 JURISDICTION, a power veiled in any perfon to do 
 jullice in cafes of complaint that are brought before him. 
 
 ' ] UR IS PRUDENCE, the fcience of the laws, rights, 
 
 cuftoms, ftatutes, Nc. iieceffiary for the diftributing jullice. 
 
 JURIS UTRUM, in law, is a writ in behalf of a 
 clergyman, whole predecdTor has alienated the lands be¬ 
 longing to his church. 
 
 [ UROR, in law, lignifies any peifon fworn on a jury. 
 
 JURY, in law, denotes 24 or 12 men fworn to en¬ 
 quire of a matter of fa£t, and declare the truth, upon 
 fuch evidence as lhall be delivered them touching the 
 matter in quellion. The jury is to be cholen out of the 
 fame rank with the perfon accufed; and, if he be a fo¬ 
 reigner, he niay demand a jury halt foreigners and half 
 Englilhmen. ... 
 
 Juries are, in thefe kingdoms, the fupreme judges in 
 all courts and in all caufes in which either the life, pro¬ 
 perty, or reputation of any man is concerned : this is the 
 diltinguilhing privilege of every Briton, and one of the 
 moll glorious advantages of our conftitution ; for as every 
 one is tried by his peers, the meanell fubjeft is as fafe 
 and free as the greateft. 
 
 All criminal caufes mull firll b<t tried by a grand jury, 
 which commonly conlills of 24 men of greater note than 
 the petit jury, who are chofen indifferently out of the 
 whole country, and no man can luffcr the difgrace. of 
 being tried in any ignominious caule, without their firil 
 finding him guilty ; if they find him innocent, he js im¬ 
 mediately difeharged; but if otlierwife, they only find an 
 lndi&mJnt, on which he is tried, and finally acquitted 
 or convidled by the verditt of the petit-jury, who are 
 not only to be returned from the county, where the fa£l 
 was done, but near neighbours, fuch as are moll fuffi- 
 cient and lead fufpicious; to prevent partiality, the names 
 of theperlons impannelled are wrote on leveral pieces of 
 paper of equal fizc, and delivered by the under-lheriff to 
 the judges’s marihal, who caufes them to be rolled up, 
 all in the fame manner, atid put together in a box, and 
 When any caufe is brought to trial, fome indifferent per¬ 
 iod is to draw out twelve of thefe papers, and the per- 
 ions whole names arc drawn, if not challenged, are to 
 be the jury to try the paufe ; and in cafe any are chal¬ 
 lenged, and fet alkie, or do not appear, then a further 
 number is to be drawn till there is a full jury. 
 
 Jury -M a s t s, in the marine, certain fpare malls which 
 are credled in a Ihip, when the others are carried away by 
 the violence of a llorm, or otlierwife. 
 
 JUST, a fportive combat on horfeback, man againd 
 man, armed with lances. 
 
 JUSTICE, Juf/itia , in a moral fenfe, is one of the 
 four cardinal virtues, which gives every perfon his due. 
 
 I V Y 
 
 Justice, JuJliciarius , in a legal fenfe, a perfon de¬ 
 puted by the king to adminiller jullice to his fubjedis, 
 whofe authority arifes from his deputation, and not by 
 right of magillracy. 
 
 Justices of the Peace , are perfons appointed by the 
 king’s eommiffion to keep the peace of the county in 
 which they refide; and fome of thefe, who are fuperior 
 in rank or quality, are called jullices of the quorum, and 
 without the prefence or affent of thefe, or at leall one of 
 them, no bufinefs of importance can be difpatched. 
 
 Justices within Liberties ; arc jullices of the peace 
 who have the fame authority in cities or other corporate 
 towns as the others have in counties, and their power is 
 the fame, only thefe lall have the affize of ale and beer, 
 w'ood and victuals, &c. 
 
 Justice-Seat is the highed forell court, always 
 held before the lord chief jullice in eyre of the forell; in 
 which court fines are fet for offences, and judgments given. 
 
 JUSTICIARY, or Court of Justiciary, in Scot¬ 
 land, a court of fupreme jurildidlion of all criminal 
 cafes. 
 
 JUSTIFICATION, in law, lignifies a maintaining 
 or fhewing a fufficient reafon in court, why the defendant 
 did what he is called to anfwer. 
 
 Justification, in a religious fenfe, is a gracious 
 adt of God, whereby he pardons and accepts of finners 
 on account of Chrill’s righteoufnefs imputed to them, 
 and received by faith. Rom. v. 16,. 18. 
 
 It fometimes lignifies a proof, or confirmation of our 
 junification ; as Rom. iv. 25. IVho [viz. Jesus Christ] 
 was delivered for our offences , and was raifed again for our 
 jujlification. 
 
 IVY, Hcdera , in botany, a well-known evergreen 
 plant, frequently to be met with growing againll trees, 
 walls, houfes, and churches. The leaves are angular, 
 and the flowers, which grow in an umbel, have each 
 rive oblong patent petals, with their points incurved. 
 'Fhe fruit is a globofe berry, of a dark colour, having 
 one cell inclofing four or five large feeds, convex on one 
 fide, and angulated on the other. The berries are fre¬ 
 quently given by the common people as a febrifuge; 
 they purge up and down. 
 
 Grou)u!-lv y , Glee horn a, in botany, a low plant, which 
 grows naturally on banks, &c. in many parts of England. 
 ’ The leaves are roundilh, an inch broad, hairy, and cre- 
 nated; the flowers grow on the top of the dalks, and are 
 monopetalous and rhigent, moderately large, and of a 
 blue colour. The feeds are oval, and four in number, 
 which arc contained in the cup. This plant is of a pun¬ 
 gent, nitrous, and earthy talle, and is very opening, 
 difeutient, and vulnerary: it is not only preferibed in all 
 didempers of the lungs and bread, but alio accounted 
 good in obflruflions of the vifeera ; for which reafon it 
 paffes for an hepatick, fplenetick, diuretick, and ne- 
 phritick. 
 
 42. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 
 
 H 
 
 K, A douUe 
 
K. 
 
 K E E 
 
 X 7 ^ A double confonant, and the tenth letter of 
 ^e alphabet. It is borrowed from the Greek 
 K, Kappa, which was made from the old 
 Hebrew Caph, when reverted. It was but little ul'ed 
 among the Latins; and Prifcian looked on it as fuper- 
 fluous, and fays it was never ufed except in words bor¬ 
 rowed from the Greek; we feldom, it is true, meet with 
 it in Latin authors, except in kalenda , inflead of colendee. 
 
 This letter is formed in the voice by a guttural expref- 
 fion of the breath through the mouth, together with a 
 depreffion of the lower jaw, and opening of the lips and 
 teeth. It has much the fame found as the hard found of 
 C, and is generally ufed only before i, e , and w, in the 
 beginning of words, where the hard found off is formed, 
 as in kill, ken , knave , Ac. 
 
 K is alfo a numeral letter, denoting 2 JO, according to 
 this following verfe; 
 
 K quoque duccntos id quinquaginla tenebit. 
 
 When it had a ftrokc at top, k, it flood for 250,000. 
 K2EMPFERIA, in botany, a genus of plants, the 
 flower of which confifls of a fingle petal, with a long {len¬ 
 der tube, and the limb is divided into fix fegments; the 
 fruit is a roundifh and fomewhat trigonal capfule, with 
 three cells, each containing a confidcrable number of feeds. 
 
 The roots of this plant are the galangals of the fhops. 
 See Galangals. 
 
 KALI, glaifwort, in botany, a plant with fpreading, 
 redilb, pretty thick branches; oblong, narrow, pointed, 
 ffefhy leaves, like thofe of the houfe-leeks; and imperfed 
 flowers in the bofoms of the leaves, followed each by one 
 feed fpirally curled and inctofed in the cup. It is annual, 
 and grows wild on the fea-coafts in the fouthem parts of 
 Europe, particularly of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Of the allies of Kali is made foap, glafs, alkali-falt, 
 potafli, Ac. See thefe articles. The method of prepa¬ 
 ring it is this: when dry, they burn it in certain pits, 
 dug in the ground, which arc clofc covered up with earth, 
 fo that no air can come at the lire: by this means the 
 matter is not only reduced to allies, but made into a very 
 hard Hone, like rock-lalt, which they are forced to break 
 with hammers to get it out. The befl fort is in little dry 
 Hones, of a blueilh-grey colour, and full of little eyes or 
 holes. See Alcali. 
 
 KAOLIN, one of the fubftances whereof China-ware 
 is made; being no other than a kind of talck reduced to 
 powder, and made into a pafle with water. The pecu¬ 
 liar property of kaolin is, that it is very difficultly, if at 
 all, verifiable : fo that being mixed with petunfe, a fub- 
 itance eahly verifiable, the mixture produces a femi- 
 vitrification in the fire, which is what we call china or 
 porcelain. 
 
 KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahometans to 
 that part of the world where the temple of Mecca is fitu- 
 ated, towards which they are obliged to turn themfclvcs 
 when they pray. 
 
 KECKLING, among failors, certain pieces of rope , 
 wound about the cable, to prevent it from being fretted 
 or chafed by the (bin’s llem or bow. 
 
 KEDGE-ANCHOR, among failors, a fmall anchor 
 ufed in harbours and rivers, cither to remove the (hip 
 from one place to another, by the help of certain tranf- 
 porting ropes, called warps, or to keep her Heady as fhe 
 rides at anchor, efpecially at the turn of the tide, when 
 fhe may come fo nigh it as to entangle the flooks of it with 
 her cable, if not kept from it by thekedge. See Anchor. 
 
 KEEL, in naval architedure, the principal piece of 
 timber firH laid upon the blocks, which lupports the 
 whole fabrick of a ihip in the fame manner as the back¬ 
 bone luflains the human body. When this cannot be 
 had of a fuffiqient depth in one piece, there is a flrong 
 
 K E R 
 
 thick plank fattened to the bottom, called the falfe-keel, 
 which alfo ferves to fave the bottom of the main-keel. 
 
 Kell is alfo a veflel employed in divers parts of Nor¬ 
 thumberland to bring coals down the rivers to the (hips 
 into which they difeharge them for exportation. 
 
 KEELSON, or Kel son, is the upper part of the 
 keel, or that part of it which is within the fliip. It is 
 laid over the floor timbers, and bolted through them to 
 the keel; this is alfo, like the keel, of three or four pieces 
 of timber fcarfed together. 
 
 KEE 1 ER, or chief IVarden of ihe Torejl, an officer 
 who has the chief government of a roval forefl, and the 
 check of the other officers. The lord chief juflice in 
 eyre, when he is to hold his juflice-feat, fends out his? 
 general fummons to the keeper forty days before, that 
 all under-officers may have proper warning to appear at 
 a day affigned. 
 
 Keeper of the great Seal , is a lord by his office. He 
 is one of the king’s privy-council, through whofe hands 
 pals all charters, commilfions, and grants of the king 
 under the great feal, without which all luch inflruments 
 are, by law, of no force. He has the fame authority, 
 pre-eminence, Ac. as the lord chancellor has for the time 
 being, and both offices are now executed by him. 
 
 Keeper of the privy Seal, a lord by his office, through 
 whofe hands pafs all charters figned by the king, before 
 they come to the great feal, and fome things which do not 
 pals the great feal at all. He is a prrvy-counfellor, and was 
 anciently reckoned one of the great officers of the realm. 
 
 KELP, a fixed fait, or particular fpecics of alcaline 
 fait, procured by burning the weeds which grow plenti¬ 
 fully on fome fhores, and reducing it to flolid lumps or 
 cakes of afhes. 
 
 KENKS, in the fea-language, doublings in a rope or 
 cable, when handed in and our, fo that it^does not run 
 eafy ; or when any rope makes turns or twifts, and dots 
 not run free in the block, then it is laid to make kenks. 
 
 KERMES, round rediih-brown grains, about the 
 fizeof peas; found in Spain, Italy, and the fouthern 
 parts oj France, adhering to the branches of the feat-let 
 oak. Thefe grains appear, when frefh, full of minute 
 redifli ova or animalcules, of which they are die nidus, 
 and which in long keeping change to a browniih red 
 powdery fubftance. They arc cured by fprinkling with 
 vinegar before exficcation: this prevents the exclufion of 
 the ova, and kills fuch of the animals as are already- 
 hatched ; which would otherwife become winged infeds, 
 and leave the grain an empty hulk. 
 
 hrefh kermes yields upon expreflion a red juice, of a 
 lightpleafant fmell, and a bitterifh, fubaflringent, forne- 
 what pungent tafle: this juice or firup made from it, are 
 brought from the fouth of France, and fometimes made 
 ufe of as mild reflringents and corroborants. An ele¬ 
 gant cordial confcdion, for thefe intentions, is prepared 
 in the fhops, by diflolving in the heat of a water bath, 
 lix ounces of fine lugar in fix ounces by meafure of damafk 
 rofe water, then adding three pounds of the juice of 
 kermes warmed and flrained, and after the whole has 
 grown cold, mixing in halfa fcruple of oil of cinnamon : 
 this confcdion is taken from a fcruple to a dram or more; 
 either by itfelf, or in juleps, with which it mingles uni¬ 
 formly without injuring their tranfparency. The dried 
 grains, if they have not been too long kept, give out, 
 both to water and to redified fpirit, the fame deep red 
 colour, and nearly the fame kind of fmell and tafle, with 
 thofe of the exprefled juice. See Alkermes. 
 
 Kermes-mineral, Pulvis Carthujiunorum, in phar¬ 
 macy, a preparation of antimony, made up in the fol¬ 
 lowing manner. I akc of antimony, four pounds , fo- 
 Iution of fixt nitre per deliquium, one pound ; rain water, 
 three pounds; boil them two hours, and then filter the 
 
 boiling 
 
K I D 
 
 boiling deco&ion through paper; let it {land at reft 
 twenty-four hours, and it will let fall a yellovvilh or faf- 
 fron-coloured powder, the fluid becoming clear. This 
 fluid being then poured off by inclination, the powder 
 muft be walhed by repeated effufions of warm water, and 
 four ounces of lpirit of wine being burnt upon it, after¬ 
 wards kept for ufe. 
 
 This powder, according to Quincy, is a moft effica¬ 
 cious deobftruent, and therefore extremely ufcful in fero- 
 phulous obftinate, fcorbutick, and all fuch cafes as arife 
 from glandular obftrudlion, as likewife in chloretick, 
 cachedlick, and hyfterical habits, where the vitiated crafts 
 of the blood has impaired the vis vita?, and debilitated 
 the fecretive powers : it has been recommended alfo in 
 fevers ; but the ufe of medicines of this clafs, is not yet 
 i'ufficiently authorized by experience, to render fuch a 
 practice eligible. 
 
 KERNING, in the falt-works, implies the cryflal- 
 lization of fait. 
 
 KETCH, in marine affairs, implies a vcffel with two 
 mails, a main and a mizzen-maft. The principal ufe 
 ot this fort of veffel is to bombard a place, being fur- 
 nifhed with mortars, bombs, carcafes, he. for this em¬ 
 ployment, and built remarkably ftrong to encounter the 
 fhock of firing {hells for a continuance. 
 
 KETTLE-Drum, in the art of war. See Drum. 
 
 KEVELS, in {hip-building, a fort of frame com- 
 pofed of two pieces of wood thrull into a third, which is 
 bolted to the infide of the fhip; the Ufe of which is to 
 fallen fome rope to, but more particularly the main and 
 fore fheets. 
 
 KEY, Clavis, the names of tfic feveral parts of a key 
 are thefc: A (plate XLIV. fig. 5.) is the pin-hole, drilled 
 into the end of the {hank H ; B is the llep, or dap-ward ; 
 C, the hook-ward; D, the middle-ward; E E, the crofs- 
 ward; F, the main-ward ; G G, crofs-ward ; I, the 
 pot; K, the bow-ward ; L, the bow, or handle ; and 
 B F E D, &c. the piece of fteel, containing the wards, 
 is called the bit of the key. Keys are prohibited to be 
 imported. 
 
 Key, in muftek, a certain fundamental note, or tone, 
 to which the whole piece, be it in concerto, fonata, can¬ 
 tata, he. is accommodated, and with which it ufually 
 begins, but always ends. SeeCLEFF. 
 
 Key is alfo ufed for an index, or explanation of a 
 cypher. 
 
 Keys likewife denote thofe little pieces in the fore 
 part of an organ, fpinnet, or harpfichord, w hereby the 
 jacks are played, fo as to ftrike the firings of the inftru- 
 ment, and wind is given to the pipes by railing and fink¬ 
 ing the fucker of the found-board. 
 
 Key-Stone of an Arch , or Vault , that placed at the 
 top or vertex of an arch, to bind the two fweeps together. 
 
 KIDNEYS, Rents, in anatomy, are two red vilcera 
 of an oblong figure, fituated at the loins, one on each 
 fide; their hollow fide being turned inward, and their 
 convex fide outward. They are placed near the loweft 
 fpurious ribs; but their fituation is not exactly regular; 
 for in fome fubjefts they are a little higher, and in others 
 a little lower ; and one of them is not unfrequently placed 
 a little above the other : it is not always the fame kidney 
 that is placed high eft; but fometimes the right, and 
 fometimes the left; however, they are fometimes per¬ 
 fectly even. 
 
 1 he kidneys are conneded with the loins, the lower 
 ribs, the colon, the fuccenturiati, the renal veflels, and 
 the ureters. They have two membranes, the one robuft 
 and common, called the adipofe membrane: this lur- 
 rounds them but loofely, and is furnilhed with its own 
 proper veflels. The other membrane is proper, and is 
 very thin, and every where applied elofely to thefubftance 
 of the kidneys. 
 
 I he length of the kidneys is five or fix fingers, the 
 breadth three, and the thicknefs about a finger and a half. 
 Its fuiface, in adults, is ftnooth and equal, but in the 
 feetus in human fubjefts, and in grown animals of many 
 kinds, it is irregularly divided, as it were into a number' 
 of lobes. 
 
 I he veflels of the kidneys, are, like thofe of the liver, 
 included in a membrane, from the peritonaeum. The 
 arteries and veins are large, and called emulgents, and 
 venal veflels; tliefe are produced from the aorta and vena 
 cava. The nerves are from the plexus renalis; and 
 
 K I T 
 
 there is a large excretory du£l, called the ureter. There 
 are alfo a number of Jvmphaticks, paflingto the rcccpta- 
 culum chyli. Thefubftance of the kidneys isfiim and 
 hard, and is of two kinds. 1. The exterior, or cortical, 
 which, according to Malpighi, is glandulous ; but ac¬ 
 cording to the difeoveries of Ruyfch, is throughout 
 elegantly vafculous. 2. The interior, which is tubulous, 
 and exprefled by the name of tubuli Urinarii Bellini: this 
 terminates in 10 or 12 papilla;, which open by a multi¬ 
 tude of apertures into the pelvis; but thefc papillae are 
 not found in all fubjefts. 
 
 I he ufe of the kidneys is to fccrete the urine from the 
 blood, into the pelvis. " See Pelvis, he. 
 
 KILDERKIN, a kind of liquid meafurc in England 
 that contains two firkins, or 18 gallons, beer mealure, 
 and 16 ale meafure. Two kilderkins make a band, and 
 four a hogfhead. 
 
 KING, a potentate, who rules fingly and fovereignly 
 over a people ; he is more or lei’s limited, according to 
 what country lie governs. 
 
 King at Arms , or of Arms, an officer who direCts the 
 heralds, prefidcs at their chapters, and has the jurifdic- 
 tion of armory. There are three kings of arms in Eng¬ 
 land, namely, Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy. 
 
 Garter principal King at Arms. He, among other 
 privileges, marfhals the lolemnities at the funerals of the 
 prime nobility, and carries the garter to kings and princes 
 beyond fca, being joined in commiflion with fome peer 
 of the kingdom. See Garter. 
 
 Clarencieux King at Arms, io called from the duke of 
 Clarence, to whom he firfl belonged. He marfhals the 
 funerals of baronets, knights, efquires, and gentlemen 
 on the fouth fide of Trent. 
 
 Norroy King at Arms does the fame On the north fide 
 of T. rent; and thefc two laft are called provincial he¬ 
 ralds, as dividing the kingdom between them into two 
 provinces. 
 
 Thefc, b‘y charter, have power to fet down noble¬ 
 mens pedigrees, diftinguifh their arms, appoint perfons 
 their arms, and, with Garter, direct the other heralds. 
 
 Latterly the earl marfhal of England, bv fpecial com- 
 million, to perfonate the king, creates the kings at arms: 
 
 Lion King at Arms, for Scotland, is the fccond king 
 at arms for Great Britain; he is invefted and folcmnly 
 crowned. He publifhes the king’s proclamations, mar- 
 fitals funerals, reverfes arms, appoints meflengers at 
 arms, he. 
 
 King's-B ench, Bancus Regius, in law, a court held 
 in Weflminfter-hall, fo called, in regard the king is 
 fuppofed to fit in perfon as judge of the court, and may 
 do fo whenever he pleafes : wherefore all writs, he. in 
 this court, arc made returnable coram nobis, and not 
 coram jufticiariis noftris, as in the common-pleas. 
 
 The judges are the lord chief jullice, and three other 
 puny jullices. Here are principally determined matters 
 relating to the crown and the peace. When r,ny are 
 aggrieved by an order of juftices or quarter-feffions, they 
 have rccourfc hither : the rights of election of mayors, 
 bailiffs, conftablcs, &c. are, upon mandamufcs, fettled 
 here, and prohibitions iffued to flay proceedings in the 
 ecclcfialtical court. Here any debt or contrail may be 
 fued for, as well as in any other court, and may as ex- 
 peditioufly proceed. 
 
 KINK. See Kenks. 
 
 KITCHEN G a rden, a piece of ground lard out for 
 the cultivation'of fruit, herbs, pulfe, and other vegetables 
 ufed in the kitchen. 
 
 A kitchen-garden ought to be fituated near the 
 {tables, from whence the dung may be eafily conveyed 
 into it. The bell figure for a kitchen-garden, and moft 
 convenient for culture, is either a fquare or an oblong ; 
 thefc forms can moft conveniently be divided and fub* 
 divided into right-angled pieces for each particular crop, 
 which cannot fo well be done in an irregular figure : 
 but what is of more confideration, is the choice of a 
 good foil, not too wet nor too dry, but of a middling 
 quality, eafy to Work, and by no means over-fhadowed 
 by trees, buildings, he. lo as to be entirely free to the 
 fun and air, except the north fide, where a diftant 
 plantation is very proper to prefcrve the early crops 
 from being damaged in the fpring by the coldWinds : 
 but thefc plantations fhould not be too near, nor very 
 large ; for it has been found, where kitchen-gardens 
 
KNE 
 
 are placed near woods, or large plantations, they have 
 been much more troubled with blights in the fpring 
 
 than thofe which have been more expofed.-This 
 
 ground Ihould be walled round ; againft which may be 
 trained different forts of fruit-trees ; the borders adjoin¬ 
 ing to them may be about eight or ten feet, which 
 will give the roots of the trees liberty to extend, and 
 alfo are of ufe on the fouth fide to raife many forts 
 of early plants ; and thofe expofed to the north, arc 
 ferviceable for plants of later growth ; avoiding thofe 
 forts which are deep rooted. 
 
 In the divifion of the ground, it fhbuld be laid out 
 in quarters, according as the figure of it will admit: 
 thefe quarters fhould be proportioned to the whole ; it 
 they are too fmall, much ground will be loft in walks ; 
 and" as the quarters fhould be furrounded with efpalier 
 fruit-trees, the plants will draw up flender for want of a 
 more open expofure : the width of the walks fhould alfo be 
 proportioned to the fixe of the ground ; thefe in a fmall 
 garden need not be above fix feet wide ; but in a larger 
 one, ten feet is not too much. On each fide of the 
 walks that are not next the walls, fhould be a border, 
 about three or four feet wide, between it and the elpalier; 
 thefe are ufeful for railing various forts of fmall herbs, 
 fallads, &c. which do not root too deep in the ground. 
 
 The quarters fhould not be fown or planted with the 
 fame crop two years together; but the crops Ihould be 
 annuallv changed, or oftener, according to their time ol 
 duration. One of the bell fheltered quarters (which 
 fhould be as near the ftables as can be admitted) Ihould 
 be appropriated for the hot-beds, or railing early melons, 
 cucumbers. Ac. and to thefe there Ihould be a palfage 
 from the ftables, for the convenieney of wheeling or 
 carting dung, for the above purpofes. 
 
 Water is abfolutely necelfarv in a kitchen-garden ; for, 
 without its aid, numbers of culinary plants would perilh 
 in hot dry feafons; therefore, thofe who lay out a kitchen- 
 garden, would do well to confider this important article. 
 The principal point of the general culture conlifts in 
 well digging and manuring the foil, which, it of a ftrong 
 nature, Ihould be meliorated with land, horfe-dung, 
 afhes, rotten wood, and fuch light fubftances; but it it 
 is light or fandy, then the dung of hogs, cows, loam, 
 Ac. is the beft manure for it. 
 
 KNAVE, in old law books, an appellation given to 
 a man fervant, or even to a male child. 
 
 KNEE, Genu , in anatomy, the articulation of the 
 thigh and leg-bones. 
 
 The two principal motions of this joint are flexion 
 and extenfion : in the former of thefe the leg may be 
 brought to a very acute angle with the thigh, by the 
 condyles of the thigh-bone being round and Imoothed fo 
 far backwards; and in performing this, the patella is 
 pulled down by the tibia. When the leg is to be ex¬ 
 tended, the patella is drawn upwards, and the tibia for¬ 
 wards, by the extenfor-mufclcs, which, by means of the 
 protuberant joint, and this thick bone with its ligament, 
 have the chord with which they a£t, at a confiderable 
 angle, and therefore aft with advantage; but, in order 
 that the body may be fupported by a firm perpendicular 
 column, they are reftrained by the pofterior crols liga¬ 
 ment, from pulling the leg further than to a ftraight 
 line with the thigh ; and when this is done, the thigh 
 and leg are almoft as immoveable as if they were one 
 continued bone : but when the joint is a little bent, the 
 pofterior ligament is relaxed, and the patella not tightly 
 braced therefore the fuperficial cavities of the tibia will 
 allow this bone to be moved a little to either fide, or 
 with a fmall rotation ; which is done by the motion of 
 the external cavity backwards and forwards on the in¬ 
 ternal, which ferves as a kind of axis. The rotation of 
 the leg outwards is of great advantage to us in crofting 
 our legs on leveral neceffary occafions ; though it is 
 wifely ordered by Providence, that this motion Ihould 
 not be very great, fince this would have occafioncd fre¬ 
 quent luxations. While all thefe motions are perform¬ 
 ing, the only part of the tibia that moves immediately 
 orTthe condyles, is only fo much as is within the carti¬ 
 laginous rings, which by the thicknefs of their outfides 
 make the cavities of the tibia more horizontal, by rail¬ 
 ing their external iidc, where the lurface of the tibia 
 flants downwards ; by which means the motions of this 
 joint are more equal and fteadv than they would other-1 
 
 3 
 
 K N O 
 
 wife have been. The cartilages are fitted to do this 
 good office in the different motions and poftures of the 
 member, by being capable of changing a little their 
 fituation ; and this alfo contributes to make the motions 
 larger and quicker. 
 
 Knee of the Head, in.lhip-building, a large piece of 
 timber fayed and bolted to the Item, on which the figure 
 or image of the head refts: by reafon of its great breadth 
 at the upper part, it is compofcd of feveral pieces: it is 
 let into the head, and fallenedto thelhip’s bows on each 
 fide by knees, which are called the cheeks of the head > 
 it is alfo fcaifed to the head of the fore-foot, and fattened 
 to the ftem by a knee, called a ftandard, in the torm 
 of a K. This is commonly called cut-water by fcamen. 
 
 Knees, in Ihip-building, certain crooked pieces of 
 timber, one leg or arm of which is bolted to the beams, 
 and the other to the lhip’s fide. They are either lodg¬ 
 ing or hanging : the hanging knees are fayed up and 
 down ; and the other fore and aft on the iniide of the 
 lhip, rolling upon clamps. 
 
 KNIGHT, a perfon who, on account of fome mar¬ 
 tial feat or notable aftion, is by the king raifed to a rank 
 above a gentleman. Knights were originally laid to be 
 adopted, now we call it dubbed, as being luppofed, in 
 fome meafure, the fons of him who knighted them. 
 
 The principal ceremonies at the creation of a knight 
 were a box on the car, a ftroke with a lword on the 
 IhoulJer, putting on a Ihoulder-belt, gilt fword, fpurs, 
 Ac. after which, being properly armed, he wasi'oiemnly 
 led to the church. 
 
 Camden deferibes the manner of making knights ba¬ 
 chelors, which is the loweft, though the moil ancient 
 order of knighthood in England ; the perfon kneeling 
 was gently ftruck on the lhoulder and accofted by the 
 prince in thefe words, ‘ Kile, and be a knight in the 
 name of God.’ 
 
 Knight alfo denotes a perfon admitted alto any or¬ 
 der, with certain marks of diftinftion, as the knight's ot^ 
 the Garter, of the Elephant, of the Holy Ghoft, of 
 Malta, Ac. 
 
 Knights of the Shire, or Knights of Parliamenti 
 in the Britilh polity, arc two knights or gentlemen of 
 eftate, who are elefted, on the king’s wnit, by' the free¬ 
 holders of every county, to reprelcnt them in parliament. 
 
 The qualifications of a knight of the lhire, is to be 
 poffcffed of 6001. per ann. in a freehold eftate. rheit 
 expences during their fitting were, by a llatutc of Henry 
 VIII. to be defrayed by the county ; but this is now 
 fcarce ever required. 
 
 Knight-Marshal, an officer in the king’s houfe- 
 hold, who has jurifdiftion and cognizance ot any trail f- 
 greflion within the king’s houfhold and verge ; as alfo 
 of contrafts made there, whereof one ot the houle is 
 party. 
 
 Knight-Heads, in fhip-building, two ftrongpieces 
 of timber placed on each fide ot the deck of a merchant 
 lhip. They are ufed to fupport the windlafs, or roller, 
 by which the cable is wound into the lhip ; and as each 
 of them is formed of two pieces, they can be occafionally 
 taken down and leparated, to remove the cable from off 
 the windlafs, which refts upon and turn9 round in the 
 knight-heads ; they are otherwifc called bits, and m this 
 fenle the upper part only is called the knight-hcad. 
 
 KNOTS of the Log-Line , the divifions on the log¬ 
 line. See the article Log -Line. 
 
 KNOTTING, among lailors, untwifting the ends 
 of a rope, and interweaving them curioully amongft each 
 other, fo as to form knots of various fhapes; amongft 
 which they number the diamond-knot, the wall-knot or 
 walnut, the role-knot, bow-iine-knot, double diamond- 
 knot, Ac. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE, according to Mr. Locke, confifts 
 in the perception of the conneftion and agreement, or 
 difagreement and repugnancy of our ideas : and fo it 
 Hands contradiftinguilhed from ignorance. 
 
 The whole ftock of our knowledge confifts of four 
 heads, namely, identity or diverfitv, relation, co-exif- 
 tence, and real cxiftcnce. 
 
 As to the identity or diverfity of our ideas, it is the 
 firft aft of the mind to perceive its own ideas, and, fo 
 far as it perceives them, to know what each is, and 
 thereby find out their difference. 
 
 The next kind of agreement or difagreement in our 
 
 ideas. 
 
LAB 
 
 ideas, is co-exigence or non-co-cxiflence in the fame 
 fubje<fi, and this belongs particularly to fubfiances. 
 
 The fourth fort is that of attual exigence, agreeing 
 to any idea. The mind becomes poflefled of truth ie- 
 veral ways, which confiitute fo many different fpecies of 
 .knowledge. Thus, when the mind has a prefent view 
 of the agreement or difagreement of any of its ideas, or 
 relation they bear to one another, this is called attual 
 knowledge. 
 
 Secondly, a man is faid to know a propofition, when 
 having once evidently perceived the agreement or dif¬ 
 agreement of the ideas of which it confifis, and fo lodged 
 in his memory, the mind afients to it without any hefi- 
 
 LAC 
 
 tation whenever it comes to be again reflected upOn ; and 
 this may be called habitual knowledge. 
 
 KOLLO W, the name of a black earth found in vari¬ 
 ous parts of the kingdom. 
 
 KORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran. 
 
 KOS, in Jewifh antiquity, a mealure of capacity, con¬ 
 taining about four cubick inches : this was the cup of 
 bleffing, out of which they drank when they gave thanks 
 after folemn meals, like that of the paifover. 
 
 KUTUCHTA, among the Calmuck-Tartars, the 
 name of their high priefi, or lbvereign pontiff. formerly 
 only the deputy of the delai-lama, or high priefl of the 
 Tartars, but at prefent independent on him. 
 
 A femi-vowcl, or liquid, making the eleventh 
 letter of the alphabet. 
 
 •) It was derived from the old Hebrew Lamed, 
 or Greek Lambda a. It is founded by intercepting the 
 breath between the top of the tongue and forepart of the 
 palate, with the mouth open, and makes a l'weet found, 
 with fomething of an afpiratioli; and therefore the Bri¬ 
 tons and Spaniards ufually doubled it, or added an h to it 
 in the beginning of words, as in llan, or than, a temple, 
 founding nearly like fl, Ac. In Englilh words of one 
 iyliable it is doubled at the end, as tell, bell, knell, Ac. hut 
 in words of more fyllables than one it is Angle at the end, 
 as evil, general, con/litutional, he. It is placed after moft 
 of the confonants in the beginning of words and fyllables, 
 as black, glare, ad-le, ea-gle , he. but before none. Its 
 found is clear in Abel, but obfeure in able, he. 
 
 L, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, and is 
 Bill fo in the Roman cyphering, and denotes 50, accord¬ 
 ing to the verfe, 
 
 6 )'uinquies L den os numero defignat habendos . 
 
 being half a C, which fignifies a hundred, and was for¬ 
 merly written thus E. When a line was added at top 
 l, it Bood for 50,060. 
 
 L A, in mulick, the fyllable by which Guido denoted 
 the laB found of each hexachord ; if it begins in C, it an- 
 fwers to our A ; if in G, to E; and if in F, to D. 
 
 LAB ARUM, in Roman antiquity, the Bandard borne 
 before the Roman emperors, being a rich purple Breamer, 
 fupported by a fpear. 
 
 LABDANUM, orL.\BANUM,in pharmacy, a refin 
 of the fofter kind, though too firm in its confifience to 
 be ranked among the fluid ones. 
 
 There are two kinds of labdanums in the fliops, the 
 one in cakes and mafles of an irregular figure, the other 
 twified up into a fort of oblong rolls. The former is 
 much the befi, but not eafy to be met with. It is of a 
 dark colour, approaching to blackifli, confiderably heavy, 
 of a tough confifience, of a firong and not unpleafant 
 Ikiell, and of an aromatick, but not very agreeable tafie. 
 
 The Ihrub which produces it is one of the poly and ria 
 monogynia of Linnaeus, and one of the herbs pentape- 
 talae foliis incaule ex adverfo binis of Ray. It is alow 
 Ihrub, of the cifius kind, fpreading itfelf on the ground, 
 and rarely riling to more than two feet high. The labda- 
 numis colle&ed in the following manner: they take a kind 
 of wooden' rake, but without teeth, and to this they fix 
 a number of long thongs of untanned leather. With 
 this infirument they colleft the labdanum, during the 
 heat of the day, by drawing it feveral times over the 
 lhrubs. They afterwards ferape off the refin from thefe 
 thongs, and put it up for ufe. The properefi feafon for 
 this bufinefs is in the dog-days, in the ferenefi weather, 
 and when lhere is no wind. 
 
 Labdanum is ufed externally, to attenuate and difeufs 
 tumours ; internally it is rarely ufed, though it is greatly 
 extolled by fome againfi catarrhs, and in dyfenteries. 
 
 LABEL, a long thin brafs ruler, with a Email fight at 
 Vol. II. No. 42. 
 
 one end, and a centre-hole at the other; commonly 
 uled with a tangent line on the edge or a circumferentor, 
 to take altitudes, he. 
 
 Label, in law, a narrow flip of parchment, he, 
 affixed to a deed to hold the feal. It alfo denotes any 
 paper annexed by way of addition or explication to a 
 latter will, which is otherwile called a codicil. 
 
 Label, in heraldry, a fillet ufually placed in the 
 middle and along the chief of the coat, without touching 
 its extremities, adorned with pendants, and the ninth part 
 of the chief in breadth. It particularly diflinguilhes a 
 lecond brother from the eldefi. 
 
 LABIAL, in grammar, denotes fuch letters as are 
 chiefly pronounced by the motion of the lips; and fo Band 
 contradifiinguilhed from palatal, dental, guttural, Ac. 
 
 LABIATE Flowers , in botany, fuch irregular mono- 
 petalous flowers as, for the mofi part, are divided into 
 two lips; the upper is called the crcfi, the under the 
 beard. In fome fpecies the upper lip is turned upwards, 
 as in ground-ivy ; but mofi ufually it is convex above, 
 and with the lower lip reprefents a kind ot helmet or 
 monk’s hood, hence called galeatc, cucullate, and gale- 
 riculate flowers , in which, form are mofi of the' vcrticil- 
 late plants. 
 
 LABORATORY,oiEl a bor ATORY.thcchymifi’s 
 workhoufe, or the place where they perform their ope¬ 
 rations ; where the furnaces are built, their vclTels kept, 
 he. and in general, the term laboratory is applied to any 
 place where phyfical experiments in pharmacy, chy- 
 mifiry, pyrotechny, he. are performed. See F urn ace, 
 he. See ChymicaL Laboratory , or Elaboraiory. 
 
 LABYRINTH, in anatomy, the internal cavity of 
 the ear, fo called from linuofities and windings. See Ear. 
 
 Labyrinth, in gardening, a winding mazy walk 
 between hedges, through a wood or wildcrnefs. The 
 chief aim is to make the walks fo perplexed .and intri¬ 
 cate, that a perfon may lofe himfelt in them, and meet 
 with as great a number of dilappointments as poffiblc. 
 They are rarely to be met with, except in great and noble 
 gardens, as Verfailles, Hampton-court, Ac. 
 
 There are two ways of making them ; the firfi is with 
 Angle hedges : this method has been pra&ilcd in Eng¬ 
 land : and thefe may, indeed, be befi, where there is but 
 a fiuall fpot of ground allowed for making them ; but 
 where there is ground enough, the double is mofi eligi¬ 
 ble. Thofe made with double hedges, with a confider- 
 d.-!e thicknefs of wood between them, are approved as 
 much better than (ingle ones : this is the manner of 
 making them in France and other places ; of all which 
 that ot Verfailles is allowed to be the noblefi of its kind 
 in the world. It is an error to make them too narrow . 
 for that makes it necelfai v to keep the hedges clo.'e dipt : 
 but if, according to the foieign practice, they arc made 
 wide, they will not Band in need of it. The v. alks are 
 made with gravel ufually let with hornbeam : the pali- 
 iades~ought to be 10, 12, or 14 feet high : the hornbeam 
 Ihould be kept cut, and the walks rolled. 
 
 LAC, Milk. amongphvficians, Ac. See Milk. 
 
 I The 
 
LAC 
 
 I lie appellation lac is alfo given to fcvcral chymical 
 preparations, as, i. Lac ammoniaci, which is ordered 
 by the college to be made in the following manner: take 
 ol gum ammoniack, two drams ; of limple penny-royal 
 water, half a pint; and rub the gum in a mortar with 
 the water, till it is dilfolvcd, which it will do without 
 heat. 2. Lac fulphuris, called alfo precipitated fulphur. 
 See Sulphur. 
 
 Lack Li n.*:, in natural hiflory, a name fometimes 
 given to mineral agarick. 
 
 LACCA, in natural hiflory, &cc. a vegetable pro¬ 
 duction, improperly called agum, as being inflammable, 
 and not foluble in water. 
 
 There are three kinds of lacca kept in the (hops, 
 which are all the produfts of a fpccics of ziziphus 
 
 The flick-lacca is a hard, reiinous, and friable fub- 
 (lance, of an uneven and granulated lurface, and of a 
 roundifh but lomewhat dulky colour. It is of an auflere 
 and fubaflringent tafte, and is fixed round certain flicks, 
 and branches of a woody fubflance. The feed-lacca is 
 brought to us in loofe grains, or little mafles, of a round¬ 
 ifh irregular figure, and of a rcdilli colour, which leem 
 no way different from the flick-lacca, but as parts from 
 the whole. The third kind, or Ihell-lacca, is met with 
 in thin and tranlparcnt cakes, made bv melting the above 
 granules, or what is taken from the flicks, into a mafs. 
 Some affirm that it exfudes from the jujube, and fcvcral 
 other trees of the fame genus; but others aflert that it 
 is no vegetable exfudation at all, but a fubflance ana¬ 
 logous to wax laid on thel'e branches by infedls. Till 
 we have fomc very good obferver on the fpot, to deter¬ 
 mine between the politive aflertions of the fcveral au¬ 
 thors who have wrote upon it, we muft be contented to 
 reft in uncertainty ; but whatever may be the hiflory of 
 this drug, its virtues are lefs in difpute; it is an attenu- 
 ant, aperient, and diuretick, and is fometimes preferibed 
 in diforders of the liver and fpleen, and in jaundices and 
 dropfies. It would probably be in more ufe, if we knew 
 how to open its body, l'o as to make it exert its virtues; 
 for it is a fort of unchangeable medicine which paffes 
 the body very little altered, if given in fubflance; and 
 it is of the number of thofe things from which a tinc¬ 
 ture is very difficultly extracted. But befidcs thel'e vir¬ 
 tues, a beautiful red colour is prepared from it by only 
 boiling flick-lacca in water, and then filtrating the 
 dccodtion, and evaporating the luperfluous humidity. 
 This lacca is of great ufe in painting, on which account 
 its name has been given to fevcral colours procured from 
 other ingredients in much the fame manner. 
 
 Artificial Lacca, or Lake, in painting, a white 
 earthy body, as cuttle-fifh bone, the bafis of alum, or 
 chalk, tinged with lome crimfon vegetable dye, fuch as 
 is obtained from cochineal or Brafil-wood, diflolved or 
 taken up by means of fome alkaline fait, and precipitated 
 on the earth by the addition of fome acid. 
 
 Lake is uled in all kinds of painting, except enamel; 
 but particularly in oil, where it fupplies the place of 
 carmine. It is valuable both for its brightnefs and 
 crimfon teint; which make it ufeful for carnations to 
 the portrait painters ; for Ikies to the landlcape or lhip 
 painters ; and for flowers to thofe who paint ftill life. Its 
 tranfparency in oil renders it alfo of great fervice in glaz¬ 
 ing, as it is called, over vermilion; and in painting 
 fcarlet d;aperies, and the red parts of the lips ; and its 
 acquiring a dark hue, by this tranfparency, when'ufed 
 without the addition of any opaque pigment, which gives 
 it an unrivalled excellence in the (hades of red draperies, 
 or other fimilar cafes. Notvvithftanding thel'e qualities, 
 lake is not at prefent univcrfally approved ; nor without 
 reafon ; for there is a defetfl which makes it to be fre¬ 
 quently rejected, where its ufe can be avoided. This 
 defefl is the uncertainty of its (landing, when prepared 
 in that manner which moil conduces to its perfedlion in 
 other refpedts : for though lome parcels will hold their 
 colour entirely well, yet others prepared in the fame 
 manner, as far as art can allure it, will fly in a degree 
 that makes the ufe of it dellrudlive to any painting : and 
 if this defedt be elfedlually Temedied, as it may be by 
 iecuring the tinging particles by gums, from all attacks 
 of the air; yet this is generally at the expence of the 
 brightnefs and tranfparency ; the earth, which, is the 
 bafis of the pigment, being locked up by the gums, and 
 rendered incapable of being combined intimately with, 
 
 L A K 
 
 or imbibing the oil. Befides the perfedlions of lake, 
 which it may have in common with other colours, there 
 is yet another that relates only to itfelf, which is the in - 
 clining to the fcarlet hue, that makes it more valuable 
 for almoft all the purpofes to which it is applied , and 
 where this quality, joined to the others, happens to be 
 found in it, there is lcarcely any limits to be let on its 
 value with eminent painters of any kind. 
 
 Lake was moil probably.firft made from the colour 
 found in the grains of the (tick-lack, from whence it 
 feems to have taken its name ; but it may be made from 
 a great variety of fubitances which afford a crimfon tinge; 
 though at prclent it is feldom prepared from any other 
 than cochineal, fcarlet rags, and Brafil-wood. 
 
 1 he bed of what is commonly fold is made from the 
 colour ex trailed from fcarlet rags, and depofited on the 
 cuttle-bone, which may be done in the following manner: 
 
 “ 1 ake a pound of the bed pearl-alhes, and having 
 diflolved them in two quarts of water, purify them bv 
 filtering through paper. Add then to this folution two 
 moie quarts of water ; and having put in a pound of icar- 
 let lhreds, procured from the tavlors, for they mud be 
 entirely clean, boil them in a pewter boiler made for that 
 purpole, tili the flircds appear to have wholly loll their 
 lcarlet colour. Take them out of the folution, and prefs 
 them well; dipping them after in water, and preifing 
 them again, that all the fluid they had imbibed may be 
 got from them, which muft be put back to the red. 
 Take then another pound of the (hreds, and repeat the 
 like treatment of them in the fame folution ; as alfo a 
 third and fourth pound. While this is doing, diflolvc a 
 pound and half of cuttlc-fifti in a pound of llrong aqua¬ 
 fortis, in a glafs receiver, adding more of the bone, if 
 it appear to produce any ebullition in the aqua-fortis; and 
 having drained off this folution through flannel, pour it 
 into the other by degrees; obferving whether it produce 
 any cffervelcence on putting in the iaft quantity ; which 
 if it do in any great degree, more of the cuttle-fifh bone 
 muft be diflolved in aqua-fortis ; and the folution very 
 gradually added, till no ebullition appear to be raifed 
 by it in the mixture. If this be properly managed, the 
 fluid will foon become clear and colourlefs, and the ting¬ 
 ing particles extradled from the (hreds, together w ith the 
 cuttle-lilh bone, will lubfidc to the bottom, and form 
 a crimfon fediment, which is the lake. The water muft 
 then be poured off; and two gallons of hard fpring-water 
 muft be put to the lake, and well ltirred about to mix 
 them ; which, being likewife poured off, after the lake 
 has again fettled to the bottom, muft be replaced by 
 another two gallons ; and the fame method mull be re¬ 
 peated four or five times ; but if hard water cannot be 
 procured, or the lake appear too purple, half an ounce 
 ot alum fliould be added to each quantity of water be¬ 
 fore it be uled. When the lake is thus iufficicntly freed 
 from the falts, it muft have the water drained from it in 
 a filter, covered with a linen cloth, which has been fo 
 worn as to have no knap or down remaining on its fur- 
 face. After the lake has drawn to a proper drynefs, it 
 mull be dropped, on clean boards, by means of flicks of 
 elder, mountain-alh, or other hollow"wood, cut into the 
 form of pens, and luffercd to dry ; when the drops will 
 appear in the form of little cones or pyramids.” 
 
 Orange Lake. This lake is the tinging part of an- 
 natto precipitated together with earth of alum. It is of 
 a very bright orange colour, and would work well witli 
 either oil or water, but cannot be depended upon, when 
 ufed cither of thofe ways, for (landing long, it is, how¬ 
 ever, a very fine colour for varnifh painting, where the 
 fear of flying is out of queftion ; and is alfo of an ad- 
 mitable good effeft for putting under cryftal for the imi¬ 
 tation of die vinegar garnet; for which purpole it has 
 been uled with great fuccefs. 
 
 The manner of preparing this lake is as follows : 
 
 “ lake ot the bed annatto four ounces, and of pearl- 
 alhes one pound. Put them together into a gallon of 
 water, and boil them half an hour; and then (train the 
 folution through paper. Make, in die mean time, a 
 folution of a pound and a half of alum, in another gal¬ 
 lon of water, and mix it gradually with the folution of 
 the pearl-alhes and annatto ; oblerving to ceale any fur¬ 
 ther addition when the fluid becomes colourlefs, and no 
 further ebullition etifucs on the commixture. Treat the 
 fediment or precipitated matter in the lame manner as 
 
 has 
 
L A Iv 
 
 has been before direfled for other kinds of lake. In 
 the fame manner may a red lake be made from madder, 
 brazil, &c. But where the colour of the fubjett depends 
 upon a very fubtile texture or arrangement of the parts, 
 this method deflroys, or at leaft impairs the colour, as 
 in violets, red rofes, &c. So that it feems applicable 
 only to the tinging vegetables of a fomewhat flrong and 
 firm texture.” 
 
 A red lake may be obtained barely by boiling Hick-lack 
 in water, then filtring the deco&ion and evaporating 
 the fuperfluous humidity : for the beautiful red colour 
 adheres to the outfide of the Hicks broken off the trees, 
 along with the lacca, and readily communicates itfelf to 
 boiling water. 
 
 LACHRYMAL Gland, in anatomy. See Eye. 
 
 Fijiula Lachrymalis, in phylick. See Fis¬ 
 tula. 
 
 Sacculus Lachrymalis, ox Pun ft a Lachryma- 
 li a. See Eye. 
 
 LACHRYMATORIES, in antiquity, fmallglafs or 
 earthen veffels wherein the tears of the friends were 
 repofited and buried with the alhes of the dead. 
 
 LACONISM, a pithy fententious fpeech in the man¬ 
 ner of the Lacedaemonians, who were remarkable for 
 the concifenefs of their way of delivering thcml'elves. 
 
 LACTATION, the a£t of giving fuck. 
 
 LACTEALS, Vaja Lattea, in anatomy, long (lender 
 tubes for the conveyance of the chyle from the inteHines 
 to the common refervatory. See Chyle. 
 
 LACTARY Column. See Column. 
 
 LACTIFEROUS Plants, in botany, fuch plants 
 as abound with a milky juice, as the tithymalus, lon- 
 chus, and lettuce. 
 
 LACUNAE, in anatomy, certain excretory du£Is in 
 the vagina ; and fometimes the glands or excretory du&s 
 in the urethra are fo denominated. 
 
 LACUNAR, in architecture, an arched roof or del¬ 
 ing, particularly the flooring over porticos or piazzas. 
 
 LAGOEC 1 A, round-headed cummin, in botany, a 
 genus of plants, the flower of which conflfls of five 
 petals, very fhort, and bicornate : there is no pericar- 
 pium, the feed, which is Angle, being contained in 
 the cup. This plant has neither the lmell, appearance, 
 or tafle of cummin ; its fmell being more like that of 
 the carrot. 
 
 LAGOPHTHALMIA, in furgery, an everAon and 
 gaping of the eye-lids, otherwife called eCtropium. See 
 Ectropium. 
 
 LAIR, among fportfmen, the place where the deer 
 harbour by day. This term is allb ufed to Agnify a 
 place where cattle ufually refl under fome fhelter: by 
 which means the ground generally becomes enriched with 
 their dung. 
 
 LAKE, a collection of waters contained in fome ca¬ 
 vity in an inland place, of a large extent, furrounded with 
 land, and having no communication with the ocean. 
 
 Lakes maybe divided into four kinds, i. Such as 
 neither receive nor fend forth rivers. 2. Such as emit 
 rivers, without receiving any. 3. Such as receive rivers, 
 without emitting any. And, 4. Such as both receive 
 and fend forth rivers. 
 
 Of the flrfl kind, fome are temporary, and others pe¬ 
 rennial : mofl of thofe that are temporary owe their 
 origin to the rain, and the cavity or deprelAon of the 
 place in which they are lodged : thus in India there are 
 feveral fuch lakes made by the induflry of the natives, 
 of which fome are a mile, and fome two in circuit ; 
 thefe are furrounded with a Hone wall, and being Ailed 
 in the rainy months, fupply the inhabitants in dry fea- 
 fons, who live at a great diHance from fprings or rivers. 
 There are alfo feveral of this kind formed by the inun¬ 
 dations of the Nile and the Niger ; and in Mufcovy, 
 Finland, and Lapland, there are many lakes formed 
 partly by the rains and partly by the melting of the ice 
 and fnow ; but moH of the perennial lakes, which nei¬ 
 ther receive nor emit rivers, probably owe their rife to 
 fprings at the bottom, by which they are conHantly 
 fupplied. 
 
 The fccond kind of lakes, which emit, wuthout re¬ 
 ceiving rivers, is very numerous. Many rivers flow 
 from thefe as out of ciflerns ; where thefe fprings being 
 Atuated low within a hollow place, .flrfl All the cavity, 
 and make it a lake, which not being capacious enough 
 
 LAM 
 
 to hold all the water, it overflows and forms a river : of 
 this kind is the Wolga, at the head of the river Wolga ; 
 the lake Odium, at the head of the Tanais; the Adnck, 
 from whence one branch of the river Tigris flows ; lire 
 Ozero, or white lake in Mufcovy, is the l'ou rce of the 
 river Shackfna. The great lake Chaamay, which emits 
 four very large rivers, which water the countries of Siam, 
 Pegu, See. viz. the Menau, the Afa, the Caipoumo, and 
 the Laquia, See. 
 
 The third fpecies of lakes, which receive rivers, but 
 emit none, apparently owe their origin to th >fe rivers, 
 which in their progrefs from their lource, falling into 
 fome extenflve cavity, are collected together; and form a 
 lake of fuch dimenflons, as may lofe much by exhalation, 
 as it continually receives from their fources : of this kind 
 is that great lake improperly called the Cafpian fea; the 
 lake Alphaltes, alfo called the Dead Sea ; the lake of 
 Geneva, and feveral others. 
 
 Of the fourth fpecies, which both receive and emit 
 rivers, we reckon three kinds, as the quantity they emit 
 is greater, equal, or lefs than they receive. If it be 
 greater, it is plain that they mufl be fupplied by fprings 
 at the bottom, if lefs, the furplus of the water is proba¬ 
 bly fpent in exhalation : and if it be equal, their fprings 
 jufl fupply what is evaporated by the fun. 
 
 Lakes are alfo divided into thofe of frefh water, and 
 thofe of fait. Dr. Halley is of opinion, that all great 
 perennial lakes are faline, either in a greater or lefs de¬ 
 gree; and that this faltnefs encreafes with time: and on 
 this foundation he propoles a method for determining the 
 age of the world. 
 
 Large lakes anlwer the mofl valuable purpofes in the 
 northern regions, the warm vapours that arife from them 
 moderating the pinching cold of thofe climates; and 
 what is Hill a greater advantage, when they are placed in 
 warmer climates at a great diliance from the fea, the ex¬ 
 halations raifed from them by the fun. caufe the countries 
 that border upon them to be refrefhed with frequent 
 lhowers, and confequently prevent their being barren 
 defarts. 
 
 LAMA, the fovereign pontiff, or rather god,- of the 
 Aflatick Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barant a. 
 The lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the 
 country, but alfo by the kings of Tartary, who fend 
 him rich prefents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him ado¬ 
 ration, calling him lama congiu, 1. e. god the everlafling 
 father of heaven. He is never to be feen but in a fecret 
 place of his palace, amidfl a great number of lamps, lit- 
 ting crofs-legged upon a cufhion, and adorned all over 
 with gold and precious Hones; where, at a diHance, 
 they proflrate themfelves before him, it not being lawful 
 lor any to kifs even his feet. He is called the great 
 lama, or lama of lamas, that is, priefl of priefls. And 
 to perfuade the people that he is immortal, the inferior 
 priefls, when he dies, fubflitute another in his Head, 
 and fo continue the cheat from generation to generation. 
 Thefe priefls perfuade the people, that the lama was 
 raifed from death many 100 years ago; that he has lived 
 ever flnee, and will continue to live forever. 
 
 LAMB, in zoology, the young of the Iheep-kind. 
 See Sheep. A male lamb of the flrfl year is calied a 
 wedder-hog, and the female an ewe-hog; the fecond 
 year it is called a wedder, and the female a Iheave. If 
 a lamb be Ack, mare’s milk with water may be given it; 
 and by blowing into the mouth, many have been reco¬ 
 vered after appearing dead. The befl l'eafon for wean¬ 
 ing them is when they arc 16 or 18 weeks old; and 
 about Michaelmas, the males fhould be lcparated from 
 the females, and fuch males as are not deflgned for rams, 
 gelded. 
 
 LAMBOIDES, in anatomy, one of the futures of 
 the fkull. 
 
 LAMELLAE, in natural hiftory, denotes very thin 
 plates, fuch as the feales of Afli are compoled of. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS, a canonical book of the Old 
 Teflament, written by the prophet Jeremiah. The 
 two flrfl chapters of this book are employed in defcribing 
 the calamities of the Aege of Jerufalern. In the third, 
 the author deplores the perfecutions he himfelf had fuf- 
 fered. The fourth turns upon the defolation of the city 
 and the misfortune of Zedekiah. The fifth chapter is a 
 prayer lor the Jews in their difperfion and captivity , 
 and at the end ol all, he fpeaks of the cruelty of the 
 
 Edomites, 
 
LAN 
 
 fecJonrites, who had infulted Jerufalem in her mrfcry. 
 The four firft chapters of the Lamentations are an abe¬ 
 cedary, every verfe or couplet beginning with one of the 
 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, in the alphabetical order. 
 
 The fobjeft is of the molt moving kind, and the ftile 
 throughout lively, pathetick, and affedling. Did we 
 ever tind, lays Dr. South, forrow flowing forth in fuch 
 a natural prevailing pathos, as in the Lamentations of 
 Jeremy? One would think that every letter was wrote 
 with a tear ; that every word was the noile of a breaking 
 heart; that the author was a man compacted of forrows, 
 difeiplined to grief from his infancy; one who never, 
 breathed but in fighs, nor fpoke but in a groan.” 
 
 LAMINAE, in phyfiologv, the thin plates whereof 
 many fobftances confilL 
 
 LAMIODONTES, in natural hiftory, the fame 
 with the glolfopetra. See Glossopetra. 
 
 LAMIUM, dead nettle, in botany, a genus of the 
 didynamia gymnolpermia, clal's of plants, the flower of 
 which confifts of one labiated and ringent petal: the feeds 
 are four, triangular, and contained in the bottom of the 
 dup. '{ he flowers of this plant are faid to he good in the 
 fluor albus, dyfenterv, and l'crophulous diforders. The 
 herb is aperient, emollient, and vulnerary. 
 
 LAMMAS-Day, a feftival celebrated on the firft of 
 Auguft by the Romilh cliurch, in memory of St. Peter’s 
 imprifonment. 
 
 LAMP, ta^Trov, a vcffel containing oil, with a lighted 
 wick. See Oil, Flame, Fire, &c. 
 
 Dr. St. Clair, in Phil. 1 rani. No. 245, gives the de¬ 
 scription of an improvement upon the common lamp. 
 He propofes that it fhould be made two or three inches 
 deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoft as high 
 as the top of the veflel: let it be filled fo high with water 
 as to cover the hole of the pipe at bottom, that the oil 
 may not get in at the pipe, and fo be loll. Then let the 
 •oil be poured in, fo as to fill the veflel almoft brim full, 
 which muft have a cover pierced with as many holes as 
 •there are wicks defigned. When the veflel is thus filled, 
 and the wicks are lighted, if water falls in by drops at 
 the pipe, it will always keep the oil at the fame height, 
 or very near; the weight of water being to that of the oil 
 as 20 j to 19, which in two or three inches makes no 
 great difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil 
 waftes, it will only run over at the top of the pipe, and 
 what does not run over will come under the oil, and 
 keep it at the lame height. See Enamilling by the 
 Lamp. 
 
 LANCET, a chirurgical inftrument, lharp-pointed, 
 and two edged, chiefly ufed for opening the veins in the 
 operations of phlebotomy, or bleeding; alfo for laying 
 open abfeeffes, tumours, See. A furgeon fhould never 
 be without fome of thefe, of different fizes. 
 
 LAND, in a limited fenfe, denotes arable ground. It 
 is alfo ufed for meadow-ground, pafture, wood, com¬ 
 mons, &c. See Meadow, Pasture, See. 
 
 Land, in the fea-language, makes part of feveral 
 compound terms: thus Land-laid , or to lay the land, is 
 juft to lofe fight of it. Land-locked, is when land lies all 
 round the fliip, fo that no point of the compafs is open 
 to the fea : if file is at anchor in fuch a place, foe ft faid 
 to ride land-locked, and is therefore concluded to ride 
 iafe from the violence of winds and tides. Land-mark , 
 any mountain, rock, fteepie, tree, be. that may ferve to 
 make the land known at lea. Land is fiut in, a term 
 ufed to fignifv tlyit another point of land hinders the fight 
 of that the foip came from. Land-to , or the Ihip lies 
 land to; that is, Ihe is fo far from Ihore that it can onlv 
 be juft dilcerned. Land-turn , is a wind that in almoft 
 all hot countries blows at certain times from the Ihore 
 in the night. To Jet the Land, that is, to lee by the 
 compafs how it bears. 
 
 LANDGRAVE, the German name for a count or 
 earl, that has the government of a province, country, or 
 large trafl of land. 
 
 LANDGRAVIATE, or L andgr a v ate, theof- 
 fice, authority, jurifdi&ion, or territory of a landgrave. 
 
 LANDS KIP, or Land sc a pe, in painting, the view 
 or profpeCt of a country, extended as far as the eye w ill 
 
 reach. 
 
 In painting landlkips, the following rules will be 
 found of ufe: 1. Always exprels a fail horizon, Ihew- 
 ing the heavens cloudy or clear, more or Ll>. according 
 
 LAN 
 
 to the occafion ; and if the fun is exprefled at all, let it 
 be either at riling or fetting, and as it were behind or 
 over fome hill. The moon and liars are feldom or never 
 depifled, unlefs in twilight pieces, becaufe all things are 
 luppoled to be feen by day. 2. Obferve to make the 
 lun’s light reflefl upon all the obje&s the fame way, and 
 the lhadows to fall the contrary way. 3. Take care to 
 augment or leffen things proportionally, as they are fop- 
 pofed to be nearer or further from the eve. 4. In ex- 
 preffmg things at large dillances, as 10, 20, or 30 miles 
 off, where the objcCt is fcarce to be dilcerned; as whether 
 it be temple, caftle, houfe, or the like, lliew no parti¬ 
 cular ligns thereof, as any eminent diftinflion, but ra¬ 
 ther as weakly, faintly, and confuledly, as the eye judges 
 of it. 5. If landlkips be laid in colours, the further 
 you go, the more you mull: lighten it with a thin and airy 
 blue, to make it feein as it were afar off, beginning at 
 firft with a dark green, fo driving it by degrees into a 
 blue, according to the diftance. 6. Make your land- 
 Ikip to Ihoot, as it were, one part lower than another, 
 making the nearcil place or hill higheft, and thofe that 
 are further off to Ihoot away under that, that the lan 
 lkip may appear to be taken from the top of an hill. 
 7. Let every thing have its proper motion, as in trees 
 when they are fhaken with the wind, making the fmaller 
 boughs yielding, the ftiffer lefsbending; in clouds, that 
 they follow the winds; in rivers, tire general current, 
 and flafoing of the waters againft the boat fides. 8. In 
 the fea, the waves and other proper agitations, the rol¬ 
 ling ol the billows, the tumbling of veflels up and down, 
 the Ihips floating, fome dipt, fome half drowned, fome 
 Handing almoft an end, feme hid almoft with the waves, 
 by means of the uncertainty of the forges, others endea¬ 
 vouring to live. 9. In the motion of the waters falling 
 from an high place, but efpecially when they fall upon 
 rocks and ftones, you muft represent it leaping up into 
 the air, and fprinkling all about; laftly, let every thing 
 that moves, whether effentially or accidentally, have its 
 proper reprefentation. 10. Let the work imitate the 
 lealon it is intended to reprefent; as if you intend it for 
 a winter-piece, reprefent felling of woods, Aiding upon 
 the ice, fowling by night, hunting of bears or foxes in 
 the fnovv, making the trees every where naked, or laden 
 with fnow or a lioar-froft; the earth bare, without green- 
 nefs, flowers, or cattle ; the air thick or heavy; the water 
 frozen, with carts palling over it, and boys playing upon 
 it, be. 11. Laftly, let every fite have its proper pa- 
 rerga, adjunfls or additional graces, as the farm-houlc, 
 wind-mill, water-mill, woods, flocks of lheep, herds 
 of cattle, pilgrims, ruins of temples, caftles, and mo¬ 
 numents, with a thoufand fuch other things, only pro¬ 
 per to particular fobje&s. 
 
 LANGREL Shot, at fea, that confilling of two bars 
 of iron, joined by a chainor Aiackle, and ha ring half a ball 
 of iron fixed on each end, by means of ■ .hich apparatus, 
 it does great execution among the enemy’s rigging. 
 
 LANGUAGE, a fet of words which any people have 
 agreed upon, whereby to communicate their thoughts to 
 each other. Buffer obferves, that the firft principles of 
 all languages may be reduced to expreffons, fignifying, 
 firft, the fubjeCl fpoken of; fecondly, the thing affirmed 
 of it; and thirdly, the circumftances of the one and the 
 other: but as eacli language has its peculiar wavs of de¬ 
 noting each of thefe, a language is only to be looked on 
 as an affemblage ofexpreflions, which chance or caprice 
 has eftahliflied among a certain people. Hence we find, 
 that it is ufage and cuftom that are the rules of a lan¬ 
 guage; and thefe hold their empire independent of rea- 
 lon, or any other caufe: nor has reafon any th ng to do 
 in language, unlefs to ftudy or teach it fuch as it is: here 
 then commences grammar, a juft plan of which foppofes 
 a language already introduced by ufe, and without pre¬ 
 tending to alter or amend a tittle, only fumilhes reflec¬ 
 tions called rules, to Which the manners of fpeaking ufed 
 in that language may be reduced : this affemblage of re¬ 
 flections is what we call the grammar of that language.* 
 See Grammar and Word. 
 
 It is chance then to which we owe ufage, and ufage 
 that makes the rules and meafures of a language. Ufage 
 indeed is lomewhat dubious, and may be divided into 
 good and bad : the difference between the two being this, 
 that the former is better eftablilhed or authorized than 
 the latter > and the difference of authority is no more, in 
 
 the 
 
LAN 
 
 the dead languages, than the writings of the heft authors 
 in that language ; thofe being allowed the bell authors 
 in the language, who wrote when the Hate was in its 
 greateft glory. Thus the age of Auguilus being the mold 
 diidinguilhed period in the Roman hildory, we call that 
 good Latin which is conformable to the manners of fpeak- 
 ing ufed by authors who wrote within 50 years before, 
 or after the reign of that emperor. As to the living lan¬ 
 guages, the good ufage, or mode, is that which obtains 
 amongft the mold eminent perfons, whether as to quality 
 and authority, or as to learning, and the reputation of 
 writing well. 
 
 There is found a conftant refemblance between the 
 genius of each people, and the language they fpeak. Thus 
 the Greeks, a polite but voluptuous people, had a lan¬ 
 guage perfectly luitable, full of delicacy and fweetnefs. 
 The Romans, who feemed only born to command, had 
 a language noble, nervous, and auguid; and then de¬ 
 fendants, the Italians, are funk into foftnefs and effe¬ 
 minacy, which is as eafily perceivable in their language, 
 as in their manners. The language of the Spaniards is 
 full of that haughtinefs which conflitutes the diflinguifh- 
 ing character of the people. The French, who have a 
 world of vivacity, have a language that runs extremely 
 brifk and lively. And the Englifh, who are naturally 
 blunt, thoughtful, and of few words, have a language 
 exceeding fhort, concife and fententious. 
 
 Languages arc divided into, 1. Original or mother- 
 tongues, as the Hebrew and Arabick in the eaft; Kircher 
 adds the Cophtick; the Teutonick and Sclavonick in the 
 Well. And Du Jon maintains the Gothick to be the 
 toother of the Teutonick tongues, namely, thofe fpoken 
 in the north; and fomc add the Bifcayan or Bas Breton 
 as the mother-tongue of the Ccltce or Gauls. 
 
 2. Derivative languages which are thofe formed out 
 of a mixture of lcveral others, as Latin, French, Eng- 
 lilh, &c. . 
 
 Learned or dead languages are thofe which only fubfift 
 in books, and which mutt be learned by the rules of 
 grammar, as the Greek, Hebrew, Syriack, and Chaldee. 
 
 Living languages arc thofe Hill fpoken in fome coun¬ 
 try or other, and which may be learned by convention. 
 The moll popular among thefe are the French, Italian, 
 Spanilh, and Englifh. 
 
 Speech is a privilege peculiar to man, and he is like- 
 wife furnifhed with organs proper for forming an articu¬ 
 late voice : ‘hence it is ealy to conceive men might form a 
 fettled and uniform language, by only affixing an idea to 
 a word, and making others acquainted with it. And it 
 is alfo eafy to conceive, that the connexion betwixt moll 
 words and things being perfeftly arbitrary, they may be 
 changed at different places, at different times, and by 
 different perfons. And it is not very unlikely that va¬ 
 riety of capacities and inclinations, the different occaflons 
 people have to exprel's themfelves, different turns of ima¬ 
 gination, the cafe people find in delivering themfelves 
 rather one way than another, the forgetting old words, 
 the many new things met with requiring new names, 
 llrangers fettling among natives, &c. it is not unlikely 
 that thefe and many other caufes fhould caufe an altera¬ 
 tion in living languages. 
 
 When all mankind inhabited the fame country and 
 kept up a commerce with each other, living through many 
 ages, it is no great wonder that the common language 
 was continued amongfl them, without any confidcrable 
 alterations, till alter the flood; fince Noah himfelf was 
 born not long after Adam’s death, and a great many 
 antediluvians living in Noah’s time might have converfed 
 with Adam and Eve iome hundred years. Since all the 
 world was then deilroyed, except Noah and his family, 
 the tongue lpoken by this patriarch muff be the only re¬ 
 maining language, and which might be eafily handed 
 down to his pofterity, as long as they dwelt in the fame 
 country. But when, before their parting, they attempted 
 to build a city and tower, God confounded the language, 
 infomuch that, not being able to underfland each other, 
 they were forced to feparate, and leave the building un- 
 finifhed. 
 
 LANGUED, in heraldry, is applied to fuch animals 
 whofe tongues appear out of their mouths, being of a 
 different colour from that of the body. 
 
 LANGUOR, a faintnefs or relaxation of the mem¬ 
 bers, owing either to a want or decay of fpirits. 
 
 V.ol. II. No. 43. 
 
 L A P 
 
 LANIGEROUS, among herbalifls, trees that bear 
 fuch a woolly or downy fubftance as is commonly con¬ 
 tained in the katkins of the willow, Ac. The word is 
 derived from the Latin, lana, wool, and gero, to bear. 
 
 LANTERN, or Lanthorn, a well known inven¬ 
 tion for fhewing light in the night. 
 
 Magick Lantern, an optick machine, whereby little 
 painted images are reprefented lo much magnified, as to 
 be accounted the eftedl of magick by the ignorant. 
 
 The contrivance is briefly this: ABCD (plate XLl V. 
 fig. 1.) is a tin-lantern, from whofe fide there proceeds a 
 fquare tube b nk Im c, confifling of two parts ; the outer- 
 1110ft of which nklm Hides over the other, fo as that the 
 whole tube may be lengthened or fhortened by that means. 
 In the end of the arm nklm , is fixed a convex glafs kl ; 
 about de, there is a contrivance for admitting and placing 
 an objett, de, painted in dilute and tranlparent colours, 
 on a plane thin glafs ; which object is there to be placed 
 inverted. This is ufually fome ludicrous or frightful re- 
 prefentation, the more to divert the fpeflatois : hbc is 
 a deep convex glafs, placed in the other end of the pro¬ 
 minent tube, the only ufe of which is to call the light of 
 the flame a flrongly on the pidlure de, painted on the 
 plane thin glafs. Hence, if the object d c be placed fur¬ 
 ther from the gials kl than its focus, it is manifeft that 
 the diilinft image of the objeft will be projefled by the 
 glafs k l, on the oppofitc white wall FH, at fg ; and 
 that in an erc£t pollute : fo that, in efledl, this appear¬ 
 ance of the magick lantern is the fame with that of the 
 camera obfeura, or darkened room ; fince here the cham¬ 
 ber EFGH is fuppofed quite dark, excepting the light iii 
 the lantern ABCL). See Camera Obscura. 
 
 And here we may obferve, that if the tube b n klni c be 
 con trailed, and thereby the glafs kl brought nearer the 
 object de, the reprefentation fg fhall be projected fo 
 much the larger, and fo much the more dillant from the 
 glafs kl; fo that the lmalleff pifture at de may be pro¬ 
 jected at f g y in any greater proportion required, within 
 due limits : whence it is, that this lantern got the name 
 of lanterna megalographica. On the other hand, pio- 
 traCling the tube will diminilh the obje£l. 
 
 Lantern, in architecture, a little dome railed over 
 the loof of a building, to give light, and lerve as a 
 crowning to the fabrick. 
 
 The term lantern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of car¬ 
 pentry, placed over the ridge of a corridor, or gallery, 
 between two rows of fhops, to illumine them, like that 
 of the Royal Exchange of London. 
 
 LAN TERM STS, a denomination affirmed by the 
 academicians of Tholoufe. 
 
 LAN EGO, the foft down of plants, like that grow¬ 
 ing on the fruit of the peacli-tree ; whence fuch plants 
 are termed lanuginous. 
 
 LAPATHUM, the dock, in botany, a perennial 
 plant bearing numerous imperfeCl flowers fet in double 
 cups ; the outermoft of which cor.fifls of three fmall green 
 leaves, the inner of three larger redifh ones, which be¬ 
 come a covering to a gloffy triangular feed. 
 
 Lap ATIIUM ucutum Folio piano , fharp-pointed wild 
 dock, with long, narrow, acuminated leaves, not curled 
 about the edges, and the feed-covers indented and marked 
 with little tubercles. The roots are of a brownilh co¬ 
 lour on the 6utfide, and of a yellowilh within, which 
 grows deeper in drying. 
 
 The roots of the Iharp-poirited dock, have a bitterifh 
 allringent taffe, and no remarkable fmell: the roots of 
 the other common wild docks are nearly of the fame 
 quality, equally difeover their allringent matter both to 
 the talle and by flriking an inky blackneis with a folu- 
 tion of chalybeat vitriol, and have been often fublli- 
 tuted in our markets for thofe of the fharp-pointed kind ; 
 which lail are generally, and, fo far as can be judged 
 from their talle, jullly accounted the moll efficacious. 
 They are fuppofed to have an aperient and laxative, as 
 well as an allringent and corroborating virtue; approach¬ 
 ing in this refpedl to rhubarb, but differing widely in 
 degree, their Hypticity being greater, and their purgative 
 quality, if really they have any purgative quality, all tar 
 lefs. They Hand recommended in habitual collivenefs, 
 obltru&ions of the vifeera, fcorbutick and cutaneous 
 maladies ; in which laft intention, fomentations, ca- 
 taplafms, or unguents of the roots have been commonly 
 joined to their internal ufe : in many cafes, the external 
 K applii- 
 
LAP 
 
 application alone is faid to be fufficient. A decoftioh of 
 half an ounce, or an ounce, of the frefh roots, or of a dram 
 or two of the dry roots, is commonly directed for a dofe. 
 
 LapATHUM Rhabarbarum monachorum, monks rhu¬ 
 barb, garden patience, with large, broad, acuminated 
 leaves ; redifh branched (talks ; the leaves that cover the 
 feeds unindented, and a tubercle on one of them: the 
 root is of a yellow colour, with red veins, approaching 
 in appearance to rhubarb. 
 
 This root is fuppofed to pofiefs the virtues of rhubarb 
 in an inferior degree. It is obvioufly more afiringent 
 than rhubarb, but comes very far fhort of it in purgative 
 virtue, though given, as ufually direfted in double its 
 dofe; naufeating the fiomach, without producing any 
 confiderable evacuation. It communicates a deep yel¬ 
 low tinfture both to water and fpirit; 
 
 LAPIDARY, an artificer who cuts precious Hones. 
 See Gem. Thd art of cutting precious Hones is of great 
 antiquity. The French, though they fell into it but 
 lately, have notwilhflanding carried this art to a very 
 great perftftion, but llot in any degree fuperior to the 
 Englifh. There are various machines employed in the 
 cutting of precious Hones, according to their quality : 
 the diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel 
 of loft Heel, turned by a mill, with diamond duH, tem¬ 
 pered with olive-oil, which all'o ferves to poliih it. 
 
 Plate XI,V. fig. i. is a workman cutting the diamonds 
 by rubbing two ofthefc Hones, firmly cemented to Hicks, 
 againH each other, while the duH that falls from the 
 Hones during the operation is carefully received into an 
 Utenfil, called a cutting-box. 
 
 Fig. i. is a \vorkman Handing at the front of the mill, 
 and touching the iron wheel, which they call a fkeve, 
 with diamond duH, mixed up with olive-oil, by means 
 of a goofe-quill cut almoll in the lliapc of a writing pen. 
 The workmen call it a flriking-pen. 
 
 Fig. 3. is a labourer turning the mill, whifch is done 
 by moving backwards and forwards an inHrument of 
 wood, which they call a gate. This alternate motion 
 turns the large w heels, by means of an iron-arm, which 
 they call a (word; one end of which is fallcncd to the 
 gate, and the other to a crank Or elbow in tile fpindJe of 
 the wheel. The large wheels being thus put in motion 
 by means of the gate, the diamond-mill is turned by 
 chords or brings going round the circumference of thele 
 wheels, and the fufees on the fpiildles of the mill. 
 
 Plate XL 1 V. jig. 2. The cutting-box on a large fcalc. 
 B, 13 , B, the cutting-box. C, C, cutting-Hicks, with 
 diamonds cemented to their extremities. This figure 
 reprelents the manner in which the Hicks are held by the 
 workman in cutting the diamonds. D, the infide 01 
 cavity of the cutting-box.' E, a Hide covering another 
 cavity in which they keep their rough diamonds. 
 
 Fig. 3. Tlie fkeve and its fpindle reprefented in dif¬ 
 ferent views. A, elevation of the fpindle. B, another 
 elevation with its fufec, and the lkeve cut through it- 
 diametcr. C, plan of the fkeve, and its fpindle in per- 
 fpeftivc. 
 
 The diamond-cutter follows the work with his eyes, 
 without taking any other lhare in it than that of chang¬ 
 ing the place of the diamond to bite on a new furface ; 
 and of timely throwing upon it, with a few drops of oil, 
 the minute particles of the diamonds firH ground one 
 againH the other, to begin the cutting of them. The 
 oriental ruby, lapphirc, and topaz, are cut on a copper 
 wheel with diamond-dub, tempered with olive-oil, and 
 are polilhed on another copper wheel with tripoli and 
 water. The hyacinth, emerald, amethyb, garnets, 
 agates, and other Hones not of an equal degree of hard- 
 nets with the other, are cut on a leaden wheel with fmalt 
 and water, and polilhed on a tin-wheel with tripoli. The 
 turquois of the old and new rock, girafol and opal, 
 are cut and polilhed on a wooden wheel with tripoli 
 alio. * 
 
 7 'he lapidaries of Paris have been a corporation fince 
 the year 1290. It is governed by four jurats, who lu- 
 perintend their rights and privileges, viiit the mallei 
 workmen, take care of the mailer-piece of vvorkmanfhip, 
 bind apprentices, and adminiber tlie freedom. 
 
 Lapidary is alfo ufed for a virtuofo fkilled in the 
 nature, kinds, Ac. of precious Hones, or a merchant 
 who deals in them. 
 
 Lapidary - style denotes flic Hvle proper for mo- 
 
 L A R 
 
 numental or other inferiptions; being a fort of medium 
 between profc and Verfe. 
 
 LAPIDESCENT, that which has tlie quality of 
 turning bodies into Hone. 
 
 LAPIS, a general name for a Hone of any kind. 
 
 L apis Lazuli , a fpecics of Hone from whence the 
 celebrated colour called ultramarine is made. 
 
 This is one of the ores of copper, the bafis of which 
 is a debafed cryballine matter, coloured with that elegant 
 and beautiful blue, which copper gives to all alkaline 
 liquors. It is a very hard and compact Hone, infomuch 
 as to come into the rank of thofe that take a high poliih, 
 and are not liable to be fcratched by accidents ; and, 
 therefore, is worked in a number of different toys. It 
 is found in detached lumps ufually of the fize of a man’s 
 fib, often fmaller, and fometimes of four and five pounds 
 weight. It is never covered with any coat or crub, but 
 jrefembles thofe Hones which have been waHied off from 
 whole Hrata, and fmoothed or rounded by accidents 
 afterwards. It is of a naturally finooth and gloffy fur- 
 face, and its general colour is the elegant colour already 
 mentioned ; but this is variegated in a very beautiful 
 manner with fpots or clouds of white, and with veins of 
 a fine Alininggold colour. It has thefe variegations, in 
 different degrees, in feveral mafles, and, in general, 
 mob to be valued, as it has Jeail of theril; for, though 
 very beautiful to the eye, they are foreign to all the ul'es 
 they are put to, except when it is cut as a gem. 
 
 LAPSE, denotes a patron’s negieft or omiflion to 
 prefent to a church within fix months after it becomes 
 vacant; When, after a vacancy, the patron does not 
 prefent in fix months, the ordinary has the next fix 
 months to collate to the benefice; and if he docs not pre¬ 
 fent within that time, the metropolitan has further fix 
 months to do it in ; and if he Ihould fail in doing it in 
 his time, the next fix months devolve to the crown. 
 
 LAQUEUS, in furgery, a kind of ligature, fo con¬ 
 trived, that when Hretched by Any weight, or the like, 
 it draws up clofe. Its ufe is to extend broken or dis¬ 
 jointed bofies, to keep them in their places when they 
 are fet, and to bind the parts clole together. 
 
 LARCENY, in law, a felonious carrying away an¬ 
 other perfon’s goods; and this, according to the value of 
 tlie thing fioicn, is either grand, or j>ctit larceny; the 
 firH being Healing effects above the value of 1 s. and the 
 lab, fuch as arc either of that value, or under it: but 
 where two perfons together Heal goods to tlie value of 
 only 13d. it is grand larceny in both ; and if one perfon 
 at different times Heal feveral different things from the 
 fame perfon, which amount upon the whole to above 
 12d. value, they may be joined in one indiftment, and 
 the offender found guilty of grand larceny; but this is 
 very feldom praftifed : oil the contrary, the jury, where 
 the theft appears to be the firH offence, frequently bring 
 in their verdift, as they lawfully may, that the things 
 are not above iod. value, and by that means reduce the 
 offence to petit larceny, though the offender may per-* 
 haps be indifted for Healing to the value of 30 or 40s. 
 and upwards. The crime of grand larceny is punifhable 
 with death, and that of petit larceny only with the cor¬ 
 poral punishment of whipping, Ac. 
 
 LARES, certain inferior deities among the ancient 
 Romans, who were the guardians of houfes; they were 
 alio fometimes taken for the guardians of ftreets and ways; 
 and Tibullus makes them the guardians of the fields. 
 
 LARIX, the Larch tree, in botany, a genus of trees, 
 whofc leaves, which are long and narrow, are produced 
 out of little tubercles, in form of a painter’s pencil: the 
 cones are produced at remote difiances from the male 
 flowers on the fame tree : the male flowers are very like 
 final 1 cones at their firH appearance, but afterwards 
 Hretched out in length. 
 
 LARK, Jloutia, in ornithology, a difiinft genus of 
 birds; the ch a rafters of which arc thefe: the tongue, 
 which is membranaceous and pointed, has a rim or 
 margin round it; the beak is firaight, and pointed; the 
 two chaps equal in fize; and the claw of die hinder toe 
 longer than any of the other toes. 
 
 To this genus belong, 1. The fky-lark, with the 
 long winged feathers, variegated with white and brown. 
 2. 1 he tit-lark, with a white line over the eyes. 2. 
 The wood-lark, with the wings obliquely variagated 
 with white. 4. The yellow-breabed lark. 5. The 
 
 blow- 
 
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 -Fur-9- /S/aJue^dU^/^c Zf}q 20 a/i^rrm 
 
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 Ovalytca&Jt'O/K-.. 
 
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 facmpiLapidai'y • 
 
LAS 
 
 fnow-bird, or pied chaffinch, with the tail feathers black, 
 except the three lateral ones, which are white. 
 
 Lark-Spur, delphinum , in botany, a genus of the 
 polyandria-trigynia clafs of plants, the corolla of which 
 con fills of five unequal petals, difpofed circularly : the 
 feeds arc numerous and angular: thefe feeds called ftaphi- 
 fagria, or llavefacre, in the ffiops, are ufed to deftroy 
 vermin in childrens heads. 
 
 LARMIER, in architecture, aflat, fqtiare, rriaffive 
 member of the cornice, between the cymatium and 
 ovolo, and jutting out furtheil: it is fo called from its 
 ufe, which is to difperfe the water, and caufe it to fall 
 at a difiance from the wall, drop by drop, or as it were 
 by tears; larme, in French, fignifying a tear. It is other- 
 wile called corona. Sec Corniche. 
 
 LARYNX, the thick upper part of the afpera arteria, 
 or wind-pipe. The larynx is principally compofed of 
 live cartilages : the firft is the thyroide or feutiform car¬ 
 tilage, which is of a kind of quadrangular figure, and 
 Hands in the anterior part; this is the largeft of the five : 
 the fecond is the cricoide, or annular one ; this occupies 
 the lowcft part, by way of bafe to the reft ; and to the 
 loweft part of this, which is properly called the afpera 
 arteria, adheres: the third and fourth are the two ary- 
 tsenoide ones ; thefe form, as it were, a kind of balon 
 of a lingular figure, which is joined to the pofierior and 
 fuperior parts of the cricoides, by particular articulations 
 on each fide, that the glottis may be more eafily opened 
 and contracted : the fifth is the epiglottis. See Glot¬ 
 tis, Epiglottis, See. 
 
 The membrane which invefis the larynx is very fen- 
 fiblc, and is furnifhed with a number of ofcula or open¬ 
 ings, which dilcharge a lubricating fluid. There are 
 alfo glands extended over each l'urface of it, which ferve 
 for fecreting a mucous fluid, for lubricating the whole 
 nlpera arteria. The ventricles of the larynx are certain 
 hollows, feme of them lmaller, and fome larger; theb¬ 
 aic on the infide of it, under the glottis, and ferve to 
 modulate the voice. 
 
 LASERPITIUM, Lasf.rAVort, a genus of the 
 pcntandi ia-digvnia clafs of plants, the general corolla 
 whereof is uniform ; the partial one confifts of five nearly 
 equal petals, inflexo-cordated at the ends ; there is no 
 pericarpium ; the fruit is oblong, and feparable into two 
 parts, and is ridged with eight longitudinal membranes ; 
 the feeds are two. very large, oblong, and fcmi-cylindrick, 
 plane on the one fide, but on the other ornamented on 
 the back and edges with four membranes. The root of 
 lalcr-wort is laid to be good in the fciatica, and for heal¬ 
 ing ftrumse, and other excrefccnccs. 
 
 LASH, or Lace, in the fea language, fignifies to 
 bind and make fall; as, to lafh the bonnet to the courfe, 
 or the drabler to the bonnets : alfo the carpenter takes 
 care that the fpare yards be lalhcd faft to the (hip’s fide; 
 and in a rolling fea, the gunners mind that the guns be 
 well lafhed, left they fliould break loofe. Lafliers arc 
 properly thofc ropes which bind faft the tackles and the 
 breechings of the ordnance, when haled or made faft 
 vvithin-board. 
 
 LASICETS, fmall lines, like loops, fewed to the bon¬ 
 nets and drablcrs of a (hip, to lafh or lace the bonnets to 
 the courfes, or the drablers to the bonnets. 
 
 LACKING, at lea, is much the fame with going 
 large, or veering, that is, going with a quarterly wind. 
 See Veer. 
 
 LASSITUDE, orWEARiNESs,^©', in medicine, 
 a morbid leniation, that comes on fpontaneoufly, with¬ 
 out any previous motion, exercife or labour. This is a 
 frequent fvmpton in acute dillempcrs : it arifes either 
 from an increafe of bulk, a diminution of proper evacu¬ 
 ation, or too great a confumption of the fluids neccfiary 
 to maintain the fpring of the folids, or from a vitiated 
 iecretion of that juice. 
 
 The remedy in the firft cafe is evacuations ; and in 
 the other a proper diet, or fuch alterative medicines as 
 influence fuch a fccretion. See Evacuation and 
 Secretion. 
 
 LA ST, in general, fignifies the burden or load of afhip. 
 
 It fignifies alfo a certain meafure of fifh, corn, wool, 
 leather, &c. A laft of cod-fifh, white herrings, meal, 
 and allies for foap, is 12 barrels; of corn or rape-feed, 
 10 quarters ; of gun-powder, 24 barrels; of red her¬ 
 rings, 20 cades; of hides, 12 dozen; of leather, 20 
 
 L A T 
 
 dickers ; of pitch and tar, 14 barrels; of wool, 12 facks; 
 of ftock-filh, 1000; of flax or feathers, 17001b. 
 
 Last, in the marfhes of Kent, is applied to a court 
 held by the 24 jurats, in which orders are given for 
 the impofing and levying of taxes, for prelerving the laid 
 marlhes. 
 
 Last-Heir, in law, he to whom lands come by 
 efeheat, for want of lawful heirs ; who, in many cafes, 
 is the lord whereof they are held, but in others the king. 
 
 LAST AGE, or Lest age, as defined by Raftal, a 
 duty exaCted in fome Fairs and markets, for carrying 
 things bought, whither one will ; but, according to 
 another author, it is the cilftom paid for wares fold by 
 the laft. It fignifies alfo the ballaft or lading of a fhip; 
 and forpetimes is "ufed for garbage, rubbilh, or fuch like 
 filth. 
 
 LATEN, oj Latten. SccLatten. 
 
 LATERAL Equation, in algebra, afimple equa¬ 
 tion, whole root is only in one dimenfion. See Equa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 LATERAN Councils, thofe councils held in the 
 bafilica of the Latin church at Rome. See Council. 
 There have been five councils held in this place, viz. in 
 the years 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1513. 
 
 Canons regular of the Congregation of the Later AN, 
 were introduced in the time of pope Leo I. and con¬ 
 tinued in the church till the reign of Boniface, who dif- 
 placed them, and put fecular canons in their room ; but 
 150 years after, the regulars were reinftated again. 
 
 A LATERE, a term ufed to denote the qualifications 
 of cardinals whom the pope fends as legates into foreign 
 courts, who are called legates a latere, as being his 
 holinefs’s affiftants and counfellors in ordinary; thefe 
 arc the moil confiderable of the three other legates, be¬ 
 ing luch as the pope coinmiffions to take his place in 
 councils, and fo called in regard that he never gives this 
 office to any but his favourites and confidants, who are 
 always a latere, at his fide. A legate a latere has the 
 power of conferring benefices without a mandate, of le¬ 
 gitimating baftards, to hold offices, and has a crofs carried 
 before him, as thcenfign of his authority. 
 
 De Latere, legates who are not cardinals, but vet 
 are entrufted with an apoftolicai legation. See Leg ate. 
 
 LATH, in building, along thin and narrow flip of 
 wood, nailed to the rafters of a roof cr ceiling, in order 
 to fuftain the covering. 
 
 Of cleaving Laths. The latli-clcavers having cut 
 their timbers in lengths, they cleave each piece with 
 wedges, into 8, 12, or 16, according to the fize of 
 their timber ; thefe pieces are called bolts : this is done 
 by the felt-grain, which is that grain which is leen to 
 run round in rings at the end of a piece of a tree. 
 Thus they are cut out for the breadth of the laths, and 
 this work is called felting. Afterwards they cleave the 
 laths into their proper thickneftes with their chit by the 
 quarter grain, or that which runs in ftraight lines towards 
 the pith. 
 
 LATHE, an engine ufed in turning wood, ivory, 
 and other materials. (Seeplate XLV. fig. 7.) It is com¬ 
 pofed of two legs or ftyles, a a , which are commonly 
 about two feet ten inches high, on the upper part of 
 which are fattened two pieces of wood called cheeks, 
 h, b , parallel to the horizon ; between thefe are two 
 pieces of wood, called puppets, c, c, made to flide be¬ 
 tween the cheeks, and to be fixed down at any point 
 at pleafure; near the upper end of one of thefe puppets 
 is fattened a ftrong fpike of tempered ft eel, el, and op~ 
 pofite to. it, in the other, is an iron ferew, f ; by thefe 
 the pieCe to be turned is fuftained, and is turned round 
 by means of the firing m, put round it, and fattened 
 above to the pliable pole /, and underneath to the tred- 
 dle or board i, moved with the foot; there is alfo a piece 
 of wood between the cheeks, called a reft, e, whofe of¬ 
 fice is to reft the tool upon, that it may lie in a fteady 
 pofition while the workman ufes it. 
 
 When turners perform heavy work, which the pole 
 and treddle will not command, they ufe inftead of thefe 
 awheel (fig. 8.) which is turned about, fometimes with 
 one and fometimes with two handles, according to the 
 weight of the work; its firing hath both its ends neatly 
 fattened together, and this being fixed in a groove round 
 the edge of the wheel, and after being crofled, put round 
 a groove in the work, it is eafily turned round with a 
 
 fwift 
 
L A T 
 
 fwift and regular motion. This is the nv>ft cxpeuitious 
 method of working; for the lpnnging up ot the pole 
 makes an interim (Ron in the turning ot the \yoik, but 
 with the wheel it always turns the larne way, fo that the 
 tool need never be taken off, unkis it be to examine the 
 Work as it is doing. 
 
 Braziers, who turn pots, kettles, Ac. have their lathe 
 made in a different manner from that ufed by turners, as 
 mav be feett i n-fig. 9. 
 
 The puppets and refls are much ftronger than tliofe 
 ufed by the turners ; their edge-tools, which they call 
 hooks,” are alfo of a different lhape from the chillels and 
 ether tools ufed-by turners, as may be lcen ibid, marked 
 B 1, 13 2, 1> 3, being bent backwards and forwards at 
 the cutting end. And as the common turners work with 
 a round firing made of gut, the braziers work, with a flat 
 leather fhong, which wrapping dole and tight about the 
 roller of their mandril, commands it with the greater 
 eafe, and turns it more forcibly about. 
 
 Fig. 10. Tfepvefents a lathe for turning fmall work in 
 metal. The kb-hand holds the tool in a fmall hand- 
 vice, and the right-hand turns the work with the bow. 
 
 In turning oval or rpfe-work, the common turner’s 
 lathe mull be provided with the additional parts repre¬ 
 sented in fig. n. which exhibits the whole machine with 
 all its parts ready for working, A, being the fore-puppet, 
 with its apparatus; B, the hinder puppet; C, a hollow 
 axis, turned into a fcrew-fafhion, to dire£l the weight 
 D, by means of the nut E ; and F, the lupport of the 
 tools, which may be raifed or lowered at pleafure. 
 
 Lathe, or Leth , as ufed in Kent and Suflex, is part 
 of a county, containing three or four hundreds. 
 
 LATHRAH, in botany, a genus of the didynamia 
 angiofpermia clafs. "1 hecahx conhfts of tour fegments; 
 and the capfule has but one cell. There are four fpecies, 
 only one of which, viz. the fquamaria, or toothwort, is 
 a native of Britain. 
 
 LATHYRUS, chickling-pea, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, the corolla of which is papilionaceous ; the fruit 
 is a very long, cyliudrick, or comprefled, acuminated 
 pod, confifling of two valves; the feeds are numerous, 
 pf a cylindrick, globofe, or fomewhat angular figure. 
 
 LATIFOLIOUS Trees and Plants, fuck as 
 have broad leaves. 
 
 LATIN, a dead language, firfl fpoken in Latium, 
 and afterwards at Rome ; and fliil ufed in the Romilh 
 church, and among many ot the learned. 
 
 This language is principally derived from the Greek, 
 and particularly from the Eolick dialed of that tongue, 
 though it has a great number ot words which it borrowed 
 from the language of the Etrufci, Ofci, and other an¬ 
 cient people of Italy ; and foreign commerce and wars, 
 
 . in courl'e of time, added a great many more. 
 
 The Latin is a ftrong nervous language, perfedly 
 - fuitzble to the charader of the people who l'poke it; we 
 have fti.ll works of every kind, admirably well written 
 . in the Latin ; though there are vaft numbers loft. The 
 Latin is mote figurative than the Englilh, lei's copious 
 than the Greek, lefs pompous than the Spanilh, lefs deli¬ 
 cate than the Italian, but clofer and more nervous than 
 any of them, A 
 
 The Latin tongue was for a while confined almolt 
 wholly within, the walls of Rome; nor would the Ro¬ 
 mans allow the common ufe of it to their neighbours, 
 or to the nations they iubdued : but by degrees they in 
 time became lenlible of >tke nccelfity ot its being gene¬ 
 rally underftood, for the convcniency of commerce , 
 and accordingly ufed their endeavours that a 1 the na¬ 
 tions fubjed to their empire, lhould be united by one 
 common language, fo that at length they impofed the 
 ule of it, by a particular law for that purpole. Alter 
 the tranfiation of the feat of the empire from Rome to 
 Conftantinople, the emperors of the eaft being always 
 ' defirous of retaining the title of Roman emperors, ap¬ 
 pointed the Latin to be Hill ufed; but at length negled- 
 irw the empire of the weft, they abandoned all care ot 
 th? Latin tongue, and ufed the Greek. Charlemagne 
 coming to the empire of the weft, revived tins language ; 
 but at length 1: gave way, and the French took place 
 0 f the Latin : it was, however, prodigioufly degenerated 
 before it came to be laid afide; in which condition it 
 was found at die time of the reformation, when V ives, 
 Erafmus, Ac. began to open the way for its recovery ; 
 
 L A T 
 
 fince which time the monkifh lability has been declining, 
 and all endeavours have been ufed to retrieve the pure 
 language of the Auguftan age. 
 
 LATITAT, a writ which blues out of the King’s 
 Bench, i'o denominated from a l'uppofition that the de¬ 
 fendant lies lurking and concealed, after having fled out 
 of Middlefex, into fome other county ; to the iherifF 
 whereof diis writ is directed, commanding him to ap> 
 prebend the defendant there. 
 
 LATITUDE, in geography, the diftance of any 
 place from the equator, mealured in degrees, minutes 
 and ieconds, upon the meridian ot that place ; and is 
 either north or louth, according as die place is fituated 
 either 011 the north or foutli Tide of the equator : thus 
 let / (plate XLVI. Jig. 6, 7.) reptefent London, p the 
 north pole, e q equator ; then will pies be the meridian 
 of London, and the arch / the latitude of London, 
 which being equal to <51° 32^ the latitude of London, is 
 laid to be <51° 32' north. 
 
 The latitude of a place is always equal to the elevation 
 of the pole above the horizon: thus/f, the latitude of 
 London, is equal to the arch p 0, the elevation of the 
 pole p above the horizon h 0. 
 
 Complement of the Latitude, in geography, is the 
 number'of degrees, minutes, and feconds, which, added 
 to the latitude, make it equal to 90° : thus the comple¬ 
 ment of the latitude of London is 38° 28'; for 38° 28' 
 added to 51 0 32' is equal to 90°. 
 
 The complement of the latitude is always equal to 
 the elevation of the equator above the horizon, or the 
 angle intercepted between the plane ot the equator and 
 the plane of the horizon. 
 
 Thus let l (plate XLVI. fig. 7.) be London, the 
 latitude of London is the arch e I ; the complement of 
 the latitude is the arch e h, which meafures the eleva¬ 
 tion of the equator e q, above the horizon h 0, or the 
 angle e i h, intercepted between the planes of the equator 
 and horizon. 
 
 Circles of Latitude, in aftronomy, are fecondaries 
 to the ecliptick, or circles drawn on the fphere of the 
 heaven, perpendicular to the ecliptick, and interfering 
 each other in the poles of the ecliptick. 
 
 Latitude of a Star or Planet , in aftronomy, is its 
 diftance from the ecliptick in degrees, minutes and fe- 
 conds, meafured on a circle of latitude drawn through 
 that liar or planet, and may be either north or foutli, as_ 
 the object is fituated either on the north or foutli fide of 
 the ecliptick. 
 
 The ecliptick is drawn on the common celeftial globes, 
 by which we may fee what conftellations it paffes through 
 there are alfo ufually fix circles of latitude, -which by 
 their mutual interfeftions fhew the poles of the ecliptick, 
 as well as divide it into 12 equal parts, anfwerable to the 
 number of months in a year. 
 
 Plate XLVI. fig. 8. reprefents a celeftial globe, where 
 A G is the ecliptick, N the north, S the foutli pole of 
 the ecliptick, NAS, N B S, N C S, N D S, Ac. are 
 circles of the latitude, or rather halves of them, which 
 is as much as can be feen at one view upon the convex 
 of the folid globe. The ftar H is in fo many degrees, 
 minutes and feconds of north latitude as the arch H A. 
 amounts to ; the ftar I is in fouth latitude, the quantity 
 whereof is mealured by the arch I B. 
 
 From what has been faid it appears, that we rnuft 
 carefully diftinguifh the different notions of latitude, 
 when applied to liars in the heaven, or places on the 
 earth ; that is, between latitude in aftronomy and lati¬ 
 tude in geography ; for in the heaven, or upon the ce¬ 
 leftial globe, it is the diftance from the ecliptick ; but, 
 upon the earth, or upon the terreftial globe, it is the 
 diftance from the equator. Indeed, fometimes we con- 
 lider the diftance of the heavenly bodies from the celel- 
 tial equator ; but this is called declination. See Decli- 
 n at ion. The latitude of a planet is either heliocen- 
 trick or geocentrick : 
 
 Hcliocentrick Latitude of a Planet , is the latitude it 
 would appear in to a fpeftator placed in the fun. 
 
 Gcount 'uk Latitude of a Planet , is the latitude it 
 appears in to an inhabitant of the earth. See Geo¬ 
 centrick Latitude. 
 
 To illuftrate the difference betyveen the heliocentrick 
 and geocentrick latitude of a planet, let A B (plate XLVI. 
 fir. o l be the orbit of the earth, C D the orbit of 
 y Mars, 
 
iacuicL.-itit udc 
 
 Plate JXTjVI 
 
L A T 
 
 Mars, both viewed with the eye in their common fcc- 
 tion continued, whereby they appear ftraight lines ; let 
 E and F be oppofite points of the ecliptick: fuppofe 
 Mars to be in his fouth limit at C, if he were at that 
 time viewed from S, the centre of the fun, he would 
 appear in the fphere of the heaven at the point H ; his 
 heliocentrick latitude then is F H. But let Mars in C 
 be viewed from the earth, and he will appear in different 
 places, according as the earth is in different parts of her 
 orbit; for if the earth be at B, a line drawn from B 
 through C fhews the apparent place of Mars to be at g, 
 and his geocentrick latitude is then F^ ; if the earth be 
 at A, the apparent place of Mars will he in G, and his 
 geocentrick latitude FG; if the earth be in any other 
 part of her orbit, as at the point I or K, it is eafy to 
 fee, by a line drawn from cither of thofe points through 
 Mars at C, that he will appear in different places in the 
 fphere of the heaven, and would be in different gcocen- 
 trick latitudes. 
 
 North afeending Latitude of the Moon, when file 
 proceeds from the afeending node towards lier northern 
 limit or greateft elongation. 
 
 North defending Latitude, is when the moon re¬ 
 turns from her northern limit to the defending node. 
 
 South defending Latitude, when fhe proceeds from 
 the defeending node to her fouthern limit. 
 
 South afeending Latitude, when lhe returns from 
 her fouthern limit to her afeending node. 
 
 And the fame things hold good of the other planets. 
 
 LATITUDIN ARIAN, aperfon of moderation with 
 regard to religious opinions, who believes there is a la¬ 
 titude in the road to heaven, which may admit people 
 of different perfualions. In this fenfe all proteftants 
 are latitudinarians, fince they allow that many among 
 the papifls may be faved ; though the bigotry of thefe 
 laft will not permit them to allow the fame with refpe£t 
 to proteftants. 
 
 LATTEN, denotes iron plates tinned over, of which 
 tea-caniflers are made. 
 
 Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thinhefs, are 
 fmoothed by rufting them in an acid liquor, as common 
 water made eager with rye : with this liquor they fill 
 certain troughs, and then put in the plates, which they 
 turn once or twice a-day, that they may be equally 
 rufted over ; after this they are taken out and well 
 fcowered with fand, and, to prevent their rufting again, 
 immediately plunged into pure water, in which they are 
 to be left till the inftant they are to be tinned or blanched, 
 the manner of doing which is this: they flux the tin 
 in a large iron crucible, which has the figure of'an 
 oblong pyramid with four faces, of which two oppofite 
 ones arelefs than the two others. The crucible is heated 
 only from below, its upper part being luted with the 
 furnace all round. The crucible is always deeper than 
 the plates, which are to be tinned, are long; they al¬ 
 ways put them in downright, and the tin ought to fwim 
 over them; to this purpolc artificers of different trades 
 prepare plates of different fhapes, though Mr. Reaumur 
 thinks them all exceptionable. But the Germans ufe 
 no fort of preparation of the iron, to make it receive the 
 tin, more than the keeping it always fteeped in water, 
 till the time; only when the tin is melted in the cru¬ 
 cible, they cover it with a layer of a fort of fuet, which 
 is ufually two inches thick, and the plate muft pafs 
 through this before it can come to the melted tin. The 
 firft ufe of this covering is to keep the tin from burn¬ 
 ing ; for if any part fhould take fire, the fuet would 
 foon moiften it, and reduce it to its primitive ftate 
 again. The blancliers fay, this fuet is a compounded 
 matter; it is indeed of a black colour, but Mr. Reau¬ 
 mur fuppofed that to be only an artifice to make it a 
 fecret, and that it is only coloured with foot or the 
 fmoke of a chimney ; but he found it true lb far, that 
 the common unprepared fuet was not luflicient; for 
 after feveral attempts, there was always fomething want¬ 
 ing to render the fuccefs of the operation certain. The 
 whole fecret of blanching, therefore, was found to lie in 
 the preparation of this fuet; and this, at length, he 
 difeovered to confift only in the firft frying and burning 
 it. This ftmple operation not only gives it the colour, 
 but puts it into a condition to give the iron a dilpofition 
 to be tinned, which it does furprifingly. 
 
 The melted tin mult alfo have a certain degree of 
 Vol. II. No. 43. 
 
 L A U 
 
 heat, for if it is not hot enough, it will not flick to the 
 iron; and if it is too hot, it will cover it with too thin 
 a coat, and the plates will have feveral colours, as led, 
 blue and purple, and upon the whole will have a caft of 
 yellow. To prevent this, by knowing when the fire 
 has a proper degree of heat, they might try with fmail 
 pieces of iron ; but in general, ufe teaches them to 
 know the degree, and they put in the iron when the tin 
 is at a different ftandard of heat, according as they 
 would give it a thicker or thinner coat. Sometimes alfo 
 they give the plates a double layer, as they would have 
 them very thickly covered. This they do by dipping 
 them into the tin when very hot the firft time, and when 
 lefs hot the fccond. The tin which is to give the fecond 
 coat, muft be frelh covered with fuet, and that with the 
 common fuet, not the prepared. 
 
 Latten-brass, plates of milled brafs, reduced to 
 different thickneffes, according to the ufes it is intended 
 for. 
 
 LATUS Rectum, in conick fe£lions, the fame with 
 parameter. See Par ameter. 
 
 Latus Transversum, ih the hyperbola, that part 
 of the tranfverfe diameter, intercepted between the ver¬ 
 tices of the two oppofite fe&ions. See Hyperbola. 
 
 LAVANDULA, lavender, in botany, a fhrubby 
 plant, which its leaves fet in pairs, the ftalks fquare when 
 young, and round when grown woody; producing, on 
 the tops of the branches, naked fpikes of blue labiated 
 flowers, of which die upper lip is erc£t and cloven, the 
 lower divided into three roundifh fegments. 
 
 Lavandula Minor five Spica, lavender with oblong, 
 very narrow, fomewhat hoary, undivided leaves; a na¬ 
 tive of dry gravelly foils in the fouthern parts of Europe, 
 common in our gardens, and flowering in July. The 
 flowers of lavender have a fragrant fmell, to moll people 
 agreeable, and abitterifh, warm, fomewhat pungent tafte : 
 the leaves are weaker, and lefs grateful. They are often 
 employed as a perfume; and medicinally, as mild ftimu- 
 lants and corroborants, in vertigoes, paliies, tremours, 
 and other debilities of the nervous lyftem, both internally 
 and externally. The flowers are fometimes taken in the 
 form of conlerve; into which they are reduced, by 
 beating them, while frefli, with thrice their weight of 
 double refined fugar. Their fragrance is lefs injured by 
 beating or bruifing them, than rnoft of the other odo¬ 
 riferous flowers, but is neverthelefs confiderably dimi- 
 nilhed : the flavour of the leaves is of a much lefs deftruc- 
 tible kind. 
 
 Lavandula Alajor five vulgaris, broad lavender, 
 with longer, wider, and hoarier leaves, and much larger 
 Ipikes, though fmaller flowers ; common in the fouthern 
 parts of Europe, but rare among us. l he name fpike 
 is applied by foreign writers to this fpecies, by fome of 
 ours to the firft. 
 
 The broad-leaved lavender is ftronger both in fmell 
 and tafte than the narrow, and yields in diftillation 
 almoft thrice as much elfential oil; but the flavour both 
 of the oil and of the plant itfelf, is much lefs grateful: 
 the oil is likewife of a much darker colour, inclining to 
 green. Watery and lpirituous extracts, made from the 
 two forts of lavender, are very nearly alike; the differ¬ 
 ence feeming to refide only in the volatile parts. 
 
 LAUDANUM, a preparation of opium. SeeOpi um. 
 
 LAVENDER, the fame with lavandula. See La¬ 
 vandula. 
 
 LAVER, a facred utenfil in the temple of Jerufalein, 
 confifting of a bafon, whence they drew water bv cocks. 
 
 LAUNCH, among failors, a fort of boat ufed by the 
 French, Italian, and Spanifh fhips ; and is peculiar to 
 thofe who are employed in the Mediterranean trade, 
 being better fitted for the ports of that fea than a long¬ 
 boat, than which it is generally much longer, and more 
 flat-bottomed, and all’o fharper before. See Boat. 
 
 LAUNCHING a Ship or Boat, pufhing them into 
 the water from an afeent. 
 
 LAURUS, the bay-tree, in botany, a tree too well 
 known to need any defcription here. 
 
 The leaves and berries of the bay-tree, or common 
 laurus, are only ufed in medicine, and are warm car¬ 
 minatives, and fometimes exhibited in this intention 
 againft flatulent colicks; and likewife in hyftencal dif- 
 orders. Their principal ufe, in the prcfent practice, 19. 
 in clyfteis, and fome external applications, l he leaves 
 
 enter 
 
LAW 
 
 enter our common fomentation, and the berries the 
 plafter and cataplafm of cummin ; they alfo give name to 
 an ele£luary, which is little otherwile ufed than in 
 clyllers. 
 
 LAW, in general, is defined to be a certain rule for 
 the good government of mankind in fociety. See the 
 article Government. 
 
 This rule or law is nothing but a decree, by which 
 the fuperior obliges thole fubje£l to him, to accommo¬ 
 date their actions to the direftions preferibed therein. 
 But that a law may exert its force in the minds of thofe 
 to whom it is promulgated, it is requifite that the law¬ 
 giver and the law be likewife known. The legiflatbr ol 
 the laws of nature can be no other than the Creator of 
 the univerfe. No man in-civil fociety can be ignorant 
 who it is that has power over him ; and of the laws lie 
 has notice given him, by a publication plainly and pro¬ 
 perly made^ in which thofe two things ought to be afccr- 
 tained, that the author of the law is he who hath the 
 fupreme authority in the community, aiid that this or 
 that is the true meaning of the law. Thefirft is known, 
 if it be promulged with his own mouth, under his own 
 hand, or if it be done by proper delegates regularly ad¬ 
 mitted to that office : they mull be thus judicioufly exe¬ 
 cuted, and, befides that, contain nothing derogatory to 
 the fovereign power. As to the true fenfe, after the 
 greatefl plainnefs ufed by the promulgers, an explication 
 is to be fought of the legiflator, or thofe who are pub- 
 lickly appointed to give judgment according to law. See 
 Judge. 
 
 Every perfect law has two parts; the one direfling 
 what is to be done, or omitted ; the other declaring the 
 punifhment incurred, by neglefling to do what is com¬ 
 manded, or attempting what is prohibited. And herein 
 all the force of law confifts. See Punishment. 
 
 Law may be divided, with refpeft to its authors, into 
 divine and human : the former may be confidered as 
 two-fold, to wit, natural or moral, and pofitive. Na¬ 
 tural law is that which God has made known to man¬ 
 kind by the light of natural reafon. Pofitive law is that 
 which he has revealed by his prophets: fuch were the 
 laws delivered to the Jews relating to the divine worth ip 
 and polity peculiar to that people. 
 
 Civil or human laws, confidered with refpefl to the 
 legifiator’s two offices, of judging and compelling, may 
 be divided into diflributive and penal. Diflributive law 
 is that which gives every lubjeft what properly belongs 
 to him, forbidding others to injure him either in his pri¬ 
 vileges or property : and penal law is that which deter¬ 
 mines, or appoints, what puniffiments lhall be inffi&ed 
 on thofe who violate the diflributive laws ; it is mandatory, 
 and fpeaks only to the publick officers, or magiflrates. 
 
 Law, more efpecially, denotes what is lawful with us 
 and not elfewhere. 
 
 Law of Anns, that which regulates the proclaiming 
 of war, making and obftrving leagues, attacking an 
 enemy, and punifhing offenders in the camp. 
 
 Law of Marque, or Lett ert of Marque, that by which 
 perfons take the goods or (hipping of the party that has 
 wronged them, as in time of war, whenever they can 
 take them within their prccinfls. 
 
 Law Merchant, or Law of the Staple, a fummary 
 fort of law, now become a part of the laws of England ; 
 one point of it confifls in this, that if there be two joint 
 merchants of wares, and one dies, his executor fhaJl 
 have the moiety ; which is only allowed in the cafe of 
 merchants. 
 
 Law Spiritual , the fame with canon or ecclefiaflical 
 law. 
 
 Laws of Nature, or Motion, in phyficks, are axioms 
 or general rules of motion and reft, obferved by all na¬ 
 tural bodies in their a£lions on one another ; of thele Sir 
 Ifaac Newton has eflablifhcd the three following : 
 
 i. All bodies continue their {late of rell or uniform 
 motion in a right line, till they are made to change that 
 ftate by fome external force itnprefled upon them. 
 
 This law is no other than that univerfal property of 
 bodies, called paffivenefs or ina&ivity: whereby they 
 endeavour to continue the ftate they are in, whatever it 
 be. Thus a top only ceafes to run round, on account 
 of the refiftance it meets with from the air, and the 
 fridtion of the plane whereon it moves. And a pendu¬ 
 lum, when left to vibrate in vacuo, where there is no-| 
 3 I 
 
 L A W 
 
 thing to flop it, but the fridlion arifing from the motion 
 of the pin on which it is fufpended, continues to move 
 much longer than one in the open air. 
 
 2. The change of motion, produced in any bodv, is 
 always proportionable to the fores, whereby ft F effedted ; 
 and in the fame diredlion wherein that force adls. 
 
 This is an immediate confequence of this axiom, the 
 effedl is always proportionable to its caufe. For inftance. 
 if a certain force produces a certain motion, a double 
 force will produce double the motion; a triple force, 
 triple the motion, &c. It'a body is in motion, and has 
 a new force imp felled on it in the direction wherein it 
 moves, it will receive an addition to its motion, pro¬ 
 portional to the force imprilled ; but, if the force adts 
 diredlly contrary to its motion, the body will then lofe 
 a proportional part of its motion: again, if the force is 
 imprefled obliquely, it will produce a new direction in 
 the motion of the body more or lets different from the 
 former, in proportion to its quantity and diredlion. 
 
 3. Re-a£lion is always contiary and equal to aSion ; 
 or the adlions of two bodies upon each other are equal, 
 and in contrary dire&ions. 
 
 Thus, fuppol’e a Hone or other load to be drawn by 
 an horfe; the load re-adls upon the horfe, as much as 
 the horfe adls upon the load ; for the harnefs w hich is 
 ftretched equally between them both ways, draws tile 
 liotfe towards the ftone, as much as it does the ftone 
 towards the horfe; and the progreffive motion of tlie 
 horfe is as much retarded by the load, as the motion of 
 the load is promoted by the endeavour of the horfe. 
 This will be better explained from the following intlance: 
 let a perfon fitting in a boat draw another boat equally 
 heavy towards him, they will both move towards each 
 other with equal velocities: let the boat he fits in be the 
 lighted, and it will move the fafteft ; becaufe, the aflion 
 being equal on both fides, the fame quantity of motion 
 will be given to each boat, that is, the lefler will have 
 the greater velocity. 
 
 We have a further confirmation of this from attraction. 
 Suppofing two bodies atrrafting one another, but pre¬ 
 vented from coming cioft together by fome other boJv 
 placed between them : iftheirrLpecliveaCtions, by which 
 they tend towards each other, were not equal on both 
 fides, then would the intermediate body be prefled more 
 one way than the Qther, and fo all three would begin to 
 move by themfelvcs the fame way ; but that three bodies 
 lhould be put in motion after this manner, when no 
 external force a£ls upon them, is contrary to experience . 
 conlcquently, whatever different degrees of force anv two 
 bodies may be capable of exerting, their mutual aCtion : 
 on each other are always equal. This may be tried with 
 a load ftone and iron ; which being put into proper vef- 
 fels, contiguous to one another, and made to -float on 
 the furface of the water, will be an exd& counterbalance 
 to each other, and remain at reft, whatever be the at- 
 tiaClivc power of the load-ftone, or the proportion of 
 their refpeftive magnitudes. 
 
 Theft laws receive an abundant additional prooffirorri 
 hence, viz. that all theconciufions that are drawn from 
 them in relation to the phenomena of bodies, how com¬ 
 plicated foever their motions be, are always found to agree 
 perfectly with obfervation. 'I he truth of which luf- 
 ficiently appears in all parts of the Newtonian phi- 
 lofophy. 
 
 LAWN, a large plain in a park, or adjoining to fome 
 grand feat. The moll convenient fituation is on the 
 fouth or fouth-eaft fide of a houft. It the lawn be a 
 fquare, three avenues may break out from three of the 
 angles, and meet in the fourth angle oppofite to the 
 houfe : it may be bounded with walks or a {ingle row 
 of lime trees let at a good dillance from one another. A 
 circle is a good figure for a lawn, but mull break off be¬ 
 fore it comes againft the front. A triangle is a very 
 proper figure, but lhould be obtufe or right-angled next 
 the front. Many perfons have preferred the lime-tree 
 for this purpofe, on account of their regular growth : 
 but as the leaves of this tree often change their colour, 
 and begin to fall very loon in the autumn, occafioning a 
 great litter in the garden , and from the end of Julv the 
 trees make but an indifferent appearance ; fothey are not 
 to be efteemed for theft plantations. The elm, oak, 
 beech, and chefnut among the deciduous trees, are to 
 be preferred to all others, as they keep their leaves late in 
 
 autumn 
 
LEA 
 
 Autumn : and thefe are all of them large growing trees; 
 fo are very proper for this purpofe. 
 
 LAXATIVE Medicines, arefuchas regard either 
 the belly or entire habit, and produce this effect by fonie 
 foftening quality that takes away the tenfity of the fibres, 
 and facilitates the palfage of the contents in the internal 
 
 tUb LAY Brothers, among the Romanics, t'hofe pious, 
 but illiterate perfons, who devote themfelves, in lome 
 convent, to the fervice of the religious. 
 
 Lay Land , or Ley Land. , in hufbandry, fallow- 
 ground, or luch as lies untilled. 
 
 & Lay Man, one who follows a fecular employment, 
 or has not entered into holy orders. 
 
 Lay Man, among painters, a imall flatue, either of 
 wax or wood, whole joints are 1b formed, that it may 
 be put into any attitude or pofture. Its principal ule is 
 for adjufling the drapery in cloathing of figures. 
 
 LAYERS, in gardening, are tender ihoots, or twigs 
 of trees, laid or buried in the ground ; till having ft ruck 
 root, they are feparated from the parent-tree, and be¬ 
 come diftinft plants. Many trees may be thus propa¬ 
 gated by layers; the ever-greens about Bartholomew- 
 tide, and other trees about the month ol O&ober. T he 
 operation is performed by flitting the branches a little 
 way, and laying them about half a foot under the 
 mould : the ground fhould firft be made very light, and 
 after they are laid, they fhould have a little water given 
 them. If they do not comply well in laying them down, 
 they muft be pegged down with a hook or two j and if 
 they have taken fufficient root by the next winter, they 
 lhould be cut off from the main plants, and planted in 
 the nurfery. Some twill the branch, or bare the rind ; 
 and if it be out of the reach of the ground, they fallen a 
 tub or bafket near it, which, they fill with good mould, 
 and lay the branch in it. 
 
 LAZARETTO, or Lazar-Ho- e, a publick 
 building, in the nature of an holpita to receive the poor 
 end thole affli&ed with contagious dillempers ; in home 
 places, lazarettos are appointed for the performance of 
 quarantine ; in which cafe, thofe arc obliged to be con¬ 
 fined in them who are fufpe£ted to have come from 
 places irtfe£ted with the plague. 
 
 LAZULI. See Lapis Lazuli. 
 
 LEAD, Plumbutn, in natural hiilory, a coarfe, im¬ 
 pure metal, called Sat'Urn by the chymifts. 
 
 Lead is the heaviefl of metals next after gold ; it is, 
 indeed, considerably lighter than quickfilver, but the want 
 of malleability denying that fubllAnce a place in the clafs 
 of metals, lead is among them the fecond in weight. It 
 is the. foftefl of ail the metals ; eafily flattened under the 
 hammer, and duftile in a very great degree, though 
 much lefs fo than gold. Its colour is a pale bluifh grey, 
 it is very little fubjeft to ruil, and is the leall fonorous 
 of all the metals, except gold, with which it feems nearly 
 on an equality, in regard to this property in its common 
 {late ; but Mr. Reaumer has dilcovercd that, it call in 
 the form of a fegrrient of a fpherc, it has feme found 
 when ft ruck upon ; a property which gold does not ac¬ 
 quire by being call in the fame form. _ See Gold. 
 
 It requires the lead degree of fire of all metals, except 
 tin, to put it in fufion. It acquires this fluid ftate long 
 before it changes its colour; whereas the other metals, 
 except tin, all become red-hot before they run : after 
 melting, il verv readilv calcines into a grey powder, 
 which, if the fire be jncrealed and the matter often 
 birred, becomes yellow, and afterwards of a fine florid 
 red : this is the minium, or common red lead of the 
 Ihops. If the fire be made yet more vehement, it runs 
 into an oleaginous matter, which, as it cools, becomes 
 of a y el low 11 Ii or vedifli colour, and- is compoled of a 
 number of thin lamiiue ; this is Htharge. Though thefe 
 fcvcral lubflances have nothing of the appearance of the 
 metal they are produced from, yet, it a little iron filings 
 be added to them over the fire, or only fome pieces of 
 charcoal, or any other oily inflammable matter be thrown 
 iu, they become lead again. I he fcorice of lead, left 
 to themfelves in a ilrong fife, always run into glals, 
 and in that form make their way through all forts of 
 veflels. 
 
 Lead very readily and eafily amalgamates with mer¬ 
 cury, and as readily mixes in fufion with all the other 
 metals, except iron, though lels eafily with copper than 
 
 LEA 
 
 the reft. The fpccifick gravity of lead Is to that of water 
 as 11525 to 1000. 
 
 Lead, when in the bowels of the earth, enters into 
 the body of cryflals, as is very frequently the cafe with 
 that cryflal which is found about lead mines, and in¬ 
 fluences its figure fo far as to give it a cubick form. It 
 often docs this without altering its colour : but when it 
 tinges it alfo, the colour it gives is yellow. 
 
 Lead is more eafily leparated from its common ore 
 than any other metal; there requires nothing for this 
 purpofe but a common wood-fire, kept up to a due 
 flrength by a blaft of bellows. The lead-ore is thrown 
 into this fire upon the wood, and the melted metal runs 
 into a hollow at the bottom of the furnace made to re¬ 
 ceive it, from which they ladle it out, and call it into 
 large mafles. Such ores of lead as contain earth and 
 fiones are to be powdered and wafhed before they are 
 committed to the fire, and luch as contain pyrites or 
 marcafite, which is no uncommon tiling, mull be roalled 
 two or three times, in order to burn away the fulphur 
 they are debafed with ; then powdered and wafhed, iu 
 order to their being committed to the fire, and finally 
 mixed with the common black flux, if very rehadlory. 
 See Flux. 
 
 If there be any occafion to feparatc lead from a mix¬ 
 ture of copper in the regulus, nothing is moveeafy than 
 to do it by a common fire; the.heat of which being 
 enough to melt lead, though not to fufe copper, will 
 run it all off, and leave the copper pure behind. 
 
 Lead is much ufed in building, efpccially for cover¬ 
 ings, gutters, pipes and glazing; for which ufes it is 
 cither call into Iheets in a mould, or nulled; which 
 lail is by much the leall ferviceable, not only on account 
 of its thinnefs, but alfo becaule it is fo exceedingly 
 11 retched in milling, that when it comes to lie in the 
 hot fun, it lhrinks and cracks, and confequently will 
 not keep out the water, for the manufacture of all 
 which, fee Plumbery. 
 
 Lead has been celebrated by the chemical writers for 
 very great virtues in medicine, but, upon the whole, it 
 feems to be a metal very cautioufly to be given inter¬ 
 nally, and rather calculated for outward application. 
 Its ore is poiionous : the fleam which arifes from the 
 furnace where it is worked, infeCls the grafs of all the 
 neighbouring places, and kills the animals that feed on 
 it; and among the preparations of it, the fait called 
 lacciiarum faturni, which is by much its bell form for 
 medicine, and which is able to do great lervice, in hae¬ 
 morrhages and lome other cafes ; is apt, however, to 
 bring on cholicks of a very violent kind, and fo many 
 other dborders, that the remedy often proves w.orfe than 
 the difeafe. 
 
 The preparations of lead are, j. Minium, or red 
 lead. 2. Litharge. 3. Burnt-lead, plumbum uftum. 
 
 4. Cerufe. 5. Salt, or fugar of lead, faccharum faturni. 
 See Minium, Litharge, Ceruse,. and Sacciia- 
 i'UM SATURNl. 
 
 Burnt Lead is thus prepared : cut a quantity of the 
 thinneft milled lead that can be got into finall plates ; 
 fill an earthern veilel, that will bear the fire, with thefe 
 plates and powder of common brimllone, laid ftratum 
 fuper ftratum ; fet it over the fire, and when the fulphur 
 is burnt away, the lead will be found reduced toablackifli 
 powder. Five ounces of fulphur will lerve for half a 
 pound of lead. The matter is to be ilirrcd while it re¬ 
 mains on the fire ; and when it is cold, tnc powder is 
 to be wafhed three or four times with common water, 
 and then dried for ufe ; being of the fame virtue with 
 litharge, or red-lead, in ointments and plallers. Mixed 
 into an unguent with lard alone, it makes a good oint¬ 
 ment for the piles. However, it ought to be remarked, 
 that it is intended only for external ule. 
 
 Befides the preparations already mentioned, we find 
 mention of balfam and magi fiery of lead. Balm, or 
 balfam of lead, is only an oil drawn, by diilillation, 
 from fait of lead diflolved in fpirit of turpentine. Ma- 
 giflery of lead is the calx of lead purified and lubtililed in 
 aqua fortis ; which, being ieveral times wafhed, becomes 
 extremely white, and is mixed with pomatums for the 
 face and complexion. 
 
 LEAF, Folium , in the natural hiftciry of plants, a 
 very eflential and ornamental part of plants, whofe chief 
 office is to fubtilife and give more fpirit to the abun¬ 
 dance 
 
LEA 
 
 r "ice of nourifhing fap, and to convey It to the little 
 
 nds 
 
 Botanifts confider the leaves of plants, with regard to 
 their ftrutture, their iurface, figure, confiftence, edges, 
 fituation and fize. With regard to their ftru&ure, they 
 are either fingle, as thofe of the apple-tree and pear-tree; 
 or double, as thofe of angelica and parfley. With re- 
 fpeft to their furfacc, they are either flat, as the num- 
 mularia and origany; or in bunches, as feveral kinds of 
 kali and houfeleeks. With regard to their confiftence, 
 they are either thin and fine, as thofe of St. John’s wort; 
 or thick and grofs, as thofe of feveral kinds of lioufeleek : 
 or woolly, as thofe of gnaphalium. With regard to 
 their edges, leaves are either cut flightly, as fome°fpecies 
 of geums ; or deep, as in fome of the j’aceas. With re¬ 
 gard to their fituation, they are either ranged alternately, 
 as the alaternus ; or oppofite to each other, as the phil- 
 lyrea and the mints. With regard to their fize, they are 
 either very large, as thofe of the colocafia and fphondy- 
 lium ; or moderate, as thofe of biftort and the fig-tree ; 
 or final 1, as thofe of the apple-tree and pear-tree ; or 
 very fmall, as that of St. John’s wort. 
 
 Moll forts of fmall plants, and alfo feveral forts of 
 trees, which put forth a root at the fmall end of the feed, 
 put out two fmall leaves that are not at all like thofe that 
 grow on the plant or tree, as foon as the root has taken 
 hold of the ground; and afterwards between thefe falfc 
 leaves there comes forth a flioot which produces leaves 
 like thofe of the plant or tree from which it came : of this 
 manner of growth, there is an infinite number of plants 
 and trees. 
 
 Dottor Grew juftly obferves, that the fibres of leaves 
 are compofcd of two general kinds of veflels, viz. thofe 
 for fap and thofe for air; and, that thefe are ramified 
 out of greater into lefs, like the veins and arteries in ani¬ 
 mals ; and all naturalifts aferibe to them very important 
 ufes ; themoft fingular of which is, that they, in fome 
 meafure, perform the fame office for the fupport of the 
 vegetable life, as the lungs of animals do for the fupport 
 of animal life ; and, that it is highly probable, that 
 plants draw fome part of their nourilhment from the air 
 through their leaves. Thefe, in the fpring, receive the 
 crude humours, divide them very minutely, and carry 
 back great plenty of elaborated juice to the plant. By 
 thefe a tranfpiration is carried on of what is unprofitable, 
 anfwering to the difcharge in animal bodies made by 
 fweat; for i'omctimes the excretory veflels of the leaves 
 are lb over-charged by the great plenty of the diftending 
 humour, or juice, that they burft in the middle, and 
 let go the more lubtile parts; and it frequently happens, 
 that, in a hot feafon, a great plenty of juices are this 
 way difeharged and imbibed. Thus manna is found to 
 exl'ude as well from the leaves as from the bark, efpe- 
 cially if a cold night follow a hot day ; and the fame thing 
 frequently happens in feveral other plants and trees, as 
 we learn from the bees flying to the lime-tree, that they 
 may gather that gummous fubftance from its leaves: hut 
 if the heat be lefs, all the fuperfluous juices, except thofe 
 which are, perhaps, tranfinitted by inlenfible perfpiration 
 through the arterial veflels, exhale naturally, and return 
 into the trunk. It is alfo found, that the bibulous veflels, 
 dried by the diurnal heat, imbibe, efpeciallv in the night¬ 
 time, thofe watery vapours which arife in form of a very 
 thin dew, and fo make amends for the lofs made by the 
 arteries, by the new moifiures received. Laftly,' the 
 leafferves, in a fingular manner, to nourifli the eye, or 
 gem, until growing by degrees to a greater bulk, it prefles 
 the veflels of the foot-ftalk together, from whence the 
 humour is, by little and little, flopped in the leaf till it 
 cannot any more return through t he foot-flalk ; which, by 
 the ceafing of theaftiux and reflux of the nutritious juice, 
 grows putrid, whence a confumption being caul’cd, the 
 leaf dies, and falls off; which is the chief caule of the 
 falling of the leaves in autumn. 
 
 Some have made the obfervation, that all ever-greens 
 have their woodclofe and compact between their annular 
 circles; and, that their holding their leaves all the win¬ 
 ter, proceeds from the nature of their fap, which is of a 
 clammy and turpentine nature; and that this fap is eafilv 
 condenfed by the cold, and requires a great deal of heat 
 to make it thin and put it in motion : thus a little cold, 
 condenfes or ftiffens pitch or turpentine, but it muft be 
 a frofl that flays the motion of water. From whence it 
 
 LEE 
 
 happens, that thofe'trees which hold their leaves, will 
 grow much better under the droppings of other great 
 trees, than fuch as filed their leaves, becaufe their tur¬ 
 pentine lap fhoots off the drops, and prevents their en¬ 
 tering the veflels in too great quantities. 
 
 1 he various forms and kinds of leaves, as pinnated 
 digitated, crenated, haflated, £cc. 
 
 Leaf, in architecture, the reprefentation of the leaf 
 of the acanthus on the capital of the Corinthian and 
 Compofite orders, which fee. 
 
 Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given to 
 the notches of their pinions. See Clock and Watch. 
 
 LEAGUE, a meafurc of length, containing more or 
 lefs geometrical paces, according to the different ufa^es 
 and cufloms of countries. A league at fea, where i? is 
 chiefly ufed by us, being a land meafure moftly peculiar 
 to the t rench and Germans, contains 3,000 geometrical 
 paces, or three Englifh miles. File French league 
 fometimes contains the fame meafure, and in fome parts 
 of 1- ranee it confifts of 3,500 paces : the mean or common 
 league confifts of 2,400 paces, and the little 2,000. 1 lie 
 : Spanifli leagues are larger than the French, 17 Spanifh 
 leagues making a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 69 
 and an half Englifh ftatute miles. The Dutch and 
 German leagues contain each four geographical miles. 
 T he Perfian leagues are pretty near of the fame extent 
 with the Spanifh ; that is, they are equal to four Italian 
 miles, which is pretty near to what Herodotus calls the 
 length of a Perfian parafang, which contained 30 ftadia, 
 eight whereof, according to Stabo, make a mile. 
 
 League alio denotes an alliance or confederacy be¬ 
 tween princes and ftates for their mutual aid, either in 
 attacking fome common enemy, or 111 defending theni- 
 felves. 
 
 Leagues of the Grifons, are a part of Switzerland, 
 confifting of three fubdivifions, viz. the upper league* 
 the league of the houfe of God, and the league of the°ten 
 jurifdiftions. 
 
 LEAK, among feamen, is a hole or cranny in the 
 Ihip, through which the water conies in. 
 
 LEAKAGE, the ftate of a vcflcl that leaks, or lets 
 water, &c. ouze out or in. 
 
 Leakage, in commerce, an allowance of 12 per 
 cent, to merchants importing wine, out of the cuflom 
 thereof; and of two buarrels in 22 of ale to brewers, See. 
 out of the excife. 
 
 LEAP-YEAR, the fame with biffextile. See the 
 article Bissextile. 
 
 The common year hath 365 days, but leap-year 366; 
 in which laft cafe February hath 29 days, which in com - 
 mon years hath but 28. 
 
 To find the leap-year, 
 
 Divide the year by 4, what is left fhall be 
 f or Leap-year o, forpaft 1, 2, or 3. 
 
 LEASE, in law, the letting of lands, tenements, 
 See. to another for life, term of years, or at will, for a 
 rent referved. A leafe is either written, called an in¬ 
 denture, or deed-poll; or by word of mouth, called 
 Icafe-parole. The party who lets the leafe, is called 
 leflor ; and the party to whom it is let, lcfice. 
 
 LEASH, Leafe, among fportfmen, denotes particu¬ 
 larly three grey-hounds, foxes, bucks, or hares. 
 
 LEAVEN, whatever makes a body fwell and fer¬ 
 ment. Beer, wine, cyder. See. only work by means of 
 the leaven in them. Sour pafte, barm, rennet, See. are 
 leavens ufed in baking bread, brewing beer, and making 
 cheefe, Sec. 
 
 LEG riSTERNIUM, in antiquity, a religious fefti- 
 val prepared among the Romans, and folemnly ferved 
 up in a temple for the gods, whofe ftatues were fet upon 
 beds placed around the tables. Hence the ceremony 
 takes its name Irom leflus, a bed, and fterno, to fpread. 
 LEDGER. See Book-keeping. 
 
 LEE. at fea, generally denotes the part towards which 
 the wind blows. 
 
 Lee -Sh ore, that on which the wind blows. 
 
 LEE-WAY is the angle that the rhumb-line, upon 
 which the fliip endeavours to fail, makes with the rhumb 
 upon which file really fails. 
 
 This is occalioned by the force of the wind, or furge 
 of the fea, when fhe lies to the windward, or is clofe 
 hauled ; which caufes her to fall off and glide fide-ways 
 from the point of the compals fhe capes at. Thus, let 
 
 NESW 
 
LEG 
 
 NESW (plate XL V.fig. 4.) reprefent the compafs, and 
 fiupppfe a lliip at C capes at, or endeavours to fail upon 
 the rhumb C but by the force of the wind and lurge of 
 the fea lhe is obliged to fall off, and make her way good 
 upon the rhumb Cb; then the angle a C b is the lee¬ 
 way: and if that angle be equal to one point, the flap is 
 laid to make one point lee-way, or if equal to two points, 
 the iliip is laid to make two points lee-way, See. 
 
 The quantity of this angle is very uncertain; becaufe 
 fome Ihips, with the fame quantity of fail, and with the 
 fame gale, will make more lee-way than others; it de¬ 
 pending much upon the mould and trim of the fhip, 
 and the quantity of w r ater that lhe draws. How r ever, the 
 common allowances made for lee-way, are thefe: 1. If 
 the fhip be dole hauled, has all her lails fet, the water 
 fmooth, and a moderate gale of wind, file is luppofed to 
 make little or no lee-way. 2. If it blow lo frefh, as to 
 caufe the fmall fails to be handed, it is ufual to allow 
 one point. 3. If it blow fo hard, that the tops mull be 
 clofe reeft, the Ihip then makes aboat two points lee¬ 
 way. 4. If one topfail mull be handed, it is common 
 to allow two and three quarters or three points lee¬ 
 way. 5. When both toplails muff be handed, they 
 allow about four points lee-way. 6. When it blows fo 
 hard as to occallon the fore courle to be handed, the al¬ 
 lowance is between five and a half and fix points. 
 7. When both main and fore courles mull be handed, 
 then fix, or fix and a half points mull be allowed for her 
 lee-way. 8. When the mizzen is handed, and the fhip 
 is trying a hull, flic then makes her way good about 
 one point before the beam, that is, about feven points 
 lee-toAyv 
 
 Though thefe rules are fuch as are generally ufed, yet 
 as the lee-way depends much upon the mould and trim of 
 the fhip, welhall here give the method of afeertaining it 
 by obfervation : thus let the fhip’s wake be fet by a com¬ 
 pafs in the poop, and the oppofite rhumb is the true 
 courfc made good by the fhip ; then the difference be¬ 
 tween this and the courle given by the compafs in the 
 bittacle, is the lee-way required! If the fliip be within 
 fight of land, thelee-way may be exactly found byobferving 
 a point on the land which continues to bear the fame 
 way; for the diffance between the point of the compafs 
 it lies on, and the point the fhip capes at, will be the 
 lee-way: Thus, fuppofe a fhip atC (fig. 5.) i§ lying Up 
 at Nr W, towards A; but infiead of keeping that courle, 
 ihe is carried on the NNE line CB, and conlequently 
 the point B continues to bear always the fame way from 
 the fhip: here it is evident, that the angle ACB, or the 
 diflance between the N£W line that the fhip capes at, 
 and the NNE line that the fhip really fails upon, will be 
 the lee-way. 
 
 . LEES, the grofieff parts of wine, oil, Ac. being the 
 fediment found at the bottom of the veflel. The word 
 is French lie , which fignifies the fame thing, and derived, 
 according to Du Cange* from li«\ a corrupt Latin word 
 of the lame import. A kind of gravelly fand is made of 
 the lees of wine burnt and prepared, which is ufed by 
 dyers, See. And the vinegar-makers drive a great trade 
 with lees of wine dried and made into cakes, out of 
 which all the liquor has been preffed. 
 
 LEET, Letiiy a court held by the lord of a manor, 
 the authority of which is originally derived from the 
 cro\Mi. Acouvt-leet is a court of record, and enquires 
 of all offences under high-trealon, though it cannot pu- 
 nifh any, but mull: certify them to the juftice of alfize. 
 
 LEG, crus, in anatomy, the whole lower extremity 
 from the acetabula of the offa innominata, commonly 
 divided into three parts, viz, the thigh, the leg properly 
 fo called, and the foot. The leg confifls of three 
 bones, the tibia, fibula, and rotula; or, as it is other- 
 wife called, the patella. See Tibia, Fibula, See. 
 For the arteries, veins, nerves, and niufcles of the leg, 
 fee Artery, Nerve, Vein, and Muscle. 
 
 LEGACY, Legctum, in the civil lav/, a donation 
 given by teffafnent, which in common law is denoted by 
 demife. When by a laft will and tcflament an eflate is 
 transferred on another, it is called hsereditas, and he, 
 hares. Though, in common law, he to whom a 
 man’s lands and hereditaments delcend by right of blood 
 is hares natus ; the other to whom it is bequeathed, 
 hares faftus. 
 
 Legacy, in an ecclcfiaflical fenfe, a bequeft to the 
 Vol. II. No. 43. 
 
 L E M 
 
 church which was to hold good, even though the teffa- 
 ment were declared null. 
 
 LEGATE, a prelate, whom the pope-fends ambaffa- 
 dor to any foyereigh prince. 
 
 LEGATORY, in antiquity, a government admi- 
 niilered by,a lieutenant or legatus. 
 
 LEGATUS, among the Romans, a military officer, 
 anlwermg to our lieutenant-general, who commanded 
 under the chief general, or imperator, and aifo one who 
 governed in the provinces under the proconlul or governor. 
 
 LEGEND, Legenda , originally was a book, in the 
 old Romifli churches, containing the leilons to be read 
 in divine fervice. Hence alio the lives qf faints and mar¬ 
 tyrs came to be called legends, as chapters were read out 
 of them at Mattins, See. But the word is now come 
 into difrepute, as the Romilh legends, particularly that 
 of J. de Voragi'ne, is full of ridiculous and romantick 
 accounts. 
 
 Legend, alfo denotes the letters engraved about the 
 margin of coins, or the inferiptions on medals which 
 ferve to explain lhe figures thereon. Strictly fpeaking, 
 the 'legend differs from the infcription ; this lall properly 
 fignifying words placed on the reverie of a medal, in lieu 
 of figures. 
 
 LEGION, a body of forces whereof the Roman ar¬ 
 mies chiefly confiffed. Their llandard at firlt was a 
 wolf; afterwards a hog ; fometimes a minotaur, a horfe, 
 a boar, See. According to Pliny, Marius was the firit 
 who changed all thefe ftandaids into eagles. 
 
 LEGISLATOR, a law-giver, or perfon who eftab- 
 lifiies the polity and laws of a Hate. Such was Mofes, 
 among the Jews ; Lycurgus, among the Lacedaemonians, 
 Sec. With us, the legifiative power is lodged in the 
 king, lords, and commons affembled in parliament. 
 
 LEGUME, Legumen , among botaniffs, denotes a 
 pericarpium of an oblong comprcffed figure, formed of 
 two valves, joined by a vilible future both on the upper 
 and under parts, and having the feeds affixed to the up¬ 
 per limbs of the two valves, in an alternate order. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to all plants 
 whole fruit is a legume. 
 
 LEMMA, in mathematicks, fignifies a propofition, 
 which lerves previoufly to prepare the way for the more 
 eafilv apprehending the demonftratioh of lbme theorem, 
 or conffrudtion of lome problem. 
 
 LEMNIAN Earth, a ipecies of earth or bole 
 brought from Lemnos, an ifiand of the Archipelago. 
 
 This earth, when genuine, is a good medicine in 
 dyfenteries, erafions of the inteftines, haemorrhages of 
 the inteftines, leminal weakneffes, and the fiuor albus. 
 
 LEMON, Li men, in botany, a genus of trees with 
 large fiiff leaves like the citron, without any appendage 
 at the bottom ; the flower confifls of many leaves, which 
 expand in form of a role : the fruit is almoft of an oval 
 figure, and divided into feveral cells, in which are lodged 
 hard feeds furrounded by a thick flclhy fubftance, which, 
 for the moil part, is full of an acid juice. All forts are 
 propagated by budding or inarching them either on flocks 
 of lemons or citrons produced from feeds, but they will 
 not readily unite on orange flocks ; for which reafon the 
 citrons are preferable to either oranges or lemons for 
 flocks, as they readily join with either fort; and being 
 of larger growth, caule the buds of the other forts to be 
 much flronget than if they were on flocks of their 
 own kind. 
 
 The culture of the lemon is the fame with that of the 
 orange-tree, with this difference only, the former being 
 hardier than the latter, will conlequently bring their fruit 
 to maturity with us much better than the orange will, and 
 therefore require to have a greater fhare of frefh air in 
 winter ; for which reafon they fhould always be placed 
 nearer to the doors or windows of the green-houfe : and 
 in fome curious gardens thefe trees have been planted 
 againft walls, where, by covering them with glaffes in 
 winter, and protebling them from fevere froft, they have 
 produced plenty of large fruit: as thefe trees do generally 
 produce ftronger fhoots, fo they require more water to be 
 given them than the orange; but as to the tender forts, 
 they mull be treated with a little more care, otherwife 
 their fruit will fall off in winter, and come to nothing. 
 See Orange. 
 
 LEMONADE, a liquor prepared of water, fugar, and 
 I lemon or citron-juice : it is very cooling and grateful. 
 
 1 M LENITIVE 
 
L E N 
 
 "LENITIVE Medic 1%'f.s, among phyficians, thofej 
 ©f a mild, foftening, and relaxing nature, and deftitute 
 of all acrimony. 
 
 LENS, in dioptricks, a fmall oblong glafs like a lentil; 
 it is a medium terminated on one iide by a fpherical fur- 
 facc, on the other by a fur face either plain or fpherical. 
 And of thefe there are live forts. The firft:, as A (plate 
 XLVI. fig. io.) is plain on one fide, and convex on the 
 other ; the fecond B convex on both fidcs ; the third 
 plain on one iide and concave on the other, as C ; the 
 fourth D concave on both fides ; the fifth convex on one 
 iide and concave on the otlier, as E, which is by fomc 
 called a menifeus. 
 
 The axis of a lens is a line paffing perpendicularly 
 through both its furfaces: thus the line F G is an axis 
 common to all the five. 
 
 Lenfes are diitinguilhed into two general kinds, con¬ 
 vex and concave: the firft and fecond lenfes are coniidered 
 •as convex ; the third and fourth as concave : the Jail, 
 if its convexity is greater than its concavity, is looked 
 •upon as convex ; if on the contrary, it is coniidered as 
 concave. 
 
 A lens is always fuppofed to confift of a medium denfer 
 -than the circumambient one, unlefs where the contrary 
 is exprefled. ■When parallel rays fall upon the furfaceof 
 a convex lens, they are refracted towards each other in 
 palling through it, and thereby collected to a focus on the 
 other iide. 
 
 To explain this let us trace the progrefs of a ray as A B 
 (fig. ii.) through the convex lens C D E H, whole axis 
 is 1 K. Let L be the centre of the firft convexity C D E, 
 and M that of the other CHE: and let this ray A B be 
 parallel to the axis ; through B draw the line L X, which 
 will be perpendicular to the furface C D E at that point. 
 The ray A B in entering the denfer fubflance of the lens 
 will be refraCted towards the perpendicular, and, there¬ 
 fore, proceed, after it has entered the furface at B, in 
 fome direction inclined towards the axis, as BP. Through 
 M, the centre of convexity of this furface, and the point 
 P, draw the line M R, which palling through the centre 
 will be perpendicular to the fur face at P, and the ray now- 
 entering a rarer medium will be refraCted from the per¬ 
 pendicular into fome direction as P F. In like manner 
 and for the fame reafons, the parallel ray S T on the 
 other fide the axis, and alfo all the intermediate ones as 
 X Z, &c. will meet in the fame point, unlefs the ravs 
 A B and S T enter the furface of the lens at too great a 
 diftance from the axis I F, for the reafon of which fee 
 Refraction. 
 
 The point F where the parallel rays A B, S F, Ac. 
 are fuppofed to be collected by paffing through the lens 
 C E, is called the focus of parallel rays of that lens. 
 
 If the rays converge before they enter the lens, they are 
 then collefted at a point nearer to the lens than the focus 
 of parallel rays. If they diverge before they enter the 
 lens, they are then collected in a point beyond F; unlefs 
 they proceed from a point on the other fide at the fame 
 diftance with the focus of parallel rays, in which cafe they 
 are rendered parallel. It they proceed from a point nearer 
 than that, they diverge afterwards, but in a lefs degree 
 than before they enter the lens. 
 
 If the lens is plain on one fide and convex on the 
 other, the rays are refraCted the fame way, but in a lefs 
 degree. 
 
 Had the rays A B, ST, proceeded from a radiant point 
 on one fide the lens, and been collected in a focus on the 
 other; then it they lhould be fuppofed to proceed from 
 that focal point as from a radiant, and pafs through the 
 lens the contrary way, they would be collected in that 
 point which was the radiant in the other cafe : and the 
 nearer the radiant point is to the lens, the further is the 
 focus from it on the other fide, and vice verfa. 
 
 If the rays A B, C D, E F, Ac. (fig. 12.) be parallel to 
 each other, but oblique to G H, the axis of the Jen:; 
 
 I K, or of the diverging rays C B, C F, proceed as from 
 fome point C which is notfituated in the axis of the Jens, 
 they will be collected into fome point as L, not direCtlv 
 oppofite to the radiant C, but nearly fo : for the ray C D 
 which palles through M, the middle of the lens, and falls 
 upon the furface of it with fome obliquity, will itfelf 
 fuffer a refraCtion at D and N ; but then it will be re¬ 
 fracted the contrary way in one place to what it is in the 
 ether, and thefe refractions will be equal in degree, if I 
 
 L E N 
 
 tlic lens has an equal convexity on each fide. a.-, we rA.-w 
 call Iy perceive, if we imagine N D to be a ray palling out 
 ot the lens both at X and D . for it is evident that the 
 lipc N D has an equal inclination to each furface at both 
 its extremities. Upon which account the difference be¬ 
 tween the fituation of the point L and one direCtlv op¬ 
 pofite to C is fo lmall, that it is generally neglected • and 
 the focus is fuppofed to be in that line, which a ray, that 
 would pafs through the middle point of the lens, were it 
 to luffer no refraction, would proceed in. 
 
 All which is fufticiently clear, from what is laid under 
 the article Refraction. 
 
 When parallel rays fall upon a concave lens, they are 
 refraCted from each other in paffing through it, and 
 thereby made to diverge, proceeding as from an imagi¬ 
 nary focus on the firft Iide of the lens. 
 
 In order to comprehend this, let A BCD (plate X LVL 
 fig- * 3 -) reprefent a concave lens, E F its axis, G H the 
 radius of the firft concavity, 1 K that of the fecond ; pro¬ 
 duce G H to L, and let M G be a ray of light entering 
 the lens at the point G. This ray, being refraCted to¬ 
 wards the perpendicular G L, will pafs on to fome point 
 as K in the other furface more diftant from the axis than 
 G, and being there refraCted from the perpendicular 1 K, 
 will be diverted further ftill from the axis, and proceed 
 in the direction K N as from fame point as O on the firft: 
 fide of the lens. In like manner other rays as P Q_, pa¬ 
 rallel to the former, will proceed after refraCtion at both 
 lurfaces as from the fame point O; which upon that 
 account will be the imaginary focus of parallel ravs of 
 this lens. 
 
 If the rays diverge before they enter the lens, their ima¬ 
 ginary focus is then nearer the lens than that of the pa¬ 
 rallel rays. If they converge before they enter the lens-, 
 proceeding towards lbme diftant point in the axis as E, 
 they are then rendered lefs converging; jf they converge 
 to a point at the fame diftance from the lens with the 
 focus of parallel rays, they then go out parallel; if to a 
 point at lefs diftance, they remain converging, but in a 
 lefs degree than before they entered the Jens. 
 
 When the rays enter the Jens diverging, the nearer 
 tlieir radiant point is to it, tlie nearer alfo is their ima¬ 
 ginary focus after refraCtion, and vice verfa. 
 
 If the lens is plain on one fide and concave on the other, 
 the rays fuffer a like refraCtion in each cafe, but in a lefs 
 degree. 
 
 The truth of what lias been faid concerning tlie paffage 
 of rays through a concave lens, is eaiily to be deduced 
 from the Jaws of refraCtion. 
 
 But tlie method of determining the cxaCt focal diftance 
 of lenfes is to be liad from tlie propofitions laid down and 
 demonftrated in the article Refraction. Thus the 
 progrefs of the rays, after their refraCtion at the firft fur- 
 face where they enter a lens, is had by one of thofe which 
 determines the focal diftance of rays entering a denfer' 
 medium of fuch form : and their progrefs, after their re¬ 
 fraCtion at the other furface where they go out, is had br 
 computing what progrefs rays, moving in the direction 
 they are found to have after their entrance at the firft fur¬ 
 face, will acquire bv being refraCted at the other; which 
 is to be effeCted by one who determines the focal diftance 
 of rays paffing out of a denfer medium of like form with 
 that of the lens. 
 
 When a ray pafles through a medium terminated by- 
 two plain and parallel furfaces, it is refraCted one way in 
 going out of the fecond, as much as it was the other in 
 entering the firft; and, therefore, proceeds afterwards, 
 not in the lame direction, but in one which is parallel to 
 that which it had before. 
 
 Thus, if the ray A B (fig. 14.) enters-the denfer me¬ 
 dium CD EF terminated bv the parallel lurfaces C D and 
 E F, it is refraCted at B towards the perpendicular B I, 
 proceeding to a point at G. where it is as much refraCted 
 from the perpendicular Cl K in going out, and proceeds 
 in tlie direction G H, not the fame, but parallel to the 
 former A B L. 
 
 LENT, a folemn time cf fafting in the Chriftian 
 church, oblcrved as a time of humiliation before Eafter, 
 the great feltival of our Saviour’s refurreCtion. 
 
 LENT 1 SCUS, tlie lentilk or maftich-tree, in bo¬ 
 tany, a genus of trees, very nearly allied to the tcre- 
 binthus, or turpentine-tree, in its characters, but differ¬ 
 ing in that the leaves are pinnated, but there is nofingle 
 
 leaf 
 
LET 
 
 leaf to terminate the end of each compound ciie. See 
 
 MASTICH. 
 
 LEO, the lion, in zoology. See Lion. 
 
 Leo, in aftroriomy, one of the 12'figuS of the 20- 
 diack, the fifth in order, containing, according to Pto¬ 
 lemy, 32 liars ; according to Tycho, 37; and according 
 to Flamftead, 94. (See plate IV. fig. 5.) 
 
 The famous ltar of the firft magnitude, called bafili- 
 cus, regulus, cor Jeonis, or the lion’s heart, is in this 
 conftellation. 
 
 LEONINE Verses, fuch as rhyme at every hemi-1 
 ftich, the middle fyllable of each verfe correlponding 
 with the laft one. 
 
 LEON TICE, in botany, a genus of plants wliofe 
 flower confifts of fix oval acute petals, with iix {lender 
 filaments topped with crcdt antherce : the fruit is a large 
 Inflated berry, with one cell, containing few globular feeds. 
 
 .LEON! ODON, in botany. See Dandelion. 
 
 LEONURUS, lion’s-tail, in botany, a genus of plants 
 whofe flower is monopetalous and ringent, with four 
 Lamina, two of which are longer than the others : there 
 is no pericarpium ; but the feeds, which are oblong and 
 angular, are contained in the bottom of the cup. 
 
 LEOPARD, a beaft of prey, with the fpots on the 
 upper part of the body, round, and the lower ones varie¬ 
 gated. It is a very nimble, as well as fierce animal, fo 
 that fcarce any thing efcapes it. Authors call the male 
 pardus, and the female panthera. 
 
 LEPIDIUM, ditttinder , in botany, a genus of plants 
 whole flower is tetrapetalous and cruciform, with fix 
 Tubulated Lamina : the fruit is a compreffed fpear-fhaped 
 pod, containing oblong feeds. The common dittander, 
 which grows wild in many places in England, has a very 
 liot acrid tafte, like pepper; it is laid to incide grofs 
 humours opening obitruft ions of the' liver and fpleen, 
 and is accounted a great antifcorbutick : when the leaves 
 are eaten in the morning failing, they excite the appetite 
 and help digeLion. Some affirm, that the powder of 
 the dried leaves, given in wine to half an ounce, in a 
 morning, falling, is excellent in the drepfy. 
 
 LEP 1 DOP 1 ERA, in zoology, an order of infedls, 
 witli tour wings, which are covered with imbricated 
 fquamulaj: add to this, that the mouth is commonly 
 fpiral. Under this order are comprehended the butterflies 
 and phalence, or moths. 
 
 LEPROSY, Lepra , a foul Cutaneous difeafe, appear¬ 
 ing in dry, white, thin, leurfyfeabs, either on the whole 
 body, or only fome part of it, and ulually attended by 
 a violent itching, and other pains. 
 
 In the method of cure, lays Hoffman, we fhould 
 endeavour to difeharge out of the body the mals of cor¬ 
 rupt, glutinous and acrid humours, by fufheient bleed¬ 
 ing, and abilinence, by purges, as well gentle as draf- 
 tick, then by proper aliment, and a good regimen, pro¬ 
 mote the generation of wholelome juices; and likewife 
 by external, deterfive, confolidating and drying reme¬ 
 dies, to free the part from pain, tumours, itching, and 
 ulcers. 1 he purges may ConfiL of the root and the 
 refin of jalap, the extradl of black hellebore, elaterium 
 mixed with calomel, or ethiops-mineral, and gum am- 
 moniack. Among thofe things which Limulate the 
 parts to an excretory motion, and more powerfully melt 
 down the tenacious humours, the wood and bark of 
 guaiacum exceed all others : the moL confiderable be- 
 iides thele, are the tartarized and acrid tin Lure of anti¬ 
 mony, fulphur of antimony, cinnabar, and if a venereal 
 taint is fufpeLed, a decoLion of crude antimonv; which 
 medicines in a convenient dole in the morning, with 
 purifying decoLions drank in bed, afford great 1 relief. 
 Put if thele fail, rccourfe muL be had to mercury, 
 which fome, after extinLion, mix with flowers of ful- 
 phur and camphire, and rub it on the joints to promote 
 a lalivation. Others more properly give mcrcurius 
 dulcis, with double the quantity of crabs-eyes, and calx 
 ot antimony, rifing gradually from three or four grains, 
 to a fcruple, in order to lalivatc with proper precautions. 
 
 LEPUS, theHvRE, in zoology. See Hare. 
 
 Lepus, in aLronomy, a conftellation of the fouthern 
 hemifphere ; comprehending 12 Lars, according to Pto¬ 
 lemy ; 13, according to Tycho; and 19, in the Britan- 
 nick catalogue. 
 
 LETHARGY, Lethargus y in phvfick, a kind of dif- 
 prder, wherein the perfon affeLed labours under a heavy 
 s. 
 
 LET 
 
 and perpetual fleep, with fcarce any interval of waking; 
 T here are fevcral foecies of this diforder; the chief are 
 coma vigil, Coma fonmolcntum, carus, and a lethargy; 
 Sec Coma, Carls, &c. 
 
 LETHE, in the ancient mythology, one of the rivers 
 of hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnels ; its waters 
 having, according to poetical fiLion, the peculiar quality 
 ol making thofe who drank them entirely forget every 
 thing that was paL. 
 
 LETTER, a cbaraLer ufed to exprefs one of the 
 Ample founds ot the voice; and as the different fimpJe 
 founds are expreffed by different letters, thele, by being 
 differently compounded, become the vifible figns -or 
 characters of all the modulations and mixtures of founds 
 ufed to exprefs our ideas in a regular language. Thus, 
 as by the help of fpeech, we render our ideas audible ; 
 by the affiffance of letters we render them vifible, and 
 by their help we can wrap up our thoughts, and fend 
 them to the moL diffant parts of the earth, and read the 
 tranfaLions of different age?. 
 
 As to the firft-letters, v. lint they were, who fuff in¬ 
 vented them, and among what people they were fu ll in 
 ufe, there is Li 11 room to doub: : Philo atti ibures this 
 great and noble invert 
 
 trenxus,. and others, to Enoch ; Eihliander, to Adam • 
 Eulehius, Clemens Alexaildriuus, Cornelius Agrippa* 
 and others, to Vfo 
 
 Rufus FeLus, Pliny, Lucan, c\c. to the Phoenicians; 
 St. Cyprian, to Saturn; Tacitus, to the. Egyptians ; 
 fome, to the Ethiopians ; and others, to the Chinefe : 
 but, with refpeft to thele laft, they can never be intitlcd 
 to this honour, fincc all their characters are the figns 
 of words, formed without the ulcof fitters; which ren¬ 
 ders it impofiible to read and write their language, with¬ 
 out a vaft expence of time and trouble; and ablbluteiy. 
 impofiible to print it by the help of types, or any other 
 manner by the engraving, or cutting in wood. See 
 Printing. 
 
 There have alfo been various conjectures about th« 
 different kinds of letters ufed m different languages ; 
 thus, according to Crintus, Mofes invented the Hebrew 
 letters; Abraham, the Syriack and Chaldee; the Pha- 
 nicians, thofe of Attica, brought into Greece by Cad¬ 
 mus, and from thence into Italy, by the Pclafgians; 
 Nicoftrr.ta, the Roman; Ills, the Egyptian ; and V ul- 
 filas, thofe of the Goths. 
 
 It is probable that the Egyptian hieroglyph i'cks were 
 the firft manner of writing:’but whether Cadmus and 
 the Phoenicians learned the ufe of letters from the Egyp¬ 
 tians, or from their neighbours of Judre or Samaria, is 
 a queftion ; for lince fome of the books of the Old 
 Teftament were then written, they are more likely to 
 have given them the hint, than the hicroglyphicks of 
 Egypt. But wherefoever the Phoenicians "learned this 
 art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmus, the foil of 
 Agenor, firft brought letters into Greece ; whence, in 
 following ages, they fpread over the reft of Europe. 
 
 Letters make the firft part or elements of grammar; 
 an affemblage of thefe compofe fyllables and words, and 
 thele compofe fentences. The alphabet of every lan¬ 
 guage confifts of a number of letters, which ought each 
 to have a different found, figure, and ufe. As the dif¬ 
 ference of articulate founds was intended to exprefs the 
 different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was originally 
 intended to fignify only one found, and not, as at pre- 
 fent, to exprefs fometimes one found and fometimes 
 another ; which praCtice has brought a great deal'of 
 confufion into the languages, and rendered the learning 
 of the modern tongues much more difficult than it would 
 otherwife have been. This confideration, together with 
 the deficiency of all the known alphabets,‘from their 
 wanting fome letters to exprefs certain founds, has occa¬ 
 sioned feveral attempts towards an univerfal alphabet, to 
 contain an enumeration of all fuch Angle founds or letters, 
 as are ufed in any language. See Alphabet. 
 
 Grammarians diftinguiih letters into vowels, confo- 
 nants, mutes, liquids, dipthohgs, and charaCterifticks. 
 I hey are alfo divided into labial, dehtal, guttural, and 
 palatal, and into capital and Email letters? T'hev are 
 alio denominated from the fhape and turn of letters ; 
 and in writing are diftinguifhed into different hands, as 
 round-text, german-text, round-hand, kalian, Ac. and 
 m printing, into roman, Italick, and black letters. Tile 
 
 ten# 
 
LET 
 
 term letter, or type, among printers, net only includes 
 the capitals, {mall-capitals, and fmall letters, but all the 
 points, figures, and other marks, call and ufed in print¬ 
 ing; and alfo the large ornamental letters, cut in wood 
 or metal, which take place of the illumined letters tiled 
 in manuferipts. The letters ufed in printing are call 
 at the ends of fmall pieces of metal, about three quar¬ 
 ters of an inch in length ; and the letter being not in¬ 
 dented, but railed, eafily gives the impreffion, when 
 after being blacked with a glutinous ink, paper is clofely 
 prefled upon it. See Type. 
 
 A fount of letters includes fmall letters, capitals, 
 fmall capitals, points, figures, fpaces, Ac. but befides 
 thefc they have different kinds of two-lined letters, only 
 Ufed for titles, and the beginning of books, chapters, &c. 
 
 Letter Foundery , or the Cajling of Letters. The 
 fir ft thing requiftte is to prepare good fteel punches, on 
 the face of which is drawn the exaft fhape of the letter 
 with pen and ink, if the letter be large, or with a 
 ffnooth blunted point of a needle, if fmall; and then, 
 with proper gravers, the cutter digs deep between the 
 ftrokes, letting the marks ftand on the punch, the work 
 of hollowing being generally regulated by the depth of 
 the counter-punch. Then he files the outfide till it is 
 fit for the matrice. 
 
 Letter of Attorney , iii law, is a writing by which 
 one perfon authorifes another to do fome lawful aft in 
 his ftead, as to give feifin of lands, to receive debts, file 
 a third perfoh, Ac. 
 
 The nature of this inftrument is to transfer to the 
 perfon to whom it is given, the whole power of the 
 maker, to enable him to accomplilh the aft intended to 
 be performed. It is either general or fpecial, and fome- 
 times it is made revocable, which is when a bare autho¬ 
 rity is only given ; and fometimes it is irrevocable, as 
 where debts, Ac. are afligned from one perfon to 
 another. It is generally held, that the power granted to 
 the attorney mult be ftriftly purfued ; and that where it 
 is made to three perfons, two cannot execute it. No 
 letter of attorney made by any jeaman, Ac. in any fhip 
 of war, or having letters of marque, or by their exe¬ 
 cutors, Ac. in order to empower any perfon to receive 
 any fliare of prizes, or bounty-money, fhall be valid, 
 unlefs the fame be made revocable, and for the ufe of 
 fucli feamen, and be figned and executed before, and 
 attefted by the captain and one other of the figning 
 officers of the fhip, or the mayor or chief magiftrate of 
 fome corporation. 
 
 Letters-clause, or Close-letters, are op- 
 pofed to letters patent, becaufe they are commonly fealed 
 up with the king’s fignet or privy-leal, while letters-patent 
 are left open. 
 
 Letters of Credit , among merchants, is a letter 
 wrote by a merchant or banker, to his corrclpondent 
 abroad, requefting him to credit the bearer as far as a 
 certain fum. See Credit. 
 
 Letter of Licence , an inftrument of writing granted 
 by a perfon’s creditors, allowing him a certain time for 
 the payment of his debts; by which means he is enabled 
 to profecutehis bufinefs, without fearing an arreft. 
 
 Letter of Mart , or AAarque, a letter granted to one 
 of the king’s fubjefts, under the privy feal, empowering 
 him to make reprifals for what was formerly taken from 
 him by the fubjefts of another llate, contrary to the law 
 of mart. SeeMARQjJE. 
 
 Monitory Letters. See Monitory. 
 
 Letters-patent, or overt, are writings fealed 
 with the great feal of England ; fo called, becaule they 
 are open with the feal affixed to them. Thefe are 
 granted to aulhorife a man to do or enjoy what of him- 
 lclf he could not do. See Patent. 
 
 Pacifick Letters, Litera pacific#, in church-hiftory, 
 teftimonial letters given by the bifhop, or chorepifcopus, 
 to their priefts, when they had occafion to travel abroad, 
 certifying that the bearer was a catholick, and in com¬ 
 munion with the church. 
 
 Pafchal Letter, a letter written by the pope to all 
 metropolitans, to inform them on what day Eaftcr was 
 to be celebrated. 
 
 LETTUCE, Lafiuca, in botany, a well known 
 genus of plants, the flower of which is compound and 
 imbricated, containing a number of hermaphrodite co- 
 rollulae, which are monopetalous, ligulated, and trun- 
 3 
 
 L E V 
 
 catT-d, and indented at the end in four or five parts: the 
 leeds are oblong, acuminated, and crowned with down, 
 and placed in the cup. 
 
 There arc feveral forts of lettuce cultivated in gardens 
 tor culinary purpoles, as the cahbage-lettuce, %rov. n 
 Dutch, imperial, white cos, black cos, green cos, Ac. 
 They are all flown at different feafons of the year," 
 whereby there is a continual fupplv ; but the inoft 
 efteemed fort is the cos; thefe fhould be protefted iii 
 winter with glafles, otherwife they are liable to be de- 
 llroyed in very wet or frofty weather. In March they 
 may be tranfplanted in the open ground, where they 
 may remain till they are cabbaged, and then they arc fir 
 for nle; but if they are not inclinable to turn in, they 
 fhould be, tied round their tops with bals, Ac. which 
 will blanch and make them tender. 
 
 Lettuces, in general, are eafy of digeftion, they abate 
 the acrimony of the humours, and quench thirft ; for 
 wnicli rcafon they are frequently ufed in fummer leafon : 
 many take them to be anodyne, and to procure fleep, 
 which is done, not by any narcotick quality, but bv re¬ 
 laxing die fibres and lemperating the heat of the vifeera ; 
 they Sre good in dry conftitutions, and help thole that 
 arc coftive. 
 
 LEVARI Facias, is a writ direfted to the fheriif 
 for levying a certain fum of money upon the lands, Ac. 
 of a perfon who has forfeited his recognizance. 
 
 LEVA I OR, in anatomy, a name applied to feveral 
 mulcles in the body, that ferve to raile the parts to which 
 they belong. See Ele v a tor. 
 
 Levator Scapula prfyrius , in anatomy, of rather, 
 according to Winflow, angularis , is a long’ and pretty 
 thick mufcle, about two fingers in breadth, lying abo/e 
 the fuperior angle of the icapula, along the pofterior 
 lateral part of the neck of that bone. 
 
 LEVEL, an inftrument to draw a line parallel to the 
 horizon, whereby the difterenceof afeent or delcent be¬ 
 tween feveral places may be found, for conveying water, 
 draining fens, Ac. The word is derived from the Latin, 
 libella, the crofs beam in a balance, which, to be juft, 
 muft ftand exaftly horizontal. 
 
 Air Level, that which Ihews the line oflevelby means 
 of a bubble of air ineloled with fome liquor in a glafs tube, 
 whofe two edges are lealed hermetically. "When the 
 bubble fixes at a mark made exaftly in the middle of the 
 tube, the plane where it is fixed is level; otherwife the 
 bubble will rile to one end. The liquor with which tlic 
 tube is filled is oil of tartar, or aqua-fecunda ; thefe not 
 being liable to freeze. 
 
 Air Level, with fights; is about eight inches long, 
 and feven or eight in diameter, fet in a brafs tube, with 
 an aperture in the iniddle, (plate XLVII.y?^. 3. The 
 tubes are carried in a ftrong ftraight ruler, a foot long, 
 at whofe ends are fixed two lights exaftly perpendicular 
 to the tubes, and of an equal height, having a fquare 
 hole, formed by two fillets of brafs, crofting each other 
 at right angles, in the middle of which is drilled a very 
 little hole, through which a point on a level with the 
 inftrument is delcribed. 
 
 The brafs tube is faftened on the ruler by means of 
 two lcrews ; one of which, marked 4, ferves to raile or 
 deprels the tube at pleafure, to bring it to a level. The 
 top of the ball and locket is rivetted to a little ruler that 
 fprings, one end of which is faftened with lcrews to the 
 greater ruler, and the other end lias a ferew 5, ferving to 
 raile or deprefs the inftrument when nearly level. 
 
 1 he following is a more commodious inftrument. 
 
 Air Level, with tclefcope lights ; this level (fig. 4.) 
 only differs from the laft, in that, inftead of plain lights, 
 it carries a tclefcope. This was invented by M. Huy-- 
 gens; which has this advantage, that it may be inverted 
 by turning the rule and telefcope half round ; and then, 
 if the hair cut the fame point that it did before the turn, 
 it is a proof the operation is juft. It may be obferved, 
 that one may add a telefcope to any kind of level, by ap¬ 
 plying it upon a parallel to the bafe or ruler, when there 
 is occafion to take the level of remote objefts. 
 
 Dr. Defaguliers contrived an inftrument, by which the 
 difference of level of two places, which could not be 
 taken in lefs than four or five days with the beft telefcope- 
 levels, may be taken in as few hours. The inftrument 
 is as follows: to the ball C (fig. 7.) is joined a recurve 
 tube B A, with a vej;y fine bore, and a fmall bubble at 
 
 top, 
 
L E V 
 
 top, A, vi hole upper part is open, Jt is evident from the 
 make of this inHrument, that if it he inclined in carry¬ 
 ing, no prejudice will be done to the liquor, which will 
 always be right both in the ball and tube, when the in¬ 
 itrument is let upright. If the air atC, be fo expanded 
 with heat, as to drive the liquor to the top of the tube, 
 the cavity A will receive the liquor, which will come 
 down again and fettle at D. or near it. according to the 
 level of the place where the initrument is, as foon as the 
 air at C returns to the lame temperament as to heat and) 
 cold. To prelerve the lame degree of heat, when the 
 different obfervations are made, the machine is fixed in 
 a tin vellcl F £, filled with water up to g b, above the 
 ball, and a very fenfible thermometer has alfo its ball 
 under water, that one may obferve the liquor at D, in 
 each experiment, when the thermometer Hands at the 
 fame height as before. The water is poured out when 
 the initrument is carried, which one may do conveni¬ 
 ently by means of the wooden frame, which is fet up¬ 
 right by three ferews S, S, S, (Jig. 8.) and a line and 
 plummet K M. The back part of the wooden frame is 
 reprefented by fig. 6. where from a piece at top K bangs: 
 the plummet P, over a brafs point at N ; M in are 
 brackets, to make the upright board K N continue at 
 right angles, with the horizontal one at N ; Jig. 5. repse- 
 ients a front view of the machine, fuppofing the fore¬ 
 part of the tin-vellel tranfpar-ent; and here the brafs 
 locket of the recurve-tubc, into which the ball is ferewed, 
 has two wings at I I, fixed to the bottom, that the ball 
 may not break the tube by its endeavour to emerge, 
 when the water is poured in as high as g h. 
 
 After the Dr. had contrived this machine, he confi- 
 dered, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if the 
 liquor lhould rile into the ball at A, in carrying the in- 
 rument front one place to another, forae of it would 
 adhere to the tides of the ball A, and upon its defeent in 
 making the experiment, fo much might be left behind, 
 that the liquor would not be high enough at D (Jig. 7.) 
 to Ihew the difference of the level; therefore, to prevent 
 -that inconvenience, lie contrived a blank ferew, to Ihut 
 up the hole at A, as foon as one experiment is made, 
 that in carrying the machine, the air in A may balance 
 that in C, lo that the liquor lhall not run up’and down 
 the tube, whatever degree of heat and cold may aft upon 
 the inHrument, in going from one place to another. 
 Now becaufe one experiment may be made in the morn¬ 
 ing, idle water may be fo cold, that when a fecond expe¬ 
 riment is made at noon, the water cannot be brought to 
 the fame degree of cold it had in the morning ; therefore, 
 in making the firlt experiment, warm water mull be 
 mixed with the cold, and when the water has Hood fome 
 time before it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at 
 the warmeft part of that day, obferve and fet down the 
 degree of the thermometer at which the fpirit Hands, and 
 likewife the degree of the water in the barometer at E) ; 
 then ferew on the cap at A, pour out the water, and 
 carry the inHrument to the place whofe level you would 
 know ; then pour in your water, and when the ther¬ 
 mometer is come to the lame degree as before, open the 
 ferew at top, and obferve the liquor in the barometer. 
 
 The doftor’s lcale for the barometer is ten inches long, 
 and divided into tenths ; fo that fuch an inHrument will 
 fierve for any heights not exceeding ten feet, each tenth 
 of an inch anfwering to a loot in height. 
 
 The Dr. made no allowance for the decreafe ofdenlity 
 in the air, becaufe he did not propofe this machine for 
 meafuring mountains, (though with a proper allowance 
 for the decieafing denfky of the air, it will do very well) 
 but for heights that want to be known in gardens, plan¬ 
 tations, and the conveyance of water ; where an expe¬ 
 riment that an livers two or three feet in a diflance oi 
 20 miles, will render this a very ufeful inHrument. 
 
 Art illery - Foot Level, in gunnery, is in form of a 
 fquare, having its two legs or branches of an equal length, 
 at a junfture whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a 
 thread and plummet, playing on a perpendicular line in 
 the middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45 
 degrees from the middle. (Plate XLVlI.y%. 9.) 
 
 This inHrument may be ufed on other occafions, by 
 placing the ends of its two branches on a plane ; for 
 when the thread piavs perpendicularly over the middle 
 divifion of the quadrant, that plane is affuredly level. 
 To uie it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece of 
 
 Vol. II. No. 44. 
 
 L E V 
 
 artillery, which you mav raife' to any propofed height, 
 by means of the plummet, whole thread will give the 
 degree above the level. 
 
 Carpenter's and Paviour’s Le^el, confifls of along 
 ruler, in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles, 
 another fomewhat bigger, at the top of which is faficned 
 a line, which, when it hangs over a fiducial line at right' 
 angles with the bale. Ihews that the laid bale is horizon¬ 
 tal. Sometimes tins level is all of one board. 
 
 Gunner's Level, for levelling cannons and mortars, 
 confifis of a triangular bvafs-plate, about four inches high, 
 (Jig. 10.) at the bottom of which is a portion of a circle, 
 divided into'45 degrees, which number is l'ufficient for 
 the highefi elevation of cannons and mortars, and for 
 giving fhot the greatefi range : on the centre of this feg- 
 mentofa circle is ferewed a piece of brafs, by means of 
 which it may be fixed or ferewed at pleafure ; the end 
 ot this piece of brafs is made lo as to ferve for a plummet 
 and index, in order to Ihew the different degrees of ele¬ 
 vation of pieces of artillery. This inHrument has alio a 
 brais-foot, to let upon cannons or mortars, fo as when 
 thofe pieces are horizontal, the inHrument will be per¬ 
 pendicular. The foot ot this inHrument is to be placed 
 on the piece to be elevated, in Inch a manner, as that the 
 point of the plummet mav fall on the proper degree : this 
 is what they call levelling the piece. 
 
 Majon’s Level, is compoled of three rules, fo joined 
 as to form an ilolceles-reftangle, fomewhat like a Roman 
 A, at the vertex whereof is fallened a thread, from which 
 hangs a plummet, that paffes over a fiducial line, marked 
 in the middle of the bale, when the thing, to which the 
 level is applied, is horizontal; but declines from the 
 mark, when the thing is lower on one fide than on the 
 other. 
 
 Plumb or Pendulum LeveI, that which fhews the ho¬ 
 rizontal lines by means of another line perpendicular to 
 that deferibed by a plummet or pendulum. This infiru'- 
 ment, (fig. 12.) conlills of two legs or branches, joined 
 together at right angles, whereof that which carries the 
 thread and plummet is about a foot and a half long ; the 
 thread is hung towards the top of the branch, at the 
 point 2, the middle of the branch where the thread pafles 
 is hollow, fo that it may hang free every where ; but to¬ 
 wards the bottom, where there is a little blade of filver, 
 whereon is drawn a line perpendicular to the telefcope, 
 the faid cavity is covered by two pieces of brafs, making 
 as it were a kind of cafe, IcH the wind lhould agitate' the 
 thread, for which reafon the filvcr-blade is covered with 
 aglafs G, to the end that it may be feen when the thread 
 and plummet play upon the perpendicular : the teldcope 
 is fattened to the other branch of the inHrument, and. is 
 about two feet long; having an hair placed horizontally 
 acrofs the focus of the objeft-glafs, which determines the 
 point of the level. The telefcope rnufl be fitted at right 
 angles to the perpendicular. It has a ball and fockorby 
 which it is faflened to the foot, and was inventedby 
 Mr. Picard. 
 
 Refitting Level, that made by means of a pretty 
 long furface of water, reprefenting the fame objeft in¬ 
 verted which we fee erefted by the eye, fo that the point 
 where thefe two objefts appear to meet, is a level with 
 the place where the furface of the water is found. 
 This is the invention of M. Mariotte. 
 
 There is another reflefting level, confiflingof a mirror 
 of Heel, or the like, well polifhed, and placed a little be¬ 
 fore the objeft-glafs of a telefcope, fufpended perpendicu¬ 
 larly. This mirror muH make an angle of 45 0 with the 
 teleicope, in which cafe the perpendicular line of the faid 
 telefcope is converted into a horizontal line, which is 
 the fame with the line of level. This is the invention of 
 M. Cafiini. 
 
 Water- Level, that which fhews the horizontal line 
 by means of a furface of water or other liquor, founded 
 on this principle, that water always places itfelf level. See 
 Fluid. 
 
 Themofi fimple is made of a long wooden trough, or 
 canal, whofe fides are parallel to the bafe, fo that^being 
 equally filled with water, its furface fhews the line of le¬ 
 vel. This is the chorobates of the ancients. 
 
 It is alfo made with two-cups fitted to the two ends of 
 a pipe, three or four fecHong, about an inch in diame¬ 
 ter, by means whereof the water communicates from lhe 
 one to the other cup : and this pipe being moveable on 
 N “ its 
 
LEV 
 
 its fiand by means of a ball and focket, when the two 
 cups become equally full of water', their two furfaces 
 mark the line of level. 
 
 This inftrument, indead of cups, may alfo be made 
 with two fhort cylinders ot glals three or four inches 
 Jong, fattened to each extreme of the pipe, with wax or 
 mattick. Into the pipe is poured lomc common or 
 coloured water, which lhews itfelf through the cylinders, 
 by means whereof the line of level is determined ; the 
 height of the water, with refpe£t to the centre of the 
 earth, being alwavs the lame in both cylinders : this le¬ 
 vel, though very Ample, is vet very commodious for le¬ 
 velling iinall didances. 
 
 Level of Mr. Hu\gens's Invention, confids of a telef- 
 cope a , (fig. 11.) in iorm of a cylinder going through a 
 ferril, in which it is fattened by the middle. This ferril 
 has two flat branches bb , one above, and the other be¬ 
 low. at the ends whereof are fattened little moving pieces 
 which carry two rings, by one of which the telefcope is 
 fufpended to an hook at the end of the ferew 3, and at 
 the lower b a pretty heavy weight is fufpended, in order 
 to keep the telefcope in equilibrio. This weight hangs in 
 the box 3, which is almolt filled with linfeed-oil, oil of 
 walnuts, or other matter that will not eafily coagulate, 
 for more aptly fettling the balance of the weight and te¬ 
 lefcope. The indrument carries two telelcopes dole and 
 very parallel to each other; the eye-glafs of the one being 
 againlf the objc£l-glafs of the other, that one may fee each 
 way without turning the level. In the focus of the ob- 
 je£t-glafs of each telefcope mud a little hair be drained 
 horizontally, to be raifed and lowered by a little ferew. 
 If the tube of the telefcope be not level, when fufpended, 
 a ferril, or ring 4, is put on, to be did along till it be le¬ 
 vel. The hook on which the indrument is hung, is fixed 
 to a fiat wooden crofs; at the end of each arm is a hook to 
 keep the telefcope deady : to the flat crofs is applied an¬ 
 other hollow one that ferves as a cafe for the indrument; 
 but the two ends are open, that the telefcope may be 
 fecured from the weather, and always ready for ufe. The 
 foot of the indrument is a round brafs plate, to which are 
 fadened three brafs ferrils, moveable by means of joints, 
 wherein are fiaves; and on this foot is placed the box. 
 
 LEVELLING, the finding a line paiallelto the ho¬ 
 rizon at one or more dations, and lo to determine the 
 height of one place with regard to another. 
 
 A truly level furface is a legment of any fpherical fur- 
 face which is concentrick to the globe of the earth. A 
 true line of level is an arch of a great circle which is 
 imagined to be deferibed upon a tiuly level iurface. 
 
 The apparent level is a draight line drawn tangent to 
 an arch or line of true level. Every point of the appa¬ 
 rent level, except the point of contafl, is higher than 
 the true level: thus (plate XL 1 X. fig. 1 .) let EAG 
 be an arch of a great circle drawn upon the earth; to a 
 perfon who fiands upon the earth at A, the line HD is 
 the apparent level, parallel to his rational horizon R R ; 
 but this line, the further it is extended from his Ration 
 
 A, the further it recedes from the centre; for BC is 
 longer than AC, and DC is longer than BC, &c. 
 
 The common methods of levelling are fufficient for 
 laying pavements of walks, for conveying water to fmall 
 difiances, for placing horizontal dials, or adronomical 
 indruments : but, in levelling the bottoms of canals 
 which are to convey water to the didance of many miles, 
 the difference between the apparent and true level mud 
 betaken into the account; thus (fig. 2.) let IAL be 
 an arch of a great circle upon the earth; let it be required 
 to cut a canal, whofe bottom lhall be a true level from 
 A to B, of the length of 5078 feet; the common method 
 is to place the levelling indrument in the bottom of the 
 canal at A, and, looking through the fights placed ho¬ 
 rizontally.at a dick fet up perpendicular at B, to make a 
 mark where the vifual ray or line of the apparent level 
 points as E, and then to fink the bottom of the canal at 
 
 B, as much below E as A is below D: but this will not 
 give us a true level; for, according to Caffini’s calcula¬ 
 tion, at the didance of 5078 feet, the apparent level is 
 feven inches above the true ; and, therefore, to make a 
 true level, B mud be funk feven inches lower than the 
 apparent level dire&s; fo that, if A be four feet below 
 D, B mud be four feet feven inches below the mark E. 
 We have here mentioned the error which will arife from 
 placing the level at one end of the line to be levelled, 
 
 LEV 
 
 and fliewn how to correft it; but in mod cafes it is 
 better to take a Ration in the middle of the line to be le¬ 
 velled; thus, if the points H and B are to be levelled, 
 place the indrument in the middle at A, and, letting up 
 dicks perpendicular at H and B, make marks upon each 
 dick where the apparent level points, as E and F : thofe 
 points are level ; and, if you fink H as much below F as 
 B is below E, H A B will be a true level. When the 
 bottom of a canal is thus truly level, if water be let in at 
 one end, it will rife to the fame height at the other. If 
 water be required to run with any velocity, that is of 
 another conlideration: a river will run, though very 
 flowly, which hath not above fix inches defeent below 
 the true level for a mile in length : if a river whofe water 
 is foul, be required to run with fuch a velocity as to 
 carry its foulnefs into the fea, fixteen inches, or at lead 
 one foot fall below the true level, in a mile running, 
 have been thought fufficient, by perlons ikilful in that 
 affair. Vid. Riccioli Geogr. Reformat. 1. 6. c. 24. 
 
 This we thought neceffary to premife, before we ex¬ 
 plained the method ufed in levelling, which is as fol¬ 
 lows: fuppofe the height of the point A (plate XLIX. 
 fig • 5.) on the top of a mountain, above that of the 
 point B at the foot thereof, be required. Place the level 
 about tire middle didance, between the two points, as in 
 D, and daffs in A and B ; and let there be perfons in- 
 drufted with fignals for railing and lowering on the Raffs 
 little marks of padeboard, or any fuch matter. The 
 level being placed horizontally, &c. look towards the 
 Raff A E, and caufe the mark to be raifed or lowered, 
 till the middle, upper edge, ot other mod confpicuous 
 part, appear in the vifual ray. Then meafuring cxa&ly 
 the perpendicular height of the point A above E, which 
 fuppofeeight feet fix inches, fet that down in your book; 
 then turn the level horizontally about, that the eye-glafs 
 of the telefcope may be dill next the eye, when you look 
 the other way; (if you have only plain fights, the indru¬ 
 ment need not be turned ;) and caufe the perfon at the 
 Raff B to raife or lower his mark, till fome confpicuous 
 part fall in the vifual ray, as at C: then mealure the 
 perpendicular of C above B, which fuppofe twenty feet 
 eight inches; fet this alfo down in the book above the 
 other number; fubtratt the one from the other, the re¬ 
 mainder will be twelve feet two inches, which is the dif¬ 
 ference of level between A and B, or the height of the 
 point A above B. 
 
 If the point D, where the indrument is fixed, be in 
 the middle between A and B, there will be no neceflity 
 for reducing the apparent level to the true; the vifual ray 
 being then equally railed above the true level. 
 
 It it be further required to know whether there be a 
 fufficient defeent for conveying water from the lpring A 
 to the point B (fig. 4.) here, as the didance from A to 
 B is confiderable, it is requifite that feveral operations be 
 made. Having then cbolen a proper place for the fird 
 Ration, as at I, fet up a Raff in the point A, near the 
 fpring, with a proper mark to Hide up and down the 
 Raff, as L ; and meafure the didance from A to I, 
 which fuppofe 2000 yards. Then, the level being ad- 
 juded in the point K, let the mark L be raifed and 
 lowered till you fpy fome confpicuous part through the 
 telefcope, or fights, and meafure the height A L, which 
 fuppofe thirteen feet five inches. But, in regard the 
 difiance A I is 2000 yards, you mud have recourfe to 
 your table for redudtion, fubtratting -eleven inches, 
 which will leave the height A L twelve feet fix inches ; 
 and this note down in your book. Now turn the level 
 horizontally, fo as the eye-glafs of the telefcope may be 
 towards the Raff'at A; and, fixing up another Raff at 
 H, caufe the mark G to be moved up and down, till 
 you can Ipy fome confpicuous part: meafure the height 
 HG, which fuppofe fix yards, four feet two inches: 
 meafure likewile the didance of the points IH, which 
 fuppofe 1300 yards, for which difiance, four inches 
 eight lines mud be fubtradled from the height H G, 
 which will leave but fix yards, three feet, nine inches, 
 four lines to be taken down in your book. This done, 
 remove the level forwards to E, whence the Raff H may 
 be viewed; as alfo another dafF at D : and proceed in 
 every refpect as before. 
 
 When a proper Ration for the level has been pitched 
 upon between the two points, the two heights obfervedat 
 that ftation mud be written down in two columns, 
 
 namely, 
 
LEV 
 
 namely, under the firft column thofe obferved, when 
 the eye was from the fpring, or towards the point, which 
 may be called back-lights ; and under the lecond column 
 thofe obferved, when the eye was next the fpring or the 
 fore-lights. 
 
 Having fummed up the height of each column fepa- 
 rately, fubtraft the lefs from the greater, and the remainder 
 will be the difference of level between A and B. 
 
 If the diftance of the two points be required, add all 
 the dillances meafured together, and, dividing the dif¬ 
 ference of height bv the yards of the dillances, for each 
 200 yards you will have a defeent of about two inches 
 nine lines. 
 
 Dr. Halley fuggefts a new method of levelling, which 
 is performed wholly by the barometer, in which the 
 mercury is found to be fufpended to fo much the lefs 
 height, as the place is further remote from the centre of 
 the earth. Hence it follows, that the different height 
 of the mercury in two places gives the difference of level. 
 
 Mr. Derham, from i'ome oblervations at the top and 
 bottom of the Monument in London, found that the 
 mercury fell one tenth of an inch at every 82 feet 
 of perpendicular afcent, when the mercury was at 
 30 inches. Dr. Halley allows of one tenth ol an inch 
 for every 30 yards, which, conlidering how aecurate- 
 ly barometers are now made, he thinks this method fuf- 
 ficiently exa< 5 l to take levels for the conveyance ol water, 
 and lels liable to errors than the common levels. 
 
 He alfo found a difference of three inches eight tenths 
 between the height of the mercury at the top and bottom 
 of Snowden hill, in Wales. 
 
 For the common occaffons of levelling, fet a pole up¬ 
 right in a lpring, pond, &c. and mark how many feet 
 and inches are above water: then fet up another pole ol 
 equal length with the other, in the place to which the 
 water is to come. Place the centre of a quadrant on the 
 top of this laft pole, the plummet hanging free; fpy 
 through the fights the top of the pole in the water, and, 
 if the thread cuts any degree of the quadrant, the water 
 may be conveyed by a pipe laid in the earth. If you 
 cannot fee from one extreme to the other, the operation 
 may be repeated. 
 
 Levelling Slaves, inftruments ufed in levelling 
 that carry the marks to be obferved, and at the fame 
 time mealure the heights of thofe marks from the ground. 
 They ulually confift of two long wooden fquare rulers, 
 that Hide over one another, and divided into feet, 
 inches, &c. 
 
 LEVER, in mechanicks, an inflexible line, rod or 
 beam, moveable about or upon a fixed point, called the 
 prop or fulcrum, upon one end of which is the weight 
 to be railed; at the other end is the power applied to 
 raife it, as the hand, &c. 
 
 Since the momentum of the weight and power arc as 
 the quantities of matter in each multiplied by their rc- 
 fpeftive celerities : and the celerities are as the dillances 
 from the centre of motion, and alfo as the fpaces paffed 
 through in a perpendicular direftion in the lame time ; 
 it mull follow, that there will be an equilibrium between 
 the weight and power, when they are to each other re¬ 
 ciprocally as the dillances from the centre, or as the ce¬ 
 lerities of the motions, or as the perpendicular afcent or 
 delcent in the fame time; and this univerfally in all me¬ 
 chanical powers whatfoever, which is therefore the fun¬ 
 damental principle of all mechanicks. See Mechani¬ 
 cal Powers. 
 
 LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare in the 
 firft year of her age. 
 
 LEVIGATION, in pharmacy and chymillry, the 
 reducing hard bodies to an impalpable powder, by grind¬ 
 ing them with water on porphyry or marble, he. 
 
 LEVITE, in a general lenl'e, means all the defeen- 
 dants of Levi, among whom were the Jewilli priefts 
 themfelves, who, being defeended from Aaron, were 
 likewife of the race of Levi : but it is more particularly 
 ufed for an order of officers in that church, who were 
 employed in performing the manual fervice of the tem¬ 
 ple, fuch as in fetching wood, water, and other things 
 ncccffary for the lacrifices; and in finging and playing 
 upon inllruments of mufick. 
 
 LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefla- 
 ment, fo called from its containing the laws and regu¬ 
 lations relating to the prieffs, Levites, and lacrifices. 
 
 L I C 
 
 LEVITY, in phyfiology, the privation or waht’of 
 weight in any body, when compared with another that 
 is heavier than it, in which l'enle it Hands oppofed to 
 ■gravity. See Gravitation and Gravity. 
 
 LEVY, in law, ligmfies togatlieror colleft; as to levy 
 money; and to levy a fine of lands, is the paflingafine. 
 
 LEX, law. See L AW. 
 
 LEXICON, the fame with dictionary. It is gene¬ 
 rally uled in fpcaking of Greek dictionaries. 
 
 LIBATION, a religious ceremony among the an¬ 
 cient pagans, which confiilcd in ail effufion of liquors 
 poured on the head of the vidimus prepared for facrilice. 
 Libations were alfo in ule among the Hebrews, who 
 poured a tun of wine on the vidtim after it was killed, 
 and the feveral pieces of the facrifice were laid on the al¬ 
 tar, ready to be coniumed in the flames. 
 
 LIBEL, injurious reproaches or accufations againft 
 a perfon, written and publilhed in order to expofe him 
 to publick contempt, hatred or ridicule. 
 
 Libel, in the law of Scotland, implies an indift- 
 ment. See Indictment. 
 
 LIBELLA, or Libellula, in the hiftory of in- 
 fcdls, a genus of four-winged flies, called in Englilh dra¬ 
 gon-flies, or adder-flies; the charadters of which are, 
 that they are furnilhed with jaws, the antennsc are lhort, 
 and the, tail terminated by a kind of forceps. 
 
 LIBERATE, in law, a writ that lies for the pay¬ 
 ment ot a penfion, or annual fum, granted under the 
 great feal, being diredled to the treal'urer and chamber¬ 
 lains of the exchequer. 
 
 LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival obferved 
 on the fifteenth of the calends of April, at which time 
 the youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga viri- 
 lis, or habit peculiar to grown men. See Toga. 
 
 LI BERT US, in Roman antiquity, a perfon who, 
 from being a Have, had obtained his freedom. 
 
 LIBERTY, Libertas, in general, denotes a ftate of free¬ 
 dom, in contradiftindlion to fiavery. See Freedom. 
 
 According to Cicero, libeity is the power of living as 
 a man pleafes, or without being controlled by another. 
 
 In a legal fenfe, liberty fignilies fome privilege that is 
 held by charter or prefeription. 
 
 LIBRA, the balance, in aftronomy, one of the twelve 
 figns of the zodiack, the fixth in order; fo called, bccaufe 
 when the fun enters it, the days and nights are equal, 
 as if weighed in a balance. (See plate IV. jpg. 6.) 
 
 Libra, in Roman antiquity, a pound weight; alfo 
 a coin, equal in value to 20 denarii. 
 
 LIBRARY, an edifice, or apartment, deffined for the 
 placing of books; or the books themfelves lodged therein. 
 
 The word is derived from the Latin libraria, which 
 is derived from liber, a book. 
 
 LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent inequality 
 in the motion of the moon, by which fhe feems to li- 
 brate or waver about her own axis, fometimes from the 
 eaft to the weft, and fometimes from weft to eaft. Se« 
 Moon. 
 
 Libration of the Earth , is that motion whereby the 
 earth is fo retained in its orbit, that its axis continues 
 conftantly parallel to the axis of the world. 
 
 LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a perfon 
 to do fome lawfful aft. 
 
 LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree of 
 a licence. 
 
 LICHEN, Cinercus Terrejlr is, afh-coloured ground 
 liver-wort, in botany, a fpecies of mofs, confiiling of 
 roundifli, pretty thick leaves, divided about the edges 
 into obtufe fegments, flat above, of a reticular texture 
 underneath, faftened to the earth by fmall fibres ; when 
 in perfection, of an afh-grey colour ; by age, turning 
 darker coloured or redifh. It grows on commons and 
 open heaths, fpreads quickly on the ground, and is to 
 be met with at all times of the year, but is luppofed to 
 be in its greateft vigour about the end of autumn. This 
 herb, mixed with black pepper, is faid to be a warm 
 diuretick, and is particularly celebrated as a prefervative 
 agamft the terrible confequences of the bite of a mad 
 dog. This powder was afterwards inferted, in the year 
 1721, into the London Pharmacopoeia, at the defire of 
 Dr. Mead, who had large experience of its good effefts, 
 and who declares, that he had never known it to fail* 
 where it had been ufed, with the alfiftance of cold bath- 
 ing, before the hydrophobia began. 
 
 LICTORS, 
 
L I G 
 
 L I G 
 
 VICTORS, Liflores, in Roman antiquity,- the fet-. 
 jeants or beadles who carried the fafces before the Supe¬ 
 rior magifirates: it was alio a part ot their office to be 
 the publick executioners in beheading. Scourging, Ac. 
 
 LUGE, in law, a term Sometimes uSed for liege- 
 lord. or one who owns no Superiour; and Sometimes for 
 liege-man, or one who owes allegiance to the liege-lord. 
 In our ilatutcs, the king’s Subjects are Sometimes called 
 lieges, or liege people. 
 
 LIEN', (he Spleen, in anatomy. See Spleen. 
 
 LIENTERY, in medicine, a dilbrder proceeding 
 from a preternatural fmoothnefs of the intefiines, in con¬ 
 sequence of which, what is discharged by ltool, greatly 
 refemblcs the aliments, both in colour and jubilance. 
 
 LIEUTENANT, a deputy, or officer, who holds 
 the place of another, and di (charges that tundlion in his 
 abSence, which he ought to exercile in perfon. 
 
 LIFE, Vita, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated 
 Slate of living creatures, or the time that the union of 
 their Soul and bodv lalls-. 
 
 Lord Bacon makes the prolongation of life one of the 
 three branches into which he divides medicine. 
 
 Dodtor Halley, Mr. De Moivre, and others, have 
 taken laudable pains in estimating the probabilities of 
 life from the bills of mortality ; v\ hence the value of an¬ 
 nuities for life have been determined. See Mortality 
 and Annuity. 
 
 LIGAMENT, in anatomy, a flrong compadl fub- 
 fiance, Serving to join two bones together. A ligament 
 is more flexible than a cartilage, not eafily ruptured or 
 torn, and does not yield, or at leaf! very little, when 
 pulled. Some ligaments are deligned to llrengthen the 
 joints, and to Secure the bones in their Several motions 
 from parting from each other, as happens in luxations -, 
 other ligaments Serve to connect cartilages with bones; 
 and Some there are which ilrengthen other parts, befides 
 the bones and cartilages ; of this laft kind are the annular 
 ligaments, So called, not So much from their figure as 
 from their ufe, Serving, like a ring, to bridle the tendons 
 of many mufcles. Some ligaments again are fixed to 
 one or more bones, with different degrees of teniion, 
 and ferve on each Side for the infertion of mufcles. To 
 thefe may be added, the ligaments commonly termed 
 aponeuroles; Such as thole of the temples, icapula, os 
 humeri, ulna, palm of the hand, thigh, leg, and Sole 
 of the foot. Other differences of ligaments may be de¬ 
 duced from their confidence, Solidity, Situation and 
 figure ; Some are almofl cartilaginous, and others have a 
 particular elallicity, by which they are capable of being 
 drawn out by a Sufficient force, and of contradting again 
 when left to themfelves. 
 
 LIGATURE, in Surgery, is a chord, band or firing ; 
 or the binding any part of the body with a chord, band, 
 fillet, Ac. whether of leather, linen, Ac. Ligatures 
 are ufed to extend and replace bones that are broken or 
 diflocated; to tie the patients down in lithotomy and 
 amputations ; to tie upon the veins in phlebotomy, or 
 the arteries in amputations, or in large wounds; to Se¬ 
 cure the Splints that are applied to fradtures; to tie up 
 the procefles of the peritoneum, with the fpcrmatick 
 veffels in caftration ; and, lafily, in taking off warts or 
 other excrefcences by ligature. For the manner of ufing 
 them, See the articles Lithotomy, Phlebotomy, 
 Fracture, Ac. 
 
 LIGHT, Lu:\ in phvfiology, certain Subtile particles 
 of matter, capable of exciting in us the fenfation of co¬ 
 lours. Light undoubtedly confifts of inconceivcably 
 Small particles of matter, of different magnitudes; which 
 are emitted or refledted from every point in the Surface ot 
 a luminous body in right lines, and in all directions, 
 with an unparelled velocity ; and whole power or inten- 
 fity decreafes as the Squares of the diftance increaSe. 
 
 That light is a material lubfiance, appears from its 
 being propagated in time, and from its adting upon and 
 producing great alterations in other bodies ; but that its 
 particles are inconceivably Small appears from hence, that 
 the greateft quantity of flame is Sound to have Scarce any 
 fenfible gravity or weight: alio becaufe thefe particles 
 pervade the pores ofall transparent bodies, however hard 
 or heavy. Yet Small as they are, we find the rays of 
 light confift of different Sorts of thefe particles ; and that 
 this difference arifes from their different magnitudes, 
 fcems evident from die diffeient diredlions the Several 
 
 Sorts of rays move in, after they have paffed through a 
 body of glals, water, Ac. of Some Special figure, espe¬ 
 cially that of a prifm. See Colour. 
 
 The divine wildom and providence appear, perhaps, 
 in nothing fo remarkably as in the extreme fubtilty of 
 ithe particles of light: without this qualification it could 
 not have pervaded the pores of bodies, and l’o we could 
 have had none of thole which we call diaphanous or 
 tranfparent fubftances, and every thing but the furface 
 of a body would have been concealed from the light of 
 mankind. Again, the velocitv of a bodv is alwavs as 
 the quantity of matter mverlelv ; and, therefore, the 
 Smaller the body, the greater velocity it is fufceptible of 
 from the fame force ; whence it comes to pais that light 
 is thus qualified to be traafmitted through immenfe dis¬ 
 tances in a Small and infenfible part ot time ; which thing 
 was quite neceffary, according to the prefent frame and 
 ftate of nature. 
 
 But, lafily, it was absolutely neceffarv that the par¬ 
 ticles of light Should be fo exceeding Small, that, when 
 compounded with its velocity, itffiould produce no fen¬ 
 fible force, as it mull otherwife have done, and which, 
 therefore, could not have been borne by the tender and 
 delicate texture of the Several parts of vegetable and ani¬ 
 mal bodies. To give an example : the velocity of a par¬ 
 ticle of light is Sound to beat the rate of897600000 feet 
 per Second ; fuppofe its matter to be but one millionth 
 part of a grain, then its force to ftrike an objedt would 
 
 be as ^ 9 -?^? 000 ° — So7,6. feet per fecond for one grain ■ 
 iooocoo & 
 
 or it would firike with the Same force that one grain 
 weight would do falling from half the height, viz. 
 through 448,8 feet; which we ffiould find to be very 
 great, was the experiment to be made on the fenfible 
 coats of the eye. 
 
 Since the weight of bodies is proportional to the quan¬ 
 tity of matter, it follows, that, where the latter is dimi- 
 nilhed indefinitely, the former will be So too; therefore 
 the weight of light null be infenfible to ever So great a 
 quantity of it. 
 
 Dr. Boerhaave caufed a globe of iron, 12 inches in 
 diameter, to be heated red-hot, and fufpended at the 
 end of a very exadf balance, and counterpoiied by weights 
 at the other end very nicely, and thus let it hang nil all 
 the particles of heat or light were efcaped, when he Sound 
 the equilibrium of the balance no ways altered ; which 
 plainly proves the above thefis. See Fire. 
 
 That the particles of light have not only magnitude, 
 but that in different degrees alfo, is another, and per¬ 
 haps the moft Subtile, difeovery of the Newtonian phi- 
 lofophy. The comparative terms of greater and leffer 
 are now as applicable to the particles of light, as to any 
 other bodies. This is absolutely proved by the different 
 refrangibility they are found to have in palling through 
 a priirnatick figure of glafs or water ; for the power of 
 the prifm detains the iffuing particle, and draws it a little 
 towards the Surface; and, fince this power is the fame, 
 it would have the fame effedl on all the particles of light, 
 if they were all of an equal magnitude, becaufe they have 
 all an equal velocity. But fince this effedl is different 
 among the particles, Some being detained and drawn afide 
 to a greater difiance than others, it follows, they mull 
 be lels in magnitude, to become morefubjedt to the in¬ 
 fluence of the attradling furface ; in like manner as the 
 eledlrick effluvia will adl upon and agitate very Small and 
 light bodies, much fooner and more eafily than they can 
 move thole which are larger. But of this more when 
 we come to lpeakof the manner in which this power adts 
 in refradling the rays of light. See Refraction. 
 
 If light were not reflected from every point in the 
 furface of a body in all directions every wav, there 
 might be affigned a point of Space where a rav of light, 
 from fucli a point in the furface, does not come; and 
 there the laid point of the furface could not be vifible; 
 but becaufe the eye can find no point of Space in all 
 the vifible hemisphere refpedting that point, but where 
 it is vifible; therefore a ray of light is refledted from that 
 point to every part of Space, from whence a right line to 
 that point can be drawn. 
 
 That the rays of light proceed in a right-lined di¬ 
 rection, is evident from hence, that whatever the figure 
 of the body be, if it be held perpendicular to the rav i 
 of light, it will always caff a ffiadoiy 0: the fame figure 
 
L I G 
 
 again ft a parallel plane. Thais a circle will produce a 
 circular fhadow, a triangle a triangular one, and fo on. 
 Which plainly fhews that the rays of light pals by the 
 extremities of thefe bodies in right-liiled directions, ex¬ 
 cepting thefe only which pafs contiguous to the edges of 
 the body ; for they will be a little inflected, which will 
 caufe the extremity of the fhadow to be not fo diftindt 
 and well defined as it otherwife would be; of which w'c 
 fhall take further notice hereafter. 
 
 As all the other affedtions of light, fo that of its 
 velocity was utterly unknown to all the ancient, and 
 moll of the modern philofophers, who, before the time 
 of Mr. Romer, were of opinion that the motion of light 
 was inftantaneous, or that it was propagated through 
 immenfe fpaces in an inflant. But Mr. Romer, and 
 other philofophers, about this time, making frequent 
 obiervations on the eclipfes of Jupiter’s moons, found 
 that the time of thefe eclipfes did not correfpond to the 
 -calculations founded upon the allronomical tables; where 
 the times are all calculated for the diilance of the centre 
 of the fun, and confequently where the eye of the fpec- 
 tator mull be fuppofed to be in viewing the faid eclipfes, 
 occultations, &c. of Jupiter’s moons. To illuftrate 
 this matter, let S (plate XLV 111 . fig. 5 ) be the centre 
 of the fun, A B the orbit of Mercury, C D the orbit 
 of Venus, E F that of the earth, and G H a part of 
 the orbit of Jupiter. Let 1 be the body of Jupiter, and 
 K L its fhadow ; O M N the orbit of one of Jupiter’s 
 moons, M juft entering the fhadow of Jupiter. Now 
 a fpedlator at S would obferve the moon M to enter the 
 fhadow, juft at the time which is calculated from the 
 tables but a fpedlator on the earth at T, always ob- 
 ferves it to happen fooner; and, when the earth is in 
 the oppofite part of its orbit R, he will always obferve 
 it to happen later, by die fpace of about leven minutes, 
 in both cafes. This obfervation gave the firft proof 
 that light was progrelfive, and took up about. 14 minutes 
 to pals over the diameter of the earth’s orbit from T 
 to R, or leven minutes to pafs from the fun S to the 
 earth T. 
 
 But this, thotigh a fufficicnt difeovery or proof of the 
 progrellive motion of light, was yet but an experiment 
 in the grols, and not accurate to determine or define the 
 true rate of velocity which properly belonged to light; 
 the folution of this noble problem was referved for Dr. 
 Bradley, who by reiterated and certain experiments, ob- 
 ferved, that the bright liar in the head of Draco appeared 
 39" more northerly in September than in March, juft the 
 contrary way to what it ought to appear by the annual 
 parallax of the ftars, which muft arife from the velocity 
 of light bearing fome proportion to that of the annual 
 motion of the earth, See Aberr at ion of the Stars. 
 
 To illuftrate this, and from thence to determine the 
 velocity of light : let A B (fig. 6.) reprefent a part of 
 the earth’s annual orbit* and let C be a ftar obferved by 
 a fpedlator at the earth at A ; when the earth arrives at 
 B, the ftar will not be obferved at G, as before, but at 
 I) in the line B D parallel to A C ; for let A B be di¬ 
 vided into equal parts A a , a b, h r, c d , and d B ; then 
 ■through thefe points draw the lines a e, b f\ c d h, 
 parallel to A C and D B. Now let the velocity of the 
 earth be to that of light as A B to C B. When the 
 earth fets out from the point A, fuppofe the ray of light 
 commences its motion from the ftar at C in the diredlion 
 C B perpendicular to A B ; then it is plain, when the 
 earth is arrived at «, the particle of light will be got to i, 
 the point where a e cuts B C, and the ftar will be feen 
 in the diredlion a i and appear at e. In like manner, 
 when the earth is at b, the particle of light will be come 
 to b, and will appear at /, and fo on ; when the earth is 
 at c, d , B, the particle will be at /, /«, and B, and the ftar 
 will appear at g, h, and D. 
 
 If therefore the line C A reprefents the axis of a 
 telcfcope, making the angle BAG with the diredlion 
 of the earth’s motion A B ; when he comes to B, lie 
 will fee the ftar at D, which he could not do, if the 
 telefcope was diredled in the perpendicular line B C ; 
 but the difference of the pofitions of the lines D B and 
 B C, or the angle D B C, is fo very fmall, as to amount 
 to no more than 20" 15"', which gives the proportion 
 of the fides B C to C D or A B, as 10210 to 1 ; which 
 fhews that the velocity of light is 10210 times greater 
 than the velocity of the earth in her orbit. 
 
 Yol. II. No. 44. 
 
 L I G 
 
 But the velocity of the earth is known, which is about; 
 500,000,000 miles in 365 days, or about 56,000 miles 
 per hour ; whence the velocity of light will be found to 
 be fuch as carries it through the fpace of 170,000 miles, 
 or 897,600,000 feet in one fecond ; and, therefore, it 
 will pafs from the fun to us in 8' and 13 '. 
 
 If a canon will throw a ball one mile perpendicular 
 height, or 5280 feet, the velocity with which it goes 
 from the cannon’s mouth is the Uniform velocity of 
 10,560 feet per 18 (which is the time of the perpen¬ 
 dicular afeent or defeent) and, therefore, the velocity 
 of the cannon-ball is 578 feet per fecond. Whence 
 the velocity of light is to that of the cannon-ball, as 
 897,600,000 to 578, or as 1,550,000 to 1 nearly. 
 
 The dodlor found that the parallex of the fixed ftars, 
 inftead of amounting to many leconds, as many have 
 deduced from their obfcrvations, does not make one 
 fecond ; and from thence it follows that the above- 
 mentioned ftar, in Draco, is about 400,000 times fur¬ 
 ther from us than the fun ; and confequently that the 
 light takes up above 493" x 400,000:=: 197,200,000 
 feconds (which is more than fix years) in coming from 
 that ftar to us. 
 
 For the properties of refledled and refradled light, fee 
 Reflection and Refraction. 
 
 For the dodlrine of the colours of light, fee Co lour. 
 
 Light, is alfo ufed to fignify the difpofition of ob- 
 jedls, with regard to the receiving of light. 
 
 Light, in architcdlure, implies doors, windows, 
 and other places, through which the air and light have 
 a paffage. 
 
 Light, is alfo ufed to fignify the luminous body 
 which emits it. 
 
 Lights, in painting, are thofc parts of a piece, which 
 are illuminated, or that lie open to the luminary by 
 which the piece is fuppofed to be enlightened, and are 
 therefore painted in bright vivid colours. 
 
 Different lights have very different eftefts on apidlure, 
 and occafion a difference in the management of every 
 part. A great deal therefore depends upon the painter’s 
 chufing a proper light for his piece to be illuminated by, 
 anfl a great deal more, in the condudl of the lights and 
 fhadows, when the luminary is pitched upon. 
 
 Light -Horfe, denotes horfemcn lightly armed, fo as 
 to enter a corps or regiment, in contradiftindlion to the 
 men at arms, who were heavily armed, and accoutred at 
 all points. 
 
 Light -Houfe, in maritime affairs, a houfe built on 
 the lhore, rock, &c. where a light is kept during the 
 night to dircdl vellels near the place. 
 
 LIGHTER, a fort of vefiel or large boat employed 
 in harbours or rivers, particularly the Thames, to bring 
 goods to and from a fhip in theadl of lading and deliver¬ 
 ing the cargo. See Cargo. 
 
 LIGHTNING, in phyfiology, the buriling of fire 
 from it cloud. 
 
 From Dr. Franklin’s experiments, it appears that 
 lightning is Only eledlrical fire drawn off from the 
 clouds ; and, ineffedl, this eledlricity has been collcdled, 
 during thunder, in iron bars, or in tin tubes, in many 
 parts of Europe. See Electricit v. 
 
 Thunder, then, or lightning, is, in the hand of na¬ 
 ture, what electricity is in ours ; the wonders which we 
 now exhibit at pleafure,- arc only little imitations of 
 tliofe great effedls which frighten us. A cloud prepared 
 by the adlion of winds, by heat, by a mixture of exha¬ 
 lations, he. is the eledlnfied body; and watryclouds, 
 or terreftrial matter, the 11011-eledlricks which excite it. 
 See Thunder. 
 
 L 1 GULATED, among botanifts, an appellation 
 given to fuch flofcules as have a ftraiglit end, turned 
 downwards, with three indentures, but not divided into 
 fegments. 
 
 LJGU 3 TICUM, lovage, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, the general corolla of which is ainiform, and the 
 fingle flowers confift each of five lanccolated petals, bent 
 inwards at the points: the fruit is naked, oblong, an- 
 gulated, fulcated, and feparable into two parts; and con¬ 
 taining two oblong, fmooth feeds, plane on one fide, and 
 ftriated on the other. 
 
 LIGUSTRUM, privet, in botany, a genus of trees, 
 with a funnel-falhioned flower, quadriiid or quinquifid 
 at the limb : the fruit is a globofe fmooth berry, with 
 I O only 
 
L I M 
 
 only one cell, containing four feeds, convex on one fide, 
 and angulated on the other. 
 
 LILACK, in botany, a genus of trees, othenvifecalled 
 fyringa. See Svrikga. 
 
 LILIACEOUS, an appellation to fuch flowers as 
 refcmble that of the lily. 
 
 LILY, Lilium , in botanv, a genus of the hexandria 
 inonogynia clafs cf plants, with a campanulated flower, 
 riling narrow out of the cup, and expanding towards 
 tire limb: it confills of fix eredt petals, obtui'e at the 
 points, which are bent backwards : the fruit is an oblong 
 capfule, with three cells, in which are contained a great 
 many finall feeds. 
 
 White lily-roots are emollient, and fuppurative ; be¬ 
 ing ufed with fuccefs in cataplafms, intended for thefe 
 purpofes. The flowers are alfo emollient and anodyne. 
 They are only ufed externally, and that either in the 
 form of acataplafm, or of an oil by inlolation. 
 
 Lily of the Valley , Lilium Convalium , in botany, a 
 beautiful fpecies of the lily, whofe flowers are compofed 
 of little white florets, in the form of a bell, and divided 
 lightly into live or lix fegments at the mouth. They 
 fhrivel up and become brown in drying ; while frelh, 
 they have an extremely fragrant fmell, but this they lofe 
 alfo with the colour, and with thefe a great part of their 
 virtues in this preparation ; fo that they lhould always 
 be ufed either frelh gathered, orpreferved in proof fpirit; 
 but in this laft cafe, the fpirit mull be ufed with them, 
 otherwife a great part of their virtues will be left in it. 
 The plant which produces them is one of the hexandria 
 monogynia of Linnaeus, and of the herb as baccifcras of 
 Mr. Ray. 
 
 It grows wild with us in many places, but in moll of 
 them itfhews only the leaves, never flowering; in l'ome 
 however, where it has a proper expolure, it l'preads abun¬ 
 dantly, and flowers as well as in our gardens ; in many 
 of which it is kept as a great beauty, and one of the 
 mod fragrant flowers known. 
 
 Lily of the valley flowers are efleemed cephalick and 
 nervine; they are recommended againft convullions, 
 vertigos, apoplexies, pallies, and all diforders of the 
 head and nerves. They are preferred by fome in fugar, 
 in form of a conferve, and by others are made into a 
 lirup by means of a flrong infufion , but neither of thefe 
 ways are fo good as the diftilling of a rectified fpirit 
 from them in a balneum vaporis, and repeating this with 
 frelh flowers three or four times: the fpirit will then be 
 fully fated with their fine eflential oil, very fragrant and 
 poffeffed of all their virtue. Some people make their 
 effence of ambergreafe with this fpirit of lilies of the 
 valley, inftead of plain fpirit of wine. It is much the 
 more fragrant for this, and is efleemed a very great cor¬ 
 dial, and provocative to venery. None of thefe forms 
 however are in the fliops ; the flowers are only known 
 there as ingredients in two or three compofitions. 
 
 LIMB, Limbus, the graduated edge of an aftrolabe, 
 quadrant, S:c. It alfo denotes the primitive circle of any 
 projedtion of the fphere in piano ; as alfo the outermoft 
 edge of the fun or moon, when the difek or middle part 
 of either is hid in aneclipfe. The lower and upper limbs 
 of the fun are obferved, in order to find his true height, 
 which is that of his centre. 
 
 Limb, in botany, the outer edge of plants, their leaves 
 and flowers. 
 
 LIMBERS, or Limber-Holes, in fhip-building, 
 fmall holes in the lower part of the timbers of a fhip, 
 dole to the keel; the purpofe of which is, to let the 
 water, which may have come in by a leak, have a free 
 paflage to the well, where the pumps are fixed to draw it 
 out; for this purpofe every floor-timber is fitted with 
 two of thefe, viz. one on each fide of the kellon. 
 
 Limber-Boards, fhortpieces of plank which form 
 a part of the cieling of a Ihip’s floor clofe to the kelfon, 
 and immediately above the limber-holes : they can be 
 occafionally removed to clear the limbers, when they are 
 filled or clogged with any filth, land, gravel, Ac. 
 
 LIME, Calx , a white, loft friable fubftance, pre¬ 
 pared of ftone, marble, chalk, or fome other flony fub- 
 flance, by burning in a kiln. There are two kinds of 
 lime in common ufe in England, the one made of ftone, 
 and the other of chalk, whereof the former is much the 
 ftrongeft. That which is made of foft ftone or chalk, 
 is the fitteft for plaftering of cieiiues, and walls within 
 2 
 
 L I N 
 
 doors ; and that made of hard ftone, is fit for ftrudturcs 
 or buildings, and plaftering without doors, that lie in 
 tjie weather. And that which is made of a greafy, 
 clammy ftone, is ftronger than that made of a poor lean 
 ftone, and that which is made of a lpongy ftone, is 
 lighter than that made of a firm and dole ftone ; that 
 again more commodious for plaftering, this for building. 
 
 Before the ftones are thrown into the kiln, they are 
 to be broken to pieces; otherwife'the air contained in 
 their cavities, being too much expanded by heat, makes 
 them fly with fo much violence as to damage the kilns. 
 
 Alberti and Palladio lav, that lime will not be luffi- 
 ciently burnt in lefs than 60 hours ; and Alberti gives 
 the marks of a well-burnt lime to be as follow, viz. 
 that its weight is to that of the ftone in a l'elquiliterate 
 proportion , that it is white, light, and i’onorous ; that, 
 when flaked, it flicks to the iides of the vefiel. To which 
 Boeckler adds, that, when flaked, it lends forth a copious 
 thick lrnoke ; and Dieufiant, that it requires a great deal 
 ot water to flake it. 
 
 It has been found by feveral late experiments, made 
 by Dr. Alfton, that lime-water is an excellent remedy 
 for the ftone ; and that it has been given with extraor¬ 
 dinary fuccefs in acute fevers. Sponius fays, that when 
 drank with milk or whey, it performs wonderful effedfs 
 in internal ulcers, diarrhoeas, and the dyfentery. 
 
 Lime-water, on being mixed with linfeed-oil, or the 
 oil of olives, and well lhaken, acquires the conliftence 
 of a balfam, which is of Angular lervice when applied 
 externally in frelh burns, and alfo conduces to flop in¬ 
 flammations. It may alfo be impregnated with copper, 
 by Handing in a brazen bafon: by which means it al- 
 lumes a beautiful fapphire colour, and proves an excel¬ 
 lent remedy againft puftules, ulcers, fcadies, and itching 
 of the eyes; and this laft preparation mixed with a little 
 fal ammoniack, is recommended againft all humours, 
 films, and other biemifhes of the eyes, and is laid to be 
 very efficacious when the eyes are hurt by the imali- 
 pox ; and there is no remedy more effectual for cancerous 
 ulcers. 
 
 LIMIT, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed by the mathe¬ 
 maticians for a determinate quantity, to which a variable 
 one continually approaches; in which fenfe, the circle 
 may be laid to be the limit of its circumlcribed polygons. 
 In algebra, the term limits is applied to two quantities, 
 one of which is greater, and the other lefs, than another 
 quantity; and in this fenfe it is ufed, in fpeaking of the 
 limits of equations, whereby their l’olution is much fa¬ 
 cilitated. 
 
 LIMITATION, in law, fignifies a certain fpace of 
 time allowed for bringing adtions. 
 
 LINE, Line a , in geometry, a quantity extended in 
 length only, without any breadth or thicknefs. It is 
 formed by the flux or motion of a point. See Fluxion. 
 
 There are two kinds ot lines, viz. right lines and curve 
 lines. If the point A (plate XLVII.y%. a.) move to¬ 
 wards B; by its motion, it deferibes a line, and this, if 
 the point go the neareft way towards B, will be a right 
 or ftraight line, whole diftindtion therefore is the neareft 
 or Ihorteft diftance between any two points; or a line, all 
 whofe points tend the fame way. If the point go any 
 way about, as in one of the lines ABC, or AcB, it 
 will trace out either a crooked line as the upper A c B, or 
 elfe two more ftraight ones as in the lower ACB. Right 
 lines are all of the l'ame-fpecies, but curves are of an in¬ 
 finite number of different fpecies. We may conceive as 
 many as there may be different ratios between their or¬ 
 dinates and abfeifles. See Absisse and Ordinates. 
 
 Curve lines are ufuallv divided into geometrical and* 
 mechanical; the former are thole which may be found 
 cxadtly iri all their points; the latter are thofe, fome or 
 all of whole points arc not to be found precilely, but only 
 tentatively, or nearly. Curve lines are alfo divided into 
 the firft order, fecond order, third order, Ac. See 
 Curve. 
 
 Lines confidered as to their pofitions, arc either pa¬ 
 rallel, perpendicular, or oblique, the conftrudtion and 
 properties whereof fee under Parallel, &c. 
 
 Euclid’s fecond book treats moftlv of lints, and of the 
 effedts of their being divided and again multiplied into 
 one another.. 
 
 Line, in geography, the fame with equator. See 
 Equator. 
 
 Lines* 
 
L I N 
 
 Lines, in aftronomy, arc, i. Fiducial line, the line 
 or ruler which palles through the middle of an aftrolabe, 1 
 or the like inftrument, and on which the lights are fitted, 
 otherwife called alhidade, index, dioptra, and niedicli- 
 uium. See Astrolabe. 2. The horizontal line. 
 3. Ifochronal lines. 4. Meridian line. 5. Line of the 
 nodes. See the articles Horizontal, Isochronal, 
 Meridian and No de s. 
 
 Lines, in perfpe&ive, are, 1. Geometrical line, which 
 is a right line drawn in any manner on the geometrical 
 plane. 2. Terreftrial line, or fundamental line, is a 
 l ight line, wherein the geometrical plane and that of the 
 picture or draught interfett one another ; fuch is the line 
 N I, {plate XLVII. fig. 1.) formed by the interfeftion 
 of the geometrical plane LM, and the perfpeflive plane 
 H K. 3. Line of the front, is any right line parallel to 
 the terreftrial line. 4. Vertical line, the common fec- 
 tion of the vertical and of the draught. 5. Vifual line, 
 the line or ray imagined to pafs from the object to the 
 eye. 6. Line of ftation, according to fome writers, is 
 the common feftion of the vertical and geometrical 
 planes. Others, as Lamy, mean by it the perpendicular 
 height of the eye above the geometrical plane : others a 
 line on that plane, and perpendicular to the line exprefs- 
 ing the height of the eye. 7. Obje&ive line, the line 
 of an objett from whence the appearance is fought for in 
 the draught or piflure. 
 
 Line of Di/lance. See Distance. 
 
 Lines, in dialling, are, 1. Horizontalline, the com¬ 
 mon fedtion of the horizon and the dial-plane. See 
 Dial. 2. Horary lines, or hour-lines, the common 
 jriterfettions of the hour circles of the fphere, with the 
 plane of the dial. See Horary. 3. Subftylar line, 
 that line on which the flyle or cock of a dial is duly 
 erefled, and the reprefentation of fuch an hour-circle as 
 is perpendicular to the planeofthat dial. 4. Equinoctial 
 line, the common interfeCtion of the equinoctial and 
 plane of the dial. 
 
 Contingent Line. See Contingent. 
 
 Line of Meafures, is ufed by Oughtred, to denote 
 the diameter of the primitive circle in the projection of 
 the fphere in piano, or that line in which the diameter 
 of any circle to be projected falls. In the ftereographick 
 projection of the fphere in piano, the line of meafures is 
 that line in which the plane of a great circle perpendicu¬ 
 lar to the plane of the projection, and that oblique circle 
 which is to be projected, interfcCts the plane of the pro¬ 
 jection; or is it the common feCtion of a plane palling 
 through the eye-point and the centre of the primitive at 
 right angles to any oblique circle which is to be projected, 
 and in which the centre and pole of fuch circle will be 
 found. 
 
 Line of Direction on the earth’s axis, in the Pytha¬ 
 gorean l'yflem of aftronomy, the line connecting the two 
 poles of the ecliptick and of the equator, when they are 
 projected on the plane of the former. 
 
 Line of Direction, in mechanicks, that wherein a 
 body actually moves, or would move, if it were not hin¬ 
 dered. It alfo denotes the line that palles through the 
 centre of gravity of the heavy body to the centre of the 
 earth, which muft alfo pafs through the fulcrum, or fup- 
 port of the heavy body, without which it would fall. 
 
 Line of Gravitation of any heavy bodv, a line drawn 
 through its centre of gravity, and according to which it 
 tends downwards. 
 
 Line of the fw'rfteft Defccnt, of a heavy body, is the 
 cycloid. See Cycloid. 
 
 Line of a Projcfiile. See Pro j ect ile s. 
 
 Lines on the plane Scale, are the line of chords, line 
 of fines, line of tangents, line of fecants, line of femi- 
 tangents, line of leagues; the conftru&ion and appli¬ 
 cation of which fee under the articles Scale, Sail¬ 
 ing, &c. 
 
 Lines on Gunter's Scale, are the line of numbers, line 
 of artificial fines, line of artificial tangents, line of arti- 
 tificial verfed fines, line of artificial fines of rhumbs, line 
 of artificial tangents of the meridian line, and line of 
 equal parts; for the conftrudtion and application whereof, 
 fee Gunter’; Scale . 
 
 Lines 0/ the Senior, are the line of equal parts, or line 
 of lines, line of chords, line of fines, line of tangents, 
 line of fecants, line of polygons, line of numbers, line 
 ot fiours, line of latitudes) line of meridians, line of 
 
 L 1 N 
 
 metals, hneoffohds, line of planes; for the con ft ruc¬ 
 tion and ufe whereof, fee Sector. 
 
 Lines, in fortification, aie thol’c of approach a capi¬ 
 tal, defence, circumvallation, contravallation, of the 
 bale, &c. See Approach, See. 
 
 To Line a Work, liguifies to flrdngthen a rampart 
 with a firm wall; or to encompals a parapet or moat 
 with good tUrf, See. 
 
 Line, in the art of war, is underftood of the difpofi- 
 tion of an army, ranged in order of battle, with the front 
 extended as far as may be, that it may hot be fianked. 
 See Army. 
 
 Line of Battle, is alfo underflood of the difpofition of 
 a fleet on the day of engagement, on which occafion the 
 vefiels are ufually drawn up as much as poffible in aflraight 
 line, as well to gain and keep the advantage of the wind, 
 as to run the fame on board. 
 
 Ship of the Line , a veil'd large enough to be drawn 
 up in the line, and to have a place in a lea-fight. See 
 Ship. 
 
 Line, in fencing, that part of the body oppofite to 
 the enemy, wherein the lhouldcrs, the right arm, and 
 the lvvord, ought always to be found ; and wherein are 
 alfo to be placed the two feet at the difiance of eighteen 
 inches from each other. In which fenfe a man is laid 
 to be in his line, or to go out of his line, See. 
 
 Line of Demarcation, ox Alexandrian Line, a meri¬ 
 dian palling over the mouth of the river Moragnon, and 
 by the capes Houmas and Mallabrigo, l'o called from 
 pope Alexander VI. who, to end the difpure between 
 the crowns of Caflile and Portugal, about their boundaries, 
 drew an imaginary line on the globe, which was to ter¬ 
 minate the pretenfions of each. By this partition, the 
 E. Indies fell to the fhare of the Portugucfe, and the 
 W. Indies to the Caflilians. 
 
 Line of the Synodical, in reference to fome theories of 
 the moon, is a right line iuppofed to be drawn through 
 the centres of the earth and fun; and, if it be produced 
 quite through the orbits: it is called the line of the true 
 fyzygies : but a right line imagined to pafs through the 
 earth’s centre, and the mean place of the fun, is called 
 the line of the mean fyzygies. 
 
 LINE, in genealogy, a lcries or fucceffion of relations 
 in various degrees, all defeending from the lame com¬ 
 mon father. 
 
 Direftline, is that which goes from father tofon; be¬ 
 ing the order of afeendants and defeendants. 
 
 Collateral line, is the order of thole who defeend from 
 fome common father related to the former, but out of 
 the line of afeendants and defeendants; in this are placed 
 uncles, aunts, coufins, nephews, See. See the articles 
 Direct and Collateral. 
 
 Line alfo denotes a French mcafure, containing the 
 twelfth part of an inch, or the hundredth and fortv- 
 fourth part of a foot. Geometricians conceive the line 
 lubdivided into fix points. The French line anfwers to 
 the Englilh barley-corn. See Foot, Inch, See. 
 
 Lines, in mulick, the names of thofc llrokes drawn 
 horizontally on a piece of paper, on and between which 
 the characters and notes of mufick arc difpofed : tluir 
 number is commonly five; when another is added, for 
 one, two, or more notes, it is Called a ledger-line. 
 
 Lines, in heraldry, the figures ul’cd in armories, to 
 divide the fhield into different parts, and to conipofe dif¬ 
 ferent figures. Thefe lines, according to their different 
 forms and names, give denomination to the pieces or 
 figures which they form, except the flraight or plain lines. 
 
 Lines, among fowlers, is ufed to exp refs the things 
 by which they catch birds. 
 
 LINE A Alba, in anatomy, the eoncourfe of the 
 tendons of the mufcles of the abdomen, extending from 
 the llernum to the juncture of the offa pubis, in rorm of 
 a broad and flrong white break, and dividing the abdo¬ 
 men into two. See Abdomen. 
 
 LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the out¬ 
 lines of a face. *See Contour. 
 
 LINEAR Numbers, in mathematicks, fuch as have 
 relation to length only , fuch is a number which repre¬ 
 sents one fide of a plane figure. If the plane figure be a. 
 fquare, the linear number is called a root. 
 
 Linear Problem, that which may be folvcd geome¬ 
 trically, by the interfedlioii of two r ; ght lines. This is 
 called a Ample problem, and is caoable of folurion. 
 
 LINEN, 
 
L I P 
 
 LINEN, in commerce, a well known kind of cloth, 
 chiefly made of flax. See Flax. 
 
 L 1 NGUALIS Mu sculus, in Anatomy, amufde of 
 the tongue taken notice of by Douglas : it arifes, fays 
 he, pretty large and flefliy from the bafis of the tongue 
 laterally, and runs ftraight forwards between the cerato 
 and genio-glolfus to the tip. It is hard to determine 
 whether it ends there, or returns circularly after the fame 
 manner on the other fide to the root of the tongue again. 
 It fervcs to coil trad or narrow the fubftance of the 
 tongue, and at the fame time to bring it backwards and 
 downwards. 
 
 LINIMENT, Linimentum, in pharmacy, a com po¬ 
 rtion of a confiftence fomewhat thinner than an unguent, 
 and thicker than oil, uled for different parts of the body 
 in various intentiohs. The materials proper for coni- 
 poling of a liniment, are oils, fats, balfams, and what¬ 
 ever enters die conipofition of unguents and plaflers. 
 The bell way of uimg liniments, is to apply them after 
 tne pores have been opened by fridtion or fomentations. 
 There are many forts of liniments dire&ed in pharma¬ 
 ceutical writers, but we ftiali content outfelves with 
 giving that called linimentum Arcafi, prepared as fol¬ 
 lows: take of gum elcmi, and turpentine of fir, of each 
 an ounce and an half ; of old and depurated mutton fuet, 
 two ounces ; of old and depurated hog’s lard, an ounce ; 
 mix them, and make an ointment. Oils, unguents, 
 and the fat of animals, or whatever any partis anointed 
 with, are comprehended under the name liniment. 
 
 LINN/EA, in botany, a genus of the didynamia- 
 angiofpei mia clai's of plants, the corolla of which is mo- 
 liopetalous, turbinated, femi-quinquifid, obtufe, almofl 
 equal, and greater than double the cup of the flower; 
 the fruit is a roundifh bilocular berry ; the feeds are l'o- 
 •litary and roundifh. 
 
 LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum. Linfeed 
 bruifed and fieeped in water, gives it very loon a thick 
 mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of its 
 emollient virtues to it. It is anodyne, attcmpcrating, 
 and of great fetvice in luppreffions of urine from inflam¬ 
 mation and heat; it envelops the acid falts of the urine, 
 and prevents their vellicating and wounding the tender 
 parts; and in fome mealure fupplics the mucus of the 
 bladder, when abraded and worn olf. It is to be given in 
 decodlion, or infufioti, on thefe occalions : the infufion 
 is not to be made too thick or mucilaginous, becaufe in 
 that cafe it loads' the fiomach, and breeds flatulences in 
 the inteftines. A flight infufion of linfeed, by way of 
 tea, is recommended by many as an excellent pedloral, 
 and the leed is a common and very good ingredient in 
 clyflers. Externally, this feed, ground to powder, is an 
 excellent emollient, as is alfo the llrong mucilage, made 
 by boiling the feeds a long time: the oil drawn from it 
 by expreffion is of great fervice in coughs, plcurifies, and 
 many other cafes. 
 
 LINSTOCK, in gunnery, a fhort ftaff of wood, 
 About three feet long, having at one end a piece of iron 
 divided into two branches, each of which has a notch to 
 hold a lighted match, and a ferew to fallen it there ; the 
 other end being lhod with iron to flick into the ground. 
 
 LINTEL, in architedlure, the piece of timber that 
 lies horizontally over door-polls and window-jaums, 
 both to fupport the wall over it, and bind the fides of the 
 wall together. 
 
 LINUM, flax. See Flax. 
 
 LION, Leo, the flrongefl and fiercefl of all quadru¬ 
 peds : it is a fpecies of the felis, with an elongated Aoc- 
 cofe tail, and a mane on the neck, and larger in lize than 
 the mafliff; its head is large, and the breaft broad in 
 proportion to the other parts ; the legs are alfo very 
 thick and flrong, and its claws of a furprifing length 
 and thicknefs : the fur of the whole body is of a tawney 
 yellow colour. The lionefs is, in all relpefts, like the 
 lion, except that fhe wants the mane: but this makes 
 lb great a difference in her appearance, that lhe feems a 
 creature of a different genus. 
 
 LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a termufed for feveral 
 lions borne in the lame coat of arms. 
 
 LIP, Labium , or Labru n, in anatomy, the exterior 
 flefhy covering of the mouth. See Mouth. 
 
 The cheeks and lips form the fides and entry of the 
 cavity of the mouth. They are formed in general by the 
 connection of feveral ilefhy portions, of different breadths, 
 
 L I P 
 
 fixed round the two jaws, covered on the outfide with the 
 fkin and fat, and lined on the infide by a glandulous 
 membrane. Befides this, the lips have a foft fpongv fub¬ 
 ftance, which lwells and fubfides on certain occafions, 
 independently of the adtion of the mufclcs; and is mixed 
 with fat. The fubitance that forms the red border of 
 the lips is a colledtion of very fine, long, villous papilla;, 
 clofely connected together, and covered by a fine mem¬ 
 brane : which feems to be both a continuation of the 
 epidermis, and of that pellicle which covers the glandu¬ 
 lous membrane of the cavity of the mouth. This fub¬ 
 itance is extremely fenfible. The internal membrane of 
 the upper-lip forms a fmall middle fraenum above the 
 firft dentes inciforii. The arteries which go to the lips 
 are ramifications of the external carotid, and principally 
 of the external and internal maxillary branches. Sec 
 Artery. 
 
 The veins are ramifications of the external anterior ju¬ 
 gular. See Vein. 
 
 The nerves of thefe parts come from the maxillaris fu- 
 perior and inferior, which arc branches of the fifth pair 
 and alfo from the portio dura of the auditory nerve, or 
 lympatheticus minimus, the ramifications of which are 
 lpread in great numbers on all tliele parts, and commu¬ 
 nicate very fingularly with the nerves of the fifth pair in 
 feveral places. There is fo much variety in the mufclcs 
 of the lips, in different objedts, that it is not at all fur¬ 
 prifing to find anatomifls difagree in the defeription of 
 them. The mufcles of the lips arc ufually divided into 
 common and proper j the common are thole which end 
 at the angles of the two lips; and thofe are proper which 
 are fixed in one lip only, which are again fubdivided 
 into proper mufcles of the upper-lip, and proper mufcles 
 of the undcr-lip. The common mufcles are the femi- 
 orbiculares, fupra-femi-orbiculares, buccinatores, and zv- 
 gomatici majores. l he proper mufcles of the upper-lip 
 are the zygomatici minores, canini, inciforii laterales, 
 and inciforii medii. Thofe of the under-lip, the tri¬ 
 angulares, triangularium collaterals, quadratu ; , inciforii 
 iliferioresi and cutanei. The upper-iip is fometimes 
 moved by the adlion ofthe mufcles of the nofc, efpecial- 
 ly the pyramidales; and both lips, either jointly or fepa- 
 rately, are moved by fusion, without the alfi fiance of their 
 proper mufcles. The common mufcles of the lips either 
 draw both corners of the mouth at once, or only one at 
 a time, according to the different direction of their 
 fibres. 'Fhe proper mufclcs pull the different parts of 
 the lips in which they are inferted. The buccinatores, 
 in particular, may ferve to move the food in maflication. 
 
 Hare- Lip, a diforder in which the upper-lip is in a 
 manner flit or divided, fo as to refemblc the upper-lip of 
 a hare, whence the name. Sometimes the divifion is fo 
 large, that it appears as if part of the lip was wanting; 
 and ibmetimes again the divifion is double. A like fiffuro* 
 is alfo fometimes made in the lower lip by a wound that 
 has been ncgledled, or improperly treated : thislafl fpecies 
 of the diforder is termed the fpurious hare-lip; the true 
 kind is born with the infant. 'Fhe lefs and more equal 
 the fiffurc of the hare-lip is, it is generally fo much the 
 more cafily cured. In l'oine infants, the divifion of the 
 lip is fo large and irregular, that there can be but little 
 hopes of a cure, which may, however, be eafily per¬ 
 formed on the very fame lip, when adult. Sometimes 
 too we meet with a tooth projecting forward into the 
 fiffure ; in tills cafe it cannot be cured without firft tak¬ 
 ing out the tooth. In a recent hare-lip, or one made by 
 a wound, the cure is to be performed by the knotted 
 future. See Suture and Wound. 
 
 In curing the hare-lip, where part of the lip is want¬ 
 ing, no attempt can be made to fupply what is deficient, 
 but only to unite thofe parts which are divided, by taking 
 off the fkin from the edges of the fiffurc, and then 
 caufing them to unite and grow together, by paffing 
 through them two or three needles, made of gold or 
 filver, pointed with Heel., from the right to the left, be¬ 
 ginning with the upper part of the filfure, and inferting 
 them at about a flraw’s breadth from each other ; tile 
 furgeon having thus entered the needles, and clcanfed 
 the bleeding lips with a fponge, he rakes a piece of firong 
 wax thread or lilk, and faAening it about one end oi the 
 needle, he winds it over the other end, and back again, 
 and afterwards fecures it by a knot: by this means the 
 edges of the lips are brought clofe together, and tbs upper 
 3 part 
 
L I 
 
 part or furface kept fmooth and even. To heal the 
 wound internally, it is dieffed with foft lint dipped in 
 honey of rofes, and put between the gums and lip ; but 
 this pra£tice can only be followed with adults : the ex¬ 
 ternal part of the wound is at the fame time drefled with 
 balfam of Peru, or fome other vulnerary unguent, co¬ 
 vered with lint and comprefs, and over that a {ticking 
 platter with four heads, two of which are fattened on the 
 left fide of the lip, and two upon the right, and the 
 whole fecured by a fling or fillet, whofe extremities may 
 be fattened about the head, either by a knot or pins. 
 But k mutt here be obferved, that when the fiffure ap¬ 
 pears large and deep, fo that the two parts of the lip can¬ 
 not be ealily joined, it will be neceflary, before the above 
 operation, to divide the framulum of the upper lip from 
 the gum with a pair of feiifars, but without wounding 
 the gum, or uncovering the jaw. T hough the haemor¬ 
 rhage is often very plentiful in performing thefe opera¬ 
 tions on young infants, yet it is not dangerous, fince 
 it prevents an inflammation, and generally ceafes after 
 tying the bandages. 
 
 The dreflings ought not to be moved before the third 
 day, unlels fome accident makes it neceflary ; .and then 
 it mutt be done with great caution, to avoid feparating 
 the parts in contadl. If the lips of the wound appear 
 conjoined, three or four days after the operation, you 
 may then venture to draw out the middle needle, when 
 there are three ; or the upper one, when there are only 
 two; and tw'o or three days after draw out the other; 
 the cure mutt be completed by drefling every day, as at 
 firft. 
 
 LIPOTHYMIA, Fainting, in medicine, may 
 arife from feveral caufes, as too violent exercifes, fup- 
 prettion of the menles, or other accuttomed evacuations, 
 &c. A lipothymy is often fymptomatick, accompany¬ 
 ing the feurvy, malignant fevers, and the like diforders ; 
 which being cured, the difpofition to faintnefs ceafes of 
 courfe. 
 
 As to the cure of an idiopathick lipothymy, proceeding 
 from the fight of blood, wounds, ulcers, or any chirur- 
 gical operation, nothing more is neceflary than to change 
 the room, and go into frelh air ; and if this cannot be 
 done, the fmell of hungary water, volatile fpirits, wine, 
 and ttrong vinegar, fprinkling the face with cold water, 
 or a draught of generous wine, will recover the drooping 
 fpirits of the patient. When a perlon to be let blood is 
 afraid of fainting, he fhould be laid upon a bed. 
 
 In more grievous faintingfits, where gentle cordials arc 
 of little ufe, the ftrongeft fort mutt be applied, as fpirit 
 of fal ammoniack, to the noftrils, temples, and pulfes, 
 with ttiong frittions, or forty or fifty drops of volatile 
 fpirits may be given internally ; to which may be added, 
 cinnamon-water, orange-flower water, or the like ; not 
 forgetting a draught of generous wine, with vellications 
 and fri&ions of the extremities, nofe, ears, head, hair, 
 &c. till the perfon recovers. When the patient is hy- 
 fterick, none but feetid things fhould be applied to the 
 nofe ; fuch as caftor, afla feetida, burnt feathers, leather, 
 horn, and the like. 
 
 If the lipothymy proceeds from exceflive haemorrhages, 
 they mutt be flopped as fo'on as poflible ; and the patient 
 mutt take broths, jellies, lpirituous liquors, and gene¬ 
 rous wine, till quite recovered ; which remedies are alfo 
 to be ufed, when it proceeds from difeafes, lofs of 
 ftrength, or a defeat of fpirits and good juices. 
 
 LIPPI A, in botany, a genus of the didynamia-angio- 
 fpermia clafs of plants, the flower of which is monope- 
 talous and ringent, with a quadrifid limb; the fruit is a 
 bivalve unilocular capfule, containing two feeds, which 
 grow together. 
 
 LIQUIDAMBER, in botany, a genus of the mo- 
 ncecia polyandria clafs. The calix has four leaves , it 
 has no corolla, but numerous filaments : the calix of the 
 male confifts of four leaves in the form of a globe; it 
 has no corolla, but a couple of ftyli ; and the capfules, 
 which are numerous, are round, with a double valve, 
 and contain many feeds. There are two fpecies, both 
 natives of America. This tree yields a fragrant refill, 
 called liquidamber, which rcfolves and opens obftruftions. 
 
 The planks of this tree being beautifully veined, are 
 often ufed in America for wainlcotting rooms, but it re¬ 
 quires a long time to feafon the boards, otherwife they 
 are apt to fhrink. 
 
 Vol, II. No. 44. 
 
 L I T 
 
 LIQUORICE, in botany, the name of a plant much 
 ufed in medicine. It grows four or five feet high, its 
 ttalks are hard and woody ; its leaves are lmall and 
 roundifh; and they ftand many together on the two fides 
 of a rib, making what authors call a winged leaf. They 
 are vifeous to the touch ; the flowers are of the papilio¬ 
 naceous kind, fmall and bluifli. The plant is of the 
 diadelphia decandria of Linnaeus, and of the herbse flore 
 papilionaceo feu leguminofie of Mr. Ray. Liquorice 
 grows wild in many parts of France, Italy, Spain, and 
 Germany. It is cultivated in great abundance in York- 
 Ihire, and in many other parts of England ; and by the 
 good order we keep the foil in, it produces better roots, 
 longer, evener, and more fucculent than are to be had 
 from any other part of the world. The reft of Europe 
 is in great meafure furnifhed by what grows about 
 Bayonne and Saragofla in Spain. 
 
 Liquorice is an excellent medicine in coughs, and all 
 diforders of the breaft and lungs. It obtunds the fharp- 
 nefs of acrid and fait humours. It is alfo recommended, 
 againft diforders of the kidnies and bladder, and is faid to 
 take off the fenfeof pain in many terrible complaints. It 
 is an ingredient in almoft all decoctions and ptifans, in 
 which it is efteemed for obtunding acrimony, and forgiv¬ 
 ing the whole a very pleafant tafte, and drowning the 
 worft flavour of the other ingredients. 
 
 Liquor i c e "Juice , the infpiflated juice of the common 
 liquorice root, and is brought to us in rolls or cakes, co¬ 
 vered ufually with bay leaves from Spain and Holland, 
 from the firft of which places it obtained the name of 
 Spanifh juice. It is to be chofen firm, but not tough ; 
 hard, and when broken, of a fine lhining furface ; fuch 
 as perfectly melts in the mouth, and does not tafte of 
 burning, nor leaves any harfli or gritty particles between 
 the teeth. 
 
 Liquorice juice has the fame virtues with the root it 
 is produced from. It is a very famous remedy among 
 the common people for coughs, and all diforders of the 
 breaft and lungs. It is commonly taken alone, holding 
 a fmall piece of it in the mouth till it gradually melts 
 there ; but the more agreeable way of taking it is in form 
 of lozenges, of which there are many kinds, which it is 
 the bafis of; in thefe it is mixed with other pefloral 
 ingredients, and has the advantage of melting more 
 ealily in the mouth than in its own form. It is alfo an 
 ingredient in the theriaca, and fome other of the com- 
 poiitions of the Ihops. 
 
 LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth, or of a 
 fluff; lerving not only to fhevv their quality, but to pre- 
 ferve them from being torn in the operations of ful¬ 
 ling, dyeing, and the like. See Cloth, &c. 
 
 Lift is ufed on various occafions : but chiefly by gar¬ 
 deners, for fecuring their wall-trees. 
 
 List, in archite&ure, a littlefquare moulding, called 
 a fillet, liftel, &c. SeeFiLLET and Moulding. 
 
 LITANY, a folemn form offuppiication to God, in 
 which the prieft utters fome things fit to be prayed for, 
 and the people join in their interceflion, faying, We be- 
 feech thee to hear us, good Lord, &c. 
 
 At firft, the ufe of litanies was not fixed to any flated 
 time, but were only employed as exigencies required. 
 They were obferved, in imitation of the Ninevites, with 
 ardent lupplications and fallings, to avert the threatning 
 judgments of fire, earthquakes, inundations, or hoftile 
 invalions. About the year 400, litanies began to be 
 ufed in procelfions, the people walking barefoot, and re¬ 
 peating them with great devotion ; and, it is pretended, 
 that by this means, feveral countries were delivered from 
 great calamities. The days on which thefe were ufed, 
 were called rogation days : thefe were appointed by the 
 canons of different councils, till it was decreed by the 
 council of Toledo, that they fhould be ufed every mqnth 
 throughout the year ; and thus by degrees they came to 
 be ufed weekly on Wednefdays and Fridays, the ancient 
 ftationary days for falling. To thefe days the rubrick 
 of our church has added Sundays, as being the greateft 
 days for affembling at divine fervice. 
 
 LITERATI, in general, denotes men of learning; 
 but is more particularly ufed by the Chinefe, for fuch 
 perlons as are able to read and write their language. 
 
 LITHANTHRAX, pit-coal, in natural hiftory, a 
 genus of foflils, defined to be folid, dry, opaque, inflam¬ 
 mable fubftances, found in large ftrata, fplitting hori- 
 P zontall/ 
 
LIT LIT 
 
 fcontally more eafily than in any other direClion ; of a 
 glolly hue, foft and friable, not fufible, but eafily in¬ 
 flammable, and leaving a large refiduum of allies. 
 
 Of this genus there are three fpecies; i. The hard, 
 dulky, black coal, known in London by the name of 
 Scotch coal. 2. The hard, glofly, black coal, known 
 by the fame name ; though both thefe fpecies are found 
 alfo in England, particularly in Limington and Wales. 
 3. The friable, gloffy, black coal, called Newcaftle coal, 
 as being chiefly dug about that town. 
 
 LITHARGE, is properly a recrement, of lead, or lead 
 vitrified, either alone or with a mixture of copper. It 
 is of two kinds, differing in colour, though in no other 
 quality ; the one of thefe is called litharge of gold, and 
 the other litharge of filvcr : thefe are coJIe&ed from the 
 furnaces where fflver is fcparated from lead, or from 
 thofe where gold and fflver are purified by means of that 
 metal; but the litharge fold in thefhops is produced in 
 the copper works, in which lead is ufed cither to purify 
 the metal, or to feparate the fflver from it ; this is of a 
 reder or yellower colour, as the fire has been more or lefs 
 flrong, and is always compofed of a multitude of thin 
 flakes. Litharge is foluble in oil, and all other unCluous 
 fubflances ; and thus difl'olved, it makes the bafis of a 
 great part of the ointments and plaflers of the fhops. It 
 is drying, abffergent, and flightly aftriCtive ; and hence it 
 is of great ufc in cleanfing ulcers, and difpofing them to 
 incarnate. 
 
 L 1 THIDIA, in natural hiftory, the name of a large 
 clafs of foffils, including the flint and pebble kinds. 
 
 LI THONTRIPT ICRS, medicines which, either 
 break or are fuppofed to have the virtue of breaking Hones 
 in the urinary pallages. Of this kind is Mrs. Stephen’s 
 medicine, which is a compofition of foap and June made 
 of different fhells, which every body knows to be highly 
 cauffick, and is therefore condemned by Dr. Mead, fince 
 its corrofive quality muil be injurious to the bladder : 
 however, under proper management, he thinks it may 
 be of fome fervice in expelling gravel by the urinary paf- 
 fages; though it will never be able to break calculi of 
 the hardnefs of ftone. Dr. Whytt, of Edinburgh, after 
 confidcring the inconveniencies, and, fometimes, nfff- 
 chiefs of this celebrated fpecifick, refolved to omit the 
 foap, and try what virtues lime-water would have with¬ 
 out it, in dilfolving the calculus ; and found that lime- 
 water made by pouring feven or eight pints of water on 
 one pound of frefh calcined oyfler or cockle-fhells, pof- 
 feffed a greater power of dilfolving the calculus, than 
 that of Hone-lime ; and by giving four pints of it a-day 
 to adults, and to children in proportion, he found that 
 it produced the moll happy effeCts. 
 
 LITHOPHYTA, in botany, a fub-divifion of the 
 cryptogamia clafs of plants; fo called, from their ap¬ 
 proaching to a ftony hardnefs, comprehending the ills, 
 l'pongia, millepara, tubipora, &c. 
 
 LITHOSPERMUM, gromwell, in botany, a genus 
 of the pentandria-monogynia clafs of plants, the corolla 
 of which confifts of a fingle petal of the length of the 
 cup ; the tube is cylindrick, the limb femiquinquifid, 
 obtufe and creCl : there is no pericarpium, but the cup 
 becomes petalous and long, containing four broad, oval, 
 acuminated and hard feeds. The feeds of this plant, 
 being the only parts ufed in medicine, are accounted 
 diuretick. 
 
 LITHOSTROTION, in natural hiftory, the name 
 of a fpecies oi folfile coral, compofed of a great number 
 of long and llender columns, fometimes round, fome¬ 
 times angular, jointed nicely to one another, and of a 
 Harry or radiated furface at their tops. Thefe are found 
 in confiderable quantities in the northern and weftern 
 parts of this kingdom, fometimes in fingle, fometimes in 
 complex fpecimens. 
 
 LITHOTOMY, in furgery, cutting for the ftone. 
 See Stone. The leveral methods of performing this 
 dangerous operation, according to Heifter, are four : the 
 firft and moil ancient is the apparatus minor, called like- 
 wife the Celfian or Guidonian method : the fecond, the 
 apparatus magnus, or Marianus’s method; the la’ter 
 better termed the new, and the former the old method : 
 the third is the apparatus altus, or hypogaftrick feClion, 
 wherein the incilion is made at the lower part of the 
 abdomen in the anterior fide of the bladder, immedi-l 
 ately above the os pubis ; whereas in the reft it is made I 
 
 in the perintBUfn, between the anus and theferotum : the 
 fourth and moll modern method was invented towards 
 the end of the laft century, and is termed the lateral 
 operation. 
 
 1. The firft method is now entirely laid afide, though 
 Heifter thinks it practicable on boys under 14; the 
 wound of the bladder in this operation, lays Sharpe, 
 is made in the fame place as is now p radii fed in the late¬ 
 ral method; but its being impra&icable on fome 1'ub- 
 jedls, and uncertain in all others, has made it to be uni- 
 verlally exploded. 
 
 2. In performing lithotomy by the apparatus major, 
 Mr. Sharpe’s directions for the fituation of the patient 
 are thus : having laid the patient on a fquare horizontal 
 table, three feet four inches high, with a pillow under 
 his head, let his legs and thighs be bent, and his heels 
 made to approach his buttocks, by tying his hands to 
 the foies of his feet with a couple of ftrong ligatures ; 
 and, to lecure him more effectually from ftruggling, 
 pals a double ligature under one of his hams, an/ carry 
 the four firings round his neck to the other ham : then 
 palfing the loop underneath, make a knot by threading 
 one of the fingle ends through the loop; and thus the 
 thighs are to be widened from each other, and firmly 
 lupported by proper perfons. 
 
 The patient thus lituated, Heifter direCts the opera¬ 
 tion as follows : the operator, dipping the beak of a 
 lizeable and grooved Heel -catheter in oil, conveys it 
 through the urethra into the bladder ; and being allured 
 there is a ftone, turns the crooked part of the catheter 
 in the bladder and urethra towards the left fide of the 
 perineum, but the handle and penis which contains it, 
 towards the right inguen ; then delivers it to the afllftant, 
 who holds up the lcrotum in the other hand ; for the 
 crooked convex part of the catheter, thus elevated in the 
 perina;um, renders that part of the urethra which is to 
 be divided, fufficientiy perceptible both to the fight and 
 touch. He next lays hold of the integuments of the 
 perimeum with the fingers of his left hand, holding in 
 his right the incifion-knife, wrapped in linen, as he 
 would do a pen for writing : with this he makes a lon¬ 
 gitudinal incilion downwards, about the middle of the 
 left fide of the perinaum near the future, through the 
 fat; then he again feels for the catheter, and afterw r ards 
 divides the urethra in a direCt line downwards, fo that 
 the end of the knife may pals in the groove of the cathe¬ 
 ter. After a proper fncifion, the furgeon parts with his 
 knife, inlerting in the groove of the catheter, if an affif¬ 
 tant holds it, the nail of his finger or thumb : then he 
 takes a male conduClor, dips it in warm oil, and having 
 palled it through the groove of the catheter and neck of 
 the bladder into the bladder itfelf, extrafts the catheter. 
 
 The male conductor being thus palfed, a female con¬ 
 duClor is introduced upon it, in luch a manner as the 
 latter receives the prominent back of the former in its 
 groove, and conveys it lately into the bladder through 
 its neck. After this, the two conductors are gently fe- 
 parated by their handles, and then a ftraight forceps, 
 dipt in oil and Ihut very clofe, is carefully conveyed 
 into the bladder between the conductors. The forceps, 
 after it is introduced, and the conduClors withdrawn, 
 mull be opened leveral times to dilate the wound, and 
 then Ihut to fearch for the ftone : when the ftone is 
 found, they muft be opened with both hands, in fuch a 
 manner that one jaw, if poffible, may lay hold under 
 the ftone, and the other above it. When the ftone is 
 thus intercepted, the forceps, by a gentle motion from 
 fide to fide, muft be brought towards the reCtum, and 
 the ftone extraCled downwards, becaufe the parts dilate 
 and yield more eafily that way, while upwards they 
 meet with a refiftance from the os pubis : but if it lies 
 concealed in any part of the bladder, and cannot be 
 laid hold of by the forceps, the operator muft pafs the 
 two firft fingers of his left hand into the anus, elevate 
 the ftone, and force it into them. If it is fituated in 
 the upper part of the bladder, behind the offa pubis, the 
 inferior part of the abdomen muft be prefled downwards 
 by the hand, that it may commodioufly be taken hold 
 of, and drawn out by the ftraight or crooked forceps; 
 and if it is lodged on either fide, the crooked inftrument 
 is moll convenient. 
 
 When the ftone is too large to be extraCled whole, 
 it muft be broken by a forceps with teeth, and the frag¬ 
 ments 
 
L I T 
 
 incuts to be drawn out one after another. Ladly, if the 
 done is too large and too hard to be either extracted or 
 broken, a prudent furgeon will dedd, and heal the 
 wound, or leave a ddula for the difeharge of the urine. 
 The done being thus cxtradled, and the bladder cleared, 
 the wound is cleanfed with a fponge, the ligatures united, 
 the patient put to bed, and the wound now dreded with 
 the doffils of lcraped lint: if the haemorrhage be too 
 profufe, it may be flopped by pledgets of lint dipt in a 
 proper flyptick, and the arteries compreffed with the 
 fingers till it Hops. 
 
 Thefe mull: be covered with a linen bolder, and a 
 large fquare comprefs without a plaller, fccuring the 
 whole with the T bandage, or that with four heads ; 
 and if they are ineffectual, the artery mud be tied up 
 with a crooked needle and thread. See the article Hae¬ 
 morrhage. 
 
 After dreding, the patient mud be fupplied With 
 plenty of ptifan, barley-water, or a dreiigthening and 
 compofing emulfion ; his diet Ihould be the fame as for 
 people in fevers, or after great wounds. See Fever 
 and Wound. 
 
 3. The apparatus altus, or high Operation, is per¬ 
 formed as follows. The patient being duly prepared, 
 and laid in a proper fituation, a hollow diver catheter, 
 with a flexible leathern tube at the end of it, is to be 
 introduced into the bladder: to the tube mud be dtted 
 a large fyringc, for the inje&ing of fuch warm water, 
 barley-water, or milk, as the patient can bear. When 
 this is done, the catheter is extra&ed: then, while an 
 aiddant introduces his two fore dngers into the anus to 
 elevate the done and bladder, the operator makes an 
 incidon in a rixht line through the fkin, fat, and ab¬ 
 dominal mufcles, immediately above the oda pubis. 
 The external wound Ihould be three dngers breadth long 
 in children, and four in adults ; then introducing the 
 left index, the furgeon feels for the liquor that diilends 
 the bladder, and then makes an incidon into the bladder 
 immediately above the juncture of the offa pubis : after 
 which he pades a fmall knife into the body of the. blad¬ 
 der, fo as to make a fmall wound with the point only; 
 through this aperture he pades a crooked or draight 
 knife, armed with a button, whereby he enlarges the 
 wound upwards the breadth of one or two dngers. He 
 then introduces his left index to draw the upper part of 
 the bladder towards the navel, and then enlarges the 
 wound downwards. Immediately after, he introduces 
 the forc-dnger of the other hand, and examines the dze 
 and dtuation of the done, and accordingly he enlarges 
 the wound either upwards or downwards, in order to 
 cxtraCt it; and when the done is extracted, and nothing 
 left, the wound is drelled, and the patient treated much 
 in the fame manner as in the former cafe. 
 
 4. The fourth method, which is called the lateral 
 operation, was performed by Chefelden thus : every 
 thing being properly prepared, he introduces a catheter, 
 and afterwards makes an incidon of a proper length, be¬ 
 ginning where they end in the apparatus major, and 
 continuing it downwards between the accelerator urinae, 
 and ereCtor penis, on the leftlide oftheintedinum reClum, 
 and direCling his knife to the podcrior part of the ca¬ 
 theter, through the inferior and lateral partof the bladder, 
 behind the prodrate gland, and above the leminal vedcles; 
 he then continues it forwards through the fphinCter of 
 the bladder, and left dde of the prodrate glands into the 
 membranous part of the urethra, even to its bulb, which 
 preferves the reClum better than the lateral method. 
 
 Among Chelelden’s emendations, Douglafs enume¬ 
 rates thefe: 1. If he duds the patient’s pulle low after 
 the operation, he applies bliders to the arms, which 
 effeCluallv raife his fpirits. 2. If the wound grows cal¬ 
 lous. he lays on a piece of bliiler plader to erode it, by 
 which new delh pullulates, and the wound unites. 
 3. If the wound be putrid, he mixes a little verdigreafe 
 with fome digedive ointment. 
 
 Women arc lei's fubjeCt to the done in the bladder 
 than men, and their urinary paffages are more fhortand 
 lax, fo that in general, the lions being but fmall, dif- 
 charges itfelf witli the urine, and when it happens to 
 increafe in the bladder, we have indances of its coming 
 away lpontaneoufly. 
 
 LITHOZUGIA, in natural hidory, a genus of 
 foldls, of the clafs of the Scrupi, compofed of a dm- 
 3 
 
 L I V 
 
 pie matter, making a kind of cemerd, and holding 
 drmly together fmall pebbles, &c. embodied in it. 
 
 There are two kinds o( the lithozugia. 1. That of 
 a crydallinc bads and purer texture, approaching to the 
 nature of flint, called by the Englilh lapidaries, the 
 pudding done : of this kind are reckoned four fpecies ; 
 the yellowilh white lithozugium, the grey ilh white litho- 
 zugium, the red lithozugium, and the brownilh litho¬ 
 zugium, all filled with pebbles. 2. The lithozugia of a 
 coarfer texture, approaching to the nature of the quarry 
 done: of this kind there are alfo reckoned four fpccies, 
 viz. the frelh-colourcd lithozugium, filled with redifh, 
 impure, crydalJine nodules; the blucilh, glittering litho¬ 
 zugium, Ailed with white, impure, crydalline nodules ; 
 the whitilh, green, elegant lithozugium, filled with 
 crydalline nodules ; and the friable, pale, red litho¬ 
 zugium, variegated with white veins and red nodules. 
 
 LITURGY, a name given to thofe fet forms of 
 prayer which have been generally ufed in the Chridian 
 church. Of thefe there arc not a few aferibed to the 
 apodles and fathers, but they are almod univerfally al¬ 
 lowed to be fpurious. 
 
 The modern liturgies are diverdded according to the 
 diverdty ol nations piofeffmg the Chridian religion. Of 
 thefe there are the Armenian liturgy, compofed by one 
 of their patriarchs, named John; that of the Cophti or 
 Chridians of Egypt, written in the Cophtick or Egyptian 
 language: the ^Ethiopian liturgy, written in the old 
 ZEthiopick tongue, laid to be written by Diofcorus, 
 patriarch of Alexandria; the Greeks have four liturgies, 
 viz. thofe of St. James, St. Mark, St. John Chryfodom, 
 and St. Badl; but they ordinarily read only the latter, 
 the liturgy of St. James being read only at Jerufalem, 
 and that of St. Mark only at Alexandria : the Syriack 
 liturgies are much more numerous than the Greek; for 
 father Simon tells us, that the Jacobites reckon up forty 
 different liturgies, all under different names. The miflal 
 of the Maronites contains twelve liturgies, under the 
 names of St. Xydus, pope ; St. John Chryfodom ; St. 
 John the evangelid ; St. Peter, theapodle; St. Diony- 
 dus; St. Cyril; Matthew, thepador; John, patriarch; 
 St. Eudathius ; St. Maruta ; St. James, the apollle ; 
 St. Mark, the evangelid ; and a lecond of St. Peter ; and 
 the Nedorians have three liturgies, that of the twelve 
 apodles, that of Theododus, furnamed the interpreter, 
 and a third under the name of St. Nedorius. 
 
 The liturgy of the church of England was compofed 
 in the year 1547, dnee which time it has undergone fe- 
 veral alterations, the lad of which was in the year 1661, 
 and of this liturgy Dr. Comber gives the following cha- 
 rafter. “No church was ever blcffed with fo compre- 
 hendve, fo exa£t, and fo inoffendve a liturgy as ours: 
 which is fo judicioudy contrived, that the whole may ex- 
 ercife at once their knowledge and devotion ; and yet fo 
 plain, that the mod ignorant may pray with underdand- 
 ing; fo full, that nothing is omitted, which ought to be 
 afked in publick; and fo particular, that it comprifeth 
 mod things which wc would ailc in private; and yet fo 
 fhort, as not to tire any that have true devotion. Its 
 doflrinc is pure and primitive; its ceremonies fo few 
 and innocent, that mod of the Chridian world agree 
 in them : its method is exa£t and natural, its language 
 dgnidcant and perfpicuous, mod of the words and 
 phrafes being taken out of the holy feripture, and the 
 red are the expredions of the drll and pured ages.” 
 And in the opinion of the mod impartial and excellent 
 Grotius, (who was no member of, nor had any obliga¬ 
 tion to, this church) “ the Englilh liturgy comes lb 
 near the primitive pattern, that none of the reformed 
 churches can compare with it.” Again, he fays, “ I11 
 the prayers, a fcholar can difeern clofe logick, plcadng 
 rhetorick, pure divinity-, and the very marrow of the 
 ancient doctrine and difeipline; and yet all made fo fa¬ 
 miliar, that the unlearned may fafely fay, Amen.” 
 
 L 1 TUUS, in Roman antiquity, a Ihort draight rod 
 only bending a little at one end, ufed by the augurs. 
 The appellation lituus is alfo given to a mudeal indru- 
 ment of the wind kind, ufed in the Roman armies ; 
 probably from its refemblance to the facred rod of the 
 augurs. 
 
 LIVER, Hapcr , in anatomy, a very large vifeus, of 
 a red colour, dtuated in the right hypochondrium, and 
 ferving for the fecretion of the bile or gall. Its dgure is 
 
 irregular; 
 
L I V 
 
 irregular; the upper furface being convex, fmooth, and 
 equal; the lower, hollow and unequal. There is alfo a 
 remarkable eminence called the porta, juft where the 
 vena portae enters it. In the liver we are alfo to obferve 
 the capfule of Gliffonius, its dilcovcrcr; which includes 
 the branches of the vena portae, and the biiiary dufts, as 
 they approach the liver, as well as within it. The vef- 
 fels of the liver are very numerous; receiving arteries 
 from the cceliack, cyfticks, diaphragmaticks, &c. veins, 
 from the vena portae, vena cava, and diaphragmatick 
 vein; and nerves from the plexus hepaticus of the intcr- 
 coftals. d he biliary veffels are the du£lus choledocus 
 communis, which opens obliquely into the duodenum; 
 the duflus cyfticus, which runs from the gall-bladder to 
 die common du& ; and the duftus hepaticus, which runs 
 from the liver to the common du£l ; and the branches 
 of this diftributed through the liver, make what are 
 called pori biliarii. The lymphatick veffels of the liver 
 are to be demonftrated either by a ligature of the vena 
 portae in living animals, or by inflation into the artery, 
 or hepatick du£t, in dead ones. To thefe veffels we may 
 add the canalis venofus, and the great finus of the vena 
 portae in the fcetus. 
 
 The fubftance of the liver was, by the ancients, fup- 
 pofed to be formed merely of blood, concreted into a 
 firm mafs: Malpighi, and many of the later writers, 
 have determined it to beglandulous; and Ruyfch makes 
 it vafculous, declaring it to be formed of a congeries of 
 very minute veffels. 
 
 Plate XLVIII.y%. 2, 4. exhibits the liver freed from 
 its parenchyma. 
 
 Fig. 4. reprefents the flat part of the liver, together 
 with the molt confpicuous veflels in it. A, that part of 
 the liver which lies next to the back. E, its right fide. 
 C, its anterior edge. D, its left fide. E, the vena 
 cava, where it pafles through the diaphragm. E, 1, 
 E 2, E 3, its three principal branches diftributed almoft 
 through the whole liver. F, the vena porta? turned 
 upwards, that other veffels may be the more eafily feen. 
 F 1, F 2, F 3, F4, four branches of the vena porta? 
 diftributed to feveral quarters of the flat part of the liver, 
 but the fifth branch is not obferved on this fide. G, the 
 gall-bladder. H, H, the vena umbilicalis become a 
 ligament. I, the duflus communis choledochus. K. 
 the canalis venofus now performing the office of a liga- 
 Inent. L, the trunk of the vena cava defcendens. 
 
 a, A fmall portion of the membrane inverting the liver. 
 
 b , that part of the diaphragm which furrounds the vena 
 cava, c, the biliary duff. d, the cyftick du£t. e, the 
 place where the veffels meet. f, the hepatick artery. 
 0, 0, the hepatick nerves. />, p, p, />, the common 
 capfula laid open, q, q y the lymph-du&s. m, m, m, 
 &c. the fmaller branches of the vena porta?. n, n, 11 , 
 &c. the fmall branches of the vena cava. 
 
 Fig. 2. reprefents the convex part of the liver, together 
 with the veflels lituated in it. A, the fuperior part of 
 the liver which lies next to the back. E, its right part 
 C, its lower interior part. D, the left part of the 
 liver. E, the trunk of the vena cava above the dia¬ 
 phragm. F, the finus of the vena porta?. F 1, F 2, 
 F 3, F 4, four branches of the vena porta? diftributed 
 in four different dire&ions through the liver. F 5, the 
 fifth branch of the vena porta?, which could not be 
 delcribed in the preceding figure. G, the gall-bladder. 
 
 H, H, the umbilical vein. I, the dmftus communis 
 choledochus. a , a, a, a , the fmall ramifications of 
 the fifth branch of the vena porta; cut off, that the other 
 veffels may be the more diftinflly feen. b, that portion 
 of the diaphragm where it is joined to the vena cava. 
 
 c, the biliary du£t. d, d, the cyftick duff, e, the 
 angle where thele veflels are joined, m , in, m, &c. 
 the fmaller branches of the vena ports. n, n, n, See. 
 the fmaller branches of the vena cava. 
 
 Fig. 3. A, the convex part of the liver. B, its right 
 part. C, the concave part of the liver. D, its left 
 part. E, the trunk of the vena ports turned upwards, 
 that the other veflels may be the more eafily feen. 1, 2, 
 3, 4, 5 the five larger branches of the vena ports. F, 
 the du&us communis choledochus. G, the biliary 
 du£t, and its firft divifion. H, the cyftick duff. 
 
 I, the gall-bladder, a, a, a, a, Sec. the common 
 capfula laid open, b, b, b, b, b, tire fubdivifions of 
 the biiiary duet. 
 
 L O C 
 
 Liver of Antimony, the fame which the chymifts 
 call crocus metallorum, a preparation of antimony, 
 made in the following manner : Take of antimony one 
 pound, nitre jounces, and common fait two ounces ; 
 powder them finely, and mix them well; fet a crucible 
 in the fire, and when it is red hot put in the mixture, 
 by a fpoonful at a time ; when all is in, fhut the door 
 ot the furnace. Let the matter ftand in a ftrong fufion 
 half an hour; then take it from the fire, and call it into 
 a warm greafed mortar. Its operation is emetick; but 
 the infufion of it in white wine or canary is generally 
 ufed, one ounce of the crocus, in powder, being put 
 into a quart of wine ; which is given from an ounce to 
 four ounces. 
 
 LIVERY, in law, the delivery of poffeffion to thofc 
 tenants which held of the king in capite, or by knights 
 fervicc. 
 
 Livery of Seifin, is a delivery of poffeffion of thofe 
 tenants, or things corporeal, to him who hath right, or 
 probability of right to them. 
 
 LIVRE, a French money of account, confifting of 
 twenty fols; each fol containing twelve deniers.—The 
 livre is of two kinds, Tournois and Parifis. 
 
 Livre Tournois contains twenty fols Tournois, and 
 each fol twelve deniers Tournois. 
 
 Livre Parifis, is twenty fols Parifis, each fol Parifis 
 being worth 12 deniers Parifis, or 15 deniers Tournois. 
 So that a livre Parifis is worth 25 fols Tournois. The 
 word Parifis is ufed in oppofition to Tournois, becaufe 
 of the rate of money, which was one fourth higher at 
 Paris than at Tours. 
 
 LIXIVIOUS, lixiviate, in chymiftry, fuch falts as 
 arc extracted from the allies of burnt vegetables by means 
 of lotion. 
 
 LIXIVIUM, a lye, or water impregnated with the 
 falts of burnt vegetables. What is left after the evapo¬ 
 ration of fuch a liquor is called a lixivious fait. Lixi- 
 viums are of great ufe in medicine, bleaching, fugar- 
 works, 6cc. 
 
 LOADSTONE. See Magnet. 
 
 LOAM, the common fuperficial earth, confifting of 
 clay, with a fmall admixture of land. It alfo denotes a 
 fort of mortar made of a redilh earth, by tempering it 
 with mud-water, ftraw, &c. 
 
 LOBBY, or Antichamber, in building, an outer 
 chamber before the principal room of an apartment, 
 where fervants and ftrangers wait till the perfon to b? 
 fpoken with is at leifure, &c. 
 
 LOBE, in anatomy, denotes each of the two parts of 
 which the lungs coniift. It is likewife applied to th? 
 divifions of the liver. 
 
 Lobe is likewife applied to fruit and grain, as 
 the bean confifts of two lobes that compofe the body 
 thereof; and all grains, even the fmalleft, have two 
 lobes. 
 
 LOBULE, Lobulus, Lobellus , a little lobe. Thus 
 the cells of fat are called lobuli adipofi ; and the extre- 
 meties of the bronchia, which end in little knobs, are 
 called lobuli pulmonum : and even each lobe of the lungs 
 is divided into feveral lefs ones, that confift of a great 
 number of little round veficles which communicate with 
 one another. 
 
 LOCAL, fomething fuppofed to be annexed or pecu¬ 
 liar to a particular place. 
 
 Local Medicines, Localia Medicamcnta, in phyfick, 
 fuch medicines as are deftined to operate upon particular 
 parts; or, more frequently, they denote external appli¬ 
 cations. 
 
 Local Problem, in the mathcmaticks, fuch a problem 
 as is capable of an infinite number of different folutions, 
 as the point that is to l'olve it, may be indifferently taken 
 within a certain extent; which is called a geometrical 
 locus. Such a problem may be either Ample, as when 
 the point fought is a right line ; plane, when it is in the 
 ! circumference of a circle; folid, when in the circumfe¬ 
 rence of a conick feftion ; or furfolid, when in the pe¬ 
 rimeter of a line of a higher kind. 
 
 Local Colours, in painting, fuch as are proper to each 
 objeft in a picture, in contradiftinflion to clair obfeure, 
 which confift; wholly of black and white. 
 
 LOCALIS Membr ana, in anatomy, the fame with 
 pia mater. See Brain. 
 
 LOCATION, in civil law, an aft by which any 
 1 thing 
 
L O C 
 
 thing is let out upon rent: conduction denoting the ac¬ 
 tion of him who takes it on. 
 
 Tacit Lo cation, when the perfon who takes, con¬ 
 tinues on the premifes beyond the term of his leafe, 
 which one may do, by the civil law, for a year on the 
 fame terms. 
 
 LOCH, or Loboch , in pharmacy, a compofition of a 
 middle confiftence, between a linlp and a foft eleCtuary; 
 chiefly ufed for difeafes of the lungs. The word is ori¬ 
 ginally Arabick. The Latins call it lir,fius, and the 
 Greeks £Hteiyy.a, by reafon the manner of taking it is by 
 licking. 
 
 LOCHIA, in phyfick, the purgations of the uterus 
 after child-birth. Thefe confift, generally, for the two 
 firft days, of a kind of bloody ferofity, and gradually be¬ 
 come more white, vifeous, and lefs in quantity ; which, 
 during the whole time, cannot be determined, fome 
 women having more, others lefs : nor can the duration 
 of the flux be limited to any particular time. 
 
 The lochia fometimes flow in too large quantities, 
 either on account of fomething retained in the uterus, 
 which prevents it from contrafling duly ; or a too great 
 fluidity or agitation of the blood. If it proceed from a 
 retention of fomething in the uterus, this muft, if poflible, 
 be taken away by the hand. But if it proceed from a too 
 great fluidity or agitation of the blood, temperating de- 
 coflions of barley, jellies, emullions, opiates, and 
 aftringents, are to be adminiftered. 
 
 But when a deficiency in the lochia, or their utter 
 fuppreffion, happens, all poflible means fhould be ul'ed 
 to procure this falutary difeharge. For this purpofe mild 
 anti-acids, diluters, and aperients, are to be exhibited. 
 But great ftrefs is to be laid on aperient and relaxing to- 
 picks, clyfters, fomentations, plafters, liniments, cup¬ 
 ping on the inferior parts, peflaries and l'uppolitories. 
 
 Boerhaave advifes not to let blood in the above-men¬ 
 tioned diforders, without the utmoft neccflity. 
 
 LOCK, an inftrument ufed for fattening doors, chefts, 
 &c., generally opened by a key. The lock is efteemed 
 the mafter-piece in fmithery ; much art and delicacy 
 being required in contriving and varying the wards, bolts 
 and fp rings. From the different ftrudture of locks, ac¬ 
 commodated to their different ufes, they acquire different 
 names : thus thofe placed on outer doors are called flock- 
 locks ; thofe on inner doors, fpring-locks ; thofe on 
 trunks, trunk-locks, padlocks, See. Of thefe the fpring- 
 lock is the molt curious : its principal parts are, the 
 main-plate, the cover-plate, and the pin-hole : to the 
 main-plate belong the key-hole, top-hook, crofs-wards, 
 bolt-toe or bolt-nab, drawback-fpring, tumbler, pin of 
 the tumbler, and the flaples; to the cover-plate belong 
 the pin, main-ward, crofs-ward, ftep-ward or dapper- 
 ward ; to the pin-hole belong the hook-ward, main crofs- 
 ward, fhank, the pot or bread, bit, and bow-ward. 
 
 LOCUS Ge ometricus, in geometry, denotes a 
 line, by any point of which a local or indeterminate pro¬ 
 blem is folved. If a right-line fuffice for the conftruc- 
 tion of the equation, it is called locus ad reflam ; if a 
 circle, locus ad circulum; and thefe were called plain 
 loci; if a parabola, hyperbola, locus ad parabolam, hy- 
 perbolam, See. and thofe were called folid loci. 
 
 Wolfius and the moderns more commodioufly divide 
 loci into orders, according to the number of dimenfions 
 to which the indeterminate quantities rife. 
 
 When in an equation there are two indetermined 
 quantities x and y, then for each particular value of a- 
 there may be as many values ofy as it has dimenfions in 
 that equation. So that if A P, a part of the indefinite 
 line A E, reprefent a-, and the perpendiculars P M (plate 
 LVIII. Jig. i.) reprefent the correfponding values ofy, 
 then there will be as many points M, the extremities of 
 thefe perpendiculars or ordinates as there are dimenfions 
 of y in the equation. And the values of PM will be 
 the roots of the equation arifing by fubftituting for .v its 
 particular value APm any cafe. From whence it ap 1 - 
 pears, how, when an equation is given, you may deter¬ 
 mine as many of the points M as you pleafe, and draw 
 the line that fhall pals through all thefe points; which 
 is called tire locus of the equation. When any equation 
 involving two unknown quantities, x andy, ispropofed, 
 then fubflituting for a* any particular value A P, if the 
 equation that anfes has all its roots pofitive, the points 
 M will lie on one fide of A'E ; but if any of them are 
 Vol. II. No. 4$. 
 
 LOG 
 
 found negative, then thefe are to be fet off on the other 
 fide of A E towards m. If for x , which is fuppofed un¬ 
 determined, you lu.bftitute a negative quantity,, as A p, 
 then you will find the points M, m, are taken in, that it 
 may fhew all the values of y, correfponding to all the 
 poflible values of a\ If, in any cafe, one of the values 
 of y vanifh, then the point M coincides with P, and the 
 locus meets with A E in that point. If one of the values 
 of y become infinite, then it fhews that the curve has an 
 infinite arch : and in that cafe the line P M becomes an 
 alymptote to the curve, or touches.it at an infinite dis¬ 
 tance, if A P is itfelf finite. If, when a is fuppofed in¬ 
 finitely great, a value of y vanifh, then the curve ap- 
 proaches to A E produced as an alymptote. If any 
 values of y become impoflible, then fo many points M 
 vanifh. From what has been faid, it appears that when 
 an equation is propofed involving two undetermined 
 quantities, A-andy, there may be as many interfcflions 
 of the curve, or locus of the equation, and of the line 
 P M, as there are dimenfions ofy in the equation , and 
 as many interfeflions of the curve and the line A E as 
 there are dimenfions of a- in the equation. 
 
 LOCUST, Locujla , a genus of infefls, comprehend¬ 
 ing the locuft, fimply fo called, the feveral lpecies of 
 other locufts and grafhoppers, with the crickets of the 
 lioufe and field. 
 
 IVater Loc ust, Locujla Aquatica, the name given by 
 authors to a fpecies of water infefl, fomewhat relembling 
 the locuft kind in lhape. It is about three inches long, 
 its tail an inch and a quarter, and its legs are of different 
 lengths; the anterior part being fhorteft of all. Its 
 body is flender, and its fore legs are always carried ftraight 
 forward, fo as to reach beyond the head in the form of 
 antennas. Thefe, as well as the other legs, end each 
 in two claws. The eyes are fmall, and not very pro¬ 
 minent ; and the upper wings are cruftaceous, the under 
 ones membranaceous, thin, and tranfparent. The 
 middle joint of the leg is fuch, that the creature can 
 only, move them upwards, not downwards ; and there 
 runs an acute tongue or probolcis under the belly, as is 
 the cafe of the water fcorpion and notonefla. 
 
 Locust-Tree, in botany, a fpecies of acacia. See 
 Ac AC I A. 
 
 LOCUSTAl, in botany, the tender extremities of 
 the branches of trees, fuch as, it is fuppofed, St. John 
 Baptift fed on in the wildernefs. 
 
 LODGMENT, in military affairs, is aworkraifed 
 with earth, gabions, fafeines, wool-packs or mantelets, 
 to cover the befiegers from the enemy’s fire, and to pre¬ 
 vent their lofing a place which they have gained, and are 
 refolvcd, if poflible, to keep. For this purpofe, when 
 a lodgment is to be made on the glacis, covert-way, or 
 in a breach, there muft be great pro\ ifiion made of faf¬ 
 eines, fand-bags, Sec. ^n the trenches ; and during the 
 a&ion, the pioneers with fafeines, fand-bags, A'c. fhould 
 be making the lodgment, in order to form a covering in 
 as advantageous a manner as poflible from the oppofite 
 baft ion, or the place moft to be feared. 
 
 LOEFLINGIA, in botany, a genus of the triandria 
 monogynia clafs. Thecalix conlifts of five leaves, and 
 the corolla of five fmall petals ; and the capfulc has one 
 cell, and three valves. There is but one fpecies, a na¬ 
 tive of Spain. 
 
 LOESELIA, in botany, the name of a genus of 
 plants, called alfo roycnia by Houfton. The calix con- 
 fifts of four fegments ; and the capfule has three cells. 
 There is but one fpecies, a native of America. 
 
 LOG, in the marine, a machine ufed to meafure the 
 fliip’s way through the fea. 
 
 It is compofed of three parts, viz. the reel, the line 
 and a little board formed like the quadrant of a circlc , 
 and nearly refembling the lhape of thofe quadrants em¬ 
 ployed to take the altitude of a tree, fteeple, or other 
 objeft. The term log, however, is more particularly 
 confined to this laft. This piece of board is generally 
 from five to fix inches in the*radius, and a quarter of an 
 inch in depth : and round the arching edge of it is 
 nailed a thin plate of lead, of fufficient weight to make 
 the log fwim perpendicularly in the water, and fo as that 
 nearly two-thirds of it may be immerfed'under the fur- 
 face. In the middle of the arch, about a quarter of an 
 inch within the edge, is bored a fmall hole, and another 
 within the angular point: through this laft is inferted 
 
 Q- “ {He 
 
LOG 
 
 the end of a piece of line, which being knotted on the 
 other fide, is drawn tight back to the hole : to the other 
 end of this fmall cord, which is about two feet long, is 
 fadened a pin, which is thrud into the other hole : the 
 log being then fufpended horizontally, the line is faflened 
 to the middle of this fmall firing, fo that the pin can 
 occafionally be taken out, and will ealily come out of 
 itfelf when it meets with any refiilance. 
 
 Log -Line-, a line faflened to one end of the log, and 
 wound upon a reel. This line is generally divided into 
 certain fpaces, which are, or ought at lead to be, fuch 
 a proportional part of a nautical line, 60 of which make 
 a degree of a great circle, as half a minute, the time 
 allowed for the experiment, is of an hour. Now a com¬ 
 mon nautical or lea mile, according to an experiment 
 made by Mr. Richard Norwood, and With which the 
 French nearly agree, is rr6i 20 Englifh feet, which being 
 divided by 120, the half minutes in an hour, gives 51 
 feet for the diflance between each divifion on the log¬ 
 line. Thefe divifions or fpaces are called knots, beCaufe 
 at die end of each divifion there is a piece of twine with 
 knots in ;t reefed between the (lands of the line : whereby 
 fhe number of divifions or knots run off the reel, during 
 the half minute, are readily counted. 
 
 And becaufe it is requisite that the log be out of the 
 eddy of the (hip’s wake before they begin to count, there¬ 
 fore thefe knots or fpaces begin at the dillance of 10 
 fathoms or 60 feet from the log ; at which point, for the 
 more ready difcOvering it, there is faflened a piece of red 
 rag. The log-line being thus prepared and wound upon 
 a reel, heave the log over-board from the poop ; and as 
 loon as the log is out of the fhip’s eddy, or the red rag 
 at your hand, let your afiiilant turn the half minute 
 glal’s ; then veer the line from off the reel, which ealily 
 turns, as the (hip fails from the log, till the half minute 
 glafs is run out; at which time (top the line, and the 
 number of knots intercepted between your hand and the 
 red rag, will fhew how far the (hip has run in that time, 
 and, conlequently, her rate of failing. For fince the dif- 
 tance, comprehended between each knot, bears the fame 
 proportion to a nautical line as half a minute docs to an 
 hour : therefore as many knots as are run out in half 
 a minute, fo many miles will the fhip fail in an hour ; 
 iuppofing her to move with the fame velocity, during 
 that time. 
 
 But as many accidents attend a fhip during a day’s 
 failing, fuch as the variablenels of winds, the different 
 quantity of fail carried, Sec. it will be necelfary to 
 heave the log at every alteration ; but if none of thefe 
 alterations be perceptible, yet it ought to be conflantlv 
 heaved, at lead every hour. As the log-line is apt to 
 flretch and (brink, and the half minute glafs to alter, 
 they ought to be often examined, and when found amifs, 
 rectified. 
 
 The generalitv of our feamen, upon a fuppofition that 
 60 Englilh miles are equal to i°of a great circle, make 
 the dillance between knot and knot but 40 feet; but as 
 this fuppofition is evidently falfe, it were greatly to be 
 wifhed that they would conflantly ufe the former limita¬ 
 tion, being in every relpeft as eafy, and much more Cure 
 and certain ; and the rather, as they are at the fame time 
 obliged by experience to (horten the half minute glafs 
 nearly four feconds, which is nothing lets than corre&ing 
 one blunder by another. 
 
 Log-Board, a fort of table divided into fevcral co¬ 
 lumns, containing the hours of the day and night, the 
 courfes the (hip has run, the winds, and all the material 
 occurrences that happen in the 24 hours, or from noon 
 to noon; together with the latitude by obfervation. 
 From this table the feveral officers of the (hip copy the 
 materials, and tranferibe them, with what additions they 
 can recollect or may think neceflary to remark in their 
 journals after their own manner. 
 
 Log-Book, a book into which the above articles are 
 daily copied, together with every thing material that 
 happens to the (hip, or is oblerved either at lea or in a 
 harbour. The divifions or watches of it, confiiling of 
 four hours each, are ligned by the lieutenant or com¬ 
 manding officer of the watch in a (hip of war or an Eaft 
 India-man. 
 
 Log-Wood, or Canfpeachy wood, is the wood of a 
 low prickly tree, which -grows plentifully about Cam- 
 peachy, or the Bay of Honduras. 
 
 LOG 
 
 Log-wood gives out its colour both to watcrv and fpi- 
 rituous menftrua, but not readily to either : it requires 
 to be rafped and ground into fine powder, and boiled in 
 lcveral frefli parcels of the liquors. Rc£lified fpirit ex¬ 
 tracts the colour more eafily, and from a larger propor¬ 
 tion of the wood than water does. 
 
 The tinftures both in water and in fpirit are of a fine 
 red, with an admixture, particularly in the watery one, 
 of a violet or purple. Volatile alkaline felts, or (pints! 
 incline the colour more to purple : the vegetable and 
 nitrous acids render it pale; the vitriolick and marine 
 acids deepen it. 
 
 LOC3AR.Il HMICK,or Logarithmic AL.fome- 
 thing relating to, or partaking of, the nature of loga¬ 
 rithms. 
 
 Logarithmick Curve', a Curve which explains the 
 nature and properties of logarithms. It is conftruClcd 
 in the following manner: Upon the line A G (plat,: 
 XLIX. Jig. 3.) infinitely extended each way, let there 
 be taken A B, B C, C D, 1 ) E, E F, Sec. towards the 
 right hand ; alio A O, O P, See. towards the left, all 
 equal among themfelves; and from the feveral points 
 P, O, A, B. C, D, E, F, See. let there be drawn the 
 lines R P, O Q_, A H, B I, C K, D L, E M, F N, Sec. 
 equal in length to the feveral lines, in the geometrical 
 lCale of proportional lines, infinite in number; thefe 
 therefore will reprefent fo many terms in the progreifional 
 of proportionals, of which the line A H reprefents unity. 
 Now if the extremities R, Q_, PI, I, K, L, M, N, See. 
 of the geometrical fcale of mea'n proportionals becon- 
 neCled together by right lines, the figure PRNF will 
 be a polygon, confiding of more or fewer lides, according 
 as the terms in the feales of mean proportionals are more 
 or fewer in number. 
 
 If the didances A B, B C, D E, E F, See. are bifieClcdl 
 in the points b, c, el, e, f Sc c. and from thefe points be 
 drawn lines, as b i, ck , d /, em,fn , See. perpendicular to 
 A G, which will be fo many proportionals between A H, 
 B 1 , C K, D L, E M, F N, Sec. there will arife a new 
 fcale for a feries of proportionals between AH, BI, CK, 
 D L, E M, F N, Sec. double in number to thofe of the 
 former fcale. And if the extremities H, ;, I, b, K, /, L, 
 See. be conneCled together by right-lines, we (hall have a 
 new polygon, confiding of a great number of (ides; but 
 each fide lei's in magnitude. 
 
 After die fame manner, if the didance between every 
 two terms be continually bifleCled ; and to each of the 
 points fo found there be applied a feries of mean pro¬ 
 portionals, the number of terms in this fcale, as alfo the 
 fides of the polygon, will, by this means, become infi¬ 
 nite ; and each fide of the polygon will be lefs than any 
 given right-line, and conlequently the polygon will be 
 changed into a curve-lined figure; fince every curvili¬ 
 near figure may be confidered as a polygon of an infinite 
 number of fides. The curve thus deferibed is called the 
 logarithmick curve ; in which, if the right-lines A H, 
 
 B I, Sec. which dand at right-angles to the axis A G, 
 reprefent fo many terms in a feries of numbers in geo¬ 
 metrical progreffion, the portions of the axis A B, B G. 
 &c. between the place of unity and any given term, will 
 (hew the place or order that each number in the l'cale of 
 geometrical proportionals obtains from the place of unity 
 in the fame feries. The didance therefore between any 
 two numbers, in this continued fcale of geometrical pro¬ 
 portionals, is the logarithm of the ratio of thefe two 
 numbers the one to the other. See Log arithms. 
 
 Logarithmick Spiral. If the quadrant of a circle 
 A N B (plate XLIX. jig. 6.) be divided into any num¬ 
 ber of equal parts, in the points N, n, n. Sec. and from 
 the radii C N, C n, C n. See. be cut off C M, C m, C m , 
 See, continual proportionals, the points M, m, m, m. 
 Sec. will be in the logarithmick fpiral. And there may 
 be imagined an infinite number of different curves of 
 this kind. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, a fet of artificial numbers, fo 
 proportioned among themfelves, and adapted to the na¬ 
 tural numbers, as to perform the feme things by addi¬ 
 tion and lubtraflion, as the latter do by multiplication 
 and divifion. The word is formed from the Greek 
 xoyv§G ratio; and a^ 9 /x.o;, number. Logarithms, judlv 
 edeemed one of the greated and mod uleful difeoveries 
 that the lad century has produced, were fird invented by- 
 John Neper, baron of Marchidou in Scotland, and br 
 
 him 
 
LOG 
 
 him firft publifhed at Edinburgh in the year 1614, and 
 foon after by himfelf and Mr. Briggs (then Savilian 
 profeffor of geometry in the univerfity of Oxford) re¬ 
 duced into a better form, and publifhed in London in 
 the year 1624, in the fame form and manner as they are 
 tiled at this day. 
 
 Logarithms may be confidered as, and arc ufually 
 defined to be, a feries or rank of numbers in an 
 arithmetical progrelfion, fitted or adapted to a feries 
 of numbers in a geometrical progrelfion; that is, if to 
 a rank of continual proportionals in a geometrick pro¬ 
 grelfion, from 1 fuppofe, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 
 he. be accommodated a rank of numbers, conti¬ 
 nually proportional in an arithmetical progrelfion begin¬ 
 ning from o. Suppofe, o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. 
 infomuch as, for every multiplication or divifion of the 
 terms in the geometrical progrelfion, there is an anlwer- 
 able addition or fubtra&ion of the correfpondent terms 
 in the arithmetical progrelfion ; that is, as 2, the fecond 
 term in the geometrick feries, multiplied by 4, the third 
 term, produces 8, the fourth term in the fame feries ; 
 fo 1, the fecond term in the arithmetick feries, added to 
 2, the third term, produces 3, the fourth term in the 
 fame feries; and again as 16, the fifth term in the geo¬ 
 metrick feries, divided by 2, the fecond term, produces 
 8, the fourth term in the fame feries; br univerfally, if 
 inftead of 2, the fecond term in the geometrick feries, 
 we fubllitute a, and, in the room of 1, the fecond term 
 in the arithmetical feries, we fubllitute a, that is, if to 
 a feries of geometrical mean proportionals as, 
 
 1, a, xx, x 3 , a 4 , x 5 , x 6 , x 7 , he. 
 be accommodated a feries of arithmetical mean pro¬ 
 portionals, as, o, a , 2tf, 30, 4 S a -> &a, ya, he. in 
 l'omuch as the multiplication of any two terms in the 
 geometrick feries, as a- and r, produces the term a- 3 , 
 which anfwers or correfponds to the term 3 a in the 
 arithmetick feries, the lum of the terms a and 211 in the 
 fame feries, and the divifion of any two terms in the 
 firft feries as a- 3 by a-, produces a- 1 , which correfponds 
 with the term 2 a in the lecbnd feries, the difference be¬ 
 tween the correfpondent terms 30 and a ill the fame 
 feries; and inalmuch as this is the effential property of 
 the logarithms, therefore, the terms in the latter feries 
 are the logarithms of their correfpondent terms in the 
 firft feries ; and becaufe the terms a and -v may Hand for 
 any numbers taken at pleafore, therefore logarithms 
 may be of as many different forts as there can be affumed 
 different values of the quantities a- and a. 
 
 If the quantity a in the fecond feries be put equal to 
 
 1, then the feveral terms of the fecond feries, viz. o, 1 
 
 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, he. become the indices or expo 
 nents of the feveral refpeftive terms or powers in the 
 firft progrelfional feries of geometrical proportions whofe 
 firft term is 1 and fecond term a-, inafmuch as they 
 point out the places or diftances that each terra ob¬ 
 tains from unity; for example, as the number 5 in 
 the fecond feries Hands againft the quantity a s in the 
 firft feries, it points out and lhews that the quan¬ 
 tity at 5 is the fifth place from unity; in like man¬ 
 ner, as the number 6 in the fecond feries Hands againft 
 a - 6 in the firft feries, it lhews that the quantity 6 x is the 
 fixth place from unity, and that the quantity x is that 
 which immediately follows : and hence it is that loga¬ 
 rithms are fometimes defined to be the exponents of in¬ 
 dices of the powers of the refpe&ive numbers to which 
 they belong. 
 
 In the progrelfional feries of geometrick proportion 
 als, if between the terms 1 and a- be inferted a mean pro¬ 
 portional, which is \/a, its index will be 4, inafmuch as 
 its diftance from unity will be but one half of the dif- 
 tance of at from unity ; and confequently the root of x 
 will be expreffed by 4 : in like manner, if between at 
 and a- : we infert a mean proportional, its index will be 
 1 and 4 or inafmuch as its diftance from unity is 
 one and a half the diftance of a- from the fame place of 
 unity. 
 
 Again, if between 1 and at be inferted two mean pro - 
 portionals, the firft of tliefe will be the cube root of at 
 
 or a/ a-, and its index will be 4, inafmuch as its dif¬ 
 tance from the units place is but 4 of the diftance from 
 x, from the fame place of unity; and, confequently, 
 
 V x is cxprciTed by a 3 , whence it follows, that the 
 
 LOG 
 
 index of unity is o, iftafmucli as unity cannot be re¬ 
 moved at any diftance from itfelf. 
 
 And the fame feries of geometrical proportionals may 
 be continued on the contrary fide of unity, or towards 
 the left hand, and which therefore will decreafc in the 
 fame manner, or in the fame ratio, as tlie terms placed 
 on the right hand increafe. 
 
 For the terms, i_, i_, JL, -L, i, #, x z , a- 3 , 
 
 X s A ", 4 X 3 X z X 
 
 , x s , he. are in the fame geometrical progrelfion 
 continued, and have all the fame common ratio ; 
 wherefore, inafmuch as the diftance of at from unity 
 towards the right hand is pofitive, or + 1, the diftance 
 of — from unity towards the left hand, which is equal 
 to the former, is negative, or—1, which is therefore 
 the index of—, and confequently, for —may be writ¬ 
 ten x— 1 . 
 
 Again, becaufe x z is on the right fide of unity, and 
 
 pofitive, and its index -fi 2 the index of —, which is 
 
 x z 
 
 as far diftant from unity on the contrary fide, or towards 
 he left hand, will be negative, and — 2, and confe¬ 
 quently p- is the fame with a-— z : in like manner a-— 3 
 is the fame with —, and a- — 4 the fame with — ; whence 
 
 X 3 A 4 
 
 it comes to pafs that the negative indices fhew that the 
 terms to which they belong, are as far diftant from unity 
 toward the left hand, as the terms whofe indices are the 
 fame and pofitive, are removed from unity on the con¬ 
 trary fide, or towards the right hand. 
 
 Again, as between 1 and a, in the feries in iilcrcafing 
 from or on the right hand of Unity, may be inferted a 
 mean proportional as a/a-, and between this mean pro¬ 
 portional and unity be inferted another mean propor- 
 
 4 - 
 
 tional, as a/ a-, and between the laft mean proporti¬ 
 onal and unity be inferted another iiieah proportional as 
 
 8 
 
 Vx, he. whofe refpeftive indices will be 4, |> 4 , he. 
 fo between unity and the next terrain the feries de- 
 
 X 
 
 creafing from unity, or on the left hand of unity, may 
 be inferted a mean proportional as -i- whofe corref- 
 
 a/.y 
 
 pondent index will be—-4 ; and, again, between this 
 mean proportional and unity, may another mean pro¬ 
 portional as -7— be inferted, whofe Correfpondent in- 
 •v/a 
 
 dex will be —4; and between this and unity may an¬ 
 other mean proportional be inferted ; the index will be 
 — he. and, as this may be done between any other 
 two terms of the progrelfion, it follows, that between 
 any two terms may an infinite number of mean propor¬ 
 tionals be inferted, whofe refpedlive'indices will become 
 the logarithms of the relpeftive terms to which they be¬ 
 long : and thefe mean proportionals, the greater they are 
 in number between the two terms of any ratio, the 
 nearer do they approach to a ratio of equality, with their 
 correfpondent indices or exponents. 
 
 Hence we are let into the real'on of the ancient way of 
 making logarithms, and which was made ufe of by their 
 firft inventors, and that was to extradl the fquare root 
 out of the fquare root, he. of any number, in order to 
 find out a feries of continual mean geometrical propor¬ 
 tionals; till the number of cyphers contained between 
 unity and the firft fignificant figure of the root was equal 
 to the number of places that the intended logarithm 
 lhould confift of, and at the fame time to find out a 
 large number of correfpondent arithmetical means, 
 which would be the true logarithms of the geometrical 
 means refpeflively. 
 
 And how operofe this method is, may be eafily guef- 
 fed at by any one who has been at the pains to extract 
 the root of a large number; and may be gathered from 
 this, that to find a logarithm to feven places only re¬ 
 quires at lead 27 extra&ions of root out of root, the 
 lquare confifting of 16 figures at leaft; and that, if in 
 ally one of the operations an error happens to creep in, 
 the whole work muft be repeated. 
 
 Some have confidered the logarithm of a number as 
 the logarithm of the ratio of unity to that number it- 
 
 3 felf . 
 
LOG 
 
 LOG 
 
 fsif, or as the diftance between unity and that number 
 in a geometrical lealeof proportionals, and confequentiy 
 mcafured by the number of proportionals contained be¬ 
 tween them : logarithms therefore expound the place or 
 order that every number obtains from the unit’s place in 
 a continued fenes or lcale of proportionals indefinite in 
 number. 
 
 Thus, if between unity arid the number io, there be 
 fuppofed ioccoooo, &c. mean proportionals, that is. 
 if the number io be placed in the 10000000 th place 
 fiom unity, between 1 and 2, there will be found 
 3010300 of fuch proportionals; that is, the number 2 
 will be placed in the 3010300 th place from unity ; be¬ 
 tween 1 and 3 there will be found 4771213 of the fame 
 proportionals, or the number 3 will hand in the 
 47 7 121 3 th pl aGe >n the indefinite lcale of proportionals ; 
 their numbers 10000000, 3010300, 31^4771213, arc 
 therefore the logarithms of 10, 2, and 3; or, more pro¬ 
 perly the logarithms of the ratios of thofe numbers one 
 to the other. 
 
 Again, if between unity and the number 10, there be 
 fuppofed an indefinite fcale of mean proportionals, 
 whole number is 23025851 ; that is, if the number 10 
 be placed in the 23025851" place from unity, in the in¬ 
 definite fcale of proportionals, between 1 and 2, there 
 w’lll be found to be 6531471 fuch mean proportionals ; 
 and between 1 and 3, there will be found 109861-22 of 
 the fame proportionals : fo that if the firft term of the 
 feries be called x, the fecond term will be a- 2 , the third 
 &c. and if the number 10 be fuppofed to be the 
 10000000 th term in the feries, the number 2 will be 
 the 3010300 th term, and the' number 3 will be the 
 4771213 th term in the lame feries; and confequentiy 
 x w 0 0 °= 10, x i0l ° i0 ° — 2, and x * 7 7 1 z 13 
 = 3, &cc. and again, if the number 10 be fuppofed the 
 2 3 ° 2 5 8 5 lft term “i the leries, the number 2 will be the 
 693 i 47 i 't term, and the number 3 the 10986122*^ term 
 in the fame feries ; and confequentiy, m this cafe 
 / 1301S!S, = IO , * <5 9 3 1 4 7 j — 2j aild •*’ 
 
 — 3, &C. 
 
 And as the indefinite number of mean proportionals 
 betwixt any two numbers may be affumed at plealure, 
 hence logarithms may be of as many different forms 
 (that is, there may be as many different feales of loga¬ 
 rithms) as there can be affumed different feales of mean 
 proportionals between any two numbers. Every num¬ 
 ber therefore is fotne certain power of that number which 
 is placed next to unity in the indefinite lcale of propor¬ 
 tionals between unity and the given number, and the 
 index of that power is the logarithm of the number. 
 
 Logarithms therefore may be of as many forts as you 
 can affiime different; indices of the po wer of that number 
 whofe logarithm is required. 
 
 But fince fiuxions and the higher geometry have been 
 fo well underflood, mathematicians have direfted their 
 views towards facilitating thole laborious and operofe 
 calculations formerly made ufe of for conftru&ing tables 
 ot logarithms, by help of converging feries, and 
 other means, whereby the logarithms of any propof- 
 cd numbers may now be obtained with very little 
 trouble: an example of this kind may be feen in 
 MacLaurin s Fluxions, volume ii. page 678, where 
 that celebrated mathematician lhews that the lo¬ 
 garithm of m being given, the logarithm of log 
 
 m is equal to 
 
 multiplied by tile feries i — — 
 
 2 m X Z j2 
 
 360 X 
 
 rn-f-z 
 
 260 * -5 + , &C. 
 
 tic. This feries converges fo very fwift, that two or three 
 terms are fufficient in alrnoft any cafe whatfoever. 
 
 The indices, or charafterifticks oflogarithms, corref- 
 pond to the denominative part of the natural numbers, 
 as the other member of the logarithm does to the deno¬ 
 minative part of the number : that is, the index lhews 
 the denomination, or place of the laft (or left hand) 
 figure of the number, and confequentiy of all the reft. 
 
 Thus o, affixed to a logarithm, denotes the fall figure 
 
 of the number, to whidh the logarithm aniwers, to be vanthm i ,, . . 
 
 nothing diftant from (i. e. in) the place of units I ■ , f f en negative logarithm, addthelaf 
 
 index f lhews the laft figureofI Lmbe to be ,dtftan ^ K™ ftr' or °‘ the numbcr IOOO °- 
 
 . place from the place ofunits c to be m th rface K fub ‘ r r "}■ ^ * T the fc 5 0nd ’ and find the Ilum - 
 
 r f lace ber correfpondtng to the retnamder; this will be the 
 
 1 numerator 
 
 of tens, and confequentiy the number itfelf to be either 
 10, or fome number between that and 100, and fo of 
 the other indices. Hence all numbers, which have the 
 lame denomination, but not tfid fame numerative parts, 
 are all numbers from 1 to 10, from 10 to 1000, See. and 
 will have logarithms whofe indices are the fame, but the 
 other members different. Again, all numbers which 
 have the fame riumerative, but not the fame denomina¬ 
 tive part, will have different indices, but the reft of the 
 logarithms the fame. If a number be purely decimal, 
 to its logarithm is affixed a negative index, fhewing the 
 diftance of its firft real figure, from the place of units. 
 Thus the logarithm of the decimal ,256 is 7 ,43824 ; of 
 the decimal ,0256 x is7,30824, &c. 
 
 I o find the logarithm for a number greater than any 
 in die common tables, but lefs 10000000—cut off four 
 figures on the left hand of the given number, and leek 
 the logarithm in the table; add as many units to the 
 index, as there are figures remaining on the right, fub- 
 tratt the logarithm found, from the next following it, in 
 the table ; then, as the difference of numbers in the ca¬ 
 non is to the tabular difference of the logarithms an- 
 fvvering to them, fo are the remaining figures of the given 
 number to the logarithmick difference ; which, if it be 
 added to the logarithm before found, the fum will be the 
 logarithm required. Suppofe the logarithm of the num- 
 bcr 9-375 were required ; cut off the four figures 9: ,7, 
 and to the charatteriftick of the logarithm correfponding 
 to them, add an unit; then, 
 
 From the logarithm of the number 9238 = 3,9655780 
 Subtract logarithmick number — 9237 = 3,9655309 
 Remains tabular difference — — 
 
 io—47I“5 
 
 5) 2-r 
 
 2 35 
 
 Now to the logarithm - 
 Add the difference found 
 
 The fum is the logarithm required - 4^^55544 
 
 Similar to this is the method to. find the number an- 
 1 we ring to a logarithm, which does not occur exatt in 
 the tables, e. g. 3,75899.82. In order to find the num¬ 
 ber anfwering to this logarithm, firft feek in the tables 
 the next greater 
 
 from which fubtraft - 3,759o632 = log. of 5742 
 the next lefier - - 3.75898 75=^. of 5741 
 
 Remains tabular difference 757 
 
 Then from the given logarithm - - S’75 8 9982 
 
 fubtraft the next lefler - - 3,7589875 
 
 Remains fecond difference - - joy 
 
 Laftly 757 — 100—107 — 10700(14 
 100 757 
 
 10700 3130 
 
 4 > 9 6 553°9 
 
 4 ' 9 b 55544 
 
 Now to 5741 add -jTo, and thus you fhall have the 
 number required. 
 
 To find the logarithm of a proper fra&ion.—Subtract 
 the logarithm of the numerator from that of the denomi¬ 
 nator, and to the remainder prefix the fign of fubtrac- 
 tion.—Thus, fuppofe it were required to find the loga¬ 
 rithm of 
 
 Logarithm of 7=0,8450980 
 Logarithm of 3=0.4771213 
 Logarithm of ;—0,3679767 
 
 To find the number correfponding to a logarithm 
 greater than any in the table.—Firft, from the given 
 logarithm, fubtrafl rhe logarithm of 10, or 100, or 1000, 
 or icooo, till you have a logarithm that will come 
 within the compafs of the table; find the number cor¬ 
 refponding to this, and multiply it by 10, or 100, or 
 1000, ox 10000, the produfl is the number required. 
 Suppole, for inftance, the number correfponding to the 
 logarithm 7,7589982 be required; fubtraft the lo garithm 
 ol the number 10000, which is 4,0000000, from 
 7 ’ 75 8 99 82 ; tbe remainder is 3,7589982, the number 
 correfponding to which is 5741,1, which, multiplied by 
 10000, gives 57411000, the number required. 
 
 To find the number correfponding to a negative lo¬ 
 garithm.—1 o the given negative logarithm, add the laft 
 
LON 
 
 humerator of the fraction, whole denominator will be 
 ioooo. Suppofe it be required to find the fraction 
 correfponding to the negative logarithm—0,3679767^ 
 
 4,0000000 
 
 fubtradt this from 4,0000000, the remainder is 3,6320233, 
 the number correfponding to which is 42S5VU0 ; the 
 fraction fought therefore is -$§§-§■§&-•—The reafori of 
 the rule is, that as a fraction is the quotient, arifing 
 from the divifion of the numerator by the denominator, 
 unity will be to the fradtion, as the denominator to the 
 numerator ; but as unity is tQ the fradtion correfponding 
 to the given negative logarithm, fo ioooo to the num¬ 
 ber correfponding to the remainder : therefore if ioooo 
 be taken for the denominator, the number will be the 
 numerator of the fradtion required. 
 
 LOG 1 CK, the art of uling reafon well in our in¬ 
 quiries after truth, and the communication of it to others. 
 
 Cicero makes Socrates the author of logick, and vve 
 know that he made a fyftem of all its precepts, and de- 
 monftrated the ufe of them in his familiar converfations, 
 or what we call dialed. This we may find fcattered up 
 and down in the writings of his difciple Plato and others. 
 As to method, Plato preferred that of the orator, as the 
 moft ufeful, which under a carelefs appearance conceals 
 a great deal of art, by means of an agreeable air over all 
 the difeourfe, feems the moll; proper for removing pre¬ 
 judices and allaying the pafhons. 
 
 Ariflotle chofe rather to ufe the method of the geome¬ 
 tricians, which admits of no term but what was defined, 
 nor of any axiom, that is not granted ; and he reafoned 
 from thefe in the conclufive form. He invented the iyl- 
 logifm, or at leaftgave the demonftration of all its figures 
 in his analyticks. In fhort, he flopped at pure fpecu- 
 lations, which for the moft part are but weak helps for 
 perfecting our reafon. Cleanthes and Chryfippus after¬ 
 wards fluffed logick full of quiddities and trifling fubtil- 
 ties. Their fucccffors gave to many things, and to the 
 different ways of conceiving them, ftrange names, which 
 they were not at the pains to explain. This fort of lo¬ 
 gick was in after-times adopted by Occam and his dif- 
 ciples; and it was not improved by paffing through the 
 hands of the Arabians : and to the great fliame of reafon, 
 it triumphed a long time in the fchools. Edmund Richer, 
 about the end of the lixteenth century, did all he could 
 to bring logick out of that low condition into which the 
 fchoolmen and nominalifts had brought it: his book, 
 called Obfletrix Animorum, was the fore-runner of that 
 admirable method of Defcartes, which Malebranche, 
 and all tliofe who have come after, have endeavoured to 
 illuftrate. 
 
 For the proper ufe of true logick, we gain fevcral 
 very confiderable advantages : for, 1. The confideration 
 of rules incites the mind to a clofer attention in think¬ 
 ing, fo as to be affured that we make the beft ufe of our 
 faculties. 2. We hereby more eafily and accurately dif- 
 cover the errors and defedts in reafoning. And, 3. By 
 thefe reflections on the order and manner of the opera¬ 
 tions of the mind, we are brought to a more juft and com¬ 
 plete knowledge of the nature of our own underftanding. 
 
 LOGISTICK Curve , the fame with logarithmick 
 curve. See Logarithmick. 
 
 Logistick Arithmetic!? , the doCtrine of lcxagefimal 
 fractions. See Sexagesimal. 
 
 LONGEVITY, length of life. 
 LONGIMETRY, the art of ineafuring length, both 
 acceflible and inacccfiible. 
 
 LONGITUDE oj a Star, in aftronomy, anarch of 
 the ecliptick, intercepted between the beginning of aries, 
 and the point of the ecliptick cut by the liar’s circle of 
 longitude. See Circle, &c. 
 
 Longitude of a Place,„ in geography, is an arch of 
 the equator intercepted between the firft meridian, and 
 the meridian palling through the propofed place ; which 
 is always equal to the angle at the pole, formed by the 
 firft meridian and the meridian of the place. 
 
 The firft meridian may be placed at pleafure, paffing 
 through any place, as London, Paris, Teneriffe, See. 
 but, among us, is generally fixed at London: and the 
 longitudes counted from it will be either call or 
 weft, according as they lie on theeaft or weft fide of that 
 meridian. 
 
 T. he difference of longitude between two places upon 
 the earth is an arch of the equator comprehended be- 
 Vol. II. No. 45. 
 
 LON 
 
 tween the two meridians of thefe places; and tile greateft 
 poffible is 180 0 , when the two places lie on oppolite 
 meridians. 
 
 Since the parallels of latitude always decreafe, the 
 nearer they approach the pole, it is plain, a degree upon 
 any of them mull be lefs than a degree upon the equator, 
 in the ratio of the co-fine of the latitude to the radius. 
 Hence, as the radius is to the co-fine of any latitude, fo 
 is the minutes of difference of longitude between two 
 meridians, or their difference in miles upon the equator, 
 to the diftance of thefe two meridians on the parallel of 
 that latitude, in miles. 
 
 Longitude, in navigation, is the diftance of a fhip 
 or place call or weft from another, counted in degrees of 
 the meridian, and not in thole proper to the parcllcl of 
 latitude, it is ufually called departure. 
 
 Since the difference of longitude between any two 
 places is equal to the arch of the equator, intercepted 
 between the two meridians paffing through the two 
 places; which is analogous to the quantity of time that 
 the fun requires to move from the meridian of one place 
 to that of another ; or, in the language of the Copei- 
 nicans, that is clapled between the application of the* 
 meridian of one of the places to the fun and the meri¬ 
 dian of the other ; for fince the fun finiflies his diurnal 
 revolution in the fpace of 24 hours ; or, which is the 
 fame thing, fince the revolution of the earth about her 
 own axis is performed in the fame time, it follows that 
 in every hour there paffes over the meridian one 24th 
 part of 35b 0 , or of the whole circumference of the equa¬ 
 tor, equal to 15 0 ; in two hours, one 12th part, or 30°; 
 and, in any greater, or lefs part of time, a proportional 
 greater or lefs part of the equator; whence it follows, 
 that if the difference of longitude, or arch of the equator, 
 intercepted between the meridians paffing through any 
 two places, be known, the difference of the times of the 
 day in thofe two places is known alfo; and, confe- 
 quently, the hour in one place being known, the hour 
 in the other place is known alfo ; and, on the contrary, 
 if the difference between the times at any two places be 
 known, the difference of longitude between thofe two 
 places is known alfo, by reducing the difference of the 
 times into degrees and minutes, allowing 15° to an 
 hour, See. 
 
 Hence it is, that if two or more places lie under the 
 fame meridian, the hour in one will be the fame with 
 the hour in the other ; and, on the contrary, if in two 
 or more places the hour be the fame, tliofe places lie un¬ 
 der the fame meridian. 
 
 And becaufe the fun in all places conftantly rifes in 
 the eaft, he inuft neceftarily apply himfelf to the meri¬ 
 dian of the eaftermoft place firft; and confequently, in 
 that place that lies to the eaftermoft, the noon happens 
 fooneft ; and the hour of the day or diftance of the fun 
 from the meridian at any other time mult be greateft. 
 
 Whence it appears, that if, by any contrivance what- 
 foever, the hour of the day at the fame point of abfolute 
 time in two different places can be obtained, the diffe¬ 
 rence of longitude between thofe places is alfo known ; 
 and by comparing the times together, it is eafy to pro¬ 
 nounce which place of the two lies to the eaftward or 
 weftward of the other. 
 
 Wherefore, if two or more perfons can view the fame 
 appearance at two or more places, and pronounce the 
 time at each place when i'uch appearance was vifible; or 
 if the time when any notable appearance lhall happen at 
 any place be predidted, and the time when that appear¬ 
 ance was vilible at any other place was determined; thefe, 
 times being compared together, will give the difference 
 of meridians, or difference of longitude between the two 
 places. 
 
 Now fince an eclipfe of the moon proceeds from no¬ 
 thing elfe but an interpolation of the earth between her 
 and the fun, by which means fhe is prevented from re- 
 fledting the light Ihe receives from the fun, the moment 
 that any part of her body begins to be deprived of the 
 folar rays, it is vifible to all thofe people who can fee 
 her at the fame time ; whence if two or more different 
 people, at two or more different places, obferve the times 
 when it firft began or ended, or note the time when any 
 number of digits was eclipfed, or when the fhadow be¬ 
 gins to cover or quit any remarkable fpot, the difference 
 of thofe times (if there be any) when compared toge- 
 R ther 
 
LON 
 
 ther, will give the difference of longitude between the 
 places of obfervation. 
 
 The longitudes of places may alfo be determined from 
 the obfervations of folar eclipfes ; but thefe, being in- 
 cumbered with the confederations of parallaxes, are not 
 near fo proper as arc thofe of the moon ; and each of 
 thefe happening but rarely, another excellent expedient 
 has been thought of, and that is the eclipies of Jupiter’s 
 fatellites. 
 
 Jupiter has been found fo have fatellites or moons 
 tonftantly attending him, always obferving the fame laws 
 in moving round him. 
 
 Now as neither Jupiter nor any of his attendants have 
 any native light of their own, butffiine with a borrowed 
 light from the fun, it happens that each of thefe in 
 every revolution about Jupiter fuffere two eclipfes, one 
 at their entrance into the fhadow,. the other at the en¬ 
 trance of their paflage behind his body ; whence in each 
 revolution ot the fatellite there are four remarkable ap¬ 
 pearances, by the obfervation of any one of which the 
 bufmefs may be done, viz. one at the entrance into the 
 lhadovv, and one at the emerfion out of it ; one at the 
 entrance behind the body, and another at the coming 
 but; but the latter of thefe, viz. the ingrefs and egrefs 
 of the fatellite, into and from under the body, is not fo 
 much regarded by aftronomers as the immerfion into and 
 out of the fhadow, bccaufe in the former the difficulty 
 of pronouncing the exa6l time is very great, it requiring, 
 in each oblcrver, eyes equally good and ftrong, and tc- 
 lefcopes equally large ; but the obfervation of the for¬ 
 mer ol thefe, viz. the immerfion into, and emerfion out 
 Of the fhadow, is eafy and pra&icable, bccaufe the quick 
 motions of the fatellites plunge them fo quick into the 
 fhadow of Jupiter, that it is no difficult matter to pro¬ 
 nounce, by any telefcope by which they may be feen, 
 the exntt time of their immerfion andemeriion, as any 
 one may loon be fatisfied, if lie will but try the experiment. 
 
 Now, inafmuch as each Of thefe happens at the fame 
 moment of abfolute time, if two or more perfons, in dif¬ 
 ferent places, note the time of obfervation ; thefe, when 
 compared together, will give the difference of longitude 
 between the two places of obfervation. 
 
 When we coniider the great number of thefe eclipfes 
 that happen every year, there being more vifible in one 
 year than there are days in it, and confequently but few 
 nights when Jupiter may be feen, and which is near 
 11 months of the year, but that an eclipfe of one or 
 other happens, and lometimes two or three in a night; 
 the cafinels with which they may be made, there requir¬ 
 ing only a telclcope of eight or ten feet in length, which 
 may be almofl managed with the hand ; and the little 
 likelihood there is of miffing the times of ingrefs or 
 egrefs, they being in a manner momentaneous : and, 
 lafflv, the great exaftnefs to which they would give the 
 difference of longitude, it being certainly as exact as the 
 latitude can at prefent be taken ; it is much to be won¬ 
 dered at, that the more fkilful part of our feamen have 
 fo long negle&ed them, and elpecially in the fcveral ports 
 into which they fail. 
 
 Befides thefe, there is another method equally ufeful, 
 expeditious and certain, and that is the appulfes of the 
 moon to certain fixed ftars, and their occultations by 
 the interpolition of her body ; for, the moon finifhing 
 her revolution in the lpacc of 27 days, leven hours, 43 
 minutes, there are but few clear nights, when the moon 
 does not pafs over or fo near to fome fixed ftar, that their 
 diftance from it, or the time of her vifible conjunction 
 with it, may be ealily obferved by the telefcope and mi¬ 
 crometer only , and thefe, when compared together, or 
 with vifible time computed to the meridian of fome place 
 when a good theory of the moon lhall be obtained, will 
 fhevv the difference of longitude of thofe places. 
 
 The lunar theory is already brought to very great 
 perfection, compared with what it was a few years ago , 
 and there is no room leit to doubt, from the great ftock 
 of good obfervations that Mr. Flamitead has left behind, 
 of i!s being carried on to all the exaCtnefs neceffary ; 
 and then from one lingle obfervation of any appulfe of 
 the moon to any fixed ftar, or of an occulation of any 
 emerfion of a ftar from the moon’s limb, might the dif¬ 
 ference of longitude between the place of the oblerva- 
 tion, and the place to which die faid numbers ffiould be 
 fitted, be readily determined. 
 
 LON 
 
 Mr. Flamftead has given us the places of near 1000 
 fixed ftars, confirmed by leveral obfervations that lie 
 within the zodiack, each of which will be covered by the 
 moon and the reft of the planets, in one revolution of 
 their node ; fo that fcarce one night can happen but 
 fome or other of them will be ecliplcd, or approached fo 
 near unto, as to come within the compafs of a telefcope, 
 in one place of the earth or other ; add to thefe the eclipies 
 of Jupiter’s fatellites, and it is fcarce polfiblc that any 
 clear night can happen, but the heavens afford us fome 
 agreeable phenomenon or other, by which the longitude 
 of any place may he duly afeertained. 
 
 In the Philol'ophical Tranfa&ions, No. 1, for the 
 month of March, in the yelr 166 : , after the invention 
 of pendulum watches by Monficur Hugens of Zulichem, 
 we have an account of a fiiccefsful experiment made 
 with two of them by major Holmes, in a voyage from 
 the coafl of Guinea homewards, at the rcquell of fome 
 of the virtuofos and grand promoters of navigation at 
 that time. 
 
 1 his and fome other fucccfles encouraged Monfieur 
 Hugens fo far, that after he had improved the iti u 61 urc 
 of thefe watches, he publiffied an account at large in 
 the Belgick tongue, which was afterwards t ran Hated into 
 English, and publiffied in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, 
 No. 47, for the month of May 1669 ; lhewing how and 
 in what manner thefe watches are to be uled in finding 
 the longitude at lea, with directions for adjufling of them 
 and keeping a journal by them ; which account the ca¬ 
 rious reader may fee at large in the above-mentioned 
 Tranfa£tions. No. 47, in the reading of which, if he is 
 ignorant of thefe matters, he will meet with fome things 
 worthy of his notice. 
 
 Thefe difeoveries, and the great defire of difeovering 
 a method of folving a problem of fuch importance to 
 navigation, induced the Britifh parliament to offer the 
 following rewards, as an encouragement to any perfoh 
 who ffiould make fuch a noble difeovery : 
 
 The author or authors of any fuch method fhali be 
 entitled to the fum of io,oool. if it determines the lon¬ 
 gitude to one degree of a great circle; to 15,000b if it 
 determines the fame to two-thirds of that diftance; and 
 to 20,0001. if it determines the fame to one-half of the 
 fame diftance ; and that half of Pie reward ffiall be due 
 and paid when the commiffioncrs of the navy, or the 
 major part of them, agree that any fuch method extends 
 to the fecurity of lhips within 80 geographical miles of 
 the fhores, which are places of the greatcit danger ; and 
 the other half, when a ffiip, by the appointment of the 
 faid commiffioncrs, or the major part of'them, ffiall 
 thereby aftually fail over the ocean, from Greac Britain 
 to any fuch port in the W. Indies, as thofe commiffioncrs, 
 or the major part of them, ffiall chufe for the experi¬ 
 ment, without lofing their longitude beyond the limits 
 before-mentioned. The French, Dutch, Spaniards-, and 
 other nations, have like wife offered rewards for the fama 
 purpofe. 
 
 Animated by thefe rewards, a great number of inge¬ 
 nious men applied themfelves to folve this ufeful pro¬ 
 blem ; fome by means of time-keepers, and others by 
 improving the lunar theory. 
 
 Among the former, the only fuccefsful candidate is 
 the ingenious Mr. JohnHarrifon, who, at different times, 
 contrived three different time-pieces for determining the 
 longitude at lea. 
 
 The firft of Mr. Harrifon’s machines was tried in 
 May 1736, when it was put on board a man of war, 
 and by its exa£t mcafure of time, in its return from 
 Liibon, correfted an error of almoft a degree and an half 
 in the computations of the reckoning of a lhip. In 1739, 
 Mr. Harrifon finilhed his iccond machine, which, from 
 various experiments made upon it, was fufficiently re¬ 
 gular and exa£t, for finding flic longitude of a ffiip 
 within the neareft limits propo'cd by parliament. Upon 
 the luccefs of this, Mr. Harrifon, in 1741, undertook 
 a ffill more advantageous machine, which he finilhed in 
 1758, when lie applied to the commiffioners of longi¬ 
 tude for orders tu make a trial of that inffrument to 
 fome part in the W. Indies, as dire£led by the ftatutes 
 for the dilcovery of the longitude at fea. In confe- 
 quence of this application, Mr. Harrifon received orders 
 for his lbn to proceed from Portfmouth to Jamaica, in 
 one of hisinajefty’s ffiipsofwar, with his third mftru- 
 
 ment, 
 
LON 
 
 ment, in Nov. 1761 ; and the commiffioners having di¬ 
 rected that every rcquifite ftep and precaution fhould be 
 taken, for making, with care, the proper experiments, and 
 afeertaining their accuracy, not only going to Jamaica, 
 but in the return, it appears, from the calculations 
 made from the experiments in going to Jamaica, that 
 the difference between the longitude, as found by the 
 time-piece, and calculated by the obfervations of the 
 tranfit of Mercury in 1743. at Jamaica and London, is 
 five feconds of time, which at Jamaica is little more 
 than a geographical mile. 
 
 During the voyage, Mr. Harrifon’s time-piece cor- 
 refted the fhip’s reckoning, which fometimes erred about 
 a degree and a half: and in going from Madeira to Ja¬ 
 maica, it alfo corrected the errors of the log, and (hewed 
 the longitude fo exaftly, that the flrip made the ifland 
 of Defeada, and all the other iflands, until they arrived 
 at Jamaica, as foretold by the time-piece. At the arrival 
 at Jamaica, the obfervations for finding the time were 
 made by equal altitudes ; and the longitude fhewil by 
 the time-piece being within 5" of me of the longitude 
 Ihewn by the moft accurate obfervations of Mercuiy, i 
 in its tranfit over the fun, in the year 1743, and with 
 which all the obfervations at London and Paris, agreeing 
 within 23", amounts to a demonftration, that Mr. Har- 
 rifon has performed all that is required by the flatute of 
 the 12th of queen Anne, to entitle him to the greatefi: 
 reward mentioned in that aft. In returning from Ja¬ 
 maica, the weather was very tempeftuous, fo that the 
 time-piece was forced to be placed on the counter, to 
 avoid being perpetually eXpofed to the fea-watcr; there 
 it fuffered continual violent agitations^which, though 
 they neccffarily retarded its motion, yet did not occafion 
 any fuoh confiderable error as would have made Mr. 
 Harrifon’s right to the greateft reward queftionable, had 
 it depended on this voyage only ; for the time-keeper, in 
 its going and return, loll only i' 54" and f, which, in 
 the latitude of Portfmouth, amounts to about 18 geogra¬ 
 phical miles, or minutes of a great circle, whereas the aft 
 Required only that it fhould come within the diftance of 
 30 geographical miles, or minutes of a great circle. 
 
 At Mr. Harrifon’s return from this voyage, his time¬ 
 piece was put into the hands of feveral ingenious gen¬ 
 tlemen, for their examination ; among whom was the 
 learned Mr. Ludlam, who gave the following report: 
 
 v ‘ The defefts in common watches, fays Mr. Lud¬ 
 lam, which Mr. Harrifon propofes to remedy, are the 
 following. 
 
 “ 1. That the main-fpring afts not conflaiitly with 
 the fame force upon the wheels, and through them upon 
 the balance. 2. That the balance, either urged with 
 an unequal force, or meeting with a different refinance 
 from the air, or the oil, or the friftion, vibrates through 
 a greater or lefs arch. 3. That tliele unequal vibrations 
 are not performed in equal times. ' 4. That the force of 
 the balance-fpring is altered by a change of heat. 
 
 “ To remedy the firfi: deleft, Mr. Harrifon has con¬ 
 trived, that his watch lhall be moved by avery tender 
 fpring, which never unrolls itfelf more than one eighth 
 part of a turn, and afts upon the balance through one 
 wheel only. But fuch a fpring cannot keep the watch 
 in motion along time. He has therefore joined another, 
 whole.office is to wind up the firfi; fpring eight times 
 in every minute, and which is itfelf wound up but once 
 in a day. 
 
 “ I o remedy the fecond defeft, Mr. Harrifon ufes a 
 much {Longer balance-fpring than in a common watch. 
 For if the force of this lpring upon the balance remains 
 the fame, whilft the force of the other varies, the errors 
 arifing from that variation will be the lefs as the fixed 
 force is the greater. But a ilronger fpring will require 
 either a heavier or a larger balance. A heavier balance 
 would have a greater friftion. Mr. Harrifon therefore 
 increafes the diameter of it. In a common watch it is 
 under an inch, in this of Mr. Harrifon’s two inches 
 and two tenths. 
 
 “ Had thefe remedies been perfeft, it would have 
 been unnccefiary to confidcr the defefts of the third fort. 
 But the methods already defcribed only leffening the 
 errors, not removing them, Mr. Har.ifon ufes two 
 ways to make the times of the vibrations equal, though 
 the arches may be unequal. One is to place a pin, lo 
 that the balance-fpring, prefiing againfl it, has its force 
 3 
 
 LOO 
 
 increafcd ; but increafed lefs when the vibrations arc 
 larger; the other to give tile palates fuch a fhape, that 
 the wheels prefs them with lei's advantage, when the 
 vibrations are larger. 
 
 “ To remedy the lafl defeft, Mr. Harrifon ufes a 
 bar compounded of two thin plates of brafs and Heel, 
 about two inches in length, rivetted in feveral places 
 together, fattened at one end, and having two pins at 
 the other, between which the balance-fpring pafies. If 
 this bar be ftraight in temperate weather, brafs chang¬ 
 ing its length by heat more than tteel, the brafs fide 
 becomes convex when it is heated ; and the tteel fide, 
 when it is cold : and thus the pins lay hold ,of a dif¬ 
 ferent part ot the lpring in different degrees of heat, and 
 lengthen or fhorten it, as the regulator does in a com¬ 
 mon watch. 
 
 “ The two firft of thefe improvements, any good 
 workman, who fhould be permitted to view and take to 
 pieces Mr. Harrifon’s watch, and be acquainted with 
 the tools he ufes, and the direftions he has given, 
 could, without doubt, exaftly imitate. He could alfo 
 make the palates of the fhape propofed ; but for the 
 other improvements, Mr. Harrifon has given no rules. 
 He lays, that he adjufted thofe parts by repeated trials, 
 and that he knows no other method. This feems to 
 require patience and perfeverance ; but with thefe qua¬ 
 lifications other workmen need not delpair of iuccefs 
 equal to Mr. Hanifoil’s. There is no reafon to fufpeft 
 that Mr. Harrifon has concealed from us any part of his art. 
 
 “ If our opinion of the excellence and ufefulnefs of 
 this machine be alked, l mutt fairly own, that nothing 
 but experience can determine the ufe of it with certainty; 
 however, I think it my duty, fays the above gentleman, 
 to declare to the board the bett judgment I can form. 
 
 “ The firtt of Mr. Harrifon’s alterations is, I be¬ 
 lieve, an improvement, but not very confiderable. Pro¬ 
 bably, if the other defefts in common watches could be 
 removed, the changes in the force of the main-lpring 
 would not occafion fuch errors as would make them 
 ufelefs at lea. 
 
 “ 1 he next alteration feems to be of greater import¬ 
 ance ; 1 fuppofe it contributes more to the exaftneis of 
 the watch than all the other changes put together, but 
 is attended with fome. inconvenience. The watch is 
 liable to be difordcred, and even flopped by almoft any 
 fudden motion, and, when flopped, docs not move 
 again of itfelf. But as it has gone two voyages with¬ 
 out any fuch accident, it may feem that this danger at 
 fea is not confiderable. 
 
 “ The principle on which Mr. Harrifon forms the 
 alterations of the third fort is, that the longer vibrations 
 of a balance moved by the fame fpring, arc performed 
 in lefs time. This is contrary to the received opinion 
 among the philofophers and workmen. But if Mr. Har¬ 
 rifon is right, yet whether the method he has propofed 
 will correft the errors, or not, is to me quite uncertain. 
 
 “ The laft alteration before-mentioned is ingenious 
 and ufeful: but that it can be made to anfwer exaftly 
 to the different degrees of heat, feems not probable.” 
 
 Longitude of Motion , according to forne philofo¬ 
 phers, is thediflance which the centre of any moving 
 body runs through, as it moves on in a right line. See 
 Motion. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes fomething 
 placed length wife : thus lome of the fibres of the veffels 
 in the human body are placed longitudinally, others 
 tranfverfely, or acrols 
 
 LONICERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria 
 monogynia clafs. 'Flic corolla conlifts of one irregular 
 petal; and the berry of two cells containing many feeds. 
 There are 13 fpecies, only one of which, viz.- the pe- 
 riclymenum, or common honey-fuckle, is a native of 
 Britain. 
 
 LOOF, in fhip-building, that part of a fhip where 
 the bow begins, or where the planks of her fore part begin 
 to bend, and round inward as fhe grows narrower ap¬ 
 proaching the ttem. 
 
 LOOKING-Glasses are nothing but plain mir¬ 
 rors of glafs; which being impervious to the light, re- 
 fleft the images of things placed before them; for the 
 theory of which fee Mi rror and Reflection. 
 
 LOOM, a frame compofed of a variety of parts, ufed 
 in all the branches of weaving. See Weaving. 
 
 LOOP- 
 

 
 LOU 
 
 LOOP-Holes, in a fhip, arc holes made in the 
 Coamings of the hatches, to fire mufkets through in a 
 Ciofe fight. 
 
 LOPPING, among gardeners, the cutting off the 
 fide-branches. It is obfervable, fays Mr. Millar, that 
 moft old trees, as afh, elm, hornbeam, Six. are hollow 
 within, which does not proceed from the nature of the 
 trees, but in their being fuffered to grow large before 
 they are lopped. The lopping of young trees of ten or 
 twelve years old, at moll, will preferve them much 
 longer, and will occafion the (hoots to grow more into 
 wood in one year than they do in old tops at two or 
 three. Great boughs ill taken off, are very prejudicial 
 to trees; for which real’on they fhould always be taken 
 off ciofe and finooth, and not parallel to the horizon; 
 and the wound fhould be covered with a mixture of loam 
 and liorfe-dung, to prevent the wet from entering the 
 body of the tree : however, no trees lhould be lopped 
 but pollard-trees, for nothing is more injurious to the 
 growth of timber trees than lopping off great branches 
 from them. All forts of refinous trees, or fuch as abound 
 with a milky juice, fhould be lopped fparingly ; for 
 they are fubje£t to decay when often cut. The bell 
 fealon for lopping trees is foon after Bartholomew-tide; 
 at which time they feldom bleed much, and the 
 wound is commonly healed over before the cold weather 
 comes on. 
 
 LORD', a title of honour varioufi’y applied among 
 trs. It fometimes denotes fuch as are noble either by 
 birth or creation, otherwife called peers of the realm, or 
 lords of parliament; fometimes all the fons of dukes and 
 marquiffes and the eldeft fon of an earl; fometimes it is 
 annexed to an office, as lord chief j office, lord privy-leal, 
 lord of the treafury, &c. and fometimes to an inferior 
 perfon poffefled of a fee, having the homage of tenants 
 within his manor, and is commonly called landlord. 
 Of this laft fort there is lord rnefne and lord para¬ 
 mount : the former is owner of a manor, having tenants 
 who hold of him and by copy of court-roll, and yet he 
 himlelf holds of another fuperior lord, called lord para¬ 
 mount. 
 
 Lord Lieute>iant of a County , is an officer of great 
 diftin£lion, appointed by the king for managing the 
 Handing militia, and ocher military affairs of the 
 county. 
 
 LOTION, Lotio, waffling, iu plivfick, a fort of me¬ 
 dicine compounded of liquid ingredients, for beautifying 
 the face, and cleanfing it from any deformity which the 
 blood throw's out. It alfo denotes a medicine that holds 
 a medium between a fomentation and a bath. 
 
 Lotion, in pharmacy, a preparation of medicines by 
 waffling them in liquid, cither to clear them of the 
 dregs-, or of forne fait or corrofive fpirit, or to commu¬ 
 nicate fome virtue to them. 
 
 LOTTERY, a kind of game at hazard, common in 
 England, Holland, and France, in order to raife money, 
 which is appointed by publick authority of parliament 
 with us, and conduced by commiffioners nominated for 
 that purpofe. It confifts of a certain number of blanks 
 and prizes, which are drawn out of a kind of wheel, of 
 which there are two contrived ; the one containing the 
 numbers, and the other the correlponding blanks or 
 prizes. 
 
 LOUIS d’or, a French coin, firft ftruck under the 
 reign of Louis XIII. in 1640. They have at different 
 times rifen from ten livres to 40 and upwards, only that 
 in the laft coinings the weight was augmented in fome 
 proportion to the price, which in the former reign was 
 never regarded. On one fide is the king’s head and 
 name, and on the other a crofs, confiding of eight L’s 
 cantoned with crowns, with this legend, “ Chriftus 
 regnat, vincit, imperat.” The ordonnance makes it 
 23 carats and one-fourth value, and allows an abatement 
 of the eighth part of a carat. 
 
 There are alfo white Louis’s or Louis’s d’argent, of 
 60 and 30 fols, which we call crowns and half crowns, 
 as alfo of 15, five and four fols; on each fide of which is 
 the king’s head, and on the other the arms of France, 
 with this legend, “ Sit nomen Domini benediftum.” 
 In this coin there are allowed two grains abatement in 
 the weight, and fometimes eight grains. 
 
 Knights of St. Louis, a military order, inftitufed by 
 Louis XIV. in April 1693, in favour of his land and I 
 
 LUC 
 
 fea officers. The king is fovercign. None can be ad¬ 
 mitted into this order but fuch as have honourably 
 lerved 10 years. It confilts of eight great crofles and 
 24 commanders. The number of knights abfolutc- 
 ly depends on the king’s pleafure. They alfo wear 
 a gold crofs, enamelled with white, and crowned with 
 flowers de Irs. On one fide is St. Louis, with this 
 infeription, Lud. M. inftit. 1693 : on the reverie, is a 
 naked fword, holding on its point a crown of laurel, 
 with this infeription, “ Bell, virtutis praim.” The 
 order was at firft endowed witlva fund of 300,000 livres 
 charged on the king’s revenues. The great erodes have 
 a penfion of 8000 livres; commanders, 4000; and the 
 reft, 3000. 
 
 LOXODROMY, Loxodram'uiy in navigation, the 
 line which a fhip deferibes in failing on the fame colla¬ 
 teral rhumb. The loxodromy or loxodromick line cuts 
 all the meridians in the fame angle, called the loxodro¬ 
 mick angle. SeeCouRSE. 
 
 LOZENGE, Lozange , Rhombus , in geometry, a 
 quadrilateral figure, confiding of four equal and parallel 
 fides, two of whofe oppofite angles are acute, and the 
 other obtufe; the diftance between the two obtufe ones 
 being always equal to the length of one fide. When 
 the fides are unequal, it is called rhomboidcs. 
 
 Lozenge, in heraldry; in this figure all unmarried 
 gentlemen and widows bear their coats of arms. It dif¬ 
 fers from the fufil, in that the latter is narrower, and 
 not fa ftiarp at the ends. 
 
 LUCERNE, in botany, &c. a plant frequently cul¬ 
 tivated in the manner of clover, and known among au¬ 
 thors by the names of medica and medkago. 
 
 The foil in which this plant is found to fucceedbtft 
 in this country, is a light, dry, loofe, fandy land, which 
 lhould be well ploughed and dreffed, and the roots of all 
 noxious weeds, fuch as couch grafs, &c. deftroyed ; 
 otherwife thefe will overgrow the plants while young, 
 and prevent their progrefs. 
 
 The beft time to fow the feed is about the middle of 
 April, when the weather is fettled and fair: for if you 
 fow it when the ground is very wet, or in a rainy feafon, 
 the feeds will burrt and come to nothing, as is often the 
 cafe with feveral of the leguminous plants; therefore 
 you fhould' always obferve to fow it in a dry feafon ; and 
 if there happens fome rain in about a week or ten 
 days after it is fown, the plants will foon appear 
 above ground. 
 
 After having well ploughed and harrowed the land 
 very fine, you fhould make a di ill quite acrols the ground, 
 alrnoft half an inch deep, into which the feeds fhould be 
 fcattered very thin: then cover them over a quarter of an 
 inch thick, or fomewhat more, with the earth : then pro¬ 
 ceed to make another drill, about a foot and a half from 
 the former, fowing the feeds therein in the fame manner 
 as before, and fo proceed through the whole fpot of 
 ground, allowing the fame diftance between row and row 
 and fcatter the feeds very thin in the drills. In this man¬ 
 ner, an acre of land will require about fix pounds of feed : 
 for when it is fown thicker, if the feeds grow well, the 
 plants will be fo ciofe as to fpoil each other in a year or 
 two, the heads of them growing to a confiderable fize, as 
 will alfo the roots, provided they have room; for the 
 crown of fome will meafure eighteen inches diameter; 
 from which nearfour hundred lhoots have been cut at one 
 time, which is an extraordinary increale, and this upon 
 a poor dry gravelly foil, which had not been dunged for 
 many years, but the roots were at leaft ten years old ; fo 
 that if this crop be well cultivated, it will continue many 
 years, and be equally good as when it was firft fown : for 
 the roots generally run down very deepinthe ground, pro¬ 
 vided the foil be dry; and although they fhould meet a 
 hard gravel a foot below the furface, yet their roots 
 would penetrate it and make their way downward, fome 
 of them having been taken up, which were above a yard 
 in length, and had run two feet into a rock of gravel, fo 
 hard as not to be loofened without mattocks, and crows 
 of iron, and that with much difficulty. 
 
 The reafon for directing this feed to be fown in rows 
 is, that the plants may have room to grow ; and for the 
 better ftrrring the ground between them, to deftroy the 
 weeds, and encourage the growth of the plants, which 
 may be very eafily effefted with a Dutch hoe, juft after 
 j the cutting the crop each time, which will caufe the 
 ‘ I plants 
 
LUC 
 
 plants to fhoot again in a very little time, and be much 
 Itronger than in fuch places where the ground cannot be 
 ftirred: but when the plants firft come up, the ground 
 between fhould be hoed with a common hoe ; and if in 
 doing of this you cut up the plants where they are too 
 thick, it will catife the remaining to be much ftronger. 
 This hoeing fhould be repeated two or three times while 
 the plants are young, according as the weeds are pro¬ 
 duced, obferving always to do it in dry weather, that the 
 weeds may the better be deftroyed; for if it be done in 
 moift weather, they will root and grow again. 
 
 With this management, the plants will grow to the 
 height of two feet, or more, by the beginning of Au- 
 guft, when the dowers will begin to appear, at which 
 time the lucerne fhould be cut, obferving to do it in a 
 dry feafon, if it is to be made into hay, and keep it often 
 turned, that it may foon dry, and be carried off the 
 ground; for if it lie long upon the roots, it will prevent 
 their lhooting again. After the crop is taken off, you 
 lhould ftir the ground between the rows with a hoe, to 
 kill the weeds, and loofen the furface, which will caul'e 
 the plants to fhoot out again in a fhort time, fo that by 
 the beginning of September there will be fhoots four or 
 five inches high, when you may turn in fheep upon it 
 to feed it down : nor fhould the lhoots be differed to re¬ 
 main upon the plants, which would decay when the 
 frofty weather comes on, and fall down upon the crown 
 of the roots, and prevent their lhooting early the luceeed- 
 mg Ipring. 
 
 The bell way therefore is to feed it until November, 
 when it will have done lhooting for that feafon: but it 
 lhould not be fed by large cattle the firft year, becaufe the 
 roots being young, would be in danger of being deftroyed, 
 either by their trampling upon them, or their pulling 
 them out of the ground: but fheep will be of fervice to 
 the roots by dunging the ground, provided they do not 
 eat it too dole, fo as to endanger the crown of the root. 
 
 In the beginning of February, the ground between 
 the rows lhould be again ftirred with the hoe, to en¬ 
 courage them to fhoot again: but in doing this you 
 lhould be careful not to injure the crown of the roots, 
 upon which the buds are at that time very turgid, and 
 ready to pufh. With this management, if the foil be 
 warm, by the middle of March the fhoots will be five or 
 fix inches high, when, if you are in want of fodder, you 
 may feed it down till a week in April; after which it 
 fhould be fuffered to grow for a crop, which will be fit 
 to cut the beginning of June, when you fhould obferve 
 to get it off the ground as foon as polfibie, and ftir the 
 ground again with the Dutch hoe, which will forward 
 the plants lhooting again ; fo that by the middle or lat¬ 
 ter end of July, there will be another crop fit to cut, 
 which muftbe managed as before; after which it fhould 
 be fed down again in autumn; and as the roots by this 
 time will have taken deep hold in the ground, there will 
 be little danger of hurting them, if you fhould turn in 
 larger cattle; but you mull always obferve not to fuffer 
 them to ramain after the roots have done lhooting, left 
 they fhould eat down the crown of the roots below the 
 buds, which would confiderably damage, if not dellroy 
 them. 
 
 In this manner you may continue conftantly to have 
 two crops to cut, and two feedings, upon this plant; and 
 in good feafons there may be three crops cut, and two 
 feedings, which will be^a great improvement, efpecially 
 as this plant will grow upon dry barren foils, where 
 grafs will come to little, and be of great ufe in dry hum¬ 
 mers, when grafs is often burnt up : and as it is an early 
 plant in the Ipring, fo it will be of great fervice when 
 fodder falls fhort at that feafon, when it will be fit to feed 
 at leafta month before grafs or clover ; for this plant is 
 often eight inches high by the middle of March, at which 
 time thegrafs in the fame place is fcarcely one inch high. 
 
 Cold will not injure this plant: for in the very cold 
 winter, 1728-9, l'omc roots of this plant which were 
 dug up in Odlober, and laid upon the ground in the 
 open air till the beginning of March, were again plant¬ 
 ed, and they fhot out very vigoroufly foon after : nay, 
 even while they lay upon the ground, they ftruck out 
 fibres from the under fide of the roots, and had begun 
 to fhoot green from the crown of the roots: but wet 
 will altogether deftroy the roots ; for a little of the feed 
 being fown upon a moift fpot of ground for a trial, it 
 Vol. II. No. 45. 
 
 L U N 
 
 came up very well, and flourifhed exceedingly during the 
 fummer feafon; but in winter, when the great rains fell, 
 the roots began to rot at bottom ; and before the fpring 
 moft of them were deftroyed. 
 
 The heft places to procure the feeds from, are Switzer¬ 
 land and the northern parts of France, which fuccecds 
 better with us than that which comes from a more 
 fouthern climate : but this feed may be faved in England 
 in great plenty; in order to which, a final 1 quantity of 
 the plants fhould be fuffered to grow uncut till the feeds 
 are ripe, when it mull be cut, and laid to dry in an open 
 barn, where the air may freely pafs through : but the 
 feed mull be defended from the wet; for if it be expofed 
 thereto, it will Ihoot while it remains in the pod, where¬ 
 by it will be fpoiied. When it is quite dry, it mull be 
 threfhed out, and cleanfed from the hulk, and preferved 
 in a dry place till the feafon for fowing it: and this feed 
 faved in England is much preferable to any brought from 
 abroad ; the plants produced from it being much ftronger 
 than thofe produced from the French. Helvetian, and 
 Turky feeds, which are fown at the fame time, and on 
 the fame foil and fituation. 
 
 LUCID Intervals, in lunaticks, the times where¬ 
 in they appear to be in their fenfes. 
 
 LUCIDA, in aftronomy, an appellation given to 
 feveral fixed ftars, on account of their fuperior brightnefs; 
 as thelucida corona?, a liar of the fecond magnitude, -iii 
 the northern crown; the lucida hvdra?, or cor hydra?; 
 and the lucida lyrze, a liar of the firft magnitude in that 
 conftellation. 
 
 LUES, among phyficians, is, in general, ufed for 
 a difeafe of any kind, but, in a more particular fenfe, 
 is reftrainedto contagious and peftilential difeafes : thus 
 the lues Gallica, or venerea, fignifies the venereal difeafe. 
 
 LUFF, among failors, the order from the pilot to 
 guide the fhip’s head nearer to the direction of the wind, 
 or nearer to that part of the horizon from which the 
 wind bloweth. 
 
 She keeps a good Luf f, i. e. holds her way well, without 
 deviating to the leeward of her courfe. See Leeward. 
 
 Luff-T a c klf., a complication of pullies, confifting 
 of two blocks, which may be either both of them double, 
 or one of them fingle. The rope wh ch forms the 
 tackle, and is called the fall, is paffed alternately through 
 the blocks, and then has its end faftened to one of them, 
 till it becomes four or five fold : the mechanical power 
 of a luff-tackle is very great, infomuch that three or four 
 men will draw as much weight with this as feven or eight 
 would with a fingle rope faftened to the fame body. See 
 Tackle* 
 
 LUKE, or Go [pel of St. Luke, a canonical book of 
 the New Teftament. Some think it was properly St. 
 Paul’s Gofpel, and that when that apoftle fpeaks of his 
 Gofpel, he means what is called St. Luke’s. Irenceus 
 fays, that St. Luke digefted into writing what St. Paul 
 preached to the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazienzen tells 
 us, that St. Luke wrote with the affiftancc of St. Paul. 
 
 Sr. Luke the EvangehJYs Day, a feftival in the Chrif- 
 tian church, obferved on the 18th of Odtober. 
 
 LUMBAGO, in phyfick, a violent pain in the loins, 
 which affedts the patient in fuch a manner that he can 
 fcarcely move. It is a fcorbutick fymptom, and frequent - 
 ly excited by the gout or rheumatifm. 
 
 LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and veins 
 which fpread over the loins ; or an epithet to diftinguiffi 
 thofe branches of the aorta which carry the blood to the 
 mufcles of the loins, to thofe of the abdomen and other 
 of the circumjacent parts, and all'o to certain veins which 
 bring back the blood from the loins into the trunk of 
 the vena cava. 
 
 LUMBRICAL, a name given to four mufcles of the 
 fingers, and to as many of the toes. They arc in each 
 called the flexors of the firft phalanx : thofe of the fin¬ 
 gers arife deep and tendinous, and are inferted into the 
 firft phalanges on the fide next the thumb: thofe of the 
 toes have their origin from the tendon of the mufculus 
 perforans, and from the interior part of the calcaneum : 
 their termination is at the firft phalanx of the feveral toes. 
 
 LUNA, in aftronomy, the moon. See Moon. 
 
 Luna, among chymills, fignifies filver. See Silver. 
 
 LUNAR, fomething belonging to the mooi); thus we 
 fay lunar month, lunar year, lunar dial, lun.at ecliple, 8cc, 
 See Moon, Month, Year, &c. 
 
 S 
 
 LUNARIA, 
 
L U N L U N 
 
 LUNARIA, moon-wort, in botany, a genus of 
 plants whole flower is tetrapetalous and cruciform : it 
 hath fix {lamina, two of which are fhorter than the reft ; 
 the fruit is a large, ere£l, plane, comprefled, elliptical 
 pod, opening with two valves, and containing two cells, 
 which inclofe a few comprefled kidney-fhaped feeds. 
 
 LUNATICK, a perfon affe&ed with lunacy, the cure 
 of which is to be attempted by evacuations of all kinds, 
 as bleeding, vomiting, catharticks, &c. See Madness. 
 
 LUNGS, a part of the human body, which is the 
 caufe or inftrument of refpiration. The lungs are the 
 large vifeus of the thorax : they are fituated in the two 
 fides of it, with the heart as it were between them ; and 
 are connected, by means of the mediaftinum, with the 
 fternum and vertebra ; with the heart by means of the 
 pulmonary veflels, and immediately with the afpera 
 arteria. The colour of the lungs, in infants, is a fine 
 florid red; in adults it is darker ; and in old people, 
 livid, or variegated with black and white. When in¬ 
 flated, they have fome relemblance to the hoof of an ox ; 
 and are convex on the upper lide, and concave under¬ 
 neath. They arc divided into two large lobes, the right] 
 and left; the left, which is the fmaller, is divided again | 
 into three fmaller ones. The membrane with which 
 the lungs are furrounded, is continuous with the pleura. 
 
 The veflels which compofe part of the fubftance of 
 the lungs are of three or four kinds ; the air veflels, 
 blood veflels, and lymphaticks, to which we may add 
 the nerves. The air veflels make the principal part, and 
 are termed bronchia. 
 
 Thefe bronchia are conical tubes, compofed of an 
 infinite number of cartilaginous fragments, like fo many 
 irregular arches of circles, connefled together by a liga- 
 mentarv elaftick membrane ; and difpofed in fuch a man¬ 
 ner, as that the lower eafily infinuate themfelves within 
 tliofe above them. They are lined on the infide by a 
 very fine membrane, which continually di(charges a 
 mucilaginous fluid; and in the fubftance of the mem¬ 
 brane are a great number of fmall blood veflels, and on 
 its Convex fide, many longitudinal lines, which appear 
 to be partly flefhy, and partly made up of an elaftick 
 fubftance of another kind. 
 
 The bronchia are divided, in all dirc£lions, into an 
 infinite number of ramifications, which diminilh gra¬ 
 dually in lize ; and as they become capillary, change 
 their cartilaginous ftruflure into that of a membrane. 
 Befides thefe very fmall extremities of this numerous 
 feries of ramifications, we find that all the fubordinatc 
 trunks, from the greateft to the fmalleft, fend out, from 
 all fides, a vaft number of fhort capillary tubes, of the 
 fame kind. 
 
 Each of thefe numerous bronchial tubes is widened at 
 the extremity, and thereby formed into a fmall mem¬ 
 braneous cell commonly called a veficle. Thefe cells, 
 or folliculi, are clolely connected together in bundles ; 
 each fmall branch producing a bundle proportionable to 
 its extent, and the number of its ramifications. 
 
 Thefe fmall veficular or cellular bundles are termed 
 lobules; and as the great branches are divided into fmall 
 ramifications, fo the great lobules are divided into feveral 
 fmall ones. The cells or veficles of each lobule have a 
 free communication with each other, but the feveral 
 lobules do not communicate fo readily. 
 
 The lobules appear diftimftly to be parted by another 
 cellular fubftance, which furrounds each of them, in 
 proportion to their extent, and fills up the interftices 
 between them. This fubftance forms likewife a kind of 
 irregular, membranous cells, which are thinner, looler, 
 and broader, than the bronchial veficles. 
 
 This fubftance is difperfed through every part of the 
 lungs, and forms cellular and fpongy vagina?, which 
 furround the ramifications of the bronchia and blood 
 veflels ; and is afterwards fpread over tire outer furface 
 of each lung, where it forms a kind of fine cellular 
 coat, joined to the general coat of that vifeus. 
 
 When we blow into this interlobular fubftance, the 
 air comprefles and flattens the lobuli; and when we 
 blow into the bronchial veflels, they prefently fwell, 
 and if we contrive to blow with force, the air pafles in- 
 fenfibly into the interlobular fubftance. We owe this 
 obfervation to M. Helvetius. All the bronchial cells 
 are furrounded by a very fine reticular texture of the fmall 
 extremities of arteries and veins, which communicate 
 
 every way with each other. The greateft part of this 
 admirable ftrudture is the diicovery of the iiluftrious 
 Malpighi. 
 
 1 he blood veflels of the lungs are of two kinds, one 
 commonly called the pulmonary arteries and veins ; the 
 other properly called the bronchial arteries and veins. 
 
 The pulmonary artery goes out from the right ventricle 
 of the heart; and its trunk, having run almoft dircftly 
 upward, as high as the curvature of the aorta, is divided 
 into two lateral branches; one going to the right hand 
 called the right pulmonary artery, the other to the left 
 termed the left pulmonary artery. The right artery 
 pafles under the curvature of the aorta, and isconfcquently 
 longer than the left: they both run to the lungs, and 
 are difperfed through their whole fubftance by ramifica¬ 
 tions nearly like thole of the bronchia, and lying in the 
 fame directions. 
 
 The pulmonary veins, having been diftributed through 
 the lungs, in the fame manner go out on each fide, by 
 two great branches, which open laterally into the refer- 
 voir, or mufcular bag, of the right auricle. 
 
 The ramifications of thefe two kinds of veflels in the 
 lungs are furrounded every where by the cellular fub¬ 
 ftance already mentioned, which likewife gives them a 
 kind of vagina ; and the rete mirabile of Malpighi dc- 
 Icribcd above is formed by the capfular extremities of 
 thefe veflels. It mult be obferved that the ramifications 
 of the arteries are more numerous and larger than thofe 
 of the veins, which in all other parts of the body exc.ed 
 the arteries, both in number and fize. 
 
 Befides thefe capital blood veflels, there are two others 
 called the bronchial artery and vein; the artery has be¬ 
 come very famous of late, by the defeription given of it 
 by Mr. Ruylch. I he vein was doubted of for fome 
 time, but it exifts as really as the artery, and may be 
 eafily demonftrated. 
 
 I hefe two veflels are very fmall, appearing only like 
 very fine arteries and veins coming from the aorta.’ vena 
 cava, and their branches; and they feem to have no other 
 ufe but that of nourifhing the lungs. 
 
 1 he varieties in the origins of the bronchial arteries 
 and veins, efpecially of the arteries; their communica¬ 
 tions or anaftomofes with each other, and with the 
 neighbouring vefle ls; and above all. the immediate anaf¬ 
 tomofes of the bronchial artery with the common pul¬ 
 monary vein ; are of great confequence in the praClice 
 of phyfick. 
 
 1 he bronchial arteries come fometitnes from the an¬ 
 terior part of the aorta defeendens fuperior, fometimes 
 from the firft intercoftal artery, and fometimes from one 
 of the cefophaga?. They go out fometimes, feparatcly, 
 towards each lung; fometimes by a fmall common trunk, 
 which afterwards divides to the right and left, near the 
 bifurcation of .the afpera aiteria and following ramifica¬ 
 tions of the bronchia. The left bronchial artery comes 
 often from the aorta, and the right from the fuperior in¬ 
 tercoftal, on the fame fide, becaufe of the fituation of 
 the aonta. There is likewife another which'arifes from 
 the aorta pofteriorly, near the fuperior intercoftal, and 
 above the anterior bronchialis. 
 
 7 he bronchial artery gives off a fmall branch to the 
 auricle of the heart, on the fame fide, which communi¬ 
 cates immediately with the coronary artery. 
 
 Sometimes one bronchial artery gives origin to feveral 
 fuperior intercoftals, and fometimes feveral bronchial ar¬ 
 teries fend oft' feparately the fame number of intercoftals. 
 The bronchial veins, as well as arteries, were known 
 to Galen; thefe veins are fometimes branches of the 
 azygos, coming from the upper part of the curvature or 
 arch. The left vein is fometimes a branch of the com¬ 
 mon trunk of the intercoftals of the fame fide ; and 
 fometimes both veins are branches of the gutturalis. 
 
 The lungs have a great many nerves 'diftributed 
 through them by filaments which accompany the ramifi¬ 
 cations of the bronchia and blood veflels, and are fpread 
 on the cells, coats, and all the membranous parts of the 
 lungs. The nervi fympathetici medii & majores, com¬ 
 monly called nerves of the eighth pair, or the intercoftals, 
 form, behind each lung, a paiticular intermixture, called 
 plexus pulmonaris, from whence nervous filaments go 
 out, which communicate with the plexus cardiacus and 
 ftomachicus. 
 
 On the furface of the human lungs, between the ex¬ 
 ternal 
 
L U N 
 
 tcjrnal and cellular coat, we obferve fomething that looks 
 like lymphatick veflels; but we ought to take care hot 
 to miftake, for fuch veflels, a tranfparent reticular fub- 
 ftance obfervable on the furface of the lungs, after blow¬ 
 ing ftrongly into the lobuli, this appearance being en¬ 
 tirely owing to the air which pafles through the bronchial 
 veflels into the interlobular cells, and which, by fepa- 
 rating a certain number of lobuli, finds room to lodge 
 between them. The true lymphatick veflels of the lungs 
 are moft vifible in brutes; and in an horfe particularly, 
 one of thefe veflels has been obferved to run along a great 
 part of one edge of the lungs. 
 
 Under the root of each lung, that is, under that part 
 formed by the fubordinate trunk of the pulmonary ar¬ 
 tery, by the trunks of the pulmonary veins, and by the 
 trunk of the bronchia, there is a pretty broad membra¬ 
 nous ligament, which ties the pofterior edge of each lung 
 to the lateral parts of the vertebra; of the back, from 
 that root all the way to the diaphragm. 
 
 Refpiration is performed by organs of two kinds, one 
 of which may be looked upon as aftive, the other as 
 paflive ; the lungs are of the fecond kind ; and the firft 
 comprehends, principally, the diaphragm and intercoftal 
 mufcles. 
 
 As foon as the intercoftal mufcles begin to contrail;, 
 the arches of the ribs are raifed, together with the fter- 
 num, and placed at a greater diftance from each other ; 
 by which means the cavity of the thorax is enlarged on 
 the two lateral and anterior ftdes. 
 
 At the fame inftant the diaphragm is flatted, or 
 brought toward a plane by two motions, which are ap¬ 
 parently contrary ; that is, by the contraction of the 
 diaphragm and the dilatation of the ribs, in which it is 
 inferted. The external furface of the thorax being thus, 
 in a manner, iilcreafed, and the cavity of the bronchial 
 being, at the fame time, and by the fame means, lefs 
 refilled, or prefled upon, the ambient air yields to the 
 external preflure, and iniinuates itfelf into all the places 
 where the preflure is d-i mini filed ; that is, into the afpera 
 arteria, and into all the ramifications of the bronchia, 
 all the way to the veficles. This is what is called in- 
 lpi ration. 
 
 This motion of infpiration is inftantaneous, and 
 ccafes in a moment, by the relaxation of the intercoftal 
 mufcles; the elaftick ligaments and cartilages of the ribs 
 bringing them back, at the fame time, to their former 
 lituation. This motion by which the ribs are deprefled, 
 and brought nearer each other, is termed exfpiration. 
 
 The pulmonary arteries and veins-which accompany 
 the bronchia through all their ramifications, and fur- 
 round the veficles, tranfmit the blood through their nar¬ 
 row capillary extremities, and thereby change or modify 
 it, at leaft in three different manners. 
 
 The firft change or modification which the blood un¬ 
 dergoes in the lungs, is to have the cohelion-of its parts 
 broken, to be attenuated, pounded, and, as it were, 
 reduced to powder. The fecond is to be deprived of a 
 certain quantity of ferum, which tranfpires through the 
 lungs, and is what we commonly call the breath. The 
 third is to be in a manner reanimated, by the impreffion 
 of the air, whether the w hole body of the air enters the 
 blood, whether the common air is only the vehicle of 
 fome finer parts which are conveyed to it, or whether 
 the a'r only comprefles, or fhakes the blood, as it pafles 
 round the bronchial veflels in the reticular capillary ex¬ 
 tremities of the veflels. 
 
 The cartilages of the afpera arteria, and bronchia, 
 ferve, in general, tocompoie a canal, the fides of which 
 will not fink in, or fubfideby compreflion, but will ne- 
 verthelefs yield to certain preflures and impulfes without 
 breaking. As tlicfe cartilages are not complete circles, 
 or rings, and as their circumferences are completed by 
 elaftick membranes, they allow of thefe dilatations and 
 contractions, which modulate the voice ; and as they are 
 connefted by elaftick ligaments of a confiderable breadth, 
 the alternate elongation and contraftion of the bronchia 
 are facilitated in the motions of refpiration. 
 
 LUNISOLAR, in aftronomy and chronology, fome¬ 
 thing compofed of the revolution of the fun and moon. 
 
 Lunisolar Tear, a period of years produced by 
 multiplying the cycle of the moon, 19 by 28, that of the 
 fun ; the produft is 532 ; in which fpace of time theft 
 -luminaries return to the fame point in the heavens. j 
 
 L U T 
 
 LUPERCI, the prieftr, of Pan, of which there werfc 
 two colleges, the Fabii and Quintilii; to thefe was added 
 a third called Julii, in honour of Julius Crefar. 
 
 LUPUS, wolf, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the 
 fouthern hcmifphere. 
 
 LURE, in falconry, a piece of leather made in the 
 form of a bird, and fometimes baited with a bit of fleih, 
 to call back a hawk. 
 
 LUSTRE, the glofs appearing on fluffs, filks, &c. 
 and it likewife denotes the compoiition or manner of 
 giving that glofs. Silks are glofled by waffling in foap, 
 then clear water, and dipping them in cold allum-water ; 
 clothes and fluffs by prefling. The luftre of black taf- 
 faty is given by twice brewed beer boiled with orange or 
 lemon-juice; that of coloured taffaties with water of 
 gourds diftilled in an alembick. 
 
 Curriers glofs their black leather firft with barberry- 
 juice, then with gum-arabick, ale, vinegar, and Flan¬ 
 ders glue boiled together ; for coloured leather they ufe 
 the white of an egg beat in water. 
 
 Hats have a luftre given them with common water, 
 fometimes a little black dye is added. The fame luftre 
 ferves for furs : for very black furs there is fometimes 
 prepared a luftre of galls, copperas, Roman ahum, ox’s 
 marrow, &c. 
 
 LUSTRAL, in antiquity, is applied to the water ufed 
 in their ceremonies, to fprinkle and purify the people. 
 
 Lustral Day , in antiquity, that whereon the luf- 
 trations were performed for a child, and its name given. 
 
 LUS FRATION, Expiation , in antiquity, facrifices 
 or ceremonies by which the Romans purified their cities, 
 fields, armies, or people defiled by any crime. 
 
 Some luftrations were publick, others private. There 
 were three maimers of performing luftrations, by fire and 
 fulphur, by water and by air; befides the luftration for 
 children. 
 
 LUSTRUM, among the Romans, denoted the fpace 
 of five years; as alfo a ceremony or facrifice ufed by 
 them after numbering their people every fifth year. 
 
 LUTE, Lutum , in chymiftry, a mixed, tenacious, 
 duftile fubftance, which grows folid with drying, and 
 applied to the junftures of veflels for diftillation, flops 
 them up. When the objeft: is merely aqueous, linfeed 
 meal, ground fine, and well worked up into a ftiff" pafte 
 with the white of an egg, makes a proper luting ; it grows 
 hard with heat, and if it happen to crack, it is repaired 
 by a frefh application. In the diftillation of all fermented 
 inflammable fpirits and volatile alkaline falts, a pafte 
 made of the meal, well worked up with cold water, an- 
 fvvers very well. In the diftillation of mild acids or 
 acetous liquors, a bladder fteeped in water, till it grow 
 (limy, makes an excellent luting. A luting that acquires 
 a ftony hardnefs is neceflary in the diftillation of foflil 
 acids, as vitriol, fea-falt, &c. which is called the philp- 
 fophical luting, and may be prepared from the calx of 
 copperas and quick-lime, by boiling the caput mortuum 
 in vitriol, in ftveral parcels of water, till thoroughly 
 waffled, then drying the powder, and preferring it in 
 a clofe veflel. This powder is to be rubbed with an 
 equal quantity of quick-lime, and wrought into a paffe 
 with the whites of eggs; firft beat them ; and this luting 
 immediately applied, the veflel being firft a little heated. 
 Or beat pure fand and potters clay together in fuch pro¬ 
 portion with water, till the matter no longer flicks to the 
 fingers : then add a fourth part of common lime; and 
 the drier this is applied the better, provided it be left duc¬ 
 tile, and the cracks are eafily flopped up by the fame. 
 
 To coat veflels in the ftronger diftillations with a 
 naked fire, beat fat potters earth and powdered fand with 
 water into a well-wrought pafte, which will not flick to 
 the fingers, adding a little common lime at the laft, and 
 beating them together : then, the veflel being expoled to 
 the vapour of hot water, fpread the cement all over it 
 equably with the hand, afterwards fprinkle die furface of 
 the coating with hot and dry fand, and let the coat dry 
 flowly in a cool place, minding to fill up the cracks. 
 
 The London chymifts ufe for the fame purpofe lifted 
 wood-afties beat up to a due confiftence with the white 
 
 e ggs snd a little gum-water. The lame lervice may 
 be performed in a more excellent manner by a mixture 
 of linfeed oil and cerufs made by infolation or decoCtion, 
 and afterwards ground upon a marble with frefh cerufs, 
 till the whole be of the confiftence of an unguent. 
 
L U T 
 
 Lute, a mufical inflrument of the firing kind. 
 
 The lute confifls of the table ; the body or belly, 
 which has nine or ten fides ; the neck, which has nine 
 or ten flops marked with firings : and the head or crofs, 
 wherein are ferews for railing or lowering the firings. 
 In the middle of the table is a rote for the paffage of the 
 found. There is alfo a bridge to which the firings are 
 fattened, and a piece of ivory between the head and the 
 neck, to which the other extremities of the firings' are 
 fitted. The itrings are ftruck with the right hand, and 
 with the left the flops arc preffed. 
 
 LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Dr. Martin 
 Luther and bis followers, with regard to religion. 
 
 Lutheranifm had its rile in the 16th century : its author 
 was born at Eilleben in Thuringia, in 1483.—After his 
 fludies, he entered himlelf among the Augullines; and 
 in 1512, took the cap of a do&or in theology, in the 
 viniverfky of Witenberg. 
 
 In 1516, he attacked the fchoof-divinity in fevcral 
 thefes.— In 1517, Leo X. having ordered indulgences 
 to be difpenfed to thofc who Ihould contribute towards 
 the building of S. Peter’s church at Rome, he gave a 
 commiffion thereof to the Dominicans .—1 he Auguflincs 
 thinking they had a title to it before any body elfe, John 
 Staupitz, their commifiary-general, appointed Luther to 
 preach againfl thofe difpenfers of indulgences. 
 
 Luther acquitted himlelf, in a manner, that perhaps 
 the commiffary had not imagined : from the preachers 
 of indulgences, he proceeded to indulgences themfelves, 
 and inveighed very warmly, bpth againfl the one and 
 the other. 
 
 At firfl he only advanced ambiguous propofitions ; 
 but being engaged in difpute about them, he maintained 
 them openly, and without referve ; infomuch, that in 
 1520 he was folemnly condemned, and excommunicated 
 by the pope.—But neither the pope’s thunder, nor the 
 condemnation of feveral univerfities, could make any 
 impreflion of terror upon him; but he continued preach¬ 
 ing, writing and difputing, not againfl indulgences only, 
 but feveral other corruptions which then prevailed in 
 the church. 
 
 The charaTer of the man, the flrength of his argu¬ 
 ments, but above all the goodnefs of his caufe, foon 
 procured him a number of followers.—And thus it was 
 that Lutheranifm was formed; the adherents whereto 
 were called Lutherans , from Lutherus , a name which has 
 a Greek turn, and which he afl'umed in lieu of his 
 family name, Latter, or Lauthcr ; it being the cuilom of 
 thofe days, for men of learning to give themfelves Greek 
 names : witnefs Eralmus, Mclandlhon, Bucer, See. 
 
 Luther, in 1523, quitted the habit of a religious, and 
 in 1524, married ; he reduced the number of lacraments 
 to two, viz. baptifm and the eucharifl; but he believed 
 the impanation or conlubflantiation, that is, that the 
 matter of bread and wine remains with the body and 
 blood of Chrill; and herein is the main difference be¬ 
 twixt the Lutheran and Englifh church. Luther main¬ 
 tained the mals to be no lacrifice ; exploded the adoration 
 of the hofl, auricular confcfiion, meritorious works, in¬ 
 dulgences, purgatory, the worfhip of images, See. which 
 had been introduced into the Romifh church. He alfo 
 oppofed the doftrine of free will ; maintained predefli- 
 nation, effectual calling, God’s everlafling love, and the 
 final perfeverance of the faints ; that we are only juili- 
 fied by the imputation of the merits and fatisfa&ion of 
 Chrifl. He alfo oppofed the fallings in the Romifh 
 church, monaflical vows, the celibacy of the clergy, See. 
 
 Melan£lhon fays, Ci Pomeranus is a grammarian ; I 
 “ am a logician; and Julius Jonas is an orator; but 
 “ Luther is good at every thing; the wonder of man- 
 “ kind ; for whatever he fays, or writes, it penetrates 
 “ the heart, and makes a lading impreflion.” 
 
 It has affo been laid of Luther, that it was a great 
 miracle a poor friar fhould be able to Hand againfl the 
 pope; it was greater that he fhould prevail ; and the 
 greatefl of all, that he fhould die in peace, as well as 
 Erafmus, when furrounded by fo many enemies. 
 
 Luther ufed to fay, That three things made a divine ; 
 meditation, prayer, and temptation. And that three 
 things were to be done by a miniflcr; to read the 
 bible diligently, to pray earnedly, and always to be a 
 learner. 
 
 The dottrine of this eminent divine, and great re- 
 
 L Y C 
 
 I former, extended itfelf through all Germairv, Denmark, 
 I Sweden, England, and other countries, under feme dif¬ 
 ferent modification “ We will conclude his charafter,” 
 lays a learned divine, “ with thefe verfes, which belong 
 “ to him much better than to Pollux, Hercules, Auguf- 
 “ tus, and others to whom Horace applied them.” 
 Juflum Sc tenacem propofiti virum 
 Non civium ardor prava jubentium, 
 
 Non vultus inflantis tyranni 
 
 Men'te quatit folida, neque Aufler 
 Dux inquieti turbidus Hadrise, 
 
 Ncc fulminantis magna Jovifs manus : 
 
 Si fraftus illabatur orbis, 
 
 Impaviduin ferient ruinae. 
 
 LUTHERANS, a left of proteflants who profefs 
 Lutheranifm. 
 
 LU 1 HERN, inarchite£lure, a kind of window over 
 the cornice, in the root of a building, Handing perpen¬ 
 dicularly over the naked of the wall, and ferving to illu¬ 
 minate the upper fiory. 
 
 LUXA I ION, Luxatio , in furgery, the recefs or re¬ 
 moval of the moveable extremity of a bone from the 
 hollow or focket in which it is naturally moved, accom¬ 
 panied with a hindrance of motion. This removal is 
 cither total or partial ; the former is a luxation, and the 
 latter a difiortion. 
 
 The method of healing luxations is very near the fame 
 with that of fradlures. Two things are neceilary ; firil, 
 a redu£tioh of the luxated parts; and, fecondly, a.reten¬ 
 tion of them in their natural fituation. We are alfo, 
 during the courfe of the cure, by proper remedies and a 
 due regimen, to mitigate the moll troublefome fymptoms 
 and to prevent future ones. The retaining diilocatcd 
 bones, in their proper fituation, may be compaflcd with 
 lefs difficulty than in fractured bones ; for luxations in 
 the upper extremities feldom require any flridt bandage, 
 or long reH. But, when this happens in the lower ex¬ 
 tremities, the patient fhould reH fome days in his bed, 
 and not move the limb, till the joint has recovered its 
 ufual flrength. 
 
 In a luxation of long Handing likewife a bandage and 
 refl are altogether neceffary, till the former vigour of the 
 ligaments is reflored ; though here, without a gentle 
 motion, there will be danger of a fliffnefs. In the mean 
 time it will be proper to bathe the bandages plentifully 
 with fome warm flrengthening Lpirit. The bandages 
 Ihould be neither too tight, nor too lax. The applica¬ 
 tion of plaiflers, mean time, is rather pernicious than 
 lerviceable. 
 
 The treatment of the fymptoms attending difloca' 
 tions, as inflammations, tumours, pains, convulfions, 
 and haemorrhages, is the fame as that in fra£tures and 
 wounds ; but after reduction they generally difappear in- 
 fenfibly. When the ligaments are very much debilitated, 
 it is extremely ferviceable, after having rubbed the part 
 well with warm linen, to foment it with burnt rectified 
 lpirit of wine, and after that a quantity of fome Hrength¬ 
 ening Lpirit, as directed in fradtures, applying a proper 
 bandage. 
 
 If a luxation is attended with a wound, the eighteen- 
 headed bandage is proper. An abfeefs Ihould be opened, 
 as foon as it is ripe ; for otherwife the pus will corrode 
 the articulation or bone and produce a dangerous fiflula, 
 which can be remedied only by amputation. When the 
 adjacent ligaments, tendons, and fkin are broken and 
 deflroyed, the cafe is then, according to Hippocrates, 
 abfolutely incurable ; and they will be fo far from uniting 
 firmly, that an attempt to reduce them will excite con¬ 
 vulfions and a gangrene : for the prefervation of life, 
 therefore, the limb fhould be immediately amputated. 
 
 LYCANTHROPY, Lycanthropia, in phyfick, a fpe- 
 cies of madnefs or melancholy, in which the patients 
 wander about in the night time, and in every thing imi¬ 
 tate wolves, fome bite and fnarl like dogs, and hence 
 it has been called cynanthropy. In the time of the fit 
 the patient Ihould be treated with phlebotomy, the blood 
 being fuffered to run till he faint. Meats of good juice, 
 with baths of lweet water, are to be preferibed. Whey 
 is to be drank for three days together, and a purge of 
 hicra or colocynthis twice or thrice adminiflered. After 
 purging, theriaca is to be exhibited, together with other 
 things proper for the cure of melancholy. 
 
 LYCEUM, 
 
L Y R 
 
 LYCEUM, a celebrated fchool at Athens, where 
 Ariftotle explained his philofophy. Itconlifted of por¬ 
 ticos and trees planted in the quincunx, form, where the 
 philosophers difputed walking. 
 
 LYCODONTES, in natural hiftory, the petrified 
 teeth of the lupus-pifeis, or wolf-filh, frequently found 
 follile. 'l'hey are of different fhapes, but the moll com¬ 
 mon kind rife into a femiorbicular form, and are hollow 
 within, fomevvhat refcmbling an acorn- cup : this hollow 
 is found fometimes empty, and fometimes filled with the 
 ftratum in which it is immerfed. Many of them have 
 an outer circle, of a different colour from the reft. 
 
 LYMPH, Lympha , in anatomy, a fine fluid, lome- 
 what mucilaginous, feparated in the body from the mafs 
 of blood, and contained in peculiar veffels. 
 
 Below the parotides, toward the maftoide apophvfts, 
 is fixed a lmall round gland, of an even fur face; and it 
 is the uppermoft of a great number of glands of the 
 fame kind, which lie partly below the interftice be¬ 
 tween the parotide and maxillary glands, and at different 
 diftances along the internal jugular vein, all the way 
 to the lower part of the neck. Among thele there is a 
 great number of tranfparent veftels, with an appearance 
 of numerous valves, that contain lymph. 1 he veftels 
 are called lymphatick veffels, and the glands lymphatick 
 glands. Some of tliefe glands are oblong, thick, flat, 
 and lmall. The lymphatick veftels go out alternately 
 by one extremity from one gland, and enter by the other 
 extremity fome other gland near the former, the extre¬ 
 mities ingoing out and entering being very much ramified. 
 The trunk is commonly iingle, and the valves are fo 
 clifpofed that the fluid can only run toward the thorax, 
 but cannot return to the head. 
 
 The lymph that comes from the head, neck, and 
 arms, is thrown into the jugular and fubclavian veins. 
 All the lymphrcdudls in the thorax empty themfelves into 
 the thoracick dudt, and the lymph from all the reft of the 
 body flows to the receptacle of the chyle ; fo that, doubt- 
 lei's, its chief ufe is to dilute and perfedt the chyle, be¬ 
 fore it mixes With the blood. 
 
 LYMPHAT 1 CKS, Lymphadufis , in anatomy, fine 
 fmall veffels, that convey the lymph. Sec Lymph. 
 
 LYRA, a conftellation in the northern hcmilphere ; 
 containing, in Ptolemy’s and Tycho’s catalogues, io, 
 and in the Britannick catalogue, 19 ftars. 
 
 LYRE, Lyra, in antiquity, an inftrument of the 
 ftringed kind, much ufed among the ancients. 
 
 From the lyre, which all agree to be the firft inftru¬ 
 ment of the ftringed kind in Greece, arofe an infinite 
 number of others, differing in lhape and number of 
 Brings, as the pfalterium, trigon, fambucus, pedtis, 
 inagadis, barbiton, teftudo, the two laft being ufed pro- 
 milcuoufly by Horace with the lyre and cithara, epigo- 
 nium, fimmicium, and pandura, which were all ftruck 
 with the hand, or a pledlrum. 
 
 Lyre, among painters, &c. is an attribute of Apollo 
 and the mufes. 
 
 LYRICK, fomething ftmg or played on the lyre ; but 
 more particularly it is applied to the ancient odes and 
 ffanzas, anfwering to our airs or longs, and may be 
 played oninftruments ; though our madrigals degenerate 
 
 L Y S 
 
 much from their original the ode. This Ipecies of poetry 
 was originally employed in celebrating the praifeS of gods 
 and heroes; though it was afterwards introduced into 
 feafts and publick diverfions. Mr. Barnes /(lews how 
 unjuft it is to exclude heroick fubjedts from this fort of 
 verfe, which is capable of all the elevation fuell matters 
 require. 
 
 The characleriftick of this kind of poetry is the fwcct - 
 ndfs and variety of the verfe, the delicacy of the words 
 and thoughts, the agreeablenefs of the numbers, and the 
 defeription of things moft plcafing in their own nature;. 
 
 At firlt the verfe of the lyrick kind was only of one 
 kind ; but afterwards they fo varied in the feet and inmir 
 hers, that their forts are now alnioft innumerable. This 
 kind of poem is diftinguiftied from all other odes by the 
 happy tranfitions and digreftions which it beautifully 
 admits, and the furprizing and naturally eafy returns to 
 the fubjedt, which is not to be obtained without great 
 judgment and genius. 
 
 The lyrick is, of all kinds of poetry, the moft poetical, 
 and is as diftindt, both in ftile and thought, from the 
 reft, as poetry in general is from prole. It is the boldeft 
 of all other kinds, full of rapture, and elevated from 
 common language the moft that is poflrble. Some odes 
 there are likewife in the free and loofc manner, which 
 feem to avoid all method, and yet are condudted by a 
 very clear one ; which affedt tranfitions, feerrfingly-with¬ 
 out art, but for that reafori have the more of it, delight¬ 
 ing in exclamations and frequent invocations of the 
 mufes; which begin and end abruptly, and arc carried 
 on through a variety of matter, with a fort of divine 
 pathos, above rules and the common forms of grammar. 
 Pindar has fet his fucceffors the example of digreftions 
 and excurfions. 
 
 To write a lyrick pocnl arc required not only a flowing 
 imagination, brightnefs, life, iublimity, and elegance, 
 but the niceft art and fineft judgment, fo as to feem lux¬ 
 uriant, and not befo ; and, under the lhew of tranfgref- 
 ling all laws, to preferve them. 
 
 Thole digreftions which quite leave the fubjedt, and 
 never return to it again, pleal'e lefs than fomc others of 
 a very different kind. The former are defeniible, and 
 fometimes highly commendable ; for a poet is not al¬ 
 ways obliged to dwell upon the fame argument from one 
 end to the other, and thefe are rather tranfitions than 
 digreftions. But the digreftions which are chiefly to be 
 admired, are fucli as take occafion from fome adjundt or 
 circumftance ot the fubjedt, to pais on to fomewhat elfe 
 not totally diftindt from it, with which the imagination 
 having been diverted for fome time, new matter ftarts 
 up ; and, from fome ne\v adjundt of that, the poet is 
 brought back of a fudden to his firft defign. 
 
 LYSIMACH 1 A, in botany, a genus of the pentan- 
 dria monogynia clafs. The calix is rotated ; and the 
 capfule is roundilh, with a iharp point, and contains 10 
 valves. There are 11 fpecies, live of them natives of 
 Britain, viz. the vulgaris, or yellow willow-herb; the 
 thyrliflora, or tufted loofe-ftrife ; the nemorum, or yellow 
 pimpernell of the woods; the nummularia, or money?, 
 wort; and the tenella, or purple money-wort. 
 
 M, or. 
 
 Vol, II. No. 46. 
 
 T 
 
M A C 
 
 M Or m, the twelfth letter and ninth confon&nt 
 of our alphabet : it is a liquid and labial con- 
 *) ionant, pronounced by linking or moving 
 the under lip againft the upper one; its found is always 
 the fame in Englifh; audit admits no confonant after it 
 in the beginning of words and fyllables, except in fonie 
 Greek words, nor does it come after any in that cafe. It 
 fuffers not the found of n, coming after it, to be heard, 
 as in autumn, folemn, &c. 
 
 M, in prefeription, fignifies a maniple or handful; 
 and at the end of a receipt it imports mijee, or mingle. 
 
 M, in aflronomy, &c. denotes meridional, fouthern ; 
 fometimes meridies, or mid-day. 
 
 M, in law, the brand of a perfon convifted of man¬ 
 slaughter, and admitted to the benefit of the clergy; it 
 is burn* on the brawn of the left thumb. 
 
 M, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, ligni- 
 fying ajhoufand : when a daih was added at the top of 
 it, as M, it fignified a thoufand times a thoufand. 
 
 MACARONICK, Macaroni an, a kind ofburlefque 
 poetry, confifting of a jumble of words of different lan¬ 
 guages, with words of the -vulgar tongue latinifcd, and 
 Latin words modernifed. 
 
 MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of Scripture; 
 fo called from Judas Mattatliias, l'urnamed Maccabus. 
 
 MACE, A'lacis, the fecond coat or covering of the 
 nutmeg. 
 
 It is a thin and flat membranous fubflatice, of an 
 oleaginous nature, a yellowilh colour, extremely fra¬ 
 grant, and of a pleafant, but acrid and oleaginous tafte. 
 It is to be chofen new, not dry, and of a fragrant fmell; 
 tough, oleaginous, and of a good yellow. 
 
 Mace abounds with the fame fort of oil that is found 
 in the nutmeg; but it is thinner in the mace, and is in 
 a greater quantity. If the oil be fepai ated by diftillation, 
 what comes firfl over of it is thin and limpid like water, 
 and is of the moil fragrant fmell; what follows this is 
 yellowilh, and lomewhat thicker: and, finally, a third 
 kind comes over, if the fire be made more violent, which 
 is icdilh; and all three of thefe are fo lubtile and vo¬ 
 latile, that if they are not kept in veflels very clofe flop¬ 
 ped, great part will evaporate into the air, all their finer 
 parts flying off. An oil may alfo be drawn from mace, 
 in the fame manner as from nutmeg, by exprefllon; it 
 is afforded in a larger quantity this way, than from the 
 nutmeg, and is ofa lomewhat fofter confluence. 
 
 Mace is carminative, flomachick, and aftringent; it 
 poflefles all the virtues of the nutmeg, if taken in a 
 larger dole ; and people have become delirious, for fome 
 hours, after an immoderate ufe of it. The oils of mace 
 and nutmeg, whether prepared by diftillation or by ex- 
 prefflon, are fo much of the fame nature, that they may 
 be indilcriminately ufed for one another on all occafions. 
 They give eafe in cholicks, and often, in nephritickcafes, 
 taken internally from one drop to five or fix of the dif- 
 tilied oil, or an equal quantity of the exprefled ; and ex¬ 
 ternally, they are of ufe to rub upparalvtick limbs; they 
 alfo alfill digeftion, and will often flop vomiting and 
 hiccoughs, only by being rubbed on the regions of the 
 flomach. The nurl'es have a cuftom of applying oil of 
 mace, by exprelfion, to children’s navels, to eale their 
 gripes, and tliat often with fuccels ; and we are affured 
 by authors of credit, that rubbed on the temples, it pro¬ 
 motes fleep. The oils, by diftillation, arc very properly 
 added to the ftronger catharticks in form of pills, and 
 prove excellent corre&ives. 
 
 .MACHINE, Machina , in general, whatever hath 
 force lufficicnt to raife or ftop the motion of a heavv body. 
 
 Machines are either fimple or compound; the fimple 
 ones 2re the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever, 
 balance, pullv, axis and wheel, wedge, ferew, and in- 
 
 M A C 
 
 dined plane. See the articles, Power, Lever, Ba* 
 lance, &c. 
 
 From thefe the compound ones are formed by various 
 combinations, and ferve for different purpofes ; in al? 
 which, the fame general law takes place, viz. that the 
 power and weight luftain each other, when they are in 
 the i live lie proportion of the velocities they would have 
 in the dire&ions wherein they adl if they were put in 
 motion. Now, to apply this law to any compound ma¬ 
 chine, there are four things to be conlidered; i. The 
 moving power, or the force that puts the machine in 
 motion, which may be either men or other animals, 
 weights, fprings, the wind, a ftream of water, Ac. 
 2. Ehe velocity of this power, or the fpace it moves 
 over in a given time. 3. The refiftance, or quantity, 
 of the weight to be moved. 4. The velocity of this 
 weight, or the fpace it moves over in the a given time. 
 
 The two firft of thefe quantities are always in the 
 reciprocal proportion of the two laft ; that is, the pro¬ 
 duct of the firft two nmft always be equal to that of the 
 laft: hence, three of tliele quantities being given, it is 
 cafy to find the fourth ; for example, if the quantity of 
 the power be 4, its velocity 15, and the velocity of the 
 weight 2, then the refiftance, or quantity of the weight, 
 
 -111 1 4. X1 c 60 
 
 will be equal to-- - =— =30. 
 
 2 z 
 
 Compound machines are extremely numerous, as 
 mills, pumps, wheel-carriages, clocks, fire-engines, See. 
 See Engine, Mill, Pump, Water-Works, &c.. 
 In (plate LI. fig. 3.) is a compound machine, wherein 
 are combined all the fimple mechanical powers. It is 
 contained in a frame ABCD, fattened by the nut n upon 
 the Hand n O, and held together by the pillars V W 
 and By. 1. The piece E F, whofe fanes or flies may 
 be put in motion by die wind, or drawn by a hair 
 fattened atF, reprefents the lever and balance. 2. At 
 right angles to tliis is joined the perpendicular fpindle 
 G H, having upon it the endlels ferew H, which may 
 alfo be cpnfideied as a wedge. 3. This cndlefs ferevy, 
 or worm, takes the fleew teeth of the wheel K, which is 
 the axis in peritrochio ; and, in turning round, winds 
 up the firing L M upon its axis, which palling round 
 the pullies at M and N, or drawing by a tackle of five, 
 raifes the weight P. But as the ferew has no progrellive 
 motion on its axis, it cannot here be faid to take in die 
 incl'med plane; therefore, to make this engine take in 
 all die mechanical powers, we may add the inclined 
 plane rq QR, by making it reft on the ground at Q_R, 
 and on the pillar yB at rq\ whereby the force of the 
 power, drawing at F, will be further increafed in the 
 ratio of Q_T, the length of the plane, to T S, its 
 height. 1 lie whole force gained by this machine is 
 found by comparing the fpace gone through by the point 
 F, with the height that die weight is railed inanv deter¬ 
 minate number of revolutions of F; and this force is 
 fo confiderable, than an hundred pounds weight at P 
 will be ealily raifed bv the hair of a mail’s head drawing 
 atF. 0 
 
 In cranes, and many other machines, the power is fo 
 applied to one part of the machine, as to a£l immediate¬ 
 ly upon the weight; but there are others, as the engine 
 for driving piles, in which the force of the power is ac¬ 
 cumulated, before the weight is a£led on at all. 
 
 The following rules, which are taken from Mr. 
 Emerfon’s 'T rcatife, will diredl the mechanick how he 
 may contrive his machine, that it may anfwer the in¬ 
 tended purpofe to the bell advantage : 
 
 1. Having affigned die proportion of your power and 
 the weight to he railed, the next thing is to confider how 
 to combine levers, wheels, pullies, Ac. fo that working 
 together, they may be able to give a \docity to the 
 2 power. 
 
M A C 
 
 power, which fliall be to that of the weight fomething 
 greater than in the proportion of the weight to the power. 
 This done, you mult eftimateyour quantity of friflion, 
 and if the velocity of the power be to that of the weight 
 ftill in a greater proportion than the weight and friQion 
 taken together is to the power ; then your machine will 
 be able to raife the weight. And note, this proportion 
 muft be fo much greater, as you would have your engine 
 work After. 
 
 2. But the proportion of the velocity of the power and 
 weight muft not be made too great neither : for it is a 
 fault to give a machine too much power, as well as too 
 little. For if the power can raife the weight and over¬ 
 come the refillance, and the engine perform its proper 
 effeft in a convenient time, and works well, it is fuffi- 
 cient for the end propofed. And it is in vain to make 
 more additions to the engine to increafe the power any 
 further ; for that would not only be a needlels expence, 
 but the engine would lofe time in working. 
 
 3. As to the power applied to work the engine* it may 
 be either a living power, as men, horfes, 8cc. or an arti¬ 
 ficial power, as a fpring, &c. or a natural power, as 
 wind, water, fire, weights, &c. 
 
 When the quantity of the power is known, it mat¬ 
 ters not as to the effeft what kind of power it is ; for 
 the fame quantity of any fort will produce the fame ef- 
 fed. And different forts of powers may be applied in 
 an equal quantity, a great variety of ways. 
 
 The moft eafy power applied to a machine is weight, 
 if it be capable of effeding the thing defigned. If not. 
 then wind, water, &c. if that can conveniently be had. 
 and without much expence. 
 
 A fpring is alfo a convenient moving power for feveral 
 machines. But it never ads equally as a weight does; 
 but is flronger when much bent, that when but a little 
 bent, and that in proportion to the degree of bending, or 
 the diftance it is forced to. But fprings grow weaker by 
 often bending, or remaining long bent ; yet they recover 
 part of their ftrength by lying unbent. 
 
 The natural powers of wind and water may be applied 
 with vaft advantage to the working of great engines 
 when managed with fkill and judgment. 1 he due ap¬ 
 plication of thefe has much abridged the labours of men. 
 For there is fcarce any labour to be performed, but an 
 ingenious artificer can tell how to apply thele powers to 
 execute his defign, and anfwer his purpofe. for any 
 conftant motion beinggiven, it may, by due application, 
 be made to produce any other motions wc defire. There¬ 
 fore tliefe powers are the moil eafy and vrfeful, and of the 
 greateft benefit to mankind. Befides, they coft no hing 
 nor require any repetition or renewing, like a weight or a 
 fpring, which require to be wound up. W hen theie can¬ 
 not be had, or cannot ferve our end, we have recourle 
 to fome living power, as men, horfes, he. 
 
 4. Men may apply their ftrength feveral ways in work¬ 
 ing a machine. A man of ordinary ftrength, turning a 
 roller by the handle, can aft for a whole day againft a 
 refiilance equal to thirty pounds weight: and it he work 
 ten hours in a day, he will raife a weight of 30lb. 3' feet 
 in afccond; or if the weight be greater, lie will raife it 
 fi> much lels 111 proportion. But a man may aft, for a 
 feisfi: time, againft a relillance of 50ft). or more * 
 
 If two men work at a windlafs or roller, they can more 
 cafiLv draw up yolb. than one man can 301b. provided 
 the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to 
 tltat of the other. And with a fiv or heavy wheel ap¬ 
 plied to it, a man may do one-third part more work ; 
 auadi tor a little while aft with a force, or overcome a 
 continual rcfiftance, of '80 lb. and work a whole day 
 when the rcfiftance is but 40lb. 
 
 Men ufed to carrying, Inch as porters, will carry 
 fome 1501b. others 200 or 2501b. according to their 
 ftrength- 
 
 A man can draw but about 70 or 80 lb. horizontally; 
 fbir he can but apply about halfhis weight. 
 
 If the weight of a man be iqolb. he can aft with no 
 greater foice in thrufting horizontally, at the height of 
 bis. fhoulders,. than 27.1b. 
 
 A boric draws to gieatcft advantage, when the line of 
 dihreftion is a little elevated above the horizon, and the 
 power afts againft his breail, and can draw 200lb. for 
 ctsrht houis in a day, a two mil^s and a half an hour. If 
 fee thaws 2401b. he can work but fix hours, and not 
 
 M A C 
 
 quite fo fail; and in both cafes, if be carries fome 
 weight, he will draw better than if he carried none. 
 And this is the weight a liorfe is fuppofed to be able to 
 draw over a pully out of a well. In a cart, a liorfe may 
 draw 1000 lb. The moft force a horle can exert is 
 when he draws fomething above a horizontal pofition. 
 
 The word way of applying the ftrength of a boric, is 
 to make him carry or draw up a hill. And three nun, 
 with 100lb. on their backs, will climb up a fleep hill 
 fafter than a horle with 3001b. 
 
 A round walk for a liorfe to draw in y at a mill, he. 
 fliould not be lels than forty feet diameter. 
 
 5. Every machine ought to be made of as few parts, 
 and thofe as liinple as poffible, to anfwer. its purpofe ; 
 not only becaufe the expence of making and repairing 
 will be leis, but it will alfo be Id's liable to any c]iforder. 
 And it is nccdlefs to do a thing with many, which may 
 be done with fewer parts. 
 
 6. If a weight is to be raifed but a very little way, the 
 lever is the moft limple, eafy, and ready machine. Or 
 if the weight be very great, the common ferew is moft 
 proper. But if the weight is to be railed a great way, 
 the wheel and axle is a proper power, and blocks and 
 pullics are eafier ftill; and the fame may be done by help 
 of the perpetual ferew. 
 
 Great wheels to be wrought by men or cattle are of 
 moft ufe and convenience, when their axles are perpen¬ 
 dicular to the horizon ; but if by water, he. then it is 
 beft to have their axles horizontal. 
 
 7. As to the combination of limple machines toge¬ 
 ther, to make a compound one; though tire lever when 
 limple cannot raife a weight to any great height, and in 
 this cafe is of little fervice; yet it is ofgie'at ufe when 
 compounded with others. T. bus the lpokes of a great 
 wheel arc all levers perpetually afting; and a beam fixed 
 to the axis to draw the wheel about by men, or horfes, 
 is a lever. The lever alfo may be combined with the 
 ferew, but not conveniently with pullics or with the 
 wedge. The wheel and axle is combined with great ad¬ 
 vantage with puliies. The ferew is not well combined 
 with pullics; but the perpetual ferew combined with the 
 wheel is very ferviceable. The wedge cannot be com¬ 
 bined with any other mechanical power; and it only 
 performs its effeft by percuflion ; but this force of per- 
 culfion may be increafcd by engines. 
 
 Puliies may be combined with puliies, and wheels with 
 wheels. Therefore if any finglc wheel would be too 
 large, and take up too much room, it may be divided 
 into two or three more wheels and trundles, or wheels 
 and pinions, as in clock-work; fo as to have the fame 
 power, and perform the fame effeft. 
 
 In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth which play 
 together in two wheels ought to be prime to each other, 
 that the fame teeth may not meet at every revolution; for 
 when different teeth meet, they by degrees wear thcrti- 
 fclves into a proper figure : therefore they Ihould be con¬ 
 trived that the lame teeth meet as feldomas poffible. 
 
 8. The ftrength of every part of the machine ought to 
 be made proportional to the Ilrefs it is to bear. And 
 therefore let every lever be made fo much ftronger, as its 
 length and the weight it is to fupport is greater ; and let 
 its "ftrength diminilh proportionally from the fulcrum, 
 or pointwhere the greateft ftrel's is, to each end. The 
 axles of wheels and puliies muft be fo much ftronger as 
 they are to bear greater weight. The teeth of wheels, 
 and the wheels themfelves, which aft with greater force, 
 muft be proportionally ftronger. And in any combina¬ 
 tion of wheels and axles, make their ftrength diminilh 
 gradually from the weight to the power, fo that the 
 ftrength of every part be reciprocally as the velocity it 
 has. The ftrength of ropes muft be according to their 
 tenfion, and that is as the fquares of their diameters. 
 And in general whatever parts a machine is compoildof, 
 the ftrength of every particular part of it muft be adjufted 
 to the Ilrefs upon it; therefore in Equate beams the cubes 
 of the diameters muft be made proportional to the ftrel's 
 they bear. And let no part be ftronger or bigger than 
 is neceffarv for the ftrel's upon it: not only .for the eafe- 
 and well going of the machine, but for climinilhing the 
 jfriftion. ° For all l'uperfiuous matter in any part of it, is 
 inothing but a dead weight upon the machine, and ferves 
 for nothing but to clog its motion. A ltd he is by no means 
 a pevfeft mechauick, that does only adjull tire ftrength to 
 
 the 
 
MAC 
 
 f?ie A refs, but who all'o contrives all the parts to lafi 
 equally w ell, that the whole machine may fail together. 
 
 9. 1 o have the friCtion as little as poflibIe,"the ma¬ 
 chine ought to be made of the feweft and fimpleft parts. 
 1 lie diameters of the wheels and pullies ought to be larijb, 
 and the diameters of the arbors or fpindles they run on,* 
 as fmall as can be confident with their firerrgth. All 
 ropes and cords mud be as pliable as pollible, and for 
 that end rubbed with tar or greale ; the teeth of wheels 
 mull be made to fit and fill up the openings; and cut into 
 the form of epicycloids. All the axles.' where the mo¬ 
 tion is, and all teeth where they work, and all parts 
 that m working rub upon one another, mull be made 
 fmootli; and when the machine goes, nruft be oiled or 
 greafed. 
 
 10. W hen any motion is to be long continued, con¬ 
 trive the power to move or aft always one wav, if it can 
 be done. For this is better and eaiier performed than 
 when the motion is interrupted, and the power is forced 
 to move foil one way and then another ; hccaufe every 
 new change of motion requires a new additional force to 
 etteft it. Belides, a body in motion cannot fuddcnlv re- 
 e«ve a contrary motion, without great violence. And 
 tlie moving anv part of the machine contrary ways by 
 turns, with hidden jerks, tends only to lliaki the ma'- 
 chine to pieces. 
 
 11. In a machine that moves always one wav, endea¬ 
 vour to have the motion uniform. 
 
 -2. But when the nature of the thing requires that a 
 motion is to be fuddenly communicated to a body, or 
 iiiddenly Hopped; to pieVent any damage or violence to 
 the engine, by a Hidden jolt, let the force aft againfl 
 lome Ipnng, or beam of wood, which may fupply the 
 place ol a fipring. ; 
 
 13. In regard to the fize of the machine; let it he 
 made as large as it can conveniently. The greater the 
 machine, the exaCtcr it will work, and perform ail its 
 motions the better. For there will always be fome errors 
 in the making, as well as in the materials; and confc- 
 qucntly in the working of the machine. The refinance 
 ol the medium in iome machines hasalenfible effeCt. But 
 all theie mechanical errors bear a lei's proportion to the 
 motion of the machine fn great machines than in little 
 ones ; being nearly reciprocally as their diameters ; fup- 
 pofing they are made of the fame matter, and with the 
 lame accuracy, and are equally well finilhed : therefore 
 in a fmall machine they arc more fenfible ; but in a greut 
 one almoft vanilh r therefore great machines will anfwer' 
 better than fmallcr, in all relpeas, except in firength 
 l or the greater the machine, the weaker it is, and lefs; 
 able to refill any violence. 
 
 14. For engines that go by water, it is neeeffiry to 
 mealure the velocity and force of the water. To "it the 
 velocity, drop in pieces of llicks, Ac. and obferve how 
 far they are carried in a fecond, or any given time. 
 
 But if it Hows through a hole in a relervoir, or Hand¬ 
 ing receptacle el water, the velocity will be found from 
 the depth of the hole below the furface. 
 
 1 bus let - f — 16 -rV feet. v = velocity of the fluid per fe¬ 
 cond. B = the area of the hole. H = height of the 
 water ; all in feet. 1 hen the velocity v~ */ 2s H ; and 
 its force the weight ol the quantity — B- or H B of 
 
 water, or=—^ II B hundred weight: becaufe a cubick 
 
 foot is — 62 ! lb. avoird. All© a hogfhead is about 8 - 
 ieet, or 531 lb. and a ton is four hoglheads. 
 
 M hen \ou have hut a fmall quantity of water, you 
 nmli contrive it to tall as high as you can, to have the 
 greater velocity, and conJequcntly more force upon the 
 engine. 
 
 J 5 - If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a <->reat 
 difiance, and the defeent be but final!; to much lamer 
 pipes mult be uied, becaule the water will come flow. 
 
 Water Ihould not be driven through pipes fafier than 
 four feet per fccond, by reaibn of the friCtion of the tubes. 
 
 Nor ihould it be much wire-drawn, that is, lqueezed 
 through fmaller pipes ; for that creates a refinance, as 
 water-way is Jets in narrow pipes. 
 
 16. W hen any work is to be perlormed by a water 
 wheel, moved by the water running under it and Hrikin° 
 the paddles, or ladle boards ; the channel it moves m 
 sught to be foinething^vider than the liole of the adju- 1 
 
 M A C 
 
 cage, and fo clofe to the floats on every fide, as to let 
 little or no waterpafs; and when pafi the'wheel, to open 
 a little that the water may ipread. It is of no advan¬ 
 tage to have a great number of floats, or paddles, for 
 tlicle pafi the perpendicular are refitted by the back water, 
 and thofe before it are Hruck obliquely. The greateft 
 eifect that fuch a wheel can perform, in communicating 
 any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move 
 with 4 the velocity of the water; in which cafe, the. 
 force upon the paddles is ± only ; fuppofing the abfolute 
 force of the water agaiivit the paddle, when the wheel 
 Hands Hill, to be 1. So that the utmofi motion which 
 the wheel can generate, is but T * of that which the force 
 of the water againfl the paddles at refi, would produce. 
 } his 1S "'hen the wheel is at the befi ; but oftentimes- 
 far lefs is done. 
 
 i here is ilill another fpecies of machine, which afls 
 by a diftinft power, the compreffion and expanfion of 
 air : and the following inftances will fufficietltly explain 
 
 the manner in which that power afts. 
 
 . I hc .v were invented and brought to perfection by tlie 
 ingenious Mr. Blakev ; who has obtained his majefty's 
 patent tor fccuring to himfelf the advantages that may 
 remit from their ufe. 
 
 PUi XLVUL fig. 1. is a fountain which afts by 
 compremon ot air; it confifts of four cocks and pipes 
 w ith two copper vellels, one above the other ; it could 
 hat e been made with one cock and pipe lels, but in order 
 to render it more clear, it was thought better to ihevv 
 two diftltlft tubes, tor the water to be lien running from 
 one,^ while it is flopped in tlie other. 
 
 To fet this machine in aSion, the veflels E and L 
 being empty, the cocks O and il mull be opened, which 
 lets water run from the cittern A through the pb-. e C 
 into the funnel D, and the veffel E, and will go out a’t 
 N ;T n E 15 ful[ -. Then B, D, and O, mutt be flint, 
 and b opened, which latt lets water run from the cittern 
 A into the funnel H, down the pipe I into the veflel L : 
 as it fills, the water forces the air to rife through the pipe 
 M into the veflel E, and preffes on the furface of the 
 water therein, which makes it afeend and form a pleafant 
 jet, I 1 , which lafts till all the water is out of the veflel 
 H: when the jet rifes no more, FmuHbeflnu, and O, 
 
 O, and B, mufi be opened, which lets the water ruii 
 Horn A into E ; at the lame time the water runs out at 
 O, which, when all out, O, D, and B, mull be Ihut. 
 And by repeatedly turning the cocks, as above, the 
 fountain can be made to play as long as there is water in 
 the cittern A. 
 
 _ P /at \ ^-fig- 1. is a machine put in aftion by comprcf- 
 iion of air, and works itfelf. The whole confifts of 
 copper veflels and pipes divided into ftages, in proportion 
 to the firfi fall of water, and the height wanted to be 
 railed. The height of the firfi Hage is fixed from B to 
 the level ot the cock S. The height of the fecond Hage 
 is taken from the orifice O, of the conducting nip C M 
 to the level of the fame cock S. 
 
 In the firfi apparatus, a fpring of water runs from the 
 trough or refervoir A through the cock B ; C is a ciilern 
 over the veflel B, which is joined by the water pipe E, 
 and air pipe F, to the under veflel R ; G is a balanced 
 trough which is faflened to the key of the cock S, which 
 is to turn tlie cocks H and S; I is a communicating 
 pipe from the cifiern C to the veffel D ; L is a valve in 
 which is a clack, which rifes to let the water run front 
 the cifiern C through the pipe I into the veffel D ; AI 
 is a conducting pipe which has a valve N, and in it a 
 clack, which riles to let the water go up and pour out 
 at the orifice O ; P is a conducting pipe to receive water 
 horn the cifiern C, that it Ihould not be overflowed. 
 
 I his makes the firfi Hage, which anfvvers nearly to what 
 is called a lift in hydraulick works. 
 
 The fecond ftage of apparatus is marked with italick 
 letters, c is the cifiern over the veffel d, which is joined 
 by the water-pipe e, and air-pipe f to the under veffel r ; 
 
 S 18 a balanced trough, which is faftened to the key of 
 the cock/, which is to turn the cocks h and/; i is a 
 communicating pipe from the cifiern c to the veffel d -, 
 
 / is a valve, in which is a clack, which riles to let the 
 water run Irony the cifiern c, through the pipe i into the 
 veflel d\ mm is a conducting pipe; n is a valve, in 
 which is a clack which rifes to let the water go up and 
 pour out at,the orifice 0 K p is a conduCtiug pipe. 
 
 In 
 
MAC 
 
 In order to fet this machine at work, the balanced 
 trough G muft be prefled down, and the cock B opened, 
 which lets water run into the eiftern C. through die pipe 
 I, raifes the clack in the valve L, and fills the veflel 13 , 
 which when full, the water riles in the eiftern C till it 
 is up to the orifice of the pipe E ; then the balanced 
 trough is let loofe, which rifes and opens the clack H, 
 and Ihuts the cock S. As the water runs down the pipe 
 E through the cock H into the veflel R, it is flopped by 
 the cock S and rifes in R, which obliges the air in the 
 laid veflel R to rife through the air-pipe F ; which air- 
 pipe is capped at T, and the cap foldered to the upper 
 part of the veflel D, the air goes down the faid cap and 
 through a few holes made on the top of the Veflel 1 ), in 
 the inlidc of the cap T, and lo is forced to prefs on the 
 furface of the water in the veflel D, and prefles on the 
 clack D, goes up M, raifes the clack in the valve N, 
 and runs out at the orifice O. When all the watei. is 
 out of the'veflel D, it rifes in the eiftern C, and run. 
 out at the orifice of the conducting pipe P, which loads 
 the balanced trough G, makes it fall, and pulls the rod 
 U that is fattened to the turn-key W, which fhuts the 
 cock H. At the fame time,- the trough G falls, and 
 opens the cock S, to the key of which the balanced 
 trough is fattened. As icon as S is opened, it lets out 
 the water from R, which incrcafes the weight of G, 
 and makes it fall down very quick, and entirely opens 
 the cock S for the water in the veflel R to run out freely. 
 
 At the fame time that the cock S is opened, the water 
 in the cittern C runs through the pipe I, lifts up the 
 clack E, and rifes in the veflel D, which is as foon full 
 as the veflel R is empty. When all the water is out of 
 the veflel R, the balanced trough G rifes and fhuts the 
 cock S, and opens H ; and as the water continually runs 
 out from B, it loon fills the cittern C, and goes down 
 the pipe.E, and repeats the lame operation as before, en¬ 
 forcing the water up the pipe M, out at the orifice O, 
 .and fo continues the firft apparatus as long as the watei 
 runs out at the cock B. 
 
 The fecond apparatus is worked in the fame manner, 
 excepting that inftead of the trough or refervoir A, and 
 the water’s running out of the cock B. the water runs 
 out of the orifice O, of the pipe M in the firft apparatus 
 into the cittern c, and through the pipe;, &c. 
 
 Piate L. fig. 2. is a hand machine, works by power of 
 expanfion and condcnfation of air; will force up any 
 quantity of water, in proportion to the fize and ftrength 
 of the veflels, which confift of a boiler A, its pipe B, and 
 its cock /; on the cover of A is fattened a funnel C, with 
 the gage pipe u- D, D, D, is the fleam-pipe, which 
 goes from the boiler A to the receiver E ; G is a large 
 cock, fattened to the pipe W W, which lets water run 
 from the cittern H into the receiver E ; F is an air-cock; 
 
 1 is a little cock which lets water run from the clack-box 
 L, through RR and B, to feed the boiler A -, M is a 
 communicating pipe from the receiver E to the clack- 
 box L ; N is a conducting pipe, through which the 
 water is made to rife and fall out of the orifice O ; P, P, 
 are the communicating rods pinned to the turn-keys of 
 the above mentioned cocks ; Q_is the handle with which 
 the cocks are opened and fliut, / is a cock to let water 
 out from the boiler. 
 
 To make this machine work, the handle Q^muft be 
 hoifted up, which putties the cummunicating rods P P, 
 and opens the air-cock F, the cock G (which G lets 
 water run from the cittern H into the receiver E) and 
 the little cock 1 , which is to feed the boiler A. When 
 the water begins to run out of the cock F, the handle 
 Q_mufl immediately be pulhed down, which Ihuts the 
 cocks I, G, and F' Water muft then be poured into 
 the funnel C ; which water falls into the boiler A, till 
 it rifes up.to the orifice of the gauge pipe u ; then the 
 funnel cock muft be fhut. 
 
 Fire now muft be made under the boiler A, winch 
 makes the water boil and fleam, to rife, and force itfelf 
 through the pipe D D D, on the air which is upon the 
 furface of the water in the receiver E ; which air prefles 
 the water down', and through the pipe M, raifes the 
 clack S, runs up N, and out at the orifice O, till all 
 the water is expelled from the receiver E, when the air 
 inftantaneoufly follows, and caufes a great gufh of water 
 to fly out of the orifice O; after which the handle Q. 
 muft be hoifted up again, to begin another operation : 
 
 . Vo.l. II. -No. .46, 
 
 M A C 
 
 aild thus may the machine be kept workiilg as ldn£ a'3 
 fire is under the boiler A. 
 
 This engine is very . proper for fupplying houfes or 
 gardens with water; the effe£ls of :t are Ample, and may 
 be conceived by the meaneft capacities. 
 
 Plate 1 -. fig- 3- This machine is made, to work by the 
 powers of condenfion and expanfion ; the firft of thefe 
 powers have the advantage of railing water into a cylinder 
 of any fize, even if it could be made to contain a thou— 
 land tons ; but this power of condenfion is limited in the- 
 height to which it can make water rife. 
 
 This engine confifts of a boiler A ; a cylinder B ; a, 
 communicating pipe C;. a (udlion-pipe 13 , with a clack- 
 box E ; conducting pipe F, with its rclervoir G. h is. 
 the fleam-cock; i is the inje£ling-cock; g is a valve- 
 cock ; k is the boiler’s lmall leadingcock; 0 is the boiler s 
 pipe ; pp is the fleam-pipe; l is an air cock and valve;; 
 ni is a turn-key, and X a floater fattened to the. turn-key 
 m ; g is a cock made ufe of occafionally, to let ofFair; z 
 is a cock to let out water from the boiler. 
 
 To fet this machine at work, water muft be poured 
 into the refervoir G till it is full ; then the cock q muft 
 be opened ; after which, water muft be poured into the 
 funnel r, till it rile in the boiler A, up to the orifice of 
 the gauge-pipe, See. 
 
 Now lire muft be made under the boiler A, which 
 makes the water in it to boil, fleam to rile, which runs 
 through the pipe Vp. into the cylinder B, and forces all 
 the air out of the cock q ; then the fleam follows with 
 great noife and velocity. A few feconds after this fleam 
 has (hewed its force, the cock q muft be fhut, and im¬ 
 mediately the handle R muft be pulhed up a quarter of a 
 circle, which moves the communicating rods y, y, y> 
 and Inftantaneoufly opens the cock g, Ihuts b, opens: 
 the inje£lion-cock /", and the boiler’s little feeding cock 
 k. The opening of the cock g lets the fleam off from 
 the boiler A; which fleam was Hopped from going into 
 the cylinder B, by the cock h being fliut; the cock i 
 being open, lets fly a jet of cold water, which ftnkes the 
 upper part of the cylinder B, and dallies on all fades, 
 from the pipe s ; condenfes the hot fleam, and caufes a 
 vacuum in the cylinder B, which immediately foices 
 the water to rulh up the fuftion-pipe 13 , lifts up the 
 under clack to, runs through the pipe C into the cylin¬ 
 der B, and rifes till it comes to the floater X, which is 
 at the end of the turn-key m ; which floater riling, opens 
 the valve-cock /, that lets the air force itfelf into the cy¬ 
 linder B with great noife, and flops the water from goiilg 
 higher. While the condcnfation is. forming, the little 
 cock k is open, which lets water run through the pipe n, 
 and up O into the boiler A. As foon as the noife is 
 over of the air’s forcing itfelf in at the valve-cock /, 
 (which is the ftgn that the condenfation has no more 
 power) the handle R muft be pulled down, winch ihuts 
 k and /, and opens h and g ; the doing of which lets the 
 fleam prefs on the air, and force the water down the cy¬ 
 linder B, through the pipe C, prefles on the clack to, 
 rifes up F, and runs out at G. At the fame time the 
 floater X falls, and fhuts the cock /; and when the water 
 is down to the level of the pipe C, the air ruffes vio¬ 
 lently up the pipe F, with great noife, and caules a guff 
 of water to fly out 20 or 30 feet above the leleivoii 
 G ; then finiffes the power of expanlion, to begin that 
 of condenlation ; both which can be renewed when de- 
 fired, if fire is kept under the boiler. 
 
 This machine is move proper than the fuft for fup- 
 plying houfes and gardens with water, as there is 110 need 
 of a fpring of water to fill the receiver, the condenfation 
 being able to bring up the water 25 feet before it is puttied 
 by the ft ream; 
 
 Plate LI. fig. 1, 2. This machine works itfelf by the 
 powers of condenfation and expanfion. ft conlifts of a 
 boiler A, with the fteam-pipe B B ; a cylinder C ; two 
 cylindrical boxes 13 and E ; an upper floatci F, and an 
 under one G ; a communicating pipe H, a clack baircl 
 I, and a fu£lion-pipe E ; the boiler’s feeding-cock M, 
 with its pipe NNT; the injc£lion-cock O, with its 
 pipe P P ; the condudling-pipe Q^, and the refervoir R. 
 In the boiler A is a gauge-pipe;/, with the funnel-cock 
 b.- On the firft limb of B is a. valve-cock c: d is the 
 fleam. In the regulating box D is a valve e , and its 
 cock f. On the intide fquare of the key of the cock f 
 is fattened the arm g ; to its end hangs a floater F (as in 
 ' U fig- 2.) 
 
M A C 
 
 fc- 2 .); Oil llic outfide iquare of the key of the cock fis 
 an arm loaded with a leaden bob h ; i is another arm on 
 the lame fquare, which has a hole at its end, to let the 
 rod u flip through it. In the regulating box E is the 
 iquare ot the key of the under valee-cock /, to which is 
 faftened the arm j, at the end of which is a hole to let 
 the rod r Hide through; m is the valve ; n is tile loaded 
 arm ; s is the ketch-arm, with its hook p ; r is a pipe to 
 condua the air and fleam through the cock /, and out at 
 the valve m ; /. /, are communicating rods from the 
 
 turn-keys of the different cocks; »isi rod which hangs 
 by a pin, at the end of one of the turn-keys of the cock 
 d, and runs through the hole in the arm 7 ; w is a pin 
 at the end of the rod u ; e is a cock to let out the water 
 from the boiler A. 
 
 To fet this machine at work, the cock M and O mull 
 befhut, and their turn-keys Hand as they appear in fig. i. 
 then water mull be poured mto the refervoirR till it is 
 full; after which, water mull be poured into the funnel 
 b, which falls into the boiler A ; when the water is up 
 the orifice of the gauge pipe the cock b mull be fhut; 
 then the regulating bob mull be overfet (as in fig. 2.) 
 the pin y being taken out of the rod /, that all tile rods 
 and turn-keys may he in the fituation they appear in at 
 fig- i. the cock l being then open. 
 
 Fire muft now he made under the boiler A, to gene¬ 
 rate (team, which forces itlelf through the pipe B B into 
 the cylinder C, riles up j, runs through the cock 
 hits up the valve m, in going out; the fleam follows with 
 great noife. A few feconds after, the turn-key a- muft 
 be pufhed down (as in fig. 2.) and the pin y mull im¬ 
 mediately be put in its place, which opens m and O, 
 fhuts a, and opens c ; raifes the rod u and its pin w to 
 the level of the centre of the key of the valve-cock F. 
 
 In opening r, it lets off the fleam from the boiler A ; 
 on (hutting d, it flops the fleam from going into the 
 cylinder C ; in opening O, it lets cold water jet out of 
 the nmP P 1 ,1 frt fhn f 1 1.. * a T - t 
 
 M A C 
 
 linder cracked, and let out the air and fleam, which pre* 
 vented any further experiments on call iron. Ever fince 
 he has made uie of copper, and has found that vellels of 
 the 20th part of that thicknefs have fupported 2S000 
 weight without burfling. 
 
 Having thus furmounted the principal difficulty, the 
 . ’ ^ an y y et remain, will be ealily conquered, and the 
 
 inventor rewarded in proportion to the pains he has 
 taken to bring fucli ufeful machines to perfection. 
 
 MACHINERY, in epick and dramatick poetry, is 
 when the poet introduces the ufe of machines, or brings 
 fome fupernatural being upon the flage, in order to folvc 
 fome difficulty, or to perform fome exploit out of the 
 reach of human power. The ancient dramatick poets 
 never made ufe of machines, unlefs where there was an 
 abfolute neceffity for lo doing ; whence the precept of 
 Horace, 
 
 Nec Dais interfit , n\fi dignus vlndice nodus 
 Incident. 
 
 .... pipe P, into the cylinder C ; in opening M, it lets 
 water run through the pipe N N, and up T, to feed the 
 boiler A. 
 
 From the cold water jetting out of holes in P (as in 
 fig. 2.) it condenfes all the hot ileam in the cylinder C, 
 and caufes a vacuum, which makes the atmofphere prcls 
 on the valve »>, and on the water (in which the fuCtion- 
 pipe is immerged) which rifes with great velocity in the 
 pipe L, lifts up the clack 3, runs through b into the 
 cylinder C\ make c ‘lie floater rife and puffi up the arm 
 q, which turns a;.d ffiuts the cock/, raifes the arm 0, 
 overfets the hob arm >1, and puts the under regulator in 
 the lituation it appears infig. 1. The floater G can rife 
 no further, it being faflened to a chain of a fixed length; 
 but the water keeps rifing till it comes up to the floater F,’ 
 which pufhes up the arm g , (as in fig. 2.) and overfets 
 the bob /;, (as in fig. 1.) and entirely opens the cock y, 
 which lets the cock run in freely to lift up the valve e, 
 and flops the water from rifing higher, as well as termi¬ 
 nates the power of condenfation. 
 
 \\ hen the arm i, has pulled down the pin zv, (as in 
 fig. 2.) which fhuts c, O, and M, and opens d, the 
 fleam runs into the cylinder C, which prei]fes on the 
 air, and forces the water to run through H, loads and 
 fhuts the clack 3, raifes the clack 5, pafles up the pipe 
 CE, and runs out at R. As the water is falling in the 
 cylinder C, it makes the floater F defeend, and hang by 
 the arm g , (as in fig. 2.) which from its weight turns 
 the key and fhuts the cock/. The waters falling lower, 
 the floater G goes down, and makes the pin 2 pull the 
 infide arm q , which overfets the bob arm n, and the 
 ketch arm 0, whole hook p, prelfcs on y, (as in fig. 1.) 
 and pulls down the rod /, which opens the cocks, M 
 and O, fhuts d and opens c, and caufes an immediate 
 condenfation and vacuum, which renews another opera¬ 
 tion as before, and fo will continue as long as fire is kept 
 under the boiler A. 
 
 Mr. Blakey adds, that when he began to compofe his 
 machines at large, he was perfuaded to make ulc of cafl 
 iron ; and accordingly he made a cylindrical boiler of 
 24 inches diameter and 10 feet long, with a receiver and 
 pipes of the fame metal; the boiler was about an inch 
 and a half thick, which being furrounded with fire, 
 caufed a great quantity of fleam ; but when the fleam 
 raifed up the water with a force of about 4980, and the 
 cold water was inje&ed to caufe a condenfation, the cy- 
 
 lt is quite otherwife with epick poets, who introduce 
 machines in every part of their poems; fo that nothing 
 is done without the intervention of the gods, in Mil- 
 ton’s Paradife Loll, by far the greater part of the attors 
 are fupernatural perfonages. Homer and Virgil do no¬ 
 thing without them ; and in Voltaire’s Henriade, the 
 poet has made excellent ufe of St. Louis. 
 
 As to the manner in which thefe machines fliould a£l, 
 it is fometimes invifibly, by Ample initiations and fug- 
 geflions; fometimes by aftually appearing under fome 
 human form ; and, laflly, by means of dreams and ora¬ 
 cles, which partake of die other two. However, all thefe 
 lhould be fo managed as to keep within the bounds of 
 probability. 
 
 MACKREL, in ichthyology, a fpecies of fcomber, 
 with five pinnules at the extremity of die back, and a 
 fpine at the anus. 
 
 MACROCOSM, the great world, or univerfe, in. 
 contradiftimflion to man, called raicrocofm, as contain¬ 
 ing a world of wonders within himfelf. 
 
 MACULAE, in afironomy, dark fpots appearing on 
 the luminous faces of the fun, moon, and even fome of 
 the planets; in which fenfe they Hand contradiilinguillied 
 from faculce. See Facul£. 
 
 Thefe fpots are mod numerous and eafily obferved in 
 the fun. It is not uncommon to fee them in various 
 forms, magnitudes, and numbers, moving over the fun’s 
 difk. They were fir ft of all difeovered by the Lyncean 
 aftronomcr Galileo, in the year 1610, loon after he had 
 finiflied his new invented telefcope. That thefe fpots 
 adhere to, or float upon, the furface of the fun, is evi¬ 
 dent for many reafons. 1. Many of them are obferved 
 to break out near the middle of the fun’s dilk; others 
 to decay and vanifh there, or at fome dillance from his 
 limb. 2. Their apparent velocities are always greateft 
 over the middle of the dilk, and gradually flower from 
 thence on each fide towards the limb. 3. The fhape of 
 the fpots varies according to their pofition on the feveral 
 parts of the dilk : thofe which are round and broad in 
 the middle, grow oblong and (lender as they approach 
 the limb, according as they ought to appear by the rules 
 of opticks. 
 
 By comparing many obfervations of the intervals of 
 time in which the fpots made their revolution, by Gali¬ 
 leo, Caffini, Scheiner, Hevelius, Dr. Halley, Dr. Der- 
 ham, and others, it is found that 27 days, 12 hours, 
 
 20 minutes, is the meafure of one of them at a mean ; 
 but in this time the earth deferibes the angular motion 
 of 26° 22', about the fun’s centre ; therefore fay, as the 
 angular motion of 360°+ 26° 22', is to 360° fo is 27 
 days, 12 hours, 20 minutes, to 25 days, 15 hours, 16 
 minutes; which, therefore, is the time of the fun’s re¬ 
 volution about its axis. 
 
 As to the magnitude of the fpots, they arc very con- 
 fiderable, as will appear if we obferve that fome of them 
 are fo large as to be plainly vifible to the naked eye : 
 thus Galileo faw one of them in the year 1612 , and Mr! 
 Martin allures us, that he knew two gentlemen that thus 
 viewed them within a few years pall ; whence he con¬ 
 cludes, that thefe fpots muft therefore fubtend, at leaft, 
 an angle of one minute. Now the diameter of the earth,' 
 if removed to the fun, would fubtend an angle of but 
 20"; fo that the diameter of a fpot, juft vifible to the 
 
 naked 
 
MAD 
 
 naked eye, is, to the diameter of the earth, as 60 to 20, 
 or as three to one ; and, therefore, the furfade of the 
 fpot, if circular, to a great circle of the earth, is as 
 9 to 1 ; but four great circles are equal to the earth’s 
 l'uperflcies ; whence the furface of the fpot is, to the 
 furface of the earth, as 9 to 4, or as 2 ~ to 1. Gaflendus 
 fays, he law a fpot whole diameter was equal to ~ 5 of 
 that of the fun, and therefore lubtended an angle at the 
 eve of 1' 3" ; its furface was therefore 5 times larger than 
 the furface of the whole earth. 
 
 What thefe fpots are, it is prefumed, no bodv can tell; 
 but they feem to be rather thin fubllances than folid 
 bodies, becaufe they lofe the appearance of folidity in 
 going off the difk of the fun : they refemble fomething 
 of the nature of feum or fcoria, fwimming on the fur¬ 
 face, which are generated and dilfolved by caufes little 
 known to us r but whatever thefe folar fpots are, it is 
 certain they are produced from caufes very inconflant 
 and irregular; for Scheiner fays he frequently faw 50 
 at once, but for 20 years after lcarce any appeared. And 
 in this century the fpots were very frequent and nume¬ 
 rous till the year 1741, when, for three years fucceffively, 
 very few appeared; and now, fince the year 1744, they 
 have again appeared as ufual. 
 
 Thefe macula; are not peculiar to the fun, they have 
 been obferved in all the planets. Thus Venus was ob- 
 ferved to have feveral by Signior Bianchini, in the year 
 3726. As in Venus, fo in Mars, both dark and bright 
 fpots have been obferved, firft by Galileo, and afterwards 
 by Calfini, &c. Jupiter has had his fpots obfervable 
 ever fince the invention and ufe of the large telefcopes. 
 Saturn, by reafon of his great diftance on one hand, and 
 Mercury, by reafon of his fmallnefs and vicinity to the 
 fun on the other, have not as yet had any fpots difeo- 
 vered on their lurfaces, and confcquently nothing in re¬ 
 lation to their diurnal motions and inclinations of their 
 axis to the planes of their orbits can be known, which 
 circumftances are determined in all the other planets, as 
 well as in the fun, by means of thefe macula;. 
 
 The fpots, or macula;, obfervable on the moon’s fur¬ 
 face, feem to be only cavities or large caverns, on which 
 the fun fliining very obliquely, and touching only their 
 upper edge with his light, the deeper places remain with¬ 
 out light; but as the fun rifes higher upon them, they 
 receive more light, and the fliadow or dark parts grow 
 fmaller and fhorter, till the fun comes at lalb to Ihine 
 dire&ly upon them, and then the whole cavity will be 
 illuftrated : but the dark, dulky fpots, which continue 
 always the fame, are fuppofed to proceed from a kind of 
 matter or foil which reflects lefs light than that of the 
 other regions. See Moon. 
 
 MADDER, Rubia, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whole flower is monopetalous, campanulated, and di¬ 
 vided into fourfegments; it hath four fubulated filaments, 
 which arc iliorter than the corolla ; thefe are topped by 
 Ample anther®. The fruit conlifts of two fmcoth ber- 
 Ties growing together, each containing a Angle, roundifh, 
 umbilicated feed. 
 
 Madder is cultivated in vafl quantities in feveral parts 
 of Holland ; the Dutch lupply all Europe with it, and 
 make a great advantage by trading in it. What they 
 fend over, for the ufe of the dyers, is ground into a 
 coarfc powder, of which there are two kinds : the one 
 is the whole root ground, and the other is that which is 
 firft; cleaned from the cortical part, and then ground to a 
 powder; this laft is of a paler and more agreeable colour. 
 
 In medicine, the root is attenuant, and has the credit 
 of being a vulnerary of the firft rank. It is given in 
 chronical cafes, where there are obftruiftions of the vif- 
 cera ; and is good in the jaundice, dropfy, and obftruc- 
 tions of the fpleen ; its dole is from 5 grains to 15, but is 
 feldom given fi.ngly. Madder has one very uncommon 
 property, that is, it will turn the bones red of thole 
 animals that have fed upon it fome time. 
 
 MADNESS, Mania, a moft dreadful kind of deli¬ 
 rium, without a fever. 
 
 Melancholy and madnefs may very juftlybe confidered 
 as difeafes nearly allied ; for they have both the fame 
 origin, that is, an exceftive congeftion of blood in the 
 brain: they only differ in dcgiee, and with refpedl to 
 the time of iuvalion ; melancholy being the primary dil- 
 cafe, of which madnefs is the augmentation. Both thefe 
 difeafes fuppofe a weaknefs of the brain, which may pro- 
 
 MAD 
 
 ceed from an hereditar.v difpofition ; from violent difor- 
 ders of the mind, efpecially lone, continued grief, fadnefs, 
 anxiety, dread, and terror; front ciofeltudy and intenfe 
 application of mind to one fubjecl; from narcotick and 
 ftupefying medicines; from previous difeafes. efpecially 
 acute fevers , from a fuppreflion of hxmorrhages, and 
 omitting cuftomary bleeding; from exetHive cold, cl’pe- 
 cially ot the lower parts, which forces the blood to the 
 lungs, heart, and biain; and from violent anger, which 
 will change melancholy into madnefs. 
 
 It is evident from obfervation, that the blood of ma- 
 niack patients is black, and hotter than in the natural 
 ftate ; that the ferum ieparates more llowly and in a lefs 
 quantity than in healthy perfons; and that the excre* 
 ments are hard, of a dark red or greyilh colour, and the 
 urine light and thin. 
 
 The antecedent figns of madnefs are a rednefs and ef- 
 fufion of the eyes with blood, a tremulous and inconftant 
 vibration of the eye-lids, a change of difpofition and be¬ 
 haviour, fupercilious looks, a haughty carriage, dif- 
 dainful expreffions, a grinding of the teeth, and unac¬ 
 countable malice to particular perfons; alfo little fleep, 
 a violent head-ach, quicknefs of hearing, incredible 
 ftrength, infenfibility of cold; and in women, an ac¬ 
 cumulation of blood in the breafts, in the increafe of this 
 diforder. 
 
 Difeafes of the mind have fomething in them fo diffe¬ 
 rent from other diforders, that they fometimes remit for 
 a long time, but return at certain periods, efpeciallv 
 about the folftices. It may likewife be obferved, that the 
 raving fits of mad people, which keep the lunar periods, 
 are generally accompanied with epileptick fymptoms. 
 
 This difeafe, when it is primary or idiopathick, is 
 worfe than the fymptomatick, that accompanies the lvyf- 
 terick or hypochondriack palfion, which is eafily cured ; 
 as is that alfo which fucceeds intermitting fevers, a fup- 
 preflion of the menfes, of the lochia, of the hemor¬ 
 rhoids, or which is occafioned by narcoticks. When the 
 paroxyfms are flight in the idiopathick kind, the cure is 
 not very difficult; but if it is inveterate, and has hut 
 Ihort remiffions, it is almoll incurable. Sometimes this 
 difeafe terminates by critical excretions of blood from 
 the nofe, uterus, or anus ; fometimes diarrhoeas and 
 dyfcnteries will terminate thefe diforders ; and puftules, 
 ulcers, and the itch, have alfo done the fame. As to 
 the cure, bleeding is the moft efficacious of all remedies ; 
 and where there is a redundance of thick grumous blood, 
 a vein is firft to be opened in the foot, a few days after 
 in the arm ; then in the jugular vein, or one in the nol- 
 trils with a ftraw; and laft of all the frontal vein, with 
 a blunt lancet, for fear of hurting the pericranium. 
 Tepid baths made of rain or river water are alio conve¬ 
 nient ; and before the patient enters the bath, he Ihould 
 have cold water poured on his head. Purgatives are 
 likewife ufeful; but the lenient are to be preferred to 
 the draftick : thus manna, calfia, rhubarb, cream of tar¬ 
 tar, or tartar vitriolate, are moft convenient, when the 
 difeafe arifes from the hypochondriack palfion, a ftagna- 
 tion of the blood in the intertines, or in the ramifica¬ 
 tions of the vena port®, efpecially when taken in decoc¬ 
 tions and infufions at repeated intervals, lo as to operate 
 in an alterative manner. Some kinds of mineral waters 
 are alfo highly efficacious in melancholy madnefs : but 
 nothing is better for removing the caufe of thefe difor¬ 
 ders, than depurated mercury. Particular medicines 
 among vegetables, are balm, betony, vervain, brook- 
 lime, fage, worm-wood, flowers of St. John’s wort, of 
 the lime-tree, and camphire ; from animals, afs’s blood ; 
 among minerals, fteel, cinnabar, fugar of lead, and the 
 calx and tin&ure of filver. Hoffman is of opinion, that 
 nothing better delerves the name of a fpeciflck in thefe 
 difeafes than motion and exercile, when duly propor¬ 
 tioned to the ftrength of the body. Sedative medicines 
 are good, but not opiates and narcoticks, for thefe induce 
 ftupidity and folly: thofe that are good in an epilepfy, 
 will be here beneficial, fuch as caftor, fhavings of hartf- 
 horn, the roots and feeds of piony, antiepiieptick pow¬ 
 ders, the valerian root, flowers of the lily of the valley, 
 and of the lime-tree. Boerhaavc fays, the principal 
 remedy for raving madnefs is dipping in the lea, and 
 keeping the patient there as long as he can bear it. As 
 a high degree of the itch has terminated thefe diforders, 
 it may be proper to make iflucs in the back , but blifers, 
 2 contt ar-v 
 
MAG 
 
 Contrary to Shaw’s opinion, are prejudicial; for by 'Si¬ 
 mulating the nervous membranes and the dura mater, 
 they increase the fpafmodlck ftrifture, and the motion of 
 the grofs and bilious blood through the head and the 
 other parts of the body. 
 
 As to the diet, the patient fhould carefully abftain 
 from fait and fmoked ftelh, whether beef or pork; fi’om 
 fhell fifh ; from fifh of a heavy and noxious quality ; 
 from aliments prepared with onions and garlick: all which 
 generate a thick blood. He fhould, in general, eat no 
 more than is fufficient to fupport nature. Small beer or 
 cold pure water are the bell drink; but fweet and ftrong 
 wines are highly prejudicial, as is alfo cxceflive fmoak- 
 ing tobacco. Change of air and travelling may be be¬ 
 neficial. 
 
 Madnefs, proceeding from the bite of a mad dog ; fee 
 Hydrophobi a. 
 
 MADREPORA, in botany, a genus of fubmarine 
 plants, of a ilonv hardnels, but fomewhat approaching 
 to the form of other vegetables: it is compofed of a main 
 Rem, and fubdivided into a number of branches, which 
 are full of holes or pores, in a radiated form. 
 
 MADRIER, in the military art, a long and broad 
 plank of wood, ufed for fuppovting the earth in mining 
 and carrying on a lap, and in making coffers, caponiers, 
 galleries, and for many other ufes at a liege. Madriers 
 are alfo ufed to cover the mouths of petards, after thev 
 are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or 
 other places deligned to be forced open. 
 
 MADRIGAL, in the Italian, Spanifh and French 
 poetry, is a fhort amorous poem, compofed of a num¬ 
 ber of free and unequal verfes, neither confined to the 
 regularity of a fonnet, nor point of an epigram, but only 
 confifling of fome tender and delicate thought, exprelfed 
 with a beautiful, noble, and elegant fimplicity. 
 
 ALE MAC I ERION, /xxt/j.xKlvqiuv, in ancient chro¬ 
 nology, the fourth month of the Athenian year, confift- 
 ing of only 29 days, and anfwering to the latter part of 
 Septembet and the beginning of October. 
 
 MAGAS, in ancient mufick, the name of two inftru- 
 ments, the one a flringed kind, and the other a kind of 
 flute, which is faid to have yielded very high and very 
 low founds at the fame time. 
 
 M a c a s alfo fignifies the bridge of any inftrument. 
 
 MAGAZINE, a place in which flores are kept of 
 arms, ammunition, provifions, he. Every fortified 
 town ought to be furnilhed with a large magazine, 
 which fhould contain flores of all kinds, fufficient to 
 enable the garrifon and inhabitants to hold out a long 
 liege, and in which fmiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, 
 he. may be employed in making every thing belonging 
 to the artillery, as carriages, waggons, he. 
 
 Magazine of a Ship of W01 , a fmall flore-houfe in 
 the after or fore part of a fhip’s hold, where the gun-, 
 powder is flowed, and filled into cartridges, bombs, gre-1 
 nadoes, &c. by the gunner and his mates, ready foreen¬ 
 gagement. 
 
 MAGDALEN , or Nuns of Si. Magdalen, an or¬ 
 der of religious in the Romiffi church, dedicated to St. 
 Alary Magdalen, and fometimes called Magdalenettes. 
 Thefc chiefly confift of courtezans, who quitting their 
 profefiion, devote the reft of their lives to repentance 
 and'mortification. 
 
 AlAGI, or Mag 4NS, an ancient religious fett in 
 Perfia, and other caftern countries, who irfaintained that 
 there were two principles, the one the caufe of all good, 
 the other the caufe of all evil: and abominating the ado¬ 
 ration of images, worfhipped God only by fire, which 
 thev looked upon as the brighteft and moft glorious fym - 
 bol of Oromafdes, or the good god; as darknefs is the 
 trueft fymbol of Arimanius, or the evil god. The priefts 
 of the magi were the moft lkilful mathematicians and 
 philofophers of the ages in which they lived, infomuch 
 that a learned man and magian became equivalent terms. 
 The vulgar looked on their knowledge as more than na¬ 
 tural, and imagined them infpired by fome fupcrnatural 
 power; and hence, thofe who pratftifed wicked and 
 mifehievous arts, taking upon theinfelves the name of 
 magians, drew on it that ill figniiication which the word 
 magician now bears among us. T his fe£t ftill fubfifts 
 in Perfia, under the denomination of Gaurs, where they 
 watch the facred fire with the greateft care, and never 
 i'uffer it to be extinguished. 
 
 MAG 
 
 MAGICK originally fienified only the knowledge of 
 the more lublime parts'of philofophy ; but as the magi 
 likewife profetfed aftrology, divination and forcery, the 
 term magick became odious, being ufed to fignify an un¬ 
 lawful diabolical kind of fcience, acquired by the affift- 
 anceofthe devil and departed fouls. 
 
 Natural magick is only the application of natural phi-, 
 lofopliy to the production of furprizing, but yet natural 
 cffeCts. The common natural magick, found in books, 
 gives us fome trifling traditions of the Empathies and 
 antipathies of things, or of their occult and peculiar 
 properties, which are ufualiy intermixed with manv 
 childifh experiments, admired rather for their dilguife 
 than for theinfelves. 
 
 Magick Square , a fquare figure formed of a feries of 
 numbers in arithmetical progreflion, difpofed into fuch 
 Parallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row, as 
 well diagonally as laterally, ihall be euual. 
 
 AIAGIS 1 ERY, in chymiftry, commonly denotes ;v 
 white powder, prepared of certain fubtlances by precipi¬ 
 tation. 'I heie fublianccs are either of the mineral kind, 
 as earth, ftones, &c. or vegetables, as herbs, reiins, See. 
 or animals, as bones, horns, and cruftaceous parts. The 
 method of preparing it is thus; take the fubilance from 
 which you defign to prepare the magiftery, and bruife or 
 break it grofly ; then pour thereon a proper, liquor, ait 
 acid, Nc. in order to its folution or extraction. The 
 iolutiouis precipitated by an effnfion of the liquor, or 
 by die matter by whole force that of the iolvent is 
 blunted ; the precipitated powder may be waflied, if ne- 
 ceflary, with common water, and afterwards gendv dried. 
 
 AIagistery of Bij/fiuth, is made by diffoiving bif- 
 mutli in fpint of nitre, and pouring on it fait watery 
 which precipitates the magiftery to the bottom. 
 
 AIagisTER1 oj Lead is made lay djflolving faccharum 
 laturni in dillillcd vinegar, and then precipitating ir 
 with oil of tartar per diliquium. 
 
 Mag istery of Rtjins , orrefinous extraCls of fcam- 
 mony, jalap, he. arc made by diffolving the matter in 
 fpirit of wine, and precipitating it with water. Air, 
 ooyle takes magiftery to coniill in a preparation of a 
 body, whereby it is converted, by means of fome ad- 
 ditainent, into a body of a different kind, as when iron 
 or copper is turned i nto cryflals of Alai s and Venus. 
 
 MAGISTRATE, any publick officer to whom the 
 executive power of the law is committed, either wholly 
 or in part, 
 
 MAGNA CHAR TA, the great charter of the liber¬ 
 ties of England, and the bails of our laws and privileges;- 
 1 his chai ter may be laid to derive its origin from king 
 Edward the confeffor, who granted fevcral privileges to 
 the church and Hate by charter; thefe liberties and pri¬ 
 vileges were alio granted and confirmed bv king Henry h 
 by a celebrated great charter, now loft; 'but which was 
 confirmed or re-enaCled by king Henry II. and John. 
 Henry III. the fucccffor of this Fall prince, after having; 
 cauled twelve men to make enquiry into the liberties 
 of England in the reign of Henry I. granted a new 
 charter, which was the fame as the prefentmagna cliarta; 
 this lie feveral times confirmed, and as often broke ■ 
 till in the 37 year of his reign, he went to Weft’ 
 minfter-liall, and there, in the prefence of the no¬ 
 bility and bifhops, who had lighted candles in their 
 hands, magna cliarta was read, the king all die while 
 holding his hand to his breall, and at Jaft folemiily 
 fwearing faithfully and inviolably to obferve all tiic thing's 
 therein contained, he. then the bifhops extinguifhing 
 the candles,' and throwing them on the ground, they 
 all ci ied out, I hus let him be extinguiffied, and ftink 
 in hell, who violates this charter.” It is obferved, not- 
 withftanding die folemnity of this confirmation, king 
 Henry, the very next year, again invaded the rights of 
 his people, till the barons entered into a war agai lift 
 him, when, after various fuccefs, he confirmed^ this 
 charter, and the charter of the foreft, in the 52 year 
 of his reign. This excellent charter, fo equitable and 
 beneficial to the fubjedt, is the moft ancient written law 
 in the kingdom: by 25 Edw. 1. it is ordained, that it 
 ihall betaken as the common law ; and by 43 Edw. 111 . 
 all llatutes made agai 11ft it are declared to be void. 
 
 MAGNESIA, or Manganese, in natural hiftory. 
 Sec the article Manganese. 
 
 Magnesia Alba, in the materia incdica, a fine. 
 
 white 
 
M A G 
 
 ■ft hite earth, foluble readily in all acids, the vitrioU'ck as 
 well as the others, into a bitter purgative liquor; and 
 not convertible by fire into quick lime. 
 
 This earth has not hitherto been found naturally pure 
 or in a leparate flate: it was for feveral years a celebrated 
 fecret in the hands of lome particular perfons abroad, 
 till its preparation was made publick by Lancifi in the 
 year 1717, and afterwards by Hoffman in 1722. It was 
 then extraCled from the mother-ley, or the liquor which 
 remains after the cryftallization, of rough nitre, either 
 by precipitation with a folution of alkaline fait; or by 
 evaporating the liquor, and calcining the dry refiduum, 
 fo as to dilfipatc the acids, by which the earth had been 
 made diffoluble. 
 
 The magnefia is recommended by Hoffman as an ufe- 
 ful antacid, a fafe and inoffenfive laxative in dofesofa 
 dram or two, and a diaphorctick and diuretick, when 
 given in fmaller dofes, as 15 or 20 grains. Since this 
 time, it has of late come into great efteem among us, 
 particularly in heart-burns, and for preventing or re¬ 
 moving the many diforders which children are thrown 
 into from a redundance of acid humours in the firit paf- 
 lages. It is preferred, on account of its laxative quality, 
 to the teflaceous and other abforbent earths, which, un¬ 
 less gentle purgatives are given oecalionally to carry 
 them off, are apt to lodge in the body, and occafion a 
 coftivenefs very detrimental to infants. It mull be ob- 
 ferved, however, that it is not the magnefia itfelf which 
 proves laxative, but the faline compound refuiting from 
 its coalition with acids : if there are no acid juices in the 
 fromach to diffolve it, it has no fallible operation, and 
 in fuch cafes it may be rendered purgative by drinking 
 any kind of acidulous liquors after it. All the o'her 
 known foluble earths yield with acids, not purgative, but 
 more or lefs aftringent compounds. 
 
 MAGNET, Magrns, loadflone, in natural hiftory, 
 a very rich iron ore, found in large detached maffes, of 
 adufky iron grey, often tinged with brownifh or redifli, 
 and when broken appearing fomething like the common 
 emery, but lefs fparkling. It is very heavy, confider- 
 ably hard, of a perfectly irregular and uneven furface, 
 and of a firm ftruClure, but ufually with fame porous 
 irregularities within. It is found "in England, and all 
 other places where there are iron mines. 
 
 d he word is derived from a city in Lydia, called 
 Magnefia, where this Hone was firft found. 
 
 I his famous Hone was well known to the ancients, 
 but fcarce any other property of it than of its attracting 
 iron, as we may fee in Pliny, b. 36. c. 16. However, 
 it appears, that they knew fomething of its communicat¬ 
 ing virtue, particularly Plato, when defenbing that fa¬ 
 mous chain of iron rings put together, the firft of which 
 Was held by a magnet; and Lucretius makes mention of 
 the fame magnetick quality operating through the hardeft 
 bodies. But we do not fee by any paitage in their writ¬ 
 ings, that they knew any thing of the directive virtue of 
 the loadflone: and we are utterly in the dark as to the 
 time this difeovery was fiift made, as alio when it was 
 applied to the ule of navigation. It, however, appears, 
 that this difeovery was made before the year 1180. 
 
 1 he primary properties of the loadflone are the fol¬ 
 lowing: 1. Every loadflone has two points, called poles, 
 which emit the magnetick virtue. 2. One of thefe poles 
 attracts, the other repels iron, but no other body. 3. This 
 virtue, being the third fpecies of attraction, is communi¬ 
 cated to iron very copioufly by the touch, which renders 
 it ftrongly magnetick. 4. A piece of iron fo touched by 
 the loadflone, and nicely fufpended on a fharp point, 
 will be determined to fettle itfelf in a direction nearly 
 north and fouth. 3. The end of the needle touched by 
 the fouth pole of the ftone, will point northwards; 
 and the contrary. 6. Needles touched by the ftone, will 
 dip below the horizon, or be directed on the touched 
 part to a point within the earth’s furface: this is called 
 the dipping needle. 7. 1 his virtue may alfo be com¬ 
 municated to iron by a flrong attrition all one way. 
 8. Iron rods or bars acquire a magnetick virtue by hand¬ 
 ing long in one pofition. 9. Eire totally deftroys this 
 virtue,, by making the ftone or iron red hot. 10. This 
 power is exerted fenfibly to the diflance of feveral feet. 
 11. It is fenfibly continued through the fubftance of 
 feveral contiguous bodies or pieces of iron. 12. It per¬ 
 vades the pores of the hardeft body. And, 12. equally 
 Vol.II. No. 46. * 
 
 M A G 
 
 ’attraCls the iron in vacuo as in open air. Thefe aha 
 many more are the properties of a body, not more 
 wonderful than ufeful to mankind. 
 
 Thecaufe of the variation of the needle has remained 
 hitherto without any demortftrative difeovery ; yet ft nee 
 its declination, and inclination, or dipping, do both of 
 them manifeftly indicate the caufe to be lomewhere in the 
 earth, it has given occafion to phiiofophy to frame hy¬ 
 pothecs for a folution, which makes the earth a large or 
 general magnet or loadflone, of which all the lefs ones 
 are but fo many parts or fragments, and being poffeffed 
 of the fame virtue, will, when left to move-freely, have 
 the fame difpofttion and fimiJarity of pofition, and other 
 circumftances. 
 
 The raoft confiderable of thefe hypothecs is that of 
 the late lagacious Dr. Halley, which is this: the globe 
 of the earth is one great magnet, having four magnetical 
 poles or points of attraction, near each pole of the 
 equator two; and that in thole parts of the world which 
 lie near adjacent to any one of thofe magnetical poles, 
 the needle is chiefly governed thereby, the neareft pole 
 being always predominant over the more remote one. Of 
 the north poles, that which is neareft to us he fuppofes 
 to be in the meridian of the land’s end, which governs 
 the variations in European Tartary and the North Sea; 
 the other he places in a meridian patting through Cali¬ 
 fornia, about 15 degrees from the north pole of the 
 world, which governs the needle in North America, 
 and the ocean on either fide. In like manner he ac¬ 
 counts for the variations in the fouthern hemifphere. 
 
 The variation of the needle from the north and fouth 
 points of the horizon not being the fame, but variable in 
 different years, and in a diverfe manner, in different 
 parts of the earth, made the doCtor further cqnjeClure, 
 that two of the magnetick poles were fixed, and two 
 moveable; and in order to make this out, he fuppofes 
 the external part of the earth to be a (hell or cortex, con¬ 
 taining within it a magnetick moveable nucleus of a glo¬ 
 bular form, whole centre of gravity is the fame with that 
 of the earth, and moveable about the fame axis. Now, 
 if the motions of both the fhell and nucleus were the 
 fame, the poles of each would always have the fame po¬ 
 fition to each other; but he fuppofes the motion of the 
 nucleus to be a very fmall matter lefs than that of the 
 Ihell, which yet is fcarce lenfible in 365 revolutions ; and, 
 Tib, the magnetick poles of the nucleus will by flow de¬ 
 grees change their diflance from the magnetick poles 
 of the Ihell, and thus caufe a variation in that needle’s 
 variation, which is governed by the moveable pole of 
 the nucleus, while that variation which refpeCts the fixed 
 poles of the magnetick fhell remains more conftant; as 
 in Hudfon’s-bay the change is not obi'erved to be near fo 
 fall as in thefe parts of Europe. 
 
 The variation of the needle has, within a century paft, 
 undergone a remarkable alteration; for at London it was 
 obferved by Mr. Burrows,’in the year 1580, to be n° 
 15 eafl : after that, in the year 1622, it was obferved 
 by Mr. Gunter to be but 6° eafl. In the year 1634, 
 Mr. Gellibiand obferved it to be 4 0 5' call. In 1657, it 
 was obferved by Mr. Bond to be nothing at all, that is, 
 the needle pointed direCtly to the north. After this, in 
 the year 1672, Dr. Halley obferved it to be 2 0 30' wefi- 
 ward ; and again, in the year 1692, he found it 6° wefi. 
 Since then, in the year 1722, Mr. Graham, by mofi 
 accurate experiments, found it to be 14 0 13', and atpre- 
 fent it is between 19 and 20° ; and in fome places it lias 
 been found to be 23 0 weflward. 
 
 1 he ingenious lVlufchenbroek has, with indefatigable 
 pains and application, made experiments of the attrac¬ 
 tions and repulfions of loadflones in refpeCt to iron and 
 to each other, but could never find any regular propor¬ 
 tion in the increafe of atti<i&ion in their approach to, or 
 decreafe of attraction in their recefs from, one another; 
 only that the force of the magnetick virtue did increafe in 
 the approach to, and diminilh in the recefs from, the 
 Hone, but not exaCtly as the diflance, nor as the. fquare 
 or cube of the diflance reciprocally, nor in any propor¬ 
 tion reducible to numbers ; and therefore be very rcafon- 
 ably conjectures, that the repulfions and attractions dif- 
 turb one another, fo as to confound the proportion; nor, 
 arc we able to hope for any other rule concerning this 
 matter, till a way befound^ if ever it can be, offepa- 
 rating the attracting from the repelling parts. 
 
 The 
 
M A G 
 
 The poles of a loadftone are not to be looked upon as 
 two Inch invariable points as never to change place; for 
 according to Mr. Boyle, the poles of a little bit of mag¬ 
 net may be changed by applying them to the more vigo¬ 
 rous poles of another, as has been confirmed by Dr. 
 Knight, who can change at pleafure the poles of a na¬ 
 tural magnet, by means of iron bars magnetically im¬ 
 pregnated. Upon gently cutting a magnet through the 
 middle of its axis, each piece becomes a compleat magnet; 
 for the parts that were contiguous under the equator 
 before the magnet was cut. become poles, and even poles 
 of different names; fo that each piece may become equally 
 a north or fouth pole, according as the fedtion was made 
 nearer the fouth or north pole of the large magnet; and 
 the fame thing would happen in any other fub-divifions. 
 But upon cutting a magnet longitudinally, there will 
 then be four poles, the fame as before the cutting ; only 
 that there fhall be formed in each piece a new axis pa¬ 
 rallel to the former, and more or lefs in the infide of the 
 magnet. W’e find by experience, that two magnets at¬ 
 tract each other by the poles of different denominations ; 
 whereas, on the contrary, the two fimilar poles repel 
 each other. 
 
 By a great number of experiments we alfo learn that 
 the force of a magnet in attraction and repulfion reaches 
 fometimes further, fometimes not fo far. The adlivity 
 of fome reaches to fourteen feet, and that of others is in- 
 ie'nfibk within eight or nine inches ; the fphere of acti¬ 
 vity is greater on certain days than on others, without 
 its ever appearing that the heat, moifture, or drought of 
 the air contribute any thing to this effedl. No lolid or 
 fluid body can any way hinder the mutual adlion of iron 
 and a magnet upon each other, unlefs it be iron itfelf: 
 nor does the exceffive heat of iron diminifh thefe effedls, 
 though the cxceflhe heat of a magnetdiminifhes its vir¬ 
 tue, at Leafl for a time. The attraction of a magnet 
 newly dug out of a mine, makes it to take up only very 
 fmall pieces of iron ; for which re a fora it muil be armed 
 in order to augment its force : befides this, the arming 
 it unites, dircdls, and condenfes its virtue towards its 
 poles, and cauies its emanations to tend entirely towards 
 the mals which is laid thereon. When you have deter¬ 
 mined where the poles are, which you may exadlly find 
 by placing over the magnet a very fine lhort needle, 
 which will ftand perpendicular over each, pole, and no 
 w here elfc ; then you muft file it very fmooth at its poles, 
 fo that the axis fhall have the greatdl length, yet without 
 too much diminifhing its other dimenfions. 
 
 To determine the proportions of the armour, the 
 greater the force of the magnet is, the thicker muil the 
 pieces of fteel be of which it is to confill ; and for this 
 purpofe try the magnet with fevcral fleel-bars, and the 
 greater weight it takes up with a ileel-bar on, that bar is 
 to be its armour. Though the attradlion of an armed 
 magnet appears confiderable, yet very weak caufes deftioy 
 its effedt in a moment; for inflance, when an oblong 
 piece of iron is attradled under the pole of an excellent 
 magnet, and the pole of a different denomination in an¬ 
 other magnet that is weaker, is prelented to the lower end 
 of this piece of iron, this weaker magnet will very 
 flrongly take away the iron. In like manner, if the 
 point of a needle be put under one of die poles of a mag¬ 
 net fo as to hang by its head, and preftnt to this head 
 any bar of iron by its upper end, the needle will imme¬ 
 diately quit the magnet, in order to adhere to the bar ; 
 but if the needle hold, by its head to the pole of the mag¬ 
 net, then neither the bar of iron nor a weak magnet fhall 
 difengage it; and there is another flight circumflance 
 which makes ail armed and vigorous loadftone appear to 
 have no more force, and that is the too great length of 
 the iron which is to be railed by one of the poles. 
 
 In order to communicate the magnetick virtue cffedlu- 
 ally, thefe methods are made ufe of: i. It has been dif- 
 covered that iron rubbed upon one of the poles of the 
 magnet, acquires a great deal more virtue than from any 
 other part thereof, and this is more confiderable from 
 an armed than a naked magnet. 2. The more gently 
 the iron is prefled, and the more it is prelied againft the 
 pole, the more magneticaL it becomes. 3. It is more 
 convenient to impregnate iron on one pole than on both 
 lucceffively. 4. The iron is much better impregnated 
 by preifing it uniformly, and in the lame diredlion, ac¬ 
 cording to its length, than by rubbing it by the middle; 
 i 
 
 M A G 
 
 ’and the extremity which touches the pole laft, retains 
 the molt virtue. 5. A piece of polifhed fteel, or a bit 
 of pointed iron, receives more virtue than a Ample piece 
 of iron of the fame figure ; and, ccetcris paribus, a piece 
 of iron that is long, fmall and pointed, is more flrongly 
 impregnated than that of any other form. 
 
 The communication of the magnetick virtue does not 
 fenfibly impair that of the loadftone ; though it has been 
 obferved that Ionic magnets have communicated a greater 
 power to iron to raile weights, than they had themfelves, 
 but Without impairing their own force, or adding any¬ 
 thing to the weight of the iron. As fevcral ways have 
 been propoled for recovering the decayed virtue of load- 
 ftones, but to little purpofe, efpecialfy that of keeping 
 the Hone conftantly in fteel filings, we fhall here relate 
 the remarkable experiment of Mr. Haac for this purpofe, 
 as it was attended with great iucccfs. This gentleman 
 had a magnet weighing 14 oz. and a half, armed, which 
 would take up 16 times its own weight; but having laid 
 it by for fome vears unufed, it loft a ~ part of its virtue, 
 or more , whereupon he hung as much weight to the 
 Hone as it would luftain, and fo left it for fome weeks ; 
 then returning, he applied more weight to the former, 
 which it very eafily bore, and then repeating the addition 
 ;of more weight at feveral periods, in the fpace of about 
 2 years, he found that the ftone had not only recovered 
 its former ftrength, but incrcafed it fo far, that it would 
 now take up more than 2olb. whereas at firft it would 
 not take up 151b. 
 
 Artificial Magnet’s, are fteel bars impregnated with 
 the virtues of the magnet, fo that they poiTels all the pro¬ 
 perties, and may be ufed inftead of the natural loadftone. 
 There have been feveral methods propoled for making 
 artificial magnets ; but none are equal to the following, 
 which is the invention of the ingenious Mr. Canton, "a 
 gentleman well known to the learned world, and whom 
 this dilcovery alone will render immortal: 
 
 Procure a dozen bars; fix of foft fteel, each 3 inches 
 long, al of an inch broad, and a of an inch thick, 
 with two pieces of iron, each half the length of one of 
 the bars, but of the fame breadth and thicknefs; and 
 fix of hard fteel, each 5! inches long, half an inch 
 broad, and 5 V of an inch thick, with two pieces of iroii 
 of half the length, hut the lame breadth and thicknefs as 
 one of the hard bars: and let all the bars be marked with 
 a line quite round them at one end. 
 
 Then take an iron poker and tongs (plate LII. fig. 1.) 
 the larger they are, and the longer they have been ufed, 
 the better ; and fixing the poker upright between the 
 knees, hold to it near the top one of the foft bars, having 
 its marked end downward, by a piece of fewing filk, 
 which muft be pulled tight with the left hand, that the 
 bar may not Hide: then grafping the tongs with the right 
 hand a little below the middle, and holding them nearly 
 in a vertical pofition, let the bar be ftroked, by the lower 
 end, from the bottom to the top, about ten times 011 
 each fide, which will give it a magnetick power fufficient 
 to lift a fmall key at the marked end : which end, if the 
 bar was fufpended on a point, would turn toward the 
 north, and is therefore called the north pole, and the 
 unmarked end is, for the fame reafon, called the fouth. 
 pola of the bar. 
 
 Four of the foft bars being impregnated after this 
 manner, lay the other two (fig. 2.) parallel to each other, 
 at the diftance of about a ^ of an inch, between the two 
 pieces of iron belonging to them, a north and a fouth 
 pole againft each piece of iron : then take two of the four 
 bars already made magnetical, and place them together, 
 fo as to make a double bar in thicknefs, the north pole 
 of one even with the fouth pole of the other ; and the 
 remaining two being put to thefe in fuch a manner as to- 
 have two north and two fouth poles together, leparate 
 the north from the fouth poles at one end by a large pin, 
 and place them perpendicularly with that end downward, 
 on the middle of one of the parallel bars, the two north 
 poles towards its fouth, and the two fouth poles towards 
 its north end : llide them backward and forward three or 
 four times the whole length of the bar, and removing 
 them from the middle of this, place them on the middle 
 of the other bar as before diredled, ajid go over 'that in 
 the fame- manner ; then turn both the bars the other fide 
 upward, and repeat the former operation : this being 
 done, take the two from between the pieces of iron, 
 
 and 
 
l,y/> /om/z/f'/fi ' {(‘/u'/S'/M/ <’/ 
 
 '//////<• 
 
 /i/.n/rr 
 
 facing Magn 
 
 PlatelH. 
 
M A G 
 
 and placing the two outermoft of the touching bars in 
 their room, let the other two be the outermoft of the 
 four to touch thefe with : and this proccfs being repeated 
 till each pail- of bars have been touched three or four 
 times over, which will give them a corviiderable rnagne- 
 tick power ; put the half dozen together after the manner 
 of the four (fig. 3.) and touch with them two pair of the 
 hard bars, place between their irons at the diftance of 
 about half an inch from each other : then lay the foft 
 bars abide; and with the four hard ones let the other 
 two be impregnated (Jig. 4.) holding the touching bars 
 apart at the lower end near two tenths of an inch, to- 
 which diftance let them be feparated, after they are fet 
 on the parallel bar, and brought together again, before 
 they are taken off: this being obferved, proceed accord¬ 
 ing to the method deferibed above, till each pair have 
 been touched two or three times over. But as this ver¬ 
 tical way of touching a bar will not give it quite fo much 
 of the magnetick virtue as it will receive, let each pair 
 be now touched once or twice over, in their parallel 
 pofition between the irons (flute LI 1 {.fig. 1.) with two 
 of the bars held horizontally, or nearly fo, by drawing 
 at the fame time the north of one from the middle over 
 the footh end. and the fouth of the other from the mid¬ 
 dle over the north end of a parallel bar ; then, bringing 
 them to the middle again without touching the parallel 
 bar, give three or four of thefe horizontal ftrokes to 
 each fide. 
 
 The horizontal touch, after the vertical, will make 
 the bars as throng as they can poffibly be made : as ap¬ 
 pears by their not receiving any additional ftrength, 
 when the vertical touch is given by a greater number, 
 and the horizontal by bars of afuperior magnetick power. 
 This whole procefs may be gone through in about half 
 an hour, and each of the larger bars, if well hardened, 
 may be made to lift 28 troy ounces, and fometimes more. 
 And when thefe bars are thus impregnated, they will 
 give to an hard bar, of the fame fize, its full virtue in 
 lefs than two minutes: and therefore will anfwer all the 
 purpofes of magnetifm, in navigation and experimental 
 philofophy, much better lhan the loadftone, which is 
 well known not to have fufficient power to impregnate 
 hard bars. The half dozen being put into a cafe (plate 
 TH.yfc. 5.) in fuch a manner, as that two poles of the 
 fame denomination may not be together, and their irons 
 with them as one bar, they will retain the virtue they 
 have received; but if their power fhould, by making ex¬ 
 periments, be ever lo far impaired, it may be reftored 
 without any foreign affiftance in a few minutes. And 
 if, out of curiofity, a much larger fet of bars fhould be 
 required, thefe will communicate to them a fufficient 
 power to proceed with, and they may in a fltort time, by 
 the fame method, be brought to'their full ftrength. 
 The fmith’s manner of hardening ftecl is as follows : 
 having cut a fufficient quantity of tile leather of oldfhoes 
 into very fmall pieces, he provides an iron pan, a little 
 exceeding the length of abar, wide enough to lay two fide 
 by fide without touching each other or the pan, and at 
 leaft an inch deep. This pan he nearly half fills with 
 the bits of leather, upon which he lays the two bars, 
 having faftened to the end of each a fmall wire to take 
 them “out by : he then quite fills the pan with the lea¬ 
 ther, and places it on a gentle flat fire, covering and 
 furrounding it with charcoal. The pan being brought 
 to fomewhat more than a red heat, he keeps it fo about 
 half an hour, and then fuddenly quenches the bars in a 
 large quantity of cold water. 
 
 This ingenious gentleman reverts the poles of a natu¬ 
 ral loadftone by placing it in an inverted direftion, be¬ 
 tween the contrary poles of two of his larger bars, laid 
 down at lome diftance from each other, in the fame 
 ftraight line continued ; without touching the ftonc with 
 either of tile bars, and only by placing it, in the man¬ 
 ner juft mentioned, between their poles, at the diftance 
 of about a quarter of an inch from either of them. 
 
 MAGNETICAL, fometliing relating to the magnet, 
 or loadftone. 
 
 Magnetical Amplitude , is an arch of the horizon 
 intercepted between the centre of the fun at his riling or 
 fetting, and the eaft or weft points of the compafs : or it 
 is the different riling or fetting of die fun from die eaft 
 or weft points of the compafs. 
 
 Magnetical Azimuth, is an arch of the horizon, 
 
 M A I 
 
 comprehended between the fun’s azimuth circle and the 
 magnetical meridian ; or it is the diftance of the fun 
 from the north or fouth point of the compafs. 
 
 MAGNETISM, the virtue or power that the magnet 
 has of attracting iron. For the primary properties of 
 magnetifm, fee Magnet. 
 
 To which we fhall add, that the fame pole of the 
 loadftone will communicate to a piece of iron the power 
 of attracting or repelling the fame end of a touched 
 needle, by drawing it different ways thereon : or thus, 
 if a piece of iron be drawn to the right hand and attra&s, 
 it will repel if drawn to the left, which is not a little 
 wonderful. 
 
 By a finart ftroke of a hammer on the untouched end 
 of the dipping needle, the magnetick virtue may be canfed 
 to come all to that erid from the other, fo as to make 
 it dip on that fide, as much as it did oil the other fide 
 before: and, on the contrary, by fuch a ftioke, fome¬ 
 times, it may be made to dip much more on the touched 
 end than before. Again, fometimes by finking it, the 
 needle which dipped before, will be reftored to its equi¬ 
 librium, as if the virtue had made its efcapc, or were 
 uniformly diffufed over all the needle. So capricious are 
 the phamomena of this amazing power. 
 
 MAGNIFYING, in philofophy, is applied to mi- 
 crofcopes that make obje&s appear bigger than to the 
 naked eye ; which is done by the fhewing them nearer, 
 and by that means more of the parts than before were 
 taken notice ofi 
 
 Magnifying Glafs, inopticks, a little convex lens, 
 which, in tranfmitting the rays of light, inflefts them 
 fo, as that the parallel ones converge, and thofe which 
 diverge become parallel; whereby objects, viewed through 
 them, appear larger than to the naked eye. Sec Lens. 
 
 MAGNITUDE, or Quantity, any thing locafty 
 continued, or that has leVeral dimenfions. Its origin is 
 a point, which, though void of parts, yet its flux forms 
 a line, the flux of that a furfa.ee, and of that a body, &c. 
 See Fluxions. 
 
 Literal M a g n i T u d E, a magnitude expreffed by letters. 
 
 Numerical M agnitude, that expreifed by numbers. 
 
 Broken Magnitude, a fraction, or broken quantity. 
 
 Complex M a c.nit ude, that formed by multiplication. 
 
 lncommcnfurable M a gn i t u d e , that which has no 
 proportion to unity. 
 
 apparent Magnitude of a Bo'ly t in opticks, that 
 meafured by the optick or vifual angle, intercepted be¬ 
 tween rays drawn from its extremes to the centre of the 
 eve. So that whatever tilings are feen under the fame, 
 or equal angles, appear equal ; & e contra. Sec the ar¬ 
 ticle Apparent. 
 
 'Flic apparent magnitudes of the fun and moon, at 
 riling and fetting, is a phenomenon that has extremely 
 embarraffed the modern philofophers. According to the 
 ordinary laws of vifion, they fhould appear the leaft, 
 when neareft the horizon, as being then fartheft diftant 
 from the eye ; and yet we find the contrary true in 
 F. Gouye advances the following conjc&ure, that when 
 the luminaries are in the horizon, the neighbourhood ot 
 the earth, and the grols vapours with which they are in- 
 veloped, have the fame effect with regard to us, as a wall, 
 6 ec. placed behind a column, which in that cafe appears 
 bigger than when encompaffcd on all fides with an illu¬ 
 minated air. 
 
 MAGOPHONIA, in antiquity, a fcaft among the 
 Perfians, in memory of the expulfion of the magi. 
 
 MAHOMETANISM, or Mafiometism, the fyf- 
 tem of religion broached by Mahomet, and ftill adhered 
 to by his followers, who are the Turks, Perfians, feveral 
 nations among the Africans, and among the E. Indians. 
 See Alcoran. 
 
 'Fhe chief articles of the Mahometan creed are, that 
 there is no other god but God, and that Mahomet was 
 lent from God. To thefe articles the Mahometans have 
 added that of bathing, and prayer ; which laft they per¬ 
 form five times a dav : they believe, with the Jews and 
 Chriftians, a refurreftion of the dead. 
 
 MAIDEN, an edged inftrument ufed at Edinburgh 
 formerly, for beheading criminals. 
 
 MAIDENHAIR, Adianthum , in botany, is one of 
 the clafs of the cryptogamia of Limr.vus, and of that ot 
 the herbx epiphyllofperm* of Mr. Rav. It is a large 
 genus of plants, comprehending a great number of fpe- 
 
 cies, 
 
M A J 
 
 cjes, moft of which have at one time of other, been re¬ 
 commended as medicines of great power ; at prefent, 
 however, there are only three of the fpecies known in 
 the lhops, and thefe indeed but little ufed; thefe are, i. 
 The true maidenhair. 2. The large white maidenhair; 
 and, 3. 7 he little white maidenhair, or wall-rue. 
 
 They all attenuate vifcid and tough humours, and at 
 the lame time obtund the two acrid ones, and have an 
 alter aftringency, by which they reltore the fibres to their 
 true tone. They are good againft crudities of the ftomach, 
 and againft diarrhoeas, and other complaints arifingfrom 
 that caufe : they are good alio in all diforders of the 
 breaft occafioned by a vifcid phlegm, and in all obftruc- 
 tsons ol the 'vil'cera. They are never trufted fingly, 
 however, in any of thefe cafes, but make a good ingre¬ 
 dient among other decodlions, &c. intended to do fervice 
 in them. They are fometimes given in a flight infufion, 
 in form of tea, againft obftru&ions of the menfes, when 
 habitual, but not violent. 1 hey are ingredients alfo in 
 lb me of the compofitions of the ftiops. The firup of 
 capillare is made from the true adianthum or maiden¬ 
 hair of France, with Narbonne honey; and there i 
 another kind of it brought from America, which is made 
 of an infufion of the adianthum Americanum, a plant 
 fomewhat refembling the true maidenhair, but larger 
 and more branched, and with maple fugar; a kind of 
 fugar made from the infpill'ited juice of the maple, as 
 the common fugar is in the fame part of the world from 
 that of the fugar-canc. 
 
 MAJESTY, a title gi ven to kings. 
 
 MAIL, or Coat c/Mai l, a piece of defenfive armour 
 for the body, made of lmall iron rings, interwoven in 
 the manner of a net. 
 
 MAIM, Ma 1 h em, or Mayhem, in law, a wound, 
 by which a perfon lofes the ufe of a member that might 
 have been a defence to him. 
 
 MAIN, in the lea language, chief, principal; as the 
 main-maft, main-yard, main-fail, main-hatchway. See. 
 
 Main alfo implies fome continent or great land, as 
 oppofed to iiland : we fteered between the ifland and 
 the main. 
 
 MAINPRISE, in law, is receiving a perfon into 
 friendly cuftody, who might otherwife be committed to 
 prifon, on lecurity given that he lhall be forth coming at 
 a certain time and place appointed. There is difference 
 between bail and mainprife: for a perfon mainprifed is 
 faid to be at large from the day of his beijig mainprifed, 
 till the day of his appearance, and is not liable to be 
 confined by his fureties : but when a perfon is let to bail 
 by a judge; See. till a certain day, he is in law always 
 accounted in the ward of his bail during the time, and 
 they may, if they pleafe, keep him in prifon. 
 
 MAINTENANCE, in law, is an unlawful main¬ 
 taining or fnpporting a fuit between others, by ftirring 
 up quarrels, or interfering in a caufe in which the perfon 
 has no concern. 
 
 MAJOR, in military affairs, the name of fevcral of¬ 
 ficers, of very different rank and diftinftion. 
 
 Major, in logick, the firft proportion of a fyllogifm. 
 See Syllogism. 
 
 Major and Minor, in mufick, fignify imperfeft 
 concords, which differ from each other by a femi-tone 
 minor. See Concord. 
 
 Major-Domo, an appellation formerly given to the 
 fteward or mailer of the king’s houlhold. 
 
 MAJORANA, marjoram, in botany, a low plant, 
 with (lender, fquare, branched, woody lfalks, and little, 
 oval, fomewhat downy leaves, fet in pairs : on the tops 
 growfealy heads of lmall wfiitifti labiated flowers, whole 
 upper lip is eredl and cloven, the lower divided into 
 three fegments. It is town annually in gardens, for cu¬ 
 linary as well as medicinal ufes : the feeds, which rarely 
 come to perfection in England, are procured from the 
 foutli of France, where the plant is faid to be indigenous. 
 
 M A L 
 
 ' This plant has been chiefly recommended in diforders 
 of the head and nerves, in uterine obltruCtions and 
 mucous difeharges proceeding from what is called a cold 
 cauie, that is, from a laxity and debility of the fotids, 
 and a fluggifh ftate of the juices, and in the humoural 
 afthmas and catarrhs ol old people. The powder of the 
 leaves, thin diitilled water, and the eflemial oii properly 
 diluted, are agreeable errhines, and accounted particularly 
 uleful in pituitous obftruCtions of the noftrils, and dis¬ 
 orders ol the olfaCtory organs. 
 
 M A J OKI 1 Y, the greater number of perfons. 
 
 MAIZE, a fpeeies of grain fo generally ufedfor food 
 in America, that it has obtained the name of Indian corn. 
 
 MALACHI, or the Fro; becy oj Mai. ac hi, a cano¬ 
 nical book ol the Old Teftament, and the laft of the 
 12 leffer apoflles. Malachi prophefied about 306 years 
 before Chrift, reproving the Jews for their v'ickcdnefs 
 after their return fr om iiabylon. charging them with re¬ 
 bellion, lacrilcge, adultery, prophanenefs, and infidelity, 
 and condemning the priefts for being fcandaloufly cave- 
 lels in their miniftry : at the fame time not forgetting 
 to encourage the pious lew. who, in that corrupt age, 
 maintained their integrity. I his prophet diftindly points 
 at the Meftiah, who was luddenly to come to his temple, 
 and be introduced by Elijah the prophet, that is, by 
 John the baptift, who came in the lpirit and power of 
 Elias or Elijah. 
 
 MALACIA, in medicine, is a languilhing diforder 
 incident to pregnant women, in which they long fome¬ 
 times for one kind of food, and fometimes for another* 
 and eat it with an extraordinary greedinsls. When 
 women labouring under thi$ diforder begin to abftain 
 1 rom the improper and abiurd things they were fond oft 
 and with lefs reluctance ufe laudable and wholcfome 
 aliments, it is an infallible lign ol a beginning cure and 
 approaching health. Pregnant women arc generally freed 
 from the malacia about the fourth month ; but if it con¬ 
 tinues longer it is dangerous bccaufe the peccant humours 
 are deeply rooted. For the cure of this diforder in preg¬ 
 nant women, but few medicines are recommended, for 
 fear of abortion ; however, gentle medicines may be ufed 
 for evacuating and corroborating the ftomach. In young 
 women labouring under a chlorofis, this diftemper is 
 cured by the fame medicines that are proper for remov¬ 
 ing the chlorofis. 
 
 MALACOP 1 ERYGIOUS, among ichthyologifts, 
 an appellation given to one of the five orders of fifties, 
 from their having the ray of their fins bony, but not 
 pointed or lharp at the extremities, like tlioie of acan- 
 thoptcrygious fifties. 
 
 MALACOS I OMOUS Fishes, thofe deftitutc of 
 teeth in the jaws, called in Englilh leather mouthed ; as 
 die tench, carp, bream, See. 
 
 MALAGMA, acataplafm. See Cat apl asm. 
 
 M A LANDERS, in 1 rriery, a difeafe incident to 
 horfes, proceeding from corrupt blood, hard labour, 
 being over ridden, and fometimes for want of clean 
 keeping and rubbing. It confifts of certain chops or 
 chinks which appear on the infide of the fore legs, juft 
 againft the bending of the knee, which difeharge a red, 
 lharp, pungent water. The fureft method of cure is to 
 wafti the part very clean with urine, or oil of nuts 
 fliaken with water, and then to mingle equal quantities of 
 linfeed oil and "aqua-vita.*, ftirring and lhaking them till 
 the mixture grows white, with which anoint the part 
 once a day. 
 
 MALE, A-fos, among zoologifts, that fex of animals 
 which lias the parts of generation without the body. See 
 Animal and Generation. 
 
 The term male has alfo, from fome fimiiitude to that 
 fex in animals, been applied to leveral inanimate things: 
 thus we fay, a male-flower, a male-fcrew, Sec. 
 
 MALEFACTOR, from the Latin male and facto, an 
 offender againft law , a criminal *. 
 
 MALICE, 
 
 * , See A thc Malefactors Register; or, the New Newgate and Tyburn Calendar: containing the authentic* Livis 
 Tiuls, Accounts of Executions, and Dying-ipeechcs, of 1 he moft notoi ions Violate rs of il;e Laws of their Country • who 
 bave JufFcred death, and other exemplary punifhments, in England, Scotland and Ireland, from 1 he »ear 1700 toladv-d iv 1na 
 Publtfhed in weekly numbers (one or two of which may be had at a time, as may belt fuit the readers convenience) ‘bv Alex HdpV 
 No 16, Pa ter - n o Iter- Row, A work that is executed with great judgment; being exceedingly well calculated both for enterta'inmenj 
 
 and improvement. It is ornamented with a variety of very elegant prii 
 
 . ... .. . _ , * -.--j — &—- prints, exm.efGve of the molt intcrefting fcenes in the 
 
 woik. But what Jin our eftimaiion) Itill renders this work more complete than any other of the kind is, that at tiie 
 
 nment 
 te cotirfe of the 
 
 intertfting trial, when the mind is fu.itably piepared, luch inferences are drawn, andVuch moral refieflions’made, tharcannoi fa'il to 
 raile in the mind (and especially of young perfons) proper affections. As for example, in vol. 1. p. 168, two men being condemned 
 for murder, and at the place of .execution, fhevved great concern that their bodies were to be bung in chains, the author thus writes, 
 3 What 
 
M A L 
 
 MALICE, in law, is a premeditated dcfign to do 
 mifchief to another. Malice is neceflary to conflitutc 
 the crime of murder. So where a perfon has a malicious 
 intent to kill, and in the execution of this malicious de- 
 fign kills a third perfon by accident, he is, on account of 
 Lis malice, deemed guilty of murder. See Murder. 
 
 MALIGNANT, among phyficians, a term applied 
 to difeafes of a very dangerous nature, and generally in- 
 iedtious : fuch are the dyfentery, liofpital fever, &c. in 
 their worfl ilages. 
 
 MALLEABLE, a property of metals, whereby they 
 arc capable of being extended under the hammer. 
 
 MALLOW, Malva , in botany, a genus of plants, 
 one of the fpecies of which is the common mallow too 
 well known to require adefeription ; it is one of the five 
 emollient herbs, being loofening, cooling, and mollify¬ 
 ing : a cataplafm of the leaves of this plant, cafes the 
 Hing of bees or wafps. 
 
 Marjfo -M allow, Altheca. S ee A l t h je a . 
 MALMSEY, a rich kind of wine, fo called, as being 
 brought from Malvafia, in the Morea. 
 
 MALOPE, in botany, a genus of plants, the flower 
 of which is like that of the common mallow ; the fruit 
 is compofed of many cells, which arc colledled in a head, 
 each containing a kidney-fhape'd feed. 
 
 MALPHIGHIA, in botany, a genus of plants, the 
 flower of which is compofed of five large, hollow, kidney- 
 fhaped petals, with long and linear ungues : the flamina 
 are io broad fubulated filaments, topped with heart-fhaped 
 anthers : the fruit is a large globofe berry, containing 
 ofleous, oblong, obtufe, and angulated feeds, each having 
 an oblong and obtufe kernel. 
 
 MALT is barley prepared, to fit it for makings p ot- 
 able liquor called beer, or ale, by Hopping it Ihort at the 
 beginning of vegetation. 
 
 In making matt for barley, the ufu'al method is to fleep 
 the grain in a fufficient quantity of water, for two or 
 three days, till it fwells, becomes plump, fomewhat 
 tender, and tinges the water of a bright brown, or redifh 
 colour. Then this water being drained away, the bar¬ 
 ley is removed from tlie fteeping ciftern to the floor, 
 where it is thrown into what is called the wet couch , 
 that is, an even heap, rifing to the height of about two 
 feet. In this wet couch, the capital part of the operation 
 is performed ; for here the barley fpontaneoufly heats, 
 and begins to grow, fhooting out firft the radicle, and if 
 i'uffered to continue, then the plume, fpire or blade. But 
 the procefs is to be Hopped Ihort at the eruption of the 
 radicle, otherwife the malt would be fpciled. In order to 
 Hop it, they fpread the wet couch thin over a large floor, 
 and keep turning it once in four or five hours, for the 
 ipace of two days, laying it fomewhat thicker each time. 
 After this, it is again thrown into a large heap, and there 
 fuffered to grow fenfibly hot to the hand, as it ufuaily 
 ■will in 20 or 30 hours time; then being fpread again, 
 and cooled, it is thrown upon the kiln, to be dried 
 .crifp without fcorching. 
 
 This is the general procefs of malting, in which alrnofl 
 every maltfler has his fecret, or particular way of work¬ 
 ing. But to render the operation perfe£t, the following 
 cautions muH be obferved : 1. That the barley be newly 
 tlircflied, or at leaH newly winnowed. 2. That it be 
 not mixed, or made up of different forts. 3. That it be 
 not over Heeped in the ciflern, or fo long as to make it 
 foft. 4. That it be well drained. 5. That it be care¬ 
 fully looked after in the wet couch, fo as- to Hop the firft 
 tendency of the blade to lbooting. 6. Another caution 
 is, to turn the wet couch infide outermoH, if the barley 
 comes, and Hioots more in the middle of the heap than on 
 the fides. 7. To keep it duly turning, after it is out of 
 the wet couch. 8. To give it the proper heating in the 
 dry heap. 9. To dry and crifp it thoroughly upon the 
 kiln, but without a fierce fire, fo as to be ieveral days in 
 drying a kiln of pale malt. And if thefe directions be 
 carefully obferved, the malt will always be good. 
 
 The method of malting Indian corn or Virginia- 
 wheat, is much lefs laborious. For if this corn be bu- 
 
 M A L 
 
 ried two or three inches deep in the eartli, and covered 
 with the loofe mould, dug up to make room for It, in 
 ten or twelve days time the corn will fprout and appear 
 like a green field ; at which time being taken up, and 
 wafhed or fanned from its dirt, it is immediately com¬ 
 mitted to the kiln, and by this means it becomes good 
 malt. It is obfcrvable ot this corn, that both its root 
 and blade mufi fhoot to a confiderable length, before it 
 will make malt; and perhaps ‘this is the cafe in all large 
 bodied grain. 
 
 The importation of malt from beyond the feas 
 is prohibited: and on its being exported, it is not 
 only freed from paying the excile of 6 d. a bufhel, but 
 a bounty is allowed by aCl of parliameTit, for which lee 
 Corn. 
 
 Malt-liquors have different names, and different \ir 
 tues, from the different methods of preparing the malt, 
 whence they are difiinguifhcd into pale and brown ; and 
 from the various methods taken in brewing the liquors, 
 whence they are divided into ale and beer, ftrong and 
 fmnll, new and old. See Brewing. 
 
 The colour of the liquor, and many of its effcCfs, de¬ 
 pend on the man net of drying the malt it is brewed with ; 
 that which has the paleil tinge, is made with malt but 
 ilenderly dried, whereas that which is high coloured, is 
 made with malt that is high dried, orroafied, as it were, 
 in companion of the other; and amber ale is made of a 
 mixture of both. Another difference in the preparations 
 of malt-liquors confifis in the larger quantity ot hops in 
 beer, and the fmaller in ale ; for hops add fortiething of art 
 alkaline nature to the liquor, and not only render it 
 more eafy of digefiion and fecretion in the body, but 
 while it is in the liquor, prevent its running into fuch 
 cohefions as would make it ropy, vapid, and four. l or 
 this reafon Dr. Quincy is of opinion, that for one con- 
 ftitution injured by beer, there are numbers fpoiled by- 
 ale, which is apt to Huff the vcflels with Hi me and vilci- 
 dity, to make the body unwieldy and corpulent, and to 
 pave the way for cachexies, the jaundice, aflhmas, and 
 the dropfy. The different degrees of Hrength in malt- 
 liquors alfo makes them produce different cfleels. I he 
 Hronger the) are, the more vifeid parts they carry into 
 the blood : they are therefore in general the more whole- 
 foine for being fmall: that is, of fuch a Hrength as to carry 
 fome degree of warmth into the ftomach, but not fo as to 
 prevent their being proper diluters of our rieceffary food. 
 Indeed people of robulf conftitutions, who labour very 
 hard, may difpcnfe with reafonable quantities of the 
 Hrongefl ; cfpccially as their food is frequently poor and 
 {lender enough, the deficiencies of which this fupplies; 
 and their continual exercife and Hrength of body digells 
 and breaks the vifeidities ot the drink into convenient 
 nourilhment: though in perlons ot another habit and 
 way of living, they would only produce obftru&ions and 
 ill humours. As to the age of thefe liquors, it has fome¬ 
 what the fame effect as hops, for thole that are longeft 
 kept, are certainly leaH vifeid; for age, by degrees, 
 breaks their vifeid parts, and by rendering them Imaller, 
 makes them fitter for fecretion. 
 
 Malt -Distiller y, the art of converting iftalt- 
 Irquors into a clear inflammable fpirit. 
 
 Before the liquor, or what the dillillers call wafh, is 
 put into the Hill, it mufl be properly brewed and fer¬ 
 mented ; but even then it will be of a mucilaginous or 
 glutinous nature ; and there requires a particular manage¬ 
 ment to prevent its fcorching, and to make it work 
 kindly. If it fhould happen to be burnt in the operation, 
 the fpirit would acquire a very difagreeable flavour, or 
 empyreuma, which will require a great deal of trouble to 
 remove. In order, therefore, to prevent this difagree- 
 able confequence; the wafh muH be made dilute; the 
 fire be properly regulated ; and the liquor kept in a con- 
 Hant agitation. The confiant agitation of the wafh in 
 the Hill may be effefted by conflantly Hirring it with a 
 paddle or oar, till the liquor begins to boil, and thou 
 immediately luting on the Hill-head; by putting fome 
 folid and moveable bodies into the Hill; or by placing 
 
 “ What is the inference to he drawn fiorn this faff ? Tt feems evident that fuch is the corruption of the human heart, that men v.i;l 
 “commit thole crimes without blulhing, the flighted punilhment of which they cannot bear the idea of: for fu rely the hanging in 
 “ chains, after death, can fcarcely be deemed a punifnment.—There is no faying to what lengths any man may proceed who once 
 “ departs from the path of integrity. Many a perfon has been executed for murder, whole firft crimes were of a very inferior nature; 
 “ but vice is not only rapid, but greedy in its progrefs. It is like a fnow-ball rolled down a bill ; its bulk increafes by its own 
 “ fwiftnefs. Hence let the young and the thoitghtlefs be taught to guard.aga'itvft the flrft approaches of vice ; to Hum the eontannni- 
 “ tion of bad company, as they would a peftikuce; and, in the fcripturc phrafe, to fly from ail appearance of evil." 
 
 Vol. II. No. 47.. Y fome 
 
a/A L 
 
 feme proper matter at the bottom and fides, where the 
 hre ads the ftrongeft. 
 
 i. The .ufual method of ftirring witfi the paddJe is 
 very defective, as being of no ule after the ftill is once 
 brought to work; whereas it often burns in the working. 
 Tins method is greatly improveable by an addition to 
 the ftrudure of the ftill; whence the agitation may be 
 commodioufly continued during the whole operation: 
 and tiiis though the walh were made very thick, or 
 wine-lees themfelves were to be diflilled. The method 
 is this: Soldier a fliort iron or copper-tube in the centre 
 of the Hill-head : and below, in the lame head, place a 
 crofs-bar, with a hole in the middle, correlpondino - to 
 that at-top; through both which, is to run an iron-pipe, 
 deep down into the ftill; and through this an iron rod : 
 to the bottom whereof wooden fweeps are to be faftened ; 
 lo that, this rod being worked at-top, backwards and 
 forwards, with a winch, they may continually rake and 
 clear the bottom plate and adjacent Tides of the ftill: the 
 interfaces of the tubes being at the fame time well 
 crammed with tow at-top, to prevent any evaporation 
 thereat. 
 
 2. i he fame effed may in good meafure be fecured by 
 a lefs laborious way; viz’, by placing a parcel of cylin¬ 
 drical fticks lengthwife, To as to cover the whole bottom 
 of the ftill; orelfe by throwing in a parcel of loofe fag¬ 
 got-flicks at a venture: for thus the action of the fire 
 below, moving the liquor, at the lame time gives motion 
 to the fticks, and makes them continually ad like a par¬ 
 cel of ftirrers upon the bottom and Tides of the flill. To 
 as to p;event the liquor from fcorching. 
 
 3. But a better method ftill is, upon a parcel of large 
 cylindrical fticks to lay loofe hay, to a confiderable 
 .thick nefs; fccuring it from riling by two afh-poles laid 
 acrofs, and preffmg hard againft the fides of the ftill- 
 which might, if neceflary, be furnifhed with buttons or 
 loops, to fecure the poles from ftarting. But care nnift 
 here be lnd, not to prefs the hay againft the Tides, for 
 that would prefently make it fcorch; "which Being other- 
 wife defended by the fticks, it is not apt to do. ° Theft 
 are fimple but effed ual contrivances, which, in point of 
 elegance, areeafily improveable at pleafure. 
 
 1 here is a farther inconvenience attending the diftilla- 
 tion of malt-lpirit, when all the bottoms or grofs mealy 
 feculent fubftance is put into the ftill, along with the 
 w afh : which thus coming to thicken a little, like ftarch ' 
 m the boiling, and lofing the thinner liquor, wherewith 
 it was diluted, as the ftill works off; the mealy mafs at 
 length grows fo vifeous, as fometimes to fcoich towards 
 the end of the operation. To prevent this ill effed, it 
 is very proper to have a pipe, with a ftop-cock, leading 
 from the upper part of the worm-tub into the ftill; fb 
 that, upon half or a quarter turn, it may continually 
 lupply a little ftream of hot water, in the fame proportion 
 as the fpirit comes off, by which means the operation 
 will be no ways checked or hindred. 
 
 But in Holland, where they work their wafh thick, 
 with all the malt and meal along with it, they commonly 
 tile no art at all to prevent burning; only charge vvhilft 
 the ftill is hot And moift, after having been well waihed 
 and clean fed. And vet they very rarely lcorch, unlefs it 
 be now and then in the winter. When fuch an accident 
 happens, they are extremely folicitous to ferape, icrub, 
 and wafh off the leaft remains of the burnt parts; by 
 which means they effeduaily avoid the danger there 
 would other wife be of burning a fecond time. But moil 
 effectually to prevent any accident of this kind, there is 
 nothing comparable to the way of working by the bal¬ 
 neum marke, if the diftillers could have the addrefs to 
 find their account in it. All fimple fpirits may be con- 
 fidered in the three different dates of low-wines, proof- 
 fpirit, and alcohol: the intermediate dates being of lefs 
 general ufe, and to be judged of according as they ap¬ 
 proach to or recede from thefe. Low-wines, at a me¬ 
 dium, contain afixth part of totally inflammable fpirit, 
 five times as much water as perfed fpirit naturally riling 
 in the operation with a boiling heat. Proof-goods con¬ 
 tain about half of the fame totally inflammable fpirit, and 
 alcohol entirely confills of it. 
 
 Malt-low-wines, prepared in the common way, are 
 exceeding naufeous, fulfome, and difagrecable. They 
 have however a natural venofity, or pungent acidity, 
 
 •tiigt would render the fpirit agreeable, were it not for the 
 
 3 
 
 M A L 
 
 grofs oil of the malt abounding therein. When this o ; J 
 by luitable contrivances, as mentioned before, is kept 
 from running m among the low-wines, they prove con¬ 
 fide rablyfweeter, both to the fmell and taftc; and lefs 
 thick and milky to the eve. When diftilled over gentlv 
 in order to their reftification into proof-fpirit, they leave 
 a confiderable quantity of this grofs foetid oil behind 
 with the phlegm, in the ftill. But, if the fire be made 
 herce, this oil is again thrown over, mixed with the fpi- 
 r, t; and, being now broke fomewhat fine, impregnates 
 it rather in a more naufeous manner than at firft. ° And 
 this is the ufual fault committed not onlv by the malt- 
 lt'iJer, but even the redifier; who, inftead of feparatine 
 and keeping back the foul parts, according to the defigu 
 . t,le operation, really brings them over in greater 
 vigour. Whence it is not unufual, after repeated recti¬ 
 fications as they call them, both fimple and compound, 
 to find the fpirit much more naufeous and difagrecable 
 than it came from the hands of the malt-ftiller. The 
 remedy is, plainly, either gentle and foft working in the 
 common engine, or the prudent ufe of the balneum 
 marnv. Malt-low-wine, when brought into proof-fpi- 
 nt appears bright and clear, without"the leaft cloud or 
 milkinels ; no more oil being contained in the mixture 
 than is perfectly diffolved by the alcohol, weakened with 
 its own quantity of phlegm. Its taile alfo is much 
 cleaner for the fame reafon ; viz. becaufe no grofs parts 
 of the oil can, in their own form, hang upon the tonmie. 
 but now pals readily and flightly over it: which is"not 
 the caff in low-wmes and faints, where the oil remains 
 diitincl and undiftolved. 
 
 f When proof malt-fpirit is diftilled over again, in order 
 for alcohol, if the lire be railed when the faints begin to 
 come oft, a. very confiderable quantity of oil will be 
 brought over, and run in the vifibic form of oil, from 
 the nole of the worm. Though this is not peculiar to 
 malt-fpirit, but others alfo, and even French brandies 
 do the fame ; io that fometimes half an ounce or more of 
 tins oil may be colleded from a Tingle piece of brandv. 
 Malt-lpirit, more than almoft any other, requires to be 
 Drought into the form of alcohol, before it can be ufcel 
 int-rely; efpeciallv, as it is now commonly made up, 
 u irli as much fulfome oil in it as will give it the ftrongeft 
 proof. Oa which account it is, that in all compound 
 waters, not excepting thofe of the apothecary, an in- 
 dTcrent judge will eafily find the predominant flavour of 
 this fulfome fpirit, through that of all their ingredients 
 1- or this reafon, it ought at leaft to be redified, in balneo 
 man®, to a perfed alcohol, before it is ufed in tlie finer 
 compolitions. And, when once brought, with a due 
 care and art, to a perfed alcohol indeed, it is then pre¬ 
 ferable to the k rench brandies for all curious internal 
 uies; as being a much more uniform, hungrv, taftclefs 
 and impregnable fpirit than thofe ufually are.' This al¬ 
 cohol ought to be kept in dole earthen vafes or jars; 
 not only to prevent its evaporation, but alfo its colour¬ 
 ing ltfelfwith the refinous parts of the oak, which it dif- 
 folvcs powerfully, when preferved in cafks. 
 
 i he quantity of pure alcohol obtainable from a certain 
 quantity of malt differs according to the goodnels of the 
 fubjed, the manner of the operation, the feafon of the 
 year, and Ikilfulnefs of the workman: according to 
 which vauations, a quarter of malt may afford from 8 
 or 9, to 13 or 14 gallons of alcohol; which lhould en¬ 
 courage the malt-ftiller to be careful and intelligent in 
 this bufinefs. As, after each operation in the common 
 v\ay, there is always a remainder of faints, which never 
 ought in their foul (late to be mixed among the cleaner 
 lpirit; they lhould either he converted to other ulcs, or 
 ticated in a particular manner, To as to make a pure al¬ 
 cohol: the ules they are otherwiib fit Tor being princi¬ 
 pally external, or, when rediililled to a proper height, 
 burning in lamps: for which purpofe they may have 
 their uilagrceable odour correded by proper aromaticks 
 or other ingredients, ufed in diftillation. 
 
 But to make them into pure and perfed alcohol is a 
 work of greater difficulty ; jet pradicable, though not 
 perhaps to advantage. One way of effeding it is by 
 (lowly red living them from water into water; by which 
 operation feveral times repeated, a pure alcohol may be 
 obtained from the foulcft and moll oleaginous faints 
 The oeconomical ufe of the ftill botroms of the malt- 
 walh is lufficiemly underltood by the malt-ftiller, and, 
 
 bein £ 
 
MAM 
 
 being fo profitable an article, may, perhaps, raider him 
 Jefs folicitous about the improvement of the other 
 branches of the bufinefs. But thefe bottoms might have 
 fome further, if not more advantageous ufes than feed¬ 
 ing of animals. Thus, in particular, thev might, in a 
 chymical way, afford a large proportion of an acid fpirit, 
 an oil, a fevvel, and a fixed fait; and, with l'ome ad- 
 drefs and good management, a vinegar or a tartar. Bo¬ 
 lides this, one uncommon ufe thereof has been already 
 touched upon, where the refufe walh is obferved, to be 
 very advantageoufly employed, inftead of water, in the 
 next brewing: as more readily difpofing the lubjcft to 
 ferment; giving the fpirit a vinofity, and fomewhat in- 
 creafing its quantity. But the proportion for this pur- 
 pofe Ihould not exceed that of a fifth or fixth of the 
 Whole liquor employed. The liquor left behind in the 
 dill, upon rectifying the low-wines, is little more than 
 mere phlegm or water, impregnated with a few acid and 
 fome oily parts, not worth feparating, unlefs for cu- 
 riofity. And the fame is to be underflood of the liquor 
 left behind upon diflilling proof-fpirit into it. 
 
 Knights of MALTA, otherwile called HofpitaUers of 
 St. John of Jerufahm , a religious military order, whole 
 refidence is in the i Hand of Malta. The order con fills 
 of three eilates, the knights, chaplains, and fervants at 
 arms: there are alfo priefls who officiate in the churches, 
 friar-lervants, who affifl at the offices, and donnes or 
 demicroffes; but thefe arc not reckoned conflitucnt parts 
 of the body: the government of the order is mixt, being 
 partly monarchial, and partly ariflocratical: the grand 
 mailer is fovereign. The knights formerly confiflcd of 
 eight different languages, but now only feven, the Eng- 
 iifh having withdrawn themfelves. None are admitted 
 into this order but fuch as are of noble birth : the 
 knights are of two forts, thole who have a right to be 
 candidates for the dignity of grand mailer, called grand 
 erodes, and thofe who are only knights affiflants: they 
 never marry, yet have continued from 1090 to the pre- 
 fent time. The knights arc received into this order 
 either by undergoing the trials preferibed by flatutes, or 
 by difpenfation. 
 
 MALTHA, in antiquity, a kind of cement, ofwhich 
 there were two forts, native and faftitious; one of the 
 latter fort, much in ufe, confiflcd of pitch, wax, plafler, 
 andgreafe. Another kind ufed by the Romans in their 
 aquedufts, was made of lime flacked in wine, incorpo¬ 
 rated with melted pitch, and freffi figs. Natural maltha 
 is a kind of bitumen, wherewith the Afiaticks plafler 
 their wails; and which being once fet on fire, water 
 makes it burn more fiercely. 
 
 MALVA, inbotany, See Mallow. 
 
 MAM ALU KES, the name of a dynafly that reigned 
 in Egypt. 
 
 The mamalukcs wete originally Turkiffi and Cir¬ 
 cadian ilaves, bought of the Tartars by Melicfaleh, to 
 the number of a thoufand, whom he bred up to arms, 
 and raifed fome to the principal offices of the empire. 
 They killed lultan Moadam, to whom they fucceeded. 
 
 Others fay, that tire mamalukes were ordinarily chofen 
 from among the Chriftian daves, and that they were the 
 fame thing in a great meafurewith the janidaries among 
 the Turks. They never married; they firll are laid to 
 have been brought from Circadia, and fome have fup- 
 pofed that they began to reign about the year 869. 
 
 M A M MAE. the Breasts, in anatomy. See BreAst. 
 
 MAMMEA, in botany, a genus of the polyandria 
 monogynia clafs. The corolla condfls of four petals, 
 and the calix of two leaves ; and the berry is large, and 
 contains four feeds. There are two fpecies, none of 
 them natives of Britain. 
 
 MAMMIFORM, in anatomy, a name given to apo- 
 phyfes of the bone in the back part of the l'cull, fo called 
 from their relembling a bread. 
 
 MAMILLARY, Ma mmillar is, in anatomy, an 
 epithet given to two little protuberances, fomewhat r£- 
 fembling the nipples of the bread,, found under the four 
 ■ventricles of the brain, and luppofed to be the organs of 
 duelling. Thefe are called apophyfes mammillares. 
 There is alfo a mufcle called mamillaris, or madoides, 
 ferving to doopthe head. 
 
 MAMMOTH’s Teeth, in natural hidory, certain 
 large foffile teeth, found in great plenty in Rudia, and 
 fuppofed to have belonged to elephants. 
 
 M A N 
 
 MAN, Homo, is ranked by Linnseus under the 
 order of primates, and charafterifed by having four pa¬ 
 rallel foreteeth both in the upper and lower jaw, and two 
 mammal on the bread. The fpccies, according to this 
 author, are two, vi2. the homo fapiens, and the homo 
 troglodytes. He fubdivides the homo fapiens into five 
 varieties, viz. the American, the European, the Afia- 
 tick, the African, and What he calls the mondrous. The 
 troglodytes, or orang outang, is a native of ./Ethiopia, 
 Java, and Amboina. His body is white; he walks 
 ere£1; and is about one half the ordinary human fize. 
 He generally lives about 25 years. He conceals himfelf 
 in caves during the day, and learches for his prey in the 
 night. He is laid to be exceedingly fagacious, but i» 
 not endowed with the faculty of fpeecli. 
 
 MANAGE, or Menage, an academy for learning 
 to ride the great horfc, and where pupils are taught the 
 art of riding. It alfo fignifies the exercife itfelf. 
 
 MACHINEEL, hippomane, in botany, a large 
 tree growing naturally in the W. Indian iflands. The 
 fruit of the machined tree is very dangerous to eat, 
 caufing violent inflammations in the mouth and throat; 
 the wood is much edeemed in America, for making ca¬ 
 binets, book-cafes, &cc. being very durable, and taking 
 a fmepci lh; it is alfo faid that the worms will not cat 
 it. As the trees abound with milky caudick juice, fcJ 
 before they are felled, thev make fires round their tranks, 
 to burn out their juice, otherwife thofe who fell them 
 would be in danger of lofing their fight, by the juice 
 Hying into their eyes; and wherever this falls on the 
 ikin, it will raife bliders ; if dropt on linen, it im¬ 
 mediately turns the part black, and on being waffied 
 will come in holes. It is alfo dangerous working the 
 wood after it is fawed out, for if any of the faw-dud 
 happens to get in the workman’s eyes, it caufes inflam- 
 mations and the lofs of fight for fome time; to prevent 
 which, when they are working it, they generally cover 
 their faces with fine lawn. 
 
 MANDAMUS, in law, a writ iffuing out of the 
 King’s-bench, fentby the king to the head of a corpo¬ 
 ration, commanding them to admit or redore a perfon to 
 his office. It was alfo a charge to the die riff, to take 
 into the king’s hands all the lands and tenements of the 
 king’s widow, who, contrary to her oath, married 
 without his confent. 
 
 MANDARINS, the nobles and magidrates of the 
 eadern countries, efpecially thofe of China. 
 
 The mandarinate is not hereditary, nor are any raifed 
 to it but men of letters. 
 
 MANDATE ,' Mundatum, in the canon law, denotes 
 a relcript by which the pope commands fome ordinary, 
 &c. to put the perfon therein nominated in poffeffion of 
 the fird benefice vacant in his collation. 
 
 MAND 1 BULE, Mandibula , Maxilla , in anatomy. 
 See J aw. 
 
 MANDIBULARES, 6r Manducatorii Mas- 
 c u l 1 , the fame with maffeters. See Jaw. 
 
 MANDRAKE, Mandragora, Mandragoras , in bo¬ 
 tany, one of the principal ingredients in the unguentum 
 populneum. Mandrake is one of the pentandria mono¬ 
 gynia of Linnaeus, and of the herb® baccifcrce of Mr. 
 Ray. It is deferibed by all the botanical writers under 
 the name of mandragora, with the didinftion into male 
 and female. 
 
 MANGANESE, Magnesia, in natural hidory, 
 a poor kind of iron-ore. Manganefe is found in great 
 abundance in the German and Swediffi mines, as alfo 
 in France, Italy, and England ; but ours is not equal in 
 beauty or goodnefs to the German. It is recommended 
 by authors as an adringent, and ordered to be given after 
 calcination in haemorrhages; but it is very improper for 
 internal ufe. It is of great fervice, however, to the 
 glaffmen, in clearing away the greenilh colour from their 
 white glafs while in fufion. See Glass. 
 
 MANGER, in the fea-language, a fmall apartment 
 in the fore-part of afhip, which is fenced on the after¬ 
 part by a fort of bulk-head or barrier ; the ufe of which 
 is to prevent the water, which ruihes in at the liawfe- 
 holes, or the holes through which the cable goes, from 
 running aft on the lower decks, which would render 
 them extremely uncomfortable to the men, who eat and 
 deep there. As loon as the water enters at the havvfe- 
 lioles, which is always the cafe when the Chip pitches 
 
 deep 
 
M A N 
 
 deep forward, it is conveyed away again through the fide 
 into the fca by feveral fmall pipes or channels, called 
 feuppers. See Scuppers. 
 
 MANGO Tree, in botany, the name of a vaft tree, 
 40 feet in height, and 18 in thicknefs, and Ipreads its 
 numerous branches all around at a great dill a nee, being 
 always green, and bearing fruit once or twice a year, 
 from fix or l'cven years old to an lnnuhcd. It is propa¬ 
 gated by incifiojis, or lowing the feed, in Malabar, Goa, 
 Bengal, Pegu, and many other countries in the E. 
 Indies. 
 
 The ftalks fupply the place of arequa or caunga, in 
 the chewing of betel; the fame calcined and reduced 
 to powder, takes away warts. Of the tender leaves, 
 with the bark of die avanacoe, that is, the l icijiis, the 
 feed of the cummin and parpadogam, is made a decoc¬ 
 tion, which is highly beneficial in the cough, afihrna, 
 and other affections of the thorax. The bark of the 
 tree pulverifed, and taken in chicken broth, is an excel¬ 
 lent difiblvent of extravafated and coagulated blood, oc- 
 cailoncd by a fall, in any part of the body. The juice 
 of the bark, with the white of an egg, and a very little 
 opium, taken inwardly, is a prefent remedy againft the 
 diarrhoea, dylcntery, and tenefmus. Of the gum of 
 the tree, and the flowers of rice, with the addition of a 
 fmall quantity of opium and pepper, are prepared pills, 
 which alfo cure all forts of fluxes of the belly. Of the 
 flour of the dried kernels, the natives have the art of 
 preparing various kinds of food. 
 
 MAN 1 CHEES, in church hiftory, a feft ofChriftian 
 hereticks in the third century, the followers of Manes 
 who made his appearance in the reign of the emperor 
 Probus ; pretending to be the comforter, whom our Sa¬ 
 viour promiled to fend into the world. He taught that 
 there are two principles, or gods, coeternal and inde¬ 
 pendent on each other, the cue the author of all evil, 
 and the other, of all good; a doflrine which he borrowed 
 from the Perfian magi. He held that our fouls were 
 made by the good principle, and our bodies by the evil 
 one, and that the fouls of his followers palfed through 
 the elements to the moon, and from thence to the fun, 
 where being purified, they then went to God, and be¬ 
 came united with his elfence ; but as for the fouls of 
 other men, tliey either went to hell, or were united to 
 other bodies. He alledged, that Chriil: had his rciidence 
 in the fun, the Holy Ghoft in the air, Wifdom in the 
 moon, and the Father in the abyfs of light. He is alfo 
 charged with denying the refurre&ion and condemning 
 marriage; with teaching that Chriil; was the ferpent that 
 tempted Eve; with forbidding the ufe of eggs, clieefe, 
 milk and wine, as proceeding- from the bad principle , 
 with ufing a different kind of baptifm from that of the 
 ehurch ; with teaching that magiflrates were not to be 
 obeyed, and with condemning the moft lawful wars. 
 
 MAN 1 CORDION, a mufical inftrument, in form 
 of a fpinnet, which confifis of 50 chords and upwards, 
 which are covered with pieces of fcarlet cloth to deaden, 
 as well asToften, the found: whence it is called the 
 dumb fpinnet. 
 
 MAN 1 FESTO, a publick declaration in writing made 
 by a prince to fljew the motives that introduced him to 
 any enterprize, and the grounds of his pretenfions: 
 
 MAN 1 LLE, in commerce, a large brafs ring, like a 
 bracelet, either flat, or round, &c. which the Europeans 
 carry to the coafl of Africa to traffick with the Negroes 
 in exchange for Haves. With thele the natives, deck 
 themfelves, putting them on the fmall of the leg, or 
 thick of the arm above the elbow. The better fort wear 
 gold and filver manilles, of their own manufa* 5 lure. 
 
 MANIOCK, the name of a plant cultivated in many 
 parts of the W. Indies, the root producing what is called 
 the cafia-bread, eaten by the negroes, and often by the 
 natives. Linnasns conlidcrs this plant as a fpccies of the 
 jatropha. This plant rifes with a Ihrubby flalk fix or 
 feven feet high, garnifhed with lmooth leaves, compofed 
 of feven lobes, which are joined at their bale in the 
 centre, where they are narrow, but increafc from thence 
 in breadth till within an inch and a half of the top, 
 diminilhing thence to an acute point. The flowers arc 
 produced in umbels at the tops of thefialks; the germen 
 turns to a loundilh caplule, with three lobes, each hav¬ 
 ing adift-in& cell contain 1one Angle feed. The root 
 is conliderably large, and when deprived of its juice, 
 
 MAN 
 
 which is faid to be poifonous, the remainder is reduced 
 to a kind of flour, and made into bread. 
 
 The negroes ccmmoulv make ufe of the following 
 prefs for freeing the root from its juice. A (plau LI'. 
 pg. 6 .) is the body of a tree pierced through. I), a 
 lever, made of the forked limb of a tree, and loaded at 
 its extremity by heavy weights. C, C, pieces of board 
 placed between each cake. D, D, the manicck, r<' ren¬ 
 der the prclTure equal upon every part of it. E, pait of 
 a calabalh, placed to receive the juice of the nsamoc.k. 
 
 The Caribeans take another method ; thev pound 
 root and inclofe the pulp in a net G, (Jig. 7.) '\ his net 
 they fufpend on the branch of a tree, and at the other 
 fallen a large weight. H, as the juice flows out, they 
 twill the net, till all the juice is prefled out. Thi. being 
 done, the remainder is well walked in clear water, n: ;da 
 into a kind of dough, and baked into cakes. 
 
 Plate Ltll. fig. 3. reprefents an indigo manufacture,, 
 already deferibed under that article. See Indigo. 
 
 A, a refervoir of clear water. B, the firft vat or cif- 
 tern, where the indigo is fermented. C, the fecond vat, 
 or thafwliere the liquor is heated to feparate the indigo. 
 D, a fmall refervoir to receive the liquor from the fecond 
 vat, through the cock F. E, the centre, or pin upon 
 which the beating pole moves. G, the indigo in balkets 
 drying in the lhade. H, a Hied, where the indigo is 
 finilhed for the market. I, a negro bringing the plant to 
 thefirlt vat. K, a negro beating the indigo in the Iccond 
 vat. L, indigo plants. M, the planter’s houfe. N, N, 
 an indigo plantation. ( Fig. 4.) Q_, a well-polilhcd- 
 filver cup, for examining the colour ot the indigo during 
 its fermentation in the battery, or fecond vat. (Fig. 5.) 
 P, a crooked knife, for cutting the indigo into pieces. 
 (Fig. 6.) O, O, moulds of wood placed upon truuels for 
 drying the indigo in the fliade. 
 
 MANIPULATION, denotes the manner of digging 
 the filver, Ac. out of the earth. See Silver. 
 
 MANIPULUS, ManipuU, among the Romans, de¬ 
 noted a body of infantry, that in Romulus’s time con- 
 filled of 100 men; and in that of the confuls and flrlb 
 Cafiars of 200. Each manipule had two centurions, 
 called manipularii-, the one of which was fubordinatc to 
 the other. 
 
 Manipulus, in phyfick, denotes a handful of flow¬ 
 ers, herbs, &c. and is abbreviated inprelcriptions bv M. 
 
 MANNA, in the materia medica, the concreted juice 
 of fome vegetable, naturally exludating from it, foluble 
 in water, and not inflammable. 
 
 It is a honcy-like juice, brought to us from Calabria 
 and Sicily, fometimes in fmall granules, cr drops of an 
 irregular figure, roundifii, oblong, crooked, and fome¬ 
 times contorted. It lhould be chofen whitiih, or at the 
 utmoll with only a faint call of yellow, not too heavy, 
 in regular dry granules, or in moderately long ftria? or 
 flakes, of a pleafant talle, and diflolving wholly in the 
 mouth, not leaving a farinacious fubftance behind it, as 
 much of the common manna docs that has been adul¬ 
 terated with honey and floor. 
 
 Manna is the mildell and fafeff of all purges, and may 
 be given to children, to women with child, and to peo¬ 
 ple of the moll tender conflitutions, with perfect falety; 
 and it never tails gently to move the bowels. 
 
 Manna, is alfo a feripture term, fignifying a mira¬ 
 culous kind of food, which fell from heaven for the fup- 
 port of the Iiraelites in their paitage through the wilder- 
 nefs: being in the form of coriander feeds; its colour 
 like that of bdellium, ajxl its tafie like honey. 
 
 The Hebrews who had been acquainted with the- 
 manna of the Alhagi, which was round and like corian¬ 
 der feed, and fweettothe tafie, and which thev call man, 
 -fas we find in the earliefi works in which it is mentioned* 
 in that language) when they found a miraculous food in 
 the defert, and which was alfo round, fweet, and of 
 the bignefs of coriander feed, did not icruple to call it 
 man or manna, as it fo much relanhled that fubfiance : 
 their exclamation man hu, on the feeing it, not being 
 meant to ex prefs, as is vulgarly fuppofed, what is this ? 
 but this is man or manna. This was a conjuflure the 
 •more natural to them, as they faw plainly enough that 
 fthis delcended from the heavens in form of a dew and. 
 concreted into the globules thev faw it in , and the re¬ 
 ceived opinion of that time was, that the oriental inaiini 
 was formed in the fame manner, none l’uppolhig in thole. 
 
 early 
 
M A N T 
 
 early times that it was tlie natural juice of the fhrub it 
 was found upon, but every body imagining it was due 
 from the clouds concreted on the plant. 
 
 Mofcs did not determine the queftion for them, whe¬ 
 ther it was or wn - not a kind of manna ; all that he had 
 to do was to tell them, that it was lent for their fupport, 
 and to inttruft them in what manner they were to gather 
 it. It is however evident that this was not manna, nor 
 any thing of that nature, becaufe it melted away, as the 
 fun errew hot, whereas the manna hardens inflead of 
 dittoIving m that heat. 
 
 MAN NER, in painting, Ac. that peculiar character 
 obfervable in the works of painters, poets, Ac. by which 
 their pencil or ft vie are diftinguifhed. It alio denotes the 
 invention, defign, and colouring. 
 
 MANNERS, in poetry, denote the inclinations, 
 genius, and humour which the poet gives his perfonages, 
 whereby their characters are diftinguifhed. 
 
 The manners fhould have four qualities ; they fhould 
 be good, like, fuitable, and equal. The manners arc 
 good, when the difeourfe of the perfons makes us clearly 
 fee their inclinations, and what good or evil refolutions 
 tliey will take. 
 
 Likeiiefs of manners only relates to publick perfons, 
 whofe characters are well known in hiftory, with which 
 die poctick characters muft agree. The manners muft 
 alfo be fuitable, that is, agreeable to the age, fex, rank, 
 &c. of the perfon that has them ; again they muft be 
 equal, that is, confiftcnt through the whole character : 
 the fearful muft never be brave: nor the brave timorous, 
 &c. In this refpeCt Shakcfpeare’s manners are admirable. 
 
 Befides the aforefaid qualities, the manners muft be 
 necettary ; that is, no vicious quality muft be given a 
 poetick perfonage, unlefs it be abfolutely necettary, or 
 requifite for carrying on the aCtion. 
 
 MANOMETER, or Manoscope, an inftrument 
 whereby to mcafurc the alterations in rarity or denfity of 
 the air. It differs from the barometer, in that the latter 
 only meafures the weight of the atmofpbere, or column 
 of air over it. 
 
 MANOR, Mannor, an ancient lordfhip, royalty, 
 and jurifdiClion conttfting of demefnes and fervices, and 
 of a court-baron. A manor may confift of a houfc, 
 arable land, pallurc, meadow, wood, rent, advowfon, 
 court-baron, Ac. and this ought to be beyond the me¬ 
 mory of man. 
 
 MANSE, denotes a dwelling-houfe, either with or 
 •without land. It alfo denotes a parfonage or vicarage- 
 houfe, particularly in Scotland, wherein the minifter of 
 a parifh refides : being an effential part of the endowment 
 of a kirk with the ftipend, glebe, and tythes, Ac. 
 
 MANSLAUGHTER, generally termed homicide, 
 is killing a perfon without premeditated malice. 
 
 Mariflaughter differs from murder, in its not being 
 committed from the d-drates of a former malicious in¬ 
 tention; and from chance medley, in its being done 
 with a prefent intention to kill. Thus, where two per¬ 
 fons, who before meant no harm to each other, meet 
 and quarrel, and in the heat of paffion one kills the other ; 
 in this cafe he is guilty of manflaughter. If two per¬ 
 fons fall out and fight, and the one breaks the other’s 
 fword, on which a ftander by lends him another, with 
 which the adverfary is killed, it is manflaughter both in 
 the flayer and ftander-by. And where a man is taken in 
 adultery with another perfon’s wife, and the hufband 
 immediately draws and kills him, it is only manflaughter, 
 the hufband having had a juft provocation for fo doing: 
 but where any other perfon ftabs another, who has 
 not a weapon drawn, or (truck firft, io that the perfon 
 ftabbed dies within fix months, notwithftatiding there 
 was not malice aforethought, it is felony without benefit 
 of clergy. In other cafes, though manflaughter is ac¬ 
 counted felony, vet for the tirft offence the offender is 
 allowed the benefit of clergy. 
 
 MANTLETS, in the ait of war, a kind of move¬ 
 able parapets, made of planks about three inches thick, 
 nailed one over another, to the height of almoft fix feet, 
 generally cafed with tin, and fet upon little wheels, lo 
 that in a liege, they may he driven before the pioneers, 
 and lerve as blinds to flieiter them from the enemy’s finall 
 fhot. There are other parts of mantlets, covered at the 
 top, and ufed by miners in approaching the wails of a 
 town or'caftlc. 
 
 Vol. 11 . No. 47. 
 
 MAP 
 
 MANTLE, or Mantle-Tree, in archite&ure, 
 the lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber 
 which is laid ac'rofs the jaumbs, and fuftains the com¬ 
 partment of the chimney-piece. See Chimn e y . 
 
 Mantle, or Mantling, in heraldry, that appear¬ 
 ance of folding of cloth, flourflhing or drapery, that is 
 in any achievement drawn about the coat of arms. It 
 is fuppofed originally to be the reprefentation of a mantle, 
 or military habit, worn by the ancient cavaliers over 
 their armour to prevent it from ruft ; or, as others hold, 
 a fhort covering only worn over the helmet, which in 
 aftertimes was lengthened, and made to hang from the 
 helmet below the whole Afield. 
 
 The mantle is always faid in blazonry, to be doubled, 
 that is, lined throughout with one of the furs, as ermin, 
 pean, viary, Ac. 
 
 MANUFACTURER, one who works up a natural 
 produdt into an artificial commodity. 
 
 MANURE, in agriculture and gardening, any thing 
 that is ufed to enrich, fatten, and improve land. 
 
 There are various kinds of manure proper for the 
 different kinds of land we meet with : if the land is loofie 
 and fandy, the mud out of ponds, orftrong loam, makes 
 a good manure : marie of the blue kind, and clay of the 
 lighter fort, fpread over gravelly or fandy land, are of 
 vaft advantage to it, by making it more lolid and tena¬ 
 cious ; cow-dung and hog-dung are alio excellent for 
 hot lands. 
 
 If the land is ftiff, cold, and clayey, flicep and deer s 
 dung aie efteemed by fome the heft manure ; likewife the 
 dung of horles, pigeons, hens, geefe, Ac. are reckoned 
 excellent; alfo fca and drift lands, or lea-coal allies, 
 are good manure for thefe fort ol lands : tanners bark, 
 laid in a heap and rotted, is an excellent manure lor 
 ftiff cold land ; and one load of it will improve the 
 ground more, and laft longer, than two loads of any other 
 manure : when this is laid on grafs, it fhould he done 
 foon after Michaelmas, that the winter rains may wafh 
 it into the earth ; and where it is ufed for corn land, it 
 fhould be fpread on the furface before the laft plowing, 
 that it may be turned down for the fibres of the corn to 
 reach it in the fpring. Rotten vegetables, of ntoft forts, 
 alfo greatly enrich land ; fo that, where other manure is 
 fcarce, thefe may be ufed with great fucccfs : thus the 
 weeds of ponds, lakes, and ditches, being dragged out 
 juft as they begin to flower, and laid on heaps to rot, 
 will make an excellent manure ; but it is to be obferved, 
 that in rotting thefe vegetables, it will be proper to mix 
 fome earth, mud, or any other fuch like fubftance, with 
 them, to prevent their taking fire in their fermentation : 
 it will alfo be necettary to cover the heaps with earth, 
 mud, or dung, to detain the Halts, otherwife many of 
 the finer parts will evaporate in fermenting. 
 
 The refufe of kitchen-gardens, when laid on heaps and 
 rotted, will alfo afford good manure for corn land : and 
 alfo fern, mowed down while it is green and tender, and 
 laid on heaps to rot, will make an excellent manure; 
 and by frequently mowing it, this troublefome plant will 
 be deftroyed. 
 
 The afhes of all kinds of vegetables are alfo good 
 manure for lands, fo that where the ground is over-run 
 with biufhes, brambles, Ac. if they are grubbed up in 
 Cummer, dried, and confumed to allies, and fpread over 
 the land, they will greatly improve it. 
 
 Rotten wood, and faw-duft when rotted, are a very 
 good manure for ftroilg lands, as are alfo hones, horns, 
 (hells, woollen-rags, Ac. and vvhatfoever ferves to loofen 
 its parts. 
 
 But for all ftubborn clayey foils, there is no manure 
 fo good as the cleanfing of the llreets of large cities, the 
 parts of tough land will be more ejepeditioufly fe’parated 
 by this, than any other compott, and where it is to be had, 
 it is of the greateft value both for field or garden land. 
 
 MANUSCRIPT, in matters of literature, denotes a 
 written book, ia‘contradi(tin 61 ion to a printed one. 
 
 MAP, a plane figure reprefen ting either part, or the 
 whole furface of the earth, according to the laws of pro¬ 
 jection; diftinguilhing thefituation of cities, mountains, 
 rivers, Ac. 
 
 Bat whether they are univerfalor particular, they am 
 called geographical or land maps, in contradiftin&ibn to 
 hydrbgraphical charts, repi ; 
 
 I togetherwith the fea-coafts, rock 
 
 £ A N 
 
M A P 
 
 As a map is a reprefentation of fome part of the fur- 
 face of the eartli delineated upon a plane ; the earth being 
 round no part of the fpherical furface of it can be accu¬ 
 rately exhibited on a plane, and thence it has been pro- 
 pofcd to make globular maps. In order to this, plates of 
 brafs were to be hammered out ; or, to fave expence, 
 pieces of paftcboard were to be formed into fegments of 
 a fphere, and covered on their convex fides with maps, 
 projected in the fame manner as the papers of the com¬ 
 mon globes are. A map made in this manner would 
 fhcw every particular, in a very accurate manner; but 
 they are not in ufe at prefent. 
 
 'f he ancients defcribed all the parts of the known 
 cat th in one general map ; in this view one of them com¬ 
 pares the fhape of the earth to the leather of a fling, 
 whole length exceeds its breadth : the length of the then 
 known parts of the earth from eaft to well was confide 
 rably greater than from north to foutli, for which reafon, 
 the former of thele was called the longitude, and the 
 other the latitude. 
 
 The modern general maps are fuch as give us a view 
 of an entire hemifphere, or half of the globe ; and are 
 proje&ed upon the plane of fome great circle, which 
 terminates the projefted hemifphere, and divides it from 
 the other half of the globe, as the equator, or the me¬ 
 ridian, or horizon of fome place: from this ciicle the 
 projection is denominated, and laid to be equatorial, 
 meridional, or horizontal; 
 
 Particular maps are fuch as exhibit to us lefs than an 
 hemifphere; of this fort arc maps of the great parts into 
 which the earth is divided, as Europe, Afia, Africa. 
 Toith America, South America; or maps of particular 
 kingdoms, provinces, countries, or of lefs diftritts. 
 
 In maps three things are chiefly required ; the firft is 
 the longitude and latitude, performed, by means of the 
 meridians and parallels delineated upon them, in what 
 manner foever they be projeaed ; and they do this the 
 more accurately, the greater number they have of meri¬ 
 dians and parallels. The fecond requifite is to exhibit 
 the fhape of countries the fame, and the extent of them 
 in the fame proportion, as upon the globe: this cannot 
 be done accurately in any general maps, except globular 
 ones; but in particular maps, which take in but a fmall 
 part of the earth, as a province or county, the defeft 
 will not be fenfible. The third is that the bearings and 
 diftances of places from one another be truly fhewn : 
 this in globular maps fhould be done in the fame manner 
 as upon the globe. 
 
 1 he projections of the circles in general maps are of 
 two forts, convex and concave: tounderitand which we 
 may imagine the globe upon which the circles are de¬ 
 lineated'to be of thinglafs, and that half of it is viewed 
 at a time; now we may be conceived to view this he¬ 
 mifphere, either on die convex or concave fide, and we 
 may conceive it to be placed at different diftances*from 
 the eve; from which diverfity of our view, there will 
 arife different projections, or pictures of it in a map. If 
 the eye be fuppofed to be placed in fome point of the fur- 
 face of the fphere to view the concave of the oppofite he¬ 
 mifphere, it is called the ftereographick projection, 
 which is either equatorial, meridional, or horizontal. 
 
 The equatorial projection fuppofes the eye to be fitu- 
 ated in one of the poles of the earth, and from thence 
 to view the oppofite concave hemifphere, with its circles, 
 projected upon a plane of glafs palling through die equa¬ 
 tor : thus the eve is fuppofed to be in the north pole, in 
 order to view the fouthern hemifphere ; and in the foutli 
 pole to view the northern hemifphere. Here the me¬ 
 ridians are all ftraight lines, and die parallels are com- 
 pleat circles. 
 
 The meridional projection fuppofes the eye to be in 
 fome point of the equator, and from thence to view the 
 oppofite concave hemifphere, projected upon a glafs plane 
 palling through fome meridian, with a meridian drawn 
 through the eye cuts at right-angles. Here all the me¬ 
 ridians are arches of circles, except that drawn through 
 the eye, which is a ftraight line ; and all the parallels arc 
 arches of circles, and the equator is a ftraight line. 
 
 In the horizontal projection, the eye is fuppofed to be 
 in that point of the furface of the globe which is dia¬ 
 metrically oppofite to the place upon the horizon of 
 which die projection is made, and from thence to view 
 the oppofite concave hemifphere with its circles projected 
 
 M A R 
 
 upon a glafs plane palling thrqugh that horizon : thus, 
 if we projeCl any map of this fort upon the horizon of 
 London, the eye is fuppofed to be in the place of the an¬ 
 tipodes to London, and from thence to view the con¬ 
 cave hemifpheie. The chief advantage of thefe kinds of 
 maps is this, that the place, upon die horizon of which 
 the map is projected, is alwavs in the centre of it, and 
 we may plainly perceive the bearings of all the other 
 places from it. 
 
 A particular map is a part of a general one, and may 
 be made on the fame principles, as by projecting a large 
 hemiiplierc, and taking fo much of it as the map is de- 
 figned to contain. 
 
 When we are to make a map of a very fmall diftriCt, 
 as Of a county or hundred, whatever part of the earth 
 it may be in, the meridians and parallels may be equi- 
 diftant ftraight lines, drawn through every minute, Ac. 
 of longitude according to the intended largenefs of the 
 map. See Plotting and Surveying. 
 
 If the eye be fuppofed to view the hemifphere at aft 
 infinite diftance, the projection of its circles, whether it 
 be viewed on the convex or concave fide, is called ortho- 
 graphick. In this projection the parts about the middle 
 are very plainly reprelented, bu; the extreme parts are 
 prodigionlly contracted. S co Orthographick Proj ect ion 
 of the Sphere. 
 
 1 his projection like the former is divided into eqya- 
 torial, meridional, and horizontal. In a general map 
 of the northern hemifphere, projected orthographical!-/ 
 upon the plane of the equator, the meridians are ail 
 ftraight lines, and the parallels complete circles. 
 
 In a general map of an hemifphere projected or- 
 thographically on the plane of the meridian, all the 
 meridians are projected into femi-elljpfes, except that 
 particular meridian which paftes through the middle or 
 the eye, and which is therefore a ftraight line. This 
 projection has orte advantage not to be found in any 
 other general map, viz. that the decreafe of the parallels 
 from the equator to both the poles, appears therein in its 
 true proportion. 
 
 The orthographick horizontal projection has great, 
 variety, according to the different latitudes of places, and 
 is pretty difficult to execute. The great contraction of 
 the extreme parts in the orthographick projection, ren¬ 
 ders it fo deficient in the fecond quality required in 
 maps, that it is feldom ufed, except when the diik of the 
 earth, in a folar ecliple, is to be reprelented. 
 
 The ufe of maps is obvious from their conftruCtion. 
 The degrees of tlje meridians and parallels, fhew the 
 longitudes and latitudes of places: their bearings from 
 each other appear from infpeCtion, and their diftances 
 may be meafured either from proper feales annexed, 05 
 by the divifions on the meridian, equator, &q. 
 
 MAPLE, Acer, in botany, a genus of trees producing 
 male and hermaphrodite flower each having five ovate 
 petals which lpread over the cup. The ftamina are 
 eight fhort filaments, topped with limple antherse, which 
 are crowned with a cruciform pollen. f he fruit confifts 
 of a number ot capfules, which grow together at the 
 bale, and are comprefled, roundilh, and each termi¬ 
 nated by a very large membranaceous ala. The feeds 
 are Angle and roundilh. The common maple is fo well 
 known as to require no defeription. Moft of the dif¬ 
 ferent fpecies are propagated by lowing their feeds foon 
 after they are ripe, which is in autumn, and the fuccecd- 
 ing year they will be fit to be planted in rows about three 
 feet afunder and two feet diftance in the rows, where 
 they may remain three or four years, when they will be 
 large enough to be tranfplantcd where they are intended 
 to remain. 
 
 1 he timber of the common maple is far fuperior to 
 beech for turners ufe, particularly difhes, cups, trenchers, 
 
 Ac. and when it abounds with knots (as it very often 
 doth) it is highly efteemed by the joiners for inlaying, Ac. 
 and alio, for the lightnefs of the wood, is often employed 
 by thole that make mufical inftruments; and, for the 
 whitenels ot it, was formerly in great requeft for tables, Ac. 
 
 MARAN I A, Indian arrow-root, in botany, a ge¬ 
 nus of plants, whofe flower is monopetalous and rin- 
 gent; the tube of which is oblong, comprefled, and 
 crooked, and its limb cut in fix fegments; it hath one 
 membranaceous filament, with a linear anthera faftened 
 to the border of the filament. The fruit is a roundilh 
 
 caplule, 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

M A R 
 
 capfule, obfcurely trigonal, containing a hard, rough, 
 ovate feed. 
 
 MARBLE, Marmor, in natural lfiftory, a genus of 
 foffils, being bright arid beautiful Hones, compofed of 
 fmall feparate concretions, moderately hard, not giving 
 fire with iteel, fermenting with, and foluble in acid 
 . menltrua, and calcining in a flight fire. 
 
 1 lie colours of marbles being a very obvious and 
 ftriking character, they are arranged according to them, 
 in the following divifions. i. Of the white plain mar¬ 
 bles there are two forts; the Parian marble of the ancients, 
 and ftatuary marble of the moderns, an extremely bright 
 and elegant marble; and the Carrara marble, a very fine 
 marble, more compa& and dole than the former, but 
 lefs bright. 2. Of the plain vellowilh marbles there is 
 only one fort, which is a hard, pale yellow, and glolTy 
 marble, found in many parts of Italy. 3. Of the bluifh 
 and black, marbles there are a great many fpecies, as the 
 Chian marble, Bafaltes, &c. 4. Of the plain green 
 marbles there is only one kind, the Lacedaemonian mar¬ 
 ble of the ancients. 5. The pale-coloured or whitifh 
 brown, commonly called Derby marble. 6. Thegrecn 
 marbles with fhells. 7. The black Coralloide marble, 
 with and without lhells. 8. Of the white variegated 
 marble there are a great many fpccies, variegated with 
 purple, brown, red, blue, he. 9. Of the brown varie¬ 
 gated marbles there are likewife feveral forts, fome with 
 red veins, others with white, black, or brown veins, 
 io. Of the yellow veined and variegated marbles fome 
 are veined with purple, and others with blue. n. Of 
 the black variegated marbles, fome are veined with 
 white, and others with blue, yellow, red, he. 12. The 
 green variegated marbles are likewife diftinguifhed by the 
 colour of their veins. 13. The grey fpotted marbles are 
 variegated, fome with black and others with green fpots. 
 14. Th? red variegated marble is the Brocatello of the 
 Italians, with white and gold veins. 
 
 Polifbing of Marble is performed by firft rubbing 
 them well with a free-ftone, or fand, till the ftrokes of 
 the axe are worn off, then with pumice Hone, and after¬ 
 wards with emery. 
 
 Colouring 0/Marble. The colouring of marble is a 
 nice art, and in order to fucceed in it, the pieces of mar¬ 
 ble, on which the experiments are tried, mull be well 
 polifhed, and clear from the lcall fpot or vein. The 
 haider the marble is, the better it will bear the heat ne- 
 ceftary in the operation ; therefore, alaballer and the 
 common foft white marble are-very improper to perform 
 thefe operations upon. 
 
 Heat is alvvays neceffary for the opening the pores of 
 the marble, io as to render it fit to receive the colours; 
 but the marble mult never be made red-hot, for then, 
 the texture of the marble itfelf is injured, and the colours 
 are burnt, and lofe their beauty. Too fmall a degree of 
 heat is as bad as too great, for, in this cafe, though the 
 marble receive the colour, it will not be fixed in it, nor 
 llrike deep enough. Some colours will ftrike even cold, 
 but they are never fo well funk in as when a juft degree of 
 heat is ufed. 1 he proper degree is that which, without 
 making the marble red, will make the liquid boil upon 
 its furface. I he menflruums ufed to ftrike in the 
 colours, muft be varied according tn the nature of the 
 colour to be ufed. A lixivium made with horfe’s or dog’s 
 urine, with four parts quick-lime, and one part pot- 
 alhes, is excellent for fome colours; common ley of wood- 
 allies does very well for others : for fome, fpirit of wine 
 is beft; and, finally, for others, oily liquors, or common 
 w hire-wine. 
 
 The colours which have been found to fucceed beft 
 with the peculiar menflruums, arethefe : ftone-bluc dif- 
 folved in fix times the quantity of l'pirit of wine, or of 
 the urinous lixivium ; and that colour which the painters 
 call litmoufe, dilfolvcd in common ley of wood-alhes. 
 An extrafl of laffron, and that colour made of buckthorn 
 berries, and called by the painters fap green, both luc- 
 cecd well diftolved in urine and quick-lime, and tolerably 
 well in fpirit of wine. Vermillion, and a fine powder of 
 cochineal, fucceed alfo very well in the fame liquors. 
 Dragon s blood fucceeds very well in fpirit of wine, as 
 does alfo a tin£lurc of logwood, in the lame fpirit. Al- 
 kanet root gives a fine colour, but the only menftruum 
 to be ufed for this is oil of turpentine ; for neither fpirit 
 of wine, nor any lixivium, will do with it. There is 
 
 M A R 
 
 another kind of fanguis dracouis called dragon’s blood i;: 
 tears, which, mixed with urine alone, gives a very ele¬ 
 gant colour. 
 
 Befides thefe mixtures of colours and menflruums, 
 there are fome colours which are to be laid on dry and 
 unmixed. I hefe are dragon's blood, of the pureft kind, 
 for a led ; gamboge for a yellow ; green-wax for a green ; 
 common brimftone, pitch, and turpentine, for a brown 
 colour. I he marble, for thefe experiments, muft be 
 made confiderably hot, and then the colours are to be 
 lubDed on dry in the lump. Some of thefe colours, when 
 once given, remain immutable, others are eafily changed 
 or deftroyed. Thus the red colour given by dragon’s 
 blood, or by a decoaion of logwood, will be wholly 
 taken away by oil of tartar, and the polilh of the marble 
 not hurt by it. 
 
 A line gold colour is given in the following manner : 
 take crude fal armoniack, vitriol, and verdigreafe, of each 
 equal quantities; white vitriol fucceeds beft, and all muft 
 be thoroughly mixed in fine powder. 
 
 I lie ftaining of marble to all the degrees of red or vcl- 
 low, by lolutions of dragon’s blood or gamboge, may be 
 done bv reducing thefe gums to powder, and grinding 
 them, with the l'pirit of wine, iii a glafij mortar; but, 
 toi 1 mailer attempts, no method is fo good as the mixing 
 a little of either of thefe powders with fpirit of wine, in 
 a iilverfpoon, and holding it over burning charcoal. By 
 this means a fine tinflure will lie extrafted, and, with a 
 pencil dipped in this, the fin eft trades may be made on 
 the marble, while cold, which, on the heating it after- 
 waids, either 011 fand, or in a baker’s oven, will all fink 
 very deep, and will remain perfb&ly difl'indl in the ftone. 
 
 It is vei'V eafy to make the ground colour red or yellow' by 
 this means, and leave white veins in it. This is to be 
 done by covering the places where the whitenefs is to re¬ 
 main, with fome white paint, or even with two or three 
 doubles only of paper, either of which will prevent the 
 colour from penetrating in that part. All the degrees of 
 red are to be given to marble by means of this gum alone: 
 a flight tnnfture of it, without the afliftance of heat to 
 the marble, gives only a paleftclh colour, buttheftronger 
 tindlures give it yet deeper; to this the afliftance of heat 
 adds yet greatly; and, finally, the addition of a little 
 pitch to the tincture gives it a tendency to blackncfs, or 
 any degree of deep red that is defired. 
 
 A blue colour may be given alfo to marble by diftolv- 
 ing turnfol in a lixivium of lime and urine, or in the vo¬ 
 latile fpirit of urine; but this has always a tendency to 
 purple, whether made by the one or the other of thefe 
 ways. A better blue, and ufed in an eafier manner, is 
 furnifhed by the Canary turnfol, a Jubilance well known 
 among the dyers : this needs only to be difToived in 
 water, and drawn on the place w'ith a pencil; this pene¬ 
 trates very deep into the marble, and the colour may be 
 increafed by drawing the pencil, wetted afreftV, feveral 
 nines over the fame lines. This colour is fubjeft to 
 fpread and diffufe itfelf irregularly ; but it may be kept- 
 in regular bounds, by circumfcribing its lines with beds 
 of wax, or any other fuch fubilance. It is to be obferved, 
 that this colour fhould be alvvays laid on cold, and no 
 heat given even afterwards to the marble ; and one great 
 advantage of this colour is, that it is therefore eafily added 
 to marble already ftained with any other colours, and it 
 is a very beautiful tinge, and lafts a long time. 
 
 jJrundsl Marbles, ancient marbles with a chronicle 
 of the city of Athens infenbed on them, many years 
 before our Saviour’s birth ; prefented to the univerfity of 
 Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel, whence the name. 
 
 MAR BLIND, the method of preparing and colour¬ 
 ing marble paper, &c. 
 
 'I here are feveral kinds of marble paper; but the prin¬ 
 cipal difference of them lies in the forms in which the 
 colours are laid on the ground : fome being difpofed in 
 whirles or circumvolutions ; fome in jagged lengths; and 
 others only in ipots of a roundilh or ova), figuie. The 
 gencial manner of managing each kind is, neverthelels, 
 the fame: being the dipping the paper in a folution of 
 gum-tragacanth, or, as it is commonly called, gum- 
 diagon ; over which the colours, previoufiy prepared with 
 ox-gall and fpirit of wine, arerii-ft fpread. 
 
 The peculiar apparatus neceffary for this purpofe, isa 
 trough for containing the gum- tragacanth, and the co- 
 louis; a comb for difpofing them in the figure ufuallv 
 
 chofen; 
 
M A R 
 
 cholcn ; and .abumiflmig Hone for polilhing tho paper. 
 The tiough may be of auv kind of wood ; and muft be 
 fomewhat larger than the lhccts of paper for marbling, 
 which it is to be employed ; but the lides of it need only 
 rife about two inches above the bottom ; for by making 
 it thus (hallow, a lefs quantity of the ibiution of the gum 
 will ferve to till it. The comb may be alfo of wood, and 
 five inches in length ; but lhould have brafs teeth, which 
 may be about two inches long, and placed at about a 
 quarter of an inch didance from each other. The bur- 
 nidling done may be of jafper, or agate; but as thole 
 ftones are very dear, when of fufficient largenels, marble 
 or glafs may be ufed, provided their furface be polilhed 
 to a great degree of fmootlmefs. 
 
 Thefe implements being prepared, thefolutionof gum- 
 tragacanth mull be made, by putting a fulficient propor¬ 
 tion of the gum, which lhould be w hite, and clear from 
 all foulnefs, into clean water; a letting it remain there 
 a day or two, frequently breaking the lumps and ftirring 
 it, till the whole lhall appear diffolved, and equally 
 mixed with water. The confidence of the folution lhould 
 be nearly that of drong gum-water, ufed in miniature 
 painting ; and if it appear thicker, water mud be added, 
 or if thinner, more of the gum. When the folution is 
 thus brought to a due date, it mud be palled through a 
 linen cloth, and being then put into the trough, it will 
 be ready to receive the colours. 
 
 The colours employed for red are carmine, lake, rofe- 
 pink, and Vermillion ; but the two lad are too hard and 
 glaring, unlefs they be mixed with role-pink, or lake, 
 to bring them to a fofter cad : and with refpeft to the 
 carmine and lake, they are too dear for common pur- 
 pofes: for yellow, Dutch pink and yellow oker may be 
 employed: for blue, Pruflian blue and verditer may be 
 ufed: for green, verdigreafe, a mixture of Dutch pink 
 and Pruflian blue, or verditer, in different proportions : 
 for orange, the orange-lake, or a mixture of Vermillion, 
 or red lead, with Dutch pink : for purple, rofe-pink and 
 Pruflian blue. 
 
 Thefe feveral colours fhould be ground with fpirit of 
 wine till they be of a proper finenefs ; and then, at the 
 time of ufing them, a little fifli-gall, or in default of it, 
 the gall of the bead fhould be added, by grinding them 
 over again with it. The proper proportion of the gall 
 mud be found by trying them ; for there mud be juft fo 
 much as will differ the fpots of colour, when fprinkled 
 on the folution of the gum-tragacanth, to join together, 
 without intermixing or running into each other. 
 
 When every thing is thus prepared, the folution of the 
 gum-tragacanth muft be poured into the trough; and the 
 colours, being in a feparate pot, with a pencil appropri¬ 
 ated to each, muft be fprinkled on the furface of the 
 folution, by (baking the pencil, charged with its proper 
 colour, over it; and this muft be done with the feveral 
 kinds of colour defired, till the furface be wholly covered. 
 
 When the marbling is propofed to be in fpots of 
 a Ample form, nothing more is neceflary, but where the 
 wh fries or lhail-fhell figures are wanted, they muft be 
 made by means of a quill; which mud be put among 
 the fpots to turn them about, till the effedt be pro¬ 
 duced. The jagged lengths muft be made by means of 
 the comb above delcribed, which muft be palled through 
 the colours from one end of the trough to the other, and 
 will give them that appearance; but if they be defired to 
 be pointed both ways, the comb muft be again palled 
 through the trough in a contrary direction; or if fome 
 of the wliirles or fnail-lhcll figures be required to be 
 added, they may be yet made by the means before directed. 
 
 The paper lhould be previooily prepared for receiving 
 the colours, by dipping it over night in water; and 
 laying the Iheets on each other with a weight over them. 
 The whole being thus ready, the paper muft be held by 
 two corners, and laid in the moft gentle and even man¬ 
 ner on the folution covered with the colours; and there 
 foftly preffed with the hand, that it may bear every where 
 on tlie folution. After which it muft be raifed and taken 
 off with die fame care, and then hung to dry acrofs a 
 proper cord, fubtended near at hand tor that purpofe: 
 and in that ftate it muft continue, till it be perfectly 
 dry. It then remains only to give the paper a proper 
 polilh ; in order to which it is fir ft rubbed with a little 
 foap; and then muft be thoroughly lrnoothed by the 
 glai's poluhers, 1'uch as are ufed for linen, and called the 
 
 M A R 
 
 ■calendar glafft s. After which it lhould be again rubbed 
 by a burnilher of jafper or agate; or, in default of them, 
 of glafs ground to the higheft polilh : for on the perfcdl 
 polilh of the paper depends in a great meafurc its beauty 
 and value. 
 
 Marbling of books or paper is performed thus : difiolve 
 four ounces of gum-arabick into two quarts of fair watei , # 
 then provide feveral'colours mixed with water in pots or 
 fhells, and with pencils peculiar to each colour, fprinklc 
 them by way ofintermixture upon the gum-water, which 
 muft be put into' a trough, or fome broad veflel: then 
 with a flick curl them, or draw them out in ftreaks, to 
 as much variety as may be done. . Having done this, 
 hold your book or books clofe together, and only dip the 
 edges in, on the top of the water and colours, very 
 lightly; which done, take them off, and the plain im- 
 prdfion of the colours in mixture will be upon the leaves; 
 doing as well the ends as the front of the book in the 
 like manner. 
 
 Marbling a book on the covers is performed by forming 
 clouds with aqua fortis, or fpirit of vitriol mixed with 
 ink, and afterwards glazing the covers. See Book- 
 Bin d i n g . 
 
 In order to give a more adequate idea of this curious 
 procefs, we have illuftratedthe above deicription on which 
 the whole is reprelented to the eye. 
 
 Explanation of Plate LIV. Upper .compartment. 
 
 Fig. i.) a, a workman mixing the gum water; b y a 
 linall brulh; q the tub containing the gum-water; d, a 
 lhallow tub to receive the gum-water, that may be thrown 
 over the fides of the former during the operation ; e, a 
 veflel containing the tempered gum. 
 
 Fig. 2.) a, a workman grinding the colours; b, the 
 tabic c , the ftone ; d, the muller; a , a icraper of 
 leather. 
 
 Fig. 3.) 17, a workman fprinkling the colours on the 
 gum-water; b, the pencil, or brulh, filled with colour; 
 r, the lhallow tub containing the gujn-water; d, tire ta¬ 
 ble that fupports the tub. 
 
 Fig. 4.) <7, a workman employed in making the dif¬ 
 ferent, ftreaks See. in the colours; b, the comb; c, the 
 tub; d, the table. 
 
 Fig. 5.) a, a workman placing the Iheets of paper on 
 the colour; b , the Iheet of paper. 
 
 Fig. 6.) a, a frame, or pile of marbled paper; b, a cord 
 by which it is bound together; c, a bar ot wood which 
 fupports the paper, and to which the cord is faftened ; d> 
 a tub, which receives the water that drains from the pa¬ 
 per; g, a frame on which the Iheets of paper are placed 
 to drain, before they are marbled; h> a itool; thele are 
 placed as in Jig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 7.) A perfon hanging the paper up to dry; <7, the 
 Iheets of paper already hung up to dry; b , the peel; c 1 
 the perfon. 
 
 Fig. 8.) Frames with the marbled paper placed in a 
 proper pofition for draining ; c, d, a trough that receives 
 the fluid draining from the paper ; e, the veflel that re¬ 
 ceives the fluid. 
 
 Plate LIV. The next compartment. 
 
 Fig. 9.) A workman polilhing a Iheet of marbled 
 paper. 
 
 Fig. 10.) No. 1. A polilhing machine; a, the lhaft 
 of the machine; b , the part to which the polilher is 
 fixed; r, the handle; d. the polilher; «?, the piece to 
 which the upper extremity of the polilher is fixed; f y the 
 marble ; g, the table fupporting the ftone on which the 
 paper is polilhed; b , a workman polilhing a Iheet. 
 
 Fig. 10.) No. 2. a, a workman employed in folding 
 the Iheets; b, the folded Iheets; c, the folding knife; d, a 
 pile of Iheets lying upon the table; e, a heap ot Iheets 
 folded. 
 
 Fig. 11 ) No. 1.77, a workman employed with his point 
 in drawing figures on the colours; b , the point; c, the tub. 
 
 Fig. 11.) No. 2. a, a workman marbling books, of 
 which he takes two or three volumes in his hands at once 
 and dips them into the tub; b, the books; c, the tub. 
 
 Bottom of the Plate. 
 
 A , a fie ve for draining the gum-water; b 1, b 2, 1 3 
 b 4, £5. i> 6, b 7, combs of different fizes and forms, 
 for tuning different figures on the furface of the colours ; 
 I, a fpatula or dice for tempering the gum ; d , d, d, 
 por for holding colours, with the pencils or bruflies , e, 
 a pcJ for hanging up the paper to dry. 
 
 Plate 
 
M A R M A R 
 
 Plate LV. Upper compartment. 
 
 i, i, /, i, i, 2. Two different frames; k, a Rone and 
 duller for grinding colours; k, the Hone ; /, the muller. 
 
 M, a knife for feraping off the colours that adhere to 
 the (tone; N, n, inftruments for replacing the colours 
 ©n the furface of the water, after they arc diffurbed, by 
 a fheet of paper ; O, a veflel filled with gum-water, and 
 the furface covered with different colours; o, the table; 
 P, a polilhing flonc ; q, a glafs polilher ; Q_, a polifhcr 
 for the machine already deferibed ; s, s , the handles of 
 the polifher ; t, the polilhing part; u, part of the fhaft 
 within its tenon, which enters the mortife of the polilh- 
 er ; r, a folding flick of box or ivory ; X, two frames 
 drawn on a large fcale, and fixed at a proper angle, at 
 the points 3, 4, 6, 6, feveral fheets of paper one upon 
 another, 7, 7, the two compartments of a frame .where 
 the wires are vifible; 8, a fheet of paper flretched out; 
 9, 9, two cords by which the frames arc lixed at a pro¬ 
 per angle. 
 
 Bottom of the Plate. 
 
 A, A, fmall bacs, with their plans a, a ■, B, a pot for 
 tempering the gum-water; C, a large brufh ; c, c, c , c, 
 brufhes of a fmaller fize. 
 
 MARCASITES, Marcknfita , in natural hiflory, are 
 defined to be compound inflammable metallick bodies, of 
 a hard and folid lubflance, of an obfeurely and irregularly 
 foliaceous flrufilure, of a bright glittering appearance, na¬ 
 turally conflituting whole ilrata, though fometimes found 
 in detached malfes ; very freely giving fire with fleel; not 
 fermenting with acid mcnflruums; and when put into 
 the fire, yielding a blue fulphureous flame, and after¬ 
 wards calcining into a purple powder. 
 
 There are only three known fpecies of this genus : 1. 
 The filver-colourcd marcafite, found in vafl abundance 
 in lead and tin-mines. 2. The gold-coloured marcalite. 
 3. The heavy pale-white marcafite. 
 
 Marcalites were atfirfl fuppofed to be almofl all pure 
 gold or filver, according to thcir'colour ; but experience 
 has fhewn, that it they contain any metal at all, no me¬ 
 thod has hitherto been found of working them to advan¬ 
 tage. In Germany, indeed, they extract fulphur and 
 vitriol from the filver marcafite, which two fubflances 
 are always contained in it; and befides thefe, it has 
 ufually a quantity of arfcnick. It has been recommended 
 as a ilyptick, after being calcined ; but as the arlenick 
 may not be all carried off by that operation, its ufe as a 
 medicine feems extremely dangerous. 
 
 MARCGRAVE, orMARCRAVE, a degree ofho- 
 nour in Germany anfwering to our marquis. 
 
 MARCH, Mar this , the third month of the year, 
 reckoning from January, as the firfl, which, for the 
 future, is by aft of parliament to begin the year. 
 
 MARCHET, Marchctta , a pecuniary fine, anciently 
 paid by the tenant to the lord upon the marriage of one 
 of the tenant’s daughters. 
 
 MARINE implies in general the whole navy of a 
 kingdom or Hate, comprehending all the royal dock¬ 
 yards, and the officers, artificers, feamen, foldiers, Nc. 
 employed therein, as well as the fhipping employed by 
 merchants for military or commercial purpofes, together 
 with whatever relates to navigation, fhip-building, bailors, 
 and mrrrines. The hiflory of the marine affairs of any 
 one ffate is a very comprehenfive l'ubjefl, much more 
 that of all nations, 'i hole who would be informed of 
 the maritime affairs of Great Britain, and the figure it 
 has made at fea in all ages, may find abundance of cu¬ 
 rious matter in Seldcn’s Mare Claufum, and from his 
 time to ours, we may trace a feries of fafts in Lediard’s 
 and Burchet’s Naval Hiflory : but above all, in the 
 Lives of the Admirals, by the accurate and judicious 
 Dr. Campbell. 
 
 Not only the prefervation of that fltare of commerce 
 we at prefent poffefs, but its future advancement, and 
 even the very being of Britain, as an independent empire, 
 
 . and a free people, depend no lei's on the good condition 
 and the wife regulation of our affairs of the marine, than 
 on the fuperiority of its naval pqjver. The Delphian 
 oracle being confulted by the Athenians on the formi¬ 
 dable armament and innumerable forces of Xerxes, re¬ 
 turned for anfwer, “ That they muff feek their fafety in 
 wooden walls.To which we may affirm, that when¬ 
 ever this nation in particular has recourfe to her floating 
 bulwarks for her fecurity and defence, fhe will find 
 
 Vol. II. No. 47. 
 
 flrength, wealth, and glory, to be the happy and infal¬ 
 lible confequence. 
 
 Marines, or Marine Forces, a body of fol- 
 diers railed for the fea-fervice, and trained to fight either 
 in a naval engagement, or in an aftion afhore. 
 
 I he great lervice of this ufeful corps was manifefled 
 frequently in the courfe of the late war, particularly at 
 the liege of Belleifle, where they acquired agreatcharafler, 
 although lately railed, and hardly exerciled in military 
 dilcipline. At fea they are incorporated with the Ihip’s 
 crew, of which they make a part, and many of them 
 learn in a fhort time to be excellent feamen, to which 
 their officers arc ordered by the admiralty not to difeou- 
 rage them, although no fca-officcr is to order them to go 
 aloft ngainil their inclination. In a fca-fight their fmall 
 arms are of very great advantage in fcouring the decks of 
 the enemy ; and when they have been long enoii'. h at lea 
 to Hand firm when thelhip rocks, they mull be infinitely 
 preferable to feamen if the enemy attempts to board, by 
 ranging a battalion with their fixed bayonets to oppole 
 them. See Boarding. 
 
 The marine forces of Great Britain in the time of 
 peace arc Rationed in three divifions ; one of which is 
 quartered at Chatham, one at Portimouth, and another 
 at Plymouth. By a late regulation t hey are ordered to do 
 duty at the feveral dock-yards ol thole ports, to prevent 
 embezzlement of the king’s Pores',Tor which a captain’s 
 guard mounts every day; which certainly requires great 
 vigilance, as fomany abufes of this kind have been com¬ 
 mitted, that many ol the inhabitants, who have been 
 long ufed to an infamous traffick of this kind, expert 
 thole conveyances at certain periods, as their due, and 
 of courfe relent this regulation in the higheft degree as an 
 infringement of their liberty as Englifhmcn. 
 
 MARK, in commerce, a certain character put on 
 various commodities, to fhevv where they were made 
 and by whom; as alfo that they were infpefiled by the 
 officers, and paid the duty upon them. 
 
 Mark, or Numero, is alio a particular character, 
 which, when fixed on any commodity, the trader alone 
 recollefils the price it coil him. 
 
 Knights of St. Ma’rr, an order of knighthood, in the 
 republick of Venice, under the proteftion of St. Mark the 
 cvangelill. The arms of the order are a lion winged 
 gules, with this device, Pax tibi, Marce evangelilla. 
 
 Mark, Marc , denotes a weight, as alfo feveral 
 commodities,, efpecially gold and filver in France. It is 
 divided into 8 ounces, 64 drachms, or 192 deniers or 
 penny-weights, or i6oefterlins, or 300maillcs, or 640 
 ferlins, or 4608 grains. In Holland the mark weight 
 is the fame as in France. 
 
 When gold and filver are fold by the mark, it is di¬ 
 vided into 24 carats, the carat into 8 penny-weights, 
 and the penny-weight into 24 grains, and the grain into 
 24 primes. 
 
 Mark, alfo denotes money of account; and in fome 
 countries a coin. The Englilh mark is 13 s. and qd. 
 among the Saxons, it was equivalent to 7s. fid. of our 
 money. It is alfo a money of account in Scotland, 
 and formerly a filver coin, being equal to 13 d. and ~ 
 Englilh. 
 
 Mark Lubs, or Lubeck Mark, a money of account 
 at Hamburgh, equal to a third of the rixdollar, or to the 
 French livre. It is divided into fixteen fols lubs. 
 
 Mark Danfcb , a Danilh coin, equal to fixteen fols 
 lubs, or 20 French fols. 
 
 Mark, is alfo a copper coin in Sweden, equal to two¬ 
 pence farthing Englilh ; it is divided into 8 rouftiqs, and 
 each rouiliq into two alleveures. 'Fhe S wed ilia filver 
 mark is money of account, equal to three copper marks. 
 
 MARKET, a publick place in a city or town where 
 provifions are fold. It alfo denotes a privilege of a place, 
 either by grant or prefeription, to hold a market. 
 
 MARLE, a kind of dry, foft, foffile earth, ufed for 
 manuring land. The principal forts of marie arc the 
 white and red. Too much of it thrown on the ground 
 is found to burn it. Marie is burnt like other Hone for 
 making of lime. 
 
 MARMALADE, a confcftion of the pulp of plumbs, 
 apricots, quinces, 6cc. boiled with fugar into a con¬ 
 fluence. 
 
 MAROTICK, Style, in the French poetry, a 
 I peculiarly gay, yet natural manner of writing, introduced 
 I 2 A by 
 
M A R 
 
 M A R 
 
 bv Marot, and fince imitated with mofl fuccefs by 
 Voiture and Fontaine. The marotick makes a choice, 
 whereas burlcfque admits of all. 
 
 MARQUE, Lett.) of Masque, letters of reprifal, 
 whereby the fubjects of o:«- country arc licenfed, by the ^ 
 king or parliament, to make reprifals on thofe of another; 
 bv rea'fon application has been thrice made to the govern¬ 
 ment to which the aggreffor belongs, without any effe£E 
 
 MARQUETRY', or Inlaid-work, implies a 
 curious work competed of feveral fine hard pieces of 
 wood; of various colours, fattened in thin flices on a 
 ground, and fometimes enriched with other matters, as 
 iilver, brafs, tortoife-fheii, and ivory; with thefe affif- 
 tances the art is now capable of imitating any thing ; 
 whence it is by fome called the art of painting in wood. 
 
 The ground on which the pieces are to be arranged 
 and glued, is ufually of well-dried oak or deal, and is 
 compofed of feveral pieces glued together, to prevent its 
 warping. The wood to be ufed in marquetry is reduced 
 into leaves, of the thicknefs of a line, or the twelfth part 
 of an inch, and is either of its natural colour, or ftained, 
 or made black to form the fhades by other methods : this 
 fome perform by putting it in fand heated very hot over 
 the fire : others, by fteeping it in lime water and fubli- 
 mate: and others, in oil offulphur. The wood being 
 of the proper colours, the contours of the pieces are 
 formed according to the parts of the defign they arc to rc- 
 prefent: this is the molt difficult part of marquetry, and 
 that which requires the mod patience and attention. 
 
 The two chief inftruments ufed in this work, are a 
 law and a wooden vice, which has one of its chaps fixed, 
 and the other moveable, which is open and ffiut by the 
 foot, by means of a cord fattened to a treddle. 
 
 The leaves to be formed, of which there are frequently 
 thiee, four, or more joined together, are, after they have 
 been glued on the outermoft part of the defign, whofe 
 profile they are to follow, put within the chaps of the 
 vice ; then the workman preffing the treddle, and thus 
 holding faft the piece, with his faw runs over all the out¬ 
 lines of his defign. By thus joining or forming three or 
 four pieces together, not only time is faved, hut alio the 
 matter is the better enabled to futtain the effort of the 
 faw, which, how fine foever it maybe, and how flightly 
 foever it may be conduced by the workman, except this 
 precaution were taken, would be apt to raife fplinters, 
 and ruin the beauty of the work. AH the pieces having 
 been thus formed by the faw, and marked, in order to 
 theii being known again, each is vaneered, or fattened in 
 its place, on the common ground, with the beft Englifh 
 • iuc ; and this being done, the whole is fet in a prels to 
 Srv, planed over, and polilhed with the lkin of the fea- 
 dog, wax, and, fhave-grafs, as infimple vaneering, and 
 tluTfine branches and more delicate parts of the figures 
 are touched up and finifhed with a graver. 
 
 MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to that 
 of duke, firft given to thofe who commanded the 
 inarches, or borders and frontiers of countries. 
 
 Marquiffes were not known in England till king 
 Rich aid II. in the year 1337, created his great favourite, 
 Robert Vere, the carl of Oxford, marquis of Dublin ; 
 iince which time there have been many creations of this 
 jbrt, though at prefent there is but one Englilh, three 
 Scotch, and one Irifh marquiffes. 
 
 MARRIAGE, a' contract both civil and religious, 
 between a man and a woman, by which they engage to 
 live together in mutual love and' friendfliip, for the ends 
 of procreation, See. 
 
 MARROW, AhduUx, in anatomy, a foft oleaginous 
 fubftance contained in the cavity of the bones. 
 
 The marrow of.the bones, which anatomitts of many 
 • ages took to be a mere lhapelefs and irregular mafs of 
 matter, is found in reality to confitt of a number of fine 
 fubtijc fat oleaginous fubttances, and of a number of 
 minute veficles of a membranaceous ftru&ure, in which 
 Lt is Ecreted from the arterial blood in the fame manner 
 
 -h, fat of the rett of the body. It is contained in a 
 orenter or lefs quantity in the cavities of 1110ft of the 
 cvlindrical.bones: in the cavernous bones there is not 
 properly any marrow, but a kind of red, fatty, medullary 
 i ia. 'The medullary veflels, found running here and 
 ' through their appropriated canals, penetrate into 
 inner cavity of the bones, and fccrctc the medullary 
 ’ art from the blood there; the blood being afterwards 
 
 returned again by the veins. The nerves arc diftributed 
 to the fame places for the fake of i'enfe and motion. It 
 has been a common opinion, that the marrow increafed 
 and decreafed in quantity according to the increafe and 
 decrcafe of the moon ; but this is by modern anatomitts 
 thought idle and erroneous: it docs, indeed, increafe and 
 decreafe in its feveral cavities, according to the cxercife 
 or rett of the animal, or to its eating more or lefs, or better 
 or wOrfe food. The fubtile oleaginous fubftance pene¬ 
 trates in between the fibres of the bones, and preferves 
 them from drynefs and from that brittlcnefs which would 
 be the confequence of it; but it does not nouriffi them 
 as was originally believed. See Bone. 
 
 MARRUBIUM, hore-hound, in botanv, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is monopctalous and labiated, the 
 upper lip of which is ere£t, femibifid, and acute, and 
 the under lip reflexed and cut into three fegments ; the 
 feeds are four and contained in the cup. The common 
 hore-hound, has a woody fibrous root, from which arife 
 feveral hairy fquareftalks which are furnifhed with hoary 
 roundifh leaves, wrinkled and crenated on their edges; 
 the flowers proceed in whorlcs from the joints of the 
 ftalks in June, and are of a white colour, the whole 
 plant has a ftrong difagreeable finell, and grows wild in 
 many parts of England ; it is aperient, and powerfully 
 refolves vifeid humours, and by fome is accounted a 
 fpecifick in moift afthmas, and in all dife.tfes of the 
 bread and lungs : the dofe in infulion is from half a 
 handful to a handful, the dried leaves may be given to 
 a dram or two. 
 
 MARS, in aftronomy, one of the fuperior planets, 
 moving round the fun in an orbit between thofe of the 
 earth and Jupiter. Its charafter is $ . It has two figns 
 of the zodiack given unto it, which are called its own 
 houfes ; viz. aries, C Y\ and fcorpio, tH- See Planet. 
 
 In the aclironical riling of this planet, that is, when it 
 is in oppofition to the fun, it is found twice as near the 
 earth as the fun, which is aphasnomcnon that has greatly 
 diferedited the Ptolemaick hypothefis. This planet, as 
 well as the reft, borrows its light from the fun, and has 
 its increafe and decreafe of light like the moon; and it 
 may be feen almoft ciifle&ed when in its quadratures with 
 the fun, or its perigaeum ; but is never corniculated or 
 falcated, as the inferior planets. 
 
 Dr. Hook, in 1665, obferved feveral lpots in this 
 planet, which having a motion, he concluded the planet 
 to have a turbinated motion round its centre. In 1666, 
 M.Caffini obferved feveral fpots in the two hemifpheres 
 of Mars, which, bv continuing his different obfervations 
 very diligently, he found to move by little and little from 
 eaft to weft, and to return in the fpace of 24 hours 4c/ 
 to their former fituation. Whence both the motion and 
 period or natural day of that planet were determined. 
 See Maculje. 
 
 Mars always appears with a ruddy troubled light, 
 whence we conclude that it is encompaffed with a thick 
 cloudy atmofphere, which by difturbing the rays of light 
 in their paffage and re-paffage through it, occafion that 
 appearance : bcfidcs the ruddy colour of Mars, wc have 
 another argument of his being encompafled with an 
 atmofphere, and it is this, that when any of the fixed ftars 
 are feen near his body, they appear extremely obfeure 
 and almoft extimtt; and if this be the cafe, a fpcclator 
 in Mars would fcarcc ever fee Mercury, unlefs perhaps 
 in the lun at the time of conjundf ion, when Mercury 
 pafies over his dilk, as he fometimes appears to us, in 
 form of a fpot. 
 
 An eye in Mars will fee Venus at about the fame dif- 
 tance from the fun as Mercury appears to us, and the 
 earth about the fame diftance from the fun that Venus 
 appears to us; and when the earth is found in conjunc¬ 
 tion with and very near the fun, the eye in Mars will fee 
 the earth horned or falcated, and its attendant, the moon, 
 of the fame figure, and at its utmoft diftance from the 
 earth not above 15 minutes of a degree : and as this pla¬ 
 net’s diftance from the fun is to the diftance of the earth 
 and fun as ij to 1, therefore a fpedator in Mars would 
 fee the fun’s diameter Ids by one third than it appears to 
 us, and confcquently the degree of light and heat which 
 Mars receives from the fun, is lefs bv one third than that 
 received by the earth ; this proportion will, however, 
 admit of a fcnfible variation, on account of the great ck- 
 centricity of this planet. 
 
 2 
 
 Though 
 
'mt'triwt 
 
 votisefo 
 
 'trrofi/r 
 
 (t/rtwr 
 
 ///. a . vne/e? 
 
 wMUc/ft 
 
 'o/rrm 
 
 \?A Yht.x'/tr i/ 
 
 . ’hl.nl/in/ 
 ly equalCbu/ixu 
 
 Bound..\ IffAHmrt/ 
 
 /■// u/n qua// < wen; 
 
 < rrn k.Uu.H>/tn/ 
 
 Fu/Jo, 
 
 I Fu/M 
 
 ■ i Ltn >/in/ 
 
 qil/alt'//> i/t /he. MuL/lr 
 
 tin /bound* ILtwn </ 
 
 0 ////>/•'/, / 
 
 '//////< Y/t 
 
 Ytti/uan 
 
 
 Plate LVT 
 
 •n /./y. flu- //<■/’. //Fn/i/Zf/n/t, Li: : 
 
 faeiujr Maioury. 
 
M A R 
 
 Though the period or year of this planet, as has been 
 already obferved, is nearly twice as long as ours, and his 
 natural day, or the time in which the fun appears above 
 the horizon (letting alkie the confideratio'n-of twilight) is 
 almoft every where equal to his night: yet it appears that 
 in one and the fame place, on his furface, there will be 
 but very little variety of feafons, or fcarcc any difference 
 of furamer and winter : and the reafon is, that the axis 
 of his diurnal rotation is nearly at right angles with the 
 plane of his orbit. It will be found, notwithftanding, 
 that places lituated in different latitudes, that is, at dif¬ 
 ferent diflances from his equator, will have very different 
 degrees of heat, on account of the different inclination 
 of the fun’s rays to the horizon, as it is with us when 
 the fun is in the equinoxes. 
 
 Mars, among the chymifts, denotes iron, as being 
 fuppoled to be under the influence of that planet. See 
 Iron. 
 
 MARSHAL, In its primary fignification, means an 
 officer who has the command or care of horfes ; but it is 
 now applied to officers who have very different employ¬ 
 ments, as earl marfhal, knight-marfhal, or marfhal of 
 the king’s houfe, he. 
 
 Marshal, orMAREScHAL, of France, an officer 
 of the greatefl dignity in the French armies. When 
 two or more marelchals are in the army, the eldeft com¬ 
 mands. 
 
 MARSHALLING a coat, in heraldry, is the 
 difpofa] of feveral coats of arms belonging to diftindt 
 families, in one and the fame efcutcheon or ffiield, to¬ 
 gether with their ornaments, parts, aiid appurtenances. 
 
 MARSHMALLOW, in botany. See the article 
 Althea. 
 
 MARSHY Lands, thole liable to be overflowed by 
 the lea. or large rivers. 
 
 MARTIAL, amongphyficians, an appellation given 
 to the preparations of iron. 
 
 Martial Law, is the law of war, which entirely 
 depends on the arbitrary power of the prince, or of thole 
 to whom he has delegated it: for though the king can 
 make no laws in time of peace without the confent of 
 parliament, yet in time of war he ufes an abfolute power 
 over the army. 
 
 MARTIN, Maries , in zoology, a fpecies of muftela, 
 of a blackifh brown colour, and with a pale throat: it is 
 about the fize of the common cat, but more flcnder. 
 
 Martin is alfo the name of a bird of the hirundo 
 kind, of a black colour, and with the throat white. 
 
 MARTINGALE, in the manage, a thong of leather 
 fattened to one end of the girths under the belly of a horfe, 
 and at the other end to the -mufs-roll, to keep him from 
 rearing. 
 
 MARTLETS, in heraldry, little birds reprefented 
 without feet, and ufed as a difference or mark of diftinc- 
 tion for younger brothers, to put them in mind that they 
 are to trutt to the wings of virtue and merit, in order to 
 raife thcmfelves, and not to their feet, they having little 
 land to fet their feet on. 
 
 MART YN 1 A, in botany, a genus of the didynamia 
 angiofpermia clafs. The calix confifts of five fegments; 
 the corolla is ringent; and the capfule is woody, with 
 a hooked beak, two valves, and three cells. There are 
 two lpecics, both natives of America. 
 
 MARTYR, in the Chrittian fenfe of the word, is 
 one who lays down his life for the gofpel, or fuffers death 
 for the fake of his religion. The feftivals of the martyrs 
 arc of very ancient date in the Chrittian church, and 
 may be carried back at leaft till the time of Polvcarp, 
 who fuffered martyrdom about the year of Chrift 168. 
 On thefe days the Chrittians met at the graves of the 
 martyrs, and offered prayers and thankfgivings to God 
 for the examples they had afforded them ; they celebrated 
 the cucharitt, and gave alms to the poor; which, toge¬ 
 ther witli a panegyrical oration or fermon, and reading 
 the afls of the martyrs, were the fpiritual exercifes of 
 thefe anniverlaries. 
 
 MARTYROLOGY, in the church of Rome, is a 
 catalogue or lift of martyrs, including the hiftory of their 
 lives and fufferings for the lake of their religion. 
 
 MARUM, Syi ijn-majlnb, in botany, a low fhrubby 
 plant, with leaves like thofc of thyme, but hoary; the 
 flowers are of the labiated kind, and grow in whorled 
 fpikes they appear in July and Auguft. 
 
 MAS 
 
 Marum is reputed cephalick, and good in all diforders 
 of the nerves, and alfo for flopping haemorrhages. 
 
 MASCULINE, or Masculine-Gender, among 
 grammarians, that belonging to the male. See Gender. 
 
 MASON, a perfon employed under the direction of 
 an architect, in the railing of a ftone building. The 
 chief bufinefs of a mafon is to make the mortar, raife 
 the walls from the foundation to the top, with the ne- 
 ceffary retreats and perpendiculars ; to form the vaults, 
 and employ the ftones as delivered to him. When the 
 ftones are large, the bufinefs of hewing or cutting them 
 belongs to the ftone-cutters, though thefe are frequently 
 confounded with mafons : the ornaments of fculpture are 
 performed by carvers in ftone or fculptors. 
 
 MASONRY in general, a branch of architefture, 
 coniifting of the art of hewing or fquaring ftones, and' 
 cutting them level or perpendicular, for the ufes of build¬ 
 ing ; but in a more limited fenfe, mafonry is the art of 
 afTembling and joining ftones together with mortar. Au¬ 
 thors mention leven pieces of mafonry, viz. 
 
 Net Masonry, called rcticulatum by Vitruvius, from 
 its refemblance to the matties of a net, which confifts of 
 ftones fquared in their courfes, and fo difpofed, as that 
 their joints go obliquely, the one diagonal being perpen¬ 
 dicular and the other level. This is the moft pleafing to 
 the eye, but apt to crack. ( l*late LVI. fig. 7.) 
 
 Bound MASbNRY, Infer t a , that wherein the ftones are 
 placed over one another, like tiles; the joints of the beds 
 being level, and the mounters perpendicular : fo that the 
 joint which mounts and feparates two ftones, falls dircftly 
 over the middle of the ftone below. This is more durable 
 than the network. ( Fig. 8.) 
 
 Greek Masonry, or double binding, that where after 
 we have laid two ftones, each of which make a courfe, 
 another is laid at the end, which makes two courfes, and 
 fo on throughout. ( Fig. 9.) 
 
 Masonr y by equal Courfes , Ifodomwr., differs from bound 
 mafonry only in that its ftones are not hewn. ( Fig. 10.) 
 
 Masonry by unequal Courfes, Pjcudijodomum , made of 
 unhewed ftones laid in bound work, not of the fame 
 thicknefs, or quality, excepting in the feveral courfes; the 
 courfes thcmfelves being unequal to each other. ( Fig. 11.) 
 
 Masonry filled up in the middle , Imple&on , alfo made 
 of unhewn ftone and by regular courfes, the middle being 
 filled up with ftones at random. ( Fig. 12.) 
 
 Compound Masonry, as being formed of all the reft. 
 Here the courfes are of hewn ftone and the middle filled 
 up with mortar and pebbles thrown in together. After 
 this the ftones of one courfe are bound to thofe of another 
 with cramp-irons fattened with melted lead. ( Fig. 13.) 
 
 All the kinds of mafonry now in ufe may be reduced 
 to thefe five, viz. bound mafonry; that of brick work, 
 where the bodies and projetturcs of the ftones inclole 
 fquare fpaces or pannels, &c. fet with bricks ; that de 
 moilon orfrnall work, where the courfes arc equal, well 
 fquared, and their edges or beds well rufticated ; that 
 where the courfes are unequal ; and that filled up in the 
 middle with little ftones and mortar. 
 
 MASQUE, Mask:, a cover for the face contrived 
 with apertures for the eyes and mouth. 
 
 Masque, in architecture, certain hideous forms, or 
 grotefque faces, he. to adorn vacant places, as in freezes, 
 pannels of doors, keys of arches, he. particularly in 
 grottos. 
 
 MASQUERADE, Mafcarade , perfons mafked or dif- 
 guifed in odd and antique drefies for amufement. 
 
 MASS, Maffa , the matter of which any body confifts; 
 and in this fenfe is diftinguifhed from its bulk or volume, 
 which is its expanfion in length, breadth, and thicknefs. 
 The mafs of any body is rightly eftimatedby its weight; 
 and the maflfes of two bodies of the fame weight are in a 
 reciprocal ratio of their bulks. 
 
 Mass, Mejfe , Mfifi , in a religious fenfe, denotes the 
 publick prayers in the Romifli church at the celebration 
 of the Euc.harift. 
 
 MASSES, in painting, thofe parts of a picture which 
 contain great lights or great fhadows. 
 
 MASSEXER, in anatomy, a mufcle that ferves to 
 move the lower jaw, by pulling it upwards. See Jaw . 
 
 MASSIVE, fomethingheavy and folid, in oppofitien 
 to tender and delicate. 
 
 MAST, the fruit of trees called glandiferous, as oak, 
 chefnut, &c. 
 
 Mast, 
 
M A S 
 
 M A S 
 
 Mast, in navigation, along and round piece ofwood 
 failed in veflels for the yards and fails to be fattened to, 
 in order to receive the windnecellary for navigation. See 
 the article Ship. 
 
 In a large fhip there is a main-maft, fore-malt, 
 mizen-mall, boltlprit; and in galleons acounter-mizen. 
 
 1 he malts of thips generally confiit of three pieces, 
 joined together lengtlnvife, viz. the lower-malt, the top- 
 malt, and the top-gallant-malt. The top-malt itands at 
 the head ol the lower-matt, and the top-gallant-malt at 
 the head ot the top-malt in the fame manner, and either 
 ot the two latter can be occafionally taken down ; but 
 the iower-mait as it is fettled on the keel of the fhip, can 
 only be removed by hoilting it out or cutting it away. 
 
 A little below the head ot the lower-malt is fixed the 
 frame ot the top, which relts upon the hounds of the malt; 
 through this frame the top-malt is hoitted, after which, 
 the head of it palfes through the cap, which is a block of 
 wood with two holes in it, one of which relts on the head 
 of the lower-malt, and the other ferves as above to keep 
 the top-malt Iteady. When the top-malt is thus hoilted 
 ■up to its utmoft extent, and kept Iteady above by the cap, 
 and below by the top-frame, a large bar of wood or iron 
 is thruft through a l'quare hole in the heel of it, cut for 
 that purpofe ; and this bar extending acrofs the middle 
 of the top-frame, the whole weight of the top-malt relts 
 upon it; as does the top-gallant-malt in the fame man¬ 
 ner at the head of the top-malt. 
 
 As every malt is compolcd of three pieces, it will be 
 alfo neceffarv to inform our readers that all lhips, pro¬ 
 perly fo called, are furnilhed with three malts, viz. the 
 main-malt, the fore-malt, and mizen-malt. Thofe 
 which have only two or one malt, are not called lhips 
 by kamen, but vary their names according to their me¬ 
 thod of rigging. Of two malts, there are l'nows, brigs, 
 bilanders, ketches, bufles, fchooners, and hermaphro¬ 
 dites, among the Englilh. Among the Spaniards and 
 Italians, fettees, barco-longas, feluccas, 6cc. Thofe of 
 one malt are hoops, tartans, bean-cods, lhallops, &c. 
 
 In the Britilh navy, malts arc proportioned to the ex¬ 
 treme breadth of the fhip from out to out. 
 
 Proportion for the length of malts, anno 1745. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 
 r 7 +s 0 
 
 
 
 ", 
 
 100 
 
 
 756: 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 IOOO : breadth 
 
 753 : 
 
 main-maft in 
 
 
 80 
 
 in feet:; < 
 
 741 : 
 
 
 yards 
 
 
 70 6c 60 
 
 
 740: 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 747 ; 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 .760:. 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1000: main-maft:: < 
 
 3 9 S : 
 
 > fore-mail 
 
 1 100, 90,80, 
 
 
 I901 : 
 
 
 
 1 & all the reft. 
 
 1000: main-maft:: | 
 
 » 7 0 
 8661 
 
 mizen-maft 
 
 1 100, 90, 80 
 l 6c all the reft. 
 
 1000: main-maft:: j ?^° 1 
 I6t 3 j 
 
 bowfprit 
 
 
 S 100, 90,30, 
 C 6c allthereft. 
 
 iooo:main-maft 
 
 r6c 
 
 )0: 1 
 
 
 
 f 100,90,80, 
 
 
 >sf 
 
 main-top-maft < 70,90,80, 
 
 
 Lb 
 
 3d 
 
 
 
 i 40,24. 
 
 iooo:raain-top-maft:: fore-top- j 100,90,80, 
 
 iooermain-top-maft:: j 1 j 
 iooo:main-top-malt:: 
 
 1000 : fbre-top-malt:: 
 
 all the reft. 
 100, 90,80, 
 all the reft. 
 480 :7 main-top- J 100,90,80, 
 508: S gal. malt l all the reft. 
 480: ) lore-top- f ico, 90,80, 
 505:3 gal. malt l all the reft. 
 
 The propoition for malting fhips in the merchants 
 fervice, is generally regulated bv the judgment and ex¬ 
 perience of the commander. The main and forc-maft 
 in all lhips down to 60 guns, one inch diameter to everv 
 ^ ard in length. For 50 and 40 guns, twenty-leven 
 twenty-eighths of an inch diameter to one yard in length. 
 For 24 guns, twelve thirteenths of an inch in diameter 
 to one yard in length. All top-mafts are nine-tenths of 
 an inch in diameter to one yard in length. The fore- 
 top-mail as big as the main-top-maft. The top-gallant- 
 nmft, one inch to a yard. The mizen-maft, fifteen 
 twentv-feconds of an inch to one yard in length. The 
 mizen-top-raaft. five-fix tlis of an inch to one yard in 
 length. The bowfprit. an inch and a half to one vard. 
 J he jib-boom, feven-eighths of aninch to a yard. See 
 the article Bowsprit. 
 
 AlASTER, Magi/hr , in general, is a title of autho¬ 
 rity ; as the grand mailer of Malta, the mailer of St: 
 Lazarus, 6cc. 
 
 Master of a Ship cf War , an officer who has the 
 change of navigating thelhip from port to port, under the 
 direction ot the captain : the management and difpofit'um 
 of the fails, the conducting the fhip in all extremities of 
 danger, and directing her motions in the time of aCtion,' 
 more particularly belongs to him; as alio to i'uperintend 
 the provilions, and lee that none are permitted to come 
 aboard but fuch as are wholcfome and fweet: he is alfo 
 to take care that they are fafely flowed by his mates and 
 quarter-mailers; thefe are alfo employed to fuperintend 
 the navigation when he is off the deck, and to alfift 
 wherever his duty is concerned. 
 
 Master of a Merchant-Jhip , the officer who com¬ 
 mands and direCts her courfe, manages her lading, and 
 all other affairs. 
 
 MASTER <7/ Arms , in the marine, an officer, whofe 
 bufmefs it is to confine and plant fentries over the 
 prifoners in a fhip of war; to obferve that all the lights 
 and fire are put out when the evening gun fires, only 
 iuch as are allowed by proper authority, or which are 
 under the infpeCtion of fentries : lie is alfo to attend the 
 tide when any boats come aboard, and fiearch carefully 
 that no fpiritous liquors are brought into the fhip, but 
 what are permitted by the commanding officer. He is 
 hkewife to teach the fea-men the exercife of the fmall 
 arms, to which they generally have a great averfipn ; for 
 this purpofe, in large lhips, the mailer at arms has i'eve- 
 ral corporals under him to alfift in his office, and relieve 
 the fentries and each other. See Corporal. 
 
 Master Attendant , in the king’s dock-yards, an 
 officer whole duty it is to oblcrve that all the lhips. which 
 are laid up, or faid to be in ordinary, are properly 
 moored, cleaned and kept in order; for which.purpofe 
 he is often to vifit and examine them; he alfo attends the 
 mufters in the dock-yard, to obferve that all the men 
 regiftered on the books do their duty : he has hkewife. the 
 charge of the moorings, which arc fixed in the river or 
 harbour where he refides, and thefe he is always to keep 
 in good repair, that they may be ready to moor the fhips 
 of war when necellary, which employment he muft alfo 
 fee lecurely performed: he removes the fhips from one 
 place to another in the harbour, and pilots them into, 
 and out of, the docks, &c. 
 
 Master of Arts, is the firft degree taken up in foreign 
 univerfities, and for the moft part in thofe of Scotland; 
 but the fecond in Oxford and Cambridge; candidates 
 not being admitted to it till they have ftudied feven years 
 in the univerfity. See Degree. 
 
 Masters in Chancery, in ordinary, of which there are 
 twelve, the mailer of the rolls being chief, are uiuallv 
 chofen out of the barrifters of the common law, and fit 
 in chancery, or at the rolls, as affiftants to the lord 
 chancellor and mailer of the rolls. 
 
 Master oftheHorfe , a great officer of the crown, 
 who orders all matters relating to the king’s ftablcs, 
 races, breed of liorfes; and commands the equerries 
 and all the other officers and tradefmen employed in the 
 king’s ftables. His coaches, horfes, and attendants arc 
 the king’s, and bear the king’s arms and livery. 
 
 Master of the Ordnance , a great officer who has the 
 chief command ot the king’s ordnance and artillery. 
 
 Master of the Revels, an officer who orders all things 
 relating to the performance of plays, mafks, balls. 6<c. 
 at court. 
 
 Master of the Rolls, a patent officer for life, who 
 has the cuftody. of the rolls of parliament and patents 
 which pals the great leal, and of the records ot chancery, 
 as alfo commiflions, deeds, recognizances, which being 
 made of rolls of parchment, give rife to the name. “ 
 
 MAST ICH. Marum, in pharmacy, is a folid reiin 
 brought to us in a fmall quantity, in drops or teals as it 
 naturally forms itfdfin exludating from the tree, which 
 remain detached and lingle. 
 
 This tree is one of the atborcs flore a fruftu remoto 
 bacciferx of Ray. It is dtferibed in Ccipar Hauhine 
 and the other botanical writers under‘the name of the 
 lcntifcus vulgaris, or the common kittilk-tree. It grows 
 notoniy 111 tile other iflands of the Aegean f a as well as 
 in Chios, but alfo in f iance, Spain,'and Italy . bitt’it 
 does not afford the refin in any part of thefe com' a 
 
 Jr,' 
 
MAT 
 
 In Chios it flows fpontaneoufly in no ftmlt quantities, 
 but the people always wound the trees alfo, to procure 
 the larged quantities. 
 
 1 he people of Chios are fo fond of maftich, that they 
 niake it an ingredient even in their bread, by way of giv¬ 
 ing it a better flavour. They have fonie of it alfo con¬ 
 tinually in their mouths by way of maftichatory. They 
 fay it cleans and fallens the teeth, and gives the breath 
 an agreeable fmell. In medicine it is detergent, aftrin- 
 gent, and ftomachick. Jt is greatly recommended in 
 inveterate coughs, and againlt fpitting of blood. It 
 ftrengthens the Itomach, aflills digeflion, and flops vo¬ 
 mitings. It is alfo uted externally in plaiflers to the re¬ 
 gion of the flomach and inteflines, and is faid to flop 
 vomitings and purgings by that means. It is an ingre¬ 
 dient in many of the old compofitions. Jewellers mix 
 maftich with turpentine and black ivory, and lay it under 
 their diamonds to give them a luflte. 
 
 MASTICATION, MojHcotio, denotes the afliori of 
 chewing the aliments. By this our food is agitated be¬ 
 tween the teeth, by means of the motion of the jaws, 
 tongue, and lips, whereby it is comminuted, impreg¬ 
 nated with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition and a more 
 eafy digeflion in the flomach. The faliva difloives the 
 falts hid in the parts of the food, fo that it has the begin¬ 
 ning of its digeflion therefrom, and its conclufion from 
 the ferment in the flomach. 
 
 MAST. ICATORY, A 4 aJUcatorium, in medicine, an 
 apophlegmatifm in a i'olid form. 
 
 MATCH, a kind of rope flightly twilled, and pre¬ 
 pared to retain fire folr the ufes of artillery, mines, fire¬ 
 works, &c. It is made of hempen tow, fpun on the 
 wheel like cord, but very flack ; and is compoled of three 
 twills, which are afterwards again covered with tow, fo 
 that the twills do not appear : laftly, it is boiled in the 
 lees of old wines. This; when once lighted at the end, 
 burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going 
 out, till the whole be confumed : the hardell and drieft 
 match is generally the bell. 
 
 MATCHING, in the wine trade, the preparing 
 vefiels to preferve wines and other liquors, without their 
 growing four or vapid. 1 he method of doing it, as 
 directed by Hr. Shaw, is as follows : melt brimftone in 
 an iron ladle, and when thoroughly melted, dip into it 
 flips of coarfe linen cloth ; take thefe out, and let them 
 cool: this the wine-coopers call a match ; take one of 
 thefe matches, fet one end of it on fire, and put it into 
 the bung-hole of a calk ; flop it loofely, and thus fuffer 
 the match to burn nearly out: then drive in the bung 
 tight, and fet the calk afide for an hour or two. At the 
 end of this time examine the calk, and you will find that 
 the fulphur has communicated a violent pungent and 
 fuffocating feent to the calk, with a confiderable degree 
 of acidity, which is the gas and acid fpiritof the fulphur. 
 The calk may after this be filled with a fmall wine, 
 which has fcarce done its fermentation, and bunging it 
 down tight, it will be kept good, and will foon clarify : 
 Jhis is a common and very uleful method, for many poor 
 wincs could fcarce be kept potable, even a few months, 
 without it. 
 
 MATERIA Subtilts, denotes a fine fubtile matter 
 Which the Cartelians fuppofe to pervade and penetrate 
 freely the pores of all bodies, to 1111 up all their pores 
 To as not to leave the leaft vacuity or interftice between 
 them ; they had recourfe to this machine to fupport the 
 doflrineof an ablolute plenum, and to make it confiftent 
 with the phenomenon of motion, &c. Sec Carte¬ 
 sians, Plenum and Vacuum. 
 
 Materia Chymica, a term ufed by authors to 
 exprefs luch bodies as are the peculiar objefls of chymical 
 experiments. 
 
 Materia Medic a, comprehends all thefubftances 
 either ufed in medicine in their natural Hate, or which 
 afford preparations that are fo ; thefe belong partly to the 
 animal, partly to the vegetable, and partly to the foflil 
 kingdom. 
 
 1 he preparations and virtues of all which are delivered 
 under their relpedlive articles, but in as concife and 
 fcrupulous a manner as we poflibly could ; lince we can- 
 tiot but remark, with the great Boyle, that it is too fre¬ 
 quent in writers on the materia medica, to give us rather 
 encomiums than impartial accounts of the fimples they 
 treat of. However, tire fame great author prefers the 
 Vol. II. No. 48. 
 
 M A T 
 
 ufe of approved fimples to that of compound medicines, 
 becaufe one or other of the ingredients may have dif¬ 
 ferent operations from thole intended by the phyfician . 
 and he adds, that he had fo many unwelcome proofs of 
 this himfelf, that he thought it his duty to caution others 
 againft the like inconvenience. 
 
 . MATHEMATICKS, from /isfWu, originally flgni- 
 fied any difeipline of learning ; but, at prelent, denotes 
 that fcieiice which teaches, or Contemplates, whatever is 
 capable of being numbered or mealured, in fo far as it is 
 computable or mealurable , and, accordingly, is fubdi- 
 vided into arithmetick, which has numbers for its objefl, 
 and geometry, which treats of magnitude. 
 
 Mathematicks are commonly diftinguifhed into pure 
 and ipeculative, which confider quantity abftrabledly ; 
 and mixed; which treat of magnitude as fubfifting in 
 material bodies, and confequently are interwoven every 
 where with phyfleal confide rations. 
 
 Mixed mathematicks are very comprehenfive; fince to 
 them may be referred aftronomy, opticks, geography, 
 hydography, hydroftaticks, mechanicks, fortification, 
 navigation, &c. 
 
 Pure mathematicks have one peculiar advantage, that 
 they occafion no difputes among wi angling difputants, 
 as in other branches of knowledge ; and the reafon is, 
 becaufe the definitions of the terms are premifed, and 
 every body that reads a propofition has the fame idea of 
 every part of it. Hence it is eafy to put an end to all 
 mathematical controverfies, by fhewing, either that our 
 adverfary has not ftuck to his definitions, or has not laid 
 down true premiles, or elfe that he has drawn falfe con- 
 clufions from true principles ; and in cafe we are able to 
 do neither of thefe, we muft acknowledge the truth of 
 what he has proved. 
 
 It is true, that in mixed mathematicks, where wc reafon 
 mathematically upon phyfical fubjefts, we cannot give 
 fuch juft defi nitions as the geometricians: we muft there¬ 
 fore reft content with deferiptions, and they will be of 
 the fame ufe as definitions, provided we are confiftent 
 with ourfelves, and always mean the fame thing by thole 
 terms we have once explained. 
 
 Dr. Barrow gives a raoft elegant defeription of the 
 excellence and ufefulncfs of mathematical knowledge, in 
 his inaugural oration, upon being appointed profclfor of 
 mathematicks at Cambridge. 
 
 T he mathematicks, he obferves, effeflually exercife, 
 not vainly delude, nor vexatioufly torment ftudious 
 minds with obfeure fubtilties ; but plainly dcmonilrate 
 every thing within their reach, draw certain conclufions, 
 inftrudt by profitable rules, and unfold pleafant queftions. 
 
 I hefe difeiplines likewife inure, and corroborate the 
 mind to a conftant diligence in fludy ; they wholly de¬ 
 liver us from a credulous fimplicity, moft ftrongly for¬ 
 tify us againft the vanity of fcepticifm, eff’eflually re- 
 ftrain us from a rafh prefumption, moft eafily incline us 
 to a due aflent, perfectly fubjefl us to the government cf 
 right reafon. While the mind is abftrafled and elevated 
 from fenfible matter, diftinftly views pure forms, con¬ 
 ceives the beauty of ideas, and inveftigates the harmony 
 of proportions; the manners themfelves are infenfibly 
 corredled and improved, the affeflions compofed and 
 rectified, till: fancy calmed and fettled, and the under- 
 ftandingraifed and excited to moredivine contemplations. 
 
 MATRICULA, a regifter kept of the admiflion of 
 officers and perlons entered into any body or fociety, of 
 which a lift is made. 
 
 MATRIX, Uterus , the womb, in anatomy, that part 
 of the female of any kind, where the feetus is conceived 
 and nourilhed till the time of its delivery. 
 
 Ma t r 1 x alfo denotes a place proper for the generation 
 of vegetables, minerals, and metals. 
 
 Matrix, in letter-foundery. See Foundery. 
 MATRON ALIA, a feftival of the ancient Roman 
 matrons, from whom it had its name. It was celebrated 
 on the calends of March, in honour of the god Mars ; 
 and was to the Roman ladies what the feftival of the 
 Saturnalia was to their hufbands ; for at this time they 
 lerved their women ilaves at table, and received prefems 
 from their hufbands. 
 
 MATROSSES are foldiers in the train of artillery, 
 who are next to gunners, and affift them in loading, 
 firing, and fpunging the great guns. They carry fire¬ 
 locks, and march along with the $ore waggons, both a$ 
 
 2 B a guard, 
 
M A Y M E A 
 
 a ■guard, and to give their ailiftance in cafe a waggon 
 fhould break down. 
 
 MATTER, Materia , in phyfiology, whatever is ex¬ 
 tended and capable of making rdiflance: hence, becaule 
 all bodies, whether (olid or fluid, are extended, and do 
 refill, we conclude that they arc material, or made up ot 
 matter. 
 
 MATTHEW, cr Gift'd of St. Matthew, one of 
 the four gofpels, or evangelical books ot the New I eft a- 
 ment. 
 
 MAXILLA, the jaws, or thofc parts of an animal 
 bodv in which the teeth are fet. 
 
 MAXIM, the fame with axiom. See Axiom. 
 
 MAXIMUM, in mathematicks, denotes the greatefl: 
 quantity attainable in any given cafe. 
 
 If a quantity conceived to be generated by motion, 
 increales, or dccreales, till it arrives at a certain magni¬ 
 tude or pofition, and then, on the contrary, grows left 
 or greater, and it be required to determine the laid mag¬ 
 nitude or pofition, the queftion is called a problem de 
 maximis 5 c minimis. '1 lie rule therefore to determine 
 any flowing quantity in any equation propofed, to an 
 extreme value, is having put the equation into fluxions, 
 let the fluxion of that quantity (whole extreme value is 
 fought) be fuppoled equal to nothing; by which means 
 all thofe members of the equation in which it is tound, 
 will vanifh, and the remaining ones will give the deter¬ 
 mination of the maximum or minimum required. Thus, 
 fuppole it were required to divide a given right line into 
 two fuch pmts, that their produft, or reftangle, maybe 
 the greatefl; poffiblc. This is the cafe, when the line is 
 biffefted, or divided into equal parts. 
 
 In any mechanical engine, the proportion of the power 
 to the weight, when they balance each other, is found 
 by fuppofmg the engine to move, and reducing their 
 velocities to the refpe&ive directions in which they aft, 
 for the inverfe ratio of thefe velocities is that of the 
 power to the weight according to the general principle 
 of mechanicks. But it is of ule to determine likewife the 
 proportion they ought to bear to each other, that when 
 the power prevails, and the engine is in motion, it may 
 produce the greatefl effeft in a given time. When the 
 power prevails, the weight moves at firft with an accele¬ 
 rated motion ; and when the velocity ol the power is in¬ 
 variable, its aftion upon the weight decrcafcs, while the 
 velocity of the weight increafes. 1 hus the aftion ol a 
 flream of water or air upon a wheel, is to be eflimated 
 from the excels of the velocity of the fluid above the 
 velocity of the part of the engine which it ftrikes, or 
 from their relative velocity only. 1 he motion ol the 
 engine ccafes to be accelerated when this relative velocity 
 is fo far diminilhed, that the aftion of the power be¬ 
 comes equal to the reliflance of the engine arifing from 
 the gravity of the matter that is elevated by it, and Irom 
 fiiftion , for when thefe balance each other, the engine 
 proceeds with the uniform motion it has acquired. 
 
 MAY, Menus, the filth month in the year, beginning 
 at January. In this month the fun enters Gemini, and 
 plants begin to flower. 
 
 MAYL, in falconry, denotes to pinion the wings of a 
 hawk. 
 
 MAYOR, the chief magi ft rate in the cities and moft 
 of the corporation towns in England, chofen annually 
 out of the number ol the aldermen. 
 
 The mayor of a place is the king’s lieutenant, and 
 with the aldermen and common-council has a power ol 
 making bv-laws for the better government of a place. 
 He can determine matters judicially and mitigate the 
 rigour of the law. 
 
 The bailiffs of London were changed into mayors by 
 Richard 1 . A. D. i i8q. 
 
 M ayor’j Comts. The highrfland moft ancient is the 
 court of huftings deftined to fecit re the rights and cuftoms 
 of the city ; the lecond is a court of requeft or con- 
 fcicnee, meddling with nothing above 40s. where the 
 oath of the creditor himfelf is accepted: the third is 
 that of the lord-mayor and aldermen, where alfo the 
 11^riffs lit; to which may be added two courts of Ihcriffs 
 and that of the city orphans, whereof the mayor and 
 aldermen have the cuftody. Alio, the court of com¬ 
 mon-council, confiding of two houfes; the one for the 
 lord-mayor and aldermen, and the other for the com¬ 
 moners, where by-laws arc made which bind the citi¬ 
 
 zens. Alfo the chamberlain’s court, where everything 
 relating to the revenues of the city, as alfo the affairs Of 
 apprentices, fervants, See. are tranfafted. Lafllr, to the 
 lord-mayor belong the courts of coroner and cfcheatoi ; 
 another court for the confervation of the riverof Thames; 
 another of gaol delivery held at the Old Bailey, for the 
 trial of criminals, whereof the lord-mayor is himfelf tire 
 chief judge. 
 
 There are other courts called wardmotes, or meetings 
 of the wards and courts of halymote, or aflemblies of 
 the feveral fraternities and guilds. 
 
 MAYZ, a kind of Indian corn, much of the fame 
 temperament with wheat, and of which they make bread. 
 
 MAY-WEED, a wild fpecies of chamomile, a trail¬ 
 ing perennial plant, which puts out roots from its 
 branches as they lie on the ground. By this means, and 
 by fcattering its feeds long before the com is ripe, it 
 fpreads and multiplies greatly. It flowers in May, and 
 thence has acquired the name of May-weed. 
 
 'The means of extirpating it arc, fummer fallows, re¬ 
 peated good harrowing, and burning the colleftcd roots, 
 as before direfted, in fimilar cafes, or, which will be 
 found ftill more effeftual, the frequent hoeings praftifed 
 in the New Hulbandry. What cfeapes thefe clearings 
 fhould be very carefully pulled up bv hand ; for the com¬ 
 mon weeding-hook will not go deep enough to take out 
 the whole of the long Bender tap root of this plant, of 
 which every remaining bit that has a knot in it will pro¬ 
 duce new fhoots. Nor ought the farmer to regret this 
 (mall additional expence, to get rid of one of the moft 
 fatal enemies his corn can have. Mr. Lifle allures us, 
 that as good a crop of wheat as one would wllh to fee 
 all the winter time was, to his knowledge, fo deftroyed 
 by the coming up of May-weeds and poppies in the 
 fpriitg and lummer, that it did not at laft yield fo much 
 as the feed. 
 
 MEAD, a liquor made of honey, and held in great 
 eftimation by moft of the northern nations, but perhaps 
 not efteemed here fo much as it might defevve, if due 
 care was taken to prepare it properly. All the writers 
 who have hitherto treated of this fubjeft, have given 
 into a capital error with regard to the ftrength of this 
 liquor, by direfting too great a proportion of honey to 
 be diffolved in the water. The uiual praftice of making 
 it fo ftrong to bear an egg, is very wrong. The liquor 
 is thereby rendered a mere ftum, and this bad quality is 
 ftill increafcd by -the long boiling generally praftifed. 
 It is fcarcelv poflible to procure honey fo pure, but that 
 fome bee-bread, wax, or other fubftance, is mixed with 
 it; and this cannot be perfeftly feparated from it, but by 
 boiling. O11 this account the boiling of mead feeriis 
 indiiputably neceffarv. In order the more effeftually to 
 feparate thefe impurities from the liquor, it will be ad- 
 viliable to mix fome whites of eggs with it before it i* 
 put on the fire, and it will be particularly ncceffary to 
 lkim off the thick fcum that rifes, the moment the liquor 
 begins to boil ; and this muft be attentively continued fo 
 long as it boils. The only intention of boiling here 
 being to feparate the impurities, and to make a perfeft 
 union of the water and the honey, both which purpofes 
 are very loon obtained, it evidently appears, that the 
 boiling need be of but very fhort duration. This becomes 
 here more particularly ncceffary, becaufe the liquor will 
 be the lels dii'pbfed to ferment kindly, the longer the 
 boiling has been continued. It is perhaps owing to the 
 Angle article of long boiling, that mead has hitherto lain 
 under fo great diferedit; becaufe it then never fermented 
 fufficiently to take off its lufeious fweetnefs ; whereas, 
 had it undergone a due fermentation, that fweetnefs would 
 have gone off, and the mead would have attained a fine 
 racy flavour. 
 
 Some notable houfewives have added hops to their 
 mead. This helps to take off its fweetnefs, and, as the 
 bitternefs of the hop goes off, gives it a pleafant flavour. 
 A ferment is here, as in all liquors that are boiled, 
 generally wanted to bring on a perfeft fermentation : 
 but as the leaft taint in the ferment is communicated to 
 the whole liquor, particular care fhould be taken that it 
 be very fweet and good. Mead, judicioufly managed on 
 thefe principles, will keep for years, and be improved 
 by age. '1 he racking, fining, See. of this liquor, are 
 the fame as thofe of other white wines. 
 
 MEADOW, in its general fignification, means paf- 
 3 ture, 
 
ME A 
 
 Hire, or g'rafs-land, annually mown for hay; but is more 
 particularly applied to lands that arc fo low as to be too 
 nioift for cattle to graze upon them in winter, without 
 fpoiling the (ward. Too much or too little water is al- 
 moft equally prejudicial to meadows, but the bed land 
 for meadows is a rich foil, that has a moift bottom, efpe- 
 cially where a Ana 11 brook may be brought over it, and 
 where there is fuch a defeent, that the water will not 
 lodge: thefe arc better than thofc by great rivers, where 
 the crops are olten loft. 1 hole that may be overflowed 
 at pleaiure, are called water meadows ; thefe fhould ne¬ 
 ver be overflowed till the end of March, except once or 
 twice in winter, when there are fuch floods as bring down 
 a great deal of foil from the upper-lands, and it the fca- 
 fon fhould prove dry, it will be of great fervice to the grafs, 
 if the meadows are overflowed again ; but then the cattle 
 fhould not be turned in till the fward is dry enough to 
 bear their weight. Miller recommends the weeding ot 
 meadows in April and October, with a fpaddle, and 
 rolling them with a heavy roller in fpririg and autumn. 
 See Pasture, Grass and Hay. 
 
 MEAN, the middle between two extreams. 
 
 Mean Motion , Mean D fiance , Ac. of a planet, that 
 which as far exceeds the leaft diftance or motion, as it is 
 exceeded by the greateft. 
 
 Mean, in law, refers either to time or dignity. In 
 the fir ft fenfe, we fay his action was mean betwixt the 
 difieil'n and recovery, that is, in the interim. In the 
 fecond fenfe, a lord mean, or mclne, is a lord of a manor, 
 who has tenants that hold of him, yet he himfclf holds 
 of the king. 
 
 MEASLES, Morbilli , in phyfick, a cutaneous difeafe 
 attended with eruptions, hot tending to fuppuration, and 
 a fever. 
 
 This difeafe, fays Sydenham, arifes in January, and 
 increafes daily till the approach of the vernal equinox ; 
 after which time it abates in the fame gradual manner 
 and difappears in July. It principally attacks children. 
 As the meafles, in their nature, nearly refemble the 
 fmall pox, fo do they likewife agree pretry much there¬ 
 with in the method of cure which they require. 
 
 “ I confined the patient to a bed for only two or three 
 days after the eruption, that the blood might gently 
 breathe out the inflamed and noxious particles, that are 
 eafily feparable through the pores ; and allowed no more 
 cloaths nor Are than he accuftomed himfelf to, when in 
 health. I forbad all flefh meats, and permitted water 
 gruel, barley broth, and the like, and fometimes a 
 roafted apple for diet; and, for drink, either fmall beer 
 or milk boiled with thrice its quantity of water. To 
 relieve the cough, which almoft always attends this dif¬ 
 eafe, I ordered a draught of fome pe&oral dcco£lion be¬ 
 tween whiles, with a proper linfttis. But I principally 
 obferved to give diacodium every night throughout the 
 diftemper. 
 
 But if by ufing 'cardiacks, and too hot a regimen, after 
 the ceflation of the difeafe, the patient’s life be endangered 
 by the violent fever, difficulty of breathing, Ac. 1 have 
 with great fuccefs ordered even the tendereft infants to be 
 Blooded in the arm, in fuch quantity as the age and 
 {Length indicated. Sometimes alfo, when the difeafe 
 has been urgent, I have not been afraid to repeat the ope¬ 
 ration. Bleeding alfo cures the loofenefs which fuccecds 
 the fueafles.” 
 
 MEASURE, Men fur < ?, in geometry, denotes any 
 quantity aflumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of 
 other homogeneous or fimilar quantities is expreifed 
 This definition is fomewhat more agreeable to practice 
 than that of Euclid, who defines mqaiure, a quantity 
 which being repeated any number of times, becomes 
 equal to another. This latter definition anfwcrs only to 
 the idea of an arithmetical meafure, or quota-part. 
 
 Measure of an Angle, is an arch deferibed from the 
 vertex in any place between its legs. Hence angles are 
 diftinguilhed by the ratio of the arches, deferibed from 
 the vertex between the legs to the peripheries. Angles 
 then are diftinguilhed by thofc arches; and die arches 
 are diftinguilhed by their ratio to the periphery: thus an 
 angle is laid to be fo many degrees as there are in the 
 laid arch. See Angle. 
 
 Measure of a Figure, or plane furface, is a fquare 
 whole fide is one inch, foot, yard, or feme other deter¬ 
 minate length. Among geometricians, it is ufually a 
 
 M E A 
 
 rod called a fquare rod. divided into to fquare feet, and 
 the iquare feet into fquare digits, and thofc again into 
 fquare lines, Ac. 
 
 Measure of a Line, am right line taken at pleafure, 
 and confidcred as ilniu . The modern geometricians ule 
 a decempeda, or perch divided into ten equal parts, called 
 feet; the feet they fubdivide into ten digits, and the 
 digit into ten lines, Ac. 
 
 Measure of (he Alafs , or $hiar.tity of Matter, in me- 
 chanicks, is its weight; it being apparent that all the 
 matter which coheres and moves with a body, gravitates 
 with it, and it being found by experiment, that the gra¬ 
 vities of homogeneal bodies are in propoition to their 
 bulks ; hence, while the mafs continues the fame, the 
 weight will be the fame, whatever figure it put on : by 
 which is meant its abfolute weight, for as to its lpecifick, 
 that varies as the quantity of the furface varies. Sec 
 Gravity and Mo mext. 
 
 Measure of a Number , in arithmctick, fuch a num¬ 
 ber as divides another without leaving any fraction : 
 thus g is a meafure of 27. 
 
 Me a sh re of a Solid, is a cube whofe fide is one inch, 
 foot, yard, or any other determinate length. T11 geome¬ 
 try, it is a cubick perch, divided into cubick feet, digits, 
 Ac. hence cubick mcafures, or meafures of capacity. 
 See Sphere, Cube, Ac. 
 
 Measure of Velocity , in mechanicks, the (pace palled 
 over by a moving body in a given time. To meature a 
 velocity therefore, the fpace muft be divided into as many 
 equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into; the 
 quantity of fpace anfwcring to fuch an article of time is 
 the meafure of the velocity. See Velocity. 
 
 Measure, in a legal and commercial fenfe, denotes 
 a certain quantity or proportion of any thing bought, 
 fold, valued, or the like. Meafures are then various, ac¬ 
 cording to the various kinds and dimenfions of the things 
 mcafured. Hence arife lineal or longitudinal meafures, 
 for lines or lengths , fquare meafures, for areas or fuper- 
 ficics; and folid or cubick meafures, for bodies and their 
 capacities. All which again are very different in different 
 countries, and in different ages, and even many of them 
 for different commodities. Whence arife other diviliohs 
 of ancient and modern meafures, domeftick and foreign 
 ones, dry meafures, liquid meafures, Ac. 
 
 Long Measures, or Measures of Application. The 
 Englilh ftandard long meafure for commerce, or that 
 whereby the quantities of things are ordinarily eftimated 
 in the way of trade, is the yard, containing three Englifh 
 feet. Its divifioiis arc tile foot, fpan, palm, inch, and 
 barley corn; its multiples the pace, fatnem, pole, fur¬ 
 long, and mile. The proportions thefe ieverally bear to 
 each other, are expreifed in tlie following table.. 
 
 Script urt 
 
M E A 
 
 i>eripluic-j\lE asures of Length reduced to Englifli. 
 
 " ' ' nch’. Dec. 
 
 O.912 
 
 3 - 6 
 
 IO -944 
 9.888 
 3 - 55 - 
 
 Digit 
 
 
 _ 
 
 E "S 
 
 feet. 
 
 O 
 
 4 
 
 Palm 
 
 
 _ — 
 
 O 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 Span 
 
 — 
 
 O 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 Cubit 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 96 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 4; Fathom — 
 
 7 
 
 144 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 6| 1 1 
 
 Ezechiel’s reed 
 
 iO 
 
 192 
 
 48 
 
 ~ib 
 
 8j 2 
 
 1 r | Arabian pole 
 
 H 
 
 1920 
 
 480 
 
 160 
 
 80(20 
 
 1541 o|bchoenus,or j 
 
 x 4 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 7- 10 4 
 11.04 
 
 The Longer Scripture-ME asures. 
 
 Cubit 
 
 400' Stadium 
 
 nilcs.l paces. 1 feet. 
 
 I.824 
 
 4000 
 
 12000 
 
 960 
 
 ^'Sab. day’s journey 
 > Eaftern mile 
 
 3 C 
 
 2 4 °! 4 ^ 
 
 olParafang 4 
 
 !4| 81 a day’s journey 33 
 
 *45 
 
 729 
 
 403 
 
 l S 3 
 
 172 
 
 4.6 
 3.000 
 1.000 
 3.000 
 4.000 
 
 A T able of the Me asures of Length of the principal 
 
 Places in Europe, compared with the Englifli Yard. 
 
 Eng. yard. 
 
 100 Aunes oV ells of England equal to — — 125 
 
 100 of Holland or Amfterdam — — 75 
 
 100 of Brabant or Antwerp — — — 76 
 
 100 of France — — — 128^ 
 
 100 of Hamburgh, Francfort, &c. — 62 
 
 100 of Breflau — — 60 
 
 100 of Dantzick — — 66 
 
 100 of Bergen and Drontheim — 68 
 
 100 of Sweden or Stockholm — — 65^ 
 
 100 of St. Gall, for linens — — 87 1 
 
 100 of ditto, cloths — — — 67 
 
 ico of Geneva — — *— 124I 
 
 100 Canes of Marfeilles and Montpelier — 214! 
 
 100 of Touloufeand High Languedock — 200 
 
 100 of Genoa, of 9 palms — — 245I 
 
 100 of Rome — 227I 
 
 ico Varas of Spain — — — 93I 
 
 ico of Portugal — — —- 123 
 
 1 oc Cavidos/of Portugal — — — 75 
 
 102 BralFesof Venice — — — 73I 
 
 1O0 of Bergamo, &c. — — 7 i f 
 
 1O0 of Florence and Leghorn — *— 64 
 
 100 of Milan — — 58; 
 
 N. B. The aunes or ells of Amsterdam, Haerlem, 
 Leyden, the Hague, Rotterdam, and other cities of Hol¬ 
 land, as alfo that of Nuremberg, being all equal, are 
 comprehended under that of Amfterdam; as thole of 
 Ofnabrug are under thole of France; and thole of Bern 
 and Bal'd are equal to thole of Hamburg, Francfort, 
 and Leipfick. 
 
 For the fubdivifions and multiples of each of thefe 
 meafures of length, fee Aune, &c. 
 
 For the proportion of the feet of the principal nations 
 in Europe, compared with the Englilh foot, fee Foot. 
 
 Square , or Superficial Measures. Englilh fquare or 
 fuperficialmeafures are railed from the yard of 56 inches 
 multiplied into itfelf, and thus producing 1296 fquare 
 inches in the fquare yard r the divilions of this are fquare 
 feet and inches , and the multiples, poles, roods, and 
 acres, as in the following table. 
 
 M E A 
 
 Culical Me A s URES, or Meafures of Capacity for Liquid V. 
 —TheEnglilh meafures were originally railed from trov- 
 weight; it being enatted by fevcral ftatutes that eight 
 pounds trov of wheat, gathered from the middle of the 
 ear, and well dried, fhould weigh a gallon of wine-mea- 
 fure, the divilions and multiples whereof were to form the 
 other meafures; at the fame time it was alfo ordered, that 
 there lliould be but one liquid mcafure in the kingdom : 
 yet cuftom has prevailed, and there having been intro¬ 
 duced a new weight, viz. the avoirdupois, we have now 
 a fecond .ftandard-gallon adjufted thereto, and therefore 
 exceeding the former in the proportion of the avoirdupois 
 weight to troy weight. From this latter ftandard are 
 railed two leveral meafures, the one for ale, the other 
 for beer. 
 
 The fealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the ftandard 
 for wines, fpirits, oils, See. is fuppofed to contain 231 
 cubick inches; and on this fuppofition the other meafures 
 raifed therefrom, will contain as in the following table: 
 yet by attual experiment, made in 1688, before the lord- 
 mayor and the commilTioners of cxcife, this gallon was 
 found to contain only 224 cubick inches: it was however 
 agreed to continue the common fuppofed contents of 231 
 cubick inches; fo that all computations Hand on their old 
 footing. Hence as 12 is to 231, fo is 1444 to 281 ; the 
 cubick inches in the ale-gallon : but in effett the ale- 
 quart contains 70I cubick inches, on which principle the 
 ale and beer-gallon will be 282 cubick inches. The le¬ 
 veral divifions and multiples of thefe meafures, and their 
 proportions, are exhibited in the following tables. 
 
 Englifli Measure of Capacity for Liquids. 
 
 Wine-meafure. 
 
 Solid inches 
 Pint 
 
 Gallon 
 
 Rundlet 
 Barrel 
 
 28; 
 
 2 3 x 
 
 4 G 8 
 
 
 9702 
 
 r 4553 
 
 *9279 
 
 29106 
 
 58212 
 
 _ 8 
 
 H 4 
 
 252 
 
 33 6 
 
 :Oo8 
 
 18 
 
 - - 
 
 42 
 
 84 
 
 26 
 
 252 
 
 Tierce 
 Hogfhead 
 14 1 Puncheon 
 2 1 14-JButt 
 
 rllltTun. 
 
 Pints 
 
 Ale-Meafni'e. 
 
 Inches 
 
 1296 
 
 360 
 
 39204 
 
 1568160 
 
 272640 
 
 Englifli Square-ME asures. 
 Feet 
 
 272-f- 
 
 10890 
 
 435 6 ° 
 
 Y ards 
 
 4840 
 
 Paces 
 
 10.89 
 
 Poles 
 40'Rood 
 
 435 - ^ t - , 
 
 1 743.6|i6ol 4|Acra> 
 
 Grecian fquare-meafures were the plethron, or acre, 
 by fome faid to contain 1444, by others 10c00 fquare 
 feet; and the aroura, the half of the plethron. The 
 aroura of the Egyptians was the fquare of 100 cubits. 
 
 Gallon 
 
 _8 
 
 r6 
 
 i_ 
 
 48! 6 
 
 Firkin 
 Kilderkin 
 21 Barrel 
 311 l|Hogfhead 
 
 Pints 
 
 Beer-Meafure, 
 
 Gallon 
 
 9|Firkin 
 
 Kilderkin 
 2 1 Barrel 
 5 I d Hogfhead. 
 
 Jewifli AIe asures of Capacity for Liquids, reduced to 
 Englifli Wine-meafure. 
 
 Gall. Ipii 
 
 Caph 
 
 1 
 
 Log 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 I 2 
 
 S 2 
 
 24 
 
 96 
 
 7 2 
 
 960 
 
 720 
 
 Cab 
 
 _ 3 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 180 
 
 5 Hin — 
 
 2|Seah 
 
 6 3|Bath, or Epha 
 6ol3o|io|Coron or 
 Chomer 
 
 1 75 
 
 Sol.inch. 
 0.177 
 0.211 
 0.S44 
 2-533 
 5.067 
 I 5 - 2 
 7.625 
 
 T11 the modern liquid-meafures of foreign nations, it is 
 to be oblerved, that their feveral veflels for wine, vine¬ 
 gar, Nc. have alfo various denominations, according to 
 their different fizes, and the places wherein they are 
 uled. The Woeders of Germany, for holding Rheaifh 
 and Mofelle wines, are different in their gauges ; fome 
 containing iqaumes of Amfterdam meafure, and others 
 more or lefs. The aume is reckoned at Amfterdam for 
 8 fteckans or 20 verges, or for 4 of a tun of 2 pipesor 
 4 barrels of France or Bourdeaux, which ' at this latter 
 place is called tiercon, becaufe 3 of them make a pipe or 2 
 barrels, and 6 the faid tun. The fteckan is 16 mipgles 
 or 32 pints : and the verge is, in refpedt of the faid 
 Rhenifh an.I Mofelle and fome other forts of wine, of 6 
 1 mingles • 
 
M E A 
 
 mingles; bur in meafuring brandy, it confifts of 6-g 
 mingles. The aume is divided into 4 anckers, and the 
 ancker into 2 fteckans, or 32 mingles. The ancker is 
 taken fometimesfor of a ton, or 4 barrels, on which 
 looting the Bourdeaux barrel ought to contain at Am- 
 fterdam (when the calk is made according to the juft 
 gauge) 124 fteckans, or 200 mingles, wine and lees ; or 
 12 fteckans, or 192 mingles, racked wine; fo that the 
 Bourdeaux ton of wine contains 50 fteckans, or 800 
 mingles, wine and lees; and 48' fteckans, or 768 min¬ 
 gles of pure wine. The barrels or poinfons of Nantes 
 and other places on the river Loire, contain only 12 
 fteckans Amfterdam-mealure. The wine-ton of Ro¬ 
 chelle, Cognac, Charente, and the Ifte of Rhe, differs 
 Very little from the ton of Bourdeaux, and confequently 
 from the barrels and pipes. A ton of wine of Chalolfe, 
 Bayonne, and the neighbouring places, is reckoned 60 
 fteckans, and the barrel 15, Amfterdam-meafure. 
 
 The muid of Paris contains 150 quarts, or 300 pints, 
 wine and lec ; or 280 pints clear wine ; of which muids 
 3 make a ton, and the fraflions are 
 
 The muid 
 The fetier 
 The quart 
 The pint 
 The chopin 
 The dcmi-feticr. 
 
 36 fetiers 
 4 quarts 
 2 pints 
 2 chopins 
 2 demi-fetiers 
 2 poiftons. 
 
 The muid is alfo compofed of pipes, or poin^ons, 
 quarteaux, queves, and demiqueves: thefe poin^ons of 
 Paris and Orleans contain about 15 fteckans Amfterdam- 
 mealure, and ought to weigh with the calk 666 fb. a little 
 more or lefr. in Provence they reckon by lhilleroles, 
 and the millerole ol Toulon contains 66 Paris-pints, or 
 100 pints of Amfterdam, nearly; and the Paris-pint is 
 nearly equal to the Englilh wine-quart. 
 
 The butts or pipes from Cadiz, Malaga, Alicant, 
 Benecarlo, Saloe, and Mataro, and from the Canaries, 
 from Lilbon, Oporto, and Fayal, are very different in 
 their gauges, though in affreightments they are all rec¬ 
 koned two to the ton. 
 
 Vinegar is meafured in the fame manner as wine; but 
 the mealures for brandies are different: thefe fpirits from 
 France, Spain, Portugal, &c. arc generally lhipped in 
 large calks called pipes, butts, and pieces, according to 
 the places from whence they are exported, &c. In France, 
 brandy is lhipped in caffes called pieces at Bourdeaux, and 
 pipes at Rochelle, Cognack, the ille of Rhe, and other 
 neighbouring places, which contain fome more and fome 
 lei's: even from 60 to 90 Amfterdam-verges or vcertels, 
 according to the capacity of the velfels, and the places 
 they come from, which being reduced into barrels, will 
 ftand as follows, viz. 
 
 At Rochelle, Cognack, the Ille of Rhe, ? 
 
 and the country of Aunis j 2 7 v eertels 
 
 At Nants, and feveral places ofBre -7 
 tagne and Anjou — _ j 29veertels 
 
 At Bourdeaux, and different parts of) 
 
 Guienne — _ J 3 ~ ver ges 
 
 At Amfterdam, and other cities of 
 
 , ----- -. . of? 
 
 Holland — _ j 3 ov 
 
 At Hamburgh and Lubeck 
 At Embden — 
 
 
 reertels 
 
 M E A 
 
 -nches, 12 being to 14II as 224 to 272-'-; but by an aft 
 of parliament made in 1697 it is decreed, that a round 
 bulhel, 181 inches wide, and 8 deep, is a legal Win- 
 chefter-bufhel. Now fuch a bulhel will only hold 
 2150.42 cubick inches, confequently the gallon will hold 
 268.8 cubick inches, the divilions and multiples whereof 
 are in the following table : 
 
 Englilh Dry or Corn Measure. 
 
 Solid inches 
 Pint 
 
 Gallon 
 [Peck 
 4|Bufhels 
 
 33 - 6 
 
 268.8 
 
 537-6 
 
 2150.4 
 
 17203.2 
 
 64 
 
 64(32 1 8l Quarter. 
 
 Scripture Measures of Capacity for Things dry, re¬ 
 duced to Englilh Corn-meafure. 
 
 y\ o 
 
 Gachal — _ 
 
 to Cab — __ 
 
 36 
 
 360 
 
 800 
 
 3600 
 
 Gomer 
 Seah 
 
 90 
 
 180 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 Epha — 
 
 51 Leteeh — 
 |Chomer, 7 
 or Corona ■ 3 “| 
 
 5 A 
 
 Polid O. 
 inch.? 
 
 O.O3I 
 0.073 
 1.211 
 4.O36 
 12.107 
 26.500 
 8.969 
 
 — 30 verges 
 
 27 verges _ 
 
 In Provence and I.anguedoek, brandy is fold by the 
 quintal, the calks included; and at Bruges, in Flanders, 
 the verges are called fellers of 16 Hops each, and the fpi- 
 rit is fold at lo much per Hop. 
 
 Olive-oil is alfo lhipped in calks of various fizes, ac¬ 
 cording to the cuftom of the places where it is embarked, 
 and the conveniency of ftowage. In England it is fold by 
 the ton of 236 gallons; and at Amfterdam by the ton of 
 717 mingles, or 1434 pints. In Provence it is fold by 
 nnlleioles of 66 Paris-pints : from Spain and Portugal it 
 is brought in pipes, or butts, of different gauges ; at the 
 fir ft place it is iold by roves, whereof 40 go to the butt; 
 and at the latter place by almoudas, whereof 26 make a 
 pipe. Train-oil is fold in England by the ton, at Am¬ 
 fterdam by the barrel. 
 
 Measures of Capacity for Things dry. Englilh dry 
 °r corn-meafures are railed from the Wincheller-gallon, 
 which contains 272I lolid inches, and ought to hold of 
 pure running water 9 pounds 13 ounces. This feems 
 to ftand on the foot of the old wine-gallon of 224 cubick 
 
 Vol. II. No. 48. 
 
 In the leveral parts of Europe, fait, which is a more 
 ftaple and current commodity than any other, is bought 
 and fold by different meafures, according to the feveral 
 plhces of its dilpatch : at Amfterdam it is fold by the cent 
 ot 404 meafures, orfcheppels, which cent is reckoned to 
 be reyen lafts, or 14 tons, and the laft is to weigh 4000 fc. 
 the leven lafts making 28ooolfe. called the cent of fait 
 winch alio contains 208 facks; though fome of this com- 
 modity is much heavier than others. In the cities of 
 r ranee, fait is fold by the muid, whofe fize varies accord¬ 
 ing to the different places of its manufafture and dil- 
 patch. At Paris this meafure is reckoned to contain 12 
 letiers, or 48 minots, which minot is alfo divided into 
 other meafures. The cent of fait from Marans, Brouage, 
 bude, and the Ille of Rhe, contain 28 ftricken muids, 
 and each muid 24 boifeaux, which yields at Amfterdam 
 iQ lafts, or 23 tons, more or lefs. In Copenhagen, 
 the laid cent renders only 9i lafts, the laft being reckoned 
 here equal to 18 tons, and 50 lafts to corrcfpond with 
 52 of Coningfbcrg, at which place the cent produces 
 about 10 lafts, or 40,0001b. At Riga the laid cent 
 yields the fame meafure as at Coningfbeig, and about 
 Ja r fts ° f Ri S a > makc the g^at cent of Amfterdam. 
 1 he laid t reach cent produces at Dantzick from 1 i-i to 
 12 lafts, of vtliich lafts from 7-t to 71, make likewife 
 the great cent of Amfterdam. At Stetin in Pomerania 
 the French cent yielded 10 lafts, making 40,000 mea¬ 
 fure and weight of the laid place. In Portugal it is 
 bought by the muid, of which four make a laft, and 
 leven the cent of Amfterdam. At Alamat and Ivica it 
 is fold by the modin, which weighs from 271 to 28 hun¬ 
 dred weight Englilh. 
 
 Measure of Wood for Firing, is the cord, being four 
 feet high, as many broad, and eight long ; it is divided 
 into two half cords. 
 
 The Measure for Horfes , is the hand, which by 
 ftatute contains four inches. 
 
 Measure, denotes the cadence and timeobferved in 
 poetry, dancing, and mufick, to render them regular 
 and agreeable. 
 
 The different meafures or metres in the Latin, &c. 
 poetry, are the different manners of combining the lone 
 and fhort fyllables. Thus hexameter, pentameter, iambick, 
 fapphick, &c. verles conlift of different meafures. 
 
 In Englilh poetry, the meafures are extremely various 
 and arbitrary : the moil ulual are the heroick, which ge¬ 
 nerally confrfts of five long and five fhort fyllables ; verfes 
 ot tour feet,and of three feet and acaffure of (ingle fyllables. 
 
 1 he ancients, by varioufiy combining and tranfpoiing 
 their quantities,made a vaft variety of different meafures. 
 Ot feet of two fyllables they formed a fpondee confining 
 of two long fyllables; a pyrrich of two fhort. a trochee, 
 L c 
 
M E C 
 
 of a long and a Ihort; and an iambick of a fliort and a 
 long fyliable. 
 
 Of their feet of three fyllables a moloffus confifted ot 
 three long fyllables ; a tribrach of three fliort; a daftyl 
 of one long and two Ihort ; and an anapaeft of two Ihort 
 and one long fyllable. The Greek poets contrived 124 
 different mealures under as many different names. 
 
 Measure, in inufick, the fpace of time, which the 
 perfon takes between the raifmg and falling of his hand 
 or foot, in order to conduft the movement fometimes 
 quicker, and fometimes flower, according to the fubjeft 
 lung or played. The ordinary meafurc is one fecond, or 
 60th part of a minute, being nearly the fpace between 
 the beats of the pulfe. It ufually takes up the fpace that 
 a pendulum of three feet and a half long employs in a 
 living or vihiation. 
 
 The femi-breve holds one rife and one fall ; and this 
 is called the whole meafure ; the minim one rife or one 
 fall; and the crotchet half a rife or half a hill, there be¬ 
 ing four crochets in a full meafurc. 
 
 Binary or double Measure, that wherein the rife and 
 fall of the hand are equal. 
 
 Ternary or triple Measure, where the fall is double 
 to the rife, or where two minims are played during a fall, 
 and but one in a rife. The number three at the begin¬ 
 ning of the lines denotes a triple mealure, and a C the 
 common or double meafure. 
 
 MEASURING, or Mensuration, in geometry, 
 the affuming any certain quantity, and expreffing the 
 proportion of other limilar quantities to the fame; or the 
 determining by a certain known meafure the precile ex¬ 
 tent, quantity, or capacity of any thing. 
 
 Measuring, in general, conftitutes the practical 
 part of geometi y. And, from the various l'ubjefts about 
 which it is converfant, it acquire; • arious names, and 
 conftitutes various arts. 
 
 Meafuring of lines or quantities of one dimenfion is 
 called longimetry; and, when thole lines are not ex¬ 
 tended parallel to the horizon, altimetry. When the 
 different altitudes of the line are alone regarded, levelling. 
 Meafuring of fuperlieies or quantities of two dimenfions, 
 when converfant about lands, is called geoddia or fur- 
 veying : in other cafes limply meafuiing. The inftru- 
 ments made ule of are the ten feet rod, chain, compais, 
 circumferentor, &c. 
 
 Measuring 0! Solids , or quantities of three dimen- 
 1'ions, the fame with ilereometry : when it is converfant 
 about the capacities of velTcls, or the liquors they con¬ 
 tain, it is called gauging. As a meafure is defined v\hat 
 is limilar to the thing meafured ; it is evident that in the 
 fir ft cafe, or in quantities of one dimenfion, the jneafure 
 mull be a line ; in the fecond a fuperlieies ; and in the 
 third a folid. A line, for inftance, cannot meafure a 
 lurface, fince it can never be applied io often to a fur- 
 lace, as to be equal to it. And from the like reafoning 
 a luperficies, which has no depth, cannot become equal 
 to a folid, wliich has. 
 
 Htnce we fee why the meafure of a circle is an arch , 
 for a right line can only touch a circle in one point, but 
 the periphery of a circle confills of infinite points ; there¬ 
 fore a right line muff be applied infinite times, which is 
 impolfible : again the right line only touches the circle 
 in a mathematical point which has no dimenfions, and 
 confequently no magnitude; but a thing that has no mag¬ 
 nitude bears no proportion to another that has, and can¬ 
 not therefore meafure it. 
 
 Measuring of Triangles, from three Tides or angles 
 to determine the reft, is called trigonometry. See Tri¬ 
 gonometry. 
 
 Measuring the Pirjfure, Spring , &c. of the Air , is 
 called aerometry or pneumaticks. See Pneu m a t ic k s . 
 
 MEATUS, in anatomy, a duft or paffage, which is 
 applied to every canal in the body that conveys any fluid. 
 
 Meatus auditorius, the auditory paffage, in anatomy. 
 See Ear. 
 
 Mr at us a PMto ad Amen:, in anatomy, the Eufta- 
 cliian tube is fo denominated. 
 
 Meatus Cjlicus , in anatomy, the duft that conveys 
 the bile from the gall-bladder to the duodenum. 
 
 Meatus Uriuarim, in anatomy, the urethra or uri¬ 
 nary paffage. 
 
 MECIIANTCKS, Meehan]ca, a mixed mathematical 
 feience, which confiders motion and moving powers, 
 
 M E C 
 
 their nature and laws with the effefts thereof, in ma¬ 
 chines, £ec. The word is derived from the Greek 
 unxemm, which fignifies the fame thing, and derived 
 from nnx'-v'r 1, an inffrument or fkill. That part which 
 confiders motion arifing from gravity, is fometimes 
 called ftaticks, in contradiftinftion from that part which 
 confiders the mechanical powers and their application, 
 properly called mechanicks. 
 
 MECHANICAL, fomething relating to mechanicks. 
 
 Mechanical AjfeSJions. areluch properties in mat¬ 
 ter, as rcfult from their figure, bulk, and motion. 
 
 Mechanical are Tuch as are founded on 
 
 thole affeftions. 
 
 Mechanical Solutions, are accounts of things on 
 the fame principles. 
 
 Mechanical Pbilofoply, or corpufcular philofophv, 
 that which explains the phenomena of nature, and the 
 operations of corporeal things, on the principles of me¬ 
 chanicks, namely, the motion, gravity, figure, arrange¬ 
 ment, &c. of the parts which compofe natural bodies. 
 
 Mechanical Porters or Mat bines, are fix in num¬ 
 ber, viz. the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the 
 inclined plane, the wedge, and the ferew. They are 
 called mechanical powers, bccaufe they increafe our 
 power of moving or railing heavy bodies, which are 
 often unmanageable by any human ftrength, not thus 
 afffted ; and of two or more of tliefe all other compound 
 machines are compolcd. 
 
 As the learned Dr. Hamilton, profeffor of the mathc- 
 maticks in the univerfity of Dublin, has lately publilhed 
 a new theory of the mechanical powers, and difplayed 
 the principles on which we may beft explain their na¬ 
 ture and manner of afting ; we mail lay before our rea¬ 
 ders the fubftance of his ingenious elTay, in his own 
 words. “ The many ufeful inftruments,” lays this able 
 mathematician, “ that have been To ingenioufly in¬ 
 vented, and To Tucccfsfullv executed, and the great per- 
 feftion to which the mcchanick arts are now arrived, 
 would naturally incline one to think that the true prin¬ 
 ciples on which the efficacy and operations of the feveral 
 machines depend, muff long fince have been accurately 
 explained. But this is by no means a neccffary inference ; 
 for, however men may differ in their opinions about the 
 true method of accounting for the effefts of the l'evc- 
 ral machines, yet the praftical principles of mechanicks 
 are fo perfectly known by experience and obfcrvation, 
 that the artiff is thereby enabled to contrive and adjuil 
 the movements of his engines with as much certainty 
 and fuccefs as he could do, were he thoroughly ac¬ 
 quainted with the laws of motion, from which thefe 
 principles may be ultimately derived. However, though 
 an enquiry into the true method of deducing the practi¬ 
 cal principles of mechanicks from the laws of motion, 
 fhould perhaps not conti ibute much to promote the pro- 
 grefs of the mechanick ar's. yet it is an enquiry in itfelf 
 ufeful, and in Tome meafure neccffary ; for, fince late 
 authors have ufed very different methods of treating this 
 fubjeft, it may be fuppoffd that no one method has been 
 looked upon as f tisfaftory, and unexceptionable. I 
 fhould therefore with to contribute towards having this 
 fubjeft treated with more accuracy than has been hitherto 
 done. 
 
 “ The moff general and remarkable theorem in me¬ 
 chanicks certainly is this, That when two weights, by 
 means of a machine counterpoife each other, and are 
 then made to move together, their quantities of motion 
 will be equal. Now an equilibrium always accom¬ 
 panying this equality of motions, hears Tuch a refem- 
 blance to the calc wherein two moving bodies flop each 
 other, when they meet together with equal quantities of 
 motion ; that Dr. Wallis, and after him moff of the 
 late writers, have thought the caufe of an equilibrium 
 in the feveral machines, might be immediately affigned ; 
 by faying, That fince one body cannot produce in 
 another a quantity of motion equal to its own, without 
 lofing its own at the Tame time; two heavy bodies coun¬ 
 teracting each other by means of a machine muff con¬ 
 tinue at reft, when they are To circumftanced that one 
 cannot deTcend, without caufing the other to aTcend at 
 the fame time, and with the lame quantity of motion ; 
 and therefore two heavy bodies in fuch cafes muff always 
 counterbalance each other. Now this argument would 
 I be a juft one, if it could properlv be faid that the motion 
 I 3 * 
 
M E C 
 
 of the afcending body was produced by that of die de- 
 defce'nding one ; but, fince the bodies are fo connected 
 that one cannot poffibly begin to move before the other, 
 
 1 apprehend, that, if the bodies are fuppofed to move, 
 it cannot be faid that the motion of one is produced by 
 that of the other: fmce whatever force is fuppofed to 
 move, one mult be the immediate caufe of motion in the 
 other alfo; that is, botli their motions mult be fimul- 
 taneous effects of the fame caufe, juft as if the two bodies 
 were really but one. And therefore if I was to fuppofe, 
 in this cafe, that the fuperior weight of the heavier body 
 (which may be in itfelf much more than able to fuftain 
 the lighter) lliould overcome the weight of the lighter 
 and produce equal motions in both bodies ; I do not 
 think that fVom thence 1 could be reduced to the ab- 
 furdity of fuppoling, that one body, by its motion, 
 might produce in another a motion equal to its own, and 
 yet not lole its own at the fame time. But thofe who 
 argue from the equality of motions on this occalion fay 
 further, that, fmce the two bodies muft have equal mo¬ 
 tions when they do move, they muft have equal endea¬ 
 vours to move even while they are at reft, and therefore 
 thefe endeavours to move, being equal and contrary, muft 
 dcftroy each other, and the bodies muft continue at reft, 
 and confequently balance each other. In anivver to this 
 I muft oblerve, that the abfolute force with which a 
 heavy body endeavours to defcend from aftate of reft can 
 only be proportionable to its weight; and therefore 1 
 think it is ncceffary that lome caufe ftiould be alfignetl 
 why (for inftance in the lever) the endeavour of one 
 pound to defcend (hall be equal to that of four pounds; 
 and efpecially as the fulcrum on which both weights a<51 
 requires no greater force to fupport it than that of five 
 pounds. 
 
 “ From thefe considerations I infer, that the reafon 
 why very unequal weights may balance each other, fhould 
 be alfigned not from their having equal momenta when 
 made to move together, but by proving a priori without 
 confidering their motions, that either the rea&ion of the 
 fixed parts of the machine, or fome other caufe, fo far 
 takes off from the weight of the heavier body as to leave 
 it only juft able to fupport the lighter. However, as 
 this equality of momenta which always accompanies an 
 {equilibrium, affords a very elegant theorem, it ought 
 to be taken notice of in every treatife of mechanicks, and 
 mav ferve as an index of an ^equilibrium- But I would 
 not have it applied to a purpofe for Which it is unfit; as 
 it has been in another inftance by Doffor Keil, who from 
 thence gives the reafon why water ftands at the fame 
 height in a narrow tube and a wide veffel with which it 
 communicates. And an argument of the fame kind is 
 applied ftili more improperly by Dr. Rutherforth and 
 others, to lhew why a drop of water included in a Email 
 conical tube will move towards the narrower end ; and 
 yet the true ways of accounting for both thefe pheno¬ 
 mena are extremely obvious and eafy. 
 
 “ The limple mechanick powers are ufually reckoned 
 fix, the lever, axle and wheel, pully, wedge, inclined 
 plane, and ferew. The only method I have met with 
 of explaining the nature of thefe machines upon one and 
 the fame principle, is that which 1 juft now examined : 
 and, as that appears to me unfatisfaftory, I fhall con¬ 
 fide r the nature of each machine feparately in the order 
 I have let them down. 
 
 “ The lever is faid to be aright line, inflexible and 
 void of weight. Its fundamental property is this ; when 
 any two forces a£t againft each other on the arms of a 
 lever, they will continue in aequilibrio, if their quan¬ 
 tities are inverfely as the diftances between the points to 
 which they are applied and the point round which the 
 lever turns, which point is called the fulcrum or prop. 
 
 “ Several methods have been ufed, by different authors, 
 to prove, that this property muft neceffarily belong to 
 the lever. We find, in the works of Archimedes, a proof 
 brought for this purpofe, which has fince been made 
 nfe of by feveral writers of mechanicks ; who, I find, 
 have fomewhat altered the form of his argument, the 
 fubjeift of which is generally expreffed as follows : 
 W hen a cylinder of any uniform matter is fupported 
 at its middle point, it will continue at reft; for all the 
 parts on one fide muft balance thofe on the other, be¬ 
 ing exa&ly equal to them both in weight and fituation, 
 lo that the whole weight of this cylinder may be looked 
 
 M E C 
 
 upon as afling on the middle point on which it is fup¬ 
 ported'. From whence it follows, that the weight of 
 iuch a cylinder will a<ft upon whatever fupports it, in 
 the fame manner as it would do if it was all contrafted 
 into the middle point of its axis. If therefore we fup- 
 pofe the cylinder to be diftinguilhed into two unequal 
 cylinders or fegments, the diftances between the middle 
 points of thefe fegments and the middle of the Whole 
 cylinder will be inverfely as the lengths of the fegments; 
 that is, inverfely as their weights : but, as it was faid 
 before, the weight of each cylinder a<fts in the fame 
 manner as it would do if contracted into the middle 
 point of its axis; and therefore if the weights of thofe 
 cylinders be contrafled into thefe points, they will con¬ 
 tinue to fupport each as before. And thence it is con¬ 
 cluded, that any two weights a&ing againft each other 
 on a line luftained at a fixed point, will counterpoife one 
 another, when they are inverfely as the diftances of the 
 points on which they a£t, from the point on which the 
 line refts. To this argument there feems to be a mani- 
 feft objection ; for, when the whole cylinder is diftin¬ 
 guilhed into two fegments, part of the weight of the 
 greater legment a£ls on the fame fide of the fulcrum 
 with the lefs legment; and therefore when the whole 
 weight of the greater legment is contracted into its mid¬ 
 dle point on one fide of the fulcrum, and aCts all of it 
 againft the lefs legment, it requires at leaft fome proof 
 to fhew, that this contracted weight will be balanced 
 by the weight of the left fegment. Mr. Hugens, in his 
 Mifcellaneous Obfervations on Mechanicks, takes notice 
 of this objection to Archimedes’S method, which, he 
 fays, feveral mathematicians had endeavoured to remove, 
 but without fuccefs. He therefore, inftead of this me¬ 
 thod, propoled one of his own, which depends on a 
 poftulatum that he ulcs in common with Archimedes, 
 and which I think ought not to be granted on this oc- 
 cafion ; it is this : When equal bodies are placed on the 
 arms of a lever, the one which is furtheft from the ful¬ 
 crum will prevail and raife the other up. Now this is 
 taking it for granted, in other words, that a fmall weight 
 placed further from the fulcrum will fupport or raife a 
 greater one. The caufe and reafon of which faCt muft 
 be derived from the demonftration that follows, and 
 therefore this demonftration ought not to be founded on 
 the fuppofed lelf-evidence of what is partly the thing to 
 be proved. But peihaps it may be faid, that the poftu¬ 
 latum may be granted merely on this account; that the 
 centre ol; gravity cf the two bodies (which in this cafe 
 is the middle point between them.) is not luftained; and 
 therefore the body which is on the fame fide of the ful¬ 
 crum with the centre of gravity will defcend. 
 
 “ In anfwer to which I inuft obferve, that this pro¬ 
 perty, which the centre of gravity has of defending, 
 when not placed direCtly above or below the point of 
 Iulpenfion, cannot be proved to belong to it in any cale, 
 nor can we even lhew that there is only one centre of 
 gravity between two bodies joined by a right line, until 
 it is proved in general that the centre of gravity of any 
 two bodies is a point fo placed between them that their 
 diftances from it are inverfely as their weights : but this 
 in effect includes the principal property of the lever, 
 which therefore cannot be proved from any previous fup- 
 pofition, that the centre of gravity will defcend, even 
 when the bodies are equal, and we know it is the middle 
 point between them. 
 
 “ I muft now proceed to confidcr what Sir Ifaac New- 
 ton hath delivered on this fubjeCt in his Principia, after 
 the cd cor. to the 3d law of motion which Dr. Clarke 
 (in his notes onRohault) and all the fublequent writers, 
 have quoted as an elegant proof of the property of the 
 lever; and therefore what appears to me at prefent an 
 objection to this proof 1 lhall mention with great diffi¬ 
 dence, and in hopes ol being,fet right it I am wrong. 
 Sir lfaac fuppofes two weights, as A and P [plate LVI. 
 fig. 14,) to hang by threads, from the points M and N 
 in a wheel or circular plane perpendicular to the horizon 
 and moveable about its centre O ; and then propofes to 
 determine the forces with which thefe weights aCt to turn 
 the wheel round its centre. In order to do this, he fup¬ 
 pofes that it is indifferent from what points in the per¬ 
 pendicular lines M A and N P the weights are hung, for 
 that they will ftili have the fame power to turn the wheel 
 about its centre. His words are; Quoniam nil refert 
 
 utruin 
 
M EC M E C 
 
 utrum filorum punCta K, L, D, affixa fint vel non affixa 
 ad planum rota?; pondera idem valebant ac 11 fufpen- 
 derentur a punCtis K & L, vel D 6c L. Now whether 
 the points of ti\e threads K, L, D, are fixed or not to 
 the plane of the wheel is certainly of importance, as it 
 mull rhake a difference in the points of fulpenfion of the 
 weights, and conlequently in the degrees of obliquity 
 with w hich the weights aCt ; for the loweft point of the 
 thread that is fixed to the plane mull be conlidered as 
 the point from which the weight hangs ; as the parts of 
 the thread above that point are quite ufelefs, not being 
 at all aCted upon. And from thence 1 lhall endeavour 
 to (hew that to fuppofe the weight A will have the fame 
 power to turn the wheel from whatever point in the line 
 M A it hangs, is in effect prefuppofing what is intended 
 to be proved. For it appears, from what he fays imme¬ 
 diately after, that, when the weight A hangs from the 
 point D, if its whole force be expreffed by the line A D. 
 and be refolved into two forces, DC and AC, the for¬ 
 mer only will have any effeCt in turning the wheel, as it 
 aCts perpendicularly on the radius O D, while the latter 
 is loft, its direction being parallel to O D. But it is 
 evident, that, when the fame weight hangs from the 
 point K, as itaCts perpendicularly on the radius OK, 
 its whole force is exerted to turn the wheel, and none 
 of it loll by oblique aCtion. 
 
 “ Therefore the force which the weight A, exerts to 
 oppofe the weight P, and turn the wheel when it hangs 
 from D, is, to the force it exerts when it hangs from 
 K, as the line DC to AD, or as O K, to OD, (fim. 
 triang. ADC, DO Kj that is, the force exerted by the 
 weight A, hanging from the points D and K, arc in- 
 verfely as the radii OD, and O K. And therefore to 
 fuppole, that thefe two forces will have the fame effect in 
 turning the wheel and oppofing the weight P, is the 
 fame as fuppofing that two forces will have equal effects 
 in moving the arms of a lever (on which they aCt per¬ 
 pendicularly) when they are inverfely at the lengths of 
 thofe arms. —But this is the very conciulion Sir Ifaac 
 draws from hispremifes, for he fays: “ Pondera igitur 
 A6cP, qua? funt reciproce ut radii in direCtum politi 
 OK, OL, idem pollebunt et lie confident in aequilibrio, 
 qua? ell proprietas notilfima libra, vcCtis ct axis in 
 peritrochio.” But further, this property of the lever, 
 which is here expreffed in general terms, includes two 
 cafes. For the arms of the lever may be either perpendi¬ 
 cular or oblique to the directions of the weights. The 
 firll of thefe cales is the fimpled, and lhould be firll de¬ 
 mon!! rated : and 1 do not fee how there can be any room 
 for applying the refolution of forces in demonllrating this 
 cafe, in which no part of either weight is lod by oblique 
 aCtion. But when this cafe is proved, we have from 
 thence, by the refolution of forces, an eafy way of fliew- 
 ing in the fccond calc, when the arms of the lever are 
 oblique to the directions of the weights, that the weights 
 wall counter balance each other, when they are recipro¬ 
 cally as the perpendicular diltances of their lines of 
 direction from the centre of motion. From the lad of 
 thefe cafes, we may deduce an obvious reafon why the 
 weight A fhould have the lame power to turn the wheel, 
 from w'hatever point it hangs in the line MA, the truth 
 of which I am perfuaded, cannot be proved independent 
 of thofe cafes, and therefore think it ought not to be ufed 
 as a podulatum in demondrating the general property of 
 the lever. 
 
 • “ Mr. Maclaurin, inhis View of Newton’s Philofophy, 
 after giving us the methods which Archimedes and New- 
 ton have ufed for proving the fundamental property of 
 the lever, propofes one of his own, which, he fays, 
 appears to be the moll natural one for this purpole. 
 However as to this method 1 lhall only obierve, that, 
 from equal bodies lultaining each other at equal didances 
 from the fulcrum, he Ihews us how to infer that a body 
 of one pound (for inllance) will fultain another of two 
 pounds at half its diltance from the fulcrum : and 
 from thence that will fullain one of three pounds 
 at a third of its diltance from the fulcrum : he goes 
 on declaring, by a kind of induction, what the pro¬ 
 portion is in general between two bodies that fultain 
 each other on the arms of the lever. But this argument 
 he obferves cannot be applied when the arms of the 
 lever are incommenfurable, and therefore it cannot con¬ 
 clude generally, and conlequently is imperfeCt. 
 
 f ‘ 7 hefe are the methods of demonftrating the funda¬ 
 mental property of the lever, which are worth taking no¬ 
 tice of; and,, fince they leem liable to objections, and the 
 other methods 1 have met with are It ill more exception¬ 
 able, 1 lhall propoie a new proof of this property ot rhe le¬ 
 ver, which appears to me a very fimple one, and depends 
 on a podulatum that, 1 believe, will be readily granted. 
 
 “ If a force be uniformly diffuled over a right line, that 
 is, if an equal part ot the force aCts upon every point of 
 the line, and it the whole force aCts according to one 
 and the fame plane; this force will be fuftained, and the 
 line kept in &>quilibrio, by a fingie force applied to the 
 middle point of the line equal to the diffuled force, and 
 aCtingin a contrary direction. 
 
 “ In order to Ihorten the following proof, I mud pre- 
 mifeby way of lemma, that, if a right line be divided 
 into two fegments, the diftanccs between the middle of 
 the whole line, and the middle points of the fegments, 
 will be inverfely as the fegments. This is felf-evident 
 when die fegments arc equal; and, when they are unequal, 
 then, fince half of the whole line is equal to half of the 
 greater and half of the leffer fegment, it is plain that the 
 didance between the middle of the whole line and the 
 middle of one fegment mud be equal to half of the other 
 fegment, fo that thefe diltances mud be to each other in¬ 
 verfely as the fegments, all which appears evident from 
 the inlpeCtion of (Jig, 15); 
 
 “ L et now the fifie G H, (fig. 15.) vvhofe middle point 
 is D, be divided into the unequal fegments G L, and L H, 
 whole middle points .Ire C and F, and let two forces or 
 weights, A and B, which are to each other as the feg¬ 
 ments G Li and L H, be applied to their middle points 
 C and F, and let them aCt perpendicularly on the line 
 G H. Then (by the lemma) the weights A and B will be 
 to each other inverfely as CD, and FD, (the didances of 
 the points Cand F , to which they are applied from the 
 middle ofthe whole line) if then a third force or weight 
 L, equal to thefum ofthe forces A and B, be applied to 
 the point D, and aCts on the line in an Oppofite 
 direction: 1 fay thefe three forces will fultain each other, 
 and keep the line in aequilibrio. For let us fuppofe the 
 force E to be removed and inltead of it another force, 
 equal alfo to the fum of A and B, to be uniformly diffuled 
 over the whole line GH, and to aCt direCtly again!! the 
 forces A and B, then the part ot this force which aCts on 
 the fegment G L, will be equal to the force A, and there¬ 
 fore will be fufiained by it (potlulatum) ; and the other 
 part, which is diffufed over the fegment LH, will be 
 equal to and fufiained by the force B, fo that the forces 
 A and B will fullain this diffufed force and keep the line 
 in ^quilibrid. Let now two other forces aCt alfo on 
 this line in oppofite direClions, one of them the force E 
 aCling 011 the point D, as it was firft iuppofed to do, 
 and the other an uniformly diffufed force equal to FI 
 (and conlequently equal to the other diffufed force,.) then 
 thefe two additional forces will alfo balance each other 
 (poftulatum) and therefore the equilibrium will llill re¬ 
 main. So that the two forces A and B, and a diffufed 
 force aCting on one fide of the line fultain the force E 
 and a diffuled force aCting on the other fide : but it is 
 manifeft, that in this equilibrium, the two diffufed 
 forces aCting on oppofite lides are perfectly equivalent, 
 and therefore if they are taken away from both fides, the 
 equilibrium mult itill remain. Hence it appears that 
 the three weights or forces A, B and E, any two of 
 which are (by the conftruCtion) to each other inverfely 
 as their diltances from the third, will fultain each other 
 and keep the line on which they aCt in aequilibrio ; which 
 is the firft and moll fimple cafe of the property of the - le¬ 
 ver , for here the directions of the weights arc fuppofed 
 to be perpendicular to the line on which they aH, and 
 it is evident that, if one of the points C, D or F, lie 
 fixed or conlidered as a fulcrum, the weights aCtiiw on 
 the other two points will continue to fupport each ofher. 
 
 I lhall not now take the trouble of proving the fecond 
 cafe of the property of the lever ; it is molt cafily de¬ 
 duced from the fiiIt; for when two weights aCl on the 
 arms of a lever in oblique directions, and are to each 
 other inverfely as the perpendicular diltance of their lines 
 of direction from the centre of motion, then, by the re¬ 
 folution of forces, it is eafily proved that the parts of 
 thofe forces which a Ct perpendicularly on the arms of the 
 lever, and which only are exerted to turn the lever, arc 
 
 to 
 
ME C 
 
 to each other inverfely as the lengths of thofe arras; and 
 therefore by the fir ft cafe they mull balance each other. 
 
 “ I fhali now mention fome well knovyn truths in 
 mechanicks, which, I think, cannot be proved other- 
 wife than by deducing them from what hath been here 
 demonftrated. 
 
 “ Corollary i. It appears from hence, that the 
 powers with which any two forces move or endeavour to 
 move the arms of a lever, are as the rectangles, under 
 lines proportional to the forces, and the perpendicular 
 diftances of their lines of direction from the fulcrum. 
 
 “ Cor. 2. When therefore two bodies aCting on the 
 arms of a lever fuftain each other, if one of them be re¬ 
 moved further from the fulcrum, it will preponderate; 
 but if it be brought near to the fulcrum, the other 
 \veight will prevail : becaufe the produCt to which its 
 force is proportionable will be encrealed in the firft cafe, 
 and diminiihed in the fecond. 
 
 “ Cor. 3. We learn from hence, to find out the 
 centre of gravity of any two bodies joined by an inflexible 
 right line; and to prove that its definition will agree to 
 one point only in the line, l or if a point be taken in 
 the line, fo that the difiances of the bodies from it may 
 be inverfely as their weights, that point will be their 
 centre of gravity, becaufe, when it is fuflained, the 
 bodies will be in cequilibrio. But if the line be fuflained 
 at any other point, then is the fulcrum removed further 
 from one body and brought nearer to the other than it 
 was when the bodies balanced each other ; and therefore, 
 by the preceding Cor. that body from which it is re¬ 
 moved, or which is on the fame fide with the centre of 
 gravity, will delcejid. Confequently there is but one 
 point in the line, which being fuflained, the bodies will 
 continue in aequilibrio, and therefore but one’point only 
 can be their centre ofgravity. Hence alfoit appears, that the 
 centreofgravity will always defeend, when itis notdireftiy 
 above or below the point by which the body is fuflained. 
 
 “ I fhali now endeavour to be as concife as pofiible in 
 what I have to lay of the other mechanick powers ; 
 having, I fear, been two tedious in my account of the 
 lever, which however deferves to be particularly con- 
 fideied, fiucc to it may be reduced the balance, the axle 
 and wheel, and (according to fomc writers) the pulley. 
 
 “ The balance I do not confidcr as a diftinft machine, 
 becaufe it is evidently no other than a lever fitted to the 
 particular purpofe of comparing weights together, and 
 does not ferve for railing weights or overcoming re¬ 
 finances, as the other machine^ do. 
 
 “ When a weight is to be raifed by means of an axle 
 and wheel, it is fattened to a cord that goes round the 
 axle, and the power, which is to raife k, is hung to a 
 cord that goes round the wheel. If then the power be 
 to the weight as the radius of the axle to the radius of 
 the wheel, it will juft fupport that weight; as'will eafily 
 appear from what was proved of the lever. For the axle 
 and wheel may be conlidered as a lever, whole fulcrum is 
 a line paffing through the centre of the wheel and 
 middle of the axle, and whofe long and fhort arms 
 arc the radii of the wheel and axle which are parallel to 
 the hor izon, and from whole extremities the cords hang 
 perpendicularly, And thus an axle and wheel may 
 be looked upon as a kind of perpetual lever, on whole 
 arms the power and weight always aft perpendicularly, 
 though the lever turns round its fulcrum. And in like 
 manner when wheels and axles move each other by means 
 of teeth on their peripheries, fiich a machine is really, a 
 perpetual compound lever: and, by confidering it as 
 fiich, we may compute the proportion of any power to 
 the w eight it is able to fuftain by the help "of fuch an 
 engine. And fince the radii of two contiguous wheels, 
 whole teeth are applied to each other, are as the num¬ 
 ber of teeth in each, or inverfely as the number of revo¬ 
 lutions, which they make in the fame time ; we may. in 
 flic computation, infteadof the ratio of thefe radii, put 
 the iatio of the number of teeth on each wheel; or the 
 inverle ratio of the number of revolutions they make in 
 •lie lame time. 
 
 Some writers have thought the nature and-efforts-of 
 tuc pulley might be beft explained'by confideiing adix-ed 
 pullcv as a lever or the iirtl, and a-moveable pulley as 
 one of the fecund kind. But though the pulley may bear 
 being confi'dei'ed in' that light, vet, I think, t-fic bell and 
 moil natural method of explaining its effefts (that "is, of I 
 
 Vol. II. No. 48. | 
 
 MEG 
 
 computing the proportion of any power to the weight it 
 can fuftain by means.of any fyftcm of pulleys)'is, by 
 confidering that every moveable pulley hangs by two 
 ropes equally ftretched, which mull bear equal parts of 
 the weight; and therefore when one and the fame iope 
 goes round leveral fixed and moveable pullies, fince all 
 its parts on each fide of the pullies are equally ftretched, 
 the whole weight mull be divided equally amongft all the 
 ropes by which the moveable pullies hang. And con'e- 
 quently if the power which ads on qne rope be equal to 
 the weight divided bv the number ox ropes, or double 
 the number or'moveable pullies, that power mull fuftain 
 the weight. 
 
 Upon this principle, the proportion of the power to 
 the weight it luftains by means, of any lyileni of the 
 pullies, may be computed in a manner fo caf'v and na¬ 
 tural as mull be obvious to every common capacity. 
 
 “ The proportion which any power bears to the re- 
 lifting force it is able to fuftain by means of a wedge, has 
 been laid dawn differently by different authors, as 
 they happened to confident in particular calcs. With¬ 
 out examining their feveral opinions. I fhali endeavour 
 to exprcl* this proportion in qne general propefition 
 which may extend to the feveral cafes in which the wedge 
 is applied. 
 
 “ Let the squicrural triangle A BC, (/%. t.) repre- 
 fent a wedge, the lines 4B and CjJ will be the 
 fides of the wedge, A C its bale or back, and its height 
 will be the line P B bifefting the bale A C, and alio the 
 vertical angle ABC. When any two refilling forces a ft 
 on the fides of a wedge in directions which make equal 
 angles with the fides (as they are always fuppofed'to do) 
 a power aCting perpendicularly at P on the bale of the 
 wedge will keep the refilling forces in aequilibrio, when 
 it is to the fum of thefe forces, as the fine of half the 
 vertical angle qf the wedge, to the fine of the angle which 
 the directions of the forces contain with the fides of tire 
 wedge. 
 
 “ For let E and F be two bodies afting on the fides of 
 the wedge, and let them be firft iuppolcd to aft in the 
 djreCtions E P and F P perpendicularly on the bafe AC, 
 if thefe three forces keep the wedge in aiquilibrio they 
 wilj be to each other as the fides of a triangle, to which 
 their directions are parallel, or (which is the fame thing) 
 as the fides of the triangle A B C to which their directions 
 are perpendicular. Therefore the power P is to the fum 
 of tlte refilling forces which it luftains as A C the "bale 
 of the wedge to the fum of the fid.es, or as PA, half the 
 bafe, to A B one of the licks; but PA is to A B as the 
 fine of P B A, half the vertical angle of the yve^ge, to the 
 •radius which is the fine of a right angle, and the direc¬ 
 tions of tlte refilling forces are l.uppoled in this cafe to 
 contain a right angle with the fides of the wedge. 
 
 “ Ect now the refilling bodies E and F beiuppofed to 
 a£t on the wedge in directions parallel to the lines p P 
 and OP, which make oblique angles with its fides, 
 draw E G and FK perpendicular to tfiofe lines. From 
 what lias been proved it appears-that the power P Is to 
 the force with which it is able, by means of tfie wedgy, 
 to protrude the refilling bodies in the directions PE and 
 P F as the fine of half the vertical angle to the radius : 
 let this protruding force be exprefled by the line PE. 
 and let it be refolved into two forces expreffed by the 
 lines P G and GE, the former of thele oqly will aft in 
 oppofition to the refilling bodies ; therefore the whojc 
 protruding force of the pqwer is to the force with which 
 it afts againft the refilling bodies PE and P F in the 
 directions PD and PO as PE to PG, or, (becaufe the 
 triangles EPG and DPE are fimiiar) as PD to PE, 
 that is as the radius to the fiqe of the angle PDE; 
 compounding therefore the.ratio of the fine of half the 
 vertical angle to the radius, with the ratio of the radius 
 to the fine of die angle PDE, .the power P, when the 
 wedge is kept in aequilibrio, will be to the force with 
 which it protrudes the refilling bodies in directions op- 
 pofite to.thofe in which they aft, as the fine of half the 
 vertical angle to the fine of the angle PDE or P O F, 
 which the directions of the refilling forces contain with 
 the fides of the wedge. 
 
 “ Hence, when the directions in.which refilling bodies 
 aft on a wedge are given, we may eafily find two lines 
 that will exprefs the proportion between the refiftance 
 .and the power which luftains it bv means of the wedge, 
 
 D cl ‘ for 
 
M E C 
 
 For from P the middle point of the wedge draw the line 
 P 1 J meeting one or the tide:, and parallel to the direc¬ 
 tion in which the refitting force aSs on that fide, then 
 the power will he to the refinance as P D to P B tile- 
 height of tile wedge. I' ot P Id and P B ate to each other 
 as tile fines of the oppofite angels, ill the triangle P B D, 
 that is as die fines of half the vertical angle, and the 
 angle which the dircaion of the refitting force contains 
 with the fide of the wedge. 
 
 • ■ prom what has been demonftrated ive may deduce 
 the proportion of the power to the refiftance it is able to 
 futtain in all the cafes in which the wedge is applied. 
 Firft, when in cleaving timber the wedge tills the cleft, 
 then the refiftance of the timber afts perpendicularly on 
 the lades of the wedge, therefore on tins cafe, when the 
 power which drives the wedge, is to the coheine torcc 
 of the timber, as half the hale, to one fide ot the wedge, 
 the power and refiftance will be in mqmlibno. 
 
 “ Secondly, when the wedge does not enaftly fill the 
 cleft, which generally happens bccaufe the wood fpltts to 
 tome diftauce before the wedge. Let E Id , reprefeut 
 a deft into which the wedge ABC is partly driven ; as 
 the refitting force of the timber mutt afl on the wedge 
 in direction perpendicular to E L the fide ot the cleft, and 
 meeting the fide of the wedge in D ; then the power 
 driving the wedge and the refiftance of the timber when 
 they balance, will be to each other as the line P D to 
 
 P B, the height of the wedge. 
 
 .1 Thirdly, when a wedge is employed to feparatetwo 
 bodies that lie together on an horizontal plane, for in- 
 ftanc- two blocks of done ; as thefe bodies mil recede 
 from each other in horizontal direaions, their refiftance 
 muft aft on the wedge in lines parallel to its bale C A ; 
 therefore the power which drives the wedge will balance 
 the refiftance when they are to each other as P A hall the 
 breadth of the wedge to P B its height, and then any 
 additional force fufficienttoovercome the refinance anting 
 from the friftion of die, bodies on the horizontal plane 
 will feparate them from each other. 
 
 “ The inclined plane is reckoned by tome writers 
 among the mcchanick powers , and 1 think with rea- 
 fon, as it may be ufed with advantage m railing 
 
 W= n h Let the line A B (fig. 6.) reprefent the length of 
 an inclined plane, A U its height, and the line b D we 
 mav call its bale. Let the circular body G E E be lup- 
 rofed to reft on the inclined plane, and to be kept from 
 falling down it by a firing CS tied to ns centre C. 
 Tlien the force with which this body ftretclies die ftnng 
 will be to its whole weight, as the fine of A B O the 
 angle of elevation, to die fine of the angle which die 
 firing contains with a line perpendicular to A ti the 
 length of the plane. For let the radius C E be drawn 
 perpendicular to the horizon, and C F perpendicular to 
 A B and from E draw E O parallel to the firing and 
 meeting C F ill O. Then, as the body continues at reft 
 and is urged by three forces, to wit, by its weight in the 
 dircaion CE, by the reaaion of the plane ill the di- 
 refiion FC, and by the reaaion of the Hiring in the di¬ 
 rcaion E O ; the reaaion of the firing, or the force by 
 which it is ft retched, is to the weight of the body, as 
 E O to C E : diat is, as the fine of (the angle ECO, 
 which is equal to) ABD the angles of elevation, to the 
 tine of the angle E OC, equal to SCO, the angle which 
 the firing contains with the line C F perpendicular to 
 A B, the length of the plane. 
 
 When therefore the ftring is parallel to the length of 
 the plane, the force with which it is ftretched, or with 
 which the bodv tends down the inclined plane, !?to its 
 whole weight, 'as the fine of the angle of elevation, to 
 the radius, or as the height of the plane to the length. 
 And in the fame manner it may be ihewn, that when 
 the ft. inv is parallel to B D, the bale of the plane, the 
 force with which it is ftretched is to the weight ot the 
 bodv as A D to B D, that is, as die height ot the plane 
 to its bale. If we fuppole the ftring, which iupports 
 the body G E F, to be fattened at S, and that a force, 
 by acting on the line A D, the height of the plane, in a 
 direction parallel to the bafe B D, drives the inclined 
 plane under the bodv, and by that means makes it rile 
 to” a dirtaion parallel to A D. Then, from what was 
 proved in the third cafe of the wedge, it will appear, 
 drat this force muft be to file weight of the body, as A D 
 
 M E C 
 
 to B D, or rather in a proportion fomewhat greater: if 
 it makes the plane move on and the body rile. 
 
 “ From this laft oblcvvation we may dearly fhewthe 
 nature and force of the ferew , a machine ot great efficacy - 
 in railing weights or in preifmg bodies clolelv together. 
 For if the triangle A B D be turned round a cylinder 
 whole periphery is equal to B D, then the length of the 
 inclined plane B A will rile round the cylinder in a fpirai 
 manner ; and form what is called the thread ot the lerew, 
 and we may fuppole it continued in the fame manner 
 round the cylinder from one end to the other ; and A D 
 the height of the inclined plane will be every where the 
 diftance between two contiguous threads ot this lerew, 
 which is called a convex lerew. And a concave lerew 
 may be formed to tit this exactly, if an inclined plane 
 every wav like the former be turned round the intide ot 
 a hollow 7 cylinder, whole periphery is fomewhat larger 
 than that of the other. Let us now fuppofe the con¬ 
 cave threw to be taxed, and the convex one to be tatted 
 into it, and a weight to be la : d on the top of the convex 
 ferew : then, if a power be applied to the periphery ot 
 this convex lerew to turn it round, at e\erv revolution 
 the weight will be railed up through a fpace equal to the 
 diftance between the two contiguous threads, that is to 
 the line AD the height of the inclined plane B A ; there¬ 
 fore lince this power, applied to tile periphery, a£fs in a 
 direction parallel to B D, it mull be to the w eight it raifes 
 as A D to B D, or as the diilauce between two conti¬ 
 guous threads, to the periphery of the convex lerew. 
 
 “ The diltance between two contiguous threads is to 
 be meafured by a line parallel to the axle; if we now 
 fuppofe that a liand-fpike or handle, which is inlerted 
 into the bottom of the convex ferew, and that the power 
 which turns the ferew is applied to the extremity of this 
 handle, which is generally the cafe; then as the power 
 is removed further font the axis of motion, its force will 
 be lo much increaled (vide what was laid of the lever. 
 Cor. i.) and therefore fo much may the power itfelf be 
 diminifhed. So that the power, which, a£ting on the 
 end of a handle, fuilains a weight by means of a ferew, 
 will be to that weight, as the dillancc between two con¬ 
 tiguous threads of the ferew, to die periphery defcribed 
 by the end of the handle. In this cafe we may confider 
 the machine as corapofed of a ferew anefa lever, or as Sir 
 Ifaac Newton exprefleth it, Cuncus a ve£ie impulfus. 
 
 Of any two or more of thefe fimpie machines com¬ 
 bined together, all other machines however complicated 
 arecompoied. And their powers and manner of acting may 
 therefore be explained from the principles here laid down. 
 
 Mechanical, alio denotes a kind of rcafoning, 
 which has lately prevailed much not only in phyfick but 
 in accounting for the phenomena of health and difeafes, 
 as being conformable to what is ufed in the contrivance 
 and in lolving the operations of machines. 
 
 For, favs Dr. Quincy, coniidering an animal body as 
 a compoiition out of the fame matter, from which all 
 other bodies are formed, and to have all thofe properties 
 which concern a phylician’s regard, only by virtue of its 
 peculiar conftfu£tion ; it naturally leads a perfon to cou- 
 fider the feveral parts, according to their figures, con¬ 
 texture, and ufc, either as wheels, pullies,^ wedges, 
 levers, ikrews, cords, canals, (trainers, See. For which 
 purpofe, continues he, it is frequently found helpful to 
 defign in diagrams, whatloever of that kind is under 
 confideration, as is cuftomary in geometrical demonftra- 
 tions. See II u m a n Body. 
 
 Mechanical, in mathcmaticks, denotes a con- 
 ftru&ion of fome problem, by the afliftancc of inftru- 
 ments, as the duplicature of the cube and quadrature of 
 the circle, in contradiftin&ion to that which is done in 
 an accurate and geometrical manner. 
 
 Mechanical Curve , is a curve, according to De- 
 lcartes, which cannot be defined by any algebraick equa¬ 
 tion: and lb (lands contradiftinguifhcd from algebraick 
 or geometrical curves. Leibnitz and others caii thefe 
 mechanical curves tranlcendental, and diflent from De- 
 fcartes in excluding them out of geometry. Leibnitz 
 found a new kind of tranlcendental equations whereby 
 thefe curves are defined : But they do not continue con- 
 ftantly the lame in all points of the curve, as algebraick 
 ones do. 
 
 MECHO ACAN, in pharmacy, a large root of a plant 
 of the fame genus w ith the turpeth. When entire, it 
 
MED 
 
 is ufually 12 or 14 inches long, and above the thicknefs 
 of a man’s wrift. What we lee of it in the lhops is cut 
 into flices, for the convenience ol drying. 
 
 The plant is one of the pentandria monogyilia of Lin¬ 
 naeus, and of the herbs vafculifers of Mr. Ray. 1 he 
 root in powder is a gentle and mild purgative, and occa¬ 
 sions no licknefs or gripings during its operations ; be- 
 lides this, it is infipid. 
 
 It was greatly celebrated when fird brought into Eu¬ 
 rope; but the brilker operation of jalap, and the fmaller 
 dofe ncceffary, foon brought it into ufc in its llead. It 
 is a reproach to us, fays Hill, to have fuffered this drug 
 to get into difufc, fince there is not a better purgative in 
 all the materia mcdica ; fcarce any one liable to fo few 
 accidents ; the greated objeftion is the dofe, which is 
 from one to two drachms. 
 
 MECONIUM, the concreted or dried juice of the 
 poppy which has been exprefied from the heads and leaves 
 or from the whole plant; whereas opium is a tear didil- 
 ling from the heads of the poppy, after a flight incifion 
 made therein. 
 
 The word is Greek/x^voiv, fignifying the lame thing, 
 and derived from /xwuv, the poppy. It alfo denotes the 
 excrements contained in the intedines of the child, du¬ 
 ring the time of gedation, and which are voided after 
 the birth. 
 
 MEDAL, Mcdalia , a piece of metal in form of a 
 coin, dellincd to preferve the memory of fome great man, 
 and fome memorable aftion. 
 
 A medal has two fides ; one of which is called the 
 face or head, and the other the reverfe : on each fide is 
 the area or field, which makes the middle of the medal ; 
 the rim or border and the exergue which is beneath the 
 ground whereon the figures are placed. The type or 
 device is the figures reprefented, and the legend is the 
 infeription round them. 
 
 The Greek medals are the moll ancient, as plainly 
 appears from feveral medals of Macedon, older than 
 Philip and Alexander; from thofe with the names of 
 feveral magiflrates prior to the Macedonian empire ; to 
 which we°may add fome Sicilian coins of Hill greater 
 antiquity. As the Greek medals are the moll ancient, 
 fo are they the moll beautiful, exprefiing even the mufcles 
 and veins,' and are llruck with Rich exquifite art as the 
 Romans could never come up to. 
 
 The confular medals, or thofe llruck when the re- 
 publick was governed by confuis, arc the moll ancient 
 among the Romans. 
 
 The copper and filver ones do not go beyond the 484th 
 year of Rome, nor the gold ones beyond the year 546. 
 
 Among tile imperial medals we didinguilh between 
 thofe of the upper and lower empire: the upper com¬ 
 menced under Julius Caefar, and ended A. D. 260. I he 
 lower includes about 1200 years,.namely, till the taking 
 of Conllantinople. It is however ufual to account all 
 the imperial medals till the time of the Pakeologi among 
 the antique, though we have none of any confiderable 
 beauty later than the time ofHeraclius, who died in 641. 
 For, after the emperors Phocas and Hcraclius, Italy be¬ 
 came a prey to the Barbarians * 
 
 MEDALLION, orMEDALioN, a medal of an ex¬ 
 traordinary fize, fuppofed to be anciently llruck by the 
 emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes and 
 ambalfadors ; but that the fmallnefs of their number 
 might not endanger the lofs ol the devices they bore, 
 the Romans generally took care to llamp the fubjeft of 
 them upon their ordinary coins. 
 
 Medallions, in refpeft of the other coins, were the 
 fame as modern medals in refpeft of modern money : 
 they were exempted from all commerce, and had no 
 other value but what was fet upon them by the fancy of 
 the owner. Medallions are fo fcarce that there cannot 
 be anv fet made of them, even though the metals and 
 fizes Ihould be joined promifcuoully. 
 
 MEDEOLA, in botany, a genus of the hexandria- 
 trigynia clals of plants, the flower of which conlills of 
 fix oblong, patent, and revolute petals: the fruit is a 
 berrv of a roundilh form, with three cells, in each ol 
 which is contained a lingle cordated feed. 
 
 MEDIAL, or Alligation Medial, in arith- 
 metick. See Alligation. 
 
 MEDIAN A, a vein formed by the concourfe of the 
 ccphalick and bafilick veins in the bend of the elbow. 
 
 M E D 
 
 MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, is a double mem¬ 
 brane continuous to the llernum, lituated under it, and 
 adhering firmly to it. It divides the ca\ ity of the thorax 
 longitudinally into two parts: but as it is not exactly 
 under the middle of the Hern uni, but lomewhat to the 
 left fide, the right part of the thorax is larger than the 
 left. The mediaflinum is con hefted with the llernum, 
 plcUra, pericardium, and other adjoining parts. It re¬ 
 ceives veins and arteries from the mammary and dia- 
 phragmatick vcflfels, and fometimes has proper and par¬ 
 ticular ones of its own from the aorta and cava: thefe 
 are then called the mcdiailinal velfels. Its nerves which 
 are fmall, are from the diaphragmaticks and the par- 
 vagum. It has alfo a numberof lymphaticks, which run 
 to the duftas thoracicus. The ules of the mediaflinum 
 are two. 
 
 The firfl is tb divide the bread longitudinally into two 
 parts, by which feveral great purpofes are anlvvered ; as, 
 
 1. That on one of the lobes of the lungs being ulcerated, 
 the other might not be immediately atfefted. 2. That 
 water, matter, or any thing elfe contained in one part 
 of the thorax, might not at the fame time affeft both 
 pa ts of the lungs. 3. That in cafe of a wound in one 
 fide of the thorax, relpiration might be continued in the 
 other, and the perfon not be immediately lufFocated. The 
 lecond general ufe of the mediaflinum, is to fupport the 
 heart in its pendulous llatc, for the benefit of its free 
 motion, elpecially when we lie on our backs. 
 
 Mediastinum Cerebri, the lame with the tranf- 
 vcHe i'eptum of the brain. See Brain. 
 
 MEDIATE, or Intermediate , fomething that dands 
 between and connefts two or more terms, confidered as 
 extremes ; in which fenfe it is oppofed to immediate. 
 
 MEDICINE, Me die inn ^ the art which treats of the 
 means of preferving health, when prefent; and of re- 
 lloring it, when loll. If we look back to the origin of 
 the art of medicine, we fhall find its firfl foundations to 
 be owing to mere chance, unforefeen events, and natural 
 inflinft: in the early ages, the lick were placed in crofs- 
 ways, and other publick places, *to receive the advice of 
 thofe pallengers who knew an efficacious remedy Suitable 
 to their diforder. And the better to preferve the memory 
 of a remarkable cure, both the dileafe and the remedy 
 were engraved on pillars, or written on the walls of tem¬ 
 ples, that patients in the like cafes might have recourfe 
 to them for indruftion and relief. Thus what mere 
 accident had dilcovered, was regidered in thele chroni¬ 
 cles of health. This art arofe from repeated trials and 
 long experience, which gave an infight into the virtues 
 of herbs and plants, metals and minerals. 
 
 As to the part which reafon has afted in die improve¬ 
 ment of medicine, it fee ms to have confided in obferving, 
 1. That difeafes attended with particular circumllances, 
 called fymptoms, were fometimes cured without the 
 affillance of art, by fpontaneous evacuations, as haemor¬ 
 rhages, diarrhoeas, vomitings, or fweats ; whence bleed¬ 
 ing, purges, and vomits took their rife. 2. That the 
 patients were often relieved, by the breaking out of va¬ 
 rious tumours; whence arofe the application of topical 
 remedies* And, indeed, it is the bed method of im¬ 
 proving phyfick, to obferve carefully what means nature, 
 unaffided by art, employs to free the conditution from 
 didempers ; fince many important hints may be thence 
 taken, for the relief of other patients under the like cir- 
 cumllances. 
 
 So much for the rife of this art. Let us now fav 
 fomething of the regular method of dudying it. -And 
 firll, with Boeihaave, let us imagine the young dudent 
 laying the foundation of his art ill the contemplation of 
 geometrical figures, bodies, weights, meafures, velocity, 
 the fabrick of machines, and the power of afting upon 
 other bodies thence arifimg. While he employs his 
 thoughts about thefe matters, he is likewife taught a jud 
 method of reafoning ; after which he may proceed to in¬ 
 form himfelf of the properties of fluidity, eladicity, 
 tenuity, weight, and tenacity of liquids, from hydro- 
 flaticks. His reafon being by this time much improved, 
 he next applies to dudy the forces of fluids upon ma¬ 
 chines, and of thefe upon fluids ; and to demondrate 
 them by mathcmaticks, confirm them by hydrodaticks, 
 and illuilrate them by chymical experiments ; at the 
 lame time entertaining himfelf with lpeculations on the 
 I nature of fire, water, air, falts, and other homogeneous 
 ’ bodies- 
 
M E D 
 
 bodies. Having laid this foundation, his next bflfincft 
 is to apply himfelf to the iludy of anatomy, in order to 
 obtain a clear idea of the human fabnck. To this he 
 joins the knowledge of the \iial fluids, and examines 
 them with the afli fiance of anatomy, chymiftry, hydro- 
 ilaticks, and even of the microlcopc ; and io now you fee 
 him qualilied for writing a theory of health, and invefti- 
 gating the caufes of dileales. Now behold him bulled 
 in furnilhmg himfelf with medicinal obfervations, from 
 all quarters ; i'ometimes he difle&s the dead bodies of 
 perl'ons, whole dileales he had obierved ; at otlier limes, 
 he marks the fymptoms of licknels procured by art in 
 brutes ; aiid at length collecting together all the effedls 
 of difeafes, with their remedies, whether learned from 
 his own experience, or found in the belt authors, he 
 digefts, conliders, and compares them with thole which 
 are demonitrated by theory. This, he tells us, is the 
 method which he took himfelf, and which he recom¬ 
 mended to his pupils, in order to gain a thorough know¬ 
 ledge of medicine. 
 
 If, then, he would advance the healing art, he ought 
 to colledt a leleCt treafure of piaCtical obfervations, reft 
 fatisfied with a few but .well chol'en medicines, be 
 thoroughly acquainted with their virtues and efficacy in. 
 different conffitutions and difeafes, defpile the cumbcr- 
 fome load of recipes with which practical writers of an 
 inferior rank abound, iejeCt the lo much extolled medi¬ 
 cines of the chymilts, and attempt the relief of patients 
 by a proper diet and exercife, and luch medicines as ob- 
 fervation and found philofophy recommend : for to the 
 improvement of anatomy and natural philofophy is much 
 of the fuecefs of phylick to be attributed. 
 
 The knowledge of medicines, or fuitable remedies, is 
 alfo highly neceflary to phyficians; who, in order to 
 moderate the impetus in acute dil'orders, make evacua¬ 
 tions, blunt acrimony, dilute too thick fluids, condenfe 
 thole that are too thin, brace up too lax parts, and re¬ 
 lax fuch as are too much conftri&cd ; they alfo drive the 
 humours to parts where they will be leaft prejudicial, 
 upon occafion mitigate pain, and in languors, ufe ftimu- 
 lating medicines. Wine, vinegar, barley, nitre, honey, 
 rhubarb, dpium, and other fimples, are found both fafe 
 and powerful medicines. Sydenham tells us, that all 
 manner of difeafes may be cured by bleeding, purging, 
 with a lubfequent opiate, and proper regimen. In chro¬ 
 nical cafes, mineral waters, falts, diaphoreticks, foap, 
 mercury, ffeel, with a few vegetables, and proper exercife, 
 will generally effeCt the cure. 
 
 As to the drugs recommended by the ancients, adds 
 Boerhaave, wc are, and always lhall be ignorant of 
 them, unlefs perhaps a few; fince they contented them- 
 felves with giving the virtues ; omitting the defeription 
 ol plants* as things w r ell known. The moderns, on the 
 other hand, have been accurate in the delcriptive part, 
 but have given us very little concerning the virtues of 
 plants, except what they tranferibed from the ancients, 
 rad this upon an uncertain fuppofition of the plants be¬ 
 ing the fame. To conclude, what is there in the moft 
 elaborate preparation, that is worth half the pains taken 
 about it r Mercury, opium, the Peruvian bark, and other 
 limples, with lire and water, are acknowledged as the 
 hi reft remedies by the ableft mafters of the art; and 
 thele are found to be more efficacious in that crude ftate, 
 m which bountiful nature has imparted them to us, than 
 utter the moft operole and artificial preparations. We 
 can delpair of nothing, while we follow limplicity ; but 
 the event of intricate labour is fallacious. 
 
 As to the general divilions of medicine, they are thefc. 
 
 1. Phyfiology, or the dottrine of the animal ceconomy, 
 the ufe of the feveral parts, whether folids, veflels, or 
 fluids : under this branch is comprehended anatomv. 
 
 2. Hygieine, which lays down rules for the prefervation 
 of health, and the prolongation of life; its objects arc 
 chiefly the fix non-naturals. 3. Pathology, or the doc¬ 
 trine of difeafes, their differences, caufcs, fymptoms, and 
 other accidents. 4. Semeiotice, is that part of medicine 
 which treats of the ligns of difeafcs,*and their ufe ; as alfo 
 how the various degrees andefte&s of health and ficknefs 
 may be known. 5. Therapeutice, is the laft and principal 
 part, comprehending diet, pharmacy, lurgerv, and the 
 method of cuie ; confide ring the materia medica, the pre¬ 
 paration of remedies, and the manner of ufing them, in 
 order to recover health and bariifh difeafes. 
 
 M E D 
 
 Medicines, Medicamenta, Medicaments, in phyfick, 
 denote any natural fubftanccs. applied to the human body* 
 in order to anfwer fome intention of cure. 
 
 Medicines are diftinguilhed into internal and external; 
 the former are thole taken in at the mouth; the latter, 
 which are alfo called topical, ate thofc applied outwardly 
 to any particular part of the body. 
 
 Medicines, with regard to their operations, arediftin- 
 guiihed intoagglutinants, alterants, anaftomaticks, aftrin- 
 gents, evacuants, incarnatives, fpecificks, Nc. 
 
 MED 1 1 ERRANEAN, denotes fomething inclofed 
 within land, or remote from the ocean. It more parti¬ 
 cularly denotes that large fca, which flows between the 
 continents of Europe and Africa, entering by theftreights 
 of Gibraiter, and reaching as far as the Euxine £ea a;\d 
 palus Mieotis. It was formerly called the Grecian or 
 Great lea ; but now it is denominated varioufly according 
 to the countries adjacent thereto. 
 
 MEDITULLIUM, in anatomy, fignifies the fpongy 
 fubftance contained betwixt the two tables of the Ikuli, 
 otherwife called diploc. It alfo imports the pith of vege¬ 
 tables. 
 
 MEDIUM, the fame with nean or mediate. 
 
 Medium, in logick, or the mean or middle term of a 
 fyllogifm, is an argument or conlideration, for which 
 wc affirm or deny any thing : or, it is the caule why the 
 greater extreme is affirmed or denied of the lei's in the 
 conclufion. Thus every good is to be defired; but all 
 virtue is good ; therefore, all virtue is to be defired ; here 
 good is the medium, virtue the jefs extreme, and to be 
 defired the greater. 
 
 It is called medium, as being a kind of mean between 
 the lubjedt and predicate ; .or by reafon the extremes are 
 lb difpofed, as to affirm or deny bv means thereof. 
 
 The only way of coming at mediums is by a dole 
 attention to dear ideas. 
 
 Medium, in arithmetick, or an arithmetical Mean, 
 in the fchools called medium rci, is that which is equally 
 diftant from each extreme, or which exceeds the lei's ex¬ 
 treme, as much as it is exceeded by the greater, in relpcdi 
 of quantity, not proportion. SccProgression. 
 
 Geometrical Med i u m, called medium perfona*, is that 
 where the fame ratio is preferved betvvceu the firii and 
 fecond, as between the lccond and third terms. Thus 
 fix is a medium between four and nine. Sec Pro¬ 
 gression. 
 
 Diftribute juftice and virtue, obferve a geometrical 
 mean ; and communicative juftice an arithmetical one. 
 
 Medium in philofophy, that lpace or region through 
 which a body in motion pafles to any point; thus athcr 
 is luppoled to be the medium through w hich the heavenly 
 bodies move; air wherein bodies move near our earth, &c. 
 That denfity in the parts of the medium, whereby the 
 motion of bodies in it is retarded, is called its reliftance, 
 which, together with the force of gravity is the caule of 
 the ceflation of projedliles. 
 
 Subfile or .Ethereal Medium. See JKt her. 
 
 MEDULLA, marrow, an oleaginous lubftance con¬ 
 tained in the cavities of the bones of animals. 
 
 Medulla Oblongata , in anatomy, the lower and 
 medullary part of the cerebrum and cerebellum, formed 
 into a kind of tail and extended to the great foramen or 
 pole in the occipital bone of the cranium, where it gives 
 origin to thcfpinal marrow and to the nerves of the brain. 
 
 Medulla Spinalis , or fpinal marrow, is a continua¬ 
 tion of the medulla oblongata of the brain, and forms, 
 as it were, a tail to that part. It is included in a kind 
 of bony canal, formed by the vertebrae, and in this L 
 continued from the head to the extremity of the os fa- 
 crum. Its length is therefore the lame with that of 
 the fpina dorli, which is different in perfons of different 
 ftature. Its thicknels, in general, is nearly equal to 
 that of a finger; but it is not uniformly of the lame 
 diameter throughout. Its fubftance, in the upper part, 
 as far as to the laft vertebra of the thorax, L the l'ann. 
 with that of the medulla oblongata of the brain, but 
 fbmcuhat tougher and more firm : they are externally of 
 a.medullary fubftance, that the nerves may calilv make 
 their way out j internally cineritious, and of the fanu 
 nature with the cineritious or cortical part of the brain 
 but the lower part of them, from the laft vertebra of tly. 
 thorax to the extremity of the os facrum, is fibrous and 
 very tenacious, and is called cauda equina. The tin 
 
 vjfioij 
 
MEL 
 
 vifion of the fpinal marrow is formed by means of a 
 fiffure; it is by this Separated into a right and left part, 
 or into two columns; but this feparation is not continued 
 to the centre. Its proper integuments are no left than 
 fix: thefe are, i. The bony canal, formed by the cavi¬ 
 ties of the 24 vertebrae, and the os facrum : 2. The 
 tunica, which is very ftrong, and connects the vertebrae 
 within : 3. The cellular, or adipofe, coat, which in fat 
 perfons, always contains more or lefs fat, and feems 
 deftined by nature to foften the former : 4. The dura 
 mater, which is ftronger in the upper-part, and finer and 
 weaker in the lower: this loofely inclofes the medulla in 
 the fpine, and in its anterior part is firmly connected 
 with the vertebras: 5. The tunica araclmoides, which in 
 its anterior part, adheres very firmly to the pia mater, 
 but in its pollerior part is loofe and fluctuating : 6. The 
 pia mater, which furrounds every part of the fpinal 
 marrow, and all the nerves that arile from it, and enters 
 alfo its longitudinal divifion. The arteries and veins of 
 the fpinal marrow enter at the apertures of the vertebras 
 which give paflage out to the nerves ; they make a mul¬ 
 titude of anaftomofes, and are derived from the vertebrals 
 of the neck, the intcrcoftals and the lumbar. The nerves 
 of the fpine are 31, or as others count them, 32 pair. 
 Thefe are compofed each of a multitude of fibres, arifing 
 from the anterior and pofterior parts of the medulla : thefe 
 fibres afterwards unite, and are connefted by, and covered 
 with membranes, and in that ftate they conflitute what 
 we call nerves. 
 
 The ufes of the fpinal marrow are, to give origin to 
 the before-mentioned pairs of nerves, which are principally 
 diftributed to the limbs and external parts ; and to fecrete 
 and prepare a nervous fluid. 
 
 MEDUSA’s Head, in aftronomy. See Algol. 
 
 Medusa’s Head, in botany, the Englifh name for 
 a fpccies of euphorbium. See. Euphorbium. 
 
 MELANCHOLY, in medicine, a fpecies of mad- 
 nefs, teeing a kind of delirium without a fever, ufually 
 attended with tear, heavinefs, and forrow, without any 
 apparent caufe. It J is infinitely varied according to the 
 temperament and ideas of the perfon affe&ed therewith. 
 
 Under erratick melancholy, the patients are in con¬ 
 tinual motion, fhun company, love folitary places, and 
 know not whither they wander. The colour of the body 
 is yellowifh ; the tongue dry like that of a perfon fcorched 
 with thirft, the eyes dry, hollow, and never dilcharging 
 any tears ; the whole body dry and parched ; and the 
 countenance overcaft with gloom, horror, and fadnefs. 
 Such melancholy patients are more timorous than others; 
 for which reafon they love folitude, wander in the night, 
 and feek for concealment about the fepulchres of the 
 dead, and other folitary places. They endeavour not to 
 meet human creatures, and, if they fhould unexpectedly 
 do fo, they do not look at them, nor fee them ; which is 
 undoubtedly owing to their unaccountable dread and fear, 
 in confequence of which they lufpeft and fhun every 
 thing; or becaufe they do not advert to external ob¬ 
 jects, fince their fancies are always employed and their 
 thoughts continually dwelling on the reprefentations of 
 tlieir fancies. 
 
 Their legs are generally full of ulcers, which cannot 
 be confolidated, fince, by the continual motion, the 
 peccant humour is follicited to the legs. 
 
 The cure is almoft the fame with that of common 
 melancholy, fince it proceeds from the fame caufe, and 
 only differs in degree, and the commixture of the hu¬ 
 mours. For this reafon the melancholick humour, which 
 affeCls the fpirits in the head, and difpofes the brain to 
 the generation of the like fpirits, is to be corrected and 
 evacuated. Then the head is to be corroborated, and 
 its intemperature reduced to a due ftate, by moiftening 
 and moderate heating, or rather temperate cephalicks. 
 In this difeale copious venefeCtion is ufeful, either at one 
 time, or repeated intervals, as the condition of the patient 
 requires. But above all things deep is to be carefully 
 procured, fince nothing contributes more to the removal 
 of this diforder. Purgative medicines arc alfo to.be fre¬ 
 quently repeated. 
 
 The oppofite of this erratick melancholy is the apo- 
 pleftick melancholy; for, as in the former the patients 
 are reftlefs and wander about from place to place, fo in 
 the latter every circumftance is reverfed ; for the patients 
 appear ftupid,' and, being apparently deftitute of a lo- 
 Vol. 11 . No. 49, 
 
 M E L 
 
 comotive quality, feem to be fixed to a particular place. 
 When they lie, they care not for ereCting themfelves ; 
 when they lit, they care not for riling ; and, when they 
 Hand, they will not walk, except forced to it. 
 
 They do not fhun men ; but, though prey feem atten¬ 
 tive to what is faid to them, yet they make no anfwer to 
 it, and being penfive and wrapped up in the contempla¬ 
 tion of other things, they do not attend to the objects of 
 fight and touch. They deep and watch by intervals, eat 
 their aliments when held to their mouths, drink like 
 other people, and in thefe and the like things are pretty 
 tradlable, and cafilv managed. 
 
 There is a great difference between a catoche and apo- 
 plettick melancholy ; fince the former generally feizes- 
 the patient luddenlv, whilft the latter invades flowly. In 
 the former the patient is deprived of fenfation and mo¬ 
 tion ; whereas, in apopledtick melancholy, both thefe 
 arc retained, though the patient cannot ufe his fenfes fo 
 quickly as found perfons do ; becaufe their fancy, being 
 employed on certain obje£ls, cannot advert to others. 
 In a catoche the patients fometimes neither hear, fee, nor 
 feel ; whereas, in apople£tick melancholy, they do all 
 thefe, though they do not teftify in words, that they do 
 fo. In a catoche the patients generally have their mem¬ 
 bers retained in the ftate and pofition they are placed by 
 the by-ftanders ; whereas, in apopleftick melancholy, 
 the patient is capable of moving his members. Thole 
 alfo which labour under a catoche have their eyes open 
 and cannot fpeak, which fymptom is not obferved in 
 apoplettick melancholy. 
 
 MELANOGOGUES, fuch medicines as are fup- 
 pofed to be peculiarly adapted to purge off black bile -or 
 choler. 
 
 MELILOT, A/elilotus, inbotany, a plant with finooth 
 oval ferrated leaves, {landing three together, on {lender 
 pedicles, and round, ftriated, branched ftalks, terminated 
 by long fpikes of papilionaceous flowers drooping down¬ 
 wards, which are followed byfhort thick wrinkled pods, 
 containing each one or two roundifh feeds. It is annual 
 or biennial, and found in flower, in hedges and corn 
 fields, the greateft part of the fummer. 
 
 Melilot has been faid to be refolvent, emollient, ano¬ 
 dyne, and to participate of the virtues of chamomile. In 
 its fenfible qualities it differs very materially from that 
 plant; its talle is unpleafant, fabacrid, fubfaline, but not 
 bitter : when frefh, it has fcarcely any fmell; in drying, 
 it acquires a pretty ftrong one, of the aromatick kind, 
 but not agreeable. The principal ufe of the plant has 
 been in clyfters, fomentations, and other external appli¬ 
 cations : it formerly gave name to one of the officinal 
 plafters ; which received from the melilot a green colour 
 and an unpleafant fmell, without any addition to its 
 efficacy. 
 
 MELISSA, baum, in botany. See Baum. 
 
 MELODY, in mufick, the agreeable cffedl of different 
 founds, ranged and dilpofed in fucceffion ; lb that me¬ 
 lody is the effett of a fingle voice or inftrument, by which 
 it is diftinguilhed from harmony. See Harmony. 
 
 MELON, in botany, makes a diftimft genus of plants, 
 the flowers of which confift only of one leaf each, and 
 are wide at the mouth, and divided into feveral fegments, 
 wholly refembling the flowers of cucumbers : of thefe 
 alfo, fome are male orfterile flowers, having no embryo 
 fruit; others are fruitful or female flowers, having an 
 embryo, which ripens into a large fruit of an oval figure, 
 fometimes fmooth, fometimes rough, divided into three 
 cells, and containing oblong feeds ; each of thefe cells 
 feems alfo to be divided into two. 
 
 There are great varieties of melons, but the beft forts 
 we know of are the Romana and Cantalope melons, fo 
 called from the places where they have been firft propa¬ 
 gated in Europe, though they originally came from fome 
 parts of Alia. They are raifed on hot beds, nearly in 
 the fame manner as thofe of cucumbers; but the earth 
 in which they grow, fhould be much ftronger, and not 
 more than two plants to one light; thefe, as they ad¬ 
 vance in growth, fhould be trained thin and regularly, 
 fo as to prevent confufion among the branches, being 
 previoufly pinched off at the fecond joint, which pro¬ 
 duces lateral flioots, whole extremities fliould alfo be 
 pinched off when they have five or fix joints ; this will 
 occafion hefli branches to iffue forth, which produce the 
 I fruit; thefe branches Ihould likewife be pinched off at 
 E e the 
 
M E M 
 
 the joint beyond the fruit, which will help to fet them, 
 they being very liable, in bad weather, to turn yellow 
 and come to nought; therefore, they are not fet with 
 certainty till they are arrived to thefize of a hen’s egg. 
 Some, to let the fruit, ufe the method of taking the 
 male dower, and ftriking its farina into the eye of the 
 female flower, in order to impregnate tlte fruit, which is 
 very proper, paiticularly to thole early-raifed plants, 
 that can admit of but a (mail fhare of air being given 
 them on account of its coldnefs. 
 
 The fruit, when fully grown, fhould be often noticed 
 for their being cut at a proper time, which is known by 
 the flalk cracking round the parts which join to the fruit, 
 as iikewife by the fmell; but for thofe kinds of Canta¬ 
 loupe melons vvhofe rinds are thick, it is neceflary to let 
 them be on the branch a day longer than the other forts 
 after they have fhewn the marks of ripenefs; and if they 
 are cut early in the morning, before the fun has warmed 
 them, they will be much higher flavoured. 
 
 It may be neceflary to obferve, that the larger the glafles 
 are, the better it will be for the plants, and the greater 
 number of fruit will be obtained, which will alfo be larger 
 and richer flavoured than thofe railed in the contra&ed 
 glafles commonly ufed, which are not above four feet and 
 a half in depth, which greatly prevents the plants from 
 extending themfelves, and makes it neceflary either to 
 pinch them too dole, to keep them w ithin the frame, or 
 elfethebox muft be raifedto letthem out underneath when 
 the feafon wiil not admit of it, but this is to be under- 
 flood ol thole which are railed in February or March; 
 about fix feet is a very good width for a melon-frame. 
 
 The firlt l'eafon for fowling melon-feeds is in January, 
 and the laid the latter end of April or beginning of May. 
 The feeds of melons are reckoned among the greater 
 cold feeds; they are efteemed cooling and diuretick; they 
 ferve to make emulfions, but at prefent they are not fo 
 much noticed as formerly. 
 
 MELON GEN A, Mad-Apple, in botanv, a genus 
 of plants, whofe flower is monopetalous, with a fhort 
 tube, and the limb cut into five fegments, which are 
 plicated and reflexed; the ftamina are five fmall fubulated 
 filaments; terminated by oblong connivent anthera?. 
 The fruit is a fmooth, egg-fhaped berry, with a flefhy 
 pulp, having one cell, which contains a number of 
 roundilh comprefied feeds. A lpecies whofe fruit is white 
 and much refembling an egg, is railed with us in the 
 fpring, on a common hot-bed, from feed, and after¬ 
 wards tranfplanted in borders or pots as other annual 
 plants are ; thele are preferved merely for the fhew of 
 the fruit; but in the warm parts of the globe they are 
 eaten as a delicacy, which not in the leafl fuits an Eng- 
 lifh palate. 
 
 MLLON-Th i stle, Cciflus, in botany, a genus 
 of plants lhaped like a melcn, with deep ribs befet with 
 Itrong fpines, and of a green colour ; fome of which are 
 crowned with a prickly brown cap, which gives them a 
 fingular appearance. The flower is hexapetalous, and 
 fpreads open at the top, and the fruit is a flelhy berry 
 with one cell, containing a number of angular feeds. 
 Thefe plants are natives of the vvarmeft parts of America. 
 
 MEMBRANE, in anatomy, a pliable texture of fibres, 
 interwoven together in the fame plane. The membranes 
 differ in thicknefs, according to the fmallnefs of their 
 fibres, or the number of their planes. Thefe particular 
 planes are termed laminae, and are diftinguifhed into 
 internal, external, and middle. The difference of 
 membranes, in general, depends on that of the fibres of 
 which they are compofcd. Small portions of mem¬ 
 branes, efpecially when they arc very thin, are called 
 pellicles, and called the cellular or fpongv Jubilance. 
 
 MEMBRANOSUS, in anatomy, a mufcleothervvife 
 called fafeia lata. 
 
 MEMOIRS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of 
 hiftory, written by perfons who had fome fhare in the 
 tranfa£lions they relate, anfwering to what the Romans 
 call Commentarii, commentaries. 
 
 MEMORY, Mcmoria, a faculty of the human mind, 
 whereby it retains or keeps the ideas it has once per¬ 
 ceived. See Idea. 
 
 Memory (fays Mr. Locke) is, as it were, the flore- 
 houfe of our ideas ; for the narrow mind of a man not 
 being capable of having many ideas under view at once, 
 it was neceflary to have a repofitory, in which to lay up 
 
 M E N 
 
 thofe ideas which it may afterwards have ufe of. But 
 our ideas being nothing but aflual perceptions in the 
 mind, which ceafe to be any thing where there is no 
 perception ol them ; this laying up ol our ideas in the 
 repofitory of the memory, fignifies no more than this, 
 'hat the mind has a power, in many cafes, to revive 
 perceptions it has once had, with this additional per¬ 
 ception annexed to them, that it has had them before. 
 
 And it is by the aliillance of this faculty, that we are 
 faid to have all thofe ideas in our undeiHandings which 
 we can bring in fight, and make the fubje&s of our 
 thoughts, without the help of thofe fenfible qualities 
 which firfl; imprinted them there. 
 
 Attention and repetition help much to the fixing ideas 
 in our memories : but thofe which make the deepeft and 
 molt laftingimpreflions, are thofe which are accompanied 
 with plcafure and pain. Ideas but once taken in, and 
 never again repeated, are foon loll; as thofe of colours, 
 in luch a; loll their fight when very young. 
 
 MENDICANTS, or begging friars, ieveral orders of 
 religious in Popilh countries, who having no fettled re¬ 
 venues, are lupported by the charitable" contributions 
 they receive from others. 
 
 MENIALS, in lawbooks, domeftick or houfhold- 
 fervants, who live under their lord or mailer’s roof. 
 
 MENINGES, orMENYNGES, in anatomy, a name 
 given to the dura and pia mater of the brain. See Du r a 
 Mater, &c. 
 
 AIENIPPEAN, inpoetry, a kind of fatyr, confift- 
 ing ol profe and verfe intermixed. 
 
 MENISCUS, inopticks, a lens convex on one fide, 
 and concave on the other. See Lens. For finding the 
 focus of a menifeus, the rule is; as the difference of the 
 femidiameters of the concavity and convexity, to the fe- 
 midiameter of the concavity; fo is the diameter of tilt 
 convexity to the focal diftance. 
 
 MENISPERMUM, Virginian ivy, in botany, 
 a genus of the hexandria trigynia clafs of plants, the 
 corolla whereof confifts of fix oyato-oblong, obtule, 
 hollow, eredlo-patent petals; the fruit is compofed of 
 three oval berries, each containing a fingle cell, and in 
 it a large, fingle, lunated, compreffed feed. It is to be 
 obferved, that the parts of fructification vary extremely 
 in this genus. J 
 
 MENNONITES, a feCt of baptifts in Holland, fo 
 called from Mention Simonis of Friezland, who lived 
 in the fixteenth century. This left believe, that the 
 Nevv Teftament is the only rule of faith ; that the terms 
 Perlon and Trinity are not to be ufed in fpeaking of the 
 Father, Son, and Holy Ghollj that the firfl man was 
 not created perfect; that it is unlawful to fwear or to 
 wage war upon any occafion ; that infants are not the 
 proper fubjeCls of baptifm ; and the miniflers of the 
 gofpel ought to receive no falary. 
 
 MENO LOGY, the Greek calendar, in which the 
 lives of the faints in Ihort, or barely their names, are 
 cited ; anfwering nearly to the martyrology of the Latin 
 church. See Martyrology. 
 
 MENSES, Fluors, Courses, Catamenia , in medi¬ 
 cine, the monthly evacuations from the uterus of women 
 not with child and not giving fuck. 
 
 Among the natural actions which prepare proper juices 
 and matter for carrying on the vital motions, may be 
 reckoned this menftrual purgation of women, fince bv 
 means thereof the fuperfluous and redundant blood is 
 evacuated, that what remains in the veins may circulate 
 with greater freedom, and be the more effectually de¬ 
 purated. This evacuation is occafioned by the redun¬ 
 dance of that fluid in women and the peculiar ftrufture 
 of the uterus; and as it is of great importance to health, 
 fo it is the means by which the foetus is nourifhed. The' 
 ancient phyficians, and the generality of the modern 
 ones, aferibe the periodical return of this flux to the in¬ 
 fluence of the moon, or to the lunar phafes. The 
 quantity of blood thus evacuated cannot be exactly and 
 accurately afeertained, for it varies in women of different 
 ages, methods of life, and conftitutions. 
 
 SuppreJJion of the Menses. Boerhaave obferves, that 
 in a fuppreflion of the menfes there is a plethora, with a 
 liftleffnefs of motion, a heavinefs, a palenels, a pain of 
 the loins and of the groin ; all the fun&ions, whether 
 natural, vital, or animal, are depraved; fometimes the 
 menfes will force a way through the eyes, ears, noltnls, 
 
 gums, 
 
MEN 
 
 gums, tin* falival dufts, the oefophagus, from the alvus, 
 biadder, breads, ikin, wounds or ulcers. Hence often 
 ariles a depravation of all the vifcera, as alfo difeafes with¬ 
 out number, partly from a putrefaftion already -begun, 
 and partly from the hurt which the veflels have received. 
 
 I lungs winch retard the menfes are immoderate cold, 
 forrow, a fudden fright, too great evacuations, incraflat- 
 ing diet, a crudity of the humours, acids, and aftrin- 
 gent medicines. 
 
 This diforder, according to Sydenham, is to be cured 
 in the fame manner as the hyftcrick affeftion, but if the 
 remedies for that fail, the patient muft take every morn¬ 
 ing five fpoonfuls of hyfterick julap with twelve drops of 
 fpirit of hartfhorn ; and every night one fcruple of 
 powder of myrrh camphorated, made into a bolus or pills 
 with the firup of orange peels. Allen recommends can- 
 tharides and camphor: the dofe is from two grains to fix. 
 Hoffman direfts chalybeats, or pills made of aloes, myrrh, 
 faffron, amber, caftor, and round birthwort. Pitcairn 
 thinks mercury more efficacious than fteel. If the fluids 
 are inclinable to flagnate, their fluidity may be preferved 
 by fomentations and friftions of the feet, by opening a 
 vein in the foot, and bleeding elfewhere, by giving ute¬ 
 rine purges, by emenagogues, by plafters, fomentations, 
 liniments, vapours and heat, by ftrengthningthe veflels 
 debilitated with a plethora by chalybeats and aftringents. 
 See the articles Foment ation, Friction, Lini¬ 
 ment, &c. 
 
 MENSTRUUM, or Dissolvent, in chymiftry, 
 a body which, when artificially applied to another, di¬ 
 vides its fubtility, fo that the particles of the folvent re¬ 
 main thoroughly intermixed with thofe of the folvend. 
 
 It was called a menftruum, becaufe the chymiils, in its 
 application to the folvend, firft ufed a moderate fire, for a 
 philofophical month, or forty days; and hence arofe 
 the name of menflrual folvent, at length barely a men¬ 
 ftruum. 
 
 It is the property of a menftruum to be itfelf equally 
 diffolved, when it diflolves the folvend ; but when the 
 folution is perfected, it may fometimes happen that the 
 folvent and folvend ffiall feparate. The divided parts, 
 therefore, of the folvent, muft infinuate itfelf among the 
 arts of the folvend, fo as to divide and dilTolvc the 
 ody. Hence it appears, that the actions of menftruum 
 differ from all mechanical reparations, where the inftru- 
 ment, fuch as a knife, fword, or law, while it divides, is 
 not itfelf divided, but remains almoft entire. But there 
 is fomc reafon to fufpeft, that the Angle particles of a 
 menftruum aft like mechanical inftruments, by the pro¬ 
 perties of their own proper fize, figure, hardnefs, and 
 gravity. Every menftruum, while it diffolves, is nccef- 
 farily divided into invifible particles, and muft therefore 
 be fluid in the aftion ; and when the diffolution is com¬ 
 pleted, the folvent and folvend muft become one fluid. 
 
 Cuftom has given the name of menftruums to many 
 bodies of a hard and confident nature, though in that flate 
 they cannot aft as folvents; and hence the chymifts have 
 divided ipenftruums into folid and fluid. 
 
 Dry or folid menftruums may be again divided into five 
 claffes, which, according to Boerhaave, are as follow': 
 i. The fix metals, gold, lead, lilver, copper, iron, and 
 tin, which aft upon one another after being fufed in the 
 fire, and may be intimately mixed, fo as to make an ap¬ 
 parently homogeneous mafs, every particle of which holds 
 the fame proportion of a different metal as the whole: for 
 if ten ounces of fib er be thus mixed with an ounce of 
 gold, and a grain of this mafs be given to an affay-mafter, 
 he will difeover that it contains one eleventh part gold, 
 and ten parts filver. 2. The femi-metals, as antimony' 
 bifmuth, cinnabar, marcafites, and zinck, which, when 
 melted, mix with one another or with metals; but when 
 thus mixed they are no longer malleable, but may eafily 
 be reduced to powder. 3. Thedryfalts, as alum, borax, 
 nitre, fal-ammoniack, lea-lalt, vitriol, fixed alkali, and 
 mercury fuhlimate, which may be fubtilly divided by fire, 
 and intimately mix with one another, with metals, femi- 
 metals, and other things. 4. Hard foffile lulphureous 
 bodies, as fulphur vivum, common brimftone, avfenick, 
 orpiment and cobalt. 5. The foffile bodies, called by re¬ 
 finers cements, which confift of falts, fulphur, and brick, 
 reduced to dry powders, and ftrewed betwixt plates of 
 metals, in order to raife their colour, or feparate one me¬ 
 tal from another. 
 
 M E N 
 
 Some menftruums being left to themfelves, after folu¬ 
 tion concrete into a hard mafs, which, though compound¬ 
 ed, appears of an uniform limple nature. In this manner, 
 if melted lead be mixed with tin, they unite, as water with 
 water, or mercury with mercury. The cafe is the fame in 
 all the metals, and in fomc of the femi-metals. Thus if 
 a fcruple of regulus of antimony be added to a pound of 
 melted tin, the mafs when cold will appear uniform, but 
 become entirely brittle, lb fixed alkali unites with fand 
 in the fire; and fulphur and mercury, by being ground 
 together, turn to a black and dry powder, which being 
 fublimed produces an apparent fimplc body, called cinna¬ 
 bar. Many become an hard, and fometimes a dry body. 
 Thus aim oft all the menftruums of metals unite with 
 their refpeftive metals into folid vitriols : and thus ftrong 
 dillilled vinegar, when it has diffolved ffiells, chalk, and 
 llony fubftances, feparates from its water, and together 
 with the body it diflolves, forms a dry hard mafs. 
 
 Numerous menftruUrns have a liquid form before they 
 aft as folvents; as vinegar, water, i'aline, acid, alcalme 
 and compounded lpirits, alcaline oils per deliquium, 6cc. 
 Some menftruums become liquid after the folution, and 
 continue fo with the folvent. Thus in the diffolution 
 of five of the metals with fimple mercury a foft paftc is 
 produced, which may indefinitely be diluted by the ad¬ 
 dition of more mercury ; but there is fcarcely any known 
 method of reftoring this amalgama to its fofidity. All 
 the liquid menftruums, after having diflolved metals in 
 a large proportion, cannot eafily be dried ; whence many 
 have imagined thefe folutions to be fixed metallick oils, 
 and in vain fought fecrets in them. 
 
 It is now eafy to obferve that many menftruums unite 
 bodies as well as feparate them ; for frequently after the 
 diffolution the particles of the menftruum preiently join 
 with thofc ot the folvent, and produce a new compound, 
 often very different from the nature of the fimple refolvcd 
 body. The parts howe\cr of the folvent, after its con¬ 
 cretion, no longer touch one another, but are feparated 
 by the interpofition of the particles of the matter dillblved : 
 and the particles which before conftituted the folvend are 
 feparated by the interpofition of the particles of the fol- 
 vent. Hence it is plain that the parts of the menftruums 
 apply themfelves to the parts of the folvend; and a certain 
 caufe is here required to make the particles of the folvent 
 fly from one another and approach the particles of the 
 folvend, rather than remain in their former fituation 
 The like caule leems to be required to make the particles 
 of the folvend, now feparated, remain united with the 
 parts of the menftruum, rather than fuffer the diffolving 
 and diffolved particles to unite by their natural affinitv 
 into homogeneous bodies. This caufe muft be fought 
 in the folvend as well as in the folvent, for the aftion is 
 reciprocal. Thus while aqua regia diffolves thrice its 
 weight of gold into a yellow liquor, the particles of gold 
 are united with the aqua regia, and remain iufpended in 
 it, though gold be eighteen times heavier than aqua regia. 
 Whence there muft be a mutual correfponding power 
 between the particles of the gold and aqua regia, whereby 
 they aft upon, embrace and detain each other, other- 
 wife the particles of gold would fall to the bottom, the 
 laline particles reft upon them, and the water float over 
 both. If we were to deduce the caufe from fimilitu.de of 
 lubftance, the aftion of diffolution feems to be performed 
 by a certain power of the parts of the menftruum to at- 
 traft the difl'olving parts rather than to repel them ; and 
 is not a mechanical aftion, or unfriendly commotion, 
 but rather an appetite of union. Thus, in a violent 
 folution, the agitation, heat, biffing and tumult ceafe 
 when all the parts of the folvend have united with thofe 
 of the folvent, as appears in throwing a piece of iron 
 into weak aqua fortis. 
 
 The whole folvent never afts at once on the whole 
 folvend, only thofe particles of the folvent which touch 
 fome others of the folvend aft firft; and thefe being fepa- 
 iated, frefti particles of the menftruum apply themfelves 
 to others of the folvend ; therefore part of the menftruum 
 afts upon that part of the body which it ftrikes off and 
 feparates; but the conflift made in this feparation excites 
 a greater motion in the menftruum, by which means 
 other parts of the menftruums are agitated and applied to 
 other parts of the folvend. 
 
 Fire excites, promotes, and increafes the aftion of 
 menftruums; for in extreme cold lolutions are either not 
 
 made 
 
MER 
 
 made or made but flowly, but they are foon performed 
 by the afliftance of heat: fome menflruums require a 
 flrong heat, as mercury, before it will diffolve metals : 
 l'ome a fmaller; thus fal armoniack, fea-falt, and fait of 
 tartar eafily diffolve in water : fome menftruunis a£t with 
 a moderate heat, but lole their dilfolving power, or even 
 acquire a power of coagulating, by a ftronger; thus 
 warm water dilfolves the white of eggs, which boiling 
 coagulates. 1 his effe£t of fire feems to be produced, 
 i. By impelling, moving and agitating the menflruum 
 in the manner of a mere mechanical motion. 2. By 
 its general power of expandingthe l'ubflanceof all bodies". 
 3. By leparating the parts fo as to fet them further afun- 
 der. In raoft cales the heat is increafed during the l'olu- 
 tion, and even the action of thole menflruums is aug¬ 
 mented by heat, which generate a great degree of cold 
 in the folution ; thus fal ammoniack dilfolves foonefl in 
 warm water. 
 
 Sir Il'aac Newton accounts for the adlion of men¬ 
 flruums, from the acids wherewith they are impregnated, 
 which are found to be endued with a flrong attractive 
 force, wherein their activity confills. See Acid. 
 
 Menstruum, in pharmacy, chiefly denotes a body 
 that will extraft the virtues of ingredients by fuiion, de- 
 coCtion, &c. 
 
 Menstruum Peracuium, a menflruum which Mr. 
 Boyle extracted from bread only, that would prey even 
 on glafs, and perform many things which aqua-fortis 
 would not. 
 
 With this he drew tinCtures from coral, lapis hema¬ 
 tites, granates, diamonds, and rubies. 
 
 Univerful Menstruum. See Alkahest. 
 
 MENSURA I ION, Menfuratio , in general denotes 
 the aCt or art of meafuring lines, fuperficics, orfolids. 
 
 MENTHA, Mint, in botany. See Mint. 
 
 MENTZELIA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flower confifls of five patent petals, with many fetaceous 
 erect ftamina : the fruit is a long cylindraceous capfule, 
 with one cell, containing many fmall feeds. 
 
 MERCATOR’s Chart, a projeCtionof the earth’s 
 fuperficies in piano, where the meridians are flraight 
 lines, parallel to, and equidiflant from, each other. The 
 parallels of latitude are alfo flraight lines, and parallel 
 to one another, but the diftance between them increafes 
 from the equinoctial towards either pole, in the ratio of 
 thefecant of the latitude to the radius. See Mercator s 
 Sailing. 
 
 MERCHANT, a perfon who buys and fells com¬ 
 modities in grofs, or deals in exchanges; or that traflkks 
 in the way of commerce, either by importation or ex¬ 
 portation. Formerly, every one that was a buyer or 
 feller in the retail way, was called a merchant, as they 
 Hill are both in France and Holland; but here, fhop- 
 k'cepers, or thofe who attend fairs or markets, have loft 
 that appellation. 
 
 MERCURIAL, fomething confiding of, or relating 
 to, mercury. 
 
 MERCURIALS, Mercury, in botany, a genus 
 of the dioecia-hexandria clafs of plants, with an apeta- 
 lous flower, confifting only of ftamina : the fruit is a large 
 trilocular capfule, with two compreffed feeds in each cell. 
 
 MERCURIFICATION, in chymiftry, the method 
 of feparating the mercuries of metals, which is moft eafily 
 effected by means of a burning-glafs ; for the metal being 
 placed in its focus, its mercurial parts are faid to fly off 
 in fmoke, which when condenfed and collected, appears 
 to be true quickfilver. 
 
 MERCURY, in natural hiftory, a femi-metal na¬ 
 turally fluid, and the heaviefl of all known bodies ex- 
 ccpt gold : it is fo perfectly homogeneous and Ample in 
 its nature, that it is a queftion whether gold itfelf be more 
 fo : when perfectly purified, it appears the fame in all 
 its parts, as far as our utmofl tells can go, till we come 
 to that feverc trial, the folarflre. It penetrates the parts 
 of all the other metals, renders them brittle, and in part 
 diflolves them. It is wholly volatile in the fire, and may 
 be driven up in vapour by a degree of heat very little 
 greater than that of boiling water. It is the lead tena¬ 
 cious of all known bodies, for its parts feparate into more 
 minute ones of the fame figure, with the fmalleft force. 
 
 It is, indeed, the moft divisible of all bodies, for the 
 vapour, in form of which it riles in evaporation, is ai¬ 
 med too thin to be diftinguifhed from the ambient air, 
 
 2 
 
 M E R 
 
 yet this is pure unaltered mercury ; for if it is received 
 into cold water, it forms itfelf again into regular round 
 drops. Notwithdanding a fmall heat ferves to evaporate 
 mercury, yet it it be kept in a degree fmaller than that, 
 in a veflel carefully clofcd, a long continuance of that 
 heat w ill reduce it to a red calx in form of powder, and 
 this may be again revived into fluid mercury by a gentle 
 heat given it in dratiiication with charcoal-dull. If it be 
 placed in its crude date in the focus of a great burning 
 glafs, it is immediately dilfipated in fumes, and leaves 
 no remainder : but if indead of crude mercury, this red 
 calx be ufed, it runs into a kind of glad, and immedi¬ 
 ately afterwards evaporates, leaving a fmall quantity of 
 dulky powder behind, which, on being further urged by 
 the fame intenfc heat, vitrifies and flies off as the other 
 part had done : but if this calx be expofed upon a piece 
 of charcoal, the effect is the fame, as in giving it the 
 heat of a common fire with charcoal-dud, it runs into 
 liquid mercury, and immediately afterwards evaporates. 
 
 It appeals, therefore, that mercury, limple as it feems 
 to be is compolcd of avitrifiable earth, and a lulphur, 
 which lad gives it the brightnefs and appearance of metal; 
 for when robbed of this, it ccafes to be bright and me¬ 
 talline, and again recovers thofe qualities on its being 
 added again, though from no other fubdance than char¬ 
 coal. It is poflibl - to calcine mercury to luch a degree, 
 that it fliall bear heating red-hot in a crucible without 
 evaporation. The penetrating power of mercury is fo 
 great, that in lahvations, any thing of gold worn bv 
 the perfons, will be amalgamated with the fumes of it 
 palling through the ikin, and will be rendered white and 
 loft by it. 
 
 It cliffolves very readily in the ftronger acid mendrua, 
 and what is very lingular, in aqua fortis and aqua regia 
 indifferently, while the other metals in general that are 
 foluble in one of thefe, arc not to be affeCtcd by the other. 
 W ith oil of vitriol, it yields us the yellow emetick pow¬ 
 der called turbith mineral; and with ipirit of fea-falt, 
 corrofive fublimate. 1 he fpecifick gravity of pure mer¬ 
 cury is to water as 14020 to 1000 ; and as it is the heavied 
 of all fluids, it is alio the coldelt; common water is 
 much more cold to the touch, under the fame circum- 
 flanccs, than fpirit of wine, and confequently, mercury 
 than either; and when heated, mercury is in an equal 
 degree the hotted of all fluids ; that heat, which given 
 to water would fcarce be felt by the flefli, will burn it if 
 given to mercury. 
 
 Mercury readily mixes with gold, filver, lead and tin, 
 among the metals, and with zink and bifmuth, among 
 the fern i-metals. See Amalgamation-. 
 
 But notwithdanding this, it does not eafih blend with 
 any other fubdance, except by the means of fire, or of 
 trituration: by either of thefe methods, it may be blended 
 intimately with fulphur; by the former, into a red matter; 
 by the latter, into a black powder, called ZEthiop’s mi¬ 
 neral. No drug ought to be fo carefully examined as to 
 its purity as mercury, as none is fo frequently fophifli- 
 cated. The weighing it hydrodatically is the fureit of 
 all means to find out this adulteration; or it may be 
 difeovered by evaporating a little of it, to try if any 
 thing will remain behind : or when it is adulterated in 
 the common way with lead, by grinding it in a mortar 
 with vinegar. This mild acid is a mentlruum for lead, 
 though not for mercury, and confequently if there has 
 been lead mixed among the mercury, it will grow fweet 
 to the tade, but if the mercury be pure, it will remain 
 unaltered. 
 
 The ores of mercury are of various kinds, but the mod 
 general one is known by the name of cinnabar, which 
 very readily parts with its quickfilver, on its being 
 didilled in a glafs retort, with the addition of quick lime 
 or iron-filings. In many places it is feparated by bury¬ 
 ing certain earthen veffels in the earth, and inverting 
 into them others containing cinnabar, and dopped with 
 a bundle of inols ; when a fire being made about thefe, 
 the quickfilver runs through the mols, and is faved in 
 the under veflel. The fulphur is not fo eafily feparated 
 from this mineral in its proper form, but if it be boiled 
 in a flrong lixivium of wood-afhes, and didilled vinegar 
 be added to the clear liquor, it will be precipitated. 
 
 Mercury is not only found in cinnabar, and other ores, 
 but is fometimes met with in its pure and fluid date, 
 lodged in the accidental cavities of hard done ; for when 
 
 the 
 
MER M E R 
 
 the workmen who fe.arch for its ore accidentally break 
 into theft cavities, it runs out like water. The unhappy 
 creatures who work in thele mines feldom live more than 
 three, or four years, and then die in a molt miferabJe 
 manner ; and the people who work it in any other man¬ 
 ner in abundance, and for a conftancy, are as certain of 
 mifehief from it, being always afflicted with pallies and 
 tremblings of the limbs. We have alfo had abundant 
 experience from the common mercurial unguents, and 
 from the method of taking it internally, that when proper 
 care has not been taken, terrible confluences have en- 
 fued. But, under proper regulations, it is a moll pow¬ 
 erful and noble medicine. 
 
 Crude mercury is a principal ingredient in many com- 
 politions of the fhops, and given with fuccefs in the moft 
 llubborn diforders. 
 
 Preparations of Mercury. The chief preparations 
 of mercury now in ufe are the following: i. AEthiops 
 mineral: 2. Factitious cinnabar : 3. Turbith mineral: 
 4, White precipitate : 5. Corrolive mercury fublimate: 
 6. Mercurius calcinatus, commonly called precipitate per 
 fe : 7. Red mercurial corrolive : 8. Coralline mercury : 
 and, 9. Mercurius dulcis. 
 
 Corrolive mercury fublimate, or white corrolive mer¬ 
 cury, is prepared in the following manner : take of pu¬ 
 rified mercury, 40 ounces ; of fea-falt, 33 ounces; of 
 nitre, 28 ounces ; and of calcined green vitriol, 66 ounces. 
 Rub the quickfilver firft in an ounce or more of cor¬ 
 rolive fublimate, in a wooden or ftone vefl'el, till it be 
 broken into fmall grains; then mix with it the nitre, 
 afterwards the fea-falt, till the mercury quite difappears ; 
 laftly, add the calcined vitriol, but do not rub the mix¬ 
 ture too long with it, left the quickfilver Ihould begin 
 to part again : put the whole into a matrals with an 
 alembick-hcad, and fublime it. The corrolive fublimate 
 will be found in the head, and a fpirit in a fmall quan¬ 
 tity will run into the receiver. This is a terrible poifon, 
 and corrodes every part it touches as it goes down into 
 the ftomach; it is therefore only ufed externally, for 
 eating down proud flelh, and cleanling old and foul ulcers. 
 Mercurius calcinatus, or calcined mercury, commonly 
 called precipitate per fe, is thus prepared : let purified 
 mercury upon a land-heat for lcveral months, in a glafs 
 veflel with a broad bottom, and a fmall aperture to let 
 in the air, till it be reduced to a red powder. This pre¬ 
 paration is in great efteem in all cafes in which mercu¬ 
 rials are proper : two or three grains are generally given 
 for a dole. Red mercurial corrolive, improperly called 
 red precipitate, is thus prepared : take any quantity of 
 purified mercury, put it into a fiat-bottomed glafs, and 
 add to it an equal quantity in weight of aqua-fortis : fet 
 the mixture in a land-heat till all the moifture is evapo¬ 
 rated, and the mafs at bottom has acquired a fine red 
 colour. This is a mild efcharotick, and is ufed in eating 
 down carnofities and proud fielh in ulcers, which it per¬ 
 forins with very little pain. 
 
 Coralline mercury, or arcanum corallinum, is thus 
 prepared ; pour upon the mercurial red corrolive thrice 
 its weight of reiftified fpirit of wine, and digeft them to¬ 
 gether two or three days in a gentle heat, often fhaking 
 the veflel; then fet fire to the fpirit, ftirring the powder 
 continually till the fpirit is quite burnt away. This 
 powder is given in fmall doles of two or three grains. 
 
 Mercury, g, in aftronoray, the fmallell of the 
 planets, and the neareft the fun. See Planet. Its 
 mean dillance from the fun is 387 of fuch parts of which 
 the earth is 1000, its eccentricity is 80 of fuch parts. 
 The inclination of its orbit is 6° 54 ; it performs its 
 revolution round the fun in 87 days, 23 hours, 16' ; its 
 greatell elongation is about 28° 46'. The place in the 
 ecliptick for the afeending node is in 14 0 42' of Taurus. 
 Its diameter to that of the earth is as 3 to 4 : and there¬ 
 fore the globe of Mercury will be to that of the earth as 
 2 to 5. 
 
 Mercury, in the fame manner as Venus, alwavs keeps 
 liimfelf in the neighbourhood of the fun, and never re¬ 
 cedes from him fo far as Venus does; he hides himfelf 
 fo much in the fplendor of the fun’s rays, that he is but 
 feldom feen by us on the earth : but fince the invention 
 of telelcopes, he has been frequently oblerved, when in 
 conjunction with the fun, to pafs over his difk like a 
 black fpot. The exceeding brightnefs by w'hicli Mercury 
 outlhines all the planets, does evidently prove him to be 
 Vol. II. No. 49. 
 
 much nearer the fun than any of the reft ; for the nearer 
 any body is to the fun, tlv greater illuftration it receives 
 from him. From all this it is evident, that Mercury 
 docs likewife go round the fun in a Ids orbit, included 
 within the ot bit of Venus. 
 
 Mr. Azout pretends that, though Mercury is fo near 
 the lun, the light there is not capable of burning any 
 objefts. But Sir Ifaac Newton makes the heat of 
 Mercury fo great, as to be feven times as much as the 
 heat of our fummer fun ; which he found, by expcriiru 1 its 
 defignediy made by the thermometer, is enough to make 
 water boil. And, therefore, if bodies will not be there 
 enkindled by fuch a degree of heat, it mull be becaule 
 their degree of denlity is proportionably greater than 
 that of fuch kinds of bodies on our earth : wherefore, 
 undoubtedly, this fiery planet is uninhabitable by fuel! 
 creatures as live on our earth. 
 
 Dr. Halley, in his obfervations of Mercury feen in the 
 fun, A. D. 1677, at St. Helena, faith, that this planet 
 may be feen nine times iii tlie lun, near the afeending 
 node, A. D. 1710, 1723, 1736, 1743, *756, 1769, 
 1776, 1782, 1789, in O&ober; and four times hear 
 the other node, in tlie month of April, A. D. 1707, 
 
 1 753, 1786, 1799; all within this century. 
 
 Mercury, in heraldry, denotes the purple colour in 
 the arms of fovereign princes. 
 
 MERTDIAN, in aftronomy, a great circle of the 
 fphere paffing through the zenith, nadir, and poles of 
 the world ; dividing the fphere into two equal parts called 
 hemifpheres. 
 
 Meridian, in geography, a great circle palling 
 through the poles of the earth, and any given place on 
 its furface; lo that the celeftial and terreilial meridians 
 are both in the fame plane. 
 
 ^//Meridian, in geography, is that from whence 
 the reft are reckoned, and where longitude has its be¬ 
 ginning. As the fixing a firft meridian is a nratter purely 
 arbitrary, feveral perfons, nations, and ages have fixed it 
 differently, which has occafioned fomc confufion in geo¬ 
 graphy. The ancients made the firft meridian pafs 
 through the weftermoft place of the world then known ; 
 but the moderns, knowing that no place in the earth can 
 be elleemed the moft wefterlv, have laid afide the method 
 of computing the longitude of places from one fixed 
 point, and generally aflume the meridian of the capital 
 city of their country for the firft meridian. 
 
 Meridian of a Globe or Sphere, is the brazen circle 
 in which the globe revolves. See Globe. It is divided 
 into 360 degrees, beginning at the equinoctial ; from 
 which on the celeftial globe is reckoned the fouth and 
 north declination of the fun or liars, and on the terreftrial 
 the latitude of places north or fouth. There arc two 
 points on this circle called the poles, and a diameter 
 continued from them through the centre called the axis. 
 There are ulually 36 meridians drawn on a terreftrial 
 globe; one through every tenth degree of the equator. 
 The ufes of this circle are to let the globes to any lati¬ 
 tude, to lliew the fun’s or a liar’s declination, right 
 afeenfion, greateft altitude, £cc. 
 
 Meridian Line , an arch of the meridian of a place 
 terminated each wav by the horizon, or it is the inter- 
 feCtion of the plane of the meridian of the place with that 
 of the horizon. M. Caffini has diftinguilhed himfelf by 
 a meridian line drawn on the pavement in the church of 
 St. Petronio at Bologna, the largeft and moft accurate in 
 the world. In the roof of the church a thoufand inches 
 above the pavement, is a little hole, through which tlie 
 lun’s image, when in the meridian, falling upon the line, 
 marks his progrefs all the year. 
 
 To draw a meridian line. On a Imooth board deferibe 
 feveral concentrick circles, anderoCt an iron pin peipen- 
 dicular in the centre. Set this board horizontally in your 
 garden about nine o’clock ; (the bell time is, when the 
 fun is near the folftice, fupoofe about the 10th of June) 
 fee where the head of this iron pin, which muft be fharp 
 at the top, givetli its lhadow upon the board, mark that 
 place : then take a wooden ruler, fharp alfo at one end, 
 and lay it fo upon the fharp end of the iron pin, that the 
 lharp end of the ruler may touch the mark ; then, carry¬ 
 ing it fteady, mark the fegment of a circle towards the 
 north. Come again about three o’clock in the afternoon, 
 and mark.where the lhadow c; the top of the iron pin 
 is, in that fegment again. Then draw a line from thofe 
 F f two 
 
• M E S 
 
 two marks, which will be eaft and weft, and the per¬ 
 pendicular to that line will be a meridian; and, if you 
 halve that line, the perpendicular will go through the 
 centre of the whole circle : for that fegment is part of the 
 balls of a cone, whofe vertex is the top of the iron pin. 
 But becaufe the fun may be under a cloud, when you 
 come at three o’clock, you may make three or four more 
 fegments, and ule them as you ufed this. 
 
 This method would be very exa£t, if the fun moved 
 as the fixed ftars do ; but becaufe the fun hath a proper 
 motion, as a planet, there will be fome inconfiderable 
 error, which yet may be corrected ; for feeing the fun in 
 one minute of an hour moveth as much by his daily 
 motion, as lie lofeth in fix hours by his proper motion ; 
 you lhall add as much in the way which the fiiadow goes 
 in the laft mark, as that fiiadow moveth in one minute, 
 which you may meafure by your pulfe or pendulum ; fo 
 the laft point will not be taken juft in the fegment, but a 
 little without it. 
 
 Meridian Line , in dialling, a right line arifingfrom 
 the intcrfc&ion of the meridian of the place with the 
 plane of the dial. See Dial. This is the line of 12 at 
 noon, and from hence the di vifion of the hour-lines begins. 
 
 Mngnttical Meridian, that meridian in a loadftone 
 to which the needle of the mariners compafs, if not 
 otherwife hindered, conforms itfelf. 
 
 Meridian Altitude , the altitude of the fun or ftars 
 when in the meridian of the place where they are ob- 
 ferved : or an arch of a great circle perpendicular to the 
 horizon, and comprized between the horizon and ftar 
 then in the meridian of the place. For the method of 
 finding the meridian altitude of the fun or ftars, fee Ob¬ 
 servation. To find the meridian altitude of the fun, 
 &c. by a gnomon. See Gnomon. 
 
 MERIDIAN I, in antiquity, a kind of gladiators at 
 Rome who entered the arena about noon, after the befti- 
 arii, who fought againft beafts in the morning, wcn,t off. 
 
 MERIDIONAL Di/lance, in navigation, the lame 
 with departure, being the diftance meafured on the pa¬ 
 rallel of latitude intercepted between the meridian under 
 which the fhip now is, and any other meridian file was 
 under before. 
 
 Meridional Parts, Miles, or Minutes, in naviga¬ 
 tion, are the parts by which the meridians in mercator’s 
 chart incrcafe, as the parallels of latitude decreafe. See 
 Mercator' s Sailing. 
 
 MERIT, in theology, denotes the moral goodnefs 
 of the actions of men, and the reward due to them. 
 
 MERLON, in fortification, is that part of a parapet 
 which is terminated by two einbraffures of a battery. 
 Its height and thicknels is the fame with that of the 
 parapet ; but its breadth is generally nine feet on the in- 
 fide, and fix on the outfide. It ferves to cover thofe on 
 the battery from the enemy ; and is better when made of 
 earth well beat and clofe, than when built with ftone; be¬ 
 caufe they fiy about and wound thofe they fiiould defend. 
 
 MERMAID, or Merman, an imaginary animal, 
 fuppofed to be half human and half filh ; which pro¬ 
 bably took its rife from an imperfedl view of the thri- 
 chechus. 
 
 MESEMBRYANTHEMUM, fig-marigold, in bo¬ 
 tany, a genus of plants, whofe flower is monopetalous 
 and cut into many fpear-fhaped linear fegments, and 
 ranged in fcveral leries: the ftamina are compofed of a 
 great number of capillary filaments, terminated by in¬ 
 cumbent an the he : the fruit is a round flelhy capfule, 
 having fcveral cells, which are filled with finall roundifii 
 feed. There are great varieties of this genus, nioft of 
 which are natives of the Cape of Good-Hope; and are 
 prelerved in our green-houfes, either for the beauty of 
 the flowers of fome fpecies, or the agreeable variety of 
 the foliage of others: they are moft of them perennial 
 plants, and are eafily railed from cuttings in the fum- 
 mer months. This genus comprehends the ficoides of 
 Taurnefort. 
 
 MESENTERY, in anatomy, a thick fat membrane, 
 placed inthemidft of the inteftines, particularly of the 
 imailer ones, whence it has the name. Its fubftance is 
 compolld of membranes, fat veflels of all kinds, and in 
 the human body of a number of glands. In the upper 
 part, it is connected with the three luperior vertebra* of 
 the loins ; and in the lower, with the inteftines and 
 pa ticularly with the jejunum and ileum ; to which it 
 2 
 
 M E T 
 
 alio gives their outer coat. When it is fcpnrated from 
 the inteftines, it has feveral folds refembling gloves. Its 
 length, in the whole, is about three ells, but the inteftines 
 which are joined to it, arc at lealtfour times that length. 
 Its coats or membranes are two, and between thefe there 
 is a cellular fubftance which contains the fat: the rnefe- 
 raick veflels and glands are alfo placed there, wliich many 
 reckon a third coat of the mefentery, and that not im¬ 
 properly ; this they call the tunica ccllulola. 
 
 The veflels of the mefentery are blood-veflels, nerves, 
 laffeals, and lymphaticks. The blood-veflels are the 
 fame with thofe of the inteftines, and thefe make a mul¬ 
 titude of ftrange meanders, and have very frequent anaf- 
 tomofes. The nerves alfo come from the par vagum, 
 and the intercollals. 
 
 MESNE, in law, fignifies him who is lord of a ma¬ 
 nor, and who hath tenants holding of him, yet himfclf 
 holding of a fuperior lord. This word alfo fignifies a 
 writ, which lies where there is a lord-melne and tenant, 
 and the tenant is diftrained for l'ervices due from the 
 rnefne to the fuperior lord. 
 
 MESOCOLON, in anatomy, that part of the me¬ 
 fentery connected with the great guts, cfpecially the 
 colon. The mefocolon meets the midll of the colon, 
 to which it is joined. Its lower part flicks to a part of 
 the reftum. 
 
 MESOLABE, an inftrument ufed by the ancients for 
 finding tw'o mean proportionals mechanically, which they 
 could not effe<ft geometrically. It confided of three paral¬ 
 lelograms, moving in a groove to certain interfedlions. 
 
 MESOLOGAR 11 'HMS, according to Kepler, arc 
 the logarithms of the co-fincs and co-tangents, the for¬ 
 mer ot w hich were called by Lord Napier antilogarithms, 
 and the latter differentials. 'They are otherwife called 
 artificial fines and tangents. Sec Logarithm, Sine, 
 Tangents, 6cc. 
 
 MESPILUS, the medlar, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower confifts ol five roundifii concave 
 petals inlerted in the cup; the ftamina are from ig to 
 20 fubulated filaments, topped with finglc anther*. The 
 fruit is a globofe umbilicated berry, earn ing the cup on 
 its top; and contains five ofleous and gibbous feeds. 
 T his genus includes ther feveral fpecies of hawthorns, 
 the Glaftonbury thorn, and pyracantha. The fruit of 
 the common medlar is very grateful, though not eatable 
 till it is rotten. 
 
 MESSIAH, fignifies anointed. It is applied princi¬ 
 pally, and by way of eminence, to that fovereign Deli¬ 
 verer who w'as expe&ed by the Jews, and whom they 
 vainly expeft even to this day, fince he is already come 
 at the appointed time. They ufed to anoint kings, 
 high-priefts, and fometimes prophets. Saul, David., 
 Solomon and Joafh, received the royal umftion : Aaron 
 and his fons received the facerdotal, and Elifha, the 
 dilciple of Elijah, received the prophetick undlion, at 
 leaft God ordered Elijah to give it, 1 Kings xix. 16. and 
 therefore the name Mejjiah, or Anointed, is given to the 
 kings, 1 Sam. xii. 3, 5. and alfo to the patriarchs or 
 prophets, 1 Chron. xvi. 22. Pfal. cv. 15. But this 
 name chiefly belongs to Jefus Chri/l by way of excel¬ 
 lence, who w-as the objefi of the defire and of the expec¬ 
 tation of the faints. Hannah,, the mother of Samuel, 
 plainly alludes to Jefus Cbrijl , when, at the end of her 
 liymn, and at a time when there was no king in Ifrael, 
 file fays, The Lord Jht.ll give Jlrength to his King, and exalt 
 the horn of his Anointed , 1 Sam. ii. 10. See alfo Pfal. 
 ii. 2. and xlv. 7. Dan. ix. 25, 26. 
 
 The umftion that the prophets and the apoftles fpeak 
 of, when Jefus Cbrijl or his apoftles are underftood, is 
 the fpiritual and internal unftion of grace and of the 
 Holy Ghoft, of which the outward and fenfible uncF.on, 
 with which they anciently anointed kings, priefts and 
 prophets, was but the figure and fymbol. 
 
 METACARPUS, in anatomy, that part of the hand 
 between the wrift and the fingers. 
 
 Metacarpus, fignifies alfo a final], very flefhy 
 mufcles fituated obliquely between the large internal an¬ 
 nular or tranfverle ligament of the carpus'and the whole 
 infide of the fourth metacarpal bone. 
 
 METAGITNION, in chronology, the fecond month 
 of the Athenian year, containing 29 days, and an- 
 1 we ring to the latter part of our |ulv and beginning of 
 Auguft. 
 
 METAL, 
 
M E T 
 
 M'ETAL, Metallum, in natural hiftory, a hard, 
 fhining, mineral body, fufible by lire, concrefcible by 
 cold, dudlile, and capable of basing'amalgamated or in¬ 
 timately united to quickfilver/ There are properly but 
 fix metals, gold, filver, copper, tin, iron, and lead : to 
 which lbme have added mercury, though it agrees with 
 them in nothing but weight, and *heing found in the 
 bowels of the earth. Metals are divided into perfect and 
 imperfedt; perfcdl metals are thofe which undergo all 
 trials by fire, without any fenfible lofs ; fuch are gold 
 and filver, particularly the former : imperfect metals are 
 thofe which lofe much by being expofed to the fire, as 
 lead, tin, iron, and copper. 
 
 The charadleriftick of metals, is that of all known 
 bodies they are the heaviell. Dr. Halley found by ex¬ 
 periments the weight of gold to be to that of glafs, as 9 
 to 1 ; and the weight of tin, theligliteft of all metals, to 
 that of gold, as 7 to 19, which confiderably lurpaffes the 
 weight of all marbles, gems, he. nor is there any body 
 in nature but a metal, that is one third of the weight of 
 gold. The weight of fcveral metals, &c. having been 
 hydroftatically examined in air and water by the royal 
 focietv, they found that, taking the fame weights of gold 
 and water, the bulk of the former was to the latter, as 
 19636 to 1000; confcquently gold is to water, nearly 
 as 19 to r. As to the origin and formation of metals, 
 both ancient and modern philofophers are of various fen- 
 timents. Des Cartes takes metals to have ranged thern- 
 fclves from the beginning by the laws of gravity about 
 the centre. M- Tournefort thinks that metals, as well 
 as other minerals, have their origin from feeds, like 
 plants. Lidyat endeavours to prove all metals generated 
 by a lubterranean. heat, as many of them, when taken 
 out of the earth, are exceeding hot. Du Hamel fhews, 
 that metals do not take their rife either from any vapo¬ 
 rous exhalations, or from water or earth, as Plato 
 thought, but are generated of mercury, fulphur, and 
 fait. " Dr. Woodward maintains, that all metals, now 
 found in the ftrata of the earth, owe their prefent con¬ 
 dition to the deluge ; when he alfo imagines the ftrata of 
 Hone, earth, marble, &c. were formed. The fame in¬ 
 genious author complains of the great inconftancy in the 
 mineral and metallick kingdoms, neither the colour, 
 figure, nor fituation in the earth being to be depended on. 
 
 M. Geoftry, from a mixture of fulphur with a vi- 
 triolick fait, brought an iron, which he maintained to 
 be a compofition refulting from the alfemblagc of certain 
 principles which exifted leparately in the ingredients that 
 formed the metal: and, obferving that there were parcels 
 of this metal in the coloured allies of plants, &c. he con¬ 
 cluded that it might be forrped there too. 
 
 This M. Lemery the younger oppofed, who main¬ 
 tained that the iron contained in the allies of plants was 
 really exiftent in the plants themfelves, being railed in 
 their velfels along with the juices of the earth : and fur¬ 
 ther that all the ingredients whereof M. Geoffroy’s arti¬ 
 ficial iron w T as formed,, do really contain in themfelves 
 cither more or lefs. To this it was anfwered, that, in 
 what manner foever iron be procured from the feveral 
 ingredients feparately, there will ftill be found infinitely 
 lefs in them than when mixed, and that confequently the 
 mixture produces iron. 
 
 Hence it appears that vegetable matters contain the 
 principles of minerals. 
 
 Bath Metal, or Prince's Metal, a kind of fac¬ 
 tious metal of a beautiful yellow, and dilpofcd to receive 
 a fine polifli, luftre, he. It is prepared, according to 
 Dr. Shaw, as follows : take fix ounces of copper, melt¬ 
 ing it in a wind-furnace; add to it one ounce of zink : 
 then flirring the whole well together, pour out the metal 
 immediately. The copper and zink may be put into 
 the crucible together, if firft covered over with the black 
 flux, which prevents the evolution of the zink, or pre- 
 ferves its metalline form. 
 
 5 <?w. ; -Met als, metallick foflils, fufible by fire, and 
 not malleable in their purefl ftate. Thefe are all, in 
 their native Hate, penetrated by, and intimately mixed 
 with fulphur, and other adventitious matter, and re¬ 
 duced to what are called ores. Of this feries of foflils 
 there arc only five bodies, all naturally comprehended in 
 the fame dais, but each making a feparate and diftindl 
 genus: thefe are antimony, bifmuth, cobalt, zink, and 
 quickfilver. 
 
 M E T 
 
 Metal, in heraldry. There are two metals ufed in 
 heraldry, by way of colours, viz. gold and filver, in 
 blazon called or and argent. 
 
 METALLURGY, the art of preparing or working 
 metals, from the mineral or ore in the mine. 
 
 METAMORPHOSIS, the change of any thing into 
 another form. 
 
 METAPHOR, in rlietorick, a trope, by which we 
 put a ftrange word for a proper word, by reafon of its 
 refemblance to it: or it may be defined, a fimile or com¬ 
 panion intended to enforce and illuflrate the thing we 
 fpeak of, without the figns or fortns of companion. 
 Thus, if we fay, God is a fhield to good men, it is a 
 metaphor, becaufe the fign ofcomparifon is not exprefled, 
 though the refemblance, which is the foundation of the 
 trope, is plain ; for as a fhield guards him that bears it, 
 again!! the attacks of an enemy, fo the providence and 
 favour of God protects good men from malice and misfor¬ 
 tunes : but if the fentence be put thus, God is as a fhield 
 to good men, then it becomes a fimile or comparifon. 
 
 A metaphor may be formed from any thing that is the 
 objedt of any of our fenfes ; but that is generally the molt 
 agreeable and fprightly, which arifes from the l'enfe of 
 feeing; becaufe of all the fenfes, feeing is the mofl per- 
 fedl and comprehcnfive, the mofl: unwearied and inqui- 
 fitive, the mofl: defirable and delightful. Mr. Du Bofs 
 juftly obferves, that metaphors, and all the other figures 
 of rhctorick, ought to be adapted to the circumflances 
 and fituation of thofe for whofe ule they are defigned. 
 
 METAPHRASE, ulually fignifies fomething more 
 than either a tranflation or a paraphrafe; according to 
 Baillet, a metaphraft implies a tranllator, gloflator, and 
 interpolator altogether. 
 
 META PHY SICKS, Metaphyjica tranfnaturalis , on¬ 
 tology, or ontofophy, a fcience that treats of being, as 
 fuch, in the abftradl. All other lciences have a necel- 
 fary dependance on this, for it fupplics them with a 
 foundation and a method to proceed upon, without 
 which, our knowledge of any fubjedt mull be very con- 
 fufed and imperfedt. This was probably the reafon that 
 made Ariftotle flyle this fcience the true beginning of 
 philofophy, and the mofl: noble of all fciences. As it is 
 wholly converfant in the adls of the underftanding, it 
 raifes itfelf above the verge of fenfc and matter, by its 
 abflradted views. The quantity of bodies it refers to the 
 confideration of geometry, and their fenfible qualities to 
 natural philofophy, applying itfelf only to beings fepa- 
 rated from their individual Angularity, fuch as fubftances, 
 accidents, relations, and whatever elfe may be conceived 
 abftradlly from matter; but particularly beings purely 
 fpiritual, fuch as God, angels, and the foul of man : 
 hence Ariflotle terms it natural theology. The end 
 of this fcience is tire fearch of pure and abftradled 
 truth. 
 
 It calls a light upon all the objedts of thought aird 
 meditation, by ranging every being with all the abfolute 
 and relative perfedtions and properties, modes and at¬ 
 tendants of it, in proper ranks or dalles; and thereby 
 it difeovers the various relations of things to each other, 
 and what are their general or fpecial differences from 
 each other; wherein a great part of human knowledge 
 confifts : and, by this means, it greatly conduces to in- 
 llrudl us in method, or the difpolition of putting every 
 thing into its proper rank and clafs of being, attributes 
 or adlions; and hence its proper affinitv with logick. 
 See Method. 
 
 'I'his fcience, however it may leem to have been la¬ 
 boured, is yet capable of being further improved ; but it 
 has many obftacles in its way. If we are fhort lighted 
 in phyfical matters, which are nearer our fenle, and in a 
 manner within our view, how much more mull we be 
 bewildered in our fearch after fpiritual abftradled truths, 
 in the confideration of univerfals, and of things of a tran- 
 Icendant nature, fuch as fall properly under the confide¬ 
 ration of metaphvficks. This fcience proceeds in unfre¬ 
 quented and almoft unknown paths, containing very 
 few dodlrines of allowed and eftablilhed certainty ; few 
 principles in which men are univerfally agraed ; feavee 
 any juft definition, any exadl and complete divilion : 
 and confcquently affords large matter for doubts and dis¬ 
 putes. For, though metaphylical truths may be cer’a n 
 enough in their own nature, vet they are not ufually fo 
 to us; but being abftrufe things, and lying deep and 
 
 remote 
 
M E T 
 
 remote from fenfe, it is not every one that is capable of 
 comprehending them. 
 
 METAPLASMUS, in grammar, a tranfmutation, 
 as the changing the word by adding, retrenching, or 
 altering lome letter or l'yliable of it. 
 
 METAS BASIS, in medicine, a tranfpofition of fome 
 humour or difeafe from one part of the body to another. 
 
 METATARSUS, in anatomy,' a fldhy mal's lying 
 under the foie of the foot. 
 
 METATHESIS, in grammar, a fpecies of the meta- 
 plafmus ; being a figuic whereby the letters or lyllables 
 of a word are tranlpofed, or fluffed out of their ufual 
 iituation. as piftris for priftis, lybia for libva, he. 
 
 ME 1 EMPSYCHOSIS, the doXrineot tranl’migra- 
 tion, which fuppofes that human fouls, upon their leav¬ 
 ing the body, become the fouls of lucli kind of brutes as 
 they moll rel’emble in their manners. 
 
 MLTEMP 1 OSIS, aterm in chronology, expreffiiv? 
 the.folar equation, necelfary to prevent the new moon 
 from happening a day too late, by which it is oppofed to 
 proemptoiis, whichfignifies the lunar equation necelfary to 
 prevent the new moon from happening a day too foon. 
 
 ME 1 EOR, in phyfioiogy, an imperfcX, changeable, 
 and mixt body, or the relemblance of a body appearing 
 in the atmofphere, and formed by theaXion'of the hea¬ 
 venly bodies, out of the common elements. 
 
 ME 1 HOD, in logick, he. the arrangement of our 
 ideas in fuch a regular order, that their mutual con¬ 
 nexion and dcpendance may be readily comprehended. 
 See In e a and Kno wledge. 
 
 ME i HOD 1 S TS, M-'thodici, a lcX of ancient phy- 
 ficians, who reduced the whole healing art to a few 
 common principles or appearances. 
 
 The Methodifts were the followers of Theffalus, 
 whence they were called Theflalici. They were ftrenu- 
 oully oppoled by Galen in leveral of his writings; who 
 fcrupled not to alfert, that the methodical herefy ruined 
 every thing that was good in the art. 
 
 Quincy miftakenly ufes Methodjls, tnethodiei , for thofc 
 phylicians who adhere to the doXrine of Galen, and the 
 lchools ; and who cure with bleedings, purges, &c. duly 
 applied according to lymptoms, circumftances, he. in 
 oppolition to empiricks and chymifts, who ufe violent 
 medicines, and pretended fecrcts or noftrums. 
 
 Methodists, is alfo a namegiven, fomeyears ago. 
 to a fociety of religious men at Oxford, on account of 
 certain rules of conduX obferved by them in rcipeX to 
 religious and civil duties, and afterwards applied to others 
 who followed them. Thel'e foon diffented from each 
 other upon fome effential points of doXrine; one party, 
 adhering ftriXly to the articles of the church of Eng¬ 
 land. under the late Mr. Whitefield, Mr. Hervey, he. 
 and the other, cleaving to the Arminian tenets, under 
 the direXion of Meff John and Charles \V'efley. 
 Thefe Jail, from fome peculiarities and rules in their 
 fociety, are now properly known by the name of Metho- 
 dijis, and teem indeed, both in principles and praXice, 
 very far departed from the doXrines and canons of the 
 eftablilhed church. Some of this feX, a few years fince, 
 made a great noife upon the fubjcX of per r'efl ion, which 
 they held as certainly attainable in this life, and under 
 that notion fell into fo many extravagancies, that their 
 opinion has been juftly exploded.—The title has been 
 fometimes given, though very unfairly, to perfons of 
 the eftablilhed communion, who, by ftriXer lanXity of 
 life, or more rigid adherence to the 39 articles and 
 homilies, have been diftinguilhed from the world. 
 
 ME TOCHE, in ancient arcbiteXure, a term ufed 
 bv Vitruvius to fignify the l'pace or interval between the 
 dentiles. 
 
 ME TON ICK Cycle, in chronology, the fame with 
 the c\c!c of the moon. See Cycle. 
 
 METONYMY, in rhetorick, is a trope in which one 
 name is put for another, on account of the near relation 
 there is between them. 
 
 METOPE, Metopi /, in architeXure, is the interval or 
 fquare l'pace between the triglyphs of the Dorick frieze, 
 which, among the ancients, ul'ed to be painted or adorned’ 
 with carved work, reprel'enting the heads of oxen, or 
 utenfils ufed in facrifices. 
 
 Semi- Metope, in architeXure, is afpace in the corner 
 of the Dorick frieze, ibmewhat lei's than half a metope. 
 >IEi OPOSCOPY, the pretended art of knowing a 
 
 M I C 
 
 perfon’s di(pofitions and manners, by viewing the traces 
 and lines in the face. See Physiognomicks. 
 
 ME I R E, (Uet pia, in poetry, a fyftem of feet of a juft 
 length. See Numbers. 
 
 METRE I'ES, an ancient meafure of capacity, con¬ 
 taining a little more than nine gallons. 
 
 ME I RICAL. fomething relating to metre. 
 
 ME 1 ROPOL 1 S, the capital or principal city of a 
 county or province. 
 
 MEW, a place where a hawk is fet, during the time 
 file raifes her feathers. 
 
 MEWING, the falling off, or change of hair, fea¬ 
 thers, ikin, horns, or other parts of animals, which in 
 fome happens annually, in others only at certain ftages of 
 their lives: but the generality of beafts mew in. the fpring. 
 
 MEZEREON, in botany, a thrub common in our 
 gardens ; the flowers come out very early in the fpring, 
 betore the leaves appear, growing’in clufters all round 
 the fhoots of the former year. There are two forts of 
 mezereon, one producing white flowers with yellow ber¬ 
 ries, and the other having pink coloured flowers with 
 ted berries. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO, a particular manner of reprefent- 
 ing figures on copper, fo as to form prints in imitation 
 of painting in Indian ink. The manner of making 
 mezzotintos is very different from all other kinds of en¬ 
 graving and etching, fince inftead of forming the figuies 
 with lines and fcratches, made with the point of a graver, 
 or by means of aquafortis, they are wholly formed by 
 l'craping and burnilhing. 
 
 Mezzotintos are made in the following manner: Take 
 a vvcll-polilhed copper-plate, and beginning at the cor¬ 
 ner, rake or furrow the furface all over with a knife or 
 inftrument made for the purpoie, firfl one way and then 
 the other, till the whole is of a iegular roughnefs, with¬ 
 out the leaft fmooth part to be fecn ; in which Hate, if a 
 paper was to be worked off from it at the copper-plate 
 prefs, it would be all over black. When this is done, 
 the plate is rubbed over with charcoal, black-chalk, or 
 black-lead, and then the defign is drawn with white 
 chalk; after which, the outline 1 , are traced out, and the 
 plate finilhed by feraping off the roughnefs, fo as to leave 
 the figure on the plate. 1 he out-lines and deepeft lhades 
 are not feraped at all, the next lhades are feraped but 
 little, the next more, and l'o on, till the fliades gradually 
 falling off, leave the paper white, in which places the 
 plate is neatly burnilhed. By an artful difpoiition of 
 the lhades, and different parts of a figure on different 
 plates, mezzotintos have been printed in colours, lo as 
 nearly to veprefent very beautiful paintings. 
 
 MIASMA, among phylicians, denotesThe contagious 
 effluvia of pellilential dileafes, whereby they are commu¬ 
 nicated to people at a diltance. 
 
 MIC AH, or the Book of Mic ah, a canonical book of 
 the Old-Teftament, written by the prophet Micah, who 
 is the 1 'eventh of the twelve lels prophets. He is cited 
 by Jeremiah, and proplieffcd in the days of Jotham, 
 Ahaz, and Hczekiah. He cenfures the reigning vices of 
 Jerufalem and Samaria, and denounces the judgements 
 of God again ft both kingdoms. He likewile foretcls the 
 confuiion of the enemies of the Jews, the coming of the 
 Mcfflah. and the glorious fuccefs of his church. 
 
 and all 
 
 Angels, a feftival of the Chriliian church, obferved on 
 the twenty-ninth of September. 
 
 MICHELIA. in botany, a genus of plants, wliofe 
 flower conlifts of eighteen lanceolatcd petals, with many, 
 very lhort. fubulated filaments, topped with ereft 1 in ted 
 anthera? : the fruit is compofed of a number of globole 
 unilocular berries, each containing four feeds, convex 011 
 one fide and angulated on the other. 
 
 MICROCOSM, a Greek term, fignifying the little 
 world, ufed by fome for a man, as being fuppofed an 
 epitome of the univerfe, or great world. 
 
 MICROGRAPHY, the defeription ofobjcXs, too 
 minute to be viewed without the afliftance of a nnerofeope. 
 See Microscope. 
 
 MICROMETER, an aftronomical machine, which, 
 by means of a fere .v, lervcs to meafure extremely final! 
 diftances in the heavens, he. and that to a great degree 
 of accuracy. 
 
 The micrometer confifts of a graduated circle, (Plate 
 LYi.Jig. 2.) of a ferew qo, and its index qr. The 
 
 threads 
 
MIC* 
 
 threads of the ferew arc fuch that 50 make the length of 
 one inch exaCtiy. When it is to be ufed, the point 0 is 
 let to the fide of the part to be meafured, and then the 
 index is turned about with the finger, till the eye per¬ 
 ceives the point has juft pafted over the diameter of the 
 part; then the number of turns, and parts of a turn, 
 Ihewn by the graduated circle, will give the dimenfions in 
 part of an inch, as we lhail fhew by the following ex¬ 
 ample : Suppofe it required to meafure the diameter of an 
 human hair, and we obferve the index is turned juft 
 once round, while the point 0 palles over it. Then it is 
 plain, the diameter of the hair in the image is T ' 5 of an 
 inch. Now if the microfcope IDEF def\ magnifies 
 6 times, or makes the image 6 times larger in diameter 
 than the objeCt, then is the diameter of the hair itfelf but 
 'c °f?V» that is but T ' - c part of an inch. 
 
 Alfo, it is to be obferved, that as there arc ten large di- 
 vifions and 20 final 1 ones, on the micrometer-plate, fo 
 each of thofe fmall divifions are the-^ of T ' 5 , or the 
 part of an inch. Therefore, if, in meafuring any part of 
 an objeCt, you obferve how many of tliefe finaller divifions 
 are palled over by the index, you will have fo many 
 thoufand parts of an inch for the meafure required. 
 All which is fo plain, that nothing can be faid to illuftratc 
 the matter. 
 
 MICROSCOPE, an optical inftrument, by means 
 whereof very minute objects arc reprefented, exceedingly 
 enlarged, and are viewed very diltinCtly according to the 
 laws of refraCtion or reflection. 
 
 Microfcopes are either fmglc or double; a fingle mi¬ 
 crofcope is only a very fmall globule of glafs, or a fmall 
 double convex glafs, whole focal diftance is very fhort. 
 A minute objeCt pq (Plate LVII .jig. 7.) feen diftinCtly 
 through a fmall glafs A E by the eye put clofe to it, appears 
 fo much greater than it would to the naked eye, placed 
 at the leaft diftance q L from whence it appears luf- 
 ficiently diftinCt, as this latter diftance 7L is greater 
 than the former qE. For having put your eye clofe to 
 the glafs E A, in order to lee as much of the object as 
 poffibleat one view, remove the objeCt pq to and fro till 
 it appears moft diftinCtly, fuppofe at the diftance E7. 
 Then conceiving the glals AE to be removed, and a 
 thin plate, with a pin-hole in it, to be put in its place 
 (fig. 3.) the objeCt will appear diftinCt, and as large as 
 before, when feen through the glafs, only not fo bright. 
 And in this latter cafe, it appears fo much greater than 
 it does to the naked eye, at the diftance q L, either with 
 the pin-hole or without it, as the angle pEq is greater 
 than the angle p L q, or as the latter diftance q L is 
 greater than the former q E. Since-the interpofition of 
 the glafs has no other effect than to render the appearance 
 diftinCt, by helping the eye to increafe the retraCtion of 
 the rays in each pencil, it is plain that the greater ap¬ 
 parent magnitude is entirely owing to a nearer view than 
 could be taken by the naked eye. If the eye be fo per¬ 
 fect as to lee diftinCtly by pencils of parallel rays falling 
 upon it; the diftance, E7, of the object from the glafs, 
 is then the focal diftance of the glafs. Now if the glafs 
 be a fmall round globule whole diameter is T ‘ T of an inch, 
 its focal diftance E q being three quarters of its diameter, 
 is ^ of an inch; and if qE be eight inches, the ufual 
 diftance at which we view minute objects, this globule 
 will magnify at the rate of 8 to ,- 0 , or of 160 to 1. 
 
 In microfcopes made with fingle lenfes, a given object 
 placed at their principal focus’s will appear equally 
 diftinCt, if their linear apertures be as their focal diftances. 
 And in microfcopical lenfes, whole focal diftances are 
 not much longer than hall an inch, there is no need to 
 contraCt their apertures, for procuring diftinCt viiion; 
 the pupil itfelf being fmall enough to exclude the exterior 
 ftraggling rays. But in fmaller lenfes, where apertures 
 are necefiary to preferve the fame, degree of diftinCtnefs, 
 their diameters muft be as their focal diftances; and then 
 the apparent brightnefs will decreafe in a duplicate ratio 
 of their focal diftances, fo that by ufing finaller glafles 
 the apparent magnitude and the obfeurity of the object 
 will both increafe in the fame ratio. 
 
 A double microfcope is compofed of two convex glafles 
 placed at E and L. [fig. 8.) The glafs L next the ob¬ 
 ject PQJs very fmall and very convex, and confequently 
 its focal diftance L F is very Ihort; the diftance LQ^of 
 the fmall objeCt P Q^, is but a little greater than L F; fo 
 that the image pq, may be formed at a great diftance from 
 Voi,. II. No. 49. 
 
 M I C 
 
 the glafs, and confequently may be much greater than 
 the object itfelf. This piClure p-q, being viewed through 
 a convex eye-glafs AE, wliofe focal diftance is qE, ap¬ 
 pears diftinCt. Now the objeCt appears magnified upon 
 two accounts; firft, becaufe if we viewed its picture pq 
 with the naked eye, it would appear as much greater 
 than the objeCt, at the fame diftance, as it really is greater, 
 or as much as Lq is greater tfian LQj and fecondly, 
 becaufe this picture appears magnified through the eye- 
 glafs as much as the leaft diftance at which it can be feen 
 diftinCtly with the naked eye, is greater than qE, the focal 
 diftance of the eye-glafs. For example, if this latter ratio 
 be 5 to 1, and the former ratio of L q to LQ be 20 to 
 1, then upon both accounts the objeCt will appear 5 
 times 20, or 100 times greater than to the naked eye. 
 
 To fit theie microfcopds to fhort-fighted eyes, the 
 glafles E and L mull be placed a little nearer together; fo 
 that the rays of each pencil may not emerge parallel, but 
 may fall diverging upon the eye; and then the apparent 
 magnitude will be altered a little, but fcarce lenfibly. 
 
 Catadioptrick Microscope, is that which performs 
 its effeCts by reflection and refraCtion jointly; for it is 
 conftruCted with a fmall fpeculum fed (plate LVII. [fig. 
 5.) whofe focus is at/; and it is plain that, if a fmall ob¬ 
 jeCt ab be placed a little further from the fpeculum than 
 the focus there will be formed a large image thereof, 
 AB ; which image will be inverted, and in proportion 
 to the object as die diftance Ce to the diftance fe y as 
 when an objeCt-lens was ufed. 
 
 Part of this image is viewed by an eye-glafs FD, which 
 is, or ought to be a menifeus, as here reprefented; be¬ 
 caufe, the image being formed by reflection, it will be 
 more perfeCt, and admit of a deeper charge in the eye- 
 glafs DF; and thofe of the meml'cus form are belt for 
 this purpofe, becaufe the errors of the rays, and, confe¬ 
 quently, the confufion caufed thereby, -in the refraCtion 
 made at the convex furface, are in a greater meafure 
 rectified by the contrary refraCtion at the concave furface, 
 asiseafy to underftand from the nature of refraCtcd light. 
 
 Another fort of catoptrick or reflecting microfcope is 
 conftruCted with two fpeculums, abed and A BCD, 
 (fig. 2.) with a central hole in each. The large fpecu¬ 
 lum is concave, the other convex, and both of equal 
 fphericity. They have their focus at one inch diftance, 
 and placed at the diftance of if inch from each other, 
 that fo an objeCt O PQ^ being placed a little before the 
 fmall fpeculum, might be nearer to the large one than its 
 centre E. 
 
 This being the cafe, the rays PA, PD, which flow 
 from the point P to ;fie fpeculum AD, will be reflected 
 towards a focus />, where an image op'q would be formed, 
 if the rays were not intercepted by the convex fpeculum 
 ab ; and, the pointy being nearer than its focus f\ the 
 rays A a, D d, which tend towards it, will be reflected 
 to a focus P, where the lait in^age O PQ_will be formed, 
 to be viewed by the eye-glafs G, tranfmitting parallel 
 rays to the eye at I. 
 
 But a better form and eafier method of conftruCting' a 
 catoptrick microfcope, with two reflecting mirrours, is 
 that which follows. ABCDEF (fig. 6/ is a cafe" or 
 tube, in one end of which is placed a concave fpeculum 
 G H, with a hole I K in the middle; the centre of this 
 fpeculum is at c , and its focus at O, fo that VOrOc. 
 At the open end of the tube is placed a fmall convex 
 fpeculum def. on a foot eE, by which it is moveable 
 nearer to or further from the larger fpeculum GH, as 
 occafion requires. 
 
 If now the objeCt ah be pofited in the centre c of the 
 large fpeculum, the image thereof ab will be formed in 
 the place; and this confideration is all the reafon of this 
 form of a microfcope; for if now we look, upon the 
 image ab , as an objeCt nearer to the convex fpeculum 
 df than its focus/, it is plain a larger image A B will be 
 formed thereby at the focus C, or that the rays cG, c H, 
 proceeding from any point c in the objeCt i ab , will be 
 reflected back upon themfelves, as being perpendicular 
 to the fpeculum ; but the refraCtcd rays meeting with, or 
 impinging on, the convex furface of the fpeculum df 
 will, as they tend to a point c, nearer than the focus f\ 
 be reflected to a focus C. J 
 
 Solar Microscope, is a moft curious improvement 
 in opticks, and deferves to be greatly valued, as it is th- 
 beft method which nature will admit of, or art can fur- 
 
 G 8 ntfh. 
 
M I D 
 
 nifh, for magnifying and exhibiting very fmall tranfparent 
 obje&s to the view of fpeflators. 
 
 This mftrument confifts of feveral parts, viz. A, 
 (plate LVII. fig. 4.) a fquare frame of mahogany to be 
 fixed to the fhutter of a window, by means of the ferews 
 i, i. To this frame is applied a circular collar of the 
 fame wood, with a groove on its periphery on the out- 
 fide, denoted by 2, 3* This collar is connefted by a 
 cat-gut to the pulley 4 on the upper part, which is turned 
 round by the pin 9 within. On one part of the collar, 
 on the ourtide, is fattened, by hinges, a looking glafs G, 
 in a proper frame, to which is fixed the jointed wire, 6, 7 ; 
 by which means, and the ferew H 8, it may be made to 
 Hand in an angle more or lets inclined to the frame. In 
 the middle of the collar is fixed a tube of brafs C, near 
 two inches in diameter; the end of which, on theout- 
 fide, has a convex lens 5, to collect the fern-beams thrown 
 on it by the glafs G, and converging them towards a 
 focus in the other part, where D is a tube Aiding in and 
 out to adjutt the objedt to a due diftance from the focus. 
 
 This inttru menu has been contrived verycommodioutty 
 in feveral different forms ; but we (hall here illuftrate the 
 above by a diagram. A B {fig. 1.) is a fedtion of the 
 window-fhutter of a dark room, C D of the frame con- 
 taininga fcioptrick ball EF ; in the forepart whereof is 
 ferewed the tube G 1 KH, at the one end of which is a 
 lens G H, which, by converging the fun-beams into a 
 narrow compafs, does ltrongly enlighten the fmall objedt 
 ab, placed on a flip of glais. or otherwife, in the part 
 of the tube N Q_. where a llit is made on each fide for 
 that purpofe. Within this tube there Aides another 
 L m r M, which contains a fmall magnifying lens >n r. 
 By moving the exterior tube 1 G H K one wav and the 
 other, the glafs GH will be brought to receive the rays 
 of the fun diredtly, and will therefore moft inrenfely 
 illuminate the objedt ab. The other tube L M. being 
 Aid backwards and forwards, will adjutt the diftance of 
 the fmall lens m r, fo that the image of the objedt a b 
 ihall be made very diftindt, on the oppofite fide of the 
 room at OP; and the magnitude of the image will be 
 to that of the objedt, as the diftance from the lens m r is 
 to the diftance of die objedt from it, as is evident from 
 the figure. 
 
 It the linear dimenfions of the image be nicely taken 
 by an afliftant, with a graduated fcale of equal parts, the 
 dimenfions of the objedt will be known of courfe from 
 the diftances of the image and objedt from the lens ; and 
 in exceeding fmall objedts, fuch as the pores of cork, the 
 particles of blood, ammalcula in lemine, See. there is no 
 other way of meafuring them fo well: and thus the folar 
 microfcope becomes a micrometer in die laft degree of 
 polfible menfuration. 
 
 The great artifice and conveniency of this folar mi- 
 crofcopc is, that by means of the glafs G the oblique rays 
 of the fun are made to go ftraight along the dark room 
 parallel to the floor, inftead of falling upon it. By the 
 pulley 4, 5, the glafs is turned diredtly to the fun, and 
 by the jointed wire and ferew at H it is elevated or de- 
 prefled, fo as to bring the glafs into the pofition required. 
 Mr. Liberklum, a Pruffian gentleman, was the firft who 
 invented this method of magnifying objedts, but without 
 thclooking-glafs, which was afterwards added to it. The 
 theory of this contrivance and the raagick lanthorn is 
 the fame ; oniy here we make ufe of fun-beams inftead 
 of candle-light, and the objedt and magnifying lens of 
 the final left fize. 
 
 MID He aven, Medium Cecil , in aftronomy, that point 
 of the ecliptick which culminates or is in the meridian. 
 
 MIDDLE Latitude, in navigation, is half the 
 fum of two given latitudes. 
 
 Middle Latitude Sailing, denotes a method of work¬ 
 ing the feveral calcs in failing, nearly agreeing with Mer¬ 
 cator’s way, but without the help of meridional parts. 
 Sec Middle Latitude Sailing. 
 
 MIDRIFF, in anatomy. S’eeDi apiiragm. 
 
 MIDSHIPMEN, officers on board a ftiip, whofe 
 ftation, when on duty, is, fome on the quarter deck, 
 others on the poop, Sec. They are to mind the braces, 
 pals the word of command from the captain and other 
 fuperior officers. They all affift on occafion in navigating 
 the fiiip, flowing, rumaging, &cc. They are uluaily gen¬ 
 tlemen, who, having ferved tlieif time as volunteers, are 
 upon their preferment. 
 
 3 
 
 M I L 
 
 MIDSUMMER Day, the feftival of St. John the 
 Baptift, being the 24th of June. 
 
 MIGRATION, or Transmigration, denotes 
 the removal of any thing out of one place into another, 
 particularly of colonies of people, birds, Sec. into other 
 countries. 
 
 As to the migration of the fouls of men into other 
 animals, fee Met EM psychosis. 
 
 The fwallow, quail, ftork, crane, fieldfare, woodcock, 
 nightingale, Stc. are birds of paffage, or migration. Mr. 
 Derham* obferves two things remarkable hi tlieie crea¬ 
 tures : r. That fuch untaught, unthinking birds lhould 
 know the proper times when to come, and when to go ; 
 as alio, that fome lhould come when others go : and, 
 2. That they lhould know what way to fteer their courle, 
 and whither to go. Lud. de Beaufort remarks, that birds 
 in their migration obferve a wonderful order; they fly 
 in troops over huge unknown regions without a compafs,. 
 and they are peculiarly formed for long flights by the 
 ftrudture of their parts. Mr. Willoughby thinks the- 
 (wallows fly into Egypt and Ethiopia. Olaus Magnus 
 fays they lurk in holes or under water. 
 
 MILDEW, Rulig'j, a kind of dileafe in plants that 
 ariles from a dewy moifture, which failing on them, and 
 continuing, by its acrimony corrodes the in moft l : ub- 
 ttance of the plant, and hinders the circulation of the 
 nutritive lap : whereby the leaves fade, and the blolfoms 
 and fruit are much prejudiced. 
 
 MILE, in geography, a long measure, whereby the 
 E'ngLifh, Nc. ufe to exprefs the diftance between places. 
 It is ot different extent in different countries. The geo¬ 
 metrical or Italian mile contains 1000 geometrical paces,, 
 mille paffus. from whence mile is denominated. 
 
 'I tie Englilh mile confifts of 1760 yards, and is di¬ 
 vided into eight furlongs, and each furlong into 40 poles, 
 confifting of 16 feet and a half each. 
 
 MILIARY, fomething refembling millet-feed. 
 
 Miliary-Fever, a malignant fever, fo called from 
 the eruption of certain puftules refembling millet-feeds. 
 
 It begins with a flight Ihivering, fuccccded by heat 
 and lofs of ftrength, fometimes even to faintnefs ; there 
 is a ftraitnels and anxiety about the breaft, attended with 
 deep fighs, reftJeffnefs, and difturbed fleep ; and to thefe 
 luccecd a roughnefs of the lkin like that of agoofe, and 
 a great number of puftules appear, fometimes white and 
 fometimes red, or both together, of the fize of millet or 
 muftard-feed. They firft befet the neck, then the breaft 
 and back, and afterwards the arms and hands : and when 
 thefe appear, the other fvmptoms gradually go off; the 
 pullulcs ripening, and containing a {linking ichor. Thefe 
 puftules appear on the third, fourth, feventh, or fome¬ 
 times not till the 14th day. 
 
 The principal intention of cure, is to expel and keep 
 out the morbifick matter which forms the puftules ; for it 
 is often fatal when the puftules difappear, and cannot be 
 driven out again. Bleeding fiiould be cautioully tiled ; 
 and the patient lhould not rile out of bed, or continue 
 long in an eredl pofture, for fear of fainting, or linking 
 the puftules in : analeptick medicines are neceffary to keep 
 up the fpirits; and to thefe may be added, according to 
 circumftances, gentle diaphoreticks. Some greatly com¬ 
 mend diaphoretick antimony, for promoting thedifeharge 
 of the puftules, and to take off a delirium ; the dofc be¬ 
 ing a fcruple every fixth hour. Hoffman recommends 
 blitters, applied to the legs, for the fame purpofe. 
 
 Hamilton’s method of cure is to give the teftaceous 
 powders, which keep up a moderate warmth, abforb the 
 acidity of the blood, and promote a breathing fweat : 
 take of powder of crabs claws and fperma-ceti, each one 
 fcruple ; of faffron, five grains ; and of the pedtoral firup 
 as much as is fufficient to make into a bolus, to be taken 
 every fixth hour. Blitters are alfo neceflary through the 
 whole courfe. 
 
 MILITANT, 01C11 urch-militant, denotes th* 
 body of Chriftians while here on earth. See Church. 
 
 MILITARY, fomething belonging to the loldiery or 
 militia. 
 
 Military Architecture , the fame with fortification. 
 See Fortification. 
 
 Military Ways , Vies mill tares, the large Roman 
 roads which Agrippa procured to be made through the 
 empire in Auguftus’s time, for the maiching of troops 
 and conveying of carriages. Thefe were paved from the 
 
 gates 
 
M I L 
 
 gates of Rome, to the utmoft limits of the empire. 
 See Road. 
 
 MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of foldiers, 
 or thofe who make profeflion of arms. In a more re- 
 ftrained fenfe, militia denotes the trained bands of a town 
 or country, who arm themfelves, upon a Ihort warning 
 for their own defence. So that, in this fenfe, militia is 
 oppofed to regular or hated troops. For the direction 
 and command of the militia, the kingconflitutes lords- 
 lieutenants of each county. 
 
 MILK, Lac, a well known animal fluid, prepared by 
 nature in the breafls of women, and the udders of other 
 animals, for the nourifhment of their young. 
 
 Milk of Sulphur. See Sulphur. 
 
 MILL, properly denotes a machine for grinding; but 
 more generally it denotes all fuch machines whofe adtion 
 depends upon a circular motion. The various kinds may 
 be reduced to wind-mills, water-mills, and hand-mills; 
 under the Jail of which are comprifed thofe worked by 
 horfes, &c. 
 
 // W-Mills, are thofe turned by the force or fall of 
 a river, of which there are two kinds ; thofe where the 
 force of the water is applied above the wheel are called 
 ovcr-fliot, and thofe where it is applied below the wheel, 
 are called under-fhot. See Water-Mill. 
 
 /TtW-Mills, are thofe which are turned by the force 
 of the wind. Sec Wind-Mill. 
 
 Hand- Mills, arc thole kept in motion by the hand, 
 or by the force of horfes or other beafts. 
 
 Mill, alfo denotes any machine, which, when moved 
 bv fome external force, makes a violent impreffion on 
 things applied thereto. 
 
 Fulling- Mills, are machines moved by water which 
 raife and let fall large wooden piflons in peels or troughs, 
 in order to full and Icour Woollen fluffs. 
 
 Papir- Mill. See Paper. 
 
 Mill, in coinage, is a machine ufed to prepare the 
 lamina; or plates of metal, and to give them the proper 
 thicknels, hardnefs, and confiftence, before they be 
 flruck or ftamped. See Coining. 
 
 Forge-hl i lls, are machines turned by Water, which 
 raife and let fall one or more huge hammers, to beat 
 and form the iron into bars, anchors, and other maflive 
 works. 
 
 Gunpowder- Mill, is that ufed to pound and beat to¬ 
 gether the ingredients whereof gunpowder is compofed. 
 
 S<*tt«Hg-Mii.L, is a machine turned by the water, 
 which faws feveral planks or boards at the fame time. 
 Theie are common in France, efpecially in Dauphine. 
 'They were lately prohibited in England, where they 
 were begun to be introduced ; becaufe it was apprehended 
 they would have ruined the lawyers, which would cer- 
 tainlv have been the confequcnce. 
 
 Sugar- Mill, a machine which ferves to bruife the 
 fugar-canes, and exprels the liquor or juice contained in 
 them. See Sugar-Mill- 
 
 MILLEN ARIANS, or Chili asts, a name given 
 to thofe, who, in the primitive ages, believed that the 
 faints will one day reign on earth with Jefus Chrift a 
 thoufand years. The former appellation is of Latin ori¬ 
 ginal, the latter of Greek, and both of the fame import. 
 
 The millenarians held, that after the coming of anti- 
 chrifl, and the deftrudtion of all nations, which fliall 
 follow, there fliall be a firft rcfurredlion of the juft alone: 
 that all who lhall be found upon eai^h, both good and 
 bad, fliall continue alive; the good, to obey the juft who 
 are rifen, as their princes ; the bad, to be conquered by 
 the juft, and to be fubjcdl to them : that Jefus Chrift 
 will then delcend from heaven in his glory : that the city 
 of Jerufalem will be rebuilt, enlarged, embellifhed, and 
 its gates ftand open night and day. They applied to 
 this new Jerufalem, what is faid in the Apocalypfe, ch. 
 xxi. and to the temple, all that is written in Ezekiel 
 xxxvi. Here, they fuppofed, Jefus Chrift will fix the 
 feat of his empire, and reign a thoufand yea.s with the 
 faints, patriarchs and prophets, who will enjoy perfedl 
 and uninterrupted felicity. 
 
 This reign of our Saviour on earth is ufually ftiled the 
 millenium, or reign of a thoufand years. 
 
 MILLEPEDES, wood lice, lows, or church bugs, 
 in natural hiftory, are fmall infedts of an oblong figure, 
 and of a dark bluilh livid grey colour ; but they can oc- 
 eaiionally roll themfelves up into the form of a ball, which 
 
 M I M 
 
 they frequently do, and fuffer themfelves to be taken, 
 when they might have efcaped by running. 
 
 Millepedes arc aperient, attenuant, and detergent, 
 they diffolve vilcous humours, and are good in all ob- 
 ftrudtions of the vifeera, and have been by fome writers 
 celebrated as a remedy for the ftone, which it is pretended 
 they have a power of reducing to a mucilage, and carry¬ 
 ing off; but this is of the number of thofe praifes of 
 medicines which redound very little to thepraifeof thofe 
 who gave them. They are often found to be of lei vice 
 in afthmas, and great good has been done by a long 
 courfc of them in diforders of the eyes. 
 
 MILLENNIUM, literally denotes a thoufand years, 
 and is chiefly applied to the time of our Saviour's fccond 
 appearance and reign upon earth, according to fome di¬ 
 vines. Whifton lupports this opinion in feveral of his 
 writings; and according to his computation, it was to 
 have commenced in 1720. 
 
 MILLERIA, a genus of the fyngenefia polygamia 
 neceffaria clafs. It has neither receptacle nor pappus ; 
 the calix confifts of three valves; and the radius of the 
 corolla is dimidiated. There are two fpecies, both na¬ 
 tives of America. 
 
 MILLET, Mi Ilium, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 of the gramineous kind, the flower cup of which is a 
 bivalvular glume, the corolla is lefs than the cup, and is 
 alfo bivalvular; it has three very fhort capillary filaments 
 terminated by oblong anthera;: the feeds arc roundifli 
 and covered by the corolla. The feeds of millet are 
 much ufed as a common aliment in the caftern countries, 
 where they boil it in milk, it having the fame virtues as 
 rice : they are accounted drying, and recommended in 
 fluxes : they are alfo faid to promote fweat and urine 
 very powerfully. 
 
 MILLING, in the manufadture of cloth, the fame 
 with fulling. See Fulling. 
 
 Milling of Silk , is an operation otherwife called 
 throwing. 
 
 MILLION, in arithmetick, the number of ten 
 hundred thoufand, or a thoufand times a thoufand. 
 
 MILVUS, the kite, in ornithology, a fpecies of 
 falcon, with a forked tail, a yellow cera, a brown body, 
 and a whitifli head. It is a very common bird with U9, 
 about the fize of a large tame pigeon. 
 
 MIME, in the ancient comedy, a perfon who adted 
 any chara&er by mere geftures, and hence denominated 
 pantomine. 
 
 MIMESIS, in rhetorick, the imitating the voice and 
 geftures of another perfon. 
 
 MIMOSA, the lenfitive plant, in botany, a genus, 
 whofe flower has a Angle fmall infundibuliform corolla, 
 lightly cut at the extremity into five parts ; the ftamina 
 are a number of long hairy filaments, terminated with 
 incumbent anthera; ; the fruit is a long articulated pod, 
 containing feveral compreffed roundilh feeds. 
 
 To this genus Linnams has added the acacia of 
 Tournefort, and the inga of Plunder. There are feveral 
 fpecies of the mimola, but the lenfitive plant, or humble 
 plant (fo denominated from its remarkable property of 
 receding from the touch, and giving figns as it were of 
 animal life and fenfation, which has hitherto not been 
 accounted for) performs its motions by means of two 
 diftindl articulations ; that is, either by touching the 
 leaves lightly when they contradt themfelves together, 
 and if the motion wherewith the plant is moved be 
 ftrong, then the leaves not only contradt but the footftalk 
 which fupports them alfo declines from that part of it 
 which connedts with the branch, as though it were fas¬ 
 tened to it by a kind of hinge : when the leaves are thus 
 ftruck, the whole plant appears as though it were wi¬ 
 thered, like others which happen to be tranfplanted in 
 very hot weather ; but it may be remarked, that theie 
 plants are more fufceptible of the touch in very warm 
 weather than when it is cool, and in about 10 minutes or 
 a quarter of an hour the leaves expand again. 
 
 The lenfitive plant being a native of the W. Indies, 
 it therefore requires a hot-houie in this climate : they 
 are commonly propagated from feeds, which Ihould be 
 fown in the ipring upon a hot bed; in about three weeks 
 after the plants are come up they Ihould be tranfplanted 
 fingly into fmall pots, and plunged into a frelh hot-bed, 
 and afterward when fummer is .come on may be removed, 
 into ahot-houfej* or where that conveniency is wanting, 
 
 thev 
 
M I N 
 
 they may be kept under a common glafs light, it being 
 neceffary to protect them from the open air, not only on 
 account of their tendernefs, but alfo to keep their leaves 
 expanded; in the hot-houfe they may be kept the winter, 
 and the following fummer they will flower and perfect 
 their feeds. 
 
 MIND, Mens , a thinking intelligent being, otherwife 
 called fpirit, in oppofition to matter or body. See Body 
 and Spirit. 
 
 The culture of the human mind is more immediately 
 taught in the fciences of logick and ethicks. See 
 Logick and Ethicks. 
 
 When the mind, fays Mr. Locke, turns its view in¬ 
 wards upon itfelf, thinking is the firft idea that occurs ; 
 wherein it obferves a great variety of modifications, 
 whence it frames to itfelf diftindl ideas. See Idea. 
 
 MINE, in military affairs, implies a fubterraneous 
 paffage dug under the wall, or rampart of a fortification, 
 with a defign of blowing it up with gun-powder. 
 
 Mines are either dug within the body of the earth, as 
 thole made by the befieged to blow up the works of the 
 beilegers, before they make a lodgment on the covert¬ 
 way ; or in eminences and riling grounds, as to make a 
 breach in the ramparts, he. or to blow up walls, or 
 laftly, to tear up rocks. 
 
 Two ounces of powder have been found, by experi¬ 
 ment, capable of raffing two cubick feet of earth : confc- 
 quently 200 ounces, that is 12 pounds 8 ounces, will 
 raife 200 cubick feet, which is only 16 feet fliort of a 
 cubick toife, becaufe 200 ounces joined together, have 
 proportionably a greater force than 2 ounces, as being 
 an united force. 
 
 All the turnings a minor ufes to carry on his mines, 
 and through which he condudts the fauciffc, Ihould be 
 well filled up with earth and dung ; and the mafonry in 
 proportion to the earth to be blown up, as 3 to 2. The 
 entrance of the chamber of the mine ought to be firmly 
 ftiut with thick planks, in the form of a St. Andrew’s 
 crofs, l'o that the enclofure be fecure, and the void 
 fipaces fhut up with dung, or tempered earth. 
 
 Mine, in natural hiftory, a place under ground, 
 where metals, minerals, or even precious flones, are dug 
 up. As, therefore, the matter dug out of mines is va¬ 
 rious, the mines themfelves acquire various denomina¬ 
 tions, as gold-mines, filver-mines, copper-mines, iron- 
 mines, diamond-mines, falt-mines, mines of antimony, 
 of alum, he. Mines, then, in general, are veins or 
 cavities within the earth, whole fides receding from, or 
 approaching nearer to each other, make them of unequal 
 breadths in different places, fometimes forming larger 
 fpaces, which are called holes : ri ey are filled with lub- 
 liances, which, whether metallick or of any other na¬ 
 ture, are called the loads; when the fubftances forming 
 thefe loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the 
 miners laid to be alive ; otherwife they are called dead 
 loads. In Cornwall and Devon, the loads always hold 
 their courlc from eaftvvard to weftward ; though in other 
 parts of England, they frequently run from north to 
 fouth. The miners report, that the fides of the load 
 never bear in a perpendicular, but conftantly under-Jay, 
 either to the north or to the fouth. The load is fre¬ 
 quently intercepted by thecrofling of a vein of earth, or 
 ftone, or fome different metallick fubftance; in which 
 cafe it generally happens that one part of the load is 
 moved a confiderable difiance to the one fide. This 
 tranfient load is by the miners called Hooking : and the 
 part of the load which is to be moved, is laid to be 
 heaved. Sec Flooring. 
 
 According to Dr. Nichols’s obfervations upon mines, 
 they feem to be, or to have been, the channels through 
 which the waters pals within the earth, and, like rivers, 
 have their fmall branches opening into them, in all di¬ 
 rections. Moft mines have ftreams of water running 
 through them; and when they are found dry, it learns 
 to be owing to the waters having changed their courfe, as 
 being obliged to it, either becaulfc the load has flopped 
 up the ancient paffages, or that fome new and more eaiy 
 ones are made. 
 
 Mines, fays Dr. Shaw, are liable to many contingen¬ 
 cies ; being fometimes poor, l'ometimes foon cxhauftible, 
 fometimes lubjedt to be drowned, efpecially when deep, 
 i.:id l'ometimes hard to tiace; yet there are many inftances 
 ©f mines proving highly adtgntageous for hundreds of 
 
 MI N 
 
 years: the mines of Potofi are to this day worked with 
 nearly the fame fuccefs as at firft; the gold-mines of 
 Cremnitz have been worked almoft thefe thoufand years ; 
 and our Cornilh tin-mines are extremely ancient. The 
 neat profit of the filver alone, dug in the Mifnion filver- 
 mines in Saxony, is flill, in the fpace of eight years, 
 computed at a thoufand fix hundred and forty-four mil¬ 
 lions, befides feventy-tln ee tons of gold. Many mines 
 have been difeovered by accident; a torrent firft laid open 
 a rich vein of the filver mine at Friberg in Germany ; 
 fometimes a violent wind, by blowing up trees ; or over¬ 
 turning the parts of rocks, has difeovered a mine; the 
 fame has happened by violent fhowers, earthquakes, 
 thunder, the firing of woods, or even the ftroke of a 
 plough lhare, or a horfe’s hoof. 
 
 But the art of mining does not wait for thefe favour¬ 
 able accidents, but diredtly goes upon the fearch and dif- 
 coverv of fuch mineral veins, ores, or fands, as may be 
 worth the working for metal. The principal inveftiga- 
 tion and difcovery of mines depend upon a particular 
 fagacity, or acquired habit of judging from particular 
 figns, that metallick matters are contained in certain parts 
 of the earth, not far below its furface^ The principal 
 figns of a latent metallick vein, feera reducible to general 
 heads, fuch as, 1. The difcovery of certain mineral 
 waters. 2. The difcolouration of the trees or grafs of a 
 place. 3. The finding of pieces of ore on the furface of 
 the ground. 4. The rife of warm exhalations. 5. The 
 finding of metallick lands, and the like. All which are 
 fo many encouragements for making a ftridter fearch near 
 the places where any thing of this kind appears; whence 
 rules of pradhee might be formed for reducing this art to 
 a greater certainty. But when no evident marks of a 
 mine appears, the fkilful mineralift ufually bores into the 
 earth, in fuch places as from fome analogy of knowledge, 
 gained by experience, or by obferving the lituation’ 
 courfe, or nature of other mines, he judges may contain 
 metal; this method of boring we have already given under 
 the article Boring. 
 
 After this mine is found, the next thing to be confi- 
 dered, is whether it may be dug to advantage, In order 
 to determine this, we are duly to weigh the" nature of the 
 place, and its lituation, as to wood, water, carriage, 
 heal til inefs, and the like, and compare the refult with the 
 richnels of the ore, the charge of digging, ftamping, 
 walhing, and fmelting. 
 
 Particularly the form and lituation of the fpot fhould 
 be well confidered. A mine muft either happen, 1. In 
 a mountain. 2. In a hill. 3. In a valley. Or, 4. In 
 a flat. But mountains and hills are dug with much 
 greater eafe and convenience, chiefly bccaufe the drains 
 and burrows, that is the adits or avenues may be here 
 readily cut, both to drain the water and to form gang¬ 
 ways for bringing out the lead, &c. In all the four 
 cafes we are to look out for the veins which the rains, or 
 other accidental thing, may have laid bare ; and if fuch 
 a vein be found, it may often be proper to open the mint 
 in that place, efpecially if the vein prove tolerably large 
 and rich; otherwife the moft commodious place for 
 lituation is to be chofe for the purpofe, viz. neither on a 
 fiat, nor on the tops of mountains, but on the fides. 
 
 T he bell lituation fora mine, is a mountainous, woody, 
 wholefome fpot; of a fafe cafy afeent, and bordering 011 - 
 a navigable river. The places abounding with mines 
 are generally healthy, as Handing high and avery where 
 expofed to the air ; yet fome places where mines arc 
 found, prove poifonous, and can upon no account, be 
 dug, though ever fo rich : the way of examining a luf- 
 pedted place of this kind, is to make experiments upon 
 brutes, by expoling them to the effluvia or exhalations to 
 find the effedts. 
 
 Devonlhire and Cornwall,where there arc agreatmanr 
 mines of copper and tin, is a very mountainous country, 
 which gives an opportunity in many places to make adits, 
 or fubterraneous drains, to fome valley at a difiance, by 
 which to carry off the water from the rfiine, which other- 
 wile would drown them out from getting the ore. Thefe 
 adits are fometimes carried a mile or two, and dug at a 
 vaft expence, as from 2 to 400 !. efpecially where the 
 ground is rocky, and yet they find this cheaper than to 
 draw up the water out of the mine quite to the top, 
 when the water runs in plenty, and the mine is deep. 
 Sometimes, indeed, they cannot find a level near enough, 
 
 to 
 
M I N 
 
 to which an adit may be carried from the very bottom of 
 the mines; yet they find it worth while to make an adit 
 at half the height to which the water is to be railed, 
 thereby faving half the expence. 
 
 MINER AL, in natural hiftory, in general, denotes 
 foffil, and is applied to any body dug out of the earth. 
 In this fenfe, minerals are divided into two clafles; the 
 one fufible and malleable, which arc what we properly 
 call metals: The other wants thefe two properties, and 
 are what we ftridlly call minerals. 
 
 Mineral, in a more accurate fenfe, denotes a com¬ 
 pound follil in which there is fomething difcovercd, in 
 all refpe&s like metals, only that it is not malleable, 
 joined with fomc other follil, as fait, fulphur, ffone, or 
 earth : Such as antimony, cinnabar, bilmuth, &c. 
 
 Some afcribe the formation of minerals to the aftion 
 of the fun without; fome to the central fire within; and 
 lome think the cold does all by condenfing and congeal¬ 
 ing certain juices of the earth. See Metal. 
 
 The minerals, metals, and Hones, lie in beds, ever 
 fince thefiood, if not from the creation : yet it is highly 
 probable they have a faculty of growing in their relpec- 
 tive beds, as Mr. Boyle thinks. Among other inftances, 
 he adds, that, in the fqreft of Dean in Gloucefterfhire, 
 the heft iron, and in the greateft quantities, arc found 
 in the old cinders, which they melt over again. This 
 fome impute to the negligence of former mclters; but 
 Mr. Dci ham thinks it rather owing to the impregnations 
 of the old ore or cinders from the air. 
 
 The cliymifts generally take minerals to be nothing 
 elfe but imperfect metals, which, not having arrived at 
 maturity, may be perfe&cd by chymical operations ; 
 which hath given rife to the agreeable, but fatal delufion 
 of fcarching for the philofopher’s Hone. 
 
 Mineral U'aters, 1 'uch as fpring-forth from under 
 ground, and arc found to be impregnated with fome mi¬ 
 neral matter, as fait, fulphur, vitriol, Ac. Of this 
 kind are hot-baths, fpaws, purging-fprings, Sec. 
 
 M 1 NEROLOGY, that art which teaches the ways 
 of finding, judging, and digging of mines, with the ufes 
 of falts and earths for the making of fluxes, in order to 
 the aflaying and {inciting ores for their metals. 
 
 MINERVALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals celo 
 brated in honour of Minerva, in the month of March ; 
 at which time the fcholars had a vacation, and ufually 
 made a prefent to their mailers, called from this feflival 
 mi nerval. 
 
 MINIATURE, a delicate kind of painting, diftin- 
 guifoed from all others by the imallnefs of the figures, its 
 being performed with dots or points, jnllead of lines; 
 by the faintnefs of the colouring; it requiring to be 
 viewed very near: and by its being ufually done on ivory 
 or vellum. 
 
 riii :is the niceft and moil tedious of all kinds of paint¬ 
 ing, being performed wholly with the point of the pen¬ 
 cil : for when the colours are laid on flat without dotting, 
 though the figures be {mall, and the ground either vel¬ 
 lum or paper, it is not called painting in miniature, but 
 waffling. 1 here are fome painters who never ufe any 
 white colour in painting in miniature, but make thegrouiid 
 of the vellum ferve to raife their figures; in which cafe the 
 lights appear bright in proportion to the depth and flrength 
 of the colours 01 the figures. Others, before they go to 
 work, give the vellum a light wafo with white-lead well 
 prepared and purified. 1 hole colours that have the leaft 
 body, are the heft and mofl commodious for painting in 
 miniature; as carmine, ultramarine, fine lakes, and 
 greens made of herbs and flowers ; but befides thefe, the 
 following colours are alfo made ufe of, viz. Vermillion, 
 black-lead, brown-red, yellow mafticote, indigo, ivory- 
 black, lamp-black, fpanifh-brown, umber, gall-ftone, 
 brown-ochre, french-pink, orpiment, gamboge, na- 
 ples-yellow, bladder-green, verditer, fea-green, german 
 allies, flake-white, and white-lead. 
 
 MINIM in mufick, a character of time, equal to two 
 crotchets, or half a lemi-breve. See Character. 
 
 MINIMA Nature the primary particles of which 
 bodies confift, the fame with corpufcles or atoms. 
 
 MINIMUM, in mathcmaticks, denotes the leaft 
 quantity attainable in any given cafe. See the article 
 Maxi \i u m . 
 
 MINION, a piece of ordnance, of which there are 
 two kinds; the large and ordinary; the large minion 1 
 
 V-ol.II. No. 50. 
 
 M I N 
 
 has its bore 31 inches diameter, and is 1000 pounds 
 weight; its load is 3 1 pounds of powder; its foot three 
 inches in diameter and 3J. pounds weight; its length is 
 eight feet, and its level range 125 paces. The ordinary 
 minion is three inches diameter in the bore and weighs 
 about 800 pounds weight. It is feven feet long; its 
 load 2^ pounds of powder; its foot near 3 inches in 
 diameter, and weighs three pounds 4 ounces, and fooots 
 point-blank 120 paces. 
 
 MINISTER, denotes one that ferves God, the pub- 
 lick, or any private perfon. In the reformed church, 
 thofe ordained to preach, and do the other fun&ions of 
 the pfiefthood, are Amply called minifters, pallors, or 
 miniflers of the gofpcl: and among jefuits, miniftei 
 denotes the perfon next in order to the fuperior of a houie. 
 
 Ministers 0]the slltar , thofe who aftift the prieft at 
 the adminiftration of the eucharift. 
 
 Minister of State, he to whom a prince intrufts the 
 adminiftration of his government. 
 
 Foreign Ministers, are the ambafladors, envoys, 
 agents, or refidents in the courts of other princes. C)f 
 thefe there arc two kinds, as minifters of the fiift rank, 
 who are called ambafladors, and envoys extraordinary; 
 and minifters of the fecond rank, who are the ordinary 
 refidents. I hole of the firft rank have a reprefentative 
 chara&er, which the others have not; though fometimes 
 the latter are inverted with fuller powers than the 
 former. 
 
 MINIUM, or Red-lead, a preparation of lead ufed 
 both in pharmacy and painting. It is made in the 
 following manner : melt lead in a broad earthen veflel 
 unglazed, and ftir it continually with a fpatula till it be 
 calcined into a grey powder; this is called the calx of 
 lead : continue the fire, Hi:ring it in the fame manner, 
 e.nd it becomes yellow; in this ftate it is called mafticot : 
 after this put it into a reverberatory furnaaj and it will 
 calcine further, and become of a fine red, which is the 
 common minium of red-lead. Minium is ufed ex¬ 
 ternally on many occafions. It obtunds the acrimony 
 •>f the humours, allays inflammations, and is excellent 
 in cleaniing and healing old ulcers ; and on thefe oc¬ 
 cafions. it is ufed in many of the plafters and ointments 
 of the fhops. 
 
 In painting, red-lead is as heavy and ftrong a colour 
 as mofl we have : but when prepared, is the molt de¬ 
 lightful one. Mr. Boyle directs the preparing it as 
 follows : put four ounces of it in a quart of rain-water ; 
 ftir it, and pour off the water immediately, and let it 
 fettle to the bottom of the cup or glafs you pour it into; 
 decant the clear fluid, and in a day or two you will have 
 the colour dry, and extremely fine. 
 
 MINOR, in law, denotes a perfon under age, or who 
 has not arrived at the power of adminiftering his own af¬ 
 fairs, or the pofleffion of his eftate. Among us, a per¬ 
 fon is a minor till the age of 21, before which time his 
 adrts are invalid. Yet, if a patron have a right of ad- 
 vowfon, he may prefent at the age of fourteen, and 
 may, of himfelf, confent to any procefs relating to be¬ 
 neficiary matters. 
 
 Minor, in logick, the fecond propofition of a fyllo- 
 gifrn called alfo the aflumption. 
 
 Minor, in mufick, denotes certain concords which 
 are lower than others of the fame denomination, by a 
 lefs femi-tone, or 4 commas. Concords that admit of 
 a major and Minor, are faid to be imperfect. 
 
 MINSTER, anciently denoted the church of a 
 monaftery or convent. 
 
 MINT, Mentha , in botany, a genus of plants, whole 
 flower is monopetalous, and divided into four almoft 
 equal fegments at the limb; it has no pericarpium, but 
 the feeds, which are four in number, are contained in 
 the bottom of the cup. 
 
 There are various fpecies of mint, as fpear-mint, pep¬ 
 per-mint, calimint, orange-mint, curled or crifp-mint, 
 water-mint, with feveral others of lefs note; butthemoft 
 ufeful are the fpear-mint and pepper-mint, which are fo 
 well known, that a defeription of them is unneceflary; 
 thefe fpecies are cultivated in our gardens for culinary and 
 medicinal purpofes; they are eafily propagated by parting 
 their roots in thejpring, or by planting cuttings of them 
 in the fummer months. 
 
 Both pepper and fpear-mint are ftomachick, cephalick, 
 and carminative, excellent in the lofs of appetite, reach- 
 
 H h ings 
 
/ 
 
 M O D 
 
 alfo models for the building of fhips, and for extraordi¬ 
 nary flair-cafes. &c. 
 
 They alfo ufe models in painting and fculpture; 
 whence, in the academies, thev give the term model to 
 a naked man or woman, dilpoled in feveral poflures to 
 give an opportunity to the fcholars to defign him in va¬ 
 rious views and attitudes. 
 
 MODERATOR, in the fchools, the perfon who 
 prefides at a dilpute, or in a publick aflembly : thus, 
 the prefident of the annual aflembly of the church of 
 Scotland, is Riled moderator. 
 
 MODERN, in a general ferife, fomething new, or of 
 our time, in oppofition to what is antique or ancient. 
 
 MODIFICATION, in philofophy, that w hich mo¬ 
 difies a thing, or gives it this or that manner of being. 
 
 MODILLIONS, in architenure, are ornaments in 
 the corniche of the Ionick, Corintiiian, and compofite 
 columns. The modillions are little inverted confoles 
 or brackets, like an S, under the foflat of the corniche, 
 feeming to fupport the proje&ure of the larmier, though 
 really no other than ornaments. The modillion is 
 fometimes called mutule; though the nrutule be peculiar 
 to the Dorick order, and the modillion to the higher 
 orders. Modillions fhould be placed over the middle of 
 the column: they arc particularly ul'ed in the Corinthian 
 Order, where they are enriched with fculpture. The 
 inter-modillions or diftances between them depend on 
 the intercolumniations, which oblige the modillions to 
 be made ot a certain length and breadth, to render the 
 intervals perfedt lquares. They fhould be fo adjufled, 
 as that, when the orders are placed over one another, 
 there be the fame number In the upper as in the lower 
 order, and that they fall perpendicularly over each other. 
 Modillions are alio ufed under the corniches of pedi¬ 
 ments, which fome would have to reprefent purlins, and 
 thole at the eaves, rafters. Daviler rather takes them 
 for a kind of inverted confoles or corbels. 
 
 MODIUS, in antiquity, a kind of dry meafure 
 among the Romans for feveral forts of grain. It con¬ 
 tained 32 hemince, or 16 fextarics, or-f of the amphora, 
 equivalent to the Enghlh peck. 
 
 MODULATION, in mufick, the art of keeping in 
 and occalionally changing the key, and returning to it 
 again without offence to the ear. As to the manner in 
 which the modulation from one key to another may be 
 performed, fo that the tranfi ion may be eafy, no prccile 
 rules can be fixed ; for though it be chiefly performed 
 by the help of the feventh g of the key into which the 
 harmony is to be changed, whether it be flat or lharp ; 
 vet the manner of doing it is fo extenlive, as no rules 
 can circumfcribe. It may in general be conceived thus: 
 The feventh g in either a fharp or flat key is the third 
 g to the fifth /' of the kev, by which the cadence in the 
 key is chiefly performed ; and, by being only a femi- 
 tone under the key, is thereby the moll proper note to 
 lead into it. Infomuch that the feventh g is never heard 
 in anv of the parts, but the ear expedls the key fhould 
 lucceed it; for, whether it be ufed as a third or a fixtli, 
 it always affedts us with fo imperfedl a fenfation, that 
 we naturally expedt fomething more perfedt to follow, 
 which cannot be more ealily accomplifhed than by the 
 fmall interval of a lemi-tone, to pals into the perfedt 
 harmony of the key. 
 
 MODULE, in architedture, a certain meafure for 
 regulating the proportions of columns, 2nd the fymmetry 
 or diftribution of the whole building. Architedts ufuallv 
 cliufe the diameter or femi-diameter of the bottom of the 
 column ;or their module; and this they fubdivide into 
 parts or minutes. There are two ways of determining 
 the proportions of buildings ; the firft by a fixed flan- 
 dard meafure, which is ulually the diameter ot the lower 
 part of die column, called a module, fubdivided into 
 fixty parts, called minutes. In the lccond there are no 
 minutes nor any certain divifion of the module ; but it 
 is divided occalionally into as many parts as are judged 
 ncceflarv. Both thefc manners, according to Perrault. 
 have been pradti'd by the ancient, as well as modern 
 architects; but the econd. which was that chiefly ufed 
 among the ancients, he thinks preferable. 
 
 MOGULS, pr Monculs, hoards or tribes of va- 
 gt >t Tartars, on the north of India, from whom the 
 m 's or fovereigns of India, as well as of the Ulbeck- 
 Tarta. are defeended. 
 
 M O M 
 
 MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat, 
 frequent about Angoura, in Turkey ; the inhabitants of 
 which city are all employed in the manufactures of cam- 
 blets, made of this hair. 
 
 MOINEAU, in fortification, is a flat baflion raifed 
 between two other baftions, when a re-entering angle 
 before a curtin is too long. I he moineau is commonly 
 joined to the curtin, but it is fometimes ieparated from 
 it by a fofs, in which calc it is called a detached baflion. 
 The moineau is not raifed fo high as the works of the 
 place, becaufe it ought to be expoled to the fire of the 
 place in cafe the enemy fhould lodge themlelves in it. 
 
 MOIS TURE, a term fometimes ulcd to denote ani¬ 
 mal fluids, the juices of plants, or dampnefs of the air 
 or other bodies. 
 
 Radical Moisture, among phvficians, fignifies a 
 vital fluid, which nourifhes and maintains life, as oil 
 does a lamp. 
 
 MOLARES, or Dentes-Mol ares, in anatomy, 
 the large teeth, called in Englifh, grinders. 
 
 MOLE. Tatpa, in zoology, makes a genus of qua¬ 
 drupeds, of the order of the force, thus charaCteriled : 
 the feet are formed like hands, and calculated for dig¬ 
 ging ; and it has no external ears. Of this genus there 
 are two fpecies: 1. The common mole, a well known 
 little animal, of a bluifli black colour ; very mifehievous 
 to the farmers, by throwing up the ground of their paf- 
 tures. 2. I he pointed tail-lefs mole, fomewhat larger 
 than the common kind: it is of a mixed colour, in 
 which a purplilh and yellowifh tinge feem the prevailing 
 ones. It is a native of Afia, and lives under ground, 
 like the common mole. 
 
 Mole, Mol 7 carnea , in medicine, a mafs of flefhy 
 matter, of a fpherical figure, generated in the uterus, or 
 womb, and fometimes miftaken for a child. Its fize is 
 various, from that ot a large nut to that of a feetus. 
 Some moles are foft and lpotigy, and others membra¬ 
 neous, with a cavity in the middle. Sometimes they 
 are filled with ferous matter, and fometimes with 
 hydatides. 
 
 Mole, Avoirs, is a maflive work of large flones laid 
 in the lea by means of cofferdams, extending before a 
 port, either to defend the harbour from the impetuofity 
 of the waves, or to prevent the paflage of fhips without 
 leave. 
 
 MOLLUGO, baflard madder, in botany, a plant 
 of the triandria-trigynia clafs, without any flower petals. 
 Its fruit is a capiule of a fomewhat oval figure, with 
 three cells, in each of which there is a number of kid- 
 ney-fhaped feeds. It is faid to have the fame medicinal 
 virtues as madder. 
 
 MOLOSSES, in commerce, the thick fluid matter 
 remaining after the fugar is made, rcfembling lirup. Sec 
 Sugar. 
 
 MO LOSS US, in Greek and Latin poetry, a foot 
 compofed of three long fyllables, as delefiant. 
 
 MOLT A, or Moltura, a toll or duty formerly 
 paid by vaffals to their lord, for grinding their com in 
 his mill. 
 
 MOLTING, the change of feathers, haii 4 ?, or horns, 
 in birds and bcafls. 
 
 MOMENT, in the dodb ine of time, an inftant, or 
 the moll minute and indiviflble part of duration. See 
 the article Time. 
 
 Stri&ly fpeaking, however, a moment ought not to 
 be confidered as any part of time, but only as the termi¬ 
 nation or limit thereof. 
 
 Moment, in the dodtrine of infinites, denotes the 
 fame with infinitefimal, or what is defined to be an in- - 
 finitely fmall quantity. 
 
 MOMENTUM, in mechanicks, fignifies the fame 
 with impetus, or the quantity of motion in a moving 
 body; which is always equal to the quantity of matter, 
 multiplied into the velocity ; or, which is the lame thing, 
 it may be confidered as a rcdlangle under the quantity of 
 matter and velocity. See Motion. 
 
 MOMORDICA, the wild cucumber, in bo¬ 
 tany, a genus of the monoecia-i ngenefia clafs of plants, 
 with a monopetalous flower, divided into five fegmenrs : 
 the fruit is an apple, burfling open with great elafticity, 
 and containing a number of compreflTed feeds. This 
 genus comprehends the momordica and luffa ot Tour- 
 nofort, and the elaterium of Boerhaave : and indeed the 
 
 elatcrium 
 
MON 
 
 elaterium of the fhops, a violent purge, is the fruit of 
 this plant. 
 
 MONADELPHIA, in botanv, a cl a fs of plants, the 
 fixteenth in order, fo called becaule the ftamina of the 
 flowers are fo interwoven as to form one body ; or ra¬ 
 ther, becaufe the ftamina are connected, or coalefce at 
 the bafe. 
 
 MONANDRIA, in botany, a clafs of plants, the 
 firft in order, with only one ftamen, or male part in 
 each flower. The monandria are fubdivided into two 
 orders, which are denominated monandria-monogynia, 
 and monandria-digynia, according as they contain one 
 or two ftyles. 
 
 MONARDI A, in botany, a genus of plants, with a 
 monopetalous flower, the rim of which is ringent: the 
 feeds arc four in number, roundifh, and contained in the 
 bottom of the cup. 
 
 MONASTERY, a convent, or houfe built for the 
 reception and entertainment of monks, mendicant friars, 
 or nuns, whether it be an abbey, priory, &c. 
 
 MONAST 1 CK, fomething belonging to monks. See 
 the article Monk. 
 
 MONDAY, Dies Luna, the fecoiid day of the week, 
 fo called as being anciently facred to the moon, q. d. 
 moon-day. 
 
 MONEY, Monet a, a piece of matter, commonly 
 metal, to which publick authority has affixed a certain 
 value and weight to ferve as a medium in commerce. 
 Money is ufually divided into real and imaginary. 
 Real money includes all coins, whether gold, filver, cop¬ 
 per, or the like; fuch as guineas, crowns, piftoles, pieces ’ 
 of eight, ducats, &c. Imaginary money, or money of 
 account, is that which has never exifted, or, at leaft, 
 which does not exift in real fpecie ; but is a denomina¬ 
 tion invented or retained to facilitate the ftating of ac¬ 
 counts, by keeping them ftill on a fixed footing, not to 
 be changed like current coins, which the authority of 
 the fovereigns fometimes raifes or lowers according to 
 the exigencies of the ftate, of which kinds are pounds, 
 Jivres, marks, maravedes, See. 
 
 MONEYERS, Moneyors, orMoNipRs, officers 
 of the mint, who work and coin gold and filver money, 
 and anfwerall wafte and charges. 
 
 MONIT ORY Letters, are letters of warning and 
 admonition, lent from an ecclefiaftical judge, upon in¬ 
 formation of fcandals and abufes, within the cognizance 
 of his court. 
 
 MON K, a perfon who wholly dedicates himfelf to the 
 fervice of religion, in fome monaftery, under the direc¬ 
 tion of fome particular ftatutes and rules. The moft 
 probable account of the original of the monks is, that in 
 the Decian perfeeution, in the middle of the third cen¬ 
 tury, many perfons in Egypt, to avoid the fury of the 
 ftorm, fled to the neighbouring defarts and mountains, 
 where they not only found a fafe retreat, but alfo more 
 time and liberty to exercife themfelves in aCts of piety 
 and divine contemplations; which fort of life became fo 
 agreeable, that when the perfeeution was over, they re- 
 fufed to return to their habitations again, choofing rather 
 to continue in thofe cottages and cells, which they had 
 made for themfelves in the wildernefs. F-rom that time 
 to the reign of Conftantine, monachifm was confined to 
 the hermits or anachorets, who lived in private cells in 
 the wildernefs ; but when Fachomius had ereCted mo- 
 naileries, other countries prefently followed the example. 
 
 MONOCHORD, a mufical inftrument, corapofed 
 of one ftring, to try the variety and proportion of mu¬ 
 fical founds. The ancient monochord confifted of a rule 
 divided and fubdivided into divers parts, whereon there 
 was a ftring pretty well ftretched upon two bridges, at 
 each extremity. In the middle was a moveable bridge, 
 called magas, whereby, in applying it to the different 
 divifions of the line, the founds were found to be in the 
 fame proportion to one another, as the divifions of the 
 line cut by the bridge were. It is called the harmonical 
 canon, as lerving to meafure the degrees of gravity and 
 acutenefs of founds. 
 
 MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of 
 fong, fung by a perfon all alone to give vent to his grjef. 
 
 MONOEC 1 A, in botany, one of Linnreus’s clafies 
 of plants, the twenty-firfl; in order ; in which the male 
 and female flowers are placed feparately on the fame plant, 
 pr rather on different {talks growing from the fame root. I 
 
 Vol. II. No. 50, j 
 
 MON 
 
 Of the plants belonging to this clafs, fome have only 
 one ftamen, and others have three, four, five, fix, or 
 more ftamina; whence the fubordinate orders of mo- 
 noecia-monandria, monoecia-triandria, 6cc. others again 
 are monadelphous, others fyngouiefipus, and others gy- 
 nandrous. 
 
 MONOGRAM, a character or cypher, compofcd of 
 one, two, or more letters, interwoven; being a kind of 
 abbreviation of a name, anciently ufed as a feal, badge, 
 arms, &c. 
 
 MONOLOGUE, a dramatick feene, in which a 
 perfon appears alone on the ftage, and lpeaks to himfelf. 
 
 MONOMIAL, in algebra, a root or quantity, that 
 has only one name or member, as a b , a-a b, Sec. A mo¬ 
 nomial may be either rational or irrational. 
 
 MONOPETALOUS, in botany, is applied to 
 flowers that have only one undivided leaf. 
 
 MONOPOLY, in commerce, denotes when a per¬ 
 fon makes himfelf l’ole mafter of a commodity, manu¬ 
 facture, &c. in order to enhance the price thereof. There 
 are two kinds of monopoly, when a perfon buys up 
 corn, &c. to retail it again at an advanced price; or 
 when a patent is procured, prohibiting any other perfon 
 to fell a certain commodity but the patentee. 
 
 MONOPTERE, in architecture, a kind of temple, 
 round, and without wafts, paving a dome fupported by 
 columns. 
 
 MONOPTOTON, in grammar, a noun that has 
 only one cafe, as iniicias. 
 
 MONOPYRENLOUS, in botany, fuch fruit as 
 contains only one feed or kernel. 
 
 MONORHYME, a piece of poetry, in which all 
 the verfes end with the fame rhyme. 
 
 MONOST 1 CH, an epigram that confifts of only one 
 Angle verfe. 
 
 _ MONOSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word that con- 
 lilts ot only one fyllable, and is compoled of either one 
 or more letters pronounced at the fame time. 
 
 MONO I HELITES, a feCt of Chriftians in the fe- 
 venth century, fo called from their maintaining that, 
 though there were two natures in Jefus Chrift, the hu¬ 
 man and divine, there was but one will, which was the 
 divine. 
 
 MONOTONY, an uniformity of found, or a fault 
 in pronunciation, when a long feries of words are deli¬ 
 vered in one unvaried tone. 
 
 MONSOON, in phyliology, a fpecies of trade-wind, 
 in the E. 1 tidies, which for fix months blows conftantly 
 the lame way, and the contrary way the other fix months". 
 See Wind. 
 
 MONS 1 ER, Monjbum , in general, denotes any 
 production that deviates from the fpecies to which it be¬ 
 longs, whether with refpeCt to the number or difpofition 
 of its parts: in which fenfe, a man with fix fingers on 
 each hand, or fix toes on each foot, is a monfter. But 
 the term monfter l'cems to be chiefly applied to fuch 
 productions as deviate very much from the ordinary 
 courfe of nature. 
 
 MONS FRANS de Droit , a writ iffuing out of 
 Chancery, for reftoring a perfon to lands or tenements 
 that are his by right, though found in the polTeffion of 
 another lately dead. 
 
 MONSTRAVERUNT, a writ which lies for a 
 tenant who holds by free charter in ancient demefne, 
 upon being diftrained for the payment of any fervice 
 contrary to the liberty he either does or ought to enjoy. 
 
 MONTH, Menfis, the twelfth part of a year. 
 
 There are divers kinds of years and months, according 
 to the particular luminary, by whofe revolutions they 
 are determined, and tlje particular purpofes for which 
 they are deftined, as folar months, lunar months, civil 
 months, &c. 
 
 Solar Months, is the fpace of time wherein the fun 
 moves through an entire fign of the ecliptick. Hence, 
 the folar months will be unequal ; fin.ee the lun is longer 
 in paffing through the fummer figns than thofe of the 
 winter. But as he travels through all the twelve in 365 
 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, the quantity of a mean 
 month will be had by dividing that number by 12. 
 On this principle the quantity of a folar month w ill be 
 found 30 days, 10 hours, 29 minutes, 5 feconds. 
 
 Lunar Months, arc either fynodical, periodical or 
 illuminative, 
 li 
 
 Ijunar 
 
m o a 
 
 L Jyttodical Mo nth, lunar month, or lunation, 
 is the fpace of time between two eonjuntlions of the 
 moon with the fun, or betwixt two new moons. This 
 month, according to mean motion, is 29 days, 12 hours. 
 44 , 3", 11"'. , 
 
 Lun -r periodic d Month, the fpace of time wherein 
 the moon makes her revolution through the zodiack, or 
 wherein fhe returns to the lame point. This month, ac¬ 
 cording to mean motion, is 27 days, 7 hours, 43 , 8 . 
 The antient Romans made ufe of lunar months, that 
 alternately confified of 29 and 30 days. 1 hey had 
 three terms in each month, viz. calends, nones, and ides. 
 
 Lunar illuminative Month, the fpace from the firfi 
 time of the moon’s appearance after a new moon, to her 
 firft appearance after the new mcon following. The 
 quantity of this month it not always the fame. By this 
 the Turks and Arabs compute their time. 
 
 Ajir'.n.muul or natural Month, is that meafured by 
 foine exa£t interval correfponding to the motion of the 
 fun or moon, as the folar and lunar months. 
 
 Civil or common Month, an interval of a certain num¬ 
 ber of whole days, approaching nearly to the quantity 
 of foine agronomical month, either folar or lunar. 
 
 Civil lunar Months, confifi alternately of 29 and 30 
 days: fo that two of thefe months will be equal to two 
 agronomical ones, abating lor the odd minutes: and, 
 eonfcquently, the new moon will be hereby kept to the 
 firft day of each fuch civil monthfer a long time together. 
 However, to make them keep confiant pace together, 
 at the end of each 948 months, a month of 29 days mull 
 be added ; or elle every 33d month mull confift; of thirty 
 days. This month was in ufe among the Jews, Greeks, 
 Romans, till the time o£ Julius Crefar. 
 
 Civil folar Months, are to confifi alternately of 30 
 and 31 days, except one month, which, for every fourth 
 \ear, lhould confifi ot 30 days, and the other years 29. 
 This form was introduced by Julius Caffar. Under 
 Auguflus, the Sextilis or 6th month was denominated 
 Auguilus in honour of him; and, to make the com¬ 
 pliment Hill greater, a day was added thereto, fo that it 
 now confided of 31 days ; to make up for which a day 
 was taken from February, fo that henceforward it had 
 only 28 days, and every third year 29, though, before it 
 commonly confilled of 29. 
 
 Philojofbual Month, in chymifiry, the fpace of 40 
 days and nights.. 
 
 MONT Pagnote, in fortification, an eminence where 
 perfons poll themfelves out of the reach of cannon, to lee 
 a camp, liege, battle, &c. without being expofed to 
 danger: it is alfo called the poll of the invulnerable. 
 
 AlONUMENT, in archite£lure, a building dellincd 
 to prelerve the memory of fomething remarkable, luch 
 as a triumphal, arch, maufoleum, pyramid, &c. T. he 
 fii ll monuments among the antients were their tomb- 
 itones. Such as were fquare in their bale, and equally 
 deep throughout their whole length, the Greeks called 
 rnAr;: hence were derived our fquare pilallers or At- 
 tick columns. They called thole riAoi, which, being 
 round in their bale, ended in a point at top : hence di- 
 minilhed columns. Pyramids were thofe fquare at the 
 foot, terminating in a point at top, in manner of a fu¬ 
 neral pile. And obeli Acs weie thofe whole bales were 
 more in length than breadth, and which role gradually 
 diminilhing to a very great height, like the fpits for 
 roafting the fiefh of their facrifice, called obeli, ofctoi. 
 
 The monument, in London, is a magnificent pillar, 
 eredled by order of parliament, in memory of the burn¬ 
 ing of the city, anno 1666, in the very place where the 
 fire begun. It is of the Dorick order, 202 feet high from 
 the ground, 15 feet in diameter; all of lolid Portland 
 fcone, with a Hair-cafe in the middle ot black marble. 
 The pedeftal is 21 feet fquare, and 40 high, the front 
 being adorned with curious balTo relievos, and in- 
 fcriptions, 6tc. which, denote the purport ot its 
 ere£lion. 
 
 MOOD, Syllogijlick Mood, in logick, a proper aif- 
 poiition of die leveral propofitions ot a fyllogifm in re- 
 fpetfl of quantity and quality : that is, fuch wherein the 
 antecedent being true, the confequent, in virtue of the 
 form, cannot be falfe’. There are two kinds of moods , 
 die one direct, and the other indirect. 
 
 Lhredl Mood, is that wherein the conclufion is drawn 
 from the premiffes directly and immediately, as every 
 
 M O O 
 
 animal is a living thing ; every man is an animal; there¬ 
 fore, every man is a living thing. 
 
 Indirect Moon, that wherein the conclufion follows 
 from the premifles not immediately, but by means of a 
 converiion, as every animal is a living thing; every 
 man is an animal , therefore, fome living thing is a man. 
 There are i4dire£t moods, belonging to the firil figure; 
 
 4 to the 2d, and 6 to the 3d. They are denoted by fo 
 many artificial words, viz. 1. Barbara, cclarent, darii, 
 terioque. 4. Baralip, celantes, dabitis, fapifmo frife- 
 fom. 2. Cefare, cameftres, feftino, baroco. 3. Da- 
 rapti., felapton, difamis, datifi, bocardo, ferifon. Each 
 word conlifis of three lyllables, denoting the three pro¬ 
 pofitions of a fyllogifm, as major, minor, and con¬ 
 clufion. The vowel A denotes an univerfal affirmative 
 propofition; E an univerfal negative; I a particular 
 affirmative ; and O a particular negative. 
 
 Mood, in grammar, denotes the different manners of 
 conjugating verbs, according to the different actions or 
 affe£lions to be expreffed, as fhewing, commanding, 
 vvifhing, &.c. Hence arife 5 moods, the indicative, im¬ 
 perative, optative^ fubjumStivc, and infinitive. 
 
 MOON, Luna , , in aftronomy, a iatellite, or 
 
 fecondary planet, always attendant on our earth. Af- 
 tronomers have drawn the face of the moon, accord¬ 
 ing as it is feen with the bell telefcones ; for which we 
 arc obliged to the accurate labours of the.famous feleno- 
 graphers, Florentius, Langrfenus, John Hevelius of 
 Dantzick, Grimaldus and Ricciolus, Italians; who 
 have taken particular care to note all the fhining parts of 
 the moon’s face, and, for the better diftinguilhing them, 
 they have given to each part a proper name. Laugrenus 
 and Ricciolus have divided the lunar regions among 
 the philofophers and ailronomers, and other eminent 
 men; but Hevelius, fearing lell the philolophers lhould 
 quarrel about the divifions of the lands, has Ipoiled them 
 of this their property, and given the parts of the moon 
 thofe geographical names that belong to die different 
 illands, countries, and feas of our eaith, without any 
 regard to their fituation and figure. (Sec plate LVI 1 I. 
 
 fig ■ 2 -) 
 
 That the furface of the moon is notfmooth or even, 
 but diverbified with hills and vales, continents and feas, 
 lakes, &c. any one would imagine, who views her face 
 through a large telefcope. That fhe has a variety of hills 
 and mountains is demonftrable from the line which 
 bounds the light and dark parts not being an even and 
 regular curve, as it would be upon a fmooth fplierical 
 furface, but an irregular broken line, full of dents and 
 notches. Alfo becaufe fome fmall, and many large 
 bright fpots appear in the dark portion, Handing out at 
 leveral diftances from the boundary line ; which fpots in 
 a few hours become larger, and at lail unite with the 
 enlightened portion of thedifk. 
 
 On the other hand, we obferve many fmall fpots intcr- 
 fperfed all over the bright part, fome of which have their 
 dark fides next the fun, and their oppolite fides very 
 bright and circular, which infallibly proves them to be- 
 deep, hollow, round cavities ; of which there are two 
 very remarkable ones near together on the upper part, 
 and may be viewed exceedingly plain, when the moon is 
 about four or five days old. The depth of thefe lunar 
 cavities prodigiouily exceeds the height of the mountains, 
 and conlequently the furface of the moon has but little 
 refemblancc to that of the earth in thefe refpecls. 
 
 Since, then, the moon’s furface appears to be fo very 
 mountainous and irregular, it has been a quefiion, how 
 it comes to pals that the bright circular limb of the difk 
 does not appear jagged and irregular, as well as the 
 curve bounding the light and oark parts ; in aiifwer to 
 this, it mull be confidered that, if the furface of the moon 
 had but one row ot mountains placed round the limb of 
 the diik, the laid bright limb would then appear ir¬ 
 regularly indented j but lince the furface is all over 
 mountainous, and fince the vifible limb is to be conli- 
 dc-red not as afingle curve line, but a large zone, having 
 many mountains one behind another, it is evident the 
 mountains in lome rows being oppolite to the vales in 
 others, will fill up the inequalities in the vifible limb in 
 the remoter parts, which diminifh to the tight and blend 
 with each other, fo as to conHitute, like the waves of the 
 lea, one uniform and even horizon. Whether there be 
 feas, lakes, &c. in the moon, has been a quefiion long 
 
 debated 
 
5XW 
 
M O O 
 
 debated, but now concluded in the negative: for in 
 thofe large, dark regions, which were thought to be 
 leas, we view, through a good telefcope, many perma¬ 
 nent bright fpots, as alfo caverns and empty pits, whofe 
 lhadows fall within them, which can never be feen in 
 feas or any liquid fubftancc. Their dark and duiky 
 colour may proceed from a kind of matter or foil, which 
 reflects light lefs than that of the other regions. 1 hefe 
 fpots have continued always the fame unchangeably, 
 iince they were firft viewed with a telefcope ; though lefs 
 alterations than what happen in the earth, in every feafqh 
 of the year, by verdure, fnow, inundations, and the like, 
 would have caufed a change in their appearance. But 
 indeed as there are no feas nor rivers in the moon, and 
 no atmofphere, lb of courfe there can be no clouds, rain, 
 fnow, or other meteors, whence fuch changes might be 
 expefted. 
 
 The moon has no atmofphere; for were there an 
 atmofphere of air like ours, it muft neceffarily obfeure 
 the fixed ftars in the moon’s appulfe to them ; but it has 
 been obferved that this never happens : on the contrary, 
 they preferve all their lplendor to the moment of their 
 occultation, and then dilappear inftantaneoufiy, and in 
 the fame manner they recover their light, when they 
 appear again on the other fide. 
 
 The diilance of our moon from the earth is determined 
 by her horizontal parallax, or the angle which the l'emi- 
 diameter of the earth fubtends at the moon, viz. the angle 
 AOC (plate LV 1 II. fig. 3.) which is the difference 
 between the true place of the moon’s centre O, when in 
 the horizon, and the apparent place thereof, as viewed 
 from the furface of the earth at A. The former is known 
 by aftronomical tables, the latter by obfervarion : and 
 the quantity of this difference, or angle, at a mean, is 
 
 SI iz'—A O C. 
 
 If therefore we fay, as the tangent of 57' 12" is to 
 radius, fo is A C=i to C 0 = 60,1 ; this will be the 
 mean diftance of the moon in femidiameters of the earth. 
 Therefore, fince one femidiameter of the earth contains 
 3982 miles, we have 3982 x6o, 1=239318,2=00, the 
 mean diftance of the moon. 
 
 The moon’s apparent femidiameter M O meafures, at 
 her mean diftance, 15' 38" = 938 by the micrometer, 
 which is the quantity of the angle M C O. The earth’s 
 diameter, therefore, is to the moon’s, as 3432" to 938"; 
 that is, as 109 to 30, or, as 3,63 to 1. Wherefore, 
 
 J — x 7964=2192 miles the moon’s diameter. 
 
 Therefore the face of the earth, as it appears to the 
 lunarians, is to the face of the moon, as it appears to 
 us, as 109x109 to 30X30, viz. as 1188110900, or 
 as 12,2 to 1. And the real bulk of the earth is to that 
 of the moon as 109 X 109 x 109 to 30 X 30 X 30, viz. as 
 1295029 to 27000, that is as 1295 to 27, or as 48 to 1 
 very nearly. 
 
 Since, as we have Ihewn, the mean diftance of the 
 moon is about 60 femi-diameters ot the earth, at the dil- 
 tance of the moon one degree of the earth’s furface will 
 fubtend an angle of one minute, and will therefore be 
 vifible ; but fuch a degree is equal to 69k miles ; therefore 
 a fpot or place of 70 miles in diameter, in the moon, will 
 be juft vifible to the naked eye. Hence a telefcope that 
 magnifies about 100 times, will juft difeover a lpot whofe 
 diameter is t ~q of 70 miles, or Js of a mile of 3698 feet: 
 and a telefcope that will magnify 1000 times, will ihew an 
 objeft that is but - T -£o of a mile, that is, whofe diameter 
 is but 370 feet, or little more than 120 yards; and there¬ 
 fore will eafily fhew a fmall town or village, or even a 
 gentleman’s feat, if any fuch there be. 
 
 The time which the moon takes up in making one 
 revolution about the earth, from a fixed ftar to the lame 
 again, is 2yd. 7I1. 43', which is called the periodical 
 month. But the time that paffes between two con¬ 
 junctions, that is, from one new moon to another, is 
 equal to I2h. 44, 3", which is called a fynodical 
 month : for, after one revolution is finilhed, the moon 
 has a fmall arch to deferibe to get between the fun and 
 the earth, bccaufe the fun keeps advancing forward in 
 the ecliptick. Now this furplus of motion takes up 2d. 
 5I1. 1', 3", which added to the periodical month, makes 
 the fynodical, according to the mean motions. 
 
 The moon moves about its own axis in the fame time 
 that it moves about the earth, from whence it comes to 
 
 MOO 
 
 pafs that fire always Ibews the fame face to us : for by 
 this motion about her axis, juft fo much of her furface iS 
 turned towards us conftantly, as by her motion about 
 the earth would be turned from us. 
 
 But fince this motion about the axis is equable and 
 uniform, and that about the earth, or common centre of 
 gravity, is unequal and irregular, as being performed 
 in an ellipfis, it muft follow that the fame part of the 
 moon’s furface, precifely, can never be Ihewn conftantly 
 to the earth; and this is ..confirmed by the tel cope, 
 through which we often obferve a little gore orfegment, 
 on the eaftern and weftern limb appear aild dilappear by 
 turns, as if her body librated to and fro ; which there¬ 
 fore occafioned this phsenomenon to be called the moon’s 
 libration. The orbit of the moon is elliptical, more Jo 
 than any of the planets, and is perpetually changing and 
 variable, both in refpeCt of its figure and fituation. The 
 inclination of the moon’s orbit to the plans of the ellip- 
 tick is alfo variable, from 5 0 to 5 0 18'. The line of the 
 nodes likewife has a variable motion from caft to weft, 
 contrary to the order of thefigns, and completes an en¬ 
 tire revolution in afpaceof time a little lefs than 19 years. 
 Alfo the line of the apfides, or of the apogee and perigee, 
 has a direCt motion from weft to eaft, and finilhes a re¬ 
 volution in the fpace of about 19 years. 
 
 The phafes of the moori in every part of the orbit, 
 are eafily accounted for from her different fituation with 
 refpeCt to the earth and fun : for, though to an eye 
 placed in the fun file will always exhibit a complete illu¬ 
 minated hemilphere, yet in refpeCt to the earih, where 
 the hemilphere is viewed in all degrees of obliquity, it 
 will appear in every degree from the greateft to the leaft; 
 fo that atE (fig. 4 and 5,) no part at all of the enlightened 
 furface can be feen. At D, a little part of it is turned 
 towards the earth, and from its figure it is then laid to 
 be horned. At C, one half of the enlightened furface 
 is turned to the earth, and Ihe is then laid to be dichoto- 
 mifed, and in her firft quarter or quadrature. AtB, a 
 part more than half is turned to the earth, and then file 
 is faid to be gibbous. At A, her whoie illuminated he- 
 milphere is feen, being then in oppofition to the fun ; 
 and this is called the full moon. At H, lhe is again gib¬ 
 bous, but on the other partat G file is arain dichoto- 
 mifed, and in her laft quarter : at F lhe is horned, as be¬ 
 fore ; and then becomes new again at E, where fhe is in 
 conjunction with the fun. If M N be drawn perpen¬ 
 dicular to the line S L joining the centres of die fun and 
 moon, and O P perpendicular to the line T L joining 
 the centres of the earth and moon, it is evident that the 
 angle P L N in the firft half of the orbit, and O L M in 
 the fecond., will be proportional to the quantity ot the 
 illuminated difk turned towards the earth; and this angle 
 is every where equal to the angle E T L, which is called 
 the elongation of the moon from the fun. 
 
 To find what quantity of the moon’s vifible furface is 
 illuftrated for any given time, we are to conlider that 
 the circle of illumination B f C, (fig. 6.) is oblique to 
 the view every where, but at E and A ; and therefore by 
 the laws of the orthographick projettion, it will be pro¬ 
 jected into an elliple, whofe longeft axis is the diameter 
 of the moon B C, and the femi-conjugate is F L cofine 
 of the angle of elongation F B P. Hence F P = verfed 
 fine of the faid angle. But from the nature of the circle 
 and ellipfe, we have L P in a conftant ratio to F P, 
 wherever the line O P is drawn perpendicular to B ; 
 therefore alfo 2 LP = P O has a conftant ratio to F P. 
 But (by Euclid V. 12.) the fum of all the lines O P = 
 area of the circle is to the fum of all the lines F P = area 
 of the illuminated part, as the diameter of the circle O P 
 to the verled fine of the elongation F P. 
 
 As the moon illuminates the earth by a reflex light, fo 
 does the earth the moon ; but the other phenomena will 
 be different for the moft part. 1. The aith will be 
 vifible but to little more than one half of the lunar in¬ 
 habitants. 2. To thofe who fee it, the eanh appears 
 fixed, or at leaft fo have no circular motion, but only 
 that which refults.from the moon’s libration. 3. 1 hole 
 who live in the middle of the moon’s vifible hemilphere, 
 fee the earth direClly over their heads. 4. T o thole who 
 live in the extremity of that hemilphere, the caith feems 
 always nearly in the horizon, but not exa&ly there, by 
 I reafon of the libration. 5. The earth, in the circle of a 
 month, would have all the fame phafes as the moon has. 
 1 Thus 
 

 M O R 
 
 \i 
 
 "T hus the lunarians, when the moon is at E, in the mid¬ 
 dle of their night, fee the earth at full, or fhining with 
 a lull lace; at C and G it is dichotomifed or half light 
 and half dark ; at A it is wholly dark or new ; and at the 
 parts between thefe it is gibbous. 6. The earth appears 
 variegated with fpots of different magnitudes and colours 
 ai ding from the continents, iflands, oceans, leas, clouds, 
 &:c. 7. 1 hefe fpots will appear conftantly revolving 
 
 about the earth’s axis, by which the lunarians will deter¬ 
 mine the earth s diurnal rotation, in the fame manner as 
 we do that of the fun. 
 
 The age of the moon may be eafily found by this 
 general Rule. 
 
 Add the epa< 5 t, the day of the month, and the num¬ 
 ber for the month together ; if the fum be lefs than 30, 
 it is the moon’s age required ; but if greater than 30, take 
 30 from it, and the remainder is the anl'wer to.the quef- 
 tion. The numbers for the months are, January, o; 
 February, 2 ; March, 1 ; April, 2 ; May, 3 ; June, 4;’ 
 July, 5 ; Auguft, 6 ; September, 8 ; O&ober, 8 ; No¬ 
 vember, 10 ; December, 10. 
 
 Example. 
 
 M hat is the moon’s age on the eighth of March 
 1778. 
 
 Epaft — — I4 
 
 Number of the month 1 
 Day of the month 8 
 
 23 The moon’s age. 
 
 M Q R 
 
 . To find tb, timi i/AMooj'i beginning tojhine. Mul- 
 tip y her age, if under 15, by 48, and divide the produft 
 y 00 ; the quotient gives the hour, and the remainder 
 the minute. If her age be above 15 days, fubtraft the 
 tl ?Jf. t “ us found from 24; the remainder gives the time 
 of mining in the morning. 
 
 MOON- WORT, fee Lunaria. 
 
 MOORING, at fea, the laying out of anchors in a 
 proper place for the fecure riding of a fhip. 
 
 MOOR s-Head, in chymiftry, a copper cap made 
 m form of a head, and let over the chimney of a rever¬ 
 berating furnace. 
 
 s -Head, alfo denotes the head of a copper or 
 •glals Kill or alembick, which is luted on to the body 01- 
 cucurbit, with a beak or pipe to let the fpirit run down 
 into the receiver. 
 
 f 5 a difficult cafe argued by the young barriffers 
 and itudents at the inns of Court,” byway of exercife, 
 the better to qualify them for practice, and to defend the 
 can es of their clients. This, which is called mooting, 
 is the chief exercilc of the inns of Court. Particular 
 times arc appointed for the arguing moot-cafes : the place 
 where this exercife is performed, was anciently called 
 Moot-hall; and there is a bailiff, orfurvevorof the moots 
 annually cholen by the bench, to appoint the moot-men 
 for the inns of Chancery, and to keep an account of the 
 performance of exercifes. 
 
 , J l IO , R . A , LS ’ ^tiling relating to the manners orcon- 
 dudt of life. 
 
 Moral Anions, are filch as render the agent good or 
 evil and confequently rewardable and punifhable ac¬ 
 cordingly. r 
 
 Mor al Certainly or AJuremce, denotes a very {Irons; 
 probability, in contradiftindtion to a mathematical de- 
 monltration. 
 
 !'"p°jfibility, a very great and almoft infupe- 
 rable difficulty, ill oppofmon to a phyfical impoHibility. 
 
 Mo r AL Plnlofophy , Ethicks ox Morality, a fcience which 
 directs and torms men’s manners, explains the realbn and 
 nature ot aflions, and teaches us bow to acquire that 
 felicity which is agreeable to human nature. 
 
 Mo r a 1. Senfie, the faculty whereby we difeern what is 
 good, virtuous, &c. in actions, manners, characters, &c. 
 
 Moral Theology, cafuiftry, or cafuiftical divinity 
 that which treats ot cafes of confidence. 
 
 Moral of a Fable, the inftruflion drawn from it 
 With which it concludes. 
 
 MORALITY a conformity in things and aftions to 
 thole unalterable obligations which refult from the nature 
 of our existence, and the necelfary relations of life 
 whether to God as our creator, or to mankind as oui^ 
 fellow-creatures. It alfo denotes the fcience of morals. 
 
 N otwithuandmg the great obfeurity in the moral 
 Lienee, Mr. Locke is of opinion, that the dodlrine of 
 
 .manners is equally capable of demonftration with the 
 do&rine of quantity and number. 
 
 According to tliis author, the idea of a fupreme being, 
 infinite in power, goodnels, and wifdom, whole woik- 
 manfhip we arc, and on whom we depend, and the idea 
 of ourfclves, as underffanding rational creatures, would, 
 if duly confidered, afford fuch foundations of our duty 
 and lules of a&ion, as might place morality among the 
 lciences capable of demonftration. 
 
 M hat has given the advantage to the ideas of quantity, 
 and made them thought more capable of certainty and 
 demonftration than the ideas of good and evil, right and 
 wrong, Nc. is, 1. That the former can be reprefented 
 by fenlible marks, as diagrams, which have a nearer 
 correfpondence with them than any words. 2. Moral 
 ideas are commonly more complex than figures, whence 
 it follows, 1. That their names are of more uncertain 
 iignification. 2. The mind cannot eafily retain thofe 
 precile combinations fo exadtly and perfe£tly, as is ne- 
 ceffary jn the examination of the habitudes and corre- 
 Ipondences, agreements or difagreements, of feveral of 
 them one with another. 
 
 One part of thefe difadvantages in moral ideas may in 
 a good meafure be remedied by definitions, fetting down 
 that collection of fimple ideas which every term ffiafl 
 ftand for, and then uling the term lteadily for tliatpre- 
 cife collection. ' r 
 
 1 lie mathematician confiders the properties belonging 
 to a reCtangle, &c. only as they arc ideas in his own 
 mind, which poffibly he never found precifely true; yet 
 Ins knowledge is not only certain but real, as things really 
 agree to thole archetypes in the mind. 
 
 but it will be laid, that if moral knowledge be placed 
 in the contemplation of our own moral ideas, and thofe 
 are of our own making, what ftrange notions will there 
 be of juftice and temperance? &c. It is anfwered, no 
 clilorder at all in the things themfelves, nor the reafon- 
 ings about them, no more than there would be a change 
 i n the properties of figures, and their relations, if a man 
 fliould make a triangle with four corners, or a trapezium 
 with four right angles, that is, change the names of the 
 figures; the change of name will indeed difturb a man at; 
 lirft, but, as loon as the figure is drawn, the confequenccs 
 and demonftrations are plain and clear. 
 
 It is juft the fame in moral knowledge. Wc arc to 
 take notice of one thing, that, where God or any other 
 law-maker has defined any moral names, there they have 
 made the effence of that lpecics to which that name be¬ 
 longs, and there it is not fafe to apply it otherwife, hut, 
 m other cafes, it is bare impropriety of fpeech to apply 
 them contrary to the common ulage of the country they 
 are ufed in. } 1 
 
 MORASS, Moor, marffiy or fenny low grounds, on 
 which waters are lodged. 
 
 In Scotland, Ireland, the north of England, 6cc. they 
 have a peculiar kind of moraffes, called peat-mofles, from 
 which peat and turf for fuel are dug. 
 
 In the Philofophical TranfaClions, the Earl of Cro- 
 martie gives a particular account of thefe moffes. They 
 are covered with a heathy feurf, under which is a black, 
 moil! fpongy earth, ordinarily from three or four to 
 ieven or eight feet in depth, though in fomc places twice 
 or thrice as much. This earth is cut horizontally into 
 oblong fquares with iron fpadcs for that purpofc, and arc 
 eight or nine inches long, and four or five broad, which 
 are dried in the fun in piles made for that purpofe. The 
 more black and folid the peat, the better firing. Moffes 
 are always level, though frequently found on hills, and 
 near the tops too r yet, he obferves that moffes have 
 always a defeent to them, and generally from them, in- 
 lomuch that he never knew the water might ftagnate. It 
 is the water draining from above, that feemslo be the 
 parent of peat. In many of thofe moffes are found quan¬ 
 tities of fir and oak wood, commonly whole trees; 
 whence it appears there muft have been {landing woods 
 here formeriy. To prove this that noble lord gives us 
 the hiltory and origin of a mols, in a great meafure from 
 his own experience, in the parifh of Lochbroom. 
 
 MORBID, Morbidus. in medicine, is applied to thofe 
 parts, humours, &c. where Lome difeale lies. 
 
 Morbid, in painting, is particularly applied to fat 
 nelii very ftrongly expreffed. 
 
 MORESK, or MoiUsco, is a kind of painting, 
 
 carving, 
 
MOR M O R 
 
 carving, Ac. done after the manner of the moors; con- 
 lifting of feveral grotefque pieces and compartments, pro- 
 mifeuoufly mingled, not containing any perfect figure 
 of a man, or other animal; but a wild relemblance of 
 birds, beafls, trees, Ac. 
 
 MoRESK-I>flnr < ’j, vulgarly called morrice-dances, are 
 thofe altogether in imitation of the moors, as farabands, 
 chacons, Ac. which are generally performed with cafte- 
 nets or tambours. 
 
 MORIN A, in botany, a plant of the diandria-mono- 
 gynia clafs, with a monopetalous flower, bilabiated at 
 the limb: the feed is Angle, roundilh, and coronated 
 with the cup of the flower. 
 
 MORINDA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria- 
 monogynia clafs of plants, with an infundibuliform mo¬ 
 nopetalous flower, divided into five fegments at the limb : 
 the fruit is a roundifh berry, with an umbilicated point, 
 and contains two elliptico-hemifpherical feeds. 
 
 MORISONA, in botany, a genus of plants, the 
 flower of which confifts of four oblong petals: the fruit 
 is a globole berry, containing a great many kidney-fliapcd 
 feeds. 
 
 MORNING, the beginning of the day, the firfl ap¬ 
 pearance of light, or the time from midnight till noon. 
 
 MOROCCO, Marroquin , in commerce, a fine kind 
 of leather, prepared of the lkin of an animal of the goat 
 kind, and imported from the Levant, Barbary, Ac. 
 
 The following procefies for dying leather red and yel¬ 
 low, as pra£lifed in Turkey, with dire&ions for the pre¬ 
 paration and tanning the Ikins; were communicated to 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ac. by Mr. 
 Philippo: for which they gave him iool. and alfo pre- 
 fented him with a gold medal of the fociety. 
 
 Article I. Firfl: preparation of the Ikins, both for 
 the red and yellow dyes, by drefling them in lime. 
 
 Let the Ikins, dried with the hair on, be firfl laid to 
 foak in clean water, for three days. Let them be broken 
 bver the flefh fide, put into frelh water, for two days 
 longer, and afterwards hung up to drain half an hour. 
 Let them now be broken again on the flelh fide, limed 
 With cold lime on the fame fide, and doubled together 
 with the grain fide outward. In this flate they muft be 
 hung up within doors over a frame, for five or fix days, 
 till the hair be loofe; which muft their be taken off; and 
 the Ikins returned into the lime-pit for about three weeks. 
 Take them out, and let them be well worked, flefh and 
 grain, every fixth or feventh day during that time : after 
 which let them be walhed ten times in clean water; 
 changing the water at each walking. They are next to 
 be prepared in drench, as below mentioned. 
 
 Article II. Second preparation of the Ikins, for both 
 the red and yellow dyes, by drenching. 
 
 After fqueezing the water out of the Ikins, put them 
 into a mixture of bran and water, new milk warm, in 
 the following proportions: viz. about three pounds of 
 bran for five Ikins; and water fufllcient to make the 
 mixture moderately fluid: which will be about a gallon 
 to each pound of bran. In this drench fuller the Ikins 
 to lie three days, at the end of which time they muft be 
 well worked, and afterwards returned into the drench for 
 two days longer. They muft then be taken out, and 
 rubbed between the hands; the water fqueezed from 
 them ; and the bran lcraped off clean from both fides of 
 the ikins. After this they muft be again walked ten 
 times in clean water; and the water lqueezed out of them. 
 Thus far the preparatory procefs of all the Ikins, as well 
 thofe to be dyed red, as yellow is the fame; but, after¬ 
 wards, thofe that are to be red muft be treated as follows. 
 
 Article III. Preparations, in honey and bran, of the 
 Ikins that are to be dyed red. 
 
 Mjx one pound of honey with three pints of luke¬ 
 warm water ; and ftir them together till the honey be 
 dilfolved. Then add two double handfuls of bran : and, 
 taking four Ikins, (for which this quantity will be fuffi- 
 cient) work them well in it one after another. After¬ 
 wards fold up each feparately into a round form, with 
 the flelh fide outward, and lay them in an earthen pan. 
 or other proper veflel, if in fummer, by the fide of each 
 other; and if in winter, on the top of each other. 
 Place the veflel in a Hoping pofition, fo that l'uch fluid 
 as will lpontaneoufly drain out of the Ikins may run from 
 them. An acid fermentation will then arife in the 
 liquor: and the Heins will fwell conliderably. In this 
 Vql. II. No. 50. 
 
 Hate they muft continue about feven or eight davs; but 
 the moifture that drains from them muft be poured off 
 once or twice a day, as necelfity may require. After 
 this a further preparation in fait is neceffary : which is 
 to be performed in the following manner. 
 
 Article IV. Preparation in fait of the Ikins to be dyed 
 red. 
 
 After the Ikins have been fermented in the honey and 
 bran, as above-mentioned, let them be taken out of that 
 mixture on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed 
 with dry common fea-falt, in the proportion of about 
 half a pound to each lkin: which muft be well rubbed, 
 and worked into them. This will make them contract 
 again ; and part with a further confiderable quantity of 
 moifture; which muft be fqueezed out by drawing each 
 lkin feparately through the hands. They muft next be 
 lcraped clean, on both fides, from the bran and fuper- 
 fluous lalt and moifture that may adhere to them; after 
 which, frefli dry fait muft be ftrewed o\er the grain fide, 
 and well rubbed in with the hands. They are then to 
 be doubled, with the flelh fide outward, lengthwife, 
 from tail to tail: and more dry fait muft be thinly ftrewed 
 over the flelh-fide ; and rubbed in. For which two laft 
 operations, about a pound and a half ot fait will be fuf- 
 ficient for each lkin. They muft then be put thus, 
 folded on each other, between two clean boards, placed 
 doping breadth-wife ; and a heavy weight laid on the 
 upper board, in order graduallv to prefs out what moifture 
 they will thus part with. They muft be then con¬ 
 tinued, in this Hate of prelfure, two days, or longer, till 
 it be convenient to dye them: for which they will then 
 be duly prepared. 
 
 Article V. Preparation of the red dye, in the proper 
 proportion for four Ikins; and the manner of application 
 of it in dving the Ikins. 
 
 Put eight gallons of water in a copper, with feven 
 ounces of Ihenan tied up in a linen bag. Light a fire 
 under the copper: and, when the water has boiled about 
 a quarter of an hour, take out the bag of Ihenan ; and 
 put into the boiling fluid or lixivium, ift. Two drams 
 of alum. 2dly, Two drams of pomegranate bark. 3<dly, 
 Three quarters of an ounce of turmerick. 4thly, 1 hree 
 ounces of cochineal. 5tlily, Two ounces of loaf fugar. 
 Then let the whole mixture boil about fix minutes af¬ 
 terwards, over the fire. 
 
 The Ihenan, mentioned above, is a drug commonly 
 ufed in dying, in the Eaft; and very ealily to be obtained 
 at any of the ports of Afia and Africa, in the Levant. 
 It is the Eaftern jointed kali, called by botamfts, feli- 
 cornia : which grows in great plenty on the fea-coift, in 
 thofe and other parts of the Eaft. There is a lets fpecies 
 of the felicornia on our coafts, particularly in Lincoln- 
 Ihire ; which, from its very great affinity to the Ihenan, 
 might be prefumed to have the fame qualities. On fome 
 trials, it has not, however, appeared to anl'wer the end 
 of the Ihenan. But it is proper to purfue the examina¬ 
 tion of this further ; as fome unknown circumftances in 
 the collating or ufing the Englilh felicornia, might 
 occafion the mifearriage. The Eaftern Ihenan may, at 
 all events, be ealily procured in any quantity, at a very 
 low price, by any captains of Turkey lhips, or other 
 perfons, who may be at Aleppo, Smyrna, Ac. 
 
 Meafurc out two pints of this liquor ; and put it into 
 a flat earthen pan. When it is cool as new milk, take 
 one lkin folded lengthwife, the grain fide outwards, and 
 dip it in the liquor: rubbing the fame gently in with the 
 hands. Then, taking out the lkin, hang it up to drain; 
 and throw away the fuperfluous dye. Afterwards pro¬ 
 ceed in like manner with the remaining three Heins : re¬ 
 peating the fame operation, on each lkin feparately, 
 eight times, before each frefli dipping; and fqueezing 
 the Ikins by drawing them through the hand. Lay them 
 now on one fide of a large pan, let Hoping to drain off as 
 much of the moifture as will run from them without 
 preffure,. for about two hours, or till they be cold. 
 Then tan them as here directed. 
 
 Article VI. Tanning the red Ikins. 
 
 Powder four pounds of the belt white galls in a marble 
 mortar, and lift them till the powder be fine. Mix 
 them with about three quarts of water; and work the 
 Ikins well in this mixture for half an hour, or more : 
 folding up the Ikins fourfold. Let them lie in this tan 
 twenty-four hours ; when they are to be worked again 
 
MOR 
 
 as before; then taken out, feraped clean on both fidcs 
 from the firft galls ; and put into the like quantity of frelh 
 galls and water. In this frelh mixture, they mull be 
 again well worked for three quarters of an hour , then 
 folded up as before, and left in the frelh tan for three 
 days. On the fourth day they muft be taken out, walked 
 clean from the galls, in (even or eight frelh quantities of 
 water, and then hung up to drv. 
 
 Article VII. Manner of dr effing the red Ikins after 
 they are tanned. 
 
 When the Ikins have been treated as above, and are 
 very near dry, they fhould be feraped with the proper in- 
 ft rumen t, or feraper, on the flefli fide, to reduce them 
 to a proper degree of thicknefs. Then they are to be 
 laid on a fmooth board, and glazed; by rubbing them 
 with a fmooth glafs. After which they muft be oiled, 
 by rubbing them with olive oil, by means of a linen rag, 
 in the proportion of one ounce and a half of oil to four 
 /kins : and then they are to be grained on a graining 
 board lengthwife, breadthwife, and crofswife from corner 
 to corner. 
 
 Article VIII. Preparation, with galls, of the Ikins 
 for the yellow dye. 
 
 After the four Ikins are taken out of the drench of 
 bran, and clean wafhed, as before directed, Article II, 
 they muft be very well worked, half an hour or more, 
 in a mixture of one pound and a half of the beft white 
 galls, finely powdered, with two quarts of clean water. 
 The Ikins are then to be feparately doubled lengthwife, 
 rolled up with the flefli fide outwards, laid in the mixture, 
 and clofe prefled down on each other : in which ftate 
 they muft continue two whole days. On the third day, 
 let them be again well worked in the tan ; and afterwards 
 feraped clean from the galls, with an ivory or brafs in- 
 ftrument (but no iron muft touch them :) they muft then 
 be put into a frefh tan, made of two pounds of galls, 
 with about three quarts of water; and well worked in it 
 fifteen times. After this, they muft be doubled, rolled 
 up as before, and laid in the fecond tan for two days. 
 On the third day, a quarter of a pound of white fea-falt 
 muft be worked into each fkin : and the Ikins doubled 
 rolled up as before; and returned into the tan till the 
 day following: when they are to be taken out, and well 
 wafhed fix times in cold water, and four times in luke¬ 
 warm. 7 he water muft be then well fqueezed out, by 
 laying the fkins under prefTure for about half an hour, 
 between two boards, with a weight of about two or three 
 hundred pounds upon the uppermoft board: when they 
 will be ready for the dye. 
 
 Article IX. Preparation of the yellow dye in the pro¬ 
 portion for four fkins ; and manner of application of it 
 in dying the fkins. 
 
 Mix fix ounces of caffiari gehira, or dgehira, or the 
 berries of the Eaftern rhamnus, with the fame quantity 
 of alum; and pound them together, till they be fine; in 
 a marble or brafs mortar, with a brafs peftle. Then, 
 dividing the materials thus powdered into three equal 
 parts, of four ounces each, put one of thofe three parts 
 into about a pint and a half of hot water, in a china or 
 earthen vcflel; and ftir the mixture together. 
 
 The caffiari gehira is the berries of an Eaftern rham 
 nus or buckthorn-tree; and may be obtained at Aleppo, 
 or other paits of the Levant, at a fmall price, by the 
 fame means as the fhenan. The common Avignon 
 berries, or yellow berries, may be fubftituted ; but not 
 with fo good an effect, as the caffiari gehira: which is a 
 ftronger and brighter yellow dye, as well for this ule, as 
 colouring paper hangings, and other purpofes. 
 
 Let the boiled fluid ftand to cool, till it will not feald 
 the hand. Then fpread one of the fkins flat on a table 
 in a warm room, with the grain fide uppermoft; and 
 pour a fourth part of the tinging liquor, prepared as here 
 directed, over the grain fide, and fpreading it equally 
 over the fkin with the flat of the hands, rub it well in. 
 Afterwards do the like with the other three fkins: for 
 which the mixture firft made will be fufficient. 
 
 This operation muft then be repeated twice more, 
 feparately on each fkin, with the remaining eight ounces 
 of the powder of the berries and alum, with the above- 
 mentioned due proportions of hot water, put to them as 
 before dire<fted. 
 
 The fkins when dyed, are to be^iung upon a wooden 
 frame, without being folded, with the grain fides out- 
 
 M O R 
 
 wards, about three quarters of an hour to drain ■ when 
 they muft be carried to a river, or ftream of running 
 water; and well wafhed in it fix times or more After 
 this, they muft be put under preffurc for about an hour 
 till the water be well fqueezed out; and then hung up 
 to dry 111 a warm room. & r 
 
 This being performed, the Ikins are to be dreffed and 
 grained as before direefted for thofe dyed red : except 
 that they muft not be oiled. ' ' 
 
 MORPHEW, Morphaa, amongphyficians, denotes 
 a lpecies of the leprofy fituated in the fkin only. 
 
 MORSELUS, Morfulus, in phyfick, de'notes thofe 
 lorms of medicine which are to be chewed in tile mouth 
 
 as a lozenge or troche. 
 
 MORSUS Diaboli, in anatomy, is the fimbriated or 
 jagged extremity of the fallopian tubes of the uterus. 
 
 Morfus Diaboli, devil’s bit, in botany, a plant which 
 teems to have a fringe around the bottom of its root 
 that appears as it bitten off at the bottom. 
 
 MORTALITY, is frequently applied to feme con¬ 
 tagious difeafe that deftroys great numbers either of men 
 or beafts. 
 
 Bills of M°rt alit y, weekly lifts compiled by the 
 parilh-clerks in and about London, that contain the 
 numbers of fuch as die of any difeafe, as well as of thofe 
 that are born every week. Thefe bills comprife not only 
 the fuburbs and liberties of London and Weflminfter 
 and borough of Southwark, but fifteen out-parifhes 
 next adjacent: only the chriftenings and burials in the 
 panfh-churches; for, as to thofe of the diffenters, 
 quakers, &c. they do not come under the cognizance of 
 the parilh clerks. 1 he bills of mortality are of fome 
 Handing m England, in -imitation whereof the like arc 
 now eftablifhed at Paris. They ferve particularly to 
 judge of the mortality of any dilcafe, and whether an 
 epidemick or infedhous diftemper increafes or abates. 
 
 1 here are alfo yearly bills colledled cut of the weekly 
 ones whereby it appears that the annual number of 
 
 25 or 26000; at ?aris > 17 or 18000. 
 
 MORI AR, Morter, m architcdlure, a compofition 
 ol lime, land, &c. mixed up with water, that ferves as 
 a cement to bind tile Hones, &c. of any building. The 
 ancients had a very hard kind of mortal, it bcinf next to 
 impolfible to feparate fome of their buildings ; though 
 fome afenbe that ftrength to time, and the influence of 
 the air. 1 he antient lime is faid to have been burnt 
 from the hardeft ftones, and even fragments of marble 
 
 Worledge obferves, that fine fand makes weak mortar" 
 and, the rounder the fand, the ftronger the mortar • 
 he, therefore, advifes the fand to be waffled before 
 mixed; and adds that dirty water weakens the mortar 
 confiderably. The proportion of lime and fand in our 
 common mortar is extremely variable. Vitruvius pre- 
 fenbes three parts of pit-fand and two of river fand to 
 one of lime; but the fand feems overdofed. About 
 London the proportion of fand to quick-lime is as -6 
 to 35 - In fome parts they ufc equal quantities of each. 
 
 White Mortar, ufedTorplaiftering walls and ceilings, 
 made ol ox hair mixed with lime and water, without any 
 fand. 1 
 
 Morta R ufed in making of I Fa ter Courfes , Ci/lerns , he. 
 is made of lime and hog’s lard, fometimes mixed with 
 the juice of figs, and fometimes with liquid pitch which 
 is hift flaked with wine ; and, after application, it is 
 warned over with linfeed oil. 
 
 Mortar for Furnaces, h c. is made with red clay, 
 wrought in water, wherein horfe-dung and chimney foot 
 have been fteeped, by which a fait is communicated to 
 the water that binds the clay, and makes it fit to endure 
 the fire. This clay ought not to be too fat, left it ffiould 
 be iubject to chinks; nor too lean or landy, left it fhould 
 not bind enough. 
 
 Mortar ufed for the Infrle of refining Veffels^ is made 
 with quick-lime and ox-blood ; the lime being firft beaten 
 to a powder, and fifted, and afterwards mixed with the 
 blood and beaten with a beater. 
 
 Mo R T A R for Sun-dials on Walls, may be made oflime 
 and fand tempered with linfeid oil. This loread upon 
 the wall will become as liaid as a ftone, and not decay 
 for many years. 7 
 
 Another tough Mortar for a Sun-dial Plan- Take 
 five or_fix gallons pf brook-land, well dried, and after 
 that, lifted through a fine fphuted fieve then mix with 
 
M O S 
 
 it fomething more than the fame quantity of lifted lime, 
 and a gallon of boring or gun-duft lifted alfo ; temper all 
 thefe well with fix or l’even gallons of fkimmed milk, 
 and about two quarts of linfeed oil. Lay this on the 
 wall firft well wetted with milk, and, keeping the matter 
 often fprinkled with milk, fmooth it with the trowel. 
 To prevent its cracking, mix hair with it, and, left it 
 fhould blow blifters, prepare the lime as is done for frefco- 
 painting. 
 
 Mortar for Floors , Walls , Ciellngs , &c. Temper ox- 
 blood and fine clay together, then lay the fame in any 
 floor, &c. and it will become a very ftrong binding fub- 
 ftance, faid to be much ufed in Italy. A good mortar 
 for building is alfo made of two parts of wafte-foap-allies, 
 one part of lime, one of lome, and one of fand j or only 
 lime and foap-afhes tempered and wrought together. 
 The allies fliould be ground or ftamped, before mixing 
 with the fand, or re-imbibed in water, to take off fome 
 of their acrimony. 
 
 Mortar, Alortarium, in pharmacy, an inftrument 
 much ufed in the ftiops ; it is ufually made of wood, 
 marble, iron, brafs, lead or glafs ; but care muft be taken 
 not to ufe them indifferently. 
 
 Mortar Piece, a fhort piece of ordnance, thick and 
 wide, proper for throwing bombs, carcafles, fliells, 
 ftones, &c. It is ufually mounted on a carriage, whofe 
 wheels are very low, fee (plate LXI. fig. i.) For the 
 path the bomb, &c. delcribes, with the method of 
 throwing a bomb to any dillance, fee Projectile. 
 
 The following general rules ihould always be obferved 
 in fhooting in mortars: 
 
 1. In mortars, before you make a fliot at any place, 
 be fure to find the diftances thereof from your mortar. 
 
 2. That the bombs, or other bodies that are to be 
 fliot, be of equal weight; otherwife the fhots will vary. 
 
 3. That the carriage in breadth be always on a level, 
 and without any defeent, that fo it may not leap in dif- 
 charging. 
 
 4. That the powder, with which the mortar is loaded, 
 be always of the fame force and weight. 
 
 5. That the charge of the mortar, as well in powder 
 as in wadding, be always rammed in with blows equally 
 heavy, and of equal number. 
 
 6. That the wads be always either of wood or tom- 
 pions, or elleof okam, for the ftrongeft drives it furtheft. 
 
 7. That the fufes be newly made, in thofe days that 
 they are to be ufed, and that they be made of a compo- 
 fition proportionable to the range that the fhoot lhall 
 make in the air, fo that the bomb may break in the very 
 moment of its fall ; which compofition muft be fuchj 
 that, though it fall in the water, yet not to extinguilh, 
 but the bomb there to break. 
 
 MORTGAGE, in law, an obligation, whereby lands 
 or tenements of the debtor are pawned or bound over to 
 the cteditor for money or other effects borrowed ; pe¬ 
 remptorily to be the creditor’s for ever, if the money be 
 not repaid at a certain day agreed on. 
 
 Mortgage, in the common law, denotes the fame 
 with hypotheca in the civil law. The creditor holding 
 fucli land is called tenant in mortgage; he who lays the 
 pawn is called the mortgager, and he that takes it the 
 mortgagee. If a mortgage carry exceflive ufury, it is 
 prohibited by ftat. 37 Hen. VIII. 
 
 MORT 1 ER, a badge borne by the chancellors and 
 great prefidents of the parliament of Paris; from hence 
 called prefidents a mortier. 
 
 MORTIFICATION, Necrofis, in phyfick, a total 
 extinftion of the natural heat of the body, or fome part 
 thereof. 
 
 A mortification, in its firft ftage, is called a gangrene ; 
 but, when it is perfett or finifhed, it is called a fpliacelus. 
 
 MORTMAIN, in law, the alienation of lands and 
 tenements to any guild or corporation and their fucceftors, 
 to bifliops, parfons, vicars, he . which may not be done 
 without the king’s licence, and that of the lord of the 
 manor ; or of the king alone, if it be holden immediately 
 of him. The prefidents and governors of hofpitals may, 
 without licence in mortmain, purchafe land, he- not 
 exceeding the yearly value of 3060 1 . ftat. 14 Car. II. 
 
 MORTUARY, a gift left by a man at his death to 
 his parifli church, as a recompence of perfonal tithes and 
 offerings not duly paid in his life-time. 
 
 MOSAICK, mofaick work, an allemblagc of little bits 
 a 
 
 M O S 
 
 of glafs, marble, fhells, precious ftones, woods, he. of 
 various colours, cut fquare, and cemented on a ground 
 of ftucco, he. in imitation of the colours and degra¬ 
 dations in painting. 
 
 Mos aick Work of Glafs. This kind they begin with 
 little pieces of glafs, which they provide of as many 
 different colours as poflible. To this end the glafs-fur- 
 naces being difpofed, and the crucibles full of the glafs- 
 matter, they put what colour they think fit in each cru¬ 
 cible, always beginning with the weakeft, and augment¬ 
 ing the ftrength of the colours from crucible to crucible, 
 till they come to the deepeft dye. The glafs is taken out 
 hot and laid on the fmooth marble, flatting it down with 
 another like marble, and then cutting it into flices of 
 equal bignefs, and an inch and a half thick. Then, 
 with a peculiar inftrument which the Italians call bocca 
 di cane, they make fome pieces fquare, and others of 
 different figures and fizes; which are difpofed orderly 
 in cafes. 
 
 If it be defired to have gold, either in the ground, 
 ornaments, or drapery, they take fome of the pieces of 
 glafs : thefe they moiilen on one fide with gum-water, 
 and afterwards lay them over with gold-leaf; then putting 
 the pieces on a fire-fhovel, in the mouth of the furnace, 
 after firft covering them with another hollow piece of 
 glafs. Here they continue till they are red-hot, when 
 the gold becomes fo firmly cemented with the glafs, that 
 it will never afterwards quit it. 
 
 Out of thefe fevcral pieces to form a pifture, they firft 
 make a defign, which they transfer on the ground or 
 plaifter by calking, as in frefco-painting. The plaifter 
 confifts of lime made of hard ftone, with very fine brick 
 duft, gum tragacanth, and whites of eggs ; when this 
 plaifter is prepared, and laid on the wall, and the defigh 
 finifhed, they take out with plyers the little pieces of glafs, 
 ranging them ftrifrly according to tile light, fhade, dif¬ 
 ferent teints and colours in the defign, flatting them down 
 with a ruler, which ferves to fink them within the ground, 
 and to render the lurface even. Thus after a long time, 
 and with an infinite deal of trouble, they finifli the work. 
 Some of thefe arc executed with fo much juftnefs, that 
 they appear as fmooth as a marble-table, and as mafterly 
 as a painting in frefco. 
 
 The fineft works of this kind, and thofe whereon the 
 moderns have retrieved the art, almdft loft, are thofe of 
 the church of St. Agnes, formerly the temple of Bacchus 
 at Rome ; befides fome at Pifa, Florence, he. The moft 
 efteemed among the works of the moderns are thofe of 
 JofephPine, and the chevalier Lanfranck, in the church 
 of St. Peter at Rome. There are very good ones like- 
 wife at Venice. 
 
 Mosaick Work of Marble and precious Stone. Mofaick 
 of marble is ufed in large works, as in pavements of 
 churches, he. and in the incruftatioti and veneering of 
 the walls thereof. As to that of precious ftones, it is only 
 ufed in fmall works. The ground of mofaick wholly 
 marble is amafiive of either white or black marble. On 
 this ground the defign is cut with a chiflef, having been 
 firft calked. When it is dug of a fufficient depth, an inch 
 or more, it is filled up with marble of a proper colour, 
 firft falhioned to the defign, and reduced to the thicknefs 
 ol the cavities with various inftruments. To make the 
 pieces hold, they ufe a ftucco compofed of lime and 
 marble duft, or a maftick ; after which the w T ork is half 
 polilhed with a foft kind of ftone. 
 
 When the figures are thus marked, the fculptor draws 
 with a pencil the colours of the figures not determined by 
 the ground, and in the fame manner makes etchings, 
 in the place where fhadows are to be ; and, when he has 
 engraved all the ftrokes with the chiffel, he fills them up 
 with a black maftick compofed partly of Burgundy pitch, 
 poured on hot; taking off afterwards what is fuperfluous 
 with a piece of foft ftone or brick, which with water and 
 beaten cement takes away the maftick, polifhes the mar¬ 
 ble, and renders the whole furprizingly even. This kind 
 ot mofaick we fee in the church of the invalids at Paris, 
 and the fine chapel at Verfailles, and wherewith fome 
 entire apartments of that place are incruftated. 
 
 1 he marble and ftones are fawn into the thinneft leaves 
 imaginable, fcarce exceeding half a line in thicknefs. 
 1 he block to be fawed is faftened with cords on the 
 bench, only raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or 
 two inches high. Two iron pins which are on one fide 
 
 of 
 
M O S 
 
 MOT 
 
 «>i the block, and which fervc to fatten it, ferve alfo to 
 diredt the faw. The pieces to be fawed are put into a 
 vi e contrived for the purpol'e : in which ftate, with 
 kind of faw or bow made of fine bral's wire, bent on a 
 piece of fpringy wood, together with emery fteeped in 
 water, the leaf is gradually talhioned, by following the 
 ftrokesof the delign made on paper and glued on the 
 piece. When there are pieces enough fafhioned, thev 
 are applied : the ground that futtains this mofaick is 
 .ufually of free-flone. The matter, wherewith the ftones 
 are joined together, is a maftick, or ftucco, laid very thin 
 on the leaves, as they are falhioncd, and fo applied with 
 plyers. It any contour, Ac. of a leaf be not either 
 rounded or lquared enough, it is brought down with a 
 brafs file or rafp; and, when too finall, it is managed 
 with a drill and other lapidary inftruments. 
 
 Mosaick of Gypfum, a kind of coarfe talck, ortranf- 
 pareiit ftone, found in the quarries of Montmartre near 
 raris, among the ftones thence dug to make the plaifter 
 of Paris. Of this gypfum, calcined in a kiln, beaten 
 in a mortar and fitted, they make an artificial marble, 
 imitating precious ftones, and of thefe compofe a kind 
 of mofaick little thort Of the durablenefs and vivacity of 
 the natural ftones, and which faither admits of continued 
 pieces without any joining vifible. The ground is either 
 of plaifter of Paris or free-ftone : if the former, it is; 
 fpread in a wooden frame, of the length and breadth ot 
 the intended work, and about an inch and a half thick 
 This frame is fo contrived, that it may be difmounted, 
 when the plaifter is dry. This frame is covered with a 
 ftrong linen cloth, nailed on at bottom all round, and, 
 being placed horizontally, it is filled with plaifter paft 
 through a wide fieve. When the plaifter is half dry, 
 the frame is let perpendicular, till it be thoroughly dry. 
 Tn this mofaick the ground is the moft important pait. 
 The fitted gypfum to be applied on this ground is dif- 
 folved and boiled in the bell Englifh glue, and, after 
 mixing with it the colour it is to bear, the whole is worked 
 up together into the ordinary confiftence, and then fpread 
 on the ground five or fix inches thick. If mouldings be 
 required, they are formed with gouges, Ac. 
 
 On this plaifter the defign is drawn, having been firft 
 pounced or calked. To imprefs the defign, they nfe the 
 fame inftruments with the lculptors, the ground being 
 not much lels hard than marble. The cavities thus 
 made are filled up with the fame gypfum boiled in glue, 
 only differently coloured. The neceffary feints and co¬ 
 lours are ready at hand in little pots. When the defign 
 is thus filled, by halfpolilhing it with brick or foft ftone. 
 they go over it again, cutting luch places as are to be 
 weaker or more fhadowed, and filling them with gypfum 
 which is repeated tii! all the colours reprelent the origi¬ 
 nal to the life. When the work is finilhed, it is fcoured 
 with foft ftone, land, and water, then with pumice 
 ftone, and, laftly, polilhed with a wooden rubber and 
 emery. A luftre is given it by fmearing it over with oil, 
 and rubbing it fome time with the palin of the hand. 
 As to mofaick work of wood, more properly called mar¬ 
 quetry or inlaid work, fee Marquetry. 
 
 MOSQUE, Aljk, a temple, among the Mahome¬ 
 tans, for the exercilcs of their religion. 
 
 MOSS, Mo sc us, in natural hiftory, a little plant 
 of the parafite kind, growing on the barks, Ac. ofl'evc- 
 ral trees. Botanick writers enumerate a great number 
 of modes : the chief of which arc the hairy tree mofs and 
 ft a mofs i the former confifts of a great number of long, 
 Bender, hoary firings, fomewhat tough and hard, hang¬ 
 ing down fome way from the branches of the trees they 
 grow on, which are ufually old oaks. The fea mofs is a 
 flender capillary plant, without a foot-ftalk, and found 
 in the Adriatick lea. 
 
 Mofs is frequently very injurious to fruit-trees, grow¬ 
 ing on cold barren foils, or where they are fo clolely 
 planted as to exclude the free accels of the air; the only 
 remedy, in luch cafes, is to cut down part of the trees, 
 and to plough up the ground between thole left remain¬ 
 ing: and in the fpring-feafon, in moift weather, you 
 fhould, with an iron inftrument made a little hollow, the 
 better to furround the branches of the trees, ferape off 
 the mofs, carrying it off the place ; and by two or three 
 times thus cleanfing them, together with carefully ftir- 
 ring the ground, it may be entirely deftroyed from the 
 trees; but unlels part of the trees were cut down, and 
 
 the ground be well ftiried, the rubbing off the mofs wiIf 
 fignify little. If the trees are covered with mofs, on ac¬ 
 count of the drynefs of the ground, the proper remedy 
 is to lay mud, from the bottom of a ri\er, pretty thick 
 about their roots. 
 
 _Moss, a name given to boggy grounds in many parts 
 ot England. Thefe conlift of a turfy furfacc, below 
 which is a black, moift, fpongy earth, which being dug 
 up with fpades, fomewhat in the form of bricks, and 
 dried, is what they call peats, ufed as fuel in leveral 
 parts, and the upper fcurf being cut and dried, makes 
 turfs, another coarfer fort of fuel. 
 
 MOSTKA, in the Italian mulick, a mark at the end 
 of a line or fpace, to fliew that the firft note of the next 
 line is in that place; and if this note be accompanied 
 with a fharp or flat, it is proper to place thefe chara&ers 
 along with the moftra. 
 
 MOTAZALITES, die name of a famous fedl among 
 the Mahometans, properly fignifying fepaiatifts. The 
 Mota/.alites are not accounted orthodox muffulmen, as 
 they believe the alkoran to be created and not eternal; 
 and befides affert, that there are no attributes in God 
 diftindt from his eflence. 
 
 MOTE, in law-books, fignifies court or convention, 
 as a ward-mote, burgh-mote, fwain-mote, Ac. See 
 Ward -Mote, Ac. 
 
 MOTET! O, in the Italian mufick, a fort of church- 
 mufick, compoled with much art and ingenuity, from 
 one to eight parts, with or without inftruments, and 
 ufually accompanied with a thorough bafs. 
 
 MOTION, is defined to be the continued and fuc-* 
 celfive change of place. 
 
 There are three general laws of motion, i. That * 
 body always perfeveres in its ftate G reft, or of uniform 
 motion in a right line, rill by fome external force it b» 
 made to change its ftate: for as body is paffive in receiv¬ 
 ing its motion, and the diredlion of its motion, fo it 
 retains them, or perfeveres in them widiout any change, 
 till it be adted on by lomething external. From this 
 law it appears, why we inquire not, in philofophy, con¬ 
 cerning the caufe of the continuation of motion or reft: 
 in bodies, which can be no other than their inertia: but 
 if a motion begin, or if a motion already produced is 
 either accelerated or retarded, or if the diredlion of the 
 motion is altered, an inquiry into the power or caufe that 
 produces this change is a proper fubjedl of philofophy. 
 
 2. The fecond general law of motion is, that the change 
 of motion is proportional to the force imprefled, and is 
 produced in the right line in which that force adts. 
 When a fluid adts upon a body, as water or air upon 
 the vanes of a mill, or wind upon the fails of a fhip, the 
 acceleration of the motion is not proportional to the 
 whole force of thole fluids, but to that part only which 
 is imprefled upon the vanes or fails, which depends upon 
 the excefs of the velocity qf the fluid above the velocity 
 which the vane or fail has already acquired ; for if die 
 velocity of the fluid be only equal to that of the vane or 
 fail, it juft keeps up with it, but has no effedt either to 
 advance or retard its motion. Regard muft always be 
 had to the dircdlion in which the force is imprefled, in 
 order to determine the change of motion produced by it: 
 thus, when the wind adts obliquely with refpedt to the 
 dircdlion of a fhip, the change of her motion is firft to be 
 eftimated in the’ diredlion of the force imprefled ; and 
 thence, by a proper application of mechanical and gc-o- 
 nc-trical principle's, the change of die motion of the fhip 
 in her own diredlion is to be deduced. 3. The third 
 general law of motion is, that adlion and readtion are 
 equal, with oppofite diredtions, and are to be eftimated 
 always in the fame right line. Body not only never 
 changes it.> ftate ofitfelf, but refills by its inertia every 
 adlion that produces a change in its motion ; hence 
 when two bodies meet, each endeavours to perlevere in 
 its ftate, and refills any change ; the one acquires no 
 new motion, but what the other lofes in die fame direc¬ 
 tion ; nor doe - this laft !o!e any force, but what the other 
 acquires; and hence, though by their collifion, motion 
 pailes from the one to the othc*r, yet the fum of their mo¬ 
 tions, ettimated in a given diredlion, is preferved the 
 fame, and is unalterable by their mutual adtions upon 
 each other. 
 
 All motion may be confidercd abfulutely or relatively. 
 
 A bib lute or real motion, fays Mr. Maclaurin ; is when 
 
 a body 
 
MOT M O U 
 
 a body changes its place in abfolute fpace; and relative 
 motion, is when a body changes its place only with re¬ 
 lation to other bodies. 
 
 From the obfervation of nature, every one knows that 
 there is motion : that a body in motion perfeveres in that 
 date, till by the aCtion of l'ome power it is neceffitated to 
 change it; that it is not in relative or apparent motion 
 in which it perfeveres, in confequence of its inertia, but 
 in real or abfolute motion. Thus the apparent diurnal 
 motion of the fun and liars would ceafe, without the 
 lead power or force aiding upon them, if the motion of 
 the earth was flopped; and it the apparent motion of any 
 dar was dellroyed by a contrary motion impreffed upon 
 it, the other celellial bodies would Hill appear to perfe- 
 vere in their courfe. See Inertia. 
 
 To make this matter dill plainer, Mr. Martin obferves, 
 that fpace is nothing but an abfolute and infinite void, 
 and that the place of a body is that part of the immenfe 
 void which it takes up or poffeflcs : and this place may 
 be confidered abfolutely, or in itfclf, in which cafe it is 
 called the abfolute place of the body ; or elfe with regard 
 to the place of fome other body, and then it is called the 
 relative or apparent place of the body. 
 
 Now as a motion is only the change of place in bodies, 
 it is evident that it will come under the fame didindion 
 of abfolute and relative or apparent. All motion is in it¬ 
 fclf abfolute, or the change of abfolute fpace; but, when 
 the motions of bodies are confidered and compared with 
 each other, then are they relative and apparent only : 
 they are relative, as they are compared to each other; 
 and they are apparent only, infomuch that not their true 
 or abfolute motion, but the fum or difference of the 
 motions only is perceivable to us. 
 
 In comparing the motion of bodies, we may confider 
 them as moving both the fame way, or towards contrary 
 parts : in the fird cafe, the difference of motion is only 
 perceived by us ; in the latter, the fum of the motions. 
 Thus, for example, fuppofe two fhips, A and B, fet fail 
 from the fame port upon the fame rhumb, and that A 
 fails at the rate of five miles per hour, and B at the rate 
 of three: here the difference of the velocity (viz. two 
 miles per hour) is that by which the fhip A will appear 
 to go from the fhip B forwards, or the fhip B will appear 
 at A to go with the fame velocity backwards, to a fpec- 
 tator iii either refpedively. 
 
 If the two fhips, A and B, move with the fame degree 
 of velocity, then will the difference be nothing, and fo 
 neither fhip will appear to the other to move at all. 
 Hence it is, that though the earth is continually revolv¬ 
 ing about its axis, yet, as all objects on its furface par¬ 
 take of the fame common motion, they appear not to 
 move at all, but are relatively at red. 
 
 If two Blips, A and B, with the degrees of velocity 
 as above, meet each other, the one will appear to the 
 other to move with the fum of both velocities, viz. at 
 the rate of eight miles per hour ; fo that in this cafe the 
 apparent motion exceeds the true, as in the other it fell 
 fhort of it. Hence the reafon why a perfon, riding 
 againd the wind, finds the force of it much greater than 
 it really is ; whereas, if he rides with it, he finds it lefs. 
 
 The reafon of all thefe phenomena of motion will be 
 evident, if we confider we mud be abfolutely at red, if 
 we would difeern the true or real motions of bodies 
 about us. Thus a perfon on thedrand will obferve the 
 fhips failing with their real velocity; a perfon Handing 
 dill will experience the true drength and velocity of the 
 wind ; and a perfon, placed in the regions between tile 
 planets, will view all their true motions, which he can¬ 
 not otherwife do, becaufe in all other cafes the fpeftator’s 
 own motion mud be added to or fubtra&ed from that of 
 the moving body, and the fum or difference is therefore 
 the apparent or relative motion, and not the true. 
 
 Motion is alfo either equable or accelerated. 
 
 Equable motion is that by which a body pafles over 
 equal fpaces in equal times. 
 
 Accelerated motion is that which is continually aug¬ 
 mented or increafed, as retarded motion is that which 
 continually decreafes; and, if the increafe or decreafe 
 of motion be equal in equal times, the motion is their 
 laid to be equally accelerated or retarded. 
 
 Equable motion is generated by a fingle impetus or 
 droke ; thus the motion of a ball from a cannon is 
 produced by the fingle action of the powder in the fird 
 Vol. II. No. 51. 
 
 moment, and, therefore, the velocity it fird fets out 
 with, would always continue the fame, were it void of 
 gravity, and to move in an unrefiding medium ; which* 
 therefore, would be always equable, or fuch as would 
 carry it through the fame length of fpace in every equal 
 part of time. 
 
 Animal Motion, is that whereby the fituation, 
 figure, magnitude, &c. of the parts, See. of animals are 
 changed : under thefe are comprifed all the animal func¬ 
 tions. See Function. Animal motions are divided 
 into fpontaneous and natural. 
 
 Spontaneous or mufcular Motion, is that performed by 
 the mufcles at the command of the will. See Muscle. 
 
 Natural or involuntary Motion, that effe&ed, with¬ 
 out any fuch command, by the mere mechanifm of the 
 parts, fuch as the motion of the heart, pulfe, &c. 
 
 lntejline Motion, the agitation of the particles of 
 which a body confids. Some philofophers will have 
 every body, and every particle thereof, in continual 
 motion. Hence intedine motion is reprefented to be a 
 motion of the internal and fmaller parts of matter, con¬ 
 tinually excited by fome external latent agent, which 
 only difeovers itfelfby effe&s, being appointed by nature 
 as the great indrument of the changes in bodies. 
 
 Motion, in aftronomy, peculiarly denotes the or¬ 
 derly courfes of the heavenly bodies. The motions of 
 the celedial luminaries are diurnal or common, and fe- 
 condary or proper. 
 
 Diurnal or primary Motion, is that wherein the 
 whole mundane fphere appears to revolve every day round 
 the earth from ead to wed. See Diurnal. This is 
 called the motion of the primum mobile, and the com¬ 
 mon motion, to didinguifh it from that peculiar to each 
 planet, See. 
 
 Secondary or proper Motion, is that wherewith a dar, 
 planet, Sec. advances a certain fpace every day from wed 
 towards ead. 
 
 MOTTO, in armoury, a fhort fentence or phraf« 
 carried in a fcroll, generally under, but fometimes over 
 the arms; fometimes alluding to the bearing, fometimes 
 to the name of the bearer, and fometimes containing 
 whatever pleafes the fancy of the devifer. 
 
 MOVEABLE, in general, denotes any thing capa¬ 
 ble of being moved. The moveable feads are fuch as 
 are not regularly held on the fame day of the year or 
 month, though they are always on the fame day of the 
 week. The moveable terms are Eader-term and Tri¬ 
 nity-term. 
 
 Moveable Goods , in law, fuch chattels as are ca¬ 
 pable of being removed from one place to another, as 
 cattle, merchandize, See. 
 
 MOVEMENT, in mechanicks, a machine moved by 
 clock-work. To make a regular movement, that may 
 ferve to meafure time as exactly as poflible, is one of 
 the mod valuable problems in mechanicks, which has 
 been mod fuccefsfully effe&ed hitherto by adapting pen¬ 
 dulums to clocks : though it mud be owned, that many 
 ingenious contrivances have been invented to correCt the 
 irregularities of thofe movements that go by fprings. 
 
 MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanick arts, &c. a 
 cavity cut with a defign to give its form or impreffion to 
 fome l'ofter matter applied therein, of great ufe in fculp- 
 ture, foundery, See. 
 
 Moulds, in the manufacture of paper, are little 
 frames compofed of feveral brafs or iron wires, fadened 
 together by another wire dill finer. Each mould is of 
 the bignefs of the flieet of paper to be made, and has a 
 rim or ledge of wood to which the wires are fadened ; 
 thefe moulds are more ufually called frames, or forms. 
 
 Furnace or Crucible-makers Moulds are made of 
 wood, of the fame form with the crucibles ; that is, in 
 form of a truncated cone : they have handles of wood to 
 hold and turn them with, when, being covered with the 
 earth, the workman has a mind to round or flatten his 
 veflel. 
 
 Moulds for Leaden Bullets , are little iron pincers, 
 each of whole branches terminates in an hemifpherical 
 concavity, which, when fhut, form an entire fphere: 
 in the lips or fides where the branches meet, is a little 
 jet or hole, through which the melted lead is conveyed. 
 
 GVtfz/frj-MouLDs. The glaziers have two kinds of 
 moulds, both ferving to cad their lead. In the one 
 they cad the lead into long rods or canes, fit to be drawn 
 L1 through 
 
MOU M U L 
 
 through the vice, and the grooves formed therein: this 
 they fometimes call ingot-mould. In the other they 
 mould thofe little pieces of lead a line thick, and two 
 lines broad; fattened to the iron bars: thel'e may be alfo 
 caft in the vice. 
 
 Goldfmiths- Mould. The goldfmiths ufe the bones of 
 the cuttle-fifti to make moulds for their fmall works, 
 which they do by prefling the pattern between two bones, 
 and leaving a jet or hole to convey the fllver through, 
 after the pattern has been taken out. 
 
 MouId, amongmalbns, apiece ofhard wood oriron 
 hollowed withinfide, anfwering to the contours of the 
 mouldings or corniches, See. to be framed ; this is other- 
 wife called caliber. 
 
 Moulds, among plumbers, are the tables whereon 
 They caft the fheets of lead. See Plumbery. 
 
 Moulds, among tallow-chandlers, are of two kinds: 
 the firft for the common dipped candles, being the veflel 
 wherein the melted tallow is difpofed, and the wick 
 dipped : this is of wood, of a triangular form, and fup- 
 ported on one of its angles, fo that it has an opening of 
 near a foot at top: the other, ufed in the fabrick of mould 
 candles, is of brals, pewter, or tin; here each candle 
 has its diftinft mould. 
 
 Mould, among gold-beaters, a certain number of 
 leaves of vellum, or pieces of guts, cut fquare, of a 
 certain fize, and laid over one another, between which 
 they put the leaves of gold and lilver, which they beat 
 on the marble with the hammer. 
 
 Mould, in agriculture, a loofe kind of earth, every 
 where obvious on the furface of the ground, called alfo 
 natural or mother-earth ; by fome alfo loam. 
 
 MOULDINESS, a term applied to bodies which 
 corrupt in the air, from fome hidden principle of humi¬ 
 dity therein ; and whofe corruption {hews itfelf by a; 
 certain white down, or lanugo, on their furface, which, 
 viewed through a microfcope, appears like a kind of 
 meadow, out of which arife herbs and flowers, fome 
 only in the bud, others full blown, and others decayed, 
 each having its root, ftalk, and other parts. 
 
 MOULDING, anything caft in a biould, or that 
 feems to have been fo, though in reality it were cut with 
 a chiflel or the ax. 
 
 Mould ing, in archite&ure, proje&ures beyond the 
 naked wall, column, vvainfeot, Sec. the aflemblage of 
 which forms corniches, door-cafes, and other decorations 
 of archite&ure. 
 
 Moulding, in Ihip-building, the juttings or pro¬ 
 cedures beyond the level of the flde; they are placed 
 above one another; the intervals of which are generally 
 ornamented with martial inftruments, trophies of war, 
 marine and other emblematical figures, See. 
 
 MOULINEX, in mcchanicks, is ufed to fignify a 
 roller, which being crofted with two levers, is ufually 
 applied to cranes, capftans, and other forts of engines of 
 the like nature, to draw ropes, and heave up ftones, &c. 
 
 Moulixet is alfo a kind of turnftile, or wooden 
 crofs, which turns hbrizontally upon a flake fixed in 
 the ground . ufually placed in paffages to keep out horfes, 
 and to oblige pafl'engers to go and come one by one. 
 Thcfe moulinets are often fet near the outworks of for¬ 
 tified places, at the fides of the barriers, through which 
 people pafs on foot. 
 
 MOUND, a term ufed for a bank or rampart, or 
 other fence, particularly that of earth. 
 
 Mound, in heraldry, a ball or globe with a crofs 
 upon it, fuch as our kings are ufually drawn with, hold¬ 
 ing it in their lefthands, as they do the feeptre in the right. 
 
 MOUNT-Ecg, in the tin-works. After the tin 
 from the burnt ore is melted down and re-melted, there 
 will fometimes remain a different flug in the bottom of 
 the float; this they call mount-egg; and though of a 
 tin colour, yet is of an iron nature, as has been found 
 by applying a magnet to it. 
 
 MOUNTAIN, Mom, a part of the earth, rift rig to 
 a conlidcrable height above the level of the furface 
 thereof. 
 
 Burning- Mountain. See Volcano. 
 
 MOUNTING, in the mcchanickaits, fomething that 
 fervesto raile or fet off a work: thus, the frame and its 
 dependences make the mounting of a looking-glafs; 
 the hilt, the mounting of a fword ; the fuft, or but, the 
 mounting of a carabine, mu'qu.t. &c. and the mount¬ 
 
 ing of a fan, is the flicks which ferve to open and fliut it. 
 
 Mounting, in military affairs, lignifies going upon 
 duty: thus, mounting a breach, is running up to it; 
 mounting the guard, is going upon guard; and mount¬ 
 ing the trenches, is going upon duty in the trenches : 
 but mounting a cannon, mortar, See. is the fetting it 
 on its carriage, or the railing its mouth. 
 
 MOUSE, among failors, a fort of riling made on the 
 ftays, and fome other ropes, in a lhip, to prevent the 
 eve, in one end of the rope, from Hipping up above its 
 proper place, or the body of it. The moufe, which 
 iomewhat refembles a pear, is raifed by winding tarred 
 canvas, called parfling, about the ftay in one place, and 
 afterwards a great many turns of fpun-yarn : the whole 
 is completed by weaving a coat or cover around the moufe 
 very curioufly, which is called pointing. 
 
 MOUTH, in anatomy, a part of the face, confifting 
 of the lips, the gunis, the infides of the cheeks, the pa ¬ 
 late, the lalival glands, the os hyoides, the uvula, and 
 the tonfils; \Vhich fee under their proper articles. 
 
 MOXA, a fort of cotton or downy lubftance, fepa- 
 rated from the leaves of a fort of Indian mugwort; ufed 
 by die eaftern nations for cauterizing in certain parts of 
 the bodv. 
 
 MUCILAGE, in pharmacy, is in general any vilcid 
 and glutinous liquor. 
 
 Mucilage alfo denotes a thick pituitous matter, 
 evacuated with the urine, in the gravel and dvluria. 
 
 Mucilage likewife imports the liquor wdiich princi¬ 
 pally ferves to moiften the ligaments and cartilages of 
 the articulations. 
 
 MUCILAGINOUS Glands, in anatomy, a very 
 numerous fet of glands, lerving to fecrete the mucilage 
 of the joints. 
 
 MUCOR, in botany, a genus of fungiifes tonfifting 
 ot little roundilh bladders, in which are found numerous 
 feeds affixed to hair-like receptacles, placed all over the 
 iniide of the bladders. 
 
 MUCOUS Glands, in anatomy, three glands which 
 empty themfelves into the urethra -, fo called bv their firft 
 dilcoverer, Mr. Covvpcr, from the tenacity of the liquor 
 which they feparate. 
 
 MUCRO Cordis, in anatomy, die lower or pointed 
 end of the heart. 
 
 MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor, feparated bv the 
 mucous glands and the noftrils. 
 
 MUFF LE, in metallurgy, an arched cover, refilling 
 the ftrongeft fire, and made to be placed over coppels 
 and tefts, in the operations of aflayirig, to preferve them 
 from the falling of coals and afhes into them; though, 
 at the fame time of fuch a form, as is no hindrance to 
 the adion of the air and fire on the metal, nor to the 
 infpeCtion of the aflaver. The muffles may be made of 
 any form, providing they have thefe conditions : but 
 thofe ufed with coppels are commonly made femi-cvlin- 
 drical; or when greater veflels are employed, in form of 
 a hollow hemifphere. The muffle nnift have holes, that 
 the aftayer may look in; and the forepart of it muft be 
 always quite open, that the air may aft better in con¬ 
 junction with the fire, and be inceffantly renewed : the 
 apertures in the muffle ferve alfo for the regimen of the 
 fire, for the cold air rufhing into the large opening be¬ 
 fore, cools the bodies in the veffel; but if fome coals are 
 put in it, and its aperture before be then fhut, with a 
 door fitted to it, the fire will be increafed to the higheft 
 degree, much more quickly than it can be by the breath¬ 
 ing holes of the furnace. 
 
 MUFTI, or Mu put i, the chief of the ecclefiaftical 
 order, or primate of the muffulman religion. 
 
 MUGGLE rONIANS, a religious fed, which arofe 
 in England about the year 1657 ; fo denominated from 
 their leader, Lodowick Muggleton, a journeyrtian taylor, 
 who, with his affociate Reeves, fet up for great prophets; 
 pretending, as it is laid, to have an abfolute power of 
 laving and damning whom they plealed , and giving out, 
 that they were the two laft witneffes of God, that Ihouli 
 appear before the end of the woild. 
 
 MUGWORT, Artemifi'i ,inbotanv. SeeA rtemisi a. 
 
 MULBERRY -1 ree, Monts, in botany, a genus of 
 plants of the monoecia-triandria dal's; the "male flowers 
 are colleded in a long amentum, having no corolla : 
 the ftamina are four eicd Tubulated filaments, longer 
 than the cup, and terminated with fimplc anthers : the 
 3 female 
 
MUL 
 
 female flowers have no petals; they are colle&ed in 
 roundheads, and are fucceeded by a well-known, large, 
 flefhy, fucculent berry, compofed of fcveral protube¬ 
 rances, in each of which is placed an oval pointed feed. 
 Of mulberries, there are two kinds, the black and the 
 white; but the black is moll common with us. They 
 are propagated by lowing the feeds, or by laying down 
 the fruit-bearing branches; but thofc propagated by 
 feeds are commonly moil vigorous, though they feldom 
 prove fo fruitful as’the others. They may alfo be in- 
 creafed from cuttings planted in March. 1 he foil mul¬ 
 berry-trees delight in, is a rich light earth, of a good 
 depth; they fhould never be planted near other trees or 
 buildings, for then the fruit will not ripen fo well. Mul¬ 
 berries have the qualities common toother fweet fruits, 
 in abating heat and quenching thirft; they are chiefly 
 eaten for pleafure, but they yield little nouriihmcnt. '1 he 
 leaves of this plant are ufed in France, Italy, Perfia, 
 &c. for feeding filk-wortns; for which purpofe, they 
 fhould never be allowed to grow tall, but kept in a fort 
 of hedge ; and inftead of pulling off the leaves fingly, 
 they fhould be cut off with fheers, together with the 
 young branches. 
 
 MULCT, a fine of money laid upon a man who has 
 committed fome fault or mifdemeanour. 
 
 MULCH, a term ufed by gardeners for rotten dung, 
 or the like; thrown upon beds of young plants, to pre¬ 
 fer ve them from the bad effefls of cold or drought. 
 
 MULE, in zoology, a mongrel kind of quadruped, 
 ufually generated between an afs and a mare, and fome- 
 times between a horfe and a fhe-afs. The mule is a fort 
 of a monfter, of a middle nature between its parents, 
 and therefore incapable of propagating its fpecies ; fo 
 careful is nature to avoid filling the world with monfters. 
 Mules are chiefly ufed in countries where there are rocky 
 and ftony roads, as about the Alps, Pyrenees, he. 
 
 MULLER, or Mullah, denotes a hone flat and 
 even at the bottom, but round at top, ufed for grinding 
 matters on a marble. The apothecaries ufe mullers to 
 prepare fome of their teflaceous powders, and painters 
 for their colours, either dry or in oil. 
 
 Muller is alfo an inftrument ufed by the glafs- 
 grinders ; being a piece of wood, to one end whereof is 
 cemented the glafs to be’ground : it is ordinarily about 
 fix inches long turned round. 
 
 MULLET, Jkfugil, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes 
 refembling falmon, but much fmaller. 
 
 Mullet, or Mol let, in heraldry, a bearing in 
 form of a flat, or rather of the rowel of a fpur, which 
 it originally reprefented. The mullet has but five points; 
 when there are fix, it is called a Par ; though others 
 make this difference, that the mullet is, or ought to be, 
 always pierced, which a Par is not. The mullet is ufually 
 the difference or diftinguifhirig mark for the fourth fon, 
 or third brother, or lioufe ; though it is often borne alone, 
 as coat-armour. 
 
 MULTANGULAR, a figure, or body, which has 
 many angles. 
 
 MULTILATERAL, in geometry, is applied to 
 thole figures which have more titan four iides or angles, 
 more ufually called polygons. See Polygon. 
 
 MULTINOMIAL, or Multinomial Roots, 
 in mathematicks, fuch roots as are compofed of many 
 names, parts, or members; as n-y-b + d+c, he. 
 
 MULTIPLE, Multiplex , in arithmetick, a number 
 which comprehends fome other-fcveral times; thus 6 is 
 a multiple of 2, and 12 is a multiple of 6, 4, and 3, 
 comprehending the firff twice, the fecond thrice, he. 
 
 M u l t 1 p l e R a t 1 o, or r r o p o R t 1 o n , is that which 
 is between multiples. If the lefs term of the ratio be 
 an aliquot part of the greater, the ratio of the greater to 
 the lefs is called multiple; and that of the lefs to the 
 greater iubmultiple. Afubmultiple number is that con¬ 
 tained in the multiple; thus the numbers 1, 2, and 3, 
 are fubmultiples of b. Duple, triple, he. ratios, as alfo 
 fubduples, fubtriples, he. arc lb many fpecies of multiple 
 and Iubmultiple ratios. 
 
 MULTIPLICAND, in arithmetick, one of the fac¬ 
 tors in the rule of multiplication ; being that number 
 which is given to be multiplied by another, which is 
 called the rnuitiplicator, or multiplier. 
 
 MULTIPL 1 CATION, which is the fourth rule in 
 arithmetick, is the taking or repeating of the multiph- 
 
 MUL 
 
 cand, as often as the multiplier contains unity. Gr, 
 multiplication, from a multiplicand and a multiplier 
 given, finds a third number, called the produfl, which 
 contains the multiplicand as often as the multiplier, con¬ 
 tains unity. See Aritiimet ick. 
 
 Hence multiplication fupplies the place of many addi¬ 
 tions ; for if the multiplicand be repeated or fet down as 
 often as there are units in the multiplier, the him of 
 thefe, taken by addition, will be equal to the produft by 
 rhultiplication. Thus, 5x3—15 = 5-1-5-1-5. 
 
 Calc I. To multiply fingie numbers by one another. 
 
 The firfl and loweit flep in multiplication is, to mul- 
 : tiply one digit by another , and the fa& or number thence 
 arifing is called a fingie product. I his elementary hep 
 may be learned from the following table, commonly called 
 Pythagoras’s table of multiplication : which is confulted 
 thus ; feek one of the digits or numbers on the head, and 
 the other on the left fide, and in the angle of meeting 
 you have their product. T he learner, before he proceed 
 further, ought to get the table by heart. 
 
 To Pythagoras’s table are here added, on account of 
 their ufefulnels, the products of the numbers 10, 11, 12. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 I I 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 3° 
 
 33 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 s 
 
 IO 
 
 IS 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 5° 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 3° 
 
 3 6 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 49 
 
 56 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 9 
 
 l8 
 
 27 
 
 3 6 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 6 3 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 I08 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 3° 
 
 40 
 
 5° 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 IOO 
 
 I IO 
 
 120 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 66 
 
 77 
 
 88 
 
 99 
 
 I IO I 2 I 
 
 132 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 GO 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 1 
 
 120 132 
 
 144 
 
 Cafe II: To multiply a compound number by a fingie 
 brie. 
 
 Rule. Having placed the multiplier under the unit’s 
 place of the multiplicand ; nrff, multiply the unit of the 
 multiplicand by the multiplier; if their product be lefs 
 than 10, fet it down underneath its own place of units, 
 and proceed to the next figuie of the multiplicand : but 
 if their produtt be above 10, or tens, then fet down the 
 overplus only, or odd figure, as in addition, and carry 
 thefaid 10 or tens in mind, till you have multiplied the 
 next figure of the multiplicand with the multiplier : then, 
 to their product add the 10 or tens carried, fetting down 
 the overplus of their fum above the tens, as before; and 
 fo proceed in that manner till all the figures of the mul¬ 
 tiplicand are multiplied with the multiplier. 
 
 Example. Suppofe it were required to multiply 
 3213 by 3. 
 
 3213 Multiplicand. 
 
 3 Multiplier. 
 
 9639 
 
 For, beginning at the unit’s place 3, fay, 3 times 3 is 9, 
 which, becaufe it is lefs than 10, fet down underneath its 
 own place, and proceed to the next place of tens, faying, 
 3 times 1 is 3, which fet down underneath its own place; 
 then at the next place, viz. of hundreds, fay, 3 times 2 
 is 6, which fet down as before ; laftly, at the place of 
 thoufands, fay, 3 times 3 is 9, which being fet down 
 underneath its own place, the operation is finifhed, and 
 the true produft is 9639. 
 
 Cafe 111 . To multiply one compound number by 
 another. 
 
 Rule. Place every number refpeblively under its own 
 kind ; multiply each figure of the multiplicand by each 
 figure of the multiplier, as before ; and obferve to fet the 
 firff figure of each refpective produft under that figure of 
 the multiplier, by which it was made ; laftly, add the 
 feveral products together for the whole product. 
 
 'Example. 
 
MUL 
 
 Example I. Let it be required to multiply 78094 into 
 or with 7563. 
 
 234282 the firft particular produCt with 3 
 
 468564 the fecond-with 60 
 
 39047° the third-*-with 500 
 
 546658 _the fourth-■-with 7000 
 
 590624922 the total of the true product required. 
 
 Example II. Suppofe it required to multiply 57498 
 into 60008. 
 
 57498 
 
 60008 
 
 459984 the produCt with 8 
 344988 the produCt with 6000 
 34503399 8 4=57498 X 60008. 
 
 When there is a cypher or cyphers, to the right hand 
 either to the multiplicand or multiplier, or to both, in 
 that cafe multiply the figures as before ; neglecting the 
 cyphers until the particular products are added together ; 
 then to the fum annex fo many cyphers as are in either 
 or both the factors. 
 
 Multiplication of mixed Numbers. Begi n at the 
 loweft fpecies of the multiplicand, and, having multi¬ 
 plied that number, reduce the produCt to the next fpecies ; 
 that is, find how many units of the next fuperior fpecies 
 it is equal to, and what remains over ; fet what is over 
 as a part of the anfwer of the denomination multiplied. 
 Then multiply the given number of the next fuperior 
 fpecies, and to the produCt add that number to which 
 the produdt of the preceding fpecies was reduced; and 
 reduce this fum to the next fuperior fpecies; making 
 the remainder, or what is over, as part of the anfwer of 
 the fpecies multiplied ; and proceed in this manner 
 through all the fpecies of the multiplicand. 
 
 For example. Let itbe required to multiply 68/. 14;. q dA 
 by 7. 1 he work will Hand as follows. 
 
 Here fay, 3X7 = 21; which is 1 farthing /. x . d. 
 over 5 pence; therefore fet down 1, and 68 : 14 ; nl 
 carry 5 to the next fpecies, viz. that of 7 4 
 
 pence. Then 7 Xq = 63, and the 5 pence -q—7-7 
 
 carried make 68 pence, or 5 fhillings and 4 ^ 1 ■' °3 : °8^ 
 
 8 pence; therefore fet down 8 pence, and carry 5 to the 
 next fpecies or that of fhillings. Then 7 x 14 = 98 
 fhillings, and the 5 carried make 103 fhillings, or 5 
 pounds 3 fhillings; therefore fet down 3 fhillings, and 
 carry 5 to the place of pounds. Then multiply the 
 68 pounds by 7, and add the 5 carried, and the whole 
 produ& will be 481/. 3/. 8d. 4. Note, when the multi- 
 plicator is large, it will be eafiefl to divide it into two or 
 more parts, lo that thole multiplied together may 
 produce the given multiplicator. Thus, if the multipli- 
 cator were 28, it may be refolved into 7 and 4, becaufe 
 4x7 = 28. Therefore multiply the given multiplicand 
 by 7, and that product by 4, and the lafl produCl will 
 give the anfwer required. 
 
 Crofs Multiplication, otherwifecalled duodeci¬ 
 mal arithmetick, is an expeditious method of multiplying 
 things of feveral fpecies, or denominations, by others 
 alfo of different fpecies, &c. As feet and inches by feet 
 and inches, 6cc. This method is much ufed in practical 
 meafuring, and is performed in the following manner : 
 Suppofe it were required to multiply 5 feet 3 inches, bv 
 2 feet 4 inches. Having placed them under F. J. 
 
 each other, fay, 2 times 5 feet is 10 feet, and 5 : o 
 
 2 times 3 inches is 6 inches, which fet down 2 : 4 
 
 under the line : again, 4 times 5 is 20 inches,- 
 
 or 1 foot 8 inches, which place under the former; 10:6 
 Alfo 4 times 3 is 12 parts or one inch, which fet 1 ; 8 
 
 down in the row of inches, and add thefe fums 1 
 
 •ogether, which will give 12 feet 3 inches, the_ 
 
 produCt or content required. 12 : 2 
 
 Multiplication of Algebra. In multiplication the 
 general rule for the figns is, that when the figns of the 
 iaCtors are alike (i. e. both -f or both — ) thefignofthe 
 produCt is + ; but when the figns of the faCtors are un¬ 
 like, the lign ot the produCt is — . 
 
 Cafe 1. When any pofitive quantity, 4- a, is multi¬ 
 plied by any pofitive number, 4- n, the meaning is, 
 _ihat 4 - a is to be taken as many times as there are units 
 in n , and the produCt is evidently na. 
 
 Cafe S. When—a is multiplied by n, then-* is to 
 
 M U M 
 
 be taken as often as there are units in n; and the oroduel 
 muff be— na. 1 
 
 Cate 3. Multiplication by a pofitive number implies 
 a repeated addition : but multiplication by a negative 
 implies a repeated fubtraftion. And, when + a is to be 
 multiplied by— n, the meaning is that + a is to be lub- 
 trafted as often as there are units in n ; therefore tire 
 product is negative, being —so. 
 
 Cafe 4. When— a is to be multiplied by— n, then 
 —a is to be fubtrafted as often as there are units in n ■ 
 but to fubtradt— a is equivalent to adding + a confe’ 
 queinly the produft is + ™. The fecond and fourth 
 cafes may be illuilrated in the following manner: 
 
 It is evident that + a—a- 0; therefore if we mul¬ 
 tiply + a-a by n, the produft mill vanilh or be o 
 becaufe the faftor a-a is o. The firft term of the 
 product is + na (by cafe 1.) Therefore, the fecond 
 term ofthe produft muft be-. t , which deftroys + na- 
 fo that the whole produfl muft be + na—na — o 
 Therefore, — a multiplied by + n, gives_ na. 
 
 In the like manner, if we multiply 4. a — a by — n 
 the firft term of the produft being-™, the latter term 
 of the produft muft be + na, becaufe the two together 
 muft deftroy each other, or their amount o, finceone of 
 the fadtors (viz. a-a) is o. Therefore, -a multiplied 
 by— n muft give -f- na. 
 
 If the quantities to be multiplied are fimple, find the 
 fign of the produft by the laft rule; after it place the 
 produft of the co-efficients, and fet down all the letters 
 after one another, as before. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Mult, -f- a I 
 
 -aa 1 + 6* 
 
 By +1 | 
 
 + 4 4 1 — qa 
 
 ProduCt 4- ab 
 
 
 Mult. — 8 a- 
 
 I + 
 
 By — 4 <j 
 
 1 — 5 ac 
 
 ProduCt 4-32*?*■ 
 
 15a a be 
 
 To multiply compound quantities, you muft multiply 
 every part of the multiplicand by all the parts of the 
 multiplier taken one after another, and then colledi all the 
 products into one fum, which-will be the produft defired. 
 
 Mult, aa -f- ab -f- bb 
 By a — b 
 
 p ro j J aaa + aab + bb 
 
 f -aab-abb-bb b 
 
 S um aaa. . o.O.. — bbb 
 
 MULTlPLYlNG-G/afi, a lens in which objeCts 
 appear increafed in number. It is ground into feveral 
 planes that make angles with one another, through 
 which the rays of light, iffuing from the fame point, 
 undergo different refraCtions, fo as to enter the eye from 
 every furface, in a different direction. 
 
 MULT ISILIQUOL T S Plants, thofe, which have, 
 after each flower, many diftinCt, long, flender, filiqua?, 
 or pods, in which their feed is contained ; fuch are 
 bear s-foot, columbine, houfe-leek, navel-wort, or¬ 
 pine, See. 
 
 MUL I ITUDE, an affemblage, or collection of a 
 great number of diftinCt perlons or things. 
 
 MUL BIVALVES, in natural hiftory, the name of 
 a general clafs of fhell-fifh ; diftinguifhed from the uni¬ 
 valves, which confift of onlyone fhell, and the bivalves, 
 which confift of two; by their confifting of three or 
 more fhells. 
 
 MUM, a kind of malt-liquor, much drank in Ger¬ 
 many; and chiefly brought from Brunfwick, which is 
 the place of moft note for making it. The procefs of 
 brewing mum, as recorded in the town-houfe of that 
 city, is as follows: Take 63 gallons of water that has 
 been boiled till one-third part is confumed, and brew ir 
 with feven bufhels of wheaten-malt, one bufhel of pat- 
 meal, and one bufhel of ground beans; when it is 
 tunned, the hogfhead muft not be filled too full at firft; 
 as foon as it begins to work, put into it three pounds of 
 the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops of fir and 
 beach ; three handfuls of carduus benediCtus ; a handful 
 or tv\ o of the flowers of rola folis; add burnct, betony, 
 marjoram, avens, penny-royal, and wild thyme, of each 
 a handful and a half; ot elder-flowers, two handfuls or 
 more, feeds of cardamum bruifed. thirty ounces; bar¬ 
 berries 
 
20 -. /(> 
 
 Plate LK 
 
 fa cintr Mufcle 
 
 3 / 
 
 ■bo 
 
 fe.. 
 
 2 &.. 
 
 iea'^/fr/uuia 'ry />/{ ¥t/j &\ /o/c /tc&) . 
 
 ..■20 
 
MUR 
 
 berries bruifed, one ounce: when tlie liquor has worked 
 a while, put the herbs and feeds into the veflel; and, 
 after they are added, let it work over as little as poflible, 
 then fill it up : laftly, when it is flopped, put into the 
 hogfhead ten new-laid eggs unbroken: llopitclofc, and 
 drink it at two years end. Our Englifh brewers, in- 
 ilead of the inner rind of fir, ule cardamum, ginger, 
 and faflafras; and alio add elecampane, madder, and 
 r«d fanders. 
 
 MU MMY, a body embalmed or dried, in the man- 
 nei ufed by the ancient Egyptians : or the composition 
 with which it is embalmed. 
 
 Mummy, among gardeners, a kind of wax ufed in 
 grafting and planting the roots of trees, made in the fol¬ 
 lowing manner : Take one pound of black pitch, and a 
 quarter of a pound of turpentine ; put them together 
 into an earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the open air, 
 bolding fomething in your hand to cover and quench the 
 mixture in time, which is to be alternately lighted and 
 quenched till all the nitrous and volatile parts be evapo¬ 
 rated. To this a little common wax is to be added; and 
 the compofition is then to be fet by for ufe. 
 
 MUNDICK, in natural hiftory, a metallick mineral, 
 more commonly called marcafite. 
 
 MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil law, an epithet 
 which fignifies invefted with the rights and privileges of 
 Roman citizens. 
 
 MUNIMENTS, or Miniments, the writings re¬ 
 lating to a perfoif’s inheritance, by which he is enabled 
 to defend his title to his eilate : or, in a more general 
 icnfe, all manner of evidences, luch as charters, fcofF- 
 iiients; releafes, Zee. 
 
 Muniment-House, a little flrong room in ft cathe¬ 
 dral, college, or. univerfity, deflined for keeping the fcal, 
 charters, Ccc. of luch cathedral, college, Arc. ° 
 
 MUNIONS, in architecture, are the fhbrt, upright 
 polls 01 bars which divide the feveral lights in a window- 
 frame. 
 
 MUNITION, tlie provifioiis with which a place is 
 furmfhed in order for defence ; or that which follows a 
 camp for its fubfiftence. 
 
 . Munition-Ships, are thofe that have {lores bn board 
 m order to fUpply a fleet of men of war at fea. In an 
 engagement, all the munition fhips and victuallers at¬ 
 tending the fleet, take their ftatiphs in the rear of all the 
 reft; they are not to engage in the fight, but to attend 
 fuch directions as are fent them by the admiral. 
 
 MUN I INGiA, in botany, a genus of plants whole 
 flower confifts of five roundifh patent petals inferted in 
 the cup; the ftamina are a great number of very lhort 
 capillary filaments, topped with roundifh anther®. The 
 fruit is a globofe, umbilicated berry, containing a great 
 many very ftnall roundifh feeds. 
 
 MURAGE, a toll taken of every cart or horfe com¬ 
 ing laden into a city, for reparing the walls. 
 
 MURAL, in general, any thing belonging to a wall; 
 which the Latins Cali murus. 
 
 Murat Arch, is a wall, or walled arch, placed ex- 
 aCUy in the plane of the meridian, for fixing a large 
 quadrant, fextant, or other inftrument, in order to ob- 
 ferve the meridian altitudes of the heavenly bodies; 
 
 MURDER, or Murther, in law, is the wilful and 
 felonious killing a perfon from premeditated malice; pro¬ 
 vided the party wounded or otherwife hurt, die within a 
 3ear and a day after the foCt was committed. 
 
 MURDERERS, or Murdering Pieces , in a fhip, 
 are fmall pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, 
 which have chambers put in at their breeches. They 
 are ufed at the bulk-heads of the forecaille, half deck, 
 or ftecragc, in order to clear the deck, on the (hip’s being 
 boarded by ail enemy. 
 
 MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious difeafe 
 among cattle, principally caufed by a hot dry feafon, 
 or rather by a general pu trefoil ion of the air, which be¬ 
 gets an inflammation of the blood, and a lwelling in the 
 throat, that foon prove mortal, and is communicated 
 from one to another, though it generally goes no further 
 than to thofe of the fame kind. The fymptoms of this 
 difeafe are a hanging down and fwelling of the head, 
 abundance of gum in the eyes, rattling in the throat, a 
 fhort breath, palpitation at the'heart, daggering, a hot 
 breath, and a filming tongue. 
 
 In order to prevent this difeafe, the cattle fhould Hand 
 Vol. 11. No. 51. 
 
 M U S 
 
 cool in fummer, have plenty of-gobd water; all carriort 
 fhould be fpeedily buried; and as the feeding of cattle in 
 wet places, on rotten grafs and hay, often occafioiis this 
 dileale, dry and fvve'et fodder fhould be given them. 
 
 MURREY, in heraldry, a kind of purple colour. 
 
 MUSA, the plantain tree, in botany. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Plantain. 
 
 MUSCADINE, a rich kind of wine, of the growth 
 of ProVence and Languedock, in France. 
 
 MUSCARl, mu Ik hyacinth, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower conlifts of an oval pitcher-fhaped 
 petal, reflexed at the brim with three neClariums and fix 
 lubdulated filaments, topped with anthers coalelcing to¬ 
 gether. The fruit is a roundifh, trigonal capfule, hav¬ 
 ing three cells, which contain feveral roundifh feeds. 
 
 MUSCLE, Mujailus , in anatomy, a part of the hu¬ 
 man body, deftmed to move lome other part, and that 
 m general by a voluntary motion, or fuch as is dictated 
 by the will; being compofcd principally of flefli and ten¬ 
 dinous iibrcs, which have alfo veflels-of all kinds, as ar¬ 
 teries, veins, nerves, and lymphaticks ; all which are 
 furrounded by, or encloled in, one common membrane. 
 
 i he mufcular fibres are, according to the a£lion they 
 are intended for, of various directions; fome ftraight, 
 others oblique, tranfverfe, annular, and fpiral. Some 
 confift of one uniform feries of fibres, and on that ac¬ 
 count are called Ample; others are compofed of various, 
 and often contrary courfes of fibres, and thefe being 
 clofely arranged Together, the large one feems to be made 
 up of a number of lefs mufcles, and is therefore called 
 compound; and the more of thefe cluftcrs of fibres, or 
 1 mailer vellels, enter into the compofition of a larger 
 one, the thicker and ftronger it is. 
 
 A mufcle is divided, bv anatomills, into the body, and 
 the two extremities: the body is alfo called the venter or 
 belly of the mufcle ; and that extremity where the mufcle 
 arifes is called its head, caput; or its beginning, origin, 
 or fixed point: and its other extremity, or end, is called 
 its tail, moveable point, and often its tendon ; and, 
 finally, if this be broad and membranous, it is called an 
 aponeurofis. 
 
 In many of the mufcles, both the extremities are 
 moveable: in thefe, that part which of the two is leaft 
 moveable, is always called the head, and the more move- 
 able part the tail. 1 his, however, cannot be done uni- 
 verfally; iince there are cafes in which that extremity of 
 a mufcle, which was before the moveable point, becomes 
 the fixed point; and vice verja , as in the ferrati antici, 
 and fome of the mufcles of the abdomen, not to mention 
 any others. 
 
 Attion of the Mu s c l e s. This confifts in the contrac¬ 
 tion of its belly, after whatever manner that is done: by 
 this means its extremities approach toward each other ; 
 and by this means alfo the part in which the end of the 
 mulcle is inferted, moves as it it were drawn by a cord. 
 Schelhammer is of opinion, that this contraction of the 
 belly of tlie mufcle is effcCtcd by a corrugation of the 
 fibres, in the fame manner as. we fee an earthworm 
 fhorten and contratt itfelf by corrugating its fkin, Zee. 
 Morgagni, on the other hand, alledges, that, in order 
 to underftand the power of motion in a mufcle, we ought 
 to attend to Wallis’s experiment; by which it is evidently 
 proved, that the imalleft force imaginable of the air, 
 driven through a cylindrick tube into a bladder, will, 
 by di(lending its width, and fliortening its length, caufe 
 it to raife up, andfuftain a weight of 60 or 70 pounds. 
 
 Others have dcinonftrated, from hydroftatical princi¬ 
 ples, that a very fmall quantity of a fluid, dircCted through 
 a fmall cylindrick tube, placed in a veflel of a larger bale, 
 and already filled, will be able, in the fame manner, to 
 move and raife up a large weight; from whence they 
 conclude, that the belly of a mufcle (wells in the time of 
 its contraction or action ; and that this intumelcence 
 may, nay and mult, have very great cfFcCts. 
 
 On the other hand, there are, among the lateft and 
 moft celebrated writers, fome who affirm that the belly of 
 a mufcle does not fwell or become diitended at all in the 
 time of its contraction. But it would be well,- fays 
 Heftier, if the afiertors of this opinion would, while they 
 forcibly draw up the under jaw to the upper, lay two or 
 three of their fingers upon either.the temporal o/mafieter 
 mufcle; for in this cafe they would fee the moft evident 
 of all conviction,.that, while thefe mufcles aCt, their be[~. 
 
M U S 
 
 lies are in reality diflended, anti rendered firmer. O: let, 
 them only, when the hand is placed in a proper fituation,< 
 forcibly draw the thumb toward the-firft finger, and then 
 they may both fee and feel, that the mul'cle between the! 
 thumb and the index fwells, or isdillencRd in its nndcile, 
 as the aCtion of draw'ing tire thumb is .performed. The 
 reader who w ould enter more deeply into this diiquifition. 
 may con.ult Borelli de Mo-.u dnimuLivm ; iBernouilli d.' 
 Motu mufcul. Berger’; Phyjiolog. c. 22. Boerliaave’; duJU- 
 tut.s, chap, of mulcular motion ; and Mead*; Introduction 
 to Cowper’; Myograi' 1.1. 
 
 Among the mufcles, there are different ones that con- 1 
 fpire in the fame aClion, and fo perform the fame motion: 
 as afiociates : fuch are the flexors or extenfors of the 
 arm, and the like : hence theft, and fucli others as con- 
 fpire in the fame manner to the fame aCtion, are called by 
 authors focii andcongcneres. 
 
 When, on the other hand, we regard the contrary ac¬ 
 tions of certain mufcles, as the extenfors of any part 
 which aft quite contrarily to the flexors, thefe are called 
 antagomif mufcles ; in this cafe both the kinds afting 
 together, render the limbs rigid or immoveable : this 
 adtion of the mufcles is called rnotus tonicus. It is alio 
 obfervable, that feveral of the mufcles, confidered fingly 
 and feparately, perform other kinds of motions befides 
 thole aferibed to them in regard to the whole part: thu 
 the maftoide muicle, the red!us major capitis, Ac. v 1 
 they aft on both fid.es, bend the head forwards ; h - 1 * he:; 
 only on one fide they draw the head obliqe 
 wards, and to one fide. Hence, from the div. of 
 the mufcles, which aft either alone or conjundtly with 
 their aflbeiates, or with others, there arife ft <rai inter¬ 
 mediate motions, quite different from the p usury ones, 
 and fuch as have not hitherto been fufficientl. obfetved. 
 This does not only happen in regard to the mufcles of 
 the head, the flexors and extenfors, and the like, but to 
 feveral o.theis ; and particularly to thole of the eves, the 
 lips, the jaws, the tongue, the neck, the abdomen, the 
 arm. the carpus, &c. Thefe we are carefully to attend 
 to. and explain to ourfelves, by what particular mulcles. 
 afting diftinftly, they are performed; otlierwilc we lhall 
 never be able to underhand the various and wonderful 
 motions of the parts. Window, in his excellent obler- 
 vations on the actions of the mufcles, publilhed in the 
 Memoirs of the Paris Academy, obferves, among other 
 curious things, that a great many of the motions of 
 the mufcular parts are not owing to the fuppofed con¬ 
 traction, but to the relaxation of the mulcles on the op- 
 poflte fide. 
 
 Explanation of plates LIX. and LX. reprefenting the 
 mufcles of the human body. 
 
 Plate LIX. reprefents the mulcles which are confpi- 
 cuous in the fore-part. 
 
 r. 1. The mufeuli frontales. 2.2. The orbiculares 
 palpebrarum. 3. The attollens auriculam. 4. The 
 temporalis. 5. Themafteter. 6. Reprefents the mufcle 
 called by Lancifi conftriftor, or deprdfor pinna; narium. 
 7. T he dilatator alx- nafi. 8. file zygomaticus. 9. The 
 place of the elevator labiorum, or elevator labiorum com¬ 
 munis, called by Lancifi gracilis. 10. The elevator 
 labii luperioris proprius. 11- 11. The conftriftor or 
 fphinfter labiorum, or orbicularis labiorum; by Lome 
 called ofculatorius. 12. The buccinator. 13. 13. The 
 m.ulculi maftoida-i. 14. 14. The fternohyoidei. 15-15. 
 Thofe parts of thele mufcles which arife from the-cla¬ 
 vicle. 16. 16. The coracohyoidei. 17. The fealeni. 
 18. Reprefents part of the cucullaris on the right fide. 
 18. On the left fide is the levator or elevator fbapula?, 
 otherwife called mufeuius patienthc. 19. 19. The place 
 where the fibres of the pcftoralis unite, in fome meafure, 
 with thofe of the deltoides. 20. 20. The deltoides. 
 21. The place in the carpus, where the palmaris longus 
 pafles through a ring in the annular ligament. 22. A 
 remarkable union of die tendons of the extenfors of the 
 three iaft fingers. 23. 23. The productions of the peri- 
 tona;um, which, perforating the mufcles of the abdomen 
 at the rings, defeend to the ferotum. 24. 24. The place 
 where -the diree tendons of the fartorius, gracilis, and 
 feminetvofus are mferted into the anterior and internal 
 part of the tibia, juft under the knee. 25. 25. The ten¬ 
 dons of the extenfors of the toes, which are iecured by a 
 ligament at the .ancle, as appears on both iides. But on 
 the right fide internally another ligament is reprelented, 
 
 M U S 
 
 whJch-fixes the tendons of the extenfor longus tligttoritm, 
 the tibweus pofticus, and the flexor pollicis. 26. 2b. 
 The mufeuius peftoralis. 27. 'J he triceps extender 
 cubiti on the right fide. 28. and 30. The bleeps on the 
 left fide, according to Lancifi’s explication. 29. -Part 
 of the triceps extenfor on the left fide. 30. The biceps 
 on the right fide. 31. The brachiteus interims. 32. 
 The anconeus. 33. The pronator Fotundus. 34. 34. 
 The lupinator longus. 35. 35. The radius extermts, 
 according to Lancifi. 3(1. The extenfor carpi ulnaiis. 
 
 37. 37. The cubitirus internus, according to Lancifi. 
 
 38. 1 he radius internus, according to Lancifi. 39. The 
 
 paknaris, with its tendinous expanfion. 40. 40. T he 
 tendons of the mufcles of the thumb. 41. The tendon 
 of die addnClor pollicis. 42. The extenfor magmas 
 digitorum. 43. Ligamentum carpi. 44. 44. The ten¬ 
 dons of the rliaci interni. 45. 1 he peftmreus. 46. 
 One ot the heads of the triceps. 47. 47. The reftux 
 femoris on each fide. 48. 48. The valius externus on 
 each fide. 49. The vaftus internus on each fide. 50. 
 'I he gracilis. 51. TheLem me:’•'■''ns. 52. The farro- 
 
 rius on each fide. 53.,A part - f the origin of the vaftus 
 externus. 34. i lie membranofus. 55. 55. The 
 
 tibia!!-; antic.. 56. Thegemelli. 57. 57. T he Loloei. 
 58 i • t> i.do Achiilis. 59. According to Lancifi, is 
 
 ;-.nor digitorum longus. 60. bo. 1 he tendons of 
 
 - extenfors of the toes. Ci. The tendons of the ex-* 
 enfor longus, tibiteus, pofticus, and flexor pollicis. 
 A. A. Po. nons of the latiflimus doifi on each iide. B. B. 
 The indentations of the ferrate.; major anticus. C. C. 
 The item urn. 
 
 Explanation of plate LX. reprefenting the mulcles of 
 the back part of the hum m bodv. 
 
 !. Two mulcles upon fine occiput called by Euftachius 
 quadrati. 2. The mufeuius cucullaris. 3. The iplcnius. 
 4. The muiculus mailoidams. 5. The mulcuhis pati- 
 enci.u, or levator fcapulre proprius. 6. The rhomboidcs. 
 7. The articulation of the clavicle with the fcapula ori 
 the right fide. 8. The deltoides-. • 9. The teres minor. 
 10. The teres major. 11. 11. The latiffimm doifi ort 
 each fide. 12. The glutajus major. 13. "i he : lutreus 
 medius. 14. The mufeuius pyriformis. 15. The qua- 
 dratus femoris. 16. The biceps femoris. 17. The 
 iemj-membranofus. 18. The membranofus, according - 
 to Lancifi. 19. 19. The vafti externi. 20. Thegaftro- 
 cnenaii. 21. The foleus. 22. The plantaris. 
 
 Muscle, AJytulus , in natural hiitory, a fhell com- 
 poled of two valves, of an oblong figure, and {hutting 
 dole all the way; the valves arc both convex - , and of a 
 fimilar lhape : and the animal inhabiting it is called a 
 tethys. 
 
 MUSCULAR, Mufcutout , fomerhing refitting to the - 
 mufcles. 
 
 Muscular Arteries, in anatomy, two arteries pro¬ 
 ceeding from the fubclavians, and dillributed among the - 
 hind mulcles of the neck. There are alio certain arteries 
 of the loins, called fuperior and inferior mufculars. See 
 Artery. In the thigh are alfo two arteries called the 
 internal and external mufculars. 
 
 Muscular Fibres , the fine threads of which the 
 body of a muicle is compofed. Anatomifts are exceed¬ 
 ingly divided as to the nature of thele fibres. Dr. Mor¬ 
 gan endeavours to prove, that all the fibres which enter 
 the ftrufture of a mufcle are endued with an intnnlick 
 elallicity, or power of contrafting and reitoring thern- 
 fclves, independent on the mixture, rarefaction, or effer- 
 vtfcence of any fluid whatever. 
 
 Muscular Membrane, ATemhrtma mufculofa, in ana¬ 
 tomy, a membrane which is fuppofed to iivcft therwhole* 
 body, immediately under the membrana adipofa, called* 
 alfo panniculus carnofus, and membrana mufculorunx 
 'communis. 
 
 Muscular Motion , the fame with voluntary motion, 
 as being effected by the contraction and dilatation of the - 
 muicles. 
 
 Muscular is alfo applied to feveral veins ; two of 
 which come from the fkin and hind mufcles of the thigh; 
 and terminate in the fubclavians. There are three others' 
 in the loins, diltinguilhed into fuperior, middle, and in¬ 
 ferior ; the firft terminates in the trunk of the vena cava,, 
 and the two others open into the external iliack vein. 
 
 MUSEUM, a name which originally fignifled a part' 
 of the palace of Alexandria, which took up at leall: one 
 
 fourth 
 
M U S 
 
 fourth of that city. This quarter was called the rriufeum, 
 from its being let apart for the mules and the fiudy ol 
 the fciences. Here were lodged and entertained the men 
 of learning, who were divided into many companies or 
 ■colleges, according to the fciences of which they were the 
 profeflors ; and to each of thefe houfes or colleges was 
 allotted a handfome revenue. The foundation of this 
 eftablifhment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphia, who 
 here placed his library. Hence the word mufeumls now 
 ■applied to any place let apart as a repofitory tor things 
 that have an immediate relation'to the arts. 
 
 The inufeum at Oxford, called the Alhmolean mu- 
 feum, is a noble pile of building, ere died at the expence 
 of the univerfity, at the weft end of the theatre, at which 
 fide it has a magnificent portal, luftained by pillars of the 
 Corinthian order. The front, which is to the ftreet, 
 extends about 60 feet, where there is this infeription 
 over the entrance, in gilt characters, Mufeitm Ajbm'ot 
 tinum , Jchola naiuralis hijloiia:, tna ckymica. : 
 
 It was begun in 1679, and finiflied in 1683, when a 
 valuable colle&ioft of curiofities was prefe'nted to the uni- 
 verfity by Elias Alhmole, efquire, which were the lame 
 day repofite'd there. And feveral acccmbns have been 
 fince made to the m'ufeum ; among which are hierogly- 
 phicks and other Egyptian antiquities, an intire mummy, 
 Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps, &c. and a 
 variety of natural curiofities. 
 
 Th'e mufehm of tlie late Sir Hans Sloane. contains a 
 noble and valuable collection of the productions of na¬ 
 ture and art, and has been lately purchaled by the pub- 
 iick for the benefit of the nation. 
 
 MUSES, Mu fa, Canuncs, Heliconiades, ParnaJJides, 
 Aonides, Pieridi &:c. in antiqpitv. were the fabulous 
 divinities of the heathens, who were thought to prefide 
 over the arts and fciences. 
 
 The ancients admitted nine mules, the .laughters of 
 Jupitfefr and Mnemofyne or Memory, and thefe were, 
 Calliope! Who' prefided over heroick poetry ; Clio, over 
 hiftory; Melpomene over tragedy; Thalia, over co¬ 
 medy; Euteroe, over winJ-muiiclc ; Urania, over aftro- 
 nomy ; TefpnclVofe, over the harp ; Erato, the lute ; 
 and Polyhymnia, rhetorick. 
 
 They are painted young, handfome, and modeft, be¬ 
 ing agreeably drefled, and crowned with flowers. Their 
 ulual abodes were about mount Helicon in Bceotia, and 
 Parnaflus in Phocis. Their bufinefs was to celebrate 
 the victories of the gods and infphe the poets. 
 
 Urldcr the name of Mufe the poets only pray for the 
 genius of poetry, and all the talents and circumftances 
 neceflary for the happy execution of their undertaking. 
 So that the mules are of all ages, countries, and religions. 
 
 MUSHROOM, in natural hiftory, a very lpongious 
 fubftance, long fuppoled to have neither feeds nor flowers. 
 There are various kinds of muihrooms; thole ufed 
 among us are the muihrooms of the woods, called mo- 
 filles, and of the meadows, called champignons, which 
 are gathered in autumn, and efteemed for their whitenefs 
 above,, the carnation underneath, and the fweetnels of 
 their fmell. The origin and production of muihrooms 
 has exceedingly puzzled the botanifts for a long time ; 
 but lately their feeds have been difeovered by the learned 
 MefE Watlon and Pickering, which the reader may fee 
 in Phil. Tranf. N°. 471. 
 
 MUSICK, Mufica , the fcience that teaches how 
 founds, under certain meafures of tune and time, may 
 be produced, and fo difpofed, as either in confonance or 
 fucceflion, or both, they may excite agreeable fenfations. 
 Mufick is naturally divided into lpeculative and practical. 
 
 Speculative Musick, is the knowledge of the materia 
 mufica, or the various relations of tune and time, which 
 pre the principles out of which the pleafure fought is 
 derived. 
 
 Practical Musick, that which {hews how thefe prin¬ 
 ciples are to he applied ; and this we call the art of com- 
 pofition, which is properly the practical part of mufick. 
 
 MUSK, Mofckus, in natural hiftory, is a dry, light, 
 and friable fubftance, of a dark blackiih colour, tinged 
 with purple; it is a kind of perfume of a very ftrong 
 feent, and only agreeable When in a very fmall quantity, 
 or moderated by the mixture of fome other perfume. It 
 is found in a kind of bag or tumour which grows under 
 the belly of a wild beaft called mofehus. See Mo s chus. 
 
 Mulk is brought to us lewed up in a kind of bladder 
 
 M Y O 
 
 o'r cafes of {kin of the bignefs of a pigeon’s egg, o t 
 larger, each containing from two or three drams to an 
 ounce of mulk. Thefe. are covered with a brownifh 
 hair,-and are the real capiules in which the, mufk is 
 lodged while on the animal. That,winch is unaJn.'.e- 
 rated appears in mafles, or loole and friable grannies', 
 which are foft to the touch, and eafily crumble between 
 the fingers, feeling fomewhat fmooth and unCtuous’. 
 
 Musk, is a medicine of great efteem in the Eaftern 
 countries, and has lately come into ufe among us ; alio, 
 in fome nervous dilorclers , though liable, by its ftrong' 
 iinpicfiion on the organs of fmell, to offend and dilbrder 
 hylterical perl’ons and conftitutions of great fenlibility, 
 yet, when taken internally, it is found to abate lymptonrs 
 of that kind, which its fmell produces, and to be one of 
 rhe principal medicines of the antifpalmodick clafs. Dr^ 
 Wall informs us, that two perfons labouring under a 
 (ublultus tendinum. extreme anxiety, and want of ileep, 
 occafioncd by the; bite of a mad dog, were perfectly re¬ 
 lieved by two doles of mufk of 16 grains each; thatqon- 
 vulfive hiccoughs, attended with the worft fymptoms, 
 were removed, by a dole or two of 10 grains ; that in. 
 lome cafes, where this medicine could not, on account 
 of ftrong convulfions, be adminiftcred by the mouth, it 
 proved of lervice when injected as a clyfter ; that he never 
 met with any perlon, how averfe foever to perfumes, but 
 could take it in the form of a bolus without inconve¬ 
 nience: that under the quantity pf fix grains, he never 
 found much cfFeCt from it, but that when given to 10 
 grains and upwards, it produces a mild diaphorefis, with¬ 
 out beating or g:\ mg any unealiiiefs, but on the contrary, 
 aba;mg pain a id railing ihe fpirits ; and that after the 
 fweat has begun, a refrefhing fleep generally fucceeds. 
 Ellis medicine has been tried alfo in fome maniacal cafes, 
 in which it feemed to procure a temporary relief. 
 
 MUSKET, afire-arm borne on the fho.ulder, and 
 ufed in war. The length of the mufket is fixed at three 
 feet eight inches from the muzzle to the pan, aod it 
 carric r a ball of 16. to the pound. 
 
 MUSKETOO N, a kind of fliort thick mufket, whole 
 bore is the .;b;h- part of its length. 
 
 MUSLIN, a fine thin fort of cotton cloth, vvhjeli 
 bears a downy knap on its fur face. There are feveral 
 forts of muflins brought from the E. Indies, and more 
 particularly from Bengal; fuch as doreas, bctelles, mul- 
 muls, tanjeebs, &c. 
 
 MUSTARD, JSinapis,. in tiotany. SeeSiNApis. 
 
 MUSTER, in the marine, a fummoning together 
 the crew of any particular lliip, and calling them feve- 
 rally over by their names. 
 
 MUTE, in grammar, a Rtter which yields no found 
 without the addition of a vowel'. 
 
 MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away 
 any member pf the body. 
 
 This word is alfo extended to ftatucs and buildings,' 
 where any part is wanting, or the projefture of any 
 member, as a corniche or an impoft, is broken off. 
 
 MUTULE, in architecture, 3 kind of fquare mo- 
 dillion fet under the corniche of the Dorick order. See 
 Dor ick Order. 
 
 The only.difference between the mutule and modillion 
 confifts in this, that the former is ufed in fpeaking of 
 the Dorick order, and the latter in the Corinthian. 
 
 MUZZLE of a Gun or Mortar, the extremity at 
 which the powder and ball is put ir>; and hence, the 
 muzzle-ring is the metalline circle, or moulding, fur¬ 
 rounding the muzzle of the piece. 
 
 MYLOGLOSSI, in anatomy, two mufcles of the 
 tongue. They are fo called, as arifing from the roots 
 of the dentes molares. See Tongue. 
 
 MYLOHYOlODZEI, in anatomy, are two mufcles 
 of the os hyoides. 
 
 MYLO-PHARYNG/EUS, *1 anatomy, a mufcle 
 of the pharynx. 
 
 MYOCEPHALUM, in medicine, a fmall tumour in 
 the uvea tunica of the eye. 
 
 MY ODES Platyjma , in anatomy, a mufcular expan- 
 fion in the neck, which is alfo called quadratus gena;. 
 See Neck. 
 
 MYOLOGY, Myologia, -a treatife or defeription of 
 the mufcles. 
 
 MYOPIA, orMyopi as, fhort-figlitedncfs, a fpecies 
 of vifion, wherein objefts are feen diftinCUy only at 
 * fmall 
 
MYR m y U 
 
 •mall diftances , which is incident to perfons who have 
 Aecornea and cryftalline, or cither of them, too convex. 
 I hey that are fnort-figllted never look attentively at 
 tliofe who lpeak to them, as being vlnable to bbferVe the 
 motion of theireves, Which contributes greatly to explain 
 and enforce their words; and therefore, they ire only 
 attentive to the difeourfe. Short-fighted perfons need 
 lefs light than others, to fee diftindlly ; whence they can 
 read the fmalleft print, when others are not able to diftin- 
 guilh one letter from another. Shbrt-fightcd perfons 
 ulually become lefs fo, as they advance in years; and 
 that becaufe the humours of the eye wafting, the cornea 
 fhrinks and becomes lefs convex, and the cryftalline be¬ 
 comes ftatterthan before; by which means objects are 
 feen more diftinttlv, and at greater diftances, than 
 when the refra£lion was ftronger in the mdre plump and 
 convex eves. 
 
 MY ROB A LANS, dried medicinal fruits joftlieplunib 
 kind, brought from the E. Indies. 
 
 Five forts have been diftinguilhed ih the IhdpS ; but 
 all of them have an unpleafant, bitterilh, very auftere 
 tafte; and ftrike an inky blacknefs with folution of 
 chalybeate vitriol. They are laid to have a gently pur¬ 
 gative, as well as aftringent and corroborating virtue ; but 
 in this country, they have long been entire ftrangers 
 to praftice, and are now difearded by the colleges both 
 of London and of Edinburgh, from their catalogue of 
 officinals. 
 
 MYRRH, Myrrh^r, in natural hiftory, is a vegetable 
 product of the gum reiinkind. It is lent over to us in 
 looie granules of various fizes, from that of a pepper¬ 
 corn to the bignefs of a walnut. The generality of them 
 are, from the fize of a pea, to a little more than that of a 
 horfe-bean. Their figure is not more determinate than 
 their fizc; they arc fometimes roundilh, often irregu¬ 
 larly oblong and contorted. The tolour of myrrh is a 
 tedilh brown, With an admixture of vcllow; it is tole¬ 
 rably fmooth on the furface in the purer pieces, and i'ome- 
 what tranlparent; and, when broken, there are often feen 
 in it orbicular or femilunar lines of a whitifh colour. Its 
 tafte is acrid and bitter, with a peculiar aromatick fla¬ 
 vour, but, upon the whole, very naufeous. Its fmell is 
 ftrong, but not difagreeable. It is brought to us from 
 ^Ethiopia, and is to be chofen in clear pieces, light, 
 friable, and of the bittereft tafte : that which is foul and 
 blackilli is to be rejected. 
 
 The ancients efteemed myrrh to be verv drying afid 
 detergent, and others of them celebrated it as a refol- 
 vent. Indeed, it powerfully refolves and attenuates a 
 thick and vilcid blood, a concreted bile, and glutinous 
 humours, and is good in obftru&ions of the menfes, and 
 in infraiftions of the vifeera. It alfo promotes delivery, 
 and the expullion of the fecundines, and is good in 
 afthmas, and in cafes of tubercles of the lungs; in the 
 jaundice alfo, it has been known to do great fervice, and 
 in cachectick complaints. Itdellroys worms, ftrengthens 
 the ftomach, and diflipates flatulencies. 
 
 Externally applied, it is difeutient and vulnerary; it 
 cleanfes old ulcers, and difpofes them to heal. Though 
 myrrh have all thele virtues, it is not to be given without 
 caution. It is an obfervation as old as the time of Galen, 
 that myrrh will gis-e many people the head-ach; even the 
 fmell of it will fometimes have this efte£L As it pro¬ 
 motes difeharges of blood of whatever fpecies, it is by no 
 means to be given to any body that is l'ubjett to dileafcs 
 
 of that kind, as (pitting of blood, or the like ; and wo¬ 
 men, in the time ot their pregnancy, mult by no means 
 take it, left, it procure abortion. 
 
 MYR I ItORMES, Carurculee , in anatomy, little 
 caruncles or flelliy knots adjoining to, or rather in the 
 place ol the hymen in women. 
 
 MYR 1 LE, Afvrlus, ill botany, a genus of plants 
 the flower of which corififts of a monophyllous cup, i,| 
 which arc iiiferted five large oval petals', with a great 
 number of hairy filaments topped with finall amliera:: the 
 fruit is an 'oval berry, with three cells, containing m 
 each a kidney-lhaped feed. 
 
 There are feveral forts of niyrtle, fuch as the broad- 
 leaved myrtle, liarrow-lcaved myrtle, nurineg myrtle 
 orange myrtle, variegated myrtle, with feveral other 
 varieties: _ They may be all propagated from cutting 
 or flips, in the fumhier ; making choice of tile moft 
 vigorous fhobts of the fame year's growth: they lhould 
 be planted in pots and covered with glaffcs, which pro- ' 
 vents the air from getting at them, and facilitates their 
 tamng root. When winter comes on. they lhould be 
 removed into a green-houfc; and the fpring following 
 tliey may be traufplanted lingly into iinall pots. In hot 
 weather, they lhould have plenty of water. 
 
 MYSTERY, any tiling hidden or fecret, and dilfi- 
 cult, if not impoflible to he dil’covercd. 
 
 »rv®fl CAL ' foltlcthii 'S m yflerioiis hr allegorical. 
 
 M YS 1 1CKS, a religious fed, diftmguifhed by their 
 profefhng a pflre, fublimc, aiid perfeft devotion, with ;m 
 mtire d tfinterefted love of God, free from all fclfuh con- 
 fiderations, and by their afpiiing to a ftatc of ii at five con- 
 templation. 
 
 Al\ I HOLOGA , fMj8o\o-/ix, the iiiftorv of the fabu- 
 Ions gods and heroes of antiquity, with tlih explanations 
 of tile myfleries or allegories couched therein. Lord 
 fiacoii thinks that a great deal of concealed inftruftion 
 and allegory was or.giilally intended in moft part of the 
 ancient mythology; he obferves, that fome fables difeo- 
 ver a great and evident fimilitude, relation, and connec- 
 non with the thing they fignify, as well in the ftruflure 
 ot the fable, as in the meaning of the names, whereby the 
 perfons or a Stars are charaStcrized. 
 
 'flic fame writer thinks it may pafs for a further indi- 
 cat'on of a concealed and fecret meaning, that fome of 
 thefc fables are fo abftlrd and idle in their narration, as to 
 lhew ail allegory even afar off: but the argument of moil 
 vveight upon this fubjeft he takes to be this, that many of 
 thele fables appear by no means to have been invented by 
 the perfons who relate them: he looks on them not as 
 the product of the age, not invention of the poets, bui 
 as (acred relicks, as he terms them, gentle whifpers, and 
 tiie breath of better times, that from the tradition of more 
 ancient nations, came at length into the flutes and trum¬ 
 pets of the Greeks. He concludes, that the knowledge 
 of the early ages was cither great or happy ; great if they 
 by delign made this ule of trope and figure ; or liappv, if 
 wliilft they had other views, they afforded matter and oc- 
 cafion to iueii noble contemplations. 
 
 MYURUS, in medicine, an epithet for a fort of fink¬ 
 ing puife, when’the fecond ftroke is lefs than tile firft- 
 the third than the fecond, and fo on. Of this, there are 
 two kinds; tile firft, when tile puife finks fo as never 
 toanfe; the other, when it returns again, and rife in 
 feme degree. Both arc efteemed a bad prefag- 
 
N. 
 
 N A I 
 
 N A liquid confonant, and the thirteenth letter of 
 the Greek, Latin, Engliffi, &c. alphabets. 
 
 } It is formed from the old Greek, and that 
 from the old Hebrew nun. Its found is formed by a 
 Hrong expreffion of the voice through the mouth and 
 noffrils, being at the fame time intercepted by applying 
 the tongue to the fore palate, and the lips or mouth open. 
 It fuffers no confonant immediately after it in the be¬ 
 ginning of words or fyllables; nor any before it but g, k, 
 and f as gnaw, knave, Jnow, &c. 
 
 As a numeral, N Hands for 900; according to the 
 verle in Baronius, 
 
 N, quoque Nongentos nttmero defignat habendos. 
 
 And when a line was {truck over it, n 9000. N, or 
 N°, Hands for numero , i. e. in number; and N. B. for 
 nota bene, note well, or obferve well. 
 
 Among the ancient Romans, N denotes Nepos, Non- 
 nius, See. N. C. Nero Caffar, or Nero Claudius ; 
 N. L. non liquet, meaning that the caufc was not clear 
 enough for fentence; N. P. nolarius publicus ; andNBL, 
 Hands for nobi/is. 
 
 NAAM, in law, the detaching or diflraining a per- 
 fon’s moveable goods; as where a man takes another 
 man’s beaH for doing damage in his ground; or where it 
 is done in confequence of another man’s aft, as when 
 it is agreed, that in default of payment of lome con- 
 traft, it fhall be lawful to dillrain on lands charged 
 therewith. 
 
 NABOB, a viceroy, or governor of one of the pro¬ 
 vinces of the Mogul’s empire, in India. 
 
 NABONASSAR, or /Era of Nabon assar, a me¬ 
 thod ol computing time from the commencement of Na- 
 bonaffar’s reign. SeeEpoctiA. The epocha of Na- 
 bonaffar is of the greateH importance, as Ptolemy and 
 other aHronomers account their years from it. 
 
 N ADAB, the fovereign pontiff, or high priefl of the 
 Perfians, whofe dignity is the fame as that of the mufti 
 among the Turks ; with this difference only, that the 
 nadab may diveft himfelf of his ecclefiaflical office, and 
 pafs to civil employments, which the mufti is not 
 allowed to do. 
 
 NADIR, in affronomv, a point in the heavens dia¬ 
 metrically oppofite to the zenith; being a point di- 
 reftly under our feet in a right line drawn through the 
 centre of the earth, and terminating in the inferior he- 
 milphere. The zenith and nadir are the two poles of 
 the horizon, each 90°diHant from it, and, confequently, 
 each in the meridian. 
 
 Sun s Nadir, in aflronomy, is the axis of the cone 
 projefted by the earth’s lhadow; it is fo called, becaufe 
 being produced, it gives a point in the ccliptick diame¬ 
 trically oppofite to the fun. 
 
 NAHUM, o r the Prophecy of Nahum, a canonical 
 book of the Old TeHament. Nahum, the feventh of 
 the twelveiefs prophets, was a native of Elkoffiai, a lit¬ 
 tle village of Gallilce. The fubjeft of his prophecy is 
 the deHruftion of Nineveh, which he delcribes in the 
 moff lively and pathetick manner; his Hile is bold and 
 figurative, and can hardly be exceeded by the moft per¬ 
 fect maHers of oratory. This prophecy was verified at 
 the liege of that city by Aftyages, in the year of the 
 world 3378, 622 years before Chrifl. 
 
 The time of Nahum’s death is unknown, the Greek 
 menologies, and the Latin martyrologies, place his 
 feHival on the firft of December. 
 
 NAIADS, A aids, Naiades, in antiquity, a kind of 
 nymphs or fabulous deities fuppofed to prefide overfoun- 
 tains and rivers. 
 
 NAIANT, N age ant, of N at ant, in heraldry, 
 Vol. l\. No. 51. 
 
 N A R 
 
 denotes the blazoning of fillies, when drawn in an hori¬ 
 zontal poHure, fefs-wife, or tranfverfely acrofs the 
 efcutcheon ; that being their fwimming poHure. 
 
 NAIL, Unguis, a horny fubHance growing over the 
 ends of the fingers and toes of a human body. 
 
 Nail, alfofignifies the 16th part ofa yard. 
 
 Nails, in building, fmall fpikes of iron. 
 
 NAILING of Cannon, the driving an iron nail or 
 fpike into the touch-hole ofa piece of aitiilery ; where¬ 
 by it is rendered ufelefs, for fome time at leaH. 
 
 NAKED, in architefture, the furface or plane of a 
 wall, whence the projeftures arife. Thus a pilaffer 
 ought to exceed the naked of the wall by lb many 
 inches ; and the foliages of a capital ought to anfwer to 
 the naked of the column. 
 
 Naked 'Fire, in chymiHry, an open fire, where the 
 containing veffel is immediately expofed to the fire. 
 
 Naked Seeds, in botany, fuch feeds as arc not con¬ 
 tained in any pod or cafe. 
 
 N A MAI ION, Namatio , in law* the aft ofdiffraining. 
 
 NAME, denotes a word whereby fome idea, thing, 
 &c. fpoken of, is expreffed; which is of fuller extent 
 than what the grammarians call noun. 
 
 Proper Names, thole names which reprefent fome 
 individual perfon or thing, fo as to diflinguilli it from all 
 others of the fame fpecies ; as 67 V. ro, See. 
 
 Apcllaiive or general Names, thofe names which fig- 
 nify common ideas, being common to feveral individuals 
 of the fame fpecies, as cow,Jkcep, animal, See. 
 
 NAP2E2E, in antiquity, heathen goddelles fuppofed 
 to prelide over foreHs and hills. 
 
 NAPE, the hind part of the neck. 
 
 NAPHTHA, by the ancients called oleum Aledtcs, in 
 natural hiilory, a very pure, clear, and thin mineral 
 fluid, though much lefs fo than the peti oleum. It is 
 thinner than the exprefled vegetable oils, but fomewhat 
 thicker than the fine diflilled ones. It is of a very pale 
 yellow with a cafi of brown in it. It has a fliarp tafle, 
 and a very penetrating fmell of the bituminous kind, and 
 approaches fomewhat to that of the diflilled oil of am¬ 
 ber. When pure, it will burn wholly away. And, in 
 places where it is common, it exhales a vapour that takes 
 fire at the approach of any flame, and burns a pretty 
 way. It is found floating on lprings that iffue out of the 
 fides of hills in Perfia, Tartary, See. It is not known 
 to be any where produced in Europe. As the fubHance 
 remaining at the bottom of the retort has much the re- 
 femblance of amber, it l'eems highly probable that amber 
 is from the fame fort of principle. 
 
 The medicinal virtues of the naphtha are the fame 
 with thofe of common petroleum, but in a more remils 
 degree. It is ufed externally on many occafions in Perfia, 
 and a few drops for a dofe taken inwardly in cholrcks. 
 The principal'uie that is made of it is for burning in 
 lamps, it not confuming fo quick as the petroleum, and 
 is ofa lefs offenfive fmell, but it makes more fmoke. 
 
 NARCISSUS, the Daffodil, in botany, a genus 
 of the hexandria monogynia clals. The corolla confifls 
 of fix leaves, and the neftarium of one entire funnel- 
 lhaped leaf; and theflamina are fituate within the nec- 
 tarium. There are 13 fpecies, only two of which are 
 natives of Britain, viz. the pocticus, common pale 
 daffodil, or primrofe peerlefs ; and the pfeudo-narciffus, 
 or wild Englilh daffodil. The root of the common 
 daflodil is emetick, vulnerary, and detergent. 
 
 NARCOTICKS, in medicine, opiates, or medicines 
 which excite fleep. See Opiate^. 
 
 NARDUS, Spikenard, in botany, agenusofthe 
 triandria-digynia clafs. It has nocalix. and the corolla: 
 confifls of two vaives. There are five fpecies, only 
 N n one 
 
NAT 
 
 ene ©f which, viz. the ftrifta, or malt-grafs is a native 
 of Britain. 
 
 This plant is cephalick and ftomachick ; it is recom¬ 
 mended in nephritick cafes, and as a promoter of the 
 menfes. It is alfo given in chronick cafes to remove ob- 
 ilruftions of the vifeera : however the modern practice 
 does not ufe it much, except as an ingredient in l'ome of 
 the officinal compofitions. It has a very fragrant aro- 
 matick fmell and tafle. 
 
 NARRATION, in oratory and hiftory, a recital or 
 rehearfal of a faft as it happened, or when it is fuppofed 
 to have happened. 
 
 Narration, in poetry, is ufed for the action, or 
 event, that makes the fubjeft of an epick poem. 
 
 NARWAL, in ichthyology, the unicorn fifh, fo 
 called from a long wreathed tooth, ten or more feet in 
 length, which has more the appearance of a horn than a 
 tooth ; though it be really a tooth fixed in the gomphofis 
 of the upper jaw, altogether in the manner of other 
 teeth: hence fome have called it monodon, which is 
 certainly a more proper name than that of the unicorn 
 fiffi. It is a tilh of the whale kind, often growing to 25 
 feet in length, but is more commonly found from 16 
 to 20. 
 
 NASIAS, in anatomy, a thin bone making the up¬ 
 per part of the nofe. 
 
 NASTURTIUM, cr>Jfes, in botany, the name of a 
 genus of plants, of which there are 14 different fpecies, 
 according to Tournefort. 
 
 , IVater-crJfh are frequently eaten as a fallad in the 
 fpring. The whole plant fs of a very acrid tafle, and is 
 a powerful attenuant and refolvent. it is recommended 
 as a kind otfpccifick in the feurvv, and is good againfl 
 all obftruftions of the vifeera, and confequently in 
 jaundices, and other chronick difeafes. It is alfo a pow¬ 
 erful diuretick and promoter of the menfes. The bell 
 way of taking it is either as a fallad, or to drink its ex- 
 prelled juice fingly, or mixed with that of other an¬ 
 ti fcorbutick plants, as brooklime, &c. which is often 
 done. 
 
 NATES, in anatomy, a term expreffing thofe two 
 flelhy exterior parts of the body, vulgarly called the 
 buttocks. 
 
 Natks Cerebri, two circular protuberances ofthe 
 brain, fituated on the back fide of the medulla oblongata, 
 near the cerebellum. 
 
 NA I lON, a colleftive term ufed for a conliderable 
 people inhabiting a certain extent of land, confined 
 within fixed limits, and under the fame government. 
 
 NAT IVE, a perfen confidered as born in a certain 
 place which was the proper reiidence of his parents, and 
 where he received his education. 
 
 Native, or Nativvs, in our ancient law-books, 
 fignifies a perfon born in the Hate of villainage, in con- 
 tradiftinftion to a bonds-man, or one who became 
 a villain by his own aft and deed. 
 
 NATIVITY, or Natal-Day, the day of a per- 
 fon’s birth. The word nativity is chiefly ufed in fpeak- 
 ing of the faints, as the nativity of St. John the Baptiil, 
 See. But when wo fay the nativity, it is underflood of 
 that of Jefus Chrifl, or the feail of Chrillmas. 
 
 Nativity, in old law-books, fignifies villainage 
 or lervitude. 
 
 Nativity, in aflrologv, the fituation of the heavens, 
 and particularly of the twelve houfes at the moment of 
 a pcvfon’s birth. 
 
 NATOL1A, the modern name of the Leffer Afia. 
 being the moil; weflerly part of Turkey in Afia, and 
 confifling of a large peninlula, which extends from the 
 river Euphrates, as far as the Archipelago, the feas of 
 Marmora, the flraits of Galipoli and of Conflantinople, 
 which feparate it from Europe on the weft. It is 
 bounded on the north by the Black Sea, and on the 
 fouth by the ?\lcditcrranean fea. 
 
 NATRUM, the nitre of the ancients, in natural 
 hiftory, is a genuine, pure and native fait, extremely 
 different from our nitre, and indeed from all the other 
 native fairs; it being a fixed alkali, plainly of the nature 
 of thofe made by fire from vegetables, yet capable of a 
 regular cryftallization, which thofe ialts are not. It is 
 found on the furfaceof the earth, or at very final I depths 
 within it, and is naturally formed into thin and fiat cakes 
 or crufts, which are of a fpongy or cavernous fubllance, I 
 
 NAT 
 
 very light and friable, and when pure, of a pale brownifh 
 white; but as its fpongy texture renders it very fubjeft 
 to be fouled by earth received into its pores, it is often 
 met with of a deep dirty-brown, and not unfrequently 
 redifh. 
 
 NATURAL, in general, fome thing that relates to 
 nature. 
 
 Natural Children, are thofe born out of lawful 
 wedlock. 
 
 Natural Herixon, the fenfible or phyfical horizon. 
 
 Natural Faculty, in phyfick, denotes, according to 
 Quincy, that power arifing from the circulation of the 
 blood which is oblervable in all the fecretions of the bodv, 
 excepting that made at the origin of the nerves. 
 
 Natural Funflions, in the animal ceconoinv, thofe 
 afttons whereby things taken into the body arcaffimilated, 
 fo as to become parts thereof. 
 
 Thole are the actions of the vifeera, the veflcls that 
 receive, move, change, &c. the humours of the body. 
 
 Natural Inclinations, thofe tendencies of the mind 
 or out goings of the affeftions, neither changed by grace 
 nor governed by the effects of education. 
 
 Natural Hjlory, a defeription of the natural pro¬ 
 duction of the earth, water, or air. See Animai, 
 Botany, Ornithology, &c. 
 
 NATURALIST, a perfon verfed in the ftudy of na¬ 
 ture, elpecially metals, minerals, Italics, vegetables, 
 animals, See. 
 
 N A TURALIZA TION, in law, the act of enfran- 
 chifing an alien ; that is, putting him in the condition 
 ot a natural born lubjeft, and in titling him to the privi¬ 
 leges belonging thereto. In France this is the king’s 
 prerogative. In England it is done by aft of parliament. 
 Swifs, Savoyards, and Scots need not any naturaliza¬ 
 tion in Fiance, being reputed as natives. 
 
 NATURALS, Res naturalcs, in phyfick, that degree 
 of life and llrength, with the cauies and eft'efts of each 
 that remains in every animal, in contradiilinftion to 
 non-naturals. 
 
 NATURE, Natura, according to Mr. Bovlc, has 
 eight different figmfications ; it being ufed, 1. For the 
 Author of nature, whom the fchoolmen call Natura Na- 
 turans, being the fame with God. 2. By the nature of a 
 thing we fometimes mean its eflence; that is, die attri¬ 
 butes which make it what it is, whether the tiling be 
 corporeal or not; as when we attempt to define the nature 
 oi a fluid, of a triangle, See. 3. Sometimes wc confound 
 that which a man has by nature, with what accrues to 
 him by birth ; as when we fay, that fuch a man is noble 
 bv nature. 4. Sometimes we take nature for an internal 
 principle of motion; as when we fay, that a done by na¬ 
 ture. falls to the earth. 5. Sometimes we underftaiid by 
 nature the eftablilhed courfe of things. 6. Sometimes 
 we takenaturefor an aggregate of powers belonging to a 
 body, efpecially a living one ; in which fenie physicians 
 fay, that nature is ftrong, weak, or fpent; or that, in 
 fuch and fuch difeafes, natuie left to herfelf will per¬ 
 form the cure. 7. Sometimes we ufe the term nature 
 for the univerfe, or whole fyllem of the corporeal works 
 oi God ; as when it is laid of a phoenix, or chimera, that 
 there is no fuch thing in nature, 8. Sometimes too, and 
 that moftt commonly, we exprefs by the word nature a 
 kind of lemi-deitv, or other ilrange kind of being. 
 
 If, fays the philofopher, I were to propole a notion of 
 nature, lefs ambiguous than thole already mentioned, and 
 with regard to which many axioms, relating to that word, 
 may be conveniently underftood, 1 lhould firil diltinguilh 
 between the univerfa! and the particular nature of things. 
 Univerfal nature I would define to be the aggregate of the 
 bodies that make up the world, in its prelont ftate, cen- 
 fidcred as a principle; by virtue whereof they aft and 
 (uffer, according to the laws of motion preferibed by the 
 Author of all things. And this makes way for the 
 other fubordinate notion ; fince the particular nature of 
 an individual confifts in the general nature, applied to a 
 diftinft portion of the univerle; or, which is the fame 
 thing, it is a particular affemblage of the mechanical 
 properties of matter, as figure, motion, See. Thole 
 who defire a more particular dilcuffion of each of thefe 
 opinions may confult Boyle’s F'ree Inquiry into the vul¬ 
 gar notion of nature. 
 
 Laivs of N a t u r e . See L a w s of Nature . 
 
 Nature, in profody ; a lyllable is faid to be long 
 3 or 
 
N A V 
 
 or fliort by nature, when it is fo independently of any 
 rule of grammar. 
 
 N AV A L, fomething relating to flapping or navigation. 
 Naval Architecture. See the article Ship. 
 
 Naval Crown , Corona navalis, in antiquity, a crown 
 conferred, among the Romans, on perfons who, in lea 
 engagements, diftinguifhed themfclves. Though A. Gel- 
 lius fays, in general, the naval crown was adorned with 
 prows of Ihips, Lipfius diftinguifhes two kinds; the 
 firft hefuppofes plain, and given to the common foldiers; 
 the other roftrated, and only given to generals, or admi¬ 
 rals, who have gained fome important viftory at fea. 
 
 NAVE, Pronaos, Celia , in architefture, the body of 
 a church, reaching from the rail of the choir to the prin¬ 
 cipal door. 
 
 NAVEL, Umbilicus , in anatomy. See Umbilicus 
 NAVIGATION, Navigatio, the art, or aft of con¬ 
 ducting a fhip through the wide and pathlefs ocean, the 
 fafeft, fliorteft, and moft commodious way. This word, 
 in its full latitude, comprizes the art of building fliips 
 the loading of Ihips, and the conducing them through 
 the fea, which laft is more peculiarly called navigation 
 or failing; fo that it is either common or proper. See 
 Sailing. 
 
 Common Navigation, Or doafting, where the veflel 
 is feldom out of fight of land, or reach of founding. In 
 this an acquaintance with the coafts, compafs, and found¬ 
 ing line are fufficient. 
 
 Proper Navigation, where the voyage is out in the 
 main ocean. Here, befides the former requifites, it is 
 neceflary to know the ufe of Mercator’s chart, azimuth 
 and amplitude, compares, log-line, quadrant, foreftafis. 
 &c. for celeflial oblervations. 
 
 Navigation turns principally on four things, two of 
 which being known, the other two are eafily found from 
 them by the tables, feales and charts. The tour things 
 are the difference of latitude, difference of longitude 
 the reckoning or diftance run, and the courfe or rhumb 
 failed on. 
 
 The latitudes are eafily found, and with fufficient ac¬ 
 curacy. The courfe and diftance are had by the log-line, 
 or dead reckoning, and the compafs. There is nothing 
 wanting to the perfection of navigation, but to deter¬ 
 mine the longitude ; towards which many attempts have 
 been made by the mathematicians of all ages. See 
 Longit ude. 
 
 The Phoenicians, efpecially tliofe of Tyre, are rc- 
 prefented in hiftory as the firft navigators. Tyre whofe 
 immenfe riches and power arc reprefented in fuch lofty 
 terms, both in facred and profane authors, being de- 
 ftroyed by Alexander the Great, its navigation was 
 transferred to Alexandria by the conqueror: and thus 
 arofe the navigation of the Egyptians, which was after¬ 
 wards fo cultivated by the Ptolemies, that Tyre and 
 Carthage, which laft was lubdued by the Romans, were 
 quite forgot. 
 
 At length Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of Tyre 
 and Carthage, being furprized by the Saracens, who 
 in fpite of Heraclius, over-run the northern coafts of 
 Africa, &c. fo that Alexandria has ever fince been in a 
 declining ftate. 
 
 Upon the fall of the Roman empire, the more brave 
 
 N A Z 
 
 among the Franks in Gaul, the Goths in Spain, and 
 the Lombards in Italy, were no fooner fettled, than they 
 began to learn the advantage of navigation and com 
 merce, and the methods of managing them, from the 
 people they had fubdued ; and in a little time fome of 
 them became able to give new inftruftions for its ad¬ 
 vantage. 
 
 The people of Italy, and particularly thofe of Venice 
 and Genoa, were the firft reftorers of navigation and 
 commerce to the marfhy iflands in the bottom of the 
 Adriatick ; the Veneti who inhabited"along the coafts of 
 that gulph retired, when Alarick, king of the Goths, and 
 afterwards Attila, king of the Huns, ravaged Italy. 
 
 Each of the 72 iflands of the Adriatick continued a 
 long time under its refpeftive mafters, as a diftinft 
 commonwealth, the commerce becoming confiderable. 
 they began to think of uniting into a body : and it was 
 this union firft began in the 6th century, but not com¬ 
 pleted till the Bth, that laid the foundation of the future 
 grandeur of the Venetians. 
 
 From the time of this union the fleets of merchant 
 
 men were feht to all the parts of the Mediterranean, arid 
 at laft: to Grand Cairo, a city built by the Saracens on 
 the eaftern banks of the Nile. 
 
 Thus they flourilhed till the famous league of Cam- 
 bray in 150S, when a number of jealous princes con- 
 Ipired to their ruin ; which was the more eafily effefted 
 by the Portuguefe getting one part of the E. India com¬ 
 merce, and the Spaniards another. 
 
 Genoa, which had applied to navigation at the fame 
 time with Venice, difputed with it the empire of the fea. 
 Jealoufy foon began to break out, and, the two repub- 
 licks coming to blows, it was three centuries almoft con¬ 
 tinual war, before the luperiority was afeertained ; when, 
 towards the end of the 14th century, the fatal battle of 
 Chioza ended the noble ftrife. The Genoefe, who till 
 then had ufually had the advantage, had now loft all; 
 and the Venetians fecured to themlelves the empire of 
 the fea, and luperiority in commerce. 
 
 About the fame time that navigation was retrieved in 
 the fouthern parts of Europe, a new focietyof merchants 
 was formed in the north, who framed a new fcheme of 
 laws for the regulation- of commerce, called Hill the 
 ufages and cuftoms of the fea. 
 
 In examining the reafoils of commerce palling fuc- 
 celfively from the Venetians, Genoefe, and Haiife towns, 
 to the Portuguefe and Spaniards-; and from thofe again 
 to the Englilh and Dutch ; it. may be eftablilhed as a 
 maxim, that the relation betwixt commerce and naviga¬ 
 tion, or rather their union, is fo intimate, that the fall 
 of the one inevitably draws after it that of the other. 
 
 Hence fo many laws, &c. for its regulation ; and par¬ 
 ticularly that celebrated aft of navigation in England, 
 which is the Handing rule, not only of the Englilh 
 among themlelves, bui alfo of other nations with whom 
 they traffick. 
 
 Till this aft, all nations were at liberty to import 
 into England all kinds of merchandizes, and that on 
 their own bottom. But Cromwell particularly palled an 
 aft, prohibiting the Dutch from importing any merchan¬ 
 dizes, except thofe of their own growth, which were 
 very few. The firft parliament of Charles II. after the 
 reftoration, palled an aft, bearing date from the firft of 
 December 1660, for the encouraging and increafing of 
 fhipping and navigation, which ftill l'ubfifts in its full 
 latitude and vigour. See 12 Car. II. c. 18. and 13 and 
 14 Car. II. c. 11. 
 
 NAUMACHIA, in antiquity, a fpeftacle among the 
 Romans, reprefenting a fea-nght, as alfo the place where 
 it was exhibited. 
 
 NAUSEA, in medicine, properly denotes the ficlG' 
 nefs people perceive, when on board a fhip : it likewife 
 is applied to all propenfities to vomit. Bocrhaave defines 
 it to be a retrogade fpafinodick motion of the mufcular 
 fibres of the cefophagus, ftomach, and inteftines, attended 
 with convulfions of the abdominal mulclcs, and feptum 
 traverfum. 
 
 NAUTICAL Planisphere, in navigation, a de- 
 feription of the terreftrial globe upon a plane, for the ufe 
 of lailors. See Planisphere. 
 
 NAUTILUS, in natural hiftory, a kind of turbinated 
 fea-fhell, of a comprefled figure, having the volute hid 
 within the body, frequently dug up at land, and often 
 found petrified. 
 
 NAVY, the whole fleet of fliips of war belonging to 
 Great Britain. The direftion of the navy royal of Eng¬ 
 land is in feven commilfioners, who are called lords of 
 the admiralty, there being at prefent no lord high admiral. 
 In ancient times the kings of England commanded the 
 fleets in perfon, and as early as king Arthur the fove- 
 reignty of the feas was aflerted, his fucceflor to this very 
 day claiming and maintaining the lame privilege of all 
 nations. 
 
 NAZARENES, in church hiftory, a name originally 
 given to all Chriftians in general, on account that Jefus 
 Chrift was of the city of Nazareth ; but aftei wards re- 
 ftrained to a fet of hereticks, whofe religion confifted of 
 a ftrange jumble of Judaifin and Chriftianity ; o.bferving 
 at the fame time the Alofaick law, and the levcral rites of 
 the Chriftian religion. 
 
 NAZARITES, among the Jews, perfons who either 
 of themfclves, or by their parents, were dedicated to the 
 oblervation of Nazaritcfhip. They were of two forts ; 
 namely, fuch as were bound to this obfervance for only 
 
 a fliort 
 
nep 
 
 fi fhort time, as a week or month; or thofe who were 
 bound to it all their lives. All that we find peculiar to 
 the lattei s way of life, is. that they were to abftain 
 from wine and all intoxicating liquors, and never to 
 fbave or cut off the hair of their heads. The firil fort of 
 N'azarites were moreover to avoid all defilement; and if 
 they chanced to contrail any pollution before the term 
 was expired, they were obliged to begin afrelh. Women 
 as well as men might bind themfelves to this vqw. 
 
 NEAT, or Net-weight, the weight of a commo¬ 
 dity alone, clear of the calk, bag, cafe, or even lilth. 
 See We icht. 
 
 NEBEL, Nabal, in Jewifh antiquity, the lame 
 with the pfaltcry. SeePs altery. 
 
 N EBULOIJS. Cloudy, in aftronomy, a term ap¬ 
 plied to certain of the fixed liars, which ihew a dim ha/.v 
 light, being Ids than thofe of the fixth magnitude, and 
 therefore lcarce vilible to the naked eye. 
 
 NEBULY, or NLBULEE, in heraldry, is when a 
 coat is charged with feveral little figures in form of 
 words, running within one another, or when the outline 
 of a bordure, ordinary. Ac. is indented or waved. 
 
 NECESSARY, in a philofophtcal fenle, that which 
 cannot but be, or cannot be otherwile. See the next article. 
 
 NECESSITY, whate ver is done by a necefiary caufe, 
 or a power that is irrefiftible, in which lenfe it Hands 
 oppofed to freedom. See Freedom. 
 
 NECK, Co/luw, in anatomy, is that Bender part 
 fituated between the head and the trunk of the body. 
 
 1 he neck confilts of the following parts: i. Th 
 
 common integuments: 2. Seven vertebra?: 3. A num- 
 
 ber of mufcles which ferve to move the head, the neck, 
 the larynx, the pbarinx, and the os hyoides : 4. A num¬ 
 ber of very large arteries, as the carotids, internal and 
 external, and the vertebral ones: 5. Of large veins, as 
 the jugular, internal and external, and the vertebral ones : 
 
 6. Of large nerves, ol the par vagum, the intercoflals, 
 the recurrent, the diaphragmaticks, and the vertebral: 
 
 7. A part of the fpinal marrow: 8. The afpera arteria, 
 or trachea, particularly the larynx, in which is an emi¬ 
 nence called the pomum adami: 9. The pharynx, with 
 a part of the oefophagus : 10. The thyroide, with fome 
 other fmaller glands. See Larynx, Pharynx, Ju¬ 
 gular, Ac. 
 
 Luxation of the Neck. If life remain after fuch an 
 accident, the patient is to be immediately laid flat on the 
 ground or floor; then the furgeon, laying hold of his 
 head, is to extend it ftrongly, gently moving it from 
 fide to fide, till lie finds that the neck is reftored to its 
 natural poflure. Mr. Petit mentions another method, 
 by means of flings; but Heifiergives the preference to 
 the foimer method, both as being more Ample, and be- 
 cauie the patient can be relieved much fooner. 
 
 NECROSIS, in medicine, a term fonietimes ufed for 
 a mortification, or Sphacelus. See Sphacelus. 
 
 NECTAR, v£kt ap, among ancient poets, the drink 
 of the fabulous deities of the heathens, in contradiftinc- 
 t'on from their lblid food, which was called ambroiia. 
 See Ambrosia. I his word is alio ufed by fome of the 
 ancients to exprels honey. 
 
 NEC1 ARINE, a fruit differing nothing from the 
 common peach, of which it is a fpecies, than in having 
 a fmoorher rind and a firmer pulp. 
 
 NEEDLE, Acus, a very common little inftrumentor 
 utenfil, made of Heel, pointed at one end, and pierced 
 at the other, uled in lewing embroidery, tapeftry, Ac. 
 
 Magneticai Needle, in navigation, a needle touched 
 with a loadflone, and luftained on a pivot or a centre on 
 which playing at liberty, it dircfts itfelf to certain points 
 in or under the horizon; whence the magneticai needle 
 is of two kinds, viz. horizontal and inchnatory. See 
 the article Magnet. 
 
 NEGATION, in logick. an a<5t of the mind, af¬ 
 firming one thing to be different from another; as, that 
 the foul is not matter. 
 
 NEGATIVE, in general, fomething that implies a 
 negation: thus we fay, negative quantities, negative figns, 
 negative powers, &c. See Qp A N t i t V. S i g n, Po we r ’ 
 &c. Our words and ideas, fays Dr. Watts, are fo un¬ 
 happily linked, together, that we can never know which 
 are pofitive, which negative ideas, by the words that ex- 
 prefs them; for fome pofitive terms denote a negative 
 idea, as dead; and there are both pofitive and negative 
 
 terms invented to fignify the fame and contrarv ideas as 
 unhappy and miferable. To this may alfo be added, 
 that fome words, which are negative in the original lau- 
 guare, teem pofitive in Englilh. as Abvls. The way 
 therefore to know whether any idea he negative or not, 
 is to conilder whether it primarily implies the a .fence of 
 any pofitive being, or mode of being ; if fo, then it is a 
 negatne idea, otherwile a pofitive one. 
 
 M-.HEMIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tefta- 
 ment, lo called from the name of its author. Nehemiah 
 was born at Babylon during the captivitv. and fucceedetl 
 Ezra m the government of Judah and Jerufalem. 11c 
 was a Jew, and was promoted to the office of cun-bearer 
 to Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Perfia ; when the 
 opportunities he had of being dailv in the king's pre¬ 
 tence, together with the favour of Either the queen, 
 procured him the favour of being authorized to repair 
 and fortify the city of Jerufalem, in the fame manner as 
 it was before its deftruftion by the Babylonians. Oil 
 Ins going to Jerufalem, he finifhed the rebuilding oflhe 
 walls in fifty-two days, and dedicated the gates"of the 
 citv with great folemnity. He then reformed fome 
 abides which had crept in among his countrymen, par¬ 
 ticularly the extortion of the ufurers, by which the poor 
 were lo oppreffed as to be forced to te-il then lands and 
 children for lupport. After which he returned to Perfia 
 and came back again with a new commiffion, bv virtue 
 of which he regulated every thing relating borh to the 
 hate and religion of the Jews. The liiliory of theie 
 tranlactions is the fubjeft of this book. 
 
 NEMEAN Games, in antiquitv, one of the four 
 great games celebrated among the Greeks at Nemea a 
 village and grove between the cities Clcon.v and Phli’us 
 and that every third year, upon the twelfth of the Co¬ 
 rinthian month Panemos, the fame with the Athenian 
 Boedromion. The exercifes were chariot races, and all 
 the parts of the Pentathlum. The judges were choleil 
 out of Corinth, Argos, and Cleonrc, and drifted m 
 black, as theie games were a funeral folcmilitv infti- 
 tuted m memory of Opheltes, otherwife Archeinorus 
 who was flam by a ferpent. Others think that theie 
 games.were mftituted by Hercules, after his vifloryover 
 the Nemean lion, in honour of Jupiter. The vigors 
 were crowned with parfley or fmalla^c, which were 
 herbs uled at funerals. 
 
 NEMINE contradicente, denotes the carrying 
 of any matter with the univerfal confent of all the mem¬ 
 bers of a court, Ac. 
 
 NENIA, AW.r, in antiquity, a funeral fong fung 
 to the mufick of flutes by the praffica?. N'enia alfo de¬ 
 noted the goddefs of tears and funerals. 
 
 NEOMENIA, in chronology, & c . denotes a feffival 
 kept at every new moon, particularly among the Jews. 
 
 NEPENTHE, Nipimbci, in antiquity, a marick 
 potion, whereby perfons forgot all their pains and mis- 
 fortunes. 
 
 N EOPFIYTES, new plants, a name given by the 
 ancient Chriftians to thofe Heathens who had newly 
 embraced the faith. 3 
 
 Nl- PlER’s or Napier’s Bum, an inilrumetit in¬ 
 vented by J. Nepier, baron of Merchifton in Scotland 
 whereby the multiplication and divifion of large numbers 
 are much facilitated, but is now rarely ufed. 
 
 NEPHR1TICK, fomething relating to thekidnies. 
 Nephritick V-ood, Lignum Nephriticum , an 
 American wood, brought to us in large compaft ponde¬ 
 rous pieces, without knots; the outer part is of a 
 whitifh, or pale yellowilh colour; the medullary f'ub- 
 itance or a dark brownifli or rediflt. This wood hands 
 greatly recommended in difficulties of urine, nephritick 
 complaints, and all diforders of the kidneys and urinary 
 pailages; and is laid to have this peculiar advantage, that 
 it does not, like the warmer diureticks, heat or ofte-nd 
 the parts. The blue aqueous tinfture is direfted to be 
 ufed as common drink, and frelh water to be poured on 
 the remaining wood lo long as it communicates any blue- 
 nels. b or medicinal purpotes Geoffrov fays, he lias feen 
 fome mltances of its being ufed, but without fuco-ls ■ 
 and indeed, whatever may be the virtues of ftroav infu- 
 lions or extracts of the wood, the exceedingly di'ute blue 
 tinaure cannot be expefted to have much efficacy. 
 
 NEPHRITIS, Dur, n'phritum , or tupbritick Cbotick 
 11 medicine, a painful difeafe occafioned by the Hone or 
 
 gravel 
 
NER 
 
 gravel in the kidnies, in which there is an inflammation. 
 The diforder, when the inflammation is known to be 
 prefent, is to be cured firft by the general remedies ap¬ 
 propriated to the cure of all inflammations, as vene- 
 feCtion, revulfion, and dilution; fecondly, by mild, 
 emollient, and antiphlogiftick decoCtions drank in large 
 quantities. Thirdly, this fpecies of the diforder is cured 
 by clyfters, fomentations, and baths: And, fourthly, 
 by mild and moift aliments, by reft, by not lying too 
 warm in bed, and efpecially not lying on the back. If 
 the pains and convulflons are exceffively violent, opiates 
 are beneficial. The exceffive vomiting is to be relieved 
 by a frequent exhibition of tepid water edulcorated with 
 honey. Thus, a nephritis arifing from a ftone impacted 
 in the ureters and kidnies may be fafely cured. 
 
 NEPOTISM, denotes, in Italy, the authority which 
 the pope’s nephews and relations have in the adminiftra- 
 tion of affairs, and the care the popes have to raile and 
 enrich them. 
 
 NEPTUNALTA, in antiquity, feafts held on the 
 tenth of the calends of Auguft in honour of Neptune. 
 
 NEPTUNE, in the heathen mythology, the god of 
 the fea. The poets tell us he was the fon of Saturn and 
 Ops, and the brother of Jupiter and Pluto. 
 
 NEREIDS, Nereides , in antiquity, fabulous deities, 
 or fea-nymphs. They were fifty in number, all the 
 daughters of Nereus by the nymph Doris. 
 
 NERVES, nervi, in anatomy, are cylindrical whitifh 
 parts, ufualiy fibrofe in their ftructure, or compofcd of 
 clutters of filaments, arifing from the,brain, or rather 
 from its medulla oblongata within the fkull, and from 
 the fpinal marrow, and running from thence to every 
 part of the body. 
 
 Structure end Ufe of the NeRv ESf Th is Is cafiiy per¬ 
 ceived iii molt of the larger, and fome of the fm after 
 ones; for befides the blood-veflels they receive, and the 
 membranes they are lurrounded with, they are feen to 
 he compofcd of a fibrous matter, or, as it were, of bun¬ 
 dles or clutters of white, cylindrical, and very {fender 
 filaments ; which, on the ftriCteft examination, appear 
 to be folid, and without any cavity. LicwenliOeck in¬ 
 deed affirms, that he had often found a cavity in them; 
 but he is not free from errors in many of his microfco- 
 pical obfervations. But though we cannot difeover any 
 cavity, much lefs a fluid contained in them; yet it is 
 very pofTible that there may be fuch cavities, and fuch a 
 fluid, onlv too I'm all to be perceived by us ; and for the 
 aCtual exigence of fuch a fluid, known by the name of 
 animal fpiiits, many probable arguments are adduced. 
 
 The great ufe of the nerves, therefore, though we are 
 not able perfectly to demonttrate it, feems to be to con¬ 
 vey to all parts of the body a fluid of an extremely fub- 
 tile kind, lecreted in the brain and fpinal marrow, and 
 deftined for no lefs noble a purpofe than the fenfation, 
 motion, and nutrition of the feveral parts of the whole 
 human fabrick. Thofe who would enter farther into 
 this fubjeft, may confult Hcittcr’s Anatomy; Bocr- 
 haave’s Chapter on the Brain, in his Inititutes ; Mor¬ 
 gagni’s Advcrfar. where lie treats it judicioiifly aiid 
 deeply; and after thefe, Burggrave on the Exiftence of 
 the Animal Spirits. Sec Brain. 
 
 Origin , Di/inhution, and Names of the Nerves. The 
 nerves are ufualiy divided into two kinds, thofe which 
 arife from the brain, and thofe arifing from the fpinal 
 marrow. 
 
 The nerves of the brain are nine pair. i. The olfac¬ 
 tory pair, which paffing through the os cribrofum, arc 
 lpread over the membrane of the nottrils. 2. The optick 
 pair, which by their expanfion form the retina of the 
 eye. 3. The motory pair of the eyes, each of which is 
 divided near the orbit, into fix parts, or branches ; of 
 which, in human fubjeCts, the firft branch goes to the 
 elevator palpebrce; the fccond, to the elevator of the 
 eye ; the third, to the depreftor; the fourth, to the ad¬ 
 ducent ; the fifth, to the inferior oblique mulcle ; and 
 thefixth, into the tunicks of the eye : but, in other ani¬ 
 mals, they are divided much other wife. 4. The pathetick 
 pair of Willis, which arc very final!, and run to the 
 trochlear mufcle of the eye. 5. The guftatory pair, 
 which are very large, and divided within the cranium 
 into three branches immediately under the dura mater: 
 of thefe the firft branch, called the ophthalmick, runs to 
 various parts of and about the eye, the eye-lids, the 
 
 Vol. 1,1. No. 5 2 . 
 
 N E R 
 
 mufcles of the forehead and nofe, and the integuments 
 of the face. Thelecond branch may be called the fupe- 
 rior maxillary one, as being finally' dittributed through 
 all parts of the upper jaw, the lips,' nofe, palate, uvula, 
 gums, teeth ; a branch of it alfo runs to the ear, and 
 joining with a branch of the feventh pair, forms the 
 chorda tympani. The third branch may be called the 
 maxillaris inferior, as being dittributed over the feveral 
 parts of the lower jaw r , the tongue, and other parts of 
 the mouth ; whence the whole pair of nerves has ob¬ 
 tained the name of par guftatorium ; though a great part 
 of them lerves to very different purpofes, and is carried 
 to parts that have nothing to do with tatting. 6. The 
 abducent pair, except a branch from the formation of 
 the intercoftal nerve, is wholly carried to the abducent 
 mulcle of the eye ; whence its name. The intercoftal 
 nerve is formed either of ramifications of the two pre¬ 
 ceding nerves, or only of thofe of the fixth pair. It 
 makes its way out of the cranium by the pallage of the 
 internal carotid, and defeends near the eighth pair 
 through the neck ; and thence through the breaft and 
 abdomen, even to the pelvis; and, in its way, makes 
 various plexufes and ganglia, and fends branches to al- 
 moft all the parts contained in the breaft and abdomen. 
 7. The auditory pair arife with two trunks; the one 
 of which is called the portio dura, or hard portion ; the 
 other the portio mollis, or foft portion. This iaft enters 
 tire foramen of the os petrofum, and thence through va¬ 
 rious little apertures gets into the labyrinth of the ear, 
 where it is expanded over all its parts, and conllitutes 
 the primary organ of hearing. The harder portion, 
 paffing the aquaduft of Fallopius, fends back one branch 
 into the cavity of the cranium: it alfo fends off another 
 branch which helps to form the chorda tympani; and 
 others to the mufcles of the tympanum. The reft of 
 this pair goes to the external ear, the pericranium, the 
 mufcles of the os hyoides, the lips, the eye-lids, and the 
 parotids. 8. I he par vagum, with' the acceflorius of 
 Willis, pafs out near the latcrnal finufes of the dura 
 mater, and defeending through the neck and thorax to 
 the abdomen, fend out branches by the way to the la¬ 
 rynx, the pharynx, the heart, the lungs, and efpecially 
 to tlie itomacli. It alfo fends off from the upper part of 
 the thorax, large branches, which are varioufly impli¬ 
 cated in the neck, thorax, and abdomen, with the lin- 
 guals, the cervicals, and the intercoftals. 9. The lingual 
 pair go immediately to the tongue, and arc called by 
 fome the motory nerves of the tongue; but by others* 
 with more juftice, the guftatory nerves. 
 
 Wc arc to obferve, lays Heiftcr, that the pair of nerves, 
 which the generality of writers have called the tenth 
 pair of the head, are, for many unanfwerable reafons, to 
 be properly called the firft pair of nerves of the neck. 
 
 Of the nerves which arife 'from the fpinal marrow, 
 there are properly thirty-two pair. 
 
 Thofe of the neck are no lefs than eight pair; and 
 from them there are innumerable branches dittributed 
 through the mufcles of the head, the neck, the fcapula, 
 and the humerus : from the third, fourth, and fifth pair 
 are formed the nerves of the diaphragm ; and the fixth, 
 feventh, and eighth pair, together with the firft pair of 
 the back, form the fix robuft nerves of the arm and 
 hands. To this divifion is the acceflory fpinal nerve of 
 Willis to be referred, which arifes about the origin of 
 •the third or fourth pair. 
 
 The nerves of the back are twelve pair, which, bc- 
 lides the branch they give to the brachial nerves, run 
 entirely in the fame furrow along the courfe of the ribs, 
 and are dilperled over the pleura, the intercoftal, pec¬ 
 toral, and abdominal mufcles, the breaft, and other parts 
 of the thorax. 
 
 The nerves of the loins’-are five pair. Thefe are in 
 general difperfed over the loins, the peritoneum, and 
 the integuments and mufcles of the abdomen : and be- 
 lides this, their firft pair often gives, on each fide, a 
 branch to the diaphragm. The fecond pair after inolcu- 
 lating with the branches of the firft, third, and fourth 
 pair, forms the crural nerves, which are dittributed over 
 the anterior part of the thigh : and in the fame manner 
 a branch is formed of the conjunctions of the fecond, 
 third, and fourth pair, which pafies through the great 
 toiamen of the os pubis to the ferotum, the tefticles, 
 and the adjoining parts. The fourth and fifth pair of 
 ° 0 the 
 
N E U 
 
 the nerves erf the loins, joining with the firft, fecond, 
 third, and fourth pair of the os facrura, compote the 
 nerve called ifchiatick, which is the largeft in the body ; 
 it defcends along the hinder part of the thigh, and its 
 branches are diih'ibutcd over the whole leg, the foot, 
 and toes. 
 
 The nerves of the os facrum form five or fix pair, 
 though not always detciminatelv and regularlv fo: they 
 pafs through the foramina of this bone, and the fupe- 
 rior ones of them, as already obferved, compofe the if¬ 
 chiatick nerve ; and what remains is difpcited, in a mul¬ 
 titude of ramifications, over the parts contained in the 
 pelvis, the intefiinum reftum, the bladder, the par-ts of 
 generation, and the parts adjacent. 
 
 NES 1 ORIANS, a ChriRian fe£l, the followers of 
 Nellorius, bilhop and patriarch of ConRantinople ; who 
 about the year 429, taught that there were two perfons 
 in fclus ChriR, the divine and the human, which are 
 united, not hypoflaticallv or fubRantially, but in a myf- 
 tical manner : whence he concluded, that Mary was 
 the mother of ChriR, and not the mother of God. For 
 this opinion, NeRorius was condemned and depofed by 
 the council of Ephefus ; and the decree of this council 
 was confirmed by the emperor Theodofius, who banifhed 
 the bilhop to a pionaRery. 
 
 NE 1 , or Neat JVeigbt, in commerce, the:weight of 
 a commodity, w ithout the calk, bag, cafe, or thing that 
 contains it. It is alfo ufed to lignify.any thing pure, or 
 unadulterated with any foreign mixture. 
 
 Nlt Produce, in commerce, what any commodity has 
 yielded, the tare, <kc. and all charges, being deduced. 
 
 ' NETE H'vpereoi, eon, in tiie ancient mufick, the 
 higheft and mcR aci;te : of the firings of the lyre or the 
 ancient feale. 
 
 NEURI 1 ICKS, , Ncuriticn, Nrzi'/u, in 
 
 phyfick, are fuch medicines as are proper for diieafes of 
 tiie nerves and nervous parts, as' the membranes, liga¬ 
 ments, &c. 
 
 NEUROGRAPHY, Ncurographia , a defeription of 
 the nerves, with figures thereof engraved. 
 
 N EURO LOG Y, New ologia , an account or deferip¬ 
 tion of the nerve 4 without any figures engraved of them. 
 
 N E U R 01 ' O i\ IY, Ncurotcmia , an Anatomical,diflec¬ 
 tion of the nerves. 
 
 NEUTER, denotes an indifferent perfon, who has 
 efpoufed neither party. 
 
 Neuter, in grammar, a fort of gender of nouns in 
 the learned languages, which are neither ma leu line nor 
 feminine. There are no neuter nouns in Englifh, and 
 other modern tongues; 
 
 Perbs Neuter, in grammar, fuch verbs as are.neither 
 aflive nor paffive. and govern nothing ; having no object 
 for the aflion exprelled bv the verb to fall upon, as, be 
 /"/■». '% *■< rrjl; &c. 
 
 Verbs neuter are divided into two forts ; firR, fuch as 
 denote a quality, lituatioh, or fome other attribute, $ec. 
 asa/bet, it is white, fede\ lie fits, &rc. And, fecondlv, 
 tliofc verbs that figniiy aflions which do not pafs into 
 any fubjeft different from die aflor, as to dine, fup, Ac. 
 But this latter kind ceafe to be neuter, and become 
 a£live, efpecially jn Greek and Latin, when a fubjeft 
 is given them, as, vivere vitam, occ. and, among the 
 old French poets,, foupirr fen tou r ment\ the Englifh, 
 To figh his woes ? See. But here fome thing is underflood 
 as, vivere vit/.rn bratam, hit. 
 
 NEUTRAL Salts, in chymiflry, are a fort of in¬ 
 termediate falts between acids and alcalies, participating 
 of the nature of both, fo that the one does not predomi¬ 
 nate over the other. Perfedlly neutral falts arc fuch as 
 produce no degree of effervefcence, but become quite 
 fatuiated upon the afFufion of any acid oralcaline liquor. 
 The chief of this kind among the native falts are com¬ 
 mon fait, nitre, aphronitrum, the elfential falts of plants, 
 and thole obtained by boiling from fome medicinal and 
 acidulated fprings. Thole prepared by art are the arca¬ 
 num duplicatum, antimoniated nitre, Glauber’s fait, and 
 vitriolatea tartar. 
 
 Salts of a temperate and neutral nature are not only 
 of all others the moil falutary, but alfo the fafefl and 
 moil efficacious, both for preventing and curing fome of 
 the diforders incident to the human nodv. 
 
 NEUTRALITY, the Rate of a perlon or thing that 
 is neuter. 
 
 N I E 
 
 NEW Moo„\~, Neomenia , that Rate of the moon a 
 little after her conjunction with the fun. l’oi the method 
 of finding the time of new moon, fee Moon. 
 
 NEWEL, in architecture, the upright poll, with a 
 pair of winding Rails turning-about; being that part of 
 the Rair-cafe which fuftains the Reps. 
 
 NEW 1 ON IAN Philosophy, the do&rinc of the 
 laws, Nc. of the univerfe, particularly of the heavenly- 
 bodies, as delivered,by Sir Ifaac Newton. 
 
 I he term Newtonian philofophy is very differently 
 applied ; whence there have arote divers confufed notions 
 relating thereto. Some authors under this philofophy 
 include all the corpufcular philofophy, coaiidered as it 
 now Rands con eCleu and reformed bv the diicovcries and 
 improvements, in feveral parts thereof, by Sir Ifaac New¬ 
 ton. In this fenfe it is that ’sGravefande calls his ele¬ 
 ments of phylicks, lntroduftio ad Philofophiam New- 
 tonianam. And in this lenfe’the Newtonian is the fame 
 with the new philofophy, and Rands contradiRinguilhed 
 to the Cartelian, the Peripatetic!:, and the ancient cor- 
 puicular. 
 
 Others, by Newtonian philofopliv, mean the method 
 or order which Sir Ifaac Newton oblerves in philofophiz- 
 ing, viz. the rcafoning, and drawing of conclulions di¬ 
 rectly from phenomena, exclufive of all previous hvpo- 
 thefes ; beginning from fimple principles, deducing the 
 firR powers and laws of nature from a few felcft pliamo- 
 mena, and then applying thole laws, &c. to account for 
 other things. To this purpofc the fame ’sGravefande 
 explains himfelf in his Inllitut. Newton. Philof. And 
 in this fenfe the Newtonian philofophy Is the fame with 
 die experimental philofophy, and Rands oppofed to the 
 ancient corpufcular. 
 
 Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean that wherein 
 ph) heal bodies are conlidered mathematical!v, and where 
 geometry and mechanicks are applied to the Iblution of 
 |di«niomeiia ; in which fcnle, the Newtonian is the fame 
 with the mechanical and mathematical philofophy. 
 
 Others again, by Newtonian philofophy, un,derRand 
 that part of phylical knowledge which Sir Ifaac Newton 
 has handled, improved, and demonilrated in.his Principia. 
 
 Others, laRly, by Newtonian philolopliv, mean tha 
 new principles which Sir Ifaac Newton has brought into 
 philofophy ; the new fyRem founded thereon ; "and the 
 new fclution of phenomena thence deduced. 
 
 NICHE, in architecture, a cavity or- hollow place, 
 in the thickncfs of a wall for placing a figure orRatue. 
 
 N 1 COLAl PANS, in church-hiflory, ChriRian he- 
 reticks who alTumcd this name from Nicolas of Antioch; 
 who, being a Gentile by birth, firR embraced Judaifm, 
 and then ChriR.ianity ; when his zeal and devotion re¬ 
 commended him to the cburcli of Jerufalcm, by whom 
 he was choferi one ol the firR deacons. Many of the 
 .primitive writers believe that, Nicolas was rather the oc- 
 cafion than the author of the infamous practices of thole 
 who affiimed his name, who were expreflly condemned 
 by the Spirit of God himfelf, Rev. ii. 6. And indeed 
 their opinions and aftions were highly extravagant and 
 criminal. They allowed a community of wives : made 
 no difference between ordinary meats and thole offered 
 to idols : and told we know not what fables of the crea¬ 
 tion and dilpofition of the world. According to Eufe- 
 bius, they fubfiRed but alhort time ; but Tertullian fays, 
 that they only changed their name, and that tlieir herelies- 
 paffed into the fe£t of the Cainians. 
 
 NICOTIAN A, Tobacco ; fo called from Nicot, the 
 French ambaffador at the court of Portugal, who firR 
 lent it into France, in 1560, and gave it his own name, 
 as he himfelf tells us in his dictionary. See Tobacco 
 
 N ICTITATING Membrane, Membrana nifli- 
 tr.ns, in anatomy, a thin tranlparent membrane, particu¬ 
 larly in birds and filhes, that covers their eyes and fhel- 
 ters them from dull, or too much light. Hence the re¬ 
 markable firmnefs of the eagle’s fight in viewing the fun 
 is readily accounted fdr, from this membrane being very 
 clofe and firm. 
 
 NIDUS, Nest, the repofitory where fowls, infe&s, 
 reptiles, Nc. lay their eggs, and wherein, when hatched, 
 they nurfc their young till they can fhift for themfelves. 
 
 NIECE, Ideptis, a brother or fifier’s daughter ; which, 
 in the civil law, is the third degree of confangumity, 
 and, in the common law the fecond. 
 
 NIENT Comprise, in law, an exception taken to 
 1 petition 
 
N I t NIT 
 
 a petition as nnjuft, becaufc the thing defired is not in 
 that aft or deed whereon the petition is grounded. 
 
 NIGHT, A ox, that part of the natural day wherein 
 the fun is not in oUr hemifphere. Under the equator 
 the nights are always equal to the days, and under the 
 poles, the night holds half the year. 1 he ancient Gauls 
 and Germans, as appears from Tacitus and Cadar; as 
 alfo, the people of Iceland, the Arabs, and our Saxon 
 anceftors divided their time by the nights; hence our 
 cuflom of faying fe’en-niglit, fortnight, &c. 
 
 NIGHTMARE, a popular name given to the difeafe 
 called Incubus, which fee. 
 
 NIHIL, Nibilum, Nothing , among the fchoolmen, 
 denotes what has no real elfe, being conceived negatively, 
 and exprelTcd bv a negative. . 
 
 N 1 HILS, or Nichils, iiTues which a fheriff who is 
 oppofed in the Exchequer, fays are nothing worth, and 
 not to be levied, through the inlufficiency of the parties 
 from whom the fame arc due. 
 
 NIMBUS, in antiquity, a circle obferved on certain 
 medals, or round the head of fome emperors, anlwering 
 to the circles of light, drawn around the images ot faints. 
 The nimbus is feen on the medals of Maurice, Phocas, 
 and others, even of the upper empire. 
 
 NIPPERS, in the menage, are four teeth in the fore 
 part of a h-orfe’s mouth, two in the upper, and tw'o in 
 the lower jaw. A horfe puts them forth between, the 
 fecond and third year. 
 
 NISI Prius, in law, a writ which licth in cafes where 
 the jury being impannelled and returned, before the juf- 
 tices of the Bank, one of the parties requefls to have iuch 
 writ for the calc of the county, whereby to will the 
 fheriff to caufe the inqueft to come before the juffices in 
 the fame county at their coming thither. 1 he effeft of 
 this writ of nifi prius is, that the lherifF is hereby com¬ 
 manded to bring to Weftminfler the men impannelled at 
 a certain day, before the jullices, nil! prius juftic. dom. 
 xegis ad affilas capiendas venerint, that is, unlefs the 
 king’s juft ices go before that day into iuch a county to 
 hold affizes. 
 
 NITRE, Nit rum, lalt-pctrc, in natural hiftory, a 
 cryftalline pellucid fait, fomewhat whitifh ; in its molt 
 perfect pieces it is in form of long and flender cryftals, 
 of a prifmatick figure, of an equal thicknefs throughout 
 their whole length ; compolcd of fix planes or fides, and 
 terminated at the end by a pyramid, l’mall and ihort in 
 proportion to the fize of the column, but compofed ot 
 the fame number of planes : thefe ihoots vaftly refemble 
 the common fpring cryftals in the rocks. It is of an 
 acrid and bitterifh tafle, and imprelTes a peculiar fenfe of 
 coldnefs upon the tongue. 
 
 The earth from which nitre is made, both in Perfia 
 and the E. Indies, is a kind of ycllowifh marl: it is 
 found in the bare cliffs of the fides of hills expofed to the 
 northern or eaftern winds, and never in any other fitua- 
 tion. The earth is light, crumbly, and friable ; and 
 though- it be fubjeft to accidental variations of colour 
 from admixtures of other earths among it, and on this 
 occafion appears fometimes blackilh, redifh, or whitifh, 
 yet its other qualities always diftinguifh it with fufficient 
 cafe : it melts very .freely in the mouth, and leaves a 
 ftrong tafle of falt-petre in it. 
 
 They collcft large quantities of this earth, and, hav¬ 
 ing prepared feveral pits, which they line with a firm and 
 tough clay, they fill them halt f uli of water, and throw 
 into it large quantities of this earth ; this foon moulders 
 away to powder, they then add more water, and If ir the 
 wholS thoroughly together ; after which they let it {land 
 four or five days: at the end of this time they open a 
 hole in one of the lides of the pit, and by means of a 
 channel, cut to a proper depth and lined with the fame 
 clav, they let all the clear water run out of the firft pit 
 into another, which is prepared in a level ground, and 
 is inclofed on all fides, except the north-call, by walls, 
 but has no covering at the top. In this pit the aftion of 
 the fun and air by degrees evaporates the water, and the 
 fait which it hath before waflied out of the earth, now 
 flioots into cryftals about the fides of the pit. f hele 
 cryftals are frnall aiid imperfeft as well as impure. I hey 
 are of the fame hexacdral figure with the purer cryftals 
 of this fait, but they avc ufually without the pyramids at 
 the ends, and often too fhort for their thicknefs. They 
 are of a brownifh or duiky colour, and are in this ftatc 
 
 lent over to us. This is the rough nitre which we re¬ 
 ceive from the E. Indies. As the far greater part of 
 the nitre, ufed in the world, is prepared in this manner, 
 we are to fuppofe this kind of earth, which fs found 
 alfo in other countries, to be the true ore of nitre, though 
 there are feveral very different ways of procuring it befide. 
 
 In many places, the ruins of old buildings, where the 
 walls are expofed to the north-eaft, and are defended 
 from rain by being covered at top, Ihoot forth an eftlo- 
 refcence of nitrous fait, cold and acrid to the tafle, and 
 in all refpefts refembling the common falt-petre : this 
 efflorefcence is found much more abundantly in the 
 eaftern nations than any where elfe, and the ufe the peo¬ 
 ple there make of it is this; they do not work it from 
 nitre alone, but whe'n their folution, made from the 
 nitrous earth before delcribed, will yield no more cryftals, 
 they then throw into the pit a quantity of thefe emqrcf- 
 ccnces, and it immediately after yields a large quantity 
 of cryftals like the firft. That this fait Ihoufil be found 
 on the furface of walls is not wonderful, fince it is found 
 only on or near the furface of the earth where it is pro¬ 
 duced ; they only cut away the marl for about afoot 
 deep, to throw into the nitre-pits what remains under¬ 
 neath, this containing no nitre till it has been expofed to 
 the air ^ fufficient time, and the fame earth, where it is 
 difeovered at any thing more than a foot depth in digging, 
 never being found to contain a grain of it. 
 
 Earths of whatever kind, moiftened and penetrated by 
 the dung and excrements of animals, frequently alfo 
 afford nitre in large quantities. The earths at the bottom 
 of pigeon-lioufes, and thofe of liable and cow-houfes, 
 all afford nitre, on being thrown into water and boiled. 
 In France, where very little nitre is imported, they 
 make all that is ufed in their gunpowder works, &c. 
 from the rubbilh or old mortar of buildings, and the 
 plaifter with which their houfes abound. In fa ft, the 
 mortar of old walls with us, if moiftened with urine, and 
 expofed to the air in a proper fituation, that is, open to 
 the north-eaft, and covered over to defend it from wet, 
 never fails to afford nitre after a few weeks, and that 
 often in no lefs a proportion than that of one tenth of 
 the weight of the ingredients: finally, Hoffman affirms, 
 that it may at any time be extrafted from the air, by ex- 
 pofing an alcaline fait to it in a proper fituation, covered 
 over-head from rains and dews. 
 
 There is no queftion but a manufafture of nitre might 
 be eftablilhed in England, to as much advantage as that 
 of France ; though, in the hands in which fuch attempts 
 have hitherto been, they have not fucceeded. The place 
 where the materials are expofed, is a thing to be carefully 
 examined : it mull be moderate as to the great points of 
 moifture and drynefs ; if there be too much moifture, the 
 oitre which is already formed will be walked away; and 
 on the other hand, without fome moifture, the faltswill 
 hardly be formed at all. Heat and cold, unlefs exceffive, 
 are of no ufe. It is in confequcnce of the requifitenefs of 
 fo certain a degree of moifture to the materials from which 
 nitre is to be obtained, that the north-eaft winds are of 
 fo much ufe in the production of it; in fpring and au¬ 
 tumn, which are the feafons when this fait is principally 
 made, thefe two winds are neither too moift nor too dry, 
 efpecially in the night; the fouth and wefterly winds are 
 deftruftive, becaufc of the ftorms and fhowers they almoft 
 continually bring with them. 
 
 The earths, from which nitre is procured in greateft 
 abundance, are found principally in Perfia, in China, 
 •in the E. Indies, and in Mufcovy ; not that other parts 
 of the world are without them, but in many they are dif- 
 regarded. This earth affords along with the nitre but a 
 linall quantity of fea fait, though there is always fome of 
 this with the other. The rubbilh and earths we boil for 
 it in Europe always afford a very large quantity of it; but 
 they find ways of feparating a great deal of it, before they 
 begin to fhoot the nitre. When the lixivium of the 
 nitrous earth has been boiled to a certain degree, they 
 run it into proper vefiels, in which the fea fait Ihoots 
 into cubick grains at the bottom, before the nitre begins 
 to form its cryftals ; they then drain off the liquor thus 
 freed from a great part of this extraneous fait into other 
 veffels, in which it is left to ffioot for the nitre in a cold 
 place. When they have feparated all the cryftals that 
 are there found, they evaporate the liquor further and 
 thence obtain more : at length they find a large quantity 
 
N i T 
 
 of an extremely acrid and bitter liquor, fat and oily to the 
 touch, which will afford no more cryftals ; and this they 
 call the mother water of falt-petre, becaufe, by fprink- 
 ling it on other earths, they find it difpoles them for the 
 production of more nitre. The cryftals of nitre thus 
 produced are far from the neceffary purity, they require 
 to be diffolved and re-cryftalized two or three times to 
 bring them to the requifite perfection; after which the 
 French often melt them over the fire as they do our 
 Eliglifh alum, and, when a good part of the water is 
 evaporated, they caft the whole into calks. This is what 
 the French authors call rock or roach nitre. 
 
 Nitre promotes very much the fufion of gold or filver, 
 and is of no ill confequence in the working thole metals; 
 but as the fulpliurs ol the other metals are not lb inti¬ 
 mately blended with their earths, as they are in thefe, it 
 combines itlelf with them in the heating, and caufes a 
 detonation, by this means carrying off a very confiderable 
 portion of that fulphur which was neceffary to them as 
 metals, and, in confequence of that, robbing them of 
 that metalline form, and reducing them to a fort of 
 calxes much more difficult of fufion than before. This 
 is eafily experienced by throwing a mixture of equal parts 
 of nitre, and of copper, iron, lead, or tin, into a red-hot 
 crucible. Salt-petre is therefore to be very carefully 
 avoided in all thefe proceffes, unlefs firft calcined itlelf, 
 and burnt to an alcaline fait. In the manufactures it is 
 of great ule; befides being the bafis of gunpow'der, it is 
 ufed in the making of white glafs, and is of the fame ufe 
 vyith common fait in the preferring of foods. In medi¬ 
 cine it is cooling and diuretick, good in burning fevers, 
 in w hich it is given with the feveral intentions of taking 
 ofFthe hear, quenching thirft, and refilling putrefaction. 
 Riverius Ipeaks of it as a diaphorctick, and many authors 
 celebrate it as an anodyne ; but thefe are intentions in 
 which it is at prelent lefs received. The ancients had 
 an opinion that the nitre was of a cauftick nature: the 
 latter writers, fuppofing ours the fame, have attributed 
 the lame virtues and the fame qualities to it, and, in 
 confequence of this error, have been inventing means of 
 taking off the caufticity, as they call it, of this fait, by- 
 burning it with fulphur, and a thou {and other ways : 
 but it is very certain, that purified nitre is better for'all 
 medicinal purpofes than any of thefe idle preparations of 
 it, when the fait is intended to be given on thofe occa- 
 fions where its own fimple nature is required. 
 
 Spirit of Nitre, Spiritus Nitri, inchymifrrv, is made 
 in the following manner : Dry eighteen ounces of puri¬ 
 fied nitre, and reduce it to an impalpable powder: put it 
 into a clean retort, and pour upon it fix ounces of pure 
 and highly rectified oil of vitriolj place the retort im¬ 
 mediately in a land furnace, and apply a large receiver, 
 luting the juncture with fome Windfor loam; let the 
 fire at firft be very gentle, the receiver will oevcrthelefs 
 be full of white fumes, and a led liquor will come over 
 in drops; increale the fire gradually till it riles to the 
 utmoft heat a fand furnace is capable of ; then, when no 
 more comes over, let all cool: have a bottle with a glafs 
 funnel ready in the mouth of it, and placed under a 
 chimney; pour the liquor out of the receiver into it, 
 avoiding the dangerous fumes, and {top it clofe up for 
 ufe. The receiver is to be (topped alfo, and referved for 
 the fame ufe another time. It will remain filled for many 
 weeks with a red vapour, continually fluctuating and in 
 motion. The fpirit in the bottle will appear of a gold 
 colour, and a red vapour will fill the fpace over it. This 
 liquor is the true and genuine fpirit of the nitre alone; 
 it contains nothing of the oil of vitriol that was ufed 
 in the making of it, and the remainder of the nitre which 
 did not come over in fumes, remains mixed with the acid 
 in form of a denfe, white, and natural fait, fomewhat 
 refembling the tartarum vitriolatum, and affording the 
 nitrum vitriolatum hereafter to be mentioned. There is 
 no method of feparatiiig a ftronger or purer fpirit of nitre 
 than this. Glauber was the inventor of this method, 
 and lie deferves for it the honour of being acknowledged 
 the inventor of one of the nobleft difcoveries that chy- 
 mifirry ever produced. 
 
 This fpirit is one the ftrongeft menftruums in chy- 
 miftry. It diffolves filver, and moft of the other metals 
 and femi-metals, and even Hones of all kinds, except 
 thole which have cryftals for their bafes ; as is’ the cafe 1 
 in our pebbles, and in the agates and onyx’s of other 
 
 N O C 
 
 countries; thefe are fafe from the cffeCls of all menftrua, 
 till the great defideratum. a folvant for cryftals, lliall be 
 found. Spirit of nitre does not touch gold: it gives a 
 power of dilfolving filver to many other acids which 
 before wanted it. as the fpirit or oil of vitriol and of 
 lulphur ; but it requires a mixture of fca-lalt to give it 
 this power upon gold ; with that mixture it becomes an 
 aqua regia. "I his fpirit is too corrofive to be given 
 internally in its own form, but it furnifhes us with a 
 very valuable medicine, under the name of a dulcified 
 fpirit of nitre. 
 
 Sweet spirit of Nitre, Spiritus Nitri Mis. Put 
 into a large glafs cucurbit a quart of highly readied fpirit: 
 of wine, and add to it, by a very little at a time, half a 
 pound of the ftrong fpirit of nitre before deferibed : when 
 the whole quantity of the fpirit of nitre is in, fit on a 
 head, and, placing a cucurbit in fand, diftil over the 
 liquor lo long as what runs from thettbfe of the head will 
 not ferment with an alcali. 
 
 The caution required in mixing thefe two liquors is 
 very great. There is lcarce any mixture capable of fuch 
 ill confequences; it emits a fuffocating vapour, and will 
 often burft the vefTcls by the heat and ebullition it raifes, 
 if done too haftily. There immediately arifes a fragrant 
 fmell on mixing the liquorS, and the vapour that is raifed 
 from them is almoft fiery. It is a very noble diuretick 
 and carminative; it is given in theftoneand gravel with 
 great fuccefs, and alfo in jaundices and dropfies. It is 
 of great fervice in reftoring the appetite, when depraved! 
 by a mucous phlegm. 11 alfo allays ’ thirft. The dole 
 is from 15 to 30 drops in wine and water. Prudently 
 ufed, it is excellent for cleaning the teeth, but, if made 
 too free with, it deftroys them. 
 
 fit violated N ITRE, Nitrum vitriol,Hum. Dilfolvc the- 
 mals left in the retort after the diftilJation of fpirit of 
 nitre, in the manner above deferibed, in about eight 
 times its weight of water. Filtrate the folution, and, 
 when pcrfeCt iy clear, evaporate the liquor to fuch a 
 itandard, that the fait will no longer be fuftained in it; 
 then let it in a cool place, and, as the fait lhoots, collect 
 it, and laying it in an earthen culinder to drain; when 
 well dried, referve it for ufe. It is of much the fame vir¬ 
 tues with the tartarum vitriolatum, and is frequently 
 fold under its name. 
 
 NOBILITY, a quality that ennobles, and raifes a 
 per fon pqfTefled of it above the rank of a commoner. The 
 origin of nobility in Europe is by fome referred to the 
 Goths; who, after they had feized a part of Europe, 
 rewarded their captains with titles of honour, to dil- 
 tinguifh them from the common people. In Britain the 
 term nobility is reftrained to degrees of dignity above 
 Knighthood; but every where elfe nobility and gentility 
 are the fame. The Britilh nobility confifts only of five 
 degrees, viz. that of a duke, marquis, earl or count, 
 viiccrant, and baron, each of which fee under their pro¬ 
 per articles. 
 
 NOBLE, Nobi/is, a perfon raifed above a commoner 
 orpeafant, either by birth, office, or patent. 
 
 Noble, denotes a money of account, equivalent to 
 fix fhilling and eight pence. Formerly this was a real 
 coin, anc! called rofe-noble. 
 
 NOC I AMBULI, Notlambuloncs, Sotnnambuli, fuch 
 perfonsas rife and walk about in their fleep. The dif- 
 order confifts in this, that the proper organs of mufcular 
 motion are at liberty, while thole deftined for fenfation 
 are bound up, or inactive. Certain ideas follow upon 
 certain motions of the fibres of the brain, and cer¬ 
 tain motions of thofe fibres upon certain ideas. Now 
 by much thinking on any one thing, the fibres acquire 
 fome permanent fituation, which gives a freer pafTao-e to 
 the fpirits, towards a certain part of the body, than or¬ 
 dinary. If then the animal fpirits become too copious, 
 too much agitated, or confift of parts too foil'd, they 
 throw themfelves into the paffages they find the moft 
 open, glide into the nerves and mufcles correfpondino- 
 to thefe paffages, and there produce the motions proper 
 to thole mufcles. The bilious, mdancholick, and fan- 
 gmne, are moft fubjeft to thofe nofturnal vagaries. 
 
 The remedies are all fuch things as temper the agita¬ 
 tion of the fpirits and relax the fibres, as bleeding °and 
 all coolers, either internally or externally exhibited : 
 aperitives too have a good effeft; but the belt remedy, 
 according to fome, is the cold bath. 
 
 NOCTI- 
 

NOE 
 
 NOCTILUCA, in natural hiftory, either denotes a 
 glow-worm, or fpecies of phofphorus, lo called, becanfe 
 it fhines in the night, without any light being thrown 
 thereon, Inch as that made of urine: lo that it Hands 
 contradiftinguifhed from the other fpecies, which muft 
 be expofed to the fun-beams, before itfhine. 
 
 NOCTURNAL, fomething relating to the night, 
 incontradiftin&ion to diurnal. 
 
 Nocturnal Arch, in aftronomy, the arch of a circle 
 deferibed by the fun, or ftar in the night. 
 
 Semi-N octurnal Arch of the Sun, that portion of a 
 circle he pafles over between the lower part of our meri¬ 
 dian and the point wherein lie lets, or the point of the 
 horizon wherein he rifes. 
 
 Nocturnal, Nottulabium, an inftrument chiefly 
 ufed at fea to take the altitude or depreffionof fome flats 
 about the pole, in order to find the latitude and hour of 
 the night. Some nocturnals are liemifpheres or plani- 
 fpheres on the plane of the equinoctial. Thole com¬ 
 monly in ule among leamen rvj two ; the one adapted 
 to the pole-flar, and the fir ft of the guards of the little 
 bear ; the other to the pole-ftar, and pointers of the 
 great bear. 
 
 Conjlruttion of the Nocturnal. This inftrument 
 confifts of two circular plates applied to each other. 
 The greater, which has a handle to hold the inftrument, 
 is about two and a half inches diameter, and is divided 
 into 12 parts, anfwering to the 12 months; and each 
 month fubdivided into every fifth day ; fo that the mid¬ 
 dle of the handle correfponds to that part of the year, 
 wherein the ltar here regarded has the fame right 
 afeenfion with the fun. In the centre of the two circular 
 plates is adjulted a long index, moveable upon the upper 
 plate; and the three pieces, viz. the two circles and the 
 index, are joined by a rivet which is pierced through 
 the centre, with a hole through which the-ftar is to be 
 pbferved. 
 
 UJe of the Nocturnal. Turn the upper plate till 
 the longcft tooth, marked 12, be againft the day of 
 the month on the under plate; then, bringing the in- 
 ftrumentnear the eye, fufpend it by the handle, with the 
 plane nearly parallel to the equinodtial, and, viewing 
 the pole-ftar through the hole of the centre, turn the 
 index about, till, by the fiducial edge, you fee the bright 
 ftar or guard of the little bear (if the inftrument be made 
 for that ftar:) their that tooth of the upper circle, under 
 the edge of the index, gives the hour of the night on the 
 hour circle. 
 
 NODATED Hyperbola, a kind of hyperbola, 
 which, in turning round, decuflates or crofles itfelf. 
 
 NODE, Nodus, Exoftofis, iir furgery, a difeafe or 
 tumour in the bones, ufually arifing from fome venereal 
 caufe. To fuch tumours are frequently applied leaden 
 plates covered with mercury, as all'o other mercurial 
 preparations are ufed to refolve them. 
 
 Node, or Tophus, more particularly denotes protu¬ 
 berances arifing on the joints of old gouty perfons. 
 
 NODES, in aftronomy, the two points where the 
 orbit of a planet interfedts the ecliptick. Such are the 
 two points C and D (plate LXI.yig. 3.) whereof the 
 node C, where the planet afeends northward above the 
 plane of the ecliptick, is called theafeending node, or the 
 dragon’s head, and is marked thus S 3 . The other node, 
 D, where the planet defeends to the fouth, is called the 
 defeending node, or the dragon’s tail, marked thus S3. 
 And the right line, DC, is called the line of the nodes. 
 
 NODOSA, in furgery, denotes a kind of future, as 
 alfo various bandages. 
 
 NODULUS, Nodule, in pharmacy, a knot tied 
 on a bag, containing fome medicinal ingredients, with 
 which the liquor this nodulus is fufpended in, is to be 
 impregnated. It alfo denotes the bag itfelf. 
 
 NODUS, Node, in dialling, a hole in the gnomon 
 of a dial, in a deling, window, he. by the light of 
 which, either the hour of the drfy in dials without furni¬ 
 ture, or the parallels of the fun’s declination, and his place 
 in the ecliptick, he. in thole with furniture, are fhewn. 
 
 NOETIANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian hereticks 
 in the third century, followers of Noetius, aphilofopher 
 of Ephefus, who pretended that he was another Moles, 
 fent by God ; and that his brother was a new Aaron: 
 his hereby conliltcd in affirming that there was but one 
 perfon in the godhead; and that the Word and the holy 
 Vol. I{. No. 52. 
 
 N O N 
 
 Spirit were but external denominations given to God, ifl 
 confequence of different operations ; that as creator, he 
 is called Father; as incarnate, Son; and as defeending 
 on the apoflles, holy Ghoft, 
 
 NOLI me tangere, Touch me not, in medicine, 
 a malignant eruption in the face, occalioned bv an ex¬ 
 tremely fharp corrofive humour ; thus called, either be- 
 caufe it affeCts thofewho touch it, or becaufe the more it 
 is touched, the worfe it grows, and the further it fpreads- 
 
 NOMADES, in antiquity, a name given to feveral 
 nations or people, whole whole occupation was to feed 
 their flocks, and who had no lixed place of abode, but 
 were conftantly ihifting, according to the conveniencies 
 of pafturage. 
 
 NOMANCY, a name given to the art of divining 
 the fates of perfons, by means of the letters that form 
 their names ; being nothing elfe but the cabbaliftick 
 gematria. 
 
 NQMBRIL Point, in heraldry, is the next below 
 the fefs point or the very centre of the efcutcheon. Sea 
 the article Point. 
 
 NOME, or Name, in algebra, denotes any quantity 
 with align prefixed or added to it, whereby it is con¬ 
 nected with fome other quantity, upon which the whole 
 becomes a binomial, trinomial, or the like : thus a + b 
 is a binomial, a + b + c is a trinomial, whofe refpeftive 
 names or nomes are a and b for the firft, and a, b, andr, 
 for the fecond. See the article Binomial, he. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE, Nomenclaturei, a catalogue of 
 leveral of the more tifual words in any language, with, 
 their fignifications, compiled in order to facilitate the uf« 
 of fuch words to thole who arc to learn the tongue :: fuch 
 are our Latin. Greek, French, he. nomenclatures. 
 
 NOMINALISTS, Nominals, a feCt of fchool- 
 philofophers, followers of Ocham, an Englifh cordelier, 
 in the fourteenth century, fo called, in opposition to the 
 realilts, as maintaining that words, not things, were the 
 objeCt of dialeCHcks. They founded the univerfity of 
 Leipfick, and they, with the ftoicks, admit the formal 
 ideas of things, as the foundation of univerfality ; but 
 to this they add names, which lignify, without any dif- 
 tmetion, a great variety of Angle things alike in genus 
 and fpecies. 
 
 NOMINATION, Nominal io, the appointing a per¬ 
 fon to fome function or benefice. In common law,, 
 there is a difference between nomination and pre- 
 fentation ; the former being a power which a man has by 
 virtue of a manor, he. to name a clerk to a patron of a 
 benefice, to be by him prefented to the ordinary. 
 
 NOMINATIVE, in grammar, the firft cafe of de¬ 
 clinable nouns, being properly the ground whence the 
 other cafes in the learned languages, he. are to be formed 
 by the leveral inflexions given to this firft termination. It 
 is placed before all verbs, as the fubjeCt of the af¬ 
 firmation or propofition, as, Petrus negavit Dominum, 
 Peter denied the Lord, &c. 
 
 NONAGE, in law, an incapacity of doing fom« 
 things for want of proper age. 
 
 In matters of inheritance, a man is in his nonage till 
 2t years of age; and for marriage, till 14, he. 
 
 NON AGESIMAL,in aftronomy, the nineteenth de¬ 
 gree of the ecliptick reckoned from its eaftern point. The 
 altitude of the nonagefimal is equal to the angle of the 
 caft; and, if continued, pafles through the poles of the 
 ecliptick. Hence the altitude of the nonagefimal, at a 
 given time, under a given elevation of the pole, is ealily 
 found. If the altitude of the nonagefimal be fubtraCted 
 from 90°, the remainder is the diftance of the nonage¬ 
 fimal from the vertex. 
 
 NON ABILITY, in law, incapacity, or an excep¬ 
 tion taken againft a plaintiff in a caufe, on fome juft 
 ground why he cannot commence a fuit inlaw; as his 
 being attainted of felony, outlawry, he. 
 
 N ON APPEARANCE, a default in not appearing in 
 a court of judicature. Attornies fubferibing warrants for 
 appearing in court, are liable to attachment and fine for 
 non-appearance. If a defendant does not appear, and 
 find bail upon a feire facias and rule given, judgment 
 may be had againft him. 
 
 NONCOMPOS Mentis , in law, is ufed to denote a 
 perfon’s not being of found memory and underftandin°Y 
 Ofthefe perfons there are four different kinds, an ideot, 
 a madman, a lunatick who has lucid intervals, and a 
 
 ^ P drunkard 
 
NOT 
 
 drunkard who deprives himfelf of reafon by his own aft 
 and deed. In all thefe cafes, except the laft, one that is ! 
 non compos mentis fhall not lofe his life for felony or 
 murder; but the drunkard can have no indulgence on, 
 account of the lofs of his reafon, for, in the eye of the 
 law, his drunkennefs does not extenuate but aggravate 
 his offence. 
 
 NON-NATURALS, in medicine, fo called becaufe 
 by their abule they become the caules of difeafes. See 
 DI SEASE. 
 
 Phyficians have divided tl»e non-naturals into fix 
 claffes, viz. the air, meats and drinks, deep and watch¬ 
 ing, motion and reft, the paflions of the mind, the 
 retentions and excretions, 6cc. which fee. 
 
 NON-RESIDENCE is particularly applied to fpiri- 
 tual perfons, who wilfully ablcnt themfelves for thefpace 
 of one month together, or two months at different times 
 in the year, from their benefices; for which they are 
 liable to penalties, by the flatute of non-rcfidence : but 
 bifhops, the king’s chaplains, &c. are excepted. 
 
 N ON-SUIT, fignifies the dropping of a fuit or aftion, 
 or a renouncing thereof by the plaintiff or defendant, 
 which happens mod commonly upon the difeovery of 
 fome error in the plaintiff’s proceedings, when the cattle 
 is fo far proceeded in, that the jury is ready at the bar 
 to deliver in their verdict. 
 
 A non-fuit, it is laid, may be in the following cafes, 
 viz. where a perfon brings a perfonal aft km, and does 
 not profccute it with effect; or if, upon the trial, he 
 re.fufes to ftand a verdift, then he becomes non-fuited ; 
 lb where the plaintiff is not ready fortiial at the calling 
 and fwearing ol the jury, it is prefumed he does not 
 Hand to proceed in his caufe, and on that account the 
 court may call him non-fuited. Likewife, on a trial, 
 when the jury comes in to deliver their verdift, and 
 when the plaintiff is called on to hear the fame, in that 
 caie, if he does not appear after being thrice called bv 
 the crier of the court, he is non-fuited ; which non-fuit 
 is to he recorded by the fecondary, bv the direction of 
 the court: but if he afterwards appears, before the non- 
 fuit is aftually recorded, the court may take the verdift, 
 for that is not a non-fuit. till it he recorded, upon mo¬ 
 tion made by the counfel for this purpofe ; and then it 
 is a part of the record, in the nature of a judgment 
 againft the plaintiff. 
 
 NONE, one of the feven canonical hours in the Ro- 
 milh church, anlwering to three o’clock in the afternoon. 
 
 Nones, Nona, in the Roman calendar, the fifth dav 
 of the months January, February, April, June, Augufl, 
 September, November, and December; and the feventh 
 of March, July, and Oftobcr. March, May, July, and 
 October, liad fix days in their nones ; becaufe thefe 
 alone, in the ancient conftitntion of the year by Numa, 
 had 31 days a-piece, the relt having only 29, and Fe¬ 
 bruary 30 ; but when Cad'ar reformed the year, and 
 made other months contain 31 days, he did not allot 
 them fix days of nones. 
 
 NORMAL-Line, in geometry, is ufed for a per¬ 
 pendicular line, drawn to a tangent of a curve from the 
 point of contaft, and intercepted by the axis thereof. 
 See Perpendicular, and Subnormal. 
 
 NORROY, the title of the third of the three kings 
 at arms. 
 
 NORTH, in cofmography, one of the foitr cardinal 
 points. See Compass. 
 
 NORTHING, in navigation, the latitude made bv 
 a fhip, in failing towards the north-pole. 
 
 NOTARY, Notarius , primarily denotes one who 
 takes fhort draughts or minutes of contrafts or other in- 
 ftruments ; particularly an officer who takes notes of ob¬ 
 ligations, Sec. executed before him, and delivers outa u- 
 thentick copies thereof. Notaries are now little known 
 among us, except in mercantile affairs, though in France, 
 Scotland, See. they ftill fubfift in their legal capacity. 
 The notaries of the chatelet are called the king’s coun- 
 fallors and note-keepers. 
 
 Notary Publick, in commerce, a perfon among us 
 who draws and publickly attefts deeds, charter-parties, 
 or writings between merchants, to make them authentick 
 in other countries. In their books are regillered protefts, 
 remon (trances, See. 
 
 NOTATION, Notatio , is that part of arithmctick 
 which explains the method of writing down, bv cha- 
 
 N O V 
 
 rafters or fymbols, any number expreffed in words ; as 
 alio the way of reading or exprefling, in words, any 
 number given in cliarafters or fymbols. But the firft of 
 thefe is properly notation, and the laft is more ufually 
 called numeration. 
 
 Not ati on. in algebra, thereprefentingquantities by 
 letters of the alphabet, or calling them bv thofe names. 
 
 NO IE, Nota , denotes a charafter or abbreviature, 
 ferving to exprefs fomething in a little compals. 
 
 NOTES, in mufick, are charaftcrs which mark the 
 tones, that is, the riling or falling of the voice and 
 found, and the fwiftnefs or flownefs of its motions. See 
 Characters in Mufick. 
 
 Note, fignifies a mark made in a book, Sec. where 
 fomething remarkable occurs, as alfo an explication of 
 fome paflage in an author, fubjoined thereto ; in which 
 fenfe note Hands contradiftihguiflied from text. 
 
 Note, is alfo a minute containing fome article of 
 bufinefs, as a promillorv note, Nc. 
 
 To Note a Bill, when-a publick notary goes as a wit- 
 nefs that a merchant will not accept or pay it. 
 
 Note of a Fine, a brief made thereof by the clurogra- 
 pher before it be engroffed. 
 
 NOTHijE Costje, in anatomy, the fpurious ribs. 
 See Ribs. 
 
 NOTHUS, properly denotes a perfon of fpurious 
 birth ; hence, it is figuratively applied, in phyiick, to 
 difeafes, Which, though of the fame denomination with 
 fome others in refpeft of a fimilitude of fvmptoms, Sec. 
 are of a different origin, or feat, from them. 
 
 NO I ION, A 'otio, in logick, an idea of any thing in 
 the mind. 
 
 N OTITIA, Notice, fomething that has fallen under a 
 peifon’s knowledge or obfervation : hence notification, 
 the aftion of giving notice. It is alfo the title of certain 
 books, in order to give a particular knowledge of the 
 places, roads, Sec. of a province, kingdom, Sec. Such 
 is the Notitia imperii, M. Valois’s Notitia Galliarum, 
 the Notitia dignitatum imperii, both eaftern and weft- 
 tern, &c. 
 
 NOTORIOUS, fomething known and publick. 
 
 NOVALE, in our ancient cuftoms, land newly 
 ploughed which had not been tilled within the memory 
 of man before. It alfo denotes fallow land, that is, 
 land which has been ploughed for two years, and refts 
 one more, or that lies fallow every other year. 
 
 NOVA I ION, Innovation, in the civil law,- a change 
 or alteration of an obligation, whereby it becomes ex- 
 tinguifhed. There are two kinds; the one voluntary, 
 the other neceffary and conftrained. 
 
 Voluntary Novation, when there is a will to inno¬ 
 vate ; and this is done three ways, namely, by changing 
 the caufe of the obligation, without the intervention of 
 any other perfon; by changing the nature of the obliga¬ 
 tion ; and by delegation, as when a debtor makes over 
 a debt to a creditor for his fatisfaftron. 
 
 Neceffary Novation, that made in confcquence of a 
 fentence or decree of juftice. 
 
 NOV ATI AN'S, aChriftian feft which fprang up in 
 the third century, fo called from Novatian, a prieft of 
 Rome, or Novatus, an African billiop, who feparafed 
 from pope Cornelius, whom Novatian charged with a 
 criminal lenity towards thofe who had apoftatized during 
 the pcrfecution of Decius. He denied the church's 
 power of remitting mortal fins, upon the offender’s re¬ 
 pentance ; and at laft went fo far as to deny that the 
 apoftles could ever hope for pardon even from God 
 himfelf. 
 
 NOVEL, Novella, in jurifprudence, denotes the con- 
 ftitutions of feveral emperors, particularly Juftinian’s, 
 moll of whole novels were originally Greek, and after¬ 
 wards tranflated into Latin. They were called novel, 
 as being made on new cafes not yet confidered. 
 
 Novel Alignment, in an aftion of trefpafs, an aflign- 
 ment' of time, place, See. in a declaration, otherwife, or 
 more particularly than it was in the writ. 
 
 NOVEMBER, the ninth month of the year, reckon¬ 
 ing from March ; and hence comes its name. 
 
 NOVEMSII.F.S, in mythology, the gods of the Sa¬ 
 bines, adopted by Romulus, and a temple built to them, 
 i'n confequence of a vow made by king Tatitis. 
 
 NOVEMVIRI, in antiquity, the chiefmagiftrates at 
 Athens, being nine in number . their head was called 
 • iYrchon; 
 
N U M 
 
 Archon, wliofe name was recorded in the Athenian feafls, 
 as that of the conl'ul at Rome. 
 
 NOVENDIAL A 'ovendiale, in antiquity, a folemn 
 facrifice among the Romans, when any prodigies ap¬ 
 peared to menace them with ill fortune. 
 
 NOVICE, any perfon unexperienced in an art or 
 profeffion. In the Roman armies, Novitii were the 
 young raw foldiers, contradiflinguilhed from the ve¬ 
 terans. 
 
 NOUN, Nomen , in grammar, a name or word ex¬ 
 prefling the thing fpoken of, as king, queen, prince, Ac. 
 JBefides the particular name which each perfon bears, he 
 gives himfeif another when he I'peaks ofhimfelf, as 1 
 or myfelf; the former are called nouns, and the latter 
 pronouns. 
 
 Nouns are again divided into nouns fubflantive, and 
 nouns adjeftive. They are called fubftantives when the 
 objects they exprefs are confidered limply in themfelves, 
 as foul, Ac. and adjeftiv'es, when their objcCts are confi- 
 dcred as clothed with any qualities, as a vicious foul, Ac. 
 
 Nouns are alfo divided into proper and appellative ; 
 Nouns proper are thole which exprefs a particular thing 
 or perfon, lo as to diflinguilh it from all others of the 
 lame kind, as Ariftotle, Ac. Nouns appellative, are 
 thofe common to feveral individuals of the fame kind, 
 as man, beafl, filh, Ac. 
 
 Heterogeneous Nouns, fuch nouns as are of one. gender 
 in the lingular number, and of another in the plural. 
 
 NOW E, Now ed, knotted, in heraldry, the tails of 
 fuch animals as are very long, and represented in a coat 
 as if tied up in a knot. 
 
 NUBECULA, a little cloud, in medicine, denotes 
 either a kind of pendulous cloud or lediment floating in 
 the middle of the urine, and called enaeorema, or a dif- 
 order in the eye, the lame with albugo. 
 
 NUCHA, the back or nape of the neck, properly 
 the region upon the flrll vertebra of the back. 
 
 NUCIFEROUS, in botany, is applied to fuch trees 
 as bear nuts. 
 
 NUCKIANAE Glan nui,.r, in anatomy, a number 
 of fmall glands between the abducent mulcle of the eye 
 and the upper part of the os jugale, fo called from the 
 inventor, Ant. Nuck, pTofeffor of phylick at Leyden. 
 The fame author gave his name to a falival duCt, duClus 
 N uckianus. 
 
 NUCLEUS, literally denotes the kernel of a nut or 
 Rone fruit, or more generally anv Iced contained within 
 a hulk. 
 
 Nucleus, accbrding to foine aRronomcrs, denotes 
 the body or head of a comet, in contradiflinClion to its 
 beard or tail. 
 
 Nucleus, in architecture, the middle part of the 
 flooring among the ancients, confifting of a llrong cement 
 over which the pavement was laid bound with mortar. 
 
 NUDITIES, in painting and lculpture, the parts of 
 a human figure not covered with drapery. 
 
 N U LL 1 TY, the quality of a thing whereby it is void 
 and ot no eftcCl, bccaufe offomctlung Contrary to law, 
 cufloni, or form. There are two kinds of nullities, de 
 fa&o, and de jura?; the former where the thing be¬ 
 comes null ipl'o faCto, as loon as it is proved ; in the 
 latter the aCt does not immediately become null, but oc- 
 caiion is thereby giveit to have it entirely let alide. 
 
 NUMBER, Numems , in arithmetick, an aflemblage 
 of feveral units, or things of the fame kind. 
 
 Stevinus defines number as that by which the quantity 
 of any thing is exp relied ; agreeably to which Sir tfaac 
 Newton conceives number to confltl in the abflraCt ratio 
 of a quantity of any kind to another quantity of the fame 
 kind which is accounted as unity : and on this view he 
 divides number into integers, fractions, and furds, 
 
 Wolflus defines number to be lbmething which refers 
 to unity, as one right line refers to another. Thus af- 
 fu riling a right line for unity, a number may likewile be 
 expreiled by a right line. A lels general definition will 
 not, he thinks, comprehend the feveral kinds of whole 
 numbers, fractions, rational's, and furds. Mathemati¬ 
 cian's, confldering number under a great many relations, 
 make many kinds. 
 
 A determinate N u m hfr, is that referred to fome given 
 unit, as a ternary or three. 
 
 Indeterminate Number, is that referred to unity in 
 the general, and is what is called quantity. 
 
 N U M 
 
 Homo gene al N umbers, are thofe referred to the fame 
 unit. 
 
 HeUrogeneal Numbers, thofe referred to different 
 units. 
 
 IVholc Numbers, natural Numbers , or Integers, are all 
 the various aflcmblagcs of unitv or, according to Wol- 
 lius, all thole, which, in the manner of exprefling, refer 
 to unity, as a whole docs to a part. 
 
 Broken Numbers, or / ractions, arc thofe confifling 
 ot feveral parts of unity, or thofe which refer to unity, 
 as a part to the whole. 
 
 Rational X u mee r. is that commcnfurahle with unity. 
 Rational whole number, is that whereof unity is an 
 aliquot part. Rational broken number, that equal to 
 lome aliquot part of unity. Rational mixed number, 
 that conlilling of a whole number and a broken one. 
 
 irrational N umber, or Surd, a number incommen- 
 Enable with unity. 
 
 Lven Number, that which may be divided into two 
 equal parts without any fraction, as 6, 12, Ac. The 
 lum, difference, and produCt of any number of even 
 numbers, is always an even number. 
 
 An evenly even Number, is that which may be mea- 
 lured, or divided, without any remainder, by another 
 even number, as 4 by 2. 
 
 An unevenly even Number, when a number may be 
 equally divided by an uneven number, as 20 by 5. 
 
 Uneven Number, that which exceeds an even num¬ 
 ber, at leafl by unity, or which cannot be divided into 
 tvyo equal parts, as 3, 5, Ac. 1 he lum or difference 
 of two uneven numbers makes an even number; but the 
 faCtum of two uneven ones makes an uneven number. 
 It an even number be added to an uneven one, or if the 
 one be fubtraCted from the other, in the former cafe the 
 lum, in the latter the difference, is an uneven number; 
 but the faCtum of an even and uneven number is even. 
 
 1 he fum of any even number of uneven numbers is an 
 even number, and the lum ot any uneven number of 
 uneven numbers is an uneven number. 
 
 Primitive, or prime N u aiders, are thofe only divifibk: 
 by unity, as 5, 7, Ac- And prime numbers among 
 themfelves, are thole which have no common mealure 
 belides unity, as 12 and 19, 
 
 Cbnipound Number, is that diviliblc bv forae other 
 number befides unity, as 8, which is diviiible bv 4 and 
 2. Compound numbers, among ihemfelvis, are thofe 
 which have lome common meafure befides unitv, as 12. 
 and 15. 
 
 Per] eft Number, that, whole aliquot parts, added 
 together, make the whole number, as 6, 2S ; the aliquot 
 parts of 6 being 3, 2, and 1=6 ; and thofe of 28, beiiw 
 r 4» 1 1 4’ -j L — 2 b. 
 
 imperfect N umbers, thofe wliofe aliquot parts, added 
 together, make either more or lei's than the whole. And 
 thele are diflihguilhed into abundant and defective; an 
 inflancein the former cafe is 12, whole aliquot parts, 6, 
 4, 3, 2, 1, make 16; and in the latter calc 16, whole 
 aliquot parts, 8, 4, 2, and 1, make but 13, 
 
 Plain Number, thatariling from the multiplication 
 of two numbers, as 6, which is the produCt of 3 
 by 2 ; and thele numbers are called the lides of the 
 plane'. 
 
 Square N u mb E r, is the produCt of any number mul¬ 
 tiplied by itlelf; thus 4, which is the faCtum of 2 by 2, 
 is a fquare number. Every Iquare number added to its 
 root makes an even number. 
 
 Cubicle N umber, is the produCt of a iquare number 
 multiplied by its root, as"S is the produCt of the Iquare 
 number 4, multiplied by its root 2. 
 
 All cubick numbers whole root is lefs than 6, as 8, 
 27, 64, 125, being divided' by 6, the remainder is tile- 
 root itlelf. 216, the cube of 6, being divided bv 6, 
 leaves no remainder; 343, the cube of 7, leaves a re¬ 
 mainder 1, which, added to 6, is the cube root of 343 ; 
 and 512, the cube of 8, divided by 6, leaves 2, which, 
 added to 6, is the cube root. 80.that the remainders of 
 the diviflons of the cubes above 216, divided by 6, being, 
 added to 6, always give the root of the cube div ided, till 
 that remainder be 5, and confequentlv 11 the cube root 
 of tue number divided. But, the cubick number above 
 this being divided by 6, there remains nothing, the cube 
 root being 12. Thus the remainder of the higher cubes 
 are to be added to 12, and not to 6, afid, coming- to the' 
 
 cube 
 
N U M 
 
 Cube of 18, the remainder of the divifion muft be added 
 thereto, and not to 6. And fo in infinitum. 
 
 M. De la Hire, confidering this property of 6, with 
 regard to cubick numbers, found that all other numbers, 
 railed to any power whatever, had each their divifor, 
 which had the fame eflfedt with regard to them, as 6 has 
 to cubes. And the general ruLe is this, if the exponent 
 of the power of a number be even, that is, if it be railed 
 to the 4 lh , 6 th , Ac. power, it mull be divided by i, 
 and the remainder, if any, added to 2, or to a multiple 
 of 2, gives the root of the number correfponding to its 
 power. But it the exponent of the power of the number 
 be uneven, namely, the 3 d , 5 th , 7 th , 6cc. power, the duple 
 of that exponent will be the divifor. 
 
 Polygons Numbers , the fums of arithmetical pro- 
 gteffions beginning with unity : thele, where the com¬ 
 mon difference is 1, arc called triangular numbers ; 
 where 2, fquare numbers; where 3, pentagonal num¬ 
 bers ; where 4, hexagonal numbers; where 5, heptago- 
 lial numbers. 
 
 Pyramidal Numbers, the fums of polygonous num¬ 
 bers, collected after the fame manner as the polygons 
 thcmfeh'es, are not gathered out of arithmetical pro- 
 greflions, are called fir ft pyramidal numbers : the fums 
 of the firft pyramidals are called fecond pyramidals, Ac. 
 If they arife out of triangular numbers, they are called 
 tiiangular pyramidal numbers ; if out of pentagons, firft 
 pentagonal pyramidals. 
 
 Cardinal N u mber s, are thofe which exprefs the quan¬ 
 tity of units, as r, 2, 3, Ac. 
 
 Ordinal Numbers, thofe which exprefs their order, 
 as the 1 st , 2 d , 3 d , Ac. 
 
 Golden N u M B E R. See Cycle of the Moon . 
 
 Number, in grammar, is a modification of nouns, 
 verbs, Ac. to accommodate them to the varieties in their 
 obje&s, with regard to number. 
 
 When a noun denotes an object confidcred as fingly 
 or alone, or a number of them confidered as united 
 together, it is laid to be of the lingular number, as 
 a tree, a troop, Ac. When it indicates feveral ob¬ 
 jects, and thofe as diftindt, it is of the plural number, 
 as trees, Ac. 
 
 The Greeks have a 3 d number, which they call the 
 dual number, as fignifying two. The Hebrews have 
 fomething like it, when the words fignify a thing double, 
 either by nature, as the hands, Ac. or by art, as tongs, 
 Ac. Common and appellative names feem all naturally 
 to require a plural number; yet there are feveral which 
 have none, as gold, filver, Ac. 
 
 The difference of numbers in nouns is exprefled by a 
 difference of termination ; and in Engfifh the lingular is 
 ufually converted into the plural by adding s: where the 
 lingular ends in s, x, jh , or ch , it is ufually done by the 
 addition of es in (lead of s. 
 
 In Englifh the plurals of adjettives, though varied 
 from the iingulars in molt other languages, are generally 
 the fame. 
 
 N umbers, in poetry, oratory, mufick, Ac. are certain 
 meafures, proportions, or cadences, which render a verfe, 
 period, or fong, agreeable to the ear. 
 
 Poetical N umbers confift in a certain harmony, as to 
 the order, quantity, Ac. of the feet and fyllables , which 
 make the piece mufical to the ear, and fit for finging ; 
 for which all the verfes of the ancients were intended. 
 The numbers are what conftitute the air and character 
 of a verfe, and hence it is denominated finooth or loft, 
 low, rough, or fonorous. 
 
 Rhetorical, or profaick Numbers, are a fort of fimple, 
 unaffedled harmony, lefs glaring than that of verfe, yet 
 fuch as affetfts the mind with pleafure. 
 
 Numbers are abfolutely neceffary in all writing, and 
 even all fpeech. Hence Ariftotle, d ully, Quintilian, 
 Ac. lay down abundance of rules, as to the beft manner 
 of intermixing da£tyls, fpondees, anapefts, iambus’s, Ac. 
 in order to have the numbers perfect. 
 
 The ftyle, fay they, becomes numerous by the alter¬ 
 nate difpofition and* temperature of long and fhorfrfyl¬ 
 lables ; thusTully toCaffar, Domuifti gcutes immani- 
 tate barbaras, multitudine innumerabiles, locis infinitas, 
 omni copiarum genere abundantes, Ac. Sometimes 
 indeed long or fhort fyllables are defignedly thrown toge¬ 
 ther without any fuch mixture, to paint the celerity or 
 ftownefs of a thing by that of the numbers, as, 
 
 NUN 
 
 Qaadrupedante putrem fonitu quatit ungula campunn. 
 
 tEn. 1. 8. 
 
 The ftyle becomes numerous by the intermixing words 
 of one, two, and more fyllables: whereas the too frequent 
 repetition of monofyllables renders the ft vie pitiful and 
 grating. 
 
 It contributes greatly to the numeroufnefs of a period 
 to have it doled by magnificent and well founding words ; 
 and not only fo, but in the whole tenour of the period. 
 
 To have the period flow eafily and equally, the harlh 
 concurrence of letters and words is to be ftudioufly 
 avoided, particularly the frequent meeting of rough co li¬ 
 ftman ts. 
 
 Laftly, the utmoft care is to he taken, left, in aiming 
 at oratorial numbers, you fall into poetical ones, which 
 even Cicero himfelf is fometimes guilty of, as, Cum 
 loquitur, tanti fletus gemitufque fiebant. 
 
 N UMERAL Letters, thole letters of the alphabet 
 which are generally ufed for figures, as I, V, X: L, 
 C, D, M. 
 
 NUMERALS, in grammar, fuch words as exprefs 
 numbers, as fix, eight, ten, Ac. 
 
 NUMERATION, AW ratio , in aritlimetick, the 
 art of eftimating or pronouncing any number. 
 
 The chara&ers whereby numbers are ordinarily ex- 
 prefied are the nine following, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 That thefe nine numerical notes may exprefs not only 
 units, but alib tens, hundreds, thoufands, Ac. they have 
 a local value given them; fo that when either alone, or 
 when placed in the right-hand place, they denote units; 
 m the fecond place, tens; in the third, hundreds; in the 
 fourth, thoufands. To exprefs any number, it is to be 
 divided by commas into dalles, allowing three chara&ers 
 for each, and beginning at the right-hand. Over the 
 right-hand figure of the third clafs add a fmall mark, over 
 the right-hand figure of the fifth clafs add two marks, 
 over that of the feventh, three, Ac. The number to the 
 left of the firft comma exprefs by thoufands; that which 
 has over it the firft tranfverfe line exprefs by millions „ 
 that which has two by billions ; that with three hv 
 trillions, Ac. Laftly, the left-hand chara&er of each 
 clafs exprefs by hundreds ; the middle one by tens ; and 
 the right-hand one by units. For inftance, 2'" 345, 
 389", 210 762', 321 543, is thus read, two trillions* 
 three hundred and forty-five thoufand, three hundred 
 eighty-nine billions, two hundred and ten thoufand, 
 feven hundred and fixty-two millions, three hundred 
 and twenty-one thoufand, five hundred and forty-three. 
 
 NUMERATOR, in fra&ions, denotes how many 
 of thofe parts into which the integer is fuppofed to be 
 divided, are to be taken, and which is placed a-top of the 
 little bar, by which it is feparated from the under number, 
 called the denominator, which fhews into how many 
 parts the integer is divided, as or three tenths, Ac. 
 
 NUMERICAL, Numerous, Numeral, forne* 
 thing relating to numbers. 
 
 Numerical Algebra , that which makes ufe of num¬ 
 bers inftead of letters of the alphabet. 
 
 N u m erical Difference, the difference whereby one 
 individual is diftinguifhed from another. 
 
 NUMLRO, in commerce, Ac. a term prefixed to 
 any number of things. 
 
 NUMISMA 7 OGRAPHY, the defeription of an¬ 
 cient medals and coins. 
 
 NUMMUS, Nurnmui, in antiquity, a piece of money 
 among the Romans, otherwife called feftertius. 
 
 NUN, a female religious. 
 
 N U N N FRY, a monaftery of female religious. 
 
 NUNCIO, Nuntio, an ambaffador from the pope to 
 fomc catholick prince, or ftate ; being of the fame import 
 with ambaftador from other princes. An internuncio 
 denotes an ambaftador extraordinary from the pope. 
 The pope’s nuncio may delegate judges in all the ftates 
 where he rcfid.cs, except in France, where he is only a 
 fimple ambaftador. 
 
 , NUNCUPATIVE, in the fchools, exprefies fome¬ 
 thing that is only nominal. 
 
 Nuncupative Will, a laft will that is only made 
 verbally, and not put into writing. 
 
 NUNDINAL, A undinalis, in antiquity, denotes the 
 eight firft letters of the alphabet, which the Romans 
 uied in the calendar, namely. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 
 which ate repeated fucceflively from the firft to the laft 
 
 day 
 
 * 
 
NUT 
 
 day of the year. One of thefe always exprefled the 
 market-days, or aflemblies, called nundina?, or novem- 
 dinte, as returning every nine days ; when the country 
 people, after working eight days fucceffively, came to 
 town the ninth to fell their commodities, Ac. Thefe 
 nundinals bear a good deal of refemblance to the domi¬ 
 nical letters, which return every eighth day. 
 
 NUPER. obit, inlaw, a writ which lies for a co¬ 
 lic i refs, being deforced by her coparcerncr of lands or 
 tenements, whereof their common anccftor died feized 
 in fee Ample. If he died in fee tail, the coheirefs de¬ 
 forced fhall have aformedon. 
 
 NUPTIAL, fomething relating to marriage. 
 
 NURSERY, in gardening, a feminary for railing 
 young trees. Mr. Lawrence recommends the having 
 feveral nurferies for the fevcral kinds of trees. 
 
 The nurfery for ftandards fliould be in a rich light 
 foil, fown with proper feed in O&ober or November. 
 Crab ajid wild pear kernels are to be preferved for flocks 
 for apples and pears. Elms and limes are to be railed 
 from planted fuckers : walnuts arc to be fown with tlie 
 green lhcll on to preferve them from mice. If this 
 nurfery be well managed and weeded, for two years, the 
 plants will be fit for grafting and inoculating the third 
 year. Firs and pines are to be raifed from thofe little 
 iceds taken out of their apples. For apricots and peaches, 
 fovv the Hones of the pear-plumb, muflel, or bonum mag¬ 
 num plumb, which prove better and more lalling than 
 the Hones of apricots and peaches. The black cherry 
 Hones do the beft for all forts of cherries. 
 
 Mr. Mortimer directs all Hone fruit to be fown quickly 
 after gathering; for that, if they be kept, they will be 
 two years before they come up. And, if they have not 
 the winter moiflure to rot the fhells, the kernel will 
 l'carce come up at all. The feeds of yew, holly, juniper, 
 Ac. are to be put in fo many diflinCt pots, with fine 
 mould over them, and thus buried for a year ; after which 
 they are to be taken out and fown. 
 
 N USANCE, Nocumentum , in law, denotes not 
 only a thing done to the hurt of another, in his fee 
 lands or tenements, but likewife the writ lying for the 
 fame. 
 
 Nufances are either publick or private : a publick nu- 
 fance is an offence againfi the publick in general, either 
 by doing what tends to the annoyance of all the king’s 
 iubjeCts, or by negleCling to do what the common good 
 requires ; in which cafe all annoyances and injuries to 
 flreets, highways, bridges, and large rivers ; as all'o 
 diforderly ale-houfes, bawdy-houfes, gaming-houfes, 
 flages for rope-dancers, Ac. arc held to be common 
 nufances. A private nufance is when only one perfon 
 or family is annoyed, by the doing of any thing ; as 
 where a perfon flops up the light of- another’s houfe, or 
 builds in fuch a manner that the rain falls from his 
 houfe upon his neighbour’s ; as likewife the turning or 
 diverting water from running to a man’s houfe, mill, 
 meadow, Ac. Hopping up a way that leads from houfes 
 to lands ; luffering a houfe to decay, to the damage of 
 the next houle ; erecting a brew houfe in any place not 
 convenient; or an houfe of office, Ac. fo near another 
 perfon’s houfe as to offend him by its fmell. 
 
 IndiClment lies fora publick or common nufance at the 
 king’s fuit, whereon the party offending fhall be fined and 
 imprifoned ; but no aCtion can be brought in this cafe 
 except one man luffers more by a common nufance than 
 another; as where a pit is dug in the highway, and he 
 falls into it. ACtion on the cafe, or affife of nufance, 
 lies for any private nufance, at the fuit of the party ag¬ 
 grieved, and on fuch actions judgment is given that 
 the nufance fhall be removed, and the injuredrparty re¬ 
 cover damages ; but if a perfon has only a term of years 
 in a houle or lands, as he has no freehold therein, he can 
 only have an aCtion on the cafe, by which the nufance 
 will be removed without his recovering damages. 
 
 NUT, Nux, a fort of fruit inclofed in a hard fhell, 
 containing a kernel. Of thefe we have divers kinds. 
 
 NUTATION, in aflronomy, a kind of tremulous 
 motion-of the axis of the earth, whereby, in each annual 
 revolution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptick, and as 
 often returns to its former pofition. Sir Ifaac Newton, 
 in B. I. of his Principia, Ihews, that the moon has the 
 like motion, but he obferves, it is fcarce fenfible. 
 
 NUTMEG, Nux mo'chata , in natural hiflory, aker- 
 Vox. II. No. 52. 
 
 NUT 
 
 nel of a large nut, produced by a tree faid to refembje 
 the pear tree, growing in tlie^E. Indies. The outer 
 part of the fruit is a foft flefhy fubflance like that of the 
 walnut, which lpontaneoufly opens when ripe: under this 
 lies a red membrane called mace, forming a kind of reti¬ 
 cular covering through the fiffures of which is feen the 
 hard woody fhell that includes the nutmeg. Two forts 
 of this kernel are diflinguifhed ; one of an oblong figure, 
 called male; the other roundifh or of the fliape of an 
 olive, called female; this lafl is the officinal fpecies, be* 
 ing preferred to the other oil account of its flionger and 
 more agreeable flavour, and its being, as is faid, lels fub- 
 jeCt to become carious. The nutmegs are cured, afccord- 
 ing to Rumphius, by dipping them in a fomewhat thick 
 mixture of lime and water, that they may be every where 
 coated with the lime, which contributes to their prefer- 
 vation. The nutmeg is a moderately warm, grateful, 
 unCtuous fpice ; fuppofed to be particularly ul'eful in 
 weaknefs of appetite, and thenaufeae and vomitings ac¬ 
 companying pregnancy, and in fluxes; but liable, when 
 taken too freely, to fit very uneafy. on the ffomach, and, 
 as is faid, to affcCt the head. Roafled with a gentle heat, 
 till it becomes eafily friable, it proves lefs fubjeCt to thefe 
 inconveniences, and is fuppofed likewife to be more ufeful 
 in fluxes. 
 
 Nutmegs diHilled with water, yield nearly one fix- 
 teenth their weight of a limpid effential oil, very grate¬ 
 ful, poffeifing the flavour of the fpice in perfection, and 
 which is faid to havefome degree of an antifpalinodick or 
 hyphotick power : on the furface of the remaining decoc¬ 
 tion is found floating an unCtuous concrete matter like 
 tallow, of a white colour, nearly infipid, not eafily cor¬ 
 ruptible ; and hence recommended as a balls for odori¬ 
 ferous balfams : the dccoCtion, freed from this febaceous 
 matter, and infpilfated, leaves a weakly bitter fubaflrin- 
 gent extraCt. Rectified fpirit takes up, by maceration or 
 digeflion, the whole fmell and tafle of the nutmegs and 
 receives from them a deep bright yellow colour: "the fpi¬ 
 rit, drawn off by diflillation from the filtered tinCture is 
 very (lightly impregnated with their flavbur; greateff 
 part of the fpccifick fmell, as well as the aromatick 
 warmth, bitterifhnefs and fubaflringency of the fpice re¬ 
 maining concentrated in the extraCt. The effential oil, 
 and an agreeable cordial water, lightly flavoured with the 
 volatile parts of the nutmeg by drawing off a gallon of 
 proof fpirit from two ounces of the fpice, are kept in the 
 Ihops. Both the oil, and the fpirituous tinCture and ex¬ 
 tracts, agree better with weak flomachs than an equiva¬ 
 lent quantity of the nutmegs in fubflance. 
 
 Nutmegs, heated, and flrongly preffed, give out a fluid 
 yellow oil, which concretes on growing cold into a fe¬ 
 baceous confiflence. Rumphius informs us, that in the 
 Spice Iflands, when the nuts are broken, thofe ker¬ 
 nels which appear damaged, carious, or unripe, are fe- 
 parated for this ufe, and that 17 pounds and a quarter of 
 fuch kernels yield only one pound of oil, whereas when 
 the nutmeg is in perfection, it is faid to afford near one 
 third its own weight. 
 
 Two kinds of febaceous matter, faid to be expreffed 
 from the nutmeg, are diflinguifhed in the fhops by the 
 name of oil of mace; the belt fort, brought from the 
 E. Indies in ftone jars, is fomewhat foft, of a yellow 
 colour, and of a flrong agreeable fmell greatly refembliivr 
 that of the nutmeg itfelf: the other comes from Holland 
 inlolid maffes, generally flat, and of a fquare figure, of a 
 paler colour, and much weaker fmell. Thefe oils are 
 employed chiefly externally in flomachick plafters, and in 
 anodyne and nervine unguents and liniments. They ap¬ 
 pear to be a mixture of the grofs febaceous matter of the 
 nutmeg with a little of the effential or aromatick oil; 
 both which may be perfeClly feparated from one another 
 by maceration or digeflion in rectified fpirit, or by dif- 
 tillation with water. The fpirituous tinCture, and the 
 diflilled water, and the effential oil, are nearly fimilar to 
 thofe drawn from the nutmeg itfelf, the pure white fe¬ 
 baceous fubflance being left behind. 
 
 NUTRITION, in the animal ceconomy, implies the 
 repairing the continual lofs which the different parts of 
 the body undergo. "1 he motion of the parts of the body, 
 the friClion of thefe parts with each other, and efpecially 
 the aCtion of the air, would deftt oy the body entirely, if the 
 lols was not repaired by a proper diet, containing nutritive 
 juices: which being digefled in the flomacli. and after- 
 
 O-B wards 
 
OAK OAK 
 
 wards converted into chyle, mix with the blood, and are 
 diftributed through the .whole body for its nutrition. 
 
 NUXMoschata. SeeNuTMEG. 
 
 Nux Pijiacbta. SecPiSTACHiA. 
 
 N YCHTHEMERON, vyx<K-v°', the natural day, or 
 natural day and night, which together always make 
 24 hours. See Day and Night. 
 
 NYCTALOPIA, in medicine, a two-fold diforder 
 of the eye, one of which is oppofite to the other. In the 
 firfl:, the fight is belVin the night, and in obfeure places; 
 whereas, in a clear light, their fight tads, fo that they 
 can hardly fee any thing. In the Other fort of nycta¬ 
 lopia, the patient can fee nothing at all except in a clear 
 and bright light. As thefe infirmities arile from a na¬ 
 tural bad formation of theeve, they are therefore incurable. 
 
 NYCTANTHES, Arabian-jalrnine, in botany, a 
 genus of plants whofe flower is monopetalous and faucer- 
 Ihaped, divided at the top into eight oblong fegments: 
 the ftamina are two fubulated filaments topped with ereCt 
 anther*; the fruit is a roundilh berry, having two cells, 
 each containing a large falindilh feed. 
 
 NYCTICORAX, a bird of the heron-kind, called 
 jn Englifh the night-raven, by realon it flies chiefly in 
 the night-time, and makes a very difagreeable croaking. 
 
 NYMPH, in mythology, an appellation given to cer¬ 
 tain inferior goddeffes inhabiting the mountains, woods, 
 waters, &c. faid to be the daughters of Oceanus and 
 Tethys. 
 
 Nymph, among naturalifts, that ftate of winged in¬ 
 fers, between their living in the form of a worm and 
 their appearing in the winged or moft pcrfeCt flate. 
 
 The eggs of infeCts are firfl hatched into a kind of 
 'worm-, or maggots; which afterwards pafs into the 
 nymph-ftate, furrounded with Ihells or cafes of their 
 ownfkins; fo that, in reality, thefe nymphs are only 
 embryo-infefts, wrapped up in this covering; from 
 which they at lafl get loofe, though not without great 
 
 difficulty. During the nvmph-ftate, the creature lofes 
 its motion. Swammerdam calls it nympha aurclia; and 
 others give it the name of chryfalis, a term of the like 
 import. See Chrysalis. 
 
 NYMPH/E, in anatomy, two membranaceous parts, 
 fituated on each fide the rima. 'I hey are of a re<l 
 colour, and cavernous ftruCture, fomewhat rcfcmblm ■ 
 the wattles under a cock’s throat. They arc fometimes 
 lmaller, fometimes larger, and are continuous to the 
 praeputium of the clitoris, and joined to the interior fide 
 of the labia. 
 
 NYMPILEA, the water-lily, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, the flower of which confifls of a number of petals, 
 ufually fifteen: they are fmallcr than the cup, and arc 
 inferted into the fide of the germen in more than a finale 
 feries; the fruit is an oval flcfhy berry, containing*a 
 great many roundilh feeds. The root of this plant was 
 recommended by the ancients as an aftringent for inter¬ 
 nal ule, and as a ftyptick to flop the bleeding of wounds, 
 or other haemorrhages. 
 
 N YMPHYEUM, in antiquity, a publick hall mag¬ 
 nificently decorated for banqueting, &c. where thole 
 who wanted conveniencies at home, held their marriage 
 feafts, kc. The word is derived from the Greek, yvu&n, 
 a bride. 
 
 NYMPHENBURGH Machine, in hydraulicks, 
 the name of an engine for railing water, ereCted at Nym- 
 phenbilrgh in Germany, See Water-Works. 
 
 NYMPHOMANIA, in medicine, the fame with 
 furor uterinus. See furor Utf.rinus. 
 
 NYMPHOTOMIA, in furgery, the operation of 
 cutting the nympha?, when too large. See Nymph je. 
 
 NYSSA, in botany, a genus of plants producing 
 male and hermaphrodite flowers; the)’ are both aeftitute 
 of a corolla; but the cup is divided into five fegments, 
 and fpreadsopen: the fruit is an ovate unilocular drupe, 
 containing an oval acute nut. 
 
 O The fourteenth letter, and fourth vowel of our 
 alphabet, pronounced as in the words, nofe, 
 ^ rofe , &c. 
 
 The found of this letter is often fo foft, as to require 
 it double, and that chiefly in the middle of words; as 
 gooje, reproof, kc. and in fome words this 00 is pro¬ 
 nounced like u lhort, as in flood, blood. See. 
 
 O, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, figni- 
 fying eleven ; as in this verfe, 
 
 O numet um gejiut qui nunc undecimus extat. 
 
 When with a dafh over it, thus, o, itfignified eleven 
 thoufand. 
 
 Among the Irifli, the letter O at the beginning of the 
 name of a family, is a character of dignity, annexed to 
 great houfes; as O Neal, O Carrol , &c. Camden obferves, 
 that it is the cutlom of the lords of Ireland to prefix an 
 O to their names, to dilVmguifh them from the com¬ 
 monalty. 
 
 In the notes of the ancients, O. CON. is read opus 
 conduElum ; O. C. CK opera concilioque j O. D. M. opera , 
 donum, munus ; and O. LO- opus locatum. 
 
 In mufick, the O, or rather a circle, or double C3, ; 
 is a note of time, called by us a femi-breve; and, by the 
 Italians, circolo. The O is alfo ufed as a mark of triple 
 time, as being the moft perfect of all figures. 
 
 OAK-Tree, flhtercus, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 producing male and female flowers; the male ate difpofed 
 in a loofe amentum, each having a monophyllous cup, ; 
 divided into four or five fegments; there is no corolla, < 
 but fevcral very fliort filaments topped with large twin i 
 anther*: the cup of the female flower is formed of a I 
 {ingle, rough, coriaceous, hemilplierical leaf, undivided < 
 
 • at the edge ; the germen is ovate and finall; the flyle is 
 five-pointed and longer than the cup, and the ftigmata 
 are Angle and perfiftent: the fruit'is an oval nut (com- 
 : monly called an acorn) covered with a coriaceous fub- 
 ; fiance, the bale of it being placed in the cup. There are 
 feveral fpcciesof oak, but the lbi t which is inoftcofiimonly 
 known, grows naturally in England in many places. It 
 is laid, that an oak-tree is an bundled years coming to 
 its full growth, an hundred in perfection, and an 
 hundred years decaying. The great advantages arifing 
 from plantations of this tree, is lb well known to the 
 nation, that it is fcarce neceflary to inform the reader of 
 its great ufc in civil, and, particularly, naval archi¬ 
 tecture, there being no timber in the world lb good fop 
 fliip-building as the Engiifli oak, which makes our for¬ 
 midable fleets as much luperior in the ftrength of their 
 parts and for durability, as our feamen are in lkill and 
 courage to thofe of other nations. 
 
 1 he bark of the oak-tree is of very great fcrvice in 
 tanning leather, and its acorns are excellent.food for 
 hogs. The excellency of this noble plant is fo univerfally 
 known, that to offer any thing in order to encourage its 
 greater increafe, would be needlefs, feeing that all our 
 gentlemen of fortune are not only judges of its great .ufe, 
 but at this time are principally devoted to the pleafures 
 and profit of planting in general, wherein the oak has a 
 place not inferior to any. This advantageous plant is 
 railed from die acorn, which fliould be Town immediately 
 after its falling from the tree, which is about the be¬ 
 ginning of November; and is always belt when the acorn 
 is planted in the place appointed for its future growth: 
 but when it cannot be fo ordered, they mult be lbwn in 
 I a feed-bed, at about two or diree inches afunder in the 
 
 nine 
 
OAT 
 
 hine or ten inches row from row. In the fpring, the 
 ptents will appear, when they muft be kept clear from 
 weeds; and the following October they may be tranf- 
 planted in rows three feet alunder, and eighteen inches 
 in the rows, obferving not to fuffer the plants to abide 
 long out of the ground at the time of tranfplanting; here 
 they may remain for three or four years, at which time 
 they will be large enough to be tranfplanted where they 
 arc intended to remain for good: the feafon for this 
 work is in autumn, at which time, if they are careful!' 
 taken up, there will be little danger of their fucceeding 
 but the heads fhould by no means be fhortened, which 
 is too much pradlifed; all that Ihould be done, is only to 
 cutoff any bruil’ed or ill-placed branches, which Ihould 
 be taken off clofe to the place where they are produced 
 I he foil in which the oak-tree makes the greateft 
 progrefs, is a deep rich loam, in which it grows to the 
 largeft fizc; and the timber of thofe trees which grow 
 upon this land, is generally more pliable than that which 
 grows on a (hallow or drier ground, but the wood of the 
 latter is much more compadt and hard. Indeed, there 
 are few foils in England in which the oak will not grow, 
 provided there is proper care taken in their cultivation, 
 though this tree will not thrive equally in all foils ; but 
 yet it might be cultivated to a national advantage, upon 
 many large waftes in feveral parts of England, as alfo 
 to the great profit of theeftates where thefe tradls of land 
 now lie uncultivated, and produce nothing to the owner. 
 
 The proper diftance that oaks fhould be planted from 
 each other, in woods, groves, parks, &c. fhould not 
 be Ids than 30 feet. There are a great number of trees 
 that go under the name of oak in divers parts of the 
 World, but there is no where fo many different kinds as 
 in America, though the wood is not near fo valuable as 
 the Englifh oak. In times of fcarcity, a great many poor 
 people have made bread of the acorns; and the poets tell 
 us, they were the food of the golden age : however, they 
 are heavy, windy, and hard todigeii; therefore man¬ 
 kind, in thofe early ages, muft doubtlefs have had a 
 better digeftion than us. 
 
 The leaves of the oak are ftyptick, a little bitterifh, 
 and all parts of it are aftringent; they have often been 
 preferibed in all forts of haemorrhages and fluxes of tin 
 belly. 
 
 Oak of Jirufalem, or Chenopodium, in botany, 
 a genus of the pentandria-digynia clafs of plants, com¬ 
 prehending goofe-foot, Englifh mercury, and flunking 
 orrach. It has no flower petals, nor pericarpium, ex¬ 
 cept the cup, which contains a Angle, orbicular, and de- 
 prefi'ed feed. 
 
 OAKAM, old ropes untwifted, and pulled out into 
 loofe hemp, in order to be ufed in caulking the learns, 
 tree-nails, and bends of a fliip, for flopping or prevent¬ 
 ing leaks. 
 
 OAR, in navigation, a long piece of wood, made 
 round, where it is to be held in the hand, and thin and 
 broad at the other end, for the eafler cutting and relifting 
 the water, and confequently moving the veflel, by rowing. 
 Oars for fhips are generally cutoutoffir-timber, thofe for 
 barges are made out of New-England or Dantzick rafters, 
 and thofe for boats, either out of EngHlh afh, or fir-raf¬ 
 ters, from Norway. 
 
 OAT, Avcnn, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flowers grow in loofe particles; the cup is a bivalvular 
 glume; the corolla confifts of two valves, the lower one 
 being of the fame fize with the cup, putting out from 
 the back a fpival awn or beard, which is jointed and 
 reflexed: the ftamina are three capillary filaments, 
 topped with oblong forked anther®: the corolla ferves 
 as a pericarpium, lurrounding a Angle feed, which is 
 oblong and (welling, pointed at each end, having a lon¬ 
 gitudinal furrow, and fhut up in the chaff 
 
 There are three forts of oats cultivated in England, 
 viz. the common or white oat, the black oat, and the 
 brown or red oat; the firft fort is more common about 
 London, the fecond in the northern parts, and the red 
 oats are cultivated in Derbyfhire, Staffordfhire, and 
 Chefbire, and are a very hardy fort. Oats are a very 
 profitable grain, and abfolutely neceflary, being the prin¬ 
 cipal grain which horfes love, and*are efteeped the 1110ft 
 wholefome food for thofe ufeful animals, it being fweet 
 
 O B L 
 
 on cold barren foils which will produce no other fort of 
 grain; it will alfo grow on the hotteft land; in fhort, 
 there is no land too rich or roo poor for it, too hot or 
 too cold, but it will grow on it; and in wet harvefts, 
 whbn other grain is fpoiled, this will receive but little or 
 no damage; the ftraw and bulks being of fo dry a nature, 
 that it they are houied wet, they will not heat in the 
 mow and become mouldy, as-other grain ufually do. 
 
 1 lie feafon for (owing oats is in February or March, 
 according to the nature of the land, and as the fealon is 
 early or late, he meal of this grain makes tolerable 
 good bread, and is the common food of the country 
 people in the north ; and in the fouth, it is efteemed for 
 pottage and other ufes. Thofe who feed upon it, are 
 generally very healthy,', which is a fign that it yields 
 good nourifhment. Oatmeal blunts the acrimony of 
 the humours, is cooling, and carries off acrimonious 
 falts by the urinary paffages: flummery with milk is ufed 
 by many as a cooling diet in hot weather ; and water-: 
 gruel is every where known for its inoftenfive properties. 
 
 OA 1 H, Jusjurandum, is a folemn affirmation, in 
 which the perfons fworn invoke the Almighty to witnefs 
 that their teftimony is true, renouncing all claim to his 
 mercy, and calling for his vengeance if it befalfe.’ . 
 
 OR ADI AH, or, the Prophecy of Obadiah; acano- 
 mcal book of the Old 1 eftament, which is contained in.' 
 one Angle chapter, and is partly an invedtive againft the 
 cruelty ot the Edomites, who mocked and derided the 
 children of Ifrael, as they paffcd into captivity, and 
 with other enemies, their confederates, invaded and op-, 
 prefled thofe ftrangers, and divided the fpoil anfong 
 themlelves : and partly a prediction of the deliverance of 
 rael, and of the victory and triumph of the whole 
 church over her enemies. 
 
 OBEDIENCE, or Obedien.tia, in the canon 
 law, is fometimes ufed for an office, or the adminiftration 
 of it. In our ancient cuftoms, obedientia was ufed, in 
 the general, for every thing that was enjoined the monks 
 by the abbots: and in a more limited fenfe it was applied 
 to the farm belonging to the abbey, to which the monks 
 were fent vi ejuldcm obedienti®, either to look after the 
 farm, or colledl the rents. Hence, thefo rents them- 
 lves were alfo called obedienti®. 
 
 OBELISK, in architedture. a truncated, quadran- 
 ular, and (lender pyramid, railed as an ornament, and 
 frequently charged either with inferiptions or hiero¬ 
 glyph icks. 
 
 Obelisk, fin grammar, a mark in form of a dagger, 
 ufed to refer the reader to a note in the margin, at the 
 fide or bottom of a page. 
 
 OBJECT, in piiilofopKy, fomething apprehended, 
 or prelented to the mind, by fen fat ion or by imagination. 
 
 Chauvinus defines an objedl to be that about which a 
 power, adt, or habit is employed : thus, good i the 
 obje<ft of the will, truth of the underftanding; and, in 
 ke manner, colour is the objedl of fight, found of 
 hearing, he. 
 
 Obj ect Glass of a Telefcope , or Miinfcope, the glafs 
 placed at the end of the tube which is next the objedt. 
 See Telescope and Microscope. 
 
 OBJ LOTION, fomething urged to overthrow a po¬ 
 rtion, or a difficulty railed againft an allegation, pr pro- 
 pofition of a perlon we are difpufing withal. 
 
 OBJEC l IVE is ufed, in the fchools, in fpeaking of 
 tiling which exifts no othervvife, than as an objedt 
 known. The cxiilence of fuch a thing is faid to beipS- 
 jedtive. This word is alfo ufed for the power, or faculty* 
 by which any thing becomes intelligible ; and for the 
 adt itfelf, whereby any thing is prefented to the mind, 
 d known. 
 
 OBIT, among Chriftians, a funeral folemnity, or 
 office for the dead, moft commonly performed when the 
 corpfe lies in the church uninterred. It likewife fignifies 
 the anniverfary office, or annual commemoration of the 
 cad. performed yearly on the day of their death, with 
 prayers, alms, he. In religious houfes they have a rc- 
 gifter, in which they enter the obits of their founders, or 
 benefadlors, which is thence :ermecl the obituary. 
 
 OBLA cl iftofy, were fecular perfons, 
 
 who devoted ihcnilclves and ihcii : dates.to fome monaf- 
 :ery, into v. find of lay - 
 
 • admifiion 1 
 
 f] 
 
 and of an opening nature, other grains being apt to bind, 1 brothers. Tno form ui U:eir admiflion v as, putting the 
 which is injurious to labouring horfes. Oats will thrive | bell-ropes of the church round their in . Y of 
 
 SHE. 
 
O B S 
 
 fervitude. They wore a religious habit, but differed 
 from that of the monks. 
 
 OBLATION, a facrifice, or offering made to God. 
 
 OBLIGATION, in general, denotes any adl whereby 
 a perfon becomes bound ro another, to do fometliing ; 
 as to pay alum of money, be lUrety, or the like. 
 
 Obligations are of three kinds, viz. natural, civil, 
 and mixed. Natural obligations are entirely founded bn 
 natural equity; civil obligations, on civil authority 
 alone, without any foundation in natural equity ; and 
 mixed obligations are thofe which being founded on na¬ 
 tural equity, are further enforced by civil authority. 
 
 OBLIQUE, in geometry, fometliing aflant, or that 
 deviates from the perpendicular. 1 hus an oblique angle 
 is either an acute or obtufe one, i. e. any angle except a 
 right one. See Angle. 
 
 Oblique Ajccnfion, in aftronomy. See Ascension. 
 
 Oblique Oafs, in grammar, are all the cafes except 
 the nominative. 
 
 Oblique Line, that which, falling on another line, 
 makes oblique angles with it, viz. one acute, and the 
 other obtufe. 
 
 Oblique P lanes ^ in dialling, are thofe which recline 
 from the zenith, or incline towards the horizon. 
 
 The obliquity, or quantity of this inclination, or 
 reclination, may be found by means of a quadrant. 
 
 Obliqjje Sailing , in navigation, is when a lliip fails 
 upon fome rhumb between the four cardinal points, 
 making an oblique angle with the meridian ; in which 
 cafe, fhe continually changes both latitude and longitude. 
 Oblique failing is of three kinds, viz. plain-failing, mer- 
 cator's failing, and great circle-failing. See the article 
 Navigation. 
 
 Obliqjje Sphere , is where the pole is elevated any 
 number of degrees lefs than go 0 , in which cafe the axis 
 of the world, the equator, and parallels of declination, 
 will cut the horizon obliquely. 
 
 OBLIQUITY, that which denotes a thing oblique. 
 
 Obliquity of the Ecliptick, the angle contained be¬ 
 tween the ecliptick and the equinoctial. 
 
 OBLONG, in geometry, a figure longer than it is 
 broad. 
 
 OBOLUS, a filver coin current at Athens, being the 
 fixth part of a drachma; worth fomewhat more than a 
 penny farthing fterling. 
 
 Obolus, in pharmacy, a weight, fix of which make 
 a drachm, and confequently equal to io grains. 
 
 OB'REPTICIOUS, Obrept itious ; a quality of 
 letters patent, or other inftrument, importing it obtained 
 of a fuperior by furprize, or concealing from him the 
 truth. 
 
 OBSCURA Camera. SeeCAMER a Obscur a. 
 
 OBSCURE, fometliing dark, or that only receives 
 and reflefts a fmall quantity of fight. It is all'o ufed in 
 a figurative fenle, to fignify a thing that is not clear, 
 exprefs, or intelligible, or that is ambiguous. 
 
 OBSCURITY, that-which denotes a thing to be 
 obfeure. 
 
 OBSECRATION, in rhetorick, a figure, whereby 
 the orator implores the affiftance of God or man. 
 
 OBSEQUIES, funeral folemnities, or ceremonies 
 performed at the burials of eminent perfons. 
 
 OBSERVATION, among navigators, implies the 
 taking the fun or liar’s meridian altitude, in order thereby 
 to find the latitude of the place. 
 
 When they have found the meridian altitude of the 
 fun or liar, they fubtraft it from 90°, which gives 
 the diftance of the object from the zenith, in order to 
 find the latitude of the place, which we before obferved 
 under the article L atitude, is an arch of the meri¬ 
 dian, intercepted between the zenith of any place and 
 the equinoClial, being always equal to the height of the 
 vifible pole, or arch of the meridian, comprehended 
 between the pole and the horizon. 
 
 As the zenith diltance is an arch of the meridian in¬ 
 tercepted between the objeCt and zenith of any place, 
 being always equal to the complement of the object’s 
 meridian altitude; and as the declination of any objeCI 
 is an arch of the meridian, comprehended between its 
 centre and the equinoctial; it follows, that if the zenith 
 diftance, or complement of the meridian altitude, and 
 thp declination of any heavenly objeCt be given, we may 
 from thcncc find the latitude of the place of obfervation. 
 3 
 
 o c c 
 
 If the objeCt be in the equinoCtial, or have no decli¬ 
 nation, die meridional zenith diltance will be equal to 
 the latitude of the place; for then the zenith diftance 
 will be the arch of the meridian, intercepted between 
 the equinoCtial and zenith ; which if the objeCt, when 
 in the meridian, be to the fouthward of the place of 
 obfervation, the latitude will be north ; but, if to the 
 northward, it will be fouth. This is fo eafy that it needs 
 no example. If the objeCt appear in the zenith, the 
 declination will be equal to the latitude of the place, for 
 then the declination is equal to the arch of the meridian, 
 comprehended between the zenith and equinoCtial , 
 which will be of the fame name with it, tliar is, if the 
 declination be north ; but, if the fouth, the latitude wiil 
 be fouth. This is alfo fo eafy, that it would be lupcr- 
 ftuous to give an example. 
 
 If the objeCt have both declination and zenith dif¬ 
 tance, and they be both of one denomination, i. e. if 
 the objeCt, when on the meridian, be to the northward 
 of the place of obfervation, and its declination be north ; 
 or, if it lie to the fouthward, and its declination be 
 fouth ; then, if the zenith diftance be equal to the de¬ 
 clination, the latitude vanifhes, the place being fituated 
 under the equinoCtial; but, if the zenith diltance be 
 greater than the declination, their difference will be the 
 latitude, which will be of a contrary name, with the 
 declination and zenith diftance, that is, if the declina¬ 
 tion, See. be north, the latitude will be fouth, and the 
 contrary; but, if the zenith diftance be Id's than their 
 declination, their difference will be the latitude, which 
 will be of the fame name with the declination and zenith 
 diftance. 
 
 If the meridional zenith diftance and the declination 
 of any heavenly objeCt be of contrary denominations, 
 that is, the one north, and the other fouth ; then their 
 fum will be the latitude of the place ; which will always 
 be of the fame name with the declination, that is, if the 
 declination be north, the latitude is north, Nc. 
 
 When the latitude of the place exceeds the comple¬ 
 ment of the declination, and are both the fame way, 
 then the objeCt will never let but tranfit the meridian, 
 on the contrary fides of the zenith; from the grCateft. 
 meridional zenith diftance, take the lead, and half the 
 remainder will be the complement of the latitude of the 
 place; which is north, if the greater of the fecond 
 zenith diftances be north; but, if the greater be fouth, 
 the latitude is fouth. 
 
 OBSERVATORY, a place deftined for the obfer¬ 
 vation of the heavenly bodies ; being, generally, a build¬ 
 ing ereCted on fome eminence, and covered with a terrace 
 for making aftronomical obfervations. 
 
 OBSTETRICATION, Objletricatio , midwifry, or 
 the delivering a woman with child. 
 
 OBSTRUCTION, in medicine, a ftoppage of the 
 natural paffages or cavities of the body, occafioned either 
 by the exceffive quantity, or the vifeous quality ot the 
 humours; as lentor, thicknefs, or the like. 
 
 OBSTRUENTS, fee Deobstruents. 
 
 OBTURATOR, in anatomy, a name given to two 
 mufcles of the thigh ; bccaufe they fhut up the foramen, 
 or aperture between the os pubis and the hip-bone. 
 
 Obturator Internus , is a mulcle which comes from 
 the internal circumference of the hole that is between the 
 ifehium and os pubis ; and, paff ng through the finuofity 
 of the ifehium, it is inferted into the dent of the great 
 trochanter. Its tendon lies between the gemini; it turns 
 the thigh to the outfide. 
 
 Obturator Externus, comes from the external cir¬ 
 cumference of the fame hole as the former ; it embrace? 
 the neck of the thigh-bone, and paffes under the qua- 
 dratus to the fmall cavity of the great trochanter. 
 
 OBTUSE, blunt, or dull; in oppofition to acute, 
 (harp or brilk. 
 
 Obtuse Angle , in geometry, an angle greater than 90°. 
 
 Obtuse-angled Triangle , a triangle having one 
 angle obtufe, or greater than 90°. 
 
 OCCIDENTAL, weftern, or belonging to the weft. 
 
 OCCIPITAL, in anatomy, an epithet applied to 
 the parts belonging to the occiput, or hinder part of 
 the head. 
 
 OCC 1 PITALES, or Occipital Mufcles, are a pair 
 of mufcles of the head, whofe origin is in the upper part 
 of tlic head, near the vertex; and from thence run 
 
 backwards. 
 
OCT 
 
 backwards, and arc inferred into the lower part of the 
 fkin of the occiput, which they ferve to draw upwards. 
 
 OCCIP 1 TIS Os, in anatomy, the fourth bone of the 
 cranium ; fo called from its lituation in the occiput. 
 
 OCCIPUT, the hinder part of the head, or fkull. 
 
 OCCULT, lomething fecret, hidden, or invifible. 
 
 Occult, ingeometry, is applied to a line that is juft 
 perceivable, drawn with the point of the compaftes, or a 
 black lead pencil. 
 
 OCCULTATION, in aftronomy, the time a'ftar, 
 or planet, is hid from our fight, by the interpofition of 
 the body of the moon or fome other planet. 
 
 Circle of perpetual Occultation, is a parallel, in 
 an oblique fphere, as far dillant from the depreffed pole, 
 as the elevated pole is from the horizon. All the ftars 
 contained between this parallel and the pole never rife, 
 being conftantly hid under the horizon of the place. 
 
 OCCUPANT, inlaw, he that firft feizes and takes 
 poifeftion of a thing. 
 
 OCCUPATION, in a legalfenfe, is taken for ufe or 
 tenor, as in deeds it is frequently faid, that fuch lands 
 ■ are, or lately were, in the tenure or occupation of fuch a 
 perfon. This is likewife ufed for a trade or myftery. 
 
 Occupation, or Occupancy, in the civil law, 
 denotes the pofteffion of fuch things as at prefent properly 
 belong to no private perfon ; but are capable of being 
 made fo, as by feizing or taking of fpoils in War, by 
 catching things wild by nature, as birds and beafts 
 of game, &c. or by finding things before undifeovered, 
 or loft by their proper owners. 
 
 OCEAN, in geography, that vaft collection of fait 
 and navigable waters, in which the two continents, the 
 firft including Europe, Alia, and Africa; and the laft 
 America, are inclofed like iflands. The ocean is 
 diftinguifhed into three grand divifions. i. The At- 
 •lantick ocean, which divides Europe and Africa from 
 America, which is generally about three thoufand fifties 
 wide. 2. The Pacifick ocean, or South-lea, which 
 divides America from Alia, and is generally about ten 
 thoufand miles over. And, 3. The Indian ocean, which 
 feparates the E. Indies from Africa, which is three 
 thoufand miles over. The other feas, which are called 
 oceans, are only parts or branches of thefe, and ufually 
 receive their names from the countries they border upon. 
 
 OCHRE, Ochra, in natural hiftory, a genus of earths, 
 Jlightly coherent, and compofed of fine, fmooth, loft, ar¬ 
 gillaceous particles, rough to the touch, and readily 
 diffufible in water. Ochres are of various colours, as 
 red, yellow, blue, browh, green, &c. Of the red there 
 are eleven lpecies, of the yellow as many, of blue one, 
 of brown two, of green one, and of black two. All 
 which have, at one time or other, been ufed in painting. 
 
 OCIMUM, bafil, in botany. See Basil. 
 
 OCTAERIDES, in chronology, denotes a cycle of 
 eight years, at the end of which, three entire lunar 
 months were added. This cycle was in ufe at Athens, 
 till Melon dilcovered the golden number. 
 
 OCTAGON, or Octogon, in geometry, is a figure 
 of eight lides and angles: and this, when all the fides 
 and angles are equal, is called a regular oiftagon, or one 
 which may be inferibed in a circle. 
 
 Octagon, in fortification, denotes a place that has 
 eight baftions, See Fortification. 
 
 OCTAHEDRON, or OctaeF>ron, in geometry, 
 one of the five regular bodies, confiding of eight equal 
 and equilateral triangles. See Solid. The fquarc of 
 the fide of the octahedron is to the fquarc of the diameter 
 of the circumfcribing fphere, as 1 to 2. If the diameter 
 of the fphere be 2, the folidity of the o&ahedrbn in¬ 
 feribed ill it will be 1,33333, neai ‘ly* The oCtahedron 
 is two pyramids put together at their bafes, therefore its 
 folidity may be found by multiplying the quadrangular 
 bafe of either of them, by one third of the perpendicular 
 height qf one of them, and then doubling the produfr. 
 
 OCTANDRIA, the name of the eighth clafs in the 
 Linnaean fyftem of botany: it comprehends all thofe 
 plants whole flowers are hermaphrodite and furnifhed 
 with eight flamina br male parts in each. To this clafs 
 belong the Indian crefs, knot-grafs, tree-primrofe, French 
 willow, &c. 
 
 O F F 
 
 OCTA'NT, or Oct 1 le, in aftronomy, that afpedr 
 of two planets, wherein they arediftant an eighth part of 
 a circle, or 45° fr'om each other. 
 
 OCTAVE, in mufick, an harmonical interval, con- 
 lifting of feven degrees, or lefs intervals. 
 
 OCIOSTYLE, in the ancient architecture, is the 
 face of an edifice adorned with eight columns. 
 
 The eight columns of the oCtoftyle may either be dif- 
 pofed in a right line, as in the Pantheon, and the pfeudo- 
 diptere temple of Vitruvius; or in a circle, as in the round 
 monothere temple of Apollo Pythius at Delphi, See. 
 
 OCULUS, the eye, in anatomy. See Eye. 
 
 ODE, in poetry, a long, or a compofition proper to 
 be fung. Among the ancients, ode iignified no more 
 than fongs; but with us they are very different things. 
 The ancient odes were generally compofed in honour of 
 their gods, as many of thole of Pindar and Horace. 
 
 Thefe had originally but one ftanza, or ftroplie, but 
 afterwards they were divided into three parts, the ftroplie, 
 the antiftrophe, and the epode. The priefts going round 
 the altar finging the praifes of the gods, called the firft 
 entrance, when they turned to the left, the ftroplie; the 
 fecond, turning to the right, they called antiftrophe, or 
 returning; and, laftly, Handing before the altar, they 
 lung the remainder, which they called the epode. 
 
 ODOROUS, or Odor iferous, appellations given 
 to whatever ftnells ftrongly, whether they be fetid or 
 agreeable; but chiefly to things vvhofe frriell is brilk and 
 agreeable. 
 
 ODYSSEE, Odyssea, anepickpoem, containing 
 the adventures of Ulyftes in his return from the fiege of 
 1 roy to Ithaca, compofed by Homer. The defign of the 
 Odylfee, fays F. Boffu, was to inftrudt the ftates, con- 
 fidered in their feveral private capacities. See Iliad. 
 
 1 he truth or moral, whereon this fable is founded, 
 being, that a perfon’s abfence from home, fo that he 
 cannot have an eye to his affairs, occafions great difor- 
 ders; accordingly the hero’s abfence is the principal and 
 moft eflential adlion of the piece, and takes up the 
 greateft part of the poem. This poem, Boffu adds, is 
 calculated more for the people than the Iliad is, where 
 the fubjedts are rather ill ufed from the bad condudt of 
 the princes, than by their own fault. The great names 
 of hero, Ulyftes, See. do not here reprefent the pooreft 
 peafants lefs than princes; the meaneft people are as 
 liable to ruin their eftates and families by negligence, 
 &c. as the greateft, and accordingly have as much need 
 of Homer’s ledtures, and are as capable of profiting by 
 them as kings themfelves. 
 
 OECONOMICKS, Oeconomica , that part of moral 
 philofophy which teaches how to manage the affairs of a 
 family. 
 
 OECONOMY, the prudent condudl, or difereetand 
 frugal management of a man’s eftate, or that of another *. 
 
 Animal Oeconomy, the firft branch of the theory of 
 medicine ; or that which explains the parts of the human 
 body, their ftrudture and ufe, the nature and caufes. of 
 life and health, and the effedts, or phamomcna arifing 
 from them, 
 
 OECUMENICAL, general or uhiverfal. As an 
 Oecumenical council, or lynod; that is, one at which 
 the whole Chriftian church affifted. 
 
 OEDEMA, a tumor in general; but it is ufually 
 applied to a white foft infenfible tumor, proceeding from 
 cold and aqueous humours, fuch as happen to dropfical 
 cohftitutions. 
 
 OEDEMATOUS, in medicine, fomething of the 
 nature of ancedcma, or feized orafflidted with ancedema. 
 
 OENELAHJM, in pharmacy, a mixture of wine 
 and oil; ufually of thick black wine, and oil of rofes, 
 
 OENOPT2E, a kind of officers, or cenfors, at 
 Athens, who attended at their feafts, regulated the 
 number of cups each was to drink, and took care that 
 none drank too much, or too little. 
 
 OESOPHAGUS, in anatomy, the gullet, or riicm- 
 branous canal, which conveys the aliment from the 
 mouth to the ftomach. 
 
 OFFA Alba, name given by Helmont to the wlnte 
 coagulum, arifing from a mixture of redlified fpirit of 
 wine and lpirit of urine. 
 
 * There is juft publifhed, a new Work, entituled, 'The Farmer’s Wife ; or the complete Country Housewife ; containing not 
 only all things necefTary for the inllru£lion of the Faimer’s Wife, but alfo tor thole who m«vc in a higher fphere both in town and 
 country. Price only One Shilling and Six-pence. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 53. R r 
 
 OFFER- 
 
OLE 
 
 OFFERTORY, an anthem fung, or played on the 
 organ, at the time the people are making an offering. It 
 alfo anciently fignified the linen whereon the offerings 
 were laid. 
 
 OFFICE, Offitium , in a moral fenfc, implies a dutv ; 
 or that which virtue and right reafon require a man to do.’ 
 
 Office, in a civil fenfe, fignifies the mutual aid and 
 affiffance which men owe to one another. 
 
 Off ice, is alfo a particular charge, or truft, whereby 
 a man is authorized to do fomething. 
 
 Office, alfo fignifies a place, apartment, or board, 
 appointed for the officers to attend in, for the difeharoe 
 of their refpettive duties, or employments. 
 
 Office, in the canon law, is ufed for a benefice, 
 that has no jurifdi&ion annexed to it. 
 
 Office, is hkewife ufed for the divine fervice cele¬ 
 brated in publick. 
 
 Offices, in architecture, denote all the apartments 
 that ferve for the ncceffary occasions of a great houfe, 
 or place; as kitchens, pantries, brew-houfes, confec¬ 
 tionaries, Sec. 
 
 OFFICER, a perfon pofleffed of an office, or poll, 
 either in a civil, maritime, or military capacity. 
 
 .. OFFICIXAL. an epithet applied to all forts of me¬ 
 dicines, whether Ample or compound, as are required to 
 beconffantly kept in thefhops. 
 
 OFHNG, or Offi n, among feamen, implies that 
 part of the fea, at a good diftance from the fhore, where 
 there is deep water, and no need of a pilot. 
 
 When a (hip is feen from the ffiorc, failing to feaward, 
 they fay, ffie Hands for the offing, &c. 
 
 OFF-SETS, in gardening. See. are thofe young 
 ffioots which fprihg and grow from roots of plants. It 
 is alfo by fome applied to the loofe, outer, brown Ikins 
 of tulips, onions, Sec. 
 
 Off-Sets, in lurveying, are perpendiculars let fall, 
 and mcafured from the Hationary lines, to the hedge, 
 
 . fence, or extremity of the inclolure. 
 
 OGEE, or O— G— , in architecture, a moulding, 
 confiHing of two members, the one concave, the other 
 convex: the fame with what is otherwife called cyma- 
 tium. See Cvmatium. 
 
 OGIVES, arches or branches of a Gothick vault, 
 which, inHead ot being circular, pals diagonally from 
 one angle to another, and form a crofs with the other 
 arches which make the fide of the l'quare, whereof the 
 ogives are diagonals. 
 
 OIL, Oleum, an unCtuous, inflammable matter,drawn 
 from feveral natural bodies. 
 
 The chymiHs call it fulphur, being the fecond of 
 their hypoflatical, and ol the true five chymical prin- 
 ciples. To this they attribute all the diverfity of co¬ 
 lours, and all the beauty and deformity of bodies : pro¬ 
 bably their various odours in a great mcafure arife from 
 it. It fweetens the acrimony of falts; and by Hopping, 
 or filling up the pores of a mixed body, keeps it longer 
 from corruption, where it abounds. And we find that 
 the evergreens, fuch as box, holly, &rc. abound more 
 with oil than other plants. 
 
 There are two forts of oils; one which feems to be 
 mixed with ipirit (for it can never be drawn pure) and 
 which will fwim upon water, fuch as oil of anifeeds, 
 lavender, rofemary, Sc c. which the chymiHs call effen- 
 tial, and is commonly drawn in a limbeck, with floreof 
 water. And another kind, which probably is mixed 
 with falts, and thefle will fink in water; fuch arc the oils 
 of ponderous woods, as guaicum, box, cloves, Scc. 
 
 Fhere are fome things which are very improperly 
 called oils; as oil of tartar per deliquium, which is only 
 a fixed fait diffolved ; oil of vitriol, which is nothing 
 but the mofi cauHick and llrongefi part of the fpirit of 
 vitriol ; oil of antimony, which is only a mixture of 
 antimony and an acid fpirit. 
 
 OINTMENT, or Unguent, in pharmacy. See 
 Unguent. 
 
 OKER, Ochra, an argillaceous earth, found plen¬ 
 tifully in Shottover hills. In Oxfordfhire, and much 
 ufed in the coarfer kinds of painting. 
 
 OLEAGINOUS, fomething partaking of the nature 
 of oil, or from whence oil may be extracted. 
 
 Lmi< s of Ole ron, a fet oflaws relating to maritime 
 affairs, made in the ille of Oleron, in the bay of Aqui¬ 
 taine, by Richard I. 
 
 O M E 
 
 O LEF ACT OR Y Ner ve s , in anatomy, the firfl pair 
 of nerves coming from the medulla oblongata; fo called 
 from their being the immediate object of lmelling. 
 
 OLIBANUM, frankincenfc, pharmacy, a dry 
 refinous fubfiance brought to us in detached pieces or 
 drops as it were, like thofe of maflick, but larger, and 
 of a lets pure and pellucid texture. It is of a pale yeL 
 lowiffi white colour, but with fome mixture of abrownilh 
 cafi in it. It is moderately heavy: its fmeilis firong, but 
 not difagreeable, and its tafle bitter, acrid, and refinous. 
 
 Olibanum is greatly commended by many againff 
 diforders of the head and breaff, and againff diarrheea’s 
 and dyfenteries, and profluvia of the menfes, and fluor 
 albus. Its dole is from ten grains to a drachm. It is 
 bv many efieemed a fpecifick in pleurilies, efpecially 
 when cpidemick. Externally it is ulbd in fumigations 
 for diforders of the head, and againff catarrhs, and is 
 an ingredient in fome plaifters. It is a noble balfam in 
 confumptions,. given in fubffance, or diffolved with the 
 yoke of an egg into the form of an emulfion. There is 
 an oil made of it by deliquium, in the fame manner as 
 that of myrrh. This is done by putting the powder of it 
 in the white of a boiled egg in a cellar till it runs into a 
 hquor; this is effeemed a great colmetick and deffrover 
 of pimples in the face. Diofcorides had his doubts 
 about the internal ufe of olibanum in large dofes; he 
 talks of its bringing on madnefs, and even death : ’but 
 none of the other Greek writers fay any thing of its ill 
 qualities, nor do we at prefent know any of them. 
 
 OLIGARCHY, a form of government, where the 
 adminiff ration is lodged in the hands of a few people. 
 
 OL I LORY, a kitchen garden; or a garden of herbs, 
 roots &c. for food. 
 
 OLIVE-TREE, Olea, in botany, a genus of plants 
 whole flower is monopetalous, and funnel-fhapcd: the 
 tube is cylindraceous, and the whole length of the cup 
 and limb divided into four fegments, which fpread open ; 
 the ffamina are two ffiort fubulated filaments, topped 
 with eredl anthers. 7 he fruit is a fmooth oval, unilo¬ 
 cular drupe, including an ovato-oblong wrinkled nut, 
 having a kernel of the lame ffiape. 
 
 Olives are very oily and fmooth, and therefore not 
 good for the ffomach, being apt to pall and relax it too 
 much. 1 he oil of olives is judicioully mixed with cata- 
 plalms of a maturating nature; it is accounted heating, 
 emollient, and vulnerary; and good againff coffiveneTs 
 and gripes. 
 
 Olive -Colour, a yellow mingled with black. See the 
 article Colour. 
 
 OLYMPIAD, oxu/xonaf, in chronology, the fpaceor 
 period of four years, whereby the Greeks reckoned 
 time; fortheepocha or commencement of which, fee 
 Epoch a. 
 
 OL\ MPICK Games, were folemn games, famous 
 among the ancient Greeks, fo called from Olympian 
 Jupiter, to whom they were dedicated; and by fome laid 
 to be firff inftituted by Jupiter, after his viftorv over the 
 Ions of Titan; others alcribe this inffitutionto Hercules, 
 not the Ion ofAlcmena, but one of much greater anti¬ 
 quity; others to Pelops ; and others, to Hercules the 
 Ion of Alcmena. Tliefe games were fo confiderable, 
 that the Greeks made them their epocha, diffincmifhin • 
 their years by the return of the olympicks. a 
 
 OMEN, a certain accident and cafual occurrence 
 that was thought to prefage either good or evil. 
 
 OMENTUM, or Epiploon, the cawl, in anato¬ 
 my, a membranaceous part, ufually furnilhed with a 
 large quantity of fat; being placed under the peritoneum, 
 and immediately above the inteffines. It is called by 
 lome rcte, and reticulum, from the number of holes ap¬ 
 pearing in it, when railed, and giving it the refemblance 
 of a net. 
 
 As to its fituation, it ulually occupies only the upper 
 part of the abdomen ; though it is fometimes found ex¬ 
 tended to the lower part: its weight in a perfon not re¬ 
 markably fat or lean, is about half a pound : its lower 
 part is evidently loofe and free ; but in its upper part it 
 is joined, anteriorly, to the bottom of the Homac-h, the 
 duodenum, and the fplecn; and pofferiorly to the colon 
 and pancreas. It is compofed of a very tender double 
 membrane, forming a kind of pouch or cavity, called its 
 burfa, and replete with fat, lodged in certain cellules, 
 forming a kind of du<Hs, with certain areolae, or mem¬ 
 branaceous 
 
o o s 
 
 branaceous fpaccs between them. Its arteries come from 
 the cceliae, and are very numerous ; its veins arife 
 chiefly from the fplenick branch of the vena porta?; and 
 its nerves are from the intercoftals and the par vagum. 
 See Artery, Vein, &c. 
 
 It has a very remarkable aperture, by which it may 
 be conveniently diftended by inflation ; and there are 
 generally fome fmall holes in it, though the large ones, 
 from which it got the name rete, are adventitious. 
 
 The ufes of the omentum are, i. By its lubricity, to 
 render the natural and neceflary motions of the inteftines 
 ealy : 2. To cherilh and defend the inteftines from cold : 
 
 3. To aflift in the formation of the bile, the fatty part of 
 which is wholly owing to the veflels of the omentum , 
 every thing that returns from this part going to the liver : 
 
 4. To temperate the acrimony of the humours : and, 
 probably, 5. To ferve as all the other fat of the body, to 
 give it nourifhment, when it is incapable of being nou- 
 rifhed any other way. 
 
 ONANIA, or Onanism, terms which fome late 
 empericks have framed, to denote the crime of fclf-pol- 
 lution, mentioned in feripture to have been praftiled by 
 Onan, and punilhed in him with death. 
 
 ONDEE, in heraldry, the fame with wavy. See 
 Waved. 
 
 ONE 1 ROCRITICA, oveipoKpOiKyj, the art of interpret¬ 
 ing dreams, or predicting future events from dreams. 
 
 ONGLEE, in heraldry, an appellation given to the 
 talons or claws of beafts or birds, when borne of a dif¬ 
 ferent colour from that of the body of the animal. 
 
 ONION, Ci'pa , in botany, a genus of plants, too 
 well known to need a particular defeription ; and of 
 which there arc feveral forts, as the Stratlburgh onion, 
 Spanifh onion, Portugal pnion, Ac. 
 
 Onion-feed may be fown in teds in the month of 
 Auguft, for a fupply in the fpring ; and likewfle they 
 may be fown in the fpring, in beds, to draw up for 
 young fallads, after the Michaelmas onions are grown 
 too large for that purpofe. 
 
 Onions are chiefly uled for culinary purpofes, and are 
 eaten raw by fome, and roafted by others, but are more 
 commonly boiled : they are windy, heating, and caufe 
 tliiill, and therefore are bad for hot conftitutions ; how¬ 
 ever, when boiled and mixed with honey, they are good 
 in diforders of the lungs, arillng from a thick clammy 
 phlegm : they are alfo in great efteem to draw and fup- 
 purate all kinds of tumours; roafted, and applied to the 
 ear, they help to ripen, break, and cleanfe away, im- 
 pofthumations in the head, which fometimes cannot be 
 influenced by any other means : a cataplafin of roafted 
 onions and frefh butter is an excellent external applica¬ 
 tion for the piles. 
 
 ONOMANCY, or rather Onom am ancy, ovo/^a- 
 (xccilax, a branch of divination, which forctels the good 
 or bad fortune of a man, from the letters in his name. 
 From much the lame principle the young Romans toafted 
 their miftrefles as often as there were letters in their 
 names : hence Martial fays, 
 
 Ncevia fex cyaihis , feptem JuJlina bibatur. 
 
 ONTOLOGY, or Ontosophy, the doCtrjne or 
 fcience de elite; that js, of being, in the general, or 
 abftraft. 
 
 ONYCHOMANCY, a kind of divination by means 
 of the nails of the fingers. 
 
 ONYX, in natural hiftory, one of the feniipellucid 
 gems, with varioufly coloured zones, but none red ; 
 being compofed of cryftal, debafed by a fmall admixture 
 of earth ; and made up either of a number of flat plates, 
 or of a feries of coats furrounding a central nucleus, and 
 feparated from each other by veins of a different colour, 
 relembling zones or belts, 
 
 We have four fpecies of this gem. 1, A bluifh- 
 *vhite one, with broad white zones. 2. A very pure 
 onyx, with fnow-white veins. 3. The jafponyx, or 
 homey-onyx, with green zones. 4. The brown onyx, 
 W'ith bluifh-white zones. 
 
 The ancients attributed wonderful properties to the 
 onyx ; and imagined that if worn on the finger it atted 
 as a cardiack : they have alfo recommended it as an aftrin- 
 gent, but at prefent no regard is paid to it. 
 
 OOST, a kiln for drying hops after they are picked 
 from the ftalks. 
 
 O P I 
 
 OPACITY, in philofophy, a quality of bodies which 
 renders them i mpervious to the rays of light. See L1 c h t . 
 
 OPAL, in natural hiftory, a gem of a very peculiar 
 kind, and has been efteemed by many, in all ages, of 
 very great value ; though at prefent it is of lefs value, in 
 proportion to its fize, than any of the finer gems. It 
 is folter than any other of the fine gems, and is difficult 
 to polifli to any degree of nicety ; it is found of various 
 fliapes and fizes ; its moft frequent bignefs is between 
 that of a pea and a horfe bean, but it is found as fmall 
 as the head of a large pin, and has been fecn of the 
 fize of a large walnut. Its figure is very various and 
 uncertain, but it is never found in a chryftalliform or 
 columnar ftatc ; its moft ufual fhape is an irregularly ob¬ 
 long one, convex above, flatted at bottom, and dented 
 with various finuofities at its fides. It is often found 
 among the loofe earth of mountains, fometimes on the 
 fhores of rivers, and not unfrequently bedded in tfie 
 coarfer kinds of jafper. It is found in Egypt, Arabia, 
 fome parts of theE. Indies, and in many parts of Eu¬ 
 rope ; thofe of Europe are principally from Bohemia, and 
 are of a grecnifh or greyilh colour; the colour of other 
 opals much rcfembles the fineft mother of pearl, its balls 
 feeming a bluifli or greyilh white, but with a property of 
 refledling all the colours of the rainbow, as turned diffe¬ 
 rently to the light. 
 
 OPALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated at Rome, in 
 honour of thegoddefs Ops. 
 
 OPEN Flank, in fortification, that part of the flank 
 which is covered by the orillon. 
 
 OPENING of Trenches, in the firft breaking of ground 
 by the befiegers, in order to carry on their approaches 
 towards a place. See Trenches. 
 
 OPERA, a dramatick compofition fet to mufick, and 
 fung on theftage, accompanied with mufical inftruments, 
 and enriched with magnificent drelfes, machines, and 
 other decorations. 
 
 OPERATION, in general, the aft of exerting or 
 exercifing fome power or faculty, upon which an efFedt 
 follows. 
 
 OPHITES, in natural hiftory, a fort of variegated 
 marble, of a dufky-grcen ground, fprinkled with ipots 
 ol a lighter green, otherwifexalled ferpentine. 
 
 Ophites, in church hiftory, Chriftian hereticks, fo 
 called both from the veneration they had for the ferpent 
 that tempted Eve, and the worfliip they paid to a real 
 ferpent: they pretended that the ferpent was Jel'us 
 Chrift, and that lie taught men the knowledge of goad 
 and evil: they diftinguilhed between Jefus and Chrift ; 
 Jel'us, they laid, was born of the virgin, but Chrift 
 came down from heaven to be united with him : Jefus 
 was crucified, but Chrift had left him, to return to 
 heaven, They diftinguilhed the God ol the Jews whom 
 they termed Jaldabaoth, from the fupreme God : to the 
 former they alcribed the body, to the latter the foul of 
 men. They had a live ferpent which they kept in a 
 kind of cage; at certain times they opened the cage 
 door and called the ferpent: the animal came out, and 
 mounting upon the table, twined jtfelf about fome loaves 
 ol bread ; this bread they broke and diftributed it to the 
 company, who all kilTed the ferpent : this they called 
 their Eucharift. 
 
 OPHT HALMIA, in medicine, fignifies any difordec 
 or pain in the eye ; but it is ufpd ftri&ly to exprefs an 
 inflammation of that organ. 
 
 OPIATES, in pharmacy, medicines in which opium 
 is an ingredient. 
 
 OPINION, an aflent of the mind to any propofition 
 not evidently true at firft fight. 
 
 OPIUM, in pharmacy, an infpiftated juice, partly 
 of the refinous and partly of the gummy kind. It is 
 brought to us in cakes or mafles, ufually of a royndilh 
 figure, flatted, and covered with poppy leaves. Thefe 
 are of uncertain fizes, ufually about an inch thick, and 
 their weight lioni eight ounces to a pound. 
 
 Op* um i s very heavy, ol a denfe texture, not per-'* 
 fcctly dry, but more or lefs foft, and, commonly, eafiiy 
 receiving an impreifion from the finger ; it is tough and 
 hard to break, its colour a browniih yellow, fo very dark 
 and dufky that in the mafs at firft fight it appears black, 
 and ol a faint, dead, unplealant fmell, bitter to the tafte, 
 and very acrid. 
 
 It is inflammable, yet in great part foluble. in water . 
 
O P I O P P 
 
 it is brought to us from Natolia, from AEgypt, and from 
 the E. Indies; and is to be chofen moderately firm, not 
 too loft, as our druggifts often render it, by keeping it 
 in damp vaults to increafe its weight; its fmell and tafte 
 muft be very ftrong, and great care muft be taken that 
 there is no dirty or Irony matter in it. 
 
 The Europeans, for many ages, efteemed the The- 
 baick opium greatly fuperior to that of Afia Minor, or 
 the E. Indies, but at prefent there is no diftindtion made; 
 but opium that is not too dry and friable, and that has 
 a good fmell, and no accidental foulnefs mixed among it, 
 is all efteemed of equal value. 
 
 The-plant which affords opium is one of the polyandria 
 monogynia of Linnaeus, and one of the hcrba? flore tetra- 
 petalo anomalo of Ray; and is delcribed by all the bo¬ 
 tanical writers under the name of the white garden poppy, 
 the papaver hortenfe femine albo, papaver lativum Diol- 
 coridis, and papaver album Plinii. 
 
 The fields of Afia Minor are in many places fown 
 with the white poppy, as ours arc with corn. When the 
 heads grow towards maturity, but are yet foft, green, 
 and full of juice, they make incifions on them, and from 
 every one of thefe there flow a few drops of a milky juice, 
 which foon hardens into a lolid confiftence : thefe drops 
 are gathered with great care, and are the fineft opium. 
 Tournefort tells us, that, after they have obtained all 
 they can this way, they bruife the heads and exprefs their 
 juice, and by this means get a much larger quantity : 
 but Bellonius, who had been through the fame place 
 where Tournefort was, fays not a word about this opium 
 procured by expreffion ; nor does Kasmpfer mention any 
 i'uch procefs in his treating of obtaining opium in the 
 Eaft. Both thefe authors make three kinds of opium, 
 but no one of them is procured in this coarfe way. 
 Kannpfer’s account is this: when the heads are near 
 ripening, they wound them with an inftrument, which 
 is a kind of knife with five edges ; this, on being flruck 
 into the head, makes five long cuts in it, from which 
 the opium flows, and is the next day feraped off with an 
 edgelefs knife, and is put up in a vcffel, faflened to the 
 girdle for thatpurpofe : at the time the opium is collc&ed, 
 the oppofite fide of the poppy-head is wounded by the 
 lame inftrument ul'ed atfirft, and the opium is collefted 
 next day in the lame manner. They diftinguilh, how¬ 
 ever, the produce of the firft wounds from thole of the 
 fecond, and with great reafon, the firft being greatly 
 fuperior to the fecond. They call th is firft flowing off the 
 heads gobaar; it has much more virtue than the reft, 
 and is fold at a much greater price ; its colour is at firft 
 white, but afterwards yellowilh; and, when long kept, 
 of a dufky brown. Thti opium produced from the 
 fecond wounds is darker-coloured, and approaches to 
 blacknefs; it has a weaker fmell and tafte than the 
 former : after this they make a third operation, but the 
 produce is black, and of very little value. 
 
 After they have colle&ed the opium, they moiften it 
 with a fmall quantity of water, or of honey, and work 
 it a long time upon a flat, hard, fmooth board, with a 
 thick and ftrong inftrument of the fame wood, till it be¬ 
 comes of the confidence of pitch : finally, they work it 
 up with their hands, and form it into cakes, or rolls, for 
 fale. Multitudes of people are continually employed 
 in this preparation, and have feveral ways of doing it ; 
 but what we have is the mere crude juice, or at moft luch 
 as has been worked up with w’ater, or a fmall portion of 
 honey, no more than fufficient to bring it into form. 
 
 Opium has been, till lately, confidered in general as a 
 foporifick and fudorifick only ; and its ufe moftly con¬ 
 fined to the removal of deliriums, nervous coughs, and 
 fiome other particular purpofes : but the experience of 
 modern practice has fo extended its application, as to 
 give a fufficient light into the true nature of it. The 
 quality of opium, to which its medicinal effects are 
 owing, is the diminifhing the fenfibility and tendernefs 
 of the nerves in fuch a manner, that fpafms and convul- 
 five cramps that are excited by inflammation, or the attion 
 of any irritating bodies, are thereby greatly mitigated, 
 and in general removed ; and the fymptomatick mifehiefs 
 attending many dilorders thence prevented or leffened. 
 This power therefore renders it of very great lervice in 
 the following dilorders, the evil confequences whereof 
 are the refult of the irritating acrimony of depraved 
 humours: firft, in the cholera morbus, where the whole 
 
 >of the danger arifes from the violent convulfions, canfed 
 by the intolerable ftimulus of exceflively acrid bile, 
 poured out of the dudlus choledochus communis into 
 the inteftines, in an incredible quantity; in this cafe 
 opium will give a reprieve - from the fatal confequences 
 of the fpafm, till a difeharge of the morbid matter is 
 procured by the aid of catharticks, when it would be im¬ 
 practicable, by any other means, to give the lead relief. 
 
 It is in like manner highly efficacious in diarrhoeas and 
 dyfenteries, which owe their origin to a parallel caufe ; 
 as alfo in the convulfions of children, produced by an 
 acei'cent acrimony of the humours in the via prima ; 
 it is, when judicioufly ufed, of great importance in 
 feveral cafes of eruptive and other fevers, where a fpaf- 
 modick ftate arifes from nervous irritations, particu¬ 
 larly in refpedt of children, where, by a proper ufe of 
 this medicine, the fatal fpafms which attend their com¬ 
 ing out may be frequently evaded. It is likewife of 
 great efficacy in many female cafes, relieving the con- 
 vulfive dilorders of the uterus, and checking thofe ex- 
 celfive dilcharges of the catamenia and profule haemor¬ 
 rhages, conlequent to delivery, which are caufed by 
 them. Befides thefe there are many occafions not re¬ 
 ducible to the general rules, where, on the fame prin¬ 
 ciple, this quality of opium may remove fymptoms, 
 which would be otherwife fatal or dangerous, and on 
 which all the other qualities of medicine could have no 
 influence ; whence, it may therefore be juftly ranked 
 among thofe few medicines, of whole effedls, the reco¬ 
 very of the patient from violent and dangerous difeafes, 
 is the evident refult: but if given in too great a quan¬ 
 tity, is deadly. 
 
 Prepared Opium, ox Laudanum, a tindlure of opium, 
 made either with fpirit of wine or water, having dif¬ 
 ferent ingredients added to it, according to the ufe it is 
 intended for. 
 
 OPOBALSAMUM, in pharmacy, the fame with the 
 ballam, or balm of Gilead. See Balsam. 
 
 OPOPANAX, in the materia medica, is a gum refin 
 of a tolerably firm texture, ulually brought to us in loofe 
 granules or drops, and lbmetimes in large mafles, formed 
 of a number of thefe connected by a quantity of matter 
 of the fame kind; but thefe arc ufually loaded with ex¬ 
 traneous matter, and are greatly inferior to the pure loofo 
 kind. The drops or granules of the fine opopanax, are 
 on the outfide of a brownilli red colour, and of a dufky 
 yellowilh or whitilh colour within : they are of a fome- 
 wliat undtuous appearance, fmooth on the furface; and 
 are to be chofen in clear pieces, of a ftrong fmell and 
 acrid tafte. 
 
 Opopanax is attenuating and difeutient, and is gently 
 purgative ; it difpels flatulencies, and is good in afthmas, 
 in inveterate coughs, and in dilorders of the head and 
 nerves. It alfo promotes the menfes, and is good 
 againft all obftrudtions of the vifeera. 
 
 OPOSSUM, in zoology, alpccies ofdidelphis, with 
 the paps within die abdomen. 
 
 The opoffum is a very lingular animal, about fifteen 
 inches long from the extremity of die nofe to the rump ; 
 and its tail is equal in length to the whole body : the 
 legs are robuft, and the feet armed with lharp, long, and 
 crooked claws. But what is moft lingular in this ani¬ 
 mal, is, that the ikin of the belly of the female is loofe, 
 forming a kind of pouch or bag, with an aperture in it, 
 at which, in time of danger, it takes in its young. 
 
 OPPONENT, a perfon who withftands or oppofes 
 another. This term is chiefly ufed in fcholaftick or 
 acaderaick difputes or exercifes, where a perfon who 
 oppofes a tliefis, or impugns it by his objedtions, i$ 
 called opponent. 
 
 OPPOSITES, Oppofita , among logicians, limply 
 taken, are fuch things as differ among themfelves, but 
 fo as not to differ in like manner from fome third. 
 
 OPPOSITION, in logick, thedifagreement between 
 propofitions, which have the lame fubjedt and the fame 
 predicate. 
 
 Op posit ion, in aftronomy, is that afpedtor fituation 
 of two ftars or planets, wherein they are diametrically 
 oppofite to each other, or i8o° afunder. 
 
 Opposition, in geometry, the relation of two thi ngs, 
 between which a line may be drawn perpendicular to both. 
 
 Op posit ion, inrhetorick, afigu re whereby two things- 
 are joined, which feem incompatible ; as, a wife follv. 
 
 OPTATIVE 
 
ORA 
 
 OPTATIVE Moop, in grammar, that which ferves 
 to cxprefs an ardent defire or wifli for fomething. See 
 Mood. 
 
 OPTICK, or Optical, fomething relalmgto vifion, 
 pr the fenfe of fight. 
 
 Optick Single. See Angle. 
 
 Optick Axis , is a ray palling through the centre of 
 the eye, and the middle of the optick pyramid. 
 
 Optick G Ioffes , are glafles ground cither convex or 
 concave, m order either to collcdl ordilperfe the rays ol 
 light; by means whereof vifion is improved, and the 
 eye ftrengthened and preferved. 
 
 ’ Optick Inequality , in aftranorpy, is the apparent irre¬ 
 gularity in the motion of far diftant bodies ; fo called, 
 becaufc not really in the moving bodies, but arifingfrom 
 the fituation of the fpedtator’s eye: fo that, were the eye 
 in the centre, the motions would always appear uniform. 
 
 Optick Ntrves, the fecond pair of nerves, fpringing 
 partly from the extremity of the corpora flriata, and 
 partly from the thalami nervorum optici, 
 
 Optick Pencil, or a Pencil of Rays, that aflemblage 
 of rays by means whereof any point, or part of an object, 
 is rendered vifible. 
 
 Optick Place of a planet, &c. is that point or place 
 of its orbit, in which it appears to be to the eye of the 
 obferver. 
 
 Optick Pyramid , in perfpe&ive, is a pyramid whofe 
 bafe is the vifible objeft, and its vertex in the eye formed 
 by rays drawn from the feveral points of the perimeter 
 to the eye. 
 
 OPTICKS, is that branch of natual philofophy 
 which treats of vifion, and the various phenomena ol 
 vifible objects, by rays of light refle&ed from mirrours, 
 or tranfmitted through lenfes. 
 
 Opticks are divided into two parts, catoptricks and 
 dioptricks ; the former treats of yifion by light refle£ted 
 from mirrours, or polilhed furtaccs ; and the latter of 
 vifion effected by light tranfmitted through lenfes. 
 
 But, in a larger fenfe, it may be confidered as com¬ 
 prehending the whole do&rine of light and colours, and 
 all the phenomena of vifible objetts. In this large fenfe, 
 the incomparable Sir lfaac Newton calls his book ol 
 light and colours, Opticks, 
 
 OPULUS, the water-elder, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, with' a monopetalous, campanulatcd flower, 
 quinquifid at the limb : the fruit is a roundifh unilocular 
 berry, containing a Angle, olfeous, and comprefled cor- 
 dated feed. 
 
 OPUNTIA, Indian fig, in botany, a fpecies of cac¬ 
 tus, diftinguifhed by being ramofe and dichotomous. 
 
 It is on this plant that the cochineal animal feeds. 
 
 OR, in heraldry, yellow, or the colour of gold. 
 Without this colour, or that of argent or lilver, there 
 can be no good armoury. In the coats of noblemen it is 
 called topaz; and, in thofe of fovereign princes, fob It 
 is reprelented, in engraving, by fmall points or dots, 
 all over the field or bearing. It is accounted a fymbol of 
 wifdom, temperance, faith, force, conftancy, &c. 
 
 ORACLE, among the heathens, was the anfwer 
 •which the gods were fuppoled to give to thofe who con- 
 fultcd them upon any affair of importance ; it is all'o ufed 
 for the god who it was thought gave the anfwer, and the 
 place where it was given. 
 
 The credit of oracles was fo great, that in all doubts 
 and difputes their determinations were held facred and 
 inviolable ; whence valt numbers flocked to them for ad¬ 
 vice about the management of their affairs ; and no 
 bufinefs of any confequence was undertaken, fcarce any 
 peace concluded, any war waged, or any new form of 
 government inflituted, without the advice and approba¬ 
 tion of fomc oracle. The anfwers were ufually given 
 by the intervention of the priefl or prieftefs of the god 
 who was conlulted, and generally exprefled in fuch dark 
 and indeterminate phrafes, as might eafily be wrefted to 
 prove the truth of the oracle, whatever was the event. 
 It is not, therefore, to be wondered at, that the priefls 
 who delivered them were in the big-heft credit and 
 efteem ; and that they improved this reputation greatly to 
 their advantage. They accordingly allowed no man to 
 .confult the gods, before he had offered coftly facrifices, 
 and made rich prefents to them. And to keep up the 
 veneration for their oracles, and to prevent their being 
 taken unprepared, they admitted perfons to confult the 
 Vol. II. No. 53. 
 
 O R C 
 
 gods only at certain Rated times; and fometimes they 
 were fo cautious, that the greatefl perfons could obtain 
 no anfwer at all. Thus Alexander himfclf was pe¬ 
 remptorily denied by the pvtliia, or prieftefs of Apollo, till 
 lire was, by downright force, obliged to afeendthe tripos; 
 when, being unable to refill; any longer, file cried out, 
 
 “ Thou art Invincible-,” and thefe words were accepted 
 inftead of a further oracle. 
 
 ORANGE, the name of a fruit too well known to 
 need any defeription here. There are feveral kinds ot 
 orange-trees, as the Seville, the China, the Shaddock, 
 the dwarf, or nutmeg, the curled leaved, the ftriped curled 
 leaved, the double flowering, and the large warted 
 orange, with other varieties cultivated in England, but 
 rather for curiofity than ufc. 
 
 The juice of the orange is fliarp, becaufe this fait is but 
 little e m bar raffed with the ropy parts; which is the reafon 
 it communicates almoft all its acidity to the little nervous 
 fibres of the tongue. As for the juice of the fweet 
 oranges, as it contains lefs fait than that of the four ones, 
 and as this fait is kept under by a great quantity of 
 oily parts, it is eafy to be underftood that it can make 
 but a flight impreflionon the parts it touches. 
 
 They prefer the juice of the four orange in medicinal 
 ufe to the other, as we before obfervfcd, for cooling, 
 moiftening, and mitigating fevers ; becaufe this juice has 
 more of the acid in it, and can more eafily thicken the 
 overthined liquors, allay their violent motions, and 
 keep down thofe fharp humours that throw them into an 
 extraordinary fermentation. 
 
 Orange Colour , a colour formed with red and yellow. 
 ORANGERY, among gardeners, a green-houfc, 
 adapted l'olely to the prefervation of orange trees during 
 the winter. 
 
 ORATION, in rhetorick, a fpeech or harangue, 
 compofed according to the rules of oratory, and delivered 
 in publick. 
 
 ORATORY, the art of fpeaking with propriety, and 
 according to the rules of rhetorick. See Rhetorick. 
 ORB, Orbis , in aftronomy, a hollow globe orfphcre. 
 ORB1S Magnus, in aftronomy, fignifies the earth’s 
 orbit, or the path that planet deferibes in its annual 
 courl'e round the fun. 
 
 ORBIT, (Jrbita, in aftronomy, the path deferibed 
 by a planet about the fun. The orbits of all the planets 
 are ellipfes, having the fun in their common focus; but 
 the elliptick orbit of the earth, by the adtion of the 
 moon, is fenfibly disfigured, as alfo the orbit of Saturn 
 by the aftion of Jupiter, when they are in conjunction. 
 See Planet. 
 
 ORCHARD, a plantation of fruit-trees. It is a rule 
 among gardeners, that thofe orchards thrive beft which 
 lie open to the fouth, fouth-weft, and fouth-eaft, being 
 fcreened from the north, and have the foil dry and deep. 
 
 In planting of an orchard, great care Ihould be had 
 to the nature of the foil, that fuch trees as are adapted to 
 grow upon the ground intended to be planted, may be 
 chofen, otherwife there can be little hopes of their fuc- 
 ceeding ; and it is for want of rightly obferving this me¬ 
 thod, that we fee, in many countries, orchards planted 
 which never arrive to any tolerable degree of perfection, 
 their trees ftarving, and their bodies either covered with 
 mofs, or the bark cracks and divides; both which are 
 evident figns of the weaknefs of the trees; whereas, if 
 inftead of apples, the orchard had been planted with pears, 
 cherries, or any other fort of fruit to which the foil had 
 been adapted, the trees might have grown very well, and 
 produced great quantities of fr.uit. 
 
 As to thepofition of the orchard, if you are at full li¬ 
 berty to .chufe, a riling ground, open to the fouth-eaft, 
 is to be preferred; but we would by no means advife to 
 plant upon the fide of an hill, where the declivity is 
 very great; for in fuch places the great rains commonly 
 wafh down the better part of the ground, whereby the 
 trees would be deprived of proper nourifhment; but 
 where the rife is gentle, it is of great advantage to the 
 trees, by admitting the fun and air between them, 
 better than it can upon an entire level; which is an 
 exceeding benefit to the fruit, by diflipating fogs, and 
 drying up the damps, which, when detained amongft 
 the mees, mix with the air, and render it rancid; if it 
 be defeended from the weft, north, and eaft winds, it 
 will alio render this fituation ftill more advantageous ; 
 S f foi 
 
O R C 
 
 for it is chiefly from thefe quarters that fruit-trees 
 receive the greatcft injury : therefore, if the place be 
 not naturally defended from thefe by riling hills, which 
 is always to be preferred, then you lhould plant large 
 growing timber-trees at fome diftance from the orchard, 
 to anfwer this purpofe. 
 
 You lhould alfo have a great regard to the diftance of 
 planting the trees, which is what few people have rightly 
 conlidered; for if you plant them too dole, they will be 
 liable to blights; and the air, being hereby pent in 
 amongft them, will caufe the fruit to be ill-tailed, having 
 a great quantity of damp vapours from the perlpiration 
 of the trees, and the exhalations from the earth mixed 
 with it, which will be imbibed by the fruit, and render 
 their juices crude and unwholcfome. 
 
 Wherefore we cannot but recommend the method 
 which has been lately pra&ifed by fome particular gentle¬ 
 men with very great fuccefs ; and that is, to plant the 
 trees fourlcore feet afunder, but not in regular rows. The 
 ground between the trees they plough, and low with wheat 
 and other crops, in the fame manner as if it were clear 
 from trees; and they oblerve their crops to be full as 
 good as thofe quite expofed, except juft under each tree, 
 when they are grown large, and afford a great fhade ; and, 
 by thus ploughing and tilling the ground, the trees are 
 rendered more vigorous and healthy, icarcely ever having 
 any mofs, or other marks of poverty, and will abide 
 much longer, and produce better fruit. 
 
 If the ground in which you intend to plant an orchard 
 has been pafture for fome years, then you fhould plough 
 in the green fvvard the lpring before you plant the trees: 
 and, if you will permit it to lie a fummer fallow, it will 
 greatly mend it, provided you ftir it two or three times, 
 to rot the iward of grals, and prevent weeds growing 
 thereon. 
 
 At Michaelmas you fhould plough it pretty deep, in 
 order to make it loofe for the roots of the trees, which 
 fhould be planted thereon in Ottober, provided the 
 foil be dry ; but, if it be moill, the beginning of March 
 will be a better feafon. 
 
 When you have finifhed planting the trees, you fhould 
 provide fome flakes to lupportthem, otherwife the wind 
 will blow them out of the ground; which will do them 
 much injury, el'pecially if they have been planted fome 
 time ; for, the ground at that feafon being warm, and 
 for the moft part moift, the trees will very loon pulh 
 out a great number of young fibres • which if broken off' 
 by their being difplaccd, will greatly retard the growth 
 of them. 
 
 In the fpring following, if the feafon fhould prove dry, 
 you fhould cut a quantity of green turf, which muft be 
 laid upon the lurface of the ground about their roots, 
 turning the grafs downward; which will prevent the 
 fun and wind from drying the ground, whereby a great 
 cxpence of watering will be laved ; and, after the firlt 
 year, they will be out of danger, provided they have 1 
 taken well. 
 
 Whenever you plough the ground between thefe trees, 
 you muft be careful not to go too deep among their roots, 
 left you lhould cut them off, which would greatly damage 
 the trees : but, if you do it cautioully, the ftirring of the 
 furface of the ground will be of great benefit to°tliem ; 
 though you fhould obferve never to fow too near the 
 trees, nor fuffer any great rooting weeds to grow about 
 them, which would exhauft thegoodnefs of the foil, and 
 flarve them. 
 
 If, after the turf which was laid round the trees be 
 rooted, you digit in gently about the roots, it will greatly 
 encourage them. '1 here are fome perfons who plant 
 many forts of fruit together in the fame orchard, mixing 
 the trees alternately ; but this is a method which fhould 
 always be avoided ; for hereby there will be a very great 
 difference in the growth of the trees, which will not only 
 render them unfightly, but alfo the fruit upon the lower 
 trees ill-tailed, by the tall ones overfhadowing them ; fo 
 that, if you are determined to plant feveral forts of fruit 
 on the fame fpot, you fhould obferve to place the largcft 
 growing trees backwards, and fo proceed to thofe of lefs 
 growth, continuing the fame method quite through the 
 whole plantation ; whereby it will appear at a diftance in 
 a regular Hope, and the fun and air will more equally 
 pals through the whole orchard, that every tree may 
 have an equal benefit therefrom. 
 
 O R D 
 
 The foil of your orchard fhould alfo be mended once 
 in two or three years with duiv*?or other manure, which 
 will alfo be abfolutely neccffary for the crops Town be¬ 
 tween ; io that where perfons arc not inclinable to help 
 their orchard, where the expence of manure is pretty 
 great, yet, as there is a crop expected from the ground 
 belides the fruit, they will the more readily be'at the 
 charge upon that account. 
 
 In making choice of trees for an orchard, you fhould 
 always oblerve to procure them from a foil nearly a kin 
 to that where they are to be planted, or rather poorer ; 
 for, if you have them from a very rich foil, and that 
 wherein you plant them is but indifferent, they w ill not 
 thrive well, el'pecially for four or five years after plantin'- 
 io that it is a very wrong practice to'make the nuiici v, 
 where young trees are raifed, very rich, when the trees 
 are defigned for a middling or poor foil. The trees fhould 
 alfo be young and thriving ; for whatever lomc perfons 
 may advile to the contrary, yet it has always been ob- 
 feryed, that though large trees may grow, and produce 
 fruit, after being removed, they nc\cr make ib pood 
 trees, nor are ib long-lived, as thofe which are planted 
 while young. Millaris Gardener's Dictionary. 
 
 ORCHESTRA, in the ancient theatres, a place in 
 the form of a femi-ciicle, where the dancing was per¬ 
 formed. At prelent it lignifies the place where the mu- 
 ficians fit. 
 
 ORCHIS, in botany, a genus of plants whofe flower 
 hath five petals with a ne£tarium of a corinculated form, 
 with two very ihort flender filaments joining to the 
 pointal, with oval ere£b anther*. The fruit is an ob¬ 
 long unilocular capfu le, with three carinated valves 
 opening on the fides, but cohering at the top and bot¬ 
 tom. The feeds are numerous, and extremely linall. 
 
 ORDEA L, an ancient form of trial, pra&iicd in 
 England till the reign of Henry III. 
 
 The ordeal was of various kinds, as of fire, of red- 
 hot iron, cold water, &c. and, if the perfon fulpe&ed 
 remained unhurt after this trial, he was declared innocent. 
 
 ORDER, in architecture, coniifts of two principal 
 members, the Column and die Entablature ; 
 each of which iscompofed ofthree principal parts. Thofe 
 of the Column arc, the Bafe, the Shaft, and the Capita/-, 
 and thofe of the entablature are, the Architrave, the 
 Frieze, and the Cornice. All thefe are lubdivided into 
 many lefs parts, whofe number, form, and dimenfions 
 cliaraClerife each order, and exprcfs the degree of ftrength 
 delicacy, richnefs, or fimplicity peculiar to it. 
 
 The lufan Ordi: r is the firft, moft finiplc and folid ; 
 its column is feven diameters high, and its capital, bale,' 
 and entablature, have but few mouldings for ornaments. 
 
 If we give credit to M. deCambray in his Parallel, 
 this order ought neverto be tiled any where but in rufticks 
 or country lioufes and places. See Tusc a n Ora 
 
 The Dorick Order is the lecond and moft agreeable to 
 nature. It is the moft ancient, and given "us by the 
 Greeks ; it has no ornament on its bale, or oil its capital. 
 
 Its height is eight diameters. Its frieze is diftinguilhed 
 by triglyphs and metopes. Its competition is grand and 
 noble, and the triglyphs which make the ornaments of 
 its frieze, bearing fome releinblance to a lyre, ieem to 
 intimate it to have been originally intended for fome 
 temple confccrated to Apollo. See Doric k QrAor. 
 
 ‘Ihe lotiick Order is the third, and a kind of mean 
 proportional between the folid and delicate orders. Its 
 capital is adorned with volutes, and its cornice with 
 denticles. See Ionic k. Order. 
 
 The Corinthian Order, invented by Callimachus, is 
 the fourth, the richeft and the moft delicate. Its, capital 
 is adorned with two rows of leaves, and eight volutes, 
 which luftain the abacus. Its column is ten diameters 
 high, and its cornice has modillons. SeeCoR inthian 
 
 Order. 
 
 The Cwpofttc or Roman Order is the fifth and laft 
 (though ScMiimozzi makes it the fourth.) • It is called 
 the Compoiite, becaulc its capital is compofed out of 
 thofe of the other orders; having two rows of leaves of 
 the Corinthian, and the volutes of the lonick. It is alio 
 called the Roman, becaulc invented among that people. 
 
 Its column is io diameters high, and its cornice has 
 denticles orlimplc mocilions. bee Compos ite Older. 
 
 I Rujiick Order, is that adorned with rullick quoins, 
 
 , Ac. 
 
 Ai tick 
 
O R D 
 
 Attick Order, Js a little order of low pilaftcrs, with 
 an arch it raved cornice for its entablature, as that of the 
 caftle of Verlailles, over the lonick, on the fide of the 
 garden. M. Blondel calls the little pilafters of Articles 
 and Mezzanines falfe orders. 
 
 P*rjutn Order, is that which lias figures of Perfian 
 flaves. initcad of columns, to fupport the entablature. 
 
 Caryatid Order, is that whole entablature is l'up- 
 ported with figures of women inftead of columns. 
 
 G 'jt/.’uk Order, is an order which deviates from the 
 ornaments and proportions of the antique ; and whole 
 columns are either too maffive, in manner of pillars ; or 
 too flender, like poles ; its capitals out of all mealure ; 
 and carved with leaves of wild, acanthus, thifUes, cab¬ 
 bage, or the like. 
 
 frmcb Order, is a new contrived order, wherein 
 the capitals confift of attributes agreeing to that people, 
 as cocks heads, flowers de lis, &c. 7 he proportions 
 
 of this order are Corinthian. Such is that of M. Le 
 Brun, in the grand gallery of Verlailles, and that of 
 M. Le CJerc. 
 
 M. LeClerc gives a fecond Tufcan order and a Spa- 
 nifti order, belides his French order. The Tufcan lie 
 ranks between the fir ft Tulcan and D.orick. He makes 
 the height of it 23 lemi-diameters, 22 minutes ; the 
 columns to have 15, the pedeftal 5, and the entablature 
 3 and 22 minutes ; and he proposes its frieze to be 
 adorned with turtles, which are the arms of Tufcany. 
 He places the Spanifh order between the Corinthian 
 and Compofite. He makes the whole order 30 lemi- 
 diameters, 28 minutes; the column of which has 19 
 and 25 minutes, the pedeftal 16 and 18 minutes, and 
 the entablature 4 and 15 minutes. The horns of the 
 abacus he fuftains with little volutes ; the middle, in lieu 
 of a role, has a lion’s fnout; that animal being the 
 fymbol of Spam, and exprelling the ftrength, gravity, 
 and prudence of that nation. 
 
 Hoy Orders, a char after peculiar to ecclefiafticks, 
 whereby they are fct apart for the miniftry. 
 
 Mili ary Orders, are companies of knights, infti- 
 tuted by kings and princes ; either for defence of the 
 faith, or to confer marks of honour, and make diftinc- 
 tions among their fubjefts. 
 
 R'i’y.’om Orders, are congregations or focieties of 
 monallicks, living under the fame fuperior, in the fame 
 manner, and wearing the fame habit. 
 
 ORDINANCE, or Ordonn ante, a law ftatute^or 
 command of a fovereign, or fuperior: thus the aftsofpar- 
 liament arefometiraes termed ordinances of parliament. 
 
 ORDINARY, or Honour able Ordinary, in 
 heraldry, a denomination given to certain charges pro¬ 
 perly belonging to that art. The honourable ordinaries 
 arc 10 in number, viz. the chief, pale, bend, fcfte, bar, 
 crofs, faltier, chevron, bordure, and orle. 
 
 ORD 1 NA 1 ES, or Ordinate Applicates, in 
 geometry, arc parallel lines, terminating in a curve, 
 and biftefted by a diameter. The half of thefe is pro¬ 
 perly the femi-ordinate, though commonly called ordi¬ 
 nate. Sec Curve, Parabola, Hyperbola, Ac. 
 
 ORDINATION, the aft of conferring holy orders, 
 or of initiating a perfon into the priefthood by prayer, 
 and the laying 011 of hands. Ordination has ahvays 
 been efteemed the principal prerogative of bilhops, and 
 they ftill retain the funftion as a mark of fpiritual fo- 
 vereignty in their diocel'e. Without ordination, no per¬ 
 fon can receive any benefice, parfonage, vicarage, &c. 
 
 A clerk muft be 23 years of age before he can have any 
 fhai-e in the miniftry; and 24, before he can be ordained", 
 and by that means be permitted toadminifter the facra- 
 ments. A biihop on the ordination of clergymen, is to 
 examine them in the prefence of the minifters who aftift 
 him at the impofition of hands; and in cafe any crime, 
 as drunkennels, perjury, forgery, &c. be alledged againfl 
 any one that is to be ordained, either prieft or deacon, 
 the biftiop ought to defift from ordaining him. The 
 perfon to be ordained is to bring a teftimoniaiof his life 
 and doftrine to the biihop, and give an account of his 
 faith in Latin, and both priefts and deacons are obliged 
 to fubferibe the 39 articles. 
 
 ORDN ANCE, a general name for all forts of great 
 guns ufed in war. See Can none 
 
 ORDONN ANCL, in painting, is ufed for the dif- 
 pohtion of the parts of a pifture, cither with regard to 
 
 Q R G 
 
 the wllqjc piece, or to the feveral parts; as the eroupi; 
 lr.afTes, contrafts, &c. 
 
 Ordonnance, in architefture, is the compofition 
 of a building, and the dilpolition of its parts, both with 
 regard to the whole, and to oiie another ; or, as Mr. 
 Evelyn exprefles it, determining the mealure of what is 
 affigned to the feveral apartments. 
 
 ORE, in natural hiftory, the mineral glebe, earth or 
 ftone dug out of the mines, to be purified,"and have the 
 metalline particles feparated from it. 
 
 ORGAN, in general, is an inftrument or machine 
 defigned for the produftion of fome certain aftion or 
 operation ; in which fenle, the mechanick powers, ma¬ 
 chines, and even the veins, arteries, nerves, mufcles, and 
 bones of the human body, may be called organs. 
 
 1 he organs of ienl'e are thofe parts of the body, by 
 which we receive the impreffions or ideas of external 
 objefts ; being commonly reckoned five, viz. the eye, 
 ear, note, palate, and cutis. 
 
 Organ, in mufick, the largeft and moft harmonious 
 wind-inftrument. The invention of the organ is very- 
 ancient, though it is agreed that it was very little ufed 
 till the eighth century. It feems to have been borrowed 
 from the Greeks. Vitruvius deicribes an hydraulick one 
 in his iotli book of architefture. 
 
 St. Jerome mentions one with 12 pair of bellows, 
 which might be heard a thoufand paces, or a mile ; and 
 another at Jerufalem, which might be heard at the Mount 
 of Olives. There is one in the cathedral church of Ulm, 
 in Germany, that is 93 feet high; and 28 broad ; the 
 biggeft pipe is 13 inches in diameter, and it has 16 pair 
 of bellows. 
 
 T he organ has at leaft one fet of keys, when it has 
 only one body, and two or three when it has a pofitive 
 or chair-organ : though large organs have four, and 
 fometimes five fets of keys ; befides which, the pedals 
 or largeft pipes have their keys, the flop's or touches 
 whereof are played by the feet. The keys of an organ 
 arc ufually divided into four oftaves, viz. the fecond 
 lub-oftave, firft fub-oftave, middle oftave, and firft 
 oftave. Each oftave is divided into 12 flops or frets, 
 whereof the fcveral black ones maik the natural founds,’ 
 and the five white, the artificial ones, that is, the lharps 
 and flats; fo that the keys ufually contain 48 flops, or 
 touches. Some organifts add to this number one pr 
 more ftops in die third fub-oftave as well as.in the fecond. 
 Note, lorae harpfichords and fpinnets have their natural 
 ftops or keys often marked white, and their artificial ones 
 black. 7 he pedals have about tvVo or three oftaves, at 
 the pleafure of the organift, fo that the number of flops 
 is indeterminate. 
 
 Each key or flop prefled down, opens a valve or plug 
 which correfponds lengthvvile with as many holes as 
 there are rows of pipes on the found-board : the holes of 
 each row are opened and ftiut by a regifter, or ruler 
 pierced with 48 holes ; by drawing the regifter, the holes 
 of one iow are opened, becaufe the holes therein cone- 
 ipond with thofe of the found-board, fo that by opening 
 a valve, the wind brought into the found-board, by a 
 large pair of bellow's, finds a paffage into the pipes, which 
 cqrrcipond to the open holes of the found-board ; but by 
 pufiling the regifter, the 48 holes thereof not anfwering 
 to any of thofe of the found-board, that row of pipes 
 anfwering to the pufhed regifter are fliut. Whence it 
 follows, that by drawing feveral regillcrs, feveral rows 
 of pipes are opened ; and the fame tiling happens, if the 
 lame regifter correfpQnd to feveral rows. Hence the rows 
 of pipes become either Ample or compound : Ample, 
 when only one row anfwers to one regifter ; compound, 
 where feveral. The organifts fay, a row is compound, 
 when feveral pipes play upon prefling one ftop. 
 
 ORGAN 1 CAL, in the ancient mufick, implied that 
 par^performed by inftruments. 
 
 Organic a l Part, that part of an animal, or plant, 
 deftined to perform fome particular funftion. 
 
 Organic al Difeafe, a difeale in the organical part 
 of the body, whereby its funftion is impeded, fufpended 
 and deftroyed. 
 
 Organical Defcription of Curves , the method of 
 deferibingthem on a plane by the help of inftruments. 
 See Curve. 
 
 ORGASM, in medicine, a violent turgency and 
 motion of the humours. 
 
 ORGIA, 
 
ORL 
 
 ORGIA, in antiquity, feafts and facrifices performed! 
 in honour of Bacchus, inftituted by Orpheus, and chiefly 
 celebrated on the mountains by wild dill rafted women, 
 Called Bacchte. 
 
 ORGUES, in the military art, thick long pieces of 
 wood pointed and fhod with iron, and hung each by a 
 feparate rope over the gateway ot the place, ready on 
 any furprize, or attempt of the enemy, to be let down, 
 to flop up the gate. 
 
 Orgues, is alfo ufed to fignify a machine compofed 
 of feveral mufket-barrels, bound together; by means 
 whereof lcveral bullets arc fired at the fame time ; ufed 
 to defend breaches, and other places attacked. 
 
 ORGYIA, an ancient Grecian long meafure, con¬ 
 taining fix feet. 
 
 ORIENT, in geography and afironomy, the call, 
 or eaftern point of the horizon. 
 
 ORIENTAL, fomething fituated towards the eaft, 
 with regard to us, or fomething brought from thence. 
 
 ORIFICE, Orificium, the mouth or aperture of a 
 tube, pipe, velfel, or other cavity. 
 
 Orifice is alfo ul'ed to fignify the aperture of a wound 
 or ulcer. 
 
 ORIGANUM, wild majoram, in botany, a plant 
 with firm round ftalks, and oval, acuminated, uncut, 
 fomewhat hairy leaves, fet in pairs upon fhort pedicles : 
 on the tops grow fcaly heads of pale red labiated flowers, 
 whofe upper lip is entire, and the lower cut into three 
 fegments, fet in form of a convex umbel, intermixed 
 with roundifh purplifh leaves; each flower is followed 
 by four minute feeds inelofed in the cup. It grows wild 
 on dry chalky hills and gravelly grounds, in feveral parts 
 of England, and flowers in June. The flowers, or 
 rather flowery tops, of a fomewhat different fpecies, 
 Origanum Creticum, were formerly brought from Candy, 
 but have long given place to thofc of our own growth, 
 which are nearly of the fame quality. 
 
 The leaves and flowery tops of origanum have an 
 agreeable aromatick fmell, and a pungent tafie, warmer 
 than that of the garden marjoram, and much refembling 
 thyme ; with which they appear to agree in medicinal 
 virtue. Infufions of them are fometimes drank as tea, 
 in weaknefs of the flomach, diforders ot the breaif, for 
 promoting perfpiration and the fluid fecretions in ge¬ 
 neral ; they are fometimes ufed alfo in nervine and anti- 
 rheumatick baths ; and the powder of the dried herb as 
 an errhine. Diftilled with water, they yield a moderate 
 quantity of a very acrid penetrating eifential oil, fmelling 
 Itrongly of the origanum, but lefs agreeable than the 
 herb itfelf: this oil is applied on a little cotton for eafing 
 the pains of carious teeth; and fometimes diluted and 
 rubbed on the noftrils or fnuffed up the nofe, for attenu¬ 
 ating and evacuating mucous humours. 
 
 ORIGENISTS, in church hiftory, aChriftian feft in 
 the fourth century, fo called from their drawing their 
 opinions from the writings of Origen. I he Origenifls 
 maintained, that the fouls of men had a pre-exiflent 
 Hate, that they were holy intelligences, and had finned 
 in heaven before the body was created : that Chrift is 
 only the Son of God by adoption ; that he has been fuc- 
 celfively united with all the angelical natures, and has 
 been a cherub, a feraph, and all the celeilial virtues, one 
 after another , that in future ages, he will be crucified 
 for the falvation of the devils, as he has already been for 
 that of men ; and that their punifhment, and that of the 
 damned, will continue only for a certain limited time. 
 
 ORIGINAL, a firft draught, defign, or autograph, 
 of any thing, ferving as a model to be imitated dr copied. 
 
 Original Sin , that crime we became guilty of at our 
 birth, by the imputation of Adam s dilobedience. 
 
 ORIGIN ALIA, inthe exchequer, are records or tran¬ 
 scripts fent to the remembrancer’s office, out of chancery. 
 
 OR 1 LLON, in fortification, a fmall rounding of 
 earth, lined with a wall, railed on the fhoulder of thole 
 baflions that have cafemates, to cover the cannon in the 
 retired flank, and prevent their being difmounted by 
 the enemy. 
 
 ORION, in afironomy, one of the conflellations of 
 the fouthern hemifphere. ’ The number of liars in this 
 conflellarion, in Ptolemy’s catalogue is 37, in Tycho’s 
 62, and in Mr. Flamftead’s 80. 
 
 ORLE, Orlet, or Orlo, in architenure, a fillet 
 under the ovolo, ox quarter round of a capital. 
 
 2 
 
 O R R 
 
 j Orle, in heraldry, is an ordinary in form of a fillet, 
 
 I drawn round the fhield, near its edge or extremity, 
 leaving the field vacant in the middle. 
 
 OR LOPE, or Orlop, in a Ihip of war, the platform 
 or deck, below' the lower gun-deck, where the cables arc- 
 flowed, and the midfhipmen have their births. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY, that branch of natural hiflory 
 which relates to birds, their natures, kinds, 6cc. 
 
 ORNITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, or fore¬ 
 telling future events, by means of birds. 
 
 OROBANCHE, Broom-Rape, in botany, a genus 
 of the didy namia-angiofpermia clafs of plants, the corolla 
 of which is monopctalous and ringent; and its fruit an 
 oblong capfule formed of two valves, and containing a 
 great many minute feeds. The leaves of this plant, dried, 
 and reduced to a powder, afford great relief in extreme 
 pains of thecholick ; and its lirup is recommended agajnfl 
 the hypochondriack afFeftion. 
 
 ORPHAN, a child, or minor, deflitute of a father; 
 or that has neither father nor mother. 
 
 ORPIMENT, in natural hillory, one of the mofl 
 beautiful foffils we know, when it is pure ; but it is much 
 more frequently met with mixed and blended in fmall 
 flakes, among a folid iubflance approaching to its own 
 nature, but without its luilre or foliated texture. 
 
 The principal ufc of orpiment is as a colouring drug 
 among the painters, being ot a beautiful gold colour. 
 
 ORRERY, a very curious machine for reprefenting 
 to the eye the motions of the heavenly bodies, according 
 to the Copern ican fyflem. 
 
 The ancients were no flrangers to machines of this 
 kind, though perhaps they wanted that perfection to 
 which the moderns have carried them. The firft we 
 have any mention of is that of Archimedes, generally 
 called Archimedes’s fphere; though it was more than 
 what we now-a-days call a fphere, which is an inflru- 
 ment confifling only of large and fmall circles artfully 
 put together; blit this famous machine of Archimedes 
 was of a more complex nature, and confuted of a fphere; 
 not of circles, but of an hollow globular furface of glafs, 
 within which was a piece of rucchanifm to exhibit the 
 motions of the moon, the fun, and the five planets. 
 
 This machine appears from hence to have been fuffi- 
 ciently grand and univerfal, as comprehending all the 
 heavenly bodies, and exhibiting all their proper mo¬ 
 tions ; which is all that can be faid of our common 
 modern orreries. It is true, this orrery of Archimedes 
 was contrived to reprefent the Ptolemaick fyflem; but 
 die mechanifm and nature of the inflrument is the fame, 
 whether the fyflem of Ptolemy, or Copernicus,, or any 
 other be reprelented by it. 
 
 The next orrery we have any mention of is that of 
 Pofidonius the floick, in Cicero’s time, 80 years before 
 our Saviour’s birth : concerning which the orator, in 
 his book De Nat. Deorum, has the following pafiage^: 
 “ Quid fi in Scythiam, aut in Britanniam, fphreram 
 “ aliquis tulerit hanc, quam nuper familiaris nofl^r 
 “ effecit Pofidonius, cujus fingular converfioncs idem 
 “ efficiunt in foie, & in luna, N: in quinque flcllis erran- 
 “ tibus, quodefficitur in cceloiingulisdicbus & noftibusj 
 “ quis in ilia barbarie dubitet, quin ea fphsera fit per- 
 “ fefta ratione ?” That is, If any man fhould carry 
 this fphere of Pofidonius into Scythia or Britain, in 
 every revolution of which the motions of the fun, moon, 
 and five planets, were the fame as in the heavens each 
 day and night, who in thofc barbarous countries could 
 doubt of its being finifhed (not to fay actuated) by per- 
 feft reafon ?—What can be a more genuine account of a 
 compleat orrery than this ? And, by the way, what would 
 Cicero fav, were he now to rife from the grave, and fee 
 his barbarous Britain abounding in orreries of various 
 kinds and fizes ? 
 
 From this time we hear no more of orreries and 
 fpheres, till about five hundred and ten years after Chrift, 
 when the famous Severinus Boethius, the Chriitian, 
 though Roman philofophcr, is faid to have contrived 
 one, which Theodorick king of the Goths wrote to him 
 about, and defired it for his brother-in-law Gundibald 
 king of Burgundy; in which letter he calls it Mach man* 
 mundo gravidam,—ccelum geflabile, — rerum compen¬ 
 dium: that is, a machine pregnant with the univeric,—- 
 : a portable heaven,—a compendium of all things. What 
 more can be faid of our orreries ? 
 
 Afo* 
 
O R R 
 
 O R T 
 
 After this fucceedcd a long interval of barbarifm and 
 ignorance, which l'o deluged the literary world, that we 
 find no inftance of mechanifm of any note till tile fix- 
 teenth century, when the fciences began again to revive, 
 and the mechanical arts to flourilh. Accordingly we 
 meet with many pieces of curious wbrkmanfhip about 
 this time; and, in the agronomical way particularly, is 
 the {lately clock in his majefty’s palace at Hampton- 
 Court, made in Henry the Eighth’s time, A.D. 1540, by 
 one N. O. This Ihews not only the hour of the day, ifut 
 the, motion of the-fun and the moon through all the figns 
 of the zodiack, with other matters depending thereon ; 
 and is therefore to be efteemed a piece of orrery-work. 
 
 Such another is mentioned by Heylin, at the cathedral 
 church ofLunden in Denmark; but the moil confiderable 
 at this time, is that piece of clock-work in the cathedral 
 of Strafburg in Alface ; in which, befides the clock-part, 
 is the celeftial globe or fpherc, with the motions of the 
 fun, moon, planets, and fixed liars, See. It was linilhcd 
 in the year 1574, and is much fuperior to that,pompous 
 clock at Lyons, which alfo contains an orrery part. 
 
 About the beginning of the feventeenth century, this 
 fort of mechanifm began to be greatly in vogue, and 
 fpheres and orreries were now no uncommon things, 
 though orreries bore an excelTive price till very lately. 
 The fir 11 large one made in London by Mr. Rowley was 
 purchafed by king George I. at the price of 1000 gui¬ 
 neas ; nor has any ot that large fort, which contains all 
 the movements of primaries and lecondaries, been fold 
 for lefs than 300I. at any time linee. 
 
 There have been various forms invented for this noble 
 inilrument, two of which have principally obtained, viz. 
 the hemifpherical orrery, and the whole fphere; though 
 the orrery atfirftwas made without any fphere, and with 
 only the fun, and the earth, and the moon revolving 
 about it; but this was too imperfefl a Hate, and they 
 foon began to invefl it, fome with a half fphere, fome 
 with a whole or complete fphere; for otherwife it could 
 not be an adequate reprefentation of the folar fyftem. 
 
 The hemifpherical orrery has been made in greater 
 numbers than any other, on account of their being made 
 at lefs cxpence. This orrery we have given a figure of, 
 (plate LXI. fig. i.) It is compofed of an ebony frame 
 about four feet diameter, that contains the wheel-work, 
 See . for the regulation of the whole machine; adorned 
 with twelve curious pilafters on the outfide; between 
 which are neatly painted the twelve ligns of the zodiack ; 
 above the frame is a broad ring, fupported by twelve 
 pillars, and reprefenting the plane of the ecliptick; upon 
 which are two feales of degrees, and between thofe the 
 names and characters of the twelve figns. And near 
 the outfide is a fcale of months and days, exaCllv corre- 
 fponding to the fun’s place at noon, each day in the 
 year. Above this ring hand fome of the principal circles 
 of the fphere, according to their rcfpeClive fituations in 
 the heavens. Thus 10 are the two colures, divided into 
 degrees and half degrees. 11 is one half of the equi¬ 
 noctial circle, making an angle with the ecliptick of 23! 
 degrees. The tropick of cancer, and the arCtick circle, are 
 each fixed parallel, and at their proper diftance from the 
 equinoctial. On the northern half of the ecliptick is a 
 brafs femicircle, moveable upon two points fixed in °r 
 and which femicircle lerves as a moveable horizon, 
 to be put to any degree of latitude upon the N. part of 
 the meridian. And the whole machine may be fet to 
 any latitude, without diflurbing any of the inlidc mo¬ 
 tions, by two flrong hinges. 13, fixed to the bottom 
 frame, upon which the inilrument moves; and a flrong 
 brafs arch having holes at every degree, through which 
 a ilrong pin is to be put, according to the elevation. 
 For by thefe means, and the ilrength of two men, each 
 taking hold of two handles, the machine is conveniently 
 railed and fixed at any latitude. When the machine is 
 fet to the latitude required, the moveable horizon muft 
 alfo be adapted to the fame degree upon the meridian, 
 and you may form an idea of the refpeCtive altitude, or 
 depreffions of the planets, above or below the horizon, 
 according to their refpeClive portions, with regard to the 
 meridian. In the middle of the large circle, defigned to 
 reprefent the ecliptick, is fixed a globe, 1, to reprefent 
 the fun. Next the fun is a fmall ball, 2, to reprefent 
 Mercury. Next to this is Venus, 3, reprefented by a 
 large ball. And, at a greater diftance from the fun, 
 
 Vol. II. No. 53. 
 
 you fee the earth, 4, reprefented by an ivory ball, fur- 
 rounded, at fome diftance,' by a ring, which expreftes thfe 
 orbit of the moon, making an angle with the circle that 
 reprefents the ecliptick, and thereby fhewing the inclina¬ 
 tion they have to each other in the heavens, and alfo the 
 line of the nodes. Within the fame ring is another 
 ivory ball, 5, with a black cap or cafe, to reprefent the 
 moon; the cap is contrived always to cover that hemi- 
 fphere, which is turned from the fun, and thereby dif- 
 tinguifheth the enlightened part from the dark fide, and, 
 confcquently, her age. 6 reprefents Mars. is Jupi¬ 
 ter attended with his fatpllites, or four moons. And 8, 
 the outmofl of all the planets, is Saturn with his ring or 
 belt, and five fatellites or moons. All thefe are fixed 
 upon fmall flems, which feve rally reprefent their axis, 
 each of which hath its peculiar and proper inclination to 
 the plane of that circle which reprefents the ecliptick. 
 
 When the machine is put in motion, all thefe bodies 
 move round that which reprefents the fun, arid, at thfe 
 lame time, both that, and all thole which reprefent fuch 
 of the planets as have been oblerved to have a rotation 
 about their axis, turn round upon the faid Hems, and 
 in their proper times. The fatellites or moons, alfo, 
 revolve about their primaries at the fame time ; and the 
 ring that reprefents the orbit of the moon has likewife its 
 proper motion, whereby that of its nodes is alfo exprefled. 
 1 he whole machine is put into motion by turning a fmaJl 
 winch, 14, Jike the key of a clock, with very little 
 {Length. And, above this winch, is a cylindrical pin, 
 which may be drawn a little out, or pufhed in at plea* 
 lure: when it is pufhed in, all the planets, both pri¬ 
 mary and fecondary, will move according to their refpec- 
 tive periods, by turning the handle or winch: when it 
 is drawn out, the motions of the fatellites of Jupiter and 
 Saturn will be flopped, while all the reft move freely. 
 In the place of the fun, you may fix a brafs lamp, with 
 two convex glafles, made on purpofe; which, being 
 placed with the glafs dirc&ly to the earth, and turning 
 lound in the fame time with the earth, throws a conti¬ 
 nual ftroiig light upon it and the moon, in whatever part 
 of its orbit it is; and fo not only the times in which the 
 eclipfes of the fun and moon will happen, are fhewn 3- 
 but the phenomena themfelves are truly reprefented. 
 
 When you propofe to ufe this machine, place a fmall 
 black patch, or a bit ot wafer, upon the middle of the 
 lun, right againtl the firft degree of r : you may alfo 
 place patches upon Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, right 
 againft fome noted point in the ecliptick ; put on the 
 handle, and puih in the pin which is juft above it. 
 One turn of this handle anfwcrs to a revolution of the 
 ball, which reprefents the earth, about its axis ; and, 
 confcquently, to 24 hours of time, as may be feen by 
 the motion of the hour index, 9, which is marked, and 
 placed at the foot of the wire, on which the ball of the 
 earth is fixed : again, when the index has moved the 
 fpace of 10 hours, Jupiter makes one complete revolu¬ 
 tion round its axis ; and fo of the reft. 
 
 By thefe means the revolutions of the planets, and 
 their motions round their own axis, will be reprefented 
 to the eye. And it is worth obfervation, that the diurnal 
 motion of the planets was difeovered, by obferving the 
 motions of the fpots upon the furface of the fun, and of 
 the planets in the heavens, after the fame manner as we 
 here obferve the motions of their reprefentatives, by that 
 of the marks placed upon them in this machine. 
 
 This machine is fo contrived, that the winch may be 
 turned either way ; fo that, the fame number of revolu¬ 
 tions being made backwards, they will bring all the pla¬ 
 nets to their former afpe£ls or’fituations in refpett to 
 each other. 
 
 
 
 
 See Bkrme. 
 
 ORTHODOXY, the foundnefs of doflrine, or be¬ 
 lief, with regard to all the points and articles of faith. 
 
 ORFHOGONIAL, in geometry, the fame with 
 re£t angular, or right-angled. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHICK Projeflion of the Sphere , a re¬ 
 prefentation of the feveral circles of the fphere on a plane, 
 the eye being placed at an infinite diftance, vertical to ontf 
 °* hemif'pheres. See Proj ec t i on of the Sphere. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, in grammar, the art of fpell- 
 mg> Biat is, of writing words juftly, and with their 
 proper and necefiary letters. 
 
 T t 
 
 Ortho-. 
 
Orthography, in geometry, the art of drawing 
 Or delineating the front plan, or fide of an objedt. 
 
 Orthography, -in architecture, is the elevation 
 of a building. The orthography is either external or 
 internal. 
 
 The external orthography is taken for the delineation 
 of an external face or front of a building ; or, as it is 
 by others defined, is the model, platform, and delinea¬ 
 tion of the front of a houfe, that is contrived, and to be 
 built by the rules of geometry, according to which pat¬ 
 tern the whole fabrick is eredted and finilhed. Tins 
 delineation or platform exhibits the principal wall, with 
 its apertures, roof, ornaments, and every thing vifible 
 to an eye placed before the building. 
 
 Internal orthography, which is alfo called a fedtion, 
 is a delineation, or draught of a building, fuch as it 
 Would appear, were the external wall removed. 
 
 Orthography, in perlpedtive, is the front or fore 
 view of any plane ; i. e. the fide or plane that lies pa¬ 
 rallel to a ftraight line, which may be imagined to pais 
 through the outward convex point of the eye, continued 
 to a convenient length. 
 
 ORTHOPNOEA, in medicine, a fpecies or degree 
 of afthma, where there is fuch a difficulty of rei'piration, 
 that the patient is obliged to fit or Hand upright, to be 
 able to breathe. See Asthma. 
 
 ORT 1 VE, in aftronomv, lignifies caftern ; as ortive, 
 or eaflern, amplitude is an arch ot the horizon, inter¬ 
 cepted between tire point where the fun or a liar rifes, 
 and the eaflern point of the horizon, or point where the 
 horizon and equator interfedt. 
 
 ORVIETANUM, in pharmacy, the name of a cele¬ 
 brated antidote, fo called, according to Lcmery, from 
 Orvieto, a city of Italy, where it was firfl ufed; but, 
 according to others, from Hieronymus Ferrantes Orvie- 
 tanus, a celebrated mountebank, who invented it. The 
 method of preparing this medicine may be feen in Le- 
 mery’s Pharnracopee. 
 
 ORYZA, rice, in botany. See Rice. 
 
 OSCILLATION, in mechanicks, the vibration, or 
 reciprocal al'cent and defcent of a pendulum. See the 
 article Pendulum. 
 
 Centre of Oscillation, in a fufpended body, is a 
 certain point therein, each vibration whereof is per¬ 
 formed in the fame manner, as if that point or part alone 
 Were fufpended at that diflance from the point of fuf- 
 penfion. Or it is a point, wherein, if the whole length 
 of a compound pendulum be colledtcd, the feveral ofcil- 
 lations will be performed in the fame time as before. 
 Its difiance, therefore, from the point of fufpenfion, is 
 equal to the ngth of a fingle pendulum whole ofcilla- 
 tions are ilochronal with thole of the compound one. 
 
 OSIER, in botany, a fpecies of the falix or willow, 
 much cultivated in moift places, called ofier-grounds, 
 for the ufe of balket-makers, no plant being more pliant 
 for their purpofe ; they are propagated by cuttings, and 
 are annually cut down, and always kept low : the feafon 
 for planting the cuttings is in February, and for cutting 
 the twigs in winter. 
 
 OSMITES, in botany, a genus of plants, producing 
 compound and radiated flowers; the flowers which 
 compofe the dilcare hermaphrodite, tubulofe, andquin- 
 quifid the female flowers which form the rays, are 
 lanceolated and intire ; it hath no pericarpium, but the 
 Cup, which is immutable, contains folitary oblong feeds 
 With very little down. 
 
 OSMUNDA, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia 
 filicum clafs. The fpike is full of branches, and the 
 frudtification is round. There are 17 fpecies, none of 
 them natives of Britain. 
 
 OSSICLE, Officulum , a little bone, a diminutive of 
 bone, in which l'enfe it is frequently ufed by ana- 
 temifts. Botanifis alfo ufe officulum for the Hone of a 
 plumb, cherry, or any other ftone-fruit. 
 
 OSSIFICATION, the formation of bones, but more 
 particularly the converfion of parts naturally loft, to the 
 hardnefs and confillcnce of bones. 
 
 OSTENSIVE Demonstration, that which 
 'plain v and diredtly proves the truth of any propofition. 
 
 OSTEOCOLLA, in natural hiftory, a white or 
 afh-coloured lparry fubftance, fliaped like a bone, and 
 by fome fuppoled to have the quality of uniting broken 
 bones, whence the name. 
 
 . 2 
 
 O S Y 
 
 Ofteocolla is frequent in many parts of Germany, 
 lying near the furface of the earth, fometimes in flrata 
 of land, but more frequently in marles. That which is 
 found in the earth, is ufually of the regular cretaceous 
 kind, and has frequently the remains of llicks, Nc. 
 about which it has been formed. This lubfiance has 
 been long famous for bringing on a callus in fractured 
 bones; and the Germans, at this time, frequently give 
 it, where the callus does not feem to form itl'clf fo quick 
 as’ they could wilh. It is alfo recommended as a diurctick, 
 and as good in the fiuor albus; but it is entirely neg¬ 
 lected with us in the prefent pradtice. 
 
 OS I EOCOPOS, in medicine, that fort of pain and 
 uneafinefs excited by too much motion, generally called 
 a wearinefsof the bones. 
 
 OSTEOLOGIA, adefeription of the bones ; or the 
 do&rine relative to the bones. 
 
 OSTRACITES, in natural hiftory, has been ufed 
 by authors to exprefs the common oyfter in its foffile 
 Hate, under whatever circumftances it has been petrified; 
 but, as the virtues aferibed to it, in medicine, feem to 
 depend on its being either fated with fpar, or retaining 
 fomewhat of its original teftaccous nature ; at Ieall, as 
 they are not to be expcCted in fuch petrifactions of this 
 lhell as are abfolutely of the flinty or ltony kind ; it will 
 be proper to rejeCt all thole out of praCtice. The oyfter 
 is not only of feveral diftinCt fpecies in its recent Hate, 
 but every one of thofe fpecies is liable to many acci¬ 
 dental varieties, there being fcarce any known lhell in 
 which nature fports fo much, as to fliape, as the oyfter 
 kind. Every one of thefe ftates of the oyfter, as well as 
 each feveral fpecies, may be buried in the earth, and 
 every one may be petrified there in a different manner. 
 Some of them are found hard, folid, and flinty, others; 
 fofter and more flaky ; thefe laft are to be chofen for ufe. 
 They will always be known to be oyfter-(hells by the 
 fliape, and the greateft tell, for proving them proper for 
 medicinal ufes, is, that they burn readily into lime in 
 the fire. 
 
 The virtues attributed to the oftracites are the fame 
 with thofe of the belemnites, lapis Judaicus, and the 
 reft of this clafs ; but they ftand better recommended 
 than thofe of any other by a late authority. Dr. Lifter 
 has recorded a letter of his friend Dr. Cay, in which that 
 phyfician declares the oftracites to be, upon his own 
 knowledge, one of the greateft known medicines in 
 nephritick cafes. He never gave it, he fays, to any that 
 had a confirmed ftone, but to fuch only as were troubled 
 with gravel, or with finall Hones that might be made to 
 pafs, and that almoft all he had given it to' were cured; 
 fome voiding gravel and Hones, others not; that it was 
 to be taken a confiderable time, in order to have the 
 effeCt; but that no body he ever cured by it, ever had a 
 return of the fame complaint. 
 
 This is a very remarkable recommendation of a medi¬ 
 cine; and Dr. Lifter himfelf, who alfo tried it, in a- 
 great meafure, confirms what his friend fays of it. The 
 teftimony of two fuch people may render it worth trying 
 again. The dofe is- from a a drachm to a drachm Tit 
 white wine. The oftracites is to be reduced to fine 
 powder ; and Dr. Cay, to prevent a ficknefs at the fto- 
 rnach, that fometimes attended the taking it, ufed to 
 mix it with | part of the quantity of powdered chamo¬ 
 mile flowers. 
 
 Ostracites, is alfo the name of a kind of cadmia, 
 found at the bottom of furnaces where copper is purifi.-d. 
 
 OSTRICH, Struibio, in ornithology, a diltinCt genus 
 of birds, having only two toes to each foot, and thefe 
 are both placed foreward ; and its head is Ample', or not 
 ornamented with the appendages which arc common to 
 moft birds of this oryler. The oftrich is the talleft of all 
 the bird kind, mealuring feven or eight feet when it 
 Hands creCt : its legs* are very long aud naked ; and the" 
 ftruCture of the foot, having only two toes, is particular. 
 
 The buftard has been confounded with the turkey : it 
 is about the fize of the common peacock, and runs at 
 aprodigious rate, being frequently taken with greyhounds 
 in a faircourfe, in the manner of hunting the hare ; its 
 fiefli is well tailed. 
 
 OSYR 1 S, poets rofemary, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, without any flower-petals : the fruit is a globofc 
 unilocular berry, containing a Angle ofleous feed. This 
 whole Ihrubis aftringent ; andconfequentlvgood influxes. 
 
 Ofyris 
 
O VE 
 
 Ofyns is alfo a name fometimes ufed for the IiiMiria, 
 or toad-flax. 
 
 OTHONNA, baftard jacobsea, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, the compound flower of which is radiated 
 with a great number of tubulofe and quinquedentatcd 
 hermaphrodite ones on the dife: the ftamina are five 
 very fhort capillary filaments; and the feed, which is 
 Angle after-each flower, is contained in the cup, and is 
 either naked or crowned vyith down. 
 
 OTTER, Lutra, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds, 
 of the order of the ferse, the charters of which are 
 •thefe : the fore teeth of the upper jaw arc ftrait, di- 
 •ftinft, and acute ; thofe of the under jaw are obtufe, and 
 Hand clofe together ; the ears are fituated lower than the 
 eyes, and the feet arc furnifhed each with five toes, and 
 are palmatcd or formed for fwimming. 
 
 Of this genus there are two fpecies. i. The com¬ 
 mon otter, with all the toes of an equal length : this is 
 a very fierce animal, three feet in length, including the 
 tail. J 2. The Brafilian otter, with the inner toe lfiorter 
 than all the reft. This is fomewhat larger than the 
 fiormcr fpecies. 
 
 OVAL, an oblong, curvilinear figure, otherwife 
 called ellipfis. See Ellipsis. However, the proper 
 oval, or egg fliape, differs confiderably from that of the 
 ellipfis, being an irregular figure, narrower at one end 
 than at the other : whereas the ellipfis, or mathematical 
 oval, is equally broad at each end : though it mull be 
 owned, thefe two are commonly confounded together ; 
 even geometricians calling the oval a falfe ellipfis. 
 
 OVARIES, in anatomy, called, by the earlier wri¬ 
 ters, teftes muliebres, arc two bodies of nearly an oval 
 figure ; but gibbous on the upper furface, and flat be¬ 
 low : they are of a whilifh colour and fmooth furface, and 
 are annexed, one on each fide, to the fundus of the womb. 
 
 OVATION, in the Roman antiquity, a lefs triumph, 
 allowed to commanders for victories won without the 
 effufion of much blood; or, for defeating a mean and 
 inconfiderable enemy. The fliow generally began at the 
 Albanian mountain, whence the general, with his reti¬ 
 nue, made his entry into the city on foot, with many 
 flutes or pipes founding in concert as he palled along, and 
 wearing a garland of myrtle as a token of peace. The 
 term ovation, according to Servius, is derived from oves, 
 flieep, becaufe on this occafion the conqueror facrificcd 
 a flieep, as in a triumph lie lacrificed a bull. 
 
 OVEN, a kind of domeftick furnace, ufecl for baking 
 Bread, pies, tarts, &c. of a circular ftrudlure, with a 
 very low roof, well lined, both on the top, bottom, and 
 Aides, with Hone ; it has a fmalt entrance in the front, 
 which is exa£Uy fitted by a kind of door, which being 
 clapped to the mouth of the oven, confines the heat, 
 while bread, pies, or puddings are baking. Over this, 
 paftry-cooks, he. have another oven built much in the 
 fame manner, which is ufed for l’uch things as require a 
 lefs degree of heat. 
 
 AJfaying Oven, in metallurgy, a particular kind of 
 furnace, ufed by affayers in their operations upon metals. 
 
 OVER, in general, fignifies one thing being above 
 ’another; through, or from, one end to another ; be¬ 
 yond, crofs, or overlhwart; it alfo denotes excefs, he. 
 
 Over-blow, among leamen, is when the winds 
 blow fo very hard, that the fliip can bear no top-fails. 
 
 Over-flowing among hufbandmen, is 
 
 commonly effe&ed by diverting.the ftreams of rivers, 
 brooks, land-floods, or fprings, or fome part of them, 
 out of their natural channel; but where ftreams lie too 
 low for this, they are made ufe of to turn fuch engines 
 as may raife a quantity of water to do it. The moft 
 ufeful engine for this purpofe in the Perfian wheel. See 
 'Persian Wheel. 
 
 OvER-RULiNp On ObjeSlion, inlaw, is the reje&ing 
 it, or letting it afide by the court. 
 
 OVERSEERS of the Pc:r , are publick officers ap¬ 
 pointed by -ftatute in every parilh, to provide for the 
 poor therein ; and fometimes there are two, three, or 
 four, according to the largcnefs of parilhes. 
 
 OVER SET, or Overthrow, in the lea-language. 
 A fliip is Laid to ovepfet, when her keel turns yppermoft; 
 which misfortune is occafioned either by bearing too 
 much fail, or by grounding her fo that flie falls upon 
 •ne fide. 
 
 OVERT., the fame with ppcu: thus an ovcrt-afti 
 
 O X 
 
 fignifies an a<ft which, in law, muft be clearly proved ; 
 and fuch is to be alledged in every indictment for high 
 treafon. 
 
 OVERTURE, or Ouverture, opening or pre¬ 
 luding ; a term ufed for the folemnities at the beginning 
 of a publick a£t or ceremony; an opera, tragedy, concert 
 of mufick, he. The overture of the theatre, or feene, 
 is a piece of mufick ufually ending with a fugue ; the 
 overture of ajubilee is a general proceflion, he. 
 
 OVIEDA, in botany, a genus of plants, the corolla 
 whereof is a ringent fingle petal ; the tube ot the corolla 
 is very long and final!; the upper lip is concave and 
 emarginated ; the lower one is divided into three equal 
 fegments. The fruit is a globofc berry, containing two 
 roundifli feeds. 
 
 OVIPAROUS, a term applied to fuch animals as 
 bring forth their young, ab ovo, from eggs; as birds, 
 infetts, he. 
 
 OVIS, the flieep, in zoology. See Sheep. 
 
 OUNCE, Umia, a little weight, the fifteenth part 
 ofa pound avoirdupois, and the twelfth part of a pound 
 troy: the ounce avoirdupois is dividedintoeight drachms, 
 and the ounce troy into twenty penny-weights. 
 
 OVOLO, or Ovum, in architecture, a round 
 moulding, whofe profile, or fiveep, in the Ionick and 
 Compofite capitals, is ufually a quadrant of a circle : 
 whence it is alfo commonly called the quarter-round. It 
 was ufually enriched with feulpture by the ancients, in 
 the form of chcfnut-fliells; whence Vitruvius and others, 
 called it echinus, i. e. cftclnyt-fhcll. See Moulding. 
 
 Among us it is uHiaUy cut with the reprelentation of 
 eggs and anchors, or arrow-heads placed alternately. 
 
 OUT-Houses, are fuch as belong and are adjoining 
 to dwellingToules. 
 
 Out-Land, among the Saxons, was that land that 
 lay beyond the demefnefs, and was granted out tq te¬ 
 nants ; though at the will of the lord, in like manner as 
 copyhold eftates. 
 
 Out-Law, fignifies one that is deprived of the be¬ 
 nefit of the law, and therefore held to be out of the king’s 
 protection. 
 
 OUTLAWRY, is where a perfon is autlawed, and 
 on that account lofes the benefit of a fubjeCL 
 
 OUTLICKER, in a fliip, a fmall piece of timber 
 madefaft to the top of the poop, and Handing out right 
 a-ftern. At the outmoftend thereof is a hole, into which 
 the Handing part of the Hicet is reeved, through the block 
 of the flieet; and then again through another block, 
 which isfeized clofe by the end of this outlicker. It is 
 feldom ufed in great Ihips, except the mizen-maft is 
 placed fo far aft, that there is not room within-board to 
 hale the lheet flat. 
 
 OUTWARD Flunking Angle , or The Angle of the 
 TenaiUe, in fortification, is comprehended by the two 
 flanking lines of defence. SccTenaille. 
 
 OUTWORKS, in fortification, all thofe works made 
 without-fide the ditch of a fortified place, to cover and 
 defend it. Thefe not only ferve to cover the body of the 
 plade, but alfo to keep the enemy at adiftance, and pre¬ 
 vent his taking advantage of the cavities and elevations 
 ufually found in the places about the counterfcarp, 
 which plight ferve them either as lodgments, or as 
 rideaux, to facilitate the carrying on their trenches, and 
 planting their batteries againft the place. 
 
 It is a general rule in all outworks, that if there be fe- 
 veral of them, one before another, to cover one and the 
 fame tenaille of a place, the nearer ones muft gradually 
 one after another, command thofe that are further ad¬ 
 vanced out into the campaign, that is, muft have higher 
 ramparts, that fo they may overlook and fire upon the 
 befiegers, when they are mailers of the more outward 
 works. 
 
 OWELTY, or Ovelty, of Services, in our law¬ 
 books, denotes an equality of fervices; as in the cafe of 
 a lord-mefne, and a tenant who holds the mefne, as he 
 holds of the fuperior lord. 
 
 OWLER, any perfon who conveys wool, he. to the 
 fea-fide in the night-time, thereto be fhipped, contrary to 
 law. 
 
 OWSE, among tanners, oaken bark beaten or ground 
 fmall, to ferve in the preparation of leather. 
 
 OX, Bos , in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds, of the 
 order of the pecora, the characters of which are ; that the 
 
 horns 
 
P A C 
 
 horns are hollow and turned forward, bent likecrefccnts, 
 and fmooth on the furface. 
 
 Of this genus, authors enumerate the five following 
 fpecies, viz. i. The common tame kind. 2. The bona- 
 fus. 3. The bil'oti. 4. The bubalus. 5. The urus. 
 
 Ox-Gang, in old lawbooks, fignifies 15 acres, being 
 the quantity of land an ox is luppofed to be able to plow 
 in a year. 
 
 OXYCRATE, Oxycratum, in pharmacy, a mixture 
 of water and vinegar. 
 
 OXYCROCEUM, in pharmacy, a plaifter compofcd 
 chiefly of faffron and gums diflolved in vinegar. 
 
 OXYGONIOUS, in geometry, acute-angled ; thus 
 a triangle, whofe-three angles are acute, is called anoxy- 
 gonious triangle. 
 
 OXYMEL, in pharmacy, a mixture of honey and 
 vinegar, boiled to the confiftence of a firup. 
 
 OXYREGMIA, in medicine, a four or acrid eruc¬ 
 tation. 
 
 OXYRRHODON, a mixture of vinegar and oil of 
 rofes. 
 
 OXYS ACCH ARUM, in pharmacy, a medicine com- 
 pofed of vinegar and lugar ; commonly called firup of 
 vinegar. 
 
 OY ERandTerminer, acommifliondirefledtothejudges 
 and other gentlemen of the county to whom it is iflued, by 
 virtue whereof they are impowered to hear and determine 
 treafons, and all manner of felonies and trefpaflcs. 
 
 Oyer de Record, a petition made in court, praying the 
 judges, for better proof, will be plcafed to hear or look 
 upon any record. 
 
 OYES, a corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ; 
 being a term, or formula, whereby the criers in our 
 courts injoin filence, or attention, before they make 
 proclamation of any tiling. 
 
 PAT D 
 
 6TER. orOisTER, Ojina, in zbolcgv, a gonus- 
 of bivalve ihcll-fifh, the lower valve of which is hollowed 
 on the infide, and gibbole without; the upper one is 
 more flat; and both are compoied of a -multitude of 
 lamina? or crufts, and ufually fcabrous or lough on the 
 outer furface; fome oyfter fliells are alfo furniihed with 
 tubercles, or fpines, and others are deeply furrowed and 
 plicated : the figure of moll is roundilh, but in fome it 
 is quite irregular. 
 
 Oyfter-lhells are accounted drying and abilergent. and 
 given internally, fudorifick. 
 
 OZENA, a foul malignant ulcer of the nofc, which 
 is fometimes lo exulcerated as todifeharge a feetid odour, 
 with pieces of corrupted bones. 
 
 An ozena is generally more violent and foul, when at¬ 
 tended with a caries of the bones; for at firft, the in- 
 f cm a! coat of the nole only is ulcerated, but it extends 
 itfelf infenfibly into the {lender bones, and often into the 
 finufes of the cranium, and the olla maxillaria, and ex¬ 
 cites a malignant caries. 
 
 It generally arifes from an obftinate catarrh, or fome 
 other diforder of the nofe, efpecially when the blood is 
 affedled with the feurvy, or venereal difeafe v but fome¬ 
 times from acrid fubllances drawn into the nofe with the 
 air, and corroding its membrane, as ftrong llrenutatory 
 powders, and fometimes it proceeds from, or is joined 
 by, a polypus. 
 
 The external cure fliould betaken by externals, but 
 more particularly fuch internal medicines as correft the 
 blood, as antivenereals, of which mercurials and decoc¬ 
 tions of the woods are the principal. The patient like- 
 wile mull be ordered to ufc a diet moderate and light, 
 neither ftrong nor light feafoned. When the cafe ^ve¬ 
 nereal, the bell remedy is falivation. 
 
 P Tlic fifteenth letter, and the eleventh confonant 
 of the Englifli alphabet, the found of which is 
 ^ formed by exprefling the breath fomewhat more 
 fuddenly than in forming the found of b : in other 
 refpe£ls, thefe two founds are very much alike, and are 
 often confounded one with another. 
 
 When p Hands before t or f, its found is loft, as in 
 the words pfalms, pfychology, ptolemaick, ptifan, &c. 
 when placed before h, they both together have the found 
 of f, as in philofophy, phyfick, Sec. 
 
 As an abbreviature, P. Hands for Publius, pondo, See. 
 PA. DIG. for patricia dignitas; P. C. for patres con- 
 fcripti ; P. F. for Publii filius ; P. P. for propofitum, 
 or propofitum publice ; P. R. for populus Romanus ; 
 PR. S. for pra?toris fententia; and PRS. P. for praTes 
 provincial. 
 
 In the Italian mufick, P. Hands for piano, or foftly ; 
 PP. for piu piano, or more foftly; and PPP. for pia- 
 nilfimo, or very foftly. 
 
 Among ailronomers, P. M. is ufed to denote poll 
 meridian, or afternoon ; and fometimes for poll mane, 
 or after midnight 
 
 As a numeral, P. fignifies the fame as c, viz. 400; 
 and with a dalh over it, thus p, 460,000. 
 
 Among phyficians, P. denotes pugil, or the eighth 
 part of a handful; P. JE. partes a?quales, or equal parts 
 of the ingredients ; P. P. fignifies pulvis patrum, or the 
 Jefuits-powder ; and ppt. pra?paratus, prepared. 
 
 PABULUM, fuel, among natural philofophers and 
 chymifts. See Fuel and Fire. 
 
 PACE, PaJJ'us, a mealure taken from the fpace be¬ 
 tween the two feet of a man, in walking ; ufually 
 reckoned two feet and a half, and in fome men, a yard, 
 or three feet. See Measure. 
 
 The geometrical pace is five feet; and 60000 fuch I 
 <paces make one degree of die equator. S^e Decree. [ 
 3 * 
 
 PACK, in commerce, denotes a quantify of gocr 3 $, 
 made up in loads, or bales, for carriage. 
 
 A pack of wool is 17 Hone and two pounds ; being 
 the quantity a horfe is luppofed to carrv. 
 
 PACKAGE, a l'mall duty of one penny, paid for alf 
 goods not particularly rated. 
 
 PACKERS, perfons who make it their employment 
 to pack up all goods intended for exportation. 
 
 EACT, or Paction, Paflutn, in law, denotes * 
 contraft or agreement between two or more parties* 
 See Contr ACT. 
 
 PACTA Convent a, in Poland, are the articles 
 agreed on between die king and the republick, vvhicSr 
 they mutually oblige each other to obferve. 
 
 PADDLE, in glafs making, an inftrument with whiclj 
 the workmen ftir about the fand and afhes in die calcar. 
 
 PADDOCK, or Paddock-Course, a piece of 
 ground encompalfed with pales or a wall, and taken out 
 of a park for exhibiting races with grey-hounds, for plates, 
 wagers, or the like. 
 
 PADL T S, the bird-cherry, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower confifts of five roundilh, concave, 
 patent petals, inferted by their ungues into die edge of 
 the calyx : the fruit is a roundilh drupe, inclofing an 
 oval acuminated nut, with rough furrows. 
 
 Of this genus the laurel is a fpecies. See Laurus. 
 
 I he fruit ot this plant is recommended to be hung 
 about the necks of children fubjcdl to epilepfies. It is 
 of an emollient and heating nature. 
 
 PvEAN, among the ancient Pagans, was a fong of 
 rejoicing fung in honour of Apollo, chiefly ufed on oc- 
 cafions of vidlory and triumph. 
 
 P-dEDERO TA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofc 
 flower is monopetalous, lubrotatcd, quadrifid, and ob- 
 tufe : the ftamina are two {lender filaments, topped with 
 connivent anthers; ; the fruit is an ovate capfule, with 
 
 tVY# 
 
P A I 
 
 two cells, opening at the top, and contains a number of 
 roundiHi feeds. 
 
 PZEDO-Baptism, infant baptifm, or that conferred 
 on children. 
 
 PZEONIA, in botany, a genus of the poly and rin 
 digynia clafs. The calix confifts of five leaves, and the 
 corolla of five petals ; the liylus is wanting ; and the 
 capfule contains many feeds. There are two fpecies, 
 none of them natives of Britain. 
 
 The root of this plant is a very celebrated medicine in 
 nervous cafes. 
 
 PAGAN, Poganus, a heathen, gentile, or idolater; 
 one wflio adores falfc gods. 
 
 PAGANISM, the worfhip of idols, and other falfe 
 gods, as praClifcd by the Pagans. 
 
 PAGE, a youth of Hate retained in the family of a 
 prince or great perfonage, as an honourable fervant, to 
 attend in vifits of ceremony, do meffages, bear up trains, 
 robes, he. and at the fame time to have a genteel edu¬ 
 cation, and learn his exerci!cs. The pages in the king’s 
 houfhold are various, and have various offices affigned 
 them, as pages of honour, pages of the prelence-chamber, 
 pages of the back Hairs, he. 
 
 PAGEANT, a triumphal car. chariot,.arch, or other 
 like pompous decoration, varioufly adorned with colours, 
 flags, &c. carried about in publick thews, proceffions, he. 
 
 PAGNALIA, a rural feait, celebrated in the pagis 
 or villages. 
 
 PAGOD, or Pa cod a, a name whereby the E. 
 Indians call the temple in which they worfhip their gods 
 The pagod ufually confifts of three parts, the fiiil is a 
 vaulted roof lupported on {lone or marble columns. It is 
 adorned with images, and, being open, all perfons with¬ 
 out diftin&ion are allowed to enter it: the fecond part 
 is filled with grotefque and monftrous figures, and no 
 body is allowed to enter but the Bramins themfelves: the 
 third is a kind of chancel, in which the llatue of the 
 deity is placed : it is '{hut up with a very ftrong gate. 
 This word is fometimes uled for the idol, as well as for 
 the temple. 
 
 Pagod, or Pagod a, is alfo the name of a gold and 
 filver coin, current in feveral parts of the E. Indies. 
 
 PAIN, Dolor, is defined to be an uneafy fenfation, 
 arifing from a hidden and violent l'olution of the con¬ 
 tinuity, or fome other accident in the nerves, membranes, 
 vefiels, mufcles, he. of the body ; or, according to fome, 
 it Confifts in a motion of the organs of fenfe ; and, ac¬ 
 cording to others, it is an emotion ot the foul occafiohed 
 by thefe organs. 
 
 Pain may be afluaged by diluting and foftening acri¬ 
 monies with warm water mixed with flour, applied by 
 way of drink, fomentation, clyfter, or bath. 2. By 
 relolvingand wafhing away obftru&ions. 3. By relax¬ 
 ing the nervous vcflels. 4. By correcting the acrimony. 
 3. By freeing the obftruent, obftruCted, and acrimonious 
 parts, from the too great preffure of the vital humour, 
 by foftening, fupp.urating, and depurating them ; and, 
 laftly, by deadening the fenfe by narcoticks, either in¬ 
 ternally or externally. 
 
 PAINEFort et Dure, inlaw, an efpccial punifh- 
 ment for one who, being arraigned ot felony, refufes to 
 put himfelf upon the ordinary trial of God and his 
 country, and thereby {lands mute by interpretation of 
 law. This is called prefling to death ; the procefs is thus 
 ordained : the perfon being font back to prifon, and laid 
 in a low dark houfe, where he fhall lie naked on the 
 earth, only fomething to cover his privy members ; and 
 lying on his back, one arm fhall be drawn to one quar¬ 
 ter of the houfe with a cord, and the other arm to an¬ 
 other quarter, and his legs in the lame manner ; let 
 there be laid on his body as much weight as he can bear, 
 or more ; next day he fhall have three models of barley- 
 bread without drink, and the fecond day he fhall have 
 drink three times, as much as he can drink, of the water 
 next unto the prifon, except it be running water, with¬ 
 out any bread ; and this fhall be his diet, till he die. 
 
 PAINTING, Pitiura, the art of reprefentingfigures, 
 countries, towns, and other things in colours. It is not 
 to be doubted, but that painting is ancient as well as 
 fculpture, but it is hard to know the real time and place 
 'where they began to appear. The Egyptians and Greeks, 
 who pretend to be the inventors of thole arts which aie 
 moll for the fplendor of life, pretend that they were the 
 Vol II. No. 54. 
 
 P A I 
 
 firft carvers and painters; however, it is certain that 
 painting, after having feme weak beginnings, appeared 
 m its perfection amongft the Greeks, and that the prin¬ 
 cipal fehools where this art was taught, were at Sicyone,- 
 a town of Peloponncfus at Rhodes, and Athens; from 
 Greece it palled into Italy, where it was in great efteem 
 about the end ot the republiek, aiid under the firft empe¬ 
 rors, until at lait, war and luxury having id i fine inhered 
 the Roman empire, it became cxtinCI, as well as other 
 fciences and arts, and did not begin to revive again, riii 
 the famous Cimabue laboured at it, and recovered from 
 the hands of certain Greeks fome flender remains of 
 ■his art. Some Florentines, having feconded him, were 
 thole that gained moft reputation at it, yet it was long 
 before any conliderable painting was produced. Le 
 Ghirlandaio, Michael Angelo’s mafter, acquired the moft 
 credit ; but Michael Angelo, his lchoiar, in the time of 
 pope Julius II. at the beginning of the 16th century, 
 ereCted a fchool at Florence, and with Peter Perugin, 
 and Raphael de Urbin, not only eelipled the glory of all 
 that went before them, but carried painting to a pitch 
 from which it has ever fince been declining. At the 
 fame time the fchool of Lombardy was let up, and was 
 famous under Georgion and Titian, who had Julian 
 Bellino for his mafter ; befides which, there were alfo in 
 Italy fome other particular fehools, under different 
 matters ; among the reft, that of Leonardo da Vinci at 
 Milan, but the three firft are efteemed the moft famous, 
 the reft having proceeded from them ; but, over and 
 above thefe, there were on this fide the mountains fome 
 painters who had nothing to do with thole of Italy, as 
 Albert Durer in Germany, Holbens in Swiflerland, 
 Lucas in Holland, and feveral others that wrought in 
 France and Flanders in a different manner; but Italy, 
 and Rome efpecially, was the place where this art w r as 
 praCIifed in its greateft perfection, and where from time 
 to time were brought up excellent painters. The fchool 
 of Raphael was fucceeded by that of the Caracchio’s, 
 which hath almoft lafted till now in its height and per¬ 
 fection ; but at this day there is little of it in Italy, this 
 art feeming to have palled into France, fince Lewis XiV^ 
 fet up academies for thole that praCtife it. We have faid 
 before, that the firft invention of this art of painting is 
 not certainly known ; but it is agreed, that he who firft: 
 attempted drawing, made his firft effay upon a wall, by 
 drawing the lhadow of a man which the light difeovered; 
 and, to give the greater beauty to this ftory, fome write 
 that it was a girl who thus designed the face of her lover. 
 Some alledge that it was one Philocles, of Egypt, who 
 firft reduced this invention into praCtice; others name 
 Cleanthes of Corinth ; and others again fay, that Ar- 
 diccs, a Corinthian, and Telephancs of Clarentia in 
 Peloponnelus, began to draw without colours, with a 
 coal only ; and that the firft who made ufe of one colour 
 in painting, was one Cleophantes of Corinth, and.for 
 that reafon called Monochromatos : after him, it is faid 
 that Higienontes, Dinias, and Charmas, were the firft 
 that made pictures in one colour only. Eumarus of 
 Athens, at laft, painted both men and women in a dif¬ 
 ferent manner; his dilciple, Simon, the Cleonian,' began 
 to paint the body in various poftures, and to reprefent 
 the joints and limbs, the veins, and the foldings of the 
 drapery; however, it is certain, that in the time of 
 Romulus, and about the 15th olympiad, that is, 715 
 years before Chrift’s incarnation, Candaules, firnamed 
 Myrfilus, king of Lydia, bought, for its weight in gold, 
 a pifture of Bularchus’s painting, in which was repre- 
 fented the battle of the Magnefians. Panams, the bro¬ 
 ther of Phidias, was in efteem in the 83d olympiad, 
 448 years before our Saviour. Polygnotus, the 7 'ha- 
 fian, was the firft that put thought and paffion in the 
 face, and gave force and beauty to the colours; lie did 
 leveral things at Delphos and Athens. At the lame time 
 Mycon made himfelf famous alfo in Greece. About 
 the 90th olympiad appeared Aglaophan, Cephiffodorus, 
 Phriilus, and Evenor, the father of Parrhafius; all 
 thefe painters were excellent in the art, but Apollodorus 
 exceeded them all; he lived in the 93d olympiad, 408 
 years before the birth of our Lord; his manner was imi¬ 
 tated by Zeuxis, Parrhafius, and feveral others, till the 
 reign ot Auguftus. It is not known what painters have 
 wrought in Italy fince the reign of this empeior. When 
 the Conftantines and Theodofii took upon them the 
 U u, pro- 
 
P A I 
 
 proteftion of the church, thefe Chriftian emperors caufed 
 fome carving and painting works to be made for the or¬ 
 naments of the churches, but we have almoft nothing 
 considerable of the remains of thole pieces. It is pro¬ 
 bable, one rcafon ol the decay of pointing was occafioned 
 by the fecond council of Nice’s decreeing religious wor- 
 fliip to be paid to the images of our Saviour and the 
 faints: this practice being looked on by a great part of 
 the church as adangerous and unwarrantable innovation, 
 feveral of the Greek emperors made a vigorous oppo- 
 fition againll it, and the better to fupprels thefe exccfles, 
 ordered the images, &c. to be taken out of the churches 
 and defaced, and by this means the art itfelf fell under a 
 great difeouragement. But, after the year 1270, the 
 famous Cimabue reftored the art of painting, which was 
 perfc&ed by the painters of the fuccecding age. About 
 the beginning of the 15th century, there were famous 
 painters in the Low Countries, and in Germanv. 
 
 The art of painting in oil was not however known to 
 the ancients. John Van Eyck, commonly called John 
 de Bruges, was the fiift who dilcovered it, and put it in 
 pra&ice, in the beginning of the 14th century: till him, 
 all painters wrought in frefco, or in water-colours. 
 
 This was an invention of the utmoft advantage to the 
 art; fince. by means hereof, the colours of a painting 
 are preferred much longer and better, and receive a lullie 
 and fweetneis which the ancients could never attain to, 
 what varnifh foever they made ufe of to cover their pieces. 
 
 The whole, lecret only con lifts in giinding the colours 
 with nut-oil or linieed-oil : but it muff be owned, the 
 manner of working is very different from that in frefco, 
 or in water; by realon the oil does not dry near fo fail; 
 which gives the painter an opportunity of touching and re¬ 
 touching all the parts of his figures as often as he plcafcs ; 
 which, in the othei kinds, is a thing impracticable. 
 
 The figures too are here capable of more force and 
 boldnefs, inal'much as the black becomes blacker, when 
 ground with oil than with water ; befldes that, all the 
 colours, mixing better together, make the colouring 
 fweeter, more delicate and agreeable, and give an union 
 and tendernefs to the whole work, inimitable in any of 
 the other manners. 
 
 Painting in oil is performed on walls, on wood, 
 canvas, {tones, and all forts of metals. 
 
 To paint on a wall. When well dry, they give it 
 two or three wafhes with boiling oil, fill the plaifter re¬ 
 main quite grealy, and will imbibe no more. Over this 
 they apply deficcative or drying colours, viz. white chalk, 
 red okcr, or other chalks beaten pretty {tiff. This layer 
 being well dry, they fketch out, and defign their iubjeQ.; 
 and at laft paint it over; mixing a little varnifh with their 
 colours, to lave the varnifhing afterwards. 
 
 Others, to fortify their wall better againft moifture, 
 cover it with a plaifter of lime, marblc-duft, or a cement 
 made of beaten tiles f'oaked with linfecd oil , and at lalt 
 prepare a compofition of Greek pitch, maflich, and 
 thick varnifh boil' d together, which they apply hot 
 over the former plaifter: when dry, they lay on the 
 colours as before. 
 
 Others, in fine, make their plaifter with lime-mortar, 
 tile-cement, and land ; and, this dry, apply another of 
 lime, cement, and iron feum; which, being well beaten 
 and incorporated with whites of eggs and linfeed oil, 
 makes an excellent plaifter. When dry, the colours 
 are applied as before. 
 
 To paint on wood. They ufually give their ground 
 a layer of white tempered with lize, or they apply the 
 oil above-mentioned; the reft as in painting on walls. 
 
 To paint on cloth, or canvas. The canvas being 
 ftretched on a frame, they give it a layer of fizc, or 
 pafte-water. W hen ary, they go over it with apumice- 
 ftone, to fmooth off the knots. By means of the fize 
 the little threads and hairs ate all laid clofe on the cloth, 
 and the little holes Hopped up, io as no colour can 
 pals through. 
 
 When the cloth is dry, they lay on oaker, which is a 
 natural earth, and bears a body; fometimes mixing with 
 it a little white lead, to make it dry the fooner. When 
 dry, they go over it with the pumice-ftone, to make it 
 fmooth. 
 
 After this, they fometimes add a fecond layer corn- 
 poled of white lead, and a little charcoal black, to ren¬ 
 der the ground of an all\ colour; obferving in each 
 2 
 
 PAL 
 
 manner to lay on as little colour as poffible; that the 
 cloth may not break, and that the colours, when they 
 come to be painted over, may preferve the better. 
 
 In fome paintings of Titian and Paolo Veronefe, we 
 fii\d they made their ground with water, and painted 
 over it with oil; which contributed much to the vivacity 
 and ficlhnefs of their works ; for the water ground, by 
 imbibing the oil of the colours, leaves them the more 
 beautiful; the oil itfelf taking away a deal of their vi¬ 
 vacity. 
 
 As little oil therefore is to be ufed as poflible, if it be 
 defired to have the colours keep frefh ; for this rcafon 
 ionic nux them with oil of afpick, which evaporates im¬ 
 mediately, yet ferves to make them manageable with the 
 pencil. 
 
 To paint on Hones or metals, it is not neceffary ta 
 apply fize, as on cloth ; it fuffices to add a flight laver or 
 colours, before you draw your delign; nor even is this 
 dune, on ftolles, where it is defired the ground lhould 
 appear, as on certain marbles of extraordinary colours. 
 
 Painting in Enamel, the art of enamelling, or 
 painting with enamel colours. Under the article En- 
 a mulling we have delcribed the colours, together 
 with the beft methods vet known for laying them on 
 and burning or baking the plates. We fliall here add a 
 rcprclentatioil of the whole procefs, together with lec¬ 
 tions, &c. ot the furnaces neceffary in this method of 
 painting. ‘ 
 
 Explanation ot plate LX 1 I. reprefenting the method 
 of painting ill enamel. Upper Compartment. 
 
 Fig- 1. An artlft employed in laying on the colours 
 
 F.g. 2. A painter holding the piece to the fire in the 
 furnace, after the colours are laid on. 
 
 Plate LXIII. Lower Compartment. 
 
 Fig. 1. The door of the upper aperture of the ena¬ 
 melling furnace. 
 
 Fig. 2. A tide view of the muffle on which tile plate 
 is placed in the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 3. Elevation of the exterior fide of the muffle. 
 
 Fig. 4. Elevation of the interior fide of the muffle.' 
 
 S- A geometrical elevation of the face, or fore- 
 fide ot the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 6, A vertical feftion of both the body and dome 
 of the furnace, made by a plane paffmg through the 
 middle of it. 
 
 /•'£h 7. A vertical feftion of the furnace, made by a 
 jdanc palling parallel to the face reprelented in Jig. $. 
 
 I'ig. 8. Pian of the fire-place of the bottom of the 
 furnace. 
 
 F ! s% 9 - A horizontal feaion of the furnace, parallel 
 to the former. 
 
 D kn ofthedorae > or head, of the furnace. 
 
 i AIK, Par, denotes two equal and fimilar things 
 joined together, either colle&ively, as a pair of gloves, 
 or two fimilar parts that compofe one whole, or a fet of 
 things joined to make another complete, &:c. 
 
 Pair, in anatomy, an affemblage of two nerves, 
 having their origin in the brain or (pinal marrow, and 
 thence difti ibuted into the feveral parts of the body ; one 
 on one fide, and the other on the other. 
 
 PALACE, Palatium, the place of refidence of kings 
 and other great perfonages. 
 
 PALAESTRA, in antiquity, was a publick building 
 among the Greeks, where the youth exercifed themfdves 
 in wreftling, running, quoits, &c, 
 
 PALANQUIN, a kind of chaile, or chair, borne by 
 men on their fhoulders, much ufed by the people of 
 China, and the eaft, as a vehicle for their eafy convcv- 
 ance from place to place. 
 
 PALA I E, Palatum, in anatomy, the fleflt that com¬ 
 potes the roof, or the upper and inner part of the mouth. 
 
 PALE, Pains, a little pointed flake or piece of wood 
 
 ufed in making inclofures, (eparations, fee. 
 
 X he pale was an inftrument of punilhment and exe¬ 
 cution, among the ancient Romans, and ftill continues 
 fo among the J urks. Hence, empaling, the paffmg a 
 tharp pale up the fundament through the body. 
 
 Pale, in heraldry, one of the honourable’ordinaries 
 of an efcutcheon ; being the reprefentation of a pale, or 
 flake, placed upright, and comprehending the whole 
 height of the coat from the top of the chief to the 
 point. 
 
 I Paled Flowers, in botany, are thofc which have their 
 
 leaves 
 

 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
PAL 
 
 leaves fet about, or furrounding, a head of thrum, as in 
 marigolds, &c. 
 
 Pales, or Piles, in carpentry, denote rows of flakes, 
 driven deep into the ground to make woOden bridges over 
 rivers; they ferve to l'upport the beams laid acrofs them, 
 fiona one row to another, and are flrongly bound with 
 crofs pieces. 
 
 PAL 1 LICIUM, in aftronomy, the ftar called the 
 bull’s eye, or aldcbaran. See Aldebaran. 
 
 PALING, a fort of fencing for fruit-trees planted in 
 fields, t wherein three fmall pofls are erefted at a foot and 
 a half diftanceone from another, and near the top nailed 
 to each other with crofs-bars. In fixing the pales in 
 form of a triangle, room is to be left for the tree to play 
 and bow by the high winds, without galling : the trees 
 arc to be bound to a flake for a year or two, after which, 
 fern or ftraw may be fluffed in betwixt the tree and the 
 uppermoft rails to keep it upright. If the place be open 
 to deer, rabbits, or the like, a poft is to be nailed to 
 the bar between every two pales. 
 
 PALISADE, or Palis ado, in fortification, an in- 
 clofure offtakes or piles driven into the ground, each fix 
 or feven inches fquare, and eight feet long, three whereof 
 are hid under-ground. 
 
 Turning- Palisades, an invention ofM. Coehorn, 
 in order to preferve the palifades of the parapet of the 
 covert-way from the befiegers fliot. He orders them fo, 
 that as many of them as ftand in the length of a rod, or 
 in about ten feet, turn up and down like traps, fo as 
 not to be in fight of the enemy till they juft bring on 
 their attack, and yet are always ready to do the proper 
 fervice of palifadcs. 
 
 Palisade, in gardening, denotes a fort of ornament; 
 being a row of trees which bear branches and leaves from 
 the bottom, cut and fpread in manner of a wall along the 
 fide of an alley, or the like, fo as to appear like a wall 
 covered with leaves. 
 
 PALISSE, in heraldry, a bearing like a range of pa- 
 lifades before a fortification, reprefented on a fefle, riling 
 up a confiderable height, and pointed at top, with the 
 field appearing between them. 
 
 PALIURUS, Chrift’s-thorn, in botany, a plant 
 which grows naturally in Paleftinc; it riles with a pliant 
 fhrubby ftalk, to the height of eight or ten feet, fending 
 out many weak flender branches, armed with thorns. 
 
 This is by many perlons luppofed to be the plant from 
 which the crown of thorns, put upon the head of our 
 Saviour, wascompofed; the truth of which is fupported 
 by many travellers of credit, who affirm, that this is one 
 of the molt common fhrubs in the country of Judea ; 
 and, from the pliablenefs of its branches, which may be 
 eaiily wrought into any figure, it may afford a probability. 
 
 This Ihrub alfo grows wild in moft parts of the Le¬ 
 vant, alfo in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and louth of France , 
 it is propagated by lowing its feeds, or by laying down 
 its tender branches in the fpring, which will take root in 
 a year’s time. 
 
 PALL, in heraldry, denotes a kind of erofs, repre- 
 fentingthe pallium, or archiepilcopal ornament lent from 
 Rome to the metropolitans. 
 
 PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a ftatue of thegoddefs 
 Pallas, fuppofed to have dropped down from heaven, 
 preferved in Troy, whereon the fate of that city is faid 
 to have depended. 
 
 PALLET, among painters, a little oval table or piece 
 of wood, or ivory, very thin and fmooth; on, and round 
 which the painters place the feveral colours they have 
 occafion for, to be ready for the pencil. The middle 
 ferves to mix the colours on, and to make the tints re¬ 
 quired in the work. It has no handle, but inftead thereof, 
 a hole at one end to put the thumb through to hold it. 
 
 Pallet, among potters, crucible-makers, &cc. 
 wooden inflrument, almoft the only one they ufe, for 
 forming, heating, and rounding their works : they have 
 feveral kinds, the largeft are oval, with a handle; others 
 are round, or hollowed triangularly; others are in the 
 form of knives to pare off what is fuperfluous in their 
 moulds. 
 
 Pallet, in gilding, an inflrument made of a fquirrel’s 
 tail, to take up the gold leaves and extend them on the 
 matter to be gilt. 
 
 Pallet, in heraldry, is \ the breadth of the ufual 
 pale. The pallet muft never be charged with any thing, 
 
 P A L 
 
 nor divided but into four parts; for I part of the pallet, 
 or parts of the pale, is called an endorfe. 
 
 Pallet, is alfo a part belonging to the balance of a 
 watch or movement. 
 
 PALLIATION, the mitigating or difguifing of any 
 thing. 
 
 PALLIER, or Paillier, in architecture, a land¬ 
 ing-place in a flair-cafe. In large flair-cafes, or perrons, 
 where there are feveral palliers in the fame range, they 
 ought, at leaft, to be the width of two fteps: thole in the 
 turns of flair-cafes ftiould be as broad as long. Vitruvius 
 calls the landing-places of the theatres diazomata. 
 
 PALLIFICATION, in architecture, the piling of 
 the ground-work, or {Lengthening the ground with piles 
 drove in, when it is moift or marfhy. 
 
 PALLIUM, or Pall, a pontifical ornament worn 
 by popes, patriarchs, primates, and metropolitans of the 
 Romilh church over their other garments, as a fign of 
 their jurifdiClion. It is a fillet three fingers broad, en- 
 compalfing the fhoulderwith pendants a palm long before 
 and behind, with little laminar ot lead rounded at the 
 extremes, and covered with black filk, and with four red 
 crofles. It is made of white lambs wool, 6cc. 
 
 The pope pretends to the foie right of conferring the 
 pallium, before receiving which, a metropolitan cannot 
 conlecrate bilhops or churches, nor perform any archi- 
 epifcopal function. The ufe of the pallium is reftrained 
 to particular occafions; and none but the pope has the 
 right of wearing it always, and in all places. 
 
 PALM, Palmus , an ancient meafure of length, taken 
 from the extent of the hand. 
 
 The Roman palm was of two kinds; the great palm 
 anfwered to ourlpan, and contained 12 fingers breadth, 
 or nine Roman inches equal to about 8 t inches Englifh : 
 the fmall palm contained four fingers equal to about two 
 Englilh inches -, 9 0 . 
 
 "Fhe Greek palm or doron was of two kinds ; the 
 fmall contained four fingers equal to two inches i. The 
 great contained nine fingers. The double Greek palm, 
 or dichas, contained in proportion. 
 
 The modern palm is different in different places. At 
 Rome, it contains feven inches , 5 0 ; at Naples, eight 
 inches; at Genoa, eight inches T 8 C ; at Morocco and Fez, 
 feven inches -fo ; in Languedoc and fome other parts of 
 France, eight inches -' r ; and, in England.it is three inches. 
 At Leghorn, there is a palm for woollens, and another 
 for filks, the latter one third longer than the former. 
 
 PALM, Palma , Fola, Metacarpion, in anatomy, the 
 infide of the hand. See Hand. 
 
 Palm-S««(/»), the Sunday preceding Eafter-day ; fo 
 called in memory of our Saviour’s riding in triumph into 
 {erufalem, when the multitude attending him ftrewed 
 palm-branbhes in the way. 
 
 PALMARIS Musculus, one of the flexor mufcles 
 of the hand, fo called as being inferted into the palm of 
 the hand by a broad expanded tendon : its office feems to 
 be to contraCt the palm of the hand. There is alfo another 
 mufcle of the hand called palmaris brevis, and quadratus, 
 in form of a fmall mafs of flefti, which adheres to the 
 aponeurofis of the former mufcle, above the abduCtor 
 mufcle of the little finger ; it is faid to afllft in drawing 
 together the hand ; but Heifter obferves, that both thele 
 mufcles are found wanting in diffeCtions. 
 
 PALPABLE, fomething perceivable by the lenfes, 
 particularly that of feeling. 
 
 PALPEBRAL the eye-lids, in anatomy, See Eye. 
 PALPITATION, in medicine, a fpaftick contraction 
 of the heart, when it leaps and beats violently. 
 
 PALSY, Trapahuaig, in medicine, a dileafe wherein 
 the body, or fome of its members, lofe their motion, and 
 fometimes their fenfation of feeling. This difealc never 
 is acute, is often tedious, and in old people, almoft incur¬ 
 able; and the patient for the moll part drags a miferable 
 life. For the vigour of his mind, together with his 
 memory, are loft, or vaftly impaired ; he totters and 
 {hakes, and becomes a difmal fight; as if no longer a 
 mait, but an animal half dead. 
 
 PALUMBES, the ring-dove, a beautiful fpecies of 
 pigeon, with the neck white on each fide, and a brown 
 fpot behind. 
 
 PALY, or Pale, in heraldry, is when the lhield is 
 divided into four or more equal parts, by perpendicular 
 lines falling from the top to the bottom. 
 
 Paly- 
 
P A N 
 
 Paly-bendy is when the efcutcheon is divided by per¬ 
 pendicular lines, which is paly ; and alio by diagonals, 
 which is called bendy. 
 
 PAMPINIFORME Corpus, in anatomy, a plexus, 
 or knot , lormed by the fpermatick veins and arteries, and 
 included in a.common coat, within the tefticle. See 
 Test ici,e. 
 
 PANACEA, among phyficians, denotes an univerfal 
 medicine, or a remedy for all dileales; a thing impoflible 
 to be obtained, according to no lei's an author than 
 Boerhaave. 
 
 PANADA, a diet confining of bread boiled in water 
 to the confiftence of a pulp, and l'weetened with a little 
 i'ugar. It is given to young children, and to lick perfons, 
 whole digeftion is weak, or where ftronger foods would 
 be improper. It is fonietimes made thin, to ferve as a drink. 
 
 PAN AY HENAEA, in Grecian antiquity, an ancient 
 Athenian feftival, in honour of Minerva, who was the 
 protcCtref's of Athens, and called Athena. 
 
 PANCH YMAGOGUE, in pharmacy, a name given 
 to fome cathartick extracts, that have the reputation of 
 purging off all kinds of humours. 
 
 PANCRATIUM, among the ancients, a kind of 
 exercile, which confided of wreftling and boxing. In 
 thele contefts it was cuftomary for the weaker party, when 
 he found himfelf preffed by his adverlary, to fall down, 
 and fight rolling on the ground. 
 
 Pancratium, in botany, a genus of the hexandria 
 monogvnia clafs. It has fix petals, and a neCtarium 
 divided into 12 fegments, and the ftaminalie upon the 
 neCtarium. There are feven fpecies, none of them natives 
 of Britain. 
 
 PANCREAS, in anatomy, is a long flat gland, of 
 that kind which anatomifts call conglomerate, fituated 
 under the flomach between the liver and lpleen ; its figure 
 relembles that of a dog’s tongue, and is divided into two 
 fides, one fuperior, the other inferior ; two edges, one 
 anterior, the other pofterior; and two extremities, one 
 large which reprefents the bails of a tongue, and one 
 imall and a little rounded like the point of a tongue. 
 
 1 he pancreas is fituated tranfverfely under the ftomach 
 in the duplicature of the pofierior portion of the meioco- 
 ion. The large extremity is connected to the find incur- 
 vation of the duodenum, and from thence it pafles before 
 the pilot that intefline, all the way toitslail incurvation; 
 i° that a great part of the duodenum lies between the 
 pancreas and the vertebras of the back. The Imall ex¬ 
 tremity is fixed to the omentum, near the fpleen. 
 
 I he pancreas is compoied of a great number of foft 
 glandular molecules, combined in iuch a manner as to 
 exhibit the appearance of one uniform mafs on the out- 
 fidc, the convexities more or lei's flatted. \Y hen thefe 
 molecules are ieparated a little from each other, we find, 
 along the middle of the breadth of the pancreas, a parti¬ 
 cular du£t in which feveral fmaller du£ts terminate late¬ 
 rally, on each fide, likefmall branches in a item. 
 
 The ui'e of the pancreas is to iecrete a peculiar liquor 
 called the pancrearick juice, which is of a falivoi'e nature, 
 and carried by the pancreatick du£t into the duodenum, 
 w here it ierves to dilute the chyle, to render it more fluid, 
 and fit it to enter the mouths of the lafteals; and, perhaps, 
 to temper and dilute the bile, to change its vifeidity, bit- 
 ternefs, colour, &c. and make it mix with the chyle, in 
 order to reduce the leveral taftes, odours, and properties 
 of the feveral foods, into one homogeneous one. 
 
 PANDECTS, in the civil law, collections made bv 
 Juflinian’s order, of 534 decifions of the ancient lawyers, 
 on fo many queftionsoccurring in the civil law; to which 
 that emperor gave the force and authority of law, bv an 
 epiillc prefixed to them. The pandeCts conlifted of 50 
 books, and make the firft part of the body of the civil law. 
 
 PANEGYR 1 CK, an oration in praife of fome extra¬ 
 ordinary tiling, perfon, or virtue. 
 
 Panegyricks were anciently made in the publick and 
 folemn aiiemblies of the Greeks, either at their games, 
 their fcalts, or religious meetings. To render them the 
 more folemn, they ufed to begin with the praifes of the 
 deity, in whole honour the games, &c. were celebrated ; 
 then they defeended to the praifes of the people or country 
 where they were celebrated ; then to the princes or ma- 
 giftrates who prefided at them ; and at length to the 
 champions, efpecially thofe who had gained the prize. 
 Panegvrick is ranked among the demonflrative kinds 
 
 PAP 
 
 of orations, whereof there are commonly reckoned two 
 kinds, viz. the artificial, where every thing is reduced to 
 certain heads; and the other natural, where the ord^i 
 of hiitory is oblerved. 
 
 PANEL, in law, figoifies a fchedule, or fmall roll of 
 parchment, in which is contained the names of the 
 jurors returned by the fheiiff, to pal's upon trial, fo that 
 the impanelling of a jury is no more than the flierYFs 
 entering them upon his panel or roll. 
 
 PAN ICK, denotes an ill-grounded terror or fright. 
 
 PAN fCL M, panick, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 the flower of which is compoied of two iharp pointed 
 valves, and indoles the Iced, which is lrnglc and roundilli, 
 but lbmewhat flatted. 
 
 Panick feed is accounted drying, refrigerant, and af- 
 tringent; and therefore recommended in fpitting of 
 blood, and nocturnal pollutions. 
 
 PANNAGE, Panagiutn , inlaw-books, dignifies the 
 food that Iwine feed upon in woods, as mail of beech 
 and acorns; or money taken by the king’s agiftors, for 
 the privilege of feeding hogs in the king’s for eft. 
 
 PANNEL, in joinery, is a tympanum, or fquare 
 piece of thin wood, fonietimes carved, framed, orgrooied 
 in a larger piece, between two upright pieces and two 
 crofs pieces. 
 
 Pannel, in mal'onry, is one of the faces of a hewn 
 ftone. 
 
 Pannels of a Saddle, are two cufliions or holders, 
 filled with cow’s, deer’s, or horfe-hair, and placed under 
 the faddle, on each fide, to prevent the bows and bands 
 from galling the horfe. 
 
 PANN 1 GULUS Carnosus, in comparative ana¬ 
 tomy, a robuft flefliv tunick, fituated in beafts, between 
 the tunick and the fat; by means of which they can 
 move their lkin in whole or part: it is altogether want¬ 
 ing in mankind. 
 
 PAN THE A, in antiquity, ftatues compoied of the 
 figures or lymhols of leveral divinities. 
 
 PAN THEON, in Roman antiquity, a temple of a 
 circular form, dedicated to all the gods: it was built by 
 Agrippa, fon-in-law to Auguftus; but is now converted 
 into a church, and dedicated to the Virgin and all the 
 martyrs. 
 
 PAPAVER, the poppy, in botanv. Sec Poppy. 
 
 PAPER, a thin leaf, artificially made of fome vege¬ 
 table fubitancc; that which is to write upon with ink, 
 being chiefly white. 
 
 1 he materials on which mankind, in different ages 
 and countries, have contrived to write their fentiments, 
 have been \arious, as on Hones, bricks, the leaves of 
 flowers and trees, the rinds or barks ; alfo, tables of 
 wood, wax, and ivory; to which may be added plates of 
 lead, linen rolls, Nc. At length the Egyptian papyrus 
 was invented; then parchment, cotton paper; and, 
 lailly, the common or linen paper. 
 
 1 here are few forts of plants but have been ufed for 
 paper and books; and lienee the feveral terms, byblus, 
 codex, liber, folium, tabula, tillura, philyra, fclieda, Sec. 
 which exprefs the leveral parts on which they have been 
 written; and though, in Europe, all thefe difappeared 
 upon the introduction of papyrus and parchment; yet 
 ftill the ui'e of divers of them obtain to this day in fome 
 other countries. Paper, with regard to the manner of 
 making, and the materials employed therein, is reducible 
 to divers kinds, Egyptian, European, and Chinel'e pa¬ 
 per ; there is alfo mention made of cotton paper, bark 
 paper, and albeftine or incombuftible paper. 
 
 Egyptian -Paper, that which was principally ufed 
 among the ancients, made of the rufli papyrus or byblus, 
 growing chiefly about the banks of the Nile, Befides 
 paper, they make fails, ropes, and other naval rigging, 
 as alfo mats, blankets, eloathes, and even fliips, of the 
 ftalks of the papyrus. 
 
 Manner of maki-ig the Egyptian Paper. They began 
 with lopping oft the two extremes of the papyrus, name¬ 
 ly, the head and root, as of no ufe in this manufacture ; 
 the remaining Item they flit length wife into two equai 
 parts, and from each of thefe they {tripped the thinfealy 
 pellicles whereof it confifted, with the* point of a needle 
 or pen-knife : the innermoft of thofe pellicles were 
 looked on as the heft, and thofe neareft the rind, the 
 ivorft : they were accordingly kept apart, and conftituted 
 different forts of paj-er. As the pellicles were taken off, 
 
 they 
 
PAP 
 
 they extended them on a table ; then two, or more ofl 
 them, were laid over each other tranfverfely, fo as that the 
 fibres made right angles : in this Hate they were glued 
 together by the muddy waters of the Nile, or where the 
 -waters of the Nile were not to be had, with a pade made 
 of the fined wheat-flour, mixed with hot water, and a 
 fprinkling of vinegar. Tile pellicles being next preffed 
 to get out the water, then dried, and, ladly, flatted and 
 fmoothed by beating them with a mallet, condituted pa¬ 
 per ; which they fometimes poliflied further, by rubbing 
 it with a hemiiphere of glafs, or the like. 
 
 Bark Paper, was only the inner whitifh rind inclofed 
 between the bark and the wood of divers trees, as the 
 maple, plane, beech, and elm ; but efpecially the tilia, 
 philyra, or linden-tree, which was that moflly ufed for 
 this purpofe. On this, dripped off, flated, and dried, the 
 ancients wrote books, feveral of which are dill extant. 
 
 Cotton Paper, Cbarta Bombycina , fo called from |3o/43i/f, 
 which anciently fignified iilk; though afterwards it came 
 to lignify cotton, is a fort of paper which has been in 
 ufc upwards of 600 years. What is more, cotton paper 
 appears to have been very common at that time, and, 
 confcquently, mud have been invented long before. In 
 the French king’s library are manuferipts on this paper, 
 which appear to be of the 10th century. Be this as it 
 will, from the 12th century, cotton manuferipts are 
 more frequent than parchment ones. 
 
 Linen or European Paper, is chiefly made of linen or 
 hempen rags, beaten to a pulp with large hammers, he. 
 
 When or by whom linen paper was invented is not 
 known, as Polydore Virgil confefles. Scaliger aferibes 
 the invention to the Germans, Maffei to the Italians ; 
 others to fome refugee Greeks at Bafll, who took the 
 hint from the manner of making cotton paper in their 
 own country ; and Conringius thinks we received it 
 from the Arabs. Be this as it will, linen paper appears 
 •to have been fird introduced among us towards the be¬ 
 ginning of the 14th century, which agrees with die ob- 
 fervations of Count Maffei, who found no marks of its 
 ufe before the year 1300. Some indeed go much further 
 back, and take the libri lintei, mentioned by Livy, and 
 other Roman writers, to have been written on linen 
 paper ; but this notion has been fufficiently refuted. 
 Others make the invention more modern than it really 
 is, dating its origin about 300 years ago ; but Mabillon 
 fhews the contrary, from many manuferipts about 400 
 years old, written on linen paper; and Balbinus pro¬ 
 duces divers indances of fuch manuferipts written before 
 the year 1340. Add to this, that, in the Cotton library, 
 there are writings on paper, in the times of mod of our 
 kings and queens, as high as the year 1335; and Dr. 
 Prideaux affures us, he has feen a regidration of fome 
 ads of John Crandon, Prior of Ely, made on paper, 
 which bears date in the 14th year of King Edward the 
 fecond, that is, A. D. 1320. The invention, accord¬ 
 ing to that learned Do&or, feems to have been brought 
 from the Ead, mod of the old manuferipts in the Arabick 
 and Oriental languages being written on this fort of pa¬ 
 per, fome of which are certainly much older than any of 
 the dates above-mentioned. This author thinks it mod 
 probable, that the Saracens of Spain fird brought it out 
 of the Ead into that country, from whence it was propa¬ 
 gated through the red of Europe. As to the time of its 
 being introduced in England, we read of a paper-mill 
 ereded at Dartford, as early as the year 1588, which was 
 probably the fird, and is celebrated by Thomas Church¬ 
 yard, a noted poet of that age, in a work in verfe, in- 
 titled, A defeription and difeourfe of paper, and the be¬ 
 nefit it brings ; with the fetting forth of the paper-mill, 
 built near Dartford by a high German, called M. Spill¬ 
 man, jeweller to the queen ; London, 1588, 4to. 
 
 This manufadure is not now peculiar to the Dutch, 
 having got footing in mod parts of Europe ; but France, 
 Holland, and Genoa are places where it has bed fuc- 
 ceeded. The Englilh manufadure is daily growing into 
 reputation, and we now almod rival the Dutch in mak¬ 
 ing paper, fo that we import much lefs from Holland 
 than formerly ; and there is great hopes, from the im¬ 
 provement lately made in this bufinefs, that we fliall 
 loon make as good paper at home, as any part of Europe 
 can produce. 
 
 Method of making linen Paper. The linen rags, be¬ 
 ing carried to the mill, are fird forted, then wafhed very | 
 Vol. II. No. 54. I 
 
 PAP 
 
 I clean in puncheons, whofe fides are grated with ftrong 
 I wires, and the bottomes bored full of holes. After this 
 they are fermented, that is, laid in fquare heaps, dole 
 covered with lacking till they fweat and rot, which is 
 commonly done in four or five days. When duly fer¬ 
 mented, they are twided into handfuls, cut fmall, and 
 thrown into oval mortars, made of well-feafoned oak, 
 about halt a yard deep, with an iron plate at bottom an 
 inch thick, 8 inches broad, and 30 long. In the middle 
 is a wafhing-block, with 5 holes in it, and a piece of 
 hair-fieve fadened on the infide, fo that nothing can pals 
 out*except dirty water. Thefe mortars are continully 
 fupplied with water by little troughs, from a cidern filled 
 by buckets fadened to the floats of the great wheel, which 
 railcs the wooden hammers for pounding the rags in the 
 mortars. When the rags are beaten to a certain degree, 
 called the fird duff, the pulp is removed into boxes, 
 made like corn-chandler’s bins^ with the bottom board 
 aflant, and a little feparation on the front, for the water 
 to drain away. The pulp of the rags being in, they take 
 away as many of the front boards as are needful, and 
 prefs the mafs hard down with their hands : the next 
 day they put on another board, and add more pulp till 
 the bojyj« full ; and here it remains mellowing a 
 week, more or lefs, according to the weather. A^'ter 
 this, the duff is again put into clean mortars, and is 
 beaten a-frefh, and removed into boxes, as before; in 
 which date it is called the fecond duff. The mafs is beat 
 a third time, till fome of it being mixed with fair water, 
 and brewed to and fro, appears like flour and water, 
 without any lumps in it; it is then fit for the pit-mortar, 
 where it is perfedtly diffolved, and is then carried to the 
 vat, to be formed into fheets of paper. 
 
 But lately, indead ot pounding the rags to a pulp with 
 large hammers, as above, they make ufe of an engine, 
 which performs the work in much lefs time. This en¬ 
 gine confids of a round folid piece of wood, into which 
 are fadened feveral long pieces of deel, ground very fharp. 
 This is placed in a large trough with the rags, and a 
 fufficicnt quantity of water. At the bottom of the 
 trough is a plate with deel bars, ground fharp like the 
 former ; and the engine being carried round with prodi¬ 
 gious velocity, reduces the rags to a pulp in a very fliort 
 time. It mud be obferved, that the motion of the en¬ 
 gine caufes the water in the trough to circulate, and by 
 that means returns the duff to the engine. The trough 
 is condantly fed with clean water at one end, while the 
 dirty water from the rags is carried off at the other, 
 through a hole, defended with wire gratings, in order to 
 hinder the pulp from going off with the dirty water. 
 
 When the duff is diffidently prepared as above, it L 
 carried to the vat and mixed with a proper quantity of 
 water, which they call priming the vat. The vat is 
 rightly primed, when the liquor has fuch a proportion of 
 the pulp, as that the mould, on being dipped into it, 
 will jud take up enough to make a Iheet of paper of the 
 thicknefs required. The mould is a kind of lieve, ex¬ 
 actly of the fize of the paper to be made, and about ail 
 inch deep, the bottom being formed of fine brafs wire, 
 guarded underneath with dicks to prevent its bagging 
 down, and to keep it horizontal; and further, to 
 drengthen the bottom, there are large wires placed in 
 parallel lines, at equal didances, which form thofe lines 
 viiible in all white paper, when held up to the light; the 
 mark of the paper is alfo made in this bottom, by inter¬ 
 weaving a large wire in any particular form. This 
 mould the maker dips into the liquor, and gives it a 
 fhake as he takes it out, to clear the water from the pulp. 
 He then Aides it along a groove to the cocker, who turns 
 out the fheet upon a felt, laid on a plank, and lays another 
 felt on it, and returns the mould to the maker, who, by 
 this time, has prepared a fecond fheet, in another mould : 
 and thus they proceed, laying alternately a fheet and a 
 felt, till they have made fix quires of paper, which is 
 called a pod ; and this they do with fuch fwiftnefs, that, 
 in many forts of paper, two men make twenty pods, or 
 more, in a day. A pod of paper being made, either the 
 maker or coucher whiffles; on which four or five men 
 advance, one of whom draws it under the prefs, and the 
 red prefs it with great force, till all the water is fqueezed 
 from it; after which it is feparated, fheet by fheet, from 
 the felts, and laid regularly one fheet upon another; 
 and having undergone a focond preffing, it is hung up to 
 X x dry 
 
PAR PAR 
 
 and Venus when in perigee, arc at fo great diitances 
 from the earth, that their parallax is too fmall to be ob- 
 ferved. When Mars is in oppofition to the fun, his dis¬ 
 tance from the earth is but half Jo much as the lim’s dif¬ 
 tance from the earth ; and, confequdntly, his parallax is 
 then double to that of the fun : Tvcho, in the year 1582, 
 endeavoured, with incredible diligence, to diicover the 
 parallax of Mars in oppofition; but Kepler, having ex¬ 
 amined Tycho’s obfervations, concluded from them, 
 that Mars’s parallax was lcarcely leniible. 
 
 Annual Parallax of a phenomenon, is the change 
 of its apparent place in the fphere of the heaven, which 
 is cauied by its being viewed from the earth in different! 
 parts of her orbit: the annual parallax of all the planets, 
 is confiderable, but that of the fixed flars is infenfible. 
 See Aberration. 
 
 Parallax, in levelling, denotes the angle contained 
 between the line of true level and that of apparent level. 
 
 PARALLEL, in geometry, is applied to lines, 
 figures, bodies, every where equidiftant from each other, 
 and which, though infinitely produced, would never 
 meet; thus, the line O P (plate LXII 1 . fig. 3.) is paral¬ 
 lel to QR. 
 
 Parallel lines hand oppofed to lines converging and di¬ 
 verging. Geometricians dejnonftrate, that if two paral¬ 
 lels, G P and QR, be cut by a tranfverfe line S T in A 
 .and B , iff. the alternate angles x and y are equal; 2dly. 
 the external angle u is equal to the internal oppolite one y ; 
 and, 3dly, the two internal oppolite ones a- and y are 
 alfo equal to two right angles. It is fliewn on the prin¬ 
 ciples of opticks, that if the eye be placed between two 
 parallel lines, they will appear to converge towards a 
 point oppolite to the eye. And if they run to.fuch a 
 length, as that the diftance between them be put as a 
 point thereto, they will there appear to coincide. 
 
 Parallel lines are deferibed by letting fall equal per¬ 
 pendiculars, and drawing lines through the extremes. 
 
 Parallel Planes , are fuch planes as have all the per¬ 
 pendiculars drawn betwixt them equal to each other. 
 
 Parallel Rays, in opticks, are thole which keep at 
 an equal diftance from the vifible objett to the eye, which 
 is luppofed to be infinitely remote from the object. 
 
 Parallel Ruler, or Parallelifm, an inftrumentcon¬ 
 fining of two wooden, brafs, &c. rulers A B, CD 
 (Jig- 4-) equally broad every where, and fo joined to¬ 
 gether by the crofs blades E F and G H, as to open to 
 different intervals, accede and recede, and yetftill retain 
 their parallelifm. 
 
 Theuieof this inftrument is obvious ; for one of the 
 rulers being applied to R S, and the other withdrawn to 
 a given point V, a right-angle A B, drawn by its edge 
 through Y, is a parallel to R S. 
 
 PARALLELS, or Parallel Circles, in geography, 
 called alfo parallels or circles of latitude, arelefler circles 
 of the fphere conceived to be drawn from weft to eaft 
 through all the points of the meridian, commencing from 
 the equator to which they are parallel, and terminating 
 with the poles. They are called parallels of latitude, 
 becaufe all places lying under the fame parellel, have the 
 fame latitude. 
 
 Parallels of Latitude, in aftronomy, are Idler 
 circles of the fphere parallel to the ecliptick, imagined to 
 pals through every degree and minute of the colours. 
 
 They are reprefented on the globe by the divifions on 
 the quadrant of altitude, in its motion round the globe, 
 when ferewed over the pole of the ecliptick. See Globe. 
 
 Parallels of Altitude ox Almacantars , are circles pa¬ 
 rallel to the horizon, imagined to pals through every de¬ 
 gree and minute of the meridian between the horizon and 
 zenith, having.their poles in the zenith. 
 
 They are reprefented on the globe by the divifions on 
 the quadrant of altitude, in its motion about the body of 
 the globe, when ferewed to the zenith. 
 
 Parallels of Declination, in aftronomy, are the 
 fame with parallels of latitude in geography. 
 
 P.vrellel Sphere, thatfituation of the fphere, where¬ 
 in the equator coincides with the horizon, and the poles 
 with the zenith and nadir. 
 
 In this fphere all the parallels of the equator become 
 parallels of the horizon, confequcntly, no liars ever rile 
 or let, but all turn round in circles parallel to the hori¬ 
 zon ; and the fun, when in the equino£tial, wheels round 
 the horizon the wdiole day. After his riling to the ele¬ 
 
 vated pole,- he never fets for fix months, and after his 
 entering again on the other fide of the line, never riles 
 for fix months longer. This is the polition of the fphere 
 toluch as live under the poles, and to whom the fun is 
 never above 23° 30' high. 
 
 Parallel Sailing, in navigation, is the failing under 
 a parallel of latitude. See Parallel Sailing. 
 
 PARALLELEPIPED, or Parallelopiped, in 
 geometry, a regular folid'comprehended under fix parel- 
 lelograms, the oppolite ones whereof are fimilar, parallel, 
 and equal. 
 
 All parallelepipeds, prilins, cylinders, &c. whofe bales 
 and heights are equal, are themfclves equal. A diagonal 
 plane divides a parallelepiped into two equal prifms i fo 
 that a triangular priini is half a parallelepiped upon the 
 fame bafe, and of the lame altitude. All parallelepipeds, 
 prilins, cylinders, &c. are in a ratio compounded of their 
 bales and altitudes; wherefore, If their, bales be equal, 
 they are in proportion to their altitudes, and convertely. 
 All parallelepipeds, prifms, cylinders, conefc, kc. arc ift 
 a triplicate ratio of their homologous fides, and alfo of' 
 their altitudes. Equal parellelepipeds, prifms,.cones, cyr 
 finders, &c. reciprocate their bales and altitudes. To 
 meafure the furface and folidity of a parallelepiped. Find 
 the areas of the parallelograms 1 L M K, L M ON, and 
 O M K ft (plate LXlll.yfgv 5.) add thele nto one Unn> 
 and multiply that fum by 2, the fattum will be the fur- 
 face.of the parallelepiped. 
 
 If then the bale 1 L M K be multiplied by die altitude 
 M O, the produdl will be the folidity. 
 
 PARALLELISM, the fituation or quality whereby 
 any thing is denominated parallel. 
 
 Parallelism of the Earth's Axis, in aftronomy, 
 that fituation of the earth’s axis, in its progrefs through 
 its orbit, whereby it is ftill dire died towards the pole-ft^r; 
 fo that if a fine be drawn parallel to its axis, while in,any 
 one polition, the axis, in all other pofitions, will be al¬ 
 ways parallel to the fame line. This parallelifm is the 
 refult of the earth’s double motion, viz. round the fun, 
 and round its own axis; or its annual and diurnal motion; 
 and to it we owe the viciftitudes of feafous, and the in¬ 
 equality of day and night. See Earth., 
 
 PARALLELOGRAM, in geometry, a quadrilatcial 
 right-lined figure, whofe oppolite fides are parallel and 
 equal to each other. It is generated by the equable mo¬ 
 tion of a right fine always parallel to itfelf. When it has 
 all its four angles right, and only its oppofite fides equal, 
 it is called a rc&angle or oblong. When the angles are 
 all right, and the fides equal, it is called a fquare. If all 
 the fides are equal, and the angles unequal, it is called a 
 rhombus or lozenge : and if the fides and angles be un¬ 
 equal, it is called a rhomboides. 
 
 PARALOGISM, in logick, a falfe reafoning, or a 
 fault committed in demonftration, when a conlequence is 
 drawn from principles that are falfe ; or, though true, 
 are not proved ; or when a propofition is palled over that 
 fitould have been proved by the way. 
 
 A paralogifm differs from a fophifm in this, that the 
 fophifm is committed out of defign and fubtlety, and the 
 paralogifm out of miftake and for want of fufficient fight 
 and application. See Sophism and Demo«vstra-» 
 
 TIOK. 
 
 PARALYSIS, the pally. SccPalsv. 
 
 PARALYT 1 CK, a perfon aftli&ed with the palfy. 
 See Pals v. 
 
 PARAMETER, in conick fe&ion, a conftant line, 
 otherwife called latus re&um. See Ellipsis, Hyper¬ 
 bola, and Parabola. 
 
 The parameter is laid to be conftant, becaufe in the 
 parabola the rc&angle under it and any abfcils is always 
 equal to the fquare of the correfponding femi-ordinate ; 
 and in theelliplis and hyperbola, it is a third proportional 
 to the conjugate and tranfverfe axis. 
 
 PARAMOUNT, in law, fignifies the fupreme lord 
 of the fee. See Fee. 
 
 PARAPET, in fortification, an elevation of earth 
 defigned for covering the foldiers from the enemies can¬ 
 non or fmall lhot. T he thicknefsof the parapet is from 
 18 to 20 feetits height is fix feet on the infide, and four 
 or live leet on the outfide. It is railed on the rampart, 
 and has a Hope above called the fuperior talus, and fomp- 
 times the glacis of the parapet. 
 
 P ar a pet, is alfo a little wall raifed breaft high on the 
 
 banks 
 
PAR PAR 
 
 fianks of bridges, keys, or high buildings, to ferve as a 
 flay, and to prevent people falling over. 
 
 PARAPHERNALIA, or Parapherna, in the 
 civil law, thofe goods which a wife brings her hufband 
 befides her dower, and which are ftill to remain at her 
 difpofal exclufive of her hufband, unlefs there are fome 
 provifion made to the contrary in the marriage contrail. 
 
 PARAPHIMOSIS, in medicine, a dilorder of the 
 penis, wherein the prepuce is fhru'nk, and withdrawn 
 behind the glands, fo as not to be capable of being brought 
 to cover the lame; which generally happens in venereal 
 diforders. 
 
 PARAPHRASE, an explanation of fome text in 
 more ample terms. 
 
 Chaldee Paraphrase. There are three on the pen- 
 tateuch ; that of Onkelos, the paraph rale of Jonathan, 
 and the targum of Jerulalem. 'l he Chaldee paraphrafe 
 on the prophets is of Jonathan fon of Uzziel; and the 
 author of the Chaldee paraphrafe on the hagiographers is 
 unknown. 
 
 PARAPHRENES 1 S, Paraphrenitis, in medicine, an 
 inflammation of the diaphragm, or parts adjacent. 
 
 The cure of a paraplirenefis requires the fame cautions, 
 and aimoft the fame remedies with that of a pleurify, 
 fucli only excepted, as the lituation of the part affeiled 
 cannot admit of. Emollient clyfters are often beneficial, 
 in confequence of their afling on the parts next to that 
 affe&ed. But when the diaphragm comes to a fuppura- 
 tion, and the pus is difeharged, congefted, and putrified 
 in the cavity of the abdomen, a tumour, corrofion of the 
 vifeera, a violent tabes, and at laft death, are produced, 
 fo that this kind of paraplirenefis is incurable. 
 
 PARAPLEGIA, Paraplexia, in medicine, a fpecies 
 of pally fuccecding an apoplexy, which fee. 
 
 PARASANG, an ancient Perfian meafure, being 
 ufualjy 30, fometimes 40, and fome times 50 ftadia or 
 furlongs. 
 
 PARASCENIUM, Poflcettium, in antiquity, a place 
 behind the theatre whither the adlors retired to un- 
 drefs, he. 
 
 PARASELENE, mock-moon, in phyfiology, a me¬ 
 teor round the moon, in form of a luminous ring, in 
 which is obferved one, fometimes two, apparent images 
 of the moon. This phenomenon is formed after the 
 fame manner as the parhelia or mock-funs. See the 
 article P a r h e l i u m. 
 
 PARASITE, among the Greeks, originally denoted 
 a very reputable title, being a kind of priefts, in the 
 fame manner as the epulones at Rome. They took care 
 of the facred corn ; but of late it has been made a term 
 of reproach, and ufed for a flatterer and mean dependant. 
 
 PARASITES, or Parasitical Plants, in bo¬ 
 tany, fucli plants as are produced out of the trunk or 
 branches of other plants, from whence they receive their 
 nourifhment, and will not grow upon the ground, as 
 the mifleto, he. 
 
 PARASTATA, in the ancient archite&ure, a kind 
 of pier for the lupport of a column or arch. 
 
 PAR AST ATM, Epididymis , Epididymides, in ana¬ 
 tomy, denotes the varicole paraftate, in contradiftin&ion 
 from the glandulous paraftate, now called proftate. 
 They are two tuberous bodies lying upon and adhering 
 to the upper part of the teftes; they confifl of a convolu¬ 
 tion offeminal tubuli, mixed with blood velfels. 
 
 PAR ASYNANCHE, in phvfick, a kind offquinancy, 
 wherein the exterior mufcles of the throat are inflamed 
 and tumefied. See Quinzy. 
 
 PARATHESIS. See Parenthesis. 
 
 Parathesis, in gram mar, a figure whereby two or 
 more fubftantives are put in the fame cafe. 
 
 PARAT 1 TLES, Paratitla , in jurifprudence, fhort 
 notes or fummaries of the titles of the digefts and code, 
 in order to examine the connection of the feveral parts 
 with one another. 
 
 PAR AVAIL, in law, the immediate tenant of any 
 fee or land, as being prefumed to have profit therefrom. 
 
 PARCLE, in the Pagan theology, were goddeffes who 
 prefided over the duration of human life ; they were the 
 daughters of neceffity and deftiny, and were three in 
 number: Clotho who held the diftaff and drew the thread, 
 Lachefis who twirled the fpindle and fpun it, and Atropos 
 who cut the thread. 
 
 PARCEL-Makers, two officers in the Exchequer, 
 Vol. II. No. 54. 
 
 who make parcels of the efeheator’s accounts, charging 
 them with every thing they have levied for the king’s 
 ufe, and deliver the fame to one of the auditors to make 
 their accounts therewith. 
 
 PARCHMENT, in commerce, fheep and goat’s fkins 
 prepared in fucli a manner as to be fit for feveral ufes, as 
 writing and covering of books, he. 
 
 Parchment is begun by the lkinner, and finiffied by 
 the parchment-maker. That called virgin parchment is 
 only a thinner fort than the reft, proper for fans, he. 
 and made of the lkins of abortive lambs or kids. 
 
 Manufafiure of Parch ment. The Ikin having been 
 ftripped of its wool, and placed in the lime-pit, the fkinner 
 ftretches it on a kind of frame, confifting of four pieces 
 of wood, mortiled into each other at the four angles, and 
 perforated lengthways from diftance to diftance, with 
 holes, furniffied with wooden pins that may be turned at 
 pleafure, like thole of a violin. See Shammy. 
 
 To ftretch the Ikin on this frame, they make little holes 
 all round it, and through every two holes draw a little 
 Ikewer ; to this Ikewer they tie a piece of fmall packthread, 
 and tie that over the pins ; fo that, coming to turn the 
 pins equally, the Ikin is ftrained tight every way, like that 
 of a drum. The Ikin being thus Efficiently ftretchcd 
 on the frame, the flcih is pared off with a fliarp inftrument 
 for that purpole ; this done, it is moiftened with a rag, 
 and a kind of white ftone or chalk, reduced to a fine duff, 
 ft re wed over it; then with a large pumicc-ftone, flat at 
 bottom, much after the manner of a mullet for grinding 
 colours, they rub over the Ikin, as if about to grind the 
 chalk, and thus lcowcr off the remains of the flefli. Then 
 they go over it again with the iron inftrument; again 
 moiften it as before, and again rub it with the pumice- 
 ftonc without any chalk underneath ; this fmoothens 
 and foftens the flelh fide very confiderably. They drain 
 it again, by palling it over the iron inftrument as before, 
 l he flefh-fide thus drained, they pafs the iron on the 
 wool or hair-fide, then ftretch it tight on the frame by 
 means of the pins, and go over the fleffi-iide again with 
 the iron; this finilhes its draining; and the more the 
 Ikin is drained, the whiter it becomes. They now throw 
 on more chalk, fweeping it over with a piece of lamb- 
 Ikin that has the wool on ; this fmoothens it ftill further 
 and gives it a fine down or nap. It is now left to dry’ 
 and, when dried, taken off the frame, by cutting it ali 
 round. The Ikin, thus far prepared by the lkinner, is 
 taken out of his hands by the parchment-maker, who 
 Li 1 ft ferapes or pares it dry on the fummer, with an iron 
 inftrument like that above-mentioned, only finer and 
 lharper; with this, worked with the arm from top to 
 bottom of the Ikin, he takes away about one half of its 
 thicknefs. The Ikin thus equally pared on both fides, 
 they pafs the pumicc-ftone over both fides, to fmoothen 
 it. This laft preparation is performed on a kind of form 
 or bench covered with a lack ftuffed with flocks, and 
 leaves the parchment in a condition for writing on. 
 
 The paring the Ikin dry on the fummer is the moft 
 difficult preparation in the whole procels of parchment¬ 
 making ; for which reafon the Ikin nets feldom dare 
 meddle with it, but ulually leave it to thofe more expe¬ 
 rienced in it: the fummer whereon it is performed, is 
 a calf-lkin well ftretchcd on a frame, ferving as a fupport 
 to the ikin, which is faftened a-top of it with a wooden 
 inftrument, that has a notch cut in it. Laftly, that the 
 iron knife may pafs the eafier between the fummer and 
 the Ikin to be pared, they put another Ikin which they 
 call the counter-fummer. The parings, thus taken off 
 the leather, are ufed in making glue, fize, he. See 
 Glue, he. What we call vellum is only parchment 
 made of the lkins of abortive calves, or at leall of fuck¬ 
 ing calves ; it is finer, whiter, and fmoother than the 
 common parchment, but it is prepared in the fame manner 
 as that, abating that it is not palfcd through the lime-pit. 
 
 PARCO Fracto, inlaw, a writ againft one who 
 violently breaks open a pound, and takes out bcafts that 
 were lawfully impounded. 
 
 PARDON, in law, the remiffion of a felony or other 
 offence againft the king or laws. It is twofold ; the one 
 ex gratia regis, which the king by virtue of his prero¬ 
 gative, and from fome lpccial regard, grants any perfon ; 
 the other per cour de ley, which the king grants, as law 
 and equity perfuade, for fome flight offence, as caluat 
 homicide, he. 
 
 Y y 
 
 PAREGO- 
 
PAREGORICKS, Paregorica , in medicine, are fuch 
 lenient or mitigating remedies as alfuage pain ; the fame 
 as anodynes or opiates. 
 
 PARELCON, in grammar, a figure by which a word 
 or fyliable is added to the end of another. 
 
 PARENCHYMA* in anatomy, a term introduced 
 by Erafiftratus, fignifying all that fubftance which is 
 contained in the interfaces betwixt the bfood-velfels of 
 the vifeera, which he imagined to be extravafated and 
 concreted blood. The moderns having difeovered all 
 the vifeera to be vafculary and glandulous, have rejected 
 this term, together with the dodtrine. 
 
 Parenchyma g[ Plants. Grew applies the term 
 parenchyma to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of a 
 fruit or plant through which the juice is fuppoled to be 
 dillributcd. 1 his, when viewed with a microfcope, 
 appears to refemble marrow, or rather a fponge, being a 
 porous, flexible, dilatable fubftance. Its pores arc in¬ 
 numerable and exceedingly finall, receiving as much 
 humour as is requifite to fill and extend them, which 
 difpofition of pores it is that is fuppoled to fit the plant 
 for vegetation and growth. 
 
 PARENT, Parens , a term of relation applicable to 
 thole from whom we immediately receive our being. 
 
 PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain intercalary 
 words, inferted in a difeourfe, which interrupt the fenfe, 
 or thiead, but feem neceffary for the better underftandine; 
 of the fubjett. 
 
 The proper chara&eriftick of a parenthefis is, that it 
 may be either taken in or left out, the fenfe and the gram¬ 
 mar remaining intire. In fpeaking, the parenthefis is to 
 be pronounced in a different tone; and in writing, it is 
 enclofed between (), called alfo a parenthefis, but com¬ 
 monly a bracket, or crotchet, to diftinguilh it from the 
 reft of the difeourfe. 1 he politeft of our modern writers 
 avoid the parenthefis, as keeping the mind in fufpenfe,- 
 embar raffing it, and rendering the difeourfe lefs clear, 
 uniform, and agreeable. 
 
 PARERGA, in archite&ure, fignifies appendages, or 
 additions made to fome principal work, by way of orna 
 ment. 
 
 PARGE T, in natural hiftory, a name given to feveral 
 kinds of gypfum, or plafter-ftone. See Plaster. 
 
 PARGETING, in build ing, is ulcd for the plafter- 
 ing of walls, and fometimes for the plafter itfclf. 
 
 Pargeting is of various kinds, as, i. white-lime, hair, 
 and mortar, laid upon bare walls : 2. on bare laths, as 
 in partitioning and ceiling ; 3. rendering the inlides of 
 walls, or doubling partition walls : 4. rough-calling 
 upon heart-laths : 5. plaftering upon brick-work, with a 
 fimlhing mortar in imitation of ftone-work. 
 
 PARHEL 1 UM, or Parhelion, in phyfiology, 
 mock lun or meteor in form of a very bright light ap¬ 
 pearing on one fide of the fun. The parhelia are formed 
 by the reflexion of the fun’s beams on a cloud properly 
 pofited. I'liey ufuallv accompany the corona?, or lumi¬ 
 nous circles, and are placed in the fame circumference and 
 at the fame height. Their colours refemble that of the 
 rainbow, the red and yellow are on the fide towards the 
 lun, and the blue and violet on the other. There are 
 corona? fometimes feen without parhelia, and viceverla. 
 
 PARIETALIA Ossa, in anatomy, the lecond and 
 third bones of the cranium ; being called all'o olfa breg 
 matis, and olfa fincipitis. 
 
 PARIETES, in anatomy, a term uled for the inclo¬ 
 ses or membranes, that flop up or clofe the hollow parts 
 of a body, elpccially thofeof the heart, thorax, &c. 
 
 PAR 1 ETARIA, Pellitory of the Wall, in 
 botany, a genus of plants, producing hermaphrodite 
 and female, apetalous flowers ; the calyx of each is a 
 monophvllous perianthium : the ftamina are four fubu- 
 lated filaments, topped with twin anthers ; there is no 
 pericarpium, but the Iced, which is Angle, and of an 
 oval form, is contained in the cup. Pellitory flowers in 
 May, and grows upon old walls and buildings in feveral 
 parts of England. 
 
 This plant is very famous in the materia medica as 
 cooling and abftergent. It is prefcribed in ftranguries, 
 and in cafes of gravel, or fmall llones in the kidnies, and 
 is an ingredient in deegttions for clyfters to be given in 
 nephritick cafes. Externally, it is much recommended 
 in the ervfipelas, and for the foftening of hard tumours. 
 PARIS, herb true-love, in botany, a plant 
 
 cruciform flowers: the fruit is a globofe berry, con¬ 
 taining four cells, which are filled with feeds arranged 
 in a double feries. This plant grows wild in moiftlhady 
 woods in many parts of England. 
 
 PARISH, a circuit of ground inhabited bv people 
 who belong to one church. The divifion of England 
 into parilhes, is attributed to Honorius, Archbiihop of 
 Canterbury, in 636. Camden reckons 9284 parilhes in 
 England. Cliamberlayn makes, at prelent, 9913; of 
 winch 3845 are churches impropriate, and the icft’are 
 annexed to colleges, or church dignities. 
 
 PARK, a large inclolure privileged for wild beafts of 
 chace, either by prefeription or the king’s grant. No 
 perfon can now ereft a park without his obtaining firft a 
 licence under the broad-leal; but there may be l'uch in 
 reputation, though erected without lawful warrant, and 
 the owner may bring his a&ion againll perfons that kill 
 his deer therein. The pulling down walls, or pales, 
 makes the offenders liable to the fame penalty as for killing 
 of deer. 
 
 Park, is alfo ufed for a moveable inclofure, or fold, 
 fet up in the fields for lheep to feed and reft in during the 
 night. This park is frequently removed by the Ihepherds 
 to dung the ground one part after another. 
 
 Park, alio fignifies a large net, placed on the brink 
 of the lea, with only one entrance, which is next to the 
 Ihore, and which is left dry by the ebb of the tide, lb 
 that the filh once got in, have no way left to efcape. 
 
 PARLEY, a conference with an enemy. Hence to 
 beat or found a parley, is to give a fignal for holding fuch 
 a conference by beat of drum or found of trumpet. 
 
 PaRLIAMEN 1 , the aflembly ol the king and three 
 eftates of the realm; viz. the lords fpiritual, the lords 
 temporal, and commons; which aflembly or court is, 
 of all others, the higheft, and of greatell authority. 
 
 1 ARLOUR, Pm loir , a little room in nunneries and 
 convents for talking; but commonly it denotes a fair 
 lower room, deflgned principally for the entertainment 
 of company. 
 
 I ARMA, among antiquaries, a kind of ancient buck¬ 
 ler, which \ irgil mentions as a light piece of armour, in 
 compan ion with the clypcus, though bigger than the pelta. 
 
 PARMULARES, in antiquity, a kind of gladiators 
 who fought armed with the parma. 
 
 PAROCHIAL, any thing belonging to a pariih. 
 Every church is either cathedral, or a bifhop’s fee ; 
 collegiate , confifting of fome religious order, or of a deaii 
 and chapter ; and parochial, inftituted for the performing 
 of divine iervice, to perfons within a certain diftrift. 
 
 1 ARODICAL Degrees of an Equation, in algebra, 
 are the feveral regular terms in quadratick, cubick, bi- 
 juadrick equations, he. the indexes of whole powers 
 alcend or delcend orderly in an arithmetical progrefs, as 
 + is a cubical equation, where no term is 
 wanting, but having all its parodick degrees, the indexes 
 of the terms regularly dclcending thus, 3, 2, 1, o. 
 PARODY, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb. 
 Parody is alfo a poetical pleafantry, confifting in 
 applying the verfes written on one fubjefl, by way of 
 ridicule to another; or in turning a lerious work into a 
 burlefque, by affecting to obferve, as nearly as polfible, 
 the lame rhymes, words, and cadences. 
 
 PAR Ol All A, a proverb, or common faying. 
 PAROLE, or Parol, in law, a plea in any court. 
 LeaJ'e- Parole, or per Parole, a leafe by word of 
 mouth, in contradirtin&ion from one in writing. 
 
 Parole, in war, when a prifoner has leave to go 
 any where, upon his promilc of returning at a time- 
 appointed, il not exchanged. 
 
 PARONOMASIA, in lhetorick, a figure whereby 
 words, nearly alike in found, but of different l'enfes, are 
 defignedly made ufe of. 
 
 PARON YCHIA, a whitloe, in medicine, a painful 
 md of tumour, ariling at the ends of the fingers and the 
 oots of the nails. For the caller cure of a paronychia, 
 its Ipecies Ihould firft be coniidered. If it be of the mild 
 or firft kind, and has not penetrated deep, the cure may, 
 without difficulty, be obtained. As l'oon as the purulent 
 matter becomes prominent, like a tubercle or bliller, let 
 the lurgeon place a finger on each fide of the aftc&ed 
 part; and ftretching the Ikin, by drawing it on both 
 . lides, from the whitloe, make the incifion : "thus will the 
 producingjm.i.er be dilcharged, and the finger will generally heal 
 ' fpontaneoully. 
 
PAR 
 
 fpontancoufly. Hildanus, in cent. i. obf. 97. gives the 
 following fafe and »cady n.ethod of curing a paronychia, 
 which he had frequently tried with fuccefs. He firfl 
 fomented the finger feveral times, with the decodtion of 
 the flowers of the chamomile, and meiilot, and fenu¬ 
 greek, and quinct-leeds, boiled in cows milk; then he 
 gradually cut oil the furface of the fkin where the pain 
 was. The lkm being thus removed, fomc red lpecks 
 appeared, in which, upon incilion, he found one or two 
 fmall drops of a red water ; and, this being difcharged, 
 he applied a linen cloth, moiltened with a folution of 
 Venice treacle in brandy ; the pain immediately ceal'ed, 
 and next day the finger was found. 
 
 PAROTIDES, in anatomy, two remarkable glands, 
 fituated one on each fide, between the ear and the angle 
 of the lower jaw. 
 
 Parotides is alfo the name of certain tumours or 
 inflammations arilingbehind the ears,or the parotid glands. 
 
 PAROXISM, in medicine, the fevere fit of a difeafe, 
 under which it grows higher, or exafperates, as of the 
 gout, Ac. It is alfo ufed for the acccfs or return of a 
 dileafe, as an ague, Ac. 
 
 PARRELS, in a fhip, are frames made of trucks, 
 ribs, and ropes, which having both their ends fattened 
 to the yards, are fo contrived, as to go round about the 
 malt, that the yards, by their means, may go up and 
 down upon the mails; thcle alfo, with the breaft ropes, 
 faften the yards to the mails. 
 
 PARRICIDE, Parricida , or Patricida, flridlly fignifies 
 the murder or murderer of a father, as matricide does of 
 a mother; yet this word is ordinarily taken in both fenfes, 
 and is alfo extended to the murder of any near relation, 
 as hufband, wife, brother, filler, child, grand-child, 
 uncle, Ac. and even to that of great or facred perfons, 
 though no way allied in blood, as a king, Ac. 
 
 PARROQUET, in ornithology, a l'ubdivifion of 
 parrots. 
 
 PARROT, Pfttacus , a genus of birds, of the order 
 of the accipitres, the characters of which are thefe ; the 
 beak is of a hooked or uncinated figure ; and the toes are 
 four on each foot, two forwards and two backwards. 
 
 PARRYING, in fencing, the adtion of warding off 
 the blows aimed at one by another. 
 
 PARSLEY, Apium, the name of a plant too well 
 known in this country to need any defeription here. It 
 is cultivated in gardens for culinary ufes, and will en¬ 
 dure the cold tolerably well, but is apt to be deltroyed in 
 very fevere winters, efpecially where the foil is moifl. It 
 is generally fown infpring, and the plant appears the fol¬ 
 lowing year. The common parfley is, by fome lkilful 
 people, cultivated in fields for the ufe of fheep, it being 
 a fovercign remedy to preferve them from the rot, pro¬ 
 vided they are fed twice a week, for two or three hours 
 each time, with this herb ; but hares and rabbets are fo 
 fond of it, that they will come from a great diflance to 
 feed on it; fo that whoever has a mind to have plenty 
 of hares in their fields, by cultivating parfley, will draw 
 all the hares of the country to them. 
 
 The leaves of parfley are cooling, and good for clean- 
 flng the vifccra ; they alfo abflerge much flime and vifeid 
 adhefions from the flomach and bowels, cleanfe all the 
 paffages, keep the juices fluid, and greatly aflifl their 
 difeharge by urine. The root is one of the five opening 
 roots; it is attenuant, aperient, detergent, and diuretick; 
 it is good in decodlions, diet-drinks, and medicinal ales, 
 for cleanfing the blood (as it is commonly called) and 
 draining off ill humours by urine. The feed is one of 
 the four hot feeds, and is faid to be good in the gravel 
 and dropfy. 
 
 PARSNEP, Pajlinaca , in botany, a genus of um¬ 
 belliferous plants, the univerfal flower of which is uni¬ 
 form, and the particular ones are each compol'ed of five 
 lanceolated incurved petals, with five hairy llamina ; 
 there is no pericarpium, but the fruit, which is plane, 
 elliptical, and comprcfTed, is compoled of two flattifh 
 marginated feeds. 
 
 The roots of this plant are of great ufe as food, for 
 which they are chiefly cultivated, they are more nourifh- 
 ing than carrots, though fome people have a natural 
 averflon to their ufe. 1 he roots and Iced of wild parfnep 
 are fometimes ufed in medicine, and are recommended as 
 a remedy againfl agues, and are reckoned good in flatu¬ 
 lencies and cholicks. 
 
 P A R 
 
 P ARSON, the redlor or incumbent of a pariflt-church. 
 
 PARSONAGE, a redlory or pat ifh-church, endowed 
 with a houfe, glebe, lands, tythes, Ac. for the mainte¬ 
 nance of a minifler, with cure of fouls within fuch parifh. 
 I here may, notwithllanding, be a parfonage without 
 either glebe or tythes, but only annual payments inflead 
 thereof. 
 
 PARI , Pars , a portion of fome whole, confldered as 
 divided or divifible. 
 
 Nob!e or JJcntiul Parts, in phyflek, -thofe abfolutely 
 neceflary to life, as the heart, brain, Ac. 
 
 Natural or genital Parts, thofe miniflering to gene¬ 
 ration. 
 
 Part, in geometry and aflronomy, denotes the divi- 
 flon of lines and circles. The l'emi-diameter of the 
 circle, called alfo the radius and whole fine, is generally 
 divided into 100,000 parts, and the circumference of the 
 circle into 360 parts or degrees ; in thefe two divifions 
 all the celcllial computations are made. 
 
 Anquot Part, a quantity, which, being repeated any 
 number of times, becomes equal to an integer, as 5 of 
 20, Ac. 
 
 Aliquant Part, a quantity, which, being repeated any 
 number of times, becomes always greater or lets than the 
 whole ; thus 4 of 15, and 9 of 10, Ac. The aliquant 
 part is refolvible into aliquot parts. 
 
 Proportional P a rt , a part analagous to fome other 
 part, or a medium to find fome part unknown by equa¬ 
 lity of rcafon. 
 
 Similar Parts, are thofe which are to one another, 
 as their wholes are to one another. 
 
 Part, in mufick, a piece of the fcore or partition 
 written by itfelf, for the convenience of the muflcian ; 
 or the parts are the founds made by feveral perfons ling- 
 ing or playing in concert. There are four' principal 
 parts, the treble, bafs, tenor, and counter-tenor. 
 
 Mufick in parts was unknow’n to the ancients; all 
 their harmony confilled in the lucceflion of notes, and 
 none in the confonance. 
 
 P arts of Speech, in grammar, are all the words that 
 enter the compofltion of a difeourfe, as noun, pronoun, 
 verb, participle, adverb, conjundlion, prepofition, and 
 interjedlion. 
 
 PARTERRE, ingardening, a level divifion of ground 
 which generally faces the foutii and bell front of a houfe, 
 and is furnifhed with greens, flowers, Ac. made in vari¬ 
 ous forms. 
 
 PARI I, Party, or Parted, in heraldry, denotes 
 a fhield, or efcutcheon, divided into partitions. 
 
 I he f rench have but one Ample parti, but with us it 
 is applied to all the forts of partitioning, as parti per 
 crols, per chief, per pale, per fefle, per bend dexter, per 
 bend Unifier, per chevron, Ac. 
 
 Parti per Pale , when the fhield is divided perpendi¬ 
 cularly, by a cut in the middle from top to bottom. 
 
 Parti per Fejfe, when the cut is acrofs the middle, 
 from fide to lide. 
 
 Parti per Bend Dexter , is when the cut comes from 
 the upper corner of the fhield on the right hand, and 
 delccnds athwart to the oppolitc lower corner. 
 
 Parti per Bend Smijler, is when the cut, coming 
 from the upper left corner, defeends acrofs to the oppo- 
 fite lower one. 
 
 When the fhield is parti and coupe, it is faid to be 
 ecartele. It is faid to be parti one from the other, when 
 the whole fhield is charged with fome honourable bear¬ 
 ing, divided by the fame line that parts the fhield. Here 
 it is a rule that one fide be of metal, and the other of 
 colour. 
 
 PAR PICIPATION, Participatio, that which gives 
 us a lhare in any thing, either by right or grace. 
 
 PAR I LCIPLE, Participium , in grammar, an adjec¬ 
 tive formed of a verb, flill participating of fome of rhe 
 properties thereof. There are two kinds of participles ; 
 the one adlive, as exprefling the fubjedl which makes the 
 adtion ofthe verb, as docens, currens, teaching, running; 
 the other called paflive, as exprefling the fubjedl that re¬ 
 ceives the adlion, as ledlus, auditus, read, heard. 
 
 As our adjedlives in Englifh are not declined, the par¬ 
 ticiples, being real adjedlives, are not declined neither : 
 in the Latin and French, Ac. where thefe adjedlives are 
 declined, the participles adlive are lo too. 
 
 PARI ICLE, Particula , in phyflek, the minute part 
 
 of 
 
PAS 
 
 of a body, of fcveral of which natural bodies are com- 
 pofed : the fame with atom or corpufcle. 
 
 Particle, in grammar, a little indeclineable word, 
 which ferves toexprefsthecircumftances of fomething. 
 
 Particles may be reduced under three heads; the hi ft 
 fhews the qualities of words by being added thereto, 
 called adverbs; the feconcL denotes ibme circumftances 
 of aftion, joining words to words, fentence to fentence, 
 &c. called conjunftion ; and the third exprelles the emo¬ 
 tions of the foul, called inter] eft ion. 
 
 PARTIES, in law, fignify the perfons that are named 
 in a deed or fine, viz. thofc that made the deed, or levied 
 the fine, and alfo thofe to whom the fame was made or 
 levied. 
 
 PARTING, or Departing, a method of feparat- 
 ing gold andfilver, by means of aqua-fortis. 
 
 PARTITION, inlaw, figniftes a divifion of lands, 
 &c. defeended by common law or cuftom among coheirs 
 or parceners, being two at leaft. Partition may alio be 
 made by joint tenants, and tenants in common by aflent, 
 deed, or writ. 
 
 PARTNER, and Partnership. See the article 
 Fellowship. 
 
 PARTRIDGE, in ornithology, is a fpecies oftetrao, 
 with a naked fcarlet mark behind the eyes. The com¬ 
 mon partridge is too well known to need a further de- 
 feription ; it is common in fields, and called by authors 
 perdix. But behdes the common kind, there is another 
 l'omewhat larger fpecies, called the red-legged partridge, 
 with a grey tail, variegated in the upper part with brown. 
 
 PARTURITION, Parturitio , the aft of bringing 
 forth young. 
 
 PARTY, a faftion or power, confidered as oppofite 
 to another. 
 
 Party, in the military fenfe, a fmall body of men, 
 whether foot or horfe, or both, fent out on an expedition. 
 
 PARUL 1 S, in medicine, apainful tumourof the gums, 
 with an inflammation and fwclling of the cheek, more 
 orlefs, which is fometimes occafioned by the tooth-ach. 
 
 Such tumours arc to be treated by digeftives. If the 
 diforder be recent, in order to alleviate the pain, let the 
 patient hold a little of the warm decoftion ot chamomile, 
 fage, flowers of elder, Sec. in his mouth ; and, outwardly, 
 apply a bag with the fame herbs, or a plaiftcr of melilot, 
 or diachylon with camphirc ; or a warm cloth to obtain 
 an eafy refolution, not omitting, internally, diaphoretick 
 and refolvent medicines. If thefe methods fail, recourfe 
 mult be had to emollients, as marfhmallows, mallows, 
 mullein, figs, See. As foon as the foftnefs indicates a 
 fuppuration, an incifion mult be made into the tumour, 
 to prevent a fiftula, the matter expreflcd with the fingers, 
 and the ulcer often cleanfed with warm wine, a decoc¬ 
 tion of agrimony, and St. John’s wort, mixed with 
 honey of roles. But if the ulcer fhould degenerate into 
 a fiftula, after ufing the above-mentioned injeftions, a 
 little of the oil of myrrh per deliquium, or elixir pro- 
 prictatis, fhould be inftilled into the ulcer for deterging 
 and healing it. But if none of thefe medicines fucceed, 
 the fiftula mull be laid open by incifion, and the caries 
 extirpated, either by medicines, the rafp, or the aftual 
 cautery. Heifer's Surgery. 
 
 PASCHAL, fomething belonging to the Jewifh pafl- 
 over, or Chriftian Ealler. 
 
 PASQUIN, a mutilated ftatue, feen at Rome in a 
 corner of the palace of the Urfini, fo called from a 
 cobler of that name, famous for his fneers and gibes. 
 After Pafquin’s death, upon digging the pavement be¬ 
 fore his lhop, they found a ftatue of an ancient gladiator, 
 which being fet up at the corner of the dcceafed mailer 
 Pafquin’s lhop, was, by common confent, called by his 
 name. From that time all fatircs and lampoons are put 
 in this ftatue’s mouth, or palled againft it. Pafquin 
 ulually addrefles himfelf to Marforio, another ftatue in 
 Rome, or Marforio to Pafquin, and thus they mutually 
 come to each other’s afliftance. 
 
 PASQUINADE, Pasqjjil, properly denotes a lam¬ 
 poon faftened to the ftatue of Pafquin, but it has been 
 extended to any fneer upon the publick, or the ruling 
 powers. 
 
 PASS, Pass ade, in fencing, a leap or advance upon 
 the enemy. Some palles are voluntary; commencing 
 from the left foot out of meafure of the firm foot, as 
 when the enemy is not expefted : others are neceffarily 
 
 3 
 
 PAS 
 
 made after a pufli from the right foot, where, being lb 
 prefled, as not to have time to retire, you endeavour to 
 leize the guard of his fword. The meafure of the pals 
 is, when the two fmalls of the fwords are fo near as that 
 they may touch each other. There are palles within, 
 above, beneath, to the right, the left, under the fword, 
 over the line, See. 
 
 Pass of Arms, in chivalry, abridge, road. See. which 
 the ancient knights undertook to defend, and which was 
 not to be palled without fighting the perfon who kept it. 
 He who was dilpoled to difpute the pal's, touched one of 
 the armouries of the other knight who held the pals, that 
 were hung on pales, columns, See. created for the pur- 
 pofe ; and this was a challenge which the other was 
 obliged to accept. The vanquilhed gave the viftor fuch 
 prize as was agreed on. 
 
 PASSAGE, Right oh PaJfjgr, in commerce, an im- 
 pofition which fome princes exa£l in narrow places of 
 their territories, either by land or lea, on all vcllels, and 
 carriages of all kinds, See. 
 
 Birds of ‘Passage, are fuch birds as only come at 
 certain feafons, and then dilappear again, palling the 
 fea to fome other climate; fuch are the llork. fwailow, 
 nightingale, martin, woodcock, quail. See. 'There are 
 alio fillies of pafiage, as herrings, mackarel. See. 
 
 Passage, in the menage, an aft ion wherein the horfe 
 raifes a hind and a fore leg together; then, letting thefe 
 two oiv the ground, he raifes the other two; and thus 
 alternately, never gaining above afoot of ground at a time. 
 
 Passage, Pnjfo, in mufick, a portion of an air, con¬ 
 fining of feveral quavers, demi-quavers. Ac. lafting one, 
 two, or at moll three meafures. 
 
 PASSANT, in heraldry, is applied to an animal, . 
 particularly a lion, in a lliicld, appearing to walk lei- 
 furely. In moll other beafts this is called tripping. 
 
 PASSION, Poffio , denotes the different agitations of 
 the foul, according to the different objects which prefent 
 themfelves to the fenfes. 
 
 Passions, with regard to medicine, make one of the 
 fix non-naturals, of the'utmoft importance, with relpeft 
 to health or difeafe. 
 
 Dr. Clieyne divides the paflions into acute and chro¬ 
 nical, for the fame reafon as difeales are fo divided. See 
 his Eflav on Health, Sec. 
 
 Dr. Morgan feems to have excelled all that preceded 
 him in explaining the origin and effefts of the paflions; 
 he obferves, j. That all the grateful paflions raife the 
 vital tide, ftrengthen and quicken the pulfe, diffufe the 
 natural heat, and take off any antecedent ftimulus, or 
 p refill re on the abdomen and inferior organs ; and, on 
 the contrary, the painful paflions fink and deprels the 
 blood, Sec. 2. All the paflions imprefs their charac- 
 teriftick icnfations, or modifications of pleafure and pain, 
 efpecially on the cefophagus, and upper orifice of the 
 ftomach. 3. That they imprefs the different modifica¬ 
 tions on the mufcles of the larynx, and thus difeover 
 themfelves by the different modulation and tone of the 
 voice. And hence he infers, that the nerves of the 
 eighth conjugation, or par vagum, are the principal in- 
 ftruments of the paflions; by means whereof they arc 
 varioufly imprefled, modified, and organized. 
 
 Passions, in poetry, the paflionate fentiments, gef- 
 tures, aftions, &c. which the poet gives his perfons. 
 
 Though the paflions be always ncceffary, yet all are 
 not equally neceffary. Comedy has jov and agreeable 
 furprize for its part; tragedy has terror and compaflion. 
 The proper paflion of the epopcea is admiration; though 
 the epopoea, as a medium between the two others, takes 
 in both their kinds of paflions. Admiration, in effeft, 
 is confident with each: we admire with joy the things 
 that furprize us agreeably, and, with terror and grief, 
 thofe that amaze and afflift us. 
 
 Bclides the general paflion, each epopcea has its pecu¬ 
 liar paflion, which ftill follows the charafter of the hero. 
 
 To make the paflions have their proper effeft, there 
 are two things required, namely, that the audience be 
 prepared to receive them, and that feveral incompatible 
 paflions be not intermixed. 
 
 Passion, in heraldry, or crofs of paflion, fo called, 
 as being in the ftiape of that whereon our Saviour dif¬ 
 fered. 
 
 Passion-Flower, Pajfijlora, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, the corolla of which confifts of five petals, of 
 
 the 
 
P A S 
 
 the largenefs and figure of thofe of the cup : the fruit ir 
 a berry, fupported on a pedicle. 
 
 There are feveral forts of this plant, but that which is 
 the moft commonly cultivated is the puf/i/lom folih pnlnu- 
 tis integcrrimis , paflion-flower with hard lharped entire- 
 leaves, or the common paifion-ftower. 
 
 This plant may be propagated either from feeds, 
 layers, or cuttings ; they require a good afpedted wall ; 
 where they may have height for their fhoots to extend, 
 which Ihould be properly trained againft it; and in the 
 fpring the plants muft be pruned, when all the final! 
 weak fhoots fhould be cut off, and the ftrong ones ftior- 
 tened to about four or five feet long, which will caule 
 them to put out ftrong fhoots for flowering the following 
 fu miner. 
 
 PASSIVE, in grammar, a fecond inflexion of verbs, 
 which, from active, become paffive, by affuming, in 
 moft of the modern languages, new auxiliary verbs, as 
 in Englifh, I am, in French, je l'uis, and, in the Ita¬ 
 lian, jo fono, &c. joined to the participle paffive : in 
 the ancient by new terminations, as laudor, laudari, for 
 laudo, laudare. 
 
 Niuter Passive, in grammar, a verb that has a paffive 
 conjugation, but a neuter fignification. l here are very 
 few of thefe in Latin, more in French, but fewer in 
 Englilli. Grammarians are frequently miftaken here, 
 taking verbs for neuters paffive, which in effcdl are ac¬ 
 tives, and only differ, in that they aft on themfelves, 
 by adding the pronoun perfonal; and, which, on that 
 footing, ihould rather be neuters active, than neuters 
 paffive. 
 
 PASSOVER, P/ifchti) a folemn feaft celebrated 
 among the Jews on the 14th day of the moon next after 
 the vernal equinox, in commemoration of the deftroying 
 angel's paffing over the houles of the llraelites, when he 
 dcftioyed the firft-born in thole of the Egyptians. There 
 was a fecond paifover held on the 14th of the fecond 
 month after the equinox, in favour of travellers and lick 
 perfons, who could not attend at the firft. 
 
 PASS -Parole^ a command given in the head of an 
 army, and, from thence, paffed from mouth to mouth 
 till it come to the rear. 
 
 Pass-Port, or Pass, a licence or writing obtained 
 from a prince or governour, granting liberty and fafe con- 
 dudf to pals through his territories without moleftation. 
 
 PASTBOARD, a kind of thick paper formed of fe¬ 
 veral fheets of paper pafted together. 
 
 PASTE, a compofition of water and flower, boiled 
 to a confiftcnce; ufed by various artificers, as fadlers, 
 upholfterers, bookbinders, &c. 
 
 Paste, among jewellers, implies an imitation of the 
 different gems, made with a hard fpccies of glafs. 
 
 PASTERN of a Hoi/e., in the menage, is the diftance 
 between the joint next the foot, and the coronet of the 
 hoof. This part fhould be lhort, eipecially in middlc- 
 fized horfes, becaul'e long patterns are weak, and cannot 
 fo well endure travelling. 
 
 Pastern-Joint, the joint next a horfe’s foot. 
 
 PASTIL, or Pastel, among painters, a kind of 
 pafte made of different colours, ground up with gum- 
 water, in order to make crayons. 
 
 Pastil, in pharmacy, is a dry compofition of fweet- 
 fmellirig refins, aromatick woods, &c. l'ometimes burnt 
 to clear and feent the air of a chamber. 
 
 PASTINACA,theparfnep,inbotany. SeePARSNEP. 
 
 PASTOR, properly fignifies a fhepherd, but is now 
 generally ufed for a parlon or mini tier that hath cure of 
 fouls. 
 
 PASTORAL, in general, fometjiing. that relates to 
 Ihcpherds; hence wefay, paftoral life, manners, poetry,&c. 
 
 The original of poetry is aferibed to that age which 
 fucceeded the creation of the w’orld: and as the keeping 
 of flocks feems to have been the firft employment of man¬ 
 kind, the moft ancient fort of poetry was, probably, 
 paftoral. It is natural to imagine, that the leilure of 
 thofe ancient fliepherds admitting and inviting fome di- 
 verfion, none was fo proper to that lolitary and fedentary 
 life as finging; and that in their longs they took occaiion 
 to celebrate their own felicity. From hence a poem was 
 invented, and afterwards improved to a perfect image of 
 that happy time ; which, by giving us an efteem for the 
 virtues of a former age, might recommend them to the 
 prefent. And fince the life of Ihepherds was attended 
 V^l II. No. 55. 
 
 PAS 
 
 with more tranquillity than any other rural employment 
 the poets have chofon to introduce their perfofis; and 
 from this particular it has acquired the name of paftoral. 
 
 PASTURE, or Pojiure Land, a general name for all 
 forts of land referved for the purpoles of feeding cattle. 
 
 Pafture ground is of two forts: the one is low meadow 
 land, which is often overflowed; and the other is upland, 
 which lies high and dry. The firft of thole will produce 
 a much greater quantity of hay than the latter, and will 
 not require manuring or dreffingfo often : but then the 
 hay produced on the upland is much preferable to the 
 other : as is alfo the meat which is fed in the upland more 
 valuable than that which is fatted in rich meadows : 
 though the latter will make the fatter and larger cattle, 
 as is feen by thofe which are brought from the low rich 
 lands in Lincolnlhirc. But where people aie nice in 
 their meat, they will give a much larger price for fuch as 
 hath been fed on the downs, or in lhort upland pafture, 
 than for the other, which is much larger. Belides this, 
 dry paftures have an advantage over the meadows, that 
 they may be ted all the winter, and are not fo fubjedt to 
 poach in wet weather; nor will there be fo many bad 
 weeds produced ; which are great advantages, and do in 
 a great meafure recompenfe for the fmallnels of the crop. 
 
 The firft improvement of upland pafture is, by fencing 
 it, and dividing it into fmall fields of four, five, fix, eight, 
 or ten acres each, planting timber trees in the hedge¬ 
 rows, which will fereen the grafs from the drv pinching 
 winds of March, and will prevent the grafs from grow¬ 
 ing in large open lands; fo that, if April proves a dry 
 month, the land produces very little hay ; whereas 111 
 the Iheltered fields the grafs will begin to grow early in 
 March, and will cover the ground, and prevent the fun 
 from parching the roots of the grafs, whereby it will keep 
 growing, fo as to afford a tolerable crop, if the fpring 
 Ihould prove dry. But, in fencing of land, it muft bo 
 obferved, as was before directed, not to make the inclo- 
 lures too fmall, eipecially where the hedge-rows are 
 planted with trees ; becaul'e, when the trees are advanced 
 to a confiderable height, they will lpread over the land ; 
 and, where they are clofe, will render the grafs four; lo 
 that, in Head of being an advantage, it will greatly injure 
 the pafture. 
 
 The next improvement of uphnd pafture, is to make 
 the turf good, where, either from the badnefs of the foil, 
 or for want of proper care, the grafs hath been dellroycd 
 byrufhes, buflies, or mole-hills. Where the furface of 
 the land is clayey and cold, it may lie improved by paring 
 it off, and burning it in the manner before dircdled : but, 
 if it is an hot fandy land, then chalk, lime, marie, or 
 clay, are very proper manures to lay upon it; but this 
 Ihould belaid in pretty good cjuantities, otherwife it will 
 be of little fervice to the land. 
 
 If the ground is over-run with bufhes or raffles, it will 
 be a great advantage to the land to grub them up towards 
 the latter part of fummer ; and after they are dried, to 
 burn them, and fpread the allies over the ground iuft 
 before the autumnal rains ; at which time the furface of 
 the land Ihould be levelled, and town with grafs-leed, 
 which will come up in a lhort time, and makegood grafs 
 the following fpring. So, alfo, when the land is full of 
 mole-hills, thefe Ihould be pared off, and either burnt 
 for the allies, or fpread immediately o;i the ground, when 
 they are pared off, obferving to low the bare patches with 
 grais feed, juft as the autumnal rains begin. 
 
 Where the land has been thus managed, it will be of 
 great fervice to roll the turf, in the months of February 
 and March, with an heavy wood roller; always obferv- 
 ing to do it in moift weather, that the roll may make an 
 imprelfioii : this will render the furface level, and make 
 it much eafier to mow the grafs, than when the ground 
 lies in hills; and will alfo caule the turf to thicken, 1b 
 as to have what the people ufually term a good bottom. 
 The grafs, likewife, will be the fweeter for this huf- 
 bandry, and it will be a great help to deftroy bad weeds. 
 
 Another improvement of upland paftures is, the feed¬ 
 ing of them: for, where this is not pradlifed, the land 
 muft be manured at leaft every third year; and where a 
 farmer hath much arable land in his pofleflion, he will 
 not care to part with his manure to the pafture. There¬ 
 fore every farmer fhould endeavour to proportion his paf¬ 
 ture to his arable land, efpecially where manure is fcarce, 
 otherwife he will foon find his error; for the pafture is- 
 
PAS 
 
 the foundation of all the profit which may arife from the 
 arable land. 
 
 Wherever the upland paftures are mended by manure, 
 there fhould be a regard had to the nature of the foil, and 
 a proper fort of manure applied : as for inftance, all hot 
 fandy land fhould have a cold manure ; neat dung and 
 fwine’s dung are very proper for fuch lands; but, for 
 cold lands, horfe-dung, afhes, and other warm manures, 
 are proper. And when thefe are applied, it fhould be 
 done in autumn, before the rains have foaked the ground, 
 and rendered it too foft to carton ; and it fhould be care¬ 
 fully fpread, breaking all the clods as fmall as poffible, 
 and then harrowed with bufhes, to let it down to the roots 
 of the grafs. When the manure is laid on at this feafon, 
 the rains in winter will wafh down the falts, fo that the 
 following fpring the grafs will receive the advantage of it. 
 
 There fhould alfo be great care had to the deft roving 
 of weeds in the paflure every fpring and autumn : for, 
 where this is not pradlifed, the weeds will ripen their 
 feeds, which will fpread over the ground, and thereby 
 fill it with fuch a crop of weeds as willfoon overbear the 
 grafs, and deftroy it; and it will be very difficult to root 
 them out, after they have gotten fuch pofieffion ; efpeci- 
 ally rag- wort, and fuch other weeds as have down adher¬ 
 ing to their feeds. 
 
 Thefe upland paftures feldom degenerate the grafs 
 which is Town on them, if the land is tolerably good : 
 whereas the low meadows, which are overflowed in win¬ 
 ter, in a few years turn to an harfh rufhy grafs, though 
 the upland will continue a fine fweet grafs for many years 
 without renewing. 
 
 There is no part of hufbandry, of which the farmers 
 are in general more ignorant than that of the paflure ; 
 moll of them fuppofe, that when old paflure is ploughed 
 up, it can never be brought to have a good fward again ; 
 fo their common method of managing their land, after 
 ploughing, is, to low, with their crop of barley, fome 
 grafs feeds, as they call them ; that is, either the red 
 clover, which they intend to {land two years after the 
 corn is taken off the ground, or rye-grafs, mixed with 
 trefoil : but as all thefe are, at moll, but biennial plants, 
 whofe roots decay foon after their feeds are perfected ; fo 
 the ground having no crop upon it, is again ploughed for 
 corn : and this is the conilant round which the land arc 
 employed in, by the better fort of farmers ; for I never 
 have met with one of them who had the leafl notion of 
 laying down their land to grafs for any longer continu¬ 
 ance ; therefore, the feeds which they ufualiy fovv, are 
 the bell adapted for this purpofe. 
 
 But, whatever may have been the pradlice of thefe 
 people, I hope to prove, that it is poffible to lay down 
 land, which has been in tillage, with grafs, in fuch a 
 manner, as that the fward lhafi be as good, if not better 
 than any natural grafs, and of as long duration. But 
 this is never to be expedted, in the common method of 
 fowing a crop of corn with the grafs feeds : for wherever 
 this has been pradtifed, if the corn has fucceeded well, 
 the grafs has been very poor and weak ; fo that, if the 
 land has not been very good, the grafs has fcarcely been 
 worth faving: for the following year it has produced but 
 little hay, and the year after the crop is worth little, 
 either to mow or feed. Nor can it be expedled to be 
 otherwife; for the ground cannot nourifh two crops : 
 and, if there were no deficiency in the land, yet the corn, 
 being the firfl and moll vigorous of growth, will keep the 
 grafs from making any confiderable progrefs ; fo that the 
 plants will be extremely weak, and but very thin, many 
 of them which came up in the fpring being deflroyed by 
 the corn ; for whenever there are roots of corn, it cannot 
 be expedled there lhould be any grafs. Therefore the 
 grafs mull be thin, and, if the land is not in good heart, 
 to fupply the grafs with nourifhment, that the roots may 
 branch out after the corn is gone, there cannot be any 
 confiderable crop of clover : and, as their roots are bien¬ 
 nial, many of the ftrongeft plants will perifh foon after 
 they are cut; and the weak plants, which had made but 
 little progrefs before, will be the principal part of the crop 
 for the fucceeding year: which is many times not worth 
 Handing. 
 
 Therefore, when ground is laid down for grafs, there 
 fhould be no crop of any kind fown with the feeds; and 
 the land fhould be well ploughed, and cleaned front 
 weeds; otherwife the weeds will come up the firfl, and 
 
 PAS 
 
 grow fo flrong, as to overbear the grafs, and. if thev are 
 not pulled up, will entirely fpoil it. The bdl feafon to 
 fow the grafs feeds upon dry land is about the middle of 
 September, or fooner, if there is an appearance of rain : 
 for the ground being then warm, if there happen fome 
 good fhowers of rain after the feed is fown, the grals will 
 foon make its appearance, and get fufficient rooting in 
 the ground before winter; fo will not be in danger of 
 having the roots turned out of the ground by frofl, el'pc- 
 cially il the ground is well rolled before rhe frofl comes 
 on, which will prefs it down, and fix the earth clofe to 
 the roots. Where this hath not been pradtifed, the froft 
 has often loofened the ground fo much, as to Jet in the 
 air to the roots of the grals, and done it great damage ; 
 and this has been brought as an objedtion to the autum¬ 
 nal fowing of grafs : but it will be found to have no 
 weight, if the aoove diredtion is pradtifed: nor is there 
 any hazard of lowing the grafs at this feafon, but that of 
 dry weather, after the feeds are fown; for, if the grafs 
 comes up well, and the ground is well rolled in the end 
 of October, or the beginning of November, and re¬ 
 peated again the beginning of March, the fward will be 
 clofely joined at bottom, and a good crop of hay may be 
 expedted the fame fummer. But, where the ground 
 cannot be prepared for fowing at that feafon, it may be 
 performed the middle or latter end of March, according 
 to the fcalon’s being early or late; for, in backward 
 lprings, and in cold land, we have often lowed the grafs 
 in the middle of April with fuccefs: but there is danger, 
 in lowing late, of dry weather, and efpecially if the land 
 is light and dry ; for we have feen, many times, the 
 whole lurface of the ground removed by llrong winds at 
 that feafon; lo that the feeds have been driven in heaps 
 to one fide of the field. Therefore, whenever the feeds 
 are fown late in the fpring, it will be proper to roll rhe 
 ground well loon after the feeds are fown, to fettle the 
 lurface, and prevent its being removed. 
 
 I he forts of feeds which are the befl for this purpofe, 
 are, the bdl fort of upland hay-fteds, taken from the 
 cleancfl paltures, where there arc no bad weeds: if this 
 feed is fifred to clean it from rubbilh, three bufhels will 
 be lufficient to fow an acre of land. The other fort is the 
 trifolium pratenfe album, which is commonly known by 
 the names of white Dutch clover, o: white honeyfuckle 
 grafs ; eight pounds of this feed w i be enough for one 
 acre of land. The grafs feed fhould be fown firfl, and 
 then the Dutch clover-feed may be afterwards fown : but 
 they lhould not be mixed together; becaufe the clover- 
 feeds, being the heaviefl, will fall to the bottom, and 
 confequently the ground will be unequally fown. 
 
 When the feeds are come up, if the land fhould pro¬ 
 duce many weeds, thefe fhould be drawn out before they 
 grow fo tall as to overbear the grals: for where this has 
 been neglected, the weeds have taken iuch pollc.ffion of 
 the ground, as to keep down the grafs, and flarve it ; 
 and, when thefe weeds have been luffered to remain until 
 they have fhed their feeds, the land has been fo plenti¬ 
 fully flocked with them, as entirely to dellroy the grafs : 
 therefore it is one of the principal parts of hufbandry, 
 never to fuffer weeds to grow on the land. 
 
 If the ground is rolled two or three times, at proper 
 diftances after the grafs is up, it will prefs down the grafs, 
 and caufe it to make a thicker bottom : for. as the Dutch 
 clover will put out roots from every joint of the branches 
 which are near the ground, fo, by preffing down of the 
 flalks, the roots will mat fo clofely together, as to form a 
 fward fo thick as to cover the whole furface of the ground, 
 and form a green carpet; and will better refill the drought! 
 For, if we do but examine the common paftures in fum¬ 
 mer, in moft of which there are patches of this white 
 honeyfuckle grafs growing naturally, we fhall find thefe 
 patches to be the only verdure remaining in the fields. 
 And this, the farmers in general acknowledge, is the 
 fweeteft feed for all forts of cattle; yet never had any 
 notion of propagating it by feeds: nor has this been 
 long pradtiled in England; for, till within a few years 
 that fome curious perfons imported the feed from Bra¬ 
 bant, where it had been long cultivated, there was not 
 any of the feeds faved in England: though now there 
 are feveral perfons who lave the feeds here, which fuc- 
 cced full as well as any of the foreign feeds wlrich are 
 imported. 
 
 As the white clover is an abiding plant, fo it is cer¬ 
 tainly 
 
PAT PAY 
 
 tainly the very beft fort to fow, where paftures are laid 
 down to remain : for as the hay-feeds which are taken 
 from the bclf paftures, will be compofed of various forts 
 of grafs, fome of which may be but annual, and others 
 biennial; fo, when thofe go off, there will be many and 
 large patches of ground left bare and naked, it there is 
 not a fufficient quantity of the white clover, to fpread 
 over and cover the land. Therefore, a good fward can 
 never be expected, where this is not fown : for in inoft 
 of the natural paftures we find this plant makes no fmall 
 fhare of the fward ; and it is equally good for wet and 
 dry land, growing naturally upon gravel and clay, in 
 moft parts of England : which is a plain indication how 
 eafily this plant may be cultivated, to great advantage, in 
 moft forts of land throughout this kingdom. 
 
 Therefore, the true caufe why the land which has 
 been in tillage, is not brought to a good turf again, in 
 the ufual method of hufbandry, is, from the farmers not 
 diftinguifiiing which graffes are annual from thofe which 
 are perennial : for, if annual or biennial graffes are fown, 
 thcle will of courfe l'oon decay : fo that, unlcfs where 
 fome of their feeds may have ripened and fallen, nothing 
 can be expcCtcd on the land but what will naturally come 
 up. Therefore this, with the covetous method of laying 
 down the ground with a crop of corn, has occalioncd 
 the general failure of increafing the pafture in many parts 
 of England, where it is now much more valuable than 
 any arable land. 
 
 After the ground has been fown in the manner before 
 directed, and brought to a good fward, the way to pre- 
 ferve it good is, by conftantly rolling the ground with an 
 heavy roller, every fpring and autumn, as hath been be¬ 
 fore directed. This piece of huibandry is rarely prac- 
 tifed by farmers : but thofe who do, find their account 
 in it; for it is of great benefit to the grafs. Another 
 thing fhould alfo be carefully performed ; which is, to 
 cut up docks, dandelion, knapweed, and all fuch bad 
 weeds, by their roots every fpring and autumn : this 
 will increafe the quantity ot good grafs, and preferve the 
 paftures in beauty. Drefling of thel'e paftures every third 
 year is alfo a good piece ot hufbandry ; for otherwile it 
 cannot be expeCted the ground Ihould continue to pro¬ 
 duce good crops. Befides this, it will be neceffary to 
 change the feafons of mow ing, and not to mow the fame 
 ground every year ; but to mow one fcafon, and feed the 
 next; for, where the ground is every year mown, it 
 fnuft be conftantly dreffed, as are moft of the grafs 
 grounds near London, otherwife the ground will be loon 
 exhaulled. Miller's Gnrd. Ditl. 
 
 PATANCE, in heraldry, is a crofs flory at the ends ; 
 from which it differs only in this, that the ends, inftead 
 of turning down like a fleur-de-lis, are extended fomc- 
 what in the pattee-form. 
 
 PATEE, or Pattee, in heraldry, a crofs fmall in 
 the centre, and widening to the extremes, which are very 
 broad. 
 
 PATELLA, in anatomy, a bone which covers the 
 forepart of the joint of the knee, called alfo rotula, and 
 popularly the knee-pan. The patella is convex on the 
 outfide, and on the infide unequal, having an eminence 
 and two deprefiions. It is connected by tendons and 
 ligaments to the tibia and the os femoris, which is the 
 ligament by which it is connected to the thigh, and has 
 a motion of afeent and defeent in the flexion of the tibia. 
 In infants and children it is cartilaginous. 
 
 PATEN!', in general, denotes fomething that ftands 
 open or expanded : thus a leaf is laid to be patent when 
 it ftands almoft at right angles with the ftalk. 
 
 PATENTEE, a perl'on to whom the king has granted 
 his letters patent. 
 
 PATER Patr at us,'in Roman antiquity, the prin¬ 
 cipal perfon among the feciales or college of heralds. 
 See Feci ales. 
 
 Pater-Nos ter, the Lord’s prayer, fo called from 
 the two firft words in Latin. It is alfo fometimes ufed 
 for a chaplet or firing of beads. And, in architecture, 
 the fame term is ufed for a fort of ornament cut in the 
 form of beads, either oval or round, ufed on aftragals, 
 baguettes, &c. 
 
 PATH, in general, denotes the courfe or traCt marked 
 out to run over, by a body in motion. See Motion. 
 
 Path of the Vertex, a term frequently ufed by Mr. 
 Flamftead, in his doCtrine of the fphere, for a circle de- 
 
 feribed by anv point of the earth’s furface, as the earth 
 turns round its axis. The femi-diameter of this path is 
 always equal to the fine of the compliment of die latitude 
 of the point that deferibes it. 
 
 PATHETICK, whatever relates to the paflions, or 
 that is proper to excite or awake them. 
 
 Pathetick Nerves , in anatomy, a pair of very fmall 
 nerves which arife in the brain, and run to the trochlear 
 mulcle of the eye. Thefe nerves have obtained the 
 name pathetick, from their ferving to move the eyes in the 
 various paflions. 
 
 PATHOGNOMONICK, among phyficians, an ap¬ 
 pellation for a fymptom, orconcourfe of fymptoms, that 
 are infeparable from a diftemper, and are found in that 
 only, and no other. 
 
 PATHOLOGY, that part of medicine, which ex¬ 
 plains the nature of difeales, their caufes and fymptoms. 
 
 PATHOS, a Greek term, literally fignifying paflion, 
 •is fometimes ufed for the energy of a difeourfe, or its 
 power to move the paflions. 
 
 PATIENT, among phyficians, a perfon under the 
 direction of a phyfician or furgeon, in order to be cured 
 of fome difeafe. 
 
 PATRICIAN, among the ancient Romans, a title 
 given to the delcendants of the hundred, or, according 
 to others, of the two hundred firft fenators cholen by 
 Romulus, and by him called patres, fathers. 
 
 PA ERIPASSIANS, PatripaJJiimi , in church-hiftory, 
 a Chriftian feCt, who appeared about the latter end of the 
 fecund century ; fo called from their aferibing the paflion 
 to the Father : for they afferted the unity of God in fuch 
 a manner as to deftroy all diftinCtion of perfons, and to 
 make the Father and Son prccifely the fame ; in which 
 they were followed by the Sabellians, and others. The 
 author and head of the Patripaflians was Praxeas, a phi- 
 lofoplier of Phrygia in Alia. 
 
 PA TROL, in war, a round or march made by the 
 guards, or watch, in the night-time, to obferve what 
 pafles in the ftreets, and to fecure the peace and tran¬ 
 quillity of a city or camp. The patrol generally confifts 
 of a body of five or fix men, detached from a body oil 
 guard, and commanded by a ferjeant. 
 
 PATRON, among the Romans, was an appellation 
 given to a mafter who had freed his Have. 
 
 Patron was alfo a name which the people of Rome 
 gave to fome great man, under whofe protection they 
 ufually put themfelves. 
 
 Patron in the canon and common law, is a perfon, 
 who having the advowfon of a parfonage, vicarage, or 
 the like’fpiritual promotion, belonging to his manor, 
 hath, on that account, the gift and dilpofition of the be- 
 nefice, and may prefent to it whenever it becomes vacant. 
 
 PATRONAGE, the right of difpofing of a church 
 or benefice, and enjoying feveral other privileges, fuch 
 as having the honourable rights of the church, being in¬ 
 terred in the chancel, &c. 
 
 PATRONYMICK, among grammarians, is applied 
 to fuch names of men or women as are derived from 
 thofe of parents or anceftors. 
 
 PAVEMENT, a layer of ftone, or other matter, 
 ferving to cover and {Lengthen the ground of divers 
 places for the more commodious walking on. 
 
 Mojnick Pavement. See Mosaick-Work. 
 
 PAVIA, the fcarlet horfe-chefnut, in botany, a plant 
 which grows naturally in Carolina, and is propagated 
 by lowing its feeds, or by budding, or grafting it upon 
 the common horfe-chefnut. 
 
 PAV 1 CULA, among the Romans, a rammer or in- 
 ftrument for beating down or levelling a fpot of ground, 
 confifting of a block of wood, a foot long and half a 
 foot thick, with a long handle. 
 
 PAVILION, in architecture, fignifies a kind of 
 turret or building, ufually infulated, and contained under 
 a Angle roof; fometimes fquare, and fometimes in form 
 of a dome : thus called from the refemblance of its roof 
 to a tent. 
 
 Pavilions are fometimes alfo projecting pieces, in the 
 front of a building, marking the middle thereof; fome¬ 
 times the pavilion flanks a corner, in which cafe it is 
 called an angular pavilion. The Louvre is flanked with 
 four pavilions : the pavilions arc ufually higher than the 
 reft of the building. There are pavilions built in 
 gardens, commonly called fummer-houfes, pleafure- 
 
 houfes. 
 
PEA PEA 
 
 f,dales, &c. Some cattles or forts confift only of a {ingle 
 pavilion. 
 
 Pavilion, in military affairs, fignifies a tent raifed 
 on polls, to lodge under in funimer time. See Tent. 
 
 Pavilion, in heraldry, denotes a covering in form 
 of a tent, which invefts or wraps up the armouries of 
 divers kings and lovereigivs, depending only on God and 
 their fword. 
 
 Pavilions, among jewellers, the under-fides and 
 corners of the brilliants, lying between the girdle and 
 the collet. 
 
 PAULIONISTS, in church hiftery, Chridian here- 
 ticks, of the third century, difciples of Paul Samofatenfis, 
 bifhop of Antioch, who denied Chrift’s divinity, main¬ 
 taining, that when we call him the Son of God, we do 
 not thereby mean that he is really and truly God ; but 
 only that he was fo perfect a man, and fo fuperior in 
 virtue to all others, that he has this name given him by 
 way of eminence. The Paulionifts continued to the 
 fifth century, notwithftanding the prohibition of the 
 emperor Condantine the Great, who forbad them and 
 other hereticks to hold publick aflemblies. 
 
 PAUL 1 C 1 ANS, Chridian hereticks of the feventh 
 century, difciples of one Condantine, a native of Arme¬ 
 nia, and a favourer of the errors of Manes; who, as the 
 name Manichees was become odious to all nations, gave 
 thofe of his left the title of Paulicians, on pretence that 
 they followed only the doftrinc of St. Paul. One of 
 their mod detedable maxims was, not to give alms to 
 the poor, that they might not contribute to the fupport 
 of creatures, who were the works of die bad god. See 
 Manichees. 
 
 PAUNCH, Pantch, or Panch, on board a fhip, 
 are broad clouts, woven of thrums and linnets together, 
 to fave things from galling and fretting ; therefore they are 
 made fad to the main and fore-vards for that purpofe. 
 
 PAVO, inadronomy, a fouthern condellation, called 
 the peacock. 
 
 PAUPER, inlaw. See Form a Pauperis.. 
 
 PAUSE, a Hop or ceflation of fpeaking, finging, 
 playing, or the like. The ufe of pointing in grammar, 
 is to make proper paufes in certain places. There is a 
 paufe in the middle of each verfc; in an hemidich it is 
 called a red or repofe. 
 
 Pause, in mufick, a charafter of filence or red, 
 called alfo by fome a mute figure; becaufe it fhews that 
 fome part or perfon is to be filent while the red continue 
 the long. 
 
 PAW. Patti:, in heraldry, the fore-foot of a bead, 
 cut off lliort. If the leg be cut off, it is called gambe. 
 Lions-paws are much uied in armoury. 
 
 PEA. in botany. See Pease. 
 
 PEACE, a date of tranquillity, and generally tiled 
 in oppolition to war. 
 
 Peaces/ tb, King, that peace or fecurity, both of life 
 and goods, which the king promifes to all his fubjefts, 
 or others under his protection. 
 
 PEACH-TREE, a genus of fruit-trees well known, 
 and faid to be natives of Perfia. 
 
 This tree, in England, grows to a tolerable fizc ; is 
 generally trained again ft walls, &c. being too apt to 
 inifcarry of its fruit when planted as a ftandard ; when 
 grown old, it has a pretty thick ftem, with many brittle 
 branches, and a redilh and brownifh bark ; the leaves 
 are thin, oblong, acuminated, and for the molt part 
 crenated on their edges, having a bitter tafte ; the flowers 
 appear in the beginning of the l'pring before the leaves, 
 and are without pedicles, for they adhere to the tubercles 
 of the branches, and are rofaceous, confilling .each of 
 five oblong oval petals infer ted in the cup ; they are of a 
 light pink colour, and in the middle.are many damina ; 
 the flower is fucceeded by a well known globular, fur¬ 
 rowed fruit, coyeied with a thick foft whitilh down. 
 In England there are feveral forts or varieties cultivated, 
 as, i. The white nutmeg peach, this is ripe in July. 
 2. The red nutmeg, this ripens about the beginning of 
 Augud. 3. The early purple, this is ripe by the middle 
 of Augud. 4. The French mignon; this is a mod 
 excellent melting peach, and ripens about the middle of 
 Augud. 5. The red magdalen ; this peach is ripe about 
 the end of Augud. 6. The early Newington ripens the 
 end of Augud. 7. The nobled ; this is a fine melting 
 peach, and ripens the end of Auguft. 8. The chan" 
 
 cellor, a good melting peach, and ripens the end of 
 Augud. 9. The admirable ; this peach parts from the 
 done, and ripens the beginning of September. 10. The 
 old Newington ; this peach adheres to the done, and is 
 reckoned one of the bed fort. 11. The Portugal peach ; 
 this has a rich juice, and adheres to the done; thefe 
 ripen about the middle of September. 12. The nivette; 
 this is a melter, and ripens in September. 13. The pavy 
 ot pomponne, is a very large fine peach, and ripens m 
 Oftober. 14. The Catharine; this adheres to the 
 done, is a high flavoured peach, and ripens in Oftober. 
 
 1 here are various other forts which might be enume¬ 
 rated ; but the above-mentioned being of the bed and 
 richcd flavour, we think it will fuffice. The French 
 didinguilh thofe we call peaches into two forts, viz. pavies, 
 and peaches ; thofe are called peaches which feparate 
 from the done, and thofe whole flefli elofely adheres to- 
 the done are called pavies; thefe are much more edeemed 
 in France than the peaches, though in England the latter 
 aie preferred to the former by many perfons. 
 
 The bell expofitions for peach ’ trees, are the fouth, 
 fouth-eaft, and fouth-wed, but they will do tolerably 
 well on a wed wall, which ripens its fruit jud as thofe 
 ot the fouth are gone; theyfliould not be planted in a 
 cold wet foil, the fruit in fuch places arc always waterv 
 and infipid ; the bed foil for thefe is frefli untried earth’ 
 which is neither too ftiff nor too moift, but of a kind 
 loamy nature ; and if the earth in the borders is ex- 
 haufted where the trees are intended to be planted, it 
 ihould be taken away, and its place lupplied Avith frefli ; 
 all the forts of peaches are propagated by inoculation on 
 plumb-docks, and trained in the nurferies for planting 
 againft walls, &c. but it is certainly bed to make choice 
 of fuch trees, which are of one year’s growth from the 
 budding, as they will foon overtake in growth thofe 
 which are called trained trees; the bed time to tranf- 
 plant them is in autumn, when the leaves are turned 
 yellow, when they will have time to form frefli roots, 
 before winter, and thereby be better prepared to flioot 
 more vigorous in the fpring ; but the head ihould not be 
 cut-off at that time of planting; but if the foil is very 
 moid, it is better to plant in the fpring jud as the fan 
 begins to be in motion : in February the tops of the 
 tiees Ihouid be cut off within four or five eyes of the 
 place of inoculation ; and when the weather becomes hot 
 and dry, it may be neceflary to water the trees: in May 
 the young ihoots will have made fome progrefs ; thofe 
 which have a fore-right direftion, fliould be difplaced, 
 and the others nailed horizontally to the wall*; this 
 mull be repeated as often as it is neceflary : in Oftober, 
 the branches fliould be fhortened in proportion to the 
 drength ot the trc-e, a vigorous branch may he left nine 
 inches or a foot long, but if the fhoots are weak, half 
 that length is diffident; obferving to train them hori¬ 
 zontally, as the middle of the tree will eafily furnifli 
 itfelf with branches: the lecond dimmer, they'are to be 
 managed as thefirft, difplacing all fore-right fhoots as they 
 are produced, and nailing in the others clofe to the wall 
 horizontally ; but the Ihoots fliould not be ihortc-ned in 
 the iummer, unlefs in thofe places where there happens- 
 to be vacancies : in Oftober, fliorten the fhoots as before 
 direfted, and the following year’s management is much 
 the fame as the preceding. The time for pruning is at 
 the above-mentioned time, where the trees are planted in 
 a dry foil; but if the land is moift, it is better to defer it 
 till the fpring. 
 
 When peach-trees haften to bear very foon, it is a fieri 
 of decay, or weakilefs, the belt help for them is to dif- 
 burthen the tree of its bloom, pruning it fliort, and keep¬ 
 ing it well watered in hot weather; but when the trees 
 are vigorous, cut out fuch large branches as appear to be 
 utelcfs, and nail in the remainder at a good length , and 
 in making choice of fhoots, always chufe the middling 
 wood as are full of fivelling double buds, for thofe nio- 
 duce fruit, which the fiat tingle ones do not, their pro- 
 •du£t being wood and leaves onlv ; the diftance thefe trees 
 Ihould be p!ame_d. may be about 16 feet: when the fruit 
 is let and grown to the bignefs of a fraall nut, thev ihould' 
 be thinned, leaving them at lead five or fix inches afunder, 
 lor when they arc permitted to remain in bunches, as 
 they are often produced, the nouiilhment which Ihould 
 be employed wholly to the fruits defigned to Hand, will 
 be equally {pent amongft the whole number, a great part 
 
PEA 
 
 of which muft be afterwards pulled off, fo that the fooner 
 this is done, the better it will be for the remainder ; and 
 if it Ihould fometimes happen, that a part of thofe left, 
 by any accident Ihould be deftroyed, yet the remaining 
 ones will be much the larger, and better flavoured for it, 
 and the trees will gain more ftrength; for a moderate 
 crop of fruit is always preferable to a great crop ; for 
 when the trees are overcharged with fruit, it is always 
 fmall, ill tailed, and the trees are generally fo much 
 weakened thereby, as not to be in a condition forbearing 
 well for two or three years after. 
 
 PEACOCK, Pavo, in ornithology, a genus of birds, 
 of the order of the gallinae, the characters of which are 
 tlicfe : there are four toes on each foot, and the head is 
 ornamented with an ere£t creft of feathers. 
 
 PE AN, in heraldry, is when the field of a coat of 
 arms is fable, and the powderings or. 
 
 PEAR, Pyrus, in botany, a genus of fruit-trees, 
 whofe flower confifls of five roundilh concave petals, 
 which areiliferted in the cup; the fruit is of a pyrami- 
 dical form, containing five membranaceous cells, each 
 containing a fmooth, oblong, ovato Iced, acuminated at 
 the bale, convex on one fide and plane on the other. 
 
 Pear-trees, it is faid, were originally brought from 
 Alexandria, Numidia, Greece, &c. as appears by the 
 names of feveral forts. The fruit of fome kinds ripens 
 in the fummer with us, and others are not fit for ufe 
 until winter or the fpring. 
 
 All the fpecies of pears are propagated by budding or 
 grafting upon flocks of their own kind (commonly called 
 frce-ftocks) or upon quince-flocks; the latter are ufed 
 for low walls, dwarfs, or efpaliers; and eipecially in wet 
 lands, thefe flocks do effectually prevent the too great 
 Iuxuriancy of the plant, and caute it to produce!,uit 
 much fooner than on a pear flock ; but then, on the 
 other hand, it has this evil attending it, that the tree is 
 but Ihort-lived, and moft of the forts of hard baking 
 pears are rendered flony and good for little : on the con¬ 
 trary, moft melting foft pears are greatly improved by 
 being grafted on quince-flocks, particularly it the ioil is 
 of a moift ftrong nature. 
 
 - The bell feafons to prune pear-trees is at the fall ol 
 the leaf, though it may be deferred till the fpring, ob- 
 ferving to cut out all luxuriant branches, which are 
 known by the great diftance of their buds, and to lay in 
 no more wood than the roots may be reafonably fuppofed 
 capable of lupplying with fufficient juices, leaving them 
 at a diftance from each other, in proportion to the fize 
 of the fruit; fuch forts whofe fruit are fmall may be al¬ 
 lowed five orlix inches, but the larger ones mult be not 
 Jefs than feven or eight inches afunder, always remem¬ 
 bering to train the branches horizontally as they arc pro¬ 
 duced, without topping them, by which means there 
 will be little occafion for much pruning thefe trees; for 
 it appears, that pear-trees have their bearing-buds in 
 three different Hates, continually lucceeding each other ; 
 the blowing buds of three years old difeover themfelves 
 at the fall of the leaf, which, whilft the fruit preceding 
 them was growing and ripening, they were preparing to 
 l'ucceed them the enfuing year : thefe buds are produced 
 upon curfons or fpurs, and arc known by their being 
 very full and larger than the others, in a leeming levell¬ 
 ing impatient Hate of breaking out into its beautiful 
 drefs of delightful bloom, which is enwrapped within 
 it: the preparative buds of two years are of a lharp co¬ 
 nick figure, and red ruffet colour, growing very near the 
 fruitful buds before deferibed: the junior buds of one 
 year arc very fmall, but full above the bark, and always 
 break out near the buds of two years growth ; to which 
 may be added, there is a continued fuccclfion of buds in 
 embryo, ad infinitum. 
 
 The diftance pear-trees fhould be planted, either 
 againft walls or efpaliers, Ihould not be lels than 30 feet, 
 for if they have not room to fpread on each fide, it will 
 he impolfible to preferve them in good order, eipecially 
 thofe on free-ftocks, for the more thefe trees are pruned, 
 the more they will fhoot: many forts of pears produce 
 thifir bloffom-buds at the extremity of the ihoots, fo that 
 when they are Ihortened, the fruit will be cut away, 
 which cannot be avoided where the trees have not room 
 allow'ed in thcii firft planting. The bell feafon for plant¬ 
 ing pear-trees in a dry foil is at autumn ; but il the land 
 be moift, the fpring is to be preferred. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 55. 
 
 PEA 
 
 Pears, in general, are windy, and improper for weak 
 ftomachs; however, thofe are the bell that are quite ripe 
 and have a fweet juice, and then they are feldom hurtful, 
 unlefs they are eaten to excels. 
 
 PEARL, Margarita, in natural hiftory, a hard, white, 
 Ihining body, ufually of a roundilh figure, found in a 
 teilaceous filh refembling an oyfter. 
 
 It has a very large and broad lhell of the bivalve kind, 
 fometimes meafuring 12 or 14 inches over, but thofe of 
 eight inches are more frequent: it is not very deep ; on 
 the outfide it is of a dulky brown, and within of a very 
 beautiful white, with tinges of feveral other colours, as 
 expofed in different directions to the light. Pefides this 
 lhell, there are many others that are found to produce 
 pearls; as the common oyllcr, the mufcle, the pinna 
 marina, and feveral others, the pearls of which are often 
 very good, but thofe of the true Indian berberi, or pearl- 
 oylier, are in general luperior to all. The fmall or feed- 
 pearls, alfo called ounce-pearls, from their being fold by 
 the ounce, and not by tale, are vallly the moft nume¬ 
 rous and common; but as in diamonds, among the mul¬ 
 titudes of fmall ones, there arc fmaller numbers of larger 
 found, lo in pearls there are larger and larger kinds ; but 
 as they increafe in fize, they are proportionably lefs fre¬ 
 quent, and this is one reafon of their great price. 
 
 Falje Pearls, are factitious pearls, relembling the 
 true ones in water or colour, commonly called beads. 
 
 T hcle were anciently made of glals, with a kind of 
 tinClure of quickfilver in the infide ; afterwards they ufed 
 wax, covered over with a fine brilliant lilh glue. 
 
 Method of making falje Pearls. This is now much 
 ufed in France, and is the curious invention of the Sieur 
 Janin; that ingenious artift having obferved, that the 
 icales of the bleak, a filh found plentifully in the river 
 Marne, had not only all the luftre of the real pearl, but, 
 that after beating them to powder in water or ifing-glafs, 
 they returned to their former brilliancy upon drying; he 
 bethought himfelf of letting a little mafs thereof in the 
 cavity ot a bead or grain of girfol, which is a kind of 
 opal or glals, bordering much on the colour of pearl. 
 With a little glals tube fix or leven inches long, and a 
 line and a half in diameter, but very lha:p at one end, 
 and a little crooked, he introduced the matter, by blow¬ 
 ing it, after having taken up a drop with the pointed 
 extremity ; and, to fpread it throughout the inner cir¬ 
 cumference, he contented himfelf to lhake it gently a 
 long time, in a little ofier-balket lined with paper. 
 
 The pulverized feales refume their luftre as they dry; 
 and, to increafe this luftre in winter, they lay the beads 
 in a hair-fieve or bolting-cloth, which they fuipend to 
 the deling, and underneath, at fix feet diftance, lay 
 heaps of hot allies. In fummer they are fulpended in 
 the fame manner, but without any fire. And now no¬ 
 thing remains but to flop up the aperture, which is done 
 with melted wax, conveyed into it with a tube like that 
 ufed in introducing the dilfolved feales. After cleaning 
 oft" the luperfluous wax, the pearls are perforated with a 
 needle, and then ftrung ; and thus they become neck¬ 
 laces, which the ladies now generally wear in defeCt of 
 true pearl. 
 
 Mother of Pearl, Aur'n marina , in natural hiftory, 
 is the lhell of a little fea-filh of the oyfter kind, not of 
 the pearl oyfter. It is very fmooth withinfide, and of 
 the whitenels and water of pearl itfelf, and it has the fame 
 luftre on the outfide, after the firft lamina? have been 
 cleared off with aquafortis and the lapidaries drill. It is 
 ufed in inlaid works, and in feveral toys, as fnuff- 
 boxes, &c. 
 
 Wens of Pearls, certain excrefcences, in form of half 
 pearls, fometimes found in the bottoms of pearl-lliells. 
 The lapidaries law off thefe protuberances to join them 
 together, and ufe them in feveral works of jewelry. 
 
 Pearl, in heraldry, is uled by fuch as blazon with 
 precious llones inilead of colour and metals, for argent 
 or white. 
 
 Pearl, Pin , Web, in medicine, a thick film orfpeck 
 over the eye. 
 
 PEASE, a genus of plants cultivated in every part of 
 England, both in the field and kitchen-garden. We 
 fhall lay down the bell methods for cultivating them in 
 the kitchen-garden, from Mr. Miller's Gardener’s Dic¬ 
 tionary, and then proceed to give the beft inftru&ions in 
 our power for obtaining large crops in the field. 
 
 A aa 
 
 With 
 
PEA 
 
 Willi regard to the kitchen. The diflance between 
 the rows of peas fhould be proportioned to the fize to 
 which they grow. '1 he channels in which they are 
 fown thould be about two inches deep ; and the quickeft 
 and moft regular way to perforin this work is, to draw a 
 fmail hoe, cfirefted by a line, along the lurface of the 
 ground, fo as to open a drill; then to fcatter the feeds in 
 this furrow, and to earth them over with the help of a 
 rake. By this means they will be well and equally co¬ 
 vered ; which is ellentiallv necefiary, becaufe if any of 
 them lie above ground, they will attract mice, rooks, 
 pigeons, and other birds, which will then foon find out 
 the reft, and deftroy the whole plantation. The chief 
 trouble after fowing them is, to ftick the larger forts 
 which require fupport, to keep the plants clear from 
 weeds, and to earth them up; both which laft parts of 
 their culture are very eaiilv, readily, and effeftually ex¬ 
 ecuted, when a fmail plow can be introduced between 
 the rows. 
 
 The names of the principal forts of garden peas now- 
 cultivated in England, and the order in which they na¬ 
 turally become fit for gathering, are as follow, viz. the 
 golden hotfpur, the Charlton hotfpur, the Reading hot¬ 
 fpur, the mailer’s hotfpur, the Efiex hotfpur, the dwarf 
 pea, the fugar pea, the Spanifh morotto, the nonpareil, 
 the fugar dwarf, the fickle pea, the marrowfat, and the 
 rofe, or crown pea: for the rouncival, the common 
 white pea, the grey pea, the pig pea, and fome other 
 large winter peas, as they arc commonly called, feldom 
 find a place but in the field. But we rnuft here oblerve. 
 that feveral of the above-mentioned, which gardeners 
 and feed-men have dillinguifhed by different appellations, 
 are, in faft, only feminal variations, which will dege¬ 
 nerate into their original ftate in a few years, if they are 
 not very carefully managed. The only way to prevent 
 this, is to rogue them, as the gardeners term it, that is 
 to fay, to examine attentively thofe which are intended 
 for feeds, at the time of their beginning to flower (but 
 before the flowers arc open) and to draw out all the bad 
 plants from among the good ones, that the farina of the 
 former may not impregnate the latter, and thereby make 
 them change. It is chiefly owing to this particular care, 
 and to the felefting of thofe plants which blolfom ear- 
 lieft, that the culture of peas has been very greatly im¬ 
 proved of late years around this metropolis, and that, 
 from a continuation of the fame induftrious endeavours 
 to bring it to {till greater perfection, we may lrope to fee 
 yet forwarder varieties of this moft ufeful fpecies of pulfe. 
 
 The hotfpur pea is, naturally, the earlieft of all, and 
 therefore we have named it firft : but the gardeners about 
 London raife, by art, from the dwarf pea, tranfplanted 
 into a hot-bed, a crop which anticipates the fpontaneous 
 growth of the other. To effeft this, they low their dwarf 
 peas in warm borders, under walls or hedges, about the 
 middle of Oftober; and when the plants are rifen, they 
 draw the earth up gently around their Items, to proteCt 
 them from the froft. They let them remain where they 
 were fown till the latter end of January, or the beginning 
 of February (ftill continuing to earth them up from time 
 to time, as they advance in growth, and covering them 
 with dry haulm, or ft raw, in cafe of fevere froft) and 
 then remove them into a hot-bed made of good, new, 
 well fermenting dung, properly mixed, that the heat 
 may not be too great. This dung is laid from two to 
 three feet thick, according as the feafon is more or lefs 
 advanced ; it is covered with fix or eight inches deep of 
 light and frelh, but not too rich earth ; the frames, 
 about two feet high at their back, and 14 inches deep in 
 front, are then put on, and covered with their glaftes. 
 which are propped up every day, during three or four 
 days, to let the riling fleam pals off; and when the bed 
 is become of a moderate temperature, the plants are 
 taken up as carefully as poflible, to preferve the earth 
 about their roots, and planted in it about an inch afunder 
 in rows two feet diftant from each other. They are 
 then watered a little and fhaded, till they have taken 
 root, and aired whenever the feafon is favourable, left 
 they fhould be drawn up very weak, grow mouldy, and 
 decay. Their ftems are alio earthed up as they advance 
 in height, and they are kept perfectly clear from weeds. 
 This firft watering fhould be gentle, and dealt out ipar- 
 ingly ; for too much of it would make them grow rank, 
 and fometimes rot them off at their fhanks, juft above 
 
 PEA 
 
 the ground. If the weather becomes very hot, the glaftes 
 are covered with mats in the day-time, to fereen the 
 plants from the too great violence of the fun , and when 
 they begin to fruit, they arc watered oftener and more 
 copioufly than before ; for they have nearly done grow- 
 ing by that time, and refrefhing of them frequently will 
 make them produce tire greater number of pods. 
 
 1 he dwarf pea is preferred for this purpofe, becaufe it 
 is more eafily confined within frames than any other fort. 
 The reafon for fowing it in the common ground, and 
 afterwards tranlplanting it into a hot-bed, is, to check 
 its growth, and thereby make it bear the more in a 
 fmaller compafs. 
 
 The hotfpur, of which the forts before enumerated 
 differ very little from each other, except in the forward- 
 nefs of their fruit, in which the golden and the Charlton 
 are earlieft, lucceeds the hot-bed crop of the dwarf pea. 
 But it is neceffary to obferve here, that bQth thefe kinds 
 of hotfpur peas are particularly apt to dcgeiterate, and 
 become later in their podding, if they are cultivated in 
 the fame ground for three or four years running : where¬ 
 fore the bell way is to change their feeds annually, and 
 always to prefer fuch as come from a colder lituation 
 and a poorer foil, than the place where they are to be 
 fown, for thefe will be earlieft in the fpring ; and if they 
 are procured from a diftant part, it will be fo much the 
 better. 
 
 Thefe peas muft alfo be fown in warm borders, about 
 a fortnight after the former, that is to fay, towards the 
 end of Oftober. When the plants arc a few inches high, 
 they fhould be earthed up as before directed, to defend 
 their ftems from froft; and if the winter be very fevcrc, 
 they fhould be covered with haulm, or fome other light 
 covering : but this muft be taken off as foon as the wea¬ 
 ther grows mild, left it fhould draw them up weak and 
 tender; and the weeding and earthing up lhouJd be re¬ 
 peated as they advance in growth, but with care not to 
 bury their leaves, for that might rot their ftems, efpe- 
 cially in wet fcafons. Both of thefe works muft be very 
 carefully performed in the fpring: and this is likewile 
 the moft proper time to kill the flugs, which, of all 
 vermin, do thegreateft injury to peas. They lie all day 
 in the hollows of the earth, near the ftems of the plants, 
 and come out in the night, to the fometimes total ruin 
 of the crop. They abound moft in wet foils, and in 
 neglected grounds over-run with weeds : for which rea¬ 
 fon they have the leaft chance of finding fhelter where 
 the new hufbandry is well praftifed. Mr. Miller ie- 
 commends, as the beft method he could ever find to 
 deftroy them, to clear the ground thoroughly well around 
 the plants, and there, very early in a fine mild morning, 
 when thefe inlefts are got abroad, to flake a quantity of 
 lime, and llrew it over the ground hot, and pretty thick. 
 This will kill the Hugs wherever it falls upon them, and 
 will not do much hurt to the peas, if they be not over¬ 
 loaded with it. 
 
 If this crop does well, it will immediately fucceed that 
 of the dwarf peas on the hot-bed : but left it fhould mil- 
 carry, it will be right to fow two other crops, at the dis¬ 
 tance of about a fortnight or three weeks from each other. 
 
 1 hefe will fuffice till the fpring, when more crops of the 
 lame fort may be fown every fortnight, and by this means 
 the early peas will he continued through the feafon. 
 
 About the middle of February, lome of the Spanifh 
 morotto, which is a great bearer, and a hardy pea, may¬ 
 be fown in a clear open fpot of ground, for the next ule 
 of the family. The rows of thefe, which are a larger 
 kind, fhould be four feet afunder, and the peas fhould be 
 dropped at about an inch from each other in the drills. 
 
 '1 o iucceed thefe, another fpot of ground lhould be 
 fown about the end of February, either with the fame, or 
 any other large fort of pea, and thefe fowings fhould be 
 continued every fortnight, till the middle or latter end of 
 May; only obferving to allow diftances proportioned to 
 the fize of the pea at its full growth. Thus marrowfats, 
 for example, fhould not Hand nearer than four feet and 
 an half from row to row, and the rofe pea fhould be at 
 leaft eight or ten inches afunder in the rows : for all peas, 
 (and the cafe is exaftly the fame in regard to every other 
 plant) will run up in height, and yield but little fruit, if 
 they are too much crowded. 
 
 When thefe larger forts of peas (which muft be care - 
 tuily weeded and earthed up as before direfted) arc grown 
 
 about 
 
PEA 
 
 about eight or ten inches high, fome brafh-wood fliould 
 be ftuck up clofe to them, to prevent their trailing upon 
 the ground, which is very apt to rot thefe kinds in par-; 
 ticular, efpecially in wet feafons : and another great ad¬ 
 vantage arifmg from their being thus fupported, is that 
 the air has then a free current between them, which will 
 keep their bloffoms from falling off before their time, 
 and they will confequently bear much better than they 
 could if left trailing upon the ground. There will alfo, 
 by this means, be proper room to hoe between the tows, 
 and to pal's between them in order to gather the peas 
 when they are ripe. 
 
 The marrowfat is the belt tailed of all the large kinds 
 of peas, and it will continue good till the end of Auguft, 
 if it be planted in a ftrongfoil. The other large growing 
 forts may be raifed for the common ufe of the family, 
 becaufc they yield the moll plentifully, and can endure 
 the greateft drought : but the early kinds are by far the 
 fweeteft. It will therefore be well worth the mailer’s 
 while to fee that a crop of thefe, and particularly of the 
 early hotfpur, is fown every fortnight, to fupply at leall 
 his own table during the feafon. 
 
 All the dwarf peas yield plentifully, if the weather be 
 not over dry; but they feldom continue to bear long. As 
 they rarely furpafs the height of one foot, or fpread wider 
 than fix inches, about two feet and an half may be a luf- 
 ficient fpace for weeding and llirring of the ground be¬ 
 tween their rows, in which they need not be fet above 
 an inch afunder. Among thefe may be claflcd the fickle 
 pea, or fugar pea, which is much cultivated in leveral 
 foreign countries, but is feldom propagated here, except 
 by curious gentlemen, for their own table. The pods of 
 this pea are crooked and ill-fliaped, but extremely fwcet 
 when boiled with their unripe fruit in them, as is the 
 general way of dreffirtg them ; for they have not any 
 tough infide Ikin, like the pods of other peas. It is 
 ftrange that this fort is not yet to be met with in our 
 markets ; unlefs the feafon be, that the trading gardeners, 
 who furnifh them, find that their profit will not pay for 
 the trouble and expence of defending theie peas from 
 birds, which are fo exceflively fond of them, that they 
 will foon devour a whole crop, if they are not very care¬ 
 fully kept off. If thefe peas are planted in April, they 
 will be fit for gathering at Midfummer. Their pods, 
 when they are very young, and their tendrils, have an 
 agreeable acid flavour in fallets; as have alfo the young 
 tendrils of the hop and the vine. 
 
 A general rule to be obferved in the planting of peas, 
 is, that the later they are fown, the ftronger and moiftef 
 the foil fliould be. 
 
 Having thus delivered the beft method for cultivating 
 peas in the kitchen-garden, we lliall proceed to make 
 luch obfervations as may be of ufe for obtaining large 
 crops in the open field. 
 
 Mr. Lific, for the greater eafe and more certain guid¬ 
 ance of country people, who are apt to be perplexed by 
 a long lift of particular names of different forts of field- 
 peas, and of their feveral numerous varieties, judicioufly 
 ranges them under two general heads, viz. the tender 
 and the hardy final 1 fort, and the tender and the hardy 
 great fort; under the one or the other of which claffes 
 he thinks all kinds of peas may properly be ranked, be- 
 caufe they equally agree or difagree with the fame foil. 
 The tender pea, for example, is improper for a cold 
 country, or, which amounts to the fame, for cold ground 
 in a warm country; and the large pea, by realon of its 
 great haulm, is not proper for ftrong rich land, becaufe 
 its haulm will there increafe to fo great a length, that it 
 will not be able to bear pods. Elis own experience in 
 the year 1704, latisfied him fully, that the beft way to 
 make peas pod well, is to fow them on a mellow mould, 
 rendered light by plowing : and he thinks it right to roll 
 the ground foon after they are fown. 
 
 Even the moft general directions, and therefore thefe 
 cannot but be of fervice to the hufbandman : but more 
 particular obfervations and aftual experiments properly 
 diverfified, are ftill much wanted in the culture of this, 
 and indeed ol all other podded grains, and fucculent 
 plants, whofe importance, as deftroyers of weeds, im¬ 
 provers of land, and excellent preparers of it for other 
 crops, is eftablifhed beyond difpute. It is even a rule 
 with farmers, not to fow the fame land a fecond time 
 with peas, till fix', or at leaft five years after the former 
 
 PEC 
 
 crob of the famfc kind ; becaufe, till theii, H16gflfGtld ofi 
 which they grew will continue fo rich as to make them 
 run luxuriantly to haulm, in a fiianner inconfiftent With 
 the bearing of much fruit. 
 
 The common white pea does beft on light fafidy land,- 
 or on a rich loofe foil. It is generally fown with abroad 
 call, and only harrowed in. Three bulhels of rhefe peas 
 are the ufual allowance of feed for all acre of ground ; and 
 the common time for fow mg them is about the latter end 
 of March, or the beginning of April, on Warm land : but 
 a fortnight or three weeks later than this, will be early 
 enough on cold ground. If fown in drills, which is by 
 far the beft way, a bulhel and a half of feed will be full 
 enough for an acre; and, when thus fet regularly, the 
 ground may be ftirred with a hoe, to deftroy the weeds, 
 and earth up the plants, by which they will be greatly 
 improved, and the peas eafier to cut in autumn, when they 
 are ripe. 
 
 1 he green and the maple rouncivals require a ftronget 
 foil than the white, and lhould be fown a little later°in 
 the fpriiig, alfo in drills, but further afundfcr, that is to 
 fay, at the diftance of at leaft two feet and a half, or three 
 feet from each other, becaufe they are apt to grow rank, 
 efpecially in a wet feafon. The ground between thefe 
 rows lhould be ftiried two or three times with a hoe, 
 which will not only deftroy the weeds, but, by earthing 
 up the peas, will greatly improve them, and alfo render 
 the land fitter to receive whatever crop is put on it the 
 following feafon. 
 
 The grey and other large winter peas, as they are call¬ 
 ed, are feldom cultivated in gardens, becaufe they require 
 a great deal of room. The beft time for fowing of thefe 
 is about the beginning of March, when' the weather is 
 pretty dry; for if they are fown in a very wet feafon, 
 they are apt to rot, efpecially if the ground be cold. The 
 diftance between the rows lhould here be at leaft three 
 feet, and thefe peas fliould be fown very thin in the 
 rows : for if they are fown too thick, their haulm will 
 fpread fo as to fill the ground, and they will ramble over 
 each other; by which means many of the plants will be 
 rotted, and hindered from bearing. The common allow¬ 
 ance of thefe large peas is two bulhels to an acre : but 
 that is certainly more than confifts with the very thin 
 fowing which is beft for them. 
 
 The grey peas, in particular, thrive beft on a ftrong 
 clayey land, in which they are commonly fown under 
 furrow. But by this method of, fowing, large peas, 
 efpecially, are always planted too thick, and at unequal 
 depths, which prevent their coming up regularly. For 
 thisreafon, among many others, all rank-growing plants 
 fliould undoubtedly be fown in drills, in which their feeds 
 will be diftributed much more equally in all rcfpc&s. 
 
 If only a fmall fpot of ground be planted with thefe 
 peas, a channel about two inches deep may be made with 
 a hoc, guided by a line, the feeds may be dropped therein, 
 and the earth may be drawn over them with a rake. By 
 this means they will be covered equally, and with tole¬ 
 rable difpatch, though not fufficient for large fields, where, 
 for this realon, a (hallow furrow is commonly made with 
 the plough, the feeds are fcattered in it, and the earth is 
 harrowed over them. The greateft trouble then remain¬ 
 ing is to keep the plants clear from weeds, and lay the 
 earth up to their roots, which, in countries where labour 
 is dear, is very expenfive to have done with the hand- 
 hoe, but may be eafily effefled by drawing a horfe-hoc 
 between the rows. This will entirely eradicate the weeds, 
 ftir the foil, render it mellow, and greatly promote the 
 proper growth of the plants. 
 
 BEAT, a kind of turf ufed for fuel in feveral countries. 
 In Holland they have a way of charring peat, fo that it 
 may ferve for fuel in feveral chymical operations ; but this 
 manner of charring is not yet known in feveral countries 
 where, perhaps, peat might be found. See Moss. 
 
 PEBBLES’, Calculi , fmall ftones, compofed of a cry- 
 ftalline matter debafed by earths, and hence fubje£t to 
 veins, clouds, and other variegations. See Cry si' al 
 
 PECCANT, in medicine, a term uled for thofe hu¬ 
 mours of the body which offend either by their quantify 
 or quality. 
 
 PECK, a meafure of capacity, four of which make 
 a buftiel. 
 
 PEC PIS, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe com¬ 
 mon corolla is radiated, the proper corollulte are herma¬ 
 phrodite. 
 
P E D 
 
 phrodite, and funnel-fhaped : the female florets which 
 form the rays, are ligulated, and ovate ; the feeds are con¬ 
 tained in the cup, they are folitary, linear, and crowned 
 with a bearded down. 
 
 PECTORAL, an epithet for medicines good fordif- 
 orders of the breafl and lungs. The ordinary intention 
 of thefe medicines is either to attenuate or thicken the 
 humours of thefe parts, and to render them fit to be 
 expe&orated or fpit out. See Expectorants. 
 
 PECTORAL 1 S , in anatomy, a pair of mulcles which 
 polTefles almoit the whole breaft, and ferves to move the 
 arm forwards. 
 
 PECULIAR, in the canon law, fignifies a particular 
 parifh or church that has jurifdidlion within itfelf for 
 granting probates of wills, and adminiftrations, exempt 
 from the ordinary or bilhop’s courts. 
 
 Court of Peculiars, is a court in which the affairs 
 belonging to peculiars are tranfadled. 
 
 PECUNIARY, a term applied to the punifhment of 
 offenders bv mul£l or fine. 
 
 PEDAGOGUE, or PjED agogue, atutor ormafter 
 to whom is committed the difeipiine and direction of a 
 fcholar, to be inftru£ted in grammar and other arts. 
 
 PEDALS, the largefl pipes of an organ, fo called be - 
 caufe played and flopped with the foot. The pedals are 
 made fquare, and of wood; they are ufually 13 in 
 number. They are of modern invention, and ferve to 
 carry the founds an o&ave deeper than the reft. 
 
 PEDANT, is ufed for a rough unpolifhcd man of 
 letters, who makes an impertinent ufe of the fciences, 
 and abounds in unleafonable criticifms and obfervations. 
 Dacier defines a pedant, a per foil who has more reading 
 than good fenfe; and Malebranchc delcribes him, as a 
 man full of falfe erudition, who makes a parade of his 
 knowledge, and is ever quoting fome Greek or Latin 
 author, or hunting back to a remote etymology. 
 
 PEDERERO, Peterero, or Paterero, afmall 
 piece of ordnance, ufed on board a fliip for difeharging 
 nails, broken iron, or partridgefliot, on an enemy attempt¬ 
 ing to board. I hey are generally open at the breech, and 
 their chamber made to take out to be loaded that way. 
 
 PEDESTAL, in architecture, that which fuftains a 
 column, and ferves it as a lland, or bafe. Thepedeftal, 
 which the Greeks call llvlabetes and ftereobates, confiils 
 of three principal parts, viz. a fquare trunk or die, which 
 makes the body ; a cornichc, the head ; and a bafe, the 
 foot of the pedeftal. The pedeftal is properly an appen¬ 
 dage to a column, not an elfential part of it; though M. 
 Le Clerc thinks it is eflential to a complete order. There 
 are as many kinds of pedeftals as there are of orders of 
 columns, viz. the Tufcan, Dorick, lonick, Corinthian, 
 and Compofite. 
 
 PEDIjtEN, in antiquity, one of the three divifions in 
 Athens, which was the middle part of that city, as be¬ 
 ing in a plain between the other two ; the one called dia- 
 crian, as being on the defeent of a hill; and the other 
 paralian, as being on the fliore. 
 
 PEDLEUS, in anatomy, the fecond of the extenfor 
 mulcles of the foot. See Foot. 
 
 PEDICLE, Pcdicuius, in botany, the foot-ftalk, 
 whereby the leaf, fruit, or flower, is lullained and con- 
 neCled to its branch orftem. 
 
 PEDICULAR 1 S Morbus, Pediculatio , in medicine, 
 the loufv evil, a diltemper arifing from fome uncommon 
 corruption in the body, which generates infinite quanti¬ 
 ties of lice on the Ik n. 
 
 PEDIGREE, the lame with defeent or genealogy. 
 
 PEDIMENT. i?i architecture, a kind of low pinnacle 
 that crowns an ordonnance, orfinifhes a frontifpiece. be¬ 
 ing an ornament placed over gates, doors, window's, 
 niches &c. It is ordinarily of a triangular form, but 
 fome ;mes makes an arch of a circle. Vitruvius ob- 
 fene-, tliar 'he pinnacles of the plaineft houfes gave ar¬ 
 chitect he idea of this noble part, which ftill retains the 
 appearance or its original. 
 
 The parts o' a pediment are the tympanum and cor- 
 niche. The iiril is the pannel naked, or area of the pe¬ 
 diment incloied between the cornichc which crowns it, 
 and the ntablature which ferves it as a bafe or focle. 
 ArchitcCb' have indeed taken a great deal of liberty, as 
 to the f' -t;i this member. The moft beautiful, accord¬ 
 ing to Daviler, is where its height is about j- of the 
 length of its bale. 
 
 PEE 
 
 Vitruvius calls the pediment faftigia, which fignifies 
 a roof railed or pointed in the middle, which form, 
 among the Romans, was peculiar to temples. All their 
 dwelling-houlcs are covered in the platform manner; 
 and it is obferved by Salmafius on S0I111, that Caefar was 
 the firft who obtained leave to roof his houle with a rid^e 
 or defeent after the manner of temples. 
 
 I he pediment is ufually triangular, and fometimes an 
 equilateral triangle, called alfo a pointed pediment, is 
 fometimes circular, though it has been oblervcd by 
 Mr. b elibien, that we have no inllance of round pedi¬ 
 ments in the antique, befides thole in the chapels of the 
 Rotundo. 
 
 Sometimes its upper corniche is divided'into three or 
 four iides or right lines. Sometimes the corniche is cut 
 or open a-top, which is an abule introduced by the mo¬ 
 derns, particularly Michael Angelo ; for, the defign of 
 this part, at leall over doors, window's, &c. being chiefly 
 to fhelter thole underneath from the rain, to leave it open 
 in the middle is to fruftrate its ends. Sometimes the pe¬ 
 diment is formed of a couple of rolls or wreaths like two 
 confoles joined together. Sometimes the pediment has 
 no bafe, or its lower corniche is cut out, all but w hat is 
 bellowed on two columns or pilafters, and on thefe is 
 railed an arch or fweep, inflead of an entablature; of 
 which Serlio gives an inflancc in the antique in a Corin¬ 
 thian gate at Foligni, in Umbria; and Daviler in a mo¬ 
 dern one in the church of St. Peter, at Rome. 
 
 Under this kind of pediments come thofe little arched 
 corniches, which form pediments over doors and win¬ 
 dows, lupported by two confoles, inflead either of en¬ 
 tablature or columns. Sometimes the pediment is made 
 double, i. e. a lefs pediment is made in the tympanum 
 of a larger, on account of fome projedlure in the middle, 
 as in the frontifpiece of the church of the Great Jelus at 
 Rome : but this repetition is accounted an abufe in ar¬ 
 chitecture, although it be authorized by very good build¬ 
 ings, as the large pavilion of the Louvre, where the ca- 
 riatides fupport three pediments one in another. Some¬ 
 times the tympanum of the pediment is cut out or left 
 open to let in light, as is feen under the port-end of the 
 Capitol of Rome. 
 
 fTDOBAPTISM, infant baptifm. 
 
 PEDOME 7 ER, a mechanical inflrument, called 
 way-wifer, in form of a watch, confifting of various 
 wheels, with teeth catching in one another, all difpoled 
 in the fame plane ; which, by means of a chain or firing 
 faftened to a man’s foot, or a chariot wheel, advances a 
 notch each ftep, or each revolution of the wheel: fo 
 that, the number being marked on the edge of each 
 wheel, one may number the paces, or mealure exactly 
 the diflance from one place to another. 
 
 PEDUNCLE, among botanifts, the fame with Pe¬ 
 dicle. See Pedicle. 
 
 PEE, in mining, is ufed for the place where two veins 
 meet and crofs one another. 
 
 PEER, in general, fignifies an equal, or one of the 
 fame rank and flation : hence in the aCts of fome coun¬ 
 cils we find, thefe w'ords with the confent of our peers, 
 bilhops, abbots, &c. Afterwards the fame term was ap¬ 
 plied to the vallals or tenants of the fame lord who were 
 called peers, becaufe they were all equal in condition, 
 and obliged to ferve and attend him in his courts , and 
 peers in fiefs, becaufe they all held fiefs of the fame lord. 
 
 The term peers is now applied to thofe who are im- 
 pannelled in an inqueft upon a perfon for con vising or 
 acquitting him of any offence laid to his charge and 
 the reafon why the jury is fo called, is, becaufe by the 
 common law, and the cuftom of this kingdom, every 
 perfon is to be tried by his peers or equals, a loid by the 
 lords, and a commoner by commoners. 
 
 Peer of the Re elm, a noble lord who has a feat and 
 vote in the lioufe oflords, which is alfo called the houfe 
 of peers. 
 
 PEERESS, a woman who is noble by defeent. crea¬ 
 tion, or marriage. If a peerefs, by defeent or creation, 
 marries a perfon under the degree of nobility, fhe ftill 
 continues noble : out if fhe obtains that dignity only by 
 marriage, fhe lofes it on her afterwards marrying a com¬ 
 moner ; yet, by the curtefv of England, fhe always re¬ 
 tains the title of her nobility. No peerefs can be arrefted 
 for debt or trefpals; for though, on account of their fex, 
 peerefles cannot fit in the houfe of lords, yet they enjoy 
 
 th? 
 
PEL 
 
 the privileges of peers, and therefore all peerefTes by birth, 
 are to be tried by their peers. 
 
 PEGASUS, among the poets, a horfe imagined to 
 have wings, being that whereon Bellerophon was fabled 
 to be mounted, when lie engaged the chimxra. 
 
 7 he opening of the fountain Hippocrene, on mount 
 Helicon, is afcribed to a blow of Pegalus’s hoof. Pe- 
 gafus was feigned to have flown away to heaven, where 
 it became a conftellation. 
 
 Peg asus, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the north¬ 
 ern hemifphere, in form of allying horfe. T lie pars in 
 this conftellation, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 20, in 
 Tycho’s 19, and in the Britannick catalogue 93. 
 
 PELAGIANS, a Chriftian 1661 who appeared about 
 the latter end of the fourth, or the beginning of the fifth 
 century. 
 
 Pelagius, the author of this left, was born in Wales, 
 and fome lay his name was Morgan, which in the Welch 
 languagelignifies fea-born ; from whence he had his Latin 
 name Pelagius. Some of our ancient hiftorians pretend 
 that he was abbot of Bangor; but this is impoffible, 
 becaul'e the Britilh monafteries were of a later date. St. 
 Auftin gives him the chara6ler of a very pious man, and 
 a Chriftian of no vulgar rank: according to the fame 
 father, he travelled to Rome, where he affociated him- 
 felf with perfons of the greateft learning and figure, and 
 wrote his commentaries on St. Paul’s Epiftles, and his 
 letters to Melania and Demetrias; but being charged 
 •with herefy, he left Rome, and went into Africa, and 
 from thence to Jerufalem, where he fettled. He died 
 fomewhere in the Eaft, but where is uncertain. He 
 was charged with maintaining the following doctrines : 
 1. That Adam was hy nature mortal, and whether he 
 had finned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That 
 the confequences of Adam’s fin were confined to his 
 own peifon. 3. That new-born infants are in the fame 
 condition with Adam before the fall, 4. That the law 
 qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was 
 founded upon equal promiles with theGofpel. 5. That 
 the general refurreftion of the dead does not follow in 
 virtue of our Saviour’s refurreftion. 6. That the grace 
 of God is given according to our merits, n. That this 
 grace is not granted for the performance of every moral 
 a£t ; the liberty of the will, and information in points 
 of duty being fufficient, See. Pelagius’s lentiments were 
 condemned by feveral councils in Africa, and by a lynod 
 at Antioch. 
 
 There was alfo a fe6l of Semi-Pelagians ; who, with 
 the orthodox, allowed of original fin ; but denied that 
 the liberty of the will could be lb far impaired thereby, 
 that men could not of thcmfelves do foqiething, which 
 might induce God to afford his grace to one more than 
 another : and as to ele&ion, they held, that it depended 
 on our perfeverance ; God choofing only l'uch to eternal 
 life, as continued ftedfaft in the faith, 
 
 PELECrNUS, a plant, otfierwife called bjferrula. 
 See Bt ser'rula. 
 
 PELICAN, Ptlicnm/s, in ornithology, a gcjius of 
 birds, of the order of the anferes, the beak of which is 
 very long, crooked, and unguiqulated at the extremity : 
 its fides are not denticulated, and the anterior part of the 
 head towards the throat is naked. 
 
 Pelican, in chymiftry, a kind of double glafs vefTel, 
 ufed in diftilling liquors by circulation : it gonfifts of a 
 cucurbit and aiembick head, with two tubes bending into 
 the cucurbit again. 
 
 PELLETS, in heraldry, tliofe roundles that are black, 
 called alfo ogrefles and gun-ftones, and by the french 
 torteaux de fable, 
 
 PELLICLE, among phyficians, See. denotes a thin 
 film, of fragment of a membrane. When any liquor is 
 evaporated in a gentle heat, till a pellicle arile at top, it 
 is called an evaporation to a pellicle; wherein there is ; 
 juft liquor enough left to keep the falts in fulion. 
 
 PELL 1 TORY, Purutaria, in botany. See the arti¬ 
 cle Pa r1 eta k 1 a . 
 
 PELLUCID, the fame with diaphanous, or trans¬ 
 parent. See Transparency. 
 
 PELVIS, in anatomy, the lower part of tlje cavity 
 of the abdomen, thus called from its refemblance to a 
 bafon, or ewer, in Latin called pelvis. It is formed by 
 the ofta ilia and ilchia, the os facrum, tjie os coccygis, 
 and the ofta pubis. See I x a q m i n a j a O s s a. 
 
 Vol. \\. No. 55. 
 
 PEN 
 
 The pelvis is much larger in women than in men., to 
 give room for the growth, See. of the foetus. 
 
 Pelvis of the Kidneys , a membranaceous cavity in 
 the kidneys, which fends out feveral proceftes called tlie 
 tubuli of the pelvis, and furrounds the renal papilla. 
 PEN, or Penstock. SeePENSTocK- 
 
 PENANCE, a puniftiment, either voluntary or im- 
 pofed by authority, for the faults a perfon has committed. 
 
 PENCIL, an inftrument ufed by painters for laying 
 on their colours. Pencils are of various kinds, and 
 made of various materials ; the larger forts are made of 
 boars-briftles, the thick ends, of which are bound to a 
 ftick, bigger or lefs, according to the ufes they are de- 
 figned for : thefe, when large, are called brufhes. The 
 finer forts of pencils are made of camels, badgers, and 
 fquirrels-hair, and of the down of fvvans; thefe are tie4 
 at the upper end with a piece of ftrong thread, and in- 
 clofed in the barrel of a quill. All good pencils, on be¬ 
 ing drawn between the lips, come to a fine point. 
 
 PENDANT, an ornament hanging at the ear, fre¬ 
 quently confifting of diamonds, pearls, and other pre¬ 
 cious {femes. 
 
 Pendant, in heraldry, denotes the parts hanging 
 down from the label, to the number of three, four, five, 
 or fix at moft. They mud be fpecified in blazoning, 
 when more than three. They refemble the drops at the 
 bottom of the triglyphs in the Dorick frieze. 
 
 Pend ants, among fiorifts, a kind of feeds growing 
 on ftamina, or chives, fuel* as thofe in the middle cf 
 tulips, lilies, &c. 
 
 Pendants of a Ship , thofe long ftreamers cut point¬ 
 ing towards the end, and there divided into two parts, 
 hung out at the heads of mafts, &c. They are ufed fome- 
 times for {hew, and for diftindlion of fquadrons, &c. 
 
 Pendant, pennant , is a fhort rope, which at one end 
 is faftened to the head of the maft, yard, or clue of the 
 fail, and at the other end hath a block and flliver, to 
 receive fome running rope into. 
 
 PENDENTIVE, in archite&ure, the whole body of 
 a vault fufpended out of the perpendicular of the wall, 
 and bearing againft the arboutants. 
 
 I his is ufually of brick, or foft ftone ; but care mud 
 be taken, that the joints of the mafonry be always laid 
 level, and in right lines proceding from the iweep whence 
 the life is taken. The joints too muft be made as fmall 
 as polfible, to fave the necefiity of filling them up with 
 flips of wood, or ufing much mortar. 
 
 PENDULOUS, hanging down ; a name which bo- 
 tanifts give to thofe heads of flowers that hang downwards, 
 their ftalks not being able to fuftain them upright. 
 
 PENDULUM, in mechanicks, any heavy body fo 
 fufpended, as that it may vibrate backwards and for¬ 
 wards, about fome fixed point, by the force of gravity. 
 
 A pendulum is any body, as B (plate LXII. fg, 4.) 
 fufpended upon, and moving about a point A as a centre. 
 1 he nature of a pendulum confifts in thp following parti¬ 
 culars : j. The times of the vibrations of a pendulum, 
 in very fmall arches, arc all equal. 2. The velocity of 
 the bob, in the loweft point, will be nearly as the length 
 of the chord of the arch which it deferibes in the defeent. 
 3. Tfie times of vibration in different pendulums, A B, 
 A C, are as the fquar.e roots of tfieir lengths. 4. The 
 time of one vibration is to the time of the defeent, 
 through half the length of the pendulum, as the circum¬ 
 ference of a circle to its diameter. 5. Whence the length 
 of a pendulum, vibrating feconds, wifi be found “39 
 inches nearly ; and of one half fecond pendulum nine, 
 inches. 6. An uniform homogeneous body B G (plate 
 LXII. fg. 3.) as a rod, ftaff, See. which is one-third 
 part longer than a pendulum A D, will vibrate in the 
 fame time with it. 
 
 From thefe properties of the pendulum we may difeern 
 its ufe as ail univerfal chropomcter, or regulator of time, 
 as it is uled in clocks, and fuch-like machines. By this 
 inftrument alfo we can meafure the diftan.ee of a fliip, by 
 meafuring tjie interval of time between the fire and the 
 lound of the gun; alfo the diftance of a cloud, by num¬ 
 bering the feconds, or half feconds, between the light-' 
 npig and thunder. Thus, fuppofe between the light¬ 
 ning and thunder we number 10 feconds; then, becaufe 
 found pafles through 1142 feet in one fecond, we have 
 • diftance of the cloud equal to 11420 feet. Again, 
 the height of any room, or other objeft. may be mea- 
 # bb ' fured 
 
PEN 
 
 ftircd by a pendulum vibrating from the top thereof. 
 T hus, l'uppofe a pendulum from the height of a room 1 
 vibrates once in three leeonds ; then fay, as i is to the 
 fquare of 3, viz. 9, fo is 39,2 to 352,8 feet, the height 
 required. Daftly, by the pendulum we difeover the dif¬ 
 ferent force of gravity on diverfe parts of the earth’s fur- 
 face, and thence the true figure of the earth. 
 
 T Ire greateft inconvenience attending this moft ufcful 
 kiftrumcnt is, that it is conftantly liable to an alteration 
 of its length, from the effects of heat and cold, which 
 very fenfibly expand and contra£l all metalline bodies. 
 
 \V hen pendulums were firft applied to clocks, they 
 were made very fhort; and the arches of the circle being 
 large, the time of vibration through different arches could 
 not in that cafe be equal; to effedl which, the pendulum 
 was contrived to vibrate in the arch of a cycloid. 
 
 From what has been laid under the article Cycloid, 
 it appears that if AC (Jig. 3.) be the length of a pendu¬ 
 lum fo djfpofed as to vibrate between the two femicy- 
 cloids A D and A L, the bob will deferibe in its motion 
 the cycloid D C L. The properties of which motion 
 will now eafily appear for, with refpedt to the velocity 
 acquired by defeending through any arch R C or B C, 
 rt is always as VOQ which is as the chord SC= ' RC ; 
 confequently the velocity at C is every where as the fpace 
 paffed through, or as the arch of the-cycloid delcribed 
 in the defeent. 
 
 But fince it is always S~TV, in all kinds of mo¬ 
 tion ; if in any cafe S be as V, it is evident T muft be 
 a given quantity, or always the fame. That is, when 
 the lpaccs (S, s,) are as the velocities (V, v,) the times 
 (T, /,) will be always equal; and, therefore, all the 
 arches of a cycloid, great or l’mall, are deferibed in equal 
 times. Alfo the time of vibration in the cycloid is to 
 the time of defeent through half its length, as the cir¬ 
 cumference of a circle to its diameter. 
 
 In all that has been hitherto faid, the power of gravity 
 has been fuppofed conllantlv the fame. But, if the laid 
 power varies, the lengths of pendulums muft vary in the 
 lame proportion, in order that they may vibrate in equal 
 times; for we have lhewn, that the ratio of the times of 
 vibration and defeent through half the lengths is given, 
 and confequently the times of vibration and defeent 
 through the whole length is given : but the times of vi¬ 
 brations are fuppofed equal, therefore the times of defeent 
 through the lengths of the pendulum are equal. But 
 bodies defeending through unequal fpaces,in equal times, 
 are impelled by powers that are as the fpaces deferibed, 
 that is, the powers of gravity are as the lengths of the 
 pendulums. 
 
 The greateft inconvenience attending this moft ufcful 
 inftrument is, that it is conftantly liable to an alteration 
 of its length, from the effe&s of heat and cold, which 
 very fenfibly expand and contract all metalline bodies. 
 
 To remedy this inconvenience, the common method 
 is by applying the bob of the pendulum with a ferew, fo 
 that it may at any time be made longer or Ihorter, accord¬ 
 ing as the bob is fcrewed upwards or downwards, and 
 thereby the times of its vibrations kept always the fame. 
 
 Again, if a glafs or metalline tube, uniform through¬ 
 out, filled with quickfilver, and 58.8 inches long, were 
 applied to a clock, it would vibrate fcconds 39.2“ } of 
 58.8, and fuch a pendulum admits of a twofold expanfion 
 and contraction, viz. one of the metal, and the other of 
 the mercury, and this will be at the fame time contrary, 
 and therefore will corrc£l each other. For, by what we 
 have fhewn, the metal will extend in length with heat, 
 and 10 the pendulum will vibrate flower on that account. 
 The mercury alfo will expand with heat, and fince by 
 this expanfion it muft extend the length of the column 
 upward, and confequently raife the centre of ofcillation ; 
 fo that, by this means, its diftance from the point of fuf- 
 penfion will be fhortened, and therefore the pendulum 
 on this account will vibrate quicker : wherefore, if the 
 cijcumftances of the tube and mercury are fkilfully ad- 
 jufted, the time of the clock might, by this means, for a 
 long courfe of time, continue the fame, without any 
 fenfiblcgain or lofs. 
 
 Tliis is tire imention of the late ingenious Mr. Gra¬ 
 ham, in the year 1721, who made a clock of this fort, 
 and compared it with one of the beft of the common fort 
 for three years together, and found the errors of the for¬ 
 mer but about y part of the latter; of which die reader 
 
 PEN 
 
 may fee a further account in the Philofophical Tran- 
 laCtions, No. 392. It is what is now called Mr. Gra¬ 
 ham’s quickfilver pendulum. 
 
 But bclidcs the irregularities arifing from heat and co!d r 
 pendulum-clocks are liable to others from friftion and 
 foulnels; to obviate which, Mr. Hamfon has lcverai 
 excellent contrivances, whereby his clocks are almdft 
 entirely free from fri&ion, and never need be cleaned. 
 See Friction. 
 
 PEN El RAT ION, Penetratio , the aft wherehv one 
 thing atts upon another, or takes up the place already 
 poffeffed by another. 
 
 PENGUIN, in ornithology, the name of a fea-bird 
 common on the coafts of America, efpecially about the 
 banks of Newfoundland. and the iflands about the Streights 
 of Magellan. It has eight furrows on the beak, and white 
 fpots before the eye ; is a very lingular bird, and about 
 the fize of a goofe. 
 
 PENINSULA, in geography, a portion or extent of 
 land,- joining to the continent by a narrow neck, or 
 ifthmus; the reft being encompaffed with water. 
 
 PENIS, in anatomy, the primary organ of generation 
 in man; being called alfo mcntula, virgo, priapus, and 
 by a multitude of other names. 
 
 PEN! 1 ENCE, Penittntia, properly fignifies the fame 
 with repentance; but is alfo ufed for the dilciplinc, or 
 punilhment, more ufually called penance. 
 
 PENITENTS, an appellation given to certain fra¬ 
 ternities of penitents, diftinguilhed by the different fiiape 
 and colour of their habit. 
 
 PENNON, or Penon, a kind of ftandnrd, with a 
 long tail, anciently belonging to a fimple gentleman. It 
 is oppofed to the banner, which was fquare. 
 
 PENNY, an ancient filver coin, which, though now 
 little ufed, was the only one current among our" Saxon 
 anceftors. See Coin. 
 
 Penny-Earth, in agriculture, denotes a hard 
 loamy, or fandy earth, with a large portion of fca-lhelk 
 intermixed with it. 
 
 Penny-Royal, Pulegium, in botany, a plant having 
 a perennial, creeping, fibrous root, with fquare ftalks, 
 fomc of which grow upright, and others creep on the 
 ground, putting out roots at every joint, whereby it 
 fpt eads and propagates very faft ; the leaves are oval, and 
 come out from the joints of the ftalks in pairs, oppofitc ; 
 their fmell is agreeable, but ftrong, and the tafte is hot: 
 the flowers proceed from juft above the leaves at each 
 joint, and are difpofed in whorles; they are of a pale 
 purple, fmall, and helmct-fhaped on the upper lip, but 
 cut into three unequal fegments on the lower one ; thev 
 arc fucceeded by four fmall feeds, placed in the bottom 
 of the cup. It flowers in July and Auguft, at which 
 time it ihould be gathered f r ufe. 
 
 This plant is of a very fubtile and penetrating nature, 
 and is therefore aperitive, difeutient, and carminative 
 it is an excellent pe&oral, and given with great fuccefs 
 in afthmas, and all difficulties of breathing ; fome like- 
 wife recommend its application outwardly, in pains of 
 the head ; a diltillcd water of this plant, and alfo an oil, 
 is kept in the fhops for medicinal ufes. 
 
 Penny-weight, a troy-weight, containing 24 
 grains, each of which is equal in weight to a grain of 
 wheat, gathered out of the middle of the ear, and well 
 dried. See Weight. 
 
 PENSION, a fum of money paid annually for fer- 
 vices or confiderations already paft. 
 
 PENSIONARY, or Pr \- s ioner, a perfon who has 
 an appointment, or yearly fum, payable during life, by 
 way of acknowledgment, charged on the ellate of a 
 prince, company, or particular perfon. 
 
 Grond Pens ion a r y. an appellation given to the firft 
 mimfter of the ftates of Holland. 
 
 Pensionary, is alfo the firft minifter of the regency 
 of each city in Holland. 
 
 PENSION ER, in general, denotes a perfon who re¬ 
 ceives a penfion, yearly falary, or allowance. 
 
 PEN rSTOCK, a fluice, or flood-gate, ferving to 
 retain or let go, at pleafurc,'the water of a mill-pond, or 
 the like. See Sluice. 
 
 PENTACHORD, an ancient mufical inftrument, 
 with five firings, whence the name. The ftungs were 
 of bullocks leather, and ftruck with a plcftrum made of 
 goats-horn. 
 
 PENTA- 
 
PEP PER 
 
 PENT ACROSTICK, in poetry, ft let of tcries, fo 
 difpofed as that there are always live acrofticks of the 
 fame name, in live divilions of each verfe. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Acrostick. 
 
 PENTAGON, in geometry, a figure of five fides 
 and five angles. In fortification, pentagon denotes a 
 fort with live baftions. 
 
 PENTRAGRAPH, or Parallelogr am, an in¬ 
 ftrument whereby defigns of any kind may be copied in 
 ■What proportion you pleafc, without being (killed in 
 drawing. 
 
 PENTAMETER, in ancient poetry, akind of verfe 
 confining of five feet, or metres ; whence the name. 
 The two firft feet may be either dadlyls or fpondees, at 
 pleafure ; the third is always a fpondee, and the two lafl 
 anapefts. 
 
 PENTANDRIA, the name of the fifth clafs in the 
 Linnsean fyftem of botany; it comprehends all thofe 
 plants whole flowers are hermaphrodite; each contain¬ 
 ing five (lamina, or male parts of generation. To this 
 clafs belong the vine, gool'eberry, currant, primrofe, bo¬ 
 rage, mghtffiade, flax, with many other genera. 
 
 PENTAPETALOUS, an appellation given to 
 flowers that confiflof five petals or leaves. 
 
 PENTAPETES, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whofe flower hath five oblong patent petals, and fifteen 
 linear (lamina, joined in a tube at their bale, live of which 
 arc larger, coloured, and callrated ; the anthers of the 
 others are oblong and cre£l : the fruit is an ovate ligneous 
 capfule, with five cells, containing a number of oblong 
 comp reded feeds. 
 
 There is but one known fpecics belonging to this ge¬ 
 nus, which is a native of India ; the flowers are of a 
 fine fcarlet, and with us they blow from July to Septem¬ 
 ber, in fucceffion : the whole plant is annual, and railed 
 from feeds on a hot-bed in the fpring. 
 
 PENTAST 1 CH, in poetry, a (lanza, or divifion of 
 a poem, confiding of fiveverfes ; whence the name. 
 
 PENTASTYLE, in architecture, abuilding wherein 
 there are five rows of columns. See Column. 
 
 PENTATEUCH, an appellatioh given to the firft 
 five books of the Old Teftament, viz. Genefis, Exodus, 
 Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. 
 
 PENTECOST, a folemn feftival of the Jews, fo 
 called becaufe it was celebrated on the 50th day after 
 the 16th of the month Nifan, which was the fecond 
 day of the padover. The feaft of Pentecoft was infti- 
 tuted in memory of the law’s being given on the 50th 
 day after the lfraelites came out of Egypt. It was on the 
 feaft of Pentecoft that the Holy Ghoft miraculoufly de- 
 feended on the apoflles. See Whitsunday. 
 
 PENTHEMIMERIS, in ancient poetry, a part of a 
 verfe confiding of two feet and a long fyllable. 
 
 PENULTIMA,orpENULTiMATE Syllable, in 
 grammar, denotes the laft fyllable but one of a word ; 
 and hence the ante-penultimate fyllable is the laft but 
 two, or that immediately before the penultima. 
 
 PENUMBRA, in aftronomy, a partial (hade obferved 
 between the perfeft fhadow and the full light in an eclipfe. 
 It arifes from the magnitude of the fun’s body ; for were 
 he only a luminous point, the lhadow would be all per- 
 feCl : but by reafon of the diameter of the fun, it hap¬ 
 pens that a place which is not illuminated by the whole 
 body of the fun, does yet receive rays from apart thereof. 
 See Eclipse. 
 
 PEONY, in botany. SeeP/EONiA. 
 
 PEPASMUS, in medicine, denotes the digefting and 
 conceding of morbid humours. 
 
 PEPASTICK, or Peptick, in phyfick, are medi¬ 
 caments of the confidence of an emplaifter, for bringing 
 humours to a head, and difpofing them to maturation. 
 
 PEPO, thePoMpioN, in botany, is comprehended 
 by Linnaeus among the cucurbita. See Cue ure it a. 
 
 PEPPER, Piper, in botany, aflirub, whofe root is 
 (mail, fibrous, tough, and blackifh, from which arife 
 manv (hoots that are tough, flexible, green, and woody, 
 lying on the ground, uniefs propped up; they have fie-- 
 veral knots or joints, at each of which the leaves are al¬ 
 ternately difpoied ; thefie are of a roundifh form, two or 
 three inches broad, and four long, terminating in points ; 
 the texture is thick and firm, and on the upper part they 
 are of a Ihining du(ky green, but beneath of a light 
 green, and have lhort thick pedicles: the dowers grow 
 
 in fnikes, clofely covered, with very (mall apetalotis 
 flowers without filaments ; the antherre are two in num¬ 
 ber, of a roundilh form, and oppofite to tlic root of the 
 germen, which is large and oval, and crowned with a 
 triple prickly iligma : the fruit is a roundifh unilocular 
 berry, containing one globofie feed, which is green at 
 firll, and red when ripe, but in drying they grow black 
 and wrinkled. It comes from Malabar, Java, Sumatra, 
 and other parts of the E. Indies. This kipd of pepper 
 is of common and general ufe, and is every where em¬ 
 ployed as a fpice to create an appetite, and help digeftion. 
 
 Another fort of pepper, called long pepper, is an up¬ 
 right dried fruit, about an inch, or an inch and a half 
 long; it is oblong, round, cylindraceous, and, as it 
 were, ftreaked with fipiral lines, with tubercles placed in 
 the form of a net; within it is divided into feveral (mail 
 cells, containing each a fmall round Iced, blackifh with¬ 
 out, but whitilh within, with an acrid, hot, bitterifli 
 tafte : long pepper is commonly pickled, and is in high 
 efteem among fiomc. It is very good for cold phlegma- 
 tick conftitutions. 
 
 When the rind of black pepper is taken off, it appears 
 white, and is the only fort brought to us by the name of 
 white pepper, though Ionic botanical authors give us an 
 account of a fpecies, whofe fruit is naturally white ; how¬ 
 ever, there is (aid to be no difference between the plants 
 that produce them, except in the colour of the fruit: it 
 is now very rare, and only to be found in certain places 
 of Malabar and Malacca. They have all much the fame 
 virtues, for they heat, dry, attenuate, refiolve, open 
 and (Lengthen relaxed fibres of the vificera, and by ex¬ 
 citing an ofcillation therein, refrefh the fipirits, divide 
 grot's humours, and increafe the circulation of the blood. 
 In the E. Indies they have a way of preferving the com¬ 
 mon and long pepper in vinegar, and eating them after¬ 
 wards at meals. 
 
 Jamaica Pepper, Pimento, in botany. See Pi men t a. 
 
 Pepper-Mint, in botany. See Mint. 
 
 PERAMBULATOR, in fiurveying, an inftrument 
 for meafiuring diftances, called alfio pedometer, way- 
 wifier, and fiurveying-wheel. 
 
 It confifts of a wheel, A A, (plate LX 1 I. Jig. 6.) two 
 feet feven inches and a half in diameter; confcquently, 
 half a pole, or eight feet three inches in circumference. 
 On one end of the axis is a nut, three .quarters of an inch 
 in diameter, and divided into eight teeth ; which, upon 
 moving the wheel round, fall into the teeth of another 
 nut O (Jig. 7.) fixed oil one end of an iron rod Q, and 
 this turns the rod once round, in the time the wheel 
 makes one revolution. This rod, lying along a groove 
 in the fide of the carriage of the inftrument, has at its 
 other end a fiquare hole, into which is fitted the end b of 
 a fmall cylinder P. This cylinder is dilpofied under the 
 dial-plate of a movement, at the end of the carriage B, 
 (fig. 6.) in fuch a manner as to be moveable about its 
 axis; its end a is cut into a perpetual ferew, which fall¬ 
 ing into the 32 teeth of a wheel perpendicular thereto, 
 upon driving the inftrument forward, that wheel makes 
 a revolution each 16th pole. On the axis of this wheel 
 is a pinion with 6 teeth, which, falling into the teeth of 
 another wheel of 60 teeth, carries it round every 160th 
 pole, or half a mile. 
 
 This laft wheel, carrying a hand or index round with 
 it over the divilions of a dial-plate, whofe outer limb is 
 divided into 160 parts, correfponding to the 160 poles, 
 points out the number of poles palled over. Again, on 
 the axis of this laft wheel is a pinion, containing 20 teeth*, 
 which, falling into the teeth of a third wheel, which hath 
 40 teeth, drives it once round in 320 poles, or a mile. 
 On the axis of this wheel is a pinion of 12 teeth, which, 
 falling into the teeth of the fourth wheel, having 72 teeth, 
 drives it once round in 12 miles. 
 
 This fourth wheel, carrying anoiher index over the 
 inner limb of the dial-plate, divided into 12 for miles, 
 and each mile fubdivided into halves, quarters, and fur¬ 
 longs, ferves to regifter the revolutions of the other hand, 
 and to keep account of the half miles and miles palled 
 over as far as 12 miles. 
 
 The ufe of this inftrument is obvious from its con- 
 ftru£lion. Its proper office is in the fiurveying of roads 
 and large diftances, where a great deal of expedition, 
 and not much accuracy, is required. It is evident, that 
 driving it along, and obferving the hands, has the fam® 
 
 effect 
 
as dragging the chain, and taking account of die 
 chains and links. 
 
 Its advantages are its handinefs and expedition; its 
 contrivance is fuch, that it may be fitted to the wheel 
 ol a coach, in which Hate it performs its office, and 
 meafures the road without any trouble at all. 
 
 PER Arsin et 1 hesin, in mufick; the former 
 denotes when a fong, counter-point, fugue, &c. afeend 
 in the notes from grave to acute ; and per thefim, when 
 the notes defeend from acute to grave. 
 
 PERCEPTION, Perceptio, in philofophy, the a£l 
 of apprehending a thing, or that fimpie idea which we 
 conceive of a thing, without making any affirmation or 
 negation. If that idea exhibit any image to the mind, 
 it is called imagination. I he faculty of perception con- 
 ftitutes what we call the underflanding. 
 
 It may be oblerved, that the ideas we receive by per¬ 
 ception, are often altered by the judgment, without our 
 taking any notice of it, fo that we take that for the per¬ 
 ception of our lenfes, which is but an idea formed by 
 the judgment. 7 he faculty of perception feems to be 
 that which puts the diftin&ion between the animate and 
 inanimate parts of the creation. 
 
 PERCH, Po le, or Rod, Pertica , Cal inn , Funis , 
 Decempeda , a long meafure much ufed in furveying and 
 meafuring of land, being io feet long. 
 
 Our ftatute perch contains 16 feet and a half; and for 
 coppice-woods, &c. 18 feet. Forty fquare perches make 
 a rood, and 160 an acre. 
 
 The perch, in Staffordfiiire, is 24 feet. In the foreft 
 of Sherwood 21, the foot there being 18 inches. In 
 Herefordfhire, a perch of walling is 16 feet and a half; a 
 perch of ditching 21 feet, &c. In France, the perch is 
 from 18 to 27 of their feet. 
 
 PERCH ANT, among fowlers, a decoy-bird which 
 is fattened by the foot, and flutters about the place to 
 draw other birds to it. 
 
 PERCUSSION, in phyficks, the impreffion a body 
 makes in falling or ftriking upon another, or the fhock 
 of two moving bodies ; and it is either direft or ob¬ 
 lique. 
 
 Dir eft Percussion, is where the impulfe is given 
 in the direflion of a right line perpendicular to the point 
 of contaft. 
 
 Oblique Percussion, when it is given in the direc¬ 
 tion of a line oblique to the point of contact. For the 
 nature of percuffion in bodies elaftick and non-elattick, 
 •fee Motion. 
 
 Centre of Percussion, that point wherein the fhock 
 of the percutient bodies is the greateft ; being the fame 
 with the centre of ofcillation, if the percutient body 
 revolve round a fixed axis. If the motion be parallel 
 and with the fame velocity, the centre of percuffion is the 
 fame with the centre of gravity. 
 
 PERDUE, in war, denotes the forlorn hope , and to 
 lie perdue, is to lie flat and clofely in wait. 
 
 PEREMPTORY, in law, denotes whatever is abfo- 
 lute and final, not to be altered, renewed, or reftrained. 
 
 PERENNIAL, in botany, is applied to fuch plants 
 whofe roots will endure many years. There are two 
 kinds of perennials; the one retain their leaves all winter, 
 called evergreens; the other call them, called deciduous 
 or perdefols. 
 
 PERFECT, denotes that which wants nothing requi- 
 fite to its nature and kind. 
 
 Perfect, in arithmetick, is applied to fucha num¬ 
 ber, all whofe aliquot parts, added together, make the 
 fame number with that whereof they are fuch parts, as 
 6, 28, &c. 
 
 Perfect, in grammar, a preter or preter-perfect 
 tenfe, is an inflexion marking a time perfe&ly part, as, 
 
 I have feen ; plufquam perfeft exprefles a time more than 
 perfe&ly patt, as, I had feen. 
 
 Pe rfect, in mufick, denotes fomething that fatisfies 
 the mind and ear. The word perfefl, when joined with 
 mode and time, ufually exprefles, among the ancients, 
 triple time or meafure, in opposition to double time! 
 which they called imperfeft. 
 
 PERFEC I ION, the ftate or quality of a thing per¬ 
 fect ; which is of divers kinds, phvfical, moral, and 
 metaphylical. 
 
 Pbyftcal or natural Perfection, is that whereby 
 thing has all its powers, and thofe in their full vi°our. 
 
 Moral Perfection, an eminent degree of virtue or 
 moral goodnefs. 
 
 PERFIDIA, in mufick, denotes an affe&ation of 
 doing always the fame thing, continuing the fame mo¬ 
 tion, and the fame figures of notes. 
 
 PERFUME, an agreeable artificial odour firiking the 
 organ of fmelling, that confifts of odoriferous herbs and 
 aromaticks. 
 
 Perfumes, Sujfitus, in pharmacy, &c. are topical 
 medicines compofed of certain powders and gums, which, 
 when thrown on the coals, produce a fmoke falutary in 
 feveral difeafes. 
 
 PERIAN 1 HIUM, Perianthaum, empalcment or ca¬ 
 lyx, in botany, the little green leaves that compafs the 
 bottom of flowers. It ferves as a fupport and fecurity 
 to the other parts of the flower. 
 
 PERIAP I ON, Periamma , the fame with amulet, 
 which, when tied about the neck, is luppofed to prevent 
 or cure difeafes. 
 
 PERICARDIARY, is applied to worms generated in 
 the pericardium or capfule of the heart; which M. Andry 
 makes one of the 12 kinds produced in the human body. 
 
 PERICARDIUM, in anatomy, a membranous cap- 
 fula that includes the heart. See Heart. 
 
 PERICARPIA, Epicarpia , in phyfick, any topical 
 medicines applied to the carpus or wrift. 
 
 PERICARPIUM, Pericarpus , in botany, any mem¬ 
 brane, hulk, &c. that furrounds the fruit of vegetables. 
 
 PERICHORUS, in antiquity, denoted fuch obfeure 
 games among the Greeks, as were not confecratcd to any 
 of the gods. 
 
 PERICRANIUM, in anatomy, a thick membrane 
 that covers the outfide of the fkull. ' See Cranium. 
 
 1 ERIDROME, Pa idromus, in the ancient archi¬ 
 tecture, the fpace or ifle in a periptere between the 
 columns and the wall, which, according to Salmafiug, 
 ferved among the Greeks for walking. 
 
 PERIG^EUM, or Perigee, in aftronomy, tha$ 
 point in the fun s or moon’s orbit, wherein they are at 
 their leaft diftance from the earth; and fo flands oppofed 
 to apogee. 
 
 PERIGEE, in the ancient aftronomy, a point in a 
 planet’s orbit, wherein the centre of its epicycle is at the 
 leaft diftance from the earth. 
 
 PERIHELIUM, in aftronomy, that point of the 
 orbit of a planet or comet, wherein it is at its leaft dif¬ 
 tance from the fun. It ftands oppofed to aphelium; the 
 ancient aftronomers ufed perigreum inftead of it, as plac¬ 
 ing the earth in the centre. 
 
 PERIME 1 ER, in geometry, the extent that bounds 
 any figure or body. The perimeters of figures or fur- 
 faces are lines; thofe of bodies are furfaces. In circular 
 figures, Ccc. we ufe circumference or periphery inftead of 
 perimeter. 
 
 PERINEUM, Perineum, in anatomy, the fpace be¬ 
 twixt the anus and parts of generation, divided into two 
 equal lateral parts, by a very diftinftline, which is longer 
 in males than females. This part is fubjeCt to laceration, 
 in difficult births, and in this part the pundlure of the 
 perineum is performed. 
 
 PERINDE Valere, in the canon law, a difpenfa- 
 tion granted a clerk, who being legally incapable of a 
 benefice, &c. is, de fa&o, admitted thereby to it. 
 
 PERIOCHA, an argument indicating the fum of a 
 difeourfe. 
 
 PERIOD, Periodus, in aftronomy, the time a ftar or 
 planet takes in making a revolution, or the duration of 
 its courfe till it return to the fame point of the heavens. 
 
 The earth s period is 365 days, 3 hours, 49 minutes ; 
 that of the moon 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes. 
 
 There is a wonderful harmony between the diftanccs 
 of the planets from the iun and the periods round him, 
 the fquares of the periodick tunes being ever proportional 
 to the cubes of their mean diftances from the fun. 
 
 Period, in chronology, an epocha or interval of 
 time by which the years are accounted in different na¬ 
 tions and on different occafions. 
 
 The i^alippick Per iod, a feries of 76 years returning 
 in a perpetual circle ; which, when elapfed, the new and 
 full moons are fuppofed to return to the fame day of the 
 folar year : it is an improvement on the Metonick of 19 
 years, which proving inaccuiate, Calippus, the Athenian, 
 multiplied it by 4. 
 
 Hipparchus' 
 
PER PER 
 
 'Hipparchus 's Period, a fcries of 304folar years peri¬ 
 odically returning and reftoring the new and full moons 
 to the fame day of the folar year, according to Hippar¬ 
 chus; which period arifes by multiplying the Calippick 
 period by 4. Hipparchus affumed the quantity of the 
 folar year to be 365 d 5 11 55' 12": and hence concluded, 
 that in 104 years, Calippus’s period would err a whole 
 day ; he therefore multiplied the period by 4, and, from 
 the produft, cad away a whole day ; but, notwithftanding 
 this, the new and full moons are fometimes anticipated 
 i d 8 h 23' 29" 20'". 
 
 Julian Period, a feries of 7980 Julian years, arifing 
 by the multiplication of the cycles of the moon, fun, and 
 indittions into one another. 
 
 Metonick Period. See C y c l e of the Moon. 
 
 Viflcrian Period, an interval of 532 Julian years, 
 which, when elapfed, the new and full moons return to 
 the fame day, according to Viftorinus or Vi&orius, who 
 lived in the time of pope Hilary. Some aferibe it to 
 Dionyfius Exiguus, and give it his name. 
 
 It is produced by multiplying the lunar cycle 19 by 
 the folar cycle 18. But neither does this reftore the new 
 and full moons to, the fame day by i <l 19 1 ’ 38' 59" 40'". 
 
 Period, in grammar, a little compafs of dilcourfe, 
 containing a perfect fentence or fenfe, diftinguiihed at 
 the end by a full flop (.) and its feveral incmbcis marked 
 by commas, colons, he. 
 
 Period, in numbers, a diftin&ion made by a point 
 or comma alter every fixth place, and is ufed in nume¬ 
 ration, the more readily to diffinguifii the feveral figures. 
 
 Period, Pcriodus, in medicine, the time between the 
 accefs of one fit or paroxyfm and that of the next, in¬ 
 cluding thedntire exacerbation, decline, and intermiffion 
 or rcmiifion. Thefe are frequently very regular in fe¬ 
 vers; but, in chronical diforders, more irregular. Hence 
 fuch difeafes are called periodical. 
 
 PERIOD 1 CK, or Periodical, fomething that 
 terminates in or comprizes a period. 
 
 Periodical Month, the fp ace of time in which the 
 moon returns to the fame point of the zodiack, wherein 
 die was, when file left the lun. 
 
 Periodical Difeafes ; fee Period, in medicine. 
 
 Period ick, in grammar, is applied to a dyle that 
 confids of juft and artful periods. 
 
 PERIOECI, in geography, fuch inhabitants of the 
 globe as have the fame latitudes, but oppofite longitudes; 
 or live under the fame parallel and the fame meridian, 
 but in different femi-circles of that'meridian, or oppofite 
 points of the parallel. Thefe have the fame common 
 feafons throughout the year, and the fame plnenomena 
 of the heavenly bodies, but their hours are oppofite; for 
 with the one, when it is mid-day, with the other it is 
 mid-night. 
 
 PERIOPHTHALMIUM, in natural hidory, a thiq 
 fkin which birds can draw over their eyes, to defend them 
 without Ihutting their eye-lids : it is the fame with the 
 nictitating membrane. 
 
 PERIOSTEUM, Periojlium, in anatomy, the fine 
 fenfible membrane that invelopes the bones. See Bone. 
 
 PERIPATETICK Philojophy, the fydem taught by 
 Ariltotle, and maintained by his followers the Peripa¬ 
 teticks. 
 
 PERIPATETICKS, Peripatetici, Arifiotelians^ePi of 
 philofophers, the followers of Aridotle, or maintainers of 
 the peripatetick phi lofophy. The greated and bed part of 
 Ariftotle’s philolophy he borrowed from his mader Plato. 
 
 Ariftotle’s philolophy preferved itfelf in puris natura- 
 libus a long time, till the beginning of theXHIth century, 
 when it began to be new modelled. A reformed fydem 
 of Peripateticifm was fird introduced into the lchools 
 in the univerfity of Paris ; from whence it foon fpread 
 throughout Europe, and has fubfided to this day under 
 the name of fehool philolophy, and the retainers thereto 
 may be denominated reformed Peripateticks. Out of 
 thefe have lprung at feveral times, the Thomifts, Scotids, 
 and Nominalids. 
 
 PERIPETIA, in the drama, coincides with theca- 
 tadrophe or unravelling; being properly the change of 
 condition, whether happy or unhappy, which the prin¬ 
 cipal perfons undergo, arifing from fome difeovery or in¬ 
 cident which gives a new turn to the aCtion. 
 
 The qualities of the peripetia are, that it be probable 
 and neceffary ; in order to which, it mud be the natural 
 Vol. II. No. 56. 
 
 refult, at lead the effeCl of the foregoing aCtions, or 
 fubjeCt itfelf. 
 
 Sometimes the peripetia is occafioned without any dif¬ 
 eovery, as in the Antigone of Sophocles, where the 
 change in Creon’s fortune is produced by the effeCt of 
 his own obdinaev ; and fometimes by a mere change 
 of the will, which, though the lead artful, yet Mr. 
 Dryden obferves, may be lo managed as to become ex¬ 
 ceedingly beautiful. 
 
 Thefe two cafes Aridotle calls fimple peripetias, the 
 change in thefe confiding in a paflage out of trouble and 
 aftion into tranquillity and red. 
 
 PERIPHERY, in geometry, the circumference of a 
 circle ellipfis, parabola, he. 
 
 Geometricians demondrate, that a circle is equal to a 
 triangle, whole bale is equal to the periphery, and alti¬ 
 tude to the radius : hence it follows, that circles are in 
 a ratio compounded of their peripheries and radii : but 
 they are alfo in the duplicate ratio of their radii; there¬ 
 fore, the peripheries of circles are to eaclL,other as their 
 radii : and iince the periphery of one circle is to its 
 radius, as the periphery of any other to its radius; the 
 ratio of the periphery to the diameter is the fame in all 
 circles, which is ulually taken to be as 314 to 100 nearly. 
 
 PERIPHRASIS, Circumlocutio , in rhetorick, a circuit 
 of words much ufed by orators to avoid trite manners of 
 exprefiion. We are frequently forced to have recourfe to 
 it, to make things be conceived, which it is not proper 
 to name; it being polite to fupprels the names, and only 
 intimate ordefignthem. That no direct citations may 
 be made, there mud be a compafs taken to inlinuate the 
 authors, whole authority we borrow. 
 
 PERIPNEUMONY, in medicine, an inflammation 
 of the lungs, attended with a weight in the lungs, a diffi¬ 
 culty of breathing, and an oppreffion of the bread, with 
 a purulent fpitting, and a fever accompanied with a cough. 
 When the inflammation affefls both the lobes, and the 
 whole body of the lungs, the cafe is delperate. 
 
 PERIPTERE, in the ancient architecture, a build¬ 
 ing encompafled on the outfidc with a leries of infulated 
 columns, forming a kind of portico all around ; fuch 
 were the portico of Pompey, the feptizon of Severus. 
 and the bafilica of Antoninus. The penpteres were pro¬ 
 perly temples, which had columns on all the four fides, 
 by which they were diftinguiihed from the pfodyle and 
 amphiprodyle, the lad of which had no columns before, 
 and the fird none on the fides. 
 
 M. Perault obferves, that periptere, in the general 
 fenfe of the word, is the name of a genus, including all 
 the fpecies of temples, which have porticos of columns 
 all around, whether the columns be diptere, or pfeudo- 
 diptere, or fimply periptere, which is a fpecies that bears 
 the name of a genus, and which has its columns didant 
 from the wall, the breadth of an intercolumnation. 
 
 PERTSCII, in geography, the inhabitants of either 
 frigid zone, between the polar circles and the poles ; 
 where the fun, when in the dimmer figns, moves only 
 round about them, without letting, and confequently 
 their lhadows, in the fame day, turn .to all the points of 
 the horizon. 
 
 PERISKYTISM, in ancient furgery, an incifion 
 made under the coronal future, reaching from one temple 
 acrols to the other, penetrating to the bone of the cranium. 
 
 PERISTALTICK, in medicine, a vermicular fpon- 
 taneous motion of the intedines, performed by the con- 
 tra&ion of the lingular and longitudinal fibres, of which 
 the fleffiy coats of the intedines are compoled ; by means 
 whereof the chyle is driven into the orifices of die latteal 
 veins, and the fa?ces are protruded towards the anus. 
 
 "VV hen this motion comes to be depraved, and its di- 
 region changed, fo as to proceed from below upwards, 
 it produces what is called the iliackpaffion. See Iliac k. 
 Passion. 
 
 PERISTAPIIYLINUS, in anatomy, a name which 
 fome give to a mufcle of the uvula, more properly deno¬ 
 minated ptcrygodaphylinus. See the article Ptery- 
 
 GO STAPH Y LINUS. 
 
 PERISTYLE, in ancient architedture, a building 
 encompalfed with a row of columns on the infide : fuch 
 was the hypaithrc temple of Vitruvius, and fuch are now 
 fome bafilicas in Rome, feveral palaces in Italv, and mod 
 cloiders of religious. 
 
 Per 1 s t v le is alfo ufed by modern writers for a range 
 Gcc e f 
 
PER PER 
 
 of columns, either with'111 or without a building; thus 
 we fay, the Corinthian pcriityle of the portal of the 
 Louvre, See. 
 
 PERIS Y STOLE, in medicine, the interval of reft be¬ 
 tween the two motions of the heart, viz. that of the fyftole, 
 or contrail ion, and that of the diaftole, or dilatation. 
 
 PERITONAEUM, in anatomy, is a thin, fmooth, 
 and lubricous membrane, inverting the whole internal 
 furface of the abdomen, and containing molt of the vif- 
 cera of that part, as it were in a bag. 
 
 PERITROCHIUM, in meclianicks, denotes a wheel, 
 or circle, concentrick with the bale of a cylinder, and 
 moveable with it about an axis. See Axis in Peritrochio. 
 
 PERJURY, in law, the crime of fwearing falfely, 
 where,a lawful oath is adminiftered by one in authority, 
 in a matter relating to the iflue or caufe in queition, 
 whether it be a perfon’s own wilful aCt, or done by the 
 fubornation of others. 
 
 In- order to make an offence perjurv, it mull: appear 
 to be wilful and deliberate, and not done through fur- 
 prize or inadvertency ; it mull be direCl and poiitive, 
 and not where a perl’on fvvears as he thinks or believes : 
 but in cafe a perlon fwears to what he is ignorant of, it 
 is a falfc oath, even though what he fwears ihould hap¬ 
 pen to be true; thus, a plaintiff caufed two perfons to 
 iwearto the value of goods which they never law, when, 
 notwithhanding they I'wore what was true, it was ad¬ 
 judged to be perjury in them. At the common law, 
 perjury, and the fubornation of it, are punilhable by 
 fine, imprifonment, pillory, tranfportation, &c. 
 
 PERM AN ENT, in general, fomething that conti¬ 
 nues the fame, whether in nature or fituation, and other 
 circumftances: fhus air, generated by fermentation, is 
 laid to be permanent, bccaufe itcontinues to lhewall the 
 natural properties of common air. 
 
 Thus alio thofe cups of flowers are called permanent, 
 which remain after the flower-leaves are fallen. 
 
 PERMEABLE, a term applied to boefies of fo loofe 
 and porous a ftruCture, as to let fomething pals through 
 them. 
 
 PERMUTATION, in commerce, the fame with 
 bartering. See Bartering. 
 
 In the canon law, permutation denotes the aCtual 
 change ot one benefice for another. 
 
 Permutation of Quantities, in algebra, the fame 
 with combination. 
 
 PERNANCY, in law, flgnifying faking or receiving, 
 is peculiarly applied to tithes taken in kind. 
 
 PERONIO, a chilblain. See Ch ilbl a in. 
 
 PERORATION, Peror atio, in rhetorick, the epilogue 
 or laft part of an aCtion, wherein the orator urges what 
 he had laid with more vehemence. It confiils of two 
 parts, a recapitulation, and a moving of the paffions. 
 The paffions to be railed in the peroration are various, 
 according to the various kinds of orations. The qualities 
 required in the peroration are, that it be vehement and 
 lliort. 
 
 The peroration was Cicero’s mafter-piece; here that 
 great orator not only let his judges and auditors on fire, 
 but even feemed to burn himfelf, efpecially when he was 
 to raife commiferation towards the accufed, where, as he 
 himfelf tells us, he frequently filled the forum with 
 weeping and lamentation. He adds that, when there 
 were feveral orators to fpcak for the fame perfon, the pe¬ 
 roration was relerved to Cicero ; and he fubjoins that, 
 if he excelled therein, it was not owing to genius, but 
 the grief he himfelf lhcwcd. 
 
 FERPEND 1 CULAR, in geometry, a line falling 
 dire&iy on another line, fo as to make equal angles on 
 each fide,, called alfo a normal line. Thus the line 1 G 
 (p.'ate LXlV.Jfjp 6.) is perpendicular to the line K H, 
 and makes right and equal angles therewith. 
 
 To erett (/Perpendicular on a given Line , as A B 
 from any affigned point as B (fig. 7.) Upon any point 
 (taken at an adventure) out of the given line, as at C 
 cEfcribe l'uch a ciicle as will pal's through the point from 
 whence the perpendicular muft be railed, as at B (viz. 
 make CB radius:) and, from the point where the circle 
 cuts the given line as at A, draw the circle’s diameter 
 ACD. I hen from the point D 8raw the right line 
 L>B, and it will be the perpendicular, as was required. 
 
 To let fall a Perpendicular on agiven line, as AB 
 (Jig. 8.) from any affigned point, as C. Upon tEe given 
 
 | point C deferibe fuch an arch of a circle as will crofs the 
 given line AB in two points as at d and then bifleCt 
 the diftance between thofe two points f /, as at a-. 
 Draw the right line C a-, and it will be the perpendicular 
 required. 
 
 Perpendicular to a Parabola, is a right line cut¬ 
 ting the parabola in the point in which any other right 
 line touches it, and is alfo itfelf perpendicular to that 
 tangent. 
 
 PERPENDICULARITY of Plants, a curious phe¬ 
 nomenon in natural hiftory, firft obferved by M. Dodart. 
 and publiihed in an exprefs eflay on the affectation of 
 perpendicularity obfervable in the ftems of all plants, 
 the roots of many, and even in the branches as much as- 
 poffible. 
 
 M. Dodart fuppofes that the fibres of the ftalks are of 
 Inch a nature, as that they contraCt by the heat of the 
 fun, and lengthen out by the moifture of the earth; and 
 the contrary happens in the fibres of the roots. When 
 ■b n the plantule is inverted and the roota-top, the fibres 
 which conipofe one of the branches of the root, are not 
 equally expofed to the moifture of the earth, and the 
 lower part is more expofed than the upper; the lower 
 therefore muft contraCt the moll, which contraction-is 
 again promoted by the lengthening of the upper, whereon 
 the fun aCts with the greateft force.' Confidently, this 
 branch cjf the root muft recoil towards the earth’ and, 
 infinuating through its pores, get underneath the bulb, 
 Nc. In a word, the earth attracts the root to itfelf, and 
 the fun contributes to its defeent; and, on thecontrarv, 
 the lun attracts the ftein, and the earth in fome meafure 
 fends it towards the fame. 
 
 As to the Heightening of the ftalks in the open air, 
 he takes it to arife from the impreffion of external caufes, 
 particularly the fun and rain. Now both thefe caules in 
 a certain ftruCture of the fibres tend equally to Heighten 
 the part moft expofed; but what that ftruCture is, or 
 wheieon it depends, is ltill a myftery. 
 
 M. de la Hue accounts for the perpendicularity thus : 
 he imagines that the root dews a coarfer juice, and tha 
 ftem and its branches a finer and more volatile one. 
 This difference of juices fuppofes larger pores in the 
 roots than the ftalk, &cc. and a different contexture : in 
 the little invilible plant inclofed in the feed we may con¬ 
 ceive a point of reparation, fuch as that all on one fide 
 fhall be unfolded by the grolfer juices, and all on the 
 other by the more fubtile. 
 
 Suppofe the plantule, when its parts begin to unfold, 
 to be entirely inverted ; the juices which enter the root 
 will ftill be coarfeft, and, when they have opened the 
 pores fo as to. admit juices of a determinate weight, 
 thofe juices, ftill prefling the root, will drive it down¬ 
 wards, and this the more, as the root is more enlarged ; 
 for the point of feparation being conceived as the fixed 
 point of a lever, they will aCt by the longer arm. At 
 the fame time the volatile juices having penetrated the 
 ftalk, will tend to give it a direction from below up¬ 
 wards ; and thus is the little plant turned on its fixed 
 point of feparation till it be perfectly ereCt. 
 
 - The plant thus ereCted, the ftalk, we know, fhould 
 continue to rife perpendicularly ; for which M. Parent 
 accounts thus : the nutritious juice being arrived at the 
 extremity of a rifing ftalk, if it evaporate, the weight of 
 the air will make it afeend vertically ; and, if it congeal 
 there, the weight of the air will give it the fame direc¬ 
 tion ; the new drops of juice that fucceed will follow the 
 fame direction ; and as all together form the ftalk, that ■ 
 muft of courfe be vertical, unlefs fome particular cir- 
 cumftance intervene. 
 
 As to the branches, though they fhould even come out 
 horizontally, yet they muft raife themfelves upwards by 
 the conftant direction of the nutritious juice ; hence may 
 he accounted the regular direction of the branches, which 
 all, and always, nearly make the fame angle of 45 0 with 
 the ftem and one another. 
 
 M. Aitruc accounts for the perpendicularity on thefe 
 two principles: 1. That the nutritious juice arifes from 
 the circumference, and terminates in the pith. 2. That 
 fluids contained in tubes, either parallel or oblique to 
 the horizon, granulate on the lower part of the tubes, 
 and not at all on the upper. 
 
 PERPETUAL, fomething that always endures, 6r 
 lafts for ever. 
 
 Perbe- 
 
PER 
 
 Perpetual Motion , in meclianicks, a motion which 
 is fupplied from itlclf, without the intervention of any 
 external caufe. * 
 
 This famous problem has given rife to an infinite 
 number of fchemes, which have all proved equally abor¬ 
 tive. What has given rife to the belief of a perpetual 
 motion is the following mechanical principle. 
 
 The momentums of the weight and power are as the 
 quantities of matter in each multiplied by their refped’tive 
 celerities, and the celerities are as the diitances from the 
 centre of motion, and alfo as the lpaces palled through 
 in a perpendicular direction in the fame time; it mull 
 follow that there will be an equilibrium between the 
 weights, when they are to each other reciprocally as the 
 didances from the centre, or as the celerities of the mo¬ 
 tions, or as the perpendicular afeent or defeent in the 
 fame time ; and this univerfally in all mechanical powers 
 whatever, which is therefore the fundamental principle 
 of all mechanicks. The nature of this proportion, not 
 being underilood by fmatterers in mechanicks, gave them 
 occalion to imagine the polfibility ol a perpetual motion 
 from oije part of it, which they did not lee was utterly 
 impolfible from another part of it. 
 
 PERPETUITY, in law, is when an edate is in¬ 
 tended to be fo fettled in tail, &c. that it may not pol- 
 libly be undone or made void. 
 
 PERQUISITE, in law, is any thing gotten by a 
 mail’s own indudry, or purchafed with his money ; m 
 contradidin£lion to whatdelcends to him, from hi? fa¬ 
 ther or other anceftors. 
 
 Perquisites of Courts, are the profits which ca- 
 fually accrue to the lord of the manor from his courts- 
 baron, by fines for copyholds, elcheats, lieriots, amerce¬ 
 ments, &c. 
 
 PERRON, in architecture, the Heps in the front of 
 a building, railed before the doors of gieat houfes, and 
 leading to the fil'd Itory, when railed above the level of 
 the ground. 
 
 PERRY, a drink made of pears in the fame manner 
 as cyder is made from apples. See Cyder. 
 
 PER SEA, Avocado-pcar, in botany, an evergreen 
 tree, which grows to the height of 30 feet, and upwards ; 
 the trunk is large, linooth, and-of an alh colour ; the 
 branches are furnilhed with large, oblong, fmooth leaves, 
 like tliofe of laurel, and of a deep green colour ; the 
 flowers are produced towards the extremities of the 
 branches, and arc hexapetalous, acuminated, and fpread 
 open : the fruit is flcfliy and pyramidical (about the fize 
 of one of our larged pears) incloiing a large oval feed, 
 with two lobes, included in a thin Ihell. 
 
 This tree grows in great plenty in the W. Indies, 
 and is edeemed by its inhabitants not only as a del'ert, 
 but as very neceifary for the fupport of life : the fruit 
 alone is very inlipid, for which reafon they generally eat 
 it with the juice of lemons and fugar, to give it a pun¬ 
 gency ; it is very nourifhing, and is reckoned a great in¬ 
 centive to venery : it is eaten by i'ome people with vine¬ 
 gar and pepper. This plant is comprehended, by Lin- 
 nams among the laurus : it is railed from feed, and re¬ 
 quires a hot-houle in this climate to preferve it. 
 
 PERSECUTION, is any pain or affliction which a 
 perfen defignedly infliCts upon another ; and, in a more 
 redrained fenfe, the fufferings of Chriltiahs on account 
 of their religion. 
 
 PERSEVERANCE, in theology, aChriftian virtue, 
 by which we arc enabled to pcrlilt in the way of falvation 
 to the end. 
 
 PERSEUS, in aftronomy, a conllellation of the nor¬ 
 thern hemifphere, which, according to the catalogues 
 of Ptolemy and Tycho, contains 9.9 liars ; but in the 
 Britannick catalogue, 67. 
 
 PERSIAN-W heel-, an engine, or wheel, turned by" 
 a rivulet, or other llrcam of water, and fitted with open 
 boxes at its cogs, to raife water for the overflowing of 
 lands, or other purpofes. 
 
 It may be made of any fize, according to the height 
 the water is to be railed to, and the ilrength of the llream 
 by which it is turned. This wheel is placed fo, that its 
 bottom only is immerfed in the water, wherein the open 
 boxes at its cogs are all filled, one after another, with 
 water, which is railed with them to the upper part of 
 the wheeEs circuit, and then naturally empties itfelf into 
 a, trough which carries it to the land. 
 
 PER 
 
 PERSICA, the peach, in botany. See Peach. 
 
 PERSICAR 1 A, arfmart, in botany, agenus of plants,- 
 whole riower in monopetalous, and cut into five fpread- 
 ing. legments ; there is no pericarpium, but the feed, 
 which is fingle, roundidi, and acute-pointed, is con¬ 
 tained in the corolla, which is permanent. There is 
 great irregularity in this genus, home fpecies having only 
 five liamina, and others fix or eight, and one, two or 
 three flyles. 
 
 ’1 he lpotted arfmart fends forth ■fialks to the height of 
 afoot; they are hollow, redifh, branched and jointed; 
 the leaves are fhaped like thofe of the peach-tree, and 
 marked with black fpots; the flowers grow in fpikes, 
 and come out in July and Augull. It grows wild in 
 watery, rnarfhy, and moid ditches, almoll every where. 
 
 Another fpecies, called by fome water-pepper, and 
 biting arfmart, grows in moift places; it is extremely hot 
 and penetrating, infomuch that the tafle is hardly toler¬ 
 able; this has made it obtain in lcorbutick cafes, hypo- 
 chondriack affeCtions, and all diforders arifing from a 
 fluggifh circulation of the fluids; and its diftillcd water, 
 given in two or three ounces, is accounted a ipecifick. 
 again d the gravel and Hone : all authors agree, that the 
 herb applied to old ulcers eats away proud flefh, cleanfes 
 and dries them ; applied as a cataplafm to the bruifes of 
 liorfes, it defolves the coagulated blood ; and if wounds 
 or ulcers are walked with the juice, the flies will never 
 come near them. 
 
 PERSON, an individual fubfiance of a rational or 
 intelligent nature. Thus we fay, an embaflador repre- 
 fents the perfon of his prince; and that in law, the father 
 and the foil are reputed the fame perfon. 
 
 Person, in dramatick poetry, the charadler aflum- 
 ed by an aCtor, or he who is reprefented by the player. 
 Thus, at the head of dramatick pieces, arc placed the 
 dramatis perfona;, or lift of the perfons that are to appear 
 on the Hage. Father Boffu obferves, that in the cpick- 
 and dramatick poem the fame perfon muH reign through¬ 
 out ; that is, muH fuilain the chief part through the whole 
 piece, and the characters of all the other perfons muH be 
 l'u bord in ate to him. 
 
 Person, in grammar, a term applied to fucli nouns 
 or pronouns, as being either prefixed or underdood, are 
 the nominatives in all inflections of a verb; or it is the 
 agent or patient in all finite and perfonal verbs. 
 
 PERSONABLE, in law, fignifies the being able to 
 maintain a plea in court; cfpecially in the cafe of an alien, 
 who may be made perfonable by aCt of parliament. 
 
 It is alfo ufed to lignify a capacity to receive any thing 
 granted or given. 
 
 PERSONAL, any thing that concerns, or is redrain- 
 cd to, the perfon : thus it is a maxim in ethicks, that all 
 faults are perfonal. 
 
 Personal Action , in law, is an' aCtion levied direCtly 
 and folely againd the perfon, in oppolition to a real or 
 mixed aCtion. 
 
 Person al Goods, or Chattels, in law, fignifies any 
 moveable thing belonging to a perfon, whether alive or 
 dead. 
 
 Personal Tythrs, are tythes payable out of the profits 
 obtained by a man’s perfonal labour and induitry, as in 
 buying, felling, handicraft, Ac. 
 
 Personal /iri, in grammar, a verb conjugated in 
 all the three perfons; thus called, in oppolition to an 
 imperfonal verb, or that which has the third perfon only. 
 See Impersonal Verb. 
 
 PERSONALITY, in the fchools, that which condi- 
 tutes an individuals didinCt perfon. 
 
 PERSONATED Flowers, among botanids, are 
 thole which refemble the gaping mouths of certain living 
 animals : they belong to the angiofperma order of the 
 didynamia clafs, in botany : fucli are the lnap-dragon, 
 eye-bright, cow-wheat, rhinanthus, See. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE, that branch of opticks, whicli 
 teaches how to reprefent obje.Cts on a plane fuperficies, 
 fuch as they would appear at a certain diltance and height, 
 upon a tranfparent plane perpendicular to the horizon, 
 placed between the objeCts and the eye. 
 
 The following rules are of general ufe in the praCtice 
 of perfpeCtive ; 1. Let every line, which in the objeft, 
 or geometrical figure, is draight, perpendicular, or pa¬ 
 rallel to its bale, be lo alfo 111 its Icenograplnck delinea¬ 
 tion. 2. Let the lines, which in the object return at 
 
 right 
 
PER 
 
 right angles from the fore-right fide, be drawn fceno- 
 graphically from the vifual point. 3. Let all ftraight 
 lines, which in the objeft return from the fore-right 
 fide, run in a fcenographick figure into the horizontal 
 line. 4. Let the object you intend to delineate, {land¬ 
 ing on your right hand, be placed alfo on the right hand 
 of the vifual point; and that on the left hand, on the 
 left hand of the fame point; and that which is juft before, 
 in the middle of it. 5. Let thefe lines which are (in 
 the objeftj equidiftant to the returning line, be drawn 
 in the fcenographick figure, from that point found in the 
 horizon. 6. In letting off the altitude of columns, pe- 
 deftals, and the like, meafure the height from the bafe line 
 upward, in the front, or fore-right fide ; and a vifual r.av 
 down that point in the front {hall limit the altitude of the 
 column or pillar, all the way behind the fore-right fide, 
 or orthographick appearance, even to the vifual point 
 This rule you muft obferve in all figures, as well where 
 there is a front or fore-right fide, as where there is none. 
 7. In delineating ovals, circles, arches, croffes, fpirals, 
 and crofs-arches, or any other figure in the roof of any 
 room, firfl draw ichnographically, and fo with perpen¬ 
 diculars from the moil eminent points thereof, carry it 
 up into the deling ; from which feveral points, carry 
 on the figure. 8. The centre in any fcenographick 
 regular figure is found by drawing crofs lines from oppo- 
 fite angles: for the point where the diagonals crofs, is 
 the centre. 9. A ground-plane of fquarcs is alike, both 
 above and below the horizontal line ; only the more it is 
 diftant above or below the horizon, the fquares will be 
 fo much the larger or wider. 10. In drawing a per- 
 fpedtive figure, where many lines come together, you 
 may, for the direfling of your eye, draw the diagonals in 
 red, the vifual lines in black; the perpendiculars in 
 green, or other different colour, fiom that which you 
 intend the figure lhall be of. 11. Having confidered the 
 height, diftance, and pofition of the figure, and drawn 
 it accordingly, with fide or angle againft the bafe; 
 raife perpendiculars from the feveral angles, or defigned 
 points, from the figure to the bafe, and transfer the 
 length of each perpendicular, from the place where it 
 touches the bafe, to the bafe on the fide oppofite to the 
 point of diftance ; fo will the diametrals drawn to the 
 perpendiculars in the bafe, by interfeflion with the dia¬ 
 gonals, drawn to the feveral transferred diftances, give 
 the angles of the figures, and fo lines drawn from point 
 to point will circumferibe the fcenographick figure. 
 12. If in a landfkip there be any {landing waters, as 
 rivers, ponds, and the like, place the horizontal line 
 level with the fartheft fight or appearance of it. 13. If 
 there be any lioufe, or the like, in thepifture, coniidcr 
 their pofition, that you may find from what point in the 
 horizontal lines to draw the front and fides thereof. 
 14. In defcribing things at great diftance, obferve the 
 proportion, both in magnitude and diftance, in draught, 
 which appears from the objedt to the eye. 15. In co¬ 
 louring and fhadowing of every thing, you muft do the 
 fame in your pidlure, which you obferve with your eye, 
 efpecially in objedts lying near ; but, according as the 
 diftance grows greater and greater, fo the colours muft 
 be fainter and fainter, till at lall they lofe themfelves in 
 a darkifh Iky-colour. 16. The catoptricks are beft feen 
 in a common looking-glafs, or other poliflied matter; 
 where, if the glafs be exadlly flat, the objedt is exadllv 
 like its original; but, if the glafs be not flat, the refem- 
 blance alters from the original ; and that more or lefs, 
 according as the glafs differs from an exadl plane. 17. 
 In drawing catoptrick figures, the furface of the glafs 
 is to be confidered, upon which you mean to have the 
 refledlion : for which you muft make a particular ich- 
 nographical draught, or projedlion ; which on the glafs 
 muft appear to be a plane full of fquares, on which pro¬ 
 jedlion transfer what fhall be drawn on a plane, divided 
 into the fame number of like fquares; which though the 
 draught may appear very confufed, yet the refledlion of 
 it on the glafs will be regular, proportional, and regu¬ 
 larly compofeL 18. The dioptrick, or broken beam, 
 may be feen in a tube through a cryftal or glafs, which 
 hath its furface cut into many others, whereby the rays 
 of the objedt are broken. For to the flat of the cryftal, 
 or water, the rays run ftraight ; but then they break 
 and make an angle, which alfo by the refradted beams 
 is made and continued on the other fide of the fame flat. 
 
 3 
 
 PEI' 
 
 19. Wlien thefe faces on a cryftal are returned towards 
 a plane placed diredtly before it, they feparate thcmlelvcs 
 at a good diftance on the plane, becaufe they are all di- 
 redted to various far diftant places of the fame. 
 
 Perspective alfo denotes a kind of painting fre¬ 
 quently feen in gardens, at the etid of galleries, he. ex- 
 prcllly defigned to deceive the fight. 
 
 Perspect iy E-G/afs, irropticks, differs from a tele- 
 (cope in this : in (lead of the convex'eve-glafs placed be¬ 
 hind the image, to make the rays of each pencil go 
 parallel to the eye, there is placed a concave eye-glafs as 
 much before it; which opens the converging rays, and - 
 makes them emerge parallel tp the eye. The quantity 
 of objedts taken in at one view with this inftrument, 
 does not depend upon the breadth of the eye-gJafs, as inr 
 the aftronomical tclclcopc, but upon the breadth of the 
 pupil of the eye. 
 
 Perspective Plane , is the glafs, or other tranfparcnt 
 lurface fuppofed to be placed between the eye and the 
 objedt, perpendicularly to the horizon. It is fometimes 
 called the fcdlion, table, or glafs. 
 
 PERSPIRA 7 ION, in medicine, the evacuation of 
 the juices of the body through the pores of the {kin. 
 Peripiration is diftrnguifhed into fenfible and infcnfible : 
 and here fenfible perfpiration is the lame with fvveating ; 
 and infeniible perfpiration, that which efcapes the notice 
 of the fenfe's ; and thi 3 lalt is the idea affixed to the word 
 perfpiration when ufed alone. 
 
 PESADE, or Pesate, in the menage, is a horfe’s 
 railing his tore-quarters, and bending his feet up to his 
 body without ftirring his hind-feet. 
 
 PESSARY, Pejus, Talus, in phyfick, a medicine in¬ 
 troduced into the pudendum mliliebre, of the length of 
 the fore-finger. It was prepared by the ancients of woo!, 
 lint, or linen, mixed with powders, oils, wax, he. and 
 it was diftinguifhed into three kinds, emollient, aftrin- 
 gent, and fucli as open the orifices of the veins. Thefe 
 were ufed in the cure of uterine diforders. The moderns 
 have too much negledted the ufe of peflaries of this 
 kind, but employ peflaries of various figures and mate¬ 
 rials : they are principally ferviceable in a prolapfus uteri, 
 and incontinence of urine in females. 
 
 PESTILENCE, in medicine, an epidemical, malig¬ 
 nant, and contagious difeafe, ulually mortal. See the 
 article Plague. 
 
 PES T-House, a lazaretto, or infirmary, where 
 goods, particularly perfons, he. infc£led, or fuppofed to 
 be infedled with fome contagious difeafe, are put and 
 provided for. 
 
 PESTILENTIAL Fevers, in phyfick, arc fuch 
 fevers as do not only afflidt the patient with a vehement 
 heat, but alfo with fome malignant quality. 
 
 PETALA, in botany, are the flower-leaves of plants, 
 to diftinguilh them from the leaves of the plants. The 
 petala, which encompals the fiamina and piftil, are no 
 other than covers to fecure and fereen the generative parts, 
 unlefs, as Air. Bradley conjedlures, they may alfo ferve 
 to fecrete fome fine juice for the nourilhment of the feed. 
 
 PEI AL 1 SM, Petalifmus, in antiquity, a kind of ba- 
 nifliment for five years, ufed at Syracufe, by the people’s 
 writing the name of the perfon condemned upon a leaf, 
 as the Oftracifin at Athens was for 10 years. 
 
 PE 1 ALODES ; the urine is fo denominated, when 
 it is fcalv, or refembles leaves. 
 
 Pet a lodes, in botany, denotes fuch plants as are 
 turnifiled with flower-leaves, or petals; whereas thole 
 which have none are called apetalous. 
 
 PE 1 ARD, m war, a kind of metal engine, fome- 
 what like a high-crowned hat, narrow at the breech and 
 wide at the muzzle, made of copper mixed with a little 
 brals, or of lead with tin, ufually about feven inches long, 
 and five broad at the mouth, weighing from 40 to 50 
 pounds. Its charge is from five to fix pounds of powder, 
 which reaches to within three fingers of the mouth ; the 
 vacancy is filled with tow, and flopped with a wooden 
 tampion, the mouth being ftrongly bound up with cloth 
 tied very tight with ropes. It is covered up with a ma- 
 drier, or wooden plank, that has a cavity to receive the 
 mouth of the petard, and faftened down with ropes. Its’ 
 ufe is in aclandeftine attack to breakdown gates, bridges, 
 barriers, he. to which it is hung ; and this it does by 
 means of the wooden plank. It is alfo ufed in counter¬ 
 mines to break through the enemy’s galleries, and give 
 
 their 
 
PET 
 
 their mines vent. The invention of petards is afcribed 
 to the French Huguenots in 1579, who with them took 
 Cahors, as D’Aubigne tells us. 
 
 PETECHIE, in phylick, are red or purple erup¬ 
 tions, like the bites of gnats, or fleas, that frequently 
 appear in fevers and the fmall-pox, and are always of 
 very bad prefage. Sydenham juftly apprehends, that 
 they are very often excited and exafperated by too warm 
 medicines, and an overheating regimen. 
 
 PE 1 ECHIAL Fever, Fcbns petechialis, Febris len¬ 
 ticularis, Febris pellicaris, in phylick, a highly malignant 
 and contagious fever, accompanied with lpots of various 
 colours appearing on the Jkin. 
 
 Among all the prefervatives againft petechial fevers, 
 there is none more effettual than the moderate ufc of 
 good wine, efpecially of the Rhenilh kind. In the be¬ 
 ginning of petechial fevers no medicines are more bene¬ 
 ficial than acids, efpecially citron juice put into ptifans, 
 as alfo wine vinegar, either Ample or diftilled : belides, 
 fuch medicines are alfo proper, as, without impairing 
 the flrength, colliquate the faliva, and free the breaft 
 from infections. In the decline of a petechial fever, no 
 excretion is more falutary than that made by ftool com¬ 
 ing on at a proper time. 
 
 PETER, or Epijlles of St, Peter, two canonical 
 books of the New Teflamcnt, written by the apoftlc 
 St. Peter, and addrefled to tjiofe Jewifh converts who 
 were fcattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, &c. not 
 only upon the perfecution railed at Jerufalem, but upon 
 former dilperfions of the Jews into thofe places. The 
 firfl: of thefe epiftles is principally defigned to comfort 
 and confirm them under thofe fiery trials they were then 
 fubjeCt to; and to direCt them how to behave in the 
 feveral ftates and relations, both of the civil and the 
 Chriftian fife. In the fecond epiftle, the apoftle profe- 
 cutes the fame fubjeCt, to prevent their apoflacy from 
 the faith, and guard them againft the corrupt principles 
 of the Gnofticks, and thofe who lcoffed at the promile of 
 Chrift’s coming. 
 
 Si. Peter’i Day, afeftival of thp Chriftian church, 
 obferved on the twenty-ninth of June. 
 
 Peter-P cnce, an ancient tax of a penny on each 
 houle, paid to the pope. 
 
 PETIOLE, Petiolum , in botany, the {lender ftalk 
 that l'upports the leaves of a plant. 
 
 Some alfo ufe the word petiole for the middle rib of a 
 leaf; the branches of which are called rami, and the 
 fubdivillons of thefe furculi. 
 
 PETITIOPrinci pj 1, in logick, the taking a thing 
 for true, and drawing conclufions from it as fuch; when 
 it is really falfe, or at leaft wants to be proved, before 
 any inferences can be deduced from it. 
 
 PETITION, Petitio, a {Application in form, made 
 by an inferior to his fuperior. 
 
 PETRARIA, in antiquity, denotes an engine of war 
 for calling ftones upon the enemy, efpecially in lieges. 
 
 PETREA, in botany, a plant which arifes with a 
 woody ftalk to the height of 15 or 16 feet. This plant 
 may be reckoned among the flrft clafs of beautiful Ame¬ 
 rican trees; it grows naturally in the Spanilh W. Indies, 
 and is propagated from feeds which with us mull be ob¬ 
 tained from the places where the trees grow naturally, 
 and fhould be fown on a hot-bed. When the plants are 
 up, they fhould be placed ftngly in final} pots, in good, 
 light, loamy earth, and plunged into the bark bed in the 
 hot-houfe, where they Ihould always remain. 
 
 PETRIFACTION, or Petrification, in phy- 
 fiology, theaCt ofconvertingfluids, woods, &c. intoftone. 
 
 T he faculty of petrifying wood is afcribed to feveral 
 fprings, lakes, &c. Put, in effeCt, there does not feem 
 to be any real tranfmutation of the woody nature into the 
 nature of ftone ; all that is done is this, the ftony par¬ 
 ticles which before floated in the liquor, are now lodged 
 and depofited in the pores of thefe fubftances, in fuch 
 manner, and in fuch plenty, as to leave little elfe but 
 the appearance of a ftone. 
 
 Petrifactions of waters and juices of the earth are in- 
 conteftable. Qf fuch petrifying caves we have feveral in 
 England. 
 
 PEI ROL, Petroleum , or Petra oleum, in natural 
 hiftory, the oil of petre, or rock oil, an oleaginous juice, 
 fuppoled to iffue out of the clefts of rocks, and found 
 floating on the water of certain fprings, I 
 
 Vol JI. No. 56. 
 
 P H A 
 
 This is the moft frequent of all the liquid bitumens: 
 It is an extremely fubtile and penetrating fluid : it is very 
 light and very pellucid, though fometimes flightly tinged ; 
 it is of a pungent acrid tafte, and a ftrong penetrating 
 .ell, very much like that of diftilled oil of amber. It 
 is very inflammable, taking fire at the approach of a 
 candle, and burning almoft wholly away. 
 
 It is found in many parts of the world, but no where 
 fo plentifully as in Italy, where they fink wells for it, 
 and, at 30 or 40 feet depth, they find it rife in vaft abun-t 
 dance with the water. It is alfo found trickling of itfelf 
 down the fides of hills along with the little ftreams of 
 water. It is alfo frequent in many parts of Germany and 
 in France, where they have enough of it to make a traf¬ 
 fic with : we are not without it in England, but we do 
 not make ufe of it. 
 
 It is principally ufefl externally in paralytick cafes, and 
 in pains of the limbs. The French give it internally in 
 hyfterick complaints, and their children againft worms. 
 
 PE I ROSUM Os, in anatomy, the hard part of the 
 temporal bone. 
 
 PETTEIA, a Greek term in the ancient mufick, to 
 which we have no corrcfponding one in ours. The me- 
 lopoeia is divided into three parts, which the Greek call' 
 lepfis, mixis, and chrefis; and the Latins, fumptio, 
 mixtio, and ulus; and the Italians, prefo, mefo cola- 
 mento, and ufo ; the laft is alfo called, by the Greeks, 
 zjETrua, and, by the Italians, pettia, which is the art of 
 making a juft difeernment of all the manners of com¬ 
 bining founds, fo as to produce the defired effeCt; it is 
 the fame in mufick as manners are in poetry. 
 
 PEI 1Y Bag, an office in Chancery, the three 
 clerks whereof record the return of all inquifitions out of 
 every fhire, make out all patents of cuftoms, gaugers 
 comptrollers, &c. 
 
 Petty or Petit Larceny, in law, the Healing of 
 things under the value of twelve-pence. 
 
 Anciently it was puniflied either with the lofs of an 
 ear, or cudgelling; after Edward III. it was for a long 
 time whipping, but is now working on board the ballaft- 
 lighters. 
 
 Petty or Petit Treafon, inlaw, the crime of a 
 Servant’s killing his mafter, a wife’s killing her hufband, 
 a child’s killing his parent, or a clergyman’s killing his 
 prelate, to whom he owes obedience. 
 
 1 he punifhment for it is, that the criminal fhall be 
 drawn on a fledge, or hurdle, to the gallows, and there 
 hanged. The punifhment of petit treafon, in a woman, 
 is the fame with that of high treafon, viz. hanging, 
 drawing, and burning alive ; the latter part is now gene¬ 
 rally difufed. 
 
 PEVETS, in a watch, the ends of the fpindle of a 
 wheel; the holes into which they rqn are called pevet- 
 holes. 
 
 PEWTER, a factitious metal qfed in domeftick 
 utenfils, being a mixture of fix pounds of brafs and 15 
 pounds of lead to a 100 wt. of tin. 
 
 Pewter has occafionally ferved for money, particu¬ 
 larly in Ireland, where the late James II. turned all the 
 pewter veffels, &c. of the proteftants, he could feizc, 
 into crowns, half-crowns, and fhillings, which he or¬ 
 dered to be current in all payments. 
 
 PHENOMENON, in phyficks, an extraordinary 
 appearance in the heavens or earth, cither by obfervation 
 of the peleftial bodies, or by phyfical experiments, whofe 
 caufe is not obvious. Such are meteors, comets, earth¬ 
 quakes, effedts of the magnet, &c. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton fhews, that all the phenomena of 
 the heavenly bodies follow from the attraction of gravity, 
 and almoft every phsenomenon of the lefs bodies from 
 the attraction and repulfion between their particles. 
 
 PHAGEDENA, in chirurgery, fignifies, in general, 
 all kinds of ulcers which corrode the found parts adjacent 
 thereto, and grow worfe, as they fpread : fometimes it only 
 means a particular fort of ulcer, as a herpes, noma, &c. 
 in which fenfe it is a tumid deep ulcer, that corrodes the 
 fubjacent flefh, and the parts around it. 
 
 1 HAGEDENICK. Medicines, in phyfick, are 
 fuch as are ufed to eat off fungous or proud flefh. 
 
 1 iiagedalnick IVater , in chymiftry, denotes a water 
 drawn from quick-lime, fo called from its efficacy in 
 curing phagedamick ulcers. 
 
 To tw'o pounds of quick-lime, in an earthen pan, are 
 
 D 44 nuf 
 
P H I 
 
 pnt 10 pounds cf rain water, which after two days {land¬ 
 ing, and frequent ftirring, the water is at laft, when well 
 fettled, poured off by inclination, filtered, and put into 
 a glafs bottle, with an ounce of corrofive fublimate in 
 powder. Then it is fit for ufe, in cleanling wounds and 
 ulcers, and to eat off fuperfluous flefh, particularly gan¬ 
 grenes, in which cafe a third or fourth part of l'pirit of 
 \vii>e may be added. 
 
 PHALANX, in Grecian antiquity, a fquare bat¬ 
 talion, confining of 8000 men, with their fhields joined, 
 and pikes crofting each other ; fo that it was next to im- 
 poffible to break it. 
 
 PHALARIS. in botany, a genus of plants whofe 
 flower-cup confifls of an uniflorous, bivalvular, mem¬ 
 branaceous glume ; the corolla is alfo a bivalvular glume, 
 fcarce the length of the cup ; the flamina are three capil¬ 
 lary filaments, topped with ovate anthera 1 ; it hath one 
 roundifh comprefted feed, convex on one fide, and con¬ 
 tained in the corolla. 
 
 PHALEUCIAN Ver se, in ancient poetry, a kind 
 of verfe which confifls of five feet, the firft of which 
 is a fpondee, the fecond a da£tyl, and the three laft tro¬ 
 chees. _ 
 
 PHALLUS, in botany, a genus of cryptogamious 
 plants, of the fungus kind ; they are fmooth underneath, 
 but above are reticulated and callous. 
 
 PHANSY, Fancy, the fame with imagination, 
 which fee. 
 
 PHARISEES, a famous fe£t of the Jews, who dif- 
 tinguifhed themfelves by their zeal for the traditions of 
 flic elders, which they derived from the fame fountain 
 with the written word itlelf; pretending that both were 
 delivered to Moles from Mount Sinai, and were there¬ 
 fore of equal authority. From their rigorous obfervance 
 of thefe traditions, they looked upon themfelves as more 
 holy than other men, and therefore feparated themfelves 
 from thofe whom they thought finners or prophane, fo 
 as not to eat or drink with them ; and hence, from the 
 Hebrew word pbaris, which lignifics to feparate, they had 
 the name of pharifees, or feparatifts. 
 
 PHARMACY, the art or fcience which teaches the 
 ele&ion, preparation, and mixture of medicines; con- 
 flituting one part of the therapeutick branch of medicine, 
 the obje&s of which are all natural bodies. 
 
 PHAROS, Phare , a light-houfe, or pile raifed near 
 a port, where a fire is kept burning in the night to diredt 
 veflels near at hand. 
 
 The Pharos of Alexandria, built at the mouth of the 
 Nile, was anciently very famous, whence the name was 
 derived to all the reft. 
 
 Ozanam lays, Pharos ancientry denoted a ftreight, as 
 the Pharos or Pharo of Meffina. 
 
 PHARYNX, in anatomy, the upper opening of the 
 cefophagus, fiiuated at the bottom of the mouth, called 
 alfo fauces. See CE sophacus. 
 
 PHASES, in aftronomy, the feveral manners wherein 
 the moon, and the other planets, appear illuminated by 
 the fun. 
 
 To determine the Ph as is of an ectipfe for any given time. 
 Find the moon’s place in her vifible way for that mo¬ 
 ment, and thence, as a centre, with the interval of the 
 moon’s femi-diameter, deferibe a circle : find, in like 
 manner, the fun’s place in the ecliptick, and thence, with 
 the femi-diameter of the fun, deferibe another circle ; 
 the intcrfe&ion of the two circles Ihews the phafes of the 
 eclipfe, the quantity of obi'euration, and the pofition of 
 the cufps or horns. 
 
 PHASMATA, in phyfiology, certain appearances 
 arifing from the various timftures of the clouds by the 
 rays of the heavenly luminaries, efpecially the fun and 
 moon. Thefe are infinitely diverfified by the different 
 figures and pofitions of the clouds, and the appulles of 
 the rays of light, together with the occafional flaihings of 
 different meteors, have occafioned thofe prodigies of 
 armies fighting in the air, &c. of which we have l'ucli 
 frequent accounts in molt writers. 
 
 PHEON S, in heraldry, the barbed heads of darts, &:c. 
 Sable, a fefte ermin between three plieons, by the name 
 of Egerton. 
 
 PHIDIT 1 A, Philitia, in antiquity, feafts celebrated 
 with great frugality at Laccdsevnon ; they were held in 
 the publick places, and in the open air, rich and poor 
 aflifting alike at them, thsir defign being to keep up peace 
 
 P H I 
 
 and a good underHanding among all the citizens. They 
 were much the fame with the chariftia at Rome. 
 
 PH 1 LADELPHUS, in antiquity, a title borne by 
 feveral kings. The moft famous of this name was 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, who ere£led a library at Alex¬ 
 andria, and furnifhed it with 400,000, others fay 700,000 
 volumes, by the advice of Demetrius Phalereus : the fame 
 Philadelphus, all'o, procured die verfion of the biblc, 
 called the Scptuagint. 
 
 PHILANTHROPY, Philanthropia , love of mankind, 
 a general benevolence toward the fpccies. 
 
 PHILIPPICKS, Philippices, in literature, the orations 
 of Demofthenes againft Philip of Maccdan. 
 
 The Philippicks are efteemed the mafter-picces of that 
 great orator. Longinus quotes abundance of inftanccs 
 of the fublime from them, and points out a thouland 
 latent beauties therein. Demofthcnes’s chief talent, ac¬ 
 cording to him, was that of moving and aftonilh’rng. 
 
 Philippic ic, is alfo applied to the 14 orations of 
 Cicero againft Marc Antony. They had this appella¬ 
 tion given them hv Cicero himfelf in his epitUes to- 
 Brutus. Juvenal calls the fecond confpicuce divina phi- 
 lippica famae. 
 
 Thefe, his laft and moft valued orations, coftCiceio 
 his life, Marc Antony having been fo irritated with 
 them, that when he was arrived at the triumvirate, lie 
 procuied Cicero’s murder, cut .oft'his head, and ftuck 
 it up in the very place whence the orator had delivered 
 the philippicks. 
 
 PH 1 LLY REA, an evergreen Ihrub, and propagated 
 from feeds or layers, in autumn. The leaves and bark 
 of this fhrub are laid to be aftringent, and good in ulcers 
 of the mouth ; but they are little regarded in the prefent 
 practice. 
 
 PHILOLOGY, an aflemblage of feveral fciences, 
 confifting of grammar, rhetorick, poetry, antiquities, hif- 
 tory, and criticifm. It is a kind of univerlal literature 
 converlant about all the fciences, their rife, progrels, au¬ 
 thors, 6cc. being what the French call the belles lettres. 
 It is called in the univerfities humanities or literte huma- 
 niores. 
 
 Eratofthcnes, library-keeper at Alexandria, under Pto¬ 
 lemy Philadelphus, was the firft, according to Suetonius, 
 that was called philologus, or critick, according to Cle¬ 
 mens Alexandrinus. 
 
 PH 1 LOMATHES, a lover of learning or fcience. 
 
 PHILONIUM, in pharmacy, a kind of fomnife- 
 rous anodyne opiate, taking its name from Philo the in¬ 
 ventor. 
 
 PHILOSOPHER, a perfon well verfed in philofo- 
 phy, or who applies himfelf to the ftudy of nature and 
 morality. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICK, or Philosophical, fome- 
 thing that relates to philofophy. 
 
 Philosophick. Ch ymistry, is defined by Shaw, 
 an art of dividing or refolving all the bodies in our 
 power, by means of all the inftruments that can he pro¬ 
 cured, and that as well into integrant as into conftituent 
 parts, and joining thefe parts together again, fo as to 
 difeover the principles, relations, and changes.of bodies, 
 make various mixtures and compofitions, find out tha 
 phyfical caufes of phvfical effects ; and hence improve 
 the ftate of natural knowledge, and the arts depending 
 on it. See Chvmistry. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL Egg, among chymifts, a thin 
 glafs-body, or bubble, of the fhape of an egg, with a 
 long neck or ftem, ufed in digeftions. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, the knowledge or ftudy of nature 
 and morality, founded on rcafon and experience. 
 
 So wild and extravagant have been the greater part of 
 philofophers, ancient and modern, that it is hard to de¬ 
 termine whether they have been more diftant in their 
 lentiments from truth, or from one another; owing 
 perhaps to their negle&ing the ufe of geometry and ex¬ 
 periments, the moft neceflary helps to the difeovering of 
 caufes, and proportioning them to their eifedls. 
 
 The manner of philofophizing among the ancients, 
 was to afcribe to bodies certain aibitrary properties, fuch 
 as beft anfvvered their purpofes in accounting for the 
 phenomena of nature ; whence proceeded fo many va¬ 
 rious fe£ls of philofophers ; every one of them aligning 
 a different caufe to the fame appearance. 
 
 The chief agreement between them confifted in then- 
 
 conceiving 
 
PHI 
 
 conceiving all bodies to be compofitiohs of air, earth, 
 fire, and water, or fome one or more of them, from 
 whence they acquired the name of principles or elements, 
 which they flill retain. Epicurus advanced a little fur¬ 
 ther, who aliened, that though bodies confuted of fome one 
 or more of thefe, yet that they were not ftri&ly ele¬ 
 ments, but that thefe themfelves confided of atoms ; by 
 an accidental concourfe of which (as they were moving 
 through infinite fpace in lines nearly parallel) all things 
 received their form and manner of exiftence. 
 
 Des Cartes has contrived an hypothefis very different 
 from the reft; he fets out with a fuppofition that the 
 univerfe was at firft entirely full of matter; that from 
 this matter, when firft put in motion, there would ne- 
 ceffarily be rubbed oft 7 (by the grinding of the l'everal 
 parts one againft another) fome particles fufficiently fine 
 to pafs through the hardeft and moft folid bodies, with¬ 
 out meeting with any refiftance ; of this confifts his ma¬ 
 teria fubtilis, or materia primi elementi. He imagined, 
 that from hence alfo would refult other particles of a 
 globular form, to which he gave the name of materia 
 f’ecundi elementi. Thole who did not fo far lofe their 
 firft figure, as to come under the denomination of ma¬ 
 teria primi or fecundi elementi, he called materia tertii 
 elementi ; and maintained that all the variety which ap¬ 
 pears in natural bodies, was owing to different combi¬ 
 nations of thofe elements. 
 
 He likewife fuppofes that God created a certain quan¬ 
 tity of motion, and affigned it this mals of matter, and 
 that that motion (being once created) could no more be 
 annihilated without an omnipotent hand, than body it- 
 felf; in confcquence of which he was obliged to teach, 
 that the quantity of motion is always the fame: fo that 
 if all the men and animals in the world were moving, 
 yet ft ill there would be no more than when they were at 
 reft, being transferred to the asther. So unaccountable 
 are the notions of this great philofopher, that it is fur- 
 prifing his doftrine fhould have met with fo univerfal re¬ 
 ception, and have got fo ftrong a party of philofophers 
 on its fide . that, notwithftanding it was more abfurd 
 than the lchoolmen’s fubftantial forms, they mull be all 
 exploded to make way for his hypothefis. 
 
 Des Cartes has been faid, by a late writer, to have 
 joined to his great genius an exquifite flcill in mathe- 
 maticks, and, by mixing geometry and phyficks together, 
 to have given the world hopes of great improvements in 
 the latter. But this writer ought to have confidered, 
 that what he looked upon in Des Cartes’s book of prin¬ 
 ciples, as demonftrations, are only illuftrations, there 
 not being a demonftration from geometry in all his phi¬ 
 losophical works. 
 
 The prefent method of philofophifing, eftablifhed by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, is to find out the laws of nature by 
 experiments and obfervations. To this, with a proper 
 application of geometry, is owing the great advantage 
 the prefent fyftem of philofophv has over all the pre¬ 
 ceding ones, and the vaft improvement it has received 
 within the laft age. It is, indeed, in vain to imagine, 
 that a fyftem of natural philofophy can be framed by any 
 other method, for, without obfervations, it is impoffible 
 we fhould difeover the phenomena of nature ; without 
 experiments, we muft be ignorant of the mutual a£tions 
 of bodies; and, without geometry, we can never be 
 certain whether the caufes we affign be adequate to the 
 effcdls we would explain, as the various fyftems of phi¬ 
 lofophy, built on other foundations, evidently fhew. 
 
 This way of fearching into nature was firft propofed 
 by my lord Bacon, and profecuted by the Royal Society, 
 the Royal Academy at Paris, the honourable Mr. Boyle, 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, &c. 
 
 What wonderful advancement in the knowledge of 
 nature may be made by this method of enquiry, when 
 conducted by a genius equal to the work, will be belt 
 underftood, by confidering the difeoveries of that excel¬ 
 lent philofopher laft; mentioned. To him it is princi¬ 
 pally owing, that we have now a rational lyftem of na¬ 
 tural philofophy ; it is he, who, by purfuing the fure 
 and unerring method of reafoning from experiments and 
 obfervations, joined with' the moft profound fkill in 
 geometry, has carried his enquiries to the moft minute 
 and invifible parts of matter, as well as to the largeft and 
 moft remote bodies in the univerfe, and has eftablifhed 
 a fyftem not fubjed to the uncertainty of a mere hypo- 
 
 P H L 
 
 thefis, bul wificli ftands Upon the fecure tafis of geome¬ 
 try itlclf. 
 
 Philofophy may be divided into theoretical arid prac¬ 
 tical. 
 
 Theoretical or fpeculative P ri i l o s o p t r y, is that em¬ 
 ployed in mere Contemplation, and which terminates 
 therein. This, again, is ufually fubdivided into three, 
 namely, pneumaticks, phyficks or foinaticks, and me- 
 taphyficks or ontologia. The firft confiders fpirits or 
 beings abftra&ed from all matter, the fecond confiders 
 material things, and the third extends to each indifferently. 
 
 Practical Philosophy, is that which lays down the 
 rules of a virtuous and happy life, and excites us to the 
 practice thereof; and this is properly ethicks alone : 
 yet moft authors divide it into two, anfiverable to the two 
 forts of human adions to be direded thereby, namely, 
 logick, which governs the operations of the underftand- 
 ing, and ethicks which regulate thofe of the will. 
 
 Philosophy alfo denotes the particular fyftem of 
 opinions broached by fome confiderable philofopher, and 
 efpoufed by Ins followers. It alfo denotes a certain 
 manner of philofophifing, as the corpufcular, &c. phi¬ 
 lofophy. And it is again confidered, with regard to the 
 age or place where it was taught, as the fcholaftick, new, 
 &c. philofophy. 
 
 PHILTER, Philtre , Philt rum, in pharmacy, &C. a 
 ftrainer. It alfo denotes a potion, which, it is pretended, 
 will excite love. 
 
 PHIMOSIS, in medicine, a difeafe of the penis, 
 wherein the prreputium is fo ftrongly conftringed upon 
 | the glands, that it cannot be drawn back. 
 
 Phimosis alfo denotes a difeafe of the eyes, wherein 
 the eye-lids are fo bound together by the mediation of 
 fome glutinous matter, as not to be opened. 
 
 PHLEBO 1 OMY, Phlebotomia, in medicine and fur- 
 gery, the art or operation of letting blood. 
 
 1 here is not a more excellent, inftantaneous, and 
 efficacious remedy for removing various difeafes both of 
 the acute and chronical kind, than venefeflion, prudently 
 and cautiouily ufed; for fome violent dBorders of the 
 moft dangerous nature arife from a redundance of blood, 
 from a fuppreffion of its critical evacuations from the 
 uterus in women, and a defeat or interruption of the 
 hemorrhoidal difeharge in men. A phlethora, by retard¬ 
 ing and flopping the free and equable circulation, lays a 
 foundation for impurities of the humours, ftagnations, 
 infections, obflruCtions, extravafations, and ruptures of 
 the veflels: for while the blood, by its too great quan¬ 
 tity, ftrongly refills the contrailile and elaftick force of 
 the heart, arteries, and other veflels, its progreffive mo¬ 
 tion through the whole body is not only retarded, fo that 
 it becomes thick, and fit for generating infarctions and 
 obftruitions, the fruitful fources of chronical diforders, 
 but alfo in delicate patients, and highly nervous parts, 
 by exciting fpafmodick flriitures, it induces an inequality 
 in the circulation of the humours, and violent and im¬ 
 petuous congeftions, to fome of the nobler parts, which 
 lay a foundation for terrible diforders in the head, breaft, 
 and prsecordia: thefe dangerous diforders are not only 
 prevented, but prefently relieved by venefeilion feafon- 
 ably and duly inftituted, efpecially in patients who abound 
 with blood, have large and full veflels, or who labour 
 under a fuppreffion of the menfes, or haemorrhoids. 
 When in the fpring, and about the equinox, the air, 
 on account of the nearnefs of the fun to our climate, 
 becoming thin and rare, produces a violent expanfion in 
 the blood, there is great danger of thofe difeafes which 
 arife from a phlethora, as Hippocrates jullly obferves ; 
 fo that, before thefe feafons come on, it is expedient to 
 leffen the redundance of the blood by venefeilion, and 
 by that means prevent the approaching diforders : nor is 
 it abfolutely neceffary we fhould always accurately ob- 
 ferve thefe equinoilial feafons; for when the quantity of 
 congefted blood requires a more fpeedy and expeditious 
 evacuation, or when about the end of February, and 
 beginning of March, the ferene and tepid ftate of the 
 atmolphere produces an expanfion and turgefcence of the 
 blood, which prove injurious to its progreffive motion, 
 we are not to wait for, but, without hefitation, to anti¬ 
 cipate the equinox. We have known fome, who, from 
 an ill-timed adherence to their ufual cuftorn, have de¬ 
 layed venefedlion till the equinox, whilft, in the mean 
 time, the phlethora increafing, they died of an apople&ick 
 
P H L 
 
 lit before that time : nor are we to liften to thofe who 
 affirm that venefedtion is only proper at certain periods 
 of the moon, or when certain conjunctions of the {tars 
 happen : but we are boldly, and without any fcruples, to 
 take blood from plethorick patients under all the phafes 
 of the moon, and every conjunction of the {tars, efpe- 
 cially, if the atmofphere is ferene and'calm : thofe alfo 
 who abound with blood, ought to ufe veneleCtion about 
 the autumnal equinox, left the blood fhould, by the 
 winter cold, be infpiffated, and become fordid, the ex¬ 
 cretions being difturbed by the inclemency and variation 
 of the weather ; by which means, a foundation is laid 
 for this dborder, which proceeds from an impurity and 
 ftagnation of the humours. Some who greatlv abound 
 in blood, ought to preferve themfelves from diforders, 
 by ufing venefeCtion thrice a year, that is, in the begin¬ 
 ning of March, and the ends of May and September. 
 
 As a redundance of blood indicates venefeCtion, a 
 penury of it and a defeCt of ftrength contra-indicate this 
 operation. A redundance of blood is lufficiently known 
 from the repletion of the veflels, the largenefs of the 
 pulfe, the luxurious diet, the quiet and calm method of 
 life, and the intermimon of any critical, natural, or 
 artificial evacuation ; for when all thele circumftances 
 concur, we may fafely and boldly ufe venefeCtion. On 
 the contrary, when the body is infirm and emaciated, 
 and the pulfe weak, in confequence of a want of blood 
 and ftrength, venefeCtion is ablolutely to be condemned, 
 unlels we intend to do an immediate mifehief to the 
 patient; for the ftrength of the pulfe depends on the large 
 and brifk impetus, with which the blood is conveyed, 
 from the left ventricle of the heart, into the large ante¬ 
 rior tube : now the ftrength of the heart, to form this 
 expulfion, depends on the free and fufficient motion of 
 the blood through the coronary veflels into the fubftancc 
 of the heart, as, alfo, on the influx of the nervous fluid 
 into the fibres of the heart; when, therefore, the pulfe 
 is weak, imall, and languid, from too fcanty an influx 
 of the nervous fluid, and a laudable blood, and too weak 
 an impulfe of the blood into the arteries, it is highly 
 prejudicial to open a vein in any patient, or in anv dif- 
 order, becaufe it more exhaufts the blood and ftrength, 
 which are already too much impaired. Phlebotomy, or 
 bleeding by the veins, is performed by making an incifion 
 in a vein with a fine lharp-pointed inftrument, or lancet, 
 by which as much blood is taken away, as may be proper 
 for reftoring or preferving the health of the patient. 
 
 This operation may not improperly be called vene¬ 
 feCtion, and is not only extremely beneficial, but of a 
 very ancient date, having been commended and praCtifed 
 about 3000 years, as wc learn from the writings of Hip¬ 
 pocrates, Celfus, and other ancient authors upon furgery. 
 Yet fome phyficians, both ancient and modern, fuch 
 as Erafiftatus, Paracelfus, Helmont, Portius Bentekoe, 
 Gehema, and others, have aflerted it to be a moft per¬ 
 nicious and unlawful operation, and have termed the 
 praCtifers of it no lefs than the deftroyers and butchers 
 of mankind. But experience fhews us, that all their 
 objections are trifling and unjuft; and that there is no 
 remedy in the whole art of medicine more ready or fer- 
 viceable, in curing or preventing the generality of difeafes, 
 than phlebotomy Some relate that phyficians took the 
 hint of this operation from the hippopotamus, or fea 
 horfe, who, at certain fcafons, ufed to open a vein with 
 a lharp-pointed reed 
 
 Bleeding, according to the vulgar opinion, is a very 
 eafy operation. In fome perfons, we own that the veins 
 are fo large and confpicuous, that they may be opened, 
 by novices, without danger or difficulty. But in others 
 they are fo fmall, or fo deeply feated, that they cannot 
 be difeovered by the moft expert furgeon without diffi¬ 
 culty, nor opened without danger. For the arteries, or 
 the nerves and tendons adjacent to the veins, are very 
 liable to be wounded by the lancet; a misfortune which 
 is generally attended with violent pains, convulfions, in¬ 
 flammations, profufe hemorrhages, aneurifms, gangrenes, 
 and, fometimes, a moft milerable death ; and, therefore, 
 this operation, as well as others, requires caution and 
 attention, fince the reputation of young furgeons, efpe- 
 cially, may fuffer as much bv a timorous introduction 
 of the lancet, fo that the blood follows not, as when, 
 by afFeCting to perform ealily and expeditioufly, a misfor¬ 
 tune ffiould enfue. 
 
 2 
 
 PRO 
 
 An expert phlcbotomift lhould have an aCtivc, gentle, 
 and fteady hand, a dear fight, and an intrepid mind ; 
 for without thefe qualifications, he will be fubjcCt either 
 to mifs the vein, or to occalion fome mifehief which may 
 be fatal to the patient. This is the reafon why the dex¬ 
 terity ol iurgeons in bleeding gradually declines as they 
 advance in years; for as age mcreafes, the eyes become 
 weak, and the hands unfteady. 
 
 PHLEGM, in chymiftry, an aqueous and infipid 
 fluid, fuppofed to be found in all natural bodies. See 
 Analysis. 
 
 Phlegm, or Pituita, in the animal oeconomy, is one 
 of the humours whereof the ancients fuppofed the mals 
 of blood to confilt. 
 
 PHLEGMAGOGUE, Pblrgmagogus, in medicine, 
 is applied to iuch catharticks as purge off phlegm. 
 
 PHLEGM A 1 1 CK, Phlegmaticus , a temperament 
 wherein phlegm is the prevailing humour. 
 
 PHLEGMON, in medicine, denotes, in the general, 
 all inflammations. 
 
 PHLEUM, in botany, a genus of plants, the corolla 
 of which confifts of two valves ; and the feed, which is 
 Angle, is included within the calyx and corolla. 
 
 PHLOMIS, Jerufalem fage, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower is monopetalous and labiated ; the 
 tube is oblong; the upper lip is ovate, comprcffed, forked, 
 and incumbent; the under is trifid ; the middle fegment 
 is large, bilobate, and obtufe: it hath four triquetrous 
 feeds placed in the bottom of the cup. 
 
 The leaves of this plant are accounted aftringent .and 
 vulnerary. 
 
 PHCENIX, in aftronomy, one of the conftellations 
 of the fouthern hcmifphere, unknown to the ancients, 
 and invifiblc in our northern parts : it is laid to coniift 
 of thirteen ftars. 
 
 Phoenix, in natural hiftory, the name of a famous 
 bird among the ancients, but generally looked upon by 
 the moderns as fabulous. 
 
 I he ancients fpcak of this bird as Angle, or the only 
 one of its kind : they deferibe it as of the fize of an 
 eagle ; its head finely crefted with a beautiful plumage, 
 its neck covered with feathers of a gold colour, and the 
 reft of its body purple, only the tail white, and the eyes 
 fparling like ftars; they hold, that it lives 5 or 600 
 years in the wildernefs ; that, when thus advanced in 
 age, it builds itfelf a pile of fvveet wood and aromatick 
 gums, and fires it with wafting of its wings, and thus 
 burns itfelf; and that from its alhes antes a worm, which 
 in time grows up to be a phoenix. 
 
 Phoenix, the great-palm, or date, in botany, a tree 
 which riles to a great height. 
 
 Thefe trees have male flowers on different plants from 
 thofe which produce the fruit; and there is a neceffity 
 for fome of the male trees to grow near the female ones, 
 to render them fruitful, or at leaft to impregnate the 
 ovary of the feed, without which, the {tones which are 
 taken out of the fruit will not grow. Moft of the old 
 authors who have mentioned this tree, affirm, that unlefs 
 the female, or fruit-bearing palm-trees, have the affift- 
 ance of the male, they are barren; therefore, in fuch 
 places where there are no male trees near the female, the 
 inhabitants cut off the bunches of male flowers, when 
 they are juft opened, and carry them to the female trees, 
 placing them on the branches near the female flowers to 
 impregnate them, which they all agree has the defired 
 effedt, rendering the trees fruitful which would other- 
 wile have been barren. 
 
 The flowers of both fexes come out in very lon« 
 bunches from the trunk, between the leaves, and are 
 covered with a fpatha, or fheath, which opens and withers ; 
 thofe of the male have fix fhort filaments, with narrow 
 four-cornered anthers, filled with farina; the female 
 flowers have no ftamina, but have a roundifh germen, 
 which afterwards becomes an oval berry, with a thick 
 pulp, inclofing a hard oblong ftone, with a deep furrow, 
 running longitudinally. 
 
 Thefe plants grow in great plenty in Africa, alfo in 
 Arabia, Syria, Perfia, and Greece. The dates, or fruit 
 of the palm, are diftinguilhed according to their decrees 
 of ripenefs ; thofe are heft which are large, full, fat, and 
 ot a yellowilh colour: they are fomewhat aftringent 
 until thoroughly ripe, and are then much of the lame 
 nature as tigs. 
 
 They 
 
PHR 
 
 They are laid to be good in hoarfenefs, infarctions of 
 the lungs, and Tandy obftruCtions of the reins and blad 
 der ; they ftrengthen the ftomach, flop loofenelfes, and 
 corroborate the inteftines : they are alfo good in difeafes 
 of the brealt; and the Hones are reckoned very diuretick, 
 and good in Itranguries. Outwardly, dates are ufed 
 fometimes in fuppurative cataplafms. 
 
 PHOLAS, a lhell-fifh of th e multivalve kind, con- 
 pofed of five pieces, three of .which are very final], fo 
 that they feem, to a fuperficial oblerver, to be made up 
 of only two Ihells. 
 
 PHOL 1 S, in natural hiftory, a name given to the 
 gypfoms of a bright appearance. 
 
 PHO NICKS, the doftrine or fcience of founds, other- 
 wife called acoufticks. See Sound. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS, in phyfiology, a denomination 
 given to all bodies which fhine and feem to burn, with¬ 
 out having any degree of heat. 
 
 Chymiftry, fays Dr. Shaw, hath fcarce afforded any 
 thing more furprifing than the common phofphorus. 
 To fee letters traced with this matter become luminous 
 in the dark, images and the bodies of men to blaze with 
 light, and abundance of the like experiments, performed 
 by means of phofphorus, muft awaken die curioiity of 
 thofe who have feen thefe experiments, and render them 
 defirous of being acquainted with the method of pre¬ 
 paring it. The preparation, even to this day, is kept 
 as a fecret in few hands, and the matter fold at a verv 
 high price. Whence we apprehend, it would be no un¬ 
 acceptable prefent to the world, to render this commo¬ 
 dity cheaper, and difeover its further ufes. 
 
 The fuccefsful method of preparing the phofphorus of 
 urine, is this: evaporate any quantity of frefh urine over 
 a gentle fire, to a black and almofl dry fubftance; then 
 with two pounds thereof, thoroughly mix twice its 
 weight of fine fand; put this mixture into a ftrong- 
 coated Hone long-neck; and having poured a quart or 
 two of clear water into a large receiver, join it to the 
 long-neck, and work it in a naked fire: let the heat be 
 fmall for the firft two hours; then increafe it gradually 
 to the utmoft violence; and continue this for three or 
 four hours fucceffively : at the expiration of which time, 
 there will pafs into the receiver a little phlegm and vola¬ 
 tile fait, much black and feetid oil, and, laftly, the 
 matter of phofphorus, in form of white clouds, which 
 either flick to the Tides of the receiver, like a fine yellow 
 ikin, or fall to the bottom in form of fmall fand. Now 
 let the fire go out, but let the receiver continue till all 
 be cold, left the phofphorus take fire on admiftion of 
 the air. 
 
 To reduce thefe fmall grains into one piece, put them 
 into a little tin ingot-mould, with water ; heat the ingot 
 to make the grains melt together; then add cold water, 
 till the matter is congealed into one folid llick, like bees¬ 
 wax ; which being cut into fmall pieces fit to enter the 
 mouth of a vial, may bepreferved by water, and keeping 
 the glafs clofe flopped. If the glafs were not to be flopped, 
 the phofphorus would turn black on its furface, and at 
 length be fpoiled. 
 
 PHOT 1 NJANS, a fe£l of Chriftians in the fourth 
 century, fo called from Photinus, their chief, who was 
 bifhop of Sirmich, in Hungary, and maintained that 
 Jefus Chrift was true man, but not true God, nor born 
 before all ages ; and that he only began to be Chrift when 
 the Holy Ghoft defeended upon him in the river Jordan. 
 Thefe dodlrines were condemned in feveral aflemblics, 
 and particularly by the Arians, in a fynod held at Sir¬ 
 mich in the year 351. 
 
 PHRASE, in grammar, a manner of fpeech peculi¬ 
 arly adapted to certain occafions, arts, languages, See. 
 
 Sometimes the word phrale is ufed for a fliort fentence. 
 See Sentence. 
 
 PHRASEOLOGY, in matters of literature, a col- 
 Icdlion of the phrafes, and elegant expreffions, in any 
 language. 
 
 PHRENES, in anatomy, the name by which Hip¬ 
 pocrates, and the ancient phyficians, called thediaphragm, 
 as fuppofmg it to be the feat of the rational foul. 
 
 PHRENETICK V E s sels, in anatomy, the nerves, 
 arteries, and veins which are fpread over the diaphragm. 
 The phrenctick nerves arife from the cervical ones ; the 
 phrenetick arteries arife out of the defeending aorta, and 
 are diftributed through the diaphragm and pericardium ; I 
 Vol. II. No. 56. I 
 
 P H Y 
 
 and tile two phrenetick veinsdifeharge theircontents into 
 the vena cava. 
 
 PHRENSY, 111 medicine, an inflammation of the 
 membranes of the brain, attended with an acute fever 
 and delirium. 
 
 This diieafe requires the fpeedieft applications of all 
 others ; protufe hemorrhages of the nole often relolve it 
 and copious bleeding in the temporal arteries, is the moil 
 efficacious remedy. _ The diet (llould be water-gruel, aci¬ 
 dulated 1 and the drink barley-water, fmall beer, o'r the 
 decoftion of tamarinds. 
 
 PHTHIRIASIS, in medicine, the pedicularis morbus 
 or oufy difeafe, is moll incident to children, though 
 adults are not wholly exempt from it. 
 
 Cleannefs and wholefome food are bell for preventing 
 this diforder, which may be cured by walking the body 
 with a lixivium of wormwood, llaves-acre, leffer cen¬ 
 taury, and oak-alhes; adding fome common fait. All 
 the bitters, four and fait things, are here recommended • 
 as is alfo mercury, which infallibly deftroys thefe vermin 
 but it ought to be ufed with great caution, even by adults’ 
 31 p/r?-u d nCVer be Ufed in a PP licat ions to children. 
 
 1 HTH 1 SIS, a fpecies of confumption arifing from 
 an ulcer of the lungs. See Consumption. 
 
 PHYGE 1 HLON, in medicine, is, according to 
 Uelius, a broad but not much elevated tumour, in which 
 there is fome refemblance of a puftule; it is attended 
 with violent pain and diftcnfion, and fometimes there is 
 a fmall fever. 
 
 PHYLACTERY, among the Jews, was a flip of 
 parchment, whereon was wrote fome text of feripture 
 particularly of the decalogue, which the more devout 
 wore on the forehead, breaft, or neck. 
 
 Phylactery, among the ancients, was in general 
 a kind of charm or fpell which they wore about them as 
 amulets to preferve them from dangers or difeafes. 
 
 PHYMA, in medicine, comprizes all kinds of pre¬ 
 ternatural tumours in the. body, efpecially fuch as affeft 
 the external parts, and increafe and maturate in a fhort 
 time. 
 
 1 H\ SICK, the art of healing, properly called medi¬ 
 cine. See Medicine. 
 
 PHYSICAL, fomething belonging to nature. 
 
 PHYSICIAN, one who profeffes the art of healing. 
 
 The ancients diftinguilhed theirphylicians into various 
 clalies, as rational, methodical, dogmatical, empirical, 
 galenical, fpagyrical, or chymical phyficians. Sec 
 
 PHVCTUV'C D/ r r. ,• . 1 ' . . 
 
 PHY SICKS, Phyfica , Phyfiology , natural Philofophy. the 
 doctrine of natural bodies, their phaenomena," caufes 
 and effects, with the various affedtions, operations, Sec. 
 thereof. The origin of phyficks is referred by the Greeks 
 to the Brachmans, Magi, and the Hebrew and Egyptian 
 priefts ; from thefe it was derived to the Greek Yages 
 particularly Thales; hence it defeended into the Pytha- 
 gorick, Platonick, and Peripatetick fchools ; whence it 
 was propagated into Italy, and thence through the reft 
 of Europe. 
 
 Phyficks may be divided, with regard to the manner 
 wherein it has been handled, and the perfons by whom. 
 
 Symbolical Physicks, that couched in iymbols, arith¬ 
 metical and geometrical charafters, and hieroglyphicks. 
 
 Pcripatitical Physicks, that ofthe Ariftotelians who 
 explained the nature of things by matter, form, priva¬ 
 tion, elementary and occult qualities, fympathies, See 
 
 Experimental Physicks, that which enquires into the 
 reafons and natures of things from experiments in chv- 
 miftry, hydroftaticks, &c. This has been very much 
 cultivated fince the time of lord Bacon, and continues to 
 be fo with very great fuccefs. 
 
 Mechanical or corpufcular Physicks, that which ex- 
 plains the appearances of nature from the matter, motion 
 ftruflure, and figure of bodies and their parts, according 
 to the fettled laws of nature and mechanicks. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMICKS, denotes, among fome phy- 
 licians, fuch figns as are taken from the countenance to 
 judge of the Hate, Sec. of the body and mind. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY, Pbyfiognomia , the art of judging 
 of a perfon s nature, fortune, or diforders, by the linea¬ 
 ments of the face. 
 
 PHk SIOLOGY, Pbyfologia, the doflrine of natural 
 bodies, called alfo phyficks and natural philofophy. 
 
 It properly denotes an internal reafoning that termi¬ 
 nates in the fpeevdation of its objed, fuch as natural 
 e e appearances, 
 
PIE P I L 
 
 appearances, their caufes, &c. So that chymiftry is a 
 counterpart to phyfiology, imitating nature rather than 
 explaining her. 
 
 Physiology, in medicine, that branch which con¬ 
 fide rs nature with refpeCt to the cure of dileafes, parti¬ 
 cularly the human body, its parts, ftruCture, health, 
 life, functions, ceconomy, &c. 
 
 PHYTOLACCA, American night-Ihade, in botany, 
 a genus of decandrious plants, whole flower confifts of 
 five roundifh, concave, fpreading, perfiftent petals : the 
 fruit is an orbiculated depreffed berry, with io longitu¬ 
 dinal furrows, and the fame number of cells, each con¬ 
 taining a fmooth kidney-lhaped feed. It is very com¬ 
 mon in our North-American plantations ; and is cul¬ 
 tivated in England for the beauty of its flowers : it may 
 be propagated by lowing the feeds in the fpring upon a 
 bed of light rich earth, and when the plants are come 
 up, they fhould be moved into the borders of large gar¬ 
 dens, allowing them room enough to grow, for they 
 become very large. The planters take a fpoonful or two 
 of the juice of the root as a purge, and that very fre¬ 
 quently. The berries are full of a purple juice, which 
 gives a fine tin&ure to paper, but will not lalt long; if 
 there could be a method of fixing the dye, it might be 
 made very ufeful. 
 
 PHYTOLOGY, a treatife of plants, defcribing their 
 forms, kinds, properties, &c. 
 
 PI A hi a ter, Meninx tenuis, in anatomy, a fine mem¬ 
 brane that immediately invefts the brain. See Brain. 
 
 PIAZZA, in building, a portico or covered walk 
 fupported by arches. 
 
 PICA, in medicine, a depravation of appetite, whereby 
 the patient abfurdly defires after things unfit for food. 
 
 PICKET, Pi<vuet, in fortification, a flake lharp at 
 one end, and ufually fhod with iron, ufed in laying out 
 the ground, to hold fafcines in any work call up in hafte; 
 and it is all'o applied to a fharp flake which is made a 
 kind of punifhmcnt for a foldier to ftand on with one foot 
 for fomc offence. 
 
 Pickets, in a camp, are alfo flakes driven into the 
 ground near the tents of the horfemen to tie their horfes 
 to ; and before the tents of the foot, for the mulkets to 
 reft about in a ring. 
 
 PICKLE, a liquor commonly made of fait, water, or 
 vinegar, &c. and lometimes with the addition of fpices, 
 wherein meats, fruits, &c. are preferved and feafoned. 
 It alfo denotes the fruit, root, &c. prepared therein. 
 
 PICQUEER 1 NG, Pickeering, Pickerooning, a little 
 flying fkirmifh, which foldiers make, when detached for 
 pillage, or before a main battle begins. 
 
 PICTS Wall, in antiquity, a famed piece of 
 Roman work, begun by .the emperor Adrian, on the 
 northern bounds of England, to prevent the incurfions 
 of the Piifls and Scots: at firft it was only made of turf, 
 ftrengthened with palliladoes, till the emperor Severus, 
 coming in perfon into Britain, built it with folid ftone, 
 reaching eight miles from the Irifh to the German lea, 
 or from Carlifle to Newcaftle, with watch-towers gar- 
 rifoned at the diftance of a mile from each other. It was 
 ruined feveral times by the PiCts, and often repaired by 
 the Romans. At laft Aetius, a Roman general, rebuilt 
 it of brick; and the PiCts ruining it the year following, 
 it was no longer regarded but as a boundary betwixt the 
 two nations. It was eight feet thick, and twelve high 
 from the ground ; it ran on the north fide of the rivers 
 Tvne and Irrhing, up and down feveral hills ; the re¬ 
 mains of which are, to this day, to be feen in Cumber¬ 
 land and Northumberland. 
 
 PICTURE, Piflura, a piece reprefented in colours on 
 canvas, wood, Nc. and incloied commonly in a frame. 
 
 PIECE, in commerce, fometimes denotes a whole, 
 and fometimes only a part of the whole. 
 
 Piece, in matters of money, is fometimes the fame 
 thing with fpecies, and fometimes it denotes fuch as 
 have no other particular name. 
 
 In England, piece fometimes is ufed for 20 (hillings, 
 and fometimes for a guinea. By 6 Geo. II. c. 25. 
 broad-pieccs of 25 or 23 fhillings value, their halves and 
 quarters are called in ; and all perfons forbid to receive 
 or utter them in tale. 
 
 Piece of Eight , Rial of Eight , or Piajlre, a filver 
 money firft ftruck in Spain, afterwards in other coun¬ 
 tries, and now current almoft every where. It is equal 
 
 to eight filver rials. Its value is nearly the fame with 
 the late French crown, or four fhillings and lix-pence 
 fieri ing. 
 
 There are two kinds of piaftres, or Spanifh crowns, 
 the one ftruck at Portofi, the other at Mexico ; the latter 
 are a little heavier than the former, but not quite fo fine. 
 The piece of eight is divided into halves, quarters, half¬ 
 quarters, and fixteenths. The exchange between Eng¬ 
 land and Spain is in pieces of eight. 
 
 Piece, is alfo a kind of money of account ufed among 
 the negroes on the coaft of Angola in Africa. 
 
 Piece, in heraldry, denotes an ordinary charge. 
 
 The honourable pieces of the Afield are the chief, fefs, 
 bend, pale, bar, crol's, faltier, chevron; and. in general, 
 all thoffe which may take up one third of the field, when 
 alone, and in what manner foever it be. 
 
 Pieces, in the military art, denote all forts of great 
 guns and mortars. 
 
 Field Pieces, arc a fmallerfort, carrying balls of 10 
 or 12 pounds. 
 
 Battering Pieces, are the larger fort of guns ufed at 
 fieges for making of breaches, fuch as the 24 pounders 
 and the culverin, which laft carries a ball of 18 pounds. 
 
 PIEDOUCHE, in architecture, a little pedeftal, 
 either oblong or fquare, enriched with mouldings, lerv- 
 ing to fupport a buft. 
 
 P 1 EDROIT, in architecture, a pier or fquare kind of 
 pillar, part whereof is hid within a wall. 
 
 P1 ed -Powder-Court, an ancient court held in fairs, 
 for rendering juftice to buyers and fellers, and the redrels 
 of grievances. 
 
 PIER, or Peer, a building of ftone, &c. oppofed 
 againft the force of the fea, or a large river, for the lecu- 
 rity of flfips that lie at harbour in any haven. 
 
 Piers, in architecture, are a kind of pilafters or but¬ 
 tles, railed for fupport, ftrength, and fometimes for 
 ornament. 
 
 Piers are a fort of fquare pillars, part of which is hid 
 within the wall; the only thing, wherein it differs from 
 a pilaftcr, being this, that the latter has a bafe and ca¬ 
 pital, which the former has not. 
 
 PIE TISTS, a religious feCt fprung up among the 
 proteftants of Germany, feeming to be a kind of mean 
 between the Quakers of England, and the Quietifts of 
 the Romifh church. See Quakers, &c. 
 
 They defpife all forts of ecclefiaftical polity, all fchool 
 theology, and all forms and ceremonies, and give them- 
 lelves up to contemplation and the myftick theology. 
 
 PIG, in zoology, the young of the hog kind. SeeHoc. 
 
 Pi g of Lead , the eighth part of a fother, amounting 
 to 250 pounds weight. 
 
 PIGMENTS, Pigments, preparations .ufed by pain¬ 
 ters, dyers, Sxc. to impart colours to bodies, or imitate 
 particular colours. In painting on glafs, or for counter¬ 
 feiting gems, the pigment is ufually of a metalliiie or 
 mineral nature. 
 
 PIKE, in war, an offenfive weapon, confiding of a 
 wooden fhaft, 12 or 14 feet long, with a flat fteel head 
 pointed, called the fpear. The pike was long in ufe 
 among the infantry, but now the bayonet, which is fixed 
 on the muzzle of the carabine, is fu’bftituted in its Head. 
 Yet it ftill continues the weapon of foot officers, who 
 fight pike in hand, falute with the pike, &c. The 
 Macedonian phalanx was a battalion of pike-men. 
 
 PlLAS TER, in architecture, a fquare column, fome¬ 
 times infulated, but more frequently let within a wall, 
 and only ftiewing a 4th or 5th part of its thicknefs. 
 The pilafter is different in different orders: it borrows 
 the name of each, and has the fame proportions, and 
 the fame capitals, members and ornaments with the co¬ 
 lumns themfelves. Pilafters are, however, ufually made 
 without either lwelling or diminution, and as broad at 
 top as at the bottom ; though fome of the modern archi- 
 tefts, as M. Maniard, Nc. diminifii them at the top, and 
 even make them fwcll in the middle, like columns, par¬ 
 ticularly when placed behind columns. 
 
 PILE, in antiquity, a pyramid built of wood, on 
 which the bodies of the deceafed were laid in order to be 
 burned. 
 
 Pile, in building, is ufed for a large flake rammed 
 into the ground in the bottom of rivers, or in marftiy 
 iand, for a foundation to build upon. 
 
 Pile is alfo ufed among architects for a mafs of building. * 
 
 Pile, 
 
P I M 
 
 Pile, in coinage, denotes a kind of puncheon, which, 
 in the old way of coining with the hammer, contained 
 the arms, or other figure, and infcription, to be {truck 
 on the coin. Accordingly, we Hill call the arms-fide of 
 a piece of money, the pile: and the head, the crofs ; 
 becaufe, in ancient coins, the crofs generally took the 
 place of the head in ours: but fome will have it called 
 pile, from the impreffion of a lliip built on piles, {truck 
 on this fide in our ancient coins. 
 
 Pile, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a wedge, 
 contracting from the chief, and terminating in a point 
 towards the bottom of the {hield. 
 
 Piles, in medicine, the fame with haemorrhoids. 
 See Hemorrhoids. 
 
 PILGRIMAGE, a kind of religious difcipline, which 
 coiifilts in taking a journey to fome holy place, in order 
 to worlhip the relicks of fome deceafed faint. 
 
 PILL, in pharmacy, a form of medicine refembling 
 a little ball, to be fwallowed whole, invented in favour 
 of fuch as cannot take bitter and ill-tailed medicinal 
 draughts, as alfo to keep in readinefs for occafional ufe 
 without decaying. 
 
 PILLAGE, among builders, is a fquare pillar, {land¬ 
 ing behind a column, to bear up arches. 
 
 PILLAR, in architecture, a kind of irregular co¬ 
 lumn, round and infulatcd, but deviating from the pro¬ 
 portions of a juft column. 
 
 Pillars are always either too maffive, or too {lender for 
 regular architecture ; fuch are the pillars that fupport Go - 
 thick vaults, or buildings ; and, indeed, they are not 
 reftrained by any rules, their parts and proportions being 
 arbitrary. 
 
 Buttmg-V h.l aR, the fame with a buttrefs. See the 
 article Buttress. 
 
 Square- ]?i ll a R, a mafiivc work, called alfo a pier, or 
 piedroit, ferving to fupport arches, &c. 
 
 Pillar, in the menage, is the centre of the ring or 
 menage-ground, round which a horfe turns, whether 
 there be a pillar in it or not. 
 
 Befides this, there are pillars in the circumference, or 
 fides of the menage-ground, placed at certain diftances, 
 by two and two ; whence they are called the two pillars, 
 to diftinguifh them from that of the centre. 
 
 PILLORY, was anciently a poll: ereCled in a crofs- 
 road, by the lord of the manor, with his arms upon it, 
 as a mark of his feigniory, and fometimes with a collar 
 to fix criminals to. 
 
 At prefent it is a wooden machine, made to confine the 
 head and hands, in order to expofe criminals to publick 
 view, and to render them publickly infamous. 
 
 P 1 MENTA, or Pimento, in the materia medica, 
 Jamaica pepper, or all-fpice, the dried aromatick berry ot 
 a large tree growing in the mountainous parts of Jamaica, 
 reckoned a fpecies of myrtle, and called by Sir Hans 
 Sloane, myrtus arberea aromatica foliis laurinis\ by Lin- 
 nams, myrtus foliis alternis. 
 
 Pimenta is a moderately warm fpice, of an agreeable 
 flavour, fomewhat refembling that of a mixture of cloves, 
 cinnamon, and nutmegs. Diftilled with water it yields 
 an elegant efiential oil, lo ponderous as to fink in the 
 aqueous fluid, in taftc moderately pungent, infmell and 
 flavour approaching to oil of cloves, or rather a mixture 
 of thole of cloves and nutmegs: the remaining decobtion 
 infpiffated, leaves an extradl fomewhat ungrateful, but 
 not pungent, and the berry itfelf is found to be almoft 
 wholly deprived of its tafte as well as flavour; the warmth 
 of this {pice refiding rather in the volatile than in the fixed 
 parts. 
 
 This fpice, at firft brought over for dietctick ufes, has 
 been long employed in the Ihops as a fuccedaneum to the 
 more coftly oriental aromaticks; from them it was intro¬ 
 duced into our hofpitals, and is now received both in the 
 London and Edinburgh Pharmacopeias. The college of 
 London direbts a fimple water to be diftilled from it, in 
 the proportion of a gallon from half a pound : this is 
 ftrongly impregnated with the flavour ot the pimenta, 
 though it is lei's elegant than the fpirituous water which 
 the {hops have been accuftomed to prepare, by drawing 
 off two or three gallons of proof lpirit from the lame 
 quantity of the fpice. The efiential oil does not leemto 
 be much known in practice ; though it promifes to be a 
 very ufeful one, and might, doubtlels, on many occa- 
 fions, fupply the place of many of the dearer oils. The 
 
 P I N 
 
 quantity of oil afforded by the fpice is very confiderable: 
 Cartheufer indeed fays, that only about half a dram is to 
 be got from 16 ounces; a miftake, which probably has 
 arifen from inadvertence in copying Neumann’s pro¬ 
 portion, of half a dram from an ounce, or one fixteenth : 
 lb large a proportion as this laft cannot, however, be 
 collected in its proper form, the oil that remains diflolved 
 in the diftilled water being here included. 
 
 PIN, in commerce, a neceffary implement for wo¬ 
 men’s drefs, which is very well known. 
 
 Pins are now altogether made of brafs-wire blanched, 
 which formerly they made of iron-wire prepared in the 
 fame manner; but the ill effedls of thole pins have quite 
 difearded their ufe. The pins molt efteemed in com¬ 
 merce, are thofe of England. 
 
 Pins [wallowed , the caule of many grievous and dan¬ 
 gerous effedls, and it is prefumed often fatal; for upon 
 infpedting the entrails of patients, who appeared, fyrnp- 
 tomatically, to have died of the iliack-paflion, colick, &c. 
 they have been found to be killed by fwallovving one or 
 more pins, or needles, or the like. 
 
 In April (1777) a young woman, who had fwal¬ 
 lowed a very large pin, was brought to the hofpital at 
 Bambrough Caftle, Northumberland, which ltuck fall 
 in that part of the GLfophagus which enters into the 
 thorax. As I had then the honour of the principal ma¬ 
 nagement of that Difpenfary, I was lent for, and found 
 the patient in very great anguifii. Having fome time 
 before thought much of the nature of this accident, and 
 concluded, that if any thing could be given, that would 
 pafs eafily, and, when in the ftomach, coagulate into a 
 gloary mafs, it might probably bring up any tiling {lick¬ 
 ing in the gullet; I immediately gave her about four grains 
 of the tartar emetick, diflolved in water, and then made 
 her lwallow, feparately, the whites of fix raw eggs; and 
 in about two minutes after, file vomited and brought up 
 the coagulated mafs with the pin, which effectually re¬ 
 lieved her. 
 
 A little time after, this method was attended with the 
 like good luccefs, in an inftance nearly fimilar to the 
 above. A maid fervant of the honourable George Baillie, 
 Efq; of Mellerftain, in Scotland, went to bed with 
 twenty-four fmall pins in her mouth ; the confequence 
 of which was, that in the night the family was alarmed 
 with her cries. Mr. Baillie ordered her to fwallow the 
 whites of eggs till file vomited, and the whole number 
 of pins came up, and are preserved in the family as a 
 curiofity. 
 
 Pin and web, a horny induration of the membranes 
 of the eye. 
 
 Pin -wheel of a clock, the fame with the ftriking wheel. 
 See Clock. 
 
 PINCHING, in gardening, a fort of pruning per¬ 
 formed by nipping off the branches of a plant or tree be¬ 
 tween the nails of two fingers. 
 
 Moll gardeners hold that this contributes to the abun¬ 
 dance of the fruit as well as branches, and that {hoots 
 thus lopped are lefs apt to grow black and die than other- 
 wile. 1 he feafon for pinching is chiefly in April or May, 
 fometimes in June and July: it is chiefly pradtifed on. 
 melons, cucumbers, &c. Quintinie alfo preferibes it 
 tor fruit-trees. It is principally to be pradtifed on the 
 large branches towards the top, but rarely on the large 
 ones below, which ought always to be pruned in winter, 
 that they may yield others the following year. Nor rnuft 
 the operation of pinching be performed on the tender 
 Ihoots, becaufe, having only juft fap enough for them- 
 felves, when they come to put forth more branches in 
 the place where they are pinched, the fmall {lock of fap 
 allotted them being divided, will ftarve them. The 
 operation is performed within two or three eyes of the 
 branch they grow out of. By this means a vigorous tree 
 will put forth two or three branches at the eye remain¬ 
 ing ; and the fap being thus divided, the branches will 
 be lefs, and therefore fit for wood and fruit. 
 
 PINDAR 1 CK, in poetry, an ode formed in imitation 
 of the manner ot Pindar. The Pindarick manner is dif- 
 tinguifhed by the boldnefs and height of the flights, the 
 fuddennefs and furprifingnefs of the tranfitions, and the 
 Teeming irregularity, wildnels, and enthufiafm of the 
 whole. 1 he only part remaining of Pindar’s works, is 
 a Book of Odes, all in praife of the victors at the Olym¬ 
 pian, Pythian, Nemaean, and lfthmian games: whence 
 
 the 
 
P I N 
 
 (lac fir ft is iritltled the Olympians ; the fecond, the Py- 
 thians; the third, the Nemaeans; and the fourth, the 
 Ifthmians. 
 
 PINE, Pinus, in botany, a genus of evergreen trees, 
 the leaves of which come out of fmall {heaths, in pairs 
 in fonae fpecies, and in others by threes or fives ; they 
 are of a blueifh green colour, and placed, for the moft 
 part, on every fide of the branches; the flowers are male 
 and female, growing on the fame tree, and are both def- 
 titute of a corolla; the male flowers are collefted in a 
 bunch, and contain many ftaminaconnefted in a column 
 at their bafe, but di\ iding at the top : the female flowers 
 are collefted in a common, almoft oval cone, and ftand 
 at a diftance from the male on the fame tree, the feales 
 of which are biflorous, oblong, imbricated, and- per- 
 fiftent, under which a fmall germen is placed, fupport- 
 ing a lubulated ftyle, crowned with a Angle ftigma, which 
 becomes an oblong oval nut, crowned with a membrana¬ 
 ceous wing, and included in the rigid fcale of the cone. 
 
 There arefeveral fpecies of pine-trees, which are raifed 
 for fale in the nurferies; but the moft valuable are, 
 what is commonly called the Scotch fir, and a North- 
 American fpecies, known among the gardeners here by 
 the name of Lord Weymouth’s pine, the formerof which 
 grows naturally on the mountaiirs of Scotland, alfo in 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the leaves of which 
 grow out of a Iheath in pairs, which are twifted, and 
 are of a greyifh colour: it will grow on almoft any foil, 
 and the timber of it is the moft durable of any kind of 
 pines yet known, the beft yellow deals being the wood 
 of this tree. 
 
 The Lord Weymouth’s pine grows naturally in moft 
 parts of North America ; it is one of the talleft trees of 
 all the fpecies, often growing to ioo feet high in thofe 
 countries ; the bark is very fmooth, the leaves are long 
 and flender, five growing out of each Iheath; the branches 
 are pretty clolely furnifhed with them, lo makes a fine 
 appearance ; the cones are long, {lender, and very loofe. 
 opening with the firft warmth of the fpring; fo that if 
 they are not gathered in the winter, the feeds will be 
 filed : the wood of this fort is much efteemed for making 
 mafts for lliips, Ac. This fort, and the Scotch pine, 
 are the beft worth cultivating of all the kinds, for the 
 fake of their valuable timber. 
 
 Pine-Apple, Ananas, in botany. See Ananas. 
 
 PINEAL Gland, in anatomy, a gland in the third 
 ventricle of the brain ; thus called from its refemblance 
 to a pine-apple. It is of a greyifli colour, and its pro- 
 ceffus and bafe are often medullary : this gland has often 
 by many been luppofed the peculiar feat of the foul. 
 
 PINGUICULA, butter-wort, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is monopetalous and ringent, the 
 longer lip of which is ftraight, obtufe, trifid and fupine ; 
 the fhoiter lip is bifid, more obtufe, and fpreading. 
 This f'\nus grows wild in boggy lands in divers parts 
 of En.iand. 
 
 PINION, in mechanicks, an arbor, orfpindle, in 
 the body whereof are feveral notches, that catch the teeth 
 of a wheel that ferves to turn it round: or it is a lefs 
 wheel which plays in the teeth of a larger. 
 
 In a watch, < 5 cc. the notches of a pinion, which are 
 commonly 4, 5, 6, S, &c. are called leaves, and not 
 teeth, as in other wheels. 
 
 PINK, in botany, the Englifh name for feveral beau¬ 
 tiful fpecies of dianthus, much cultivated in our gardens ; 
 the principal of which are, the pheafant’s eye-pink, with 
 double and fingle flowers; the common red pink, the 
 cob pink, Doblon’s pink, white cob pink, the painted 
 lady pink, the China pink, &c. They are all propa¬ 
 gated by flips, layers, or from feed. 
 
 The beft time for planting the flips cf pinks is in 
 July or Auguft, taking the opportunity of moift weather: 
 the China or Indian pink is propagated from feeds, which 
 fhould be l'own upon a gentle hot-bed about the begin¬ 
 ning of April, and in about three weeks or a month the 
 plants will be up, and ftout enough to remove ; they 
 fhould then be taken up, with a ball of earth to their 
 roots, and planted in a bed of rich mould, at about 
 three inches alunder, and in dry weather mull be fre¬ 
 quently watered ; the further care is to keep them from 
 being over-run with w’eeds, till June, at which time 
 they may be tranfplanted to the place where they are 
 clefigned to remain for flowering. If they are taken 
 
 P I P 
 
 up with large balls to their roots (as before dire ft cd; 
 they will not be injured by their removal; and as they 
 grow not very large, it is beft to plant them in beds, at 
 about eight inches alunder, where they will make a more 
 beautiful appearance than intermixed with other flowers, 
 there being a fine contrail among thefe flowers, as fcarce 
 any two are marked alike ; for no fort of plant produces 
 luch varieties ot rich-coloured flowers as thefe do, which 
 annually vary when raifed from feeds. 
 
 PINNACLE, in architefture, the top or roof of a 
 houfe, terminating in a point. This kind of roof, 
 among the ancients, was appropriated to temples their 
 ordinary roots were all flat, or made in the platform way. 
 It was from the pinnacle that the form of the pediment 
 took its rife. 
 
 PINNATED Leaves, Pinnata Folia, in botany, 
 thofe which are compofed of feveral folioles, or partial 
 leaves, connefted to the fides of a petiole, in the form of 
 wings. Of pinnated leaves there are feveral kinds, as, 
 
 I. The pinnated with an odd one, that is, when it is 
 terminated with an odd foliole; 2. The cirrliofe- pinnated 
 leaf, when it is terminated with a tendril or clafper; 3. An 
 abrupt-pinnated leaf, when it is terminated neither by a 
 foliole or cirrhus ; 4. The oppofitely-pinnated, is when 
 the folioles, or lobes, ftand oppofite on the mid-rib or 
 petiole; 5. The alternately-pinnated, when the folioles 
 are produced alternately; 6.The interruptedly-pinnated, 
 when the folioles are alternately lefs ; 7. The articulately- 
 pinnated, when the petiole, common to all the folioles, 
 is jointed; 8. The decurfively-pinnated, when the folioles 
 run along the petiole from one to another; 9. The con¬ 
 jugate-pinnated, when the leaf confifts but of two folioles 
 only on the petiole ; 10. Bipinnate or duplicato-pin- 
 nated, when the foot-ftalk is divided, and each divifion 
 fuftains feveral folioles ranged on their fides like wings; 
 
 II. Triplicato-pinnate, exprefles a leaf, the petioles of 
 which fend out three alated divifions, before it has any 
 folioles on it; thefe laft are terminated fometiraes by two 
 folioles each, and in that cafe are laid to be abrupt; 
 fometimes by an odd foliole, and are then called tripli- 
 cato-pinnata cum impari. 
 
 PINNING, in building, the faftening of tiles toge¬ 
 ther, with pins of heart of oak, for the covering of a 
 houfe, &c. 
 
 PINT, a veflel, or meafure, ufed in eftimating the 
 quantity of feveral forts of commodities ; particularly 
 liquids. See Measure. 
 
 PIPE, in building, &c. a canal for the conveyance of 
 water, &c. Pipes for water engines are commonly of lead, 
 iron, earth, or wood. Thofe of iron are caft, about two 
 feet and a half long, feveral of which are pieced together 
 by means of ferews, and leather or old hat between. 
 Thofe of earth are made by the potters, one end being 
 wider than the other, in order to fit in ; at the joinings 
 they are covered with pitch and tow, and are ufually of 
 the fame length with the iron pipes ; the wooden pipes, 
 commonly alder, are bored with large iron augres luc- 
 ceeding one another from lefs to larger ; the firft being 
 pointed, and the reft formed like fpoons, from one inch, 
 in diameter to fix. Thefe are fitted into one another, 
 and fold by the foot. Leaden pipe3 arc of two kinds ; 
 the one foldered, and the other not. 
 
 Pipe, in the manufactures, a machine much ufed in 
 fmoaking tobacco ; it confifts of a long {lender tube or 
 fhank which is hollowed, being made of clay baked; 
 at one end is the bowl or furnace for the tobacco, the 
 fumes whereof are drawn out by the mouth through the 
 other end, and fo difeharged. Pipes are made long, 
 {hort, plain, worked, white, varnifhed, unvarnilhed, of 
 various colours, &c. 
 
 The Turks ufe pipes three or four feet long, made of 
 ruflies or bored wood, at the end of which is a nut of 
 baked earth for taking off and on. 
 
 Pipe, or Butt, alfo denotes a veflel or meafure for 
 wine, and things mcafured by wine meafure. It con¬ 
 tains two hogftieads, or four barrels, or 126 gallons, and 
 weighs about yoo, two quarters, and 17 pounds. The 
 pipe is only ufed in Anjou and Poiftou, where it confilts 
 of two boifleaux, equal to a muid and a half of Paris. 
 See Measure. 
 
 Pipe, in law', a roll in the Exchequer, called like- 
 wife the great roll. 
 
 PipE-Office, an office in the Exchequer wherein the 
 
 clerk 
 
P I s 
 
 t!erk of the pipe makes out leafes of crown-lands by 
 warrant from the treafury, or chancellor of the Ex¬ 
 chequer. He alfo makes up all accounts of ffieriffs, and 
 gives the accomptants their quietus. To this office are 
 brought all accounts which pals the remembrancer’s 
 office, and remain there ; that if any debt be due from 
 any perlon, it may be drawn down into the great roll, 
 upon which the comptroller of the pipe iffiues out the 
 fummons of the pipe for recovery thereof. And if there 
 be no goods or chattels, the clerk draws down the debts 
 to the lord treafurer’s remembrancer to write eftreats 
 againft their lands. 
 
 All tallies, vouching the payment of any fum con¬ 
 tained in fuch accounts, are examined and allowed by 
 the chief fecondary of the pipe. Befides the clerk and 
 comptroller of the pipe, there aro eight attornies or 
 fworn clerks. 
 
 PIPPS, among florifts, are the diftindt flowers of 
 fuch plants which grow in trufles or bunches, and is 
 particularly applied to auriculas and polyanthufes. 
 
 PIQUETTES, among florifls, a kind of carnations; 
 they have always a white ground, and fpotted orpounced 
 with red, fcarlet, purple, or other colours. See the arti¬ 
 cle Carnation. 
 
 PIRATE, Pyrate, PIrata , rover ; a perfon or veflel 
 that robs on the high feas, makes defeents on the coaft, 
 &c. without the authority of any prince or ftate. 
 
 When pirates are taken, they are ufually hanged, 
 fometimes in the next port, fometimes on board the veflel 
 that takes them, without either remiffion or formal trial. 
 
 They are denominated bucancers, free-booters, &c. 
 in the W. Indies, and corfairs in the Mediterranean. 
 
 PIROUETTE, Pyroet, in the menage, acircum- 
 volution which a horfe makes without changing his 
 ground. A pirouette is of one tread or pifte, or of two; 
 the firft is when upon one tread, and at the fame time, 
 the horfe’s head comes to the place where his tail was, 
 without putting out his haunches;, in the pirouette of 
 two treads, he takes a compals of ground about his own 
 length, and marks both with the fore part and the hind. 
 
 PISCES, in aftronomy, the 12th conflellation of the 
 zodiack; (fee plate IV. fig. 12.) and marked thus X in 
 books. 
 
 The ftars in Pifces, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 38 ; 
 in I ycho’s, 33; and in the Britan nick catalogue, 109. 
 
 PISCINA, in antiquity, a large bafon where the Ro¬ 
 man youth learned to fwim, and which was encom- 
 pafled with a high wall, to prevent the calling of filth 
 into it. 
 
 Piscina Probatica, a refervoir of water, near Solo¬ 
 mon’s temple, fo called from the Greek Trgo&alov, fheep, 
 becaufe here they waffied the cattle deftined for facrifice. 
 
 Daviler obferves, there are flill remaining five arches 
 of the portico, and part of the bafon. 
 
 Piscina, or lavatory, among the Turks, a large 
 bafon in the middle of the court of a mofque, or under 
 the porticos encompaffing it. It is ufually of an oblong 
 figure built of Hone or marble, and furniffied with a va¬ 
 riety of cocks, wherein the Muflulman wafhes himfelf, 
 before he offer his prayers, as beingperfuaded that ablu¬ 
 tion effaces fin. 
 
 PISCIS Volans, in aflronomy, a fmall conflellation 
 of the fouthern hemifphere, that was unknown to the 
 ancients, being invifible. 
 
 PISSASPHALT. UM, Pijfafphaltus , in natural hif- 
 tory, denotes a liquid bitumen, refembling nothing fo 
 much as common pitch, when a little foftened by the fire. 
 
 It is of a very ftrong bituminous fmell, fomething like 
 the fragrance of amber. It is loft enough to fpread on 
 a marble, when frefli; but by degrees it becomes more 
 and more hard, but never will arrive at the confiftence 
 of the folid bitumens. It makes no effervefcence with 
 acid menflruums, but is foluble in oil, and will impart 
 a tin&ure to fpirit of wine, and give a ftrong tafte to 
 water. The E. Indies, Peifia, and Egypt, abound 
 with it, but it is no where fo plentiful as in Italy, par¬ 
 ticularly about Caftro, a town 60 miles from Rome, 
 where it is found ouzing out of the cracks of the neigh¬ 
 bouring rocks. The greateft quantity of what they ga¬ 
 ther is diftilled for its thin oil, which is fent into other 
 parts of Europe under the name of petroleum ; the reft is 
 lent to the German (hops, where it is generally kept in 
 its natural ftate. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 57. 
 
 P I T 
 
 There alfo a factitious piflaiphaltum, being a n,i:: 
 ture of common pitch and the bitumen Judaicunl. 
 
 PISSELflEUM, Oleum Pidriwn , oil of pitch, the 
 watery part which fwims on pitch, which is feparated 
 therefrom, while the pitcli is in boiling, by fpreadine 
 over it clean wool, which, as boon as it is thoroughly 
 moiftened with the aicending vapour, is wrung into a 
 veflel; and this is repeated as long as the pitch is in 
 boiling. It is effectual for the fame purpofes as tar. 
 
 PissEL,EUM Indhum, Barbadoes tar, in natural hifl. 
 tory, a mineral fluid of the nature of tile thicker fluid 
 bitumens. It is a duflcy-coloured matter, Id's vifcid 
 than the piffafphahum, and about the confiftence of 
 treacle. 
 
 It is of a naufeous bitterifli tafte, and a very difa- 
 greeable fmell. It is foluble in oil, and is very frequent 
 in America, where it is found trickling down the fidcs 
 of the mountains in large quantities,"and fometimes 
 floating on the furface of tile waters ; hut it feems to be 
 almoft Joft at this time in the country whence it was 
 originally named. It has been greatly recommended in¬ 
 ternally in coughs and other diforders of the breaft and 
 lungs, but . \ cry feldom to be met with genuine any 
 where. 1 
 
 PISTACHIA, the piftachia nut, in natural hiftory, 
 a dry fruit of an oblong figure, pointed at both ends 
 having a double fncll. The kernel is like the pulp of 
 an almond, fweet and very oily, but not without fome 
 faint bitternefs. Piftachias were known to all tile old 
 writers. We have them from Syria, Perfia, Arabia, 
 and the E. Indies ; and they are very fuccefsfuliy culti¬ 
 vated in Italy and France, for the fake of their fruit. 
 There are two kinds of them, a larger and a fmaller; the 
 larger alone is fent to Europe; the fmaller are lefs com¬ 
 mon in the E. Indies than in Perfia, where they are 
 however much moie eft emed than the large ones, as 
 being better flavoured. The tree that produces them is 
 one of the dimeia pentandria of Linnaeus, and of the 
 arbores flore a frudiu remoto of Ray. It is deferibed 
 under the terebinthus Indica Theophrafti, and piftachia 
 or piftachia frudiu ramofo. 
 
 Piftachias abound with a fweet well-tafted oil; they 
 are wholcfome and nutritive, and are very proper, by 
 way of reftorative, eaten moderately, to people emaciated 
 witli long iilnefles. They are recommended as peculiarly 
 good to prevent obftrudlions of tile liver, and are found 
 of fervice in nephritick complaints. They arc made in¬ 
 gredients in the eledluarium diafatyrion, and tile like; 
 but thefe, as well as the piftachias' are now much our 
 of ufe in medicine. 
 
 PISTE, in the menage, the track which a horfe 
 makes upon the ground lie goes over. 
 
 The pifte may be either (ingle or double. If the rider 
 makes the horfe go but an ordinary gallop, in a fquarc 
 he will make but a Angle pifte; if he gallop cither witli 
 his haunches in, or go terra a terra, he will make two 
 piftes, one with the fore part, another with the hind : 
 and the fame if the rider make him pafiTage or go fide- 
 ways, either in a ftraight line or on a circle. 
 
 PISTIL, among botanifts, denotes the female organ 
 of generation in plants; it confifts of three parts, the 
 germen, flyle, andftigma: thegermen fuppfies tile place 
 of an uterus in plants, and is of various lhapes, but al¬ 
 ways fituated at the bottom of the piftil, and contains tile 
 embryo-feeds: the ftyle is a part of various forms alfo, 
 but always placed on the germen : and the ftigma is alfo 
 of various figures, but always placed on the top of the 
 ftyle, or, if that be wanting, on the top of tile germen. 
 
 PISTOL, the fmalleft piece of fire-arms, borne at 
 the faddle-bow, on the girdle, and in the pocket. 
 
 PISTOLE, a gold coin ftruck ill Spain, and in feve- 
 ral parts of Italy, Switzerland, &c. 
 
 Tile piftole has its augmentations and diminutions, 
 which are quadruple piftoles, double piftoles, and half 
 pittoles. 
 
 PISTON, Embilue, in pump-work, is a fliort cylinder 
 of metal, or other folid fubftance, fitted cxaftly to the 
 cavity of the barrel or body of the pump. See Pump. 
 
 PITCH, a tenacious oily fubftance, drawn chiefly 
 fiorn pines and firs, and ufed in {hipping, medicine, and 
 various other arts : or it is more properly tar, infpiffate'd 
 by boiling it over a flow fire. See Pine. 
 
 Pitcli acquires different names, according to its diffe- 
 
 * “ tent 
 
PL A 
 
 rcnr preparations, colours, and qualities : as it di fills 
 from the wood, it is called barras; but afterwards it af- 
 fumes a double name, the fineft and cleareft being called 
 galipot, and the coarfer marbled barras. Of the galipot 
 is made what is called white pitch, or Burgundy pitch, 
 which is nothing but the galipot melted with oil of tur¬ 
 pentine; though l'ome will have it a native pitch, diftil- 
 ling from a relinous tree growing in the mountains of 
 Franche Comte. 
 
 PITCHING, in naval affairs, the ad of plunging or 
 falling headlong into afea, when the wave, by which the 
 fhip’s fore-part is lifted up, is fuddenly withdrawn from 
 under the prow. 
 
 Pitching is often extremely dangerous to a veffel, as 
 it ftrains both the hull and the marts to a great degree, 
 and frequently carries away the latter by a violent jerk. 
 
 PITH, in vegetation, the foft fpongy fubftance con¬ 
 tained in the central parts of plants and trees. As the 
 fubftance of the trunk in trees, lays Boerhaave, becomes 
 more woody, the pith is comprefled, and ftraitened to 
 fuch a degree, that it wholly dilappears. It is plain 
 from this, that the office of the pith, in vegetation, 
 cannot be very gicat, rtnee it is not of perpetual dura¬ 
 tion. By its lpongy ftrudure, it feems fitted to receive 
 any fuperfluous moifture that might tranlude through 
 tire pores of the woody fibres. If by fuch moifture, or 
 from any other caufe, it happens to rot and perifh, as 
 frequently happens in elms, the tree is found to grow 
 full as well without it; a proof it is of no elfential ufe 
 in vegetation. 
 
 PITUITARY Gland, in anatomy, a gland in the 
 brain, of the fizo of a very large pea, placed under the 
 cel la of the os fplienoides, under the infundibulum, 
 wherewith it communicates, receiving from it a-lymph 
 or a juice, which the infundibulum derives from the 
 plexus choroides and pineal gland ; and from this lympha 
 does the gland itfelf take its name. It alfo filtrates a 
 juice itfelf, feparating from the blood a white liquor, very 
 fubtile, and apparently very fpirituous. 
 
 P 1 VAT, or Pivot, a foot or llioe of iron, or other 
 metal, ulually conical, or terminating in a point, whereby 
 a body, intended to turn round, bears on another fixed 
 at reft, and performs its circumvolutions. The pivot 
 ufually hears or turns round in a foie, or piece of iron 
 or brafs, hollowed to receive it. 
 
 PLACARD, or Pl ac art, among foreigners, figni- 
 fies a leaf or fheet of paper, ftretched out, and applied on 
 4 wall or poll, containing edi&s, regulations, See. Among 
 ns, placard fignifies a licence, whereby a perl'on is per¬ 
 mitted to ufe unlawful games, See. 
 
 Placard, in archite&ure, denotes the decoration of 
 the door of an apartment, confifting of a chambranle, 
 crowned with its frieze or gorge, and a corniche, fome- 
 times fupported by confoles. 
 
 PLACE, Locus, in philofophy, a mode of fpace, or 
 that part of immoveable fpace which any body poffeffes. 
 See Space- 
 
 Optical Place, the point to which the eye refers an 
 objeft. 
 
 Place of Radiation, is the fpace in a medium or tranf- 
 parent body, through which any vifible objeft radiates. 
 
 Excentr'uk Place of a Planet. See Excen trick. 
 
 Geocentrick Place of a Planet. Sec Geocentrice. 
 
 Heliocentrick Place of a Planet. See Heliocen- 
 TRTCK. 
 
 Place, in geometry. SeeLocus. 
 
 Place, in war, a general name for all kinds of for- 
 treftes where a party may defend themfelves. 
 
 Place, in logick and oratory, denotes the feat or 
 fource of an argument, of which there are two kinds, 
 inartificial and artificial ; the firft is the place of tefti- 
 mony, authority, See. the fecond that of realon, as when 
 we argue from univerlals, caufes, Sec. 
 
 Common Place. See Co mmon Place. 
 
 PLACENTA, in anatomy, a loft roundifh mafs. 
 found in the womb of pregnant women ; which, from 
 its refemblance to the liver, was called by the ancients 
 hepar uterinum, the uterine liver. 
 
 Placenta, is alfo a term ufed by fome botanifts, 
 for what is more ufually called the receptacle of the feeds. 
 See Recept acle. 
 
 PLAFOND, or Plafound, in architedlure, the 
 ceiling of a room, whether it be flat or arched, lined 
 
 P L A 
 
 with plaftcr or joiner’s work, and frequently enriched' 
 with painting. The word plafond is alio more particu- 
 larlv ufed for the bottom of the projeflure of the larmier 
 of the corniche, calledalfo foffita. See Soffit a. 
 
 PLAGIARY, one that fteals from another fome fen- 
 tcnce or point of dottrine without naming the author. 
 
 PLAGUE, Pejtis, in phviick, is one ot the moft acute- 
 kind of fevers, arifingfrom apoifonous miafma, brought 
 from the eaftern countries, See. which proves mortal,, 
 unlefs, by the vigour of the vital motions, the poifon is- 
 fcon carried off by means of buboes and caibuncles. 
 
 '1’he plague differs from other fevers of the conta¬ 
 gious, malignant, and exanthematous kind, in this, that 
 it is, of all others, the moil acute, fince it fometimes 
 deftroys the patient on the flrft or fccond day of its 
 attack. In Europe the plague is neither epidemic!;, nor 
 fporadick, arifing from a prepofterous method of living, 
 or an infalutary conftitution of the air ; but, in our 
 healthy parts of the world, draws its origin from a con¬ 
 tagion derived from the lultry and before infcSled enftenv. 
 dimes. A plague, alfo, has this peculiar to it, that it is 
 not, like other malignant and putrid levers, terminated 
 by large fwcats, fluxes, or other excretions ; but the 
 poifon being, in a critical and falutary manner, forced 
 to the external glandular parts, it is terminated by tu¬ 
 mours, which end in abfeefles. Befides, contrary to 
 what happens in other contagious and petechial fevers, 
 fuch is the fubtile quality of the peftilential poifon, that 
 it quickly adheres to porous fubftanccs, and, without 
 any diminution of its force, may be conveyed to coun¬ 
 tries many thoufand miles diftant from each other. It 
 is alfo peculiar to this contagion, that its malignant and. 
 fpreading nature is not only checked, but alfo totally 
 extinguished by intenfe cold. Hence it happens, that 
 in cold weather, and cold climates, a plague is rarely or 
 never obferved, whereas it rages frequently and violently 
 in hot and fultrv climates. 
 
 But as, in all contagious and malignant fevers, the 
 poifonous miafma, taken in with the air, infinuates itfelf 
 into the fermentable faliva, and exerts its baleful influ¬ 
 ence on the parts through which it paffes; fo this, in a. 
 particular manner, holds true, concerning the peftilen¬ 
 tial contagion, which, immediately attacking the head, 
 brain, nerves, and nervous fluid, excites a torpor of the 
 head, a fenfe of weight, drowfinefs, an exceffive pain, a 
 llupor of the fenfes, forgetfulnefs of every thing, reft- 
 k-ffnefs, watching, and a lofs of ftrength. When this 
 peftilential contagion, being conveyed through the fauces- 
 to the llomach, excites a loathing of food, naufeous 
 uneafinels of the prsecordia, a fymptomatick cardialgia, 
 efforts to vomit, and adlual vomiting ; then being con- 
 veved to the membranes of the fpinal marrow, and the- 
 nervous coats of their arteries, it not only produces an 
 horror, and a languid, fmall, contracted and frequent 
 pulle, but alfo deliquiums. All thefe are the ordinary 
 lymptoms of a beginning plague, and are fo much the 
 more violent and quick in their operation, as the pefti¬ 
 lential poifon exceeds that of other contagious and ma¬ 
 lignant dilorders. 
 
 Since it is certain the plague is not originally gene¬ 
 rated in Europe, but is imported from other countries, 
 there can be no more fafe and infallible advice given, 
 than to fly from the contagion. 
 
 All perlons, when the plague rifes, ought to live very 
 temperately, and every degree of excefs is to be avoided 
 in the non-naturals, elpecially with refpeft to the paffions 
 of the mind ; and all thefe things are to be abftained from 
 which impair the ftrength, difturb perfpiration, and ge¬ 
 nerate crudities in the primal vise. 
 
 In the cure of a plague the following intentions arc 
 to be purfued : i. To promote the expulfion of the 
 received miafma in a proper manner, efpecially by thefe 
 critical tumours, which arc to be duly managed. And, 
 2. To roufe and fupport the languid ftrength, which is 
 of fo great importance to life ; and to remove, or relieve 
 the moft urgent lymptoms. 
 
 In the cure of all difeafes, it is to be laid down as a 
 maxim, that, if for fome of the firft days of the diforder, 
 few or no fseces are eliminated, the body is to be ren¬ 
 dered foluble by a gentle clyfter, that, by this means, 
 the inteftines may be freed from the excrements, left 
 otherwife the lymptoms fliould be increafed, and the 
 efficacy of the medicines obtunded. Langius is alfo 
 
 greatly 
 
P L A 
 
 greatly to be recommended for ufing an alexipharmick, 
 in order to excite a fweat for fome hours, lince, by this 
 means, the poifon is more expeditioufly exhaled and 
 diflipated. The application of ail epithem to the heart 
 is alfo a circumftance of great importance ; for though 
 it does not immediately touch and affedl the heart, but 
 only the right orifice of the ftomach, and its nervous and 
 mufcular coats, yet it is of the lad importance, that the 
 ftomach, which is an highly nervous part, of exquilite 
 ienfation, has an intimate communication with the ner¬ 
 vous parts of the whole body, and in which the poilon 
 iirft exerts its virulent influence, Ihould be well defended , 
 which intention is anfwered by fuch medicines as are an- 
 tifpafinodick, and at the fame time corroborative and 
 balfamick; and, after the ufc of alexipharmicks, the 
 opening of a vein is alfo highly beneficial. 
 
 Plague-/^’', Aqua epidemica , is one of the com¬ 
 pound waters of the (hops. 
 
 PLAIN, Planus, denotes in general any thing fmooth, 
 even, or obvious, and fo dands oppoled to rough, la¬ 
 boured, and enriched. 
 
 Plain Figure , in geometry, is an uniform furface. 
 from every point of whofe perimeter right-lines may be 
 drawn to every other point in the fame. 
 
 Plain Angle, is an angle contained under two lines, 
 or furfaccs, in contradiftinttion to a folid angle. 
 
 Plain Triangle , is a triangle included under three 
 right lines, or lurfaces, in oppofition to a fpherical and 
 mixed triangle. 
 
 Plain Trigonometry , is the dottrine of plain triangles, 
 their meafures, proportions, See. See "I rigonometry. 
 
 Plain Glafs, or Mirrour, in opticks, is a glafs whole 
 furface is flat or even, commonly called a looking-glafs. 
 
 Plain Sailing. See Sailing. 
 
 Plain Scale. See Scale. 
 
 Plain Table, in geometry, Ac. an indrument ufed 
 in the furveying of lands, whereby the plan is taken on 
 the fpot, without any future protrattion. 
 
 The table itfelf is a parallelogram of oak, or other 
 wood (plate LX 1 V. fig. 9.) about 15 inches long, 
 and 12 broad, confiding of two feveral boards, round 
 which are ledges of the farpe wood ; the two oppofite of 
 which being taken off, and the fpangle unferewed from 
 the bottom, the aforefaid two boards may be taken alunder 
 for eafe and conveniency of carriage. For the binding 
 of the two boards and ledges tad, when the table is fet 
 together, there is a box-jointed frame, about three quar¬ 
 ters of an inch broad, and of the fame thicknefs as the 
 boards, which may be folded together in fix pieces. 
 This frame is fo contrived, that it may be taken off and 
 put on the table at pleafure, and may go eafily on the 
 table, either fide being upwards. This frame alfo is to 
 faden a flieet of paper upon the table, by forcing down 
 the frame, and fqueezing in all the edges of the paper; 
 fo that it lies firm and even upon the table, that thereby 
 the plot of a field, or other inclofure, may conveniently 
 be drawn upon it. 
 
 On both tides this frame, near the inward edge, are 
 feales of inches fubdivided into ten equal parts, having 
 their proper figures fet to them. The ules of thefe feales 
 of inches are for ready drawing of parallel lines upon the 
 paper ; and alfo for thifting your paper, wheie one flieet 
 will not hold the whole work. 
 
 Upon one fide of the faid box-frame are projected the 
 360 degrees of a circle, from a brafs centre-hole in the 
 middle of the table. Each of thefe degrees are fubdivided 
 into 30 minutes ; to every 10th degree are fet two num¬ 
 bers, one expreffing the proper numbers of degrees, and 
 the other the complement of that number of degrees to 
 360. This is done to avoid the trouble of fubtrattion in 
 taking of angles. 
 
 On the other fide of this frame are proje&ed the 180 
 degrees of a femi-circle from a brafs centre-hole, in the 
 middle of the table’s length, and about a fourth part of 
 its breadth. Each of thefe degrees is fubdivided into 
 30 minutes; to every 10th degree are fet likewife, as on 
 the other fide, two numbers ; one exprefling the proper 
 number of degrees, and the other the complement of that 
 number of degrees to 180, for the fame realon as before. 
 
 The manner of proje&ing the degrees on the alorelaid 
 frame is, by having a large circle divided into degrees, 
 and every 30 minutes; for then placing either of the 
 brafs centre-holes on the table, in the centre of that 
 
 P L A 
 
 circle fo divided, and laying a ruler from that centre to 
 the degrees on the limb of the circle; where the edge of 
 the ruler cuts the frame, make marks for the correlpon- 
 dent degrees on the frame. 
 
 The degrees, thus inlerted on the frame, are of excel¬ 
 lent ule in wet or ftormy weather, when you cannot keep 
 a flieet of paper upon the table. Alfo, thefe degrees will 
 make the plain-table a theodolite, or a femi-circle, ac¬ 
 cording as what fide of the frame is uppermoft. 
 
 There is a box, with a needle and card, covered with 
 a glafs, fixed to one of the long lides of the table, by- 
 means of a (crew, that thereby it may be taken off. This 
 box and needle is very ufeful for placing the inftrument 
 in the fame polition upon every remove. 
 
 There belongs to this inftrument a brafs focket and 
 fpangle, ferewed with three ferews to the bottom of the 
 table, into which mull be put the head of the three- 
 legged ftaff, which may be ferewed faft, by means of a 
 ferew in the fide of the focket. 
 
 There is alfo an index belonging to the table, which 
 is a large brafs ruler, at leaft 16 inches long, and two 
 inches bioad, and fo thick as to makeitftrong and firm, 
 having a Hoped edge, called the fiducial edge, and two 
 fights ferewed perpendicularly on it, of the fame height. 
 They mull be let on the ruler perfe&ly at the fame 
 diltance from the fiducial edge. Upon this index it is 
 ulual to have many feales of equal parts, as alfo diago¬ 
 nals, and lines of chords. 
 
 When you would make your table fit for ufe, lay the 
 two boards together, and alfo the ledges at the ends in 
 their due places, according as they are marked. Then 
 lay a lheet of white paper all over the table, which muft 
 be ftretched over the boards, by putting on the box- 
 frame, which binds both the paper to the boards, and 
 the boards to one another : then ferew the focket on the 
 back fide the table, and alfo the box and needle in its due 
 place, the meridian line of the card lying parallel to the 
 meridian or diameter of the table; which diameter is a 
 right line drawn upon the table, from the beginning of 
 the degrees through the centre, and fo to the end of the 
 degrees. TL hen put the focket upon the head ®f the ftaff, 
 and there ferew it: alfo put the fights upon the index, and 
 lay the index on the table. So is your inftrument pre¬ 
 pared for ufe, as a plain-table, theodolite, or femi-circle. 
 
 But note, it is either a theodolite, or femi-circle, ac¬ 
 cording as the theodolite or femi-circle fide of the frame 
 is upwards; for, when you ufe your inftrument as a 
 plain-table, you may place your centre in any part of the 
 table, which you judge moft proper for bringing on the 
 work you intend. But, if you ufe your inftrument as a 
 theodolite, the index muft be turned about upon the 
 brafs centre-hole in the middle of the table; and, if for 
 a femi-circle, upon the other brafs centre-hole, by means 
 of a pin or needle placed therein. 
 
 It you have a mind to ufe this inftrument as a circum¬ 
 ferentor, you need only ferew the box and needle to the 
 index, and both of them to the head of the ftaff, with a 
 brafs ferew-pin fitted for that purpofe: fo that, the ftaff 
 being fixed in any place, the index and fights may turn 
 about at pleafure, without moving the ftaff. 
 
 I. How to objerve an angle in the Feld by the Plain- table. 
 
 SuppofeE, K, KG, (plate LXIV. jig. 10.) to be two 
 hedges, or two lides of a field, including the angle 
 EKG, and it is required to draw upon the table an 
 angle equal thereto : firft, place your inftrument as near 
 the angular point K as conveniency will permit, turning 
 it about, till the north end of the needle hangs dire&ly 
 over the meridian line in the card, and then ferew the 
 table faft. Then upon your table, with your protradt- 
 ing-pin (which is a fine needle put into a piece of box 
 or ivory, neatly turned) or compafs-point, aflign any 
 point at pleafure upon the table, and to that point apply 
 the edge of the index, turning the index about upon that 
 point, till through the fights thereof you lee a mark fet 
 up at E, or parallel to the line E K : and then, with 
 your protrafting-pin, compafs-point, or pencil, draw a 
 line by the fide of the index to the afligned point upon' 
 the table. Then (the table remaining immoveableJ turn 
 the index about upon the forementioned point, and di¬ 
 rect the fights to the mark fet up at G, or parallel there¬ 
 to, that is, fo far diftant from G, as your inftrument is 
 placed from K ; and then by the fide of the index draw 
 another line to the afligned point. Thus will there be 
 
 drawn 
 

 PL A 
 
 drawn upon the table two lines reprefenting the hedges 
 E K and K G, and which include an angle equal to the 
 angle E K G. And, though you know not the quantity 
 of this angle, yet you may find it, if required : for, in 
 working by this inftrument, it is fufficient only to give 
 the proportions of angles, and not their quantities in de¬ 
 grees, as in working by the theodolite, lemi-circle, or 
 circumferentor. Alfo in working by the plain-table, 
 there needs no protraction at all, for you will have upon 
 your table the true figure of any angle or angles that you 
 obferve in the field, in their true politions, without any 
 further trouble. 
 
 2. How to find the quantity of an angle in the field , by thi 
 
 Plain-/, ble, confidered as a theodolite orfemi-circle. 
 
 Let it firlt be required to find the quantity of the 
 angle E tC G (plate LX1V. pf. io.) by the plain-table, 
 as a theodolite: place your inftrument at K, with the 
 theodolite fide of the frame upwards, laying the index 
 upon the diameter thereof; then turn the whole inftru¬ 
 ment about (the index ftill refting upon the diameter) 
 till through the fights you efpy the mark at E : then 
 ferewing the inftrument faft there, turn the index about 
 upon the theodolite centre-hole in the middle of the 
 table, till through the fights you efpy the mark at G. 
 Then note wliat degrees on the frame of the table are cut 
 by the index, and thofe will be the quantity of the angle 
 E K G fought. 
 
 You muft proceed in the fame manner for finding the 
 quantity of an angle, by the plain-table, as a femi-circle ; 
 only put the lemi-circle fide of the frame upwards, and 
 move the index upon the other centre-hole. 
 
 3. How, by the Plain -table, to take the plot of a field at 
 one Jlat 1071 within the fame, from whence all the angles Oj 
 the fame feld may be feen. 
 
 Having entered upon the field to furvey, your firft 
 work muft be to let up fome vifible mark at each angle 
 thereof; which being done, make choice of fome con¬ 
 venient place about the middle of the field, from whence 
 all the marks may be feen, and there place your table, 
 covered with a iheet of paper, with the needle hanging 
 over the meridian line of the card, which you muft 
 always have regard to, efpecially when you are to furvey 
 many fields together. Then make a'mark about the 
 middle of the paper, to rcprelent that part of the field 
 where the table ftands; and, laying the index upon this 
 point, direCt your fights to the feveral angles where you 
 before placed marks, and draw lines by the fide of the 
 index upon the paper. Then meafure the diftance of 
 every of thefe marks from your table, and by your fcale 
 fet the fame diftances upon the lines drawn upon the 
 table, making fmall marks with your protraCling-pin, 
 or compals-point, at the end of each of them. Then 
 lines being drawn from the one to the other of thefe 
 points, will give you the exaCt plot of the field ; all the 
 lines and angles upon the table being proportional to 
 thofe of the field. 
 
 Example. Suppofe the plot of the field A B C D E F 
 (fig. 11.) was to be taken. Having placed marks in the 
 feveral angles thereof, make choice of fome proper place 
 about the middle of the field, as at L, from whence you 
 may behold all the marks before placed in the feveral 
 angles, and there place your table.. Then turn your 
 inftrument about, till the needle hangs over the meridian 
 line of the card, denoted by the line N S. 
 
 Your table being thus placed with a fheet of paper 
 thereon, make a mark about the middle of your table, 
 which fhall reprefent the place where your table ftands. 
 Then, applying your index to this point, direCt the 
 fights to the firft mark at A, and, the index refting 
 there, draw a line by the fide thereof to the point L. 
 Then with your chain meafure the diftance from L, the 
 place where your table ftands, to A, the firft mark, 
 which fuppofe 8 chains 10 links. Then take 8 chains 
 ig links from any fcale, and fet that diftance upon the 
 line from L to A. 
 
 Then directing the fights to B, draw a line by the fide 
 of the index, as before, and meafure the diftance from 
 your table at L, to the mark at B, which fuppofe 8 chains 
 75 links. This diftance taken from your fcale, and ap¬ 
 plied to your table from L to B, will give the point B, 
 reprefenting the lecond mark. Then direCt the fights to 
 the third mark C, and draw a line by the fide of the 
 index, mealuring the diftance from L to C, which fup- 
 
 3 
 
 FLA 
 
 pofe 10 chains 65 links. This diftance being 
 from your fcale, and applied to your table from L to C, 
 will give you the point C, reprefenting the third mark. ’ 
 In this manner you muft deal with the reft of the marks 
 at D, E, and F, and more if the field had confifted of 
 more, fides and angles. Lallly, when you have made 
 oblervations of all the marks round the field, and found 
 the points A B C D E and F upon your table, you mult 
 draw lines from one point to another, till you conclude 
 where you firft begun. As, draw a line from A to B 
 from B to C, from C to D, from D to E, from E to F, 
 and from L to A, where vou begun; then will A BCDEF 
 Ire the exaCt figure of vour field, and the line N S the 
 meridian. 
 
 Note, Our chains are commonly four poles in length 
 and are divided into 100 eijual pans, called links'; at 
 every 10th of which are bralis diltinftions numbering 
 them. ° 
 
 4. Io take tne plot of a wood, park , cr other large chani- 
 pyign plant, by the Pl a i ti-table, m meafuring round the 
 Jame. 
 
 Suppofe ABCDEFG (plate LXIV. fig I2 ) to 
 be a large wood, whole plot you defire to take upon the 
 plain-table. 1 
 
 Having put a fheet of paper upon the table, place 
 your inftrument at the angle A, and direCt your fights 
 to the next angle at B, and by the fide thereof draw a 
 line upon your table, as the line A B. Then meafure 
 by the hedge-fide from the angle A to the angle B, which 
 fuppofe 12 chains 5 links. 1 hen from your fcale take 
 12 chains 5 links, and lay off upon your table from A to 
 B. 1 hen turn the index about, and direCt the fights to 
 G, and draw the line A G upon the table. But at preient 
 you need not meafure the diftance. 
 
 Remove your inftrument from A, and fet up a mark 
 where it laft ftood, and place your inftrument at the 
 fecond angle B. Then laying the index upon the line 
 A B, turn the whole inftrument about, till through the 
 fights you fee the mark let up at A, and there ferew 
 the inftrument. Then laying the index upon the point 
 B, direCt your fights to the angle C, and draw the line 
 B C upon your table. Then mealuring the diftance 
 . '■'» 4 chains 45 links, take that diftance from your 
 lcale, and let it upon your table from B toC. 
 
 Remove your inftrument from B, and fet up a mark 
 in the room of it, and place your inftrument at C, lay¬ 
 ing the index upon the line C B ; and turn the whole 
 inftrument about, till through the fights you efpy the 
 mark fet up at B, and there fallen the inftrument. Then 
 laying the index upon the point C, dired the fights to D 
 and draw upon the table the line C D. Then meafure 
 from C to 1), 8 chains 85 links, and fet that diftance 
 upon your table from C to D. 
 
 Remove the inftrument to D (placing a mark at C, 
 where it laft ftood) and lay the index upon the line D C, 
 turning the whole inftrument about, till through the 
 fights you lee the mark at C, and there fallen the inftru¬ 
 ment. Then lay the index on the point D, and direCt 
 the lights to E, and draw the line D E. Then with 
 your chain meafure the diftance D E, 13 chains 4 links 
 which lay off on the table from D to E. 
 
 Remove your inftrument to E (placing a mark at D, 
 where it laft ftood) and, laying the index upon the line 
 D E, turn the whole-inftrument about, till through the 
 fights you fee the mark at D, and there fallen the inftru¬ 
 ment. Then lay the index on the point E, and direCt 
 the fights to b , and draw the line E F. Then meafure 
 the diftance E F, 7 chains 70 links, which take from 
 your fcale, and lay off from E to F. 
 
 Remove your inftrument to F (placing a mark at E, 
 where it laft ftood) and lay the index upon the line E F 
 turning the inftrument about, till you fee the mark fet 
 up at E, and there fallen the inftrument. Then laying 
 the index on the point F, direft the fights to G, and 
 draw the line F G upon the table, which line F G will 
 cut the line A G in the point G. Then meafure the 
 diftance F G, 5 chains 67 links, and lay it olf from F 
 to G. 
 
 Remove your inftrument to G (fetting a mark whera 
 it laft ftood) and lay the index upon the line F G, turn¬ 
 ing the whole inftrument about, till through the fights 
 you fee the mark at F, and there fallen the inftrument, 
 I hen laying tile index upon the point G, direft the 
 
 fight? 
 

P L A P L A 
 
 fights to A (your firft mark) and draw the line G A, j fhall make a given area of four.given lines. Such pro- 
 vvliich, if you have truly wrought, will pals direCtly blems can onty have two lolutions, in regard a right line 
 through the point A, where you-firfl began. can only cut a circle, or one circle cut another in two 
 
 In this manner you may take the plot of any cham¬ 
 
 paign plain, be it never fo large. And here note, that 
 very often hedges arc of fuch a thicknefs, that you can¬ 
 not come near the lides or angles of the field, either to 
 place your inftrument, or meafure the lines. Therefore, 
 in fuch cafes you muft place your inftrument, or mea¬ 
 fure the lines, parallel to the fide thereof; and then 
 your work will be the fame as if you mealured the hedge 
 itfelf. 
 
 Note alfo, that, in thus going about the field you 
 may much help yourfelf by the needle. For looking what 
 degree of the card the needle cuts at orie ftation, if you 
 remove your inftrument to the next ftation, and with 
 your fights look to the mark where the inftrument laft 
 flood, you will find the needle to cut the fame degree 
 again, which will give you no fmall fatisfa&ion in the 
 profecution of your work. And, though there be a 
 hundred or more fides, the needle will ftill cut the fame 
 degree af all of them, except you have committed fome 
 former error : therefore, at every ftation have an.eye to 
 the needle. 
 
 5. Of Jhifting of paper. 
 
 In taking the plot of a field by the plain-table, and 
 going about the fame, as before directed, it may fo fall 
 out, if the field be very large, and when you are to take 
 many inclofures together, that the Iheet of paper upon 
 the table will not hold all the work ; but you muft be 
 forced to take off that fheet, and put another clean Iheet 
 in the room thereof; and, in plotting of a manor or 
 lordfhip, many Iheets may be thus changed, which we 
 call.Uniting of paper. The manner of performing 
 thereof is as follows : 
 
 Suppofe in gping about to take the plot A BC DEFG 
 (plate JLXIV. fg. 1.) as before dire died, that having 
 made choice of the angle at A for the place of the 
 beginning, and proceeded from thence to B, and from 
 B to C, and from C to D, when you come to the angle 
 at D, and are to draw D E, you want room to draw the 
 fame upon the table; do thus : 
 
 Firfl: through the point D draw the line D O, which 
 is ahnoft fo much of the line D E, as the table will con¬ 
 tain. Then near the edge of the table H M, draw a line 
 parallel to H M, by means of the inches and fubdivifions 
 on the oppofitc fides of the frame, as P Q_, and another 
 line at right angles to that through the point O, as O N. 
 This being done, mark this Iheet of paper, with the 
 figure (1) about the middle thereof, for the firft Iheet. 
 Then, taking this Iheet off your table, put another clean 
 Iheet thereon, and draw upon it a line parallel to the 
 contrary edge of the table, as the line R S (fig. 4.) 
 Then, taking your firft Iheet of paper, lay it upon the 
 table fo, that the line P Qjnay exactly lie upon the line 
 R S, to the bell advantage, as at the point O (fig. 4.) 
 Then with the point of your compafles draw fo much of 
 the line O D, upon the clean Iheet of paper, as the table 
 will hold. Having thus done, proceed with your work 
 upon the new Iheet, beginning at the point O ; and fo 
 going forwardwith your work, as in all refpeCts has been 
 before direCled; as from O to E, from E to F, from F 
 toG, and from G to A (by this direction) Ihifting your 
 paper as often as you have occafion. 
 
 Under the article Plotting, the reader will find a 
 method of taking any furvey without the trouble of Ihift¬ 
 ing paper. 
 
 Plain Nurqber, is a*number that may be produced 
 by the multiplication of two numbers into one another. 
 Thus 20 is a plain number produced by the multiplica¬ 
 tion of 5 into 4. 
 
 Plain Place, locus planus, or locus ad planum, among, 
 the ancient geometricians denoted a geometrical locus, 
 when it was a right line or a circle, in oppofition to a 
 folid place, which was an cllipfis, parabola, or hyper- 
 . bola. Thefe the moderns diftinguilh into loci ad reflam, 
 and loci ad circulum. 
 
 Plain Problem, in mathematicks, is fuch a problem 
 as cannot be folvcd geometrically, but by the interfec- 
 tion either of a right line and a circle, or of the circum¬ 
 ferences of two circles ; as, given the greateft fide, and 
 the fum of the other two fides of a right-angled triangle, 
 to find the triangle, as alfo to deferibe a trapezium that 
 Vol. II. No. 57. 
 
 points. 
 
 Plain, in heraldry, fometiines denotes the point of 
 the Ihield, when couped fquare ; a part remaining under 
 the fquare, of a different colour or metal from the Ihield. 
 This has been fometimes ul'ed as a mark of baftardy, 
 and called champaigne; for, when , the legitimate de- 
 fcendants of baftards have taken away the bar, fillet, or 
 traverfe borne by their fathers, they are to cut the point 
 of the Ihield with a different colour called plain. 
 
 PLAINT, in law, the exhibiting any aCtion, real or 
 pcrfonal, in writing. 
 
 PLAINTIFF, in law, a perfon who fues or com¬ 
 plains in an alfize or aCtion perfonal, as of debt, trefpafs, 
 deceit, detenue, &c. Plaintiff Hands oppofed to de¬ 
 fendant. 
 
 PLAISE, the Englilh name of a fpecies of the pleu- 
 roneCtes, with lfnooth fides, a fpine near the anus, and 
 the eyes and fix tubercles placed on the right fide of the 
 head ; it is fomewhat larger than the flounder. 
 
 PLAISTER, or Plaster. SeePLASTER. 
 
 PLAN, in general, denotes the reprefentation of 
 fomething drawn on a plane : fuch are maps, charts, 
 ichnographies, &c. 
 
 The term plan, however, is particularly ufed for a 
 draught of a building, fuch as it appears, or is intended 
 to appear, on the ground ; fhewing the extent, divifion, 
 and diftribution of its area, or ground-plot, into apart¬ 
 ments, rooms, palfages, &c. 
 
 A geometrical plan is that, wherein the folid and va¬ 
 cant parts are reprefented in their natural proportions. 
 
 1 he raifed plan of a building is the fame with what is 
 otherwife called an elevation or orthography. 
 
 A perfpcCtive plan is that exhibited by degradations, 
 or diminutions, according to the rules of perfpeCtive. 
 See Perspective. 
 
 To render plans intelligible, it is ufual to diftinguilh 
 the maflives with a black walh ; the projeCtures on the 
 ground arc drawn in full lines, and thofe fuppofed over 
 them in dotted lines. The augmentations, or altera¬ 
 tions, to be made, are diftinguilhed by a colour different 
 from what is already built; and the tints of each plan 
 made lighter, as the ftories are raifed. In large build¬ 
 ings, it is ufual to have three feveral plans, for the three 
 firft ftor ies. • 
 
 PLANCHIER, or Plancere, in architecture, the 
 under part of the corona, or drip, making the fuperior 
 part of the corniche, between two cymatiums. 
 
 PLANE, Planum , in geometry, denotes a plain fur- 
 face, or one that lies evenly between its bounding lines : 
 and as a right line is the fhorteft extenfion from one 
 point to another, fo a plane furface is the Ihorteft exten¬ 
 fion from one line to another. 
 
 In aftronomy, conicks, &c. the term plane is fre¬ 
 quently ufed for an imaginary furface, fuppofed to cut 
 and pafs through folid bodies; and on this foundation, 
 is the whole doCtrine of conick feCtions built. 
 
 In mechanicks, planes are either horizontal, that is, 
 parallel to the horizon, or inclined thereto. 
 
 The determining how far any given plane deviates 
 from an horizontal Qne, makes the whole bufinefs of 
 levelling. 
 
 In opticks, the planes of reflection and refraCtion arc 
 thofe drawn through the incident and reflected or re- 
 fraCted rays. 
 
 The plane of the horopter is that drawn through the 
 horopter, perpendicularly to the plane of the two optical 
 axes. See Horopter'. 
 
 In perfpeCtive, we meet with the perfpeCtive plane, 
 which is fuppofed to be pellucid, and perpendicular to 
 the horizon ; the horizon plane, fuppoled to pafs through 
 the fpeCtator’s eye, parallel to the horizon ; the geome¬ 
 trical plane, likewife parallel to the horizon, whereon the 
 object to be reprefented is fuppofed to be placed, &c. 
 
 The plane of projection, in the ftereographick pro¬ 
 jection of the fphere, is that on which the projection is 
 made ; correfponding to the perfpeCtive plane. 
 
 Plane, in joinery, an edge-tool to Ihave wood 
 lmooth and even. It confifts of a wooden Hock, very 
 ftnooth at bottom, in the middle of which is an aperture, 
 through which pafles a Heel edge very lharp, that takes 
 1 G gg oif 
 
P L A 
 
 oft tlie inequalities of the wood on- which it is Hid along. 
 It has various names according to its forms, flzes, and ufes. 
 
 PLANET, Planet a, in aftronomy, a celeftial body 
 revolving round the fun as a centre, and changing its 
 pofition with refpeV to the fixed liars. The planets are 
 ■ufually diftinguifhed into primary and fecondary. 
 
 Primary Planets, are thole which move round the 
 fun as a centre, and thele, by way of eminence, are 
 ufually called planets. 
 
 Secondary Planets, or fatellites, are fucli as move 
 round fome primary planet, as their refpeVive centre, in 
 the fame manner as the primary planets do round the fun. 
 
 1 he primary planets are fix in number, viz. Saturn, 
 Jupiter, Mars, tfie Earth, Venus, and Mercury. Of 
 thele the firft three are called fuperior planets, becaufe 
 their orbits circumfcribe that of the earth ; and the two 
 lad inferior planets, becaufe their orbits are circum- 
 feribed by the orbit of the earth. See the order, pofition, 
 magnitude, &c. of the planets, rep re fen ted on the orrery, 
 (plate LXI. Jig. i.) 
 
 f romthe feveral phafes and appearances of the planets, 
 they are found to be all perfectly like the moon, that is, 
 opake bodies, and borrow all their light from the fun. 
 
 Phis will plainly appear from the following particu¬ 
 lars : i. Venus, obferved with a telefcope, is rarely 
 found full, but with variable phafes like thofe of the 
 moon, her illuminated part dill turned towards the ead, 
 when fhe is the morning dar, and wed, when the even¬ 
 ing liar. And the like phafes have been.obferved of Mars 
 and Mercury. 
 
 2. Gaflendus fird, and after him others, have ob¬ 
 ferved Mercury on the face of the fun, a-crofs which he 
 appeared to pals like a black round fpot. Horrox, in 
 1639, a lf° obferved Venus in the fun, where lire made 
 the lame appearance. 
 
 3. De la Hire, in 1700, with a telefcope of 16 feet, 
 dllcovercd mountains in Venus, larger than thofe of the 
 moon. 
 
 4. Caffini obferved two fpots in Venus ; four in 
 Mars, likewife* obferved by Campani; and feveral, at 
 feveral times, in Jupiter r and from his oblervations of 
 thefe fpots, found that they had a rotation round their 
 axes : he even determined the velocity of that rotation, 
 or the period wherein it was effeVcd, v. gr. that of 
 Jupiter, 9 hours 56'.. That of Mars, 24 hours 40'. 
 And that of Venus, 24 hours. And fince the. fun, 
 moon, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and the Earth, are found 
 to revolve on their axes, i. e. to have a diurnal rotation : 
 no doubt Mercury and Saturn have the fame; though 
 the great nearnefs of the former to the Jim, and the 
 great didance of the latter, prevent any fpots from being 
 obferved on them, whence that rotation might be de- 
 mondrated. 
 
 5. In Jupiter arc obferved two fwaths, or belts, 
 brighter than the red of his difk, and moveable ; fomer 
 times found in one part, fometimes in another; fome- 
 times broader, fometimes narrower. 
 
 6. In 1609, were fird obferved three little dars, or 
 moons moving about Jupiter, by Sim. Marius ; and in 
 1610, the fame was obferved by Galileo : thefe are now 
 frequently obferved to difappear in a clear lkv, when 
 Jupiter happens to be diametrically interpofed between 
 them and the fun. Whence it appears they arc void of 
 light, at fucli time when the fun’s rays, intercepted by 
 Jupiter, cannot be propagated to them in right lines; 
 and hence alfo, that, like the moon, they are opaque 
 bodies, illuminated by the fun ; and hence again, fince 
 Jupiter does not illuminate his fatellites when placed 
 behind him, he himfclf, in that part turned from the 
 fun, may be argued to be void of light. 
 
 7. When J upiter’s mo'ons are diametrically interpofed 
 between Jupiter and the fun, there is feen a round fpot 
 on Jupiter’s dilk, which is fometimes larger than the 
 fhteUite itfelf. Whence it appears, that the fatellites are 
 opaque bodies, illuminated by the fun ; that they pro- 
 je£l a fhadow upon the planet, and that the round fpots 
 ieen in Jupiter are the Ihadows of the fatellites. Whence 
 alfo, the interfe&jon of that fhadow being found to be a 
 circle, the fhadow mud be conical; and therefore the 
 figure of the fatellites, at lead.as to fenfe, is lpherical. 
 
 8. The earth being between Jupiter and the fun, if, 
 at the fame time, any of the fatellites happen to be be¬ 
 tween Jupiter and the fun, it is loll in J upiter’s light, I 
 
 P L A 
 
 though fometimes appearing like a black fpot. This 
 phenomenon has been frequently obferved by Cafiini 
 and Maraldi, who have like wife noted very confiderable 
 alterations in the apparent magnitudes of the fatellites; 
 for which no reafon could be given from the diflance of 
 Jupiter, the fun, or the earth : e. gr. that the fourth, 
 which is ufually feen the fmallefl, is fometimes the largcii, 
 and the third, which is ufually the larged, fometimes the 
 (mailed. Hence, as the fatellites are illuminated by the 
 iun, even then when immerged in Jupiter’s light, yet 
 appear obfeure, there mull be fome alteration in their 
 atmofpheres, to prevent the fun’s rays being equally re¬ 
 lieved from every part of their furface ; which mud like- 
 wile be the caule why their fhadow is fometimes larger 
 than themlelves. 
 
 Now, to futnup the evidence. 1. Since in Venus, 
 Mercury, and Mars, only that part of the difk illumi¬ 
 nated by thfc fun is found to fhine ; and, again, Venus 
 and Mercury, when between the earth and the fun, ap¬ 
 pear like dark fpots or maculae on the fun’s dilk ; it is 
 evident, that Mars, Jupiter, and Mercury, are opaque 
 bodies, illuminated with the borrowed light of the fun. 
 And the fame appears of Jupiter, from its being void of 
 light in that part to which the fhadow of the fatellites 
 reaches, as well as in that part turned from the fun ; 
 and that his fatellites are opaque, and refleV the fun’s 
 light, is abundantly fhewn. Wherefore, fince Saturn, 
 with his ring and fatellites, only yield a faint light, 
 fainter confiderably than that of the fixed flars, though 
 thefe be vailly more remote; and titan that of the reft of 
 the planets: it is paft doubt, he too, with his attendants, 
 are opaque bodies. 
 
 2. Since the fun’s light is not tranfmitted through 
 Mercury and Venus, when placed againft him, it is 
 plain they arc denfe opaque bodies ; which is like wife 
 evident of Jupiter, from his hiding the fatellites in his 
 fhadow ; and therefore, by analogy, the fame may be 
 concluded of Saturn. 
 
 3. From the variable fpots in Venus, Mars, and Ju¬ 
 piter, it is evident thofe planets have a changeable'at- 
 mofpliere ; which changeable atmofphere may, by a like 
 argument, be inferred of the fatellites of Jupiter, and 
 therefore by fimilitude the fame may be concluded of 
 the other planets. 
 
 4. In like manner, from the mountains obferved in 
 Venus,’ the fame may be fuppofed in the other planets. 
 
 5. Since then Saturn, Jupiter,-both their fatellites. 
 Mars, Venus, and Mercury, are opaque bodies, finning 
 with the fun’s borrowed light, are furnifhed with moun¬ 
 tains, and encompafled with a changeable atmofphere ; 
 they have, of confcquence, waters, leas, he. as well as 
 dry land, and are bodies like the moon, and therefore 
 like the earth, E. D. 
 
 And hence nothing hinders but that the planets may 
 alio be concluded to be inhabited. Huygens, in his 
 Cofrhotheoros, argues very plauliblv for the exiflence of 
 planetary inhabitants, from the fimilitude of the planets 
 with our earth : thofe, like this, being opaque, denfe, 
 uneven, round, heavy, illuminated and warmed by the 
 fun; having night and day, fummer and winter, he. 
 
 Wolfius deduces fomething relating hereto from argu¬ 
 ments of another kind. Thus, e. gr. it is fcarce to be 
 doubted, that the inhabitants of Jupiter are much larger 
 than thofe of the earth ; and, in effedl, of the giant kind. 
 For it is fhewn in opticks, that the pupil of the eye con¬ 
 trails in a ftrong light, and dilates in a weak one; 
 wherefore, fince in Jupiter the fun’s meridian light is 
 much feebler than on the earth, by reafon of Jupiter’s 
 greater diflance from the fun ; the pupil will need to be 
 much more dilatable in the inhabitants of Jupiter, than 
 in thofe of the earth. But the pupil is obferved to have 
 a conftant proportion to the ball of the eye, and the eye 
 to the rcll of the body; fo that, in animals, the larger 
 the pupil, the larger the eye, and-the larger the body. 
 
 To afeertain the fize of thefe jovial inhabitants, it may 
 be obferved, that the diflance of Jupiter from the fun is 
 to the earth’s diflance from the fame, as 26 to 5 , the 
 intenfity of the fun’s light in Jupiter is to its intenfity 
 on the earth, in a duplicate ratio of 5 to 26; but it is 
 found by experience, that the pupil dilates in a ratio 
 greater than that wherein the intenfity of light dccreafes ; 
 otherwife, a body at a great diflance might be.feen as 
 clearly as nearer: the diameter, therefore, of the pupil 
 
 in 
 
P L A P L A 
 
 in its greatcft dilatation, in Jupiter, is to its diameter in 
 the like ftate in the earth, in a ratio greater than that of 
 5 to 9.6. If then we put it, as io to 26, or as 5 to 13 : 
 fince the ordinary Mature.of the inhabitants of the earth 
 is computed at 5 Englifh feet, 4 inches and (which 
 Wolfius tells us is his own height;) the ordinary llature 
 of Jupiter’s inhabitants will be found 14 feet. *, which is 
 very nearly the fize of the giant Og, mentioned by 
 Mofes, whole iron bed was 9 cubits long, and its 
 breadth 4. 
 
 In the Copernican fyftem, the proportion between the 
 femi-diameters of the planetary orbits, or between the 
 diftances of the feveral planets from the fun, is found by 
 trigonometry ; fo that if the diftance of any one of them, 
 as for inftance, if the diftance of the earth from the fun 
 be given, the diftances of all the reft of the planets from 
 the fun may be found : in any of the fuperior planets, 
 the ratio its diftance from the fun bears to the diftance of 
 the earth from the fun is known, by meafuringthe angle 
 of the planet’s retrogradation. 
 
 The diftances of the planets from the fun are found to 
 be in a certain ratio to the periodical times of their revo¬ 
 lutions round the fun; the fquares of their periodical 
 times are as the cubes of their diftances : this analogy, 
 difcovered by Kepler, furmfhes us with a method of 
 -finding the ratio between the diltances of the planets from 
 the fun, to greater cxa£tneis than can be done by any 
 other method ; becaufc the periodical times of the planets 
 are known to great exadtnels. 
 
 We have hitherto confidered the phenomena of the 
 heavenly bodies without regard to the accurate form of 
 their orbits, which is not circular, but elliptical; yet 
 that it is very little fo, even in the mofl excentrick orbit, 
 as that of Mercury, will appear by comparing their cx- 
 ccntricities with their mean diftances from the fun. 
 Thus, fuppofe the mean diftance of the earth from the 
 fun be divided into 1000 equal parts, then in thofe 
 parts we have, 
 
 In Mercury, C S : D S 
 Venus, CS : DS 
 Earth, CS : DS 
 Mars, CS : DS 
 upiter, CS : DS 
 aturn, C S : D S 
 
 80 : 387 :: 1 : 4,84 
 
 5 : 723 :: 1 : 144,6 
 
 17 : 1000 :: 1 : 19 
 
 141 : 1524 :: i : io,8 
 
 250 : 5201 :: i : 20,8 
 
 547 : 953 8 •’ * * 17.4 
 
 Tt is found by experience, that the orbits of the planets 
 lire quiefeent, or that the line of the apfides always keeps 
 one and the fame poiition with refpe£l to the fixed liars: 
 and the aphelium polfeUes different points in the ecliptick 
 in the feveral orbits. 
 
 That the earth’s orbit is elliptical, is well known 
 from common experience; for were the orbit circular, 
 the fun’s apparent diameter would always be the fame ; 
 but we find it is not, for if it be meafured with a mi¬ 
 crometer in winter-time, it will be found confiderablv 
 larger than in the fummer, and it will be greateft of all 
 when the fun is in the 8° of (which fhews that is 
 the place , of the aphelium) it being then 32' 47"; 
 whereas, when the fun is in the 8 ° of 25, his diameter is 
 but 31'40". 
 
 Hence it is evident that the fun is really nearer to us in 
 the midft of winter than in the midft of fummer; but 
 this feems a paradox to many, who think the fun mull 
 needs be hotteft when it is neareft to us, and that the 
 fun is apparently more diftant from us in December than 
 in June. As to the fun’s being hotter, it is true, it is 
 fo to all thofe places which receive his rays dire&Iy 
 or perpendicularly, but we find his heat abated on 
 account of the obliquity of the rays, and his fhort 
 continuance above the horizon at that time. And, as 
 to his diftance, it is only with refpedl to the zenith 
 of the place, not the centre of the earth ; fince it is 
 plain, the fun may approach the centre of the earth, 
 at the fame time that it recedes from the zenith of any 
 place. 
 
 Agreeable to the fun’s nearer diftance In the winter, 
 we obferve his apparent motion is. then quicker than in 
 fummer ; for in the 8° of it is about 6i' per day, but 
 in the 8 ° of 25 his motion is but 57' per day. Accord¬ 
 ingly, we find the fummer half-year 8 days longer than 
 the winter half-year, as appears by the following com¬ 
 putation, according to the new ftyle. 
 
 Summer half-year includes 
 
 In March 10 ‘ days 
 
 April 30 
 
 May 31 
 
 Tune 30 
 
 July 3: 
 
 Auguft 31 
 
 September 23 
 Summer-half i86i 
 Winter-half 178; 
 
 The difference b days. 
 
 For the fun’s attracting force being one part of the 
 caufe of the planet’s motion, and this force always in- 
 cteafing and decteafing in the inverfe ratio of the fquares 
 of the diltances, it is evident the velocity of the planet 
 will always be greater the nearer it is to the fun, and 
 vice verfa. Hence the motion of a planet is everv where 
 unequable, being conllantly accelerated, as it palfes from 
 A by D to P, and in the other half from P to A it is 
 retarded. 
 
 Yet is. this unequal motion of a planet regulated by 
 a certain immutable law, from which it never varies, 
 which is, that a line, drawn from the centre of the fun 
 to the centre of the planet, does fo move with the planet 
 about the fun. that itdeferibes elliptick areas always pro¬ 
 portional to the times. That is, if when the’planet 
 moves floweft, it deferibes the arch A d in a given time, 
 and when it moves quickeft, it deferibes the arch b P in 
 the fame time, then will the trilineal area A S d be equal 
 to the other trilineal area b S P. 
 
 To demonftrate this, let the time in which the planet 
 moves through the periphery of its orbit be divided into 
 equal parts, and fnppoie that in the firft part it deferibed 
 any right line AB (plate LXV 1 -. fig. 1.) by the projeCtile 
 force in any direction, and the centripetal force conjointly; 
 then in the fecond part of time it would proceed in the 
 fame right line to c, if nothing prevented ; fo that B t — 
 AB, as is manifeft from the firft law of motion. 
 
 Draw the right lines SB, Sr, and the triangles A B S 
 and BrS will be equal, as having equal bafes A B, Br, 
 and the fame altitude of the vertex S. But when the 
 body comes to B, let the centripetal force a£t with a 
 new impulfc either equal to the former or unequal, and 
 let it caufe the body to decline from the right line B r, 
 and deferibe the right line BC; drawCr parallel to B S, 
 meeting BC in C; and at the end of the fecond part of 
 time the body will be at C. and in the fame plane with 
 the triangle A SB. Join SC, and bccaufe of the pa¬ 
 rallels SB. Cr, the triangle SBC will be equal to the 
 triangle S B r, and therefore equal to the triangle SAB. 
 By the fame way of reafoning, if the centripetal force act 
 fucccfiively in the points C, D, E, caufing the body in 
 each equal part of time to deferibe the right lines C D, 
 D E, EF, &c. the triangles S C D, S D E, S E F, See. 
 will be equal, and all in the fame plane. 
 
 In equal times, therefore, equal areas are deferibed ; 
 and, by compofition of ratios, any fums of areas S AD S, 
 SAFS, are to each other as the times in which they 
 are deferibed. Let now the number of triangles be in- 
 creafed, and their breadth be diminifhed in infinitum ; 
 then will their perimeter A D F be ultimately a curve j 
 and, therefore, the centripetal force, by which the body 
 is drawn perpetually from the tangent to this curve, a£ls 
 incelfantly ; and the areas deferibed are alfo in this cafe 
 proportional to the times of their defeription. Hence 
 the velocity of the revolving body or planet is every 
 where inverfely, as the perpendicular let fall from the 
 centre S to the tangent of the orbit in the place of the 
 planet. For the velocities in the points A, B, C, &c. 
 are as the bafes of the triangles AB, B C, CD, See. as 
 being the fpaces deferibed in the fame time: and the 
 bafes of equal triangles are reciprocally as their perpen¬ 
 dicular altitudes; and, therefore, fince in the evaneicent 
 triangles A S B, A SC, &c. the right lines Ac, Be/, 
 C e, See. become tangents to the curve in the points A. 
 B, C, Sec. it is manifeft, the velocity in thofe points 
 will be inverfely, as a perpendicular from S let fall upon 
 thofe tangent lines produced. 
 
 Hence alfo it follows, that the times in which equal 
 arches are deferibed in any planetary orbit are diredlly as 
 thofe perpendiculars, becaufe they are inverfely as the 
 velocities. 
 
 Winter half-year includes 
 In September 07 days. 
 October 31 
 November 30 ^ 
 
 December 31 
 January 31 
 February 28 
 March 20I- 
 
 PLANETARY, 
 
P L A 
 
 PLANET ARY, fomething relating to the planets. 
 
 Planetary Syflent , the fvftem or affemblage of the 
 planets, both primary and iecondary, moving in their 
 refpe&ive orbits round the fun, their common centre. 
 
 Planetary Days, among-the ancients, the week 
 was fhared among the feven planets, each planet having 
 its d.ay : and hence, in moil European languages, the 
 days of the week are ilill denominated from the planets, 
 as Sunday, Monday, Ac. 
 
 Planet ary Tears, the refpe&ive periods of time in 
 which the planets make their revolutions round the fun 
 or earth. 
 
 Planetary Dials, thofe whereon the planetary hours 
 are inferibed. 
 
 Planetary Squares, the fquares of the feven num¬ 
 bers, from three to nine, difpolcd magically. 
 
 PLANIMETRY, Planimetries, that part of geometry 
 which confiders lines and plain figures, without any 
 confideration of heights or depths, in oppolition to fte- 
 reometry, or the menfuration of folids. 
 
 It is'performed with fquare feet, fquare inches, fquare 
 yards, fquare perches, Ac. 
 
 PLANISPHERE, aproje&ion of the fphere, ‘ and its 
 circles, on paper or the like. In this ftnfe, maps of the 
 heavens and earth are called planifpheres. 
 
 It alfo denotes an aftronomical inflrument, ufed in 
 obferving the motions of the heavenly bodies ; confifting 
 of a-proje&ion of the cekllial fphere upon a plane repre- 
 fenting the ftars, conflellations, See. in their proper fitu- 
 ations, &c. Such is the aftrolabe, which is a common 
 name for all fuch proje&ions, which fee. 
 
 PLANO-CONCAVE Glass, or lens, fuch aglafs, 
 one of whofe furfaces is concave, and the other plain. Its 
 concavity is fpherical, unlefs the contrary be exprelTed. 
 
 Plano-conv ex Glafs, or lens, fuch a glafs, one of 
 whofe furfaces is convex, and the other plain. Its con¬ 
 vexity is fuppofed to be fpherical, unlefs the contrary be 
 exprefled. 
 
 PLANT, plant a, is defined to be an organical body, 
 deftitute of fenfe and fpontaneous motion, adhering to 
 another body in fuch a manner as to draw from it its 
 nourilhment, and having power of propagating itlelf by 
 feeds 
 
 As to the parts of which a plant confifts, they are the 
 root, flalk, leaf, flower and fruit. 
 
 Plant and vegetable are pretty near terms fynonimous, 
 every plant being a vegetable. Dr. Boerhaave defines a 
 vegetable to be a body generated of the earth, or fome¬ 
 thing arifing of the earth, to which it adheres or is con- 
 ne£ted by parts called roots, tlirough which it receives the 
 matter of its nourifhment and incrcafe ; and confifts of 
 juices and veflels lenfibly dillin£l from each other : or, a 
 vegetable is an organical body, compofed of veflels and 
 juices every where diftinguifhable from each other; to 
 which body grow roots or parts, whereto it adheres, and 
 from which it derives the matter of its life and growth. 
 
 This definition furniflies a juft and adequate idea of a 
 vegetable ; for by its confifting of diftimfl veflels and 
 juices, it is diftinguifhed from a foflil; and by its adher- 
 ingto another body, from which it derives its nourifh- 
 ment, and being deftitute of fenfation, it is fnfficiently 
 diftinguifhed from an animal. 
 
 The veflels, or containing parts of plants, confift 
 chiefly of earth, bound or conne£led together by oil, as 
 a glutton : which being exhaufted by fire, air, age, or 
 the like, the plant moulders, or returns again into its 
 earth or dull: : but it rnuft be owned, that water, air, 
 fait, and fulphur or oil, are likewife conftituent parts of 
 plants, fince they can be all obtained by a well managed 
 analyfis. 
 
 The root, or part whereby plants are conne&ed to 
 their matrix, and by which they receive their nutritions 
 juice, confifts of an infinite number of ablorbent veflels, 
 which being difperfed through the interftices of the earth, 
 attract or imbibe the juices of the fame ; confequeQtly, 
 every thing in the earth that is dilfoluble in water, is 
 liable to be imbibed, as air, fait, oil, and fumes of mine¬ 
 rals, metals, Sec. and of thele plants do really confift. 
 See Root. 
 
 The motion of thefe nutritious juices is not unlike 
 that of the blood in animals, being effe&ed by the a&ion 
 of the air. The difcovery of this we owe to the admirable 
 Malpighi, who firft obferved, that plants confift of two 
 3 
 
 P L A 
 
 lcries or orders of veflels : i. Such as receive and diftii- 
 bute the alimentary juices, anfwering to the arteries, 
 la&eals, veins, See. of animals. 2. The trachea:, or 
 air-vefiels, which are long hollow pipes, wherein air is 
 commonly received and expelled ; that is, infpired and 
 expired. Hence it follows, that the heat of the fun mult 
 have a ftrong effeft on the air included in thefe trachea.'.; 
 whence arilcs a perpetual lpring of a&ion, to promote 
 the circulation ol the juices in plants 
 
 For the botanical diftribution of plants into clafles, 
 genera, See. fee Botany, See. 
 
 /■^Plants, thofe found buried in the earth, and 
 lodged in almoft all the kinds of ftrata, or fubftances, to 
 be met with there. 
 
 PLANT A, in anatomy; the foie of the foot. See 
 the article Foot. 
 
 PLANTAIN, Plantago, in botany, a plant the flower 
 whereof confifts of one petal, ufually wide expanded at 
 the mouth, and with the limb divided into four oval leg- 
 ments: the fruit is a bilocular caplule, of an ovated 
 figure, containing a great many oblong feeds. 
 
 The root, leaves, and feeds of plantain are ufed in 
 medicine, and reckoned cooling and aftringent; being 
 much recommended in fluxes of all kinds, particularly 
 haemorrhages, whether from the nofe, mouth, or uterus. 
 It is likewife accounted a great healer of frefh wounds. 
 
 Ribwort, and bucks-horn plantain, are twofpecies of, 
 and agree with, plantain in virtues. 
 
 PLANTARIS Musculus, ox Tibialis Gracilis, in 
 anatomy, a frnall pyriform mufcle, fituated obliquely in 
 the ham, below the external condyle of the os femoris, 
 between the poplitaeus and gaftrocnemius externus ; and 
 its tendon which is long, fiat, and ycry frnall, runs 
 down on the fide of the gaftrocnemius interims all the 
 way to the heel. 
 
 PLANTATION, in the W. Indies, afpotof ground 
 which fome perfon pitches on to cultivate for his own ufe. 
 
 PLANTING, in agriculture and gardening, the fet- 
 ting of a tree or plant, taken up from its former place, 
 in a new hole proportional to its bulk, throwing frefh 
 earth over its root, and filling up the hole to tfie level of 
 the ground. 
 
 Planting «/ Wall-fruit trees. After two years growth 
 in the nurlery, ftone-fruit, being firft inoculated or 
 grafted, are ready for removal, which is beft done in 
 O&ober or November. 
 
 A hole is dug two feet deep; or, if the foil be not 
 very good, the pit is made fhallower and earth railed 
 above it. With the foil dug up, they frequently mix 
 either a rich foil or manure, fo as the mixture be at leaft 
 as rich as the foil out of which the plant came. Tire 
 hole being half filled up, it is trodden down ; all the 
 extremities of the root are cut off, and the tree fitted to 
 the wall by cutting off fuch branches as grow dire&ly 
 either towards or frontwards the wall, and leaving only 
 the fide branches, which are to be nailed to it. This 
 done, the tree is fet in the hole, as far from the wall as 
 is confiftent with the head’s fpreading thereon, that the 
 root may have the more room backwards, and the hole 
 then filled up with the compoft. 
 
 Reverfe Planting, is a method of planting, wherein 
 the ordinary pofition of the plant or lhoot is inverted ; 
 the branches being fet in the earth, and the roots reated 
 into the air. Mr. Fairchild gives the following direc¬ 
 tions for the performance thereof: Chufe a young alder, 
 elm, willow, or any other tree of one fhoot that readily 
 takes root by laying : bend the fhoot gently down till the 
 extreme part be in the ground, andfo let it remain till it 
 has taken good root. This done, dig about the firft root, 
 and gently take it up out of the ground till die ftem 
 be nearly upright; in which ftate take it up. Then 
 prune the roots, now cre&ed in the air, from the wounds 
 thereby received in being dug; and anoint the pruned 
 part with a compofition of four parts of bees-wax, two 
 of refin, and two of turpentine, melted together and ap¬ 
 plied pretty warm. Then prune off all the fhoots or 
 buds upon the ftem, and drefs die wounds with the fame 
 compofition, to prevent any collateral fhootings j and 
 leave the reft to nature. 
 
 Planting, in archite&ure, denotes~the laying the 
 firft courfes of ftone on the foundation, according to the 
 meafures, with all pofiible cxa&nefs. 
 
 PLASHING of Quickfet Hedges, an operation very 
 
 ncceffary 
 
P L A 
 
 ineceffary to promote the growth and continuance of old 
 hedges. 
 
 It is performed in this manner : the old flubs miiftbe 
 cut ofF, Ac. within two or three inches of the ground, 
 and the bcfl and Jongeft of the middle fized fhoots mull 
 be left to lay down. Some of the flrongefl of thefe mufl 
 alfo be left to anfwer the purpofe of flakes. Thefe are 
 to be cut off to the height at which the hedge is intended 
 to be left; and they are to fland at ten feet diftance one 
 from another : when there are not proper fhoots for thefe 
 at the due diflances, their places mufl be fupplied with 
 common flakes of dead wood. The hedge is to be firft 
 thinned, by cutting away all but thofe fhdots which arc 
 intended to be ufed either as Hakes, or the other work of 
 the plafhing : the ditch is to be cleaned out with the 
 fpade : and it mufl be now dug as at firft, with Hoping 
 fides each way ; and when there is any cavity on the bank 
 on which the hedge grows, or the earth has been wafhed 
 away from the roots of the fluubs, it is to be made good 
 by facing it, as they exprefs it, with the mould dug from 
 the upper part of the ditch ; all the reft of the earth dug 
 out of the ditch is to be laid upon the top of the bank, 
 and the owner fhould look carefully into it that this be 
 done ; for the workmen, to fpare themfelves trouble, are 
 apt to throw as much as they can upon the face of the 
 bank; which being by this means overloaded, is foon 
 waftied off into the ditch again, and a very great part of 
 the work undone ; whereas what is laid on the top of the 
 bank always remains there, and makes a good fence of an 
 indifferent hedge. 
 
 In the plaftiing the quick, two extremes arc to be 
 avoided ; thefe are, the laying it too low, and the laying 
 it too thick : this makes the fap run all into the flioots, 
 and leaves the plafhes without fufficient nourifhment; 
 which, with the thicknefs of the hedge, finally kills 
 them. The other extreme of laying them too high is 
 equally to be avoided ; for this carries up all the nourifh¬ 
 ment into the plafhes, and fo makes the Hioots fmall and 
 weak at the bottom, and, confequently, the hedge thin. 
 This is a common error in the north of England. The 
 beft hedges made any where in England, are thofe in 
 Hertfordfliire; for they are plafhed in a middle way be¬ 
 tween the two extremes, and the cattle are by that pre¬ 
 vented both from cropping the young fhoots, and from 
 going through ; and a new and vigorous hedge foon 
 forms itfelf. When the Htoot is bent down that is in¬ 
 tended to be plafhed, it mufl be cut half way through 
 with the bill : the cut mufl be given Hoping, fomewhat 
 downwards, and then it is to be wound about the flakes, 
 and after this its fuperfluous branches are to be cut off, as 
 they Hand out at the fides of the hedge. If for the firft 
 year or two the field where a new hedge is made can be 
 ploughed, it will thrive the better for it; but if the flubs 
 are very old, it is beft to cut them quite down, and to 
 fecure them with good dead hedges on both fides, till the 
 fnoots are grown up from them flrong enough to plafh ; 
 and wherever void i'paces are feen, new fets are to be 
 planted to fill them up. A new hedge raifed from fets 
 in the common way, generally requires plafhing about 
 eight or nine years after. 
 
 PLASTER, Emplojlrum , in pharmacy, is defined to 
 be an external application, of a harder confiftence than 
 our ointments : thefe are to be fpread according to the 
 different circumftanccs of the wound, place, or patient, 
 either upon linen or leather. 
 
 Plaster, among builders, Ac. The plafter of Paris 
 is a preparation of feveral fpecies of gypfums, dug near 
 Mont Martre, a village in the neighbourhood of Paris ; 
 whence the name. 
 
 PLAST 1 CK, a thing endued with a formative power, 
 or a faculty of forming or fafltioning a mafs of matter, 
 after the likencfs of a living being; fuch a virtue as 
 Home of the ancient Epicureans, and perhaps the Peri- 
 patcticks too, imagined to refide in the earth, or, at leaft, 
 to have anciently reilded therein; by means whereof, 
 and without any extraordinary intervention of a creator, 
 it put forth plants, Ac. Some of them l'eem to be of 
 opinion, that animals, and even man himfelf, was the 
 cffedl of this plaftick power. 
 
 PLASTICE, the plaftick art, a branch of fculpture, 
 being the art of forming figures of men, birds, beails, 
 fifties, Ac. in plafter, clay, ftucco, or the like. 
 
 PLAT-Veins, in the manage, the veins wherein we 
 Vol. II. No. 57. 
 
 P L A 
 
 bleed liorfes, one in the lower part of each ftioulder, arid 
 the other in the flat part of the thighs. 
 
 Plats of a Ship , flat ropes made of rope-yarn, and 
 weaved one over the other ; they ferve to lave the cable 
 from galling in the liaufe, or to wind about the flukes 
 of the anchors, to fave the pennant of the fore-Ihect 
 from galling againft them. 
 
 PLATBAND of a Door or Window, is ufed for the 
 lintel, where that is made fquare, or not much arched , 
 thefe platbands are ufually crofted with bars of iron when 
 they have a great bearing, but it is much better to eafe 
 them by arches of difeharge built over them. 
 
 Platbands of Flutings, are the lifts or fillets between, 
 the flutings of columns. 
 
 PLATE, . n commerce, flgnifies gold or fdver wrought 
 into veflels, for domeftick ufes. 
 
 Plate, in heraldry, is a round flat piece of filver, 
 without any impreflion ; but, as it were, formed ready 
 to receive it. 
 
 Plate, is alfo a term ufed by our fportfmen, to exprefs 
 the reward given to the beft horfes at our races. 
 
 Plates, in gunnery. The prife-plates are two plates 
 of iron on the cheeks of a gun-carriage, from the cape- 
 fquare to the centre, through which the prile bolts go, 
 and on which the handfpike refts when it poifes up the 
 breech of the piece. 
 
 Breaft-plates are the two plates on the face of the 
 carriage, one on each cheek. Train-plates are the two 
 plates on the cheeks, at the train of the carriage. Du- 
 lidge-plates are the fix plates on the wheel of a gun- 
 carriage, where the fellows are joined together, and Verve 
 to ftrengthen the dulidges. 
 
 PLATFORM, in the military art, an elevation of 
 earth, on which cannon is placed, to fire on the enemy; 
 fuch are the mounts in the middle of curtins : on the 
 rampart there is always a platform, where the cannon 
 are mounted. It is made by the heaping up of earth on 
 the rampart, or by an arrangement of madriers, riling 
 inlenfibly, for the cannon to roll on, either in acafemate, 
 or on attack in the outworks. 
 
 Platform, in archite£lure, is a row of beams, 
 which fupport the timber-work of a roof, and lie on the 
 top of the wall, where the entablature ought to be raifed. 
 
 This term is likewife ufed for a kind of terrace, or 
 broad, fmooth, open walk, at the top of a building, 
 from whence a fair profpeil may be taken of the adjacent 
 country. Hence an edifice is laid to be covered with a 
 platform, when it is flat at top, and has no ridge. Moft 
 of the oriental buildings arc thus covered, as were all 
 thole of the ancients. 
 
 Platform, or Orlap, in a man of war, a place on 
 the lower deck, abaft the main-maft, between it and the 
 cockpit, and round about the main capftan, where pro- 
 vifion is made for the wounded men in time of action. 
 
 PLATONICK, fbmetliing relating to Plato. 
 
 Platonlck Bodies, the fame with Regular Bodies 
 which fee. 
 
 Platonick Love, denotes a pure affeflion fubfifting 
 between the different fexes, abftra£led from all carnal 
 appetite, and regarding only the mind and its beauties ; 
 or even a lincere difintcrefted friendlhip between perfons 
 of the fame lex, abftra£ted front all felfilh views, and 
 terminating only in the perfon. Plato’s notions of love 
 and friendlhip appear to be arrant chimeras, contrary to 
 the intentions of nature, and inconfiftent with the great 
 law of lelf-prefervation, into which love and friendlhip 
 are both ultimately refolvible. 
 
 Pi.atonick Year, or great year, is a period of time 
 determined by the revolution of the equinoxes; or the 
 fpace wherein the ftars and conftcllations return to their 
 former places, in refpedl of the equinoxes. This year, 
 according to Tycho Brahe, is 25816; according to 
 Ricciolus, 25920 ; according to Caflini, 24800 years. 
 This period once accomplilhed, the ancients thought the 
 world was to begin anew, and the fame feries of things 
 to turn over again. 
 
 PLA 1 ONISM, the do£lrine and fentiments of Plato 
 and his followers with regard to philofophy, Ac. 
 
 Plato was an Athenian, born about the year of the 
 world 3625, who, after fpending his youth in the exer- 
 ciles of the body, in painting and poetry, became z 
 difciple of Socrates. After his mailer’s death he applied 
 himfelf to Cratylus and Hermogenes, till, being mailer 
 
 Hhh of 
 
P L E P L O 
 
 of the Greek philofopliy, he travelled into Italy, where 
 he learnt that of the Pythagoreans. Thence he pro¬ 
 ceeded into Egypt, where he became fully acquainted 
 with the myfleries of the Egyptian priefts. 
 
 At his return to Athens, he began to philofophize in 
 the academy, a delicious villa in the neighbourhood 
 of that city: and hence his dilciples were called aca¬ 
 demic'* s. 
 
 After his death, two of the principal of his fcholars, 
 Arillotle and Zenocrates, taught, the one in the aca- 
 derny, and theother in the lyceum, forming two feds 
 under different names, though in other relpe&s the lame, 
 viz/Acadcmicks and Peripateticks. 
 
 PLATOON, in war, a fmall body of men, in a 
 battalion of foot, See. that fire alternately, the whole 
 lines being divided into a certain number tor the moft 
 part advancing fomewhat beyond the main body, in 
 order either to lupport the fquadrons ot horfe, or in am- 
 buicades and defiles. Platoons are alio ufed in the hol¬ 
 low fquare. 
 
 PLATYSMA Myoides, in anatomy, a name given 
 by Fallopius to one of the mulcles, called latilfuna colli, 
 by fome quadratus gena;, and lubcutaneus by others. 
 
 PLEADING, Placitatio , fomething lpokcn at the bar 
 in defence of a client’s cauie. 
 
 Since the conqueil down to Edward III. all pleading 
 was performed m French, when it was appointed that 
 the pleas fliould be pleaded in Englifh, but entered and 
 recorded in Latin. It is but of late years that eloquence 
 has been admitted to the bar among us. 
 
 Pleadings, in a more ftrift fenfe, denote all the 
 allegations of the parties to a fuit, made aftCF the count 
 or declaration, tiil the ilfue he joined. 
 
 PLEASURE and pain, lays Mr. Locke, are fimple 
 ideas, which we receive both, from lenfation and reflec¬ 
 tion ; there being thoughts of the mind, as well as fen- 
 lations, accompanied with pleafure or pain. 
 
 PLEBEIAN, Plebeius , any perfon of the rank of the 
 common people. It is chiefly ufed in lpeaking of the an¬ 
 cient Romans, who were divided into lenators, knights, 
 and plebeians, or commoners. 
 
 PLEB 1 SCITUM, among the Romans, a law enabled 
 by the common people at the requeft of the tribune or 
 other plebeian magiflrate, without the intervention of the 
 lenate, but more particularly denotes the law which the 
 people made, when they retired to the Aventine mount. 
 
 PLEDGE, Plegius. in common law, aiurety, either 
 real or perl'onal, which the plaintiff is to find for his 
 profecuting the fuit. 
 
 PLEDGERY, Pleggery, furctifhip, orananfwer- 
 ing for another perfon. 
 
 PLEDGET, B.'.ter , Comprefs , Plumaceolus , in chi- 
 rurgerv, a kind of flat tent laid over a wound, to imbibe 
 the luperfluous humours, and keep it clean. 
 
 PLEG 11 S Acqju iet and is, in law, a writ that lies 
 for a furcty againlt him, for whom he is furety, in cafe 
 he pay not the money at the day. 
 
 PLEIADES, Virgilice, in agronomy, an affeinblage 
 of feven ftars in the neck of the confiellation Taurus. 
 See Constellation and Taurus. 
 
 PLENARTY, in law, is when a church benefice is 
 full of an incumbent. 
 
 PLENARY, fomething complete or full. 
 
 PLEN 1 LUNIUM, in atlronomy, that phafis of the 
 moon commonly called the full moon. See Moon. 
 
 PLENIPOTENTIARY, a perfon veiled with full 
 power to do any thing. See Ambassador. 
 
 PLENITUDE, Plenitudo, the quality of a thing that 
 is full, or fills another. In medicine it chiefly denotes 
 a redundancy of blood and humours. See the article 
 Plethora. 
 
 PLENUM, in phyficks, denotes, according to the 
 Cartefians, that Hate of things, wherein every part of 
 fpace is fuppofed to be full of matter; in oppofition to a 
 vacuum. See Vacuum. 
 
 PLEONASM, PUonafmus , Rcdundantia , a figure in 
 rhetorick, whereby we ufe words feeruingly fuperfluous, 
 in order to exprefs a thought with the greater energy , 
 f'uch as, 44 1 law it with my own eyes, &c.” 
 
 PLEROT 1 CK.S, Plerotica , in medicine, a kind of 
 remedies that are healing, or that ti'l up the flefh : other- 
 wile called incarnatives and lbrcoticks. See the article 
 Sarcoticks. 
 
 PLETHORA, in medicine, a greater redundance of 
 laudable blood and humours than is capable of undergo¬ 
 ing thole changes which muff neceffaiily happen for the 
 purpofes of life, without inducing difeafes. 
 
 A plethora is cured by venefeition, exercife, watch¬ 
 ings, a (harp and acrid diet, after due evacuations, and 
 by a gradual omilfion of thele evacuations. 
 
 PLF.THOR 1 CK, P/ethoricus, a perfon abounding 
 with blood, or labouring under a plethora. 
 
 PLEURA, in anatomy, a lmooth, robuft, and tenfe 
 membrane, adhering to the ribs and to the intercoftal 
 mulcles, and furrounding the whole cavity of the tho¬ 
 rax. Its Ilruilurc refembles two facks, one of which fur-* 
 rounds one fide of the thorax, and the other the oilier 
 fide ; and each of them contains one of the two lobes ot 
 the lungs : from the conjunilion of thefe two facculi of 
 the pleura, in the middle of the thorax, is formed the 
 medialtinum. The ufe of the pleura is to lubricate and 
 (Lengthen the whole cavity of the thorax. 
 
 PLEURISY, in medicine, a violent pain in the fide, 
 attended with an acute fever, a cough, and a difficulty 
 of breathing. 
 
 Dr. Mead obferves, on the treatment of this diforder, 
 that after drawing as much blood as is neceffary, draughts 
 with frefh-drawn linleed oil, are of great fervice for 
 eafing the cough ; nitre, for allaying the heat; and for 
 diffolving the fizy blood that obftru&s the fmall canals, 
 wild goat’s blood and volatile falts ; and, laflly, a bliiler 
 laid on the part affefted, in order to draw forth the pec¬ 
 cant humour. 
 
 As to the baftard pleurify, Hoffman fays, that it is 
 properly a kind of rheumatilm, and does not require 
 bleeding unlefs the patient is plethorick, but a diaphorelis 
 and a more free perfpiration. Lancifi, however, advilcs 
 plentiful bleeding in the arm, fcarifying the part affedted, 
 and cupping : and during the cure, it is neceffary to keep 
 the body open, and the bowels free from fpafms; tor 
 which purpofe emollient cly Iters are proper, with oil of 
 fvveet almonds. 
 
 PLEUROPNEUMONY, in medicine, a difeafe par¬ 
 taking of the nature both of a pleurrfy and peripneumony. 
 
 PLEXU S, among anatomifts, a bundle of fmall veffels 
 interwoven in the form of net-work ; thus a congeries 
 of veflels within the brain is called plexus choroides, 
 reticularis, or retiformis. See Choroides. 
 
 A plexus of nerves is an union of two or more nerves, 
 forming a fort of ganglion or knot. 
 
 PLICA Polonica, in medicine, a difeafe of the 
 hair, almoft peculiar to Poland and Lithuania, and hence 
 denominated Polonica. It confifts of a preternatural 
 bulk of hair, which being firmly conglutmated and 
 wrapped up in inextricable knots, and extended to a 
 monilrous length, affords a very unfcemly fpe&acle. 
 When thefe are cut off, the blood is dilcharged from 
 them, the head racked with pain, the fight impaired, and 
 the patient's life frequently endangered. 
 
 PLICATED, fomething folded together, one part 
 over another; as the leaves of certain plants, See. 
 
 PLINTH, Orle, or Orlo, in architecture, aflat 
 lquare member, in the form of a brick. It is ufed as 
 the foundation of columns, being that flat fquare table, 
 under the moulding of the bafe and pedellal, at the bot¬ 
 tom of the whole order. It feems to have been origi¬ 
 nally intended to keep the bottom of the original wooden 
 pillars from rotting. Vitruvius alfo calls the Tufcaix 
 abacus, plinth. 
 
 Plinth of a Statue , See. is a bafe, either flat, round, 
 or fquare, that ferves to fupport it. 
 
 Plinth of a IV..I’, denotes two or three rows of 
 bricks advancing out from a wall; or, in general, any 
 flat high moulding, that ferves in a front wall to mark 
 the floors, to fuftain the caves of a wall, or the larmier 
 of a chimney. 
 
 PLOT, in dramatick poetry, is fometimes ufed for 
 the fable of a tragedy or comedy, but more particularly 
 the knot or intrigue, which makes the embarras of any 
 piece. The unravelling puts an end to the plot. 
 
 Plot, in furveying, the plan or draught of any field, 
 farm, or manor, furveyed with an inftrument, and laid 
 down in the proper figures and dimenfions. 
 
 Plotting, among furvevors, is the art of laying 
 down on paper. &c. the fevcral angles and lines of a 
 trail of ground furveved bv a theodolite, See. and achain. 
 
 Ia 
 
P L O 
 
 la Purveying with the plain-table, the plotting is Paved ; 
 the lcveral angles and diftances being laid down on the 
 Ppot, as fall as they are taken. But. in working with 
 the theodolite, femi-circle, or circumferentor, the angles 
 are taken in degrees; and the diftances in chains and 
 links; Po there remains an after operation to reduce thefe 
 members into lines, and Po to form a draught, plan, or 
 map ; this operation is called plotting. Plotting then is 
 performed by means of two inftruments, the protractor 
 and plotting Pcale. By the firft, the feveral angles ob- 
 ferved in the field with a theodolite, or the like, and 
 entered down in degrees in the field-book, are protracted 
 on paper in their juft quantity. By the latter, the feveral 
 diftances meafured with the chain, and entered down in 
 like manner in the field-book, are laid down in their juft 
 proportion. 
 
 Method of plotting Prom the circumferentor. Sup- 
 pofe an inclofure, e. gr. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, 
 (plate LX 1 V. fig. 3.) to have been Purveyed ; and the 
 feveral angles, as taken by a circumferentor, in going 
 round the field, and the diftances as meafured by a chain, 
 to be found entered in the field-book, as in the following 
 table: 
 
 Deg. Min. Cha. Link. Deg. Min. Cha. Link. 
 
 191 
 
 OO 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 
 F 
 
 3 2 4 
 
 3 ° 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 297 
 
 OO 
 
 6 
 
 83 
 
 G 
 
 98 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 216 
 
 3 ° 
 
 7 
 
 82 
 
 H 
 
 7 i 
 
 OO 
 
 7 
 
 78 
 
 325 
 
 OO 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 K 
 
 161 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 .71 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 On a paper of the proper dimenfions, as LMNO, 
 draw a number of parallel and equidiftant lines. Their 
 ufe is to diredt the pofition of the protractor ; the diame¬ 
 ter whereof mull always belaid either upon one of them 
 or parallel thereto ; the femi-circular limb downwards 
 for angles greater than 180°, and upwards, for thofe lefs 
 than 180 0 . 
 
 The paper being thus prepared, affume a point on fome 
 meridian as A, whereon lay the centre of the protraCtor, 
 and the diameter along the line. Confult the field-book 
 for the firft angle, i. e. for the degrees cut by the needle 
 at A, which the tabic gives you 191 °. 
 
 Now lince 191 is more than a femi-circle, or 180, 
 the femi-circle of the protraCtor is to be laid downwards; 
 when keeping it to the point with the protraCting pin, 
 make a mark againft 191 ; through which mark from A 
 draw an indefinite line A b. The firft angle thus pro¬ 
 tracted, again confult the book, for the length of the firft 
 line A B ; thus you find 10.chains 75 links. From a 
 convenient fcale, therefore, on the plotting Pcale take the 
 extent of 10 chains 75 links between thecompaffes; and, 
 fetting one point in A, mark where the other falls in the 
 line Ah, which fuppofe in B : draw therefore the full 
 line A B, for the firft fide of the inclofure. 
 
 Proceed then to the fecond angle, and laying the centre 
 to the protraCtor on the point B, with the diameter as 
 before direCted, make-a mark as c , againft 297 0 , the 
 degrees cut at B ; and draw the indefinite line B c. On 
 this line, from the plotting-Pcale, as before, Pet off the 
 length of your fecond line, viz. 6 chains 83 links ; wdiich 
 extending from B to the point C, draw the line B C for 
 the fecond fide. Proceed now to the third angle or ftation, 
 lav then the centre of the protraCtor, as before, on the 
 point C ; make a mark as d againft the number of degrees 
 cut at C, viz. 216 ; draw the indefinite line C d, and 
 thereon let off the third diftance, viz. 7 chains 82 links; 
 which terminating, e. gr. at D, draw the full line C D 
 for the third fide. 
 
 Proceed now to the fourth angle D ; and, laying the 
 centre of the protraCtor over the point D, againft 325 0 , 
 the degree cut by the needle, make a mark e ; draw the 
 dry line D e, and thereon fet off the diftance 6 chains 
 96 links, which terminating in E, draw D E for the 
 fourth line, and proceed to the fifth angle, viz. E. 
 
 Here the degrees cut by the needle being 12 0 24 (which 
 is lefs than a femi-circle) the centre of the protraCtor 
 muft be laid on the point E, and the diameter on the 
 meridian, with the ferai-diameter limb turned upwards. 
 In this fituation, make a mark, as before, againft the 
 number of degrees, viz. 12° 24' cut by the needle at E ; 
 draw the dry line E /, on which fet off the filth diftance, 
 • viz. 9 chains 71 links ; which extending from E to F, 
 draw the full line E F, for the fifth fide of the inclofure. 
 
 P L O 
 
 After the fame manner proceed orderly to the angle? 
 K G, H, and K ; then placing the protraCtor, making 
 marks againft the rcfpeCtive degrees, drawing indefinite 
 day lines, and, fetting off the rcfpeCtive diftances as 
 above, you will have the plot of rhe whole ihclofure 
 ABC, Ac. 
 
 Such is the general method of plotting from this in - 
 ftiument; but it muft be oblcrved, that in this proccis 
 the ftationary lines, i. e. the lines wherein the circum¬ 
 ferentor is placed to take the aqgles, and wherein the 
 chain is run to meafure the diftances are properly the 
 lines here plotted. When, therefore, in Purveying^ the 
 ftationary lines are at any diftance from the fence or 
 boundaries of the field, Ac. off-Pets are taken, i. e. the 
 diftance of the fence from the ftationary line is meafured 
 at each ftation ; and even at intermediate places, if there 
 prove any confiderable bends in the fence. 
 
 Tn plotting therefore the ftationary lines being laid 
 down as above, the off-Pets muft be laid down from them, 
 i. e. perpendiculars of the proper length muft be let fall 
 at the proper places from the ftationary lines. The ex¬ 
 tremes of which perpendiculars, being connected by 
 lines, give the plot defired. It inftead of going round 
 the field, the angle and diftances have been all taken 
 from one ftation, the procefs of plotting is obvious, from 
 the example above: all here required being to protraCt, 
 after the manner already deferibed, the feveral angles and 
 diftances taken from the fame ftationary point in the 
 field, from the fame point, or centre of the paper. The 
 extremities of the lines thus determined, being then con¬ 
 nected by lines, will give the plot required. 
 
 I he following is a new plotting inftrument invented 
 by Mr. Henry Beighton. It is a plain fmooth board 
 about 18 inches fquare and three fourths of an inch thick, 
 as A B C D (fig. 2.) made of mahogany, walnut, pear- 
 tree, or Norway oak, well clamped at the ends, or a brafs 
 frame round it to prevent its warping, and, as much as 
 pofiible, fhrinking and fwelling. 
 
 Within fix tenths of an inch of its eppofite fides 
 (and parallel to them and one another) are two grooves 
 E F, G H, cut on the face half an inch deep, to let in 
 two brafs holders in the fhape of N O (fig. 5.) which 
 are each of one piece of caft brafs, like two brafs rulers 
 joined together at right angles. The perpendicular part 
 is one tenth and 300 parts of an inch thick, as at d, half 
 an inch deep, and a little Blotter at each end than the 
 upper part which is 17 inches Jong, three tenths broad, 
 and about eight parts of a hundredth of an inch thick; 
 about two inches and a half from each end of the holder, 
 arc thick parts or bofies in the upright piece, as at P 
 and Q_. through which aic holes drilled to receive the 
 ferews PS, Q_R, which ferews go each through a brafs 
 plate at T and V, fixed by rivets on the under fide of the 
 table, and little round nuts, (as at a and b) put on them, 
 to confine them in their fhoulders in turning in the 
 plates, that they never rife nor fall; thefe holes muft go 
 eafy in the groves, to link even with the upper furface of 
 the table. Then when the ferews enter the holes of the 
 holders by turning R and S at the fame time forward, the 
 holders will fall and pinch down any papers, Ac. that are 
 under them ; and turning backward, will rile and releafe 
 them. In the middle of one end of the table is a groove 
 to receive the brafs W, which has the fame fort of ferew 
 and fixing as the other to rife or fall it. But the groove 
 is quadrantal, that the holder W may on occaiion be 
 turned fo as to lie all on the outfide the line E K, and 
 to crols it in cafe of high winds, for lecuring the paper 
 down, on three fides ; and a fourth might be added, but 
 there is fcldom any occafion for it. 
 
 To the centre of the table underneath is fixed a brafs 
 locket, fo truly made that the table may, when fet, turn 
 round truly horizontally : and a machine caled with glafs, 
 in which a plummet hangs to fet the table level; or the 
 parallel plates, or glals tubes of fpirit of wine, may be 
 uled to make it horizontal, as any one fees occaiion to 
 fancy them. To any one of the fourth edges underneath 
 is ferewed a box and needle, fet to the variation. There 
 belongs to this inftrument a ftrong three-legged ftaff, and 
 an index with plain or telefcopical figh . near two feet 
 long. I he papers or charts for this table arc to be either 
 a thiii fine palteboard, fine paper pafted on cartridge paper, 
 or two papers pafted together, cut as exaCtly fquare as 
 I pofiible, each fide being nearly iixteen inches and a half 
 
 long, 
 
P L O 
 
 long, juft as they may Aide in eafy between the upright 
 part, and between the fiat part of the holders. 
 
 Any of thefe charts may be put in the table four dif¬ 
 ferent ways, be fixed, taken out, or changed at pleafure; 
 any two of them may be joined together truly on the 
 table, if you make each of them meet exaft at the line 
 l.M, w hi 111 near one half of each will hang over the 
 fides of the table; or, by crefting or doubling each, the 
 whole of them will be within the table. And if occafion 
 fhould happen, as feldom it does, by crefting each paper 
 both ways through the middle, four of them may be put! 
 on at one time, meeting in the centre of the table. 
 
 Each chart is always crofted by right angles through 
 the middle, for the purpofe above, and to make any of 
 them anfwer to the guide-lines on the table IK, LM, 
 drawn quite through the centre, and the whole table. 
 So the grand objection of fluffing papers is obviated. 
 
 Plotting Scale , a mathematical inllrument, ufually 
 of wood, fometimes of brals, or other matter; and either 
 a foot, or half a foot long. On one fide of the inllrument 
 are feven feveral feales, or lines, divided into equal parts, 
 file firlt divifion ol the firft fcale is lubdivided into io 
 equal parts, to which is prefixed the number io, lignify- 
 ing that io of thole fubdivifions make an inch ; or that 
 the divifions of that fcale are decimals of inches. 
 
 The firft divifion of the fecond fcale is likewife fubdi- 
 vided into io, to which is prefixed the number 16, de¬ 
 noting that 16 of thole fubdivifions make an inch. The 
 firft divifion of the third fcale is fubdivided in like man¬ 
 ner into io, to which is prefixed the number 20. To 
 that of the fourth fcale is prefixed the number 24 ; to 
 that of the fifth 32 ; that of the fixtli 40; that of the 
 leventh 48 ; denoting the number of fubdivifions equal 
 to an inch, in each, refpe&ively. The two lall feales 
 are broken off before the end, to give room for two lines 
 of chords. 
 
 On the back-fide of the inllrument is a diagonal fcale, 
 the firft of whole divifions, which is an inch long, if 
 the fcale be a foot, and half an inch, if half a foot, is 
 lubdivided, diagonally, into 100 equal parts. At the 
 other end of the fcale is another diagonal lubdivifion, of 
 half the length of the former, into the fame number of 
 parts, viz. 100. Next the feales, is a line divided into 
 hundredth parts of a foot, numbered 10, 20, 30, Ac. 
 and a line of inches fubdivided into tenth parts, marked 
 
 1, 2, 3. & C. 
 
 Ufe of Plotting Scale. 1. Any diftance being 
 meafured with the chain, to lay it down on paper. 
 Suppofe the diftance to be 6 chains 50 links. Draw an 
 indefinite line : let one foot of the compaffcs at figure 6 
 on the fcale, e. gr. the fcale of 20 in an inch, and ex¬ 
 tend the other to 5 of the fubdivifions, for the 50 links; 
 this diftance, being transferred to the line, will exhibit 
 the 6 chains 50 links required. 
 
 If it be defired to have 6 chains 50 links, take up more 
 or lefs fpace, take them off from a greater or lefs fcale, 
 i. e. from a fcale that has more or fewer divifions in an 
 inch. To find the chains and links contained in a right 
 line, e. gr. that is juft drawn, according to any fcale, 
 e. gr. that of 20 in an inch. Take the length of the line 
 in the compafles, and applying it to the given fcale, you 
 will find it extend from the number 6 of the great divi¬ 
 fions, to 5 of the fmall ones : hence the given line con¬ 
 tains 6 chains 50 links. 
 
 PLOUGH, in agriculture, a well known machine 
 for the breaking up of ground, that confills of a train, 
 and two large irons, namely, the coulter and fhare ; 
 the one pointed, the other edged. The ftruflure and 
 contrivance of the plough is various in various kinds of 
 ground ; the chief of which arc as follows : 
 
 Double-wheeled Plough, ufed throughout Hertford¬ 
 shire. Ac. It is one of the beft, llrongeft, and eafieft 
 draughts of any, and fuits all kinds of land, except miry 
 clays in winter. 
 
 Lincolujhire Plough, is very good for fenny lands, 
 fubjeft to weeds and ledges, but free from ft ones. 
 
 Suffix Single Wheel P l o u g h , is very wide in the breech, 
 fo that the draught of it mull be very hard. 
 
 Caxton or Trenching Plough, a plough invented to 
 cut drains about Caxton in Cambridgefture, in lliff 
 miry clay grounds. It has two coulters, one before the 
 other, which, bending inwards, cut each fide of the 
 trench, which is a foot wide at bottom, a foot and a \ 
 
 P L U 
 
 half at top, and a foot deep ; this plough is drawn by 
 20 horles. 
 
 Dray Plough, is the raoft common: it is made 
 without wheel or foot, of an eafy draught, beft m winter 
 for miry clays, where the land is loft. 
 
 Spanijh Plough, is a kind of femieircle, pitched on 
 one end. with the convex fide turned to the ploughman, 
 and the concave fide a little inclined to the horfe : its 
 tail is in a right line with the lhare. With this plough 
 and one horle, the Spaniards plow two or three acres 
 in a day. 
 
 Colchejlet Plough, is a fine light-wheel plough, which 
 with two liorfes will cut up two acres of their land in a 
 day. It has an iron earth-board made rounding, which 
 turns the turl better than any other plough. 
 
 One-wheel Plough, may be ufed in any ground. 
 
 Double Plough ; in this there is one plough fixed 
 to the fide of another, fo that by means of four liorfes 
 and two men a double furrow is ploughed. Add to thefe 
 another kind whereby two furrows are plowed at once 
 one under another, whereby the earth is ftirred up 12 
 or 14 inches deep. 
 
 Plough, among bookbinders, is a tool with which 
 the leaves of books are cut fmooth. 
 
 PLOUGHING, one of the principal operations in 
 agriculture, performed by the plough. 
 
 This is principally either of lays or of fallows. 
 
 Ploughing of Lays, is the firft cutting up of grafs- 
 ground for corn ; which is ufually done in January, 
 when the earth is wet, and the turf tough, fo as to hold 
 turning without breaking. 
 
 Ploughing of Fallows , or Fallowing, is a preparing 
 of land by ploughing, long before it be plowed for feed. 
 This is a confiderable benefit to lands, few of which will 
 bear above two crops fucceifively without fuch relpite. 
 There are commonly three fallowings ; the firft is, as 
 loon as the hulbandman have done fowing; and this is 
 to be very fhallow, well turned, and clapped clofe to¬ 
 gether : the fecond is in June, when they go to the full 
 depth ; the third, about the beginning of Auguft. If 
 it rife full of clods, they harrow it down : but foon 
 ftrick-fize, or plow it up again into ridges. 
 
 In Staffordfhire, befides the three fummer fallowings, 
 they give their land a winter fallowing. This plowing 
 of land four times Virgil recommends : 
 
 Ilia leges demum votis refpondet avari 
 
 Agricola:, bis qua: folem, bis frigora fenfit. Geor. 1 .1. 
 
 This is an ancient piece of hulbandry, witnefs thofe 
 verfes of Virgil ; 
 
 Altcrnis idem tonfas ceffare novales 
 
 Et fegnem patiere fitu durefcerc campum. Id. lib. 1. 
 
 PLUMAGE, denotes the feathers of birds ; in fal¬ 
 conry, it more particularly denotes the feathers undpr a 
 hawk’s wing, as alfo a parcel of feathers which falconers 
 give their hawks to make them call. 
 
 PLUMB-Link, among artificers, denotes a perpen¬ 
 dicular line, fo called, becaule ufually deferibed by means 
 of a plummet. 
 
 PLUMB-Tree, Prunus, a genus of trees whole 
 flower confifts of five roundilh concave petals, inlerted in 
 the cup with upwards of 20 ftamina: the fruit is either 
 an oval or roundilh drupe, with a longitudinal furrow, 
 containing a comprefled and acute pointed nut, with the 
 futures Handing out each way in an edge. 
 
 The plumb-tree, it is laid, is a native of Armenia, 
 and the country about Damafcus, from whence they 
 were firft brought to Italy, and from thence to the other 
 European countries. 
 
 As there are a confiderable number of forts of plumbs, 
 we lhall only mention a few of the beft. 1. The per¬ 
 digron plumb. 2. The violet perdigron. 3. The white 
 perdigron. 4. T he myrobalan. 5. The green gage. 
 6. The drap d’or. 7. St. Catherine. 8. Mirabeile. 
 9. 'I'he damalk violet. 10. The Orleans ; this is the 
 moil common. 11. The imperial. 12. The mogul, 
 thefe two laft are good for baking, or fweet-meats: to 
 which may be added feveral other forts, together with 
 the darufon, floe, black and white bullace, which grow 
 in the hedges, and are fi: for tarts, the damfon in par¬ 
 ticular. They are propagated by inoculation, on wild 
 plumb flocks, and may be trained either for dwarf, 
 
 elpalier. 
 
P L U 
 
 cfpalier, wall, or ftandard trees. In thole years that 
 plumbs aie very plenty, and confequently much eaten 
 by all l'orts of people, fluxes of the belly generally abound, 
 which often turn to bloody fluxes, hence it appears that 
 they always Ihould be eaten with moderation, and lhould 
 be quite ripe and found. 
 
 PLUMB AGE, Plumbago , Molybdana , in metallurgy, 
 a metalline recrement, fe'paratcd in the purification of 
 gold or filver with lead, and flicking to the iides of the 
 furnace. It has the lame virtue with litharge, h alfio 
 i’eoms to have been ufed among the ancients for black- 
 lead. 
 
 PLUMBERY, the art of calling, preparing, and 
 working of lead, and uling it in buildings, &c. The 
 lead ufed in plumbery, is furnifhed from the lead-works 
 in large ingots called pigs of lead, ordinarily weighing 
 about too pounds a piece. As lead melts very ealily, it 
 is no hard matter to call figures hereof by running it into 
 moulds. But the chief article in plumbery is the lheets 
 and pipes of lead. 
 
 Method of cafling large Sheets of L'ad. The lead is 
 melted in a large furnace, ufually built with free-flone 
 and earth, fortified on the outlide with a malfive of fherds 
 and plaiftcr. At the bottom is a place funk lower than 
 the reft, wherein is an iron pot to receive what may 
 remain of the metal after the Iheet is run. The furnace 
 is lb raifed above the area of the lioor, as that the iron 
 pot juft refts thereon. They heat the furnace with wood 
 laid in it; that done, they throw in the lead pell-mell 
 with the burning coals to melt. Near the furnace is the 
 table or mould whereon the lead is to be caft : it confifts 
 ot large pieces of wood, well jointed and 'bound with 
 bars of iron at the ends. Around it runs a frame con- 
 lilting of a ledge or border of wood two or three inches 
 thick, and one or two high from the table, called the 
 fliarps. The ordinary width of the tables is from three 
 to four feet, and their length from 18 to 20 feet. The 
 table is covered with fine, land, prepared by moiftening 
 it with a water-pot, then working it with a ftick ; and 
 at laft, to render itfmootli and even, heating it flat with 
 a mallet) and plaining it with a flip of brafs or wood. 
 Over the table is a rake or ftrike of wood, which bears 
 and plays on the edges of the frame by means of a notch 
 cut in either end thereof; and lo placed, as that between 
 it and the land is a fpace proportionable to the intended 
 thicknefs of the fheet; the ufe of this ftrike is to drive 
 the matter, while yet liquid, to the extremity of the mould. 
 At the top of the table is a triangular iron peel or (hovel, 
 bearing before on the edge of the table itfelf, and behind 
 on a treftle fomewhat lower than the table. Its ufe is in 
 conveying the metal into the mould ; and the delign of 
 its oblique dilpofltion is that it may by that means retain 
 the metal, and keep it from running off at the forelide, 
 where it has no ledge. Some peels hold 15 or 1600 weight 
 of lead, and even more. 
 
 Things being thus difpofed, with a large iron ladle 
 they take out the melted lead, coals and all, out of the 
 furnace, and with it fill the iron peel. When full, they 
 take out the coals, and clear the lead with another iron 
 fpoon pierced like a feummer. This done, they hoill; up 
 the lower part of the peel by its handle; upon which 
 the liquid matter running off, and fpreading on the mould, 
 the plumber condu&s it to the extremity of the table by 
 means of the ftrike, which the workman pafles along the 
 ledges, and thus renders the Iheet of an equal thicknefs. 
 The (heets thus caft, there remains nothing but to edge 
 them, that is, to render the edges on both fidcs fmooth 
 and llraight. 
 
 Method of cafling thin Sheets of Lead. The table or 
 mould here ufed is of a length and breadth at diferetion, 
 only ledged on one fide. Inftead of land they cover it 
 with a piece of woollen ftuff, nailed down at the two 
 ends to keep it tight; and over this lay a very fine linen 
 cloth. The feet of the table are uneven, fo as to be 
 moderately inclined. 
 
 Great regard is had to the lead that it have the juft 
 degree of heat, fo as to run well, yet not burn the linen : 
 this they judge of by a piece of paper, which, if it take 
 fire in the liquid lead, is too hot; and, if it be not 
 (hrunk and fcorched a little, it is not hot enough. The 
 lead being then in its juft degree, they have a ftrike dif¬ 
 ferent from that above deferibed, that ferves both for 
 peel and ftrike to contain and conduct the liquid lead; 
 Vol.II. No. 58. 
 
 FLU 
 
 being a wooden cafe without any bottom, only clofed oh 
 three fides: it is pretty high behind, but the two fides, 
 like two acute angles (till diminilh to the tip, from the 
 place where they are joined to the third or middle piece, 
 where they are of the fame heighth therewith, namely, 
 feven or eight inches high. The width of the middle 
 makes that of the ftrike, which again makes that of the 
 (heet to be caft. 
 
 The ftrike is placed a-top of the table; which is 
 before covered in that part with a pafteboard that ferves 
 as a bottom to the cafe, and prevents the linen from 
 being burnt, while the liquid lead is pouring in. The 
 ftrike is fo difpofed on the table, as that the higheft part 
 looks to the lower end of the table, and the two Hoping 
 fides to the higher end. The ftrike is now filled with 
 the proper quantity of lead ; which done, two men, one 
 at each table, let the ftrike defeend down the table, or 
 elfe draw it down with 3 velocity greater or lefs, as the 
 (heet is to be more or lefs thick, its thicknefs ftill de¬ 
 pending on the promptitude wherewith the ftrike Hides 
 down the inclining mould. 
 
 Thefe fmooth (heets of lead are fometimes ufed be¬ 
 tween the joints of large ftones in great buildings, &c. 
 
 Method of cafling Pipes without fo/dering. For this 
 purpofe they have a kind of furnace confiding of a large 
 iron caldron iupported on a pretty high iron Hand. 
 The caldron is encompafled with a malfive of bricks and 
 loam ; only leaving a mouth or paflage for the convey¬ 
 ance of wood underneath and lighting the fire; and 
 another little aperture behind to ferve as a vent-hole. In 
 this furnace the lead is melted ; and to forward the fufion, 
 befides the heating it with a fire underneath, they put in 
 burning faggots along with the metal, which is lkimmed 
 and laden o(F with the above-mentioned inftruments. 
 Near the furface is a bench furniftied at one end with 
 a little mill, and arms or levers to turn it withal. A 
 ftrong girt, armed with an iron hook at one extremity, 
 is faftened by the other to the axis of the mill, around 
 which it turns, when in motion. On this bench the 
 moulds of the pipes are placed horizontally, and the 
 mill and girt ferve to draw out the iron core after the 
 pipe is caft. The moulds of thefe tubes arc of brafs, and 
 confift of two pieces, which open and (hut by means of 
 hooks and hinges ; their inner calliber or diameter is 
 according to the fize of the pipe to be made, and their 
 length is ufually two feet and a half. 
 
 In the middle is placed a core of brafs or iron, fome- 
 what longer than the mould, and of the thicknefs of the 
 inner diameter ot the pipe. This core is pafled through 
 two copper rundles, one at each end of the mould, 
 which they ferve to dole; and to thefe is joined a little 
 copper tube, about two inches long, and of the thicknefs 
 of the intended leaden pipe. By means of thefe tubes 
 the core is retained in the middle of the cavity of the 
 mould. The core being in the mould, with the rundles 
 at its two ends, they take up the melted lead in a ladle* 
 and pour it into the mould by a little aperture at one end 
 made in form of a funnel. When the mould is full and 
 the metal cold, they pafs the hook of the girt into a 
 hole at the end of the core, and, turning the mill with 
 the hand, draw out the core. They then open the 
 mould and take out the pipe. 
 
 If they defire to have the pipe lengthened, they put 
 one end thereof in the lower end of the mould, and pafs 
 the end of the core into it; then fhut the mould again, 
 and apply its rundle and tube as before, the pipe juft caft 
 ferving for a rundle, See. at the other end. Things being 
 thus replaced, they pour in fre(h metal into the mould, 
 thus repeating the operation, till they have got a pipe of 
 the length required. 
 
 P ipes made of Sheet-lead folder ed. The plumbers have 
 wooden cylinders of the length and thicknefs required ; 
 and on thofe they form their pipes, by wrapping the 
 (heet around them, and foldering the edges all along in 
 this manner : after grating the lead well with a grater, 
 they rub refin over the. part thus grated, then pour on it 
 fome folder melted in a ladle, or elfe melt it with a hot 
 foldering iron, ftnearing thefe parts where they would 
 not have the folder catch with chalk, or the foil of the 
 hand, ft he folder which the plumbers ufe is a mixture 
 of two pounds of lead with one of tin. 
 
 PLUME, a bunch of oft rich-feathers made up to 
 ferve for ornament in funerals, &c. 
 
 Iii 
 
 PLUME; 
 
POE 
 
 Plume, in falconry, is the general colour of the 
 feathers ol a hawk, which lhews her conftitution. 
 
 Plume, Plumule, in botany, a little member of die 
 feed of a plant, which becomes the item or trunk thereof. 
 It is inclofed in a cavity formed in the lobes, being 
 almoft of the fame colour with the radicle, on whofe balis 
 it is fuftained. It is the fiift part that appears out of the 
 earth, there being a hole over-againft it in the membrane 
 of the feed, through which it makes its efcape. At its 
 firft appearance out of the cavity of the grain, it is called 
 the bud or germ. It is called plume, as confifting of 
 feveral pieces bound together like a feather. In corn the 
 plume is that which, after the radicle is Ihot forth, fhoots 
 out towards the fmaller end of the feed ; whence fome 
 call it the acrolpire. 
 
 PLUMMET, Plumb-line , Plumb-rule, an inflrument 
 ufed by mafons, &c. to draw perpendiculars with, in 
 order to judge whether walls, &c. be upright planes, 
 horizontal, Sec. 
 
 PLUNGER, in mechanicks, the fame with the forcer 
 of a pump. . 
 
 PLURAL, Pluralis , in grammar, an cpftbet applied 
 to that number of nouns and verbs which is ufed when 
 we fpeak of more than one thing ; or that which expreffes 
 a plurality or number of things. See Number. 
 
 PLURALITY, Pluralitas , a diicrcte quantity con¬ 
 fiding of two or a greater number of the fame kind : 
 thus we fay a plurality of gods, &c. Hence plurality of 
 benefices, or livings, is where the lame clerk is poileffed 
 of two or more fpiritual preferments, with cure of fouls. 
 
 PLUS, in algebra, a char after marked thus -f, ufed 
 for the fign of addition. See Char act er. 
 
 PLUSH, in commerce, Sec. a kind of duff, having 
 a fort of velvet knap, or fhag, on one fide, compofed 
 regularly of a woof of a fingle woollen thread and a 
 double warp, the one wool, of tw r o threads twilled, the 
 other goats or camels hair ; though there are fome plufhes 
 entirely of worded, and others compofed wholly of hair. 
 
 PNEUMATICKS, called alfo pneumatology and 
 pneumatofophy, among fchoolmen, the dodtrine and 
 contemplation of fpirits and fpiritual fubdances, as God, 
 angels, and the human foul, in which fenfe pneumaticks 
 are the fame with that we otherwife call metaphylicks. 
 See Metaphysicks. 
 
 Pneumaticks is more commonly ufed among us, 
 for that part of natural philolophy which treats of the 
 nature and properties of the air. 
 
 PNEUMONICKS, in pharmacy, medicines proper 
 in difeafcs of the lungs, in which relpiration is affedted. 
 Of this number are fulphur, lungwort, hyffop, ground- 
 ivy, and colt’s-foot ; they arc ufed in phthifes, adlimas, 
 peripneumonies, pleurifies, Sec. 
 
 POA, in botany, a genus of the triandria digynia clafs. 
 The calix has two valves including feveral flowers ; the 
 fpike is oval, with pointed valves. There are 20 fpccies, 
 12 of them natives of Britain. 
 
 POCKET, in the wollen trade, a w r ord ufed to denote 
 a larger fort of bag, in which wool is packed up to be lent 
 from one part of the kingdom to another. The pocket 
 contains ufually 2500 weight of wool. 
 
 POD, among botanids, a term ufed to exprefs a peri- 
 carpium confiding of two valves, which open from the 
 bafe to the point, and are leparated by a membranaceous 
 partition, from which the feeds hang by a kind of funi¬ 
 culus umbilicalis. 
 
 PODAGRA, in medicine, the gout in the feet. 
 
 POEM, a compofition in verl’e ol a proper length and 
 meafure. 
 
 POESY, Poefis, the fame with Poetr y ; which fee. 
 
 POET, Pocta^ an author who compofes poems. See 
 Poetry. 
 
 POETICAL, Poeticus, fomething relating to poets 
 or poetry. Mod languages have their poetical words, ; 
 which are never ufed upon other occafions ; whereby the 
 poets are enabled to raife the didtion into the poetical 
 charadler with the greater cafe. 
 
 For want of a fet of fuch words in the French lan¬ 
 guage, their poetry appears in a too familiar garb ; and 
 it is too referved, not being allowed any flights but what 
 might pafs in profe. 
 
 Poetical JuJlice, in the drama, denotes a didribu- : 
 tion of rewards and punilhments to the feveral perfons, 1 
 at the clofe of the piece, according to their feveral cha-> 
 
 P O I 
 
 radlers. It is controverted whether this piece of juftice 
 be indifpenfable, and, whether it may not be allowed to 
 leave virtue oppreffed, and vice flourifiling. 
 
 Poetical riftng and fetting. The ancient poets, 
 referring the riling, Sec. or the liars to that of the fun, 
 make three kinds, namely, cofmical, acronical, and 
 heliacal; each of which fee. 
 
 POETICKS, Poetut , the laws and rules of conduc¬ 
 ing pieces of poetry. Aridotle’s poeticks is a work 
 infinitely valued, and M. Dacier’s comment thereon is 
 one of his bed pieces. Horace, Nida, Voflius, and 
 Scaliger have likewife publiflied poeticks in Latin , the 
 Duke of Buckingham in Englilh ; and Menardiere 
 Hedelin, and Boileau, in French. 
 
 POETRY, Poefy, the art ofcompofing poems, which 
 may be defined, in general, an art of imitating or illuf- 
 trating in metrical numbers every being in nature, and 
 every objedt of the imagination, for the delight and 
 improvement of mankind. Between imitation and il- 
 luftration there is this difference, that he who beautifully 
 imitates any thing, always illudrates it; but not on the 
 contrary. The rules of poetry and verfifyingare taught 
 by art, and acquired by ftudy ; but this force and eleva¬ 
 tion of thought, which Horace calis fomething divine, 
 and which alone makes the poetry of any value, mud 
 be derived from nature ; or, according to Aridotle, from 
 fome happy tranfports, to which that author gives the 
 ' name of madnefs. Hence the criticks conclude, the end 
 of poetry is to pleafe; its caufe, either the excellence of 
 the poet’s genius, or a poetical fury and tranfport of the 
 foul, manageable by the judgment ; its matter, long and 
 Ihort fyllables, and feet compofed hereof, with words 
 furnilhed by grammar; and its form, the arrangement 
 of all tliefe things in juft and agreeable verfe, exprefling 
 the thoughts and fentiments of the author after the man¬ 
 ner already mentioned. But after all, how narrow are 
 all thele bounds, if weconfider poetry in the light where¬ 
 in the works of Virgil and Homer have fet it. This, 
 which is thereforedidinguilhcd by the name of thegreater 
 poetry, in contradiftindtion to the low and Ample, or 
 verfification, conllfts principally in fidlion, or the inven¬ 
 tion ol fables, in the exprefling of things by allegories, 
 and metaphors, and in the inventing of adlions, under 
 which the truths which the poet has to teach, may be 
 agreeably difguifed. See Id yllion, and Ep 1 c k Poem. 
 
 POINT, in geometry, according to Euclid, is a 
 quantity which has no parts, being indivifible; and, ac¬ 
 cording to Wolfius, that which terminates itfelf on every 
 fide, or which has no boundaries diftindt from itfelf. 
 This is a mathematical point, and is only conceived by 
 the imagination ; yet herein all magnitude begins and 
 ends, its flux generating a line, that of a line a furface, 
 Sec. A line can only cut another in a point. 
 
 Proportion of Mathematical Points. It is a current 
 maxim, that all infinites, whether infinitely great, or in¬ 
 finitely fmall, are equal: but Dr. Halley lhews feveral 
 infinite quantities which are in a finite proportion to one 
 another, and fome infinitely greater than others. The 
 like the honourable Mr. Robarts fiiews of infinitely fmall 
 quantities, viz. mathematical points : he demonftrates 
 that the points of contadl between circles and their tan¬ 
 gents are in a fubduplicate proportion to the diameters of 
 the circles ; that the point of contradl between a fphere 
 and a plane is infinitely greater than that between a circle 
 and a tangent ; and that ihe points of contadl in fpheres 
 of different magnitude are to one another, as the diame¬ 
 ters of the fpheres. 
 
 Point of contrary Flexure , in the higher geometry, is 
 a point of a curve, wherein it is bent or infledlcd towards 
 a point contrary to that it before tended towards. If the 
 curve turn back again towards the point whence it firffc 
 fet out, this point of flexure is called the point of re- 
 grelfion or rctrogradation. 
 
 Poi nt, in phyficks, is the leaft fenfible objedl of fight, 
 marked with a pen, point of a compafs, Sec. This is 
 called a phyfical point, which, in reality, has parts, 
 though not here regarded. Of fuch points all phyfical 
 magnitude confifts. This js what Mr. Locke calls the 
 point fenfible, and which he defines die leaft particle of 
 matter or fpace which we can difeern, and which, to the 
 Iharpcfteye, fays he, is leldom lefs dian thirty feconds 
 of a circle, whereof the eye is the centre. 
 
 1 Point,, ib grammar, a certain charadler ufed to (nark 
 
 the 
 
p a i 
 
 the divifions of a difcourfe. See Characters in 
 Grammar. 
 
 The comma (, ) ferves to diftinguifh nouns, verbs, 
 adverbs, and the parts of a period, not neceffarily con¬ 
 nected together. The full point or full ftop ( . ) lignities 
 that the period is complete, and the fenfe quite finilhed. 
 The colon ( : ) denotes that the fenfe is not fo complete 
 as the point expreffes it. The femicolon f;) Ihews the 
 fenfe to be lefs perfect than the colon, and more fothan 
 the comma. 
 
 The comma need not be put between two very ffiort 
 phrafes, efpecially if they be governed in the fame man¬ 
 ner, and conne&ed by a conjunction ; but if two phrafes 
 connected by a conjunction are fomewhat longer, efpe¬ 
 cially if their manner of being governed is different, the 
 comma mult then be inlerted. 
 
 When the laft of the phrafes exprefled in a period gives 
 no expectation of another, the period is ended, and there' 
 a full point mult be placed. 
 
 In fuch periods as have a member, which may be 
 termed lupernumerary, it being a part of which no ex¬ 
 pectation is given by what preceded, and which yet de¬ 
 pends on it, then the full point mult not be put till after 
 this fupernumerary member. 
 
 Before thefe fupernumerary members mult be placed 
 a mediate point, either the colon or femicolon : and 
 thefe are diltinguilhed by a conjunction, as yet, never- 
 thelefs, but, except that. In the fupernumerary phrafe, 
 the colon dilcovers a meaning more difengaged from what 
 precedes, and a greater occalion of taking breath ; and 
 lhould therefore, rather than the femicolon, be put before 
 conjunctions adverfative, reltriCtive, conditional, Ac. 
 
 The mark of interrogation ( ?) is put after a period 
 containing a queftion ; and that of admiration ( ! ) after 
 one expreffing altonilhment. 
 
 In ffiort, w hat care fo ever be employed in obferva- 
 tions on pointing, it will ftill be liable to difficulties, 
 which are impoffible to be wholly prevented. Thefe 
 rules may, however, in general, be of fervice to deter¬ 
 mine in cafes where affiltance is much wanted. 
 
 Points, or Vowel Points , in the Hebrew learning, 
 are certain characters, which, in the writings of that 
 language, ferve to mark the vowels. 
 
 Point, in mufick, a note anciently ufed to diftinguilh 
 the tones. Hence, it is Pill called Pm pie counter-point, 
 when a note of the bafs anfwers precifely to that of the 
 treble ; and figurative counter-point, when a note is lyn- 
 copatcd, and one of the parts makes feveral inflexions of 
 the voice or tone, while the other only makes one. 
 
 A point, among us, added to a femi-breve, inftead of 
 two minims, makes it equal to three. 
 
 Point, in aftronomy, is applied to certain places 
 marked in the heavens, and diltinguilhed by proper 
 epithets. 
 
 The four grand points of the horizon, eaft, weft, 
 north, and fouth, are called cardinal points. The zenith 
 and nadir, are the vertical points. The points wherein 
 the orbits of the planets cut the plane of the ecliptick are 
 called the nodes. The points wherein the equator and 
 ecliptick interfeCt are called the equinoctial points ; parti¬ 
 cularly that whence the fun afeends to the north pole, 
 •"the vernal point; and that by which he defeends to the 
 fouth pole, the autumnal point. 
 
 The points of the ecliptick where the fun’s afeent above 
 the equator, and defeent below it, terminate, are called 
 the folftitial points; the former the eftival or fummer 
 point, the latter the brumal or winter point. 
 
 Points of the Horizon or Compafs , in navigation and 
 geography, are certain points formed by the interfeClions 
 of the horizon with the vertical circles. The number 
 of thefe points is really infinite, though in practice we 
 only diftinguilh 32 of them : thefe are fhewn by right 
 lines drawn from a point affumed in a horizontal plane. 
 Each point is an arch of n°i5', which is fubdivided 
 into half and quarter points. Thefe points of the com¬ 
 pafs are divided into cardinal and collateral. 
 
 Cardinal Points, Car dines A'lundi, are the interfec- 
 tious of the horizon and meridian, called the north and 
 fouth points ; and the interfe&ions of the horizon with 
 the prime vertical, called the eaft and weft ; and they are 
 a quadrant, or 90° diftant from each other. 
 
 Collateral or intermediate Points, arc thofe lying be¬ 
 tween the cardinal points, which are either primary, 
 2 
 
 POL 
 
 fiamely, thofe equidiftant from the cardinals, as nortli- 
 eaft, fouth-weft, Ac. or fecondary ; which are again 
 either of the firft order, namely, fuch as are equidiftant 
 from a cardinal and the next primary, as north-nortli- 
 eaft ; or of the fecond order, that is equidiftant between 
 a primary and firft fecondary, as north-eaft by north. 
 
 The primary collateral points, therefore, are 45 0 
 diftant from the cardinals; the firft fecondaries 22 0 30' 
 from the cardinal and next primary collateral, Ac. 
 
 Point, among feamen, alfo denotes a cape or head¬ 
 land, jetting out into the lea. 
 
 Point, is alio an iron or fteel inftrument, ufed with 
 fome variety in feveral arts. 
 
 Engravers, etchers, cutters in wood, Ac. ufe points to 
 trace their defigns, on the copper, wood, ftone, Ac. 
 
 Point, in the manufactories, is a general term, ufed 
 for all kinds of laces, wrought with the needle ; fuch are 
 the point de Venice, point de France, point de Genoa, 
 Ac. which are diftinguifhed by the particular oeconomy 
 and arrangement of their points. 
 
 Point, in poetry, denotes a lively brilk turn or con¬ 
 ceit, ufually found or expefted at the clofe of an epigram. 
 
 Point-Blank, in gunnery, denotes the fhot of a 
 gun levelled horizontally. 
 
 POIN FED, in heraldry. A crofs pointed, is that 
 which has the extremities turned off into points by 
 ftraight lines. 
 
 POINTING, in grammar, the art of dividing a dif- 
 courfe, by points, into periods and members of periods, 
 in order to fhew the proper paufes to be made in reading, 
 and to facilitate the pronunciation and underftanding 
 thereof. 
 
 Pointing, in war, the levelling a cannon, or mor¬ 
 tar, fo as to play againft any certain point. 
 
 Pointing, among feamen, marking on the chart in 
 what part or place the veffcl is. 
 
 Pointing Cable, in thefea-language, is untwift- 
 ing it at the end, leflening the yarn, twilling it again, and 
 making all fall with a piece of marline, to keep it from 
 ravelling out. 
 
 POISON, in medicine, a malignant quality in fome 
 animal, vegetable, or mineral body, which renders it 
 hurtful, and even mortal, to thofe who take it. 
 
 To Poison a Piece of Ordnance , implies the fame as 
 to clog or nail it up. 
 
 POISONING, in law, the crime of adminiftering poi- 
 fon to a perfon whereby he dies. By a law of Henry VIII. 
 it vvas made a lort of treafon, and the punifhment was 
 to be put alive into a caldron of water, and boiled to death. 
 It is now only felony without benefit of clergy, if the 
 perfon die of the jpoifon within a year and a day. 
 
 POLAR, fomething relating to the poles of the world. 
 
 Polar Circles, are two leffer circles of the fphere pa¬ 
 rallel to the equator, at the diftance 23 0 30' from each 
 pole, particularly denominated from their refpedtive 
 neighbouring poles, the arflick and antardlick. 
 
 Polar Dials , are fuch dials whole planes are parallel 
 to fome great circle paffing through the poles, or to fome 
 one of the hour circle, fo that the pole is neither elevated 
 al>ove, nor deprefled below the plane. Such dial, there¬ 
 fore, can have no centre; and, confcquently, its ftyle, 
 fubftyle, and hour lines are parallel. 
 
 Polar Projection, is a reprefentation of the earth 
 or heavens, projected on the plane of one of the polar 
 circles. 
 
 POLARITY, the quality of a thing confidered as 
 having poles. 
 
 POLE, Polus, in aftronomy, one of the extremities 
 of the axis whereon the fphere revolves, according to the 
 Ptolemaick fyftem, Thefe two points, each 90° diftant 
 from the equator, are called the poles of the world. 
 
 Pole, in geography, the extremity of the earth’s axis, 
 or one of the points on the furface of our globe, through 
 which the axis pafles. 
 
 Pole, in fphericks, a point equally diftant from every 
 part of the circumference of a great circle of the fphere, 
 as the centre is in a plain figure; or it is a point 90° 
 diftant from the plane of a circle, and in a line, called 
 the axis, paffing perpendicularly through the centre, 
 d he zenith and nadir are the poles of the horizon ; and 
 the poles of the equator arc the fame with thofe of the 
 fphere. 
 
 Poles of the Ecliptick, are two points on the furface 
 
 of 
 
POL 
 
 <>f the lphere 2.3° 30' diftant from the poles of tlte world, 
 and 9O 0 diftant from every part of the .ecliptick. 
 
 Poles, in.magneticks, are two points in a loadftone^ 
 correfponding to the poles of the world ; the one point¬ 
 ing to the north, the other to the loutli. Sec Magnet. 
 
 Pole ok Vertex of a Gifs , in opticks, is the thickeft 
 part of a convex, or the thinneft of a concave glais. If 
 the glafs be truly ground, the pole will be exactly in the 
 middle of its fur face. 
 
 Polk, Fercl), or Rod, in furveying, is a meafure con¬ 
 taining 16 feet and a half, otherwife called a rod or perch. 
 
 Pole, or polar Star, is a ftarof the lecond magnitude, 
 the laft in the tail of Urfa minor. Its longitude Mr. 
 Flamftead makes 24 0 14 41"; its latitude 66° 4' 11". 
 The nearnefs of this ftar to the pole, whence it happens 
 that it never lets, renders it of vaft lervice in navigation, 
 See. for determining the meridian line, the elevation of 
 the pole, and, confequently, the latitude of the place, See. 
 
 POLEMICAL, is applied to books of controverfy, 
 elpeciallv thofe in divinity. 
 
 POLEMOSCOPE, in opticks, an oblique kind of 
 profpe&ive glafs, contrived for feeing of objects that do 
 not lie direCtly before the eye. It was invented by He- 
 velius in 1637. 
 
 Something of this kind are now known among us, 
 under the name of ogling-glafles, or opera-glaiTes, through 
 which one fees a perlon, in appearing to look at another. 
 
 POLICY, or Polity, 7to\ncia, denotes the peculiar 
 form and conftitution of the government of any ftate or 
 nation ; or the laws, orders, and regulations, relating 
 thereto. 
 
 Policy of lnfurav.ee of Houfcs, is an inftrument formed 
 on the model of that for veflels; whereby a perfon, or 
 community of perfons, take on themfelves the rifks and 
 damages that may befal houfes, their furniture, in whole 
 or in part, See. from lire, on confideration of a certain 
 film of money to be paid bv the aiTuree, according to the 
 terms of the agreement. We have feveral focieties created 
 into corporations for that very purpofe. 
 
 Policy of Infurance for Lives, is an inftrument 
 whereby an affurance-broker, or fociety of perfons 
 creCted into a corporation, Sec. oblige themfelves to pay 
 a certain fum of money upon the death of a perfon 
 whole life they infure, in confideration of the alfuree’s 
 paying down quarterly a guinea, or fo, to the afturers, 
 during the life of the laid perfon allured. 
 
 The policy is under the feal of the office, and intitles 
 the affignees, heirs, or executors, Sec. of the perfon in 
 whole favour it was granted, to make good the claim, 
 according to the tenor of the articles or by-laws of the 
 fociety. 
 
 POLISHER, or Burnisher, an inftrument ufed 
 for polifhing and burmfhing gold, lilver, and other 
 metals, when gilt or filvered, or any other matters proper 
 to take a polifh. 
 
 The gilders ufe an iron polifher to prepare their me¬ 
 tals before gilding, and the blood-ftone to give them the 
 bright polilh after gilding. 
 
 The polilher ufed by the maker of fpurs and bits, Sec. 
 is partly iron, partly fteel, and partly wood ; it confifts 
 of an iron bar with a wooden handle at one end, and a 
 hook at the other, to fallen it to another piece of wood 
 held in the vile, while the operator is at work. In the 
 middle of the bow, withinfide, is what is properly called 
 the polilher, being a triangular piece of fteel with a tail, 
 whereby it is revetted to the bow. 
 
 The polilhers, among cutlers, are a kind of wooden 
 grind-llones made of walnut-tree, about an inch thick, 
 and of a diameter at pleafur?, which are turned round 
 by the great wheel ; upon thefe they lmooth and polifh 
 their works with emery and putty. 
 
 The polilhers for glafs conlift of two pieces of wood , 
 the one flat covered with old hat, the other long and 
 half-round faftened on the former, whole edge it exceeds 
 on both lides by fome inches, which ferve the workmen 
 to take hold of and to work backwards and forwards by. 
 
 The polilhers, ufed by fpeCtacle-makers, are pieces of 
 wood a foot long, leven or eight inches broad, and an 
 inch and a half thick, covered with old beaver hat, 
 whereon they polilh the Ihell and horn-frames their 
 fpeCtacle-glaffes are to be fet in. 
 
 POLISHING, the art of giving a glofs to a thing, 
 as a precious Hone, marble, glafs, mirrour, See. j 
 
 3 
 
 POL 
 
 Polishing and funding of Glnffes , Ac. Iri order 
 grind plate-glafs, they lay it horizontally upon a ftatf 
 ftone table, made of a very fine-grained free-ftone ; and, 
 for its greater lecuritv, they plaifter it down with limfc 
 or ftucco : for, otherwife, the force of the workmen, or 
 the motion of the wheel with which they grind, would 
 move it about. This ftone table is lupported by a ft pong 
 frame made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, 
 riling about two inches higher thau the glafs. Upon 
 this glafs, to be ground, is laid another rough glafs, not 
 above half fo big, and fo loofe as to Hide upon it; but 
 cemented to a wooden plank to guard it from the iniury 
 it mull otherwife receive from the Jcraping cf the wheel, 
 to which this plank is faftened ; and from tire weights 
 laid upon it to promote the grinding, or triture of the 
 glaftes. The whole is covered with a wheel made of 
 hard light wood about fix inches diameter ; by pulling 
 of which backwards and forwards alternately, and lome- 
 tirnes turning it round, the workmen, who ahvavs ftand 
 oppofite to each other, produce a conftant attrition be¬ 
 tween the two glaftes, and bring them to what degree of 
 Imoothnefs they pleafe, by full pouring in water and 
 coarfe fand ; after that a finer fort of land, as the work 
 advanceth ; till at laft you mull pour in the powder of 
 finalt. As the upper or incumbent glafs polifhes and 
 grows fmoother, it mull be taken away, and another 
 from time to time put in its place. 
 
 This engine is called a mill by the artifts, and is ufed 
 only in the grinding of the largell fize glaftes : for, in 
 the grinding of the lefs glaftes, they are content to work 
 without a wheel, and to have only four wooden handles 
 faftened to the four corners of the ftone which loads the 
 upper plank, by which they work it about. 
 
 When the grinder has done his part, who finds it 
 very difficult to bring the glafs to an exaCt plainnefs, it 
 is turned over to the care of the polilher, Who, with the 
 fine powder of Tripoli ftone or emery, brings it to a 
 perfeCt evennefs and luftre. The inftrument made ufe 
 of in this branch, is a board furnilhed with a felt and 
 a fmall roller, which the workman moves by means of a 
 double handle at both ends. The artift, in working of 
 this roller, is affifted by a wooden hoop or fpring, to the 
 end of which it is fixed; for the fpring, by conftantly 
 bringing the roller back to the fame points, facilitates 
 the aCtion of the workman’s arm. 
 
 Explanation of plate LXV. reprefenting the manner of 
 0 polifhing glafs. 
 
 The lower compartment of the plate reprefents a glafs- 
 polifher's fhop, with the men at work. 
 
 Fig. 1. Tile polifhing table. A, A, the table. B, B, 
 the crofs pieces. G, G, the legs, or fupporters of the 
 table. D, D, blocks of hard free-ftone. E, E, plates ot 
 glafs. F, F, the polilhers. G, G, the handies of the 
 polilhers. H, H, See. the fprings. I, I, the bends ot 
 joints in the fprings. K, the fhelf, or fuperior table. 
 L, L, the fupporters of the fhelf. 
 
 Fig. 2. The glazing-ftone. A, the ftone; B, the plate 
 of glafs. 
 
 Fig. 3. The vefiel containing the emery, tripoli, Sec. 
 A, the veflel; B, the fpatula for taking it out. 
 
 Fig. 4. The fuperior part of the fpring. A, the upper 
 extremity ; B, the point where it is joined to the inferior 
 or lower part. 
 
 Fig. 5. The lower part of the fpring. A, the part 
 where it is joined to the polifher , B, the place where it 
 is joined to the upper part. 
 
 Fig. 6. The box or hofe by which the two parts of 
 the fpring are joined together. 
 
 Fig. 7. The needle of the fpring. A, its head ; B, 
 its point. 
 
 Fig. 8. A brufh. 
 
 Fig. 9. The polifher. A, the groove for the handle. 
 
 Fig. 10. The handle. 
 
 Fig. 11. A polifher covered with cloth. 
 
 POLITICAL, fomething relating to policy or civil 
 government. 
 
 Political Arithmetick, is the application of arith¬ 
 metical calculations to political fubjeCts, as the publick 
 revenues, number of people, extent and value of lands, 
 taxes, trade, manufactures, Sc c. of any common wealth. 
 
 Major Grant, in his obfervations on the bills of mor¬ 
 tality, computes that there are 39.000 fquare miles of 
 land in England ; that in England and Wales there are 
 
 4,600,000 
 
POL 
 
 4,600,000 louls; that the people of London are about 
 640,000, and one fourteenth part of the people of Eng¬ 
 land. I hat in England and Wales are about 10,000 
 pariffies, and 2-5,000,000 of acres, being about 4 acres 
 to every head. That but 64 out of a hundred of the 
 children born are living at 6 years old; but 40 at 16 ; 
 but 25 at 26 ; but 16 at 36 ; but 10 at 46 ; but 6 at 56 ; 
 but 3 at 66; but 1 at 76. And that London doubles 
 itfelf in about 64 years. 
 
 Sir William Petty, in his difcourfe about duplicate 
 proportion, fays, that it is found by experience that 
 there are more perfons living between 16 and 26 than of 
 any other age ; and thence he infers that the fquare roots 
 of every number of men’s ages under 16 ffiew the pro¬ 
 portion of the probability of fuch perfons reaching the 
 age of 70. 
 
 Thus, it is 4 times more likely, that one of 16 years 
 of age lives to be 70, than a child of one year old; it is 
 thrice as probable that one of 9 years lives to be 70, as 
 fuch a new-born child, &c. That the odds is 5 to 4, 
 that one ol 25 dies before one of 16 ; and fo on as the 
 fquare roots of the ages. 
 
 Dr Halley has made a very exaft eflimate of the de¬ 
 grees of the mortality of mankind from a curious table 
 of the births and burials at the city of Breflau, the capi¬ 
 tal of Silefia, with an attempt to afeertain the price of 
 annuities upon lives. See the Philofophical Tranjafiions. 
 
 From the whole he makes the two following very good 
 obfervations : 1. How unjuft ly we ufe to complain of the 
 fhortnefs of our lives ; for that it appears that one half 
 Of thole that are born, do not live above 17 years ; and, 
 2. That the growth and increafe of mankind is not fo 
 much Hinted by any thing in the nature of the fpecies, as 
 it is from the curious difficulty moll people make of ven¬ 
 turing on the Hate of marriage ; and therefore, that celi¬ 
 bacy ought to be every way difeouraged by all wife govern¬ 
 ments; and''thole who have numerous families of chil¬ 
 dren encouraged by good laws, fuch as the jus trium 
 liberorum, &c. among the Romans. 
 
 POLITICKS, Poliiice , is a part of ethicks, and con- 
 HHs in the governing of Hates, for the maintenance of 
 the publick fafety, order, and good morals; 
 
 FOLIUM, Poley, a medicinal plant, which is an 
 ingredient in the treacle of Andromachus. 
 
 It relifts putrefa&ion, provokes urine, removes ob- 
 Hruftions of the menfes, and cures the jaundice. An 
 infulion of the leaves and flowers is beneficial in lethar- 
 gick disorders, and, confequently, in epilepfies. What 
 the polium of the ancients was, we know not. It is faid 
 to be beneficial againH the bites of poifonous animals. 
 
 POLLARD, among hunters, a Hag or male deer, 
 which has cafl his head. 
 
 Pollard, PoUenger , in agriculture, denotes fuch trees 
 as hive been frequently topped, in contradiflindlion to 
 timber-trees. 
 
 POLLEX, in anatomy, denotes either the thumb 
 or great toe, according as either manus or pedis is added 
 to it. 
 
 POLLUTION, in general, fignifies defilement, or 
 the rendering a perfon, or place, unclean or unholy. 
 
 Pollution, ih medicine, adifeafe whichconfifls in 
 an involuntary emiffion of the feed in the time of fleep. 
 
 POLLUX, in aflronomy, a fixed Har of the fecond 
 magnitude in the confiellation Gemini, or the twins. 
 
 The fame name is alfo given to the hindermoH twin, 
 or poHerior part of the fame conflellation. 
 
 POLVERINE, in commerce, the allies of the herb 
 kali, preferved for the ufe of making glafs. 
 
 POLIACANTHA, in botany, the fame with the 
 carduus, or thifile ; which fee. 
 
 POLYADELPHIA, the name of the 18th clafs in 
 the Linnsean fyHem of botany, and confiHs of fuch 
 plants whofe flowers are hermaphrodite, and furniffied 
 with feveral fets of united Hamina in each. Of this clafs 
 is the citron, orange, lemon, St. John’s-wort, &c. 
 
 POL Y AN DRI A, the name of the 13th clafs of plants 
 in the Linnaean fyHem of botany ; comprehending fuch 
 plants whofe flowers are hermaphrodite, and furniffied 
 with many Hamina, or male parts, in each ; thefe always 
 exceed the number of 20, and are inferted in the recep¬ 
 tacle. 7 o this clafs belong the piony, larkfpur, aconite, 
 columbine, helebore, with feveral other genera; the fruits 
 of fome of them are of a poifonous quality. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 58. 
 
 POL 
 
 POLYANTHUS, in botany, abeahti'fulgardcnfiower 
 of the primrofe kind ; the varieties of this are innume¬ 
 rable, being produced from feeds, which ffiouid be fowii 
 in February, either in borders, boxes, or pots, and 
 ffiouid have an eaH afpedt, lb as to be ffiaded from the 
 heat of the day; in May they will befit to be planted 
 out lor good, which ffiouid be in a ffiady border of Hrong 
 rich earth, at about fix inches afunder, and the fucceed- 
 ing fpring they will ffiew their bloHoms, when their good- 
 nefs may be judged of. 
 
 As the properties of a good polyanthus are limilar to 
 thole of the auricula, we, therefore, to prevent repetition, 
 refer the reader to the article Auricula, where they 
 are fully explained. 
 
 POLYCHREST, in pharmacy, a medicine that 
 ferves for many ufes, Or that cures many difeafes. 
 
 Sal Polychrest, a compound fait, made of equal 
 parts of falt-petre and lulphur, laid on a red-hot crucible. 
 
 POLYCNEMUM, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whofe flower hath no corolla; the cup is formed of five 
 ereft, lanceolated, pointed leaves* with three capillary 
 filaments, topped with obtufe antheras: the feed, which 
 fucceeds the flower, has fcarce any covering, or at mofi, 
 only a very thin membrane. 
 
 POLYGALA, milk -wort, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, producing papilionaceous flowers • the fruit is a 
 turbinated heart-ffiaped capfule, with two cells and two 
 valves, each containing an ovate feed. 
 
 The polygala-vulgaris grows naturally in many parts 
 of England ; it hath a perennial woody root, with three 
 or four trailing herbaceous Halks, furniffied with linear 
 fpear-ffiaped leaves ; the flowers are produced at the top 
 of the Halks, and are of a blue, purple, or white colour. 
 
 It is fuppofed, that cattle which feed on this plant, 
 give a greater quantity of milk than ufual; and there¬ 
 fore it is reckoned good for nurfes for the fame purpofe. 
 
 Polygala Virginiana, rattle-fnake-root, is a 
 fpecies of the former: it grows naturally in many parts 
 of North-America. The root of this plant is perennial, 
 and compofed of feveral fleffiy fibres, varioufly bent or 
 contorted ; it is yellowiffi without, but white within, 
 and has an acrid bitteriffi tafie, but fomewhat aromatick: 
 from the root arife three or four branching Halks, which 
 grow ere&, upwards of a foot high, and furniffied with 
 oblong, fpear-ffiaped leaves, placed alternately ; the 
 flowers are produced in loofe fpikes at the ends of the 
 branches; thefe are fmall and of a white colour. 
 
 T. he root of this fpecies is looked upon, in America, 
 as a fpecifick againH the bite of the rattle-l'nake, and has 
 been long ufed by the Senega Indians for that purpofe, 
 which, if taken in time, is an infallible remedy : the 
 Indians, when they travel in the woods, carry about 
 them this root in powder, IcH they fhould be bit by the 
 rattle-fnake, and whenever this happens, they take a 
 quantity of the powder inwardly, and apply fome of it to 
 the part bitten, which is a certain cure, and of late years 
 it hath been ufed by the inhabitants of Virginia in many 
 diforders, which are occafioned by a thick fizy blood ; 
 fo that the root of this plant, when its virtues are fully 
 known, may become one of the mofl ufeful medicines 
 yet difeovered. 
 
 POLYGAMIA, in botany, the name of the 23d 
 clafs of plants in the Linaean fyHem ; comprehending 
 thole which produce (either upon the fame or different 
 plants) hermaphrodite flowers, and alfo flowers of on« 
 f ex only, be it male or female, or flowers of each fex. 
 
 Of this clafs there are three orders or fubdivifions, 
 whereof the firff confiHs of fuch polygamious plants as 
 contain the different kinds of flowers on different parts 
 of the fame plant, and hence called polygamia-moncetia ; 
 fuch are the plantain-tree, white helebore, maple, orach, 
 &c. 7 he fecond order comprehends fuch polygamious 
 plants as have their different flowers not on the fame 
 individual plant, but on diHinft ones of the fame fpecies, 
 and hence called polygamia-dioecia ; of this order are the 
 alh, amber-tree, ginfeng, &c. The third order, called 
 polygamia-tricecia, comprehends fuch plants as have the 
 polygamy on three diftmft plants ; this order contains 
 but^one genus, which is the fig-tree. 
 
 U a P luraIit y °f wives or hufbands, in 
 
 pnTvrl^ 0116 man or woman, at the fame time. 
 
 I . iDLYGLOTT, ^o^yWJoj, among divines and cri- 
 Iticks, chiefly denotes a bible printed in feveral languages, 
 k k t „ 
 
POL 
 
 P O M 
 
 . thefe editions of the holy fcriptures, the text ill each I long leaves iffiiing from the root, divided on both (ides, 
 language is ranged in oppolite columns. The firft poly- down to the rib, into a number of oblong fegmeilts 
 
 The iirft poly 
 
 glott bible was that of Cardinal Ximenes, printed 
 
 1 ! 
 
 ,,, 7 which contains the Hebrew text, the Chaldee 
 arap’hrafe on the Pentateuch, the Greek verfion ot the 
 XX. and the ancient Latin verfion. After this, there 
 were many others, as the bible of Jufliniani, biftiop ot 
 Nebio, in Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin, and Arabick ; 
 the Pfadter by John Potken, in Hebrew, Greek, Ethi- 
 cpick and Latin ; Plantin'* polyglott bible, in Hebrew, 
 Chaldee, Greek, and Latin, with the Synack verfion of 
 the New Teftament ; M, le Jay’s bible, in Hebrew, Sa¬ 
 maritan, Chaldee, Greek, Syriack, Latin, and Arabick ; 
 Walton’s polyglott, which is a new edition of Le Jay s 
 polvelott, more correft, extenfive, and perteS, with 
 fcveral new oriental verfions, and a large collcftion of 
 various readings, &c. 
 
 POLYGON, in geometry, a figure with many lides, 
 or whofe perimeter confifts of more than four lides at 
 lealf : fuch are the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, &c. 
 Sec Pentagon, Hexagon, Nc. 
 
 Polygon, in fortification, denotes the figure ot a 
 town or other fortrefs. The exterior or external poly¬ 
 gon is bounded bylines drawn from the point of each 
 bullion to the points of the adjacent baftions. And the 
 interior polygon is formed by lines joining the centres of 
 
 the baftions. , r „ ... 
 
 Line of Polycons, on the French bettors, is a line 
 containing the homologous lides of the firft nine regular 
 polygons inferibed in the fame circle; that is, from an 
 equilateral triangle, to a dodecagon. 
 
 POLYGONAL Numbers, are fo called, becaule 
 the units whereof they confift may be difpofed in fuch a 
 manner, as to reprefent feveral regular polygons. See 
 the article Number. . . f 
 
 The fide of a polygonal number is the number ot 
 terms of the arithmetical progreflion that compofe it; 
 and the number of angles is that which (hews how many 
 angles that figure has, whence the polygonal number 
 takes its name. , . , . . 
 
 POLYGONATUM, Solomon s leal, in botany, is 
 ranked by Linnaeus among the convallaria. See Con- 
 Vallaria. The root of this plant is a famous vul¬ 
 nerary; for being applied in form of a poultice, it not 
 only heals frelh wounds, but takes away the marks of 
 bruifes, &c. . . 
 
 POLYGONUM, knot-grafs, in botany, a genus ot 
 plants, whofe flower is apetalous, but the cup is of a 
 turbinated form, coloured within-fide, and divided into 
 five oval fegmerits at the limb ; there is no pericarpium 
 but the feed, which is fingle, three-cornered, and pointed 
 
 is contained in the cup. _ 
 
 To this genus Linnaeus has joined the biltorta, per- 
 fecaria and fagopyrum of Tournefort. An infufion of 
 the common knot-grafs is a valuable aftringent medicine 
 
 in hemorrhages of all kinds. 
 
 POLYGYNIA, amongbotanifts, an order or lubdi 
 vifion of a clafs of plants in the Linnean fyftem, com 
 prehending fuch plants of that clafs as have a great num 
 ber of piftils, or female organs of generation. 
 Pistil and Generation. 
 
 POLYHEDRON, in geometry, denotes a body or 
 folid comprehended under many Tides or planes. 
 
 A gnomonick polyhedron is afione with feveral faces 
 wherein are deferibed various kinds of dials. See Dial 
 Polyhedron, polyfeope, in opticks, is a multiply- 
 ing-glafs, or lens, confiding of feveral plane furfaces dii 
 pofed into a convex form. See Lens. 
 
 POLYH1STOR, a perfon of great and various eru 
 dition ; whence 
 
 POLYMATHY, motofiadia, denotes the knowledgi 
 
 of many arts and fciences. 
 
 POLYMYTHY, koXuiuAm, in poetry, a fault man 
 epick poem, when inftead of a fingle mythos, or fable, 
 there is a multiplicity of them. 
 
 POLYNOMIAL, or Multinomial, in algebra 
 See Multinomial. 
 
 POLYOPTRUM, in opticks, a glafs through which 
 objects appear multiplied, but diminifhed. 
 
 POLYPE, or Polypus, in zoology, a fmall frelh- 
 water infed of a cylindrick figure, but variable, with 
 very long tentacula. 
 
 POLYPODY, Polypodium, in botany, a plant with 
 
 See 
 
 broadeft at the bafe : it has no ftalk, or manifeft flower ; 
 the feeds are a fine dull, lying on the backs of the leaves, 
 in roundilh lpecks, which arc difpofed in rows parallel to 
 the rib : the roots are long and flendcr, of a redilh brown 
 colour on the outfide, greenilh within, full ot Email tu¬ 
 bercles, which are refemblcd to the feet ot an inied. 
 whence the name of the plant. It grows in the elefts of 
 old walls, rocks, and decayed trees : that produced on 
 the oak lias been generally accounted the bell, though 
 notfenfibly different from the others. It is found green 
 at all lcafons of the year. 
 
 The leaves of polypody have a weak ungrateful fmell, 
 and a naufeous Tweet tade, leaving a kind of roughnefs 
 and flight acrimony in the mouth. This root is fup- 
 poled to be aperient, relolvent, and expedorant : it was 
 formerly ranked among the purgatives, but operates fo 
 weakly, a decodion of an ounce or two fcarcely moving 
 the belly, that it has long been expunged from that clafs : 
 the prefent pradice pay very little regard to it in any in¬ 
 tention. 
 
 POLYPUS, or Polyp us of the Heart, in medicine, 
 mafs compofed of various pellicles and fibres generated 
 n the heart and large veflels. 
 
 Polypufes are generally found in acute as well as chro¬ 
 llick difeafes. Their principal feat is in the heart, pulmo¬ 
 nary artery, and, the aorta. They chiefly attack the fan- 
 guine constitutions, and fuch as have fmall veflels and 
 foft fibres; thofe who are of a fedentacy life, who drink 
 much, or are free in the ufe of acid wines and fpirituous 
 liquors, or who eat great iuppers. 
 
 POLYPYRENEOUS, an appellation given to fruits 
 containing feveral kernels or feeds. 
 
 POLYSCOPE, in opticks, the fame with polyhe¬ 
 dron. See Polyhedron. 
 
 POLYSPASTON, in mechanicks, a machine con¬ 
 fiding of an affemblage of feveral pullics ; for the nature 
 nd force of which, lee Pulley. 
 
 POLYSPERMOUS, in botany, denotes fuch plants 
 as have more than four feeds Tucceeding each flower, 
 without any certain order or number. 
 
 Polyfpermous herbs arelubdivided into, i. fucii as have 
 calyx or perianthum ; and, 2. into fuch as have none. 
 POLYS YLLABICAL Echoes, are fuch echoes 
 as repeat many fyllables or words. 
 
 POLYSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word confiding 
 of more than three fyllables. 
 
 When a word confids of one, two, or three fyllables, 
 it is called monofyllable, difyllable, or trifyllable. 
 
 POLYSYNDETON, a figure in rlietorick, confift- 
 ng of a fuperabundancc of conjundions copulative : in 
 oppofition to this dands a Tyndeton. 
 
 POLYTHEISM, the belief of a plurality of gods. 
 POMADA, an exercife of vaulting the wooden horfe, 
 by laving one hand over the pommel of the faddle. 
 
 J POMATUM, an ointment made thus : Takeoflrefti 
 hog’s lard, and beat it into cream with rofc water, and 
 feent it with oil of lemons, thyme, or the like. Poma¬ 
 tums are alfo occafionally perfumed with the odours of 
 jeffamines, oranges, jonquils, tuberofes. See. 1 hey are 
 principally ufed for pimples, and foulneffes of the flan. 
 
 POMEGRANATE, mains Punka , a medicinal fruit 
 like an apple or quince, full of feeds inclofed within a 
 redifii pulp, containing either a fweet vinous juice, or 
 one more acid and acerb. 
 
 Pomegranates grow in Spain, Italy, and many other 
 countries, and flower in June, and the fruit is ripe in 
 September. Of the kernels arc made fyrups and con¬ 
 fervas ; and the peel which is called malicorium, reckoned 
 very aftringent, is an ingredient in feveral remedies, and 
 ptifans, for dyfenteries, diarrhoeas, lienteries, haemor¬ 
 rhages, and relaxations of the'gums. The ancients ufed 
 the rind, as the moderns do lumack, in the preparation 
 of leather. There is but little of the true conlerve made ; 
 that which ordinarily paffes for it being only lugar melted 
 down, to which they give the colour and lharp tafte with 
 cochineal, cream of tartar, and alum. 
 
 POMEIS, in heraldry, are green roundles ; To called 
 by the Englilh heralds, who exprefs different coloured 
 roundles by diftind names. The French call them tor- 
 teaux vert. 
 
 POMIFEROUS, in botany, is applied to thoTe 
 
 plants 
 
POP 
 
 plants which have the larged fruit, and covered with a 
 thick hard rind; whereby they are diftinguilhed from 
 the baccifcrous, which have only a thin rind. 
 
 POMMEL, Pummel, in the menage, a piece of brafs 
 or other matter a top and in the middle of the faddle-bow, 
 to which are faftened the holders, ftirrup-leathers, &c. 
 
 POMPHOLYX, in pharmacy, a kind of metalline 
 flower, being a white, light, friable fubftance, found 
 adhering to the lid or covercle of crucibles or furnaces, 
 wherein copper is melted with calamine done for the 
 making of brafs. 
 
 POMUM Ad ami, in anatomy, a protuberance in 
 the anterior part of the neck, formed by the thyroid carti¬ 
 lage, or firfl cartilage of the larynx, called fcutiformis. 
 
 "POND, in geography, a little lake of frcfh water, 
 which neither receives nor emits any river. 
 
 PONE, a writ in law, whereby a caufe depending in 
 the county, or other inferior court, is removed to the 
 Common-pleas, or King’s-bench, at Weftminfter. 
 
 Pone per Vadium , a writ commanding the fheriff to. 
 take furety of one for his appearance at a certain day. 
 
 PONIARD, a little pointed dagger, very fharp- 
 cdged. It was anciently borne in the hand, at the girdle, 
 or hid in the pocket, but is now fet afide, except among 
 afTaffins, and at the theatres. 
 
 PONS Varol-ii, in anatomy, a fort of arch in 
 the cerebellum, formed by two medullary proccfies ; fo 
 called from Narolius, a phyfician of Padua, in 1572, 
 who was the fird obferver of it. See Brain. 
 
 PONTAGE, Pontagium , a contribution towards the 
 building and repairing of bridges, from which no perfon 
 whatever, in ancient times, was exempted. 
 
 It all'o denotes the dues for perl'ons or merchandizes 
 palling over bridges. 
 
 PONTIF, Pontifex , high-pried, a perfon who has 
 the direction and fuperintendance of divine worfhip, as 
 the offering of facrifices, &c. The Romans had a col¬ 
 lege of Pontifs, and over thofe a pontifex maximus, in- 
 dituted by Numa, The Jews too had their high-pried, 
 and among the Romanids the pope is dill ftyled the fo- 
 vereign pontif. 
 
 PONTIFICAL, Pontijicale , a book of the rites be¬ 
 longing to pontifs. 
 
 PONTIFICALIA, the robes wherein a bifhop per¬ 
 forms divine fervice. 
 
 PONTIFICATE, Pontificatus , the date or dignity 
 of a pontif. It more peculiarly denotes, in modern 
 writers, the reign of a pope. 
 
 PONTON, Pontoon, in war, a floating bridge made 
 of boats and planks, for the paffage of the cavalry, can¬ 
 non, infantry, &c. over a river, &c The late invented 
 ponton is made of copper, furnilhed with an anchor, 
 &c. feveral of which are difpofed two yards afunderwith 
 beams acrofs, and over thole are planks, being all'o linked 
 to each other, and faftened on each flde the river by a 
 rope run through a ring in each of their heads, and fixed 
 to a tree or ftake on either Ihore. 
 
 The pontones mentioned by Csefar and Aulus-Gellius 
 were no more than a kind of fquare flat veflels, for car¬ 
 rying over horfe, 8cc. 
 
 PQNT volant, a flying Bridge, a kind of bridge 
 ufed in lieges, made of two bridges laid over one ano¬ 
 ther, and fo contrived, by means of cords and pullies 
 placed along the lides of the under bridge, that the upper 
 may be pullied forward, till it join the place where it is 
 deligned to be fixed ; the whole length of both not to be 
 above five fathom. 
 
 POOL, is properly a refervoir of water fupplied with 
 fprings, and difehargingthe overplus by fluices, wears, &c. 
 
 POOP, Poup, Puppis, in navigation, is the higheft 
 part of the fhip’s ftern. In king’s Ihips, the outfide of 
 the poop is adorned with galleries, trophies, &c. 
 
 POOR, in law, an appellation given to all perfons who 
 are in fo low and mean a condition as that they either 
 are, or may become a burden to a parilh. 
 
 POP^E, in antiquity, were inferior minifters employed 
 in the Pagan facrifices, whole office was to bring the 
 vidlim to the altar, tie it thereto, kill it, &c. 
 
 POPE, Papa, is the fupreme head of the Romilh 
 church, whofe fee is at Rome, whence he iflfues out his 
 briefs and bulls through the catholick world. 
 
 POPLAR, Populus, in botany, a genus of trees pro¬ 
 ducing male and female flowers on feparate plants, grow- 
 
 P O R 
 
 ingin an oblong amentum, loofely imbricated, and com- 
 pofed of feales which are oblong, plain, and cut at their 
 margin ; the corolla has no petals, but confil'ts of a 
 monophyllous nedlarium, turbinated at bottom, and tu¬ 
 bulated at top ; the {lamina are eight very Ihort filaments, 
 topped with large, tetragonal anther®. 1 he fruit is an 
 ovate bilocular capfule, containing a number of oval 
 feeds covered with a hairy down. There are different 
 fpecies- of this genus, as the white poplar or abele tree, 
 the black poplar, the afpen tree, the Carolina poplar, &c. 
 They arc propagated either by layers, or large cuttings* 
 planted in February, in a moilt foil, where they will 
 readily take root. 
 
 The bed ufe thefe trees can be applied to, is for 
 breaking off the wellerly or northerly winds, and to be 
 planted in fuch land where fcarce any other tree will 
 thrive, for the advantage that will arife from its timber ; 
 for the wood of thefe trees, efpecially of the abele, is very 
 good to lay for floors, where it will lad many years; and, 
 for its exceeding whitenefs, is by many perlons preferred 
 to oak ; but being of a foft contexture, is very fubjedt to 
 take the impreffion of any thing hard and pointed, which 
 renders it lefs proper for this purpofe : it is alfo very 
 proper for wainlcotting rooms, being lefs fubjedt to fwell 
 or lhrinkthan mod other forts of wood; but for turnery 
 ware there is no wood equal to this, for its exceeding 
 whitenefs ; fo that trays, bowls, and many other utenfils* 
 are made of .it: and the bellovvs-makers prefer it for their 
 ufe ; as do alfo the {hoe-makers, for heels for womens 
 lhoes ; and of this wood the {hoes are made which are 
 worn by the peafants in France ; it is alfo very good to 
 make light carts ; and the poles are very proper to fup- 
 port vines, hops, &c. and the loppings will afford good 
 fuel. 
 
 POPLES, in anatomy, the inner part of a jundlure, 
 whereby the thigh bone is articulated with the tibia. 
 
 POPLITEA, in anatomy, a name given to the third 
 vein of the leg, anting from the heel, where it is formed 
 out of feveral branches, coming both from the heel and 
 ancle. It lies pretty deep in the flefh, and attending up 
 to the ham, terminates in the crural vein. 
 
 POPPY, Papaver , in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whofe flower confifts of four roundilh, plane, patent 
 petals, narrowed at the bafe, and alternately fmaller; 
 the filaments are numerous, capillary, and topped with 
 oblong compreffed, eredt anther®. The fruit is a large 
 capfule, crowned by a plain digma, and opening in many 
 holes under it ; the feeds are numerous and very fmall, 
 and the receptacles are longitudinal plicse, of the fame 
 number with the rays of the ftigmata, and growing to 
 the fides of the capfule. 
 
 Of poppies there are feveral fpecies; thofe cultivated 
 in gardens are double, and extremely beautiful, vieing 
 with the fined carnations for ftripes and colours, and 
 have nothing to difcountenance their having a place 
 amongft the mod brilliant colle&ion, but their ihort 
 duration and offenfive fmell. They are propagated by 
 fowing the feeds in autumn, or early in the fpring, in 
 the places where they are intended to flower. The heads 
 of the fruit of poppies contain a milky juice, which 
 may be colledted in a confidcrablc quantity, by {lightly 
 wounding them when almoft ripe ; thisexpofed for a few 
 days to the air, thickens into a clammy mafs, the fame 
 as opium, which is an extract from the heads of the 
 white or Turkey poppy. See Opium. The feeds of 
 the white poppy are ufed in emulfions, being cooling, 
 and good in fevers and inflammatory diftempers, as alfo 
 for the ftrangury and heat of urine. 
 
 POPULEUM, Populneum, in pharmacy, an unguent 
 prepared of the buds of black poplar, violet-leaves, navel- 
 wort, and lard, bruifed and macerated; to which are 
 added bramble-tops, leaves of black poppies, mandra- 
 gora, hen-bane, night-fhade, lettuce, and burdock, boiled 
 in rofe-water, and drained. It is much ufed for burns, 
 fealds, and all forts of inflammations, and to afluage 
 arthritick pains. 
 
 PORCELAIN, Puree lain, a fine fort of earthen ware, 
 chiefly manufadtured in China, and thence called china, 
 or china-ware; but brought into Europe chiefly from 
 Japan, Siam, Surat, and Perfia. The Chinefe call it 
 tfe-ki. Porcelain is made chiefly at Kingteching, a large 
 town in the province of Kyangfi. In a letter from F. 
 Dieutrecolles to F. Orry, from Jauchew, dated Septem¬ 
 ber 
 
POR 
 
 her 1712, the whole procefs of this manufacture is dc- 
 fcribed as follows : 
 
 Materials of Porcelain. There are two kinds of 
 earths, and as many kinds of oils or varnifhes ufed in 
 the compofition of porcelain. The firft earth, called 
 kaulin, is befct with glittering corpufclcs ; the fecond, 
 called petunfe, is a plain white, but exceedingly fine 
 and loft to the touch. They are both found in quarries, 
 20 or 30 leagues from Kingteching. The petunfes arc 
 brought in form of bricks out of the quarries, where they 
 are naturally pieces of a very hard rock. The white of 
 the beft petunfe is to border a little on green. 
 
 I he firft preparation is to break and pound the r e 
 bricks coarfely with iron mallets, and then in mortars 
 with peftles : and when the powder is rendered impal¬ 
 pable, they throw it into a large urn full of water, 
 ftirring it about brifkly ; when the water has refted a 
 little, they fkim off, from the top, a white fubftance of 
 thethicknefs of four or five fingers, which is put into 
 another veflel of water. T’hey then ftir again the water 
 of the firft urn, and again fkim it, and thus alternately, 
 till nothing remain but the gravel of the petunfes at 
 bottom, which they pound afrefh. 
 
 As to the fecond urn, when the water has well fettled, 
 they pour it off, and with the pafte at bottom, fill a kind 
 of moulds ; whence, when almoft dry, they take it out, 
 and cut it into fquare pieces, properly called petunfes, 
 referving them to be mixed with the kaulin in the pro¬ 
 portion hereafter afligned. Thefe fquares are fold by the 
 hundred, but it is very rare to meet with them unfalfified, 
 the workmen being arrant knaves in their dealings; fo 
 that they are commonly obliged to purify them before 
 they can be employed. 
 
 The kaulin, which is the other earth ufed in porce¬ 
 lain, is much fofter than the petunfe, when dug out of 
 the quarry : yet this, by its mixture with the other, 
 gives the firmnefs and ftrength to the work. The mines 
 whence the kaulin is dug are deep, and the matter is 
 found in glebes, like the chalk in ours. The prepara¬ 
 tion of kaulin is much the fame with that of the petunfes. 
 The oil, or varnifh, which makes the third ingredient, 
 
 Is a whitifh liquid fubftance, drawn from the hard ftone 
 whereof the petunfes are formed ; that which is whiteft, 
 and whofe ftains arc the greeneft, being always chofen 
 for this purpofe. 
 
 The manner of preparing the oil : the petunfes being 
 walhed, undergo the fame procefs as for making the 
 fquares, only that the fineft part of the matter of the 
 fecond urn is not put in moulds, but taken to compofe 
 the oil. To 100 pounds of this matter they caft a 
 mineral ftone called fhekau, like our allum. This ftone 
 is firft heated red-hot, and fo reduced in a mortar to an 
 impalpable powder; and ferves to give the oil a con- 
 fiftence, which, however, is ftill to be kept liquid. 
 
 The oil of lime makes the fourth ingredient: they 
 firft diflolve large pieces of quick-lime, by fprinkling 
 water thereon ; on this powder they lay a couch of dry 
 fern, and on the fern another of the flaked lime, and 
 thus alternately till there be a moderate pile, and then 
 fet fire to the fern. The afhes they divide on new 
 couches of dry fern, fetting them on fire, as before ; 
 and this they repeat fuccelfively; the oil being ftill the 
 better, as the allies are oftener burnt. 
 
 A quantity of thefe alhes are thrown into an urn full 
 of water; and to every hundred pounds is added a pound 
 of fhekau, which dilfolves therein ; the reft, as in pre¬ 
 paring the petunfes ; the lediment found at the bottom 
 of the fecond urn, and which is to be kept liquid, is what 
 they call the oil of lime, and which gives the porcelain 
 all its luftre. This oil is cafily lophifticated with water, 
 and a proportionable quantity of fhekau. Tenmeafures 
 of oil ol petunfe ufually go to one of lime. To have 
 the mixture juft, the two oils Ihould be equally thick. 
 
 Forming j/Porcel A IN Vejfels. The firft thing is to 
 purify the petunfe and kaulin ; which is done as in pre¬ 
 paring the fquares. For the fecond, it is fufficient to 
 plunge it in an urn full of water in an open bafket: the 
 dregs that remain are perfe&ly ufelefs, and flung away. 
 
 The work-houfes are vaft yards walled round with 
 fheds, and other conveniencies, to work under and live 
 in. There is fcarce a piece of porcelain but pafles 
 through above 20 hands, before it comes to the painters; 
 and above 60, before it is brought to perfedion. For 
 
 FOR 
 
 the finer porcelains, they ufe equal quantities of petunfe 
 and kaulin; four parts of kaulin to fix of petunle lor 
 moderate ones ; and never lefs than one of kaulin to 
 three of petunfe for the coarfeft. The hardeft part of 
 the work is the kneading the two earths in a kind ol large 
 bafons or pits well paved and cemented, wherein the 
 workmen trample continually with their feet tili the 
 mafs become ol the confidence required to be ufed by 
 the potter. T. his earth is kneaded piccc-mcal, with the 
 hands, on large flates. But on this preparation depends 
 the perfection ol the work ; the lcaft heterogeneous body, 
 the leaft vacuity, the fmalleft grain of fand, nay, fomc- 
 times a fingle hair, making the porcelain crack, lplinter, 
 run, or warp. 
 
 The fmooth pieces of porcelain, as cups, urns, difhes, 
 &c. are made with the wheel ; but fuch as are in relievo, 
 as figures of men, animals, 6cc. are formed in moulds, 
 but faflnoned with the chiflel. 1 l lie large pieces are 
 made at twice ; one half is railed on the wheel by three 
 or four workmen, who hold it till it has acquired its 
 figure ; which done, they apply it to the other half, 
 uniting the two with porcelain earth made liquid, by 
 adding water to it, and polifhing the jun&ure with a 
 kind of iron fpatula. After the fame manner are joined 
 the feveral pieces of porcelain formed in moulds, or by 
 the hand, and after the fame manner are handies, See. 
 added to the cups, and other works formed with the wheel. 
 
 The moulds are made after the manner of thofe of our 
 iculptors, namely, of divers pieces, which feverally give 
 the refpedive figure to the parts of the model, and are 
 afterwards united to form a mould for an entire figure. 
 
 I hey are made of a yellow fat earth dug about King¬ 
 teching, being kneaded like potter’s earth, and when 
 fufficiently mellow, and moderately dry, beating it ftoutly, 
 they form it into moulds. All the works made in 
 moulds are finifhed with feveral mftruments proper to 
 dig, fmooth, and touch up the ftrokes that efcape the 
 mould : there are fome works whereon relievos are added 
 ready made, as dragons, flowers, &c. others that have 
 impreflions en crcux ; which laft are engraved with a 
 kind of puncheons. In general, all porcelain works are 
 to be fheltered from the cold, their natural humidity 
 making them liable to break when they dry unequally. 
 
 A common tea-cup begins with the potter, who, with 
 the wheel, gives it its form, height, and diameter. This 
 operator has not a farthing fterling for a plate furnifhed 
 with 26 cups ; accordingly, they go out of his hands 
 very imperfett, efpecially towards the feet, which are 
 afterwards cut with the chiflel, when the cup is dry. 
 From the wheel it is received by a fecond workman, 
 who fits it to its bafe; a third applies it on a mould’ 
 which is on a kind of lathe to bring it to its true form! 
 
 A fourth workman polifhes it with a chiflel about the 
 edges, and brings it to the thinnefs neceflary to make it 
 transparent; in doing which, he moiftens it from time 
 to time, left it break. When of its proper thicknefs, 
 another workman turns it gently on a mould to fmooth 
 its infide equably; other workmen add fome ornaments 
 in relievo ; others impreflions en creux ; others only 
 handles. At laft, the foot on the infide is rounded and 
 hollowed with a chiflel by a particular artift who does 
 nothing elfe. 
 
 Painting of Porcelain. The Chinefe painters, 
 efpecially thofe that meddle with human figures, our au¬ 
 thor obferves, arc all lorry workmen : he adds, that the 
 defed is fcarce any where fo fenfible as in the wliapey, or 
 porcelain painters ; among whom, fetting afide flowers 
 and landlkips, which are fometimes tolerable, the greateft 
 mafters are not to be compared to ordinary apprentices 
 among the Europeans for their beauty and juftnefs ol 
 defign. But it is otherwife with the colours thefe 
 wliapey ufe, which are fo exceeding lively and brilliant, 
 that there is but little hopes that our workmen fhall ever 
 vie with them. 
 
 1 he painting work is diftributed among a great num¬ 
 ber of workmen, in the fame laboratory : to one it 
 belongs to form the coloured circle about the edges of 
 the porcelain , another traces out flowers, which another 
 paints : this is for waters and mountains alone ; that 
 for birds and other animals; aud a third for human 
 figures. There are porcelain made of all colours, both 
 with regard to the ground and reprefentations there¬ 
 in. As to the colour of landlhips, &c. fome are Ample ; 
 
P O R 
 
 P O R 
 
 fucli are al! blues, filch as are feen in Europe ; othersl quite painted with their feveral colours, and all the co- 
 
 are mixed up of feveral teints ; and others again height¬ 
 ened with gold. 
 
 The blue is made of lapis lazuli prepared by burning 
 it the fpace of 24 hours in a kiln, where it is buried up 
 in gravel to the height of half a foot; when burnt, they 
 reduce it into an impalpable powder in porcelain mor¬ 
 tars, not varnifhed, and withpeftles of the fame matter. 
 
 For the red they ule coperas, which they call tfaufan ; 
 a pound of this they put into a covered crucible, in the 
 lid whereof is left a little aperture, through which the 
 matter, on occafion, may be feen. The crucible is 
 heated with a reverberatory fire, till the black fmoke 
 ceafe to afcend, and a fine red one fucceeds it, A pound 
 of copperas yields four ounces of red liquor, which is 
 found at the bottom of the crucible, though the fineft 
 part is that ufually adhering to the lid and lides of the 
 crucible. 
 
 I he powder of flintis, likewife, an ingredient in moft 
 of the other colours ; e. gr. for green, to three ounces, 
 of tongwhapeen, or fcoria of beaten copper, they ufe- 
 half an ounce of powder of hint, and an ounce of cerufe. 
 Violet is made by adding a dofe of white to the green 
 already prepared: the more green is added, the deeper 
 : is the violet. For yellow, they ufe feven drachms of 
 white, and three of red copperas. Moft of thefe co 
 lours are mixed up with gum-water, for application ; : 
 little faltpetre, fometimcs cerufe or copperas, but, more 
 ufually, copperas alone, being firft diffolved in water. 
 Indeed, for porcelains that are to be quite red, the co¬ 
 lour is ufually applied with oil, i. e. with the common 
 oil of the porcelain, or another made of the white flints. 
 
 There is alfo another red called blown red, becaufe, 
 in reality, applied by blowing with a pipe, one of whofe 
 orifices is covered with a very fine gauze which is 
 fmeared; when blowing againft the porcelain, it be¬ 
 comes all fprinklcd over with little points. This porce¬ 
 lain is very rare, and of great price. Black porcelain, 
 which they call umian, has likewife its beauty : this 
 colour has a leady caft, like metal-burning mirrours, 
 and is ufually heightened with gold. It is made of three 
 ounces of lapis lazuli, with feven of the common oil of 
 ftone ; though that proportion is varied as the colour is 
 defigned to be more or lefs deep. The black is not given 
 the porcelain till it be dry, nor muft the work be put to 
 the fire tiil the colour be dry. 
 
 The gold is not applied till after the baking, and is 
 rebaked in an oven for the purpofe. To apply the gold, 
 they break and diffolve it in water at the bottom of a 
 porcelain, till a thin gilded cloud arife on the furface : 
 it is ufed with grim-water, and to give it a body, they 
 add three parts of cerufe to three of gold. 
 
 There is, likewife, a kind of marbled porcelain, which 
 is made by applying the marblings with the pencil, and 
 for oil to varnilh it withal, ufing that of white flints, 
 which hatches and cuts the work with a thoufand hu¬ 
 morous ftrokes, in manner of mofaic work. The co¬ 
 lour this oil gives, is a white fomewhat afhy. The por¬ 
 celain is called tfwiki. 
 
 There are feveral other kinds of porcelain, but they 
 are rather for curiofity than ufe; the prettieft are the 
 magic porcelain, whole colours only appear when filled 
 with fome liquor. Thefe are made double ; the outfide 
 is white, and all laid out in compartments ; the infide 
 is a folid cup of coloured porcelain ; though the cup is 
 lometimes ofglafs, which has a better afleft than porce¬ 
 lain. The fecret of thefe magic porcelains, which the 
 Chinefe call kiatifm, is almoft loft; yet F. d’Entrecolles 
 has furnilhed us with the following account: the porce¬ 
 lain, to be painted thus, muft be very thin ; and the 
 colours, which in other porcelains are applied on the 
 outfide, are here applied on the iniide. When the colour 
 is dry, they lay over it a light couch of a lize made of 
 the porcelain earth ; by which means the colour is in- 
 dofed between two earthen laminae; when the fize is 
 dry, they throw oil within the porcelain ; and when it 
 has enough, they return it to the mould, and the wheel, 
 to render it as thin and tranfparent as poifible. When 
 dry, it is baked in the common furnace. The colours 
 here ufed are always the fineft, and the figures painted 
 are fifties, as the moft fuitable to the liquor put within 
 them, and in which they feem to fwim. 
 
 '1 he feveral kinds of porcelains abovementioned being 
 Vow II. No. 5 S. 
 
 lours dry, are to be polilhed, to prepare them to receive 
 the oil or varnilh; which is done with a pencil of very 
 fine feathers, moiftened with water, and pafled lightly 
 over to take off even the fmallell inequalities. 
 
 The oiling or varnifhing is the laft preparation of the 
 porcelain, before it be carried to the oven : this is 
 applied more or lefs thick, and feldom or oftner re¬ 
 peated, according to the quality of the work. For thin 
 fine porcelains, they give two very thin touches, to 
 others one, but that one equivalent to the other two. 
 There is a deal of art in applying the varnilh. both that 
 it be done equally, and not in too great quantity. The 
 couches of the infide are given by afpetfion, i. e. by 
 calling in as much varnilh as is nee’eflary : thole on the 
 outfide by immerfion, or by plunging the pieces in a 
 veflel of oil. It muft be obferved, that the foot is not 
 yet formed, but continues in a mere mafs till the work 
 has been varnilhed ; it is at length finifhed on the yyheel; 
 and when hollowed, a little circle is painted in it, and 
 fometimes a Chinefe letter ; this painting being dry, the 
 foot is varnilhed, and the work carried to the oven to 
 be baked. 
 
 Our curious author omits nothing, not even the dex¬ 
 terity of the people who carry the porcelain to the bake- 
 houfe. He has been frequently furprifed, he tells us, to 
 fee a man pafs through feveral ftreets full of people, with 
 two very long narrow boards ranged with porcelains on 
 his Ihoulders, ftill preferving the equilibrium fo accu¬ 
 rately, as not to do any damage to fo frail a commodity. 
 
 Baking or nealing of Porcelain. There are two 
 kinds of ovens ufed in baking of porcelain : large ones, 
 for works that are only to come to the fire once, which 
 is the common way ; and final! ones for fiuch as require 
 a double baking. The large ones are two Chinefe fa¬ 
 thoms deep, and almoft four wide. They are formed 
 of a mixture of three earths ; one whereof, yellow and 
 common, makes the bafts; the two others are fcarcer, 
 and dug out of deep mines, wherein people can only 
 work in winter. One of them, called lautou, is a very 
 ftrong, ftifF earth ; the other, youtou, oily. 
 
 The lides and roof of the ovens are fo thick, that one 
 may lay the hand on them, when the fire is at its height, 
 without danger of burning. At the top of the dome, 
 which is in form of a tunnel, is a large aperture to give 
 vent to the flames and fmoke, which mount up incef- 
 fantly, as foon as fire is once fet to the oven. Befide the 
 principal apperture, there are four or five fmall ones 
 around, which, by being opened and lhut, ferve to aug¬ 
 ment or diminilh the heat: like the holes in the chemifts 
 furnaces, called regifters. The hearth, which takes up 
 the whole breadth of the oven, is placed in front, pre- 
 cifely againft the opening of the door, and is two or 
 three feet deep, and two broad ; people palling over it on 
 a plank, to go into the furnace to range the porcelain. 
 
 As loon as the fire is lighted, the door is walled up ; 
 only leaving an aperture for the conveyance of wood. 
 Laftly, the bottom of the oven is covered with fand, 
 wherein part of the firft porcelain cafes are buried. The 
 oven itfelf is ufually placed at the extremity of a long, 
 narrow veftible, which ferves in lieu of bellows, the cold 
 air and wind being thus driven direftly in the face of 
 each oven. 
 
 Each piece of porcelain, of any note, is difpofed, in 
 the furnace, in its feparate cafe, or coffin. Indeed, as 
 to tea-difhes, &c. the fame cafe ferves for feveral. The 
 cafes are all of the fame matter with the oven : they 
 have no lids, but ferve each other mutually, the bottom 
 of a fecond cafe, fitting into the aperture of the firft ; 
 and thus, fucceffively, to the top of each column. Each 
 coffin, which is ufually of a cylindrical form, that the 
 fire may communicate itfelf more equably to the porce¬ 
 lains inclofed, has at bottom a little lay of very fine fand, 
 covered over with dull of kaulin, that the land may not 
 flick to the work ; and care is taken that the porcelain 
 may not touch the lides of the cafe. In the larger cafes, 
 which hold the fmall pieces, they leave the middle va¬ 
 cant, in regard porcelains placed there would want the 
 neceflary heat. Each of thefe little pieces is mounted 
 on a little mafs of earth, the thicknefs of two crowns, 
 covered with powder of kaulin. 
 
 F. d’Entrecolles obfe-rves, that the porcelains are put 
 in cafes, to prevent any diminution of lull re from the 
 
 L 11 tnn 
 
 0 
 
 
P O R 
 
 \oo violent effects of a naked fire; adding, that it is owing 
 to thefe thick veils, that the beauty, or, as he calls it, 
 the complexion of the porcelains, is not tanned by the 
 heat of the fire. 
 
 As fall as the cafes are filled, a workman ranges them 
 in the cavity of the furnace; forming them into piles or 
 columns, whereof thofe in the middle are at leaft feven 
 feet high; The two cafes at the bottom of each column 
 are left empty ; becaufe, being partly funk in the land, 
 the fire has the lefs effect on them ; and for the fame 
 reafon, the uppermoft one is left empty. In this manner 
 is the whole cavity of the oven filled with columns, ex¬ 
 cepting that part precifely under the gfand aperture. 
 
 In ranging the cafes, they obferve always to place the 
 finefl piles of porcelain in the centre ; the coarfeft at the 
 bottom , and thofe that are high-coloured, and confift 
 of as much petunfe as kaulin, and wherein the wen-ft oil 
 is ufed, at the mouth. 
 
 Thefe piles are all placed very near one another, and 
 are bound together at top, at bottom, and in the middle, 
 by pieces of earth ; in luch a manner, as that the flame 
 may have a free paflage among them, and infinuate 
 equally on all fides : in which a great part of the work¬ 
 man’s art lies, and on which the perfection of the porce¬ 
 lain much depends. Another thing to be obferved, is, 
 that an oven muft' never be fet altogether with new 
 coffins; but half one, half the other ; the old ones at the 
 bottoms and tops of the pile, and the new ones in the 
 middle. Indeed it were better to have them all burnt in 
 an oven apart, before they come to be ufed for porce¬ 
 lain ; as was anciently done. The cafes, our author 
 obferves, are brought ready prepared from a large village 
 on the river, a league diftant from Kingteching. Before 
 burnt, they are yellow : and afterwards of a dark red. 
 
 When the oven is filled, they wall up the door ; only 
 leaving a little aperture for the throwing in of little 
 pieces of wood, a foot long, but very flender, to keep 
 up the Are. It is then heated, by degrees, for the fpace 
 of a day and night; after which two men, who relieve 
 one another, continue to throw in wood without any 
 interruption. To know when the porcelain is baked 
 enough, they open one of the lefs holes of the oven, 
 and with a pair of tongs take off the lid of one of the 
 piles. If the fire appear very brifk and clear, and the 
 piles equally inflamed; and efpecially if the colours of 
 the porcelains that are uncovered dart forth a noble luftre; 
 the codlion is fufficient, they difeontinue the fire, and 
 wall up what remained of the door of the furnace. 
 
 If tlie oven be only filled with fmall porcelains, they 
 take them out 12 or 15 hours after the fire is extintt : 
 if it be filled with larger, they defer opening it for two 
 or three days. In this the modern practice differs from 
 the ancient; wherein the door was not opened till after 
 10 days for the large pieces, and five for the fmall ones. 
 
 One thing very lurprizing, and almoft inconceivable, 
 F. d’EntrccoLles obferves, is, that there are never found 
 any affies on the hearth of the oven, what quantity of 
 wood foever is confirmed. He adds another thing, which 
 with him pafles for equally ftrange, that the workmen 
 employed about the furnaces, flake their thirft, by con¬ 
 tinually drinking hot tea with fait dilfolved in it. 
 
 The Chinefe make another kind of porcelain, which 
 they paint and bake twice ; and for this fecond baking 
 they have a kind of little ovens on purpofe. When very 
 l’mall, they are made of iron; otherwife, of a kind of 
 bricks an inch thick, a foot high, and half a foot broad, 
 made with the fame earth as the porcelain cafes. The 
 biggeft of thefe ovens does not exceed five feet in height, 
 and three in diameter; and being made much in form of 
 bee-hives, the bricks are arched a little, to form the 
 curvity the better. The hearth is of earth half a foot 
 high, formed of two or three ranges of bricks , and on 
 this mafs is the oven built. Around the oven, at the 
 diftance of about half a foot, is raifed a fhell of common 
 bricks, joined to the oven itfelf, by a kind of arcboutant 
 of earth, which ferves to ftrengthen it. They ufually 
 build feur or five of thefe ovens at equal diftances from 
 each other. At the bottom of the fhell are holes to give 
 air to the fire when lighted : at top is an aperture, which 
 they cover up with a piece of the baked earth, when the 
 porcelains are laid in the oven. 
 
 The porcelains, here, are not inclofed in coffins, as in 
 the common ovens; the oven itfelf ferving that purpofe, 
 
 FOR 
 
 and being fo exaftly clofed, that they receive no other 
 impreffion of the fire, but that of the heat of the char¬ 
 coal difpoled in the hearth, at the bottom of the oven, 
 as well as at top of the vault, and in the interval between 
 the oven and the fhell, or brick wall. 
 
 To prepare the porcelains fora fecond baking, they 
 muft have had their varnifh in the common manner, 
 and have paffed the great oven. In this ftate they are 
 painted with various colours, after which, without giv¬ 
 ing them any new varnilh, they arc ranged in piles in 
 the little oven ; fetting the little ones over the larger, in 
 foim of pyramids. 
 
 This fecond baking is fometimes intended to preferve 
 the luftre of the colours the better, and at the fame time 
 to give them a kind of relievo. But, more ufually, its 
 delign is to hide deftflivc places, by covering them over 
 with colours : but the artifice is eafily found out, by 
 paffing the hand over them. 
 
 When the workman judges his porcelains baked 
 enough, he takes off the piece that covers the aperture ; 
 and if the works appear glittering, and the colours 
 glowing, he takes out the chaicoal , and when the oven 
 is cold, the porcelain too. How beautiful foever the 
 modern porcelain may be, the tafte f6r antiquity, which 
 reigns in China as well as in Europe, gives the ancient 
 porcelain a value far above that of the modern. It muff 
 be owned, the ancient feems finer as to the matter, more 
 perfect as to the baking, and of a more pleafant call, 
 both as to the white of the ground, and the other co¬ 
 lours ; yet it is certain, the moft able and difeerningmay 
 be deceived herein : and there are workmen who make 
 it their bufinefs to counterfeit the ancient porcelain, 
 called kutong in the modern. 
 
 The matter of thefe falfe kutong is a yellowifh earth, 
 found near Kingteching. There is nothing particular 
 in thefirft part of the procefs, except that they are made 
 thicker, and that they are varnilhed with an oil drawn 
 from the yellow ftone, mixed with the common oil, 
 which gives them a kind of fea-green hue. When taken 
 out of the oven, they throw it into a fatty broth, made 
 of capons, &c. in which they boil it a fecond time; 
 they then bury it in the filthieft fink they can find, for 
 a month or fix weeks, or more, according as they would 
 give it the greater appearance of antiquity. Befides their 
 thicknefs and their colour, thefe falfe antiques refemble 
 the true ones in this, that they do not refound when 
 llruck, nor even give the leaft buz, when held to the 
 ear. Notwithftanding the vaft quantity of porcelains 
 made in almoft all the provinces of the empire of China, 
 they ftill continue very dear; though not fo dear as 
 anciently. The Chinefe annals tell us of times wherein 
 a fingle urn coil 90 or an 100 crowns on the fpot. What 
 chiefly occafions the extraordinary price of this com¬ 
 modity, efpecially in Europe, is, befide the great profits 
 of the merchants in Europe, and their faflors in China, 
 that it rarely happens an oven fucceeds throughout; that 
 it is frequently quite fpoiled, fo that, upon opening it, 
 in lieu of fine porcelains, is found a hard unformed 
 mafs, into which both the porcelains and their coffins are 
 converted, either by excefs of heat, or fome ill qualities 
 in the matter. 
 
 Another reafon of the dearnefs of porcelain is, that 
 the ingredients it is made of, and the wood wherewith it 
 is burnt, grow more and more fcarce. One may add a 
 third reafon for the exccffive price of porcelains to the 
 Europeans; and it is this, that moft of thofe fent to 
 Europe are formed on new models, frequently very capri¬ 
 cious, and difficult to fucceed in; which, yet, for the 
 fmallcft defedts, are turned on the manufacturer's hands; 
 and he, not being able to difpofe of them to the Chinefe, 
 becaufe not to their tafte nor to their ufe, is forced to 
 charge the porcelain he delivers, the higher, to payhim- 
 felf for thofe refufed. 
 
 The French have been for feveral years attempting to 
 imitate porcelain. The firft effays, made at Rouen, are 
 faid to have fucceeded tolerably well; and M. Savary 
 tells us, are now carried to fuch a point in the manufac¬ 
 tories atPaffi and St. Cloud, that the French porcelains 
 want nothing to make them of equal value with the 
 Chinefe, but to be brought 5 pr 6000 leagues. In effect, 
 for the fitnel’s of the grain of the matter, the beauty and 
 turn of the veffels, the exactitude of the defign, and the 
 luftre of the colours, at leaft the blues, the French are 
 
 not 
 
P O R 
 
 not much behind the Chinefe. But their grand defeCt 
 is in the white of the ground, which is ufualJy dingy and 
 dull, and eafily diftinguilhes itfelf from the pure fprightly 
 white of the Chinefe. 
 
 But the Saxons feem to have exceeded the French. 
 There is a manufacture at Meiflen, the capital of Mifnia, 
 which, the baron dePollnitz allures us, produces porce¬ 
 lains pain ed and enamelled in fuch perfection, that they 
 are more beautiful, as well as dearer, than thole of China 
 itfelf. The invention is owing to an alchymilt, who, 
 being clapped up in the callle of Konigltein, by the late 
 king of Poland, on a fufpicion of being mailer of the 
 fecret of the philofopher’s Itone, had leilure enough not 
 indeed to make gold, but to invent a ware, which, by 
 the great vent of it, confiderably enriches the country. 
 
 Porcelain, alfo denotes a kind of little white lea- 
 Ihell found along with fponges, and current in feveral 
 parts of Alia, Africa, and America, as coin. They are 
 of fome ufe in medicine, and are preferibed pounded in 
 the manner of pearls. 
 
 PORCH, Atrium, a kind of veltible or entrance, 
 generally fupported by columns, and much ufed in an¬ 
 cient temples, churches, halls, he. 
 
 In the ancient architecture it was a difpolition of in- 
 fulated columns, ufually crowned with a pediment form¬ 
 ing a covert place before the principal door, as that be¬ 
 fore St. Paul’s, Covent-Garden, the work of Inigo Jones. 
 
 When it had four columns in front, it was called 
 tetraftyle ; when fix, hexaltyle, he. Vitruvius calls it 
 pronas ; Pollux, prodomos : when finer than ordinary, 
 the ancients called it propylaeum. 
 
 PORE, in philofophy, a little interftice between the 
 particles of matter which conflitute bodies, either empty 
 or filled, with fome infenfible medium. The molt folid 
 bodies have fome kind of pores, otherwife all would be 
 alike fpecifically heavy. Sir Ifaac Newton has Ihewn 
 that bodies are much more rare and porus than is com¬ 
 monly believed. 
 
 Pores, in anatomy, are certain fpaces between the 
 parts of the Ikin, whereby we fweat or perfpire. See 
 Cutis. 
 
 PORIME, Porima, in geometry, a theorem fo eafily 
 demonltrated, that it is almofl felf-cvident, as that a 
 chord is wholly within a circle, he. 
 
 PORISM, Porijma , in mathematicks, a general theo- 
 fem thatferves tofolve othergeneral and difficult problems. 
 
 PORISTICK Me thod, in mathematicks, that 
 method which determines when, by what methods, and 
 how many different ways a problem may be folved. 
 
 PORPHYRY, Porphyrites, in natural hiftory, &c. 
 a kind of marble of a brownifh red colour, frequently 
 interfperfed with white {tains, anciently brought from 
 Egypt, and exceeding all others in hardnefs. 
 
 PORRACEOUS, in medicine, is applied to the bile, 
 faeces, he. when their colour is green, approaching that 
 of a leek. 
 
 PORT, Partus, Haven, or Harbour, a commodious 
 place, for the moft part at the mouth of a river, with 
 depth of water fufficient for ftiips of burden, and a con¬ 
 venient bottom for anchorage, where veflels lie for load¬ 
 ing or unloading, fereened from the wind and all enter- 
 prizes of an enemy, either by the natural fituation of 
 the place, or a mole, dike, &c. with a chain and light- 
 houie. Ports are either natural or artificial. 
 
 Natural Ports, are thole formed by Providence feem- 
 i'ngly for the convenience of commerce. 
 
 Artificial Ports, are thofe formed by moles in the fea. 
 
 Bar Ports, Ports de Barre, are fuch ports as can 
 only be entered with the tide, by reafon of fand or rock 
 banks that lie in the way, as that of Goa, he. 
 
 Clofe Ports, are fuch ports as are within the body of 
 a city, as thofe of Rhodes, Venice, Amfterdam, Rochelle, 
 Bayoane, St. John de Luz, &c. 
 
 Free Port, in commerce, a port open for merchants 
 of.all nations to load and unload their veffels in, without 
 paying any duties, as Genoa, Leghorn, Marfeilles, he. 
 
 Free Port, alfo denotes a total exemption which any 
 fet of merchants enjoy for goods imported into a flate, 
 or thofe of the growth of a country exported. 
 
 Port, alfo denotes the burden of a {hip, which is 
 commonly eftimated in tons ; and this means that the 
 fea-water which would be contained in the fpace which 
 the capacity of the velfel poffeffes, when floating in the 
 3 
 
 FOR 
 
 feii, weighs Co many tons, reckoned at the rate of 2000 
 pounds each. 
 
 Port, alfo denotes a ftrong wine brought from 
 Oporto, or Port-a-port, in Portugal. 
 
 Porto/" the Voice, in mufick, the faculty of making 
 the {hakes, paffages, and diminutions, wherein the beauty 
 of a fong, or piece of mufick, coiififts, and which the 
 Italians call trilli, gruppi, flrafcini. 
 
 Port, among laiiors, denotes the larboard or left fide 
 of the lliip. Hence, to port the helm, is putting it on 
 the left fide that the fb.ip may go to the right or {lar¬ 
 board. 
 
 PORTA, vena Porta, in anatomy, A very confider- 
 able vein that brings the blood to the liver through the 
 whole fubltance whereof it is diffeminated. 
 
 PORT ABLE, any thing that is eafy of carriage. 
 
 PORT AIL, in architecture, the frontifpiece of a 
 church viewed on the fide wherein the great door is : and 
 it likewife denotes the great door of a palace, cattle, he. 
 
 PORTAL, in architecture, denotes a little fquare 
 corner of a room, cut off from the reft by the wainfeot; 
 frequent in the ancient buildings, but now difufed. 
 
 It alfo denotes Portella, a little gate, where there are* 
 two gates of a different bignefs; as alfo a kind of arch 
 of joiner’s woik before a door. 
 
 PORT A I E, or Crofs Portate, in heraldry, is a crofs 
 which does not Hand upright, but lies athwart the 
 efcutcheon, in bend, as if carried on the fhoiilder. 
 
 POR I -CRAION, a cafe for a pencil, ufually four 
 or five inches long, wherein a pencil Hides up and down 
 by means of a fpring and button. Its outfide is filed in 
 eight faces, whereon are drawn the feCtor lines; its infide 
 is round, &c. 
 
 Port -Cullice, Herfe, Sarrafm, in fortification, is an 
 affemblage of feveral large pieces of wood joined acrofs 
 one another like a harrow, and each pointed with iron 
 at the bottom. They formerly ufed to be hung over 
 the gateway of a fortified place, ready to let down in cafe 
 of a furprize, when the gates could not be {hut. 
 
 Now-a-days the orgues anfwer the pcirpofe better. 
 
 PORTE, denotes the Grand Signior’s palace at 
 Conftantinople. 
 
 PORTER, in the circuit of juftices, is an officer 
 who carries a verge or white rod before the jultice in eyre. 
 
 Port -Glaive, fword-bearef, an order of knights in 
 Poland, called by the Latins enfiferi. 
 
 Po r t-G rave, Port-grave, Port-Yeve, was anciently the 
 principal magiftrate in ports and maritime towns. 
 
 Port- Holes, in a fhip, are the embrafures or holes 
 in the fides of a fhip, through which the muzzles of 
 the cannon are put. All {hips of 8o guns and above 
 have three rows of port-holes : and thofe of 40 guns 
 and above have two rows ; and under 40 guns have but 
 one. The port-holes are {hut up in a ltorm, to prevent 
 the water’s driving through them, and the cafements or 
 ports are now generally fattened by hinges a-top of the 
 holes, which are haled up or let down by means of hal¬ 
 yards. 
 
 PORTICO, in architecture, a kind of ground- 
 gallery, or piazza encompaffed with arches fupported by 
 columns, without any immediate relation to doors or 
 gates, where people walk under covert. The roof is 
 commonly vaulted, fometimes flat. The ancients called 
 it lacunar. 
 
 The moft celebrated porticos of antiquity were thofe 
 of Solomon’s temple; that of Athens, where the phi- 
 lofophers held their difputes and converfations ; and that 
 of Pompey at Rome. Among the modern porticos, the 
 moft celebrated is the piazza of St. Peter of the Vatican, 
 and that of Covent- Garden, London, done by Inigo J ones, 
 
 PORTION, Portio, a part or divifion of any thing. 
 
 PORTIONER, is where a parfonage is ferved^by 
 two or more clergymen alternately, in which cafe the 
 min liters are called portioners, becaufe they have only 
 theirproportion of the tythes or profits of the living. 
 
 ^ fT LAND-Stone, is a dull whitifh fpecies of 
 pfadurium, much ufed in buildings about London : it 
 is compofed of a coarfe grit, cemented together by an 
 earthy lpar; it will not ltrike fire with fteel, but makes 
 a violent effervefcence with aqua-fortis. 
 
 PORTMANTEAU, a cloak-bag of doth, leather, 
 he. in which the cloak, linen, and other habiliments of 
 travellers are difpofed and laid on the horfe’s crupper. 
 
 PORTRAIT, 
 
P O S P o s 
 
 PORTRAIT, in painting, the reprelentation of a 
 perfon. and efpecially of a face done from the life. 
 
 PORLJS, in general, denotes a pore. See Pore. 
 
 Porus Biliarius, according to fome, is the lame with 
 the hepatic duft; but others make a diftinftion between 
 them, and obferve, that the duftus hepaticus runs from 
 the liver to the duftus choledocus ; and that the branches 
 of this, dillributed through the whole liver, make what 
 are called the pori biliarii. 
 
 POSE, in heraldry, denotes a lion, horle, or other ani¬ 
 mal, Handing Hill, with all his four feet on the ground. 
 
 POSH ION or Situation, in phyficks, an affec¬ 
 tion of place, which expreffes the manner of any body’s 
 being therein. 
 
 Position, or the Rule of falfe Pos ition, otherwife 
 called the Rule j/Falshood, in arithmetick, is a rule 
 fo called, becaufe in calculating on feveral falfe numbers 
 taken at random, as if they were the true ones, and from 
 the differences found therein, the numbers fought are 
 determined. This rule is either fingle or double. 
 
 Single pofition, is when there happens in the propo¬ 
 rtion fome partition of numbers into parts proportional, 
 in which cafe thequeftion may be refolved at one opera¬ 
 tion, by this rule. Imagine a number at pleafure, and 
 work therewith according to the tenor of the queftion, 
 as if it were the true number; and what proportion 
 there is between the falfe conclufion and the falfe pro¬ 
 portion, fuch proportion the given number has to the 
 number fought. 
 
 Therefore, the number found by argumentation Ihall 
 be the firft term of the Rule of Three ; the fecond num¬ 
 ber fuppofed, the fecond term ; and the given number, 
 the third. See Rule of Three. 
 
 Or the refult is to be regulated by this proportion, viz. 
 as the total arifing from the error to the true total, fo is 
 the fuppofed part to the true one Example : A, B, and 
 C, deligning to buy a quantity of lead, to the value of 
 140I. agree that B lhall pay as much again as A, and 
 C as much again as B ; what then muft each pay ? 
 
 Now fuppofe A to pay iol, then B mull pay 20I. and 
 C 40I. the total of which is 70I. but Ihould be 140I. 
 therefore, if 70I. Ihould be 140I. what fhould iol. be ? 
 
 Double pofition, is when there can be no partition in 
 the numbers to make a proportion. In this cafe, there¬ 
 fore, you muft make a fuppofition twice, proceeding 
 therein according to the tenor of the queftion. If neither 
 of the fuppofed numbers folve the proportion, obferve 
 the errors, and whether they be greater or lefs than the 
 fuppofition requires, and mark the errors accordingly 
 with the figns -j- and—. See Character. 
 
 Then multiply contrarywife the one pofition by the 
 otner error, and if the errors be both too great, or both 
 too little, fubtraft the one produft from the other, and 
 divide the difference of the produfts by the difference of 
 the errors. If the errors be unlike, as the one + and 
 the other —*, add the produfts, and divide the fum 
 thereof by the fum of the errors added together : for the 
 proportion of the errors is the fame with the proportion 
 of the exceffes or defeats of the numbers fuppofed to be 
 the numbers fought: or the fuppofitions and their errors 
 being placed as before, work by this proportion as a gene¬ 
 ral rule, viz. as the difference of the errors, if alike (or 
 their fum, if unlike) to the difference of their fuppofi¬ 
 tions, fo either error to a fourth number, which accord¬ 
 ingly added to or fubtrafted from the fuppofition againft 
 it, will anfwer the queftion. 
 
 Position, in geometry, is a term fometimes ufed in 
 contradiftinftion to magnitude : thus, a line is faid to 
 be given in pofition, pofitione data, when its fituation, 
 bearing, or direction, with regard to fome other line, is 
 given : on the contrary, a line is given in magnitude, 
 when its length is given, but not its fituation. 
 
 Position is.alfo ufed for a thefis or propofition main¬ 
 tained in the lchools. See Thesis. 
 
 POSITIVE, a term of relation fometimes oppofed to 
 negative: hence apofitivequantity, in algebra, is a real 
 or affirmative quantity, or a quantity greater than no¬ 
 thing; thus called, inoppofition to a privative or nega¬ 
 tive quantity, which is lefs than nothing, and marked 
 by this fign—. Pofitive quantities are defigned by this 
 charafter + prefixed, or fuppofed to be prefixed to them. 
 
 Positive, inmufick, denotes the little organ ufuaJly 
 placed behind or at the feet of an organift, played with 
 
 the fame wind and the fame bellows, and confiding of 
 the fame number of pipes with tlie larger one, though 
 thole much lmaller, and in a certain proportion : this is 
 properly the choir-organ. 
 
 POSSE Comitatus, inlaw, fignifies the power of 
 the county, or the aid and affiftance of all the knights, 
 gentlemen, yeomen, labourers, lervants, apprentices^&c! 
 and all others within the county that are above die age 
 of 15, except women, ecclefiaft’ical perfons, and fuch as 
 are decrepit and infirm. 
 
 1 OSSESSION, in law, the holding or occupying of 
 any thing, either de jure or de fafto. 
 
 Poffeffion de jure, is the title a man has to enjoy a 
 thing, though it be ufurped and in the aftual poffeffion 
 ol another; or where lands are defeended to a perfon, 
 and he has not yet entered into them : and pofleffion de 
 fafto, or aftual poffeffion, is where there is an aftual or 
 effeftual enjoyment of a thing. 
 
 POSSESSIVE, in grammar, a term applied to pro¬ 
 nouns which denote the enjoyment or pofleffion of any 
 thing, either in particular or in common : as meus y 
 mine, and tuui, thine; nojltr , ours, and vejler, yours. 
 See the article Pronoun. 
 
 POSSIBILITY, fyjjibiliuis, inlaw, is defined to be 
 
 anything that is altogether uncertain, or what may or 
 may not be, and is taken to be either near or remote. 
 
 A near poffibility, is where an eftate is limited to one 
 after another’s deceafe, whilft a remote poffibility is fome- 
 thing extraordinary, that is never likely to come to pafs, 
 POSSIBLE, PoJJible, is fometimes oppofed to real 
 exiftence, and underftood of a thing which, though it 
 does not aftually exift, yet may exift; as a new liar, 
 another world, &c. which are particularly faid to bephv- 
 fically poffible. It is alfo oppofed to impoffible, in which 
 fenfe it is applicable to any thing that does not contradift 
 itfelf, or involve contradiftory predicates, whether it ac¬ 
 tually ex ill or not,_ as a man, fire, &c. tliefe are alfo faid 
 to be logically poffible. 9 , 
 
 POST, a courier or letter-carrier, or one who fre¬ 
 quently changes horl'cs, polled or placed on the road, for 
 quicker difpatch. 
 
 Penny Post, a poll eftablilhed for the benefit of Lon¬ 
 don and the parts adjacent, whereby any letter or parcel, 
 not exceeding 16 ounces, or 10 pounds value, may be 
 fpeedily conveyed to and from the towns and villages 
 within 10 miles of London quite round, for one penny 
 each packet or letter, &c. 
 
 It is managed by a comptroller, under whom are an 
 accomptant, colleftor, fix forters, feven fub-forters, and 
 above 100 meflengers. 
 
 Post, in war, denotes any place fortified or not, 
 where a body of men may make a Hand, fortify them- 
 felves, or remain in a condition to fight an enemy. 
 
 A fpot of ground leized by a party" to fecure the front 
 of an army, is called an advanced poll. 
 
 The advanced guard, or the right of a line, See. is 
 called the poll of honour, which is always given to the 
 oldeft regiment. 
 
 Posts, in building, large pieces of timber placed 
 upright. The corner-polls in a houfe are called the 
 principal polls, and thole placed between the principal 
 ones for ftrengthening the body of the houfe, prick-polls. 
 
 Posts, in fculpture, are ornaments formed after the 
 manner of rolls or wreathings, fo called, as they feem to 
 run after one another. Some are plai n, and others fiou rilhed. 
 
 Post Diem, a fee, byway of penalty, laid on a Iheriff 
 for neglefting to return a writ after the day affigned. 
 And this is four-pence to the cuftos brevium. 
 
 Post -Dijfeifn, in law, a writ given by the ftatute of 
 Weftminfter for him, who having recovered lands or 
 tenements by prxeipe quod reddat, upon default or red- 
 dition, is again dillcifcd by the former diffqifor. 
 
 POSTEA, in law, a certificate or return of the pro¬ 
 ceedings by nifi prius into the court of Common-pleas, 
 after a verdift, and there entered upon record. 
 
 POSTERIOR, denotes fomething that comes after 
 another, in oppofition to prior and anterior. 
 
 POSTERIORITY, in law, a kind of relation in 
 holdings oppofite to .priority. 
 
 POSTERN, in Fortification, is a fmall gate, coin-- 
 monlv made in the angle of the flank of a batlion, that 
 ot the curtin, or near the orillon, dclcending into the 
 ditch ; whereby the garrifon can march in and out, 
 
 unperceived 
 
POT 
 
 tinpctceived by the enemy, to relieve the works, make 
 fallies, &c. It a'lfo, ill general, denotes any private 
 back-door. 
 
 POSTHUMOUS, a child born after the death of his 
 father, or taken out of the body of a dead mother, from 
 whence it is frequently applied to the works of an author 
 hot publifhed till after his deceafe. 
 
 POSTIL, a name anciently given to a note in the 
 margin of the Bible, and afterwards to one in any other 
 book pofterior to the text. 
 
 POSTING, among merchants, the putting an ac¬ 
 count forward from one book to another, particularly 
 from the journal or wafte-book to the ledger. 
 
 POSTPONING, the putting any thing behind an¬ 
 other, with regard either to the order of time or place. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT, ufually marked thus, P. S. an ar¬ 
 ticle added to a letter or memoir, containing fomething 
 recolleCled after the fubfeription of the piece. 
 
 POST-PREDICAMENTS, in logick, are certain 
 general properties arifing from a companion of predica¬ 
 ments with each other, or modes following the predica¬ 
 ments, and often belonging to many. 
 
 POST-TERM, Pofi Terminum, a fee taken by the 
 cuftos brevium of the Common-pleas for the return of a 
 Writ, not only after the day, but after the term in which 
 fuch writs are returnable -, for which the cuftos has 2od. 
 
 POSTULATE, Pojiulatum , in mathematicks, a clear 
 evident propofition, wherein it is affirmed or denied that 
 fomething may or may not be done. 
 
 POSTULATION, Pojiulatio, in the canon law, 
 the nomination of a perfon to a dignity in the church, 
 to which, by the canons, he cannot be elefted, as for 
 want of age, the poffcffion of a benefice incompatible 
 therewith, &c. So that the chapter, &c. is obliged to 
 proceed by poftulation, that is, to befeech the perfon to 
 whom the confirmation of the election, belongs ^ to ap¬ 
 prove of it, though it be not canonical. 
 
 POSTURE, in painting, &c. the proper fituation of 
 a figure with regard to the eye, and the principal mem¬ 
 bers thereof with regard to one another, whereby its ac¬ 
 tion is expreffed. A pofture is either natural or artificial. 
 
 Natural Posture, is fuch as is adapted to the me- 
 clianifm of the body, or fuch as the ordinary adtions and 
 occafions of life lead us to exhibit. 
 
 Artificial Posture, is that which fome extraordinary 
 Occafions lead us to exhibit, as that of a balance or 
 pofture-mafter. 
 
 POTABLE, Potabilis, fomething that may be fwal- 
 lowed by way of drink. 
 
 POTASH, in the manufactures, &c. an impure fixed 
 alkaline fait made by burning from vegetables. We 
 have feveral kinds of it in ufe in the various manufac¬ 
 tures, but what is beft for medicinal purpofes, and is now 
 expended to be ufed in the fhops, is the Ruffian kind, 
 which is made in a different manner from any of the 
 others, and has therefore peculiar properties which they 
 muft neceffarily want. It will be feen by the feveral ana- 
 lyfes of vegetables in this work that one of their prin¬ 
 ciples is an acid, and that this acid is volatile, and is fent 
 up in vapour in burning. It may feem odd to thofe who 
 look upon potaffi to be a mere fixed alkaline fait, to ob- 
 ferve that the want of an admixture of this acid renders it 
 defedlive : yet nothing is more certain than that potalh 
 and pure fixed alkali differ ; that pure fixed alkali will 
 not anfwer the purpofes of potaffi in many of the manu¬ 
 factures, and that no good potaffi can be made without 
 an admixture of this acid. It is evident that this vola¬ 
 tile principle muft be loft in the calcination, nay, in the 
 very reducing the wood to allies ; it is for this reafon 
 that all the potafh in the world made only by burning 
 and lixiviation wants it, and is therefore defective. The 
 Sw'ediffi and Ruffian alone have it, and they are there¬ 
 fore, properly fpeaking, alone true and perfeCt potaffi, 
 fit for the purpofes of our manufactures of feveral kinds. 
 Tnefe Swedifli and Ruffian kinds are divefted of their na¬ 
 tive acid in the firft procefs of burning ; but it is pecu¬ 
 liar in the after management of the works that it is re- 
 ltored to them again from other wood : this will be evi¬ 
 dent in the procefs itfelf. 
 
 The German potaffi is a tolerably white fait, very 
 pure, not very hard, of a very acrid tafte, and growing 
 damp if kept in a moift air. 
 
 The Spaniffi is fomewhat lefs pure fait than the Ger- 
 Vqi.. II. No. 59. 
 
 P 6 U 
 
 » 
 
 man, moderately hard, often of a bluiffi colour, and of 
 a lefs acrid tafte. 
 
 The Ruffian potaffi is the liardeft and darkeft-coloured 
 of all. It is brought to us in large mafles, almoft as 
 hard as Hones, and yet, of all the kinds, is the fooneft 
 affefted with a damp air, and runs into the tliinneft fluid 
 by means of it. 
 
 The German kind is what is commonly fold among us 
 under the name of pearl alhes. The manner of making 
 it is this: large quantities of the wood are burnt, and 
 the allies produced by them are boiled in water; the wa¬ 
 ter, when it has thus taken up the fixed fait they abound 
 with, is fetby to fettle till very clear, and is then evapo¬ 
 rated to a drynefsj and the fait we meet with under the 
 name of pearl affies is left behind. 
 
 They ufe all forts of trees indiferiminately for this, 
 except the refinous kinds, which yield little or no fait. 
 This is a good alkali, and anfwers very well for feveral 
 purpofes. But where what is properly called potaffi i$ 
 required, that is, where a fait fated with the volatile acid 
 and oil of the wood is wanted, there it cannot do. 
 
 The ufe of potaffi, in the manufactures, is very great. 
 The i’oap and glafs trade confume a vaft deal of it; and 
 the bleachers, dyers, &c. much more. In medicine, the 
 German kind, of pearl alhes, ferve our chymills in the 
 place of alkali falts, that would come dearer. The Ruf¬ 
 fian kind ferves to make the medicinal lees, foap, and 
 the common cauftick ; and no other fort ought to be ufed 
 for either of thefe purpofes. 
 
 POTENT, Potence, in heraldry, a kind of crofs, 
 whole ends all terminate like the head of a crutch ; it is 
 called the Jerufalem crofs. He beareth fable, a crofs po¬ 
 tent, by the name of Aleyn. 
 
 POTENTIA, Power, that whereby a thing is capable 
 of afting, or being aCled upon. 
 
 POTENTIAL, Potentialis , in the fchools, is applied 
 to diftinguiffi a kind of qualities which are fupoofed to 
 exift in the body in potentia only; whereby they are 
 capable, in fome meafure, of impreffing on us the ideas 
 of fuch qualities, though not actually inherent therein : 
 as potential heat, and potential cold. 
 
 Potential, in medicine, &c. Cauteries are ei¬ 
 ther aCtual, as a piece of red-hot iron ; or potential, as 
 lime, &c. 
 
 Potential, in grammar, an epithet applied to one 
 of the moods of verbs. The potential is the fame in 
 form with the fubjunCtive, and is, according to Ruddi- 
 man, implied in that mood, for which reafon that gram¬ 
 marian rejeCts it ; but others will have it differ from the 
 fubjunCtive in this, that it always implies in it either 
 pojfum , volo , or debco. It is fometimes called the permif- 
 five mood, becaufe it often implies a permiffion or con- 
 ceffion to do a thing. 
 
 POTION, Potio , a liquid medicine, confifting of 
 as much as can be drank at one draught. The writers 
 on pharmacy diftinguiffi potions into cathartick, car- 
 diack, and alterative. 
 
 POTTERY, the manufacture of earthen-ware, or 
 the art of. making earthen vcflels. 
 
 POTTLE, an Engliffi meafure containing two 
 quarts. See Measure. 
 
 POULTICE, or Poultis, a form of medicine alfo 
 called cataplafm. See C at aplasm. 
 
 POULTRY, all kinds of domeftick birds brought up 
 in yards, as cocks, hens, capons, ducks, turkeys, &c. 
 
 P OUN CE, gum fandarick pounded and lifted very fine, 
 to rub on paper, in order to preferve it from finking, 
 and to make it fit to write upon. 
 
 Pounce is alfo a little heap of charcoal duft, in- 
 clofed in a piece of muflin or fome other open fluff, to 
 be palled over holes pricked in a work, in order to mark 
 the lines or defigns thereof on paper, filk, &c. placed 
 underneath ; which are to be afterwards finiffied with a 
 pen and ink, a needle, or the like. This kind of pounce 
 is much ufed by embroiderers, to transfer their pat¬ 
 terns upon fluffs; by lace-makers, and fometimes alfo 
 by engravers. 
 
 POUND, Libra , a ftandard-weight, for the propor¬ 
 tion and fubdivifions of which, fee Weight. 
 
 Pou nd alio denotes a money of account; fo called, 
 becaufe the ancient pound of filver weighed a pound 
 troy. 
 
 Pound, among lawyers, denotes a place of ftrength, 
 M m m in 
 
in which to keep cattle that are diftrained, or put in for 
 treipafs, until they are replevied or redeemed. 
 
 POUNDAGE, a fubfidy of iad. in the pound, grant¬ 
 ed to the crown on .ill goods and merchandizes exported 
 or imported ; and if by aliens, one penny more. 
 
 POURSU1VANT, or Pursuivant, in heraldry, 
 the lowed order of officers at arms. 
 
 POWDER, Pulvts , in pharmacy, a dry medicine 
 well broken, either in a mortar, by grinding, or by chy- 
 inical operations. 
 
 POWDERINGS, among builders, certain devices, 
 ferving to fill up vacant places in carved works. 
 
 POWER, Potentia^ in phyfiology, the faculty of do¬ 
 ing or differing any thing. 
 
 Power, in mechanicks, denotes any force, whether of 
 a man, a horfe, a lpring, the wind, water, he. which 
 being applied to a machine tends to produce motion. 
 See Mechanic a l Powers. 
 
 Powers, in arithmetick and algebra, are numbers or 
 quantities arifing from the fquaring or multiplication of 
 any number or quantity by itfelf and then that product 
 by the root or firft number again ; and this third produdl 
 by the root again ; and fo on ad infinitum; as 2, 4, 8, 
 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, Sec. Where 2 is called the root, 
 or firft power, 4 is its fquare or fecond power, 8 its cube 
 or third power, 16 its biquadrate or fourth power, he. 
 And thefe powers in letters or fpecies are expreffed by 
 repeating the root as often as the index of the power 
 exprefles. Thus a is the root or firft power, a a the fquare 
 or fecond power, a a a the cube, aaaa the biquadrate 
 or fourth power. And to avoid the tedioufnefs of re¬ 
 peating the root fo often, when the powers are high, we 
 only put down the root with the index of the power over 
 it, thus ; a 9 is the ninth power of a ; b tC \ b 9 *, are the 
 16th and 94th powers of b. 
 
 POX, in medicine, a difeafe of which there are va¬ 
 rious kinds, as the fmall-pox, French-pox, chicken-pox, 
 fwine-pox, he. See Chicken-Pox. 
 
 Small Pox, Variola, is a contagious difeafe that ap¬ 
 pears on the cutis, which it covers with puftules that 
 leave efcars behind them. 
 
 French Pox, in phyfick, a contagious difeafecontratted 
 from a poifonous humour, ufually in coition. 
 
 PRACTICE, in arithmetick, or Rules of Pk act ice, 
 are certain compendious ways of working the rule of 
 proportion, or golden-rule. See Rule of^kree. 
 
 PRAE, a Latin prepofition, literally fignifying, before, 
 and ufed in many words in our language, to denote the 
 relation of priority ; though they are often written with 
 the common e, inflead of the a- ; as prteceffion or pre- 
 ceffion, prtedeceffor or predecefior, he. 
 
 PRATIQUE, orPRATicK, in commerce, a nego¬ 
 tiation, or communication of commerce, which a mer- 
 chant-veflel obtains in the port it arrives in, and the 
 countries it difeovers : hence to obtain a pratique, is to 
 obtain a liberty to frequent a port, to go afhore, to buy 
 and fell &c. 
 
 Pratique is particularly ufed for a licence to traffick, 
 granted to the mailer of a fhip in the ports of Italy upon 
 a bill of health ; that is, a certificate that the place 
 whence he came is not annoyed with any infe&ious 
 difeafe. 
 
 PRAYER, in theology, is an offering up of our defires 
 to God for things lawful and needful, with an humble 
 confidence to obtain them through the alone mediation 
 of Chrift, to the praife of the mercy, truth, and power 
 of God, Matt. vi. 6. John xvi. 23, 24, 26. Prayer is 
 either private or publick ; for ouvfelves, or others; for 
 the procuring of good things, or the removing or pre¬ 
 venting things evil, whence arife the diverfe kinds ol 
 prayer mentioned, 1 Tim. ii. 1,2. As God is the only 
 objett of prayer, Pfal. 1. 15. and as we mull pray for 
 others, as well as for ourfelves, Jam. 5. 16. fo we are to 
 pray fervently. Col. iv. 12. fincerely, Pfal. xvii. i.con- 
 ilantly, Col. iv. 2. with faith, Jam. v. 15. and not 
 without repentance, Pfal. lxvi. 18. Jer. xxxvi. 7. and 
 by the help of the holy Spirit, Rom. viii. 26. 
 
 "PREACHING, in theology, the promulgation of 
 the word of God in publick ; or the making a fermon or 
 publick oration, on lome paffage in the facred feriptures, 
 the ordinary ordained means, accompanied by the Spirit, 
 of converting finners unto God, Luke xvi. 31. 
 
 PREADAMITE, a denomination given to the in¬ 
 
 habitants of the earth, who, according to fome people, 
 lived before Adam. 
 
 PREAMBLE, in law, the beginning of an afl of 
 parliament, he. which ferves to open the intent of 
 the aft, and the mifehiefs intended to be remedied 
 by it. 
 
 PREBEND, the maintenance a prebendary receives 
 out of the efiate of a cathedral or collegiate church. Pre¬ 
 bends are diftinguiffied into fimple and dignitary ; a 
 fimple prebend has no more than the revenue for its fup- 
 port; but a prebend with dignitary, has always a jurif- 
 diflion annexed to it. 
 
 PREBENDARY, an ecclefiaftick who enjoys a pre¬ 
 bend. 
 
 I he difference between a prebendary and a canon is, 
 that the former receives his prebend, in confideration of 
 his officiating in the church ; but the latter merely by his 
 being received into the cathedral or college. 
 
 PRECEDENT, in law, a cafe which has been de¬ 
 termined, and which ferves as a rule for all of the fame 
 nature : thus the precedents of a court have the force of 
 laws, and no court will reverie a judgment contrary to 
 many precedents. 
 
 PRECENTOR, a dignity in cathedrals, popularly 
 called the chantor, or mailer of the choir. 
 
 PRECEPT, in law, a command in writing lent by 
 a chief juftice, juftice of the peace, he. for bringing a 
 perfon, record, or other matter, before him. 
 
 Precept is alfo ufed for the command or incitement 
 by which one man ftirs up another to commit felony, 
 theft, he. 
 
 PRECESSION, PraceJJio , in allronomy, a term ap¬ 
 plied to a flow motion of the equinodlial points towards 
 the weft; that is, in the language of aftronomers, in 
 antecedentia, or contrary to the order of the figns. 
 See the article Sign. 
 
 By reafon of this preceffion of the equino&ial points, 
 the fixed ftars feem to move towards the eaft, and there¬ 
 by to have their longitude, which is always reckoned 
 upon the ecliptick, from the vernal equinoflial point, 
 encreafed : and hence the conftellations feem to have 
 deferted the places allotted them by the ancient aftrono¬ 
 mers ; for inftance, the beginning of the fign Aries, 
 which in Hipparchus’s time was near the vernal equi¬ 
 noctial point, and gave name to that point of the eclip¬ 
 tick, is now removed near a whole fign, or 30° ealt- 
 ward; fo that Aries is now where Taurus ufed to be, 
 Taurus where Gemini ufed to be, he. and thus all the 
 conftellations of the zodiack have changed their ancient 
 places; but to avoid confufion, aftronomers have thought 
 fit to let the feveral portions of the ecliptick, where thefe 
 conftellations were at firft obferved to be, retain their old 
 names, fo that the vernal equinoftial point is ftill reck¬ 
 oned the firft degree of Aries. However, thefe portions 
 of the ecliptick, where the conftellations were at firft, 
 are called anaftra, to diftinguilh them from the places 
 where they now are, which are termed ftellata. 
 
 PRECIPITANT, Pracipitans, in chvmiftry, is ap¬ 
 plied to any liquor which, when poured on a folution 
 feparates what is diffolved, and makes it precipitate, or 
 fall to the bottom of thevefiel. 
 
 PRECIPITATE, Peadpitatus, in chymiftry, a fub- 
 ftance which having been diflolved, in a proper men- 
 ftruum, is again feparated from its folvent, and thrown 
 down to the bottom of the veffel, by pouring fome other 
 liquor upon it. 
 
 PRECIPITATION, Precipitatio , a procefs in chy¬ 
 miftry, which is a kind of feparation, whereby the par¬ 
 ticles of a body diffolved and fufpended in any menftruus 
 liquor, are detached therefrom, and fall down to the 
 bottom of the veffel. 
 
 To account for the procefs of precipitation. A fluid 
 menftruum may be made to fuftain a body fpecifically 
 heavier than itfelf, either by making the refiftance arif¬ 
 ing from the cohefion of the parts of the fluid equal to 
 the excels of fpecifick gravity of thofe bodies above that 
 of the menftruum ; or by the heavy bodies being joined 
 to fome lighter one ; fo that the two together only make 
 one whole equal in weight to the fluid. 
 
 In the firft cafe we know the refiftance is ftill propor¬ 
 tional to the furface of the corpufcles, fo that the furfacc 
 being diminilhed, the refiftance is weakened : the pro¬ 
 portion therefore of the tenacity of the menftruum to the 
 
 gravity 
 
P R E 
 
 'gravity of the corpufcles being thus deftroyed, a preci¬ 
 pitation muft enfue. 
 
 PRECORDIA, Pratcorclia, in anatomy, the parts 
 about the heart, as the diaphragm, pericardium, hy¬ 
 pochondria, and even the heart with the lungs, fpleen, 
 &c. See Cor. 
 
 PRECURSOR, Pracurfor , forerunner, in theology, 
 one who goes before any other to notify his coming. 
 
 This title is peculiarly applied to St. John the Baptift. 
 
 PREDECESSOR, one who has preceded another in 
 any office, See. 
 
 PREDEST1NARIAN, in theology, one who ad¬ 
 heres to the doftrine of predeftination. 
 
 PREDESTINATION, in theology, cannot be better 
 explained than it is in the XVIlth article of our moft 
 excellent church. 
 
 “ Pr'edeJIination to life, is the everlafting pUrpofe of 
 “ God, whereby (before the foundations of the world 
 “ were laid) he hath conftantly decreed by his counfel, 
 “ fecret to us, to deliver from curie and damnation, 
 “ thofe whom he hath chofen in Chrift out of mankind, 
 “ and to bring them by Cln ill to everlafting faivation, 
 “ as veffels made to honour. Wherefore they which 
 * l be endued with fo excellent a benefit ot God, be called 
 “ according to God’s purpofe, by his Spirit working in 
 “ due fealon: they, through grace, obey the calling : 
 
 “ they be juftified freely : they be made Ions of God by 
 “ adoption : they be made like the image of his only 
 “ begotton Son, Jefus Chrift : they walk religioufly in 
 “ good works, and at length, by God’s mercy, they 
 “ attain to everlafting felicity. 
 
 “ As the godly confideratioh of predejlination and our 
 
 eleftion in Chrift, is full of fweet, pleafant and un- 
 “ fpeakable comfort to godly perfons, and fuch as feel 
 44 in themfelves the working of the Spirit of Chrift, 
 “ mortifying the works of the flelh, and their earthly 
 “ members, and drawing up their mind to high and 
 “ heavenly things, as well becaufe it doth greatly eftab- 
 “ lilh and confirm their faith of eternal faivation, to be 
 “ enjoyed through Chrift, as becaufe it doth fervently 
 “ kindle their love towards God : fo, for curious and 
 “ carnal perfons, lacking die Spirit of Chrift, to have 
 “ continually before their eyes the lentence of God’s 
 “ predomination, is a moft dangerous downfal, whereby 
 “ the devil doth thruft them, either into defperation or 
 “ into wretchleflilefs of moft unclean living, no lels pe- 
 “ rilous than defperation. 
 
 “ Furthermore, we muft receive God’s promifes in 
 ,x fuch wife as they be generally let forth to us in holy 
 “ feripture: and in our doings, that will ot God is to 
 “ be followed, which we have exprefiy declared unto us 
 “ in the word of God.” 
 
 This holy making, fcriptural doftrine, is warmly 
 oppofed by the Jefuits, Pelagians, Arminians, Remon- 
 ftrants, Pharifees, felf-righteous juftifiers, Sec. in ftiort, 
 by all “ perfons” that are in a ftate of nature, not “ en- 
 41 dued with fo excellent a benefit of God,” but are yet 
 4 ‘ carnal, lacking the Spirit of Chrift,” by whom alone 
 a work of regeneration and belief of the feriptures can 
 be wrought in the heart. But it is as zealoufly main¬ 
 tained by all thofe whom “ God hath called ” from dark- 
 nefs to light, “ according to his purpofe and grace by 
 “ his Spirit working in due feafon ;” and fuch do not 
 contend for it merely becaufe it is a glorious, heavenly 
 truth of God’s word, but, alfo, becaufe in believing, 
 they experience the power of “ grace to obey the” hea¬ 
 venly “ calling—in being juftified freely—in being made 
 “ the fons of God by adoption—in being made like the 
 4t image of God’s only begotton Son, Jefus Chrift—in 
 “ being enabled to walk religioufiy in good works, and 
 “ at length, by God’s mercy, they attain everlafting 
 “ felicity.” Yea, all fuch, like our venerable reformers, 
 experience the “ godly confideration of predeftination, 
 “ and our election in Chrift. to be full of fweet, plea- 
 “ fant and unfpeakable comfort, and feel in themfelves 
 4 ‘ the working of the Spirit of Chrift, mortifying the 
 “ works of the flefh, and their earthly members, and 
 4 ‘ drawing up their minds to high and heavenly things, 
 “ and greatly eftabliffiing and confirming their faith ol 
 “ eternal faivation, to be enjoyed through Chrift, kind- 
 " ling a fervent love” and unfeigned gratitude in their 
 heart “ towards God.” 
 
 Predestination alfo denotes a concatenation of 
 
 P R E 
 
 fecond caufcs appointed by providence, in virtue whereof 
 things are brought to pafs by a fatal neceffity, maugreall 
 oppofition, and contrary to all appearances. The Turks 
 are great predeftinarians. 
 
 PREDETERMINATION, Pradeterminatio, Pre¬ 
 motion, in philofophy, &c. that concurrence of God 
 which determines men in all their actions, both good 
 and evil; but, according to divines, only as to the phy- 
 fical part thereof, but not as to the moral part. 
 
 PREDIAL Tythes, Decima pradiales , are tythes 
 paid of things which grow from the ground only, as 
 corn, hay, fruit, &c. 
 
 PREDICABLE, Pradicabilis , in logick, a general 
 quality which may be applied to feveral fubjefts ; or a 
 nature which may be predicated univocally of all things 
 to which it is common. Thus animal is predicable of 
 man and beaft, See. 
 
 PREDICAMENT, Pradicamentum, Category, Cate - 
 gorema, in logick, an order of fubftances ranged accord¬ 
 ing to their natures. The properties of a predicament, 
 ex parte vocis, or with regard to the word whereby the 
 predicament is denoted, are, that it be one, fimple, pre- 
 cife, and concinnous. 
 
 The conditions requifite, ex parte rei, or the thing to 
 be ranged in a predicament, are, 
 
 That it muft be a pofitive being, inexclufion of non¬ 
 entities, negations, impoffibilities, See. a being per fe, 
 to exclude accidental things, See. and finite, to exclude 
 God and other tranlcendentals : real, fince its intention 
 is for the more commodious difpofing of things in their 
 places ; and laftly, whole, complete. 
 
 PREDICATE, Pradicatum, in logick, that part of 
 a propofition which affirms or denies fomething of the 
 fubjeft : thus God made man ; God is the fubjeft, and 
 made man the predicate; 
 
 It is a celebrated law in predicates, that nothing is 
 efteemed to be abfolutely affirmed of another, unlefs it 
 be affirmed in fuch a manner, as wants nothing either in 
 the fubjeft, predicate, or copula, to make it true. 
 
 This alfo is a noted property of a predicate, that it 
 contains in fome meafure its own fubjeft; thus metal 
 contains gold, filver, copper, See. of which it is pre¬ 
 dicated; 
 
 Every predicate is indeed an attribute ; but every attri¬ 
 bute is not a predicate ; thus foul, learning, are attri¬ 
 buted to man, but not predicated of him. 
 
 PREDICATING, in logick, the aft of affirming or 
 denying fomething of a thing, as, man is not an angel; 
 body is a fubftance, Sec. 
 
 Things predicated of others arc reducible, i. To ge¬ 
 nera, as animal, of a man, See. 2. Forms, as whitenefs, 
 of fnow, See. And, 3. Equals, of things of equal ex¬ 
 tent, as fpecies, difference, property, &c. 
 
 PREDICTION, Pradiflio, the foretelling of what is 
 to come, either by divine revelation, art, orconjefture. 
 
 PREDOMINANT, Prcsdominans, that which pre¬ 
 vails or has fome fuperiority over another thing. 
 
 PREEMPTION, Presemptio, a privilege anciently 
 allowed the king’s pourveyor to have the firft buying of 
 corn, See. for the king’s houffiold, but taken away by 
 flat. 19. Car. II. 
 
 PREENING, in natural hiftory, the aftion of birds, 
 dreffing their feathers, to enable them to glide the more 
 readily through the air, Sec. 
 
 PRE-EXISTENCE, Pra-exijietitia , the ftate of a 
 thing aftually in being before another. 
 
 PREFACE, Prafatio, fomething introductory to a 
 book, to inform the reader of the defign, method, Sec. 
 oblerved therein ; and generally whatever is neccffary to 
 facilitate the underftanding of a book. 
 
 PREFECT, Prafcfius, in ancient Rome, one of the 
 chief magiftrates, who governed in the abfence of the 
 kings, conluls, and emperors. 
 
 PREGNANCY, Graviditas , the ftate of a Woman 
 who has conceived, or is with child. See the article 
 Generation, Conception, Sec. 
 
 PREJUDICE, Prajudicium , does not mean a judg¬ 
 ment merely as prior to another in refpeft of time, but 
 as being palled before the things were duly confidered 
 and fully underftood. Hence prejudice is fometimes 
 called anticipation, and a preconceived opinion ; and 
 makes one of the many caufes of error. See Error. 
 
 PRELATE, an ecclefiaftick raifed to fome eminent 
 
 and 
 
PRE 
 
 and fuperior dignity in the church ; as bifhops, arcli- 
 bilhops, patriarchs, Nc. See Bishop, 6cc. 
 
 PRELIMINARY, in general, denotes fomething to 
 be examined and determined, before an affair can be 
 treated of to the purpofe. 
 
 PRELUDE, Prasludium , in mufick, is ufually a flou- 
 rilh or irregular air, which a mufician plays off-hand, 
 to try if his inftrument be in tune, and lo lead him into 
 the piece to be played. Very often the whole band in 
 the orcheftra run a few diviftons, to give the tune. 
 
 PREMISES, or Premisses, Pramijfe, in logick, 
 an. appellation given to the two firft propofitions of a fyl- 
 logifm, as going before, or preceding the conclufion. 
 
 Premises, in law, properly iignifies the land, £cc. 
 mentioned in the beginning of a deed. See Deed. 
 
 PREMIUM, or Premium, properly fignities a re¬ 
 ward or recompence ; but is chiefly ufed in a mercantile 
 fenfe for the fum of money given to an infurer, whether 
 of fhips, houfes, lives, &c. 
 
 PREMONSTRATENSES, in church-hiftory, a 
 religious order, inflituted by St. Norbert about the year 
 riI 9- 
 
 PREMUNIRE, or Praemunire, in law, is taken 
 two ways ; either for a writ, or for the offence for which 
 it is granted. 
 
 Formerly the church of Rome carried its pretended 
 right of fupremacy to fuch a height, that feveral ftatutes 
 were made to check and reftrain the growing power of 
 the pope ; but more efpecially flat. 16 . Richard II. c. 5 . 
 commonly known by the name of the flatute of premu- 
 nirc, which ordains the punifhment of offenders on this 
 flatue to be this; that they fliould be out of the king s 
 proteClion, attached by their bodies, i. e. imprifoned at 
 the king’s pleafure, and lofe their lands, goods, and 
 chattels. 
 
 PRENOMEN, Prar.men, among the ancient Ro¬ 
 mans, a name prefixed to their family-name, anfwering 
 to our chriflian name : fuch are Caius, Lucius, Marcus. 
 
 PREPARATION, Pr^paratio, in mathematicks, 
 fomething preparatory to the demonftration of a propo¬ 
 fition. Thus if a propofition in geometry is to be de- 
 monflrated, the preparation confifts in drawing certain 
 lines ; and if a propofition in arithmetick, infome com¬ 
 putation to be previoufly made to come at the demon¬ 
 flration. 
 
 Preparation, in pharmacy, &c. the manner of 
 preparing and managing any medicine, in order to fit it 
 to ferve the purpofes for which it is intended. 
 
 Preparation, in anatomy, the art of preserving 
 the parts of animals for anatomical ufes ; which is done 
 either by drying them thoroughly, or putting them in a 
 proper liquor. 
 
 PREPENSED, or Prepense, Pr*penfus , in law, 
 denotes fore-thought: thus, when a man is flain upon a 
 fudden quarrel, if there was malice prepenfed formerly 
 between them, it makes it murder. 
 
 PREPOSITION, Prapofitio , in grammar, one of the 
 parts of fpeech, being an indeclinable particle which yet 
 lerves to govern the nouns that follow it. 
 
 PREPUCE, Praputium , in anatomy, the fore-fkin ; 
 being a prolongation of the cutis of the penis, covering 
 the glands. 
 
 PREROGATIVE, Prerogative!, a pre-eminence 
 which one perfon has over another. 
 
 PRESAGE, Prefagium, in antiquity, denotes an 
 augury, or fign of fome future event; which was chiefly 
 taken from the flight of birds, the entrails of victims, 6 cc. 
 
 Among phyficians, the term prefage is fometimes ufed 
 for prognollick fign. 
 
 PRESBYTA, in opticks, a perfon whole eyes being 
 flat, can fee diflant objects diftinCtly, but thofe near, 
 confufedly; which defeCt of fight got this appellation, 
 becaufe old people are naturally fubjeCt to it. 
 
 Spectacles, or convex-glaffes, are the only remedy for 
 this defeCt ; for if thefe are well fitted to the degree of 
 flatnefs of the eyes, they caufe the rays of light to con¬ 
 verge in fuch a manner from near objeCls, as to make 
 them fall exaCtly on the retina, and thereby produce 
 diflinft vifion. 
 
 PRESBYTER, in the primitive Chriflian church, 
 an elder, one of the fecond order of ecclefiaflicks ; the 
 other two being bilhops and deacons. Prefbyter, or elder, 
 is a word borrowed from the Greek tranflation of the Old 
 3 
 
 PRE 
 
 Tefiament, where it commonly fignifies ruler or gover¬ 
 nor ; it being a note of office and dignity, not of age; 
 and in this fenfe, bifhops are fometimes called prefbyters 
 in the New Tefiament. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, afeCl of proteflants, fo called 
 from their maintainingthat the government of thcchurch, 
 appointed in the New Tefiament. was by preibyteries; 
 that is, by miniflers and ruling elders, affociated for its 
 government and difeipline. The prefbyterians affirm, 
 that there is no order in the church, as eftablifhed by 
 Chriil and his apoflles, fuperior to that of prefbyters ; 
 that all miniflers being ambaffadors of Chrifl, are equal 
 by their commiffion ; and that elder or prefbyter, and 
 bilhop, are the fame in name and office. 
 
 PRESCIENCE, in theology, fore-knowledge, or the 
 knowledge which God has of events before they come 
 to pals. 
 
 PRESCRIPTION, in law, is a right or title ac¬ 
 quired by ufe and time, introduced for affuring the pro¬ 
 perty of effeCts, in favour of perfons who have for a cer¬ 
 tain time had them in their poffeffion. 
 
 Prescr 1 ption, in medicine, is the affigning a pro¬ 
 per and adequate remedy to a difeafe, from an examina¬ 
 tion of its fymptoms, and an acquaintance with the vir¬ 
 tues and effeCls of the materia medica. 
 
 PRESENT, Prefens, in grammar, the firft tenfe of 
 a verb, expreffing the prefent time, or that fomething is 
 now performing; as, feribo, I write, or am writing. 
 Sec T E N 6 e . 
 
 PRESENTATION, in law, the aft of a patron 
 offering his clerk to be inflituted in a benefice of his 
 gift, the fame being void. 
 
 PRESENTEE, the clerk prefented to a benefice by 
 the patron. 
 
 PRESENTMENT, in law, a denunciation of jurors, 
 or a juflice of the peace, or other officers, without any 
 information of an offence inquirable by the court to 
 which it is prefented ; or it may be faid to be an in¬ 
 formation made by the jury in a court before a judge, 
 who has authority to punifh any offence committed con¬ 
 trary to law; and it is what the grand jury finds and 
 prefents to the court, wuthout any bill of indiClmcnt 
 delivered : yet it is afterwards reduced into the form of 
 an indiClment. 
 
 PRESEPE, or Pr/esepe, in aflronomy, the name 
 given to three nebulous flars in the breafl of Cancer. 
 
 PRESERVATION, in general, denotes the art of 
 preferving things in a flate of perfeClion ; or, at leafl, 
 from being fo far corrupted and fpoiled, as to be no 
 longer ufeful. Fruits may be long preferved in fpirit of 
 wine, firft well faturated with the fkins and tinging parts 
 of thofe fruits ; and many may be tolerably preferved in 
 perfectly fermented liquors, which generate no more air. 
 The more folid vegetable fubftances may be preferved 
 by gently drying in the fun, ffiade, or other flack heat. 
 Thus peas or beans may be dried young in a flack oven, 
 in their proper feafon, and may afterwards be boiled in 
 the winter, and will eat young and tender, as if juft 
 gathered. 
 
 PRESERVATIVE, among phyficians, denotes a 
 medicine taken by way of precaution ; or, to lecure a 
 man from a difeafe that threatens him. 
 
 The principal prefervatives, according to Boerhaave, 
 are abftinence, quiet, drinking warm water; and, alter 
 this, a gentle and continued motion till the firft appear¬ 
 ance of fweat; then a profound fleep, the body being 
 well covered. 
 
 In the time of a plague, prefervatives are very neceffary 
 againft the contagion of the air. 
 
 Generous wines, cardiacks, and fudorificks, are aifo 
 powerful prefervatives. 
 
 PRESIDENT, Prefes, an officer created or eleCled 
 to prefide over a company, in contradiftinClion to the 
 other members, who are called refidents. 
 
 PRESS, Prelum , in the mechanick arts, a machine of 
 wood, or iron, fervingto fqueeze any body very clofe. 
 
 Preffes confift of fix pieces; two flat l'mooth planks, 
 between which the things to be preffed are laid; two 
 ferews or worms faftened to the lower plank, and paffing 
 through two holes in the upper ; and two nuts in form 
 of an S, that ferve to drive the upper plank, which is 
 moveable, againft the lower which is fixed. 
 
 Presses ufed/or expreffing Liquors , are generally the 
 
 lame 
 
P R E 
 
 P R I 
 
 fame with the common preftes, only the under plank is 
 perforated with a great number of holes for the juice to 
 run through. Others have only one fevew or arbour, 
 palling through the middle of the moveable plank, which 
 defeends into a kind of fquare box, full of holes, through 
 which the juices flow, as the arbour is turned. 
 
 Press ufed by Joiners, to keep clofc the panels, See. 
 of wainfeot; it conlifls of two (crews, and two pieces 
 of wood four or five inches fquare, and two or three feet 
 long, whereof the holes at the two ends ferve for nuts to 
 the ferevvs. 
 
 Press ufed by Inlayers, refembles the joiners prefs, 
 only the pieces of wood are thicker, and only one of 
 them moveable ; the other, which is in form of a treffel, 
 being fullaincd by two legs joined into it at each end. 
 
 This ferves for lawing and cleaving the pieces of wood 
 required in marquetry. 
 
 Founders Press, is a firong fquare frame, confiding 
 of four pieces of wood firmly joined together with tenons, 
 kc. It is of various fixes two of them are required to 
 each mould, at the two extremes whereof they are placed ; 
 fo as that, by driving wooden wedges between the mould 
 and fides of the prefs, the two parts of the mould for 
 the metal may be prelTed clofe together. 
 
 Printing Press. See Printing Prefs. 
 
 Rolling Press, a machine ufed for the taking off prints 
 for copper-plates. See Rolling Prefs Printing. 
 
 Press, in coining, a machine ufed in ftriking of 
 money, having only one iron bar to give it motion, and 
 prefs the moulds or coins. See Coining. 
 
 Binders Press, or cutting Prefs, a machine ufed by 
 book-binders, fiationers, and paileboard-makers, con¬ 
 fining of two large wooden checks joined by two firong 
 wooden ferews ; which, being turned by an iron bar, 
 draw together or let afundcr the cheeks at pleafure. 
 
 The cheeks are placed flaton a wooden Hand, in form of 
 a cheft, into which the cuttings fall. Afide of the cheeks 
 are two pieces of wood of the fame length with the ferews, 
 ferving to diredt the cheeks. Upon the cheeks is the 
 fhaft or fuft, to which the cutting-knife is fattened by a 
 ferew which has its key to dilmount it on occafion. 
 
 The fhaft confifts of feveral parts ; a wooden ferew, 
 which, catching within the nut of the two feet that 
 fuftain it, brings the knife to the paper which is pretty 
 long, has two diredories, which refemble thofe of the 
 ferew of the cheeks. To make the fhaft Hide fquare, 
 that foot of the fhaft where the knife is not fixed, has a 
 kind of groove direded by a thread fattened along one 
 of the cheeks. Laftly, the knife is a piece of fteel five or 
 fix inches long, pointed a-top, and fquare all the reft. 
 
 Press, in the woollen manufadory, a large wooden 
 machine that ferves to prefs cloths, ferges, Sec. to render 
 them fmooth, and give them a glofs. 'I he principal 
 parts of the machine are the cheeks, the nut, and the 
 ferew, accompanied with its bar to turn it round, and 
 make it fall on a thick wooden plank, under which the 
 fluffs are placed. Another kind of prefs for linens, filks, 
 Sec. is called a calender 
 
 PRESSING, in the manufadures, the adion of vio¬ 
 lently fqueezing a cloth, fluff, Sec. to render it fmooth 
 andglolfy. This, in the linen and filken manufadures, 
 is properly called calendering. There are two manners 
 of preffing; the one cold and the other hot. 
 
 Method of Pressing cold. After the fluff has been 
 fcoured, fulled, and fhorn, it is folded fquare in equal 
 plaits, and a fkin of vellum, or pafteboard, put between 
 each olait. Over the w'hole is laid a fquare wooden 
 plank, and fo put into the prefs, which is lcrewed down 
 tight by means of a lever. After it has lain a fufficient 
 time in the prefs, they take it out, removing the pafte- 
 boards, and lay it up to keep. Some only lay the fluff 
 on a firm table, after plaiting and pafteboarding, cover 
 the whole with a wooden plank, and load it with a pro¬ 
 per weight. 
 
 Method of Pressing hot. When the fluff has re¬ 
 ceived the above preparations, it is fprinkled a little with 
 water, fometimes gum-water, then plaited equally, and 
 between each two plaits are put leaves of pafteboard ; and 
 between every fixth or feventh plait, as well as over the 
 whole, an iron or brafs plate well heated in a kind of 
 furnace. This done, it is laid upon the prefs, and 
 forcibly ferewed down. 
 
 Under this prefs are laid five, fix, Sec. pieces at the I 
 Vol. II. No- 59. 
 
 fame tim^, all furnifhed with their pafteboards and irotl 
 plates. When the plates are well cold, the fluffs are 
 taken out and flitchcd a little together to keep them in 
 the plaits. This manner of prefling was only invented 
 to cover the defedls of the fluffs; and, accordingly, it 
 has been frequently prohibited. 
 
 PRESSION, Preffure, in the Cartefian philofophv, 
 an endeavour to move impreffed on a fluid medium, and 
 propagated through it. In fuch a preffion, the Cartefians 
 fuppofe the adlion of light to conlift. 
 
 Rut Sir Ilaac Newton has taught us better : for if 
 light conlifted only in a preffion, without adtual motion, 
 it could not warm luch bodies as refledl and refradl it; 
 and if it confifted in an inftantaneous motion, as fuch 
 preffion fuppofes, there would be required an infinite 
 force to produce that motion every moment in every 
 lucid particle : hence it mull follow, that light would 
 infledt itfelf ad umbram ; for preffion, in a fluid medium, 
 cannot be propagated in right-lines beyond any obftacle 
 which fhall hinder any part of the motion ; but will 
 infledl and diffufe itfelf every way into thofe parts of the 
 quiefeent medium, which lie beyond the laid obftacle. 
 See his Opticks. 
 
 Pressure of the Air. See Air. 
 
 PREST, a duty in money paid by the fhcriff upon 
 his account in the Exchequer, for money remaining in 
 his hands. 
 
 Prest -Money, a fum of money given to thofe en- 
 lifted, whereby they are bound to be ready to march at 
 command. 
 
 PRESTATION-Money, a fum of money paid 
 yearly by archdeacons, and other dignitaries, to their 
 bifhop, pro exteriori jurifdidlione. 
 
 PRESTER, a meteor confifting of an exhalation 
 thrown from the clouds downwards with fuch violence, 
 as that by the collifion it is fet on fire. 
 
 PRETERITE, in grammar, fignifies the tenfe ufed 
 to exprefs the time paft, or an adlion completely finifhed : 
 as feripfi, I have written. 
 
 PRETER 1 TION, in rhetovick, a figure whereby, in 
 pretending to pafs by a thing untouched, we take a fum- 
 mary view of it. 
 
 PRETEXT, a colour or motive, whether real or 
 feigned, fordoing fomething. 
 
 PRETOR, or Praetor, a magiftrate among the 
 ancient Romans, not unlike our lord'chief juftices, 
 or lord-chancellor, or both in one; as being veiled with 
 the power of diftributing juftice among the citizens. 
 
 PRETORIAN Guards, Pretoria Cohortes , in Ro¬ 
 man antiquity, were the emperor’s guards, who at length 
 were encreafed to 10,000; according to fome, they had 
 this denomination from their being ftationed at a place in 
 the palace called prsetorium ; their commander was ftiied 
 praffedlus pra?torii. 
 
 PREVARICATION, Prevaricatio , in the civil law, 
 is where the informer colludes with the defendants, and 
 fo makes only a fhamprofecution. 
 
 Prevarication, in our laws, is when a man 
 falfely feems to undertake a thing, with intention that 
 he may deftroy it; where a lawyer pleads booty, or adts 
 by collufion, Sec. 
 
 PREVARICATOR, Prevaricator, at Cambridge, is 
 a mailer of arts, chofen at a commencement, to make an 
 ingenious fatirical fpeech, refledlingon the mifdemeanours 
 of the principal members. 
 
 PREVENTION, Preventio, in the canon-law, See. 
 the right which a fuperior perfon has to claim or tranfadt 
 an affair, prior to an inferior one. 
 
 PRIAPISM, in medicine, a continual and painful 
 eredtion of the penis. 
 
 PRIAPUS, in medicine, the genital parts in men. 
 
 It alfo denotes, in antiquity, a fabulous deity, revered 
 very much for the extraordinary fize of his parts. 
 
 PRICKING, in the fea language, is to make a point 
 on the plat or chart, near about where the lhip then is, 
 or is to be at fuch a time, in order to find the courfe they 
 are to fleer. 
 
 PRIEST, Sacerdos, a perfpn fet apart for the perform¬ 
 ance of facrifice, and other offices of religion. 
 
 Priest, Prefbyter, in the Chriftian church, is a per- 
 foil inverted with holy orders ; in virtue whereof he has 
 j a power to preach, pray, adminifter the facrament. See. 
 | Alfo. in the Romilh church, to blefs, abfolve, Sec. 
 
 I Nnn PRIME 
 
P R I 
 
 PRIMiE’Vi je, among phyficians, denotes the whole 
 alimentary duft, including the oefophagus, ftomach and 
 inteftines, with their appendages. 
 
 PRIMAGE, in commerce, a fmall duty at the water- 
 fidc, ufually about twelve-pence per tun, or fix-pence a bale, 
 due to the mailer and mariners of a lhip ; to the mailer 
 for the ufe of ropes, &c. to difcharge the goods; and to 
 the mariners, for the loading or unloading of the veflel. 
 
 TRIM ARY Planet, in allronomy, one that re¬ 
 volves round the fun as a centre. 
 
 PRIMATE, Primas, in church-polity, an arch-bilhop, 
 who is inverted with a jurifdiftion over other bilhops. 
 
 PRIME, Primus, an appellation given to whatever is 
 firrt in order, degree, or dignity, among feveral things 
 of the fame or like kind ; thus we fay, the prime mini- 
 rter, prime coft, &c. 
 
 Prime Figure, in geometry, one which cannot be 
 divided into any other figures more fimple than itfelf, as 
 a triangle among planes, and the pyramid among folids. 
 
 Prime of the Moon, is the new moon, when Ihe firrt 
 appears, which is about three days after the change. See 
 Moon. 
 
 Prime Vertical, is that vertical circle which partes 
 through the poles of the meridian, or the eaft and weft 
 points of the horizon; whence dials proje&ed on the 
 plane of this circle, are called prime vertical, or north 
 and foutli dials. 
 
 Prime, in the Romilh church, is the firrt of the 
 canonical hours, fucceeding to lauds. 
 
 Prime, in fencing, is the firrt chief of the guards. 
 
 PRIMING, or Prime of a Gun, is the gunpowder 
 put into the pan or touch-hole of a piece, to give it fire 
 thereby ; and this is the laft thing done in charging. 
 
 Priming, among painters, fignifies the laying on of 
 the firrt colours. 
 
 PRIMITIVE, in grammar, is a root or original 
 word in a language, in contradiftinftion to derivative : 
 thus God, is a primitive ; godly , derivative ; and god-like, 
 a compound. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, Primogenitura , the right of 
 firft-born. 
 
 PRIMULA, the primrofe, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is monopetalous ; the tube is cy- 
 lindraceous; the length of the cup and the limb is ex¬ 
 panded, and divided into five cordated fegments : the 
 ftamina are five fhort filaments, placed in the neck of 
 the corolla, and terminated by ereft accuminated an¬ 
 thers? : the fruit is an oblong capfule, opening at the top, 
 and filled with roundifh feeds. This genus includes 
 the auricula of Toumefort, and the polyanthus of the 
 gardeners. 
 
 PRIMUM Mobile, in the Ptolemaick fyftem of 
 aftronomy, the firrt mover. 
 
 PR INCE, Princeps, in polity, a perfon inverted with the 
 fupreme command of a ftate, independent of any fuperior. 
 
 Prince, alfo denotes a perfon who is a fovereign in 
 his own territories, yet holds of fome other as his fuperior. 
 
 Prince of the Senate, in old Rome, the perfon who 
 was called over firrt in the roll of fenators, whenever it 
 was renewed by the cenfors : he was always of confular 
 and cenforian dignity. See Senate. 
 
 Prince’* Feather, in botany, the fame with Ama¬ 
 ranth. See Amaranthus. 
 
 PRINCIPAL, Principalis , the chief and moft necef- 
 fary part of a thing. 
 
 In commerce, principal is the capital of a fum due or 
 lent, fo called in oppofition to intereft. 
 
 It alfo denotes the firrt fund put by partners into a 
 common flock, by which it is dillinguifhed from the 
 calls or acceffions afterwards acquired. 
 
 Principal Point, in perfpedtive, is a point in the 
 perfpe&ive plane, upon which a line drawn from the 
 eye perpendicular to the plane falls. It is in the inter- 
 fedlion of the horizontal and vertical plane, and called 
 the point of fight and point of the eye. 
 
 Principal Ray, inperfpe£live,tliat which partes per- 
 pendicularlyfrom the fpe&ator’s eye to theperfpe&i veplane. 
 
 PRINCIPLE, Principium, in general, is ufed for the 
 caufe, fource, or origin of any thing. 
 
 Principles, in phyficks, are often confounded with 
 elements, or the firrt and fimpleft parts whereof natural 
 bodies are compounded, and into which they are again 
 refolvible by the force of fire. 
 
 2 
 
 P R I 
 
 Printer, Typograpbus , a perfon who composes, or 
 takes impreftions from moveable chara&ers, which are 
 ranged in order, or from plates engraved, by means of 
 ink and a prefs. See Printing. 
 
 The printers, fince the ertablilhment of that art, make 
 now confiderable part of the company of ftationers and 
 bookfellers : before that time, the company confifted 
 only of bookfellers, book-binders, writers, illuminers, 
 and parchment-makers. 
 
 PRINTING, Typographia, the art of taking off im- 
 preflions with ink from charatters either moveable or 
 immoveable, upon paper, vellum, &c. 
 
 There are two kinds of printing, the one for books, 
 the other from copper-plates. The firrt is called com- 
 mon-prefs printing, the chara&ers in which are cart in 
 relievo; the fccond, rolling-prefs printing, which is en¬ 
 graved in creux. 
 
 The genius of the Germans has appeared in the inven¬ 
 tion or improvement of feveral mechanical arts, and, 
 amengft others, they lay claim to the honour of having 
 invented the curious and ul'eful art of printing. This 
 art is faid to be of a very ancient Handing in China, but 
 then their manner is quite different from that which 
 obtains in Europe; though it muft be owned, the Eu¬ 
 ropean printing, in its infancy, was much the fame with 
 the Chinefe : however, as there was then no correfpon- 
 dence between Europe and China, the partage into the 
 Eaft by the Cape of Good-Hope being undifeovered, 
 there is no reafon to charge the Europeans with having 
 borrowed their art from the Chinefe, but each may be 
 allowed to have fallen upon the fame invention, though 
 at very different times. 
 
 Printing, according to Father Le Comte, has been 
 known in China from almoft all ages ; but the great 
 difference between theirs and ours is this, that whereas 
 we have but a fmall number of letters in our alphabets, 
 by the various arrangement whereof we can form infinite 
 volumes, fo, by making our charadlers moveable, we 
 are able to print the largcft works with an inconfiderable 
 quantity of letter, the fame which ferved for the firrt 
 fheets, ferving alfo for the fucceeding ones, by being fe- 
 parated and placed in different order. The Chinefe, on 
 the contrary, by reafon of their great number of letters, 
 find it more eafy, and lefs expen five, to cut them on 
 wooden blocks, making as many blocks as there are pages 
 in the book they intend to print, and thefe are of no 
 farther ufe but for that fingle work. 
 
 The art of joining letters to form words, and of com¬ 
 bining the one and the other in an infinite number of 
 different ways, is a fecret unknown to the Chinefe. At 
 firrt, like the Egyptians, they ufed hieroglyphicks, and 
 painted, rather than wrote, ftriving by the natural images 
 of things, as a bird, a tree, &c. to exprefs and commu¬ 
 nicate their ideas to one another. But this manner of 
 writing was not only very incommodious, but imperfect, 
 as they could but exprefs their thoughts by halves, and 
 what they did exprefs was frequently liable to be mifun- 
 derftood, not to mention the room thefe pictures took 
 up, which obliged them to write a great deal to fay very 
 little. To remedy thefe inconveniencies, they changed 
 their way of writing by degrees, and even invented feve¬ 
 ral charatters to exprefs things that did not come within 
 the reach of painting to reprefent, as the paflions, thoughts, 
 voice, tafte, and a thoufand other objects, without body 
 or figure. From fimple ftrokes, they framed others more 
 compound, and contriving one or more characters for 
 every word, they multiplied their letters almoft to infi¬ 
 nity. This feems to be the fource of that ignorance we 
 find among the Chinefe. So great a part of their lives 
 being fpent in learning their letters, that they have not 
 time to apply themfelves to the ftudy of things,’ but think 
 themfelves learned, if they are able to read. Nay, we 
 are told, fcarce any of them know all their letters ; and 
 Father Le Comte is of opinion, the greateft doCtor a- 
 mongft them never underftood half their letters perfe&ly, 
 for he reckons the whole number to be 80,000. This 
 is a great inconvenience to foreigners, and much com¬ 
 plained of by the milfionaries in that country. 
 
 Who was the firrt inventor of printing in Europe, 
 and in what city and year it was firrt fet on foot, is a 
 queftion long difputed among the learned, and not yet 
 thoroughly decided. 
 
 The cities of Mentz and Strafbourg, and that of 
 
 HaerJcm 
 
P R I 
 
 Hacrlem in Holland, are the warmeft on this point of 
 honour, but Mentz has always had the majority of 
 voices. We fhall here, for the latisfadlion of the reader, 
 propole the pretenlions of each, without entering into a 
 nice difquifition of the merits of the caufe. John Mantel 
 of Strafbourg, John Guttcmberg and John Fuft of 
 Mentz, and Laurence John Kofter of Haerlem, are the 
 perfons to whom this invention has been raoft frequently 
 afcribed, but the firft feems to have had the feweft ad¬ 
 vocates. Mantel, however, a French phylician, enters 
 the lifts in behalf of his namefake, and contends that he 
 firft invented printing in the year 1442, in conftderation 
 whereof the emperor Frederick III. gave him a fuitable 
 coat of arms ; and he adds, that Guttemberg, whom he 
 had made his aftociate, carried the art to Mentz, where 
 he took in iirft a partner. Boxhornius, Schrevclius, 
 and other authors, refer the invention to Kofter of 
 Haerlem, in the year 1430, adding, that Fuft ftole away 
 Kofter’s materials, and letup printing at Mentz, affifted 
 by his fervant, Peter SchoefFer, who afterwards married 
 his daughter, and became his partner in the bufinefs; 
 but others aferibe this theft to Guttcmberg. Polydore, 
 Virgil, Pafquier, See. will have Guttemberg to be the 
 inventor of printing, but Naude efpoufes the caufe of 
 Fuft, whom he makes the firft printer in Europe. His 
 reafon for aferibing the invention to Fuft is, that his 
 name appears in the molt early printed books, as in the 
 Latin bible of 1462, Tully’s offices of 1465, and per¬ 
 haps fome of a prior date ; and, if Guttemberg, or 
 Kofter, had a greater or an equal fhare in the invention, 
 it is more than probable they would not have allowed 
 him to attribute the whole to himfelf, and his foil-in¬ 
 law, SchoefFer, as he has done, without contradicting 
 him, and aliening their own right. He adds, that 
 whatever is urged in behalf of Guttemberg, Mantel, 
 or Kofter, is only founded on reports, conjectures, and 
 forged authorities. 
 
 But the difpute is not thus terminated : the advocates 
 for Kofter make ufe of various arguments in his favour. 
 Mr. Ellis (in the Philofophical TranfaCtions) gives an 
 account of books printed by Kofter of an earlier date 
 than any of thofe referred to Fuft, and fome even as 
 early as 1430 and 1432. At Hacrlem, it is certain 
 they fliew printed books of that date, which feem to 
 Mr. Ellis to put it out of doubt, that the honour of the 
 invention belongs to Kofter, and that Fuft only eftab- 
 liflied the art in greater perfection at another place many 
 years after. Beftdes, it is allowed on all hands, that 
 the De Spiegil Oilier Behoedinge (or mirrour of our fal- 
 vation) which is ftiewn at Haerlem, for the firft; printed 
 book could never be Kofter’s firft; cflay. He muft have 
 made many trials on fmaller works, and undoubtedly 
 liis firft attempts were on loofe and fmall leaves, which 
 we may fuppofe were eafily loft. Upon the whole, it is 
 110 inconfiderable argument in Kofter’s behalf, that the 
 rudeft and moft artlefs performances in printing feem to 
 be his ; of which kind fome things without date are to 
 be feen in the king’s library at St. James’s, and in the 
 Bodleian at Oxford. They have the marks of the utmoft 
 fimplicity, and may reafonably be taken for firft elFays, 
 being aukward and coarfe, and the ink only common 
 writing ink, which was unartfully fpread upon wooden 
 blocks, cut in a very clumfy manner. 
 
 Whoever, therefore, were the firft printers, or when- 
 foever the hint was taken, fuch was the art in its origi¬ 
 nal ftate, feveral pieces in the Bodleian library, and that 
 of Bennet’s college, being printed in this way ; and the 
 impreflion feems to have been made only on one fide of 
 the leaves, after which the two blank fides were palled 
 together. But this method of printing upon wooden 
 cuts being found inconvenient, it was not long before 
 an improvement was thought of, viz. the making of 
 fingle moveable letters, which was firft done in wood, 
 and afterwards in metal ; from which laft invention we 
 ought to date the origin of the prefent art of printing, 
 as praCtifed through Europe. This ingenious contriv¬ 
 ance of calling fingle types in metal is generally afcribed 
 to the above-mentioned SchoefFer, firft fervant, after¬ 
 wards partner and fon-in-law of Fuft at Mentz in 
 Germany; fo that he was properly the firft printer, as 
 well as letter-founder; and, ftriCtly fpeaking, the Bible 
 printed with moveable types in 1450, or thereabouts, 
 was the firft printed book, which foon was followed by 
 
 P R I 
 
 editions of Auguftin de Civitate Dei, the vocabulary 
 called Catholicon, Tully’s Offices, and feveral other 
 works. It is faid that Fuft (or Fauftus, as fome authors 
 call him) carried a parcel of his printed bibles to Paris, 
 and offered them to fale as manuferipts ; but the French, 
 confidering the number of the books, and their exadt 
 conformity to each other, even to a point, and that the 
 belt book-writers could not come up to fuch cxadlncfs, 
 concluded there was witchcraft in the cafe, and by in¬ 
 dicting him as a magician, or threatening to do fo, 
 obliged him to difeover the fecret. Hence, the origin of 
 that popular ftory of Dr. Fauftus. 
 
 From Mentz the art of printing fpread itfelf in a fhort 
 time through a great part of Europe, and is commonly 
 faid to have been brought into England from Haerlem 
 in 1468, by William Caxton, a merchant and citizen 
 of London, who having been abroad in the Low Coun¬ 
 tries for many years, not only got an infight into the 
 bufinefs, but prevailed with Frederick Corfeilles, one of 
 the workmen, to come over and fetup a prefs at Oxford, 
 where an edition of Ruffinus on the Creed was printed 
 in the fame year. In 1470, Caxton is thought by fome 
 to have brought the art to Weftminfter; but a modern 
 author feems to make it appear that he did not bring it 
 to England till the year 1474, and that the firft book 
 known to be printed in Englilb was the Hiftory of Troy. 
 
 Here we cannot forbear obferving, that, though we 
 allow the Germans the honour of having call the firft 
 moveable letters in metal, and of being the firft printers, 
 the praife of having brought thefe arts to their prefent 
 perfection is chiefly owing to other nations. The Dutch, 
 French and Englifh have all contributed towards it; 
 and in particular our countryman, Mr. William Caflon, 
 by mere dint of genius, without being bred up to the art 
 of letter-founding, arrived at an excellency in it far 
 beyond all his predeceffors in England, and even what 
 is ufually done of that kind in Holland, as the beautiful 
 fpecimens of his own and foil’s performances (not un¬ 
 known to the curious) fufficiently demonftrate. By his 
 ingenuity and unwearied application in this way, we 
 may fafely affirm, that he has done fervice to his country, 
 and to the learned world in general, and his reputation 
 deferves to laft as long as the art of printing can pre- 
 ferve it. 
 
 Method of Printing. The workmen employed in 
 printing are, the compofitors, who difpofe the letters from 
 their cafes into words, lines, pages, See. according to the 
 author’s copy ; and the prefs-men, who apply ink on the 
 forms, and take off the impreflion. 
 
 The types, being call, are diftributed, each kind by 
 itfelf, among little lquare cells or divifions made in two 
 wooden frames, called cafes, an upper and lower one. 
 The cells of the upper cafe are 98 in number ; and in 
 thefe are difpofed the capitals, fmall capitals, accented 
 letters, figures, See. In the cells of the lower cafe, which 
 are 54, are difpofed the common running letters, with the 
 points, commas, fpaces, and quadrats. 
 
 Each cafe is placed a little a-flope, before which the 
 compofitor works Handing, and, holding in the left 
 hand an iron inftrument,. called a compofing-ftick, with 
 the right he picks up the letters, points, commas, See. 
 he has occafion for, and, ranging them on a flip of brafs, 
 called a rule, fitted to his compofing-ftick, he puts a 
 fpace to make a blank between each word, and fo forms 
 one line after another, till, the ftick being full, he empties 
 it out by means of the above brafs rule, upon another 
 inftrument of wood, called a galley, till it is of the fize 
 of the intended page; when he has got the proper number 
 of pages made up, he arranges them duly upon the ftone, 
 round which he puts a fquare iron frame, called a chafe, 
 and, locking all up by means of quoins and other wooden 
 furniture, it becomes ready for the prefs. 
 
 The compofing-ftick (plate LXVI. fig. 3.) confifts 
 of a plate or flip of iron, fo contrived as to be made 
 more or lefs long according to the intended width of the 
 page. From one fide ariies a ledge a a, about half an 
 inch high, running the whole length of the plate, the 
 fides of the letters refting againft it, from the fame plate 
 likewife arife three other lefs pieces b and c c ; two of 
 which c c are contrived to Aide along it, fo as that they 
 may be approached or withdrawn at pleafure to adjuft 
 .the length of the line to the meafure intended. 
 
 Where marginal notes, references, See. are required 
 
 in 
 
P R I P R I 
 
 fa a work, the two Aiding pieces c c are opened in the 
 compofing-ftick to a proper diftance. 
 
 Before the workman proceeds to compofe, the above- 
 mentioned rule, or a thin Aip of brafs, of the length of 
 the line and of the fame height with the letter, is placed 
 in his compofing-Aick, for the letter in each line to bear 
 immediately againft, and is Ahfted, as each line in his 
 Aick is finiflied. 
 
 Things thus prepared, the compofitor having the copy 
 before him, and the (lick in his left hand; with the right 
 he picks up the letters, 1 paces, Ac, and places them 
 againft the brafs rule, while, with the left thumb, he 
 prelTes them clofe to the upper cheek, and fo keeps them 
 fteady, while the other hand is conftantly employed in 
 fetting in more letters. 
 
 A line being thus compofed, if it end with a word or 
 fyllable, and All the meafure, there needs no more ; 
 otherwife, fpaces are to be put between the feveral words 
 to juftify the line. 
 
 The fpaces here ufed are a fort of blanks, of the fame 
 dimentions with the letters, only not fo high, fo that, 
 when let in, they give no impreftion. They are of leveral 
 kinds, according to the dimenfions of the whites or in¬ 
 tervals to be made by them, as quadrats to fill up the 
 break at the end of paragraphs, Ac. rn quadrats, which 
 are fquare, and of the thicknefs of an m , ferving to 
 make the diftance after a period ; n quadrats, of the 
 thicknefs of an //, to he placed after colons, femicolons, 
 and commas ; as alfo thick or thin fpaces to be ufed in 
 jullifying the words as above. 
 
 For marginal notes, between the two Aiding pieces of 
 the compoiing-ftick are put little quadrated pieces of 
 metal, called quotations, which are juftiAed by other 
 fmaller pieces ; a Aip of fealeboard being placed from the 
 top of the page to the bottom to keep the note and text 
 at a due diftance. 
 
 When the ftick is full, he places the brafs rule before 
 the lall line, and with bis two middle fingers fqueczes 
 the lines in the ftick clofe, his two fore-fingers at the 
 fame time being applied on the outfide of the rule ; thus 
 he lifts them out of the ftick, and, clapping his two 
 thumbs behind the firft line, lifts them into the galley, 
 fo as not to break the lines. At the bottom of every page 
 made up in the galley, the compofitor fe ts a li ne of quadrats, 
 and at the end thereof, the firft word of the enfuing page 
 as a catchword ; and, if it be the firft page of the Aieet, 
 one of the letters in alphabetical order for a fignature. 
 
 The galley is a fiat wooden inftrument, of an oblong 
 figure, proportionable to the length and breadth of the 
 page, it confifts of an upper part, called the Aice, whereby 
 large pages, when compofed and tied up with fmall twine, 
 as is always done, are llidden upon the ftone ; the other 
 which is the body of the galley, is ledged on three lides 
 to contain the Aice, the ledge not exceeding half an inch 
 in height, that the compofed page, riAng above it, may 
 be tied up or bound down with twine, and removed with¬ 
 out danger of breaking. 
 
 The pages are commonly Arft removed out of the 
 galley into a coarl'e wrapper of paper, and fo fucceffively 
 till the number of pages for the Aieet be completed: 
 which done, he carries them to the impoAng or corrcft- 
 ing ftone, lhifting them from the wrappers, and there 
 ranges them in a chafe, which is called impoAng. 
 
 The chafe is a rectangular frame of different dimen- 
 Aons, having two crofs iron bars, called a long and Ihort 
 crols, mortifed at each end into the frame, fo as to be 
 taken out occafionally. By the different Atuation of the 
 croffes, the chafe is fitted for different volumes. For 
 quarto’s and odtavo’s, one traverfes the middle length- 
 wife, the other broadwife, fo as to interfeCt the centre. 
 For twelves and twenty-fours, the fhort crofs is Aiifted 
 nearer to one end of the chafe. For folio’s, the long 
 crols is taken out, and the fhort one placed in the middle ; 
 and for broad-fides, or Aicets printed only on one fide, 
 both croA'es are let afide. 
 
 To drel's the chafe, or range the pages therein, they 
 ufe a fet of furniture, confifting of reglets or Aips of 
 wood, about half an inch high, that they may be lower 
 than the letters. Some of thefe are placed at the top of 
 the pages, called head-fticks; others between them, to 
 form the inner margin, called gutter-fticks; others at 
 the fide, called fide-fticks ; and others at the bottom, 
 called foot-fticks. 
 
 The pages being thus ranged, and the reglets applied 
 between the letter and chafe, the whole is locked up by 
 means of fmall pieces of wood cut wedge wife, called 
 quoins, which are driven to a fufficient tightnds with a 
 mallet and Ihooting-ftick. 
 
 Before the form is quite locked up, they piefs it down 
 by pafiiivj, a l'mooth piece of wood, called the plainer, over 
 the face of the letters, to make them ftand even ; and, 
 when quite locked up, they raife and Aiake it a little on 
 the ftone, to fee that all he faft. In this condition the 
 frame is called a form, containing more or fewer pages, 
 according to die volume. 
 
 As there are two forms required for every Aieet, when 
 both fides are to be printed, they muft be exactly of the 
 fame length and breadth ; that is, the correfponding 
 reglets, head-fticks, Ac. muft be equal in both forms, 
 that the pages may fall exattly on the back of one ano¬ 
 ther, which is called regifter. 
 
 Then the form is committed to the prefs-man ; and, 
 as it is impoflible but there muft be nuftakes in the work, 
 either through the overfight of the compofitor, or cafual 
 intermixture of the letters in the cafes, after making a 
 proof, it is delivered to the corrector, who reading it 
 over and redlifying it by the copy, it is remanded to the 
 compofitor to be correfted accordingly ; who unlocking 
 the form on the correcting ftone, by ioolcning the quoins, 
 and fpreading his corrected proof, fo as that the lines 
 thereof range with the refpeCtive ones of the metal; by 
 running his eye along both, he cafily fpies where cor¬ 
 relations are to be made ; and accordingly lie picks out 
 the faulty letters, points, Ac. with a Aiarp-pointed ftcel 
 bodkin, and puts the right ones in their place. 
 
 Where the alterations are confiderable, particularly 
 where infertions or omiffions are to be made, there 
 ufually arifes a necelfity of over-running ; in order to 
 which they muft return the letter back from the chafe 
 into the galley, and from that into the compofing-ftick, 
 to he rectified accordingly. 
 
 If, for inftance, one or more words, to be inferted in 
 a line, cannot be got in by changing the fpaces for lefs 
 ones, part of the line muft be pul back into the clofe of 
 the preceding one, or forward into the beginning of the 
 fubfequent one, or both, till room be got. If the in- 
 fertion be large, feveral lines will need to be over-run, 
 either backward or forward, till a break is arrived at: 
 when, if it be not got in, a line is to be driven out : 
 and, to get in that line, the next pages, either backward 
 or forward, muft l'ometimes be over-run before it can 
 come in. 
 
 When an omilfion is to be made, the contrary courfe 
 muft be taken. If it be but fmall, the compofitor takes 
 it out, and drives out the remaining matter, by cither 
 enlarging his fpaces, or bellowing the beginning of the 
 following, or clofe of the preceding line therein. If it 
 be confiderable, he may be obliged to over-run feveral 
 pages, before it can be driven out. 
 
 Prefs-man s Office, or Printing-, properly fo called. 
 To work off the form thus prepared and corre&ed by 
 the compofitor, there arc requifite, paper, ink, and a prefs. 
 
 To fit the paper for ufe, it is to be firft moiftened, by 
 dipping feveial Aieets together in water; thelc are after¬ 
 wards laid in a heap over one another; and, to make 
 them take the water equally, are all prefled clofe down 
 with a weight a-top. And this wetting muft be accord¬ 
 ing to the quality of the paper, and fize of the letter; 
 fmall letter and itift' paper require moll wetting. 
 
 A Printing -Houje, is a place deftined for printing, 
 and fitted up for that purpole with prefles, cafes, and 
 other furniture. 
 
 The moll confiderable printing-houfes are thofe of 
 the Louvre and Vatican. Out of both thefe printing- 
 houfes have come forth very beautiful editions of the 
 ancient authors, as alfo from that of Plantin and the 
 Elzevirs. 
 
 Printing - Ink, is of two kinds, black and red : the 
 laft occafionally ufed in title-pages, calendars, Ac. the 
 firft for the body of books. 
 
 For black Ink, the compofition which the printers have 
 from other hands, is ioo pounds of nut or linfeed oil, 
 being brought by boiling to the confiftence of a fyrup, 
 and purified by throwing into it two pounds of coarfe 
 bread, and about a dozen onions. Then 30 or 35 pounds 
 (of turpentine are boiled a-part, till fuch time as they 
 
p r r 
 
 p R i 
 
 find, upon its cooling on paper, that it breaks clean, like 
 glafs, without pulverizing ; for if it pulverize eafily, it 
 is a fign that it is burnt. The oil and turpentine thus 
 prepared, the fir ft is gently poured half cold into the lat¬ 
 ter, and the tvvoftirred together with a Rick, till they be 
 well mixed. After which the compofition, which is cal¬ 
 led the varnifh, is fet by to be ufed occafionally. To 
 proceed to make ink, they take a quantity of this mixture, 
 and add thereto a certain quantity of lamp-black, work¬ 
 ing it up with a kind of wooden brayer, till the whole be 
 incorporated into a kind of pulp ; which is the printing 
 ink for ufe. 
 
 Its ftrength or thicknefs is always to be proportioned 
 to that of the paper and warmth of the weather ; and its 
 ftrength or weaknefs depends on the greater or lei's degree 
 of coition of the varnifh. 
 
 For red Ink, they ufe the fame materials as for black, 
 excepting that inltead of lamp-black, they add a proper 
 quantity of vermilion, the luftre of which fome hold to 
 be heightened by mixing and incorporating the bignefs 
 of a nut of filh-glue, brandy, or the white of an egg with 
 the ink. 
 
 The ink is applied upon the forms by means of balls, 
 which are a kind of wooden funnels, the cavities whereof 
 are filled with wool covered with leather nailed on the 
 wood. One of thefe the prefsmaft takes in each hand, 
 and applying them on the ink-block, in order to charge 
 them with ink, he rubs the one againft the other to dis¬ 
 tribute the ink equally ; and at laft fmears over the form 
 by beating or dabbing them Several times over the whole 
 face thereof: this leaves the form in a condition to be paf- 
 fed under the prefs, with the moiftened paper laid thereon. 
 
 PriNT iNG-Prf/j, a very complex machine : its two 
 principal parts, each of which confifts of Several others, 
 are the body of the prefs, which ferves to give the pinch 
 or ftroke for the imprefhon; and the carriage on which 
 the form is laid to undergo the fame. 
 
 The body confifts of two ftrong cheeks ( plate LXVI. 
 fig- 6.) placed perpendicularly, and joined together by 
 four crofs pieces or planks. 
 
 The two ftrong cheeks a a, are placed perpendicularly, 
 and joined together by four crofs-pieces; the cap b ; the 
 head c, which is moveable being partly fuftained by two 
 iron-pins, or long bolts ; that pafs the cap ; the fhelves 
 dd, which Serve to keep Ready a part called the hofe, and 
 the winter e, which bears the carriage, and fuftains the 
 effort of the prefs beneath. The Spindle f is an upright 
 piece of iron pointed with fteel, having a male Screw which 
 goes into the female one in the head about four inches. 
 Through the eye g of this fpindle is fattened the bar k, 
 by which the preffman makes the impreflion. Part of 
 the fpindle is incloled in a fquare wooden frame called 
 the hofe, h> and its point works into a brafs-pan fupplied 
 with oil, which is fixed to an iron plate let into the top 
 of the platten. At each corner of the hofe, there is an 
 iron-hook faftened with pack-thread to thofe at each 
 corner of the platten /, in fucli a manner as to keep it 
 perfectly level. The carriage//is placed a foot below 
 the platten, having its fore- part Supported by a prop cal¬ 
 led the fore-ftay, while the other refts on the winter. 
 On this carriage, which fuftains the plank, are nailed two 
 long iron bars or ribs, and on the plank are nailed fhort 
 pieces of iron or fteel called cramp-irons, equally temper¬ 
 ed with the ribs, and which flide upon them when the 
 plank is turned in or out. Under the carriage is fixed a 
 long piece of iron called the fpit, with a double wheel in 
 the middle, round which leather-girts are faftened, nailed 
 to each erid of the plank ; and to the outlide of the fpit 
 is fixed a rounce m, or handle to turn round the wheel. 
 Upon the plank is a fquare frame or coffin, in which is 
 inclofed a polifhed ftone on which the form n is laid ; at 
 the end of the coffin are three frames, viz. the two tym- 
 pans and frifket: the tympans o are fquare, and made of 
 three flips of very thin wood, and at the top a piece of 
 iron ft ill thinner ; that called the outer tympan is faftened 
 with hinges to the coffin; they are both covered with 
 parchment; and between the two are placed blankets 
 which are neceffary to take off the impreftion of the let¬ 
 ters upon the paper. The frifket p is a fquare frame of 
 thin iron, faftened with hinges to the tympan ; it is co¬ 
 vered with paper cut in the neceffary places, that the fheet, 
 which is put between the frifket and the great or outward 
 tympan, may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt 
 Vol. II. No. 59. 
 
 the margins. To regulate the margins, a fheet of paper 
 is faftened upon this tympan, which is called the tympan- 
 fheet, and on each fide is fixed an iron point, which 
 makes two holes, in the fheet, which is to be placed on 
 the fame points, when the impfefiion is to be made on 
 the other fide. In preparing the prefs for working, the 
 parchment which covers the outer tympan is wetted till 
 it is very foft, and in order to render the impreflion more 
 equable ; the blankets are then put in, and fecured front 
 flipping by the inner tympan ; then while one preffman 
 is beating the letter with the balls y, covered with ink 
 taken from the ink-block : the other perfon places a fheet 
 of white paper on the tympan-fheet, turns down the 
 frifket upon it to keep the paper clean and prevent its 
 flipping ; then bringing the tympans upon the form, and 
 turning the rounce, he brings the form with the ftone, 
 weighing about 300 pounds weight, under the plat¬ 
 ten ; pulls with the bar, by which means the platten prelles 
 the blankets and paper clofe upon the letter, whereby 
 half the form is printed; then eafing the bar, he draws 
 the form ftill forward, gives a l'econd pull, and letting go 
 the bar, turns back the form, takes up the tympans and 
 frifket, takes out the printed fheet and lays on a frefh 
 one; and this is repeated till he has taken off the im¬ 
 preflion upon the full number of fheets the edition is to 
 confift of. One fide of the fheet being thus printed, the 
 form for the other is laid upon the prefs, and worked off 
 ill the lame manner. 
 
 The number of Iheets of the edition being complete, 
 and the form to be feparated to reltore the letter into the 
 cafes, they firft wafh it in boiling lye to take out the 
 remains of the ink, fcouring it with a brufh, and then 
 with fair water. This done, it is carried to a wooden 
 frame to be unlocked, and the furniture, i. e. the flicks, 
 taken off to difengage it from the chafe. Then thecom- 
 pofitor taking out feveral lines at once upon a little wood¬ 
 en ruler, he replaces each letter in its proper box, to be 
 again ufed in the remainder of the impreffton ; which 
 laft operation they call diflribution. 
 
 They have likewife rules for black lines, borders, and 
 head and tail pieces accommodated to the feveral kinds 
 of letters. The rules for black lines are of brafs, and 
 made exaftly the height of the letter; otherwife they will 
 either hinder the neighbouring letters from printing, or 
 will themfelves be hindered by them. Thefe the com- 
 pofitor cuts into proper lengths, as the work requires. 
 
 The borders are a kind of ornaments in form of long 
 bars, ferving for the divifions of books, chapters, &ci 
 their depth is proportioned to the letter, and their length 
 adjufled to the page ; for, being compofed of feveral move¬ 
 able pieces, it Ss eafy lengthening or fhortening them. 
 
 The head and tail pieces, cut either in wood or pewter, 
 are compartments ufed at the beginning and ending of 
 books. The initial letters are fometimes cut in wood, 
 and figured, fometimes call like the other characters. 
 
 For the conveniency of the binding, the printers had 
 early recourfe to fignatures, h e. letters of the alphabet 
 placed at the bottom of the fheet, which fhew the order 
 they are to be bound in, as well as whether the quires be 
 complete. The catch-words ferve nearly the fame pur- 
 pofe : thefe are the firfl words of each page, which are 
 inferted at the bottom of the preceding pages. 
 
 file number of pages are equally ierviceable to the 
 reader and the binder, to guide to references, and to 
 warrant tile book duly bound and collated : fome prin¬ 
 ters formerly put them at the bottoms of the pages, but 
 cuflom has carried it for the tops. 
 
 As to the faults which elcape the corrector and com- 
 pofitor, they are ufually noted in what we call errata. 
 The ancient*editions had no errata, but in lieu thereof 
 corrected the faults in each printed copy with a pen, 
 which was eafy enough in thofe days, though impraCti- 
 cable now. 
 
 crinting. books are printed in China froi 
 wooden blocks cut like thofe ufed among us in printir 
 of callico, paper cards, &c. The blocks are made of 
 fmootli, firm, clofe wood, of the fize of the leaf requirei 
 On the face fide they glue a paper, upon which lomeab 
 penman draws out the feveral letters and characters wit 
 a Chinefe pen, which is a kind of pencil. When finifl 
 ed, the block is put into the hands of a fculptor, wh 
 following the feveral ftrokes of the writer with his graver: 
 &c. makes them all appear in relievo. When the cuttir 
 O o o 
 
 
P R I P R I 
 
 h finifhed, they moiden what remains of the paper, and 
 rub it gently off. 
 
 The ink they ufe ill printing is the fame with the 
 common Chinefe ink wherewith they write, and is made 
 of lamp-black mixed up with oil. Their prefs refembles 
 our rolling-prefs. Their paper is made of the inner rind 
 of a kind of rufhes beat up with water into a pulp or 
 pade, and formed in moulds like ours. 
 
 Rolling-Prejs Printing is employed in taking off 
 prints or impreffionsfrom copper-plates engraven, etched, 
 or feraped as in mezzotintos. 
 
 This art is laid to have been as ancient as the year 
 1540, and to owe its origin to Finiguerra, a Florentine 
 goldfmith, who pouring l'ome melted brimllone on an 
 engraven plate, found the exaCt impreffion of the engrav¬ 
 ing left in the cold brimllone, marked with black taken 
 out of the llrokes by the liquid fulphur : upon this he 
 attempted to do the lame on lilver plates with wet paper, 
 by rooling itfmoothly with a roller; and this fucceeded ; 
 but this art was not ufed in England till the reign of king 
 James I. when it was brought from Antwerp by Speed. 
 The form of the rolling-prefs, the compofition of the ink 
 ufed therein, and the manner of applying both in taking 
 off prints, areas follow : 
 
 The rolling-prefs (plate LXVJ. jig. 7.) may be divid¬ 
 ed into two parts, the body and carriage : the body con- 
 fills of two wooden cheeks, placed perpendicularly on a 
 fland or foot, which lullains the prefs. From The foot 
 likewife arile four other perpendicular pieces, joined by 
 other crofs or horizontal ones, which lerve to fultam a 
 fmooth even plank or table, about four feet and a half 
 long, two feet and a half broad, and an inch and a half 
 thick. Into the cheeks go two wooden cylinders or rol¬ 
 lers, about fix inches in diameter, borne up at each end 
 by the cheeks, whole ends, which are lefiened to about 
 two inches diameter, and called trunnions, turn in the 
 cheeks between two pieces of wood in form of half moons, 
 lined with polilhed iron to facilitate the motion. Lallly, 
 to one of the trunnions of the upper roller is faflened a 
 crofs, confiding of two levers, or pieces of wood travel ¬ 
 ling each other, the arms of which crofs ferve indead of 
 the bar or handle of the letter-prefs, by turning the upper 
 roller, and when the plank is between the two rollers, 
 giving die fame motion to the under one, by drawing the 
 plank forward and backward. 
 
 The ink ufed for copper-plates, is a compofition made 
 of the dones of peaches and apricots, the bones of fheep, 
 and ivory, all well burnt, and called Frankfort-black, 
 mixt with nut oil that has been well boiled, and ground 
 together on a marble, after the fame manner painters do 
 their colours. 
 
 The method of printing from copper-plates is as fol¬ 
 lows : they take a (mall quantity of this ink on a rubber 
 made of linen-rags, drongly bound about each other, and 
 therewith fmear the whole face of the plate as it lies on 
 a grate over a charcoal fire. The plate being diffidently 
 inked, they fird wipe it over with a foul rag, then with 
 the palm of the left hand, and then with tint of the right; 
 and to dry the hand and forward the wiping, they rub it 
 from time to time on whiting. In wiping the plate per¬ 
 fectly clean, yet without taking the ink out of the engrav¬ 
 ing, the addrefs of the workman confids. The plate 
 thus prepared is laid on the plank of the prefs ; over the 
 plate is laid the paper, fird well moidened, to receive the 
 impreflion, and over the paper two or three folds of flan¬ 
 nel. Things thus difpofed, the arms of the crofs are 
 pulled, and by that means, the plate with its furniture, 
 paffed through between the rollers, which pinching very 
 drongly, yet equally, preffes the moidened paper into the 
 drokes of the engraving, whence it licks out the ink. 
 
 PRIOR, in general, fomething before, or nearer the 
 beginning than another, to which it is compared. 
 
 Prior, more particularly denotes the fuperior of a 
 convent of monks, or the next under the abbot. 
 
 Grand Prior, is the fuperior of a large abbey, where 
 feveral fuperiors are required. 
 
 PRISAGE, Prifagium, that part ordiare which belongs 
 to the king, or admiral, out of prizes taken at lea from 
 an enemy : tills is ufually a 10th part. See Prise. 
 
 PRISCILLIANTSTS, in church hidory, Chridian 
 hereticks, fo called from their leader Prifcillian, a Spa¬ 
 niard by birth, and bilhop of Avila. He is laid to have 
 praftifed magick, and to have maintained the principall 
 
 errors of the Manichees but his peculiar tenet was, that 
 it is lawful to take falle oaths, in order to fupport one's 
 caufe and intered. 
 
 PRISE, or Prize, in na\igation, a veffel taken at 
 lea from the enemies of a date, or from pirates, either by 
 a man of war, or merchantlhip, having a commilfion for 
 that purpofe. Veffels are looked on as prize, if they fight 
 under any other dandard than that of the date from which 
 they have their commilfion ; if they have no charter-party, 
 invoice, or bill of lading a-board , if loaded with effeCis 
 belonging to the king’s enemies, or with contraband 
 goods. Thofe of the king’s fubjeCls recovered from the 
 enemy, after remaining 24 hours in their hands, are 
 deemed lawful prize. Veffels that reful’e to drike may 
 be condrained, and, if they make reiidance and fight, 
 become lawful prize, if taken. 
 
 Prise, in our datutes, denotes things, as corn, and, 
 other provifions taken of the fubjeCl by the king’s pur¬ 
 veyors, at lower rates than ordinary, for maintenance of 
 the king’s houlhold, garril'ons, See. 
 
 PRISM, Prijn/a , in geometry, an oblong folid con¬ 
 tained under more than four planes, whole bales are 
 equal, parallel, and alike fituated. 
 
 The prifm is generated by the motion of a rettilinear 
 figure, as A, B, C ( plate LXVI. fig. 4.) delcending al¬ 
 ways parallel to itlelf, along the right line A E. 
 
 If the deferibent be a triangle, the body is laid to be a 
 triangular prifm ; if fquare, a quadrangular one, See. 
 
 From the genefis of the prifm, it is evident it has two 
 equal and oppofite bales; and it is terminated by as many 
 parallelograms as the bafe confids of fides ; and that all 
 the fe&ions of a prifm parallel to its bafe are equal. Every 
 triangular prifm may be divided into three equal pyramids. 
 
 Prism, in dioptricks, is aglafs inform of a triangu¬ 
 lar prifm, much ufed in experiments about the nature of 
 light and colours. See Light. 
 
 The pheenomena and ufe of the prifm arife from its 
 feparating the rays of light in their paffage through it. 
 
 The more general of thefe phenomena are as follow, 
 for to enumerate all would be endlefs ; and even thefe 
 are fufficient to demondrate, that colours do not either 
 confid in the contorfion of the globules of light, as Des 
 Cartes imagined ; nor in the obliquity of the pulles of 
 the ethereal matter, as Hook fancied ; nor in the condi- 
 pation of light, and its greater or lefs concitation, as Dr. 
 Barrow conje£tured ; but that they are original and un¬ 
 changeable properties of light itfelf. See Colours. 
 
 PRISMOID, Prifmoides , in geometry, a folid figure, 
 bounded by feveral planes, whole bafes are right-angled 
 parallelograms, parallel, and alike fituated. 
 
 PRISON, the fame with Gaol, which fee. 
 
 PRISONER, is one redrained of his liberty upon 
 any a&ion, civil or criminal, or upon commandment. 
 
 One, again, may be prifoner either upon matter of 
 fa£l, or record ; the former is when a perlon is commit¬ 
 ted by an arred ; the latter is when a perfon, being pre- 
 fent in court, is by the court committed to prifon. 
 
 PRIVATION, Privntio, the ablence or want of fome¬ 
 thing necefiary. 
 
 In the canon law, it denotes an interdiction or fufpen- 
 fion. 
 
 PRIVATIVE, in grammar, a particle, which when 
 prefixed to a word, changes it into a contrary fenfe. 
 
 Among the Greeks, the a is ufed as a privative ; and, 
 among the Latins, in. The Englifh, French, &c. bor¬ 
 row both the Greek and Latin privatives. 
 
 Privative Quantity, ox Negative Quantity, in alge¬ 
 bra, denotes a quantity lefs than nothing, in oppofition 
 to affirmative or pofitive; and is exprelled by the fign 
 (—) minus prefixed thereto. 
 
 PRIVILEGE, Privilegium, is any kind of right or 
 advantage attached to a perfon, or employment, exclufive 
 of others. 
 
 Privilege, in law, a particular right granted to a 
 perfon, place, community, See. whereby they are ex¬ 
 empted from the rigour of the common laws. 
 
 It is either perfonal or real; the former is that which 
 is granted to any particular perfon, againd or beyond the 
 common courfe of law, as the exemption of a member of 
 parliament and his fervants from an arred during the 
 ieffions, and for a certain time before and after. Real 
 privilege is a franchile granted to a place, as that granted 
 to our univerlities, that no member thereof may be fum- 
 
 moned 
 
PRO 
 
 PRO 
 
 moiled to Weftminfter-hall upon any contraft made 
 vv ithin their own precinfts ; an exemption from arrefts 
 within the verge of the court, that is in or near the king’s 
 refidence, &c. 
 
 Privilege^ commerce, a permiffion from a prince, 
 &c. to make and fell a certain merchandize, or engage in 
 a certain commerce, either exclufively ol others, or con¬ 
 currently with them. 
 
 PROBABILITY, the appearance of agreement or 
 difagreement between two ideas, by the intervcntloti of 
 proofs, whofe connexion is not conftant or immutable. 
 
 Probability, in poetry, implies the appearance of 
 truth in the fable or aftion of a poem. 
 
 PROBATE of a Will , is the proving a will before 
 the judges of the ecclefiaftical court. 
 
 PROBATION, in the univerfities, is the examina¬ 
 tion of a ftudent who is going to take a degree. 
 
 Probation, ina monaftick fenfe, fignifies the year 
 of novitiate which a religious mult pals in a convent, to 
 prove his virtue and vocation, and whether he can bear 
 the feverities of the rule. 
 
 PROBATIONER, in the church of Scotland, a 
 ftudent in divinity, who bringing a certificate from a 
 profefTor in an univerfity of his good morals, and his 
 having performed his exercifes to approbation, is admit¬ 
 ted to undergo feveral trials. 
 
 PROBATOR, in law, one who undertakes to prove 
 a crime charged upon another; properly, an accomplice 
 in the crime who impeaches others. 
 
 PROBATUM Est, it is proved, a term frequently 
 fubjoined to a receipt for the cure of fome difeafe. 
 
 PROBE, a furgeon’s inftrument for examining the 
 circumftances of wounds, ulcers, and other cavities, 
 fearching for Rones in the bladder, &c. 
 
 PROBLEM, in logick, a proportion that neither 
 appears abfolutely true or falfe ; and, confequently, may 
 be afferted either in the affirmative or negative. 
 
 Problem, in geometry, is a propofition, wherein 
 fome operation or conftruftion is required , as to divide 
 a line or angle, ereft or let fall perpendiculars, &c. 
 
 Problem, in algebra, is a queftion or propofition 
 which requires fome unknown truth to be inveftigated, 
 and the truth of the difeovery demo nitrated. 
 
 PROBLEMATICAL Resolution, in algebra, 
 a method of folving difficult queltions by certain rules, 
 called canons. 
 
 PROBOSCIS, in natural hiftory, is the trunk or 
 fnout of an elephant, and fome other animals and infefts. 
 Flies, gnats, &c. arefurnifhed with aprobofeis, or trunk ; 
 by means of which they fuck the blood of animals, the 
 juice of vegetables, &c. for their food. 
 
 PROCEED, among merchants, whatever arifes from 
 any thing. 
 
 PROCESS, in law, denotes the proceedings in any 
 caufe, real or perfonal, civil or criminal, from the ori¬ 
 ginal writ to the end thereof. 
 
 Process, inchymiftry, the whole courfe of an ex¬ 
 periment or feries of operations, tending to produce fome- 
 thing new. 
 
 Process, Procejfus , in anatomy, denotes any pro¬ 
 tuberance or eminence in a bone. 
 
 PROCLAMATION, apublick notice given of any 
 thing of which the king thinks proper to advertife his 
 fubjefts. 
 
 PROCONSUL, a Roman magiftrate, fent to govern 
 a province with confular authority. 
 
 PROCTOR, a perfon commiffioned to manage ano¬ 
 
 ther perfon’s caufe, in any court of civil or ecclefi- 
 aftical law. The proftor’s of the clergy, are the repre- 
 fentatives chofen by the clergy, to fit in the lower houfe 
 of convocation : of thefe are two for each diocefe, and 
 one for each collegiate church. 
 
 Proctors, in an univerfity, are two officers chofcn 
 from among the Undents to fee good order and exercifes 
 daily performed. 
 
 PROCURATION, or Procuracy, an aft or in¬ 
 ftrument by which a perfon is impowered to treat, tranf- 
 aft, receive, &c. in another perfon’s name. 
 
 This word is now little ufed in this fenfe, except in 
 the cafe of a perfon who collects the fruits of a benefice 
 for another. 
 
 The fame word is ufed for certain fums of money ah- 
 nually paid by parifh-priefts to the bifhop, or archdeacon, 
 on account of vifitation, and which, in former times, 
 were paid in neceffary viftuals and provifions for the 
 vifitor and his attendants. 
 
 PROCURATOR, a perfon who has a charge com¬ 
 mitted to him to aft for another. 
 
 PROCYON, in aftronomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond 
 magnitude, in the eonftellation called canis minor. See 
 Can i Si 
 
 PRODUCING, in geometry, fignifies the drawing 
 out a line further till it has any affigned length. 
 
 PRODUCT, in arithmetick and geometry, the fac¬ 
 tum of two or more numbers, or lines, &c. into one 
 another : thus 5X4=20, the produft required. 
 
 In lines it is always (and in numbers fometimes) called 
 the reftangle between the two lines, or numbers, multi¬ 
 plied by one another. 
 
 PRODUCTION, in anatomy, the fame with procefs. 
 See Process. 
 
 PR OEM, a term fometimes ufed for prelude or preface. 
 
 PROEMPTOSIS, in aftronomy, the appearance of 
 the new moon a day later, by reafon of the lunar equa¬ 
 tion. See Moon. 
 
 PROFESSOR, in the univerfities, a perfon who 
 teaches or reads publick leftures in fome art or lcience 
 from a chair for the purpofe. 
 
 PROFILE, in architecture, the draught of a build¬ 
 ing, fortification, &c. wherein are exprefled the feveral 
 heights, widths, and thicknefles, fuch as they would ap¬ 
 pear, were the building cut down perpendicularly from 
 the roof to the foundation. It is alfo called feftion, or¬ 
 thographical feftion, and, by Vitruvius, feiagraphy. 
 
 This is the fame as elevation, in oppofition to a plan, 
 ichnography. 
 
 Profile alfo denotes the outline of a figure, build¬ 
 ing, member of architecture, &c. Hence profiling fome¬ 
 times denotes defigning or deferibing the member with a 
 rule, compafs, &c. 
 
 Profile, in faulpture and painting, denotes ahead, 
 portrait, &c. when reprefented fideways, or in a fide 
 view. On almoft all medals, faces are reprefented in 
 profile. 
 
 PROGNOSTICK, 'srfo/vwtnj, among phyficians, fig¬ 
 nifies a judgment concerning the event of a difeafe, as 
 whether it ffiall end in life or death, be fhort or long, 
 mild or malignant, &c. 
 
 PROGRESSION, in general, denotes a regular ad¬ 
 vancing, or going forward, in the fame courfe and manner. 
 
 Progression, in mathematicks, is either arithme¬ 
 tical or geometrical. Continued arithmetick proportion, 
 where the terms do increafe and decreafe by equal differ¬ 
 ences, is called arithmetick progreffion : 
 
 :±i : + 4i £. Ksi W '■ 
 
 -»»««• {£ f; 6 . ®: * 
 
 But fince this progreffion is only compound of two feries, viz. 
 
 & c. 
 
 Equals 
 
 Arith. proportionals o, — d, ±2 d, —3d, ±4 df. 
 
 Therefore the molt natural arithmetick progreffion is that which begins with o : 
 
 «{] 
 
 21 
 
 °> ±* ±zd, ±3 * ± 4 ,. 
 
 In any arithmetical progreffion, if 
 
 fi] 
 
 J 
 
 > be the < 
 
 i* j 
 
 i 
 
 firft term, 
 common difference, 
 number of terms, 
 
 I then any three of thefe terms being 
 > given, the other two are eafily 
 I found. 
 
 And 
 

 PRO 
 
 And the feveral cafes are reducible into io proportions, 
 which are all folved by the two following lemmata. 
 Lemma I. In any arithmctick progreflion, it is, 
 
 : a -\-\:s 
 
 PRO 
 
 Lemma II. In any arithmetical progreflion, it is, 
 i : «—i ::d : l—a. 
 
 Geometrick Progression, or continued geometrick 
 proportion, is when the terms do increafe or decreafe by 
 equal ratios : thus, 
 
 a, ar, arr, arrr , See. increasing J 
 
 « f. 7,' ,7,. 
 
 . r S38*—«- 1SK— »*. 
 
 But fince this progreflion is only a compound of two feries viz. 
 
 of 1 a t o, a, a, <7, a, 1 
 
 i Geometrick proportion, 1, r, r 1 , r 3 r* r 5 J ^ Cl 
 therefore the moll natural progreflion is that which begins with unity. * * 
 
 i, 1, l! i 5 L + l! / 
 
 i’i 1 ’ 1 ’ 1 ’ 1 ’ >&c. i 
 t is, I, r, r % r 3 r* r % J 
 
 that i 
 
 •eafing. 
 
 
 as 
 
 that is, 
 
 I* r' r* f r 3 ’ r 4 ’ r s 
 i, r — 1 r — * r— 3 r—* r— 
 
 In geometrick progreSfion, 
 
 
 
 I ) 
 
 r firft term, ~) 
 
 >• 1 
 
 
 ratio, 
 
 ifj» 
 
 l be the J 
 
 number of terms, v 
 
 1' 
 
 1 
 
 laft term, ; 
 
 Lr J 
 
 l 
 
 l fum of all the terms ; J 
 
 then any three of thefe terms being given, 
 the other two are eaflly found. 
 
 Lem. I. 
 
 And the feveral cafes are reducible to 10 propofitions, 
 Which are folved by the following lemmata : 
 
 Of increafling progreflions. 
 
 In an increasing geometrick progreflion a, 
 or , ar 1 -, ar 1 , at*, ar 5 , &c. it is 1 : r\\ s—l: s—a. 
 
 Lem. II. In an increafing geometrick progreflion 
 it is 1 : r* 1 ::a : /. 
 
 PROHIBITED Goods, in commerce, the fame 
 with contraband goods. 
 
 PROHIBITION, in law, is a writ that iflues out of 
 the Chancery, King’s-bench, or Common-pleas, to pro¬ 
 hibit fome other court, either Spiritual or fecular, to pro¬ 
 ceed in a caufe there depending, upon a fuggeftion that 
 the caufe does not belong to the court. 
 
 PROJECT ILES, are fuch bodies as being put in a 
 violent motion by any great force, are then call off or 
 let go from the place where they received their quantity 
 of motion; as a Hone thrown from a fling, an arrow from 
 a bow, a bullet from a gun, &c. 
 
 It is ufually taken for granted by thofe who treat of 
 the motion of projedliles, that the force of gravity near 
 the earth’s furface is every where the fame, and a£ls in 
 parallel diregions; and that the effefl of the air’s refin¬ 
 ance upon very heavy bodies, fuch as bombs and cannon¬ 
 balls, is too Small to be taken into confideration. 
 
 The famous Sir Ifaac Newton has Shewn, that the 
 gravity of bodies which are above the Superficies of the 
 earth, is reciprocally as the fquares of their distances 
 from its centre ; but the theorems concerning the delcent 
 of heavy bodies, demonstrated by Gallilams, Huygens, 
 and others, are built upon this foundation, that the 
 attion of gravity is the fame at all distances; and the 
 confequences of this hypothefis are found to be verv 
 nearly agreeable to experience. For it is obvious, that 
 the error arifing from the fuppofition of the gravity’s 
 a£ting uniformly, and in parallel lines, muft be exceed¬ 
 ing final 1; becaufe even the greateft distance of a pro¬ 
 jeaile above the Surface of the earth, is inconsiderable, 
 in comparifon of its distance from the centre, to which 
 the gravitation tends. But then, on the other hand, it 
 is very certain, that the refiftance of the air to very 
 fwift motions, is much greater than it has been com¬ 
 monly reprefented. Neverthelefs, in the application of 
 this doftrine to gunnery, if the amplitude of the pro¬ 
 jeaion, anfwering to one given elevation, be firft found 
 bv experiment (which wefuppofe) the amplitudes in all 
 other cafes, where the elevations and velocities do not 
 very much differ from the firfl, may be determined to a 
 Sufficient degree of exaftnefs, from the foregoing hypo¬ 
 thefis : becaufe, in all fuch cafes, the effe&s of the re¬ 
 fiftance will be nearly as the amplitudes themfelves; and 
 were they accurately fo, the proportions of the amplitudes 
 would be the very fame as in vacuo. 
 
 Every projeaile is afted upon by thefe two forces or 
 powers, viz. the impetus of the projeaile force, and 
 
 that of gravity. By the firft, the body pafles over equal 
 fpaces, A B, B C, CD, &c. (plate LXVI. fig. 2 .) ia 
 equal times; and, by the fecond, it defeends through 
 the fpaces A G, A H, A I, which are as the fquares of the 
 times; and, therefore, by the two forces compounded, 
 the body will deferibe, not a right line, but a curve 
 A Q_; and of that fort which we call a parabola ; and 
 this will be the cafe in all directions but that in the per¬ 
 pendicular, when the path of the projeaile will be (to 
 appearance) a right line. The greater the angle of 
 elevation K A M (fig. 5.) of the cannon is, the greater 
 will be the height D B to which the projected body will 
 rife. Alfo the greater will be the distance or amplitude 
 °* ov- 6 P ro j e< ^ on > AH the faid angle becomes equal to 
 45 KAO; upon which elevation, the random A Q 
 will be the greateft polfible, and equal to twice the alti¬ 
 tude A G of the perpendicular projeaion. On any 
 elevation A M or A R, equally above or below 45 0 as 
 on 40 and 50, 30 and 60, 20 and 70°, the random A C 
 will be the fame ; which cafe an engineer frequently 
 finds of great ule. 
 
 If the objea be Situated above the horizon, then, ii_ 
 order to Strike it with the leaft impetus, let a piece of 
 looking-glats be fixed to the cannon perpendicular to its 
 axis ; and holding a plumb-line over the glafs direaiy 
 under the eye, the cannon is to be elevated till the 
 objea appears exaaiy under the plummet, and there 
 fixed ; ft then it be discharged, it will Strike the objea 
 required. 
 
 From what has been faid, we may eaflly understand 
 how a body projeaed upright from the earth’s furface, 
 does leally dclcnbe a parabola, though, to appearance, 
 it afeends and defeends in a right line. For it is urged 
 by two forces, viz. the projeaile upwards, and the force 
 arifing from the motion of the earth about its axis from 
 weft to eaft ; in which cafe it rrruft neceflarily deferibe a 
 parabola. 
 
 PROJECTION, in mechanicks, the aa of commu¬ 
 nicating motion to a body, from thence called projeaile. 
 See the preceding article. 
 
 Projection, in perfpeaivc, is the appearance or 
 representation of an objea on the perfpeaive plane. 
 
 Proj ect ion ofithe Sphere, implies the representation 
 of the different circles, &c. of the fphere on a plane 
 furface, Similar to what they really appear to the eye 
 placed at fome given diftance; and is either orthogra¬ 
 ph ick, or ftereographick. 
 
 I he former, or orthographick projeaion, fuppofes the 
 eye placed at an infinite diftance; whereas, in the ftereo¬ 
 graphick projeaion, it is luppofed to be only go 0 diftant 
 from the primitive circle, or placed in its pole, and thence 
 viewing the circles on the lphere. The primitive circle 
 is that great circle which limits or bounds the represen¬ 
 tation or projeaion ; and the place of the eye is called 
 the projeaing point. 
 
 The laws of tile orthographick projeffiou are thefe : 
 
 1. The 
 
PRO 
 
 1. The rays by which the eye, placed at an infinite 
 diftancc, perceives any objects, are parallel. 
 
 2. A right line, perpendicular to the plane of the pro¬ 
 jection, is reprefented by a point, where it cuts the plane 
 of the projection. 
 
 3. A right line, as AB, or CD, ($Jate-LXVIII. fig. 1.) 
 not perpendicular, is projected into a right line, as F E 
 and G H, and is always comprehended between the ex 
 treme perpendiculars A F and B E, and C G and D H. 
 
 4. The projection of the right line, AB, is thegreateft 
 when it is parallel to the plane of projection ; being pro 
 jeCted in a right line equal to itfelf. 
 
 But an oblique line is always projected into one 
 
 PRO 
 
 lefs than itfelf; and the more fo, the nearer it approaches 
 to a perpendicular, which, as already obferved, is pro¬ 
 jected into a point. 
 
 6. A plane furface, as A B C D (fig. 2.) at right 
 angles to the plane of the projection, is projected into 
 the right line A B, in which it cuts the plane of the 
 projection ; and any arch asBc, f c, or c A, is projected 
 into the correfponding lines B 0, 0 0, and 0 A. 
 
 7. A circle parallel to the plane of projection, is re¬ 
 prefented by a circle equal to itfelf; and a circle oblique 
 to the plane of projection, is reprefented by an ellipfis , 
 for the method of putting thefe rules in praCtice, feeM a p . 
 
 As to the ftereographick projection, its laws are thefe: 
 
 1. The reprefentations of all circles not paffing 
 through the projecting point, will be circles. Thus, 
 let AC E D B (fig. 3, 4. and alfo plate LXVII. fig. 20.) 
 reprefent a fphere, cut by a plane R S, palling through 
 the centre I, at right angles, to the diameter E H, drawn 
 from E, the place of the eye ; and let the feCtion of the 
 fphere by the plane R S, be the circle C F D L, whofe 
 poles are H and E. Suppofe now A G B is a circle on 
 the fphere to be projected, whofe pole moll remote from 
 the eye is P ; and the vifual rays from the circle A G B, 
 meeting in E, form the cone A G B E, whereof the 
 triangle A E B is a feCtion through the vertex E, and 
 diameter of the bafe A B : then will the figure a g bf, 
 which is the projection of the circle A G B, be itfelf a 
 circle: for if the plane R S is fuppofed to revolve on 
 the line C D, till it coincides with the plane of the 
 circle A C E B ; then will the circle C F DL coincide 
 with the circle C E DH, and the projected circle a f b g 
 with the circle a N b K. Hence, the middle of the 
 projected diameter is the centre of the projected circle, 
 whether it be a great circle or a fmall one ; the poles and 
 centres of all circles, parallel to the plane of projection, 
 fall into the centre of the projection ; and all oblique 
 great circles cut the primitive circle in two points diame¬ 
 trically oppofite. 
 
 2. The projected diameter of any circle fubtends an 
 angle at the eye equal to the diitance of that circle from 
 its neareft pole, taken on the fphere ; and that angle is 
 bifieCted by a right line, joining the eye and that pole. 
 Thus let the planeR S (fig. 19.) cut the fphere HFEG, 
 through its centre I; and let ABC be any oblique 
 great circle, whofe diameter A C is projected mac-, 
 and K O L, any fnlall circle parallel to ABC, whofe 
 diameter K L is projected in k l. The diftances of thofe 
 circles from their pole P, being the arches A H P, K H P 
 and the angles a B c, k El, are the angles at the eye. 
 fubtended by their projected diameters, a c, k l. Then 
 is the angle aEc meafured by the arch A H P, and the 
 angle k E / meafured by the arch K H P, and thofe angles 
 are biffeCted by E P. 
 
 3. Any point of a fphere is projected at the difiance 
 of the tangent of half the arch intercepted between that 
 point and the pole oppofite to the eye, from the centre of 
 projection; the femi-diameter of the fphere being radius. 
 Thus, let CiE B (fig. 18.) be a great circle of the 
 fphere, whofe centre is c, G H the plane of projection 
 cutting the diameter of the fphere in b, B ; EC, the 
 poles of the feCtion by that plane ; and a, the projection 
 of A. Then is c An the tangent of half the arch A C, 
 as is evident by drawing CFr:the tangent of half that 
 arch, and joining c F. 
 
 4. The angle made by two projected circles, is equal 
 to the angle which thefe circles make on the fphere ; 
 for let I A C E and A B L (fig. 17.) be two circles on a 
 fphere interfering in A ; E the projecting point; and 
 
 ACE. Alfo let D A, FA, be tangents to the circles 
 ACE, A B L. Then will the projected angle d af be 
 equal to the fpherical angle BAG. 
 
 5. The diftance between the poles of the primitive 
 circle and an oblique circle, is equal to the tangent of 
 half the inclination of thofe circles ; and the diftance of 
 their centres is equal to the tangent of their inclination, 
 the femi-diameter of the primitive being radius. 
 
 For let AC (fig. 16.) be the diameter of a circle, 
 whofe poles are P and CL and inclined to the plane of 
 projeClion in the angle AI F ; and Jet a , c, p, be the 
 projections of the points A, C, P ; alfo let A a E be the 
 projected oblique circle, whofe centre is q. Now, when 
 the plane of projection becomes the primitive circle, 
 whofe pole is 1, then is I p = tangent of half the angle 
 A I F, or of half the arch A F ; and I tangent of A F 
 or of the angle F H a —A 1 F. 
 
 6. If, through any given point of the primitive circle, 
 an oblique circle be delcribed, then the centres of all 
 other oblique circles palling through that point, will be 
 in a right line drawn through the centre of the firfi 
 oblique circle at right-angles to a line palling through 
 that centre, the given point, and the centre of the pri¬ 
 mitive : thus, let GAGE {fig. 15.) be the primitive 
 circle, A DEI a great circle deferibed through D, its 
 centre being B. H K. is a line drawn through B, per¬ 
 pendicular to a right line C I, palling through D, B 
 and the centre of the primitive circle. Then the centres 
 of all other great circles, as F D G, palling through D 
 will fall into the line BK. 
 
 7. Equal arches of any two great circles of the 
 fphere, will be intercepted between two other circles 
 drawn on the fphere through the remoteft poles of thofe 
 great circles. For let PBEA (fig. 14.) be a fphere, 
 whereon A G B, CFD, are two great circles, whofe 
 remoteft poles are E, P ; and through thefe poles let the 
 great circle P B E C, and the fmall circle PGE, b* 
 drawn, interfering the great circles A G B, CFD, in 
 the points B, G, and D, F: then are the intercepted 
 arches B G and D F equal to one another. 
 
 8. If lines be drawn from the proje&ed pole of any 
 great circle, cutting the peripheries of the proje&ed circle 
 and plane of projection, the intercepted arches of thofe 
 circumferences are equal; that is, the arch G B—fid. 
 
 9. The radius of any fmall circle, whofe plane is 
 perpendicular to that of the primitive circle, is equal to 
 the tangent of that lefler circle’s diftance from its pole; 
 and the fecant of that diftance is equal to the diftance of 
 the centres of the primitive and lefler circle. For let P 
 (fig. 13.) be the pole, and A B the diameter of a lefler 
 circle, its plane being perpendicular to that of the pri¬ 
 mitive circle, whole centre is C : then d being the centre 
 of the proje&ed lefler circle, d a is equal to the tangent 
 of the arch P A, and dC = fecant of P A. 
 
 PROJECTURE, in archite&ure, the out-jetting 
 prominency, or embofling, which the mouldings, and 
 other members, have beyond the naked wall, column 
 See. and is always in proportion to the height. 
 
 PROLAPSUS, in furgery, a prolapfion, or falling 
 out of any part of the body from its natural fituation ■ 
 thus, we fay, prolapfus inteftini, a prolapfion of the in- 
 teftine, Scc. 
 
 Prolapsus Am, is fuch a prolapfion of the inteftinum 
 redtum, that it is frequently inverted, orprolapfed to fuch 
 a degree, both in adults and infants, as to appear near a 
 hand-breadth hanging out of its natural fituation. 
 
 Prol ap s u s Oculi, is a diftemperature of the eve in 
 which it is fo violently inflamed and fwelled, that it can¬ 
 not be contained in its orbit, but protrudes itfelf out of 
 its natural feat. 
 
 Prolapsus Uteri, is when the uterus falls down and 
 appears out of the vagina ; whereas when it only defeends 
 into the vagina, it is termed a defeent, or bearing down 
 of the womb. 
 
 PROLATE, in geometry, an epithet applied to a 
 lpheroid, produced by the revolution of a lemi-ellipfis 
 about its larger diameter. r 
 
 PROLATION, in mufick, the art of lhakin°-, or 
 making feveral mfleaions of the voice, or found, on the 
 lame note or fyllable. 
 
 PROLEGOMENA, in philology, certain prepara- 
 
 R S die plane of projeftion, wherein the point A is pro- tory obfervations, or difcourles, Lu „ U(JU , 
 
 jetted in a m the line I C the diameter of the circle containing fomething neceffary for the reader to be an- 
 V OL. 11. INO. 60. 1 P p p ' . J . 
 
 3 g/> * „ 
 
 prefixed to a book, See. 
 ' for 
 
 prifed 
 
P R O 
 
 rifcd of, to enable him the better to imderfland the 
 ook, or to enter deeper into the fcience, Ac. 
 
 PROLEPSIS, a figure in rhetorick, by which we an¬ 
 ticipate or prevent what might be obje&ed by the adver¬ 
 sary : thus, it may be objected, Ac. 
 
 PROLEPTICK, an epithet applied to a periodical 
 difeale which anticipates, or whole paroxifm returns 
 fooner and Sooner every time, as is frequently the cafe 
 ill agues. 
 
 PROLIFICK, Something that has the qualities ne- 
 ccflary for generating. 
 
 PROLIXITY, in difeourfe, the fault of entering into 
 too minute a detail, of being too long, precife, and cir- 
 Gumftantial, even to a degree of tedioufnefs. 
 
 PROLOCUTOR of the Convocation, the Speaker or 
 chairman of that afiembly. 
 
 PROLOGUE, Prologue, in dramatick poetry, a d if- 
 courfe addreffed to the audience before the drama or play 
 begins. The original intention was to advertife the au¬ 
 dience of the Subject of the piece, and to prepare them 
 to enter more eafily into the a&ion, and Sometimes to 
 make an apology for the poet. This IaR article Seems 
 entirely to have taken poflellion of the prologue in the 
 Britilh drama. 
 
 PROMETHEUS, in tliq ancient aftronomy, the 
 name of the conftellation now called Hercules. See the 
 article Hercules. 
 
 PROMISE, in law, is when, upon any valuable 
 consideration, one binds himfelf by word of mouth to 
 another, to perform a thing agreed on. It is held upon 
 fuch a promife, that aflion will lie for breach, which 
 will not if the promife be without confideration, that 
 being a naked bargain, from which no a£lion can arife. 
 
 PROMONTORY, in geography, a high point of 
 land, or rock, projecting out into the Sea ; the extremity 
 of which towards the Sea is called a cape, or head-land. 
 
 PROMPTER, in the drama, an officer polled behind 
 the Scenes, whofe bufinefs it is to watch attentively the 
 aflors Speaking on the Rage, in order to fuggeR and put 
 them forward when at a Rand, to correct them when 
 amifs, Ac. in their parts. 
 
 PRONAS, in the ancient architeClure, a porch to 
 a church,palace, or other Spacious building. See Porch. 
 
 PRONG-Hoe, in hulbandry, the name of aninRru- 
 ment ul'ed to hoe or break the ground near and among 
 the roots of plants. It confiRs of two hooked points, of 
 fix or Seven inches length ; and when Rruck into the 
 ground, will Rir and remove it the Same depth as the 
 plough does ; and thus anfwer both the ends of cutting 
 up the weeds, and opening the land. 
 
 The prong-hoe comes into excellent ufe even in the 
 horfe-hoeing hulbandry , and in this the hoe-plough C211 
 only come within three or four inches ol the rows of the 
 corn, turneps, and the like ; but this infirument may be 
 Tiled afterwards; and with it the land may be raifed and 
 Rirred, even to the very Ralk of the plant. 
 
 PRONOUN, Pronomen, in grammar, a declineable 
 part of Speech, which being put infiead of a noun, points 
 out Some perfon or thing. 
 
 Pronouns are divided into the fix following daffies : 
 demonfirative pronouns, relative pronouns, pofleffive 
 pronouns, gentile pronouns, (or fuch as denote a per¬ 
 son’s country, as noRras, veRras, and cujusj interroga¬ 
 tive pronouns, and reciprocal pronouns. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION, Pronunciatio, in grammar, 
 the manner of articulating or founding the words of a 
 language. There is no part fo defective in grammar as 
 that of the pronunciation, as the writer has frequently 
 no term whereby to give the reader an idea of the found 
 he would exprefs : for want of a proper term, therefore, 
 he fubRitutes a vicious and precarious one. To give a 
 juR idea of the pronunciation of a language, it Seems 
 neceffiary to fix as nearly as poffible all the Several founds 
 employed in the pronunciation of that language. 
 
 Pronunciation, is all'o ul'ed for the fifth and laR 
 part of rhetorick, which conlifls in varying and regulating 
 the voice agreeably to the matter and words, fo as moR 
 effedtually to perluade and touch the hearers. 
 
 It is much tire fame with what is otherwife called 
 emphafis. 
 
 PROOF, in arithmetick, an operation whereby the 
 truth and juRnefs of a calculation i> examined and as¬ 
 certained. The proper proof is always by the contrary 
 
 PRO 
 
 rule : thus fubtraftion is the proof of addition, and mul¬ 
 tiplication of divifion ; and vice verfa. 
 
 Proof, in law, Ac. denotes the mediums or argu- 
 me'nts ufed to evince the truth of any thing. 
 
 Proof, is alfoufedin a Synonymous fenfe with Rand- 
 ard : thus we call that proof-fpirit, which is of the 
 Randard Rrcngth, or half alcohol half phlegm. 
 
 PROPAGATION, Propagation the a£t of multiply¬ 
 ing the kind, or ot producing the like in tire natural way 
 of generation. 
 
 PROPER, Proprium , Something naturally or effen- 
 tially belonging to any thing. 
 
 PROPERTY, Proprietas , in a general fenle, that 
 which conRitutes or denominates a thing proper; or it 
 is a particular virtue or quality which nature has be- 
 ' Rowed on Some things exclufive of all others : thus co¬ 
 lour is a property of light; extenfion, figure, divifibilitv, 
 and impenetrability, are properties of body, Ac. 
 
 Property, in law, is defined to be the highefl right 
 a perfon has, or can have, to any thing ; it being ufed 
 to denote that right which one has to lands or tenements, 
 goods or chattels, in no refpeft depending upon another’s 
 courtefy. 
 
 PROPHECY, aprediflion made bydivine infpiration. 
 
 PROPHET, in general, a perfon who forctels future 
 events, but is particularly applied to fuch infpired per- 
 fons among the Jews as were commiffioned by God to 
 declare his will and purpofes to that people. Among 
 the canonical books of the Old TeRament, we have the 
 writings of 16 prophets, four of which are denomi¬ 
 nated the greater prophets, viz. Ifaiali, Jeremiah, Eze¬ 
 kiel, and Daniel, fo called from the length or extent 
 ot their writings, which exceed thofe of the others, viz. 
 Hofea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonas, Micah, Nahum, 
 Habakkuk, Haggai, Zachariah, and Malaclii, who are 
 called the leffier prophets from the fhortnefs of their writ¬ 
 ings. The Jews do not place Daniel among the pro¬ 
 phets, becaufe they fay he lived tire life of a courtier ra¬ 
 ther than that of a prophet. An account of the Several 
 writings of the prophets may be fce.n each under its par¬ 
 ticular head. 
 
 PROPHYLACTICE, in medicine, that part thereof 
 which inRru£ts as to the method of preferving licalth 
 and averting difeafes. 
 
 PROPIT IATION, in theology, a Sacrifice offered 
 to God to affiuage his wrath, and render him propitious. 
 Among the Jews there were both ordinary and publick. 
 Sacrifices, as holocauRs, Ac. offered by w .y of thanks¬ 
 giving ; and extraordinary ones, offered by particular 
 perfons guilty of any crime, by way of propitiation. 
 
 The Romilh church believe the mafs to be a fecrifice 
 of propitiation for the living and the dead. The icformed 
 churches allow of no propitiation but that one offered by 
 Jefus Chrifi on the crofs. 
 
 PROPITIATORY, or Merc y-Se a t, among the 
 Jews, was the cover or lid of the ark of the covenant. 
 See Ark. 
 
 PROPOLIS, tlie name of a certain fubfiance more 
 glutinous and tenacious than wax, with which the beea 
 Rop up all the holes or cracks in the Tides of their hives. 
 See Af is. 
 
 PROPORTION. When two quantities are com¬ 
 pared one with another, in refpedl of their greatnels or 
 fmallnefs, the comparison is called ratio, reafon, rate, or 
 proportion : but when more than two quantities are 
 compared, then the comparison is more ulually called the 
 proportion that they have to one another. The words 
 ratio and proportion are frequently ufed promifcuoufly. 
 
 When two quantities only are compared, the former 
 term is called the antecedent, and the latter the con¬ 
 sequent. 
 
 The relation of two homogeneous quantities one to 
 another, may be confidered either, i. By how much 
 the one exceeds the other, which is called their dif¬ 
 ference. Thus 5 exceeds 3 by the difference 2. Or, 
 2. What part or parts one is of another, which is called 
 ratio. Thus the ratio of 6 to 3 is ~ rr or double ; and 
 the ratio of 3 to 6 is -| = J, or fubauple. 
 
 When two differences are equal, the terms that com- 
 pofe them are Said to be arithmetically proportional. 
 Thus fuppofe the terms to be a and b, their difference d. 
 If a be the leaR term, then a + dzzb. And if a be the 
 greatefi, then a — d~b. 
 
 But 
 
P R O 
 
 But when two ratios are equal, the terms that 
 compote them are faid to be geometrically propor¬ 
 tional. For fuppofe a and b to be the terms of any 
 
 ratio; if a be the leaft term, put ’ then a r — h 
 but if b be the leaft term, 
 and 
 
 •——then b r~a by equal multiplication. 
 b 
 
 by equal multiplication 
 put 
 
 ~ —b by equal divifion. 
 
 Thus the ratio of two quantities, or of two numbers, 
 in geometrical proportion, is found by dividing the an¬ 
 tecedent by the confequent, and the quotient is the ex¬ 
 ponent or denominator of the ratio. 
 
 Proportions, fo many of them as arc rational, or be¬ 
 tween number and number, have particular names given 
 them by the Greek and Latin writers. I hus, if after 
 the antecedent be divided by the confequent, the quotient 
 be i, it is called proportion of equality, or fimple pro¬ 
 portion. If the quotient be 2, 3. 4. (or aM Y oth er in¬ 
 tegral number) it is called multiple proportion, (viz. 
 double, triple, quadruple, &c.) and the contrary to 
 thole are called fub-multiple, (viz. fub-duple, fub-triple, 
 fub-quadruple, &c.) or one half, one third, one fourth, 
 or other fuch aliquot part. 
 
 If the quotient be 1, with orte fuch part, as 1', 14, 
 i-L, See. it is called fuper-particular, (viz. fefquialteral, 
 fefquitertian, fefquiquartan, &c.) and the contraries here 
 unto are called fub-fupcrparticular (viz. fub-fefquialteral, 
 fub-lefquitertian, £cc.) 
 
 If fuch quotient be 2, 3, 4 * ( or fuch other integer 
 greater than unity) with luch an aliquot part it is called 
 ruultiple-fuperparticular fas 2I double-fefquialteral, 3} 
 triple-fefquitertian, 3! triple-fefquiquaitan, &c.) and 
 the contraries thereunto are (ub-multiple-lupei particular, 
 as fub-duple-felquialteral, fub-triple-fefquitertian, &c. 
 
 If the quotient be 1, with fome number ot aliquot 
 parts, as if., i|r, if-, &c. it is called fuper-partient, (as 
 fuper-bipartiens'tertias, fuper-ti ipartiens quartas, fuper- 
 bipartiens quintas, &c. (and the contraries hereunto are 
 lub-fuperpartient, as fub-fuperbipartiens tertias, 6tc. 
 
 If fuch quotient be fome greater integer number, (as 
 2, 3, Ccc.) with fuch number of aliquot parts, as 2f-, 
 o|, 3I, &c. it is called multiple-fuper-partiens, (as 
 dupla-fuperbipartiens tertias, tripla-fupertripartiens quar¬ 
 tas, tripla-fupertripartiens quintas, &c,) And the con¬ 
 traries thereunto, lubmultiple-fuperpartient (aslubdupla- 
 fuperbipartiens tertias, iubtripla-lupertripartiens quartas 
 See.) as that of 31 to 7 (becaufe V=4r) 5s quadruple- 
 fupertripartiens leptimas ; and its contrary, 7 to 31, i: 
 fubquadruple-lupertripartiens leptimas. And under fome 
 of thefe compellations all proportions will fall, which 
 are as one integer number to another. 
 
 But it is much better, and more intelligible, to ex 
 prefs thefe proportions, as the ulual manner how is, by 
 the numbers themfelves, than by thefe names, as 31 to 
 7, or as 7 to 31. 
 
 If when four quantities arc confidered, you find that 
 the fhft hath as much greatnefs or fmallnefs in refpeft to 
 the fecond, as the third hath in refpeCt to the fourth 
 thofe four quantities are called proportionals. 
 
 Proportion conlifls of three terms at lead, whereof the 
 fecond fupplies the place of two. 
 
 When three magnitudes, A, B, C, are proportional, 
 the fhft A has a duplicate ratio to the third C, of that 
 it hath to the fecond B : but when four magnitudes, 
 A, B, C, D, are proportional, the fhft A has a triplicate 
 ratio to the fourth D, of what it has to the fecond B ; 
 and fo alfo in order one more, as the proportional fhall 
 be extended. 
 
 A A 
 
 Duplicate ratio is thus exprefted,—twice ; that is, 
 
 the ratio of A to C is duplicate of the ratio of A to B. 
 For let A—2, B=4, C = 8 ; then the ratio of 2 to 8, 
 is duplicate of the ratio ot 2 — A to B=4, or as the 
 lquare of 2 to the fquare of 4. 
 
 Triplicate ratio is thus exprefled, — 
 is, the ratio of A again^:2, to Dm6, is triplicate of 
 the ratio of A —2, to Brr4, or as 8 the cube of 2, to 64 
 the cube of 4. Wherefore duplicate ratio is the propor¬ 
 tion of fquares, and triplicate that of cubes. 
 
 And the ratio of 2 to 8, is compounded of the ratio 
 
 A r:4thrice ; that 
 
 D 
 
 PRO 
 
 of that of 2. fo 4, and of 4 to 8. From what has beeti 
 faid of the nature of ratio and proportion, the eight ways 
 of arguing, which are often ufed by mathematicians, 
 will evidently follow. 
 
 1. Alternate proportion, is the comparing of ante¬ 
 cedent to antecedent, and confequent to confequent. 
 
 Inverfe ratio, is when the confequent is taken as 
 the antecedent, and fo compared to the antecedent, as 
 the confequent. 
 
 3. Compound ratio, is when the antecedent and con¬ 
 fequent, taken both as one, are compared to the confe¬ 
 quent itfelf. 
 
 4. Divided ratio, is when the excefs wherein the an¬ 
 tecedent exceedeth the confequent, is compared to the 
 confequent. 
 
 5. Converfe ratio, is when the antecedent is com¬ 
 pared to the excefs wherein the antecedent exceeds the 
 confequent. 
 
 6; Proportion of equality, is where there are taken, 
 more quantities than two in one order, and alfo as many 
 quantities in another order, comparing two to two being 
 in the fame ratio : it follows, that as in the firft order of 
 quantities, the firft is to the laft, fo in the fecond order 
 of quantities, is the firft to the laft : or otherwife it is 
 companion of the extremes together, the mean quanti¬ 
 ties being omitted. 
 
 7. Ordinate proportion is, when antecedent is to con¬ 
 fequent, as antecedent is to confequent; and as the con¬ 
 fequent is to any other, fo is the confequent to any other. 
 
 8. Perturbate proportion, is when three magnitudes 
 being put, and others alfo which are equal to thefe in 
 multitude, as in the firft magnitudes the antecedent is to 
 the confequent, fo in the fecond magnitudes is the ante¬ 
 cedent to the confequent : and as in the firft magnitudes 
 the confequent is to any other, fo in the fecond magni¬ 
 tudes is any other to the antecedent. 
 
 In the foregoing cafes, the product of the mean is equal 
 to that of the extremes, and therefore the quantities are 
 proportionals. When of feveral quantities the difference 
 or quotient of the firft and fecond is the fame with that 
 of the fecond and third, they are faid to be in a continued 
 arithmetick or geometrick proportion. 
 
 Harmonical Proportion, is when three ternls are 
 fo dilpofed, that as the diff. of the firft and fecond : the 
 diffi. of the fecond and third : : firft : third ; and they 
 are faid to be harmonically proportional. 
 
 Thus 10, 15, 30, are harmonically proportional. For 
 as the diff. of 10 and 15, is to the diff. of 15 and 30, fo 
 is 10 to 30. Alfo 12, 6, 4, are harmonically propor¬ 
 tional ; for 12—6 : 6—4 : : 12 : 4. 
 
 Proportion is alfo ufed for the relation between 
 unequal things of the fame kind, whereby their feveral 
 parts correfpond to each other with an equal .augmenta¬ 
 tion or diminution. 
 
 Thus, in reducing a figure into little, or in enlarging 
 it, care is taken to obferve an equal diminution, or en¬ 
 largement, through all its parts ; fo that if one line, e. gr. 
 be contracted by one-third of its length, all the reft fhall 
 be contracted in the fame proportion. 
 
 The making reductions of this kind is the great ule of 
 the proportional compalles. 
 
 Proportion, in architecture, denotes the juft mag¬ 
 nitude of the members of each part of a building, and 
 the relation of the feveral parts of the whole, e. gr. of 
 the dimenfions of a column, &c. with regard to the or- 
 donance of the whole building. 
 
 One of the greateft differences amongft architects, 
 M. Perrault obferves, is the proportions of the heights 
 of entablatures, with refpeCt to the thicknefs of the co¬ 
 lumns, to which they are always to be accommodated. 
 
 In effeCt, there is fcarce any work, either of the an¬ 
 cients or moderns, wherein this proportion is not differ¬ 
 ent ; fome entablatures are even nearly twice as high as 
 others : yet, it is certain, this proportion ought, of all 
 others, to be moft regulated ; none being of greater im¬ 
 portance, as there is none wherein an effeCt is fooner 
 difcovered, nor any wherein is more Blocking. 
 
 Proportion, is likewife underftood of the magni¬ 
 tudes of the members of architecture, ftatues, or the 
 like, with regard to the diftance whence they are to be 
 viewed. 
 
 Proportion, in painting, is the juft magnitude of 
 the feveral members of a figure, groupe, Scs. with re¬ 
 gard 
 
PRO 
 
 gard to one another, to the whole figure, thegroupe, and 
 the entire piece. & r 
 
 Proportional, a quantity either numeral or line¬ 
 ary, which bears the fame ratio to a third, as the firfi 
 does to the fecond. 
 
 PROPOSITION, Propojitio, in Iogick, part of an 
 argument wherein fome quality, either negative or poll 
 t. .c, 13 attributed to a fubjeft ; or, according to Cliau- 
 vmus it is a complete confident fentence, indicating or 
 expreffing fomethmg either true or fali'e, without ambi¬ 
 guity ; as, Gad is jtiji. 
 
 Pro p o s i t i o n, ill mathematicks, is either fome truth 
 advanced and (hewn to be fuch by demondration or 
 tome operation propofed and its dilution fhewn. If the 
 propofition be deduced from feveral theoretical definitions 
 compared together, it is called a theorem ; if from a 
 praxis, or fenes of operations, it is called a problem. 
 
 Proposition, in poetry, the firft part of a poem 
 wherein the author propofes briedy, and in general, what 
 he is to fay m the body of his work; It lliould compre¬ 
 hend only the matter of the poem, that is, theaftion and 
 the perrons that aft. Horace preferibes modedv and 
 fimphcity m the propofition, and would not have the 
 poet prounle too much, nor raife in the reader too great 
 ideas of what he is going to relate. 
 
 PROPRETOR, a Roman magidrate, who, having 
 rhlcharged the office of pretor at home, was fent into a 
 province to command there with his former pictorial 
 authority. It was alfo an appellation given to thofe who. 
 without having been pretors at Rome, were fent extra¬ 
 ordinarily into the provinces to adminifter iuftice with- 
 
 out the authority of pretors. 
 
 PROPRIETOR, or proprietary, he who lias the 
 property of any thing. 
 
 PROPRIETY, in grammar, is where the direft and 
 immediate dgmfication of a word agrees to the thin* it is 
 applied to ; in which lenfe it is ufed in oppofition to°figu 
 rative, or remote fignification. 
 
 PRO RATA, in commerce, a term fometimes ufed 
 by merchants for, “ m proportion as eachperfon mud 
 reap the profit or fudain the Iofs “pro rata to his intercll 
 that is, in proportion to his flock.” 
 
 . PRESCRIPT. ION, Profcriptio, a publication made 
 in the name of the chief or leader of a party, wherebv 
 he promifes a reward to any one who fhall bring him the 
 head of one of his enemies. 
 
 PROSE, ProJh, the natural Ianguag« of mankind 
 looie and unconfined by poetical meafures, rhymes &c 
 in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to verfe. 
 
 PROSECUTOR, in law, he that purfues acaufe in 
 anotlier s name. 
 
 PROSELYTE, a new convert to fome religion or 
 religious lect. 
 
 PROSODY, Profodia. that part of grammar which 
 treats of the quantities and accents of fyllabies, and the 
 manner or making verfes. 
 
 I he Englifh profody turns chiefly on two things 
 numbers and rhyme. b 
 
 PROSONOMASIA, a figure in rhetorick, whereby 
 allufion is made to the likenefs of a found in feveral names 
 or words. 
 
 PROSOPOPEIA, a figure in rhetorick, whereby 
 tve raife qualities, or things inanimate, into perfons 
 I his figure is divided into two parts : i. When good and 
 bad qualities, accidents, and things inanimate; arc intro- 
 tluced as living and rational beings; as in the following 
 verfes of Milton : 5 
 
 PRO 
 
 “ --- Now gentle gales, 
 
 Fanning their odoriferous wings, dilpenfe 
 Native perfumes ; and whifper whence they Hole 
 Thofe balmy fpoils.- 
 
 The fecond part of this figure is when we give a voice 
 to inanimate things, and make rocks, woods, rivers, 
 buildings, &c. exprefs the palfions of rational creatures \ 
 as in the following paflage of facrcd writ: 
 
 Pfalm xcvii. 2. Let the heavens rejoice, and let the 
 earth be glad ; let the fea roar, and the fulnefs thereof: 
 let the field be joyful, and all that is therein : then fhall 
 all the trees of the wood rejoice before the Lord, for 
 he comes to judge the earth. He fliall judge the world 
 with righteoufnefs, and the people with his truth. 
 
 PROSTAI in anatomv, two white fpongy glands. 
 
 3 
 
 £“'***“ f wa,nuts ’ fita ^tcd at the root of the penis 
 i U D ft L el ° W the neck nf the bladder. T ‘ 
 
 ROSTAPHiERESIS, in aftronomv. the difference 
 between the true and mean motion, or'true and mean 
 
 mnf d f 3 P anet ' i‘-‘ S all ° Caikd e fi ua b° n of the orbit 
 or of the centre, and limply equation ‘ 
 
 J Rostaph^erfsis, iii aftronomv, the difference be 
 
 VK A Il e-rT?c’- and e< l uated anomaly'. 
 
 ™h P l OST J H 2 S ' S ’ T° ng burgeons, is the fopplving that 
 which 1 , deficient by the appoiition of new matter as 
 
 PRofrU wounds - &c - with ' 
 
 the IVonrofa temple. 1 antI S u ‘ t - v> a range of columns in 
 
 PROSYLLOGISM, In the fcliools, fometimes de 
 notes an argument produced to confirm one of the 
 m.lies of a iyllogifra. Others define it an argumeni con 
 pofed of two fyllogifms, lo difpoied, as that the couch, 
 ion of the former is the maim or minor of thcTtt 
 
 PROTAS°TS d ‘• Vll0 e Sllm ma - v bc om itted or underftood' 
 
 J KO 1 ASIS, in the ancient drama, the firft part of a 
 connek or tragick piece, wherein tile feveral perfons arc 
 ffiewn, their charaflers intimated, and the fubjeft of the 
 p.ece propoled and entered upon. 3 
 
 the°p?ay. er Tfirft 3 p^rfo" 
 
 orunha p e p7 IOyCd “ttrf’thcle^ 
 
 ambatr j ECTIOK ’, al <b denotes a privilege belonging to 
 a ibaffadors, members of parliament, &c wherebv they 
 and their domeflicks are fecured from arrefts &c. ' 
 
 ROTECTtON, inlaw, in the general, denotes tha* 
 frem r^ Umy WWCh ^ ^ « «*■* *3! 
 
 Protection, in a more fpecial fenfe, denotes an ex¬ 
 emption given by the king to a perfon, to fecuie him 
 
 him’theref If &< V- tlp0 ? rcalonab]c «mfes moling 
 nnn tliereto, and for a limited time, ° 
 
 PROTECT OR, he who Ihclters and defends the 
 weak and difircffcd. Every catholick nation, and religi¬ 
 ous order, has a proteaor refiding at the court of Rome 
 who is a cardinal, called the cardinal proteftor. 
 
 Pro TEct O R, fometimes denotes the regent of a kine- 
 
 ' , n mle a,,d <iua,i!y ^ ^ 
 
 ,h^° r r ES f’ ‘"T’ acautio1 ’ Of open affirmation, 
 that a perfon does either not at all, or but conditionally 
 yield Ins affirm to any afl, or the proceeding of a judge 
 where his jun^a,on ,s doubtful : or to anfwer up™ his’ 
 oath, further than by law he is bound. Any of the lords 
 in parliament have a right to proteft againft any bill paffed 
 by a majority, and tins diffent is entered in form The 
 commons have no fucli right. 
 
 „o^ ROT Ii T l’ conlmcrcc - « a fummons made by a 
 notary pubhek to a merchant, broker, &c. to acceptor 
 difeharge a bill ot exchange drawn on him, afte? his 
 having refuted cither to accept or pay the fame. It is 
 called a proteft, as containing a proteftation that the parts 
 will return the bill, and even take up money at interefi 
 
 o,i d therefufer! COllS ' -d recar^,’ 
 
 I here are two kinds of protclls, the one for want of 
 acceptence, and the other for want of pavment. 
 
 I he firft is to be made by the bearer if the bill at the 
 time of prefenting it, in cafe the perfon on whom it is 
 drawn refufe to accept it, either for the time, or thefum 
 expreffed therein. T lie latter is made as the bill falls 
 due, whether it has been accepted or not 
 
 The bearers of bills of exchangi t*iat' have been ac¬ 
 cepted, or which became payable at a certain dav, muff 
 have them either paid orproteffed within three days after 
 they become due on the penalty of anfwering for the 
 omiffion : and if the third day happen to be aholy dav 
 the proteft is to be made on the eve thereof. ; 
 
 At Paiis and Hamburgh, the proteft i's to be made 
 within todays: at Venice, where the bills are paid in 
 banco, a proteft for want of payment, is to be made within 
 fix days, provided the bank be open, otherwife no proteftr 
 to be made; and in othor bills upon the third day : at 
 
 Roms, 
 
PRO PRO 
 
 Rome, within 15 days: at Amfterdam within £ve days: 
 at Leghorn, Milan, and Bologna, there is no time fixed. 
 There is no refource againft the drawer or indorfer, nor 
 any title to be reimburfed till after protefting. 
 
 Bills of exchange, according to M. Ricard, drawn 
 from Amfterdam, Antwerp, or Spain, are to be pro- 
 tefted, in default of payment, within 14 days after they 
 fall due, elfe the bearer Hands the rifque, not the drawer 
 or indorfer, in cafe the party happen to fail after the faid 
 14th day. 
 
 PROTESTANT, an appellation firft given in Ger¬ 
 many to thofe who adhered to Luther’s dodtrine, as, in 
 1529, they protefted againft a decree of the emperor 
 Charles V. and the diet of Spires, and appealed to a 
 general council. It has fince been applied to the Cal- 
 vinifts, and all denominations of the reformed churches. 
 
 PROTESTATION, a folemn declaration made by 
 fome judiciary adl againft an oppreftion, injuftice, or 
 againft the legality of a fentence, Ac. importing, that 
 the party is determined to oppole it at the proper time. 
 
 According to juftice Wallh, it is a fafe-guard to the 
 party that makes it, from being concluded by the adt he 
 is about to do ; fo that ifiue cannot be joined upon it. 
 
 PROTHONOTARY, Protonotary , Protbomtarius , 
 properly denotes firft notary. 
 
 With us, prothonotary denotes an officer in the courts 
 of King’s-bench and Common-pleas: of which the for¬ 
 mer has one, and the latter three. 
 
 Prothonotary of the King' s-bench, records all 
 adtions civil fued in that court, as the clerk of the crown- 
 office doth all criminal caufcs. 
 
 Prothonotaries of the Common-picas , enter and 
 inroll all declarations, pleadings, affixes, judgments, and 
 adlions ; they alfo make out all judicial writs, as the 
 venire facias, after iffuc joined; habeas corpus for bring¬ 
 ing in of the jury ; diftringas jurator ; writs of execu¬ 
 tion and feizin, of fuperfedeas, privilege, Ac. and they 
 inroll all recognizances acknowledged in that court, all 
 common recoveries; make exemplifications of records, Ac. 
 
 PROTHYR 1 S, in the ancient architedlure, fome- 
 times denotes a corner of a wall, called anco, and fome- 
 times a crofs beam or thwart rafter. Vignola ufes it lor 
 a particular fort of key of an arch ; which, in his Ionick 
 order, confifts of a roll of water-leaves, between two 
 reglets and two fillets, crowned with aDorick cymatium, 
 and refembling a modillon. 
 
 PROTHYRUM, a porch at the outer door of a 
 houl'e, or a portal. 
 
 PROTO-MARTYR, the firft martyr who fuffered 
 death, or even underwent cruel tortures, in teftimony of 
 the truth. 
 
 PROTOPLAST, Protoplajlus, denotes Adam, who 
 was the firft perfon formed, as the original of the word 
 imports. 
 
 PROTOTYPE, the original or model whereby a 
 thing is formed. 
 
 PROTRACTING, Protraction, infurveying, 
 is the plotting or laying down the dimenfions taken in 
 the field, by means of a protra&or, Ac. 
 
 Protracting Pin , an appendage of a mathematical 
 inftrument, which is a fine needle fitted into a handle, 
 ufed to prick off degrees and minutes from the limb of 
 the protraftor. 
 
 PROTRACTOR, in furgery, an inftrument to draw 
 out any thing from a wound or ulcer, like a forceps. 
 
 Protractor, an inftrument ufed in furveying, 
 whereby the angles, taken in the field with a theodolite, 
 circumferentor, Ac. are laid down on paper. 
 
 This protractor confifts of a femi-circular limb BAG 
 (plate LXVI 1 I. fig. 11.) of brafs, filver, horn, or the 
 like, divided into 180°, and fubtended by a diameter 
 B A ; in the middle.whereof is a little notch or lip 0, 
 called the centre of the protractor. On the limb of the 
 protraCtor are, fometimes, alfo placed numbers, denoting 
 the angles at the centres of regular polygons ; thus, 
 againft the number 5, denoting the fide of a pentagon, 
 is found 72, the angle at the centre of a pentagon. 
 
 Ufe of //^Protractor, i. To lay down an angle 
 of any given quantity, or number of degrees. Suppofe, 
 e. gr. an angle of 50° with the line A 0 B, required on 
 the point 0. Lay the centre of the protraCtor on the 
 given point, and the diameter of the protraCtor on the 
 given line. Make a mark againft the given degree 50, ( 
 Vo£. II. No. 60. 
 
 on the limb of the protraCtor; through which, from the 
 given point, draw a line 0 p: this gives the angle required. 
 
 2. To find the quantity of a given angle, e. gr. the 
 angle p 0 B. Lay the centre of the protraCtor on the 
 point of the angle 0, and the diameter on the line. The 
 degree of the limb cut by the other line op, viz. 50, is 
 the number of degrees of the angle required. 
 
 PROTUBERANCE, Protuberantia , in anatomy, any 
 eminence, whether natural or preternatural, that projects 
 beyond the reft. 
 
 PROVERB, Proverbium, is defined, by Camden, a 
 concilc, witty, and wife fpeech, grounded on long expe¬ 
 rience, and containing, tor the moft part, fome ufcful 
 caveat, as, a carrion kite will never be a good hawk, Ac. 
 
 PROVIDENCE, Providentia, the direction of the 
 feveral parts of the univerfe by a fuperior intelligent Being. 
 
 According to the celebrated Boethius, providence is 
 but another name for divine wifdom itfelf, which Hands 
 at the helm of all things, and by which all things are 
 regulated. 
 
 The Helvetick confeffion, concerning divine provi¬ 
 dence, thus fpeaks ; “Every thing whatever is deftined 
 of God to foine-certain end, or purpofe. He it is, who 
 hath ordained, both its commencement, and the means 
 by which the end fhall be attained. The Heathens, 
 indeed, attributed things to blind fortune, and to pre¬ 
 carious chance : but St. James direCls us to fay, If the 
 Lord will , we zuill do this or that." So fpeaks St. Auflin ; 
 “ All things whatever, even thofe things not excepted, 
 which, to us vain mortals, feem to come to pafs ralhly 
 and without defign; do, in reality, accompliffi nothing 
 but the command of God : for at his command it is, 
 that they come to pafs at all.” 
 
 The Epicureans deny any divine providence, as think¬ 
 ing it inconfiftent with the repofeof the divine nature to 
 meddle with human affairs. 
 
 Others deny the exiftence of a providence from the 
 feemingly unjuft diftribution of good and evil, which 
 appear to fall indiferiminately on the juft and the unjuft. 
 
 Simplicius thus argues for a providence : if God do 
 not look to the affairs of the world, it is either becaufe 
 he cannot or will not: but the firft is abfurd, fince to 
 govern cannot be difficult, where to create was eafy : the 
 latter is both abfurd and blal'phemous, 
 
 PROVINCE, Provincia, among the Romans, was a 
 country conquered by them, without the bounds of Italy, 
 governed by a lieutenant, and having peculiar privileges. 
 
 Province is now chiefly applied to a divifion of a 
 kingdom, ftate, Ac. comprifing feveral cities, towns, 
 Ac. all under the fame government, and ufually diftin- 
 guiffied by the extent either of the civil or ecclefiaftical 
 jurifdiCtion. 
 
 The church diftinguiffi.es its provinces by arehbifhop- 
 ricks ; in which fenfe, England is divided into two pro¬ 
 vinces, Canterbury and York. 
 
 The united provinces are the feven northern provinces 
 of the Low Countries, who, revolting from the Spaniffi 
 dominion, made a perpetual alliance, offenfive and de- 
 fenfive, at Utrecht, anno 1579. 
 
 PROVINCIAL, Provincialise fomething relating to 
 a province. 
 
 It alfo denotes, in Romifli countries, a perfon who 
 has the direction of the feveral convents of a province. 
 
 PROVINE, a branch of a vine laid in the ground to 
 take root and propagate. 
 
 PROVISO, in law, a condition inferted in a deed, 
 upon the obfervance whereof the validity of the deed 
 depends. 
 
 PROVOCATIVE, in phyfick, a medicine which is 
 fuppofed to ftrengthen nature, and incite to venery. 
 
 PROVOST, Prapofitus , an officer, whereof there are 
 divers kinds, civil, military, Ac. 
 
 Provost of a city or town, is the chief municipal 
 magiftrate in feveral trading cities, particularly Edin¬ 
 burgh, Paris, Ac. being much the fame with mayor in 
 other places. 
 
 He prefides in city-courts, and, together with the 
 baillies, who are his deputies, he determines in all dif¬ 
 ferences that arife among the citizens. 
 
 The provoft of Edinburgh, as well as of the other 
 confiderable towns in Scotland, has the title of lord; 
 and the former calls yearly conventions of the royal 
 boroughs to Edinburgh by his miffives. 
 
 Provost 
 
PRU 
 
 Pp.ovost Marjhal of an Army, is an officer appointed 
 to l'eize and fecure dcferters. and all other criminals. Ht 
 is to hinder foldiers from pillaging, to indift offenders 
 and fee the fentence palled on th. m executed. He alfc 
 regulates the weights and meafures. and die price of pro- 
 vifions, Ac. in the army. For the difeharge of his office, 
 he has a lieutenant, a clerk, and a troop of marlhal-men 
 on horfeback, as alfo an executioner. 
 
 There is alfo aprovoft marfhal in the navy, who hath 
 charge over prifoners, he. 
 
 Provost of the Mint, a particular judge militated 
 for the apprehending and profecuting-of falle comers. 
 
 Provost, or Provot, in the king’s ftables; his office 
 is to attend at court, and hold the king’s ftirrup when 
 lie mounts his horfe, he. There are four provofts of 
 this kind, each of whom attends his turn monthly. 
 
 PROW, Prora , in navigation, denotes the head or 
 fore-part of a ffiip, particularly in a galley, being that 
 which is oppofite to the poop or ftern. In the middle 
 of the prow is the beak that cuts the water, on the top 
 of which is commonly fome figure or hieroglvphick. The 
 prow is lower than the poop, and contains fewer decks. 
 
 PROXIMITY, Proximitas, denotes the relation of 
 nearnefs, cither in refpeft of place, blood, or alliance. 
 
 PROXY, Procurator, a perfon who officiates as a 
 deputy in the room of another. 
 
 Proxy, Proiuracy , among civilians, alfo denotes a 
 commiffion given to a proftor by a client, to manage a 
 caul’e in his behalf. 
 
 PRUINA, in phyfiology, hoar-froft, which is a con¬ 
 cretion of the dew made by the violence of the cold. 
 
 PRUNF.LLA, in phvfick, is fometimes applied to the 
 drvnefs of the tongue and throat, efpeciallv in acute fevers, 
 with afcurf covering the tongue, fometimes whitilh, and 
 fometimes blackilh. It fometimes denotes the quinfy, 
 and fometimes the aphtha?. 
 
 PrunelliE Sal, in pharmacy, a preparation of puri¬ 
 fied lalt-petre, called alfo lapis prunella?, and cryftal 
 mineral. It is done by throwing the 30th part of its 
 weight of flour of brimftone upon the lalt-petre, when 
 melted in a crucible over the fire, whereby fome of the 
 more volatile parts of the falt-petre are abforbed. 
 
 It is given to cool and provoke urine in fevers and 
 quinfies ; though fome think that falt-petre purified three 
 or four times, would be a better medicine. 
 
 PRUNES, Prurw , plumbs dried and baked in an 
 oven, or in the fun. The prunes chiefly ufed among us 
 are black and large, brought from France, efpeciallv 
 Bourdeaux. The juice is efleemcd laxative. 
 
 PRUNIFEROUS Trees or Shrubs, are thofe which 
 bear pretty large and loft plumbs, with a ftone in the 
 middle. 
 
 PRUNING, in gardening, the operation of cutting 
 off the luperfluous branches of trees, either to difpofc 
 them to bear better, to grow higher, or appear more regular. 
 
 Pruning is an annual operation, which is ulually 
 made Hoping, fometimes flump-wife. Its beft feafon 
 is about the end of February, though it may be begun 
 as foon as the leaves are off in November, and conti¬ 
 nued till freffi leaves come on in April. 
 
 The weaker and more languiffiing a tree is, the fooner 
 it ought to be pruned ; and the more vigorous, the longer 
 may pruning be deferred. 
 
 A tree planted the year before, if it have only fhot one 
 fine branch from the middle of the Hem, it mufl be cut 
 to that branch, and the branch ffiortened to four or 
 five eyes. 
 
 If the tree produce two fine branches well placed, 
 with weak ones among them, all required is to lhorten 
 them equally to the compafs of five or fix inches in 
 length, in luch manner that the two laft eyes of the 
 extremes of the branches, thus fhortened, look on the 
 right and left, that they may bring forth at leall two 
 new ones. If one of the two branches be much lower 
 than the other, or both on one lide, only one is to be 
 preferred; the other to be cut off fo dole, as that it 
 may never produce thick ones in the fame place. If a 
 tree have three or four branches, all in the extremity, or 
 a little beneath, they mufl be all pruned ; and if they be 
 equally thick, they are to be ufed alike : if fome be 
 fmaltar than the reft, they mufl only be pruned with a 
 profpeit of getting a fingle branch each, namely, on 
 that fide which fhall be found empty, and fo 111 the 
 
 PRU 
 
 larger : if thefe fine branches lhoot a little below the 
 extremity, it is but fnortening their ftem. On the con- 
 
 r ary, if the branches be mod of them ill ones, two at 
 leall are to be preferved and pruned in the fame manner 
 as the two fine ones. Good weak branches are to be 
 preferved for fruit, only cutting them a little at the 
 extremity. If the tree have produced five, fix, or feven 
 branches, it is fufficient to preferve three or four of 
 the beft. ■ 
 
 If a tree having put out tw r o fine wood branches, and 
 one or two fmall ones, for fruit the iirft year, the 
 lap have altered its courfe in the fecond year, fo that 
 the fmall branches become wood, and the large fruit- 
 branches, the former mufl be quite cut off to the mother- 
 branch. and the latter ufed as fruit-branches. If a tree, 
 from the fiift year’s pruning, have produced four or five, 
 he. branches, thefe lupeifluous branches may be left 
 long ; but thole eftential to the beauty of the tree inuft 
 be all pruned a little longer than thofe of the preceding 
 year, about two or three eyes, or a good foot. I11 
 thefe vigorous tiees, fome branches, cut flump-wife, 
 aie to be left on, and even fome thick ones, though of 
 falfe wood, efpecially where there aie any necefiary to 
 the form of the tree, to employ the excefs of fap, "and 
 prevent its doing mifehief. And it may be necefiary, 
 for the fame end, to preferve many long, good, weak 
 branches, when placed fo as to occafion no confufion, 
 and even on the thick branches, a good number of out¬ 
 lets for the fap to range in. Let it be a general rule to 
 lpare the lower branches, and cut off the higher, rather 
 than the contrary. 
 
 In a tree that has been planted three years, and pruned 
 twice, if it be vigorous, as many old branches as pol- 
 fible are to be preferved, efpecially for fruit: if it be 
 weak, it mufl be eafed of the burden of old branches. 
 It mult like wile be cut fhort, to make it lhoot out new 
 ones ; and if it cannot do this with vigour, let it be 
 pulled up, and a new one, with frelh earth, planted in 
 its place. 
 
 General Rules for Pruning Fruit- trees. 1 . The more 
 the branches lhoot horizontally, the better difpofed the 
 tree is to bear fruit; and the contrary. 
 
 Hence, the middle of a tree is to be kept from wood 
 or thick branches ; for there is no danger but the place 
 will be foon filled with more fruitful wood. 
 
 In dwarfs prune all open, leaving none but horizontal 
 branches 1 and in wall-trees, if you do but furnifh your 
 walls with horizontal branches, nature will provide for 
 the middle. Chufe, therefore, fuch (hoots as are not 
 vigorous to furnifh bearing branches. 
 
 2. Take care the tree be not left overfull of wood, 
 not even of bearing branches. 
 
 3. All ftrong branches are to be left longer on the 
 lame tree than weak ones ; confcquently, the branches ’ 
 of a fickly tree mufl be pruned ihorter, and fewer in 
 number, than thofe of a ftrong tree. 
 
 4. All branches, (hooting direttly forward from trees 
 that grow againft a wall, are to be pruned clofe to the 
 branch whence they fpring, &c. 
 
 5. When a branch well placed either againft a wall, 
 or in a dwarf, has fhot fome falfe wood, prune it off 
 within the thicknefs of a crown-piece, or fiopingly ; 
 though this is beft pinched off in the beginningof lummer. 
 
 6. Cutoff all branches ariling from hard knobs, where¬ 
 on pear-ftalks grew ; or from fhort ftraight branches like 
 fpurs. 
 
 7. If a tree have produced branches of a moderate 
 vigour, and afterwards puts forth ftrong ones, well placed, 
 though of falfe wood ; the latter may be ufed as the foun¬ 
 dation of the figure, and the other kept a time for bear¬ 
 ing fruit. 
 
 8. When an old tree (hoots ftronger branches towards 
 the bottom than the top, and the top is in ill cafe, cut it 
 off, and form a new figure from the lower ones. If the 
 top be vigorous, cut off the lower ones, unlefs well placed. 
 
 9. In vigorous trees, the weaker branches arc the fruit- 
 bearers ; in weak trees, the ftronger chiefly : therefore, 
 in the latter, prune off the feeble and fmall. 
 
 10. The pruning of vigorous peach-trees to be de¬ 
 ferred till they arc ready to bloffom, the better to know 
 which are likely to bear fruit. 
 
 11. The buds of all flone-fruit frequently form them- 
 lelves the fame year in which the branch they grow on 
 
PSA PTI 
 
 is formed ; the fame holds of pears and apples; though 
 it is generally, at leaft, two or three years before the 
 latter come to perfection* 
 
 12. All flioots that put forth in autumn ate to be 
 pruned off. 
 
 13. When a tree puts forth much llronger Ihoots on 
 one fide than the other, a great part of the ftrong ones 
 rauft be cut off clofe t6 the body, or fome of them 
 Hump-wife. 
 
 14. If a young crooked tree produce a fine branch be¬ 
 neath the crook, cut the head off dole to the branch. 
 
 Grand yearly Prunings. Fruit-branches being of 
 fhort continuance, and perilhing the firft year wherein 
 they produce fruit, are to be cut off, unlefs they put 
 forth fhoots for blofioms the fucceeding year. In the 
 fecond pruning, about the middle of May, where the 
 fruit is fo clofe as to be like to obftrutt each other, fome 
 of them and their branches are to be taken off, as alfo 
 the multitude of young Ihoots. 
 
 Pruning of Foreji or Timber-trees. For large trees 
 it is bed not to prune them at all ; yet, if there be an 
 abfolute necelfity, avoid taking off'large boughs as much 
 as poffible. And, 1. If the bough be fmall, cut it 
 fmooth, clofe, and Hoping. 2. If the branches be large, 
 and the tree old, cut it off at three or four feet from 
 the Item. 3. If the tree grow crooked, cut it off at the 
 crook Hoping upwards, and nurle up one of the molt 
 promifing Ihoots for a new Item. 4. It the tree grow 
 top-heavy, its head muff be lightened, and that by thin¬ 
 ning the boughs that grow out of the main branches. 
 But if you would have them fpring, rub off the buds, 
 and fhrowd up the fide-Ihoots. 5. If the fide-boughs 
 ffill break out, and the top be able to fuftain itfelf, give 
 the boughs that put forth in fpring a pruning after mid- 
 fumnier, cutting them clofe. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE, among painters, &c. is prepared 
 by precipitating a l'olutio'nof green vitriol and alum with 
 a lixivium drawn from fixed alkaline fait that has been 
 calcined with animal coals. Commonly about three parts 
 of alkali and two of dried ox-blood are calcined fo long 
 as any flame appears, then thrown into boiling water, 
 and the ftrained decodtion poured into a hot mixture of 
 l’olutions of four parts alum, and one or lefs of vitriol. 
 The liquor becomes inftantly thick or curdly, and looks 
 at firft of a greyilh colour, which changes to a brown, 
 and in a little time to ablueilh green. The matter being 
 well ftirred together, and mixed with a quantity of hard 
 fpring water, a green precipitate fublidcs : fpirit of fall 
 poured upon the edulcorated powder, diffolves a part, 
 •and turns the reft of a fine blue colour. 
 
 PSALM, a divine fong or hymn ; but chiefly appro¬ 
 priated to the 150 pfalms of David, a canonical book of 
 the Old Teftament, 
 
 The divine authority of this book of Pfalms is fo 
 Certain and evident, that it was never queftioned in the 
 church : which being fixed, it is of fmall moment that 
 the penmen of fome of them are not known : nor doth 
 this any more leflen its authority, than it invalidates the 
 decree of a prince, or an aft ot parliament, that it is 
 not certain by whofe pen it was drawn up. Moll of 
 them were compofed by David, as is evident from the 
 title of them, and from the exprefs teftimony of the 
 Dew Teftament concerning fome of them ; and that 
 they were all written by the infp'jration of God’s Spirit 
 appears both from the divine matter and frame of them, 
 and from II. Sam. xxiii. 1. Matt. xxii. 43, &c. ACls i. 
 16. and ii. 25. It is apparent that the Pfalms were not 
 written in the order in which they now lie, but they 
 were put into this order either by Ezra, as the Hebrew' 
 doctors affirm, or by fome other holy prophet or pro¬ 
 phets. It is lufficient for us, that the whole book is 
 owmed as canonical by our blefled Saviour, Luke xxiv. 44. 
 And concerning which, the learned and ingenious Mr. 
 Romaine thus writes : 
 
 “ The book of Pfalms is a treafury of divine know¬ 
 ledge. It contains a complete colle6tion of facred hymns, 
 which were compofed in praife of the blefled Jesus — 
 whofe miraculous birth—whofe life and actions—fuffer- 
 ings and death—• refurreCtion and al'cenfion—and invel- 
 titure and fupretne power on the throne of glory—his 
 gathering the church out of all lands—and protecting it 
 to the end of the world, again!! its enemies—and then 
 putting it in poffclfion of eternal glory—are the fubjeCts 
 
 here treated off And they are the'molt rloble and 1 ele¬ 
 vated lubjedts in themfelves, and befides they are tlld 
 molt interelling to every believer. Every part of then! 
 is full of wonder and miracle, which deferve his greater 
 attention and efteem, becaufe each of them was done 
 lor his falvation. And the author, who undertook to 
 write upon thefe fubjetts, has not fallen below their 
 dignity ; he has recommended them to us by all the 
 graces of language, and the fublimityof fentiment. His 
 poetry is worthy of himfelf, and rifes up to the merits 
 of that adorable Perfon whom it celebrates : for it came 
 from heaven. The Pfalms were not the compofition of 
 king David, or the flights of his poetical imagination; 
 he was only the feribe, who copied them from the dic¬ 
 tates of the all-wife Spirit: they are indeed the infpi- 
 ration of the Almighty, whofe the matter is, and,front 
 whom the words themfelves proceeded. And if any 
 perfons doubt of it, let them take any one defeription 
 of nature out of the Pfalms, and compare it with what 
 the bell heathen authors have faid upon the fame fubjett, 
 and they will fee reafon enough to be abalhed and con¬ 
 founded at the abjeCt poverty of the human genius, when' 
 put into competition with the infinite perfection of the 
 infpired volume.” Practical Comment on the 107 tb Pfalm, 
 P^e 33—35- _ 
 
 PSALMODY, the art or aCt of fingirig pfalms. 
 
 PSALTER, the fame with the book of Pfalms. 
 
 PSALTERY, a mufical inltrume'nt, much in ufe 
 among the ancient Hebrews, who called itrtebel, or nabah 
 
 PSIDIUM, the guava, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whofe flower confifts of five ovate, concave patent petals, 
 inferted in a campanulated cup ; the filaments are nu¬ 
 merous, Hi or ter than the petals, and topped with fmall 
 anthera? ; the fruit is a very large oval berry, crowned 
 with the cup, and contains one cell, which includes a 
 great number of fmall feeds. 
 
 This genus grows in both Indies, the fruit of which 
 is much eaten by the inhabitants of thofe parts : it is 
 very ailringent, and nearly of the fame quality with the 
 pomegranate, fo Ihould be avoided by thofe perfons who 
 are fubjeCt to be coftive. 
 
 PSOAS, in anatomy, the name of two mulcles, dif- 
 tinguifiied by the epithets magnus and parvus. The 
 pfoas magnus is one of the flexor mufcles of the thigh, 
 and arifes from the firft, fecond, third, and fourth ver- 
 tebrte of the loins. The pfoas parvus is one of the flexor 
 mufcles of the loins, which arifes by a flender tendon 
 from the os pubis, where it is joined to the illium ; and 
 is inferted into the fide of the upper vertebrae of the 
 loins; it is often wanting, and when found, its office is 
 to aifift the quadratus in elevating the offa innominata, 
 efpecially when we lie down. 
 
 PSYCHROMETER, an inftrument for meafuring 
 the degrees of coldnefs or heat in die air, and more ufually 
 called thermometer. See Thermometer. 
 
 PSYLLIUM, flea-wort, in botany, is comprehended 
 byLinnteus among the plantains. See Plantain. 
 
 The feeds of pfyllium are recommended in the dyfen- 
 tery and corrofion of the intellines. See Dy sent e ry. 
 
 PTEROPHORI, in antiquity, were fuch Roman 
 couriers as brought tidings of a declaration of war, lofs 
 of a battle, or any mifliap befallen the Roman army. 
 
 PTERYGIUM, in medicine, is a film on the eye 
 called unguis, or pannus, a nail or web. 
 
 In Celfus it denotes a diforder in the fingers, or whit- 
 loe, when feated at the root of the nail. 
 
 PTERYGOIDES, or Proceffus Pterygoides, in ana¬ 
 tomy, the pterygoid or wing-like proceffes of theosfphe- 
 noides. See Caput. 
 
 PTERYGOIDEUS lntemus, in anatomy, is a 
 mufcle of the jaw, arifing from the internal part of the 
 pterygoid procefs that draws it to one fide. 
 
 Pterygoideus Ext emus, in anatomy, another muf¬ 
 cle of the jaw, arifing from the external part of the fame 
 procefs, that pulls the lower jaw forwards, and makes it 
 Hioot beyond the upper. 
 
 PTERYGOPALATINUS Muse ulus, in ana¬ 
 tomy, a mufcle of the uvuia. 
 
 PTERYGOPHARYNGAEUS Museums, in 
 anatomy, a mufcle of the fauces. 
 
 1 PTERYGOSTAPHYLINUS, in anatomy, is a 
 mufcle of the uvula, of which there are feveral. 
 
 PTISAN, PtiJ'ana, or Ptiffana, in medicine, is a cool¬ 
 ing 
 
PUL 
 
 ing potion, commonly made of barley decorticated, boiled 
 in water, and fweetened with liquorice, Ac. 
 
 Sometimes there are added laxative herbs, as fena, Ac. 
 PTOLEMAICK System, orhypothefis, thatfyf- 
 tem wherein the earth is fuppofed to be at reft in the 
 centre, and the heavens to revolve round it from eaft to 
 weft, carrying with them the fun, planets, and fixed ftars 
 in their refpeftive fpheres. 
 
 This hypothefis took its name from Ptolemy, the great 
 Alexandrian aftronomer, as illuftrated by him ; it had 
 been held before by Ariftotle, Hipparchus, See. See 
 System. 
 
 PT ^ ALISM, Ptyalifmus , in phyfick, a frequent and 
 copious difeharge of laliva. Among the moderns, it 
 generally denotes a falivation excited by mercury. 
 
 PUBERTY, the age wherein a perfon is capable of 
 procreation, or begetting children. 
 
 Boys arrive at puberty at 14 years of age, and girls at 
 12 : 18 years of age is accounted full puberty. 
 
 PUBES, among anatomifts, Ac. denotes the middle 
 part of the hypogaftrick region of the abdomen, lying be¬ 
 tween the two inguina, or groins. See Abdomen. 
 
 PUBLICAN, Publicanus, among the Romans, one 
 who farmed the taxes and publick revenues. 
 
 PUBLICAI ION, Publication the aft of making a 
 thing known to the world ; the fame with promulgation. 
 
 PUCELLAGE, Pucellagium , or Puel/agium, denotes 
 the ftate of virginity. See Virginity . 
 
 PUCERON, Podura, in zoology, a genus of wing- 
 lefs infefts, with fewer than fix pair of legs. The body 
 is fhort and roundifh ; the tail is crooked and forked ; 
 the legs are three pair, and ferve only for walking ; and 
 the eyes are two, but each compofed of eight lefier ones. 
 
 PUDDINGS, in a fhip, are ropes nailed to the arms 
 of the main and fore-yards, near the ends, and then at 
 three or four due diftances inwards one from another, in 
 order to keep the robbins from galling or wearing afunder 
 upon the yards, when the top-fail lheets are haled home. 
 
 They call alfo thole ropes which are wound round the 
 rings of anchors, to fave the clinch of the cable from 
 being galled with the iron, by this name ; fo that when 
 - the ring is fo ferved, it is called the pudding of the anchor. 
 
 PUDENDA, the parts of generation in both fexes. 
 See Generation. 
 
 PUGIL, Pugillus , in phyfick, Ac. fuch a quantity of 
 flowers, feeds, or the like, as may be taken up between 
 the thumb and two fore-fingers. It is efteemed to be the 
 eighth part of the manipule or handful. 
 
 PUISNE, orPuNY, inlaw, one younger born. It 
 is not only applied to the fecond, third, fourth, Ac. child, 
 with regard to the firft-born ; but to the third with re¬ 
 gard to the fecond, Ac. The laft of all is called cadet. 
 It is alfo applied to a judge, or counfellor, who is in 
 iome refpeft inferior to another. 
 
 PULLEY, Trochlea, in mechanicks, one of the me¬ 
 chanical powers, called by leamen a tackle. See Tackle 
 and Power. 
 
 When a little wheel, commonly called a fheave, or 
 fheever, is fo fixed in a box or block, as to be moveable 
 round a centre-pin palling through it, fuch an inftru- 
 ment is called a pulley. (See plate LXVII. fig. 1.) 
 And fometimes, though improperly, a box or block with 
 feveral Iheevers in it, is alfo called a pulley, as that repre- 
 fiented (fig . 2.) The firft of thefc is, by workmen, called 
 a fnatch-block. 
 
 A rope going round one or more pullies, in order to 
 raife a weight, is called the running-rope ; and when a 
 block and its Iheevers is fo fixed, that whilft it remains 
 immoveable, another block and Iheevers rifes, with a 
 weight hanging at it, fuch a machine is called a pair of 
 blocks. 
 
 If A D B E (fig. 3.) be a pulley, upon which hang 
 the weights P, W ; then, fince the neareft diftances of 
 the firings AP, and B W, from the centre of motion C, 
 arc AC and BC, the pulley will be reduced to the lever 
 or balance, A B, with refueft to its power; and from 
 thence it appears, that fince AC = BC, we Ihall always 
 have P=W, for an equilibrium ; and, therefore, no ad¬ 
 vantage in raifing a weight, Ac. can be had from a fingle 
 pulley. 
 
 In a combination of two pullies, A B, and D F E G, 
 (fig. 4.) the power is doubled ; for the pulley D F E G 
 is reducible to the lever E D, which muft beconfidered 
 
 PUL 
 
 as fixed in the point E, to the immoveable firing HE . 
 and the powder ailing at D is equal to P ; and the weight 
 W is fuftained from the centre C of the pulley; but 
 P: W: :CE:DE; therefore, fince DE — 2CE, it is 
 W = 2p, or P=i.W. 
 
 I' rom what has been faid, we may deduce the follow¬ 
 ing rule, to know the advantage to be gained by a pair 
 ot blocks, let their number of pullies and Iheevers be 
 what they will, viz. as 1 is to the number of ropes, or 
 of the parts of the rope, applied to the lower pullies, fo 
 is the weight to the power. 
 
 Thus, it is evident, that in (fig. 5.) one pound fuftains 
 only a weight of one pound ; in (fig. 6.) pne pound 
 fuftains a weight of two pounds ; in (fig. 9.) a weight of 
 five pounds ; and in (fig. 10.) one pound raifes four and 
 fix pounds. However, it ought to be obferved, that the 
 above rule is only applicable where the lower pullies rife 
 altogether in one block, along with the weight ; for 
 when they aft upon one another, and the weight is only 
 faftened to the lowermoft, the force of the power is 
 doubled by each pulley : thus, m (fig. 11.) a power equal 
 to one pound will fuftain 16 pounds, by means of four 
 pullies; bccaufe 1+2 +2 + 2 + 2=16. 
 
 Again, in the combination of pullies freprefented in 
 fig. T) the power at A be 1, that at B is 3, and at 
 D, 27. And with the combination (fig. 8.) which con- 
 fifts of 20 Iheevers, five on each pin, one man may raife 
 a ton weight. 
 
 The force of the pullies may alfo be eafily Ihewn by 
 comparing the velocities of the power and weight; for 
 it is evident, if the weight W (fig. 6.) be raifed’one 
 inch, each firing H E, DB, will be Ihortened one inch, 
 andconfequently theftring AP, will be lengthened two 
 inches ; and fo P will pals through.twice the lpace that 
 W does, in the fame time ; confequently the tackle of 
 pullies, in the form of (fig. 9.) will mcreafc the power 
 five times ; and that of (fig. 10. and 1 1.) will increafeit 
 fix times. 
 
 In the difpofition of pullies according to (ug. 12.) it is 
 plain, fince each pulley has.a fixed rope, it muft be con- 
 fidered as a lever of the fecond fort, and fo will double 
 the power of the foregoing pulley ; and fo four pullies 
 will increafe the power 16 times. 
 
 Though the laft-mentioned form be of the greateft 
 force from the fame number of pullies, yet, if we con- 
 fidcr the fimplicity, force, and conveniency of the tackle 
 of pullies altogether, none is fuperior to that where the 
 uppermoft pulley is fixed, and each has a rope annexed 
 to the weight. 
 
 PULMONARIA, lung-wort, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is monopetalous and funnei-fhaped. 
 
 I he common fpotted lung-wort grows naturally in 
 woods and Ihady places in Italy and Germany, and is 
 cultivated with us for medicinal ufe : it has a glutinous 
 juice which helps it to confolidate and heal ulcerations 
 and erofions which proceed from acrimony ; it is com¬ 
 mended in coughs and confumptions, fpitting of blood, 
 and the like diforders of the lungs. 
 
 PULMONARY Vessels, in anatomy, are arteries 
 and veins which carry the blood from the "heart to the 
 lungs, and back again from the lungs to the heart. 
 Pulmonary Confumption. See Cons umpt ion. 
 PULP, in pharmacy, the flelhy and fucculent part 
 of fruits, extrafted by infufion or boiling, and palled 
 through a fieve. 
 
 PULPIT, Pulpitum , an elevated place in a church, 
 whence fermons are delivered : the French give the 
 fame name to a reading-defk. 
 
 PULSATILLA, the pafque-flower, in botany. The 
 pulfatilla is cultivated in gardens for the fake J of the 
 flower ; and is propagated by fowing the feeds in July. 
 
 It is faid to be vulnerary; and the powder of the dried 
 leaves and flowers is a powerful fternutatory, but it 
 leaves a burning heat behind it that reaches as far as the 
 brain ; for this reafon it is accounted good in Ileepy dif¬ 
 orders. This genus is comprehended among the aue- 
 monies by Linnteus. 
 
 PULSE, Pulfus , in the animal oeconomy, denotes 
 the beating or throbbing of the heart and arteries. See 
 Heart and Artery. 
 
 No doftrine has been involved in more difficulties than 
 that of pulfes ; fince, in giving a phyfiological account of 
 them, phyficians have efpoufed quite oppofite fentiments; 
 
 whjlft 
 
PUL 
 
 Uvhilft Tome doubt whether the pulfe is owing to the fyf- 
 tole or diaftole ; as alfo, whether the motion of the heart 
 and arteries is one and the lame, for a moment of time. 
 See Systole and Diastole. 
 
 Pulse is alfo ufed for the ftrokc with which any me¬ 
 dium is affe&ed by the motion of light, found, &c. 
 through it. See Medium, Light, &c. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the velocity of 
 the pulfes is an elaftick fluid medium (whofe elaflicity is 
 proportionable to its denfity) are in a ratio compounded 
 of half the ratio of the elaftick force direflly, and half 
 the ratio of the denfity inverfely ; fo that in a medium 
 whofe elafticity is equal to its denfity, all pulfes will be 
 equally fwift. 
 
 Pulse, Lcgumen , in botany, a term applied to all 
 thofe grains or feeds which are gathered with the hand, 
 in contradiftinflion to corn, &c. which are reaped, or 
 mowed : or it is the feed of the leguminous kind of 
 plants, as beans, vetches, &c. but is by l'ome ufed for 
 artichokes, afparagus, &c. 
 
 PULSION, the a£l of driving or impelling a thing 
 forwards. 
 
 PULVERIZATION, Pulverizatio , the art of pul¬ 
 verizing, or reducing a dry body into fine powder ; 
 which is performed in friable bodies, by pounding or 
 _ beating them in a mortar, &c. but to pulverize malle¬ 
 able ones, other methods muft be taken. To pulverize 
 lead, or tin, the method is this: rub a round wooden 
 box all over the infide with chalk ; pour a little of the 
 melted metal nimbly into the box ; when, fhutting the 
 lid, and fhaking the box brifkly, the metal will be re¬ 
 duced to a powder. See Granulation. 
 
 PULV 1 NATED, in the ancient architedlure, a term 
 ■'applied to a frize which fvvells or bulges out in the 
 manner of a pillow. 
 
 PULVIS, a powder. 
 
 The operation of reducing medicines into powder is fo 
 very Ample in itfelf, that it requires no other Ikill than 
 having thofe things which come under its management 
 fufficiently dry, in order to be fo divided. In judging 
 of the fitnefs of materials for this treatment, only thefe 
 two points neceffarily require our confideration. The 
 firft is, whether the things themfelves are thus reducible 
 without any previous management that may hurt their 
 medical virtues ? and next, whether their virtues are 
 conveniently preferved in this form when reduced to it ? 
 Under the firft of thefe it naturally occurs, that vifeid and 
 oily fubftances cannot be thus managed without firft re¬ 
 ducing them to fome brittlenefs, which cannot be done 
 without drying; if fuch things, therefore, cannot be 
 fufficiently dried for triture, without exhaling their bet¬ 
 ter parts, or deftroying that particular quality for which 
 the Ample is valued in medicine, as it happens with 
 many feeds and gums, they are much better in any 
 other form than this. The other requifite in this form, 
 relating to the prefervation of things reduced into it, 
 diredls not to preferibe materials therein which are vola¬ 
 tile, or will any other way change in the open air. The 
 preparations, intentions, &c. of the feveral powders 
 ufed in medicine, may be feen under their feveral heads. 
 See Powder. 
 
 Pulvis Fulminans, among chymifts, a powder fo 
 called from its ftnart and loud explofion, when it begins 
 to melt after being placed upon an iron plate over a 
 gentle fire. It is prepared thus ; take three ounces of 
 purified nitre, and one ounce of brimftone, and grind 
 them well together in a mortar ; then putting a lmall 
 quantity, as about half a dram, over the fire, in the 
 manner already mentioned, it will make a great explo¬ 
 fion. The more philofophical way of accounting for 
 this effett of the pulvis fulminans is, according to Dr. 
 Shaw, by fuppofing that the acid lpirits of the nitre and 
 fulphur being loofened by the heat, rulh towards one 
 another, and towards the fait of tartar, with fo great 
 a violence, as by the fhock at once to turn the whole into 
 vapour and (moke. 
 
 PUMICE, in natural hiftory, a flag or cinder of 
 fome foffil, originally bearing another form, and only 
 reduced to this ftate by the aftion of the fire, though 
 generally ranked by authors among the native ftones. 
 
 It is a lax and fpongy matter, frequently of an obfeure, 
 fil iated texture in many parts, and always very cavernous 
 and full of holes; it is hard and liarfli to the touch, but 
 Vol. II. No. 60. 
 
 P U M 
 
 much lighter than any other body that comes under the 
 clafs of ftones. It is found in mafles of different fizes, 
 and of a perfectly irregular fhape, from the bignefs of a 
 pigeon’s egg to that of a bufhel. We have it from many 
 parts of the world, but particularly from about the burn¬ 
 ing mountains, -ZEtna, Vefuvius, and HecJa, by whofe- 
 eruptions it is thrown up in vaft abundance ; and being 
 by its lightnefs fupported in the air, is carried into feas 
 at fome diftance by the winds, and thence to diftant 
 fliores. The great ufe of pumice, among the antients, 
 feems to have been as a dentifirce, and at prefent it is re¬ 
 tained in the (hops on the fame account. 
 
 PUMMEL. See Pommel. 
 
 PUMP, Antlia , in hydraulicks, a machine formed on 
 the model of afyringe, for railing water. See Syringe. 
 
 The theory of pump-work depends, in a great mea- 
 fure, upon the properties of the inverted fyphon : thus, 
 let ABCDEFG {plate LXVlII.y%. 5.) reprefent an 
 inverted fyphon, A jB C D a column of air, and D G 
 the lower part of the pipe of a pump, immerfed in the 
 water of the well H. Let P be the pillon of the pump 
 at E in its loweft fituation, and at F in its higheft. 
 Now, as both thefe parts communicate with the water, 
 one by preffing on it, the other by opening into it, they 
 may be looked upon as communicating with one another. 
 
 Wherefore, ABCD (the column of air) would by 
 its weight or preffure force up a column of water into 
 the pipe D G to the height of thirty-two feet, were the 
 air exhaufted from the faid pipe, and continued to that 
 height; fince the weight of a column of air is equal to 
 that of fuch a column of water of the fame bafe. Il, 
 therefore, the pillon P be thus thruft down to E, meet¬ 
 ing the water there, and from thence it be raifed to F 
 with an uniform motion, the water will rife from E to 
 follow' the pillon with a variable motion. 
 
 If in lifting up the pillon, the velocity of the water 
 be lefs than that of the pillon, it will not be able to 
 follow it; but will leave a fpace between them, which 
 will incrcafe more and more as the velocity of the water 
 becomes lefs than that of the pillon. The confequence 
 of this will be, that a part of the ftroke of the pillon will 
 be loft; and not only that, but the pillon, when the 
 water leaves it, will rife very hard, as having a weight 
 of water upon it, and the air of greater denfity above 
 than below ; whence the equilibrium, which ought to 
 be in pumps, is deftroyed, and the balance againll the 
 workman. 
 
 Now as this can happen even where the diameter of 
 the fucking-pipe is equal to that of the pump-barrel, it 
 muft happen much fooner when the fucking-pipe is lefs 
 than the barrel ; becaufe the water riling through a lefs 
 padage, will be longer in filling die pump-barrel, and 
 confequently muft quit the pillon, and leave the greater 
 void fpace between. On the contrary, if the leall velo¬ 
 city of the water, riling into the pipe, be greater than 
 that of the pillon, there will be no void fpace ; and the 
 pump-barrel may be made in proportion as much wider 
 than the fucking-pipe, as the velocity of the water is 
 greater than that of the pillon. 
 
 Kinds and Strufiure of Pumps. Pumps are diftin- 
 guilhed into feveral kinds, according to the different 
 manners of their acting ; as the common fucking-pump, 
 forcing-pump, lifting-pump, &c. 
 
 1. The ilru&ure and a£lion of the common fucking- 
 pump, as it is called, has been fo far deferibed in the 
 above theory of pumps, that little remains to be faid on 
 it. However, it may not be improper to give a figure or 
 two ot this kind of pump, in order to Iheiv its ftru£lure, 
 and the contrivances ufed in working it. ( Plate LXVIIL 
 fig. 6.) reprefents a Ample fucking-pump, in which A is 
 the cillern ; A B, the barrel or pipe, Handing in the water 
 EF; GD, the pillon and bucket, with its bucket and 
 valve D ; and C, the valve open for the afeent of the 
 water. [Fig. 7.) is a very Ample and ufeful contrivance 
 (or working two pumps by means of the balance A B, 
 having large iron balls at each end, placed in equilibre 
 on the two fpindles C, as reprefented in the figure ; on 
 the right and left are two boards, I, nailed to two crofs 
 pieces faftened to the axis of the machine. On thefe 
 two boards, the perfon who is to work the pumps, Hands, 
 and fupports himfelf by four polls, E, D, ere&ed per¬ 
 pendicularly, and having crofs-pieces on the top. At 
 the diftance of ten inches on each fide of the axis, are 
 ^ r r faftened 
 
fattened the piftons MN, which go to the fuckers. The 
 man, by leaning alternately on his right and left foot, 
 puts the balance in motion, by which means the pumps 
 O, P, are worked, and the water thrown into the pipe 
 H, and carried to a height proportional to the diameter 
 of the valves, and the action of the balance. It will be 
 necefiary to place on each fide an iron fpring, as F, G, 
 in order to return the balance and prevent its motion 
 from being too great. {Fig. 8.) is another machine for 
 working two pumps, where A reprefents a large weight 
 fattened to the axis, to regulate the motion of the ma¬ 
 chine. On each fide of the axis B, is a pifton which 
 goes to the luckers of die two pumps C, D. The ma¬ 
 chine is put in motion by the man’s treading on the board 
 E, and, confequently, the two pumps deliver water al¬ 
 ternately. All which is fo plain from the figure, that it 
 needs no further defeription. 
 
 2. The forcing-pump, of the common fort, is a ma¬ 
 chine thus conftrudled : A B {Jig. q) is the barrel (land¬ 
 ing in the well or mine at B ; G C is the pifton ; and 
 C a folid piece without any hole or valve, becaufe no 
 water is to pafs through it, as in the other. This 
 piece (hould be well leathered, to fit the barrel very 
 nicely, that in its motion neither air nor water (hould 
 pafs between. At a diftance below, a valve, with its 
 diaphragm, is fixed to the barrel, as at D. Between 
 this and the lowed fituation of the pifton C, there goes 
 off a pipe at H, in which there is fixed a diaphragm and 
 valve as at E. Now the pifton, being drawn up from C 
 towards A, attenuates the air above D, by which means 
 the water rufhes into the fpace CD; then, when the 
 pifton is forced down, as the water cannot repafs at C, it is 
 forced toafeend into the pipe atH, and through its valve 
 E into the ciftern F, which may be fituated°at any dif- 
 tance above the pump, from whence the water will run 
 off by the ipout. 
 
 3. T he lifting-pump is only a forcing pump of ano¬ 
 ther ftrufture, reprefented in {Jig. 10.) where A B is a 
 barrel fixed in the frame KILM; which is alfo fixed 
 immoveable, with the lower part in the water to be ex- 
 haufted. GE QH O is a frame with two ftrong iron 
 rods, moveable through holes in the upper and lower 
 parts of the pump I K, and LM ; in the bottom of this 
 frame is fixed an inverted pifton B D, with its bucket 
 and valve upon the top at D. Upon the top of the 
 barrel, there goes off a part K H, either fixed to the bar¬ 
 rel or moveable by a ball and locket, (as here reprefented 
 
 •at F) but in either cafe fo very nice and tight, that no 
 water or air can pofiibly get into the barrel, which would 
 fpoil the effedl of the pump. In this part, at C, is fixed 
 a valve opening upwards. Now when the pifton-framc 
 is thruft down into the water, the pifton D defeends, and 
 the water below will rufii up through the valve D, and 
 get above the pifton ; where, upon the frame’s being 
 lifted up, the pifton will force the water through the 
 valve C up into the ciftern P, there to run off by the 
 fpout. Note, this fort of pump is fet fo far in the water, 
 that the pifton may play below the furface of it. 
 
 Air Pump. See Air Pump. 
 
 PUN, a play of words, the wit whereof depends upon 
 a relemblance between the founds or fyllables of two 
 words, which have different, perhaps contrary meanings. 
 
 Cicero has fprinkled feveral of his works with puns ; 
 and in his book, where he lays down the rules of oratory, 
 quotes abundance of fayings, which he calls pieces of 
 wit, that upon examination, prove perfe£l puns. 
 
 PUNCH, an inftrument of iron or fteel, ufed in fe¬ 
 veral arts, for the piercing or (lamping holes in plates of 
 metal, Ac. being fo contrived as not only to perforate, 
 but to cut out and take away the piece. 
 
 PUNCHEON, Punchin, orPuNCHioN, a little 
 block or piece of fteel, on one end whereof is fome 
 figure, letter, or mark, engraven either in creux or re¬ 
 lievo, impreflions whereof are taken on metal, or fome 
 other matter, by ftriking it with a hammer on the end 
 not engraved. There are various kinds of thefe pun¬ 
 cheons ufed in the mechanical arts ; fuch, for inftance, 
 are thofe of the goldfmiths, cutlers, pewterers, Ac. 
 
 Puncheon, is alfo ufed for feveral iron-tools of va¬ 
 rious fizes and figures, ufed by the engravers in creux 
 on metals. Seal-gravers particularly ufe a great number 
 for the feveral pieces of arms, Ac. to be engraven, and 
 many (lamp the whole feal from a finglc puncheon.’ 
 
 Puncheon-, is alfo a common name for all thofe iron 
 mitruments ufed by Hone-cutters, fculptors, blackimilUs . 
 matters tllC CUUlng ’ * nc ‘ din g> or piercing their (cveui 
 
 Puncheon, in carpentry, is apiece of timber placed 
 upright between two polls, whole bearing is too great 
 iervmg, together with them, to fuftam fome lame 
 weights. a 
 
 Puncheon, is alfo ufed for the arbour, or principal 
 part ol a machine, whereon it turns vertically, as that of 
 a crane, Ac. 
 
 Puncheon is alfo a mcafurefor liquids, containing 
 an hoglhead and one third, or 84 gallons. 
 
 PUNCTATED Hypereoi a, an hyperbola whole 
 oval conjugate is infinitely tinall, i. e. anoint. 
 
 1 ^ C f. UATION ’ in grammar, the art ofpointing 
 or ot dividing a difcourfc into periods, bv points, ex- 
 prelfing the paufes to be made in the reading thereof 
 bee Point. 
 
 PUNCTUM, in geometry, &c. Sec Point. 
 
 Iunctum Saliens, in anatomy, the fiill rudi¬ 
 ments of the heart in the formation of the foetus where 
 a throbbing motion is perceived. This is find to be ea- 
 fily obferved with a microfcopc in a brood egg, wherein 
 alter conception, we fee a little fpeck or cloud, in the 
 ill 'dale whereof is a fpot that appears to beat or leap a 
 conliderable time before the foetus is formed for hatching 
 bee roHTus. 
 
 PUNCTURE, in forgery, any wound made by a 
 lnarp-pointed inftrument. 
 
 PUN 1 CA, the Pomegranate-Tree, in botany. Sec the 
 article Pomegranate. 
 
 PUNISHMENT, inlaw, the penalty which a per- 
 Icn incurs on the breach or tranfgreffion of anv law. 
 
 1 UN 1 TORY Interest, in the civil law, fuch 
 mterelt of money as is due for the daily payment, 
 breach of promife, &c. 1 
 
 PUPIL, PupiUus, in the civil law, a boy or girl not 
 yet arrived at the age of puberty, i. c. the boy under 14 
 years, the girl under 12. 
 
 Pupil is alfo ufed in univerfitics, See. for a youth 
 under the education or dilciphneof any per(on. 
 
 PvFlh, Pupilla, in anatomy, a little aperture in the 
 middle of the uvea and ms of the eye, through which 
 the rays of light pafs to the cryllallinc, in order to be 
 painted on the retina, and caufe vilion. 
 
 i i'- flruflure of the uvea and iris, is foch as that by 
 their aperture the pupil is conlraaible and dilatible at 
 pleafure, fo as to accommodate itfelf to objeas, and to 
 admit more or fewer rays; as the objea, being either 
 more vivid and near, or more obfeure and remote, re¬ 
 quires more or lefs light: it being a conllant law, that the 
 more luminous the objea is, the fmaller the pupil - and 
 again, the nearer the objeft, the fmaller the pupil ■ and 
 vice verfa. This alteration of the pupil is effefled by 
 certain mufcular fibres on the outfide of the uvea, which 
 arrive from the nerves detached hither from the fclero- 
 tica 1 fome others attribute the motions of the pupil to 
 the ligamentum ciliare ; and others think that both this 
 and the fibres of the uvea concur herein. 
 
 There is a difeafe of the eye called a contraflion of 
 the pupil, wherein there is fuch a total or clofe con- 
 traaion of that part, that it will not tranfmit light 
 enough to the bottom of the eye, to enable the patient 
 to fee objeas diftina; fometimes this diforder is from 
 infancy, and fometimes it arifes from an intenfe inflam¬ 
 mation of the eye. The cure of this is extremely diffi¬ 
 cult; but Mr. Chefelden has invented a method by 
 which he has often proved very fuccefsful in his attempts 
 to relieve it. The method is this : the eye-lids being 
 held open by a fpeculum oculi, he takes a narrow Angle 
 edged fcalpel, or needle, almoll like that'ufed in couch¬ 
 ing for the cataiaa, and palling it through the fclerotica 
 as m couching, he afterwards thrufls it forward through 
 the uvea or iris, and in extrafling cuts it open through 
 the iris. See Couching. ° 
 
 PURCHASE, in law, the buying or acquiring of 
 lands, 6 c c. with money, by deed or agreement, and not 
 by defeentor right of inheritance. 
 
 Purchase, in the fea-language, is the fame as 
 drawn in; thus when they fay the capltan purchafes a- 
 pace, they only mean it draws in the cahlc a-pace. 
 
 PURE, fomething free from any admixtureof foreign. 
 
 or 
 
PUR 
 
 PUR 
 
 or heterogeneous matters: thus we fay pure fire, See. 
 See Fire, See. 
 
 Pure Hyperbola, in conicks, is an hyperbola 
 without any oval, nodes, fpike, or conjugate point. 
 
 PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, exprefiing ermins, 
 peans, or any of the furs, when they compofe a bordure 
 round a coat of arms : thus they fay, he beareth gules 
 a bordure, purflew, vairy: meaning that the bordure is 
 vairy. 
 
 PURGATION, the art of purging, fcouring, or puri¬ 
 fying a thing, by feparating or carrying off any impuri¬ 
 ties found therein. 
 
 PURGATIVE, or Purging Medicines , a medicament 
 which evacuates the impurities of the body by {tool, 
 called alfo catharticks. 
 
 PURGATORY, a place in which the juft, who de¬ 
 part out of this life, are fuppofed to expiate certain offences 
 which do not merit eternal damnation. 
 
 Broughton has endeavoured to prove, that this notion 
 has been held by Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, as 
 well as Chriftians. The doftrine of purgatory is a very 
 lucrative article to the clergy of the Romifh church, who 
 are very liberally paid for malles and prayers for the fouls 
 of the deceafed. We are told by feme of their doftors, 
 that purgatory is a fubterraneous place, fituated over the 
 hell of the damned, where fuch fouls as have not yet 
 made fatisfaftion to divine juftice for their fins, are purged 
 by tire, after a wonderful and incomprehenlible manner: 
 and here they are purified from thofc dregs which hinder 
 them from entering into their eternal country, as the 
 catechifin of the council of Trent expreffes it. 
 
 PURGE, in medicine, the fame with cathartick. Sec 
 Catharticks. 
 
 PURIFICATION, in matters of religion, a cere¬ 
 mony which confifts in cleanfing any thing from a fup¬ 
 pofed pollution or defilement. 
 
 The Pagans, before they facrificed, ufually bathed or 
 waftied themfelves in water, and they were particularly 
 careful to wafh their hands, bccaufe with thefe they were 
 to touch the viftims confecrated to the gods. It was 
 alfo cuftomary to waffi the veffel with which they made 
 their libations. The Mahometans ufe purifications as 
 previous to the duty of prayer; thefe alfo arc of two 
 kinds, cither bathing, or only waffling the face, hands 
 and feet. The firft is requested only in extraordinary 
 cafes, as after having lain with a woman, touched a dead 
 body, &c. But left fo neceffary a preparation for their 
 devotions fliould be omitted, either where water cannot 
 be had, or when it may be of prejudice to a perfon’s 
 health, they are allowed in fuch cafes to make ufe of fine 
 fand or duft inftead of it; and then they perform this 
 duty by clapping their open hands on the fand, and 
 palling them over the parts, in the fame manner as if 
 they were dipped in water. 
 
 There were alfo many legal purifications among the 
 Hebrew's. When a woman was brought to bed of a 
 male child, fhe was efteemed impure for 40 days ; and 
 when of a female, for 60 ; at the end of which time file 
 carried a lamb to the door of the temple, to be offered 
 for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or turtle for 
 a fin-offering, and by this ceremony file was cleanfed or 
 purified. 
 
 Among the Romanifts, the holy water is ufed byway 
 of purification. 
 
 Purification of the blejfed Virgin , a feftival of the 
 Chriftian church, obferved on the fccond of February 
 in memory of the offering up of our Saviour in the 
 temple, and his mother’s fubmitting to the Jewifli law 
 of purification after the birth of a male child. 
 
 Purification, in chymiftry, the aft of purifying 
 or refining natural bodies by feparating the fteces and 
 impurities from them. For the method of purifying 
 metals, fee Refining, &c. 
 
 For the purification of femi-metals, fee Antimony, 
 Sulphur, &c. 
 
 PURIM, or the Feeijl of Lots, a folemn feftival of the 
 Jews, inftituted in memory of the deliverance they re¬ 
 ceived from Hainan’s wicked attempt to deftroy them by 
 means of Mordecai and Either. 
 
 PURITAN, a name formerly given in dcrifion to 
 the diffenters from the church of England, on account 
 of their profelfing to follow the pure word of God, in 
 oppofition to all traditions and human conftitutions. 
 
 PURLIEU, Purine, Pourallee , a circuit of ground 
 adjoining to the foreft, and circumfcribed with immove¬ 
 able boundaries, known only by matter of record , which 
 compafs of ground was once a foreft, and afterwards 
 difafforefted by the perambulations made for fevering the 
 new foreft from the old. 
 
 Purlieu Man, is one who has land within the pur¬ 
 lieu ; and is allowed or qualified to hunt or courfe within 
 the fame, though under certain reftriftions, as afeer- 
 tained by an aft of parliament made in king Charles 
 lid’s time. 
 
 PURPLE, Purpura, a red colour bordering on violet, 
 dyed chiefly with cochineal or fcarlct in grain. 
 
 Purple was much efteemed among the ancients, efpe- 
 cially the Tyrian purple, which underwent more dyes 
 than the reft, and which was almoft peculiar to emperors 
 and kings. Yet this purple did not exceed that now in 
 ufe ; the chief reafons why the former has been dilufed, 
 are, that the latter is both cheaper and finer. 
 
 The ancient purple was tinged or given with the blood 
 or juice of a precious turbinated teftaceous lea-filh, called 
 by the Latins purpura ; whereof we have deferiptions in 
 feveral authors, and {hells in moft of the cabinets of the 
 curious. . 
 
 In the feas of the Spanifli W. Indies about Nicova, 
 is found a Ihell-filh, which perfeflly refembles the an¬ 
 cient purpura, and in ail probability is the very fame : 
 this fifh. Gage tells us, ufually lives feven years • it hides 
 itfelf a little before the dog-days, and continues to dif- 
 appear for 300 days running. They are gathered plen¬ 
 tifully 111 the fpring, and, by rubbing one again(l ano¬ 
 ther, yield a kind of faliva or thick glair, reiembling 
 Toft wax : but the purple dye is in the throat of the lifh 
 and the fineil part in a little white vein 1 the reft of the 
 body is of no ufe. He adds, that the chief riches of 
 Nicoya coniift in this fifh. Cloth of Segovia, dyed with 
 it, is fold for 20 crowns the ell 1 and none but thegreateft 
 Spanifh lords ufe it. 
 
 Betides the Indian purple fifties, we have others much 
 nearer home. In the Phiiofophical Tranfeftions we 
 have an account of a purple fiib difeovered in 1686 by 
 Mr. W. Cole, on the coafts of Somcrfetfhire, South- 
 Wales, &c. where it is found in great abundance. 
 
 I lie fifh, M. Reaumur ohferves, is a kind of buc- 
 cinum, a name given by the ancients to all fifties whofe 
 fliell bears any refemblance to a hunting-horn - and it 
 appears from Piiny, that part of the ancient purple was 
 taken from this kind of fheli-fifti: fo that this may 
 be efteemed a recovery of what had been fuppofed in- 
 tirely loft. 
 
 The method of obtaining the colour the author de- 
 feribes thus : the fhell, which is very hard, being broken 
 (with the mouth of the fifh downwards, fo as not to 
 crufh the body) and the broken pieces being picked off, 
 there appears a white vein lying tranfverfely in a little 
 furrow or cleft next the head of the fiflr. 
 
 In this vein is the purple matter lodged ; fome of 
 which, being laid on linen, appears at firft of a light 
 green colour ; and, if expofed to the fun, foon changes 
 into a deep green, and in a few minutes into a fea-<ween 
 and 111 a few more into a blue; thence it foon becomes 
 of a purplifh red, and in an hour more of a deep purple 
 red. And here the fun’s aftion terminates ; but by 
 warning in fcalding water and foap, and drying it tile 
 colour ripens to a moft bright beautiful crimfon, which 
 will bear wafting admirably without any ftyptick. 
 
 The fifh, lie obferves, is good food; and adds, that 
 there are ieveral kinds differing infize and fhell, and alfo 
 .11 the colour of the tinging liquor. There are fome 
 round on the coafts of Poiftou. 
 
 jvx. iwduimu nas cnicoverecl another 
 
 . -umwtin Mila 
 
 1 P ur P le - It is produced in oval grains about an inch 
 long, and about one thick, full of a white liquor bor¬ 
 dering on yellow, which cover certain ftones or fands 
 about which the buccina of Poiftou ufually affemble 
 
 By the experiments M. Reaumur has made, it appears 
 
 that thefe grains are neither the eggs of the buccinum, 
 nor the ieeds of any fea-plants, but the eggs of fome 
 other unknown fifh. Thefe grains being bruiled on a 
 white linen, at firft only tinge it yellow, and that in- 
 Jenfibly, but in three or four minutes give it a very beau¬ 
 tiful purple red, provided the linen be expofed to the 
 open air; for the air of a room, even though the win¬ 
 dows 
 
P U T 
 
 <Ws be open, will not do. This colour fades a little 
 by repeated walkings. 
 
 M. Reaumur concludes, from fome experiments he 
 made, that the effelt of the air on the liquor does not 
 confift in its taking away any particles thereof, nor in 
 giving it any new ones, but only in its agitating it, and 
 changing the arrangement of the parts that compole it. 
 He adds, that the liquor of the buccinum, and that of 
 the grains, feem to be nearly of the fame nature ; except 
 that the latter is more watery, and only faline, whereas 
 the other is hot and pungent. 
 
 Purple, Febrii purpurea, purpura , or purple Fever , 
 in medicine, a d'iforder which proceeds from a feurvy, 
 and is accompanied with an eruption of effiorefcences.on 
 the furface of the body, fometimes with a pretty acute 
 and malignant fever, and at other times without fuch a 
 concomitant fymptom, gently, though for a longtime, 
 difturbing the functions of the body. 
 
 PURPURE, Poupre, or Purple, in heraldry, accord¬ 
 ing to fome, is one of the five colours of armouries, 
 mixed or compounded of glues and azure bordering on 
 violet; according toothers, of a little black and much 
 red colour. It is leprefented in graving by diagonal lines 
 drawn from the flnifter chief to the dexter bafe point. 
 In the coats of noblemen it is called amethyft, and, in 
 thole of princes, mercury. 
 
 PURSE, a manner of accounting money, much ufed 
 in the Levant, particularly at Conflantinople. 
 
 PURSER, an officer on board king’s (hips, Eaft- 
 India-men, Sec. who is intruded and charged with the 
 provifions, beer, water, calks, Sec. of the lhip, and all 
 the flores thereto belonging. He is to fee the provifions 
 received on board and lhowed carefully, the men ferved 
 their daily allowance, and the oldeft provifions expended 
 firft ; and is accountable to the government for any part 
 of the provifions and ftores as fball be loft through his 
 negleft or ill condu&. He is to provide the fhips with 
 coals, wood, turnery-ware, candles, lanthorns, &e. He 
 Jikewife is charged with the cloaths and effe&s of peo¬ 
 ple who die on board, and he fells them at the maft to 
 the reft of the crew, and is obliged to give a fatisfa&ory 
 account of the fame to the executors. He is to keep 
 a very regular mufter-book for the flop-cloaths, fea- 
 vi&ualling, ffiort allowance, See. the men have been 
 fupplied with. He may fell tobacco to the feamen, not 
 exceeding two pounds per month to a man, at the rate 
 fettled by the navy-board. He is to keep a fick-bookfor 
 thofe lent out of the ffiip. He is to pafs his accounts 
 within fix months after the fhip is paid off at furtheft. Sec. 
 
 PURSIVENESS, Purfincjs , broken IVind, among far- 
 liers, is the common appellation of all thofe difeafes in 
 borfes- which arife from obftru&ions and. ulcers in the 
 paflage of the lungs-. 
 
 This is ufually occafioned by cold, furfeits, and other 
 difeafes not thoroughly carried off, as alfo unwholefome 
 food, bad air, and hard riding, when a horl'e is full. 
 The figns are, commonly, a heaving and beating of the 
 flanks, a wheezing and rattling. Sometimes the kernels 
 about the throat will fwell, and there will be aglandu- 
 ious running at the nofe, which is the utmoft ftage of 
 the difeafe, and ufually reputed defperate. 
 
 For the cure of this diforder, Dr. Bracken advifes that 
 the horfe fhould have good nouriffiment, much corn, 
 but little hay ; and that every other day the water given 
 him be impregnated with half an ounce of falt-petre, 
 and two drams of fal armoniack. 
 
 PURULENT, in medicine, fomething mixed with, 
 or partaking of pus or matter. 
 
 PUS, in medicine, a white or yellowifh putrid matter, 
 formed of corrupted blood, and contained in a wound or 
 ulcer. 
 
 PUSTULE, a pimple, or fmall eruption on the fkin 
 loll of pus; fuch arc the puftules of the fmall-pox and 
 French-pox. SeeP'ox. 
 
 PUTLOGS, orPuTLOCKs, in building, are fhort 
 pieces of timber about feven feet long, ufed in building 
 lcaffolds. They lie at right angles to the wall, with 
 one of the ends refting upon it, and the other upon the 
 poles which lie parallel to the fide of the wall of the 
 building. 
 
 PUTREFACTION, a kind of flow corruption pro¬ 
 duced by heat and fome moift fluid, particularly the air 
 and water; which, penetrating the pores, diffolves and 
 
 P Y R 
 
 fets at liberty fome of tlie more fubtile parts, particularly 
 the faits and oils, and thus loolens the compagcs, and 
 changes the texture of bodies. 
 
 PUTRID, fomething rotten, or putrified. 
 
 1 UT r \ , the lame with fpodium. See SpoDiuxf. 
 
 Putty, in its popular fenle, is a kind of pafte com¬ 
 pounded of whiting ami indeed oil, beaten together to 
 the confillence of a thick dough. It is ufed by glaziers 
 tor the fattening in the fquares of glafs in falh-windows, 
 and by painters for flopping up the crevices and clefts in 
 timber and vvainfeots, See. 
 
 Putt v fometimes alio denotes the powder of calcined 
 tin, ufed in polilhing and giving the laft glofs to works 
 of iron and ftcel. 
 
 PYCNOSTYLE, in the ancient architelture, is a 
 building where the columns ftand very dole to each 
 other ; only one diameter and a half of the column 
 being allowed for the intereolumniations. 
 
 I \ CNO I 1 CKS, Pycnotica, Imrujpints, in phyfick, are 
 medicines that have a quality of cooling and condenfing. 
 
 PYGME, the length between the elbow and extre¬ 
 mity of the hand when fliut; the fame with Cubit 
 which fee. 
 
 PYGMY, Pygmaus, a dwarf, or perfon whofe ftature 
 does not exceed a cubit. In antiquity, the appellation 
 is given to a fabulous nation that inhabited Thrace, who 
 generated and brought forth young at five years of age, 
 which were old at eight. They were famous for the 
 bloody war they waged with the cranes. 
 
 PYLORUS, in anatomy, is the right and lower 
 orifice of the ftomadi, whereby it dilcliarges into the 
 inteftines. 
 
 PYRAMID, in geometry, a folid Handing on a fquare, 
 triangular, or polygonal bafts, and terminating a-top in 
 a point. 7 he folid content of a pyramid is equal to one- 
 third of the perpendicular altitude multiplied by the bale; 
 becaufe a pyramid is one-third of a prifm of the fame 
 height and bale. 7 Fuel. 12. The lupcrficial area of a 
 pyramid is found by adding the area of all the triangles, 
 whereof the ftdes of the pyramid conlift, into one fum : 
 for the whole external lurfacc (except the bale) of any 
 pyramid, is nothing but a fvftem of as many triangles 
 as the pyramid has ftdes. If a pyramid be cut with a 
 plane parallel to the bafe, the furface of that truncated 
 pyramid, comprehending between the parallel lines, is 
 found by fubtra&ing the furface of the pyramid cut off 
 from the furface of the whole pyramid. ’ Alfo the ex¬ 
 ternal furface of a right pyramid, that Hands on a regular 
 polygon bafe, is equal to a triangle, whofe altitude is 
 equal to the altitude of one of the triangles which con>- 
 pofe it, and its bafe to the whole circumference of the 
 bafe of the pyramid. Whence therefore the furface of a 
 right cone (tor a cone is but a pyramid of infinite ftdes) 
 is equal to a triangle whole height is the ftde of the cone, 
 and the bale equal to the circumference of the bafe of 
 the cone. 
 
 PYRAMIDAL Numbers, arc the fums of poly¬ 
 gonal numbers, collected after the lame manner as the 
 polygonal numbers themfelves are extra&ed from arith¬ 
 metical progreffions. Thefe are particularly called firft 
 pyramidals : the fums of the firft pyramidals are called 
 fecond pyramidals : the fums of thofe, third pyramidals. 
 Sec. in infinitum. 
 
 PYRAM 1 DALES Muse ult, in anatomy, thepy- 
 ramidial mufcles of the abdomen. 
 
 PYRAMIDALEA Corpora, in anatomy, two 
 protuberances of the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The fpermatick veffels are by fome fo caJJed. See 
 Corpus Pampiniforme. 
 
 PY RAMIDOID, called alfo Parabolick Spindle, in 
 geometry, a folid figure formed by the revolution of a 
 femi-paraboJa round one of its ordinates. 
 
 PYRENOIDES, Odontoides {ffLv; tiforrnis Procejfus , 
 in anatomy, a tooth-like procefs of the fecond vertebra 
 of the neck. 
 
 PY RETICKS, Pyretiea , febrifuges, or medicines 
 good again ft fevers. 
 
 PY RE 1 OLOGIA, in pathology, thcdollrine rela¬ 
 tive to fevers. 
 
 PYRI 7 ES, in natural hiftory, a name ufed by Dr. 
 Hill for a clafs of compound inflammable metallick bodies 
 found in detached maffes, but of no determinately an¬ 
 gular figure. 7 his clals the doltor divides into two 
 
 orders, 
 
P Y R 
 
 orders, the firft of which, being thofe pyritce of a plain 
 and Ample internal ftrufture, comprehends two genera : 
 the firft genus, termed pyriplaces, are thofe pyritas of a 
 Ample internal ftrufture, and covered with an inveftient 
 coat or cruft , the iccond genus, termed gymnopyres, 
 are thofe pyvitre of a finiple internal ftrufture, and not 
 covered with a cruft ; the fecond order being thofe py- 
 rita? of a regularly ftriated internal ftrufture alfo com¬ 
 prehends two genera, the firft termed pyritricha are thofe 
 pyritae of a limply ftriated texture; the fecond genus, 
 called pyritrichiphylla, are thofe pyritae whofe ftricE ter¬ 
 minate in foliacious ends. 
 
 This folfile is recommended by fome authors as an 
 cmmenagogue, but it is fcarce ever prefcribed with this 
 intention ; the common green vitriol, or copperas of the 
 lhops, is made from it ; and an acid fomewhat different 
 from that of pure vitriol may be drawn off from it by 
 the retort, after it has been expofed to the air till it 
 moulders away : this is of great ul'e in mineralogy, and 
 is a folvent for feveral foflils that none of the other acids 
 will touch. See Vitriol. 
 
 Pyrites is alfo applied by fome to the marcafites of 
 all metals, the names whereof are varied, according to 
 the metals they partake of. 
 
 PYROENUS, fometimes denotes reftified fpirit of 
 wine, fo called, as being rendered of a fiery nature. 
 
 PYROMANCY, among the ancients, a kind of 
 divination performed by means of fire. They imagined 
 they could foretcl futurity by infpefting fire and flame, 
 confidering which way it turned. Sometimes they added 
 a veffel full of urine, with its neck bound about with 
 wool, watching on which fide it burft, and thence they 
 took their augury. Sometimes they threw pitch on it, 
 and if it took fire immediately, this was accounted a 
 good augury. 
 
 PYROMETER, an inftrument for meafuring the 
 expanfion of bodies by heat. 
 
 PYROTECHNY, Pyrotechnia, the fcicnce which 
 teaches the management and application of fire. It is of 
 two kinds, military and chymical. 
 
 Military Pyrotechny, is the doftrine of artificial 
 fire-works and fire-arms, teaching both the ftrufture and 
 ufe of thofe ufed in war, as gun-powder, cannons, bombs, 
 granadoes, carcaftes, mines, fufees, &c. and thofe for 
 amufement, as rockets, ftars, ferpents, he. 
 
 Wolfius has reduced pyrotechnia into a kind of mixed 
 mathematical art; indeed, it will not admit of geome¬ 
 trical demonftration; but he reduces it to tolerable 
 rules, whereas before it had been treated by authors at 
 random. 
 
 Chymical Pyrotechny, is the art of managing and 
 applying fire in diftillations, calcinations, and other ope¬ 
 rations of chymiftry. Some reckon a third kind of py¬ 
 rotechnia,' namely, the art of fufing, refining, and pre¬ 
 paring metals. 
 
 PYROTICKS, Pyrotica, in medicine, fuch remedies 
 as are either actually or potentially hot; and which will, 
 confequently, burn the flefh, and raife an efcar. 
 
 PYRRHICHA, in antiquity, a kind of feigned combat 
 on horfeback for the exercife of the cavalry. 
 
 The Romans call this exercife ludus Trojanus, the 
 Trojan game ; and A. Gellius, decurfus. And it is, 
 doubtlefs, this exercife that we fee reprefented on medals 
 by two cavaliers in front running with lances, and the 
 word decurfio in the exergum. 
 
 PYRR 1 CHIUS, Periambus or Hegemona, in the Greek 
 and Latin poetry, a foot confifting of two fhortfyllables, 
 as meus, Dcus, he. 
 
 PYRRHONIANS, Pyrrhonijls, a feft of ancient 
 philofophers, fo called from their founder Pyrrho; who 
 profefled to doubt of every thing, maintaining that men 
 only judge of truth and fahhood from appearances which 
 deceive. So that he never determined on any thing, to 
 avoid the inconveniencies of error. Thofe now diftin- 
 guifhed by the name of Pyrrhonians or fcepticks, who, 
 from the great number of things that are obfeure, and 
 from their averfion to popular credulity, maintain, that 
 there is nothing certain in the world. 
 
 The truth is, pyrrhonifm has fome foundation in 
 nature : for we do not judge of things from their real 
 offences, but from their relations to us, that is, how they 
 may affeft us, fo as to do us good or harm. 
 
 The Academicks differed from the Pyrrhonians, in 
 that they owned there were fome things more like to 
 Vol. II. No. 61. 
 
 P Y X 
 
 truth than others. The Pyrrhonians, M. LeCIerc ob- 
 ferves, were the moft decifive and affuining of all the 
 philofophers ; fince they muft have firft examined all 
 things, to be able to determine precifely that all things 
 are uncertain. Add to this, that their very principle 
 deftroys itfelf: for if there be nothing certain, then muft 
 that dogma itfelf be precarious, and why fhould it be 
 believed preferably to the oppofite one ? fince itfelf is 
 come at in the lame way as our other knowledge. 
 
 PYTHAGOREAN, or Pythagorick Syjletn y 
 among the ancients, was the fame with the Copernicaii 
 fyftem among the moderns; which fee. 
 
 It was fo called, as having been maintained and cul¬ 
 tivated by Pythagoras and his followers. 
 
 Pythagoreans, a feft of ancient philofophers, 
 who adhered to the doftrine of Pythagoras, who was of 
 Samos, and the pupil of Pherecydes, who flourifhed about 
 the 7th Olympiad, that is, 500 years before Chrift. This 
 feft was called the Italick fchool, becaufe Pythagoras, 
 after travelling into Egypt, Chaldea, Phoenicia, and even 
 into the Indies, to inform his underftanding, returning 
 home to his own country, and there, unable to bear the 
 tyranny of Polycrates or Sylofon, he retired into the 
 eaftern part of Italy, then called the greater Greece, and 
 there taught and formed his left. He is held to have 
 excelled in every part of fcience. His fchool, in Italy, 
 was at Ciotona, out of which proceeded the greateft 
 philofophers and legifiators, Zaleucus, Charondas, Ar- 
 chytas. He endeavoured to affuage the paffions of the 
 mind with verfes and numbers, and compofed his mind 
 every morning by his harp, frequently finging the paeans 
 of Thales. Exerciles of the body, alfo, made a con- 
 fiderable part of his difeipline. Befides his publick fchool, 
 Pythagoras had a college in his own houfe, called coeno- 
 bium : in this were two dalles of fcholars, exoterici or 
 aulcultantes, and intruded. The former were novices, 
 who were under a long examen, and even impofed a quin¬ 
 quennial filcnce. The latter were called genuini, per- 
 fefti, mathematici, and, by way of eminence, Pythago¬ 
 reans. Thefe alone were let into the arcana of the real 
 Pythagorick difeipline. 
 
 Pythagoras taught that God is one, that he is- a moft: 
 Ample, incorruptible, and invifible being; and, there¬ 
 fore, only to be worlhipped with a pure mind, with the 
 fimpleft rites, and thofe prefcribed by himfelf. 
 
 In his converfation with the Egyptians, he learned 
 abundance of fecrets about numbers, fo that he even 
 attempted to explain all things in nature thereby. In 
 effeft, this was the common opinion of the ancient phi¬ 
 lofophers, that the fpecies of things have to each other 
 the nature and relation of numbers. 
 
 Pythagoras further taught, that there is a relation or 
 kinlhip between the gods and men, and, therefore, that 
 the former take care of the latter. He alfo afferted a 
 metemplychofis, or tranfmigration of fouls; and, con¬ 
 fequently, their immortality. And taught that virtue is 
 harmony, health, qnd every good thing. 
 
 PYTHAGORICK Theorem, or propofition, is 
 the 47th of the firft book of Euclid. 
 
 PYTHIA, in antiquity, the prieftefs of Apollo, by 
 whom he delivered oracles, and from whom Ihe took 
 her name. 
 
 She was to be a pure virgin, and fat on the lid of a 
 brazen veffel mounted on a tripod, and thence, after a 
 violent enthufiafm, rehearfed a few obfeure verfes, which 
 were taken for oracles. 
 
 Py thia, or Pythian Games, were folemn games infti- 
 tuted in honour of Apollo, and in memory of his killing 
 the ferpent Python. 
 
 The Pythia were celebrated at Pythium in Macedonia, 
 and were next in fame to the Olympick games, but more 
 ancient than they. They were held every two years 
 about the month Elaphebolion, or our February. 
 
 There were Pythia alfo celebrated at Delphos, which 
 were the moft renowned. A part of Pindar’s poems were 
 compofed in praife of the viftors at the Pythian games. 
 
 PYXIS Nautica, in navigation, the mariner’s 
 compafs. 
 
 Pyxis, in anatomy, is the acetabulum or hollow in 
 the hip-bone. 
 
 Pyxis, is alfo a furgeon’s box, which is divided into 
 compartments for containing various forts of unguents. 
 
 I Pyxis, in theRomifh church, the name given to the 
 I box in which they carry the facratnent to the fick. 
 s S S ' Q_, A 
 
Q^U A 
 
 Q A confonant, and the 16th letter of tlie alphabet; 
 and, though it is not in the old Greek or Latin 
 7 alphabet, is yet derived from the more ancient 
 Hebrew A, by turning the charafter and making the 
 
 QU A 
 
 angular apex round, and carrying the perpendicular part 
 obliquely under the round one ; and from thence alfo 
 the modern Hebrew charafter p koph of the fame letter. 
 In the Latin, the ufe or difufe of the Q_feems to have 
 been fo little fettled, that the poets ufed the Q_or C in¬ 
 differently, as beft fuited their meafures ; it being a rule, 
 that the Q_joined the two following vowels into one 
 fyllable, and that the C imported them to be divided. 
 The Saxons had not this letter, but exprefled it by cp, 
 as in cpacian, to quake, &c. J ’ 
 
 In the French, the found of the CL and K are fo near 
 a-kin, that fome of their mceft authors think the former 
 might be fpared. 
 
 In Englifh, the QJs formed in the voice in a dif- ! 
 ferent manner from K, the cheeks being contrafted, 
 and the lips, efpecially the under one, put into a can- 
 nular form for the pafTage of the breath. It is, however, 
 never founded alone, but in conjunct ion with u after it,’ 
 either in Latin or Engl iffy, as in qualis, quantum, qualm, 
 queen, oblique, &c. and it never ends any Englifh word! 
 
 Q_, among the ancients, was a numeral denoting coo, 
 as in this verfe, 
 
 Q velut A cum D quingcnios vult numtrare. 
 
 with a dafb over it, fignified 500,000. 
 
 Q_i - s alfo ufed as an abbreviature, as, in phyficians 
 recipe’s. 
 
 Qi pi* denotes quantum placet, as much as you will. 
 
 CL S. quantum fufficit, or as much as is neceflary ; 
 and Q^ denotes quantity. 
 
 CL E. D. among mathematicians, denotes quod erat 
 demoirftrandum, which was to be demonflrated. 
 
 CL E - F. quod erat faciendum, which was to be done. 
 
 (L D- among the grammarians, quafi diceretur, as if 
 one fhould fay. 
 
 QUADRA, in building, any fquare border encom- 
 pafling a baffo relievo, pannel, painters, or other work. 
 
 QUADRAGESIMA, denotes the time of Lent, as 
 confifling of 40 days. 
 
 Quadragesima Sunday, is the firft Sunday in 
 Lent, as being about the 40th day before Eafter ; and, 
 on the fame account, the three preceding Sundays are 
 called quinquagefima, fexagefima, and feptuagefima. 
 
 QUADRANGLE, in geometry, a quadrangular or 
 quadrilateral figure, having four angles or four fides, as 
 the fquare, parallelogram, trapezium, rhombus, and 
 rhomboides. 
 
 QUADRANT, ^uadrans, in geometry, an arch of 
 a circle, containing go”, or one fourth part of the whole 
 periphery. The fpace or area included between this 
 arch and two radii drawn from the centre to each extre¬ 
 mity thereof, is called a quadrantal fpace, as being a 
 quarter of the entire circle. 
 
 Quadrant alfo denotes a mathematical inftrument 
 in navigation, aftronomy, Ac. for taking of altitudes, 
 angles, &c. It is varioufly contrived, according to the 
 various ufes it is intended for ; but they all have this in 
 common, that they confift of a quarter of a circle wliofe 
 limb is divided into 90° ; fome have a plummet fufpended 
 from the centre, and furnilhed with pinnula: or lights 
 to look through. The principal and moll ufeful qua¬ 
 drants are, the common or furveying quadrant, aftro- 
 nomical quadrant, Cole’s quadrant, Davis’s quadrant, 
 Hadley’s quad rant, horal quadrant, horodiftical quadrant, 
 Gunter’s quadrant, Sutton’s or Collins’s quadrant, and 
 the finical quadrant. 
 
 The common or furveying quadrant (plate LXIX 
 fil- 3 -) is made of brafs, wood, &c. ufually 12 or , j 
 inches radius ; its circular limb graduated into go” and 
 as many equal parts as the fpace will allow, either dia¬ 
 gonally or otherwife. On one edge or femi-diameter are 
 fixed two immoveable lights, and in the angle or centre 
 is hung a thread with a plummet. To the centre like- 
 wile is fometimes fixed a label or moveable index bear 
 mg two other lights like the index of a telefcope ' And 
 in lieu ot the immoveable lights is fometimes fitted 3 
 telelcope, though this more properly belongs to the aftro- 
 nomical quadrant. On the under fide or face of the in 
 urument is fitted a ball and focket, by means whereof 
 It may be put m any pofition for ufe. Befides, there is 
 frequently added on the face near the centre a kind of 
 compartment called the quadrant or geometrical fquare 
 as in the figure. The quadrant is to be ufed in different 
 htuations. To obferve heights and depths, its plane is 
 difpofed at right angles to the horizon ; to take horizontal 
 ddtanceS’ the plane is difpofed parallel thereto. Heights 
 and d.ftances may be taken two ways, cither by means 
 ot the fixed fights and plummet, or bv the label. 
 
 Ufeefthefurviyivg Quadrant. To take the height 
 or depth of an objeft, with the fixed fights and plummet 
 1 lace the quadrant vertically, and the eye under the light 
 next the arch of the quadrant; thus dirca the inllro- 
 nrent to the objefts, luppofe the top of a callle &c till 
 
 die eye ” 11 ^ there ° f ftrike throu S h the % 1 > ts upon 
 
 Tins done, the portion of the arch intercepted be¬ 
 tween the thread and the femidiameter, whereon the lights 
 are fattened, Ihews the complement of the objeft’s height 
 above the horizon, or its diftancefrom the zenith and 
 the other portion of the arch, between the thread and the 
 other femidiameter, Ihews the height itfelf of the obieft 
 above the horizon. The fame arch likewife gives the 
 quantity of the angle made by the vifual ray, and a ho¬ 
 rizontal line parallel to the bafe of the tower. To ob- 
 ferve depths, the eye mutt be placed over that fight next 
 the centre of the quadrant. 
 
 From the height or depth of the objeft, in degrees 
 thus found which luppofe 35°, 35'; and the diftance 
 of the foot of the objeft from the place of obfervation 
 carefully meafured, which fuppofe 47 feet; its height or 
 depth in feet, yards, &c. is eaiily determined by the moft 
 common cafe in trigonometry. For wc have here in a 
 triangle one fide given, namely, the line meafured, and 
 wc have all the angles ; for that of the cattle is always 
 iuppofed a right angle; the other two, therefore are 
 equal to another right angle ; but the angle obferved is 
 35 35 » therefore, the other is 54 0 25'. 
 
 The cafe then will be reduced to this, as the fine of 
 54 25', is to 47 feet; fo is the fine of ec” id to a 
 fourth term 33 feet and a half; to which add the height 
 of the obferver’s eye, fuppofe five feet, the fum -8 f eet 
 and a half is the height of the cattle required. As to tire 
 taking of altitudes of objefts acceffible or inacceflible 
 fee Altitude. 
 
 Ufe of the quadrant, in taking heights and diflances 
 by the index and fights. As to take the height of a tower 
 that is acceffible. Place the plane of the inftrument at 
 right angles to the plane of die horizon, and one of its 
 edges parallel thereto by means of the plummet, which 
 in that cafe will hang down along die other. In this 
 fituation turn the index, till through the fight you fee 
 the top of the tower; and the arch of the limb of the 
 quadrant, between that fide thereof parallel to the horizon 
 and the index, will be the height of the tower in degrees 
 whence, and from the diftance meafured as before its 
 height m feet, &c. may be found by calculation, as in 
 the former cafe, or without calculation, by drawing from 
 
QUA 
 
 the data on paper a triangle fimilar to the great one, whole 
 bafe is the difiance, and its perpendicular, meafured on 
 the fcale, the height of the tower. 
 
 Ufe of the quadrant, in meafuring horizontal diftances. 
 Though the quadrant be a Iefs proper inftrument for this 
 purpofe than the theodolite, fcmi-circle, or the like, by 
 reafon angles greater than quadrants cannot be taken here¬ 
 by ; yet, necelhty often obliges one to have recourfe to it. 
 
 The manner of its application is the fame with that 
 of the femi-circle, only the one is an arch of i8o°, and, 
 therefore, can take an angle of any quantity, and the 
 other only an arch of 90°. 
 
 AJhGnomical Qu adrant ; its principal ufe is for tak¬ 
 ing obfervations of the fun, planets, or fixed ftars. See 
 Astronomical Quadrant. 
 
 Cole's, Quadrant, a veryufeful inftrument for tak¬ 
 ing altitudes at fea. It has its name from its inventor, 
 Mr. Benjamin Cole, and confifts of fix parts, viz. the ftaff 
 A B [plate LX IX Jig. 4.) the quadrantal arch f h, three 
 varies, A, B, C, and the vernier G. 
 
 The ftaff is a bar of wood of about two feet long, an 
 inch and a quarter broad, and of a fufficient thicknefs to 
 prevent it from bending or warping. 
 
 The quadrantal arch is alfo of wood, being nearly 
 equal in ftrength to the fmall arch of Davis’s quadrant, 
 and is divided into degrees, and third parts of a degree, 
 to a radius of about nine inches ; to its extremities are 
 fixed two radii, which meet in the centre of the quadrant 
 by a pin, round which*it cafily moves. 
 
 The fight-vane A is a thin piece of brafs almoft two 
 inches in height, and one broad, placed perpendicularly 
 on the end of the ftaff A, by the help of two ferews paff- 
 ing through its foot. Through the middle of this vane 
 is drilled a fmall hole, like that in the fight-vane of Da¬ 
 vis’s quadrant, through which the coincidence or meet¬ 
 ing of the horizon and folar fpot is to be viewed. 
 
 The horizon vane B is about an inch broad, and two 
 inches and a half high, having a flit cut through it of 
 near an inch long, and a quarter of an inch broad ; this 
 vane is fixed in the centre-pin of the inftrument, in a 
 perpendicular polition, by the help of two ferews palling 
 through its foot, whereby its polition, with refpedl to the 
 fight-vane, is always the fame ; their angle of inclina¬ 
 tion being equal to 45 degrees. 
 
 The fhade vane C is compofed of two brafs plates; 
 the one, which ferves as an arm, is about four inches 
 and a half long, and three quarters of an inch broad, 
 being pinned, at one end, to the upper limb of the qua¬ 
 drant by a ferew, about which it has a fmall motion ; 
 the other end lies in the arch, and the lower edge of the 
 arm is directed to the middle of the centre-pin : the 
 other plate, which is properly the vane, is about two 
 inches long, being fixed perpendicularly to the other 
 plate, at about half an inch diftance from that end next 
 the arch ; this vane may be ufed either by its fhade, or 
 by the folar fpot call by a convex lens placed therein. 
 And, becaufe the wood work is often apt to warp or 
 twift, therefore this vane may be rectified by the help 
 of a ferew, fo that the warping of the inftrument may 
 occafion no error in the obfervation, which is performed 
 in the following manner : fet the line G on the vernier 
 againft a degree on the upper limb of the quadrant, and 
 turn the ferew on the baclc-fide of the limb forward or 
 backward, till the hole in the fight-vane, the centre of 
 the glafs, and the funk fpot in the horizon vane, lie in 
 a right line. 
 
 To find the fun’s altitude by this inftrument. 
 
 1 urn your back to the fun, holding the inftrument 
 by the ftaff, with your right hand, fo that it be in a 
 vertical plane palling through the fun ; apply your eye 
 to the fight-vane, looking through that and the horizon 
 vane till you fee the horizon ; with the left hand Hide 
 the quadrantal arch upwards, until the folar fpot or 
 fhade, caft by the fhade vane, fall diredlly on the fpot 
 or flit in the horizon vane ; then will that part of the 
 quadrantal arch, which is raifed above G or S (accord¬ 
 ing as the obfervation rcfpedled either the folar fpot or 
 fhade) fhew the altitude of the fun at that time. But. 
 if the meridian altitude be required, the obfervation muft 
 be continued, and, as the fun approaches the meridian, 
 the fea will appear through the horizon vane, and then 
 is the obfervation finifhed ; and the degrees and minutes, 
 counted as before, will give the fun’s meridian altitude : 
 
 Q^U A 
 
 or the degrees counted from the lower limb upwards will 
 give the zenith diftance. 
 
 Davis' s Quadrant. This inftnrment has its name 
 from Capt. Davis, its inventor, and is no other than a 
 common quadrant, leffened in one part of the arch, by 
 fuppofing it to be divided into two different arches, by 
 a concentrick circle, whereby the inftrument becomes 
 more portable. 
 
 Hadley' s Quadrant, themoft ufeful inftrument for 
 taking altitudes at fea yet extant. It has its name from 
 the inventor, J. Hadley, Efq; and is compounded of the 
 following particulars. 1. An o&ant ABC (plate LXIX. 
 fig- ?•) 2. The index D. 3. Thefpeculum E. 4. Two 
 
 horizontal glaffes, F and G. 5. Two fkreens K and K. 
 b- Two fight-vanes, H and 1 . Fhe oiflant confifts of 
 the arch BC, two radii or limbs, A B, AC; and the 
 two braces L and M, which are to hold it by, ftrengrhen 
 and prevent its warping. The arch B C is only one 
 eighth of a circle, but is divided into 90 primary di- 
 vifions, each of which reprefent degrees, and are num¬ 
 bered o, 10, 20, &c. to 90, from each end of the arch ; 
 and every degree is fubdivided into 1'uch parts as will, bv 
 help of the index, fhew the minutes of each degree. The 
 index D is a flat bar, which moves round the centre of 
 this inftrument, and that part of it which Aides over the 
 graduated arch BC, is open in the middle, to fee the di- 
 vifions which are cut by another fcale placed in the lower 
 part of the faid opening. Thefpeculum is a piece of 
 Hat glafs quickfilvered on one fide, fet in a brafs box, 
 and placed perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument! 
 the middle part of the former coinciding with the centre 
 of the latter. And, becaufe the fpeculum is fixed to the 
 index, the pofition of it will be altered by the moving of 
 the index along the arch. The rays of an obferved ob¬ 
 ject are received on the fpeculum, and from thence re- 
 flc£ted on one of the horizon glaffes. 
 
 The horizon glaffes are two fmall pieces of looking- 
 glafs placed on one of the limbs, their faces being turned 
 obliquely to the fpeculum, from whence they revive the 
 reflected rays of obferved obje&s. This glafs, F, has 
 only its lower part quickfilvered, and fet in brafs work ; 
 the upper part being left tranfparent to view the horizon! 
 The glafs G has in its middle a tranfparent flit, through 
 which the horizon is to be feen. And becaufe the warp¬ 
 ing of the wood work, and other accidents, may diftend 
 them from their true fituation, there are three ferews 
 palling through their feet, whereby they may be eafily 
 replaced. The Ikreens are two pieces of coloured glafs, 
 fet in two fquare brafs frames K, K, which ferve as 
 Ikreens to take off the glare of the fun’s rays, which 
 would be otherwile too ftrong for the eye; the one is 
 tinged much deeper than the other; and, as both of 
 them move on the fame centre, they may be both or 
 either of them ufed : in the fituation they appear in 
 the figure, they ferve the horizon glafs F; but, when 
 they are wanted for the horizon glafs G, they muft be 
 taken from their prefent fituation, and placed on the 
 quadrant above G. 
 
 The fight-vanes are two pins, H and I, ftanding at 
 right angles to the plane of the inftrument; that at H 
 has one hole in it, oppofite to the tranfparent flit in the 
 horizon glafs G ; the other at I has two holes in it, the 
 one oppofite to the middle of the tranfparent part of the 
 horizon glafs F, the other rather lower than the quick¬ 
 filvered part; this vane has a piece of brafs on the back 
 of it, which moves round a centre, and ferves to cover 
 either of the holes. 
 
 There are two forts of obfervations to be made with 
 this inftrument; the one, when the back of the obferver 
 is turned towards the objetft, and therefore called the 
 back obfervation ; the other, when the face of the ob¬ 
 ferver is turned towards the object, which is called the 
 fore obfervation. 
 
 To reftify the inftrument for the fore obfervation. 
 
 Slacken the ferew in the middle of the handle behind 
 the glafs F ; bring the index dole to the button b y hold 
 the inftrument in a vertical pofition, with the arch 
 downwards; look through the right hand hole in the 
 vane I, and through the tranfparent part of the glafs F 
 for the horizon; and if it lies in the lame right line 
 with the image of the horizon, feen on the quickfilvered 
 part, the glafs F is rightly adjufted ; but, if the two ho¬ 
 rizontal lines difagree, turn the ferew at the end of the 
 
 handle 
 
Q^U A 
 
 handle backwards or forwards, until thofe lines coincide, 
 then fallen the middle lcrew of the handle, and the glafs 
 is rightly adjufled. 
 
 To rectify the instrument for the back obfervation. 
 Slacken the fcrew in the middle of the handle, behind 
 the glafs G ; turn the button h on one fide, and bring 
 the index as many degrees before o , as is twice the drip 
 of the horizon at your height above the water; hold 
 the instrument vertical with the arch downwards, look 
 through the hole of the vane H, and if the horizon, feen 
 through the tranfparent flit in the glafs G, coincides with 
 the image of the horizon, feen in the quicksilvered part 
 of the lame glafs; then the glafs G is in its proper posi¬ 
 tion. But, if not, let it by the handle, and fallen the 
 lcrew as before. 
 
 To take the fun’s altitude by the back obfervation. 
 Put the Stem of the Skreens K, K, into the hole r, and, 
 in proportion to the Strength or faintnefs of the fun’s 
 rays, let one, both, or neither of the frames of thofe 
 glalles be turned clofe to the face of the limb; hold the 
 instrument in a vertical polition, with the arch down¬ 
 wards, By the braces L, M, with your left hand ; turn 
 your back towards the fun, and put your eye clofe to 
 the hole, in the vane H, obferving the horizon through 
 the tranfparent flit in the horizon glafs G ; with your 
 right hand move the index D, till the reflected image of 
 the fun be feen in the quickfilvered part of the glafs G, 
 and in a right line with the horizon ; fwing your body 
 to and fro, and, if the obfervation be well made, the 
 fun’s image will be obferved to brufh the horizon, and 
 the degrees reckoned from C, or that part of the arch 
 farthest from your body, will give the fun’s altitude, at 
 the time of obfervation, obferving to add 16 min.rzthc 
 fun’s lemidiameter, if the fun’s upper edge be ufed, and 
 Subtracting 16 min. from the altitude, if the obfervation 
 refpeCted the lower edge. 
 
 To take the fun’s altitude by the fore obfervation. 
 Having fixed the lkreen above the horizon glafs F, and 
 fuited them proportionally to the Strength of the fun’s 
 rays, turn you face towards the fun, holding the in¬ 
 strument with your right hand, by the braces L M, in 
 a vertical position, with the arch downwards ; put your 
 eye clofe to the right hand hole in the vane I, and view 
 the horizon through the tranfparent part of the horizon 
 glafs F, moving at the lame time the index D with your 
 left hand, till the reflex Solar fpot coincides with the 
 line of the horizon ; then the degrees counted from C, 
 or that end next your body, will give the altitude of the 
 fun at that time, obferving to add or fubtraft 16 min. 
 according to the upper or lower edge of the fun’s reflex 
 image being made u!’e of. But to obtain the fun’s me¬ 
 ridian altitude, which is the thing wanted, in order to 
 find the latitude; the obfervations muft be continued, 
 and, as the fun approaches the meridian, the index D 
 muft be continually moved towards B, in order to main¬ 
 tain the coincidence between the reflex folar fpot and the 
 horizon ; and consequently, as long as this motion can 
 maintain the fame coincidence, the obfervation muft be 
 continued ; and when the Sun has attained the meridian, 
 and begins to defeend, the coincidence will require a re¬ 
 trograde motion of the index, or towards C, and then is 
 the obfervation finifhed, and the degrees counted, as be¬ 
 fore, will give the fun’s meridian altitude, or thofe from 
 B, the zenitli diltance. 
 
 diorodidtical Qu adrant, a pretty commodious in¬ 
 strument, fo called from its ufe in telling die hour of the 
 day. 
 
 Conjlruflion and Ufe of the horediflical Quadrant. 
 From the centre of the quadrant C, [plate LXIX. fig. 5.) 
 vvhofe limb AB is divided into 90°, delcribe Seven con- 
 centrick circles at intervals at plealure -, and to thefe add 
 the Signs of the zodiack, in the order reprefented in the 
 figure. Then, 2. applying a ruler to the centre C, and 
 the limb AB, mark upon the feveral parallels the de¬ 
 grees correfponding to the altitude of the fun when there¬ 
 in, for the given hours ; connedl the points belonging 
 to the lat hour with a curve line, to which add the 
 number of the hour. To die radius CA fit a couple 
 of fights, and to the centre of the quadrant C tie a 
 thread with a plummet, and upon the thread a bead to 
 Slide. If now the bead be brought to the paiallel 
 wherein the fun is, and the quadrant u: eCted to the | 
 fun, dll a Yiiuai ray pal's through the lights, die bead j 
 
 Q^U A 
 
 will Shew the hour. For the plummet in this Situation, 
 cuts all the parallels in the degrees correfponding to the 
 Sun’s altitude. Since then the bead is in the parallel 
 which the fun deferibes, and, through the degrees of al¬ 
 titude to which the Sun is elevated every hour, there pafs 
 hour-lines, the bead mult fliew the prelent hour. Some 
 reprefent the hour-lines by arches of circles, or even by 
 Straight lines, and that without any lenfible error. 
 
 Gunter's. Quadrant, fo called from the inventor our 
 countryman, Edmund Gunter. This, befides the appa¬ 
 ratus, of other quadrants, has a ftereographical projection 
 of the fphere on the plane of the equinoctial, with the 
 eye placed in one of the poles. (See plate LXIX.ySg. 6.) 
 
 Ufe of Gunter’s quadrant. 1. To find the fun’s me¬ 
 ridian altitude lor any given day, or the day of the 
 month for any given meridian altitude. Lay the thread 
 to the day of the month in the fcale next the limb ; the 
 degree it cuts in the limb, is the fun’s meridian altitude. 
 Thus the thread, being laid on the 15th of May, cuts 
 59 0 30', the altitude fought; and contrarily the thread, 
 being Set to the meridian altitude, Ihews the day of the 
 month. 
 
 2. To find the hour efi the day. Having put the bead, 
 which Aides on the thread, to the fun’s place in the 
 ccliptick, obferve the fun’s altitude by the quadrant; 
 then, if the thread be laid over the fame in the limb, the 
 bead will fall upon the hour required. Thus, luppofe 
 on the 10th of April, the fun being then in the begin¬ 
 ning of Taurus, we obferve the Sun’s altitude by the 
 quadrant to be 36°; we place the bead to the beginning 
 of Taurus in the ccliptick, and lay the thread over 36° 
 of the limb; and find the bead to fall on the hour-line 
 marked 3 and 9 ; accordingly the hour is either 9 in the 
 morning, or 3 in the afternoon. Again, laying the 
 bead on the hour given, having firlt rectified, or put it 
 to the fun’s place, the degree cut by the thread on the 
 limb gives the altitude. 
 
 Note, the bead maybe rectified otherwife, by bring¬ 
 ing the thread to the day of the month, and the bead to 
 the hour-line of 12. 
 
 3. To find the Jun s declination from his place given, and 
 conirariwife. Set the bead to the fun’s place in the eclip- 
 tick, move the thread to the line of declination E 1 ’, 
 and the bead will cut the degree of declination required. 
 Contrarily, the bead being adjufled to a given declina¬ 
 tion, and the thread moved to the ecliptick, the bead will 
 cut the fun’s place. 
 
 4. The jun s place being given , to find his right afctnfion y 
 or contrarily. Lay the thread on the fun’s place in the 
 ecliptick, and the degree it cuts on the limb is the right 
 afeenfion fought. Contrarily, laying the thread on the 
 righ afeenfion, it cuts the fun’s place in the ecliptick. 
 
 5. The Jun s c.ltitude being given to find his azimuth , and 
 contrariwije . ReCtify the bead for the time, as in the fe- 
 cond article, and obferve the fun’s altitude ; bring the 
 thread to the complement of that altitude ; thus the bead 
 will give the azimuth fought among the azimuth lines. 
 
 6 . To find the hour of the night from fome of the five Jlars 
 laid down on the quadrant. 1. Put the head to the ftar 
 you would obferve, and find how many hours it is off 
 the meridian, by article 2. Then from the right afeen¬ 
 fion of the Star, fubtraCt the fun’s right afeenfion con¬ 
 verted into hours, and mark the difference ; which dif¬ 
 ference, added to the obferved hour of the Star from the 
 meridian, Shews how many hours the fun is gone from 
 the meridian, which is the hour of the night. Suppofe 
 on the 15th of May the fun is in the 4th degree of Ge¬ 
 mini, we fet the bead to ArCturus ; and, obferving 
 his altitude, find him in the welt to be about 52 0 high, 
 and the bead to fall on the hour-line of 2 in the after¬ 
 noon ; then will the hour be 11 hours 50 min. patt noon, 
 or 10 min. Short of midnight: for 62°, the fun’s right 
 afeenfion, converted into time, makes 4 hours 8 min. 
 which Subtracted from 13 hours 58 min. the right afeen¬ 
 fion of ArCturus, the remainder will be 9 hours 50 min. 
 which added to 2 hours, the obferved distance of ArCtu- 
 rus from the meridian, Shews the hour of the night to 
 be 11 hours 50 min. 
 
 Sutton's fometimes called Collins's Pcchet-Qv ad r ant, 
 as reprefented (plate LXIX.y^g. 1.) is a Stereographick 
 I projection of one quarter of the fphere, between the tro- 
 picks, upon the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being 
 [ in the north pole, it is fitted to the latitude of London. 
 
 1 The 
 


Q.U A 
 
 <K V A 
 
 Tlie lines, running from the right hartd to the left, are 
 parallels of altitude; and thofe crofling them are azi 
 fnuths. The lefier of the two circles, bounding the 
 projection, is one fourth of the tropick of Capricorn ; th- 
 greater is one fourth of that of Cancer. The two eclip 
 ticks are drawn from a point on the left edge of the qua¬ 
 drant, with the characters of the figns upon them ; and 
 the two horizons are drawn from the fame point. The 
 limb is divided both into degrees and time ; and, by hav¬ 
 ing the fun’s altitude, the hour of the day may be found 
 -here to a minute. The quadrantal arches next the centre 
 contain the calendar of months; and under them in an 
 other arch is the fun’s declination. 
 
 On the projection are placed feveral of the moft noted 
 fixed ftars between the tropicks ; and the next below the 
 projection is the quadrant and line of fhadows. 
 
 Ufe of Sutton’s Or Collins Quadrant. To find the 
 time of the fun's rifing or Jetting , his amplitude , his azimuth , 
 hour of the day , &c. Lay the thread over the day and the 
 month, and bring the bead to the proper ecliptick, either 
 of fummer or winter, according to the feafon, which is 
 called rectifying; then, moving the thread, bring the 
 bead to the horizon, in which cafe the thread will cut 
 the limb in the time of the fun’s rifing or fetting, before 
 or after fix ; and at the fame time the bead will cut the 
 horizon in the degrees of the fun’s amplitude. Again, 
 obferving the fun’s altitude with the quadrant* and l'up- 
 pofing it found 45" on the 24th of April, lay the thread 
 over the 24th of April, bring the bead to the fummer 
 ecliptifck, and carry it to the parallel of altitude 45 ' . 
 which cafe the thread will cut the limb at 55 0 15', and 
 the hour will be feen among the hour-lines to be cither 
 41' pall nine in the morning, or 19' paft two in the af¬ 
 ternoon. 
 
 Laftly, the bead among the azimuths fhews the fun’s 
 diltance from the fouth 50° 4 
 
 But note, that if the fun’s altitude be lefs than what it 
 is at fix o’clock, the operation muft be performed among 
 thofe parallels above the upper horizon ; the bead being 
 rectified to the winter ecliptick, 
 
 Sinical Quadrant, in navigation, as reprefented 
 (plate LXJX.yf^. 2.) confifts of feveral concentrick, qua¬ 
 drantal arches, divided into eight equal parts by radii 
 with parallel right lines eroding each other at right 
 angles. Now any of the arches BC may be accounted 
 a quadrant of any of the great circles of the fphere, chiefly 
 of the horizon and meridian ; if then B C be taken for 
 a quadrant of the horizon, either of the fides as AB mav 
 reprefent the meridian; and the other AC will repre- 
 fent a parallel, or line of eaft and weft; and all the 
 other lines parallel to AB will alfo be meridians; and 
 all thofe parallel to A C, eaft or weft parallels, or eaft 
 and weft lines. Again, the eight fpaces into which the 
 arches are divided by the radii, reprefent the eight points 
 of the compafs in a quarter of the horizon ; each con¬ 
 taining ii° 15'. 
 
 The arch BC is likewife divided into 90°, and each 
 degree fubdivided into 12', diagonal-wife. 
 
 To the centre is fixed a thread, as A L ; which be¬ 
 ing laid over any degree of the quadrant, ferves to divide 
 the horizon. 
 
 If the finical quadrant be taken for a fourth part of 
 the meridian, one fide thereof A B may be taken for the 
 common radius of the meridian and equator; and then 
 the other AC will be half the axis of the world. The 
 degrees of the circumference BC will reprefent degrees 
 of latitude, and the parallels to the fide A B, affumed 
 from every point of latitude to the axis A C, will be radii 
 of the parallels of latitude, as likewife the fine comple- 
 jnent of thofe latitudes. 
 
 Suppofe then it be required to find the degrees of lon¬ 
 gitude contained in 83 of the lefier leagues, in the pa¬ 
 rallel of 48°. Lay the thread over 48° of latitude on the 
 circumference, and count thence the 83 leagues, or A B 
 beginning at A; this will terminate in H, allowing every 
 finall interval four leagues. Then tracing out the pa¬ 
 rallel H G, from the point H to the thread ; the part 
 A G of the thread ihews the 125 greater or equinoctial 
 leagues make 6* 15'; and therefore that the 83 lefler 
 leagues A H, which makes the difference of longitude of 
 the courfe, and are equal to the radius of the parallel j 
 
 -G I, make 6° 15' of the faid parallel. 
 
 the north and fouth greater leagues, gives lefler leagues 
 eafteily and wefterly, to be reduced to degrees of longi¬ 
 tude of the equator. But thefe leagues being made nei¬ 
 ther on the parallel of departure, nor on that of arrival, 
 but in all the intermediate ones ; we muft find a mean 
 proportional parallel between them. 
 
 1 0 find this, we have on the inftrument a fcale of 
 crofs latitudes. Suppofe then it were required to find a 
 mean parallel between the parallels of 40° and 6o c : 
 with your compaffes take the middle between the 40th 
 and 60th degree on the fcale ; this middle point will 
 terminate againft the 51ft degree, which is the mean pa¬ 
 rallel required. 
 
 Ufi if the finical Quadrant is to form triangles 
 upon, limilar to thofe made by a (hip’s way, with the 
 meridian and parallels ; the fides of which triangles are 
 meafured by the equal intervals between tile Concentrick 
 quadrants, and the lines N and S, E and W. The lines 
 and arches are diftinguiftied, every fifth, by a broader 
 line, fo that if each interval be taken for one league, 
 there will be five between one broad line and another! 
 Now, luppofe a fhip to have failed ijo leagues north- 
 eall, one-fourth north, which is the third point, and 
 makes an angle 33 0 45' with the north part of the meri¬ 
 dian. Here are given two things, namely, the courfe 
 and diltance failed, by which a triangle may be formed 
 on the inftruments, fimilar to that made by the (hip’s 
 courfe, and her longitude and latitude ; and hence may 
 the unknown parts of the triangle be found. 
 
 Thus, fuppofing the centre A to reprefent the place 
 of departure ; count, by means of the concentrick arches 
 along the point the (hip failed in, as A D, 150 leagues 
 from A to D ; then is the point D the place the fillip ; s 
 arrived at, which note. This done, let DE be parallel 
 to the fide ; and then there will be formed a right-angled 
 triangle A ED, fimilar to that of the (hip’s courfe, dif¬ 
 ference of longitude and latitude ; the fide A E gives 
 125 leagues for the difference of the latitude northwards 
 which makes 6° 15'; and the fide DE gives 83 lefier 
 leagues anfwering to the parallels, which being reduced, 
 as (hewn above, gives the difference of longitude. And 
 thus is the whole triangle formed. 
 
 Mural Qu abrant, or, as it is often called, mural 
 arch, an aflronomical inftrument for taking the altitude 
 of any heavenly objeft, when it tranfits the meridian. 
 
 This inftrument is fixed to a wall erefted exadtly in 
 the plane of the meridian, and was firft ufed by that 
 able aftronomer Mr. Flamftead, who, after the greateft 
 labour and lludy, fixed a mural quadrant in the royal 
 obfervatory at Greenwich. 1 
 
 Explanation of (plate LXX.) teprefenting a muralotta. 
 dr ant in perfpefiive. 
 
 Fig. 1. Is a part of the wall, with the mural quadrant 
 fixed to it, and furmlhed with its whole apparatus for 
 making aflronomical obfcrvations. 
 
 BC, the limb of the inftrument, accurately divided; 
 
 A, the centre of the quadrant. 
 
 a, b, placss where the quadrant is fixed to the wall. 
 
 a, b, c, d , h , i, the counterpoife. 
 
 k, /, the nonius. 
 
 m, a piece fixed to the limb of the inftrument by 
 means of the ferew n. 7 
 
 H, F, the telefcope. 
 
 o, p, a ferew by which the telefcope is moved. 
 
 Fig. 2. a, b, c, d, h , the upper part of the counter- 
 poiie ieparated from the inftrument. 
 
 Fig. 3. c,d,fi g , the lower part of the counterpoife. 
 
 4 * 1 he pm at g„ {fig. 3.) reprefented larger. 
 
 Quadrant, ingunnery, or gunner’s fquare, is an 
 nttrument for elevating or pointing cannon, mortars 
 ecc. according to the places they are to be levelled at. It 
 confifts of two branches, made of brafs or wood ; one 
 about a foot long, eight lines broad, and one line in 
 tnicknels, the other four inches long, and the fame thick- 
 nefs and breadth as the former. Between thefe branches 
 is a quadrant divided into 90°, beginning from the 
 lhorter branch, and furmfhed with thread and plummet 
 1 o ufe this inftrument, place the longeft branch in the 
 mouth of the cannon, &c. and elevate or lower it, till 
 the thread cut the degree ncceffary to hit a propofed obieft. 
 Sometimes on one of the furfaces of the long branch, are 
 
 If the fhip fails an oblique courfe, fuch courfe, befides I lets, as alfo the botes of pieces 
 Vol. 11 . No. 61. 1 t- - - r 
 
 noted the divifion of diameters, and weights of iron bul- 
 if>tc as alfo u -- r 
 
 Ttt 
 
 Quadrant 
 
QU A 
 
 QiiadrXnt of Altitude, is an appendage of the arti¬ 
 ficial globe, confining of a lamina, or flip of brals, the 
 length of a quadrant of one of the great circles of the 
 globe, and graduated. At the end, where the divifion 
 terminates, is a nut rivetted on, and furnifhed with a 
 ferew, by means whereof the inftrument is fitted on to 
 the meridian, and moveable round upon the rivet, to all 
 points of the horizon. 
 
 QUADRA NT AL, in antiquity, called alfo amphora, 
 a vefiei, fquare like a die, in uie among the Romans for 
 the meafuring of liquids. 
 
 It contained 80 libra or pounds of water, and equal 
 to 48 lextaries, 2 urn a 1 , or 8 congii. 
 
 'QuadrantaI TWs^, is a fpherical triangle, one 
 of whofe Tides, at leaft, is a quadrant of a circle, and one 
 of its angles a right angle. 
 
 QUADRAT, Gfuadratum , or the geometrical Square 
 or Line of Shado ws , is an additional member on the face of 
 the common Guntef’s and Sutton’s quadrants, of uie in 
 taking altitudes, See. 1 he quadrat KLH [plate LXIX. 
 jig. 6.) has each of its fides divided into 100 equal parts, 
 commencing from the extremes ; fo as the number 100 
 falls on the angle, and reprefenting tangents to the arch 
 of the limb. The divifions are diftinguilhed by little 
 lines from 5 to 5, and by numbers from 10 to 10 ; and 
 the divifions being occationally produced acrofs, form a 
 kind of lattice, confifting of 10,000 little I'quares. The 
 proportion here is, as the ratio is to the tangent of al¬ 
 titude at the place of obiervation, that is, to the parts 
 of the quadrat cut by the thread ; fo is thediflance be¬ 
 tween the ftation and foot of the objeft to its height 
 above the eye. 
 
 The ufe of the Quadrat, i. The quadrat being 
 vertically placed, and the fights dircfled to the top of the 
 objedl, whole height is required ; if the thread cut the 
 fide of the quadrat marked right fhadows, the diftance 
 from the bafe of theobjefl to the point of flation is lefs 
 than the obje&s height: if the thread fall on the diago¬ 
 nal of the fquare, the diftance is juft equal to the height: 
 if it fall on that fide marked verfed fhadows, the dif¬ 
 tance exceeds the height. Hence, meafuring the dif¬ 
 tance, - the height is found by the rule of three, inaf- 
 much as there are three terms given. Indeed, their dit- 
 pofition is not always the fame ; for when the thread cuts 
 the fide of the right fhadows, the firft term of the rule of 
 three ought to be that part of the fide cut by die thread ; 
 the fecond the fide of the fquare; and the third the diftance 
 meafured. If the thread cut the other fide, the firft term 
 is the whole fide of the fquare, the fecond the parts of the 
 fide cut by the thread, and the third the diftance. Sup- 
 pole, for inftance, in looking at the top of a fteeple, the 
 thread cut the fide of right fhadows in the point 40, and 
 that the diftance meafures 20 poles, the cafe will Hand 
 thus : as 40 is to 100, fo is 20 to a fourth term ; which 
 is found to be 50, the height of the fteeple in poles. 
 Again,- fuppofing the thread to fall on the other fide, in 
 the point 50, and the diftance to meafure 35 poles, the 
 terms are to be difpofed thus ; as 100 is to 60, fo is 35 
 to a fourth term, namely, 21, the height required. 
 
 Ufe of the Qua. DR at without Calculation. It the di¬ 
 vifions of the fquare are produced both ways, fo as to 
 form the area into little fquares. 
 
 Thus, fuppofe 1. the thread to fall on 40 in the fide 
 of right fhadows, and the diftance be meafured 20 poles ; 
 feek,° among the little fquares, for that perpendicular to 
 the fide which is 20 parts from the thread ; this perpen¬ 
 dicular will cut the fide of the fquare next the centre in 
 the point 50, which is the height required in poles. 
 
 2. If the thread cut the fide of the verfed lhadows in 
 the point 6o, and the diftance be 35 poles, count 35 parts 
 on the fide of the quadrat from the centre; count alfo 
 the divifions or the perpendicular from the point 35 to 
 the thread, which will be 21, the height of the tower in 
 poles. Note, that in all cafes, the height of the centre 
 
 of the inftrument is to be added. 
 
 Quadrat, in aftrology, called alfo quartile, is an 
 afpedl of the heavenly bodies, wherein they are dillant 
 from each other a quadrant, or 90°. This is held a 
 malign afpedl. 
 
 Quadrat, in printing, is a fort of fpace, call like 
 the letters, but fhortcr, to be ufed occafionally in com- 
 -pofing, in order to form the intervals between words, 
 particularly for breaks, tire end of lines, See. 
 
 QU A 
 
 There are m quadrats and n quadrats, which are re-- 
 fpedlively of the dimenfions of fuch letters. 
 
 QUADRATICK Eqjjation, in algebra, is that 
 which involves one unknown quantity, and, at the 
 lame time, involves the fquare of that quantity, and 
 the produdt of it multiplied by fome known quantity. 
 This kind of equations may be refolved by the follow¬ 
 ing rule : 
 
 1. Tranfpofc all the terms that involve the unknown 
 quantity to one fide, and the known terms to the other 
 ■fide of the equation. 
 
 2. If the fquare of the unknown quantity is multiplied 
 by any co-efficient, you are to divide all the terras by that 
 co-efficient, that the co-efficient of the fquare of the 
 unkno n quantity may be an unit. 
 
 3. Add to both fides the fquare of h rlfthe co-efficient 
 prefixed to the unknown quantity itfelf, and the fide of 
 the equation that involves the unknown quantity, will 
 then be a complete fquare. 
 
 4. Extradl the fquare root from both fides of the equa¬ 
 
 tion, which you will find, on one fide, always to be. 
 the unknown quantity with half the forelaid co-efficieut 
 fubjoined to it ; fo that by tranfpofing this half, you 
 may obtain the value of the unknown quantity exprelled 
 in known terms. e 
 
 QUADRATING of a Piece, among gunners, is tire 
 due placing of a piece of ordnance, and polling it in its 
 carriage, and having its wheels of an equal height, &c. 
 See the article Gunnery. 
 
 QUADRATO-Cubus, Quadrato, Quadrato-Cubusy 
 and Quadrats-Cubo-Cubus, according to Diaphantus, 
 Vieta, Oughtred, &c. denotes the fifth, feventh, and 
 eighth powers. See Power. 
 
 Quadrato -Quadratum, or Biquadratum, the fourth 
 power of numbers, or the produdt of the cube when 
 multiplied by the root. 
 
 QUADRATRIX, in geometry, a mechanical line, 
 by means whereof we can find right lines equal to the 
 circumference of circles, or other curves, and their feve- 
 ral parts, 
 
 Quadratrix of Dinojlratus , fo called from its in¬ 
 ventor Dinoftrates, is a curve, whereby the quadrature 
 of the circle is effedled mechanically. 
 
 Quadratrix Tfchirnbaufiana, is a tranfcendental 
 curve invented by M. Tfchirnhaufen, whereby the qua¬ 
 drature of the circle is likevvife effefled. 
 
 QUADR ATUM-Cub 1, Quadr aio-Quadrato-Qua- 
 dratum, and Quadr atum-Surdefolidi , according to the 
 Arabs, denote the fixth, eighth, and tenth powers of 
 numbers. See Power. 
 
 QUADRATURE, Quadratura, in geometry, de¬ 
 notes the fquaring, or reducing a figure to a fquare. 
 Thus, the finding of a fquare, which fliall contain juft 
 as much furfacc or a?ra as a circle, an cllipfis, a triangle. 
 See. is the quadrature of a circle, ellipfis, &p. 
 
 Quadrature, in aftronomy, that afpedl of the 
 moon when fire is qo° diftant from the fun ; or when ffie 
 is in a middle point of her orbit, between the points, of 
 conjundlion and oppofition, namely, in the fiift and 
 third quarters. See Moon. 
 
 Quadr ature-Z-d^, are two lines placed on Gun-- 
 ter’s fedlor: they are marked with Q^ and 5, 6, 7, 8, 
 9, 10; of which QMignifies the fide of the lquare, and 
 the other figures the fides of polygons of 5, 6, 7, See. 
 fides. S. on the fame inftrument, Hands for the femi- 
 diameter of a circle, and 90 for a line equal to 90® in 
 circumference. 
 
 QUADRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to fe- 
 veral mufcles on account of their fquare figure. 
 
 QUADREL, in building, a kind of artificial ftone, 
 lb called from its being perfedlly fquare. 
 
 The quadrels are made of a chalky earth, See. and 
 dried in the lhade for two years. Thele were formerly 
 in great requeft among the Italian architedls. 
 
 QUADRILATERAL, in geometry, afigurewhofc 
 perimeter confifts of four right lines, making four angles; 
 whence it is alfo called a quadrangular figure. 
 
 The quadrilateral figures are either a parallelogram, 
 trapezium, rcflangle, fquare, rhombus, or rhomboides. 
 
 QUADRIL, Quadr ilia, a little troop.or company of 
 cavillers, pompouflv drefled, and mounted for the per¬ 
 formance of caroufals, jufts, tournaments, runnings at 
 the ring, and oilier gallant divertilements. 
 
 QUADRILLE. 
 

 q_u a 
 
 QUADRILLE, a game at cards, fometim.es called 
 ombre by four; which chiefly differs from ombre by 
 three, in being played by four perfons, and having all 
 the 40 cards dealt out, to each perfon, at 10 each. 
 
 QUADRUPEDS, Quadrupedia , in zoology, a clafs 
 of land animals, with hairy bodies, and four limbs or 
 legs proceeding from the trunk of their bodies : add to 
 this, that the females of this clafs are viviparous, or bring 
 forth their young alive, and nourifli them with milk 
 from their teats. 
 
 QUADRUPLE, a fum or number multiplied by 
 four, or taken four times. 
 
 This word is particularly ufed for a gold coin, worth 
 four times as much as that whereof it is the quadruple. 
 
 QUAKERS, a religious left, which made its firft ap¬ 
 pearance in England during the interregnum ; fo called, 
 in derifion, from certain unufual tremblings with which 
 they were feized at their lirft meetings. 
 
 Their founder was George Fox, a (hoe-maker, born 
 at Draiton, in Leicefterfhire ; who, as he worked at his 
 trade, tried to meditate much on the (captures: at length 
 lie began to fee vilions, and let up for a preacher. 
 
 He propofed but few articles ol faith, inlifting chiefly 
 on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of God, and 
 a deep attention to the inward motions and fecret opera¬ 
 tions of the Spirit. He required a plain Ample worship, 
 and a religion without ceremonies, making it a princi¬ 
 pal point to wait in profound filence the direftions ol the 
 Holy Spirit. 
 
 Quakers were at lirft guilty of fome extravagancies, 
 but thele wore off, and they fettled into a regular body, 
 pro felling great aufterity. of behaviour, a lingular probity 
 and uprightnefs in their dealings, a great frugality at 
 their tables, and a remarkable plainnels and fimplicity in 
 their drefs. 
 
 QUALIFICATOR, in the cannon law, a divine ap¬ 
 pointed to qualify, or declare the quality ol a propofition 
 brought before an ccclefiaftical tribunal, chiefly before 
 the inquiiition. The qualificatory of the office are not 
 judges, they only give their l'entiments on the propofition 
 prefiented to them. 
 
 QUALITY, Qualitas, is defined by Mr. Locke to 
 be the power in a lubjeft of producing any idea in tlie> 
 mind : thus a fnow-ball having the power to produce in 
 us the ideas of white, cold, and round, thefe powers, as 
 they are in the fnow-ball, lie calls qualities ; and as they 
 are fenlations, or perceptions, in our under handing, he 
 calls ideas. See Idea. 
 
 QUANTITY, Quantitas, any thing capable of efti 
 mation, or menfuration ; or which, being compared with 
 another thing of the fame kind, may be laid to be greater 
 or lefs than it, equal or unequal to it. 
 
 Mathematicks is the fcience or doftrine ol quantity, 
 which being made up of parts, is capable of being made 
 greater or lefs. It is increased by addition, and dimi- 
 niflied by fubtraftion ; which are therefore the two pri¬ 
 mary operations that relate to quantity. Hence it is laid 
 that any quantity maybe luppofed to enter into alge- 
 braick computations two different ways, which have con¬ 
 trary effefts, viz. either as an increment or as a decre¬ 
 ment. SeeAnniTiON and Subtraction. 
 
 As addition and fubtraftion arcoppolitc, or an incre¬ 
 ment is oppofite to a decrement, there is an analagous 
 oppolition between the affeftions of quantities that are 
 conlidered in the mathematical fciences ; as between ex- 
 cefs and defeft, between the value of effefts or money 
 due to a man, and money due by him ; a line drawn 
 towards the right, and a line drawn towards the left; 
 gravity, and levity; elevation above the horizon and de 
 prelfion below it. When two quantities equal in refpeft 
 of magnitude, but of thofe oppofite kinds, are joined 
 together, and conceived to take place in the fame fubjeft 
 they deftroy each other’s effeft, and their amount is 
 nothing. A power is fuftained by an equal power, aft- 
 ing on the fame body with a contrary direftion, and 
 neither have effeft. When two unequal quantities of 
 thole oppofite qualities are joined in the fame fubjeft 
 the greater prevails by their difference; and when a greater 
 quantity is taken from a lefs of the fame kind, the re¬ 
 mainder becomes of the oppofite kind. W hen two powers 
 ' ‘ ' fum afts upon 
 
 be a power with an oppofite direftion ; and if.it be greater 
 than the other, it will prevail by the difference. This 
 change of quality only takes place where the quantity is 
 of fuch a nature as to admit of Inch a contrariety or op- 
 pofition. Wc know nothing analagous to u in quantity 
 abftraftedly conlidered; and cannot fubtraft a greater 
 quantity of matter from a lefs, or a greater quantity or 
 light from a lels; and the application of this doftrine to 
 any art or fcience, is to be derived from the known prin¬ 
 ciples of the fcience. 
 
 A quantity that is to be added, is called a pofitive quan¬ 
 tity ; and a quantity to be iubtrafted, is laid to be negative. 
 
 Quantities are faid to be like or fimilar, that are of the 
 fame denomination, or are reprefented by the fame letter 
 or letters, equally repeated : but quantities- of tliilcrent 
 denominations, or reprefented bv a different letter or 
 letters, are laid to be unlike or diffrmilar. A quantity 
 confifting of more than one term, is called a compound 
 quantity ; whereas that confiding of cnc.tcrm only, 
 denominated a fimple quantity. 
 
 The quantity of matter in any body, is the produft 
 of its denfity into its bulk; or a quantity aiding from 
 the joint confidcration of its magnitude and denfity ; as 
 if " body be twice as denfe, and take up twice as much 
 fpace as another, it will be four times as great. i his 
 quantity of matter is heft diicover^ble by the abiolute 
 weight of bodies. 
 
 The quantity of motion in any body is the faftum of 
 the velocity into the mafs, or it is a mcafurv arifing from 
 the joint confidcration of the quantity of matter, and 
 the velocity of the motion of a body ; the motion of any 
 whole being the fum or aggregate of the motion in all 
 its feveral parts. Hence, in a body twice as great as 
 another, moved with an equal velocity, the quantity of 
 motion is double ; if the velocity be double alfo, the quan¬ 
 tity of motion will be quadruple. Hence, the quantity 
 of motion is the fame with what wc call the momentum 
 or impetus of a moving body. 
 
 Quantity, in grammar, an affeftion of a fyltable, 
 whereby its mealure, or the time wherein it is produced, 
 is aftertained ; or that which determines the iyllable to 
 be long or lhort. 
 
 Quantity (s alfo the objeft of profody, and diftin- 
 guilhes verfe from profc ; and the ceconomy and arrange¬ 
 ment of quantities, that is, the diftribution of long and 
 lhort fyllables, makes what we call the number. 
 
 QUARANTAIN, Quarentine, oi-Quaran- 
 tena, in old law books, denotes the fpace of 40 days. 
 It alfo fignifies a benefit allowed to the widow of a mail 
 dyingfeiled of lands, &c.. by which lhe may challenge to 
 continue in his capital meffuage, or chief manfion-houfe, 
 fo it be not a cattle, for the fpace of 40 days after his 
 deceafe. And if the heir of any other perfon ejeft her, 
 fhe may have the writ de quarantena habenda. 
 
 Qjjarantain is more particularly ufed for a term 
 of 40 days, which veffels, coming from places fufpefted 
 of contagion, are obliged to wait in certain places ap¬ 
 pointed to air themfelves, before they come into port. 
 See Lazaretto. Quarantain alfo fignifies a meafure 
 or extent of land, containing 40 perches. 
 
 Quarantain of the King, in France, denotes a 
 truce of 40 days, appointed by St. Louis, during which, 
 it was exprefily forbid to take revenge on the relations or 
 friends of people who had fought, wounded, or affronted 
 each other in words. 
 
 QUARREL, Querela, in law, is generally applied 
 to perfonal and mixed aftions, in which the plaintiff is 
 called querens : and hence it is, that if a perfon releafe 
 all quarrels, it is taken to be as beneficial to the releafee, 
 as if it were a releafe of all aftions ; fince all aftions, 
 both real and perfonal, are thereby releafed. 
 
 QUARRY, a place under ground, out of which are 
 got marble, free-ftone, (late, lime-ftone, or other matters 
 proper for buildings. 
 
 Quarries of free-ftone are in many places opened, and 
 the ftone brought out in the following manner : they firft 
 dig a hole in die manner of a well, 12 or 14 feet in dia¬ 
 meter, and the rubbifh drawn out with a windlafs in large 
 ofier baikets, they heap up all around; placing their 
 wheel, which is to draw up their ftones, upon ic. As 
 the hole advances, and the common ladder becomes too 
 
 or forces are to be added together, their .. . 
 
 the body ; but when we are to fubtraft one of them from! lhort, they apply a particular ladder lor the purpole. 
 
 the Other, we concave that which is to be fubtrafted, to] When they have got through the earth, and are arrived 
 . 3 
 

 Q.U A 
 
 at the firft bank or ftratum, they begin to apply their 
 wheel and bafkets to difeharge the ftones as fall as they 
 oig through them. In freeing the flone from tire bed, 
 they proceed thus: as common ftones, at leaf! the fofter 
 kinds, have two grains, a cleaving grain, running pa¬ 
 rallel with the horizon, and a breaking grain, running 
 perpendicular thereto; they obferve by the grain where 
 it will cleave, and there drive in a number of wedges, 
 till they have cleft it from the reft of the rock. This 
 done, they proceed to break it; in order to which, ap¬ 
 plying the ruler to it, they fir ike a line, and by this cut 
 a little channel with their ftone-axe ; and in the channel, 
 if the flone be three or four feet long, fet five or fix 
 wedges, driving them in very carefully with gentle blows, 
 and ftill keeping them equally forward. Having thus 
 broken the flone in length, which they are able to do 
 of any fizc within half an inch, they apply a fquare to 
 the ilraight fide, flrike a line, and proceed to break it in 
 breadth. This way of managing flone is found vaflly 
 preferable to that where they are broken at random • one 
 load of the former being found to do the bufrnefs of a 
 load and a half of the latter. But it may be obferved, 
 that this cleaving grain being generally wanting in the 
 harder kinds of llones, to break up thefe in the quarries, 
 they have great heavy hone-axes, with which they work 
 down a deep diannel into the flone ; and into this chan¬ 
 nel, at the top, lay two iron bars, between which they 
 drive their iron wedges. 
 
 Some in dividing the flone, efpccially the very hard 
 kinds, make ufe of gunpowder, with very good effedl. 
 In order to which, making a fmall perforation pretty 
 deep in the body of the rock, fo as to have that thicknefs 
 of rock over it judged proper to be blown up at once, at 
 the further end of the perforation they difpofe a con¬ 
 venient quantity of gunpowder, filling up all the reft 
 with ftones and rubbifh, ftrongly rammed in, except a 
 fmall place for the train. By this means is the rock 
 blown into feveral pieces, moft of which are not too big 
 to be managed by the workmen. 
 
 Quarry, among glaziers, a pane of glafs cut in a 
 diamond form. Quarries are of two kinds, fquare and 
 long, each of which are of different fizes, exprefled by 
 the number of the pieces that make a foot of glafs, viz. 
 Sths, ioths, i2ths, iSths, and aoths. 
 
 Quarry, in falconry, is the game which the hawk 
 is in purfuit of, or has killed. 
 
 QUART, a mealurc containing the fourth part of fome 
 other mealure. The Englifh quart is the fourth part of 
 a gallon, or two pints. 
 
 QUART. AN, Quartana, in medicine, a fpecies of 
 intermitting fever, wherein the patient has two fits in 
 four days, or two days quite free from a fit. 
 
 It ufually begins about four or five in the afternoon, 
 fometimes fooner and fometimes later, with a great laffi- 
 tude, ftretchin'g, a blunt pain in the head, back, loins, 
 and legs; and the feet and hands are cold, and the whole 
 body is pale ; and the face and nails livid, to which fhiver- 
 ing and fhaking fupervene. The tongue and the lips 
 tremble, the breathing is difficult, with reftleffinels, and 
 tolling ; the pulle is contracted and hard, and fometimes 
 unequal; and there is an anxiety about the praxordia. 
 Thefe fymptoms continue about two or three hours ; 
 and in fome the body is coftive, whereas in others there 
 is a ftimulus to ftool, and to make water : in fome again, 
 there is a naufea or vomiting, with {tools ; and fome ad¬ 
 vanced in years have their minds pretty much difturbed. 
 The heat comes on gradually, not burning but dry ; the 
 pulfe becomes equal, quick, and large, but the dull pain 
 in the head remains, with a vertiginous affeftion ; the 
 fkin becomes only a little moifl ; and in about four or 
 fix hours, the fymptoms vanifli, except a dull pain in 
 the bones, joints, and feet. The urine in the fit is 
 fometimes thin and watery, and fometimes thick with a 
 fediment. 
 
 From the experiments of Dr. Langrifh it appears, 
 that the blood is more denfe and tenacious in quotidians 
 than in tertians, and in tertians than in quartans. 
 
 As to the cure, a vomit fhould be given after the firft 
 fit, in the time of intermiffion : in tender conftitutions, 
 ipecacuanha may be given alone, or two ounces of vinum 
 ipecacuanhum ; but to the robuit, a grain or two of 
 cmetick tartar may be added, to be taken in warm water 
 about two hours after the paroxylm. The evacuation 
 
 Q^U A 
 
 fhould be facilitated by taking large draughts of water- 
 gruel made fat with frefh butter. Then take the follow¬ 
 ing eleftuary, which will crufh the difeafe in the hud : 
 viz. take of rob of elder, one ounce ; of Peruvian bark, 
 hve drachms; of the powder of common chammomile- 
 nowers, two drachms ; of the extraCl of lefs centaury, 
 and powder of clove-julvflowers, each half a drachm , 
 and as much fvrup of lemons as is fufficient to reduce 
 them to the form of an eleCluary, The dofe is half a 
 drachm, to be taken every two hours after the fit. 
 
 If any thing forbids vomiting, the cure mull be begun 
 with deterfive and aperient falts, as vitriolated tartar, 
 fait armoniack, purified nitre, and crab’s eyes; and if 
 the ague ftill continue, notwithftanding the repeated ufc 
 of thefe falts, then an equal weight of Peruvian bark mull 
 be added to them, or the above elefluary may lie given. 
 
 When the patient is lubjedl to the hypocliondriack 
 pallion, the ftomach is inflated, and the body coftive ; 
 then neither vomits nor falts mull be ventured upon, but 
 carininitive and emollient clyfters. 
 
 In obftinate quartans, Hoffman greatly commends the 
 following medicine: take of Peruvian bark, three drachms’; 
 of medicinal regulus of antimony, two drachms; of mer- 
 curius dulcis, (which is not to be triturated with the 
 powder on account of the falts, but only mixed with 
 the point of a knife) of the fineft crocus martis, and of 
 vitriolated nitre, each one drachm ; and of oil of mint, 
 four drops : make up all thefe into a powder, of which 
 half a drachm, or a drachm, may be taken, made into 
 the form of a bolus, with, rob of elder, and lyrup of clove- 
 julyflowers. 
 
 I his method is confirmed by Huxham, who fays the 
 bark frequently proves ineffectual, without the help of 
 proper alexipharmicks ; as fnakc-root of Virginia, con- 
 trayerva, myrrh, camphor, &c. After four or five pa- 
 roxyfms, warm chalybeates may be added with very great 
 fuccefs ; but when the patient’s complexion has a yellow 
 call, and he has a tenfe abdomen, and a very coftive 
 habit of body, mercurial, l’aponaceous deobftruents, with 
 rhubarb, aloeticks, or fal diureticus fhould be premifed 
 to, or joined with the bark. Hoffman obferves, that 
 obftinate quartans m boys are not to be cured but by 
 purging ; and therefore, he directs the following form : 
 take of cream of tartar, one drachm ; of calx of anti¬ 
 mony, 12 grains ; of fulphurated diagrydium, fix grains; 
 make them into a powder, which may be taken in three 
 dofes, the firft fix hours before the fit, the fecond before 
 the next fit, and the third before the third fit. After 
 this, he orders an infufion of half an ounce of Peruvian 
 bark in eight ounces of fennel-water; adding the bark 
 of Eleutherius, fal diureticus, and lalt of tartar, of each 
 one drachm, together with half an ounce of fvrup of 
 clove-julvflowers, a fpoonful of which fhould lie taken 
 every two hours. 
 
 To prevent the return of an ague, the bark mufl be 
 repeated every week or io days, for th:ee feveral times, 
 with the fame intervals. Likewile birters and chalybeates 
 are very ferviceable, taken either together or leparately. 
 
 QUARTATION, in metallurgy, a method of puri- 
 fying gold, by melting three parts of filver with one of 
 gold, and then throwing the mixture into aqua fortis. 
 
 QUART ER, Quadrans, the fourth part of any thing, 
 the fractional expreffion for which is J. See the article 
 Fraction. 
 
 Quarter, in weights, is generally ufed for the 
 fourth part of ioowt. averdupois, or 281b. Ufed as 
 the name of a dry meafure, quarter is the fourth part 
 of a ton in weight, or eight bulhels. 
 
 Quarter, in law, the fourth part of a year ; and 
 hence the days on which thefe quarters commence, are 
 called quarter-days, viz. March 25. or Ladv-day ; June 
 24. or Midlummer-day ; September 29. or Michaelmas ; 
 and December 2 r, or St. Thomas the apoftle’s day. On 
 thele days rents on leafes, &c. are ufually referved to be 
 paid ; though December 25, or Chrillmas-day, is com¬ 
 monly reckoned the fall quarter-day. 
 
 Quarter, in aftronomyq the fourth part of the 
 moon’s period : thus, from the new moon to the qua¬ 
 drature is the firft quarter ; from this to full moon, the 
 fecond quarter, &c. 
 
 Quarter, in heraldry, is applied to the parts or 
 me; hers of the firft divifion of a coat that is quartered, 
 
 01 ui.iced into four quarters. See Quartering. 
 
 Franc - 
 
QU A , 
 
 FrflncA-Qtj arter, in heraldry, is a quarter Angle or 
 alone; which is to poflefs one fourth part of the field. 
 *1 his makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a coat. 
 
 Quarter of a Point , in navigation, is the fourth 
 part of the diftance between two cardinal points, which 
 is 2 0 48'. 
 
 Quarter of a fliip, is that part of a fhip’s hold, 
 which lies between the fleerage-room and the tranfom. 
 
 Ctoje Quarters, in a fhip, thofe places where the 
 feamcn quarter thcmfelves, in cafe of boarding, for their 
 own defence, and for clearing the decks, &c. 
 
 Quarter -Majler, an officer in the army, whofe 
 bufinefs is to look after the quarters of the foldiers ; of 
 which there are feveral kinds, viz. the q uarter-m after- 
 general, whofe bulinefs is to provide good quarters for 
 the whole army. Quartcr-mafter of horfe, lie who is to 
 provide quarters for a troop of horfe. Quarter-mafter of 
 foot, he who is to provide quarters for a regiment of foot. 
 
 Quarter-Masters, orQuARTEERs, in a man 
 of war, are officers whofe bufinefs is to rummage, flow, 
 and trim the 1 hip in the hold ; to overlook the fteward in 
 his delivery of vifluals to the cook, and in pumping or 
 drawing out beer, or the like. They are alfo to keep their 
 watch duly, in conning the fliip, or any other duty. 
 
 Quarter, in war, is uled in various fenfes, as for 
 the place allotted to a body of troops to encamp upon : 
 thus they fay, the general has extended his quarters a 
 great way, &c. Quarter alfo fignifies the fparing mens I 
 lives : thus it is faid, the enemy aiked quarter : we gave 
 no quarter. 
 
 Quarter of an AJfcmbly, is the place of rendezvous, 
 where the troops are to meet and draw up in a body. 
 
 Plead- Quarters, is the place where the general of 
 an aimy has his quarters, which is generally near the 
 centre of the army. 
 
 Quarters of Refrtfnnunt , is the place to which the 
 troops that have been much fatigued are fent to refrefh 
 thcmfelves, during a part of the campaign. 
 
 Winter -Qu arter s, the places in which the troops 
 are lodged during the winter, or their refidence in thofe 
 places. 
 
 Quarter, in the menage, as to work from quarter 
 to quaiter, is to ride a horfe three times in upon the 
 nift of the four lines of a fquare ; then changing your 
 hand, to ride him three times upon the fecond ; and fo 
 to third and fourth ; always changing hands and obferv- 
 ing the fame order. 
 
 QuARTF.R-CW, in mining, is feven yards and a 
 quarter, which the miner has crofs-ways of his vein, on 
 either fide, for liberty to lay his earth, ftones, and rub- 
 biih on, and to wafh and diels up his ore. 
 
 Quarters, in building, are thofe flight upright 
 pieces ot timber placed between the puncheons and pofts, 
 ufed to lath upon. Thefe are of two forts, Angle and 
 double ; the tingle quarters are fawn to two inches thick, 
 and four inches broad ; the double quarters are fawn to 
 four inches fquare. It is a rule in carpentry, that no 
 quaitpis be placed at a greater diftance than 14 inches. 
 
 Qu arter-W, in archite&ure, is a term ufed by 
 the workmen for any proje&ing moulding in general, 
 whofe contour is a perfect quadrant of a circle, or which 
 approaches near that figure. 
 
 Qu a r T e r -Wheeling, or Qu arter of Converfion , i n 
 the military art, is the motion by which the front of a 
 body of men is turned round to where the flank was, by 
 taking a quarter of a circle. It it be done to the right, 
 the man in the right-hand angle keeps Ins ground and 
 faces about, while the reft wheel ; if to the left, the left- 
 hand man keeps his place. 
 
 Quarter-/^/, at lea, is a lateral or fide-wind, 
 which does not blow in ftern, but a little afide of it. 
 'I his is the beft of all winds, as bearing into all the fails; 
 whereas a wind blowing full in ftern, 'is kept off by the 
 fails of the mizen. 
 
 QUARTERING, in the fea-language, is difpofing 
 tile fliip s company at an engagement, in fuch a manner 
 as that each may readily know where his ftation is, and 
 what he is to do. As fome to the mafter for the manage¬ 
 ment ot the fails ; fome to affift the gunners in travel¬ 
 ing the ordnance; fome for plying of the finall fhot; 
 fome to fill powder in the powder-room ; others to carry 
 it from thence to the gunners, in cartridges, &c. When 
 a fhip under fail goes at large, neither by a wind nor 
 Vol. II. No. 61. 
 
 QU I 
 
 before & wind, but, as it were, betwixt both, flie is faid 
 to go quartering. 
 
 Quartering, in gunnery, is when a piece of ord¬ 
 nance is fo traverled that it will flioot on the fame line, 
 or on the fame point of the compafs as the fhip’s quarter 
 
 Quartering, in heraldry, is dividing a coat into 
 four or more quarters, or quarterings, by parting, coup- 
 mg, &c. that is, by perpendicular and horizontal lines, 
 &c. 
 
 Counter-Qu artering a Coat, is when the quarters 
 are lubdivided each into four. There are counter-quar¬ 
 tered coats that have 20 or 25 quarters. 
 
 Quartering, or Quarteriz ation, is part of 
 the punifhment of a traitor, which confifts of dividing 
 his body into four quarters. 
 
 QUAR I ERLY, in heraldry ; a perfon is faid to 
 bear quarterly, when he bears arms quartered. 
 
 QUARTERN, a diminutive of quart, fignifying a 
 quarter of a pint. 
 
 QUARTER-Cous ins, fourth coufins, or the laft 
 degree of kindred. 
 
 QUAR IILE, an afpedl of the planets. See Aspect. 
 
 QUARTO, or qto, a book of which four leaves, or 
 eight pages, make a fheet. 
 
 Quarto-Decimans, Quarto-decimani , an ancient 
 Chriftian fc6l, fo called from their maintaining that the 
 feftival of Eafter ought to be celebrated, conformably to 
 the cuftom of the Jews, on the 14th day of the moon 
 in the month of March, whatever day of the week that 
 happened to be. 
 
 QUASHING, in law, the overthrowing or annulling 
 of any thing. 
 
 QUAVER, in mufick, a meafure of time equal to 
 half a crotchet, or gth of a femibreve. The quaver is 
 divided into two femiquavers, and four demifemiquavers. 
 
 QUAVERING, in mufick, trilling or fhaking^ or 
 the running a divifion with the voice. 
 
 QUEEN, Regina , a woman who holds a crow'nfingly. 
 
 "I he title of queen is alfo given by way of courtefy to 
 hei that is married to a king, who is called by way of 
 diftindfion, queen confort; the former being termed 
 queen regent. T. he widow ol a king is alio called queen; 
 but with the addition of dowager. 
 
 QUERCUS, the oak-tree, in botany. See Oak. 
 QUESTION, ghtefto, in logick,‘a propofition pro- 
 pofed by way of interrogation. 
 
 QUESTOR, or Quaestor, in Roman antiquity, an 
 officer wffio had the management of the publick treafure. 
 
 QUEUE, m heraldry, fignifies the tail of a beaft : 
 thus it a hon be borne with a forked tail, he is blazoned 
 double queued. 
 
 Qjjeue D’aronde, or Swallow’s Tail, in for¬ 
 tification, an outwork which is narrower at the gorge 
 than at the front or face, being fo called from its refem- 
 blance to a fwallow’s tail. Of this kind are fome Angle 
 as well as double tenailles, and fome horn-works whofe 
 fides are not parallel. When the front is narrower than 
 the gorge, the work is denominated a contre queue d’a¬ 
 ronde. 
 
 In carpentry, a queue d’aronde is more generally known 
 by the name of dove-tail. 
 
 QUIC.K, orQuicKSET, among gardeners, the haw¬ 
 thorn, or mclpilus fylveftris, much ufed for hedges, it 
 being very proper for that purpofe. In the choice of 
 quick, thofe which are railed from leeds in the nurlery 
 are preferable to fuch as are drawn from the woods, the 
 latter feldom arifing with good roots; but to have the 
 beft quick fence, it is moll eligible to fow the haws 
 where the hedge is intended ; for thefe unremoved plants 
 will make a much ftrongcr and more durable fence than 
 thofe which are tranfplanted ; but they fhould be pro¬ 
 perly weeded when young, and protected from being 
 injured by cattle, &c. When quick is grown rude, and 
 bare at bottom, it may be neceffary to plalh it; of which 
 method there are two extremes to be avoided ; the firfl: 
 is, laying it too low and too thick; becaufe it makes 
 the lap run all into the fhoots, and leaves the plafhes 
 without nourifhment, which, with the thicknefs of the 
 hedge, kill them : lecondly, it muft not be laid too high, 
 becaufe this draws all the lap into the plafhes, and fo 
 caufes but frnall Ihoots at the bottom, fo that the hedge 
 is full thin, without anfwering the intention of plafli- 
 Uuii 
 
QU I 
 
 Q U, I 
 
 ing. When the {hoot that is defigned to be plafhcd is 
 bent, there is generally given a i'mall cut to it half wav 
 through, and doping a little downward, then it is wovt 
 about the lfakes, and trimmed of its {haggling fuper- 
 fluous branches. 
 
 Qu ick-Silver, in natural hiftory, a ponderous mi 
 neralfluid,moreufuallycalled mercury. SeeMtRCURv. 
 
 QUIESCEN T, lomething at reft, in contradiflinftion 
 to motion. 
 
 QUIETtSTS, a religious feft, which made a great 
 noife towards the dole of the laft century. 
 
 They were fo called from a kind of abfolute reft and 
 inaftion, which they iuppofed the foul to be in when 
 arrived at the ftate ot perfeftion which they called the 
 unitivc life ; in which ftate they imagined the foul wholly 
 employed in contemplating its God, to whole influence 
 it was entirely fubmiflive, fo that he could turn and drive 
 it where and how he would. In this ftate, the foul no 
 longer needs prayers, hymns, dec. being laid, as it were, 
 in the bolbm, and between the arms of its God, in whom 
 it is in a manner fwallowed up. 
 
 QUILLS, the large feathers taken out of the end of 
 the wing ot agoofe, crow, &c. Qyills are denominated 
 from the order in which they are fixed in the wing, the 
 fecond and third quills being the beft for writing, as they 
 have the largeft and roundeft: barrels. 
 
 QUIL I ING, a method of fewing two pieces of ftlk, 
 linen, or fluff, on each other, with wool or cotton be¬ 
 tween them ; bv working them all over in the form of 
 chequer or diamond-work, or in flowers. The fame 
 name is alfo given to the fluff fo worked. 
 
 QUINAKIUS, in Roman antiquity, a fmall coin 
 equal to half the denarius. 
 
 QUINCE, Cydonio, in botany, a well known genus 
 of trees, comprehended by Linnceus among the pvrus or 
 , pear-tree, which, according to his fyftem of botany, it 
 agrees with, in refpeft of its gencrical charafters. Ac¬ 
 cording to Pliny, it received the name of malus cydonia 
 from Cydone, a town in Crete, from whence it is laid 
 to have been firft brought into Italy. When quinces are 
 unripe, they are feldom or never eaten, efpecially raw, as 
 they are very rough and aftringent; they mightily cool 
 and {Lengthen the ftomach, remove naufeas, and flop 
 fluxes of the belly ; for thefe purpofes they are much in 
 ufe, efpecially their juice made into a fvrup, which is 
 both pleafant and agreeably aflringent. The feeds bruifed 
 well with an aqueous liquor aftord a good mucilage, which 
 is excellent in fome foienefles of the mouth and gums. 
 
 QUINCUNX, in Roman antiquity, denotes any 
 thing that confifts of live twelfth parts of another, but 
 particularly of the as. 
 
 Quixcunx Order, in gardening, a plantation of 
 trees, difpofed originally in a fquare ; and confifting of 
 five trees, one at each coiner, and a fifth in the middle : 
 or a quincunx is the figure of a plantation of trees, dif¬ 
 pofed in fe'-eral rows, both length and breadthvvife, in 
 fuch a manner, that the firft tree in the fecond row com¬ 
 mences in the centre of the fquare formed by the two 
 firft trees in the firft row, and the two firft in the third,, 
 refembling the figure of the five at cards. This dilpo- 
 fition of trees was formerly much more regarded than at 
 prefent; but is Hill much ufed in France, for planting 
 trees to form a grove. 
 
 QUINDECAGON, in geometry, a plain figure with 
 15 fides and 15 angles ; which, if the fides be all equal, 
 is termed a regular quindecagon, and irregular when 
 other wife. 1 he fide of a regular quindecagon inlcribed 
 :n a circle, is equal in power to the half difference be¬ 
 tween the fide of the equilateral triangle, and the fide of 
 tiie pentagon, inlcribed in the fame circle ; alfo the dif¬ 
 ference of the perpendiculars let fall on both fides, taken 
 together. 
 
 QUINDECEMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a col¬ 
 lege ol 15 magiftrates,-whofe bufinefs it was to prefide 
 over the lacrifices. They were the interpreters of the 
 .Sibyl’s books ; which, however, they never confulted but 
 by an exprels order of the fenate. 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA Sunday, Shrove Sunday, fo 
 called as being the 50th day before Eafter. 
 
 QUINQUINA, in pharmacy, the fame with the 
 Peruvian or Jefuit’s bark ; the tre: which produces it is 
 called by Linnceus cinhona. 
 
 The Peruvian bark lhould be chofen frefh, and of a 
 
 bright colour, approaching to that of cinnamon, and of 
 a llrong tafte. T he fmaller pieces, in quills, are gene¬ 
 rally the beft ; the larger and flatter fragments having 
 lels virtue. We fometimes meet with it cut into thin 
 flices, and of a yellower colour than ordinary ; this is the 
 bark of the root, has a very llrong tafte, and is eileemed 
 by the Spaniards the clioicell of all. 
 
 The Peruvian bark pofleffes the flomachick virtues of 
 the other bitters, and that in fo eminent a degree, that 
 it is a queftion whether any of the ftomachicks are equal 
 to it: it {Lengthens the ftomach, promotes the appetite, 
 and affifts digeilion; it dillipates flatulencies, and is a 
 very good medicince againll worms. Its great virtue, 
 however, is as a febrifuge: it cures all intermittents fafely 
 and fpeedily, if properly given. Its febrifuge virtue was 
 di(covered to us by the Indians, among whom it had 
 been many ages known, and firll difcovered by a perl'on's 
 being cured of an intermittent, by drinking the water 
 ot a pond, where fome trees of it had accidentally fallen. 
 It was not difcovered to any body in this part of the world 
 till 1640, when a Spaniard, the governor of the city of 
 Loxa, who had behaved well to fome of thele people, 
 had the dilcovery as a reward. With the new medicine 
 lie cured the viceroy’s lady of a tertian, after fhehad tried 
 every thing elfe in \ain. Hence it was called the coun- 
 tefs’s powder. 
 
 After this, the Jefuits brought over a vaft l tiry 
 which was in 1694, diftributed all over Europe, and 
 did great cures. It was then called pulvis patrum, and 
 Jcluit’s powder: and the cardinal de Lugo having 
 bough t up a vaft quantity of it for the poor and oih ;rs, it 
 was afterwards called cardinal Lugo 
 
 Notwithftanding the fuccefs of ; . ... febrifuge, 
 
 whenever given piopcrly, there were many of the phy- 
 licians at that time, who were icrupulous of ufin^ it, as 
 fufpefting it could not be fafe to carry off fuch a difeafe 
 fo lpeedily, and without evacuations : but a lon^ and 
 happy experience of it has taught us, that it is one of the 
 greateft, and, in prudent hands, one of the fafeft: medi¬ 
 cines in the world. It is given in powder from a fcruple 
 to a drachm for a dofe. We have a fimple, a volatile 
 tinfture, and an ex trail of it in the fliops. 
 
 QUINSLY, or Qu 1 nzy. See Qy 1 nzy. 
 QUINTAL, in commerce, the fame with 100 wt. 
 QUINT ESSENCE, Quinta EjJ.t.tia, in chymiftry, a 
 preparation confifting of the eflential oil of lome vegetable 
 fubltance mixed and incorporated-with ipirit of wine. 
 
 QUIN T TlLE, ; ^W»iV/V, in aftronomy, an afpeft of 
 the planets, when they arc 72 0 diftant from one to ano¬ 
 ther, or a fifth part of the zodiack. 
 
 QUINT 1 LLIANS, a left of ancient hereticks, thus 
 called from their prophetefs Quintilia. In this left the 
 women were admitted to perform the facerdotal and 
 epifcopal funftions. They attributed extraordinary gifts 
 to Eve for having firft eaten of the tree of knowledge ; 
 told great things of Mary the lifter of Moles, as having 
 been a prophetefs, &c. They added, that Philip the 
 deacon had four daughters, who were all propheteftes, 
 and were of their left. In thefe afiemblies it was ufual 
 to lee the virgins entering in white robes, perfonating 
 propheteftes. 
 
 QUINZY, Quinsey, or Angina, in medicine, 
 a pain and inflammation of the fauces, afwelling of the 
 uvula, tonlils, and larynx, which being accompanied by 
 a fever, occafions a difficulty of refpiration and degluti¬ 
 tion. “ This difeafe generally prevails about the latter 
 end of fpring or beginning of fummer. When the fwell- 
 ing, pain, and rednefs, appear moftly on the outfides, it 
 is, according to Hoffman, the prognoflick of a happy 
 folution ol the difeafe : but when the external fweiling 
 fuddenly difappears, without a mitigation of the fymp- 
 toms, it lhews the morbifick matter to be tranflated elle- 
 vvhere, and that the dileaie will change to a phrenzy, or 
 peripneumony. This difeafe may alfo terminate in a 
 Suppuration, gangrene, or lchirrus. A frothing at the 
 mouth, the tongue vaflly lwelled, and of a purple black- 
 ifh colour, portend death.” 
 
 QUIRE 0/ Paper, is 24 or 25 fheets. 
 
 QUIRK, in building, a piece of ground taken out of 
 the corner of any regular ground-plat or floor, to make 
 a court or yard. 
 
 QUIT-RENT, Quid-rent, a certain fmall rent pay¬ 
 able \ early by the tenants of moil manors in token of 
 
 fubjeftion; 
 
R A B 
 
 RAD 
 
 fubjcftion ; upo» the payment whereof they are quiet 
 and free. 
 
 QUITTER-Bone, among farriers, a hard round 
 Iwelling upon the coronet of a horfe’s foot, or between 
 the heel and die quarter. It isoccafioned by gravel under 
 the fhoe, by a bruife, flab, prick of a nail, peccant hu¬ 
 mours defeendingto that place, blow, flrain, over-reach, 
 &c. With it the horfe halts much, and the fwelling 
 grows vifible, and comes to a head in four or five days, 
 and breaks out at a little deep hole like a fiftula. 
 
 QUOD Clerici non eiigantur in Officio, in law, is a 
 writ that lies for a clerk, who by reafon of fome land 
 that he hath, is made or like to be made a bailiff, beadle, 
 reeve, &c, 
 
 Quod Perfona nee Prabendarii , &c. in law, a writ 
 that lies for Spiritual perfons, when diftrained in their 
 fpiritual poffefiions, for the payment of a 15th, with the 
 reft of the parifh. 
 
 QUODLIBET 1 CAL Quest ion, Shueflio quodli- 
 betica, a problem, anciently propofed to be debated in 
 the fchOols, out of curiolity and entertainment, rather 
 than for the fettling of any ufeful point. 
 
 QUOIL, ghiojl, Coile, in the fea-language, denotes 
 when a cable is laid round in a ring, one turn over ano¬ 
 ther, on the deck of a fhip. 
 
 QUOIN, Coin , on board a fhip, is a wedge fattened 
 on the deck r clofe to the breech of the carriage of a 
 gun, to keep it firm up to the ihip’s fide, and prevent 
 its rolling. 
 
 Quoins, in architecture, denote the corners of brick 
 or ftone-walls. It particularly denotes the ftones in the 
 corners of brick-buildings. When they ftand out be¬ 
 yond the brick-work, their edges being chamfered off, 
 they are called ruftick quoins. 
 
 QUOITS, a kind of exercife, known among the 
 ancients under the name of difeus. 
 
 QUO Jure, in law, a writ that lies for him who 
 has lands, wherein another challengeth common of paf- 
 ture time out of mind, whereby the party is compelled 
 to lhew by what right he challenges this privilege. 
 
 Q_uo Minus, in law, is alfo a writ that lies for the 
 king’s farmer or debtor in the court of Exchequer, againft 
 him to whom he felleth any thing touching his farm ; 
 or againft whom he hath any caufe of perfonal a&ion : 
 for that, by the vendee’s detaining any due from him, the 
 farmer is made lefs able to pay the king’s rent. 
 
 It is alfo a writ that lies for him who has a grant of 
 houfe-bote (or a privilege of having timber out of the 
 lord’s wood for the repair of a tenement) in another per- 
 fon’s wood, againft the granter making fuch watte, as 
 that the grantee cannot enjoy his grant. 
 
 QUORUM, in law, is one or more juftices of the 
 peace without whom the reft of the juftices in fome cafes 
 cannot proceed. It is thus called from the words in the 
 com million, namely, quorum A. B. unum effi volumus. 
 
 QUOTATION, in literature, a citation, or paffage' 
 expreflly rehearfed or taken from any author ; which is 
 ulually diftinguilhed by one or two inverted commas, 
 (‘) (“)■ 
 
 Quoting by book, and chapter or feflion, ought only 
 to obtain where the whole chapter or feftion is expreflly 
 on the fubjed : on other occafions quoting by page is 
 more commodious, except where there are different’edi- 
 tions of an author, as in the clkfiicks, &c. unlefs the 
 edition be alfo fpecified. 
 
 QUOTIDIAN Fever, Felris ghcotidinna, in medi¬ 
 cine, an intermitting fever or ague, which feizes and 
 terminates every day, with a fubfequent intermiffion for 
 the fpace of fome hours. See Ague. 
 
 QUOTIENT, Quotiens, in arithmetick, the number 
 refulting from the divifion of a greater number by a 
 fmaller, and which fhews how often the fmaller or the 
 divifor is contained in the greater or dividend. 
 
 QUO Warranto, inlaw, a writ that lies againft a 
 perfon, or corporation, who ufurp any franchife againft 
 the king ; fuch as to have waife, ftray, fair, &c. without 
 a good title. 
 
 It alfo lies for mif-ufer or non-ufer of privileges 
 granted. And even, according to Bradon, againft him 
 that intrudes himfelf as heir to lands. 
 
 R A liquid confonant, being the 17th letter of our 
 alphabet. Its found is formed by a guttural 
 } extrufion of the breath, vibrated through the 
 mouth, with a fort of quivering motion of the tongue 
 drawn from the teeth, and cannulated, with the tip a 
 little elevated towards the palate. 
 
 Ufed as a numeral, R anciently flood for 80, and with 
 a dafh over it, thus r, for 80,000; but the Greek r, 
 or p, fignified 100. 
 
 In the preferiptions of phyficians, R or R ftands for 
 recipe, i. e. take. 
 
 RABBETING, in carpentry, the planning or cut¬ 
 ting of channels or grooves in boards, &c. 
 
 In ftlip-carpentry, it fignifies the letting in of the 
 planks of the fhip into the keel; which, in the rake and 
 run of a fhip, is hollowed away, that the planks may 
 join clofer. 
 
 RABBI, or Rabbins, a title which the Pharifces 
 and dodors of the law, among the Jews, affumed, and 
 literally fignified mailers or excellents. 
 
 There were feveral gradations before they arrived at 
 the dignity of a rabbin, which was not conferred till 
 they had acquired the profoundeft knowledge of the law 
 and the traditions. However, it does not appear that 
 there was any fixed age, or previous examination ne- 
 ceflarv ; but when a man had diftinguilhed himfelf by 
 his lkill in the written and oral law, and palled through 
 the fubordinate degrees, he was faluted a rabbin by the 
 publick voice. 
 
 Among the modern Jews, for near 700 years paft, 
 the learned men retain no other title than that of rabbi, 
 or rabbins: they have great refped paid them, have the 
 firft places or feats in their fynagogues, determine all 
 matters of controverfy, and frequently pronounce upon 
 civil affairs : they have even a power to excommunicate 
 the difobedient. 
 
 RABBINET, a fmall piece of ordnance, between a 
 falconet and a bafe. See Cannon. 
 
 RABBINISTS, among the modern Jews, an ap¬ 
 pellation given to the doftrine of the rabbins concerning 
 traditions, in oppolition to the caraites, who rejeft all 
 traditions. See Caraites. 
 
 RABBIT, Cuniculus, in zoology, a well known ani¬ 
 mal of the lepus or hare kind, with a very fhort tail. 
 
 RACEMUS, among botanifts, fignifies a duller or 
 flalk, divided or branched into feveral footftalks, fuf- 
 taining the flowers or fruits fet together; fuch are the 
 bunches of grapes, currants, &c. racemus anciently figni- 
 fying a bunch of grapes. 
 
 RACK, an engine of torture, furnifhed with pullies 
 and cords, &c. for extorting confeflion from criminals. 
 
 Rack, a fpirituous liquor. See Arrack. 
 
 RADIAL Curves, are curves' of the fpiral kind, 
 whofe ordinates, if they may be fo called, all terminate 
 in the centre of the including circle, appearing like 
 radii of that circle j whence the name. See Cu r v e and 
 Spiral. 
 
 RADIALIS, or Radi^us, in anatomy, the name 
 
 of 
 
RAF 
 
 ot two mufcles of the arm ; one of which, called radialis 
 internus, is one of the three flexor mufcles of the carpus, 
 or hand, which arifing from the internal condyle of the 
 humerus, is inferted into the bone of the carpus next the 
 thumb ; and the other, called radialis externus, is one of 
 the three extenfor mufcles of the hand, which arifing 
 from the external condyle of the humerus, is inferted 
 into the firfl metacarpal bone. 
 
 RADIANT, or Radiating Point, in opticks, 
 is any point of a vifible objeft from whence rays proceed. 
 
 RADIATED Flowers, in botany, are Inch as 
 have feveral femi-florets fet round the difek, in form of a 
 radiant ftar; and are either ligulate, as in the after ; tubu- 
 lofe, as in the centaury ; or naked, as in the artemefia. 
 
 Radiated, is alfo ufed with refpeft to one of the 
 ancient crowns. See Crown. 
 
 RADICAL, in general, fomething that ferves as a 
 balls or foundation. Hence phyficians talk much of a 
 radical moifture. See Moisture. 
 
 In grammar, we give the appellation radical to primi¬ 
 tive words, in coutradiftinftion to compounds and de¬ 
 rivatives. 
 
 Algebraifls alfo fpeak of the radical fign of quanti¬ 
 ties, which is the character expreflihg their roots. See 
 Root and Character. 
 
 RAD 1 CATION, a term ufed by fome for the ac¬ 
 tion whereby plants take root, or fhoot out roots. See 
 Root and'V egetation. 
 
 RADICLE, that part of the feeds of all plants, which 
 upon vegetating become its root, and is dilcoverable by 
 the microfcope. See Vegetation. 
 
 RADISH, Raphanus, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whole flower is tetrapetalous and cruciform ; the fruit is 
 an oblong, ftnooth, Ipongy pod, having an acute point, 
 iwellmg and almoft jointed, and containing feveral 
 fmooth roundifh feeds. There are feveral forts of ra- 
 dilhcs, as the common purple-rooted radilh, the falmon 
 radilh, the turnep-rooted radilh, the black Spanilh radifli, 
 See. they are all propagated by fowing their feeds. The 
 firfl. and lccond lorts are cultivated in great quantities, for 
 the fupply of the London markets. 
 
 Radifhes abound with a penetrating nitrous juice, 
 which makes them diurctick, and cleanfing to the intef- 
 tines and vilcera : they have fomewhat alfo in their out¬ 
 ward fkin which is hot and biting, both which qualities 
 help to make them a good antifcorbutick : they agree 
 very well with moft conftitutions, provided they have 
 good ftomachs; and the juice is faid to be good in the 
 gravel, if four ounces of it be taken for four days in a 
 morning falling. 
 
 Horft-K adish. See Hors v-Radi/h. 
 
 RADIUS, in geometry, the femi-diameter of acircle, 
 or a right-line drawn from the centre to the circumfe¬ 
 rence. See Circle. 
 
 In trigonometry, the radius is termed the whole fine, 
 or fine of 90°. See Sine. 
 
 Radius, inanatomy, the exterior bone of the arm, 
 defeending along with the ulna from the elbow to the 
 wrift. In its upper extremity there is a glenoid cavity 
 for its articulation with the humerus; alfo a creft, by 
 means of which, it is articulated with the ulna : in the 
 lower extremity the head is thicker, and of a more angu¬ 
 lar figure, with a very large hollow in the middle, for its 
 articulation with the wrift. 
 
 RADIX, the lame with root. See Root. 
 
 RAFTERS, in building, are pieces of timber, which 
 (landing by pairs on the rcafon or railing-piece, meet in 
 an angle at the top, and form the roof of a building. 
 
 It is a rule in building, that no rafters fhould Hand 
 further that 12 inches from one another : and as to their 
 fizes or icantlings, it is provided by aft of parliament, that 
 principal rafters, from 12 feet 6 inches to 14 feet 6 inches 
 long, be 5 inches broad at the top, and 8 at the bottom, 
 and 6 inches thick. Thofe from 14 feet 6 inches, to 18 
 feet 6 inches long, to be 9 inches broad at the foot, 7 
 inches at the top, and 7 inches thick: and thofe from 
 18 feet 6 indies, to 21 feet 6 inches long, to be 10 in¬ 
 ches broad at the foot, 8 at the top, and 8 thick. Single 
 rafters, 8 feet in length, inuft have 4 inches and a half, 
 and 3 inches 3 in their lquare. Thofe of 9 feet long 
 mull be 5 and 4 inches fquare. 
 
 Principal rafters fhould be nearly as thick at the bot¬ 
 tom as the beam, and fhould diminilh in their length j 
 3 
 
 R A I 
 
 or J of their breadth ; the king-pods fliouldbe as thick 
 as the principal ralters, and their breadth, according to 
 die bignefs of them that are intended to be let into 
 them ; the middle part being left fomewhat broader than 
 the thicknefs. 
 
 RAGWORT, Jc.cobaa , in botany, is comprehended 
 by Linnaeus with the fenecio. See Senecio. 
 
 RAGOL 1 , or Ragoo, a fauce, or fcafoning, in¬ 
 tended to roufe the appetite when loft or languifhing. 
 I his term is alfo ufed for any high feafo'ncd dilli pre¬ 
 pared of rlcfh, fifh, greens, or the like ; by Hewing them 
 with bacon, fait, pepper, cloves, and the like ingredients. 
 
 RAG ULED, or ragged, in heraldry, jagged or 
 knotted. _ This term is applied to a crofs formed of the 
 trunks of two trees without their branches, of which 
 they mew only the flumps. 
 
 ^AJA, the title of the Indian black princes, the re¬ 
 mains of thofe who ruled there before the moguls. 
 
 RAIL, in architefture, is uled in different fenfes, as 
 for thole pieces of timber which lie horizontally between 
 the panneis of wainfeot, and the like. 
 
 RAIN, a watcry-meteor, which defeends from the 
 clouds in form of drops of water. 
 
 Rain is apparently the precipitated vapours of watery 
 clouds : thus, when various congeries of clouds are 
 driven together by the agitation of the winds, they mix 
 and run into one body, and by that means diffolvc and 
 condenieeach other into their former fubftance of vva- 
 tei ; alfo the coldnefs of the air is a great means to col- 
 compaft, and condenfe clouds into water; which 
 being heavier than the air, mull of neccflity fall through 
 it in the form we call rain. Now the rcafon why it falls 
 in drops, and not in whole quantities, as it becomes 
 condenled, is the refiftance of the air, whereby, being 
 broken and divided into finaller and fmaller parts, the 
 further it pafles through the air, it at lafl arrives to us irx 
 fmall drops. 
 
 Mr. Derham accounts for the precipitation hence, that 
 the veficul* being full of air, when they meet with a 
 •colder air than they contain, their air is contiafted into 
 a lefs fpace; and, confequently, the watery (hell ren¬ 
 dered thicker, fo as to become heavier than the air, he. 
 Others only allow the cold a part in the aftion, and 
 bring in the winds as Iharers with it : indeed, it is plain, 
 that a wind, blowing againft a cloud, will drive its ve- 
 ficula; upon one another, by which means feveral of 
 them coalefcing, will be enabled to deJcend ; and the 
 effeft will be ftill more confiderable if two oppofite winds 
 blow towards the fame place. Add to this, that clouds 
 already formed, happening to be aggravated by frefh ac- 
 ceflions of vapour continually afeending, may thence be 
 enabled to delcend. 
 
 According to Rohault, the great caufe of rain is the 
 heat of the air, which after continuing for fome time near 
 the earth, is at length carried up on high by a wind, 
 and there thawing the fnowy villi, or flocks of the lialf- 
 liozen veficuls, reduces them into drops ; which coa¬ 
 lefcing, defeend. 
 
 Others, as Dr. Clarke, he. aferibe this defeent of the 
 clouds rather to an alteration of the atmofphere than of 
 the veficula;; and fuppofe it to arife from a diminution 
 of the elaflick force of the air. This elafticity, which 
 depends chiefly or wholly on the terrene exhalations, be¬ 
 ing weakened, the atmofphere finks under its burden, 
 and the clouds fall. Now the little veficles being once 
 upon the deicent, will perfift therein, notwithftanding 
 the increafe of refiftance they every moment meet with. 
 
 I or as they all tend toward the centre of the earth, the 
 further they fall, the more coalitions will they make; 
 and the more coalitions, the more matter will there be 
 under the lame furface ; the furfacc only increaling as the 
 fquares, but the folidity as the cube ; and the more mat¬ 
 ter under the fame furface, the lefs refiftance there will 
 be to the fame matter. Thus, if the cold, wind, he. 
 aft eaily enough to precipitate the afeending veficles, be¬ 
 fore they are arrived at any confiderable height, the coa¬ 
 litions being but few, the drops will be proportionably 
 fmall; and thus is formed a dew. If the vapours be 
 more copious, and rife a little higher, we have a mift or 
 fog; a little higher dill, and they produce a finali rain, 
 he. If they neither meet with cold nor wind, they form 
 a heavy, thick, dark Iky. 
 
 Hence many of the phenomena of the weather may 
 
 be 
 
R A I 
 
 be accounted for : as, wily a cold fumme-r is always a 
 wet one, and a warm a dry one ; why we have com¬ 
 monly moll, rain about the equinoxes; why a fettled, 
 thick, dole Iky, fcarce ever rains till it have been firft 
 clear ; as to the quantity of rain that falls, its proportion 
 in feveral places at the lame time, and in the fame place 
 at feveral times, we have ftore of obfervations, journals. 
 &c. in the Memoirs of the French Academy, Philofo- 
 phical TranfaCtions, Ac. 
 
 Rains, in the fea language, all that traft of fea to 
 the northward of the equator, between 4 and 10 degrees 
 latitude, and lying between the meridian of Cape Verde, 
 and that of the eafternmoft iflands of the fame name. It 
 is lo called from the almoft continual calms, conftant 
 rains, thunder and lightning found there. 
 
 RAINBOW, or Bow, Jr is, a meteor, in form of a 
 party-coloured femicircle, exhibited in a rainy Iky oppo- 
 lite to the fun, by the refraction of his rays in drops of 
 falling rain. 
 
 There is, alfo, a fecondary bow which is fainter, ufu- 
 ally inverting the former at fomedjltance. 
 
 The rainbow, Sir Ifaac Newton obferves, never ap¬ 
 pears but where it rains in the fun-fhine ; and may be 
 reprefented artificially, by contriving water to fall in 
 little drops, like rain, through which the fun Ihining, 
 exhibits a bow to a fpe&ator placed between the fun and 
 the drops"; efpecially if a black cloth be difpofed beyond 
 the drops. 
 
 Anton.de Dominis firft accounted for the rainbow in 
 1611, by refraftion and reflexion of the fun-beams in 
 fpherical drops of water ; which he confirmed by experi¬ 
 ments made with glafs-globes, Ac. full of water; wherein 
 he was followed by Des Cartes, who improved upon his 
 account. But the Newtonian doCtrine of colours fup- 
 plies and corrcCts their explications. 
 
 Theory of the Ra inbow. Let BNFG (plate LXXI. 
 fig. 1.) be a fpherical drop of falling rain, and AN a ray 
 of the fun falling upon it in the point N, which ray 
 fuppofe refraCted to F, from thence reflected to G, and 
 there again refraCted in the direction G R to the eye of 
 a fpcCtator; and let IG be perpendicular to the point G : 
 then will the beam, by its refraCtion at G, be feparated 
 into its feveral forts of rays, which will paint their re¬ 
 spective colours in that part of the drop, of which that 
 next the perpendicular I G will be red, as being leafi 
 refraCted, and the reft, in order, above it. Now, it is 
 found by computation, that the greateft angle S E O 
 (fig. 2.) or E O P (drawing OP parallel to SE) under 
 which the molt refrangible rays can come to the eye of 
 a fpeCtator at O, is 40° 17', and that the greateft angle 
 FOP under which the leaft refrangible rays come to the 
 eye at O, is 42 0 2'. And fo all the particles of water 
 within the difference of thofe two angles E F, will exhi¬ 
 bit, feveraBy, the various colours of the prifm, and con- 
 ftitute the interior bow in the cloud. 
 
 If the beam go not out of the drop at G (fig. 1.) but is 
 refleCled (a Second time) to H, and is there refraCted in 
 the direction H S, making the angle S Y A with the in¬ 
 cident ray AN, it will paint on the part H the feveral 
 colours of light, but in an inverfe order to the former, 
 and more faint, by reafon of the rays loft by the Second 
 reflection. It has been found, alfo, that the leaft angle 
 S G O, or G O P (fig. 2.) under which the leaft refran¬ 
 gible rays can come to the eye at O, after two reflections 
 and two refraCtions, is 30° 57', and the leaft angle 
 HOP, under which the moft refrangible rays can come 
 to the eye in this cafe, is 54 0 f. Whence all the co¬ 
 lours of the exterior bow will be formed in the drops 
 from G to H, which is the breadth of this bow, viz 3 0 
 10', whereas the breadth of the other, viz. E F, is but 
 i° 45', and the diftance between the bows, viz. F G, is 
 8° 55'. And fuch would be the meafure of the bows, 
 were the fun but a point; but fince his body Subtends 
 an angle of half a degree, it is evident, by fo much each 
 bow will be increafed, and their diftance diminifhed. 
 
 To apprehend rightly the different affeCtions of this 
 remarkable phenomenon, we muft attend to the follow¬ 
 ing particulars : firft, that though each bow be occafioned 
 by the refraCted and reflected light of the fun falling on 
 the drops of rain, yet neither of them is produced by 
 any rays falling on any part of the drop indifferently, but 
 by thofe only which fall on the Surface of the drop 
 BLQ_G {fig. 1.) in or about the point N, as the ray 1 
 Vol. 11 . No. 62. I 
 
 R A I 
 
 AN ; thofe which fall nearer to B, or further towards 
 L, being unconcerned in this production. 
 
 Secondly, 1 he internal bow is produced by two re¬ 
 fraCtions, and one reflection. The firft reflection is of 
 the incident rays extremely near AN, by which they 
 proceed from N to one common point or focus at F, 
 from whence they are reflected to G, and are there a Se¬ 
 cond time refraCted towards R, and produce the various 
 colours of the laid bow. 
 
 I hirdly. There is a neceffity that feveral rays Should 
 be refraCted together to the point F {fig: 3.) that being 
 reflected together from thence to G, they may there go 
 out parallel, and fo come in quantity Sufficient to excite 
 the lenfation of colours in a ftrong and lively manner. 
 Now thofe rays, and thofe only, which are incident oil 
 the globule about the point N, can do this, as will ap¬ 
 pear from what follows ; for, 
 
 Fourthly, The point F makes the arch QF a maxi¬ 
 mum, or the diftance QF from the axis of the drop SQ_ 
 is greater than any other diftance from whence any other 
 rays nearer to the axis, as S D, S E, or further from it, 
 as S H, SI, are refie&ed ; becaufe thofe which are nearer 
 after the firft refraCtion tend to points in the axis pro¬ 
 duced more remote than that to which the ray S N 
 tends ; and, therefore, as their diftance from the axis 
 increafes, fo, likewife, will the diftances of their points 
 of reflexion QJP, Q_ 0 , till the ray becomes S N ; after 
 which, the rays more remote from the axis, as S H, S I, 
 are refraCted towards the points X Y, which are nearer 
 and nearer to the axis : and this occafions the points of 
 the reflection on the furtheft fide of the drop to decreafe 
 again from F towards 
 
 Fifthly, Hence it will neceffarily happen, that fome 
 rays above and below the ray S N will fall upon the 
 fame point, as O or P on the furtheft fide; and, for 
 that reafon, they will be fo reflected from thence, as to 
 go out of the drop by refraCtion parallel to each other. 
 Thus, let S E below, and S H above the ray S N, be 
 refraCted both to one point O ; from whence they will 
 be reflected to M and L, and will there emerge parallel, 
 it is true, but alone ; being diverted of their intermediate 
 rays S N, which, going to a different point F, will be re¬ 
 flected in a different direction to G, and emerge cn one 
 fide, and not between thofe rays, as when they were inci¬ 
 dent on the drop. All which is evident from the figure. 
 
 Sixthly, As this will be the cafe of all the r ays which 
 are not indefinitely near to S N, it is plain, that being 
 deprived of the intermediate rays, their denfity will be fo 
 far diminilhed, as to render them ineffectual for exciting 
 the fenfation of colours; and they are therefore calk'd 
 inefficacious rays, in contradifunCtion to thofe which 
 enter the drop near S N, and which, having the fame 
 point F of reflection, are not fcattered like the others, 
 but emerge together at G, fo as to conftitute a beam GR 
 ofthe fame denfity with the incident beam S N, and there¬ 
 fore capable of exhibiting a vivid appearance of colours, 
 and for this reafon are called efficacious rays. 
 
 Phenomena of the Rainbow. The firft is, that each 
 is variegated with all the prifmatick colours. This is a 
 neceffary confequence of the different refrangibility of 
 the rays refraCted and reflected in drops of falling rain. 
 Let A {plate LXXI.y%. 1.) be fuch a drop, SN a ray 
 entering it at N, which is refraCted to F, from whence 
 refraCted to G, where, as it emerges, it is refraCted 
 into all the feveral forts of rays of which it is com- 
 pofed, viz. G R, the leaft refrangible or red making ray, 
 G O the orange, G Y the yellow, G G the green, G B 
 the blue, G I the indigo, and G V the violet, or moft 
 refrangible ray. 
 
 The truth of this may be eafily proved by experiment, 
 by fufpending a glafs globe filled with water in the fun- 
 fhine, and viewing it in fuch a pofition, that the rays 
 S N will fall upon it, and emerge to the eye at A, under 
 the feveral angles from S F R to S F V ; which may be 
 eafily effected by letting the globe delcend from A to G, 
 by a firing going over a pulley. 
 
 Hence, the Tecond pheenomenon, viz. the circular 
 form is accounted for, and, alfo, the third, which is the 
 breadth of the bow ; for that will be equal to the angle 
 ARG=RGV=I° 45', where the ray as here emerges 
 after one reflection. Fhefe particulars are reprefented 
 more completely in (fig. 2.) where B G D is the red cir¬ 
 cumference formed by the rotation of the ray A G, that 
 X x x, can. 
 
R A I 
 
 can firff come to the eye at A ; and C g F is the violet 
 arch formed by the leaft refrangible ray g A ; after 
 which the rays are all refra&ed below the eye. And thus, 
 by the intermediate rays and colours, the whole interior 
 bow is produced. 
 
 The fourth phenomenon is the appearance of two 
 bows. This follows from hence, that after an efficacious 
 ray of light SN, entering a drop of rain, has been twice 
 reflected on the furtheft fide at F and H, it will emerge 
 refra&ed into all its fimple or conftituent rays at G upon 
 the upper fide of the drop, fo as to make with the inci- 
 pent ray the angle G Y N, or S Y A, = 54 ° 1Cl '• ^at 
 ray be the violet fort, or mofl refrangible ; but if it be of 
 the red or leaft refrangible fort, then the faid angle is 
 but 50° 5S'=:Sy A. 
 
 Therefore, all thofe drops which are fo fituated around 
 the eye, that their mofl refrangible rays fhall fall upon 
 it, muff with thofe rays make air angle with the line A P 
 palling through the eye parallel to the fun’s rays, viz. the 
 angle G AP, equal to the angle S YA, or G A P —54* io'. 
 Thefe rays, therefore, will every where exhibit a violet 
 colour in the arch PGL. For the fame reafon, thofe 
 drops whofe leall refrangible rays fall upon the eye at A, 
 make the angle ^AP = 50°58'; and fo the ray A g, 
 revolving about the axis A Q, will deferibe the circular 
 arch M g K, which will exhibit the deepefl red ; and all 
 the drops between G and g will paint the feveral other 
 coloured peripheries, all which together will complete the 
 exterior bow. 
 
 The fifth phenomenon is the greater breadth of the 
 exterior bow. Thus, if from 54 0 10' we fubdudl 50° 
 58', we fhall have 3 0 i2'=G^ = the width of the outer 
 bow ; which, therefore, is almofl twice as wide as the 
 interior bow. 
 
 The fixth phenomenon is the diflance between the 
 two bows, which is thus determined : from the angle 
 which the leafl refrangible ray in the upper bow makes 
 with the axis A P, viz. 50° 58', fubtradl the angle 42 0 02' 
 which the mofl refrangible rays make therewith in the 
 lower bow, and the remainder 8° 5b'=g A F is the arch 
 of diflance between the bows. 
 
 The leventh phaenomenon is the inverfc order of the 
 colours in the two bows. This follows from the con¬ 
 trary parts of the drop on which the ray is incident, and 
 from whence it emerges and is refra&ed. Thus, becaufe 
 the ravs S N enter the upper part of the drop, and emerge 
 from the lower, it is evident the rays refra&ed in this cafe 
 (viz. in the interior bow) will have a fituation quite the 
 reverfe of thofe which enter on the lower part of the drop, 
 and are refra&ed from the upper, as in the exterior bow, 
 whofe colours are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
 orange, and red; whilll thofe of the other are red, orange, 
 yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; counting from 
 the upper parts downwards in both. 
 
 The eighth phenomenon is the faintnefs of the exte¬ 
 rior bow, in comparifon of the interior one. 1 his is the 
 confequence of the rays being twice refle&ed within the 
 drops which form the outer bow. They who make the 
 experiment in a dark chamber, may wonder when they 
 obferve how large a part of the beam (that enters the glo¬ 
 bule at N) goes out at F, that there fhould be enough in 
 the remaining part F G to exhibit the colours fo flrong 
 and vivid in the full bow as they appear ; but then, con- 
 fidering how much of this refidttal ray is refraCted at G, 
 it is rather a wonder how the very fmall part refletted to 
 H, fhould there, when refra&ed, be in quantity fufficient 
 to excite any diftinCt ideas of colours at all. 
 
 The ninth phenomenon is, that fometimes more than 
 two bows appear; as in a very black cloud we have ob- 
 ferved fourth, and a faint appearance of a fifth: but this 
 happens rarely. Now, thefe fpurious bows, as we call 
 them, cannot beformed in the manner as the two principal 
 bows are, that is, by a refraCtion after a 3d, 4th, 5th, Sec. 
 refraction ; for the beam is by much too weak to exhibit 
 colours by refradion, even after the 3d reflection only, 
 much lefs would it a 4th or 5th. Befides, though after 
 a 3d and 4th reflection of the rays they fhould be fuppofed 
 capable of fhewing their colours, yet the bows made 
 thereby would not appear at the fame time with the other 
 two, nor in the fame part of the heavens, but in the rain 
 between us and the fun, and muff: be viewed by the fpec- 
 tator’s face turned towards the fun, an! not from it, as 
 in the other cafe. 
 
 R A I 
 
 The tenth pheenoraenon is the appearance of the bow? 
 in that part of the heavens oppofite to the fun. This 
 neceflarilv happens from the incident and emergent ray 
 being both on one fide of the drop, for it is evident, that 
 in order to fee the colours, we mufl look to that part 
 againfl which the fun lhines. 
 
 The eleventh pharnomenon is, that they never appear 
 but when and where it rains. This is becaufe rain af¬ 
 fords a fufficient plenty of drops, or aqueous fpherules, 
 proper to rcfleCl and refraCl the light fit for this purpofe, 
 which cannot be done without a requilite fize, figuie, 
 and difpofition of the particles, which the vapour of the 
 cloud does not admit, and therefore clouds alone exhibit 
 no fuch appearance. 
 
 The twelfth phtenomenon rs. the dimenflon of the 
 bows. This is determined eafily, for continuing the axis 
 A P to Qjhe centre of the bows, we have the femidia- 
 meter of each bow in the angle Q^A g, or Q_A G ; the 
 double of which gives the angles which the whole dia¬ 
 meters of the bows fubtend, and are therefore the mea- 
 fure of their magnitude. 
 
 The thirteenth phenomenon is, the altitude of the 
 bow above the horizon, or lurface of the earth. This 
 is equal to the angle G A T, which may be taken by a 
 quadrant, or it may be known for any time by having 
 given the fun’s altitude, which is equal to the angle 
 TAQj which therefore fubduCled from the conffant 
 angles QA F, or QAY, will always leave the angle of 
 the apparent height of the bow. 
 
 Lunar Rainbow. The moon fometimesalfo exhibits 
 the phenomenon of an iris, by the refraClion of her rays 
 in drops of rain in the night-time. 
 
 Ariftotle fays, he was the firft that ever obferved it, 
 and adds, that it is never vifible, but at the time of full 
 moon. The lunar iris has all the colours of the folar, 
 only fainter. 
 
 Marine R a inbow, the fea-bow, is a phccnomenon 
 fometimes obferved in a much agitated lea, when the 
 wind, fwceping part of the tops of the waves, carries 
 them aloft; fo that the rays of the fun are refra&cd, See. 
 as in a common Ihower. 
 
 F. Bourzes, in Phil. Tranf. obferves, that there are 
 fcarce above two colours diftinguifhable, a dark yellow 
 on the fide next the fun, and a pale green on the oppofite 
 fide. But there are fometimes 20 or 30 of them feen to¬ 
 gether. They appear at noon-day, and in a pofition op¬ 
 pofite to that of the common bow, the concave fide be¬ 
 ing turned upwards. 
 
 There is a kind of white colourlefs rainbow which, 
 Mentzelius and others faw at noon-day. M. Marriote, 
 in his fourth Effai dc Phyfique, fays, they are formed 
 in miffs, as the others are in Ihowers ; having obferved 
 feveral of them both after fun-rifing and in the night. 
 The want of colours in thefe is owing to the exceeding 
 tenuity of the veficles of the vapour, which being only- 
 little watery pellicles bloated with air, the rays of light 
 undergo but little rcfraCtion in pafling out of air into 
 them. Hence, the rays are reflected compounded, as 
 they come. 
 
 Rohault mentions coloured rainbows on the glafs 
 formed in the morning dew. 
 
 RAISER, in building, a board fet on edge under tire 
 forefide of a ftep, Sec. 
 
 RAISING, in the menage, one of the three a&ions of 
 ahorfe’s legs ; the other two being the ffay and the tread. 
 
 Raising Pieces , reafon-pieces, in architecture, arc 
 pieces that lie under the beams, and over the polls or 
 puncheons. 
 
 RAISINS, grapes prepared by fuffering them to re¬ 
 main on the vine till they are perfedly ripe, and then 
 drying them in the fun, or by the heat of an oven, d he 
 difference between raifins dried in the fun, and thofe dried 
 in ovens, is very obvious; the former are fweet and 
 pleafant, but the latter have a latent acidity with tlve 
 fweetnefs that renders them much lefs agreeable. 
 
 The common way of drying grapes tor raifins, is to 
 tie two or three bunches of them together while yet on 
 the vine, and dip them into a hot lixivium < 
 afhes, with a little of the oil of olives in it. This uil- 
 pofes them to fhrink and wrinkle, and after this they are 
 left on the vine three or four days feparated on fucks in 
 an horizontal fituation, and then dried in the fun at lei- 
 , tuie, alter being cut from the tree. 'Flic fuieff and bell 
 I raifins 
 
RAM 
 
 railins are thofe called in forne places Damafcus and Jube 
 r&ifins ; which are diflinguiflied from the others by their 
 fize and figures : thcfc are flat and wrinkled on the fur- 
 face, foft and juicy within, and near an inch long, and 
 when frelh and growing on the bunch, are of the iize 
 and fhape of a large olive. 
 
 The railins of the fun, and jar-raifins, are all dried 
 by the heat of the fun, and thele are the forts ufed in 
 medicine. However, all the kinds have much the fame 
 virtues; they are all nutritive and ballamick : they are 
 allowed to be attenuant, arc faid to be good in nephritick 
 complaints, and are an ingredient in pe£loral deco&ions, 
 in which cafes, as all'o in all others where aflringency is 
 not required of them, they fhould have the Hones care¬ 
 fully taken out. 
 
 RAITING, orRATiNG, the laying of flax, hemp, 
 timber, &c. when green, in a pond or running water, to 
 feafon and prepare it for future ufes. 
 
 RAKE of a Ship , is all that part of her hull which 
 hangs over both ends of her keel. That which is before, 
 is called the fore-rake, or rake-forward ; and that part 
 which is at thefctting on of the Hern-poll, is called the 
 Take-aft, or afterward. 
 
 Rake of the Rudder , is the hindermoH part of it. 
 
 RAKING-TABLE, or Raked-Table, among 
 architedls, is a member hollowed in the iquare of a pe- 
 deflal, he. 
 
 RALLYING, in war, re-aflcmbling or calling to¬ 
 gether troops broken and put to flight. 
 
 RAM, in zoology, the male of the Iheep kind. See 
 Sheep. 
 
 Ram, in aflronomy, the fame with Aries. See Aries. 
 
 Battering Ram, in antiquity, a military engine ufed 
 to batter and beat down the walls of places befleged. 
 
 The battering ram was of two forts, the one rude and 
 plain, the other compound. The former feems to have 
 been no more than a great beam which the foldiers bore 
 on their arms and fhoulders, and with one end of it by 
 main force aflailed the wall. The compound ram is thus 
 deferibed by Jolephus : it is a vail beam, like the mafl 
 of a Blip, flrengthened at one end with a head of iron, 
 fomething rcfembling that ot a ram, whence it took its 
 name. (See plate LX 1 X. fig. 8.) This was hung 
 by the middle with ropes to another beam, which lay 
 acrols two pofls ; and hanging thus equally ballanced, 
 It was by a great number of men drawn backwards and 
 pufhed forwards, Hriking the wall with its iron head. 
 
 Plutarch informs us, that Mark Anthony, in the Par¬ 
 thian war, made ufe of a ram So feet long : and Vitruvius 
 tells us, that they were fometimes 106, and fometimes 
 120 feet in length; and to this perhaps, the force and 
 Hrength of the engine was in a great meafure owing. 
 The ram was managed at one time by a whole century 
 of foldiers, and they being fpent, were feconded by ano¬ 
 ther century, fo that it played continually without any 
 intermiffion. 
 
 In order to calculate the force of the battering-ram, 
 R, {plate LXIX. fig. 8.) fuppofe it to be 28 inches 
 in diameter, and 180 feet long; and confequently its 
 folid content 750cubick feet; which, allowing 50 pounds 
 for each foot, will weigh 37,500 pounds : and fuppofe 
 its head of caH-iron, together with three iron hoops, 
 he. to be 3612 pounds. Now all thele weights, added 
 together, make 41,112 pounds, equal to the weight of 
 the whole ram ; which will require 1000 men to move 
 it, fo as to caufe it to Hrike againfl the point L of the 
 wall A HI G E, each man moving a weight of 41 pounds. 
 The quantity of motion produced by this aflion, when 
 the ram moves one foot in a fecond, may be exprefied by 
 the number 41,112 ; which motion or force, compared 
 with the quantity of motion in the iron-ball B, fhot out 
 of the cannon C, will be found equal to it: for a cannon¬ 
 ball is known to move as fail; as found for about the fpace 
 of a mile ; and if you multiply 36 pounds, the weight of 
 the ball, by 1142, the number of feet which found moves 
 in one fecond, you will have the number 41,112 for the 
 quantity of motion or force in the ball B Hriking at L. 
 And if, after a few flrokes given by the battering-ram, 
 the mortar or cement is fo loofened, that the piece of 
 the wall A D D F E is at laH by a Hroke of the ram 
 carried forward from F to K, and fo beaten down ; the 
 fame thing will be performed by a cannon-ball, after an 
 eqvjal number of Hrokes. 
 
 RAN 
 
 This fliews how advantageous the invention of gun¬ 
 powder is ; fince we are thereby enabled to give fuch a 
 prodigious velocity to a fmall body, that it fhall have as 
 great a quantity of motion as a body immenfelv greater, 
 and requiring vaHly more hands to work it: for three 
 men will manage a cannon, which lhall do as much exe¬ 
 cution as the above battering-ram wrought bv 1000. The 
 ram, whole force is here calculated, is taken at a mean ; 
 being bigger than fome, and lefs than others, of thofe 
 ufed by the ancients. 
 
 Ram’s Head, in a fhip, is a great block belonging 
 to the lore and main-halliards. It has three fhivers in it, 
 into which the halliards are put, and in a hole at the end 
 of it are reeved the ties. 
 
 RAMADAN, a lolemn feafon of faHing among the 
 Mahometans, kept in the ninth month of the Arabick 
 year. 
 
 RAMIFICATION, the produ&ion of boughs or 
 branches, or of figures rcfembling branches. 
 
 RAMMER, an iuHrument ufed for driving down 
 Hones or piles into the ground ; or for beating the earth, 
 in order to render it more folid for a foundation. 
 
 Rammer of a Gun , the gun-llick ; a rod ufed in 
 charging of a gun, to drive home the pow'der, as alfo the 
 fhot and the wad, which keeps the fhot from rolling out. 
 The rammer of a great gun is ufed for the fame purpofe. 
 
 It has a round piece of wood at one end, and the other 
 is ufually rolled in a piece of fheep-lkin, fitted to the bore 
 of the piece, and is ufed to clear her after flic has been 
 difeharged, which is called lponging the piece. 
 
 RAMPANT, in heraldry, a term applied to a lion, 
 leopard, or other beafl that Hands on his hind legs, and 
 rears up his fore feet in the poHure of climbing, fhewing 
 only half his face, as one eye, he. It is different from 
 faliant, in which the beafl feems fpringing forward, as if 
 making a fally. 
 
 RAMPART, in fortification, is an elevation of earth 
 round a place, capable of refifling the cannon of an ene¬ 
 my ; and formed into baflions, curtins, he. 
 
 A rampart ought to be Hoped on both fides, and to 
 be broad enough to allow room for the marching of 
 waggons and cannon, befide that allowed for the parapet, 
 which is raifed on it: its thicknefs is generally about 10 
 or 12 fathoms, and its height not above three, which is 
 fufficient to cover thehoufes from the battery of the can¬ 
 non. Fhe rampart is encompaffed with a ditch, and is 
 fometimes lined or fortified on the infidc, otherwife it has 
 a berme. See Berme. Upon the rampart foldiers 
 continually keep guard, and pieces of ai tillery are planted 
 there for the defence of the place. 
 
 Rampart, in civil architecture, is ufed for the fpace 
 left between the wall of a city, and the next houfes. 
 
 RANCID, denotes a fatty fubflance that is become 
 rank or mufly ; or has contracted an ill fmell by being 
 kept clofe. 
 
 RANDOM Shot, in gunnery, is a Ihot made when 
 the muzzle of a gun is raifed above the horizontal line, 
 and is not defigned to fltoot dircCtly, or point-blank. 
 
 The utmofl random of any piece is about 10 times as 
 far as the bullet will go point-blank. The bullet will 
 go furthefl when the piece is mounted to about 45 0 above 
 the level range. See Gunnery. 
 
 RANGE, in gunnery, the path of a bullet, or tlie- 
 line it deferibes from the mouth of die piece to the point 
 where it lodges. 
 
 RANGER, a fworn officer of a forefl, appointed by 
 the king’s letters patent, wliofe bufinefs is to walk through 
 his charge, to drive back the deer out of the purlieus, 
 he. and to prefent all trelpaflcs within his jurifdiCtion at 
 the next forefl-court. 
 
 RANGES, in a Hiip, two pieces of timber that go 
 acrols from fide to fide ; the one on the forecaflle, a little 
 abaft the foremafl, and the other in the beak-head, be¬ 
 fore the wouldings of the bowfprit. 
 
 RANGING, in war, dilpofing the troops in the 
 order proper for an engagement, or formarching. 
 
 Ranging, in building, fignifies runningHrait, when 
 the fides of a work do not break into angles. 
 
 RANK, the order or place allotted a perlbn, fuitable 
 to his quality or merit. 
 
 Rank, in war, is a row of foldiers, placed fide by fide. 
 
 RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemption 
 I of a Have, or for the liberty of a prifoner of war. In 
 
 our 
 
R A R 
 
 our law-books, ranflom is alfo ufed for a fnm paid for 
 the pardon of fome great offence, and to obtain the offen¬ 
 der’s liberty. 
 
 RANI, in the drama, an extravagant, unnatural, 
 and improbable flight of paffion. 
 
 RANULA. otRana, in medicine, a tumour under 
 the tongue, which, like a ligature, hinders a child from 
 fpeaking or fucking. The matter contained in thefe 
 tumours is various, it being fometimes a tenacious and 
 mucous lymph, fometimes a thick and purulent matter, 
 and fometimes of a hard and ftony confiftence. 
 
 d he fafefl method of cure, according to Heifter, is 
 to turn the tongue upwards, and to make a tranlverfe 
 incifion through the tumour, in order to difeharge the 
 included matter; afterwhich you may deterge or deflroy 
 the remaining tunick with honey of roles fharpened with 
 fpirits of vitriol, and then the cure may be ealily com¬ 
 pleted with a mixture of oil and fugar. Sometimes the 
 tubercle breaks of iticlf, and then you mull deterge and 
 heal the ulcer as before. 
 
 RANUNCULUS, crowfoot, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower conlifts of five obtule petals with 
 linall ungues, each having an open neftarium above the 
 claws; the filaments are numerous, about half the length 
 of the petals, and terminated by ereft, oblong, obtufe, 
 twin anthera?: there is no pericarpium ; but the feeds, 
 which are irregular and numerous, arc connected to the 
 receptacle by very fhort peduncles. 
 
 Botanifts enumerate divers fpecies belonging to this 
 genus, but the oriental forts are molt admired and culti¬ 
 vated in our gardens, as few flowers equal them, either 
 in richnefs of colour, or for the variety and beautiful 
 mixture of their tints. They are natives of Turkey, 
 Arabia and Perfia, from whence they have been im¬ 
 ported into Europe. 
 
 RAPE, a fpecies of braflica, or cabbage, deferibed by 
 authors under the name of the napus fylveitris and bunius 
 fylveftris. I his plant is much cultivated for feeding 
 cattle in feveral counties of England. The feafon for 
 flowing is about the middle of June, and the plants after¬ 
 wards lhould be hoed out as praftiled with turneps, with 
 the difference only of leaving them much nearer together. 
 
 As this plant is fo hardy as not to be deftroyed by 
 froft, it is of great fervice in hard winters for feeding 
 fheep ; for when the ground is’flo hard frozen as that the 
 turneps'cannot be taken up, thefe plants may be’ cut off 
 for a Ripply : they will alfo afford late food, alter the 
 turneps are run to feed ; and if it is afterwards permitted 
 to ftand for feed, it will pay extremely well, for from 
 the feed is drawn an oil, called rape-oil, which is ufed in 
 the woollen manufaftures, and, in the materia medica, 
 is efteemed attenuant, cordial, and fudorifick. 
 
 Rape, in law, the having carnal knowledge of a wo¬ 
 man by force and againft her will. 
 
 R a pe of the Foreji „ a trelpafs committed in a foreft by 
 violence. 
 
 Rap e', is alfo a name given to the divifion of a county, 
 and fometimes means the fame as a hundred, and at 
 other times fignifies a divifion, confining of feveral hund¬ 
 reds ; thus Suflex is divided into fix rapes, every one of 
 which, befides its hundreds, has a cattle, a river, and a 
 foreft, belonging to it. The like parts in other counties 
 are called tithings, lathes, or wapentakes. 
 
 Rape, al r o fignifies the ftalks of the clutters of grapes, 
 when dried and freed from the fruit. This is ufed in 
 making vinegar. 
 
 RAPHANUS, the radifh, in botany. See Radish. 
 RAPIER, formerly fignified a long, old-fafhioned 
 broad fl.vcfd, fluch are thole worn by the common fol- 
 diers ; but it now denotes a fmall fword, as contradiltin- 
 guiihed from a back fword. 
 
 RAPINE, in law. taking away another’s goods, &c. 
 openly at ~ by violence. 
 
 RAPTURE, an ecitafv or tranfport of mind. 
 
 RARE, inphyficks, denotes a body that is very po¬ 
 rous, the parts of which are at a great diltance from one 
 another, and containing but little matter under a great 
 deal of bulk. And thus it Hands oppofed todenfe. The 
 corpufcular philofophers, as the Epicureans, Gallendifts, 
 Newtonians, Nc. aflert that fome bodies are rarer than 
 others, by virtue of a great quantity of vacuity included 
 between their pores. The Cartefians hold that it only 
 confiits in a gieater quantity ot materia iubtilis included 
 
 RAT 
 
 in its pores; and, Iafllly, the Peripateticks contend, that 
 rarity is a new quality fuperinduced upon a body, without 
 any dependance either on vacuity or lubtile matter. 
 
 RAREFAC 1 ION, Rurefadtio , inphyficks, the aft 
 whereby a body is rendered rare. It is oppofed to con- 
 deniation. The degree to which the air is rarifiable ex¬ 
 ceeds all imagination. See Air. 
 
 R AS ANT, or Razant, in fortification: rafant- 
 tlank, or line, is that part ol the curtin or flank whence 
 the Ihot exploded rafe, or glance, along the furface of 
 the oppohte baftion. 
 
 RASH, in medicine, an eruption upon tile lkin 
 thrown out in fevers or furfeits. 
 
 RASP, a rough or rank fort of file. 
 RASPBERRY-Bush, in botany, a fpecies of rubus 
 the root is perennial, and divided into feveral branches' 
 trom which arife feveral annual ftalks, about lix feet 
 high, armed with thorns : the leaves are like tliofe of 
 the bramble, but more tender and foft j of a brownidi 
 green above, but whitilh underneath : the flowers are 
 white, and coniilt of five petals, difpofed in the form of 
 a rofe; and the cup is divided into five parts, from the 
 centie of which the piftil arifes, furrounded with many 
 ftannna, which is afterwards fucceeded by a well known 
 fruit, ot a white or red colour. The rafpberry is com¬ 
 monly propagated by fuckers, which lhould be planted 
 about two feet alunder in the rows, and five feet row 
 trom row ; they like a good ftrong frefh foil. I„ autumn, 
 thole moots which produced the fruit will dccav, when 
 they lhould be taken off, and a few of the ftrongefl young 
 Ihoots preierved, for bearing the fucceeding year ; cutting 
 out all tliofe that arc weak, and digging between the rows 
 in winter, which is all the management they require. 
 
 RAT, in zoology, the Englilh name of feveral fpecies 
 of the mus kind ; as the common-rat, the ground-rat 
 and the water-rat. 
 
 Rat- 1 ails, or Arrejls , in the menage, fignify hard 
 callous fwellings upon the hinder legs, under the hough, 
 running along the Anew. A horfe is called rat-tail, when 
 he has no hair upon his tail. 
 
 •^■^TAt 1A, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from 
 the kernels, &c. of feveral kinds of fruit, particularly 
 ot cherries and apricots. 1 
 
 RATCH, or Rash, in clock-work, a fort of wheel 
 having 12 tangs, which ferve to lift up the detents every 
 hour, and make the clock firike. See Clock. 
 
 RA 1 CHATS, in a watch, arc the fmall teeth at 
 the bottom of die fufee, or barrel, which Hops it in 
 winding up. 
 
 RA I E, a ftandard or proportion, by which either 
 the quantity or value of a thing is adjufted. 
 
 Rate of a Ship of I'/ur, is its order, degree, or di- 
 ftinftion, as to magnitude, burden, &c. The rate is 
 ufually accounted by the length and breadth of the gun- 
 deck, the number of tons, and the number of men and 
 guns the velflel carries. Of thefe there are fix rates. A 
 firft rate man of war has its gun-deck from 159 to 174 
 feet in length, and from 44 to 30 feet broad; it contains 
 from 1313 to 1882 tons, has from 706 to 800 men, and 
 carries from 96 to 100 guns. Second rate fhips have 
 their gun-decks from 153 to 165 feet long, and from 41 
 to 46 broad ; they contain from 1086 to 1482 tons, and 
 carry from 524 to bjo men, and from 84 to 90 guns. 
 Third rates have their gun-decks from 140 to 158 feet 
 in length, from 37 to 42 feet broad ; they contain from 
 871 to 1262 tons ; carry from 389 to 476 men, and 
 from 64 to 80 guns. Fourth rates are in length on their 
 gun-decks from 118 to 146 feet, and from 29 to 38 
 broad, they contain from 448 to 915 tons ; carry from 
 226 to 346 men, and from 48 to 60 guns. Fifth rates 
 have their gun-decks from 100 to 120 feet long, and 
 from 241031 broad, they contain from ^39 to 542 tons, 
 and carry from 145 to 190 me ■ andftom . 'to 44 guns. 
 Sixth rates have their gun-deck, from 87 95 feet long, 
 
 and from 22 to 25 broad, they •- a 1 from 152 to 
 256 tons, carry from 50 to no men, and from 16 to 
 24 guns. 
 
 It is to be oblerved, that the new built fhips are much 
 larger, as well as better than ti.v. old ones of the fame 
 rate ; whence the double numbers all along : the larger 
 of which exprefs the proportions of the new built fhips, 
 as the lefs tliofe of the old ones. 
 
 RATTEEN, or Ratten, in commerce, a thick 
 
 woollen 
 
RAT 
 
 REA 
 
 Woollen fluff, quilled, woven on a loom with four tred- 
 dles, like ferges and other fluffs that have the whale or 
 quilling. 
 
 RA i 1 FICATION, Ratifhatio, an aft approving of. 
 and confitming fomething done by another in our name. 
 
 RATIO, in arithmetick and geometry, is that relation 
 of homogeneous things which determines the quantity of 
 one from the quantity of another, without the interven¬ 
 tion of a third. 
 
 Two numbers, lines, or quantities, A and B, being 
 propofed, their relation one to another may be confidered 
 under one of thefe two heads : i. How much A exceeds 
 B, or B exceeds A ; and this is found by taking A from 
 B, or B from A, and is called arithmetick reafon or ratio. 
 2. Or how many times, and parts of a time, A contains 
 B, or B contains A ; and this is called geometrick reafon 
 or ratio; (or, as Euclid defines it, it is the mutual ha¬ 
 bitude, or refpeft, of two magnitudes of the fame kind, 
 according to quantity ; that is, as to how often the one 
 contains, or is contained in the other) and is found by 
 dividing A by B, or B by A ; and here note, that that 
 quantity which is referred to another quantity, is called 
 the antecedent of the ratio ; and that to which the other 
 is referred, is called the confequent of the ratio ; as, in 
 the ratio of A to B, A is the antecedent, and B the con¬ 
 fequent. Therefore any quantity, as antecedent, divided 
 by any quantity as a confequent, gives the ratio of that 
 antecedent to the confequent. 
 
 A 
 
 Thus the ratio of A to B is — but the ratio of B to A 
 
 D 
 
 is — ; and, in numbers, the ratio of 12 to 4 is — r: 2, 
 
 A ' A 
 
 or triple; but the ratio of 4 to 12 is zz-, or fubtriple. 
 
 And here note, that the quantities thus compared, mud 
 be of the fame kind ; that is fuch, which, by multiplica¬ 
 tion, may be made to exceed one the other, or as thefe 
 quantities are faid to have a ratio between them, which, 
 being multiplied, may be made to exceed one another. 
 Thus a line, how fhort foever, may be multiplied, that 
 is produced fo long as to exceed in length any given 
 right line, and confequently thefe may be compared to¬ 
 gether, and the ratio expreffed : but as a line can never, 
 by any multiplication whatever, be made to have breadth, 
 that is, to be made equal to a fuperficies, how fmall fo¬ 
 ever ; thefe can therefore never be compared together, 
 and confequently have no ratio or refpeft one to another, 
 according to quantity; that is, as to how often the one 
 contains, or is contained in another. 
 
 RATIOCINATION, Ratiocinatio, the aft of rea- 
 foning. 
 
 RATION, or Rati an, in the army, a portion of 
 ammunition, bread, drink, and forage, diftributed to each 
 foldier in the army, for his daily fubfillence, &c. The 
 horle have rations of hay and oats when they cannot go 
 out to forage. The Ihips crew have alfo their rations 
 or allowances of bifeuit, pulfe, and water, proportioned 
 according to their Hock. 
 
 RATIONAL, reafonable. 
 
 Rational is alfo applied to integral, fraftional, and 
 mixed numbers : thus we fay, rational fraftions, rational 
 integer, and rational mixt number; that is, fuch frac¬ 
 tions, integers, &c. as are parts of unity. 
 
 Rational Horizon, that whofe plane is conceived 
 to pafs through the centre of the earth. 
 
 RATIONALE, a folution or account of the princi¬ 
 ples of fome opinion, aftion, hypothefis, phenomenon, 
 or the like. 
 
 RATLINES, or, as thefeamen call them, Ratlins, 
 thole lines which make the ladder Heps to get up the 
 fhrouds and puttocks, hence called the ratlings of the 
 Ihrouds. 
 
 RATTLE-SNAKE, Crotalapborus, in zoology, a 
 genus of lerpents, having feuta that cover the whole 
 under-furface of the body and tail, and having the ex¬ 
 tremity of the body terminated by a kind of rattle, formed 
 of a feries of urceolated articulations, which are move- 
 able, and make a noile. Of this ferpent there are two 
 fpecies, the greater one with the feuta of the abdomen 
 172, of the tail 21 ; and the lefs rattle-fnake, having the 
 feuta of the abdomen 165, of the tail 28. 
 
 Rattle-Snak E-Root, the fame with the fenega, a 
 fpccies of the polygala. Sc« Polygala. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 62. 
 
 B.AUCEDO, hoarfenefs, in medicine. See tile article 
 Ho AR SENESS. 
 
 RAVELIN, in fortification, was anciently a flatbaf- 
 tion, placed in the middle of a curtin; but now a detached 
 work, compofed only of two faces, which make a faliant 
 angle, without any flanks, and railed before the curtin 
 on the counterfearp of the place. A ravelin is a trian¬ 
 gular work, refembling the point of a baftion, with the 
 flanks cut off. 
 
 RAVEN, in ornithology, a fpecies of the co'rvus, 
 of the bignefs of a common lien, of a black colour, with 
 a blue back : the head is fmall, deprefied on the crown, 
 and flatted on both fides : the eyes are large, bright and 
 piercing ; the beak is coniiderably long, and lomewhat 
 ridged on the back, and lharp at the point. 
 
 RAVISHMENT, inlaw, denotes an unlawful feduc- 
 ing either of a woman, or an heir that is in ward : fome- 
 times it is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe as a rape. 
 
 RAY, in opticks, a beam of light, emitted from a 
 radiant, or luminous body. See Light. 
 
 RAYONANT, or Crojs Rayon ant, in heraldry, 
 one which has rays of glory behind it, darting out from 
 the centre to all the quarters of the efcutcheon. 
 
 RE, in grammar, an infeparable particle added to the 
 beginning of words, to double, orotherwife modify their 
 meaning; as in re-aftion, remove, re-export, &c. 
 
 REACH, in the fea-language, fignifies the diflance 
 between any two points of land, lying nearly in a right 
 line. 
 
 RE-ACTION, in phyfiology, the refiftance made 
 by all bodies to the aftion orimpulfe of others, that en¬ 
 deavour to change its Hate, whether of motion or reft. 
 See Action and Motion. 
 
 REALISTS, Realijia , a feft of fchool philofophers, 
 formed in oppofition to the Nominalills. See the article 
 Nominalists. 
 
 Under the realifts are included the Scotifts, Thomifts, 
 and all excepting the followers of Ocham. Their dif- 
 tinguilhing tenet is, that univerfals are realities, and 
 have an aftual exiftence out of an idea, or imagination ; 
 or, as they exprefs it in the fchools, a parte rei; whereas 
 the Nominalills contend that they only exift in the mind, 
 and are only ideas, or manners of conceiving things. 
 
 REAR, a term frequently ufed in compofition to de¬ 
 note fomething behind, or backwards, in refpeft of ano¬ 
 ther, in oppofition to van : thus, in a military fenfe, it 
 is uled for the hinder part of an army, in oppofition to 
 the front. For the rear-guard, rear-half-files, rear-line, 
 rear-rank, and rear-admiral, fee Guard, File, Line, 
 Rank, and Admiral. 
 
 REASON, Ratio, a faculty or power of the mind, 
 whereby it diftinguifhes good from evil, truth from 
 falfhood ; whereby man is diftinguillied from beafts, and 
 wherein it is evident he greatly lurpaffes them : or, rea¬ 
 fon is that principle, whereby, comparing feveral ideas 
 together, we draw confequences from the relations they 
 are found to have. 
 
 Reafon, in the Englifh language, has different fignifi- 
 cations : fometimes it is taken for true and clear prin¬ 
 ciples ; fometimes for clear and fair deduftions from thole 
 principles; and fometimes for the caufe, and particularly 
 the final caufe. 
 
 If general knowledge confifts in a perception of the 
 agreement or difagreement of our own ideas, and the 
 knowledge of the exiftence of all things without us (ex¬ 
 cept only of God, whofe exiftence every man may cer¬ 
 tainly know and demonftrate to himfelf from his own 
 exiftence) we had only by our fenfes : what room then 
 is there for the exercife of any other faculty, but out¬ 
 ward fenfe and inward perception ? What need is there 
 of reafon ? Very much, both for the enlargement of our 
 knowledge, and regulating our affent: for it hath to do 
 both in knowledge and opinion, and is neceffary and 
 alfilling to all our other intelleftual faculties, and indeed 
 contains two of them, viz. fagacity and illation. By 
 the one it finds out, and by the other it fo orders the in¬ 
 termediate ideas, as to difeover what conneftion there is 
 in each link of the chain, whereby the extremes are held 
 together; and thereby, as it were, to draw into view 
 the truth fought for, which is that we call illation or 
 inference, and confifts in nothing but the perception of 
 the conneftion that is between the ideas of each ftep of 
 the deduftion; whereby the mind comes to fee either 
 Y y y the 
 
R E A 
 
 the certain agreement or difagreement of any two ideas, 
 as in demonftration, in which it arrives at knowledge; 
 or their probable connexion, on which it gives or 
 withholds its afient, as in opinion. Senle and intuition 
 reach but a very little way. The greateft part of our 
 knowledge depends upon dedudtions and intermediate 
 ideas: and in thofc cafes where we are fain to fubftitute 
 afient inftead of knowledge, and take proportions for 
 true without being certain they are lo, we have need to 
 find out, examine, and compare the grounds of their 
 probability. In both thefe cafes the faculty which finds 
 out the means, and rightly applies them to dilcover cer¬ 
 tainty in the one, and probability in the other, is that 
 which we call reafon. For as reafon perceives the ne- 
 celTary and indubitable connexion of all the ideas or 
 proofs one to another, in every flep of difeourfe in which 
 it will think afient due ; this is the loweft degree of that 
 which can be truly called reafon. For where the mind 
 does not perceive this probable connexion, where it does 
 not difeern whether there be any fuch connexion or no, 
 the man’s opinions are not the product of judgment, or 
 the conlequence of reafon, but the effttts of chance and 
 hazard of a mind floating at all adventures without choice, 
 and without direction. 
 
 So that we may in reafon confider thefe four degrees : 
 the firft and higheft is the difeovering and finding out 
 of proofs; the fecond, the regular and methodical dif- 
 pofition of them, and laying them in a clear and fit 
 order, to make their connection and force be plainly and 
 eafily perceived ; the third is the perceiving their con¬ 
 nection ; and the fourth making a right conclufion. 
 Thefe feveral degrees may be oblerved in any mathe¬ 
 matical demonftration : it being one thing to perceive 
 the connection of each part, as the demonftration is 
 made by another ; another to perceive the demonftration 
 of the conclufion on all the parts ; and the third to make 
 out a demonftration clearly and neatly one’s felf; and 
 fbnaething different from all thefe, to have firft found 
 out thole intermediate ideas or proofs by which it is 
 made. l.cck<? on Human Undtrjianding . 
 
 REASONING, ratiocination, the exercife of that 
 faculty of the mind called reafon ; or it is an aCt or ope¬ 
 ration of the mind, deducing fome unknown propofition 
 from other previous ones that are evident and known. 
 
 It often happens in the comparing ideas together, that 
 their agreement or difagreement cannot be difcerncd at 
 firft view, efpecially if they are of fuch a nature as not 
 to admit of any exaCt application to one another : here 
 then, as has already been obferved under the article 
 Reason, it becomes neceflary to look out fome third 
 idea that will admit of fuch an application as theprefent 
 cafe requires. Hence it appears that every aCt of reafon- 
 ing neceflarUy includes three di’ftinCt judgments, two 
 wherein the ideas whole relation we want to difeover, 
 are feverally compared with the middle idea, and a third 
 wherein they ar e themfclves connected, or disjoined ac¬ 
 cording to the refult of that companion. Now as our 
 judgments when put into words are called propofitions, 
 lb the expreflions of our reafonings are termed fyllogifms. 
 And hence it follows, that as every aCt of reafoning im¬ 
 plies three feveral judgments, fo every fyllogifm muft 
 include three diftinCt propofitions. Seethe article Syl¬ 
 logism. 
 
 In order therefore to infer a conclufion by a fingle aCt 
 of reafoning, the premifes muft be intuitive propofitions, 
 where they are not, previous fyllogifms are required, 
 in which cafe reafoning becomes a complicated aCt taken 
 in a variety of fucceflive fteps. This frequently happens 
 in tracing the more remote relations of our ideas, where 
 many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can¬ 
 not be made out, but in confequence of a feries of fyllo¬ 
 gifms following one another in train. Hence we may 
 clearly perceive that reafoning, in the higheft exercife of 
 that faculty, is no more than an orderly combination of 
 fimple aCts of reafoning. See Demonstration. 
 
 Thus we fee that reafoning, beginning with firft prin¬ 
 ciples, rifes gradually from one judgment to another, 
 and connects them in fuch a manner that every ftage 
 of the progrefiion brings intuitive certainty along with it. 
 
 REAUMURIA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 corolla conlifts of five oblong equal petals, which are 
 recurved at their tops ; the filaments are numerous and 
 topped with roundilh anther® ; the fruit is an ovate I 
 
 REC 
 
 eapfule, having five valves, and five cells containing a 
 great many oblong feeds. 
 
 REBATE, or Rebatement, in commerce, a term 
 much uled at Amfterdam, for an abatement in the price 
 of feveral commodities, when the buyer, inftead ol tak¬ 
 ing time, advances ready money. 
 
 REBATEMENT, in heraldry, a diminution or 
 abatement of the bearings, in a coat of arms. See 
 Abatement. 
 
 REBELLION, atraiterous taking up of arms againft 
 the king by his own natural fubjedts, or thofc formerly 
 fubdued. 
 
 REBELLIOUS Assembly, inlaw, anaflembling 
 together of 12 or more perfons, with an intent of un¬ 
 lawfully making ufe of their own authority, to change 
 01 alter any laws of this kingdom, or to deftroy the in- 
 clolures ol any ground, or the banks of any filh-pond, 
 pool, or conduit, to the intent that it may lie watte and 
 void ; or to deftroy the deer in any park, fiih in fifii- 
 ponds, coneys in any warren; or any houfe, barn, mills, 
 or bays ; or to burn flicks of corn, abate rents, or prices 
 of victuals, Ac. See Riot. 
 
 REBUS, an enigmatical reprefentation of fome name. 
 he. by ufing figures or pictures inftead of words, or 
 parts of words. 
 
 Rkkp E I ER, in law, the defendant’s anfwer to the. 
 plaintiff’s furrejoinder, in a caufe depending in the court 
 of chancery, Ac. 
 
 RECAPITULATION, in oratory, Ac. a part of 
 the peroration. Recapitulation is a fummary, or a con- 
 cjfe and tranfient enumeration of the principal things in¬ 
 filled on in the preceding difeourfe, whereby the force of 
 the whole is colle&ed into one view. 
 
 RECEIPT', orRECEiT, in commerce, ^n acquit¬ 
 tance or difcharge, in writing, intimating that the party 
 has received a certain film of money, either in full fof 
 the whole debt, or in part, or on account. 
 
 Receipt, in book-keeping, is an account of all the 
 money and goods received. See Book. 
 
 RECEIVER, in chymiftry, a veflcl of earth, glafs, 
 Ac. for receiving any diftilled liquor. 
 
 Receiver, in pneumaticks, a glafs veflel for contain¬ 
 ing the thing on which an experiment in the air-pump is 
 to be made. 
 
 RECEPTACLE, among botanifts, is the bafe which 
 
 fupports either the flower, fruit, or feeds ; in reipeft to 
 its form it is cither flat, concave, convex, globular, co- 
 nick, or pyramidal; and with regard to its furface, it is 
 either naked, pundlatcd, villole, bnftly or paleaceous. 
 
 RECEPTACULUM Chyu, or Pecquet’s Re- 
 servatory, the refervoir or receptacle for the chyle, 
 fituated in the left fide of the upper vertebra of the loins’ 
 under the aorta, and the veffels of the left kidney. 
 
 RECHABI 1 ES, a kind of religious order among the 
 ancient Jews, inllituted by Jonadab, the fon of Rechab, 
 comprehending only his own family and pofterity. 
 
 Their founder preferibed them three things : firft, not 
 to drink any wine ; fccondly, not to build any houfes, 
 but to dwell in tents; and thirdly, not to low any corn, 
 or plant vines. Thefe rules the Rechabites oblerscd with 
 great ftriftnels. 
 
 RECHEAT, in hunting, a Ieffon which the huntf- 
 men play on the horn, when the hounds have loft their 
 game, to call them back frompuriuing a counterfcent. 
 
 RECIPE, in medicine, a prelcription or remedy, to 
 be taken by a patient; fo called, becaufe always begin¬ 
 ning with the word recipe, i. e. take; which’ is gene¬ 
 rally denoted by the abbreviature R. For the rules proper 
 to be obferved in lorming recipes, fee Prescription. 
 
 RECIPIANGLE, or Rec ipiENT-stfng/e, a mathe¬ 
 matical inftrument, ferving to meafure re-entering and 
 faliant angles, efpecially in fortification. 
 
 REC 1 PIEN 1 , the fame with receiver ; which fee. 
 
 RECIPROCAL, in general, fomething that is mu¬ 
 tual, or which is returned equally on both lides, or that 
 affedls both parties alike. 
 
 Reciprocal Terms, among logicians, are thole 
 which have the fame fignification, and conlequentlv are 
 convertible, or may be ufed for each other. 
 
 Reciprocal Figures, in geometry, thofc which have 
 the antecedents and confequcnts of the fame ratio, in 
 both figures. 
 
 Reciprocal Proportion, in arithmetick, is when in 
 
 four 
 
R E C 
 
 four numbers, the fourth is lefs than the fecond, by fo 
 much as the third is greater than the firft; and vice 
 verfa. See Proportion. 
 
 RECITATIVO, or Recitative, in mufick, a 
 kind of linging, that differs but little from ordinary pro¬ 
 nunciation, fuch as that in which the fcveral parts of the 
 liturgy are rehearfed in cathedrals ; or that wherein the 
 adlors commonly deliver themfelves on the theatre at the 
 opera, when they are to cxprefs lbmc action or paffion, 
 to relate feme event, or reveal fome defign. 
 
 RECKONING, or, a Ship's Reckoning, in na¬ 
 vigation, is that account whereby at any time it may be 
 known where the Ihip is, and on what courfe or courfes 
 lhe is to fleer, in order to gain her port; and that ac¬ 
 count taken from the log-board is called the dead-reck¬ 
 oning. See Log-Board, Journal, he. 
 
 RECLINATION of a Plane, in dialling, is the 
 number of degrees any dial-plane deviates from a vertical 
 poiition. 1 he reclination of a plane is eafily found ; for 
 having drawn a horizontal line on the plane, by a level 
 or quadrant, and another line at right-angles to it ; ap¬ 
 ply a ruler, fo that one end of it may reach beyond the 
 plane : this being done, a quadrant applied to the edge 
 of the ruler will fhew the degrees and minutes of the 
 plane’s reclination ; accounting from that fide of the 
 quadrant which touches the edge of the ruler. 
 
 RECLUSE, among the papifls, a perfon fhut up in 
 afmall cell of an hermitage or monaflery, and cut off, 
 not only from all converfation with the world, but even 
 with the houfe. This is a kind of voluntary imprifon- 
 ment, from a motive either of devotion or penance. 
 
 The word is alio applied to incontinent wives, whom 
 their hufbands procure to be thus kept in perpetual im- 
 prifonment in fome religious houfe. Recjufes were an¬ 
 ciently very numerous; they took an oath, never to flir 
 out of their retreat; and, having entered it, the bifhop 
 let his leal upon the door ; and the rcclufe was to have 
 every thing ncceffary for the fupport of life, conveyed to 
 him through a window. 
 
 RECOGNIZANCE, inlaw, a bond, orobligation 
 of record, acknowledged to the king ; teftifying the re¬ 
 cognizor to owe to the recognizee a certain fum of mo¬ 
 ney. It is thus called, becaufe recognized, or acknow¬ 
 ledged in fome court of record, or before fome judge, 
 mailer in chancery, or juft ice of the peace. There are 
 alfo recognizances for bail, others for appearing at the 
 feffions, to profecute a felon, others for good behaviour. 
 
 RECOGNIZEE, is he to whom the perfon is bound 
 in a recognizance. 
 
 RECOGNIZOR, the perfon bound to another in a 
 recognizance. 
 
 RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, whereby 
 thofe ideas fought after by the mind are brought again to 
 view. 
 
 RECONNOITRE, in military affairs, implies to 
 view and examine the {late of things, in order to make a 
 report thereof. 
 
 RECORD, Recordium , in law, an authentick tefti- 
 mony of any thing in writing, contained in rolls of parch¬ 
 ment, and preferved in a court of record. 
 
 RECORDARE Facias, a writ dire&ed to the 
 fheriff to remove a caufe depending in an inferior court, 
 to the King’s-bench or Common-pleas. 
 
 RECORDER, a perfon whom the mayor, or other 
 chief inagillrate of any city or town corporate, having 
 jurifdiftion and a court of record within their precindls, 
 alfociates with him, for his better direflion in matters of 
 juflice, and proceedings according to law. In fome towns 
 where they have their particular affizes within themfelves, 
 and no mayor, the recorder is the judge. 
 
 RECORDO & ProceJJo mittendis, a writ to call a 
 record, together with the whole proceedings in the caufe, 
 out of an inferior court, into the king’s court. 
 
 RECOVERY, in law, an obtaining any thing by 
 judgment or trial at law. 
 
 7 rue Recovery, is an actual or real recovery of any 
 thing, or the value thereof, by judgment. 
 
 _ Feigned or common Recovery, is a kind of fittio ju¬ 
 ris, being a certain form or courfe preferibed by law to 
 be obferved for the better alfuring of lands and tene¬ 
 ments to us ; the end and effedl whereof is to difeontinue 
 and deftroy ellates tail, remainders, and rcyerfions, and 
 to bar the intails thereof. 
 
 R E C 
 
 RECREMENT, in medicine, fome fuperfluous mat¬ 
 ter, mixed with others, that are ufcful. See the article 
 Excrement. 
 
 Recrement is alfo ufed by fome authors to imply 
 fuch fecreted juices in the body, as are afterwards of ule 
 to the ceconomy; as the lymph, gall, &rc. 
 
 RECRIMINATION, apofterior accufation brought 
 by the accufed againft the accufer, upon the fame fa£l. 
 
 RECRUDESCENCE, a term ufed by fome medical 
 authors to imply a relapfe. 
 
 RECTANGLE, in arithmetickand algebra, the fame 
 with produdl or faftum. 
 
 RECTANGLED, Rec tXngular, or Right- 
 angled, appellations given to figures and folids which 
 have one or more right angles : thus a triangle with one 
 right angle, is termed a reftanglcd triangle , alfo parel- 
 lelograms with right-angles, fqunres, cubes, &c. arerec- 
 tauilular. Solids, as cones, cylinders, &c. are alfo faid 
 to be rectangular, with relpeCl to their lituation, when 
 their axes are perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. 
 I he ancient geometricians always called the parabola 
 the reftangular feCtion of a cone. 
 
 RECTIFICATION, the art of fettin^ any thing to 
 rights : and hence, to reCtify the globes, is to fit them 
 for performing any problem. 
 
 Rectification, in geometry, is the finding a right 
 line, equal in length to a curve. 
 
 RECTIFIER, in navigation, an inflrument con fill¬ 
 ing of two parts, which are two circles either laid one 
 upon, or let into the other, and fo {'aliened together in 
 their centres, that they reprelent two compares, one fixed, 
 the other moveable ; each of them divided into the 32 
 points of the compafs, and 360°, and numbered both 
 ways, from the north and the fouth, ending at the call 
 and weft, in 90°. The fixed compafs reprelents the ho¬ 
 rizon, in which the north and all the other points of the 
 compafs are fixed and immoveable. The moveable com¬ 
 pafs reprelents the mariners compafs, in which the north 
 and all other points are liable to variation. In the centre 
 of the moveable compafs is fattened a filk thread, long 
 enough to reach the outfide of the fixed compafs. But, 
 it the inflrument be made of wood, there is an index in- 
 ftead of the thread. Its ufe is to find the variation of the 
 compafs, to reCtify the courfe at fea, having the ampli¬ 
 tude or azimuth given, 
 
 RECTILINEAR, in geometry, right-lined; thus 
 figures whole perimeter confifts of right-lines, arc faid to 
 be redlilinear. 
 
 RECTOR, a term applied to fcveral perfons whofe 
 offices are very different ; as, 1. The rettorof a parifh 
 is a clergyman that has the charge and cure of a parifh, 
 and poflefles all the tythes, he. 2. The fame name is 
 alfo given to the chief elective officer in fevcral foreign uni- 
 verfities, particularly in that of Paris. 3. Reflor is alfo ufed 
 in fevcral convents for the fuperior officer who go 
 the houfe ; and the Jefuits give this name to the fuperiors 
 ot fuch of their houfes as are either leminarics or colleges. 
 
 RECTORY, a parifti-church, parfonage, or (piritual 
 living, with all its rights, tythes and glebes. It is alfo 
 ufed for the reflor's manfion or parfonaye-houfe. 
 
 RECTUM, in anatomy, the third and laft of the 
 great inteftines. It is fo called from its patting ftraight 
 from the os facrum to the anus, without making any 
 turns or circumvolutions, as all the other inteftines do. 
 
 RECTUS, in anatomy, a name common to fcveral 
 mufcles, on account of the ftraightnefs of the courfe of 
 their fibres, from their origin to their infertion. 
 
 RECURRENT Nerve, in anatomy, a branch of 
 the par vagum, bellowed upon the organs of fpeech, 
 whence it is alfo called vocal nerve. 
 
 RECUSANTS, perfons who refufe to acknowledge 
 the king’s fupremacy. Such are the Roman catholicks, 
 who hold the pope to be over him ; thence called popilh 
 recufants. 
 
 RED, in philofophy, one of the primary colours of 
 light. See Colours. The red rays are of all the others 
 the Ieaii refrangible. Hence, as Sir Il'aac Newton fup- 
 pofes the different degrees of refrangibilitv to arile from 
 the different magnitudes of the luminous particles, of 
 which the rays confift; the red rays, or red light, is con¬ 
 cluded to be that which confift of the larger particles. 
 
 Red is diftiriguifhed into three kinds ; one bordering 
 on the blue, as columbine or dove-coIour ; purple or 
 
 criuafpn 5 
 
RED 
 
 trimfbn ; another bordering on yellow, or flame-colour, 
 and orange. Between thefe extremes is a medium, par¬ 
 taking neither of the one nor the other, which is what 
 we properly call red. Acids turn black, blue, and vio¬ 
 let into red ; and red into yellow ; and yellow into a very 
 pale yellow. Alkali’s change red into violet or purple, 
 and yellow into feuillemort or dead-leaf colour. Ter- 
 reftrial and fulphureous matters become red by extreme 
 heat •, and feme at length black, as may be feen in brick, 
 red-bole, red-chalk, flate, pumice, which, when vitrified 
 by a burning glaf 3 , becomes black ; lobflers become red 
 by boiling by a moderate fire, and, by a violent fire, 
 black. Mercury and fulphur, mixed and heated over a 
 moderate fire, make a beautiful red, called artificial cin¬ 
 nabar. An acid fpirit, as lemon juice, being poured on 
 blue folution of turnfole, turns it into a beautiful red : 
 alkali reflores it to its original blue. Filtrating the redefl 
 wines takes from it all its red colour. 
 
 M. de la Hire obferves, that a very luminous body, 
 viewed through a black one, always appears ied ; as when 
 the fun is l'een fhining through a black cloud. He adds, 
 that many perfons, who fee all the other colours perfectly 
 well, yet have no idea of red, and only fee it as black. 
 Some dyers reckon feven kinds or calls of red, viz. fear- 
 let red, crimfon red, madder red, half-grain red, lively 
 orange red, and fcarlet of cochineal; but they may all be 
 reduced to thefe three, according to the three principal 
 drugs which produce the colours, which are vermiilion, 
 cochineal, and madder. The fine fcarlet, called fcarlet 
 of the gobelins, is made of agarick water prepared with 
 bran, and turned a little fourifh ; woad, and fcarlet-green 
 or vermiilion ; fome dyers add cochineal, and others 
 foenugreek, brightening it with four water, agarick, tar¬ 
 tar, and turmerick. 
 
 Crimfon red is made with four water, tartar, cochineal, 
 and maffick. Madder red is made with madder, to which 
 fome add realgal and arfenick; others common fait, or 
 other falts, with wheat flower ; or agarick, with fpirit of 
 wine with galls or turmerick. The half grain is made 
 with agarick or four water, half fcarlet grain, half madder, 
 and fometimes turmerick. As to the lively orange red, 
 the fluff mufl be firft laid in yellow, then in a liquor 
 made of goats-hair (which has been boiled leveral times 
 with madder) and now dilfolved over the fire with certain 
 acids, as tartar, Sec. The half crimfon is made of half 
 madder, half cochineal. The fcarlet of cochineal, or 
 Dutch fcarlet, is made with (larch, tartar, and cochineal; 
 after it has been firft boiled with allum, tartar, fal gem¬ 
 ma;, and aqua fortis, in which tin has been dilfolved. 
 
 Befides thefe feven reds, which are good and allowed 
 colours, there is alfo a Brafil red, which is difeouraged, 
 as fading eafily. Of the feven good reds, only four have 
 particular calls or fhades; the madder red, the crimlon 
 red, the lively orange red, and the fcarlet of cochineal. 
 The calls or lhades of crimfon are fiefh colour, peach 
 colour, carnation rofe colour, an apple-tree flower-co¬ 
 lour. Thofe of madder are flelh colour, onion-peel 
 colour, and flame colour. Thofe of orange are the fame 
 as thofe of crimfon. 
 
 REDENDUM, in law, a claufe in a leafe, &c. 
 wherebv a rent is referved to the lelfor. 
 
 REDDITION, in law, denotes a judicial acknowledg¬ 
 ment that a thing in queflion belongs to the demandant. 
 
 REDDLE, or red-chalk, a red foflile done, ufed to 
 make red pencils, or crayons for defigning, &c. 
 
 REDEEMABLES, in law, are lands, funds, Sec. 
 fold with a refervation of the equity of redemption. 
 
 REDEMPTION, in law, a faculty or right of re¬ 
 entering upon lands, &c. that have been fold, and 
 afligned, upon reimburling the purchafe-moncy, with 
 legal colls. 
 
 "REDEMPTION, in divinity, fignifies to buy again 
 fomething that had been fold, by paying back the price 
 to him that bought it, Lev. xxv. 25. and to deliver 
 and bring out of bondage with a dronghand, and with¬ 
 out any ranfom, fucli as were kept prifoners by their 
 enemies, Deut. vii. 8. and alfo to free linners from the 
 tyranny of Satan, from fin, death and hell, hy a ran¬ 
 fom paid to the judice of God : thus is Chrid both the 
 Ranfomer and Ranfom, Luke i. 68. 1 Tim. ii. 6. 
 
 Tit. ii. 14. 
 
 Redemption fometimes fignifies deliverance both from 
 the guilt and power of lin, by forgivenefs and fandtifi- 
 
 RED 
 
 cation, Eph. i. 7. Sometimes it is taken for the whole 
 work of a finner’s falvation, comprehending all things 
 that belong to it, Heb. ix. 12. Having obtained eternal 
 redemption for us. Our whole redemption, from the firft 
 adt to the lad, both for merit and efficacy, is wholly 
 from Chrid, and not at all from ourfelves. The lad adt 
 of our falvation is the refurredtion of our bodies, and 
 the lentence of the lad judgment, after which the faints 
 lhall be glorified as the fons of God by adoption, their 
 fouls and bodies being re-united, in this lenfe redemption 
 is taken, Luke xxi. 28. 'Rt>m. viii. 23. 
 
 REDENS, Red ans, or Red ant, in fortification, 
 a kind of work indented in the form of the teeth of a 
 faw, with falliant and re-entering angles, that one part 
 may flank or defend another. 
 
 P.EDHIBITION, in the civil law an adlion allowed 
 a buyer, whereby to annul the l'ale of fome moveable, 
 and oblige the feller to take it back again, upon the 
 buyer’s finding it damaged, or that there was fome per- 
 fonal cheat. 
 
 REDINTEGRATION, in the civil law, the adf 
 of refloring a perfon to the enjoyment of a’thing whereof 
 he has been illegally difpofieffed. 
 
 Redintegration, in chymiftry, the method of 
 redoring a mixed body to its original nature and conili- 
 tution, after it has been dedroyed by calcination, cor- 
 rolion, See. 
 
 REDISSEISIN, inlaw, adifleifin made by him who 
 once before was found and adjudged to have dilleilfcd 
 the fame man of his lands and tenements : for which 
 there lies a fpecial writ, called a writ of rediffeilin. 
 
 REDOUBT, in fortification, a Irnall fquare fort, 
 without any defence but in front; ufed in trenches, lines 
 of circumvallation, contravallation, and approach ; as alfo 
 for the lodging of corps de garde, and to defend palTagcs. 
 
 REDUCING Scale, a thin broad piece of box, &c. 
 with feveral lines and feales of equal parts thereon. 
 
 It is ufed hy furveyors, &c. for reducing maps or 
 draughts from one dimenfion into another. 
 
 REDUCT, or Reduit, in military affairs, an ad¬ 
 vantageous piece of ground, intrenched and feparated 
 from the reft of the place, camp, Sec. for an army, gar- 
 rifon, &c. to retire to in cafe of furprize. 
 
 Reduct, or Redux, in chymillry, a flux, or 
 powder, by which calcined metals, or minerals, are re¬ 
 duced to a regular form. See Flux. 
 
 REDUCTION, in arithmetick, is the converting of 
 monies, weights, or mcalures, into the fame value iu 
 another denomination : as pounds into (hillings or pence; 
 or (hillings and pence into pounds. Reduction is of 
 two kinds, defeending and alcending,- 
 
 Reduction defending, is when a quantity is to be 
 brought from any higher denomination into a lower. 
 This is done by confidering how many of the next lei's 
 denomination are contained in the next greater before it, 
 and by that number multiplying the greater. 'I bus 
 pounds arc reduced into lhilimgs by multiplying by 20 ; 
 Ihillings into pence by multiplying by 12; and pence 
 into farthings by multiplying by four. Alfo Troy pounds 
 may be reduced into grains by multiplying by 12, 20, 
 and 24. And avoirdupoife hundreds into ounces, by 
 multiplying by 4, 28, and 16. 
 
 Red uction afeending , is when a lower denomination 
 is to be brought into a higher. This is done by dividing 
 the lead by i'o many of its denomination as are contained 
 in the next greater. Thus 24,720 pence, divided by 
 12 and 20, give 103 pounds; but if any thing remain 
 after divifion, they are the odd pence and (hillings; as 
 67 1 3 pence, divided by 12 and 20, give 27I. 19s. 3d. 
 
 After tile fame manner may Troy weight, avoirdu¬ 
 poife weight, or any other weight or meafure be reduced. 
 
 Reduction of Equations, in algebra, is the freeing 
 them from all fuperfluous quantities, and the feparating 
 the known from the unknown quantities, in order to 
 reduce every refpedtive equation to its moil Ample terms, 
 and bring the known quantity or quantities to one fide 
 of the equation, and the unknown to the other. 
 
 Reduction of Syllogijms, is a regular changing or 
 transforming an imperfect fyllogifm into a perfect one. 
 Or, it is a change of a fyllogitm in refpefl of form, 
 whereby the necclfity of the inference is rendered more 
 evident. 
 
 Reduction, inaflronomy, is the difference between 
 
 the 
 
REF 
 
 the argument of inclination and the eccentrical longi¬ 
 tude ; or the difference of the two arches of the orbit 
 «md the ecliptick, intercepted between the node and the 
 circle of inclination. 
 
 Reduction, in furgery, the reducing a diflocated, 
 luxated, or fraCtured bone to its former place. 
 
 Reduction of a Figure or Map, the drawing a copy 
 thereof, either larger or fmaller than the original, Hill 
 preferving the form and proportion. 
 
 REDUNDANCE, or Redundancy, a fault in 
 writing and difeourfe, confifting in the ufe of a fuper- 
 fluity of words. 
 
 REDUNDANT Hyperbola, acurvc of the higher 
 kind, fo called, bccaufe it exceeds the conick feCtion of 
 that name in the number of its hyperbolical legs ; being 
 a triple hyperbola, with fix hyperbolical legs. 
 
 REDUPLICATION, in logick, a kind of condition 
 exprefied in a propolition, indicating or affigning the 
 manner wherein the predicate is attributed to the fubjcCt. 
 
 RE-DUPLICATIVE Propositions, are fuch 
 wherein the fubjcCt is repeated, with fome circumftance 
 or condition. Thus, “ Men, as men, are rational : 
 “ Kings, as kings, are fubjeCt to none but God.” 
 
 REEF, among feamen, dignifies part of the fail rolled 
 up, in order to make it lefs. 
 
 REELING, in the manufactures, the manner of 
 winding thread, filk, cotton, or the like, from a reel into 
 afkain, or on a bottom, to prevent its being entangled. 
 
 RE-ENTERING Angle, in fortification. See 
 Angle. 
 
 RE-ENTRY, in law, the refuming, or taking pof- 
 feflion of what we had lately quitted. 
 
 RE-EXTENT, inlaw, a fecond extent made upon 
 lands or tenements, on complaint that the former extent 
 was partially'made. 
 
 REFECTORY, a fpacious hall in convents, and 
 other communities, where the monks, nuns, Ac. take 
 their refeCtions or meal;. 
 
 REFERENCE, in writing, Ac. a mark relative to 
 another limilar one in the margin, or bottom of the page, 
 where fomething omitted in the text is added, or the 
 fubjedt further elucidated. 
 
 REFINING. See Assaying and Smelting. 
 
 Refining of Sugar. See Sugar. 
 REFLECTING, or Reflective D/W, a fort of 
 dial which Ihews the hour by means of a piece of look- 
 ing-glafs plate, duly placed to refleCt the fun’s rays to 
 the top of the ceiling, on which the hour-lines, Ac. are 
 drawn. 
 
 REFLECTION, or Reflexion, in mechanicks 
 the return, or regreflive motion of a moving body, oc- 
 cafioned by the refiftance which hindered it from purfu- 
 ing its former direction. 
 
 Reflection of Light , in opticks, the return of the 
 Tays of light, after impinging on the folid parts of bodies. 
 
 General Rules of Reflection, i. If a ray of light 
 be refledted from a fpeculum of any form, the angle of 
 incidence is ever equal to the angle of reflection. This 
 law obtains in pcrcuflions of all kinds of bodies, and, 
 confequently, mult do fo in thofe of light. This law 
 is confirmed in light by an eafy experiment; for the ray 
 of the fun falling on a mirrour in a dark room, through 
 a little hole, you will have the pleafure to fee it rebound, 
 fo as to make the angle of reflection equal to that of in¬ 
 cidence. 
 
 Hence, i. If a ray of light falls perpendicularly on 
 the furface of a fpeculum, it will be reflected back upon 
 it. 2. From the fame point of a fpeculum feveral rays 
 cannot be reflected to the fame point; for in that cafe all 
 the feveral angles of reflection would be equal to the 
 fame angle of incidence, which is abfurd. 3. One ray 
 cannot be reflected to two or more points ; for in that 
 cafe all its angles of reflection would be equal to the fame 
 angle of incidence ; which is as abfurd as before. 
 
 2d. Each point of a fpeculum reflects rays falling on 
 it from each part of an objcCt. Hence, fince feveral rays, 
 coming from feveral parts of a radiant objedt, cannot be 
 reflected from the fame point of a fpeculum to the fame 
 point; the rays that flow from different points of the 
 objedt are feparate after reflection : and hence each ray 
 fliews the point whence it proceeded. On this principle 
 it is, that the rays reflected from mirrours or looking- 
 glafles, exhibit the appearances of objeCts placed before 
 
 "V ol. II. No. 62. 
 
 REF 
 
 them. And hence we eafily conceive, why rough bodies 
 exhibit no images, in regard they refleCt the light in fuch 
 manner as to confound rays which proceed from dif¬ 
 ferent points, by means of their eminencies and cavities, 
 their alternate rifings and fallings : but for this, all hard 
 bodies would be mirrours. 
 
 3d. If the eye and the radiant point change places, 
 the point will continue to radiate upon the eye, in the 
 fame courfe or path as before. 
 
 4th. The plane of refleCIion, that is, the plane wherein 
 the incident and refleCIed ray are found, is perpendicular 
 to the furface of the fpeculum, and in fpherical lpecula 
 paffes through the centre. 
 
 5th. The image of an objeCt feen in a mirrour, is in 
 the cathetus of incidence. This holds good, univcrfally, 
 in plane and fpherical mirrours, and ufually in concave 
 ones, a few inftances only excepted, as is fhewn by Kepler. 
 For the particular laws of reflexion, arifing from the cir- 
 cumftances of the feveral kinds of fpecula, or mirrours 
 plane, concave, convex, Ac. fee.MiRRouR. 
 
 Reflection is alfo ufed, figuratively, for an opera¬ 
 tion of the mind; whereby it turns its view backwards 
 as it were upon itfelf, and makes itfelf and its own ope¬ 
 ration the objeCt of its difquifition ; and by contemplat¬ 
 ing the manner, order, and laws, which it obferves in per¬ 
 ceiving ideas, comparing them together, reafoning, Ac. 
 it frames new ideas of the relations difeovered therein. 
 
 REFLEX, or Reflect, in painting, is underftood 
 of thofe places in a picture which are fuppofed to be 
 illuminated by a light reflected from fome other body, 
 reprefented in the fame piece. 
 
 Reflex Vifion, that performed by means of reflected 
 rays, as from mirrours. 
 
 REFLUX op the Sea, the ebbing of the water, or its 
 returning from thefhore. 
 
 REFORM, a re-cftablifhment, or revival of formerlv 
 negledtcd difcipline, or a correction of the reignin' 7 
 abufes therein. 
 
 To Reform, in a military fenfe, is to reduce a com¬ 
 pany, regiment, Ac. either by difbanding the whole, or 
 breaking a part, and retaining the relt. 
 
 REIORMADO, or Reformed Officer, ond 
 whofe troop, or company, is fupprefled in a reform, and 
 he continued either in the whole or half-pay, doing duty- 
 in the regiment. 
 
 Rl'.t MATION, the a£t of reforming or correCt- 
 . ; abufc in religion, difcipline, or the like. 
 
 :c Rciormation, io called by way of eminence, i? 
 1 1 1 ’ k pa ration of the Proteftants from the church of 
 Rome, in the beginning and towards the middle of the 
 10th century. 
 
 REFRACT^ '/ or Refractive Dial, one that 
 fhews the h< urs by means of fome refraCtive tranfparent 
 fluid. 
 
 REFRACTION, in mechanicks, the deviation of a 
 moving body from its direCt courfe, by reafon of the 
 different denfity of the medium it moves in ; or a flexion 
 and change of direction, occafioned by a body’s falling 
 obliquely out of one medium into another of a different 
 denfity. 
 
 Refr action of Light , in opticks, is an inflexion, 
 or deviation of the rays of light from their rectilinear 
 courfe, upon falling obliquely out of one medium into 
 another of a different denfity. 
 
 Whatever fubftance a ray of light paffes through, or 
 if it pafs through a fpace void of all fubftance; it Ts laid, 
 by philofophers, to pafs through a medium , and, there¬ 
 fore, if it paffes out of any fubftance, as air or glafs, 
 into a vacuum, or the contrary, it is faid to pafs out of 
 one medium into another. 
 
 All bodies being endued with an attraCIive force, which 
 is extended to fome diftance beyond their lurfaces ; when 
 a ray of light paffes out of a rarer into adenfer medium, 
 if this latter has a greater attractive force than the for¬ 
 mer, as is commonly the cafe, and what we fhall here¬ 
 after always fuppofe, unlefs it be mentioned to the con¬ 
 trary, the ray, juft before its entrance, will begin to be: 
 attracted towards the denfer medium, and this attraCtiort 
 will continue to aCt upon it till fome time after it has 
 entered the medium, as we fhall fhew prelently ; there¬ 
 fore, if a ray approaches a denfer medium in a direction 
 perpendicular to its furface, its velocity will be conti¬ 
 nually accelerated during its paflage through the fpace 
 Z z 2. w • 
 
REF 
 
 in which that attraction exerts itfelf; and, therefore, 
 after it has palled thatfpace, it will move on till it arrives 
 at the oppontc iide of the medium, with a greater degree 
 of velocity than it had before it entered : fo that, in 
 this cafe, its velocity only will be altered. Whereas, if 
 a ray enters a denfer medium obliquely, it will not only 
 have its velocity augmented thereby, but its direction 
 will become lei's oblique to the furiace, juft as when a 
 ft one is thrown downwards obliquely from a precipice, it 
 falls to the fur face of the ground in a direction nearer to 
 a perpendicular one, than that with which it was thrown 
 by the hand. From hence we fee that a ray of light, in 
 palling out of a rarer into a denfer medium, is refrafted 
 towards the perpendicular; that is, fuppofmg a line drawn 
 perpendicularly to the furface of the medium, through 
 the point where the ray enters, and extended both ways, 
 the ray in palling through the furface is refraCted or bent 
 towards the perpendicular line ; or, which is the fame 
 thing, the line which it deferibes by its motion after it has 
 palled through the furface, makes a lefs angle with the 
 perpendicular, than the line it deferibed before. 
 
 It is neceflary to be remembered, that the line which 
 a ray deleribes, before it enters a denfer or rarer medium, 
 is called the incident ray; but that which it deleribes 
 after it has entered, is termed the refraCted ray. 
 
 The angle comprehended between the incident ray and 
 the perpendicular, is the angle of incidence ; and that 
 between the refraCted" ray and the perpendicular, is the 
 angle of refraCtion. 
 
 There is a certain and immutable law or rule, by 
 which refraCtion is always performed, and that is this : 
 whatever inclination a ray of light has to the lurface of 
 any medium before it enters it, the degree ol refraCtion 
 will always be fucl>, that the proportion between the line 
 of the angle of its incidence, and that of the angle of its 
 reflection, will always be tlie fame in that medium. 
 
 When a ray pafles out of a vacuum into air, the line 
 of the angle of incidence is found to be to that of refrac¬ 
 tion, as 10003.6 to 100000. 
 
 When it pafles out of air into water, as about 4 to 3. 
 
 When out of air into glafs, as about 17 to 11. 
 
 When out of air into a diamond, as about 5 to 2. 
 
 Refraction, in affronomy, is an infleCtionof the 
 rays of light ifluing from a heavenly body, in palling 
 through the atmofphere of the earth, whereby the ap¬ 
 parent altitude of it is increafed. 
 
 If we imagine the atmofphere to be divided into any 
 number of concentrick fpherical ipaces of different dil- 
 tances, a ray of light coming from a ftar would proceed 
 in a ftraight line till it falls upon the outward furface, 
 there it would be a little bent, and go on from thence 
 in a ftraight line to the next, where falling upon a fur¬ 
 face of thicker air, it would receive a greater refta&ion, 
 and go on in the ftraight line till it meets with a ftill 
 thicker air, which would give it a new and greater refrac¬ 
 tion, and fo on. As all vilion is made in a right line, a 
 fpeCtator upon the earth would fee the ftar in the refraCted 
 line continued ; fo that its refraCted or apparent place is 
 higher or nearer to the zenith than its true place : re¬ 
 fraction, therefore, makes all the heavenly bodies appear 
 higher than their true places. 
 
 If a ftar be in the zenith of a fpeCtator upon the earth, 
 a ray, coming from it to his eye, falls perpendicularly 
 upon the fpherical furface of the atmofphere, and will 
 therefore, proceed in a ftraight line, without being re- 
 fraCted. If a ftar be in the horizon ot an obferver, a 
 ray, coming from it to his eye, fuffers the greateft re¬ 
 faction of all, for two reafons; ift. The ray falls upon 
 the furface of the atmofphere with the greateft obliquity. 
 2dly. It pafles through the largeft fpaceof the lower and 
 denfer part of the air. 
 
 The refraCtion of the heavenly bodies is not only 
 greateft in the horizon, and none at all in the zenith, 
 butdecreafes from the horizon, as their altitudes increafe, 
 till near the zenith it becomes fcarcely fenftble : aitrono- 
 mers give us tables of refraCtion, which lerve chiefly tor 
 the country where they were made : the air is condenfed, 
 and, confequently, refraCtion increafed by cold ; and. 
 therefore, refraCtion is greater in cold countries than in 
 hot : it is alfo greater in cold weather than in hot, in 
 the fame country. 
 
 The refraCtions of the heavenly bodies, as the fun. 
 moon, and fears, at all altitudes except very fraall ones, 
 
 REG 
 
 will be nearly as the tangents of their apparent zenith 
 diltances, drawn into the refpeCtive denlity of the at¬ 
 mofphere at the places and times for which fuch refrac¬ 
 tions are to be determined ; and therefore, if the denlity 
 be the fame, are limply as the tangent of their apparent 
 zenith diftances. But at very final! altitudes die refrac¬ 
 tions may be found by this general rule : 
 
 As 1 to 9986, fo is the line of any given apparent 
 zenith diftance, to the line of an arch ; -, 2 r of the dif¬ 
 ference ol which arch and the given zenith dillance is 
 the refraCtion fought, which for an altitude of 5 0 , will 
 come out 9' id". 
 
 The refraCtion of the horizontal fun being the greateft, 
 is the caufe of the fun’s appearing of an oval form, at 
 his riling and letting: for the lower edge of the fun is 
 more refraCted than the upper edge, by which means 
 they are brought nearer together ; that is, the perpen¬ 
 dicular diameter fhortened, whereas reflection docs not 
 lhorten the tranfverfe diameter : moreover, the lower 
 edge luffering the greateft refraCtion, the horizontal fun 
 does not appear a compleat ellipfis, but the lower half 
 is part of a more oblong oval than the upper half. What 
 has been laid of the fun, is applicable alfo to the riling, 
 and letting moon. For the fame reafon, if we take with 
 an inftrument the dillance of two ftars when they are 
 in the lame vertical, and near the horizon, we lhall find 
 it confiderably lefs than if we meafure it when they are 
 both at fuch a height as to luffer Little or no refraCtion; 
 
 ' becaule the lower ftar is more lifted up than the higher. 
 T here is alio another alteration made by refraCtion in t’ne 
 apparent dillance of ftars: if two ftars are in the fame 
 almicantar, or circle parallel to the horizon, tlicir ap¬ 
 parent dillance is lefs than the true; for fence refraCtion 
 makes each of them higher in the s vertical or azimuth, 
 in which they appear, it mult bring them into parts of 
 the vertical, where they come nearer to one another ; for 
 fence all verticals converge fo as to meet in the zenith, 
 it is manifeft the dillance between any two verticals is 
 diminilhed, as they grow nearer the zenith : this con¬ 
 traction of diftance, according to Dr. Halley, is at the 
 rate of, at leaft, one fecond in a degree ; fo that for ex¬ 
 ample, if the diftance between two ftars in a pofition 
 parallel to the horizon meafures 30°, it is at moil to be 
 reckoned but 29 0 59' 30". 
 
 Refraction of Altitude , is an arch of a vertical 
 circle, whereby the altitude is increafed by the refrac¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Refraction of Declination , is an arch of a circle of 
 declination, whereby the declination ot the objeCt is 
 either increafed or diminilhed by the refraCtion. 
 
 Refraction of Longitude , is an arch of the ecliptick* 
 whereby the longitude of the objeCt is increafed or di¬ 
 minilhed by the refraCtion. 
 
 Refraction of Latitude , is anarch of a circle of 
 latitude, whereby the latitude of a heavenly objeCt is 
 either increafed or diminilhed by its refraCtion. 
 
 Refraction in IJland Cryjlal. There is a double. 
 refraCtion in this fubftance, contrary ways, whereby not 
 only oblique rays are divided into two, and refraCted into 
 oppofite parts, but even perpendicular rays are one half 
 refraCted. 
 
 REFRANGIBILITY of Light , is a difpofition of 
 the rays to be refraCted. 
 
 REFRIGERATIVE, in medicine, a remedy, or diet, 
 which cools the internal parts. 
 
 REFRIGER ATORY, Refrigeritorium, inchymiftry, 
 a veflel felled with water, through which the worm pafles 
 in diftillations. Its ufe is to condenfe the vapours, as 
 they pals through the worm. 
 
 REFUGEES, French proteftants, who, by the revo¬ 
 cation of the ediCt of Nants, in 1685, have been obliged, 
 to quit their country, and retire for refuge, into Holland, 
 Germany, England, Ac. 
 
 REGALIA, i:i law, the royal rights, or prerogatives 
 of a king. Thefe are the power of judicature; power 
 of life and death ; power of war and peace; mafterlels 
 goods; afleffments ; and minting of money. 
 
 Regalia, alfo fignifies the feveral parts of the appa¬ 
 ratus of a coronation. 
 
 Regalia of the Church, are thofe rights and privi¬ 
 leges, which cathedrals, Ac. enjoy by grants, and other 
 conceffions of kings. 
 
 KLGARDANT, in heraldry, is underftood of a lion, 
 
 or 
 
REG 
 
 or other beaft of prey, borne in a pofture of looking 
 behind him. 
 
 REGARDER of a Foreft, an ancient officer of the 
 king’s foreft, whofc bufinefs was every year, upon oath, 
 to make a regard, i e. take a view of the foreft limits ; 
 alfo to enquire into all offences and defaults committed 
 by the forefters within the foreft, he. 
 
 REGEL, or Rig el, a fixed ftar of the firft magni¬ 
 tude in Orion’s left foot. 
 
 REGENT, Regens, a perfon who governs a king¬ 
 dom, during the minority or abfence of a king. 
 
 Regent, is alfo ufed for a profeffor of arts or fcience, 
 who holds a clafs or fet of pupils in a college. 
 
 REGICIDE, Regicida , a king-killer : alfo the a£t 
 itfelf of murdering a king. 
 
 REGIFUGE, Rrgijugium, a feaft held in ancient 
 Rome on the fixthof the calends of March, in memory 
 of the expulfion of their kings, particularly ofTarquin’s 
 flying out of Rome on that day. 
 
 REGIMEN, in medicine, the regulation of diet, 
 with a view of preferving or reftoring health. 
 
 Regimf.n, in chymiftry, the method of regulating 
 and conducting any thing fo as to produce the intended 
 effeCt. 
 
 Regimen, in grammar, that part of fyntax or qoie 
 ftruCtion, which relates to the dependency of words, and 
 the alterations which one occafions in another. 
 
 REGIMENT, in military affairs, a body confifting 
 of feveral troops of horfe, or companies of foot, com¬ 
 manded by a colonel. 
 
 REGIO Assensu, a writ, whereby the king gives 
 his royal affent to the election of a biftiop. 
 
 REGION, Regio, in geography, a particular divifion 
 of the earth, or a traCt of land inhabited by people of 
 the fame nation. 
 
 Region, in phyfiology. The atmofphere is, by au¬ 
 thors, divided into three ftages, called the upper, middle, 
 and lower regions. The upper region commences from 
 the tops of the mountains, and reaches to the utmoft 
 limits of the atmofphere. The middle region is that 
 wherein the clouds relide, meteors are formed, &c. ex¬ 
 tending from the extremity of the lowell to the tops of 
 the higheft mountains. The loweft region is that wherein 
 we breathe, and is terminated by the refieClion of the fun’s 
 rays ; that is, to the height to which they rebound from 
 the earth. 
 
 /Ez/ja w/ Recion, the whole extent of the univerfe, 
 including the orbs of the fixed ftars. 
 
 REGIS TER, Regijirariu/n, a publick book ferving 
 to enter and record memoirs, aCts, and minutes, to be 
 confulted occafionally, for juftifying matters of faCts, &c. 
 
 Register of a Parifh Church, a book wherein the 
 yearly baptifms, marriages, and burials of each parilli 
 are orderly regiftered. 
 
 Register, in printing, the difpofing the forms of 
 the prefs fo that the lines and pages printed on one fide 
 of the lheet fall exaCtly againft thofe on the other. 
 
 Registers, in chymical furnaces, are air vents, by 
 opening of which the operator regulates the fire at plea- 
 fure : for when they are opened, the heat increafes ; 
 when clofed, it abates. 
 
 Register Ships, in commerce, fliips which have 
 permiffion from the king of Spain, or council of the 
 Indies, to traffick in the ports of the Spanifh W. Indies. 
 
 R EGIU S-Pr o fessors. King Henry VI 11 . founded 
 five IcCtures in our univerfities, viz. of Divinity, Hebrew, 
 Greek, Law, and Phyfick ; the readers of which leCtures 
 are, in the univerfity ftatutes, called Regii profeffores. 
 
 Regius Morbus, in medicine, a name applied, by 
 different authors, to different diftempers. Celfus calls 
 the jaundice by this name ; fome mean by it the king’s 
 evil, and others the epilepfy. 
 
 REGLET, in architecture, a finall, fiat, narrow 
 moulding, chiefly ufed in compartments and pannels, to 
 feparate the members or moulds from one another, and 
 to form knots., frets, and other ornaments. 
 
 REGULAR, the relation of any thing conformable 
 to the rules of art. 
 
 Regular, in amonaftery, a perfon who has taken 
 the vows ; becaufe he is bound to obferve the rule of the 
 order he has embraced. 
 
 Regular Curves, fuch as proceed gradually in the 
 fame geometrical manner, with regard to their curvities. 
 
 R E L 
 
 Regular Figure, in geometry, a figure both equila¬ 
 teral and equiangular. 
 
 Regular, or Piatonicl Body, a folid terminated on 
 all fides by regular and equal planes, and whole folid 
 angles are all equal. The folid bodies arc the five fol¬ 
 lowing : i. The tetrahedron, which is a pyramid com¬ 
 prehended under four equal and equilateral trian-le. 
 
 2. 1 he hexahedron, or cube, whole furface is compnfed 
 of fix equal fquarcs. . 3. The oBahedron. which is 
 bounded by eight equal and equilateral triangles. 4. 
 Ihe dodecahedron, which is contained under "12 equal 
 and equilateral pentagons. 5. The icofiliedron, con- 
 fittmgof 20 equal and equilateral triangles. Thefe five 
 are all the regular bodies in nature. 
 
 The proportion of the five regular bodies inferibed in 
 the lame circle from Peter Herigon. Curfus Math. vol. 
 
 I p. 779. and Barrow’s Euclid, lib. XIII. 
 
 The diameter of the fphere being 2. 
 
 The circumference of the greatelt circle ' ~ 
 
 Superficies of the greateft circle _ 
 
 Superficies of the fphere _ _ 
 
 Solidity of the fphere — __ 
 
 Side of the tetrahedron-_ 
 
 Superficies of a tetrahedron _ 
 
 Solidity of a tetrahedron _ 
 
 Side of a cube or hexahedron 
 
 Superficies of the hexahedron _ 
 
 Solidity of the hexahedron _ 
 
 Side of an odlahedron — -_ 
 
 Superficies of the odlahedron — 
 
 Solidity of the oftahedron - 
 
 Side of the dodecahedron - 
 
 Superficies of the dodecahedron - 
 
 Solidity of the dodecahedron — 
 
 Side of the icofiliedron - 
 
 Superficies of the icofiliedron - 
 
 Solidity of the icofiliedron —>- 
 
 If one of thefe five regular bodies were required^to be 
 cut out of the fphere of any other diameter, it would be 
 as the diameter of the fphere 2 is to the fide of any one 
 folid inferibed in the fame (fuppofe the cube 1.1547) fo 
 is the diameter of any otherfphcre (fuppole 8) to 4.6188, 
 the fide of the cube inferibed in this latter fphere. 
 
 Regul ar Prieft, a prieft in iome religious order; 
 in contradiftinttion to a lecular prieft, or one that lives 
 in the world at large. 
 
 Regular Pluces, thofe contained within the boun¬ 
 dary or inclofuro of the convent. 
 
 REGULATION, a rule or order prefciibed by a 
 fuperior, for the proper management of fome affair. 
 
 REGULATOR of a IVaich , the fmall Ipnng belong¬ 
 ing to the balance ; ferving to adjuft its. motions, and 
 make it go fafter or flower. 
 
 REGULUS, in chymiftry, the metalline part of mi¬ 
 nerals, which remain in the bottom of a crucible, after 
 the leparation of the fcorise. 
 
 Regulus, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft magni¬ 
 tude in the conftellation Leo. 
 
 REHEARS AL, in mufick and the drama, an effav or 
 experiment offomecompofition made in private, previous 
 to the reprefentation or performance thereof in publick; 
 to habituate the aftors or performers, and make them 
 more ready and perfect in their parts. 
 
 REIMBURSEMENT, in commerce, the a<ft of re¬ 
 paying or returning what monies a perfon had received, 
 by way of advance, he. or what another has dilburfed or 
 paid for us. 
 
 REINFORCED, or Renforced Ring, of a can¬ 
 non, is that next after the trunnions, betwixt them and 
 the touch-hole. 
 
 REINFORCEMENT, in war, a fupply of men, 
 arms, ammunition, he. 
 
 REINS, in anatomy; feeKiDNEYs. 
 REJOINDER, in law, the defendant’s anfwer to the 
 plaintiff’s replication. 
 
 REITERATION, the a£t of repeating a thing, or 
 doing it a fecond time. 
 
 RELAPSE, a return, or falling again in a danger or 
 evil, out of which a perfon had efcaped. 
 
 RELA I ION, Relatio, in philofophy, the mutual re- 
 fpedlof twothings ; orwhateach is with regard to the other. 
 
 The nature of relation confifts in the referring or 
 comparing two tilings one to another, from which com- 
 
 parifon. 
 
 3 -HI 59 
 
 12.56627 
 4.18879 
 1.62299 
 4.6188 
 °- I 5^32 
 
 8 1 -’ 547 
 
 I.C266 
 
 I. 4 I 42 I 
 
 6.9282 
 1 *33333 
 °-7 I 36+ 
 10.51462 
 2.78516 
 1.05146 
 
 9-57454 
 2. C261 
 
REL 
 
 parifon, one ci both come to be denominated; and if 
 either of diofe things be removed, or ceafes to be, the 
 relation ceafes, and the denomination confequent to it, 
 though the other receive, in itfelf, no alteration at all. 
 V. g. Cajus, whom I confider to day as a father, ceafes 
 to be fo to-monow, only by the death of his fon, with¬ 
 out any alteration made in himfelf; nav, barely by the 
 mind’s changing the objett to which it compares any 
 thing, the fame thing is capable of having contrary de¬ 
 nominations at tlr. fame time. V. g. Cajus, compared 
 to feveral perfbns, may truly be faid to be older and 
 younger, flronger and weaker, Ac. 
 
 Relation, in logick, an accident of fubftance ac¬ 
 counted one of the 10 categories or predicaments. 
 
 Relation, in geometry, arithmetick, Ac. is the 
 habitude or refpeft of two quantities to one another with 
 regard to their magnitude. 
 
 Relation, in grammar, is thccorrefpondencc which 
 words have to one another in confiru&ion. 
 
 RELATIVE, fomethi ng relating to, or refpe&ing, 
 another. 
 
 Relative Terms „ in logick. arc words which imply 
 a relation : fuch as mafier and fervant, liuiband and 
 wife, Ac. 
 
 RELAXATION, in medicine, the aft of loofening 
 or llackening, or the loofenefs and flacknefs of the fibres, 
 nerves, mufcles, Ac. 
 
 RELAY, a lupply of horfes placed on the road, and 
 appointed to be ready for a traveller to change, in order 
 to make the greater expedition. 
 
 Relay, in tapefiry, is an opening left, where the 
 colours and figures are to be changed, when the piece is 
 fin i filed. 
 
 RELEASE, inlaw, is an inflrument in writing, bv 
 which efiates, rights, titles, entries, actions, and other 
 thingfe, are extinguifhed and difeharged ; and fometimes 
 transferred, abridged, or enlarged : and in general, it 
 fignifies one perfon’s giving up or difebarging the right 
 of action lie has, or claims to have, againll another, or 
 his lands, Ac. 
 
 RELICKS, in the Romifh church; the remains of 
 the bodies or cloaths of faints or martyrs, and the infiru- 
 ments by which they were put to death, devoutly pre- 
 ferved in honour to their memory ; killed, revered, and 
 Carried in proceflion. This is a piece of fuperfiition 
 which began very early in the Chrifiian church, and at 
 prefent makes no inconfiderable article of popery. 
 
 RELICT', inlaw, the fame with widow, which fee. 
 RELIEVE, in a military fenfe, is to fend off thole 
 men that are upon duty, and to bring others to take their 
 place: thus, to relieve the guard, the trenches, Ac. is 
 to bring Irelh men upon duty, and to difeharge tliofe 
 who were upon duty before. 
 
 RELIEVO, or Relief, in fculpture, Ac. is the 
 proje&ure or Handing out of a figure, which arifes pro¬ 
 minent from the ground or plan on which it is formed ; 
 whether that figure be cut with a chillel, moulded, or 
 call. There arc three kinds or degrees of relievos, viz. 
 alto, baffo, and demi-relievo. The alto-relievo, called 
 alfo haut-relief, or high-relievo. is when the figure is 
 formed after nature, and projects as much as the life. 
 jBalfo-relievo, bal's-relief, or low relievo, is when the 
 work is railed but a little from the ground, as in medals, 
 and the frontifpieces in buildings; and particularly in 
 the hiitories, fefioons, foliages, and other ornaments of 
 friezes. Demi-relievo. is when one half of the figures 
 riles from the plan. When, in a bafio-relicvo, there are 
 parts that Hand qlear out, detached from the reft, die 
 work is called a demi-baffo. 
 
 In architedlure, the relievo or proje&ure of the orna¬ 
 ments. ought always to be proportioned to the magni¬ 
 tude of the building it adorns, and to die difiance at 
 which it is to be viewed. 
 
 Relievo, or Relief, in painting, is the degree of 
 boldnefs with which the figures feem, at a due diflance, 
 to Hand out from the ground of the painting. 
 
 The relievo depends much upon the depth of the 
 fliadow, and the Hrength of the light; or on the height 
 of the different colours, bordering on one another ; and 
 particularly on the difference of the colour of the figure 
 from that of the ground ; thus, when the light is l'o dif- 
 pofed as to make the neareff parts of the figures advance, 
 and is well diffulcd on die maffes, yet inlenfibiy dimi- 
 
 REN 
 
 nifhmg, and terminating in a large fpacious fhadovr, 
 brought off infcnfibly, the relievo is faid to be bold, and 
 the clair obfeure well underflood. 
 
 RELIGION, is taken, (i.) for the external and cere¬ 
 monial worfhip of the Jews, as it was corrupted bv the 
 traditions of the Pharifees, Adis xxvi. 15. ( 2 .) For the 
 
 true religion, even that inward piety of the heart, whereby 
 God is truly acknowledged, feared', and loved, and which 
 inclines perfons to perform all duties of love or charity 
 towards thole that are in difirefs, elpeciaHy for religion. 
 Jam.i.27. ( 3 -) F° r fuperfiition, Col. ii. 28. Let no men 
 •beguile yen of your reward, in iv'jrjhibping of angels-, in the 
 Greek it is, r; xtia 'txv ayyiXuv, m the religion of Ofivels. 
 Do not imitate thole who affedl to humble themfehes 
 before the angels, and to pay them a fuperffitious wor¬ 
 ship- A caution this, not more feafonable and neceffaiy 
 in the apofile’s time, than it is this day to us. 
 
 RELIGIOUS, in popiih countries, is particularly 
 ufed for a perfon engaged, by folcmn vows, tothemo- 
 nafiick life : or a perfon fhut up in a monaftery to lead a 
 life of devotion and aufierity, under lome rule or 
 infiitution. 
 
 REMAINDER, in law, is an efiatc in lands, tene¬ 
 ments, or rents, not to be enjoyed till after a term of 
 years, or another perfon’s decealc’: thus, a perfon grants 
 lands or tenements to one perfon for a term of years, or 
 for life, and the remainder to another perfon for life, or 
 in fee. 
 
 Rem ainder, inmathematicks, is what is left after 
 taking a lefs number out of a greater. 
 
 REM IN 1 SCENCE, Remimfcentia, that power of the 
 human mind, whereby it rccollefls itfelf, or calls again 
 into its remembrance fuch ideas or notions as it had really 
 forgot: in which it differs from memorv, w’hich is a 
 trealuring up of things in the mind, and keeping them 
 there without forgetting them. See Memory. 
 
 REMISSION, in phyiicks, the abatement of the 
 power or efficacy of any quality, in oppofition to the in- 
 creafc of the fame, which is called intenfion. In all 
 qualities, capable of intenfion and remillion, the inten¬ 
 fion decrcafes reciprocally as the iquarcs of difiances from 
 the centre of the radiating quality increafe. 
 
 Remission, in medicine, is when a difiemper a- 
 bates, but does not go quite off before it returns again, 
 as is common in fevers, which do not quite intermit. 
 
 Remission, in law, Ac. denotes the pardon of * 
 crime, or the giving up the pumfhment due thereto. 
 
 REMITTANCE, i n commerce, the traffick or re¬ 
 turn of money from one place to another, by bills of 
 exchange, orders, or the like. 
 
 This word is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the payment of 
 a bill of exchange. It alfo fignifies the fee or reward 
 given a banker, both of his wages and the different value 
 of the fpecies in the places where you pay the money and 
 where he remits it. 
 
 REMITTER, in law. Where a perfon has two 
 titles to lands, Ac. and he comes to fuch lands by the 
 lafi title, which proving defe&ive, he fhall be refiored 
 to, and adjudged in, by virtue of his former more antient 
 title, this is called remitter. 
 
 REMONSTRANCE, an expofiulation or humble 
 fupplication, addrefied to a king, or other fuperior, be- 
 feeching him to reflect on the inconveniencics, or ill 
 confequences of fome order, edi£l, or the like. 
 
 T his word is alfo ufed for an expofiulary counfel, of 
 advice; or a gentle and handfome reproof, made either 
 in general or particular, to apprize or correct fome 
 fault, Ac. 
 
 REMOUNT, in war. To remount the cavalry, is 
 to furnifh troopers or dragoons with frefh horfes, inficad 
 of fuch as have been killed or difabled in the fervice. 
 
 REN AL, fomething belonging to the reins or kidneys. 
 See Kidneys. 
 
 RENCOUNTER, in the military art, an engage¬ 
 ment of tw r o little bodies or parties of force;; in which 
 fenfe it Hands in oppofition to a pitched battle. 
 
 RENCOUNTRE, or Rencontre, in heraldry, 
 is applied to animals when they fhew the head in front, 
 witli both eyes, Ac. or when the face Hands right for¬ 
 ward, as if they came to meet the perfon before them. 
 
 RENDEZVOUS, or Rendevous, a place ap¬ 
 pointed to meet in, at a certain day and hour. 
 
 R-ENEGATE, or Renegado, a perfon who has 
 
 apofiatized 
 
REP 
 
 apostatized or renounced the Chriftian faith, to embrace 
 fome other religion, particularly Mahometanifm. 
 
 REN 1 FORM, Something refembling the figure or 
 Shape of the kidneys. See Kidneys. 
 
 RENITENCY, Renitentia, among philofophers, that 
 force in folid bodies, whereby they refill the impulfe of 
 other bodies, or re-aft as much as they arc afted on. 
 Sec React ion, he. 
 
 RENT, Reditus , inlaw, a fum 6f money, or other 
 confideration, bluing yearly out of lands or tenements. 
 
 RENTAL, Signifies a roll in which the rents of 
 manors are fct down, in order for the lord’s bailiff, there¬ 
 by to collcft ^he fame. It contains the lands let to each 
 tenant, with their names, and the Several rents arifing. 
 
 RENUNCIATION, Renunciatio , the aft of renounc¬ 
 ing, abdicating, or relinquishing any right, real or pre¬ 
 tended. 
 
 REPATRING, or Reparation, Reparation the 
 aft of retrieving, mending, or eltablifhing a building or 
 other work damaged or gone to decay. In refpeft to 
 reparations, if a tenant or leflee covenants that from and 
 .after the amendment of the tenements by the lelTor, he 
 will, at his own charge, keep and leave them in repair, 
 in that cafe the lelfee is not obliged to do the fame until 
 the leflor has firft made good the reparations; and here 
 jf a houfe be well repaired at firft, when the leafe began, 
 and afterwards decays, it is Said the landlord mull put 
 it in impair before the tenant is bound to keep it fo. 
 
 REPARTEE, or Reparty, a ready Smart reply, 
 efpecially in matters of wit, humour, or raillery. 
 
 REPARTITION, a dividing or Sharing a thing a 
 Second time. 
 
 REPEALING, in law, the revoking or annulling of 
 a Statute, or the like. See the articles Abrog at ion 
 and Revocation. 
 
 REPEAT, in mufick, a character Shewing that what 
 was laftp'ayedor lung mull be repeatedor goneoveragain. 
 
 REPELLENT, Repellent, in medicine, a remedy 
 which repels or drives back a morbid humour into the 
 mals of blood, from whence it was unduly Secreted. 
 
 To understand rightly the operation of Such medicines, 
 it may be neceSTary to obferve, that by repelling are meant 
 fhofe means which prefent Such an afflux of a fluid to 
 any particular part as would raife it into a tumour : but, 
 to know how this may be effefted, it will be convenient 
 to attend to the feveral caufes which can produce a Swell¬ 
 ing, cr force out of the velfels any of their fluid contents 
 by fome unnatural discharge. 
 
 REPELLING Power, in philofophy, is a certain 
 power, or faculty, refiding in the minute particles of 
 natural bodies, whereby, under certain circumltances, 
 they mutually fly from one another. 
 
 REPERCUSSION, in mechanicks. See the article 
 Reflection. 
 
 Repercussion, in mufick, a frequent repetition of 
 the fame found. See Repetition. 
 
 REPERTORY, Repertonum, a place wherein things 
 are orderly difpofed, fo as to be eafily found when wanted. 
 The indices of books are repertories, lhcwing where the 
 matters fought for are treated of. Common-place books 
 are alfo kinds of repertories. 
 
 REPETTI'ION, the reiterating of an aftion. 
 
 Repetition, in mufick, denotes a reiterating or 
 playing over again the fame part of a compofition, whe¬ 
 ther it be a whole Itrain, part of a {train, or double 
 {train, &c. The repetition is denoted by a charafter 
 called a repeat, which is varied fo as to exprefs the 
 various circumltances of a repeat. 
 
 Repetition, in rhetorick. a figure which grace¬ 
 fully and emphatically repeats either the fame word, or 
 the lame fenle in different words. 
 
 REPLANTING, in gardening, the aft of planting 
 a fecond time 
 
 REPLETION, in medicine, a plenitude or plethora. 
 See Plethora. Repletion is more dangerous than 
 inanition. Bleeding and diet are the great refources 
 whence a perfon is incommoded with a repletion. Re¬ 
 pletion is fometimes alfo uled where the ftomach is over- 
 loaden with too much eating or drinking. The phy- 
 ficians hold all repletion to be prejudicial, but that of 
 bread is of all others the worft. 
 
 Repletion, in the cannonlaw, is where the reve¬ 
 nue of a benefice or benefices is fufficient to fill or occupy i 
 Vol. II. No. 63. I 
 
 REP 
 
 the whole right or title of the graduate who holds then*. 
 Where there is a repletion, the party can demand no 
 more by virtue of his degrees. In England, whera 
 benefices are not appiopriated to degrees, repletion, 
 ltriftly {peaking, has no place. 
 
 REPLEVIN, in law, a remedy granted on a diftrefs, 
 by which the firft pofleffor has his goods reltored to him 
 again, on his giving fecurity to the IherifF that he will 
 purfue his aftion againit the party diftraining, and return 
 the goods or chattels, if the taking them (hall be adjudged 
 lawful. 
 
 REPLEVY, in law, is a tenant’s bringing a writ of 
 replevin, or replegiari facias, where his goods are taken 
 by diltrefs for rent; which mult be done within five 
 days alter the diltrefs, otherwife at the five days end, 
 they are to be appraifed and fold. 2 W. and M. c. 5. 
 
 Phis word is alfo ufed for bailing a perfon, as in the 
 cafe of a homine replegiando. 
 
 REPL 1 CA 1 ION, in logick, the alfuming or uling 
 the lame term twice in the fame propofition. 
 
 REPOR T , the relation made upon oath, by officers 
 or perlons appointed to vifit, examine, or eftimate the 
 {late, expellees, he. of any thing. 
 
 Report, in law, is a publick relation of cafes judi¬ 
 cially argued, debated, refolved, or adjudged in any of 
 the king’s courts of jultice, with the caufes and reafons 
 of the lame, as delivered by the judges. 
 
 REPOSE, in painting, certain mafles or large aflem- 
 blages ol light and lhade, which being w'ell conducted, 
 prevent the confufion of objefts and figures, by engaging 
 and fixing the eye fo as it cannot attend to the other parts 
 ol the painting for fome time ; and thus leading it to 
 confider the feveral groups gradually proceeding, as it 
 were from llage to Itage. 
 
 REPOSITORY, a {tore houfe or place in which 
 things are laid up and preferved. In this lenfe we fay, 
 the rcpoflitory of the royal fociety. See Museum. 
 
 REPRESEN I Al ION, in the drama, the exhibi¬ 
 tion ol a theatrical piece, together with the feenes, ma¬ 
 chines, he. 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE, one who perfonates or fup- 
 plies the place ol another, and is inverted with his right 
 and authority. Thus the Houfe of Commons are the 
 reprefentatives of the people in parliament. See the 
 article Parliament. 
 
 REPRIEVE, orR eprive, inlaw, is fufpendingor 
 deferring the execution of the law upon a priloner lor a 
 certain time : or a warrant from the king for deferring 
 the execution ol a perfon condemned. 
 
 REPRISALS, a right which princes claim of taking 
 from their enemies any thing equivalent to what they 
 unjultly detain from them. 
 
 Reprilals is alfo uied for a letter of marque granted by 
 a prince to his lubjeft. See Marque. 
 
 REPRISE, or Reprize, at fea, is a merchant-fhip 
 which, after its being taken by a corfair, privateer, or 
 other enemy, is retaken by the oppofite party. 
 
 REPRISES, in law, are deductions or payments an¬ 
 nually made out of a manor or lands ; as rent-charges, 
 penfions, annuities, he. 
 
 REPROBATION, in theology, is generally under- 
 itood of the decree and purpofe of God, to abandon the 
 wicked to the greatc. 1- of evils, by not delivering them 
 out of that mals of corruption, in which all mankind are 
 involved by nature ; and in not affording them the graces 
 neceffary to their arriving at eternal happinefs : God does 
 not reprobate men by making them wicked; but by not 
 granting them the benefits of his gratuitous mercy. 
 
 Reprobates, whom God hath in his Justice ap¬ 
 pointed to deftruftion, he hath decreed, either, 1. To 
 afford them neither the extraordinary, nor fo much as 
 the outward and ordinary means of faith : or elfe, 2. In 
 prefence of the outward means of the word and lacra- 
 ments, to withhold the inward concurrence of his en¬ 
 lightening and renewing Spirit to work with ihofe means. 
 
 F or want whereof, they [the outward means] become 
 ineffectual to them [viz. to the reprobate] for their £ood; 
 working upon them either malignantly, fo as their hearts 
 are the more hardened thereby in fin and unbelief; or in- 
 firmly, fo as not to work in them a perfeft converfion ; but 
 to produce (inftead of the gracious habits of lanftificsr- 
 tion, as faith, repentance, charity, humility, he.) lomc 
 weak and infirm Jhadows of thole graces : which, for 
 4 A their 
 
REP 
 
 their formal femblance fake, do fometimes bear the name 
 of thole graces they referable, but were never, in the 
 mean time, the very true graces themfelves; and, in the 
 end, are dijeovered to have been false, by the want of 
 Perseverance. 
 
 “ Reprobation, fays Peter Martyr, is that mod wife 
 determination of God, whereby he did, before all eter¬ 
 nity, immutably decree, not to have mercy on thole, 
 whom he loved not, but palTcd by and that without 
 any injuries on his part. Nor does this doCtrine, as 
 forae ignorantly infer, make God the author of fin; there¬ 
 fore he adds, “ There is no need for God to infufe ad¬ 
 ditional evil into our hearts. There is enough there 
 already. We have fufficiently of outfelves : partly, 
 through the foulnefs of original fin ; and, partly, becaufe 
 a created being doth, of himfelf, degenerate, without 
 meafure and without end, unlefs he is luccourcd by God.” 
 
 REPRODUCTION, the aft whereby a thing is 
 produced anew, or grows a fecond time. 
 
 The reprodu&ion of feveral parts of lobfters, crabs, 
 he. is one of the greatefl curiofities in natural hiftory. 
 
 It feems, indeed, inconfiftent with the modern fyftem of 
 generation, which fuppofes the animal to be wholly 
 formed in the egg, that, in lieu of the organical part of 
 an animal cut off, another Ihould arile perfectly like it : 
 the fadt, however, is too well attefted to be denied. 1 he 
 legs of lobfters, he. confift each of live articulations; now 
 when any of the legs happen to break, by any accident, 
 as by walking, he. which frequently happens, the frac¬ 
 ture is always found to be at the future near the fourth 
 articulation ; and what they thus lofc is exadtty repro¬ 
 duced in fome time afterwards ; that is, a part of the leg 
 fhoots out, confuting of four articulations, the firft where¬ 
 of has two claws, as before ; fo that the lofs is entirely 
 repaired. 
 
 If the leg of a lobfter be broke off by defign at the 
 fourth or fifth articulation, what is thus broke off' is al¬ 
 ways reproduced. But, if the fradture be made in the 
 firft, fecond, or third articulation, the reproduction is 
 not fo certain. And it is very furprizing, that if the frac¬ 
 ture be made at thefe articulations, at the end of two or 
 three days, all the other articulations are generally found 
 broke off to the fourth, which, it is fuppoled, is done by 
 the creature itfelf, to make the reproduction certain. The 
 part reproduced is not only perfectly fimilar to that re¬ 
 trenched, but alfo in a certain fpace of time grows equal 
 to it. Hence it is that we frequently fee lobftcrs, which 
 have their two large legs unequal, in all proportions. 
 And, if the part reproduced be broke off, a lecond will 
 fucceed. 
 
 REPTILES, in natural hiftory, a kind of animals 
 denominated from their creeping or advancing on the 
 bellv. Or reptiles are a genus of animals and inf'edts, 
 which, inftead of feet, reft on one part of the body, while 
 they advance forward with the reft. Such are earth¬ 
 worms, litakes, caterpillars, dec. Indeed, raoft of the clals 
 of reptiles have feet; only thole very fmall, and the legs 
 remarkably Ihort in proportion to the bulk of the body. 
 
 Reptile, is alfo ufed by fome botanical writers, to 
 fignify plants which creep upon the earth, unlefs fuftained 
 by fome other plant, prop, dec. as cucumbers, melons, 
 the vine, he. 
 
 REPUBL 1 CK, Republica, commonwealth, a popular 
 ftate or government; or a nation where the people have 
 the government in their own hands. 
 
 Repuelick of Letters, a phrafe ufed colleCtively of 
 the whole body of the people of ftudy and learning. 
 
 REPUDIATION, Repud'mm, in the civil law, the 
 ;iCt of divorcing. 
 
 REPULSION, Repulfi .?, in phyficks, that property 
 in bodies, whereby, if they are placed juft beyond the 
 fphere of each other’s attraction of cohefton, they mu¬ 
 tually fly from each other. 
 
 Thus, if an oily lubftance, lighter than water, be placed 
 on the furface thereof, or if a piece of iron be laid upon 
 mercury, the furface of the fluid will be deprefled about 
 the body laid on it: this depreffion is manifeftly occa- 
 fioned by a repelling power in the bodies, which hinders 
 the approach of the fluid towards them. But it is pof- 
 flble, in fome cafes, to prefs or force the repelling bodies 
 into the fphere of.one another’s attraction; and then 
 they will mutually tend toward each other* as when we 
 jjiix oil and water till they incorporate. 
 
 RES 
 
 REQUEST, in law, a fupplication or petition pre¬ 
 ferred to a prince, or to a court of juftice ; begging relief 
 in fomeconfcionable cafes where the common law grants 
 no immediate redrefs, 
 
 Court of Requests; this was an ancient court of 
 equity, inftituted about the igth vear of Henry VII. of 
 like nature, though of inferior authority, with the court 
 of Chancery ; being appointed chiefly for the relief of 
 petitioners who in confcionable cafes fhould addrefs 
 themfelves, by way of requeft, to his majefty. 
 
 I he chief judge of this court was the lord privy-feal, 
 affifted by the mailers of Requeft, who correfponded to 
 our mailers of Chancery. In the 40th and 41ft years 
 of queen Elizabeth, it was adjudged, upon f'olemn argu¬ 
 ment, in the court of Common-pleas, that the court of 
 Requeft was then no court of equity. 
 
 RESCEIT, Receptio, in law, an admiffion or receiving 
 of a third perfon to plead his right, in a caufe formerly 
 commenced between the other two. 
 
 RESCISION, Refafto, in the civil law, an aCtion 
 intended for the annulling, or fetting afide, any contract, 
 deed, he. 
 
 RESCOUS, or Rescue, in law, an illegal taking 
 away and fetting at liberty a diftrafs taken, or a perfon 
 arrefted, by procels, or courl'e of law. 
 
 Rescous, in matters relating to treafon, is deemed 
 treafon ; and, - in matters concerning felony, is felony. 
 
 RESCRIPT, Rejcriptum, an anfwer delivered by an 
 emperor or a pope, when confulted by particular per- 
 fons, on fome difficult quellion, or point of law > to 
 ferve as a deciiion thereof. 
 
 RESEARCH, a ferutiny, or diligent enquiry into 
 any thing. 
 
 Research, in mufick, a kind of prelude or voluntary 
 played on the organ, he. wherein the performer feems to 
 fearch or look out for the ftrains and touches of harmony, 
 which he is to ufe in the regular piece to be played after¬ 
 wards. 
 
 RESEARCHING, in fculpture, the repairing of a 
 caft figure, he. with proper tools ; or the flnilhing it with 
 art and exaCtiiefs, lb as the minuteft parts may be well 
 defined. 
 
 RESERVATION, in law, an aCtion or claufe 
 whereby fomething is refenced, or fecurcd to one’s felf. 
 
 AA/z/ia/RESERV ation, a propoiition, which, ftriCtly 
 taken, and according to the natural import of the terms, 
 is falfe ; but, if qualified by fomething concealed in the 
 mind, becomes true. ' 
 
 Body fl/RESERVE, or Corps de Reserve, in mili¬ 
 tary affairs, the third or lalt line of an army, drawn up 
 for battle; fo called, becaufe they arc referved to luftaiu 
 the reft, as occaiion requires; and not to engage but in 
 cafe of neceflity. 
 
 RESERVOIR, a place where water is colle&ed and 
 referved, in order to be conveyed to diftant places through 
 pipes, or fupply a fountain, or jet d’eau. 
 
 RESET, in law, the receiving or harbouring an 
 outlawed perfon. 
 
 RESIDENCE, in the canon and common law, the 
 abode of a perfon, or incumbent, upon his benefice ; and 
 his aluduitv in attending on the fame. 
 
 RESIDENT, a publick minifter, who manages the 
 affairs of a kingdom or ftate, at a foreign court. They 
 are a clals of publick minifters inferior to ambaffadors, or 
 envoys; but, like them, are under the protection of the 
 law of nations. 
 
 RESIDENTIARY, Rejidentiarius, a canon inftalled 
 into the privileges and profits of refidence. 
 
 RESIDUAL Figure, in geometry, the figure re¬ 
 maining after fubtraCting a Idler from a greater. 
 
 Residual Root, in algebra, a root compofed of two 
 parts or members, conneCted together by the fign —. 
 
 Thus *—y is a refidual root, fo called, becaufe its value 
 is no more than the difference between it parts at and y. 
 
 RESIDUE, Refiauum , the remainder or balance of an 
 account, debt, or obligation. 
 
 RESIGNATION, in the canon law, the furrender¬ 
 ing a benefit into the hands of the collator, or bifhop. 
 
 RESIGNEE, in law, the party to whom a thing is 
 refigned. 
 
 RESIN, Rejin a, a fat vifeid fulphureous juice, oozing 
 either lpontaneoufly, or by incifion, from feveral trees, he. 
 Rdins confift of oil and acid, and accordingly are arti¬ 
 ficially 
 
RES 
 
 flcially produced. They arc either folid or liquid, but 
 thefe differ from one another only in the proportion of 
 earth that enters their competition. 
 
 RESISTANCE, or Resisting Force, in philofo- 
 phy, denotes, in general, any power which a£ls in an op- 
 . polite direction to another, fo as to deftroy or diminifh 
 its effeft. Hence the force wherewith bodies, moving in 
 fluid mediums, are impeded or retarded, is the refinance 
 of thofe fluids. See Fluid. 
 
 The refiftance of bodies of different figures, moving in 
 one and the fame medium, has been coniidered by Mr. J. 
 Bernouli in the Ada Lipfienf. for May 1693; and the 
 rules he lays down, on this fubjed, are the following : 
 1. If an ifofceles triangle be moved in the fluid according 
 to the diredion of a line which is normal to its bale , 
 firft with the vertex foremoft, and then with its bale ; the 
 refiflances will be as the legs, and as the fquare of the 
 bale, and as the fum of the legs. 2. The refinance of 
 
 RES 
 
 enioving the piece 175 feet from the pendulum, the 
 elocity of the ball, at a medium of five fhots, was 
 1300 feet in 1". Whence the ball, in palling through 
 150 feet of air, loft a velocity of about 390 feet in 1"; 
 and the refinance computed from thefe numbers, comes 
 out fomething more than in the preceding inftance, 
 amounting to between 11 and 12 lb. avoirdupoife t 
 whence, according to thefe experiments, the refilling 
 power of the air to fwift motions is greater than in flow 
 in a ratio which approaches nearer to the ratio of 
 3 to 1, than in the preceding experiments. 
 
 Having thus afeertained the refinance to a velocity of 
 near 1700 feet in 1", he next proceeded to examine this 
 refinance in fmaller velocities : the pendulum being placed 
 at 25 feet diftance, was fired at five times, and the mean 
 velocity with which the ball impinged was 1180 feet in 1". 
 Then removing the pendulum to the difiance of 250 feet, 
 the medium velocity of five Ihot at this difiance, was 950 
 feet i . ~ 
 
 sTfquare moved according to the direction of its fide, and feet in 1" ; whence the ball, in palling through 225 feet 
 of its diagonal, is as the diagonal to the fide. 3. The of air, loft a velocity of 230 feet in i", and as_it paired 
 refiftance of a circular fegraent (lefs than a femi-circle) 
 carried in a dire&ion perpendicular to its bafts, when it 
 goes with the bafe foremoft, and when with its vertex 
 foremoft (the fame diredtion and celerity continuing, 
 which is all along fuppofed) is as the fquare of the dia¬ 
 meter to the fame, lefs one third of the fquare of the bafe 
 of the fegment. 
 
 Cor. Hence the refinances of a femi-circle, when its 
 bafe, and when its vertex go foremofi, are to one another 
 in a fefquialterate ratio. 4. A parabola moving in the 
 dire&ion of its axis, with its balls, and then its vertex 
 foremofi, has its refifiance, as the tangent to ail arch of 
 a circle, whofe diameter is equal to the parameter, and 
 the tangent equal to half the bafis of the parabola. 5. The 
 refinances of an hyperbola, or the fenli-ellipfis, when the 
 bale and when the vertex go foremofi, may be thus com¬ 
 puted ; let it be, as the fum, or difference, of the tranl- 
 verfe axis, and latus return, is to the tranfverfe axis, fo 
 is the fquare of the latus reftum to the fquare of the 
 diameter of a certain circle ; in which circle apply a tan¬ 
 gent equal to half the bafis of the hyperbola or ellipfis. 
 
 Then fay again, as the fum, or difference, of the axis and 
 parameter is to the parameter, fo is the aforefaid tangent 
 to another right line. And further, as the fum, or dif¬ 
 ference, of the axis and parameter is to the axis, fo is the 
 circular arch, correfponding to the aforefaid tangent, to 
 another arch. This done, the refifiance will be as the 
 tangent to the fum, or difference of the right line thus 
 found, and that arch lafi mentioned. 6. In general, the 
 Tefiftances of any figure whatfoever go nig now with its 
 bafe foremoft, and then with its vertex, *are as the figures 
 of the bafis to the fum of all the cubes of the cements of 
 the bafis divided by the fquares of the dements of the 
 curve line. 
 
 All which rules, he thinks, may be of ufe in the fabrick 
 or conftrutftion of fliips, and in perfedling the art of na¬ 
 vigation univerfally. As alfo for determining the figures 
 of the balls or pendulums for clocks. See Ship, &c. 
 
 As to the refiftance of the air, Mr. Robins, in his 
 new principles of gunnery, took the following method 
 to determine it: he charged a mufket-barrel three times 
 fucceffively with a leaden ball of an inch diameter, and 
 took fuch precaution in the weighing of the powder, and 
 placing it, as to be fure, by many previous trials, that 
 the velocity of the ball could not differ by 20 feet in 1" 
 from its medium quantity. He then fired it againft j 
 pendulum, placed at 25, 75, and 125 feet diftauce, kc 
 from the mouth of the piece refpettively. In the firft 
 cafe it impinged againft the pendulum with a velocity of 
 1670 feet ini''; in the fecond cafe with a velocity of 
 1550 feet in 1"; and in the third cafe with a velocity of 
 1425 feet in 1"; fo that in palling through 50 feet of air, 
 the bullet loft a velocity of about 120, or 125 feet in i", 
 and the time of its palling through that fpace being about 
 T *_ or -j- of 1", the medium quantity of refiftance, muft, 
 in thefe infiances, have been about 120 times the weight 
 of the ball; which, as the ball was nearly of a pound, 
 amounts to about iolb. avoirdupoife. 
 
 Again, charging the fame piece with equal quantities 
 of powder, and balls of the fame weight, and firing three 
 times at the pendulum, placed at 25 feet diftance from 
 the mouth of the piece, the medium of the velocities 
 
 through that interval in about r 3 ¥ of 1", the refiftance to 
 the middle velocity will come out to be near 33 [ times 
 the gravity of the ball, or 2 lb. 10 oz. avoirdupoife. Now 
 the refifiance to the fame velocity, according to the laws 
 oblerved in flower motions, amounts to T 7 - of the fame 
 quantity ; whence in a velocity of 1065 feet in T, (the 
 medium of 1180 and 950) the refilling power of the air 
 is augmented in no greater proportion than of 11 to 7 ; 
 whereas in greater degrees of velocity, as before, it 
 amounted very near to the ratio of 3 to 1. 
 
 The refiftance of a bullet of three quarters of an inch 
 diameter, moving in air with a velocity of 1670 feet in 
 1", amounting, as we fa id, to 10 lb. the refifiance of a 
 cannon ball of 241b. fired with its full charge of powder, 
 and thereby moving with a velocity of 1650 feet in 1", 
 may hence be determined. For the velocity of the cannon 
 ball being near the fame as the mufket bullet, and its fur- 
 face above 54 times greater, it follows, that the refifiance 
 on the cannon ball will amount to more than 540 lb. 
 which is near 23 times its own weight. And from hence 
 it appears how rafh and erroneous the opinion of thofe is, 
 who neglett the confideration of the refiftance of the air 
 as of no importance in the do£trine of proje£tfles. 
 
 Resistance of the Fibres of Jolid Bodies. To con¬ 
 ceive the idea of this refifiance, or renitency of the parts, 
 fuppofe a cylindrical body lufpended vertically by one 
 end. Here all its parts being heavy, draw downwards, 
 and tend to feparate the two contiguous planes, where 
 the body is the weakeft ; but all the planes refill this fepa- 
 ration by the force wherewith they cohere, or are bound 
 together: here then are two oppofite powers ; viz. the 
 weight of the cylinder which tends to break it, and the 
 force of cohefion of the parts which relift the fra£lure. 
 
 If the bafe of the cylinder be increafed, without in- 
 creafing its length ; it is evident the refiftance will be 
 increafed in the fame ratio as the bafe : but the weight 
 alio increafes in the fame ratio ; whence it is evident that 
 all cylinders of the fame matter and length, whatever 
 their bafes be, have an equal refiftance, when vertically 
 'ufpended. 
 
 If the length of the cylinder be increafed without in- 
 creafing the bale, its weight is increafed without in- 
 creafing its refiftance; conlequently the lengthening it 
 weakens it. To find the greateft length a cylinder of 
 any matter may have without breaking, there needs no¬ 
 thing but to take any cylinder of the fame matter, and 
 fallen it to the greateft weight it will fuftain before it 
 break: and then fee how much it muft be lengthened 
 by the addition of its weight, till it equals its former 
 weight with the addition of a foreign weight. 
 
 If one end of the cylinder were fixed horizontally into 
 a wall, and the reft fufpended thence, its weight and 
 refiftance would then a£l in a different manner ; and, if 
 it broke by the aflion of its weight, the rupture would 
 be at the end fixed into the wall. A circle or plane con¬ 
 tiguous to the wall, and parallel to the bafe, and con- 
 fequently veitical, would be detached from the contigu¬ 
 ous circle within the plane of the wall, and would de- 
 feend. All the motion is performed on the loweft extre¬ 
 mity of the diameter, which remains immoveable, while 
 the upper extremity deferibes a quadrant of a circle, and 
 till the circle which before was vertically become hori- 
 
 with which the ball impinged was 1690 feet 1". Then zontal; i. e. till the cylinder be entirely broken. 
 
 In 
 
R E S 
 
 Tn this fracture of the cylinder it is vifiblc two forces 
 liave atted, and the one has overcome the other : the 
 weight ot the cylinder, which arofe from its whole mttfs, 
 has overcome the refiftance which arofe from the large- 
 nefs of the bafe ; and as the centres of gravity are points 
 wherein all the forces arifing from the weights of the l'e- 
 vera! parts of tne fame bodies, arc conceived to be united 
 one may conceive the weight of the whole cylinder ap¬ 
 plied in the centre of gravity of its mafs, i. e. in a point 
 in the middle of its axis; and the refinance of the cy¬ 
 linder applied in the centre of gtavitv of its bale, i. e% 
 in the centre of the bale; it being the bale which relilts 
 the fradture. 
 
 The weight required to break a body placed horizon¬ 
 tally being always lefs than that required to break it in 
 a vertical htuation ; and this weight being to be greater 
 or lefs according to the ratio of the two arms of the lever, 
 the whole theory is always reducible to this, viz. to find 
 what part of the abl'olute weight the relative weight is 
 to be. iuppofing the figure of the body known, which 
 indeed is neceffary, becaufe it is the figure that deter¬ 
 mines the two centres of gravity, or the two arms of the 
 lever, Porif the body, e. g. were a cone, its centre of 
 gravity would not be in the middle of its axis, as in the 
 
 cylinder ; and if it were a femiparabolical folid, neither 
 its centre of gravity would be in the middle of its length 
 or axis, nor the centre of gravity of its bafe in the middle 
 of the axis of its bafe. But Hill, wherefoever thele cen¬ 
 tres fall in the feveral figures, it is thele that regulate the 
 two arms of the lever. 
 
 It may be obferved here, that if the bafe, whereby the 
 body is fattened into the wall, be not circular, but,'e- g. 
 parabolical, and the vertex of the parabola a-top, the 
 motion of the fra&ure will not be on an immoveable 
 point, but on a whole immoveable line, which may be 
 called the axis of equilibrium ; and it is with regard to 
 tiiis, that the diflance of the centres of gravity are to be 
 determined. 
 
 Now, a body, horizontally fufpended, being fuppofed 
 fuch, as that the Imallefl additionof weight would break 
 it; there is an equilibrium between its pofitive and re¬ 
 lative weight; and, of confequence, their two oppofite 
 powers are to each other reciprocally as the arms of the 
 lever to which they are applied. On the other hand, the 
 refiftance of a body is always equal to thegreateft weight 
 which it will fuftain in a vertical fituation without break¬ 
 ing, i. e. is equal to its abl'olute weight. Therefore, f'ub- 
 flituting the abfolute weight for the refiftance, it appears 
 that the abfolute weight of a body, fufpended horizon¬ 
 tally, is to its relative weight as the diflance of its centre 
 of gravity of its bafe from the fame axis. 
 
 The difeovery of this important truth, at leaf! of an 
 equivalent hereto, and to which this is reducible, we 
 ©we to Galileo. From this fundamental proportion are 
 eafily deduced feveral confequences. As for inftance, 
 that it the diflance of the centre of gravity of the bafe 
 from the axis of equilibrium, be half the diflance of the 
 centre of gravity of the body; the relative weight will 
 only be half the abfolute weight; and, that a cylinder 
 of copper horizontally fufpended, whole length is double 
 the diameter, will break, provided it weigh half what a 
 cylinder of the fame bafe, 4801 fathoms long, weighs. 
 On this fyftem of refiftance of Galileo, M. Mariotte 
 made a very i'ubtle remark, which gave birth to a new 
 fyftem. Galileo fuppofes that, where the body breaks, 
 all the fibres break at once; fo that the body alwavs refills 
 with its whole abl'olute force ; i. e. with the whole force 
 all its fibres have, in the place where it is broke. But, 
 M. Mariotte folding that all bodies, even glai's itfelf, bend 
 before they break, lhews that fibres are to be conlidered 
 as fo many little bent fprings, which never exert their 
 own force till llretched to a certain point, and never 
 break till entirely unbent. Hence thole neareft the axis 
 of equilibrium, which is an immoveable line, are ftretchcd 
 lefs than thofe further off, and of confequence employ a 
 lefs part of their force. 
 
 This conlidcration only takes place in the liorizontal 
 fituation of the body 111 the vertical, the fibres of the 
 bale all break at once ; lb that the ablolute weight of the 
 body mull exceed the united refiftance of all its fibres : 
 a greater weight is therefore required here, than in the 
 horizontal fituation ; i. e. a greater weight is required to 
 
 RES 
 
 feveral rcfifiances one after another. The difference be¬ 
 tween the two filiations arifes hence, that in the hori¬ 
 zontal there is an immoveable point or line, a centre of 
 motion, which is not in the vertical. 
 
 M. Varignon has improved on the fyftem of M. 
 Mariotte, and fhewn that to Galileo’s fyftem it adds the 
 conlidcration of the centre of percuflion. The compa- 
 nfon of the centres of gravity with the centres of per¬ 
 cuflion afford a fine view, and let the whole doarinc in 
 the moft agreeable light. 
 
 In each fyftem, the bafe whereby the body breaks, 
 moves on the axis of equilibrium, which is an immove¬ 
 able line Ill the fame bafe ; but, in the fecond, the fibres 
 of this bale are continually ftretching more and more, 
 and that in the lame ratio, as they recede further and fur¬ 
 ther from the axis of equilibrium, and, of confequence, 
 are ftill exerting a greater and greater part of their whole 
 force. 
 
 Thcfe unequal extenfions, like aft other forces, muft 
 have fome common centre where they all meet, and with 
 regard to which they make efforts on each fide : and as 
 they are precifely in the fame proportion as the velocities 
 which the feveral points ot a rod moved circuiarl v would 
 have to one another ; the centre of extenfion of the bale 
 
 wllt'rphv flip krxU,, k.^,-,1 .. „ -- ._1. . . 1 1 . * 
 
 whereby the body breaks, or tends to break, muft be the 
 fame with its centre of percuflion. Galileo’s liypothefis, 
 where fibres ftretch equally, and break all at once, cor- 
 relponds to tile cafe of a rod moving parallel to itfelf 
 where the centre of extenfion or percuflion does not ap¬ 
 pear, as being confounded with the centre of gravity. 
 
 The bafe of fraftion being a furface whol’e particular 
 nature determines its centre of percuflion, it is neceffary 
 to be firft; known to find on what point of the vertical 
 axis of that bale it is placed, and how far it is from the 
 axis of equilibrium. Indeed, we know in the general, 
 that rt always a£ts with fo much more advantage as it is 
 further from it, in regard it ads by a longer arm of a 
 lever; and of confequence it is the unequal refiftance of 
 the fibres in M. Mariotte’s liypothefis, which produces 
 the centre of percuflion; but this unequal refiftance is 
 greater or lei's, according as the centre of percuflioh is 
 placed more or lefs high on the vertical axis of the bale, 
 in the different furfaces of the bafe of the fraaure. 
 
 To exprch this unequal refiftance, accompanied with 
 aft the variations it is capable of, regard muft be had to 
 t. he ratio between the diflance of the centre of percuflion 
 from the axis of equilibrium, and the length of the ver¬ 
 tical axis of the bale. J11 which ratio, the firft term, or 
 the numerator, is always lefs than the fecond or the de¬ 
 nominator : fo ^nat the ratio is always a fiadtion lefs than 
 unity; and the unequal refiftance of the fibres in M. 
 Mariotte’s hypothefis, is fo much die greater, or which 
 amounts to die fame, approaches fo much nearer to the 
 equal refiftance in Galileo’s liypothefis, as the two terms 
 of the ratio are nearer to an equality. 
 
 Hence it follows, that the refill a nee of bodies, in M. 
 Mariotte’s fyftem, is to that in Galileo’s, as the leaft of 
 die terms in the ratio is to the greatdl. Hence, alfo, 
 the refiftance being lefs than what Galileo imagined, the 
 relative weight rauft all'o be lefs ; fo that the proportion 
 already mentioned between the ablolute and relative weight 
 cannot fubfift in the new fyftem, without an augmentation 
 of the relative weight, or a diminution of the abfolute 
 weight: which diminution is had by multiplying the 
 weight by the ratio, which is always lefs than unity. 
 This done, we find that the abfolute weight, multiplied 
 by the ratio, is to the relative weight, as the diflance of 
 die centre of gravity of the body from the axis of equili¬ 
 brium is to the diflance of the centre of gravity of the 
 bafe of fracture from the fame axis. Which is precifely 
 the fame tiling with the general formula given by M. 
 Varignon, for the fyftem of M. Mariotte. In effeft, 
 after conceiving the relative weight of a body, and its 
 refiftance equal to its abl'olute weight, as two contrary 
 powers applied to the two arms of a lever, in the hypo¬ 
 thefis of Galileo ; there needs nothing to convert it into 
 that of M. Mariotte, but to imagine that the refiftance, 
 or the abfolute weight, is become lefs, every diing elle 
 remaining the fame. 
 
 We have lie re only confidered bodies as to be broke 
 by their own weight. It will amount to the fame, if we 
 luppofe them void of weight themfelves, and to be broken 
 
 overcome their united refiftance, than to overcome their by a weight applied to their extremities : only it is to be 
 
 1 obferved. 
 
RES 
 
 obferved, that a foreign weight aCts by an arm of a lever 
 equal to the whole length of a body ; whereas their own 
 weight, being all united in the centre of gravity, or ac 
 cording to M. Mariotte, in the centre of percuflion, is 
 only the diftance of that centre from the axis of equili 
 brium. 
 
 RESOLUTION, in phyficks, the reduction of a 
 body into its original, or natural ftate, by a difl'olution or 
 reparation of its aggregated parts. 
 
 Resolution, in chymiftry. See Analysis. 
 
 Resolution, inlogick, the invcftigating or examin¬ 
 ing the truth or falfehood of apropofition, by afeending 
 from fome particular known truth, as a principle, by a 
 chain of confequences, to another more general one in 
 queflion. 
 
 Resolution, in mathematicks. See Analysis. 
 
 . Resolution, in medicine, that coCtion or altera¬ 
 tion of the crude peccant matter of any difeafe, either by 
 the natural ftrength of the patient, or by the application 
 ol remedies, whereby it is fo far changed as to become 
 laudable. 
 
 RESONANCE, in rnufick, &cc. a found returned by 
 the air included in the bodies of ftringed inftruments, or 
 even in the bodies of wind inftruments, as flutes, &c. 
 
 RESPECEU Computi Vicecomitis habendo, a writ for 
 the refpiting the ftieriff’s account, upon juft occafion, 
 directed to the treafurers and barons of the Exchequer. 
 
 RESPIRAT. ION, Refpiratio, the aCtion of refpiring, 
 or breathing air. What refpiration is, and why it is 
 uninterruptedly carried on without the concurrence of 
 the mind, will appear from what follows : though no 
 adtion feems to be more frequent than refpiration, yet it 
 is not to be underftood without confiderable difficulty ; 
 not only becaule it is partly vital, and partly voluntary, 
 but alfo, becaule an incredible number of organs arefub- 
 fervicnt to it; for which reafon its nature is carefully to 
 be inveftigated, which is moft commodioufly done, by 
 conlidering the phenomena with which it is accompa¬ 
 nied, and the organs employed in carrying it on. The 
 lungs fulpended in the air, which every-where aCts upon 
 them, and equally prefles them, always collapfe, con- 
 traa themfelves into a fmaller fpace, and become much 
 lels than when they remained in the entire thorax, as is 
 Sufficiently evinced by anatomy : this is principally per¬ 
 formed by the comraCtile force of the mufcular fibres, 
 which conned the fquamous fegments of the bronchia. 
 
 . If tlie lungs, thus contraded, are filled with air, for¬ 
 cibly blown through the glottis, they are fo diftended, 
 as, in bulk, not only to equal that which they had in 
 the entire thorax, but even much to exceed it, as is fuf- 
 ficiently certain from experience. The fame thing hap¬ 
 pens, it when an accefs for the air through the glottis 
 is left to the lungs, the air externally ading on the lungs 
 is either removed, or its preflure diminifhed. This may 
 be demonftrated from experiments made in the air-pump. 
 Hence it is that the lungs, by their proper force, have 
 always a tendency to become lefs in all their parts, than 
 they are when placed in the entire thorax. For this 
 reafon it is certain, that they are in a continual ftate of 
 contraction, fo long as a perfon is alive, fo that they 
 muft collapfe and be diminifhed, while the whole of the 
 animal remains in a vacuum, obtained by an exhauftion 
 of the air in an air-pump. For there is nothing fimilar 
 to a circumambient air between the external membrane 
 of the lungs, and all the internal furface of the pleura, 
 m a found perfon; nothing, therefore, externally com- 
 Preffes the lungs, except the diaphragm. There is, how¬ 
 ever, always an internal air contained in them, and freely 
 conveyed to them through the glottis. Hence the lungs 
 are always fomewha' more diftended by the internal air, 
 than they are r. mprefled by the external air, the accefs 
 of which is hindered by the diaphragm, which is fo con¬ 
 nected with the ribs and vertebras, that the air cannot 
 enter the thorax in fuch a manner as would be requifite 
 for an equilibrium. Since, therefore, in infpiration, a 
 greater quantity of air enters the lungs through the glot¬ 
 tis, it will extend the lungs more, and overcome their 
 natural force , fo that in this adtion the lungs arc paffive ; 
 but how far fliey are aCtive, is only to be difeovered by 
 certain phenomena. 
 
 In vita! infpiration then, efpecially, confidered in a 
 keeping perfon, firft the ribs, efpecially the nine fuperior 
 ones articulated at the vertebrae, and by cartilages joined 
 Vol. II. No. 63. 
 
 RES 
 
 to the flernum with their arched part, rife fo to the da- 
 yicles, that this motion is principally obferved in the 
 middle of the arch. Whilft three, or, perhaps, four of 
 the inferior ribs are turned downwards, backwards, and 
 obliquely outwards ; but in fuch a manner, that the 7th, 
 oth, 9th, and 10th ribs are, by their cartilaginous feg¬ 
 ments, as it were, drawn inwards. Secondly, the whole 
 abdomen, to the very end of infpiration, is gradually 
 rendered more tumid, and prefled outwards. Thirdly, 
 at the fame time the cavity of the thorax is enlarged, as 
 is obvious by measuring with a cord, by viewing it with 
 the eye, and efpecially by a mechanical confideration of 
 the figure, fituation, conneaion, and articulation of the 
 ribs here placed, according to the rules of peril ft and 
 molt confummate art, as Borelli has excellently demon¬ 
 ftrated. But, during this aCtion, the diaphragm is drawn 
 downwards from the convex and finuous fituation it was 
 ‘ n k e f° re > and aflumes a plainer figure, as is obvious from 
 dicing live animals, and from large abdominal wounds 
 inflicted on men. But that this change of figure in the 
 diaphragm depends upon the contraaion of its mufcular 
 fabrick, is fufficiently obvious from an anatomical con¬ 
 fideration of it. 
 
 RESPITE, Refpefius , in law, &c. a delay, forbear¬ 
 ance, or prolongation of time, granted any one, for the 
 payment of a debt, or the like. 
 
 RESPONDENT, in law, a perfon who undertakes 
 to anfwer for another; or binds himi'elf as fecurity for 
 the good behaviour of another. 
 
 RESPONDALIS, in law, he who appears for ano¬ 
 ther in court, at a day alfigned. 
 
 RESSAULT, in architecture, the cffeCt of a body 
 which either projects or falls back, i. e. Hands either 
 more out or in than another; fo as to be out of the line 
 or range therewith. 
 
 . RESSORT, a term ufed by late writers tofignify the 
 jurifdiCtion or authority of a court. 
 
 RESSOURCE, the means or foundation of a man’s 
 recovering himfelf from ruin ; or an after-game for the 
 repairing of his damages. 
 
 RES 1 , in philofophy, the continuance of a body in 
 the lame place ; or its continual application or contiguity 
 to the lame parts of the ambient and contiguous bodies. 
 
 Rest, or Paufe, in poetry, is ufed for the caefura, 
 which, in the Alexandrian verfes, falls on the fixth lvl- 
 lable; and in verfes of jo or 11 fyllables, on the fourth. 
 
 Rest, in rnufick, is a paufe or interval of time, during 
 which there is an intermiflion of the voice or found ** 
 RESTAURATION, or Restoration, the aft 
 of re-eitablithing, or fetting a thing in its former ftate. 
 
 In England, We call the return of Charles II. after the 
 civil wars, the Reftauration, byway of eminence. 
 
 Restauration, in architecture, the repairing all 
 the decayed parts of a building, in order not only tiTre- 
 eftabiilhitm its original form, butconfiderably augmented. 
 
 Restauration, in fculpture, the repairing a mu¬ 
 tilated ftatue, &c. 
 
 1 INSTITUTION, in philofophy, the returning of 
 eJaltick bodies, forcibly bent, to their natural ftate : by 
 fome called the motion of reftitution. " 
 
 Restitution, in a moral and legal fenfe, implies a 
 reftonng a perfon to his right; or returning fomething 
 unjuftly taken or detained from him. “ 
 
 Restitutions/ Medals, oi-Restituted Medals 
 is a phraie ul'ed by antiquarians, for fuch medals as are 
 ttruck by the emperors to renew or retrieve thi memory 
 of their predeceflors. 7 
 
 RESTIVE, or Resty, a term applied to a horfe 
 
 RFSTnTmr baCk ' 1 ? ffead ° f goin S forwards! 
 RLiTORAlIVE, in medicine, a remedy proper 
 
 f0r p'cV-?5 0 , r ^n S -.rli rctneVmg the ftren 6 th and vigour. 
 
 RESTRICT ION, the aft of modifying, limiting, 
 or reltoring a thing to narrow bounds. 0 
 
 Restriction, iniogict, isunderftoodoftheiimit- 
 '^F^iCmrFWT'-" fign i fy - lefs ' han u ufuall y d0ES - 
 
 tr«m? GENT ' 111 med,cinc - SeeAs T ukgekt. 
 JAT.SUCT, what is gathered from a confequence. 
 enquiry, meditation, &c. or the conclufion and effed 
 thereof. 
 
 RESUMMONS, a fecond fummons, when the firft 
 is defeated, or fulpended by any accident. 
 
 j n laW ’ the taklI 'S into the 
 king s hands fuch lands or tenements as before, upon 
 
 + B Lb 
 
RES 
 
 ?alfe Tugged ion, or other error, he had delivered to the 
 heir, or granted by letters patent. 
 
 Resumption, in logick, the reduction of fome 
 ■figurative proportion, to a more intelligent and iignifi- 
 cant one. 
 
 RESURRECTION, the a£t of returning to a new 
 or fecond life, after having been dead. 
 
 The ancient philofophers who believed the immor¬ 
 tality of the foul, admitted alfo a refurreCtion : whether 
 they had received this opinion from the eaftern people 
 among whom they had travelled, or whether they in¬ 
 ferred a refurreftion from the immortality of the foul, 
 as a necefiary confequence, perfuading themfelves that a 
 ioul could not long continue, without being united to a 
 body. But they explained this reiurreftion in different 
 manners. Pythagoras held a tranfmigration of fouls, 
 which w’as nearly the fame with that of Plato : Thales 
 and Democritus held alfo a kind of re function ; but 
 the manner how they explained it is not known. 
 
 The belief of a refurrcCtion from the dead is an article 
 of faith, taught both in the Old and New Teftament, 
 and embraced by the Jews and Chriftians. At the time 
 when our Saviour appeared in Judea, the refurrettion 
 was received as one of the principal ai tides of the Jewifh 
 religion, by the whole body of the nation, the Sadduces 
 only excepted. Some Jews believe that only the Ifrael- 
 ites fhall rife, and that luch as have been wicked among 
 
 them, fhall have no part in this happy Rate. Some 
 among them maintain that men will be fubjeCt to die 
 again after the refurreCtion, and that their fouls only will 
 enjoy eternal happinefs. It is alfo a common opinion 
 among them that all men, at Ieaft all the llraelites, fhall 
 arife in the land of Canaan ; and hence proceeds the 
 ardent defire they have always had of being buried in that 
 country. 
 
 One of the greateft arguments for the truth of Chrif- 
 tianity is drawn from the refurreCtion of our Saviour ; 
 the circumftances of which are handed down to us in fo 
 plain and diftinft a manner by the Evangelifts, as make 
 the evidence of this important truth amount to a demon- 
 fliation : 
 
 Chriflians generally believe, that at the day of judg¬ 
 ment, the very identical body they have now, with the 
 fame flefh, blood, and bones, will be railed from the 
 dead. The two principal philofophical objections againft 
 it are thefe. 
 
 i. That the fame fubftance may happen to be a part 
 of two or more bodies : thus a fifh feeding on a man. and 
 another man afterwards feeding on the filh, part of the 
 body of the fii ft man becomes incorporated with the fifh, 
 and afterwards with the body of the laft man. Again, 
 inftances have been known of one man’s immediately 
 feeding on the body of another ; and among the Canni¬ 
 bals in the W. Indies, who devour their enemies, the 
 prafticc is frequent. Now it is allcdged, where the fub¬ 
 ftance of one is thus converted into the fubftance of ano¬ 
 ther, each cannot arife with his whole body ; to which 
 then fhall the common part be allotted ? 
 
 To this objection fome anfvver, that as all matter is 
 not capable of being aflimilated to the body, and incor¬ 
 porated with it, human flefh may very probably be of 
 this kind; and, therefore, what is thus eaten, maybe 
 again excreted and carried off. 
 
 But Mr. Leibnitz obferves, that all that is eflential to 
 the body, is the original ftamen, which exifted in the 
 femen of the father : this may be conceived as the moft 
 minute point imaginable, and therefore not to be fepa- 
 rated, nor any part of it united to the ftamen of any 
 other man. That all this bulk we fee in the body, is 
 only an accretion to this original ftamen ; and therefore 
 there is no reciprocation of the proper matter of the 
 human body. 
 
 Another objection is, that we know, by the late dif- 
 coveries in the animal oeconomy, that the human body 
 is continually changing, and that a man has not entirely 
 the fame body to-day, as he had yefterday; and it is even 
 computed that in lefs than (even years time, the whole 
 body undergoes a change. Which of thofe many bodies 
 
 then, which the fame perfon has in the courfe ot his life, 
 is it that fhall rife : Or does all the matter that has ever 
 belonged to him, rife again ? Or does only fome parti¬ 
 cular fyftem thereof? The body, for example, he had 
 at 20, at 40, or at 60 years old ? If only this or that 
 
 3 
 
 RET 
 
 body arife, how fhall it be rewarded or punished for whar 
 was don? by the other ? And with what juftice does one 
 perfon fufFer for another ? 
 
 To this it has been anfvvered on the principles of 
 Leibnitz, that notwithftanding thefe fucceflive changes, 
 this ftamen, which is the only eflential part of the body, 
 has always remained the fame ; and that on Mr. Locke's 
 principles, perfonal identity, or the famcnefsof a rational- 
 being, conlifts in felf-confcioufncfs, in the power of con- 
 fidering itlelf the fame thing in different times and places. 
 By this, every one is to-him felf what he calls felf; with¬ 
 out confidering whether that felf be continued in the 
 fame or feveral lubftances. It is the fame felf now, it 
 was then ; and it was by the fame felf which now re¬ 
 flects on an aCtion, that aftion was performed. Now 
 it is this perfonal identity that is the objeCt of rewards 
 and punifhmcnts, which, it is obferved, may exift it* 
 different lucceflions of matter; fo that to render the re¬ 
 wards and punifhments juft and pertinent, we need only 
 ,to- rife again with luch a body as that we retain conlciouf- 
 nefs of our paft aCtions. 
 
 RETAIL, in commerce, is the felling of goods in 
 l'mall parcels, in oppolition to wholefale. 
 
 RETAINER, in law, a fervant who docs not con¬ 
 tinually dwell in the lioufe of his mailer, but only attends 
 upon fpeciaf occalions. 
 
 RETAINING Fee, the firft fee given to a ferjeant 
 or counlellor at law, in order to make him fure, and 
 prevent his pleading on the contrary lide. 
 
 RETARDATION, in phyftcks, the aCl of diminifh- 
 ing the velocity of a moving body. See Motion. 
 
 RETE M1 rabile, in anatomy, a fmall plexus, or 
 net-work of veffels in the brain, furrounding the pitui¬ 
 tary gland. The rete mirabile is very confpicuous in 
 brutes, but cither not exiftent in man, or fo very minute* 
 that its exiftence is fairly doubted. 
 
 RETENTION, Retentio, a faculty of the human 
 mind, whereby, in order to a further progrefs in know¬ 
 ledge, it retains thofe Ample ideas which it before re¬ 
 ceived by fenfation or reflection. 
 
 Retention, in medicine, the Hate of contraction 
 in the folids or vafcular parts of the body, which makes 
 them hold faft their proper contents. 
 
 Retent ion, is alfo ufed to fignify the aCt of retain¬ 
 ing the excrements, humours, &c. fo that they cannot 
 be voided out of the body. 
 
 RETIARII, ill antiquity, a kind of gladiators, fo 
 called from rete , a net, which they make ule of againft 
 their antagonifts. 
 
 RETICULAR Body, Corpus reticulare, in anatomy, 
 a body of veflels lying immediately under the cuticle or 
 fcarf-fkin. Thefe veflels contain a mucous liquor, from 
 the tinClurc whereof Malphighi imagines the colour of 
 the fkin to be derived ; founding his conjecture on this, 
 that the cutis, as well as the cuticle of blacks, is white ; 
 and that they differ in no other circumftance from thofe 
 of Europeans, but in this particular. 
 
 Reticular Plexus , in anatomy, a name fometimes 
 given to the choroides. 
 
 RETICULUM, in anatomy, the omentum or caul. 
 See Omentum. 
 
 RETINA, in anatomy, one of the tunicks of the eye. 
 See Eye. 
 
 RETINUE, the attendants or followers of a prince, 
 or perfon of quality -, chiefly upon a journey. 
 
 RETIRADE, in fortification, a kind of retrench¬ 
 ment made in the body of abaftion, or other work, which 
 is to be difputed inch by inch, after the defences arc dis¬ 
 mantled. It generally conlifts of two faces, which make 
 a re-entering angle. 
 
 RETORT, in chvmiftry. a kind of crooked matrafs, 
 or a round-bellied \elfel, either of earth or glafs, with 
 a flender crooked beak, to which the recipient is to be 
 placed. 
 
 RETRACTION, Retrattio , the aCtof unfaying what 
 a perfon had befote laid or wrote. 
 
 Retraction, in anatomy, the contraction or fhort- 
 ening a part. 
 
 RETRACTS, in farriery, pricks in a horfe’s feet, 
 arifing from nails that are ill-pointed, or driven amifs. 
 
 RETRAXIT, in law, is where the plaintiff comes 
 into court in perfon, and declares he will proceed no 
 1 further in his aCtion. 
 
 RETREAT, 
 
REV R H E 
 
 kETREAT, in military affairs, the retiring, ormov-J 
 jng back again of the army, or part of it. Xenophon’s 
 retreat of the 10,000 Greeks has been admired in all ages. 
 
 Retreat, or Relay, in mafonry, implies a fmall 
 recefs, or diminution of the thicknefs of a wall, rampart, 
 &c. in proportion as it is railed. 
 
 RETRENCHMENT, in a literal fenfe, implies 
 fomething cut off. 
 
 Retrenchment, in architecture, is ufed not only 
 to fignify what is cutoff from a piece, when too large, 6 cc. 
 but alfo for the projeftures taken out of flreets, publick 
 ways, See. to render them more regular, and in a line. 
 
 Retrenchment, in military affairs, implies any 
 kind of work call up to ftrengthen, or defend a poll 
 againft the enemy. But it is more particularly ufed for 
 a fimple retirade made on a horn-work or baftion, when 
 it is intended to difpute the ground inch by inch. 
 
 RETRIBUTION, a gratuity or acknowledgment 
 given in lieu of a former falary or hire, to perfons em¬ 
 ployed in affairs that do not fo immediately fall under 
 eftimation, nor within the ordinary commerce of money. 
 
 RETROACTIVE, in law, that which has an in¬ 
 fluence or effect on time paft. 
 
 RETROGRADE, in aftronomy, an apparent mo¬ 
 tion in the planets; whereby they appear to an obferver 
 placed on the earth, to move backward, or contrary to 
 the order of the figns. 
 
 RETROGRESSION of Curves , their bending or 
 turning backwards. 
 
 RETROMINGENTS, in natural hiftory, a clafs 
 or divifion of animals, whole charaCteriftick it is that they 
 Bale, or make water backwards, both male and female. 
 
 REVEILLE, a beat of drum about break of day, to 
 give notice that it is time for the foldiers to arife, and 
 that thecentries arc to forbear challenging. 
 
 REVELATION, the aft of revealing, or making a 
 thing publick that was before unknown : it is alfo uled 
 for the difeoveries made by God to his prophets, and by 
 them to the world; and more particularly for the books 
 of the Old and New Teflament. 
 
 Revelation of St. John , the fame with the Apoca- 
 lypfc. See Apocalypse. 
 
 REVELS, entertainments of dancing, mafking, aft- 
 ing comedies, farces, See. antiently very frequent in the 
 inns of court, and in noblemen’s houfes, but now much 
 difufed. The officer who has the direction of the revels 
 at court, is called the matter of the revels. 
 
 REVENUE, the annual income a perfon receives 
 from the rent of his lands, houfes, intereft of money in 
 the flocks, Sec. 
 
 REVERBERATION, Revcrbcratio , in phyficks, the 
 aft of a body repelling or reflecting another after its im¬ 
 pinging thereon. See Repulsion. 
 
 Reverberation, in chymiftry, denotes a kind of 
 circulation of the flame by means of a reverberatory, or 
 the return of the flame from the top of the furnace back 
 to the bottom, chiefly ufed in calcination. Reverbera¬ 
 tion is of two kinds: the firft with a clofe fire, that is, a 
 reverberatory furnace, where the flame has no vent at 
 top, being covered with a dome or capital, which repels 
 its aCling back on the matter or the veflel that contains 
 It, with increafed vehemence. After this manner is re¬ 
 fining, the diftillation of acids, fpirits, he. performed. 
 Reverberation with an open fire, is that performed in a 
 furnace or reverberatory, whofe regifters are all open, 
 ufed in calcination, See. 
 
 REVERIE, the fame with delirium, raving, or dif- 
 traClion. It is ufed alfo for any ridiculous extravagant 
 imagination, aCtion, or propofition, a chimera or vifion. 
 But the moll ordinary ufe of the word, among Englilh 
 writers, is fora deep diforderly muling or meditation. 
 
 REVERSION, Revcrjio , in law, is defined to be 
 returning of lands, See. into the pofleflion of the donor, 
 or his heirs. Reverfion, in the law of England, has two 
 fignifications ; the one of which is an eftate left, which 
 continues during a particular eftate in being; and the 
 other is the returning of the land, See. after the particular 
 eftate is ended ; and it is further faid, to be an intereft in 
 lands, when the pofleflion of it fails, or where the eftate, 
 which was fora time parted with, returns to the grantors, 
 or their heirs. But, according to the ufual definition of 
 a reverfion, it is the refidue of an eftate left in the grantor, 
 after a particular eftate granted away ceafes, continu¬ 
 
 ing in tlie grantor of fuch an eftate. The difference 
 between a remainder and a reverfion, confifts in this l 
 that the remainder may belong to any man except the 
 grantor ; whereas the reverfion returns to him who con¬ 
 veyed the lands, See. 
 
 REVIEW, in war, is the appearance of an army, or 
 part of an army, in order of battle, and their being 
 viewed by the general, that he may know the condition 
 of the troops, fee that they are complete, and be a wit- 
 nefs of the expertnefs with which they perform their 
 evolutions, and other exercifes. 
 
 Review, in Chancery. A bill of review is, where 
 the caufe has been heard, and a decree therein lignedand 
 enrolled ; but forne error in law appears in the body of 
 the decree, or lbme new matter is difeovered in time after 
 the decree is made. 
 
 REVISE, among printers, a fecond proof of a fhcet 
 to be printed, taken off after correcting the firft. 
 
 REVIVIFICATION, in chymiftry, the aft of re- 
 ftoring a mixed body to its firft ilate, after it has been 
 altered by fome chymical procefs. 
 
 REVIVOR, or Reviver, in law. A bill of revivor, 
 is where a bill has been exhibited in Chancery againft 
 one who anfwers; but before the caufe is heard, or at 
 leaft before the decree is inrolled, one of the parties dies. 
 In this cafe a bill of revivor muft be brought, praying the 
 former proceedings may Hand revived, and be put in the 
 fame condition as at the time of abatement. 
 
 REVOCATION, in law, the aft of revoking or 
 annulling a power, grant, See. before made. 
 
 REVOLUTION, in politicks, a grand turn or 
 change of government. 
 
 The Revolution, ufed by way of eminence, im¬ 
 plies the grand change that happened in England in the 
 year 1688, when James II. abdicated the crown. 
 
 Revolution, in aftronomy, implies the motion of 
 any heavenly body in its orbit, till it returns to the fame 
 point where the motion began. 
 
 REVULSION, Revulfto , in medicine, the turning a 
 flux ol humours from one part of the body to another. 
 It alfo fignifies thefpontaneous turn or reflux of humours 
 in the body. 
 
 RHABOIDES, in anatomy, the fagittal future of the 
 fkull. 
 
 RHABDOMANCY, an ancient method of divina¬ 
 tion performed by rods. 
 
 RHAGOIDES, in anatomy, the uvea, or fecond coat 
 or tunick of the eye. 
 
 RHAPONTICUM, a medicinal root, refembling 
 rhubarb. 
 
 RHAPSODISTS, Rhapfodi , in antiquity, perfons 
 who made It their bufinefs to fing pieces of Homer’s 
 poems. Cupcr informs us that, when the rhapfodi fung 
 the Iliad, they were cloathed in red; and, when they 
 fung the odyflee, in blue. 
 
 RHAPSODOMANCY, an ancient kind of divina¬ 
 tion performed by pitching on a pafiage of a poet at ran¬ 
 dom, and looking on it as a prediftion of what was to 
 happen. 
 
 RHAPSODY, in antiquity, a difeourfe in verle, 
 fung or rehearfed by a rhapfodift. Or, according to 
 others, it fignifies a colleftion of verfes, efpecially thofe 
 of Homer; which, having for a long time been dilperled 
 in pieces and fragments, were at length, by Pififtratus’s 
 order, digefted into books called rhapfodies. 
 
 Hence, the moderns ufe the term for an aflemblage of 
 paflages, thoughts, &c. taken from divers authors, to 
 compofe fome new piece. 
 
 RHETORICK, Rbetorha , the art of fpeaking copi- 
 oufly on any fubjeft, with all the advantages of beauty 
 and force. 
 
 RHEUM, a thin ferous watery matter, oufing through 
 the glands, chiefly about the mouth. 
 
 RHEUMATISM, in medicine, a diftemper that hap¬ 
 pens moft commonly in fpring or autumn, when there is 
 a remarkable change of air from hot to cold, and from 
 cold to hot, when the wind fuddenly fhifts to any oppo- 
 fite point. It begins, according to Sydenham, with a 
 Ihivering and other lymptoms of a fever, and in a day or 
 two’s time, or fometimes fooner, a vehement pain feizes 
 one or more of the limbs, raging fometimes in one place 
 and fometimes in another, efpecially in the arms, wrifts, 
 Ihoulders, and knees; very often there is a rednefs and 
 
 fwelling. 
 
RHU 
 
 fwelling, and the fever gradually goes off while the pain 
 remains. This diftemper often runs out into a great 
 length, continuing fometimes for fome months or years, 
 not perpetually with the fame violence, hut coming and 
 going, and from time to time renewing its paroxyfms. 
 
 It chiefly attacks perfons in the flower of their age, after 
 violent exercife, or a great heat of the body from any 
 other caufe, and then being too fuddenly cooled. Its 
 proximate caufe Boerhaave takes to be an inflammation 
 of the lymphatick arteries of the membranes near the liga¬ 
 ments of the joints, but not fo violent as to bring on a 
 fuppuration. This difeafe is nearly a-kin to the gout 
 and fcurvy, and the blood is like that of thole affli&ed 
 with the pleurify. The pain is exafperated upon the leait 
 motion : it fometimes attacks the loins and coxendix, and 
 fometimes the brain, lungs, and vifeera : when it feizes 
 the loins it is then called lumbago ; in this cafe, Syden¬ 
 ham obferves that there is a moft violent pain in the 
 fmall of the back, which fometimes extends to the os 
 facrum, and is like a fit of the gravel, only the patient 
 does not vomit. If this difeafe is unfkilfully treated, it 
 may continue feveral months or years, but not always 
 with the fame violence, but by fits. If it continues and 
 increafes, it may caufe a ftiff joint, which will fcarce 
 yield to any remedy. 
 
 Sydenham direSls to take away ten ounces of blood on 
 the fide affedted ; this muft be repeated three or four 
 times, or oftener, once every other or every third day, 
 according as the ftrength of the patient will bear. Tire 
 diet muft be very thin, and an emujfion of the four cold 
 feeds may be given; as alfo a pultice of white-bread and 
 milk, tinged with a little faffron, may be laid to the part 
 affedted; a clyfter of milk and fugar may be injedted on 
 thofe days the bleeding is omitted. If the patient cannot 
 bear frequent bleeding, after the fecond or third time give 
 the common purging portion every other day, and an 
 ounce of diacodium at night, till he recovers. 
 
 In an incipient rheumatifm of the fhoulders, Hoffman 
 fays that nothing is better than a blifter laid between the 
 fcapulse ; but if it happens to the plethorick, cupping, 
 with fcarification in the lower parts, repeated every month, 
 does fignal fervice. The fame phyfician thinks it may 
 be proper to chew rhubarb, from two fcruples to a dram, 
 with raifins or currants, two or three times a week. 
 
 The fpirit ofhartfhorn and the balfam of guaiacum, 
 given in the quantity of 20 or 30 drops, three or four 
 times a day, Dr. Shaw fays, is of great fcrvice : but he 
 thinks nothing better than a decodtion of the fudoi ifick 
 woods, to the quantity of a quart a day, for a month or 
 fix weeks together. This laft, when affifted with crude 
 antimony and mercurius dulcis, Hoffman recommends 
 in the venereal rheumatifm, which often arifes from the 
 remains of a lues venerea contained in the mafs of blood. 
 In a fcorbutick rheumatifm, or that arifing from the 
 fcurvy, Sydenham diredfs the patient to take the fcorbu¬ 
 tick eledluary and water, if he cannot bear any kind of 
 evacuation. 
 
 He obferves, that young perfons who live temperately 
 may be cured by a Ample refrigerating diet, and moderate 
 nourilhing, with as much certainty as by repeated bleed¬ 
 ing : for inftance, let the patient live four days upon 
 whey alone; and after that white-bread may be allowed 
 for dinner, and on the laft day of his illnefs he may be 
 allowed it for fupper. When thefymptoms ceafe he may 
 have boiled chickens, or any thing ofeafy digeftion, but 
 every third day he muft live upon whey only, till his 
 ftrength returns. Boerhaave’s method of cure is to the 
 fame effedl, only he advifes warm baths and ftrong blif 
 ters to be laid upon the part affedled, nay even cauteries 
 thcmfelves : but Hoffman obferves that great caution 
 fhould be ufed with regard to topicks, for if the patient’s 
 confutation is languincous they fhould all be avoided, 
 and the part covered carefully with the bed-cloaths; but 
 if there is a thick, cold, ftagnating humour in the part, 
 and a lenfc of cold, with a ftridtare of the pores, then 
 fridlions may be ufed with rough warm cloths, and after¬ 
 wards cupping with fcarifications. If the part becomes 
 ftiff and inflexible, with a numbnefs, which is called a 
 parefis, the it take human or canine axungia, two ounces; 
 balfam of Peru, and oil of cloves, each two drams ; with 
 which make a liniment for the part: this has been known 
 to have a wonderful effect. Arbuthnot fays that cream- 
 of tartar in water-gruel, taken for feveral days, will abate 
 
 RHU 
 
 the pains and fwellings confiderably by its acidity, cor¬ 
 recting the alkaline falts of the blood. 
 
 Cheyne fays, that the hot and inflammatory rheuma- 
 tiftns have all the fymptoms of the gout, and like it, 
 change from place to place, and by over violent evacua¬ 
 tions may be translated upon the noble organs. 
 
 REX 1 S, or Recma, among oculiits, fignifics a rup¬ 
 ture of the cornea of the eye. 
 
 RH 1 NE-Land-R od, in fortification, See. a meafure 
 of two fathoms, or 12 feet, ufed by the Dutch and Ger¬ 
 man engineers. 
 
 RHODIUM, or Ros ewood, the wood or root of a 
 tree, of which we have no certain account; brought from 
 the Canary illands, in long crooked pieces, full of knots, 
 externally of a whitilh colour, internally of a deep 
 yellow, with a redilh call. 1 he largeft, fmoolli.ft, 
 ilraighteft, heavieft, and deepeft-coloured pieces lhouid 
 be choien ; and the fmall, thin, pale, light ones readied. 
 
 This wood has a fiightly bitterilh, fomewhat pungent, 
 ballamick tafte, and a fragrant fmell, efpecialiy when 
 feraped or rubbed, refembling that of rofes. Digefted in 
 rectified fpirit, it gives out pretty readily the whole of 
 its aCtive matter, and tinges the menftruum of a ledilh 
 yellow colour : on committing to diftillation the filtered 
 tinCture, the fpirit brings over little or nothing of its fla¬ 
 vour ; the fine fmell, as well as the ballamick pungency, 
 of the rhodium, remaining nearly entire in the infplflated 
 extraCt, which proves tenacious and adhefive like the tur¬ 
 pentines. Infuled in water, it gives out likewife oreat 
 part of its fmell and tafte, together with a bright yellow 
 colour : in evaporation, the water carries off the fpecifick 
 flavour of the wood, leaving in the extraCt only a flight 
 pungency and bitterilhnefs. Diftilled with water, it gives 
 over, fomewhat difficultly and flowlv, a highly odorife¬ 
 rous effential oil, at firft of a gold colour, by age turning 
 rediill; amounting, if the rhodium is of a good kind, 
 to about one ounce from fifty : the diftilled water is 
 likewife agreeably impregnated with the fragrance of the 
 rhodium, and greatly refembles that of damaik rofes. 
 
 1 he eftentia-1 oil is ufed as a perfume, for fcentiiig po¬ 
 matums, See. and in this light oniy the rhodium wood 
 is generally regarded. It promifes, however, to be appli¬ 
 cable to more important purpofcs, and bids fair to prove 
 a valuable cordial and corroborant. 
 
 Jamaica affords a wood called by the people there rafe- 
 wood ; which, though not the ihodium of the {hops, lias 
 neverthelefs much of the fmell: it is deferibed by Sir 
 Hans Sloane to be a tree growing to 20 or more feet in 
 height, and thick enough to afford the largeft fegments 
 we ever meet with of it; and poffibly an adulteration of 
 the true rhodium with this wood may be the true caufe 
 why the rhodium is not allowed to- be the root, but a 
 fpecies of cytifus, as Hoffman affirms. 
 
 1 he flowers of the Jamaica rofe-wood are fmall and 
 white, confifting of three petals, and {landing in clufters ; 
 the fruit is a berry of the fize of a pepper-corn, and the 
 leaves of the tree are pinnated. 
 
 RHODON , in pharmacy, an appellation given to feve¬ 
 ral compofitions, on account of rofes being the chief ingre¬ 
 dient in them ; as the diarrhodon, rhodofaccharum, Sec. 
 
 RHOMBOIDES, in geometry, a quadrilateral figure 
 whole oppofite fides and angles are equal, but is neither 
 equilateral nor equiangular. 
 
 Rhomboides, in anatomy, a thin, broad, and ob¬ 
 liquely iquare flelhy mufcle, fituated between the bafis 
 of the fcapula and the fpina dorfi; fo called from its 
 figure. Its general ufe is to draw, backward and upward, 
 the fubfpinal portion of the bans fcapulce. 
 
 RHOMBUS, in geometry, an oblique-angled paral¬ 
 lelogram, or a quadrilateral figure whole fides are equal 
 and parallel, but the angles unequal, two of the oppofite 
 ones being obtuie, and the other two acute. 
 
 RHOPHALICK Verses , in ancient poetry, a kind 
 of verfes, which beginning with monofi Babies, were 
 continued in words growing gradually longer and longer 
 to the laft. 
 
 RHUBARB, Rheum, in botany, a plant whole flower 
 is monopetalous, narrow at the bale, and impervious, 
 with the limb divided into fix obtufe fegments, which, 
 are alternately fmaller; the ftamina are nine capillary 
 filaments, inferted in the corolla, and terminated with 
 oblong, blunt, and twin antherse: there is no pericar- 
 pium; the Iced is Angle, large, three-cornered, acute, 
 
 and 
 
RHY 
 
 sYnd furrounded with membranaceous borders. The 
 leaves are placed on long footbalks, which rife immedi¬ 
 ately from the root; they are heart lliaped, fmooth, rib¬ 
 bed on their underflde, and waved on their edges; the 
 balk rifes to the heigh t of four feet; it is of a pale green, 
 furnifhcd with a fmall leaf at each joint, and the upper- 
 mob divided into branches fupporting numerous panicles 
 of flowers, which appear in June. 
 
 This plant is luppoibd to be the true Tartarian rhu¬ 
 barb, the root of which (fo well known in medicine) is 
 thick, of an oblong figure, large at the head, and tapering 
 pretty fuddenly as it extends in length ; it is fometimes 
 Angle, but more ulually divided into two or three parts 
 at the lower end. It is brought to us in unequal pieces, 
 from four to five or fix inches in length, and three 01 
 four thick ; it is a little heavy, and of a dulky yellow with¬ 
 out fide, but within is marbled or variegated with yellow 
 and red in the manner of a nutmeg ; it is of a fomewhat 
 lax and fpongy texture, of a fub-acid bitterifh and fome¬ 
 what abringent tafte, with an agreeable aromatick fmell. 
 
 Rhubarb is to bechoien frclh, tolerably liatd, and mo¬ 
 derately heavy, and fuch as does not dull the fingers in 
 handling ; fuch as, infufed a few minutes in water, gives 
 it a fine yellow, and when bruiled in a mortar, has a 
 redifh colour with the yellow. Rhubarb is not fo often 
 adulterated as damaged ; care is to be taken that it be not 
 wet or rotten : much of it is fubjett, after beeping too 
 long, to he worm-eaten and full of holes on the furface. 
 
 Rhubarb greatly {Lengthens the ilomach and bowels, 
 and is an excellent medicine againil choler, and other 
 diflempered contents of the inteflinal and mefenteriack 
 glands: it is given, with great fuccefs, in all obilrudtions 
 of the liver, in the jaundice, diarrhoea, lluor albus, and 
 gonorrhoea ; and the kidnies do not lie too remote from 
 its influences, for it frequently palfes lo much that way, 
 as to dilcover itfelfin the colour of the urine; it, there¬ 
 fore, is very good in obftru&ions of the reins and uterus ; 
 but in the jaundice, it almofl pafies for infallible : it is 
 good agai nit worms in children, and is the befl purge 
 that can be given them to clear away thofe crudities in 
 the bowels, which are apt to breed them : it alfo gives a 
 firmnefs to the fibres, which, from the flipperinefs of 
 children’s diet, are generally too lax, fo that its repetition 
 to them can hardly be too frequent. 
 
 Rhubarb is given in powder, in infufion, and in its 
 own crude folid bate, the chewing it being, perhaps, the 
 beb way of giving it of all others. When it is intended 
 to {Lengthen the bomacli and ailib digebion, the quan¬ 
 tity of 25 grains, or thereabout, lhould be chewed daily 
 on thefe occafions, an hour before eating : this is alfo the 
 beb way of taking it again ft obilru£lions of the vilcera. 
 
 Its dole, in powder, is from half a fcruple to two 
 fcruples ; in infuflori, about a dram of it will purge gently, 
 but the dofe may be increafed to two drams : it is ob- 
 fervable, that neither the infufion nor the decoftion, nor 
 even the extraft of rhubarb, purge near lo brilkly as the 
 root itfelf in powder. 
 
 The preparations of rhubarb in ufc in the fhops are, 
 1. The tinfture in fpirit. 2. The tinfture in wine: and, 
 3. The extradl, though the lab: is but little uled. 
 
 RHUMB, in navigation, a vertical circle of any place, 
 or the interfettion of fuch a circle with the horizon. 
 Therefore, rhumbs coincide with the points of the world, 
 or of the horizon ; and lienee navigators dibinguifh the 
 rhumbs by the fame name as the points and winds. See 
 Compass. 
 
 Rhumb-Line; Lo'xodromia , in navigation, the line 
 which a blip deferibes, keeping in the fame collateral 
 point or rhumb. See Course. 
 
 RHYAS, in medicine, a flux of the eye, occafloned 
 by a diminution of the flebi in the greater canthus, or 
 angle of the eye. 
 
 RHYME, in poetrv, a fiinilitude of found between 
 the lab fyllableor fyllablcs of two verfes. Rhymes may 
 be dibinguilhed into whole or perfeft, and half or imper¬ 
 fect rhymes. The fnb is where there is a limilitude of 
 found without any difference ; the latter where there is 
 a difference either in the pronunciation or orthography. 
 The French dibinguifh their rhymes into mafeuline and 
 ■feminine. The feminine is where the lab fyliable of 
 the rhyme ends with an e mute ; as in dove, belle, &c. 
 The mafeuline rhymes are thofe of all other words. 
 RHYTHM, or Rhythm us, in muflek, the variety 
 Vol. II. No. 63. 
 
 R I 0 
 
 fn the movement as to the quicknefs or flownefs, lehgtb. 
 or biortnefs of the notes. Or rhythmus may be defined; 
 more generally, the proportion which the paits of a mo¬ 
 tion have to each other. 
 
 RIBBAND, or Ribbon, a narrow fort of filk prin¬ 
 cipally worn by tile ladies. 
 
 Ribbons of all forts are prohibited to be imported. 
 
 Ribbands, in fhip-building, certain thin narrow 
 planks, which are fo made, that they may be eafily bent 
 to the timbers. That which is nailed to the llern-pob. 
 at the height of the riling line, and to the mid-lbip-frame 
 at the end of the riling of the boor-timbers, is called the 
 floor ribband. That which anfwers to the wing-tran- 
 fom, and to the height of the lower deck on the mid- 
 lhip-frame, is called the breadth ribband : all the reft 
 between thefe two are called intermediate ones. 
 
 'I hefe ribbands are nailed to all the frames from the 
 flern-pofl to the bem, and when they are carried round, 
 fo as to make fair curves, the form of all the filling tim¬ 
 bers may by them be determined. 
 
 RIBS, Cojia, in anatomy, long arched bones, ferviiig 
 to fuflain the inner fides of the thorax. 
 
 The ribs are 24 in number, viz. 12 on each tide the 12 
 vertebras ot the back; they are crooked, and like to the 
 fegments of a circle; they grow flat and broad, as they 
 approach to the bernum ; but the nearer they are to the 
 vertebra?, the rounder and thicker they are ; at which 
 end they have a round head, which, being covered with 
 a cartilage, is received into the flnus in the bodies of the 
 vertebras; and at the neck of each head, except the two 
 lab ribs, there is a fmall tubercle, which is alfo received 
 into the Anus of the tranfverfe procefles of the fame ver¬ 
 tebras. The ribs, thus articulated, make an acute angle 
 with the lower vertebras. The ribs have each a fmall 
 canal or Anus, which runs along their under Ades, in 
 which lies a nerve, vein, and artery. Their extremities, 
 which are failened to the bernum, are cartilaginous, and 
 the cartilages make an obtule angle with the bony part of 
 the ribs : this angle refpedls the head. The cartilages 
 are harder in women than in men, that they may better 
 bear the weight of their breabs. The ribs are of two 
 forts; the leven upper ones are called cobas verse, becaufe 
 their cartilaginous ends are received into the Anus of the 
 bernum : the Ave lower are called falfas, becaufe they are 
 fofter and fhorter, of which only the Arb is joined to 
 the extremity of the bernum, the cartilaginous extre¬ 
 mities of the reb being tied to one another, and thereby- 
 leaving a greater fpace for the dilation of the Ilomach 
 and entrails. The Jab of thefe falfe ribs is fhorter than 
 all the reb ; it is not tied to them, but fometimes to the 
 mufculus obliquus defeendens. If the ribs had been 
 articulated with the bodies of the vertebra; at right angles, 
 the cavity ot the thorax could never have been enlarged 
 in breathing. If each rib had been a rigid bone articu¬ 
 lated to the tranfverfe procefles of the vertebra;, the ber¬ 
 num could not have been thrub out to that degree that it 
 is now, or the cavity of the thorax could not have in¬ 
 creafed fo much as is requiflte in infpiration ; for, when 
 the ribs are pulled up by the intercobal mufcle, the angles 
 which the cartilages at the bernum make with the bony 
 pait ol the rib mub be increafed, and confequently its 
 lubbance, or the dibance between the bernum and the 
 traniverfe procefles, lengthened. Now becaufe the rib 
 cannot move beyond the tranfverfe procefs, upon the 
 account of its articulation with it, therefore the bernum 
 mub be either thrub to the other Ade, or elfe outwards; 
 it cannot move to the other Ade, becaufe of an equal 
 preflure upon the fame account there; and therefore it 
 is thrub outwards, or the dibance between the bernum 
 and vertebra; is increafed. The lab.ribs which do not 
 reach the bernum, and confequently produce nothing 
 in this a£lion, are not articulated with the tranfverfe 
 procefles. 
 
 Ribs of a Skip, the timbers when the planks are taken 
 off; fo called, becaufe they are bent like the ribs of a 
 carcafe or Ikeleton. 
 
 RICE, Gryza ; this grain, which is fo much in 
 ebeem in the eabern countries, that it is the principal 
 corn they ule, grows to be three or four feet high, with 
 leaves broader than thofe of wheat, hearing fpikes much 
 divided, and compofed of oblong flattiih grains ; bavins 
 eacli a beard or awn, two or three inches long, forked 
 at the top, and frequently coloured at bottom, They 
 4 L 
 
R I D 
 
 arc of a white colour, compofed of a brown hufk or {kin. 
 Rice is Town in Italy, Turkey, and the E. Indies; and 
 we have as large and good from Carolina, as from any 
 part of the world. It is chiefly ufed here for puddings, 
 and to make rice-milk. 
 
 It is more ufed for food than phyfick, being a whole- 
 fome ftrengtheqing grain, reflringent and good for thole 
 who have a flipperinefs in their bowels, or are inclinable 
 to a flux or Iooienefs. 
 
 RICKETS, in medicine; the diforder, generally 
 known by this name, is a kind of partial tabes, and con- 
 fids in an unequal nutrition, by which fome parts are 
 deprived of their due nourifhment, and wade away ; 
 which others, receiving more than enough, are preter- 
 naturally increafed with an incurvation of the bones and 
 fpine of the back. When vifeid, tough, and pituitous 
 humours, depofited in the fpinal marrow, are the caule 
 of the rickets, the fird intention of cure is to refolve the 
 vifeidity of the juices, remove obdruftions, and by that 
 means promote a free circulation of the humours through 
 all the body. For this purpofe, in order to remove the 
 fountain of the diforder, lodged in the prim* via?, we are, 
 above all things, to ufe gentle laxatives; not neglefting, 
 if it is necefiary, and the conditurion of the child admits, 
 the ufe of mild emeticks, confiding of a few grains of the 
 Toot of ipecacuanha, exhibited with fugar and cinnamon 
 water, prepared without wine, or reduced to the form 
 of an cleftuarv, with fome proper fyrup; for, by thele 
 means, the vifeid fordcs, collected in the domach and 
 intedines, are not only excellently eliminated, but alfq, 
 bv the dimulus of fuch medicines, a due refolution of 
 the humours, and an opening of the obltrufted veflels, 
 are fuccefsfully obtained; only fuch dimulating medi¬ 
 cines are not to be exhibited to patients whole flrength 
 is exhaufted, who labour under any dilorder ot the me- 
 fenterv, or a violent obdruftion of the vifeera, fince in 
 fuch cafes it is more expedient to exhibit medicines ot the 
 deobdruent kind. 
 
 To the medicines already recommended, we may alfo 
 now and then add thofe of a gently refolvent kind, as 
 diaphoreticks generally are, fuefi as thetinfture of tartar, 
 the acrid tinfture of antimony, and preparations of cin¬ 
 nabar ; which, in the rickets, are preferable to mercu¬ 
 rials, and highly beneficial ir) eliminating the ferous 
 Impurities, partly by perlpiration, and partly by urine 
 cfpecially if they are exhibited in fuch infufions as dilute 
 and purify the blood. 
 
 But in particular for removing the obdruftions of the 
 fpinal marrow, and redoripg the influx ot the nervous 
 fluid into it, various authors recommend friftions of the 
 fpine of the back, arms, and legs, with warm linen cloths; 
 as alfo fumigations of frankincenle, amber, madich, and 
 olibanum. But we can, from experience, recommend, 
 as the mod effectual remedy, baths offweet water, boiled 
 with nervous herbs, fuch as marjoram, lavender, mother 
 of tljvrne, rolemary, camomile, and baum. In fuch 
 baths the patient is to be frequently immerfed, and have 
 the fpine of the back and joints rubbed and anointed 
 with the following nervous ointment. 
 
 Take of human fat, and exprelkd oil of nutmegs, each 
 half an ounce, of Peruvian ballam one drachm, and of 
 the oils of rue, lavender, and cloves, each 30 drops. By 
 tliefe means we have often feen many patients, afflifted 
 with the rickets, not only furprifingly relieved, but alfo 
 totally recovered. 
 
 RIDEAU, in fortification, is a fmall elevation of 
 earth, extending lengthwife on a plane, and ferving to 
 cover a camp, or to give an advantage to a pod. Rideaus 
 are alfo convenient for thofe who would befiege a place, 
 and lerve to fecute the workmen in their approaches to 
 the foot of a fortrefs. Rideau is alfo ufed fometimes for 
 a trench, the earth of which is thrown upon its fides, to 
 ferve as a parapet for covering the men. 
 
 RIDER, a term ufed for an after-claufe added to a 
 bill while depending in parliament. 
 
 Riders, in a {hip, arc large timbers, both in the 
 hold and aloft, bolted on to other timbers to drengthen 
 them, when the Ihip is dilcovered to be too flightly built. 
 
 RIDGE, in agriculture a long piece of riling land, 
 between two furrows. 
 
 The method of plowing land up into ridges is a parti¬ 
 cular fort of tillage. The chief ufe of it confills in the 
 alteration it makes in the degrees of heat and moidurc; 
 
 R I S 
 
 thefe being two of the grand requifites of vegetation, and 
 very different degrees of them being requifite to the diffe¬ 
 rent forts of plants. Thofe plants commonly fown in 
 our fields require a moderate degree of both, not being 
 able to live upon the fides of perpendicular walls in hot 
 countries, nor under the water in cold ones, neither arc 
 they amphibious; but they mud have a furface of earth, 
 not covered, nor much loaked with water, which de¬ 
 prives them of a proper degree of heat, and caules them 
 to languilh. In this cafe tliey look weak, and their 
 leaves yellowilh. They ceafe growing, and, in fine, die 
 in a very weak and bad date. The only way to cure the 
 land of giving this difeafe to plants, is to lay it up in 
 ridges, that the water may fall off, and run into the fur¬ 
 rows below, from whence it may be conveyed by drains 
 and ditches into fome river, or otherways carried wholly 
 off from the land. 
 
 Ridge, in building, the highed part of the roof or 
 covering of a houfe. 
 
 Ridges oj a Horfe's Mouth , are wrinkles or rifings of 
 flefh in the roof of the mouth, running acrols from one 
 fide of the jaw to the other with furrows between them. 
 
 RIGADQON, a gay and brifkdance, borrowed ori¬ 
 ginally from Provence in Fiance, and performed in 
 figure, by a man and a woman. 
 
 RIGGING, amongd feamen, a term which com¬ 
 prehends all the ropes, either to fecure the mads, or 
 manage the fails and yards. 
 
 Rigging-out, thruding out any boom to extend 
 the foot of a tail, as the jib-boom, which is run out from 
 thebowfprit, the driver-boom, which projefts over the 
 1 hi p’s fide ; and the dudding-fail-booms, which are thrud 
 out from the feveral yard arms. 
 
 RIGHT, in geometry, fignifies the fame with draight: 
 thus, a draight line is called a right one. As for right 
 angle, right afeenfion. right cone, right defeenfion, right 
 fphere, Nc. they are explained under the articles Angle, 
 Ascension, See. 
 
 RIGHTING of a Ship , amongd feamen, the aft of 
 railing or erefting her after ihr had inclined to one fide, 
 on a careen or otherwife. 
 
 Richting tin Heim , placing it amid-ffiips, fo as to 
 make the diip continue in the courfe to which her dem 
 is direfted by the former impulfe of the helm. 
 
 RIGIDITY, in philofopiiy, a brittle hardnefs ; or 
 that fpecies of hardnefs fuppofed to arife from the mu¬ 
 tual indentation of the component pai tides within one 
 another. 
 
 RIGOR, in medicine, a convulfivc fhuddering, from 
 feverc cold, an ague fit, or other dilorder. 
 
 RIM, in a watch, or clock, the edge or border of the 
 circumference or circular part of a wheel. 
 
 RIND, the fkin of any fruit that may be cut off or 
 pared. The outer coat of the chefnut, fetwith prickles, 
 is particularly termed the urchin-like rind. Rind is alfo 
 ufed for the inner bark of trees, or that whitilh loft fub- 
 dance which adheres immediately to the wood. 
 
 In the modern theory of vegetation, the lap is fup¬ 
 pofed to pal's through the rind, in its return from the ex¬ 
 tremities of the branches to the root. Others fuppolc 
 its veffels to do the office of arteries, whence Mr. Bradley 
 calls them arterial veffels. 
 
 RING, an ornament of gold, filver, &c. made of a 
 circular form, and generally worn on the finger. 
 
 Ring-Bone, in farriery, a hard callous l'ubdance, 
 growing in the padern of a horfe, above the coronet: it 
 is thus called from its growing quite round like a ring. 
 
 Ring-Dial. See Dial. 
 
 Ring-Worm, in medicine, the fame with the fer- 
 pigo. See Serpigo. 
 
 Fairy- Ring, or circle. See Fairy. 
 
 &7ri/m’j-RiNG, in adronomy. See Saturn. 
 
 RIOT, in law, is where three or more perfons, aflem- 
 bled together, commit fome unlawful aft with force and 
 violence, to the didurbance of the peace ; as beating fome 
 perfon, forcibly entering upon the poffeffion of the lands, 
 iioufes, Sec. of another, or breaking down inclofures, 
 houfes, See. 
 
 RIPENERS, in furgery, medicines that promote fup- 
 puration, otherwife called fuppuratives. See the article 
 Sup pur atives. 
 
 RISING, Ortus , in adronomy, the appearance of the 
 fun, a dar, Sec. above the horizon of any place. 
 
 There 
 
ROC 
 
 There are three kinds of poetical rifing of the liars, 
 viz. acronycal, cofmical, and heliacal. See Acrony- 
 cal, &c. The heavenly bodies always appear above 
 the horizon before they really arrive at it, on account of 
 refradtion. See Refr action. 
 
 RITE, Ritus, among divines, denotes the particular 
 manner of celebrating divine fervice in tips or that coun¬ 
 try *. Sec Ritual. 
 
 RITORNELLO, or Repeat, in mufick, the bur¬ 
 den of a fong, or the repetition of the firll or other verfes 
 of a long at the end of each Itanza or couplet. 
 
 R 11 UAL, a book directing the order and manner to 
 be obferved in celebrating religious ceremonies, and per¬ 
 forming divine fervice in a particular church, diocele, 
 order, or the like. 
 
 RIVER, Fluvtus, or Flumen , a current or ftream of 
 frefh water flowing in a bed or channel from its lource 
 into the fea. 
 
 The great as well as the middle-lized rivers proceed 
 either from a confluence of brooks and rivulets, or from 
 lakes ; but no river of conliderable magnitude flows from 
 .one fpring, or one lake, but is augmented by the acceflion 
 of others. 1 hus the Wolga receives above 200 rivers 
 and brooks before it difeharges itfelf into the Cafpian 
 Sea; and the Danube receives no lei's, before it enters 
 the Euxinc Sea. 
 
 Aloiion of Rivers. The running of rivers is upon 
 the fame principle as the dclcent of bodies on inclined 
 planes ; for water no more than a l'olid can move on an 
 horizontal plane, the re-a£tion of fuch a plane being 
 equal and coiitrarylo gravity, entirely deftroys it, and 
 leaves the body at reft : here we l'peak of a plane of fmall 
 extent, and fuch as coincides with the curved furface of 
 the earth. But if we conlider a large extent or long 
 courfe of water, then we fhall find that fuch water can 
 never be at reft, but when the bottom of a channel co¬ 
 incides c\ ery where with the curved furface of the earth. 
 
 RIVULET, a d iminutive of river. See River. 
 
 ROACH, in ichthyology, a fpecies of cyprinus, with 
 the iris and belly-fins ufually red ; it is generally, when 
 full grown, nine inches long, but it fometimes grows 
 confiderably larger. 
 
 ROACHINCt of Alum , is the laft procefs in making 
 alum, which being fufficiently walhed in a ciftern of 
 llrong alum-water, is put into large pans, and a quan 
 tity of water added to it; and then being let over the 
 Are to melt, and boil a little, it is fcooped into a great calk, 
 where it is fuffered to Hand and chryftallize, and is what 
 they call roach, roached, or rock alum. See the article 
 Alum. 
 
 ROAD, an open way, or publick paffage, forming a 
 communication between one place and another. 
 
 ROAS 11 NG, in metallurgy, the feparation of vo¬ 
 latile bodies from thole which are more fixed, by the com¬ 
 bined a&ion of air and fire ; and is generally the firll 
 procels in the feparation of metals from their ores : it 
 differs from fublimation only in this, that in this ope¬ 
 ration the volatile parts are diflipated, when refoived into 
 vapours; whereas in that, they arc prelerved. 
 
 ROB, in pharmacy, a preparation much ufed by the 
 ancients, .conlifting of the juices of fruits, purified and 
 boiled to a confumption of two-thirds of their moifture. 
 
 ROBBERY, inlaw, a felonioufly taking away ano¬ 
 ther man’s goods from his perfon, or eftate, againll his 
 will, putting him.in fear, See. 
 
 ROBERV ALL 1 AN Lines, a name given to certain 
 lines ufed for the transformation of figures ; fo called 
 from their inventor, M. dcRobcrval. 
 
 ROBORAN 1 IA, in medicine,ftrengtheners, or fuch 
 medicines as ftrengthen the parts, and give new vigour 
 to theconftitution. 
 
 P.OCAMBOLES, in cookery, a mild fort of garlick, 
 by fomc called Spanilh garlick. 
 
 ROCK Crystal, is that fuppofed to be formed by 
 a completion of the lapidifick juice which trickles down 
 in rocks and caverns. 
 
 ROCKEl, in pyrotechny, an artificial fire-work, 
 conlifting of a cylindrical cafe of paper, filled with a 
 compoiition of certain combuftible ingredients ; which, 
 
 R O O 
 
 being tied to a flick, mounts into the air to a confide*- 
 able height, and there burfts. 
 
 ROD, in furveying, a meafure of land, eqpal to 16 
 feet and a half, the fame with pole orpercii, 
 
 ROE, of a fifh, that part which contains the fperm 
 or feed. The male fifties are ufually diftinguifhed by the 
 name of foft roe, or milt; that of tfre feqiale by hard roe 
 or fpawn. 
 
 ROGAl, in antiquity, a donative or prefent, which 
 theaugufti or emperors made to the fpnators, magiftrates, 
 and even the people ; and the popes, or patriarchs, to 
 their clergy. 
 
 ROGAl ION JFech, the week immediately preced¬ 
 ing Whit-funday; fo called from three fads therein, viz. 
 on the Monday, Tucfday, YVednefday, called Rogations, 
 or Rogation-days, bccaufe pf the extraordinary prayers 
 and proceftions then made for the fruits of the earth. 
 
 ROLL, tiotulus, in law, a lchcdule of paper, or parch¬ 
 ment, which may be wound up by the hand into the 
 falhion of a pipe. 
 
 Rolls of Parchment, the manufeript regifters of the 
 proceedings of our ancient parliaments. 
 
 Rider Roll, a fchedule, or fmall piece of parchment, 
 frequently lewed, or added, to fome part of a roll, or 
 record. 
 
 Court Roll of a manor, that wherein the names, 
 rents, and fervices of each tenant are copied and enrolled. 
 
 A/«/?^r-RoLL, that wherein are enteied thefoldiers of 
 every troop, company, regiment, See. 
 
 Rolls, or Office of Rolls, an office in Chancery- 
 Lane, London, appointed for the cuftody of the rolls 
 and records in Chancery. 
 
 Rolls of Parliament , are the manufeript regifters, or 
 rolls of the proceedings of pur ancient parliaments, which 
 before the invention of printing were all engrofled on 
 parchment, and proclaimed openly in every county. In 
 tbefe rolls are all'o contained a great many decifions of 
 difficult points of law, which were frequently in former 
 times referred to the dccifion of that high court. 
 
 Roll, or Roj.ls, is alio a piece of wood, iron, brafs, 
 £xc. of a cylindrical form, uled in the conftru&ion of 
 feveral machines, and in feveral works and manufactures. 
 
 RGLLING-Press. See Printing. 
 
 ROMAN, in general, lomething belonging to the 
 city of Rome. 
 
 King of //^Romans, in modern hiftory, is a prince 
 eleCted to be lucceflorto the reigning emperor of Germany. 
 
 ROMANCE, in matters of literature, a fabulous re¬ 
 lation of certain adventures defigned for the entertain¬ 
 ment and iliftruCtion of the readers. 
 
 ROMPEE, or Rompu, in heraldry, is applied to or¬ 
 dinaries that are reprefented as broken, and to chevrons, 
 bends, or the like, whofe upper points are cut off. 
 
 RONDEL, in fortification, a round tower fometimes 
 ereCted at the foot of a baftion. 
 
 ROOD, a quantity of land equal to 40 fquare perches, 
 or the fourth part of an acre. 
 
 ROOl', in architecture, the uppermoft part of a build- 
 ing. The roof contains the timber-work, and its cover¬ 
 ing of flate, tile, lead, Sic. though carpenters uftjallyre- 
 ftrain the woid to the timber-work only. The form of 
 roofs is various : fometimes it is pointed, in which cafe 
 the molt beautiful proportion is to have its profile an 
 equilateral triangle : fometimes it is fquare, that is, the 
 Pitch or angle of the ridge is a right angle, which there¬ 
 fore is a mean proportion, between the pointed and flat 
 roof, which laft is in the fame proportion as a triangular 
 pediment: this is chiefly ufed in Italy, and the hot coun¬ 
 tries where there is but little fiiow. Sometimes roofs are 
 made in the pinnacle-form : fometimes they have a double 
 ridge, and fometimes tj)ey are mutilated, that is, confift 
 of a true and a falle roof, which is laid over the former: 
 iometimes again they are in the form of a platform, as 
 rnoft of the eaftern buildings are ; and fometimes they 
 are truncated, that is, in (lead of terminating in a ridge, 
 the roof is cut fquare off at a certain height, covered 
 with a terrace, and in compaffed with a balluftrade ; and 
 fometimes, again, a roof is made in the manner of a 
 dome. When the walls have been raifed to their defigned 
 
 Clarion. Ceremonies, mdC««oro of .lie whole Weld: or a complete and impartial View of all 
 
 he Religions in the vaiious Nations of the Umvcife both ancient and modern, from the Creation down Lo the prelhnt Time ■ is now 
 
 if*. M? •'*“* “W* r -P 1 *“ >■» WM. to be completed in So numbers, by AU X . 
 
 . i height, 
 
R O S 
 
 height, the vaults made, the joifts laid, the flairs, &c. 
 brought up, then the roof is to be railed, which embrac¬ 
 ing every part of the building, and with its weight equally 
 preffing upon the walls, is a band to all the work ; and 
 b,elides defends the inhabitants from rain or fnow, the 
 burning lu-at of the fun, and the rrtoifture of the night, 
 and is of no fmall advantage to the building, in calling 
 off the rain water from the walls. 
 
 . Roof-Trees, or RufftTref.s, in a fhip, arc fmall 
 timbers which go from the half-deck to the fore-caflle, 
 .and lerve to beat up the gratings. This term is alfo ul'ed 
 lor the upper timbers iii any building. 
 
 ROOT, Radix, among botanifts, denotes the lower 
 part of a plant, whereby it adheres to the earth, natuially 
 drawing its nouiilhment and tranfmitting the juices to 
 the other parts. The roots of plahts are diltinguilhed 
 according to their various ftruflures, as perpendicular, 
 horizontal, ramole, tuberofe, bulbous, 6cc. 
 
 Root, in itiatiicmaticks, implies a quantity confidered 
 as the balls or foundation of a higher power; or one 
 which being multiplied into itfelf any number of times, 
 produces a lquaie, cubick, biquadratic!;, Ac. quantity ; 
 called the lecond, third, fourth, Ac. power of the root, 
 or quantity, fo multiplied into itfelf. Thus a is the 
 fjuare root of ax a, or a 1 -, and 4 the fquarc root of 
 4x4—16. Again, a is the cube-root of a x a Xa—a 3 ; 
 and 3 the cube-root of 3x3x3 = 27 : and fo on. See 
 Extraction. 
 
 Roots, Radices , in grammar, are the primitive words 
 of a language, whence the others are formed or de¬ 
 rived. 
 
 ROPE, hemp, hair, Ac. fpun out into a thick yarn, 
 and then feveral firings of this yarn twilled together bv 
 means of a wheel. When made very fmall, it is called 1 
 a cord, and when very thick, a cable. 
 
 Rope, a general name given to all the different kinds 
 of rope in a fhip. 
 
 Rope-Bands, a fmall cord, in length about three 
 or four times the circumference of the yard. They are 
 inferted through eye-lid holes for the whole length of the 
 upper edge of the fquare fails, and are ul'ed to fallen the 
 head of the fail to the yard. 
 
 Rope-Yarn, a thread or twilled line of hemp, which 
 is the firft and limpleft part of a rope. A number ol 
 thefe are twilled together to form a ftrand, in proportion 
 to the fizeof the rope, whereof the llrand makes a part. 
 Three llrands are then twilled into one another, which 
 completes the procel's of 01 dinary rope-making. But 
 cables, haufers, and other ground-tackling, are com- 
 poled of three llrands, each of which is formed by three 
 lefs ones. 
 
 ROSACEOUS, amongbotanifls, an appellation given 
 to fuch flowers as arecompofcd of feveral petals or leaves, 
 difpofed in a fort of circular form, like thole of the rofe : 
 luch arc the flowers of the piony, crowfoot, cinquefoil, 
 See. See Botany. 
 
 ROSARY, among the Roman Catholicks, the fame 
 with chaplet. 
 
 ROSE, Rofa, in botany, a genus of plants, the flower 
 of which is compoled of live petals, obverfely cordated, 
 and arranged in a circular form : the fruit is formed of 
 the fleihy bale of the cup, which is of a turbinated figure, 
 coloured, foft, containing only one cell drawn together at 
 the neck, and coronated with l'ome irregular lacinia? ; the 
 lecds are numerous, oblong, and hairy. 
 
 The wild briar, with beautiful pinnated leaves, a white 
 or pale red flower, and the common hip for its fruit, is 
 that above deferibed : and, indeed, all the beautiful roles 
 in our gardens, are only varieties of this fpccies, princi¬ 
 pally owing to culture ; the red, the damalk, the white, 
 the variegated, &c. roles, being all produced from this 
 original lpecies. 
 
 The flowers of the red rofe arc aflringent, thofe of the 
 daimlk-role purgative, and -the fruit of the wild-role 
 pettoral. The rofe-water of the fliops, diflilled from 
 the flowers of the damalk-rofe, has been celebrated for 
 many virtues, but its fragrant fmell is the only quality 
 now regarded in it. T here is alfo a fyrup, made either 
 from the juice, or infufion of the frefh flowers of damalk- 
 rofes, 
 
 Rose-Roo't, Rhodium. Sec Rhodium. 
 
 Rose, in architedlure, an ornament cur in the form 
 of a rofe, chiefly uled in corniches, frizes, vaults of 
 
 R O $ 
 
 churches, iSc.'and particularly in the middle of each 
 face in the Corinthian abacus. 
 
 Rose-noele, an Englilh gold coin, full flruck in 
 the reign of Edward III. It was formerly current at 
 6s. 8d. and fo called becaufe damped with a rofe. 
 
 ROSEMARY, Rofemarinus , in botany, a medicinal 
 plant, that grows wild in many parts of Spain, France, 
 and Italy, and is cultivated in our gardens ; it is pro¬ 
 pagated by cuttings or flips taken off in the fprino- of 
 fhe year, and planted in a bed of light frefh earth, and 
 in the following autumn they may be tranfplanted wlier6 
 they are intended to remain. 
 
 Rofemary has at all times been a favourite flirub in 
 medicine ; it is full of volatile parts, as appears by its 
 taite, imell, and analyfis. It is a very valuable ccphalick, 
 and is good in all diforders of the nerves, and in hvflenck 
 and hypochondriack cafes. It is good in palfies, apo¬ 
 plexies, epilepfies, and vertigoes. It fliengthens the 
 fight, and fweetens the breath. It is greatly commended 
 by fome againfl obflruttions of the vifeera, particularly 
 of the liver and fpleen, and in the jaundice. The flowers 
 have the credit of being great cordials, and fome imagine 
 they even poffefs the virtues of the whole plant in a 
 more exalted degree than any other part. The flowery 
 tops, leaves, and hufks, together with the flowers them¬ 
 felves, are much fitter for all purpofes than the flowers 
 alone. Rofemary, diflilled Amply, yields a fragrant 
 water called dew of rofemary ; diililfcd with water in 
 an alcmbick, it affords a water tailing flrongly of it, but 
 of a lefs agreeable Imell; with reftified fpirit it makes 
 the fragrant and cephaiick liquor called Hungary water. 
 A conlerve is alfo made of the flowers very proper for 
 reducing the ingredients of cephaiick electuaries into 
 form, and it is an ingredient in many t>f the compo- 
 luions of the fliops. 
 
 k-CSOLIb, or Ros-solIs, Sun-dew, an agreeable 
 Ipirituous liquor, compofed of burnt brandy, fugar, 
 cinnamon, and milk-water, and fometimes perfumed 
 with a little mufk. 
 
 ROSTRA, in antiquity, a part of the Roman forum, 
 wherein orations, pleadings, funeral harangues, Ac! 
 were delivered. 
 
 ROS I RUM, literally denotes the beak or bill of a 
 bird ; and hence it had been figuratively applied to the 
 beak, or head of a fhip. 
 
 Rostrum, in chymiflry, implies the nofe or beak 
 of the common alembick, which conveys the liquor dif- 
 tilled into its receiver. 
 
 ROSYCRUCIANS, Rosicrusians, or Brothers 
 of the Holy Crofs , a name afliimed by a led or cabal of 
 hermetica] philofophers, who appeared, or at leafl were 
 firll taken notice of in Germany, in the beginning of 
 the lafl century. Their chief was a German gentleman, 
 educated in a monaftery, where he learnt the languages. 
 In 1378, he went to the Holy Land, where falling lick 
 at Damafcus, he conlulted the Arabs, and other eallern 
 philofophers, by whom he was fuppofed to be initiated 
 into this wonderful art. At his return into Germany, 
 he formed a fociety, to whom he communicated the fe- 
 crets he Had brought with him out of the Eafl, and died 
 in 1484. They have been diflinguifhed by feveral named, 
 accommodated to the feveral branches of their dodlririe 1 . 
 Becaufe they pretended to protraft the period of human 
 life by means of certain noilrums, and even to refiorc 
 youth, they were called immortales. As they pretended 
 to know all things, they have been called illuminati ; 
 and becaufe they have made no appearance for feveral 
 veais, but have kept altogether incognito, they have 
 been called the invilible brothers. Their fociety is fre¬ 
 quently fignified by the letters F. R. C. which fome of 
 them interpret fratres rori codi, it being pretended that 
 the matter ot the philpfopher’s Hone is dew concofted, 
 exalted, Ac. I hey bound themfelves together by a fo- 
 lenm lecret, which they fwore inviolably to preferve ; and 
 obliged themfelves, at their admiflion into the order, to 
 a ftnft obfcrvance of certain eitablifhed rules. They 
 pretended to know all fciences, and chiefly medicine; 
 whereof they pubhlhed themfelves the reflorers. They 
 pietended to be mailers of abundance of important 
 fecrets ; and, among others, that of the philofopher’s 
 Hone ; all which they affirmed to have received bv tra¬ 
 dition from the ancient Egyptians, Chaldeans, theMacfl, 
 and Gymnofophills. 
 
 ROT, 
 
ROT 
 
 ROT, a difeafe incident to fheep in moift years, aril- 
 iogfrom a certain principle of putrefa&ion, both in the 
 air and the grafs. It is a very hard thing to prevent the 
 rbt, if the year proves very wet, efpecially in May and 
 June. Salt marfhcs, and lands where broom grows, are 
 the belt places of prefei vation for them. Sheep are fome- 
 times all cleared of the rot, when not too far gone with 
 it, only by removing them into broom-fields. Scurvy- 
 grafs, milliard, parfley, and thyme, arc alfd good for the 
 prevention of it. Some prdpole the giving Iheep half a 
 handful of bay-fftlt every month, or oftener ; and there 
 is great probability tint this may be of fervice ; but the 
 rational way of attacking all diforders in cattle, is by con- 
 fidering what are the caufes of them. It will appear, 
 upon enquiry, that wet feafons are the general occafions 
 of the rot in iheep, and therefore it would be advifeable 
 for the owners, when fuch feafons come on, to remove 
 thofe animals into the dried pailurcs they can, and then 
 to feed them principally with dry fweet hay, oats, bran, 
 and the like; this would prevent the occafidn: and if they 
 were already a little infe£ted, fome fait given with their 
 dry food, would be a happy means of curing them. 
 ROTA, in mechanicks. SeeWriEEL. 
 
 Rota Arijhtelica , Arillotle’s wheel, is the name of a 
 celebrated problem in mechanicks, founded on the motion 
 Of a wheel about its axis ; thus called, becaule firfl, as 
 wc know of, taken notice of by Ariflotle. 
 
 The difficulty is this : while a circle makes a revolu¬ 
 tion on its centre, advancing at the fame time in a right 
 line along a plane, it deferibes on that plane a right line 
 equal to its circumference. Now, if this circle which 
 we may Call the deferent, carry with it another fmallcr 
 circle conccntrick with it, and which has no motion but 
 what it receives from the deferent, which is the cafe of 
 the nave of a coach-wheel carried along by the wheel; 
 this little circle or nave will delcribe a line in the time of 
 the revolution, equal, not to its own circumference, but 
 to that of the wheel: for that its centre advances in a 
 right line, as fall as that of the wheel does, as being in 
 reality the fame therewith. The matter of fa£l is certain, 
 but how it (hould be, feems myflerious. It is obvious 
 that the wheel, advancing during the revolution, mull 
 defcribe a right line equal to its circumference, but how 
 could the nave which revolves like the wheel deferibe a 
 right line fo much greater than its circumference ? 
 
 The lolution Ariflotle gives is no more than a good 
 explication of the difficulty. Galileo, who next at¬ 
 tempted it, has recourfe to an infinity of infinitely little 
 vacuities in the right line delcribed by the two circles, 
 and imagines that the little circle never applies its circum¬ 
 ference to thofe vacuities, but, in reality, only applies it 
 to a line equal to its own circumference, though it ap¬ 
 pears to have applied it to a much larger. But it is evi¬ 
 dent that this is all gratis diflum. The vacuities are 
 imaginary, and why does not the great circle apply its 
 circumference to them ? Laflly, the magnitude of their 
 vacuities mufl be augmented or diminiffied according to 
 the different proportion of the two circles. 
 
 F. Tacquet will have it, that the little circle, making 
 its rotation more flowly than the great one, does on that 
 account deferibe aline longer than its circumference to 
 more than one point of its bafe. But this is no more 
 allowable than the former. 
 
 Many great men having attempted in vain to account 
 for this phamomenon, Mr. deMeyran, aFrench gentle¬ 
 man, had the good fortune to light on a folution of it, 
 which the academy of fciences declared to be fatisfaftory. 
 
 It is this : a wheel is only aflcd on, or drawn forward, 
 in a right line : its circular motion, or rotation, arifing 
 purely from the refiflance of the ground whereon it is 
 applied. Now this relillance is equal to the force where¬ 
 with the wheel is drawn in the right line, inafmuch as 
 it defeats that direflion, and, confequently, the caufes of 
 the two motions being equal, their effefls are equaltoo ; or, 
 a point in the wheel delcribes, during one revolution, a 
 right line on theground equal to its outer circumference. 
 
 But as to the nave of the wheel, the cafe is otherwife ; 
 for though it is drawn in a right line by the fame force 
 as the outer circumference, yet it only turns round be- 
 caufe the wheel turns, and can only turn with it, and in 
 the fame time. Hence it follows, that its circular velo¬ 
 city is lefs than that of the circumference of the wheel, 
 in the ratio of the two circumferences; and therefore of 
 Vol. II. No. 64. 
 
 R O Y 
 
 courfe, its circular motion is lefs than its rectilinear one. 
 Since then it neceffarily deferibes a right line equal to 
 that defcribed by the circumference of the wheel, it can 
 only do it by Hiding along. 
 
 Rota is alfo the name of an ecclcfiaftical court at 
 Rome, compofed of 12 prelates, whereof one mull be a 
 German, another a Frenchman, and two Spaniards ; the 
 other eight am Italians, three of whom mull be Romans, 
 and the other five, a Bolognefe, a Ferraran, a Milanefe, 
 a Venetian, and aTufcan. This is one of the moll au- 
 gult tribunals in Rome, which takes cognizances of all 
 luits in the territory of the church, by appeal ; as alfo 
 of all matters beneficiary and patrimonial. 
 
 ROT AT ED Flowers, among botanills, are fuch 
 1? 0^ rea d °P en as to form the fhape of a wheel. 
 
 ROTATION, in geometry, a term chiefly applied 
 to the circumvolution of any furface round a fixed and 
 immoveable line, which is called the axis of its rotation : 
 and by fuch rotations it is, that lolids are conceived to 
 be generated. 
 
 ROTATOR, in anatomy, a name given to the ob¬ 
 lique mufcles of the eye, called alfo ciliares, from the 
 direction ot their fibres. 
 
 RO 1 ONDO, Rotunda , in architecture, a popular 
 term tor any building that is round both within and 
 without tide, whether it be a church, a faloon, a vcdible 
 or the like. 
 
 ROTUNDUS, in anatomy, a name given to feveral 
 mufcles of the body, from their roundnefs. See M u s c l e. 
 
 ROUND, in military affairs, implies a walk or turn 
 which an officer, attended with fome foldiers, takes in 
 a garrifon or fortified place, around the ramparts in the 
 night time ; to liden if any thing be dirring without the 
 works, and to fee that the centinels are watchful and do 
 their duty, and all things in good order. 
 
 W hen the round is near the corps de garde, the centry 
 calls aloud, Who comes there ? and when the anfwer is J 
 1 lie rounds, he fays, Stand ; then calls for the corporal 
 of the guard, who draws his lword, and calls alfo, Who 
 comes there ? and when it is anlwcred, The rounds, he 
 that has the word advances, and delivers it to the cor¬ 
 poral, who receives it with his’ ivvord pointed to the 
 giver’s bread. 
 
 ROUND-House, inafliip, the uppermoft cabbin 
 Oil the Hern of the fhip. 
 
 RoD»D-ffia e , alfo implies a kind of prifon, for the 
 nightly watch to fecure perfons in, till they can be carried 
 before a magiftrate. 
 
 ROUT, a publick road, highway, or courfe ; efpeci- 
 ally that which military forces take. 
 
 Rout, alio implies the defeat and flight of an army. 
 Rout, in law, an allembly or combination of three 
 or more perfons, going to commit an unlawful ad, though 
 they do not actually perform it. If they go, ride, or 
 move forwards, after their meeting, it is a rout, though 
 they do not execute their purpole ; if they do, it is a riot. 
 
 ROWEL, in farriery, a kind of iffuc, made by draw¬ 
 ing a Ikein of filk, thread, hair, or the like, through 
 the nape of the neck, or other part of a horfe ; anfwerino- 
 to what in furgery is called a feton. 
 
 ROYAL, Regal, fomething relating to a king. 
 
 Ro yal Academy of Sciences. See Academy. 
 
 Royal Antler, among hunters, the third branch of 
 the horn of a hart or buck, which flioots out from the 
 rear of the main horn above the back-antler. 
 
 Royal Army, an army marching with heavy cannon, 
 capable of befieging a drong, well fortified place. 
 
 Royal AJJ'ent, that approbation or affent which the 
 king gives to a thing done by others ; as the eleftion of 
 a bifhop, or a bill paffed in both houles of parliament. 
 The royal affent in parliament being given, the bill is 
 indorfed with, Le roy le veult, it pleafeth the king. If 
 he refufes it, Le roy s’avifera, the king will advife upon it. 
 
 Royal Parapet, in fortification, a bank about three 
 fathoms broad, and fix feet high, placed upon the brink 
 ol the rampart, towards the country. Its ufe is to cover 
 thofe who defend the rampart. 
 
 Roy al Society, of England, is an academy or body 
 of perfons of eminent learning, indituted by king 
 Charles II. for the promoting of natural knowledge. 
 
 I his illudnous body had its original in an affembly of 
 ingenious men, who before the redoration met weekly 
 in Wadham-collcge, at the lodgings of Dr. Wilkins. 
 
 4 -D Afterwards, 
 
R U D 
 
 Afterwards, from, about tlie year 1658, many of them, 
 living in London, held meetings at Grefham-college, till 
 they were at length taken notice of by the king, who 
 was pleafed to grant them an ample charter, dated April 
 22, 1663 ; whereby they were ereCted into a corporation, 
 confilling of a prefideut, council, and fellows, for pro¬ 
 moting the,knowledge of natural things and ufeful expe¬ 
 riments. Their manner of electing fellows is by ballot¬ 
 ing. Theireouncil are in number 21, 11 of which are 
 continued for the next year, and 10 more added to them, 
 all chofen on St. Andrew’s day. Each member, at his 
 admiffion, fubfcribcs an engagement that he will endea¬ 
 vour to promote the good of the fociety ; from which he 
 may be freed at any time, by fignifying to the prefident, 
 that he defires to withdraw. The charges are 40s. paid 
 to the treafurer at admiffion, and 13s- per quarter, fo 
 long as he continues a member. Their defign is to make 
 faithful records of all the works of nature or art which 
 comes within their reach ; fo that the prefent, as well as 
 after ages, may be enabled to put a mark on errors which 
 have been (Lengthened by long prefeription, to reftore 
 truths that may have been negleCtcd. to pufh thole already 
 known to more various ufes to make the way more pair- 
 able to what remains unrevealed, Ac. To this purpofe 
 they have made a great many experiments and obferva- 
 tions on moil of the works of nature, eclipfes, comets, 
 meteors, mines, plants, earthquakes, inundations, fprings, 
 damps, fubterraneous fires, tides, currents, the magnet, 
 Ac. Alfo numbers of fhort hiftories o-f nature, arts, 
 manufactures, ufeful engines, contrivances, Ac. The 
 fervices they have been of to the publick are very great. 
 They have improved naval, civil, and military archi¬ 
 tecture ; advanced the fecurity and perfection of naviga¬ 
 tion, improved agriculture, and put not only this king¬ 
 dom, but alfo Ireland, the plantations, Ac. upon planting. 
 They have regiftered experiments, liiflories, relations, 
 obfervations, Ac. reduced them into one common flock, 
 and have from time to time publifhed fome of the mod 
 immediate ufe under the title of Philofopliical Tranfac- 
 •tions, Ac. and laid the reft up in publick regifters to be 
 tranfmitted to pofterity as a folid ground-work for future 
 fyflems. They have a library adapted to their inftitution, 
 to which the late Earl Marfhal contributed the Norfolcian 
 library, and a mufacum, or repofitory of natural and 
 artificial rarities, given them by Daniel Colwal, Efq. 
 and fince enriched by many others. Their motto is, 
 Nullius in verba. 
 
 RUBARB. See Rhubarb. 
 
 RUB IA Tinctorum, a root much ufed by the 
 dvers, generally called madder. See Madder. 
 
 RUBIOO, a fpecics of blight incident to corn, ge¬ 
 nerally called mildew. 
 
 RUBRICKS, thole rules and directions prefixed to the 
 feveral parts of the liturgy, directing the manner and 
 order in which each part ol the office is to be performed. 
 
 They are called rubricks from the Latin ruber, red ; 
 becaufe they were formerly printed with red ink, to di- 
 ltinguiih them from the reft of the office, which was in 
 black. 
 
 RUBUS, in botany, a genus of the icofandria poly- 
 gynia clafs. The calix confifts of five i'egments, and 
 the corolla of five petals ; and the berry has many leeds. 
 There are 13 ipecies, five of them natives of Britain, 
 viz. the ideeus, or rafpberry-buffi ; the cocfius, or finall 
 bramble ; the fruticofus, or common bramble ; the faxa- 
 tilis, or {tone-bramble ; and the chamteraorus, or cloud¬ 
 berries. 
 
 RUBY, in natural liiftory, a fpecies of the chrofta- 
 fima clafs of gems ; being a beautiful gem of a red colour 
 with an admixture of purple. 
 
 Ruby, in heraldry, denotes the red colour wherewith 
 the arms of noblemen are blazoned; being the lame 
 which, in the arms of others, not noble, is called gules. 
 
 RUDDER, in navigation, a piece of timber turning 
 on hinges in the Item of the fhip, and which, oppofing 
 fometimes one fide to the water and fometimes another, 
 turns or direCts the veffel this way or that. See Ship. 
 
 The rudder of a fhip is a piece of timber hung on the 
 ftern-pofts by four or five iron hooks, called pintles, 
 ferving as it were for the bridle of a fhip, to turn her 
 about at the pleafurc of the fteers-man, The rudder 
 being perpendicular, and withoutfide the fhip, another 
 piece of timber is fitted to it at right angles, which comes 
 
 R U L 
 
 into the fhip, by which the rudder is managed and di¬ 
 rected. This latter properly is called the helm or tiller ; 
 and fometimes, though improperly, the rudder itfelfi 
 The power of the rudder is reduceable to that of the lever. 
 See Lever. 
 
 As to the angle the rudder fhould make with the keel, 
 it is (hewn, that in the working of Ihips, in order to 
 flay or bear up the fooneft polfibie, the tiller of the rud¬ 
 der ought to make an angle of 55 0 with the keel. A 
 mar,row rudder is belt for a fhip’s failing, provided fhe 
 can feel it; that is, be guided and turned by it : for a 
 broad rudder w'ill hold much water when the helm is put 
 over to any fide ; but if a fhip have a fat quarter, fo that 
 the water cannot come quick and ftrong to her rudder, 
 fhe will require a broad rudder. The aftmoft part of the 
 rudder is called the rake of the rudder. 
 
 RUDDLE, Rubrics, alortof dufky red chalk, or earth, 
 found in diverle parts of England, chiefly in iron mines. 
 
 RUDENTURE, in architecture, the figure of a rope 
 or ftaff, fometimes plain, fometimes carved, wherewith a 
 third part of the flutings of columns is frequently filled up. 
 
 RUDERATION, Ruderatio , a term ufed by Vitru¬ 
 vius lor the laying a pavement with pebbles, or little 
 flones ; and alfo for the coarfeft and moil artlefs kind of 
 mafonry. 
 
 RUDIARIUS, in antiquity, a veteran gladiator, who 
 had acquired a difeharge from the fervice. 
 
 RUDIMENTS, Rudimenta, the firit grounds orfirfl 
 principles of any art or fcience. 
 
 RUE, Ruta hortenfis, a well known medicinal plant. 
 
 Rue is one of the oCtandria monogynia of Linnaeus, 
 and of the herbse flore tetrapetalo anomalae of Ray.. 
 There are many fpecies of it, but only one of them is 
 ufed in medicine ; this is the common rue of our gardens. 
 The ruta hortenfis latifolia of C. Bauhine, and the ruta 
 fativa et hortenfis of other authors. It is not a native of 
 England, but is cultivated very commonly in our gardens. 
 Rue has always been in great efteem as an alexipharmick 
 and cephalick ; it is good in all nervous difeafes, and in 
 fevers, the linall-pox and mealies ; and eminently fo in 
 hyfterick cafes ; it is given by many to {Lengthen the 
 ftomach, and prevent the return of habitual cliolicks. It 
 has been alfo given in pleurifies and peripneumonies, and 
 againft the bites of venomous animals. 
 
 RULE, Regula, in matters of literature, a maxim, 
 canon, or precept, to be obferved in any art or fciences. 
 
 Rule, in arithmetick, denotes an operation performed 
 with figures, in order to difeover fums or numbers un¬ 
 known. The fundamental rules are addition, fubtrac- 
 tion, multiplication, anddivifion. See Addition, See. 
 But befides thefe, there are other rules denominated from 
 their ufe ; as the rule of alligation, fellowfhip, intcreft, 
 practice, reduction, Ac. See Alli g at ion, Ac. 
 
 RULE of Three, Golden Rule, or Rule 
 of Proportion, is one of the moll eflential rules of 
 arithmetick; for the foundation of which fee the article 
 Geometrical Proportion. 
 
 It is called the Rule of Three from having three num¬ 
 bers given to find a fourth, but more properly the Rule 
 of Proportion, becaufe by it we find a fourth number 
 proportional to three given numbers : and becaufe of tha 
 neceffarv and extenfive ufe of it, it is called the Golden 
 Rule. But to give a definition of it with regard to num¬ 
 bers of particular and determinate things, it is the rule 
 by which we find a number of any kind of things, as 
 money, weight, Ac. fo proportional to a given number 
 of the fame things, as another number of the fame diffe¬ 
 rent things, is to a third number of the laft kind of things. 
 For the four numbers that are proportional muff either 
 be all applied to one kind of things; or two of them muft 
 be of one kind, and the remaining two of another : be¬ 
 caufe there can be no proportion, and conlequently no 
 comparifon of quantities of different Ipecies, as for ex¬ 
 ample, of three lhillings and four days; or of fix men 
 and four yards. This rule is either direCt, or reciprocal, 
 called inverfe. And thole are both fimple and compound. 
 
 Rule of Three Diretl , or dire it Profortion , is when, of 
 four numbers, the firft beareth the fame ratio or propor¬ 
 tion to the fecond as the third doth to the fourth. 
 
 As in thefe, 2:8: 16:24. 
 
 Confequently, the greater the fecond term is, in refpeCt 
 to the firit, the greater will the fourth term be, in refpeCt 
 to the third. 
 
 That 
 
RUL 
 
 That is, as 8, the fecond term, is four times greater 
 than two, the fir ft term ; fo is 24, the fourth term, four 
 times greater than 6, the third term. 
 
 Whence it follows, that, if four numbers are in direft 
 proportion, the produft of the two extremes will always 
 be equal to the product of the two means, as well in dif- 
 junft, as continual proportion. 
 
 For as 2:2x4:16:6x4. Or as 3:3x5: :6:6x5, 
 or 3 x6 X5=3 X5 x6. 
 
 But 2 x6 X4=2 X4X6. 
 
 That is, the produft of the extremes is equal to that 
 of the means. 
 
 Again, the lefs the fecond term is, in refpeft to the 
 firft, the lels will the fourth term be, in refpedt to the third. 
 
 As in tliefe, 2:8::6:24. Here 8 x61=48 = 24x 2. 
 
 But, if 24 X 2=48,then will48-^2 = 24,or48-^24 = 2. 
 
 Note, any four numbers in direct proportion may be 
 varied feveral ways. As in tliefe, 
 
 Viz. If 2:8::6:24, then 2:6:: 8:24, 
 and 6:24:: 2:8, or 24:6:: 8:2, &c. 
 
 Tliefe variations, being well underftood, will be of no 
 fmall ufe in the true hating of any queftion an the rule 
 of three. 
 
 All queflions in direft proportion may be anfwered by 
 three feveral theorems. 
 
 Theorem 1. Multiply the fecond and third terms to¬ 
 gether, and divide your produtt by the firft term ; the 
 quotient will be the anfwer required 
 
 RUL 
 
 yds. 
 Thus 3: 
 
 fhill. 
 
 9 : 
 
 6 
 
 yds. 
 
 fhill. 
 
 18 the anfwer. 
 
 Thus in 
 
 , . „ n ... I Becaufe the fecond term 
 
 3)54(18 nnii. i wasfllillings . 
 
 Theorem 2. Divide the fecond term by the firft, and 
 multiply the quotient into the third term, and the pro- 
 duft will be the anfwer required. 
 
 yds. fhill. yds. fhill. 
 
 3: 9:: 6: 18 
 
 Thus 3)9 ( = 3, then 3x6=18, as before. 
 
 Theorem 3. Divide the third term by the firft, then 
 multiply the quotient into the fecond term, and the pro 
 dutt will be the anfwer. 
 
 yds. fhill. yds. fhill. 
 
 3: 9:: 6: 18 
 
 Thus 3) 6 ( = 2, and 9X2 = 18, as before. 
 
 Here we fee, that all the three theorems are equally 
 true; but the firft is moft general, and ufually praftifed : 
 yet the two laft may be readily performed, when either 
 the fecond or third term can be divided by the firft, and 
 will be found of fingular ufe in the rules of fellowfhip, kc. 
 
 Queftion 2. If 8 lb. of tobacco coll 14s. what will 
 56 lb. coft at the fame rate ? 
 
 Thus 8 lb : 14 :: 561b : 4I. 18s. the anfwer. 
 
 *4 
 
 224 
 
 5 6 
 
 8)78q( r= 98 s.=4l. 18s. 
 
 Or thus 8) 56 ( = 7, then 14x7=985. as before. 
 
 Queftion 3. If 14. fhillings will buy 8 lb. of tobacco, 
 how much will 4I. 18s. buy after the fame rate ? 
 
 Stated thus, 14s : 81 b :: 4I. 18 s. 
 
 Then 56 x 14=784, and 14) 784 (56 lb. the anfwer. 
 
 Queftion 4. If 561b. of tobacco be worth 4I. 18 s. 
 how much may I buy for 14s. at the fame rate ? 
 
 Stated thus, 4 1 . 18 $. = 98 s : 56 lb. :: 14 s :- 
 
 Then 56 x 14 =784, and 98) 784 (8 lb. the anfwer. 
 
 Queftion 5. Suppofe 4I. 18 s. will buy 561b. of 
 tobacco, what will 8 lb. of the fame tobacco coft ? 
 
 This queftion is thus ftated, 561b: 4I. iSs. = 98s :: 8 lb: 
 
 Then 98x8 = 784, and 56)784c = 14s. tfie anfwer. 
 
 Note, the three laft queftions are only the fecond 
 varied, being propofed purely to give an inftance how 
 any queftion in this rule of three may be varied. 
 
 Rule of Three Inverfe , or Reciprocal Proportion , is. 
 when, of four numbers, the third (viz. that which jnoves 
 the queftion) beareth the fame ratio to the firft, as the 
 fecond does to the fourth. Therefore, the lefs the third 
 term is, in refpeft to the firft ; the greater will the fourth 
 term be, in refpeft to the fecond. 
 
 Example 1. If 16 men can do a piece of work in 6 
 days, how many days mull 8 men require to do the fame 
 work, at the fame rate of working ? Here it is plain 
 
 that 8 men muft needs have more time than 16 men, to 
 do the fame work. Confequently, tl;e greater the third 
 tennis, in refpeft to the firft: the lefs will the fourth 
 term be, in refpett to the fecond. 
 
 Example 2. If 8 men can do a piece of work in 8 
 days, how many days will 16 men require to do the fame 
 work ? Here it is plain, the fourth term muft be lefs than 
 the fecond, becaufe 16 men, undoubtedly, can do the 
 fame work in lefs time than 8 men can. For when, ac¬ 
 cording to the true meaning or defign of any queftion in 
 proportion, more requires more, or lefs requires lefs, the 
 terms are in dire£t proportion. But if more require lefs, 
 or lefs requires more, as above, then the terms will be 
 in reciprocal proportion. The manner of placing down 
 the propofed terms is the fame in both rules, viz. the 
 firft term in the fuppofition muft be of the fame kind and 
 denomination with the third term, which moves the 
 queftion ; and the term fought muft be of the fame kind 
 and denomination with the fecond term in the fuppo¬ 
 fition ; as in the two laft examples. 
 
 Men. Days. Men. Days, 
 tExample ib: 6:: 8: 
 
 | Example 2. 8: 12:: 16: 
 
 The queftion being truly ftated, obferye this theorem. 
 
 Theorem. Multiply the firft and fecond terms toge¬ 
 ther, and divide their product by the third term ; the 
 quotient will be the anfwer required. 
 
 Thus in the fecond example 12 x8 = q6. 
 
 Then i 6)96(=6 days, the anfwer required. 
 
 That is, 16 men may do the fame work in 6 days, a a 
 8 men can do in 12 days. 
 
 The reafon of this operation, and, confequently, of 
 the theorem, is grounded upon this confideration, viz. 
 if 8 men require 12 days to do the work, it is plain one 
 man would require 8 times 12 days, =96 days, to do the 
 fame work ; but if one man can do it in 96 days, moft 
 certain 16 men can do it in one 16th part of that time. 
 Therefore 96, divided by 16, will give the anfwer re¬ 
 quired, viz. 16)96(6, as before, &p. 
 
 Double Rule of Three, or Compound Proportion. All 
 queftions in this rule, where five numbers are propofed 
 to find afixth, may more eafily and readily be anfwered 
 by one general theorem, which comprifeth both the 
 direct and inverfe rules. But, firft, you muft carefully 
 note, that in all queftions of this nature, three of the 
 five propofed terms are always conditional and fuppofed, 
 and that the other two move the queftion, as for inftance: 
 
 Example. If 100 1 . will gain 6 1 . in 12 months, (tliefe 
 three terms arc only fuppofed, or conditional) then comes 
 the queftion, what will 300 1 . gain in 9 months ? Now, 
 in order to raife the general theorem, let us fuppofe, in- 
 ftead ol the numbers, tliefe letters : 
 
 In the fuppofition 
 
 S£ = 
 
 100 the 
 
 priiicipial. 7 f 
 
 
 12 the 
 
 time. ? -j 
 
 i G = 
 
 6 the 
 
 gain. j i 
 
 
 300 the 
 
 priiicipial. 7 r 
 
 1 ' = 
 
 9 the 
 
 time. £ j 
 
 L g = 
 
 1 3,5 the 
 
 gain. J C 
 
 Viz. let 
 
 Then P:G ::p:^z 
 
 is 100 : 
 
 That 
 of the queftion. 
 
 G_P. 
 P ' 
 
 Viz. 12:18:: g 
 ThenT:^-- 
 
 Then T : 
 
 : 300: 
 
 * ‘ S 
 
 of any propofed 
 queftion. 
 
 The three terms 
 wherein the quef¬ 
 tion lies. 
 
 1 The produdt of the two means, 
 1 divided by the firft extreme. 
 300 x 6 
 
 --— = 18, which is the firft part 
 
 100 r 
 
 H Which is the fecond part of 
 the queftion. 
 
 That is, the product of the ex¬ 
 tremes is equal to that of the 
 Viz. 12 : 18 : \g : 13,5 j (. means. 
 
 Confequently, T g P=G p t is the theorem. 
 
 This theorem affords two rules, by which all queftions 
 in this double rule of three, or rather of five numbers, 
 may be refolved ; due regard being had to the true placing 
 down of the propofed terms, which muft be thus. Al¬ 
 ways place the three conditional terms in this order : let 
 that number which is the principal caufe of gain, lofs, or 
 a&ion, &c. (viz. P) be put in the’firft place; that num¬ 
 ber which denotes the fpace of time, or diftance of place, 
 &c. (viz. T) be put in the fecond place ; and that num¬ 
 ber which is the gain, lofs, or a&ion, in the third place. 
 Now, according to tliefe dirc&ions, the conditional 
 terms of the laft queftion will ftand 
 Thus, P. T. G. 
 
 Tb*t 
 

 RYE 
 
 i hat done, place the two Serins which move the 
 queftion underneath tliofe of the lame name 
 
 Thus ) P ' T ' G 
 
 i hen, it the blank, or term fought, fall Under the third 
 place, as in this queftion. 
 
 Rule i. Multiply the three laft terms together fora 
 dividend, and the two fir ft together for a divifbr, the 
 quotient arifing from them will be the flxth term 
 
 I hat is, in our propofed example i. 
 
 1 ftus 6x306x9=16200, the dividend, 
 
 -And ico R 12 = 1200, the divifbr. 
 
 rhen 1206)16200(13^, the anfvver, as before. 
 
 But, if tile blank, or term fought, fall tinder the firft 
 place, then 
 
 It will be I —p. 
 
 Or, if the blank fall under the fecond place, 
 fir P 
 
 It will be I -----=/; either of thefe gives this rule. 
 
 Rule 2. Multiply the firft, fecond, and laft terms to¬ 
 gether for a dividend, and the other two together for a di- 
 vifor, the quotient arifing from them will be" thelixth term 
 
 Rule, among workmen, implies an inftrument, or 
 which are fevcral lines, as inches, Ac. of great ufe in 
 practical menfuration, See. 
 
 Carpenters Joint Rule, is an inftrument ufually made 
 wit], box, 24 inches long, and 1; broad ; each inch being 
 fubdivided into 8 parts. On the fame fide with thefe 
 divifions is ufually added Gunter’s line of numbers. On 
 the other fide are the lines of timber and board meafure ; 
 the firft beginning at 82, and continued to 36, near the 
 other end ; the latter is numbered from 7 to 36, 4 inches 
 from the other end. 
 
 C-'ppej^i. s S./j'jnp Rule, is chiefly ufed for meafuring 
 theluperficies and folidity of timber, Sec. Itconfifts of 
 two rulers, each a foot long, one of which Hides in a 
 groove made along the middle of the other. 
 
 On the Hiding fide ot the rule are four lines of num¬ 
 bers, three whereof are double ; that is, are lines to two 
 radiufes , and one, if fingte broken line of numbers : the 
 three firft are figured 1,2, 3, &rc. to 9 ; then, 1, 2, 3, &c. 
 to 10 ; their conftruflion, ufe. See. being the fame as fhofe 
 of Everard’s Hiding rule. The fingle line, called the girt 
 line and marked D, whole radius is equal to the two radi¬ 
 cles of any of the other lines, is broke for the eafier mea- 
 furement of timber, and figured 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, id, 20, 
 30, Ac. T rom 4 to 5 it is divided into 10 parts, and each 
 tenth fubdivided into 2, and lo on, from 5 fo 6, See. 
 
 On the backlidc of the rule are, 1. A line of inch-mea- 
 fure, from 1 to 12; each inch being divided and fubdi¬ 
 vided. 2. A line of foot-mcafure, confifting of one foot, 
 divided into 100 equal parts, and figured 10, 20, 30, Scc. 
 
 ^ he back part of the Hiding piece is divided into inches, 
 halves, See. and figured from 12 to 24; fo that, when 
 drawn wholly out, there may be a meafure of two feet. 
 
 RUM, a fpecies of vinous fpirit diftilled from the juice 
 of fugar-panes, 
 
 The unftuous or oily flavour of rum is often fuppofed 
 to proceed from the large quantity of fat ufed in boiling 
 thefugar ; which fat, indeed, ifeoarfe, will ufually give] 
 a {linking flavour to the lpirit, in our diftillations of the 
 lugar-liquor. or wafli, from our refining fugar-houfes; but 
 this is very different from the flavour of the rum, which 
 is really the effect of the natural flavour of the cane. 
 
 The method of making rum is this : when a fufAcient 
 ftock of the materials is got together, they add water to 
 them, and ferment them in the common method, though 
 the fermentation is always carried on very flowlv at firft ; 
 becauf'c. at the beginning of the feafon for making rum 
 in the iflands, they want ycaft, or fome other ferment to 
 make it work ; but by degrees, after this, they procure a 
 fufAcient quantity of the ferment, which rifes up as a head, 
 to the liquor in the operation, and thus they are able af¬ 
 terwards to ferment and make them rum with a great deal 
 of expedition, and in large quantities. 
 
 When the wafli is fully fermented, or to a due decree 
 of acidity, the diftillation is parried on in the common 
 way, and the fpirit is made up proof; though fometimes 
 it is reduced to a much greater ftrength. nearly approach 
 
 double diftilled rum. It might be eal'y to rcaify the ij,i- 
 rit and bring it to much greater purity than we ufually 
 find it to be ot ; tor it brings over in the diftillation a 
 very large quantity of the oil; and this is often fo dif- 
 agreeable, that the rum mull be buffered to lie by a Iona 
 time to mellow before it can be ufed ; whereas', if wcU 
 rectified, it would grow mellow much fooner, and wool 1 
 have a much lei's potent flavour. 
 
 1 i lc l )e ft ftate to keep rum in, both for exportation and 
 other ufes, is doubtlefs that of alcohol, or reflified fpirit. 
 In this manner it would be tranfported in one half the 
 bulk it ufually is, and might be let down to the common- 
 proof-ftreilgth With water when fieceffary : for the com 
 mon ufe of making punch, it would like'wife fe.-ve much 
 better in tile llate of alcohol; as the tafte would b- 
 cleaner ; and the ftrength might always be regulated to a 
 much greater exaflirefs than in the ordinal v way. 
 
 Rum is ufuallv very much adulterated in England 
 Ionic are fo barc-faced as to do it with malt fpirit : tile 
 taftes of both are fo nearly allied, that it is not ealily dif- 
 covered. . 1 he belt method of judging of it is, bv letting 
 fire fo a little of it ; and when it has burnt away all the 
 ntlammable part, examining the phlegm both' by the 
 tafte and frtiell. 1 
 
 RUMEN, in comparative anatomy, the paunch, of 
 hill ftoniacli, of fucli animals as chew tile cud thence 
 called ruminant animals. 
 
 RUN, the after-pan of a fliip's bottom both within 
 or without, which grows narrower as it approaches the 
 ftern-poft. 
 
 RUNDULET, or Runlet, a ftnall veffel contain¬ 
 ing an uncertain quantity of any liquor, from three to 
 twenty gallons. 
 
 RUNNET, or Rennet, the acid juice found in the 
 ftomachs cf cakes that have fed on nothing but milk 
 and are killed before the digeftion is perfeff. 
 
 RUNNING of Goods, aclandeftine landing of goods 
 without paying the legal cufloms or duties for the fame. ’ 
 RUPEE, Roupia, or Roupias, names of gold 
 and lilver coin, current in the E. Indies. 
 
 RUPTURE, in furgerv, the fame with hernia See 
 Hernia. 
 
 RURAL, fomething relating to the country 
 RUST, of a Metal, the ftuor or calx of it procured 
 by corroding and diflblviftg its fnperficial parts by fome 
 diffolvent. 1 
 
 Rust of Cora, in hulbandry, implies a difeafe in com 
 and other vegetables, in which their lfalks and leaves ap¬ 
 pear as rf burnt up, and of a rufty colour. * 
 
 RUSTICK, in architefture, implies a manner of 
 building in imitation of nature, rather than according to 
 the rules of art. ° 
 
 Rustick IVirk, is that where the ftoncs in the face, 
 See. of a building, inftcad of being froooth, are notched 
 or picked with the point of a hammer. 
 
 Rustick. Order , is that decorated with ruftick quoins. 
 
 flirk work Srr 
 
 ruftick work, &c. 
 
 RLM , among hunters, implies the vencry or copula¬ 
 tion of deer. 
 
 RYE, a fpecies of corn greatly cultivated in the north- 
 ern parts of England. 
 
 -Mr. Miller is of opinion that all the rye fowtl in Eng¬ 
 land is of the fame fpecies, though diftinguilhed by far- 
 mers into two varieties of winter and fpring rye, as he has 
 not been able, by the moll fcdulous experience, to And 
 any difference. 
 
 The winter rye, which has the largeft grain, is what 
 the generality of the farmers cultivate. It is ufually fown 
 ill autumn, at the fame time as wheat; and in many of 
 our northern countries, as well as in Wales, they are 
 often mixed and fown together; though, as Mr Miller 
 rightly obferves, this muft be very bad hulbandry, be- 
 caul'e the rye will always ripen fooner than the wheat lo 
 that if the latter be fuffbred to hand till fully ripe, ’the 
 grain ot the former will Ihed ; nor can this be praflifed 
 where the people are not accuftomcd to eat rye-bread : 
 for though fome account it good when mixed, it is fo 
 very clammy that few who have been ufed to wheaten 
 bread will ever rclifh it. 
 
 Rye is generally fown on poor, lime-ftone, dry, gra¬ 
 velly, or Tandy foils, where wheat will not thrive, and in 
 fucli places it docs very well. The ground fliould be dry 
 
 ingto that of alcohol or lpirit of wine, and it is thus called] when it is fowtl: for if much rainfalls, even after the fowl 
 
 ing, 
 
SAB 
 
 jng, before the rye is come up, it often rots in the earth. 
 It indeed rife's in a much fhorter time than wheat. 
 
 When Town upon light land, it ripens much earlier 
 than on a cold ftiffground, and by continuing to low it in 
 fuch a foil during two or three years, it will be forwarded 
 fo much as to ripen a month earlier than that which has 
 been long railed upon ftrong, cold ground. For this rea- 
 fon, thofe who are obliged to fow rye toward fpring, ge¬ 
 nerally provide themfelves with this early feed. A little 
 fprinkling of dung or mud, though it be but half the 
 quantity commonly ulcd for other corn land, will, if laid 
 upon the rye ground, greatly advance the crop. The 
 ufual allowance is two bufhels of feed to a ftatute acre, 
 or, if it be new broke up ground, or land fubjedl to 
 worms, about a peck more ; and the produce commonly 
 is about 20 bufhels upon an acre. 
 
 In the fummer of the year 1699, which was uncom¬ 
 monly dry, Mr. Mortimer reckoned 90 grains apiece in 
 feveral ears of rye. 
 
 The finall rye may be fown in the fpring, about the 
 fame time as oats, and ufually ripens as foon as the other 
 fort: but if the feafon prove wet, it is apt to run much to 
 ftraw, and the grain is generally lighter than the other. 
 The chief ufe of this fort is to re-fow lands where the 
 autumnal crop has failed. 
 
 This corn is ripe when its ftraw turns yellow, its ear 
 hangs, and its grain is hard. It is not very apt to fhed ; 
 and therefore, if it be weedy (though this ought never to 
 be the cafe with any corn) it fhould be let lie upon the 
 ground, or gravel, as fome call it, a week or ten days after 
 it is cut, if the weeds do not dry fooner, before it be 
 bound up ; for otherwife thofe weeds will give in the barn, 
 make the rye not thrafh well, and render it mully. But 
 as this grain will grow in the ear fooner than any other, 
 if it be wet, particular care muft be taken, efpecially it 
 rain comes on, to turn it at leaf! once in two or three days, 
 and lay the ears upon the ftubble, as high above the 
 ground as can be. This will help to preferve it from hurt¬ 
 ful moifture : but if it be cut in pcrfe&ly dry weather, 
 and without weeds, it may be houled as it is reaped. 
 
 The general ufe of rye is for bread, either alone, or 
 mixed with wheat, in which ftate it is called meflin corn. 
 It alfo yields a ftrong fpirit when diftilled ; and, if lowed 
 
 SAB 
 
 only for drefiing of land, is of vaft fervice to the ground 
 where it is plowed in green and fucculent. The Reverend 
 Dr. Eliot informs us, that he has not only been told, 
 but knows by his own obfervation, that if rye be fowed 
 fucceflively every year upon the fame land, both the crop 
 and the land will be greatly improved, infoinuch that 
 fome grounds which wouid yield but five bufhels to the 
 acre at firft, have, in time, afforded a crop of 1 5 bulhels to 
 the acre, without the charge of dung, or any manure. 
 But it Ihould be remembered that the land fown by Dr. 
 Eliot, was newly broken up. 
 
 This plant is likewife lown in autumn to great advan¬ 
 tage, for green feed for cattle, particularly for ewes and 
 lambs in the fpring, before there is plenty ofgrals. When 
 this is intended, the rye Ihould be fown early, that it 
 may have ftrength to furnifh early fodder. In this light, 
 it fupplies the want of turneps where they have failed, 
 or where their feafon is over : fo that, in fuch cafes, it is 
 very good hufbandry to fow the land with rye, efpecially 
 where there are flocks of fheep, which cannot be well 
 fupported without green food early in the fpring. The 
 farmer who has many fheep fhould confider, that turneps 
 are always a very precarious crop; and therefore he 
 fhould, befide fowing fome places with cole-feed, in order 
 to have green fodder, fow rye in others, to guard againfl: 
 accidents. If fome of the ground fowed late with tur¬ 
 neps, which have failed, be fown in the autumn with rye, 
 he will find it turn to good account. To have green fod¬ 
 der for cattle in April, which is the fcarcefttime of all the 
 year, fome fplit the ridges of their wheat-ftubble, and fow 
 them with rye, allowing about abufhel to an acre, which 
 they harrow in, and feed about April, or when they want 
 it; and in May they plough it up for a fallow. 
 
 Rye-Grass, afpecies ofgrafs often fown with clover, 
 allowing 10 pounds of clover and one bufhel of rye-grafs 
 to an acre; but this is only to be done where the land is 
 defigned to remain but three or four years in pafture, as 
 neither the rye-grafs or clover are of long duration ; and 
 it certainly is a wrong, though too general pradice, to 
 fow rye-grafs with barley, for the corn muft conflderably 
 draw away the nourifhmenj. from the grafs, fo as to leave 
 but half a crop of grafs when the barley is off the ground. 
 
 S The 18th letter, and 14th confonant of our alpha¬ 
 bet; the found of which varies, being ftrong in 
 ^ fome words, as this, thus, &c. and foft in words 
 which have a final e, as mufe, wife, See. It is generally 
 doubled at the end of words, whereby they become hard 
 and harfh, as in kifs, lafs, &c. In fome words it is filent, 
 as ifle, ifland, vifeount, &c. In writing or printing, the 
 long character f, is ufed at the beginning and middle of 
 words, but the fliort s, at the end. 
 
 In abbreviations, S. Hands forfocietas, or focius, i. e. 
 fellow of the royal fociety. In medicinal preferiptions, 
 S. A. fignifies fecundum artem, i. e. according to the rules 
 of art. Ufed as a numeral, S anciently denoted feven. 
 
 SAB2EANS, in church hiftory, a fet of idolaters, 
 much more ancient than the Jcwilh law. The Sabaeans 
 began with worlhipping the heavenly bodies, which they 
 imagined were animated with inferior deities. In the 
 confecration of their images, they ufed many incantations 
 to draw down into them from the ftars, thofe intelligences 
 for which they ereded them, whofe power and influence, 
 they held, afterwards dwelt in them. This religion, it 
 is laid, firft began among the Chaldoeans, with their 
 knowledge in aftronomy; and from this it was, that 
 Abraham feparated himfelf, when he came out of Chal- 
 daea. From the Chaldeans it fpread all over the Eaft ; 
 and from thence to the Grecians, who propagated it to 
 all the nations of the known world. The remainder of 
 this fed ftill fubfifts in the Eaft, and pretend to derive 
 their name from Sabius, a foil of Seth ; and among the 
 Von. II. No. 64. 
 
 books in which the dodrines of this fed are contained, 
 they have one which they call the Book of Seth, and 
 which, they pretend, was written by that patriarch. 
 
 SABBATH, or the day of reft, a folemn feftival of 
 the Jews, on the feventh day of the week, or Saturday, 
 beginning from fun-fet on Friday, tofun-feton Satur¬ 
 day. The obfervation of the fabbath began with the 
 world; for God, having employed fix days in its crea¬ 
 tion, appointed the feventh as a day of reft, to be obferVed 
 by man, in commemoration of that great event. As the fe¬ 
 venth day was a day of reft to the people, fo was the 
 feventh year to the land ; it being unlawful in this year 
 to plow or fow, and whatever the earth produced, be¬ 
 longed to the poor; this was called the fabbatical year. 
 The modern, as well as the ancient Jew's, are very fu- 
 perftitious in the obfervance of the fabbath ; they carry 
 neither arms, nor gold, nor filver about them, and are 
 permitted neither to touch thefe, nor a candle, nor any 
 thing belonging to the fire; on which account they light 
 up lamps on Friday, which burn till the end of the fabbath. 
 
 There is at prefent a fed of Baptifts called fabbatarians, 
 from their observing the feventh day of the week, as a 
 day fet apart for the worfliip of God : they attempt to 
 juftify this pradice by alledging that the Jewifti fabbath 
 was never abrogated in the New Teftament; and that 
 where God has given a command, it is our duty to ob- 
 ferve it till he has abrogated or altered it by a new com¬ 
 mand. See Sunday. 
 
 SABELLIANS, a fed of Chriftians of the third 
 4 E century, 
 
SAC 
 
 century, that embraced the opinions of Sabellius, a 
 philofopher of Egypt, who openly taught that there is 
 but one perfon in the Godhead. 
 
 The oabellians maintained, that the Word and the 
 Holy Spirit are only virtues, emanations, or functions 
 of the Deity ; and held that he who is in heaven is the 
 father of all things, delcended into the virgin, became a 
 child, and was born of her as a fon; and that having 
 accomplifhed the myftery of our falvation, he diffnfed 
 himfelf on the apoftles in tongues of fire, and was then 
 denominated the Holy Ghoft. This they explained by 
 lefembling God to the fun, the illuminative virtue or 
 quality of which was the Word, and its warming virtue 
 the Holy Spirit. The Word, they taught, was darted, 
 like a divine ray, to accompliffi the work of redemption; 
 and that being re-afeended to heaven, the influences of 
 the Father were communicated after a like manner to the 
 apoftles. 
 
 SABLE, in heraldry, denotes the colour black, in coats 
 of arms belonging to gentlemen ; but in thofe of noble 
 men it is called diamond; and in thofe of fovereign 
 princes, faturn. It is exprefi'ed in engraving, by per 
 pendicular and horizontal hatches croffing one another. 
 
 SABRE, a kind of fword, or feimeter, with a very 
 b'oad and heavy blade, thick at the back, and a little 
 falcated or crooked towards the point. It is the ordinary 
 weapon worn by the Turks, who are faid to be very 
 expert in the ufe of it. 
 
 SACK, in law, is laid to be an antient privilege, which 
 the lord of a manor claims of holding his court, in caufes 
 of trefpafs among his tenants, and impofing fines for the 
 fame. 
 
 SACCHARUM Saturni, Sugar of Lead 
 Some have ventured to give l’ugar of lead internally, in 
 doles of a few grains, as a flyptick, in haemorrhages, 
 profufe colliquative fwcats, fcminal fluxes, the fluoralbus, 
 See. and, indeed, it mud be allowed, that it very power¬ 
 fully reltrains the difeharge ; but then it occafions other 
 fymptoms, often dangerous, and fometimes fatal, as violent 
 cholick pains, obftinate conftipations, cramps, tremours, 
 &c. fo that its internal ufe feems by no means innocent. 
 
 SACCULUS, in anatomy, a diminutive of faccus, 
 fignifies a little bag 1 : as, i. The facculus lachrymalis, 
 which is a little bag, into which the punfta lachrymalia 
 of the eye open. 2. The facculus cordis, or pericardium. 
 3. The facculus chyliferus, the beginning of the thoracick 
 duft, more ufually called receptaculum chyli. 4. Sacculi 
 adipofi, or the adipofe cells, &c. 
 
 A topical application, inclofed in a linen bag, is alfo 
 termed facculus medicinalis; as is a bag filled with me¬ 
 dicinal fimples, and fufpended in a liquor, in order to 
 make a diet-drink. 
 
 S ACC US Jug ul ar 1 s, the jugular-fack, in anatomy, 
 a receptacle formed at the termination of the internal 
 jugular vein ; the ufe of which is to bring back the blood 
 from the finufes of the dura mater, and from the brain. 
 
 SACERDOTAL, fomething belonging to priefts. 
 
 SACK of Wool , a quantity of roof to 400 weight. 
 
 Sacks of Earth , in fortification, are canvas bags 
 filled with earth. They are ufed in making retrench¬ 
 ments in hade, to place on parapets, or the head of the 
 breaches, or to repair them when beaten down. 
 
 SACKBUT, a mufical indrumentof the wind kind, 
 being a fort of trumpet, though different from the com¬ 
 mon trumpet, both in form and fize : it is fit to play a 
 bafs, and is contrived to be drawn out, or fhortened,ac¬ 
 cording to the tone required, whether grave or acute. The 
 Italians call it trombone, and the Latins tubaduftilis. 
 
 SACER Arteri.e, in anatomy, a branch of the 
 aorta defeendens, which pafles through the middle of the 
 os facrum to the pelvis. 
 
 SACRAMENT, Sacramentum , fignifies, in general, 
 a fign of a tiling facrcd and holy ; and is defined to be an 
 outward and vifible fign of a l'piritual grace. Thus there 
 are two objefts in a lacrament, the one the object of the 
 fenl'es, and the other the objeft of faith : Protedants 
 admit only of two facraments, baptifm, and the eucharid, 
 or Lord's fupper : but the Roman catholicks own feven, 
 viz. baptifm, confirmation, the eucharid, penance, ex¬ 
 treme unftion, ordination, and marriage. 
 
 SACRED, fortiething holy, or that is folemnly of¬ 
 fered, and confecrated to God with ceremonies, bene¬ 
 dictions, unftions, 6cc. 
 
 SAG 
 
 Sacred, is alfo applied to things belonging to God 
 and the church. 
 
 SACRIFICE, a folemn aft of religious wordiip, which 
 confids in the dedicating, devoting, or offering up fome- 
 tliing, animate or inanimate, on an altar by the hands of 
 a pried to acknowledge a dependence on or to conciliate 
 the favour of the Deity. This praftice in fome fenfe or 
 other is univerfal, for all religions have their lacrifices. 
 
 Some afcribe the rife df lacrifices to the barbarity and 
 ignorance of the heathen world, and, as to the Jews, they 
 borrowed this praftice from the Egyptians in which God 
 differed them to continue, being contented with barely 
 reforming it. 
 
 SACRILEGE, the crime of profaning facred things, 
 or things devoted to God ; or of alienating’to laymen, 
 or common purpofes, what was given to religious per¬ 
 sons, or pious ules. 
 
 S ACR 1 ST A, or S a c r 1 s t an , a church officer, other- 
 wife called a fexton. 
 
 SACRISTY, S^crifUa, a place or apartment in a 
 church where the veffels, and other utenfils and orna¬ 
 ments of the church are preferved, &c. It is now gene¬ 
 rally called, among us, a vedry. 
 
 SACRO-L.umcaris Mujculus, in anatomy, amufeie 
 arifing flelhy from the fuperior part of the os facrum, 
 poderior part of the ilium, and from all the fpines and 
 tranfverfe proccffes of the vertebra? of the loins. It gives 
 a final! tendon to the poderior part of each rib near its 
 root, where a fmall bundle of fieffiy fibres arifes and 
 unites with each afeending tendon to the third, fourth, 
 fifth, and fixth vertebra? of the neck. 
 
 This, with the lerratus podicus inferior and triangu¬ 
 laris, help to contraft the ribs in exfpiration. But they 
 are all of fmall force, and leem only to accelerate the 
 motion of the ribs, which fall down chiefly by their own 
 gravity, and the eladicity of the ligaments by which they 
 are tied to the vertebra?. 
 
 SACRUM Os, in anatomy, a bone fituated in the 
 poderior or lower part of the trunk, at the bafis by which 
 the whole fpine is lupported, and from hence it has been 
 by fome termed os baiilaxe. 
 
 SADDLE, is a feat upon a horfe’s back, contrived 
 for the conveniency of the rider. 
 
 Saddles, amongd feamen, a fort of wooden crutches 
 nailed on the upper fide of the main and fore-yard-arms, 
 whereon to fix the ftudding-fail booms, which Aide out 
 upon them when the dudding-fails are to be fet. 
 
 SADDUCEES, in Jewifh antiquity, a famous feft: 
 among the ancient Jews, fo called from their founder 
 Sadock Antigonus of Socho, prefident of the Sanhedrim 
 at Jerul'alem, and teacher of the law in the principal 
 divinity-lchool of that city. Having often, in his lec¬ 
 tures, afferted to bis fcholars, that they ought not to ferve 
 God in a fervile manner, with refpeft to reward, but only 
 out of filial love and fear; two of his fcholars, Sadock 
 and Baithus, inferred from thence, that there were no 
 rewards or puniihments after this life; and, therefore, 
 feparating from the lchool of their mailer, they taught 
 that there was no refurreftion, nor future Hate. Many 
 embracing this opinion, gave rife to the feft: of the Sad- 
 ducees, who were a kind of Epicureans, but differing 
 from them in this, that though they denied a future 
 (late, yet they allowed the world was created by the power 
 of God, and governed by his providence; whereas tha 
 followers of Epicurus denied both. 
 
 The Sadducees denied all manner of predeffination 
 whatever, and not only rejefted all unwritten traditions, 
 but alfo all the books of the Old Teftament, excepting 
 the Pentateuch. 
 
 SAFE-Conduct, afecurity given by the kingunder 
 the great feal to a foreigner, for his fafe coming into and 
 paffing out of the kingdom. 
 
 Safe-Guard, a protection formerly granted to a 
 ftranger, who feared violence from fome of the king’s 
 fubjefts, for feeking his right by courfe of law. 
 
 SAFfRON, Crocus, in botany, &c. SeeCRocus. 
 
 SAGAPENUM, a vegetable juice, generally called 
 a gum, but it is truly a gum refin. It is brought to us 
 from Perfia and the E. Indies. The plant which pro¬ 
 duces it has never been dcfci ibed, but is fuppofed to be, 
 as Diofcorides fays, of the ferula kind, from the feeds 
 and fragments of the ftalks fometimes met with in the 
 body of it. 
 
 Sagapenum 
 
S A I 
 
 Sagapermm is a very great attenuant, aperient, and 
 difcuticnt; it is good in all diforders of the breaft that owe 
 their origin to a tough phlegm. It has alfo been found 
 to difculs tumours in the nervous parts, in a remark¬ 
 able manner, and to give relief in habitual head-achs, 
 where almoft all things elfe have failed. Its dole is from 
 lograins to two fcruples, but it is now feldom given alone. 
 
 SAGATHEE, in commerce, a flight woollen fluff; 
 being a kind of ferge, or ratteen ; fometimes mixed with 
 a little filk. It is chiefly manufa&ured at Amiens, though 
 we have ourfhare in England. 
 
 SAGE, Salvia , a medicinal herb, of which there are 
 many fpecies, but only two of them are ufed in our fhops. 
 Thefe are there diftinguifhed by the names of falvia hor- 
 tenlis major, and falvia hortenfis minor. In Englifh we 
 diftinguifh them by thofe of common fage, or red fage, 
 and fage of virtue. 
 
 The common red fage has always been efleemed as a 
 cephalick and fudorifick. An infufion of it, made in the 
 manner of tea, has been lon^ famous, as the common 
 drink of people in fevers. It is attenuant and diuretick; 
 itpromotes the menfes, and is good in vertigoes, tremours, 
 palfies, and in catarrhs. The virtues and ufes of the fage 
 of virtue are the fame with the other. Its name indeed 
 lias made many prefer it to the common fagq for the 
 making tea for people in fevers -, but the more agreeable 
 flavour of the common kind, and the pleafant colour of 
 the infufion, when a little lemon juice is added, have 
 again of late reftored it into general ufe. 
 
 SAGITTA, the arrow or dart, in aftronomy, a con- 
 flellation of the northern hemifphere near the Eagle. 
 The liars in this conftellation in Tycho’s and Ptolemy’s 
 catalogues are 5, and in Mr. Flamftcad’s 23. 
 
 Sagitta, in botany, implies the top of any fmall 
 twig, cyon, or graft of a tree. 
 
 Sagitta, in trigonometry, the fame with theverfed 
 fine of an arch. 
 
 SAGITTAL Suture, in anatomy, the fecond of 
 the genuine futures of the cranium or Ikull. 
 
 SAGITTARIUS, the archer, in aftronomy,the ninth 
 fign of the zodiack, (plate IV. fig. 9.) marked thus, t , in 
 books. The liars in this conftellation in Ptolemy’s cata¬ 
 logue are 31, in Tycho’s 16, and in Mr. Flamftead’s 52. 
 
 SAGO, a Ample brought from the E. Indies, of con- 
 liderable ufe in diet as a reftorative. Sago is a fort of 
 bread produced in the following manner, from a tree 
 called landan, growing in the Molucco’s. When a tree 
 is felled, they cleave it in two, in the middle, and dig out 
 the pith, which is eatable when it comes frelh out of the 
 tree. They pound it in a mortar, till it is reduced into 
 a kind of powder fomewhat like meal. Then they put 
 it in a l'earce made of the bark of the fame tree, placing it 
 over a ciftern made pf its leaves, and pour water on it, 
 which feparates the pure part of the powder from the 
 woody fibres wherewith the pitli abounds. The flour 
 thus liltrated they call fagu, which they make into pafte, 
 and bake it in earthen furnaces. 
 
 SAICK, or Saiqjje, a Turkilhvefiel, very common 
 in the Levant for carrying of merchandize. 
 
 SAIL, in navigation, an aflemblage of feveral breadths 
 of canvas, fewed together by the lifts, and edged round 
 with a cord, called a belt rope. The motion of failing 
 communicated to the Ihip is tfius elegantly delcribed by 
 the ingenious M. Bouguer. 
 
 When a Ihip fails out of a harbour, flie acquires her 
 motion by infinitely flow degrees, much after the fame 
 manner as heavy bodies, in their fall, arrive not at a 
 certain velocity, but by an infinite repetition of the adlion 
 of their weight. 
 
 The firft impulfions of the wind greatly affett the ve¬ 
 locity, becaufe the refiftance of the water might deftroy 
 them ; for the velocity being at firft fmall, the refiftance 
 of the water, which depends thereon, will be very weak; 
 but the fafter the Ihip goes, the lefs will be the force of 
 the wind on the fails ; whereas it is quite otherwife with 
 Tefpefl to the impulfion of the water on the bow, becaufe 
 it augments in proportion to the velocity with which the 
 (hip fails. So the new degrees which the effort of the 
 fails adds to the motion of the Ihip, are continually de- 
 creafing ; whilft, on the contrary, thofe which diminifh 
 the refiftance of the bow are continually encreafing. The 
 velocity is accelerated in proportion as the quantity added 
 is greater than that fubtradled; but, w r fien thefe tWQ 
 
 S A I 
 
 powers become equal, when the impulfion of the wind 
 on the fails has loft fo much of its force as not to a£t fc 
 but in proportion to the force with whiph the refiftance 
 of the water atts on the bow, in the oppofite fenfe, the 
 Ihip will then go no fafter, and will fail with a conftant; 
 uniform motion. The great weight of the (hip may be 
 the caufe of the (hip’s being fo long in coming to her 
 greateft velocity ; but this weight makes nothing to the 
 degree of velocity ; and when the flfip has once come tq 
 it, (he afterwards goes on by her own iptrinfick motion, 
 and (he can neither gain nor lofe any new degree of ve¬ 
 locity. She nqoves as by her own proper force in vacuo, 
 without being afterwards fubjed either to the effort of the 
 wind on the fails, or the refiftance of water on the bow. 
 If at any time the impulfion of the water on the bow 
 lhould deftroy any part of the velocity, the impulfion of 
 the wind on the fails will repair it, fp the motion will 
 continue the fame; but it mull be obferved, this will 
 only be when thefe two powers ad in a direction quite 
 contrary to one another : otherwife they will not mu¬ 
 tually deftroy one another. The whole theory of work¬ 
 ing (hips depends upon this oppofition and perlqd equa¬ 
 lity which fhould fubfift between the impulfion of the 
 water and the impulfion of the wind. 
 
 SAILING, in a general fenfe, implies the art or ad 
 of navigating; or of determining the various motions of 
 a (hip, and her true place at any time. 
 
 Plane, or Plain Sailing, is that performed by means 
 of the plane chart. 
 
 Before we proceed to (hew the method of folvipg the 
 feveral cafes of plane failing, it may be neceflary to ob- 
 ferve, that the diftance failed, difference of latitude, and 
 the departure, or difference of longitude, conftantly form 
 a right-angled triangle, and the courfe fleered, and the 
 complement of the courfe, are the two oblique angles of 
 the fame triangle. For fuppofe a flflp at L ( plate LXXI. 
 Jig. 7.) fails on a dired courfe till fhe arrives at M; then 
 will LM reprefent the diftance failed, LN, tfie dif¬ 
 ference of latitude, N M the departure, or difference of 
 longitude, and the angle NLM, the courfe fleered, 
 conftituting the right-angled triangle LMN, right- 
 angled at N. Whence it follows, that if any two of 
 thele are given, we can by trigonometry find the reft. 
 
 Cafe. I. One latitude, courfe, and diftance failed 
 being given, to find the other latitude, and departure 
 from the meridian. 
 
 Example. Suppofe afliip, in the latitude of 4d. 10m. 
 north, fails S. S- W. 194 miles; required the latitude fhe 
 is in, and how far fhe hath departed from her former 
 meridian ? 
 
 1. For the difference of latitude, the proportion will be, 
 
 As radius - - =9cd. 00m. 2: io.ocooooo 
 
 To the diftance -—-=2194=2.2878017 
 
 So is the co-fine of the courfe = 67d. 30m. 9.9656153 
 
 To the difference pf latitude - —179 — 2.2534170 
 
 2. For the departure, or fide, 
 
 A.s radius--=9od. ocm. 22 io.poooooo 
 
 To the diftance failed -r - — 1942= 2.2878017 
 
 So is the fine of the courfe 22d. 30m. =2 9.6006997 
 
 To the departure required - — 77 2= 1.8885014 
 
 Cafe II. Both latitudes and courfe being given, to find 
 the diftance and departure. 
 
 Example. Suppofe a fhip, in the latitude of 3d. 10m. 
 fouth, fails N. E. by N. till her diftance of latitude be 
 2d. 20m.; required the diftance failed, and departure 
 from the meridian ? 
 
 1. To find the diftance failed, it will be, 
 
 As the comp, of the courfe 22 56d. 15m- = 9.919^464 
 
 To the difference of latitude = 140- 2= 2.1461280 
 
 So is radius - - — qod. -=2 10.0000000 
 
 To the diftance required - 22: 168,4222.2262816 
 
 2. For the departure, the proportion will be, 
 
 As radius - 2290 - =2, io.oocoooo 
 
 To the diftance- 22 168,4-— 2.2262816 
 
 So is the fine of the courfe,-2= 2 2d. 7 
 
 4S m.= _ _ | 9-7447390 
 
 To the departure required — 2293,5221.9710206 
 
 Cafe III. Both latitudes and diftance failed being 
 given, to find the courfe and departure. 
 
 Examples, 
 
S A I 
 
 Example. Admit a fhip, in the latitude of id. oom. 
 fouth, fails between the north and eaft 96 miles, till her 
 difference of latitude be id. 10m. required the courfe and 
 departure ? 
 
 1. To find the courfe, it will be, 
 
 As the diflance failed - = 96—= 1.9822712 
 
 To radius - =9od. oom.= io.ocooooo 
 
 So is the diff. of latitude = 70 — =1.8450980 
 
 To the S. of the comp. courfe = 46d. 49m. =9.8628268 
 Which being taken from ood. gives 43d. nm. the 
 courfe fleered, and, becaufe the courfe was between the 
 lforth and eaft, it is north 43d. 11m. eafterly, or nearly 
 IN. E. by N. 3 quarters eafterly. 
 
 2. For the departure, the proportion will be, 
 
 As radius — =9od. oom.— = 10.0000000 
 
 To the diflance - =96 — = 1.9822712 
 
 So is the fine of the courfe, 43d. 11m. = 9.8352688 
 
 To the departure W X — —65,7 — =1.8175400 
 
 Cafe IV. Both latitudes and departure being given, to 
 find the courfe and diflance ? 
 
 Example. Suppofe a fhip, in the latitude 2d. oom. 
 fouth, fails between the fouth and eaft, till her difference 
 Of latitude be 2d. 10m. and her departure 96 miles eaft ; 
 required her direCl courfe and diflance ? 
 
 1. To find the courfe, it will be, 
 
 As the difference of latitude — =130 — =2.1139434 
 
 To radius - =9od. oom. = 10.0000000 
 
 So is the departure - =96=1.9822712 
 
 To the T. ofthc courfe required = 36d. 27m. =9.8683278 
 Which, becaufe fhe failed between the fouth and eaft, 
 is fouth 36d. 27m. eafterly, or almofl S. E. by S. one 
 quarter eafterly. 
 
 2. To find the diflance failed, it will be, 
 
 As the fine of the courle = 36d. 27m. -9-7738749 
 
 Is to the departure - =96 — =1.9822712 
 
 So is radius - =9cd. oom. = 10.0000000 
 
 To the diflance failed -- = 161,5 = 2.2083963 
 
 Cafe V. One latitude, diflance, and departure being 
 given, to find the other latitude and courfe fleered. 
 
 Example. A fhip at fea, in the latitude of id- oom. 
 north, fails between the north and well 120 miles, hav¬ 
 ing departed to the weftward of her former meridian 
 96 miles ; required her direCl courfe, and the difference 
 of latitude ? 
 
 1. To find the courfe, the proportion will be, 
 
 As the diflance failed — =120 — =2.0791812 
 
 To radius - =9od.oom. — = io.ocooooo 
 
 So is the departure — =96 — =1.9822712 
 
 To the fine of the courfe - 53d. 27m. =9.9030900 
 
 That is, north 53d. 7m. wefterly, or almofl N. W. 
 3 quarters wefterly. 
 
 2. For the difference of latitude, it will be, 
 
 As radius -- =9od. oom. — = 10.0000000 
 
 To the diflance failed — = r 20 - =2.0791812. 
 
 So is the co-fine of the courfe —53d. 07m. =9.7782870 
 
 To the difference of latitude = 72 — - =1.8574682 
 
 Cafe VI. One latitude, courfe, and departure being 
 given, to find the other latitude and diflance failed. 
 
 Example. Suppofe a fhip, in the latitude of 3d. 10m. 
 fouth, fails N. W. by N. till her departure be 90 miles, 
 required her direCl diflance, and the latitude fhe is in ? 
 
 1. To find the diflance failed, it will be, 
 
 As the fine of the courfe — = 33 d. 45m.=9.7447390 
 
 To the departure - =90- = 1.9542425 
 
 So is radius ■ — 9®^* —10.0000000 
 
 To the diflance - = 162 — 2.2095035 
 
 And in the fame manner may the latitude be eafily found. 
 
 Mercator s Sailing, the method of performing the 
 feveral cafes of failing according to Mercator’s proje&ion, 
 or that of delineating the earth’s fuperficies in piano, in 
 fuch a manner, as that the meridians be ftraight lines, 
 parallel to, and equidiftant from each other. The pa¬ 
 rallels of latitude are alio ftraight lines, and parallel to 
 one another, but the diflance between them increafes 
 from the equinoClial towards either pole, in the ratio of 
 the fecant of the latitude to the radius, 
 
 3 
 
 S A I 
 
 If the fuperficies of the terreftrial globe be fuppofed to 
 be taken off, and extended on a plane, fo as to make the 
 meridians parallel to each other, and the degrees of longi¬ 
 tude everywhere equal, it is eafy to conceive that it muft 
 be productive of moll notorious errors ; for an ifland in 
 latitude 6 od. where the radius of the parallel is only equal 
 to one half of the radius of the equator, will have its 
 length from eaft to weft diftorted in a double ratio to what 
 it was on the globe ; that is, its length from eaft to weft, 
 in companion of its breadth from north to fouth, will be 
 reprefented in a double proportion to what it really is ; 
 whence it follows, that in whatever proportion the de¬ 
 grees of any parallel are increafed or diminifhed, by a 
 projection in piano, the degrees of longitude ought to be 
 increafed or diminifhed in the fame ratio ; for otherwife 
 the true bearings and diftances of places will be loft, a9 
 in the cafe of the plain-chart, where the degrees of lati¬ 
 tude and longitude are all equal. 
 
 Though this projection is generally called Mercator'9 
 proje&ion, yet our countryman, Mr. Wright, had long 
 before invented it, demonftrated itsufe, and Ihewn a ready 
 way of conftruCling it, by enlarging the meridian line by 
 a continued addition of fecarfts ; but neither of thefe gen¬ 
 tlemen is thought the original author of it as being hinted 
 by Ptolemy near 2000 years ago. 
 
 Having thus fhewn the nature of this projection, we 
 now fhall proceed to fhew the method of folving the 
 feveral cafes of Mercator’s failing. 
 
 Cafe I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places be¬ 
 ing given, to find the courfe and diftance between them. 
 
 Example. Required the direCt courfe and diftance be¬ 
 tween the Lizard in the latitude of 5od. oom. north, 
 longitude 5d. 14m. weft, and a port in the latitude of 
 32b. 20m. north, and longitude 17<d. 30m. weft ? 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Draw the meiid. b k d (plate LXXI. 
 /%. 6.) and from b, the Lizard, fet off the meridional 
 difference of latitude to d\ through d draw the parallel 
 cd, fetting off on it the difference of longitude from d to c 
 and draw the line b c\ then will c reprefent the given port, 
 
 2. Make b k equal to the proper difference of latitude, 
 and draw k l parallel to dc. Then will the angle cb d be 
 the direCl courfe, b l the diftance, and k l the departure, 
 which may be meafured, the courfe by the line of chords, 
 and the diftance b l by the fcale of equal parts. 
 
 As all the cafes of Mercator’s failing arcprojeCled after 
 the fame manner, we fhall, for tire fake of brevity, omit 
 it in the following cafes : 
 
 Arithmetically. As b d, the meridional 7 
 
 difference of latitude — 1422,5 - 1 3 - r S 3 °S 2 3 
 
 Is to radius — qod. oom. — — 10.0000000 
 So is dc , the difference of longitude — 736 — 2.8671728 
 
 To the tangent of the angle c b d, the 7 
 
 direCl courfe=27d. 22m. - 1 9 , 7 I 4 I2 °5 
 
 Which is fouth 27d. 22m. wefterly, or nearly foutli 
 fouth weft a quarter wefterly, becaufe fhe port lies to the 
 weftward of the Lizard. 
 
 Then, to find b l the diftance, it will be, 
 
 As radius - god. oom. 10.0000000 
 
 To b k, the proper diff. of latitude 1060 3.0253059 
 
 So is the fee. of the ang. I b k, the courfe 7 
 
 2?d . 22m. — — 1 10.0515463 
 
 To/'/, the direCl diftance — 1193,6 — 3-0768524 
 
 Cafe II. One latitude, courfe, and diftance failed 
 being given, to find the other latitude and difference of 
 longitude. 
 
 Example. A fhip in the latitude of 4od. oom. north, 
 longitude 2od. weft, fails fouth 5id. 10m. wefterly, 1020 
 miles; required the latitude fhe is in, and her difference 
 of longitude? 
 
 1. As radius - qod. oom. —10.0000000 
 
 To the diflance failed -- 1020 — 3.00860. 2 
 
 So is the co-fine of the courfe — 5 id. 1 om. —9 7973071 
 
 To the proper difference of latitude 640 — 2.8059073 
 
 Hence the lhip will be in the latitude of 29d. 20m. 
 north; whence the meridional difference will ^ = 780.3. 
 Then it will be, 
 
 As radius - 9od. oom. —10.0000000 
 
 To the meridional diff. of latitude 780,3 2.8922616 
 
 So is the tangent of the courle 5id. 10m. 10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude — 970 — 2.9864771 
 
 Cafe 
 
S A I 
 
 Cafe III. Both latitudes and courfe being given to find 
 the diftance failed, and difference of longitude. 
 
 Example. A fhip, in the latitude 40c!. oom. north, 
 fails fouth 5id. iom. wefterly, till fhe be found by ob- 
 fervation to be in the latitude of 2gd. 20m. north ; 
 required the dired diftance failed and difference of 
 longitude ? 
 
 As radius - qod. oom. — io.coooooo 
 
 To the proper difference of latitude 640 — 2.8059073 
 So is the fecant of the courfe — 5 id. 20m. — 10.2026929 
 
 To the dircdl diftance — 
 
 SAX 
 
 So is radius 
 
 <)od. oom. 10.000000$ 
 
 — 1020 — 30.086002 
 
 Then, having found the meridional difference of latitude 
 =1780,3, it will be, 
 
 As radius - 9od. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 To the meridional diff. of latitude 780.3 2.8922616 
 
 So is the tangent of the courfe 5id. iom. 10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude — 970 — 2.9864771 
 
 Cafe IV. Both latitudes and diftance failed being given, 
 to find the courfe fleered and difference of longitude. 
 
 Example. A fhip, in the latitude of 4od. oom. north, 
 fails between the fouth and weft 1020 miles, and is then 
 found by obfervation to be in the latitude of 2gd. 20m. 
 north, required the courfe fleered, and difference of 
 longitude ? 
 
 As the diftance failed - 1020 — 3.0086002 
 
 Is to radius — — 90d. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 So is the proper difference oftfatitude 640 2.8059073 
 
 To the co-fine of the courfe — 5 id. iom.—9-7973071 
 Whence the meridional difference of latitude will be 
 =2780,3, and the difference of longitude found by the 
 following proportion : 
 
 As radius — — 9od. oom. — io.oocoooo 
 
 To the merid. diff. of latitude — 780,3 —2.8922616 
 So is the tangent of the courfe 5id. iom. 10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude — 970 ; — 2.9864771 
 
 Cafe V. One latitude, courfe, and difference of lon¬ 
 gitude being given, to find the other latitude and diftance 
 failed. 
 
 Example. Suppofc a lhip, in the latitude of 4od. oom. 
 north, fails fouth 5id. iom. wefterly, until her differ¬ 
 ence of longitude be 970 miles ; required the diftance 
 failed, and what latitude fhe is in ? 
 
 As the tangent of the courfe —5id. iom. 10.0942155 
 To the difference of longitude — 970 — 2.9864771 
 
 So is radius - - 9od. oom. 10.0000000 
 
 To the meridional difference of lat. 780,3 2.8922616 
 
 And, becaufe the fhip is lading towards the equator, 
 therefore, 
 
 From the meridional parts of the lat. failed 7 , 
 
 r , 1 i 2622.7 
 
 from 4od. oom. - - \ ' 
 
 Take the meridional difference of latitude 780.3 
 
 Remain the meridional parts of the latitude 
 
 arrived in 29d. 20m. --1842.4 
 
 Whence the proper difference of latitude will be 640. 
 Then, to find the diftance failed, it will be, 
 
 As radius - - 9od. oom. 10.0000000 
 
 To the proper difference of latitude 640 2.8059073 
 
 So is the fecant of the courfe 51 d. iom. 10.2026989 
 
 To the diftance failed --- 1020 3.0086062 
 
 Add becaufe the fhip is failing towards the equator, and, 
 confequently, decreafmg the latitude ; therefore, 
 
 d. m. 
 
 From the latitude failed from — 40 : 00 north. 
 
 Take the difference of latitude — 640 = 10 : 40 
 
 Remains the latitude fhe is in - 29 : 20 north. 
 
 Cafe VI. One latitude, courfe, and departure being 
 given, to find the other latitude, diftance, and difference 
 of longitude. 
 
 Example. Suppofe a fhip in the latitude 4od. oom, 
 north, longitude 2od. oom. weft, fails fouth 5id. iom. 
 wefterly, till file have departed from her former meridian 
 794,6 miles: required the diftance failed, difference of 
 longitude, and what latitude fhe is in ? 
 
 1. As the fine of the courfe 5id. iom. 9.8915226 
 To the departure — -» 04,6 52.9001486 
 
 Vol. II. No. 64. 
 
 To the diftance - 1020 3.0086260 
 
 2. As the tangent of the courfe 51 d. iom. 10.0942155 
 
 To the departure -*— 794,6 2.9001486 
 
 So is radius —-- 90c!. oom. 10.0000000 
 
 To the proper difference of lat. — 640 — 2-8059331 
 
 And, as the fhip is conftantly decreafing her latitude, 
 therefore the difference of latitude, being taken from 
 the latitude failed from, will give 2yd. 20m. north, 
 the latitude the fhip is in : whence the meridional 
 difference of latitude will be — — 780. 
 
 Then, to find the difference of longitude, it will be, 
 
 As radius - qod. oom. 10.0000000 
 
 To the meridional diff. of lat. — 780,3 2.8922616 
 
 So is the tangent of the courfe —5 id. iom. — 10.0942155 
 
 To the diff of long. - 970 — 2.9864771 
 
 Cafe VII. The departure and both latitudes being 
 given, to find the courfe, diftance, and difference of 
 longitude. 
 
 Example. Suppofe a fhip in the latitude of 4od. oom. 
 north, 2od. oom. weft longitude, fails between the fouth 
 and weft till fhe be found by obfervation to be in the 
 latitude of 29d. 20m. north, and to have departed from 
 her former meridian 794,6 miles ; the courfe fleered, 
 diftance failed, and difference of longitude, are required ? 
 
 1. As the proper difference of lat. —640 —2.8059073 
 
 To radius -- 9od. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 So is the departure — 794,6 — 2.9001486 
 
 To the tangent of the courfe —5id. iom. —10.0942413 
 
 2. As the fine of the courfe 5id. iom.— 9.8915226 
 
 To the departure-794,6 — 2.9001486 
 
 So is radius . 9®d. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 To the diftance -» 1020 — 3.0086260 
 
 Then, having found the meridional difference of latitude, 
 the difference of longitude will be found by the fol¬ 
 lowing proportion : 
 
 As radius --- qod. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 To the merid. diff. of latitude — 780.3 — 2.8922616 
 So is the tangent of the courfe 5id. 10111.-10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude —970 -— 2.9864771 
 Or it may be found by the log. tangents, thus, 
 
 As the tang, of the log. rumb. 5 id. 30m. i9f. 10.1015093 
 To the log. of the remainder — 985,825 — 2.9937899 
 So is the tang, of the courfe — 5id. iom. — 10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude —970 — 2,9864961- 
 
 Cafe VIII. One latitude, diftance failed, and departure 
 being given, to find the other latitude, courfe, and dif¬ 
 ference of longitude. 
 
 Example. A fhip in the latitude of 4od. oom. north, 
 longitude 2od. oom. weft, fails between the fouth and 
 weft 1020 miles, and is found to have departed from her 
 former meridian 794,6 miles, required the courfe fleered, 
 difference of longitude, and what latitude fhe is in ? 
 
 1. As the diftance - 1020 -- 3.0086002 
 
 To radius — qod. oom. -- 10.0000000 
 
 So is the departure — 794.6 - 2.9001486 
 
 To the fine of the courfe 
 
 2. As radius - 
 
 To the diftance - 
 
 5id. iom. — 9.8915484 
 
 - 9%d. oom 1 o.oooopoo 
 
 1020 — 3.0086002 
 
 So is the co-fine of the courfe — 3rd. iom. 9.797307 
 
 To the proper difference of lat. — 640 — 2.8059073 
 
 Hence it appears, that the Blip’s true courfe is fouth 
 5id. iom. wefterly, or nearly fouth-weft half wefterly, 
 and that file is in the latitude of 2gd. 20m. north • 
 whence the meridional difference of latitude is 780,3 ; 
 and to find the difference of longitude, it will be, 
 
 As radius -- god. oom. — 10.0000000 
 
 To the merid. difference of latitude—780,3 2.8922616 
 So is the tang, of the courfe—5id. iom. —10.0942155 
 
 To the difference of longitude — 970 — 2.9864771 
 Middle Latitude Sa ilino, a method of performing 
 the problems of failing by the help of the middle latitude, 
 which nearly agrees with Mercator. 
 
 Current SAILING, See Cu$R£NT« 
 
 4 F 
 
 Pardkl 
 
A* 
 
 SAL SAL 
 
 Parallel Sailing, the method of finding the diftance 
 run, when a fliip fails under a parallel, or on a direct 
 eaft or weft courfe. Under the article Degree, we 
 have fhewn the method of finding the,length of a degree 
 of longitude in any latitude, and given a table lor that 
 purpofe.; by the help of which, all the propoiitions re¬ 
 lating to parallel Jailing may be eafily folved.. 
 
 SAINT, in the Romifh church, a holy perfon de- 
 ceafed, and fince his deceafe canonized by the Pope, after 
 feveral informations and ceremonies. 
 
 SAINTFOIN, or Sainfoin, the name given by the 
 French, and continued by us to a J'pecies of plant fre¬ 
 quently ufed for the food of cattle, either frelh or dried; 
 it is called holy hay, or wholefome hay, from its excel¬ 
 lent nutritive quality. The ftalks of the plant are com¬ 
 monly about two feet long, but they grow fometimes to 
 five or fix feet, and it has tufts of red flowers ol three, 
 four, or five inches in length. 
 
 This plant will make forty times greater increafe in 
 poor ground than the common turf; and this is owing 
 to its having a long perpendicular root, ot that kind 
 called tap-roots, which finks to a great depth to attratt 
 its nourifnment. The length of this root is fcarce to 
 be credited by any but thofe who have feen it; it is fre¬ 
 quently drawn out of the ground to the length ot twelve 
 or fourteen feet, but it is laid to be often thirty feet or 
 more in length. 
 
 The farmers have a general opinion, that this plant 
 never fucceeds well in any land where there is not an 
 under ftratum of ftonc, or chalk, or fome other hard 
 matter, to flop its running; but that otherwife it lpends 
 itfelf in root, and comes to nothing above ground. 1 his 
 is an error too grol's to need much refutation. It is cer¬ 
 tain, that the roots being to plants what the ftomach and 
 guts are to animals, the more and larger roots any plant 
 has, the more nourifliment it receives, and the better 
 it thrives. 
 
 Saintfoin always fucceed, where its roots run deep, and 
 the beft crops of all are produced upon lands where there 
 is no hard under-foil to obftrutft their paflage. An un¬ 
 der foil of clay may kill the plants, by retaining the 
 water, and chilling and rotting their roots. 
 
 The long root of faiutfoin has, near thelurface, many 
 horizontal roots ifluing from it, which extend thcmlelves 
 every way : there areot the lame kind all the way down, 
 as the roots go, but they grow ftrorter and lhorter all the 
 way. Any dry land may be made to produce this valu¬ 
 able and ufeful plant, though it be ever fo poor, but the 
 richeft and beft land will produce the bell crops of it. 
 The beft way of (owing it is by drilling, but the earth 
 muft be very well prepared, and the feed well ordered, or 
 elfe very little of it will grow. '1 he heads of thefe feeds 
 are lb large, and their necks fo vveak, that, if they be 
 much more than half an inch deep, they are not able to 
 rile through the incumbent mould ; and if they are not 
 covered, they will be malted, as the farmers exprefs it, 
 that is, it will fend out its root while it lies above-ground, 
 and be killed by the air ; and whether the farmer plants 
 bad feed that will not grow, or good feed that is buried 
 or malted, the event will be the fame. 1 he ground will 
 be undeiflocked with plants. A bufhcl of feed to an acre 
 of land is full twenty feeds to each fquarc foot of land ; 
 but, as there is fome difference in the largenels of the 
 feeds, there is no abfolute certainty as to this calculation. 
 The worft feafons for planting it are the beginning of 
 winter, and the drought of lummer ; the beft is the be¬ 
 ginning of the fpring ; and it is always llrongeft when 
 planted alone, and is not fown together with corn, as is 
 the pradlice of fome farmers. If barley, oats, or any 
 other corn, fown with the faintfoin, happen to be lodged 
 afterwards, it kills the young laintfoin. It it be planted 
 with any other corn, it is bell done with drilling in the 
 horlc-hoeing way; in this cafe it is not much liable to 
 be killed by the lodging of the corn, as the drilled corn 
 feldom falls at all, and, when it does, never falls fo low 
 as the fown corn. 
 
 SAKER, a lmall fort of cannon, of which there are 
 ■three J'pecies, extraordinary, ordinary, and middle fized. 
 
 SALAMANDER, Salumandra , in zoology, a name 
 given by authors to feveral fpecies of the lizard kind ; but 
 the principal are two, the falamandra aquatica, the water- 
 uewt, and the falamandra terreftris. 
 
 The falamandra aquatica is the two-edged-tail-lizard, 
 i 
 
 with four toes on the anterior, and five on the hinder feet. 
 
 It grows to about four inches in length, and to the thick - 
 nefs of a man’s finger : the back is of a deep ftiining 
 brown ; the belly of a bright and gloffy yellow. 
 
 The falamandra terreftris, or land lalamander, is a 
 fpecies of lizard, the tail of which is lhort, and its colour 
 of a fine black, marked with red fpots of a bright and 
 Aiming gloffy appearance. 
 
 S.A l a m ander’s-Blood, among chymills, denotes 
 the rednefs remaining in the receiver after diftilling the 
 fpirits of nitre. 
 
 SALARY, Solarium, a recompencc made to a perfon 
 for his pains or induftry about another peribn’s bufinefs, 
 as in the cafe of officers, &c. 
 
 SALE, in general, fignifies the transferring the pro¬ 
 perty of goods from one to another, upon fome valuable 
 confideration, as when in a bargain one agrees to give 
 another a certain fum of money for fuch goods, and 
 thereupon gives the feller earned, which he accepts ; this 
 is a perfett fale, and fhall bind the buyer and leller. 
 
 SALEP, in the materia medica, the root of a fpecies 
 of orchis. 
 
 Salep ftiould be chofen clean, firm and hard; it is 
 very little liable cither to decay or fophiftication. The 
 people of the E. Indies look upon falep to be one of the 
 greateft reftoratives and provocatives to venery in the 
 whole vegetable world. The falep differs very little from 
 the common orchis in virtue. Its appearance is owing 
 to the manner of preparing-it, and confequently this may 
 be done from the roots of orchis of our own growth. 
 To prepare thefe in imitation of falep, Mr. Geoffrov 
 chofe the largeft, faireft, and plumpcft roots he could 
 find : thefe he nicely ikinned ; then throwing them into 
 cold water he fuffered them to macerate there for fome 
 time ; after this he lightly boiled thenj> and then taking 
 them out of the water and draining them, he had them 
 ftrung upon threads to be dried in a warm dry air; when 
 the roots were thoroughly dried they were very tranfpa- 
 rent, and refemblcd pieces of tragacanth, and continued 
 dry and hard. The roots thus prepared may be reduced 
 to powder, which will diffolve away in boiling water, 
 and a fcruple of it will make a bafon full of jelly, in the 
 manner of the Turkilh falep. This jelly is an admirable 
 medicine in all caJes in which falep is preferibed; and 
 the powder may be given with great luccefs in afles-milk 
 for difeafes of the bread. The falep which we receive 
 from Turky is always a tranfparent root, of a whitifh or 
 redilh colour, according to its different age, and is 
 chiefly recommended in confumptions, bilious dyfen- 
 tcrics and diforders of the breaft proceeding from an acri¬ 
 mony of the juices. 
 
 SALIANT, in fortification, denotes proje£ling. 
 There are two kinds of angles, the one faliant, which 
 are thofe that prefent their points outwards; the other 
 re-entering, which have their points inwards. 
 
 SALIENT, Saliant, or Sailla nt, in heraldry, 
 is applied to a lion, or other beaft, when its fore-legs 
 arc raifed in a leaping pofture. 
 
 SALIVA, Spittle , a thin pellucid humour, feparated 
 from the arterial blood, by the glands about the mouth 
 and fauces, and conveyed, by proper faliva dudls, into 
 the mouth for feveral ufes. 
 
 It confifts of a great deal of water or phlegm, and a 
 volatile fait, and fome add a fulphureous fpirit; and is 
 void both of tafte and fmell : its ufes are very great ; it 
 moiftens the throat, preferves it from the injuries of the 
 air, and facilitates fpeech. Being mixed with aliment, it 
 renders lwallowing eaiv, and alfifts digeftion by its aque¬ 
 ous, faline, and other parts. Some imagine it to do the 
 office of a menllruum, by mixing the oily and aqueous 
 parts of the food more intimately, diffolving the faline 
 parts, and procuring a fermentation in the ftomach : but 
 Dr. Drake is of opinion, that were the faliva acrimoni¬ 
 ous enough for this purpofe, it muft greatly offend the 
 ftomach, efpecially confidering the quantities of it that 
 many fwallow, even upon an empty ftomach. In hungry 
 perfons, Jays Boerhaave, it is fluid, acrid, and copioufly 
 difeharged ; and in thofe who have failed long, it is 
 highly acrid, penetrating, and refolvent. In farinaceous 
 and fucculent vegetables, it not only produces a fer¬ 
 mentation, but allb augments one already begun. It is 
 fwallowed not only by brutes, but by human creatures, 
 in a found ftate,-even when afleep. Too copious an 
 
 evacuation 
 
SAL 
 
 evacuation of it, made voluntarily, produces lofs of ap¬ 
 petite, bad digeftion, and an atrophy. By manducation 
 thereof the faliva is exprefied and accurately mixed with 
 the attenuated food ; which contributes, firft, to the al- 
 fimilation of the aliments to the nature of the body to 
 be nourifhed : fecondly, to the due mixture of the oleous 
 to the aqueous parts : thirdly, to the folutioil of the fa- 
 line parts: fourthly, to fermentation : fifthly, to a change 
 of the tafte and fmell of the aliments : fixthly, to an aug¬ 
 mentation of the inteftine motion : feventhly, to a mo- 
 mentaneous relief from hunger ; and, eighthly, an ap¬ 
 plication of the fapid parts, though infipid itfelf. 
 
 SALIVAL, or Salivary Du(Is, in anatomy, cer¬ 
 tain I'm all Iymphatick canals, whereby the faliva flows 
 from the falival glands into the mouth. 
 
 SALIVATION, in medicine, a promoting of the 
 flux of faliva, by means of medicines, moftly by mercury. 
 The chief ufe of falivation is in difeafes belonging to the 
 glands, and the membrana adipofa, and principally in 
 the cure of the venereal difeal’e, though it is fometimes 
 alfo ufed in epidemick difeafes, cutaneous difeafes, Ac. 
 vvliofe crifes tend that way. See Pox, &c. 
 
 A falivation is excited, according to Boerhaave, i. By 
 walking the mouth with ceitain liquors. 2. By the flow 
 and protrafted maftication of fome vifeid matter, fuch as 
 maftich, wax, and myrrh, efpecially if acrid fubftances 
 are mixed with thefe, fuch as pellitory of Spain, pyretli- 
 runi, ginger, and pepper. 3. By drawing into the mouth 
 acrid and irritating vapours, fuch as thofe of tobacco, 
 fage, rofemary, marjoram, thyme, and mother of thyme. 
 4.° A falivation is excellently excited by the aflion ot 
 fuch medicines as produce a gentle but long continued 
 naufea, fuch as antimony neither entirely fixed nor to¬ 
 tally emetick, taken with a final! quantity of common vi¬ 
 triol. By fuch fubftances as totally diffolve all the parts 
 of the blood, convert it into lymph, and render it fit for 
 a difeharge by way of lifliva ; fuch as crude quickfilver, 
 cinnabar, a iolution of quickfilver in aqua fords, white 
 precipitate, red precipitate, turbith mineral, and iubli- 
 rnate mercury diffolved ; the action of thofe medicines 
 is promoted by warm fomentations applied to the head, 
 neck, and face. All exceflive falivation is leflened or 
 flopped, j. By a large and continual ufe of mild and 
 tepid drinks, fuch as decoctions ot mallows and liquorice 
 in milk and water. 2. By allaying the impetus of tile 
 humours, by means of mild, uleous, and anodine emul- 
 fions, with a proper addition of diacodium or opium. 
 And, 3. By making a revulfion of the humours to other 
 parts’, efpecially that by ftool. But great caution is lie- 
 ceflary, left the impetus ot the moved matter, which in 
 this calc is always acrid, firould rufh to other parts, and 
 produce a greater danger. 
 
 SAL 1 X, the willow, in botany. See Willow. 
 
 SALLET, or Sallad, a difil of eatable herbs, or¬ 
 dinarily accompanying roaft meat, compofed chiefly of 
 crude frefll herbage, feafolied with fait, oil, and vinegar : 
 fome add milliard, hard eggs, and fugar; others pepper; 
 and others fpices, with orange-peel, faffron, &c. The 
 principal fillet-herbs, and thofe which ordinarily make 
 the balls of Our fallets, are lettice, celeri, endive, crcfifes, 
 raddifh and rape ; to which are fometimes added purilane, 
 fpinach, forrel, tarragon, burnet, corn-fallet, and chervil. 
 
 SALLY, in architecture, is what we more ulually 
 call projefture. SccProjecture. 
 
 Sally, in the military art, the iffuing out of the be- 
 fieged from their town or fort, and falling upon the be- 
 fiegers in their works, hinder the progrefs of their ap¬ 
 proaches, and deftroy their works, Ac. 
 
 SALMO, Salmon, in ichthyology, a well known 
 fifii. It is diftinguifhed from other filh of the truttace- 
 ous kind by thefe cliai'afters ; it is of an oblong body 
 covered with very fmall feales, a lmall head, afliarp nofe, 
 and a forked tail. Its back is bluilh , the reft of its body 
 whitifil, or redifli, and ufually fpotted. Its under jaw 
 is bent upwards, and that fometimes fo much as to make 
 itfelf a finus in the upper, by conftant motion, and fome- 
 times to perforate it. The falrnon is firft produced from 
 its parent’s fpawn in frclh rivers, thence it goes into the 
 fea to acquire its growth and feed, and, at the time of its 
 full growth, and in the feafon for fpawning, it removes 
 into the frefll waters again. 
 
 SALON, or Saloon, in architefture, a very Iotty 
 fpacious hall, vaulted at top, and fometimes comprehend- 
 
 SAL 
 
 ing two ftories or ranges of windows. The falon is a 
 grand room in the middle of a building, or at the head 
 of a gallery, See. Its faces or fides ought all to have a 
 fymmetry with each other ; and as it ufually takes up the 
 height of two {lories, its deling, as Daviler obferves, 
 fhould be with a more moderate lvveep. Salons are fre¬ 
 quently built fquare, and fometimes odlogonal. 
 
 SALT, Sal, in natural hiftory, the name of a feries 
 or l'ubdivifion of foflils, naturally and eflentia,liy fimple, 
 not inflammable, and foluble in water. 
 
 Sea S a lt, and that of S a lt Springs. Though there 
 are immenfe quantities of folTilc fait difperfed throughout 
 the feveral parts of the world, the foflile is however, of 
 its two fta,tes, that in which it is found by much the 
 leaf! abundantly. The waters of the fea, and thofe ot fait 
 fprings, contain an infinitely larger quantity of it in folu- 
 tion, than any the moll extravagant computation can 
 fuppofe there to be of ft folid. The fait is perfe&ly the 
 fame in the fea water and in that of thefe fprings. But 
 it is mixed with various other things in both, and is to 
 be feparated from them by chryftallization. The fea 
 water, befide fpar, oft^n contains bituminous matter of 
 various kinds in it, and that of fait fprings, though it 
 be more free from this admixture, yet holds a vail quan¬ 
 tity of a foul and earthly fpar, the fame with that of the 
 fea water, which is feparated from them both in boiling, 
 but in much greater quantity, even in proportion to that ot 
 the fait from the brine of fprings than of fea water. 
 
 The water of the fea contains, in different parts ot 
 the world, very different quantities of fait. But that ot 
 the fait fprings is always much more falted with it, than 
 the ftrongeft of the fca-water : in fome places it is found 
 loaded with nearly as much as it could be made to con¬ 
 tain, fome fprings yielding a brine that affords near a 
 quarter of a pound of fait, from the pound weight of 
 this liquor, and many of them being fo ftrongly impreg¬ 
 nated, that the workmen are obliged to let them down or 
 lower them, by mixing them with a large quantity of lea 
 or common water, before they arc fit to be boiled in the 
 fait: the common run of fea water does not hold lo 
 much as a one-fourth part of this quantity, fome not 
 one-eighth of it. 
 
 The lalt produced from the fea water of all the parts 
 of the world, and from the brine of all the fprings ot the 
 world, is absolutely the lame; but differs in Strength, 
 and fome other qualities, according to the operation by 
 which it is made. In general, the quicker the liquor is 
 evaporated, the weaker is the fait; the more time is em¬ 
 ployed in the procefs, the ftronger. This is not won¬ 
 derful, when we confider, that, over a gentle heat, water 
 alone, or almoft alone, evaporates from the liquor, but, 
 over a more violent fire, a part of the ftrength or acid of 
 the l'alt is railed with it. 
 
 It is upon this principle, and owing to this caufe, that 
 we find the lalt of our fait fprings, which is ufually fold 
 us under the name of bafket fait, the weakeft of all. It 
 is not that there is any difference in the waters from 
 which thefe feveral kinds of fait are produced, that they 
 appear to us in different degrees of ftrength, but that the 
 people who work the brine pits, make the lalt with lefs 
 expence of the workman’s time : that the fea lalt is 
 formed over a fo mew hat flower fire, and that the bay fait 
 is made only by the fun’s heat, where the procefs is very 
 long, and the heat very moderate, and the fait is found 
 ftrong in proportion. 
 
 This is fo indifputable a truth, that once every week, 
 a very ftrong fait, little inferior to bay fait in that qua¬ 
 lity, is made at the brine pit works, where the common, 
 run of the fait is the weakeft in the world. The liquor 
 is the fame in this cafe, but the workmen who do not 
 work on Sundays, leave a pan full to evaporate flowly 
 over the fire, which they prepare on the Saturday night, 
 and the moderate heat and length of time under which 
 the weekly parcel of fait is made, render it very different 
 from the common fait of the works, both in form and 
 qualities : it is found to be made up of large and hard 
 grains, inftead of the fmall and foft ones of the common 
 kind, and is vaftly fuperior to it in ftrength. This cir- 
 cumftance overlooked by the workmen, and even by 
 their mailers too, for many years, gave the hint to Mr. 
 Lownds, and afterwards to tfie very ingenious Dr. 
 Brpwning, author of an excellent treatife on this fub- 
 je£l, to propofe to the government a method of making 
 
 a ftrong 
 
SAL 
 
 a ftrong fait fit for all the purpofes for which we buy it 
 of our neighbours, only by a new, that is, a flower way 
 ol working our own brines. The latter of thefe gentle¬ 
 men has proved, inconteflably, that we may, if we will 
 encourage proper manufactures, have common fait of 
 every kind made at home, equal in Arength, and equally 
 fit for all purpofes, with the fait of any part of the 
 
 orld. After thefe accounts of the nutria of common fait beef, and the like, are very bad in thofl' cafesT bur 
 
 fait under its different forms, and as exprefled bv dif¬ 
 ferent names, it remains to treat of its qualities and vir¬ 
 tues in general. 
 
 It reiolves fpontancoufly in the air, hut this in dif¬ 
 ferent times according to the dampncls or drynefs of that 
 element, and according to its own laxer 01 firmer Aruc 
 ture. The coarfcr ialts diflolve fooncr than the finer, and 
 there are even lome pieces of fa 1 gem ms fo firm, that 
 they are fcarce to be at all affcCted, even on their furface, 
 by the moiflefi common air. 
 
 Common fait, added to aqua fortis, enables it to dif- 
 folve gold, making it into wluit is called aqua regia ; by 
 / diftillation it yields a Along and acid fpirit; it is the moA, 
 of all fubftances, endued with keeping animal bodies from 
 putrefattion, and it all'o preferves vegetables in the fame 
 manner as long digellions. In medicine, it is a com 
 mon ingredient in clyAers, and lerves to ("often and bring 
 away indurated feces. Suppositories arealfo made of a 
 mixture of it with honey, and are put up the fundament, 
 to promote a tendency to defuftions. Aloes and colo- 
 cynth are fometimes added on thefe occafions, when there 
 is required more power in the medicine, lii apopleiAick 
 cafes, it is generally an ingredient among the Aimulating 
 things adminiAered in clyAers, only it is neceilary to 
 have this caution, that if there appear reafon to fufpeft 
 an inflammation of the inteAines, or but a tendency to 
 it, every thing of this kind is to be avoided. 
 
 Common lalt that has not been expolcd to the fire, 
 makes no change into the colour of fyrup of violets ; it 
 does not make any ^ffervefcencc with oil of tartar, nor 
 does it make lime water turb:d, but added to fpirit of fal 
 armoiriack, it manifeAs fomc figns of a latent acidity, by 
 rendering it cloudy : on the contrary alfo, it manifeAs 
 fomething of an alkaline nature, by rendering a folution 
 of mercury whitilh ; and it raifes an efFervciccnce with 
 oil of vitriol, attended with heat. On folution in water, 
 common lalt manifeAs alfo two very different principles 
 after evaporation. When reduced to a proper confiAence, 
 that is, when tl>e quantity of water is not more than as 
 three to one to that of the fait, a part of it concretes into 
 grains of fait of the ordinary kind, but there remains 
 yet in the liquor, after all that can be feparated this way 
 has been procured, a Along taAe of a faline nature : the 
 fait that gives it this, will never be brought to cryAallize, 
 but muA be feparated by evaporating all the liquor away ; 
 it is then found to be of an alkaline nature, affuming no 
 regular form in its cryAals, and eafily imbibing the hir- 
 midity of the air, and running into a liquor with it. 
 
 The bafis of fea fait, therefore, is a mineral alkali, 
 which is fo intimately blended with its peculiar acid, 
 that the latter has fcarce any power of exerting itfclf. 
 The acid, drawn by diAillation from fea fait, turns the 
 fvrup of violets red, and ferments vehemently, though 
 without heat, with oil of tartar, but it docs not heat on 
 being poured into lime water. This fpirit is the only 
 one that can be properly called a folvent for gold and for 
 tin, but filver and lead refill: it. The acids of nitre and 
 vitriol, alfo, obtain the fame qualities on being mixed 
 with it, and become aquae regales. If this acid be per¬ 
 fectly faturated with lalt of tartar, cryAals of the form and 
 quantities of thofe of common fait may be obtained from 
 the mixture ; thefe cryAals are called regenerated fea fait, 
 and ferve to prove what we abferved above, that an alkali 
 is the bafis of fea fait, and that more alkalis than one 
 may ferve to that purpofe with the peculiar acid, which 
 is the cfi’ential part of this lalt. 
 
 Phyficians are of opinion, that fait has the fame effects 
 in the human bod) that it has out of it, in checking fer¬ 
 mentation, and preventing putrefaction ; they therefore 
 efieem it of good ufe mixed with the generality of our 
 foods in the fiomach : they are of opinion alfo, that it 
 carries its elfcCt into the blood, and has the qualities of 
 a moderate dryer, detergent and attenuant, added to thofe 
 of a Ainvnlaiit, which common reafon declares it to be. 
 
 SAL 
 
 as an aperient. ftomachick, or warming medicine, ami a 
 provocative to venerjr; but in what degree it pofieffes all 
 ■ hele qualities, we are, by its univerfal ufe in foods, pre¬ 
 vented from being able to determine. Van Helmont 
 recommends it as a good prefemtive againft the {lone 
 and gravel : he has been ieverely cenfured for this by 
 othcis, who aie of opinion, that all faltcd foods, fucli 
 
 both parties may be in tile right: there is a great deal of 
 cliiterence between common fait eaten with the freil. 
 juices of our food, and the brine and pickle into which 
 it runs in the time of its being left upon the meat pre- 
 kivcd by it. Salt is very properly put into the mouths 
 ol people m apopleftick fits, as it not only irritates but 
 attenuates the juices there, and promotes a diicharge of 
 them : and m a pally which affefts the tongue, a°fa-rc 
 leaf, bruifed and covered with fait, has long been a la 
 mous remedy among the good women, and not without 
 reafon. 
 
 Mixed with bran, and heated in a canvas bag, it is 
 recommended to be applied externally to the head in. 
 bead-achs, anfing from amoift caufe, and in defluxions; 
 and we find the old phyficians very ftrenuoufly recom¬ 
 mending a cataplafm made of the fame ingredients foi 
 pains. 
 
 Salt -Mm. The moll remarkable falt-mines, are 
 hole of Bochna and A',lilke, not far from Cracow in 
 1 oiaml , and thole at Soowar, near Eper, in Upper 
 Hungary. I he falt-mines near the fmall town of Vilifke 
 which (the church excepted) is altogether dug hollow 
 under ground, have four defeents ; of which the two 
 principal, being in the town itfelf, are thofe through 
 which the fait is drawn up ; the other two ferve for let¬ 
 ting down timber and other neceffaries. Thefe defeents 
 or holes are four or five feet fquare, lined all the way 
 downwards uuth timber. Above is a great wheel with a 
 ■ long tope of the thicknefs of a Itifty arnt, drawn about 
 by a ltorle like as in a horfe-mill. He that will defeend 
 ult cover himfelf with a frock, and have another man 
 that fattens another rope to the aforefaid big roue, and 
 having lo tied it about himfelf as to fit in'it, he takes 
 him in his lap, and holds him faft about; whereupon 
 the big rope being fomewhat let down, another fattens 
 Imcwilc a piece of tope to tlte other thick rope, and docs 
 like the former, featmg himfelf in it, and taking and 
 clipping another man m his lap, and, being alfo letdown 
 a little way, gives place to others to do the like, in which 
 manner go, 40, and more perfects maybe let down all at 
 once ; of whom tile fjrft, having touched the ground, 
 fteps out and goes aftde, the reft following him, and 
 doing the like, and thus they defeend to the depth of 
 100 fathoms. But then they take a lamp and lead people 
 about by ftrange paffages and meanders, ft,II more and 
 more descending till they come to certain ladders by 
 which they go down 100 fathoms deeper, where there 
 are double paflages and holes one above another in abun¬ 
 dance ; for the mine-men dig on Aill, and cut out every 
 where, and on all fides, as the falt-mine lafis. The 
 great holes to iecure both the town above, and work be¬ 
 low from falling in, are carefully fupported by Arong and 
 well compared timber. 
 
 I hefe mines were firA difeovered in 1251. Within 
 them is found a kind of fubterraneous republick, which 
 has its polity, laws, and families, and even publick roads, 
 carnages and horfes for drawing the fait to the mouth of 
 the quarry where it is taken up by engines. Thefe 
 horfes, when once down, never fee the light again; but 
 the men take frequent occafions to breathe the village air. 
 When a traveller is arrived at the bottom of this Arango 
 abyfs where fo many people are interred alive, and where- 
 fo many are even born, and have never Airred out, he is 
 lurpriled with a long feries of lofty vaults fuAained by 
 huge pilaAers cut with the chiffel, and which, bcin- 
 themfelves rock-falt, appear, by the light of flambeaux^ 
 which are inceflantly burning, as fo many cryAals or 
 precious Aones of various colours Shedding a luAre almoA 
 intolerable to the eye. 
 
 The rocks of fait are hewn in the form of huge cy- 
 linders, the workmen uling hammers, pick-axes, and 
 chiflels, much as in our Aone quarries, to feparate the 
 icveral banks of Aone. As foon as the maflivc pieces are 
 got out of the quarry, they break them into fragments 
 
 Hence may be deduced all the virtues attributed to fait, J fit to be thrown into the mill, where they are ground 
 
 and 
 
SAL 
 
 and reduced to a coarfe farina or flour, which ferves all 
 the ufes of fea-falt. In thefe mines there are three kinds 
 of fal gemma?; one is common, coarfe, and black, the, 
 fecond fomewhat finer and whiter ; the third very white, 
 hard, and tranfparent, which laft is the fal gemma; of 
 the druggifts and dyers. It cuts like cryftal, and is fre¬ 
 quently ui'ed for toys, chaplets, little vafes, and the like ; 
 the other forts are lefs compact, and only fit for kitchen 
 ufes. The coarfe and black fait is cut out in great pieces, 
 roundifh, and three Polonian ells long, and one ell thick, 
 which are fold from 50 to 70 Polonian florins. The 
 greatell pieces lie before their doors, where they are licked 
 by the cattle, as they pafs ; the colour of thefe fait ftoncs 
 is darkifh grey, with fome mixture of yellow. But the 
 principal wonder of the place is, that through thefe 
 mountains of fait, and along the middle of the mine, 
 there runs a rivulet of freflh water fufficient to lupply the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The imperial falt-mines at Soowar, near Eper, in 
 Upper Hungary, are remarkable for many curious parti¬ 
 culars ; of which Dr. Bruckman gives us the following 
 account: They are at leaft 100 fathoms deep. In the 
 cuts of them are fometimes found alleys of rock-falt, of 
 the molt delicate blue and yellow colours. He obferved, 
 that the firft colour expofed to the fun for fome days loft 
 entirely that beautiful ultra-marine, and became white 
 as the other rock-falt, which did not happen to the yel¬ 
 low, which preferved its colour, but, when pounded to¬ 
 gether, the fait was neither blue nor yellow, but extremely 
 white. 
 
 Mcliflantes, in his geography, fpeaking of falt-works 
 which the Spaniards have in Catalonia, lays that there 
 is rock-falt, the colour of which is fo diverfified, that it 
 conics near the rainbow in having green, red, yellow, 
 and blue colours; but that by firft preparing, and then 
 grinding it, it becomes white. The fame happens to 
 the red rock-falt of Saltzburg, which being pounded, 
 becomes white. But one thing very remarkable in the 
 mines of Soowar is a chapel, which can eafily contain 
 100 people, cut in the rock-falt, with an altar, a pulpit, 
 facriftry, and forms cut in the fame rock. They cele¬ 
 brate once every year, the week after Epiphany, divine 
 fervice in this chapel, and the fermon is always preached 
 by a Jefuit of Eper. This chapel was founded for the 
 officers of the excile and the miners. But that which 
 is moft curious in thefe fubterraneous fofles, are the flow¬ 
 ers of fait, which grow like the beard of a goat, with 
 this difference only, that thefe are much whiter and finer. 
 One cannot enough admire thefe cfflorefccnces which 
 leem to vegetate, yet one cannot find them in all the 
 cuts, nor at all times, but they appear and grow accord¬ 
 ing to the temperature of the feafons, which in thefe parts 
 is very wholefome. Thefe forts of plumes of fait are 
 very brittle ; they melt alfo in moift places, and diflolve 
 into an oil, but are ncverthelefs a moft pure fait, the 
 fineft, the moft acid, the whiteft, and moft beautiful ; 
 fo that it is not without reafon they have given it the 
 name of flower of fait. 
 
 At Neufol there is a ftatuc of rock-falt as large as the 
 life, which ferves as the barometer of the town ; for, 
 when it begins to fweat or grow moift, it prefages rain 
 or wet weather; but, when it is dry, you may certainly 
 promife yourfelf fettled fair. There are alfo feveral falt- 
 mines in England about the wyches in Cheftiire. 
 
 Properties of common Salt. Common fait has many 
 very extraordinary properties. 1. The fmalleft cryftals 
 of common fait are always of a cubick figure, that is, 
 the figure of a dye. 2. Upon the application of fire to 
 it, it crackles. This decrepitation or crackling of fait 
 feems to proceed from the air contained in its pores, 
 which, being rarified by the fire, breaks its prifon, and 
 makes its elcape. 3. Spirit of fait is the only thing in 
 nature that will dilfolve gold, but not without being 
 joined with the fpirit of nitre. 4. Salt preferves all 
 vegetable and animal fubftances from putrefaction, as 
 alfo water, and is itfelf incorruptible ; this property it 
 entirely owes to the acid it contains. A greater quantity 
 of common fait will be diflolved in a given quantity of 
 water than of any other fait whatever; for fix ounces 
 of common fait may be diflolved in 16 of water; but it 
 muft be obferved, that warm water will diflolve more fait 
 than cold, and that in proportion to the heat of the 
 water. Thus water, in that degree of heat which makes 
 Vol. II. No. 65. 
 
 SAL 
 
 it boil, diflolves more fait than in any lefs degree of heat, 
 infomuch that, as it grows cool, it will every moment 
 let fall more and more of the fait which was diflolved 
 in it, which will appear at the bottom of the containing 
 veflel undiflolved, and, when the water is fo cold as to 
 freeze, it will expel almoft all the fait, which will flick 
 to the bottom of the ice in a folid form. 
 
 Salt, diflolved in water of a heat equal to that of the 
 atmofphcre, renders the water confiderably colder, and 
 yet, notwithftanding this increafe of coldnefs, the fait 
 will keep the water from freezing, infomuch that water 
 wherein fait is diflolved fhall not freeze near fo foon as 
 pure water : and hence we may obferve that fait, when 
 interpofed between the final 1 particles of water, has the 
 power of preventing this aflociation, that is, their con¬ 
 cretion into ice ; othervvife fait, by increafing cold, would 
 promote freezing. 
 
 If fpirit of lalt is poured upon ice reduced to powder, 
 it will increafe the coldnefs thereof to afurprifing degree; 
 to a degree much greater than ever was produced natu¬ 
 rally, and in which every animal muft die. 
 
 Salt thrown upon burning coals greatly increafes their 
 heat. This proceeds from the air, water, and acid con¬ 
 tained in the body of the fait; for the air being forced 
 out of the fait by heat, a£ts upon the fuel like a pair of 
 bellows; and that w'ater will increafe the heat of fire, is 
 known to all fmiths, who, when they would make their 
 fires intenfely hot, frequently fprinkle water upon the 
 burning coals. 
 
 Salt, made extremely dry, attracts the moifture of the 
 air confiderably even in the drieft feafons, infomuch 
 that it is a common thing for people who deal in fait, to 
 buy it at the Wyches very dry, and to fell it again many 
 miles diftant for lei's per 100 than it coft them ; yet are 
 they confiderable gainers, becaule the fame quantity of 
 fait that weighs 100 at the wyches, will be much heavier, 
 after having imbibed the moifture of the air. 
 
 With refpeft to thefe properties of fait, it may be re¬ 
 marked that, as putrefaction is always in proportion to 
 heat, that vaft body of water which we call the fea, 
 would putrefy and ftink (as we find, in effeft, frefh and 
 ftagnating waters do) efpecially in hot climates and calm 
 weather. Now, this putrefaction would be fatal, not 
 only to all the animals contained in the fea, but alfo to 
 thole land animals that come within the influence of the 
 vapours arifing from this vaft body of putrefying waters, 
 which probably .would be all animals upon the face of 
 the earth. 
 
 Now, we find by the fourth property of fait, that it 
 preferves all vegetable and animal fubftances from putre¬ 
 faction, as alfo water ; and that there is a great quantity 
 of this fait in the fea, is a propofition unneceflarv to be 
 proved. 
 
 By property the fifth we find that a greater quantity 
 of fait will be diflolved in warm water than cold ; and 
 by this it fhould feem that more fait fhould be diflolved 
 in hot climates, and in hot weather, where there is more 
 occafion for it to guard it againft putrefaction, than in 
 cold climates, and in cold weather, where there is lefs 
 occafion for it; accordingly we find by repeated experi¬ 
 ence, that in the Mediterranean fea, where the climate 
 is hot, one pint of water Contains one ounce of fait; but, 
 in the Baltick, where the climate is cold, the fame quan¬ 
 tity of water contains only half an ounce. It is as certain 
 that under the equator the fea water contains ftill a greater 
 proportion of fait, and tliofe fcas that lie more northward 
 than the Baltick, a lefs. 
 
 Agreeable to this is an obfervation made by a friend 
 of Mr. Boyle, at his defire, who found, by a glafs in- 
 ftrument made on purpofe. that the fea-water increafed 
 in weight, and confequcntly in laltnefs, the nearer he 
 approached the line. The fame author further informs 
 us, that atMunar, near the great Cape of Comori, where 
 the famous pearl-filhing is carried on, and the climate is 
 very warm, the ocean isfo fait as to depofit a good quan¬ 
 tity at the bottom in hard lumps. Wc learn further from 
 property the fixth, that fait renders water, wherein it is 
 diflolved, colder than it would otherwife be. Now, as 
 putrefadtion is in proportion to heat, this property muft 
 alfo guard againft putrefaction in hot climates, and in 
 hot feafons. 
 
 Dr. Halley, in the Philofophical TranfaCtions, has a 
 diflertation to fliew, that as fait is perpetually conveyed 
 4 O w 
 
SAM 
 
 to the fea by rivers, the fea muft daily acquire a greater 
 degree of faltnefs, infomuch that, if we had any authen- 
 tick obfervations relative to the degree of faltnefs of the 
 fea made at diflant periods of time, we might from thefe 
 calculate the age of the world. 
 
 But if there is any truth in thefe obfervations, with' 
 refpedt to the faltnefs of the fea. as there undoubtedly 
 is, Dr. Halley’s fyftem, however pretty and ingenious, 
 muft entirely fall to the ground . as the reader will eafilv 
 perceive, it he confiders that the fea was, in all proba¬ 
 bility, as 1 alt a fortnight after the fall of Adam, as at 
 this time, fince the neceffity and convenience or it were 
 as great then as now : and it is very unlikely, that the 
 Almighty lhould create his works imperfedt, and leave 
 them to be brought to perfection by a long feries of 
 time. 
 
 SALTIER, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of a 
 St, Andrew’s crofs; which may be Laid to be compofed 
 of a bend dexter and finifter, crofting each other in the 
 centre of the efcutcheon. 
 
 SALT PETRE, the fame with nitre. See Nitre. 
 
 SALVAGE Money, a reward allowed by the civil I 
 and ftatufe law, for the faving of (hips or goods from 
 the danger of the feas, pirates, or enemies. 
 
 Where any Ihip is in danger of being ftranded, or 
 driven on fhore, juftices of the peace are to command the 
 conftables to aflemble as many perfons as are neceffary tp 
 preferve it, and. on its being preferved by their means, 
 the perfons allifting therein fhall, in 30 days after, be 
 paid a reafonable reward for the lalvage, otherwife the 
 ihip or goods lhall remain in the cuftody of the officers 
 of the c-uftoms. as a fecurity for the fame. 
 
 SALVATELLA, in anatomy, a branch of the auxil¬ 
 iary vein, which runs over the back of the hand towards 
 the little finger. 
 
 SALUTAT ION, the a£l of faluting, greeting, or 
 paying refpedl and reverence to any one. 
 
 There is a great variety in the forms of falutation. 
 The Orientals lalute by uncovering their feet, laying 
 their hands on their breafts, Ccc. In England, we falute 
 by uncovering the head, bending the body, &c. The 
 pope makes no reverence to any mortal, except the em¬ 
 peror, to whom he ftoops a very little, when he permits 
 him to kiIs his lips. A prince, or perfon of extraordi¬ 
 nary quality, is faluted at his entering a garrifon by the 
 firing of the cannon round the place. In the field, when 
 a regiment is to be reviewed by a king, or general, the 
 drums beat as he approaches, and the officers falute him 
 one after another as he pafles by, ftepping back with the 
 right foot and hand, bowing theirfpontoons to theground, 
 and then recovering them gently, bringing up the foot 
 and hand, planting them ; which done, they pull off 
 their hats without bowing. The enfigns falute all to¬ 
 gether, bringing down their coloprs near the ground 
 direftly before them at one motion, and having taken 
 them up again, gently lift their hats. 
 
 At fea. they falute by adifeharge of cannon, which is 
 greater or lets, according to the degree of refpedt they 
 would lhew; and here fhips always falute with an odd 
 number of guns, and galleys with an even one. To 
 falute with mufkets is to fire one, two, or three volleys ; 
 which is a method of falutation that fometimes precedes 
 that of cannon, and is ufed on occafion of feafts. After 
 the cannon, they alfo fometimes falute or hail with the 
 voice, by a joint ffiout of all the fhip’s company, repeated 
 three times; which falutation alfo occafionally obtains 
 where they carry no guns, or do not care to difeharge 
 any. Saluting with the flag is performed two ways, either 
 by holding it clofe to the ftaff, fo as it cannot flutter, or 
 by ftriking it fo as it cannot be feen at all, which is the 
 moft refpeftful. Saluting with the fails is performed 
 by hovering the top-fails halfway of the mafts. Only 
 thole veflels that carry no guns falute with the fails. 
 
 SAMARITANS, an ancient fedt among the Jews, 
 ftill fublifting in l'ome parts of the Levant, under the 
 lame name. Its origin was in the time of Rehoboam, 
 under whofe reign the people of Ifrael were divided into 
 two diftindt kingdoms, that of Judah and that of Ifrael; 
 the capital of the latter being Samaria, the Ifraelites ob¬ 
 tained the name of Samaritans; though Dr. Gill is of 
 opinion, for which he gives good reafons, that the Sa¬ 
 maritans are really the defendants of the Babylonians, 
 Cuthii.es, See. lent to Samaria by the king of AiTvria, on 
 
 SAN 
 
 the removal of the tribes of Ifrael into captivity 1 fee his 
 diftert. on the Hebrew language. See. chap. 3. 
 
 . The y were anciently guilty of idolatry, and the Rab¬ 
 bins pretend, that they worfliipped the figure of a dove 
 on mount Gerizzim but the prelent Samaritans, who 
 are but few in number, are far from being idolaters. 
 They celebrate the paftover every year, on the 14th day 
 of the firft month, on mount Gerizzim, and begin that 
 fcaft with the facrificc appointed for that pui°pofe in 
 Exodus : they keep the fabbath with all the rigour with 
 which it is enjoined in the book of Exodus, none among 
 them ftirrmg out of doors but to the lynagogue ; they 
 lacrifice no where but on mount Gerizzim : they obferve 
 the feafts of expiation, tabernacles, harveft, &c. and never 
 defer circumcifion beyond the 8th day ; they never marry 
 their nieces as the Jews do; have but one wife; and, in 
 fine, do nothing but what is commanded in the law. 
 
 Samaritan Aledals, lome ancient medals in the 
 cabinets of our antiquaries, the inferiptions and legends 
 of which are in Hebrew ; but the charadler different froip 
 the Hebrew of our Bibles, which is the fquare Hebrew, 
 or Chaldee; from this character, and not from their 
 being ft ruck by the Samaritans, they are denominated 
 Samaritan. 
 
 SAMBUCUS, the Elder, in botany, a genus ofplants, 
 the flower of which confifts of a Angle rotated femiquin- 
 quiftd petal; its fruit is a roundifh unilocular berry, con¬ 
 taining three feeds, convex on one fide, and angulated on 
 the other. 
 
 T he inner green bark of this fhrub is gently cathartick: 
 an infufion of it in wine, or its expieiicd juice, in the 
 dofe of half an ounce, or an ounce, is laid to purge mo¬ 
 derately ; and in final! dofes, to prove an efficacious de- 
 obftruent, capable of promoting all the fluid fecretions. 
 The young buds, or rudjments of the leaves, are ftrongly 
 purgative, but are reckoned unfafe. The exp relied juice, 
 fpifiated to the confiftence of a rob, proves an ufeful 
 aperient medicine, which is good in obftrudtions of the 
 vifeera, and promotes the natural evacuations. 
 
 Sambucus is alfo an ancient mufical inftrument of 
 the wind-kind, refembling a flute ; probably thus called, 
 becaufe made of elder. 
 
 SAMIAN Earth, in the materia medica, the name 
 of two fpecies of marl uled in medicine, viz. 1. The 
 white kind, called by the antients, collyrium famiuin ; 
 being aftringent, and therefore good in diarrhaes, dyfen- 
 teries, and haemorrhages; they alfo ufed it externally in 
 inflammations of all kinds. 2. The browniffi-white 
 kind, called after famius, by Diofcorides : this alfo Hands 
 recommended as an aftringent. 
 
 SAN-BENITO, or Saco Benito, a kind of linen gar¬ 
 ment worn as a badge by perfons who have been (Ton- 
 demned by the inquifition. It is inform of a fcapular, 
 being a broad piece of cloth hanging down before and 
 behind, with two St. Andrew’s croffes on it ; it is of a 
 yellow colour, and painted over with devils and flames. 
 
 SANC TUARY, among the Jews, alfo called Sanc¬ 
 tum Sandtorum, or Holy of Holies, was the holieft and 
 rpoft retired part of the temple of Jerufalem, in which 
 the aik of the covenant was preferved, and into which 
 none but the high prieft was allowed to enter, and that 
 only once a year, to intercede for the people. Some dif- 
 tinguifti the famftuary from the fandtum fandlorum, and 
 maintain that the whole temple was called the fandluary. 
 To try and examine any thing by the weight of the fanc- 
 tuary, is to examine it by a juft and equal lcale : becaufe, 
 among the Jews, it was the cuftom of the priefts to keep 
 ftone weights, to ferve as ftandards for regulating all 
 weights by, though thefe were not at all different from 
 the royal, or profane weights. 
 
 Saiuftuary, in the Romifli church, is alfo ufed for that 
 part ol the church in \vfiich the altar is placed, incom- 
 paffed with a rail or balluftrade. 
 
 Sanctuary, in our ancient cuftoms, is the fame 
 with afylum. See Asylum. 
 
 SAND, Arena , in natural hiftory, a genus of foffils, 
 the charadters of which are, that they are found in mi¬ 
 nute concretions ; forming together a kind of powder, 
 the genuine particles of which are all of a tendency to 
 one determinate ffiape, and appear regular, though more 
 or lefs complete concretions; not to be diffolvcd or dif- 
 united by water, or formed into a coherent mafs by 
 means of it, but retaining their figure in it; tranfparcnr, 
 
 verifiable 
 
SAN 
 
 \itrifiable by extreme heat, and not diffoluble in, nor ef- 
 fervefcing with, acids. Sands are fubjeft tp be variouily 
 blended both with homogene and heterogene lubfiances, 
 as that of talcks, &c. and hence, as well as from their 
 various colours, are fubdivided into, i. White fands, 
 whether pure or mixed with other arenaceous or hetero¬ 
 geneous particles; of all which there are feveral fpecies, 
 differing no lefs in the finenefs of their particles, than in 
 the different degrees of colour, from a bright and fhining 
 white, to a brown iff), yellowifh, green ilh, &c. white. 
 
 2. T he red and redifh fands, both pure and impure. 
 
 3. The yellow fands, whether pure or mixed, are alfo 
 very numerous. 4. The brown fands, diflinguifhed in 
 the fame manner. 5. The black fands, whereof there 
 are only two fpecies, viz. a fipe fhining greyifh black 
 land, an,d another of a fine fhining redilh-black colour. 
 (). The green kind, of which there is only one known 
 fpecies, viz. a coarfe variegated dufky green fand, com¬ 
 mon in Virginia. 
 
 Sand is of great ufe in the glafs-manufa&ure ; the 
 white writing fand being employed for making of the 
 white glafs, and a coarfe greenifh-looking fand for the 
 green glafs. 
 
 In agriculture, it feems to be the office of fand to make 
 umfluous earth fertile, and fit to fupport vegetables, &c. 
 I J or earth alone, we find, is liable to coalefce, and gather 
 into a hard coherent mal's, as appears in clay ; and be¬ 
 ing thus embodied, and as it were glued together, is n,o 
 way difpofed to nourifh vegetables. 
 
 Sand-Fi.ood, a terrible mifehief, incident to the 
 lands of Suffolk, and fomc other parts of England; which 
 are frequently covered with vaft quantities of fand, roll¬ 
 ing in upon them like a deluge of water, from fandy hills 
 in their neighbourhood. Tfie beft way of flopping its 
 progrefs is, by hedges of furze, planted one pver another 
 as they become level. 
 
 Sand-Lands, or Sandy Lands, in agriculture, 
 are made up of fands of different colours and qualities; 
 as white, blackifh, redifh, or yellowifh ; and in the form 
 of their particles, l'ome being milder or harfher, and others 
 very light, feeming mere dull. The grey, black, and 
 afh-coloured fands are the worft of all, gnd are generally 
 found on heaths and commons. 
 
 The mofl luitable plants for arable lands of this kind 
 are white oats, rye, black wheat, and turneps : the natural 
 produce in weeds, is quick-grafs, forrel, broom, furze, 
 fern, and heath. The beft manure for them, is either 
 marl or fuch clay as will break with the froils. Cow- 
 dung is alfo faid to be good for fuch lands ; and many 
 ufe with fuccefs chalk, mud, and the half rotten ilraw 
 of dunghills. 
 
 SANDAL, in aptiquity, a rich kind of flipper, worn 
 on the feet by the Greek and Roman ladies, made of gold, 
 filk, or other precious fluff, confiflingpf a foie, with an 
 hollow at one extreme to embrace tfie ancle, but leaving 
 the upper part of the foot bare. 
 
 SANDARACH, in natural hiflory, a very beautiful 
 native foffil, though too often confounded with the com¬ 
 mon factitious red arfenick, and with the red matter 
 formed by melting the common yellow orpiment. 
 
 It is a pure fubllance, of a very even and regular ftruc 
 tuie, is throughout of that colour which our dyers term 
 an orange-fcarlet, and is confiderqbiy tranfparent even in 
 the thickefl pieces. But though with relpeCl to colour, 
 it has the advantage of cinnabar while in the mafs, it is 
 vaftly inferior to it when both are reduced to powders. 
 It is moderately hard, and remarkably heavy, and when 
 expofed to a moderate heat, melts and flows like oil: if 
 fist on fire, it burns very brifkly. 
 
 It is found in Saxony and Bohemia, in the copper and 
 filver mines, and is fold to the painters, who find it a 
 very fine and valuable red : but its virtues or qualities in 
 medicine, are no more afeertained at this time, than 
 thofe of the yellow orpiment. 
 
 Gum- Sandarach, is a dry and hard refin, ufually 
 met with in loofe granules, of the bignefs of a pea, a 
 horfe-bean, or larger; of a pale whitifh yellow, tranf¬ 
 parent, and of a refinous fmell, brittle, very inflammable, 
 of an acrid and aromatick tafle, and diffufing a very plea- 
 fant fmell when burning. It is produced from a fpecies 
 of the juniper, and the cedrus baccifera. It flows only 
 from thefe trees in hot countries , but the natives pro¬ 
 mote its difeharge by making incifions in the bark. What 
 
 SAN 
 
 is obtained from the cedar is more fragrant, efpeciali f 
 when burnt; but it is feldom to be met with feparate in 
 the fhops, both being^ mixed together under the common 
 name of landarach. Sandarach is good in diarrhoeas, and 
 in haemorrhages; where its dofe is from 10 grains to half 
 a drachm : it is alfo. fometimes preferibed in gonorrhaias, 
 and the fluor albus ; but at- prefent it is much difufed in 
 medicine. It is, however, much ufed by our writing- 
 mailers, who make a powder of it which they call pounce. 
 
 file varmfh-makers make a kind of varnifh of it by 
 diflblving it in oil of turpentine, or linfeed, or in fpirit 
 of wine. 
 
 SANDIVER, a whitifh fait, continually call from the 
 metal, as it is called, whereof glafs is made; and fwim- 
 ming on its furface, is lkiinmed off. Sandiver is alfo 
 plentifully thrown out in the eruptions of vulcanos ; 
 l'ome is of a fine white, and others tinged blueilh, or 
 yellowifh. Sandiver is detergent, and good for foulneffes 
 of the fkm. It is alfo ufed by gilders of iron. 
 
 SAND LX, a kind of minium, or red-lead, made of 
 cerufe; but much inferior to the true minium. See 
 Minium and Ceruse. 
 
 SANGUIFICA riON, in the animal oeconomy, the 
 converfion of chyle into true blood. 
 
 SANHEDRIM, or Sanhedrin, among the Jews, 
 the great council of the nation, confining of 70 fenators, 
 taken partly from among the priells and Levites, and 
 partly out of the inferior judges, who formed what is 
 called the lefler fanhedrim. T he room they met in, was 
 a rotunda, half of which was built without the temple, 
 and half within. The nafi, or prefident of the fanhe- 
 drim, fat upon a throne, with his deputy on his right 
 hand, his fub-deputy on his left, and the other fenators 
 ranged in order on each fide. 
 
 Tfie authority of this council was very extenfive, for 
 they decided fuch caufes as were brought before them by 
 way of appeal from the inferior courts; and the king, the 
 high priells, and prophets, were under the jurifdi&ion 
 of this tribunal. They had the right of judging in capi¬ 
 tal cafes, and fentence of death might not be pronounced 
 in any other place; for which reafon the Jews were forced 
 to quit this hall, when the power of life and death was 
 taken out of their hands, 40 years before the deftru&ion 
 cf the temple, and three years before the death of Chrill. 
 
 There were feveral inferior fanhedrims in Paleiline, 
 each of which confifled of 23 perlons ; alltheie depended 
 on the great fanhedrim of Jerufalem. 
 
 SANIES, in medicine, a ferous putrid matter, iffuinf 
 from wounds; it differs from pus, which is thicker and 
 whiter. 
 
 SANTALUM, Saunders, in the materiamedica, 
 a hard odoriferous medicinal wood, brought from the 
 E. Indies, of which there are three forts, viz. the yellow, 
 white, and red ; the yellow or citrine faunders, is a beau¬ 
 tiful wood ; of tfie colour of lemon-peel; of a fmell 
 fomewhat like a mixture of mufk and rofes, and of a 
 fomewhat acrid and aromatick tafle, with a flight bittcr- 
 nefs. The white launders refembles the yellow, and is 
 of the fame fragrant fmell and aromatick tafle, but in a 
 more remifs degree. Both thefe forts fhould be chofbn 
 found, firm, heavy, and of a good fmell when cut; they 
 fhould alfo be chofen in the block, and not cut into chips 
 as they ufually are, for in this manner they foon lofe 
 much of their virtue. The red faunders is of a denfe and 
 compact texture, remarkably heavy and very hard It is 
 brought to us in logs of conliderable length, the our nart 
 of which is of a dulky, and the inner of a blood red'- it 
 has but little fmell, and is of an auftere tafle. 
 
 All thefe forts are attenuants, and all have an aflrin- 
 gency, but the red mofl of all. T hey are accounted cor¬ 
 dials, and are faid to be good in obftru&ions of the 
 vifcera; but they are little ufed, except as ingredients in 
 fome of the compofitions of the fhops. 
 
 SANIOLINA, Female Southern-Wood, or 
 Lavender-Cotton, a plant,, the compound flower of which 
 is uniform, confifting of a number of infundibuliform 
 hermaphrodite corollula?, quinquifid at the limb; which 
 are each followed by a Angle feed, contained in the cup. 
 
 1 he medicinal virtues afcribed to fantolina, are, in ge- 
 neral the lame wnh thofe of the abrotanum mas, or 
 male fouthern-wood : it is however particularly recom¬ 
 mended m uterine complaints; and its feed is good for 
 deltroymg worms. See Southern-Wood. 
 
 SAP, 
 
S A R 
 
 SAP, in phyfiology, a juice furnifhed by the earth, 
 and changed into the plant, confiftingof folfil parts, other 
 parts derived from the air and rain, and others from pu- 
 trified animals, plants, Sec. See Juice. 
 
 Sap, or Sapp, in the art of war, is the digging deep 
 under the earth of the glacis, in order to open a covered 
 paflage into the moat. It is only a deep trench, covered 
 at top with boards, hurdles, earth, fand-bags, See. and 
 is ufually begun live or fix fathoms from the faliant angle 
 of the glacis. 
 
 SAP1NDUS, the Soapberry-Tree, in botany, 
 a plant, the flower of which confifts of four oval petals; 
 and the fruit of three capiules, each including a globofe 
 nut. The berries of this tree are ufed for walhing, in- 
 Read of foap, whence the Englilh name. 
 
 SAPO, Soap. See Soap. 
 
 SAPONAR1A, So at wort, in botany, a plant, the 
 flower of which confifts of five petals, with a plane limb ; 
 and its fruit an unilocular capfule, containing a number 
 of fmall feeds. The root of this plant is accounted ape¬ 
 rient, corroborant, and fudorifick; and even preferred 
 by fome to faflafras in thefe intentions. The leaves, 
 agitated with water, raife a faponaceous froth, which has 
 nearly the fame effects with folutions of foap itfelf, in 
 taking out fpots from cloths, whence the name. 
 
 SAPPHIRE, a pellucid gem, which, in its fineftftate, 
 is extremely beautiful and valuable, and fecond only to 
 the diamond in luftre, hardnefs, and price. Its proper 
 colour is a pure blue : in the fineft fpecimens it is of the 
 deepefl azure, and in others varies into paienefs in Ihades 
 of all degrees between that and a pure cryftal brightnefs 
 and water, without the leaft tinge of colour, but with a 
 luftre much fuperior to the cryftal. They are diftin- 
 guifhed into four forts, viz. the blue fapphirc, the white 
 fapphire, the water fapphirc, and the milk fapphire. 
 
 The gem known to us by this name is extremely dif¬ 
 ferent from the fapphire of the ancients, which was only 
 a femi-opake ftone, of a deep blue veined with white, 
 and fpotted with fmall gold-coloured l'pangles, in the 
 form of liars, and was only a more beautiful kind of the 
 lapis lazuli : but our fapphire they have delcribed under 
 the name of beryllus aeroides, or the Iky-blue beryl. 
 
 The fineft fapphires in the world are brought from the 
 kingdom of Pegu, in the E. Indies, where fome are found 
 perfectly colourlefs, and others of all the Ihades of blue ; 
 thefe are all found in the pebble-form. We have very 
 fine fapphires alfo, partly pebble, partly cryftal-fhaped, 
 from Bifnagar, Conanor, Calicut, and the ifland of Cey¬ 
 lon : thefe alfo are of all the Ihades of blue. And in 
 Ceylon there are fometimes found a fort of baftard gems, 
 of a mixed nature between the fapphire and ruby. The 
 occidental are from Silefia, Bohemia, and many other 
 parts of Europe ; but though thefe are often very beau¬ 
 tiful ftones, they are greatly inferior, both in luftre and 
 hardnefs, to the oriental. 
 
 The fapphire is faid to have very great virtues as a 
 cordial, fudorifick, and alexipharmick; but we have no 
 good teftimony of any body’s having ever found this by 
 experiment. 
 
 SARABAND, a mufical compofition in triple time, 
 being in reality only a minuet, whofe motions are flow 
 and ferious. 
 
 SARCASM, in rhetorick, a bitter, keen irony, where¬ 
 by the orator feoffs and infults his adverfary. 
 
 SARCOCELE, in medicine, a hard, flelhy, feirrhous 
 excrefcence, riling up by little and little about the tefti- 
 cles, or in the inner membrane of the ferotum. Some 
 writers call it hernia carnofa. 
 
 SARCOCOLLA, a gum refin, brought to us in 
 fmall granules of an irregular figure. It is brought to 
 us from Perfia and Arabia, but we are wholly unac¬ 
 quainted with the plant that produces it; no author, 
 either ancient or modern, having given us any infor¬ 
 mation about it. Some authors recommend Sarcocolla 
 to be taken internally as a balfamick; but Hoffman, 
 from experience, abl'olutely condemns the internal ufe 
 of it. It is recommended for opthalmies and defluxions 
 of a lharp matter on the eyes, and is generally ordered 
 to be diffolved in milk for this purpole. 
 
 SARCOLOGY, a difeourfeon the flelh, or foft parts 
 of the human body. 
 
 SARCOMA, in furgery, a flelhy tumour, arifing, in 
 any part of the body, from fome effufion of the nutritive 
 
 SAT 
 
 juices out of their tubuli, as happens in contufions, or 
 by other accidents. 
 
 SARCOMPHALON, or Sarcgmpiialum, in 
 forgery, a flelhy excrefcence at the navel. 
 
 SARCOPHAGUS, in medicine, a name for the alfiuj; 
 lapis. Carthercticks, or medicines which confume the 
 flelh, are alfo thus called. 
 
 Sarcoi-h ag us, among the ancients, implied a tomb, 
 compofed of a kind of Hone, found near Aflinn, acirv 
 ot Troas, which had the faculty of confuming the body 
 in a very lhort rime. In thefe tombs they depofited thole 
 they had not a mind to burn. 
 
 SARCOTICKS, medicines which generate flelh in 
 wounds. 
 
 SARDION, or Sardian Stone, a precious ftone, 
 generally called a cornelian. See Cornelian. 
 
 SARDON\ X, a precious ftone of an appearance 
 between the farda and the onyx. 
 
 SARPLAR of Wool, a half lack, generally called a' 
 pocket. 
 
 SARRASIN, or Sarr azin, in fortification, a kind 
 of portcullice, otherwife called an herfe, which is hung 
 with ropes over the gate of a town or fortrels, and let 
 fall in cafe of a furprile. 
 
 SARSAPARILLA, the root of a plant growing in 
 Peru and Brazil. The plant which produces it, is one 
 of the disecia hexandria of Linnams, and of the herb;*; 
 bacciferae of Mr. Ray ; and is delcribed - by late botanifts 
 under the name of fmilax afpera Peruviana; and by 
 Hernandez under that of mccapati five zarcaprilla. 
 
 It is a fudorifick, and an attenuant, and lias been 
 efteemed a great medicine in the cure of the venereal 
 difeafe, but the ufe of mercury has caufed it of late to be 
 negleCted. It is however of great fervicc in many chro- 
 nick calcs, which owe their origin to obfti uflions of the 
 vifeera, and where attenuants are proper; but it mull be 
 continued along time, and is beft given in decoCtion, or 
 by way of diet di ink. 
 
 SARTORIUS, in anatomy, a mufcle called alfo 
 longus tibia;, which ariieth from the inferior part of the 
 fpine of the ilium, and, running obliquely by the infide 
 of the thigh, is ijiferted- into the internal fide of the tibia, 
 three or four fingers breadth below its upper extremity. 
 By this mufcle we throw one leg acrofs the other: it is 
 an antagonift to the poplitseus, 
 
 SASSAFRAS, a very light and fpongy wood, of a 
 pale whitifti red colour, with an admixture of brown in 
 it, and of a very fragrant and perfumed fmell, and of an 
 acrid and aromafick fweet tafte, which is very agreeable. 
 The tree which produces the faflafras, is one of the en- 
 neandria monogynia of Linnasus, and one or the abores 
 fruttu calyculato of Mr. Ray. It is delcribed by all the 
 late botanical writers, under the name of laffafras arbour, 
 and faflafras ficulnco folio. It grows in feveral parts of 
 America, from whence the faflafras is brought to us. 
 
 Saflafras wood is a diuretick and diaphoretic! - . ; it at¬ 
 tenuates vifcid humours, and is good in all obft - uCtions 
 of the vifeera. It is given in cachexies, in fcorbuticlc 
 complaints, and in the venereal difeafe. It is feidorn 
 'given in fubftance ; the ufual way of taking it being in 
 infufion, in the manner of common tea, in which me¬ 
 thod it is very plcaiant. The oil extracted from it is very 
 fragrant, and poflefles moft of the virtues of the wood. 
 
 SATELLITE, a guard or perfon that attends on 
 another, either for his fafety, or to be ready to execute 
 his pleafure. 
 
 Satellites, in aftronomy, certain fecondary pla¬ 
 nets, moving round fome other planets as a centre, as 
 the moon does round the ea.th ; l'o called, becaufe they 
 always attend them in their revolutions round the fun. 
 Satellites of Jupiter. See Jupiter. 
 Satellites oj Saturn. See Saturn. 
 SArRAPA,or Satrapes, in antiquity, a gover¬ 
 nor of a province among the ancient Perflans. 
 
 SATURDAY, the fixth day of the week; fo called 
 from Seater, an old idol of the Saxons, worlhipped on 
 this day. 
 
 SAT URN, in aftronomy, one of the primary planets, 
 being the fartheft diilant from the fun, characterized 
 thus, p.. This planet has five fatellites, or moons, 
 moving round him, and is befides enebmpaffed with a 
 furprizing ring. We have given a pcrfpeCtive view of 
 this planet with his ring, (plate LXXII./^. 3.) 
 
 Galileo’s 
 
SAT 
 
 Galileo’s telefcope was fufficient to diffcover all Jupi¬ 
 ter’s moons, but it would not reach Saturn’s, they being 
 at too great a diftance. But yet this fagacious obferver 
 found Saturn, by reafon of his ring, had a very odd ap¬ 
 pearance ; for his glafs was not good enough to exhbit 
 the true fhape of the ring, but only a confufed idea of 
 that and Saturn together, which, in the year 1610, he 
 advertil'ed in the letters of this fentence tranfpofed : 
 “ Altifiimum planetam tergeminum obfervavii. e. I 
 have obferved Saturn to have three bodies. 
 
 This odd phenomenon perplexed the aftronomers 
 very much, and various hypothefcs were formed to folve 
 it; all which fecmed trifling to the happy Huygcnius, 
 who applied himfelf purpofely to improve the grinding ot 
 glafles, and pcrfefting long telefcopes to arrive at a more 
 accurate notion of this planet and its appendage. Ac¬ 
 cordingly, in 1655, he conftrudled a teleicope of 12 feet, 
 and viewing Saturn divers times, he difcovered fome- 
 thing like a ring encompafling his body ; which, after¬ 
 wards, with a tube of 23 feet, he obferved more dif- 
 tindlly, and alfo difcovered a fatellite revolving about 
 the planet. This Huygenian fatellite is the fourth in 
 order from Saturn. 
 
 In the year 1656, Huygens publiflied his difeovery in 
 relation to Saturn’s ring, in the letters of this fentence 
 tranfpofed, * Annulo cingitur tenui piano, nufquam 
 * coha^rente, ad cclipticam inclinato;’ that is, Saturn is 
 encompaflfed by a thin plane ring, no where cohering to 
 his body, and inclined to the plane of the ecliptick. This 
 inclination of the ring to the ecliptick is determined to 
 be about 31 0 by Huygens, Romer, Pickard, Campapi, 
 &c. though by a method not very definitive. 
 
 However, fince the plane of the ring is inclined to the 
 plane of the earth’s motion, it is evident, when Saturn is 
 lo fituated that the plane of his ring pafleth through the 
 earth, we can then fee nothing of it; nor can we fee it 
 when the plane pafles between the fun and the earth, the 
 dark fide being then turned to us, and only a dark lift 
 appearing upon the planet, which is probably the lhadow 
 of the ring. In other fituat(ons the ring will appear 
 elliptical, more or lefs ; when it is moft fo, the heavens 
 appear through the clliptick fpacc on each fide Saturn 
 (which are called the anise) and a fixed ftar was once ob¬ 
 ferved by Dr. Clarke’s father in one of them. The nodes 
 of the ring are in 19 0 45' of and X. During Saturn’s 
 heliocentrick motion from ^“q^'to the oppofite node, 
 the fun enlightens the northern plane of the ring. 
 
 Since Saturn deferibes about 1? jn a month, the ring 
 will be vifible through a good telefcope till within abqut 
 15 or 20 days before and after the planet is in 19 0 45’ of 
 
 or X. The time, therefore, may be - found by an 
 ephenicris, in which Saturn l'ecn from the earth fhall be 
 in thofe points of the ecliptick ; and, likewife, when he 
 will be feen from the earth in 19 0 4c' of n and t , when 
 the ring will be moft open, and in the beft pofition to be 
 viewed. There have been fome grounds to conje&ure 
 that Saturn’s ring turns round an axis, but that is not 
 yet demonftrable. This wonderful ring, in fome fitu- 
 alions, does alfo appear double; for Caflini, in 1675, 
 obferved it to be diifc£ted quite round by a dark elliptical 
 line, dividing it, as it were, in two rings, of which the 
 inner one appeared brighter than the other. This was 
 oftentimes obferved afterwards, with tubes of 34 and 20 
 feet, and more evidently ip the twilight or moon-light, 
 than in a darker Iky. 
 
 If an eye were placed in Saturn, the diameter of the 
 fun would appear 10 times lefs than it doth to us almoft ; 
 and, confequently, his dilk, light, and heat will be there 
 90 times lefs. Saturn’s year is almoft 30 of ours, but the 
 length of his day is yet uncertain, becaufe the time of 
 his revolution round his axis is not yet known; but 
 Mr. Huygens judges they are not longer than the days 
 of J upiter. That great aftronomer luppofeth the axis of 
 Saturn to be perpendicular to the plane of his ring, and 
 of the orbits of the fatellites : if fo, then there will be 
 the fame pofition of the equator and pole as to the fixed 
 liars, as there is in our earth : the fame pole ftar and the 
 fixed ftars will appear to rife and let after the fame man¬ 
 ner, in the fame latitudes. There is a vaft inequality in 
 the length of the day in feveral parts of this planet; and 
 as great a diverfity of fummer and winter; which de¬ 
 pends on the quantity of the inclination of the plane of 
 Vol. II. JSo. 65. 
 
 SAT 
 
 the equator to the plane of the orbit of Saturn round the 
 fup; which Huygens makes to be 31", which is almoft; 
 one third more than in our earth, where yet the diffe¬ 
 rences and variety of ftafons and weather are very fenfible. 
 For in Saturn, in the latitude of 50°, the longeft day will 
 have no night at all, and the longeft night will have no 
 day. And the two frigid zones will be each of them 6o a 
 broad, at leaft, ten times as large as the whole furface 
 of the earth. The eye thus placed will be able to dif- 
 cern none of the planets but Jupiter, w'hich will appear 
 always to accompany the fun, and never to be from him 
 above 37 0 . The parallax of the fun in Saturn is but 9", 
 and therefore infenfible; but the parallaxes of all his 
 moons or fatellites are very considerable, and therefore 
 their diftapees from him will be eafily computable. 
 
 But what an eye placed in Saturn would moft admire, 
 is the ring of that planet ; the only thing of that nature 
 that is difcovered in any of the planets. Kepler, in his 
 Epitome Aftron. Copernic. and after him Dr. Halley in 
 his enquiry into the caufes of variation of the needle, 
 Philof. Tranfatt. numb. 195, fuppofe our earth may be 
 compofed of feveral crufts or lhells one within another, 
 and concentrick to. each other. And if fo, then it is 
 poflible the ring of Saturn may be the fragment or re¬ 
 maining ruins of his formerly exterior (hell, the reft of 
 which is broken or fallen down upon the body of the 
 planet. And if Saturii ever had fuch a fhell round it, 
 its diameter would then have appeared as big to an eye 
 at the fun, as that of Jupiter doth now, when feen 
 from thence. 
 
 Since the outward margin of the ring is diftant from 
 Saturn 2^ of Saturn’s femi-diameter, this cannot be 
 feen at the diftance of 64° from Saturn’s equator, m 
 vvliofe plane the ring is placed. Therefore, a fpe&ator, 
 placed in a latitude higher than that, can never fee the 
 ring at all; fo that there is a zone of almoft 23 0 broad 
 towards either pole, to whom this famous ring can never 
 appear. And as the fpeflator fhall move nearer the pole, 
 firft one, then the lecond fatellite, next the third and 
 fourth ; and when he is come within i° of the pole, 
 even the fifth fatellite cannot be feen, unlefs by refrac¬ 
 tion ; and, in the winter time, neither fun, moon, nor 
 any other planet, will be there vifible, unlefs perhaps, a 
 comet. 
 
 If the eye be fuppofed to be placed in the equator of 
 Saturn, or in tjie zone nearly adjoining, it can never fee 
 thofe ftars that are in or very near the equator, nor any 
 one of the fatellites ; becaufe the ring will always hide 
 them ; and then at the equinoxes it cannot fee the fun ; 
 and if it were any where elfe placed, it could not then 
 fee the ring; becaufe neither of its faces will then ap¬ 
 pear illuminated by the fun. The breadth of this ring 
 it is hard to determine from our earth, becaufe its thick - 
 nefs is fo fmall; but Mr. Huygens makes it to be about 
 600 German miles. 
 
 For one half of Saturn's year (viz. 15 years of ours) 
 only one face of the ring will be enlightened by the fun : 
 whence the inhabitants, which may be fuppofed to live 
 in that hemifphere, to which this face of the ring is 
 turned, or to whom it is fummer, will fee that part of 
 the ring which is above their horizon, fhining faintly by 
 day, as our moon doth when the fun is above our ho¬ 
 rizon, but brighter and ftronger by night, as our moon 
 doth in the fun’s abfence : and after fun-fet, the eaftern 
 part of this enlightened arch will fall within the lhadow 
 of Saturn ; which Iliade will afeend, as night comes on, 
 and at midnight will be at the higheft ; and then will de- 
 feend again towards the weftern part of the ring, accord¬ 
 ing as the fun comes more and more to theeaftward. 
 This enlightened arch will always Ihew how to deferibe 
 a meridian line ; for a plane perpendicular to the ho¬ 
 rizon, and pafling through the vertex of the arch, will 
 be in the true meridian. 
 
 To an eye placed anywhere without, and at lefs than 
 50° diftance from the equator, this enlightened arch of 
 the ring will appear concave as well as convex, like a 
 kind of turnacc or vault, riling above the horizon : but 
 to an eye more than 52', and lefs than 64° diftant from 
 the equator, the hollow or concave part will not be vi¬ 
 fible ; but there will appear a brightilh body arifing, as 
 it were, out of the ground, and contiguous to the ho¬ 
 rizon. For the other half of Saturn’s year, while phe fun 
 4 H declines 
 

 declines towards the deprefled pole, or during the 15 
 years winter, the ring will not be vifible, as having not 
 that face illuminated which is turned to the fpedator’s 
 eye : but, however, will render itfelf fenfible, by cover¬ 
 ing from the light fuch ftars and parts of the heavens as 
 are oppofite to it, or apparently behind it. The lhade 
 of the ring, alfo, will be extended more and more to¬ 
 wards the nearer pole : fo that to an eye placed any where 
 within the aforefaid lpace, the fun, when he attains fuch 
 a certain declination, will appear to be covered or eclipfed 
 juft at noon, and thenftraight to emerge out of the Iha- 
 dow. The next day, the like phenomenon will happen, 
 but theeclipfe will begin l'ooner, and will be over later: 
 and thefe meridian ecliples will daily increafe in their 
 duration, until the middle of winter ; and then they will 
 decreafe again gradually, till atlaft they will come to no¬ 
 thing again , viz. when the fun, returning from the tro- 
 pick, hath the fame declination as he had when thefe 
 meridional eclipfes began. 
 
 And this will happen, if an eye be placed in any lati¬ 
 tude greater than 25 or 26°; but it in a latitude Jefs than 
 this, when the meridian darknefs is of the greateft du¬ 
 ration, the fun will fuddenly appear juft in the meridian, 
 and then ftraightway will be eclipied again. The next 
 day there will appear the like fort of light, but it will laft 
 longer; and this meridian light will grow ftill longer 
 and longer in duration, till mid-winter, and then, like 
 the darknefs above-mentioned, it will be continually de- 
 creafing, until it quite dilappear. And from hence it is 
 plain, that there is the greateft difference between fum- 
 mer and winter in the globe of Saturn, of all the other 
 planets; and this both on the account of the long du¬ 
 ration of each, and the great declination of the fun from 
 the equator ; and, alfo, by reafon of thefe meridional 
 darknelfes in the winter, arifing from the ring’s eclipfing 
 the fun. Greg. Jjlron. 
 
 Satellites of Saturn. Anno 1684, in the month of 
 March, Mr. Caffini, by the help of excellent objed- 
 glafies of 70, 90, 100, 136, 155, and of 220 feet, dif- 
 covered the two innermoit (that is, the ift and 2d) la- 
 tellites of Saturn. 
 
 The firft Satellite he obferved never to be diftant from 
 Saturn’s ring above two-thirds of the apparent length of 
 the fame ring : and it was found to make one revolu¬ 
 tion about Saturn in 1 day, 21 hours, and 19 minutes 
 making two conjundions with Saturn in le.fs than 2 days ; 
 one in the upper part of his orb, and the other in the 
 lower part; it is diftant from the centre of Saturn 4! of 
 Saturn’s femi-diameters. 
 
 The fecond Satellite of Saturn was obferved but three- 
 fourths of the length, and his ring diftant therefrom, 
 making his revolution about him in 2 days, 17 hours, 
 4.3 minutes. This is diftant from the centre of Saturn 
 5f femi-diameters of that planet. From a great num¬ 
 ber of accurate obfervations, he concluded that the pro¬ 
 portion of the digreflion of the fecond to that of the 
 firft, counting both from the centre of Saturn, is as 22 
 to 17. And the time wherein the fecond fatellite makes 
 its revolution, is to the time wherein the firft makes its, 
 as 24! to 17. 
 
 The third is diftant from Saturn 8 of his femi-diame¬ 
 ters, and revolves round him in almoft 4* days. 
 
 The fourth, or Huygenian fatellite, as it is called, 
 becaufe difeovered fit ft by Mr. Huygens, revolves about 
 Saturn in about 16 days, and is diftant from his centre 
 about 18 femi-diameters of Saturn. 
 
 The fifth fatellite of Saturn is diftant from his centre 
 ^54 femi-diameters of Saturn, and revolves round him in 
 79 L days. The great diftance between this fatellite and 
 this precedent, made Mr. Huygens fui'ped there might 
 be a fixth between thefe two ; or elfe that this fifth may 
 have other fatellites moving round him. 
 
 Dr. Halley in Philof. Tranf. gives a correction of the 
 theory of the motion of the Huygenian, or fourth fa¬ 
 tellite of Saturn, and makes the true time of its period to 
 be 15 days, 22 hours, 41', 6"; its diurnal motion to be 
 22 0 , 34', 38", 18'". And the diftance of this fatel¬ 
 lite from the centre of Saturn to be about 4 diameters 
 of the ring ; that is to fay, interfering the orb of Saturn 
 with an angle 23 0 and a half, fo as to be nearly parallel 
 to the earth’s equator. The periodical times of the 
 fatellites of Saturn, according to Mr. Caflini, are as 
 follows : 
 
 Days. Hours. Min. 
 1 21 19 
 
 43 
 
 27 
 
 Firft - 
 
 Second - 
 
 Third ■->■ 
 
 Fourth - 
 
 Fifth —— • - 79 22 00 
 
 Ur. Gregory, in his excellent aftronomy, hath de- 
 monftrated, that if a fatellite deferibe an ecliptick orbit 
 round a planet placed in one of the foci of that ellipfis, 
 the greater axis of the line of the apfes will, with an an¬ 
 gular motion, twice advance forwards, viz. in the two 
 fyzygies, and twice recede backwards, viz. when in qua¬ 
 drature to the fun. And that this force of progrefiion is 
 near twice as great as that of the recefs, and, therefore, 
 the line of the apfes, in every revolution of the fatellite, 
 will advance more forward than it will recede backward \ 
 and that by the excels of this progrefiion, the apfes will 
 move in confequentia. If a fatellite move round a planet 
 in an eccentrick orbit, the eccentricity will be twice 
 changed in every revolution, and in each revolution 
 will be greateft, when the fatellite is in the fyzygies 
 with the lun, and leaft, when it is in the quadratures; 
 and will be continually increafing from the quadratures 
 to the fyzygies, and dccreafing from the fyzygies to the 
 quadratures. 
 
 It a fatellite revolve round a planet in an orbit whofe 
 plane is inclined to the plane of the orbit of the planet 
 round the fun, then will the line of the nodes move in 
 antecedentia, with an unequal angular motion , lwifteft 
 when the nodes are in quadrature to the fun, after this 
 flower, and at laft, when the nodes are in the fyzygies 
 will be quite at reft. In the intermediate places between 
 the quadratures arvd fyzygies, the nodes will recede 
 flower, and in every revolution of the fatellite, will 
 either be retrograde or ftationary, be carried backward, 
 or move in antecedentia, and in each revolution will re¬ 
 cede fafteft, all things confidered, when the fatellite is in 
 the fyzygies. 
 
 The inclination alfo of the plane of the orbit of the 
 fatellite, to that of the planet, will be continually chang¬ 
 ing, and will be greateft when the nodes are in the fyzy¬ 
 gies with rhe fun, and leaft, Cceteris paribus, when they 
 are in the quadratures. And all the inequalities in the 
 motions of the fatellites will be a little greater when they 
 are in conjunction with the fun, than when they are in 
 oppofition to him. 
 
 Saturn, in chymiftry, the fame with lead. See Lf. a d . 
 
 Saturn, in heraldry, the black colour in the arms 
 of fovereign princes. 
 
 SATURNALIA, a feftival of the ancient Romans, 
 obferved on the 17th of December, in honour of the 
 god Saturn. 
 
 SATURNINE, or Saturnian, a term applied to 
 perfons of dark, fullen, melancholy complexions, as bc- 
 ing fuppofed under the predominancy of Saturn. 
 
 SA I \ R, or Satire, a dilcourfe or poem expofing 
 the vices and follies of mankind. The different deriva¬ 
 tions of this word have affeded its orthography, fome 
 writing it Satyr, and others Satire. 
 
 1 he Grecian fatire differed from the Roman ; but the 
 diffeience ieems not fo great as lome are apt to imagine : 
 the former was of the dramatick kind, a fort of interlude 
 annexed to tragedy, to remove from the audience too 
 melancholy impreltions. 
 
 T he word fatyr was anciently taken in a lefs reftrained 
 lenfe than it is at prclent, not only as denoting a fevere 
 poem againft vice, but as confiding of precepts of virtue, 
 and the praifes of it: and even in the Satvrs, as thev are 
 called, of Horace, Juvenal, and Perfius, &c. which are 
 principally levelled againft the weaknefs, the follies, or 
 vices of mankind, we find many diredions, as well as 
 incitements to virtue. Such ftrokes of morality Horace 
 is full-of; and in Juvenal they occur very fi .quently. 
 All of them, fometimes, corred vice like moralifts ; vve 
 may fay, like divines rather than fatyrifts. With re'ped 
 to the nature and different fpecies of it, fatyr, in general, 
 being a poem deligned to reprove the vices and follies of 
 mankind, is two-fold ; either the jocofe, as that of Ho¬ 
 race, or tire ferious, like that of Juvenal: the former 
 hidden, the latter open. That generally makes lport with 
 vice, and expofes it to ridicule : this probes it to the bot¬ 
 tom, and puts it to the torture : and fo far is it from not 
 deferving the title of fatire, as fomc pretend, that it feems 
 
 rather 
 


 '( Vf/St Y. 
 
 (mm. 
 
 to JO fo *0403020JO 
 
 'ff/MCYh ‘/ 
 
 had^tY' 
 
 O(tdoa> 
 
 1WLXXU 
 
 facincr Scale, 
 
 \X /N N^ 
 
 
 
 
 \ \ V...: .. V .. 
 
 
 x\k • x 
 
 
S C A 
 
 rather a more noble fpecies of it; and the genteel ftrokes 
 of Horace, how ingenious foever, are lefs affe&ing than 
 the poetick rage and commendable zeal of Juvenal. 
 
 They both agree in being pungent and cutting, yet are 
 diftinguilhed by very evident marks. The one is plea- 
 fant and facetious, the other angry and auftere: the one 
 fmiles, the other ftorms : the foibles of mankind are the 
 objed of one ; greater crimes of the other : the former is 
 always in the pleafing ftile ; the latter generally in the 
 fublime : that abounds with wit only ; this adds to the 
 fait bitternefs and acrimony. 
 
 Either kind of fatire may be writ in the dialogue or 
 epiftolary manner ; and we have inftances of both forms 
 in Horace, Juvenal, and Perfius. As fome of Horace’s, 
 which are called latires, are as truly epiftles; fo many of 
 his epiftles might as well be called fatires : for example, 
 Qui lit Mecamas, Ac. might with equal reafon, be 
 reckoned among the epiftles; and Prima dide mihi, he. 
 among the difeourfes or latires ; if the author or editor 
 had lo though fit. 
 
 The chief fatirifts among the ancients arc Horace, Ju¬ 
 venal, and Perfius; thole among the moderns Regnier, 
 Boileau, in French ; and Dryden, Oldham, Rochefter, 
 Buckingham, Pope, Young, &c. among the Englifh. 
 
 SATYRIASIS, in medicine, a violent defire of ve- 
 nery, attended with atenfion, and rigidity of the puden¬ 
 dum, occafioned by a morbous dilpofition of the body. 
 
 SATYRICAL, or Satirical, fomething relating 
 to, or that partakes of the nature of fatire. 
 
 SAVAGES, wild, barbarous people, without any 
 fixed habitation, law, or policy. 
 
 SAUCISSE, in military affairs, a long train of pow¬ 
 der fewed up in a roll of pitched cloth, about two inches 
 in diameter ; ferving to let fire to mines, or caiffons. 
 
 SAUCISSON, in fortification, a kind of faggot made 
 of large branches of trees, or of the trunks of Ihrubs 
 bound together. Its ufe is to cover the men, and to ferve 
 as cpaulmcnts. 
 
 SAVIOUR, an appellation peculiarly given to Jefus 
 Chrift, as being the true Melfiah, and Saviour of the 
 ele£t world. 
 
 Order of St. Saviour, a religious order in the Ro- 
 mifh church, founded by St. Bridget, about the year 
 1345 ; and fo called from its being pretended that our 
 Saviour himfelf dictated to the foundrefs its conftitutions 
 and rules. According to the conftitutions, this order 
 is principally founded for religious women who pay a 
 particular honour to the holy virgin ; but there are iome 
 monks of the order, to adminifter the lacraments, and 
 fpiritual alfiftance to the nuns. 
 
 SAUNDERS. See Santalum. 
 
 SAW, a well known inftrument, ferving to divide 
 into pieces wood, ftone, ivory, he. 
 
 The beft faws are of tempered fteel ground bright and 
 fmooth ; thofe of iron are only hammer hardened : hence 
 the firft, befides their being ftiffer, are likewife found 
 fmoother than the laft. They are known to be well ham¬ 
 mered by the ftiff bending of the blade ; and to be well 
 and evenly ground, by their bending equally in a bow. 
 
 SAWING, the application of the law, in dividing 
 timber, &c. into boards. 
 
 SAXIFRAGE, a medicinal plant, fo called from its 
 fuppofed virtue in diffolving the ftone ; but it is rarely 
 ufed at prefent. 
 
 SCABIOUS, Scabiofa , a medicinal plant, very com¬ 
 mon in the fields, laid to be good in afthmas and pleu- 
 rifies ; but at prefent rarely ufed. 
 
 SCAFFOLD, a timber-work, raifed in the manner 
 of an amphitheatre, to place fpettators upon, for the 
 commodious viewing a Ihewor ceremony. 
 
 Scaffold, alfo fignifies a final! ftage ere&cd for the 
 execution of criminals. 
 
 Scaffold, is alfo ufed for an affemblage of planks 
 or boards fuftained by treffels, pieces of wood fixed in 
 the wall, Ac. whereon mafons, painters, lculptors, &c. 
 fometimes ftand to work. 
 
 SCALADO, or Scalade, a furious affault made 
 on the wall or rampart of a city, he. by means of ladders 
 whferewith to lcale the walls, without carrying on works 
 in form to fecure the men. 
 
 SCALE, a mathematical inftrument, confifting of 
 one or more lines drawn on wood, or metal, divided into 
 equal or unequal parts, of great ufe in laying down dif- 
 
 S C A 
 
 tances in proportion, or in meafuring diftances already 
 laid down. J 
 
 Plain Scale, in navigation, an inftrument for folv- 
 ing the feveral cafes of failing by geometrical progrelfion. 
 Conftru&ion of the plain fcale : 
 
 1. Defcribe a femi-circle abed , (p/ate LXXU. fig. 2 .) 
 and divide it into two parts by the radius be. 
 
 2. Divide the quadrangular arch a b into nine equal 
 parts, numbering them 10, 20, 30, &c. as you fee in the 
 figure, then will each divifion anlwer to io° ; and if you 
 draw lines from the points to the feveral points 10, 20, 
 30, he. in the arch ab , they will be the chords of their 
 refpe&ive arches ; and if each of thefe divifions be tranf- 
 lertcd to the chord line a b , you will have a line of chords 
 to every io° of the quadrant; and if each of thefe divi¬ 
 fions be fubdivided into 10 equal parts, and the diftances 
 of the feveral divifions from the point a be transferred to 
 the line you will have, by this means, a line of 
 chords to every fingle degree. 
 
 3. From the points of the feveral divifions 10, 20, 
 30, he. of the quadrant b a, draw lines parallel to be , 
 till they cut the radius c a ; then will e a be divided into 
 a line of fines ; and if the arch b a, as was before fup- 
 pofed, be divided into 90 equal parts, and from the fe¬ 
 veral points of divifion be drawn lines parallel to the 
 former, the line a c will be divided into a line of fines 
 anfwering to every fingle degree of the quadrant, which 
 mult be numbered from c towards. 
 
 4. By only reverting the numbers, or by numbering 
 the fame line of right fines from a towards c , you will 
 have a line of verfed fines. 
 
 5. From a, the extreme point of the diameter, raife 
 the perpendicular a t ; and from the centre e, through 
 the feveral divifions of the quadrant a b, draw lines till 
 they cut the tangent a t ■ then will the line at be a line 
 of tangents; which muft be numbered from a towards t. 
 
 6. If you lay your ruler from d to the feveral divifions 
 of the quadrant a b, and make a mark where it interfefls 
 the line e b, as you extend it to each divifion, you will 
 have a line of femi-tangents. 
 
 7. As the line drawn from the centre e, through the 
 feveral divifions of the quadrant b a, till they interfe& 
 the tangent line a t, are the fecants of the refpe&ive 
 arches : if their lengths be transferred to the line c s, 
 you will have a line of fecants, which muft be numbered 
 from c towards s. 
 
 S. Divide the quadrant d b into 8 equal parts, as in 
 the points I, 2, 3, 4, &c. Then fetting one foot of the 
 compaftes in the point d, transfer the feveral diftances 
 di, d2 : r/g, &c. from the arch db to the line d b, and 
 you will have a line of rhumbs, each divifion being equal 
 to 11° 15', 0 1 
 
 9. Take feveral divifions of each line thus conftrufled 
 and transfer them to right lines drawn parallel to each 
 other, (as you fee in plate LXXII. fig. 1.) and you will 
 form the inftrument called a plain fcale. 
 
 Scale, Scala, in mufick, is a denomination given to 
 the arrangement of the fix fyllables invented by Guido 
 Aretine, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, called alfogammut. 
 
 Scale is alfo ufed for a feries of founds riling or fall- 
 ing towards acutenefs or gravity, from any given pitch 
 of tune, to the greateft diftance that is fit or prafticable, 
 through fuch intermediate degrees as make the fucceflion 
 moll: agreeable and perfeft, and in which we have all the 
 harmonical intervals moft commodioufly divided. 
 
 Gunter’ s-Scale, an inftrument fo called from Mr, 
 Gunter, its inventor, and is generally made of box. 
 There are two forts, the long gunter and the fiidiiur 
 gunter, having both the fame lines, but differently ufed^ 
 the former with the compaffes, the latter by Hiding. The 
 lines now generally delineated on thofe inftruments are 
 the following, viz. a line of numbers, of fines, tangents, 
 verfed fines, fine of the rhumb, tangent of the rhumb' 
 meridional parts, and equal parts; which are conftrufted 
 after the following manner : 
 
 The line of numbers is no other than the logarithmick 
 fcale of proportionals, wherein the diftance between each 
 divifion is equal to the number of mean proportionals 
 contained between the two terms, in fuch parts as the 
 diftance between i and io is 1000, &c. =the logarithm 
 of that number. Hence it follows, that, if the number 
 of equal parts exprelfed by the logarithm of any number, 
 be taken from the fame fcale of equal parts, and let off 
 
 from 
 

 S C A 
 
 from t on the line of numbers, the divifion will repre 
 fent the number anfwering to that logarithm. 
 
 Thus, if you take 954, See. (the logarithms of 9) of 
 the fame parts, and fet it off from 1 towards 10, you 
 will have the divifion {landing againfl the number 9. In 
 like manner, if you fet off .903, &c. .845, &c .778, 
 Se c. (the logarithms of 8, 7, 6,) of the fame equal parts 
 from 1 towards 10, you will have the divifions anfwering 
 to the numbers 8, 7, 6. After the fame manner may the 
 whole line be conflrudted. 
 
 The line of numbers being thus conflrufted, if the 
 numbers anfwering to the natural lines and tangents of 
 any arch, in fuch parts as the radius is 10000, Sec. be 
 found upon the line of numbers, right againfl them will 
 Hand the refpe£live divifions anfwering to the refpedlive 
 arches; or, which is the fame thing, if the diflance 
 between the centre and that divilion of the line of num¬ 
 bers, which expreffes the number anfwering to the natu¬ 
 ral fine or tangent of any arch, be fet off on its refpedlive 
 line from its centre towards the left hand, it will give 
 the point anfwering to the fine or tangent of that arch : 
 thus the natural fine of 30° being 5000, &c. if the dif- 
 tance between the centre of the line of numbers (which 
 in this cafe is~ 10000, &c.nthe radius) and the divi¬ 
 lion, on the fame line reprefenting 5000, &c. be fet off 
 from the centre, or 90°, on the line of lines, towards the 
 left hand, it will give the point anfwering to the line of 
 30°. And after the fame manner may the whole line of 
 lines, tangents, andverfed lines, be divided. 
 
 The line of lines, tangents, and verfed fines, being 
 thus conflrufled, the line fine of the rhumb, and tangent 
 of the rhumb, are eafily divided ; for, if the degrees and 
 minutes anfwering to the angle which every rhumb makes 
 with the meridian be transferred from its refpe£live line 
 to that which is to be divided, we lhall have the feveral 
 points required : thus if the diflance between the radius 
 or centre, and the fine of 45°=:the fourth rhumb, be fet 
 off upon the line line of the rhumb, we fhall have the 
 point anfwering to the line of the fourth rhumb ; and 
 after the fame manner may both thefe lines be conftrudled. 
 The line of meridional parts is conftru&ed from the table 
 of meridional parts, in the fame manner as the line of 
 numbers is from the logarithms. 
 
 The lines being thus conftrufled, all problems relating 
 to arithmetick, trigonometry, and their depending fei 
 ences, may be folved by the extent of the compaffes only 
 and, as all queflions are reducible to proportions, the 
 general rule is, to extend the compaffes from the firfl term 
 to the fecond, and the fame extent of the compaffes will 
 reach from the third to the fourth ; which fourth term 
 mufl be fo continued as to be the thing required, which 
 a little pra&ice will render eafy. 
 
 SCALENE, Scalenum, orScALENOus 
 in geometry, a triangle wljofe fides and angles arc all un¬ 
 equal. 
 
 SCALENUM, in anatomy, a mufcle of the neck, 
 which arileth from the fiifl and fecond ribs, and, amend¬ 
 ing, is inferted into all the tranfverfe proceffes of the 
 neck, except the firfl. This mufcle is often, by ana- 
 tomifls, divided into three ; but fuch divifion is not of 
 any real ule. It is perforated for the paffageof the veins, 
 arteries, and nerves; becaufe the neck is more eafily 
 moved than thofe parts of the ribs to which it is fafl- 
 ened : therefore, it is juflly reckoned among the benders 
 of the neck. 
 
 SCALPER, in furgery, an inflrument to rafp, and 
 ferape foul, carious bones. 
 
 SC AMMON Y, in pharmacy, a concreted vegetable 
 juice, partly refin, partly of the gum kind. We have 
 two forts of it in the {hops, dillinguilhed by names formed 
 of thofe of the places from whence they are brought, but 
 are both the produce of the fame plant. The one kind 
 is the Aleppo, the other is the Smyrna fcammony. 
 
 The chymical writers have given us many prepara¬ 
 tions of fcammony, among which are a tinfture and a 
 refin ; but the fcammony in fubflance is preferable to 
 either; for they both irritate more, and yet purge lefs; 
 the refin itfelf given in an equal dofe with the crude 
 fcammony, will give fewer llools, and thofe attended 
 with worie gripings. 
 
 The ancients uled fcammony externally for cutaneous 
 eruptions, and to foften hard tumours ; but at prefent it 
 is ufed only as a purge. See Di ac radium. 
 
 S C A 
 
 SC AND ALUM MAGNATUM,in law, is a defama¬ 
 tory fpeech or writing to the injury of a perfon of dig¬ 
 nity : for which a writ that bears the fame name is 
 granted for the recovery of damages. By flatute, no 
 perfon is either by writing or fpeaking to publilh any 
 falfe or fcandalous news of any lord, prelate, officer of 
 the government, judge, &c. on pain of imprifonment, 
 till he produce his author; and if the fame be publifhed 
 in a libel, the publilher is indxflable, and may be lined 
 and imprifoiled. 
 
 SCANDIX, Shepherd’s needle, in botany, a genus 
 of umbelliferous plants, the general corolla of which is 
 difform and radiated, and the proper flower confifls of 
 five lieart-fhaped petals; thofe which form the dilck are 
 abortive ; there is no pericarpium, but the flowers are 
 fucceeded by two very long grains, not unlike needles, 
 that are convex and furrowed on one fide, and flat on the 
 other. This genus includes the chervil which grows 
 in gardens; it is diuretick, and recommended by fome 
 againfl the gravel. 
 
 SCANNING, Scanfio, in poetry, the moafure of a 
 verle by feet, in order to fee whether or no the quantities 
 be ducly oblerved. The term is chiefly ufed in regard 
 to the Greek and Latin verfes. Thus an hexameter verle 
 is fcanned, by refolving it into fix feet; a pentameter, 
 by refolving it into five feet, See. 
 
 SCAPE-Goat, in Jewifh antiquity, the goat which 
 was fet at liberty on the great day of expiation. See 
 Expiation. 
 
 On the day of folemn expiation, the multitude of the 
 children of Ifrael prefented to the liigh-priefl at the door 
 of the tabernacle two goats for a fin-offering. The liigh- 
 priefl then caft lots upon the two goats, which fhould be 
 facriliced to the Lord, and which fhould be fet at liberty, 
 or be the Scapc-fgoat, the A7.a7.el, as the Hebrews call it. 
 He that was determined by lot to be facrificed, was put 
 to death, and offered for the fins of the people : he that 
 was to be fet at liberty, was brought alive before the 
 Lord. The high-prieil laid over him certain prayers, 
 laid his two hands upon his head, confeffed the fins of 
 the whole congregation, charged therewith the head of 
 the goat with imprecations, then fent him into the wil- 
 dernels by a man appointed for that office, Lev. xvi. 13, 
 Sc c. The Scape-goat did bear upon bim all tbeir iniquities to a 
 land not inhabited. And thus both goats typified Clirifl; 
 that which was killed, prefigured his death, and that 
 which was laved alive, the Scape-goat, his refurreflion. 
 
 SCAPULA, in anatomy, the fhoulder-blade, a trian¬ 
 gular bone, fituated on the outlide of the ribs, and com¬ 
 monly extended from the fecond to the feventh rib ; its 
 fuperior poflerior angle, when it is in the leafl {training 
 polition, being about three inches from the fpinal pro¬ 
 ceffes of the vertebra, while the long fide between that 
 angle and the inferior one is flretched obliquelv forward 
 as it defeends, having nothing between it and the ribs, 
 except the thin extremities of fome mufcles; but as the 
 fcapula advances forwards to its articulation with the arm 
 bone, its diflance from the ribs increafes. 
 
 SCAPULAR, Scapulares, in anatomy, a name given 
 to two pair of arteries, and as many veins; the arteries 
 are the external fcapular artery, which is fent from the 
 lubclavians to the external part of the fcapula; and the 
 internal fcapular artery, which arifes from the axillary 
 arteries, and goes to the parts that lie under the fcapula. 
 The fcapular veins, which arc alfo external and internal, 
 arife in like manner from the fubclavians. 
 
 SCAPUS, in arclnte£lure, the full or fhaft of a co¬ 
 lumn. 
 
 In botany, the fame word is ufed for the flraight flalk 
 or ftem of a plant, Handing upright like a pillar or column. 
 
 SCARABtEUS, the beetle, in zoology, a numerous 
 genus of infe£ls, of the coleoptera order: the antenna? of 
 the beetles are of a clavated figure, and fifflle longitudi¬ 
 nally ; and their eggs all hatch into hexapode worms, 
 from which the young beetles are afterwards produced. 
 
 SCARIFICATION, in furgery, the operation of 
 making feveral incilions in the fkin by means of lancets, 
 or other inflruments, particularly the cupping inflrument. 
 
 SCARLET, a beautiful bright red. In painting in 
 water-colours, minium mixed with a little vermillion 
 produces a good fcarlet: but if a flower in a print is to 
 I be painted of a lcarlet-colour, the lights as well as the 
 fhades ffiould be covered with minium, and the fhaded 
 
 parts 
 
see 
 
 parts finilhed with carmine, which will produce an ad¬ 
 mirable fcarlet. 
 
 SCARP, in fortification, is the interior talus, or hope 
 of the ditch next the place, at the foot of the rampart. 
 
 Scarp, in heraldry, the fcarf which military com¬ 
 manders wear for ornament. 
 
 SCAVENGERS, two officers chofen yearly in each 
 parilh in London, and the fuburbs, whofe bufinefs it is to 
 hire perfons, called rakers, and carts to cleanfe the ftreets, 
 and carry away the dirt and filth thereof. 
 
 SCENE, in its primary fenfe, fignified a theatre, or 
 place where dramatick pieces and other publick fhews 
 were rcprel'ented. 
 
 Scene, more particularly implies the decoration of a 
 ftage or theatre. It alfo fignifies the place reprefented, or 
 where the a&ion is conceived to have palled. 
 
 Scene, is alio a part, or divifion, of a dramatick poem, 
 determined by a new aftor’s entering. 
 
 SCENICK Games, Ludi fcenici , among the ancients, 
 were entertainments exhibited on the lcena or theatre; 
 including what we now call plays of all kinds, with danc¬ 
 ing and other theatrical performances. 
 
 SCENOGRAPHY, in perfpeiftive, a reprefentation 
 of a bodv on a perfpe£live plane, or a delineation of it 
 in all its dimenfions, fuch as it appears to the eye. The 
 ichnographv of a building, he. reprefents the plan, or 
 ground-work of the building; the orthography, the front, 
 or upright, thereof; and the feenography, the whole 
 building, front, fides, the height and all. 
 
 SCENOPEGIA, in Jewifti antiquity, the fame with 
 the feaft of tabernacles. 
 
 SCEPTRE, a kind of royal ftaff, or battoon, borne 
 by kings, on folemn occafions, as an enfign of com¬ 
 mand and authority. 
 
 Sceptre, in aftronomy, one of the fix new conftel- 
 lations of the fouthern hemifphere, confuting of feven- 
 tcen ftars. 
 
 SCEPTICISM, the do&rines and opinions of the 
 fccpticks, whofe diftinguilhing tenet was, that all things 
 are uncertain and incomprehenfible, and that the mind 
 is never to alien t to any thing, but to remain in perpe¬ 
 tual doubt and fufpence. This do&rine was alfo called 
 Pyrrhonifm, from the name of its author. 
 
 SCHEAT, or Seat, a fixed liar of the fecond mag¬ 
 nitude, in the juncture of the leg with the left ihouldcr 
 of Pegafus. 
 
 SCHINUS, in botany, a genus of plants, the corolla 
 whereof confifts of five patent petals ; the fruit is a glo- 
 bofe berry, containing a large globofe finglefeed. 
 
 SCHISM, a reparation, or breaking off from com¬ 
 munion with any church ; on account of fome difagree- 
 xnent in matters of faith or difeipline. 
 
 SCHOLASTICK, fomething belonging to the 
 fchools. 
 
 Scholaftick was a long time a title of honour, as firft 
 only given to fuch as diftinguiftled themfelves by their 
 eloquence in declaiming, he. After Nero this appel¬ 
 lation was bellowed upon advocates, and afterwards it 
 became reftrained to fuch as had the government of ec- 
 clefialtical fchools, eftablifhed under the firft race of 
 French kings, who inftru&ed the clerks of the church 
 fiift in the humanities, then in theology and the liturgy. 
 Among the Greeks, this was the name of an office or 
 dignity anlwering to our divine or theologue. 
 
 Scholaftick divinity is that part or fpscies of divinity 
 which clears and difeufles queftions by reafon and argu¬ 
 ments, in which fenfe it {lands, in fome meal'ure, oppofed 
 to pofitive divinity, which is founded on the authority 
 of fathers, councils, he. The fchool-divinity is now 
 fallen into the lovveft contempt, and is fcarce regarded 
 any where, but in fome of the univerfities, where they 
 arc ftill by their charters obliged to teach it. 
 
 SC HOLI AST, or Commentator, a grammarian, 
 who writes fcholia, that is, notes, gloffes, he. upon an¬ 
 cient authors, who have written in the learned languages. 
 
 SCHOLIUM, a note, annotation, or remark, occa- 
 fionally made on fome paffage, propofition, or the like. 
 This term is much ufed in geometry, and other parts of 
 mathematicks, where after demonftrating a propofition, 
 it is cuftomary to point out how it might be done fome 
 other way, or to give fome advice, or precaution, in or¬ 
 der to prevent miftakes, or add fome particular ufe, or 
 application thereof. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 65. 
 
 S C I 
 
 SCHOOL, Scbola, a publick place, wherein the lan¬ 
 guages, humanities, or other arts and fciences are taught. 
 Thus we fay, grammar-fehool, writing-fehool, &c. 
 
 SCHOONER, in navigation, a veflelnavigated with 
 two mails, and two large boom-fails on the main and 
 fore-malls, befides the ufual fmall fails. They are ge¬ 
 nerally built very light, as being principally intended for 
 fwiftnefs, and to fail in feas which are fcldom frequented 
 with ftormy weather; fuch aie the latitudes between or 
 near the tropicks. The largeft veffels of this kind are 
 built in the ifland of Bermuda, where they are framed 
 of cedar. 
 
 SCIATICA, the lfip-gout, being a continual, heavy, 
 dull, gnawing pain, in or about the joint of the hip, and 
 the parts adjacent. This diforder may arife from the 
 fame caule with that which produces the other gout; but 
 it is moll generally the effeft of catching cold, or being 
 expofed to the open air. It may alfo be occafioned by 
 contufions and venereal diforders. 
 
 In the cure of a fciatica bleeding is beneficial, except 
 ill perfons extremely weak or old ; on the day after vene- 
 fedtion, an emetick of ipecacuanha is to be given, and 
 afterwards a paregorick draught, if neceffary. When the 
 blood is poor, and its circulation languid, a courfe of 
 chalybeate waters maybe beneficial; but, in the oppofite 
 extreme, a milk diet, with the tcftaceous powders, arc 
 to be ufed. 
 
 SCIENCE, Scientla, in philofophy, denotes any doc¬ 
 trine, deduced from felf-evident and certain principles, 
 by a regular demonftration. Science may be properly di¬ 
 vided as follows : 1. The knowledge of things, their 
 conftitutions, properties, and operations; this, in a little 
 more enlarged fenfe of the word, may be called <puaiKr\> 
 or natural philofophy ; the end of which is fpeculative 
 truth. 
 
 2. The fkill of rightly applying thefe powers, tt^k- 
 t ty.vi: the mod confiderable under this head is ethicks, 
 which is the feeking out thofe rules and meafuies of hu¬ 
 man attions that lead to happinefs, and the means to 
 prattife them ; and the next is mechanicks, or the appli¬ 
 cation of the powers of natural agents to the ule of life. 
 
 3. The do£liine of figns, crn/xumub ; the moil ufuaj, 
 of which being words, it is aptly enough termed logick. 
 
 This, fays Mr. Locke, feems to be the moft general, 
 as well as natural, divifion of the object of our under- 
 ftanding. For a man can employ his thoughts about 
 nothing but either the contemplation of things them¬ 
 felves for the difeovery of truth ; or about the things 
 in his own power, which are his a&ions, for the attain¬ 
 ment of his own ends ; or the figns the mind makes ufe 
 of, both in the one and the other, and the right order¬ 
 ing of them for its clear information. 
 
 All which three, viz. things, as they are in themfelves 
 knovvable; adlions, as they depend on us in order to 
 happinefs ; and the right ufe of figns, in order to know¬ 
 ledge, being toto carlo, different, they feem to be the three 
 great provinces of the inteiledlual world, wholly ieparate 
 and diftintt one from another. 
 
 SCIENTIHCK, or Scientific al, fomething re¬ 
 lating to the pure, fublimer fciences ; or that abounds in 
 fcience and knowledge. 
 
 SCILLA, the fquill, a large root of die bulbous kind. 
 
 It is of two kinds, the white and the red, differing 
 little otherwife than in colour, though the roots of two 
 different fpecies of plants. It is not a folid and uni¬ 
 formly fielhy root, but is compofed of a number of thick 
 coats or fkins like an onion, of a faint raw fineli, and an 
 extremely acrid and naufeous tafte. Squills are brought 
 to us from the coafts of Spain, where they grow in great 
 abundance. They arc to be chofen large, found, frefh, 
 and full of juice, firm throughout, and not flabby in any 
 part. 
 
 The fquill is extremely acrid, attennuant, and dif- 
 folvent: it is apt to prove emetick, in whatever form it 
 is given, but this may be prevented by adding a few grains 
 of cinnamon to it, and by this means it is rendered a 
 powerful medicine in all obftru&ions of the vifeera : it 
 promotes urine and the menfes, and cuts the tough 
 phlegm, which almoft choaks people in afthmas, and 
 many other diforders of the breall. The moft ufual form 
 in which it is preferibed, is that of the oxymel, compofed 
 of a ftrong infufion of the root in vinegar, and made 
 into a firup with honey. 
 
 SCIOPTICK, 
 
SCO 
 
 SCIOPTICK, a fphere, or globe of wood, with a 
 circular hole or perforation, wherein a lens is placed. It 
 is fo fitted that, like the eye of an animal, it may be 
 turned round every way, to be ufed in making experi¬ 
 ments of the darkened room. 
 
 SCIRE-Fac i as, inlaw, a judicial writ moft com¬ 
 monly iffued to call a perfon to fhew caufe to the court 
 whence it iffues, why execution of a judgment palled 
 fhould not be made out; as where a plaintiff has re¬ 
 covered debt or damages in a court of record, and does 
 not take out execution in a year and a day after judgment 
 recovered ; in that cafe he fhall have this writ to fum- 
 mon the defendant to fhew caufe why execution fhould 
 not be had againft him upon the laid judgment; which, 
 if the defendant does not, judgment is given, and the 
 plaintiff lhall have execution. Where a plaintiff or de¬ 
 fendant dies, execution may not be fued out on a judg¬ 
 ment till the writ of fcire-facias is brought, and judg¬ 
 ment given thereupon. A fcire-facias muff likewifc iffue 
 where judgment is recovered againft a femme foie who 
 marries within the year and day, to fummon the hufband 
 to fhew caufe, Sec. And when a judgment is obtained 
 againft a teftator, a fcire-facias iffues againft the executor, 
 though within a year after the judgment is had ; and all'o 
 againft an adminiftrator to an inteftate. 
 
 SCIRRHUS, in furgery, a hard tumour without 
 pain, though not abfolutely without fenfation. A fcir- 
 rhus may be produced by whatever is capable of coagu¬ 
 lating, infpiffating, or drying the liquids in the glands ; 
 and, therefore, the fcirrhus may be in any of the 
 glands, but efpecially fuch as contain an eafily infpiffated 
 liquor, or from their fituation, difpofe their contents to 
 a ftagnation. The efficacy of quickfilver, in removing 
 obftru&ions, is univerfally known, and both the inter¬ 
 nal and external ufe of it has often greatly contributed 
 to the cure of a benign and beginning fcirrhus; for 
 when it has acquired a ftony hardnefs, and begins to be 
 malignant, no relief can be expedted from the ftrongeft 
 mercurial preparations, nor from a falivation excited by 
 quickfilver, but all the fymptoms are rather increafed by 
 thefe means ; and, in confequence of the increafed mo¬ 
 tion of the humours, the fcirrhus is fooner changed 
 into a cancer. See Cancer. 
 
 When the fcirrhus will not yield to medicines, if its 
 place, fituation, adjacent parts, mobility, the ftate of the 
 difordcr, and the ftrength and condition of the patient 
 permit, it is with all expedition to be totally extirpated 
 with the knife. 
 
 Scirrhus Hepatis , in medicine, a difeafe confift- 
 ing in an indurated tumour of the liver, occafioned by a 
 ftagnation of the humours which grow thick there, from 
 an exhalation of their more fluid and fubtile parts. This 
 differs from the inlar&us hepatis, not only in degrees 
 but in its fymptoms, for it almoft always is attended with 
 a hedtick, or with cedomato-hydropick fwellings. 
 
 SCLAVONICK, the language of the Sclavi, an an¬ 
 cient people of Scythia Europiea; who, about the year 
 518, quitting their native country, ravaged Greece, and 
 eftablilhed the kingdoms of Poland and Moravia, and 
 at laft fettled in Illyria, which thence took the name of 
 Sclavonia. 
 
 SCLEROPHTHALMIA, a difeafe of the eye, at¬ 
 tended not only with a hardnefs and fiownefs of motion, 
 but alfo with a pain and rednefs. 
 
 SCLEROTICA, one of the membranes of the eye. 
 See Eye. 
 
 SCOLOPENDRA, in zoology, an infedt with a very 
 /lender and long body, and furnilhed with a vaft number 
 of legs. According to Dale, it is fometimes ufed as a 
 depilatory, boiled in wine. 
 
 SCOLOPOM ACH^ERION, in furgery, a knife re- 
 fembling a woodcock’s bill, ufed in opening and dilating 
 narrow wounds in the breaft, abfeefies, dec. 
 
 SCONCE, in fortification, a fmall field fort, built for 
 the defence of fome pafs, or other poft. See the article 
 Fort. 
 
 SCOP ARIA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flower is monopetalous, rotated, patent, and divided at 
 the brim into four fegments : the fruit is an oblong, 
 conick acuminated capfule, with one ceil, opening with 
 two valves, and contains a number of oblong feeds. 
 
 SCOPER-HOLES, or Scuper-Holes, in a fhip, 
 are holes made through the fides clofe to the deck to 
 
 SCR 
 
 carry off the water that comes from the pump, or any 
 
 other way, 
 
 SCORBUTUS, thefeurvy , in medicine. SeeScuRVY. 
 
 SCORDIUM, water-germander, in botany, a plant 
 which is looked upon as aperient, diaphoretick, and pec¬ 
 toral, and is juftly efteemed a good alexipharmick, and 
 accordingly is prescribed in malignant diforders ; it is a 
 principal ingredieat in the confedtio fracaftorii, which 
 takes its name of diafeordium from it. See the article 
 Dr ascordium. 
 
 This plant is comprehended by Linnaeus among the 
 teucriums. See Teucrium. 
 
 SCORIA, drofs, among metallurgifts, is the recre¬ 
 ments of metals in fufion ; or more determinately fpeak- 
 ing, is that mafs which is produced by melting metals 
 and ores, and when cold is brittle, and not diffolublc in 
 water, being properlv a kind of glafs. 
 
 SCORIFICATION, in metallurgy, is the art of re¬ 
 ducing a body, either entirely or in part, into fcoria. See 
 the preceding article. 
 
 SCORPIO, the Scorpion. See Scorpion. 
 
 SCORPION, Scorpio , in zoology, a genus of wing- 
 lefs infers, the body of which is ot an oval figure; the 
 tail is long and flender, and the whole body covered 
 with a firm and fomewhat hard Ikin ; the eyes are eight 
 in number, two of which are placed contiguous, and 
 fix fideways; the legs are eight; and there is alfo a pair 
 of claws at the head, and a pointed weapon at the ex¬ 
 tremity of the tail. The great yellowifli Barbary fcor- 
 pion, with eight denticulations, when full grown, mea- 
 lures fix or l'even inches in length; there are feverai 
 other fpecies. 
 
 Scorpion, Scorpio, in aftronomy, the eighth fign of 
 the zodiack, denoted by this charadter, n\. (See plate IV. 
 fig. 8.) '1 he ftars in Scorpio, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, 
 
 are 20 ; in that of Tycho, 10 ; but in that of Mr. Flam- 
 ftead, 49. 
 
 Scorpion, in the ancient art of war, an engine 
 chiefly ufed in the defence of the walls of fortified places, 
 by throwing arrows, fire-balls, or great ftones. 
 
 SCORZONERA, Viper’s-grafs, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, whofe flower is compound, imbricated and 
 uniform. The root of this plant abounds with a milky 
 juice of a bitterilh, fubacrid tafte, and is faid to /Lengthen 
 the ftomach, and promote urine and fvveat; and, boiled, 
 is reckoned a very good food. 
 
 SCREW, or Scrue, Cochlea , one of the five me¬ 
 chanical powers. A ferew is a cylinder cut into feverai 
 concave furfaces, or rather a channel or groove made in 
 a cylinder, by carrying on two fpiral planes the whole 
 length of the ferew, in fuch a manner, that they maybe 
 always equally inclined to the axis of the cylinder in their 
 whole progrefs, and alfo always inclined to the bafe of 
 it in the fame angle. See Mechanick Powers. 
 
 SCRIBE, an officer among the Jews, whofe bufinefs 
 was to write ; of which there were three kinds : thefirft 
 and principal of which were the feribes of the law, 
 whofe office was to write and interpret feripture; thefe 
 were in great credit andefteem among the Jews, and had 
 even the precedency of the priefts and facrificers, and 
 their dccifions were received with almoft the fame re- 
 fpedt as the law of God itfelf: the fccond kind, properly 
 called the feribes of the people, were a fort of magif- 
 trates: and the third were publick notaries, or fecretaries 
 of the council; which were the leaft coniidcrable. 
 
 SCRIBING, in joinery, bcc. is a term ufed when one 
 fide of a piece of fluff is to be fitted to another that "is 
 irregular. In order to make thefe join clofe all the way, 
 they feribe it; that is, they lay the piece to be feribed 
 clofe to the other they intend to feribe to, and opening 
 their compaffes to the wideft diftance thefe two pieces 
 /land from each other, they bear the point of one of the 
 legs againft the fide they intend to feribe to, and with 
 the other point draw a line on the fluff to be feribed. 
 Thus they form a line on the irregular piece parallel to 
 the edge of the regular one ; and if the Huff be cut ex- 
 a&ly to the line, when thefe pieces are put together they 
 will feem a joint. 
 
 SCRIPTURE, an appellation given, by way of emi¬ 
 nence, to the facred and infpired writings of the Bible. 
 
 SCROPHULA, in medicine, the king’s evil. 
 
 The cure of this difeafe is to be attempted by bleed¬ 
 ing, purging, and fuch medicines as are moft proper for 
 
 correcting 
 
s c u 
 
 corrc&ing the vifcldity, faltnefs, and acrimony of the 
 humours. The; beft cathartick is dulcified mercury fix 
 times fublimed, which fhould be joined with rhubarb for 
 children ; but to adults it may be given alone, with a 
 gentle purging draught fome hours after it. The next 
 to this in virtue is jalap. And our purging waters are 
 alfo ufeful, as they fcour the glands, and open the body 
 at the fame time. In fine, a pill compofed of mercury 
 fix times fublimed, and precipitated fulphur of antimony, 
 each one grain ; of aloes, three or four grains made up 
 with the limp of balfam, and taken every night, will be 
 found ferviceable not only in this difeafe, but in others 
 arifing from vilcid humours. 
 
 The medicines which corrcft this pravity of the blood 
 and humours, are, for the moll part, of the diuretick 
 kind, fuch as burnt fponge, the diuretick fait, and vitrio- 
 Jated tartar ; which are the more proper, becaufe they are 
 fomewhat laxative. To thefe may be added the lefs com¬ 
 pound lime water. 
 
 For my part, I have very often experienced the good 
 effe&s of the following powder, taken twice a day, with 
 three or four glades of the aforefaid water. Take of burnt 
 fponge, one fcruple; of purified nitre, corraline, and 
 white fugar, each io grains : mix thefe together. Mead. 
 
 SCROPHULARIA, figwort, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is monopetalous and unequal. A 
 fpecies of this genus, which grows wild in divers parts of 
 England, is faid to be excellent in fcrophulous diforders ; 
 and is efteemed externally as a remedy for die piles; it is 
 generally made into an ointment for thefe purpofes, and 
 is alfo given internally in diet drinks. 
 
 SCROTUM, in anatomy, the capfula or bag in which 
 the tefticles are contained, and which hangs down below 
 the penis. See Testicle. 
 
 Scrotum Cwv//;, the fame with pericardium. See 
 Pericardium. 
 
 SCROWLS, or Scrolls, inarchitedlure, the fame 
 with volutes. 
 
 SCRUPLE, a weight equal to the third part of a 
 drachm, or to 20 grains. Among goldfmiths it is equal 
 to 24 grains. 
 
 The fcruples of the moon, &c. eclipfcd, are the parts 
 of the moon’s diameter immerfed in the fhadow, ex- 
 prelfed in the fame meafure wdiercin the apparent diameter 
 of the moon is exprefied. The fcruples of half duration 
 are an arch of the moon’s orbit, which the centre of the 
 moon deferibes, from the beginning of an eclipfe to its 
 middle. Scruples of immerfion are an arch which the 
 moon’s centre deferibes, from the beginning of the eclipfe 
 to its middle. And fcruples of emerfion, are an arch of 
 the moon’s orbit, deferibed by her centre from the time 
 of the emerfion of her limb to the end of the eclipfe. 
 
 SCRUTINY, a ftritt examination of the feveral votes 
 taken ataneleftion, in orderto difeover unqualified voters. 
 
 SCULPTURE, an art by which, in taking away, or 
 adding to matter, all forts of figures are formed by the 
 hand, either in ftone, wood, wax, or metal. In its full 
 latitude itfignifies both the art of working in creux, pro¬ 
 perly called engraving, and of working in relievo, which 
 is more ftri£tly called fculpture. 
 
 The firft works in fculpture were with clay, not only 
 in making ftatues, but in forming models ; and to this 
 day, a fculptor never undertakes any thing confiderable, 
 without forming a model either in clay or wax. In mak¬ 
 ing figures of thefe materials, they begin andfinifh their 
 work with their hands, ufing only three or four pieces of 
 wood, which are roundifh at one end, and at the other 
 flat, with a fort of claws and teeth, which are to fmooth 
 and fcratch the work. For waxen models, to every 
 pound of wax add half a pound of colophony ; fome add 
 turpentine, and melt it together with oil of olives; more 
 or lefs of the latter being ufed, as they would have the 
 matter hard or loft : fome alfo add a little vermillion, to 
 give it a colour: this is wrought and moulded with the 
 fingers like clay. 
 
 For fculpture in wood, which we properly call carv¬ 
 ing, the firft thing required is to chufe wood proper for 
 the work the fculptor is to perform. If it be any thing 
 large, and requires a great deal of ftrength and folidity, 
 the hardeft and molt durable wood is to be chofen ; and 
 for fmaller works and ornaments, the fofter wood is ufed; 
 but it muft be fuch, however, as is firm and clofe : for 
 a large work, though it be only a Angle figure, it is better 
 
 scu 
 
 to makeufe of feveral pieces of wood, or bits of board, 
 glued together, than of one whole piece, which is more 
 liable to crack; for a thick piece of wood may not be 
 dried to the heart, however it may appear on the outfide. 
 Carving is performed with a great variety of chilfels and 
 other tools, for pairing, fcooping, rounding, &c. the 
 feveral parts of the work. 
 
 In fculpture in marble and other ftone, the firft thing 
 to be done is to faw out a block of marble, of the bignefs 
 of the work to be performed ; and this being done, the 
 fuperfluities are to be taken off by a ftubbed point and a 
 heavy mallet; thus, bringing near the meafures required, 
 the fculptor reduces it ftill nearer with a finer tool, called 
 a dog’s tooth, it having two points, but one not fo fharp 
 as the other. After this he makes ufe of his gradine, 
 which is a flat cutting tool, with three teeth ; he then 
 takes off, with a fmooth chiflel, the fcratches the gradine 
 left on the marble, and ufes it with dexterity and delicacy, 
 to give foftnefs and tendernefs to his figure; till at length, 
 taking rafps of different degrees of finenefs, the work is 
 gradually rendered fit for polifhing. To polifh the work 
 the fculptor ufes pumice-ftone and fmalt, then he goes 
 over it with tripoli; and when he would give it more 
 luftre, rubs it with leather and ftraw-afhes. There are 
 feveral other tools ufed by fculptors, adapted to the dif¬ 
 ferent parts of the work, and the nature of the ftone they 
 make ufe of. 
 
 As the models of clay fhrinkwhen they go dry, when¬ 
 ever fculptors undertake a confiderable piece of work, 
 they only ufe the model for making a mould of plafter or 
 ftucco, in which is formed a figure of the fame matter, 
 which thenceforth ferves for a model, and by which they 
 adjuft all their meafures and proportions. To proceed 
 the more regularly, on the head of the model they place 
 an immoveable circle, divided into degrees, with a move- 
 able rule or index, fixed in the centre of the circle, and 
 divided alfo into equal parts : from the end of the rule 
 hangs a line with a plummet, which ferves to take all 
 the points, to be transferred thence to the block of mar¬ 
 ble, from whofe top hangs another plummet, like that of 
 die model. But there are fome excellent fculptors, who 
 difapprove of this method ; urging, that the fmalleft 
 motion of the model changes their meafures, for which 
 reafon they choofe to take all their meafures with the 
 compafles. 
 
 SCUM, properly denotes the impurities which aliquor, 
 by boiling, calls up to the fur face. See Cl arifica- 
 tion. The term feum is alfo ufed for what is more 
 properly called the fcoria of metals. See Scoria. In 
 this laft lenfe, the feum of lead is a fort of fmalt, of 
 various colours; and the feum of filver is what we com¬ 
 monly call litharge. See Litharge. 
 
 SCUPPERS, in ftlip-building, fmall channels cut 
 through the fhip’s fide, with a gradual dope from the 
 decks. They are ufed to carry ofF the water which may 
 lie on the deck ; for which purpofe there is frequently a 
 leathern pipe nailed on the outfide all round the feupper- 
 hole, to carry the water down without ftaining or dirt- 
 ing the veflel’s fide. Thefe are termed fcupper-holes. 
 
 SCURVY, Scorbutus , a name given by medicinal 
 writers to a difeafe fo various and different in appearance, 
 that it does not feem to be one and the fame diftemper. 
 In the northern countries it has always been common, 
 and the nearer they are to the fea, the more fevere it 
 proves: accordingly the Danes, Norwegians, and other 
 inhabitants of the coaftsof the Baltick, are vaftly affli&ecj 
 with it; nor do the Germans, Dutch, or our own coun¬ 
 trymen, efcape its fury. 
 
 It begins by foul ulcers in the mouth and legs, whence 
 it is called ftomacace and fceletyrbe by Pliny, who im¬ 
 putes it to the bad qualities of water, and fays, that the 
 herba Britannica, which is believed to be the hydrolapa- 
 thum nigrum of Muntingius, or great water-dock, was 
 found to be its cure. But the difeafe was known long 
 before Pliny’s time : for Hippocrates deferibes it by the 
 name ofywAw pty-xs, or great fpleen ; and fays, likewife, 
 that it arifes from drinking cold, crude, turbid waters. 
 
 Scurvy grafs and all the fpecies of garden and water 
 crefles, horfe radifh, the roots of wild radifh, and muftard, 
 are juftly looked upon as antifcorbuticks, for they induce 
 a furprifing change both in the difordered fluids and fo- 
 lids. To thofe may be added the roots of gentian and 
 fuccory, the leaves of fcordium, carduus benedi&us, 
 
 worm- 
 
S C Y 
 
 wormwood, the lefler centaury, water trefoil, or bucks 
 beans : balfamicks and corroboratives, as juniper berries, 
 the tops of fir and pine trees,.Winters bark, cortex eleu- 
 theria;, and the Peruvian bark : the gums ammoniack, 
 fagapenum and galbanum ; and the woods iaifafras, guaia- 
 cum, and aloes. 
 
 Medicines which allay the pains and fpafms, are the 
 fat of animals, cream, oii of Iweet almonds, fperma ceti, 
 caftor, affa fcetida, extracts of varrow and chamomile, 
 diafcordiuin, faffron, earth worms, elk hoof, <\c. 
 
 As to evacuations, bleeding lhould be ufed with the 
 greateft caution ; and none but tliegentldl purges lhould 
 Be ufed, fuch as fenna, rhubarb, or manna , alfo pills 
 made after the mannerof Beduer, with deputated aloes, 
 extraCl of rhuharb, bitter herbs, and temperate ballamifk 
 ingredients. 
 
 The diureticks fhould not be {Longer than the decoc¬ 
 tion of the roots of parfley, celery, fennel, and alparagus. 
 
 The faf'ef 1 diaphoreticks are dulcified Jpirit of nitre, 
 flowers of lulphur, aethiops mineral, infulions in the 
 manner of tea of Paul’s betony, carduus henediClus, 
 fcordium, and elder flowers, diaphorttick antimony, cal¬ 
 cined and uncalcined hartfnorn, amber, native cinnabar, 
 cinnabar of antimony, and compound powder of crabs 
 claws : thefe things are adapted to a cold feurvy. But 
 in the hot or alkaline, Icurvy grafs is too hot to be ad- 
 miniftered alone; wherefore it lhould be corrected with 
 acids, fuch as wood forrcl, the juices of citrons, oranges, 
 barberries, and pomegranates; this lhould be accom¬ 
 panied with milk meats, almond emulfions, barley-broths, 
 water gruel, chicken broths, with endive, lettuce, 1'orrel, 
 and crelTes, at intervals. 
 
 When the Icurvy proceeds from muriatick falts, which 
 happens to thole who live on fmoked or high failed tilh 
 or flelh, then whey, copiouflv drank, produces good 
 effefts; as alfo citrons, china oranges, and ripe fruits ; 
 whereas fpiritupus and volatile antilcorbuticks are gene¬ 
 rally detrimental. 
 
 Heiller fays, that when there is a continual fait tafte 
 in the mouth, lime water drank morning and evening, is 
 a high fpccifick. The late biihop ofCloyne lays, that if 
 he may trull what trials he has been able to make, tar 
 water is good in the feveral forts of feurvy, whether alka¬ 
 line, acid, or muriatick ; and that he believes it to be the 
 only medicine that cures them all, without doing hurt 
 in any. 
 
 In a high degree of the feurvy meicurial falivation is 
 looked upon by many as the only cure, which, bv the 
 vehement fhock it gives the whole frame, and the fallible 
 fecretion it produces, may be thought to be more ade¬ 
 quate to fuch an effcCt; but the diforder occalioncd by that 
 violent procefs, it is to be feared may never be got over. 
 
 SOUTJFORME. Os, in anatomy, the chief bone of 
 the knee, called alfo pateija, mola, »kc. See Patella. 
 
 SCUTIFORMIS Cartjlago, in anatomy, one 
 of the cartilages of the larynx, the broadell and biggcil 
 of them all, called alfo thyroides. This cartilage is of 
 a quadrangular figure, and Hands in the interior part, 
 where the pomum adami makes its prominence, whence 
 it is fometimes called the anterior cartilage. It is gib¬ 
 bous withoutli.de, and hollow within ; fometimes double, 
 chief v in women, in whom it does not advance fo far 
 forward as in men. 
 
 SCUTTLES, inafhip, fquarc holes cut in the deck, 
 big enough to let in the body of a man, lerving to let 
 people down into any room below, upon occalion, or 
 from one deck to another. They are generally before the 
 main mail, before the knight in the fore cailie , in the 
 gun room, to go down to the Hern fhcets ; in the round 
 houfe, to go down into the captain’s cabin, when forced 
 by the enemy in a fight aloft. There are alfo fome 
 fmaller lcuttlcs, which have gratings over diem : a.nd all 
 of them have covers, that people may not fall down 
 through them in the night. 
 
 Scuttle is alfo a name given thofe little windows and 
 long holes which arc cut out in cabins, to let in light. 
 
 SCYTALA, in mechanicks, a term ufed by lome 
 writers, for a kind cf radius, or lpokc, ftandingout from 
 the axis of a machine, as an handle or lever to turn it 
 round and work it by. 
 
 Scytala Laconic a, allratagem or device of the 
 Lacedemonians, for the l'ecret writing of letters to their 
 corrcfpondents, fo that if they ffioujd chance to be jn- 
 
 2 
 
 V 
 
 SEA 
 
 terccptcd, nobody might be able to read them. To this 
 end they had two wooden rollers or cylinders, perfectly 
 alike and equal, one whereof was kepc in the city, and 
 another by the perfon to whom the letter was directed, 
 for the letter, alkinof very thin parchment was wrap¬ 
 ped round the roller, and thaeon was the matter written; 
 which done, it was taken off, and lent away to the party, 
 who upon putting it in the lame manner upon his roller, 
 found the lines and words in the very fame difpolition as 
 when they were firfl written. 
 
 SEA, Ala, in geography, is frequently ufed to fignify 
 that vail body of water encompailing the whole earth, 
 more properly called ocean. Sea is more properly uled 
 lor a, particular part or divifion of the ocean ; denomi¬ 
 nated from the country it wafhes, or other circumilances. 
 As the Irilh Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Baltick Sea, North 
 Sea, Red Sea, See. J he lea differs in faltnefs in different 
 parts; it is in general obferved, that in the hotted cli¬ 
 mates the water is falteft. 
 
 Sea Breaches , a term ufed by the farmers to exprefs 
 the over-flowing of their low lands near the fea by the 
 lea water. 
 
 Sea fait, moderately ufed, is a great improvement to 
 all lands, but too much of it kills all forts of vegetables 
 except fuch as nature has intended to live among it. The 
 iea,^ bieaking in upon lands thus, injures them gieatlv. 
 
 SEAL, Higiilum, a puncheon, or piece of metal, or 
 other matter, ulually either round or oval, whereon are 
 engraven the arms, device, &c. of fome prince, Hate, 
 community, magiftrate, or private perfon, often with a 
 legend or iublcnption, the impreihon whereof, in wax, 
 ferves to make a£ts, inflruments, &c. authentick. 
 
 Before the time of v\ illiam the Conqueror, the makers 
 of all deeds only fubferibed their names, adding the fTgn 
 of the erds, and a great number of witnefles ; but that 
 monarch, and the nobility, ufed feals with their arms oil 
 them, which example was afterwards followed by others. 
 
 1 he colour of the wax wherewith this king’s grants were 
 fealed was ulually green, to fignify that the a& continued 
 trefh for ever, and of force. 
 
 A fcal is ablolutely neceflary in refpeft of deeds, be¬ 
 came the iealing of them makes perfons parties thereto, 
 and without being fealed, they are void in law. It is held, 
 that if a leal be broken off, it will render the deed void, 
 and that where feveral are bound in a bond, the pulling 
 off the feal of one vacates it as to all the reft. 
 
 I he king s great leal is that whereby all patents, com- 
 miffions, warrants, &c. coming from the king are fealed. 
 The keeping hereof is in the hands of the lord high 
 chancellor, who is hence denominated lord keeper. In¬ 
 deed there is fome difference between the lord chancellor 
 and lord keeper, not in office, but in the manner of 
 creation, the latter being made by the delivery of the 
 great leal to him by the king, but the former having a pa¬ 
 tent. The king’s privy leal is a feal that is ufually firfl: 
 let to grants that are to pafs the great feal. 
 
 Seal is alio ufed for the wax or lead, and the im- 
 preffion thereof, affixed to the thing fealed. 
 
 SEALER, an officer in chancery, appointed by the 
 lord chancellor or keeper of the great feal, to feal the writs 
 and inftiumcnts there made in his prefence. 
 
 SEALING, in architecture, the fixing a piece of 
 wood or iron in a wall with plafter, mortar, cement, lead, 
 and other folid binding. For ftaples, hinges, and joints 
 plafter is very proper. 
 
 Sealing Wax. See Wax. 
 
 SEAM, or Sem e of Corn, is a meafure of eight bufliels. 
 
 Se am of Glafs , the quantity of 120 pounds, or 24 
 
 Hones, each five pounds weight. The feam of wood is 
 an horfe-load. 
 
 SEAMS, in fhip-building, the interftices between the 
 planks in a Blip’s decks, fldes, or bottom : they are filled 
 with a quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwifted and 
 drawn afunder, after which they are covered with hot 
 melted pitch, to prevent the entrance of the water. 
 
 SEAR Cloth , or Cere Cloth, in furgery, a form 
 of external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent, 
 yet fofter than an emplafter, though it is frequently ufed 
 both for the one and the other. 
 
 SEASIN, or Seasing, in a Ihip, the name of a 
 rope by which the boat rides by the fihip’s fide when in 
 harbour, Ike. 
 
 SEASONS, in cofmography, certain portions or 
 
 quarters 
 
S E G 
 
 Quarters of the year, diftinguifhed by the figns which 
 the earth then enters, or by the meridian altitudes ot the 
 fun, confequeiit on which are different temperatures of 
 the air, different works in tillage, he. The year is di¬ 
 vided into four feafons, fpring, fummer, autumn, and 
 winter. The beginnings and endings of each whereof, 
 fee under its proper article, Spring, Ac. 
 
 SEAT, in the menage, the pofture or fituation of a 
 horfeman upon the faddle. 
 
 SEBESTEN, Cordifi, in botany,' a genus of plants, 
 whole flower is monopetalous and funncl-ffiaped/ The 
 fruit of a fpecies belonging to this family of plants, are 
 brought from Syria and Egypt, and are ufed in medi¬ 
 cine : they are moderately cooling and emollient, and 
 help to obtund the acrimony of the humours; they are 
 therefore recommended in defluxions, catarrhs, lharp- 
 nel’s of urine, billions fevers and coftivenefs; but in the 
 prefent medical practice are not much in ufe. 
 
 SECALE, Rye, in botany. See Rye. 
 
 SECANT, in geometry, is a line that cuts another, 
 brdivides it into two parts. SeeLiNE. In trigonometry, 
 the l'ecant denotes a right line drawn from the centre of 
 a circle, which cutting the circumference, proceeds till 
 it meets with a tangent to the fame circle. 
 
 SECOND, in geometry, chronology, he. the 6oth 
 part of a prime or minute, whether of a degree or of an 
 hour : it is denoted by two fmall accents, thus (")• 
 
 Second, in muflek, one of the mufical intervals; 
 being only the difference between any found and the 
 next neareft found, whether above or below it. See 
 Inter v al. 
 
 SECONDARY, in general, fomeihing that afts as 
 fecond, or in fubordination to another. Secondary 
 circles of the fphere, are circles pafling through the 
 poles of fome great circle : thus the meridians and hour- 
 circles arc fecondaries to the equinoctial. 
 
 There arc alfo fecondaries pafling through the poles 
 of the ccliptick, by means of which all liars are referred 
 to the ccliptick. 
 
 SECRETARY, an officer, who, by his mailer’s 
 orders, writes letters, dilpatches, and other inltruments, 
 which lie renders authentick by his lignet. 
 
 Of thefe there are feveral kinds; as, i. Secretaries of 
 Hate, who are officers that have under their management 
 and direction the moft important affairs of the kingdom, 
 and are obliged conllantly to attend on the king: they 
 receive and difpatch whatever comes to their hands, 
 cither from the crown, the church, the army, private 
 grants, pardons, dilpenfations, he. as likewife petitions 
 to the lovereign, which, when read, are returned to 
 them ; all which they difpatch according to the king’s 
 direClion. 
 
 2. Secretary of an embaffy, a perfon attending an am- 
 baffador for writing dilpatches relating to the negotiation. 
 There is a great difference between the fecretary of an 
 embaffy and the ambaffador’s fecretary ; the lalt being a 
 domeltick or menial of the ambaflador, and the firft a 
 fervant or mmilter of the prince. 
 
 3. Secretary of war, an officer of the war-office, who 
 has two chief clerks under him, the lalt of which is the 
 fecretary’s meffenger. There are alfo fecretaries in moll 
 of the other offices. 
 
 SECRETION, fecrctio, the aCt whereby the feveral 
 juices or humours‘of the animal body are feparated from 
 the blood by means of the glands. 
 
 It is a thing well known to philofpphers, and parti¬ 
 cularly to chymilts, that a piece of walle paper, which 
 confilts of a parcel of filaments connected together, be¬ 
 ing once foaked in oil or water, will not fuffer any 
 other liquor to pals through it, but fuch as it was fatu- 
 rated with before, flopping all others. It is alfo known 
 thatferaps of cloth or cotton imbued with oil or water, 
 and dipped in a veflel, in which oil and water are mixed 
 together, that which was laturatcd with water will fuffer 
 nothing to pafs but water, and that which had the oil 
 will let nothing pafs but oil. 
 
 There are to be found in the fecretory veffels of the 
 glands a fimilar ilruClure, an interwoven mafs of fila¬ 
 ments very like thole of paper, cloth, or cotton, though 
 dilpofcd a little differently. This texture, once filled 
 with a certain juice, will let none pafs through ot all 
 the juices that come to the orifices of thefe veflels, but 
 that with which they were already faturated. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 65. 
 
 SEC 
 
 This being fo, the blood which we ought to confider 
 not as a homogeneous fluid, but as compofed of an infi¬ 
 nity of parts, or different molecules, fuch as oily, mu¬ 
 cilaginous, watery, l'ubtile, and grofler falino prrticles, 
 being carried by the arteries into the gland, d. des itfelf 
 into all the ramifications of the artery where is infi¬ 
 nitely extended, and w herein all the molecule: ,1. ; obliged 
 to file off, as it were one by one, by the ftraigiit paffage 
 of the artery into the vein, and conlequently to 1 oil over 
 the orifices of the fecretory veffels of the glands, whofe 
 villous texture is before faturated with a juice of a certain 
 nature; and thefe particles, which are of the fame na¬ 
 ture with that juice which prefents itfelf at the orifice or 
 entrance of the fecretory veffels, join themfelvcs to it, and 
 enter with the greater liberty, being pufhed on by thole 
 that follow them ; fo that they lucccffively run through 
 the whole veflel, and at length pafs out by the excretory 
 canal; whilft the others, which are not of the fame na¬ 
 ture, roll over the orifice of the fecretory veflels, without 
 ever mingling with the juice they meet there, and pals 
 on to the returning vein to go to the heart again. 
 
 For the ufe, he. of the animal fccretions, fee the ar¬ 
 ticles Excrement and Excretion. 
 
 SECT, Se£fa, a collcftive term, comprehending all 
 fuch as follow the doftrines and opinions of fome famous 
 divine, philofopher, he. The principal lefts among the 
 ancient philolophers were the Epicureans, Peripateticks, 
 Academicks, Stoicks, Pyrrhonifts, he. Among the mo¬ 
 derns, the Newtonian, Cartcfians, Hutchinfonians, &c. 
 are the principal ones in Europe. 
 
 And the Calvin ills, Lutherans, Papiffs, Independents, 
 Anabaptifls, Arians, Socinians, Arminians, he. are the 
 principal fefts to be found among modern divines. 
 
 SECTION, in general, denotes a part of a divided 
 thing, or the thing itfelf. Such particularly are the fub- 
 divifions of a chapter called alfo paragraphs and articles : 
 the mark of a feftion is §. 
 
 Section, in geometry, denotes a fide or fur face ap¬ 
 pearing of a body or figure cut by another ; or the place 
 where lines, planes, he. cut each other. The common 
 feftion of two planes is always a right line; being the 
 line fuppofed to be drawn on one plane by the feftion of 
 the other, or by its entrance into it. 
 
 Section of a Building, in architefture, is the fame 
 with its profile ; or a delineation of its heights and 
 depths railed on a plane, as if the fabrick was cutafunder 
 to difeover its infide. 
 
 Conick Sections, in geometry. See the articles 
 Cone and Conick. 
 
 SECTOR, in geometry, is a part of a circle, compre¬ 
 hended between two radii and the arch ; or it is a mixed 
 triangle, formed by two radii and the arch of a circle. 
 
 Sector is alfo a mathematical inftrument, of great 
 ufe in finding the proportion between quantities of the 
 lame kind, as between lines and lines, fur faces and fur- 
 faces, he. for which reafon the French call it the compafs 
 of proportion. The great advantage of the feftor above 
 common feales, he. is, that it is adapted to all radii, and 
 all feales. For, by the line of chords, fines, tangents, 
 he. on the feftor, we have lines of chords, fines, tangents, 
 he. adapted to any radius between the length and breadth 
 of the feftor, when opened. 
 
 Dejcription of the Sector. This inftrument confifts 
 of two equal legs, or rules of brafs, he. riveted together, 
 but fo as to move eafily on the rivet; on the faces of the 
 inftrument are placed feveral lines; the principal of 
 which are the line of equal parts, line of chords, line of 
 fines, line of tangents, line offecants, and line of polygons. 
 
 The line of equal parts, called alfo the line of lines, 
 marked L, is a line divided into ico equal parts, and, 
 where the length of the leg will admit it, each of thefe is 
 fubdivided into halves and quarters. It is found on each 
 leg, on the fame lide, and the divifions numbered 1, 2, 3, 
 
 4, 5, he. to 10, which is near the extremity of each leg. 
 Note, in praftice, 1 reprefents cither 1, 10, too, 1000, 
 10000, he. as occafion requires, in which cafe, 2, re¬ 
 prefents 2, 20, 200, 2000, 20000, &c. and fo of the reft. 
 The line of chords, marked C on each leg, is divided 
 after the ufual manner, and numbered 10, 20, 30, he. to 
 60. J he line of fines, denoted on each leg by the letter 
 
 5, is a line of natural fines, numbered 10, 20, 30, he. 
 to 90. The line of tangents, denoted on each leg by 
 the letter T, is a line of natural tangents, numbered 10, 
 
 4 K 20, 
 
SEC 
 
 20, 30, &c. to 45. Befides which there is another little 
 line of tangents on each leg, commencing at 45 0 , and 
 extending to 79 0 , denoted by the letter /. Line of fecants, 
 denoted on each leg by the letter J, is a line of natural 
 fecants, numbered 10, 20, 30, &c. to 73, not commenc¬ 
 ing at the centre of the inftrument, but at fome- diftance 
 therefrom. The line of polygons, denoted by the letter 
 P on each leg, is numbered 4, 3, 6, &c. to 12, which 
 falls confiderably fhort of the centre of the inftrument. 
 
 Uje of the Line of equal Parts on the Sector. 
 
 1. To divide a given line into any number of equal 
 parts, fuppofe feven. Lake the given line in your com- 
 pafles, and letting one foot in a divifion of equal parts, 
 that may be divided by feven, for example, 70, whofe 
 feven til part is 10, open the fe&or till the other point 
 falls exactly on 70, in the fame line on the other leg. In 
 this difpofition, applying one part of the compafles°to 10, 
 in the fame line, fhutthem till the other fall in ip, in the 
 fame line, on the other leg, and this opening will be the 
 feventh part of the given line. Note, if the line to be 
 divided be too long to be applied to the legs of the fedtor, 
 divide only one half, or one fourth, by 7, and the double 
 or quadruple thereof will be the feventh part of the whole. 
 
 2. To meafure the lines of the perimeter of a polygon, 
 one of which contains a given number of equal "parts. 
 I ake the given line in your compaffes, and fet it parallel, 
 upon the line of equal parts, to the number on each leg 
 exprefling its length. 7 he lector remaining thus, fet off 
 the length of each of the other lines parallel to the for¬ 
 mer, and the numbers each of them falls on, willexprefs 
 their lengths. 
 
 3- A right line being given, and the number of parts 
 it contains, fuppofe 120, to take from it a fhorter line, 
 containing any number of the fame parts, fuppofe 25. 
 Take the given line in your compaffes, open the lector 
 till the two feet fail on 120 on each leg; then will the 
 diftance between 25 on one leg, and the fame number on 
 the other, give the line required. 
 
 4. To multiply by the line of equal parts on the fedtor. 
 Take the lateral diftance from the centre of the line to 
 the given multiplicator ; open the fedtor till you fit that 
 lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and 1, or 10 and 10, 
 and keep the fedtor in that difpofition; then take in the 
 compafles the parallel diftance of the multiplicand, which 
 diftance, meafured laterally on the fame line, will give 
 the produdt required. Thus, fuppofe it were required 
 to find the produdt of 8, multiply by 4 : take the lateral 
 diftance from the centre of the line to 4 in your com¬ 
 paffes, i.e. place one foot of the cornpaffes in the begin¬ 
 ning of the divifions, and extend the other along the 
 line to 4. Open the fedtor till you fit this lateral dif¬ 
 tance to the parallel of 1 and 1, or 10 and 10. Then 
 take the parallel diftance of 8, the multiplicand; i. e- 
 extend the compaffes from 8, in this line, on one leg, to 
 8 in the fame line on the other, and that extent, meafured 
 laterally, will give the produdt required. 
 
 5- 1 o divide by the line of equal parts on the fedtor. 
 Extend the compaffes laterally from the beginning of the 
 line to 1, and open the fedtor till you fit that extent to 
 the parallel of the divifor ; then take the parallel diftance 
 of the dividend, which extent, meafured in a lateral di- 
 redtion, will give the quotient required. Thus fuppofe 
 it was required to divide 36 by 4; extend the compaffes 
 laterally, the beginning of the line to 1, and fit to that 
 extent the parallel of 4, the divifor; then extend the 
 compafles parallel, from 36 on one leg to 36 on the 
 other, and that extent, meafured laterally, will give 9, 
 the quotient required. 
 
 6. To work any proportion by the fedtor. Take the 
 fecond term lateral, and, opening the fedtor, apply that 
 extent parallel in thefirft. term, and flay the fedtor in that 
 pofition ; then take the parallel diftance of the third 
 term, which extent, meafured laterally, gives the fourth 
 term required. This is fo eafy, from what has already 
 been laid, that it needs no example. 
 
 The Ufe of the Line of Chords on the Sector. 
 
 1. To open the fedtor fo as the two lines of chords 
 may make an angle or number of degrees, fuppofe 40. 
 Take the diftance from the joint to 40, the number of 
 the degrees propofed, on the line of chords; open the 
 fedtor till the diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be 
 equal to the given diftance of 40 ; then with the two lines 
 on the fedtor form an angle of 40°, as was required. 
 
 2 
 
 S E C 
 
 2. The (efior being opened, to find the degrees of its 
 aperture. Take tile extent from 60 to 60, and lav it off 
 on the line of chords from the centre; the number 
 whereon it terminates will fhew the degrees, Ac. required. 
 
 3. 1 0 lay off any number of degrees upon the circum¬ 
 
 ference of a circle. Open the Ibdor till the diftance be¬ 
 tween 60 and 60 be equal to the radius of the given 
 circle ; then take the parallel extent of the chord of the 
 number ot degrees on each leg of the fe£tor, and lay it 
 off on the circumferences of the given circle. Hence 
 any regular polygon may be eafily infcribed in a given 
 circle, 0 
 
 Ufe of the Line of Polygons on the Sector. 
 
 1. To inferibe a regular polygon to a given circle. 
 
 I ake the (enu-diameter of the given circle in tile com¬ 
 pafles, and adjuft it to the number 6, on the line of poly¬ 
 gons, on each leg of the fea 0 r : then, thclbaor remain¬ 
 ing thus opened, take the diftance of the two equal num¬ 
 bers, expreffing the number of fides tile polygon is to 
 have; e. gr. the diftance from 5 to 5 for a'pentagon 
 from 7 to 7 for a heptagon, &c. Theft; diftances carried 
 about the circumference of the circle, will divide it into 
 io many equal parts. 
 
 2. 7 o deferibe a regular polvgon, e. gr. a pentagon 
 on a given right line. Take the length of the line in 
 the compafles, and apply it to the extent of the number 
 5. 5, on the lines of polygons. The feftor thus opened, 
 upon the fame lines, take the extent, from 6 to 6 ; this 
 will be the femi-diameter of the circle tile polygon is to 
 be infcribed in. If, then, with this diftance, from the 
 ends of the given line, you deferibe two arches of a cir¬ 
 cle, their interfciftion will be the centre of the circle. 
 
 3; O” a '"'gilt hue, to deferibe an ifofceles triangle 
 having the angle at the bafe double that at the vertex! 
 Open the fedtor, till the ends of tile given line fall on to 
 and 10 on each leg ; then take the diftance from 6 to 6. 
 This will be tile length of the two equal fides of the 
 triangle. 
 
 Uje of the Lines of Sines, Tangents , and Secants on the 
 Sector. 
 
 By the feveral lines difpofed in the feftor, we have 
 feales to feveral radiufes ; fo that having a length or ra¬ 
 dius given, not exceeding the length of the fedlor when 
 opened, we find tile chord, fine, &c. thereto, c. gr. fup¬ 
 pofe the chord, fine, or tangent, of io°, to a radius of 
 3 inches, required ; make 3 inches the aperture, between 
 60 and 60, on the lines of chords of the two legs; then 
 will the lame extent reach from 45 to 45 on tile line of 
 tangents, and from go to go on the line of the fines on 
 the other fide; fo that to whatever radius the line of 
 chords is fet, to the fame are all the others fet. In this 
 difpofition, therefore, if the aperture between 10 and 10 
 on the lines of chords, be taken with the compaffes, it 
 will give the chord of io°. If the aperture of to and 
 10 be in like manner taken on the lines of fines, it will 
 be tile fine of 10 . Laftly, it tile aperture ot 10 and 10 
 be in like manner taken on the lines of tangents, it gives 
 the tangent of io°. 
 
 If the chord, or tangent, of 70° was required ; for the 
 chord, the aperture of half the arch, viz. 33, muft be 
 taken, as before; which diftance, repeated twice, gives 
 the chord of 70°. To find the tangent of 70°’to the 
 fame radius, the fmall line of tangents muft be ufed, the 
 other only reaching to 45 : making, therefore, 3 inches 
 the aperture between 45 and 45 on the fmall line; the 
 extent between 70 and 70“ on the fame, will be the tan¬ 
 gent of 70° to 3 inches radius. 
 
 To find the lecant of an arch, make the given radius 
 the aperture between o and o on the line of fecants : then 
 will the aperture of 10 and 10, or 10 and 70, on the 
 faid lines, give the tangent of 10°, or 70. 
 
 If the converfe of any of thele tilings were required ; 
 that is, if the radius be required, to which a given line 
 is the fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making tile given 
 line, if a chord, the aperture on the line of chords, be¬ 
 tween 10 and 10, and then the feftor will ftand at the 
 radius required ; that is, the aperture between 60 and 60, 
 on the faid line, is the radius. If the given line were a 
 fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making it the aperture 
 of the given number of degrees ; then will the diftance 
 of go and go on the fines, of .13 and 45 on the tangents, 
 of o and o on the fecants, be the radius. 
 
 SECULAR, fomething that is temporal, in which 
 
 fienfe 
 
SEE 
 
 fenfe the. word Hands oppofed to ecclefiaftical: thus we 
 fay, fecular power, fecular jurifdi&ion, &c. 
 
 Secular is more peculiarly uled for a perfon who lives 
 at liberty in the world, not fhut up in a monaftery nor: 
 bound by vows or fubje&ed to the particular rules of any 
 religious community; in which feni'e it ftands oppofed 
 to regular. 1 he Romifh clergy is divided into fecular 
 and regular. 
 
 Secular Games, Ludl Seculares, in antiquity, fo- 
 lernn games held among the Romans once in an age. 
 Thefe games lafted three days and as many nights, 
 during which time facrifices were performed, theatrical 
 fhews exhibited, with combats, fports, See. in the circus- 
 
 Secular Poem, Carmen Seculare , a poem fung or re- 
 liearfed at the lccular games, of which kind we have a 
 very fine piece among the \yorks of Horace, being a 
 fapphick ode at the end of his epodes. 
 
 SECULARIZATION, the a£t of converting a re¬ 
 gular perfon, place, or benefice, into a fecular one. 
 
 SECUNDINES, Secundinx, aft er Birth , in anatomy, 
 the feveral coats or membranes wherein the foetus is 
 wrapped up in the mother’s womb, as the chorion and 
 amnios, with the placenta, kc. 
 
 SEDANTIA, fedative medicines, ill pharmacy, fuch 
 medicines as are poffeffed of a power not only of com- 
 pofing, checking, and allaying the exorbitant and irre¬ 
 gular motions of the folids and fluids, but alfo of allevi¬ 
 ating and refolving the painful fpafmodick ftriftures of 
 the parts. As tlte effedls of thefe medicines are very ex- 
 tenfive, we may juftly include in their number parego- 
 ricks, which not only relax and gently footh the rigid 
 fibres, but alfo obtund tile acrimony ot the juices ; ano¬ 
 dynes, which alleviate the violence of racking pain's; an- 
 tifpafmqdicks, which mitigate and remove the fpaimo- 
 dick ftiidlures of the parts ; antiepilepticks, which check 
 convuilive motions; hypnoticks, which procure deep ; 
 and narcoticks, which induce a confiderableilupor of the 
 fenfes and torpor of all the motions of the body. 
 
 SE DEFENDENDO, in Jaw, a plea ufed for him 
 that is charged with tile death of another, by alledging 
 that he was under a neceffity of doing what he did in his 
 own defence; as that the other aflaulted him in fuch a 
 manner, that if he had not done what he did, he muft 
 have been in hazard of iiis own life. But lien? the 
 danger muft appear fo great, as to be inevitable. Any 
 perlbn ill his juft defence may kill others for the fafety 
 of his life ; though if malice be coloured under a pre¬ 
 tence of neceffity, or one kill another before he is under 
 a neceffity of fo doing, the lame may be either murder or 
 mauflaughter by our law. 
 
 Where two perfons l'uddenly fall out, and one of them, 
 being attacked, flies to the wall, or any unpayable place’ 
 as far as he can, in Older to fave his life, but being flili 
 purfued, kills the perfon that attacked him ; this killing, 
 as well as others in the like cafes, is fe defeudendo. In 
 fe defendendo, though the affair juftifies the killing to 
 have been in his own defence, he is neverthelefs obliged 
 to fue out his pardon from the lord chancellor, which of 
 com fe is granted him, but yet his goods and chattels be¬ 
 come forfeited to the king. It is faid, however, that 
 upon the fpecial matter found, he may be dilmiffed with- 
 out any forfeiture, &c. 
 
 SEDIMENT, the fettlement or dregs of any thing, 
 or that grofs heavy part of a fluid body which, upon reft- 
 ing, finks to the bottom of the veffel. 
 
 SEDUM, houfe-leek, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 Whole flower confifts of five plane,'lanceolated, pointed 
 petals, with five neftaria, each being a fmall emarginated 
 fcale, and inferted on the back of the germen ; the fruit 
 confifts of five ereflo-patent, acuminated, commcffed 
 capfules, emarginated at the bafe, and opening from top 
 to bottom ; the feeds are numerous and fmall. This 
 genus includes the orpine and ftone-crop. The common 
 houfe-leek grows on the tops of old walls and houfes, it 
 is evergreen, flowers in July, and the ftalk withers in 
 autumn. rhis plant is laid to be cooling, cleanfing, and 
 atlringent; and fome give four ounces of the juice to 
 cure intermittent fevers, when there is no cold fit: and 
 the leaves are fometimes ufed externally to cure the piles, 
 but it muft be done with caution. 
 
 SEED, Semi'ii , in phyfiology, a fubftancc prepared by 
 nature, for the reprod notion and confervation of the fpe- 
 cies, both in animals anfl plants. The feed of animals, 
 
 SEE 
 
 and particularly of mankind, is a whitifh fluid, fecreted 
 from the blood m the teftes. It is the thickeft and moll 
 elaborated of all the humours in the human body ; and 
 by a chymical analyfis, is found to confiftalmoft entirely 
 . 1 . and volatile falls blended with a little phlegm. The 
 fenunal liquor, however, fuch as emitted for ufe, is a 
 mixture of the true femen with the liquors of the proftata? 
 and other glands of the penis; all which, in the aft of 
 coition are poured at the fame time into the common 
 canal ot the urethra, either from the glands where they 
 are lecreted, or the refervoirs where they are kept • and 
 being there blended together, areinjefted into the uterus. 
 
 Seed, in botany, the produfl ofaplant, wherebythe 
 Ipecies is propagated. J he feed is frequently the fruit 
 of the plant; fometimes it js only a pan inclofed in the 
 rruit, o cc. 
 
 Dr. AgricoJa tells us that there is inclofed in feeds a 
 little germ or bud that compofes the prime and molt 
 noble part oi the whole; and, which, accordingas fome 
 curious perfons have calculated, hardly makes the thou- 
 fandth part ot the feed ; but, on this fmall part, the 
 image and reprefentotion of the whole tree is perfedtly 
 delineated and expreffed ; and this principal part beino- 
 any way hurt, fpoiled, or loft, the feed, however large 
 or otherwile perfeft, will come to nothing, but will rot 
 in the earth. 
 
 ... . ic.jMgin b Lire, p. 07, a debate may be feen be¬ 
 tween him and figmor Triumphetti, whether the whole 
 plant be adually in the feed : the affirmative is main¬ 
 tained by Malpighi with cogent arguments. 
 
 And, as the perpetuity and fafety of the fpecics de¬ 
 pend upon the iafety of the (bed and fruit in agreatmea- 
 fute, nature hath taken peculiar care for the confervation 
 and lately thereof; as particularly in fuch as dare to ffiew 
 their heads ail the year, how fecurely is their flower, lied, 
 or fruit, locked up all the winter, together with their 
 leaves and branches, in their germs, and well fenced and 
 covered there with neat and dole tunicks > And, for fucli 
 as dare not fo expofe themfelvcs, with what fafety are 
 they preierved under the coverture of'the earth, in their 
 root feed, or fruit, till invited out by the kindly warmth 
 of the ip ring > And, when the whole vegetable race is 
 thus cahed out, it is very curious to obferve the methods 
 ot nature in guarding thole infenfative creatures ar-ainft 
 barms and inconvemencies, by making fome, for in- 
 ltance, to lie down proftrgte, and others to clofe them- 
 lelves up upon the touch of animals; and the moil to flrut 
 up their flowers, their down, or other their like guard 
 upon the clofe or cool of the evening, for fear of rain, or 
 other matters that may be prejudicial to the tender feed 
 
 And to thefe confiderations, relating to the feed, we 
 Plight add the various ways of nature in diff,paling and 
 lowing it, fome being, for this end, winged with light 
 down or wings to be conveyed about by the winds - 
 others being laid in e|attick fpringy cafes, that, when they 
 burft and crack, dart their feed at convenient diftances 
 performing thereby the part of a good hiifbandmanj 
 others, by their agreeable tafte and fmell, and lalutarv 
 nature, inviting tliemfelves to be fwailowed, and car- 
 tied about by the birds, and thereby alfo fertilized by 
 palling through their bodies; and others, not thus taken 
 care ot, do many of them, by their ufefulnefs in human 
 life invite the hufbandman and gardener carefully to fow 
 and nurfe them up. Dr. Agricola fays, tile feeds of fruits 
 when repeated from them, though not kept in the earth! 
 will hve freih and healthy a great many years by means 
 
 of its intrinfick pint; but, when it grows very old it is 
 unfit for vegetation. J ’ 
 
 But, notwithstanding what feme gardeners fay, that 
 feme feeds are the better for being two or three year! old 
 yet, he is of opinion that feed of one year old is beft ■’ 
 or then the fp.r.t is frefh and lively ; the juices, which 
 are the principle ot nutrition and growth, are ftill ffif- 
 
 diew b b e r f fl m0 fl 01 ' m thE pIaCCS ° f their rebdence ; and 
 the whole ftrufture in a good difpofition. 
 
 1 he vegetative principle will indeed remain longer in 
 one feed than m another, and in the long and round feed 
 longer than in the flat and fmall feed ; for that in the 
 large and round feed, as well as in the oval, the juices 
 circulate more freely by an interior motion, and hZ a 
 greater area, t. And, befides that the ju.ee! are in them 
 n greater abundance than in tbofe that are fmall and to 
 they can neither evappr^te or dry fo fo on. ’ 
 
 But 
 
S E I 
 
 But in tliofe feeds that are very old, the juices are con- 
 fumed and dried, and the organs are otherwife modified 
 and fo the moving vegetative principle can aft no longer 
 for the fecundity of plants for the produftion of feeds. 
 
 Change of Seed. Seed-wheat fhould be brought from 
 the crop on aftrong clay land, whatever kind of land it 
 is to be fowed upon. A white clay is a good change for 
 a red clay, and a red clay for a white ; but whatever the 
 land be, from which the feed is taken, it may be infefted, 
 it that be not changed there the preceding year; and 
 then there may be danger, though it be had from ever fo 
 proper a land. It is a rule among the farmers, never 
 to buy feed-wheat from a fandy foil ; they exprefs their 
 ditlike of this by the coarfe rhyme. Sand is a change 
 for no land. 
 
 SEEDLINGS, among gardeners, are young plants 
 which have not been tranfplanted from the beds where 
 they were fown : it is alfo a term ufed to diftinguifh 
 plants railed of the feeds from thofe of the fame kinds 
 which have been propagated by layers, cuttings, &c. 
 
 SEEDY, in the brandy trade, a term ufed by the 
 dealers, to denote a fault that is found in feveral parcels 
 of French brandy, which renders them unfaleable. The 
 French luppofe that thefe brandies obtain the flavour 
 which they exprefs by this name, from weeds that grow 
 among the vines from whence the wine of which this 
 brandy is made was prefled. However it be, the thing 
 is evident, and the tafie not of any one kind, fome tail¬ 
 ing ftrongly of annifeed, fome of carraway feed, and 
 1 'omc others of the ftrong flavoured feeds of plants. The 
 bufinefs of rectification of lpirits, Dr. Shaw obferves, is 
 very little undcriloocl abroad, though much praftiled with 
 us ; and there is no doubt but that the fame means which 
 we ufc to reftify malt lpirits, would alfo ferve to purify 
 thefe brandies. 
 
 SEEING, the aft of perceiving objefts by the organ 
 of light; or it is the fenfe we have of the external objefts 
 by means of the eye. See Sight. 
 
 SEELING, in the menage; a liorfe is faid to feel 
 when lie begins to have white eye-brows, that is, when 
 there grows on that part about the breadth of a farthing 
 oi white hairs, mixed with thofe of his natural colour, 
 which is a mark of old age. It is faid, that a horfe 
 never feels till he is 14 years old, and always does be¬ 
 fore he is 16 years. The light, forrcl, and black fooner 
 feci than any other. Hoil'e-jockies ulually pull out thofe 
 hairs with pincers ; but if there be fo many, that it can¬ 
 not be done without making the horfe look bald and 
 ugly, then they colour their eye-brows, that they may 
 not appear old. 
 
 Seeling, at lea, is ufed in the fame fenfe nearly with 
 heeling; when a Ihip lies down conftantly, or fteadily 
 on one fide, the leamen fay, fhe heels; and they call it 
 feeling when fhe rumbles violently and fuddenly, by rea- 
 fon of the ica forfaking her, as they call it ; that is, the 
 waves leaving her for a time in a bowling lea. When a 
 fliip thus tumbles to leeward, they call it leefeel , and in 
 this there is not much danger, even in a ftorm, becaufe 
 the fea will ealilv right her up again ; but if file rowls or 
 feels to windward, there is fear of her coming over too 
 fiiort or fuddenly, and fo having the fea break right into 
 her, be cither foundered, or have fome of her upper 
 works carried away. 
 
 SEGMENT of a Circle, in geometry, that part of 
 the circle contained between a chord and an arch of the 
 fame circle. See Circle. 
 
 Segment of a Sphere, is apart of afphere terminated 
 by a portion of its fufiace, and a plane which cuts it off, 
 pafiing fomewhere out of the centre ; being more pro¬ 
 perly called the feftion of a fphere. The bafeof fuch 
 a fegment, it is evident, is always a circle for finding the 
 folid contents of the fegment of a fphere. 
 
 Segment is fometimes alfo extended to the parts of 
 the ellipfes, and other curvilinear figures. 
 
 SEGMOIDAL Valves, in anatomy, little valves 
 of the pulmonary artery, thus called from their refem- 
 bling legments of circles, but more ufually called femi- 
 lunar valves. 
 
 SEIGNIORY, Dominium , in our law, is ufed for a ma¬ 
 nor or lordfiiip of a feigneur, or lord of the fee or manor. 
 
 SEIGNORAGE, fignilics the right, or due belong¬ 
 ing to a feigneur, or lord ; but it is particularly ufed for 
 a duty belonging to the prince, for die coining of mo* 
 
 3 
 
 S E M 
 
 ney; called alfo coinage, which, under our arfeiefit 
 kings, was five fhillings for every pound of gold brought 
 m the inals to be coined, and a fiiilling for e\ery pound 
 weight ol filver. At prelent the king claims no" feigno- 
 rage at all, but the lubjeft has his money coined at the 
 publick cxpcnce ; nor has the king any advantage there¬ 
 from, but what he has from the alloy. 
 
 SEISIN, in law, fignifies poflefiion. Seifin is di¬ 
 vided into that in deed or in faft, and that in law ; a fei- 
 fin in deed is where a pofieflion is aftually taken ; but a 
 feiiin in law is, where lands defeend, and the party has 
 not entered thereon -, or in other words, it is, where a 
 pcrlon lias a right to lands, See. and is by wrone dillei- 
 fed of them. 
 
 SEIZE, Seaze, or Sease, in the fea-lnnguage, is 
 to make fall, or bind, particularly to fallen two ropes to¬ 
 gether with rope-yarn. The feizing of a boat is a rope 
 tied to a ring, or little chain in the forelhip of the boat, 
 by which means it is faftened to the fide of the Ihip. 
 
 SEIZURE, in commerce, an arreft of fome mer¬ 
 chandize, moveable, or other matter, either in confe- 
 quence of fome law, or of fome exprefs order of the 
 lovereign. Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently entered, 
 or landed without entering at all, or at wrong places, 
 are fubjeft to leizure. In leizures, among us, one half 
 goes to the informer, and the other half to the king. 
 
 SELENDERS, in the menage, are chaps, or mangy 
 fores, in the bending of a horle’s hough, as the malan- 
 ders arc in the knees. 
 
 SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cofmographv, 
 which deferibes the moon and all the parts and appear¬ 
 ances thereof, as geography does thofe of the earth. 
 
 SELEUCIDzE, in chronology, ,-Era of the Seleu- 
 cida?, or the Syro-Macedonian ;era, is a computation of 
 time, commencing from the efiablifiiment of the Seleu- 
 cidx», a race of Greek kings, who reigned as fucccflbrs 
 of Alexander the Great, in Syria, as the Ptolemies did 
 in Egypt. This acra we find exprefled in the book of the 
 Maccabees, and on a great number of Greek medals, 
 firuck by the cities of Syria, See. The rabbins call it 
 the aera of contrafts ; and the Arabs, therik dilkarnain, 
 that is, the cera of the two horns. According to the 
 bell accounts, the full year of this ara falls in the year 
 311 before Chrift, being twelve years after Alexander's 
 death. 
 
 SELL, in building, is of two kinds, viz. ground^ 
 fell, which denotes the lowefi piece of timber in a tim¬ 
 ber-building, and that on which the whole fuperitruc- 
 ture is raifed : and the window-fell, called alfo window- 
 foil, is the bottom piece in a window frame. 
 
 SEMETS, Summets, or Summits, in botany, 
 the fame with the anthers. Sec Ant her.-e. 
 
 SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying. 
 hnlf, but only ufed in compofition with other words, as 
 in the following articles. 
 
 Semi-Arians, in church hiflory, a branch oftlie an¬ 
 cient Arians, confifting of fuch as in appearance con¬ 
 demned the errors of that herefiarch, but yet acquiefced 
 in lome of the principles thereof, only palliating and con¬ 
 cealing them under fofter and more moderate terms. 
 
 Semi-Circle, in geometry, half a circle, or that 
 figure comprehended between the diameter of a circle 
 and half the circumference. 
 
 Semi-circle, is alfo a furveying inftrument, con¬ 
 fining of a femi circular limb as FIG (Pi t. LXXI 1 . 
 jf. 4.) -divided into 180 degrees, and fometimes fubdi- 
 vided into minutes. This limb is lubtended by the dia¬ 
 meter F G, at the extremities whereof are creftcd two 
 fights. In the centre of the femi-circle is fixed a box 
 and needle, and on the lame centre is fixed a moveable 
 index, carrying two fights, as H, I. The whole is mount¬ 
 ed on a llafF with a ball and focket. This inftrummt is 
 only half a theodolite, and its ufe nearly the fame. 
 
 Semi-Colon, in grammar, one of thepoints or flops 
 ufed to diftinguifh the feveral members of tentcnces from 
 each other. It is marked thus (;) See Pointing. 
 
 Semi-Cupium, a half-bath, in which the parts be¬ 
 low the navel only are immerfed. 
 
 Semi-Diameter, the fame with radius, or a ri^ht 
 line drawn from the centre of a circle or fphere to°its 
 circumference. 
 
 Semi-Diapente, inmufick, afal.eordcfeftivefifth, 
 called by the Italians falfaqumta. 
 
 S£MI- 
 
SEN 
 
 Semi-Diapason, a defective oCtave ; or that lef- 
 toned by a femi-tone. 
 
 Semi-Di atess aron, a defective or falfe fourth. 
 
 Semi-Lunar Valves , the fame with Secmoidal 
 Valves r which fee. 
 
 SEMINAL, fperrnatick, or fomething belonging to 
 the feed. 
 
 SEMINALIS, Capfula , in botany, the feed-bag'or 
 bulks that contain the feed of any plant. 
 
 SEMINATION, in agriculture, &c. the aft of fow- 
 ing or fhedding feed, particularly that of vegetables. 
 
 SEMI-NERVOSUS, half nervous, in anatomy, a 
 mufcle that arifeth from the protuberance of the ilchium, 
 and is inferted by a round tendon into the internal part 
 of the epiphylis of the tibia, and helps to bend the leg. 
 
 SEMI-ORDINATES, the half of the ordinates or 
 applicates. 
 
 SEMI-QUARTILE, an afpeCt of the planets, when 
 diflant from each other 45 0 , or one fign and a half. 
 
 SEMI-QUAVER, inmufick, the half of the quaver. 
 
 SEMI-QUINTILE, an afpeCt of the planets, when 
 at the diftance of 36° from each other. 
 
 SEMI-SEXT 1 LE, an afpeCt added by Kepler, where¬ 
 in the planets are 30°, or one twelfth part of a circle 
 from each other. 
 
 SEMISPINALIS, or Semispinosu s, in anatomy, 
 one of the extenfor mufcles of the back and loins, has 
 its origin from the os facrum and vertebrae of the loins, 
 and its termination at the upper vertebrae of the thorax, 
 efpecially at the fpinofe apophyfes; it coheres very firm I v 
 to the longiflimus dorfi and facro lumbaris, the other two 
 extenfors of the back and loins. 
 
 SEMIT A Lum i no s a , a name given to a lucid traCt 
 in the heavens, which may be feen about fix o’clock at 
 night, a little before the vernal equinox, extending from 
 the weftern edge of the horizon up towards the pleiades. 
 Caffini thinks this phenomenon arifes from a vail num¬ 
 ber of frhall planets encompaffing the fun, which gives 
 this light from reflection. 
 
 SENA, in pharmacy, he. a leaf brought to us dried 
 and picked off the ftalks, but often with many of the 
 fragments of the flalks, and even the feed veflels of the 
 tree among it. It is of an oblong figure, broadeft in the 
 middle, and terminating in a fharp point at the end op- 
 pofite to where it grows to the italk ; it is fomewhat 
 thick and flattifti, of a pale green colour, with fomewhat 
 of a yellowifh call, and of a firm texture. Its fmell is 
 faintifh but not difagreeable, its tafte fubacid, bitterifh, 
 and naufeous. We have two kinds of fena, the Alex¬ 
 andrian and that of Tripoly; thefe are eafily diftin- 
 guifhed by the Tripoly kind having more obtufe points, 
 being alfo larger, of a finer green, and fomewhat rough 
 to the touch. We alfo fometimes meet with a third 
 kind, which is the Mocha fena ; this is diftinguifhed by 
 its leaf being narrower, longer, and fharper-pointed than 
 even the Alexandrian kind ; and finally we fometimes 
 meet with the Italian fena ; this is eafily diftinguifhed 
 from all the reft by the leaf being large, broad, and 
 rounded at the end, and having the ribs ftanding high 
 upon it; all thefe three kinds are greatly inferior in vir¬ 
 tue to the Alexandrian, which fhould always therefore be 
 chofen. 
 
 The firft care in the buying it is to be allured from 
 the fhape of the leaf that it is of this kind, and it muft 
 then be feen that it be frefh and of a good fmell, foft to 
 the touch, and cleared from flalks. The leaves ought 
 alfo to be entire, and of a yellowifh green colour, not 
 fpotted with black; and finally, on infufion, it fhould give 
 a light colour to the water. The pods that come over 
 among the leaves of fena are alfo ufed by fome in medi¬ 
 cine ; they are faid to be preferable even to the leaves 
 themfelves ; they are membranaceous, flat feed veffcls, 
 of an oblong, confiderably broad, and crooked figure, 
 and of a dulky green colour ; they contain flatted feeds 
 of a deep blackifh colour in fome, and paler in others, 
 according to the different maturity of the different drying. 
 
 Sena, in whatever form, is pne of the beft purges. It 
 is apt however to gripe, if given without correctives ; 
 thofe moft in ufe for this purpofe are coriander, anifeed, 
 ginger, raifins, and fait of tartar. Thefe are occafionally 
 added to the infufion according to the nature of the cafe 
 and circumftances of the patient; but there is no cor¬ 
 rective fo effectual as the diluting it with a large quantity 
 
 Vol. II. No. 66. 
 
 SEN 
 
 of thC liquid its infufion is taken in. Inflead of a dofe of 
 it being confined to two or three ounces of liquor, if it 
 be given in a quart, and a large quantity of broth or fome 
 other fatty liquor drank after it, it hardly gripes at all. 
 
 SENATE, Ssnatus, an afiembly, orcouncilof fena- 
 tors; that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who 
 have a fhare in the government. 
 
 SENATOR, a member of the fenate. 
 
 SENATUS-CONSULTUM, a vote or refolution of 
 the Roman fenate, pronounced on fome queflion or point 
 of law propofed to it. 
 
 SENECIO, groundfcl, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 which includes the jacobcea of Tournefort. The com¬ 
 mon groundfel is emollient and refolvent, and taken in 
 a ftrong infufion, proves emetick: it is preferibed in fmall 
 doles in the jaundice, dropfy, and hemorrhages ; and 
 externally, it is ufed in ointments for diforders of the Ikin. 
 
 SENNAT, among failors, a fort of braided cordage 
 formed by the platting of five, feven, or nine rope yarns 
 into one another ; it is employed for various ufes in a 
 fhip, particularly to form netting, he. 
 
 SENSATION, the aCt of perceiving external objeCts, 
 by means of the organs of fenfe. To conceive the 
 manner wherein fenfation is affcCted, obferve, that all 
 the organs confift of little filaments, or nerves, which 
 have their origin in the middle of the brain, are diffuled 
 thence throughout all the members which have any fenfe, 
 and terminate in the exterior parts of the body; that 
 when we are in health, and awake, one end of thefe 
 nerves cannot be agitated nor fhaken, without Ihaking 
 the other, by reafon they are always a little ftreiched : as 
 in the cafe of an extended chord, one part of which can¬ 
 not be Itirred without a like motion of all the relt. 
 
 It is to be likewife obferved, that thefe nerves may be 
 agitated two ways, either at the end out of the brain, or 
 that in the brain. If they be agitated from without, by 
 the aCtion of objeCts, and their agitation be not commu¬ 
 nicated as far as the brain ; as frequently happens in fleep, 
 when the nerves are in a flate of relaxation ; the foul 
 does not then receive any new fenfation. But if the 
 nerves happen to be agitated in the brain, by the flux of 
 the animal lpirits, or any other caufe ; the foul perceives 
 fomething, through the parts of thofe nerves, that are 
 out of the brain, diffufed through the feveral parts of the 
 body, remain at perfeCt reft : as likewife is frequently the 
 cafe in fleep. 
 
 Laftly, obferve, that experience tells us, we may fome¬ 
 times feel pain in parts of the body that have been entirely 
 cut off, by reafon of the fibres in the brain correfponding 
 to them being agitated in the fame manner as if they 
 were really hurt; the foul feels a real pain in thofe ima¬ 
 ginary parts. 
 
 SENSE, a faculty of the foul, whereby it perceives 
 external objeCts, by means of the impreflions they make 
 on certain organs of the body. 
 
 The organs of fenfation are generally reckoned five, 
 viz. the eye, whereby we fee objeCts ; the ear, which 
 enables us to hear founds ; the nofe, by which we re¬ 
 ceive the ideas of different frnells ; the palate, by which 
 we judge of taftes; and the cutis, or fkin, which enables 
 us to feel the different forms, hardnefs, or foftnefs of 
 bodies. Seethe articles Eye, Ear, he. as alfoVisiON, 
 Hearing, &c. 
 
 SENSITIVE Soul, a denomination given to the 
 fouls of brutes, either as intimating its utmoft faculty to 
 be that of fenfation ; or becaufe it is fuppoled to be cor¬ 
 poreal, fo as to be an objeCt of our fenfes. See Soul. 
 Sensitive, or Sensible Plant. See Mimosa. 
 
 SENSORY, Senferium Commune , the feat of the com¬ 
 mon fenfe, or what receives the impreflions of all lenfible 
 objeCts, conveyed to it by the nerves of each particular or¬ 
 gan, and confequently is the immediate caufe of percep¬ 
 tion. This office is, by Dr. Willis, attributed to the 
 ftriated part of the brain ; and by Des Cartes, to the 
 glandula pinealis. 
 
 SENTENCE, inlaw, a judgment paffed in court by 
 the judge, on fome procefs, either civil or criminal. 
 
 Sentence, in grammar, a period or fet of words, 
 comprehending fome jperfeCt fenfe or fentiment of the 
 mind. 
 
 Sentence, in poetry, is an inftruCtive and lively re¬ 
 mark made on fomething very obfervable and agreeably 
 furprifing, which contains mu^h fenfe in a few words. 
 
 4^ It 
 
SEP 
 
 h is either dtrefl or plain, as, “In all the affairs of 
 “ the world, fo much reputation is really l'o much power 
 or indirect or difguifed, as, 
 
 “ Fool, not to think how vain 
 
 “ Againft tli’ Omnipotent to rife in arms.” 
 
 SENTIMENT. S, in poetry, and efpccially dramatick, 
 are the thoughts which the leveral perfons exprefs, whe¬ 
 ther they relate to matters of opinion, paffion, bufinefs, 
 or the like. 
 
 SENTINEL, Cent in el, or Cent ry, in military 
 affairs, is a private foldier, placed in fome poll, to watch 
 any approach of the enemy, to prevent l'urprifes, and to 
 Hop fuch as would pafs without order, or difeovering 
 who they are. 
 
 SEPARATISTS, an appellation given to diflenters, 
 from their leparating from the eflablilhed church. 
 
 SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, confin¬ 
 ing only of 30 days: it took its name as being the le- 
 ventli month, reckoning from March, with which the' 
 Romans began their year. 
 
 SEPT EN I RIO, inaflronomy, a conflellation more 
 ufually called urfa minor. See U rsa. 
 
 In cofmography, the term feptentrio denotes the fame, 
 with north : and hence, feptentrional is applied to any 
 thing belonging to the north, as feptentrional figns, pa¬ 
 rallels, See. 
 
 SEPTUAGESIMA, in the calendar, denotes the third 
 Sunday before Lent, or befoie quadragefima Sunday : 
 fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being about 
 70 days before Eafler. 
 
 SEPTUAG 1 NT, tire name given to a Greek verfion 
 of the books of the Old Tcllament, from its being fup¬ 
 pofed to be performed by 72 Jews, who are ufually called 
 the 70 interpreters, becaul'e 70 is a round number. 
 
 The hiftory of this verfion is exprefsly written by Ari- 
 fteas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemv Philadclphus ; 
 the lubflancc of whofe account is as follows : Ptolemy 
 having ere&ed a fine library at Alexandria, which he 
 took care to fill with the moll curious and valuable books 
 from all parts of the world, was informed that the Jews 
 had one, containing the laws of Moles, and the hillory 
 of that people, and being defirous of enriching his library 
 with a Greek tranflation of it, applied to the high prieft 
 ofthe Jews ; and to engage him to comply with his re- 
 queft, fetat liberty all the Jews, whom his father Ptolemy 
 Soter had reduced to flavery. After fuch a Hep, he eafily 
 obtained what he defired ; Eleazar, the Jewifh highprieft, 
 lent back his ambaffadors with an exatt copy of the Mo- 
 faical law, written in letters of gold, and fix elders of 
 each tribe, in all 72, who were received with marks of 
 relpctt by the king, and then conducted into the ifle of 
 Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared for 
 their reception, and fupplied with every thing necefiary 
 in abundance. They let about the tranflation without 
 lofs of time, and finilhcd it in 72 days; and the whole 
 being read in the prefence of the king, he admired the 
 profound wifdom of the law of Mofcs ; and font back the 
 deputies, laden with prefents for themfelvcs, the high 
 pricil, and the temple. 
 
 Wc lhall fubjoin M. Rollin’s reflexion on this tranf¬ 
 lation of the Bible into Greek. “ This verfion, which 
 made the lcriptures intelligible to an infinite number of 
 people, was one of the raofit conliderable fruits of the 
 Grecian conqucfts : and it appears plainly to have been a 
 part of the principal defign, which God had in delivering 
 all theEafl into the hands of the Greeks, and lupporting 
 them therein, notwithftanding the divifions, jealoufies, 
 battles, and the frequent revolutions that happened among 
 them. God by this means prepared an ealy way for the 
 preaching of the gofpcl, which was near at hand, and 
 more readily united fo many nations, different both in 
 language and manners, in one fociety, in the fame wor- 
 Ihip, and in the fame doSrine, by one language, the 
 moll elegant, copious, and correct, that was in the world, 
 end which became common to all the countries conquer¬ 
 ed by Alexander.” 
 
 SEPTUM, in anatomy, an inclofure, or partition ; 
 a term applied to fcveral parts of the body, which ferve 
 to feparate one part from another. 
 
 SEPULCHRAL, fomething belonging to fepulchres, 
 
 Cr tombs. 
 
 SEPULCHRE, a tomb, or place deftiued for the in- 
 
 2, l 
 
 S E R 
 
 ferment of the dead. This term is chiefly ufed in Jpeak- 
 ing of the burying-places of the ancients, thofe of the 
 moderns being ufually called tombs. 
 
 SEQUEL, in logick, the fame with conclufion. See 
 Conclusion. 
 
 SEQUESTRATION, in common law, is letting 
 afide the thing in controverfy from the pofleffion of both 
 the parties that contend for it. In which fenfe it is ci¬ 
 ther voluntary, as when done by the content of the par¬ 
 ties; or necefiary, as where it is done by the judge, of 
 his own authority, whether the parties will or not. 
 
 SEQUIN, a gold coin, ftruck at Venice, and infeve^ 
 ral parts of the grand leignior’s dominions. See Co 1 n. 
 
 SERAGLIO, a Perfian word, which fignifies the pa¬ 
 lace of a prince or lord, in which fenfe the houfe of the 
 ambaffadors of England, France, &c. are, atConilanti- 
 nople, called their feraglios. But the term feraglio is 
 ukd, by way of eminence, for the palace of the grand 
 feignior at Conftantinople, where he keeps his court, in 
 which his concubines are lodged, and where the youth 
 are trained up for the principal polls of the empire. 
 
 SERAPH, or Seraphim, afpiritofthehighellrank 
 in the hierarchy of angels ; who are thus called, from 
 their being fuppofed to be the molt inflamed with divine 
 love, by their nearer and more immediate attendance at 
 the throne of God, and to communicate their fervour to 
 the remoter and inferior orders. See Angel. 
 
 SER APHICK, burning or inflamed with love or zeal, 
 like a leraphim : thus St. Bonaventure is called the fc- 
 raphick doctor, from his abundant zeal and fervour. 
 
 SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night, 
 by a lover to his miftrefs, under her window. 
 
 SERENE, a title of honour given to leveral princes, 
 and to the principal magiftrates of a republick. 
 
 SERGE, in commerce, a woollen fluff manufactured 
 in a loom, of which there are various kinds, denomi¬ 
 nated cither from their different qualities, or from the 
 places where they are wrought; the moil confiderable 
 of which is the London ferge, which is highly valued 
 abroad, and of which a manufacture has been for fome 
 years carried on in France. 
 
 SERGEANT, or Serjeant nt Law, or of th* 
 Coif is the highell degree taken at the common law, as 
 that of doClor is of the civil law ; and as thefe are fup¬ 
 pofed to be molt learned and experienced in the pra&ice 
 of the courts, there is one court appointed for them to 
 plead in by themfelves, which is the Common-Pleas, 
 where the common law of England is moll ftriClly ob- 
 ierved : but they are not rellrained from pleading in any 
 other court, where the judges, who cannot have that ho¬ 
 nour till they have taken the degree of ferjeant at law, 
 call them brothers. 
 
 Thefe ferjeants are created by the king’s writ, com¬ 
 manding them to take upon them that degree therein af- 
 figned, under a great penalty : and one or more of thefa 
 is Ailed the king’s ferjeant, who is chofen out of the reft 
 to plead for him in all caufes, more efpecially thofe of 
 treafon, &c. 
 
 Sergeant at Arms , or Mace , an officer appointed to 
 attend the perfon of the king, to arrell traitors, and fuch 
 perlons of quality as offend ; and to attend the lord high 
 tic ward when fitting in judgment on a traitor. 
 
 The number of tliefe officers is by llatute limited to 
 that of 30 : there are now eight at court, who are created 
 with great ceremony ; for the perfon kneeling before the 
 king, his majefty lays the mace on his right Ihoulder, 
 and fays, “ Rife up, ferjeant of arms, and efquire, for 
 ever.” They attend in the prefence chamber, where the 
 band of gentlemen penfioners wait; and receiving the 
 king at the door, they carry the maces before him, when 
 he goes to chapel, or the houle.of fords. 
 
 There are four other ferjeants at arms created in the 
 lame manner ; one of whom attends the lord chancellor; 
 a fecond, the lord treafurer ; a third, the fpeaker of the 
 houfe of commons ; and a fourth, the lord mayor of 
 London, on folemn occafions. There is alfo an inferior 
 kind of ferjeants at mace, who attend the mayor, or the 
 head officer of corporations. 
 
 Sergeant, or Serjeant, in war, is an inferior 
 officer in a company of foot, or troop of dragoons, armed 
 with an halbard, and appointed to fee dilcipline obierved, 
 to teach the foldiers the excrcifo of their arms, and to or¬ 
 der, Ibcaittfj* and form ranks, files, Sec. 
 
 SERGE/ysTY, 
 
SER 
 
 S E R 
 
 SERGEANTY, or Serjeanty, inlaw, is taken 
 for a fervice that cannot be due from a tenant to any 
 other lord befidcs the king. 
 
 SERIES, in general, denotes a continued fucceffion 
 of things in the fame order, and having the fame relation 
 or connexion with each other: in this fenfe we fay, a 
 feries of emperors, kings, bilhops, Ac. 
 
 In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an order or fub- 
 divifion of fome clafs of natural bodies; comprehending 
 all fuch as are diftinguifhed from the other bodies of that 
 clafs, by certain characters, which they poffefs in common, 
 and which the reft of the bodies of that clafs have not. 
 
 Ser ies, in matliematicks, is a number of terms, whe¬ 
 ther of numbers or quantities, increafing or decreafing 
 in a given proportion ; the doftrine of which has already 
 been given under the article Progression. 
 
 Infinite Ser i es, is a feries conftfting of an infinite num¬ 
 ber of terms ; that is, to the end of which it is impoffible 
 ever to come ; fo that the feries being carried on to any 
 affignable length, or number of terms, it canbe carried 
 yet further, without end or limitation. See Infinite. 
 
 A number aftually infinite, that is, all whofe units 
 can be aftually affigned, and yet is without limits, is a 
 plain contradiction to our ideas about numbers; for 
 whatever number we can conceive, or have any proper 
 idea of, is always determinate and finite ; fo that a greater 
 after it may be affigned, and a greater after this ; and fo 
 on, without a poflibility of ever coming to an end of the 
 addition or increafc of numbers affignable ; which inex- 
 hauftibility, or endlcfs progreffion in the nature of num¬ 
 bers, is all we can diftinCtly underftand by the infinity 
 of number ; and therefore to fay that the number of any 
 thing is infinite, is not faying, that we comprehend their 
 jjumber, but indeed the contrary : the only thing pofi- 
 tive in this propofition being this, that the number of 
 thefe things is greater than any other number which we 
 can aCtually conceive and affign. But then, whether in 
 things that do really exift, it can be truly laid, that their 
 number is greater than any affignable number ; or, which 
 is the fame thing, that in the numeration of their units 
 one after another, it is impoffible ever to come to an end ; 
 this is a queftion about which there are different opini¬ 
 ons, with which we have no bufinefs in this place ; for 
 all that we are concerned here to know, is this certain 
 truth, that after one determinate number, we can con¬ 
 ceive a greater, and after this a greater, and fo on with¬ 
 out end. And therefore, whether the number of any 
 things that do or can really exift all at once, can be fuch 
 that it exceeds any determinable number, or not, this is 
 true, that of things which exift, or are produced fuccef- 
 lively one after another, the number may be greater than 
 any affignable one ; becaufe though the number of things 
 thus produced, that does aCtuallv exift, at any time, is 
 finite, yet it may beencreafcd without end, And this is 
 the diftinCt and true notion of the infinity of a feries ; 
 that is, of the infinity of the number of its terms, as it 
 is exprefled in the definition. 
 
 Hence it is plain, that we cannot apply to an infinite 
 feries the common notion of a fum, viz. a collection of 
 feveral particular numbers that are joined and added to¬ 
 gether oiie after another, for this fuppofes that thefe par¬ 
 ticulars are all known and determined ; whereas the 
 terms of an infinite feries cannot be all leparately affigned. 
 There being no end in the numeration of its parts, and 
 therefore it can have no fum in lcnfe. But again, if we 
 confider that the idea of an infinite feries confifts of two 
 parts, viz. the idea of fomcihmg pofitive and determined, 
 in fo far as we conceive the feries to be actually carried 
 on; and the idea of an inexhauftiblc remainder ftill be¬ 
 hind, or an endlefs addition of terms that can be made 
 to it one after another ; which is as different from the 
 idea of a finite feries as two things can be : hence we 
 may conceive it as a whole of its own kind, which there¬ 
 fore may be laid to have a total value, whether that be 
 determinable or not. Now in fome infinite feries this 
 value is finite or limited ; that is, a number is affignable 
 beyond which the fum of no affignable number of terms 
 Pf tfie feries can ever reach, nor indeed ever be equal to; 
 it, yet it may approach to it in fuch a manner, as to 
 want lefs than any allignable difference; and this we, 
 may call the value or fum of the feries ; not as being a 
 number found by the common method of addition, but 
 as being lucb a limitation of tfie value of the feries, tgken 
 
 in all its infinite capacity, that if it were poffible to ad<i 
 them all one after another, the fum would be equal to 
 this number. 
 
 Again, in other feries the value has no. limitation; 
 and we may exprefs this, by faying, the fum of the feries 
 is infinitely great ; which indeed fignifies no more than 
 that it has no determinate and affignable value ; and, 
 that the feries may be carried fuch a length as its fum, 
 fo far, fhall be greater than any given number. In fhort, 
 in the lirft cafe we affirm there is a fum, yet not a fum 
 taken in the common fenfe ; in the other cafe we plainly 
 deny a determinate fum in any fenfe. 
 
 Theorem 1 . fn an infinite feries of numbers, increaf¬ 
 ing by an equal difference or ratio (that is, an arithme¬ 
 tical or geometrical encreafing progreffion) from a given 
 number, a term may be found greater than any affignablo 
 number. Hence, if the feries encreafe by differences that 
 continually encreafe, or by ratios that continually en- 
 crcafc, comparing each term to the preceding, it is ma- 
 nifeft that the fame thing may be true, as if the diffe¬ 
 rences or ratios continued equal. 
 
 Theorem II. In a feries decreafing in infinitum in a 
 given ratio, we can find a term lefs than any affignable 
 fraftion. 
 
 Hence, if the terms decreafe, fo as the ratios of each 
 term to the preceding do alfo continually decreafe, then 
 the fame thing is alfo true, as when they continue equal. 
 
 Theorem III. The fum of an infinite feries of num¬ 
 bers all equal, or encreafing continually, by whatever dif¬ 
 ferences oriatios, is infinitely great; that is, fuch a feries 
 has no determinate lunt, but grows fo as to 9xcced any 
 affignable number. 
 
 Demonf. i. If the terms are all equal, as A : A : A, 
 &c. then the fum of any finite number of them is the 
 produft of A by that number, as An; but the greater 
 n is, the greater is A n ; and we can take n greater than 
 any affignable number ; therefore A n will be ftill greater 
 than any affignable number, 
 
 Secondly, Suppofe the feries encreafes continually 
 (whether it do fo infinitely or limitedly) then its fum muft 
 be infinitely great, becaufe it would be fo if the terms 
 continued all equal, and therefore will be more fo, finca 
 they encreafe. But if we fuppofe the feries incrcafes in¬ 
 finitely, either by equal ratios or differences, or by en¬ 
 creafing differences or ratios of each term to the preced¬ 
 ing ; tfien the reafon of the fums heing infinite will appear 
 from the firft theorem ; for in fuch a feries, a term can 
 be found greater than any affignable number and much 
 more therefore the fum of that and all the preceding. 
 
 Theorem IV. The fum of an infinite feries of num¬ 
 bers decreafing in the fame ratio, is a finite number, equal 
 to the quote arifing from the divifion of the produft of the 
 ratio and firft term, by the ratio lefs by unity ; that is, 
 the fum of no affignable number of terms of the feries 
 can ever be equal to that quote ; and yet no number lefs 
 than it, is equal to the value of the feries, or to what we 
 can a&ually determine in it; fo that we can carry the. 
 feries fo far, that the fum ffiall want pf this quote lefs 
 than any affignable difference. 
 
 Demonf. 2. To whatever affigned number of terms 
 the feries is carried, it is fo far finite ; and if thegreateft 
 term is /, the leaft A, and the ratio r, then the fum is 
 
 r 1 _ a 
 
 S — See Geometrical Progression. 
 
 Now, in a decreafing feries from /, the more terms 
 we a&ually raife, the Jaft of them, A becomes the 
 lefler, and the leffer A be rl— A is the greater, and fo 
 
 alfo is —j- i but r/—A bcirjg ftill lefs than rl, there- 
 
 r /_A r l 
 
 fore v_ 1" ?s lci * s than-—, that is, the fum of any 
 affignable number of the terms of the feries is ftill lefs 
 than the quote mentioned, which is ——. and this is the 
 
 r •—1 
 
 firft part of the theorem. 
 
 Again, the feries mav be a&ually continued fo far, 
 
 l _^ " r l 
 
 that ■ ^-fhall want ojf ——, lefs than any affignable 
 
 difference ; for, as the feries goes on, A becomes lefs 
 and lels in a certain ratio, and fo the feries may be 
 aftually continued till A becomes lefs than any affignable 
 
 nymber (by Theorem JL) now - r -J^- 
 
 A 
 
 and 
 
 >•—1 
 
S E R 
 
 S E R 
 
 ai ^ r _, ^an A; therefore let any number 
 
 affigned be called N, we can carry the feries fo far till 
 the lafl term A be lefs than N - t and becaufe ———— 
 
 wants of -—the difference . which is Ids than 
 . ; — 1 
 
 A, which is alfo lefs than N, therefore the lecond part 
 
 - is the true value of 
 
 of the theorem is alfo true, and • 
 
 / — i 
 
 the feries. 
 
 Scholium. The fenfe in which is called the fum 
 r — 1 
 
 of the feries, has been fufficiently explained ; to which, 
 however, we fhall add this : that whatever confequences 
 
 follow from the fuppofition of —— being the true and 
 
 adequate value of the feries taken in all its infinite capa¬ 
 city, as if the whole were aftuallv determined and added 
 together, can never be the occasion of any aflignable 
 error in any operation or demonftration where it is ufcd 
 tn that ferife; beCaufe, if it is laid that it exceeds that 
 adequate value, yet it is demonlhrated that this excefs 
 mult be lefs than any aflignable difference, which is i.. 
 effeft no difference, and fo the confequent error will be 
 
 in efFcft no error : for if any error can happen from--— - 
 
 being greater than it ought to be, to reprefent the com¬ 
 plete value of the infinite lerics, that error depends upon 
 
 the excefs of —— over that complete value ; but this 
 
 excefs being unalienable, that confequent error mufl be 
 to too; bccaufe Rill the lefs the excels is, the lei's will 
 the ei rOr >■' t»iat depends upon it. And for this re alb n 
 
 we may jrfdy enough look upon as expreffmg the 
 
 adequate value of the infinite feries. But we are further 
 fatisfied of the reafonableiiels of this, by finding in faft. 
 that a finite .quantity docs aftuallv convert into an in 
 finite leries, which happens in the cafe of infinite 
 decimals. For example, : r =.6 0 6 6, he. which is 
 
 plainly a geometrical leries from — in the continual ra 
 
 tio of 10 to j : for 
 
 . . 6 
 it is — - 
 
 — ft + — , 
 
 IOO IOOO lOCOO 
 
 he. 
 
 And reverfelv, it we take this feries, and find its furu by 
 the preceding theorem, rt conies to the fame J ; for 
 
 1 = r — to, therefore rl — — = 6 ; and r— i — Q 
 1 o 1 o 7 
 
 rl 
 
 whence _ 
 
 r ~ 1 , V 1 
 
 Theorem \ . In the arithmetick progreffion i, 2, 3. 
 
 4, he. the fum is to the produft of the lad term, by the 
 number of terms, that is, to the fquare of the lafl term; 
 in a ratio always greater than 1 : 2, but approaching in¬ 
 finitely near it. But if the arithmetical feries begins with 
 o, thus, o, 1, 2, 3, 4, he. then the fum is to the pro¬ 
 duft of the lait term, by the number of terms, exaftly in 
 every ftep as 1 to 2. 
 
 Theorem VI. Take the natural progrefiion, beginning 
 with o, thus, o, r, 2, 3, he. and take the fquares of any 
 the like powers of the former leries ; as the fquares o, 1, 
 
 4, 9, he. or cubes, o, 1, 8, 27; and then agawi take 
 the luni of the feries of powers to any number of terms, 
 and alfo multiply the laid of the terms fu mined by the 
 number of terms (reckoning always 4 for the firfl term) 
 
 the ratio of that fum, to that produft is more than— 5 — 
 
 n X 1 
 
 {n being the index of the powers) that is, in the feries 
 of fquares it is more than 1 , in the cubes more than ^ ; 
 and l'o on : but the feries going on in infinitum, we take 
 in more and more terms without end into the fum ; and 
 the more we take, the ratio of the fum to the produft 
 mentioned, grows lels and lefs ; yet fo far as it never can 
 
 aftually be equal to but approaches infinitely near 
 
 to it, or within lefs than an aflignable difference. 
 
 SERMONES, the title Horace gives to his Satires. 
 
 SERMONS, orations, or dilcourfes delivered by the 
 clergy of the Chriftian church, in their religious aflem- 
 
 nv • ," ut, tuicu uy ir; nowever much 
 
 oERON, m commerce, a certain quantity of fome truth there may be in that, there is no doubt but it is a 
 
 3 very 
 
 particular commodities. Thus a.feronof almonds is 
 200 weight ; of anife feeds, from 300 to 400 ; ofCaflilc 
 loa P> p^? 1 , 200 an . d a half to 300 and three quarters. 
 
 SEROSf TY, in medicine, denotes an over-abundance 
 of lerum. See Serum and Blood. 
 
 SERPENS, inaftronomy, aconftcllation in the nor- 
 them hemifphere, called more particularly Serpens Ophi- 
 uclii. i beftars in the conflellation Serpens, in Ptolemy's 
 catalogue, are 17, in Tycho’s, 19; in the Britan nick 
 catalogue, 39. 
 
 SERPEN 1 . S-rfiens, in zoology, the name of a germ 
 of animals, which Mr. Rav define; to be c; eatures breatj 1 - 
 ' n s mms of 
 
 heart, having no feet, and having a long body, covered 
 with feales. 'l'o which he adds, that' in cold fcafons 
 they can bear hunger a long time. The greater part of 
 the lerpent clals arc poifonous, and dangerous in their 
 bite leaving a mifehievous li-juor in the°wound, made 
 bv then tooth, which, mixing bvthis means immediately 
 w,th tIie l,!oocl » is of fata! confequcnce ; though the 
 whole creature may be eaten with lafety, or even the 
 poifonous liquor, which does this mifehief in the wound¬ 
 ed, failed without hurt. 
 
 Notwithilanding that ferpents refpire by means of 
 lungs, they do not take in and difeharge their breath by 
 lucli 111 or t intervals as other animals, but what they have 
 once nifpired will ferve them a long time; for as they 
 are of a cold nature, and therefore their ncceflary warmth 
 very linall, they do not require lucli an externally re¬ 
 newed 1 ripply of tint pabulum of vital heat, as thofc 
 which have more of it ; and as with us they lie half the 
 yeai torpid, and half dead, their vital warmth at that 
 time, like fi. e liuothercd under allies, barely exifls, and 
 needs jobaps no more air than what the creature took in 
 at one mlpiration, before its laying ilfelf down for the 
 leaf on, which ferves it till thelife-renewingfpringreturns. 
 
 Serpents, according to Mr. Ray, may be divided into’ 
 the poifonous and the harmlefs ; the firfl having long 
 dentes exerti, with poifonous liquors contained at their 
 bottom, which, 011 biting, they di (charge into the wound; 
 the others wanting tliele teeth, and this poifon. They’ 
 may alfo be divided, in regard to their generation, into 
 me oviparous and viviparous; but this is a lefs firmly* 
 rounded diftinftion than may be luppofed - fines all ler- 
 pents aie truly and properly produced of eggs ; and the 
 only diffetence is, that lome depofit their eggs in dung¬ 
 hills, and the like places, to be hatched by accidental 
 heat, while others retain thofc eggs to be hatched ill their 
 own bodies, and fo bring forth living young ones. Of 
 the firfl kind is the common fnake, of the latter the viper. 
 
 SERPENT ARIA Virginiana, Virg inian Snake- 
 root, a medicinal root of a very Angular figure, not long 
 and thick, or tuberous and roundifh, as moft of the 
 other roots of the fhops, but wholly made up, as it were, 
 of fibres, or is compoled of a multitude of long and thin 
 filaments, arranged in clufters together; they are about 
 Abe bignefs of a linall packthread each, and are cf * 
 Imooth furface, a tolerable tough and firm texture, very 
 light and eafily cut or powdered ; they are of a dufky 
 brownilh colour on the outfidc, and when frefh and good, 
 have a yellow 1 fh call within ; they are of a remarkable 
 fmell, fomething approaching to that of zedoary, and are 
 of a Fitter 1 lh and fubacrid tafte. Snake-root is frequently 
 met with fophifticated, or adulterated with the roots of 
 the plant called Virginian afarum, or black fnake-root; 
 but this is eafily di(covered, the roots of that plant being 
 black : thefe are the roots of the afarum Virginianum, 
 piftolochia; folio fubrotundo, cvclaminis more maculato, 
 of 1 Junket. T. his plant is a true fpecies of afarabacca, 
 and its roots, though they fomewhat refemble tliofe of the 
 Virginian fnake-root in tafte and fmell, are by no means 
 to be confounded with it, or ufed in its place. This 
 is the only adulteration of any confequcnce, in regard to 
 this drug. We often fee it differ, indeed, a little in ap¬ 
 peal ance between one parcel and another, but this is not 
 material: vve know that there are the roots of two or 
 three fpecies of the fame genus of plants, fent to us in- 
 dilcriminately under this name ; but, as they all poflefk. 
 the lame virtues, the thing is of no confequence. 
 
 This root was firfl brought into ufe as a remedy againft 
 venomous bites, it being affirmed to us, that the bite of 
 the rattle-fnake was to be cured by it; however much 
 
S E S 
 
 very noble medicine. It is diuretick, diaphoretick, and 
 alexioharniick : it is even recommended as a cure for the 
 bite Of a mad dog, but it is not fafe to trufl to fo un¬ 
 certain remedies in fuch terrible- cafes. It is certainly 
 good in fevers, in hyfterick complaints, and againft: 
 worms; it is given in powder or tinfture; its dofc is 
 from 4 to io or 15 grains; it is alfo, fometimes, made 
 an ingredient in dccodtions, a drachm or two to the pint. 
 It is not an ingredient in any of the officinal compofi- 
 tions ; but our late difpenfatory orders a tintture of it 
 to be kept in the Ihops, made by digefting three ounces of 
 the root in a quart of proof fpirit, and, after three days 
 Handing without heat, the tin&ure is to be filtred off 
 for \ife. 
 
 SERPENTARIUS, in aftronomy, a conffellation of 
 the northern hemifphere, called alfo Ophiuchus. The 
 liars in this conffellation, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 29, 
 in Tycho’s 25. and in Mr. Flamftcad’s 69. 
 
 SERPENTINE Verses, fucli as begin and end 
 with the fame word. 
 
 Serpentine, inchymiftry, a worm or pipe of pew¬ 
 ter or copper, twilled into a fpiral, and placed intoaveffel 
 filled with water, ferving as a refrigeratory to condenfe 
 the vapour in diftillation. 
 
 SERPIGO, in medicine, a kind of herpes, popu¬ 
 larly called a tetter or ring-worm. See Herpes. It 
 conllfts of a number of very fmall puftules, riling clofc 
 to each other, lometimes in a circular form, with great 
 pain and itching. It never comes to digeffion, and is 
 not cured without difficulty. For after it appears to have 
 been quite extinguilhed, it frequently breaks forth again 
 at certain fealons of the year. The common people ule 
 to anoint it with ink: but where the difeafe is fixed, 
 fome univerfals fhould be firft applied. 
 
 SERRATED, in general, lomething indented or 
 notched, in the manner of a faw ; a term much ufed by 
 botanifts in the defeription of the leaves of plants. 
 
 SERRATUS, in anatomy, a name given to leveral 
 mufcles from their refcmblance to a faw. 
 
 SERVANT, a term of relation, fignifying a per foil 
 who owes and pays a limited obedience, for a certain 
 time, to another in quality of mailer. 
 
 If any fervant, who is hired for a year, depart before 
 the end of his term, without reafonable caule, to Be al¬ 
 lowed by a juftice of the peace ; or, after the term is ex¬ 
 pired, without giving a quarter’s warping, he is liable 
 to be committed to prifon by two juftices, till lie gives 
 fecurity to ferve out the time : or he may, by one juftice, 
 be lent to the houfe of corrcflion, there to be punilhed 
 as a diforderly perfon, 7 Jac. I. c. 4. 
 
 On the other hand, a mailer cannot put away his fer¬ 
 vant before the end of the term he was hired for, without 
 fome reafonable caufe allowed by a juftice of the peace ; 
 nor after the expiration of the term, without a quarter’s 
 warning given, on pain of forfeiting 40s. Where a fer¬ 
 vant that is hired for a year happens to fall fick, fuch fer¬ 
 vant ought not to be difeharged, norliis wages abated on 
 that account. 
 
 SERVETISTS, a name given to the modern Anti- 
 trinitarians, from their being fuppofed to be the followers 
 of Michael Servetus, who, in the year 1559, was burnt 
 at Geneva, together with his books. 
 
 SERVICE, in law, is a duty which a tenant, on ac¬ 
 count of his fee, owes to his lo^d. 
 
 Service-Tree, Sorbus , in botany. See Sorb u-s. 
 
 SERVITES, a religious order in the church of Rome, 
 founded about the year 1233, by feven Florentine mer¬ 
 chants, who, with the approbation of the bifhop of Flo¬ 
 rence, renounced the world, and lived together in a re¬ 
 ligious community on mount Senar, two leagues from 
 that city. 
 
 SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a ftudent 
 who attends on another for his maintenance and learning.. 
 
 SERUM, a thin, tranlparent, faltifh liquor, which 
 makes a confiderable part in the ipafs of blood. See 
 Blood. 
 
 SES A MO IDA Os s a, in anatomy, feveral fmall bones 
 that fomewhat referable the feed of the fefamum, whence 
 their name. 
 
 SESAMUM, in botany, a genus of the didynamia 
 angio-fpermia clafs. The calix confills of five legments; 
 the corolla is campanulated, with five fegments; the 
 Higma is lapccolated; and the capfule has four cells. 
 Yol. II. No. 66. 
 
 S E V 
 
 There are two fpecies, both natives of India. The feeds 
 of this plant, upon expieffion, yield a larger quantity of 
 oil than ?lmoft any other known vegetable; among the 
 Indians, they are ufed as food. 
 
 SESELI- Seed, in the materia medica, the name of a 
 feed of a plant, called alfo by fome liban.otis, and grow¬ 
 ing three or four feet high, with leaves like fennel, but 
 of a paler green. It is a native of warm climates. The 
 feed Ihould be cliofen moderately large, of a longilh 
 ihape, heavy, clean, and of a greenilh colour, frelh, and 
 of a grateful finell. It affords, by diftillation, a very 
 large quantity of an effential oil, and is hot and dry. It 
 incides, opens, and dilcuffes, and iscephalick, neurotick, 
 pedloral, nephritick. It is good againft epilepfies, apo¬ 
 plexies, vertigoes, and all diforders of the head and nerves,. 
 
 SESQUI, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and a 
 half, which joined witl^ altera, terza, quarto , &c. is muefi 
 ufed in the Italian mufick, to exprefs a kind of ratios', 
 particularly feveral fpecies of triples. 
 
 SesqIu i-Alter al Proportion, in geometry and aritfi- 
 metick, is when any number or quantity contains another 
 once and a half; and the number fo contained in the 
 greater, is laid to be to it in fubfefqui-alteral proportion, 
 
 Sesqui-D u plicate Proportion, is when of two 
 terms the greater contains the lefs twi^e, with half ano¬ 
 ther over. 
 
 Sesqjji-Qu adr ate, an afpe£l or pofition of the 
 planets, when they are at the dillance of four ligns and 
 a half, or i35°from each other -, and fefqui-quintile is 
 an afpedl of tl}e planets when they ate 180° from each 
 other. 
 
 Se s qui-Tertional Preportion, is when any num¬ 
 ber or quantity contains another once and ojie-third. 
 
 SESSILE Roots, among b.otanifts, fuch tuberous 
 roots as adhere to the bale of the ftalk. And a feffile leaf 
 expreffes a leaf immediately fixed to the ftalk or root, 
 without any ppdiyle. 
 
 SESSION, Sejfto, in general, denotes each fitting or 
 affembly of a council, Ax. 
 
 SESTERCE, Sejleptius, a filver coin in ufe among 
 the Romans, being fomething more rhan leven farthings 
 fterling. 
 
 SET, or Sets, a term ulcd by farmers and gardeners, 
 to exprefs the young plants of the white-thorn and other 
 liirubs, with which they ufe to raife their quick or quick- 
 fet hedges. . . - . 
 
 SETHIANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian hereticks, 
 fo called, becaufe they paid divine worlliip to Seth, whom 
 they looked upon to be Jefus Cl|rift the Son of God, but 
 who was made by a third Divinity, and fubftituted in 
 the room of the two families of Abel and Cain, which 
 had been deftroyed by the delqge. 
 
 Thefe hereticks appeared in Egypt in thefecond cen¬ 
 tury ; and as they vyere additted to all forts of debauchery, 
 they did not want for followers, and continued in Egypt 
 above 200 years. 
 
 SETON, in furgery, a few horfe-hairs, fmall threads, 
 or large packthread, drawn through the Ikin, chiefly the 
 neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view 
 to reftore or preferve health. 
 
 We find by expedience, that fetons are very ufeful in 
 the hydrocephalus, catarrhs, inflammations, and other 
 diforders, particularly thofc of the eyes, as a guttaferena, 
 cataraft, and incipient luffuflon ; to thofc we may add 
 intenfe head-achs, with ftqpidity, drowfinefs, epilepfies, 
 and even an apoplexy it (elf. 
 
 SETTER, among farmers. To fetter is to cut the 
 dewlap of an ox or cow, and into the wound to put the 
 root of the helleborafter, whereby an iffue is made for 
 ill humours to vent tliemfelves. 
 
 SETTING, in aftronomy, the withdrawing of a liar 
 or planet, or its finking below the horizon. 
 
 SEVENTH, optima in mufick, an interval, whereof 
 there are four kinds. The firft, the diminilhed or de¬ 
 fective feventh, confuting of three tones and three greater 
 femi-tones. The fecond, called by the Italians fettimo 
 minore, is compofed diatonically of feven degrees and fix 
 intervals, four whereof are tones, and the reft greater 
 femi-tones ; and, chromatically, of 10 lemi-tones, fix 
 whereof are greater, and four lefs. The third, called 
 by the Italians il ditono con diapente, is compofed dia¬ 
 tonically, like the former, of feven degrees and fix in¬ 
 tervals, fix whereof are full tones, and the other a greater 
 4 ^ feqii- 
 
SR A 
 
 femi-tone; fo that only one femi-tone is wanting of the 
 o&ave; and, chromatically, of 11 lemi-tonss, fix whereof 
 are greater, and five Ids. The fourth, called the redun¬ 
 dant feventh, is compofed of five tones, a greater femi- 
 tone, and a lefs; fo that it wants only the difference be¬ 
 tween the lefs and greater femi-tone of an odlave. 
 
 SEWER, in the houfhold, an officer who comes in 
 before the meat of a king or nobleman, to place and range 
 it on the table. 
 
 Sewer, in building, a drain, conduit, or conveyance 
 for the fuillage and filth of a houfe. 
 
 SEX, Sexttf, fomething in the body, which diftin- 
 guifhes male from female. 
 
 SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num¬ 
 ber 60. 
 
 Sexagenary, or Sexagefimal Arithmetic);, a method 
 of computation proceeding by lixties ; fuch as is uled in 
 the divifion of a degree into 6o- minutes, of a minute 
 into 60 fcconds, of a fecond into 60 thirds, &c. 
 
 SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent; fo 
 called, becaufe near 60 davs before Eafter. 
 
 SEXAGESIMAL. Sec Sexagenary. 
 SEXAGESIMALS, or Sexagesimal Frail ions, 
 are fractions whole denominations are in a lcxagecuple 
 ratio ; that is, a prime— a fecond— TZ ' b - e , a thirdzr 
 
 tc i * s is' 
 
 SEXTANS, the fixth part of a pound, among the 
 ancient Romans. It alfo llgnified the iixth part of any 
 other weight or meafure. 
 
 SEXTANT, in geometry, the fixth part of a circle 
 or an arch containing 6o°. 
 
 Sextant, is alfo the name of a mathematical inft ru¬ 
 men t, whole limb contains 60®. 
 
 SEXTILE, an afpedl of the planets when they are 
 two figns, or 6o° diftant from each otlier. 
 
 SEXTUPLE, in mu lick., a mixed fort of triple time, the 
 which is beaten in double time. 
 
 SHADOW, in opticks, a privation of light by the 
 interpofition of an opaque body. But as nothing is feen 
 but by a light, a mere lhadow is invifiblc. When thcr 
 fore we fay we fee a fhadow, it is partlv that we lee bodies 
 placed in the fhadow, and illuminated by light, reflected 
 from collateral bodies, and partly that we fee the confines 
 of light. 
 
 If the opaque body, that projedls the fhadow, be per 
 pendicular to the horizon, and the place it is projected 
 on be horizontal, the fhadow is called a right fhadow 
 fuch are the fhadows of men, trees, buildings, moun¬ 
 tains, &c. If the opaque body be placed parallel to the 
 horizon, the fhadow is called a vcrl'ed fhadow ; as the 
 arms of a man ftretched out, Ac. 
 
 Shadow, in painting, is an imitation of a real fha¬ 
 dow, effected by gradually height* ning and darkening 
 the colours of fuch figures, as, by their dilpofition, can¬ 
 not receive any direct rays from the luminous objedl 
 which is fuppofed to enlighten the piece. 
 
 Of Shadows from the Sun. The fun being vaftly 
 larger than the whole globe of the eaith, rnuft give all 
 its fhadows pointed, by reafon it illumines more than 
 half of them. 
 
 In confequence of this demonftration, we might con¬ 
 clude, that all the fun’s fhadows muft be lefs than the 
 bodies that projedl them, and diminifhed more and more 
 as they recede further and further. 
 
 Now this would be true, were there any relation be¬ 
 tween the body illumined and the bodv illumining ; but 
 as all objedts on the earth are fo linall in com pari Ion, the 
 diminution of their fhadows is imperceptible to the eye, 
 which fees them always equal, i. e. either broader or 
 narrower than the body that forms them : on this account, 
 all the fhadows caufed by the fun are made in parallels. 
 
 From the whole it appears, that, to find the lhadow of 
 any body whatever oppofed to the fun, a line muft be 
 drawn from the top of the luminary perpendicular to the 
 place where the foot of the luminary is to be taken ; and 
 through this place an occult line to be drawn through 
 c . of the angles of the plane of the objedl, and another 
 from the fun to the fame angle; and the interfeftion of 
 the two li; e v ill fhew how far the fhadow is to go : all 
 die other lines muft be drawn parallel hereto. 
 
 The fhadows of the fun are equal in objedls of the 
 Urnc height, though at a diftancefrom each otlier. 
 
 S H A 
 
 the fame height, removed to a diftance from each other, 
 do yet projedl equal fhadows at the fame time : for they 
 a,e lengthening and fhortening, in proportion as the lun 
 comes nearer, or recedes further off ; one or other of 
 which he is continually doing. 
 
 For this reafon, when the lhadow of an objedl is to 
 be caft any way, you muft determine the place of the 
 lun, and the point underneath, to draw two occult lines 
 from the fame, for the extremity of the fhadow; as here 
 the pah lade A (plate LXXII. fig. 5.) gives the extreme 
 of its lhadow in B ; and if from this point B vou draw a 
 line to the point of light C, this line BC will be the 
 lhadow of the palifade D, as well as that of A, and of 
 all the reft, in the fame line, to the very point of fight. 
 
 In effedl, it muft beheld fora certain maxim, that 
 fhadows always retain the lame point of light as the ob- 
 jcdls. 
 
 On the footing of this obfervation, that objefts of 
 the lame height give equal fhadows; if you would give 
 the fhadow of the pali fades E, F, which are of the fame 
 height as A, D ; take in vour compafles the diftance A B 
 and fet it on the foot of the palifade E, by which you 
 will have E G ; then from G draw a line to the point of 
 light C, and thus you are to proceed, though the walks 
 were infinite. 
 
 Though the fun is made to appear in this figure, it 
 muft not be imagined that lie is fo near the objedls. The 
 intention was to fhew, that the rays proceed from him. 
 when at fuch a height, though far without the limits of 
 the-piece. 
 
 As in (plate LXXII. fig. 6.) which yet has the line, 
 for the foot of the objedl A B, and that of the rays of 
 the iun C ; by reafon that thole are always required for 
 finding the extremities of the fhadows. 
 
 I lie lhadow of the objedl O is found by continuing 
 • line A B, and making it rife over the fteps, and 
 
 Experience teaches that fevcral ftilcs or elevations of 
 
 againft the wall, till cut by the ray in the point S, by the 
 rays palling over the corner of the objeft, and from S 
 drawing a line to the point of fight T. 
 
 To find the fhadow of the objedl P, it muft be re¬ 
 membered that the foot of the light muft always be lup- 
 poled on the plane, where the objedl is placed. ' Accord¬ 
 ingly, the ray C, cutting the little line A B, fhews how 
 far the fhadow of the little objedl P muft go, to be thence 
 drawn to the point of light T. The objedl V cafts its 
 fhadow all along, though in its way it defeends into a 
 ditch. 
 
 The fhadow of the wall R is found by the fame rule as 
 the reft ; as appears from the lines A B, and the ray C. 
 
 Shadows on fever u l parallel Planes. The firft plane 
 here is the floor, whereon the chair A (plate LXXII. 
 tig. 7.) ftands ; the fecond plane is the upper part of the 
 table, parallel to the firft, and may be either above or 
 below it. 
 
 There might alfo be more of thefe planes, wherein to 
 find the foot ot the illuminating body, in order to come 
 at the lhadow of the objedl. 
 
 Suppofe the foot of the illuminating body to beC, and 
 the flame B; from the points C and B draw lines, through 
 the upper and under parts of the objedl D, which wall 
 give the fhadow E upon the table. 
 
 To find the lhadow of the chair A, which is placed 
 on the ground, determine the foot of the luminary on 
 the table in C on the ground ; this is eafy by the follow- 
 
 l inftrudlions. 
 
 From the point of diftance, which is here fuppofed to 
 be without the limits of the paper, draw a line through 
 the foot of the table F ; then from the angle G upon the 
 table let fall a perpendicular, cutting the line F in tha» 
 point H, and from H draw a parallel to the bafe H I, 
 which is equal to the upper part of the table, and will 
 diredt to the thing required. 
 
 For drawing a line from the point of fight K, through 
 the foot of the luminary C, to the extremity of the table 
 L,; from the lame point L, let fall a perpendicular to 
 H I, which will give the point M. 
 
 1 hen from M draw a line to the point of fight K, in 
 which line M K. will the foot of the luminary be found. 
 
 I o determine die precife point, let fall a perpendicular 
 from the point C, which, cutting the line M K, will 
 give the point N for the foot of the luminary. 
 
 This point N be.ng thus found, there will be no dif- 
 
 j faculty 
 
 in finding the lhadow of the chair A ; 
 
 the me¬ 
 thod 
 
SHE 
 
 thod being the fame as for the other obje&s taught be¬ 
 fore, that is, from the foot of the luminary N draw lines 
 through all the angles of the plane of the chair, and 
 other lines through the upper part of the chair from the 
 luminary B ; thefe latter, by interfering the former, ex- 
 prefs the bounds of the fhadow. For the reft, the figure 
 gives fufficient diredlions. 
 
 Shadows by Torch-light. The fhadow of an ere<ft 
 pyramid by torch-light falls, as it would by the light of 
 the fun ; and in both cafes there is but on.e line, whereon 
 the vertical point of the pyramid will be found. 
 
 Upon the planes BCDE (fig. 8.) draw the diago¬ 
 nals E B and DC ; through the central point E, raife 
 the perpendicular F A ; and from the four points B C 
 D E draw lines to the point A, a,n,d the pyramid will 
 be created. 
 
 Then, to find its ftiadow, draw an indefinite line from 
 the bafts G of the illuminating body, palling through F ; 
 and from the central flame of the torch of H draw another 
 line over the vertex of the pyramid in the line G F, till 
 it cut the point I, which point will limit the Ihadow of 
 the pyramid. 
 
 Laftly, draw aline from C to I, and another from E 
 to 1 , and the triangle Cl E will be the Ihadow of the 
 pyramid. 
 
 To gain the fhadow of an inverted pyramid, draw per¬ 
 pendicular lines from the angular points of its bafe, and 
 form the fubjacent plane, by means thereof, after the 
 manner diredled for the fun. 
 
 And from all the angles of this plane draw lines to the 
 bafe of the torch G ; then from H, the central point of 
 the flame, draw other lines touching all the angles of the 
 bafe of the inverted pyramid, and dividing thofe of the 
 plane, whereby the Ihadow will be defined. 
 
 The different aifpoj:::ons and height of Shadows by 
 iorch-light. Shadows from the fun are all caft the fame 
 way, and have '.he fame difpofition ; it being impoflible, 
 that the fun lhould occaiion one Ihadow to tend towards 
 the eaft, and another towards the weft, at the fame time. 
 
 It is true, in different times of the day, it makes this 
 difference ; but never in one and the fame hour. 
 
 But the torch, candle, and lamp, have always this ef¬ 
 fect ; for in what place foever one of thefe luminaries be 
 found, pr-: -ided there be a number of objects about, the 
 Jhadovvs will be caft various ways; fome to the caft, 
 fome to the weft, fome to the north, and others to the 
 fouth, according to the fttuation of the obje&s around 
 the luminary : the foot of which here reprefented by A 
 ( fig . 9.) ferves as a common centre, from which they all 
 proceed : and the flame here reprefented by B fhews 
 where they are to terminate, though at different dis¬ 
 tances ; as the nearell produce the fhorteft fhadows, and 
 the remoteft the longeft. 
 
 SHAFT of a Column, in archite&ure, is the body 
 thereof; fo called from its ftraightnefs. 
 
 Shaft of a Mine, the hollow entrance or paffage into 
 amine, funk or dug, to come to the ore. SeeMiNE. 
 
 SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, a kind of grained 
 leather, chiefly ufed in the covers of cafes, books, Nc. It 
 is very dole and Solid, and covered with little roundilh 
 grains or papilla;. It is brought from Conftantinopie, 
 Taurus, Tripoli, Algiers, and fome parts of Poland. 
 
 Authors are not agreed what the animal is whence the 
 fhagreen is prepared. Ongar tells us it is the onager, a 
 kind of wild afs. Borel fays it is a lea-calf; others, a 
 kind of ftfh called fhagreen by the Turks. 
 
 SHAMMY, or Chammy, Chamois, a kind of lea¬ 
 ther, either drefled in oil or tanned ; much efteemed for 
 its foftnefs, pliancy, &c. 
 
 It is prepared from the fkin of the chamois, or fhamo’s, 
 a kind of wild-goat, inhabiting the mountains of Dau- 
 phine, Savov, Piedmont, and the Pyreneans. 
 
 SHANKER, in furgery, a malignant ulcer, which 
 corrodes the flelh; ufuLly occaftoned by fome venereal 
 diftemper. 
 
 SHARP, in mufick, marked thus (;&), which, being 
 prefixed to a note, Ihews that it is to be fung, or played, 
 a femi tone higher than the note would have been without. 
 
 SHEA THING of a Ship , the cafing that part of her 
 hull which is under water, with fomething to keep the 
 worms from eating into her planks. It is ufually done 
 by laying tas and hair all over the old plank, and then 
 nailing on very thin boards. 
 
 2 
 
 S H E 
 
 SHEEP, Ovis , in zoology, a well known fpecres of 
 cattle, and which are kept at the leaft expence of any tc* 
 the farmer. They will thrive upon almoft any ground, 
 and for that reafon are preferred by many before the larger 
 cattle. 
 
 The beft fort ot fncep for fine wool are thofe bred in 
 Herefordlhire and Worcefterlhire, but they are fmalland 
 black-faced, and bear but a fmall quantity. 
 
 Warwick, Leicefterfhire, Buckingham, and North- 
 amptonfhire breed a large-boned fheep, of the beft fhape, 
 and deepeft wool we have got. Themarlhes of Lincoln- 
 lhirc breed a very huge kind cf fheep, but their wool is 
 not good, unk. ■ toe breed be mended by bringing in fheep 
 of other countries among them, which is a lcheme of 
 late very profitably followed there. 
 
 The northern counties in general breed fheep with, 
 long, but hairy wool: and Wales breeds a fmall hardy 
 kind of fheep wind,), has th,e beft tailed flefli, but the 
 worft wool of all. 
 
 The farmer fhould always buy liis fheep from a worfe 
 land than his own, and they fhould be big-boned, and 
 have a long greafy wool, curling clofe and well. Thefe 
 fheep always breed the fineft wool, and alfo are the moft 
 approved of by the butcher for fale in the market. 
 
 SHEERING, or Shearinq, in the woollen ma,- 
 nufadory, is the cutting ofF, with large fheers, the fu- 
 perfluous nap or fhag, found on the furface of woollen 
 fluffs, &c. 
 
 Sheering, is alfo a fea term, for the motion of thp 
 lhip, when fhe does not move in a ftraight line, but tra,- 
 verfes, or moves, in and out. 
 
 SHEKEL,, or Shekle, an ancient Hebrew coin, 
 equal to 2s. 3d. ^ ftciling. 
 
 SHELF, among miners, that hard furface or ftratum 
 of the earth, which lies under the mould, ufually about 
 a foot deep. 
 
 SHELL, in natural hiftory, a hard, and as it were 
 ftonv covering, with which certain animals are defended, 
 and thence called fhell-ftfh. 
 
 As to the formation of a fliell, it is now generally al¬ 
 lowed to be formed by a vifeous fluid compofed of glue, 
 and level al fandy particles of an exquifite finenefs, which 
 are tranfmitted through an infinite number of little chan¬ 
 nels to the pores where it tranfpires, condenfes, and 
 hardens. YY hen the animal increafes in bulk, and the 
 extremity of her body is not fufficiently covered, it con¬ 
 tinues to evacuate and build in the fame manner, finifh- 
 ing or repairing her habitation. T his vifeous matter is 
 proved, by undeniable experiments, to arife from the 
 b°d) of animals, and not from the fliell, as fome have 
 imagined. 
 
 hojji'u Shells, thofe found buried at great depths in 
 earth, and often immerfed in the hardeft itones. Thefe 
 foflile lliells, as well as thofe found lying on the fea-fhore, 
 make an excellent manure, efpeciaily for cold clayey 
 lands ; upon which it does npt produce nearly fo great 
 an effect for the two firft years, as it does in thefucceed- 
 ing ones; the reafon of which is, that it is not then fuf- 
 ftciently mixed, but in fucceeding time it breaks itfelf into 
 a number of very fmall particles, and thefe all become 
 intimately blended with the molecules of earth, and pro¬ 
 duce their effect more properly. 
 
 Shell-F ish, a cqlle&ive name for all the fifli natu¬ 
 rally inclofed in fhells. 
 
 SHELT 1 E, a fmall butftrong kind of horfe, fo called 
 from Shetland, or Zetland, where they are produced. 
 SHEPHERDS-Needle, Scandix, in botany. Sec 
 
 ScANDIX. 
 
 Shepherds-Pouch, Bur fa Paflons, in botany, an 
 annual plant which grows naturally in many parts of 
 England. Its juice is very aftringent and glutinous ; it 
 flops bleeding at the nofe, is good againft fpitting of 
 blood, and in diarihcea’s, dyfentciies, and bloody urine. 
 The dofe, in infufion, is a handful; of the juice, four 
 ounces; and of the powder of the dried leaves a 
 drachm. 
 
 SHERIFF, or Sh ire-Reve, an officer in each 
 county of England, whole bufinefs is to fee the king’s or¬ 
 ders executed, particularly all writs dire£ted to him out 
 of the king’s courts ; to impannel juries ; bring caufes 
 and criminals to trial; take care that all affairs, both civil 
 and criminal, are difpatched; colledt the revenues, im- 
 pofts, fines, conftlcations, &c. arifing in his county, for 
 
 which 
 
SHO 
 
 which he accounts to the exchequer ; and to attend and 
 alfift the itinerant judges. 
 
 SHEILD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of 
 a light buckler, borne on the arm as a defence againft 
 lances, darts, &c. 
 
 Shield, in heraldry, denotes the efcutchcon or field, 
 whereon the bearings ot an armoury are placed. 
 
 SHILLING, an Englifh irlver coin, equal to tvyeive 
 pence, or the twentieth part of a pound. 
 
 SHINGLES, or Shii>es, inbuilding, final 1 pieces 
 of wood, in form of a wedge, about an inch thick at one 
 end, four or five inches broad, and eight or nine inches 
 long- They are ufed in covering, efpecia^ly churches 
 and ftccples, inftead of tiles and Hates. 
 
 SHINGLES, in medicine, a kind of herpes, confid¬ 
 ing of innumerable little puilules, breaking out in various 
 parts of the body. See Erysipelas. 
 
 SHIP, a general name for all large veffels with fails, 
 fit for navigation on the fea, excepting gallics, which go 
 with oars and fmack faiis. 
 
 All lhips, at their fiift appearance in the world, were 
 of the fame form, whatever ufes they were defigned for ; 
 but the various ends of navigation, fome of which were 
 better anfwered by one form, fome by another, foon 
 gave occafion to build and fit out lhips, not only different 
 in bignefs, but alfo in their conftru&ion and rigging. 
 But it would be need Ids, as well as endlefs, to enumerate 
 every little alteration. They were chiefly of three forts ; 
 fhips of burden, of war, and of paffage. 
 
 In the northern parts of the world, the art advanced 
 towards perfection, but by flow degrees ; for when Caffar 
 invaded Britain, we find that the inhabitants oppofed 
 him in veflels of an odd form, or rather large tubs ; the 
 fails were compof d of leather, and iron chains fupplied 
 the place of cable. When the Saxons had for fome time 
 been fettled in this ifiand, they became fenfible that the 
 belt defence was a powerful navy. Accordingly, they 
 applied thcmlelves vigojoufty tp build fhips of war ; and 
 fome hiflorians tell us, that, in the reign of Edgar, the 
 fleet amounted to 2600 fail. And, in order to keep the 
 navy in a formidable condition, Ethelrcd made a law, 
 
 that whoever ppflefled 310 hide of land, (hould build 
 “ and mann one fhipfor the defence of his country.” 
 
 But, though the Britpns were not the firft inventors of 
 fhip-building, the art owes, in a great meafure, its pre- 
 fent perfection to their dilcoveries , and, accordingly, 
 
 The navy of England excels all others in beauty, 
 flrength, and fafety ; for beauty, our lhips of war arc lb 
 many floating palaces ; for flrength, lb many moving 
 caftles ; and for fafety, they are the moil defenlive walls of 
 the land. And as our naval power gains us authority in 
 the moft difiant nations, fo the fuperiorily pf our fleet 
 renders the Britifh monarch mailer of the fea. 
 
 Trade firft gave occafion to the fitting out large fleets 
 of lhips ; and upon the increafe of trade, fhips of war 
 became neceffary in all nations to preferve it to the juft 
 proprietors. 
 
 SHIVERS, orSiiEE v ers, in the fea language, naipes 
 given to the little rollers or round wheels pf pullpys. 
 See Pulley. 
 
 SHQAD, among miners, denotes a train of metalline 
 Hones, fervingto dircCl them in the difeovery pf mines. 
 Sec M ike. 
 
 SHOAL, in the fea language, denqtes a place where 
 the water is fhallow. 
 
 SHOE for an Anchor , in a fhip, the place for the anchor 
 to reft, and fitted to receive the flock, &c. fo as to pre¬ 
 vent the fheets. tacks, and other running-rigging, from 
 galling, or being entangled with the flocks. 
 
 SHOOTING. See Gunnery and the article 
 Projectiles.” 
 
 SHORE, or S hoar, a place wafhed by the fea, or 
 fome large river. 
 
 SHORT-HAND Writing, when well underftood, 
 and rendered familiar by practice, is attended with many 
 valuable confequences. See Tachygraphy. 
 
 SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS, Myopia , in medicine. 
 See Myopia. 
 
 SHOP', a denomination given to all forts of balls for 
 fire-arms, thofe for cannon being of iron, and thole for 
 guns, piftols, Ac. of lead. 
 
 Indian SHOT, Canna, in botany. See Ca x na. 
 
 SHOVELER, in ornithology, a lpecies of the anas, 
 
 S I E 
 
 with the extremity of the beak broad and round, and its 
 ungues bent. 
 
 SHOULDER-Bone, Humerus, 1 anatomy. See 
 Humerus. 
 
 SHOL LDER- Bl ad e, Scapula, See Sc a pula. 
 SHOULDER-Pitched, among farriers, is laid of 
 a horfe wholefhoulder is difplaced which mav be reme¬ 
 died by fwinaming the horfe a dozen times up and down 
 in deep water. 
 
 Sir auLDER-SpL ait, is when a liorfe’s fhoulder is 
 parted from the breaft. 
 
 SHOULDERING Piece, among builders, the fame 
 with a bracket. SeeBRACKET- 
 
 SHOWER, in meteorology, a cloud refolving into 
 rain. See Rain. 
 
 SHRIMP, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of two 
 different fpec*es of the fquilla, viz. the common flu imp, 
 and fmopih-npled fhrimp, 
 
 SHRINE, in. ecclefiaftical hiftory, a cafe or box, to 
 hold the rriicksoffomefaiut. SccRelick sand Saint 
 SHR 1 T E. i n orn ithologv, the fame with tlie m i (Tel- bi rd. 
 SHROVE- I UESDAY, is the Tuelday after quin- 
 quagelnua S.upday, or the day immediately preceding the 
 firft of Lent, being fo called from the Saxon word 
 which figiiifics to confefs, as having been employed by the 
 people, in time of popery, in confefling their fins, in 
 order to receive the lacrament, and thereby qualify tliem- 
 felves for a more religious observation of Lent. 
 
 SHROWDING of Trees, the cutting or lopping off 
 the top branches; it is only praCtifed on thofe trees which 
 are defigned fey fuel, or fome prefent ufe, not being fit 
 for timber. 
 
 SHRUB, Frut'.r, a woody plant, of a fize lefs than 
 a tree, and which, befides its principal item and branches, 
 horn the fame root, puts forth level al other confiderable 
 lets o. ftems. 
 
 SHU 1 ^ LE, in the manufactures, an inftrument ufed 
 by the weavers, which with the thread it contains, either 
 of woollen, filk, flax, or other matters, ferves to form 
 the woofs of fluffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, 6tc. by throw¬ 
 ing the fhuttle alternately from right to left, and from left 
 to right, acrofs between the threads of the warp, which 
 are ftretched out lengthwile on the loom. 
 
 SI, in mufick, a feventh note lately added by L. Maire 
 to the fix ancient notes invented by Guido Aretin, by 
 means of which the difficulty attending the ancient lcale 
 is avoided. 
 
 SIBYLS, Sybil/a , in pagan antiquity, certain women, 
 f?,id tp have been endued with a prophetick fpirit, and to 
 have delivered oracles forefhewing the fates and revolu¬ 
 tions of kingdoms. We have in the writings of the an¬ 
 cients mention made of ten of them, the eldeft of whom 
 being named Sibylla, all the reft of the fame fex, who af¬ 
 terwards pretended to the like fatidical fpirit, were called 
 from her Sibyls. The moft eminent of the ten, men¬ 
 tioned in hiftory, was fhc whom the Romans called Si¬ 
 bylla Cuinaea, or Erythnea. She was born at Erythrse 
 in Ionia, from whence file removed to Cumae in Italy, 
 and there delivered all her oracles from a cave or fubter- 
 raneous vault dug out of the main rock. 
 
 SIEGE, in the art of war, the encampment of an 
 army round a place, in order to take it, either by formal 
 attacks, or famine. 
 
 Jhe word is French, and literally fignifies a feat. 
 
 1 he method of enpamping is very different in a fiege, 
 from that obfervefl pn a march ; as in the former the army 
 enyirpiW tlje place without cannon-fhot, that nothing 
 may enter. ]f tfie place be fituated on a river, a de¬ 
 tachment is fent to the other fide, and bridges of com¬ 
 munication made both above and below the town. The 
 army alfo encamp with their backs to the town, with the 
 battalions and fquadrons interlined ; and, having taken 
 pofteflion of all the heights, whence the enemy may be 
 annoyed, the engineers trace the lines qf circumvallation 
 and contravallation, every regiment working at the place 
 appointed them. 
 
 When the general has difpofed his guards, as well to¬ 
 wards the place as towards the country, and efiablifhed 
 die lieutenant-generals to corpmand in the particular quar¬ 
 ters, he goes with the engineers to view the place, and 
 orders the attack in the place judged the weakeft. 
 
 To form a fiege, there muft be an army fufficient to 
 furnifh five or fix reliefs for the trenches, pioneers, guards, 
 
 &c. 
 
S I L 
 
 &c. alfo artillery, and magazines furnifKed with a fuffi- 
 tient quantity of ammunition and provifions; and an hof- 
 pital for taking can.' of the wounded. 
 
 To raife a fiege, is to give over attacking a place, or¬ 
 dering the works and ports before it to be levelled. 
 
 SIGHT, or Vision, in opticks. See the articles 
 Eye and Vision. 
 
 SIGHTS, in mathematicks, imply two thin pieces of 
 brats, &c. placed perpendicularly on the two extremities 
 of the index of a theodolite, circumferentor, &c. each 
 of which has an aperture or Hit in the middle, through 
 which the vilual rays pals to the eye, and diftarit objefts 
 are feen. 
 
 SIG 1 LATA Terra, a name given to feveral earths 
 or boles, to lignify their being genuine ; 'the principal is 
 that dug in the ifland Lemnos. 
 
 SIGMOIDES, a word ufed by medicinal writers to 
 exprcfs any thing that is in the fliape of the letter ligma. 
 
 SIGN, a lenlible mark or charafter, denoting lome- 
 thing abfent or invilible. 
 
 Sign, in algebra. See Ch Ait acter. 
 
 Sign, in medicine, implies i’ome appearance in the 
 body, diftinguifhable by the fenfes, whence, by juft rea- 
 foning, is inferred the prefence, nature, ftate, event of 
 health, a difeafe, or death. 
 
 Sign, in aftronomy, the twelfth part of the ecliptick, 
 or a portion containing thirty degrees thereof. 
 
 The ancients divided the ecliptick into twelve fegments, 
 called figns, which they denominated from the conftel- 
 lations, which, at the time the names were import'd, were 
 fituated near thole portions of the ecliptick. But the con- 
 fteliations, by the preceflion of the equinox, have changed 
 their places, the conftellation Aries being got into theiign 
 Taurus,and theconftellation Taurus into thelign Gemini. 
 &c. The names and order of the twelve figns are as follow; 
 
 Aries, *Y' ; Taurus, ; Gemini, n ; Cancer, 25 ; 
 Leo, ft, ; * Virgo, ; Libra, =n= ; Scorpio, ni ; Sagit¬ 
 tarius, X ; Capricornus, kf ; Aquarius, ; and Pifces, 
 K : the firft fix of which are called northern figns, and 
 the latter louthern figns. 
 
 Sigh-M anual, the fetting one’s hand and feal to a 
 Writing. 
 
 Sig it-Manuel, in law, is ufed to fignify any bill 01 
 writing, figned by the king’s own hand. 
 
 SIGNAL, a certain figii agreed upon for the convey¬ 
 ing of intelligence, where the voice cannot reach. 
 
 Signals are given for the beginning of a battle, or an 
 attack, ufually with drums and trumpets; at lea they are 
 given by firing guns, by lights, fails, flags, 6cc. 
 
 SIGNATURE, figniilg, a fubfeription, or the putting 
 one’s name at the bottom of an aft, or deed, in one’s own 
 hand-writing. 
 
 Signature, in printing, implies a mark at the bot¬ 
 tom of each Iheet, to facilitate the gathering and binding 
 of the book, and to fhew the order and number of the 
 quires and fheets. 
 
 SIGNET, one of the king’s feals, ufed for fealing his 
 private letters, and figning all grants which pafs his 111a- 
 jefty’s hand by bill. 
 
 SIGNIFICATION, the meaning or import of a word, 
 phrafe, fign, device, emblem, or the like. 
 
 Signification, in law, is the notification of an 
 aft, &c. made to the oppolite party, &c. by a copy, &c. 
 thereof, given and attelled by a proper officer. 
 
 SILENT, in antiquity, a fort of heathen-demi-gods, 
 the fame with fatyrs, which were called Sileni when they 
 Came to be advanced in age. 
 
 SILIQIJA, in botany, the feed-vertcl, hulk, pod, or 
 (hell of a plant of the leguminous kind. 
 
 SILIQUOUS Plants, thole which produce filiqua.% 
 or feed-pods. 
 
 SILK, Sericum , avervfoft, fine, bright, delicate thread, 
 the work of an infcft called bombyx, or the filk-vvorm. 
 
 I11 the year 555, two monks brought from the. E. 
 Indies to Oonftantinople great quantities of filk-worms, 
 with inftruftions for the hatching their eggs, rearing and 
 feeding the worms, drawing out the filk, fpinning and 
 working it. Immediately manufaftures were fet up at 
 Athens, Thebes and Corinth. About 1130, Roger, king 
 of Sicily, eftablilhed a filk manufactory at Palermo, and 
 another in Calabiia, managed by workmen whom he 
 brought from Athens, Corinth, &c. which that prince 
 had conquered in his expedition to the Holy Land. By 
 Vol. H. No. 67. 
 
 S I L 
 
 degrees the reft of Italy and Spain learned, from the Si¬ 
 cilians and Calabrians, the management of thefilk-wornis; 
 and the working of filk ; and at length, a little before the 
 reign of Francis I. France began to imitate them. 
 
 1 lie great advantage flowing front this new manufac¬ 
 ture, made our king James 1 . to be very defirous of its 
 being introduced into England ; accordingly it was re¬ 
 commended feveral times from the throne, and in the mol 
 earneftterms, to plant mulberry-trees, &c. for the pro¬ 
 pagation of filk-worms, but unhappily without effedt ; 
 though from the various experiments inlerted in the Phi- 
 lofophical Tranlaftions, and other places, it appears, that 
 the filk-worm thrives, and works as well, in all relpefls, 
 in England, as in any other part of Europe. 
 
 The filk-worm is an infeft not more remarkaftc for 
 the precious matter it furnilhes for divers fluffs, than for 
 the many forms it affuntes, before and after its being en¬ 
 veloped in the rich cod or hall it weaves itfelf. From a 
 fmall egg about the fize of a pin’s head, which is its firft 
 ftate, it becomes a pretty bigtvorm, or maggot, ofatvhitifti 
 colour, inclining to yellow. In this ftate it feeds on mul¬ 
 berry leaves, till, being come to maturity, it winds it¬ 
 felf up in a iilken bag, or cafe, about the fize and fhape 
 of a pigeon's egg, and becomes metamorpltofed into an 
 aurelia : in this ftate it remains without any figns of life, 
 or motion ; till at length it awakes, to become a butterfly, 
 after making itlclf a paffage out of its fiiken fepulchie. 
 And, at laft, dying indeed, it prepares itfelf, by an egg, 
 or bcr:I it calls, for a new life, which the warmth of the 
 fummer-weather aflifts it in refuming. 
 
 As foon as the filk-worm is arrived at the fize and 
 ftrength neceffary for beginning his cod, he makes his 
 web ; for it is thus they call that flight tiffue, which is 
 the beginning and ground of this admirable work. This 
 is his fitft day’s employment. Onthefccond, he forms 
 his tollicuius or ball, and covers hinifelf almoft over with 
 filk. The third day he is quite hid, and tile following 
 day employs hinifelf in thickening and ftrengthening his 
 ball, always Working from one fingle end, which he ne¬ 
 ver breaks by his own fault, and which is fo fine, and fo 
 long, that thole who have examined it attentively, think 
 they fpeak within contpafs, when they affirm, that each 
 ball contains filk enough to reach the length of fixEngliflt 
 miles. 
 
 lit ten days time the ball is in its perfe&ion, and is now 
 to be taken down front the branches of the mulberry-tree, 
 where the worms have hung it. Hut this point requires 
 a deal of attention, for there ate fotne worms more lazy 
 than others, and it is very dangerous' waiting till they 
 make themfelves a paffage, which ufually happens about 
 the fifteenth day of the month. 
 
 The firft, fineft, and ftrongeft balls, arc kept for the 
 grain, the reft are carefully wound , or if it is defired to 
 keep them all, or if there be inoie than can be well wound 
 at once, they lay them for fonic time nr an oven mode¬ 
 rately hot, or elfe expofe them, for feveral days fuccef- 
 fively, to the greateft heats of the lull, in order to kill 
 the infeft, which, without this precaution, would not 
 fail to open itfelf a way to go and ule thole new wings 
 abroad it has acquired within. 
 
 Ordinarily, they only wind the more perfeft balls; tliofe 
 that are double, or too weak, or too coarfe, are laid aiide, 
 not as altogether ufelefs, but that, being improper for 
 winding, they are refereed to be drawn out into ikains. 
 Tire halls are of different colours ; the moft common are 
 yellow, orange-colour, ifabella, and flelh-colour; there 
 arc feme alfo of a fea-grecn, others of a lulphur-colour, 
 and others white ; but there is no neceflity for leparating 
 the colours and tirades to wind apatt, as alL the colours 
 are to be loft nr the future flouring and preparing of the 
 filk. 
 
 Spi'ln Silk. In the year 1710, Mr. Bonn difeovered 
 a method of procuring and preparing filk of the webs of 
 ipiders, and ufing it in feveral manufaftures. 
 
 Alter the death of Mr. Bonn, tile French academy ap¬ 
 pointed the celebrated Reaumur to make a further enqui¬ 
 ry into this new filk-work, who has railed feveral ob- 
 jeftions and difficulties againft it, which are infected itl 
 the memoirs of the academy for the year 17 to. The fum 
 of wlrat lie lias urged amounts to this: the natural fierce- 
 llefs of the ipiders lenders them unfit to be bred and kept 
 together: four or five thoufand being diflributed into 
 cells, 50 nr fonre, 100 or 200 nr others ; the big one’s 
 4 N " k jji 
 
S I L 
 
 kill and cat the lefs, fo that in a fliort time there were 
 left only one or two in each cell: and to this inclination 
 of mutually eating one another Mr. Reaumur alcribes the 
 fcarcity of fpiders, confidering the vaft number of eggs 
 they lay. 
 
 But this is no.t all : he even affirms, that the fpider’s 
 bag is inferior to that of the filk-worm, both inluilre and 
 ftrength ; and that it produces lefs matter to be manu¬ 
 factured. The thread of the fpider’s web only bears a 
 weight of two grains without breaking; that of the bag 
 bears 36. The latter, therefore, in all probability, is 18 
 times thicker than the former ; yet is it weaker than that 
 of the filk-worm, which bears a weight of two drachms 
 and a half. So that five threads of the fpidcr’s bag mull 
 be put together to equal one thread of the filk-worm’s ba. . 
 
 Now, it is impoffible thefe fhould be applied ;o joftly 
 over one another, as not to leave little vacant fpapes be¬ 
 tween them, whence the light will not be receded ; and, 
 of confequence, a thread, thus compounded. mull fail 
 fliort of the luflre of a (olid thread. Add to this, that 
 the fpider’s thread cannot be wound off, as that of tiie 
 filk-worm may ; but muff, of neeeffity, be carded ; by 
 which means being in pieces, its evennefs, which con¬ 
 tributes much to its luflre. is deftroyed. In effed, this 
 want of luflre was taken notice of byM. de la Hire, w|ien 
 Mr. Bonn prefented a pair of (lockings to the academy. 
 
 Again, fpiders furnilh much lefs (Ilk than the worms: 
 the larged bags of thefe latter weigh four grains : the 
 fmaller three grains ; fo that 2304 worms produce a 
 pound of ffik. The fpiders bags do not weigh above 
 one grain ; yet, when cleared of their diifl and filth, lofe 
 two thirds of their weight. The work of 12 fpiders, 
 therefore, only equals that of one filk-worm; and a pound 
 of filk will require at lead 27648 fpiders. But as the 
 bags are wholly the worjc of the females, who fpin them 
 to depofit their eggs in, there mud be kept 55296 fpiders, 
 to yield a pound of iiik. Yet will this only hold of the 
 bed fpiders, thofe large ones ordinarily feen in gardens, 
 &c. lcarce yielding a twelfth part of the filk of the others. 
 280 of thefe, he (hews, would not do more than ope filk- 
 worm . and 663552 of them would lcarce yield a pound. 
 
 SILLON, in fortification, an elevation of earth made- 
 in the middle of the moat, to fortify it, when too broad. 
 It is generally called envelope. 
 
 SILVER, a white, rich fort of metal; being the fined, 
 purefl, mod dutflile, and mod precious of all metals, 
 except gold. Silver is heavier than any of the other me¬ 
 tals, except gold and lead ; though it comes after lead, 
 in regard to its gravity, it greatly excels it in fixity, and, 
 of all metals, approaches the nearell to gold in fiinpli- 
 city ; bearing all the teds of fire, ^nd mod of the feverer 
 ones, by the addition of other metalline bodies, jn the 
 fame manner that gold-does, and not difeovering any di¬ 
 ve rilty of parts by the ordinary means. It is confidera- 
 bly hard in companion of lead or gold, yet it is mallea¬ 
 ble and duftilc to a very great degree, and may be drawn 
 out in an extremely fine wire. It is lels capable of rud 
 than any other metal, except gold ; hut it readily becomes 
 black on being rubbed with fulphur. It is in fome de¬ 
 gree fonorous in itfelf, and, in compofition with copper 
 and tin, it makes a metal that is more fo than thole tyvo 
 metals alone would be. 
 
 It requires a kind of middle degree of fire to fufe it, 
 bearing, unaltered, a dronger heat than either lead or 
 gold, but melting much eafier than copper or iron. It 
 may be fli itflly laid to grow red-hot before it melts, but 
 the date of ignition, without fufion, is but indantaneous 
 in it, and runs as foon as feen to be red-hot. It amalga¬ 
 mates ready enough with mercury , the readied way of 
 mixing them is to have the filver in fine filings, very clear 
 from greafe, and to rub it in a mortar with the mercury. 
 
 It is fixed in a common fire, fo as to lofe lcarce any thing, 
 perhaps, ti uly fpcaking, not any thing at all, in the fierced 
 degree ot it, never fo long continued : It has been tried 
 by Boerhaave for two months together, in the eye of a 
 giafs-houlefurnace, and found to lofe only one twelfth part 
 of its weight in the operation ; and it is highly probable, 
 that even this lofs might be owing to the filver’s not being 
 pcrfe&lv purified fird. 
 
 Silver, expol’ed to the fierced fire, colle&cd in the fo¬ 
 cus of a large burning glafs, immediately becomes red- 
 hot. and meits ; it then crackles, and afterwards emits 
 a thick l'moak : foon after this, is covered with a dufty 
 
 2 
 
 S I L 
 
 lubdancc, or calx. If the filver have been refined by means 
 o( antimony, the calx is of a ycllowiffi hue, and, if kept 
 long enough in the focus, it will vitrify in the fame man¬ 
 ner as gold ; but, if it have been refined with lead, the 
 calx is whiter, and Homberg allures us, will never vitrifv, 
 however long pxpoled, even to that degree of heat. 
 
 The fpecifick gravity of filver has been varioufly laid 
 down by various experiments; this has been owing to 
 the different degrees of puiity of the lilver they have 
 neighed, or their different accuracy m experiments of 
 this kind; they make its weight to water to be from 
 10284 to 11091 to 1000, by the meed trial; the gravity 
 of the filver we have already mentioned, as dandmg the 
 lire without lofs, is to water as 10470 to 1000. 
 
 Silver is purified by means of lead, and bears its 
 adtion without lofs. Filled with antimony, if the effedt- 
 be not carefully prevented, it turns to lcoria, and be¬ 
 comes volatile: there is no metal, indeed, except gold 
 alone, that bears the tell with this rapacious mineral, 
 in the common way. 
 
 The proper folvent of filver is aqua fortis ; it is dif- 
 lolved readily by this, and not at all by the common aqua 
 regia ; yet, under certain circumdances, aqua regia will 
 dillolve lilver : the fird phlegm which arilcs in diddling 
 that mendruum, when newly made, and when it has 
 been fome time in digeilion with gold, will dillolve filver, 
 and will not touch gold ; though it cannot be acknow¬ 
 ledged, but this liquor is as much aqua regia as what 
 follows in the didiliation. This, however, is a mere 
 experiment of curiofity, not likely ever to occur in the 
 way of bufinefs, and in that refpeft, though we are ac¬ 
 quainted with this accident, which was accidentally dif- 
 covered by Homberg, we may lav in general, as we uled 
 to do, that aqua fortis diffolves lilver, and notgpld ; and 
 aqua regia gold, and not filver. If but the finalleftquan- 
 tity ol lea-lklt be put into aqua fortis, it will no longer 
 gi\e a clear lolution of filver. This gives us a tell for 
 the goodnefs of aqua fortis ; and to this difference in the 
 eiredt of thefe two menllrua we owe the only method of 
 feparating filver from gold, without lofs. If filver be 
 tilled with Rad, it lofes its found, and its bright colour; 
 if melted with tin, it becomes extremely brittle, and the 
 two metals arc very difficulty feparated again. It melts 
 and mixes eafiiy with copper, and by that means acquires 
 a hardnefs which (its it for our coins and utenfils, much 
 better than in its pure natural date. 
 
 Silver, melted with arlenick (which is eafily done by 
 mixing the arlenick with a little chalk and a little tartar, 
 then wetting it with common water, and then dratifying 
 die lilver with the mafs) receives a part of that fubdance 
 into its own body, and (hews the lingular effedl it has 
 on it in its lofiiig all its malleability; but the arfenick 
 may be feparated from it again by only melting it in a 
 drong fire. 
 
 Silver, melted with bifmuth, is afterwards much the 
 more ealily amalgamated with quickfilver ; and what is 
 \et more remarkable, is, that it by this means becomes 
 to attenuated, that it will peal's through a leather in much 
 larger quantity mixed with the mercury, than it would 
 otherwile have done. It is made much more fufible, as 
 well as volatile, by antimony, and is drangely debafed 
 by the fume of burning fulphur. 
 
 Silver is laid hv fome to be able to colour the natural 
 gems, and the factitious glaffes, and paffes with fine 
 blue ; but this is an error wholly owing to the alloy of 
 copper, which is in mod filver' and which has occa- 
 ii on ally (hewn this effed in the artificial products of this 
 kind ; as to the luppofed effafl in the natural ones, we 
 have no adequate proof of it, no filver ever being fepa¬ 
 rated from any blue gem, nor any proof of its being in 
 any of them having appeared to us in all the experiments 
 we have occafionally made. Though filver in the earth 
 be not capable of communicating any coiour to foffils, 
 it has, however, a power of influencing their figure, and 
 that in a very Angular manner: it has long been known, 
 that iron determines the crydals it enters the compofi¬ 
 tion of, as already obferved, into rhombs, and lead into 
 cubes; but it has not been known that thefe truncated 
 crydals and fpars, preferved as great curiofities in the ca¬ 
 binets of the curious, owe their figure to filver, till filver 
 was lately feparated from them. As certainly, therefore 
 as iron or lead can form crydal into cubes and rhombs, 
 fo certainly can filver, even in a very (mail quantity, in¬ 
 fluence 
 
S l L 
 
 fiuence the figure of thofe foffils, $nd form them into 
 cohimns truncated at each end. 
 
 The chymifts, who fuppole filver to have fome pecu¬ 
 liar affinity to the moon, therefore call it luna; their 
 character for it is this ; by this they mean to denote the 
 half of gold, whole chara&er is a compleat circle; the 
 inner line of this figure, if turned outward, will make 
 it the compleat mark of gold, by which they exprefs the 
 iufide of filver, turned outward, would make it gold ; 
 for they do not allow that there is any thing foreign or 
 corrofivc in this metal, as there is in all the other's, 
 except gold itfelf: this corrofive matter they exprefs by 
 a crofs added to the figure, which is wanting only in 
 the cbara&ers of gold and filver. It has been fuppofed 
 by many, that filver would afford a blue tincbuie, but 
 this is wholly erroneous; its folution, if the filver has 
 been thoroughly purified, is always colourlefs, and its 
 cryilals arc as pellucid and deflitute of any tinge, as the 
 pureft rock cryftal; but if there be any copper left in the 
 filver, even in ever fo fmall a quantity, the foi,ution will 
 be green or blue. The cryftals of filver are intenfely 
 bitter. If filver be melted with common fait, it blends, 
 with proper management, into a femi-pellucid mafs, 
 called luna cornea, which is very difficulty reduced into 
 filver again, being fo volatile, that it liics wholly off in a 
 fmall degree of heat. 
 
 The chymical writers have faid great things of the 
 virtues of filver, but there is very little reafon for placing 
 any dependance on them. The Arabian authors arc as 
 fond of it, indeed, as they are of gold, and attribute all 
 thofe effects to a grain or two of it taken internally, that 
 a fufficient quantity of it is apt to create in the pofTeffor 
 without fwaljowing any of it. They fay it gives great 
 fpints and chearfulnefs, and fortifies the heart; and add, 
 that in a particular manner it is good for the head. 
 Hence they give leaf filver a place in all their ftrength- 
 ening and cordial compofitions, and hence the chymifts 
 have endeavoured to introduce among us a long train of 
 lunar medicines, fuch as argentum potabile, diaphoreti- 
 cum lunare, bezoardicum lunare, and 50 others, as pom¬ 
 pous as infignificarit. The only preparations which keep 
 up their credit in the ftiops, arc, the lunar cryftajs and 
 lianar cauftick. 
 
 Silver-Mines, and the different Sorts of Ore. There 
 are a great number of filver mines in different parts of 
 the world ; but the richeft and moft copious are in 
 America, efpecially in Potofi, one of the provinces of 
 Peru. The veins of ore were, in the beginning, but at 
 a very fmall depth in the mountain of Potofi, but by 
 degrees the miners were obliged to dig deeper into the 
 bowels of the mountain, in order to follow the veins ; 
 and at prefpnt the fhafts are fo deep, that it requires 
 upwards of 400 fteps to arrive at the bottom. The 
 veins at this depth are found to be of the lame quality 
 as thofe formerly difeovered near the furface ; and the 
 mine is rich. It feems to be inexhauftihle; but the 
 working in it becomes more difficult every day, and 
 often proves fatal to the greateft part of the workmen, 
 by the exhalations arifing from the bottom of the mine, 
 and which fpread even to the extremities. No perfon 
 can endure fo deftru&ive an air more than one day at 
 a time, nor are the animals which feed on the adjacent 
 places free from its effefts. They often meet with roc- 
 tallick Veins, which yield fuch pernicious vapours as kill 
 inftantly ; thefe they are obliged immediately to ffiut 
 up, and leave them entirely. The greateft part of the 
 workmen, after they have wrought in the mines for 
 a. colffiderable time, become difabled. It is aftonifliing 
 to find how many Indians have loft their lives fince they 
 began to work thefe mines, and the numbers that die 
 ftill every day. The filver ore, though contained in the 
 fame vein, is not always of the fame colour and quality: 
 in Peru they call it mineral ; if it be white or grey, 
 mixed with red or whitifh fpecks, they cajl it plata- 
 blancha ; and this is the richeft and the eafieft ore to 
 work. They likewife find a black ore like the fcoria of 
 iron, which they term plomo-ronco. There is another 
 fpecies of black ore, to which they have given the name 
 of bofncler, becaufe it turns red on being wet and rubbed 
 againft iron. The ore Called zoroche fiiines'like talck, 
 and, though it looks as if it contained filver, yet they 
 extract but little of that metal from it; the paco ore is 
 «f a red colour, with a caft of yellow in it, and is found 
 
 S I L 
 
 in little and very foft pieces, and is but a poor ore : the 
 green ore, called cobriffo, is almoft friable ; the particles 
 of filver in it may be feen with, the naked eye, but it 
 is very difficult to extra& them. There is alfo, in the 
 mine of Catamito in Potoii, an ore called aranea, which 
 confifts of threads of pure filver ; this is what they call 
 filver ore in fmall threads. Thefe filaments are always 
 richer towards the centre than towards their extremities ; 
 but the filver abounds inoft where thefe threads interfeft 
 each other. The two firft mines of Potofi were opened 
 in the year 1545 ; the one. called Rica, and the other 
 Diego Centeno. The firft was rafed fome diftance above 
 the level of the ground, in the form of a cock’s comb, 
 being 3.00 feet long and 13 broad. The ore of this mine 
 was fo rich, that almoft half of it was pure filver, to 
 the depth of 50 or 60 fathoms, where it began to change 
 a little. 
 
 The richeft filver mines are only to be found in the 
 cold places of America. The climate of Potofi is fo very 
 cold, that formerly the Spanifh women could not lie in 
 there, but were obliged to remove 20 or 30 leagues be¬ 
 yond it, in order to have a milder climate : but at pre¬ 
 sent they lie in as eafily at Potoii, as the native Indians 
 themfelves. At the foot of the mount of Potofi ftands 
 the town of the fame name, which is become famous on 
 account of the great riches its inhabitants have drawn 
 from the mountain. There are in this town upwards 
 of 60, ooq Indians, and 10,000 Spaniaids. They oblige 
 the neighbouring parifhes to furnifli a certain number of 
 Indians every year to work in the mines; and this is 
 what they call rnita or their quota : the greateft part carry 
 their wives and children with them, but they all go thi¬ 
 ther with the greateft reluctance. This fervitude lafts 
 only a year, after which they are at liberty to return to 
 their former habitations' : but a great many fettle in Po¬ 
 tofi, which by that means becomes every day more and 
 more populous. Though the mines of Potoii are the Icaft 
 dangerous, yet without the herb paraguai, which the 
 miners take by the way of infulion, as we do tea, or 
 chew it like tobacco, they muft foon quit them. The 
 mines of Potofi and Lipes ftill maintain their reputation; 
 however, there have been others difeovered fome years 
 ago that are reckoned richer; fpcli are thofe of Oruvo, 
 eight leagues from Arica; and thole of Gllacha, near 
 Cufco, which were difeovered in 1712. 
 
 The Method of extrafling Si Ever from the Ore. In Or¬ 
 der to extract filver from the ore, they firft break it into 
 pretty fmall pieces, and then grind it with iron peftleS, 
 weighing about 2Colb. anc} which commonly are moved 
 by water. The ore, when pounded, is pafted through a 
 fieve ot iron or coppcj;, and then kneaded with water to 
 a pafte, which they leave to dry a little ; afterwards they 
 kjiead it a fecond time with lea-fait; and at laft they 
 throw fome mercury upon it, and knead it a-third time, 
 in order to incorporate the mercury with the filver; being 
 what they call an amalgama. Eight or 10 days are fuf¬ 
 ficient for this propefs iq temperate places ; but in cold 
 countries jt’ fometimes requires a month or fix weeks. 
 They then throw the pafte into large tubs or lavaturies, 
 in order to feparate the earth from it; thefe tubs confift 
 of three bafons ftandiqg over a current of \yater, which 
 carries off the earth, after it has been fteeped in each ba- 
 fon. In order to facilitate the operation, they conftantly 
 ftir the pafte with their feet, that, when the water comes 
 clear out of the bafons, there may remain at the bottom 
 only filver and mercury amalgamated together ; and this 
 is wfiat they c;ill pigna. They endeavour to extraft the 
 mercury which is not incorporated with the filver, by 
 preffing the pigna, beating it ftrongly, or bruifing it in 
 a prelsor mill. There are pignas of different fizes and 
 different weights; they commonly contain a third of fil¬ 
 ver, and two thirds of mercury. They lay the pigna 
 upon a trevet, placing under it a veftel fpll of water ; and 
 cover the whole earth in form of a cap, which they fur- 
 round with burning coals. The attion of the fire caufes 
 , the mercury to evaporate from t}ie pigna, and falls into 
 the water where it is pondenled, The interftices which 
 the mercury occupied in the pigna continue empty, and 
 there remains only a porus or light mafs of filver, com¬ 
 pared with its former bulk. 
 
 Silver is likewife extra&cd from the ore in the follow¬ 
 ing manner : they firft break the ore, and fometimes vyalh 
 it, to feparate the ftony particles which have been re¬ 
 duced 
 
■ 
 
 S I L 
 
 fluficd toft powder : after this they calcine it, in order to 
 ex trad from it the fulphur and arfenick: this is what 
 they call loading the ore ; after which they vvafh it again, 
 to free it from the calcined powder. The ore being thus 
 prepared, they fufe it with lead or litharge, or with co- 
 pel-heads that have been ul'ed before ; they employ granu¬ 
 lated lead for this purpofe, when the work is but fmall. 
 The harder the ore is to melt, the more lead they mix 
 with it : about 16 or 2.0 parts of lead to one of.ore. 
 This procefs is called fcorifying : the lcoria comifts of 
 lead vitrified with the done, and with whatever elle is 
 not gold or diver in the ore; and the metal precipitates 
 into a regulus. If this regulus looks pretty line, and of. 
 a metallick colour, they put it into the copel; but, if it 
 dill be mixed with lcoria, and black, they melt it over 
 again with a fmall quantity of glafs or lead. 
 
 In order to feparate the diver from the mercury, with 
 which it is amalgamated, they have a furnace with an 
 aperture at the top ; this aperture they cover with a fort 
 of dome made of earth in a cylindrical form, which may 
 be left on or taken away at plcafure. When they have 
 put the mafs of diver and mercury into the furnace, laid 
 on the cover, and lighted the dre, the quick-diver rifes 
 in the form of vapours, and adheres to the dome, from 
 whence they collect it, and ufe it again for the lame 
 purpofe. 
 
 When the diver is well purided, fo that all heteroge¬ 
 neous matter either metallick or other, that might be 
 mixed with it, is extracted, they lay it is 12 carats dne. 
 This is the exprefdon they ufe to denote the quality of 
 the pureft diver, without any mixture or alloy; but, if 
 there fhould remain any, they dedud the weight of the 
 mixture from the principal weight, and the remainder 
 fhews the value of the diver. The carat condlls of 24 
 grains ; lb that, when to the weight of 12 carats there 
 are 12 grains of mixture, the value of the diver is 11 
 carats 12 grains: and fo of any other. 
 
 Refining of Silver. As to refining, it is differently 
 performed in different countries, and according to the dif¬ 
 ferent intentions of'the refiners. The refining of diver 
 with lead is performed with a very dry copel, which they 
 make red-hot in a reverberatory furnace; and after this 
 they put the lead into it, udng more or lefs, according 
 as the diver which they would copel is lufpeded to have 
 more or lefs alloy. See Assaying. 
 
 The many different methods of refining diver, having 
 been found inconvenient and tedious, induced M. Hom- 
 berg to attempt the difeovering a method of fhortening 
 the procefs, in which he fucceeded. It condds in calcin¬ 
 ing diver with half its weight of common fulphur ; and, 
 after fufing the whole together, throwing upon it at diffe¬ 
 rent times a certain quantity of filings of fleel; by which 
 means the fulphur quits the diver, in order to unite with 
 the iron, and both the one and the other turn to a feum 
 that fwims a top of the diver ; and there is found at the 
 bottom of the crucible the purified matter. 
 
 Shell Silver, is made with diver leaf ground with 
 new honey, and, after pouring a fmall quantity of aqua 
 fortis on it, the mendruum is poured off, and the diver 
 kept for ufe. 
 
 Silver-Tree, Protea , in botany, a genus of plants, 
 which are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and arc 
 noticed for the beauty of their lhining dlvery leaves ; but 
 being fomewhat tender, they require a green-houfe, to 
 preferve them in winter. 
 
 SILVERING, the covering any thing with diver. 
 It is ufual to diver metals, wood, paper, &c. which is 
 performed either with fire, oil, or fize. Metal-gilders 
 diver by the fire : painter-gilders all the other ways. See 
 Gilding. 
 
 i To diver copper or brafs: 1. Cleanfe the-metal with 
 aqua fortis, by wafhing it lightly, and immediately throw¬ 
 ing it into fair water: or bv heating it red-hot, and 
 icouring it with fait and tartar, and fair water, with a 
 fmall wire brulh. 2. Diffolve fome diver in aqua fortis. 
 in abroad-bottomed glafs veflel, or of glazed earth, then 
 evaporate away the aqua fortis over a chaffing-difh of 
 coals. q. Put five or fix times its quantity of water, or 
 as much as will be neceffary to diffolve it perfedly, on 
 the remaining dry calx; evaporate this water with the 
 like heat; then put more frefh water, and evaporate 
 again ; and if need be, the third time, making the fire 
 towards the latter end fo flrong, as to leave the calx per- 
 3 
 
 S 1 M 
 
 icftly dry, winch, if your diver is good, will be of a pure 
 white. 4. lake of this calx, common fait, cryital of 
 tartar, of each a like quantity, or bulk, and mixing well 
 the whole compofition, put the metal into fair water, 
 and take of the laid powder with your wet fingers, and 
 rub it well on, till you find every little cavity of the me¬ 
 tal fufficiently dlvered over. 5. If you would have it 
 richly done, you mull rub on more of the powder, and in 
 the lad place wafli the dlvered metal in fair water, and 
 rub it hard with a dry cloth. 
 
 Shivering of L-.cking-GlaJfes. See Foliating. 
 
 SIL\ ES I RE, or Sylvestre, Granum, or Coccus 
 Sylvestris, a term uied by fome authors toexpiels 
 the coccus P olonicus, and by others, fora coarie or bad 
 kind of cochineal, produced in the province of Guatimaia, 
 in New Spain : it is by fome fuppofed to be the feed of 
 the plant; but it is, in reality, a true in left as the.cochi¬ 
 neal is; only that the fcailet colour it yields, is greatly 
 inferior to the other. See Cochineal. 
 
 SIMILAR, in geometry, &c. is the lame as like, or 
 of a like nature. 
 
 Similar Arches of a Circle , are fuch as are like parts 
 of their whole circumferences. 
 
 Similar Bodies, in natural philofophy, are called 
 fuch as have their particles of the lame kind and nature 
 one with another. 
 
 Similar plane Numbers, are thofc numbers which 
 may be ranged into the form of fimilar rectangles: that 
 is, into rectangles whofelides are proportional, fuch are 
 12 and 48 ; for thefides of 12 are 6 and 2, and theddes 
 of 48 are 12 and 4. But 6. 2:: 12. 4. and therefore 
 thofe numbers are fimilar. 
 
 Similar Polygons, are fuch as have their angles fe- 
 verally equal, and the fides about thofe angles propor¬ 
 tional. 
 
 Similar Reft angles, arc thofe which have their ddes ■ 
 about the equal angles proportional. 
 
 1. All fquares are fimilar redangles. 
 
 2. All fimilar redangles are to each other as the fquares 
 of their homologous ddes. 
 
 Similar rig t-lined Figures , are fuch as have equal 
 angles, and the fides about thofe equal angles proportional. 
 
 Similar Segments of a Circle, are l uch as contain equal 
 angles. 
 
 Similar Curves. Two fegments of two curves are 
 called fimilar, if, any right-lined figure, being inferibed* 
 within one of them, we can infenbe always a fimilar 
 right-lined figure in the other. 
 
 Similar Conick Sections. Two conick fedions arc 
 faid to be fimilar, when any fegment being taken in the 
 one, we can aifign always a fimilar fegment in the other. 
 
 Similar Dtameu rs of two Conick See: •ons. The dia¬ 
 meters in two conick fedions are faid to be fimilar, when 
 they make the fame angles with their ordinates. 
 
 Similar Solids, are luch as are contained under equal 
 numbers of fimilar planes, alike fituated. 
 
 Similar Triangles, are fuch as have all their three 
 angles refpedively equal to one another. 
 
 1. All fimilar triangles have thefides about their equal 
 angles proportional. 
 
 2. All fimilar triangles are to one another as the fquares' 
 of their homologous fides. 
 
 SIMILE, or Similitude, in rhetorick and poetry, 
 a companion of two things, which, though different in 
 other refpeds, yet agree in fome one. As, he lhall be' 
 like a tree planted by the water-fide, he. 
 
 SIMON IANS, in ceded aftical hiftory, a led of an¬ 
 cient hereticks. fo called from their founder. Simon Ma¬ 
 gus, or the magician. The hcrefies of Simon Mt.us 
 were principally his pretending to be the- g^cat power of 
 God. and thinking that the gifts of the HolvGhoU were 
 venal, and to be purchafcd with money. He is laid to 
 'have invented the /Lons, which were fo many pq^fons 
 of whom the Godhead was compofed. * Hi> concubine 
 Helen, he called the firft intelligence, and mother of all 
 things; and fometimes he called her Minerva, and him- 
 felf Jupiter. Simon Magus gained a great many profe— 
 lyres, who paid himfeh and his concubine divine wor- 
 11 hereticks, and thofe that St. 
 John, St. Peter ?,nd St. Paul, in their epifiles, fo often 
 warn the Chrillians againft. 
 
 SIMONY, Stmonia , the crime oftraffickingwith facred 
 things, particularly’ of purchafing a bendice wkh money.- 
 
 SIMPLE, 
 
SIN SIX 
 
 SIMPLE, fomething not mixed or compounded ; in 
 which lenfe it Hands oppoJed to compound. 
 
 Simple Quantities, in algebra, arc fuch as have but 
 one fign, either pofitive or negative. Thus 2 a and 3 b 
 are fimple quantities; but« + ^ and a-— z are com¬ 
 pound ones. 
 
 Simple, in botany, is a general name given to all 
 herbs and plants; as having each its particular virtue, 
 whereby it becomes a fimple remedy. 
 
 Simple Concords, arc thole wherein \ye hear at leaft 
 two, notes in confonance; as a third and fifth; and, of 
 qonfeqqence, at leaft three parts. See Concord. 
 
 Simple Counter-point, is an harmonica] compofition, 
 wherein note is let againft note ; in oppofition to figu¬ 
 rative counterpoint. 
 
 SIN APIS, muftard, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whole flower is tetrapetalous and cruciform, containing 
 four ovate nectariferous glandules, with fix ere£t fubu- 
 lated filaments, two of which are the length of the cup, 
 and the others longer; thefe are topped with fpreading 
 acuminated anthers? : the fruit is an oblong rough pod, 
 having two cells which contain a number of globofe feeds. 
 
 '1 ho common ufe of muflard is known to every one, 
 and is very proper for people of a cold conftitqtion, be- 
 caufe it creates an appetite, helps digeftion, and attenu¬ 
 ates food ; the feeds arc flomaefiick, diaphoretick, anti- 
 Icorbutick, and are good in hypochondriack dilcales, as 
 well as in lleepy diforders : the powder of them taken in 
 whitewine is excellent againft the feurvy; and fome affirm 
 it will cure a quartan ague, if taken in hot wine two hours 
 before the fit. 'I he white muftard is ufed as afiillad herb, 
 efpecially in winter and fpring. 
 
 SINAPISM) in pharmacy, an external medicine in 
 form of a calaplafin, compoied chiefly of muftard feed 
 pulverized, and mixed with the pulp of figs, or with 
 briony, garlick, onion, or the like. See the preceding 
 article. 
 
 SINCIPUT, the anteriqr part of the head. 
 
 SINE, or right Sine of an Arch, in trigonometry, is 
 & right line drawn from one end, or teimination of an 
 arch, perpendicular to the radius drawn to the other ter¬ 
 mination of the arch; being always equal to half the 
 chord of twice the arch. 
 
 Whole Sine, Sinus totus, the fine of 90°, being equal 
 to the radius or femidiameter. 
 
 Sine Complement , or co-Sine of an Arch, is that part 
 of the diameter intercepted between the centre and fine, 
 and is equal to the fine of the complement of that arch. 
 
 Verjed Sine of an Arch , is the part of the diameter in¬ 
 tercepted between the fine and the periphery. 
 
 SINE-CURES, are ecclefiaftical benefices without 
 .cure of fouls. 
 
 SINEW, properly denotes what we call a nerve ; 
 though, in common lpcech, it is rather ufed for a tendon. 
 
 SINGULAR Number, in grammar, the firft man¬ 
 ner of declining nouns, and conjugating verbs; ufed 
 when we only fpcak of a finglc perfon or thing. The 
 Latins, French, Englifh, See. have no number but the 
 Angular and plural; the Greeks and Hebrews haye flke- 
 wife a dual. 
 
 SINGULTUS, in medicine, a convulfive motion of 
 the midriff, commonly called hiccup. 
 
 SINICAL Quadrant, a kind of quadrant fur- 
 niffiedwith an index and fights to take altitudes, See. by; 
 and, befides its fides or face, covered witfi fines, drawn 
 from each fide, interfering each other; whereby the 
 feamen can folve, by infpedlion, any problem in plain 
 failing; for its conftru£tion and ufe. fee Quadrant. 
 
 SINISTER, lomething towards the left hand. Hence, 
 fome derive the word finifter afinendo, bccaufe the gods, 
 by fuch auguries, permit us to proceed in our defigns. 
 
 Sinister, in heraldry. The finifter fide of an 
 efcutcheon is the left hand fide. 
 
 Sinister Chief \ is the left angle pf the chief. 
 
 Sinister Baje , is the left hand of the bafe. 
 
 SIN OPE R, Sinopis , in natural hiftpry, a native red 
 ft one or ruddle. 
 
 SINOPLE, or Senople, in heraldry, denotes vert, 
 pr the green colour in armouries. 
 
 SINUOSITY, a feries of bends and turns in arches 
 or other irregular figures, fometimes jetting out, and 
 foinetimes falling in. 
 
 SINUS, in anatomy; the vagina is called the firms 
 Y9b IL No. 67. 
 
 muliebris, or finus pudoris ; and certain cavities in the 
 dura mater. A finus of a bone is a cavity which re¬ 
 ceives the head of another bone. In furgery, a finus is 
 a collection of matter, with a (mail orifice for the dif- 
 charge thereof. 
 
 SIPHON, or Syphon, in hydraulicks, a crooked 
 tube, one leg or branch whereof is longer than the other; 
 ufed in the railing of fluids, emptying of veflels, and in 
 various hydroftatical experiments. 
 
 Wolfius particularly deferibes two veflels under the 
 name ot fiphons ; the one cylindrical in the middle, and 
 conical at the two extremes; the other globular in the 
 middle with two narrow tubes fitted to it, axis-wife; 
 both ferving to take up a quantity of water, See. and to 
 retain it, when up. But the molt ufeful and celebrated 
 fiphon is that which follows : a crooked tube ABC (plate 
 LXX. 11 . fig- IQ.) is piovided of iuch a length, and with 
 luch an angle, as that, when the orifice A is placed on a 
 horizontal plane, the height of A B may not exceed 30 
 feet. For common ules a foot or half a foot high fuffices. 
 If now the lefs arm A R be immerged in water, or any 
 other liquid, and the air he fucked out of it by the aper¬ 
 ture C, till the liquor follow ; the liquor will continue 
 to flow qut of the veflel through the tube B C. as long as 
 the aperture A is under the furface of the liquor. 
 
 Note, ipftead pf fucking out the air, the event will be 
 the fame, if the fiphon be at firft filled with the fluid, and 
 the aperture C flopped with the finger, till the aperture 
 A be immerged. 
 
 SIREN, in antiquity, a mermaid; a name given to 
 a kind of fabulous beings reprefented by Ovid, See. as 
 lea monfters with women’s faces and fifties tails ; and by 
 others decked with a plumage of various colours. Clau- 
 dian fays, they inhabited harmonious rocks ; that they 
 were charming monfters ; anil that faijors were wrecked 
 on their rocks without regret, and even expired in rap¬ 
 ture : dulce malum pelago Siren. 
 
 SIRIUS, in aftronomy, the dog-ftar; a very bright 
 ftar of the firft magnitude in the mouth of the conftella- 
 tion canis major, or the great dog. 
 
 SI I E, or Scite, Situs, denotes the fituation of a 
 houfe, mefluage, See. and fometimes the ground-plot or 
 fpot of earth it (lands on. 
 
 Site, orScjTf, Shits, in logick, one of the predica¬ 
 ments, declaring the fubjett to be lo and fo placed. 
 
 SITUS, in geometry and algebra, denotes the fitua¬ 
 tion of lines, furfaces, See. Wolfius gives us fome things 
 in geometry, which are not deduced from the common 
 analyfis; particularly matters depending on the fitus of 
 lines and figures. M. Leibnitz has even invented a. 
 particular kind of analyfis, called analyfis fitus, and built 
 a peculiar kind of aflcplus thereon, called calculus fitus. 
 
 SIXAIN, Si xth, Saxegena, in war, an ancient order 
 in battle, wherein fix battalions being ranged in one line, 
 the fecond and fifth are made to advance, to form the 
 v^n-guard ; the firft and fixth to retire, to form the rear¬ 
 guard ; the third and fourth remaining on the fpot to 
 fprm the corps, or body of the battle, 
 
 SIX-CLERKS, officers in chancery, of great account, 
 next in degree below the 12 mailers ; whofe bufinefs is 
 to enroll commiffiops, pardons, patents, warrants, See. 
 which pafs tfie great feal. Under them were formerly 6q 
 clerks, who, with the under clerks, did the bufinefs of the 
 office, which number was afterwards increafed to 90. 
 At prefent the number is indefinite; an order having 
 been made for reducing them to the ancient number of 
 60, by not filling up the vacancies that may happen by 
 death, See. till they are fallen to that ftandard. 
 
 SIXTH, Sexta, in mufick, ope of the fimple original 
 concords, or harmonical intervals. 
 
 T'he fixth is of two kinds, greater and lefler; and hence 
 is efteemed one of the imperfeCt concords, though each 
 of the two fpecies arifes front a divifion of the ottave. 
 
 The greater fixth, called by the Greeks hexachordon 
 majus, is the concord refulting from the mixture of the 
 founds of two firings that are to each other as five to 
 three. 
 
 The lefler fixth, hexachordon minus, refults from two 
 ftripgs, which are to each other as eight to five. 
 
 The lefler fixth is compofed diatonically of fix degrees, 
 whence its name ; and ol five intervals, three whereof are 
 tones, apd two lemi-tones; chromatically- of eight femi- 
 tones, five whereof are greater, and three lefs; it has its 
 4 Q form 
 
S K I 
 
 form and origin from the ratio fupcr-tri-partiens quintas, 
 as eight to five. 
 
 The greater fixth is compofed diatonically, like the 
 lefs, of fix degrees and five intervals, among which arc 
 four tones and two femi-tones : and chromatically of nine 
 femi-tones, five whereof are greater and four lefs. Of 
 confequerice, it has a iefler femi-tone more than the 
 former. It has its origin from the ratio fuper-bi-partiens 
 tertias, as five to three. Befides the two kinds of fixths 
 here defcribed, which are both good concords, there arc 
 two others which are vicious and diflonant. 
 
 The firil is the defective fixth, compofed of two tones 
 and three femi-tones, or feven femi-tones, five whereof 
 are greater, and two lefs. 
 
 1 he fecond is the redundant fixth, compofed of four 
 tones, a greater femi-tone, and a lefs. Whence fome 
 call it pentatonon, as comprehending five tones. Thcfe 
 two, being both difeords, fhould never be ufed in me¬ 
 lody, and very rarely in harmony. 
 
 Sixth, in the military art. See Sixain. 
 
 SIZE, an inflrument ufed to find the fize of pearls 
 withal. It confifts of five thin pieces, or leaves, about 
 two inches long, and halt an inch broad, faflened toge¬ 
 ther at one end by a rivet. In each of thefe are feveral 
 round holes drilled, of different diameters. Thole in the 
 firfl leaf ferve for weighing pearls from half a grain to 
 feven grains. I hole of the fecond, for pearls from eight 
 grains or two carats, to five carats, &c. 
 
 Size, is alfo a kind of paint, varnilh or glue, ufedbv 
 painters and others. ’I he lhreds and parings of leather, 
 parchment, or vellum, being boiled in water and (trained, 
 make fize. 
 
 1 he bed gold-fize for burnifhing is made as follows : 
 take fine bole, what quantity you pleafe, grind it finely 
 on a marble, then lcrape into it a little becf-luet: grind 
 all well together ; after which mix a final! proportion of 
 parchment-fize, with a double proportion of water, and 
 it is done, 
 
 "I o make filver-fize : take tobacco pipe clay, in fine 
 powder, into which lcrape fome black lead and a little 
 Genoa-foap, and grind them all together with parchment- 
 fize, as alreadv directed. 
 
 SKELETON , in anatomy, an affemblage or arrange¬ 
 ment of all the bones of a dead animal, dried, cleanfed, and 
 dilpofed in their natural fituation, and kept in that dif- 
 pofition by means of wires, See. 
 
 Explanation of Plate LXXIII. reprefenting thefkele- 
 ton of a human body. 
 
 o, The frontal bone, b , The coronal future, c, The 
 parietal bone, d, The occipital future, e, The tempo¬ 
 ral bone, y, T lie malloide apophyfis. g, The zvgo- 
 matical apophyfis. The temporal apophyfis. i i, The 
 bones of the cheek. k, The external part of the bone 
 that lines the orbits of the eye. /, The os planum, 
 m, 1 he os unguis. n, 1 he upper apophyfis of the max¬ 
 illary bone. o, The bone of the nole. p, The partition 
 of the nofe. q q, The maxillary bone, r, r, The lower 
 jaw. f The orbit of the eye. t. The inferior part of 
 the orbit, u, 1 he fifth vertebra of the neck, .v, The 
 fixth. y , The hole of their tranfverfe apophyfes. z, The 
 chin, i, 2, 3, The fternum. 4, The clavicles. 5,6, 
 
 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, The true ribs. 12, 13, 14, The falfe 
 ribs. 15, 16, 17, 18, The cartilages which unite the true 
 ribs to the dernum. ig, The lad vertebras of the back. 
 20, 21, The five vertebra of the loins. 9 , u, Their tranf- 
 verfe apophyfes. 22, 22, The os facrum. t, t, The 
 orifice of the os facrum. 23, The amoplata. 24, The 
 humerus, or bone of the arm. 25, The radius. 26, 
 The os cubitus. 27, The carpus. 28, The metacarpus. 
 29, The phalanges, or bones of the fingers. 30, The 
 os illium. 31, The os pubis. 32, The os ilchium. 
 Thefe three lad bones compofe the ofla innominata. 33, 
 The foramen ovale. 34, The os femoris. a, Its head. 
 
 & Its neck. A, The great trochanter. ?, The little 
 trochanter, n, The internal condyle, x, The external 
 condyle. 35, The rotula. 36, The tibia, y, The ex¬ 
 ternal condyle. S, The internal condyle. //, The liga¬ 
 ment of rotulo. <p, The malleolus internus. 37, The 
 fibula. -37, I he malleolus externus. 38, The tarfus. 
 39, I he metatarfus. ao, The phalanges of the toes. 
 
 SKIN, in anatomy. See Cutis. 
 
 SKIRMISH, in war, a diforderly kind of combat, 
 or encounter, in prelcnce of two armies, between finall 
 
 S L I 
 
 parties, or perfons who advance from the main body for 
 that purpole, and introduce, or invite to, a general, re¬ 
 gular fight. 
 
 SKTLL, in anatomy. See Cra >: ium. 
 
 SKY, the blue panfe of air, or atmofphere. Sir 
 Ifaac Newton attributes the azure colour of the fky to 
 vapours beginning to condenlc therein, which have at¬ 
 tained confidence enough to refleSt the moil reflcxible 
 rays, viz. the violet ones ; but not enough to refleSl.any 
 of the lefs inflexible ones. M. de la Hire attributes it to 
 our viewing a black object, viz. the dark regions beyond 
 the limits of the atmofphere, through a v.bite or lucid 
 one, viz. the air illuminated by the fun : a mixture of 
 black and white alvva\ s appeal ing blue. But this con¬ 
 jecture is not originally his, being as old as Leonardo da 
 Vinci. 
 
 SLATE, a blueifh filfile ftone, very foft when dug 
 out of the quarry, and therelore eafily cut or lawed into 
 thin long fquares, to ferve inftead of tiles for the cover¬ 
 ing of houlcs ; alfo for making tables, See. The an¬ 
 cients were unacquainted with the ufe of (late, and in¬ 
 ftead thereof covered their houles with lhingles, as we 
 read in Pliny. Befides the blue date, we have alfo in 
 England agreyilh date, called alloHordiam {tone, from 
 a town in SufTex of that name, where the greateft quan¬ 
 tities of it arc found. The blue date is very light and 
 lading, but chargeable withal, becaufe the roof mud be 
 fir ft boarded over, tire dates hung with tacks and laid 
 with finer mortar than tiles. The grey date is chiefly 
 ufed in covering churches, chancels, See. 
 
 SLAVE, a perfon in the abfolute power of a mafter, 
 either by war or conqued. 
 
 SLEEP is defined to be that date wherein the body 
 appearing perfectly at red, external objects move the or¬ 
 gans of lenfe as ulual, without exciting the ufual Icnfa- 
 tions. W i b regard to medicine, deep is defined by Boer- 
 haave, to be that date of the medulla of the brain wherein 
 the nerves do not receive fo copius nor fo forcible an in¬ 
 flux of fpirits upon the brain, as is required to enable the 
 organs of fenfe and voluntary morion, to perform their 
 fundtions. Sleep being one of the non-naturals, it is not 
 podible for thofe to preferve their health, who do not go 
 to lleep in a regular manner ; for fleep repairs the fpirirs, 
 which are diflipated by watching; and cOnferjuentJy it 
 reltores the llrength of thofe who are weak, indifpbled, 
 or labour much. It likewifepromotes perfpiration, con¬ 
 tributes greatly to digedion, and more to nutrition. 
 
 SLEEPER, or the Great Sleeper, in zoology, 
 the hairy-tailed mus with red feet. This is the fize of 
 the rat, but more corpulent; the head is fhort anJ thick ; 
 the opening of the mouth fmall; the noftrils flefh-co- 
 Ioured; the eyes large, black, and-prominent; and the ears 
 large and naked. This is frequent in many parts of 
 Europe, and retires in winter into caverns under the 
 ground, where it carries a confidcrable {lore of nuts and 
 other fruits. 
 
 Sleepers, in natural hidory; a name given to fome 
 animals, which are faid to fleep all the winter ; fuch as 
 bears, marmotes, dormice, bats, hedge-hogs, fvvalfows, 
 See. We are told, in Med. Elfays of Edinb. that thefe 
 do not feed in winter, have no lenfible evacuations, 
 breathe little or none at all, and that mod of the vifccra 
 ceafe from their fun 61 ions. Some of thefe creatures ice in 
 to be dead, and others to return to a date like that of a foe¬ 
 tus before the birth ; in this condition they continue,, till 
 by length of time maturating the proccfs, or by new heat, 
 the fluids are attenuated, the folids ftimulated, and the 
 fundlions begin where they left off. 
 
 Sleepers, in the glals-trade, are the large iron bars 
 croffing the fmaller ones, and hindering the paflage of the 
 coals, but leaving room for the afhes. 
 
 Sleepers, in afhip, timbers lying before and aft, in 
 the bottom of the lhip, asihe rung-heads do: the lower- 
 mod of them is bolted to the rung-heads, and the up- 
 permofi to the futtocks and ruire;. 
 
 SLIDING, in mechanicks, is when the fame point of 
 a body, moving along a furface, del'cribes a line on that 
 furface. See Friction. 
 
 Sliding Rule , a mathematicalindrument, ferving to 
 _ work quedions in gauging, mealuring. Sic. without the 
 j ufe of compaifes ; merely by the Aiding of the parts of the 
 I indrument one by another, the lines and diviiions where- 
 I of give the anfwer by inlpedtion. 
 
 Cogge/bal'i 
 
S L I 
 
 CoggtJh.il's Sliding Rule. This inflrument is prin¬ 
 cipally ufcd in meafuring the fuperfices and lolidity of 
 timber. Jt confifts of two rulers, each a foot long, which 
 are framed or put together various ways ; fometimes they 
 arc made to hide by one another, like glaziers rules ; fome¬ 
 times a groove is made in the fide of a common two feet 
 joint rule, and a thin Hiding piece put in, and Coggefiial’s 
 lines added on that fide : but the moft ufual and com¬ 
 modious way is to have one of the rulers Hide along the 
 groove, made along the middle of the other. 
 
 On the Hiding fide ot the rule/are four lines of num¬ 
 bers, three whereof are double, that is, are lines to two 
 radius’s, and one a fingle broken line of numbers : the 
 three firft, marked A, B, C, are figured i, 2, 3, Ac. to 9 ; 
 then r, 2, 3, Ac. to 10. Their conftru&ion, fife, Ac. 
 are the fame as thofe of Everard’s Hiding rule. The 
 fingle line, called the girt line, and noted D, whofe 
 radius is equal to the two radius’s of any of the other 
 lines, is broke for the eafier meafuring of timber, and 
 figured 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, Ac. from 4 to 5. 
 It is divided into 10 parts, and each' 10th fubdivided into 
 2, and fo on from 5 to 10, Ac. 
 
 On the backfide of the rule, are, i°. A line of inch 
 meafure, from 1 to 12; each inch being divided and 
 fubdivided. 2 0 . A line of foot meafure, confifting of 
 1 foot, divided into igo equal parts, and figured 10. 20, 
 30, Ac. The backfide of the Hiding piece is divided into 
 inches, halves, Ac. and figured from 12 to 24 ; fo that, 
 when Hid out, there may be a meafure of 2 feet. 
 
 UJe of C'ggrJfjai s Sliding Rule, m meafuring plain 
 Superficies. 1. To meafure a fquare. Suppofe, e. gr. 
 the fides be each 5 feet ; fet 1 on the line B. to 5 on the 
 line A ; then againfl 5 on the line B is 25 feet, the con¬ 
 tent of the fquare on the line A. 
 
 2. Jo meafure a Jong fquare. Suppofe the longefl 
 fide 18 feet, and the Ihorteft 10 ; fet 1 on the line B^ to 
 10 on the line A ; then againfl: 18 feet, on the line B, 
 is 180 feet, the contents on the line A. 
 
 3. 1 o meafure a rhombus. Suppofe the fide 12 feet 
 and the length of a perpendicular let fall from one of the 
 obtufe angles, to the oppofitc fide, 9 feet; fet 1 on the 
 line B, to 12, the length of the fide on the line A ; then 
 againfl 9, the length of the perpendicular on the line B, 
 is 108 feet, the content. 
 
 4. To meafure a triangle. Suppofe the bnfc 7 feet, 
 and the length of the perpendicular let fall from theop- 
 pofite angle to the bale 4 feet; fet 1 on the line B, to 7 
 on the line A ; then againfl half the perpendicular, which 
 is 2 on the line B, is 14011 the line A, for the content 
 of the triangle. 
 
 . 5- Fo find fhe content of a circle, its diameter being 
 given. Suppofe the diameter 3.5 feet; fet 11 on the girt 
 line D, to 95 on the line C : then againfl 3.5 feet on D 
 is 9.6 on C, which is the content of the circle in feet. 
 
 6. To find the content of an oval or ellipfis. Suppofe 
 the longefl diameter 9 feet, and the lhorteft 4. Find a 
 mean proportional between the two, by fetting the greater 
 9 on the girt line, to 9 on the line C ; then againfl the 
 lefs number 4011 the line C is 6, the mean proportional 
 fought. This done, find the content of a circle, whofe 
 diameter is 6 feet; this, when found, by the laft article 
 will be equal to the content of the ellipfis fought. 
 
 UJe of Coggejhal's Sliding Rule , in me. fur mg Timber, 
 f • To meafure timber the ufual way. Take the length 
 in feet, half feet, and, if required, quarters ; then mea- 
 lure half way back again ; then girt the tree with a i'mall 
 cord or line ; double this line twice very evenly, and mea- 
 fure this fourth part of the girt or perimeter, in inches, 
 halves, and quarters. T he dimenfions thus taken, the 
 timber is to be meafured as if fquare, and the fourth of 
 the girt taken for the fide of the fquare, thus; fet 12 on 
 the girt line D, to the length in feet on the line C ; then 
 againfl the fide of the fquare, on the girt line D, taken 
 in inches, you have, on the line C, the content of the 
 tree in feet. 
 
 For an infiance-: fuppofe the girt of a tree, in the mid 
 die, be 63 inches, and the length 30 feet, to find the 
 content, let 1 2 on the girt line O, to 30 feet on the line 
 C ; then againfl 13, one fourth of 60, on the girt line 
 D, is 46.8 feet, the content on the line C. If the length 
 fiiould be 9 inches, and the quarter of the girt 35 inches; 
 here, as the length is beneath a foot, meafure it on the 
 
 S L I 
 
 ,. C r -. mLuiuicnua xiiHi io a nip may 1; 
 
 line of foot-mealure, and fee what decimal part of a foot I or its ftalks ragged; 
 
 it makes, which you will find .75. Set 12, therefore, on 
 the girt line, to 75 on the firft radius of the line C, and 
 againfl 35 on the girt line is 6.4 feet on C, for the content. 
 
 2°. ’1 o meafure round timber the true way. The 
 former method , though that generally in ufe, is not quite 
 juft. 'I'o meafure timber accurately, inftead of the point 
 
 12 on the girt line, ufe another, viz. 10.635 ; at which 
 there Hiould be placed a centre-pin. This 10.635 * s t}le 
 fide of a fquare equal to a circle, whofe diameter is 12 
 inches. For an inftance : fuppofe the length 15 feet, and 
 1-4th of the girt 42 inches, fet the point 10.635 to 15, 
 the length ; then againfl 42 on the girt line is 233 feet 
 for the content fought; whereas, by the common way, 
 there ariles only 184 feet. In effeft, the common mea¬ 
 fure is only to the true meafure, as 11 to 14. 
 
 3 °- To meafure a cube. Suppofe the fides to be 6 feet 
 each ; fet 12 on the girt line D, to 6 on C ; then againfl 
 72 inches (the inches 6 feet) on the girt line, is 216 feet 
 on C, which is the content required. 
 
 4°. To meafure unequally-fquared timber ; that is, 
 where the breadth and depth are not equal. Meafure the 
 length of the piece, and the breadth and depth (at the 
 end) in inches : then find a mean proportional between 
 the breadth and depth of the piece. This mean propor¬ 
 tional is the fide of a fquare, equal to the end of the piece; 
 which found, the piece may be meafured as fquare tim¬ 
 ber. For an inftance : let the length of the piece of tim¬ 
 ber be 13 feet, the breadth 23 inches, and the depth 13 
 inches ; let 23 on the girt line D, to 23 on C ; then 
 againfl 13 on C is 17.35 on the girt line D, for the mean 
 proportional. Again, fetting 12 on the girt-line D, to 
 
 13 feet, the length of the line C; againfl 17.35 011 the 
 girt line is 27 feet, the content. 
 
 5 0 . To meafure taper timber. The length being mea- 
 lured in feet, note one third of it; which is found thus : 
 fet 3 on the line A, to the length on the line B; then 
 againfl 1 on A is the third part on B : then, if the folid 
 be round, meafure the diameter at each end in inches, 
 and fubtraft the lefs diameter from the greater; add half 
 the difference to the lefs diameter ; the fum is the dia¬ 
 meter in the middle of the piece. Then fet 13.54 on 
 the girt to the length of the line C, and againfl the dia¬ 
 meter in the middle on the girt line is a fourth number 
 on the line C. Again, fet 13.54 on the girt line to the 
 third part of the length on the line C ; then againfl half 
 the difference on the girt line is another fourth number 
 on the line C ; thefetwo fourth numbers, added together, 
 give the content. For an inftance : let the length be 27 
 feet (one third whereof is 9) the greater diameter 22 
 inches, and the lefier 18 : the fum of the two will be 40 
 their difference 4, and half the difference 2, which, added 
 to the Ids diameter, gives 20 inches for the diameter in 
 the middle of the piece. Now fet 13.54 on the girt line, 
 to 27 on the line C, and againfl 20 on D is 51.9 feet. 
 Again fet 13.54 of the girt line to 9 on the line C ; and 
 againfl 2 on the girt line reprefented bv 20 is . 196 parts ; 
 therefore, by adding 58.9 feet to .196 feet, the fum is 
 50.096 feet, the content. 
 
 the timber be fquare, and have the fame dimen¬ 
 fions ; that is, the length 27 feet, the fide of the greater 
 end 22 inches, and that of the leffer 18 inches ; to find 
 the content, iet 12 on the girt line to 27, the length on 
 the line C, and againfl 20 inches, the fide of the mean 
 fquare on the girt line, is 75.4 feet. Again, fet 12 on 
 the girt line to 9 feet, one third of the length, on the 
 line C, and againfl 2 inches, half the difference of the 
 ndes of the fquares of the ends on the girt-line, is 2c 
 parts of a foot; both together make 75.65 feet, the con¬ 
 tent ol the folid. 
 
 I he girt or circumference of a tree, or round piece of 
 timber given ; to find the fide of the fquare within, or 
 the number of inches of a fide, when the round timber 
 is fquared. Set 10 on A to 9 on B, then againfl the 
 gut on A are the inches for the fide of a fquare on the 
 line B. u 
 
 SLIDING, is ufed varioufiy at fea ; but chiefly for the 
 homing up of cafks, or other heavy things, with flings 
 1. e. contrivances with ropes of different lengths, as the 
 
 vai M^ uilc ’ with an e y e f p liced in each e ”L 
 
 o-LIrrING, among gardeners, the pulling off a fpri<r 
 
 a b ™ nch ’ or a branch from an arm of the tree. 
 And io a flip may have its rinds double and treble flipped, 
 
 Ot ltS Itp L-C rTrrrr.m. ‘ ‘ * 
 
 SLOOP, 
 

 S M A 
 
 SLOOP, a veil'd with one raaft, and feldom exceed¬ 
 ing 200 tons. Sloops of war, commonly called men of 
 war floops, are much larger, and carry 16 or 18 guns. 
 
 SLOUGH, a deep muddy place. ThecafUkin of a 
 fnake, the damp of a coal-pit, and the fear of a wound, 
 arc alfo called by the fame appellation. 
 
 Slough, of a wild boar, is the bed, flough, or mire, 
 wherein he wallows, or in which he lies in the day-time. 
 
 SLUICE, a frame of timber, {lone, or other matter, 
 ferving to retain and raife the water of a river, &c. and, 
 on occafion, to let it pals. Such is the fluice of a mill, 
 which flops and collects the water of a rivulet, See. to 
 let it fall at length in the greater plenty upon the mill¬ 
 wheel : fuch, alfo, are thole uled in vents or drains to 
 difeharge water ofFland. And fuch are fluices of Flan¬ 
 ders, &c. which ferve to prevent the waters of the fea 
 overflowing the lower lands, except when there is occa¬ 
 fion to drown them. 
 
 Sometimes there is a canal between two gates or 
 fluices, in artificial navigation, to lave the water, and 
 render the paflage of boats equally eafy and fafe, upwards 
 and downwards ; as in the fluices of Briare in France, 
 which are a kind of maflivc walls, built parallel to each 
 other, at the diftance of 20 or 24 feet, clofed with llrong 
 gates at each end, between which is a kind of a canal or 
 chamber, confiderably longer than broad, wherein a vef- 
 fel being inclofed, the water is let out at the firfl gate, by 
 which the veffel is raifed 15 or 16 feet, and paffed out of 
 this canal into another much higher. By fuch means, a 
 boat is conveyed out of the Loire into the Seyne, though 
 the ground between them rife above 50 feet higher than 
 either of thele rivers. See Canal. 
 
 SMACK, is a fmall veffel with one mail, fometimes 
 employed as tenders to men of war, and are likewile ufed 
 in hiking upon the coafls. 
 
 SMALL POX, Variola , a contagious difeafe., confin¬ 
 ing of a general eruption of particular puflules tending to 
 fuppuraticn, and attended with a fever. The eflence of 
 this difeafe feems to be an inflammation of the blood and 
 juices (yet of a different kind from other inflammations) 
 in removing which, nature, for the flifl two or three 
 days, endeavours to corrcft and digcil the inflamed par¬ 
 ticles, which, being afterwards thrown out on the fur- 
 face of the body, fhe further ripens, and at length totally 
 expels them, in the form of fmall ableefles. Hence, in 
 order to lay a foundation for the method of cure, it muft 
 be remarked, that this difeafe has two flages ; the full is 
 that of a feparation, the fecond that of the expulfion, 
 
 1. The feparation is moftly accompanied with a fe¬ 
 brile ebullition, and is ordinarily finifhed in three or four 
 days, during which time nature is employed in collecting 
 the inflamed particles that difturb the blood, and expel¬ 
 ling them to the flelhy parts; which being over, the for¬ 
 mer calm returns. 2. The expulfion next fucceeds, 
 which is performed during the remainder of the difeafe, by 
 means of thole fmall ableefles in the flefh, which, like 
 other ableefles, undergo the Hates of crudity, fuppuration, 
 and exficcation , and if thefe Hates are finifhed in a fuit- 
 able manner, the danger is pafi ; but, if otherwife, all is 
 difordered. The expulfion requires a much longer time 
 than the feparation, this being performed in a thin fluid 
 body, but that in a denfe fubllance, at a greater difiance 
 from the fountain of life. 
 
 Hence the indications are firfi, that, fuch an equable 
 ebullition of the blood be maintained, that it may neither 
 finilh the feparation too hafiily, by riling too high, nor 
 retard or render it incomplete, by finking too low. 2. 
 That the abfeefles or eruptions be carefully kept up, fo 
 that, running through their proper Hates, they may, at 
 length, entirely difeharge the matter they contain and 
 vanifh. 
 
 SMALT, a preparation of cobalt, made as follows : 
 the remaining matter of the cobalt fiom which the 
 flowers have been fublimed being fuffered to cool, and 
 then taken out of the furnace, is reduced to fine powder, 
 and calcined over again in the fame furnace, and this re¬ 
 peated till there is not the leafl paiticle of flame or fmoke 
 leen to arife from any part of it. The cobalt thus freed 
 from its arfenical and fulphureous part, is then ground to 
 an impalpable powder, and a mixture is made of toolb. 
 oft is powder, 501b. of pure white pot-alh, and 1501b. 
 of p. - white land ; this is all ground together upon a 
 mill, und then put into a proper furnace, like tftofe of 
 
 S M U 
 
 our glafs-houfes, where it runs into an elegant deep bluj. 
 glafs. 'Fins is afterwards ground to powder in mills for 
 that purpofe, and makes what we call fmalt or powder- 
 blue, ufed by our painters and wafherwomen. It has no 
 ufe in medicine. See Cobalt. 
 
 SMARAGDUS, the Emer ald. in natural hifiory. 
 See Emerald. 
 
 SMECTIS, a name by which fomccall fuller’s earth. 
 See Fuller’s Earth. 
 
 SMELL, Odour , with regard to the organ, is an im- 
 preifion made on the nofe, by little particles continually 
 exhaling from odorous bodies : with regard to the objeft, 
 it is the figure and difpofition of odorous effluvia, which, 
 flicking on the organ, excite the fenfe of fmelling : and 
 with regard to the foul, it is the perception of the impref- 
 fion of the organ, or the affe&ion in the foul relulting 
 therefrom. The principal organs of fmelling are the nol- 
 trils, and the olfaftory nerves ; the minute ramifications 
 of which latter arc deferibed throughout the whole con¬ 
 cave of the former. 
 
 According to Bocrhaave, the a£l of fmelling is per¬ 
 formed by means of odorous effluvia floating in the air ; 
 being drawn into the noftrils, in infpiration, and firuck 
 with fuch force againfi the fibrillae of the olfactory nerves, 
 which the figure of the nofe, and the fituation of the little 
 bones, render oppofite thereto, as to fhake them, and 
 give them a vibratory motion ; which action, being com¬ 
 municated thence to the common ienlbry, occafions an 
 idea of a fweet, or feetid, or four, or an aromatick, or a 
 putrified object, he. The matter in animals, vegetables, 
 foflils, he. which chiefly afFe£ls the fc.nf: of fmelling, 
 Boerhaave oblerves, is that lubtile fubllance inherent in 
 the oily parts thereof, called fpirit; for that, when this 
 is taken away from the mod fragrant bodies, what re¬ 
 mains has fcarcc any fine 11 at all ; but this, poured on 
 the moft inodorous bodies, gives them ,. fragrancy. 
 
 Willis obferves, that brutes hav-. generally, the fenfe 
 of fmelling in much great:; ■ erfedlicn than man ; and 
 by this alone, they diflinguiih the virtue, and qualities of 
 bodies unknown before ; hunt out their food at a great 
 difiance, as hounds, and birds of prey ; or hid among 
 other matters, as ducks, he. Man having other means 
 of judging of his food, &g. did not need fo much faga- 
 city in his nofe ; yet have we inftances of a great deal, 
 even in man. In the Hiftoire des Antilles, we are allur¬ 
 ed, there are negroes who, by the fmelling alone, can 
 diftinguifh between the footfteps of a Frenchman and a 
 negro. The chymifis teach, that fulphur is the prin¬ 
 ciple of all fmells, and that thofe are more or lefs ftrong, 
 as the fulphur in the odorous body is more or lefs dried 
 or exalted. Sulphur, they fay, is the foundation of 
 odours, as fait is of favours, and mercury of colours. 
 See Sulphur, Xc. 
 
 SMELT, in ichthyology, the ofmerus, with 17 rays 
 in the pinna ani. This is a beautiful little fifh ; its 
 length is five or fix inches, and its breadth not great in 
 proportion, but the thicknefs is confiderable : the head 
 is of an oblong figure, and fomewhat acute ; the opening 
 of the mouth is large, the back is convex, and the belly 
 fomewhat flat; the lower jaw is a little longer than the 
 upper ; the noftrils Hand in the middle between the eyes 
 and the extremity of the rofirum; they have each two 
 apertures; the eyes are large and round, the pupil is 
 black, and the iris of a filvery white, but tinged a little 
 with blue towards the upper part. 
 
 SMELTING, in metallurgy, the fufion or melting 
 of the ores of metals, in order to feparate the metalline 
 part from the earthy, Hony, and other parts. See 
 Fusion, Ore, Flux, Gold, Silver, he 
 
 SMIRIS, in natural hifiory, the lame \ ith emery. 
 
 SMITHERY, or Smithing, a natural art, by 
 which an irregular lump of iron is wrought into an in¬ 
 tended fhape. See Forge. 
 
 SMOKE, or S?>ioak, Fuwus , a humid matter, ex¬ 
 haled in the form of vapour, - by the a£lion of fire and 
 heat. See Fire, Heat, and Exhalation. 
 
 Smoke-Silver, and Smoke-penny, a payment made 
 to the minifters of feveral parifhes in lieu of tithe-wood. 
 
 SMUGGLERS, in law, thofe perfons who conceal 
 and run prohibited goods, or goods that have not paid 
 his majefiy’s cufioms. 
 
 SMUT, in hulbandry, a difeafe in corn, when the 
 grains, infiead of b^ing filled with flour, are full of a 
 
 fiinking 
 
SNO 
 
 S O A 
 
 
 Hulking black powder. As to the caufe of this diftem- 
 perature, fome have attributed it to exceffive ranknefs, 
 or fatneis-of the foil, to the manuring the land with 
 rotten vegetables ; and to the fowing lrnutty feed. Mr. 
 Bradley thinks it is owing to the fame caufe with a blight, 
 'viz. to multitudes of inlefts. But Mr. Tnil is convinced, 
 from experiment, that it is caufed by two much moif- 
 ture; for planting feveral plants of corn in troughs of 
 very moift earth, they all produced lrnutty ears, while 
 very few fuch were found in the field, from whence thcl'e 
 plants were taken. There are two remedies for the 
 finut, recommended by writers on huibandry, viz. fteep- 
 ing the feed in fait brine, and changing the feed. See 
 Seed and Change. 
 
 The bread made of fmutty corn is very pernicious, 
 afting as a narcotick, and occafioning not only fleepinefs, 
 but vertigoes, and even convuliions. 
 
 SMYRN 1 UM, Alexanders, or Alefandtrs, in botany. 
 See Ales anders. 
 
 SNAFFLE, in the menage, is a very fienderbitmouth, 
 wffhout any branches, much ufed in England ; the true 
 bridles being rclerved for the fervice of war. The fnaffle, 
 or final! watering-bit, is commonly a fcratch-mouth, 
 with two very little ftraight branches, and a curb, mounted 
 with a head-llall, and two long reins. 
 
 SNAIL, Limax , in zoology, a genus of the gymmar- 
 thria, or naked infefts ; the body of which is of a figure 
 approaching to cylindrick, and is perforated at the fide ; 
 the tentacula, or horns, as they are called, are four in 
 number, and two of them have the appearance of eyes. 
 Snails are all hermaphrodites, and efteemed provocatives 
 by the Afiaticks. 
 
 SNAKE, Anguis , in zoology. The common fnake 
 is a harmlefs and inoffenfive animal, and might even be 
 kept tame in lioufes to deftroy vermin : its fielh is refto- 
 rative, like that of the viper. See. Viper. 
 
 Snake-Root, in botany. See SerpenIta ri a. 
 
 SNEEZING, Sternutation a convulfive motion of the 
 tnulcles of the breaft, whereby the air is expelled from 
 the nofe with much vehemence and noife. Sneezing is 
 caufed by the irritation of the upper membrane of the 
 iiofe, occafioned by acrid fubflances floating in the air, 
 or by medicines called llernutatories. 
 
 SNIPE, in ornithology, a fpecies of numenius, with 
 four brown ftreaks on the back ; it is a finall but beautiful 
 bird, and itsflefli is delicate, and much efleenied at table. 
 
 SNOW, Niz, in meteorology, a meteor produced in 
 this manner : when the vapours are become confider- 
 ably condenfed, yet not fo far as to be liquified, or dif- 
 folved into water ; then by afpecial degree of coldnefs in 
 the upper region of the air, the particles of the con- 
 denfed vapour are changed into ice ; feveral of which ad¬ 
 hering together, from little fleeces of a white fubflance, 
 fomewhat heavier than the air ; and therefore defeend in 
 a flow and gentle manner through it; being fubjeft, by 
 rcafon of its lightnels, to be driven about by the various 
 motions of the air and wind; and is what, when arrived 
 to the furface of the earth, we call fnow. See Frost, 
 Hail, &c. 
 
 The ules of fnow mufl be very great, if all be true 
 Bartholin has laid in its behalf, in an exprefs treatife, Dc 
 Nivis Ufu Medico ; he there fhews, that it fruftifies the 
 earth (which, indeed, is a very old and general opinion) 
 preferves from the plague, cures fevers, cholicks, tootli- 
 achs, fore eyes, and pleurifies ; for which laft ufe, his 
 countrymen of Denmark ufe to keep fnovv-water gathered 
 in March. He adds, that it contributes to the prolon¬ 
 gation of life ; giving inflances of people in the Alpine 
 mountains that live to great ages; and to the preferving 
 dead bodies, inflances whereof he gives of petfons buried 
 under the fnow in palling the Alps, which are found un- 
 corruptcd in the fummer, when the fnow is melted. 
 
 He obferves, that, in Norway, fnow-water is not 
 only their foie drink in the winter, but fnow even ferves 
 for food ; people having been known to live feveral days 
 without any other fuftenance. 
 
 Indeed, the generality of thefe medicinal effefts of 
 fnow are not to be aferibed to any fpecifick virtue in 
 fnow, but to other caufes. It fruftifies the ground, for 
 inftance, by guarding the corn or other vegetables from 
 the intenfer cold of the air, efpecially the cold piercing 
 winds. And it preferves dead bodies, by conftipating, 
 and binding up the parts, and thus preventing ail luch 
 Vol. II. No. 67. 1 
 
 fermentations or internal conflifts of their particles, as 
 would produce putrefaftion. 
 
 Snow may be preferved by ramming it down in a dry 
 place, under-ground, and covering it with chaff, in the 
 manner of ice. See Ice. 
 
 SNOWDROP, in botany. See Galanthus. 
 
 Snowdrop-Tree, the fame with the cliionanthus. 
 See Chionanthus. . 
 
 SNUFF, a powder chiefly made of tobacco, the ufe of 
 which is too well known to need any defeription here. 
 See Iobacco. However, though tobacco be the bafis 
 of fnuff, yet a multiplicity of other matters are often 
 added, to give it an agreeable feent. 
 
 SOAL-Fi s h, Solea, in itchthyology, the Englilh name 
 of the long-bodied pleuroneft.es, with rough l'cales on 
 both fides. 
 
 SOAP, or Sope, in commerce, and the manufac¬ 
 tures, a kind of pafte, fometimes hard and dry, and 
 fometimes foft and liquid, much ufed in walhing, white¬ 
 ning linens, and by dyers, fullers, &c. 
 
 1 he principal foaps of our manufaftures are, the foft, 
 the hard, and the bailfoap ; all which confift of an inti¬ 
 mate union of the fait of pot-afh, with oil, or animal fat. 
 
 1. The foft loap is either green or white. The prin¬ 
 cipal ingredients in the green kind are leys drawn from 
 pot-afhes, and lime boiled up with tallow and oil. 
 
 Firft, the ley and tallow are put into the copper toge¬ 
 ther, and, when melted, the oil is put to them, and the 
 copper made to boil; then they damp or flop up the fire, 
 while the ingredients remain in the copper to knit or in¬ 
 corporate; which being done, they let the copper boiling 
 again, feeding or filling it with leys as it boils, till they 
 have put in a fufficient quantity ; after which they boil 
 it off with all convenient fpeed, and put it into barrels. 
 
 One fort of white l'oap is made after the fame manner 
 with green l'oap, excepting that they do not ufe any oil 
 in this. Another fort of white foft foap is made from 
 leys of allies of lime, boiled up twice with tallow. 
 
 birft, they put a quantity of leys and tallow into the 
 copper together, which is kept boiling, being fed with 
 leys as it boils, till it is boiled enough, or that they find 
 it grains ; then they leparate or difcharge the leys from 
 the tallowifh part, which they put into a tub, throwing 
 away the ley : this they call the firft half boil. Then 
 they charge the copper again with frefh tallow and ley, 
 and put the firft half-boil out of the tub into the copper 
 a fecond time, and keep it boiling with frefli ley and tal¬ 
 low, till it is brought to perfeftion, and afterwards filled 
 out into foap-calks. 
 
 2. Hard-foap is made of allies and tallow, and com¬ 
 monly boiled at twice ; the firft boiling they all'o call a 
 half-boiJing, which is performed exaftly after the fame 
 manner as the firft half-boil of the foft white foap. Then 
 they charge the copper again with frefh ley, and put into 
 it the firft half-boil again, feeding it with ley as it boils, 
 till it is boiled enough, or till it grains; then they dif¬ 
 charge the ley from it, and put the foap into a frame to 
 boil and harden. 
 
 3. Ball-foap is made alfo of ley from allies and tallow; 
 they put the ley into the copper, and boil it till the wa¬ 
 tery part is quite gone, and there is nothing left in the 
 copper but a fort of nitrous matter (which is the very 
 ftrength and effence of the ley) then they put tallow to 
 it, and keep the copper boiling and ftirring for half ail 
 hour or more, in which time the foap is completed, 
 which they put into tubs or balkets with fheets in them, 
 and immediately (while foft) make it into balls. 
 
 It takes up near 24 hours to boil away the watery part 
 of the ley. 
 
 1 he procefs of foap-boiling, as at prefent praftifed, 
 being a very tedious, as well as expenfive, operation. 
 Dr. Shaw propoles a method to fhorten it, by lubftitut- 
 ing motion in the place of fire; this motion might be 
 eafily given, by an engine, to any quantities of the in¬ 
 gredients at a time ; and that fuch a method is effeftual 
 for making foap, the doftor proved by the following ex¬ 
 periments : he mixed, in a large phial, half a pint of foap 
 ley, with an ounce, or more, of oil-olive ; and lhakin°- 
 thefe together for a quarter of an hour, a true cake of 
 loap was obtained on the top of the liquor, which har¬ 
 dened on being expofed to the air. 
 
 Soap-Earth, Steatites , a fmooth unftuous kind of 
 earth found in the Levant, and ufed as a fcope, 
 
 4 P The 
 
s o c 
 
 The foap earth, Dr. Smith tells us, is only had in two 
 Peaces near Duraclea, fix leagues to the eaft of Smyrna. 
 lt is in effeCt itlelf a fine foap, boiling and fhooting up 
 out of the earth. 
 
 SOCAGE, an ancient tenure, by which lands were 
 held on condition of ploughing the lord’s lands, and do¬ 
 ing the operations of hufbandry, at their own charges. 
 See 1 enure and Husbandry. 
 
 SOCCUS, in antiquity, a kind of high fhoe, reach¬ 
 ing above the ancle, worn by comedians, as the cothur¬ 
 nus was by tragedians. See Comedy, Tragedy, 
 and Dr a m a. 
 
 SOCIETY, Socieias, in general, denotes a number 
 of perfons united together for their natural affiftance, fe-, 
 cority, intereft, or entertainment. 
 
 Royal Soc i e T Y, an academy, or college, eftablilhed 
 by charter, by King Charles II. for promoting natural 
 knowledge, and ufeful arts, by experiments. See the 
 article Academy, lt confifts of leveral hundred fel¬ 
 lows, or members, mollly Britifh ; fome perfons of the 
 bigheft rank, and many eminent gentlemen and learned 
 men of other nations. 
 
 Their meetings are held once a week, at their houfe in 
 Crane-Court, I- leet-Street, London ; where they dif- 
 couile upon the productions and rarities of nature and 
 art, and confider how the fame may be improved for the 
 good ot mankind : here alfo they read letters and other 
 philofophical papers, feat by ingenious perfons, both at 
 home and abroad; upon which they difeourfe in the 
 plained; manner, without affecting ftu’died fpeeches. 
 
 T. his focietv, of which his Britannick majelty is perpe¬ 
 tual patron, is governed by a council of 21 members, 10 
 of whom are yearly chofen out of the fociety, on St. 
 Andrew’s day : the chief of the council bears the title 
 of Prefiaent, whofe proper office is to call and difiolve 
 the meetings, to propofe the matter to be debated, call 
 for experiments, and admit fuch members as lhall be 
 deCtcd, which mult be by a majority of at lead 21 votes; 
 whereupon he is admitted, after paying 40s. and lub- 
 fcribing, that he will endeavour to promote the good of 
 the Royal Society of London, by the improvement of 
 natural knowledge ; and being thus admitted, lie after¬ 
 wards pays 13s. a quarter, as long as he continues a mem¬ 
 ber of the fociety. 
 
 Society for the reformation of manners, and putting 
 in execution the laws againd immorality and profanenefs. 
 It was let on foot, about 40 years ago, by five or fix pri¬ 
 vate perfons in London, but is fince exceedingly increafed 
 by numbers of all denominations. A particular body of 
 the mod confidcrable hereof bear the expence of profe- 
 cutions, &c. without any contribution from the red. 
 Tliefe chiefly apply themfelves to the profecuting people 
 iorfwearing, drunkennefs, and prophaning the labbath. 
 Another body, of about 50 perfons, apply themfelves to 
 the luppreffing lewdnefs, and by them above 500 lewd 
 houfes have been actually fupprefled ; a third body con- 
 fids of condables ; and a fourth of informers. Befides 
 thele, are eight other regular mixed bodies of houfc- 
 keepers and officers, who infpeCt the behaviour of the 
 condables and other officers, affid infcarchingdiforderly 
 houfes, feizing offenders, giving information, Sec. There 
 are feveral other focieties of this kind at Briftol, Can¬ 
 terbury, Nottingham, &e. 
 
 T. he fociety for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts, 
 was inftituted by king William in 1701, for fecuring a 
 maintenance for an orthodox clergy, and making other 
 provifions for the propagation of the gofpel in the planta¬ 
 tions, colonies, frontiers, &c. To that end he incorpo¬ 
 rated the archbilhops, feveral bilhops, and other nobility, 
 gentry, and clergy, to-the number of 90, with privilege 
 to purchafe 2000I. per year, inheritance and edates for 
 lives, or years, with other goods, to any value. They 
 •meet yearly on the third Friday in February, to chufe a 
 prefident, vice-prefident, and other officers /and the third 
 Friday in every month to tranfadt bufinefs, depute fit per¬ 
 fons to take fubferiptions for the laid ufes, and of alimo¬ 
 nies lo received to give account to the lord chancellor, &c. . 
 They have a danding committee at thechapter-houfe, to 
 prepare matters for the monthly meeting which is heldat 
 St Martin’s library. 
 
 Society for propagating Chrijlian Knowledge. This 
 was begun, in 1699, by fome perfons of worth, See. Its 
 original defign was to propagate religion in the planta¬ 
 tions, to fecure die pious educational die poor at home, 
 
 S O C 
 
 anJ to reclaim tliofc that err in the fundamentals of Ch if, 
 tiamty. in the year 1701, they had procured coniidcr- 
 able charities, and tranfmitted the fame to the planta¬ 
 tions, in libraries, bibles, catechifmj, &c. with a volun¬ 
 tary maintenance for feveral minifters to be employed in 
 the plantations ; bat, the fociety for propagatingthegof* 
 pci in foreign parts being then inftituttrd, they were in¬ 
 corporated by charter in the fame, and thus difebarged 
 as a particular fociety from the further pnrfuit of that 
 branch of their original defign, whereupon they wholly 
 turned themfelves to the other, and are now very coirftder- 
 able by great acceffions from the clergy and laitv. They 
 meet weekly to concert mcafures for railing charity for 
 educating poor children, and letting up fchools for that 
 pnrpofc, as alfo, for the more regular difpofals of pious 
 books for tile inlhuftion of the ignorant, erroneous, &c. 
 
 SOC1NIANS, in church hiftory, a feft of Chriftian 
 liereticks, fo called from their founder Fauftus Socinus, a 
 native of Sienna, in Italv. 
 
 He placed all religion on certain old- condemned fic- 
 refies, upon which he did but refine, but were moft gree¬ 
 dily embraced by his difciples. r. That man befoi? his 
 fall was naturally mortal. 2. That no man by the light 
 of nature can have any knowledge of God. 3. That 
 'man before his fall, had no original righteouliiefs. 4. 
 
 I hat there is no original fin in us, as it imports concu- 
 pifecnce, or deformity of nature. 5. That there is a free 
 will to goodnefs in us, and that we may here fulfil the 
 law. 6. That God hath no fore-knowledge of contin¬ 
 gencies determinately, but alternatively. 7. That the 
 caufes of predeftination are not in God, but in us, and 
 that he doth not predeftinate to falvation any particular or 
 certain perfon ; and that predefiination may be fruitrated. 
 8. That God could juftly pardon our fins without any 
 fatisfa&ion. 9. That Chriit by his death did not fatisfy 
 for us, but only obtained power for us, to fatisfy for our- 
 felves, by our faith and obedience. 10. That Chriit died 
 forhimfelf; i. e. not for his fins, (for he was withoutfin) 
 but for the mortality and infirmities of our nature, whicii 
 heaffiumed. 11. That Chriit became not our high prieft, 
 nor immortal, nor impaffible before he afeendeef into 
 heaven. 12. That death eternal, is nothingelfe but a per¬ 
 petual continuance in death or annihilation. 13. That 
 everlafting fire, is fo called from its effeCt, which is the 
 eternal extinction or annihilation of the wicked which 
 ffiall be found alive in the laft day. 14. That Chrift’s 
 incarnation is againft reafon, and cannot be proved out of 
 feripture. 15. That Chriit is not truly God. 16. That 
 the Holy Gholt is not God ; that there is not a Trinity 
 of perfons in one God. 17. That the old Teftament 
 is needlefs for a Chriftian man. Rofs’s IIANSEBEIA. 
 
 1 he Socinians fpread extremely in Poland, Lithuania 
 and Tranlylvania. Their lcntiments are explained at 
 large in their catechifm, printed feveral times under the 
 title of Catcchefis Ecclefiarum Coloniearum, unumDtura 
 Pattern, illiufque Filium tin genitmn, una cum SanCto 
 Spiritu, ex facra feriptura confitentium. They were ex¬ 
 terminated out of Poland in 1655, fince which time they 
 have been chiefly Iheltered in Holland, where, though 
 their publick meetings have been prohibited, they find 
 means to conceal themfelves under the names of Armi- 
 nians and Anabaptifts. See Ar mini an. 
 
 SOCK, or Sok, Soca, in law books, denotes jnrifi- 
 di&ion. 
 
 SOCLE, or Zocle, in architecture, a fiat fquare 
 member under the bales of pedeftals of ftatues, vafes, See. 
 which ferves as a foot or ftand. Continued foclc, , is a 
 kind of continued ftand or pedcftal without either bale 
 or comiche, ranging round the whole building, called by- 
 Vitruvius, ftereobata. 
 
 SOCMEN, or Sokemen, fuch tenants as held their 
 lands and tenements in focage ; but the tenants in ancient 
 demefne, feem moft properly to be called locmans. See 
 Soc ACE. 
 
 SOCNA, in our old writers, denotes fome privilege, 
 liberty or franchife. 
 
 SOCOME, is taken fora cuftom of grinding corn at 
 the lord’s mill ; whence came the name or term°of bond 
 focome, by which the tenants were bound to it ; and 
 alfo love focome, where they did. it voluntarily cut of 
 love to their lord. 
 
 SOCRA1 ICk Philosophy, the doCtrines and 
 opinions, with regard to morality and religion, main¬ 
 tained and taught by Socrates. 
 
 Bj 
 
S O 1 
 
 £ -■ rhc charafter of Socrates, left us by the anciehts, 
 particularly by his lcliolars Plato and Xenephon, &e. he 
 appears to have been one of the bell and the wifeff perfons 
 in all the heathen world. To him is aferibed the firfl 
 introducing of moral philofophy, which is what is meant 
 by that ufual faying, that “ Socrates firff called philo- 
 “ fophy down from heaven to earth that is, from the 
 contemplation of the heavens and heavenly bodies, he led 
 melt to conlidcrthemfelves, their own paifions, opinions, 
 faculties, duties, aftions, &c. He wrote nothing him- 
 felf, yet all the Grecian lefts of phiiofophers refer their 
 origin to his difeipline, particularly the Platonifls, peri- 
 patcticks, academicks, cyrcnaicks. Hoicks, &c. but the 
 greatcil part of his philofophy we have in the works of 
 Flam. Sec Platonism. 
 
 SODOMY, the unnatural crime of buggery, thus 
 called from the city of Sodom, which was defiroyed by fire 
 for the fame. The Levitical law adjudged thofe guilty of 
 this execrable crime to death, and the civil lawafligns the 
 fame punilhment to it. Our law alfo makes it felonv. 
 
 There is no flatute in Scotland againft fodomy ; the 
 libel of this crime is therefore founded on the divine law, 
 and praftice makes its punilhment to be burning alive. 
 
 SOFFIT A, or Soffit, in architefture, any plafond 
 or ceiling formed of crofs beams of flying corniches, the 
 fquarc compartments or pannels of which are enriched 
 with fculpture, painting, or gilding ; fuch are thofe in 
 the palaces of Italy, and in the apartments of Luxcm- 
 bourgh at Paris. This word is particularly ufed for the 
 under fide or face of an architrave, and for that of the 
 corona or larmier, which the ancients called lacunar, 
 the French plafond, and we ulually the drip. It is en¬ 
 riched with compartments of rofes, and has 18 drops in 
 the Dorick order difpofed in three ranks, fix in each, 
 placed on the right hand of the gut to?, and at the bottom 
 of the triglyphs. 
 
 SOFTEN 1 NG, in painting, the mixing and diluting 
 of colours with the brulh or pencil. To foften defigns 
 in black and white made with the pen, Sec. fignifies to 
 weaken the tint. To foften a portrait, according to Fe- 
 libien, is to change fomeof the ftrokes, and give a greater 
 degree of fweetnefs and loftnefs to the air thereof, which 
 before had fomething rough and harfh in it. 
 
 SOGETTO, lubjeft, in mufick, is ufed for a fongor 
 melody, above or below which Come counterpoint is to 
 be made : a counterpoint above the fubjeft, is when the 
 lower part is the fubjeft ; in this fenfe it is called canto 
 fermo. When the counterpoint is made below the fub¬ 
 jeft, the upper part is made the fubjeft. See the article 
 Counterpoint, &c. 
 
 SOIL, Solum , in agriculture and gardening, denotes 
 earth or ground, confidered with regard to the quality of 
 its mould for the produftion and growth of vegetables. 
 See Earth, &c. The land of England, as confidered 
 by the farmer, is reduced into nine forts of foil : the 
 fandy, the gravelly, the chalky, the ftony, the rocky, the 
 liazeJy, the black earth, the marlh, and the clay-land. 
 See Sand, Gravel, See. 
 
 The fupply of frelh vegetable matter, in the place of 
 that which was drained away by the fuccelfive growths 
 of plants, is done by levcral ways, but by none fo well, 
 as by letting it lie fallow for fome time; in this cafe the 
 rain falling upon it, the vegetable earth, which this wa¬ 
 ter contains, is depolited in fulficient quantity, and this 
 is alone fuIndent to give nutriment to new crops; and 
 it is proved by this, that the rain-water, as well as other 
 water, does contain fuch earth as is neccffary to vegeta¬ 
 tion. The other means of giving a fupply to the ex- 
 haulted earth are the manures laid on it by the farmer, 
 and thele arc, all of them, fome animal or vegetable re¬ 
 mains, and their ule is to drain into the earth thole par¬ 
 ticles from themfelves, which may be again received into 
 the bodies of new productions of the fame kinds. Blood, 
 urine, the excrements of animals, with their feveral parts, 
 as horns, hoots, hair, feathers, calcined fheils, and vege¬ 
 table bodies in an altered Hate, fuch as lees of wine and 
 beer, afhes of burnt vegetables, leaves, flraw, roots, 
 Hubble, and the like, when in a decaying Hate, turned 
 under the earth again by plowing, there become dif- 
 united into their component parts, and thefe again are 
 carried up into other new plants. 
 
 If we take off our thoughts from the fields, and, look 
 among the gardens, we there meet with farther confirma- 
 
 SOL 
 
 tions of the fame thing ; the trees, llirubs, and herbs cu!« 
 tivated in thefe, after they have continued in one ffatioftj 
 till they have derived thence the greater part of the matter 
 fitted for their increafe and nourifhmcnt, will either de¬ 
 cay, or degenerate, unlcl's they have a new fupply of ma¬ 
 nure added to the earth about their roots, or are them¬ 
 felves tranflated into other earth, not fo drained of that 
 particular matter out of which they arc to be fed. 
 
 SO IT fait com me il esT desire, Be it doners 
 it is defin'd , a form ufed when the king gives the royal af 
 lent to a private bill preferred in parliament. 
 
 SOL, in mufick, the fifth note of the gamut, ut, re, 
 mi, fa, /of la. See Gamut. 
 
 SOLFEUS, or Solaris, in anatomy, one of theex- 
 tcnlor mufejes ol the foot, riling from the upper and hin¬ 
 der part of the tibia and fibula. This is a large and fat 
 mufcle, thicker at the middle than at the edges, and is 
 nearly of an oval figure* 
 
 SOLANUM, nightfhade, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, which includes the mclongcna and Jycopcrlicon 
 of Tournefort. 
 
 The common nightfhade fifes a firm angular Halk, to 
 the height of a foot and a half, of a blackifii-green co¬ 
 lour, and divided into feveral branches ; the leaves are 
 oblong, acute-pointed, fmooth, of a dark colour, and 
 full of a greenifli juice ; it grows wild in gardens, dung¬ 
 hills, on the fide of highways, See. and flowers in Sep¬ 
 tember. This plant is ufed to allay inflammations, to 
 foften and relax the fibres which undergo too violent a 
 tenfion : the bruifed herb is applied to the piles, or the 
 part bathed with the juices a little warmed ; internally 
 it is feldom ufed, being often attended with dangerous 
 confequences. 
 
 SOLAR, fomething belonging to the fun : thus ths 
 folarlyfiem is that fyHem of the world wherein the hea¬ 
 venly bodies are made to revolve round the fun as the 
 centre of their motion. See Copernican. 
 
 Alfo the folar year is that confifting of 365 days, fiva 
 hours, and 49 minutes, in oppofition to the lunar year, 
 confilling of 354 days. 
 
 SOLDER, Sodder, or Soder, a metallick or 
 mineral compofition ufed infoldering or joining together 
 other metals. Solders are made of gold, fiiver, copper, 
 tin, and lead, always obferving that in the compofition 
 there be fome of the metal to the foldered mixed with 
 fome higher and finer metals. Goldfmiths ulually make 
 four kinds of folder, viz. folder of eight, where tofeven 
 parts of fiiver there is one of brafs or copper; folder of 
 fix, where only a fixth part is copper ; folder of four, 
 and folder of three. It is the mixture of copper in 
 the folder that makes railed plate always come cheaper 
 than flat. 
 
 Fhe folder ufed by plumbers is made of two pounds 
 of lead to one of block-tin. Its goodnefs is tried by 
 melting it, and pouring the bignefs of a crown-piece 011 
 a tabic ; for, if good, there will arife little bright ihining 
 Hars therein. 1 he folder for copper is made like that o^' 
 the plumbers, only with copper and tin : for very nice 
 works, inflead of tin, they fometimes ufe a quantity of 
 fiiver. Solder for tin is made of two thirds of tin and 
 one of lead, but where the work is delicate as in organ 
 pipes, where the junfture is fcarce difcernable, it is made 
 one part of tin glafs, and three of pewter. 
 
 The duke of Florence’s nail, anciently fo much ad¬ 
 mired, as being half iron, and half gold, whereas thole 
 two metals were deemed irreconcilable, was joined by a 
 kind of folder made by TurneiHer, an ingenious chymift 
 of Venice ; the fecret whereof was never dilcovered till 
 publifhed by Tachcnius. The folder is a little of Cyprus 
 vitriol put between the gold and the iron. For the great 
 acidity of the gold naturally reduces the iron into a fco- 
 ria or ruH, when the two are applied immediately over 
 one another ; but this inconvenience is removed by the 
 interpolation ol a little copper, be it in the linailefi quan¬ 
 tity imaginable. 
 
 SOLDERING, or Soddering, among mecha- 
 nicks, the joining or fafienmg together two pieces of the 
 lame metal, or of two different metals, by the fufion and 
 application of fome metallick compofition on the extre¬ 
 mities of the metals to be joined. 
 
 Goldfmiths folder with fiiver and brafs, or copper 
 mixed together ; plumbers with lead and tin. Copper is 
 ulually loldcrcd with tin, fometimes according to that 
 
 work 
 
SOL 
 
 tvo'i'k with a mixture of copper and filver. In folder!ng 
 all thefe metals they generally ufe borax in powder, and 
 fometimes rofin. As to iron, it is fufficient to beat it 
 red-hot, and, the two extremities being in this cafe 
 hammered together, by this means they become incor¬ 
 porated. In the loldering either of gold, filver, copper, 
 ccc. there is generally tiled borax in powder, and foine- 
 times rofin. 
 
 SOLDIER, a military man lifted to ferve a prince or 
 ftate, in confederation of a certain daily pay. 
 
 The foldiers are properly the land forces of a kingdom 
 or ftate ; but in England it is againft the ancient law to 
 keep an army ot foldiers in time of peace. Where any 
 foldier that is lawfully retained fhall depart from his co¬ 
 lours without licence, he is declared to be guilty of fe¬ 
 lony by iS Hen. VI. c. 9. and every foldier who either 
 caufesa mutiny or deferts the fervice, fhall be punifhed 
 with death or otherwife, as a court-martial fhall think fit. 
 Alio perfons fufpefted of dela tion are to be apprehended 
 by conftables, who fhall be allowed a reward of 20s. for 
 every fuch deferter. 
 
 By the 4 Geo. I. c. 4. it is ordained, that no foldier 
 fhall be taken out of the fervice by any procels at law, 
 unlefs it be for fome criminal matter, or where the debt 
 he owes amounts to iol. at the leaft, of which affidavit 
 is to be made, &c. Soldiers mull be quartered in inns 
 and alehoufes only, and not in private houfes, without 
 the confent of the owners, under certain penalties : aud 
 where victuallers refufe foldiers quartered on them, or 
 conftables receive any reward for excufing their negleft, 
 they foifeit a fum not above 30I. nor under 30s. by 3 
 Geo. II. c. 2. A perfon infilled for a folcher, within 
 four days after, is to be carried before the next juftice or 
 chief magiftiate of a town, and is to declare his affent 
 that he lifted voluntarily, &c. but if be then diftents 
 thereto, on his returning the money received, and pay¬ 
 ing 20s. he may be difeharged. In cafe any fubjeCt of 
 Great Britain or Ireland fhall lift or enter himfelf, or 
 procure any one to be eniifted a foldier to go beyond the 
 Teas, without leave obtained from his majelly, fuch per- 
 lbn fhall be punifhed as a felon by 8 and 9 Geo. II. 
 1 here are ads annually made for punifhing mutiny, 6cc. 
 of foldiers and falfe mufters, and for the better payment 
 of the army and their quarters, &c. 
 
 SOLE, in the menage, a nail or fort of horn under 
 a horfe's foot, which is much more tender than the other 
 horn that encompaftes the foot, and by reafon of its hard- 
 nefs is properly called the horn or the hoof. A horfe’s 
 Ihoe ought to be fet upon the hoof as not to bear upon 
 the foie, for otherwife the foie will be hurt, and not only 
 make the horfe lame, but corrupt the flefh that feparates 
 it from the coffin-bone. To take out the foie, is to do it 
 without touching the horn of the hoof; or if vou take 
 off the horn, you make a hoof-caft. 
 
 Sole-Tenant, one that holds lands, &c. by his 
 own right only, without any other perfon joined. A 
 perfon muft be feifed of a foie eftate to devife the fame 
 by will, or for the wife to have a dower therein, See. 
 And where a man and his wife hold land for their lives, 
 the remainder to their Jon, in thatcale, if the man dies, 
 the lord fhall not have heriot, becaufe he does not die 
 lole-tenant. 
 
 SOLECISM, Solecifmus, in grammar, a falfe man¬ 
 ner of fpeaking, contrary to the ufe of language and the 
 rules of grammar, either in refpeCt of declenfion, con¬ 
 jugation. or fyntax. 
 
 SOLEMN, Solcmnis, fomething performed with much 
 pomp, ceremony, and expence : thus we fay, folemn 
 feafts, folemn funerals, folemn games, See. See Feast, 
 Funeral, See. 
 
 Solemn, inlaw, fignifies fomething authentick, or 
 that is cloathed in all its formalities. 
 
 SOLFAING, in mufick, the naming and pronounc¬ 
 ing of the feveral notes of a long, by the lyllables fol. 
 fa, la, &c. in learning to ling it. 
 
 Mr. Malcolm obferves, that the praftice of folfaing, 
 common as it is. is very ufelels and infignificant either as 
 to the underftanding or praftifingof mufick, yet exceed¬ 
 ingly perplexing. The various applications of the feveral 
 names according to the various lignaturesof the clef, are 
 enough to perplex any learner : there being no let's than 
 72 different ways of applying the names fol, fa, See. to 
 the lines and lpaces of a particular fyftem. 
 
 SOL 
 
 SOLICITOR, or Sollicitor, Solicited:,-, a perfon 
 employed to take care of, and manage fuits depending iu 
 the courts of law and equity; and thole of the lower fort, 
 it is obferved, are too often made ufe of, to the damage 
 of the people, and tfie increafe of champerty and main¬ 
 tenance. Solicitors are within the ftatute to be fwom 
 and admitted by the judges, before they ai'c allowed to 
 praftife in our courts, in like manner as attornies. 
 
 I here is alfo a great officer of the law, next to the 
 attorney-general, who is ililed the king’s lolicitor-gene- 
 ial ; who holds his office by patent, during the king’s 
 pleafure ; has the cafe and concern of managing the 
 king s affairs, and has fees for pleading, befides other 
 fee* ai ifing by patents, &:c. He hath his attendance on 
 the privy-council; and the attorney-general and he were 
 anciently reckoned among the officers of the exchequer ; 
 they have their audience, and come within the bar in all 
 other courts. 
 
 SOLID, in philofophy, a body whofc parts are fo 
 firmly connected together, as not to give way, or flip 
 from each other, upon the fmalleft impreffion : in which 
 fenfe, folid Hands oppofed to fluid. 
 
 Geometricians define a folid to be the third fpecie* of 
 magnitude, or that which has three dimenfions, viz. 
 length, breadth, and thicknefs or depth. A folid may 
 be conceived to be formed by the revolution, or din& 
 motion of a. fuperficies of any figure whatever, and is 
 always terminated or contained under one or more planes 
 or furfaces, as a furiace is under one or more lines. So¬ 
 lids are commonly divided into regular and irregular. 
 The regular folids are thofe terminated by regular and 
 equal planes, and arc only five in number, viz. the 
 tetrahedron, which confifts of four equal triangles; the 
 cube or hexahedron, of fix equal fquares; the octahe¬ 
 dron, of eight equal triangles; the dodecahedron, of 12; 
 and the icofihedron, of 20 equal triangles. 
 
 I he irregular folids are almoft infinite, comprehend¬ 
 ing all fuch as do not come under the definition of re¬ 
 gular folids; as the fphere, cylinder, cone, parallelogram, 
 prilm, parallclopiped, &c. 
 
 Solid Angle, is that formed by three or more planes 
 meeting in a point, like die point of a diamond well cut. 
 
 Solid Bajiion. SeeBASTio-N. 
 
 Solid Numbers, are thofe which arife from the mul¬ 
 tiplication of a plane number by any other whatfoever; 
 as 18 is a folid number made of 6 (which is plane) mul¬ 
 tiplied by 3 ; or of 9 multiplied by 2. 
 
 Solid Problem , in mathematicks, is 011c which cannot 
 be geometrically folved, unlels by the interfe&ion of a 
 circle and of a conick feftion : or, by the interl'e&ion of 
 two other conick fe&ions,' befides the circle. As to de- 
 icribe an ilofceles-triangle on a given right-line, whofit 
 angle at the bafe lhall be triple to that at the vertex. 
 
 Line of Solids, on the fc£lor. See Sector. 
 
 Solids, in anatomy, See. denote the continent parts 
 of the human body ; being a congeries of pipes or veffcls, 
 which contain a liquor. 1 he folid parts of the body, 
 though equally compoled of veflcls, are different with 
 regard to their confiftaicc ; fome being hard, and others 
 foft. I he hard, as the bones and cartilages, give firm- 
 nefs and attitude to the body, and fuftain the other parts. 
 1 he loft parts, either alone, or together with the hard, 
 ferve to execute the animal functions. 
 
 SOLIDAGO, golden-rod, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, common in gardens; the flowers are yellow, and 
 produced in fpikes in Auguft and September ; it is ealily 
 mcreafed by parting the roots in O£tober. 
 
 The leaves, which have a moderately aftringent and 
 bitter tafte, are efteemed good in diarrhoeas and dyfen- 
 icries, and have been much commended formerly as a 
 reftorative and vulnerary ; and likewile for their diurctick 
 and lithontriptick qualities. 
 
 SOLIDITY, Solihtus, that property of matter, or 
 body, by which it excludes all other bodies from the place 
 which itfelf pofteffes. 
 
 Among geometricians, the folidity of a body denotes 
 the quantity or fpace contained in it, and is called alfo 
 its folid content. 
 
 Solidity, in architenure, is applied both to the 
 confiftence of the ground whereon the foundation of a 
 building is laid, and to a maflive in mafonry, of extra¬ 
 ordinary thicknefs, without any cavity within. 
 
 SOLILOQUY, Sohloquium, a reafoning or difcourfe 
 
 which 
 
SOL 
 
 which a man holds with himfelf; or, more properly, 
 according to Papias, it is a difcourfe by way of anfwer 
 to a queftion that a man propofes to himfelf. 
 
 Soliloquies are become very common things on the 
 modern ft age; yet can nothing be more inartificial, or 
 more unnatural, than an aftor’s making long fpeeches 
 to himfelf, to convey his intentions to the audience. 
 Where fuch difcoveries are neceflary to be made, the 
 poet fhould rather take care to give the dramatick perfons 
 fuch confidants as may neceffarily lhare their inmoft 
 thoughts, by which means they will be more naturally 
 conveyed to the audience : yet is even this a fhift an 
 accurate poet would not be found to have occafion for. 
 
 SOLITARIES, a denomination of nuns of St. Peter 
 of Alcantara, inftituted in 1676, the defign of which is 
 to imitate the feverc penitent life of that faint. 
 
 SOLO, in mufick, a term ufed in pieces confifting of 
 feveral parts, to mark thofe that are to perform alone. 
 
 SOLOMON’S Seal, in botany, the Englifti name 
 of the polygonatum. SeePoLYGON atum. 
 
 SOLSTICE, in aftronomy, that time when the fun 
 is in one of the folftitial points ; that is, when he is at 
 his greateft difiance from the equator, thus called, be- 
 caufe he then appears to fiand ftill, and not to change 
 his diftancefrom the equator for fome time an appear¬ 
 ance owing to the obliquity of our fphere, and which 
 thofe living under the equator are firangers to. 
 
 The folftices are two in each year, the asfiival or fum- 
 tner folfiice, and the liyemal or winter folfiice : the lum- 
 mer folfiice is when the fun feems to deferibe the tropick 
 of Cancer, which is on June 22, when he makes the 
 longeft day : the winter folfiice is when the fun enters 
 the firft degree, or feems to deferibe the tropick of Capri¬ 
 corn, which is on December 22, when he makes the 
 fhorteft day. See Tropick. 
 
 This is to be underfiood as in our northern hemi- 
 fphere; for in the louthern, the fun’s entrance into Capri¬ 
 corn makes the fummer folfiice, and that into Cancer 
 the winter folfiice. The two points of the ecliptick, 
 Wherein the fun’s greateft afeent above the equator, and 
 his defeent below it, are terminated, are called the fol¬ 
 ftitial points ; and a circle, fuppofed to pafs through the 
 poles of the world and thefe points, is called the folftitial 
 colure. The fummer folftitial point is in the beginning 
 of the firft degree of Cancer, and is called the cefiival or 
 fummer-point; and the winter folftitial point is in the 
 beginning of the firft degree ot Capricorn, and is called 
 the winter point. Thefe two points are diametrically 
 oppofite to each other. 
 
 SOLVENT, the fame with difiolvent. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Dissolvent. 
 
 SOLUTION, in chymiftry, denotes an intimate 1 
 mixture of folid bodies with fluids, fo as fcemingly to 
 form one homogene liquor : the difiolving fluid is termed 
 the difiolvent or menftruum. 
 
 As to the manner of efFefting folutions, it varies ac¬ 
 cording to the different lolvents ufed for that purpofe, 
 and is reduced to the following heads by Boerhaave : 
 1. Solution is performed by water, by diluting, infufing, 
 boiling, diftilling, mixing, fermenting, putrefying, and 
 feparating. 2. With oil, by diluting, infufing, boiling, 
 diftilling, mixing, feparating; but not by fermenting, 
 or by putrefying. 3. With fire, by calcining, roafting, 
 burning, melting, fubliming, mixing, feparating, and 
 promoting feveral other operations. 4. With the affift- 
 ance of air, by fermenting, putrefying, agitating, excit¬ 
 ing, and adding other parts capable of difiolving. 5. With 
 fermented fpirits, by diluting, infufing, boiling, .diftil¬ 
 ling, mixing, and making oils thinner. 6. With alka¬ 
 line falts, by calcining, torrefying, burning, melting, 
 mixing, and feparating, according to the various force 
 of a dry fire employed. 7. By volatile alkaline falts, by 
 fubliming in the dry way; and by diluting, diftilling, 
 and digefting in the moift way. 8. With fixed alkaline 
 falts, aflifted and moved by water and fire, by digefting, 
 boiling, diluting, feparating, and mixing. 9. With fixed 
 acid falts, as thofe of alum, fulphur, and vitriol; either 
 feparately in a liquid form, or in their calxes, by dilut¬ 
 ing. boiling, diftilling, digefting : or in a dry form, by 
 calcining, roafting, burning, and diftilling. 10. With 
 volatile acid falts, by diluting, digefting, diftilling and 
 infinuating. 11. With compound falts and foaps, by 
 calcining, fubliming, diftilling, and digefting, either in 
 Vol. II. No. 68. 
 
 SOL 
 
 a dry or a liquid form. 12. With metals, by fufion and 
 amalgamation. 
 
 I l n pharmacy, however, the principal menftrua are wa~"~ 
 ter, vinous fpirits, oils, and acid and alkaline liquors. 
 
 Water is the difiolvent of all falts, vegetable gums, 
 and of animal jellies : of the firft it diflolves only a de¬ 
 terminate quantity, though of one kind of fait more than 
 another , and being thus faturated, leaves any additional 
 quantity of the fame fait untouched : but it is never fa¬ 
 turated with the two latter, uniting readily with any pro¬ 
 portions of them, and forming, with different quan¬ 
 tities, liquors of different confiftencies. When aflifted 
 by trituration, it likewife diflolves the vegetable gummy 
 refins, as ammoniacum and myrrh ; the folutions of 
 which, though imperfeft, or not tranfparent, but turbid 
 and of a milky hue, are neverthelefs applicable to valuable 
 purpofes in medicine. 
 
 Reftified fpirit of wine diflolves the eflential oils and 
 refins of vegetables, the purediftilled oils of animals, and 
 foap ; though it does not aft upon the exprefled oil and 
 fixed alkaline fait of which foap is made : it alfo, by 
 the affiftance of heat, diflolves volatile alkaline falts, 
 but more efpecially the neutral ones, as the fal diureti- 
 cus, &c. 
 
 Oils diflolve vegetable refins and balfams, wax, ani¬ 
 mal, mineral bitumens, fulphur, and certain metallick 
 fubftances, particularly lead : however, the exprefled oils 
 are more powerful menftrua for moft of thefe bodies, 
 than the oils obtained by diftillation ; becaufe the former 
 are more capable of fuftainirtg, without injury, a ftrong 
 degree of heat, which, in moft cafes, is neceflary to en¬ 
 able them to a£t. 
 
 Acids diflolve alkaline falts and earths, and metallick 
 fubftances : however, the different acids differ greatly in 
 their aft ion upon thefe laft. The vegetable acids diflolve 
 a confiderablc quantity of zinck, iron, copper, and tin ; 
 andextraft fo much from the metallick part of antimony 
 as to become powerfully emetick : they likewife diflolve 
 lead, if previoufly calcined ; but more copioufly, if cor¬ 
 roded by their fleam. The marine acid diflolves zinck, 
 iron, and copper; and though it fcarce afts upon any 
 other metallick fubftance, in the common way, may ne¬ 
 verthelefs be artfully combined with them all, except 
 gold : fuch is the corrofive fublimate of the fhops. The 
 nitrous acid is the common menftruum of all metallick 
 fubftances, except gold and the antimonial femi-metal, 
 which are foluble only in a mixture of the nitrous and 
 marine acids, called aqua regia. The vitriolick acid 
 eafily diflolves zinck, iron, and copper: and may be 
 made to corrode, or imperfeftly diflolve, moft; of the 
 other metals. 
 
 Alkaline lixivia diflolve oils, refins, and fulphur ; but 
 their power is greatly promoted by the addition of quick¬ 
 lime, as is evident in the making of foap and the com¬ 
 mon caufticks. Thus aflifted, they reduce the flefh, 
 bones, and other folid parts of animals, into a gelatinous 
 matter. 
 
 Solutions made in water and in fpirit of wine, poflefs 
 the virtues of the bodies diffolved : whereas oils generally 
 blunt its aftivity, and acids and alkalies alter natural 
 qualities. Hence watery and fpirituous liquors are the 
 only proper menftrua of the native virtues of vegetable 
 and animal matters. Moft; of the foregoing folutions 
 are eafily effefted by pouring the menftruum on the body 
 to be diffolved, and buffering them to ftand together, for 
 fome time, expofed to a fuitable warmth : a ftrong heat 
 is generally neceflary to enable oils and alkaline liquors 
 to perform their office. The aftion of acids is ulually 
 accompanied with heat, effervefcence, and a copious dif- 
 charge of fumes. And as the fumes, which arrive dur¬ 
 ing the difiolution of fome metals in the vitriolick acid, 
 prove inflammable, the operator ought to be careful, left, 
 by the imprudent approach of a candle, the exhaling va¬ 
 pour be fet on fire. 
 
 Solution is much facilitated, by powdering fuch tena¬ 
 cious bodies as are friable; and dicing, or rafping, into 
 fmall parts fuch whofe texture does not admit of being 
 pow’dered : this, in fome calcs, is of luch importance, 
 that the operation proves extremely tedious, if it be neg- 
 lefted. In folutions of metals, earths, or falts, with 
 acid fpirits, care fhould be taken not to mix them too 
 haitily, otherwife the ebullition will caufe the mixed li¬ 
 quor to overflow the vefiels; and, in fome cafes, the un- 
 1 4 manageable 
 
V 
 
 S O R 
 
 manageable heat, together with the noxious fumes, will 
 give the operator great embarraliment. 
 
 But befides the folutions made by adding fluid men- 
 flruums to the bodies to be diflolved, there is anotlier 
 kiivd, called deliquiation, or l'olution per deliquium, in 
 which the moifture of the air is the menftruum. It is 
 performed by expoilng the matter to be diflolved to the 
 air, in cellars, or other damp places; for Axed alkaline 
 and neutral falls, and fome metallick falls, being thus 
 expoied, attract its humidity, and at length become liquid. 
 Some fubftances, not difloluble by the application of wa- 
 tei in its grofler furm, as the butter ot antimony, axe 
 eafily liquified by this flow aftion of the aerial moifture. 
 
 - Solution, in algebia and geometrv, is the anfwer- 
 ing a queftion, or the relolving any problem propofed. 
 
 Solution of Continuity, in furgery, is the feparation 
 of the natural cohefion of the folid parts of the body, by 
 a wound. 
 
 SOLUTIVE, an appellation given to laxative and 
 loofening medicines. Solutive tartar is a preparation of 
 tartar, made by boiling eight ounces of cream of tartar 
 with four ounces of fixed fait of tartar. 
 
 SON, Films, an application given to a male child, con- 
 fidered in the relation he bears to his parents. 
 
 SONATA, in mufick, apiece, or compofition, in¬ 
 tended to be performed by inflruments only; in which 
 fenfe it ftands oppoled to cantata, or a piece defigned for 
 the voice. 
 
 SOXCHUS, the fow-thiftle, in botany ; the common 
 fow-thiftle flowers in May and June; and becomes a 
 troubleJ'omc weed, if permitted to filed its feeds. It is 
 full ot a milky bitterilh juice, and is accounted cooling 
 and attenuant ; and accordingly is fometimes preicribed 
 in the ftrangury, and alfo in inflammations of all kinds, 
 to be applied externally in the form ol a cataplafm. 
 
 SONG, in poetry, a littlp compofition, confilling of 
 ealy and natural veries, let to a tune in order to be lung. 
 The long much releqibles the madrigal, and ftill more 
 the ode, which is nothing but a long according to the 
 ancient rules. 
 
 Song, in mufick, is applied in general to a fingle piece 
 of mufick, whether contrived fo£the voice or an inftru- 
 ment. 
 
 SONNET , in poetry, a compofition contained in 
 14 verfes, viz. two llanzas, or mealures, of four veries 
 each, and two of three ; the eight rirft verfes being all in 
 three rhimes. 
 
 SOO I , Fuligo, a volatile matter, arifipg from wood- 
 and other fuel, along with tfie lmoke; or rather, it is 
 the fmoke itfelf, fixed and gathered on the fides of the 
 chimney. 
 
 SOPHISM, in logick, Ac. an argument which carries 
 much of the appearance of truth, and yet leads into error. 
 
 SOPHIS I, aperfonwho uies fophifms, with a view 
 to deceive thole he would perfuade or CQnvince ; fee the 
 preceding article. 
 
 SOPHIST ICATION, the adulteratingany thing with 
 what is not good or genuine ; a practice too common in 
 the making up medicines for falc; as alfo among vintners, 
 diftillcrs, and others, who are acculed of lophifticating 
 their wines, fpirits, oils, &c. by mixing with them 
 cheaper and coarler materials; and, in many cafes, the 
 cheat is carried on fo artfully as to deceive the’bell judges. 
 
 SOPORIHCK, or So poriferous, medicines, are 
 thole capable of procuring fleep, as opiates, Nc. 
 
 SQRBUS, the fervice-tree, in botany, a genus of 
 plants vvhofe flower confifts ol ri\e roundilh concave pe¬ 
 tals, which are inlertcd in the cup, w .ih 20 filaments, 
 topped with roundilh anthers. 
 
 The fruit of the fervice is eaten in fome places ; and 
 the wood of the wild fort is much commended by wheel¬ 
 wrights for being all heart, and it is of great ufe for 
 hufbandmens tools, goads, S:c. It is white and fimooth, 
 and will take a tolerable polilh. 
 
 SORITES, in logick, a fpecies of reafoning, in which 
 a great number of propoiitions are fo linked together, 
 that the predicate of the one becomes continually the lub- 
 je£t of the next following, till at lalt a conclufion is 
 formed by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft pro- 
 pofition and the predicate of die laft. 
 
 sorrance, among farriers, a malady incident to 
 liorfes; of which there are two kinds : 1. An evil counted 
 two-fold, as cidier an evil ftate or compofition of a horfe’s 
 
 SOU 
 
 body ; which is to be obferved either by the Ihape, num¬ 
 ber, quantity, or fight of the member ift afte&ed or dif- 
 eafed. 2. It is uled for the loolening and divifion of an 
 unity, which as it may change diverfely, fo it lias diveis 
 names accordingly; for if luch a loolening and divilion 
 be in a bone, then it is called a fra (ft u re , if in any flefliy 
 part, a wound or ulcer, if in die veins, a rupture ; if in 
 the iinevvs, a convulfion or cramp ; and .if in the Ikin, 
 an excoriation. 
 
 Sorrance-water is a folution of Roman vitriol and fome- 
 other ingredients, in vinegar ; it is much efteemed as a 
 remedy in many of the dileafes of liorfes, but elpecially 
 the lorrance ; whence tilt name. 
 
 SORREL, Auto fa, in botany, a fpecies of rumex. 
 I'lie common lorrel is a fmall plant of the fields, but 
 in gardens it produces large leaves , the leaves are acid 
 and grateful to the ftomach ; they are cool, and quench 
 tlnrft ; and their dccoftion makes a ufeful drink in fevers ; 
 it is excellent agauift the feurvy ; and in fome cold coun¬ 
 tries they employ a mixture of the juices of forrel and 
 feuryy-grafs againft this dileale with luccefs. 
 
 1 lie round-leaved, or French lorrel, differs but little 
 from the former, excepting the leaves, which are fome¬ 
 times almoft round ; this is the bell fort for kitchen ule, 
 for which purpole it is often cultivated in gardens, by 
 parting the loots and planting them about a foot af'under. 
 
 Sorrel-Colour, in the menage, is a redilhcolour, 
 generally thought to be a lign of a bad horfe 
 
 SOR 11 LEGE, Soy til eg turn, a fpecies of divination, 
 pci formed by means of fortes or lots. The fortes pr®- 
 neftinaj, famous in antiquity, confifted in putting a num¬ 
 ber of letters, or even whole words, into an urn, and 
 then, after Ibakmg them together, they were thrown on 
 tile ground, and whatever lentences could be made out 
 Aom them conitituted the anfwer of the oracle. 
 
 Another kind of fortes confifted in taking fome cele- 
 biated poet, as Homer or \ irgil, and opening the book, 
 whatever prefented itfelf firft to the eye, made the an¬ 
 fwer : and hence it got the name of fortes Homeric®, 
 and fortes Virgilian®, &c. The fupcrftitious among the 
 ancient Chrillians praftiftd alimilar kind of divination, 
 by opening the Old and New T eftament; whence it got 
 the name of fortes fanftorum. 
 
 SORY, or Rusma, in natural hiftory, a vitriolick 
 mineral, formed of metalline, lulphureous, and earthy 
 matter; being truly an ore of blue vitriol, or of the vi¬ 
 triol of copper alone, there not appear ing to be a grain of 
 any thing approaching to the nature of iron in it. 
 
 SOSP 1 RO, in the Italian mufick, denotes a paufe 
 equal to the time of a crotchet. 
 
 SO TER 1 A, in antiquity, laci ifices offered to the gods 
 for delivering a perfon from danger; as alio poetical 
 pieces compofed for the fame purpole. 
 
 SOUGH, among miners, denotes a paffage dug un¬ 
 der ground, to convey off water from mines. 
 
 SOVEREIGN, Supiemus, ftriftly lpeaking, fignifies 
 the Supreme Being, or God. See God. 
 
 Sovereign, in matters of government, is applied to 
 the fupreme magiftrate, or magiftrates, of an independant 
 government or ftate ; by realon their authority is only 
 bounded by the laws of God, of nature, and the funda¬ 
 mental laws of the ftate ; luch arc kings, princes, See. 
 
 Sovereign is alfo an appellation given to the fu¬ 
 preme courts of judicature. 
 
 SOUL, Anima , in pliilofophy, a fpiritual fubftance, 
 which animates the bodies of living creatures ; it is the 
 principal of life and aftivity within them. 
 
 Various have been the opinions of philofophers con¬ 
 cerning the fubftance of the human foul. The Epicu¬ 
 reans thought it a fubtle air, compofed of their atoms, 
 or primitive corpufcles. I lie Stoicks, on the contrary, 
 maintained it was a flame, or portion of heavenly light. 
 And the Cartefians make thinking the effence of the 
 foul. Others, again, hold, that man is endowed with 
 three kinds of foul, viz. the rational, which is purely 
 fpiritual, and infufed by the immediate infpiration of 
 God , the irrational or lenfitive, which being common 
 to man and brutes, is fuppofed to be formed of the ele¬ 
 ments ; and laftly, the vegetative foul, or principle of 
 growth and nutrition, as the firft is of underftanding, 
 and the fecond of animal life. 
 
 Lord Bacon obferves, that there are raanv excellencies 
 in the human foul above thofe of brutes, and chat where 
 
 fo 
 
sou 
 
 sou 
 
 fo many and fuch great excellencies are found, a fpecifick 
 difference foould ajways be made. Hence he highly dis¬ 
 approves of the confufed and promifeuous manner of phi- 
 lofophers in treating of the functions of the human foul, 
 as if it differed in degree rather than kind from the fouls 
 of brutes. However, he allows, that the doftrine con¬ 
 cerning the rational foul of man muff be deduced from 
 re\ elation : for as its fubftance, in its creation, was not 
 formed out of the mafs of heaven and earth, but imme¬ 
 diately inlpired by Ciod ; and as the laws of the heavenlv 
 bodies, together with thole of our earth, make the fub- 
 jed of philolophy, fo no knowledge of the fubftance of 
 the rational foul can be had from philofophy. But lie 
 might have laid the fame of corporeal fubtlances, Since, 
 as Alt. Locke juilly obferves, vve have no idea of one 
 more than of the other.. 
 
 It is only from the primary, or effential, qualities of 
 body, viz. extenfion, Solidity, &c. that we form an idea 
 of it; and why may we not frame the complex idea of a 
 foul, or Spirit, from the operations of thinking, under¬ 
 standing, willing, &c. which are experiments in our- 
 felves ? I his idea of an immaterial fubftance is as clear 
 as that we have of a material one; for though this notion 
 of immaterial fubftances may be attended with difficulties, 
 we have no more realon to deny or doubt of its truth, than 
 we have to deny or doubt of the exiftence of the body. 
 
 1 hat the foul is an immaterial fubftance appears from 
 hence, that the primary operations of willing and think¬ 
 ing have not only no conne&ion with the known proper¬ 
 ties of body, but Seem plainly inconliftent with Some of 
 its moil effential qualities. For the mind not only disco¬ 
 vers no relation between thinking and the motion and 
 arrangement of parts ; but it hkewife perceives that con- 
 feioufnefs, a fimple a£l, can never proceed from a com¬ 
 pounded fubftance, capable of being divided into many 
 parts. Fo illuftrate this, let us only fuppofe a fyftem of 
 matter endowed with thought, then cither all the parts 
 of which this fyftem confifts, muft think, which would 
 make it not one but a multitude of diftindl confcious 
 beings ; or its power of thinking muft arile from the 
 connexion of the parts one with another, their motion 
 and difpolition, &c. .which, all taken together, contri¬ 
 bute to the production of thought. 
 
 But it is evident, that the motion of parts, and the 
 manner of combining them, can produce nothing but an 
 artful ftruClure and various modes of motion. Hence 
 all machines, however artfully their parts are put toge¬ 
 ther, and however complicated their ftru&arc, though 
 we conceive innumerable different motions, vai iouily 
 combined, aiid running one into another with an end- 
 lefs vaiiety, yet never produce any thing but figure and 
 motion. If a clock, or watch, tells the hour and minutes 
 of the day, it is only by the motion of the diffeient 
 hands, pointing fuceeffively at the different figures 
 marked on the hour-plate for that purpoie. We never 
 imagine this to be the effeft of thought or intelligence, 
 nor conceive it poifible, by any confinement of ftruClure’ 
 fo to improve the compolition as that it fliall become ca¬ 
 pable of knowledge and confcioufnefs; and the reafon 
 is plainly this, that thought being fomething altogether 
 different from motion and figure, without the leaft con¬ 
 nexion between them, it can never be fuppoied to refult 
 from them. 
 
 'Fins, then, being evident, that intelligence cannot 
 arile from an union or combination of unintelligent 
 parts ; if we fuppole it to belong to any fyftem of mat¬ 
 ter, we muft neceffarily attribute it to all the parts of 
 which that fyftem is compofed ; whereby, inftead of ope, 
 we fliall, as was before obferved, have a multitude of dif- 
 tina confcious beings. And becaufe matter, how far 
 loever we purfue the minutenefs of its parts, is ftill ca¬ 
 pable of repeated divifions, even to infinity, it is plain, 
 that this abfurdity will follow us through all the fuppofi- 
 tions that make thought inherent in a material fubftance. 
 Wherefore, as confcioufnefs is incompatible with the co- 
 hciion of folid feparable parts, we are neceffarily led to 
 place it in fomc other fubftance, of dillinX nature and 
 properties ; and this fubftance we call fpirit, which is al¬ 
 together diftinX from body, nay, and commonly placed 
 in oppofition to it : for which reafop, the beings of this 
 clafs are called immaterial ; a word that implies nothing 
 of their true nature, but merely denotes its contrariety to 
 that of matter. , 
 
 As to the immortality of the human foul, the arm- 
 ments to prove it may be reduced to the following heads: 
 i. Hie nature of the foul itfeft its delires, fenfc of moral 
 good and evil, gradual mcreafe of knowledge and pei fee - 
 tion, &c. 2 . I he moral attributes of God 
 
 Under the former of thefe heads it is urged, that the 
 loul, being an immaterial intelligent fubftance, as has 
 been already proved, does not depend on the body fonts 
 cxUtencei and therefore may, nay, and muft exift after 
 the dnlolutioir of the body, unlcfs annihilated by the 
 lame power which gave it a being atlirft ; which is not 
 to be iuppoled, as there are no. inftanccs of annihilation 
 "l nature. 1 his argument, cfpecially if the infinkeca- 
 pacity of the foul, its ftrongdelire after immortality, its 
 rational adtivity and advancement towards perfeSion, be 
 hkewne conndered, will appear perftaiy conclufive to 
 Ijien ot 3 philofophical turn . becaufe nature, or rather 
 the trod of nature, does nothing m vail). 
 
 But arguments drawn from the latter head, viz the 
 moral attributes of the Deity, are not only better adapted 
 to convince men unacquainted with abtiraft reafoninV 
 but equally certain and conclufive with the former : tor 
 as the juftice of God can never fuff'er the wicked to e r cap- 
 Unpupifhed, nor the good to remain always unrewarded • 
 therefore, arguments drawn from the manifeft and coni 
 lfant profpemy of the wicked, and tl)e frequent unhappi- 
 nefsof good men in thislife, muftconvince every thinking 
 perlon, that there is a future ftate wherein all will be let 
 right, and God’s attributes of wjfdom, juftice and good- 
 nels, fully Vindicated. We fliall only add, that had the 
 virtuous and confoentious part of mankind no hopes 
 of a future ftate, they would be of all men moll milcra- 
 ble : but as this is abfolutely inconliftent with the moral 
 charafter of the Deity, the certainty of fuch a ftate is 
 clear to a demonftration. 
 
 SOUND, Sovus, a Ample perfection, or idea, com¬ 
 municated to the foul by means of tile ear, which is the 
 primary organ of hearing. See Ear. 
 
 Sound is caufed by an undqlatory, or wave-like motion 
 of the air, anling from the tremulous motion of the parts 
 of any lonorous body whenftruck upon; for thofe undu¬ 
 lations or pukes of the air, beating on the tympanum or 
 drum of the ear, convey by the auditory nerves the fen- 
 (ation of lound to the mind. 
 
 We know by the experiment of the bell in the ex- 
 haufted receiver, that found has a necerfary dependence 
 on the air ; and it tye refleS on tile nature of the par¬ 
 ticles ot a lonorous body, and thofe of air, we (hall find 
 that found is nothing but the propagation of the tremors 
 and the vibrations of the former impreffed on the latter 
 to the tympanum or drum of the car, by the aflion of 
 whole membrane, they are communicated to the internal 
 
 cavities ot the car, where the auditory nerve receives the 
 
 imprelnon, and excites the fettfation, in the common 
 lenlory, in the brain. 
 
 For the parts of a Amorous body being put in motion 
 by peicu ion, vibrate forwards and backwards, through 
 very imafl fpaces, by tlieir elaftick quality. In this aftion 
 they afte£t the particles ot air contiguous to them, and 
 compel them upon the firft impulle, to move forwards 
 
 ,-i ; u, nd io efe pr ° pd tlle next ’ ailJ fo on to a very con- 
 fiderable diftancc, according to the intenlity of the Her¬ 
 eof ,vc force. By this means the particles of air are com- 
 pielied nearer together than in their natural ftate 
 
 But when the particles of the lonorous body make the 
 fecond part of the vibration, by returning back again, 
 the particles of an- alio, by their repul,ive power, repei 
 each other toward tlieir proper places, and thus again ex- 
 pand thcmfelves. ■ 
 
 N ow, trace motion, once generated in elaftick bodies, 
 continues forne tune before it can be deftroyed bv the re¬ 
 finance and counter-aftion of contiguous bodies it fol¬ 
 low's, that the particles of the fonorous body, and, cou- 
 fequcntly, thole ot the adjacent air, have, for foitre time 
 a reciprocal vibratory motion, by going forwards and 
 backwards through very fmall fpaces, in an indefinitely 
 
 (mall panicleot time; which motion gradually decreafes* 
 
 till it be totally deftroyed. ' ’ UCLrcalcs - 
 
 Hence it is evident that the diftance to which founds 
 
 Tirmft h T d i' * lll , be proportional to «Ke magnitude or 
 intenlity of the ftroke made on the tremulous bodv emit- 
 
 wifl d he ,, °“ nd 1 ! or ’ 'he greater thaf ftroke is, the greater 
 will be the agnation of the parts of the fonorous body, 
 
 and 
 
■%» 
 
 s o u 
 
 and, of courfe, the greater will be the Force with which 
 they will {trike the particles of air. Laitly, the greater 
 the force is upon the air, the more clolely will it be con- 
 denfed and expanded ; hence the greater will be the Itroke 
 at any given diltance on the drum of the ear, and, con- 
 fequently, the greater will be the diltance at which the 
 agitation of the air will befenfible. 
 
 The experiments are numerous by which it has been 
 found, that found is audible to the diltance of 50, 60, or 
 80 miles ; but Dr. Hearne, phyfician to the king of 
 Sweeden, tells us, that at the bombardment of Holmia, 
 in the year 1658, the found was heard 30 Sweedilh miles, 
 which make 180 of ours. And in the light between 
 England and Holland, in the year 1672, the noife of the 
 guns was heard even in Wales, which cannot be lefs than 
 200 miles. 
 
 Since the atmofphere conlilts not of pure air, but has 
 a mixture of vapours of different elalticity and tone, 
 thefe vapours will not participate of the motion of pure 
 air, by which found is propagated ; in like manner, as 
 an elaftick firing llruck will not move another very near 
 it, unlefs it be under the fame degree of tenlion, and of 
 the fame tone. Therefore the quantity of air producing 
 found mull be diminifhed in proportion to the quantity 
 of vapour in a given fpace ; in which Sir ifaac New to n 
 fuppofes the air is to the vapour as 10 to one. Whence 
 the air and vapour together, in a given fpace, are to the 
 pure air as 11 to 10. 
 
 But the velocity of the pulfes will increafe in the fub- 
 duplicate ratio of the diminifhed quantity of matter, that 
 is, in the fubduplicate ratio of 11 to 10, or in the entire 
 ratio of 21 to 20; therefore, if we fay, as 20 : 21 : 1088 : 
 1142 : whence the real velocity of found, thus invefti- 
 gated, from the nature of elaftick air, by our great author, 
 is at length found to be at the rate of 1142 feet per fecond. 
 
 The truth and accuracy of this noble theory have been 
 fufficiently confirmed by experiments, particularly thole 
 made by the late Rev. Dr. Derham, of which we lhall 
 give fome account, but will firft lay before the reader a view 
 of the different eftimates made of the velocity of found by 
 fevcral eminent philofophers, as in the table following: 
 
 Feet per fecond 
 
 The Hon. Mr. Roberts, -- • - ■ 1300 
 
 The Hon. Mr. Boyle, - - 1200 
 
 Mr. Walker, - -- -- 1 33^ 
 
 Merfennus, — ■ — - — 147 4 
 
 The academy at Florence, - 1148 
 
 The royal academy at Paris, - 1172 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, Flamftead, 7 _ 
 
 Halley, and Derham, J 11 4 2 
 
 As no man ever had a better opportunity, fo none 
 could improve it with greater diligence, aftiduity, and 
 accuracy, in determining and fettling the various phe¬ 
 nomena of founds, than the fo often celebrated author 
 laft mentioned. He proved by experiments made with 
 the ftrokes of a hammer, and the explolion of a gun at 
 the fame time, at the diltance of a mile, that the velo¬ 
 city of founds produced from different bodies was the 
 fame, or came to his ear in the fame time. 
 
 That the motion of found was equable and uniform, 
 or that it palled through fpaces proportional to the times, 
 he found by various experiments made by the explolion 
 of gum, at different diltances, as appears by the follow¬ 
 ing table which he has given us, where the firft column 
 lhews the places at which the guns were fired; the fe¬ 
 cond the number of vibrations of an half-fecond pendu¬ 
 lum; the third the diftance of places in miles and deci¬ 
 mal parts, as meafured by trigonometry ; the fourth the 
 diftances meafured by the velocity of founds, admitting 
 it to be at the rate of one mile every 94 half-leconds. 
 
 At Hornchurch - 9 -0,9875 
 
 North Okenden church, 184-2,004-2,000 
 
 Upminfter mill, — 2,4 — { 
 
 Little Worley church, - 274-3,0-2,97 
 
 Rainham church - 334-3,58-3.59 
 
 Alvei mill, - 33 - - 3,58-3,57 
 
 Dagenham mill - 35 -3,85-3,78 
 
 Southweall church, — — 45 -4-59——4,86 
 
 Eaft Thornden church, 464--5.09——5,03 
 
 Barking church, - 70^-7,7 -7,62 
 
 Guns at Blackheath, — 116 — 12,5 —12,55 
 
 SOU 
 
 The great exadhiefs of meafuring diftances by founds 
 appears from the above table, as well as the equability of 
 the motion ; but, to render this matter Hill more cer tain 
 and indifputable, the dodlor took a journey to Foulnefs- 
 fands, on the coaft of Elfex, which form a fmooth large 
 plain for miles. On this plain he meafured fix miles in 
 a right line, and, caufing a gun to be fired at the end of 
 each mile, he found that his former obfervations were 
 very juft and true, and that'ffound palled the firft mile in 
 9^ half-feconds, two miles in 184, three miles in 27’ 
 and fo on to the end of the fix. 
 
 "1 he Academia del Cimento made experiments of this 
 fort, from which they concluded, that the velocity of 
 founds was fo far equable, as not to be accelerated or 
 retarded by confpiring or adverfe winds ; but in this 
 they led themfelves and many others into a very great 
 miftake, which was owing to their firing of guns at too 
 near a diftance; for in great diftances the difference is 
 fenfible. 
 
 Sound, in mufick, denotes a quality of the feveral 
 agitations of the air, confidered fo that their difpofition, 
 meafure, &c. may produce muiick or harmony. 
 
 Sound, in geography, implies a ftreight, or inlet of 
 the fea, between two head-lands. The famous ftreight 
 which joins the German ocean to the Baltick, is called, 
 by way of eminence, the Sound. 
 
 Sound-Board, the principal part of an organ, and 
 that which makes the whole machine play. The found- 
 board, or lummer, is a refervoir into which the wind, 
 drawn in by the bellows, is conducted by a port vent, 
 and hence diftributed into the pipes placed over the holes 
 of the upper part. 1 he wind enters them by valves, 
 which open by preffing upon the Hops or keys, after 
 drawing the regiilers which prevent the air from going 
 into any of the other pipes, but thofe it is required 
 in. 
 
 SOUNDING, in navigation, the a£l of trying the 
 depth of the water, and the quality of the bottom, by a 
 line and plummet, or other artifice. The founding- 
 line is the thickeft and fhorteft, as not exceeding 20 fa¬ 
 thoms in length ; and marked at two, three, and four fa¬ 
 thoms, with a piece of black leather between the flrands; 
 and at five with a piece of white leather. The founding¬ 
 line may be ufed when the Ihip is under fail, which the 
 deep fea-line cannot. The plummet is ufually in the 
 form of a nine-pine, and weighs 18 pounds, the end of 
 which is frequently greafed, to know whether the ground 
 is landy or rocky. Near banks, Ihores, &c. they found 
 continually. 
 
 SOUR Land, in agriculture, a term ufed by the 
 farmers to exprefs a cold, and fomewhat wet clavey foil. 
 
 This mull have its tilth according to its Hate and con¬ 
 dition, when they let about it. If it have a ilrong fwarth 
 upon it, then they give it a fallow, by turning it up, 
 when the fun is in Cancer; this they call a lealding fal¬ 
 low, and elteem it of great ufe, becaufe it kills the grafs 
 roots, and makes the land fine ; but if it be light, "and 
 have but a thin fwrrth, they leave it for a cooler tillage, 
 and plow it early in the year, when their clay is fallowed. 
 Pigeon s dung and malt-dull arc the moll proper ma¬ 
 nures for this foil. The malt-dull is to be fovvn with the 
 winter corn, and plowed in with it, lor then it lies warm 
 at the roots of the corn all winter. 
 
 SOURIS, in the menage, is a cartilage in the noftrils 
 of a horle, by means of which he fnorts. 
 
 SOU1H, in cofmography, - one of the four cardinal 
 points. See Compass. 
 
 SOU7 HERN WOOD, Abrotanum, in botany, afpe- 
 cies of artemelia. See Artemesia. The common 
 lbuthcrnwood is an attenuant, and is ferviceable in all 
 obftrudlions of the vifeera, and in deftroying worms; it 
 is recommended in lunpreftlons of urine, and againft the 
 gravel ; alio it is faid to refill poifons, particularly from 
 the bites of venemous creatures. 
 
 SOW, in the iron-works, the name of the block or 
 lump of metal theyworkat once in the iron furnace. 
 
 SO WING, in agriculture and gardening, the acls of 
 (battering the feed upon the ground, and o t dropping it 
 in drills. 
 
 SPA, a town in the biftioprick of Liege, in Germanv, 
 famous for its mineral waters. Thole of the Pouho'n 
 fpring in Spa are preferred, by our chief phyficians, to 
 I any others in or near the county of Liege. 
 
 SPA AD 
 
SPA 
 
 SPAAD, or Spalt, Spaltum, a word, ufed in feveral 
 different fenfes; fometimes for a fpecies of Englilh fibrofe 
 talck, or of gypfum, and fometimes for fpar. • 
 
 SPACE, Spatium a Ample idea, the modes whereof 
 are diftance, capacity, extenlion, duration, &c. 
 
 Space, if confidered barely in length between any two 
 beings, is the fame idea that we liave of diflance; but 
 if it be confidered in length, breadth, .and thicknefs, it 
 is properly called capacity; and when confidered between 
 the extremities of matter, which fills the capacity of 
 fpace with fomething folid, tangible, and moveable, or 
 with body, it is then called extenfion ; fo that extenlion 
 is an idea belonging to body only. But fpace, in a ge¬ 
 neral fignification, is the fame thing with diftance, con¬ 
 fidered every way, whether there he any folid matter in 
 it or not. 
 
 Space, therefore, is either abfoluteor relative. 
 
 Absolute Space, confidered in its own nature, and 
 without regard to any thing external, always remains the 
 lame, and is immoveable ; but relative fpace is that 
 moveable dimenfion or mcafureof the former, which our 
 fenfes define by its pofitions to bodies within it: and this 
 the vulgar ufe for immoveable fpace. 
 
 Relative Space, in magnitude and figure, is always 
 the fame with abfolutc, but it is not necelfary it Ihould 
 be fo numerically. Thus, if you fuppofe a lhip to be, 
 indeed, in abfolutc reft, then tl^e places of all things 
 within her will betfiefame abfolutely and relatively, and 
 nothing will change its place. But then fuppofe a fhip 
 under fail, or in motion, and the will continually pais 
 through new parts of abfolute fpace ; but all things on 
 board confidered relatively, in refpedt to the fhip, may 
 be, notwithllanding, in the lame places, or have the 
 fame lituation and pofition in regard to one another. 
 
 Space, in geometry, fignifies the area of any figure ; 
 or that which fills the interval or diftance between its pa¬ 
 rameter, or lines that terminate it. 
 
 SPAGYRICK, an epithet given to chymiftry, which 
 is called the fpagyrick art, or medicina fpagyrica; and 
 to chymical phyficians, who are fo called Ipagyrifts. 
 
 SPAHIS, horfemen in the Ottoman army, chiefly 
 railed in Afia. 
 
 SPAN, a meafure taken from the fpace between the 
 thumb’s end and the tip of the little fiijger, when both 
 are ftretched out. 
 
 The fpan is eftimated at three haiids-breadths, or nine 
 inches. 
 
 SPAR, in natural hiftorv, a filming ftony fubftance, 
 generally, though improperly, fuppofed to be compounded 
 of cryftal, incorporated with fome mineral, earthy, ftony, 
 or metallick matter ; frequently found in caves and grot¬ 
 tos, and in the clefts of rocks, lead-mines, &c. 
 
 Spar is naturally pellucid, and is found in almoft an 
 infinite variety of forms ; in fome of which it retains its 
 tranfparency and purity, in others it is more or lefs de¬ 
 based by an admixture of earth, and grows, accordingly, 
 lefs and lefs clear, till, from the marbly hue of fome of 
 the moderately debaied kinds, it finks in fome to a mere 
 earthy appearance. The genuine and diftinguiftiing 
 characters of fpar, in whatever form it occurs, are tlicfe ; 
 it will not produce fire when {truck againft a fteel, it 
 ferments very briftdy with aquafortis, and, when pure, 
 is totally diflolved by it, and is very readily calcined in 
 afmallfire. 
 
 SPARAGUS, ingardening. See Asparagus. 
 
 SPARTIUM,.Sp an jsn Broom, iji botany, a ge¬ 
 nus of the diadelphia-decandria clafs of plants, the corolla 
 whereof is papilionaceous, and the fruit is a long, cylin- 
 drick, obtuie pod of two valves : the feeds are numerous, 
 globole, and kidney-lhaped. 
 
 Spartium is alfo Tourncfort’s name for the genifta 
 of Linnjeus, as genifta is Linmeus’s name for Tourne- 
 fort’s fpartium. See Broom. 
 
 SPASM, the fame with convulfion, whiefi fee. 
 
 SPASMODICK, .convulsive, fomething belonging to 
 a fpafm or convulfion. 
 
 SPA I H A, among botanifts, a kind of flower-cup, 
 which confifts of a membranaceous matter growing to 
 the {talks of fome certain flowers. 
 
 SPATULA, an inftrument ufed by furgeons, Stc. 
 for mixing and fpreading plaifters, and for many oth,er 
 ufes. 
 
 SPAVIN, a dileafe of liorfcs ; a fwelliqg or ftiffnefs 
 Vol. II. No. 68. 
 
 S P E 
 
 ufuajly in the ham, which caufes him to halt. There 
 are two kinds of fpavins, viz. the 
 
 Ox Spavin, whiefct is a callous tumour at the bottom 
 of the ham, on the infide ; hard as a bone, and very 
 painful. While it is yet young, fome horfes- only halt 
 with it, at the firft coming out of the liable. 
 
 & r y Spavin, which is more eafily perceived by the 
 horfe s railing one of his hind legs, with a twitch, higher 
 than the other; fometimes it is found on both legs, 
 1 his kind, which, fo me alfo call ftring-fialt, frequency 
 degenerates into the ox Ipavin ; for which there is no 
 remedy but to apply the fire; which, however, is not 
 always lucccfsful. JThere-are two other kinds of !pavui 
 which have their feat in the hoof, viz. the 
 
 Blood Spavin, a loft tumour which grows through a 
 liorfe’s hoof, and is ufually full of blood. 
 
 Bone Spavin, a crufty fubftance growing on the in- 
 fide of the hoof under the joint. , 
 
 SPAWS, mineral waters arifing out of the eaith, 
 tinged with nitre, fulphur, allum, bitumen, copperas, 
 or other mineral matter, in palling through the ftrata 
 thereof; and hence endued with fome medicinal quality, 
 cathartick, diurerick, emetick, alterant, or the like. 
 
 SPACING, or Spading, the operation ofcaftrat- 
 ing the females of feveral kinds of animals, as fows, 
 bitches, &c. to prevent any further conception, and pro¬ 
 mote their fattening. 
 
 SPEAKER of the Houfe of Commons, a member of the 
 houfc Hefted by a majority of the yotes thereof, to ad as 
 chairman or prefident, in putting queftions, reading 
 briefs or bills, keeping order, reprimanding the refrac¬ 
 tory, adjourning the houfe, &c. 
 
 T. he firft thing done by the commons, at the firft meet¬ 
 ing of a parliament, is to chufe a fpeaker, who is to be 
 approved of by the king, and who, upon admifiion, begs 
 his majefty, that the commons during their fitting’ may 
 have tree feed's to his majefty, freedom of Ipeech in their 
 own houfe, and fecurity from arrefts. 
 
 The fpeaker is not allowed to perfuade or difluade, in 
 pafting of a bill; but only to make a plain and Ihort nar¬ 
 rative ; nor to vote, unlefs the houfe be equally divided. 
 'I he lord chancellor, or keeper, is ufually fpeaker of the 
 houfe ot lords. 1 he fpeaker of the convocation is called 
 the prolocutor. 
 
 SPEAKING, the art or aft of exprefling pne’s 
 thoughts in articulate founds or words. 
 
 S;>e At n:c-Trumpet. See Stentorophonick. 
 Tube. 
 
 SPECIAL, fomething that is particular, or has a pe¬ 
 culiar defignation ; from the Latin, fpecies , in oppofition 
 to general, of genus. 
 
 SPECIALITY, in law, is moft commonly taken for 
 a bond, bill, or other like inftrument in writing. Some¬ 
 times it is alio ufed for a fpecial or particular acquaintance. 
 
 SPECIES, an idea which relate? tp fome other more 
 general one ; or is comprifed under a more univerlal di- 
 vifion of a genus. 
 
 Species is a mere term of relation : and the fame idea 
 may be a fpecies, when compared to another more general 
 one; and a genus, with regard to a more particular one. 
 Thus, body is a genus, with regard to an animate and 
 inanimate body ; and a fpecies with regard to fubftance. 
 
 Species, in logick, is one of the five words called by 
 Porphyry univerfajis. 
 
 Species, ip rhetorick, is a particular thing, contained 
 under a more univerfal one. 
 
 Species, ip opticks, the image painted on the rptin?. 
 by the rays of light reflefted from the feveral points of 
 the furface of an objedi. 
 
 Species, in commerce, are the feveral pieces of gold, 
 filver, copper. See. which, having palled their full prepa¬ 
 ration and coinage, are current in publick. 
 
 Species, in algebra, the charadlers pr fymbols made 
 ufe of to reprefent quantities. 
 
 SPECIFICK, in philofophy, that wliich is peculiar to 
 any thing, and diftingui(lies it from all others. 
 
 Specifick, in medicine, a remedy, whofe virtue 
 and effeft is peculiarly adapted to fome certain difeafe, is 
 adequate thereto, and exerts its whole force immediately 
 tnereon. I he llluftrious Hoffman has given a curious 
 account of fpecifick medicines, but it is too long to be 
 inferted here. 
 
 Specifick Gravity, is that by which ojje body is hea- 
 4 & vier 
 
\ier than another of the fame dinlenfion, and is always 
 as the quantity of matter under that dimenfion. 
 
 Thus a'cubical inch of iron is heavier than a cubical 
 inch of wood ; tor the particles which compofe the iron 
 being morefolid, and more clolely compared together ; 
 or, which is the lame, having fewer interftices, or va¬ 
 cuities between them, than thofe of the wood ; there is 
 aftually more matter contained under the lame dimen¬ 
 sions in iron than wood; and, therefore, is faid to be 
 Superficially heavier than wood. And for the method of 
 finding the fpecifick gravity of bodies, fee the article 
 Hydrostatick Balance. 
 
 SPECILLUM, or Speculum, an inftrument ufed 
 by furgeons for learching and dilating wounds. 
 
 SPECIOUS Arithmetick, that managed and 
 performed by fymbols ; now generally called algebra. 
 See Algeer a . 
 
 SPECTACLES, an optick machine, confifting of two 
 lenfes fex in horn, &c. to aflift the defers of the organ 
 of light. 
 
 SPECTATOR, a perfon prefent at a fpe&acle. 
 
 SPECULARIS Lapis, in natural hiftory, a kind of 
 foflile Bone, pellucid like glafs. It is a fpecies of talck, 
 and fplits eafily into thin lamina; or plates. 
 
 SPECULUM, Mir ror, inopticks, any polifiled body 
 impervious to the rays of light; fuch as water in wells 
 and deep rivers, polilhed metals, and glafles lined with 
 mercury, or other opaque matter, popularly called look- 
 jng-glafs. S-ee Mirror, Burning-Glass, and 
 Burning-On. ASS. 
 
 Speculum, among furgeons, a probe or inflrument 
 for dilating the natural palTages or cavities. 
 
 SPEECH, the art or a£t of exprefling a perfon’s 
 til oughts by certain figns invented for that purpofe. 
 
 Speec h, in grammar, denotes an aflemblage of feveral 
 words ranged in order. The grammarians generally 
 make eight parts of fpeecb, i. e. eight kinds of words, 
 generally ufed in difeourfe, viz. noun, pronoun, verb, 
 participle, adverb, prepofition, interjection, and conjunc¬ 
 tion ; each of which fee under its proper article. 
 
 P\ Buffier, one of the lafl and bell writers of gram¬ 
 mar, only admits of three parts of lpeech, viz. noun, 
 verb, and modifier, which lafl includes the adverb, pre¬ 
 pofition, and conjunction. 
 
 SPELLING, that part of grammar, commonly called 
 orthography. See Orthography. 
 
 SPELTER. See Zink. 
 
 SPERM, the feed whereof an animal is formed. 
 
 SPERMA-CETI, in pharmacy, a white flaky fub- 
 flancc, prepared from the oil of a fpecies of whale, called 
 by ichthyologies catodon, by reafon it has teeth only in 
 the under jaw. 
 
 The ignorance of the people who firfl ufed this medi¬ 
 cine, gave it a name which feemed to exprefs its being 
 the femen of the whale; but it is, in reality, no more than 
 a preparation of the oil, with which that fifli abounds; 
 
 Spcrma-ceti is a fine, bright, white, and femi-pellucid 
 fubflance, compofed of a fine furfuraceous fubftance, 
 formed into oblong flakes, very light, foft, and unCtuous 
 to the touch, inflammable, foluble in oil, but not in 
 watery menflrua; of fcarce any fmell, when frefh and 
 fine, and of a foft, agreeable, and unCtuous tafle. The 
 largefl, firmefl, and whiteft flakes of it are to be chofen. 
 It is liable to become rancid and yellowifh in keeping, 
 and the fmaller fragments contract this bad quality fooner 
 than the larger. 
 
 The fperma-ceti of the fhops was firfl: made from the 
 head of this fifh ; the oil obtained from its brain, and the 
 diploe of the cranium, furnifhing all that we had of it; 
 and hence the confiderable price it was long kept at. It 
 was fome time after found out, however, that any whale- 
 oil would do as well as this, which occalioned the price 
 to fall confiderably. At prefent it is made in England 
 from whale-oil of any kind, the fettlings of our oilmen’s 
 larger veflels particularly, which are boiled with a lixivium 
 of german pot-aih, or pearl-aflies, till white and firm; and 
 after feveral other meltings, and a thorough reparation of 
 what faline particles might have got into the matter, it is, 
 when cold, cut out with knives into the flakes we fee it 
 in. The procefs is eafy, but it requires care, and a nice 
 infpe&ion towards the end : if not enough boiled, it is 
 apt to turn yellpw, and foon grow rancid. Spcrma-ceti 
 is, therefore oil of the animal kind, rendered very fweet. 
 
 and fit for internal ufe. Its virtues are emollient and pec 
 toral; it is good in coughs, and other diforders of th 
 breaft:; and excellent in external applications, fucli as lint 
 merits, and the like : it readily diflolves in oil, or othe 
 fatty fubftanccs, for the latter purpofes; and, for the for¬ 
 mer, it blends with the yolk of an egg, and after that mix¬ 
 ture with an aqueous fluid, and makes a pleafant emulfion. 
 
 SPERM ATICK, an epithet for the organs of gene¬ 
 ration, and the refpeCtive parts thereof. 
 
 Sperm atick Bejfels, called alfo vafa pra*parantia, are 
 veflels appointed for bringing the blood to the tefticles. 
 
 Sperm atick Arteries , arife from the fore part of the 
 trunk of the aorta below the emulgens. 
 
 SPERM A I OCELE, in medicine and forgery, the 
 fame with the cirlocele, or hernia varicofa. See the arti¬ 
 cle Ci RSOCELE. 
 
 SPHACELUS, in furgery and medicine, atotalcor- 
 ruption or mortification of any part, occalioned by an in¬ 
 terception of the blood and Spirits. Sphacelus is diftiii- 
 guiflied from a gangrene, which is onlva mortification 
 begun, and, as it were, the road to a fphacelus. 
 
 It a gangrene degenerates into a fphacelus, the partin- 
 fefted muft.be removed; but the method of doing this 
 is to be varied, according as the part is totally, or only 
 partially afteCted, and according to the fitaation of the 
 part, which fometimes does not admit of amputation, as 
 the buttocks, osfacrum, os coccygis, the prominent fpines 
 of the vertebra, and eminences of the lcapula. 
 
 If the part is not corrupted to the very bottom, or can¬ 
 not be extirpated, our endeavours muft tend, firfl, to 
 flop the progrefs of tlie fphacelus ; and fecondly, to re¬ 
 move the fphacelated portion.—The progrefs is flopped 
 by intercepting the communication betwixt the live and 
 fphacelated parts. 
 
 In the part thus mortified, all the humours remain at 
 reft in the veflels, or, the veflels being ruptured, the hu¬ 
 mours are difeharged, and become ftagnant ; but fo long 
 as the cohefion between the mortified part remains, the 
 fluids conveyed through thefe veflels, which are, as yer, 
 alive, will flop in the part where the fphacelus begins, and, 
 confequently, the motion will be* fuffocated in the live 
 parts contiguous to that which is mortified ; and thus the 
 diforder will be propagated. 
 
 1 he infeCted part is feparated, if, after the progrefs of 
 the diforder is flopped, or wliilft it is flopping, the whole 
 part is cauterifed, or cut, to the found fubjacent parts, 
 and then corroded by die application of a warm acrid 
 lixivium, till it is confumed to the live parts, till efehars 
 are formed, which are carefully to be foftened and re¬ 
 moved ; but the live parts muft, at the lame time be 
 avoided with the greateft caution. 
 
 T. he corrofive lixivium, recommended by Boerhaavefor 
 procuring the reparation of a fphacelus, is prepared thus : 
 
 Take of quick-lime made of calcined fton.es, one part. 
 Cover it carefully up with three parts of pot-afli, and, 
 when tliey are diffolved in a fubterranecus place, filtrate 
 and keep the preparation for ufe. Quick-lime itfelf, re¬ 
 duced to a powder, may alfo be fprinkled on the part. 
 
 But leperations are moft advantageoufly made, if the 
 mortified efehars, by the application of a putrefying re¬ 
 medy, fo as to be diflolved into a foft inafs, recede from 
 the^found part, wliilft the live parts are, in the mean 
 time, cherilhed with enlivening fomentations. 
 
 When the meafurcs above recommended will not pro¬ 
 duce the defired effeCt, we muft proceed to amputation. 
 See Amputation. 
 
 SPHENOIDAL Sut ure, in anatomy, a future thus 
 called from its encompafling the os lphenoides, which it 
 feparates from the os frontis, the os petrofum, and the 
 os occipitis. 
 
 SPHENOIDES, or Os Cruciforme, in ana¬ 
 tomy, the feventh bone of the cranium, or fkull. This 
 bone is fixed in manner of a wedge among the other bones 
 of the cranium, and ferves as a balls, as it were, to fup- 
 port feveral of them, and fome of thofe of the upper jaw : 
 the figure of this bone is very irregular ; in its upper part 
 is leen the fella equina, or turcica, under which there is 
 a finus : this is fometimes double, and opens into the 
 noftrils : fometimes it is totally wanting : it is callecfthe 
 fphenoidal finus. 
 
 SPHENOPHARYNGAEUS, in anatomv, apairof 
 mufcles, called alfo the pterygopharingasus. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Pterygoideus. 
 
 SPHE- 
 
S P H 
 
 SPHENOSTAPHYLINUS, in anatomy, artmfcle 
 of the larynx. It defcCnds from a round flelhly origina¬ 
 tion, near tlic root of a procefs of the os fpllcnoides, and 
 from thence runs obliquely to tile uvula, and is inferted 
 into its hinder and upper part, where it joins its partner. 
 It ferves to draw the uvula upwards and backwards, and 
 hinders the mafticated aliment from palling into the fo¬ 
 ramina narium, in deglutition. 
 
 SPHERE, Spbara , is a folid contained under one uni¬ 
 form round furface, fuch as would be formed by the re¬ 
 volution of a circle, about a diameter thereof as an axis. 
 
 Properties of the Sphere, i. All fpheres are to one 
 another as the cubes of their diameters. 2. The furface 
 of a fphere is equal to four times the sera of one of its 
 great circles, as is demonftrated by Archimedes in his 
 book of the Sphere and Cylinder, lib. 1. prop. 37. hence 
 to find the fuperficies of any fphere, we have this eafy 
 rule ; let the area of a great circle be multiplied by 4, 
 and the produft will be the fuperficies : or, according to 
 Euclid, lib. vi. prop. :.o. and lib. xii. prop. 2. the area 
 of a given fphere, is equal to that of a circle, whofe ra¬ 
 dius is equal to the diameter of the fphere. Therefore, 
 having meafured the circle del'cribed with the radius, this 
 will give the furface of the fphere. 3. The folidity of a 
 fphere is equal to the furface multiplied into one third of 
 the radius : or, a fphere is equal to two thirds of itscir- 
 cumfcribing cylinder, having its bale equal to a great 
 circle of the fphere. 
 
 Sphere, inaftronomy, that concave orb, or expanfe, 
 which inverts our globe, and in which the heavenly bo¬ 
 dies appear to be fixed, and at an equal diitance from the eye. 
 
 The better to determine die places of the heavenly bo¬ 
 dies in the fphere, levcral circles are fuppofed to be de- 
 feribed on the furface thereof, hence called the circles of 
 the fphere ; of rhefe, fomc are called great circles, as the 
 equinoftial, ecliptick, meridian, &c. and others, fmall 
 circles, as the tropicks, parallels, See. See each under 
 its proper article. 
 
 Jrm'tllury Sphere. See Armill a r y Sphere. 
 
 Sphere of Activity of a Body, is that determinate 
 fpace or extent, to which, and no farther, the effluvia 
 continually emitted from that body, reach ; and where 
 they operate according to their nature. See Power. 
 
 SPHERICKS, is that part of geometry which treats 
 of the polition and menfuration of arches of circles, de- 
 feribed on the furface of a fphere. 
 
 SPHEROID, in geometry, a folid, approaching to 
 the figure of a fphere, and generated by the entire revo¬ 
 lution of a femi-ellipfis about either its tranfverfe or con¬ 
 jugate axis. When the figure is generated by the revo¬ 
 lution of the femi-ellipfis, about its tranfverfe, or greater 
 axis, it is called a prolate, or oblong fpheroid. And, 
 when generated by the revolution of a femi-ellipfis, about 
 its conjugate or lei's diameter, it is called an oblate fphe¬ 
 roid. Every fpheroid is equal to y of its circumfcribing 
 cylinder. 
 
 •SPHINCTER, in anatomy, a term applied to a kind 
 of circular mufcles, or mufcles in form of rings, which 
 ferveto clofe and draw up feveral orifices of the body, and 
 prevent the excretion of the contents: thus the fphinfter 
 of the anus clofes the extremity of the intertinum return. 
 
 SPHINX, in fculpture, See. a figure or reprefentation 
 of a monfter of that name, famed among the ancients, 
 now moftly ufed as an ornament in gardens, terraces, he. 
 It is represented with the head and breafts of a woman, 
 the wings of a bird, the claws of a lion, and the reft of 
 the body like a dog. It is fuppofed to have been engen¬ 
 dered by Typhon, and lent by Juno to be revenged on 
 the Thebans. Its office, they fay, was to propofe dark 
 enigmatical queftions to all paflers by ; and if they did 
 not give the explication thereof, to devour them. It 
 made horrible ravages, as the ftory goes, on a mountain 
 near Thebes, and could not by any means be deftroyed, 
 till after CEdipus had folved the following riddle: 
 “ What animal is it that in the morning walks on four 
 “ legs, at noon on two, and at night on three ?” The 
 anftver was “ Man.” 
 
 Among the Egyptians, the fphinx was the fymbol of 
 religion, by realon of theobfeurity of its myfteries: and 
 on the fame account the Romans placed a fphinx in the 
 porch of their temples. 
 
 SPICA Virgin is, a ftar of the firft magnitude, in 
 the conftellation Virgo. 
 
 S P I 
 
 SPIDER, Aranea , in zoology, aninfeft of a rcKifitlifh 
 or ell ip tick figure, having eight eyes placed on the hinder 
 part of the thorax, and having alfo eight legs* This 
 creature has a power of fpinniiig. 
 
 1 he fpecies of fpiders are very numerous ; but authors 
 have made them more fo, by admitting among them other 
 infefts of a very different genera. 
 
 Spider-wort, Phalangium , in botany, a genus of 
 plants whofe flower confifts of fix oblong, blunt, l'prcad- 
 ing petals; and fix tubulated ere ft filaments, topped with 
 fmall incumbent furrowed anther®. The fruit is a liuooth, 
 ovate, three furrowed capfule, containing a number of 
 angulated feeds. This genus is comprehended among 
 the anthericums by Linnaeus. 
 
 SPIEL, in the.glafs trade, an iron inftrument, hooked 
 at the end and pointed, with which the workmen take 
 the metal up out of the melting-pots, for proofs or effays, 
 to fee whether it be fit for work. 
 
 SPIGELIA, worm-grafs, in botany, agerius of plants 
 whole flower is monopetalous and funnel-fhaped ; natives 
 of North America, and is much efteemed there for its 
 efficacy in deftroying worms, for which purpofe it has 
 been long ufed by the inhabitants of Brafil, and alfo by 
 the negroes, who taught the inhabitants of the Britifh 
 ifiands in America the ufe of it. 
 
 SPIGNEL, Mourn, in botany, a genus of umbelli¬ 
 ferous plants, the general corolla of which is uniform. 
 The partial one confifts of five inflexocordated, unequal 
 petals. There is no pericarpium. The fruit is oblong, 
 ftriated, and divifible in two parts. The feeds are two; 
 oval, ftriated, convex on one fide, and plane on the 
 other. This genus is called athamanta by Linnaeus. 
 
 The root of fpignel is ufed in medicine. It is about 
 the thicknefs of the little finger, branched, and covered 
 with a bark of a ferruginous colour ; but is pale within, 
 a littlegummous, and contains awhitifh pith. Itfmclls 
 aim oft like parfnips, though more aromatick ; and the 
 tafte is not diLgreeable, though it is acrid and a little 
 bitter. It is dry and carminative, expelling wind, and 
 helping the cholick and gripes : it is alfo alexipharmick, 
 and good againft peftilential diflempers, being an ingre¬ 
 dient in the the.iaca and mithridatc : it is alfo reckoned 
 good againft the ftone, and for ftoppages of the urine. 
 
 SPIKE, or Oil of Spi ke, a name given to an effential 
 oil diftilled from lavender, and much ufed by the varnifh 
 makers, and the painters in enamel, and of fome ufe in 
 medicine. 
 
 SPIKENARD, Nardus, in botany. SccNardus. 
 
 SPINA Bifida, in anatomy, a parting of the fpinal 
 proccffes into two rows : the cxiftence of luch a cafe is 
 doubted. 
 
 Spina Vent os a, in furgery and medicine, that 
 lpecies of corruption of the bones which takes its rife in 
 the internal parts, and by degrees enlarges the bone, and 
 raifes it into a tumour, and which, when it happens to 
 children, is termed by Severinus, and many others, p®dar- 
 throcaccs. 
 
 SPINACH, or Spinage, Spinacia , in botanv, a 
 genus producing male and female flowers on different 
 plants. The male flower has no corolla ; but the cup is 
 divided into five oblong, obtufe, concave fegments ; and 
 contains five capillary filaments, topped with oblong 
 twin anther®. The cup of the female flower is divided 
 into four parts. The corolla is wanting. It contains a 
 roundifh compreffed germen, which fupports four capil¬ 
 lary ftyles, which are each crowned with a Angle ftigma. 
 The feed is inclofed in the cup ; and is either of a round- 
 ilh form, or armed with two or three thorns. 
 
 There are two kinds of fpinach cultivated in gardens 
 for culinary purpofes; and are diftinguifhed by gardeners 
 by the title of prickly fpinach, and round leaved fpinach. 
 They are both propagated from feeds : the former is 
 Town in Auguft for winter and lpring ufe, which when 
 come up, fliould be hoed out about three or four inches 
 diftance, and, if neceffary, repeated a fecond time, and 
 by having a fufficient quantity, will be fit for ufe all the 
 winter, obferving to crop the larger leaves as they are 
 wanted. 1 he other fort of fpinach has rounder leaves, 
 and the feeds are without prickles : this is notfo hardy 
 as the winter fort; it is therefore more commonly lown 
 m the fpring, on an open fpot of ground, and when 
 the plants are up fhould be hoed out as the former ; but 
 as they foon run up to feed, and are then unfit for ule, 
 
 it 
 
S P I 
 
 it is therefore neceffary for their longer continuance to 
 fow at four different feafons in the fpring, viz. January. 
 February, March, and April, after which time they run 
 to feed aimoll as loon as the plants are up, particularly in 
 dry weather. 
 
 Spinach is faid to temperate acrid bilious humours in 
 the firll paflages; but as it is watery, fome corredl it with 
 fait, pepper, and other fpices. It does not yield much 
 nourilhment; but it is not unwholfome, and generally 
 keeps the body open. 
 
 It is notufed in medicine, except in counterfeiting the 
 colour of fome things of value, as particularly gi\nig to 
 Gaffoign’s powder the fame colour as is given by bezoar. 
 
 SPINALIS, in anatomy, the names of feveral muf- 
 cles, &c. of the fpine, but more particularly that of a 
 muffle on the fide of the neck, arifing from the five fu- 
 perior procefies of the vertebra of the thorax, and the 
 inferior of the neck , and which in its afeent, becoming 
 more flelliy, is inffrted into the inferior'part of the ver¬ 
 tebra? of the neck laterally. It ferves to draw the neck 
 backwards. 
 
 SPINDLE, in the fea-language, is the fmalleft part 
 of a (hip’s capllan, which is betwixt the two decks. The 
 fpindle of the jeer-capflan has whelps to heave the viol. 
 The axis of the wheel of a watch or clock, is alio called 
 the fpindle. Among miners, the fpindle is a piece of 
 wood faflened into either How blade. 
 
 SPINE, Spina Dorsi, in anatomy, the body co¬ 
 lumn reaching from the head down to the anus : being 
 the feries oraffemblage of vertebras which luftain the reft 
 of the body, contain the fpinal marrow, and to which 
 the ribs are connected. 
 
 SPINET,.or Spinnet, a mufical inllrumeot ranked 
 in the fecond or third plaoe among harmonius inflru- 
 ments. It confiils of a chell or belly made of the mod 
 porous and refinous wood to be found, and a table of fir 
 glued on flips of wood, called lummcrs, which bear on 
 the lides. On the table is ra:'<_d two little prominences 
 or bridges, wherein are placed lo many pins as there are 
 chords or firings to the inflrument. It is played on by 
 two ranges of continued keys, the former range being 
 the order of the diatomck icaie, and that behind, the 
 order of the artificial notes or femi-tones. The keys art 
 fio many flat pieces of wood, which touched and preffed 
 down at the end, make the other raife a jack which llrike 
 and found the firings by means of the end ol a crow’s 
 quill wherewith it is armed. The thirty-firll firings are 
 of brafs, the other more delicate ones of Heel or iron- 
 wire; they are all llretched over the two bridges already 
 mentioned. The figure of the fpmet is a long lquare or 
 parallelogram ; fome call it an harp-couched, and the 
 harp an inverted lpinet, 
 
 SPINNING, in commerce, the a&orartof reducing 
 fiik, flax, hemp, wool, hair, or other matters, into 
 thread. Spinning is either performed on the wheel with 
 a dillaff and fpindle, or with other machines proper for 
 the feveral kinds of working. Hemp, flax, nettle-thread, 
 and the like vegetable matters, are to be wetted in fpin- 
 ning; filks, wools, &c. are to be fpun dry, and do not 
 need water; but there is a way of lpinning filk as it comes 
 off the cafes or balls, where hot and even boiling water 
 is to be ufed. 
 
 SPINOSE Leaves, amongbotanifls are thofe whofe 
 furfaces or edges are armed with cartilaginous points, and 
 fo firmly affixed, that they cannot be ieparated without 
 injuring the body of the leaves : luch are thofe of the 
 hollv-tree, &c. 
 
 SPINOZISM, or Spinosism, the do&rine of Spi¬ 
 noza, or atheilm and pantheifin propofed after the man¬ 
 ner of Spinoza, who was born a Jew’ at Amllerdam. 
 
 The great principle of fpinozifm, is that there is no¬ 
 thing properly and abfolutely cxilling betides matter and 
 the modifications of matter; among which are even com¬ 
 prehended thought, abilra<5l and general ideas, compa- 
 rifons, relations, combinations of relations, &c. 
 
 SPIN 8 TER, in law, an addition ulually given to all 
 unmarried women from the vilcount’s daughter down- 
 wards ; but, according to Sir Edward Cooke, generofa is 
 a good addition for a gentlewoman ; and that if fuch a 
 pcrlon be named lpinller in any original writ, appeal, or 
 indictment, Ihe may abate andquafh the fame. 
 
 SPIRAL, in geometry, a curve line or the circular 
 kind, which, in its progrefs, recedes from i^ centre. 
 
 S P L 
 
 A fpiral, according to Archimedes, its inventor, is 
 thus generated : if a right line, as A B (plate LXXVI. 
 '■o. 17.) having one end fixed at B, be equally moved 
 round, lo as with the other end A to delcribe the peri¬ 
 phery of a circle , and, at the fame time, a point be con¬ 
 ceived to move forward equally from B towards A, in 
 the right-line B A, lo as that the point delcribes that 
 line, while the line generates the circle: then will the 
 point, with its two motions, deferibe the curve-line B 1, 
 
 3’ 5• & c - which is called the helix or fpiral line • 
 
 and the plane fpace, contained between the fpiral line 
 and the tight line B A, is called the fpiral fpace. 
 
 If alfo you conceive the point B to move twice as flow 
 as the line A B, lb as that it (hall get but half way along 
 the line B A, when that line fhall have formed the circle ; 
 and if then you imagine a new revolution to be made of 
 the line carrying the point, fo that they (hall end then- 
 motion at Jail together, there will be formed a double 
 lpiral line, and the two lpiral fpaces, as you fee in the 
 figure. From the geneiis of this curve, the following 
 corollaries may be eafily drawn. 1. The lines B 12, 
 B 11, B 10, Nc. making equal angles with the firll and 
 fccond fpiral (as alfo B 12, B 10, B 8, See.) arc in arith¬ 
 metical proportion. 2. The lines B 7, B 10, &c. drawn 
 any how to the fiill lpiral, are to one another as the 
 arches of the circle intercepted between B A and thofe 
 lines. 3. Any lines drawn from B to the fccond fpiral, as 
 B 18, B 22, &c. are to each other as the aforefaid arches, 
 together with the whole periphery added on both lides. 
 4. Ihe firll fpiial (pace is to the full circle as \ to 3. 
 And, 5. The firll fpiral line is equal to half the peri¬ 
 phery of the firll circle ; for the radii of the fedlors, and 
 confequently the arches, are in afimple arithmerick pro- 
 greffion, while the periphery of the circle contains as 
 many arches equal to the grcatell; whcrefoie the peri¬ 
 phery to all thofe arches is to the fpiral lines as 2 to 1. 
 
 Spiral, in architedlure and fculpture, implies a curve 
 that affends, winding about a cone 01 lpire, lo as all the 
 points thereof continually approach the axis. It is dif- 
 tinguilhed from the helix, by its winding around a cone, 
 whereas the helix winds in the fame manner around a 
 cylinder. 
 
 Proportional Spirals, are fuch fpiral lines as the 
 rhumb lines on the terrcflrial globe, which, becaule they 
 make equal angles with every meridian, mull alfo make 
 equal angles with the meridians in the llereograjdiick pro¬ 
 jection on the plane of the equator; and therefore will 
 be proportional fpirals about the polar point. 
 
 SPIRE, Spit a, m architecture, was ufed by the an¬ 
 cients lor the bale of a column, and fometimes for the 
 allragal or tore. But, among the moderns, it denotes a, 
 lleeple that continually diminilhes as it alcends, whether 
 conically or pyramidally. 
 
 SPIRIT, Spiritus, in metaphyficks, an incorporeal 
 being or intelligence, in which fenfe, God is faid to be 
 a fpirit, as are angels and the human foul. 
 
 Spirit, in chymillry, a name applied to feveral very 
 different lubfiances; however, in general, it denotes any 
 dillilled volatile liquor that is not infipid, as phlegm, or 
 pure water, nor inflammable as oil : but under this ge¬ 
 neral idea are comprehended liquors of quite oppofitc 
 natures, lbnie being acid, and others alkaline ; which 
 lall are fuch enemies to the former, that as foon as they 
 are put together they raife a violent effervcfcence, and 
 grow hot ; and to thefe may be added a third fort, called 
 vinous pr inflammable fpirits ; which though very lubtile 
 and penetrating, are not manifellly either acid or alkaline. 
 
 SPIRITS, or Animal Spirits, in phyliology. See 
 Animal Spirit j. 
 
 SPIRI TUAL, in general, fomething belonging to, 
 or partaking of, the nature of fpirit. 
 
 SPIRITUALITIES of a Bijhop , are the profits that 
 he receives as a bifliop, and not as a baron of parliament; 
 fuch are the duties of his vifitation, prefentation-money, 
 what arifes from the ordination and inllitution of priefls, 
 the income of his jurifdiftion, &c. 
 
 SPITTLE, Saiiva , in phyfiology. See Saliva. 
 
 SPLEEN, Lien, in anatomy, a foft fpongy vilcous, 
 fituated in the left hypochondrium, under the diaphragma 
 between the ribs and the ilomach, above the left kidney. 
 
 It is tied to the peritonaeum, to the medriff, and to the 
 omentum : it is of a bluilh or leaden colour, of an 
 oblong figure, thick at the edges, and not thin at the 
 
 liver. 
 
S P L 
 
 liver. It has two membranes. The external comes from 
 the peritonaeum. The internal membrane is finer and 
 thinner than the external: for, if you blow into thefple- 
 nick artery, the air fhall pafs through the one, but not 
 the other. Its fibres are not irregularly woven, as tliofe 
 of the other membranes feem to be ; but they come from 
 innumerable points, as rays from fo many centres, and 
 the fibres of one point are regularly woven with the fibres 
 of the point furrounding it. It receives veins, nerves, 
 and arteries from thole that enter the fpleen. The fub- 
 itance of the fpleen is not only kept together by its two 
 membranes, but alfo by innumerable fibres which come 
 from the points of the internal membrane, and are inferted 
 in the points of the oppofite fide of the fame membrane : 
 the expanlion of the extremity of thefe fibres leems to 
 com pole the internal membrane. The fpleen is compofed 
 of an infinity of membranes, which form little cells and 
 cavities of different figures and bignefs, which commu¬ 
 nicate with one another, and which are always full ol 
 blood. At the extremities of the blood-veffels in the 
 fpleens of Iheep, we find feveral fmall, white, and foft 
 fpecks, which Malpighi calls glands. "1 he fpleen has 
 arteries from the cceliack, whole capillary branches make 
 frequent inofculations upon the membranes of the cells. 
 Its veins, whole extremities communicate with the cavi¬ 
 ties of the cells, as they come out of the fpleen, unite and 
 make the ramus fplenicus ot the vena portae, which carries 
 the blood from the fpleen ot the liver. Thefe, with its 
 nerves, which are confiderable from the plexus fpleni¬ 
 cus, are equally diftributed through the whole fubftance 
 of the fpleen, being all included in a common capfula. 
 There arc likewife a few Jymphatick veflels which arife 
 from the fpleen, and difcharge them into the lumbary 
 glands. 
 
 The fpleen, being always full of a dark-coloured 
 blood, was by the ancients thought to be the receptacle 
 of the arta bilis, a humour no where to be found. And 
 all that has been laid about its ufe by the moderns, has 
 been to little fatisfaftion, till Dr. Keil taught us thus 
 to reafon thereon : 
 
 We mull confider that the bile is compofed of par¬ 
 ticles, which flowly combine and unite together, and 
 that'by reafon of the vicinity of the liver to the heart, 
 and of the fwift motion of the blood through the aorta, 
 thefe particles could not in fo fmall a time, and with fo 
 great a velocity, have been united together, had not the 
 blood been brought through the coats of the ftomach, 
 inteftines, and omentum, by the branches of the vena 
 porta:, to the liver. But, becaufe all thefe parts were 
 not fufficient to receive all the blood which was neceflary 
 to be fent to the liver, therefore nature framed the 
 fpleen, into whofe cavities the blood being poured from 
 a fmall artery, moves at leaft as flowly as any that pafles 
 otherwife to the liver ; by which means the particles 
 which compofe the bile in the blood which pafles through 
 the ramus fplenicus, by a long and flow circulation, 
 have more chances for uniting them, which otherwife 
 they could not have had, had they been carried by the 
 branches of the cceliack artery dire&ly to the liver ; and 
 confequently without the fpleen, fuch a quantity of bile 
 as is now lecerncd, that is, as nature requires, could not 
 have been fecerned by the liver. And this he takes to be 
 the true ufe of the fpleen. 
 
 Spleen is alfo uled for a difeafe by phyficians more 
 ufually called the hypochondriack difeafe. 
 
 SPLENETICK, a perfon aiFefled with oppilations 
 and obft.rudtions of the fpleen. In fplenctick people, the 
 lpleen is fwelled beyond the natural bulk, or hardened fo 
 as to fhew a ferous tumour thereon. 
 
 Splenetick. Vejfih, a large artery and vein of the 
 lpleen. 
 
 SPLENII Musculi, alfo from their fhape called 
 triangulares, in anatomy, arc mufcles that arife from the 
 four upper fpines of the vertebra: of the back, and from 
 the two lower of the neck, and, afcending obliquely, 
 adhere to the upper tranlverfe procefles of the vertebra: 
 of the neck, and are inferted into the upper part ot the 
 occiput. They pull the head backwards to one fide. 
 
 SPLENT, among farriers, a callous infenfible ex- 
 crcfcence, or griftle, that fometim.es flicks to the horfe’s 
 thank bone ; generally on the infide, below the knee. It 
 there be one oppofite thereto on the outfide, it is called 
 a pegged or pinned fplent, becaufe it docs, as it were, 
 Vol. II. No. 68. 
 
 S P O 
 
 pierce the bone, and is very dangerous: fome call this a 
 double fplent, and others a thorough fplent. 
 
 Splents, infurgery, pieces of wood ufed in bind¬ 
 ing up broken limbs. 
 
 SPLICE, at fea. They fay a cable or rope is fpliced, 
 when the feveral ftrands of each end, being untwifted, 
 are wrought into one another in a peculiar manner known 
 to all teamen. 
 
 SPODIUM. SeeCADMiA. 
 
 SPOILS, Spolia, whatever is taken from an enemy in 
 war. Among the Greeks the fpoils were divided in com¬ 
 mon among the whole army; only the general’s quota 
 was thp biggefl. 
 
 SPONDEE, in the Greek and Latin profody, a foot 
 of verle confifting of two long fyllables : as vertunt. 
 
 SPONGIOSA, in anatomy, an epithet given to fe¬ 
 veral parts of the body by reafon of this texture, which 
 is porous and cavernous, like that of the fponge. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS, in the fchools, is a term applied 
 to fuch motions of the body and mind as we perform of 
 ourfelves, without conftraint. 
 
 SPORADES, in aftronomy, a name which the an¬ 
 cients gave to fuch ftars as were not included in any 
 conftellation. Thefe the moderns more ufually call in¬ 
 formes, or extraconftellary ftars. Many of the fporades 
 ol the ancients have been fince formed into new con- 
 llellations : e. gr. of thofe between Leo and Urfa Ma¬ 
 jor, Hevelius has formed a conftellation, called Leo 
 Minor; of thofe between Urfa Minor and Auriga, the 
 fame perfon has formed another conftellation, called 
 Lyorx, &c. 
 
 SPORADICK, is ufed for fuch difeafes as reign in 
 the fame place and time. 
 
 SPOTS, in aftronomy, a dark place obferved in the 
 difk or face of the fun, moon, and planets. SeeMAcuL^:. 
 
 SPOUT, or Water Spout, in natural hiftory, an 
 extraordinary meteor, or appearance at fea, and fome- 
 times at land, very dangerous to fliips, &c. called by the 
 Latins typho and fepho, and by the French trompe. 
 
 Its firft appearance is in form of a deep cloud, the 
 upper part whereof is white, and the lower black. From 
 the lower part of this cloud hangs, or rather falls down, 
 what we properly call the lpout, in manner of a conical 
 tube, biggefl; at top. Under this tube is always a great 
 boiling and flying up of the water of the fea, as in a 
 jet d’eau. For fome yards above the furface of the fea, 
 the water Hands as a column or pillar, from the extre¬ 
 mity whereof it fpreads and goes off, as in a kind of 
 fmoke. Frequently, the cone defeends fo low, as to 
 touch the middle of this column, and continue for fome 
 time contiguous to it; though fometimes it only points 
 to it, at fome diftance, either in a perpendicular or 
 oblique line. Frequently it is fcarce diftinguifhable, 
 whether the cone or the column appear the firft, both, 
 appearing all of a fudden againft each other. But fome¬ 
 times the water boils up from the fea to a great height, 
 without any appearance of a fpout pointing to it, either 
 perpendicularly or obliquely. Indeed, generally, the boil¬ 
 ing or flying up of the water has the priority, this always 
 preceding its being formed into a column. Generally, 
 the cone does not appear hollow, till towards the end, 
 when the fea-water is violently thrown up along its mid¬ 
 dle, as fmoke up a chimney. Soon after this, the fpout 
 or canal breaks and difappears ; the boiling up of the 
 water, and even the pillar, continuing to the laft, and 
 for fome time afterwards; fometimes till the fpout form 
 itfelf again, and appear anew; which it fometimes does 
 feveral times in a quarter of an hour. AT. de la Pyme, 
 from a near obfervation of two or three fpouts in York- 
 ihire, deferibed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, ga¬ 
 thers that the water-fpout is nothing but a gyration of 
 clouds by contrary winds, meeting in a point or centre ; 
 and there, where the greateft condenfation and gravita¬ 
 tion is, falling down into a pipe or great tube, fome- 
 what like Archimedes’s fpiral ferew ; and, in its work¬ 
 ing and vvhirling motion, abforbing and railing the water, 
 in the fame manner as the fpiral ferew does ; and thus 
 deftroying fhips, &c. Thus, June the 21ft, he ob* 
 fcrved the clouds mightily agitated above, and driven 
 together ; upon which they became very black, and were 
 hurried round, whence proceeded a moft audible whirl¬ 
 ing noife, like that ordinarily heard in a mill. Soon 
 after iflued a long tube or fpout, from the centre of the 
 4.S congregated 
 

 S P R 
 
 congregated clouds, wherein he oblcrved a fpiral motion, 
 like that of a ferew, by which the water was railed 
 up. Again, Auguft 15, 1687, the wind, blowing at the 
 fame time out of feveral quarters, created a great vortex 
 and whirling among the clouds; the centre whereof, 
 every now and then, dropped down, in fhape of a long, 
 thin, black pipe, wherein he could diftin&ly behold a 
 motion like that of a ferew, continually drawing up¬ 
 wards, and fcrewing up, as it were, whatever it touched. 
 In its progrefs it moved flowly over a grove of trees, 
 which bent under it like wands in a circular motion. 
 Proceeding, it tore off the thatch from a barn, bent a 
 huge oak-tree, bioke one of its greateft branches, and 
 threw it to a great diftance. He adds, that whereas it 
 is common l v laid, the water works and rifes in a column, 
 before the tube comes to touch it; this is doubtlefs a 
 nuftake, owing to the finenels and tranfparency of the 
 tubes, which do moll certainly touch the furface of the 
 lea, before any conliderable motion can be railed therein; 
 but which do not become opaque and vilible till after they 
 have imbibed a conliderable quantity of water. 
 
 Thediflblution of water-fpouts he aferibes to the great 
 quantity of water they have glutted ; which by its weight 
 impeding their motion, whereon their force, and even 
 exigence, depends, they break and let go their contents, 
 which ufually prove fatal to whatever is found underneath. 
 
 A notable inftance hereof we have in the Philofophical 
 Tranfaflions, related by Dr. Richardlon : a fpout in 
 1718, breaking on Emott-moor, nigh Coin, in Lanca- 
 fhire, the country was immediately overflowed ; a brook, 
 in a few minutes, role fix feet perpendicularly high ; and 
 the ground whereon the fpout fell, which was 66 feet 
 over, was tore up to the very rock, which was no lefs 
 than feven feet deep; and a deep gulph made for above 
 half a mile ; the earth being railed on either fide in vaft 
 heaps. 
 
 In Pliny’s time, the fcamcn ufed to pour vinegar into 
 the fea, to afluage and lay the lpout when it approached 
 them : our modern feamen keep it off, by making a noife 
 with filing and fcratching violently on the deck, or by 
 difeharging great guns to difperfe it. 
 
 SPRING, Fons, in natural liiftory, a fountain or 
 fource of water arifing out of the ground. 
 
 The origin of fprings, or fountains, is a thing greatly 
 controverted among naturalifts. There are however but 
 three hypothefes of any tolerable repute relating to this 
 queftion : all others, it is allowed by every body, are 
 not worth mentioning, much lefs the trouble of con¬ 
 futing. 
 
 The firft hypothefis is that of Des Cartes, who was 
 of opinion, that the water of the fea diffufed itfelf in all 
 directions, under ground, and that, coming to the bot¬ 
 tom of mountains, it there met with large caverns, into 
 which, being rarified by the central heat beneath, it 
 afeended in vapours, leaving its laline parts behind, as 
 being fuperficially heavier; that thefe vapours, being 
 impeded in their afeent by the tops of the caverns, con- 
 denfed there, forming little flreams or currents of water, 
 like the fleam in the head of an alembick. 
 
 Put this hypothefis is far from being agreeable to 
 truth ; for, in the firft place, it is begging the queftion 
 to fuppofe any fuch free palfages of communication be¬ 
 twixt the fea and the bafes of mountains ; nor can anv 
 experiment be produced to warrant the iuppolition of 
 thefe fubterraneous channels ; on the contrary, wherever 
 running waters have been difeovered in the bowels of 
 the earth, it has been obferved, that they run the con¬ 
 trary way, viz. from the mountains to the fea. 
 
 But let us grant that the waters have a free paflage 
 from the fea, for 2 or 300 leagues, to the bafes of high 
 mountains ; where are the furnaces which remain in 
 fuch a conftant ftate of readinefs and heat, to ratify thefe 
 waters, and make them evaporate in clouds ? But let us 
 ftill further allow, that there is a fufficient degree of 
 heat for this purpole; yet where are thofe caverns 6 or 
 700 paces high, whofe cool vaults are to condcnfe thefe 
 exhaled vapours ? It is certain that people have digged 
 and penetrated far enough into the bowels of the earth 
 and mountains, to make the difeovery, but without ever 
 finding caverns big enough to allow the vapours a free 
 afeent tc the height of the fountains from whence the 
 rivers derive their fource. Befides, a concurrence of all 
 thefe vapours could not produce the lcaft ftream of frefh 
 2 
 
 S P R 
 
 water, for the vapours adhering to the fide of the caverns, 
 and there condenfing, not finding any receptacle to re¬ 
 ceive them, and from whence they might iflue out through 
 the iides in fprings, mull confequently fall down again 
 into the bafon from whence they arofe: fo that thefe 
 wonderful alembicks, with which DesCartes feems fo 
 highly delighted, are only mere fancies, having no cx- 
 lltence in nature. 
 
 I he fecond hypothefis fuppofes that the fea-water per¬ 
 colates through the pores of the earth, which, though 
 large enough for the fluid to permeate, yet are fo ftnall 
 a^ to deny admittance to the faline particles which are 
 commixed with them ; which the water, during the 
 courle of its filtration, leaves behind, thus refining and 
 purifying itlelf, till it becomes frefh and potable, before 
 it mixes with the fountains and rivers. 
 
 But this hypothefis is no Id's abfurd than the former •• 
 lor what can become of the fait which fo many rivers 
 myit have depofited under ground? It is now about 
 6000 years, that the fea, according to this hypothefis, 
 has been diftributing out its waters and falts to the fource 
 of iners, without having received in return from them 
 any other than frefh water; and confequently it would 
 have happened, by degrees, cither that the fca'muft have 
 emptied itfelf of all its falts, or the earth have been fo 
 overcharged with them, as that thefe falts would have 
 locked up thofe fubterraneous channels the water fhould 
 paE through, in order to fupply the fountains. 
 
 It has been found by repeated experiments, that a 
 pound of fait water will yield four drachms of fait, and 
 confequently acubick foot of water, which weighs near 
 701b. will produce 31b. of fait; but, that our calcu¬ 
 lation may be allowed moderate and unexceptionable, we 
 will fay only 2 Ib. Now the celebrated Dr. Halley, by 
 an unexceptionable calculation, found that the ouantity 
 of water which paffes daily through the Thames, is 
 above 76,032.000 cubick feet: and confequently the 
 quantity of fait daily depofited in the bowels of the earth, 
 before it arrives to the fources of that river, muft be 
 152,064.0001b. or above 678,857 tons. We have hi¬ 
 therto taken but one river into our account; but, if we 
 add thofe of the whole earth, what prodigious quanti¬ 
 ties of fait muft be daily amafled in the bowels of the 
 earth 1 a few years will be fufficient to render thofe mafles 
 bigger than the mountains themfelves, and the earth 
 muft conftantly increafe and fwell with thefe additional 
 fupplies of matter. 
 
 1 he third hypothefis owes its origin to that fagacious 
 naturalift, Dr. Edmund Halley, and is as follows : it is 
 evident from experience, that there perpetually arifes a 
 vapour frorri the furface of the fea, rivers, and lakes ; 
 this vapour is carried through the atmofphere in the form 
 of a cloud or mift, by the impulfe of winds ; and, ac¬ 
 cording as it meets with a colder air, or is flopped in its 
 progrefs by mountains, it condenfes, and falls‘down in 
 dew, fnow, or rain; the water, in whichfoever of thefe 
 lhapes it del'cends, finds feveral chinks and crannies, 
 through which it infinuates itfelf into the main body of 
 the hills or mountains, where it is lodged in beds of ftone 
 or clay, according to the nature of the foil; and by de¬ 
 grees, increasing its ftore and ftrength, it forces its way 
 through the firft outlet it meets with, and takes the name 
 of a temporal or perennial fountain, according to the 
 capacity of the bafon which fupplies it current. 
 
 1 his beautiful hypothefis, which has been received 
 with univerfal applaule and fatisfaftion bv the learned 
 world, we fhall endeavour to demonftrate by the two 
 following propofitions : 1. That the vapours which arile 
 from the fea are much more than fufficient to fupply 
 both the furface of the earth and the rivers with water. 
 
 2. I hat the mountains do, by their particular ftrudlure 
 and formation, attract, and, as it were, arreft the va¬ 
 pours and the rain that fluauate about in the atmofphere; 
 and, having colkacd them in their refervoirs, difmifs 
 them again through their fides, either in perpetual or in¬ 
 termitting currents. 
 
 With regard to the firft, the ingenious author of this 
 theory made the following experiment; he took a veflel 
 of water, and made it of the fame degree of faltnefs with 
 that of the lea, by means of the hydrometer. And, 
 having placed a thermometer in it, he brought it, by 
 means of a pan of coals, to the lame degree of heat with 
 that of the air ii) the hotteft fummer. He then placed 
 
 this 
 
S P R 
 
 this veflcl with the thermometer in it rn one fcale, and 
 nicely counterpoifed it with weights in the other : after 
 two hours, lie found, that about the Goth part of an inch 
 Was gone off in vapour, and confequently in 12 hour 
 the length of a natural day, of an inch would have 
 been evaporated. 
 
 From this experiment it follows, that every ten fquare 
 inches of the fur face of the water yield a cubick inch of 
 water in vapour per day, every fquare mile 6914 tons 
 and every fquare degree (or 69 Englifh miles) 33 millions 
 of tons. Now, if we fuppofe the Mediterranean to be 
 40 degrees long, and 4 broad, at a medium, which is 
 the lead that can be luppofed, its furface will be 160 
 fquare degrees, from whence there will evaporate 5280 
 millions of tons per day, in the lummer-time. 
 
 The Mediterranean receives water from the nine great 
 rivers following, viz. thelberus, the Rhine, theTyber, 
 the Po, the Danube, the Neider, the Boryfthenes, the 
 Tanais, and the Nile; all the reft being fmall, and their 
 water inconftderable. Now let \is fuppofe that each of 
 thefe rivers conveys ten times as much water to the fea 
 as the Thames ; but we have already obferved that the 
 Thames yields daily 76.032,000 cubick feet, which is 
 equal to 203 millions of tons , and therefore all the nine 
 rivers will produce 1827 millions of tons ; which is little 
 more than one third of the quantity evaporated each day 
 from the fea. The prodigious quantity of water re¬ 
 maining the do&or allows to rains, which fall again into 
 the leas, and for the ufes of vegetation, &c. 
 
 Having Ihewn that the quantity of vapours is abun¬ 
 dantly lufficient to fupply the rivers with water, we fhall 
 proceed to lhew in what manner it is colle&ed in the 
 bowels of the mountains, fo as to form the different kinds 
 qf fprings which we.meet with in nature. 
 
 The tops of mountains in general abound with ine¬ 
 qualities, cavities, open refervoirs, lubterraneous grottos, 
 gaping, and, if we may fo call them, disjointed cells. 
 Their pointed fummits, which feem to pierce the clouds, 
 flop thofe vapours, which fluftuate in the atmofphere, 
 and being conftipated thereby, they precipitate in w'ater. 
 and by their gravity eafily penetrate through beds of land 
 and lighter earth, till they are ftopped ip their defeent by 
 more denfe ftrata, as beds of clay, Hone, &c. where they 
 form a bafon or cavern, and work a paffage horizontally, 
 and iffue at the fide of the mountain. 
 
 Many of thefe fprings running down by the vallies, 
 between the ridges of hills, and uniting their ftreams, 
 form rivulets or brooks ; and many of thefe again unit¬ 
 ing on the plain, become a river. 
 
 Reciprocating Springs, or thofe which flo\v and ebb 
 alternately, are occafioned in the following manner : let 
 A B C D (Plate LXXVI. fig. 18.) reprefent a refer- 
 voir, fed by the ft ream O, whole water flows into another 
 refervoir, 1 K L, through the fyphon M N, and at the 
 fame time has another ftream at W falling into the fame 
 refervoir, whofe outlet or fpring is at Y. This fpring 
 will reciprocate or flow and ebb ; for when the fyphon 
 M N works, the furface of the water at Y will be fud- 
 denly railed, and prefs upon the water at K with a greater 
 force, and confequently it will iffue out with a greater ve¬ 
 locity, and raife the furface, if confined : but, when the 
 fyphon intermits, the momentum vvill be lefs, gnd then 
 tile ftream will ebb or decreafe. 
 
 Spring, Ver, in cofinography, implies one of the 
 fealons of the year ; commencing, in the northern parts 
 of the world, on the day the fun enters the firft degree 
 of Aries, which is about the twenty-firft of March, and 
 ending when the fun leaves Gemini. Or more ftri&ly 
 and generally, the fpring begins on the day, when the 
 difiance of the fun’s meridian altitude from the zenith, 
 being on the encreafing hand, is at a medium between 
 the greateft and the leaft.—The end of the fpring coin¬ 
 cides with the beginning of fummer. 
 
 Spring, clafticity, inphyficks. See Elastigity. 
 
 Spring, a Maji. So the feamen call it, when a maft 
 is cracked, fplintered, orfplit, but not broke in any part. 
 
 Spring -Tide. The time of fpring-tides is always 
 about three days before the full or change of the moon; 
 but the top or higheft, which is the fpring tide, is three 
 days after the full or change ; then the water runs higheft 
 with the flood, and lovveft with the ebb, and the tides 
 run more ftrong and fwift than in the neaps - . See Tide. 
 
 S P U 
 
 had their figure changed by the ftroke or percuftion of 
 another body, can recover again their former figure, 
 which bodies that are not elaftick will not do. 
 
 SPUNGE, in natural hiftory, a plant of fo very lin¬ 
 gular a llru&ure, that many authors have fuppofed it 
 not merely a vegetable, but of an intermediate nature 
 between that and the animal kind, and have ranked it 
 among the number of an imaginary race of beings, which, 
 they call zoophytes. Spunge, however, is a genuine 
 plant; nor is there in the creation anyfuchclafs of being 
 as zoophytes, or any creature that is partly plant, partly 
 animal. 
 
 W e meet with fpunge in the fhops, often in the whole 
 plant; fometimes only in pieces of larger ones; in either 
 cafe, it is of a perfe&ly irregular figure, and is only to 
 be diftinguifhed by its texture, which is cavernous, like 
 that of a honeycomb ; its elafticity, which makes it, after 
 palling into a very fmall compals, immediately expand 
 to its full bulk again, on taking away the preffure ; and 
 by its property of imbibing perfectly a large quantity of 
 water, and as readily parting with it again, on fqueezing. 
 
 Spunge is to be chofen perfectly clean, and free from 
 ftones within, or from a cruftaceous and hard matter 
 without; of as pale a colour as may be, and with fmall 
 holes, and fu?h as is lighteft. 
 
 1 lie greateft part of the fpunge we ufe is brought 
 from Aleppo and Smyrna. It grows in the Archipelago, 
 at confiderable depths, on the rocks about fome of the 
 iflands there, and multitudes of people make a trade of 
 diving for it. It is alfo common in the Mediterranean, 
 and many other feas, though, in general, browner or 
 yellower, and not fo fine as that of the Archipela .0. It 
 grows in large mafles to rocks or ftones, fometimes to 
 large filers : and is fometimes round, fometimes flat, 
 fometimes hollow, like a funnel. It is one of the cry- 
 potogamia? of Linnaeus, one of the harba? marines of 
 Tournefort, and one of the lierba? imperfedlae of Mr. 
 Ray. It is deferibed by 3II the botanical writers under 
 the name of fpongia marina alba, and fpongia globofa, 
 the white or round fpunge. Diftilled by a retort, it 
 yields a large quantity ot white milky phlegm, of a 
 fifhy fmell; after this a large portion of an urinous 
 redilh liquor, with a little of a dry, volatile, urinous 
 fait, and a thick, b'ovvnilh, foetid oil. The remainder 
 in the retort yields only a linall portion of a lixivial fait, 
 and that not merely alkaline. 
 
 Spunge calcined to a blacknefs, and reduced to pow-y 
 der, has been lately brought into great ufe as a fweetener 
 of the blood, and a diurctick ; fome have pretended even 
 to cure leprofies with it, and others have extolled it 
 again ft the bite of a mad dog ; but thefe are virtues lefs 
 certainly known of it. In the larger and coarfer pieces 
 of fpunge, there are often fmall ftones found imbedded 
 in the fubftance of the matter, and yet, more frequently 
 a cruftaceous matter gathered round the furface of certain 
 parts ot the plants : both thefe fubftances are called by 
 the common name of lapis fpongia?, the fpunge ftone • 
 and both are recommended as diureticks, and remedies 
 againft the ftone and gravel. 
 
 Pyrotecbnical Sponges, are made of the large mufli- 
 rooms, or fungous excrefcences groping on old oaks 
 allies, firs, Ac. which being boiled in common water 
 then dried and well beaten, are put into a ftrong lye pre¬ 
 pared with falt-petre, and again dried in an oven Thefe 
 make the black match or tinder brought from Germany 
 uied to receive and fuftain the fire ftruck from a flint and 
 fteel, &c. ’ 
 
 Spunge, is alfo ufed in gunnery, for a long ftaff or 
 hammer with apiece of fheep or lamb ikin wound about 
 its end, to ferve lor fcouring great guns, when difeharged, 
 before they are charged with frefh powder. 
 
 SPUNGING, in gunnery, the cleaning a gun's infide 
 with a fpunge, in order to prevent any fparks of fire from 
 remaining in her, which would endanger the life of him 
 who lhould load her again. 
 
 SPUN-YARN, among Tailors, is a kind of line made 
 from rope-yarn, and uled for feizing or fattening things 
 together. ° ° 
 
 SPUR a piece of metal, confifting of two branches 
 encompaffing a horfeman's heel, and a rowel in form of 
 a ftar, advancing out behind to prick the liorfe. 
 Spur-Way, ' ' 
 
 n more itrong ana iwitt man in me neaps - , aee 1 ide. ^pur-Way, a road through another’s 
 
 SPRINGY, or elaftick bodies, are iuch as, having .through which one may ride by ri|ht or cuftom. S ’ 
 
 SPURGE, 
 
 

 S T A 
 
 SPURGE, Tithymalus, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 according to Tournefort, but comprehended among the 
 euphorbias by Linnaeus. The common fpurge, which 
 grows wild in gardens, &c. is full of a milky juice, 
 which applied to the ikin, corrodes it into a fear, and 
 is therefore lifed by beggars to excite companion : it is 
 feldom ufed in arty medicinal forms ; but the common 
 people ufe it to eat off warts, which it will do by frequent 
 application, if the cruft which hardens on them be cut 
 off between whiles. 
 
 Spurge-Laurel, in botany, a fpecies of daphne. 
 
 SPURIOUS Di se ases, fuch as, infomefymptoms, 
 cannot be reduced to any one kind ; and therefore are 
 denominated from thofe with which they agree in mod 
 particulars : thus we fay, a fpurious or baftard pleurify, 
 quinzy, &c. 
 
 SPURKETS, in a fhip, fpaces between the upper 
 and lower futtocks, or between the rungs fore and aft. 
 
 SPUTUM, among phyficians, denotes the fame with 
 the laliva, Or fpittle. See Saliva. 
 
 SPY, a perfon hired to watch the adlions, motions, 
 &c. of another : particularly of what pafles in a camp. 
 When a fpv is difeovered, he is hanged immediately. 
 
 SQUADRON, in military affairs, denotes a body 
 of horfe, whofe number of men is not fixed, but is 
 ufually from one to two hundred. 
 
 Sqjjadron of Ships, a divifion or part of a fleet, 
 Commanded by a vice-admiral, or commodore. 
 
 SQUAMMOUS, Squammojus , in anatomv, an epithet 
 given to the fpurious or faffe futures of the fkull, becaufe 
 compofed of iquammae or feales like thofe of fifties, or 
 like tiles laid fo as to reach over one another. 
 
 SQUARE, ghiadratum, in geometry, a quadrilateral 
 figure, both equilateral and equiangular. To find the 
 area of a fquare, feek the length of one fide ; multiply 
 this by itfelf, the prodndt is the area of the fquare. 
 
 Sqjj are Number, the pfodudt of a number multiplied 
 into itfelf. Thus 4, the produdt of 2, multiplied by 2, or 
 16, the product of 4, multiplied by 4, are fquare numbers. 
 
 Sqjjare Root , a number confidered as the root of a 
 fecond power or fquare number, or a number, by whofe 
 multiplication into itfelf, a fquare number is generated. 
 See Extraction. 
 
 Square Battle, or battalion of men, is one thathath 
 an equal number of men in rank and file. 
 
 Hollow Square, in the military art, isabodyof foot 
 drawn up with an empty ipace in the middle for the co¬ 
 lours, drums, and baggage ; faced and covered by the 
 pikes every way to keep ofF horfe. 
 
 SQU1LLA. See Scilla. 
 
 SQUINACY, or efquinacy. SeeQuiNSEY. 
 
 STACK of Wood, among hufbandmen, is a pile of 
 three feet long, as many broad, and 12 feet high. 
 
 STADIUM. SeeAuLOs. 
 
 STADTHOLDER, St aDthoulder, or Stat- 
 holdeR, a governor or lieutenant of a province in the 
 United Netherlands, particularly that of Holland, where 
 the word is raoft ufed, by reafon of the luperior impor¬ 
 tance of the government of that province. 
 
 STAFF, in mufick, five lines on which, with the in¬ 
 termediate fpaces, the notes of any fong or piece of inufick 
 are marked. 
 
 Staff, in furveying, a kind of ftand whereon to 
 mount a theodolite, circumferenter, plain table, or the 
 like, for ufe. It conflfts of three legs of wood joined 
 together at one end, whereon the inftrument is placed, 
 and made peaked at the other to enter the ground. Its 
 upper end is ufually fitted with a ball and focket. 
 
 STAGE, in the modern drama, the place of adlion 
 and reprefentation, included between the pit and the 
 feenes. The ftage anfwers to the prolcenium or pulpitum 
 of the ancient theatre. 
 
 Laws of the Stage, are the rules and decorums to be 
 obferved with regard to the ceconomy and conduct of a 
 dramatick performance to be exhibited on the ftage. 
 Thefe relate, principally, to the unities, the dilpofition 
 of the adls and feenes, the unravelling, &c. 
 
 STAGGERS, in the menage. See the article 
 Stavers. 
 
 STAIR-CASE, in building, an afeent inclofcd be¬ 
 tween walls, or a balluftrade, confifting of flairs or fteps, 
 with landing-places and rails, ferving to make a com¬ 
 munication between the fcveral ftories of a houfe ; and 
 3 
 
 S T A 
 
 lbmetimes it is ufed to fignify the whole frame of a pair 
 of flairs only. 
 
 The conftrudlion of a complete flair-cafe, fays Sir 
 Henry Wotton, is one of the moll curious works in 
 architedthre, and the common rules are thefe that 
 follow: 
 
 1. That it have a full free light, to prevent accidents 
 of flipping, falling, &c. 
 
 2. That the fpacc over-head be large and airy, which 
 the Italians call un bel sfogolo, i. e. good ventilation, 
 becaufc a man fpends much breath in mounting. 
 
 3. That the half paces Or landing places be conveni¬ 
 ently diftributed for repoftng by the way. 
 
 4. That to avoid rencounters, and alfo to gratify the 
 eye of the beholder, the flair-cafe be not too narrow; 
 but this laft is to be regulated by the quality of the build¬ 
 ing ; and that, in royal buildings, the principal afeent be 
 atleaft 10 feet. Fora little flair-cafe in a great houfe, and 
 agreatOnc in alittlehoufe, are both equally ridiculous. 
 
 5. That great care be taken in the placing the flair- 
 cafe, fo that (he flairs may be diftributed without pre¬ 
 judice to the reft of the building, there being much 
 nicety required in making this choice. 
 
 Stairs, in building, the fteps whereby we afeend 
 and defcend from one ftory of an houfe to another. 
 
 As to the dimenfions of flairs, they are differently 
 afligned by different authors ; but, however, they agree 
 in this, that they muft not be more than fix, nor lefs 
 than four inches high ; nor more than 18, nor lefs than 
 12 inches broad ; nor more than 16, nor lefs than fix 
 feet long each flair. 
 
 But thefe mcafures have only refpedt to large and 
 fumptuous buildings ; for in comriion and ordinary 
 houies, they may be fomething higher and narrower, 
 and much lnorter; yet evert in thefe, the flairs are not to 
 exceed (even, or, at moft, eight inches in eight; for if 
 they do, they will be difficult to afeend ; neither ought 
 they to be lefs than nine or 10 inches in breadth, nor 
 ought their length to be lefs than three. 
 
 (Jf making Stairs. Though there have been rules 
 laid down for the height and breadth of flairs, yet work¬ 
 men are not to be fo ftridtly tied up to thofe rules, as 
 not in the leaft to vary from them ; for they muft always 
 obferve to make all the flairs of the fame flair-cafe of an 
 equal heighth and breadth ; in order to which, they muft 
 firft confider the height of the room, and alfo the width 
 and c'ompafs they have to carry up the flairs in. 
 
 Then, in order to find the height of each particular 
 flair, they ought firft to propofe the height, and to divide 
 the whole height of the room by the propofed height; 
 which being done, the quotient will fhew the number of 
 flairs; but if the divifion does not fall out exadt, but 
 that there be a remainder, then, in this cafe take the 
 quotient (without regarding the remainder) for the num¬ 
 ber of flairs, and by that number divide the whole height 
 of the room, fo the quotient will give you the exadt 
 height of each flair ; as for example : 
 
 Suppofe the whole height of the room to be nine feet, 
 three inches, and fuppofe you defigned to make each flair 
 fix inches high ; turn the whole height of the room into 
 inches, which will be 111 inches : divide thefe by 6, 
 the quotient will be 18, and 3 remaining : there let the 
 number of flairs be 18, and by it divide 111, and the 
 quotient will be 6 T 3 ¥ , or 6 ' s inches, which muft be the 
 exadl height of each flair. 
 
 Then, to find the breadth of each flair, divide the 
 width or compafs (that you have to carry them up in) 
 by the number of flairs, and the quotient will give the 
 exadt breadth of each flair. 
 
 S FAL ACTITES, or St agon ites, in natural hif- 
 tory, a fparrv fort of icicles, which often hang down 
 from the tops or arches of grottos and fubterranean ca¬ 
 verns ; and from the roofs of buildings, and capitals of 
 pillars of fuch places as are built over hot fprings. 
 
 STALE, the urine of cattle. 
 
 STALK, in botany, that part of a plant which rifes 
 immediately from the root, and which fupports the leaves 
 of the flowers and the fruit. The term ltalk is ufed on 
 all occafions; but in fpeaking of the grafles and grami¬ 
 neous plants, the word culm is ufed in its place, to dif- 
 tinguifh that peculiar kind of ftalk which is general to all 
 thefe plants, and is not found in any others. 
 
 STALKING, a term ufed in fowling, and applied 
 
 to 
 
S T A 
 
 S T A 
 
 to a kind of fcreen, or device, to hide the fowler and 
 amufe the game, while he gets within fhot. 
 
 STAMINA, among botanifts, are the male organs 
 of generation in flowers, and defined by Linnams as an 
 cntrail of a plant defigned for the preparation of the pol¬ 
 len or male dull. Each Angle ftamen .confifts of two parts, 
 a filament and anthers ; though fometimes the filament 
 is wanting. 
 
 By the conftruflion, number, and dillribution of the 
 llamina, Linnaeus’s fyllem of botany is principally 
 founded and regulated thereby. Tournefort takes the 
 ufe of the llamina to be as it were fo many excretory 
 canals for difeharging the growing embryo of its redun¬ 
 dant juices ; and of thefe excrements of the fruit, he 
 takes that farina or dull found in the anthers to be 
 formed : but other writers, as Geoffrey, and Linmeus 
 in particular, aflign the llamina a nobler ufe. Thefe 
 authors explain the generation of plants in a manner 
 analogous to that of animals ; they maintain the ufe of 
 the llamina to be that of fecreting in their fine capillary 
 canals a juice which being collc&ed, hardened, and 
 formed into a farina, or dull, in the tips of the apices, 
 is thence, when the flower is arrived to maturity, dis¬ 
 charged by the burfling of the apices or antherre on the 
 top of the piltil, whence is a paflage for it to defeend 
 into the uteris or germen ; where being received, it im¬ 
 pregnates and fcecundifies that part which is dellined for 
 the fruit and feeds. 
 
 Stamina, in the animal body, are defined to be 
 thefe Simple original parts which exilled firlt in the em¬ 
 bryo, or even in the feed, and by whole dillindion, aug¬ 
 mentation, and accretion, by additional juices, the animal 
 body,^ at its utmoll bulk, is fuppofed to be formed. 
 
 S 1 AMINLOUS, in botany, a term ufed by authors, 
 for thofe flowers of plants which have no petals or flower- 
 leaves, but confill only bf a number of llamina and pif- 
 tjls, placed in a cup. This cup is Sometimes miltaken 
 for a flower, and its leaves thought to be true petals, but 
 they remain when the llamina are fallen, and become 
 the capfules, containing the feed ; which, according to 
 Tournefort, is the true charafler of a cup, not of a flower. 
 
 STAMP Duties, certain impositions laid on all 
 parchment and paper, on which deeds, grants, or other 
 inltruments, or any procefs in law or equity, are in- 
 grofled or written. 'She llamp duties are alfo extended 
 to almanacks, news-papers, pamphlets, cards and dice. 
 All pamphlets above a ihcet, and under fix fheets in oc¬ 
 tavo, 12 in quarto, or 20 in folio, arefubjett toaftamp- 
 duty. 
 
 Stamps, in metallurgy, a fort of largepcllles, lifted 
 up by water-wheels, to pound ores, &c. 
 
 STAMPiNG-Mi ll, or knocking-mill, an engine 
 ufed in the tin works to bruife the ore Small. 
 
 STANDARD, in war, a fort of banner or flag borne 
 as a fignal for the joining together the leveral troops be¬ 
 longing to the fame body. 
 
 The llandard is ulually a foot of filk, a foot and a 
 half Square, on which is embroidered the arms, device, 
 or cypher of the prince or the colonel. It is fixed on a 
 lance eight or nine feet long, and aie carried in the centre 
 of the firft rank of a Squadron of horfe. The ftandard 
 is ufed for any material enfign of horfe, but more parti¬ 
 cularly for that of the general, or the royal ftandard. 
 Thofe borne by the foot are rather called colours. 
 
 Standard, in commerce, the original of a weight, 
 meafure, or coin, committed to the keeping of the ma- 
 giftrate, or depofited in Some public place, to regulate, 
 adjuft, and try the weights ufed by particular perfons in 
 traffick. 
 
 Standards, or Stnndeles, in hufbandry, are young 
 trees referred, at the felling of woods, for the growth of 
 timber. 
 
 STANNARIES, Stannaria , the mines and works 
 where tin is dug and purified, as in Cornwall, Devon- 
 lhire, &c. There are four courts of the ftannarics in 
 Pevonlhire, and as many in Cornwall; and Several li¬ 
 berties granted them by adts of parliament, in the time 
 of Edward 1 . &rc. though Somewhat abridged under Ed¬ 
 ward III. and 17 Car. 1 . c. 15. 
 
 STANZA, in poetry, acertain ftated number of grave 
 yerfes, containing Some perfedl fenfe, terminated with a 
 reft or paufe. 
 
 STAPES, in anatomy, a little bone fituate in a cavity 
 • Vol. 11 . No. 69. 
 
 thus called from its refembling £ 
 
 of the feneftra ovalis; 
 ftirrup. See Ear. 
 
 ST APLE, Stapula, primarily fignifies a public place 
 or market, whither merchants, &c. are obliged to bring 
 their goods to be bought by the people : as the Greve, 
 or the places along the Seine, tor the wines and corns of 
 -1 arjs, whither the merchants of other parts are obliged 
 to bring thofe commodities. 
 
 Staple, alfo fignifies a city or town where merchants 
 jointly agree to carry certain commodities, as wool, cloth, 
 
 ead, tin, ice. in order to their being commodioufly fold 
 
 by the great. In England, ftapies arc fettled and ap¬ 
 pointed to be conftantly kept at York, Lincoln, New- 
 caftle upon Tyne, Norwich, Wellminiler, Canterbury 
 Chichefter, Winchefter, Exeter, and Briftol, to which 
 places merchants and traders were to carry goods to fell 
 in thefe parts. 
 
 The ftaple commodities of England are chiefly wool 
 leather, cloth, tin, lead, &c. though by ftaple goods is 
 novv meant any proper faleable commodities not eafily 
 iubject to perifh. 
 
 STAR, Stella, in aftronomy, a general name for all 
 the heavenly bodies. The liars are diftinguilhed from 
 the phenomena o( their motion, & c . into fixed and 
 erratick. 
 
 Erratick, or wandering S t a r s, are thofe whofe diftances 
 and places vary, with regard to each other, and are other- 
 wife called planets. ScePLANET. 
 
 Fixed Stars, called alfo, by way of eminence, ftars 
 are thole which continually keep the fame diftancc with 
 regard to each other. 
 
 The different apparent magnitudes of the ftars are 
 owing to their different diftances from us. An ordinary 
 telelcope in fevcral parts of the heavens, difeovers ten 
 times as many ftars as are vifible to the naked eve. Dr. 
 Hook (ays, that, with a telefcope of 12 feet, he told 78 
 liars among the Pleiades, and with a more perfeft tcle- 
 fcope he was able to fee a great many more. Antonius 
 Maria dc Rheita affirms, that he counted 2000 in the 
 conflellation Orion. The galaxy, or milky way, owes 
 its whitenefs to a prodigious number of ftars too (mail to 
 appear diftmft to the naked eye. So that we have reafon 
 to believe, that only that infinitely wife and powerful 
 Being, who created them, is able to tell the number of 
 the ftars, and to call them all by their names. 
 
 Mr. VVljifton, in his aftronomical lectures (left 4 ) 
 from the obfervations of Dr. Hook and Mr. Flamftead 
 computes, that the greateft annual parallax, or that which 
 a liar in the pole of the elliptick would have, is 47"- from 
 whence he finds the diftance of the ftars to be about 0000 
 iemi-diamcters of the orbit of the earth, or 500000000000 
 miles ; a prodigious diftance this : but Dr. Bradley by 
 a (cries of accurate obfervations, has difppvcred that the 
 parallex does not amount to two feconds. Therefore the 
 diftance of the fixed ftars will be 20 times greater than 
 by the foregoing calculation. An amazing diftance 1 and 
 beyond the power of imagination to reach. It has been 
 found that a cannon-ball, at its firft difeharge moves at 
 the rate of about leven miles and a half in a minute ; and 
 that the velocity of found is about thirteen miles in a mi¬ 
 nute. According to this computation, a cannon- all 
 fuppofing it to continue the fame velocity as at its firft 
 difeharge, would be 8,600,000 years, and the found 
 would be 4,800,000 years in moving from us to the fixed 
 ftars. Even light itfelf, whofe prodigious velocity is about 
 17000 miles in a iecond, would be above fix years in 
 palling from the fixed ftars to us. J 
 
 The twinkling of the fixed ftars is owing to the ex¬ 
 ceeding fmallnefs of their apparent diameters, cccafioned 
 by their immenfe diftance ; lb that every little particle of 
 dull that floats in the air, when it comes in a right line 
 between the ftar and the eye, will eclipfe it ■ and as the 
 air is full of various kinds of particles, feme of them are 
 conftantly palling between the eye and the ftar, and con- 
 fequently, caufe the ftar to twinkle. The ancients tell 
 us, that the appearance of a new ftar Induced Hippar¬ 
 chus to make a catalogue of them. Thefe appearances 
 have been often obferved : but the moft remarkable is 
 that which appeared in November ,572, in Caffiopeia. 
 
 1 his ftar was iecn for fixteen months fuccdfively without 
 any change of place among the fixed ftars : it had nei¬ 
 ther hair round it, nor tail, as comets have ; but fhone 
 with the fame luftre as the other fixed ftars, furpaffing 
 4 1 Sirus 
 
S T A S T A 
 
 Sirus or Lyra, in brightnefs and magnitude. It appeared 
 even bigger than Jupiter, which, at that time, was near 
 his perigee : and by fome was thought to equal Venus, 
 when in her greateft luftre : it fhone fhorth all at once in 
 its greateft fplendour, and continued the fame all No¬ 
 vember, fo as to be feen, by thofe who had good eyes, 
 even at noon-day ; and at night it might be perceived 
 through thin clouds, which obfcured the other ftars. It 
 did not continue long of the lame apparent magnitude , 
 for in December it feemed equal to Jupiter, and in Ja¬ 
 nuary lefs than that planet, but bigger than liars of the 
 firft magnitude. Thus it gradually decrealed till March, 
 1574, when it intirely difappeared. 
 
 Catalogue of the Stars. See Catalogue. 
 
 Cloudy Stars, are (mall luminous fpots in the heaven, 
 fome of which appear to the naked eye like dim liars, 
 Unrounded by an hazy light; others like little whitilh 
 clouds, nearly refembling the milky way in brightnefs 
 and colour. Thcfc are in general an afiemblage of liars 
 too fmall to be apparent to the naked eye, but form lucid 
 fpots by the afl'cmblage of their rays. The two remark¬ 
 able whitilh fpots near the foutli pole called Magellanick 
 clouds, and, when viewed by the naked eye, cxadllyre- 
 femble the milky way, were difeovered by Dr. Halley to 
 be a mixture of fmall clouds and fmall liars. 
 
 The fixed liars are doubtlefs.of the fame matter with 
 the fun, for they Ihine with their own light like him ; 
 and therefore we have the greateft reafon to think that 
 they are all, like our fun. centres to as many fyftems of 
 innumerable worlds. For it can hardly be fuppofed that 
 the all-wife and omnipotent Being Ihould create fo many 
 radiant bodies for no other ufe than to illuminate an in¬ 
 finite void. But by fuppofing them funs, and the centres 
 .of innumerable worlds, how juftly do we open to our- 
 felves a vaft field of probation, and an endlefs feene of 
 hope to ground our expectation of an ever-future happi- 
 nefs upon, fuitable to the native dignity of th&t awful 
 mind, which made and comprehends it, and whofe 
 works are all the bufinels of eternity ? 
 
 Star, in fortification, a little fort, with five or more 
 points, or faliant and re-entering angles, flanking one 
 another, and their faces 90 or 100 feet long. 
 
 Star, in pyrotechny, a compofition of combuftible 
 matters, which being thrown aloft in the air, exhibits 
 the appearance of a real liar. 
 
 Star, in heraldry, denotes a charge frequently borne 
 on the fhield, and the honourable ordinaries, in the figure 
 of a ftar. It differs from the mullet or fpring rowel, in 
 that it is not pierced as this laft is. 
 
 Star, is all'o a badge of the honourable orders of the 
 Garter and Bath. 
 
 Star-Board, in the fea-languagc, denotes the 
 right-hand fide of a Ihip : thus they fay, ftar-board the 
 helm, or helm a ftar-board, when he that conds would 
 have the men at the helm, or fleering-wheel,-put the 
 .helm to the right fide of the Ihip. 
 
 Star-Shot, a gelatinous fubftance frequently found 
 in fields, and fuppofed by the vulgar, to have been pro¬ 
 duced by the meteor, called a falling-ftar : but in rea¬ 
 lity, is the half digeiled food of herons, fea-mews, and 
 the like birds : forthefe birds, whenfhot, have been found, 
 when dying, to difgorge a fubftance of the fame kind. 
 
 STARCH, a fccula or fediment, found at the bottom 
 of veffels wherein wheat has been lleeped in water; of 
 which fecula, after the bran is feparated from it, by 
 palling through fieves, they form a kind of loaves, which 
 being dried in the fun, or an oven, is afterwards broke 
 in little pieces, and fo fold. 
 
 The beft is white, fofc, and friable, eafily broke into 
 powder. Such as require very fine ftarch, do not con¬ 
 tent -themfelves, like the ftarchmeri, with refufe wheat, 
 but ufe the fineft grain. The procefs of making ftarch 
 of wheat is as follows: The grain, being well cleaned, 
 is put to ferment in veffels full of water, which they ex- 
 pofe to the fun when in its greateft heat, changing the 
 water twice a day, for the fpace of eight or 12 days, ac¬ 
 cording to the feafon. When the grain burils eafily un¬ 
 der the finger, they judge it fufficiently fermented. The 
 fermentation perfected, and the grain thus foftened it is 
 put handful by handful into a canvas bag, to feparate the 
 flour from the hulks, which is done by rubbing and 
 beating it on a plank, laid acrofs the mouth of the empty 
 veflel that is to receive the flour. 
 
 As the veffels are filled with this liquid flour, there is 
 feen fwimming at the top a redilh water, which is to 
 be carefully fcufnmed off from time to time, and clean 
 water put in its place; which, after llirring the whole 
 together, is all to be ftrained thiough a cloih or feve 
 and what is left behind put into the velfel with new wa¬ 
 ter, and expofed to the fun for fome time : and, as the 
 lediment thickens at the bottom, they drain off the wa¬ 
 ter four or five times, by inclining the veflel, but with¬ 
 out palling it through the fievc ; what remains at bottom, 
 is the ftarch, which they cut in pieces to get out, and 
 leave it to dry in the fun ; when dry, it is laid up for 
 ufe. 
 
 STATE, the policy or form of government of a na¬ 
 tion. Hence minifters of ftate, reafons of flate, &c. 
 STATED JViTids. See Wind. 
 
 STATER, an ancient kind of weight, weighing four 
 Attick drachms; it was either of filver or gold ; the for¬ 
 mer worth about two Ihillings and four-pence llei ling. 
 
 ST ATERA Rorncna , or llilyard, a name given to the 
 Roman balance. See Balance. 
 
 STATES, a term applied to the feveral orders or 
 claffcs of a people affembled to confult of matters for the 
 publick good. 
 
 States General, the name of an affcmbly confifting 
 of the deputies of the feveral united provinces. 
 
 States of H'Aland, an aflembly conflfting of the de¬ 
 puties or the council, or colleges of each city, wherein 
 relides the fovcrcignty of that province. 
 
 STATIC ES, S tut ice, a branch of mathematicks, 
 which confiders the motion of bodies refulting from 
 weight or gravity. Thole who define mechanicks the 
 lcicnce of motion, make ftaticks a member thereof, viz. 
 that part which confiders, the motion of bodies arifing 
 from gravity. Othei ■; make them two diftindt dodtrincs, 
 reftraining mechanicks.to the dodtrine of motion and 
 weight in reference to the ftrudlure and power of ma¬ 
 chines ; and ftaticks to the dodtrine of motion confi- 
 dcred merely as arifing from the weight of bodies without 
 any intermediate refpedt to machines. On-which foot¬ 
 ing ftaticks Ihould be the dodtrine or theorv of motion, 
 and mechanicks the application thereof to machines. 
 
 Staticks, Stutia, in medicine, a kind of epilep*- 
 ticks, or perfons feized with epilepfies. Staticks differ from 
 catelepticks, -in that thefe laft have no fcnlc of external 
 objedts, nor remember any thing that pafles at the time 
 of the paroxyfm : whereas the ilatici are all the while 
 I taken up with fome very ftrong livelv idea, which they 
 remember well enough, out of the fit. 
 
 STATION, in geometry, &c. a place pitched upon 
 to make an obfervation, take an angle or the like. 
 
 Station, in aftronomy, the pofition or appearance 
 of a planet in the fame point of the zodiack for feveral 
 days. As the earth, whence we view the motions of the 
 planets, is out of the centre of their orbits, the planets 
 appear to proceed irregularly ; being fometimes feen to go 
 forwards, that is, from weft to call, which is called the 
 diredtion ; fometimes to go backwards,' or from eaft to 
 weft, which is called the retrogradation. Now between 
 thefe two Hates there mull be an intermediate one, where¬ 
 in the planet neither appears to go backwards nor for¬ 
 wards, but to Hand ftill, and keep the fame place in her 
 orbit: which is called her llation. 
 
 STATIONARY, indlronomy, the ftate of a planet 
 when it feems to remain immoveable in the lame point of 
 the zodiack. The planets having fometimes a progrellive, 
 and fometimes a retrogade motion, there will be lome 
 point wherein they appear llationary. Now a planet will 
 be feen llationary when the line that joins the earth’s 
 and planet’s centre 'is conftandy diredted to the fame 
 point in the heavens ; that is, when it keeps parallel to 
 itlelf. For all right lines drawn from any part of the 
 earth's orbit, parallel to one another, do all point to the 
 fame ftar ; the diftance of thefe lines being infenfible, in. 
 companion of that of the fixed ftar. 
 
 Saturn is feen llationary at the diftance of fomcwli2t 
 more than a quadrant from the fun ; Jupiter at the dif¬ 
 tance of 52 0 , and Mars at a much greater diftance. Sa¬ 
 turn is llationary eight days, Jupiter four, Mars two, 
 Venus one and a hail, and Mcrcurv an half,'though the 
 feveral ftations are not always equal. 
 
 Stationary Fever, a peculiar kind of fever, 
 adapted and owing to fome general conftitution of the 
 3 V T 
 
S T A 
 
 air and feafons. Sydenham obferves, that there are certain 
 general conftitutions of years, which owe their origin 
 neither to heat, cold, drynefs, nor moifturc, but rather 
 depend upon a certain fecret and inexplicable alteration in 
 the bowels of the earth, whence the air becomes impreg¬ 
 nated with fuch kinds of effluvia, as fubjeft the human 
 body to peculiar diftempers, fo long as that kind of con- 
 ftitution prevails, which, after a certain courfe of years, 
 declines, and gives way to another. Each of thefe gene¬ 
 ral conftitutions is attended with its own proper and pe¬ 
 culiar kind of fever, which never appears in any other; 
 and this is thence called a ftationary fever. 
 
 STATUARY, Statuaria , a branch of fculpture em¬ 
 ployed in the making of ftatues. 
 
 STATUE, Statuci, is defined to be apiece of fculp¬ 
 ture in full relievo, reprefenting a human figure. 
 
 Daviler more fcientifically defines ftatue a reprefenta- 
 tion, in high relievo and inlulate, oflome perfon dittin- 
 guifhed by his birth, merit, or great a&ions, placed as 
 an ornament in a fine building, orexpofed in a publick 
 place to preferve the memory of his worth. In ftridl- 
 nefs, the term ftatue is only applied to figures on foofi 
 the word being formed from ftatura, the lize of the body. 
 Statues are formed with the chiffel, of fcveral matters, as 
 ftonc, marble, plaifter, See. They are alfo caft of various 
 kinds of metal, particularly gold, filver, brafs, and lead. 
 
 Statues are ufually diftinguifhed into four general 
 kinds : the fir ft are thofe lefs than the life, of which 
 kind we have feveral ftatues of great men, of kings, and 
 of gods themfelves ; the fecond are thofe equal to the 
 life, in which manner it was that the ancients, at the 
 publick expence, uled to make ftatues of perlons eminent 
 for virtue, learning, or the ferviccs they had done : the 
 third, thofe that exceed the life, among which, thofe 
 which furpafled the life once and a half, were for kings 
 and emperors; and thofe double the life, for heroes: 
 the fourth kind were thofe that exceeded the life twice, 
 thrice, and even more, and were called coloffufies. Every 
 ftatue, refembling the perfon it is intended to reprefent, 
 is called ftatua iconica. Statues acquire various other de¬ 
 nominations. Thus, 
 
 1. Allegorical ftatue, is that which, under a human 
 figure, or other fymbol, reprefents fomething of another 
 kind, as a part of the eaith, a feal'on, age, element, 
 temperament, hour, Ac. 
 
 2. Curule ftatues, are thofe which are reprefented in 
 chariots drawn by biga?, or quadrigae, that is, by two or 
 four horfes ; of which kind there were feveral in the cir- 
 cufcs, hippodromes, Ac. or in cars, as we feefome, with 
 triumphal arches, or antique medals. 
 
 3. Equeftrian ftatue, that which reprefents fome illuf- 
 trious perfon on horfeback, as that famous one of Mar¬ 
 cus Aurelius at Rome ; that of king Charles the firft at 
 Charing-Crofs ; king George the fecond, in Leicefter- 
 fquare, Ac. 
 
 4. Greek ftatue, denotes a figure that is naked and an¬ 
 tique : it being in this manner the Greeks reprefented 
 their deities, athletce of the Olympick games, and he¬ 
 roes : the ftatues of heroes were particularly called Achil¬ 
 lean ftatues, byreafon of the great number of figures of 
 that prince in molt of the cities of Greece. 
 
 5. Hydraulick ftatue, is any figure placed as an orna¬ 
 ment of a fountain or grotto, or that does the office ot 
 a jet d’eau, acock, Ipout, or the like, by any of its parts, 
 or by any attribute it holds ; the like is to beunderftood 
 of any animal ferving for the fame ufe. 
 
 6. Pedeftrian ftatue, a ftatue Handing on foot; as that 
 of king Charles the fecond, in the Royal Exchange ; and 
 of king James the fecond, in the Privy-Gardens. 
 
 7. Roman ftatue, is an appellation given to fuch as 
 are cloathed, and which receive various names from their 
 various dreffes : thofe of emperors, with long gowns over 
 their armour, were called ftature paludatre : thofe of 
 captains and cavaliers, with coats of arms, thoracata? : 
 thofe'of loldiers, with cuirafles, loricatae : thofe oflena- 
 tors and augurs, trabeata; : thofe of magiftrates’, with 
 long robes, togatce : thole of the people, with a plain 
 tunica, tunicatre : and, laftly, thofe ol women, with 
 long trains, ftolatce. 
 
 The Romans had another divifion of ftatues into di¬ 
 vine, which were thofe confecrated to the gods, as Jupiter. 
 Mars, Apollo, Ac. Heroes, which were thofe ol the 
 demi-gods, as Hercules, Ac. and Augufti, which were 
 
 S T E 
 
 thofe of the emperors, as thofe two of Crefar and Au- 
 guftus, under the portico of the capitol. 
 
 In repairing a ftatue caft in a mould, they touch it up 
 with a chifTcl, graver, or other inftrument, tofinifhtbe 
 places which have not come well off: they alfo clear off 
 the barb, and what is redundant in the joints and pro- 
 jedlures. 
 
 STATURE, the fize or height of a man. 
 
 STATUTE, Statutum , in its general fenfe, fignifieS 
 a law, ordinance, decree, Ac. 
 
 Statute, is alfo ufed for a fhort inftrument in writ¬ 
 ing, termed ftatutc-merchant, or ftatute ftaple, which are 
 in the nature of bonds, and called by the name ftatutes, 
 on account of their being made purfuant to the forms 
 preferibed by certain ftatutes, whereby it is dire&cd,' be¬ 
 fore what perlons, and how they are to be made. 
 
 Statut e ■-Sejfiom, is taken for a meeting of conftables 
 and houfekeepers in fome hundreds, by cuftom, for the 
 debating of differences between mailers and fervants, the 
 rating of fervants wages, and bellowing perfons in fer* 
 vice, Ac. 
 
 STAVERS, or St aggers, among farriers, a gid- 
 dinefs in a horfe’s head, which ends in madnefs. This 
 difeafe is frequently occafioned by turning out a horfe to 
 grafs too foon, before well cold, where, by hanging down 
 his head to feed, bad vapours and humours are generated, 
 which oppreffing the brain, are the proximate caufe' of 
 this difeafe. Sometimes it comes by over exercife in hot 
 weather, which inflames the blood, Ac. and fomerimes 
 by noifome finclls in the liable, cxcefltve eating, Ac. 
 Thefigns of it are, dimnefs of fight, reeling and dagger¬ 
 ing, watery eyes, Ac. At length, for perfect pain, he 
 beats his head again ft the wall, thrufts it into the litter, 
 riles and lies down with fury, Ac. 
 
 For the cure of this dillemper there are various pre- 
 feriptions, one of which is, firft to bleed the horfe, then 
 to diffolvc the quantity of a hazle-nut of fweet butter 
 in a faucer full of wine ; then taking fome lint, or fine 
 flax, dip it in the mixture and Hop his ears with it, and 
 Hitch them for 12 hours : fome boil an ounce and a half 
 of bitter almonds, two drachms of ox gall, half a penny¬ 
 worth of black hellebore made into powder, grains of 
 caftoreum, vinegar, and varnilh, of each five drachms; 
 which they boil and drain, and then put into his ears. 
 
 STAVESACRE, in botany, the Englilh name fora 
 fpecies of delphinium It grows in fhady places in the 
 louthern parts of Europe, and is cultivated in our gar¬ 
 dens for the fake of its flowers, which are like thofe of 
 the larkfpur. 
 
 STAY, in the fea-language, abigftrong rope, faftened 
 to the top of one mall, and to the foot of that next be¬ 
 fore it, towards the prow, ferving to keep it firm, and 
 prevent its falling aftwards or towards the poop. All 
 mails, top-malls, and flag-ftaves, have their Hays, except 
 the fprit-lail, top-malls. That of the mall is called 
 the main-ftay. The main-mail, fore-maft, and thofe 
 belonging to them, have alfo back Hays to prevent their 
 pitching forwards or over-board, as going on either fide 
 of her. To flay a-lhip, or to bring her on the Hays, 
 is to manage her tackle and fails fo thatlhe cannot make 
 any way forwards ; which is done in order to her tacking 
 about. 
 
 STEADY, a word of command, at fea, for the man 
 at the helm to keep the fiiip Heady in her courfe, and not 
 to make angles (or yaws, as they call them) in and out. 
 
 STEATOMA, a kind of encyllcd tumour, confifting 
 of a matter like luet or lard, loft, without pain, and 
 without dilcolouring the Ikin. 
 
 STEEL, a kind of iron refined and purified by the 
 fire with other ingredients. 
 
 Steel, of all other metals, is that fufceptible of the 
 greateft degree of hardnefs when well tempered, whence 
 its great ufe in the making of tools and inftruments of all 
 kinds. Mr. Cramer obferves, that the difference between 
 iron and fteel is, that the latter being much harder, will 
 not yield to the hammer, but is brittle inftead of being 
 du&ile, and refills the file. Malleable iron grows rigid 
 by being limply extinguilhed in cold water, but it yet 
 retains a confiderable degree of dudlility in the cold, and. 
 may be extended in all dimenfions with the hammer. 
 Steel, however, if heated again, and cooled by flow de- ' 
 grees, may be filed and extended more or lefs by the 
 hammer. But there arc many degrees in the hardening 
 
S T E 
 
 of fteel; for if it has been extremely red hot, and then 
 quenched in cold water, in motion, it becomes greatly 
 harder than if it had been but moderately red hot, and 
 had been quenched in warm water. Steel is alfo of a 
 darker colour than iron, and the furface of it, when 
 broken, appears to confift of fmaller granulated, or even 
 Hriated, particles than the iron it was made of. Mr. 
 Cramer further obferves, that the method of making ileel 
 out of iron is either by cementation or by fufion. That 
 by cementation may be performed in the’following man¬ 
 ner : choofe fome bars of pure iron, not too thick, and 
 quite free from heterogeneous matter, the flexiblenefs ot 
 it, both when hot and cold, being a very good iign there¬ 
 of : prepare a cement of charcoal dull, moderately pul¬ 
 verized, one part: or of charcoal dull two parts; bones, 
 horns, or hair of animals, burnt to a black nefs, in a dole 
 veflel and in a gentle fire, and afterwards reduced to a, 
 powder, one part; wood allies, half a part: mix them 
 together; prepare an earthen cylindrical veflel, two or 
 three inches higher than the bars are long ; put into the 
 bottotp of this veflel the cement, prepared as before di¬ 
 rected, fo that being gently prefled down, it may cover 
 the bottom of the veflel an inch and half deep ; place- 
 then the bars perpendicularly* fo that they may be every 
 where about an inch from the fldes of the veflel and from 
 each other ; fill the intqrftices with the fame cement, and 
 cover alfo the bars with it, fo that the veflel may be quite 
 full; next cover it with a tile, and flop the joints with 
 thin lute : put this veflel into a furnace, and keep it 
 moderately but equally red hot, for fix or ten hours to¬ 
 gether ; when this is over, take the red hot bars out and 
 dip them in cold water; they will then be brittle, and 
 turned to Heel. See C/E ment ation. 
 
 The method of making fleel by fufion is as follows : 
 take of iron ore, or of unmalleable iron, of the fxrft fu¬ 
 fion, divide it into fmall parcels, and put them into a 
 bed made of charcoal dull, in a fmith’s forge: let the 
 quantity of iron be but fmall for the experiment; put to 
 it, as a defenfitive menftruum, fome of the vitrefeent lco- 
 rire of fand, or Hones of the fame nature; then put 
 upon them a quantity of charcoal; light this, and admit 
 only a gentle blaft ot the bellows, that the fcors and the 
 metal may both melt regularly : when this has been fome 
 time kept in fufion, take it out, and divide it into two 
 parts, which make red hot, and hammer into long bars : 
 finally, beat them red hot, and plunge them into cold 
 water, and they will be found to be fleel, fo very hard 
 as not to be fileable, and fo brittle as to break afunder 
 when flruck with confiderable force. 
 
 A bar of iron, when converted into fleel, is not equally 
 fo converted in all its parts; the fire has always acted 
 more flrongly upon its furface than on its central parts, 
 and it is therefore more per fed fleel there than in its in¬ 
 ner parts; but a perfection in the operation is not ne- 
 ceflary to the fleel’s being good andufeful, for the whole 
 bar is often very good fled, as are alfo many bars made 
 at the fame time, yet all, perhaps, differently affected. 
 
 If the compofition which is to convert the iron into 
 fleel be too flrong, or if the fire be too violent, or the 
 matter continued too long in it; in all thefe cafes the 
 fleel will be over made. The way to meliorate fuch fleel 
 as this, mufl be to divefl it of part of its falts and its 
 fulphur, but particularly the latter ; and M. Reaumur 
 found, that, burying the bars of fuch fleel in lime, or 
 any other alkaline fubflance that would readily abforb the 
 fulphurs, and placing it for a proper time in the fire, it 
 would be in a manner decompofed again, and come out 
 a very good and perfed fleel. 
 
 By this management fleel may again be converted or 
 reduced to its primitive iron, and a body of any middle 
 degree between fleel and iron maybe produced by flopping 
 the procefs at different points of time, or continuing it 
 till all the adventitious lalts and fulphurs are drawn off 
 or abforbed. 
 
 Annealing or nealing of fleel, is by fome ufed for the 
 foftening it, in order to make it work the eaiier, which 
 is ufually done by giving it a blood-red heat in the fire, 
 and then taking it out and letting it cool of itfelf: fome 
 have pretended to fecrets in annealing, by which they 
 could bring down iron or fleel to the temper of lead : 
 this was done by often heating the metal in melted lead, 
 and letting it cool again out of the lead. But this method 
 is found by Moxon to have no other effect than what it I 
 2 
 
 S T E 
 
 had from the former. Steel may, indeed, be made a little 
 fofter than in the common way, by covering it with 
 coarfe powder of cow-horn or hoofs ; thus inclofing it 
 in a loam, heating the whole in a wood-fire till it be red 
 hot, and then leaving the fire to go out of itfelf, and the 
 fleel to cool. 
 
 STEELYARD, Statera Rornana. See the article 
 Balance. 
 
 STEEPLE, an appendage erected generally on the 
 weftern end of a church, to hold the bells. Steeples are 
 denominated from their form, either fpires or towers; the 
 fir ft are luch as afeend continually diminilhing either 
 conically or pyramidally. T he latter are mere parallel¬ 
 epipeds. See Spire and Tower. 
 
 S I EERAGE, on board afhip, that part of the fhip 
 next below the quarter-deck, before the bulk-head of the 
 great cabbin, where the ftcerfman Hands in moll fhipsof 
 war. 
 
 STEERING, in navigation, the direfling a veflel 
 from one place to another by means of the helm and 
 rudder. He is held the beft fteerfman who caufes the 
 Icaft motion in putting the helm over to and again, and 
 who beft keeps the fhip from making yaws, that is, from 
 running in and out. There are three methods of fleer¬ 
 ing. i. By any mark on the land, fo as to keep the fhip 
 even by it. 2. By the compafs, which is by keeping the 
 Ihip’s head on luch a rhumb or point of the compafs, as 
 beft leads to port. 3. To fleer as one is bidden or con¬ 
 ned, which, in a great fhip, is the duty of him that is 
 taking his turn at the helm. 
 
 S I EL VE, on board a fhip. The feamen fay the bow- 
 fprit or the beak-head of a fhip fteeves, when it Hands 
 too upright, or not ftraight enough forward. 
 
 S J EGANOGRAPHY, the art of fecret writing, or 
 of writing in cyphers, known only to the perfons corre- 
 fponding. 
 
 ST ELLARA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flower coniifts of a pentaphyllous cup, with five bipartite, 
 plane, oblong, withering petals; the (lamina confifts of 
 10 flender filaments, topped with roundifh antherae; the 
 fruit is an ovate, clofe, unilocular capfule, opening with 
 fix valves, and contains a number of comprefled round- 
 ifh feeds. This genus includes the alfine of Tournefort. 
 
 STELLATE Pla nts, among botanifts, are thofe 
 whofe leaves are placed in the form of a ftar at certain 
 joints or dillances on the ftalks, fuch are madder, cli¬ 
 vers, &c. 
 
 STEM, in botany, that part of a plant arifing im¬ 
 mediately from the root, and which fullains the branches, 
 leaves, flowers, and fruit. See Stalk. 
 
 Stem of a Ship , that main piece of timber which 
 comes bending from the keel below, where it is fcarfed, 
 as they call it ; that is, pieced in ; and rifes compaffing 
 right before the forecaftle. This Hem it is, which guides 
 the rake of the fhip, and all the but-ends of the planks 
 are fixed into it. Falfe Hem, in a fhip, is that fixed be¬ 
 fore the right one, where that is made too flat for the 
 Hi ip to keep the wind well. 
 
 SI EMPLES, in mining, crofs bars of wood in the 
 lhaft which are funk to mines. In many places the way 
 is to fink a perpendicular hole or lhaft, the fides of which 
 they ftrengthen from top to bottom with wood-work, to 
 prevent the earth from falling in ; the tranfverfe pieces 
 of wood ufed for this purpofe, they call ftemples, and by 
 means of thefe the miners, in fome places, defeend with¬ 
 out ufing any rope, catching hold of thefe with their hands 
 and feet. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY, or fhort-hand. See Short- 
 H AND. 
 
 S I ENTOROPHONICK Tube, a fpeaking-trum- 
 pet, thus called from Stentor, a perfon mentioned by 
 Homer. 
 
 S TEREOGRAPHICK Projection, is the pro¬ 
 jection ot the circles of the fphere on the plane of fome 
 one great circle, the eye being placed in the pole of that 
 circle. The method and practice of this projection in 
 all the principal places, viz. on the planes of the meri¬ 
 dian, equinoctial, and horizon, have already been given 
 under the articlesMAP and Projection. 
 
 STEREOGRAPHY, the art of drawing the forms 
 and figures of the folids upon a plane. 
 
 STEREOMETRY, that part of geometry which 
 teaches how to meafure folid bodies, i. e. to find the 
 
 folidity 
 
S T E 
 
 fotfdity or folid content of bodies, as globes, cylinders 
 cubes, vefiels, Blips, 6 cc. 
 
 S I EREO I OMY, the art or a£t of cutting folids, 
 or making fedtions thereof, as walls or other members in 
 the profiles of architecture. 
 
 S TER I LlTY, the quality of a thing that is barren 
 in oppofition to fertility. 
 
 S 1 ERLING, a term frequent in Britifii commerce. 
 A pound, lhilling, or penny, ilerling, fignifies as much 
 as a pound, lhilling, or penny, of law ful money of Great 
 Britain, as fettled by authority. 
 
 S 1 ERN of a Ship , ufually denotes all the hindermoft 
 part of her, but properly it is only the outmofl part abaft. 
 
 Sr ern-Fast, denotes fome fafieningsof ropes, &c. 
 behind the Item of a fhip, to which a cable or hawlcr 
 may be bi ought or fixed, in order to hold her ftcrn to a 
 wharf. See. 
 
 Stern-Post, a great timber let into the keel at the 
 Hern of a fhip, fomewhat Hoping, into which are fattened 
 the after-planks ; and on this poll, by its pintle and 
 gudgeons, hangs the rudder. 
 
 SI ERNOHYOIDtEUS, in anatomy, a pair of muf- 
 cles arifing from the upper and internal part of the bone 
 of the tternum. 
 
 S 1 ERNUM, in anatomy, the breafl-bone, being a 
 cartilaginous fort of bone which compofes the fore-part 
 of the bread, and into which the ribs are fitted. 
 
 In adults this bone is often fingle, but fometimes it 
 has two, fometimes three pieces concurring to form it. 
 Its fubftance is fungous and fpungy ; its upper part is 
 called the manubrium or handle, and in this there is on 
 each fide a cavity for the articulation of the clavicles. 
 In the middle it is narrow, and broad at the lower part. 
 
 I o this alfo there adheres a cartilage, called from its 
 figure cartilago enfiformis, or xiphoides. This is ufually 
 fingle; fometimes it is bifurcated, and not uufrcqucntly 
 bony throughout; and on each fide of the flernum there 
 the articulatio 'i of the (even true ribs. 
 SI ERN U I APION. See Sneezing. 
 
 S i ERNU I A1 1VE, or Sternutatory, a me¬ 
 dicine proper to produce iheezing. 
 r ., S ^ rn ^ t 55 1 1 ves arc ot tvvo hinds, gentle and violent. 
 Of the firft kind are betony, i'age, marjorum, tobacco, 
 and the whole fafhionable tribe of fnuffs. Of the latter 
 kinJ are euphorbium, white hellebore, pcllitory 6 cc 
 Sternutatives operate by their fliarp pungent parts, vel- 
 licating the inner membrane of the nofe, whi'h is ex¬ 
 ceeding lenfible, and occafioning the ferous matter con¬ 
 tained in the glands of the nofe, and in feveral finuies 
 lituated in the bale of the cranium and the os fronds to 
 be expelled. ’ 
 
 SI E w, a (mall kind of fiflt pond, the peculiar office 
 of which is to maintain fiffi, and keep them in rcadineis 
 for the daily ule of a family, & c . The ii(h bred in the 
 large ponds, are drawn out and put in here. For two 
 large ponds of three or four acres a piece, it is advifeable 
 to have four flews eaph two rods wide, and three long. 
 The flews are uipally m gardens, or at leail near the 
 houfe, to be more handy, and the better looked to. The 
 method of making them is to carry the bottom in a con¬ 
 tinued decline from one end, with a mouth to favour the 
 drawing with a net. See Fish Ponds. 
 
 Stews, or Stues, were alfo places anciently per¬ 
 mitted m England to women of profeiTed incontinency 
 for the proffer of their bodies to all comers. Thefe were 
 under particular rules and laws of difeipline, appointed 
 by the lord of the manor. 
 
 S I EWARD, ail officer appointed in another’s (lead 
 or place and always taken ior a principal officer within 
 hisjunfdiftion. Oftliefe there arc various kinds. The 
 greateft officer under the crown is tire lord high Reward 
 of England an office that was anciently tire inheritance 
 of the earls of Lerceffer, till iorfeited by Simon de Mount- 
 fort, to king Henry III. But the power of this office is 
 lo very great, t|,at it lias not been judged Cafe to truft it 
 any longer m the hands of a fubjeft, excepting only p rt> 
 hac w«, occafionally : as to officiate at a coronation, at 
 the arraignment of a nobleman for liigh-treafon, or the 
 like During his office, the Reward bears a white Raff in 
 his hand i aiyl the trial, &c. ended, he breaks tire Raff; 
 and with it his commiifion expires. There is Jikewife a 
 lord fleward of the king’s houfhold, who is the chief of¬ 
 ficer Of tllC Court" line *l.„ i > 
 
 S T I 
 
 authority over all the officers and fervants of the houfe- 
 hold, except fuel! as belong to the chapel, chamber, and 
 
 (tabic. See Houshold. 
 
 There is alfo a fleward of the Marfhaifea, who has 
 judicial authority. And in molt corporations, and all 
 houles of quality m the kingdom, tlieic is an officer of 
 the name and authority of a fleward. The Reward of a 
 imp rs he who receives ail the victuals from the purler, 
 and is to lee it well Rowed in the hold ; all things of that 
 nature belonging to tile Blip's ufe aie in his cuflody ; lie 
 looks after the bread, and diflriblltcs out the feveral mefles 
 of victuals in the fhip ; he hath an apartment for himfelf 
 m T,I 10 d ’ wb,ch called tlie Reward’s room. 
 
 SilGrMA l'A, in natural hiflory, the apertures in 
 different parts of the bodies of infers, communicating 
 witli the trachea.-, or air-veffils, and ferving for tire office 
 of refpnation. 
 
 Nature has given to thefe minute animals a much larger 
 number of trachea- and bronchia than to us; all the two- 
 wmged and four-winged flies, which have a fingle or un- 
 d.vrded corcelet, to which their legs are all fixed, have 
 , ° m m that corcelet, two on each fide; 
 
 they have them alio on the lings of tl;eir bodv, but thofe 
 on the corcelet are the moll confiderable. Of the four 
 on the corcelet, the two anterior ones are ufually the 
 largely thefe, as well as the pofterior ones, are oblong, 
 and placed obliquely to the length of the body. The 
 colou r of the fl.gmata frequently differs from that of the 
 corcelet , lorne are yellowifh, others of a coffee-colour 
 or tome degrees of a fallow-colour, in flies whofc corcelet 
 IS brown, black, or blue. Flies have, befide thefe, fe- 
 vcral ftigmata alio in the rings of their bodies, perhaps 
 in every one of them : ihefe fligmata are not like thofe 
 of the corcelet but are round, ufually a little eminent 
 above the reflor the furface, and refemblinga pin’s head. 
 
 bllL.DE bun, m the colour-trade, the name of 
 a compotmon uled lor painting in oil or water, and is 
 made by adecoftioil of the liciuin or avignon-berry in 
 allum-water, winch is mixed with writing into a pafle, 
 and formed into twilled flicks. It ought to be chofen of 
 
 from dirt >Cl C,W ’ VCry finC ’ tender ’ and liable, and free 
 
 d.flEE, Stilus. See Style. 
 mfVH IT1 ° US ° ILS - iuch as ar= produced by 
 
 preffion°&c ln ° PP ° fitlon to thoPe £ ot b }’ infufron, ex- 
 
 b„ S / IL u B0TT ? MS ’ th e diRiilery, a name given 
 oy the tuders to what remains in me Hill after the work¬ 
 ing the warn into low wines. 
 
 from^thr bot | oms aic procured in the greateR quantity 
 from the malt-wafh, and are of i'o much value to the 
 diflrller, in the fatten,„g of hogs, & c . that he often finds 
 them one of the moil valuable articles of the bufinefs. 
 hey might alfo, as Dr. Shaw obferves, be put to other 
 
 and' 1 f* ' “ afpord "’£ a lar S« proportion of acid fpirit 
 and oil, a fuel and a fixed (alt, and with fome adtlrcfs 
 and good management, a vinegar and tarter. Another 
 advantageous ufe, is the adding them to the next brewing 
 of the malt for more fpim : the mcreafe of the produce 
 from this is more than is eafily conceived. e 
 
 orflI Ii Y U f ATI i NG l ’T"‘'"" J ’ a property in angular 
 o. fharp bodies, whereby they vellicate, and caufe vibra¬ 
 tions and inflections ot the fibres of the nerves, and a 
 greater derivation of nervous fluid into the part affefled 
 Stimulants produce pain, heat, and rednel's. They mav be 
 ieduced to violent penetrating depilatories, gentle fma- 
 pilrns, veficatories, and cauflicks. 
 
 rl an apparatus ill the body of certain 
 
 infeftstin form of a little fpear; ferving them as a wea¬ 
 pon of offence. The Ring of a bee, or wafp, is a curi¬ 
 ous piece of mechanifin ; it confifls of a hollow tube at 
 the root whereof is a bag full of a (harp penetrating juice, 
 the tube"’ ftinE1, ’ S ’ 15 illto the wound through 
 
 Within the tube, Mr. Derham has obferved, there lie 
 hem d 1 , fllar P" gearded f P c ars : in the fling of a wafp 
 
 beards oflffi n't 8 °"A “r ° f each olher ’ likc *= 
 or ffieath 1 ? S - ° nc ot thefe r P ears “■ die Ring 
 
 he re!d ma ? po,IU a lltt,e b'fore tire other ; to 
 be leady, as fhould feem, to be firfl darted into the flefh ■ 
 
 oVheFth^fl l ’ ' y meaUS ° f “ S F ° remoft beard i th< 
 other then flnkes m too ; and fq they alternately pie 
 deeper and dprrw t -i. ' - G 
 
 1 4 u ho: 
 
♦ 
 
 S T O STO 
 
 hold in the fidh r after which the flicath or fling follows, 
 to convev the poifon into the wound; which, that it 
 may pierce the better, is drawn into a point with a lmall 
 flit below that point for the two lpears to come out at. 
 Bv means of thele beards it is, that the animal is forced 
 to leave its fling behind it, when difturbed, before it can 
 have time to withdraw their fpears into their fcabbard. 
 
 STIPULATION. in the civil law, the a£t of ilipu- 
 lating^that is, of treating and concluding tc rms and con¬ 
 ditions to be inferted in a contraCl. Stipulations were 
 anciently performed at Rome with abundance of cere¬ 
 monies, the firft whereof was, that one party fhould in¬ 
 terrogate, and the dthcr anl'wcr, to give his content and 
 oblige himfelf. 
 
 STOCK, the trunk or body of a fruit-tree, into 
 which the graft or bud is inferted. 
 
 All flocks for fruit-trees fhould be raifed froYn the ker¬ 
 nels or flones of the fruit; for fuckers (though fome 
 people ufe them) befides being hardly ever well rooted, 
 are very apt to produce quantities of other luckers. 
 which weaken the trees exceedingly, and become very 
 tronblefome in the borders and walks of a garden. 1 he 
 bell way therefore is to fow a few flones and kernels 
 annually, or at lead every other year, for a conllant 
 fiupply. Both thefe forts of feeds are bed when their 
 fruit has been differed to hang upon the tree till it drops 
 through ripenefs, and is afterwards permitted to begin to 
 rot: but they mud be carefully taken out before that 
 rottennefs can effett them. They fhould then be well 
 cleared from the pulp, and the larged, plumped, and 
 heavied, fhould be fele&ed, and carefully laid up in dry 
 land, in a place where neither vermin nor moidure can 
 cofne to them ; for the latter would fpoil their growth 
 by rendering them mouldy, and the former, particularly 
 rats and mice, arc lo very fond of the kernels of apples 
 and pears, that they will even fcratch them up aftcr 
 they arc down, and then devour them. 1 raps fhould 
 therefore be let in the feminary, to catch thofe mifchic- 
 vous animals. 
 
 Layers, dips, and cuttings, when they have taken 
 good root, make far better docks for grafting on than 
 any fuckers ; but dill they arc much inferior to thofe 
 which are raifed from feeds. 
 
 The beddocks for each fort of fruit arc the following. 
 
 For apples, which mud always be grafted upon a free 
 dock, that is to fay, upon a dock of their own kind, for 
 they will not take’upon that of any other fruit, the forts 
 mod generally ufed arc, i. 1 he crab-dock, as it is 
 commonl y termed ; i. The Dutch creeper ; 3. The Pa- 
 radife-flock -, and, 4. The codlin-dock. 
 
 Stock-Gilliflowers, among gardeners, the 
 name of a well known flower, and of which there are 
 many beautiful fpccies, didinguifhed by the names of 
 the ten-weeks dock, the queen-llock, and the Brumpton- 
 dock. 
 
 Stock-Jobring, the art or mvdery of trafficking 
 in the pubiick docks or funds. It dock-jobbers make 
 any contra£l for the fale of llock, when they are not ac¬ 
 tually poffclTed of, or mtitlcd to the fame, thofe contrails 
 will be deemed void. Likewife the parties fo agreeing to 
 1 & 1 , are liable to a penalty of 500I. The time of ten¬ 
 dering dock fold, is held to be the lad hour of the day 
 on which it was to be transferred, and then an aClual 
 transfer is not neceffary, unlefs the perfon to whom it 
 ought to be made be at the place and time ready to re¬ 
 ceive the fame. 
 
 Stock-Fish, or Stock-Fifcb, in commerce, a kind of 
 dried falted flfli, of a greyiffi afh colour, and the belly 
 fomewhat whiter, being only cod-filh cured in a parti¬ 
 cular manner, which makes it neceffary to beat it with 
 dicks before it is fit for dreffing. 
 
 STOCKING, that part of the eloathing of the leg 
 and foot which immediately covers their nudity, and 
 fereens them from the cold, <kc. Anciently, the only 
 dockings in ufe were made of cloth, or of milled duffs 
 fewed together; but dnee the invention of kniting and 
 weaving dockings of filk, wool, cotton, thread, 6tc. the 
 ufe of cloth dockings is quite out of doors. I he modern 
 dockings, whether woven or knit, are a kind of plexufes, 
 formed of an infinite number of little knots called ditches, 
 loops, or mefhes, intermingled in one another. Knit 
 dockings are wrought with needles made of polifhcd iron 
 or brafs wire, which interweave the threads, and form 
 
 I the mefhes the dockings confid of. Tins operation 
 called knitting, the invention whereof is commonly at¬ 
 tributed to the Scots, bccaule the firil works of this kind 
 came from thence. Tt is added, that it was on this ac¬ 
 count that the company of docking-knittei s edablilhed 
 at Paris in 1527, took lor their patron Sr. f iacre, who 
 is laid to be the fon of a king of Scotland. Woven dock ¬ 
 ings are ordinarily very fine ; they are manufactured on 
 a frame, or machine of poblhcd iron, the diucture and 
 apparatus whereof is exceedingly ingenious. 
 
 The Englifh and French have greatly ccntefled the 
 honour of the invention of the docking-loom ; but wc 
 are a(Tured, whatever pretenlions the F rench claim to this 
 invention, that the fame was certainly deviled by Wil¬ 
 liam Lee, of St. John’s college, Cambridge, in the year 
 1589, though it is true, that lie fird made it pubiick in 
 F ranee, alter defpaiiingot fuccefs in his own country. 
 
 STOCKS, among Ihip-carpcntcrs, a frame of tim¬ 
 ber, and great polls made afhore, to build pinnaces, 
 ketches, boats, and luch lmall craft, and fomelimes finall 
 frigates. Hence we lay, a fhip is on the flocks, when 
 lhe is building. 
 
 STOECHAS, iii botany, Tourhefbrt’s name for z 
 kind of lavender, now comprehended by Linnaeus among 
 the lavenders. See Lavandula. 
 
 STOICKS, a'left of ancient philofophers, the follow¬ 
 ers of Zeno, thus called from the Greek root, which fig- 
 nifics a porch or portico, in regard Zeno ufed to teach 
 under a portico or piazza. It was the common fault of 
 the Stoicks to introduce abundance of lubtilty and dry- 
 nels into their deputations, either by word of mouth, or 
 in writing. They feemed as carefully to avoid all beauty 
 of dile, as depravity of morals. Chryfippus, who wa9 
 one of the Stoicks, did no great honour to his fe£l, and 
 could only difgrace it. He believed the gods pcriffiablc, 
 and maintained, that they would a£tual!y perilh in the 
 general conflagration. He allowed the moll notorious 
 and moil abominable incefts, and admitted the commu¬ 
 nity of wives among fages. 
 
 To the praile of the Stoicks, in general, it mufl, how¬ 
 ever, be confeffed', that, lei’s intent than other philofo¬ 
 phers upon frivolous, and often dangerous [peculations, 
 they devoted their iludies to the clearing up of thofe great- 
 principles of morality which are the firmefl fupports of 
 iociety ; but the drynefs and fliffnefs that prevailed in 
 their writings, as well as in their manners, difgufted mofl 
 of their readers, and abundantly leffened their utility. 
 Reno’s chief followers, among the Greeks, were Lu- 
 .cippus, Clcanthus, Chryfippus, Diogenes Babylonius, 
 Antipater, Panaetius, Poffidonius, and EpiCtetus. Among 
 the Romans, Cato, Varro, Cicero, Seneca, the emperor 
 Antoninus, &c. The Stoicks cultivated logick, phyficks, 
 metaphyficks, &c. but efpecially cthicks. The princi¬ 
 pal of their dogmata of the former kinds, are, that there 
 are certain catalcpfias, or comprehenfions, called alio 
 xctvas moicti, innate ideas, or principles naturally found 
 in the mind ; that God is the feminal caufe of the uni- 
 verfe; and, with the Platoniils, that the world is an 
 animal, by rcafon of God’s inhabiting and informing 
 every part thereof: that nature is an artificial fire, tend¬ 
 ing to generation : and that the world is at lafl to be de- 
 tlroyed by a conflagration. As for the morality of the 
 Stoicks, it was couched much in paradoxes ; as, that a 
 wife man is void of all paffions, or perturbation of mind ; 
 that pain is no real evil, but that a wife man is always 
 happy in the midft of torture, is always the fame, and 
 is always joyful; that there is none elfe free ; that none 
 elfe ought to be efleemed king, magiflrate, poet, or phi- 
 lofopher; that all wife men are great men ; that they arc 
 the only friends or lovers ; that nothing can happen to 
 them beyond their expectations; that all virtues are in- 
 fenfibly connected together , that all good things are 
 equal, and equally to be defired ; that goodnefs admits 
 of no increafeor diminution. They own but one God, 
 whom thev, however, call by various names, as Fate, 
 Jupiter, £cc. by which they did not mean various things, 
 but various powers and relations of the fame thing. Pro¬ 
 vidence they expreffed under the name Fate, which Chry¬ 
 fippus defines to be a natural leries, or compofition of 
 thing;, mutually following each other, by an immutable 
 nexus, or tie. fixed from all eternity. They held the 
 immortality of the foul. 
 
 STOLE, Stofa, a faccrdotal ornament worn by the 
 
 Romifh 
 
STO 
 
 fe-omiftt parilh-priefts, over their furplice, as a mark of 
 fuperiority in their refpe&ive churches. 
 
 Groom of the Stole, the eldeil gentleman of his ma- 
 jefty’s bed-chamber, wliofe office and honour it is to 
 prelent and put on his majefty’s firft garment, or Ihirt, 
 every morning, and to order the things in the chamber. 
 Sec Lord of the Bed-Chamber. 
 
 STOMACtt, Ventriculus, in anatomy, a hollow mem¬ 
 braneous, organical part of an animal, deftined to receive 
 the food, after deglutition, and convert it into chyle. It 
 lies immediately under the midriff, the liver covers a 
 part of its right lide, the fpleen touches it on the left, and 
 the colon at its bottom, to which alfo the cawl is tied. 
 Its figure refcmbles a bag-pipe, being long, large, wide, 
 and pretty round at the bottom, but lhorter and lefs con¬ 
 vex on its upper part, where it lias two orifices, one at 
 each end, which are fomewhat higher than the middle 
 between them. The left orifice is called xapSia, to which 
 thecefophagus is Joined. By this orifice the aliments enter 
 the ftomach, where being digefted, they afeend obliquely 
 to the pylorus, or right orifice, which is united to the 
 firft of the inteftincs. At this orifice the tunicles of the 
 ftomach are much thicker than they are any where elle, 
 and the inmoft has a thick and ftrong duplicature, in 
 form of a ring, which ferves as a valve to the pylorus, 
 when it contradls and ihuts. The ftomach is compofed 
 bf four membranes or coats. The firft and inmoft is 
 made of ffiort fibres, which ftand perpendicularly upon 
 the fibres of the next coat: they are to be i'een plainly to¬ 
 wards the pylorus. When the ftomach is diftended with 
 meat, thefe fibres become thick and fhor’t. Whilft they 
 endeavour to reftore themfelves by their natural elafticity, 
 they contrail the cavity of the ftomach for the attrition 
 and expulfion of the aliments. This coat is much 
 larger than the reft, being full of plates and wrinkles, 
 and chiefly about the pylorus : thefe plaits retard the 
 chyle, that it run not out of the ftomach before it be 
 fufficiently digefted. In this coat there are, alfo, a great 
 number of fmall glands, which feparate a liquor that 
 befmears all the cavities of the ftomach, and helps the 
 concoilion of the aliments; therefore, this coat is called 
 tunica glandulola. The fecond is much finer and thin¬ 
 ner ; it is altogether nervous ; it is of an exquifite fenfc, 
 and is called nervofa. The third is mufcular, being made 
 of ftraight and circular figures; the ftraight run upon the 
 upper part of the ftomach, between its fuperior and in¬ 
 ferior orifices ; and the circular run obliquely from the 
 upper part of the ftomach to the bottom. Of thefe, the 
 innermoft defeend towards the right fide, and the outer- 
 moft towards the left; fo that by their aft km both ends 
 of the ftomach are drawn towards its middle, and the 
 whole is equally contrafted ; by their contraftion and 
 continual motion, the attrition and digeftion of the ali¬ 
 ments is in a great meafure performed. The fourth tu- 
 jnicle is common, it comes from the peritonaeum. The 
 ftomach fends veins to the porta, viz. the gaftrica, pylo- 
 rica; and vas breve, and branches to the gaftro-epiplois 
 dextra and finiftra, which are accompanied with branches 
 of the arteria caeliaca, all which lie immediately under 
 the fourth coat of the ftomach. The eight pair of 
 nerves, or par vagum, give two confiderable branches to 
 the ftomach, which, defcending by thefides of the gullet, 
 divide each into two branches, the external and internal. 
 The two external branches unite in one, and the inter¬ 
 nal do fo likewife; both which piercing the midriff, form, 
 by a great number of fmall twigs, upon the upper orifice 
 of the ftomach and plexus, and then the internal branch 
 fpreads itfelf down to the bottom of the ftomach ; and the 
 external branch fpreads itfelf upon the infide about the 
 upper orifice of the ftomach. 
 
 STOMACHICK, in pharmacy, medicines that 
 ftrengthen the ftomach, and promote digeftion, &c. See 
 Digestion. Stomachick corroborants are fuch as 
 ftrengthen the tone of the ftomachick and inteftines, 
 among which are carminatives, as the roots of galan- 
 gals, red gentian, zedoary, pimpinella, calamus, aroma- 
 ticus, and arum. Of barks and rinds, thofe of canella 
 alba, faffafras, citron, Seville" and China oranges, &c. 
 Of fpices, pepper, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamums, 
 and mace. 
 
 Other things of this nature are, among fimples, Ro¬ 
 man and common chamaemile, wormwood, with the fpi- 
 rit of fait and fweet nitre. 
 
 STO 
 
 Among compounds, are tlie fal volatile fylvii, the^°“ 
 machick elixir, the elfence of orange-peel with fweet fp irit 
 of nitre, tinfture of tartar, oils of oranges prepared ky 
 expreffion, the compound effence of wormwood, 8cc. 
 
 Stomachick, is alfo applied to the arteries, veins, 
 &cc. of the ftomach. 
 
 STOMATICA, a term ufed by fome for all medi¬ 
 cines ufed in diforders of the mouth and fauces. 
 
 STONES, in natural hiftory, are defined to be eflen- 
 tially compound foffits, not inflammables nor folublc in 
 water or oil, not at all duftile ; found in continued ftrata, 
 or beds, of great extent; formed either of a congeries of 
 fmall particles, in fome degree refembling land, and 
 lodged in a fmoother cementitious matter, and the grit 
 or land-like particles, running together into one fmootli 
 mafs ; or, finally, of granules cohering by contaft, with¬ 
 out any cementitious matter among them ; or compolcd 
 of chryftal or fpar, ufually debated by earth, and often 
 mixed with talck, and other extraneous particles. 
 
 Of this clafs of foffils there are three orders ; and un¬ 
 der thefe, eight genera. 
 
 The firft order comprehends all thecoarfe, harlh, and 
 rough ftoneS, of a lax texture, and compofed of a vifible 
 grit, refembling fand in form, and ufually immerfed in a 
 cementitious matter, and of little natural brightnefs; 
 fcarce capable of any polilh, and naturally mouldering 
 away in form of powder from the tools of the workmen. 
 The genera of this order are two, viz. the ammochifta 
 and pfaduria; the former of which conftitute our grey 
 and rough Hates, and the latter comprehends moil of the 
 ftones ufed in building, particularly Portland ftone. 
 
 The fecond order conlifts of ftones moderately fine, of 
 a more compatt and even texture, fcarce diftinguifhable 
 conftrudlion, and affording no fand-like particles to the 
 view ; of fome natural brightnefs, capable of a tolerable 
 polilh, and flying off from the tools of the workmen in 
 form of fmall chips. 
 
 The third order confifts of ftones of a very fine fub- 
 ftance and elegant ftrufture, naturally of a great bright- 
 nefs, and capable of an elegant polifh : compofed of gra¬ 
 nules of various fhapes and fizes, but ufually flattifh, 
 fometimes more, fometimes lefs diftimft ; and, in lome 
 fpecies, running together into uniform maffes, but never 
 lodged in any cementitious iubftance. Of this order are 
 the marbles, alabafters, porphyries, and granites. 
 
 Stone, Lithiafis , and Calculus Humanus , in medicine, 
 a ftony or terreftrial concretion in any of the urinary paf- 
 fages, which occafions a difficulty in making water, and 
 a pain in the fmall of the back, or about the os pubis. 
 
 When this collection is fo large as to form one or more 
 bodies, unable by reafon of their fize to pafs through the 
 conduits of urine, they frequently caufe great pain, ul¬ 
 cers in the parts, and an entire fuppreffion of urine ; and, 
 from the part where this obftrudting matter happens to 
 lodge, this diftemper receives its denomination, as from 
 the kidnies, bladders, ureters, or urethra. 
 
 This diforder, fays Dr. Shaw, may fometimes have an 
 hereditary caufe ; that is, the urinary paffages may be 
 naturally ftraighter than they ought to be ; or the con- 
 ftitution may be naturally difpofed to generate a ftony 
 matter; an obftrufted perforation, and a cold or moilt 
 air, may alfo give rife to it; for by means hereof the 
 more heavy particles of the animal fluids will be detained 
 in the body. 
 
 Another occafion of this diftemper may be the ufe of 
 fuch waters, as by running through various ftrata of the 
 earth, are impregnated with ftony particles. There are 
 lome wines too, and other liquors, which being either 
 foul or not fufficiently fined down, or abounding in tar¬ 
 tar, or other terreftrial corpufcles, may lay the founda¬ 
 tion for the ftone. Again, in perfons fubjett to the 
 afthma or gout, who have a weak digeftion, vilcid chyle, 
 and ftony concretions in the joints, there are manifeft 
 feeds of this diftemper. In fhort, whatever can bring on 
 an accumulation of earthy particles in the urinary paffages, 
 whether by obftrutting or leffening the capacity of the 
 canals, or by immediately or remotely producing the fub- 
 ftance itfelf, will caufe gravel, and in time the ftone. 
 
 The fymptoms of the gravel or ftone are, frequently, 
 a naufea and vomiting, with a numbnefs down the leg 
 and thigh of the party affc&ed; a pain fixed or moveable, 
 great or lefs, in proportion to the bulk of impacted mat¬ 
 ter felt generally about the region of the loins, os pubis, 
 
 and 
 

 K 
 
 S T O 
 
 iiij pails adjacent. This pain is very acute, and almoH 
 continual, when the gravel or (lone remains at the head 
 ot the ureters ; but begins to Men, as it is protruded for- 
 vvards Sometimes, when the (lone is angular, or con¬ 
 tinues long fixed, the urine is bloody ; and, gene,ally 
 neplnetickobftruftions, it is thin, and made in a finall 
 quantity, efpecially at the beginning of the fit. Some¬ 
 times there happens a total fuppreffion of it, in which cafe 
 both the ureters may be obilrufted. 
 
 w hen the obftrucled matter is forced into the bladder, 
 the urine is turbid, and comes away plentifully ; and 
 there appears in it much land, and fometimes finall 
 ltones; winch when angular, are ltldom voided with¬ 
 out much pain ; and when the paioxvfm is violent, and 
 ot long continuance, there fometimes happens an entire 
 iuppreffion of llool, fo far, that catharticks lofe their 
 toice; and fometimes too, though rarely, the terreilrial 
 matter is depofited in fuch parts where the canals are 
 lax, and the circulation languid, fo as at the fame time to 
 occahon both an arthrmck and nephritick fit. When 
 a Hone is lodged in the urethra, the pain generally 
 proves exquifitc, but limited to the part, where fome- 
 times the llone will bulge outwards, and may be felt with 
 tiie fingers. 
 
 Allpaioxyfms, in cafe of a confirmed Hone, are dan¬ 
 gerous. An accumulation of land in the kidneys or 
 Ureters, is lefs dangeious than a formed Hone. 
 
 A Hone in the kidneys is of worfe confcuuence than in 
 tile ureters, and more or lefs fo in proportion to its be¬ 
 liefs I lie larged Hone, naturally capable of pafiing the 
 urethra m men, is fuppofed to be about the fize of a finall 
 kazle-nut; but in women, one confiderably larger may 
 pals the meatus unnarius. When both kidnies.'or both 
 ureters are affeaed, it is fo much the more dangerous 
 efpecially ,t attended with (harp pain, exulceration, in¬ 
 flammation, want of lleep, lofs offtrength, a fever fup- 
 prcff.on of urme, &c. When the fymptoms continue 
 many days wnhout mterniidion, the cafe is delpcrate, 
 efpecially if coldnel's has feized the extremities, tile pulfe 
 ticks, and the patient has cold fwcats, &c. When tile 
 cale IS habitual or hereditary, or happens in old age, or 
 gouty conftitutions, it is difficult. 
 
 1 he fymptoms of bloody urine, continuing after the 
 fit is gone off, prove hard to remove. When the urine 
 is plentifully difeharged, has its ordinary fediment, is 
 turbid, and the fymptoms decreafe, it is a fign the na- 
 roxylm ,s going off. If a large done be lone detained 
 in the urethra, efpecially if ,t be rugged, and can neither 
 be propelled backwards or forwards, and there be a total 
 fuppreffion ot urine, the cafe ufually proves mortal. 
 
 As to the method of cure, itconfilts in the eafy exclu- 
 lion ot the done, and the preventing of breeding of others. 
 
 J othis purpole, Sydenham recommends bleeding, apof- 
 iet-drlnk, in which two ounces of lliailh-mallow roots 
 have been boiled, and an emollient clyder; after which 
 
 he adviles a pretty large dofe of an opiate: that is, about 
 
 25 drops ot the I hebaick tinfture, or ii grains of tile 
 laponaceous pills. And Huxliam tejls us, that nothing 
 is io efficacious to eafe tile pain, and promote the default 
 of the Hone through the ureters, as a tepid and emollient 
 bath. See Litiiontripticks. 
 
 Stone, alio denotes a certain quantity or weight of 
 fome commodities. See Weight. A'Hone of beef, 
 at Tondon, is the quantity of eight pounds ; in Here- 
 iordlhire, 12 pounds ; in the north 16 pounds, A Hone 
 of w-ooi (according to the flatute of the nth of Hen. 
 
 V 11 .J IS to weigh I + pounds ; yet in fome places it is 
 more, 111 others lefs; as in Gloucefleilhire, 1; pounds ■ 
 in Herefordlhire, 1 2 pounds. A Hone, among horfe - 
 eourlers, is the weight of 14 pounds. 
 
 Stone-Crop, in botany. SccSedum. 
 
 S I ONEHENGE, in antiquity, a famed pile or mo¬ 
 nument of huge Hones on Salilbury-plain, fix miles dif- 
 tant trom that city. It confiils of the remains of four 
 ranks ol rough Hones, ranged one within another, fame 
 ot them, efpecially in the outerillod and third rank, fome 
 or them 24 feet high, and fome of them [even broad ; 
 ludaining others laid acrofs their heads and fadened by 
 morales : fo that the whole mud have anciently hunv 
 together. J b 
 
 Antiquaries are divided, as to the origin, ufe druc- 
 ture &c. of this wonderful fabrick. Mod of them take 
 Me ltones to be artificial, and to have been made on the ' 
 
 S T O 
 
 fpot; winch feems the more probable, as we are pretty 
 well adored tile ancients had the art of making llones 
 with land and aftrong lime or cement 1 and as the Hones 
 ieem too big for land carriage ; and yet arc in a place. 
 Which for iome miles round, lcarcc affords any Hones 
 at all. 1 he legends give various other accounts 1 fuch 
 as, that they were brought miraculoully by St 1 'atrick 
 bom Ireland, See. ' * 
 
 As to its ufe, lome antiquaries take it to have been an 
 ancient temple of the Druids; othcis, of the Romans, 
 dedicated to Ccdus; in which they are confirmed by its 
 having been open a top. Others, reading the name, 
 b:o 7 u-bc>,giJ}, maintain it to have been a monument 
 erected m memory of Hengitt, the firft general of the 
 oajeons in England : and others, to name no more, will 
 have it a funeral monument, railed to that brave Roma- 
 no-Jjriton, Aurelius Ambrolius; to which opinion, (ome 
 circuniltances of his actions, the ftill remaining Latin 
 name of the place (Mons Ambrofii) and that very ancient 
 VS cllh proverb, Mai gwoith Ernrys, like the work of 
 Ambrole, give fome countenance. 
 
 SiONY Lands, in agriculture, fuch as are fond 
 of Hints, pebbles, or finall fragments of free-ft one. Thcfe 
 lands, in many places, yield good crops; and-thegeneral 
 rule is, that, in cold and ftiff lands, the lloncs fhould 
 be carefully removed ; but, in light and drv lands, it will 
 be ad\antageous to leave them. However, they alwavs 
 fallow thefe lanus every other year, unlefs they low them 
 With lentils ; and when they are quite worn out, they 
 lay them down for clover or ryc-grais. 7 
 
 S I COMING of IViae, is the putting bags of herbs, 
 or other ingredients, into it. 
 
 S 1 Ol , in the menage, is a paufe, or difcontinuancc 
 of a hoiic's morion. 
 
 Sto;>s, or points, in grammar. See Point and 
 
 I UNCTUAT ION. 
 
 Si OPPLR, in a fhip, a piece of cable-laid rope, 
 having a wale-knot at one end, with a laniard fattened 
 to it; and the other end is fpliced round a thimble in the 
 ring-bolts upon deck, and at the bits: its ufe is to flop 
 the cable, that it may not run out too faft ; in order to 
 which, they make turns with the laniard about the cable, 
 and the wale-knot Hops it, lb that it cannot flip away 
 fatter than is neceflary. 7 
 
 S 1 OR AX, or Sty rax, in natural hittory and phar¬ 
 macy, a dry and lolid refin, of a redifli colour, and a 
 peculiarly fragrant lmell, of which there are two kinds, 
 the tty rax calamita, or ftyrax in tears, and the ftyrax 
 vulgaris, whereof the former is by far the purer and finer 
 kind, imported in imall loofe granules, or elfe in large 
 mattes compofed of fuch granules : it anciently ufed to be 
 packed up in iceds, for the more fecure carriage; whence 
 the name. The common ttorax is hkewife a fine and pure 
 rciin, though leis lo than the former; and is brought to 
 us in large lumps, not formed of granules, but of one 
 uniform confittence. 
 
 ■I hefe are the two genuine kinds of ttorax ; but nei¬ 
 ther of them is that met with in our (hops, which is a 
 kind of law-duft connected into lumps, by juft fo much 
 of the tt°ra>c-refin as will make the other matters han<* 
 together. This is what our apothecaries ufe, under the 
 name of ttorax ; but it is advileable, to ftrain care¬ 
 fully the pure refill from the filth, and ufe no part of the 
 latter. 
 
 d he two genuine kinds of ttorax, which ought always 
 to be ufed where they can be had, differ only in this ; 
 that the granulated ttorax Hows naturally from the ftyrax 
 tree, and the common kind is obtained from the fame 
 tree, by inciiion. 
 
 Storax is brought to us from Syria, and the E. Indies; 
 and ought to be chofen pure, very fragrant, and of an* 
 acrid tafte. It is much recommended as a detergent and 
 balfamick, in diforders of the breatt : it is all'o efteemed 
 a cordial, and is recommended in vertigoes, and other 
 diforders of the head and nerves. 
 
 Liquid Storax, in pharmacy, is a drug very diffe¬ 
 rent from the refin above delcribed ; being a rclinous juice, 
 of the confittence of Venice-turpentine, or thicker: it 
 is, when clean, pellucid, of a brownifh colour, with a 
 call iometimes of redifh, and fometimes of greyilh in it. 
 
 Its lmell is fomewhat like that of common ttorax, only 
 much ftronger, and even difagreeablc : its tafte is acrid, 
 aromatick, and fomewhat bitterilh; and it is oily, or 
 
 unctuous. 
 
S T O 
 
 un£luous. It fhould be chofen thin, pellucid, of a clean 
 brown colour, and of a very ftrong fmell. 
 
 There is another coarfer and very impure kind, not at 
 all pellucid, and of a grey or brownilh colour : its fmell 
 is much more languid, and all'o more difagreeable than 
 that of the pure kind ; whereof it lecms to be only the 
 dregs, though it is by much the molt common liquid 
 dorax in the fhops. 
 
 Petiver gives the mod rational account of the origin 
 of liquid florax ; which, he fays, is prepared from the 
 bark of a tree, called by the Turks rofa mallos, which 
 is frequent in the ifland Cobras. The bark of this tree 
 being bruifed and macerated in fea water, is boiled to 
 the confidence of birdlime; they then collcdt the refi- 
 ’ iious matter that fwims on the top; which, being foul, is 
 boiled again in fea water,- and drained : what paffes the 
 water is the finer, and what remains in them the coarfer 
 liquid dorax. He adds, that liquid dorax is muchedeemed 
 in the ead, as a perfume. As to its medicinal virtues, 
 they are nearly related to thofe of turpentine : it is pre¬ 
 ferred, internally, as a detergent and diuretick ; and ex¬ 
 ternally, to prevent mortifications. 
 
 STOVES, in gardening, are buildings erected for the 
 prefervation of tender exotick plants, which will not live 
 in thefe northern countries, without artificial warmth in 
 winter. Thefe are built in different methods, according 
 to the ingenuity of the artid, or the different purpofes 
 for which they are intended ; but in England they are at 
 prefent reducible to two. 
 
 The fird is called a dry dove, being fo contrived, that 
 the flues through which the l'moke paffes are either car¬ 
 ried under the pavement of the floor, or elfe are ere&ed 
 in the back part of the houfe, over each other, and are 
 returned fix or eight times the whole length of the dove. 
 , 3 n thefe doves the plants are placed on dielves of boards 
 laid on a fcaffold above each other, for the greater advan¬ 
 tage of their Handing in fight, and enjoying an equal 
 .fliare of light and air. In thefe doves are commonly 
 placed the tender forts of aloes, cereus’s, euphorbiums. 
 tithymals, and other fucculent plants, which are impa¬ 
 tient of moidure in winter; and therefore require, for 
 the mod part, to be kept in a feparatc dove, and not placed 
 among trees, or herbaceous plants, which perfpire freely, 
 and thereby often caufe a damp air in the houfe, which 
 is imbibed by the fucculent plants, to their no fmall 
 prejudice. 
 
 Thefe doves may be regulated by a thermometer, fo 
 as not to over-heat them, nor to let the plants differ by 
 cold ; in order to which all fuch plants, as require nearly 
 the fame degree of heat, lhould be placed by themfclves 
 in a feparate houfe ; for, if in the fame dove there arc 
 plants placed of many different countries, which require 
 as many different heats, by making the houfe warm 
 enough for fome plants; others, by having too much 
 heat, are drawn and ipoiled. 
 
 The other forts of doves are commonly called bark 
 doves, to diflinguilh them from the dry doves already 
 mentioned. Thefe have a large pit, nearly the length of 
 the houfe, three feet deep, and fix or leven feet wide, ac¬ 
 cording to the breadth of the houfe ; which pit is filled 
 with frelh tanners bark, to make an hot bed ; and in this 
 bed the pots of the moid tender exotick trees, and her¬ 
 baceous plants, are plunged : the heat of this bed being 
 moderate, the roots of the plants are always kept in ac¬ 
 tion ; and the moidure, detained by the bark, keeps the 
 fibres of their roots in a duidile date, which, in the dry 
 dove, where they are placed on dielves, are fubjeft to dry 
 too fad, to the great injury of the plants. In thefe doves, 
 if they are rightly contrived, may be preferved the mod 
 tender exotick trees and plants, which, before the ufe of 
 the bark was introduced, were thought impoffible to be 
 kept in England; but, as there is fomelkill required in 
 the dru&ure of both thefe doves, wediall deferibe them 
 as intelligibly as poifible, particularly the bark dove; by 
 which it is hoped every curious perfon will be capable of 
 directing his workmen in their drufture. 
 
 The dimenfion of this dove diould be proportioned to 
 the number of plants intended to be preferved, or the par¬ 
 ticular fancy of the owner , but their length fhould not 
 exceed 40feet, unlefs there be two fire-places; and, in that 
 cafe, it will be proper to make a partition of glafs in the 
 middle, and to have two tan-pits, that there may be two 
 different heats for plants from different countries, for 
 Vol. II. No. 69. 
 
 S T O 
 
 the reafons before given in the account of dry fioves; 
 and to ere6t a range of doves, they fhould be all built 
 in one, and only divided with glafs partitions, at lead 
 the half way towards the front; which will be of great 
 advantage to the plants, becaufe thev may have the air in 
 each divifion fhifted by Aiding the glaffes of the partitions, 
 or by opening the glals-door, which fhould be made be¬ 
 tween each divifion, for the more eafy paffage from one 
 to the other. 
 
 This dove fhould be raifed above the level of the 
 ground, in proportion to the drynefs of the place ; for, 
 if it be built on a moid fituation, the whole fhould be 
 placed upon the top of the ground ; fo that the brick¬ 
 work in the front mud be raifed three feet above the fur- 
 face, which is the depth of the bark-bed, whereby none 
 1 of the bark will be in danger of lying in water : but, if 
 the foil be dry, the brick-work in front need not be more 
 than one foot above-ground, and the pit may be funk two 
 feet below the furface. Upon the top of this brick-work, 
 in front, mud be laid the plate of timber, into which the 
 wood-work of the frame is to be mortifed ; and the upper 
 timber in front mud be placed four fectafunder, or fon e- 
 what more, which is the proportion of the width of the 
 glafs doors or failles : thefe fhould be about fix feet and 
 an half, or feven feet long, and placed upright; but 
 from the top of thefe fhould be doping glaffes, which 
 diould reach within three feet of the back of the dove, 
 where there fhould be a drong crown piece of timber 
 placed, in which there fhould be a groove made for the 
 glaffes to Aide into. The wall in the back part of the 
 Hove lhould be at lead 13 inches thick : but 18 inches is 
 dill better , becaufe the thicker the outdde wall is built, 
 the more the heat of the dues will be kept in the houfe ; 
 and carried up, about nine feet above the furface of the 
 bark-bed; and, from the top of this wall, there fhould 
 be a doping roof to the crown piece where the glades Aide 
 in. This crown piece fhould be about 16 feet high from 
 the furface of the bark-bed or floor, which will give a 
 fufficient declivity to the doping glaffes to carry off the 
 w’et, and be of a reafonable height for containing many 
 tall plants. The back-roof may be dated, covered with 
 lead, or tiled, according to the fancy of the owner ; for 
 the manner of this outfide building is often very various, 
 and differently built. 
 
 In the front of the houfe there diould be a walk, about 
 18 or 20 inches wide, for the convcniency of walking; 
 next to which the bark-pit mull be placed, which diould 
 be in width proportionable to the breadth of the houfe : 
 if the houfe is 12 feet wide, which is a due proportion, 
 the pit may be feven feet wide; and behind the pit fhould 
 be a walk 18 inches wide, to pafs in order to water the 
 plants, &c. then there will be 22 inches left next the back 
 wall, to eredt the Hues, which mull be all raifed above 
 the top of the bark-bed ; thefe flues ought to be one foot 
 wide in the clear, that they may not be too loon dopped 
 with the foot; and the lower due, into which the lmoke 
 fird enters front the fire, lhould he two feet deep in the 
 clear ; and this may be covered either with call iron plates, 
 or broad tiles ; over this the fecond flue mud be returned 
 back again, which may be 18 inches deep, and covered 
 on the top as before ; and lo, in like manner, the flues 
 may be returned over each other three or four times, that 
 the heat may be fpent before the l'moke paffes off. The 
 thickncfs of the wall in front of thefe flues need not be 
 more than four inches ; but it mull be well jointed with 
 mortar, and plaidered within-fide to prevent the l'moke 
 from getting into the houfe; and the outfide diould be 
 faced with mortar, and covered with a coaiie cloth, to 
 keep the mortar from cracking, as is praflifed in fetting 
 up coppers. If this be carefully done, there will be no 
 danger of the fmoke entering the houfe, which cannot be 
 too carefully avoided; for there is nothing more injurious 
 to plants than fmoke, which will caufe them to drop their 
 leaves; and, if it continue long in the houfe, will en¬ 
 tirely dcllroy them. 
 
 The fire-place may be made either at one end, or in 
 the middle, according as there is mod conveniencv ; for, 
 wherever it is placed, it fhould have a died over it, and 
 not be expofed to the open air ; for it will be impodible 
 to make the lire burn equally, where the wind has full 
 ingrefs to it; and it will be troublefome to attend the fire 
 in wet weather, where it is expofed to the rain. ' 
 
 The contrivance of the furnace mull be according to 
 4 X the 
 
S T O 
 
 the fuel which is defigned to burn ; but, as turf is the 
 belt firing for ftoves, where it can be had, becaufe it 
 burns more moderately, and Jails longer,, than any other 
 fort of fuel, and fo requires lels attendance, wefhallde- 
 feribe a proper fort of furnace for that purpofe. 
 
 The whole of this furnace fhould be erefted within the 
 houfe, which will be a great addition to the heat; and the 
 front wall on the out-fide of the fire place, next thefhed, 
 fhould be three bricks thick, the better to prevent the heat 
 from coming out that way. 1 he door of the furnace, at 
 which the fuel is put in, mud be as linall as conveniently 
 may be to admit of the fuel; and this door fhould be placed 
 near the upper part of the furnace, and made to 'flint as 
 clofe as poflible ; fo that there may but little of the heat 
 pafs off through it. This furnace fhould be about 
 inches deep, and 16 inches fquare at bottom; but may 
 be floped off on every fide, fo as to be two feet fquare at 
 the top ; and under this.furnace fhould be a place for the 
 allies to fall into, which fhould be about a foot deep, and 
 as Wide as the bottom of the furnace : this fhould alfo 
 have an iron door to fhut as clofe as poflible ; but juft 
 over the afh-holc, above the bars which fupport the fuel, 
 fhould be a fquare hole about lour inches wide, to let in 
 air to make the fire burn : this mult alfo have an iron 
 frame, and a door to fhut dole when the fire is perfeftly 
 lighted, which will make the fuel laft the longer, and the 
 heat will be more moderate. 
 
 The top of this furnace fhould be nearly equal to the 
 top of the bark-bed, that the loweft flue may be above the 
 fire ; fo t hat there may be a greater draught for the finoke 
 and the furnace fhould be covered with a large iron plate 
 ciofely cemented to the brick-work, to prevent the finoke 
 from getting out; or it may be arched over with bricks 
 but you lhould be very careful, wherever the fire is placed, 
 that it be not too near the bark-bed ; for the heat of the 
 fire wilt, by its long continuance, dry the bark, fo that it 
 will lofe its virtue, and be in danger of taking fire; to 
 prevent which, it will be the be ft method to continue an 
 hollow between the brick-work of the fire and that of the 
 pit, about eight inches wide ; which will efteftually pre¬ 
 vent any damage arifing from the heat of the fire ; and 
 there lhould be no wood-work placed any where near the 
 flues, or the fire-place, becaufe the continual heat of the 
 ftove may in time dry it fo much as to caulc it to take 
 fire, which ought to be very carefully guarded againft. 
 
 The entrance into this ftove lhould be cither from a 
 green-houfe, the dry ftove, or elfe through the fhed where 
 the fire is made, becaufe, in cold weather, thefront-glaffes 
 muft not be opened. 
 
 The other fort of ftove, which is commonly called til 
 dry ftove, as was before laid, may be either built with 
 upright and Hoping glafles at the top, in the fame maim; 
 and after the fame model of the bark-ftove ; or elfe the 
 front-glafles, which lhould run from the floor to the ceil¬ 
 ing, may be laid Hoping, to an angle of 45 degrees, 
 the better to admit the rays of the fun in fpring and au¬ 
 tumn : the latter method has been chiefly followed by 
 moft perfons who have built this fort of floves : but the 
 beft contrivance of a ftove of this kind, is to have it 
 built after the model of the bark-ftove, with upright 
 glaffcs in front, and Hoping glafles over them, becaufe 
 this will more eafily admit the fun at all the different fca- 
 fons ; for, in fummer, when the fun is high, the top 
 glafles will admit the rays to fliine aim oft all over the 
 houfe : and in winter, when the fun is low, the front 
 glaffcs will admit its rays ; whereas, when the glafles arc 
 laid to any declivity in one direction, the rays of the fun 
 will not fall direftly thereon above a fortnight in autumn, 
 and about the fame time 111 fpring ; and, during the other 
 parts of the year, they will fall obliquely thereon ; and. 
 in fummer, when the fun is high, the rays will not reach 
 above five or fix feet from the glafles. 
 
 Befides, the plants placed towards the back part of the 
 houfe will not thrive in the fummer feafon for want of 
 air; whereas, when there are Hoping glafles at the top, 
 which run within four feet of the back of the houfe; thefe’ 
 by being drawn down in hot weather, will let in perpen¬ 
 dicular air to all the plants ; and, of how much fervice 
 this is to all forts of plants, every one who has had op¬ 
 portunity of obferving the growth of plants in a ftove, 
 will eafily judge; for, when plants are placed under cover 
 of a ceiling, they always turn themfelves towards the air 
 and light, and thereby grow crooked, and if, fo prfler 
 
 S T R 
 
 to preferve them ftrait, they are turned every week they 
 will neverthelefs grow weak, and look pale and hcklv 
 like a perfon Hint up in a dungeon ; for which reafons’ 
 whoever has made trial of both forts of ftoves will rea¬ 
 dily recommend the model of the bark-ftove’for every 
 purpoic. J 
 
 Stove, in confectionary, a fmall furnace, over which 
 they prepare many of their goods. 
 
 Explanation of Plate LXXIV. 
 
 Reprefenting the inner part of aconfeftioner’s labora¬ 
 tory, when the ftoves are placed. 
 
 i he lower Compartment. 
 
 Is a perfpeftive view of the part of the infide of a con- 
 ftclioner’s laboratorv. 
 
 Fi S; i- A workman taking out with a fpatula the can¬ 
 died fruits from the moulds. 
 
 Fig. 2. A workman at the ftove, putting almonds on 
 the ftove, in order to render them crifp. 
 
 Upper Compartment. 
 
 F/g. 1. A copper utenfil of a circular form, large and 
 flat, and pierced with holes like a fkimmer. 
 
 Fig. 2. A Hammer. This is alfo of copper. 
 
 Fig. 3. A fpatula. 
 
 Fig. 4. A iquare fpatula. 
 
 fig. 5. Grates belonging to the candying moulds, they 
 
 are of different fizes, and uf'ually made of brafs wire ; but 
 any other metal, lead excepted, is preferable. The fruit 
 J'y laid firft on the large ones to drain the fugar from it. 
 
 1 he lefler ones fix over each other in their moulds, and 
 the iiuit being laid between two, they prevent its flick,- 
 ing together in the candying. 
 
 Fig. 6. J he candying moulds. 
 
 Fig. 7. A filtrating and clarifying. 
 
 /•/". 8. A frame, to each corner of which is fixed an 
 iron hook : to thele is tied, a piece of fine canvafs : then 
 the fame is laid on a tub, and the liquor, intended to be 
 clarified, poured through the canvafs. 
 
 Fig. 9. A copper pan for different purpofes. 
 
 Fig. 10. A trivet to lnpport this pan over the fire, by 
 which means it is kept a proper cliftance from it. 
 
 Fig. 11. 12, 13. Three furnaces: the firft has the 
 rrivet on it: the fiecond is without a trivet, and the third 
 is placed with the forepart downwards, to fhew the grate 
 and the afh-pan. * 
 
 S 1 OWAGE, in the fea language, is the putting of 
 goods orderly in the hold, he. of a fhip, the moft pon¬ 
 derous and heavy next the ballaft. 
 
 S I RABISMUS, a diforder of the eye, makes it look 
 afquint, either upwards, downwards, or awry. The 
 ftrabifirms eonfilts in a retraftion of the ball of the eye, 
 towards one fide ; occaiioned by a convulfion or pally of 
 one of its mufcles. 
 
 S I RAIGHT, Streigiit, or Str a it, in hydro¬ 
 graphy, a narrow fea. or gut fhut up between lands on 
 either fide, and affording a paffage out of one great fea 
 into another. 
 
 SI RAIN, or Sprain, a violent extenfion of the 
 finews or tendons of lome mufcle. 
 
 S I RANDED, is when a fliip by tempefl or ill ftcer- 
 age is run on ground and receives great damage. 
 
 S 1 RANGER, in law, dchotes a perfon who is not 
 privy or party to an aft. 
 
 S I RANG LES, a diftemper to which colts and youn< T 
 liorfes arc very fubjeft ; and begins with a fwelling be¬ 
 tween the jaw-bones, which fometimes extends to the 
 mufcles of the tongue ; and is atte nded with fo great heat, 
 pain, and inflammation, that fometimes till matter is. 
 formed, the liorfe lwallows with the utmoft difficulty. 
 
 1 hefymptoms are extraordinary heat and feeveriflmefs, 
 with a painful cough, and a great inclination to drink 
 without being able ; Come liorfes lofing their appetite in-. 
 tirely, others eating but little, by rcafon of the pain which 
 chewing anil fvvallowing occalions : when the fwelling 
 begins on the infide of the jaw-bones, it is much longer 
 in coming to matter than when more to the middle; when 
 it atifes among the glands, and divides into feveral tu¬ 
 mours, the cure is generally tedious, as it breaks in diffe¬ 
 rent places ; and when it forms upwards on the wind¬ 
 pipe and gullet, there is fometimes danger of iuffocation, 
 unlefs the fwelling foon breaks. But the moft danoer- 
 ous kind is, when, befides the above fymptoms, the 
 horfe runs at the nofe ; this by fome is called the baftard 
 ftrangles. 
 
 As 
 
S T R 
 
 As this diforder feems to be critical, the moil approved 
 method is to a (lift nature in bringing the fwellings to ma¬ 
 turity. by keeping them conftantly inoift with ointment 
 of marfhmallows, and covering the head and neck with a 
 hood. But as all fwellings in glandular parts fuppurate 
 (lowly, the following poultice may be applied hot twice 
 a day . it is alfo a very proper one to ripen, or bring any 
 other fwelling to matter. " 
 
 Take leaves of marfhmallows 10 liandfuls ; white lilly- 
 root halt a pound; linieed and fenugreek feed 
 bruifcd, of each four ounces : boil them in two 
 quarts of water till the whole is pulpy, and add four 
 ounces of ointment of marfhmallows, and a fuffi- 
 cicnt quantity ot hogs-lard, to prevent its growirr’ 
 niff and dry. 
 
 hi live or fix days, by thefe means, the matter is gene- 
 rails formed, and makes its way through the lkin ; and 
 it thedifeharge is madeficclv and with eal'e, the opening 
 need not be enlarged ; but Ihould be d i cifed with the fol¬ 
 lowing ointment Jpread on tow, If ill continuing the poul¬ 
 tice over it to promote the digelfion, and prevent any 
 remaining hardnefs. ' 
 
 1 akc roiln and Burgundy pitch, of each a pound and 
 a halt ; honey and common tupentine, each eight 
 ounces ; yellow wax, four ounces ; hogs-lard, one- 
 pound ; verdigreafe finely powdered, one ounce; 
 melt the ingredients together, but do not put in die 
 verdigreafe, till removed from the fire ; and it Ihould 
 be if 11-1-ed in by degrees, till the whole js grown ftiff 
 and coo'l. 
 
 If the fever and inflammation run high, and the 
 fwellmg be fo-fituated as to endanger fuffecation, a mo¬ 
 derate quantity of blood muff be taken away, and the 
 remainder diluted with plenty of water-gruel, or warm 
 water, in;,flies, Ac. 
 
 The running at the nofe, which often attends the 
 Strangles, is dangerous; efpccially if it continues n.ftei 
 they have ripened and broke, as tile hoi ft v. ill be greatly 
 weakened thereby: To prevent this waile and decay, 
 give him every day for fome time an ounce of Jefuits 
 bark; or a thong decofiion of .giniacum (havings 
 which hath been found extremely beneficial in rell-ram- 
 rng tbcle glandular dneharges when too liberal, and in 
 drying up ulcers of all kinds in borfgs. See Glanders. 
 if a haidtlels remains alter the lores are healed up, they 
 may be anointed with the mercurial ointment ; and 
 when the liorlc has recovered his flrcngth, purging will 
 be ncceffary. 
 
 STRANGURY, in medicine, a partial Aipprcfl'ion 
 of urine; when it is toga], it is called ifehmia. Tli-le 
 cafes are either true or fpui ions; true, if Hie fupprdlion 
 happens while the bladder is full , but fpurious v ben 
 through fome fault in the parts, there is no reparation 
 made of the urine, fo that the bladder remains empty. 
 
 Paralvtick or convulfiye motions in the Inliiliclcr veficte 
 may caufe thefe diforders. The neck of tile bladder may 
 be alfo too clofely (hut by tumours, feirrhofities, inflam¬ 
 mations, cittofities, caruncles, tlieflone, See. The feetus 
 likewife, by prefling hard upon the neck of the bladder 
 may give a rife hereto ; the .iuteftinum reftnm being 
 fitted with indurated feces, or the haemorrhoids bcinc 
 greatly fwellcd internally. This fuppreffion may like¬ 
 wife happen from the urine being long detained /which 
 Amending tile bladder, .may prefs its neck againft the 
 adjacent parts fo bard, as to hinder the exclufion of its 
 contents. A fuppreffion of tile urine alfo mull necef- 
 farily enfue, when the ferum of the blood is not duly 
 (operated, as in dropfics ; fo likewife in luxations of the 
 vertebra: of the back in fevers ; or when the kidnies or 
 ureters are obflrufied, Ac. When this di'ttempcr pro¬ 
 ceeds from the Hone, caruncles, tumours, Ac. it is known 
 by introducing the catheter. The other fymptoms are 
 eably dilcovered from the relaxation of the patient, if 
 it proceed from inanition, no tumour appears, there is a 
 little pain, and the defile of making water returns lefs 
 frequently, nor is there any weight or preffure perceiva- 
 ble in the abdomen ; all which fymptoms attend when it 
 proceeds from repletion. 
 
 An ilchuria is more dangerous than allrangury, and, 
 jf it continues long, proves always mortal; Specially, 
 if it be from repletion, or when the fpinal vertebra; are 
 
 Krrv'-,A nr lit. _• .It- 
 
 S T R 
 
 ■ STR ,' !n naturaI Jt'ftory, the feveral beds or 
 Laycis of different matters whereof the body of the earth 
 is compofed. 1 he ilrata include all the layers (if earths, 
 minerals, metals, Hones, Ac. lying Under the upper tc- 
 gument or ftratum, the turf or mould. The time when 
 thcle lcveral ilrata were laid was doubtlefs at the creation: 
 unle s with Joillegreat natmalifts, as Stbeno. Dr. Wood-’ 
 ward Ac. we fuppofe the globe of the earth to hat e been 
 dlliolved by the flood. 
 
 At that time, lays Mr. Derham, whenever it was, 
 when the terrdlri.il globe was in a chaotick Hate, and the 
 earthly particles fubfided, then lliele feveral beds were 
 repoined m that commodious order in which they are 
 now found; and that, as is affected, according- to the 
 iru s of gravity, the lower ftill heavier than tile upper; 
 
 But Dr. Leigh, in his natural hifiory of Lancalhirc 
 -" the >i:-. denies .lie Ilrata to be a. elud¬ 
 
 ing to the laws ot gravitation; dbferving that the ilrata 
 there arc hrft a bed of marie, then frec-ftone, next iron- 
 ltonc, then coal, or channel mire, then fome other flrati 
 then coal again. This detc, mined Dr. Derham to make 
 a nicer inquiry into the matter; accordingly, in , 7 , 2 
 he caufcd divers places to be bored, laying'the feVcra’l 
 ft.ata by tbemiel-n, and afterwards detcimined very 
 can fully ;Uteirl]iec,hck gravity. The refiilt was, that, 
 in bis yard, the ilrata were gradually fpecifuall* heavier 
 and heavier, the lower and-lower they went; but, in 
 another place m his field, lie could not perceive any dif¬ 
 ference in the Ipecifick gravities. Acquainting the Royal 
 o .ciety therewith, their operator, Mr. Hauktbce, was 
 ordered to try the Anita ot a coal-pit, which he did to the 
 depth ot go ilrata : the tllickncfs and fiiecifick gravity of 
 each whereof he gives us in a table in tile Pbilofophical 
 1 raniattions, and from the whole makes this inference, 
 that It evidently appears the 1 gravities of feveral ilrata are 
 in no manner of order, but purely caiiial, as if mixed 
 by chniiGe. 
 
 ST1< ATARITHMOMETRY, in war, the aft of 
 
 drawing up an army, or any part of it, in any given geo¬ 
 metrical figure , and of expreffing' the number of men 
 contained m luch a figure, as they Hand in array cither 
 near at hand, or at any diftance afiigh'ed. 
 
 STRATAGEM, or Seratecem, in the art of 
 cnemv ny dCV1C ° for lI|c deceiving And filrprifing 311 
 
 STRATIFICATION, in chymiftry, the ranging 
 any thing to be calcined in feveral layers or itrata, "one 
 above another; which operation is denoted by the ah- 
 deviation /. [. f. } 
 
 S IRA WBERRY, Frasarh, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower confide of five roundifh pat mt pe¬ 
 tals, d.fpofed in the form of a mil, and i,fel ted in the 
 crip ; the ftamma are 20 ft,I ..dated filaments, topped with 
 ‘unu'ated anthers ; the gtrmina are fmall, numerous 
 and colledted into a head, which afterwards becomes a 
 well known large loft pulpy fruit, containing a great 
 number of (mall ailgiilar feeds. ° b 
 
 1 here are feveral kinds of ftrawberries, as the com¬ 
 mon or wood-itiawberry, the white wood-urawberry, 
 
 1ic hamboy-ftrawberry, thefcarlet-ilrawberry, the large 
 Chi i-ftrawberry, the green or pine-apple llrawberry ; 
 the hill and fecond lorts are found wild in the woods 
 from whence they are- tralffplantcd into gardens, by 
 which the fruit is much improved. The bell foil for 
 theie plants tis a fifth loam. They are all propagated 
 from runners, which they produce in great plenty in 
 Jidy; and if the weather is moilt, ,j ;C y quickly take 
 oot which when they have fufficiently obtained ihould 
 he planted out where they are intended roll nit taking 
 the opportunity of moift weather; theyfitould be planted 
 .1. beds about three feet and a half wide, leaving a path 
 tor the convemency of watering and gathering the fruit 
 f lie wood-urawberry may be plantcd'at about fix inches 
 
 Whenb b f‘ the 0ther r °i tS ,Lquhc a s reate r diilance. 
 feken Off '"f ! S n ?I a ‘, ld E° ne - ,lle runners flrould be 
 takui oft, and the old plants cleaned of decayed leaves 
 and tne earth flirred about them. Thefe will not ] a ft 
 well above three years ; therefore there ihould be a frcih 
 plantation made every year, in order to have the duan- 
 t.ty required. If the weather is dry when they are in 
 ^rb r ’,i t . 1 l n L e f e ® r y tp ^ t “ ou evenings, but 
 
 ' -- — ^ vvin.li uic ipinai veneora; are flower, jt is neceflarv 
 
 broke. The iuppreffion1 continuing, and hiccup fuper- not to wet the bloffoms In autumn 
 vemng, is accounted a fign of death. ? [the bedsfbou.dbed^^S^^^ 
 
S T U ST Y 
 
 ©n the beds, fo as not to bury the plants ; this will 
 greatly ffrengthen them for fruiting the following year. 
 
 Strawberries do very well forced in the l'pring, either 
 on hot-beds or in a llove; in the latter they Ihould be 
 planted in pots the preceding autumn, and about Chriff- 
 mas, and placed in the front of the place where they can 
 conveniently Hand : the moft common forts forced are 
 the wood and l'carlet ftrawberries, which, if properly 
 managed, will produce ripe fruit in February ; and by 
 putting them in at different periods, may be continued 
 till thofe in the natural ground are ripe. 'Fo have ffraw- 
 berrics in autumn, the bell method is to cut them down 
 when in flower at the natural feaion, afterwards a fecond 
 crop of bloffoms lucceeds, and the fruit ripens in Sep¬ 
 tember and Oftober. 
 
 Strawberry-leaves are frequently ufed in gargarifms for 
 fore mouths, quinfies, and ulcers of the th.oat. 
 
 The fruit is very grateful both to the palate and ffo- 
 mach, abating heat, quenching third, loofeningthe belly, 
 promoting urine, and expelling fmall gravel. 
 
 STRAY, or Estray, in law. See Estray. 
 
 STRENGTH, /'Lf.inphyfiology, the fame with force. 
 
 STRENGTHENERS, in pharmacy, medicines that 
 add to the bulk and firmnefs of the folids : and fuch are 
 all abforbent, agglutinant, and allringent medicines. 
 
 STRIATED, among botaniffs, a term applied to 
 thole leaves or fruit which have a number of longitudinal 
 furrows on their furfaces. 
 
 STRICTOR, in anatomy, the fame with conffridtor 
 and fphindler. 
 
 STRIKE, a meafure of capacity, containing four 
 bufhels. 
 
 Strike, among feamcn, is a word varioufly ufed; 
 when a Ihip, in a light, or on meeting with a lhip of 
 war, lets down or lowers her top-fails, at leall half-mall 
 high, they fay Ihe llrikcs, meaning Ihe yields, or fub- 
 mits, or pays refpedt to the Ihip of war. Alio, when a 
 flip touches ground, in Ihoal-water, they fay Ihe llrikes. 
 And when a top-mall is to be taken down, the word of 
 command is, Strike the top-mall, See. 
 
 STROBILUS, among botaniffs, a kind of pcricar- 
 pium, formed of an amentum. It conliils ol a number of 
 vagina?, with contorted points applied to each other. 
 
 STROPHE, in ancient poetry, a certain number of 
 verfes, including a perfect fenfe, and making the lirll 
 part of an ode. See Ode. 
 
 STRUMYE, fcrophulous tumours ariling on the neck 
 and throat, conffituting what is commonly called the 
 king’s evil. See Scrophula. 
 
 STRUMPFIA, in botany, a genus of plants, wliofe 
 flower conliils of five oblong, obtufc, patent petals, with 
 the fame number of ovate anthera? joined in a body ; the 
 fruit is a roundifh, unilocular berry, crowned with the 
 cup, and contains a roundifh feed. 
 
 STUCK, or Stucco, in building, a compofitionof 
 white marble pulverized and mixed with plailer of lime ; 
 and the whole being lifted and wrought up with water, is 
 to be ufed like common plailer : this is what Pliny 
 means by marmoratum opus, and albarium opus. 
 
 STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds 
 of fabricks of gold, lilver, filk, wool, hair, cotton, or 
 thread, manufadlured in the loom ; of which number 
 are velvets, brocades, mohairs, fattins, taffeties, cloths, 
 ferges, Ac. 
 
 STUM, in the wine-trade, denotes the unfermented 
 juice of the grape, after it has been leveral times racked 
 off, and feperated from its fediment. The calks are, lor 
 this purpofe, well matched, or fumigated with brimlcone 
 every time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as 
 it would otherwile readily do, and become wine. See 
 Matching. 
 
 It is this fume of the fulphur from the match, that 
 prevents, in this cafe, all tendency to fermentation, and 
 continues the natural juice of the grape in a fweet talle, 
 fit to be readily mixed with wines inilead of lugar; for 
 which purpofe it is very much ufed in Holland, andfomc 
 other countries ; as alfo for giving a new fret, or brilk- 
 nefs to decayed wines ; fo that very large quantities of 
 this Hum are annually imported to all parts, along with 
 the foreign wines. And after the fame manner a llum 
 is prepared in England from the juice of apples, which 
 ferves the ordinary purpofes of the winc-cooper. In the 
 preferving this liquor in this Hate, we fee the vaH ufe of 
 
 brimffone, for it could never be done otherwife than by 
 the matching of the calks. 
 
 Dr. Shaw gives the following method of preparing an 
 artificial Hum, nothing inferior to the natural , and as 
 fit for the refermenting, fretting, improving, or making 
 of wines, vinegars, and fpirits. 'Fake three pounds of 
 fine lump fugar, or fuch as has been well refined from 
 its treacle ; melt it in three quarts of water, and add, in 
 the boiling ol rhenifli tartar, finely powdered, half an 
 ounce ; this diffolvcs with a remarkable ebullition, and 
 gives a grateful acidity to the liquor ; take the veffel from 
 the fire, and fuffer it to cool, and you have an artificial 
 mull, which in all refpedts refcmbles the natural tafieand 
 fweet juice of a white flavourlels grape, when well puri¬ 
 fied, and racked off from its fediment, in order to make 
 Hum. If this artificial mufi be Hummed, that is, well 
 fumigated with burning brimflone, it becomes a perfedt 
 Hum, and may be made of any flavour, at the diferetiou 
 of the artifl. 
 
 STUPOR, a numbnefs in any part of the body, 
 whether occafioned by ligatures obflrudting the blood’s 
 motion, by the palfv, or the like. 
 
 STURGEON, Siurio, in ichthyology, a very large 
 flfh, growing to 14, 16, or 18 feetin length ; though the 
 greater part are caught much fmaller. There are four cirri 
 at the extremity of the under jaw; the eyes are large ; 
 and Hand at a great diflance from the extremity of the 
 roflium or Inout : but what is very lingular in the flur- 
 geon, are the lpinofe tubercles, of which there are fevc- 
 ral feries or rows. 
 
 STYE, or Stitiie, a diforder of the eye-lids; being 
 a fmall eneyfled tumour, about the bignefs of a barley¬ 
 corn. The Hye frequently occafions much pain and un- 
 ealinefs, and mull be treated with great caution, on ac¬ 
 count of the tendcrnels of the eye. Some recommend 
 cataplafms, and the like applications; but the eye is often 
 hurt by thofe, and it is oblerved befides, that thelc tu¬ 
 bercles l'eldom give way to topical applications of any 
 kind. When they are fmall, Heilter thinks it befl to let 
 them take their own courle ; but if fo large as to occalion 
 deformity, or danger of hurting the fight, the way to 
 extirpate them, is to make a longitudinal incifion on the 
 part, and carefully take them out whole ; or, if it cannot 
 be thus got out clean, it mufi be cut out, as far as may 
 be done, with feiffars, and dreffed with Egyptian oint¬ 
 ment, and a little red precipitate, or touched at times 
 with the common caullick, rill eaten thoroughly away, 
 and then the wound dreffed and healed in the common 
 manner. 
 
 This is the method by which the flat and broad- 
 bottomed tumours of this kind are to be extirpated ; and 
 in this, great care muff be taken that none of the fharp 
 applications touch the eye, as they might injure the fight. 
 It is common, however, with theie tumours, to hang by 
 a lort of lmall root, and then they are much more ealily 
 managed, there being no more neceffary than the cutting 
 them dole off with a pair of feiffars, or the tying them 
 firmly round with a piece of filk or horfe-hair. They 
 are fometimes, if taken in time, difperfed by rubbing 
 them with faffing-fpittle, or by applying the pulp of a 
 roailed apple mixed vvithfome laffron and camphor. 
 
 STYGIAN Liquors , an appellation given to cauf- 
 Hick and corrofive waters, and particularly to aqua-regia. 
 See Aqjja. 
 
 STY LE, a word of various fignifications, originally 
 deduced from rwxoj, a kind of bodkin, wherewith the an¬ 
 cients wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, Ac. and which 
 is Hill ufed to write on ivory-leaves, and paper prepared 
 for that purpofe, Ac. 
 
 Style, in botany, is that part of the piffillum, or’ 
 female organ of generation, which lerves to elevate the 
 iligma from the germen, on the top of which it is gene¬ 
 rally placed, and is of various figures. In nme genera 
 it is very lhort, as in the larracenia ; and in others is en¬ 
 tirely wanting, as in celandina and poppy. 
 
 Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a 
 dial, railed on the plane thereof, to projcdl a lhadow. 
 
 Style, in matters of language, a particular manner 
 of exprefling one’s thoughts agreeably to the rules of 
 fyntax; or, as F. Buffier more accurately defines it, the 
 manner wherein the words, conflrudled according to the 
 laws of fyntax, arc arranged among themfelves, Fuitably 
 to the genus of the language. 
 
 From 
 
STY 
 
 From this defcriptionit appears, that the ftyle fuppofes' 
 or includes the fyntax ; and that fyntax does not extend 
 fo far as ftyle, for the fyntax may be juft where the ftyle 
 is wretched. 
 
 A fault in ftyle is not lefs a fault againft grammar, 
 than is a fault in fyntax ; only the former is lefs precife 
 and palpable than the other. A very common error in 
 grammarians, F. Buffer adds, is to confound two kinds 
 of ftyle in one : grammatical ftyle, or that directed by 
 the rules of grammar ; and the perfonal ftyle, which de¬ 
 pends lefs on the grammar than on the perlon that writes, 
 whether with regard to his particular tafte and genius, 
 or with regard to his matter, or the kind or character of 
 his w'ork. There are a great many differences between 
 the two; the moft effential is, that the one may be di- 
 verfified an infinite number of ways, and the other can¬ 
 not. In effeft, the perfonal ftyle is naturally variable, 
 according to the different genius, humours, and com¬ 
 plexion. 
 
 It is the imagination that a£ts, that conceives, that 
 propofes, and that exprefles things, according to its 
 character, which is different in all men, and which is to’ 
 be varied according to the particular kind of the work. 
 Hence arife the gay, the grave, the florid, the jejune, 
 the copious, the concife, the poetical, the epiliolary, 
 and the burlefque ftyles. Thcfe perfonal ftyles are all 
 independent on the grammatical ; and we have authors 
 who excel in the one, and are miferably defective in the 
 other. The perfonal ftyle is not under the direction of 
 grammar, but of the imagination, or rather of rhetorick, 
 that art having to do diredtly with our thoughts, as 
 grammar with our words. This, however, may be faid, 
 that grammar is far from being able to vary the fame 
 words of aphrafe, with equal perfe&ion; and that there 
 is but one way of delivering them in the tafte and genius 
 of the language. 
 
 In oratory and poetry, ftyle is reftrained wholly to what 
 F. Buffer calls the perfonal ftyle. Language refers prin¬ 
 cipally to the matter of the difeourfe, viz. the words ; 
 elocution to the particular members or parts thereof; 
 and ftyle to the whole compofition. 
 
 The mafters of the art reduce the kinds of ftyle to 
 three ; the fublime, the low, and the intermediate or 
 equable ftyle. The fublime ftyle, is that coniifting in 
 magnificent words and fentences ; which, by its noble 
 boldnefs, ravifhes the hearers, and extorts admiration, 
 even from the unwilling. See Sublime. 
 
 Low, or Ample ftyle, is that ordinarily ufed in fmaller 
 or humbler works, as epiftles, dialogues, and common 
 difeourfe. The chief virtues hereof are perfpicuity, 
 fmoothnefs, eafinefs, and cleanlinefs. It mull be very 
 Iparing in the ufe of tropes and figures, efpecially the 
 more violent ones, as the profopopoeia, apoftrophe, Ac. 
 
 Intermediate, or equable ftyle, partakes of the magni¬ 
 ficence of the fublime, and the fimplicity of the low. It 
 neither rifes to the majefty of the one in words and fen¬ 
 tences, nor yet is fmartly pointed like the other. Tully 
 calls this the polifhed and florid ftyle ; it being in this, 
 that all the graces and beauties of language are princi¬ 
 pally to be ufed. 
 
 As to the choice of ftyle, in the general, the nature of 
 the fubjefl is to determine it. 
 
 Such ftyle, fays Cicero, is to be chofen, as exprefles 
 great things magnificently, middle things moderately, and 
 low things fubtilly : but more particularly, as there are 
 three branches of the duty of an orator, to teach, to de¬ 
 light, and to move ; the Ample ftyle is ufed to teach, the 
 middle to delight, and the fublime to move. 
 
 Again, the Ample or low ftyle is fit for comedy, the 
 fublime for tragedy, and the middle for liiftory. Again, 
 the Ample ftyle is fit for bucolicks and eclogues, the in¬ 
 termediate for georgicks, and the fublime for epicks : 
 which triple difference we may dil’ccrn in Virgil, though 
 he fometimes mixes them all in the AEneid itfelf, ufing 
 the Ample ftyle in the fifth book, where he delcribes 
 games ; and the intermediate in the beginning of the 
 poem. 
 
 Care is ftill to be taken that the ftyle be not flat and 
 dull, on pretence of being Ample. 
 
 O/cAStyle, the Julian manner of computing times, 
 as the 
 
 Nsiv-St yle is the Gregorian method of computation. 
 See Julian, Gregorian, Bissextile, Ac, 
 
 Vol. II. No. 70. 
 
 SUB 
 
 STYLITES, an appellation given to a kind of foli- 
 taries, who lpend their lives feated on the tops of co¬ 
 lumns, to be, as they imagine, the better difpofed for 
 meditation, Ac. Of thefe we find feveral mentioned in 
 ancient writers, and even as low as the nth century. 
 I he founder of the order was St. Simon Stylites, a fa¬ 
 mous anchoret in the fifth century, who took up his 
 abode on a column, fix cubits high ; then on a fecond, 
 of 12 cubits ; a third, of 22 ; and, at laft, on another, 
 of 36. The extremity of thefe columns were only three 
 feet in diameter, with a kind of rail or ledge about it 
 that reached almoft to the girdle, fomewhat refembling 
 a pulpit. There was no lying down in it. The faquirs, 
 or devout people of the Eaft, imitate this extraordinary 
 kind of life even to this day. 
 
 S 1 YLOGLOSSUS, in anatomy, a mufclc arifing 
 from the apex of the llyloide procefs ; and, defeending 
 obliquely to the fide and root of the tongue, moves it 
 fideways, backwards, and forwards. 
 
 S T YLOHYOIDAEUS, in anatomy, apairofmufi- 
 cles arifing in the llyloide procefs, and terminating in 
 the horn and the bale : this is often perforated by the di- 
 gaftrick mufcle of the jaw. Thefe mufcles draw laterally 
 upwards. 
 
 STYLOTDES, in anatomy, an apophvfis of the os 
 petrofum; thus called, from its refembling a ftyle or ftylet. 
 
 Sd YLOPHARYNGALUS, in anatomy, one of the 
 fix pair of mufcles which ferve to dilate the pharynx. 
 7 he ftylopharyngteus arifes from the beginning of the 
 ftyloide procefs, and is inferted on both Tides into this 
 and into the thyroide procefs : it ferves alfo to elevate as 
 well as dilate the pharynx. 
 
 STYPTICK, in pharmacy, medicines which, by their 
 aftringent qualities., flop haemorrhages. See Agarick. 
 
 $ 1 YRAX, in botany, the ftorax tree, is a native of 
 feveral parts of Europe, and of the eaft. The gum which 
 is obtained by making incifions on its trunk, is ufed 
 medicinally. See St.or a x. 
 
 SUBALTERN, a fubordinate officer, or one who 
 difeharges his poll under the command, and fubje£t to 
 the diieflion of another ; fuch are lieutenants, fub-lieu- 
 tenants, cornets, and enfigns, who ferve under the cap¬ 
 tain ; but cuftom has now appropriated the term to thofe 
 of much lower rank, as ferjeants, and the like. We alfo 
 fay fubaltern-courts, jurifdidtions, Ac. fuch are thofe of 
 infe rior lords, with regard to the lord paramount; hun¬ 
 dred-courts, with regard to county-courts, Ac. 
 
 SUBCLAVIAN, Subclavius , in anatomy, is applied 
 to any thing under the arm-pit or fhoulder, whether ar¬ 
 tery, nerve, vein, or mufcle. Subclavius more particu¬ 
 larly denotes a fmall oblong mufcle lying between the 
 clavicle and firft rib. It is fixed by one end in the middle 
 lower portion of the clavicle, at the diftance of about an 
 inch from each extremity, and by the other in the carti¬ 
 lage, and a fmall part of the bone of the firft rib. 
 
 SUBCOS 1 AL Muscle, Subcojiales , in anatomy. 
 Thefe mufcles areflefhy planes of different breadths, and 
 very thin, fituated more or lefs obliquely in the infide of 
 the ribs, near their bony angles, and running in the fame 
 direction with the external intercoftals. They are fixed 
 by other extremities in the ribs, the inferior extremity 
 being always at a greater diftance from the vertebra? than 
 the fuperior, and feveral ribs lying between the two in- 
 fertions. Thefe mufcles are more fenfible in the lower 
 ribs than in the upper, and they adhere clofely to the ribs 
 that lie between their infertions. 
 
 SUBCUTANEOUS, in anatomy, a thin membra¬ 
 nous mufcle, running under the Tkin, called alfo qua- 
 dratus gence, and platifma myoides. It arifes with a 
 pretty broad origin from the hind part of the neck, and 
 from the pefloral mufcle below the clavicle. It adheres 
 firmly to the paniculus cornofus, from which it is not 
 (eparated without difficulty, and therefore it was not an¬ 
 ciently diftinguilhed from it. It is inferted obliquely on 
 each fide into the lower jaw bone, near the fkin, lips, 
 and fometimes the bottom of the nofc, all which parrs it 
 draws downwards and awry. A convuliion herein is 
 called the cynick fpafm. In fome perlons it reaches to 
 the ears, which is the rcafon that fome have the faculty 
 of moving their ears which others want. 
 
 SUBDUCTION, in arithmetick, the fame as fub- 
 traftion. See Subtraction. 
 
 SUBDUPLE Ratio, is when any number or quan- 
 4 V tity 
 
SUB 
 
 Vity is contained in another twice ; thus 3 is faid to be 
 fubduple of 6, as 6 is duple of 3. 
 
 SUBDUPLICATE Ratio, of any two quantities, 
 is the ratio of their fquare roots. See Ratio. 
 
 SUBJECT, Subditus , a perfon under the rule and 
 dominion of a fovereign prince or Hate. 
 
 Subject, Subjtflum, is alfo ufed for the matter of 
 an art or fcience, or that which it conliders, or wherein 
 it is employed. Thus the human body is the fybjeft of 
 medicine. 
 
 i he furgeons call the body they are diflefting, and 
 whereon they read leftures, their fubjeft. The fubjeft 
 of logick is thinking or reafoning ; but more particularly 
 in a lyllogifm one of the terms of a proportion is galled 
 the fubjeft, and the other the attribute. In poetry, the 
 fubjeft is the matter treated of, or the event related or fet 
 to view. Subjeft alfo denotes the fubllance or matter to 
 which an accident is added, whence the maxim that two 
 contraries can never fubfift in the lame fubjeft. 
 
 SUB IUNC riVE, in grammar, the fecond mood of 
 verbs, thus called becaufe iubjoined to another verb, or 
 particle at leaft, and not Handing alone in a fentence : 
 thus, Orat ut ad fe venias. Quid faciaip prorfus ignoro. 
 Though this were true, &c. 
 
 SUBLAPSARIANS. See Supralapsarians. 
 
 SUBLIMATE, a chymical preparation, the balls 
 whereof is merpury or quickfilver. There are two kjnds 
 of fublimate, corrolive Ipblimate, and fweet fublimate, 
 or mercurius dulcis lublimatus; which fee under the ar¬ 
 ticle Mercury. 
 
 SUBLIMATION, the condenfing and calleftjng in 
 a folid form, by means of velfels aptly conftrufted, the 
 fumes of bodies railed from them, by the application of 
 a proper heat. Sublimation is in all refpedls the fame 
 with diftillation, except that in the full the produce is 
 folid, but in the latter fluid. The only variation, there¬ 
 fore, neceflary in the operation, is the accoinmodating 
 the recipient part ol the apparatus to this difference, 
 which admits, in moft cafes, that one veflel may perform 
 the office both of condcnler and receiver, as the matter 
 cannot, like fluids, flow to another part, but mull remain 
 where it hill: fettles, except in fome instances, where the 
 letter is extremely volatile, or where a fluid rjfiqg with 
 it renders a depending receiver neceflary. 
 
 'I he velfels proper, in refpeft of the different fubjefts 
 of this operation, vary in their ftrufture and the fubllance 
 of which they are rpade, as well on account of the de¬ 
 gree of heat requifite to be employed, as the nature of 
 the matter to be lublimed, fincc corrofions of them arc 
 here, and indeed in all other cafes, to be carefully avoided. 
 
 In fublimations of mercury, whether combined with 
 acids or fulphur, of fal ammoniacum and of fulphur 
 alone, a Angle velfel may anfwer all the purpofes, as 
 their neceffity of a great heat to keep them in the condi¬ 
 tion of fumes, renders the'upper part of the glals capable 
 of detaining them when they are raifed thereto ; but it is 
 proper, ip thefe inftances, that aglafs in land, or earthen 
 ware, lhoujd be ufed. A glafs body, in a ftrong land 
 heat, may very well ferve for all thefe; but fublimate of 
 mercury is frequently lublimed in a bolt-head, or ma- 
 trafs ; and the factitious cinnabar, by thofe who make 
 large quantities, in an cartheq velfel made iq the fhape 
 
 of an egg, 
 
 In the fublimation of volatile fait of amber, and flowers 
 of Benjamin, a container and condenfer are leparatcly 
 neceflary, and may in all thefe cafes be extremely well 
 fupplied by a retort and receiver, though bodies with 
 alembick heads, and receivers of glafs fitted to them, have 
 been generally recommended in feveral of them ; but the 
 trouble of luting two junctures, and the difficulty pf fit¬ 
 ting them to each other, with feveral other reafons, make 
 retorts far more convenient. A retort and receiver are 
 dike wile proper in the cafe of cinnabar of antimony ; for 
 though the cinnabar migl)t be reftrained in one glafs, the 
 butter of antimony makes the receiver neceflary. 
 
 in fublimations of factitious cinnabar, mercury fubli¬ 
 mate, and fal ammoniacum, it is fufficient to cover the 
 aperture .or neck of the veflel with a tile ; and in the fub¬ 
 limation pf cinnabar pf antimony, and flowers of Benja¬ 
 min, in retorts, it is unneceflary to lute on the receiver ; 
 but in the fublimation of volatile falts, it is requifite to 
 lute the velfels as fecure as poffible, leaving only a fmall 
 vent til] they attain the greateft heat they are t.o fuffer 
 
 S U B 
 
 during the operation. The requifite degree of heat in 
 fublimation varies in almoft every different fubjeft of the 
 operation. The limits are from the grcatell degree that 
 can be given in fand, to a degree fomething lefs than 
 that which will make water boil. 
 
 Hoffman pbierves, that only thofe things are fublim- 
 able which contain a dry exhaleable matter in their ori¬ 
 ginal conftruftion, and among thefe is found a great 
 variety, which require various methods and means to 
 execute that effeCl. Among the minerals, fulphur, an¬ 
 timony, and orpiment, are named as the principal fub- 
 limable bodies: thefe are ol a very lax compageor ftr’uc- 
 ture, and eafily raifed by fire in fmall particles, which 
 concrete again on being flopped from flying off by the 
 cover of the veliel; while, on the contrary, iron, filver, 
 and the other metals, being of a clofer ftrufture, remain 
 fixed in the greatefi heat, and never afeend without being 
 mixed with fome volatile fubllance that is of itfelf capable 
 of riling and taking up fome of them with it. Thus 
 capper and iron will be railed in fublimation by means of 
 fal ammoniack mixed with them ; and even gold itfelf Js 
 faid to be fubjeCl to the lame law ; Mr. Boyle affuring 
 us, that he had a fecret method of preparing a certain 
 faline fubllance, by means of a very Irqall admixture of 
 which, gold would be made to rife in fublimation, and 
 form fine pure cry Hals. 
 
 The admixtures which make bodies fublimable that 
 are not fo in themfelves, are to be of various kinds, ac¬ 
 cording to the nature of the body to be fublimed. Among 
 thefe, fome aCt by rendering the body more eafily fufible, 
 and difuniting thofe particles more readily which the fir? 
 is expcCled to carry up : others aCl again by preventing 
 the cohefions of the particles of the fubllance to be fub 7 
 limed, which heat would otherwife occasion : and, finally, 
 others by entering the body of the fixed fubllance they 
 are mixed with, and giving wings, as it were, to its fub- 
 tle particles, fo that they may afccnd with its eafily fub¬ 
 limable matter, and join with it in the formation of one 
 mixed lubftance in the top of the vcflcl, by partaking of 
 the nature of both. Others aft potentially in the fame 
 way, but by different means, themfelves not being capa¬ 
 ble of fublimation, but ? t Cling on the fubllance to be fub- 
 liincd, by enervating, weakening, or abforbing thofe fub- 
 llances, or parts, of the mixed body, which would other- 
 wile have prevented the afeent of the rell: and, finally, 
 fome aft as diflolvents only, and by that means render 
 things eafy of fublimation, which would have been very 
 difficultly lb, while their parts were in a more llrift con¬ 
 tinuity. 
 
 Explanation of plate LXXV. reprefenting the man¬ 
 ner of extrafting mercury from its ore, or cinnabar. 
 
 The lower compartment of the plate reprefents the fe¬ 
 veral operations generally praftifed in Germany for revi¬ 
 vifying the mercury from the ore of cinnabar. 
 
 Fig. 1. A workman filling a pot with pieces of cin¬ 
 nabar, and flopping the mouth with mofs ; the pot is 
 made of crucible earth, and ufed inftead of a retort, foe 
 holding the mineral ore. It is fitted and luted to a re¬ 
 ceiver, reprefented at G, F, G, is one of thefe pots and 
 its receiver luted together. 
 
 Fig. 2. A workman flirring with a long pole, the fire 
 made on the crowns of the earthen pots, deferibed in the 
 firfl figure, in order to keep up the proper degree of heat 
 neceflary for performing the procefs of diftillation per 
 defeenfum, by which the mercury is extrafted from the 
 ore. The furnace is compofed of large Hones, forming a 
 wall, a little higher than the earthen pots when mounted 
 upon, and their mouths luted into the aperture of the 
 receivers placed in fand. The fuel is wood, long pieces 
 of which, or large branches of trees, and of a length 
 fufficient to reach from one fide of the furnace to the other, 
 are placed over the pots, and the two ends reft on the 
 walls on each fide of the furnace, without touching the 
 crowns of the earthen pots. Thefe pieces therefore form 
 a kind of grate on which the wood or faggots are placed, 
 and the interftices between the pots filled with powder 
 of charcoal. The whole is then fet on fire, and a very 
 intenfe heat is produced, which volatalifes the mercury, 
 which then quits the cinnabar, and pafles in vapours 
 through the mouth of the pot into the receiver, where it 
 is condenfed by the coldnels of the fand, in which the 
 receivers are placed. The workman who ftirs the fire, 
 is very careful tp avoid the arfenical and other poifonous 
 
 vapours 
 
' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
SUB 
 
 vapours which are elevated with the ftnoke. A, B, B, 
 the large pieces of wood which form the grate, mentioned 
 above, C, an empty furnace. 
 
 Fig. 3. A furnace filled with earthen pots, mounted 
 upon their receivers without being covered with its wood. 
 D, D, D, the walls of the furnace. F, F, F, F, the 
 earthen pots, luted to their receivers, bedded in fand. 
 
 Fig. 4. F, F, F, a number of earthen pots, placed 
 near the workman, fig. L 
 
 'Flic upper compartment of the plate, is a perfpeftive 
 view, feftion, and plan of the furnace ufed at Alm'ada in 
 Spain, for extrafling mercury from its ore or cinnabar. 
 
 Fig. 5. A perfpeftive elevation of the furnace for the 
 Reparation of mercury. A, two furnaces joined together, 
 and in which fmall pieces of cinnabar arc arranged, for 
 extrafling the mercury. B, the door of the two fur¬ 
 naces, repvefented open. The floor of the paflage from 
 this door is on a level ypith the grate; and in this paflage 
 the workmen charge the grate with fmall pieces of cin¬ 
 nabar. The grate is conftrufted of bricks. C, and C, 
 apertures in the domes of the two furnaces, through 
 which they finifli the charge. Thefe apertures are co¬ 
 vered with bricks, well luted with earth. The door 
 1 -^, D, is alfo doled with the fame materials. D,’D. 
 the funnels of the chimnies of the two furnaces. E, E, 
 a number of apertures, into which the mouths of the 
 aiudds are luted. F, F, F, F, terrafles inclined in con¬ 
 trary direflions, upon which a number of aludels, luted 
 together, are arranged, and by which a communication 
 is opened between the furnace A and the chamber K, 
 which ferves as a recipient or receiver for the mercury. 
 G, flairs for afeending the terrafes. H, a row of aiudds 
 luted to one another, connefted at one end to one of 
 the apertures of the furnace B, and at the other to one 
 of the mouths L, E, L, of the chamber K, which forms 
 'the receiver. I, aludels to which others being luted, 
 form more rows. E, a building divided into foui cham¬ 
 bers, in which the vapours concluded by the rows of 
 idudels, are condchfed and collefted. L, L, L, aper¬ 
 tures, or mouths, of the chambers, which form the re¬ 
 cipients, and through which the rows of aludels, conti¬ 
 nued from the furnaces to thefe chambers, conduft the 
 mercurial vapours. M, M, M, M, windows, by which 
 tjjcy enter the chambers, and which arc doled with bricks 
 luted together with day during the operation. N, N, N. 
 chimnies, through which the fiiperfliious vapours con¬ 
 veyed by the alqdels, after having depolited their mercu¬ 
 rial particles, make their efcape. 
 
 Fig. 6. A longitudinal feftion through the fire-place. 
 A, ot]e fide of the fire-place, through which the wood 
 is introduced, and below which is the alli-hole. B, the 
 fuel in flames. D, the grate conftrufted of bricks, in 
 the form reprefented in the figure, and upon which the 
 ore is placed. C, the crown of the dome of the fur¬ 
 nace. E, aludels luted to one of the apertures of the 
 furnace. It is plain from the figure, that the fmoke from 
 thewpod is carried off by the chimney wall in the wall 
 ot the fqrnace, without entering the internal part filled 
 Vvith the ore. 
 
 Fig. 7. A perfpeftive elevation of the fi> 3 e of the fur¬ 
 nace where the fire is made. A, A, mouths of the fire¬ 
 places below the grate, and into which the fuel is intro¬ 
 duced. B, the door for charging the furnace. It is clofed 
 up with bricks and earth, during the fublimation of the 
 mercury. K, K, the building thaf contains the four 
 chambers which ferve for receivers. 
 
 ' Fig. %. Plan of that part of the furnace where the 
 grates are placed. A, A, the fire hearths under which 
 arc the holes. B, B, the doors for charging the furnace. 
 C, C, the interior parts of the furnaces.' E, E, E, the 
 apertures, into which the aludels are luted. 
 
 SUBLIME, is a certain eminence or perfeftion of 
 language, fays Longinus, and that the greateft writers, 
 both in verfe and prole, have by this alon$ obtaine'4 the 
 prize of glory, and filled all time with tjreir renown. 
 See Style. He makes five fources of the fublime : 
 the firft, a certain elevation of the mind, which makes 
 \js think happily: the fecond is the patlietick, or that 
 natural vehemence and enthufiafm which ftrikes and 
 moves us; thefe two are wholly owing to nature, and 
 mull be born with us ; whereas the reft: depend partly on 
 art: the tnird is the turning of figures in a certain man¬ 
 lier, both thofe of thoughts and of fpeech : the fourth, 
 
 SUB 
 
 noblenefs of expreffion; which confifts of two parts, 
 , J 1 '“ CE ° f w °rds, and the elegant figurative diftion ■ 
 the fihh, which includes all the relt, is the compofition 
 and arrangement of the words in all their magnificence 
 and dignity. 0 
 
 SUBMULTIPLE, in geometry, &c. A fubmultiple 
 number, or quantity, is that which is contained a certain 
 number of times in another, and which;'therefore re¬ 
 peated a certain number of times, becomes exaflly equal 
 thereto : thus 3 is a fubmultiple of 21 ; in'which fenfc 
 fubmultiple coincides with an aliquot part. ’ 
 
 Submultiple Ratio, is that between the quantity 
 contained and theqnantity containing : thus the ratio of 
 3 to 2 r is fubmultiple. In both cafes fubmultiple is the; 
 everfe of multiple, 21, c. g. being a multiple of 3 and 
 
 °cm^°r f vD\r» 3 , amult ‘P lci;,tio ' Sat Ratio. ' 1 
 SUBNORMAL, in geometry, a line which deter¬ 
 mines the point in the axis of a curve, where a normal or 
 perpendicular, railed from the point of contaft of a tan¬ 
 gent to the curve, cuts the axis. Or the fubnormal is a 
 me which determines the point wherein the axis is cur 
 by a line falling perpendicularly on the tangent in the 
 point of the contaft. v 
 
 SUBPCENA, in law, a writ whereby all common 
 perfons, or thofe under the degree of peerage, may be 
 caUedinto chancery, in any cafe where the law cannot 
 afford a remedy. 
 
 SUBREPTION, Subreptio, the a£l of obtaining a 
 favour from a fupenor, by iurprife, or a falfe reprefenta- 
 tion. bee the next article. 
 
 SUBREP Ill lOUS, or Surreptitious, a term 
 applied to a letter licence, patent, or other aft, fraudu¬ 
 lently obtained of a fupenor, by concealing feme truth 
 which had it been known, would have prevented tiro 
 conceffion or grant , m which cafe, the benefits of let- 
 ters, licences, be. are forfeited. 
 
 I ?“® R q G A'nON, orSuRROGATlON, in the civil 
 law, the aS ot fuMVituting a perfon in the place, aiid'en- 
 ntling him to tire rights of another : but, in its general 
 fcnfc, 1 abrogation implies a fucceflion of any kind whe- 
 
 ' enG^aSIr? 5 E e T ‘X on ’ orofa P erf °b a thing. : 
 
 UL t A r^ IS V'r anatom r’ a mufcle anting 
 fiom the bafis and fide ot the fcapula, and, fpreading i£ 
 elf under tile whole convex or under fide of it, is inferted 
 
 by a lemi-circular tendon, into the neck of the os hud 
 
 m \ r TT o n e d r.o‘raT,M t ^ 0 J n “ ll i e fldc ° f the trunk. 
 
 SLBSCR 11 -1 ION, m general, fignifies thefignature 
 put at the bottom of a letter, writing, or inftrument! 
 Merchants ufe it to figmfy the (hare or filtered which 
 particular periuns take in a publick-flock, or a trading 
 company, by writing their names', and the (hams the? 
 require, m the books or regiftcr thereof • 1 
 
 Subfcription, among bookfelibrs, fignifies an engage-’ 
 mein to take a certain number of copies 'of a book in¬ 
 tended to be printed and a reciprocal obligation of the 
 bookfellcr, or pubhlher, to deliver the faid copies on 
 certain terms. r ’ f 
 
 SUBSEQUENT fomething that comes after ano- 
 c';r P D a ; ^ w , lth re § ard to order of time. 
 SUBSIDY, in law, lignifies an did or tax granted to 
 he king by parliament, tor the ncceffary occafions of 
 the kingdom ; and 1S to be levied on every fubieft of 
 ability, according ’to the rate or Value of his lands or 
 Toods : but tins word, in fomc of our ftatutes, is con- 
 founded with that of cuftoms. : ■ 
 
 SUEMSTENCIE, in the military art, is the money 
 paid to the loldiers weekly, not amounting to their full 
 pay; becaufe their cloaths, accoutrements, tents, bread 
 be. are to be paid. It is Iikewife the money paid to 
 officers upon account, till their accounts bp made up - 
 which is generally once 3 year, and then they are paid 
 their arrears. - J . • 1 
 
 SUBSTANCE, Subjlantia, fomething that we con¬ 
 ceive to fuBfift ot ltfelf, independently "of any created 
 being, or any particular mode or Occident ' 1 ■ 
 
 Our ideas of fubftanc.es, Mr. Locke obferves, are only' 
 
 ,deaS aS 5re ? akcn t0 ‘■eprefem 
 diftma things fubfiftmg byfhemfelves, in which the 
 confufed idea of fubftance is always‘the'chief. Thus 
 he combination of the ideas of a certain figfire, wfth 
 he powers of motion, thought and reafoning joined to 
 a'/J 1 " 1 ": nlake ordinary idea of a man: and 
 thus the mind pbfemng feveral fimple ideas to go con- 
 
 ftantly 
 
SUB 
 
 fktitiy together, which being prefumed to belong to one 
 thing, or to be united to one fubjed, are called by one 
 name, which we are apt afterwards to talk of, and con- 
 fider, as one fimple idea. 
 
 We imagine thefe fimple ideas do not fubfift by them- 
 fclves, but fuppofe fome fubftratum wherein they fubfift, 
 which we call fubftance. The idea of pure lubftanccs 
 is nothing but the luppofed, yet unknown fupport of 
 thefe qualities, which are capable of producing fimple 
 ideas in us. The ideas of particular fubftances are 
 compofed out of this oblcure and general idea of fub¬ 
 ftance, together with fuch combinations of fimple ideas 
 as are obferved to cxift together, and fuppofcd to flow 
 from the internal conftitution and unknown cflence of 
 that fubftance. Thus we come by the ideas of man, 
 liorfe, gold, See. Thus the fenfible qualities of iron, 
 or a diamond, make the complex ideas of thofe fub¬ 
 ftances, which a fmith, or a jeweller, commonly knows 
 better than a philolopher. The fame happens concern¬ 
 ing the operations of the mind, viz. thinking, reafoning, 
 See. which we concluding not to fubfift by thcmfelves, 
 nor comprehending how they can belong to body, or be 
 produced by it, we think them the actions of fome other 
 fubftance, which we call fpirit, of whofe fubftance or 
 nature we have as clear a notion as of that of body, 
 the one being but the luppofed fubftratum of the fimple 
 ideas we have from without, as the other of thofe opera 
 tions which we experience in ourfelves within ; fo that 
 the idea of corporeal fubftance in matter, is as remote 
 from our conceptions, as that of fpiritual fubftance. 
 
 Hence we may conclude, that he has the moft perfed 
 idea of any particular fubftance, who has collected moft 
 of thofe fimple ideas which do exill in it, among which 
 we are to reckon its adive powers and paflive capacities, 
 though not ftridly fimple ideas. 
 
 Subftanccs are generally diftinguifhed by fecondary 
 qualities, for our fenfes fail us in the difcovery of pri¬ 
 mary ones, as the bulk, figure, texture, See. of the 
 minute parts of bodies, on which their real conftitutions 
 and differences depend : and fecondary qualities are no¬ 
 thing but powers with relation to our fenfes. The ideas, 
 that "make our complex ones of corporeal fubftances, 
 are of three forts: firft, the ideas of primary qualities of 
 things, which are dilcovered by our fenies ; fuch are 
 bulk, figure, motion, See. Secondly, the fenfible fecon¬ 
 dary qualities, which are nothing but powers to produce 
 feveral ideas in us, by our fenfes. Thirdly, the aptnels 
 we confider in fubftance, to caufe or receive fuch alte¬ 
 rations of primary qualities, as that the fubftance fo al¬ 
 tered fhould produce in us different ideas from what it 
 did before ; and they are called adive and paflive powers: 
 all which, as far as we have any notice or notion of them, 
 terminate in fimple ideas. 
 
 Befides the complex ideas we have of material fub¬ 
 ftances, by the fimple ideas taken from the operations of 
 our own minds, which we experience in ourfelves, as 
 thinking, underftanding, willing, knowing, See. co- 
 exiftiifg in the fame fubftance, we are able to frame the 
 complex idea of a fpirit; and this idea of an immaterial 
 fubftance is as clear as that we have of a material one. 
 By joining thefe with fubftance, of which we have no 
 diftind idea, we have the idea of fpirit; and by putting 
 together the ideas of coherent, folid parts, and a power 
 of being moved, joined with fubftance, of which like- 
 wife we have no pofitive idea, we have the idea of matter. 
 
 There are alfo other ideas of fubftances, which may 
 be coliedive ; which are made up of many particular 
 fubftances confidercd as united into one idea, as a troop, 
 army, Sc c. which the mind makes by its power of com- 
 pofition. Thefe colledive ideas are but the artificial 
 draughts of the mind, bringing things, remote and 
 independant, into one view, the better to contemplate 
 and difeourfe of them united into one conception, and 
 fignified by one name ; for there are no things fo remote, 
 which the mind cannot, by this art of compoiition, 
 bring into one idea ; as is vifible in that fignified by the 
 name univerfe. 
 
 SUBSTANTIAL, in thefchools, fomethingbelong¬ 
 ing to the nature of i'ubftance. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVE, in grammar, a noun, or name, 
 confidered limply and in itfelf, without any regard to its 
 qualities, or other accidents, in contradiftindion to the 
 woun termed adjedive, or that which expreiles a certain 
 
 SUB 
 
 quality or accident of the noun fubftantive. Or, a 
 noun fubftantive is that noun, which, joined to a verb, 
 makes a perfed fentcnce, as a man, a liorfe, a tree; 
 thus, a man laughs, a liorfe gallops, a tree buds, are 
 each of them perfed fentences. All riouiis, to which 
 one cannot add the word thing, are fubftantives ; and 
 thofe to which thing may be added, are adjedives. 
 
 SUBSTITUTE, a perfon appointed to officiate for 
 another, in cafe of abfence, or other legal impediment. 
 
 Substitute, in medicine, denotes a drug or remedy 
 that may be ufed inftead of another ; or that fupplies the 
 place of another of like virtue, which is not perhaps to 
 be had ; called alfo fuccedaneum. 
 
 SUBSTITUTION, ingrammar, theufingone word 
 for another. This thegrammarians otherwife call fyllcpfis. 
 
 Substitution, in the civil law, a difpolltion of a 
 teftament, whereby the teftator fubftitutes one heir for 
 another, who has only the ufufrud, and not the pro¬ 
 perty of the thing left him. 
 
 Substitution, in algebra, is the putting, in the 
 room of any quantity in an equation, fome other quan¬ 
 tity, which is equal to it, but exprefl'ed in another 
 manner. 
 
 SUBST R ACT ION. See Subtraction. 
 
 SUBSTYLAR Line, in dialling, a right line on 
 which the ftyle or gnomen of a dial is ereded. 
 
 SUBTANGENT of a Curve, the line which deter¬ 
 mines the interfedion of the tangent with the axis ; or 
 that determines the point where the tangent cuts the axis 
 prolonged. 
 
 SUBTENSE, in geometry. SccChord. 
 
 SUBTERRANEOUS, fomething under ground. 
 
 SUBTILE, in philofophy, fomething exceedingly- 
 minute, fine and delicate. 
 
 SUBTRACTION, or Sub-str action, in arith- 
 metick, the lecond rule, or rather operation, in arith- 
 metick, whereby we dedud a lefs number from a greater, 
 to learn their precife difference. 
 
 Prob. I. To fpbtrad integers of like names, when tha 
 minuend, or number to be fubtraded from, is greater 
 than, or equal to, the fubducend, or that which is 
 fubtraded. 
 
 Rule i. Place the fubducend under the minuend, and 
 draw a line under both. 2. Begin at the right hand ; 
 take the lefs from the greater, or equals from equals, and 
 let the difference of each row underneath. 
 
 Example in integers alone. 
 
 Minuend 638 
 Subducend 213 
 
 Remainder 425 
 
 Prob. II. To fubtrad integers of the fame name or 
 denomination, when fome of the minuend numbers are 
 lefs than their inferior in the fubducend. 
 
 Rule 1. Place your numbers, and begin as before. 
 
 . According to their refpedive value, take one of the 
 next denomination, out of which fubtrad, and to the 
 remainder add the minuend, fetting their fum under¬ 
 neath. 3. Then add vvhat you took to the next place, 
 on the left hand, and fo proceed by this, or the former 
 rule. 
 
 Example in integers alone. 
 
 From 2537 
 Subtrad 1648 
 
 Remainder 889 
 
 For, by faying 8 from 17, I add 10 to the minuend; 
 but I add alfo the fame to the fubducend, by faying 1 
 and 4=5, therefore the remainder muft be the fame. 
 
 For by adding a ten to the units, and taking it away 
 from the tens, the value of the number is not changed. 
 
 Example in integers and parts. 
 
 s. d. 1. s. d . 
 
 From 5 3 From 246 3 4 
 
 Subt. 2 9 Subt. 68 10 6 
 
 Rem. 2 6 Rem. 177 12 10 
 
 Theorem. In fubtradion, the fubducend, together 
 with the remainder, is equal to the minuend. For all 
 the parts taken together are equal to the whole. And if 
 the fubducend be taken from the minuend, there refts 
 the remainder. But if a part be taken from the whole, 
 the remainder will be the other part; therefore, the lub- 
 
 ducend. 
 
S U D 
 
 ducend, together with the remainder, are all the parts of 
 the minuend, and confequently equal to it. 
 
 Corollary. Hence addition and fubtraftion ferve reci¬ 
 procally to prove each other. See Addition. 
 
 For addition and fubtraftion are oppofite in all cafes ; 
 and what is done by dne, is undone by the other. 
 
 Thus, if to 6 And if from 10 
 
 be added 
 the fum is 
 
 be fubtrafted 
 
 io the remainder is 6 
 
 That is, if 6 + 4 = io, then 10 — 4 = 6. 
 
 Subtraction, in algebra, is performed by the fol¬ 
 lowing general rule ; Change the figns of the quantity 
 to be fubtrafted into their contrary figns, and then add 
 it, fo changed, to the quantity from which it was to be 
 fubtrafted, by the rules of addition j the fum arifing by 
 this addition is the remainder. 
 
 For to fubtraft any quantity, either pofitive or nega¬ 
 tive, is the fame as to add the oppofite kind. See the 
 article Addition. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 From + 5 c 
 Subt. +3^' 
 
 Rem. erf— in, or 2 a 
 From 
 Subt. 
 
 a — 7 b 
 3 a + 4^ 
 
 5 a— 11 b 
 2 a —3 * + 5y—6 
 6* + 4* + 5.y + 4 
 
 Rem.—4«—7 x 10 
 
 It is evident, that to fubtraft, or take away a decre¬ 
 ment, is the fame thing as adding an equal increment. 
 If we take away— b from a — b, there remains a ; and if 
 we add +/> to a — b, the fum is likevyife a. In general, 
 the fubtraftion of a negative quantity is equivalent to 
 adding its pofitive value. 
 
 SUBTRIPLE Ratio, is when one number, or 
 quantity, is contained in another three times : thus, 2 is 
 laid to be fubtriple of 6, as fix is triple of 2. 
 
 SUBULARIA, in botany, a genus of tetradynameous 
 plants, whofe flower confifts of four ovate intire petals, 
 dilpoled in the form of a crofs ; the germen is ovate, 
 with fcarce any ftyle ; and the ftigma is obtufe : the fruit 
 is an oval comprefled pod, having two cells, which con¬ 
 tain a few very fmall roundifh feeds. 
 
 SUBULATED, fomething in the fliape of an awl: 
 thus, a fubulated leaf is one of an oblong and narrow 
 figure, broadeft at the bafe, and thence gradually de- 
 crcafing, till it terminates in a point. 
 
 SUCCEDANEUM, in pharmacy, denotes a drug fub- 
 ftituted in the place of another, in medical compofition. 
 
 SUCCESSION, SucceJJio , in philofophy, an idea 
 which we get by reflecting on that train of ideas con- 
 flantly following one another in our minds, when awake. 
 See Idea. 
 
 Succession, inlaw, implies aright to the whole 
 effeCts left by a defunCt. 
 
 SUCCESSOR, inlaw, one that fucceeds, or comes 
 in the place of another. 
 
 It is held, that a foie corporation may take an eftate 
 in fee to them and their fucceflors, but not without the 
 word fucceflors : whereas an aggregate corporation may 
 Take a fee in fucceflion, without exprefling the word 
 fucceflors ; and likewife may have goods and chatties in 
 fucceflion. See Corporation. 
 
 SUCCINUM, amber, in natural hiftory, which fee. 
 
 SUCCISA, in botany and pharmacy, a fpecies of fca- 
 biofa, called by fome morfus diaboli, devil’s bit; and 
 laid to be alexipharmick, but is little ufed in the prefent 
 practice. 
 
 SUCCORY, Ckhorium , in botany, &c. which fee. 
 
 SUCCULA, in mechanicks, a bare axis, or cylinder, 
 with flaves to move it round; but without any tympa¬ 
 num or peritrochium. 
 
 SUCCULENT Plants, in botany, thofe whofe 
 leaves are very thick and full of juice : fucli are the 
 aloes, &c. 
 
 SUCKERS, in gardening, the fame with off-fets. 
 See Off-sets. 
 
 SUCKING-PUMP. See Pump. 
 
 SUC'l ION, Suftio, the aft of fucking or drawing up 
 a fluid, as air, water, milk, or the like, by means of 
 the mouth and lungs. 
 
 SUDAMINA, little heat pimples in the fkin, like 
 Vol. II. No. 70. 
 
 S U G 
 
 the millet-grains, frequent in youth, efpecially thofe of 
 a hot temperament, and that ufe much exercife. 
 
 . SUDATORY, Sudatorium, a name given by the 
 ancient Romans to their hot or fweatiilg-rooms ; fome- 
 times alfo called loconica, See BaTii. 
 
 SUDOR, fweat, in phyfiology. See Sweat. 
 
 Sudor Anglicanus , the fweating ficknefs, a difeafe 
 fo called from its appearing firft in England, in the year 
 1483, among the foldiers of Henry the feventh, when he 
 landed at Milford-haven, in Wales, whence it fpread 
 itfelf, and raged in London, from the 21ft of Septem¬ 
 ber to the end of Oftober. In the fame city it returned 
 five times, and always in the fummer; firft in 1485, 
 then in 1506, afterwards in 1517, when it was fo violent 
 as to take off the patient in three hours, and fo univerfaft 
 as to attack people of all ages and conditions ; fo that half 
 of the inhabitants of feveral towns in England fell vic¬ 
 tims to its irrefiftible fury. It appeared the fourth time 
 548, when it generally proved mortal in fix hours ; 
 and then it appeared in 1549. at which time alone it 
 fpread itfelf to the Netherlands and Germany, in the 
 latter of which it proved very fatal. + he laft return of 
 it in London was in 1551, when it raged with fuch fury, 
 in one day to take off 120 of the inhabitants of 
 Weftminfter. 
 
 For preventing this difeafe, temperance is ordered, and 
 the choice of falutary aliments and drinks. No crude 
 pot-herbs or fallads are to be ufed, becaufe they may 
 have received a noxious quality from the air ; or, if they 
 are ufed, they arc to be previoufly wafhed in warm 
 water. 
 
 SUDORIFICK, in pharmacy, an appellation given to 
 any medicine that caufes or promotes fweat. 
 
 Sudorifick, perfpirative, and alexipharmick medicines, 
 fays Dr. Shaw, make a large part of the common dif- 
 penfatories. A few medicines well cholen, might lupply 
 the place of all thefe ; and of thefe, the principal one 
 would prove to be camphor, which trial will always fhew 
 to be greatly fuperior to bezoar, Gafcoign’s powder, lapis 
 contrayerva, and the like. 
 
 The fame gentleman gives the following eafy method 
 of preparing a fafe and effectual fudorifick : Take an 
 ounce of refined camphor, beat it in a marble mortar, 
 with two ounces of blanched almonds, till it be reduced 
 to a fmooth and even pafte. This may be formed into 
 pills, or bolufes, and given, according to the ftrength of 
 the patient, and other confiderations, from three grains 
 to 40. 
 
 SUET, Sevum, or Sebum , in anatomy, the folid fat 
 found in feveral animals, asffieep, oxen, &c. but not in 
 the human fpecies. 
 
 SUFFOCATION, in medicine, the privation of re- 
 fpiration, or breathing ; which is fometimes occafioned 
 by a congeftion of blood in the lungs, fo as to prevent 
 the ingrefs of the air. 
 
 Suffocation of the fVomb, or Matrix , is a difeafe 
 pretty frequent in women, called alfo fits of the mother. 
 See Hysterick. 
 
 SUFFRAGAN, an appellation given to Ample bifhops, 
 with refpeft to archbilhops, on whom they depend, and to 
 whom appeals lie from the biffiop’s courts. 
 
 SUFFRAGE, Suffragium, denotes a vote given in an 
 aflembly, where fomething is deliberated on, or where a 
 perfon is elefted to an office or benefice. 
 
 SUFFRUTEX, among botanifts, denotes an under- 
 fhrub, or the loweft kind of woody plants, as lavender, 
 See. 
 
 SUFFUSIO, in medicine, acataraft. See the arti¬ 
 cle Cataract. 
 
 SUGAR, Saccbarum , a very fweet agreeable fubftance, 
 extrafted from a kind of canes, or reeds, growing in great 
 plenty in both the E. and W. Indies. 
 
 Sugar is properly the eflential fait of the fugar-cane, 
 as tartar is of the grape. It is, while in its crude or un¬ 
 refined ftatc, a coarfe, fattifh, oleaginous matter, of a 
 brownifh or greyifh colour, with a call of a redifh or 
 orange colour among it; and of a very fweet, butfome- 
 what difagreeable tafte. When it has been purified and 
 refined by frequent folutions, and by other means, it 
 becomes of a pure, bright, white, glofly, and cryftalline 
 colour, confiderably hard, and of a much pleafanter, 
 though lefs intenfely fweet tafte. The plant which pro¬ 
 duces it, is one of the triandria digvnia of Linnteus, and 
 4 Z one 
 
S U L 
 
 One of the herb® graminifolias of Ray. It is described 
 by Pifo under the name ot viba and tachomura ; by 
 Caffalpinus, under the name of canna millea; and by 
 others, under that ot arundo faccharifera, and calamus 
 laccharinus. See Saccharum, Saturni. 
 
 Sugar Mill. 1 his machine is compofed of three 
 rollers of an equal fize, and equally armed with plates 
 of iron, where the canes are to pals. The roller in the 
 middle is railed much higher than the reft, that the two 
 poles which are fixed crofs-ways at the top, and to which 
 the beafts are yoked, may turn about freely, without be¬ 
 ing hindered by the machine. The great roller in the 
 middle is furrounded with a cog full of teeth, which bite 
 upon the lides of the two other rollers adjoining to it, 
 by which means they are turned round, and by their 
 motion grind and bruife the canes, which pals quite round 
 the great roller and come out dry, and fqueezed from all 
 their juice. 
 
 SUGILLATION, in medicine, an extravafation of 
 blood in the coats of the eye, which at firft appears of a 
 redilh colour, and afterwards livid or black. If the 
 diforder is great, bleeding and purging are proper, as 
 are difeutients. The following cataplafm is laid to be 
 very good : Take of comfrey-root, fix ounces; of Solo¬ 
 mon’s leal, two ounces ; of elder flowers, one ounce and 
 a half; of bean flour, one ounce ; let all thefe be boiled 
 In a fufficient quantity of fpring water. The dccoCtion 
 may be ufed as a fotus, and the ingredient for a cataplafm. 
 
 SUIT, inlaw, is ufed in different fenfes, as, i. For 
 an aCtion, whether perfonal or real. 2. Suit of court, or 
 fuit-fervice, which is an attendance the tenant owes to 
 his lord’s court. 3. Suit-covenant, where a perfon has 
 covenanted to do fervice to the court of the lords. 4. 
 Suit-cuftom, which is where one and his anceftors have 
 owed fuit time out of mind. 5. It is ufed for a petition 
 to the king, or any perfon of dignity ; where a lord dif- 
 trains his tenant for fuit, and none is due; in this cafe, 
 the party may have an attachment againft him to appear 
 in the king’s court. 6. Suit of the king’s peace, is an 
 action brought againft a perfon for breach of the king’s 
 peace; as in the cafe of trealons, felonies, or trefpaffes. 
 
 SULPHUR, in natural hiftory, a fat, unCluous fort 
 of mineral lubftance, fufible and inflammable by fire, 
 and not dilToluble or mifcible in water. 
 
 The fulphur or brimftone ufed in the fhops is of two 
 kinds, the one called native, the other factitious ; the 
 former being found naturally pure in the earth, the latter 
 having been lodged in other bodies, and from thence 
 feparated by means of fire into the form in which we 
 meet with it. 
 
 Thefe two kinds, however, when genuine and pure, 
 are wholly the fame in every relpeCt. Their characters 
 are, that they are dry, folid, friable bodies, melting! 
 with a fmall heat; inflammable, and, when fired in the 
 open air, burning almoft wholly away with a blue flame, 
 and a noxious vapour; endued with an eleCtrick power; 
 and not diflolved in acid menftruums. 
 
 The faClitious fulphur is much the moft common in 
 the fhops. It is fometimes met with in very large mafles, 
 and called fulphur in the cake; but what we moft fre¬ 
 quently fee of it is in oblong cylindrick rolls of a yellow 
 colour, fometimes with, and fometimes without an ad¬ 
 mixture of greenifh. The yellow contains lefs, the 
 greenifh more of the vitriolick fait mixed with it; it is 
 friable, and affords a fort of cracking noife, when rubbed 
 between the fingers ; it is very eafily reduced to powder, 
 and melts with a fmall degree of heat. It may be totally 
 fublimed, in a clofe veflel, without alteration. It takes 
 fire on being brought into contaCt with a burning coal, 
 or any ignated matter; and when pure and genuine, for 
 we are liable to great cheats in regard to it, it does not 
 burn away very quick, but continues a confiderable time, 
 emitting a deep blue flame. It is to be chofen for inter¬ 
 nal ufe of the pureft and brighteft yellow, light, eafily 
 broken, and appearing very bright and gloffy where it 
 breaks. If it be for making oil of fulphur, the greenilh 
 rolls are the bell:, as containing moft acid. 
 
 This kind of fulphur is feparated, by means of fire, 
 from various minerals, which are found naturally to con¬ 
 tain it. The greateft part of what we have, is made from 
 the common vitriolick pyrites, the fame mineral yielding 
 both fulphur and vitriol, and often allum. The firft give 
 it a degree of fire fufficient to melt the fulphur it con- 
 
 SUL 
 
 tains, and, when this is all run out into veffcls prepared 
 to receive it, they expofe the remaining matter to the air, 
 alter which they boil it in water, and obtain from the lixi¬ 
 vium the common green vitriol or copperas ; and after 
 all this is obtained, by adding an alkili to the fame li¬ 
 quor, they get allum from it. In fome places they w'ork 
 an argillaceous earth for fulphur; this is ufually of a 
 whitifh colour, variegated with veins of red, and of a dulky 
 blue. From this they feparate large quantities of com¬ 
 mon brimftone, only, by fufion, in clofe veffels luted 
 together, and that which contains the ore placed in ail 
 inclining pofture ; fo that as loon as the fulphur melts, 
 it mu ft run into the other veffel, which ferves as a receiv¬ 
 er, and which is generally filled in part with water. 
 
 d liele bodies have fometimes the form of cucurbits or 
 long necks, and fometimes of retorts; and the procefs is 
 vulgarly called diftillation, but it by no means agrees 
 with what we ufually underftand by that word. The 
 fulphur is never railed in vapour, but in all thofe cafes is 
 barely lufed, and the veffels are fo placed-that any thino- 
 liquid in the one muft run into the other. Sulphur is 
 feldom produced pure by the firft operation, but is after¬ 
 wards purified by repeated fufions; fome of the hetero¬ 
 geneous matter is brought over with it, leparating to the 
 bottom, and others floating to the furface ; it is feparated 
 horn the lighter by Ikimming them off, and from the 
 heavier by pouring it carefully from its fediment; when 
 thus rendered fufficiently pure, it is caft into iron cylin¬ 
 drick moulds, greafed on the infide with linleed oil, to 
 prevent its flicking to them, and is thus formed into the 
 1 oils we meet with it in. 
 
 This is the hiftory of the common factitious vcllow 
 lulphur; we might indeed vaftly increafe the number of 
 its ores, fince there are multitudes of other foflils, in 
 which true genuine fulphur is contained, but we have 
 given only thofe which are worth the working for it. 
 
 The other, or native fulphur is of four*kinds, ex¬ 
 tremely different, in colour from each other, and fome of 
 them containing particles of other fubftances, and thole 
 often of a very wrong kind for medicinal purpofes among 
 them. The four kinds of native fulphur are, 1. The 
 yellow which is very pellucid, and is the beft of all for 
 medicine, being perfeCl pure brimftone. 2. The greenifh, 
 which is more opake, and contains a large portion of 
 vitriol. 3. The grey, which is foul and earthy ; and, 
 
 4. The red lulphur, which is very beautiful, being per¬ 
 fectly pellucid and of a fine colour, but which is the laft 
 of any to be received into the fhops, as it always contains 
 fome arfenick in it. 
 
 The firft kind, or native yellow fulphur, is what 
 ought to be fold in the fhops under the name of fulphur 
 vivum. It is tranfparent as the fineft amber, and is found 
 in mafles, from the fize of a pea to that of four or five 
 ounces weight. A native fulphur equally pure with this 
 is alfo found in form of powder, refembling the common 
 flower pf brimftone, incrufting the lides and covers of 
 fulphureous fprings, as thofe of Aix laChapelle ; and it 
 is fometimes alfo found in form of Hides or ftalaClites, 
 hanging from the rocks among the burning mountains; 
 m this cafe its figure leems in fome degree owing to the 
 fire. In its pureft folid mafles, it is found in the gold 
 mines of Peru, and in lomeof the Hungarianand German 
 ones. This is the fame fulphur, whether found in form 
 of ftalaClites, of powder, or of thefe folid and tranfpa¬ 
 rent nodules ; and this is the only kind which people 
 ought to buy who take native fulphur internally, with¬ 
 out any farther preparation than powdering. 
 
 The hard greenifh fulphur is that called by fome bezo- 
 ardick fulphur, from its being fometimes found concreted 
 round nuclei in form of the bezoars. It is more firm and 
 folid than the yellow, and is fcarcc at all tranfparent. 
 The yellow kind, when accidentally tinged with green, 
 as it fometimes is, ought to be rejeCled from internal ufe, 
 much more this ; but this is excellent for making the oil 
 or acid of fulphur. This is principally found among the 
 burning mountains, particularly about Vefuvius. 
 
 I he third, or grey kind, is a very poor and coarfe ful- 
 phur, but is what we ulually meet with under the name 
 of fulphur vivum in the fhops. It does not melt clear 
 and fmootli like the pure fulphurs, but boils and bubbles ; 
 and, after burning, leaves a large remainder. This very 
 little deferves the place it holds in our fhops, being much 
 more properly treated in Italy as an ore of fulphur, and 
 
 worked 
 
SUL 
 
 worked for it in the manner of tlie earths we have de- 
 feribed, and common yellow roll brimftone is made from 
 it. It is found in vaft abundance, about the burning 
 mountains, and in many other places, particularly at 
 Sulfatara, where it is of the number of the ores worked 
 in the common way. 
 
 The fine red fulphur is 'infinitely the raoft beautiful of 
 all the kinds. It is as tranlparent and as bright as a gem. 
 It melts more llowly than any of the other kinds, and, 
 when in fufion, fends out a very difagrecable fmell, like 
 that of garlick, befide the common fulphureous vapour. 
 This is a proof of its containing arfenick, from which 
 alfo it probably has its colour. [t is found principally 
 in the gold mines, and is fuppoled to contain fome par¬ 
 ticles of that metal, but feveral trials have been made in 
 vain to feparate gold from it. 
 
 Of thefe feveral kinds, of fulphur, the common roll 
 brimftone, and the pure native yellow kind, are the only 
 ones proper for internal ufe in their crude ftate ; but the 
 flower of brimftone faithfully prepared is, perhaps, pre¬ 
 ferable to thefe. We know that fulphur riles unaltered 
 in fublimation, and, confequently, that we have it in its 
 true ftate in the flowers ; and we are more lafe this way 
 than any other, from taking any thing we did not intend 
 to take with it. 
 
 Sulphur, under which ever of thefe forms it appears, 
 is ftill the fame in all its characters. It diftolves in oils, 
 and in alkaline lubftances. It grows red when melted, 
 but becomes yellow again when it cools. It affords an 
 acid, the fame with that of vitriol, if its fumes in burn¬ 
 ing be catched in a proper manner ; but it will not yield 
 this acid by the common way of diftillation, but, inftead 
 of feparating into its principles, riles altogether to the 
 head of the veffel, ip, form of flowers. 
 
 Sulphur melted with gold, provided that metal be 
 pure, makes no fort of alteration in it; but this is the 
 only metal that efcapes its effetts. Thrown upon filver 
 heated red-hot, the metal immediately melts; and, if 
 taken from the fire as ioon as it docs fo, it will be found, 
 when cold, to refemble lead rather than what it really is. 
 It retains its malleability perfectly, and cuts eafily with 
 a knife; but it is of a dull bluilh colour. It is eafilv 
 reduced to its proper appearance again however ; for there 
 requires no more to this, than the keeping it a few 
 minutes in a ftrong fire to burn away the fulphur. If 
 the heat is flackened towards the end of this fufion, the 
 filver will not form into one uniform mafs, but will rife 
 up in final] fprigs all over the furface in a very beautiful 
 manner, refembling the branches of filver fometimes feen 
 on the furface of ores. Tin melted with brimftone, if 
 the metal be firll granulated, and the brimftone added in 
 powder in three times its quantity, deflagrates as if nitre 
 had been mixed with it. The remainder becomes folid, 
 while yet in the Are, and, when cold, is a brittle regulus 
 of the colour of lead, and greatly refemblinga lemi-metal 
 in its qualities. Tin may indeed be wholly turned into 
 fcoria by burning it with additional parcels of fulphur. 
 Sulphur melted along with lead deftroys its malleability, 
 as much as it does that of tin. It becomes hard and 
 rigid, and very difficult of fuiion, and lofes the appearance 
 of lead, being, in the regulus thus obtained, compoled 
 of broad,. bright, and glittering particles. Copper melts 
 immediately upon being made red-hot, if brimftone be 
 added to it; and becomes a black friable fubftance. Iron 
 of all other metals melts the moft. freely and readily with 
 the fulphur, but it docs not freely part with it again. 
 A red-hot iron applied to a roll of fulphur, immediately 
 throws off particles diffolved by the fulphur into a fpongy 
 fcoria. Regulus of antimony melted with fulphur returns 
 to common crude antimony again. Bizmuth melted 
 with it affumes the appearance of antimony, and inftead 
 of broad flakes is found to be compoled of needles or 
 ftrice running acrofs one another. Zinck iuffers lefs 
 change from it, and mixes indeed Ids ealily with it ; it 
 at length becomes darker-coloured, and more brittle. 
 
 I he chymifts have told us various ways of making 
 fulphur by art, that it fhall be wholly like the native ; 
 and nothing is more certain than that it may be done. 
 The vitriolic!: acid and an inflammable oil, properly com¬ 
 bined, will always afford it. If four parts oil of turpen¬ 
 tine and one part oil of vitriol be mixed together in a re¬ 
 tort, and, after Handing to digeft together a week or 
 more, a fire be given under it, and a large receiver well 
 
 SUL 
 
 luted oii, a peculiar oily matter will come over into the. 
 receiver, true fulphur will be lublimed into the neck of 
 the retort, and the remaining matter in the bottom of it 
 will be formed into a kind of bitumen. 
 
 We may fee by this how nearly fulphur, vitriol, and 
 the common bitumens are allied to one another, afid 
 what fort of proceffcs nature ufes in the producing them. 
 
 I he ancients, as far back as we have any accounts of 
 them, feem to have been always acquainted with fulphur. 
 
 1 he Greeks called it theion holy, and ufed it in their 
 facrifices and expiations. The Arabians mention it under 
 the name of kabrick or chibur. It is of great ufe in 
 medicine in its crude ftate, and affords us many valuable 
 medicines in its feveral preparations. It is alfo of great 
 ufe in many of the arts. Gun-powder owes its powet 
 in a great meafure to it. Its fumes check and prevent 
 fermentation, for which reafon ft is much ufed by our 
 wine-coopers; and they bleach and whiten fluffs by- 
 means of them. 
 
 In medicine, it is, in its crude ftate, given with great 
 fuccefs in difeafes of the lungs. It llrengthens and’ 
 cleanfes them, and promotes expeftoration, and has at 
 all times been famous for its virtues againft cutaneous 
 difeafes. It generally proves a little loofening to the 
 bowels, and increafes the difcharges by perfpiration; it 
 even communicates its fmell to the perlpired matter for a 
 confiderable time after taking it, and will often blacken 
 gold or filver that is worn by people who take any con¬ 
 fiderable quantity of it. 
 
 The preparations of fulphur, in moft frequent ufe in 
 the fhops, are thefe : i. Flores fulphuris, flower of brim¬ 
 ftone. 2. The fulphur pracipitatum, or precipitated 
 fulphur, commonly called lac fulphuris. 3. The balfa- 
 mum fulphuris, balfam of fulphur. 4. The aquafulphu- 
 rata, or lulphurated water. 5. The fpiritus fulphuris, 
 the fpirit or oil of fulphur. 
 
 Flowers of Sulphur. Flores Snlphuris. Take fix 
 ounces of common fulphur, put it into a cucurbit, adept 
 a capacious head, and, having luted the junctures, place 
 it in a fand furnace, fo that the fand may almoft touch 
 the lower rim of the glafs-head: let the pipe of the head, 
 and alfo the body itfelf, incline a little downwards, that 
 the moifture may run into the receiver fixed for that pur- 
 pofe ; make a gradual fire, and contrive it till the head 
 begins to grow dark with the afeending flowers ; con¬ 
 tinue the fire cautioufly that the head may not melt the 
 flowers, and yet be ftrong enough to fublime the ful¬ 
 phur which will be elevated into*the head, in a yellow, 
 light, rarified, loft, powdery fubftance, called flowers of 
 fulphur. 
 
 Thole who make flowers of fulphur for fale, have en¬ 
 tire furnaces built for that purpofe. See Chymical 
 Labor at 01 y. It is a good pe&oral medicine ; its dofe is 
 from 10 grains to a fcruplc. 
 
 Precipitated Sulphur, commonly called Milk of 
 Sulphur. Take flowers of fulphur one pound, of •- 
 quicklime frelh made, andnotftony, three pounds; put 
 thefe into two gallons of fair water, and boil the whole 
 till the fulphur is diffolved : filtre the folution through 
 paper, and add to it, by a few drops at a time, weak fpi- 
 rits of vitriol till it become turbid, and in fine it will, 
 precipitate a white powder to the bottom of the veffel; 
 pour off the water, and add frelh feveral times till the 
 powder, after thefe repeated walkings, becomes quite in- 
 iipid. This is good in all the cafes in which the fulphur 
 in fubftance, or its flowers, are ufed. Its dofe is from 
 10 grains to two fcruples. 
 
 Simple Balfam of Sulphur. Take flowers of fulphur 
 four ounces, pure oil of olives one pound, let them over 
 the fire in an earthen veffel; as the oil grows hot, the 
 lulphur will melt in it, and will fall to the bottom ii> 
 form of a red fhining fluid. After this, the fire is to be 
 increafed gradually, till the whole body of the fulphur 
 diffolves and blends with the oil into a thick opaque 
 liquor; great care is to be taken not to fet the matter 
 on fire, and the veffel is to be lightly covered, but the 
 lid, or whatever elfe is put over it, is not to be faftened 
 down. Balfam of fulphur may be made bv the fame 
 procel's with oil of turpentine, or any other of the vege¬ 
 table effentiaJ oils, and with Barbadoes tar ; but cautfon 
 is to be ufed in making the former of thefe balfams, that 
 the veffcls be not too clofely Ihut, nor the fire .too 
 violently increafed. Ballam of fulphur made with oil 
 
 of 
 
SUN 
 
 rf turpentine will explode under thefecircumftances with 
 a force greatly fuperior to that of gun-powder. 
 
 Spirit or Oil oj Sulphur. This acid is wholly the 
 fame with that of vitriol, and, therefore, it is fcarce 
 worth any body’s while to make it in the common way, 
 it being one of the moll troublefome procelfes in chy- 
 miftry. The vapour of burning fulphur, retained by 
 any means, furnifhes this acid: the ufual way has been to 
 fupport a glafs bell mgiftened on the infide over a pan of 
 burnirig brimftone, and to catch the drops colle£led on its 
 inner fuiface in a receiver, the running of which is to be 
 favoured by th.e bell’s being a little inclined towards the 
 fide where it is placed. This fpirit is an agreeable acid, 
 and is very good in every cafe in which the fpirit of vi¬ 
 triol is. 
 
 Sulphurated Water. Take common water one 
 quart, of pure fulphur half a pound, fet a part of the 
 fulphur on lire in an iron ladle, and fufpend it in that 
 ftate over the water in a clofe veffel; let the remainder of 
 the fulphur be afterwards fired and fufpended in the fame 
 manner, and when the operation is over, the water will 
 have acquired a fharp acid tafte, and is to be referved for 
 ufe. The mod commodious veffel for making this is a 
 large glafs receiver fitted with a wooden plug, into which 
 the handle of the ladle may be fixed ; as foon as the ful¬ 
 phur is fired, the ladle is to be thru ft fo far into the re¬ 
 ceiver, that the plug may come to flop the aperture, and 
 the covering the mouth over this with a wet cloth will be 
 fufficient to keep in the fumes. This is the liquor called 
 by lome authors, gas fulphuris; it is an agreeable acid, 
 and is good in malignant and petechial fevers, given in 
 the common drink. It quenches thirft, and cools the 
 mouth and tongue. 
 
 SULTAN, orSoLDAN, a title or appellation given 
 to the emperor of the Turks. 
 
 SULTANA, the wife or confort of a fultan. The 
 favourite fultana is called Hhafeki-fultana, i. e. private 
 fultan a. 
 
 SUM, Sutnrna , in arithmetick, &c. fignifies the quan¬ 
 tity that arifes from the addition of two or more magni¬ 
 tudes, numbers, or quantities together. 
 
 Sum of an Equation , is when, the abfolute number 
 being brought over to the other fide with a contrary fign, 
 the whole becomes equal to o : this Des Cartes calls the 
 fum of the equation propofed. 
 
 SUMACH, a drug ufed in dying, as alfo in the pre¬ 
 paration of black Morocco, and other leather. 
 
 SUMMARY, an abridgement containing the fum and 
 fubftanceof a thing in a few words. 
 
 SUMMATOR 1 US Calc ulus, the method of fum- 
 ming differential quantities ; that is, from any differen¬ 
 tial given, to find the quantity from whofe differencing 
 the given differential refults. This method we more 
 ufuallv call the inverfc method of fluxions, and foreigners 
 integralis calculus. 
 
 SUMMER, one of the feafons of the year, commenc- 
 ing in thefe northern regions on the day the fun enters 
 Cancer. Or, more ftri&ly and univerfally, the fummer 
 begins on the day when the fun’s meridian diftance from 
 the zenith is the leaft. It ends on the day when his dif¬ 
 tance is a mean betwixt the greateft and fmalleft. The 
 end of fummer coincides with the beginning of winter. 
 
 Summer, in architecture, is a large ftone, the fir ft 
 that is laid over columns and pilafters, in beginning to 
 make a crofs vault; or it is the ftone which, being laid 
 over a piedroit or column, is hollowed to receive the firft 
 haunce of a platband. 
 
 Summer, in carpentry, is a large piece of timber 
 which being fupported on two ftone piers-, or polls, ferves 
 as a lintel to a door, window, &c. 
 
 SUMMONS, Sumrnonitio, in law, a citing or calling 
 a perfon to any court to anfwer a complaint, or even to 
 give in his evidence, &c. 
 
 SUMPTUARY Laws, Legesfutnptuar'ue, are laws 
 made to reftrain excefs in apparel, coftly furniture, eat¬ 
 ing, &c. 
 
 "SUN, Sol, in aftronomy, the great luminary which 
 enlightens the world, and, by his prefence, conftitutes 
 day. Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Principia, proves that 
 the matter of the fun to that of Jupiter is nearly as i too 
 to i ; and that the diftance of that planet from the fun is 
 in the fame ratio to the fun’s femidiameter. That the 
 matter of the fun to that of Saturn is as 2360 to 1 ; and 
 
 SUN 
 
 the diftance of Saturn from the fun is in a ratio but a 
 little lefs than to the fun’s femidiameter. And confe- 
 quently that the common centre of gravity, of the fun 
 and Jupiter, is nearly in the fuperficies of the fun ; of 
 Saturn and the fun, a little within it. And by the fame 
 manner of calculation it will be found that the common 
 centre of gravity of all the planets cannot be more than 
 the length of the folar diameter diftant from the centre 
 of the fun : this common centre of gravity he proves to 
 be at reft ; and therefore, though the fun, by reafon of 
 the various pofition of the planets, may be moved every 
 way, yet it cannot recede far from the common centre 
 of gravity. And this, he thinks, ought to be accounted 
 the centre of our world. By means of the folar fpots it 
 hath been dilcovered, that the fun revolves round his 
 own axis, without moving (confiderably) out of his 
 place, in about 25 days. And that the axis of this mo¬ 
 tion is inclined to the ecliptick, in an angle of 87° 30' 
 nearly. 
 
 The fun’s apparent diameter being fenfibly fhortcr it* 
 December than in June, as is plain and agreed from ob- 
 fervation, the fun mull be propoi tionablv nearer to the 
 earth in winter than in fummer; in the former of which 
 feafons will be the perihelion, in the latter the apihelion : 
 and this is alfo confirmed by the earth’s moving lwifter in 
 December than it doth in June. For fince, as Sir Ifaac 
 Newton has demonftratecl by a line drawn to the fun, the 
 earth always deferibes equal areas in equal times, when¬ 
 ever it moves ftvifter, it mull needs be nearer to the fun. 
 And for this reafon there are about eight days more from 
 the fun’s vernal equinox to the autumnal, than from the 
 autumnal to the vernal. 
 
 According to Mr. Cafimi, the fun’s greateft diftance 
 from the earth is 22374, his mean diftance 2200, and his 
 leaft diftance 8022 femidiamet'ers of the earth And that 
 the fun’s diameter is equal fo 100 diameters of the earth, 
 and therefore the body of the fun mull be ioogooo times 
 greater than that of the earth. 
 
 Mr. Azout allures us, that he obferved by a very exa£l 
 method the fun’s diameter to be not lei’s than 31' 45", 
 in his apogee, and not greater than 32’ 43", 111 his peri¬ 
 gee. The mean apparent diameter of the fun, accord¬ 
 ing to Sir Ifaac Newton, is 32' 12” ; in his theory of the 
 moon, 32' 15". If you divide 360° (i. e. the whole 
 ecliptick) by the quantity of the lolar year, it will quote 
 59' 8", &c. which therefore is the quantity of the lull’s 
 diurnal motion. And, if this 59' 8" be divided by 24, 
 you have the fun’s horary motion, which is 2' 28" ; and, 
 if you will divide this laftby 60, you will have this mo¬ 
 tion in a minute, &c. And this way are the tables of 
 the fun’s mean motion, which you have in the books of 
 aftronomical calculation conftrutfted. The fun’s hori¬ 
 zontal parallax Dr. Gregory and Sir Ifaac Newton make 
 but 10". To find this angle, aftronomers have attempted 
 variety of methods, but have as yet found none that will 
 determine it-exa<ftly ; however, by many repeated ob- 
 fervations of Dr. Halley, it is found to be not greater 
 than I2~, nor lefs than 9". Wherefore (the mean) 
 has been fixed upon as near the truth. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Opticks, gives good rcafons 
 to fuppofe the fun and fixed ftars to be great earths vehe¬ 
 mently hot; whofe heat is conferved by the greatnefs of 
 their bodies, and the mutual adlion and re-a£tionbetween 
 them and the light which they emit; and whofe parts 
 are kept from fuming away, not only by their fixity, but 
 alfo by the vaft weight and denfity of the atmofpheres in¬ 
 cumbent on them, and every w r ay ftrongly comprefling 
 them, and condenfing the vapours and exhalations which 
 arife from them. The light feems to be emitted from 
 the fun and fixed ftars (which probably are funs to other 
 fyftems) much after the manner as iron, when heated to 
 luch a degree as to be juft going into fufion by the vibrat¬ 
 ing motion of its parts, emits, with force and violence, 
 copious ftreams of liquid fire all around. Great bodies 
 muft preferve their heat longeft, and that, perhaps, in 
 the proportion of their diameters. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton hath made it probable, that the great 
 comet in the year 1680, in its perihelion, would not en¬ 
 tirely go off in 50000 years. Whence we may guefs, 
 that if the fun and fixed ftars be only collc£lions of denfe 
 and folid matter, like the planets, but heated to a very 
 intenfe degree, they may be many millions of years with- 
 f out lofing any confidcrable part of their heat. 
 
 SUN- 
 
SUN 
 
 SUP 
 
 SUN-FLOWER, the name of a well-known flower, d 
 fouch cultivated in large gardens. The fun-flower is an tl 
 annual plant, and the feeds fhould be fown every fpring y 
 in a bed of good light earth. When the ihoots are about 
 three inches high, they fhould be tranfplanted into nur- tl 
 fery beds, and let at eight inches diftance every way ; they c 
 fhould remain there till they are a foot high, and then be 5 
 carefully taken up with a ball of earth at their roots, and o 
 planted in large borders, or intermixed with flowering p 
 lhrubs, and other large plants; they muft be frequently j 
 •watered till they have taken root, after which they require 11 
 no‘Other care. The flowers appear in July, and hand e 
 a confiderablc time : the largeft of them fhould be pre- li 
 ' 1 'ervcd for feed. The birds are very fond of the feed of c 
 the fun-flower, and mud therefore be carefully guarded 
 from them, and the head left on the plant till October, at c 
 which time it fhould be cut off, and hung up to dry in an c 
 afiry place, and in a month more the feeds will be perfectly t 
 hardened. 
 
 SUN-SCORCHED, a term ufed in forne parts of 
 England to exprefs a diftem per attire of fruit-trees, owing t 
 to the fun’s affefling them too forcibly on a Hidden ; the c 
 "confcqucnce of which is the lofs and withering of the 
 fruit. Such trees only are fubjett to this, as arc planted 1 
 in places flickered from the fpring fun, and open to that 
 of the fummer ; and may be always cured by proper | 
 waterings. _ c 
 
 SUNDAY, or the Lord’s-Day, a folerrin feftival 
 obferved by Clvriftians on the firft day of every week, c 
 in memory of our Saviour’s refurre&ion. This is the t 
 principal and mod noted of the Chriftian feftivals, and < 
 was obferved with great veneration in the ancient church, < 
 from the time of the apoflles, who thcmfelvcs are often < 
 faid to have met on that day for divine fervice. It is ; 
 hkewife called the fabbnth-dav, as being fubftituted in 
 the room of the Jewifh fabbath. See Sabbath. 
 
 The ancients retained the name Sunday, or die folis, 
 in compliance with the ordinary forms of fpecch, the : 
 firft day of the week being fo called by the Romans, be- 1 
 caule it was dedicated to the worlhip of the Sun. 
 
 Beftdes that the moft folemn parts of the Chriftian i 
 Worftiip Were always performed on Sundays, this day 
 was diftinguiihed by a peculiar reverence and refpeft ex- 
 preffed towards it in the obfervation of fome fpecial laws 
 and cuftoms. Amongthefe, we may reckon, in the firft 
 place, thole imperial laws which fufpended all proceed- ■ 
 ings at law upon this day, excepting only fuch as were 
 of abfolute neceffity, or eminent charity; fuch as the 
 manumiflion of llayes, and the like. Neither was it only 
 ‘the bufinefs of the law, but all i'ecular and lervile employ¬ 
 ments were fuperfeded upon this day, ftill excepting a£ts 
 of neceffity and mercy. 
 
 Another thing which the Chriftian laws took care of, 
 to fecure the honour and dignity of the Lord’s-day, was, 
 that no ludicrous fports or games fhould be followed on 
 this day; but all luch recreations and refrefhments as 
 'tended to the prefervation or conveniency of life were 
 allowed of; and therefore, Sunday was always a day of 
 feafting, and it was not allowable to faft thereon, not 
 even in Lent. 
 
 The great care and concern of the primitive Chriftians 
 In the religious obfervation of the Lord’s-day, appears, 
 Firft, from their conftant attendance upon all the folcm- 
 nities of publick worftiip, from which nothing but fick- 
 nefs, imprifonment, banifllment, or fome great neceflity, 
 could detain'them. 
 
 Secondly, from' their zeal in frequenting religious 
 affemblies on this day, even in times of the hotteft per¬ 
 fection, when they were often befet and feized in their 
 meetings and congregations. 
 
 Thirdly,' from their ftudious obfervations of their vi¬ 
 gils, or nbifturnal affemblies, that preceded the Lord’s-day. 
 
 Fourthly, from their eager attendance on fernions, in 
 many places, twice upon this day, and their conftant 
 reforting to evening prayers, where there was no fermon. 
 
 X.aftly, from the fevere cenfures inflicted on tliofe who 
 violated the laws concerning the religious obfervation of 
 this day, fuch pcrlor.s being ufually punifhed with ex- 
 communication ; as appears from the apoftolical confti- 
 tutions, and the canons of fevcral councils. 
 
 In the Romifli breviary, and other offices, we meet 
 with a diftinttion of Sundays, into tliofe of the firft and 
 'fecond clafs': Sundays of the firft dafs, are, Palm-Sun- 
 Vol. II. No. 70. 
 
 day, Eafter-Sunday, Advent-Sundav, Whit-Sundav. kc. 
 tliofe of the fecond clafs are the common Sundays of the 
 year. 
 
 By our laws, no perfon is to do any worldly labour on 
 this day, which is let apart for the fervice of God, ex¬ 
 cept works of neceffity and charity, under the penalty of 
 51. And if any perfon cry, or exnofe to fale, any wares 
 or goods on a Sunday, the fame will be forfeited to the 
 poor, &c. the offender being convifted thereof before a 
 juftice of the peace, who is authorited to caufe the pe¬ 
 nalties and forfeitures to be levied by diftrefs. Yet this 
 extends not to drefling of meat, nor to the crying or 
 felling of milk in the morning or evening, or the felling 
 of mackerel on that day. 
 
 The Sunday is not a day in law, fo that no procefs lies, 
 or may be ferved thereon, except for treafon, or felony, 
 or an elcape. A fale of goods, or contract made 011 a 
 Sunday, is deemed void. 
 
 Sunda y-Letter. See Dominic \-L~Letter. 
 SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by merchants 
 to go a voyage, and overice their cargo, or lading, and 
 difpofe of it to the beft advantage. 
 
 SUPERC 1 L 1 UM, in anatomy, the eye-brow. See 
 Eye. 
 
 Supercilium, in the ancient architeifture, the up- 
 permoft member of the corniche, called by the moderns 
 corona, crown, or larmier. 
 
 SUPEREROGATION, in theology, what a man 
 does beyond his duty, or more than he was commanded 
 to do. The Romanifts Hand up ftrenuoufly for works 
 of fupererogalion, and maintain, that the obfervance of 
 evangelical councils is fuch. By means hereof, a ftock 
 of merit is.laid up, which the church has the dilpofal of, 
 and which Ihe diiiributes in indulgences to fuch as need. 
 The reformed church does not allow of any work of 
 lupererogation. 
 
 SUPERFETATION, Superfcctatio, in medicine, a 
 
 ■ fecond, or after conception, happening, when the mo¬ 
 ther, already pregnant, conceives of a later coition ; fo 
 that file bears at once two feetufes of unequal age and 
 
 , bulk, and is delivered of them at different times. 
 
 SUPERFICIES, orSuRFACE, in geometry, a mag¬ 
 nitude confidered as having two dimenfions ; or extended 
 ; in length and breadth, but without thicknefs or depth. 
 
 : In bodies, the luperficies is all ihatprelents itfelf to the 
 • eye. A luperficies is chiefly conlideted as the external 
 ; part of a folid. When we fpeak of a lurface limply, and 
 : without any regard to body, we ufually call it figure. The 
 r fevcral kinds of luperficies are as follow. Re&ilincar 
 
 ■ luperficies, that comprehended between right lines; cur- 
 ; vilinear luperficies, that comprehended between curve 
 
 lines; plane luperficies, is that which has no inequality, 
 
 , but lies evenly between its boundary lines ; convex fu- 
 , perficies, is the exterior part of a fpherical, or fpheroidi- 
 1 cal body ; and a concave luperficies, is the internal part 
 5 of an orbicular or fpheroidical body. 
 
 ; The meafure or quantity of a luperficies, or furface, 
 f is called the area thereof. The finding of this meafure, 
 t or area, is called the quadrature thereof. To meafure 
 the fuifaces of the fevcral kinds of bodies, as fpheres, 
 s cubes, parallelepipeds, pyramids, prifms, cones, &c. fee 
 , Sphere, &c. 
 
 SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to 
 
 - exprefs the fuperlative finenefs of a fluff; thus a cloth, 
 
 , a camblet, &c. are faid to be fuperfine, when made of 
 
 the fineft wool, &c. or when they are the fined that can 
 s be made. I he term is particularly ufed among gold or 
 
 - filver wire-drawers, for the gold or fiber wire, which, 
 r after being drawn through an infinite number of holes, 
 
 each lefs and lefs, is at length brought to be no bigger 
 
 - than an hair. 
 
 SUPERINSTITUTION, Superinjliiutio, denotes an 
 1 inftitution upon another, as where A B is admitted and 
 t inftituted to a benefice upon one title, and CD is ad- 
 . mitted and inftituted on that of another. 
 
 0 SUPERINTENDENT, in the French cuftoms, an 
 if officer who has the prime management and direction of 
 
 - the finances or revenues of the king. The term is alfo 
 
 - ufed for the firft officer of the queen’s houlhold, who has 
 the chief adminiftration thereof. They have alfo a fuper- 
 
 :t intendant of the buildings, anfwcring to the furveyor of 
 d the works among us. 
 
 Superintend ant alfodenotes an ecclefiaftical fu- 
 5 A perior 
 
SUP 
 
 perior in feveral reformed churches, where cpifcopacv is 
 not admitted, particularly among the Lutherans in Ger¬ 
 many, and the Calvinifts in fome other places. The 
 fuperintendant is in effect little other than abilhop, only 
 his power is fomewhat more reftrained than that of the 
 diocefan bilhops. He is the chief pallor, and has the 
 direftion of all the inferior pallors within his diltrid or 
 dioccfe. 
 
 SUPER I OR, or Superiour, fomething raifed above 
 another, or that has a right to command another. 
 
 SUPERJURARE, was anciently a term ufed in our 
 law, where a criminal endeavoured to excufe himfelf by 
 his own oath, or by the oath of one or two witnelles ; 
 and the crime charged againll him fo notorious, that he 
 was convided upon the oaths of many more witnelles : 
 this was termed fuperjurare. 
 
 SUPERLA TIVE, in grammar, one of the three- 
 degrees of comparifon, being that infledion of nouns- 
 adjedive that ferves to augment and heighten their figni- 
 fication, and Ihews thequality of the thing denoted to be 
 in the liighell degree. In Englilh, the fuperlative is 
 ufually formed by the addition of eji to the pofitive, as 
 richell, greatell, Ac. and frequently by prefixing of moj ,?, 
 as moll rich, moll great, Ac. 
 
 SUPERNUMERARY, fomething over and above a 
 fixed number. In feveral of the offices are fupernume- 
 rary clerks, to be ready on extraordinary occafions. 
 There are alfo fupernumerary Purveyors of the excife, to 
 be ready to fupply vacancies when they fall ; thefe have 
 but half pay. In mulick, the fupernumerary, called by 
 the Greeks proflambanomenos, is the lowell of the chords 
 of their fyltem, anfwering to a, mi, la, of the lowell oc¬ 
 tave of the moderns. 
 
 SUPERONERATIONE Pasture, in law, a ju¬ 
 dicial writ which lies againll a perfon that is impleaded 
 In the county-court for furcharging of a common with 
 his cattle, in a cafe where he was formerly impleaded for 
 it in the fame court, and the caule is removed to one of 
 tile courts of Wellminller. 
 
 SUPER-PURGAT. ION, Hypercathrofts, in medi¬ 
 cine, an exceflive over-violent purging, the ufual effeds 
 of colliquating, corrofive and llimulating medicines. In 
 the beginning of this diforder, a very thin matter is eva¬ 
 cuated : but afterwards, when the relaxation and aper¬ 
 ture of the vefiels are increafcd, the neceffary humours 
 are difeharged; there is firll an excretion of yellow bile, 
 then of phlegm, then of black bile, and lad of all, blood! 
 
 Thofe who labour under a fuper-purgation, mull be 
 treated with fridions of the fkin, and a warm bath , 
 drinking, before they bathe, thin, red, or yellow wine, 
 for fuch is cafiell of diftribution, with fops of bread, and 
 pomegranates. If the evacuation continues, let the limbs 
 be bound in fuch a manner, that the bandage may be car¬ 
 ried from the upper to the lower parts. Exhibit alfo a 
 final 1 quantity of theriaca, to be taken with the flelh of 
 vipers ; or, for want of that, troches of theriaca, or tro¬ 
 ches of feeds, and of the antidote called philonium. Cup- 
 ping-glafies may alfo be applied to the Homach, and ca- 
 taplafms of polenta and mulfum ; after which, you may 
 ufe aftringent epithems, but the greatell relief is had from 
 fridions of the whole body, and potable remedies. The 
 patient Ihould keep himfelf from cold air, or what is very 
 warm. If the evacuation Hill continues, the aforefaid 
 cataplafms Ihould be applied, and obtundents injeded in 
 clyllers, fuch as fat of geefe, fweet wine, oil of fpike, 
 and the like. 
 
 SUPERSCAPULARIS Inferior, in anatomy, the 
 fame with infralpinatus. 
 
 SuperscAPULARIS Superior, is the fame with 
 fuprafpinatus. See Supraspinatus. 
 
 SUPERSEDEAS, in law, according to Fitzherbert, 
 is a writ which lies in divers cafes, and in general figni- 
 fies a command to Hay fome of the ordinary proceedings 
 in law, which, on good caufe Ihewn, ought not to pro¬ 
 ceed. It is likewife ufed for Haying of an execution after 
 a writ of error is allowed, and bail put in, but not before 
 bail is given, in cafe there be a judgment upon verdid, 
 or by default in debt, Ac. 
 
 A l'uperfedcas is alfo granted by the court for fetting 
 afide an erroneous judicial procefs, Ac. And a prifoncr 
 may be thereby difeharged upon entering his appearance, I 
 and on the plaintiff's not filing a declaration againll him. | 
 Tor this writ is as good a caule to difeharge the perfon, j 
 
 SUP 
 
 as the firll procefs is to arrell him. There is a further 
 writ of fuperfedeas, where an audita querela is fued, and 
 in cafes of iurety of the peace, when one is already bound 
 to the peace in chancery, or elfewhere. 
 
 SUPER-SI ATUTO deArticulis Cleri, in 
 law', a writ that lies againll the Iheriff, or other officer, 
 that dillrains in the king’s highway, or in the lands an¬ 
 ciently given to the church. 
 
 Super-Statuto pacto pour Seneschal et 
 Marshal de Roy, Ac. a writ which lies againll the 
 lleward or marfhal, for holding plea of freehold in his 
 court, or 'for trefpafs, or contrails not made within the 
 king’s houlhold. 
 
 Super-Statuto versus Servantes et La¬ 
 bor atores, a w'rit lying againll a perlon who keeps 
 another perfon’s fervant departed from his fervice, con¬ 
 trary to law. 
 
 S UPERSTITION, extravagant devotion, or religion, 
 wrong direiled, or conduiled. 
 
 SUPERVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer. 
 
 It was formerly, and Hill remains a cuflom among 
 fome perfons, to appoint a fupervifor of a will, to lee 
 that the executors thereof do punctually oblerve and per¬ 
 form the fame. 
 
 Supervifor formerly was ufed for furveyor of the high¬ 
 ways. There arc likewife certain officers of the excife, 
 who are called iupervifors, on account of their having 
 the lupervifing and infpe&ing of the books, Ac. of the 
 inferior officers belonging to that branch of the revenue, 
 to prevent their negleft of duty. 
 
 SUPINAI ION, in anatomy, the aftion of a fupi- 
 nator-mufcle, or the motion whereby it turns the hand 
 fo as that the palm is lilted up towards heaven. 
 
 SUPINAI OR, in anatomy, a denomination given 
 to two mufcles of the arm, the one called the lupinator 
 longus, the other the fupinator brevis, both ferving to 
 turn the palm of the hand upwards. The firll has its 
 origin from the exterior Ipine of the humerus, and its 
 termination at the lower end of the radius ; the lecond 
 riles from the upper part of the ulna, and is inferted into 
 the upper part of the radius, which it totally furrounds 
 and inclofcs. 1 his laid mufcle may alfo be of ufe in the 
 bending of the cubit. 
 
 SUPINE, in Latin grammar, part of the conjugation 
 of a verb, being a verbal lubllantive of the fingular num¬ 
 ber, and the fourth declenfion. 
 
 7 here are two kinds of fupines; one, called the firll 
 fupine, ending in um , of the accufative cafe, is always 
 of an ailive fignification, and marks a motion, as abut 
 deambulatum ; the other called the lad fupine, and end¬ 
 ing in u, of the ablative cafe, is of a paffive fignification, 
 and is governed by fubllantives or adjedlives, as facile 
 diClu, Ac. 
 
 SUPPLE, tofupple ahorfe in the menage, is to make 
 him bend his neck, Ihoulders, and fides, and to render 
 all the parts of his body more pliable. 
 
 SUPPLEIV 1 ENT of an Arch, in geometry or trigo¬ 
 nometry, is the number of degrees that it wants of being 
 an intire femicircle; as a complement, fignifies what an 
 arch wants of being a quadrant. 
 
 Supplement, in matters of literature, an appendix 
 to a book, to fupply what is wanting therein. 
 
 SUPPLICAV I I, in law, a writ that iffues out of 
 the court of Chancery for taking furety of the peace, 
 where a perfon is in clanger of receiving fome bodily 
 hurt from another. It is direfted to the jullices of the 
 peace and Iheriff of the county, and is grounded on the 
 llatute i Edw. III. which appoints, that certain perfons 
 lhail be appointed by the lord chancellor to take care of 
 the peace. In order to fue out this writ, the party re¬ 
 quiring it firll goes before one of the mailers in Chan¬ 
 cery and makes oath, that he does not defire the fame out 
 of any malice, but purely for his own fafety, and the fe- 
 curity of his perfon; upon which the mailer will make 
 out a warrant, ordering the writ to be made out by one 
 of the clerks of the fix clerk’s office, after which the 
 writ mull be delivered to the iheriff to have his warrant 
 thereon for arrelling the party, Ac. 
 
 SUPPOR I ED, in heraldry, a term applied to the 
 uppermoll quarters of a fhield when divided into feveral 
 quarters, thefe Teeming, as it were, fuppoited orfullained 
 by thofe below. The chief is faid to be lupported when 
 it is of two colours, and the upper colour takes up two 
 
 thirds 
 
SUP 
 
 thirds oF it. Ill tills cafe it is fupported by the colour 
 underneath. 
 
 SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an atchicve- 
 icnent placed by the fide of the fhield, and feeming to fup- 
 port or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly figures 
 of beafts : figures of human creatures, for the like pur- 
 pofe, are properly called tenants. -Some make another 
 difference between tenant and fupporter : when the fhield 
 is borne by a finglc animal, it is called tenant; when by 
 two, they are called fupporters. The figures of things 
 inanimate fometimes placed afide of efcutchcons, but not 
 touching or feeming to bear them, though fometimes 
 called fupporters, are more properly cotifes. 
 
 The fupporters of the Britifh arms are a lion and an 
 unicorn : thofe of the French arms are angels, &c. See 
 Arms. 
 
 In England, none under the degree of a banneret are 
 allowed fupporters, which are reftrained to thofe called 
 the high nobility. The Germans permit none but princes 
 and noblemen of rank to bear them : but among the 
 French the ufe of them is more promifeuous. 
 
 SUPPOSITION, in mufick, theultng two fucccflive 
 notes of equal value as to time, one of which, being a 
 difeord, fuppofes the other a concord. 
 
 The harmony, Mr. Malcolm obferves, is to be always 
 full on the accented part of the meafure or bar, and void 
 of difeords ; yet h re dilcords, by proper refolution and 
 preparation, are even neceffary on the accented part of the 
 inealure. Difeords, by conjoint degrees, may pafs with¬ 
 out much offence, and it is not there required that the 
 harmony be fo complete as on the accented part. This 
 tranfient ufe of difeords, followed by concords, makes 
 what the French call fuppofition. There are feveral 
 kinds of fuppofition. The firft is when the principal 
 parts proc ed gradually from concord to difeord, and 
 from difeord to concord ; the intervening difeord ferving 
 only as a tranfition to the following concord. Another 
 kind is when the parts do not proceed gradually from dif¬ 
 eord to concord, but defeend to it by the interval of a 
 third. A third kind, like the fecond, is when the riling 
 to the difeord is gradual, but the defeending from it to 
 the following concord, is by the difiance of a fourth. 
 A fourth kind, very different from all the reft, is when 
 the difeord falls on the accented part of the meafure, 
 and the riling to it is by the interval of a fourth ; in 
 which cafe it is abfolutely neceffary to follow it imme¬ 
 diately by a gradual defeent into a concord that has juft 
 been heard before the harmony to make the preceding 
 difeord pals without offence, and only feein a tranfition 
 to the concord. 
 
 SUPPOSITORY, Suppojitoriwn , in pharmacy, a kind 
 of medicated cone, or ball, which is introduced to the 
 anus, for opening the belly. 
 
 Suppofitories are ulually made of foap, fugar, alum, or 
 a piece of tallow-candle, about the length of a man’s 
 thumb and the breadth of a finger, though they may be 
 made fmaller for children, and fometimes a little thickcr 
 for adults. 
 
 Suppofitories are fometimes compounded of ingredients 
 adapted to the difeafe and circumftances of the patient, 
 as of honey, fait, powder of aloes, colocynthia, and the 
 like. If one fuppofitory does not occafion a ftool, it 
 muft be followed by another ftronger one ; and if that 
 does not fucceed, the repetition muft be continued till 
 the effect required is produced. They are fometimes 
 lubricated with oil or butter, that they may be introduced 
 with greater eale. Some ufe a lozenge of fugar, or a 
 piece of thin linen cloth, rolled up with a little lard or 
 falt-butter, which greatly loofens the belly. 
 
 For ulcers of the reftum, the beft fuppofitorics are 
 made of honey of rofes, powder of maftich and myrrh, 
 or of colophony. The ftronger fuppofitories, which are 
 compofed of acrid and ftimulating ingredients, are ad- 
 vantageoufly ufed in promoting a difficult birth, if the 
 infant be in a natural polition ; and alio for expelling the 
 feenndines, when they are tenacioufly retained in the 
 uterus. In exhibiting them, the patient fhould be put in 
 the fame pofture as in giving a clyfter, and the fuppofitory 
 muft be gently thruft up the anus with the finger. 
 
 SUPPRESSION, in law, the extiinftion or annihila¬ 
 tion of an office, right, rent, or the like. 
 
 Suppression, in grammar and rhetorick, denotes an 
 ©miffion of certain words in a fentence, which yet are 
 
 SUP 
 
 necefTary to full and perfe£l conftruffion : as, “ I cafne 
 from my father’s •” that is, “ from my father’s houfe.” 
 
 Supprcflion is a figure of fpeech very frequent in ouf 
 language, chiefly ufed for brevity and elegance. Some 
 rules relating hereto areas fellow: i. Whenever a word 
 comes to be repeated in a fentence oftener than once, it 
 is to be fupprefied : thus we fay, “ This is my mailer’s 
 horfenot “this horfe is my matter's horfe.” 2. 
 Words that are neceffarily fupplied may be fupprefied. 
 3. All words that ufe and cuftom lupprefs in other lan¬ 
 guages, arc alfo to be fupprefied in Englifh, unlefs therd 
 be particular reafons for the contrary. 
 
 Suppreffion is alfo a figure in fpeech, whereby a per- 
 fon in rage, or other difturbance of mind, fpcaks not out 
 all he means, but fuddenly breaks off his difeourfe ; thus, 
 the gentleman in Terence, extremely incenfed againft 
 his adverfary, accofts him with this abrupt faying, “ Thoii 
 of all.” The excefs of his indignation and ragechoaked 
 the paffage of his voice, and would not fuffer him to 
 utter the reft. Butin thefe cafes, though the difeourfe 
 is not complete, the meaning is readily underftood. and 
 the evidence of the thought ealily fupplies the defeat of 
 words. 
 
 Suppreffion, fometimes, proceeds from modefty, and 
 fear ol uttering any word of ill, and offenfive found. 
 
 Suppression, in medicine, is generally ufed for a 
 retention of urine or the menfes. 
 
 SUPPRESSIONIS Ignis, afire of fuppreffion, a 
 term ufed in chvmiftry, to exprefs fuch an application of 
 fire to any fubjeft that it fhall at once act upon it, both 
 above and below, in the fame manner. The ufual way 
 of giving this heat is by covering the veffel, in which 
 the ingredients are put, with land, and then laying hot 
 coals upon that, fo that they may heat through the fand 
 downwards. 
 
 SUPPURATION, in medicine and furgery, the fe¬ 
 cond way wherein an inflammation terminates, being a 
 converfion of the infpiffated blood and the foft adjacent 
 parts, as the velfels and fat, into pus, or matter ! which 
 diforder, when it has not yet found an opening, is gene¬ 
 rally called an abfeefs. 
 
 The beft cure of an inflammation is by refolution or 
 difperfion : but when this is out of the power of the fur- 
 geon or phyfician to effect, and when tumours and phleg¬ 
 mons fhew a tendency to fuppuration, all the refolving 
 and difperfing medicines muft be laid afide, and great care 
 muft be taken to forward the maturity of the inflamma¬ 
 tion ; that is, to convert the ftagnated blood into laudable 
 matter; then to give a difeharge, or vent, to this fuppu- 
 rated matter ; afterwards to cleanfe the part; and finally 
 to incarn and heal it. 
 
 In general, fuppuration is to be promoted by fuch of 
 the emollient medicines as obftruft the pores of the lkin, 
 as fat, oils, and glutinous medicines ; as alfo the (harp, 
 pungent, and in fome degree, cauftick medicines, which 
 may be ufed in form of cataplafms or plafters. But to 
 be more particular, fuppurating medicines, befides thofe 
 already enumerated under abfeefs, &c. are the fats of a 
 goofe, of a dog, of a man, of a viper, and of a bear; 
 pigeon and cow-dung ; bran, ycaft, herrings, leeches, 
 melilot, tobacco, oil. Burgundy pitch, common pitch, 
 rofin, deer fuet, ox fuet, ffieep fuet, and frankincenfe* 
 7 liefe medicines, either alone or compounded, are to be 
 applied hot to the part, and the application frequently re¬ 
 peated, till the matter within is found to be fufficiently 
 ripened by the foftnefs and whitenefs of the tumour : but 
 when the abfeefs is fmall it is fufficient and more conve¬ 
 nient to apply fome of the ripening plafters, as diachy¬ 
 lon, with the gums, or the like, till the fuppuration is 
 perfected. 
 
 A ripening cataplafm from the London difpenfatory, is 
 as follows : Take of figs, four ounces; yellow bafilicum 
 ointment, one ounce; galbanum {trained, half an ounce: 
 beat the figs thoroughly in a mortar, occafionally drop¬ 
 ping in fome fpiritof wine, or ftrong ale ; then carefully 
 mix them with the ointment firft liquified along with the 
 galbanum. And a ripening plafter from the Edinburgh 
 difpenfatory is this : Take of gum plafter, an ounce 
 and a half; Burgundy pitch, half an ounce : boil them 
 together. 
 
 In general, it is to be obferved, that fuppurative me¬ 
 dicines are fuch as by the activity and warmth of their 
 parts, are able to penetrate the pores, and mix with and 
 
 rarify 
 
SUP 
 
 rarity any obilrufled matter, fo that it may be rendered 
 fit to difcharge, upon laying open the part by a cauftick 
 or incifion. 
 
 IS ow, in many inftanccs, as the matter by this means 
 rarifies and grows more fluid, the refluent blood is apt to 
 wafli it back into the common mafs, which fometimes is 
 of that nature as to do a great deal of mifehief; or by 
 making it take up more room upon its rarefadlion, occa- 
 fions it more to aiftend the parts in which it is contained, 
 whereon a fenfe of pain is excited, and thereby a greater 
 concourfe of fluid, and confequcntly a needle Is increafe 
 of the tumour; fo that medicines under this denomina¬ 
 tion. require to be in the hand of l'uch as are fo well ac¬ 
 quainted with the mechanilm of the animal ceconomy, 
 as to be able to apply them to the bell advantage, and 
 know bow to avoid the hazards which may arife from 
 their abufe. Nor are internal remedies to be negle£ted. 
 in ordcr^to further a fuppuration, efpecially when the 
 tumour is large and of conference. 
 
 In thefe cafes, when theblood moves tooflowly, which 
 may be known by the pulle, the patient mull be allowed 
 to eat meat, and mu ft take fuch medicines as are warm 
 and ftimulatlng, by means of which, and by the increafed 
 motion of the blood, the inlpiflated particles contained in 
 the fm after veflels, will be the more eafily converted into 
 matter. Strong broths are very proper for this purpofe, as 
 alio the ufe'of wine, or ale, in moderation; and Venice 
 ticaclc, dialcordium, and the confection of alkermes, are 
 to be the medicines taken three or tour times a day, and 
 medicated teas, made of founders-wood, faflafras, or 
 cinnamon. But on the contrary, when the motion of 
 the blood is too violent, and the heat too great, cooling 
 medicines are to be given, luch as the thin and watery 
 drinks, the fub-acid medicines, and nitre: bleeding in a 
 lmaK quantity, is alfo often neceflary in this cafe. But 
 when the conftitution is found, and the blood’s motion 
 regular, the ule of internal medicines, to promote fup- 
 puration, is trifling, and may be altogether rejected. Sec 
 Abscess, Tumour, Wound, Ac. 
 
 SUPPURA I IVES, or iuppurating medicines, fuch 
 as promote fuppuration. See the preceding article. 
 
 SUPPU i A 1 ION. See Computation. 
 
 SUPRACOS 7 ALES, or Levatorcs Cojiarum, in ana¬ 
 tomy, mufcles ferving to refpiration ; being among thofe 
 that diiate the thorax for that end, and therefore reckoned 
 among the dilatores. See Dilatores. The mufcles 
 arc of two kinds, being diftinguilhed from their figures in¬ 
 to fhort and long, i he lhort ones are 12 on each fide; 
 they have their origin from the tranfverfe procefles of 
 eleven vertebra: of the back, and of one that is in the 
 lower one of the neck, and they are inlerted into the hin¬ 
 der part of the ribs. I he long lupracoftales are three or 
 four : their origin is the fame with the feventh, eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth vertebra:, and their end in die ninth, 
 tenth, eleventh, and twelfth ribs. • 
 
 SUPR AL APS ARIAN S, in theology, thofe who hold 
 that God in the decree of ele&ion and preterition, did 
 not confider mankind either as fallen or unfallen; but 
 chofe fome, and reje&ed others, confidered merely as 
 beings that fliould infallibly exift. — The Sublapfarians 
 bold, that tile ele£t were choicn, and the reprobate palled 
 by, not merely as creatures ; but, complexly, as finners. 
 Each hypothefis has been adopted by fome of the beft 
 and greateil men that ever lived, Calvimfm is the gene¬ 
 ral name, under which, the partisans of both are com¬ 
 prehended. The church of England fyfiem, is, ftridlly. 
 i’peaking, formed on the fublapjarian principle : though 
 with fuch moderation as not to exclude the former. 
 
 SUPRASPINATUS, in anatomy, a mufcle thus 
 called from its flelhy origination at the upper end of the 
 bafis of the fcapula above the lpine, to the upper part 
 whereof it is conne£lcd, as alfo to the fuperior edge of 
 the fcapula, whence marching along the upper interfea- 
 pulum, or thin part of the fcapula, which it fills, itpafles 
 under the acromium and articulation of the humerus. It 
 helps to lift the arm upwards. 
 
 SUPREMACY, in our polity, the fuperiority or fo- 
 vereignty of the king over the church as well as ftate, 
 whereof he is eftabliihed head. See King. 
 
 The king’s fuprgmacy was at firtl cflablifhed, or, as 
 others lay, recovered, by king Henry VIII. in 1534, after 
 breaking with the pope. It is fince confirmed by leveral 
 nations, as well as by the articles of the church, and is 
 3 
 
 S U R 
 
 pafled into an oath which is required as a neceflary qua¬ 
 lification for all offices and employments both in church 
 and ftate, from pprfons to be ordained, and from the 
 members of both houfes of parliament, Ac. 
 
 SURA, in anatomy, the calf, or fldhy part of the leg. 
 1 he word is alio uled by fome for the fibula ; which fee. 
 
 SURBA’IING, among farriers, is when the lble of 
 a node’s foot is worn, bruifed, or lpoiled by beating the 
 hoof againll the ground in travelling without flioes, or 
 going in hot fandy lands, or with a Ihoe that hurts'the 
 (ole, lies too flat to it, or the like. Sometimes it alfo 
 happens by over-riding a liorfe while young, before his 
 feet arc hardened ; and fometimes by the hardnds of the 
 ground and high lifting his feet. The figns hereof are 
 his halting on both fore-legs, and going ft iff, and creep¬ 
 ing as if half foundered. In general, there is nothing 
 better for Ihrbated feet, than tar melted into foot, o? 
 vinegar boiled with foot to the confiilence of a broth, 
 and put into the foot boiling hot, with hurds over it* 
 and fplints to keep it in. 
 
 SURCHARGE, the fame with overcharge, and what¬ 
 ever is above that which is juft and right. Surcharge of 
 the foreft, or a common, iswhen a commoner puts more 
 bcafts in the foreft or common than be has a right to do. 
 
 SURCINGLE, a girdle wherewith the clergy of the 
 church of England ufually tie their caflbck. 
 
 SURCO AT, a coat of arms to be worn over the body 
 armour. The furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffety- 
 coat, with arms embroidered or painted on it, fuch as 
 is worn by heralds: anciently alfo ufed by military men, 
 over theii armour, to diftinguiin themfelves by. 
 
 SURCULUS, in the anatomy of plants, a word ufed 
 to exprefs that part of the branching of the ribs of a leaf 
 which is of a middle kind betwixt the great middle rib 
 and the Imallcft reticular ramifications. The middle rib 
 is by the writers 011 thefe fubje&s, called petiolum. 
 The firft divifion that go off laterally from thefe are 
 called rami, or branches; the next divifion of thefe into 
 more minute ones, furculi; and the final devaluations 
 ot thefe, into the reticular work that fpreads it’cif over 
 the whole leaf, capillamenta. See Petiole, Ac. 
 
 bUKD, in arithmetick and algebra, denoies any 
 number or quantity that is incommenfuiable to unity : 
 otherwife called an irrational number or quantity. 
 
 The iquare roots of all numbers, except 1, 4, 9, 16, 
 25 * 3 ^’ 49 ’ 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, Ac. (which are the 
 fquares of the integer numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
 10, 11, 12, Ac.) are incommenfurablcs ; ancl after the 
 fame manner the cube roots of all numbers but of the 
 cubes of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Ac. are incommenfurables: 
 and quantities that arc to one another 111 the proportion 
 of luch numbers, mull alfo have their fquare-roots, or 
 cube roots, incommenfurable. 
 
 1 he roots, therefore, of fuch numbers, being incom¬ 
 menfurable, are exprefied by placing the proper radical 
 
 fign over them: thus, ^2, ^,3, ^,5, ^,6, Ac. exprefs 
 
 numbers incommenfurable with unity. However, 
 though thefe numbers are incommenfurable themfelves 
 with unity, yet they are commenlurable in power with 
 it; becaufe their powers are integers, that is, multiples 
 of unity. 
 
 They may alfo be coramenfurablc fometimes with one 
 another, as the ^,8 and ^2 ; becaufe they arc to one ano¬ 
 ther as 2 to 1 : and when they have a common meafure, 
 as ^2 is the common meafurc of both, then their ratio 
 
 is reduced to an expreflion in the Icaft terms, as that of 
 commenlurable quantities, by dividing them by their 
 ,greateft common meafure. Thi-s common meafurc is 
 found as in commenfinable quantities, only the iuot of 
 the common meafure is to be made their common divifor: 
 
 VJ2 'ViBa 
 
 thus, -— •/4—2, and-“W". 
 
 SURDE SOLID, or Sursolid. Sec Sue. sol id. 
 
 SURETY, in law, generally fignifies the fame with 
 bail. See Bail. 
 
 SURFEIT, in medicine, a ficknefs proceeding fiolii 
 ,the fenfation of a load at the liomach, u ually attenued 
 with eruptions, and fometimes with a fever. 
 
 Surfeits may bccaufcd, ill:, by voracity, from whence 
 the liomach and inteftincs are overcharged, digeftion 
 
 weakened 
 
SUR 
 
 Weakened, and the chyle rendered crude or vifcid, and 
 the blood corrupted. If what was thus devoured were 
 high feafoned or inflammatory, or happens to lie long in 
 the body, it is fuppofed to caufe a fever alfo ; 2dly, the 
 drinking of fmall liquors in hot weather, or when the 
 body is heated by exercife; which, perhaps, chills the 
 fluids, and gives a check to perfpiration; from whence 
 alfo may arife a fever and eruptions. Summer fruits 
 likewife, as cucumbers, apples, cherries, &c. may have 
 the fame effect, qdly, too great exercife or heat, whence 
 the fluids are rarified and thrown into too rapid a circu¬ 
 lation, which being fuddcnly flopped, as may happen 
 by cooling too faft, there enlues alio a ftoppage of per¬ 
 fpiration ; 4-thly, by the ftate or fome change of the air; 
 as by blafts, or vehemently hot and fultry weather, or 
 told winds giving a l'udden check to, and preventing 
 perfpiration. 
 
 Eruptions may not appear in furfeits, either bv reafon 
 of the flightnefs of the caufe, or fome wrong manage¬ 
 ment at the flrft. Nauleas, oppreffion, ficknefs, and 
 fometimes vomiting and a fever, but feldom eruptions, 
 attend an overloaded flomach. This fpecies of a forfeit 
 is called crapula; ficknefs, gnawing at the flomach, 
 fometimes eruptions, and a fever, attends furfeits, from 
 the bad quality of any thing ufed as food. The fever 
 always dccreafes as the eruptions increafe: and if thefe 
 fuddenly difappear, the fever increafes. Thofe furfeits 
 which proceed from too great exercife, or too fudden 
 cooling after it, appear with ficknefs, a 'fever, and erup¬ 
 tions, though the two laft fymptoms may be wanting. 
 Thole caufed from fome alteration in the air, and vul¬ 
 garly called blafts, appear with rednefs of the face, fpots, 
 and a fever, often with blifters on the lips. 
 
 SURGE, in the fea language, the fame with a wave. 
 See Wave. Alfo, when heaving at the capftan, if the 
 cable.roval, or meflenger flip a little, they call it forging. 
 
 SURGERY, or Chirurgery, the art of curing all 
 manner of wounds, and other diforders, where the ap¬ 
 plication of the hand, affifted by proper instruments, is ! 
 jieceiTary. 
 
 SURMOUNTED, in heraldry, is when one figure 
 is laid over another. 
 
 SURNAME, or Sirname, a name added to the 
 proper or baptifmal name, to denote the perfon of foch a 
 family. 
 
 SURREJOINDER, is a fecond defence of the plain¬ 
 tiffs declaration, by way of anfwer to the defendant’s 
 rejoinder. 
 
 SURRENDER, in common law, an inftrument in 
 writing, teftifying, that the particular tenant of lands 
 and tenements for life or years, doth fufficiently confentf 
 and agree, that he who has the next or immediate re¬ 
 mainder or reverfion thereof, fhall have the prefenf eftatc 
 of the fame in pofleffion, and that he thereby yields and 
 gives up the fame to him. 
 
 SURROGATE, in law, denotes a perfon that is fob- 
 ftituted, or appointed in the room of another, and moft 
 commonly oi a bilhop, or of his chancellor. 
 
 SURSOL 1 D, or Surdesolid, inarithmetick and 
 algebra, the fifth power, or fourth multiplication of any 
 number or quantity conndered as a root. See the article 
 Root. 
 
 Sursolid Problem, in mathematicks, is that which 
 cannot be relolved but by curves of a higher nature than 
 a conick feftion. v. gr. in order to deferihe a regular en- 
 decagon, or figure of eleven fides in a circle, it is requir¬ 
 ed to deferibe an ifofceles triangle on the right linefoven. 
 whofe angles at the bale fliall be quintuple to that at the 
 vertex ; which may eafily be done by the interfeftion of a 
 quadratix, or any other curve of the fecond gender. 
 
 SURVEYING, the art or aft of meaforing lands; 
 i. e. of taking the dimenfions of any traft of"ground, 
 laying down the fame in a map or draught, and finding 
 the content or area thereof. Surveying, called alfo geo- 
 dafoa, is a very ancient art; it is even held to have been 
 the firft or primitive part of geometry, and that which 
 gave occafion to, and laid the foundation of all the reft. 
 Surveying confifts of three parts or members; the firft 
 is the taking of the neceflary meafores, and making the 
 aeceflary obfervations, on the ground itfelf: the fecond 
 is the laying down of thefe meafores and obfervations on 
 paper : and the third, the finding the area orq uantity of 
 the ground thus laid down. The firft is what we pro- 
 Vol. II. No. 71. 
 
 SWA 
 
 perly call furveying. 1 the fecond we call plotting or pro-^ 
 trafting, or mapping: and the third calling up. 
 
 The firft, again, confifts of two parts, viz. the making 
 of oblervation for the angles, and the taking of meafores 
 for the diftances. • The former of thefe is performed by 
 fome one or other of the following inftruments, viz. the 
 theodolite, circumferentor, femi-circle, plain-table, or 
 compafs : the defeription and manner of ufing each 
 whereof, fee under its refpeftive article, The latter is 
 performed by means either of the chain or the perambu¬ 
 lator : the defeription and manner of applying each 
 whereof, fee under its refpeftive article. The fecond 
 branch of furveying is performed by means of the pro¬ 
 tractor, and plotting lcale. See Plotting. The 
 third is performed by reducing the fcveral divifions, in- 
 clofores, &c. into triangles, fquares, trapeziums, parallelo¬ 
 grams, &c. but elpccially triangles ; and finding the areas 
 or contents of thefe feveral figures. 
 
 SURVEYOR, a perfon who hath the overfight and 
 care of confiderable works, lands, or the like. 
 
 Surveyor likewife denotes a gauger ; as alfo a per¬ 
 fon who lurveys lands, and makes maps of them. 
 
 Surveyor of the Melting , is an officer of the mint, 
 whofe office is to fee the bullion call out, and that it be 
 not altered after the delivery of it to the melter. 
 
 Surveyor of the Navy , an officer whofe bufinefs is 
 to know the ftate ot all ftores, and fee the wants fupplied 
 to furvey the hull, malls, and yards of ftiips ; to audit 
 the boat!wains and carpenters accounts, &c. 
 
 Surveyor of the Ordnance, is an officer whofe Charge 
 is to furvey all the king’s ordnance, ftores, and provifions 
 of war, in cuftody of the ftore-keepers of the Tower of 
 London ; to allow ail the bills ol debts, to keep checks 
 on labourers and artificers work, &c. 
 
 SURVIVOR, in law, fignifies the longeft liver of 
 joint-tenants, or of any two perfons jointly interefted in a 
 thing; in which cafe, il there be only two joint-tenants, 
 upon the death ol one, the whole goes to the furvivor; 
 and if there before than two, the part of the deceased 
 is divided among all the forvivors. 
 
 SUSPENSION, or Points of&u$f e ( ns ion, in me-< 
 chanicks, are thole points m the axis or beam of a bal- 
 lance, wherein the weights are applied, or from which 
 they are ful'pended. 
 
 Suspension of Arms, in war, a fhort truce agreed on 
 by both armies, in order to bury the dead, wait for freih 
 inftruftions, or the like. 
 
 SU 1 URE, hutura, in anatomy, is a particular arti¬ 
 culation. The bones of the cranium arc joined to one 
 another by four futures. The firft is called the coronalis. 
 It reaches tranfverfcly from one temple to the other. It 
 joins the os frontis to the offii parietalia& petrofa. The 
 lecond is-called lambdoidalis, becaufe it refemblcs the 
 Greek letter (A) lambda. It joins the os occipitis to the 
 olla parietalia ; & petrofa. The third is called fafottalis • 
 it begins at the top of the lambdoidalis, and runs ftraight 
 to the middle of the coronalis. It joins the two ofla pa- 
 rietalia together. The fourth is called futura fquam- 
 mofa, becaufe the parts of thefe bones which are joined 
 by this future, are as it were cut Hope-wife and lapped 
 over one another. rr 
 
 This future joins the femicircular circumference of the 
 ofla temporum to the os fphenoides occipitis, and to the 
 offa parietalia. The firft three futures were called futur* 
 verse ; and the laft futura falfa, becaufe it was iuppofed 
 to have no indentations, which is falfe. “ 
 
 The bones of the cranium are not only joined to one 
 another, but they are alfo joined to the bones of the 
 upper jaw by three other futures. The firft is the tranf- 
 verfahs ; it runs acrofs the face, it pafles from the little 
 angle of the eye, down to the bottom of tile orbit, and 
 up again by the great angle of the eye, over the root of 
 the note, and lo to the little angle of the other eye It 
 joins the os frontis to the bones of the upper jaw The 
 fecond is the ethmoidalis : it furrounds the bone of that 
 name and joins it to the bones which are about it 
 I he third is the fatura fphenoidalis; it furrounds the os' 
 fphenoides, joins it to the os occipitis, the offa petrofa 
 and the os frontis. ’ 
 
 SWABBER, or Captain Swabber, in a man of 
 war, is a perfon appointed to fee the flfip cleaned* bv a 
 gang of the lazieft and refufe of the foremaft men, who 
 are under fobjeftion to him. 
 
 5 B 
 
 SWALLOW'S- 
 
S Y L 
 
 SWALLOW’s-TAIL, in fortification, a kind of 
 out-work, only differing from a Angle tenaille, in that its 
 fides are not parallel as thole of the tenaille, but narrower 
 towards the fortified place, than, towards the country. 
 
 Swallow’s-Tail, in joinery and carpentry, de¬ 
 notes a peculiar way of fattening together two pieces of 
 timber fo ftrongly as they cannot fall afunder. See 
 Dove-T ail. 
 
 SWAN 1 MOTE, or Swainmote, a courttouch¬ 
 ing- matters of the foreft, kept by the charter of the foreft 
 thrice in every year before the verderers, as judges. This 
 court is as incident to a foreft, as a court of Pie-powder 
 to a fair. 
 
 SWEAT, Sudor, a fenfible moifture ifluing out of the 
 pores of the {kins of animals, through too much heat, 
 exercife, or weaknefs ; or through the action of certain 
 medicines, called ludorificks. Under the fkin above the 
 fat are difpofed all over the body what we call the miliary 
 glands, which are clofelv united, each gland furnifhed 
 with an artery, vein, and nerve, and produce an excre¬ 
 tory duCt or vetted, which pattes through a perforation in 
 the reticular body, and discharges, through a wide orifice, 
 the fvveat under the epidermis. TJ-iefe duCts are covered 
 with a hollow and iailed valve of a round figure, and 
 feared under the fkin; its ufe is to tranlinit or.rettrain 
 the humour. This excretory du£l is the principal organ 
 of fwcat, in conjunction with the va.cula Ruycheiana. 
 
 l he fweat thus fecreted varies according to the dif¬ 
 ferences of air, foil, lex, agg, temperament, emunfto- 
 rics, diet, v, :.y of living, and time of concoCtion. almoft 
 in the fame manner as does the urine. Sweat is feldom 
 or never obferved in a found body, unlefs from an error 
 of the non-naturals ; in its primary .effects it is always 
 humul, by accident it fometimes proves beneficial. See 
 Perspiration. 
 
 SWEATING Sickness. Seethe article Sudor 
 Anglicnnus. 
 
 SWEET, in the wine trade, denotes any vegetable 
 juice, whether obtained by means of lugar, raifins, or 
 other foreign or domeftick fruit, which is added to wines, 
 with a defign to improve them. See Wine’. 
 
 Sweet-William, in botany, the Englifh name 
 of a very beautiful fpecies of dianthus. Sweet-Williams 
 are propagated by feeds or Hips ; thofe which are raifed 
 from feeds are beft, not only for blowing ftronger, but 
 alfo for producing new varieties. The feafon for lowing 
 it is in March ; and when the plants are up two or three 
 inches, they fhould be planted out in beds at feven or 
 eight inches afunder; here they may remain till autumn, 
 when they fhould be traufplanted where it is intended for 
 them to blow, which will be in the fucceeding fummer. 
 
 SWIFTERS, in a lliip, are ropes belonging to the 
 fore and main fhrouds, for fccuring the malts. 
 
 SWIMMING, the art or a£t of fuftaining the body 
 in water, and of moving therein ; in which aCtion the 
 air-bladder and fins of filhes bear a confiderable part. 
 
 SWINGLING, the beating of flax or hemp, after 
 it has been well broken with the brake; this is done by 
 taking up the flax in handfuls, and then beating it with 
 a rod, or flatted and fmooth Hick, in order to free it 
 from the bun, and prepare it for being heckled. See 
 Flax and Hemp. 
 
 SYCAMORE-Tree, in botany, the Englifh name 
 of the acer major, or greater maple. See Maple. 
 
 SYLLABLE, in grammar, a part of a word, confid¬ 
 ing of one or more letters, pronounced together. See 
 Word and Pronunciation. 
 
 SYLLABUS, in matters of literature, denotes a table 
 of contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book or 
 difeourfe. 
 
 SYLLEPSIS, in Latin and Greek grammar, is the 
 agreement of a verb or adjeCtive, not with the word next 
 it, but with the word moft worthy in the fentence, 
 
 SYLLOGISM, in logick, an argument or term of 
 reafoning, confiding of three propofitions : the two firft 
 of which are called premifles, and the laft the conclufion. 
 
 Of the three propofitions whereof a fyllogifm conJiits, 
 the firft is, by way of eminence, called the propofition, 
 as being propofed for the balls of the whole argument; 
 the fecond is called the aflumption, as being attumed to 
 alfift in inferring the third : though they are both called 
 lumptioncs, becaufe attumed for the fake of the third , 
 and both premifles, as being premiicd to it, and for the 
 
 S Y M 
 
 fame reafon both are called antecedents, only the firft the 
 major, and the latter the minor. 
 
 The third is called the conclufion, as being theclofe 
 of the whole argumentation ; and fometimes complexio, 
 as including the two notions, before ieparately compared ; 
 and confequens, becaufe it follows from the antecedents ; 
 and lattly, illatio, becaufe inferred from the premifles by 
 means of the illative particle ergo, therefore, See. 
 
 As the conclufion is the principal part of a fyllogifm, 
 it hence ai ifes, that, though both the propofition and 
 aflumption confift each of its fubjeCt and attribute, yet 
 the lubjeCt and attribute of a fyllogifm are properly un¬ 
 derftood of thole of the conclufion. 
 
 Again, in the inftancc abovementionca, animal being 
 ufeefboth as the fubjeCf and attribute, it is held a kind 
 of intermediate between the two, and frequently called 
 medium ; in refpeCt to which, both the lubjeCt and at¬ 
 tribute, man and thinks, are called extremes, or terms; 
 only the fubjeCt the greater extreme, and the attribute 
 the Ids. 
 
 A fyllogifm, whether Ample or compound, may either 
 be categorical, as that already inftanced, wherein both 
 premifles are pofitive. 
 
 Or, hypothetical, wherein one or both of the premifles 
 are only iuppofed : as, “ if the fun fhines, it is dav : 
 but the fun does fhine, therefore it is day.” 
 
 Or, analogical: as, “ the bafe is to the column; fo 
 is juftice to the commonwealth : but, if the bale be with¬ 
 drawn, the column is overturned , therefore, if juftice 
 be taken away, the commonwealth is overturned.” 
 
 Or, diazeutick or disjunctive; as, “ either they mean 
 to pleafe or to profit, but they do not mean to pleafe; 
 therefore they aim to profit.” 
 
 The moil: convenient form of a perfect fyllogifm, is to 
 have the medium in the middle, placed between the fub- 
 je£t and attribute ; as in the inftance abovementioned. 
 
 Of this form there are two figures, the one coherent, 
 or conjunCl and affirmative ; founded on this canon, 
 “ that what agrees with any thing, likewilc agrees with 
 that wherewith this neceflarily agrees.” 
 
 The other incoherent or disjunct, and negative; founded 
 on this canon, “ that what agrees with any thing, dis¬ 
 agrees with that wherewith this difagrees.” 
 
 Of each of thefe figures there are three modes, viz. 
 general, particular, and mixed. 
 
 A fyllogifm, wherein one of the premifles is fupprefled, 
 but fo as to be underftood, is called enthymeme; e. gr. 
 “ every animal thinks, therefore man thinkswherein 
 the propofition, “ man is an animal,” is underftood. 
 
 The demonftrations of mathematicians, it is obferved, 
 are only feriefes of enthymemes ; fo that every thing in 
 mathematicks is concluded or proved by fyllogifm ; only 
 omitting fuch premifles as occur of their own accord, or 
 as are referred to by the citations. 
 
 SYMBOL, Symbolum , a fign or reprefentation of any 
 moral thing by the images or properties of natural things. 
 
 SYMMETRY, the relation of parity, both in re¬ 
 fpeCt of height, length, and breadth of the parts necefiary 
 to compafs a beautiful whole. 
 
 SYMPATHETICK, fomething that has a fympathy, 
 or that aCts, or is aCtcd on by fympathy. 
 
 Sympathetick, is particularly applied to all dif- 
 eafes which have two caufes, the one remote, and the 
 other near. 
 
 Sympathetick Inks, are fuch as can be made to 
 appear and difappear very fuddenly, by the application 
 of fomething which feems to work by fympathy. 
 
 Of thefe we have fome very curious inftances and ex¬ 
 periments, given us by Lemery and Mr. Boyle, to the 
 following effeCt. i. To two or three parts of unflaked 
 lime put one of yellow orpiment; powder and mix the 
 two, adding 15 or 16 times as much water as there was 
 orpiment; flop up the phial with a cork and bladder, 
 and fet it in warm embers. Shake the phial now and 
 then for five hours, and warily decant the clear part, or 
 rather filtrate it. In the mean time, burn a piece of cork 
 thoroughly, and, when well inflamed, quench it in com¬ 
 mon water, or rather in brandy. Being thus reduced into 
 a friable coal, grind it with fair water, wherein gum ara- 
 bick has been diflolved, and it will make a liquor as black 
 as the common ink. 
 
 While thefe are doing, diflolve, in three times as 
 much diflitted or ftrong vinegar, over warm embers, a 
 
 quantity 
 
SYN S Y N 
 
 quantity of red lead ; or of faccharum faturni, in thrice 
 the quantity of water ; for three or four hours, or till the 
 liquor have a fweet tafte. This liquor will be as clear 
 as common water. 
 
 The liquors thus prepared, write any thing on paper 
 with this laft fort, dry it, and nothing will appear. 
 Over the place, write what you pleafe with the fecond 
 liquor : it will appear as if written with common ink : 
 when dry, dip a i'mall piece of rag or fponge in the firft 
 liquor, rub it over the written place, and the black writing 
 will vanilh ; and that wrote with invifible ink, appear 
 black and legible. 
 
 Again, take a book four or five inches thick, and on 
 the firft leaf ^vrite any thing with the laft liquor: turn 
 to the other end of the book, and rub there with a rag, 
 dipped in the firft liquor, on that part, as near as you 
 can guels, oppolite to the writing; and leave all'o the rag 
 there, clapping a paper over it then nimbly (hutting the 
 book, ftrike four or five imart llrokcs thereon with your 
 hand, and, turning the other lide uppermoft. clap it into 
 a prefs, or lay it under a good weight for a quarter of an 
 hour, or even half that time : then will the writing done 
 with the invifible ink be found black and legible. 
 
 2. Difiolve white or green vitriol in water, and, writ¬ 
 ing with the folution, nothing will appear Boil galls 
 in water, and dip a linen rag in the decodlion, and 
 with it rub the place before writ, and it will appear black 
 and legible. Rub it over again with fpirit of vitriol, or 
 its oil, and the writing will difappear again : rub it over 
 again with oil of tartar per deliquium, the letters will 
 appear again, but of a yellow colour. 
 
 SYMPATHY, an agreement of affe&ions and incli¬ 
 nations, or a conformity of natural qualities, humours, 
 temperaments, &c. which make two perfons delighted 
 and plcafed with each oilier. 
 
 Sympathy, is all'o uled in regard to inanimate things, 
 intimating fome prepofition they have to unite, or to aft 
 on one another. 
 
 Sympathy, in medicine, an indifpofition befalling 
 one part of the body, through the deleft or diforder of 
 another; whether it be from the affluence of fome humour, 
 or vapour fent from elfewherc ; or from the want of the 
 influence of fome matter necefiary to its aftion. 
 
 SYMPHONY, in muftek, properly denotes a con- 
 fonance or concert of feveral founds agreeable to the ear, 
 whether vocal or inftrumental, called allb harmony. 
 
 SYMPHISIS, in anatomy, one of the kinds of junc¬ 
 tures, or articulations of the bones. See the article 
 Articulation. 
 
 SYMPHYTUM, comfrey, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower is monopctalous and campanulated. 
 The greater comfrey, called conl'olida major, grows wild 
 in divers parts of England : it has a thick fielhy root, 
 divided into feveral parts, black without, but white and 
 clammy within : the lower leaves are hairy, large, lharp 
 pointed, and of a dark green colour : the ftalk rifes to 
 about two feet high, and arc light, hairy, rough, and 
 winged ; thefe are terminated by loofe bunches of flowers, 
 of a whitilh colour, and blow in July. Its root has 
 the lame qualities as marfh-mallow ; it is recommended 
 in ulcers of the lungs, and other difoiders that proceed 
 from the acrimony of the humours ; outwardly, it is 
 faid to cure wounds, but is now feldom or never uled for 
 that purpofe. 
 
 SYMPTOM, in medicine, any appearance in a dif- 
 eafe, which ferves to indicate or point out its caufe, ap¬ 
 proach, duration, event, &c. See Disease, &c. 
 
 SYMPTOMATICAL, in medicine, is a term often 
 ■ufed to denote the difference between the primary and 
 fecondary caufes in dileafes. 
 
 SYN^ERESIS, contraction, in grammar, a figure 
 whereby two fyllables are ynited as one ; as vemens for 
 vehemens. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE, Synogoga, a particular affembly of 
 Jews, met to perform the offices of their religion. Alfo 
 the place wherein they n?cet. 
 
 SYNARTHROSIS, in anatomy, a fpecies of articu¬ 
 lation, wherein there is oftiy an obfeure motion, as in 
 the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, the tarfus and 
 metatarlus, &c. or there is no motion at all, as in the 
 futures of the Ikull, and articulations per harmoniam, 
 or bare application. 
 
 SYNCOPE Fainting, in medicine, a deep and 
 
 fudden fwooning, wherein the patient continues without 
 fentible heat, motion, fenfe, or refpiration, and is feized 
 with a cold fweat over the whole body, and all the parts 
 turn pale and cold as if dead. 
 
 Sync ope, in grammar, denotes an elifion orTetrench- 
 ment of one or more letters or lyllables from a word. As 
 when wo fay, virum for virorum, and manet alta mente 
 repoftum, for repofitum. 
 
 S YNDICK, in government and commerce, an officer 
 in divers countries, intrufted with the affairs ol a city or 
 other community ; who calls meetings, makes reprelen- 
 tations and follicitations to the miniftry, magiftracy, Ccc. 
 according to the exigency of the cafe. 
 
 S y nd i c k, is alfo ufed for a perfon appointed to follicit 
 fome common affair, wherein lie himfelf has a Ihaie ; as 
 happens, particularly, among feveral creditois of the fame 
 debtor, who fails or dies infolvent. 
 
 SYNDROME, the euncourle or combination of 
 fymptoms in any difeale. 
 
 SYNECDOCHE, in rhetorick, a kind of figure, or 
 rather trope, frequent among orators and poets. 
 
 There arc three kinds of fynccdoclies ; by the firft, 
 a part is taken for the whole ; as the point for the {'word, 
 the roof for the houfe, the fails for the {hip, &c. By 
 the fecond, the whole is ufed for a part. By the third, 
 the matter whereof the thing is made, is ufed for the 
 thing itfelf; as fteel for fword, ftlver for money, &c. 
 To which may be added another kind, where the fpecies 
 is ufed for the genus, or the genus for the fpecies. A?, 
 He bore the fin of many,, i. e, of all. 
 
 SYNGENESIA, the name of the 19th clafs in the 
 Linnsan fyftem of botany; fo called becaufe tlieantheiae 
 (which are the part more immediately fubfervient to ge¬ 
 neration) are in this clafs united in a cylinder, and per¬ 
 form their office together. This clals conlifts of luch 
 plants as bear compound flowers; the general characters 
 are, the common cup is a perianthium, which contains 
 the florets and the receptacle ; it is either Ample, aug¬ 
 mented, or imbricated ; it contracts when the flowers are 
 fallen, but expands and turns back when the feeds are ripe. 
 
 The common receptacle of the fructification receives 
 many feffile florets on its difek, and is of different forms. 
 Some of the flowers in this clafs are, 1. Compofcd of 
 tubulofe hermaphrodite florets in the difek, and of the 
 fame fort in the radius. 2. Others are compofed of tu¬ 
 bulofe hermaphrodite florets in the difek, and of tubulofe 
 female florets in the radius. 3. Some are compofed of 
 tubulofe hermaphrodite florets in the dilck, and of tubu¬ 
 lofe neutral florets in the radius. 4. Some have tubu¬ 
 lofe hermaphrodite florets in the difek, and ligulated her¬ 
 maphrodite florets in the radius. 5. Some are compofed 
 of tubulofe hermaphrodite florets in the dilck, and of 
 ligulated female florets in the radius. 6. Some are com¬ 
 pofed of tubulofe hermaphrodite florets in the difek, and 
 ligulated neutral ones in the radius. 7. Some are com¬ 
 pofed of tubulofe hermaphrodite florets in the difek, and 
 of naked and neutral florets in the radius. 8. Some are 
 compofed of tubulofe male florets in the difek, and of 
 naked female ones in the radius. And, 9. Some are 
 compofed of ligulated female florets in the dilck, and 
 ligulated hermaphrodite ones in the radius. 
 
 The corolluls are monopetalous and feated on the 
 germina, and are .either tubulated, ligulated, or triden-. 
 tated : the {lamina are five very Ihort filaments, inferted 
 in the neck of the corollulre; the anthers are of the 
 lame number, and are linear, creft, and grow together 
 at their lides, fo as to form a tubulate cylindrick body 
 the length of the limb, and quinquedentated at the edge: 
 the germen is oblong, and placed under the receptacle 
 of the flower : the ftyle is {lender, ereCt, the length of 
 the ftamina, and perforates the cylinder formed by the 
 anthers : the ftigma is divided into two parts, which 
 Hand open and bend backwards: there is no true peri- 
 carpium: the feed is Angle, oblong, often tetragonal, but 
 commonly narrow at the bafe. 
 
 In fome genera they are crowned with down, but in 
 others it is wanting; in fome the downy matter is com¬ 
 pofed of a great number of Angle fliort threads placed 
 circularly or otherwife ; on the head of the feed, in 
 fome, the down is radiated, in others ramofe or branched, 
 and in fome it is fupported on a pedicle, while in others 
 it {lands immediately on the feed. In fome genera the 
 feeds have no dovrn at all, but have a fmall corona 
 
 formed 
 
formed of what was originally the cup of the corollulae. 
 this is permanent, and divided ufually into live fegments. 
 In fome genera the feed is wholly naked, having neither 
 down or cup. The genera of this clafs are very nume¬ 
 rous, mod of which are bitter and ftomaehick. 
 
 SYNOD, inaftronomy, a conjunction, orconcourfe 
 of two or more ftars or planets in the lame optical place 
 of the heavens. 
 
 Synod, ox Council, in ccclefiaftical hiftory, imply a 
 meeting, or aflembly ol bifhops or governors of the 
 church, to reftify abufes in faith or difeipline, to ena6l 
 laws or canons for the government of the church, and 
 to regulate all matters relating to the date of religion. 
 
 SYN I AX, crwraZiq, in grammar, the conftruflion 
 or connection of the words ol a language into ientences, 
 or plirafes. 
 
 P. Buffier more accurately defines fyntax, the manner 
 of conftrudling one word with another, with regard to 
 the different terminations thereof, preferibed by the rules 
 of grammar. 
 
 S\ N 1 HE SIS, in logick, denotes a branch of me¬ 
 thod oppoiite to analysis, called the fynthetick method. 
 See Method. 
 
 SYRINGA, the lilack, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 whofe flower is monopetalous and funnel-ffiaped ; the 
 tube of the corolla is cylindrick and very long, and the 
 limb is divided into four obtufe plane" fegments ; the 
 ftamina are two very ffiort filaments, topped with f'mall 
 antherae within the tube , the fruit is an oblong, com- 
 prefled, acuminated capfule, having two cells, and open¬ 
 ing with two valves, contrary to the partition ; each cell 
 containing an oblong, compreiTed, pointed feed, with a 
 membranaceous margin. The lilack is a common fhrub, 
 and much admired for the beauty of its leaves and fine 
 bunches of dowers, which come out in May ; itiseadly 
 propagated from fuckers, in which it is very prolidek, 
 thele may be taken off in autumn, and planted where 
 they are to remain. 
 
 Sy ring a, is a name more commonly applied to the 
 philadelphus of Linnaeus. See Pi-jil adelphus. 
 
 SYRINGE, an inftrument ferving to imbibe, or fuck 
 in a quantity of any duid, and to lquirt or expel the 
 fame with violence. 
 
 SYRUP, Syrupus, or Sirupus, in pharmacy, is a 
 liquid form of medicine prepared of decodtions, juices, 
 or infufions, preferved by means of honey or fugar, and 
 reduced to fuch a confidence, that a drop let fall on a 
 marble does not fpread. Sirups, like all other officinal 
 preparations, may be made to anfvver various intentions, 
 and, confequentJy, may be either of a cooling, heating, 
 drying, inciding, ex pejorating, incraflating, diuretick, 
 fudorifick, lithontnptick, alexiterial, or corroborating 
 quality, according to the different virtues of the feveral 
 ingredients of which they are prepared. 
 
 General rules for the making of Iirups. 
 
 i. The lugar employed for firups made without coc- 
 tion, ffiould firft be boiled with water to a candy confid¬ 
 ence ; obferving to clarify it with the white of eggs, 
 and bv defpumation. But the whited and pured fugar, 
 and fugar-candy, do not require this labour. The fu^ar 
 thus prepared ought afterwards to be powdered, that*it 
 may diffolve the eader. 2. Though a double weight of 
 fugar, in proportion to the liquor, may be required in 
 making fuch drops ; yet a lefs proportion will generally 
 fuffice. I ird, therefore, diffolve only an equal quantity 
 of fugar ; then, by degrees, add a little more in powder, 
 till it remain undiffolved at the bottom, to be afterwards 
 incorporated by the gentle heat of a water bath. 3. Acid 
 iirups, or thole made with the juices of fruits, ffiould 
 not be put into copper-veflels, unlefs fuch as are tinned. 
 
 4. What ffiould be obferved of decodlions in general, is 
 alio to be underilood of dccodlions for drops. The ve¬ 
 getables, ufed either for decodtions or infufions, are to 
 be moderately dried, unlefs they are exprefsly required 
 freffi gathered. 5. Sirups made by codtion are to be 
 clarified with the white of eggs, except diacodium; which, 
 therefore, requires the pureft fugar. The lolutive and 
 purging firups ought rather to be made of brown lugar. 
 
 SYSTEM, Syjlema , an aflemblage or chain of prin¬ 
 ciples, or conclulions, or the whole of any do 6lrine, the 
 feveral parts whereof are bound together,"or follow, or 
 depend on each other. 
 
 System, in ailronomy, denotes an hypothefis or fup- 
 
 pofition of a certain order and arrangement of the feveral 
 parts of the univerfe ; whereby aftronomers explain all 
 the phenomena or appearances of the heavenly bodies, 
 their motions, changes, &c. 
 
 The mod; celebrated hypothefes, or fyftems of the 
 world, are three, viz. the Ptolomaick, Tychonick, and 
 Pythagorean, or Copernican fyftem. 
 
 Ptolcrnaick System, fo called from its inventor, Clau¬ 
 dius Ptolemasus, a famous allronomer of Pcludum, in 
 Pgypt. fuppofes the earth immoveably fixed in the cen¬ 
 tre, not of the world only, but of the "univerfe ; and that 
 the fun, the moon, the planets, and ftars, all moved 
 about it from eaft to weft: once in 24 hours, in the order 
 following, viz. the moon. Mercury, Venus, the fun. 
 Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed ftars ; and, above all, 
 the figment of their primuin mobile, or the fphere which 
 gave motion to all the reft. 
 
 T his fyftem was firft invented and adhered to, chiefly, 
 becaufe it leemed to correipond with the fenfible appear¬ 
 ances of the eeleftial motions. They took it for granted, 
 that the motions which thole bodies appeared to have, 
 were fuch as they truly and really performed; and not 
 dreaming of any motion in the earth, nor being apprifed 
 of the diftination of ablolute, relative, or apparent moti¬ 
 on, they could not make a proper judgment of fuch mat¬ 
 ters, but were under a neccffity of being milled by their 
 very fenfes, for want of proper affiftance which after-ages 
 produced. 
 
 It is cafy to obferve, they had no notion of any other 
 fyftem but our own, nor of any other world but the 
 earth on which we live. They thought nothing lefs than 
 that all things were made for the ufe of man; that all the 
 ftars were contained in one concave fphere, and, there¬ 
 fore, at an equal diftance from the earth ; and that the 
 primum mobile was circumfcribcd by the ccelum empy- 
 rcum of a cubick form, which they fuppoled to be the 
 heaven, or blifsful abode of departed fouls. 
 
 It would fcarce have been worth while to have faid fo 
 much about fo ablurd an hypothefis (as this is now well 
 known to be) were it not that there are ftill numerous 
 retainers thereto, who endeavour very zealoully to de¬ 
 fend the fame, and that for two reafons principally, viz. 
 becaufe the earth is apparently fixed in the centre of the 
 world, and the fun and ftars move about it daily ; and 
 alfo, becaufe the feripture afferts the liability of earth, 
 the motion of the fun, &c. 
 
 Thele two arguments merit no particular anfwer. It 
 is fufficient, with refpe 61 to the firft, to fay, that we are 
 allured things may (nay mull) appear to be, in many 
 cafes, what they really are not, nay, to have fuch affec¬ 
 tions and properties as are abfolutcly contrary to what 
 they really pollefs. Thus a perfon fitting in the cabin 
 of a ffiip under fail, will, by looking out at the window, 
 fee an apparent motion of the houfes, the trees, he. on 
 the ftrand, the contrary way, but will perceive no motion 
 at all in the ffiip. Alfo, a perfon fitting in a wind-mill, 
 if the mill be turned about, he will lee an apparent mo¬ 
 tion of the upright poll the contrary way, but will not 
 perceive any in the mill itfelf. 
 
 All thole cafes are exadtly parallel to that of the earth ; 
 and it is as rational to affert the ffiip and the mill are 
 really quiefeent, and the other bodies pofitivcly in mo¬ 
 tion, as it is to infill on the motion of the fun, and the 
 earth’s being at reft in the centre. 
 
 As to the feripture, as it was never intended for aa 
 inftitution ol ailronomy or philofophy, fo nothing is to 
 be unde 1 Hood as llridtly or pofitively alferted in relation 
 thereto, but as fpoken only agreeably to the common 
 phrafe, or vulgar notion of things. And thus Sir Ifaac 
 Newton himfelf would always fay, the fun rifes, and the 
 lun fets; and would have faid with Jofhua, fun, Hand 
 thou ftill, though he well knew it was quite contrary in 
 the nature of the thing. 
 
 Tychonick Syste m. This owes its origin to Tycho 
 Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark, who lived irj the latter 
 part of the Jail century ; he made his obfervations at 
 Uraniburg (i. e. eeleftial tower) in the ifiand of Weer 
 or Huena. This philofopher, though he approved of 
 the Copernican Syftcm, yet could he not reconcile hira- 
 felt to the motion of the earth; and being, on the other 
 hand, convinced the Ptolomean fcheme, in part, could 
 not be true, he contrived one different from either, which 
 is reprefented by the diagram referred to. 
 
 In 
 
TAB 
 
 In this the earth has no motion allowed it, but the 
 annual and diurnal phenomena are folved by the motion 
 of the fun about the earth, as in the Ptolomaick fcheme ; 
 and thole of Mercury and Venus are folved by this con¬ 
 trivance, though not in the fame manner, fo limply and 
 naturally, as in the Copernican fyftem; as is eafy to 
 obferve in the figure. 
 
 After this fcheme had been propofed fome time, it re¬ 
 ceived a correction, by allowing the earth a motion about 
 its axis, to account for the diurnal phenomena ol the 
 heavens; and fo this came to be called the femi-1 ycho- 
 nick fyftem. But this was ftill wide of the truth, and 
 encumbered with fuch hypothelis, as the true mathema¬ 
 tician and genuine philofopher could never relifli. 
 
 Copernican System. See Copernican SyJIem : 
 
 System, in poetry, implies a certain hypothelis, or 
 fcheme of religion, from which the poet is never to recede. 
 
 System, in mufick, lignifies a compound interval ; 
 or an interval compofed, or conceived to be compofed, 
 of feveral leffer intervals. Such as the oCtave, &c. 
 
 Concinnous Systems, are thofe confifting of fuch parts 
 as are fit for mufick, and thofe parts placed in fuch an or¬ 
 der between the extremes, as that the fuccelfion of founds, 
 from one extreme to another, may have a good eftcCt. 
 
 Inco'icinnous Systems, are thofe where the iimple 
 intervals are inconcinnous, or ill-difpofed, betwixt the 
 extremes. 
 
 'SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contraction of the 
 heart, whereby the blood is drawn out of its ventricles 
 into the arteries ; the oppofite ftate to which is called the 
 diaftole, or dilatation of the heart. 
 
 TAB 
 
 The fyftole of the heart is well accounted for by Dr. 
 Lower, who Ihews that the heart is a true mufcle, the 
 fibres of which are aCted onlike thofe of other mufcles, by 
 certain branches of the eight pair of nerves inferted into 
 it, which bring the animal fpirits from the brain hither. 
 By aliux of thefe fpirits the mufcular fibres of the heart 
 are inflated and thus fhortened, the length of the heart 
 diminilhed, its breadth or thicknefs increafcd, the capa¬ 
 city of the ventricles clofed, the tendinous mouths of the 
 arteries dilated, thofe of ihe veins fhut up by means of 
 their valves, and the contained juice forcibly exprefied 
 in the orifices of the arteries. 
 
 Dr. Drake adds to Dr. Lower’s account, that the in- 
 tercoftal mufcles and diaphragm contribute to the fyftole, 
 by opening the blood a paffage from the right ventricle 
 of the heart to the left, through the lungs, to which it 
 could hot othcrwil'e pafs, becaulethe oppolition the blood 
 contained in that ventricle muft neceffarily have made to 
 its conftriCtion, is taken off. Both thefe. authors make 
 the fyftole the natural ftate, or aCtion of the heart, and 
 the diaftole the violent one. Boerhaave, on the contrary, 
 makes the fyftole the violent, and the diaftole the natu¬ 
 ral ftate. 
 
 SYSTYLE, in architecture, that manner of placing 
 columns where the fpace between the two firft confift of 
 two diameters, or four modules. 
 
 SYZYGY, in aftronomy, a term equally ufed for the 
 conjunction and oppofition of a planet with the fun. On 
 the phamomena and circumftances of the fyzygies a great 
 part of the lunar depends. See Moon. 
 
 A confonant, and the nineteenth letter in the 
 alphabet. 
 
 •) T has its proper found in tan, ten, tin, ton, 
 tun; fat, let, hit, hot, put. When it comes before (i) 
 followed by another vowel, it is founded like f, as in na¬ 
 tion, potion, expatiate, &c. When afpirated, that is, when 
 h comes after it, it has a twofold found ; one clear and a- 
 cute, as thin, theory,|&c. theother more oblure and obtufe, 
 as in thofe, their, &c. It is faid, by fome, thatT founds 
 like ch before eous, ous, uous ; as in beauteous, porten¬ 
 tous, tortuous ; but this feems a vicious pronunciation. 
 
 T, among the ancients, was ufed as a numeral letter, 
 fignifying 160. When a dalh was added a-top thus, t, 
 it fignified 160,000. 
 
 When the tribunes approved of the decrees of the 
 fenate, they teftified their confent by fubferibing a T. 
 
 T, or ’l'AU, in heraldry, is a kind of crofs patent, or 
 truncated ; found in all the armouries of the commanders 
 of the order of St. Anthony. 
 
 TABBY, in commerce, a kind of coarfe taffety wa¬ 
 tered. It is manufactured like the common taffety, except¬ 
 ing that it is ftronger and thicker both in woof and warp. 
 
 TABBYING, the palling ftuffunder the calendar, to 
 make a reprefentation of waves thereon, as on a tabby. 
 
 TABELLA, or T ablet, Tabulatum, in pharmacy, 
 a folid kind of eleCtuary, or confeCtion, made of dry in¬ 
 gredients, ufually with fugar, and formed into little fla 
 morfels or fquares; more ufually called lozenges, and 
 fometimes morfelli, troches, &c. 
 
 TABERNACLE, Tabernaculum , among the Jews, 
 the place wherein the ark of the covenant was lodged; 
 both while they were in tents, during their journey from 
 Egypt; and when fixed in Jerufalem, the ark was kept 
 in the temple. 
 
 Feaft of Tabernacles, a folemn feftival of the He¬ 
 brews, obferved after harveft, on the 15th day of the 
 month Tifri, inftituted to commemorate the goodnefs of 
 God, who protected the Ifraelites in the wildernefs, and 
 made them dwell in booths when they came out of 
 Egypt. On the firft day of the feaft they began to ereCt 
 Vol. II, No. 71. 
 
 booths of the boughs of trees; and in thefe they were 
 obliged to continue feven days. The booths were placed 
 in the open air, and were not to be covered with cloths, 
 nor made too clofe by the thicknefs of the boughs; but 
 fo loofe that the fun and the ftars might be feen, and the 
 rain defeend through them. In thefe they cat, drank, 
 and flept, during the continuance of the feftival. 
 
 TABES, in medicine, or Tabes Dorfalis , arifes 
 from a diforder of the fpinal marrow, and is principally 
 incident to perfons of a falacious difpofition, or fuch as 
 are newly married. The patients are free from a fever, 
 cat and digeft well. The perfon labouring under this 
 diforder, when interrogated with relpeCt to his ftate, 
 affirms, that he perceives, as it were, ants falling from 
 the fuperior part of his body, his head, forinftance, into 
 the fpine of the back; and when he difeharges his urine 
 or excrements, there is at the fame time a copious eva¬ 
 cuation of liquid femen, in confequence of which he is 
 incapable of propogating his lpecies, anfwering the pur- 
 pofe of marriage, or being amufed with venereal dreams. 
 He is generally fhort-breathed and weak, efpecially after 
 running, or walking up a fteep place ; he perceives a fenfe 
 of weight in his head, and is afflicted with a ringing of 
 his ears. The patient is, in procefs of time, feized with 
 various fpecies of violent fevers, and at laft dies of that 
 kind of fever called lipyria; i. e. a fever, where the exter¬ 
 nal parts are cold, and the internal burn at the fame time. 
 
 This efflux of the nutritious juice being once {topped 
 by art, the difpirited and impoveriffled blood muft be re- 
 plenilhed, as foon as may be, with new chyle, by fuch 
 food as is delicious, affords a good juice, and is molt; 
 grateful to the patient’s ftomach, given often in a day, 
 though in a little quantity at a time. And that the 
 appetite may be more excited, let him be advifed to be 
 chcarful, for there is nothing deltroys the appetite, and 
 confirms a confumption, more than grief or ladnefs. Let 
 him alfo enjoy the benefit of the open air, which is be¬ 
 neficial to the nerves, and, confequently to the appetite 
 and ftomach. But he muft religioufly abftain from wine 
 and fpirituous liquors, which are fubjeCt to put the blood, 
 5 C which 
 
tag 
 
 ■which was before too hot, into a greater flame. No 
 purges are to be ufed to procure any other conliderable 
 evacuation, which may create further expenccs to na¬ 
 ture, when flic is already weak. 
 
 TABLATURE, in anatomy, a divifion or parting 
 of the fknll into two tables. 
 
 TABLE, in architecture, a fmooth Ample member or 
 ornament of various forms, but moft ufu’ally that of a 
 long fquare. 
 
 P>■zj.-ctini T able, is fuch a one as {lands out from 
 the naked of the wall, pedeflal, or other matter it adorns. 
 
 Rake Table, is that which is hollowed in the die of 
 a pedeflal or cifewhere, and which is ulually encompaffed 
 with a moulding. 
 
 Razed Table, an emboflinent in a frontifpiece, fori 
 the putting an infeription, or other ornament, in lculp- 
 ture.^ This is what M. Pcrrault underftands by abacus 
 in Virtruvius. 
 
 Croiyned Table, that covered with a cornice, and 
 wherein is cut a baflb relievo, or a piece of black marble 
 incruflatcd for an infeription. 
 
 EMiu.ted Table, that which is pricked, and whofe 
 fur face feems rough, as in grottos, &c. 
 
 Plain Table, a furveying inftrument. See Plain 
 Table. 
 
 Table of Pythagoras , the common multiplication 
 taole. See Multiplication. 
 
 Laths of the twelve Tables, were the firft fet of laws 
 of the Romans, thus called, either by reafon the Romans 
 then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tables covered 
 with wax ; or rather, becaufe they were engraven on tables 
 or plates of copper, to be expofed in the moft noted part 
 of the publick forum. 
 
 Tables of the Law, in Jewifh antiquity, two tables 
 on which were written the Decalogue, or Ten Com¬ 
 mandments, given by Gocfto Mofes on Mount Sinai. 
 
 1 able, is alfo ufed for an index, or repertory put 
 at the beginning or end of a book, to direct the reader to 
 any pallage he may have occafion for. 
 
 Tables, in mathcmaticks, arc fyftems of numbers 
 calculated to be ready at hand for the more eafyand ex¬ 
 peditious performing mathematical operations. 
 
 fjlronomical Tables, are computations of the mo¬ 
 tions, places, and other phenomena .of the planets, both 
 primary tmd fecondary. 
 
 Tabling of Lives, is the making a table for every 
 county where his majefty’s writs run, containing the 
 contents of every fine paffed each term. 
 
 TABOR, Tabourin, a fmall drum. 
 
 PACAMAHACA, in pharmacy, a folid refin, im¬ 
 properly called a gum, in the fhops : it is of a fragrant 
 and peculiar fine!!, and is of two kinds ; the one called 
 the fhell-tacamahaca, which is the fineft: the other, 
 which is an inferior kind, being termed rough-tacama- 
 liaca or tacamahaca in grains. 
 
 Some greatly commend tacamahaca in diforders of the 
 hreaft and lungs; but, at prefent it is very rarely ufed in¬ 
 ternally. Externally, however, it is in repute for foften - 
 ing tumours, and mitigating pain and aches. 
 
 TACHYGRAPHY, the art of fall, or fliort writing. 
 The word is formed from the Greek ra^fwift, and ypatpv, 
 writing. 
 
 There have been various kinds of tachygraphy invent¬ 
 ed : among the Romans, there were certain notes ufed, 
 each whereof fignified a word. The Rabbins have a kind 
 of tachygraphy formed by abbreviations, which make a 
 kind of technical words; wherein each confonant ftands for 
 a whole word, as Q 3 D”), Rambam-, which expreffes Rabbi 
 A ' fes, [on of Mai cm on ; Rafchi ; which ftands for 
 
 Rabbi Schelomoh Jarri. In France, &c. the only ta¬ 
 chygraphy ufed is the retrenching of letters, or even fylla- 
 bles of words ; as in fdm for feundam ; ant for autem ; d 
 for Jed ; o for non ; participaon for participation , &c. The 
 firft printers imitated tliefe abbreviations; at prefent they 
 arealmoft laid afide, except among feriveners, &rc. 
 
 In England we have great variety of methods of ta¬ 
 chygraphy, or fliort-hand ; more by far, and thofe too, 
 much better, eafier, fpeedier, and more commodious, 
 than are known in any other part of the world : witnefs 
 Shelton’s, Wallis’s, Wcbfter’s, Wefton’s, Gurney’s, 
 and Byrom’s fliort-hands. 
 
 TACK about, in navigation, a term ufed atfeawhena 
 {hip’s head is brought about fo as to lie the contrary way. 
 
 T A L 
 
 To effect this, they firft make her flay ; which done 
 Ihc is faid to be paid. They then let rife and haul, i. e. 
 let the lee-tack rife, and haul-aft the fheets, and fo trim 
 all the fails by a wind, as they were before. 
 
 TACKLE, or 7 ackling, in navigation, includes 
 all the ropes or cordage of a fhip, whereby the fails, &c. 
 are managed. 
 
 I A£ I ICIC 3 , the art of difpofing forces in form of a 
 battle, and of performing the military motions and 
 evolutions. 
 
 TADPOLE, a young frog, before it has difengaged 
 itlelf from the membranes that envelope it in its firft fta<*e 
 of life. "I bis animal furnifhes the curious in microfco- 
 pick obfervations with a beautiful view of the circulation 
 of the blood, efpecially when it is young. The method 
 of procuring them for this puipofe in the greateft perfec¬ 
 tion, is this: let a fmall quantity of frog’s fpawn be kept 
 fome days in water, and from this will be produced a 
 vaft number of young tadpoles ; tliefe, while very young, 
 are perfedlly tranfparcnt, and when placed before the 
 double microfcope, the heart mav be daftly feen, and its 
 pulfation regularly obferved; and the blood protruded 
 thence may be beautifully feen circulating through the 
 whole body ; but particularly in the tail, where, though 
 fo very minute, more than fifty veffels may be feen°at 
 one view. I he young biood grow more and more o^ake 
 every hour, and in a day or two the circulation of the 
 blood can only be feen in their tail, or in the fins near 
 the head. 
 
 TAENIA, or Tenia, in architeClure, a member of 
 the Dorick order, refembling a fquare fillet, or reglet, 
 and ferving in lieu of a cymatium. 
 
 T AFFAREL. cr Tafferel, in a fhip, is a rail all 
 round the poop and quarter-deck. 
 
 I AFFETY, in commerce, a kind of fine, fmooth, 
 filken fluff, having ufually a remarkable Juftre or glofs. 
 
 Dragoi' s TAIL, Cauda Draconts , in aflronomy, the 
 defeending node of a planet, thus charadlerifed See 
 Node. 
 
 1 ail of a Comet ; when a comet darts his rays for¬ 
 wards, or towards that part of the heavens whither his 
 proper motion feems to be carrying him, thofe rays are 
 called its beard : on the contrary, when its rays are fhort 
 behind, towards that part from whence it feems to move, 
 the rays are called the tail of the comet. See Comet. * 
 1 ail of the Trenches, in the military art, is the poft or 
 place where the befiegers begin to break ground to cover 
 themfelves from the fire of the town. 
 
 Tail, or T aile, in common law, fignifiesa limited 
 fee, as oppofite to fee-fimple. The limitation of tail is 
 either fpecial or general. 
 
 Tail fpecial, is that whereby lands and tenements 
 are limited to a man and his wife, and the heirs of their 
 two bodies together. It is called fpecial, becaufe if the 
 man bury his wife before iffuc, and take another, the iffue 
 by his fecond marriage cannot inherit the land. 
 
 Fail after PoJJtbihty of Iffue ex-tin ft, is where land is 
 given to a man and his wife, and the heirs of their 
 two bodies, and the one over-lives the other, without 
 iffue between them begotten ; upon which the furvivor 
 fhall hold the land for term of his own life in quality of 
 tenant in tail after the poffibilitv of iffue extinCt; and, 
 notwithftanding he does wafte, fliall not be impeached of 
 it. And if he be an alien, he, in the reverfion, fliall 
 not have a writ of an entry in confimili cafu, but may 
 enter, and his entry is lawful. 
 
 1 AILLOIR, in architecture, a term which fome of 
 our writers, after the French, ufe for abacus. 
 
 TALCK, in natural hiftory, a large clafs of foflil bo¬ 
 dies, compofcd of broad, flat, and fmooth lamina; or 
 plates laid evenly and regularly on one another ; eafily 
 fiflile, according to the fite of tliefe plates, but not all fo 
 in any other direction ; flexile, and elaftick ; bright, Alin¬ 
 ing, and tranfparent; not giving fire with ftcel, nor fer¬ 
 menting with acid menftrua, and fuftaining the force of 
 a violent fire without calcining. 
 
 TALENT, Talentum, a weight and a coin, both very 
 famous among the ancients, but very different in diffe¬ 
 rent countries. The value of the talent is very hard to 
 alfign in Englifli money, as being ufed among all the 
 p:ople throughout the eaft ; and its value, and the manner 
 of computation, different among each. A difficulty abun¬ 
 dantly lliewn by Budseus, In his learned treatife de Affe. 
 
 There 
 
T AL 
 
 There were various kinds of talents, both with regard 
 to weight and to fpecies ; the value of thefe lafl {till in- 
 creafing, as the metal whereof it con fitted was purer : 
 though the talent weights all contained the fame number 
 of pounds and drachms. For as the French have a livre 
 Tariffs and a livre Tournois, each whereof contains alike 
 20 fols ; yet, thefe compared together, the Paris livre 
 contains 25 fols of the Tournais livre, the Paris fol ex¬ 
 ceeding that of Tours by one fifth ; Jo all talent weights 
 were equally 60 mince, and the mina 100 drachma?; 
 but, the drachma of one place exceeding that of another, 
 there hence arofe a difference in the-talents. 
 
 The Attick drachma for inflance, was 60 Attick oboli, 
 and that of ^Egina 10 of the fame oboli; whence the 
 ./Egmean talent, computed on the foot of the Attick 
 weight, was ico mince : whereas reckoned on the foot of 
 its own drachma, it was no more than 60. 
 
 "I he common Attick talent then (the talent weight we 
 mean) contained 60 Attick mina?, or 62 and a half Attick 
 pounds, or6ooo Attick drachma;; equal, according toDr. 
 Arburthnot’s reduction, to 56 pounds 11 ounces Eng- 
 lifh trov weight. Some authors, as Prilcian, mention 
 another Attick talent of 100 mina?, but this is to be un- 
 derfiood of ancient mina?, as they flood before Solon, 
 each only worth 75 drachma?. 
 
 I he Syrian talent contained 15 Attick mina?; that of 
 Alexandria 96 Attick mina?, or 91 lib. troy. The Baby- 
 Ionick,Pcrlian,and Anthiochick talents were the famewith 
 the Egyptian. Among the Romans there were two kinds 
 of talents, the little and the great talent: the little was 
 the common talent; and whenever they fay, limply, ta- 
 lentum, they are to be underfiood of this : the little talent 
 was 60 mina?, or Roman pounds; the mina or pound, 
 cflimatedat loo drachma, or denarii: it was alfo cilimat- 
 cd at 24 great fellerces, which amounted to 60 pounds. 
 
 The great talent exceeded the lefs by one third part. 
 Budrcus computes, that the little talent of filver was 
 worth 75 pounds flerling; and the greater 99I. 6s. 8d. 
 flerling. I he greater talent of filver he makes worth 
 •99I. fieriing. The greater of gold worth 1125b flerling. 
 
 Talent, as a fpecies, or money, among the He¬ 
 brews, was fometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame 
 with the Ihekel of gold, called alfo {later, and weighing 
 only four drachms. The Hebrews reckoned by thefe 
 talents as we do pounds, Nc. Thus a million of gold, 
 or million of talents of gold, among them, was a million 
 of fhekels, or nurami ; the nunmius of gold being the 
 fame weight with the fhekel, viz. four drachms. 
 
 Yet the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which they 
 called cicar, was equivalent to that of 3000 fhekels, or 
 113pounds Englilh troy weight, according to Arbuth- 
 not’s computation. 
 
 1 ALIO, Lex Tahonis, or Poena Talionis, a retribution 
 or punifhment whereby an evil is returned perfedllv like 
 that committed againfl us by another, which is what we 
 ufually exprefs eye for eye, tooth for tooth. 
 
 TALLAGE, Tallagium , a certain rate, according to 
 which barons and knights were anciently taxed by the 
 king towards the expences of the {late, and inferior te¬ 
 nants by their lords on certain occafions. 
 
 TALLOW, a fort of animal fat melted down and 
 clarified. 
 
 T a llo w-T ree, in China, is a tree growing in great 
 plenty in that country, which produces a fubllance like 
 our tallow, and ferving for the fame purpofe. 
 
 TALLIES of Linns, one part whereof is kept in the 
 exchequer, and the other part given to particular perfons 
 in lieu of an obligation for the monies they have lent to 
 the government on a£ls of parliament. This laft part is 
 called the flock, and the former the counter flock, or 
 counter tail. 
 
 TALMUD, or Thalmud, a Jewilhbook, wherein 
 is collected all that relates to the explication of their law. 
 
 TALON, in architecture, a kind of moulding con¬ 
 fining of a 1'quare fillet, frequently found to terminate 
 ornaments of joiners work, as thofe of doors. 
 
 TALPA, in medicine, is a tumour generally confined 
 to the head, and appearing as the conlequence of the vene¬ 
 real difeafe. 1 he talpa? elevate the fkin from the pericra¬ 
 nium, and generally denote a foulnefs of the bone beneath; 
 but the nates are generally fcated in the neck. 
 
 TALUS, or 1 alut, in architecture, the inclination 
 ©r Hope of a work ; as of fhe outfide of a wall, when its 
 
 T A N 
 
 thicknefs is diminifhed by degrees as it rifes in height, td 
 make it the firmer. 
 
 T a l u s, in fortification. T alus of a baflion, or rampart, 
 is the Hope or diminution allowed to fuch a work, whether 
 it be of earth or {lone, the better to fupport its weight. 
 
 The exterior Talus of a Work , is its Hope on the fide 
 towards the country ; which is always made as little as 
 pofiible, to prevent the enemies fealado ; unlefs earth be 
 bad, and then it is abfoiutely necelFary to allow a confi- 
 derable talus for its parapet. The interior talus of a 
 work is its flope on the infide towards the place. 
 
 TAMARINDS, Tamar inch, a pulpy matter which 
 has, in its natural Hate, furrounded and inclolcd the feeds 
 of a tree of the fame name between the two membranes 
 of the pods, with which nature has defended them ex¬ 
 ternally from injuries. It is a thick, tough, and vifeid 
 mafs, of the confitlence of honey, and of a blackifh, 
 brovvnifh, or redifh colour. It is of an agreeable acid 
 tafle, and is generally mixed with a larger or fmalleir 
 quantity of fugar, in order to its keeping. The tree 
 which produces them is of the number of the triandria 
 monogynia of Linna?us, and of the arbores filiquofa? 
 fiore uniformi of Mr. Ray. It is deferibed by all the 
 botanical writers under the name of tamarindus, and fi- 
 liqua Arabica. The tree rifes to the height of our walnut- 
 trees, and fpreads as broad with its branches as they do ' t 
 the leaves are pinnated in the manner of thofe of the afh. 
 
 We ufe tamarinds as a purge, but they are extremely 
 mild and gentle in their operation, and therefore require 
 to be given in a very large dofe to have any vifible eff'eCl, 
 and after giving a flool or two, they prove gently aflrin- 
 gent. They are given in fevers to quench thirfl, and to 
 temperate the acrimony of the humours. They are faid 
 to cure the jaundice without the affiflance of any other 
 medicine, and in bilious diarrhoeas, and nephritick com¬ 
 plaints, they have been known to do eminent fervice. 
 
 1 amarinds are found to increafe confiderably the pur¬ 
 gative virtues of manna and caffia, and, when they are 
 intended to operate brifkly, ought always to be given 
 with them. Tamarinds alone may be taken an ounce or 
 two at a time, and are feldom found to purge over-much 
 thofe who eat much larger quantities, on account of their 
 pleafantnefs. They are an ingredient in the lenitive elec¬ 
 tuary, and are a very proper admixture with the refinous 
 purges, fuch as fcammony, refin of jalap, and the like. 
 
 I AMBACK, orTAMBAQUA,a mixture ofgold and 
 copper, which the people of Siam hold more beautiful,' 
 and let a greater value on than gold itfelf. 
 
 TAMBOUR, in architetture, a tetin applied to the 
 Corinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome re- 
 femblance to a drum which the French call tambour. 
 
 T ambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber-work 
 covered with a ceiling, within-fide the porch of certain 
 churches, both to prevent the view of perfons palling by,- 
 and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding doors. 
 
 "Tambour alfo denotes a round coarfe {lone, feveral 
 whereof form the fhaft of a column not fo high as a di¬ 
 ameter. 
 
 TAMPION, orToMpiON, a plug, ferving to flop 
 the mouths of cannon, mortars, See. to prevent their 
 being wet, and to keep them clean within. 
 
 TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped and ground by a 
 tanning mill into a coarfe powder to be ufed in the tan¬ 
 ning or dreffing Ikins. 
 
 TANGENT, in geometry, a right-lin'e which touches- 
 a circle but in one point, and consequently, if infinitely 
 produced, could never cut the fame. 
 
 T angent of an Arch, is a right-line drawn perpendi¬ 
 cularly from the end of a diameter, palling to one extre¬ 
 mity of the arch, and terminated by a right-line drawn 
 from the centre, through the other extremity of the arch.- 
 
 Cor- T angent of an Arch , is the tangent of the com¬ 
 plement of that arch. 
 
 Tangent of a Curve, is a right-line which only 
 touches the curve in one point, but does not cut it. 
 
 Line of Tangents, a line ufually placed, on the 
 fedtor and Gunter’s fcaie. 
 
 TANNING, the art of preparingfkins or hides in a 
 pit, with tan and w T ater. 
 
 What we call tan, from which the art derives its name, 
 is the bark of oak, chopped and ground by a tanning- 
 mill into a coarfe powder. When the bark is taken off 
 the trees, it mult be well dried in the fun, and fhaved 
 
 finally 
 
TAN 
 
 final!, then dried again on a kiln, and placed in piles in 
 a houfe. W here oak-bark is lcarce, that of thorns may 
 fupply the deleft. New tan is moll efteemed ; when old 
 and Hale, it lofes a deal of its effeft, which confifls in 
 fhutting up the pores of the fkin ; fo that, the longer the 
 fkins are kept in the tan, the more ftrength and finenefs 
 they acquire. 
 
 The art of tanning regards only the hides of bullocks, 
 cows, calves, and horfes ; the method whereof for oxes 
 hides is as follows : the fkin being flayed off the carcafe, 
 if it is intended to be kept, is falted with fea-falt, mixed 
 with allum, or with a fort of fait pet re, called natron. 
 If it be not intended to be kept, the falting is laved, as 
 being of no life, but to prevent the hide from corrupt¬ 
 ing, before it can be conveniently carried to the tan-yard. 
 Whether the hides have been falted or not, the tanner 
 begins with taking off the horns, the ears, and the tail ; 
 after which it is thrown into water for about 30 hours, 
 to wafh oft the blood and other impurities adhering to 
 the inlide. "I his done, it is put into a lime-pit prepared 
 over night, where it continues about 12 hours ; after 
 which it is left to drain for three or four days on the edge 
 of the pit. This preparation being over, it is returned 
 into a itrong lime-pit for two or three days, then taken 
 out for four more ; and thus, for fix weeks, alternately 
 taken out and put in twice a week. At the fix weeks 
 end it is put into a frefh pit, where it continues eight 
 days, and is taken out for lb many ; and thus alternately 
 lor a year or 18 months, according to the ftrength of 
 the fkin, or the weather : for, when it is very hot, they 
 put in frefh lime twice a week; but, when it is frofty, 
 they fometimes do not touch them for three months. 
 Every frefh lime-pit they throw them into is ftronger 
 and ftronger. At four, five, or fix weeks end, the tanner 
 ferapes off the hair on a wooden block, with a kind of 
 knife for thatpurpofe. And, when it is entirely cleanfed 
 from the hair, he carries it to a river to wafh, pares off 
 the fiefh on the block with a kind of paring-knife, and 
 rubs it briikly with a kiivd of whet-ftone, to take off 
 any remains of fiefh or filth on the hair fide. The fkin 
 is now put into tan, that is, covered over with tan, as 
 it is ftretched in the pit, and the water let in upon it. 
 Tf the fkin be ftrong, live coverings of tan will be required; 
 for weaker, three or four may fuffice. When the fkin 
 has not been kept long enough in lime, or the pan-pit 
 upon clearing it, in the middle of it is feen a whitifh 
 flieak, called the horn, or crudity of the fkin : and this 
 is the reafon why the foals of fhoes, &c. ftretch fo ealily, 
 and let in water. 
 
 When the hides are fufficiently tanned, they are taken 
 out of the pits to he dried, by hanging in the air. Then 
 the tan is cleanfed off them, and they are put in a place 
 neither too dry nor too moifl ; they are well ftretched 
 over each other, with weights a-top to keep them tight 
 and ftraigbt; and in this condition are'fold under the 
 name of bend leather. Cows, calves, and horfes fkins, 
 are tanned much after the fame manner as thofe of oxen, 
 except that the former are only kept four months in the 
 lime-pit; and, before they are put into the tan-pit, they 
 are previously immerlcd in the following preparation ; 
 cold water is poured into a wooden fat or tub, wherein 
 the fkins are put, which are kept ftirring, while more 
 water is warming in a copper, and, as foon as that water 
 is a little more than lukewarm, it is poured gently into 
 the fat, and upon this is caff a bafket of tan ; during 
 which rime the fkins are Hill kept turning, that the water 
 and tan may not fcorch them. After an hour they are 
 taken out, and call for a day in cold water, then returned 
 into the former fat, and the fame water they had been 
 in before ; and here they had been left eight days ; which 
 expired, they are put into the tan-pit, and three cover¬ 
 ings of tan given them ; the firfl of which Efts five weeks, 
 the fecond fix, and the third two months. The reft 
 of the procels is in all refpefts the fame as that above 
 delivered. In fome countries, as Champagne, 6cc. the 
 tanner gives the firft preparation with barley, inftead 
 of lime. 
 
 By Mr. de BufFon’s experiments upon different fkins, 
 it was found that a decoftion of young oak wood fuc- 
 ceeded perfectly well in tanning fheep and calves fkins, 
 but did not do equally well for ox. and the other harder 
 fkins. This, however, he imagines might be only for 
 want of knowing the bell method of uling the wood. I 
 
 T A R 
 
 And, certainly, thefe trials deferve to be further profe-* 
 cuted ; fince the fmall branches of the oak, which are 
 of little value, might be thus made to fupply the place 
 of a much dearer commodity, the bark ; and, as in many 
 trees, the bark of the young branches is found to be of 
 greatly more virtue than that of the larger branches, or 
 the trunk, the ufe of thefe fmall boughs, bark and all, 
 might very probably he found to afffwer to all the effeds 
 of the bark, of the larger kind alone. 
 
 The faw-duft of the oak has alio been found, by feve- 
 lal experiments made before the Society of Arts, 6cc. to 
 anfwer full as well as the bark itfelf. 
 
 iANIALUS’s Cup, in hydraulicks, a fiphon fo 
 adapted to a cup, that the long leg may go down through 
 the bottom of the cup. a 
 
 7 his bended fiphon is called Tantalus’s cup, from the 
 relemblance of the experiment made with an image in the 
 giafs, representing Tantalus in the fable, fixed up in the 
 middle of the cup with a fiphon concealed in his body, 
 beginning in the bottom of his feet, and afeending to 
 the upper part of his breafl; there it makes a turn, and 
 defeends through the other leg, on which he Hands’; and 
 from thence through the bottom of the cup, where it 
 runs out, and caules the water to fubfide in the cup : as 
 foon as it rifes to the height of the fiphon, or to the chin 
 of the image, which is above S s, (plan LXXVII.yfc. 2.) 
 the water will begin to run through the fiphon concealed 
 in the figure, till the cup is emptied in the manner ex¬ 
 plained under Siphon, and reprefented more diftinftlv 
 111 /f- 3 -. 
 
 Sometimes the Tantalus’s cup is made without a figure 
 fixed in it, (as/^.4.) where the water being up at Sr, the 
 cup does not run ; but as foon as the figure, or an apple, 
 or orange, &c. is thrown in, the water begins to run out 
 at the foot of the cup, and does not ceafe till the whole 
 cup is empty. I bis happens becaufe the body thrown 
 into the cup, rarfes the water’s furface from S r to B C, 
 where being above the upper end S of the pipe S P con¬ 
 cealed in the handle, which thereby is made a fiphon, the 
 w T ater which is come into the handle at O runs into the 
 middle pipe at S, and fo out at P, under the foot, fo long, 
 as there is any water above O. 
 
 TAPESTRY, a curious kind of manufacture, ferv- 
 
 mg to adorn a chamber or other apartment, by hanging 
 or covering the walls thereof. It is a kind of woven 
 hangings, of wool and filk frequently railed and enriched 
 with gold and filver, reprefenting figures of men, ani¬ 
 mals, landfkips, hiflories, &c. The invention of tapeflry 
 fee ms to have come to us from the Levant, and this feems 
 the more probable, in that the workmen concerned in it 
 were called, at leafl in France, farrafins, or farrafinois. 
 
 It is fuppofed that the EngliHi and Flemifh, who were the 
 firfl that excelled in making tapeflry, might bring the 
 art with them from fome of the croilades or expeditions 
 againfl the Sarraflns. 
 
 TAPPING, in agriculture, is the making an incifion 
 in the bark of a tree, and letting out the juice. To tap 
 a tree at the root, is to open it round about the root. 
 Ratray, tlie learned Scot, affirms, that he has found by 
 experiment, that the liquor which may be drawn from 
 the birch, in the fpring time, is equal to the whole weight 
 of the tree, branches, roots, and all together. 
 
 I AR, a thick, black, refinous, very adhefive juice, 
 melted out by fire from old pines and fir-trees. The 
 trees, cut in pieces, are inclofed in a large oven, which 
 being heated by a fire on the outfide, or the wood itfelf 
 kindled and fmothered, the juice runs off by a canal at 
 the bottom. Tar differs from the turpentine or native 
 refinous juice of the trees in having received a difagree- 
 able empyreumatick impreffion from the fire ; and in 
 containing, along with the pungent bitter terebinthinate 
 matter, a portion of die acid which is extricated from the 
 wood by the heat, and likewife of its gummy or muci¬ 
 laginous matter. 
 
 ^ ARANTISMUS, in medicine, the difeale or affec¬ 
 tion of thofe bit by the tarantula. 
 
 TAR.AN 1 ULA, in natural hiflory, afpiderof Apulia 
 of the oftonocular kind, or which has eight eyes, and 
 fpins webs ; it has eight legs, four on each fide, and in 
 each leg three joints ; from the mouth proceed two darts 
 in fhape like a hooked forceps, or crab’s claw ; thefe are 
 folid and very fliarp, fo that they can eafily pierce the 
 lkin ; and, between thefe and tha- tore legs, there arc two 
 
 little 
 
TAR 
 
 T A U 
 
 tittle horns, which anfwer to thole bodies, called, from 
 their ufe in flies, the feelers; becaufc, as they do fo, this 
 creature is obferved to move them very brilkly when it 
 approaches to its prey. (See plate IX. fig. 12. vol. 1.) 
 
 This, like other fpiders, propagates its fpecies by Iay- 
 ing eggs, which are very numerous, fo that there are 
 found lometimes in the female, when diflefled, an hun¬ 
 dred or- more; and thefe are hatched partly by the heat 
 of the mother, and partly by that of the fun, in about 
 20 or 30 days time. 
 
 There is alfo a fpider of the like nature with the taran¬ 
 tula in the W. Indies, which Francis Hernandez deferibes 
 by the name of hoitztocatl, or the pricking fpider, and 
 fays that its bite induces madnefs. 
 
 It is faid, that in the fummer months, when the heats 
 are greateft, as in the dog-days, the tarantula, creeping 
 among the corn in the fields, bites the mowers and paflen- 
 gers ; and that its poifon produces a fpecies of inadnels 
 which can only be cured by inufick. 
 
 But, notwithftanding all this, there is good reafon to 
 believe the whole {lory fabulous, and a vulgar error; for 
 it is treated as fuch by an Italian phyfician, in the Philof. 
 Tranf. and a great many gentlemen of unqueftionable 
 veracity, who refided at Taranto many months, and 
 during the time in which the bite of a tarantula is faid 
 to be moll pernicious, affirm, that there was not a phy¬ 
 fician in the country, who believed there ever was fuch 
 a diitemper, from fuch a caufe: that among the vulgar 
 there is a tradition, that diftempers attended with very 
 extraordinary circumftances, had been excited by the 
 bite of a tarantula ; but that no body every remembers a 
 fingle inllance ; and that there is no other fpider to be 
 found in that country, different from thofe which are 
 common in moll warm countries. 
 
 TARE and Tret, in commerce, any defeat, wafte, 
 or diminution in the weight, the quantity, or the quality 
 of goods. 
 
 Fare is more particularly ufed for abatement, or de- 
 duflion in the price of a commodity, on account of the 
 weight of chefts, calks, bags, frails, &c. 
 
 TARGET, afhield, thus called from the Latin, tar- 
 gum, „back, becaufe originally made of leather, wrought 
 out of the back of an ox’s hide. 
 
 TARGUM, in the facred literature, a name which 
 the Jews give to their Chaldee glofles, and paraphrales 
 on the feripture. 
 
 TARIF, or Tarrif, a book of rates, a table or 
 catalogue drawn ulually in alphabetical order, containing 
 the names of feveral kinds of merchandize, with the 
 duties orcufioms to be paid for the fame as fettled by au¬ 
 thority, and agreed on between the feveral princes and 
 Hates that hold commerce together. 
 
 TARNISHING, a diminution of the natural lullre 
 of any thing, efpecially a metal. Gold and fiiver, when 
 tarnilhed, refume their brightnefs by fetting them over 
 the fire with certain lies. Copper and pewter, &c. that 
 are tarnilhed, recover their lullre with tripoli and pot 
 allies. 
 
 TARPAULIN, or T arpawling, a piece of can 
 vas well pitched and tarred over to keep off the rain or 
 falt-water from any place. The term is alfo ufed in dc- 
 rifion to a perfon bred at fea, and educated in the ma¬ 
 riner’s art. 
 
 TARRACE, Tarrass, or Terrace, a coarfe 
 fort of plafter or mortar, durable in the water, chiefly 
 ufed to line bafons, cillerns, wells, and other refervoirs 
 pf water. 
 
 TARSUS, in anatomy, is the fpace between the 
 bones of the leg and the metatarfus, confilling of feven 
 bones, viz. the altragalus or talus, calcaneum, navicu- 
 lare, three olfa cuneiformia, and the cubiforme; which 
 fee under thofe articles. 
 
 Tarsus is alfo a name given, by fome anatomills, 
 to the cartilages which terminate the palpebrte, or eye¬ 
 lids, and from which the cilia or hairs arife. 
 
 They are exceedingly thin and fine, which makes 
 them light and flexible. Their form is femi-circular ; 
 that of the upper eye-lid is fomewhat longer than that of 
 the under : theyferve alike to clofe the eyes. 
 
 TARTANE, a kind of bark ufed for filhing and car¬ 
 riage : they are flulh fore and aft, and commonly ufe 
 oars. They are plenty in the Mediterranean : they have 
 $niy a main-mall and a mizen : their fails are triangular. 
 Vol. II. No. 71. 
 
 When they put up a fquare fail, it is called a fail of for¬ 
 tune. 
 
 TARTAR, in natural hillory, a hard and almoll 
 ilony feparation from a vegetable juice after fermentation. 
 
 It is the produce of wine, and is found adhering, in 
 large mafles, to the bottoms and fides of calks, in which 
 that liquor has been long kept. We meet with it in large 
 mafles of an irregular figure, and more or lefs denfe tex¬ 
 ture ; without fmell, and of a fub-acid talle. 
 
 The common crude tartar is of two kinds, the white 
 and the red; this difference of colour, being owing to 
 that of the wine they are produced from, is of little con- 
 fequence in itfelf, but it is an indication of more eflential 
 differences in the matter. The white tartar is much more 
 pure and clear than the red, and is, though equally hard, 
 confiderably lefs heavy. We have this principally from 
 Germany, where it is, at times, cleared off from the 
 fides of very large veflels, in which they keep their white 
 wines for many years. The red tartar is brought in large 
 quantities from Italy, and fome parts of France. The 
 white tartar is to be chofen for medicinal ufe, and particu¬ 
 larly fuch as is of a compa£l texture, not fpongy or caver¬ 
 nous, when broken, and free from dirt or other foulnefles, 
 and fuch as has a fort of cryftallization on its furface. 
 
 Tartar is, properly fpeaking, the eflential fait of the 
 grape. The ancients made no diftin&ion between tartar 
 and the lees of wine. In truth, the lees of wine, and 
 tartar, have both the fame origin, and differ very little. 
 Wine, after due fermentation, and when put up in veflels, 
 depofits two fubftances; the one finks to the bottom ot 
 the veflel, and is thick, foul, and muddy, but Hill, in 
 fome degree, fluid ; this is, properly, what we know by 
 the name of wine-lees : the other feparated matter is folid 
 and hard ; it adheres to the fide of the veflel, and even 
 to the bottom itfelf under this liquid matter, and forms a 
 thick cruft,' which flicks to it in the fame manner as the 
 cruft of fparry matter adheres to the infide of our veflels, 
 in which water is frequently boiled. This folid matter 
 is tartar. Tartar contains but little of the fpirituous 
 part of the liquor from which it was formed ; but the Ices 
 of wine, on the other hand, abound with fpirit; they 
 even contain more, and yield more of it, by diftillation, 
 than the wine itfelf. 
 
 Tartar contains a large portion of acid fait, and of 
 an oil, in part thin and limpid, in part thick and coarfe. 
 It affords a fmall portion of a volatile alkali fait, in dif¬ 
 tillation, and the refiduum yields a very large propor¬ 
 tion of fixed alkali. It is to be obferved, that both thefe 
 alkalies feem, in fome degree, creatures of the fire; for 
 neither of them manifeft themfelves either by their tafte 
 or qualities in the tartar, any more than in many other 
 fubftances, which yet afford much of them by analyfis, 
 till they have felt the operation of the fire. 
 
 Tartar diflolves in boiling water, but with great diffi¬ 
 culty in cold ; and even when purified, and brought to 
 the llate of what we call cryftals, or cream of tartar, it 
 retains the fame quality. Tartar is lcarce ever given in¬ 
 ternally in its crude ftate. 
 
 TASTE, favour, a fenfation excited in the foul, by 
 means of the organs of tafte, viz. the papillae of the 
 tongue, &c. 
 
 Taste, is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, for the 
 judgment and difeernment of the mind. We conftantly 
 hear talk of good and bad tafte, without well underftand- 
 ing the meaning of thefe terms : in effeift, a good tafte 
 feems, at bottom, to be little elfe but right reafon, which 
 we otherwife exprels by the word judgment. 
 
 Mad. Scudery and Mad. Dacicr call good tafte a har¬ 
 mony between the mind and reafon; and according as 
 that harmony is more or lefs juft, the perfon has more or 
 lefs of this tafte. 
 
 TASTING, the fenfe whereby we diftinguifli favours; 
 or the perception which the foul has of external obje&s, 
 by means of the organs of tafte. 
 
 TAT-TOO, q. d. Tap-to, a beat of a drum at 
 night to advertiie the foldiers to retreat or repair to their 
 quarters in their garrifon, or to their tents in a camp. 
 
 TAU, or T aw, in heraldry, an ordinary in figure of 
 a T, luppofed to reprefent St. Andrew’s crofs, or a crofs 
 patent, the top part cut off. 
 
 TAURUS, in aftronomy, the bull; one of the 12 
 figns of the zodiack, and the fecond in order, and is thus 
 charaflerifed, . (See plate IV. fig. 2-) 
 
 5 D Th« 
 
 
T E I 
 
 The ftars iirthe conftellation Taurus, in Ptolerfiv's 
 catalogue, are 44; in Tycho’s catalogue, 41; in the 
 Britannick catalogue, 135. 
 
 TAUTOLOGICAL Echoes, are fucli echoes as 
 repeat the fame found or fyllable many times. 
 
 TAUTOLOGY, i n grammar, a needlefs repetition 
 of the fame thing in different words. 
 
 I AWING, the art or manner of preparing or dreffing 
 ikins in white, to fit them for ufe in divers manufactures, 
 particularly gloves, pnrfes, Nc. All kinds of fkins may 
 be tawed ; but it is chiefly thofe of fhcep, lambs, kids, 
 and goats, that are ufed to be drefled this way, as being 
 thofe fi'teft for gloves. 
 
 T AX, a tribute fettled on every town after a certain 
 rate, and paid yearly towards the cxpcnces of the go¬ 
 vernment. 
 
 I a x alfo denotes the tribute which tenants were oc- 
 cafionally to pay their lord. 
 
 TAXERS, two officers annually cliofen, in Cam¬ 
 bridge, to fee the true gauge of all weights and meafures 
 obferved. 
 
 TAXIS, in ancient architecture, fignifies the fame 
 with ordonnance in the new, and is deferibed, by Vitru¬ 
 vius, to that which gives part of a building its juft dimen- 
 fions with regard to its ufe. 
 
 TEA, or 1 he a, the leaf of afhrub, growing in feveral 
 provinces in China, Japan, and Siam. 
 
 T he people who deal in tea, diftinguifh a vaft many 
 kinds of it, as they differ in colour, flavour, andinlize 
 of the leaf. Fhefe are all, however, the leaves of the 
 fame tree, only differing according to the feafons at which 
 they are gathered, and the manner of their drying. To 
 enumerate thefe feveral fub-diftindtions were endlefs, the 
 general diviflon is into three kinds : the ordinary green 
 tea, the finer green tea, and the bohea ; to one or other 
 of thefe all the other kinds may be referred. 
 
 1 lie preparation and ufe of tea as a dietetick liquor, 
 are in general well known. With regard to its medical 
 effects, fome have exceffively extolled, and others as ex¬ 
 travagantly condemned it. Tea is in many cafes a very 
 ufeful liquor , a grateful diluent in health, and a falutary 
 drink in iicknefs : it attenuates vifcid juices, promotes the 
 natural excretions, excites appetite, and proves ferviceablc 
 pa ■ ularly in fevers, in immoderate fleepinefs, after a 
 debauch, and in head-achs ariflng from that caufe; no 
 other plant is known, whofe infufion paffes off more 
 freely by the emundtories of the body, or more fpeedily 
 excites the fpirits. It is not, however, without its incon¬ 
 veniences : in habitual colicks it is found to do harm, 
 and in urinary obffruCtions it fhould be fparingly drank: 
 its immoderate ufe is productive of cacochymick, ca- 
 cheCtick, chlorotick diforders, and weakens the tone of 
 the ftomachand nervous fyflem. It is faid, when new, 
 to be narcotick, and to diforder the fenfes ; but to lofe 
 this quality, in great part by the exficcation, and totally 
 by being kept for a year : in the tea countries, it is a 
 principal caution to abftain from it till this period, but in 
 Europe there is no danger of its being ufed too new. 
 
 TEARS, Lachrynne, a watery humour ifiuing out at 
 the corners of the eye by the compreflion of the mufcles, 
 ferving to moiflen the cornea, to exprefs our grief, and 
 even to alleviate it. 
 
 TEAZEL, or Teasel, Carduus Fullonum , or the 
 fuller’s thiffle, a kind of plant much ufed by the fullers, 
 cloth-workers, and ffocking-weavers, to card or draw 
 out the wool or nap from the thread or ground of feveral 
 kinds of cloth, fluffs, ftockings, he. in order to render 
 them clofer and warmer. See Dips ac us. 
 
 TEBE III, the tenth month of the Jewifh ecclefiafli- 
 cal year, and fourth of the civil. It anfvvers to our month 
 of December. 
 
 TECHNiCAL, Tecbnicus, fomething that relates to art. 
 
 In this fenfe we may fay technical words, technical 
 verfes, he. 
 
 Technic al is more particularly applied to a kind of 
 verfes, wherein are contained the rules and precepts of 
 any art thus digefted, to help the memory to retain them. 
 
 1 ec hn ical IVords , are what we otherwife call terms 
 of art. 
 
 T EET 1 I, Dentes , in anatomy. See Tooth. 
 IEINIS, and Semi-'F hints, in painting, denote 
 file feveral colours ufed in a picture, conffdered as more 
 or Ids high or bright, deep or thin, or weakened and dj- 
 
 T E L 
 
 minifhed, he. to give the proper relievo, or foftnefs, or 
 diffance, he. to the feveral objeCts. 
 
 IELAMON, or Atlas, a name given to thofe fi¬ 
 gures or half figures of men fo commonly ufed inllead 
 of columns or pilafters, to fupport any member in ar¬ 
 chitecture, as a balcony, or the like. 
 
 TELAMONES, a name given by the Romans to 
 vvhat the Greeks call Atlantes, viz. the figures of men 
 fupporting entablatures and other projeCtures. 
 
 TELESCOPE, an optical inftrument, compofed of 
 lenlcs, by means of which, remote objeCts appear as if 
 nigh at hand. T hat thetelefcope is of modern imention 
 is moil certain ; neither does it appear that microfcopes, 
 or optick glafles of any kind, were known to the ancients. 
 
 It is contended, that Alexander de Spina, a native of 
 Pila, was the firft that made the ufe of glafles known to 
 the world ; but our countryman, I riar Bacon, who died 
 21 yeais before him, was, in all probability, acquainted 
 with them firff ; for he wrote a book of perfpedlive, in 
 which he plainly fhews that he did not only underftand 
 the nature of convex and concave glafles, but the ufe of 
 them when combined in teleicopes ; though he no where, 
 in that treatife, dilcovers the manner in which they are 
 to be put together. 
 
 The tclefcope with the concave eye-glafs, was firft in¬ 
 vented by a meclianick of Middleburgh, in Zeland, called 
 Z. Johannides, about the year 1590, though J. Lipper- 
 hoy, another Dutchman, is candidate for the fame dif- 
 covery. From whence, this fort of telcfcope is called 
 tubus Batavus. 
 
 Francifcus Fontana, a Neapolitan, contends, that he 
 was the firft contriver of the telefcope compofed of two 
 convex glafles, which is now the common aftronomical 
 telefcope; and Rheita pretends to be the firft that rendered 
 that telefcope fit for terreftrial ufes, by adding two cye- 
 glafies to it. 
 
 Thetelefcope is of two forts, viz. dioptrick, or refradl- 
 ing; or cata-dioptrick, by refictftion and refradtion con¬ 
 jointly. A refradling telefcope confifts of an objedl-glafs 
 vz (Flate LXXVI. fig. 1.) by which the image / d of an 
 objedl O B, at a dillance, is formed in the focus < of the 
 faid glafs, and in an inverted pofition. This image may 
 be viewed by a finglelens, ob , placed at its focal dirtance, 
 as is ufually done for viewing the heavenly bodies, becaufe 
 in them we do not regard the pofition : but for viewing 
 objects near us, whole image we would have eredl, we 
 111 uft, for that purpofe, add a fecond lens p q, at double 
 its focal difiance from the other, that the rays which 
 come from a b, may crofs each other in the focus 0, in 
 order to erc& the image gn, which it will form in its 
 own focus m, becaufe the rays come parallel from the 
 firft lens a b. Laftly, a third lens ic is added, to view 
 the fecondary image g n. T hefe three lenfes, or eye- 
 glaflcs, are ufually of the fame fize and focal length; 
 and the power of magnifying is always as the focal length 
 
 the objedl-glais e w divided by the focal length of the 
 e ye-gLfs / m or h e. For infiance: Suppofe^tu n 10 feet 
 or 120 inches, and b e or lm — 3 inches ; then will the 
 object appear to the eye, through fuch a telefcope, forty 
 times bigger than to the naked eye ; and its furface will 
 be magnified 1600 times, and its bulk or folidity 6400 
 times. 
 
 If inftead of a convex eye-glafs we fhould ufe a con¬ 
 cave one of the fame focal length, it would reprefent the 
 objedl eredl, equally magnified, and more diftindl and 
 bright; but the difadvantage of this glafs is, that it ad¬ 
 mits but a finall area, or field of view, and, therefore, 
 not to be ufed when we would fee much of an objedl, or 
 take in a great lcope ; but it is ufed to great advantage in 
 viewing the planets and their fatellites, Saturn’s ring, 
 Jupiter’s belts, he. 
 
 I here is a defcdl in all telefcopes of this kind, not to 
 be remedied by any means whatever, which was thought 
 only to arife from hence, viz. that fpherical glafles do 
 not colledl rays to one and the fame point; but it was 
 happily difeoyered by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the imper- 
 fedtion of this fort of telefcope, fo far as it riles from the 
 fpherical form of the glafles, bears almqft no proportion 
 to that which is owing to the different refrangibility 01 
 light. This diverfity in the refradlion of rays is about a 
 twenty-eighth part of the whole, fo that the' objedl-glafs 
 of a telcfcope cannot colledl the rays which flow from 
 any one point in the objedl into a lels room than the cir¬ 
 cular 
 

TEL T E M 
 
 Ciilar fpace, whofe diameter is about the fifty-fiktli part 
 of the breadth of the .glafs. Therefore, fince each point 
 of the objeft will be reprefented in fo large a fpace, and 
 the centres of thofe fpaces will be contiguous, becaufe 
 the points in the object the rays flow from are fo, it is 
 evident that the image of an objeft made by fuch a glafs 
 muft be a moft eoilfufcd reprdentation, though it does 
 not appear fo when viewed through an eye-glafs that 
 magnifies in a moderate degree ; confequently, the degree 
 of magnifying in the eye-glafs muft not be too great with 
 refpett to that of the objedl-glafs, left the confufion be¬ 
 come fenflble^ 
 
 Notwithflanding this imperfe&ion, a dioptrical tele- 
 fcope may be made to magnify in any given degree, pro¬ 
 vided it be of lufficient length ; for, the greater the focal 
 diftance of the objeft-glafs is, the lefs may be the pro¬ 
 portion which the focal diftance of the eye-glafs may 
 bear to that of the objeft-glafs, without rendering the 
 image obfcure. Thus, an objeft-glafs, whofe focal dif¬ 
 tance is about four feet, will admit of an eye-glafs whofe 
 focal diftance fhall be little more than one inch, and, 
 coniequently, will magnify almoft 48 times : but an ob- 
 jedt-glafs of 40 feet focus will admit of an eye-glafs of 
 only "four inch focus, and will, therefore, magnify 120 
 times; and an objeft-glafs of ico feet focus will admit 
 of an eye-glafs of little more than fix inch focus, and 
 will therefore magnify almoft 200 times. 
 
 • Cntu.ltc] rick, or r.jletl'ing Telescope, is the moft 
 tioble and uleful of all others; the mechanifm of which 
 is as iollows : 
 
 A B E H (Piute LXXVI. 2.) is the large tube, or 
 body of the inftrument, in which B E is a large reflecting 
 mirrour, with a hole in the middle CD. This mirrour 
 receives the rays a r, b d, coming from the objeCt at a 
 diftance, and refleCts them converging to its focus e, where 
 theycrofs each other, and form the inverted image IM ; xy 
 is a fmall concave mirrour, whofe focus is at /, at a fmall 
 diftance from the image. By this means the rays com¬ 
 ing from the image are reflected back through the cen¬ 
 tral hole C D of the large mirrour, where they fall on the 
 plano-convex lens W X, and are by it converged to a 
 focus, and there form a fecond image R S, very large and 
 creCt, which is viewed by a menifeus eye-glals Y Z, by 
 the eye at P, through a very fmall hole in the end of the 
 eye-piece Y C D Z. 
 
 If the firft lens W X were taken away, the image 
 would be formed fomewhat larger at M1 \ but the area 
 or fcope would be lefs, and therefore the view not fo 
 pleafant. At TV is placed a circular piece of brafs, 
 with a hole of a proper fize to circumfcribe the image, 
 and cut off all fuperfluous or extraneous rays, that fo the 
 objeCt may appear as diftinCt as poflible. 
 
 As the image is formed by reflection, the ravs of every 
 fort will be united nearly in one point, and will therefore 
 admit of an eye-glafs Y Z of a deep charge, or fmall fo¬ 
 cal diftance ; and fo the power of magnifying will be pro¬ 
 portionally increafed. 
 
 Such is the telefcope firft contrived by Dr. J. Gregory, 
 and therefore called the Gregorian telefcope ; but it re¬ 
 ceived its laft improvement from the late Mr. Hadley, 
 and is now in common ufe. 
 
 Aeriel Telescope, is a dioptrick telefcope, ufed 
 without a tube, in a dark night; for the ufe of the tube is 
 not only to dircCt the glafles, but alfo to make the place 
 dark where the images of objeCts are formed. 
 
 Huygenius contrived a telefcope of this kind for view¬ 
 ing the celeftial bodies, by fixing the objeCl glafs on the 
 top of a long upright pole, and directing its axis towards 
 any objeCt by means of a filk line coming from the ob- 
 jeCt-glafs to the eye-glafs below. In this manner were 
 telefcopes made of 123 feet. 
 
 Solar Telescope. This inftrument is applied to ufe 
 in the following manner; A B (Plats LXXVI.yfg-. 14.) 
 reprefents a part of the window fhutter of a darkened 
 room, C D the frame, which, by means of a ferew, con¬ 
 tains the fcioptrick ball E F, placed in a hole of the faid 
 fhutter adapted to its fizc. This ball is perforated with 
 a hole abed through the middle; on the fide b c is ferew- 
 ed into the faid hole a piece of wood, and in that is 
 ferewed the end of a common refraCting telefcope G H, 
 IK, with its objeCl glafs G H, and one eye-glafs at I K ; 
 and the tube is drawn out to fuch a length, as that the 
 focus of each glafs may fall near the fame point. 
 
 This being done, the telefcope and ball are moved 
 about in fuch a manner as to receive the fun beams per¬ 
 pendicularly on the lens G H, through the cylindrick 
 hole of the ball; by this glafs they will be collected all 
 in one circular l'pot rw, which is the image of the fun; 
 The lens I K is to be moved nearer to or farther from the 
 faid image m, as the diftance at which the fecondary 
 image of the fun is to be formed requires, which is done 
 by Aiding the tube I K LM backwards and forwards in 
 the tube LMNO. Then on the firft image of the 
 fun m will be formed a fecond image P Q, very large, lu¬ 
 minous, and diftinCt. 
 
 In this manner the fun’s face is viewed at any time, 
 without offence to weak eyes; and whatever changes 
 happen therein may be duly obferved. The fpots, which 
 make fo rare an appearance to the naked eye, or through 
 a fmall telefcope in the common way, are here all of them 
 confpicuous, andeafytobe obferved under all their circum- 
 ftances of beginning to appear, increafe, divifionofonc into 
 many, the uniting of many into one, the magnitude, de- 
 creafe, abolition, dilappearance behind the fun’s difk, &c. 
 
 By the folar telefcope, we alfo view an cclipfc of the 
 fun to the beft advantage, as having it in our power by 
 this means to reprefent the fun’s face or difk as large as 
 we pleale, and confequently the eclipfe proportionably 
 confpicuous. Alfo the circle of the fun’s dilk may be fo 
 divided by lines and circles drawn thereon, that the quan¬ 
 tity of the eclipfe eitimated in digits, may this way be moft 
 exaCtly determined ; alfo the moments of the beginning* 
 middle, and end thereof, for finding the longitude of the 
 place, with feveral other things relating thereto. 
 
 The tranfits of Mercury and Venus over the face of the 
 fun, are exhibited moft delightfully by this inftrument. 
 They will appear here truly round, well defined, and 
 very black ; their comparative diameters to that of the fun 
 may this way be obferved, the direction of their motion, 
 the times of their ingrefs and egrefs, with other particu¬ 
 lars for determining the parallax and diftance ol the lun, 
 more nicely than has hitherto been done. 
 
 By the lolar telefcope, you fee the clouds moft beauti¬ 
 fully pafs before the face of the fun, exhibiting a curious 
 fpeCtacle according to their various degrees of rarity and 
 denfity. But the beautiful colours of the clouds furround¬ 
 ing the fun, and refrafting his rays, are beft l'een in the 
 pifture made by the camera-glafs. 
 
 The fine azure of thefky, the intenfely ftrong and va¬ 
 rious dyes of the margins of clouds, the halo’s and coro¬ 
 na’s, are this way inimitably exprefled. And fince the prif- 
 matick colours of clouds, fo varioufly compounded here, 
 make fo noble and delightful a phenomenon, it is lurpri- 
 fing that no more regard is had thereto by painters, whofe 
 clouds, though near the fun, are feldom or never l'een 
 tinged or variegated with thofe natural tints and colours. 
 
 TELESCOPICAL Stars, fuch as are not vifible 
 to the naked eye, but difcoverable only by the help of 
 a telefcope. 
 
 TELLER, an officer in the Exchequer, of which 
 there are four, whofe bufinefs is to receive all monies due 
 to the crown, and thereupon to throw down a bill 
 through a pipe into the tally court; where it is received 
 by the auditor’s clerks, who attend there to write the 
 words of the faid bill upon a tally, and then deliver it to 
 be entered by the clerk of the pells, or his clerk. 
 
 The tally is then fplit or cloven by the two deputy 
 chamberlains who have their feals, and whilft the l’enior 
 deputy reads the one part, the junior examines the other 
 part with the other two clerks. 
 
 TE MPER A M E N T ^'Temper amentum^emper ament ure , 
 in phyficks, that habitude or difpofition of body arifing 
 from the proportion of the four primary elementary 
 qualities it is compofcd of, and is that diverfity in the 
 blood of different perfons whereby it is more apt to fall 
 into fome certain combinations in one body than another, 
 whether into cholar, phlegm, &c. From whence per¬ 
 fons are faid to be of a bilious or phlegmatick tempera¬ 
 ment, or the like. 
 
 Temperament, Temperamento, in mufick, denotes a 
 reftifying or mending the falfe and imperfect concords 
 by transferring to them part of the beauty of the perfect 
 ones. 
 
 I EMPERATE Zone ; fee the article Zone. 
 
 TEMPERING, in themechanick arts, the preparing 
 of fteel and iron, fo as to render them more compact, 
 
 hard, 
 
T E N 
 
 hard, and firm, or even more foft and pliant, according 
 to the refpe&ive occafions. 
 
 To harden and temper Englifh, Flemifh, and Swedifh 
 fteel, they rauft have a pretty high heat given them, and 
 then be luddenly quenched in water to make them hard ; 
 but Spanifh and Venetian fteel will require no more than 
 a blood-red heat before it is quenched. 
 
 It the fteel be too hard or brittle for an edged tool, Ac. 
 take it down by rubbing a piece of grind-llone or whet- 
 ftone hard upon the work, to take off the black fcurf; 
 then brighten or heat it in the fire, and as it grows hotter, 
 you will fee the colour change by degrees, coming firft to 
 a ftraw or light gold colour, then to a darker gold-colour, 
 and at laft to a blue colour. 
 
 Choofe f uch of thefe colours as the work requires, then 
 quench it luddenly in the water. 7 ’he light gold-colour 
 is for files, cold chiflels, and punches to punch iron and 
 fteel: the dark gold-colour, for punches to ule on bral's, 
 Ac. and the blue-colour gives the temper for fprings. 
 '1 he tempering of files and needles is performed after a 
 peculiar manner. 
 
 TEMPLARS, or Templers, a religious orderin- 
 ftituted at Jerufalem about the year 1118. Some reli¬ 
 gious gentlemen putthemfelves under the government of 
 the patriarch of Jerufalem, renounced property, made the 
 vow of celebacy and obedience, and lived like cannons 
 regular. King Baldwin affigned them an apartment in his 
 palace. They had likewife lands given them by the king, 
 the patriarch, and the nobility for their maintenance. This 
 order after having performed many great exploits againft 
 the infidels, became rich and powerful all over Europe; 
 but the knights abuttng their wealth and credit, fell into 
 great diforders and irregularities. Many crimes and 
 enormities being alledged againft them, they were profe- 
 cutcd in France, Italy, and Spain ; and at laft the pope, 
 by his bull of the 22d of May, 1312, given in the coun¬ 
 cil of Vienna, pronounced the exim&ion of the order of 
 templars, and united their eftatesto the order of St. John 
 of Jerufalem. 
 
 TEMPLE, Teinplum, a publick building ere£led in 
 honour of fome deity, either true or falfe, and wherein 
 the people meet to pay religious worlhip to the fame. 
 
 Temples, among us, denote two inns of court, thus 
 called, becaufe formerly the dwelling-houlc of the knights 
 templars. 
 
 Temples, Tempera , in anatomy, a double part of 
 the head, reaching from the forehead and eyes to the 
 two ears. 
 
 TEMPORALIS, in anatomy, a mulcle which arifes 
 from a lemi-circular flefhy beginning, from apart of the 
 os frontis, the lower part of the parietale, and upper 
 part of the temperale -, from whence going under the 
 zygoma, and gathering together as in a centre, it is in- 
 ferted in a fhort and ftrong tendon into the procefius co¬ 
 rona; of the lower jaw which it pulls upwards. 
 
 TEMPORALLTIES, or Temporalties, the 
 temporal revenues of an ecclefiaftick; particularly fuch 
 lands, tenements, or lay fees, tythes, Ac. as have been 
 annexed to bifhops fees, by our kings, or other perfons 
 of high rank in the kingdom. 
 
 TEMPORIS Os, in anatomy, a bone on each fide 
 the head, thus denominated from its fituation in the 
 temples. The figure of the os temporis is nearly circu¬ 
 lar ; the fore and upper parts are very thin, confifting 
 only of one table ; the lower and higher parts are thick, 
 hard, and uneven. 
 
 TENABLE, in the military art, fomething that may 
 be defended, kept, and held againft affailants. 
 
 Tenable is little uled, but with a negative; when a 
 place is open on all fidcs, and its defences all beaten 
 down, it is no longer tenable. When the enemy has 
 gained fuch an eminence, this poft is not tenable. 
 
 TENA 1 LLE, in fortification, a kind of outwork, 
 confifting of two parallel fides with a front wherein is a 
 re-entering angle. In ftridlneis that angle and the faces 
 which compofe it, are the tenable. 
 
 TEN ANT, or Temlnt, in law, one that holds or 
 pofiefles lands or tenements of fome lord or landlord, bv 
 any kind of right, either in fee for hfe, years, or at will. 
 
 TENDLR, in a legal lenfe, ft;. i.ifies as much as to offer 
 or endeavour the perfo.mance 01 any thing, in ordei to 
 faveihe penalty orforfti .ure incurred by non performance. 
 
 Tenders, in the fea language, are velLls employ ed j 
 
 TER 
 
 to raife feamen for the navy, commanded by a lieutenant 
 of one of his majefty’s lhips; they likewile attend large 
 Blips, and carry {lores, Ac. 
 
 TENDON, Ttndo , in anatomy, that hard, white, 
 extreme part of a mulcle, whereby it is fattened to the 
 bone. See Mu sci.e. 
 
 TENEMENT, Tenacy, in law, a houfe or lands de¬ 
 pending on a manor or lordfhip; or a fee or farm, held 
 of a fuperior lord, and which he may recal when the 
 term or condition is expired. 
 
 Frank Tenement, is any lands, houfe, office, or the 
 like, wherein a man has eftate for life, or in fee. 
 
 Tenement, is where a man holds lands, Ac. 
 at the will of the lord. 
 
 TENEMENTIS Legatis, n law, a writ which 
 lies in London, and other places where the cuftom is to 
 devile tenements by laft will, as well as perfonal goods 
 and chattels, for the hearing any caule relating thereto. 
 
 TENESMUS, in medicine, isatoo frequent, and al- 
 moft continual, though ineffe&ual defire of going to ftool, 
 fince either nothing at all, or only a fmall quantity of 
 mucous, vifcid, bloody, or purulent matter is difeharged. 
 
 This dilorder may be produced by a dylentery, except 
 when it is accompanied with an ulcer of the inteftinum 
 re£lum. A teneiinus is generally lefs dangerous than a 
 dyfentery. In this diforder great relief is afforded by a fo¬ 
 mentation of warm milk, in which elder Bowers have been 
 boiled ; as alfo by a ciyfter of mutton broth, or an emol¬ 
 lient clyfter, in which earth-worms have been boiled. 
 
 7 ENET, orTENENT, a particular opinion, dogma, 
 or dodlrine, profefiedly held by fome divine, pbilofo- 
 pher, Ac. 
 
 TENNE.Tenny, or Tawny, in heraldry, a bright 
 colour made of red and yellow mixed, fometimes alfo 
 called brulk. and exprefled in engraving by thwart or 
 diagonal Brokes or hatches, beginning from the finifter 
 chief, like purpure. 
 
 7 ENON, in building, Ac. the fquare end of apiece 
 of wood or metal diminifhed by one third of its thicknefs, 
 to be received into a hole in another piece called the 
 mortoife, for the joining or fattening the two together. 
 
 7 ’ENOR, or Tenour, the purport or contents of a 
 writing or inftrument inlaw. 
 
 Tenor, / more, in mufick, the firft mean or middle 
 part; or that which is the ordinary pitch or tenour of the 
 voice, when not either raifed to the treble, or lowered to 
 the bais. 
 
 TENSE, Time, in grammar, an inflexion of verbs, 
 whereby they are made to fignify or diftinguilh the cir- 
 cumftance of time of the thing they affirm or attri¬ 
 bute. 
 
 7 here are but three fimple tenfes ; the prefent, as I 
 love, amo ; the preter, preterit, or paft, as I have loved, 
 amavi ; and the future, as I will love, amabo. 
 
 TENSION, Tenjio , the ftate of a thing bent, or the 
 effort made to bend it. 
 
 Animals only fuftain and move themfelves by the ten- 
 fion of their mufcles and nerves. A chord or firing gives 
 an acuter or deeper found, as it is in a greater or lefs 
 degree of tenfion. 
 
 7 ENT, a pavillion or portable lodge. 
 
 Tent, Turunda, in chirurgery, is a roll of lint made 
 in a particular form, put into wounds whofc fuppuration 
 is not perfect, or where there is a quantity of matter con¬ 
 tained in the tumour, more than what comes out at the 
 firft dreffing, Ac. 
 
 TENTATIVE, fomething ufed adjeftively ; thus 
 we fav, a tentative method, meaning a kind of unartful 
 or indireft method which only proceeds by trying. 
 
 Tentative is alfo ufed lubftantively, for an eBay, 
 or effort, whereby we try our ftrength, or found an affair, 
 Ac. to fee whether or no it will fucceed. 
 
 TENTER, Trier, or Prover, a machine ufed 
 in the cloth manufadlory, to ftretch out the pieces of 
 cloth, fluff, Ac. or only to make them even and fet 
 them fquare. 
 
 TENURE, Tenura, in law, the manner or condition 
 wherein a tenant holds lands or tenements of his lord ; 
 or the fervices performed to the lord, in confideration of 
 the u ( c and occupancy of his lands. 
 
 7 EREBINTHINA, in medicine, natural hiftory, 
 Ac. See Turpentine. 
 
 7 ERLS, in anatomy, a name given to two mufcles 
 2 of 
 
TER T E S 
 
 of the arms, called alfo rotundi; diftinguifhed by major 
 and minor. 
 
 Teres, or Rotundus Major, arifesfrom the lower angle 
 of the balls of the fcapula, and afeending obliquely upwards 
 in a round fmooth body, under the head of the longus, is 
 inferted with a Ihort flat tendon below the os humeri. 
 
 TERGIFCETOUS Plants, fuch as bear theirfeeds 
 on the backfides of their leaves. 
 
 TERM, Terminus, the extreme of any thing, or that 
 which bounds and limits its extent. 
 
 Term, in geometry, is fometimes uled for a point, 
 fometimes for a line, &c. A line is the term of a luper- 
 ficies, and a fuperficies of a folid. 
 
 Term, in law, fignifies a boundary or limitation of 
 time or eftate. 
 
 TERMS, Termes, Termini, in architecture, de¬ 
 notes a kind of ilatues or columns adorned at top with the 
 figure of a man’s, woman’s, or fatyr’s head as a capital; 
 and the lower part ending in a kind of Iheatli or fcab- 
 bard. 
 
 Ahliiary Terms, Termini Milliories , among the an¬ 
 cient Greeks, were the heads of certain divinities, placed 
 on iquare land-marks of Hone, or on a kind oflheath to 
 mark the feveral ftadia, &c. in the roads. Thefe are what 
 Plautus calls lares viales. 
 
 Terms, are alfo ufed for the feveral times or feafons 
 of the year, wherein the tribunals, or courfeof courts of 
 judicature, are open to all who think fit to complain of 
 wrong, or to feek their own by due courfe of law, or 
 action. In contradiftinftion to thofe, the reft of the year 
 is called vacation. Of thefe terms there are four in every 
 year, during which time matters of juftice are difpatched. 
 
 Term, in grammar, denotes fome word or expreflion 
 in a language. 
 
 Term, in the arts, or term of art, is a word which, 
 bcfidcs the literal and popular meaning which it has, or 
 may have in common language, bears a further and pe¬ 
 culiar meaning in fome art or fcience. 
 
 Term, in logick. A proportion is faid to conftft of 
 Iwo terms, i. e. two principal and cflential words, the 
 fubjeft and the attribute. 
 
 Terms of an Equation, in algebra, are the feveral 
 names or members of which it is compofed, and fuch as 
 have the fame unknown letter, but in different powers or 
 degrees: for, if the fame unknown letter be found in 
 feveral members in the fame degree or power, they fhall 
 paf's but for one term. 
 
 As, in this equation, x x + a x — b b\ the three terms 
 are x x, ax, and b b. 
 
 Terms of Proportion , in mathematicks, are fuch num¬ 
 bers, letters, or quantities, as are compared one with 
 another. 
 
 Thus, if 2 - 4 • ■ 8 • 16 £ c j or 2 4, 8, 16, 
 
 a, b : : c : d. 
 
 are called the terms ; a being the firft term, b the fecond 
 term, &c. 
 
 Terms, or courfes, in medicine, the menfes or wo¬ 
 men’s monthly purgations. 
 
 TERM 1 NALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by 
 the Romans in honour of the god Terminus. Varrois 
 of opinion this fcaft took its name from its being at the 
 term or end of the year ; but Feftus is of a different 
 fentiment, and derives it from the name of the deity in 
 whole honour it is held. 
 
 TERMINATION, Terminatio, in grammar, the 
 ending of a word, or laft fyllable thereof. It is the dif¬ 
 ferent terminations of one and the fame word on dif¬ 
 ferent occafions, that conftitute the different cafes, num¬ 
 bers, tenfes and moods, &c. 
 
 TERRA firma , in geography, is fometimes ufed for a 
 continent, in contradiftinftion to iflands. Thus Alia, 
 the Indies, and South America, are ufually diftinguilhed 
 into terra firma’s and iflands. 
 
 Terra a Terra. Gallies, and other veftels, arc faid 
 to go terra a terra, when they never go far from the coalls. 
 
 The phrafe is alfo applied, in the menage, to horfes 
 which neither make curvets nor balotades, but run 
 fmoothly on the ground, on a preffed gallop, only making 
 little leaps or rifings with the fore feet. 
 
 Terr je - Filins, fon of the earth, a ftudent in the uni- 
 verfity of Oxford, formerly appointed in publick afts, to t 
 make jefting and fatyrical l'peechcs againft the members | 
 thereof, to tax them with any growing corruptions, &c. [ 
 
 Vol. II. No. 72. I 
 
 TERRACE, or Terras, a walk or bank of earth 
 raifed in a garden or court to a due elevation for a prol- 
 peft. 
 
 Terrace, is alfo applied to the roofs of houfes that 
 are Hat, and whereon one may walk; as alfo to balconies 
 that project. 
 
 TERRAQUEOUS, an epithet given to our globe of 
 earth, confidered as confifting of land and water, which, 
 together, conftitute one mals. 
 
 TERRE-in fortification, the top platform, or 
 horizontal furface of the rampart, whereon the cannon 
 are placed, and the defenders perform their office. 
 
 TERRELLA, little earth, is a magnet turned of a 
 juft fphcrical figure, and placed fo that its poles, equator, 
 &c. do exaftly correfpond to thofe of die world. It was 
 thus firft called by Gilbert, as being a juft reprefentation 
 of the great magnetick globe we inhabit. Such a terrella, 
 if nicely poifed, and placed in a meridian like a globe, 
 it was fuppofed, would be turned round like the earth 
 in 24 hours, by the magnetick particles pervading it; 
 but experience has fhewn this to be a miftake. 
 TERRESTRIAL Globe. See Globe. 
 
 TERRITORY, diftrift, the extent or compafs of 
 land within the bounds, or belonging to the jurifdiftion 
 of any ftate, city, or other divifion. 
 
 TERSION, Terf to, the aft of wiping or rubbing 
 thing. 
 
 T ERTIAN, Trtiana , a fever or ague intermitting 
 every other day ; fo that there are two fits in three days. 
 
 T he method for curing tertians, as well as other agues, 
 is by the cortex, either given in fubftance or decoftion : 
 this laft is beft in weak conftitutions, and where the fits 
 are not fo regular; but the fubftance is more to be de¬ 
 pended on, as to certainty, in other cafes. 
 
 TERTIATE, in gunnery. To tertiate a great gun, 
 is to examine the thicknefs of the metal a the muzzle, 
 whereby to judge of the ftrength of the piece, and whether 
 it be fufficicntly fortified or not. This is ufually done 
 with a pair of calliper compafles, and it the piece be 
 home bored, the diameter lets by the height, divided by 
 two, is the thicknefs at any place. 
 
 TESSELATED Pavement, Pavimcntum teffela- 
 furn, a rich pavement of mofaick work, made of curious 
 fmall fquare marbles, bricks or tiles, called teflclae, from 
 the form of dies. 
 
 TEST, or Test Oath, a form of oath, whereby the 
 doftrine of tranfubftantiation, the facrifice of the mafs, 
 the invocation of faints, &c. are abjured. 
 
 The teft oath was firft introduced by authority of par¬ 
 liament in 1672, and they who refufed to take it, were 
 excluded the privilege of holding any publick offices. 
 
 Test, amongchymifts and refiners, the fame with 
 cuppel or coppel, an inftrument ufed in the purifying 
 gold and filver. 
 
 T’ESTACEOUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet given 
 to a fpecies of fiffi which arc covered with a ftrong thick 
 fhell; as tortoifes, oifters, pearl-fifh, &c. In ftriftnefs, 
 however, teftaceous is only applied to filh whole ftrong 
 and thick fhells are entire and of a piece : thofe which 
 are foft, thin, and confift of feveral pieces jointed, as the 
 lobfter, Nc. being called cruftaceous. 
 
 But, in medicine, all preparations of fhells, and fub- 
 ftances of the like kind are called teftaceous powders. 
 Such are powder of crabs-claws and eyes, hartfhorn, 
 pearl, &c. Dr. Quincy, and others, fuppofe the virtue 
 of all teftaceous medicines to be alike, that they leldom 
 or never enter into the lafteals, but that the chief of 
 their aftion is in the firft paflages ; in which cafe they 
 arc of great ufe in abforbing acidities. 
 
 Hence they become of ufe in fevers, and, efpecially, 
 in reftifying the many diftempers in children, which 
 generally owe their origin to fuch acidities. 
 
 TESTAMENT, Tefamentum, in law, a folemn and 
 authentick aft, whereby a perfon declares his will, as to 
 the difpol'al of his eftate, effefts, burial, &c. 
 
 Testament, in a religious fenfe, is the covenant 
 which God was gracioufly pleafed to make known after 
 the fall of Adam, which contains the method in which 
 finners may be faved, viz. by the blood of Chrift only. 
 This covenant or teftament is called Old and New, not 
 becaufe of any difference in fubftance, but in regard of 
 the manner of their difpenfation ; for they both teach, 
 that it is impoffible to obtain juftification by works, both 
 5 E being 
 
TET 
 
 being delivered with blood, and that falvation is to be 
 bad only in the blood of Chrift *. 
 
 TESTATOR, or Testatrix, the perfon who 
 makes his or her will and teftament. 
 
 TESTATUM, in law, a writ in perfonal aftions, 
 where, if the defendant cannot be arrefted on a capias in 
 the country where the aftion is laid, but is returned non 
 efl inventus by the lherifF, this writ {hall be fent into 
 any other county where fuch perfon is thought to be, or 
 have wherewithal to latisfy the demand. 
 
 It is called teftatum, becaule the lherifF has, before, 
 teftified that the defendant was not to be found in his 
 bailiwick. 
 
 1 ESTES, in anatomy, two white, foft, oval bodies, 
 ferving for generation , ufually called, diminutively, tef- 
 ticles. 
 
 Testes of the Brain , are two little, round, hard 
 bodies, between the third and fourth ventricle near the 
 pineal gland. 
 
 J ESTICLE, Te/lis, in anatomy, a double part in male 
 animals, ferving for generation. The tefticles are two in 
 number, of an oval or egg-like figure, and are contained 
 in a peculiar bag, called the lcrotum. See Scrotum. 
 
 The ufe of the tefticles is to produce the iemen maf- 
 culinum, for the purpofe of generation. Some alfo give 
 the name female tefticles, teftes muliebres, to the ova- 
 ries of women. Sec Ovaries. 
 
 "I EST IMONlAL, a kind of certificate, figned either 
 by the mailer and fellow of a college where a perfon laft 
 refided, or by three, at leaft, reverend divines, who knew 
 him well for three years laft paft, giving an account of 
 the virtuous uniformity and the learning of the perfon. 
 
 T- e st i mon i al is alfo a certificate under the hand of 
 a juftice of peace, teftifying the place and time when a 
 Foldicr or mariner landed, and the place of his dwelling, 
 &cc. whither he is to pafs. 
 
 FESTUDO. the tortoife, in zoology, a genus of 
 amphibious animals, with four legs and a tail, and the 
 body covered with a firm Ihell. This genus comprehends 
 all thofe animals known in Englilh by the names of tor- 
 toifes and turtles; of which there are a great many fpe- 
 cies, lome with four toes on each foot ; others with five 
 toes on the fore feet, and four on the hinder ones ; and 
 others dillinguilhed by other peculiarities, particularly 
 the compartments of their Ihells, fome being divided into 
 irregular fpaccs, and others beautifully teflelated. 
 
 Testudo, Tortoife , in the military art of the ancients, 
 was a kind of cover or fereen which the foldiers, e. gr. 
 a whole company, made themfelves of their bucklers, 
 by holding them up over their heads, and {landing clofe 
 to each other. This expedient ferved to {heller them from 
 darts, Hones, &c. thrown upon them, efpecially thole 
 thrown from above, when they went to the aftault. 
 
 Testudo, was alfo a kind of large wooden tower 
 which moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with 
 bullocks hides flead, ferving to Ihelter the foldiers when 
 they approached the walls to mine them, or to batter them 
 with rams. It was called teftudo, from the ftrength of 
 its roof, which covered the workmen as the Ihell does 
 the tortoife. 
 
 Testudo veliformisquadrabilis, anhemifphericalvault, 
 or ceiling of a church, wherein four windows are fo con¬ 
 trived,- as that the reft of the vault is quadrable, or may 
 be lquared. The determining thofe windows was a pro¬ 
 blem propofed to the great mathematicians in Europe, 
 particularly the cultivators of the new calculus difFeren- 
 tialis, in the A£la Eruditorum Lipfire, by Sig. Viviani, 
 under the fidlitious name of A. D. pio lifci pulillo geome-' 
 tra, which was the anagram of poftremo Galilcei difcipulo. 
 
 It was folved by feveral perlons, particularly Mr. Leib¬ 
 nitz, the very day he faw it: and he gave it in the Leipfick 
 a£ls in a great variety of manners; as alfo did M. Ber- 
 nouilli, the matquis de THofpital, Dr. Wallis, and Dr. 
 Gregory. 
 
 TETANUS, in medicine, is a convulfive motion 
 that makes any part rigid and inflexible. 
 
 T E l RACHORD, in the ancient mufick, a concord 
 confifting of four degrees or intervals, and four terms or 
 
 TET 
 
 founds; called alfo by the ancients diafederon, and by 
 us a fourth. This interval had the name tetrachord given 
 it, with refpeft to the lyre and its chords or firings. 
 
 d El RADECARHOMBIS, in natural hiflory the 
 name of a genus of foffils, of the clafs of the felenita:, ex- 
 prcilinga rhomboidal body, confiding of fourteen planes 
 1 he charaflers of this genus are, that the bodies of 
 it are exaftly of the fame form with the common felcni- 
 tx ; but that in thefe each of the end-planes is divided 
 into two, and there are, by this means, eight of thefe 
 planes inftead of four. Of this genus there are only 
 three known fpecies. J 
 
 1 E I RADIAPASON, a mufical chord, otherwile 
 called a quadruple diapason, or eighth. 
 
 J E ERADIT^E, a name given to feveral different 
 lecls of hereticks; fuch as the fabbathians, the mani- 
 chees, and the followers of Petrus Fullenlis, and others. 
 
 I ETRADYNAMIA, in botany, the name of the 
 fifteenth clafs of plants in Linnaeus’s fyftem : this clafs 
 confifts of fuch plants as bear hermaphrodite flowers, and 
 furmfhed with fix ftamina, two of which are fhorter 
 than the reft, by which circumftance they are diftinguifhed 
 from thofe of the hexadria clafs. 
 
 X his clafs of plants is truly natural, and has been re¬ 
 ceived as fuch, under whatever name, by all the fyftema- 
 tick writers on botany, and includes the cruciformes o£ 
 Tournefort, and filoquofte and filiculofae plants of Ray. 
 
 T he plants in general belonging to this clafs are held 
 to be antilcorbutick and diuretick; the tafte in moll is 
 watery, mixed with afharpnefs, but they commonly loofe 
 their virtues when dried. 
 
 Eo this genus of plants belong the feurvy-grafs, mith- 
 ridate-muftard, cabbage, turnep, radilh, ftock-gilliflower; 
 witli feveral other genera. 
 
 T FM RAEDRON, or Tetrahedron, in geome¬ 
 try, one of the five regular or Platonick bodies or folids, 
 comprehended under four equilateral and equal triangles. 
 
 It is demonftrated by mathematicians, that the lquare 
 of the lide of a tetraedon is to the lquare of the diameter 
 of a fphere, wherein it maybe inferibed, in a fubfequial- 
 teral ratio : whence it follows, that the fide of a tetra- 
 edron is to the diameter of a lphere it is inferibed in, as 
 
 2 to the v '; conlequently rhey are incommenfurable. 
 
 1 ET RAGON, in geometry, a general name for any 
 four-fided figure, as a iquare, parallelogram, rhombus, 
 or trapezium. 
 
 TETRAGONIA, in botany, a genus of plants, which 
 with all its fpecies are natives of the cape of Good-Hope. 
 
 1 ET RAGRAMMATION, a denomination given 
 by the Greeks to the Hebrew name of God, Jehovah, 
 becaufe confifting of four letters. 
 
 TETRAGYNIA, in botany, the name of an order 
 or fubaivifion in the Linnseau fyftem, and is applied to 
 thofe plants whofe flowers have in each four pillils or fe¬ 
 male parts of generation. See Botany. 
 
 TE I RAME I ER, in ancient poetry, an Iambick 
 verfe, confifting of four meafures, or eight feet. This 
 kind of verfe is only found in the comick poets, as Te¬ 
 rence, &c. 
 
 TET RANDRIA, in botany, the name of the fourth 
 clafs in the Linncean fyftem; it comprehends all thofe 
 plants whofe flowers are hermaphrodite and furnifhed with 
 four equal ftamina, or male parts, in each. To this clafs 
 belong the teafel, fcabious, madder, plantain, holly, with 
 feveral other genera. 
 
 TETRAPETALOUS Flowers , among botanifts, 
 are thofe whofe corolla confifts of four petals; fuch corn- 
 pole the clafs tetradynamia. See Tetradynamia. 
 
 T ETR APHARMACUM, fignifies any remedy con¬ 
 fifting of four ingredients. 
 
 TETRAPLA, in church hiftory, a bible difpofed by 
 Origin, under four columns, in each whereof was a dif¬ 
 ferent Greek verfion, viz. that of Aquila, that of Sym- 
 machus, that of the Seventy, and that of Theodotion. 
 See Bible. 
 
 TETRAPTERA, in the hiftory of infe£ts a name 
 given to that order of infefls, which have four wings. 
 
 TETRAPTOTE, Tetraptoton, in grammar, a name 
 
 * The Bible, or Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Teftament, with archbilhop Paikcr's preface, and Beza's notes of the New 
 Teftament, which he made a prefent of to billiop Grindal, A. D. 1566 j and of which that celebrated divine, the late Mr. Toplady 
 thus wrote ; “How much loever the bilhop commended Bezus Annotations, hardly any ftrain of commendation do exceed the meiits 
 “ and value ol thofe admirable notes ;”—Hijtcrick Prooj, vol. 2. p. 527. This Bible is now publishing in weekly numbers, Price 
 fix-pence, and to be completed in fixty numbers, folio,'by Alexander Hogs;, No. 16, Peter-nofcr-rsvj, 
 
 giv#n 
 
T H A 
 
 given to fuch defective nbulls as have only four cafes : 
 iuch as v.cis, pecutlis, Jor, its. he. as being deprived of the 
 iiominative arid vocative lingular* 
 
 TH /1 RAPYRAMIDIA, in natural hiftory, the name 
 of a genus of fpais, influenced in their fhape by an ad 
 mixture of particles of tin. and found in form of broad- 
 bottomed pyramids of four fides. See Spar. 
 
 TETRARCH, Tetrarcha , a prince who holds and 
 governs a fourth part of a kingdom. Such originally 
 was the import of the title tetrarch : but it was afterwards 
 applied to any petty king or fovereign, and became fyno- 
 nymous with ethnarch, 
 
 TETRASTiTCH, a ftanza, epigram, or poem, 
 conlifting of four verfes. 
 
 TETRASTYLE, in the ancient architedlure, a 
 building, and particularly a temple with four columns in 
 its from. 
 
 '1 LTRASYLL ABICAL, a word confifting of four 
 fyllables. 
 
 TETRATONON, in mufick, a name whereby the 
 fuperfluous fifth is fometimes called, as containing four 
 tones. 
 
 TEUCRIUM, germander, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole fiower is monopetalous and ringent, the 
 tube of which is cylindrickand fhort, the upper-lip isere£t 
 and deeply divided into two acute fegmerits, and the 
 lower-lip is fpreading and trifid, the lateral fegments are 
 like thofe of the upper one, but the middle one is large 
 and roundifh ; there is no pericarpium, but the feeds, 
 which are roundifh, and four in number, are lodged in 
 the bottom of the cup. 
 
 To this genus Linnaeus has added the polium cha- 
 maedrys and chamrepitys ofTournefort, with the fcordi- 
 um and marum lyriadum of other authors. 
 
 The lefier creeping germander is accounted fplenetick, 
 hepatick. and diuretick, and good in intentions where de¬ 
 terging is wanted ; it is alio accounted an alexipharmick, 
 and has been reckoned as a fpecifick againft the gout. 
 
 TEUTON 1 CK, fomething belonging to the teutons, 
 an ancient people of Germany, inhabiting chiefly along 
 the coafts of the German ocean; thus the teutonick lan¬ 
 guage is the ancient language of Germany, which is rank¬ 
 ed among the mother tongues. The teutonick is now 
 called the German or Dutch, and is diftinguilhed into up¬ 
 per and lower. The upper has two noteable dialedts, viz. 
 i. The Scandian, Danifh, or perhaps Gothick; to which 
 belong the languages fpoken in Denmark, Norway, Swe¬ 
 den, and Iceland. 2. The Saxon, to which belong the 
 fcveral languages of the Englilh, Scots, Frifian, and thofe 
 on t he north of the Elbe. To the lower belong the Low 
 Dutch, Flemifh, he. fpoken through theNetherlands,&c. 
 
 Teutonick Order, a military order of knights, 
 eftabliflied towards the clofe ofthe 12th century, and thus 
 called, as chiefly conlifling of Germans or teutons. 
 
 TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguifhed to glofs 
 or commentary, and fignifying an original difcourle ex- 
 clufive ot any note or interpretation. This word is par¬ 
 ticularly ufed for a certain paffage of feripture, chofen by 
 a preacher to be the fubjeft of his fermon. 
 
 1 EXTU ARIES, 1 Textuarii , a name given to the fe£l 
 of the caraites among the Jew's. See Car aites. 
 
 TEXTURE, Textura, properly denotes the arrange¬ 
 ment and cohefion of feveral flender bodies or threads in¬ 
 terwoven or entangled among each other, as in the webs 
 of fpiders, or in cloth fluffs, &c. 
 
 Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or con- 
 flituent particles of a concrete body, whether by weaving, 
 hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting, intruding, 
 comprefling, attracting, or any other way. In which fenfe 
 we fay a clofe compadl texture, a lax porous texture, a re¬ 
 gular or irregular texture, &c. A great deal depends on 
 the texture ofthe component parts of a body ; hence mofi 
 of its particular properties, its fpecifick gravity, colour, &c. 
 
 THALAMI Nervorum Opticorum , in anatomy, tw'o 
 oblong prominences of the lateral ventricles of the brain, 
 medullary without, but a little cineritious within, being 
 thus called becaufe the optick nerves rife out of them. 
 
 THANE, or Thain, Thanus, a name of an ancient 
 dignity among the Englifh and Scots, or Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Thane-Lands, were lands granted by charters of 
 our ancient kings, to their thanes, with all immunities, 
 except the three-fold neceflity of expedition, repair of 
 caflles, and mending bridges. j 
 
 1 * 
 
 THE 
 
 THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former 
 fluid flate, by the warmth of the air, &c. 
 
 Boerhaave obferves, that ifafudden thaw takes place 
 after a long fharp froft, which has bound up the rivers* 
 and penetrated the earth’s lurface to a confiderablc depth, 
 it is, ufually, quickly lucceedcd by a multitude of clouds 
 and uncommon heats, and then by thunder and lighten¬ 
 ing. The reafon is, that the fat vapours and exhalations 
 railed by the fubterraneous heat, have long remained im- 
 prifoned under that covering of theearth, as appears hence, 
 that if the ice of a ditch be broke in the midule of a fe- 
 vere froft, it prefently emits warm vapours, and this the 
 more plentifully, as well as the hotter, by how much the 
 (roll is harder, and the ice is thicker. As foon, there¬ 
 fore, as the exterior frozen turf of earth is foftciied by 
 warmth, the pent-up vapours immediately efcape through 
 all the paflages they can find, and mounting on high, 
 form clouds, which being driven about, and fometimes 
 illumined by the fun, produce luch efFedls. Hence thefe 
 violent thunders in Mulcovy, Sweden, and Denmark, 
 after a thaw. 
 
 THEA, the tea-tree in botany. See Tea; 
 
 THEATINES, a religious order in the Rornifh 
 church, fo called from their principal founder John Peter 
 Carafta, then bifhop of Tlieatc, or Chiete, in the king¬ 
 dom of Naples, and afterwards pope, under the name of 
 Paul IV. The names ofthe other founders were Gaetan, 
 Boniface, and Conliglieri. Thefe four pious men defiring 
 to reform the ecclefiaftical ftate, laid the foundation of an 
 order of regular clerks at Rome, in the year 1524. Pope 
 Clement VII. approved the inftitute, and permitted the 
 brethren to make the three religious vows to eledl a fu- 
 perior every three years, and to draw up ftatutes for the 
 regulation ofthe order. They firft endeavoured, by their 
 example, to revive, among the clergy, the poverty of the 
 apoftles and firft difeipies of our Saviour, and were the 
 firft who afiumed the titles of regular clerks. 
 
 1 HEATRE, in antiquity, a publick edifice for the 
 exhibiting of fcenick fpettacles, or fhews, to the people; 
 comprehending not only the eminence on which the 
 aflors appeared, and the aflion palled, but alfo the whole 
 area of the place, common to the aflors and fpedlators. 
 See Drama, he. 
 
 Theatre is alfo ufed, in architecture, chiefly among 
 the Italians, for an ailemblagcof feveral buildings', which, 
 by a happy difpofition and elevation, reprefents an agree¬ 
 able feene to the eye. 
 
 Anatomical Theatre, in a fchool of medicine and 
 furgery, is a hall, with feveral rows of feats, difpoled in the 
 circumference of an amphitheatre ; having a table bearing 
 on a pivot, in the middle, for the dille&ion of bodies. 
 
 THEBAID, Tfo&hais, a celebrated heroick poem of 
 Statius, the fubjeCl whereof is the civil war of Thebes ; 
 between the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices; or 
 Thebes taken by Tliefius. 
 
 THEFT, Fur turn, in law, an unlawful felonious tak¬ 
 ing away another man’s moveable and perfonal goods, 
 againft the owner’s will, with intent to fteal them. 
 
 It is divided into theft or larceny, properly fo called, 
 and petit theft, or petit larceny ; the former whereof is 
 of goods above the value of i2d. and is deemed felony; 
 the other, which is of goods under that value, is not 
 felony. See Felony and Larceny. 
 
 THEME, in matters ofeducation, denotes thefubjeCt 
 of an exercife, for young ftudents to write orcompofe on. 
 
 THENAR, in anatomy, the abduClor-mufcle ofthe 
 thumb; it has its origin in the tranfverfe ligament that 
 joins the bones of the carpus, and its termination in 
 the firft and fecond phalanx ; the two fefamoide bones 
 of the thumb are ufually found lodged in the tendon 
 of this mufcle. 
 
 T hen ar is alfo the abduClor-mufcIe of the great-toe • 
 it has its origin from the internal-fide of the calcaneum’ 
 and the os naviculare; and its termination at the internal 
 fide of the great-toe, beiide the internal fefamoide bone. 
 
 THEOBROMA, in botany, a genus of plants, that 
 includes the cacao of Tournefort, and the guazuma of 
 Plunder ; the former of which has an oblong quinquan- 
 gular fruit, lengthened at each extremity, containing the 
 feeds of which the chocolate is made. See CACAO^and 
 Chocolate. 
 
 THEODOLITE, a mathematical inftrument much 
 ufed in furveying, for the taking of angles, diftances, &c. 
 
 it 
 
T H E 
 
 It is made varioufly, feveral perfons having their feveral 
 ways of contriving it. The common one confifts of a 
 brafs circle about a foot diameter, cut in the form repre¬ 
 sented i n (plate LXXVI./g. 15.) having its limWdivided 
 into 360°, and each degree fubdivided either diagonally, 
 or otliervvife, into minutes. 
 
 Underneath, at c c, are fixed two little pillars b l 
 (fig. 16.) which fupport an axis, whereupon is fixed a 
 telefcope confiding of two glaffes, in a fquare .brals tube, 
 for the viewing of remote objedb. 
 
 On the centre of the circle moves the index C, which 
 is a circular plate, having acompafs in the middle whole 
 meridian line anf'wers to the fiducial line a a : at b b, 
 are fixed two pillars to fupport an axis which bears 
 a telefcope like the former, whofe line of collimation 
 anfwers to the fiducial line a a. At each end of either 
 telefcope, is fixed a plain light for the viewing nearer 
 objedfs. 
 
 T he ends of the index a a are cut circularly, to fit the 
 divifion of the limb B ; and when that limb is diagonally 
 divided, the fiducial line at one end of the index fhews 
 the degrees and minutes upon the limb. The whole in¬ 
 ftrument is mounted with a ball and fockct, upon a 
 three-legged ftaff. Molt theodolites have no telefcopes, 
 but only four plain fights, two of them fattened on the 
 limb, and two .on the ends of the index. 
 
 I HEOGON Y, that branch of the heathen theology, 
 which taught the genealogy of their gods. 
 
 THEOLOGY, or Divinity, a fcience which in-’ 
 ftrudt > us in the knowledge of God or divine things ; 
 or which has God, and the things he has revealed, for 
 its objeft. See the article God. 
 
 Hence theology may be diftinguifhed into natural, 
 which comprehends the knowledge we have of God from 
 his works, by the light of reafon alone ; and fuper-natu- 
 ral, whielp contains what we are taught concerning God 
 in revelation. 
 
 Theology is again dittinguifhed into pofitive, moral, 
 and fcholailick. Pofitive theology is the knowledge of 
 the holy feriptures, and of the fignification thereof, con¬ 
 formably to the opinions of the fathers and councils, with¬ 
 out the attiftance of any argumentation. Some will have 
 it that this ought to be called expofitive, rather than po¬ 
 fitive. Moral theology is that which teaches us the divine 
 laws relating to our manners and actions. Scholattick, 
 or fchool theology, is that which proceeds by reafoning; 
 or that derives the knowledge of feveral divine things 
 from certain eftablilhed principles of faith. 
 
 THEORBA, Thiorba, or Tiorba, a mufical 
 inftrument made in form of a large lute, except that it 
 has two necks or juga, the fecond and longer whereof 
 fuftains the four laft row's of chords which are to give 
 the deepeft founds. 
 
 THEOREM, a fpeculative propofition, demonftrat- 
 ing the properties of any lubjedt. Theorems are either 
 univerfal, which extend to any quantity, without re- 
 ftridfion univerlally ; as this, that the redangle of the 
 fum, and difference of any two quantities, is equal to 
 the difference of their fquares : or particular, which ex¬ 
 tend only to a particular quantity ; as this, in.an equila¬ 
 teral right-lined triangle, each of the angles is 6o°. 
 
 THEORETICK, or Theoretical, fomething 
 relating to theory, or that terminates in fpeculation. 
 
 THEORY, in general, denotes any dodtrine which 
 terminates in fpeculation alone, without confidering the 
 pradical ufes and application thereof. 
 
 THERAPEUTiE, a term .applied to thofe who are 
 wholly employed in the fervice of religion. This gene¬ 
 ral term has been applied to particular feds of men, con¬ 
 cerning whom there have been great difputes among the 
 learned. 
 
 THERAPEUTICE, Therapeuticks, that part 
 of medicine which acquaints us with the rules that are to 
 be obferved. and the medicines to be employed in the 
 cure of difeafes. 
 
 THERAPHIM, or Ter A phim, certain images, or 
 fuperftitious figures mentioned in feripture. 
 
 Some Jewifh writers tell u ;. the theraphim were effi¬ 
 gies of human heads, placed in niches, and confulted as 
 oracles. Others fay, they weie talifmans, or figures of 
 metal, caft and engraved under certain afpeds of the 
 planets ; to which they aferibed. extraordinary effeds. 
 All the eaftern people arc much addided to this luper- 
 
 THE 
 
 ftition ; and the Perfians ttill call them telefin, a name 
 nearly approaching to theraphim. 
 
 1 lie learned Spencer makes the word theraphim to be 
 the fame as feraphim, by change of the S intoT : whence 
 it follows, that thefe images were reprefentations of thefe 
 angels called feraphim. M. Jurien fuppofes them to have 
 been a fort of dii-penates, or houffiold gods. 
 
 1 HERMOMETER, an inttrument for meafuring 
 the increafe and decreafe of the heat and cold of the air, 
 by means of the elattick and expanfive power of bodies 
 of the fluid fort. 
 
 Many different w ays, methods, and forms of con- 
 ftruding luch an ufeful inftrument, have been thought 
 of, and invented at feveral times for this purpofe; at 
 firtt air, then oil, then fpirits of wine, and laftly, quick¬ 
 silver, have been every way attempted and tortured in 
 this experiment. 
 
 1 he fpring of air, being fooner affeded by heat and 
 cold than that of any other fluid, was firtt thought upon 
 as the beft expedient to anlwer this end ; and lo it really 
 would be, were it not that the weight of preffure of the 
 atmofphere affeds it alio at the fame time ; and by ad- 
 ing fometimes with, fome.times againft it, renders the 
 effed by heat or cold vgry uncertain, and, therefore, the 
 inttrument ufelefs. For example : the air in the bottle 
 will, by its expanfion, when the air grows warmer, raife 
 the water in the tube; and if the air be lighter at this 
 time, it will prefs lefs on the furface of the water, and 
 fo will luffer it to rife ttiil higher. But if the air be 
 heavier, it will ad againft the fpring. and not permit 
 it to raife the water fo high. The fame may be obferved 
 with refped to its contradion by cold; wherefore fuch 
 an inftrument, for common or conltant ufc, will not do 
 at all, though, perhaps, none is better calculated for fome 
 extemporaneous ufes, as meafuring the degree of coldnefs 
 m different cellars, or of warmth in divas rooms upon 
 the fame floor. 
 
 It was upon this account found neceffary to have re- 
 courfe to fome other fluid, which, fccured from the pref- 
 fure of the air in a tube, hermetically fealed, might ex¬ 
 pand and contrad folely by the heat and coldnefs of the 
 air about it. And becaule moft fluids are fubjed to 
 fieezc or thicken in great degrees of cold, it was foon 
 confidered that fpiiits of wine, a little tinged with cochi¬ 
 neal, would beft anlwer the purpofe. and accordingly ther¬ 
 mometers were generally made therewith, and became of 
 common ufe. 
 
 I hough the fpirit of wine thermometers would do 
 very well to fhew the comparative heat of the air, yet 
 this was far ffiort of the virtuofo’s views, who wanted 
 to explore the various and vaftly different degrees of heat 
 in other bodies, as boiling water, boiling oils, melted 
 metals, and even fire itfeft, and degrees of cold too, be¬ 
 yond what the fpirit thermometer can fhew. For fpirit 
 in a moderate degree of heat will burftthe tube ; and in 
 an intenfe degree of cold will freeze, as the French phi- 
 lofophers found, who went to meafure a degree upon the 
 furface of the earth under the north polar circle. It hav¬ 
 ing been found by experiment, that linfeed oil required 
 four times the degree of heat to make it boil as water 
 did, it was quickly fubftituted inftead of fpirits for plri- 
 lofophick ufes. This SirIfaacNewton always ufed, and 
 by it difeovered the comparative degree of heat which 
 makes water boil, which melts wax, which makes fpirit of 
 wine boil, and melts tin and lead; beyond which we do 
 not find the oil thermometer has been applied; for which 
 reafon, as alfo for its fullying the tube, it has been lefs 
 uled of late. 
 
 The mercurial thermometer, which will fuftain any 
 degree of heat or cold, as far as ail inftrument of this 
 kind can be expected to do, was invented by Mr. Faren- 
 heit, of Amfterdam ; and though feveral artificers made 
 them as well as he, yet they ftill go by his name. Dr. 
 Boerhaave uled only this thermometer. As the mercury 
 very freely and uniformly expands itlelf from hard frolt 
 to the heat of fummer, lo one fort of thofe thermome¬ 
 ters are contrived with a fca'c, to include thofe extremes 
 only, and the beginning of the divifions, or o, is fixed 
 to that altitude of the quickfilver, as is obferved when 
 water juft begins to freeze, or fnow to thaw, for which 
 reafon that is called the freezing point in the feale. This 
 thermometer is fmall, ffiort, put in a neat'frame, and 
 carried in the pocket any where. 
 
 But 
 
THE 
 
 T H I 
 
 But the grand thermometer of Farenheit is graduated 
 after a different manner, as deftined to a more critical 
 and extenfiveufe. In this the bulb, or large part at the 
 bottom, is not fpherical, as in common ones, but cylin¬ 
 drical ; that the heat may penetrate and reach the inmoft 
 parts as foon as pofiible, fo that the whole may expand 
 uniformly together. Hence it is, that in the cylindrick 
 bulb the fluid will expand and rife immediately, whereas 
 in the fpherical bulb it is feen firft to fall, and then to 
 rife, by the expanfion of the fluid when heated. 
 
 Sir Ifaac's feems to be the bell fitted of any for a ftand- 
 ard weather thermometer; and even for any degree of heat 
 which the various Hates of the human body exhibit; and 
 alfo for thofe different degrees which vegetation requires 
 in the green-houfc, hot-bed, Ac. In all which cafes it 
 is necelfary there fhould be one common, unerring, and 
 nniverfal meafure, or llandard, which at all times, and at 
 every place, will Ihew the fame degree of heat, by the fame 
 expanfion of the fluid, according to which the lcalefhould 
 be made in every llandard thermometer. In order to this, 
 the tube pvopofed fhould be very nicely weighed, when 
 empty, and then the bulb, and about a tenth part of 
 the length of the tube above it, is to be filled with quick- 
 filver ; then it is to be weighed again, and the excels of 
 this, above the former weight, will give the weight of the 
 quickfilver poured in ; this will give the weight of the 
 100th part. Let a mark be made with a file upon the 
 tube at the furface of the inclofed quickfilver. 
 
 Then weigh out nine or ten parcels of quickfilver, each 
 equal to a iooth part of that firft put into the tube, and 
 having poured the feveral parcels in, one after another, 
 upon the inclofed quickfilver, and marked the tube fuc- 
 celfively at the furface of each parcel, you will have the 
 tube divided into proper intervals, which, if the bore of 
 the tube be every where the fame, will be equal to each 
 other; if not, they will be unequal; and each of thefe 
 intervals is to be divided into ten others, increafing or 
 dccreafing as the intervals do. 
 
 Wheivthis is done, the capacity of the tube is divided 
 into ioooth parts of that of the ball, and the contigu¬ 
 ous part of the tube reaching up to the firft mark. The 
 tube is now to be put into a frame, and by the fide of it 
 Is to be placed a fcalc, divided into ioooth parts, exafUy 
 correfponding to thofe on the tube ; and writing 1000 
 over-againft the firft mark, you write 1010 over-againft 
 the fecond, 1020 againft the third, and fo on. 
 
 The ftandard tliermometer-tube, and its fcale, being 
 thus conftru&ed, is then to he filled with fome proper 
 fluid, as linfeed-oil, where great degrees of heat are not 
 propofed ; and mercury is to be ufed when they are. When 
 the fluid is poured in, it is to be adjufted in fuch a quan¬ 
 tity, that it may Hand juft at the principal point, marked 
 1000, in water juft freezing. And here great precaution 
 is to be ufed ; for many trials muft determine this point, 
 to which the fluid muft always rife by flow degrees, and 
 with an uniform motion. 
 
 When this point is well fccured, all the trouble is over, 
 the ball, being then immerfed in boiling water, fpirits, 
 oils, melted metals, &c. infnow, freezing mixtures, Ac. 
 the expanfions, by all the various degrees of heat and cold, 
 will be fhewn by the number againft the heights to which 
 the fluid riles in the tube, in each cafe, thefe are to be 
 wrote on the fide of the fcale; .and, fince the fame de¬ 
 gree of heat will caufe the fame expanfion of the fame 
 fluid at all times, it is evident, if thermometers were every 
 where conftru&ed in this manner, the obfervations made 
 by them in any part of the world may be compared to¬ 
 gether, which cannot otherwife be done; whence, this 
 part of philofophy would receive its final perfection. 
 
 By one of thofe ftandard thermometers, well made, 
 many more might foon be conftruCted with any expand¬ 
 ing fluid, without the trouble of graduating their tubes 
 by equal quantities of quickfilver. For having filled the 
 balls, and a convenient p^rt of the tube, with the pro¬ 
 pofed fluid, place them all together in a veflel of cold water : 
 and while it is warming as gently as poflible, when the 
 oil in the ftandard-thermometcr fhall arife fucceffively 
 at the fevaral divifions of its fcale, at the fame inftant of 
 time mark the new tubes at the feveral heights of their 
 fluids, and form a fcale for every tube that fhall corref- 
 pond to thofe marks. Then, while the liquors fubfidc, 
 bv cooling gently, examine whether they nicely agree at 
 the feveral marks. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 72. 1 
 
 To determine the freezing point in all, they are to 
 Hand together in the water till it juft begins to freeze : 
 nr > havin S all the other points duly, that may be deduced 
 ry exadtly by the rule of proportion. 
 
 A thermometer that fhall vary very fenfibly by every 
 imall variation of heat and cold, as thofe of the atmo- 
 fphere, muft have a large ball in proportion to the bore 
 of the tube ; and, that the heat or cold may fooner pene¬ 
 trate the innermoft parts of the liquor, the ball Ihould 
 not be fpherical, but oblong and flatted like a French 
 flafk ; and the lengths of the tubes fhould be proportioned 
 to the degree of heat they are intended to difeover. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton graduated his ftandard-thermometer 
 on both fides. Thofe on the right-hand meafured the 
 heat of the oil; as thofe on the left, meafured the bulk 
 thereof: but fince the latter, as well as the former, be¬ 
 gins from a cypher at the freezing-point, and is regularly 
 continued upwards by the common divifions 10, 20, °o, 
 40, Ac. it will equally ferve both purpofes ; fince the de¬ 
 gree of heat will always be proportioned to the expanfion 
 of the bulk of the fluid above or below the freezing point. 
 
 IHERMOSCOPE, an inftrument Brewing the 
 changes happening in the air with refped to heat and cold. 
 
 1 he word thermolcope is generally ufed indifferently 
 with that of thermometer, though there is fome differ¬ 
 ence in the literal import of the two; the firft fiemifying 
 an inftrument that Ihews, or exhibits, the changes ol* 
 heat, Ac. to the eye ; and the latter an inftrument that 
 meafuies thofe changes : on which foundation the ther¬ 
 mometer ftiould be a more accurate thermolcope, Ac. 
 
 This difference the excellent Wollius taking hold of, 
 dcfcribcs all the thermometers in ufe as tjiermofcopes; 
 
 1 he wing that none of them properly meafures the heat’ 
 Ac. none of them do more than indicate the fame, 
 i hough their different heights, yefterday and to-day, fhew 
 a difference of heat, yet, fince they do not difeover the 
 ratio of yefterday’s heat to to-day’s, thev are not ftriCtly 
 thermometers. 1 
 
 1 HESIS, a general polition which a perfon advances, 
 and offers to maintain. In colleges it is frequent to have 
 placards, containing a number of them, in theology in 
 medicine, in philofophy, in law, See. 
 
 1 HIGH, Femur, in anatomy, that part of the body 
 of men, quadrupeds, and birds, between the le- and 
 the trunk. 0 
 
 THIMBLE, an inftrument madeofbrafs, filver iron 
 Ac. put on the finger to thruft a needle through any cloth’ 
 filk, Ac. ufed by all feamftrefles, taylors, Ac. 
 
 THINKING, a general name for any a& or opera¬ 
 tion of the mind. SeeMiND. r 
 
 Chauvinus, with the Cartefians, will have thinking 
 to confift ina certain native inherent motion or agitation 
 of the human mind, whereof itfelf is confcious ; for they 
 conceive it to be no other than the very effence of the 
 mind itfelf, or at leaft its principal and elfential property 
 All the materials of thinking are, by Mr. Locke, derived 
 from the two fources of fenfation and refle&ioii The 
 Ichool-philofophers ufually divide thinking into intel¬ 
 lectual and vohtive. InteUeCtual is fubdivided into per¬ 
 ception, judgment, reafoning, and method. Volitive 
 thinkmg, or volition, admits of infinite different mo¬ 
 difications, or new determinations. The doCtrine of 
 the Cartefians, who maintain that thinking is efTential 
 to the human foul, and that there is no time when the 
 human loul docs not think, is overturned by Mr. Locke 
 who fhews, that in fleep without dreaming, there is an 
 entire ceffation of all the modes of thinking. 
 
 THIRD in mufick, a concord refulting from a mix- 
 tul L?!founds, containing an interval of two degrees. 
 
 IHlblER Carduus, a name common to divers 
 plants, whofe flowers are compofed of feveral little longiffi 
 eaves, ranged dofe together in a fort of head, and whole 
 leaves are uiually fquammofeand prickly 
 
 Order .f the Thistle, or */ St-. Andrew, a mili¬ 
 tary order of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and infti- 
 tution whereof is vanoufly related by different authors ■ 
 Lelley, ^ bilhop of Ro(s, reports, that the night before 
 the bame between Athelftan king of Northumberland 
 and Hungus king of the Piets, a bright crofs, in f orm 0 f 
 that whereon St. Andrew, the tutelar faint of Scotland 
 luffered martyrdom, appeared to Hungus, who, having 
 gamed the viftory, ever after bore the figure of that croft 
 ion his banners. Others affert, that Achaius king of 
 ■5 Scotland 
 
THO THU 
 
 Scotland fir ft inftituted this order, after having made the 
 famous league offenfive and dcfenftve with Charlemagne 
 king of France. But although the thiftle had been ac¬ 
 knowledged as the fymbol of the kingdom of Scotland 
 from the reign of Achaius, yet fome refer the beginning 
 of this order to the reign of Chailes VII. of France. 
 Others place the foundation of it as low as the year 1500. 
 
 The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar, com- 
 pofed of thiftles and fprigs of rue, interlinked with amu¬ 
 lets of gold, having pendant thereunto the image of St. 
 Andrew with hi; crofs, and this motto, nemo me 
 
 1MPUKE LACESSET. 
 
 THLASPI, treacle muftard, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, producing cruciform flowers; the petals are oval, 
 double the length of the cup, having narrow ungues : 
 the ftamina are fix filaments, two of which are fhorter 
 than the reft, and topped with acuminated antherae : the 
 fruit confifts of a comprefled heart-Ihaped pod, with an 
 emarginated border, containing two cells, which include 
 feveral feeds affixed to a future. There are feveral fpe- 
 cies belonging to this genus, among which is included 
 the burla paftoris, or fheplierd’s pouch. 
 
 The wild thlafpi, which grows naturally in feveral 
 parts of England, is faid to promote urine, and to dil- 
 folve coagulated blood ; and the feeds arc an ingredient 
 in the mithridate and Venice treacle. 
 
 THLIPS 1 S, acompreffion of the ftomach from food, 
 which is offenfive only by its quantity, and not endued 
 with any remarkable quality ; or from a conflux of hu¬ 
 mours, void of acrimony, into the part. 
 
 THOMYEANS, Tiiomeans, Thomists, or 
 Chiijlians of St. Thomas, a people of the E. Indies, 
 who, according to tradition, received the golpcl from St. 
 Thomas. Upon the arrival of the Portuguefe at Cali¬ 
 cut, in their firft voyage to the Indies, they met with 
 ancient Chriftians, who pretended to be defeended from 
 thole converted by St. Thomas. 
 
 St. THOMAS’* Day, a feftival of the Chriftian 
 church, obferved on December 21, in commemoration 
 of St. Thomas the Apoftle. 
 
 THQRACICK, Thoracicus, a name given to two 
 branches of the axillary artery, on account of their con¬ 
 veying the blood into fome parts of the thorax. 
 
 The thoracick arteries are diftinguifiled into upper and 
 lower. There are likewife thoracick veins, upper and 
 under, deftined for the conveyance of the blood from 
 the thorax to the axillary vein. 
 
 Thoracick Duct, or Chyliferous Duct, 
 very {lender canal, receiving the chyle from the chyliferous 
 veffels, and the lymph from the lymphaticks, and carry¬ 
 ing them to the thorax, and ufually through it to the 
 fubclavian vein. 
 
 The beginning of this du£l is in the refervoir or re- 
 ceptaculum chyli, which is lituated in the left fide of the 
 upper vertebra of the loins, under the aorta, and veffels 
 of the left kidney : the reft of the duft has fome refem- 
 blance of a fack or bag, and is larger and more irregular 
 in its figure. Its end is ufually in the fubclavian vein ; 
 fometimes in the jugular. In dogs, and many other 
 animals, its progrefs is under the aorta; but in the hu¬ 
 man body it afeends along the right fide of the vertebra 
 of the back, and paftes between the aorta and the vena 
 azygos, fometimes with a fimple trunk, lometimes di¬ 
 vided into two : its breadth, where divided, is about that 
 of a wheat ftraw. 
 
 The beft manner of demonftrating it in animals, is to 
 feed a dog well, and then to ftrangle him ; and as foon 
 as the body is opened, to tie it up with a thread in the 
 breaft, juft by the fubclavian ; by this means, the cittern, 
 or receptacle of the chyle, and the chyliferous veffels and 
 lymphaticks, are all expofed evidently to view at once. 
 
 In a human body, they may alio be obferved any time 
 after death, by injecting, according to Salzman, wax, or 
 any fluid, or indeed only by inflating the great Iympha- 
 tick veffel, which runs by the left emulgent vein; or, 
 otherwile, if, according to Henninger, an injettion, or 
 barely an inflation, be made into a lafleal of the fecond 
 order, to be traced out in the middle of the mefentery ; 
 or. finally, if the plura be carefully cut between the aorta 
 and the vena azygos, the duft will ufually be eafily found 
 there. 
 
 It is com'pofed of a fine, thin, and pellucid membrane, 
 and within it there are valves, as in the ladleals and 
 
 lymphaticks, which prevent the reflux of the chyle. There 
 are more of thefe in the human body than in beafts ; 
 and, finally, there is a femilunar valve,, doling its ex¬ 
 tremity under the fubclavian. 
 
 The ufe of the thoracick du£l is to carry the chyle to 
 the blood, through the thorax, as it receives it from the 
 receptacle, and with it the lymph from the lymphaticks. 
 
 THORAX, in anatomy, that large part of the body 
 fituated between the abdomen and the neck. 
 
 The parts of the thorax are of two kinds, the conti¬ 
 nent, or containing, and contained : the continent parts, 
 or thole which form the cavity, are either common or 
 proper ; the common continent parts of the thorax are 
 the cuticula, the cutis and pinguello. 
 
 The ufes of the parts of the thorax in general, are their 
 ferving to refpiration and the circulation of the blood, in 
 both lexes ; and, in women, to the producing milk. 
 THORN-Apple, in botany. See Datura. 
 
 THORN BACK, in ichthyology, the prickly raia,with 
 tubcrculofe teeth, and a tranfverfe cartilage in the belly. 
 
 THOUGHT, or fentiment, a general name for all 
 the ideas confequent on the operations of the mind, and 
 even for the operations themfelves. 
 
 THRASHING,orT h reshing, Flagellatio, i n agr i - 
 culture, the art of beating the corn out of the ears. 
 
 THRAVE, or Threave of Corn, 24 {heaves, or 
 four fhocks of fix {heaves to the {hock ; though, in fome 
 countries, they only reckon 12 {hocks to the thrave. 
 
 THREE, Rule of. See Rule. 
 
 THRENODY, 'Threnodia , a mournful or funeral long. 
 
 THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between 
 the head and fhoulders, wherein is the gullet. 
 
 Throat, in archite&ure, fortification, See. See the 
 article Gorge. 
 
 THRONE, a royal feat, or chair of ftate, enriched 
 with ornaments of architefturc and fculpture, made of 
 fome precious matter, raifed on one or more fteps, and 
 covered with a kind of canopy. Such are the thrones in 
 the rooms of audience of kings, and other fovereigns. 
 
 THROWSTER, one who prepares raw filk for the 
 weavers, by cleanling and twilling it. 
 
 THRUSH, in ornithology, two fpecies of turdus, the 
 one called the common thrufh, and the other the miffel- 
 thrufh. 
 
 THUMB, Po'.lix , in anatomy, one of the parts or 
 extremities of the hand. SeeHAND. 
 
 THUMMIM, in the fcripture-learning. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Urim and Thummim. 
 
 THUNDER, a noife in the regions of the air, excited 
 by a fudden kindling of fulphureous exhalations. 
 
 The caufe of thunder long puzzled the philofophers, 
 and various hypoihefes were formed for removing the dif¬ 
 ficulty ; but the ingenious Dr. Franklin has folved the 
 problem by lhewing, that it is nothing more than the 
 elettrick fluid, darting from the clouds, in which it is 
 collected. 
 
 The diftance the thunder is from us, may nearly be 
 eftimated by the interval of time between our feeing the 
 lightning, and hearing the thunder ; for as the motion of 
 light is fo very quick, that the time it takes up in coming 
 to us from the cloud, is not perceptible ; and as that of a 
 found is about 1000 feet in a fecond ; allowing 1000 
 feet for every fecond that paffes between our feeing the 
 one, and hearing the other, we have the diftance of 
 the cloud, pretty nearly, from whence the thunder comes. 
 
 THUNDERING Legion, Legio Fulminans, was a 
 legion in the Roman army, confiding of Chriftian fol- 
 diers, who in the expedition of the emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius againft the Sarmata?, Quadi, and Marcomanni, 
 faved the whole army then ready to perifh of third, by 
 procuring, with their prayers, a very plentiful fhower 
 thereon, and at the fame time a furious hail, mixed with 
 lightning and thunderbolts, on the enemy. 
 
 This is the account commonly given by ecclefiaftical 
 hiftorians, and the whole hiftory is engraven in bafs- 
 relievos on the Antonine column. And hence arofe the 
 denomination of thunderers, though fome fay, that the 
 legion thole Chriftians were of, was called the thunder¬ 
 ing legion before. 
 
 THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftian week, 
 but the fixth day of that of the Jews. 
 
 Holy -T hursdav, the lame with afeenfton-day. See 
 the article Ascension. 
 
 Maundy- 
 
T I B 
 
 Maundy-T hursday, Dies Mandat'., the thurfiday 
 before Eafter; it being a cuftom on that day to give a 
 largeffe to the poor. , . , c 
 
 THYMUS, the thyme plant, of which there are ie- 
 \era) forts , as the broad-leaved thyme, variegated thyme, 
 narrow-leaved thyme, orange and lemon thyme, fo 
 called, &c. They are all eafily propagated, by lowing 
 their feeds or parting their roots, which may be done 
 either in the fpring or autumn ; a dry foil is bell loi 
 thefe plants, as their virtues areflronger than it growing 
 in moift wet lands, and like wife they are not fo apt to be 
 deftroyed in fevere winters. 
 
 All fpccies of thyme are carminative, attenuant, and 
 diuretick. The common thyme, though generally ufed 
 in our tables, is not without its medicinal virtues, equal to 
 thofe of any of the reft ; but the more agreeable flavour 
 of the lemon thyme has made it be generally received in 
 its place. The common thyme is an excellent nervous 
 medicine ; it makes an agreeable kind of tea, in the com¬ 
 mon way of tea-making ; and a courle of this alone, has 
 cured many habitual nervous complaints, which have- 
 foiled the more common medicines, i hat common and 
 troublefome difeafc, the night-mare, is more certainly 
 cured by a courle of this infufion, than, perhaps, of any 
 other medicine. . 
 
 Thymus, in anatomy, a gland, which in infants is 
 very remarkable : it is fituated in the upper part of the 
 thorax, immediately under the fternum, and lies upon 
 the pericardium, and on the trunk of the aorta, and of 
 the vena cava. It extends itfelf from the pericardium, 
 along the trunk of the aorta, to the beginning of the ca¬ 
 rotids, fometimes fo far as to the thyroide-gland; its 
 figure is irregular and uncertain ; its colour in infants 
 is" a pale red, in adults it is of a dufkier hue : it is 
 much larger in infants newly born, than in fubjeCts 
 at any more advanced period. Its length is there no 
 lets than three fingers breadth, and its diameter two, 
 its thicknefs is about half a finger : it gradually de- 
 creafes from this fize, as the child grows up; in adults 
 it is very fmall, and in old people it entirely difappears. 
 Its fubftance is glandulous and conglomerate, and it is 
 furrounded by a membrane. It has blood-vefiels fome- 
 times from the fubclavians, fometimes from the mam¬ 
 mary, and fometimes from the mediaftine ones; and 
 in fome fubjeCts from the carotids and jugulars. Its lym- 
 phaticks fometimes run to the thoracick duCt, fome¬ 
 times to the fubclavian veins; the they have in general 
 no valves. 
 
 THYROIDE Gland, in anatomy, is of a very lin¬ 
 gular figure, refembling that of the new moon. It ad¬ 
 heres by its middle part, which is called by authors its 
 ifthmus, to the upper ring of the trachea, and its points 
 or horns are turned upwards. It adheres on each part to 
 the larynx and cefophagus. 
 
 Thyroide Cartilage, one of the five cartilages 
 that principally compofe the larynx. 
 
 THYROSTAPHYLINUS, in anatomy, the name 
 of a mufcle of the uvula, which, arifing from the lateral 
 part of the thyroide cartilage, and afeending towards the 
 nva, becomes larger, and is inferted in manner of an arch, 
 in the fide of the velum palatinum. 
 
 THYRSUS, in antiquity, tliefceptre which the poets 
 put into the hand of Bacchus, and wherewith they fur- 
 nifhed the Menades in their Bacchanalia. 
 
 The thyrfus was originally a lance or fpear, wrapped 
 up in vine-leaves, wherewith Bacchus is faid to have 
 armed himfejf and his foldiers in the Indian wars, to 
 atnufe and deceive the unpraCtifed Indians, and make 
 them expert no hoftilitics. 
 
 TIBIA, in anatomy, is the inner and bigger bone of 
 the leg, called alfo fociie majus : it is hard and firm, with 
 a cavity in its middle : it is almoft triangular; its fore 
 and fharp edge is called the fhin. 
 
 TIBIALIS, or Tibijeus, in anatomy, the name of 
 two mufcles of the foot, diftinguifhed by the epithets an- 
 ticus and pofticus. 
 
 The tibialis anticus, one of the flexor mufcles, has 
 its origin from the fuperior and extenfor fur face of the 
 tibia, and is terminated at the internal os cuneiforme, 
 and the interior part of the internal metatavfal bone. 
 
 The tibialis pofticus, or abduCtor mufcle of the foot, 
 has its origin in the upper part of the interofleous liga¬ 
 ment, and its termination in the os nayiculare. 
 
 T I D 
 
 TIDES, two periodical motions of the w T aters of the 
 fca, called the flux and reflux, or the flow and ebb. 
 
 The caufe of the tides is the attraction of the tun and 
 moon, but chiefly of the latter; the waters ot the im- 
 menie ocean; forgetful, as it were, ot their natural quie¬ 
 tus, move and roll in tides, obfequious to the ftrong attrac¬ 
 tive power of the moon, and weaker influence of the fun. 
 
 To illuftrate this, let us fuppofe the force of the moon s 
 attraftion to deereafe, as the fquare of the diftance from 
 its centre increales (as in the earth, and other celeftial 
 bodies) and we fhall find, that where the moon is per¬ 
 pendicularly either above or below the horizon, either 
 in the zenith or nadir, there the force of gravity is molt 
 of all diminifhed, and, confequentlv, that there the ocean 
 mult neceflarily fwell, by the coming in of the water 
 from thofe parts where the prefl'ure is greateft, viz. in 
 thofe places where the moon is near the horizon. But, 
 that this may be fully underftood, let M (plate LXXVI. 
 fig, £.) reprefent the moon, E the earth, C its centre, Z 
 tlie place where the moon is in the zenith, N where the 
 nadir. , 
 
 Now by this hypothefis it is evident, that the water in 
 Z, being nearer, is more attracted by the moon, than the 
 centre of the earth C, and that, again, more than the 
 water in N ; therefore, the water in Z has a tendency 
 towards the moon, contrary to that ot gravity, being 
 equal to the excels of the gravitation of Z, above that 
 in C. And, in the other cafe, the water in N, tending 
 lefs towards the moon than the centre C, will be lets 
 prefled, by as much as is the difference of the gravita¬ 
 tions towards the moon in C and in N. 
 
 This being rightly underftood, it follows plainly, that 
 the lea, which otherwife lhould be fpherical upon the 
 prefl'ure of the moon, muft form itfelf into a lpheroidal 
 or oval figure, whole longed diameter is where the moon 
 is vertical, and fhorteft where fhe is in the horizon ; and 
 that the moon fluffing her pofition, as fhe turns round 
 the earth once a day, this oval of water fliifts with her, 
 occafioning, thereby, the two floods and ebbs obfervable 
 in each 25 hours. 
 
 And this may fuffice as to the general caufe of the 
 tides; it remains now to fhew how naturally this motion 
 accounts for all the particulars that have been obferved 
 about them; fo that there can be no room left to doubt 
 but that this is the true caufe thereof. 
 
 The fpring tides upon the new and full moons, and 
 the neap tides on the others, are occafioned by the at¬ 
 tractive force of the fun, in the new and full confpiring 
 with the attraction of the moon, and producing a tide 
 by their united forces; whereas in the quarters the fun 
 raifes the water, when the moon deprelfes it, and on the 
 contrary ; fo as the tides are made only by the difference 
 of their attraction. 
 
 That the force of the fun is no greater in this cafe, 
 proceeds from the very fmall proportion the femi-diame- 
 ter of the earth bears to the vaft diftance of the fun. 
 
 It is alfo obferved that cateris paribus , the equinoCtial 
 fpring tides in March and September, or near them, are 
 the higheft, and the neap tides the loweft; which pro¬ 
 ceeds from the greater agitation of the waters, when the 
 fluid lpheroid revolves about a great circle of the earth, 
 than when it turns about in a leffer circle; it being plain, 
 that if the moon were conftituted in the pole, and there 
 flood, the lpheroid would have a fixed pofition, and it 
 would always be high water under the poles, and low 
 water every where under the equinoCtial: and, therefore, 
 the nearer the moon approaches the poles, the lefs is the 
 agitation of the ocean ; which is, of all, the greateft, 
 when the moon is in the equinoCtial, or fartheft diftant 
 from the poles. 
 
 Whence the fun and moon, being either conjoined or 
 oppofite, in the equinoCtial, produce the greateft fpring 
 and neap tides, being produced by the tropical moon in 
 the quarters, are always the leaft tides ; whereas, in 
 June and December, the fpring tides are made by the 
 tropical fun and moon, and therefore, lefs vigorous, &c. 
 the neap tides by the equinoCtial moon, and therefore 
 are the ftronger. 
 
 Hence it happens, that the difference between the 
 fpring and neap tides is much lefs confiderable than in 
 March and September. 
 
 And the reafon why the higheft fpring tides are found 
 to be rather before the vernal, and after the autumnal 
 
 equinox, 
 
T I D 
 
 equinox, viz. in February and Oftober, than precifely 
 upon them, is, becaufc the fun is nearer the earth, in 
 the winter moons, and fo comes to have a greater effect 
 in producing the tides. 
 
 Hitherto we have confidered fuch affe&iohs of the 
 tides as are timverfal, without relating particular cafes : 
 what follows from the differing latitudes of places, will 
 be eafily underftood. 
 
 Let A P C (plate LXXVI, Jig. 4.) be the earth co¬ 
 vered over with very deep waters, C its centre, P P its 
 poles, AE the equino&ial, Y f the parallel of latitude of 
 a place, Dd another parallel at equal diftancc on the other 
 fide of the equinoftial, H h the two points when the 
 moon is vertical; and let K K be the great circle wherein 
 the moon appears horizontal. 
 
 It is evident, that a fpheroid deferibed on H H and K K 
 fhall nearly reprefent the figure of the fea ; and C/.CD, 
 C h, C cl, Ihall be the heights of the fea in the places 
 / H, /D, in all which it is high water : and feeing that 
 m 12 hours time, by the diurnal rotation of the earth, 
 the point F is transferred to /, and cl to D ; the height 
 of the fea C F will be that of high water, when the moon 
 is prefent; and C f that of the other high water, when 
 the moon is under the earth ; which, in the cafe of this 
 figure, is lefs than the former C F. 
 
 And in the oppofite parallel D cl, the contrary happens: 
 the riling of the water being always alternately greater 
 and lefs in each place, when it is produced by the moon’s 
 declining fenfibly from the equino&ial, that being the 
 greateft of the two high waters in each diurnal revolu¬ 
 tion of the moon, wherein fhe approaches either to the 
 zenith or nadir of the place. Whence it is that the 
 moon, in the northern figns, in this part of the world, 
 makes the greateft tides above the earth, and in the 
 fouthern figns when under the earth ; the effeft being 
 always the greateft, when the moon is furtheft from the 
 horizon, either above or below it. 
 
 And this alternate increafe and decreafe of the tides 
 has been obferved to hold true on the coaft of England, 
 at Briftol by Capt. Sturmy, and at Plymouth by Mr! 
 Coleprefs. 
 
 Lut the motions hitherto mentioned are fomewhat 
 alteied by the libration of the water; whereby, though 
 the a&ion of the luminaries Ihould ceafe, the flux and 
 reflux of the fea would for fome time continue : this con- 
 fervation of the imprefled motion diftinguilhes the dif¬ 
 ference that otherwife would be between two confequent 
 tides, and is the reafon why the higheft fpring tides are 
 not precifely on the full and new moons, nor the neaps 
 on the quarters ; but, generally, they are the third tides 
 after them, and fometimes later. 
 
 All thefe things would regularly come to pafs, if the 
 whole earth were covered with fea very deep ; but by 
 reafon of the fhoalneis of fome places, and the narrow- 
 nels of the ftreights, by which the tides are, in many 
 places, propagated, there ariles a great diverfity in the 
 effeft, not to be accounted for, without an exafl know¬ 
 ledge of all the circumftances of the places ; as of the 
 polition of the land, and the breadth and depth of the 
 channels by which the tide flows : for a very flow and 
 imperceptible motion of the whole body of the water, 
 where it is (for example) two miles deep, will fufilce to 
 raife its furface 10 or 12 feet in a tide’s time ; whereas 
 if the fame quantity of water were to be conveyed upon 
 a channel of 40 fathom deep, it would require a very 
 great ftream to effeft it, in fo large inlets as are the chan¬ 
 nel of England and the German ocean, whence the tide 
 is found to fet ftrongeft in thofe places where the fea 
 grows narroweft, the fame quantity of water going through 
 a fmaller paffage. This is moll evident in the ftreights 
 between Portland and Cape le Hague in Normandy, 
 where the tide runs like afluicc ; and would be yet more 
 between Dover and Calais, if the tide coming about the 
 ifland from the north did not check it. And this force 
 being once imprefled upon the water, continues to carry 
 it about the level of the ordinary height in the ocean, 
 particularly where the water meets a dire& obftacle, as 
 it is in St. Maloes ; and where it enters into a long chan¬ 
 nel, which, running far into the land, grows verv ftreight 
 at its extremity, as it is in the Severn fea at Chcapftow 
 and Briftol. 
 
 .The fhoalnefs of the fea, and the intercurrent conti¬ 
 nents, are the reafon that in the open ocean the time of 
 
 T I M 
 
 jngh water is not at the moon’s appolfe to the meridian, 
 but always home hours after it, as it is obferved upon all 
 the weftcoaft of Europe and Africa, from Ireland to the 
 Cape of Good Hope : in all which a fouth-weft moon 
 makes high water, and the fame is reported to be on the 
 weft of America. 
 
 Tide -Waiters, or Tide-Men, certain officers belon^- 
 ing to thecuftom-houfe, appointed to watch or attend on 
 (hips coming from abroad, to fee that nothing be landed 
 till the cuftom be paid. 
 
 TIERCE, or Teirce, a meafure of liquid things, 
 as wine, oil, &c. containing 42 gallons, the third part°of 
 a pipe. 
 
 J 1 ERCED, Tierce, in heraldry, denotes the fhield to 
 be divided by any of the partition lines, party, coupy 
 tranchy, or tidily, into three equal parts of different co- 
 lours or metals. 
 
 TIGE, in archite&ure, a French term for the fhaft 
 or fuft of a column, comprehended between the aftra^al 
 and the capital. 
 
 TIGER, orTvGER, ' Tigris , in zoology, an animal 
 belonging to the felis kind, with an elongated tail, and 
 variegated fpots. 
 
 FILIA, the lime, or linden-tree. The common 
 lime-tree has a deep fpreading root, that fends forth a 
 \ery large trunk, which produces fo many branches as 
 to render it very proper for fhady walks ; it is covered 
 w i'h a fmooth bark, which is yellowifh or whitifti within, 
 and is fo tough and flexible, that, in fome places, where 
 better materials are Icarce, they make cords or cables 
 therewith : the Ieayes are broad, roundilh, and termi¬ 
 nate in a point; their edges are dentated, and their upper 
 furface is generally covered with a honey dew, and the 
 flowers grow in bunches. 
 
 I his tree is of a very long duration, and often of a 
 large magnitude ; it naturally grows in a pyramidical 
 form, and has a beautiful appearance; though, of late 
 years, it has not been held fo much in efteem as for¬ 
 merly, becaufe it is late in the fpring before the leaves 
 come out, and is the firft which fheds them, particu¬ 
 larly when planted in a dry foil; the leaves frequently 
 decay in July, and are continually falling off, making a 
 litter all the remaining part of the fummer. 
 
 I he timber of the lime is uled by carvers, it being a 
 foft light wood ; alio by archite&s, for framing the mo¬ 
 dels of their buildings : it is likewi/e ufed by turners for 
 making light bowls, dilhes, &c. and of late is much made 
 ufe of in cabinet work. 
 
 I ILLER, or'I illar, in hufbandry, a little young 
 tree left to grow till it be fellable. 
 
 T iller of a Ship, is a ftrong piece of wood faftened 
 in the head of the rudder, and in linall fhips and boats 
 is called the helm. In men of war, and other large fhips, 
 the tiller is faftened to the rudder in the gun-room, and 
 to the other end there are ropes faftened, which pafs 
 upwards to the quarter-deck, where the Ihip is fteered by 
 a wheel. 
 
 TILLING, tillage, in gardening and agriculture, a 
 moving or ftirring of the ground with the plough or 
 fpade ; which, being performed on the furface, enters to 
 a certain depth, and makes the lower and upper parts 
 change places; by which means the goodnels of the 
 earth is kept from being fpent in feeding ill plants. 
 
 The rule, as to gardening in general, is, that hot and 
 dry earth fliould be tilled in fummer, either a little be¬ 
 fore, or while it rains, or foon after; and that neither 
 too often nor too deep : in hot weather it is not to be 
 performed, unlefs watered foon after ; but for moift, 
 ftrong, and cold earth, it muft never be tilled in time of 
 rain, but, rather, in the greateft heats. As to arable 
 lands, that which is clayey, ftiff, cold, and moift, is 
 generally thrice tilled in fpring, fummer, and at feed¬ 
 time, for wheat, and four times for barley. 
 
 rhele repeated ploughings, or fallowings, are very 
 advantageous to the foil, both as they deftroy weeds, and 
 as the ground is hereby laid in ridges, which prevents 
 its being over-drenched in wet fealons, faves it much 
 from blights and bad weather, and makes the land lighter 
 and fitter for the feed to take root in, and to imbibe tlie 
 nitrous dews and influences of the air, &c. 
 
 TIM AR, a tratt or portion of land which the Grand 
 Signior grants to a perfon on condition of ferving him 
 in war on horfeback. 
 
 TIMARIOT-S, 
 
T I M 
 
 T I N 
 
 TIMARIOTS. thofe who enjoy land? on the foot-jlummaric^rform their revolutions, which, to our 
 
 But fincc the flux of time cannot be accelerated, nor 
 retarded, whereas all bodies move fometimes fafter and 
 
 inc and tenure of timars. ir r , 
 
 TIMBER, includes all kinds of felled and fcafoned 
 woods ufed in the ieveral parts ot building, as Carpentry, 
 joinery, turnery, &c. ■ 
 
 The kinds of timber are numerous; we thall only 
 mention fome of the molt ufual from Evelyn’s bylva, 
 
 Oak, the ufes whereof need no enumerating : to 
 endure all’ feafons and weathers, there is no wood like 
 it • hence its ufe in building Ihips, in polls, rails, ecc. 
 
 For water-works it is fecond to none, and where it lies 
 expofed both to air and water, there is none equal to it. 
 
 2. Elm. This felled between November and February 
 \s all fpine or heart, and no lap, and is of Angular ufe 
 Vi places where it is always wet or dry ; its being tough 
 makes it ui'eful to wheel-wriglits, mill-wrights, Nc. and 
 its not being liable to break and fly in chips, makes it hr 
 for dreffers and planks to chop on. . . , 
 
 « Beech. Its chief ufe is in turnery, joinery, and 
 upholftcry, and the like; as being of a white, line gram, 
 and not apt to bend or flit. Of late it is uied for build¬ 
 ing timber ; and if it lie conftantly wet, is judged to 
 
 outlaft oak. ■, . . , f 
 
 4. Alh. Its ufe is alriioft Umverfal; it is good tor 
 building where it may lie dry. It ferves the carpenter, 
 cooper, turner, plough-wright, wheel-wright, gardener 
 and at lea for oars, hand-fpikes, and many other ules. 
 
 c. Fir, commonly known by the name of deal, is ot 
 late much ufed in building, eipeciallv within doors, toi 
 flairs, floors, wainfeot, and moft works of ornament. 
 
 6. Nvalnut-tree is of univerfal ufe, unlefs for the oul- 
 
 fides of buildings ; very fit for the joiners ufe, being of 
 a more curious brown colour than beech, and lets lubject 
 to worms. . r . 
 
 7. Chefnut-tree, next to oak, is the timber molt lought 
 for by joiners and carpenters ; it is very lading. 
 
 8. Service-tree, ufed in joinery, as being of a delicate 
 grain, and flt for curioiities : it alfo yields beams ot con- 
 fiderable bignefs for building. 
 
 9. Poplar, abel: this and afpen, differing very little 
 in their nature, are of late much ufed inffead of fir; they 
 look as well, and are more tough and hard. 
 
 10. Alder, much ufed for lowers, or pipes, to convey 
 water; when always wet, it grows hard like a flone, but 
 foon rots, if it is alternately wet and dry. 
 
 TIMBRE, crTiMMER, in heraldry, denotes the 
 fcreft of an armoury, or whatever is placed a-top ot the 
 efcutcheon, to diftinguifh the degree of nobility, either 
 ccclefiaflical or fecular. 
 
 TIME, a iucceffion of phenomena in the umverfe ; 
 or a mode of duration, marked by certain periods or 
 meafures, chiefly by the motion and revolution of the fun. 
 
 The idea of time, in the general, Mr. Locke obferves, 
 we acquire by confldcring any part of infinite duration as 
 fet out by periodical mealures : the idea of any particular 
 time or length of duration, as a day, an hour, &c. we 
 acquire, Aril, by obferving certain appearances at regular, 
 and, feemingly, at equidillant periods. 
 
 Now by.being able to repeat thofe lengths or meafures 
 of time, as often as we will, we can imagine duration, 
 where nothing really endures or cxifts ; and thus we 
 imagine to-morrow, next year, &c. 
 
 Some of the latter fcliool philofophers define time to 
 be the duration of a thing, whole exigence is neither 
 without beginning nor end : by which, time is diflin 
 guifhed from eternity. 
 
 Abfolute Time, is time confldered in itfelf, and with¬ 
 out any relation to bodies, or their motions. This flows 
 equally, i. c. never proceeds fafter or flower, but glides 
 on in a conftant, equable tenor. 
 
 Relative, or apparent Time, is the fenfible meafure of 
 any duration by means of motion. For lince that equa¬ 
 ble flux of time does not affe£t our fenfes, nor is any 
 way immediately cognizable thereby, there is a neceflity 
 for calling in the help of fome nearly equable motion to 
 a lenAble meafure, whereby we may determine its quan¬ 
 tity, by the correlpondency of the parts ot this with thofe 
 of that. 
 
 Hence, as we judge thofe times to be equal which pals, 
 v*hilc a moving body, proceeding with an equable velo¬ 
 city, pafleS over equal fpaces ; fo we judge thofe times 
 to be equal, which flow while the fun, moon, and other 
 Vol. II. No, 72 
 
 fometimes flower, and there is, perhaps, no perfeJly 
 equable motion in all nature ; it appears hence to follow, 
 that abfolute time ftiould be fomething truly and really 
 diftintft from motion. For let us fuppole the heavens 
 and liars to have remained without motion from the very 
 creation : does it hence follow, that the courie ot time 
 would have been at a Hand ? Or, rather, would not the 
 duration of that quiefcent ftate have been equal to the 
 very time now elapfed ? 
 
 Agronomical Time, is that taken purely from the mo¬ 
 tion of the heavenly bodies, without any other regard. 
 
 Civil Time, is the former time accommodated to civil 
 ufes, and formed and diftiiiguiftied into years, months, 
 days, &c. 
 
 Time, in mufick, is affeflion of found, whereby we 
 denominate it long or Ihort, with regard to its continu¬ 
 ance in the lame degree of time. 
 
 Common, or duple i ime, is ol two fpccies. The full, 
 when every bar or meafure is equal to a femi-breve, or its 
 value, in any combination of notes of a lels quantity. 
 
 The fecond, where every bar is equal to a minim, or 
 its value, in lefs notes. The movements of this kind 
 of meafure are various, but there are three common dii- 
 tinaions ; the fiift flow, the fecond brilk, the third very 
 quick. 
 
 Time, in fencing. There are three kinds of time ; 
 that of the fword, that of the foot, and that of the 
 whole body. All the times that are perceived out of their 
 meafure, arc only to be confldered as appeals, or feints, 
 to deceive and amufe the enemy. 
 
 TIN, Stannum, a whitifh metal, fofter than filver, yet 
 much harder than lead. 
 
 Tin is the lighted, of all the metals : it is remarkable 
 for a quality that no other of them has, which is, that 
 when bent, it makes a crackling noife. It is fometimes 
 harder than lead, but lefs.fo than any other of the me¬ 
 tals : it is malleable in a very remarkable degree, though 
 lefs fo than lead: it may be eafily drawn into a coarfe 
 wire, but if this be attempted to be brought to any de¬ 
 gree of finenefs, it liiaps and breaks under the workman ,s 
 hands. 
 
 l in is lefs fufceptible of ruft than moft of the other 
 metals : it is very little elaftick, and fcarce at all fonorous. 
 
 It melts with a much fmaller degree of Are than any 
 other metal, a heat but a little greater than boiling water 
 being fufficient to fufe it. It melts, before it grows red- 
 hot, like lead ; and fo much lefs a degree of heat, even 
 than that requifite to the running of lead, is neceffary 
 to the fufing of this metal, that it may be eafily fepa- 
 rated from the other by eliquation ; and If the fire be kept 
 under a mixed mafs of the two, fo low as to be juft hot 
 enough to melt the lead, the tin will all run ofF from it. 
 
 Tin amalgamates very readily with mercury, and may 
 be mixed, in fufion, with moft other metals, and as 
 readily feparated from any of them again by the before- 
 mentioned procefs of eliquation. It is the Icaft Ample 
 of all the metals, being brought, by a very final} degree 
 of fire, to emit fulphureous fumes ; thefe are plainly the 
 abfolute fulphur of the metal: they do great injury to 
 the people employed to work upon it, rendering them 
 pale, and often abfolutely deftroy them. The confe- 
 quence of the emitting thefe fumes fo abundantly is, 
 that tin, of all metals, lofes moft of its weight, and 
 calcines moft eafily in the fire. Expofed to the focus of 
 a great burning-glafs, it immediately melts, and fends 
 off a large quantity of thick, white fume ; the remain¬ 
 ing matter is then a fine cryflalline, or gloffy matter, in 
 form of needles; thefe, if held ever fo long in the fame 
 heat, undergo no further change, never running into a 
 mafs of glafs, as the remains of moft of the metals do 
 under the fame circumftances; but like the glafies of 
 the other metals, if expofed again to the fame heat, laid 
 on a piece of charcoal, they immediately run into tin 
 again ; and the fame thing happens if it be continued 
 on the tile or copel it was firft placed on in the focus, 
 and fome fat matter, as tallow, or the like, to be added 
 to it. Filings of tin, thrown into the flame of a candle, 
 take fire, and render the flame blue, emitting a vifible 
 fume, and a finell of garlick : melted in a crucible, with 
 5 G a mix- 
 
T I N 
 
 S mixture of nitre, it deflagrates. Its conftituent mat¬ 
 ters, therefore, feem to be a cryftalline earth, which melts 
 with great difficulty, and an inflammable fulphur ; in 
 which, from its fmell, while calcining, and from its 
 poifonous quality, it is probable there may be fomething 
 of arfenick mixed. 
 
 1 he fpecifick gravity of pure tin is laid down by au¬ 
 thors from 7156, to 7617, to 1000, to that of water. 
 
 T m fo far endures the force of lead and antimony in 
 the refiners teft, that it is hardly to be feparated from 
 them, unlefs by the additioa of copper : it adheres to the 
 reft of the metals with greater cafe than any other, and 
 hence it is in continual ufc in covering plates of iron, 
 and lining copper, and other metals, to prevent their 
 1 lifting ; and to lave the liquids put into them from tak¬ 
 ing up any bad qualities from thole metals, as it is with 
 much more difficulty diflolved by common menftruums, 
 than either of them. 
 
 I in, in many tilings, greatly approaches to the nature 
 of filver. It Very readily melts withfilver, gold, or cop¬ 
 per ; when the mixture is made with equal, or even a lefs 
 quantity, it renders them extremely brittle : but it is 
 very lingular, that if it be mixed in a much larger quan¬ 
 tity, they ftiil continue pliant and flexile. Ten parts of 
 tin, and one of copper, make a mafs more rigid, indeed, 
 than tin, yet malleable and duCtile. Silver, of all the 
 metals, fuffei s nioft by an admixture of tin, a very fmall 
 quantity of it ferving to make that metal as brittle as 
 glafs, and what is worl'c, being very difficultly feparated 
 from it again. The addition of about one-tenth part of 
 copper to tin makes it fit for the common ufes of life, 
 in veflels of various kinds, as it becomes, by the mix¬ 
 ture, more durable ; a little zink, added to this mixture, 
 gives the metal a yellow colour, and, as it is mixed in 
 greater or lefs quantity, makes it fit for caftingof cannon, 
 and for bells. 
 
 Iron readily mixes with tin, in fufion, if the fire be brifk, 
 and the iron be heated white hot before the tin be added. 
 Twice the quantity of this metal, added to iron fo heated, 
 readily runs with it into an odd fubftancc, which is very 
 white and brittle, and readily anfwers to tile magnet. This 
 has been ufed by fonic as a pretence of its not being iron, 
 and that the loadftonc would attradl another metal befide 
 that: but the fallacy is ealily difeovered by one that un- 
 derftands any tiling of nictallurgick analyfis. 
 
 Lead bears a confiderable admixture of tin, without 
 being aftefted as gold and filver are, which are both ren¬ 
 dered brittle by it; at leaft, its effefts, on this metal, 
 are in a much iinaller degree. The very vapour of tin 
 has the fame effeCt with the metal itfelf on filver, gold, 
 and copper, rendering them brittle. Mr. Corny, a rae- 
 tallurgill, has been long plagued by thefe vapours, by a 
 piece of tin being accidentally among his charcoal; the 
 conlequence of which lias been, that, till it was burnt 
 wholly away, thole metals have been rendered as brittle 
 as giafs under the hammer, by only being fufed over thole 
 coals, it is owing to this property of tin, in making the 
 metals it is mixed with brittle, that it renders them fo- 
 norous. Mr. Boyle has exprefled a wonder that tin, 
 which is itfelf not much fonorous, fhould 011 mixture 
 with copper render it more fo ; but, if we confider that 
 the fame fort of difpofition of parts which renders metals 
 rigid and brittle, renders them fonorous, the myftery is 
 explained. 
 
 The proper folvent of tin in its true malleable ftate 
 is aqua regia. It will not well diftolve in any of the 
 other menftrua of the ftronger kinds, nor indeed very 
 readily in this. We are not, however, to wonder at this 
 difficulty of folution in tin, fince we find it contains 
 much more fulphur than any other metal, and fulphur 
 is not one of thofe fubftances that are to be diflolved bv 
 acids. That this is a fa£l we find by putting calcined 
 tin, inftead of common malleable tin, into the mcn- 
 ftruuin, for in this cafe even vinegar will diflolve it. 
 While tin is in its malleable ftate, the weakeft acids 
 diflolve it beft : verjuice, and it is laid even four apples 
 boiled in tin veflels, acquire a tafte of that metal, though 
 the ilrongeft acids, aqua regia excepted, boiled in the 
 fame veflels, acquire no flavour from it at all. 
 
 There is fomething very Angular in the great gravity 
 of tin ore beyond that of the ores of other metals ; but 
 it contains fo much arfenick, and is fo dangerous to the 
 perfon who works it, that experiments are not expected 
 3 
 
 T I N 
 
 to be made very frequently on it. The tin ores in gene¬ 
 ral are ftubborn and refra&ory in the fire ; it is eafy; 
 however to find whether an ore does contain this metal 
 or not; for, it a piece of it be powdered and wafhed, 
 and afterwards fprinkled thinly over an iron plate made 
 white hot on the fire, the tin ore in this cafe, if there 
 be any in the mafs, will be found in, little parcels of a red 
 colour, covered with grey flowers of an arfenical fmell. 
 1 lie various kinds of mundick common in the Cornifh 
 mines are not only rejcCted from the works as ore therri- 
 lelves, but they are carefully feparated from among the. 
 other ores of a better kind, as they are apt to be very 
 troublcfome, even in the fmallcft quantities, in working 
 the reft. 1 hey then pound and walh the ore, and when 
 they have thus feparated all the lighter impurities, till 
 there is no longer any fmell of fulphur of of garlick, they 
 grind it to a tolerable fine powder, and, after wafhing it 
 again, it is carried to the mclting-houfes, where‘it° is 
 melted into metal by mixing it with charcoal, and urginn- 
 the fire to the utmoft violence by the blaft of large bel¬ 
 lows. T here is a cavity at the bottom of the furnace, 
 into which the metal runs as it feparates from the ore, 
 and out of which they let it by an aperture clofed and 
 opened at pleafure ; running it into cakes or pigs, which 
 are the large blocks we fee it in. 
 
 Tin ore in general contains a great quantity of arfenick, 
 which difeovers itfelf in the roafting in form of a white 
 cloud, and which it is very material to burn quite away, 
 as it otherwile renders the metal brittle. Charcoal alone 
 commonly lerves for fluxing the ofe of tin, but if any 
 be found very refractory, a little common black pitch is 
 an excellent addition. 
 
 1 in is a metal deferibed by the Greeks under the name 
 of caftiteros. The Latins, who took it for a kind of lead, 
 called it plumbum candidum, calling the common lead 
 plumbum nigrum. The Arabian writers call it alanoe or 
 alaferub. 1 he chymifts call it jupiter, and all the pre¬ 
 parations of it joviales. 1 he character they ufe to ex- 
 prels it is "U, by which they mean to denote that it is 
 one half filver or luna, and the other half corrofive, which 
 they exprefs by the crofs added to the crefcent. Mr. Boyle 
 indeed was of opinion, that tin and filver were the fame 
 metal, only that in the ftate of filver it was pare, and 
 in that of tin debafed, by the admixture of lbmecnro- 
 five matter not to be feparated from it. 
 
 1 he virtues of tin, as a medium given internally, havfc 
 been greatly celebrated by many of the ancient writers, 
 but it has lels credit at prefent. We have been told that 
 in difeafes of the lungs, and in diforders of the head and 
 uterus, there is fcarce any thing equal to it; and that in 
 convulfions, epilepfies, and the madnefs arifing from the 
 bite of a mad dog, it was a certain remedy. Thefe laft 
 are the only cafes in which it has any degree of credit at 
 prefent, and that is rather among the vulgar than the 
 phyficians. In epilepfies we have known half a drachm 
 given twice a day for a long time, but without fuccels. 
 
 In the bite of a mad dog, great cures of the preventative 
 kind have been faid to be wrought by it , but it is not 
 eafy to fay, before the fymptoms in that terrible cafe ap¬ 
 pear, whether the poifon took effect or not. 
 
 In the manufactories it is of a great ufe in foldering, 
 and, when amalgamated with mercury, and a little biz- 
 muth added to make it run thin, it ferves in the filver-- 
 ing of looking-glaftes. By calcination it makes a foft 
 powder called putty, which is of ufe in the polifhing 
 glafs and gems, and alfo in making of enamels. 
 
 Its preparations in ufe in medicine, or gen-., ally kept 
 in the fhops, are thefe: 1. The ftannnm puiveratum, 
 or powdered tin. 2. The fal jovis, or fait of tin. 3. The 
 diaphoreticum joviale, or antiheCtick of Poterius. And, 
 
 4. The aurum mufivum, or, as it is commonly called, 
 Mofaicum, Mofaick gold. 
 
 To thefe preparations uied in medicine, we may add 
 one well known as a cofmetick : it is a magiftery of tin 
 prepared in the manner of that of bifmuth, by rirft mix¬ 
 ing fix ounces of fpirit of nitre with one ounce of fpirit 
 of fea-falt, and then putting tin into this liquor, or 
 aqua-regia, till it is capable of holding no more : laftly, 
 pour the folution into fix or eight quarts ot ipring-wa- 
 ter, and the tin will be precipitated in form of a white 
 powder, which fhould be waflied feyeral times, and rheii 
 dried for the ufe of ladies ill pomatums, to render the 
 fkin white and foft. 
 
 TtNC- 
 
T I T 
 
 TINtlTORUM Rubia. See Madder. 
 TINCTURE, in pharmacy and chymidry, a repa¬ 
 ration of the finer and more volatile parts of a mixed 
 body, made by means of a proper menflruum diffolving 
 and retaining the fame. 
 
 Tincture, in heraldry, the hue or colour of any 
 thing in coat armour, under which denomination may 
 be all'o included the two metals, or and argent, becaufc 
 they are often reprefented by yellow and white. 
 
 TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with 
 melted tin, or with tin reduced to a very thin leaf. 
 
 TINNITUS Auris, tingling or buzzing of the ear, 
 a difeafe pretty frequent in the ear, confiding in the pro¬ 
 portion of a found which is not, or at lead is not external. 
 
 This perception is occafioned by the beating of an artery 
 in the ear, by an inflammation, or abfeefs of the tympa¬ 
 num or the labyrinth, by the admiifion of foreign bodies, 
 by commotions of the cranium, blows on the ears, &c. 
 Extraordinary and irregular motions of the animal fpirits 
 are alfo found to occalion the tinnitus, as we find in de¬ 
 liriums, phrenfies, vertigoes, &c. The tingling of the 
 ear is one of the diagnodick figns of the plague. 
 
 TIPSTAVES, officers appointed by the marfhal of 
 the King’s-Bencli, to attend the judges with a rod or dad 
 tipped with diver, and take charge of fuch prifoners 
 as are either committed or turned over at the judge’s 
 chambers. 
 
 TIRE, or, as the feamen pronounce it, teer, are many 
 things of one denomination placed regularly in a row, as 
 guns, cafks, &c. 
 
 TITHES, Tythes, Tenths , Decima, or Dixens , the 
 tenth part of all profits or fruits, both predial, perfonal, 
 and mixed, allotted to the clergy for their maintenance. 
 
 Of tithes there arc three kinds, viz. perfonal, predial, 
 and mixed. 
 
 Perfonal T ithes, arc thofe due or accruing from the 
 pfofits of labour, art, trade, navigation, and indudry 
 of man. 
 
 Predial Tithes, thofe which arife either from the 
 fruits of the ground, as corn, hay, underwood, flax, 
 hemp, See. or from the fruits of trees, as apples, pears, 
 plumbs, cherries ; or from the produce of the garden. 
 
 Mixed Tithes, are fuch as arife from beads and 
 other animals fed with the fruits of the earth ; as cheefe, 
 milk, wool, lambs, calves, fowls, &c. 
 
 Predial Tithes, again, are either great or fmall. 
 
 Great Tithes, are thofe of corn, hay, and wood. 
 
 Small Tithes, are thofe ot flax which are predial ; 
 and thofe of wool, milk, cheefe, lambs, ferrets, See. 
 which arc mixed. 
 
 Impropriated and appropriated Tithes, called alfo in- 
 fcodated tithes, are thole alienated to fome temporal or 
 ecclcfiadical lord, united to their fee, and polfefled as fe- 
 cular goods. 
 
 TITHING, Decima , or Decury; a number or com¬ 
 pany of ten men, with their families, knit together in a 
 kind of fociety, and all bound to the king for the peace¬ 
 able behaviour of each other. 
 
 TITHYMALUS. See Spurge. 
 
 All the kinds of fpurge are full of a milky caudick 
 juice, which is dangerous to take inwardly ; it is by fome 
 outwardly applied to take off warts and hairs, but it 
 fhould be ufed very cautioudy. 
 
 TITALLATlON, Titillatio, the art of tickling, i. e. 
 exciting a fort of pleafurable idea, by a gentle applica¬ 
 tion of fome foft body, upon a nervous part; and which 
 ufually tends to produce laughter. 
 
 TITLE, Titulus , an infeription put over any thing to 
 make it known. The word is more particularly ufed for 
 the infeription in the fird page of a book expreffing the 
 fubjeft thereof, the author’s name, Sec. 
 
 Title, Titulus, in the civil and canon law, denotes 
 a chapter or diviiion of a book. 
 
 Title, is alfo an appellation of dignity, didin&ion, 
 or pre-eminence, given to perfons poffeffed of the fame. 
 
 Title, is alfo a certain quality aferibed by way of 
 refpeft to certain princes, &c. 
 
 T itle, in law, denotes a right which a perfon has to 
 the poffeffion of any thing. 
 
 It is alfo an authentick indrument, whereby a man can 
 prove and make appear his right. 
 
 Title, in the canon law, is that by virtue whereof a 
 beneficiary holds a benefice : fuch is the collation of an 
 
 TON 
 
 ordinary, or a provifion in the court of Rome, founded 
 on a resignation, permutation, or other legal caule. 
 
 Title, is alfo ufed in feveral ancient fynods and 
 councils for the church, to which a pried was ordered, 
 and where he was condantly to refide. 
 
 T 1 TUBATION, a kind of libration or fhaking, 
 which the ancient adronomers attributed to the crydal- 
 line heaven, to account for certain inequalities which 
 they obferved in the motion of the planets. 
 
 TITULAR, or Titulary, denotes a perfon in* 
 veded with a title, in virtue whereof he holds an office or 
 benefice, whether he perform the functions thereof or not. 
 
 Titular, is fometimes alfo applied adjedlively to 
 a perfon who has the title and right ot an office or dig¬ 
 nity, but without having pofieffion or dilcharging the 
 function thereof. 
 
 TMESIS, in grammar, a figure whereby a compound 
 word is feparated into two parts, and one or more words 
 interpofed between them. 
 
 TOBACCO, or Tabacco, a medicinal herb, not 
 known in Europe till after the difeovery of America by 
 the Spaniards, and fird imported about the year 1560. 
 
 The Americans on the continent call it petum, thofe 
 of the iflands yoli. The Spaniards, who gave it the 
 name tobacco, took it from Tobaco, a province of 
 Yucatan, where they fird found it. and learned its ufe 
 
 Tobacco is cultivated in feveral parts ot America, par¬ 
 ticularly in the Caribbee iflands, Virginia, &c. where 
 they are forced to mix afhes with the foil, to prevent its 
 riling too thick. After fowing, they water it every day, 
 and on very hot days cover it up, to prevent its being 
 fcorched by the fun. 
 
 Befides the tobacco of the W. Indies, there are confi- 
 dcrable quantities cultivated in the Levant, the coads of 
 Greece and the Archipelago, the idand of Malta and Italy. 
 The mark of good twid tobacco, area fine fhining cut, 
 an agreeable irnell, and that it have been well kept. 
 
 TO Do/ IVool , is mentioned in datute 12 Car. II. 
 c. 32, as a weight containing 28 pounds, or two done. 
 Some will have the word derived from the French toi¬ 
 let, a wrapper, within which, by ufage, two done of 
 wool is folded. 
 
 TOES, called by anatomids, digiti pedis, are the 
 extreme divifions of the feet, anlwering to the fingers of 
 the hand. 
 
 TOG A, in antiquity, a wide woollen gown or mantle 
 without lleeves, ufed among the Romans both by men. 
 and women. 
 
 JusTog je, or privilege of the toga, was the fame with 
 the privilege of a Roman citizen, i. e. the right of wear¬ 
 ing a Roman habit, and of taking, as they explain it, 
 fire and water through the Roman empire. 
 
 TOILS, fnares or nets ufed by hunters for catching 
 w'ild beads, as deer, See. 
 
 TOILET, a fine cloth of linen, filk, or tapedry, 
 fpread over the table in a bed-chamber or dreffing-room, 
 to undrcls and drefs upon. 
 
 TOISE, a French meafure containing fix of their 
 feet, or a fathom. 
 
 TOISON d’or, a term, in heraldry, for a golden 
 fleece, which is fometimes borne in a coat of arms. 
 
 TOLERATION, in religion, a term which has 
 made a great figure in the difputes among protedants 
 who have been exceedingly divided about the meafures 
 of toleration, or the degrees to which hereticks and fchif- 
 maticks are, or are not to be differed. 
 
 TOLL, in law, a tax or cudom paid for paffage, 
 or for the liberty of felling goods in a market or fair. 
 Hence, toll-booth, is a place in a town where goods are 
 weighed, in order to afeertain the duties thereon. 
 
 TOMB, includes both the grave or fepulchre wherein 
 a defunid is interred, and the monument eredled to pre- 
 ferve his memory. 
 
 TOME, a bound book or writing that makes a jud 
 volume. 
 
 TOMENTUM, properly fignifies flocks or locks of 
 wool; but by botanids is uled for that foft downy matter 
 which grows on the leaves of fome plants, hence deno¬ 
 minated tomentofe; as gramen tomentofum, carduus 
 tomentofus. 
 
 TONE, or Tune, in mufick, a property of found 
 whereby it comes under the relation of grave and acute ; 
 or the degree of elevation any found has from the degree 
 
 «f 
 
TOO 
 
 of iwiftnefs of the v'/bratiorrs r of the parts of the fo'nb- 
 t 6 ui body. See T'UTRrE’. 
 
 • TONGUE, Lingua, in anatomy, the principal in¬ 
 urnment of fpeech. 
 
 The tongue is divided into the b'afis and point, the 
 upper and under fidcs, and the lateral portions or edges. 
 The bafis is the pofterior, or thicker part; the point, 
 five anterior-and thin heft part. The Upper fide is not 
 quite flat, but a little convex, and divided into two la¬ 
 teral halves, by a (hallow dcpvcflecl line called linca lin¬ 
 gua medians. The edges are thinner than the Other 
 parts, and a little rouitded as well as the point. The 
 lower fide reaches only from the middle of the length of 
 the tongue to the point. 
 
 'The tongue is principally compofed of very foft fleffiy 
 fibres, intermixed with a peculiar medullary fubftance, 
 and difpofed in various maimers. Many of thefe fibres 
 are confined to the tongue without going any further ; 
 the reft form fcparate mufcles Which go out from it in 
 different ways, and are infected in other parts : all the 
 upper fide of the tongue is covered by a thick membrane 
 ef a papillary texture, upon which lies another very fine 
 membrane like a kind of epidermis, which is likewife 
 continued over the loweft fide, but without papilla?. 
 
 The fiefhy fibres of which the tongbe is compofed, and 
 which go no further than the tongue, may be termed 
 mufeuli lingua? interlores, or the intrinlick mufcles; 
 and they are the fame with wliat Spigelius named muf- 
 culi linguales. The fibres thefe mufcles confift of are of 
 three general kinds, longitudinal, tranfverfe, and vertical, 
 and each of tliefe fituations admits of different degrees of 
 'obliquity. The longitudinal fibres point to the bafts and 
 apex of the tongue, and lcem partly to be expansions of 
 the mufeuli ftylo-gloffi, hvo-gloffi, and genio-gloffi. The 
 vertical fibres Hem likewife to be in part produced by the 
 'fame genio-gloffi, and the tranfverfe by the mylo-gloffi. 
 
 Befides thele mixed produ&ions, there is a diftintt 
 plane of longitudinal fibres, which run near the furface 
 of the upper fide of the tongue, and adiftinft tranfverfe 
 plane under them. All thefe fibres are partly interwoven, 
 one portion of them terminating at the two edges of the 
 tongue, and the other at the bafis and point without go¬ 
 ing to any other part; and they lie immediately above 
 thofe which belong to the genio gloffi. To difeover all 
 thefe different fibres, and their different degrees of di- 
 re&ion, we need only cut the tongue longitudinally, af¬ 
 ter it has been boiled, or long macerated in ftrong vine¬ 
 gar. The extrinfick mufcles, or mufeuli exteriores, are 
 thofe which by one extremity make a part of the body of 
 the tongue, and are fixed by the other in fome part with¬ 
 out the" tongue. Of thefe we reckon four pairs, mylo- 
 gloffi, ftylo-gloffi, hyo- gloffi, and genio-gloffi. 
 
 TON ICK, in medicine, is applied to a certain motion 
 of the mufcles, wherein the fibres, being extended, con¬ 
 tinue their extenfion in fuch a manner, as that the part 
 leems immoveable, though in reality it be in motion. 
 
 TOOTH, Dens, in anatomy, a little hard lmooth 
 bone fet in the gums, and lerving to mafticate or chew 
 the food, See. 
 
 The teeth are bony parts of the body, confifting of 
 two fubftances ; the one intenlely hard, and as it were 
 of a ftony texture; and the other fofter, but alfo of a 
 bony nature. Internally, they are furnifhed with a cer- 
 ■ tain cavity ; they arc fixed in the fockets of the maxilla?, 
 by that particular fpecies of articulatiofi called gomphofis ; 
 and are defined for the purpofes of maftication, arti¬ 
 culation of the voice, and ornament. 
 
 The teeth, however, are not all fixed in their fockets 
 • by an equal number of roots ; for the incifores are only 
 feeured by one. The canini have alfo but one, which, 
 however, is deeper than thofe of the incifores, and 
 ]a?»er in proportion to the ftrength of the canini. And, 
 among the inciforii, the two in the middle arc lccured 
 by deeper roots -than the two lateral ones contiguous^ to 
 the canini, becaufe they are broader and larger. The 
 dentes molares differ from each other with refpett to 
 : their roots. - The fuperior, and efpecially the two pof- 
 tcrior, are fometimes fixed with three roots. But the 
 ‘inferior have only two, partly becaufe the fubftance of 
 the fuperior jaw is fofter and lefs compaft than that of 
 "the inferior, for which reafon they could not be fo fe- 
 curely fixed by two, as by three roots ; and partly be- 
 eaufe the inferior prefs upon their roots by their own 
 
 TOO 
 
 weight; whereas the fuperior are pendulous, and con- 
 fequeritly require more roots to fecurethem. “The other 
 dentes' molares, fuccceding the dens carninus in the up¬ 
 per jaw, have two roots, and thofe hi the inferior only 
 one. Befides, it is to be obferved, that the teeth of chil¬ 
 dren are only furnilhed with imperfedt foft, and as it 
 were hiedullary roots ; hence, they are generally loofe, 
 efpecially the inciioies, which may be pulled out with 
 one’s nails, or by a piece of thread twilled about them. 
 It is alfo to be obferved, that the roots of the teeth are 
 internally fu Grounded with membranous and nervous li¬ 
 gaments, by which the teeth are firmly fecured in their 
 fockets; and externally the teeth are encompaffed by the 
 fubftarice of the gums, which are a kind of hard flefh, 
 confifting of fmall fibrous lamina?, placed clofe to each 
 other, and intermixed with a large number of blood- 
 veflels ; for which reafon they are intenlely red. They 
 are, befides, liberally furnifhed with llender membranes, 
 glands, and ramifications of nerves; hence, they derive 
 their power of fenfation, and are obferved to be moiftened 
 with a due-humidity. This fiefh furrounds the teeth 
 like a rampart, and fortifies them as mufcles do. Hence, 
 when it is either eat away or become preternaturally 
 flaccid, the teeth generally become loofe or drop out. 
 
 From a peccant nouriffiment proceed thefe concretions 
 about the teeth and gums which are commonly called 
 the tartar of the teeth. Helmont is of opinion that the 
 gums fupply the teeth with nouriffiment, and, when this 
 nutritive juice is excrementitious and di(charged from 
 the injured gums, it indurates about the teeth, and af- 
 fumes a degree of hardnefs almoft equal to their own. 
 But the tai tareous matter adhering to the teeth leems to 
 be produced partly from the faliva impregnated with the 
 terreftrial, tartaveous lymph of the gums, which by con¬ 
 tinually moiftening the teeth, gradually adds viicid and 
 tartareous particles to them. 
 
 This tartar, in conlequence of its acrimony, gradu¬ 
 ally con fumes the 'fubftarice of the teeth, induces a 
 blacknefs, and fometimes a caries. 'I his tartareous fub- 
 ftance is inftantaneoufly refolved by being rubbed with 
 fpirit of fait, which is a proof that it confifts of an alka¬ 
 line earth. This diforder is generally moft incident to 
 infants, and children who feed upon vifcid preparations 
 of milk and f'weet-meats, as alfo to fcorbutick, ar- 
 thritick, nephritick, and hypochondriack patients; bc- 
 caivfe their ferum abounds with impure, terreftrial, and 
 tartareous parts. For this reafon p'ftyficians ought care¬ 
 fully to infpeft the teeth, becaufe, by their ftate, that of 
 the ferum and lymph are moft fatisfaflorily difeovered. 
 
 Method of cleaning f oul and black Teeth. Since by 
 n-jeans of thefe yellow, blackifh, and unfeemly feales, 
 which fometimes cover the teeth, the mouth is not only 
 confiderablv deformed, and the breath made difagreeable, 
 but alfo tlie teeth themfelves rendered loofe; it feems 
 highly ncceffary to cleanfe and deterge thefe rough and 
 foul teeth with all expedition. 
 
 But, left frefh feales and blacknefs fhould again de¬ 
 form and diforder the teeth, it is neceflary always to 
 have a good dentrifice in rcadineik, by which the teeth 
 may be cleaiifed and rendered white and firm every fixth 
 or feventh day ; for rubbin'g the teeth too often, or with 
 fuch fubftances as are too acrid, crude, and draft ick, 
 proves always as prejudicial as a total neglett of them. 
 Thus the (harp powder prepared of pumice-ftone, bricks, 
 coral, the a(hes of tobacco and other fubftances of a 
 like nature too powerful, wears away and abrades the 
 teeth. And fpirits alfo, and more efpecially thofe of vi¬ 
 triol and fait, gradually corrode and confume them. 
 The 1afell and moft innocent dentrifices are prepared of 
 milder fubftances, fuch as crabs-eyes, mother of pearl, 
 calcined (hells, calcined hartihorn, chalk, root of Flo¬ 
 rentine orris, myrrh, and other fubftances o( a like na¬ 
 ture, reduced to powder and mixed together. When the 
 gums are lefs firm, we may commodiaufly add a few 
 drops of the fpirit of fait, or that of vitriol. 1 hccom- 
 polition, for this purpole, may be prepared in tile fol¬ 
 lowing manner: Take of calcined chalk, or red myrrh, 
 of the"roots of Florentine orris, and of calcined harts¬ 
 horn, each one or two drachms, and of the fpirit of (alt, 
 between three and fix drops : mix and reduce to a fins, 
 powder to be kept for ufe. 
 
 T ake of calcined (hells and calcined mother-of pearl 
 each two drachms, of dragons-blood one drachm, aOd 
 
 of 
 
TOP 
 
 6f Japan earth one fcruple: mix and reduce to a fine 
 powder. In order to give thel'e powders a grateful fla¬ 
 vour, we may pour upon them either a few drops of oil 
 of cinnamon, cloves, or rhodium. Alhes of tobacco, 
 provided they are rarely ufed, are an excellent remedy 
 for the blacknefs of the teeth, as is alfo the following 
 preparation : 
 
 Take of plaintain-water one ounce, of the honey of 
 rofes two drachms, and of the fpirit of lalt io drops : 
 mix all together. 
 
 Tooth-A c h, a very painful dlforder, caufed by an 
 impure ferum which corrodes and rends the ligaments 
 and nervo-glandulous coats, by which the teeth are kept 
 firm in their fockets : its feat may alio be in the cavity 
 or internal parts of the teeth themfelves. 
 
 The whole intenfion of cure, in this diforder, confiils 
 in driving and diverting the impure fcorbutick ferum from 
 the head, and then carrying it oti by proper emundories. 
 This is to be done by. laline, emollient, and purgative 
 clyfters; by warm pedeluvia of rain-water and wheat- 
 bran, with Venice foap. ufed juft before bed-time; by- 
 laxatives of manna and caffia diilolved in whey or afles 
 milk, or mineral waters : if the patient is plethorick, or 
 full of blood, phlebotomy in the foot will be proper,, to 
 drive the humours from the head. Sudorifick remedies 
 are alfo proper, but more cfpecialiy an eleduary made 
 of rob of eider-berries, burnt hartlhorn, diaphoretick 
 antimony, and a few grams of nitre : or, an ounce of 
 the rob may be taken in broth, to promote a diaphorefis; 
 and it may be uled externally, difiplved in beer, in the 
 manner of a gargle, which will yield immediate relief to 
 the patient. 
 
 When the patient is fubjed to catarrhs, is fcorbutick 
 or cachedick, then mineral waters are molt proper; and 
 if the patient is of a weak bilious conftitution, the water 
 Ihould be mixed with ailes milk. 
 
 Outwardly, may be applied bags, filled with paregorick 
 and emollient lpeci^s , Such as elder, melilot, and camo¬ 
 mile flowers, bay and juniper berries, carraway and 
 millet feeds, and decrepitated fait: they muft be laid on 
 warm, and are very fafe. A drop or two of oil of cloves 
 or box, applied to a carious tooth with cotton, are medi¬ 
 cines not to be defpiled ; and camphorated fpirits of 
 wine, mixed with laffron, caftor, and opium, made into 
 a liniment, and laid to the gums and hollow tooth, often 
 gives the patient cafe. 
 
 When the. tooth-ach proceeds from a rotten hollow 
 tooth, it will be beft to burn the little nervous cord, which 
 is the feat of the pain, with an acute cautery ; and then 
 the cavity may be filled up with a mixture of wax and 
 maftich. But if this cannot be done, the only remedy 
 left is to have the tooth drawn. 
 
 Allen advifes to rub the tooth that is painful with the 
 root of the iris lutea, or the yellow fleur-dc-luce ; or a 
 pill may be made of equal quantities of camphor or opium, 
 and put into the hollow tooth ; and, laftlv, fome greatly 
 recommend a fmali plafter of tacamalhack, laid on the 
 fide of the face. 
 
 Top -Masts of a Ship , are four, which are made faft 
 and fettled unto the heads of the main-maft, fore-maft, 
 mizzen-mall, and bow-lprit, refpedively. 
 
 Top-Gall axt-Masts of a Ship, are two, viz. 
 main-top-gallant-maft and fore-top-gallant-maft, which 
 arc fmali round pieces of timber, let on their refpedive 
 top-mafts; on the top of which malls arc let the flag- 
 ftaffs, on which the colours, as flags, pendants, &c. hang. 
 
 TOPARCHY, a little ftate or feigniory confifting 
 only of a few cities or towns; or a petty country governed 
 and poflefl'ed by a toparch, or lord. 
 
 TOPAZ, in natural hiftory, a kind of gem, or pre¬ 
 cious ftone, the third in order after the diamond. 
 
 The topaz of the fhops is the lame ftone which our 
 jewellers know by this name, but very different from what 
 the ancients knew under the fame name : they called this 
 ftone, from its golden colour, the chryfolite, or gold 
 ftone. 
 
 The ancients have Paid much of the topazes virtues ; 
 it is faid to be a high cordial and ludorifick, and to have 
 been given, alfo, in haemorrhages, with great fuccefs. 
 But whatever virtues it may poft'efs, we are not to exped 
 to find them in the ftones our drug-gifts now keep under 
 the name of topazes, thele being no other than fragments 
 of a yellowilh plated lpar, common ia lead mines, and 
 Vol. II, No. 73. 
 
 Tor 
 
 impregnated more or lefs with that metal. The topa i 
 itfelf, l'eems to owe its colour to lead, but the quantity 
 it contains of it is lb very inconfiderable, that it can be 
 of ho effed in the body, but may very well be fuppoieji 
 to leave it in the ftate of cryftai, which i'eems as much 
 as we are to imagine, really, of any of the genis ; but 
 this lpar, fold in its place, not only dii'cOvers that it holds 
 a great deal of lead by its weight, but we have f'eparated 
 lead from it, in no lei's a quantity than one-fifth of its 
 weight. 
 
 I OPHUS, in medicine, a calcarious, cr, rather, 
 chalky l.ubftance, growing in any part of the body. 
 
 1 OP1CK, in rhetorick, a probable argument drawn, 
 from the feveral circumltances and places of a fad, &c. 
 
 T OP 1 CE, 1 iopica , exprelfes the art or manner of in¬ 
 venting and managing all tilings of probable argumenta¬ 
 tions. 
 
 1 OPIC KS, or Iopical Remedies , are commonly 
 u-d for what we othervvife call external remedies, i. e. 
 fitch as are applied outwardly, to fome particular difeafed 
 and painful part. . 
 
 I OPOGRAPHY, a defeription or draught of fome 
 particular place, or fmali trad of land, as that of a city 
 or town, manor or tenement, field, garden, houfe, callle, 
 or the like; fuch as Purveyors let out in their plots, or 
 make draughts of, for the information and latisfadion of 
 the proprietors. 
 
 TORE, Torus, in architedure, a large round mould¬ 
 ing ufed in the.bafes of columns. 
 
 TOREUl ICE, that part of feu lpture called turning, 
 
 1 OR 1 ES, or 1 or ye s, a party or fadion in Eng¬ 
 land, oppoiltc to the whigs. 
 
 1 ORMENIIL, in botany, a genus of the icofandria 
 polvgynia clals. I lie cahx, confifts of eight iegment;s, 
 and the corolla of four petals; the feeds are roundilh, 
 naked, and fixed to a fmali dry receptacle. There arc 
 two Ipecics, both natives of Britain, viz. the ereda, or 
 tormentil; and the reptans, or creeping tormentil. 
 
 '1 ormentil-root has an auftere ftvptick tafte, accompa¬ 
 nied with an aromatick flavour ; it is one of the moll 
 agreeable and efficacious vegetable aftringents. 
 
 TORMINA, in medicine, a term lometimcs ufed to 
 exprefs pain in general, but more particularly a fpccies 
 of pain, called tormina ventris, or alvi, in Englilh, the 
 
 g'ipes. 
 
 1 ORNADO, orTuRNADo, a fudden and vehe¬ 
 ment gull of wind from all points of the compafs, fre¬ 
 quent on tiie coall of Guinea. See Hu rr io a ne. 
 
 I ORPEDO, the cramp or numb iifh, in ichthyology, 
 a fpccics of raia, the body of which is perfedly finooth, 
 and confiderably broad in proportion to its length ; the 
 roftrum, or lnout, is oblong and fubacute ; the back is 
 lomewhat gibboie ; the belly is flat, and the fides are 
 terminated by broad fins ; its colour 011 the back is a 
 dulky greyilh, and the belly is white. 
 
 The moll lingular property of this lifli is, that, when 
 out of the water, it affeds the hand or other part that 
 touches it, with a fenfation much like that which we 
 call the cramp ; the fliock is inihntaneous. andrefembles 
 that given by eledricity, only that the elfed lafts longer: 
 this is all the fifli can do ; but thofe who have related it, 
 have railed the efteds almofi into miracles* Reaumur 
 has given a long memoir, wherein he endeavours to ac¬ 
 count for this lingular phrenomenon, which lie refolves 
 into the inftantaneous adion of avail multitude of fmali 
 mufcles on the l'urface of the body of the fiffi : but there 
 feems fomething more required, in order to the perfedly 
 explaining l'o odd an effed. 
 
 TORQUE, in heraldry, denotes a round roll of cloth, 
 twilled and fluffed ; luch is the bandage, frequently feen 
 in annouiies, about the heads of Moors, &c. 
 
 It is always of the two principal colours of the coat; 
 and is accounted the leaft honourable decoration worn on 
 the helmet, by way of creft. 
 
 TORREFACTION, in chymiftry, is the roaffing 
 or fcorching of a body by the lire, in order to difeharge 
 apart either unneceffarv or hurtful in another operation ; 
 as fulpliur is thus dilcharged from an ore, before the 
 metal can be obtained to advantage. 
 
 1 QRRENT, Torrens, in geography, denotes a tem¬ 
 porary ft ream of water, falling fuddcnly from mountains, 
 wherein there have been great rains, or an extraordinary 
 thaw of fnow. 
 
 SH 
 
 TORRI- 
 
T O U 
 
 TORRICELLIANExperimekt, a famous expc- i 
 ri'ment made Torricelli, adilciple of the great Gallilco, I 
 which is explained under Baromete r. 
 
 TORRID Zone, among geographers, denotes that 
 traft of’thc earth lying upon the equator, and on each 
 fide as far as the two tropicks, or 23 0 30' of north and 
 fouth latitude. The torrid zone was believed, by the 
 ancients, to be uninhabitable ; but is now well known 
 to be not only inhabited by the natives of thole hot cli¬ 
 mates, but even tolerable to the people of the colder 
 climates, towards the north and fouth ; the excelfive heat 
 of .the day being there tempered by the coldnefs of the 
 night. 
 
 TORTOISE, Tejludo, in zoology. See Test udo. 
 
 TORTURE, a grievous pain inftifted on a criminal, 
 or perfon accufed, to make him confels the truth. 
 
 TOUCAN, in allronomy, a conftellation of the 
 fouthern hemifphere, confifting of eight fmall ftars, and 
 otherwife called Anfer Americanus. 
 
 TOUCH-Needle, among affayers, refiners, See 
 little bars of gold, filver, and copper, combined together 
 in all the different proportions and degrees of mixture ; 
 the ufe of which is to difeover the degree of purity of any 
 piece of gold or filver, by comparing the mark it leaves 
 on the touch-ftone, with thofeof the bars. 
 
 The metals ufually tried by the touch-llone, are gold, 
 filver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one another 
 in different degrees and proportions, by fufion. 
 
 In order to find out the purity, or quantity of bafer 
 metal in thefe various admixtures, when they are to be 
 examined, they are compared with thefe needles, which 
 are mixed in a known proportion, and prepared for this 
 ufe. The metals of thefe needles, both pure and mixed, 
 are all made into laminre, or plates, one-twelfth of an 
 inch broad, and a fourth part of their breadth in thick- 
 nels, and an inch and half long : thefe being thus pre¬ 
 pared, you are to engrave on each a mark indicating its 
 purity, or the nature and quantity of the admixture in it. 
 
 The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or the fofter 
 kinds of black pebbles, are the moll proper for touch- 
 ftones. 
 
 Now, the method of ufing the needles and fione is 
 this : the piece of metal to be tried, ought firft to be 
 wiped well with a clean towel, or piece of foft leather, 
 that they may the better fee its true colour ; for from this 
 alone an experienced perfon will, in fiome degree, judge 
 before-hand what the principal metal is, and how, and 
 with what, debafed. 
 
 Then chufe a convenient, not over large, part of the 
 furface of the metal, and rub it feveral times very hardly 
 and ftrongly againft the touch-ftone, that in cafe a de¬ 
 ceitful coat or cruft fbould have been laid upon it, it may 
 be worn off' by that friftion ; this, however, is more 
 readily done by a grind-llone, or fmall file, if you have 
 them at hand. Then wipe a fiat and very clean part of 
 the touch-ftone, and rub againft it, over and over, the 
 juft mentioned part of the furface of the piece of metal, 
 till you have, on the flat lurface of the ftone, a thin 
 metallick cruft, an inch long, and about an eighth of an 
 inch broad : this done, look out the needle that feems 
 moll like to the metal under trial, wipe the lower part 
 of this needle very clean, and then rub it againft the 
 touch-ftone, as you did the metal, by the fide of the other 
 line, and in a direftion parallel to it. 
 
 When this.is done, if you find no difference between 
 the colours of the two marks, made by your needle and 
 the metal under trial, you may with great probability 
 pronounce that metal and your needle to be ot the fame 
 alloy, which is immediately known by the mark engraved 
 on your needle. But if you find a difference between 
 the colour of the'mark given by the metal, and that by 
 the needle you have tried, choofe out another needle, 
 either of a*darker or lighter colour than the former, as 
 tAe difference of the tinge on the touch-ftone directs ; 
 and by one or more trials of this kind you will be able to 
 determine which of your needles the metal anfwers, and 
 thence what alloy it is of, by the mark of the needle ; or 
 elfe you will find that the alloy is extraordinary, and not 
 to be determined by the comparifon of your needles. 
 
 TOUR, a French term, frequently ufed for a journey 
 or progrefs through one or more countries. 
 
 TOURNEFORTIA, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 wWe flower-cup is fmall, and divided into five fegments: 
 
 1 
 
 T R A 
 
 [the corolla is monopetalous and funnel fliaped, the tube 
 I of which is cvlindrick and globular at the bafe, and the 
 limb is divided into five acute fegments, which fpread 
 open horizontally : the fruit is a globofe fucculent berry, 
 containing four oblong oval feeds, feparated by the pulp. 
 
 This genus is the fame with the pittonia of Plumier. 
 
 TOURNEQUET, in furgery, an inftrument made 
 of rollers, compreffes, ferews, &c. for comprefling any 
 wounded part, lb as to ftop haemorrhages. 
 
 TOWER, Turris , atall building, confiftingof feveral 
 ftories, ufually of a round form, though fometimes fquare 
 or polygonal. 
 
 TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable num¬ 
 ber of people, being of a middle flze between a city and 
 a village. 
 
 TRACHEA, in anatomy, called alfo afpera arteria, 
 and in Engliih the wind-pipe, is a tube or canal, ex¬ 
 tended from the mouth to the lungs ; its fltuation is in 
 the middle and anterior part of the neck; and it is con- 
 nefted with the fauces, the lungs, and the cefophagus. 
 Anatomifts commonly divide it into two parts, the larynx, 
 and afpera arteria properly fo called. See Larynx and 
 As per a Arteria. 
 
 TRACHEOTOMY, in furgery, the name of an 
 operation otherwife called Bronchotowy, which fee. 
 
 TRACT, in geography, an extent of ground, or a 
 portion of the earth’s lurface. 
 
 Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmall 
 treatile, or written difeourfe, upon any fubjeft. 
 
 TRACTION, the aft of drawing, whereby a thing 
 is brought nearer to the mover. 
 
 TRACTRIX, in geometry, a curve otherwife called 
 catenaria. See Catenari a. 
 
 TRADE, in general, denotes the fame with com¬ 
 merce, conflfting in buying, felling, and exchanging of 
 commodities, bills, money, See. 
 
 The firft notions of trade arofe from the light of na¬ 
 ture. One family no fooner found that they could not 
 live without the alfiftancc of another, but they eftablilhed 
 a trade by way of barter. As the nations increafed, 
 markets were every where eftablilhed for the fame pur- 
 pofe, where a fheep was exchanged for a fack of corn, 
 or an ox for fome other neceffaries of life. This intro¬ 
 duced the ufe of weights and meafures ; but trade never 
 became an art, till the invention of fpinning and weav¬ 
 ing, whofe manufactures introduced a variety of dealing. 
 
 T r ade-W 1 nds, denote certain regular winds'at fea, 
 blowing either conftantly the fame way, or alternately 
 this way and that; thus called from their ufe in naviga¬ 
 tion, and the Indian commerce. 
 
 The trade-winds are of different kinds, fome blowing 
 three or fix months of the year one way, and then the 
 like fpace of time the oppofite way ; thefe are very com¬ 
 mon in the Indian feas, and are called monfoons, which 
 fee. Others blow conftantly the fame way; luch is that 
 general wind between the tropicks, which off at fea, is 
 found to blow all day long from eaft to weft. 
 
 TR ADESCANTI A, Virginia fpider-wort, in bo¬ 
 tany, the root of which is perennial, and is propagated 
 by lowing its feeds when ripe. This is the fame with 
 the ephemerum of Tournefort. 
 
 TRADITION, among ecclefiaftical writers,denotes 
 certain regulations regarding the rites, ceremonies, See. 
 of religion, which are fuppofed to have been handed down 
 from the days of the apoftles to the prefent time. 
 
 Tradition is diftinguilhed into written , whereof there 
 are fome traces in the writings of the ancient fathers; 
 and unwritten , or oral , whereof no mention, is made in 
 the writings of the firft ages of Chriftianity. 
 
 TRAGACANTHA, goats-thorn, in botany, agenus 
 of plants, whofe flower is papilionaceous ; the vexillum 
 is long, ereft, indented at the point, and the borders 
 reflexed ; the wings are oblong, and fhorter than the 
 vecillum, and the carina is the length of the wings, and 
 emarginated ; the ftamina confifts of 10 filaments, nine 
 of which are joined together, thefe are topped with 
 roundilh anthene ; the fruit is alhort fwellingpod, hav¬ 
 ing two longitudinal cells, which contain kidney-fhaped 
 feeds. 
 
 Gum-tragacanth, or, as fome call it, gum-adragant, 
 or gum-dragon, is the produce of this fhrub, which 
 grows to about four feet high, and has 3 firm and robuft 
 Hera, with numerous branches: 
 
 TRAGEA, 
 
T R A T R A 
 
 TR AGE A, in pharmacy, anaromatick powder, grofsiy 
 beaten and mixed with i'ugar, taken by way of carmi¬ 
 native. 
 
 TRAGEDY, a dramatick poem, reprefcnting fome 
 fignal aft ion performed by illuftrious perfons, and which 
 has frequently a fatal blue, or end. 
 
 Ariftotle, more fcientifically, defines tragedy, the.imi¬ 
 tation of one grave and entire aft-ion, of a juft length, 
 and which, without the afiiftance of narration, by raif- 
 ing of terror and companion, refines and purges our pal- 
 lions. This definition has given the criticks fome per¬ 
 plexity; and Corneille declares he cannot reconcile 
 Ariftotle with himfelf: the inftances Ariftotle cites, lie 
 thinks, ruin his own definition ; he even denies the 
 purging our paflions to be the end of tragedy. Our 
 Englifh authors are more favourable to the definition ; 
 by the purging our paflions, they underftand not the 
 extirpating them, but the reducing them to juft bounds ; 
 for by fhewing the miferies that attend a lubjeftion to 
 them, it teaches us to watch them more narrowly and 
 by feeing the great misfortunes of others, it leflens the 
 fenfe of our own. * 
 
 Tragedy, in its original, M. Hedelin obferves, was only 
 a hymn fung in honour of Bacchus, by feveral perfons, 
 who, together, made a chorus of mufick, with dances 
 and inftruments. As this was long, and might fatigue 
 the fingers, as well as tire the audience, they bethought 
 themfelves to divide the tinging of the chorus into feveral 
 parts, and to have certain recitations in the intervals. 
 Accordingly Thefpis firft introduced a perfon upon the 
 ftage with this view. TEfchylus, finding one perfon in- 
 iufficient, introduced a Second, to entertain the audience 
 more agreeably, by a kind of dialogue : he alfo cloathed 
 Iris perlons more decently, and firft put on them the 
 bufkin. 
 
 The perfons who made thefe recitations on the feene, 
 were called aftors ; fo that tragedy was at firft without 
 aftors. And what they thus rehearfed, being things 
 added to the finging of the chorus, whereof they were 
 no neceflary part, were called epifodes. 
 
 Sopho.cles found that two perfons were not enough for 
 the variety of incidents, and accordingly introduced a 
 third ; and here the Greeks feemed to have flopped ; at 
 leaft, it is very rare that they introduced four fpeakers in 
 the fame feene. 
 
 Tragedy and comedy were, at firft, confounded with 
 each other, but were afterwards lcparated; and the poets 
 applied themfelves .to the cultivating of tragedy, negleft- 
 ing comedy. 
 
 When tragedy was got into a better form, they changed 
 the meafure of its verle, and endeavoured to bring the 
 aftion within the compafs of a day, or of a revolution 
 of the fun. 
 
 The Englifh received the firft plait of their drama from 
 the French, among 1 whom it had its ril'c towards the end 
 ©f Charles V. under the title of chant-royal, which con- 
 fifted of pieces in verfe, 1 compofed in honour of the Vir¬ 
 gin, or feme of the faints, and fung on the ftage : they 
 were called by the title of chant-royal, becaufe the fubjeft 
 was given by the king of the year, or the perfon who 
 bad borne away the prize the year preceding. 
 
 The humour of theft pieces ran wonderfully among 
 the people, infomuch that in a little time there were 
 formed feveral focieties, who began to vie with each 
 other : one of tliefe, to engage the town from the reft, 
 began to intermix various incidents or epifodes, which 
 they diftributed into afts, feen'es, and as many different 
 perfons as were neccffarv for the reprelcntation. Their 
 firft eflfay was in the Bourg St. Maur, and their fubjedl 
 the paflion of our Saviour. The provoft of Paris pro¬ 
 hibiting their continuing of it, they made application to 
 court; and to render it the more favourable to them, 
 elefted themfelves into a friary or fraternity, under the 
 title of brothers of the paflion : which title has- given 
 fome occafion to fufpeft them to have been an order of 
 rcligitms. The king; on feeing and approving fome of 
 thefe pieces, granted, them letters of eftablifhmerit, in 
 1402'; upon which they built a theatre, and for an-age 
 and a half afted none but grave pieces, till, the people 
 growing weary of them, they began to intermix farces, 
 or interludes, from prophane fubjefts. 
 
 The mixing of farce and religion difpleafing many, 
 they were re-eftabliflied by an arrqt of parliament, in 
 
 154&, on condition of their adling none but. proper, 
 lawful, and.decent fubjefts, without intermeddling with 
 any of the myileries of religion ; and thus were the bro¬ 
 thers of the paflion defppned of their religious charaflcr : 
 upon which they mounted the ftage no more in perfon, 
 but brought up a new fet of comedians, who a died under 
 their direction. 
 
 Thus was the drama eftablifhed, and on this founda¬ 
 tion arrived in England. In procefs of time, as it was 
 improved, it became divided into two branches, agree¬ 
 able to the pradlice of the ancients, and the nature of 
 things, viz. into tragedy and comedy, properly fo called ; 
 and this laft again was Subdivided into pure comedy and 
 farce. 
 
 TRAGI-COMEDY, a dramatick piece partaking of 
 the nature both of tragedy and comedy, the event whereof 
 is not bloody or unhappy, and wherein is admitted a 
 mixture of lefs ferious characters. 
 
 The foundation of tragi-comedy is certainly bad; for 
 endeavouring to make us laugh and cry by turns, it en¬ 
 deavours at contrary motions, which the heart can never 
 undergo; every thing that difpofes for the one, indifpol- 
 ing for the other: for which reafon it is at prefent, with 
 great juftice, di fuled. However, tragi-comedy is the 
 only way wherein.comedy is allowed to introduce kings 
 and heroes. 
 
 TRAGOPOGON, goats-beard, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, whofe flower is compound, imbricated, and 
 uniform, confifting of a number of ligulated flofcules, 
 quinquedentated at the ends ; there is no pericarpi-um, 
 but the feeds, which are oblong, angulated, rough, and 
 crowned with a plumofc down, are contained in the cup, 
 and placed on a fcabrous, naked, flat receptacle. 
 
 This genus includes the falfafy. 
 
 TRA.GOSEEINUM, in botany, Tourneforps name 
 for the pimpinella of Linnaeus. 
 
 TRAGUS, in anatomy, one of the protuberances of 
 the auricle, or external car, called aflo hircus, bccaufe 
 ufually hairy. The tragus is that protuberance next die 
 temple : that on the oppqfite fide, tp which the foft lobe 
 of the ear is annexed, is called the antigragus. See Ear. 
 
 TRAJAN Column, a famous liiftorical column 
 erected in Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It 
 is of the Tufcan order,.though fomething irregular; its 
 height is eight diameters, and its pcdeftal Corinthian : 
 it was built in a large Square there, called Forum Ro- 
 manum. Its bale confifts of 12 ftones of an enor¬ 
 mous fize, and it is railed on a Socle, or foot of eight 
 fteps; within-fide is a ftair-cafe, illuminated with 44 
 windows. It is 140 feet high, which is 35 ffiort of the, 
 Antonine column, but the workmanlhip of the former 
 is much more valued. It is adorned from top to bot¬ 
 tom with baffo relievos, reprefcnting the great aflions of 
 that emperor againft the Dacai. 
 
 TRAJECTORY of a Comet , is its path or orbit, or 
 the line it deferibes in its motion. See Comet. 
 
 TRAIL-Board, in a fhip, a carved board on each 
 fide of her beak, which reaches from the main ftem to 
 the figure, or the brackets. 
 
 TRAIN, the attendance of a great perfon, or the 
 trail of a gown, or robe of ftate. 
 
 In falconry, it denotes the tail of an hawk. 
 
 , Train, for the number of b?ats \vhich a watch makes 
 in an hour, or anv other certain time. 
 
 Train, is alfo ufed for a line 91 gun-powder, laid 
 to give fire to a quantity thereof, ip order to do execu¬ 
 tion by blowing up earth, works, buildings, Sec. 
 
 Train, oi-Traile of Artillery, includes the great 
 guns* and other pieces of ordnapcc belonging to an army 
 in the field. See Cannon. 
 
 Train-Oil, the oil procured from the blubber of a 
 whale by boiling. 
 
 Train-Bands, or Trained-Bands, a name 
 given to the.militia of England. 
 
 'BRAINING, or Tracing, in mineralogy, a term 
 ufed by the miners, to exprefs the tracing up the mine¬ 
 ral appearances on the fur face of the earth to their head, 
 or original place, and there finding a mine of the metal 
 they contain. See Mine. 
 
 TRAM BEING of Ain Ore, among miners, the waffl¬ 
 ing it very clean,“ which is done in a fhovel, and in a 
 frame of boards. See Tin. 
 
 TRAMEL, an inftrument, or device, fometimes of 
 
 leather, 
 
t 
 
 T R A 
 
 leather, more ufually of rope, fitted for a horfe’s legs, 
 to regulate his motions, and form him to an amble. It 
 is alfo taken in many places for an iron moveable inftru- 
 mc'nt in chi mines to hang pots over the fire. 
 
 T RANSACTION, Tranfqclio , ih the tivil Jaw, an 
 accommodation of fome bufinefs, or difpute between two 
 parties, by a mutual and voluntary agreement between 
 them. See Accommodation. 
 
 Philofopbical Transactions, a kind of journal of 
 tire principal things that come before the Royal Society. 
 See Society. 
 
 TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcend ant, 
 fornething elevated, or railed above other things ; which 
 palfes and tranfeends the nature of other inferior things. 
 
 Transcendental Quantities, amoriggeometrici¬ 
 ans, are indeterminate ones, or filch as cahnot be fixed or 
 expreffed by any coriftailt equation : fucli are all tran- 
 fcendental curves, whicli cannot be defined by any alge- 
 braick equation : Or which, when exprefled by any equa¬ 
 tion, one of the terms thereof is a variable quantity. 
 
 TRANSCRIPT, a copy of ally original writing, 
 particularly that of an aft, or iiiilrument, inlerted in the 
 body of another. 
 
 TRANSFER, in commerce, See. an aft whereby a 
 perfon furrenders his right, intereft, or property, in any 
 thing moveable or immoveable to another. 
 
 The term transfer is chiefly ufed for the afligning and 
 making over fllares in the Hocks, or publick funds, to 
 fiich as nurchafe them of the proprietors. 
 
 TRANSFORMATION, in general, denotes a 
 change of form, or the alfuining a new form different 
 from a former one. 
 
 The chymifts have been for a long time fecking the 
 transformation of metals; that is, their tranfmutation. 
 cr the manner of changing them into gold. Sec the 
 article Transmutation. 
 
 Transformation of Equations. The doftrine of 
 the transformation of equations, and of exterminating 
 their intermediate terms, is thus taught by Mr. Mac- 
 Laurin. The affirmative roots of an equation are 
 changed into negative roots of the fame value, and the 
 negative roots into affirmative, by only changing the 
 fig ns of the terms alternately, beginning with the fie- 
 cond. Thus, the roots of the equation, x* — x 3 — iqx' 
 4- 49 x —30—o, are 4* 1, + 2, -f 3, -f 4, —5 ; whereas 
 the roots of the fame equation having only the figns of 
 the fecond and fourth terms changed, viz. ** + x 3 — 1 9* 1 
 
 49*—3°—°’ are ~ 1 ’ — 2 > —3 + 5- 
 
 TRANSFUSION, Tranfujio , the aft of pouring a 
 liquor out of one veffel into another. 
 
 T r a n s f it s 16 n of the Blood, i n furgery, the convey¬ 
 ing of the arterial blood of one man, or animal, into 
 the veins of another. 
 
 The generality of phyficians, not without reafon, at¬ 
 tribute mod diforders of the body to fome vice in the 
 blood, and, therefore, fome were led to think, that no 
 method could be more ready to remove and correft that 
 vice, than injefting a proper medicine in the veins to 
 mix with tire blood itfelf, or- the transfufing the found 
 blood of one animal into the veins of another, infiead of 
 that which is difeafed. But, notwithftanding the vail 
 expeftations which had been formed by phyficians from 
 this operation, frequently the event turned worfe than 
 the dileafe ; for we are told, that alrnoft all the patients 
 who have been treated this way, degenerated into a ftu- 
 pidity, foolilhnefs, or a raving, or melancholy madneis, 
 or have been taken off with a fudden death, either in, 
 or not long after, the operations. 
 
 For the transfufion of blood into the veins, firft, a 
 vein is to be opened in the patient’s arm, or hand, and 
 then a fmall tube of filver, brafs, or ivory, thruft up¬ 
 ward into it; the fame is to be done with the found per- 
 Ton, only the tube mull here be inlerted downward, to¬ 
 ward the" fmall end of the vein ; this done, the final left 
 of the tubes is to be inlerted into the other larger one ; 
 by which means, as much blood will pals from the found 
 • perfon into the patient as may be thought proper, and 
 'their the incifcd veins are to be dreffed, or bound up, as 
 in bleeding : if the patient does not recover after the firft 
 transfufion, the operation lhould be repeated again, at 
 ' convenient intervals ; but before the patient receives the 
 blood of the found perfon, he ought to be bled propor- 
 fionablv, that the hew blood laft received may have the 
 
 T R A 
 
 freer circulation. Sometimes a vein is opened in each 
 arm of the patient at the fame time, that as much of the 
 vitiated blood may flow out of one oiifice, as he receives 
 of tire found by another. 
 
 If the blood is to be transfufed out of fome animal 
 into the patient, then a calf or a lamb, for example, is 
 to be fecured by ligatures, and one of their veins or ar¬ 
 teries opened in the neck, leg, or thigh, and the reft of 
 the operation managed as before. 
 
 T RANSIT, Tninfitus, in aftronomy, fignifies the 
 paffage of any planet, juft by, or over a fixed liar, or 
 the fun, and of the moon in particular, covering or 
 moving over any planet. 
 
 TRANSITION, in mufick, is when a greater note 
 is broken into a lefs, to foften the roughnefs of a leap by 
 a gradual paftage to the next note following ; whence it u 
 commonly called the breaking of a note. 
 
 Transition, in rhetorick, is of two forts; the firft 
 is when a fpeech is introduced abruptly, without exprefs 
 notice given of it; as when Milton gives an account of 
 our firft anceftor’s evening devotions; 
 
 Both turn’d, and under open Iky ador’d 
 
 The God that made both air, Iky, earth, and heav’n.—* 
 
 •-Thou alfo mad’ft the night, 
 
 Maker omnipotent, and thou the day ! 
 
 The fecond fort of tranfition is, when a writer fuddenly 
 leaves the lubjeft he is upon, and pafles unto another, 
 from which it feems different at firft view, but has a re¬ 
 lation and conncftion with it, and ierves to illuftrate 
 and enlarge it. 
 
 TRANSITIVE, in grammar, an epithet applied to 
 fucli verbs as lignify an aftion which pafles from the lub¬ 
 jeft that does it, to or upon another fubjeft which re¬ 
 ceives it. Under the head of verbs tranfitive, come what 
 we ufually call verbs aftive and paflive; other verbs, 
 whole aftion does not pals out of tliemfelves, are called 
 neuters, and by fome grammarians, intranfitives. 
 
 TRANSLATION, the aft of transferring or re¬ 
 moving a thing from one place to another; thus we fay, 
 the tranflation of a bilhop’s lee, a council, a feat of 
 juftice, &c. 
 
 Translation, is alfo ufed for the verfion of a 
 book, or writing, out ol one language into another. 
 
 TRANSMARINE, fornething that comes from, or 
 belongs to, the parts beyond lea. 
 
 TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or tranflation 
 of a whole people into another country, by the power oi 
 a conqueror. 
 
 T ransmigratio n , is particularly ufed for the paf- 
 fage of a foul out of one body into another, being th® 
 fame with what we otlierwife call metcmphfychofis. See 
 Metempiisychosis. 
 
 TRANSMISSION, in opticks, he. the aft of a 
 tranfparent body palling the rays of light through it:, 
 fubftance, or fullering them to pafs : in which fenfe, 
 the word Hands oppoled to reflection. 
 
 Tranfmiffion is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe 
 with refraftion, by which molt bodies, in tranfmitting 
 the ravs, do alfo refraft them. The rays of light, Sir 
 llaac Newton oblerves, are fubjeft to fits of cafy tranf- 
 miflion and refleftion. See Light. 
 
 For the caule ol tranfmiffion, or the reafon why fome 
 bodies tranl'mit, and others refleft the rays. See tire ar¬ 
 ticles Opacity and Transparency. 
 
 TRANSMUTA TION, the aft of transforming or 
 changing one nature into another. 
 
 Nature, Sir lfaac Newton obferves, feems delighted 
 with tranfmutations ; he goes on to enumerate feveral 
 kinds of natural tranfmutations; grofs bodies, and light, 
 he fufpefts, may be mutually tranfinuted into each 
 other ; and adds, that all bodies receive their aftive force 
 from the particles of light which enter their compofition. 
 For all fixed bodies, when well heated, emit light as 
 long as they continue fo ; and again, light intermingles 
 itlelf, and inheres in bodies, as often as its rays fall on 
 the folid particles of thole bodies. Again, water, which 
 is a fluid, volatile, taftelefs fait, is by heat tranfinuted 
 into a vapour, which is a kind of air ; and by cold, into 
 ice, which is a cold tranfparent brittle Hone, eafily dif- 
 folvable, and this ftone is convertable again into water 
 by heat, as vapour is by cold. 
 
 Earth, by heat, becomes fire j and by cold, is con¬ 
 verted 
 
TR A 
 
 Vetted into earth again : denfe bodici, by fermentation, 
 are rarified into various kinds of air; and that air, by 
 fermentation alfo, and fomctimes without, reverts into 
 grofs bodies. , Quickhlvcr fomctimes puts bn the form 
 of a fluid rfietalj lomctimcs it appears in lhapc of a pel¬ 
 lucid fragile fait, called fublimatc; fometimes of a pel¬ 
 lucid, volatile, white, taflelefs earth, called mercurius 
 dulcis; by diftillation, it becomes vapour; and by agi¬ 
 tation in vacuo, it fhines like fire, fee. 
 
 All bodies, beafts, fillies, infefts, plants, &c. with all 
 their various parts, grow and increafe out ot water, and 
 aqueous and laline tinftures; and by putrefaftion, all 
 of them revert into water or an aqueous liquor again. 
 Farther, water expoled a while to the open air, puts on 
 a tinfture, which, in procefs ol time, has a fediment and 
 a fpirit, and before putrefaction, yields nourifliment both 
 for animals and vegetables. 
 
 Transmutation, in alchemy, denotes the art of 
 changing or exalting imperfeft mctkls into gold orfilver. 
 
 This is alfo called the grand operation, and they lay, 
 is to be effeCted with the philofophcr’s {tone. 
 
 Some alchemifts hold, that the tranfmutation fhould 
 rather be called the perfection of imperfeCt metals; as 
 holding all metals, intended by nature to arrive equally 
 at the perfection ofgold, in as much as they arc compofed 
 of the fame matter ; and that it is only the impurity of 
 their matrices, that is, in the place wherein they are 
 formed by nature, that has prevented their arriving 
 thereat. The elixir being projected on any of thcle 
 metals, it is fuppofed to purge and feperate the impure 
 parts from tire pure, and to join itlelf wholly to the 
 mercury (which is the pureft part) as being of the fame 
 nature. 
 
 Whether metals may be tranfmuted into one another, 
 or not, is a point ftrongly difputed among philofophers; 
 the alchemifts ftrenuoully aflerting the affirmative. 
 
 T rans mutation, in geometry, denotes the reduc¬ 
 tion or change of one figure, or body, into another of 
 the fame area or folidity, but of a different form ; as a 
 triangle into a fquare, a pyramid into a parallelopiped, 6cc. 
 
 In the higher geometry, tranfmutation is ufed for the 
 converting a figure into another of the fame kind and or¬ 
 der, whole refpeftive parts rife to the fame dimenfions 
 in an equation, admit of the fame tangents, 6cc. 
 
 If a reClilinear figure be tranfmuted into another, it is 
 fufficient that the interfeftions of the lines which corn- 
 pole it, be.transferrcd, and the lines drawn through the 
 fame in the new figure. If the figure to be tranfmuted 
 be curvilinear, the points, tangents, and other right- 
 lines, by means whereof the curve line is to be defined, 
 muft be transferred. 
 
 TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that 
 is framed acrofs a double light window. See Window. 
 
 Transom, among mathematicians, fignifies thevane 
 of a crofs-ftaff, or a wooden number fixed acrofs, with 
 a fquare whereon it hides, 6cc. See Cross-Staff. 
 
 Transom, in a fhip, apiece of timber which lies 
 athwart the ftern, between the two falhion-pieces, di- 
 reftly under the gun-room port. 
 
 TRANSPARENCY, Diaphaneity , in phyficks, a 
 quality in certain bodies whereby they give pafiage to the 
 rays of light; in contradiftinftion to opacity, or that 
 quality of bodies which renders them impervious to the 
 rays of'light. See Opacity. 
 
 TRANSPIRATION, the infenfible, or almoft in- 
 fenfible pafiage of an excremcntitious matter through the 
 pores of the fkin, called alfo perfpiration. 
 
 Transpiration, is alfo uied by lome authors for 
 the ingrefi or entrance of the air, vapour, 6tc. through 
 the pores of the fkin into the body. 
 
 Cardan, by this kind of tranlpiration, accounts for the 
 prodigy of a woman, whole daily urine weighed 27 
 pounds, though all the food file took, both dry, and 
 liquid, did not exceed four pounds. 
 
 Dr. Baynard alfo fufpefts fome fuch tranfpiration to 
 be the calc in hydropical perfons. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING, iii agriculture and garden¬ 
 ing, the aft of removing trees or plants from the places 
 where they were fowed, or railed, and planting them in 
 others. See Planting.. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION^ the aft of conveying or 
 carrying a thing from one .place to another. 
 
 Tranfportation is a kind of punilhment, or morepro- 
 Vol. II. No. 73. 
 
 T R A 
 
 perlv an alleviation or commutation of punifhment, for 
 criminals cbnvifted of felony, who, for the firft offence 
 (unlcfs it be an extraordinary'one) were generally trans¬ 
 ported to the plantations., but now to the ballaft-hghtcr, 
 there to bear hard labour for-a term of years. 
 
 Transportation of Plants , is the fending of plants 
 from one country to another; in performing. which; 
 great cautions are neceflary. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION, in algebra, the bringing any 
 term of an equation over to the other fide. 
 
 Tr^nspos it ion, in grammar, a difiurbing or dif- 
 locating of the words in a dilcdurle, or a changing of their 
 natural order of conftruftion, to pleafe the ear by render¬ 
 ing the contexture more^eafy, fmooth, and harmonious. 
 
 I ran spo sit 1 on, in mufick, is a changing of the, 
 notes of a piece of mufick, or the lhifting a fong from its 
 former fituarion, to fet it either higher or lower, or in 
 another oftave. 
 
 TRAN SUBSTANTIATION, Pi’anfubflanliatio , in 
 theology, is the converfion or change of the fubflance of 
 the bread and wine in the eucharift, into the bodv and 
 blood of Jefus Chrift, which the Romiffi church main¬ 
 tains is wrought by the confecration of the prieft. 
 
 T 11 is is one of tiiofe principle articles, oil. which the 
 Protvfiants differ from the Papifts. The Pioteflants be¬ 
 lieve, that Chrift is received fpiritually and by faith in 
 the lacrament ; while the Papifts afiert that the elements 
 of bread and wine are aftually and lubftantia[ly changed 
 into the very body and blood of Chrift,-immediately 
 upon faying the words of confecration, fo as to leave^uei-. 
 thcr bread nor wine remaining.' The one contend, that 
 the Words, Hoc ejl,corpus meu/n, “ This, is iny body,” 
 imply, that This 'Jignifes my body, and that the eucharift 
 (according to the words of the apoftle) only /hews forth 
 the Lord's death till he come: but the other inlift, that the 
 phrafe is to be taken literally , and that Chrift,. confe- 
 qucntly, eat his own body. The verb g/ 7 , in this cafe, 
 muft mean ftgnificat , as in other places, and particularly 
 in that (noticed by Zuinglius \n his book De Eueharijlia) 
 of Exodus xii. 11. where the pafchal lamb is expreflly 
 called the Lord’j Pajfover, orTranfit from Egypt. This 
 pafiage is alfo noticed by Witfius in his Mifcellanea Sacra, 
 
 lib. i. c. xxiv.-I he books, which have been written 
 
 upon this controvcrfy. are numberlefs. 
 
 TRANSUMPTION, Tranfumptio , in the fchools, A 
 fyllogifm by conceflion or agreement, ufed where a quef- 
 tion propofed is transferred to another, with this condi¬ 
 tion, that the proof of this latter fhould be admitted for 
 the proof of the former. 
 
 I R ANSVERSALIS, in anatomy, a name given to 
 feveral mufeies, &c. in refpeft of their lituation, progrefs, 
 Nc. as, 1. The tranfverfalis abdominis, a mufcle which 
 lies under the obliqui, and arifes from the cartila^o 
 xiphoides, from the extremities of the falfe ribs, from 
 rhe tranfverfe apophyfis of the vertebra of the loins, is 
 fixed to the inner fide of the fpine of the ileum, and in- 
 ferted in the os pubis and linea alba. This, with the 
 obliqui, unites .its tendons as it approaches the linea al¬ 
 ba, and is the only mufcle that is cut in the operation of 
 the bubonocele. It lias a fine, and thin membrane, that 
 clofes exaftly its ring, or hole through which thevefiels 
 pais. 2. Tranfverfalis colli, it is fa id to be a part of the 
 longiflimus dorfi. It arifes from the os’facrum, and from 
 all the tranfverfe proceflcs of the Vertebra of the loins, 
 back, and neck, except the two firft ; and is iiiferted by 
 fo many diftinft tendons into all the fuperior fpincs. It 
 moves the whole fpine obliquely backwards. 3. Tranf- ' 
 verlalis pedis placentini, comes from the bone of the me- 
 tatarfus that fuftains the toe next the little toe, and pafs- 
 ing acrofs the other bones, is iiiferted into the os lefk- 
 moides of the toe. Its ufe is to bring all the toesclofe to 
 one another. 4. Tranfverfalis penis, one of the dilators 
 of the urethra, arifing from the tubercle of the os ilchium 
 on each fide, and iiiferted into the pofterior part of the 
 bulb of the urethra; however, thefe mufc'Jes are not quite 
 determinate and certain in their origin or infertion, and 
 fometimes they are wholly wanting : when they aft, they 
 dilate the urethra in its pofterior part. 3. Tranfverfalis 
 is alfo a name given to a future of the cranium, becaufe 
 of its traverfing or croffing the face from one fide to 
 another. 
 
 rRANSVEE.SE, Something that goes acrofs another, 
 from corner to corner : thus, bends and bars, iii heraldry. 
 
 5 I A 
 
TRE T R E 
 
 are tranfverfe pieces or bearings : the diagonals of a pa-1 
 rallelogram, orafquare, are traniverfe lines: lines which | 
 make interfeftions with perpendiculars, are alfo called 
 oblique or tranfverfe lines. 
 
 Transverse-Musci.es, in anatomy, are certain 
 mufcles arifing from the tranfverfe procefles of the ver¬ 
 tebrae of the loins. 
 
 'J'RAPESIUM, in geometry, is a plane figure con¬ 
 tained under four unequal right lines. 
 
 TRAPEZOID, is a folid irregular figure, having 
 four fides not parallel to one another. 
 
 TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general, denotes 
 fomething that goes athwart another; that is, erotics 
 and cuts it obliquely. 
 
 Hence, to traverfe a piece of ordnance, among gunners, 
 fignifies to turn or point it which way one pleafes, upon 
 the platform. 
 
 In fortification, traverfe denotes a trench with a little 
 parapet, or bank of earth, thrown perpendicularly acrofs 
 the moat, or other woik, to prevent the enemy s can¬ 
 non from raking it. T hefe traverfes may be horn 12 
 to 18 feet, in order to be cannon proof, and their 
 heiglit about fix or feven feet, or more, if the place be 
 expol'ed to anv eminence. And to prefervea communi¬ 
 cation, a pafiage ot five or fix feet wide mull be left at 
 one end of the traverie. 
 
 If any part of a work, thus fhut in by one or more 
 traverfes, is likely to be defended by the muiketry, it will 
 be proper to add to the traverfes one or more footbanks 
 within the defence, for the troops to mount on, when 
 they want to fire over the traverfe. 
 
 Tr averse, in navigation, is a compound courfe, 
 wherein feveral different iuccellive courfcs and diflances 
 are known. 
 
 To work a traverfe, or to reduce a compound courfe 
 to a Tingle one, 1. Make a table of fix columns, marked 
 courfe, diilance, N. S. E. W. beginning at the left-hand, 
 and write the given courles and diflances in their proper 
 columns, 2. Seek the given courfes and diflances in the 
 traverfe table, and let the correfponding differences of 
 latitude and departure be wrote in their proper columns 
 in the table made for the queflion. 3. Add up the co¬ 
 lumns of northing, fouthing, eafling, and welling; then 
 the difference between the iums of northing and fouth¬ 
 ing, gives the whole difference of latitude, which is of 
 the fame name with the greater; and the difference be¬ 
 tween the fums of calling and wefting will be the whole 
 departure, which is likewife of the lame name with the 
 greater. 4. The whole diff. lat. and depart, to the com¬ 
 pound courfe being found, the direft courfe and diftance 
 will be found. 
 
 Traverse, inlaw, denotes the denial of fome mat¬ 
 ter of faft alledged to be done in a declaration, or plead¬ 
 ings ; upon which the other fide coming and maintain¬ 
 ing that it was done, iffue is joined for the caufe to pro¬ 
 ceed to trial. 
 
 Traverse of an Indiffnient, or Prefentmert , is the 
 contradifting or denying fome chief point of it, and 
 taking iffue thereon. 
 
 Tr averse of an Office, is the proving that an inquifi- 
 tion made by lands or goods, is defeftive and untruly made. 
 
 TRAVESTY, or Travesti. a French term, de¬ 
 rived from the verb traveflir, to difguife one’s felf, or to 
 appear in mafqueradc ; and hence, travefly is applied to 
 the disfiguring of an author, or the tranilating him into 
 a fl'i 1c and manner different from his own, by which 
 means it becomes difficult to know him. 
 
 TR AVMATICKS, the fame with vulnerary medi¬ 
 cines. See Vu LNER AR Y. 
 
 TR E ACLE, Theriaca , in pharmacy. Some alfo give 
 tiie name treacle to molofles : and in this fenfe it is that 
 Dr. Shaw, in his Effay on Dillillery, has endeavoured 
 to bring into ufc feveral forts of treacles, which might 
 be made :u home, and would lerve very conveniently for 
 the diflillat 1011 of ipirits, or the making of potable li¬ 
 quors. Thefe are infpiffated juices or decoftions of vc- 
 C'etabies : fuch as the fweet juice ot the birch, or fyca- 
 incre, prot ured by tapping or piercing the trees in fpring, 
 and the common wort made from malt, or from other 
 vegetable fubftances treated in the fame manner. Thefe 
 liquors, are fcverally to be boiled down in a copper till 
 they begin to inlj iffue, and then to be poured into a 
 balneum mnime, when the remainder of the evaporation 
 
 may'be finifhed without burning the infpiffited juice* 
 thus prepared, it may be at any time reduced to the tl3ie or 
 wort, only by adding a lufficient quantity of warm water. 
 
 TREASON, in geneial, fignifies betraying; but is 
 more particularly uled for the aft or crime of infidelity 
 to one’s lawful fovereign. 
 
 Treafon is divided, by lawyers, into high-treafon, and 
 petty-treafon. Thelirft of thefe is an offence committed 
 againft the fecurity of the king or kingdom: as to com- 
 pals, or imagine, the death of the king, queen, or their 
 eldeft foil and heir; or in cafe a perlon does violate or 
 deflower the king’s wife, or his eldell daughter unmarried, 
 or the wife of the king’s eldell fon ; or if he levy war 
 againll the king within his kingdom, or adhere to his 
 enemies, give them aid or comfort within the realm, or 
 elfewhere; or if he counterfeit the king’s great or privy 
 leal, or his money, or bring falle money into the king¬ 
 dom, like to what wc have here, and utter the fame : if 
 he kill the chancellor, treafurer, jullices of either bench, 
 juilices of affize, or of oyer and terminer, fitting in 
 judgment and reprefenting the king’s perfon, in the ex¬ 
 ecution of his office : all thefe cafes are deemed treafon 
 by 25 Ed. III. c. 2. which llatfite is made the only Han- 
 dard of high-treafon; and 1 Mary c. 1. takes away the 
 power of the king and parliament to adjudge any thing 
 clfe to be high-treafon but what is declared to be lucli 
 therein : it is true, temporary llatutes of late times en¬ 
 abled, have made fome other offences treafon, as relating 
 to papifts and the protellant fucceffion. 
 
 It has been held, that words only, where they are de¬ 
 liberate, and fhew a direft purpote againll the king’s 
 life, will amount to an over-aft of compaffing or imagin¬ 
 ing his death, and are high-treafon : for words are the 
 moil natural way of expreffing the imagination of the 
 heart, and may be good evidence ot it : not only words 
 of perfuafion to kill the king, but fuch as are lpoken in 
 order to draw away the affections of his people, and to 
 flir them up againll him, are tending to the king’s death, 
 and therefore treafon. Likewife where a perfon intends by 
 force to prelcribe laws to the king, or to reftrain himof 
 his royal power, it has been adjudged an intention to 
 deprive him of his crown and life: and in the eye of the 
 law, every rebellion is a treafonable plot againft the life 
 of the king, for a rebel would not fuffer that king to live 
 and reign, who would punilh his offence. 
 
 As to make a crime treafon, there mull be always 
 fome overt-aft; a bare confpiracy, or compaffinguo levy 
 war, is no fuch aft, unlefs it be really levied ; -in which 
 cafe the confpirators are all traitors, ahhoVjgfcvrhey are not 
 in arms : porfons that raile forces foi ^iy pub lick end or 
 purpofe, or who make an infurra&idH'on any account, are 
 laid to levy war againft the king, though perhaps without 
 a direft defign againft his perlon ; and it extends to the 
 cafe where great numbers forcibly endeavour to remove 
 certain perfons from the king, ftc. The adhering to the 
 king’s enemies, is taken to be an adherence againll him, 
 and even out of the realm it is treafon: and it is laid, 
 that cruifing in a fhip of war with an intent to deftroy the 
 king’s fhips, though no aft of hoftility be committed, is 
 an overt-aft of adhering, comforting, and aiding. 
 
 All trials for high-treafon are to be according to the 
 courfe of the common law ; and perfons indifted for this 
 crime, are to have a copy of the indiftment five days be¬ 
 fore their trial, that they may have fufficient time to ad- 
 vife with council; they lhall likewife be permitted to 
 make a full defence by their council learned in the law, 
 and by lawful witneffes, Ac. And in this cafe there muft 
 be two evidences to the fame overt-aft, or to two afts of 
 ihe fame treafon, produced face to face againft them. 
 
 It is alfo faid, where a perfon is convifted of treafon, 
 the omiffion of any neceffary part of the judgment will be 
 held to be error, on which he may reverie the attainder ; 
 as the judgment is feverer, and more formidable, in cafe 
 of high treafon than for any other crime whatever; fincc 
 the offender is to be hanged, drawn and quartered, and 
 alfo forfeit his lands and goods to the king. 
 
 Petty- Treason, is where a fervant kills his mailer, 
 a wife her hulband, or a fecular or religious perfon kills 
 his prelate or luperior, to whom he owes faith and obe¬ 
 dience ; and aiders and abetters, as well as procurers, are 
 within the aft. However, fo ftriftly is the ftatute con- 
 llrued, that no cafe not exprellly mentioned therein is 
 punilhable by it; hence if a fon kill his father, he ffiali 
 
 not 
 
TRE 
 
 net be tried for petty-treafon, except lie fcivcd bis father 
 lor wages, in which calc he is to be indicted under the 
 name of a fervant. 
 
 Petty-treafon. implies the higheft degree of murder,« 
 and occalions the forfeiture of lands by efeheat to the 
 lord of the fee; and the further punHhment of the cri¬ 
 minal is to be hanged, drawn, and quartered for it, and 
 a woman to be burnt. 
 
 TREASURE, in general, denotes a {lore or llock of 
 money in referve. 
 
 Treasure-trove, in law, is where any treafure is 
 found buried in the earth, but not lying on the ground, 
 and no man knows to whom it belongs : this, in Eng¬ 
 land, belongs to the king; and to conceal it is punifhabfe 
 by fine and imprifonment. 
 
 TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of a 
 prince, or corporation, is committed to be kept and duly 
 difpofed of. 
 
 The lord high treafurer of Grcat-Britain, or com- 
 miffioners of the treafury, when the office is in corn- 
 million, has under charge and government all the king’s 
 revenue, which is kept in the Exchequer. He holds his 
 place during the king’s pleafure, being inflituted by the 
 delivery of a white ftaff to him ; he has the check of all 
 the officers employed incolle&ing the cufloms and other 
 royal revenues; and in his gift and difpolition, are all 
 the offices of the cufloms in the feveral ports of the king¬ 
 dom ; efeheators in every county are nominated by him ; 
 he alio makes leafes of the lands belonging to the crown. 
 
 There is, belides the lord-treafurer, a treafurer of the 
 king’s houlhold, who is of the privy-council, and, with 
 the comptroller and lie ward of the Marfhalfea, has great 
 power. 
 
 To tliefe may be added the treafury of the Navy ; as 
 alfo the treafurer of the king’s chamber, and of the 
 wardrobe; and moll corporations throughout the king¬ 
 dom have treafurers, whole office is to reccivc^their rents, 
 and difburfe their common expences. 
 
 TREASURY, the place wherein the revenues of i 
 prince are received, preferved, and difburfed. 
 
 In England, the treafury is part of the Exchequer, by 
 Some called the Lower Exchequer. See Exchequer. 
 
 TREATISE, ‘Tr a flatus, a let difeourfe in writing on 
 any fubjeft. A treatife is fuppofed more exprefs, formal, 
 and methodical than an eflay, but iefs fo than a fyftem. 
 See Essay and System. 
 
 TREATY, a covenant between two or more nations ; 
 or the feveral articles and conditions flipulated and agreed 
 upon between fovereign powers. 
 
 Treaties are of various kinds ; as treaties of peace, of 
 alliance, of commerce, See. for the guaranty of which, 
 fee Guaranty. 
 
 TREBLE, in mufick, the higheft or acuteft of the 
 four parts in fymphonv, or that which is heard the cleareft 
 and f brill eft in a concert. See Cleff. 
 
 TREE, Arbor, the firffc and largeft of the vegetable 
 creation, confifiing of a fingle trunk, or ftem, from 
 which ifTueth forth branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. 
 
 There are various kinds of trees; fome deciduous, as 
 the elm, lime, See. others evergreen, as the fir, pine, 
 holly, yew, Sic. They are alfo diftinguifhed, in the nur- 
 feries, into dwarfs and itandards, particularly fruit-trees. 
 
 Standard-trees are fuch as naturally rife to a great 
 height, and are not topped. For the choice of trees of 
 this kind to be t-ranl'planted out of a nurfery, Quintiney 
 recommends us to fuch as aid ftraight, fix feet high at 
 lea It, and five or fix inches thick at bottom, and three or 
 four at top; the bark pretty(Vnooth and Alining, as a 
 token of their youth, and of the good foil they grew in. 
 
 Dwarf-trees arc fuch as are kept low, and never fuf- 
 fered to have above half a foot or ftem. 
 
 ' Heat is fo eflcntial to rite growth of trees, that we fee 
 them grow larger and fmaller in a fort of gradation, as the 
 climates in which they Hand are more or lefs hot. The 
 Lotted: countries yield in general the largeft and tailed: 
 trees, and thofe alfo in much greater beauty and variety 
 than the colder do ; and even thofe plants which are com¬ 
 mon to both arrive at a much greater bulk in the fouthern, 
 than in the northern climates; nay, there are fome regions 
 fo bleak and chill, that they raife no vegetables at all to 
 anyconliderable height. Greenland, Iceland, and the like 
 places, afford no trees at all; and what fhrubs grow in 
 them are always little-and low. In the warmer climates, 
 
 T R E 
 
 whet'e trees grove to a moderate fize, any accidental di¬ 
 minution of the common heat is found very greatly to 1 
 1 impede vegetation-; and even in England, the cold fum- 
 mers we fonietimes have, give us an evident proof of this; 
 for though the corn and low plants have fucceeded well 
 enough, and goofeberries, currants, rafberrics and other 
 low fhfubs, have brought forth fruit in fufficient plenty, 
 yet the production of taller trees lias been found very 
 much hurt, and walnuts, apples, and pears, have been 
 very fcarcc among us. 
 
 Heat is heat, be it from what caufe it will, and a£ts as 
 well upon vegetation one way as another. Thus the heat 
 of dung, and the artificial heat of coal fires in ftoves, are 
 found to fupply the place of the fun. 
 
 Plantations of uleful trees might be made to very great 
 advantage in many places in every country, and the coun¬ 
 try greatly enriched by it, while the publick would be alfo 
 benefited by it, fince it would raife a continual fupply of 
 timber ufed in foip-building, and on other publick as well 
 as private occafions. 
 
 We have, in many places, heaths, and other barren 
 and uncultivated lands, of very great extent; and how 
 great an advantage would it be to the publick, to bring 
 thefe to be truly valuable ! Many, if not all of thefe 
 heaths, would be found, on trial, capable of producing 
 trees; and fome of them are truly the remains of deftroyed 
 forefts ; and, though the profits to be reaped from the 
 planting thefe would come late, yet the expence of doing 
 it would be very trifling in comparifon of that profit, and 
 the means eafy. 
 
 TREFOIL, Trtfolium , in botany, a genus of the 
 diadelphia decandria clafs ; of which genus the clover is 
 a fpecies. See Clover. 
 
 TREMELLA, in botany, a genus of cryptogamious 
 plants, of the flag kind ; they confift of an uniform fub- 
 ftance, which is foliacious, pellucid, and membranace¬ 
 ous. and in fome refpeCts like the lichen. See Lichen. 
 
 TREMBLING of the Joints, otTremour, is an 
 involuntary fhaking, chiefly of the hands and head, fome^ 
 times bf the feet, and fometimes of the tongue and heart. 
 
 It is a dflbtder which frequently attacks perfons advanced 
 in years, and fometimes the younger fort. It feems to 
 arife from a defe£l of fpirits, fometimes from terror, 
 or other violent paffion, and fometimes from a plethora. 
 Too much drinking of coffee alfo produces a tremour in 
 fome perfons, as too-plentifflFW'rinking and forfeits will 
 in others. Tremours are bftSn 'dangerous, as being apt 
 to degenerate into other nervous dillempers; as lpafms, 
 ‘the palfy, lethargy, apoplexy, kc. 
 
 In the cure, thofe things fhould be avoided that pro¬ 
 mote the difeafe, and the patient fhould drink balm or 
 fage tea, or a diet-drink made of China-root; Peruvian- 
 bark may alfo be taken, in an infufion of balm or fage, 
 or fuccinated fpirit of harts-horn, twice or thrice in a 
 day ; and in the evening an antifpafmodick powder may 
 be taken, efpecially if the patient is hot, or ufes much 
 wine. Outwardly, the neck and fpine of the back may¬ 
 be rubbed with the fpirits of ants, earth-worms, and fal 
 ammoniack, mixed together; a fourth part of the volatile 
 fpirits will be fufficient, or opodeldock may be ufed in 
 their Head. If the patient is plethorick, bleeding is ufe- 
 ful; and in old perfons, a draught of generous wine at 
 meals : pediluvia, hot-baths, and mineral waters, may 
 be alfo ufed, but with caution. 
 
 As to the medicine commonly ufed in tremours and 
 other nervous diftempers, under the name of pally-drops, 
 it is no other than compound fpirit of lavender ; the moil 
 luccelsful way of ufing which is by taking 30 or 40 drops, 
 twice or thrice a day, dropped on loaf-lugar, or a little 
 bread. It is fuppofed, that by this way, themoftfpiri- 
 tuous and efficacious parts make their way diredtly by 
 the nerves of the palate, kc. without undergoing the 
 courie ot the circulation, as it is faid to do when taken 
 in a liquid vehicle. 
 
 TRENCHES, in fortification, are ditches ctit by the 
 befiegers, that they may approach more fecurely to the 
 place attacked ; whence they are alfo called lines of ap¬ 
 proach. The tail of the trench is the place where it was 
 begun, and its head is the place where it ends. 
 
 The trenches are ufoally opened, or begun, in the 
 night time; fometimes within muftcet-ftiot, and fometimes 
 within half or whole cannon-foot of the place. They 
 are carried on in winding lines, nearly parallel to the 
 
 works 
 
T R I 
 
 works of the fortrefs, fo as not to be in the view of the 
 enemy, nor expofed to the eriemy’s fhot. 
 
 i he workmen employed in the trenches are ahvavs 
 fupported by a number of troops, to defend them againft 
 the rallies of the befieged : the pioneers fometimes work 
 on their knees, and are ufually covered with mantlets or 
 faucilTons ; and the men who fupport them lie fiat on 
 their faces, in order to avoid the enemy’s lhot. 
 
 I RENTAL, or Trigintal, a Rom if h office for 
 the dead, confiding of 30 mafies rehearfed for 30 days 
 fucceflively after the party’s death. See Mass. 
 
 1 REPAN, ‘lerebra, Modiolus, &c. in lurgery, an 
 inftrument ufed in trepanning. See the next article. 
 
 1 REPA-N NING, in lurgery, a perforation or open- 
 ing,^ made in the bones of the cranium, or fkull. 
 
 This operation was performed by the antients, not 
 only in tradtures and deprelfions of the cranium, but 
 alio in thofe other obftinate diforders of the head and 
 brain, which could not be relieved by internal medicines, 
 and the ufe of ifl'ues upon the coronal future; but the 
 modern furgeons never ufe the trepan for internal dif¬ 
 orders of the head, though they feldom ncglctt it in frac¬ 
 tures and deprelfions of the cranium. 
 
 X he trepan is therefore ufeful, not only in thefe cafes, 
 to elevate the deprefled parts of a fra&ured bone in the 
 cranium, but alfo to dilcharge the extravafated blood 
 through an aperture made by this inftrument. 
 
 I he leis time there is lofi, the better, before the ap¬ 
 plication of the trepan, but the operation itfelf mull be 
 condufted fiowly and carefully ; for it is extremely diffi¬ 
 cult, if not impofiible, to takeout a piece of the cranium 
 by this inftrument, without injuring the lubjaccnt dura 
 mater, to which it is moll intimately attached. 
 
 For this reafon, Heifier is induced to condemn the ad¬ 
 vice of thofe who diredl to trepan the cranium immedi¬ 
 ately upon every flight diforder of it: he therefore advifes, 
 firrt, to try the ufe of other remedies, both external and 
 internal, rather than immediately lubjedl the patient to 
 the trepan, before it is abfolutely necelfary. 
 
 In general, the place where the filfure appears will be 
 the moll convenient to apply the trepan, if nothing in¬ 
 dicates the contrary ; but in fractures, it will be proper 
 to trepan a little below the injured part, that the extrava¬ 
 fated blood may be more ealily difeharged. 
 
 After having pitched upon the part to be trepanned, 
 the next bufinels is to fhave the fcalp, and make an in- 
 cifion through the integuments to lay bare the cranium, 
 except it be done already by the wound. The incifions of 
 the integuments may be made in the form of a crofs, large 
 enough to admit the crown of the trepan upon the bone. 
 
 J REPIDATION, in medicine, the fame with tre- 
 mour, or trembling. See Trembling. 
 
 Trepidation, in the ancient aftronomy, denotes 
 what they call a libration of the eighth l'phere, or a mo¬ 
 tion which the Ptolematick fyftem attributed to the fir¬ 
 mament, to account for certain and almoft infenfible 
 changes and motions obferved in the axis of the world, 
 by means whereof the latitudes of the fixed ftars come to 
 be gradually changed, and the ecliptickfeems to approach 
 reciprocally fit ft towards one pole, then towards the other. 
 This motion is called the motion of the firfi libration. 
 TRESPASS, in law, fignifies any tranfgrelfion of the 
 law, under treafon, felony, or mifprilion of either; but 
 it is moft commonly ufed for any wrong or damage that is 
 done by one private perlon to another, or to the king in 
 his foreft, &cc. 
 
 The defendant in trefpafs can, by his plea, put the 
 plaintiff to a new aifignment of the place where, See. 
 
 TRESSURE, in heraldry, a diminutive of an orle, 
 ufually held to be half the breadth thereof. 
 
 TRET, in commerce, an allowance made for the 
 wafie, or the dirt, that may be mixed with any commo¬ 
 dity, which is always 41b. in every one 1041b. weight. 
 
 TRIAL, in law, the examination of a caufe, civil or 
 criminal, according to the laws of the land, before a 
 proper judge : or, it is the matter and order obferved in 
 the hearing and determining ofeaufes. 
 
 There are divers kinds of trials; as thofe of matters of 
 faff, which mull be tried by a jury; matters of law, 
 which arc only triable by the courts; and matters of re¬ 
 cord, which arc to be tried by the records themlelves. 
 
 TRIANDRIA, in botany, the name of the third 
 clafs in.the Linnxan fyftem, confifting of thofe plants 
 
 T R I 
 
 winch bear hermaphrodite flowers, each containing thrert 
 ltamina, or male parts. To this clafs belong the reed, 
 barley, wheat, &c. with moft of the grafs tribe. 
 
 I RIANGLE, in geometry, is a figure of three fidcs 
 and thiee angles, and either plane or fpherical. 
 
 PLne Triangle, is that contained under three right 
 lines, as A, B, C, LXXVI. fig. 3.) 
 
 Spherical Triangle, is that contained under three 
 arches of a great circle of the fpherc ; as A, B.C, (fig. 13.) 
 
 Of triangles there are feveral forts, as, 1. Aright- 
 angled triangle, is that which hath one right angle. 2. 
 An obtufe-angled triangle, is fuch as hath one obtufe 
 angle, 3. An acute-angled triangle, is that which hath 
 all its angles aedre. 4. Any triangle that is not right- 
 angled, is Called oblique-angled, or amblygonial. 3. An 
 equilateral triangle, is that which hath ail its fides equal 
 to one another. 6. An Ifofceles, or an equilateral tri¬ 
 angle, is that which hath only two fides equal. 7. A 
 .calenous triangle, is that which has no two fides equal. 
 In every triangle, the fum of all the three angles is equal 
 to two light ones; and the external ahgle, made by any 
 fide pioduced, is equal to the fum of the internal and its 
 oppofite one. 
 
 In every right-angled triangle, the fquareofthc hvpo- 
 thenufe is equal to the fum of the fquares of the other two 
 fides. This was difeovered by Pythagoras. 
 
 Every triangle is one half of a parallelogram of the fame 
 bafe and height. 
 
 The area of any triangle may be had by adding all the 
 three fidcs together, and taking half the fum, and from 
 that half fum fubtradling each fide feverally, and multi- 
 plying that half fum and the remainder continually into 
 one another, and extrafting the l'quare root of the produdh 
 TRIANGULAR Compasses, are fuch as have 
 three legs or feet, whereby to take off any triangle at 
 once, much ufed in the conftru&ion of maps, globes, &c.- 
 Triangular Numbers, are a kind of polygonal 
 numbers, being the fums of arithmetical progrelfions,- 
 the difference of whole terms is i. 
 
 1 hus — of arithmetical progrefs i 23456, 
 are formed triangular numbers 1 36 10 15 21. 
 
 Triangular Canon , the tables of artificial fines, 
 tangents, fecants, &c. 
 
 J RI angular Quadrant, is a fefior furnifhed with a 
 loofe piece, whereby to make it an equilateral triangle. 
 
 The calendar is graduated thereon, with the fun’s 
 place, declination, and other ufeful lines ; and by the help 
 of a firing and a plummet, and the divifions graduated 
 on the loofe piece, it may be made to ferve for a quadrant. 
 
 TRIANGUL ARIS, in anatomy, a name given to 
 two mufcles in refpeft of their figure. 
 
 The triangularis peftoris, which has fometimes the ap¬ 
 pearance of three or four diftimft mufcles, ariles from the 
 infide of the fternum, and is implanted into the cartilages,- 
 which join the four lovveft true ribs to the fternum. 
 
 The a<ftion of this mufcle is very oblcure, fince both 
 the organization and inlertion are at parts not moveable, 
 but together. Dr. Drake conjc&uies it may conduce 
 towards forming the neceflary incurvation of the fternum, 
 and by its over tenfion in children, while the cartilages 
 are loft, may occafion that morbid accumulation in the 
 fternum feen in rickety children. Others luppofe it may 
 contract the cavity of the thorax in exfpiration. 
 
 TRIARII, in the Roman militia, a kind of infantry 
 armed with a pike, a lhield, a helmet, and a cuirafs; 
 thus called, becaulc they made the third line of battle. 
 
 TRIAS Harmonica , or the Harmomcal Triad, in 
 mufick, a compound of three radical founds, heard all 
 together, two whereof are a 5th and 3d above the other, 
 which is a fundamental. 
 
 7 RIBE, Tribus , in antiquity, a certain quantity or 
 number of perfons, when a divifion is made of a city or 
 people into quarters or diftridh. 
 
 1 RIBULUS, caltrop, in botany, a genus of plants, 
 the corolla of which confifts of five oblong, obtufe, and 
 patent petals: its fruit is of a roundifh figure and acu- 
 leated, being compofed of five caplules, gibbous on one 
 fide, and armed with three or four points on the other, 
 angulated and convergent; and containing numerous 
 feeds, turbinated and oblong. 
 
 There are three pieces of this plant enumerated by 
 Mr. Miller > the firft of which is very common in the 
 fouth of France, in Spain, and Italy, where it grows 
 3 among 
 
T R I 
 
 among corn, and on raoft of the arable land, and Is very 
 troublefome to the feet of cattle; for the fruit being 
 armed with ftroilg prickles, run into the feet of cattle, 
 which walk over the land. This is certainly the' plant 
 which is mentioned in Virgil’sGeorgicks, under the name 
 of tiibulus, though moll of his commentators have ap¬ 
 plied it to other plants. 
 
 Ir is called in Englifh caltrop, from the form of the 
 fruit, which relembles thofe inftruments of war that 
 were call in the enemies way to annoy their horfes. 
 
 'I RIBUNAL, judgment-feat, or the feat of a judge, 
 called in our courts, bunch. 
 
 Tribu nAl, among the ancients, was alfo a place 
 from whence the people were harangued. 
 
 ’1 RIBUNE, 7 riiunus P/ebis , in antiquity, a Roman 
 magiftrate chofun out of the commons, to proteft them 
 againft the oppreffions of the great, and to defend the 
 lilverty of the people againft the attempts of the fenate 
 and confuls. 
 
 'The tribunes of the people were fir ft eftahlifhed in the 
 year of Rome, 259. The firft defign ot the creation was 
 to fhelter the people from the cruelty of ufurers, and to 
 engage them to quit the Aventine mount, whither they 
 had retired in difpieafure. 
 
 1 heir number, at firft, was but two; but the next 
 year, under the confulate of A. Pofthumus A r unci us and 
 CafTiuS Vilcellinus, tliere were three more added ; and 
 this number of five was afterwards increafed by L. Tre- 
 bitnius, to ten. The appellation, tribune,, was given 
 them, by reafon they were at firft chofen out of the tri¬ 
 bunes of the army. 
 
 1 ribune, Tribunus Milltum, or Militarise an officer 
 in the Roman army, who commanded in chief over a 
 body of forces, particularly the divifion of a legion, much 
 the fame with our colonel, or the French m eft re dc camp. 
 
 7 RIBU i ARY, Tributarius, one who pays tribute 
 to another, in order to live in peace with him, or fhare 
 in his proteft ion. 
 
 1 RIBUTE, Trihutum , a tax or impoft which one 
 prince or ftate is obliged to pay to another as a token of 
 dependence, or in virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe 
 of peace. 
 
 TRICEPS, in anatomy, a mufclc of the thigh, hav¬ 
 ing three originations, and as many infertions; and 
 which may, therefore, he conveniently divided into three 
 inufcles, all arifing from the os pubis, and inferted into 
 the linea afpera of the thigh-bone, whereof they poflefs 
 the greateft part. They alfo ferve for adduftores, and 
 draw the thigh together. 
 
 1 RICUSP1DBS Valv£, in anatomy, three valves 
 placed at the mouth of the right ventricle of the heart, juft 
 at its jnnfture witli the auricle. See Cor. 
 
 1 RIDENT, Tridens , an attribute of Neptune, being 
 a kind of feeptre which the painters and poets put into 
 the hands of that god, in form of a fpear, or fork, with 
 thrfce teeth ; whence the word. 
 
 Trident, among mathematicians, is ufed for a kind 
 of parabola, by which Des Cartes conftrufted equations 
 of fix divifions. 
 
 1 RIEMIMERIS, a kind of casfura in Latin verfe, 
 wherein after the firft foot of the verfe there remains an 
 odd fyliable, which helps to make up the next foot. 
 
 TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to offices or 
 employments which laft for three years. 
 
 1 RIENS, in antiquity, a copper money of the value 
 of one-third of an as, which on one lldc bore a Janus’s 
 head, and on the oilier a water-rat. 
 
 This was the piece of money ufed to be put in the 
 mouths of the deceafed to pay Charon his fare for their 
 paflage into another life 
 
 TRIGA, in antiquity, a kind of carr, or chariot, 
 with three horfes. 
 
 TRIG AMY, a third marriage, or the ftate of a 
 perfon who has been married three times. 
 
 TRIGLYPHS, in architecture, a fort of ornaments 
 repeated at equal intervals in the Dorick freeze. 
 
 Each triglyph conftftEof two entire gutters, or chan¬ 
 nels, cut to a right angle, called glyphes, and feparated 
 by three interftices, called, by Vitruvius, femora, from 
 each other, as well as from two other half channels 
 whifti are at the-fides. 
 
 The ordinary proportion of triglyphs is to be a module 
 broad, and one and a half high. But this proportion, 
 
 Vol. II. No. 73. 
 
 T R l 
 
 M. le Clerc obferves, fometimes occafions ill-propor¬ 
 tioned intercolumnations in porticoes; for which reafon 
 he ch.safes to accommodate the proportion of Ins triglyphs 
 to that of the intercolumns. 
 
 TRIG ON, Trigonus, a triangle. See Triangle. 
 
 I rigon, in aftronomy, denotes an alpeft of two 
 planets, wherein there are 120 degrees diftant from each 
 other ; called alfo trine. 
 
 TRIGONOMETRY, the art whereby, from any 
 three paits of a triangle, except the three angles, the reft, 
 are difeovered. 
 
 Trigonometry is either plane or fpherical. 
 
 Plane. Trigonometry, is the method of foiving 
 plane triangles. 
 
 Solution of the feveral Cafes of plane Trigonometry. 
 Cafe I. The angles of one of the legs of a right-angled 
 plane triangle being given, to find tile other leg. 
 
 Example. In the triangle ABC ( plate LXXVL 
 fig* 3.) right-angled at B, 
 
 Are given A Br;52 equal parts, as yards, furlongs, 
 miles, &c. 
 
 And the angle C A Bc= 3 6d. 52m. required B C. 
 
 The geometrical folution. 1. Make A B equal to 52, 
 by a line of equal parts. 
 
 2. Extend your compafles to the diftance of the radius 
 of your line of chords, and with this diftance, letting 
 one foot in A, defcrihe the arch ef \ and from f towards e 
 let off 36a. 52m. the angle at A, on the arch fe. 
 
 3. Ere ft the perpendicular B C. 
 
 4. From A, through the interfeftion e, draw the line 
 A C, meeting the perpendicular B C in C j then is the 
 triangle conftrufted, and the perpendicular B C may be 
 meafurecl, by applying it to the lame line of equal parts 
 from whence A B was taken. 
 
 7 he arithmetical folut. 1. By luppofing AC the radius. 
 Produce AC tor, till Ac be equal to the tabular 
 radius 10000000, ftc. then will b c be the tabular fine 
 of the arch c d , and A b will be the tabular co-fine of 
 the lame arch : alfo, B C will be the fine of the arch 
 B D, and A B the co-line of the fame arch. 
 
 And becaule the triangles ABC, A be, are fimilar, 
 it will be, 
 
 As A b : A B : : b c : B C. That is, 
 
 A b (the tabular co-fine of the arch c b) 7 
 
 = 3 6d. 5 2m.= - - ; 9 9031084 
 
 7 o A B (the co-fine of the arch C D in 1 , 
 
 the fcheme) 1=52= ] 1 -7 1 00033 
 
 So is be the tabular fine of the arch cd) 1 _ ■ 
 
 = 3 6d. 52111.= - - i 9 - 778 ii 86 
 
 To C B (the fine of the arch C D in 7 
 the fcheme) required =39= 1 I, 59 I0I 35 
 
 2. By fuppofing A B (fig. 9.) the radius. 
 
 Produce A B to b, till A b be equal to the tabular 
 radius, then will be be the tabular tangent of the arch 
 b d, and B C the tangent of the arch B D. 
 
 And becaule the triangles ABC, A be, are fimilar, 
 it will be, 
 
 As Ab : AB : : be : B C. That is, 
 
 As A b (the radius in the tables) rrqod.rr 10.000000Q 
 To AB (the radius of the fcheme) =52= 1.7160033 
 So is b c (the tangent of the arch bd in 7 0 
 
 the tables) = 3 6d. 52m. = - j 9-875 oi 02 
 
 To B C (the tangent of the arch B D in 7 
 the fcheme) = 30— J I -59 IOI 35 
 
 3. By fuppofing B C (fig. 7.) the radius. 
 
 Produce C B to b, till C b be equal to the tabular ra¬ 
 dius, then will ab be the tabular tangent of the arch bd, 
 or angle a C b , the complement of the given angle; alfo* 
 
 A B will be the tangent of the arch B D. 
 
 And becaule the triangles Cab, CAB, are fimilar 
 it will be, 
 
 As ab : AB :: C* : C B. That is, 
 
 Ai a b (the tabular tangent of the arch ? 
 
 bd 53d. 8m.) j 10.1249898 
 
 To A B (the tangent of the arch B D 7 
 
 in the fcheme) 52, j I - 7 1 00033 
 
 So is C b (the tabular radius )~ 9od. = 10.0000000 
 
 To CB (the radius of the fcheme) =39= 1.5910135 
 Cafe II. The angles and one of the fidcs.of a right- 
 angled plane triangle bcinggiven, to find the hypothemffe. 
 Example. In the triangle ABC (fig. 3.) right-angled 
 
 S K at 
 
T R I 
 
 at B, are given the angle C A B, — 364. 52th. sn ^ 
 the fide A Bn52 equal parts; required the hypothe¬ 
 rmic, A C. 
 
 Geometrically. This cafe is conftrutted, in all re- 
 fpetts, like the former, and AC may be meafured by the 
 fame line of equal parts which A B was taken from. 
 Arithmetically. 1. By fuppoling AC the radius. 
 Produce AC to r, till Ac be equal to the tabular 
 radius, then will be be the fine of the arch cd , and C B 
 the fine of the arch C D ; alfo, A b will become the co¬ 
 fine of the arch c d \ or, which is all one, the fine of its" 
 complement, and A B the co-line of the arch CD, or 
 fine of its complement. 
 
 And becaufe the triangles ABC, A b c, are fimilar, 
 it will be, 
 
 As A b : A B :: A c : A C. That is, 
 
 As A b (the tabular co-fine of the arch 7 „ , 
 
 cd) 36c!. 52m. - f 9 - 903 I 084 
 
 Is to A B, (the co-fine of the arch CD 7 i 7I 6 00 „o 
 in the fcheme) 2: 52 = - I ' ^ 
 
 So is Ac (the tabular radius)nqod.— 10.0000000 
 
 To AC (the radius in the fcheme) =65= 1.8128949 
 1. By fuppofing A B the radius. 
 
 Produce A B (fig- 9.) to b, till Ab be equal to the ta¬ 
 bular radius, then will b c be the tangent of the arch d l , 
 and Ac the fecant of the fame arch ; alfo B C will be the 
 tangent of the arch B D, and A C the fecant of the fame. 
 
 And becaufe the triangles A B C, A be, are fimilar, 
 it will be, 
 
 As Ai:AB::Ac:AC. That is, 
 
 As A b (the radius in the tables) 2:908. = 10.0000000 
 Is to A B (the radius in the fcheme) “52= 1.7160033 
 So is A c (the lccant of the arch b d in ? Q OQ 53 QI 5 
 the tables) 12368. 52m. =2 — 5 ’ 9 9 
 
 .8128949 
 
 To A C (the fecant of the arch B D in 
 the fcheme) 65, — — 
 
 3. By fuppofing BC (fig. 7.) the radius. 
 
 Produce C B to b, till C i be equal to the tabular 
 radius, then will a b be the tabular tangent of the arch 
 bd (or angle a C b) and C a will be the fecant of the 
 fame arch ; alfo, AB will be the tangent of the arch 
 B D, and C A the fecant of the fame arch. 
 
 And becaufe the triangles ab C, ABC, are fimilar, 
 it will be, 
 
 As a b 1A B :'. C a : C A. hat is, 
 
 As ab (the tabular tangent of the arch 7 T9 . n o 0 o 
 bd) 53d. 8m. - — f 49 9 
 
 Is to A B (the tangent of the arch DB j i#7i 6 0 o 23 
 in the fcheme) 52, — — S ' 1 
 
 So is C a (the tabular fecant of the arch j 10 221 
 
 bd) 53d. 8m. 
 
 14 
 
 T R I 
 
 will A b — thc tabular co-fine of the angle at A, or the 
 fine of the angle Ac b, it being its complement. 
 
 And from the fimilarity of the two triangles' A b c, 
 A B C, it will be, 
 
 As Ac; AC:: Ai: AB. That is, 
 
 As Ac (the radius in the tables) 2:908.2:10.coooooo 
 To AC (the radius in the fcheme)— 65= 1.8128949 
 So is A b (the co-fine of the arch c d in 7 n 
 
 the tables) = 3 6d. 52m. = - 1 9 - 9 0 3 i° 8 4 
 
 To A B (the co-fine of the arch C D 7 , 
 
 in the fcheme)2252— — 3 I ’^ 1 00 33 
 
 Cafe IV. The legs of a right-angled plane triangle 
 being given, to find the angles. 
 
 Example. In the right-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 3.) are given the bale A 62:52, and the perpendi¬ 
 cular B C = 39, required the angles A and C. 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Make A B equal to 52, from a 
 line of equal parts. 
 
 2. From the point B ere£t the perpendicular B C, and 
 fet off on it 39 equal parts from B to C ; and join the 
 points A C with the right line AC, and the triangle is 
 conflruftcd ; and the quantities of the angles A and C 
 may be meafured by the line of chords, after the manner 
 taught in the firfl cafe. 
 
 Arithmetically. By fuppofing A B the radius. Make 
 A b equal to the tabular radius, then will ic be the tan¬ 
 gent of the angle A. 
 
 And becaufe of the fimilarity of the two triangles 
 Abe, ABC, it will be, 
 
 As A B: A b\ \ B C: b c. That is. 
 
 As A B (the radius in the fcheme) =5222: 1.7160033 
 To A b (the radius in the tables) 2:908.22 10.0000000 
 So is B C (the tangent of the arch BD) 
 
 - 5 { i -59 IOI 3 S 
 
 in the fcheme) 2:392= 
 
 To C A (the fecant of the arch B D in 7 j 8128040 
 the fcheme) 65, — — J 
 
 By carefully conlidering the three different methods of 
 performing the two preceding cafes, the reader may make 
 thefe three general obfervations : 
 
 1. If the hypothenufe be luppofcd the radius, the two 
 legs will become the fines of their oppofite angles. 
 
 2. If the bafe be fuppofed the radius, the perpendicu¬ 
 lar will become the tangent of the angle at the bafe, and 
 the hypothenufe the fecant of the fame angle. 
 
 3. If the perpendicular be fuppofed the radius, the 
 bale will become the tangent of the angle at the perpen¬ 
 dicular, and the hypothenufe the lccant of the lame 
 angle. 
 
 Cafe III. The hvpothenufe and angles of a right-an¬ 
 gled plane triangle being given, to find either of the legs. 
 
 Example. In the triangle ABC (fig. 3.) right-angled 
 at B, are given the angle C A B — 368.52111. and the 
 hypothenufe AC2265, required A B. 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Draw the line A B at pleafure. 
 
 2. Make the angle at A equal to 368. 52m. by the 
 
 line of chords (as taught in the lirll cafe) and continue 
 the line A C, till it be\qual to 65, upon the line of equal 
 parts. ... 
 
 3. Let fall the perpendicular C B, and the triangle is 
 coimrufted ; and the bafe A B may be meafured by ap¬ 
 plying it to the fame line of equal parts which AC was 
 taken from. 
 
 Arithmetically. By fuppofing A C the radius. 
 
 Produce A C to r, till it equal the tabular radius, then 
 
 To b c ( the tangent of the arch b d in 7 0 
 
 1 11 / j r 9 8750102 
 
 the tables —368. 52m. =2 — 1 y 
 
 Which, fubtradted from 908. leaves the angle C = 
 53d. 8m. 
 
 Cafe V. The hypothenufe and one of the legs of a 
 right-angled plane triangle being given, to find the 
 angles. 
 
 Example. In the triangle ABC (fig. 3.) right- 
 angled at B, are given the bafe A 62:52, and the hypo¬ 
 thenufe AC2:65, required the angles A and C. 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Make A B equal to 52 hyaline 
 of equal parts. 
 
 2. Erett the perpendicular B C. 
 
 3. Take the diflance of 65 equal parts between the 
 points of the compafies, and letting one foot in A, with 
 the other crofs the perpendicular B C in C, and join the 
 points A and C with a right line, and the triangle is 
 conftru&ed; and the quantities of the angles may be 
 meafured by the line of chords, after the manner taught 
 in the firft cafe. 
 
 Arithmetically. By fuppofing the hypothenufe A C 
 the radius. 
 
 Make Ac (fig. 3_)=the radius of the tables, then will 
 Ab reprefent the tabular co-fine of the arch cd. 
 
 And becaufe the triangles A be, ABC, are fimilar, it 
 will be, 
 
 As A C: A c :: A B: A b. That is, 
 
 As AC (the radius in the fcheme):=:65 = 1.8128949 
 
 To A c (the radius in the tables) 12:902= 10.0000000 
 
 So is A B (the co-fine of the arch CDl ^ 716002 2 
 
 in the fcheme) =2 c22: — j / 00 
 
 in the fcheme) 2=52 = 
 
 ToABco - r, “ of,hearchc d ' m I 9.9031084 
 the tables) 2: 53d. 8m. =2 — 3 7 y 0 
 
 Whole complement in 368. 52m. the angle at A. 
 
 Cafe VI. The legs of aright-angled plane triangle 
 being given, to find the hypothenufe. 
 
 Example. In the right-angled triangle ABC (fig. 3.) 
 there are given A 6:252, and B C = 39, required A C. 
 
 Geometrically. This cafe is conilrutted, in all re- 
 fpe£ls, the fame as the fourth, and the length of A C 
 may be found by applying it to the fame fcale of equal 
 parts, which the legs A B and B C were taken from. 
 
 The arithmetical folution of this cafe is the fame as 
 that of the fecond and fourth cafes ; for the angles being 
 found as in cafe the fourth, the hypothenufe may be 
 found according to the fecond cafe, which will be fuper- 
 fluous here to repeat. 
 
 But 
 
T R I 
 
 But the hypothenufe may be found by the help of the j 
 47th of Euc. I. without finding the angles ; thus, 
 
 To the fquare of one of the given fides A B —2704 
 Add the lquare of the other'fide CD — ”1521 
 
 4225 
 
 The fquare root of thatfum will give AC required=65. 
 Cafe VII. The hypothenufe and one of the legs of a 
 right-angled plane triangle being given, to find the other 
 leg. 
 
 Example. In the right-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 3.) there are given the hypothenufe A 0 = 65, and 
 the bafe A B = 52 ; required the perpendicular B 0 . 
 
 Geometrically. The geometrical conftnuftion of this 
 cafe is performed, in all refpefts, like the fifth, and the 
 perpendicular B C may be found by applying it to the 
 fame fcale of equal parts, which the other parts ot the 
 triangle were taken from. 
 
 This cafe being a compound of the fifth and firft, we 
 mufk firft find the angles by the fifth, and the perpendi¬ 
 cular by the firft, to which we refer the leader. 
 
 But by the help of the 47th of Euc. I. the perpendi¬ 
 cular may be found without the trouble of finding the 
 angles; thus, 
 
 From the fquare of the hypothenufe A C— — 4225 
 'l ake the fquare ot the bafe A B — =2704, 
 
 *521 
 
 The fquare root of the remainder will give B C re¬ 
 quired = 39. 
 
 By carefully confideriug the folutions of the feveral 
 preceding cafes, the reader may obferve. 
 
 1. '1 hat if the angles are given, any fide, whether 
 given or required, may be fuppofed the radius. 
 
 2. If the angles are required, one of the given fides 
 muft be fuppofed the radius. 
 
 Tloe Solution of the fevcral Cafes of Oblique-angled Plane 
 Triangles. 
 
 Cafe I. Two fides and an angle oppofite to one of 
 them being given, to find the other oppofite angle. 
 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane triangle A BC 
 (plate LXXVl.yff. 6.) are given AB r S2, BC = 4: 
 and the angle ACB = 42d. 16m. required the angle 
 B AC. 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Draw the line A C at pleafure. 
 
 2. Make the giggle ACB equal to 42d. 16m. by the 
 line of chords, after the manner taught in cafe the firft 
 of the preceding folutions. 
 
 3. Make B C equal to 42, by a line of equal parts. 
 
 4. Take the diftance of 52 equal parts between the 
 points of the compafics, and letting one foot in B, with 
 the other crofs the line A C in A, and join the points A 
 and B, with a right line, and the triangle is conftr tufted 
 and the angle B AC maybe meafured by the line of chords 
 
 Arithmetically. As A B - =52 = 1.7160033 
 
 To the fine of its oppofite } , , 0 
 
 angle ACB - P1 - | 4 2d. .6m. = 9.829.3,a 
 
 So is B C - - - =42=1.6232493 
 
 TO an^CA°B. itS - OPPO - flte } 33 d. 
 
 Having found the angle A, the angle B may be found 
 by taking the fum of the angles A andC from i8od. 
 
 Cafe IE The angles and one fide of an oblique-angled 
 plain triangle being given, to find either of the other fides 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane traingle ABC 
 (fit). 6.) are given the angle A = 33d. im. the angle B = 
 toqd. 43m. the angleC = 42d. i6m. and the fide A B = 
 52, required AC. 
 
 Geometrically, i. Make the angle A = 33d. im. by 
 the line of chords. 
 
 2. MakeAB=52, by a line of equal parts. 
 
 3. Make the angle B = I04d. 43m. by the line of 
 chords. 
 
 4. Draw the lines AC and BC till they interfeft each 
 other in C, and the triangle A B C is conftrufted ; and 
 AC may be meafured by the fame line ot equal parts 
 which A B was taken from. 
 
 Arithmetically. As the fine of theang. ? « 
 
 C - =42d. 16m. =1 9 ' s - 9 i jI 2 
 
 To its oppofite fide A B ~ =52= 1.7160033 
 
 T R I 
 
 So is the fine of the angle B = i04d; 43m. = 99155 f 35 
 
 To its oppofite fide AC - =74, 5=1.872^5(5 
 
 Cafe III. Two fides of an angle oppofite to one of 
 them being given, to find the other fide. 
 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 6.) are given the fide A B = 52, the fide B C = 4.2, 
 and the angle C=4- ; d. 16m. required A C. 
 
 Geometrically. This cale is conllrutfted in all rclpefls 
 like the firft, and the fide A C may be meafured by ap¬ 
 plying it to the line of equal parts. 
 
 But, to perform it arithmetically, it will be, 
 
 As the fide A B - - =52=1.7160033 
 
 Is to thefine of the angie C =42d. 16m. =9.8291312 
 So is the fide BC - - =42=1.623249^ 
 
 To the fine of the angle A — = 3jd. irii.=9.7363772 
 Hence the angle B = i04d.43in. 
 
 Then to find the fide A C it will be, by the fame theorem, 
 As the fine of the angle C — =42d. i6m.=9.8291312 
 Is to the fide A B - - =52=1.7160033 
 
 So is the fine of the angle B = i04d. 43m. =9.9855135 
 
 Tothefide AC — — — 74>5 — x -^ 7 2 3 ^ 5 ^ 
 
 Cafe IV. Two fides and the contained angle of an 
 obliqde-angled plane triangle being given, to find the 
 other angles. 
 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 6.) are given the fide A 0 = 74,5, the fide A B = 
 52, and angle A = 33d. im. required the angles B andC. 
 
 Geometrically. 1. Make the lirie A 0 = 74,5 by a line 
 of equal parts. 
 
 2. From the angle A = 33d. im. by the line of chords. 
 
 3. Let A B be made = 52 equal parts. 
 
 4. Join the points B and C with a right line, and the 
 thing is done ; and the aDglcs B and C may be meafured 
 by the line of chords. 
 
 ’ To perform this cafe arithmetically, we rriuft firft find 
 the fum and difference of the two fides; alfo the half 
 fum of the two unknown angles, which is performed by 
 fubtraifting the given angle from i8od. and the remainder 
 will be the fum of the angles B and C, the half of which 
 will be the half fum required, which will be = 73d. 
 29m. 3ofec. 
 
 Having found the fum and difference of the two fides, 
 as, alfo, the half fum of the two unknown angles, the 
 required angles will be found thus, 
 
 As the fum of the two fides A B and ? 
 
 A C= 126,5 - - — J 
 
 To their difference 
 
 So 
 
 2.1000905 
 = 22,5= 1.3533825 
 
 > is the tang, of the half fum of the two 7 ^ ^202622 
 unknown angles = 7 3d. 29m. 3ofec.= j 
 
 Tothetang. of half theirdiff. = 3 id.? 8a6 , 
 
 13m. 3ofec. - - =_>■'' 
 
 To the half fum - =7 3d. 29m. 30 fee. 
 
 Add the half difference = 3 id. 13m. 3ofec. 
 
 Their fum will be the 
 greater angle B 
 From the half fum - 
 Take the half difference 
 
 ] 104 43 00 
 
 = 73 d - 29 m - i 
 = 3id. 13m. 4 
 
 Their difE =the angle C— | 42d . l6m . 
 
 Cafe V. Two fides and the contained angle of any 
 oblique-angled plane triangle being given, to find the 
 third fide. 
 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 6.) are given the fide AC = 74,5, the fide AB=- 5 2 » 
 and the angle A = 33d. im. required the fide BC. 
 
 Geometrically. The geometrical conftruftion of this 
 cafe is exadtly the fame with the laft, and the fide B C 
 may be meafured by the line of equal parts. 
 
 This cafe is compounded of the fourth and firft, and 
 therefore the arithmetical method is the fame as thole two 
 cafes; for the angles B and C muft be found by cafe the 
 fourth, and the fide B C will be found by cafe the firft, 
 to which we refer the reader. 
 
 Cale VI. Three fides being given, to find the angles. 
 
 Example. In the oblique-angled plane triangle ABC 
 (fig. 6.) are given the fide A B = 52, the fide A C = 
 74,5, and the fide B C = 42 ; required the angles A, B, 
 and C. 
 
 Geomerically 
 
t r r 
 
 Geometrically, i. Make the line A 0=74,5., from a 
 ine of equal parts. 
 
 2. Take 52, the length of A B between the points of 
 the compares, and, letting one foot in A, with the 
 other deicribc the arch de. 
 
 3. Take 42, the length of BC, between the points of 
 the compailes, and, fetting one foot in C, with the 
 other deferibe the arch fig, interfering the former in B 
 
 4. From the interfeftion B draw right-lines to the 
 points A and C, and the triangle is conltru&ed ; and 
 the angles may be mcafured by the line of chords. 
 
 But to perform it arithmetically it will be, 
 
 As the bale AC [plate LXXVI. fig.i „ , 
 
 8.) =74,5,= - - - i 1-8721563 
 
 To the (urn of the fides A B, B 0=94= 1-9731279 
 
 So is the difF. of the lides A B, B C= 10= 1 .oocoooo 
 
 To the difference of the ferments A F, 7 
 
 CF, 12,5= - - - J I * IO ° 97 i 
 
 Which, taken from AC —74,5, leaves twice CF — 
 62, the half of which is 31=: the Idler fegrnent FC. 
 Then having the three fides of a right-angled triangle, 
 the angles are ealily found. 
 
 covered. 
 
 Before we fhew the method of folving the feveral cafe 
 of fphcrical trigonometry, we fhall lay down the follow 
 ing theorems. 
 
 Theorem I. In any right-angled fpherical triangle i 
 will be, as radius is to the fine of the angle at the bafe 
 fo is the fine of the hypothenufe to the fine of the per 
 pendicular ; and, as radius to the co-fine of the angle a 
 the bale, fo is the tangent of the hypothenufe to the tan 
 gent of the bafe. 
 
 Corollary 1. Hence it follows, that the fines of th> 
 angles of any oblique fpherical triangle ADC (plait 
 LXXVI. fig. 12.) are to one another, diredlly, as th< 
 fines of the oppofite fides. 
 
 Corollary 2. It follows, moreover, that, in right- 
 angled fpherical triangles ABC, DBC, [fig. 12.) hav¬ 
 ing one leg B C common, the tangents of the hypothe- 
 nufes are to each other, inverfely, as the co-fines of th< 
 adjacent angles. 
 
 of the hypothenufe. 
 
 Corollary. Hence, if two right-angled fpherical tri¬ 
 angles ABC, C B D, [fig. 12.) have the fame perpen¬ 
 dicular B C, the co-lines of their hypothenufes will be 
 to each other, dirc&ly as the co-fines of their bafes. 
 
 of the adjacent leg to the co-lrneof the oppofite angle. 
 
 at the bafe will be to each other, direftly, as thel 
 the vertical angles. 
 
 Theorem IV. In any right-angled fpherical tri: 
 will be, as radius is to the fine of the bafe, fo 
 tangent of the angle at the bale to the tangent 
 perpendicular. 
 
 Corollary. Hence it follows, that, in right-angled 
 fpherical triangles, having the fame perpendicular, the 
 fines of the bafes will be to each other, inverfely, as the 
 tangents of the angles at the bafes. 
 
 Theorem V. In any right-angled fpherical triangle it 
 will be, as radius is to the co-fine of the hypothenufe, 
 fo is the tangent of either angle to the co-tangent of the 
 other angle. 
 
 Lemma. As the fum of the fines of two unequal arches 
 is to their difference, fo is the tangent of half the fum o" 
 thofe arches to the tangent of half their difference : and. 
 as the fum of the co-fines is to their difference, fo is the 
 co-tangent of half the fum of the arches to the tangent 
 of half the difference of the fame arches. 
 
 Theorem VI. In any fpherical triangle A.BC (plate 
 LXXVI. fig. 13.) it will be, as the co-tangent of half 
 the fum of the two fides is to the tangent of half their 
 difference, fo is the co-tangent of half the bafe to the 
 tangent of the diilance (DE) of the perpendicular from 
 the middle of the bale. 
 
 3 
 
 T R I 
 
 Corollary. Since the laft proportion, by permutation 
 
 1 . A L 4 B C 
 
 becomes co-tang.-- 
 
 AC —BC 
 
 •: co-tang. A E : : tang. 
 
 - : tang. D E, and as the taqgents of any two 
 arches are, inverfely, as their co-tangents; it follows, 
 therefore, that tang. A E : tang. — - f - B - - ;; tang. 
 AC—BC __ 
 
 - ~~ z - •' tan g- D E ; or, that the tangent of half 
 
 the bafe is to the tangent of half the fum of the fides, as 
 the tangent of half the difference of the fides to die tan¬ 
 gent ot the diftance ot the perpendicular from the middle 
 of the bafe. 
 
 Theorem VII. In any fpherical triangle A B C, it 
 will be, as the co-tangent of half the fum of the angles 
 at the bale, is to the tangent of halt their difference, fo 
 is the tangent of halt the vertical angle to the tangent of 
 the angle which the perpendicular C D makes wTth the 
 line C F bilefting the vertical angle. 
 
 The Solution ofi the Cafes of right-angled fpherical Triangles. 
 [Sec plate LXXVI. fig. n.) 
 
 c 
 
 Given 
 
 Sought 
 
 Solution. 
 
 I 
 
 The hyp. 
 
 A C and ont 
 angle A 
 
 The op¬ 
 
 pofite leg 
 B C 
 
 As radius:fine hyp. AC:: 
 line A : fine B C (by the 
 former part of theorem 1.) 
 
 2 
 
 1 he hyp. 
 
 A C and one 
 angle A 
 
 The adja¬ 
 cent leg 
 
 A B 
 
 As radius : co-fine of A :; 
 tang. AC: tang. A B (by the 
 latter part of theorem 1 ) 
 
 3 
 
 The hvp. 
 
 A C and one 
 angle A 
 
 The other 
 
 angle C 
 
 As radius : co-fine of AC:: 
 
 tang. A : co-tang. C ( by 
 theorem 5.) 
 
 4 
 
 The hvp. 
 
 AC and one 
 leg A B 
 
 The other 
 legBC 
 
 As co-fine A B : radius :: 
 co-fine AC : co-fine BC (by 
 theorem 2.) 
 
 5 
 
 1 he hyp. 
 AC and one 
 leg AB 
 
 The oppo¬ 
 fite angle 
 C 
 
 As line AC : radius : : fine 
 AB : fine C (by the former 
 part of theorem 1.) 
 
 6 
 
 The hyp. 
 
 A C and one 
 leg A B 
 
 The adja¬ 
 cent angle 
 A 
 
 As tang. AC : rang. A B :: 
 radius : co-line A (by theo¬ 
 rem 1.) 
 
 7 
 
 One leg 
 
 A B and the 
 adjacent an- 
 gle A 
 
 The other 
 leg B C 
 
 As radius : fine AB:: tan¬ 
 gent A : tangent BC (by 
 theorem 4.) 
 
 8 
 
 L_ 
 
 One leg 
 
 A B and the 
 adjacent an- 
 gle A 
 
 The oppo¬ 
 fite angle 
 
 c 
 
 As radius:fine A : : co-fine 
 
 of AB : co-fine of C (by 
 theorem 3.) 
 
 1 9 
 
 One leg 
 
 A B and the 
 adjacent an¬ 
 gle A 
 
 The hyp. 
 AC 
 
 As co-fine of A : radius:: 
 tang. AB tang. AC (by 
 theorem 1.) 
 
 10 
 
 One leg 
 
 B C and the 
 oppofite an- 
 gle A 
 
 Fhe other 
 leg A B 
 
 As tang. A : tang. B C : : 
 
 radius : fine AB (by theo¬ 
 rem 4.) 
 
 11 
 
 One leg 
 
 B C and the 
 oppofite an¬ 
 gle A 
 
 The adja¬ 
 
 cent angle 
 
 C 
 
 7 co-fine B C : radius :: 
 
 co-fine of A : fin. C (by 
 theorem 3.) 
 
 12 
 
 One leg 
 
 B C and the 
 oppofite an¬ 
 gle A 
 
 The hyp. 
 AC 
 
 As fin. A : fin. B C :: ra¬ 
 dius : fin. AC (by theo- 
 em 1.) 
 
 13 
 
 Both legs 
 
 AB and BC 
 
 'Fhe hyp. 
 
 AC 
 
 As radius : co-fine A B : 
 
 :o-fine BC : co-fine AC 
 by theorem 2.) 
 
 h 
 
 Both legs 
 
 AB and BC 
 
 An angle, 
 fuppole A 
 
 As fine A B : radio-. :: tang. 
 dC tang. A (bv theorem 4.) 
 
 l S 
 
 Both angles 
 A and C 
 
 A leg, fup¬ 
 pole A B 
 
 As fin. A. : co-finc C : : ra¬ 
 dius: co-fine Ab (by theo- 
 cm 3.) 
 
 16 
 
 Both angles 
 A and C 
 
 The hvp. 
 
 AC 
 
 As tang. A : co-tang. C : : 
 adius : co-fine AC (by 
 heorem 5. ) 
 
 FJote 
 
T R I 
 
 T R I 
 
 f'lote. The ioth, «ith, and 12th cafes are ambigu¬ 
 ous ; fiilce it cannot be determined by the data, whe¬ 
 ther ABC, and AC, be greater or lefs than 90 de¬ 
 grees each. 
 
 The Solution of the Cafes of oblique fpherical Triangles. (See 
 plate LXXVI. Jig . 12, 13.) 
 
 p 
 
 ft* 
 
 Given 
 
 Sought 
 
 Solution. 
 
 I 
 
 Two fides 
 AC, BC, and 
 an angle A 
 oppofite to 
 one of them 
 
 The angle 
 B oppofite 
 to the other 
 
 As fine B C : fine A : : fine 
 
 AC : fine B (by cor. 1. to 
 theor. 1.) Note, this calc 
 is ambiguous when BC is 
 lefs than AC; fmee it can¬ 
 not be determined from the 
 data whether B be acute oi 
 obtufe. 
 
 2 
 
 Two fides 
 AC, BC, and 
 an angle A 
 oppofite to 
 one of them 
 
 The inclu¬ 
 ded angle 
 ACB 
 
 Upon AB produced (if need 
 be) let fall the perpendicular 
 CD: Then (by theorem 5.) 
 rad. : co-fine AC : : tang. A 
 : co-tang. AC D; but (bv 
 cor. 2. to theor. x.) as tang. 
 BC : tang. AC : : co-fine 
 A C D : co-fine BCD. 
 Whence ACB — ACD± 
 B C D is known. 
 
 3 
 
 Two fides 
 AC, BC, and 
 an angle op¬ 
 pofite to one 
 of them 
 
 The othei 
 fide A B 
 
 As rad. : co-line A : : tang. 
 
 AC : tang. AD (by theor. 
 1.) and (by cor. to theo. 2.) 
 as co-fin. AC : co-fin. BC 
 ::co-fin. AD : co-fin. BD. 
 Note, This and the lad cafe 
 are both ambiguous when 
 the firll is fo. 
 
 4 
 
 Two fides 
 AC, AB, and 
 the included 
 angle A 
 
 The othei 
 fide B C 
 
 As rad. : co-fin. A : : tan. 
 AC : tan. AD (by theo. 1.) 
 whence B D is alfo known : 
 Then (by cor. to theorem 
 2.) as co-fine AD : co-fine 
 B D:‘.co-fine AC : co-fine 
 BC. 
 
 5 
 
 Two lides 
 AC, AB, and 
 the included 
 angle A 
 
 Either of 
 the other 
 angles 
 fuppofe B 
 
 As rad. : co-line A:: tang. 
 AC: tang. A D (by theor. 
 1.) whence BD is known, 
 then (by cor. to theor. 4.) 
 is fine B D: line AD :: tang. 
 A: tang. B. 
 
 6 
 
 Two angles 
 
 A, A C B 
 and the fide 
 AC betwixt 
 them 
 
 The other 
 angle B 
 
 As rad. : co-fine AC:: tang. 
 A : co-tang. ACD (bytheo. 
 5.) whence BCD is alfo 
 known: Then (by cor. to 
 theor. 3.) as fine ACD: 
 fine BCD:: co-fine A: co- 
 fine B. 
 
 7 
 
 Two angles 
 A, A C B, 
 and the fide 
 A C betwixt 
 them 
 
 Either of 
 the other 
 fides, fup- 
 pofie B C 
 
 As rad. : co-fine AC:: tang. 
 A : co-tang. ACD (by theo. 
 5.) whence BCD is alfo 
 known: Then, as co-fine 
 BCD: co-fine ACD:: 
 tang. AC : tang. BC (by 
 cor. 2. to theor. 1.) 
 
 8 
 
 Two angles 
 
 A, B, and a 
 fide A C op¬ 
 pofite to one 
 of them 
 
 The fide 
 
 B C oppo¬ 
 fite the 
 other 
 
 As fine B : fine AC:‘.fine 
 
 A : fine BC (by cor. 1. to 
 theor. 1.) 
 
 
 Two angles 
 
 A, B, and a 
 fide A C op- 
 
 The fide 
 
 A B be¬ 
 twixt them 
 
 As rad. : co-line A :: tang. 
 
 AC: tang. AD (by theo. 1.) 
 and as tang. B : tang. A :: 
 fine A D: fine B D (by cor. 
 to theor. 4.) whence A E 
 is alfo known. 
 
 9 
 
 pofite to one 
 of them 
 
 
 to 
 
 Two angles 
 A, B, and a 
 fide AC op¬ 
 pofite to one 
 of them 
 
 T he other 
 angle ACB 
 
 As rad.: co-line AC :: tang. 
 A : co-tang. ACD) by theo. 
 c.) and as co-fine A Mo¬ 
 line B : : fine ACD: fine 
 BCD (by cor. to theorem 
 3.) whence ACB is alfo 
 known. 
 
 - Vol. II. No. 74. 
 
 p 
 
 FT 1 
 
 Given 
 
 Sought 
 
 Solution. 
 
 11 
 
 All the three 
 lides A B, 
 AC, and 
 BC 
 
 An angle 
 fuppofe A 
 
 . 1 . _ AC-f-BC 
 
 As tan.-AB: tang.- 
 
 AC—BC t ,t 
 
 : : tang-: tang. DE, 
 
 the diftance of the perpen¬ 
 dicular from the middle of 
 the bale (by cor. to theor. 
 6.) whence A D is known : 
 Then, as tang. AC : tang. 
 A D :: rad. : co-fine A (by 
 theorem 1.) 
 
 
 
 A fide ? 
 
 A _ ABC-f A 
 
 
 angles A, B, 
 
 fuppofe 
 
 As co-tang.-: tang. 
 
 12 
 
 and ACB 
 
 AC 
 
 ABC—A ACB 
 
 -: : tan.-: tan. 
 
 2 2 
 
 of the angle included by the 
 perpendicular and a line bi- 
 fe&ing the vertical angle ; 
 whence ACD is alfo known: 
 Then (by theor. 5.) tang. 
 A : co-tang. ACD:: rad. 
 co-fine AC. 
 
 Note, In letting fall your perpendicular, let it always 
 be from the end of a given fide and oppofite to a given 
 angle. 
 
 TRILLION, in arithmetick, the number of a billion 
 of billions. After billions we reckon by trillions, which 
 makes a clafs of numeration, and is divided, like the 
 other clafics, into three places : thus we fay, trillions, 
 tens of trillions, hundreds of trillions, See. 
 
 TRIM of a Ship, is the beft pofture, proportion of 
 ballad, and hanging of her mails for failing. 
 
 Hence, to find the beft way of making a fhip fail 
 fwiftly, is to find her trim. 
 
 TRIMACRUS, or Trim acf.r, in the ancient pro- 
 fody, afoot in verfe, confiding of three long fyllables. 
 
 1 RIMMERS, in architecture, pieces of timber framed 
 at right angles to the joints againft.the ways for chimnies, 
 and well-holes for Hairs. 
 
 7 RINE, in aftrology, is the afpeCt or fituation of one 
 liar with regard to another, when they are diftant 120°; 
 marked thus A. 
 
 1 RINGLE, in architecture, a name common to 
 feveral little fquare members, or ornaments, as reglets, 
 liftels, and plat-bands. 
 
 I r ingle is more particularly ufed for a little member 
 fixed exaCtly over every triglyph, under the plat-band of 
 the architrave ; from whence hang down the gutta; or 
 pendent drops. 
 
 1 RINITY, Trinitas, Trias, in theology, the ineffable 
 myftery of three perfons in one God, Father, Son, and 
 Holy Spirit. 
 
 This term was firft ufed by Theophilus Antiochenus ; the 
 Greek, and indeed all the heathen languages, having no 
 word to exprefs the fpiritual idea of the Hebrew D'n^ 
 Alei-iim, which in the Englifh tranflation of the bible 
 (for want of a better name) is rendered God, though it 
 only declares one of his attributes, infteadof his perjonality . 
 That Jehovah is good (for that is the fenfe of the 
 word God) muft be granted ; but the word Alehim 
 implies the perfons in covenant (Father, Son, and Spirit) 
 for the falvation of men, which is a more weighty mean¬ 
 ing, and not fully expreffed by the term Trinity, which 
 only declares the idea of three perfons in one effence. How¬ 
 ever, it is the beft term we have for the exprelfion of this 
 doCtrine concerning the mode of God’s exiftence. 
 
 As to the doCtrine itfelf, it is very excellently defined 
 by the church of England, in her communion fervice 
 viz. that the Almighty “ is one God, one Lord; not 
 “ one on ly perfon ; but three perfons in one fubftance : 
 “ for that which we believe of the glory of the Father, 
 “ the lime we believe of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoftj 
 “ without any difference or inequality.” Thus (accord¬ 
 ing to the Athanafian creed) “ the godhead of the Father, 
 “ of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft, is all one : 
 “ the glory equal, the majefty coeternal.” 
 
 That this doCtrine was revealed to the firft patriarchs ; 
 that the corruption of it by the Chaldeans, Egyptians,' 
 &c. produced much of the Pagan mythology ; that this 
 s L ‘ abufs 
 
T R I 
 
 abufe of the doftrine may he traced in various parts of, 
 if not all over, the world ; and that the faithful reception 
 ot it is eliential to the very being of Chriftianity ; we 
 mult refer our readers to the introduction of a late book, 
 (entitled Hor^Solitari.'E, or effays upon the divine 
 N ames in feripture) where thefe points are handled at 
 large, anil with great induitry, from the molt ancient au¬ 
 thors. We will conclude this article with an extra ft from 
 that volume, concerning the maintenance of this doftrine 
 by the ancient Jews. 
 
 “ The ancient Jews, before ChriJ} , underftood the 
 “ diftinftion of the perfons in the godhead, and the 
 “ doftrine of the Trinity. Their Cabbalijls infilled that 
 “ the doftrine was to be found in the very conftruftion 
 “ of the name mrr Jehovah. They obferved, that, 
 '■ though the name contains four letters (whence it is 
 44 called 'rtTf.ayf.xutxziov) there are but three different letters 
 “ in its compofition. Thus, according to them, > Jod 
 4; fignifies the Father , the maker of all things ; l Fau, a 
 “ conjunclion copulative, denotes the blcfied Spirit pro- 
 “ cceding from the Father and the Son conjointly \ and 
 “ n Fie implies the Son of God. They have all'o a faying, 
 “ that God made all things in the letter n ; alluding to 
 44 his creation of all things by the JVord. And, laftly, 
 “ that n is doubled in this name, to demonftrate both 
 “ Natures of the Meffiah. 
 
 “ Though this criticifm (if it may be fo called) is 
 44 quite cabbaliilical; yet it fhews (what it is here pro- 
 “ duced to fhew) that the doftrine of the Trinity was 
 “ the current and eftablifhed opinion. A better proof 
 “ arilcs from the comments and verfions of their moil 
 “ learned and celebrated authors. R. Simeon Ben Jochai, 
 44 treating of the name Alehim, fays; ‘ Come and lee 
 4 the myftery of this word : there are three degrees or 
 4 affinities, and each degree is to be dijlinguijhed by itfelf; 
 
 4 but the three are one, and united to each other in one ; 
 
 4 nor is one to be divided from another.’ The fame 
 “ rabbin, and Jonathan the Chaldee paraphraft, who 
 “ both wrote many years before Chriil, treating on Ifaiah 
 “ vi. i. where the Lord [Adonai] is reprefented fitting 
 44 upon a throne, apply thepaflage to the Meffiah. The 
 
 former of thele has this remarkable expofition of the 
 4 ‘ Trijagion, or Thrice-Holy, in the third verl'e of the fame 
 44 chapter: unpn nn nr uqp p nr anp nx nntnp: 
 
 4 h. e. Holy, that is, the Father ; Holy, that 
 4 is, the Son; Holy, that is, the Holy Spirit.’ 
 <4 Thefe are further evidences, that the doftrine of the 
 44 Trinity is not aChriilian novelty, as the modern Jews 
 44 and l'ome other people would endeavour to perfuade 
 44 us.” See Hores Solitaries, under the name Jehovah, 
 
 p. 88. 
 
 Trinity -Houfe, is a kind of college at Deptford, 
 belonging to a corporation of fea-faring perfons, who 
 have power by the king’s charter to take cognizance of 
 fuch as deflroy fea-marks, to correft the faults of failors, 
 &c. and to take care of feveral other things belonging to 
 n-avigation and the leas, the examination of young offi¬ 
 cers, &c. anno 8 Elizabeth. 
 
 TRINOMIAL, or Trinomial Root, inmathema- 
 ticks, is a root coilfilling of three parts, councfted toge¬ 
 ther by the figns-for—. Asx-fy-fz; or.v— y—z. 
 
 TRIO, in muiick, a part of a concert, wherein three 
 perfons ling ; or more properly, a mufical compofition 
 confilling of three parts. Trios are the fined kind of 
 compofition, thefe and recitativos are what pleafe mofl 
 in concerts. 
 
 TRIOCTILE, in aflrology, an afpeft or fituation of 
 two planets with regard to the earth, when they are three 
 oftants, or eighth parts of a circle, i. e. I35°diftant from 
 each other. 
 
 TRIPARTITE, Tripartite, fomething divided into 
 three or made by three parties, as an indenture tripar¬ 
 tite, &c. 
 
 TRIPARTITION, is a divifion by three, or the 
 taking the third part of any number or quantity. 
 
 TRIPETALOUS Flowers, in botany, are tliofe 
 whole corplla con lifts of three petals, or leaves. 
 
 TRIPHTHONG, in grammar, an affemblage or 
 concourfe of three vowels in the lame Fyliable. 
 
 TRIPLE, in mufick, is one of the fpecies of meafure 
 or time. 
 
 Triple time eonfifts of many different fpecies, each of 
 which has its varieties. The common name of triple is 
 
 T R I 
 
 j taken hence, that the whole or-half meafure is divilibie 
 I into three equal parts, and is beaten accordingly. 
 
 The fiift fpecies is called the fimpie triple, wherein 
 the meafure is equal to three femi-breves, three minims, 
 three crotchets, three quavers, or three feini-quavers, 
 which are marked thus, ■, or A, A, l, or -A*; but the laic 
 is not much uled, except in church mufick. 
 
 In all thefe the meafure is divided into three equal 
 parts or times, called thence triple time, or the meafure of 
 three times, whereof two are beat down, and the third up. 
 
 The fecond fpecies is the mixed triple ; its meafure is 
 equal to fix crotchets, or lix quavers, or fix femi-quavers, 
 and accordingly marked 5 , or §, or; but the laft is 
 lcldom uled. 
 
 TRIPLICATE Ratio, is the ratio which cubes 
 bear to each other. T his ratio is to be diftinguifhed 
 Irom triple ratio, and may be thus conceived : in the 
 geometrical proportions 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, as the ratio of 
 the firft term (2) is to the third (8) duplicate of that of 
 the firft to the fecond, of the fecond to the third : fo the 
 ratio of the firft to the fourth is faid to be triplicate of the 
 ratio of the firft to the lecond, or of that of the fecond to 
 the third, or that of the third to the fourth, as being 
 compounded of three equal ratios. 
 
 T R.IPLICTTY, or Tricon, among aftrologers, is 
 a divifion of the figns according to the number of the 
 elements, each divifion confilling of three figns. 
 
 I RIPLOIDES, a furgeon’s inftrument, with a three¬ 
 fold balls, ufed in the reftoring great depreffions of the 
 fkull. 
 
 TRIPOD, Tripos, in antiquity, a famed facred feat 
 or ftool fupported by three feet, whereon the priefts and 
 fibyls were placed to render oracles. 
 
 I RIPOLl, in natural hiftory, the name of an earthy 
 fubftance much ufed by the lapidaries to polifli ftones, 
 and by the braziers, and other the like artifts, to clean 
 metalline veflels. It is of two kinds, the yellowifh and 
 redifh white ; the yellowifh white kind is called by au¬ 
 thors alana gleba, tripolis and terra tripolitana ; this is 
 the produce of Germany, Saxony, and France; there 
 is alio of it in the neighbourhood of Venice, but it is 
 found in greateft plenty in many parts of Africa. The 
 redifh tripoli is of our own production, though not pe¬ 
 culiar to our country ; it is found in great abundance on 
 Mendip-hilis in Somerlctfhire, and not lefs plentifully 
 in many parts of Germany. This is well known in the 
 Ihops as a lubftance of great ufe in polifhing brafs, but 
 is not applied to any of the other ules of the yellowifh 
 kind : this, like the former, is moft frequently found in 
 detached malles, and while in the earth is tolerably foft, 
 and eafily falls into flakes. 
 
 TRIPPING, in heraldry, denotes the quick motion 
 of all forts of deer, and fome other creatures, reprefented 
 with one foot up as it were on a trot. In fpcaking of 
 lions, they fay paffant, inftead of tripping. 
 
 TRIPTOTES, in grammar, defeftive nouns which 
 have only three cales; luch is fors, fortis, forte; or dica, 
 dicam, dicas. 
 
 I R 1 SEC riON, or Trissection, the dividing a 
 thing into three. T he term is chiefly ufed, in geometry, 
 for the divifion of an angle into three equal parts. 
 
 The trileftion of an angle geometrically is one of thofe 
 great problems whole folution has been fo much fought 
 by mathematicians for thefe 2000 years, being in this 
 relpeft on a footing with the quadrature of the circle, 
 and the duplicature of the cube angle. 
 
 I RISMEGISTUS, an epithet or furname given to 
 one of the two Hermes’s, or Mercurius’s, kings of 
 Thebes, in Egypt, who was contemporary with Mofcs. 
 
 I RISPAS F, Trijpajlon, in mechanicks, a machine 
 with three pullics, or an affemblage of three pullies, for 
 railing great weights. 
 
 TRISYLLABLE, in grammar, a word confiding 
 but of three fyllables. 
 
 TRITON, in poetry, a fea demi-god, held by the 
 ancients to be an officer or trumpeter of Neptune, at¬ 
 tending on him, and carrying his orders and commands- 
 from fea to fea. 
 
 TRITONE, Triteno, in mufick, a falfe concord, 
 confiding of three tones, or a greater third and a greater 
 tone. Its ratio or proportion in numbers is of 45 to 32. 
 In dividing the oftavc we find on one fide the falle fifth, 
 and tire tritone on the other. 
 
 TRITU- 
 
T R I 
 
 TRITURATION, Tritura, cr Trttu?, m 
 pharmacy, grinding, the aft of reducing a folid body into 
 a fubtile powder, called alfo levigation, or pulverifation. 
 
 Trituration is alfo ufed, in medicine, for the 
 aftion of the ftomach on the food, whereby it is fitted 
 for nutriment. 
 
 TRIUMPH, Triumpkus, a folemnity praftifed by the 
 ancient Romans, to do honour to a victorious general. 
 
 There were two forts of triumphs, the greater and the 
 lefs, particularly called ovation : ol thefe, the triumph 
 ■was much the more fplendid proceflion. None were 
 capable of this honour but the diftator, confuls, and 
 praetors ; though there are examples to the contrary, as 
 particularly in Pompey the Great, who had a triumph 
 decreed him when he was only a Roman knight, and had 
 not yet reached the fenatorial age. 
 
 The triumph was the moll pompous fhew among 
 the ancients : authors ul'ually attribute its invention to 
 Bacchus, and tell us that he firft triumphed upon the 
 conqueft of the Indies; and yet this ceremony was only 
 in ufe among the Romans. The Grecians had a cuftom 
 which refembled the Roman triumph ; for the conque¬ 
 rors ufed to make a proceflion through the middle ol 
 their city, crowned with garlands, repeating hymns and 
 fongs, and brandifhing their fpears : the captives were 
 alfo led by them, and all their l'poils expofed to publick 
 View. The order of a Roman triumph was chiefly 
 thus : the fenate having decreed the general a triumph, 
 and appointed a day, they went out of the city gate to 
 meet the conqueror, and marched in order with him 
 through the city. The cavalcade was led up by the 
 muficians, who had crowns on their heads ; after them 
 came feveral chariots with plans and maps of the cities 
 and countries fubdued. done in relievo : they were fol¬ 
 lowed by the l'poils taken from the enemy, their horfes, 
 arms, gold, filver, machines, tents, he. After thefe 
 came the kings, princes, or generals fubdued, loaden 
 with chains, and followed by mimicks or buffoons, who 
 infultcd over their misfortunes. Next came the officers 
 of the conquering troops with crowns on their heads. 
 Then appeared the triumphal chariot, in which was the 
 conqueror, richly clad in a purple robe, embroidered 
 with gold, letting forth his glorious atchievements. His 
 bufkins were befet with pearl, and he wore a crown, 
 which at firft was only laurel, but afterwards gold. One 
 Band held a laurel branch, the other a truncheon. At 
 bis feet were his children, or fometimes on the chariot 
 horfes. It is added, that the publick executioner was 
 behind him, to remind him from time to time that thefe 
 honours were tranfitory, and would not fereen him from 
 the feverity of the laws, if he fhould ever be found 
 delinquent. As the triumphant chariot pafted along, 
 they ftrewed flowers before it. The mufick played in 
 praife of the conqueror, amidft the loud acclamations of 
 the people, crying lo Tnumphe. The chariot was fol¬ 
 lowed by the fenate clad in white robes, and the fenate 
 by fuch citizens as had been fet at liberty or ranfomed. 
 The proceflion was clofed by the facrificers, and their 
 officers and uteniils, with a white ox led along for the 
 chief viftim. In this order they proceeded through 
 triumphal arches to the capitol, where the viftims were 
 {lain. In the mean time all the temples were open ; the 
 altars loaden with offerings and incenfe; games and 
 combats w'ere celebrated in the publick places, and re¬ 
 joicings appeared every where. What was horrible amidft 
 •all this mirth, was, that the captives, when arrived at 
 the forum, were led back to prifon and ftranglcd, it 
 being a point of religion with them not to touch the 
 viftims till they had taken fuLi revenge of their enemies. 
 The rites and facrifices over, the triumpher treated the 
 people in the capitol, under the porticoes, and fometimes 
 in the temple of Hercules. 
 
 An ingenious author obferves, that it was the greateft 
 diminution of the Roman glory imaginable, that, in 
 their inftitution of publick triumphs, they led their ene¬ 
 mies in chains, when they were prifoners. It is to be 
 allowed, that doing all honour to heroes, above the reft 
 of mankind, muft needs conduce to the glory and advan¬ 
 tage of a nation; but what Ihocks the imagination to 
 refleft upon, is, that a polite people fhould think it rea- 
 fonable, that an unhappy man, who was no way inferior 
 to the viftor, but by the chance of war, fhould be led 
 like a flavc at the wheels of his chariot. This behaviour 
 
 T R O 
 
 to the conquered had no foundation in nature or policy, 
 only to gratify the infolencc of an haughty people, who 
 triumphed over barbarious nations, by afting what was 
 tit only for thofe very babarians to praftife. It feems 
 wonderful, that they who were fo refined as to take care 
 that, to coinpleat the honour done to the victorious 
 officer, no power fhould be known above him in the 
 empire, on the day of his triumph ; but that the con¬ 
 fuls themfelves fhould be but guefts at his table that 
 evening ; could not admit the man of chief note among 
 his prifoners to be one of the company. This would 
 have improved the gladnels of the occafion, and the 
 viftor had made a much greater figure, in that no other 
 man appeared unhappy on this day, than becaufe no 
 other appeared greater. 
 
 The fame balenefs of fpirit (for it deferves no fofter 
 name) appears, with the applailfe of the Greek world, 
 in the celebrated Iliad of Homer; where Achilles is re- 
 prefented dragging the dead body of Heflor, whom he 
 had flain, behind his chariot all round Troy. Savages 
 might aft and think in this manner; but true magna¬ 
 nimity could not have defeended to fuch mean brutalities. 
 
 TRIUMVIR, one of the three perlbns who govern 
 abfolutely and with equal authority in a ftate. 
 
 The word is little ufed but in the Roman hiftory. 
 Ca?far, Crafliis, and Pompey, were the firft triumvirs, 
 i. e. the firft who divided the government of the republick 
 among them. 
 
 TRIUMVIRATE, Triumviratus, an abfolute govern¬ 
 ment adminiftered by three perfons with equal authority. 
 There were two famous triumvirates at Rome. Pompey, 
 Caflar, and Craflus, eftablifhed the firft ; and Auguftus, 
 Mark Antony, and Lepidus, the fecond. 
 
 TROCHAICK, Trochaicus, in the Latin poetry, a 
 kind of verfe, confifting of trochees ; or wherein that 
 foot predominates, as the iambus does in the iambick. 
 
 TROCHANTER, in anatomy, called alfo rotator, 
 of which there are the major and minor, or greater and 
 lefs; they are two apophyles in the upper part of the 
 thigh-bone, in which the tendons of many mufcles are 
 terminated. See Thigh. 
 
 TROCHE, Trochifcus , in pharmacy, a form of me¬ 
 dicine made to be held in the mouth to diflolve gradually. 
 
 Latin authors call them paftilli, rotulse, placentulze, 
 orbes, and orbiculi, and the Englifh, frequently, lo 
 zenges. 
 
 TROCHEE, Trochaus , in the Greek and Latin poe¬ 
 try, a kind of foot, confifting of two fyllables, the firft 
 long, the latter fhort. 
 
 TROCHITES, or TrochiTjE, in natural hiftory, 
 a kind of figured fofilleftones, refembling parts of plants. 
 
 TROCHLEA, one of the mechanical powers, ufually 
 called a pulley. 
 
 TROCHLEARES, in anatomy, a name given to 
 the oblique mufcles of the eye. 
 
 TROCHOID, in geometry, a curve more generally 
 known by the name of cycloid. 
 
 TRONAGE, an ancient cuftomary toll, paid for 
 weighing of wool. This word is particularly mentioned 
 in a charter granted to the mayor and citizens of London ; 
 in which city there is an officer, called tronator, whofe 
 bufinefs it is to weigh the wool that is brought thither. 
 
 TROOP, a fmall body of horfe or dragoons, about 
 50 or 60, fometimes more, fometimes lefs; commanded 
 by a captain. Each troop, befides a captain, has a lieu¬ 
 tenant, cornet, quartcr-mafter, and three corporals, who 
 are the loweft officers of a troop. 
 
 TROP^OLUM, in botany, a genus of the oftan- 
 dria monogynia clafs. The calix confifts ofonecalca- 
 rated leaf; and the corolla of five unequal petals ; and 
 there are three dry berries. The l'pecies are three, all 
 natives of Peru. 
 
 TROPE, in rhetorick, a kind of figure of fpeech, 
 whereby a word is removed from its firft and natural fig- 
 nification, and applied with advantage to another thing, 
 which it does not originally mean ; but only ftands for 
 it, as it has a relation to, or conneftion with it: as in 
 this fentence, God is my rock. Here the trope lies in 
 the word Rock, which being firm and immoveable, ex¬ 
 cites in our minds the notion of God’s unfailing power, 
 and the fteady fupport which good men receive from their 
 dependance upon him. 
 
 TROPHY, Tropuum, arneng the ancients, a pile or 
 
 heap 
 
TRU 
 
 heap 3, arms cff a vanqiiifhed enemy, raffed by the con¬ 
 queror in the moil eminent part of the field of battle. 
 
 The trophies were uflially dedicated to fome-of the 
 gods, especially Jupiter. The name of the deity to whom 
 they were inferibed, was generally mentioned, as was 
 that alfo of the conqueror. "I he fpoils were at firft hung 
 upon the trunk of a tree ; but inftead of trees, Succeeding 
 ages erefted pillars of ftone, or brafs, to continue the 
 memory of their victories. To demolifh a trophy was 
 looked upon as a kind of Sacrilege, becaulc they were all 
 confecrated to Some deity. 
 
 1 he representation of atrophy is often to be met with 
 on medals of the Roman Emperors, ftruck on occasion of 
 victories; wherein, befides arms and fpoils, are frequently 
 Seen one or two captives by the lides of the trophy. 
 
 1 rophy-Money, denotes certain money annuallv 
 railed in the ieveral counties of the kingdom, towards 
 providing harnefs, and maintaining the militia. 
 
 1 ROPICKS, in aftronomy and geography, are two 
 circles SuppoSed to be drawn on each fide of the equinoc¬ 
 tial, and parallel thereto. That on the north-fide of the 
 line is called tropick of cancer, and the Southern tropick has 
 the name of capricorn, as palling through the beginning 
 of thofe Signs. They are distant from the equinottial 
 23" 29'. Two circles drawn at the fame diftancc from 
 the equator on the terreitrial globe, have the Same names 
 in geography, and they include that Space or part of the 
 Sphere, which is called the torrid zone, becauSe the fun is, 
 at one time or other, perpendicular over every part of that 
 zone, and extremely ton ifies or heats it. 
 
 1 RO 1 , in the menage, one of the natural paces of 
 a horfe, performed with two legs in the air and two on 
 the ground, at the fame time, crofs-wife like St. An¬ 
 drew’s crofs, and continuing So alternately to raife the 
 hind-leg of the one fide, and the fore-leg of the other 
 fide at once, leaving the other hind and foie-leg upon 
 the ground, till tire former come down. In this motion 
 the nearer the horfe takes his limbs from the ground, the 
 opener, the evener, and lhorter his trot will be. If he 
 takes up his feet llovenly, it is a iign of Rumbling and 
 lamenefs ; if lie treads narrow or crofs, it betokens inter¬ 
 fering or failing; if he treads long, it lhews over-reach¬ 
 ing ; if he Reps uneven, it belpeaks toil and wearinels. 
 
 TROVER, in law, an action which a man hath 
 again ft one that, having found any of his goods, refuleth 
 to deliver them upon demand. 
 
 I ROUGH of the Sea, is the hollow or cavity made 
 between two waves or billows, in a rolling lea. 
 
 TRO Y-Weight, in commerce. See Weight. 
 
 T RUCE, in the art of war, denotes a fufpenfion of 
 arms, or a ceffation of hoRilities between two armies, in 
 order to fettle articles of peace, bury the dead, or the like. 
 
 TRUCKMAN, Dragoman, orDnocMAN, in 
 the countries of the Levant, lignifies an interpreter. See 
 Dr agom an. 
 
 TRUCKS, among gunners, round pieces of wood, 
 fixed on the axle-tree of carriages, to move the ordnance 
 at fea, and fometimes alfo at land. 
 
 TRUE, fomething agreeable to the reality of things, 
 or to truth. 
 
 Tri'e Place of a Planet or Star , in afironomy, is a 
 point of the heavens, Ihewn or pointed out by a right¬ 
 line, drawn from the centre of the earth, through the 
 centre of the planet or Rar. 
 
 TRUFFLES, Tuber a Tares, in natural hiRory, a 
 kind of fubterraneous vegetable production, not unlike 
 mufhrooms, being a genus of fungi, which grows under 
 the furface of the earth. See Fungus. 
 
 The truffle is only a flefhy tubercle, covered with a 
 hard fort of cruR, rough, and fomewhat regularly fur¬ 
 rowed on the furface, almoft like the cyprefs-nut. It 
 does not rife above the furface of the earth, but lies con¬ 
 cealed about half a foot below it. Great numbers of 
 them are found in the fame place, of different lizes : 
 Rome of them are now and then found of a pound weight, 
 or even a pound and a quarter; th.de laR are but rare, 
 and Pliny only iffentions their being of a pound weight. 
 
 They' ^row at’ttye feet and under the (hades of; trees, 
 fometimes about the roots of Rones, and fometimes in 
 clear earth. Their favourite trees are either the white or 
 green oak, as the elm is that of the morel!®. They 
 begin to be found when warm weather firft fuccecds the 
 cold, fooner or later, as the feafon is more or left mild , 
 3 - 
 
 TRU 
 
 for they have fometimes been very rare after hard Win¬ 
 ters. At firR they appear only like little round peas, led 
 without and white within. I hefe peas grow larger by 
 degrees ; from that time they take out of the ground 
 what they commonly call white truffles; thefe are of 
 themfelves inlipid, and people dry them as an ingredient 
 lor ragouts, becaufe they keep better when dried, than 
 marbled ones do. It is a common opinion that truffles, 
 which have been once removed from their places, are 
 never after capable of being nourilhed, even w hen put in 
 fome earth from which they were originally taken : but 
 it one leave them there for a certain feafon, without dif- 
 turbing them, they grow infcnfibly larger; their bark 
 becomes black, rough, and unequal, though they al¬ 
 ways retain their whitenefs within. Hitherto they have 
 very little fmell or tafte, and can only be ufed in ragouts : 
 thei'e are always called the firR white truffles, and are not 
 to be made a different fpecies from the marbled or black 
 ones gathered in the end of autumn, and even in the 
 winter after the froRs are begun. 
 
 When the truffles are at maturity, they have a very 
 good fmell and talte ; and arc fit to be dug from the 
 month of October to the end of December > and fome- 
 times to the end of February and March, when they ara 
 even at that time marbled , whereas thofe gathered from 
 the month of Apiil till July and Auguft, arc only 
 white. 
 
 If people neglcCt to look at the truffles when arrived at 
 a due degree of maturity, they rot; and then we may ob- 
 lervc the reproduction of the tiuffle , becaufe, after Joins 
 time, we fee fcveral bunches of other young tiuffles fill¬ 
 ing up the places of the rotten ones. Thefe youn * 
 truffles are nourilhed till the firtt colds come on , and if 
 the IroRs are not intend-, they get over the winter, and 
 furnilh us betimes with the frclh green truffles. 
 
 As to the virtues of truffles, the common opinion is, 
 that they are hot ; Galen, however, according to Mat- 
 thiolus, looks upon them as indifferent, and the bajis of 
 all other leafoning ; and, indeed, it is to this purpoie 
 they are ufed in all ragouts. Avicenna fpcaks of them 
 in a manner quite different, and lays, thev engender 
 thick humours more than any other food: that they are 
 hard of digefiion, heavy on the Romach, and, when 
 much ufed, have a tendency to bring on an apoplexy 
 and pally. Thefe two authors may be reconciled, if we 
 confider two qualities in the truffle, which arc capable of 
 producing two different effeCts; firR, they may pro\s 
 hot of themfelves, by emitting their volatile lalts into the 
 Romach ; or, by being mixed with fait, pepper, and 
 other fpices, which they drink up like a fpunge : in the 
 fecond place, they may prove of hard digeRion, when 
 eaten immoderately by a perfon of a weak Romach ; in 
 which cafe, they produce bad effeCls, Ragnate, and form 
 themfelves into a glareous fubRance, which diforders the 
 Romach, and which may be occailoncd by the cold 
 quality aferibed to them by Galen. As a proof that the 
 truffle is of hard digeRion, it has this in common with 
 other fruits, that it glows hard in fpirit of wine, and is 
 with difficulty dillolved in water. 
 
 TRUMPET, a mufical inRriunent, the moR noble 
 of all portable ones of the wind kind, ufed chiefly in 
 war, among the cavalry, to dire£l them in the fervice. 
 
 Marine- Trumpet, is a mufical inArument confiding 
 of three tables, which form its triangular body. 
 
 It has a very long neck, with one Angle firing, very 
 thick, mounted on a bridge, which is firm on one fide”, 
 but tremulous on the other. It is ftruck by a bow with 
 one hand, and with the other the firing is prefled, or 
 flopped, on the neck by the thumb. 
 
 h is the trembling of the bridge, when ftruck, that 
 makes it imitate the lbund of a trumpet, which it docs 
 to that perfection, that it is fcarce poflible to diftinguifii 
 the one from the other ; and this is what has given, it the 
 denomination of marine-trumpet; though, in propriety, 
 it ks a kind of monochord. 
 
 Harmovkal-T, an infirument that imitates 
 the found of a trumpet ; which it releinbles in every 
 thing, excepting that it is longer; and confift of more 
 branches'; it is generally called fackbut. 
 
 Speaklng-T ru.mpzt, is a tube from fix to fifteen feet 
 long, made of tin, perfefUy- ftraight, and with a very 
 large aperture; the mouth-piece being big enough to 
 receive both lips. This is ufed at fea. 
 
 Trumpet- 
 
TUB 
 
 T U L 
 
 Trumpet-Shell, the Englifii name of the bucci- 
 num of authors. 
 
 TRUNCATED, in general, is an appellation given 
 to fuch things as have, dr feem to have, their points cut 
 off; thus we fay, a truncated cone, pyramid, leaf, &c. 
 
 TRUNDLE, a fort of carriage with low wheels, 
 whereon heavy and cumberfome burdens are drawn. 
 
 IRUNK, Truncus, among botanifts, denotes the 
 flem, or body of a tree ; or that part between the 
 ground and the place where it divides iiito branches. 
 
 In anatomy, trunk is uled for the bufto of a human 
 body, exclufive of the head and limbs, comprehending 
 the abdomen and thorax. 
 
 IRUNNIONS<?/tf Piece of Ordnance, arc thofc knobs 
 or bunches of the gun’s metal, which bear her upon the 
 cheeks of the carriage : and hence the trunnion ring is 
 the ring about a cannon, next before the trunnions. 
 
 li RUSS, Truffa, a bundle, or certain quantity of hay, 
 ^raw, &c. A truls of hay is to contain 561b. 01 half 
 a hundred weight; 36 truiles make a load. 
 
 1 Russ, is alfo uled for a fort of bandage or ligature, 
 made of fteel or the like matter, wherewith to keep up 
 the parts, in thofe who have hernias or ruptures. 
 
 '1 Russ of Flowers, is uled, by florifts, to iignify many 
 flowers growing together on the'hcad of a ftalk, as in the 
 cowflip, auricula, &c. 
 
 Truss of Forage , is as much as a trooper can carry on 
 his horle’s crupper. 
 
 Trusses, in aftiip, are ropes made fall to the parrels 
 of a yard, either to bind the yard to the mail; when the 
 Ihip rolls, or to hale down the yards in a ftorm, &c. 
 
 TRUSSING, in falconry, is a hawk’s raifing any 
 fowl or prey aloft; firll ioaring up, and then defeending 
 with it to the ground. 
 
 TRUS'I , in law, flgnifies, in general, that confi¬ 
 dence which one perfon repofes in another ; and in cafe 
 of non-performance, or breach of this truft, the remedy 
 is by bill in equity, as the common law ufually takes no 
 notice of trufts. 
 
 TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money, put 
 or trufted in his hands, for the ufe of another. Where 
 two or more perlons are appointed truftees, if one of 
 them only receives all, or the greateft part, of the profits 
 of the lands, &c. and is in arrear, and unable to fatisfy 
 the perfon to whom he is feifed in trufl, the other, in 
 that cafe, lhall not be anfvverable for more than comes 
 to his hands. 
 
 TRUTH, Veritas, a term ufed in oppofition to falf- 
 hood, and applied to propositions which anfwer or accord, 
 to the nature and reality of the thing whereof fomething 
 is affirmed or denied. 
 
 Truth, according to Mr. Locke, confifts in the join¬ 
 ing or feparating of figns, as the things fignified by them 
 do agree or difagree one with another. Now the joining 
 or feparating of figns is what we call making of propo- 
 iitions. Truth then, properly, relates only to propofitions, 
 •whereof there are two forts, mental and verbal ; as there 
 arc two forts of figns commonly made ufe of, viz. ideas 
 and words. See Idea and Word. 
 
 Mental propofitions are thofe wherein the ideas in our 
 imderftanding are put together, or feparated, by the 
 mind perceiving or judging of their agreement or difa- 
 greement. 
 
 Verbal propofitions are words put together, or fepa¬ 
 rated, in affirmative or negative fentences : fo that a pro- 
 pofition confifls in joining or feparating of figns ; and 
 truth confifls in putting together, or feparating thoiefigns, 
 according as the things they fland for agree or difagree. 
 
 Moral Truth confifts in fpeaking things according 
 to the perfuafion of our minds, and is called alfo veracity. 
 
 Metaphyftcal, or Tranfundental Truth, is nothing 
 but the real exiftence of things confoimable to the ideas 
 which we have annexed to their names. 
 
 TRY, in the fea-language. A ffiip is faid to try, or 
 lie a-try, when no fails are abroad but the main-fail or 
 irfizzen-fail. 
 
 I UB, in commerce, denotes an indeterminate quan¬ 
 tity or meafure ; thus, a tub of tea contains about 6olb. 
 and a tub of camphor from 56 to 8olb. 
 
 i UBE, Tubus, in general, a pipe, conduit, or canal ; 
 a cylinder hollow withinfide, either of lead, iron, wood,’ 
 glals, or other matter, for the air, or fome other fluid, to 
 have a free paflage, or conveyance through. See P1 P E 
 
 Vol. II. No. 74. 
 
 Small filver or leaden tubes are frequently ufed by 
 urgeons, to draw off blood, matter, or water, from the 
 different parts ot the body. 
 
 c lht Cwjtout'tn oj a draw T ube, for a Til,(cope. The 
 chief points to be regarded here are, that the tube be 
 iiot.troa lefcme by its weight, nor liable to warp and 
 difturb the pofition of the glaffes ; fo that every kind of 
 tu “ 1 l ot irt cafe. See Telescope. 
 
 1 UKtK., or I ubercle, inbotany, akindof round 
 turgid root, 111 form of a knob or turnep. The plants 
 which produce inch ropts arc hence denominated tube- 
 role, or tuberous plants. 
 
 1 UBtR, or Tuberosity, in medicine, is ufed for 
 a knob, or tumour, growing naturally in any part; in 
 dfleafe^ 011 t0 tUmours ’ "' h ‘ ch ari f= accidentally, or from 
 
 1 UBERCLES, among phvficians, denote little tu¬ 
 mours winch fuppurate and difeharge pus, and are often 
 °TfiDrDne h | S ’ el P cc 'alIy of confumptive pc, Ibns. 
 
 L UBE ROSE, polyanthos, in botany, a bulbous rooted 
 plant much admired for the fragrancy of its bloffoms 
 which arc produced in fpikes on the upper part of a item 
 
 which riles four or five feet high. 
 
 1 ubero se Roots, among botanifts, are thofe which 
 are compo ed of many flefhy tubercles, and either fit clofe 
 to the ftalk, as thole of tile garden ranunculus, or arc 
 Impended by fibres or threads ; fuch are thofe of the po- 
 tatoe, Jerulalem artichoke, peony, &c. 
 
 T UBIPORA, orTuBULARiA, a genus of fubma- 
 rme plants, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs, of the 
 hardnels of coral and confiding of cylindrick tubes riling 
 from a thin cruft of the fame fort of matter with them- 
 lelves. 
 
 1 UBULARIA Fossils, in natural hiftory, the 
 name of a fpecies of coral found very often foffil if, Ger¬ 
 many and Italy and compoled of a great number of 
 tubes, or longitudinal pipes, often refembling fo many 
 woims ranged perpendicularly in the mafs. 7 
 
 1 fossILIS ’ in natural hiftory, the tubules 
 
 01 alRs-worms, found buried in the earth. 
 
 1 UBUEI Eactiferi, m anatomy, tile finall tubes, 
 or veflels, through which the milk Hows to the nipples 
 of womens breafts. See Milk. “ 
 
 TUCK »/ a Ship, the trailing or gathering up the 
 quarter under water ; which ,f ihe lie deep, makes her 
 have a broad or, as they call it, fat quarter, and hinders 
 her fleering, by keeping the water from palling fwiftly to 
 h /udder; and if this trailing he too high above The 
 water, ihe will want bearing for her works behind, unlefs 
 her quarter be very well laid out. 
 
 TULIP, Tu/ipa, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flowei is belTftfaped, and compoled of fix ovato-oblone 
 concave, creft petals ; the ftamina are fix fubulated fila¬ 
 ments, topped with oblong eredl quadrangular anthers - 
 the germen is oblong, taper, and three-cornered : it hath 
 no ftvle, but is crowned with a triangular, three-lobed 
 pe.f.ftent ftigma : the fruit is a tiquetrous and trilocular 
 capiule containing a great many flat feeds, ranged over 
 each other in a double order. E 
 
 The tulip-root is bulbous, from which arifes the Item, 
 from a foot to two feet high, adorned at the bafe wni 
 a few pointed leaves, of a pale green colour; on the 
 extremity of the ftalk the flower is produced, which is 
 
 c m o?ots eauty ° f itS fine ftri P“ “<* rich 
 
 This flower is probably a native of Turkey, of which 
 
 the name- ,s a proof being derived from the Turkilh 
 word tulpent, winch figmfies a cap or turban ; but though 
 it be originally from that Country, Holland is the great 
 magaxine of the fined and moll curious tulips, which are 
 railed there by the diligence of the florifts of the low 
 countries. uw 
 
 In Holland they reckon four principal forts ; The 
 early or prmg tulips, a. The double-flowered tulips 
 
 wi J ’ e n ex P eaant '“hpa- 4 - The late ftriped tulips' 
 with a yellow or white bottom. * * * 
 
 rile fpnng-tulips were formerly held in fo great repu¬ 
 tation m Holland, that the florifts placed th? r hieheft 
 ambition m the poffelfion of them. This paffion rofe to 
 that extravagance from the year 1634 to i6e 7 that 
 Irngle roots were fold from 200o to 5S oo guilders 7 ’- , s 
 madnefs was at lall checked by the mteruofi i0, e'f 
 ftates^f Holland and Weft /ticfland Apf t ° , ^ 
 
 fincc 
 
TUL 
 
 fince that time, the late blowers have gained the pre¬ 
 ference, and the fpring tulips are no longer in fuch high 
 eftimation : however, they are not to be call away, as 
 fomeof them blow, in mild leafons, fo early as February, 
 and are very pretty, particularly a fort called the Duke 
 Van-Tol ; their principal beauty confifts in their cupping 
 well, their bright and gay colours, and being well broke. 
 There are fome that have their leaves prettily and lightly 
 variegated with yellow and green, for which they are the 
 more valuable. 
 
 When the fpring flowers are gone off, the double tulips 
 fucceed ; thefe are large flowers, well filled with petals, 
 and {landing afoot and a half or two feet high, ot a very 
 agreeable white, variegated with a bright lively red, mak¬ 
 ing a delightful {hew at a diltance, and the variety of 
 their forms and colours ftrikes the eye very agreeably. 
 
 The late expe&ant tulips, as the Dutch call them, 
 from the expectation they have of railing fine new flowers 
 from them ; they alfo call them tulips of one colour, or 
 whole blowers : we, in England, call them breeding 
 tulips, bccaufe from them the moil admired new flowers 
 are produced , in Germany they have the name oi mother 
 tulips, becaufe we have nothing fine in the tulip kind 
 but what owes its birth to them. They are not very 
 beautiful in themfelves, but are very valuable for the 
 reafons above-mentioned, and a good florift fhould never 
 be without a confiderable number of them in his garden, 
 from which he may breed very fine tulips, a thing he 
 mull never hope to accomplifh but by their means, for 
 thefe anfwer the fame purpofe in railing curious new 
 tulips, as the feed does in hyacinths. 
 
 Many {{range whims have been praClifed in order to 
 produce the variety of colours in the bleeding tulips ; 
 fome have been led by their capricious folly to cut two 
 roots through the heart, and to imagine that they {hould 
 accomplifh their defire by joining the parts of the different 
 roots together, not confidering that the dividing a root in 
 that manner was robbing it of life ; but we {hall pafs over 
 thefe ufelefs chimeras, and fhew two very ealy and limple 
 methods of producing this marvellous alteiation : the 
 firft is to fet the bulbs of the breeders in a very poor foil; 
 and this praClice is built on a well-grounded hypoihefis, 
 which has ever prevailed, and is {fill maintained, that 
 the breaking of flowers is occafioned by the weakening 
 of their natural ftrength, and no caufe is better adapted 
 to produce this efFeCl than the defeCt of nutriment. The 
 lecond method is to make as great a change as poflible in 
 the foil the bulbs are to be fet in, either by taking them 
 out of one garden and planting them in another, or by 
 mixing different kinds of earth, or by procuring new 
 forts every year from Holland; as we have often expe¬ 
 rienced fo great a change of air and foil caufes a great 
 variety of colours : but we do not pofitively alfert that 
 thefe methods will always fucceed, becaufe nature will 
 not at all times lecond our endeavours; it is, however, 
 moll certain’, that there are no better methods known 
 than thofe above mentioned. 
 
 The variegated late blowers are the laft fort of tulips 
 that deferve notice; thefe are, beyond difpute, the moil 
 diverfified, beautiful and perfeCl, of all ; there is an al- 
 moft infinite number of varieties ; all arifing originally 
 from one diftinCl fpecies, which are reduced by florifts 
 into five claffes : i. Tulips with a white bottom, ffriped 
 with brown, called baguette primo. 2. Such as have a 
 white bottom itriped with brown, called baguette rigaut. 
 3. Thofe with a white bottom, llriped with violet and 
 blackilh brown, called bibloemen. 4. Thofe with a white- 
 bottom, llriped with rofe-colour, vermillion, and ruby. 
 5. Such as have a yellow bottom, llriped with different 
 colours, called bizarres. 
 
 The properties required in a fine tulip, are, 1. That it 
 {hould have a tall Hem, rifing to the height of three or 
 four fe< t, becaufe this is agreeable to the nature of the 
 tulip ; all florifts, indeed, do not concur in this opinion, 
 for in fome places the height of the tulip is not regarded, 
 whereas in England. Holland, and Flanders, a tulip with 
 a fiiort ftem is but little efteemed. 
 
 2. That the corolla be large, well proportioned, and 
 compofed of fix petals, three within and three without; 
 thefe lhould not be too long nor pointed, becaufe that 
 would fpoil their lymmetry, which frequently occurs in 
 old tulips, and fometimes in modern ones ; thefe petals 
 when opened lhould neither turn inward nor bend out- 
 
 TUL 
 
 ward, for if they turn in, much of their beauty is dimi- 
 nilhed, yet there are many fine tulips which labour under 
 this defeCl ; the petals ought alfo to be round at their ex¬ 
 tremities, broad, and thick, for when they are thin they 
 crumple, and the colours are apt to be blended. 
 
 3. The colours ought to be lively and bright; thofe 
 that are moll valued and held in greatell efteem, are, the 
 black, golden-yellow, purple-violet, role, and vermillion 
 colours. Tulips whole flowers are finely ftriped, and 
 variegated with three colours, diftinCl and unmixed, with 
 very ftrong and regular llreaks, without any tinge of the 
 colour of the breeders, are the fineft bizarres, and may 
 be called perfeCl tulips. 
 
 It would alfo be a perfection in tulips if the colours 
 always came out the lame, but this is not the cafe, it 
 happening fometimes that a flower of very great price 
 degenerates and becomes of no value, and there is no 
 known method to prevent this metamorphofis, for which 
 nature alone is anlwerable. All tulips are not equally 
 liable to this alteration of colour, fome being lei's fufeep- 
 tible of it than others, as the baguette primo, and the 
 baguette rigaut, which are the leaft fubjedl to it of anv :: 
 thofe that have a white bottom with a very fine {hade, "as; 
 alfo the bizarres, whole fine diverfified colours form a 
 kind of beard at the extremities of the petals, are not 
 very changeable; but the true bizarres, that are painted 
 with a mixture of feveral colours, and tinged with that 
 of the breeder, have their beauty foon obliterated bv a 
 l'udden change. 
 
 Tulips are increafed either from off-fets or feeds ; the 
 feafon lor planting the ofF-fets and blowing-roots is in 
 OClober or November; they may alfo be planted in Ja¬ 
 nuary or February, where the foil is very moift. 
 
 The moft curious in flowers fet them in beds at fix, 
 feven, or eight inches afundcr, according to the forts, 
 and at the depth of fix or feven inches : when they begin 
 to appear above ground, in the fpring, bad weather and 
 frofts may much injure the tender leaves, and thereby do 
 great damage to the flowers ; therefore, at thofe times 
 they lhould he carefully ftieltered with mats, See. for if 
 this be ncgle&ed, the ftems and leaves will 1 'ufFer by it; 
 nor will the mifehief end there, but will be extended both 
 to the flowers, which will be lefs beautiful, and alfo to 
 the roots, which will be weakened and very much af¬ 
 fected by the lofs of the leaves. 
 
 When the ftems grow up, and the flowers begin to 
 colour, they ought to be lupported, otherwife the wind 
 would break them down ; for this purpofe, flicks lhould 
 be prepared of a proportional length and thickncfs, to 
 which the ftems {hould be {'aliened. 
 
 The tulips, when in bloom, lhould befhaded from the 
 violence of the meridian fun, otherwife they will be but 
 offliort duration. 
 
 The time for taking up the roots is ufually in June, 
 when the leaves arc whithered ; they lhould then be laid 
 in an airy place, but not expol'ed to the lun; and three 
 or four weeks afterward, when they are well dried, they 
 lhould be freed from their outward {kins, and then laid 
 in the fame place, where they may remain until the time 
 of planting. 
 
 There are few but the Hollanders who have the pa¬ 
 tience to raife tulips from feeds, as wc mull wait eight or 
 ten years before we can lee a tulip in flower, that has been 
 produced from feed, and after all it is but a whole-blower. 
 Such, however, as like to low, may chufe fuch forts of 
 tulips as pleafe them bell; the moft curious, indeed, are 
 for the breeders, but we leave every one to his own choice. 
 
 When the florill has fixed upon the flowers he would 
 fave feed from, he mull let them have the benefit of the 
 fun and air, otherwife the feeds will not come to per¬ 
 fection ; they mult be ('offered to ltand in the ground till 
 the i'eed-veflels begin to open and {hew the feeds of a 
 brown colour; they muft then be cut and laid in a dry 
 place, letting the feeds remain in their capl'ules till the 
 month of September : the feeds are then to be fown at 
 the depth of an inch, in pots filled with well prepareef 
 earth, which muft be placed in the lhade till November, 
 when they may be expofed to the fun. In the lpring 
 they are to be fet again in the lhade, and afterwards 
 watered while the leaves are green ; but when the leaves 
 are withered, the roots are to be taken out of thefe pots 
 and put into others, which are to be expofed to the i'ua 
 in the lame manner as the former year: after two years, 
 
 2 the 
 
T U M 
 
 the bulbs are to be taken out of tliefc fecond pots, and 
 treated like other tulips. 
 
 TuLi p-Tree, Liriodendrum , in botany, a plant which 
 grows naturally in many parts of North America, where 
 it arrives to a tree of the firft magnitude; the young 
 branches are covered with a fmooth purplifli bark, and 
 furnifhed with large leaves, whofe footllalks are four 
 inches long and ranged alternately ; the leaves are ot a 
 lingular form, being divided into three lobes, the middle 
 one is blunt and hollowed, appearing as if a piece was 
 cut out; the two fide lobes are rounded, and end in blunt 
 points i the upper fur face of the leaves is fmooth and of 
 a lucid green, and the under is of a pale green ; the 
 flowers are produced at the extremities of the branches, 
 they are each compofed of fix petals, three without and 
 three within, forming a fort of bell-lhaped flower, much 
 refembling the tulip (whence the name) ; thefe petals are 
 marked with green, yellow, and red f'pots, making a fine 
 appearance when the tree is full of flowers ; the {lamina 
 confifts of many filaments, with linear antherae fattened 
 to their Tides ; the germina are numerous, and when the 
 petals drop, they {'well and form a kind of cone, con- 
 lifling of many imbricated comprefled feeds : the flowers 
 come out in July. 
 
 This tree is propagated from feeds Town in the fpring 
 on a hot bed, and afterwards hardened by degrees to the 
 fun and air. 
 
 Chequered Tulip, Fritillaria, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whofe flower is hexapetalous and campanulated, 
 with a neclarium placed in the bafe of each petal; the 
 {lamina are fix Tubulated filaments, terminated with ob¬ 
 long, ere£l, quadrangular antherae ; the fruit is an oblong, 
 obtufe, trilocular capfule, with three cells, containing 
 many flat feeds ranged in a double order. 
 
 To this genus Linnaeus has added the corona imperia¬ 
 ls of Tournefort. 
 
 TUMEFACTION, the a£l of fwelling or rifing into 
 a tumour. 
 
 TUMOUR, or Tumor, in medicine and furgery, a 
 preternatural riling or enlargement on any part of the 
 body. Tumour is alfo defined, by phyficians, a folution 
 of continuity arifing from feme humour collected in a 
 certain part of the body, which disjoins the continuous 
 parts, infinuates itfelf between them, and dettroys their 
 proper form. 
 
 Whether there be any fuch preternatural rifing or en¬ 
 largement on any part of the body, may be difeovered 
 from infpe&ion, but more particularly by feeling. And, 
 notwithstanding, it is a general cuftom to refer excrel- 
 cences, as warts, corns, and fuch as grow in the nofe 
 and pudenda, to the clafs of tumours ; yet, becaufe they, 
 grow not from beneath, but out of, or upon, the {kin it¬ 
 felf, it is thought proper not to comprehend them in the 
 general divifion ot tumours. 
 
 There are tumours of various kinds, diftinguilhed by 
 particular names, according to the different caufes from 
 whence they proceed, and the particular parts wherein 
 they are feated; fome are called hot, others cold and 
 warry ; fome are termed windy, others lchirrous ; and 
 fome are named benign, others malignant; but Heiftcr 
 finds fault with thefe diftinftions. There are fome tu¬ 
 mours which are the fame with inflammations, are gene¬ 
 rally termed phlegmons when violent and feated in the 
 common integuments ; but when {lighter, they are com¬ 
 monly called feruncles. The inflammation which is not 
 fixed deep, but fpreads only Superficially upon the {kin, 
 is termed an erylipelas: the inflammatory tumour that 
 arifes at the finger-ends is termed paronychia : that which 
 fixes in the groin or armpits is called a bubo ; and that 
 under the ears a parotis. When an inflammation Seizes 
 the hands and feet from extreme cold, chilblains arife ; 
 which tumour is called pernio. 
 
 Encyjied Tumours, tumours arifing in different parts 
 of the body, but contained in certain membranous coats : 
 thefe are Sometimes harder, fometimes Softer, of a palilh 
 colour, and ulually attended with little pain. Thefe tu¬ 
 mours arife from obftru£lions either in the glands, or in 
 the adipole membrane, more efpecially about the face and 
 neck, where they oocafion great deformity. The mem¬ 
 branous coat with which thefe tumours are invefted, is 
 often of a confiderabie thicknels, and is ulually the coat 
 of. the disordered gland, or fome of the adipole cells. At 
 their beginning they are ufually very Small and moveable; 
 
 TUN 
 
 I but encreafing by flow degrees, they grow fometimes to 
 I an enormous bulk. 
 
 The confiftence of fome of thefe tumours is Soft and 
 fluctuating, and of others more hard and firm. They 
 are of all Shapes and fizes, and fome of them become hard 
 as a callus, and unmoveable, while others are for the 
 generality, loft and moveable. 
 
 They are diftinguilhed according to the confiftence of 
 their contents; fome are called atheromata, from their 
 contents refembling pafte ; others, which have them of 
 the confiftence of honey, are called meliceres ; but if 
 they are of a fatty fdbftance, like fuet or lard, they are 
 called ftcotomata. If they happen in a gland which be¬ 
 comes indurated, they are called fchirrous : and laftlv, 
 when they are ot a flefliy confiftence, they are called 
 Sarcomata. Some of thefe tumours have been found alfo 
 full of hair. 
 
 They are diftinguifhed by others according to the places 
 where they arc fituated. Thole lcated under the Scalp 
 are called talpa, teftudo, or lupia. Thole in the neck, 
 ftrumae or lcrophuiae ; and thole in the hands and feet, 
 efpecially if among the tendons, arc called ganglions. 
 
 There is no general method for the cure of them ; but 
 the furgeon, according to their different circumftances, 
 attempts this by difeuffion, Suppuration, or extirpation. 
 
 But if the tumour can neither be difperfed nor fup- 
 purated, but continues to enlarge itfelf, it is advifeable to 
 extirpate it, in order to pi event its turning into a can¬ 
 cerous nature. There are feveral methods in praflice 
 for extirpating thefe tumours according to their nature 
 and fize : thole which arc Small and hard, or hung by a 
 root as by a ftalk, arc generally beft removed by ligature, 
 in the manner of warts; by which means they wither 
 and fall of themfelves in a few days. But the moll 
 ready and expeditious method is to cut them off with a 
 Scalpel, and then heal up the wound : but if in removing 
 them this way you divide a confiderabie artery', you may 
 flop it by fome potential, or even the a£lual cautery ; or 
 elle, by taking it up with a needle and thread. Lafily, 
 thefe tumours may be often removed by the application 
 of caullick or corroding medicines, retained about the 
 root by means of plafters, compreflcs, and a bandage; 
 and when you find the root of the tumour almoft corroded 
 through, the reft may be divided by the fcalpel. See 
 Caustick. 
 
 If the root of the eneyfted tumour appears too large 
 for it to be conveniently taken off by ligature, you mull 
 then remove it cither by the knife or by the caufticks, 
 though the latter is generally pieferred In order to ex¬ 
 tirpate it by the knife, you mutt firft make a longitudi¬ 
 nal incifion upon the tumour ; and if it does not appear 
 fumcient, make another incifion acrofs the former, till 
 you think the wound large enough for taking out the tu¬ 
 mour; in order to which you next dilate the integu¬ 
 ments, and Separate them from the cyft of the tumour, 
 which you are to take out whole, if poffible, either by 
 means of the fcalpel, a hook, or by palfing a crooked 
 needle, withaftrong thread, croflwile under the tumour; 
 but great caution is ncccflary in this operation, left any im¬ 
 portant part that is contiguous to the tumour be injured. 
 
 The tumour being thus carefully extracted, if the 
 wound and haemorrhage be Small you may prefs the lips 
 together ; and by covering the lame with lint and com- 
 preflls, retained with a proper bandage, the patient is 
 cured in a few days time; but in cafe of a profufe hae¬ 
 morrhage, the blood is to be Hopped either by ligature, 
 aftringents, or the actual or potential cautery. 
 
 TUN, or Ton, originally fignifies a large vefiel or 
 calk of an oblong form, biggeft in the middle, and di- 
 minifhing towards its two ends, girt about with hoops, 
 and ufed for {lowing leveral kinds of merchandize, for con¬ 
 venience ofcai riage; as brandy,oil, fugar, Ikins, hats. See. 
 
 This word is alfo ufed for certain velfels of extraordi¬ 
 nary bignefs, ferving to keep wine in for feveral years. 
 
 Tun is alio a certain meafure for liquids; as wine, 
 oil, &c. See Measure. 
 
 Tun is alfo a certain weight whereby the burden of 
 {hips, &c. are cilimated. 
 
 TUNE, or Tone, in mufick, that; property of founds 
 whereby they come under the relation of acute and grave 
 to one another. 
 
 Though gravity and acutenefs are mere terms of rela¬ 
 tion, the tune of the found is Something abfolutc, every 
 
 found 
 
TUN 
 
 /band having its own proper tone, which muft he under 
 fome determinate meafure in the nature of the thing. 
 
 The only difference then between one tunc and an¬ 
 other is in the degrees. 
 
 If two or more founds be compared together in this 
 relation, they are either equal or unequal in the degree 
 of tune. Such as are equal are called unifons. 
 
 7 he unequal conflitute what we call an interval, which 
 is the difference of time between two founds. 
 
 Sonorous bodies we find differ in tune: i. Accord¬ 
 ing to the different kinds of matter; thus a wedge of 
 filver founds much more acute than a wedge of gold of 
 the fame fhape and dimenfions ; in which cafe the tones 
 are proportional to the fpecifick gravity.' 2. According 
 to the different quantities of the lame matter in bodies of 
 the lame figure, a folid fphere of brafs, one foot diame¬ 
 ter, founds acuter than one of two feet diameter; in 
 which cafe the tunes are proportional to the quantity of 
 matter. Here then are different tunes connefted with 
 different fpecifick gravities and quantities of matter, as 
 their immediate caufe. In effedt, the meafures of tune 
 are only fought in the relations of the motions that are 
 the cau!e of found, which are no way fo difcernable as 
 in vibrations of chords. 
 
 In the general we find that, in two chords, all things 
 being equal, except tenfion, orthicknefs, or length, the 
 tunes are different; there muft, therefore, be a difference 
 in the vibrations owing to thefe different tenfions, &c. 
 which difference can only be in the velocity of thecou . les 
 and recourfes of the chords, through the lpaces wherein 
 they move to and again. Now, upon examining the pro¬ 
 portion of the velocity and the things juft mentioned, 
 wherein it depends, it is found, to a demonftration, that 
 all the \ ibrations of the fame chord are performed in 
 equal times. Hence, as the tone of a found depends on 
 the nature of thofe vibrations, whofe difference we can 
 conceive no othervvife than as having different velocities; 
 and as the Imall vibrations of the fame chord are per¬ 
 formed in equal times, and it is found true, in fadl, 
 that the found of any body, ariflng from any individual 
 ftroke. though it grows gradually weaker, yet continues 
 the fame tone from firft to laft : it follows, that the tone 
 is n :cellarily connected with a certain quantity of time, 
 in making every fingle vibration ; or, that a certain 
 numbei of vibrations, accomplifhed in a given time con- 
 ftitutes a certain determinate tune ; for the more fre¬ 
 quent thofe vibrations are, the more acute the tone; 
 and, the flower and fewer they are, the more grave the 
 found, though performed in the fame fpace of time; fo 
 that any given note of a tune is made by one certain 
 meafure of velocity of vibrations, i. e. luch certain 
 courfes and recourfes of a chord or firing, in luch a cer¬ 
 tain lpace of time, conflitute a determinate tune. 
 
 This theory is ftrongly fupported by our beft and 
 lateft writers on mufick, Dr. Holder, Mr. Malcolm, &c. 
 both from realon anc experience. Dr. Wallis, who 
 holds it very reafonable, adds, that it is evident the de¬ 
 grees of acutenefs are reciprocally as the lengths of the 
 chords, though, he fays, he will not pofitively affirm 
 that the degrees of acutenefs anfwer the number of vi¬ 
 tiations as their true caufe: but this difference arifes 
 hence, that he doubts whether the thing has been fuffi- 
 ciently proved by experiment. Indeed, whether the dif¬ 
 ferent numbers of vibrations, in a given time, is the true 
 caufe on the part of the objedl of our perceiving a dif¬ 
 ference of tune, is a thing which, we conceive, does not 
 come within the reach of experiment. It is enough that 
 the hypothesis is reafonable. 
 
 Tunica, Tunic , in anatomy, is applied to the mem¬ 
 branes which inveft the velfels, and divers others of the 
 lefs folid parts of the body ; thus the inteftines are formed 
 of five tunicks, or coats. 
 
 I here are alio five tunicks, or coats, of the eye, for 
 which fee the article Eye. 
 
 FUN N AGE is ufed for a cuftom or impoll, pay¬ 
 able to the crown, tor goods and merchandize imported 
 or exported, and is to be paid after a certain rate for 
 every tun thereof. Th.... duty as well as that of pound¬ 
 age, was firft granted for life to king Charles II. and 
 has been continued in the fame manner to his royal luc- 
 celfors, down to his prefent majefty George III. 
 
 I UNNEL-Net, a net for taking partridges, 
 which fliould not exceed 15 feet in length, nor be lefs 
 
 T U R 
 
 than 18 inches in breadth, or opening for the en¬ 
 trance. 
 
 1 UNNING of Ale or Beer, a part of tile procefs of 
 brewing, or rather an operation which is the fequel of it. 
 W hen the beer has worked or fermented in an open vat, 
 as long as is proper, tun it up into feafoned velfels, that 
 is, fucli as have had ale or beer in them before ; for if it 
 be put into new calks, it muft be made ftron’ger than 
 ordinary, elfe it will not keep fo long, becaufe the calk 
 will imbibe the fpirits, and the reft will foon become flat 
 and vapid. It is beft to tun beer juft when it comes to a 
 due fermentation, and gets a good head ; for then it has 
 the in oft ftrength to clear itlelf in the calk, and what 
 works over may be put into the fmall beer, and muft be 
 fupplied with frclh beer of the fame brewing. When the 
 beer is tunned, carry it while it works in the calk, into a 
 good cellar, or proper place to prelervc it, for if it be 
 llirred after it has done working, it will be apt to grow 
 ftale, lour, and become alegar. 
 
 TURBAR Y, denotes a right to digturfs on another’s 
 ground ; and it is likewife taken for the ground or place 
 where turfs are digged, fometimes called the turfary. 
 
 TURBINATED, is a term applied by natura.ifts to 
 fhells which are fpiral, or wreathed, conically, from a 
 larger balls to a kind of apex. 
 
 r I URBITH, or Turfetii-Root, in the materia 
 medica, the coitical part of the root of an Indian con- 
 vulvulus, brought to us in oblong pieces, of a brown or 
 alb-colour on the outfide, and whitilh within : the beft 
 ispondorous, not wrinkled, eafy to break, anddilcover- 
 ing a large quantity of refinous matter to the eye : its 
 tarte is at flrft fweetilh ; when chewed for a little time, 
 it becomes add, pungent, and naufeous. This root is 
 a cathartick, not of the fafeft, or moll certain kind. 
 
 1 urbith Mineral, a name given bychymifts to a 
 yellow precipitate of mercury, prepared after the follow¬ 
 ing manner. Upon purified quicklilver, contained in a 
 glafs velfel, pour double its weight of the ftrong fpirit or 
 oil ol vitriol. Heat the liquor by degrees, fo as at length 
 to make it boil, till a white mafs remains, which is to 
 be thoroughly dried, with a ftrong fire. This mafs, on 
 the effufion of warm water, grows yellowilh, and falls 
 into powder; which is to bs carefully ground with the 
 water in a glals mortar : then fuffer it to fettle, pour off 
 the water, and walh the powder in feveral parcels of 
 frefh water, until it is fufficiently dulcified. 
 
 This preparation is a ftrong emetick, and operates the 
 mo ft powerfully of all the mercurials that can be fafely 
 given internally. Its aft ion, however, is not confined 
 to the primal vias; it will fometimes excite a ptyalifm, if 
 a purgative is not foon taken after it. It is chiefly ufed 
 ill violent gonorrheas, and other venereal cafes, where 
 there is a great flux of humours to the parts : the dofe is 
 from two grains to fix or eight; though there are fome 
 conftitutions, that have been ufed to mercurials, that 
 bear well even the dofe of a fcruple. This medicine has 
 alfooflatc been recommended as the moft effeftual pre- 
 fervative againft the hydrophobia. 
 
 The walkings of turbith mineral are by fome externally 
 applied for the itch, and other cutaneous foulneffes; but 
 in thefe cafes, though it often does fcrvice, the patient 
 muft not be too free with it. 
 
 TURBOT, or Turbut, in ichthyology, the Eng- 
 lifh name of a fpacies of pleuroneffes, with the eyes on 
 the right fide, and the body fmootll. It grows to a con- 
 liderable fize, and is one of the molt eftcemcd fifli at table. 
 
 TURCICA 1 erra, Turkey earth, in the materix 
 medica, a very fine hole or medicinal earth, dug in great 
 plenty in the neighbourhood of Adrianople, and ufed by 
 the Turks as a fudorifick and aftringent; and famous 
 among them in peftilential difeales. 
 
 1 URCOISE, or Turqjjoise, Turchefia , in natural 
 hiftory, an ore of copper, erroneoufly ranked among 
 gems. There are, indeed, two kinds of turquoife ; the 
 one a true and genuine ore of copper ; the other the 
 bones of animals, tinged to a beautiful blue colour by 
 having been buried in places where copper-ore has been 
 near them. 
 
 I URF, a blackifh fulphureous earth, ufed in feveral 
 parts of England, Holland, and Flanders, as fuel. 
 
 In the north of England, Scotland, &c. turf is dug 
 out of loft, moift, rotten earth, called peatmofs. They 
 dig horizontally from the furface, to the depth of about 
 
 four 
 
TUR 
 
 four feet, with a fpade, which at once fafhions and takes 
 them out in parailclopipeds nine or ten inches long, and 
 three fquare, which are fpread on the ground to drain as 
 fall as dug ; and then fet up an end three or four againft 
 each other, for the wind to blow through them ; and at 
 laft they are hacked or houfed. The pits or dykes, in a 
 few years, iill up again and afford a frefh crop. 
 
 TURFING-SPADE, an inhrument ufed to under¬ 
 cut the turf, after it is marked out with the plough. 
 
 TURGESCENCF,. orT urgescency, among phy- 
 ficians, denotes a fwelling, or growing bloated. 
 
 TURIONES, among herbalihs, denotes the firh 
 young tender Ihoots, which plants annually put forth. 
 
 TURKEY, the name of a well known fowl, reared 
 in many parts of England. 
 
 Moh of our houlewifes, fays a Swcdifh author on 
 hulbandry, have long delpaired of fuccefs in rearing tur¬ 
 keys, and complained that the prolit rarely indemnifies 
 them for their trouble and. lofs of time ; whereas, con¬ 
 tinues he, little more is to be done than to plunge the 
 chick into a veflel of cold water, the very hour, or if that 
 cannot be, the day it is hatched, forcing it to fwallow 
 one whole pepper-corn, and then reiloring it to its mo¬ 
 ther. From that time it will become hardy, and fear the 
 cold no more than a hen’s chick. After which it mull be 
 remembered that thefe ufeful creatures are fubjeft to one 
 particular maiady whilft they are young, which carries 
 them off in a few das When they begin to droop, ex¬ 
 amine carefully the leathers on their rump, and you will 
 find two or three, whofe quill part is filled with blood : 
 upon drawing thefe the chick recovers, and after that 
 requires no other care than what is commonly bellowed 
 on poultry that range the court-yard. 
 
 i hele artkles are too true to be denied ; and in proof 
 of the luccels, three pari flies in Sweden have, for many 
 years, gained leveral hundred pounds by rearing and 
 felling turkies. 
 
 TURMFR 1 CK, in the materia medica, the root of a 
 plant, called by botamfls curcuma. It is brought from 
 the E. Indies, where they ufe it in fauces and foods. 
 
 As a medicine it is eflcemed aperient and emenagogue, 
 and of lingular efficacy in the jaundice. But befides 
 thefe ufes, glovers ufe it for dying their leather; and the 
 turners, to give an agreeable yellow to feveral of their 
 works made in the whiter woods. 
 
 TURN, inlaw, a court held twice a year, viz. within 
 a month after Eafler and Michaelmas, refpe&ively, by the 
 fhcriff of every county. 
 
 TURN ADO, or To rnado, a wind which on fome 
 coafls blows all night from the fhore. 
 
 TURNAMENT, or Tournament, a martial 
 fport, or excrcilc, which the ancient cavaliers ufed to 
 perform to fhew their bravery and addrels. 
 
 l URNEP, ovTurnip, an efculent plant, of wh;£h 
 there arc three fpccies enumerated by Miller. The firfl 
 is the turnip which is commonly cultivated in the fields, 
 of which there are the following varieties, viz. the round 
 red or purple topped turnip, the green topped turnip, 
 the yellow turnip, the black rooted turnip, and the early 
 Dutch turnip. The lafl fort is commonly fown early in 
 thc.fpring, to fupply the markets in May and June, but 
 never cultivated for a general crop. The red-rooted tur¬ 
 nip was formerly more cultivated in England than at 
 prefent; for fince the large green topped turnip has been 
 introduced, all the fkilful farmers prefer it to the other 
 forts ; the roots of the green will grow to a large fize, 
 and continue good much longer than the other forts. 
 The next to this is the red or purple topped turnip, 
 which will alfo grow large, and is extremely good for 
 fome time ; but the roots of this will become flringy 
 much fojpner than thofe of the green topped. The long 
 rooted turnip, the yellow turnip, and the biackifh rooted 
 turnip, ate now rarely cultivated in England, neither of 
 them being fo good for the table or for feed, as the red 
 and green toppediurnip, though there are fome few per- 
 fons who low thenVfor the fake of variety. 
 
 “ I fie French turnip is not-mueh.cuitivated in Eng¬ 
 land, but in France and Holland they are in great eilcem, 
 efpecially for foups; their roots being finall, are boiled 
 whole in the foup, and fo ferved up to the table; thefe 
 muff be ufed while they are.yo.png., otherwife they will 
 become rank and flringy. 
 
 “ ^ hefe are luppofed to be only varieties which have 
 Vol. II. No. 74. 
 
 TUR 
 
 accidentally been obtained from feeds, therefore I have 
 not enumerated them as diflinft fpecies ; but yet I am 
 certain they are conflant, where care is taken in the fav- 
 ing of their feeds not to fuffer any mixture to Hand for 
 feeds : I have fown of three or four forts leveral years* 
 and have always found them retain their differences; how¬ 
 ever, it is not eafy to determine if fome of thefe were not 
 by culture firfl obtained from feeds of the common white 
 turnip. J he yellow turnip feems mofl unlikely to have 
 been an accidental variety, for I have never known this 
 alter, and the roots are yellow within, whereas all the 
 other have white flefh, notwithflanding their outfides are 
 of very different colours. 
 
 “ 1 he long rooted turnip is, t think, a diflinft fpccies, 
 the form of the root, and its manner of growth being 
 totally different from the other forts. I have feen thefe 
 roots as long as thofe of the parfnip, and nearly of the 
 fame fhape; thefe run deep into the ground, therefore 
 unfit for feeding of cattle ; and unlefs they are ufed verv 
 young, become flrong, and not proper for the table, which 
 has occalioned their being rejected of late years. 
 
 I he green lopped turnip grows above ground more 
 than any of the other, which renders it preferable for 
 feeding of cattle ; and being the fofteft and fweeteft root 
 when grown large, of any of the kinds, is moil eflcemed 
 for the table; but in very fevere winters they are in greater 
 danger of fuffering by froft, than thofe whofe roots lie 
 more in the ground, efpecially if they are not covered by 
 (now ; for when they are frequently hard frozen and 
 thawed, it caufes them to rot fooner than thofe whofe 
 flefh is leis tender and fweet. I have feen the roots of 
 this fort, which were more than a foot diameter, boiled, 
 and were as fweet and tender as any of the fmalleil roots. 
 
 1 urnips delight in a light, fandy, loamy foil, which 
 mud not he licli; for in a rich foil they grow rank and 
 are dicky, but if it he moid they will thrive the better in 
 dimmer, efpecially in frcih land, where they are always 
 fvveeter than upon an old worn-out or a rich foil. 
 
 “ The common feafon for fowing of turnips, is any 
 time from the beginning of June to the middle of Auguft, 
 or a little later; though it is not advifeable to fow them 
 much after, becaufe if the autumn Ihould not prove very 
 mild, they will not hare time to apple before winter, nor 
 will the roots of thofe which arc fown after the middle 
 of July, grow very large, unlefs the frods keep off long 
 m autumn. But, notwithdanding this is the general 
 leafon in which the greated part of turnips are fown in 
 the country, yet, about London, they are fown fuc- 
 cefliveiy from March to Augud, by thofe who propagate 
 them to fupply the markets with their roots ; but there is 
 a great hazard of lofing thofe which are fown early in the 
 year, if the feafon Ihould prove dry, by the fly, which 
 will devour whole fields of this plant while young ; fo 
 that where a fmall quantity for the fupply of a family is 
 wanted, it will he abfolutely neceffary to water them in 
 dry weather; and where a perfon fows thofe feeds in April 
 and May, it fhould always be upon a moid foil, other- 
 wife they feldom prove good ; the heat of the weather at 
 that feafon being too great for them upon a dry foil ; but 
 thofe which are lown towards the middle or latter end of 
 June, commonly receive fome refrclhing fhowers to brino- 
 them forward ; without which, it is very common to have 
 them all dedroyed. 
 
 “ Thefe fecds fliould always be fown upon an open 
 fpot of ground ; for if they are near hedges, walls, build¬ 
 ings, or trees, they will draw up, and be very long topped 
 but their roots will not grow to any fize. * 
 
 “ The y are fown in great plenty in the fields near 
 London, not only for the ufe of the kitchen, but for food 
 for cattle in winter, when there is a fcarcity of other food; 
 and this way is become a great improvement to barren 
 fandy lands, particularly in Norfolk, where, by the cul¬ 
 ture of turnips, many perfons have doubled the yearly 
 value of their ground. J 1 
 
 “ The land upon which this feed is fown, Ihould he 
 ploughed in April, and twice-fallowed in May; that is 
 once more ploughed and twice well harrowed, and made 
 \er\ fine ; then the feed fhouldbe fown pretty thin ; for it 
 being fmall, a little will fow a large piece ofground ; one 
 pound is the common allowance for an acre of land. The 
 feed mull he -ban owed in as foori as it is fown, with a 
 lhort-tined harrow, and the ground rolled with a wooden 
 roll, to break the clods, and make the furface even In 
 
 5 N ten 
 
TUR 
 
 ten days or a fortnight after fowing, the plants will come 
 up; at which time, if the feafon Ihould prove dry, they 
 will be in great danger of being deftroyed by the fly; but 
 if it fo happen, the ground mull: be fowed again, for the 
 feed being cheap, the chief expence is the labour ; but 
 the ground Ihould be firll harrowed to looien it, cfpecially 
 if it is ftiff land. 
 
 “ When the plants have got four or five leaves, they 
 fhould be hoed to deftroy the weeds, and to cut up the 
 plants where they are too thick, leaving the remaining 
 ones about fix or eight inches afunder each way, which 
 will be room enough for the plants to Hand for the firll 
 hoeing : the fooner this is performed, when the plants 
 have four leaves, the better they will thrive ; but in the 
 fecond hoeing, which mull be performed about a month 
 after the firft, they Ihould be cut up, fo as that the re¬ 
 maining plants may Hand 14 or 16 inches diftance, 
 or more, efpccially if they are deligned for feeding of 
 cattle; for where the plants are allowed a good diflance. 
 the roots will be proportionally large; fo that what is loll 
 in number, will be over-gained by their bulk, which is 
 what I have often obferved. But in fuch places where 
 they are fown for the ule of the kitchen, they need not 
 be left at a greater diflance than 10 inches or a foot, becaul’e 
 large roots are not fo generally efteemed for the table. 
 
 “ It is not many years fince the pradlice of fowing turnips 
 for feeding of cattle has been ot general ufe ; how it hap¬ 
 pened that this improvement Ihould have been fo long neg- 
 le£led in every part of Europe, is not eafy to determine, 
 fmee it is very plain, that this piece of huibandry was 
 known to the ancients. For Columella, in treating o< 
 the feveral kinds of vegetables which are proper for the 
 field, recommends the cultivating rape in plenty ; be- 
 caufc, fays he, thofe roots which are not wanted for the 
 table, will be eaten by the cattle : yet this plant was not 
 much cultivated in the fields till within the lafl 60 or 70 
 yeais; nor is the true method of cultivating turnips yet 
 known, or at leaft not pr.idtifed, in fome of the diftant 
 counties of England, at this time. For in many places 
 the feed is fown with barley in the fpring, and thofe plants 
 which come up, and live till the barley is cut, produce a 
 little green for the fheep to pick up, but never have any 
 roots. In other places, where rhe turnip feed is fown by 
 jtfelf, the method of hoeing them is not underftood ; fo 
 that weeds and turnips are permitted to grow together; 
 and where the turnips come up thick in patches, they are 
 never thinned, fo that they draw up to have long leaves, 
 but never can have good roots, which is the principal 
 pait of the plant, therefore Ihould be chiefly attended to. 
 
 “ The general method now pra&ifed in England, for 
 cultivating this plant in the fields, is the fame as is prac- 
 tifed by the farming gardeners, who fupply the London 
 maikets with thefe roots, and is the fame as before di- 
 redled. But it is only v\ ithin the compafs of a few years, 
 that the country people have been acquainted with the 
 method of hoeing them; fo that the farmers formerly 
 employed gardeners, who had been bred up in the kitchen 
 gaidens, to perform this work ; but it is now performed 
 by many country labourers, by which means that prac¬ 
 tice is loft to the kitchen gardeners ; the labourers doing 
 it much cheaper. 
 
 *• There has alfo been another method pra&ifed very 
 lately, by fome very curious farmers, in cultivating ol 
 turnips, which is by lowing the ieeds in rows, with the 
 drill-plough. In fome places the rows are fown three 
 feet alunder, in others four, in fome five, and lome fix. 
 The latter has been recommended by fome, as the moll 
 proper diflance and although the intervals are fo large, 
 yet the crop produced on an acre has been much greater 
 than upon the fame quantity of land, where the rows 
 have been but half tins diflance ; and upon all the fields 
 which have been tilled, the crops have greatly exceeded 
 thofe which have been hand-hoed. The late lord vif- 
 count Townlhend was at the expence of making the 
 trial of thefe two different methods of huibandry, with 
 the greateft care, by equally dividing the fame fields into 
 different lands, which were alternately fown in drills, 
 and the intermediate lands in broad-caft. The latter 
 were ho d by hand, in the common method, and the 
 other cultivated by the hoeing-plough; and when the 
 roots were fully grown, his lordfhip had an equal quan¬ 
 tity of land, which had been fowed in the different me¬ 
 thods, meafured, and the roots drawn up and weighed ; 
 
 TUR 
 
 thofe roots which had been cultivated by the plough, were 
 fo much larger than the other, that the crop of one acre 
 weighed a ton and an half more than that of an acre in 
 the other huibandry. 
 
 “ But when the turnips are fown in drills, they will 
 require to be hoed by hand, to leparate and cut out the 
 plants, where they are too near together in the rows ; as 
 alfo to cut up the weeds between the plants, where the 
 plough cannot reach them. If this is carefully performed, 
 the ploughing ot the intervals will encourage the growth 
 of the roots, by thus flirring of the ground, and make it 
 much better prepared for the crop of barley, or whatever 
 elfe is fown in the following fpring. This method of cul¬ 
 ture may he fuppofed to be more expenfive than that com¬ 
 monly pradlifcd, by thofe unacquainted with it; but thofe 
 who have made trial of both, find the horfe-hoeing to be 
 much the cheapeft, and by far the beft. For the country 
 people, who are employed in hand-hoeing of turnips, are 
 very apt to hurry over their work, fo that half the weeds 
 are left growing, and the plants are feldom fingled out fo 
 well as they Ihould be; nor are they curious enough to 
 diflinguilh the charlock, which is one of the moft com¬ 
 mon weeds in arable land, from the turnips; fo that 
 about the middle of September, it is very common to fee 
 die fields of turnips full of the yellow flowers of the 
 charlock. Now, in the horfe-hoeing, all the weeds in 
 the intervals will be entirely deftroyed; fo that if a few 
 plants of the rows of turnips fhould be overlooked, they 
 may be eafily drawn when they appear vifible, and by this 
 method the land will be fooner and better cleared from 
 weeds. 
 
 “ The greateft evil which attends a crop of turnips, is 
 that of their being deftroyed by the fly, which ufualiy 
 happens loon after the plants come above-ground, or 
 while they are in the feed leaf; for, after they have put 
 out their rough leaves pretty ftrong, they will be paft 
 this danger. This always happens in dry weather ; fo 
 that, it there Ihould be rain when the turnips come up, 
 they will grow fo faft, as to be in a few days out of 
 danger from the fly ; and it hath been found, that thofe, 
 which have been fown in drills, have efcaped the fly 
 much better than thole fown in broad call; but, if foot 
 is fown along the lurface of each drill, it will be of great 
 fervice to keep off the fly, and a fmall quantity of it will 
 be lufficient for a large field, where the drills only are to 
 be covered. 
 
 “ Another danger of the crops being deftroyed is 
 from the caterpillars, which very often attack them, 
 when they are grown fo large as to have fix or eight 
 leaves on a plant. The lureft method of deftroying 
 thefe infe&s, is to turn a large parcel of poultry, which 
 Ihould be kept hungry, early in the morning into the 
 field ; thefe fowls will foon devour the infe&s, and clear 
 the turnips. To this evil the turnips, which are fown 
 in drills, are not fo much expofed ; for as the ground 
 between the rows will be kept flirted, the plants will be 
 kept growing, fo will not be in danger of fuffering from 
 thefe inl’edts, for the parent infedls never depofit their 
 eggs upon any plants which are in health ; but as foon 
 as they are Hinted, they arc immediately covered with the 
 eggs of thefe infedts ; and this holds in general with ve¬ 
 getables as with animals, who are feldom attacked by 
 vermin when they are in perfedl health ; whereas, when 
 they become unhealthy, they are foon overlpread with 
 them ; fo that it is the difeafe which occafions the ver¬ 
 min, and not the vermin the difeafe, as is commonly 
 imagined. 
 
 “ When the turnips arc fown in drills, it will be the 
 beft way to plough between every other row at firft, and 
 fome time after to plough the alternate intervals, by 
 which method the plants will receive more benefit from 
 the often flirring the ground than they would do, if all 
 the intervals were hoed at oue time , and plants will be 
 in lei's danger of fuffering front the earth being thrown 
 up too high on fome rows, while others may he left too 
 bare of earth ; but, when the earth has been thrown up 
 on one fide ol the drill, it may be turned down again 
 loon after the next interval is ploughed. This alternate 
 moving of the earth will prepare tli£ ground very well for 
 the lucceeding crop, and greatly improve the turnips ; 
 but, as the plough cannot well be drawn nearer to the 
 drills than two or three inches, the remaining ground 
 ihould be forked to looien the parts, and make way for 
 
 the 
 
TUR 
 
 the fibres of the roots to ftrikc out into the intervals; 
 otherwife, if the land is ftrong, it will become fo hard in 
 thole places which are not ftirred, as to Hint the growth 
 of the turnips. This may be done at a fmall expence ; 
 a good hand will perform a great deal of this work in 
 a day, and, whoever will make the trial, will find their 
 accounts in pra&ifing it, efpeciaily on all ftrong land, 
 where the turnips are much more liable to fuffer from 
 the binding of the ground, than they will be on a loofe 
 foil ; but yet, in all forts of ground, it will be of great 
 fervice to praCtife this. 
 
 “ When the ground is thus ftirred in every part, one 
 ploughing will be fufficient, after the turnips are eaten, 
 for the fowing of barley, or any other crop ; fo that there 
 will be an advantage in this, when the turnips are kept 
 late on the ground, as will often be the cafe, efpeciaily 
 when they are cultivated for feeding of ewes, becaufe it 
 is often the middle of April before the ground will be 
 cleared : for late feed in the fpring, before the natural 
 grafs comes up, is the moft wanted, where numbers of 
 Iheep or ewes are maintained, and one acre of turnips 
 will afford more feed than 50 acres of the beft pafture 
 at that feafon. 
 
 “ In N01 folk and fome other counties they cultivate 
 great quantities of turnips for feeding of black cattle, 
 which turn to great advantage to their farms, for hereby 
 they procure a good drefling for their land ; fo that they 
 have extraordinary good crops of barley upon thofe lands, 
 which would not have been worth the ploughing, if it 
 had not been thus hulbanded. 
 
 “ When the turnips are fed off the ground, the cattle 
 fhould not be fuffered to run over too much of the 
 ground ; for. if they are not confined by hurdles to as 
 much as is fufficient for them one day, the ^cattle will 
 fpoil three times the quantity of turnips they can eat, 
 fo that it is very bad hulbandry to give them too much 
 room ; therefore the hurdles fhould be every day removed 
 forward, and if the turnips are drawn out of the ground 
 before the cattle or Iheep are turned into the new inclo- 
 fure. there will be lei's wafte made, for they will then eat 
 up the whole roots ; whereas, if they are turned upon the 
 turnips growing, they will lcoop the roots, and leave the 
 rinds, which being hollow, the urine of the fheep will 
 lodge in them ; fo that, when they are forked out of the 
 ground, the fheep will not eat any of thofe roots which 
 are thus tainted. 
 
 “ 1 cannot omit taking notice of a common miftake, 
 which has generally prevailed with perfons who have not 
 been well informed to the contrary, which is in relation 
 to the mutton which is fatted with turnips, moft people 
 believing it to be rank and ill-tafted; whereas it is a 
 known faCt, that the beft mutton this country affords is 
 all fatted on turnips, and that rank mutton, whole fat is 
 yellow, is what the low marfhy lands of Lincolnfhirc, 
 and other rank paftures, produce. 
 
 “ In order to lave good turnip feeds, you fhould tranf- 
 plant fome of their faireft roots in February, placing them 
 at leaft two feet afunder each way, obferving to keep the 
 ground clear from weeds, until the turnips have fpread fo 
 as to cover the ground, when they will prevent the weeds 
 from growing. When the pods are formed, you fhould 
 carefully guard them againft the birds, otherwife they 
 will devour it, efpeciaily when it is near ripe ; at which 
 time you fhould cither fhoot the birds as they alight 
 upon the feed, or lay fome bird-limed twigs upon it, 
 whereby fome of them will be caught; and, if they are 
 permitted to remain fome time, and afterwards turned 
 loofe, they will prevent the birds from coming thither 
 again for fome time, as I have experienced. When the 
 feed is ripe it fhould be cut up, and fpread to dry in the 
 fun; after which it may be threlhed out and preferved 
 for ufe. 
 
 “ There have been many receipts for preventing the fly 
 taking turnips, but few of them deferve notice; there¬ 
 fore 1 fhall only mention two or three which I have feen 
 tried with fuccefs. The firft was fteeping the feeds in 
 water with flour of brimftone mixed, fo as to make it 
 ftrong of the brimftone: another was fteeping it in water 
 with a quantity of the juice of horle-aloes mixed, both 
 which have been found of ufe. The fowing of foot or 
 tobacco duft over the young plants, as loon as they appear 
 .above ground, has alfo been found very ferviceable : in 
 ihort, whatever will add vigour to the young plants, will 
 
 T U R 
 
 prevent their being deftroyed by the fly, for thofe iiever 
 attack them, till they are ftinted in their growth.” Miller's 
 Gard. Difl, 
 
 TURNING, a branch of fculpture, being the art of 
 fafhioning hard bodies, as brafs, ivory, wood, &c. into 
 a round or oval form, in a lathe. Turning is performed 
 by putting the fubftance to be turned upon two points as 
 an axis, and moving it round on that axis ; while an 
 edge-tool, fet fteady to the outfide of the fubftance in 
 the circumvolution thereof, cuts off all the parts which 
 lie farther off the axis, and makes the outfide of that 
 fubftance conccnfrick to the axis. See Lathe. 
 
 Turning-Evil, in cattle, a difeale that caufes 
 them frequently to turn round in the fame place. It is 
 alfo called the fturdy. ' 
 
 The common remedy, recommended by Mr. Mark¬ 
 ham, is to throw the beaft down, and bind him; then to 
 open his fkull, and take out a little bladder, filled with 
 water and blood, which ufually lies near the membrane 
 of the brain, and then gradually heal the wound. 
 
 TURNPIKE, agate fet up acrol's a road, watched 
 by an officer for the purpofe, in order to flop travellers, 
 waggons, coaches, &c. to take toll of them, towards re¬ 
 pairing or keeping the roads in repair. 
 
 In cafe any perfon fhall drive horfes or other cattle 
 through grounds adjoining to the highways, thereby to 
 avoid the toll, they are liable to forfeit iol Or if any 
 one affaults a collector of the tolls, or by force paffes 
 through a turnpike-gate without paying, he forfeits 5 s. 
 leviable by juftices of peace; and malicioufly pulling 
 down a turnpike is deemed felony. 
 
 Turnpike, is alfo u fed, in the military art, fora 
 beam ftruck full of fpikes, to be placed in a gap, a breach, 
 or at the entrance of a camp, to keep off an enemy. 
 
 TURNSOLE, Heliotropiuw, in botany, which fee. 
 
 TURPENTINE, a tranfparent fort of refill, flowing 
 either naturally or by incifion from feveral unCtuous and 
 refinous trees, as the terehinthus, fir, pine, larch, &c. 
 
 We diftinguifh feveral kinds of turpentines; as that 
 of Ohio, of Venice, of Bourdcaux, of Cyprus, Straf- 
 burgh, &c. 
 
 The turpentine of Chio, or Scio, which is the only 
 genuine kind, and that which gives the denomination to 
 all the reft, is a whitifh refill, bordering a little on green, 
 very clear, and a little odoriferous; drawn by incifion from 
 a tree called terehinthus, very common in that ifland, as 
 alio in Cyprus, and fome parts of France and Spain. 
 
 The refill muff be chofen of a folid confluence, almoft: 
 without either tafte or fmell, and not at all tenacious, 
 which diltinguifhes it from the falfe turpentine of Ve¬ 
 nice, commonly fubftituted for it, which has a brifker 
 fmell, a bitter tafte, and fticks much to the fingers. This 
 turpentine of Chio is indifputably the beft, but its fcar- 
 city occafions it to be little in ufe. 
 
 The turpentine of Venice is falfty fo called ; for, 
 though there was a turpentine anciently brought from 
 Venice, yet that now l'o called comes from Dauphine. It 
 is liquid, of the confidence of a thick fyrup, and whitifh; 
 and flows either fpontaneoufly or by incifion, from the 
 larix, or larch-tree, chiefly in the wood de Pilatze. 
 
 That flowing naturally, called by the peafants bijon, 
 is a kind of balfam, not inferior in virtue to that of Peru, 
 for which it is frequently fubftituted. That drawn 
 by incifion, after the tree has ceafed to yield fpontane¬ 
 oufly, is of confiderable ufe in feveral arts, and it is even 
 of this that varnifh is chiefly made. It muft be chofen 
 white and tranfparent, and care be taken that it is not 
 counterfeited with oil of turpentine. 
 
 The turpentine of Bourdeaux is white, and as thick as 
 honey. It does not ooze from the tree in the manner it 
 is fent to us, but is properly a compofition, wherein, 
 among other ingredients, is a white hard fort of refill, 
 called galipot. See Pitch. 
 
 The turpentine of Strafburgli, the produce of theabies, 
 or filver fir, is that moft commonly ufed among us, and 
 is preferred by our people to that of Venice, which is dif- 
 ti'nguiflied from it by its green hue, fragrant fmell, and 
 citron flavour. 
 
 The ufes of turpentine in medicine are innumerable. 
 It is a great vulnerary, and very detergent, and as fuch 
 is prelcribed in ahfeeftes, ulcerations, &c. It promotes 
 expectoration, and as fuch is preferibed indifeales of the 
 lungs and breaft; but it is moft famous for clearing the 
 
 urinary 
 
 
T U S 
 
 urinary paflages, and as fuch prefcribed in obftrufiions 
 of the reins, in gonorrhoeas, &c. 
 
 0 / 7 oj Turpentine. There are two kinds of oil 
 drawn from turpentine, by diftillation; the firft white, 
 the fecond red, both efteemed as ballams proper for the 
 cure of wounds, chilblains. he. But they are fo little ufed 
 among us, that it is not eafy to procure either of them. 
 
 What is commonly fold under the name of oil of tur¬ 
 pentine, or etherial oil, is only a diftillation of the re- 
 finous juice of the tree, frcfli as it is gathered. It is ufed 
 with luccefs in the cure of green wounds, as alfo by the 
 painters, farriers, &c. 
 
 To be good, it muft be clear and pellucid as water, of 
 a ftrong penetrating fmcll, and very inflammable. 
 
 I UR QUOISE, or Turcoise. See Turcoise. 
 
 TURR 1 TIS, tower-muftard, in botany, a genus of 
 plants, whole flower is tetrapetalous and cruciform, the 
 petals are oblong, oval, obtufe, ereCt, and entire, with 
 upright ungues : its ftamina are awl-fhaped and ereCt, 
 and the fruit is a very long four-cornered pod, contain¬ 
 ing a great number of roundilh emarginated feeds. 
 
 This genus grows wild on old walls, ruins, &c. in 
 many parts of England. 
 
 1 URUNDA, in medicine and furgery, denotes a 
 tent, pellet, or pencil ; or a piece of lint thruft into a 
 wound, ulcer, he. See Tent, he. 
 
 TURTLE, in ichthyology, a name given to fome 
 fpecies of the teftudo, as the hawk’s-bill turtle is the 
 teftudo with acuminated ungues, four on the hinder as 
 well as the fore feet, the green turtle, or the teftudo with 
 two ungues on the fore feet, and one on the hinder; and 
 the long-headed turtle, or the great oval-headed teftudo. 
 
 TUSCAN Order (plate LXXVII.7%. I*) »s the 
 moft folid and Ample of all the orders. It is compofed 
 of few parts, devoid of ornaments, and fo mafly, that 
 it feems capable of fupporting the heavieft burden. There 
 are no remains of a regular Tufcan order among the an¬ 
 tiques ; the doctrine of Vitruvius concerning it is ob- 
 fcure; and the profiles of Palladio, Scammozzi, Serlio. 
 de l’Orme, and Vignola, are all imperfeCt. 
 
 I he height of the Tufcan column is 14 modules, or 
 femidiameters, each confifting of 30 minutes; and that 
 of the whole entablature three and a half modules ; which 
 being divided into 10 equal parts, three of them are for 
 the height of the architrave, three for the freeze, and the 
 remaining four for the cornice : the capital is one mo¬ 
 dule ; the bale, including the lower cinCture of the fhaft, 
 is likewife one module; and the fhaft, with its upper 
 cinCtuie and aftragal, 12 modules. 
 
 Thefe are the general dimenfions of the order; the 
 particular dimenfions may be learned by infpeCtion of 
 the plates. 
 
 In the remains of antiquity, the quantity of diminu¬ 
 tion at the top of the Tufcan column is various; but 
 feldom lefs than one eighth, nor more than one fixth of 
 the inferior diameter of the column. The laft of thefe 
 is generally preferred ; and Chalmers and others make 
 the fame diminution in all columns, without regard to 
 their order. 
 
 Tusc an-E arth. in the materia medica, a yellowifh, 
 white, pure bole, confiderably heavy, of a very fmooth 
 furface, not eafily breaking between the fingers, but ad¬ 
 hering flightly to the tongue, and melting very readily 
 in the mouth. It is dug in many parts of Italy, par¬ 
 ticularly about Florence, where there is a ftratum of it 
 eight or ten feet thick, at the depth of five or fix feet 
 from the furface. 
 
 It is given as a fudorifick, and efteemed a great medi¬ 
 cine in fevers, attended with diarrhoeas. 
 
 TUSSILAGO, coltsfoot, in botany, a genus of the 
 fyngenefia polygamia fuperflua clafs. The common colts¬ 
 foot has along, flender, whitifh, tender root, with ftalks 
 that rife to the height of afoot, which are hollow within, 
 downy, redilh, and covered with leaves, without pedi¬ 
 cles; thefe are long-pointed, placed alternately, and at 
 the top of the ftalks the flowers are produced, which being 
 decayed, the other leaves appear, which are very large, a 
 little angular, almoft round, green above, and whitifh 
 and downy underneath; it grows in moift places, and 
 on the borders of rivers, brooks, ponds, and ditches; 
 and flowers in the fpring. 
 
 Coltsfoot i3 an excellent medicine to abate the fliarp- 
 nefs of the humours, to cleanfe ulcers of the breaft, and 
 
 2 
 
 T W I 
 
 to facilitate expefloration. There are many that are 
 troubled with ail afthma who cut the leaves final 1 and 
 mix it with tobacco for fmoaking, and they affirm, that 
 they find great benefit thereby ; it is alfo thought good 
 lo ufed againft defluxions of rheums and fuperfluous 
 humidities ; many account it a good cooler and healer 
 outwardly applied. 
 
 f ff 1 OR, in the civil law, is one chofen to look to 
 the per Ion and ellatc of children left by their fathers and 
 mothers in their minority. 
 
 Futor, is alfo uled m our univerfities for a member 
 of fome college or hall, who takes on him the inftruc- 
 tion of fome young ftudents in the arts or faculties. 
 
 TUTTY, Tut/a, a recrement of mixed metals, in 
 which lapis-calaminaris, or zink in its metallick form, 
 is an ingredient, collected in the furnaces where brafs is 
 made from copper and calamine, and where the mixed 
 metals are run. In thefe furnaces they place, under the 
 roofs and about the upper parts of the fides, rods of iron, 
 and fometimes rolls of dry earth, about which the tutty 
 is afterwards found. 1 herefore the tutty which we ule 
 in the fhops at this time, owes its origin truly and 
 piopeily to zink, which fublimes with a very fin all fire 
 into a kind of flowers, and when fufed with any other 
 metal, flies from it in abundance under this form, and 
 alfo frequently takes fome part of this metal, more or 
 lefs, up with it. Hence it is evident that the tutty or 
 cadmia of the ancients, muft have been wholly different 
 from ours, as they ufed no zink nor any of its ores in the 
 furnace where they collected it. 
 
 Our tutty then is a hard and heavy femi-metallick 
 recrement, fometimes met with in the fhops in thin flat 
 pieces or flakes, but moft abundantly in tubular cylin- 
 drick pieces, refembling fegments of the barks of trees 
 pufhed olf from the branches without breaking; thefe 
 are of different lengths and diameters. The fineft tutty 
 is that of a fine deep brown on the outfide, and of ayel- 
 iowilh tinge within ; the thickeft, brighteft, and moft 
 granulated ; the hardeft to break, and that which has leaft 
 foulnefs among it. 
 
 Tutty is celebrated as an opthalmick, and frequently 
 employed as fuch in unguents andcollyria. 
 
 I YV ELFTH-Day, or Twelfth-Tide, the fef- 
 tival of the Epiphany, or the manifeftation of Chrift to 
 the Gentiles; lo called, as being the twelfth day, exclu- 
 five, from the nativity, or Chriftmas-day. 
 
 TWELVE Men, othervvife called jury, or inqueft, 
 is a number of 12 perfons, or upwards, as far as 24, by 
 whole oath, as to matters of fa£t, all trials pafs, both in 
 civil and criminal cafes, through all courts of the com¬ 
 mon law in this realm. 
 
 I WILIGHT, Crepufculum , that light, whether in the 
 morning before fun-rife, or in the evening after fun-let, 
 luppofed to begin and end when the leaft ftars that can 
 be feen by the naked eye ceafe, or begin to appear. 
 
 1 he rays of the fun, being fcattered over fome of 
 thofe parts of the air which are within our vifiblehorizon, 
 caufes the twilight both morning and evening; the morn¬ 
 ing twilight begins when the fun is no more than about 
 18° below our rational horizon; as he grows nearer riling, 
 his light fpreads further round, and enlightens a larger 
 portion of our air, and it grows lighter and lighter till, 
 fun-rife ; in like manner, after fun-let the light gradually 
 decreales, till the fun is got fo low that none of his rays 
 can reach the weftern parts of the air within our vifible 
 horizon, or not enough to caufe any fenfible light there; 
 and then the evening twilight ends ; this happens when 
 the fun’s depreflion below the rational horizon is above 
 18 degrees. 
 
 The twilight has hitherto been confidered only as it is 
 caufed by the light of the fun himfeff reflected to us; but, 
 belides this, the body of the fun is encorapafled with a 
 fphereof light, which is either the tether that immediately 
 furrounds him, heated to fuch a degree as to become 
 luminous, or the fun’s atmofphere, confifting of fiery 
 particles emitted from his body, but retained near him by 
 attraction ; this being ot larger dimenfions than the fun, 
 muft rife before him and fet after him, and, confequently, 
 lengthens the twilight by luminating our air when the fun 
 is at too large a depreflion to reach it with his own light; 
 this is alfo the caufe that the riling fun is preceded by a 
 luminous fegment of a circle in the eaft, different from 
 the light which the atmofphere reflects from the body of 
 
 the 
 
WE 
 
TYM 
 
 the fun ; the like to this may be obferved ih the weft, 
 juft after fun-fet. 
 
 TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth, by an 
 animal which ordinarily brings forth but one. 
 
 Twins, in aftronomy, the fame with Gemini. See 
 Gem ini. 
 
 TYCHONICK System, or Hypothesis, an 
 order or arrangement of the heavenly bodies, of an in¬ 
 termediate nature between the Copernican and Ptole- 
 maick, or participating alike of them both. 
 
 This fyftem had its name and origin from Tycho 
 Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark, who lived in the latter 
 part of the laft century. This philofopher, though he 
 approved of the Copernican fyftem, yet could not re¬ 
 concile himfelf to the motion of the earth ; and being on 
 the other hand convinced the Ptolemaick fcheme could 
 not be true, he contrived one different from either. In 
 this the earth has no motion allowed it, but the annual 
 and diurnal phamomena are folvcd by the motion of the 
 fun about the earth, as in the Ptolemaick fcheme ; and 
 tliofe of Mercury and Venus are folvcd by this contri¬ 
 vance, though not in the fame manner, nor fo fimply 
 and naturally as in the Copernican fyftem. The Ty- 
 chonick fyftem then fuppoled the earth in the centre of 
 the world, that is, of the firmament of ftars, and alio 
 of the orbits of the fun and moon ; but at the fame time 
 it made the fun the centre of the planetary motions, viz. 
 of the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and 
 Saturn. Thus the fun, with all its planets, was made to 
 revolve about'the earth once a year to folve the pheno¬ 
 mena ariling from the annual motion, and every 24 hours, 
 to account for tliofe of the diurnal motion. But this 
 hypothecs is fo monftroufly abfurd, and contrary to the 
 great fimplicity of nature, and in lome refpe&s, even 
 contradidlory to appearances, that it obtained but little 
 credit, and foon gave way to the Copernican fyftem. 
 
 After this fcheme had been propofed for fome time, 
 it received a correction, by allowing the earth a motion 
 about its axis to account for the diurnal phenomena of 
 the heavens ; and fo this came to be called the femi- 
 Tychomck fyftem. But this was ftill void of the truth, 
 and encumbered with fuch hypothefis, as the true mathe¬ 
 matician and genuine philofopher could never relifh. 
 
 TYLE, ot Tile, in building, a fort of thin, fadti- 
 tious, laminated brick, uled on the roofs of houfes; or, 
 more properly, a kind of fat clayey earth, kneaded and 
 moulded of a juft thicknefs, dried and burnt in a kiln 
 like a brick, and ufed in the covering and paving of 
 houfes. Tyles are made, fays Mr. Leybourn, of better 
 earth than brick-earth, and fomething nearer a-kin to 
 the potter’s earth. According to 17 Edward IV. the 
 earth for tyles fhould be call up before the firft of No¬ 
 vember, ftirred and turned before the firft of February, 
 and not made into tyles before the firft of March ; and 
 fhould likewife be tried and fevered from Hones, marie 
 and chalk. 
 
 As to the method of applying tyles, fome lay them dry 
 as they come from the kiln, without mortar or any thing 
 elfe ; others lay them in a kind of mortar made of loam 
 and horfe-dung. In fome parts, as in Kent, they lay 
 them in inofs. See Mortar. 
 
 Tyle, in allaying, a fmall flat piece of.dried earth, 
 ufed to cover the veffels in which metals are in fulion. 
 
 TYLER, one that covers or paves with tyles. Tylers 
 and bricklayers were incorporated 10 Eliz. under the 
 name of mafter and wardens of the fociety of freemen of 
 the myftery and art of tylers and bricklayers. 
 
 TYLW 1 TH, in matters of heraldry and defcent, is 
 fometimes ufed for a tribe or family branching out of 
 another, which the modern heralds more ufually call the 
 fecond or third houfe. 
 
 TYMPAN, or Tympanum, in architecture, the 
 area of a pediment, being that part which is in a level 
 with the naked of the frieze. Or it is the fpace included 
 between the three corniches of a triangular pediment, or 
 the two corniches of a circular one. 
 
 Sometimes the tympan is cut out, and the part filled 
 with an iron lattice to give light, and fometimes it is en¬ 
 riched with fculpture in baflo relievo. 
 
 Tympan, among joiners, is alfo applied to the panels 
 of the doors. 
 
 Tympan of an Arch , is a triangular fpace or table in 
 the corners or fides of an arch, ufually hollowed, and 
 Vol. II. No. 75. 
 
 T Y M 
 
 enriched fometimes with branches of laurel, olive-tree, ot 
 oak, or with trophies, &c. fometimes with flying figures, 
 as fame, &c. or fitting figures, as the cardinal virtues. 
 
 Tympan, among printers, a double fi ante belonging 
 to the prefs, covered with paichment, on which the 
 blank flieets are laid in order to be printed off. 
 
 TYMPANUM, or Tympan, in mechanicks, a 
 kind ot wheel placed round an axis or cylindrical beam, 
 on the top of which are two levers or fixed ftaves. for the 
 more ealy turning the axis, in order to raife a weight 
 required. The tympanum is much the fame with the 
 peritrochium, but that the cylinder of the axis of the 
 peritrochium is much Ihortcr, and lels than the cylinder 
 of the tympanum. 
 
 Tympanum of a Machine , is ufed for an hollow 
 wheel, wherein one or more people, or other animals, 
 walk to turn it; fuch as that of lome cranes, calenders,6cc. 
 
 Tympanum, in anatomy, the middle part of the ear. 
 See Ear. 
 
 TYMPANY, Tympanites , in medicine, a flatulent 
 tumour or lwelling of the abdomen or belly, very hard, 
 equable and permanent, whereby the Ikin is ft retched fo 
 tight, that when ftruck it gives a found like that of a 
 drum. Hoffman obferves, that this difeafe has been 
 generally accounted, both by the ancients and moderns, 
 a fpecies of dropfy, but very improperly, for though it is 
 often productive of, or complicated with an afcites, yet 
 it is in itfclf a perfectly diftinCt difeafe, and accompanied 
 with no extravafation of water in the abdomen ; perfons 
 who have died of it having been found, on opening the 
 body, with the abdomen as dry as in a ftate of health ; 
 but the ftomach has been found, in fome, greatly dif- 
 rended with flatulencies, and containing a vifcid humour, 
 though in no great quantity. The inteftines are alfo 
 ulually found diftended, and, as it were, pellucid ; and, 
 on being pricked, they collapfe, without the appearance 
 of any water. And, in fome cafes, on opening the 
 abdomen, the whole fwclling has lubfided, on the ex- 
 clufion of a grofs flatulence which had diftended it. The 
 inteftines have, in fome fubjeCts, been found diftended to 
 the bigncls of a man’s thigh, in fome parts, and in others, 
 lower down, fo contorted and twilled together, that there 
 could be no paffage either for the wind or the excrements. 
 It is not uncommon alfo, on diffeCtion, to find great 
 numbers of worms, of the common long kind, in the 
 inteftines. See Dropsy. 
 
 A tympany, without a dropfy, is moft incident to 
 women after labour, when the lochia have been fupprefled 
 by colds or otherwife, or dilcharged in too fmall quan¬ 
 tities ; a bad regimen during the lying-in, and the omit¬ 
 ting to fwathe the belly properly down, has alfo often a 
 bad effeCt this way. In cafes of this kind, women find 
 foon afterwards the abdomen inflated, with a confiderable 
 uneafinefs, a difficulty of breathing, coftivenefs, and an 
 unaccountable anxiety. Thefe are the breeding fymp- 
 toms of the approaching tympany; and the fame often 
 happens after unfkilful treatment in abortions, and after 
 the leaving a part of the lochia behind, or the injuring 
 the uterus in delivery. 
 
 Children are alfo fubjeCt to tympanies, when violently 
 afflicted with worms, and fometimes after the meafles 
 and fmall-pox ; and if due care is not taken of thefe cafes, 
 at their beginning, the fuperior parts foon become ex¬ 
 tenuated, and the patient dies. Extreme voracity of chil¬ 
 dren, alfo, and their eating great quantities of food, at a 
 time when the ftomach is weak, fometimes brings on this 
 dilorder. 
 
 The tympany is juftly accounted one of the moft 
 dangerous kinds of difcales, fince the perfons afflicted 
 with it oftener die than recover. When it is accom¬ 
 panied with a dropfy, it is fcarce ever cured ; and a Am¬ 
 ple tympany in women and children, if negleCted at firft, 
 degenerates into a chronick dilorder, and hardly admits of 
 a cure. Some, indeed, have gone fo far as to fay, they 
 never knew a patient, afflicted with a tympany, recover ; 
 but this feems too rafh a judgment. That diftention of 
 the abdomen, which is properly called a flatulent cho- 
 lick, is by fome accounted a fpecies of tympany : but 
 this is not naturally dangerous, and is eafily cured, ex¬ 
 cept when it is attended with fpafms of the vifcera ; in 
 which cafe the medicines given to rcftore the due tone 
 of the inteftines, are by no means proper in regard to 
 the fpafms. 
 
 50 
 
 In 
 
■ ** 
 
 T Y P 
 
 Tn curing flatulencies of the fto’tliach and iiiteftines, the 
 phyfician’s principal intention is to promote a difcharge of 
 the vapours by the anus, and to attenuate and gently 
 carry off, by ftool, the tough and vifeid matter which 
 Contributes to the generation of the flatulencies. For this 
 purpofe, fir A: derivative, difeutient, and evacuating clyf- 
 ters are to be ufed, fuch as thofe prepared of hyflop, 
 clary, flowers of common and Roman chamomile, tops 
 ot yarrow, juniper-berries, and the larger carminative 
 feeds, with veal broth, adding a fufficient quantity of fal 
 gemma?, lal ammoniack, or Epfom fait, and the oil of 
 chamomile. But it is to be obferved, that one or two 
 felyfters are not fufficient for removing the diforder, but 
 they arc frequently to be repeated. With thele are to be 
 interpofed laxatives, poflefled of a carminative, and, at 
 the fame time, fomewhat of an anodyne quality. Or, if 
 the patient is ftrong, and the inflation a real tympanites, 
 two parts of the e\tra£lum panchymagogum crolli, with 
 one part of the pilula? wildeganfi, or of the pilula? 
 flarckii, or pilula? de flyrace, in fome fpirituous car¬ 
 minative water, is to be exhibited. 
 
 After thefe, are to be ufed medicines pofleffed of a mo¬ 
 derate balfamick principle, and a volatile, oleous, and 
 aromatick fait, commonly called carminatives ; but the 
 operation of thefe medicines is not to be fo explained, as 
 if, by their lubtile volatile fait, they attenuate the matter 
 of the flatulencies, and render it thinner ; but rather, be- 
 caufe, by invigorating the tone and fyftole of the intefti- 
 nal coats, they hinder the ftagnation of the flatulencies, 
 move them from their feat, and render them more capable 
 of being ealily eliminated, or prevent the generation of 
 new flatulencies; for, as the deftroyed periftatick motion 
 of the flomach and inteftines is the principal caufe of 
 flatulencies, fo all medicines which have a remarkable 
 virtue in {Lengthening thefe parts, aremoft proper for the 
 removal of this diforder. 
 
 The heft and moft approved of this kind, are powders 
 prepared of the roots of wake-robin, zedoary, and white 
 burnet; the digeftive fait of lylvius, or vitriolated tartar ; 
 cumin feeds, the tops of the lefler centaury, and dried 
 orange-peel, each a drachm, and fix drops of the genuine 
 oil of chamomile, or of the oil of cedar, or of the oil of 
 orange-peel; to which, if there is a fufpicion of an afeid 
 lodged in the prima? via?, we may commodiouily add crabs 
 eyes. 
 
 To this clafs of medicines may be referred the following 
 liquid form : Take of the carminative water of Dorn- 
 crellius, of the waters of common chamomile and zedoary 
 prepared with wine, each one ounce; of the fpiritus nitri 
 dulcis, of the pure oil of carraway, eight drops mixed with 
 two drachms of fugar. 
 
 Nor are external remedies, fuch as liniments, applied 
 by way of ointment to the whole cpigaflrick region, to be 
 negledled. The principal ingredients of thefe liniments, 
 ought to be boiled with oils of chamomile and rue, oil of 
 nutmeg and Peruvian balfam, with which may be mixed 
 the oils of juniper, carraway, anife, or cumin. But 
 preferable to all others, the liquid balfam of life may be 
 ufed; which, when mixed with three parts of Hungary 
 water, and applied by way of ointment to the abdomen, or 
 laid on with a warm linen cloth, is found of great efficacy. 
 TYPE, Typus, a copy, image, or refemblance of fome 
 
 T Y R 
 
 model. This word is flinch ufed, among divines to 
 fignify a fvmbol, fign, or figure of fomething to come ; 
 in which fenfe it is commonly ufed with relation to an 
 titype, which is the thing itfelf, whereof the other is a 
 type or figure. See Antitype. 
 
 T v pe of Conjlans, a formulary or model of faith, pub- 
 lilhcd by the emperorConftans, who being a favourer of 
 the Monothelites, and exafperared at the little fucccfs 
 which the e&hefls of his uncle, Heraclius, had met wi:h, 
 publifhed a new formulary in the manner of an edidl. in 
 648, forbidding all perlons to make ul'e of the expreffions 
 “ one” or “ two wills in Jefus Chrift.” 
 
 Martini, condemned the type in the Lutheran coun¬ 
 cil, anno 649, and the fynod made a canon expreflly 
 againft this heretical model; at which the emperor was id 
 enraged, that he forced the pope into baniffiment. 
 
 Type, among letter-founders and printers, the fame 
 with letter. See Letter. 
 
 Type is alfo ufed to denote the order obferved in the 
 intention and remiffion of fevers, pulfes, &c. 
 
 TYPHODES, in medicine, a kind of ardent or burn¬ 
 ing fever, ulually attending on erylipelafes of any of the 
 vifcera. 
 
 Ol this diforder, according to Hippocrates, there are 
 five lpecies. The firft is a legitimate continual fever, 
 which impairs the ftrength, is accompanied with a pain 
 of the belly, and a preternatural heat ol the eyes, hinders 
 the patient from looking fteadily on any object whatfoever, 
 and renders him unable, in conlequence of the violent 
 pain, to fpeak. 
 
 The fecond fpecies begins with a tertian or quartan 
 fever. The patient difeharges a great quantity of faliva 
 and worms from his mouth ; his eyes are painful ; his 
 feet, and fometimes his whole body, are feized with foft 
 fwellings ; his breaft is now and then painful, his belly 
 rumbles, his eyes are fierce, he fpits a great deal, and his 
 faliva flicks to his throat. 
 
 1 he third fpecies is known by intenfe pain in the 
 joints, and fometimes over all the body ; the blood, con¬ 
 taminated by the bile, becomes hot, and flagnates in the 
 limbs. 
 
 The fourth fpecies is known by a violent tenfion, ele¬ 
 vation, and heat of the abdomen, fucceeded by a diar¬ 
 rhoea, which fometimes ends in a dropfy. 
 
 The tilth fpecies is not unlike the firft. See Fever. 
 
 T YPHOMANIA, in medicine, a diforder of the brain, 
 wherein the patient not being able to fleep, though greatly 
 inclined thereto, lies with his eyes ffiut, talks ablurdly, 
 and flings himfelf this way and that. 
 
 The typhomania is a kind of combination of a frenzy 
 with a lethargy, and is much the fame with a coma vigil, 
 or a preter-natural propenfity to fleep. 
 
 TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Printing. 
 
 TYRANT, Tyrannus, among the ancients, denoted 
 limply a king or monarch. But the ill ufe feveral perfons 
 in veiled with that facred character made of it, has altered 
 the import of die word, and tyrant now carries with it the 
 idea ol an unjuft and cruel prince. 
 
 TYROSIS, a diforder of the ftomach, proceeding 
 from milk coagulated therein. 
 
 U, The 
 
u 
 
 VAC 
 
 u 
 
 V A L 
 
 The 20th letter, and fifth vowel of our alphabet, [infinitum f And if all the folid particles of bodies are of 
 
 IS rnrmpf in tnp vmrp Hv Q rnntirl rnn^iTnntirtn G,J-i . * . .. c 
 
 of the lips, and a greater extruiion ofthe under 
 one than in forming the letter o, and the tongue is alfo 
 more cannulated. The found is ftiort in curft, nwft 
 tun, tub ; but is lengthened by a finale, as in tune, tube. 
 &c. In fome words it is rather acute than long; as in 
 brute, flute, lute, &c. It is moftly long in polyfylla- 
 bles; as in union, curious, &c. but in fome words it is 
 oblcure, as in nature, venture, &c. This letter, in the 
 form V, is properly a confonant, and as fuch is placed 
 before all the vowels ; as in vacant, venal, vibrate, &c. 
 Though the letter v and u had always two founds, they 
 had only the form v till the beginning ofthe fourth cen¬ 
 tury, when the other form was introduced, the incon¬ 
 venience of exprefling two different founds by the fame 
 letter having been obferved long before. 
 
 In numerals v Hands for five; and with adafhadded at 
 top, thus, v, it fignifies 5000. 
 
 In abbreviations among the Romans, V. A. flood for 
 veterani aflignati; V. B. viri bono ; V. B. A. viri boni 
 arbitratu ; V. B. F. vir bonze fidei; V. C. vir confularis ; 
 V.C.C.F. vale, conjux chariflime, feliciter; V. D. D. 
 voto dedicatur; V. G. verbi gratia; Vir. Ve. virgo 
 veftalis ; VL. videlicet; V. N. quantum nonarum. 
 
 VACATION, in law, is the whole time betwixt the 
 end of one term and the beginning of another. 
 
 VACUUM, or Vacuity, in philofophy, denotes a 
 fpace, empty or devoid of all matter or body. It has 
 been the opinion of fome philofophers, particularly the 
 Cartefians, that nature admits not a vacuum, but that 
 the univerfe is entirely full of matter ; in confequence of 
 which opinion they were obliged to aflert, that if every 
 thing contained in a veflel could be taken out, or anni¬ 
 hilated, the fides of the veflel, however ftrong, would 
 come together ; but this is contrary to experience, for the 
 greateft part of the air may be drawn out of a veflel by 
 means of the air-pump, notwithftanding which, it will 
 remain whole, if its fides are ftrong enough to fupport 
 the weight of the incumbent atmofphere. 
 
 Should it be objected here, that it is importable to 
 extratt all the air out of a veflel, and that there will not 
 be a vacuum on that account, thcanfwer is, that fince a 
 very great part of the air that was in the veflel may be 
 drawn out, as appears by the more quick defeent of light 
 bodies in a receiver when exhaufted of its air, there mull 
 be fome vacuities between the parts of the remaining air; 
 which is fufficient to conftitute a vacuum. Indeed, to 
 this it may be obje&ed by aCartefian, that thole vacuities 
 are filled with materia fubtilis, that partes freely through 
 the fides of the veflel, and gives no refiftance to the 
 falling bodies : but, as the exiftence of this materia 
 fubtilis can never be proved, we are not obliged to allow 
 the objedlion, efpccially fince Sirllaac Newton has found, 
 that all matter aftords a refiftance nearly in proportion 
 to its denfity. 
 
 There are many other arguments to prove this, par¬ 
 ticularly the motions of the comets through the heavenly 
 regions, without any fenfible refiftance ; the different 
 weight of bodies of the fame bulk, &c. 
 
 All the parts of fpaccs, fays Sirlfaac Newton, are not 
 equally full : for if they were, the Ipecifick gravity of the 
 fluid which would fill the region of the air, could not, by 
 reafon of the exceeding great denfity of its matter, give 
 way to the ipecifick gravity of quickfilver, gold, or any 
 body, how dente foever ; whence neither gold, nor any 
 other body, could defeend in the air ; for no body can 
 defeend in a fluid, unlefs it be fpecifically heavier than 
 it. But, if a quantity of matter may, by rarefaction, be 
 diminilhed in a given fpace, why may it not diminifli in 
 
 } in the , voicl: a r ° u ‘} d configuration ‘the fame denfity, and cannot be ratified without I 
 
 ^ OT flip line a no a rrrp*lf*»r o V tr i til o ri > 1 , , .1 ... -.1 A l 
 
 pores, there muft be a vacuum. 
 
 VACUUM Boyle anum, is fometirnes, though im¬ 
 properly, ufed to exprefs the approach to a real vacuum, 
 by means of an air-pump. 
 
 VADE.MECUM.orYHN.-MEcnM.aLatinphrare, 
 
 ufed, uiEngliffi, to exprefs a thing that is very handy and 
 familiar, and which one ufually carries about with them; 
 chiefly applied to fome favourite book. 
 
 VADIMONIUM, in the civil-law, a promife or 
 bond, given for appearance before the judge upon a dav 
 appointed. ° r j 
 
 VAGABOND, or Vagrant, in law. See the 
 article V agr ants. 
 
 VAGINA, properly fignifies a fheath, or fcabbard • 
 and the term vagina is uled, in arclnteSure, for the part 
 ot a terminus, becaufe reteinbling a (heath, out of which 
 the ltatue feems to iffue. 
 
 vagina, in anatomy, a large canal, formed of a ro- 
 bu t and ftrong membrane, and reaching from the exter- 
 nal orifice, or os pudendi, in women, to the uterus. 
 
 VAGRAN IS, in law, are deicribed to be perfons 
 pretending to be patent-gatherers, or colleftors for pri- 
 lons, and wander about for that end ; among which are 
 included all fencers, bear-wards, common players of in¬ 
 terludes, minftrels, jugglers ; all perfons pretending to be 
 gvpfies or wandering in the habits of fuch, or pretend¬ 
 ing thill in phyfiognomy, palmeflry, or the like, or to 
 tell foi tunes; all iuch as ufe any fubtlc craft, unlawful 
 games or plays ; or, being able in body, run away, leav¬ 
 ing their wives or children to the pariffi ; all perlons 
 who cannot otherwife maintain themlelves, that loiter 
 about and refufe to work for the ufual wages; and all 
 other perlons wandering abroad and begging, &c. 
 
 It is enafted that where any fuch vagrants lliall be 
 found in a parilh, the conftabie, or other officer is im¬ 
 mediately to apprehend them, and carry them before 
 tome juftice of the peace, who fhall examine the perfons 
 on oath, as to them condition, and places of abode: and 
 thereupon order them to be 1'ent by pals to the place of 
 their lafl legal fettlement; or if that cannot be known 
 to the place of their birth. The julbice is to give the 
 conltablc a certificate afcertaining how, and in what 
 manner, they ffiall be conveyed, &c. 
 
 And juftices of the peace, in their feffions, have power 
 to appoint rates tor palling of vagrants, at fo much 
 per mile. 
 
 VAGUM, or Fa r Vagum, in anatomy, the eighth 
 
 pai Tr°w!> e UCrVeS anhng from the mec Iulla oblongata 
 \ AIR, in heraldry, a kind of fur, confifting of di¬ 
 vers little pieces, argent and azure, refembling a Dutch 
 U, or a bell-glafs. 
 
 Vairs have their point azure oppofite their point ar¬ 
 gent, and the hale argent to the bale azure. 
 
 VAI RY , V a l r e , Verry, or Varry, in heraldry, 
 expreues a coat, or the bearings of a coat, when charged 
 or chequered with vairs; and hence, vairy ruppy- or 
 vairy-tafly ,s a bearing compofed of pieces repreienting 
 the tops or crutches. ° 
 
 VAlhENTlNIAN 5 , in church hiftory, a of 
 Chnftian hereticks who fprung up in the lecond century, 
 and were lo called from their leader Valentinus 
 
 VALERIAN, Valeriana, in botany, a plant whofe 
 root is of confiderable ufe in medicine. There are va 
 nous kinds o( valerian, but thofe chiefly in ule, aie the 
 arge garden valerian, and the great wild valerian ; the 
 latter of which is preferred for medicinal P m poles - it 
 grows on dry chalky land and flrady places in divers pirns 
 oi England, and flowers m May or June; the root is 
 
 bitter, 
 
VAR 
 
 bitter, ftyptick, and has a difagreeable aromatick fihell. 
 This root taken up at a proper feafon, and carefully 
 dried, is one of the heft nervous fimples of the fhops. 
 The late Dr. James Douglas took great pains to intro¬ 
 duce it into general ufe, and lucceeded very happily in the 
 attempt. It is given in powder from five grains to a 
 fcruple for a dole, and alio in tin&ures and infulion. It 
 is found of the greateft fervice in all diforders of the 
 nerves, and will go farther in curing an epilepfy, than, 
 perhaps, any other tingle medicine in ufe, many very 
 deplorable cafes of this kind having been cured iiugly by 
 it: It is alfo recommended againft intermittent fevers, 
 but it is lefs known, at prefent, in that intention. The 
 College of Phyficians have thought fo well of this root, 
 as to order two tindlurcs of it to be kept in the lhops, 
 the one under the name of the flmple, the other under 
 that of the volatile tinflure of valerian. 
 
 V a let, in the menage, a Hick armed at one end with 
 a blunted point of iron, to prick and aid a leaping horfe. 
 
 VALETUDINARY, Vnletudinanus , among medical 
 writers, denotes a perfon of a weak and fickly conilitution, 
 and frequently out of order. 
 
 VALID, in law, an appellation given to a£ls, deeds, 
 tranfa<Slions, he. which are eloathed with all the forma¬ 
 lities requifite to their being put into execution, and to 
 their being admitted in a court of juftice. See Act, 
 Deed, he. 
 
 VALUE, Valor , in commerce, denotes the pi ice or 
 worth of any thing : hence the intrinfick value denotes 
 the real and effective worth of a thing, and is ufed chiefly 
 with regard to money, the popular value whereof may be 
 raifed and lowered at the pleafure of the prince; but its 
 real or intrinfick value, depending wholly on its weight 
 and finenefs, is not at all affected by the ftamp or im- 
 preffion thereon. 
 
 VALVE, Valvula , in hydraulicks, pneumaticks, he. 
 is a kind of lid, or cover, of a tube or veflel, fo contrived 
 as to open one way ; but which, the more forcibly it is 
 prelied the other way, the clofer it fhuts the aperture; 
 fo that it either admits the entrance of a fluid into the 
 tube or velfel, and prevents its return; or admits its 
 efcape, and prevents its re-entrance. See Pump. 
 
 Valve, in anatomy, a thin membrane applied on 
 fever il cavities and veflels of the body, to afford apaffage 
 to certain humours going one way, and prevent their re¬ 
 flux towards the place from w'hence they came. 
 
 The veins and lymphaticks are furnilhed with valves, 
 which open towards the heart, but keepclofe towards the 
 extremities of thole veifels ; that is, they let the blood 
 and lymph pals towa ds the heart, but prevent their re¬ 
 turning towards the extreme parts from whence they came. 
 
 VAPOUR, Vapor, in philofophy, the moifl and molt 
 volatile particles of bodies, leperated by heat, and railed 
 into the atmofphere. 
 
 That vapours are raifed from the furface of water, and 
 moift bodies, by the aflion of the fun’s heat, is agreed 
 on by all : but the manner in which this is done, conti¬ 
 nues Hill a controverted point among philofophers. 
 
 The moll generally recsived opinion, however, is, 
 that by the aflion of the fun on the furface of the water, 
 the aqueous particles become formed into bubbles, filled 
 with a flatus, or warm air, which renders them fpecifi- 
 cally lighter than common air, and makes them rife 
 therein, till they meet with fuch as is of the fame fpeci- 
 fick gravity with themfelves. 
 
 VARIABLE, in geometry, and analyticks, is a term 
 applied, by mathematicians, to fuch quantities as either 
 increafe or diminifh, according as fome other quantity 
 either increafes or diminilhes. 
 
 VARIANCE, Variantia , in law, an alteration or 
 change of condition in a perfon or thing, after fome 
 former concern or tranfaflion therewith. 
 
 Variance, is alfo ufed for an alteration of fomething 
 formerly laid in a plea ; or where the declaration in a 
 caufe differs from the writ, or from the deed upon which 
 it is grounded. 
 
 VARIATION, in geography, navigation, he. a 
 term applied to the deviation of the magnctick needle, 
 or compals, from the true north point of the horizon. 
 
 The knowledge of the variation of the compafs is of 
 great ufe in navigation. 
 
 Variation of tbt Moon , in aftronomy, is the third 
 inequality obferved in that planet’s motion. See Moon. 
 
 V A S 
 
 VARIEGATION, mong botanifls and florifls, the 
 afl of ftreaking or diverlifying the leaves, he. of plants and 
 flowers with ieveral colours. 
 
 Variegation is either natural or artificial. Of natural 
 variegation theie are four kinds ; the firfl fhewing itlelf 
 in yellow fpots here and there, in the leaves of plants 
 called, by gardeners, the yellow bloach. 
 
 I he fecond, called the white bloach, marks the leaves 
 with a greater number of white fpots, or flripes ; the 
 whiteft lying next the furface of the leaves, ufually ac¬ 
 companied with other marks of agreenifh white, that lie 
 deeper in the body of the leaves. 
 
 I he third, and moil beautiful, is where the leaves are 
 edged with white, being owing to fome dilorder or in- 
 fe&ion in the juices, which itains the natural complexion 
 or verdure of the plant. 
 
 1 he fourth kind is that called the yellow edge. 
 
 rfrtijianl Variegation, is performed by inarching 
 or inoculating a ftriped or variegated plant into a plain 
 one of the fame fort, as a variegated common jeflamin into 
 a plain, common, Spanifh, Brazil, or Indian jeflamin. 
 
 VARIOLAE, or Varioli, a contagious dileafe, 
 popularly called the fmall-pox. See Small-Pox. 
 
 VARIORUM, in matters of literature, a term or 
 phrafe of abbreviation, ufed for an edition of a claffick 
 author, printed in Holland, with the notes of divers 
 authors thereupon. '1 he Variorums for the moft part 
 are the moft valued editions. 
 
 VARNISH, or Vermsii, Vemix, a thick, vifeid, 
 fhining liquor, ufed by painters, gilders, he. to give a 
 glols and luftreto their works, and defend them from the 
 weather, dull, he. There are feveral kinds of varnilhes 
 in ufe, as the ficcative or drying varnifh, made of oil of 
 afpin, turpentine, and fandarach melted together. 
 
 White varnifh, called alio Venetian varnilh, made of 
 oil of turpentine, fine turpentine, and maftick. 
 
 Spirit of wine varnifh, made of fandarach, white am¬ 
 ber, gum elemi and maftick; lerving to gild leather, 
 pifture-frames, he. withal. 
 
 Gilt varnifh, made of linfeed oil, fandarach, aloes, 
 gamboage, and litherge of gold. 
 
 China varnifh, made of gum lacca, colophony, maf¬ 
 tick, and fpirit of wine. 
 
 Common varnifh, which is only common turpentine, 
 diflblved in oil of turpentine. 
 
 Varnish alfo fignifies a fort of fhining coat, where¬ 
 with potters-ware, Delft-ware, China-wa e, he. are co¬ 
 vered, which gives them a fmoothnefs and lultre. Melted 
 lead is generally ufed for the fit ft, and fmalt for the fecond. 
 
 Varnish, among medalilts, fignifies the colours an¬ 
 tique medals have acquired in the earth. 
 
 VAS, a veflel, either for mechanical, chemical, culi¬ 
 nary, or any other ufes. In anatomy, all the parts w'hich 
 convey a fluid are called veflels, as the veins, arteries, 
 and lymphaticks. 
 
 VASCULAR, Vafcularis , in anatomy, is applied to 
 any thing conlifting of divers veflels, veins, arteries, he. 
 
 VASCULIFEROUS Plants, among botanifts, fuch. 
 as have a peculiar veflel or cafe to contain the feed which 
 is fometimes divided into cells. 
 
 VASES, in aichitedlure, are ornaments of fculpturc 
 placed on lodes or pedeftals, reprefenting the veflels of 
 the ancients; particularly thofe ufed in facrifice, as the 
 prrefericulum, fimpulum, incenfe-pots, flower-pots, he. 
 and occafionally enriched with baffo relievo’s. 
 
 Vase, is particularly ufed in architedlure, to fignify 
 the body of the Corinthian and Compofite capital; called 
 alfo the tambour or drum; and, fometimes, the campana 
 or bell. 
 
 Vase, is alfo fometimes ufed, among florifls, for that 
 they otherwile call the calyx. 
 
 Goldfmiths, braziers, he. alfo ufe vafe for the middle 
 of a church candleflick ; which is ufually of a roundifh 
 figure, bordering fomewhat on that of a vafe. 
 
 VASSAL, Vajfallus, in our ancient cufloms, a per¬ 
 fon who vowed fidelity and homage to a lord, on account 
 of fome land, he. which he had of him in fee. 
 
 VASSALAGE, the flate of a vaflal, or a fervitude and 
 dependency on a fuperior lord. 
 
 VASTO, in law, a writ that lies againft the tenent 
 for life or years, for making wafte. 
 
 VASTUS, in anatomy, a name common to two 
 mulcles of the leg, diftinguilhed into internal and exter¬ 
 nal, 
 
V E E 
 
 rial, thus called from their Iargencfs; both of them ferv- | 
 iiig to extend the leg. 
 
 VAT, or Fat, a kind of veffel, ufed to hold wine, 
 ale, beer, cyder, or any other liquor, in the time of its 
 preparation. 
 
 VAULT, Formix, in architecture, a piece of mafonry- 
 arch, fo contrived that the {tones which form it fuftain 
 each other by their difpofition. 
 
 Vaults are, on many occafions, to be preferred to foflils 
 or flat cielings, as they give a greater height and eleva¬ 
 tion, and are befldes more firm and durable. 
 
 Salmafius obferves, that the ancients had only three 
 kinds of vaults. The firft was the fornix, made cradle- 
 wife ; the fecond ateftudo, i. c. tortoife-wife, which the 
 French call cul de four, or oven-wife ; and die third 
 concha, or trUmpet-wife. 
 
 But the moderns have fubdivided thefc three forts into 
 many more, to which they have given different names, 
 according to their figures and ufes; fome of them are cir¬ 
 cular and others elliptical. 
 
 Again, the fweeps of fome are larger, other lefs por¬ 
 tions of a fphere. All fucli as are above hemifpheres 
 are called high or furmounted vaults; and all that arc 
 lefs than hemifpheres, are called low or furbafed vaults, 
 ‘or teftudines. 
 
 In fome vaults the height is greater than the diameter; 
 in others, it is lefs : others again arc quite flat, and only 
 made with haunfes ; others like ovens, or in the form of 
 a cul de four, &c. and others growing wider, as they 
 lengthen, like a trumpet. 
 
 There are alfo Gothick vaults, with ogives, &c. 
 
 Of vaults, fome again arc Angle, others double, crofs, 
 diogonal,--horizontal, afeending, defeending, angular, 
 oblique, pendent, 6tc. 
 
 Majler Vaults, are thofe that cover the principal 
 parts of buildings, in contradiftinCtion to the upper or 
 fubordinate vaults, which only cover lome little part, as 
 palfage, or gate, &c. 
 
 Double Vault, is one that is built over another, to 
 make the outer decoration range with the inner, or, to 
 make the beauty and decoration ot the infide confiftent 
 with that of the outfide, leaves a Ipace between the con¬ 
 cavity of the one and the concavity of the other. In- 
 ftances of which wc have in the dome of St. Peter’s at 
 Rome, St. Paul’s in London, and in that of the inva¬ 
 lids at Paris. 
 
 Vaults with Compartments, are fuch whofe fweep, or 
 inner face, is enriched with panncls of fculpture, fepa- 
 rated by plat-bands. Tliefe compartments, which are 
 of different figures, according to the vaults, and uluallv 
 gilt on a white ground, are made with ftone or brick 
 walls, as in the church of St. Peter at Rome, or with 
 plaifler on timber vaults. 
 
 Key of a Vault, is a if one or brick, in the middle of 
 the vault, in form of a truncated cone, ferving to bind 
 or fatten all the reft. 
 
 Reins , or Fillings up of a Vault, are the fides which 
 fuftain it. 
 
 Pendentive of a V ault, is the part fufpended between 
 the arches or orgives. 
 
 hnpojl of a Vault, is the ftone whereon the firft 
 vouflbir, or arch-ftone of the vault, is laid. 
 
 UBIQUITY, omniprefence; an attribute of the 
 Godhead, whereby he is always intimately prefent to all 
 things ; gives the efle to all things; knows, preferves, 
 and does all in all things. 
 
 UDDER, Uber , in comparative anatomy, that part 
 iu brutes wherein the milk is prepared, anfvvering to the 
 mamma; or breafts of the human kind. 
 
 VECTIS, in mechanicks, one of the powers more 
 ufually called lever. See Lever. 
 
 V ECTOR, in aftronomy, a line fuppofed to be drawn 
 from any planet moving round a centre on the focus of 
 an ellipfis, to that centre or focus. This, by fome 
 writers of the new aftronomy, is called ve£tor, or radius 
 vedtor, becaufe it is that line by Which the planet feems 
 to be carried round its centre, and with which it de- 
 lcribes areas proportional to the times. 
 
 VEDETTE, i& the military art, a fentitiel on horfe- 
 back detached from the main body of the army, to dif- 
 covcr and give notice of the enemies defigns. 
 
 VEER, a fea-term varioufly ufed. Veering out a 
 rope, denotes the letting it out by hand, or letting it run 
 Vo*.. II. No. 75. 
 
 V E L 
 
 lout of itfelf. It is not ufed for letting out any running 
 I rope except the fheets. 
 
 Veer is alfo uled in reference to the wind, for, when 
 it changes often, they fay, it veers about. 
 
 VEGETABLE, Pegetabile, in phyfiology, a term ap¬ 
 plied to all plants, confidered as capable of growth ; i. e. 
 all natural bodies which have parts organically formed 
 tor generation and accretion, but not fenfation. 
 
 The vafcular ftru&ure of vegetables is rendered very 
 apparent, by an experiment of Mr. Willoughby: cutting 
 off fome pretty big branches of birch, and making a fort 
 of balbn, or refervoir, on the end thereof with foft wax ; 
 upon filling this with water and holding the branch up¬ 
 right, the water, in a few minutes, funk into the Vcflels 
 of the wood, and running quite through the length, 
 dropped out confiderably fail; continuing fo to do as 
 long as the water was poured on. The lame fuccecds in 
 a fycamore, walnut-tree, &c. though the flux here is not 
 fo copious. 
 
 VEGETATION, the a£t whereby plants and other 
 living bodies receive nourifliment and grow. 
 
 Plants, we learn from the microfcope, confift of dif¬ 
 ferent parts, veflels, &c. analogous to thofe of the ani¬ 
 mals ; and each kind of veflel is fuppofed to be the ve¬ 
 hicle of a different humour, or juice, lecreted from the 
 mafs of lap, which is confidered as the blood, or common 
 fund of them all. See Sap and Blood. 
 
 VEGETATIVE, Vegetativus , a term applied to that 
 principle or part in plants, by virtue whereof they re¬ 
 ceive nourifliment, and grow or vegetate. 
 
 VEHICLE, Pehiculum , in its literal fenfe, fignifies 
 fomething that carries or bears a thing along. 
 
 VEIN, in anatomy, a vcfiiil which conveys the blood 
 from the artery back to the heart. 
 
 The veins are only a continuation of the extreme 
 capillary arteries, rciie&ed back again towards the heart, 
 and uniting their channels as they approach it, till at 
 laft they all form three large veins ; the cava defeendens, 
 which brings the blood back from all the parts above the 
 heart; the cava afeendens, which brings the blood from 
 all the parts below the heart; and the porta, which car¬ 
 ries the blood to the liver. 
 
 The coats of the veins are the fame with thofe of the 
 arteries, only the mufcular coat is not as thin in all the 
 veins, as it is in thecapillary arteries; the preflure of 
 the blood againft the fides of the veins being lefs than 
 that againft the fides of the arteries. In the veins there 
 is no pulfe, becaufe the blood is thrown into them with 
 a continued ftream, and becaufe it moves from a narrow 
 channel to a wider. The capillary veins unite with one 
 another, as has been faid of the capillary arteries. In all 
 the veins which are perpendicular to the horizon, ex¬ 
 cepting thofe of the uterus and of the porta, there' are 
 fmall membranes, or valves ; fometimes there is ("filly 
 one, fometimes there are two, and fometimes three placed 
 together, like fo many half thimbles ftuck to the fides of 
 the veins, with their mouths towards the heart. In the 
 motion of the blood towards the heart, they are prefled 
 clofe to the fides of the veins ; but, if the blood fhould 
 tail back, it muft fill the valves, and, they being diftended, 
 flop up the channel, fo that no blood can repals them. 
 
 Vein is alfo ufed, in the fame fenfe with ftratum, for 
 the various difpofitions and kinds of matter met with in 
 digging into the bowels of the earth. 
 
 VALEMENTUM B OMEYciNUM, a name which 
 fome anatomifts give to the velvet membrane, or inner 
 ikin, of the iilteftiiles. 
 
 VELLICATION, among phyficians, the a£t of 
 twitching. The word is more particularly applied to a 
 fort of fudden convulfiohs that happen to the fibres of the 
 mufcles. 
 
 VELOCITY, fwiftnefs, or that affe&ion of motion 
 whereby a moving body is difpofed to run over a certain 
 fpace in a certain fpace of time. See Motion. 
 
 For the velocity of falling.bodies; fee the article Ac¬ 
 celerated Motion. 
 
 VELOM, a kind of parchment, finer, evener, and 
 Whiter than the common fort. 
 
 VELVET, a rich kind of fluff all filk, covered on 
 the outfide with a dole, fhort, fine, foft lhag, the other 
 fide being a Very ftrong, clofe tiffue. The nap or fhag, 
 called alfo the velveting bf this ftufF, is formed of part 
 of the threads of the warp, Which the workman puts on 
 5 ^ a long 
 
V E N 
 
 V E N 
 
 long narrow-channelled ruler or needie, which he af-lable, and of a dufty furface : it adheres firmly to the 
 
 •rward, mts. hv dn.«,n<r * <h*r n . -- u-l tongue, is very fmooth, and foft to the touch, eafily 
 
 crumbles to pieces between the fingers, and very much 
 uains the Ikin in handling. It has a flight aftringent tafte, 
 and makes no fermentation with acids. It is dug in Ca- 
 rinthia, and lent from Venice to all parts of the world, 
 being an excellent colour, and very cheap; our colour- 
 men, however, find many ways of adulterating it. 
 
 VENIAL, in the Rornifh theology, a term applied 
 to flight fins, and fuch as eafily obtain'pardon. Incon- 
 feffing to the priefts, people are not obliged to accufe 
 themfelves of all their venial fins. The thing that gives 
 the greateft embarras to the Roman cafuifts, is to diftin- 
 guifli between venial and mortal fins. The reformed 
 rejeiR this diftin&ion of venial and mortal fins, and 
 maintain, that all fins, how grievous foever, are venial 
 and all fins, how flight foever, arc mortal. And the rca- 
 ion they urge is, that all fins, though of their own na- 
 ture mortal, yet become venial or pardonable, by virtue 
 ot our Saviour’s paffion, to all fuch as believe in him, 
 as he is revealed in the gofpel. 
 
 VENT, Vent-hole, or S,piracle, a little aper- 
 ture left in the tubes or pipes of fountains, to facilitate 
 the air’s efcapej or, on occafion, to give them air, as 
 in frofiy weather, &c. for want of which they are apt to 
 burft. See Pipe. 
 
 Vent is likewife applied to the covers of wind-fur¬ 
 naces, whereby the air enters, which ferves them for 
 bellows, and which are flopped with regiflers or fluices, 
 according to the degree of heat required, as in the fur¬ 
 naces of glafs-houfes, affayers, Sec. 
 
 VENTER, Bell y, in anatomy, a cavity in the body 
 of an animal, containing vilcera, or other organs necefr 
 l'ary for the-performance of divers funClions. 
 
 Venter is alfo ufed in Ipeaking of a partition of the 
 effc&s of a father or mother, among children born, ox 
 accruing from different marriages. 
 
 Venter is alfo ufed for the children whereof a wo¬ 
 man is delivered at one pregnancy : thus, two twins are 
 laid to be of the fame venter. 
 
 Venter, or Belly of a Mufcle, is the flefhy or belly 
 part thereof, as contradiflinguifhed from the two ten¬ 
 dons, its extremes, one whereof is called the head, and 
 the other the tail of the mufcle. See Muscle. 
 
 Venter Dr.nonis , dragon’s belly, in aftronomy, 
 denotes the middle of a planet’s orbit, or that part moft 
 remote from the nodes, i. c. from the dragon’s head and 
 tail; being the part which has the greateft latitude, or is 
 at the greateft; diltance from the ecliptick. 
 
 VEN 1 IDUC 1 S, in building, are fpiracles or fub- 
 terraneous places, where frefli cool wind being kept, they 
 are made to communicate, by means of tubes, funnels, 
 or vaults, with the chambers or other apartments of a 
 houfe, to cool them in fill try weather. 
 
 VENTILATORS, inftruments invented by the 
 learned Dr. Hales, for drawing the foul air out of any 
 dole place, and fupplying it with frefli. 
 
 VENTRICLE, Ventriculus , q. d. little belly, in ana¬ 
 tomy, a diminutive of venter, fignifying a cavity fmaller 
 than what we exprefs by a venter, or, rather, a divifion of 
 a venter ; or fome fmaller cavity contained in a larger. 
 
 Ventricle, Ventriculus , by way of eminence thus 
 called, is the fame with the ftomach. 
 
 VENTURINE, or Ae 
 
 terwards cuts, by drawing a fliarp fteel tool along the 
 channel of the needle to the ends of the warp. 
 
 VENAL, or Venous, among anatomifts, fomething 
 that bears a relation to a vein. 
 
 Venal, is nlfo ufed for fomething bought with mo 
 Hey, or procured by bribes. 
 
 VENDEE, in law, the perfoti to whom anything is 
 fold, in contradiftin&ion to vender, or the feller. 
 
 VENEERING, Vanf.eri ng, or Fineering, a 
 kind of marquetry, or inlaying; whereby feveral thin 
 flices or leaves of fine wood, of different forts, are applied 
 and fattened on aground of fome common wood. There 
 are two kinds of inlaying ; the one, which is the more 
 ordinary, goes no farther than the work of compartments 
 of different woods ; the other requires a deal more art, 
 and reprefents flowers, birds, and the like figures. 
 
 1 he wood intended for veneering, is fiill favved out 
 into flices or leaves, about a line thick: in order to favv 
 them, the blocks, or planks, are placed upright in a 
 kind of favving prefs. 
 
 The flices are afterwards cut into narrow flips, and 
 fafhioned divers ways, according to the defign propofed. 
 Then, the joints being carefully adjufted, and the pieces 
 brought down to their proper thicknefs with feveral 
 planes for the purpofe, they arc glued down on a ground 
 or block of dry wood, with good ftrong Englifli glue. 
 
 The pieces thus joined and glued, the work, if fmall, 
 is put in a prefs ; if large, it is laid on a bench, covered 
 with a board, and prefled down with poles or pieces of 
 wood. One end thereof reaches to the ceiling of the 
 room, and the other bears on the board. 
 
 When the glue is quite dry, they take it out of the 
 prefs and finifh it; firft with little planes, then with 
 clivers ferapers, fome whereof refemble rafps, which take 
 oft the dents. See. left by the planes. 
 
 When Efficiently feraped, the work is polifhed with 
 the Ikin of a fea dog, wax, a brulh, and a polilher of 
 fhave-grafs ; which is the laft operation. 
 
 VENEREAL, fomething relating to venery. 
 
 Venereal Difeafe , lues venerea, the French difeafe, 
 foul difeafe, French pox, See. is a contagious difeafe. 
 contra£led by fome impure humour generally received in 
 coition ; and difeovering itfelf in ulcers and pains, about 
 the genitals and other parts. 
 
 As, in this terrible and obftinate diforder, the whole 
 mafs of blood and lymph, in confequence of the malig¬ 
 nant taint, affumes a putrid, vapid, and vifeid crafis, 
 highly unfriendly to nature, from which alone all the 
 fymptoms arife ; fo, in order to remove this principal 
 caufe, no more proper intention can be purfued, than 
 through all the emunflories to expel from the body, and 
 its final left teffels and receffes, the whole mafs of cor¬ 
 rupted humours; for, by this means, the moft violent 
 fymptoms, fuch as obftiu&ions of the fecretory and ex¬ 
 cretory glands, together with inflammations, and exul¬ 
 cerations of the bones, and all the folid parts fpontane- 
 oufly ceafe when their productive caufe is removed. But, 
 hitherto, there are only two methods known of expelling 
 from the recefles of the folid parts of the whole mafs of 
 peccant and tainted humours ; the one by a liberal and 
 long-protraCled difeharge of fweat, and the other by a 
 falivation, continued for a fufficient time. 
 
 VENERIS CEstrum, the ftimulus or incentive of 
 venery, is an appellation given by fome anatomifls to 
 the clito ' 
 
 ENTURINE, is fometimes 
 ufed for the fineft and flendereft gold wire ufed by em¬ 
 broiderers. 
 
 Veneris CEstrum is alfo ufed by others for the 
 tranfport of love, or the utmoft extaev of defire, or 
 enjoyment, in coition. 
 
 VENERY, is uled for the aCl of copulation, or co¬ 
 ition of the two fexes. 
 
 Venery alfo denotes the a£t or cxercife of hunting 
 wild beafls, which are alio called beads of venery, and 
 beafls of the foreft. See Game. 
 
 VENESECTION, or Phlebotomy, in furgery. 
 See Phlebotomy. 
 
 VEN ETA Bolus, the Venetian bole, a fine red 
 earth ufed in painting, and called in the colour-ihops 
 Venetian red. It is improperly denominated a bole, be¬ 
 ing a genuine fpccies of red ochre. It is of a line bright, 
 and not very deep red, approaching, in fome degree, to 
 the colour of minium, or red-lead, and is moderate!v 
 hcavy, and of an even and fmooth texture, yet very fri- 
 
 VENUS, ia chymiftry, the fame with copper. See 
 Copper. In ailrooomy, one of the inferior planets, 
 revolving round the fun in an orhit between that of Mer¬ 
 cury and the earth. See Planet. 
 
 According to Mr. Caffini, the greateft diftance of 
 Venus from the earth is 38,415, the mean diftance 
 22000, and the icaft diftance 5,585 femi-diameters of 
 the earth. 
 
 And the diameter of Venus is equal to feven femi-dia- 
 meters of the earth ; therefore, the globe of Venus muft 
 be near 43 times greater than that of the earth. But Dr. 
 Gregory faith, that, to an eve placed in Venus, the fun’s 
 diameter would appear once and a han as big again as it 
 doth to us, and, therefore, his diik will be irore than 
 double of what it appears to us : and the light and heat 
 in this planet, and its gravity towards the fill), vvifl.be 
 in the fame proportion in relpeCl of ours. 
 
 The 
 
VER 
 
 The length of the day in Venus is but 23 hours. 
 
 The eve here will behold tour planets above it, viz. 
 bur earth. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; and otiebelow it, 
 which is Mercury : and when our earth is in oppofition 
 to the fun, it will appear then (in the night) to ihine 
 with a full orb, and be very bright. The moon will 
 appear always to accompany the earth, and never to be 
 fecn from her above half a degree. Mercury will never 
 appear to be above 38 degrees diltant from the fun. 
 
 Kepler faith, the inclination of the orbit of Venus is 
 3 deg. and 22 min. 
 
 VERB, in grammar, a word ferving to exprefs what 
 we allirm of any fubjeft or attribute to it; as the words, 
 is, underflands, hears, believes, &c. 
 
 The verb is thus called of the Latin verbum, word, by 
 way of eminence ; as being the principal word of a fen- 
 lence. 
 
 The common definition given by grammarians is, 
 that a verb is a word which betokens being, doing, or 
 fu fie ring. 
 
 To conceive the origin and office of verbs, it may be 
 obferved, that the judgment we make of anything, as 
 when I fay the earth is round, nccefiarily includes three 
 terms; the firft, called the fubjeft, is the thing we af¬ 
 firm of, e. gr. earth ; the fecond, called the attribute, is 
 the thing affirmed, e. gr. round ; the third, is, connefts 
 thefe two terms together, and exprefles the aftion of the 
 mind affirming the attribute of the fubjeft. The laft is 
 what we properly call the verb. 
 
 Verb’s are varioufiv divided ; with rcfpefl to the fub¬ 
 jeft, they are divided into aftive, pafiivc, neuter, Sec. 
 with refpeft to their inflexions, into regular and irregu¬ 
 lar; peifonal and imperfonal; auxiliary and fubftan- 
 tive, fee. 
 
 Verb Afiivs, is a verb which exprefles an aftion that 
 falls on another fubjeft or objeft. 
 
 V erb Pujjine, is that which exprefles a paffion, or 
 which receives the action of lome agent, and which is 
 conjugated in the modern tongues with the auxiliary 
 verb, I am, je fuis, je fono, Sec. 
 
 Verb Neaiter, is that which fignifies an aftion that 
 has no particular objeft whereon to fall, but which of 
 itlelf takes up the whole idea of the action , as, I fleep, 
 thou yavvncfl, he fnores, we walk, you run, they Hand. 
 
 erb «S 'i{bjfonti'v<\ ) is that which exprefles the being or 
 fnbfl.ince which the mind forms of itlelf, or fuppofes in 
 the onjeft, whether it be there or not; as, I am, thou art. 
 
 A x n ry or hoping Verbs, are tliofe which ferve in 
 comugating aftive and paflive verbs; fuch are, I am, I 
 have, Nc. 
 
 R s uieirV -ERBS, are thole which are conjugated after 
 lome one manner, rule, or analogy. 
 
 irriguun or anomalous Verbs, are thofe which have 
 femeihing Angular in the terminations or formations of 
 if .r tenfes. 
 
 Vj rbs Imperfonal , are thofe which have only the 
 thiidperfon; as, it behoves, See. 
 
 7 here are alio reduplicative verbs; as refound, recall, 
 6cc. tirquentative verbs, See. 
 
 VERBAL, fomething that belongs to verbs, or even 
 to words {poke with the mouth. 
 
 A verbal contraft is that merely made by word of 
 mouth in oppofition to that made in writing. 
 
 VERBERA 1 ION, laming, in phyficks, a term ufed 
 to exprefs the caufe of found, which arifes from a ver- 
 beration of the air when {truck in divers manners by the 
 fcveral parts of the fonorous body firft put into a vibra¬ 
 tory motion. 
 
 VERDIGREASE, a kind of ruft of copper of great 
 ufe among painters for a green colour ; alfo in phyfick. 
 
 This preparation of copper is properly no other than 
 that metal diffolved by a mild acid into the form of an 
 icrugo or ruft. After preffing the grapes for wine, the 
 hulks, ftones, and other refufe, are laid to be dried in the 
 fun ; they are then moiftened with the ftrongeft wine 
 that can be had, and laid together in veflels till they be¬ 
 gin to ferment; after nine or iodays the matter is prefied, 
 and worked into balls between the hands, and laid in 
 an orderly manner over the bottom of an earthen vefiel, 
 and as much wine is laid over them as will cover them 
 half way up. The veflels are then covered with a loofe 
 lid, and fi t in a cellar where the balls are left in the wine 
 about 15 hours, a perfon turning them four or five times 
 
 VER 
 
 jin that fpace, in order to make the wine foak perfectly 
 [through them; after this fome wooden bars are placed 
 acrofs the vefiel about half an inch above the furface of 
 the wine, and the balls are laid out of the wine upon 
 thefe ; the veflels are then {hut up, and the whole left in 
 this ftate 10 days or more. At the end of this time the 
 balls emit a very penetrating feent, and are fit for dif- 
 folving copper. They arc now to be broke in pieces, 
 and the outfide mixed with the internal part, which is 
 moifture ; they arc then laid with thin places of copper 
 ftratum fuper ftratum in the fame veflels upon the bars, 
 and the whole is left for a week or fortnight, at the end 
 of which time the plates are found covered with verdi- 
 greafe, which is not taken off immediately, but they are 
 wrapped up in cloths wetted with wine, and laid by a 
 week or more, and then the serugo or verdigreafeis taken 
 off for ule. 
 
 VERDERER, or Verdf.Ror, a judicial officer of 
 the king’s foreft, wliofe bulinefs is to look to the vert, 
 and fee it well maintained. 
 
 VERDICT , is the anfwer of the jury given to the 
 court concerning the matter of faff, in any cafe civil or 
 criminal, committed by the court to their trial and exa¬ 
 mination. 
 
 General Verdict, is that which is brought into the 
 court in like general terms as the genera! ifiuc, as, in a» 
 aftion of difleifin, the defendant pleads no wrong, no 
 difleifin. 7 hen the iflue is general, whether the faff be 
 wrong or not, which being committed to the jury, they, 
 upon confideration of the evidence, come in and fay, ei¬ 
 ther for the plaintiff, that it is a wrong difleifin ; or, for 
 the defendant, that it is no wrong difleifin. 
 
 Special Verdict, is when they fay at large, that fuch 
 and fuch a thing they found to be done by the defendant 
 or tenant ; declaring the courfe of the faff, as in their 
 opinion it is proved ; and, as to the law upon the faff, 
 proving the judgment of the court. 
 
 This fpecial verdiff, if it contain an ample declaration 
 of the caufe from the beginning to the end, is called a 
 verdiff at large. 
 
 VERDITER,or VERDETER,a faffitious fubftance, 
 prepared by cafting wine or water upon the new copper, 
 juft as it comes red-hot out of the furnace, and catching 
 the fleams which rife from it upon copper-plates. 
 
 VERDOY, in heraldry, is applied to a bordure of a 
 ‘coat of arms, charged with any kinds or parts of flowers, 
 fruits, feeds, plants, Sc c. 
 
 VERDURE, the quality of greennefs. 
 
 VERGE, is ufed for the compafs or extent of the 
 kings-court, within which is hounded the jurifdiftion of 
 the lord fteward of the king’s houfliold. 
 
 Court c/Vfrge, is a court or tribunal in manner of 
 a king’s-bench, which takes cognizance of all crimes and 
 mifdemeanours committed within the vergeor jurifdiftion 
 of the king’s court. 
 
 VER.GlLI. 7 ih a confttilation wliofe appearance de¬ 
 notes the approach of the fpring. 
 
 VERJUI'CE, a juice or liquor drawn from fourgrapes, 
 or apples, unfit for wine or cyder ; or from fvveet ones, 
 while yet acid and unripe. 
 
 Verjuice is made of crabs, gathered and laid to fweat 
 in a heap, the ftalks, Sec. feparated ; then ftamped or 
 ground, and the crab-mafli put in a hair-bag; the juice 
 fqueezed in a prefs barrelled up clofe, and ftt in a warm 
 place to work for 10 or 12 days. 
 
 VERMICELLI , or Ver michelli, a kind of mix¬ 
 ture, prepared of flour, cheefe, yolks of eggs, fugar, and 
 faffron ; and reduced into little long pieces, or threads like 
 worms, by forcing it with a pifton through a number of 
 little holes in the end of a pipe made for the purpofe. 
 
 VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that 
 hears a relation or refemblance to worms, vermiculi. 
 
 The vermicular or periftaltick motion of the inteftines 
 is performed by the contraflion of the fibres thereof, from 
 above downward ; as the antiperiftaltick motion is by 
 their contraflion from below upwards. 
 
 VERMIFORMIS, in anatomy, a term applied to 
 various parts in the human body, bearing fome refem¬ 
 blance to worms. 
 
 VERM 1 FUGUS, a remedy againft worms. 
 
 VERMILLION, a very bright and beautiful red co¬ 
 lour, In great efteem among the ancients, under the 
 name of minium. 7 here are two kinds of it, the one 
 
 natural, 
 
V E R 
 
 natural, the other factitious. The natural is found in 
 fome filver mines in the form of a ruddy land, which 
 is afterwards prepared and purified by feveral lotions and 
 co&ions. 'i he artificial is made of mineral cinnabar, 
 ground up with aqua-vitas and urine, and after wards dried. 
 
 VERMIN, Vermina , a collective name including all 
 kinds of little animals, or infeCts, which are hurtful or 
 troubJelome to men, beaits, fruits, &c. as worms, lice, 
 fleas, caterpillars, ants, flies, 6cc. 
 
 VERMIVOROUS Animals, are fuch as feed upon 
 worms. 
 
 VERNACULAR, is applied to any thing that is pe¬ 
 culiar to fome one country. 
 
 VERN AL, fomething belonging to the fpring feafon. 
 
 Vernal Signs, are thole which the fun is in during 
 the fpring feafon, viz. Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 
 
 Vernal Equinox, is that which happens when the fun 
 is afeending from the equator towards the north pole. 
 
 VERNIER, or Nonius, among mathematicians, 
 a fcale of divifions ferving to cut the divifions of an arch 
 into Angle minutes. 
 
 VERONICA, in botany, a genus of the decandria- 
 monogynia clafs of plants, thecoiolla whereof confiils of 
 a Angle petal, the tube is nearly of the length of the 
 cup ; the limb is plain, and divided into four parts ; the 
 fegments are oval, and the lower one is narrower than 
 any of the reft ; the fegment over-againft it, is broader 
 than any ; the fruit is a capfule of a turbinated cordated 
 figure, with a comprefled apex, it is compofed of four 
 valves, and contains two cells, in each whereof are nu¬ 
 merous roundifh feeds. 
 
 Among the fpecies of this genus, are the common 
 fpeedwell, the brooklime, and the wild germander. 
 
 Thefe, and feveral other fpecies of this genus, arc fa¬ 
 mous in medicine ; the common fpeedwell is a good an- 
 tifcorbutick, and has lately been celebrated in the gout 
 and rheumatifm. The watcr-brooklimc is alfo one of the 
 antifeorbutieks of the fhops, and its juice is alfo made a 
 part of the fpring juices given againft thole complaints. 
 
 VERSE, Virjiis, in poetry, a line or part of a dif- 
 courfe confifting of a certain number of long and fhort 
 Syllables, which run with an agreeable cadence; the like 
 being alfo reiterated in the courfe of the piece. 
 
 Verfes are of various kinds ; fome denominated from 
 the number of feet whereof they arc compofed, as the 
 monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, 
 hexameter, hendecafyllabum, &rc. Some from the kinds 
 of feet ufed in them ; as the pyrrhichian, proceleufmatick, 
 iambick, trochaick, da&ylick. anapceftick, fpondaick, or 
 moloftean, chor-iambick, iambo-da&vlick, or datftylo- 
 trochaick. Sometimes from the names of the inventors, 
 or the authors who have ufed them with moft luccefs ; 
 as the anacreontick, archilochian, hipponadtick, phere- 
 eratian, glyconian, alcmenian, affclepiadean, alcaick, fte- 
 fichorean, phalifcan, ariftophanian, callimachian, galli- 
 ambick, phalascian, and fapphick. Sometimes from the 
 fubjeft, or the circumftances of the compofition ; as the 
 heroick, elegiack, adomck, &c. £ * 
 
 Equivocal V ekses, thole where the fame words con¬ 
 tained in two lines carry a different lcnfe. 
 
 Reciprocal Verses, thofe which read the fame back¬ 
 wards as forwards. 
 
 VERSED Sine of an Arch, called by the ancients Sa- 
 gitta, is that part of the radius contained between the 
 fine and the arch. 
 
 VERSIFICATION, the art or manner of making 
 verfc ; alfo the tune and cadence of verfe. 
 
 Verfification is ptoperly applied to what the poet does 
 more by labour, art, and rule, than by invention, and 
 the genius of furor pocticus. 
 
 VERSION, a tranfiation of fome book or writing 
 out of one language into another. 
 
 VERT, in heraldry, the term for a green colour. 
 
 It is called vert in the blazon of the eoats of all under 
 the degrees of nobles ; but in thele it is called emerald, 
 and. in thofe of kings, Venus. In engiaving it is ex- 
 prelfed by diagonals or lines drawn athwart, from right 
 to left, from the dexter chief corner to the finifter bale. 
 
 V E R 
 
 Vert, or green hue, in foreft law, anv thing that 
 grows and bears a green leaf within the foreft that may 
 cover a deer. - 
 
 VER 1 EBRAil, a chain of little bones reaching from 
 the top of the neck down the back to the os facrum, and 
 forming a third part of the human fkeleton called the 
 lpma dorli. 1 he vertebra? are 24 in number; feven of 
 them belong to the neck, 12 to the back, and five to the 
 loins, &c. They lie in a ftraight line, thofe of the neck 
 bend inward, and thofe of the back outwards, for en- 
 larging the cavity of the thorax ; and thofe again of the 
 loins bend inwards, and thofe of the os facrunfoutwards, 
 to enlarge the cavity of the bafon. 
 
 VER 1 EBRALES, in anatomy, a pair of mufcles, 
 whole office it is to ft retch out all the vertebra? of the back* 
 
 VERTEX is the crown of the head, fituate between 
 the finciput and occiput; hence, alfo, figuratively, it is 
 ufed for the top of any thkig. 
 
 Vertex of an Angle , is the angular point, or the 
 point wherein the legs meet. 
 
 Vertex of a Figure, is the vertex of an angle oppo- 
 fite to the bale. 
 
 Vertex of a Curve, is the point from which the 
 diameter is drawn ; or the interle&ion of the diameter 
 and the curve. 
 
 Vertexs/ a Glafs, in opticks, the fame with the pole 
 thereof. 
 
 Vertex is alfo ufed, in aftronomy, for the point of 
 heaven perpendicularly over our heads, properly called 
 the zenith. 
 
 Path of the Vertex, the circle deferibed by the vertical 
 point during one revolution of the earth about its axis. 
 
 ^ ER I K-AL Circle, in aftronomy, a great circle 
 of the fphere palling through the zenith and nadir, and 
 cutting the horizon at right angles. It is otherwife called 
 azimuth. See Azimuth. 
 
 Prime Vertical, is that vertical circle or azimuth 
 which palles Through the poles of the meridian; or which 
 is perpendicular to the meridian, and paffes through the 
 equinoftial points. 
 
 Vertical of the Sun, is the vertical which pafles 
 through the centre of the fun at any moment of time. 
 
 V ertical Plane, in perfpedtive, is a plane perpendi¬ 
 cular to the geometrical plane, palling through the eye, 
 and cutting the perfpe&ivc plane at light angles. 
 
 Vertica l Plane, in conicks, is a plane palling through 
 the vertex of the cone, and parallel toanyconick feftion. 
 
 Vertical Line, in conicks, is a right line drawn on 
 the vertical plane, and palling through the vertex of the 
 cone. 
 
 Vertical Dial, is a fun-dial drawn on the plane of 
 a vertical circle, or perpendicular to the horizon. 
 
 Vertical Point, in aftronomy, the fame with ver¬ 
 tex or zenith. 
 
 VER 1 1 CILLATE Plants, are fuch as have their 
 flowers intermixed with ftnall leaves growing in a kind of 
 whirls about the joints of a ftalk; as penny-royal, hore- 
 hound, See. 
 
 VERTICITY, is that property of the load-ftone 
 whereby it turns ordiretfts itlelf to fome peculiar point. 
 
 VERTIGO, in medicine, a difeafe in which the 
 head feems to turn round. 
 
 With relpeft to the cure, the regimen, in general, 
 ought to be the fame with that in the apoplexy or epi- 
 leplv. If the patient is plethorick, a due quantity of 
 blood is to be taken away ; and if a naufea, lofs of ap¬ 
 petite, or any other dilorder of the ftomach remain, an 
 emetick is to be preferibed ; then catharticks and fpe- 
 cificks are to be ordered. According to Mayerne, cala¬ 
 mus aromaticus, in whatever form, is good for a vertigo-, 
 and efteemed a fecretfor that dilorder. The fame author 
 informs us, that a German phyfician cured a great many 
 vertigoes, by pills made of fugarof lead and cyprefs tur¬ 
 pentine; four or five grains of which were to be taken 
 for a dofe, and their ufe perfifted in for fome days. 
 Gliflbn, as Bates informs us, after all other medicines 
 had failed, was cured of a fevere vertigo, of three weeks 
 continuance, by lhaving his head, and applying to it a 
 
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 1 ol I by Alex. Hogg, No. 16. BetternvJlerQionu. ■_ __ 
 
 plaifter 
 
V E S 
 
 plailler of the flowers of fulphur and whites of eggs. 
 Some order a cauftick, or a feton, to be applied to the 
 back part of the neck; a cautery to the bregma, and 
 Bates’s epileptick eleftuary, or Fuller’s Peruvian epilep- 
 tick electuary, to be ufed internally. 
 
 Willis informs us, that after he had in vain tried all 
 other medicines, he, with fuccefs, prefcribed the follow¬ 
 ing powder: take of the powder of the roots of male 
 piony, two ounces ; of the flowers of male piony, one 
 ounce; of peacock’s dung, of the vvhitifh kind, half a 
 pound ; and of white fugar, two ounces ; reduce to a 
 powder, the dofe of which is to be about the quantity of 
 a fpoonful twice a day, drinking after it a draught of a 
 decoftion of fage and rofemary, impregnated with coffee. 
 
 VERU-MONTANUM, in anatomy, a kind of little 
 valve, in the place wherein the ejaculatory dufts enter 
 the urethra. Its ufe is to prevent the urine, in palling 
 the urethra, from getting in at thefe dufts, and fo mix¬ 
 ing with the femen. 
 
 VESICA, in anatomy, a bladder, a membranous or 
 fkinny part in which any humour is contained. 
 
 VESICATORY, Vcftcatorium, an external medicine, 
 ferving to raife a blifter; whence, alio, it is itfelf, though 
 improperly, called a blifter. 
 
 VESICULA, Veficle , a dimunitive of vefica, fignify- 
 ing a little bladder. The lungs conflft of veficulas, or 
 lobules of veficulse, admitting air from the bronchia;; and 
 not only air, but alfo duft, Ac. There are feveral parts 
 of the body which bear this appellation. 
 
 Vesicula, Fellis, ciftula fellis, or the gall-bladder, 
 which is an oblong membranous veflel, not unlike a pear 
 both in form and fize; fituate in the hollow part of the 
 liver. It adheres to the liver, not only by its veflels, 
 which it receives from it, but, likewife, by its mem¬ 
 branes, whereof the external is common to both. The 
 lower part, which hangs out of the liver, lefts on the 
 pylorus of the ftomach. The ufe of the gall-bladder is 
 to receive the bile after its being fecreted in the glands of 
 the liver, and to difeharge it by the common duft into 
 the duodennum. The bile, found in this veflel, is of a 
 brighter yellow, a greater confidence, and more bitter 
 and acrimonious than that of the porus bilarius. 
 
 VESPER, in aftronomy, called, alfo, hefperus, and 
 the evening ftar, is the planet Venus, when fhe is eaft- 
 ward of the fun, and, confequently, lets after him. 
 
 VESPERS, in the Romifh church, evening fong, that 
 part of the office that is rehearfed after noon—anfwcring 
 to our evening prayers ; except that it differs more from 
 the office of the morning, called mattins. 
 
 VESPERTILIONUM Alts , bat’s wings, among 
 anatomifts, two broad membranous ligaments with which 
 the bottom of the womb is tied to the bones of the ilium; 
 fo called from their rcfembling a bat’s wings. 
 
 VESPERTINE, Vefpertinus, in aftronomy, is when 
 a planet is feen defeending to the weft after fun-fet. 
 
 VESSEL, Fas, Vafe, a thing proper to hold or contain 
 liquor. 
 
 Vessel, in navigation, is a name common to all forts 
 of fhipping, i. e. all floating machines or vehicles that 
 move in the water. Veflels are diftinguifhed in many 
 clafles, according to their magnitude, lhape, and ufe. 
 The figure of veflels is a thing of great importance with 
 regard to their motion, failing, Ac. and in determining 
 what form is moft commod ious for the intent of the veflel. 
 
 VESTALIA, feafts held in honour of the goddefs 
 Vefta, on the fifth of the ides of June, i. e. on the ninth 
 day of that month. 
 
 VESTALS, in antiquity, maids, in ancient Rome, 
 confecrated to the fervice of the goddefs Vefta; and par¬ 
 ticularly to watch the facred fire in her temple. 
 
 VESTIARIUS, Fejiiary , in antiquity, mafter of the 
 wardrobe; an officer under the Greek empire, who had 
 the care and direftion of the emperor’s apparel, robes, Ac. 
 
 VESTIBLE, Ve/Tibulwn, in the ancient architecture, 
 a large open fpace before the door or entrance of a houfe. 
 
 Vestible, VeJUbultim, in anatomy, denotes the fore 
 part of the labyrinth of the ear. See Ear. 
 
 VESTIGA, a Latin term, frequently ufed, by Eng- 
 lifh writers, to fignify the traces or footfteps any thing 
 lias left behind it. 
 
 VESTRY, Fejlriaria, a room adjoining to a church, 
 where the priefts veftments, and facred utenfils, are kept, 
 and parochial aflemblies held. 
 
 Vql. II. No. 75. 
 
 V I C 
 
 Vestry -Man, a feleft numberof the principal perfoUS 
 of every parifli within the city of London and clfewhere, 
 who yearly chofe parifli officers, and take care of its con¬ 
 cernments. They are thus called, as ufually meeting in 
 the veftry of the church. 
 
 Ve s t r \-Clerk , a perfon whokeeps the parilh accounts. 
 
 Bitter- VETCH. See Ervum. 
 
 VE TERAN, VHer anus, in the Roman militia, a fol- 
 dier who was grown old in the fervice, or who had made 
 a certain number of campaigns, and, on that account, 
 was intitled to certain benefits and privileges. 
 
 Twenty years fervice were fufficient to iiititle a man to 
 the benefit of a veteran. Thele privileges confifted in 
 being abfolved from the military oath, in being exempted 
 from all the funftions of a foldier, in enjoying a certain 
 falary or appointment, Ac. 
 
 VETERIANL T S, a farrier or horfe-leech. 
 
 VE I ERNUS, is ufed by fome phyficians for a le¬ 
 thargy, or other drowfy difeafe. 
 
 VETITUM N a m ii)m, in law, imports a forbidden 
 diftrefs , fuch, e. gr. is, that when the bailiff of a lord 
 diftrains beads or goods, and the lord forbids his baililf 
 to deliver them when the flieriff comes to replevy them-, 
 and to that end drives them to places unknown. 
 
 VIA-Lactea, in aftronomy, the milky way, or 
 galaxy. 
 
 V1 a -Solis, the fun’s way, in aftronomy, is ufed, among 
 fome aftronomers, for the ecliptick line, fo called becaule 
 the fun never goes out of it. 
 
 Vi JE-Prwte, firft palfages, among phyficians, are the 
 oefophagus, ftomach, and guts; including the whole 
 length of the alimentary duft, or canal, from the mouth 
 of the fphinfter ani. 
 
 VIALES, in mythology, a name given among the 
 Romans to the gods who had the care and guard of the 
 roads and highways. 
 
 VIATOR, in antiquity, an officer of juftice among 
 the Romans. The term, originally, had no other fig- 
 nification than that of a publick meflenger, or fervant, 
 fent to advertife the fenators, or magiftrates, when af- 
 femblies were to b£ held where their prefence was re¬ 
 quired. In procefs of time, the name Viator became 
 common to all officers of the magiftrates liftors, accenfi, 
 feribes, ftatores, and crycrs. 
 
 VIBEX, is fometimes ulcd, by phyficians, fora black 
 and blue fpot in the ikin, occafioned by an afflux or ex- 
 travafation of blood. 
 
 VIBRATION, in mechanicks, a regular, reciprocal 
 motion of a body, as a pendulum, Ac. which, beinf 
 freely fufpended, lwings or ofcillates, firft this way, then 
 that. SeePENDULUM. 
 
 Vibration, is alfo ufed, in phyficks, for divers other 
 regular alternate motions. Senlation is fuppofed to be 
 performed by means of the vibratory motion of the 
 nerves, begun by external objefts, and propagated to the 
 brain. 
 
 VICAR, Vicarius , a perfon appointed, as deputy of 
 another, to perform his funftions in his abfence, and 
 under his authority. 
 
 Vicar, in the common law, denotes a prieft of a 
 parifli, the predial tithes whereof are impropriated or ap¬ 
 propriated ; that is, belonging either to a chapter, reli¬ 
 gious houfe, Ac. or to a layman, who receives them, and 
 only allows the vicar the fmall tithes or a convenient fa¬ 
 lary, anciently called portio congrua. 
 
 V1 c a r -General, was a title given by king Henry VlIL 
 to Thomas Cromwell, earl of Eflex, with full power to 
 overfee the clergy, and regulate all matters relating to 
 church affairs. 
 
 VICE, Fitium, in ethicks, is ordinarily defined an 
 cleft ive habit, deviating, either in excefs, ordefeft, from 
 the juft medium wherein virtue is placed. 
 
 Vice, in fmithery, and other arts employed in me¬ 
 tals, is a machine, or inftrument, ferving to hold fafl: 
 any thing they are at work upon, whether it be to be 
 filed, bent, rivetted, Ac. To file fquare, it is abfo- 
 lutely neccfiary, the vice be placed perpendicular with its 
 chaps parallel to the work-bench. 
 
 Hand Vice, is a fmall kind of vice ferving to hold 
 the lefler works in, that require often turning about. 
 
 Of theft there are two kinds, the broad-chapped hand 
 vice, which is that commonly ufed; and the fquare-nofed 
 hand vice, feldom ufed but for filing fmall round work. 
 
 sQ. v IC£j 
 
V I L V I N 
 
 VicE, is alfo a machine ufed by the glaziers to turn ( 
 or draw lead into flat rods, with grooves on each fide to I 
 receive the edges of the glafs. 
 
 V it's.-Admiral, is an officer in the navy, next in rank 
 to an admiral, who takes place according to fenioritv, 
 and is denominated from the colour of his flag, which 
 is either red, white, or blue, and which he hoifts at the 
 fore-top-mafl head. 
 
 V ic E-Chamberlain, alfo called, in ancient flatutes, 
 under chamberlain, is an officer in the court next under 
 the lord chamberlain ; and. in his abfence, has com¬ 
 mand and controul of all officers belonging to that part 
 of the hcufhold, called the chamber above flairs. 
 
 V ice -Chancellor of an Univerfity, is an eminent mem¬ 
 ber, chofe annually to manage affairs in the abfcnce of 
 the chancellor. 
 
 Vice- Dominus Epfcopi, in the cannon law, is the 
 commiffary, or vicar-general of a bifhop. 
 
 Vice-cerent, Vicegerens, a vicar, deputy, or 
 lieutenant. 
 
 Vice-Roy, a governor of a kingdom, who com¬ 
 mands therein in the name and Head of a king, with full 
 and fovercign authority. 
 
 Vice Vcrfa , a Latin phrafe, frequently retained in 
 Englifh writings, fignifvingas much as, on the contrary. 
 
 Thus, as the fun mounts higher and higher above 
 the horizon, infallible perfpiration increafes, and, vice 
 verfa, as he defeends lower, it diminifhes. 
 
 V 1 CENNAL 1 S, in antiquity, fomething of 20 years, 
 or that returns after 20 years. 
 
 VICISSITUDE, Viciffiiudo, the fucceeding of one 
 thing after another; as the vicilfitude of feafons, for¬ 
 tune, Ac. 
 
 VICOUNT, Vice-comes , in our law-books, fignifies 
 the fame with ffieriff; between which two words there 
 feems to be no other difference, but that the one came 
 from our conquerors, the Normans'; the other from our 
 anceftors, the Saxons. 
 
 Vicount, or Viscount, is alfo ufed for a degree 
 of nobility next below a count or earl, and above a baron. 
 
 VICOUNT 1 ELS, Vicontiels, Vicecomitalia, in our law¬ 
 books, denotes things belonging to the fheriff, parti¬ 
 cularly certain farms, for which the fheriff pays a rent to 
 the king, and makes what profit he can of them. 
 
 Writs Vicountiel, are fuch as are triable in the 
 county or fhcrifPs court. Of which kind are divers 
 writs of nuifance, Ac. 
 
 Vicountiel JurifdiElion, is thatjurifdi&ion belong¬ 
 ing to the officers of the county; as fheriffs, coroners, 
 efeheators. 
 
 VICTIM, Viflima, a bloody factifice, offered to fome 
 deity, of a living thing, either a perfon or a beafl, which 
 is flain to appeale his wrath, or to obtain fome favour. 
 
 VICT 1 MARIUS, a minifter or fervantof theprieft, 
 whofe office was to bind the viftims, and to prepare the 
 water, knife, cake, and other things neceffary for the 
 facrifice. 
 
 VICTORY, Victoria, the overthrow or defeat of an 
 enemy at war, combat, duel, or the like. 
 
 VICTUALLIN G-Ot r ic e. an office kept onTower- 
 liillfor the furnilhing his majefty’s navy with victuals. 
 
 It is managed by feven commiflioners, who have their 
 inferior officers ; as fecretaries, clerks, Ac. befides agents 
 in divers parts of Great-Britain, Ireland, Ac. 
 
 V ICTUS-Rat 1 o, among phyficians, a particular 
 manner of living for the prefervation of health, and pre¬ 
 vention of difeafes. 
 
 VIEWERS, or Vejors, inlaw, are perfons fentby 
 a court to view a place or perfon inqueftion; as the fitu- 
 ation of a place where a fa£l was committed; or a perfon, 
 in cafe of ficknefs. 
 
 VIGIL, or eve, in church chronology, the day be¬ 
 fore any feaft. 1 hough the civil day begin at midnight, 
 vet the ecclefiaflical or fcriptural day begins at fix o’clock 
 in the evening, and holds to the fame time next evening. 
 
 VIGILIA, that Hate of an animal which is oppofite 
 to flecp, and popularly called waking, or watching. 
 
 VILLACE, Villa , or Vill, an aflemblage of houfes 
 inhabited chiefly by peasants and farmers, having ufually 
 a church, but no market. 
 
 VILLAINOUS Judgment, is that which calls the 
 reproach and flain of villainy and fhame on him againft 
 whom it is given. 
 
 VILLI, coarfehair, in anatomy, is ufed in the fame 
 fenfe as fibres, or fibrillce. 
 
 Vi lei, in botany, denotes a fort cf tomentun, or 
 down, like the grain or fnagof plulh ; with which, as a 
 kind of excrefcence, fome trees do abound. 
 
 VILLOUS, Vil!ofa, is particularly applied to one of 
 the coats or membranes of the flomach, called crufta 
 villofa. It takes its name from innumerable villi, or fine 
 fibrillar, wherewith its inner furface is covered. 
 
 VINCULUM, in algebra, a character in form of a 
 line, or Broke, drawn over a faflor, divifor, or dividend, 
 when compounded of feveral letters or quantities, to 
 connedt them, and lhew they are to be multiplied, or di¬ 
 vided, Ac. together by the other term. Thus, dx.a + b — c 
 fhews that d is to be multiplied into a-\-b — c. 
 
 VINDEMIATING, the gathering of the grapes, 
 or other ripe fruits, as the apples, pea.s, cherries, Ac. 
 
 VINDEMIATRIX, or Vindemiator, a fixed 
 liar of the third magnitude in the conflellation Virro, 
 whofe latitude is 16 0 12' 54" north, and longitude 5 0 37' 
 40" of Libra, according to Mr. Flamflead’s catalogue. 
 
 VINDICATION, claiming, in the civil law, an 
 adlion ariflng from the property a perfon has in any thing, 
 or a permiffion to take or feize a thing, as one’s own, 
 out of the hands of a perfon whom the law has doomed 
 not to be the true proprietor. 
 
 VINE, Vi'tis, a noble plant or fhrub of the creeping 
 kind, famous for its fruit, or grapes, and for the liquor 
 they afford. Our gardeners find, that vines are capable 
 of being cultivated in England, fo as to produce large 
 quantities of grapes; and thofe ripened to fuch a degree, 
 as may afford a good fubftantial vinous juice. Witncfs 
 the vineyards in Somerfctlhire, particularly that famous 
 one at Bath. In effect, it does not fesm io much owing 
 to the inclemency of our Englilh air, that our grapes 
 are generally inferior to thofe ot France, as to the want 
 of a juft culture. 
 
 Thofe fitted for the Englilh climate Mr. Mortimer 
 finds to be the black grape, and white mufeadine, parfley 
 grape, mufcadiJla, white and red Frontiniack. Mr. 
 Bradley recommends the July grape, the early fwcet 
 water grape, lately brought from the Canaries, and the 
 Arbois, or French fweet vvatei grape : all which, if well 
 managed, and the weather favourable, are ripe by the 
 middle of Auguft. He alfo recommends the claret and 
 Burgundy grapes. The beft foil for vines, according 
 to Mortimer, is the hotteft gravel, land, or dry rockv 
 ground, provided it be well watered and fliaded. At 
 firBplanting, Mr. Bradley recommends chalky hills, as 
 proper for vines. To mend a foil that wants thofe qua¬ 
 lities, it is good to throw in the rubbifh of old buildings, 
 well mixed with twice as much earth, and lifted about 
 the roots of the vines. Vines are propagated either bv 
 layers, or cuttings; that is, either by laying down young 
 branches, as foon as the fruit is gathered, or by making 
 plantations of flips, or cuttings, at that time. Mr. 
 Mortimer fays, it may be done any time in the winter 
 before January; though Bradley fays, he has done it, 
 with fuccefs, in March and April. 
 
 VINEGAR, Acetum , an agreeable acid penetrating 
 liquor, prepared from wine, cyder, Ac. by fermenting 
 it a fecond time. 
 
 Method of making Vinegar from the Rcfufe of Fruits , 
 Ac. 1 ake the fkins of raifins, after they have l>cch 
 ufed in making wine; and pour three or four times their 
 own quantity of boiling water upon them, fo as to make 
 a thin aqueous mixture. Then fet the containing calk, 
 loofely covered, in a warmer place than is ufed forvi-nous 
 fermentation; and the liquor, in a few weeks time, will 
 become a clear and found vinegar; which being drawn 
 off from its fediment, and preferved in another calk, well 
 Bopped down, will continue perfedl, and fit for ulc. 
 
 'I’his experiment fhews us a cheap and ready way of 
 making vinegar from rcfufe materials; fuch as the hulks 
 of grapes, decayed raifins, the lees of wine, grounds of 
 ale, beer, Ac. which are frequently thrown away as ufe- 
 lefs. Thus, in many wine countries, the marck, rape, 
 or dry prefling of grapes, are thrown in heaps, and fuf- 
 fered to putrify unregarded, though capable of affording 
 as good vinegar as the vine itfeifU In fome places they 
 bury copper-plates in thefe hulks, in order to make ver- 
 digreafe ; but this pradlice feems chiefly confined to the 
 fouthern parts ot Franee. Our prefent experiment fhews 
 
 us 
 
V I N 
 
 nis how to convert them to another ufe; and the direc¬ 
 tion extends to all the matters that have once undergone.- 
 or are fit to undergo, a vinous fermentation, for that all 
 fuch matters will afford vinegar. Thus all ouriummer- 
 fruits in England, even black-berries; all the refufe 
 wafhings of a fugar-houfe, cyder-preflings, or the like, 
 will make vinegar, by means of water, the open air, and 
 warmth. 
 
 The whole procefs whereby this change is effected, 
 deferves to be attentively confidered. And firft, the 
 liquor to be thus changed, being kept warmer than in 
 vinous fermentation, it, in a few days, begins to grow 
 thick, orturbid; and without throwing up bubbles, or 
 making any conliderable tumult, as happens in vinous 
 fermentation, depofits a copious fediment. The effect 
 of this reparation begins to appear firft on the furface of 
 the liquor, which gathers a white fkin, that daily in- 
 creafes in thicknefs, till at length it becomes like leather, 
 and now, if continued longer in this ftate, the fkin "turns 
 blue or green, and would at laff grow l'olid, and putrify : 
 therefore, in keeping down this fkin as it grows, and 
 thrufling it gently down to the bottom of the veil'd, con- 
 fifts much of the art of vinegar-making, efpecially from 
 malt. 
 
 It is to be particularly obferved, that if wine were not 
 bunged down, when arrived at its vinous ftate, but fuf- 
 fered ftil! to remain open and expofed to a warm air, ir 
 would fpontaneoufly become vinegar; and the fooner, 
 if a fomewhat greater degree of heat than fierved for the 
 making of wine, were employed. Whence we mighr 
 have ufed wine for thispurpofe, as well as have added 
 water to the hulks and fediment, or lees; but we chofe 
 the latter way, to Ihew that every fuch refufe matter will 
 afford vinegar; and again, to intimate how far the ait of 
 vinegar-making may be ifiII improved, both in England, 
 where they brew a wort from malt, and in fome wine 
 countries, where they make their bell wines into vi¬ 
 negars. 
 
 What w r e would chiefly obferve for the prefent, is. 
 that acetous fermentation requires a (Longer heat than 
 the vinous; and that wines having once finilhed their 
 fermentation, as wines, do not naturally flop there; hut, 
 unlefs prevented, by the care of the operator, proceed 
 dircdtly on to vinegars; where again they make no Hop, 
 but unlefs prevented, go on fpontaneoufly to vapidity, 
 ropinefs, mo'uldinefs, and putrefaction. From which 
 larger obfervation we would deduce this axiom, that, to 
 fpeak philosophically, the intention, or tendency, of na¬ 
 ture is to proceed from the very beginning of vinous fer¬ 
 mentation direCtly, in one continuedferics, to putrefac¬ 
 tion, and thence again, to a new generation ; which ap¬ 
 pears to be the grand circle wherein all natural things 
 arc moved ; and all the phylical, or rather chemical, 
 phenomena of the globe are moved. 
 
 And hence we fee, by the interpofition of man. how 
 this general procefs of nature may be flopped at different 
 times, with different views ; lo as to procure to ourfelves 
 wines, vinegars, &c. 
 
 VINEYARD, a plantation of wines. The belt 
 lituation of a vineyard is on the declivity of an hill lying 
 to the fouth. See Vine. 
 
 VINOUS, Vinofus , fomething that relates to wine, 
 or has the taftc and frnell thereof. 
 
 All vegetables, by a due treatment, afford a vinous 
 liquor; as corn, pulfe, nuts, apples, grapes, &c. 
 
 VINTAGE, the crop of wine, or what is got from 
 the vines each feafon. The word is alfo ufed for the 
 time and feafon of gathering or prefling the grapes. 
 
 VINUM, a liquor or drink properly called wine. 
 
 Vinum Aromaticum, made by infufing aromaticks or 
 fpices in new wine or mult. 
 
 V inum Cydonitis , quince wine, made of the flices of 
 that fruit fleeped in mult or new wine. 
 
 Vin u m Efn. tit.iim, emetick wine, is wine wherein the 
 glafs orrcgulasof antimony, or crocus metallorum, has 
 beenffeeped. It only takes a certain degree of efficacy 
 from the matters; nor is it found any ftronger at three 
 months end, than at the end of eight days. It purges 
 both upwards and downwards. 
 
 Vinum Hippocratiwn , or Hippocras , fo called of ma- 
 liica Hippocrates, or Hippocrates’s fleeve, through which 
 it is {trained,' is a fort of lpiccd wine in which l'ugar and 
 lpices have for fome time been Iteepcd. 
 
 V I P 
 
 Vinum Marinum , a wine made by calling fea water 
 on the grapes in the vat. 
 
 Vinum Piccatum, pitched wine, made of pitch iii- 
 !ufed in mult. 
 
 Vi num A 'ofatum, rofe wine, made by fteeping rofes 
 three months in wine. 
 
 \ IOL, Viola , a mufical inftrument of the fame form 
 with a violin, and Itruck like that with a bow. 
 
 V iol is a term, ufed among mariners, for a piece of 
 hawfer, the two ends of which are fpliced, and being 
 wound round the capitan, is ufed to weigh the anchor. 
 
 VIOLATION, the a£t of violating, forcing a woman* 
 or committing a rape upon her. 
 
 Violation, is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, fora 
 breach or infringement of a law, ordinance, or the like. 
 
 VIOLENT, m the fchpols, a thing done by force: 
 in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to fpontaneous. 
 
 VIOLIN, Violino, or fiddle, a mufical inftrument, 
 mounted with four firings or guts, and itruck or played 
 with a how. 
 
 VIPER, a fpecics of ferpent, common to mofi parts 
 of the world. 
 
 The viper is by far the moH noxious animal of the fer- 
 pant kind, that our part of the world affords ; and it is 
 as much the moft uleful in medicine. Indeed, balanc¬ 
 ing the good we receive from it, and the mifchief known 
 to be done by it, it feems far more our intereft that fuch 
 a creature ffiould be among us. 
 
 The viper is of the number of viviparous ferpents, ac¬ 
 cording to the common difiinCtion* not laying its eggs 
 in a dunghill or other warm places, as the common fer¬ 
 pent and moH others do, but retaining them in its body 
 till hatched, and excluding the living young ones. Its 
 food is principally of the animal kind , there are authors 
 who talk of its eating of herbs, but on difleCting vipers, 
 there are generally found in their ffomach the wings of 
 beetles, the leg bones of mice, and fometimes whole 
 mice, frogs, and other animals of the like fize; which, 
 confide ring the natural fmallnefs not only of the throat, 
 but of the whole neck of the viper, it is amazing to con¬ 
 ceive in what manner it goes down. The method indeed 
 is by fuCtion, and is very flow; the creature’s body be¬ 
 ing drawn out into the utmoft poffible thinnefs, and the 
 viper’s neck diflending gradually at the fame time, till 
 between both it is managed. What greatly facilitates 
 this to the viper and to all the ferpent kind, for it is com¬ 
 mon to them all, is that there is no danger of fuffocation 
 for want of breath from it, though the whole cavity of 
 the threat be filled up ; for, though thefe creatures have 
 lungs and refpiration, yet it is not of the nature of ours, 
 or of that of quadrupeds; they are not under a neceffity 
 of taking in and difeharging a quantity of air, at quick 
 intervals, as we are; but what they have once taken in 
 they retain a j ng while, fo that they are under no ne- 
 ceflity of breathing under this operation, which is there¬ 
 fore not painful to them, as we might naturally imagine, 
 but pleafant. 
 
 It is noteafy to fee the viper thus employed, becaufe, 
 after taken, it will l'carce be brought to eat at all ; we 
 have indeed no inflance of any thing of the ferpent kind 
 eating while in confinement, except a female viper big 
 with young; and, if poffeffed of fuch a one, it may be 
 poffible to be a witnefs to it, and to the Hrange terror of 
 any little animal proper for its preying on, on being 
 thrown into its way. Whoever has an opportunity of 
 throwing a mouf'e to a viper in this condition, will fee 
 how much foundation there is for the (lories of the rattlc- 
 fnake, and other ferpents, enchanting, as it is called, 
 the creatures they are to prey upon, into their mouths. 
 
 The viper is common in England, but much more fo 
 in warmer countries, and there more milchievous. We 
 may find vipers, in the heat of the day, on the dry banks 
 under hedges expofed to the fun, and in places not too 
 much frequented, almoftat any time in the hotter months : 
 In winter they retire into holes, and lie torpid the whole 
 cold feafon. However mifehievous the bite of the viper 
 is, its flelh is fafe and wholefome; indeed, there is no 
 part of it will'do any harm, except the poifon lodged in the 
 wound made by the bite : this very poifon, feparated 
 from the bag, diluted with any liquor, and (wallowed, 
 not being capable of producing any bad confequence. 
 The bite is attended with very terrible fymptoms, and 
 in the hotter countries is often fatal; with us many have 
 
 efcaped 
 
V I R 
 
 cfcaped with life, without the affiftahce of medicines, 
 fome in fpite of bad management; we have lately had the 
 remedy of the people who deal in them, and muft be often 
 bit by them, explained to us. It is no more than com¬ 
 mon oil, which is to be rubbed on the wounded part 
 over fome hot coals, and repeated occafionally. With 
 the affiftknee of this we have feen people efctrpe after very 
 terrible fymptoms, fuch as perhaps we have not had an 
 opportunity of feeing any body under, who did not ufe 
 the fame means for relief. Other more painful methods 
 have been preferibed, but they are now wholly out ol ufe. 
 Theft! were the making ftrong ligatures on the limb 
 above the wound, then fcarifying and burning it with 
 an hot iron, or making a large incifion and filling it 
 with gunpowder, and fettihgthem on fire. 
 
 Vipers are beft taken for medicinal ufe in the months 
 of July and Auguft; they are then moft vigorous and 
 fatteft, though thofe which are taken in fpring, as loon 
 as they come out of their winter’s torpid ftate, are always 
 found to be in very good cafe : they are beft for ufe, 
 When firft taken. 
 
 Vipers are to be chofen large and vigorous; if in¬ 
 tended for ufe, while freffi, they fhould be killed im¬ 
 mediately before the time, for their flefti corrupts very 
 foon. If for drying, they fhould be killed at home, 
 and, after Ikinning, hung up. 
 
 Vipers diftilled in a retort, yield firft a moderate quan¬ 
 tity of a limpid phlegm, infipid, and with very little 
 fmell; after this comes over a phlegm loaded with volatile 
 fait, and a fmall quantity of a black and extremely foetid 
 oil; a large quantity of volatile l'alt in the meantime 
 concreting and fixing itfclf in a dry form to the fides of 
 the receiver. 
 
 VlRG A, is particularly ufed in law for a verge or rod, 
 fuch as lheriffs and bailiffs carry as a badge of their office. 
 
 VIRG^E, in phyfiology, a meteor called all'o colu¬ 
 mella and funes tentoriij being an aflemblage of leveral 
 flreams of light reprefenting a bundle of rods or ropes. 
 
 It is fuppofed owing to the {beaming of the fun-beams 
 through certain rimulte or chinks, at Icaft, through the 
 more lax and open parts of a watry cloud ; happening 
 chiefly in the morning and evening. 
 
 VIRGIN. See Virginity. 
 
 Virgin /Fax, is that which has never been wrought, 
 but remains as it came out of the hive. 
 
 Virgin Oil, is what oozes fpontaneoufly from the 
 olive, Ac. without prelling. 
 
 Virgin Gold, is that metal fuch as it is got of the 
 ore without any mixture or alloy, in which ftate it is 
 fometimes fo foft that it will take the impreffion of a leal. 
 
 Virgin Copper, is a native copper found in the mine, 
 and which has never been melted down. 
 
 V irgin Qu'ukfilver, is that found perfectly formed 
 and fluid in the veins of mines; or at leait is got from 
 the mineral earth by mere lotion without fire. 
 
 Virgin Parchment, is that made of the Ikin of an 
 abortive lamb or calf. 
 
 Virgin’i Thread , a fort of meteor that flies in the 
 air like fmall untwifted lilk, and which, falling upon 
 the ground or upon plants, changes itfelf in a form like 
 a fpider’s web. 
 
 VlRGINEUS Morbus, the virgin’s difeafe, the 
 green ficknefs or chlorofis. 
 
 VIRGINITY, Virginitas, the teft or criterion of a 
 virgin, or that which intitles her to the denomination. 
 The phyficians, both antient and modern, are exceed¬ 
 ingly divided upon the fubjedtof virginity, fome holding 
 that there arc no certain marks or teftimonies thereof, 
 and others, that there are. Mofes eftablifhed ateft that 
 was to be conclufive among the Jews. The nuptial 
 lheets, if feems, were to be viewed by the relations on 
 both fides, and the maid’s parents were to preferve them 
 as a token of her virginity, to be produced in cale her 
 hufband fhould ever reproach her on that fcore. In cafe 
 the token of virginity was not found thereon, fire was 
 to be ftoned to death at her father’s door. This teft of 
 virginity has occafioned abundance of fpcculation about 
 the parts concerned; but the niceft enquiries cannot fet¬ 
 tle any thing certain about them. Dr. Drake fays ex¬ 
 prefly, that whatever might be expected among the Jews, 
 theie is not the fame reafon to expefl thofe tokens of J 
 virgin ty in thefe countries; for, befides that the He¬ 
 brews married extremely young, as is the cuftom in all 
 3 I 
 
 V I S 
 
 the eaftern countries, there are feveral circumflahces 
 which may here fruftrate Inch expeftations, even in vir¬ 
 gins not vitiated, either by any male contadb, or any 
 wantonnefs of their own. In effeft, in thefe northern 
 countries, the inclemency of the air expofes the fex to 
 fuch checks of perfpiration, as gives a great turn to the 
 courfe of the humours, and drives fo much humidity 
 through the parts, as may extraordinarily fupple and 
 relax thole membranes from which the refiftance is ex¬ 
 posed, and from which, in hotter countries, it might 
 more realonably be depended on. VY hat moft commonly 
 pafles among us for a teft ot virginity, is the hymen ; 
 and yet the moft curious among the anatomifts are greatly 
 divided, not only about the figure, iiibftance, place, and 
 perforations of this membrane, but even about the cx- 
 iftcnce thereof; fome pofitively affirming, and others as 
 flatly denying it. 
 
 VIRGO, in aftronomy, one of the figns orconftcl*- 
 lations of the zodiack, in which the lun enters in the mid¬ 
 dle of Auguft. The ftars in the conftellation Virgo, in 
 Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 32; in Tycho’s 39; in the 
 Britannick, 89. (See Plate. IV. fig. 6.) 
 
 VIRGULA Divina, or B a cuius Divinatorius, a 
 forked branch in form of a Y, cut from a hazle-tree, by 
 means of which fome pretend to difeover mines, fprings, 
 &c. underground. The method of ufing it is this; the 
 perfon who carries it walking very flowly over the places 
 where he fufpedts mines or fprings, the effluvia exhaling 
 from the metals, or vapours from the water, impregnat¬ 
 ing the wood, they tell us make it dip, or incline; 
 which indicates there is either a mine or fpring near. 
 Several authors have mentioned their virgula divina; 
 but at prefent, the whole is called in queftion. Dr. 
 Linden, in his Three Letters on Mining, has given us 
 a method of making an artificial divining rod, for difeo- 
 vering lead mines. 
 
 Virgula, in grammar, a term which Latin, French, 
 and fome other authors, ufe for a point in writing, 
 ufually called by us, comma. 
 
 VIRILE, fomething that belongs or is peculiar to a 
 man, or the male fex. 
 
 Virile Age, Mias Virilis , is the (Length and vigour 
 of a man’s age, viz. from 30 to 45 years, which is an 
 age wherein we are equally removed from the extremes 
 of youth and old age. 
 
 VIRTUAL, potential, fomething that has the power 
 or virtue of acting or doing. 
 
 Virtual Focus, in opticks, is a point from which 
 rays before converging begin to diverge or divaricate. 
 
 VIRTUE, Virtus, a term ufed in various fignifica- 
 tions. In the general it denotes the power or perfe&ion 
 of any thing, whether natural or fupernatural, animate 
 or inanimate, effential or acceffary. Hence the virtues, 
 i.e. powers of God, angels, men, plants, elements, Ac. 
 
 Virtue, in its more proper and reftrained fenfe, fig- 
 nifies a habit which improves and perfects the poffeflbi', 
 and his actions. In this fenfe, virtue is a principle of 
 afting or doing well and readily ; and that cither infufed 
 from above, fuch as are the theological virtues; or ac¬ 
 quired by our own application, as the intelle&ual and 
 moral virtues. 
 
 Intellettual Virtue, according to Ariftotle, is a habit 
 of the reafonable foul whereby it conceives and fpeaks 
 the truth, either in affirming or denying. 
 
 Moral Virtue is defined by Ariftotle to be an ele&ive 
 habit placed in a mediocrity, determined by reafon and 
 as a prudent man would determine. 
 
 Virtues, in the celeftial hierarchy, the third rank 
 or choir of angels, being that in order between domina¬ 
 tions and powers. 
 
 VIRTUOSO, an Italian term lately introduced into 
 Englifh, fignifying a man of curiolity and learning; or 
 one who loves and promotes the arts and fciences. 
 
 VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields 
 a virus, that is, a contagious or malignant pus. 
 
 VIS, a Latin word fignifying power; adopted bv 
 phyfical writers to exprefs divers kinds of natural powers 
 or faculties. 
 
 Vis Inertia, or power of ina&ivity, is defined by Sir 
 Ifaac Newton to be a power implanted in all matter 
 whereby it refills any change endeavoured to he made in 
 J its ftate, i. c. whereby it becomes difficult to alter its ftate 
 I either of reft or motion. 
 
 This 
 
V I s 
 
 This power then coincides with the vis refiAendi, 
 power of refilling, whereby every body endeavours as 
 much as it can to preferve in its own Hate, whether of 
 reft or uniform re&i linear motion; which power is Hill 
 proportional to the body, and only differs from the vis 
 iftertisb of the mafs, in the manner of conveying it. 
 
 Bodies only exert this power in changes brought on 
 their Hate by fome vis imprelfa, force impreffed on them. 
 And the exercife of this power is, in different refpefts, 
 both refillance and impetus ; refiltance, as the body op- 
 pofes a force imprelfed on it to change its Hate ; and im¬ 
 petus, as the fame body endeavours to change the Hate of 
 the refilling obllacle. 
 
 Vis imprejfa , is defined by Sir IfaacNewton to bfe the 
 aftion exerciled in any body to change its Hate, either of 
 refiHing or moving uniformly in a right line. 
 
 This force confiits altogether in the aftion, and has no 
 place in the body after the aftion has ceafed. For the body 
 perfeveres in every new Hate by the vis inertise alone. 
 
 VISCERA, in anatomy, a term of equal import with 
 entrails, including the heart, liver, lungs, fpleen, intef- 
 tines, and other inward parts of the body. 
 
 VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of fome- 
 thing that is vifeid, or vifeous, i. e. glutinous, or Hicky ; 
 like bird-lime, which the Latins call by the name vifeus. 
 
 VISIBLE, vifibile , fomething that is an objeft of fight; 
 or that reflects the rays of light to the organ of vifion. 
 
 VISIER, or Vizier, an officer or dignity in the 
 Ottoman empire ; whereof there are two kinds, the firfi 
 called by the Turks Vifier azum, that is, grand Vificr, 
 firfi created in 1370, by Amurath I. in order to eafe him- 
 felf of the chief and weightier concerns of the government. 
 
 VISION, Vifio, the aft of feeing or perceiving exter¬ 
 nal objefts by the organ of fight. See Eye. 
 
 Light, which is an aggregate of all colours collefted to¬ 
 gether, fends forth rays on all fides : Thefe rays, though 
 very fubtle, are in like manner compounded of all kinds 
 of colours; whence they arc again divifible into fimple 
 rays, which collefted feparately, or of one fort, or of dif- 
 ferentforts together, reprefent variety of colours; but all, 
 united, form a very fplendid, lucid beam, or very white 
 brightnefs. Thefe rays proceed from a lucid point, as 
 from a centre towards all points without it, in Hrait lines, 
 through an homogeneous medium, in a very fmall l'pace 
 of time, palling through a pellucid and falling upon 
 opaque objefts. Hence, all points of the cornea are Hruck 
 by rays contained within a cone whofe vertex is the lu¬ 
 cid point, and its bafe the plane of the cornea, if there 
 be no impediment interpofed between the radiating point 
 and the cornea. 
 
 The lame rays approaching denfer bodies, are there 
 incurvated, fome more, fome lefs ; hence they are fepa- 
 jated, and being feparated and reflefted, exhibit variety 
 of colours falfely aferibed to the reflefting and refrafting 
 body, unlefs fo far as they are feparated by its means ; 
 the refleftion then is here various according to the variety 
 of colour latent in the ray; the angle, however, which 
 the reflefted ray makes with a perpendicular erefted at 
 the place of incidence, feems to be the fame as that made 
 by the falling ray with the fame perpendicular; and in 
 other refpefts there feems to be no alteration at all. 
 
 If thefe rays pafs out of one medium into another, in 
 their approach to the latter they are incurvated, and in 
 that condition pafs on through that medium ; and, the 
 more denfe this is, the nearer incurvated are they towards 
 a perpendicular, and fo on the contrary, and the fame 
 is alfo «wing to a Angular caufe latent in fome fluids, and 
 not to be determined but by experiments. This inclina¬ 
 tion is called refraftion. 
 
 Thisrefraftion, with regard to fenfe, is regulated by one 
 pertain law, which is as follows: If the fame ray falls into 
 thefaid pellucid medium in variety' of angles, the fines of 
 the angles of incidence will bear the fame proportion to 
 one another as the fines of the refrafted angles. 
 
 Hence it follows, that, rays proceed from a radiating 
 or reflefting point to the pellucid cornea, and there refraft 
 towards a perpendicular with almofi the fame alteration 
 in courfe as in water, fo they pafs on through the aqueous 
 humour, and have their courfe determined through the 
 perforation of the pupil to the fuperficies of the cryftal- 
 line lens; but thofe rays which enter with fo great obli¬ 
 quity as to fall on the iris, are thence reflefted and fall 
 out of the eye again, that they might not by their reflec- 
 
 Voe. II. No. 76. 
 
 V I S 
 
 tiori, and ingrefs into the eye, difiurb the diftinftnefs of 
 vifion , and tliofe other rays which, on account of their 
 obliquity, fall between the lower part of the uvea and the 
 vitreous body, or on the fuperficies of the vitreous body, 
 are immediately fuffocated in the black pigment of thfc 
 fame, and lofi as if they had never been, that fo no rays 
 might be tranfmitted through the vitreous humour, but 
 fuch as, after penetrating the pupil, fall upon the cryftal- 
 line lens; the iris, in the mean time, being contrafted 
 or dilated, admits more or fewer rays in proportion as the 
 objeft is nearer, and more vivid, or more remote and lan¬ 
 guid ; under this law or regulation, that, the nearer or 
 more luminous the objeft, the narrower or more con¬ 
 trafted the pupil. This happens from a mechanifm pe¬ 
 culiar to that part, and defends that very tender membrane, 
 the retina, from being offended, dried, orfcorched. 
 
 The flatter therefore the cornea, the lefs it collefts the 
 rays which fall upoti it from one lucid point, and the more 
 it difperfes them, fo that the fewer in number arrive at 
 the cryfialline lens, and even thofe very divergent, unleft 
 they come from a very remote objeft ; on the contrary, 
 the rounder the figure of the cornea, the more it will 
 unite the rays which Hrike on it from one radiating point, 
 and the greater number will it colleft in the cryfialline 
 lens, and thofe very different. And hence you may aflign 
 one reafon for the vifion of fhort-fighted and aged perfons. 
 
 The cryfialline lens, after receiving the determined 
 rays from a pupil, unites them Hill more by a new re¬ 
 fraftion, and renders them convergent under the follow¬ 
 ing law, or regulation, that thofe rays which proceed 
 from one point without the eye, being here collefted into 
 one point not far remote, are thence conveyed through the 
 vitreous humour to the retina, on which they paint only 
 that one point precifely from which thofe rays proceed. 
 It the cryfialline lens be very denfe or round, the point 
 of colleftion (the focus) is too near the lens, which cre¬ 
 ates confufion ; if on the other hand the lens be too rare 
 or flat, the point of colleftion is too remote, whence a 
 confufion is again occafioned; and this affords us another 
 reafon for the vifion of old perfons, and myopes, or fuch 
 as are fhort-fighted. From the two Jail paragraphs, we 
 may account or aflign the reafon why fhort-fighted per¬ 
 fons have their fight helped by a concave dioptrick glafs, 
 or moving the objeft nearer; and why aged perfons fee 
 more diftinftly through a convex dioptrick glafs, or when 
 the objeft is more remote. 
 
 Both thefe defefts in the perfons juft mentioned are 
 alfo remedied by bringing the cryfialline lens to the cor¬ 
 nea or removing it at a diftance, which purpofes feem to 
 be anfwered two different ways; as by comprefling the 
 bulb of the eye by a ftrong contraftion of all the four 
 mufcles at once, whence the bulb is lengthened ; or by i 
 contraftion of the fibres which comprefs the vitreous body 
 and elevate the lens. There appears no other method of 
 anfwcring thefe intentions. 
 
 The refraftion which a ray fuffers in pafling out of the 
 air into the cornea, is nearly equal to what it fuffers in 
 pafling out of the air into water; and the refraftion of 
 a ray pafling from the aqueous humour into the lens, is 
 equal to what happens to a ray pafling out of water into 
 glafs ; whence the alteration is inconfiderable, and in the 
 laft place a ray pafling from the cryfialline lens to the vi¬ 
 treous body fuffers but little alteration by refraftion, and 
 perhaps none at all, when the vitreous humour is pretty 
 clofely compreffed ; by which means that part become 
 more denfe. Hence, the principal and moft neceffary 
 ufe of the vitreous humour feems to be that the lens, by 
 having free fpace to move, might adjull and accommo¬ 
 date the eye to different diftances, being itfelf a fubftance 
 of a lefs mutable figure than the vitreous body. 
 
 The end ordefign of all this apparatus (of humours and 
 refraftions) is that there might be a diftinft and vivid col¬ 
 leftion of thofe rays which proceeding from one point of 
 the objeft enter the eye, and penetrate the cryfialline 
 lens, in the bottom of the eye direftly under the pupil, 
 and that fo there may be painted in this bottom as many 
 points as were confpicuous in the image. Hence, the 
 pifture or image in miniature, formed on the retina, re- 
 lembles the objeft. 
 
 And, fince the mucous medulla of the optick nerve 
 has its feat precifely in this place, direftly under the pupil 
 and the lens, it appears that this is the part which receives 
 the piftures, and by a continuation of the impreflior^ 
 5 R pre- 
 
V I T U M B 
 
 prfcfcnts them to the common cenfory, and excites in the 
 mind the idea of the thing feen. It appears alfo from 
 what has been faid, that the experiment of Picard and 
 Mariotte is fo far from difproving what has been advanced 
 in the preceding paragraphs, as fame authors have thought, 
 that it is a clear confirmation of it; and we have even 
 occafion here given us to break forth in praife of infinite 
 wifdom in placing the entrance of the optick nerve next 
 the axis of vifion, not towards the exterior angle of the 
 eye, but towards the nofe in the middle altitude. 
 
 The perfection therefore of vifion depends on fuch a 
 figure, tranfparency, fabrick, and energy of the folids, and 
 fuch adenfenefs andtranfparencyofthecolourlefs humours 
 as are qualified for collecting multitudes of rays from 
 every vifible point ot an objeCt, unmixed with others, 
 Upon one diftinCt point of the retina, this focus being 
 formed neither too near nor remote ; and, in the next 
 place, on fuch a mobility of thefe folids and humours, in 
 conjunction, as are neceftary for a clear and diftinCt paint¬ 
 ing of objeCts placed at different diftances ; for which 
 thofe requifites, their lize, the figure, diftauce, fituation, 
 motion, reft, light, and colour, are very w'ell reprefented. 
 In the retina there is, befides, required fuch a fituation, 
 expanfion, quicknefs of fenfe, tendernefs, and juftnefs 
 of proportion between the medullary, arterial, venous, 
 and lymphatick fubftance as difpofe it for tranfmitting, 
 by a free and found optick nerve, pure and perfeCt images 
 to the common fenfory. 
 
 There is then no emanation of rays from us, nor are 
 they reflected from objeCts back again upon us, as the 
 ltoicks aflerted , nor is fight performed by emiflion of a 
 vifible fpecies from the objeCt towards us, as the Pytha¬ 
 goreans thought; nor by emiflion of effluvia from the 
 objeCt and the eye meeting together, and, after mutual 
 embraces, reflected, as the Platonifts, by an extraordi¬ 
 nary way of 1 atiocination, endeavour to prove; nor, 
 laftly, is it owing to a material emanation of corporeal 
 images, as was the opinion ot Epicurus ; but is perform¬ 
 ed in that Ample and mechanick way which we have 
 above explained. 
 
 Queries on this fubjcCt are fuch as the following. 
 
 Why objeCts, placed at the leaft diftance in which the 
 eye can bear to fee diftinCtly, affeCt us in a more languid 
 manner ? why alfo, when placed too near, they feem 
 confufed ? what is ncceflary to a diftinCt, wdiat to a ftrong 
 vifion ? and the like, which are all eafily anfwered from 
 the premifes. Boerbaave Injlitut. Alt die. 
 
 Dircft, orfimple Vision,- is that performed by means 
 of direCt ravs , that is, of rays palling direCtly or in light 
 lines from the radiant point to the eye. 
 
 Rife ft ed Vision, is that performed by rays reflected 
 from lpicula or mirrors. 
 
 R;frafted Vision, is that performed by means of rays 
 refraCted or turned out of their way, by palling through 
 mediums of different denfity, chiefly through glaflcs and 
 lens’s. 
 
 Vision, among divines, is ufed for an appearance 
 which God occafionally fent his prophets and faints, 
 either by way of dream or reality. 
 
 Beat'ifick Vision, denotes the aCt whereby the angels 
 and blefled fpirits fee God in paradile. 
 
 VISITATION, Vifitatio , an aCt of j u r i fd i Ct i o n, where¬ 
 by a fuperior, or proper officer, vifits fomc corporation, 
 college, church, or other publick or private houle, to fee 
 that the laws and regulations thereof be duly oblerved. 
 
 VISNE, Vijnctwn , in law, a neighbouring place or 
 place near at hand. 
 
 VISUAL, fomething belonging to the fight or feeing. 
 
 Visual Rays, are rays of light imagined to come from 
 the objeCt to the eye. 
 
 Visual Point , in perfpeCtive, is a point in the hori¬ 
 zontal line wherein all the ocular rays unite. 
 
 Thus a perlon Handing in a ftraight long gallery, and 
 looking forwards, the fides, floor, and ceiling, feem to 
 meet, and touch one another in a point or common 
 centre. 
 
 VITAL, Vitalis , in anatomy, fomething that minif- 
 ters principally to the conftituting or maintaining of life 
 in the bodies of animals. Thus, the heart, lungs, and 
 brain, are called vital parts. 
 
 Vital Funftions, or Actions . are thofe operations of 
 the vital parts whereby life is effeCted, fo as that it can¬ 
 not fubfift without them. 
 
 I Vital Spirits, are the fineft and mofl volatile parts 
 I of the blood. 
 
 VITR 1 T ICATION, or Vitrif action, theaft 
 of converting a body into glafs by means of fire. 
 
 Of all bodies, fern-afnes, fand, bricks, and pebbles, 
 vitrify the moil eafily. Accordingly, it is of thefe that 
 glafs is principally made. 
 
 VITRIOL, in natural hiftory, &c. a compound body 
 formed of the particles of metals dilfolved by the acid 
 of fulphur, and that cither by the operations of nature 
 within the earth, or in the chymifts elaboratory by pro¬ 
 per admixtures and alfiftances, and afterwards, by the 
 help of w-ater, brought into the form of a fait. 
 
 The vitriols, therefore, very much approach the na¬ 
 ture of metals, and, in fome inftances, are found to have 
 taken up other fubftances, particularly, fome of the lemi- 
 metals among them, as, particularly, the white vitriol, 
 which contains zink. The other metals we find dif- 
 lolved in this manner in the bowels of the earth, and 
 there formed into vitriols, are iron and copper. Thefe, 
 therefore, are the great bafis of thefe falls, and accord¬ 
 ing as they belong to one or the other of them, they are 
 to be divided into the cupreous and ferrugineous vitriols. 
 See Copper as. 
 
 VITRIOL ATED, among chymifts, turned into vi¬ 
 triol, or having vitriol'infufed into it. 
 
 VII RIOLICK, fomething that has the.quality of 
 vitriol, or partakes of the nature of vitriol. 
 
 VITRIOLS, or Vitreous, in anatomy, the third 
 or glafly humour of the eye, thus called, from its refern- 
 blance to melted glafs. 
 
 VITTA, among anatomifts, fillet, or head-band ; is 
 ufed for that part of the amnios, which fticks to the in¬ 
 fant’s head, when it is juft born. 
 
 VIVA Voce, q. d. as who fhould fay by word of 
 mouth. 
 
 VIVIFICATION, in medicine, the art of vivifying ; 
 that is, of contributing to the adlion that gives life, or 
 maintains life. 
 
 The chymifts alfo ufe the word in fpeaking of the 
 new' force, vigour, and luftre, which, by this art, they 
 give to natural bodies; paiticularly to mercury, which, 
 after having been fixed or amalgamated, they reftore to 
 its firft ftate. 
 
 VIVIPAROUS, Viviparus , in natural hiftory, an 
 epithet applied to fuch animals as bring forth their young 
 alive and perfeft, in contradiftinffion to them that lay 
 eggs, which are called oviparous animals. 
 
 VIVO, in architedlure, the fhaft or fuft of a column. 
 
 The term is alio ufed in a more particular fenle for 
 the naked of a column, or other part. 
 
 ULCER, Ulcus , in furgery, a lolution of the foft 
 parts of our bodies, together with the ilcin, produced by 
 fome internal caufe, as an inflammation, ablcefs, or acri¬ 
 monious humours. But wounds which become inve¬ 
 terate, and even contufions, when difficult of cure, come 
 within this definition, and pafs, at length, into ulcers, 
 and are commonlv called by that name. 
 
 ULCERATION, ExuUeratio , a little aperture or hoi® 
 in the fkin cauled by an ulcer. 
 
 ULIGINOUS, Uhginofus , implies as much as moift, 
 moorifh, fenny. 
 
 ULLAGE of a Cajh , is that part of the calk which is 
 empty. 
 
 ULTERIOR, in geography, is applied to fome part 
 of a country or province, which, with regard to the 
 reft of that country, is fituate on the further fide of the 
 river, mountain, or other boundary, which divides the 
 country into two parts. Thus Africa, with regard to 
 Europe, is divided by mount Atlas into citerior and ul¬ 
 terior, i. e. into two portions, the one on this fide mount 
 Atlas, and the other on that. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, Ultramarinum , a beautiful blue 
 colour ufed by the painters, prepared from lapis lazuli. 
 See Lapis Lazuli. 
 
 ULTRAMONTANE, fomethingbeyond the moun¬ 
 tains. 
 
 The term is principally ufed in relation to Italy and 
 France, which are feparated by the mountains of the 
 Alps. 
 
 ULTRAMUNDANE, Uitramundanus, beyond the 
 world ; is that of the univerfe fuppofed to be w'ithouc, 
 or beyond the limits of our world, or fvftem. 
 
 ' UMBELLJE, 
 
U N D 
 
 U N I 
 
 UMBELL^E, Umbellis, among botanifts, the round 
 tufts or heads of certain plants fet thick together, and all 
 of the fame heighth. 
 
 UMBELLIFEROUS Plants, are fuch as have 
 their tops branched and fpread out like an umbrella ; on 
 each a little fubdivifion, on which there is growing a 
 fmall flower; fuch are fennel, dill, &c. 
 
 1 his flower is always pentapetalous, and is fucceeded 
 by two naked feeds adjoining to each other, which are 
 the true charafterifticks that diftinguifh thefe plants from 
 Others. 
 
 UMBER, or Umbre, Umbria, among painters, he. 
 a kind of dry dufky-coloured earth, which, diluted with 
 water, ferves to make a dark brown colour, ufually 
 called with us a hair colour. It is called umber, from 
 umbra, afhadow, as ferving chiefly for the fhadowing of 
 objefts : or rather from Umbria, a country of Italy, 
 whence it ufed to be brought. 
 
 UMBILICAL, Umbilicalis, ill anatomy, fomethin^ 
 that relates to the umbilicus or navel. 
 
 Umbilical Region, is that part of the abdomen lying 
 round about the umbilicus or navel. See Abdomen. 
 
 Umbilical Vejfels , are an aflemblage of veflels be¬ 
 longing to the foetus, conftituting what we call the funi¬ 
 culus umbilicalis, or navel-ftring. 
 
 Theie veflels are two arteries, a vein, and the urachus. 
 
 The umbilical arteries arife from the iliacks, near their 
 divifion into external and internal; and pafs thence, on 
 each fide of the bladder, through the navel, to the pla¬ 
 centa. 
 
 The umbilical vein, from innumerable capillaries 
 united into one trunk, defeends from the placenta to the 
 liver of the foetus; where it is partly diftnbuted into the 
 porta, and partly into the cava. 
 
 The urachus is only plainly found in brutes ; though 
 there is no doubt but it has a place, likewife, in mankind. 
 
 The ufe of thefe veflels is to maintain a continuity and 
 communication between the mother and the feetus. 
 Some authors will have it, that the foetus receives its 
 food and increafe this way, and that it grows like a ve¬ 
 getable from the mother as the root, of which the um¬ 
 bilical veflels are the Item • and the child the head or 
 fruit of this plant animal. 
 
 Umbilical Points, in mathematicks, the fame with 
 foci. 
 
 UMBILICUS, Navel, in anatomy, the centre of the 
 middle part of the lower venter, or belly ; being the 
 place through which the umbilical veflels pafs, out of the 
 feetus, to the placenta of the mother. 
 
 Umbilicus, in mathematicks, the fame with focus. 
 See Focus. 
 
 UMBONE, or horn, among florifts, flgnifies any 
 pointed ftile, or piftil, in the middle of a flower. 
 
 T here is, alfo, an umbone called doubly pointed, or 
 by-parted, as in the piony ; and fometimes the umbone 
 has four iharp points, in which cafe it is termed an 
 umbone divided into fo many heads, or cut into three or 
 four parts. 
 
 UMPIRE, a third perfon, chofen to decide a contro- 
 verfy left to an arbitration, in cafe the arbitrators can¬ 
 not agree. 
 
 UNCI A, a term generally ufed for the twelfth part 
 of a thing, in which l'enfe it occurs, in Latin writers, 
 both for a weight called by us an ounce, and a meafure 
 called an inch. 
 
 Uncia:, in algebra, are the numbers prefixed to the 
 letters of the members of any power produced from a 
 binomial, or multinomial root. 
 
 Thus, in the fourth power of a-\-b, that is, aaaa + 4 
 aaab + baabb + ^abbb + bbbb, the unci as are 4, 6, 4. 
 
 UNCI ION, TJnblio, the aft of anointing or rubbing 
 with oil, or other fatty matter. 
 
 Unction, in matters of religion, is ufed for the 
 charafter conferred on facred things, by anointihg them 
 with oil. 
 
 UNDERSTANDING. The Cartefians define the 
 tmderftanding to be that faculty whereby the mind con- 
 verfing with, and, as it were, intent on itfelf, evidently 
 knows what is true in any thing not exceeding its ca¬ 
 pacity. 
 
 The corpufcular philofophers define the underftanding 
 to be a faculty expreflive of things which ftrike on the 
 external fenfes, either by their images, or their effefts, 
 
 and To enter the mind. Then-great doftrifie is; nihil efit 
 m intdieetti quod non prius fuerit in fenfu , and to this 
 dodtrino our famous Mr. Locke and moil of tile Licit 
 Englilh philofophers fubferibe. 
 
 Understanding, is airo ufed for the aft, exercife, 
 or exertion of this faculty, or the aftioil whereby the mind 
 knows things, or reprelents them in idea to itfelf. 
 
 UNDER-Thru/hrcr of England, vice thefaurarius An- 
 a» officer mentioned in the flat. 39 Eliz. c. 7. and 
 whom feveral other ftatutes confound with treafurer of 
 the exchequer. 
 
 UNDERWOOD, Sub-bofcus , coppice, or any wood 
 that is not accounted timber. 
 
 UNDULAIION, in phyficks, a kind of tremulous 
 motion, or vibration, obfervable in a liquid, whereby it 
 alternately rifes and falls, like the waves of the lea. 
 
 Undulation, is alfo ufed in chirurgery, for a mo¬ 
 tion enfuing in the matter contained in an abfeefs upon 
 fqueezing it, A tumour is faid to be in a condition for 
 opening when one perceives the undulation. 
 
 UNDULAT ORY Motion, is applied to a motion in 
 the air, whereby its parts are agitated after the fame man¬ 
 ner as waves in the fea; as is fuppofed to be the calc 
 when the firing of a mufical inftrument is flruck. 
 
 This undulatory motion of the air is fuppofed the 
 matter or caufe of found. 
 
 UNGUENT, Ungmntum , ointment, in chirurgerv. 
 
 Ointments are divided into fimple and compound, though 
 
 it lo happens, that fome of tile former are confidcrablv 
 compounded ; and, among the latter there arc feme 
 fimple ointments, and others very little compounded. 
 
 It frequently occurs that turpentine, cerufe, lard, and 
 fome other things, are ordered to be wafhed in’rofe- 
 water, or the juice of fome herbs , but this is a circum- 
 llance that avails fe little to anvpurpofe of moment, that 
 we never knew it complied with : fo that a continuation 
 ot fuch direflions feems principally to be in compliment 
 to the old preferiptions, which abound in fucli minute 
 exaftnefs. It may here, alfo, be obferved in general, 
 that where oil is direfted in an ointment or plaiilcr, the 
 wholelale traders, who feek only profit, generally fu’bfti- 
 tutc lard ; and where cerufe, minium, or litharge are 
 concerned, they are generally ufed in over proportions, 
 becaufe they make fuch a weight come out much cheaper. 
 
 UNGUIS, a Latin term, fignifying a nail of the hand 
 or foot. 
 
 Unc.uis, in anatomy, is applied to two bones of the 
 nole, being as thin as feales, and refembling the nail ■ 
 whence their name. 
 
 Unguis, or Unguiculus, among botanifts and 
 norms, denotes a little Ipeck of a different colour from 
 the reft of the petala, or leaves of flowers. 
 
 UNGULA, in geometry, is the feftion of a cylinder 
 cut off by a plane paffing obliquely through the plane of 
 the bafe, and part of the cylindrick furface. 
 
 Ungula, in natural hiftory, the claw or hoof of a 
 quadruped. 
 
 Ungula Aids, the elk’s claw. See Elk. 
 
 Ungula, or Hamus, among furgeons, a fort of 
 hooked inftrument wherewithal to extraa a dead feetus 
 out of the womb. 
 
 VJ 1GW1\ l\ , 
 
 nnLuiy, an ammai ramoi 
 
 among the Greek and Latin authors. 
 
 Thefe creatures were figured under the lhape 1 
 hoifcs, deer, hogs, and bulls, but all with the fingularii 
 of an enormous horn in their foreheads. They, hov 
 ever, have no exiftence in nature, being only'i’magit 
 ary, as well as the virtues aferibed to this horn. Tli 
 fubftance known in thelhops under the name of the un 
 corn’s horn, is the tooth of a large cetaceous fiffi, f ri 
 quent III the Teas bordering on Greenland and lce’lan, 
 where it is called narwhal : the authors who have wri 
 ten on fifties in general, call it monocerus pifeis, the un 
 corn fifli. 
 
 UNIFORM, Uniformis, denotes a thing to befimil 
 or confident either with another thing, or itfelf, in r 
 fpedt of figure, ftruaure, proportion, or tile like. 1 
 which fenle it Hands oppofed to difForm, 
 
 Uniform Flowers, or Plants, are fuch as are of tl 
 lame figure all around, having their fore and back pari 
 as alfo their right and left parts, exafliy alike. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, regularity, a finlilitude or refer 
 blance between the parts of a whole. Such is that r 
 
U N I 
 
 ttfeet withal in figures of many fides and angles refpec- 
 tively equal and anfvvcrable to each other. 
 
 UNION, a junction, coalition, or aflfemblagc of fe¬ 
 veral different things,in one. 
 
 Union, in a philofophical fenfe, is ufed, by Dr. 
 Grew, for one of the three ways of mixture ; being the 
 joining together of atoms or infenfible particles, lo as 
 touch in a plane, as is fuppofed to be the cafe - in the 
 pryftallizations of fait, and the like bodies. 
 
 U^ion, among painters, exprefles a fymmetry and 
 agreement between the feveral parts of a painting, when 
 e. gr. there is a deal of relation and connexion between 
 them, both as to figures and their colouring: fo that 
 they apparently confpire to form one thing. 
 
 Union, in architecture, may denote a harmony be¬ 
 tween the colours in the materials of a building. 
 
 Union, or the Union, by way of eminence, is more 
 particularly ufed, among us, to exprefs the aft whereby 
 the twofeperate kingdoms of England and Scotland were 
 incorporated into one, under the title of the kingdom of 
 Great-Britain. 
 
 The happy union, in vain attempted by king James T. 
 was at length effected in the year 1707, by the general con- 
 fent of the queen and eftates of each realm. 
 
 UNISON, in rnufick, is the effeCt of two founds 
 which are equal in degree of tune, or in point of gravity 
 and acutenefs. 
 
 Unifon may be defined a confonance of two founds 
 produced by two firings, or other bodies of the fame 
 matter, length, thicknefs, and tenfion, equally ftruck, 
 and at the fame time, fo that they yield the lame tone 
 or note. 
 
 Or it is the union of two founds fo like each other, 
 that the ear, perceiving no difference, receives them as 
 one and the fame found. 
 
 What conftitutes unifonance, is the equality of the 
 number of vibrations of the two fonorous bodies in equal 
 times ; where there is an inequality in that relpeCt, and, 
 of confequence, an inequality in degree of tune, the une¬ 
 qual founds conftitute an interval. 
 
 Unifon is the firft and greateft of concords; and the 
 foundation, or, as fome call it, the mother of all the reft : 
 yet others deny it to be any concord at all, maintaining 
 it to be only that in founds, which unity is in numbers. 
 
 UNIT, Unite, or Unity, in arithmetick, the num¬ 
 ber one, or one fingle individual of diferete quantity. 
 
 UNITY, Unitas, the abftraCt, or quality which con¬ 
 ftitutes or determines a thing unum, or one. 
 
 Unity, in poetry. In the drama there are three uni¬ 
 ties to be obferved, the unity of action, that of rime, and 
 that of place. In the epick poem, the great, and almoft 
 only unity, is that of the action. Some regard, indeed, 
 ought to be had to that of time; that of place there is no 
 room for. The unity of character is not reckoned among 
 the unities. 
 
 The unity of the dramatick a&ion confifts of the unity 
 of the intrigue in comedy, and that of the danger in tra¬ 
 gedy ; and this not only in the plan of the fable, but alfo 
 in the fable extended and filled with epifodes. 
 
 The epifodes are to be worked in without corrupting 
 the unity, or forming a double aClion; and the feveral 
 members are to be fo connected together, as to be con- 
 fiftent with that continuity of a&ion fo necelTary to the 
 body, and which Horace preferibes, when he fays, Sit 
 quodvis limplex duntaxat et unum. 
 
 The unity of the epick a&ion, M. Dacier obferves, 
 does not confift in the unity of the hero, or in the unity 
 of his chara&er and manners, though thefe be circum- 
 ftanccs neceflary thereto. The unity of aCtion requires 
 that there be but one principal aClion, of which all the 
 reft are to be incidents or dependencies. 
 
 F. Boflu afiigns three things requifite thereto; the 
 firft, that no epifode be ufed but what is fetched from 
 the plan and ground of the aClion, and which is a na¬ 
 tural member of that body; the fecond, that the epifodes 
 and members be well connected with each other ; the 
 third is not to finilh any epifode, fo as it may appear a 
 whole aCtion, but to let each be always feen in its qua¬ 
 lity of member of the body, and an unfinifhed part. 
 
 Unity '4 Pojfejfrn, in law. fignifies a joint pofleffion 
 of two rights, by feveral titles. 
 
 UNIVERSAL, fomething that is common to many 
 things, or it is one thing belonging to many, or all tilings. 
 
 U N I 
 
 Dn iversal, UtiiverfaUi in Idgick, is either complex 
 or incomplex. A complex univerial, is either an uni- 
 verfal propofition, as every whole is greater than its part; 
 or whatever raifes a manifold conception of the mind, as 
 the definition of a reafonable animal. 
 
 An incomplex univerial, is what produces only one 
 conception in the mind, as a fimple thing refpetting 
 many ; as human nature, which relates to every indivi¬ 
 dual wherein it is found. 
 
 UNIVERSAL Arithmetic):. See TJniverfal Arith¬ 
 metick. 
 
 UNIVERSALITY, the quality that denominates a 
 thing univerfal. 
 
 UNIVERSE, the whole extent of fpace. 
 
 As fpace is, in its own nature, infinite, we mav form 
 an idea of the infinity of the univerfe, which can, there¬ 
 fore, only in part, be comprehended by us : and that 
 part of the univerfe which we can have any notion of, 
 is that which is the fubjett of our fenfes ; and of this 
 the eye prefents us with an idea of a vaft extended pro- 
 fpe£t, and the appearance of various forts of bodies dif- 
 feminated through the fame. 
 
 The infinite abyfs of fpace, which the Greeks called 
 the to Tsav, the Latin the inane, and we the univerfe, does 
 undoubtedly comprehend an infinity of lyftems of mov¬ 
 ing bodies round one very large central one, which the 
 Romans called fol, and we the fun. This collection of 
 bodies is, therefore, properly called the folar fyfteirr, 
 and fometimes the mundane fyftem, from the Latin 
 word mundus, the world. 
 
 That the univerfe contains as many folar fyftems or 
 worlds, as there are what we call fixed ftars, feems rea- 
 fonablc to infer from hence, that our fun, removed to the 
 diftance of a ftar, would appear juft as a ftar does, and 
 all the bodies moving about it would difappear entirely. 
 Now the reafon why they difappear is, becaufe they are 
 opaque bodies, and too fmall to be feen at fo great a dif¬ 
 tance, without an intenfe degree of light; whereas theirs 
 is the weakeft that can be, as being firft; borrowed, and 
 then reflected to the eye. 
 
 But the fun, by reafon ofhis immmfe bulk and innate 
 light, which is the ftrongeft poflible, will be vifible at an 
 tmmenfe diftance ; but the greater the diftance, the lels 
 bright it will appear, and of a lelfer magnitude; and, 
 therefore, every ftar of every magnitude may probably 
 be a fun like our own, informing a fyftem of planets 
 or moving bodies, each of which may be inhabited, like 
 our earth, with various kinds of animals, and ftored with 
 vegetable and other fubftances. 
 
 In this view of the univerfe, an auguft idea arifes in 
 the mind, and worthy of the infinite and wife Author of 
 nature, who can never be fuppofed to have created fo 
 many glorious orbs to anlwer fo trifling a purpofe as the 
 twinkling to mortals, by night nowand then; befides 
 that, the far greateft part of the ftars are never feen by 
 us at all, as we have obferved under that article. 
 
 When, therefore, Mofcs tells us, that in the beginning 
 God created the heavens and the earth, it is to be under- 
 ftood in a limited fenfe, and to mean only the making, 
 or, rather, new-making, of our terraqueous globe ; for it 
 is exprelfly faid, that the earth, in its firft ftate, was a 
 chaos (ftiapelefs and void) which probably might be only 
 the ruins of a pre-exiftent globe, inhabited by rational 
 creatures in the fame manner as fince its renovation. And 
 though it be faid, God made two lights, the fun and the 
 moon, it does not follow they had no exiftence before 
 that time, any more than it does that the ftars had not, 
 which he is faid to have made alfo. 
 
 Now, if the ftars had no exiftence before the Mofaick 
 creation, then were there no other fyftems of worlds be¬ 
 fore our own ; then muft all the infinity of fpace have 
 been one eternal abfoiute inane or empty fpace till that 
 time, and God, who made the worlds, muft be fuppofed 
 to have made them all at once : which fuppofitions are 
 too extravagant and unreafonable, and, therefore, cannot 
 be the fenfe of that paflage of feripture; which, I think, 
 can be no more than this, that, when God had formed 
 the earth into an habitable globe, he gave it fuch a pofi- 
 tion and motion about the fun, and about its own axis, 
 as fhould caufe an agreeable variety in the length of days 
 and nights, and in the tcmpei^ture of the leaions of the 
 year. 
 
 UNIVERSITY, TJniverfitas , a collective term, ap¬ 
 plied 
 
v o c 
 
 plied to ail afiemblage of feveral colleges eflablifhed in a 
 citv, or out-town, wherein are profelfors in the feveral i 
 fciences, appointed to teach them to fludents; and where 
 degrees or certificates of fludy in the divers faculties are 
 taken up. 
 
 In each univeriity four faculties are ufually taught, 
 theology, medicine, law, and the arts and fciences. 
 
 They are called univerfities, or univerfal fchools, by 
 Teafon the four faculties are fuppofed to make the world, 
 or whole compals of fludy. 
 
 In the eye of the law, an univeriity is held a mere 
 lay body, or community; though, in reality, it be a 
 mixed body, compofed partly of laymen, and partly of 
 ecclefiaflicks. 
 
 Univerfities had their firfl rife in the 12th and 13th 
 centuries. Thole of Paris and Bologna pretend to be the 
 firfl that were fet on foot; but then they were on a dif¬ 
 ferent footing from the univerfities among us. 
 
 Our own univerfities, Oxford and Cambridge, feem 
 intitled to the grcatefl antiquity of any in the world ; 
 and Baliol and Merton colleges in Oxford, and St. Peter’s 
 in Cambridge, all made colleges in the 13th century, may 
 be faid to be the firll regular endowments, of this kind, 
 in Europe. 
 
 For though Univerfity college in Cambridge had been 
 a place for fludents ever fince the year 872, yet this, like 
 many of the other ancient colleges beyond fea, and Ley¬ 
 den, to this day, was no proper college, but the fludents, 
 without any diflin&ion of habit, lived in citizens houles, 
 having only meeting-places to hear le£lures and difpute. 
 
 In after times there were houles built for the fludents 
 to live in fociety ; only each to be at his own charge, as 
 in the inns of courts. Thefe, at firfl, were called inns, 
 but now halls. At lafl, plentiful revenues were fettled 
 on feveral of thefe halls, to maintain the fludents diet, 
 apparel, Sec. and thefe were called colleges. 
 
 The univerfities of Oxford and Cambridge are go¬ 
 verned, next under the king, by a chancellor, who is to 
 take care of the government of the whole univerfity, to 
 maintain the liberties thereof, Sec. 
 
 Under him is the high-fleward, vvhofe office is to affifl 
 the chancellor, and other officers, when required, in the 
 execution of their offices, and to hear and determine ca¬ 
 pital caufes, according to the laws of the land, and the 
 privileges of the univerfity. 
 
 The next officer is the vice-chancellor, who officiates 
 for the chancellor in his abfence. There are alfo two 
 proflors who affifl in the government of the univerfity, 
 particularly in the bufinefs of fchool exercife, taking up 
 degrees, punifhing violators of the flatutes, Sec. Add 
 to thefe a publick orator, keeper of records, regiflcr, 
 beadles, and verger. 
 
 UNIVOCAL, in the fchools, is applied to two or 
 more names, or terms, that have but one fignification, 
 in oppofition to equivocal, which is where one term has 
 two or more fignifications. 
 
 Our univocal terms are fuch, whofe name, as well as 
 nature is the fame, in oppofition to equivoeals, whofe 
 names are the fame, but their natures very different. 
 
 UNLAWFUL, illegal, fomething prohibited by, or 
 contrary to the terms of law, either divine or human. 
 
 Unlawful AJpmbly, the meeting of three or more 
 perfons together by force to. commit fome unlawful a£l, 
 as to aflaultany perfon, to enter his houle or land, Sec. 
 and thus abiding together, whether they attempt the exe¬ 
 cution or not. 
 
 UNLIMITED, or Indeterminate Problem, is fuch a 
 one as is capable of infinite folutions. 
 
 UNMOOR, a term ufed at fea; when a veffel who 
 was riding at anchor weighs the fame, or gets it up in 
 order to fail, they fay file is unmooring. 
 
 VOCABULARY, Vocabularium, in grammar, denotes 
 the collection of the words of a language, with their fig¬ 
 nifications, otherwife called a dictionary, lexicon, or no¬ 
 menclature. 
 
 The vocabulary is properly a lefler kind of dictionary, 
 which does not enter fo minutely into the origins and 
 different acceptations of words. 
 
 VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech. 
 
 Vocal Muftck , is mufick fet to words, efpecially 
 verfes, and to be performed by the voice; in contradif- 
 tinClion to inflrumental mufick, compofed only for in- 
 flruments, without finging. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 76. 
 
 VOL 
 
 VOCATIVE, in grammar, the fifth cafe or ftate of 
 nouns. 
 
 When we name the perfon we are fpeaking to, or ad- 
 drefs ourfelves to tile thing we are fpeaking of, as if it 
 were a perfon, the noun, or name, requires a new rela¬ 
 tion, which the Latins and Greeks exprefs by a new ter¬ 
 mination, called the vocative. 
 
 1 hus of dorninus , lord, in the nominative, the Latins 
 have made domine, 0 lord, in the vocative; of Antonius, 
 Antoni, See. but as this was a thing not abfolutcly ne- 
 ceflary, and as the nominative cafe might ferve on fucli 
 occafions, this new cafe, or termination, was not uni¬ 
 verfal ; in the plural, for inflance, it was the fame with 
 the nominative, and even in the fingular; it was only 
 praCliled in the fecond declenfion among the Latins; and 
 in Greek, where it is the moft common, it is frequently 
 negleCled, and the nominative ufed in its {lead : as in 
 that palfage of the Greek pfalms quoted by St. Paul, to 
 prove the divinity of Jefus Chrill; thy throne, O God! 
 
 In Englifh, and moil of the modern tongues, this cale 
 is ordinarily exprdTed in nouns that have an article in the 
 nominative, by luppreffing that article ; as the Lord is 
 my hope. Lord, thou art my hope ! though, on many 
 occafions, we ufe an interjeClion. 
 
 VOICE, Vox, a found produced in the throat and 
 mouth of an animal, by an apparatus of inflrumfcnts for 
 that purpofe. 
 
 Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. 
 
 Articulate Voices, are thofe whereof feveral confpire 
 together to form fome aflcmblage, or little fyflem of 
 founds. Such are the voices expreffing the letters of an 
 alphabet, numbers of which joined together form words. 
 
 Inarticulate Voices, are fuch as are not organized, or 
 aflembled into words ; lucli is the barking of dogs, the 
 lowing of beafls, the finging of birds. See. 
 
 Voice, in grammar, is a circumllance in verbs* 
 whereby they come to be confidercd as either attivc or 
 paffive, i. e. either an expieffing an adlion imprefied 011 
 another fubjedl, as 1 beat; or receiving it from another, 
 as 1 am beaten. 
 
 Voice, in matters of eletflions, denotes a vote or 
 fuffrage. 
 
 VOIDANCE, Vacancy , in the canon law, a want of 
 an incumbent upon a benefice. 
 
 VOIDED, Urde , in heraldry, is underflood of an or¬ 
 dinary whofe inner or middle part is cut out, leaving no¬ 
 thing but its edges to fhew its form ; fo that the field ap¬ 
 pears through it. Hence it is needlefs to exprefs the co¬ 
 lour, or metal, of the voided part; becaufe it mull of 
 courfe be that of the field. 
 
 VOIDER, in heraldry, one of the ordinaries vvhofe 
 figure is much like that of the flafque or flench, only 
 that it doth not bend fo much. 
 
 VOL, among heralds, figilifies the two wings of a 
 fowl joined together, borne in armoury, as being tha 
 whole that makes the flight. Accordingly, a demi vol 
 is a Angle wing. 
 
 VOL A, the palm, or infide of the hand, compre¬ 
 hended between the fingcFS and the wrift. 
 
 VOLANT, in heraldry, is when a bird in a coat of 
 arms is flying, or having its wings fpread out. 
 
 VOLATILE, in chymiflry, are thofe fubftances 
 which rife and fly off upon the application of heat or 
 fire, as thofe which endure the fire without diffipation are 
 called fixed. 
 
 Volatile, inphyficks, is commonly ufed to denote 
 a mixed body, whofe integral parts are eafily diffipated 
 by fire or heat; but is more properly ufed for bodies- 
 whole elements or firfl component parts are eafily fepa- 
 rated from each other, and difperfed in air. 
 
 V OLA1ILISATION, or Volatilization, the 
 
 adl of rendering fixed bodies volatile, or refolving them 
 by fire into a fine fubtile vapour, or fpirit, which eafily 
 diffipates and flies awav. 
 
 VOLCANO, or Vulcano, in natural hiflory, a 
 name gi ven to mountains that belch or vomit lire, flame, 
 aflres, cinders, flones, Sec. 
 
 Such are Mount -/Etna in Sicily, Mount Vefuvius 
 near Naples, Sc c. 
 
 Near Guatimala in South America, are two mountains, 
 the one called a volcano of fire, the other of water. Out 
 of the firfl, huge pieces of rocks are frequently hurled 
 with as much vehemence as balls from a cannon, and a 
 
 5 S written 
 
V O M 
 
 vyiitteh letter may be read by the light of'i'ts flarfies at the 
 di(lance of three miles. Out of the other vaft quantities 
 of water are continually fpued up. Volcanos and igni- 
 vomous mountains, though fome of the molt terril»le 
 phenomena in nature, have their ufe$, being a kind of 
 (piracies, or tunnels whereby to vent the fire and vapour, 
 and would otherwife make a more dreadful havock by 
 conviftfions and eairthquak.es. 
 
 Nay, if the hypothclis of a central fire aiid waters be 
 admitted, thofc outlets mult be abfolutely necelTary to the 
 peace and quiet of the terraqueous globe. Accordingly, 
 Dr. Woodward obferves, there is fcarce any country 
 much aitnoyed with earthquakes, but lias one of thefe 
 fiery vents; which is conftantly obferved to be all in 
 flames wheriever an earthquake happens; by which means 
 'itdifgorges the fire, which, while it was underneath, was 
 the caufe of the difalter. He adds, that were it not for 
 thefe diVerticula, whereby the central fire has an exit, it 
 would rage in the bowels of the earth much more furi- 
 Oufiy, and make much greater havock than it does; and 
 that there are not wanting inllances of countries that 
 have been wholly freed from earthquakes by the eruption 
 of a new volcano there. 
 
 VOLLEY, a military falute made by dil'charging a 
 great number of fire-arms at the fame time. 
 
 VOLO, in antiquity, a name which the Romans 
 gave the flaves who, in the lecond Punick war, offered 
 themfelves to ferve in the army upon a want of a lufficient 
 number of citizens. 
 
 VOLTE, in the menage, fignifies a round or circu¬ 
 lar motion, conlifcing of a gait of two treads, made by 
 a horfe going iide-ways round a centre; the two treads 
 making parallel tracts, one, by the fore-feet, larger, and 
 the other, by the hinder-feet, 1'maller; the fhoulders bear¬ 
 ing outwards, and the croup approaching towards the 
 centre. 
 
 Demi -Vo i. t e, is half a round of one tread or two 
 made by the horfe at one of the angles or corners of the 
 volte, or at the end of the line of the palfade ; fo as 
 when he is near the end of this line, or near one of the 
 corhers of the volte, lie changes hands to return by a 
 femi-circle. 
 
 Renverfed, or inverted Volte, is a track of two treads, 
 vVhich the horfe makes with his head to the centre and 
 his croup out, lide-ways upon a walk, trot, or gallop, 
 and tracing out a larger circumference with his fhoulders, 
 and a fmaller with his croup. 
 
 VOLUME, Volumen, a book, or writing, of a juft 
 bulk to be bound by itfelf. 
 
 Volume of a Body, is alfo ufed, among foreign phi- 
 lofophers, for its bulk or the fpace inclofed within its 
 fuperficies. 
 
 VOLUMUS, in law, the firft word of a claufe in 
 one fpecies of the king’s writs of protections and letters 
 patent. 
 
 VOLUNT, Voluntas, in law, is when a tenant holds 
 lands, 6cc. at the will of the leffor, or lord of the manor. 
 
 VOLUTE, V'oluta , in architecture, a kind of ipiral 
 fcroll, ufed in the Ionick and Compofite capitals, whereof 
 it makes the principal charaCteriltick and ornament. 
 
 There are feveral diverfities praCtifed in the volute. In 
 fomc, the bit or edge, throughout all the circumvolutions, 
 is in the fame line or plane ; fuch are the antique Ionick 
 volutes, and thole of Vignola. In others the fpires or 
 circumvolutions fall back ; in others projeCt or Hand out. 
 Again, in lome the circumvolutions are oval, in others, 
 the canal of one circumvolution is detached from the lift 
 of another by a vacuity or aperture. In others the rind 
 is parallel to the abacus, and fprings out from behind the 
 flower thereof, in others it feems to fpring out of the 
 vafe from behind the liower thereof. In others it feems 
 to fpring out of the vafe from behind the ovum, and rifes 
 to the abacus, as in moft of the fine compofite capitals. 
 
 VOLVULUS, in medicine, a name which fome au¬ 
 thors give to the iliack palfion, by others called chordap- 
 fus, and by others miferere mei. 
 
 VOMER, in anatomy, a feptum feated between the 
 bones of the palate and the fphenoidal bone, being alfo 
 joined to the procefs of the ethmoides, and part of the 
 lower jaw, and having its fore part which is fpongy con¬ 
 tinued to the middle cartilage or the nofe, and making, 
 in conjunction with it, the feptum nafi. 
 
 VOMICA, in medicine, is commonly taken for a 
 
 VOW 
 
 fuppnrated impofthuriie, or an abfeefs wfth a fuppu- 
 rat-ion. 
 
 Vomica Pulmonum , is a latent difeafe of the lungs, 
 which often deceives under a (hew of health. What goes 
 by this name is a finall abfeefs feated in fome part of the 
 lungs, andftraitly mcloled within a bag or membrane. 
 
 Nux Vo m i c a, in pharmacy, a flat, comprefled, round 
 fiuit of the breadth of a (hilling, orfomewhat more, and 
 ot about the thicknefs of a crown-piece. Its lurface is 
 not much wrinkled or corrugated, butfometimes marked 
 with tolerably regular fibres, running from the centre to 
 the circumference ; it is fomewhat downy or woolly, and 
 of an extreme firm texture, tough like horn, and of a 
 pale greyilh brown colour. It has a fort of umbilicus on 
 each fide of the centre, and is more prominent on one 
 fide, and more deprefled on the other; it is very diffi¬ 
 cultly cut or broken, and leaves a linooth and glofty fur- 
 face behind the knife ; it is moderately heavy, and is of 
 a fomewhat paler colour within than on the furface ; it 
 has no finell, but an extremely bitter tafte. 
 
 W r e have it only from the Eaft-Indies, whence it is 
 brought with another drug called the lignum colubri- 
 num. Though it has been but lately known, there have 
 been many dilputes between the people, who have feemed 
 beft acquainted with it at tirft, as to its natuie and 
 origin. It was held by many to be the root of a piant, 
 and by others to be a fungus or excieicence. hut it is 
 in reality the nucleus of a fruit of an Eaft-Indian tree, 
 the wood of which is the lignum colubrium of the (hops. 
 
 VOMIT ING, Vomltus, a retrograde lpafmodick mo¬ 
 tion of the mufcular fibres of the ccfophngus, ftomach, 
 and inteftines, attended with llrong convuJllons of the 
 mufcles of the abdomen and diaphragm, which, when 
 gentle, create a nauiea; when violent, a vomiting. 
 
 I hefe convuJlive diforders proceed from the immoderate 
 quantity, or acrimony of the food ; from poifons ; from 
 fome injury of the brain, as a wound, contufion, coin- 
 prefiion, or inflammation of that part; from an inflam¬ 
 mation of the diaphragm, ftomach, inteftines, fpleen, 
 liver, kidnies, pancreas, or mefcntery ; from an irrita¬ 
 tion of the gula ; from a dilorderly motion of the fpirits, 
 by unaccuftomed agitations in a coach, ffiip, or other- 
 wife, or from the idea of fotnething naufeous. 
 
 VOPISCUS, a Latin term uled, in relpeCt of twins 
 in the womb, for that which comes to the perfect birth, 
 the other being before excluded abortive. 
 
 VORT EX, Whirlwind, in meteorology, a fudden, 
 rapid, violent motion of the air in gyres, or circles. 
 
 Vortex, Vorago, is alfo ufed for an eddy or whirl¬ 
 pool of a body of water, in certain leas or rivers, which 
 runs rapidly around, forming a fort of cavity in the 
 middle. 
 
 Vortex, in the Cartcfian philofophy, is a fyftem cr 
 collection of particles of matter moving the fame way, 
 and round the fame axis. 
 
 Such vortices are the grand machines, whereby thofe 
 philofophers folve moft of the motions and other phe¬ 
 nomena of the heavenly bodies. Accordingly the doc¬ 
 trine of thefe vortices makes a great part of the Cartefian 
 philofophy. See Carte si a ns. 
 
 VOl 1 VE Medals, are thofe whereon the vo-ws of 
 the people for the emperors, or emprefles, are exp refled. 
 
 V OUCHEE, a perlon who is warranty, or vouches 
 for another, who in relpect thereof is called voucher. 
 
 VOUCHER, in law, the tenant in a writ of right 
 who calls another perfon into court, bound to warranty 
 him, and either to defend his right againfl: the demand¬ 
 ant, or to yield him other lands, &c. to the value. 
 
 V oucher alfo fignifies a ledger book, or book of ac¬ 
 counts, wherein are entered the warrants for the accoun¬ 
 tants difeharge. 
 
 VOUSSOIR, vault-ftone, or key-ftonc, in architec¬ 
 ture, a (tone proper to loim the lweep of an arch, being 
 cut fomewhat in manner of a truncated cone, whole 
 lides, were they prolonged, would terminate in a centra 
 to which all the (tones of the vault are directed. 
 
 VOW, Votum, a folemn promife, or offering of a 
 man’s felf, or other thing, to God. 
 
 Vows, Vota , among the Romans, fignify offerings, 
 prefents, and prayers made for the emperors, and Cat;Cars 
 particularly, for their prolperity, and the Jaftingncfs of 
 their empire. 
 
 V O WEL, Vocalis, in grammar, a letter which affords 
 
 a com- 
 
U R I 
 
 a complete found of itfelf; or a letter fofimple as only to 
 need a bare opening of the mouth to make it heard, and 
 form a diftintt voice. 
 
 Such arc a, e, i, o, u; which are called vocales, vow¬ 
 els, in contradiftinttion to certain other letters, which 
 depending on a particular application of fome part of 
 the mouth, as the teeth, lips, or palate, can make no 
 perfect found without an opening of the mouth, that is, 
 without the addition of a vowel; and are, therefore, 
 called confonants. 
 
 UPRIGHT, in heraldry, is ufed in refpeft of fhell 
 filhes, as crevices, &c. when Handing ereft in a coat. 
 
 URACHUS, in anatomy, a membranous canal in a 
 feetus, and that could not make its way through the na¬ 
 vel to the placenta along with the umbilical velfels, where¬ 
 of it is efteemed one. 
 
 The termination of the urachus in the placenta forms 
 a little oval vefica or bladder, which ferves to receive the 
 urine lecreted in the kidnies of the feetus, and that could 
 not make its way through the urethra, by realon of the 
 refiftance of the lphimfter of the bladder which is not to 
 be overcome but by inl'piration. 1 he humour found in 
 the vefica of the urachus is Hill in the greater quantity 
 the higher coloured, and the more like urine, as the 
 feetus is near the time of the birth. 
 
 The urachus is found only in brutes, though there is 
 no difpute but itexifts in a human feetus. 
 
 URANIBOURGH. a term often uied by aftronomers, 
 being the name of a celebrated oblervatory, in a cattle in 
 the Tittle ifiand Vana, or Huena, in the Sound ; built by 
 that noble Dane, Tycho Brahe, and furmlhed with in- 
 ftruments for obferving the courfe and motions ol the 
 heavenly bodies. 
 
 This famed obfervatory, which was finilhed about the 
 year 1580, did not fubfift above feventeen years ; when 
 Tycho, who little thought to have ereffed an edifice of 
 fo fhort a duration, and who had even pu'blilhed the figure 
 and polition of the heavens, which he had chof'e from 
 that moment to lay the firll Hone in, was obliged to 
 abandon his country. Soon after this, thofe to whom 
 the property of the lfiand Huena was given, made it their 
 bufinefs to demolifh Uranibourgh; part of the ruins were 
 difperfed into divers places, the reft lerved to build Tvcho 
 a handfome feat upon his ancient eftate, which to this 
 day bears the name of Uranibourgh ; for as to the an¬ 
 cient Uranibourgh, there are now no footfteps remaining. 
 It was here Tycho compofed his catalogue of the ftars. 
 
 M. Picart, making a voyage to Uranibourgh, found 
 Tycho’s meridian line drawn thereon to deviate from the 
 meridian of the world ; which confirms the conjecture 
 of fome, that the pofition of the meridian line may vary. 
 
 URANOGRAPHY, a description of the heavens. 
 
 URETERS, in anatomy, two long and {lender ca¬ 
 nals, which come from the bafon of the kidnies, one on 
 each fide, and terminate in the bladder; ferving to con¬ 
 vey the urine fecreted in the glands of the kidnies into 
 the bladder. See Kidnies. 
 
 URETHRA, in anatomy, is a tube or canal arifing 
 from the neck of the bladder, and continued to the pu- 
 pendum : ferving to difehargeor carry off the urine out 
 of the bladder. 
 
 Some will have it to be only a production of the neck 
 of the bladder itfelf: Its length is very different in the 
 two fexes. In men it terminates in the extremity of the 
 glands, and is ordinarily a foot long. In women, where 
 it is called meatus urinarious, it is but two fingers breadth 
 long, and terminates in the vulva; but it is much wider, 
 and morecafily dilated here than in the other fex. 
 
 The urethra is compofed of two membranes, and a 
 little fpongy fubfiance like that of the corpora cavernola; 
 except at the end which joins the neck of the bladder, 
 where the diftance between the membranes is fmall, and 
 filled up with a red glahdulous fuhftance, whole excre¬ 
 tory duCts piercing the inner membranes, pour into the 
 pipe a mucilaginous liquor, which lines and lubricates 
 its cavity, and prevents the falts of the urine from gall¬ 
 ing it; as having a further office in the male lex, viz. 
 the emiffion of the feed. 
 
 URIGO, a burning with a cauftick, or cautery. 
 
 GRIM and T h um m 1 m. According to the Hebrew, 
 Exod. xxvin. 30. the literal figtriStation: of thefe two 
 words is, light and perfection, or, the /hirung and the per- 
 JeR. According to St. Jerom, doRrtne and judgment: 
 % 
 
 U R T 
 
 according to the LXX, declaration or manifcjlation , and 
 truth. Some will have it, that the Urim and Thummim 
 are only epithets or explanations of the ftones of the 
 breaft-plate of the high-prieft ; 'as if it were laid, “ Thou 
 “ lhalt put therein ftones that are Jhining and perfeR.'’ 
 Others, to prove that the Urim and Thummim were 
 not the fame thing with the twelve ftones in the breaft- 
 plate, give the following realons ; 1. Becaufe the ftones 
 were Jet and engraven in the breaft-plate, Exod, xxviii. 
 17,21. the Urim and Thummim only put into it, 
 which is words of quite different and more loofe and 
 large fignitication, and therefore probably doth not de- 
 lign the fame thing. 2. It is. not likely, that in fuch a 
 brief account of the facred utenfils, the fame command 
 would be repeated again; efpecially in more dark and ge¬ 
 neral words than it was mentioned before. And how 
 could Moles put it in, when the* workmen had fallen eel 
 it there before? Or, whyfhould he be required to put 
 it in the breaft-plate, when it was fattened to it already, 
 and could not, without violence, be taken from it ? 
 3. Becaufe the ftones were put in by the workmen, 
 Exod. xxx ix. 10. the Urim and ThuVnmim by Rlbies 
 himfelf, Lev. viii. 8. It is objected, that where the 
 ftones are mentioned, there is no mention of-Uvim and 
 Thummim, as in Exod. xxxix. 10. And that where 
 the Urim and Thummim are mentioned, there is no 
 mention made of the ftones, as in Lev. viii. 8. which 
 thews they were one and the fame thing. To which 
 they anJwer, that there is an evident realon for both thefe 
 omilfions; of the former in Exodus, becaufe Moles 
 mentions only thofe things which were made by the 
 workmen, whereas the Urim and Thummim teems to 
 have been made immediately by God. or by Moles witli 
 God’s direction : of the latter in Ltviticus , becaufe the 
 ftones are implied in the bjcaft-plate as a part of it, and 
 fattened to it, whereas theie Moles only mentions wfiat 
 was put in by himlelf. Some fay that the Urim and 
 Thummim were two little golden figures which gave re- 
 fponfes, which were lhut up in the breaft plate as in a 
 purfe, and which anfwered, with’a : n articulate voice, to 
 all fuch queftions as were put to them by the high-prieft. 
 Others think, that the name Jehovah, written upon a 
 plate of gold, was what the icripture calls Urim and 
 Thummim. There are various conje&ures concerning 
 the Urim and Thummim, but nothing certain, becaufe 
 the feripture is filent in this matter. It may fuffice us to 
 know, that this was a lingular piece of divine workman- 
 lhip, which the high-prieft was obliged to wear upon 
 folernn occafions, as one of the conditions upon which 
 God engaged to give him anfwers. 
 
 There is a great diverfitv of opinions likewife concern¬ 
 ing the manner in which God was confulted by Urim 
 and Thummim. It is agreed, that this way of conful- 
 tation was ufed only in affairs of very great importance; 
 that the high-prieft was the only officiating minifter in 
 this ceremony; and that for this he was to be clothed in 
 all his pontifical habit; particularly, he was tb have on 
 his breaft-plate, to which the Urim and Thummim was 
 affixed ; and laftly, that he was not allowed to perform 
 this folernn confultation for a private perfon, but only 
 for the king, for the prefident of the Sanhedrim, for the 
 general of the army of Ifrael, or for other public perfons: 
 and even then not upon any affair of a private nature, 
 but for things that relate to the public welfare of church 
 or ftate. 
 
 When the Urim and Thummim was to be confulted, 
 the high-prieft put on his robes, and prefented himfelf, 
 not in the fandtuary, where he could not enter but once 
 a year, but in the holy place, before the curtain that 
 parted the moft holy from the holy place. There, {land¬ 
 ing upright, and turning his face toward the ark of the 
 covenant, upon which the divine prefence repoied, he 
 propoled the matter for which he had been confulted. 
 Behind him at fome diftance out of the holy place, ftood 
 the perfon for whom he was confulted, expelling, with 
 humility and reverence, the anfwer that it lhould pleafe 
 the Lord to give him. The Rabbins, who are followed 
 by Jofephus, Philo, and fevcral of the ancient Fathers, 
 are of opinion, that the high-prieft having then his eves 
 fixed upon the ftones of the breaft-plate, which was 
 before him, he there read the anfwer of the Lord. The 
 letters that railed themfelves out of their places, and that 
 {hilled with more than ordinary luftre, were formed into 
 
 the 
 
U R I 
 
 the an Aver defired. For example, when David enquired 
 of God, whether he Ihould go up to one of the cities of 
 Judah, 2 Sam. ii. i. it was anfwered him, Alah, 
 Go up The three letters, Am, Lamed, and He, came 
 out of their places, as it were, and raifed themfelves 
 above the reft, to compole that word that contained the 
 an Aver. 
 
 But there are fome difficulties in this opinion. All 
 the letters of the Hebrew alphabet were not found in the 
 breaft-plate ; there were four wanting, Heth, Teth, 
 Zade, and Koph. To fupply thefe, the Rabbins pre¬ 
 tend, that the names of Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob, 
 were alfo upon the breaft-plate; but for all that, Teth 
 would be ftill wanting. Therefore they fay, that this 
 title alfo was read there, Colelle-fchibte-Ifrael — See here all 
 the tribes oj Ijrael. But all this is advanced without 
 proof, and without the Leaft probability. A fecond dif¬ 
 ficulty is this, that though one Ihould admit all that the 
 Hebrew doctors fuggeft in this affair, yet by what rules 
 did the high-prieft make a combination of thefe letters, 
 and how put he them together ? For it is not laid that 
 they came out of their places, but that they only raifed 
 themfelves above the reft. Suppoie, for example, that 
 any fix of the letters ftiouId have Avelled and finned with 
 more than ordinary luftre ; how mull the high-prieft 
 difpofe them, which muft be firft or laft? It is anfwered, 
 that in this circumftance he was always infpired and 
 filled with the fpirit of prophefy ; and if it were fo. then 
 the Urim and Thummim would have been unneceffary. 
 For why muft miracles be multiplied without any oc- 
 cafion ? The high-prieft need only fpeak himfelf, and 
 perhaps the whole ule of the Urim and Thummim was 
 this, to be a fign to the high-prieft that the Lord would 
 replenilh him with an internal and fupernatural light, and 
 make him know his will in what enquired after. 
 
 Others think with a great deal of probability, that 
 God then gave his anfwers in articulate voices, which 
 were heard within the fan&uary, and from between the 
 cherubims, which covered the ark or the propitiatory. 
 When the Ifraelites made peace with the Gibeonites, 
 they were blamed for not having enquired at the mouth oj 
 the Lord , Jofh. ix. 14. which infmuates, that he had 
 been ufed to make his voice heard when he was confulted. 
 
 If it be enquired, how long the cuftom of confulting 
 God by Urim and Thummim fubfifted in Ifrael. The 
 Rabbins think, that it continued no longer than under 
 the tabernacle. It is a maxim among them, that the 
 holy Spirit fpake to the children of llVael by Urim and 
 Thummim while the tabernacle remained ; and under 
 the firft temple, i. e. the temple of Solomon, by the 
 prophets ; and under the fecond temple, or after the 
 captivity of Babylon, by the Bath-kol, or il e daughter oj 
 the voice. By this they mean a voice lent from heaven, 
 as that which was heard at the baptifm of Chrift, and at 
 his transfiguration, Matt. iii. 17. and xvii. 5. 
 
 Spencer has adopted this opinion, and endeavours to 
 fupport it by thefe two arguments. The firft is, that 
 the Urim and Thummim were a confequence of the 
 divine government, or of the theocracy of the Hebrews. 
 While the Lord immediately governed his people, it was 
 neceflary that there fliould always be a means at hand to 
 confult him, and to have recourfe to him. Secondly, 
 that this method was eftablilhed to confult God upon 
 afFairs that concerned the common intereft of the whole 
 nation. But the theocracy ceafed, fays he, when the 
 kingdom became hereditary in the perfon and family of 
 Solomon : the intcrefts of the nation ceafed to be com¬ 
 mon, after the divifion of Ifrael into two monarchies ; 
 one governed bv Rehoboam, and the other by Jeroboam. 
 Laftly, what feetns to be more convincing than any real’on 
 drawn from a conformity of things, it does not appear 
 from the facred hiftory, that there are any footfteps of 
 confulting the Lord by Urim and Thummim, after the 
 conftru<ft;on of the temple of Solomon to the time of 
 its deftiuftion ; and after its deftruttion, all are agreed, 
 that this was never reftored to them again. 
 
 URINAL, in medicine, a veflel fit to receive and 
 hold urine ; and ufed, accordingly, for the conveniency 
 of fick perfons. 
 
 It is ufuaily of glafs, and crooked ; and fometimes 
 filled with nnlk. to afluage the pain of the gravel. 
 
 URIN ARIA Fistula, is the fame as urethra; fo 
 called from its office to convey the urine. 
 
 USA 
 
 URINE, Urim7, a liquid excrement, or humour, fe* 
 parated from the blood in the kidnics, conveyed thence 
 into the bladder, and dil'charged by the urethra. 
 
 The urine is lecreted from the arterial blood, in the 
 glands of the kidnies; from which ariie numerous little 
 pellucid pipes and veins, which, receiving the lecreted 
 urine, at length join into twelve papilla;; out of which 
 the urine oozes into a cavity, called the pelvis, from 
 whence it runs into the ureters of either fide, and through 
 them into the bladder ; and from that, at length, through 
 the urethra, out of the body. 
 
 Phylicians difeover from the urine the principal cri- 
 terions, orfigns, whereby they judge of the condition of 
 the patient, and the ftate of the difeafe. 
 
 But it is chiefly conlulted in acute fevers, where it is 
 a very fure fign. For, i°, Urine with a white, light, 
 equable, turbinated, inodorous fediment, through the 
 whole courle of the difeafe to the crilis, is a very good 
 
 prel'age. 2 0 . Copious, white, ftrangurious urine, with 
 
 much white fediment, emitted at the time of the crilis 
 cures and takes away ablcefles. 3 0 . A thin, ruddv 
 urine, that does not fublide; a white, thin, waterv 
 urine ; a thin, equable, yellow urine ; a turbid urine 
 that does not fublide, denotes, in very acute diieafes, a 
 great crudity, a clilTxcq.lt crilis, and a durable damcrous 
 difeafe. a 
 
 URINOUS Salts, in chymiftry, are the fame with 
 what we otherwife call alcali falts, or alcalies. 
 
 URN, Urna, a kind of vale of a roundifh form, but 
 biggeft in the middle, like the common pitchers, now 
 feldom ufed, but in the way of ornament over chimney- 
 pieces, or byway of acroters a-top of buildings, funeral 
 monuments, See. 
 
 Urn, Ur nr,, was alfo a Roman meafure for liquid 
 things, containing about three gallons and a half of 
 Englifh wine meafure. 
 
 UROCR 1 1 ERIUM, or Urocrisia, a calling of 
 water, or giving judgment on difealesby the fight ot the 
 urine. 
 
 LRSA, in aftronomy, the bear, a name common to 
 two conllellations ot the northern hemilphere near the 
 poles, diftinguilhed by major and minor. 
 
 Ursa Major , or the great bear, according to Ptole¬ 
 my’s catalogue, confifts of thirty-three ftars; according 
 to Tycho’s, of fifty-fix ; but in the Britannick cata¬ 
 logue we have two hundred and fifteen. 
 
 Ursa Minor, the little bear. Ptolemy and Tycho make 
 it conftft of eight ftars; but Mr. Flauiftead ot fourteen. 
 
 LRSULINES, an order of nuns who obferve the 
 rule of St. Auguftine, and are chiefly noted for taking 
 on them the education and inrtrutftion of young ladies. 
 
 USANCE, Ufo, in commerce, is a determinate time 
 for the payment of bills of exchange, reckoned cither 
 from the day of the bills being accepted, or from the 
 day ol their date : and thus called, becaufe regulated 
 by the ulage and cuftom of the places whereon they are 
 drawn. 
 
 Bills of exchange are drawn at Angle or double ufance, 
 either from fight or from date. 
 
 This term is longer or Ihorter, according to the dif¬ 
 ferent countries. In.France, ufance is fixed at thirty 
 days ; at London, ufance is a calendar month, and 
 double ufance two months, or fixty davs. 
 
 At Venice, Genoa, and Leghorn, three months. 
 
 At Hamburgh, ufance of bills drawn from England, 
 France, and Venice, is two months after date , from 
 Antwerp and Nuremberg, fifteen days afterlight. 
 
 At Venice, ufance of bills drawn at Ferrara, Bologna, 
 Florence, Lucca, and Leghorn, is five days after fight; 
 from Naples, Aulburg, Genoa, and Vienna, fifteen 
 days after fight ; from Mantua, Modena, and Milan, 
 twenty days after date ; from Amfterdam, Antwerp, 
 and Hamburgh, two months afterdate; and, from Lon¬ 
 don, three months after date. 
 
 At Milan, ulance ot bills drawn from Genoa, is eight 
 days after fight; from Rome, ten days after fight; and 
 from Venice, twenty days after date. 
 
 At Florence, ufance of bills, drawn from Bologna, is 
 three days alter fight, from Rome, ten days after fi«ht; 
 from Venice and Naples, twenty days after date. 
 
 At Rome, ufance ot bills drawn in Italy was ori<n- 
 nally ten days afterlight; but, by an abuie, this terra 
 has been extended to fifteen. 
 
 At 
 
u so 
 
 At Leghorn, ufance of bills drawn from Genoa is 
 eight days after fight; from Rome, ten days ;. from 
 Naples, three weeks ; from Venice, twenty days after 
 date ; from London, three weeks; and, from Amfter- 
 dam, forty days. 
 
 At Amfterdam, ufance of bills drawn from England 
 and France, is a month afterdate; from Venice, Ma¬ 
 drid, Cadiz, and Seville, two months. 
 
 At Genoa, ufance of bills from Milan, Florence, 
 Leghorn, and Lucca, is eight days after fight; from 
 Venice, Rome, and Bologna, fifteen days ; from Naples, 
 twenty-two days ; from Sicily, a month after fight ; or 
 two months after date ; from Sardinia, a month after 
 fight ; from Antwerp, Amfterdam, and other places in 
 the Low Countries, three months after date. 
 
 USE, Ujus, in law, denotes the benefit or profit of 
 lands and tenements. 
 
 Use and Cujlom , in ancient law-books, denotes the 
 ordinary method of acting or proceeding in any cafe, 
 which, by length of time, has obtained the force of law. 
 
 Uses and Cujioms of the Sea, arc certain maxims, rules, 
 or ufages, which make the bale or ground-work of the 
 maritime jurifprudence ; by which the policy of naviga¬ 
 tion, and commerce of the fea, arc regulated. 
 
 USHER, Hujjier, fignifies an officer, orlervant, who 
 has the care and direction of the door of a court, hall, 
 chamber, and the like. 
 
 Usher, is alfo ufed for an officer in the Exchequer ; 
 of which fort, three or four attend the chief officers and 
 barons at the court at Weftminfter, and juries, lhcrifFs, 
 and other accomptants, at the pleafure of the court. 
 
 USNEA, in natural hiftory, m-ufeus arboreus, a fort 
 of plant of the parafite or mofs kind, growing like a 
 great beard on the oak, cedar, and divers other trees. 
 
 UsHea Hum, >:a, is a ftnall grecnith mofs growing on 
 hitman l'culls, that have lain a long time expofed to the 
 air. 
 
 USQUEBAUGH, afirong, rich, compound liquor, 
 chiefly taken by way of dram , its bafis being brandy, or 
 rectified fpirits of wine. 
 
 T. he procels is fomewhat various, and the ingredients 
 numerous. We fhall give one, formerly much com¬ 
 mended, as a fpecimen. 
 
 1 o two gallons of brandy, or fpirits, put a pound of 
 Spaniffi liquorice, half a pound of raifins of the fun, 
 four ounces of currants, three of dates fliced; tops of 
 thyme, balm, favory, mint, and tops of flowers of rofe- 
 mary, of each two ounces ; cinnamon and mace bruiled, 
 nutmegs, anifeeds, and coriander feeds bruiled, likewife, 
 of each four ounces; citron, or lemon and orange-peel 
 feraped, of each an ounce. 
 
 All thef'e to be left to infufe forty-eight hours in a 
 warm place, often fhaking them together : then fet them 
 in a cool place for a week, after which the clear liquor 
 is to be decanted off, and to it an equal quantity of neat 
 white port-wine, and a gallon of canary, are to be added. 
 '1 he whole to be fweetened with a proper quantity of 
 double-refined fugar. 
 
 USTION, Uftio, in pharmacy, the preparing of certain 
 fubilances by burning them. 
 
 USUCAPTION, Ufucaptio , in the civil law, is an 
 acquifition of the property of a thing, bv a poffeffion and 
 enjoyment thereof for a certain term of years preferibed 
 by law. 
 
 USUFRUIT, Ufu-f ufius, in the civil law, the ufe 
 or enjoyment of any lands or tenements; or the right 
 of receiving the fruits and profits of an inheritance, or 
 other thing, without a power of alienating or changing 
 the property thereof. 
 
 USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or aft of 
 ufury. 
 
 USURIOUS Contract, is any bargain orcontraft 
 whereby a man is obliged to pay more intereft for money 
 than the ftatute allows. 
 
 USURPATION, in law, is an injurious ufing or 
 enjoyment of a thing for continuance of time, that be¬ 
 longs of right to another. 
 
 USURY, UJ'ura, in the general, denotes a gain or 
 profit which a perfon makes of his money, by lending 
 the fame ; or it is an increafe of tire principal, exafted 
 for the loan thereof, or the price a boriower gives for the 
 ufe of a lum credited to him by the lender, called alfo 
 intereft ; and, in fome ancient ftatutes, dry exchange. 
 Vol-II. No. 76. 
 
 i V U L 
 
 The word ufury is ufually taken in a bad fenfe, vizi 
 for an unlawful profit which a perfon makes of his mo¬ 
 ney ; in which ferife it is that ufury is forbiddeivby the 
 civil arid ecclefiaftical law, and even by the law of na¬ 
 ture. In this fenfe it alfo is, that it is held ufury to 
 lend money upon pawns, to exaft intereft for money 
 without furtenderijlg the principal, and to ftipulate in¬ 
 tereft for money which is not employed in trade, nor 
 brings any profit to the perfon who receives it : but as 
 the Latin word ufura, at leaft the plural thereof, ufur*, 
 may be underftood of a lawful intereft, we do not fee 
 why ufury may not be ufed in Engliffi, in the fame 
 liarmlefs fenfe. 
 
 UT, in mufick, the firft of the mufical notes. This 
 note, with the reft, were taken out of the hymn of St. 
 John Baptift. 
 
 UTENSIL, Utenfde , a little domeftick moveable, be¬ 
 longing principally to the kitchen. Such are pots, pans, 
 See. 
 
 Utensils, are more particularly ufed in war, for the 
 moveables which the lioft is obliged to furnifh the fol- 
 diers quartered with him ; which are, a bed with bed- 
 cloaths, a pot and a fpoon. 
 
 UTERINE, Uhrinus, fometbing belonging to the 
 uterus, or womb of a woman. 
 
 Furor UteRinUs, in medicine, denotes a kind of 
 irradnefs, attended by lafeivious fpeeches and geftures, 
 and an invincible inclination to venery. 
 
 UTERUS, the womb, in anatomy, a hollow body, 
 called alfo the matrix, of a form approaching to that of 
 a pear, fituated between the bladder and the reftum, ai\d 
 deftined to the office of generation, for the containing 
 the foetus. It is connefted in the anterior part with the 
 vagina, and at its lateral parts by the ligaments, lata and 
 rotunda, being loofe in its hinder part. 
 
 In women not with child, the length of the uterus is 
 about three inches; its breadth, in the upper part, be¬ 
 ing about two inches, and in the lower part one. Its 
 thicknefs is about an inch and an half: in virgins, in¬ 
 deed, it is much fmaller than this; but in women with 
 child it is of a different fize, according to the different 
 time of geftation. 
 
 Anatomifts divide it into two parts ; the upper and 
 broader part they call the fundus uteri, and the lower 
 they call the cervix, into which it is that the vagina opens. 
 See Vagina. 
 
 The orifice, or, as it is otherwife called, the internal 
 mouth of the womb, opens into the vagina, in form of 
 the glans penis in men : it is very final! in virgins, but 
 in women who have had children, or who are with child, 
 it is larger ; and in the laft it is always clofed up with 
 a glutinous humour : in the time of delivery, it in a 
 wonderful manner expands itfelf, fo as to give paffage to 
 the child. 
 
 UVEA, in anatomy, aciniformis tunica, the third 
 tunick or membrane of the eye, thus called, as refembling 
 the colour or figure of a grape. See Eye. 
 
 The hind part of this coat, or that next the orbit of 
 the eye on each fide, is called the choroidcs, and is de¬ 
 rived from the pia mater. 
 
 The anterior, or fore part, is like the former, tranf- 
 parent, but thinner, and is, by authors, reckoned as d 
 different tunick, and called uvea. 
 
 Of the duplicature of this part is formed that ftriped 
 variegated circle, called the iris. 
 
 And, in its middle, is a perforation, through which 
 appears a little black fpeck, which is the fight or pupil of 
 the eye, and about which the iris forms a ring. 
 
 From the infide of this membrane fpring certain fibres, 
 which fpread thcmfelves round the cryftalline humour, 
 ferving to contraft or dilate the fight at pleafure, and 
 called the ligamentum ciliare. 
 
 UVULARIA, in botany, a genus of plants, whofe 
 flower confifts of fix oblong, creft, lanceolated petals, 
 with an oblong neftariuin cut into the bale of each petal • 
 the ftamina are fix very fhort filaments, topped with long 
 ereft anther* ; the fruit is an ovato-oblong trilocular 
 caplule, containing many roundilh compreffed feeds. 
 
 VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranflation of tlm 
 bible, and the only one the church of Rome acknow¬ 
 ledges authentick. 
 
 The ancient Vulgate of the Old Teftament was trans¬ 
 lated almoft word for word from the Greek of the Seven¬ 
 'S T t y. 
 
W A L 
 
 WAR 
 
 ty. The author of the verfion is not known, nor to much 
 as guefied at. 
 
 VULNERARY, in medicine, an epithet given to 
 remedies proper for the cure of wounds and ulcers. 
 
 VULVA, a name which fome phyficians give to the 
 uterus, or womb. 
 
 Vulva is alfo, though lefs, properly ufed for the 
 cunnus, or pudendum muliebre. 
 
 Vulva, in anatomy, a round, foft, fpongious body, 
 like the end of a child’s finger, fufpended from the pa¬ 
 late, near the foramina of the nofirils, perpendicularly 
 Over the glottis* 
 
 Its ufe is to break the force of the cold air, and prevent 
 Its entering too precipitately into the lungs. 
 
 It is formed of a duplicature of a membrahe of the 
 palate, and is called, by fome authors, columella, and 
 by others gurgugiio. 
 
 It h moved by two pair of mufcles, and fufpended by 
 
 ]as many ligaments. The mufcles are the exterrlal, called 
 the fphenoftaphylimis, which draws the vulva upwards 
 and backwards, and hinders the mafiicated aliment from 
 !palling into the foramina of the nofinis in deglutition, 
 j And the internal, called the pterygoftaphylinus, which 
 draws the vulva upwards and forwards. 
 
 ! Both mufcles move the vulva upwards, to give room 
 for fwallowing; and ferve to raife it when relaxed and 
 fallen down. In which cafe it is ufcful to promote its 
 rifing, by applying a little beaten pepper in the end of a 
 fpoon to it. 
 
 Bartholin fays, that fuch as have no vulva are fubjeft 
 to the phthyfick, and ufually die thereof, by reafon the 
 cold, in entering the lungs too halfily, corrupts them. 
 
 UXORIUM, in antiquity, a fine or forfeit paid by 
 the Romans for not marrying. 
 
 UZIFIR, Uzufar, or Uzifur, in chymifiry, a 
 name which fome authors give to cinnabar. 
 
 W- 
 
 W A letter peculiar to' tbe northern languages nd 
 people. It is compounded of two (ingle V’s. 
 
 *) as is implied in the name. This letter, 
 though never ufed by the He brews, Greeks, Or Romans, 
 was yet among the Arabians and all the northern nations, 
 the Teutons, Germans, Saxons, and Britons, he. But 
 ftiII it is not ufeci by the Spaniards, French, Portuguefe, 
 or Italians. The letter is of an ambiguous nature, being 
 a confonant at the beginning of words, and a vowel at 
 the end , for it Hands before all vowels but u, as water 
 welfare, winter, woeful ; and is founded at the end like 
 u, as fovv, few, law ; it precedes r in wrath ; and fol¬ 
 lows s in fvvear , as all'o tli, in thwart. It is oblcure in 
 fhadow, widow, 6cc. 
 
 WADD, or Wadding, in gunnery, a Hopple of 
 paper, hay, Hraw, but at lea, fpun yarn, or rope yarn, 
 made from old junk forced into a gun upon the powder, 
 to keep itclofe in the chamber; and, where a cannon is 
 loaded with ball, there is one put in to keep it from roll¬ 
 ing out. 
 
 WAFT. To waft a (hip, to convey her fafe, as men 
 of war do merchant-fhips. 
 
 WAGER, or Waging, in law, fignifies the giving 
 fecurity for the performance of any thing. 
 
 WAGGONER, in aHronomy, part of the confiella- 
 tion Urfa major, called alfo Charles Wain. See the 
 article Ch arles Wain. 
 
 Waggoner, is alfo ufed for a routier, or book of 
 charts, deferibing the feas, their coaHs, he. 
 
 WAINSCOT, in building, the timber work ferving 
 to line the walls of a room ; being ufually in pannels, and 
 painted to ferve inHead of hangings. 
 
 According to Neve, wainfcoting with Norway oak, 
 the workman finding Huff, is valued at fix or feven 
 (hillings per yard fquare. Plain fquare wainfcoting, the 
 workman finding deal, is valued at three (hillings per 
 yard. Large biifeftion wainfcoting, with Dantzick Huff, 
 is valued at fix or feven (hillings per yard ; and ordinary 
 biffe&ion work about half as much. In taking dimen- 
 fions, they ufe a firing which they prefs into all the 
 mouldings ; it being a rule that they are to be paid for 
 all where the plane goes. 
 
 WAKE of a Ship, is the fmooth water a-Hern when 
 (lie is under fail. 
 
 WAKES, Vigil j, or Country Wakes, are certain an¬ 
 cient, anniverfary feafis in feveral parilhes, wherein the 
 people were to be awake at the feveral vigils, or hours, 
 to go to prayers. 
 
 They arc ufually obferved in the country on Sunday 
 next after the faint’s day to whom the pariOi church is 
 dedicated. 
 
 WALKERS, 3 fort of forefi officers appointed by the,, 
 a 
 
 king to walk a .certa’n fpace of ground committed to their 
 care and infpc&ion. 
 
 WALL, in architecture, a. work of brick, fione^ 
 wood, or the like, which make the.principal part of a 
 building, as ferving both to inclofe it, or feparate parti¬ 
 cular rooms, and to fuuport the roof, floors, he. 
 
 Method oj measuring Walls. Bricklayers mofi com¬ 
 monly meafure their walls by the rod fquare, each rod 
 being by the fiatute i6* feet; l'o that a fquare contains 
 27 24 fupcrficial feet. 
 
 Therefore, when they have taken the dimenfions (viz. 
 the length and height) of the wall in feet, they mu: .y 
 the length by the height, by crols multiplication, and 
 divide the product by 2724, and the quotient thews the 
 number of Iquare rods in the fuperficies of that wall. 
 
 But, it being troublefome to divide by 2724. work¬ 
 men have a cufiom to divide 272 only, which gives the 
 contents fomething more than the truth. 
 
 When they have then found the area, or contents of 
 the whole fuperficies of a wall, they in the next place 
 confider its thicknefs; for they have a certain thicknefs 
 ro which they reduce all their walls, and this Handard is 
 one brick and a half thick, as they pbrafe it, (i. e. the 
 length (fi one brick, and the breadth of another .) l'o that 
 a wall of three bricks thick, of the fame height and length 
 with another of one and a half brick thick, the former 
 will contain twice as many fquare r<jds as the latter. 
 
 Now, to reduce any wall to this Handard thicknefs, 
 take the following rule, which is plain and eafy : 
 
 Multiply the area by the number of half bricks in the 
 thicknefs of the wall, and divide that product by three \ 
 the quotient will give the true area, at the Handard thick¬ 
 nefs. 
 
 But, if the wall be of different thickneffis, as they 
 ufually are in brick houles, being made thickefi beluvy 
 and thinner at every fiory, then the befi way will be to 
 meafure every different thicknefs by jtfelf, and to reduce 
 it to the Handard thicknefs, and afterwards add all thefe 
 feveral areas into one fum; out of which dedinfi. the doors 
 and windows, meafured by themfelves, and the remainder 
 will be the true area or content of the whole walling. 
 
 Note, that in fome places it is the cufiom to meafure 
 by the rod of eighteen feet long, and in others by the 
 rod of fixteen feet. In the former cafe, the area in the 
 feet mufi be divided by three hundred and twenty-four, 
 and in the latter by three hundred and fifty-fix. 
 
 WAPENTAKE, or Weapentake, a divifion of 
 certain northern countries, particularly tliofe beyond tbe 
 Trent, anfwering to what in other places is called a hun¬ 
 dred or a cantred. 
 
 W AR, Bellum , a contefi or difference between princes, 
 Hates, or large bodies of people; which, not being de- 
 
 termmabia 
 
WAR 
 
 terminable by the ordinary meafures ofjudice and equity, | 
 is referred to the dccifion of the fword. 
 
 Hobbe’s great principle is, that the natural date of man 
 is a hate of warfare; moft other politicians hold war to 
 be a preternatural and extraordinary hate. 
 
 Civil , or Intejline War, is that between fubjefts of 
 the fame realm, or between parties in the fame hate. In 
 this fenfe, we fay the civil wars of the Romans dehroyed 
 the republick ; the civil wars of Granada ruined the 
 power of the Moors in Spain; the civil wars in England, 
 begun in 1641, ended in the king’s death, 1648. 
 
 Religious War, is a war maintained in a hate on ac¬ 
 count of religion, one of the parties refuhng to tolerate 
 the other. 
 
 Holy War, is that anciently maintained by leagues 
 and croifades, for the recovery of the Holy Land. 
 
 Council of War, is an aflembly of great officers, called 
 by a general or commander, to deliberate with him on 
 enterprifes and attempts to be made. On fome occafions, 
 council of war is alfo underhood of an ahembly of offi¬ 
 cers, fitting in judgment on delinquent foldiers, deferters, 
 coward officers, Sec. 
 
 WARD, is a word ufed in law books, in divers fig- 
 nifications. Thus a ward, in London, is a part of the 
 city committed to the fpecial charge of one of the alder¬ 
 men of the city. There are twenty-fix wards in Lon¬ 
 don, winch are as hundreds, and the parifhes thereof as 
 towns. A foreh is alfo divided into wards, and fo arc 
 mod of our hofpitals. 
 
 Ward, IVarda , or Wardagium , is alfo ufed, in our 
 ancient writings, for the cullody of a town or cable, 
 which the tenants and inhabitants were bound to keep at 
 their own chaige. 
 
 WARD A Ecclesi arum, the guardianfliip of 
 churches ; which is in the king, during vacancies, by 
 reafon of the regalia or temporalities. 
 
 WARDEN, Guardian , one who has the charge or 
 keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. 
 
 Warden, in an univerfity, the head of a college; 
 anfwering to what in other colleges we call the matter 
 thereof. 
 
 W arden, or Lord Warden, of the Cinque Ports , the 
 governor of thefe noted havens, who has the authority of 
 an admiral, and fends out writs in his own name. 
 
 Warden of the Mint , an officer whofe bufinefs it is 
 to receive the gold and filver bullion brought in by the 
 merchants to pay them for it, and overfee the other 
 officers. He is alfocalled keeper of the exchange and mint. 
 
 Ward -Hook, in gunnery, a rod or haff with an iron 
 end turned ferpentways, or like a ferevv, to draw the 
 wads oroakam out of a gun, when it is to be unloaded. 
 
 WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called which 
 is kept in every ward of the city, anfwering to the curiata 
 comitia, in ancient Rome. 
 
 WARDROBE, a clofet, or little room adjoining to a 
 bed-chamber, ferving to difpofe and keep a perfon’s ap¬ 
 parel in ; or, for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to 
 wait. See. 
 
 Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment 
 wherein his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceflaries 
 arc preferved under the care and direction of proper of¬ 
 ficers. 
 
 WARN, in law, to fummon a perfon to appear in a 
 court of juhice. 
 
 WARNING Wheel, in a clock, is the third or 
 fourth according to its dihance from the firh wheel. 
 
 WARP, in the manufactures, is the threads, whether 
 of filk, wool, limn, hemp, See. that are extended length¬ 
 ways on the weaver’s loom; and acrofs which the work¬ 
 man, by means of his fhuttJe, pafles the threads of the 
 Woof, to form a cloth, ribband, fuhian, or other matter. 
 
 For a woollen huh to have the neceflary qualities, it 
 is required that the threads of the warp be of the lame 
 kind of wool, and of the fame finenefs throughout; that 
 they be fized with Flanders or parchment fize, well pre¬ 
 pared, and that they be in fufficient number with regard 
 to the breadth of the huff to be wrought. 
 
 To War? a Ship , is to fhift her from one place to 
 another, when the wind and tide will permit it without 
 danger. 
 
 WARRANT, an aft, inhrument, or obligation, 
 whereby a perfon anthorifes another to do l'omething 
 >vhich he otherwilc had not a right to do. 
 
 WAS 
 
 I Warrant of Attorney , is that whereby a man ap- 
 I points another to do fomething in his name, and warrants 
 his aftion. It teems to differ from a letter of attorney, 
 which paffes under hand and leal of him who. makes it, 
 before creditable witnefles; whereas, warrant of attorney, 
 in pcrfonal, mixed, and fome real aftions, is put in of 
 courfe by the attornies for the plaintiffs or defendants. 
 
 WARRANTY, IVarrantu y a promife or covenant 
 by deed, made by the bargainer for hnnfelf and his 
 heirs, to warrant and lecure the bargainee and liis heirs 
 againft all men, for enjoying the thing agreed on between 
 them. 
 
 Warrantia Chcrfa, a writ that lies for a perfon 
 who is enfeoffed in lands and tenements, with clauie of 
 warranty, and is impleaded in an affize, or writ of entry, 
 wherein he cannot vouch or call to warranty. 
 
 Warrantia, Diet, a vvrit vvhich lies i n cafe where 
 a man, having a day affigned perfonally to appear in 
 court to an aftion wherein he is fued, is, in tne mean 
 time, by commandment employed in the king’s lervice ; 
 fo that he cannot come at the day affigned. It is direfted 
 to the juftices, ordering them not to find or record him 
 in default. 
 
 WARREN, JVarrena , a franchife, or place privileged 
 cither by prefeription or grant from the king, to keep 
 beads and fowl or warren in; as rabbits, hares, par¬ 
 tridges, pheafants, Sec. 
 
 By a datute 21 Edward III. a warren may lie open, 
 and there is no need of clofing it in, as there is a park. 
 
 WART, Perucca, a little round hard excrefccnce 
 ariiing on the flefh like a pea. 
 
 A wart begins at the cutis, and feems to be either'an 
 cfflorelcence of the ferum of the blood, which hardening 
 in the luriace ot the ikin, makes a drv tumour, or elfe 
 lomc fiuall luxuriancy ol the little arteries of the cutis, 
 which thrud out theinfclves, making a petty larcoma, 
 which we call a loft wart. 
 
 According tp the variety of the tumour, it is fometirms 
 whole with a fmooth furface, fometimes chapped and 
 uneven. 
 
 1 he method of cure which deferves to he fird men¬ 
 tioned, is by ligature or vinfture ; this is performed upon 
 fuch of thefe excreicences as are fiendcr about the roots, 
 and in a manner pendant, by firmly tying about them 
 an horfe hair, or a filken or linen thread. The warts, 
 being deprived of the juices which nourilh them through 
 a condriftion of the veffels by the ligature, gradually 
 wither and fall away. 
 
 Another method of cure, is by the furgeon’s indru- 
 ment, in which the wart is taken up by an hook, or 
 forceps, and then very nicely feparated by the feiffars. 
 T he wound is treated for fome time with an application 
 of the lapis infernalis, or fome other corroding medi¬ 
 cine, that, if any part of a root ffiould remain, from 
 which a new tubercle might arife, it may be confumed 
 and dedroyed. 
 
 WASHING, in painting, is when a defign, drawn 
 with a pen or crayon, has fome one colour laid over it 
 with a pencil, as Indian ink, bidre, or the like, to make 
 it appear the more natural, by adding the fhadow of pro¬ 
 minences, apertures, See. 
 
 Thefe walhes are ufually given in equal teints or de¬ 
 grees throughout; which are afterwards brought down 
 and foftened over the lights with fair water, and drength- 
 ened with deeper colours lor the lhadows. 
 
 Washing of Colours. Some colours are of fuch a 
 gritty, Tandy nature, that it is impofiible to grind them 
 lo fine as l'ome curious works require ; therefore, in order 
 ro get forth the flour and finenels of the colour, you mud 
 do thus: 
 
 Take what quantity of colour you plcafe to waff, and 
 put it into a veflel of fair water; dir it about till the 
 water be all coloured therewith, and, if any filth fwim 
 on the top of the water, feum it clean off, and when you 
 think the groffed of the colour is fettled at the bottom, 
 then pour off that water into another earthen vcflel that 
 is large enough to contain the fird veflel full of water 
 four or five times ; then pour more water into the fird 
 veflel, and lbr the colour that remains till the wat^r be 
 thick ; and after it is a little fettled, pour the water alfo 
 into the fecond veflel, and fill the fird veflel again with 
 water, flirring it as before ; do this fo often, as till you 
 find all the fined of the colour drawn forth, and thas 
 
 nope 
 
WAT 
 
 110nc but coarfc gittry fluff remains in the bottom ; then 
 let tliis water in the fecond vcflel Hand to fettle till it is 
 perfc&Iy clear, and that all the colour be funk to the 
 bottom ; which when you perceive, then pour the water 
 clear from it, and referve the colour in the bottom for 
 u'e, which mull be perfectly dried before you mix it with 
 oil to work. 
 
 7 he colours thus ordered, are red lead, blue and green 
 bicc, verditer, blue and green fmalt, and many times 
 opanilh brown, when you would cleanfe it well from 
 itones for fome fine work, as alfo yellow oker, when you 
 intend to make gold fize of it. 
 
 Washing, or Washes, among goldfmiths, coin- 
 eis, See. are the lotions whereby they recover the parti¬ 
 cles of gold and fil ver out of the fvveep ; i. e. allies, earths 
 iweepings, Sec. of their lliops. 
 
 I hele matters being ground and mixed together, are 
 put m large wooden bafons, where they arc walhed in 
 -everal waters which run off by inclination into troughs 
 underneath ; carrying with them the earth, and the in¬ 
 fallible particles of the metals, and only leaving behind 
 them the larger and more confiderable ones which are 
 vilible to the eye, and taken out by the hand without 
 more trouble. 
 
 J o get out the finer pai ts gone off with the earth, they 
 ulc quickfilver and a wafhing-mill. 
 
 I his mill confiftsof a large wooden trough, at bottom 
 of which are two metalline parts, ferving as mill-ftones ; 
 the lower being convex, and the upper, which is in form 
 of a crofs, concave. 
 
 At the top is a winch placed horizontally, which turns 
 the upper piece round ; and at bottom, a bung to let out 
 the water and earth, when fufficicntly ground. 
 
 1 he trough is filled with common water, into which 
 they call thirty or forty pounds of quickfilver, and two or 
 three gallons of the matter remaining from the firll lo¬ 
 tion. 1 hen turning the winch, they give motion to the 
 upper mill-ftone, which grinding the matter and the 
 quickfilver violently together, the particles of gold and 
 filver become the more cafily amalgamated therewith. 
 
 1 his work they continue for two hours, when, opening 
 the bung, the water and earth runs out, and a frelh 
 quantity is put in. 
 
 1 he earths are eafily palled thus through the mill three 
 times, and the fame quantity of mercury ufually lerves 
 all the three times. When there is nothing left in the 
 mill but the mercury united with the gold or filver 
 which it lias amalgamated, they take it out, and waffl¬ 
 ing it in divers waters, they put it in a ticking bag, 
 and lay it in a prefs to fqueeze out the water, and the 
 loofe quick-filvci ; the remaining quickfilver they eva¬ 
 porate by fire, in a retort, or an alembick. 77 ie "metal 
 which remains they refine with lead, or part it with aqua 
 fortis. 
 
 WAST, or W aste, Vajhun, in law, has divers fig- 
 nifications. It is ufed for a fpoil, made either in houfes. 
 woods, lands/ See. by the tenant for life or for years, to 
 the prejudice of the heir, or of him in reverfion or re¬ 
 mainder. 
 
 Upon this the writ of wafle is brought for recovery of 
 the thing waffed, and treble damages. 
 
 Waste of the ForeJ}, is properly where a man cuts 
 down his own woods within the foreft, without licence 
 of the king, or lord chief juflice in eyre. 
 
 Waste is alfo taken for thole lands which are not in 
 any man s occupation, but lie common. 
 
 1 hey feein to be fo called becaufe the lord cannot 
 make fuch profit of them, as of his other lands, by rea- 
 fon of the ufe others have thereof, for palling to and fro. 
 Upon this none may build, cut down trees, dig, Sc c. 
 without the lord’s licence. 
 
 Waste oj a Ship, is that part of her between the 
 main and fore malls. 
 
 W' a ste-Boards, are boards fometimes fet upon the 
 fide of a boat, or other veil'd, to keep the fea from break¬ 
 ing into her. 
 
 WATCH is ufed for a corps de guards polled at any 
 palTage, or a company of guards who go on the patrole. 
 
 atcil, at fea, fignifies a meafure or fpace of four 
 hours, becaufe half the lhip’s company watch and do 
 duty in their turns, fo long at a time ; and they are 
 termed liar-board watch, and larboard watch. 
 
 Watch is alfo ufed for a final! portable movement 
 
 W A T 
 
 of timc ■ “ aving moti * & 
 
 Watches, ftriaiy taken, are all fuch movements as 
 lhcw the parts of time ; as docks are fuch as publifh it 
 by linking on a bell, &c. But, commonly, the name 
 watch is appropriated to fuch as are carried inthe pocket, 
 and clock to the large movements, whether thev {hike 
 or not. 7 
 
 Watch-Work, is that part of the movement of 
 a clock or watch which is defigned to meafure and ex¬ 
 hibit the time on a dial-plate, in contradiftimftion to that 
 part which contributes to the ilriking of the hour, See 
 which is called clock-work. 
 
 1 lie ievcral members of the watch part are, 1. The 
 balance, conlilting of the rim, which is its circular part, 
 and the verge, which is its fpindle; to which belong the 
 two pallets or levers that play in the teetfi of the crown¬ 
 wheel. 
 
 2. The potence, or pottance, which is the flrong ftud 
 
 in pocket watches, whereon the lower pevet of the verge 
 plays, and 111 the middle of which one pevet of the ba¬ 
 lance-wheel plays; the bottom of the potence is called 
 the foot, the middle part the nole, and the upper part 
 the Ihoulder. ri r 
 
 3. 1 he clock, which is the piece covering the balance. 
 
 4. The regulator or pendulum fpring, which is rite 
 finall fpring in the new pocket-watches underneath the 
 balance. 
 
 5. The pendulum, wliofc parts are the verge, pallets 
 cocks, and the bob. 
 
 6. 1 he wheels, which arc the crown-wheel in pocket- 
 pieces, and fwing-vvhcel in pendulums, ferving to drive 
 the balance or pendulum. 
 
 7. 1 he contrate-vvheel, which is that next the crown • 
 wheel, See. and whole teeth and hoop lie contrary to thole 
 of other wheels; whence the name. 
 
 8. i he great, or find wheel, which is that the fufee. 
 See. immediately drives : after which are the lecond wheel, 
 third wheel, See. 
 
 Laflly, between the frame and dial-plate, is the pinion 
 of report, which is that fixed on the arbour of the great 
 wheel, and ferves to drive the dial-wheel, as that lerves 
 to carry the hand. 
 
 I' or the theory and calculation of watch-work, fee the 
 article Clock. 
 
 ^ -^TER, in general, implies a pellucid fluid, con¬ 
 vertible into ice by cold ; naturally pervading the ftratai 
 of the earth, and flowing on its lurfacc. 
 
 Pure water would require a definition very different 
 from this, that of a limpid and colourlels liquor, without 
 Intel] or tafle, Ample and volatile. But fuch a definition 
 would not include the waters impregnated with metalline, 
 flony, labile, and other foflile particles. 
 
 7 he figure of the component parts of water appears 
 to be Tmooth and fpherical, like thofe of quickfilver ; 
 whence it becomes extremely moving and penetrating. 
 
 I bus it readily enters the pores of wood, leathers, fkins, 
 chords, mu flea 1 firings, Sec. thus likewife it becomes 
 capable of moving and agitating particles of matter lefs 
 adlive than itfclf, and fo proves the more immediate 
 phyfical agent of fermentation, putrefadljon, folution, 
 See. and thus it alfo conveys earthy and faline matters 
 through filtres of paper, flonc, Sec. and even raifes fome 
 proportion of them in dillillations. Its particles like- 
 wile appear to be extremely minute, and fo have a large 
 fhare of fur face. 
 
 Hence water is admirably fitted for a folvent, or for 
 readily entering the pores of falts, and coming into full 
 contact with all their particles ; and fhus it will pafs 
 where air cannot, on account of its moiflure, or lubri¬ 
 cating power, whereby it fallens mucilaginous matters, 
 and will therefore foak through the clofe pores of a bladder. 
 
 The fpecifick gravity of water, and confequently its 
 goodnefs by its lightnels, are to be diredlly judged of by 
 the hydroftatical balance. This experiment is a good 
 lubflitute for feveral other ways of examining the purity 
 and goodnefs of waters, both common and mineral ; for 
 it appears by numerous inflances, that light waters are,' 
 ceteris paribus, the beft, pureil, and wholeforneft. That 
 water is accounted bell and wholeforneft, which is not 
 only the lighteft and freeft from earthy fediment, but 
 that which is moil fpirituous ; and thele properties arc 
 ulually found in pure rain-water; that being naturally* 
 
 ^ftilied 
 
W A T 
 
 W A T 
 
 diilillcd from the ocean end rivers, or by the heat of [ with fevera! ingredients that it diffolves or drinks up ill 
 the lun railed up into the atmofphere, from whence it its paftage through the earth. 
 
 ..... ......V. ...c uum/ijrjjut, J1U1U WMCIICC 11 
 
 is returned much after the manner of common diftil- 
 lation. 
 
 Dr. Shaw, from a great variety of experiments, made 
 upon water, deduces the following axioms : 
 
 Firft, That water is naturally contained in fomeof the 
 drieft and hardeft bodies, and in the drieft air. 2. That 
 itfelf naturally contains an earthy fubftance. 3. That 
 it is the proper menftruum of falts, diffolving more of 
 one, and lefs of another. 4. That one good fign of its 
 purity and wholcfomenefs is levity. 5. That the ingre¬ 
 dients of a mineral water may be difeovered by chymical 
 expedients: and, 6. That mineral waters are imitable 
 by art from l'uch difcovery. 
 
 Secondly, That water is of infinite ufe in all the works 
 both of nature and art, as without it there could be no 
 generation, nutrition, or accretion, performed in any of 
 the animal, vegetable, mineral, marine, or atmofpheri- 
 cal regions. The blood could not flow in the veins, the 
 fap in the veffels of vegetables, nor the particles of mine¬ 
 rals concrete and grow together, without water. It is 
 this that makes the largefl part of our blood, our drink, 
 and other aliments. 1 here could be no corruption, fer¬ 
 mentation, or difiolution, carried on without it; no 
 brewing, no difliiling, no wines, no vinegar, no fpirits, 
 made without it. 
 
 I hirdly, 1 hat we meet with water under an infinite 
 variety of forms, and in an infinite variety of bodies, as 
 that of air, vapour, clouds, fnow, hail, ice, fap, wines, 
 blood, flefh, bone, horn, ilone, &c. through all which 
 it feems to pals unaltered, as an agent or instrument that 
 fufFers no alteration by re-aftion, but remains capable of 
 refuming the form of water again upon any occafion. 
 
 Fourthly, That water, in its own common itate, ap¬ 
 pears to be a combination of all the elements together, as 
 containing a quantity of fire, which keeps it fluid ; a 
 quantity-of %j-r, and a quantity of earth : whence it can 
 be no wonder that water alone, as it appears to the fenfes, 
 fliould fulfice for vegetation in fome cales, where little 
 earth is wanted, or lor fupporting animal and mineral 
 life, where no great degree of nutriment is required ; and 
 hence it proves a gluten, or cement, to fome bodies, and 
 a folvent to others ; thus it confolidates brick, plaftcr of 
 Paris, Hone, bone, he. but diffolves lalts, and fubtile 
 earths approaching to falts, and becomes the inHrumen- 
 tal caufe of their action. 
 
 Fifthly, That water conveys nourifbment, or a more 
 fixed and folid matter to the parts of vegetables, where 
 having depolited it, the finer fluid perfpires into the at- 
 mofphere, which give;, us the phyfical caufe of the damp- 
 uefs and unwholefomenefs of woody countries, as they 
 remarkably find in America. For all large vegetables aft 
 after the manner of forcing-pumps, continually draw in 
 large quantities of water at their roots, and difeharge it 
 at their leaves, which intimates a method of colle&ing 
 water in dry countries, and likewife of making Halt- 
 water frefh. 
 
 Sixthly, That the water, in palling through plants, 
 after having depofited its more terreflrial part, does not 
 always go off pure, but impregnated with the finer efflu¬ 
 via, or more fubtile particle of the vegetable ; thus, 
 making an atmofphere round every plant, according to 
 its nature, odoriferous or otherwife, which fupplies us 
 with a rule for procuring the odoriferous waters of vege¬ 
 tables by diflillation. 
 
 Seventhly, That the particles, not fine enough to go 
 off thus along with the water, are left behind upon the 
 furfacc of the leaves and flowers of plants, being now 
 thickened or firained from their moifter parts, and re¬ 
 maining in the form of honey, manna, gums, ballams, 
 &c. according to the nature of the vegetable. And hence 
 appeals the phyfical caufe of plants proving more odori¬ 
 ferous and fweet when the weather is .both warm and 
 moifl, as immediately after a Hummer's fhower. 
 
 Eighthly, That the chymical operator fhould form to 
 liimfelf an hygrometer, for the fervice of his elaboratory, 
 to determine the proportion of water at all times con¬ 
 tained in the air, which continually mixes with his pre¬ 
 parations, differently augments their weight, and pro¬ 
 motes or hinders many of his operations. 
 
 Ninthly, 1 hat pure water makes the largefl part of 
 mineral-waters, where it is impregnated as a menftruum, 
 
 Vol. II. No. 77. 
 
 Water is of the utmoft ufe in divers of the mechanical 
 arts and occafions of life, as in the motion of mills, 
 engines, fountains, and other machines ; the conftruc- 
 tion of all which, fubfervient thereto, or founded there- 
 on, as liphons, pumps, &c. make the fubjeft of hv- 
 draulicks. 
 
 The laws, properties, &c. of this fluid, with refpeft 
 to its motion, gravitation, prelfion, elevation, action, 
 momenta, and velocities, &c. which make the fubjeft of 
 hydroftaticks, may be feen under the articles Fluid, 
 Hydrostaticks, Hydraulicks, he. 
 
 Water, in hydography and geography, is a com¬ 
 mon or general name applied to all liquid tranfparent 
 bodies, gliding or flowing on the earth ; in which fenfe, 
 water and earth are faid to conftitutc our terraqueous 
 globe. 
 
 For the periodical changes, to which the water of the 
 fea is liable, fee Ebb, Flux, and Tides. 
 
 Waters, in medicine, pharmacy, &c. called alfo 
 artificial and medicated waters, are a kind of liquors 
 procured or prepared by art from divers bodies, princi¬ 
 pally of the vegetable tribe, having various properties, 
 and ferving for various properties. 
 
 Thefe waters are either Ample, or compound : Ample 
 waters are thole procured from fome one vegetable body, 
 the intention of which is to draw out the virtues of the 
 herb, feed, flower, root, or the like, fo as it may be 
 more conveniently given in that form than any other. 
 
 J he means whereby this reparation is effeHed, are either 
 evaporation, infufion, decodtion, or diflillation. 
 
 Compound waters, or thole wherein feveral ingredi¬ 
 ents arc ufed, are very numerous, and make a large ar- 
 tic c in commerce, fome prepared by the apothecaries, 
 according to the difpenfatory preferipts, for medicinal 
 ules; others by the diftillers, to be drank by way of 
 dram ; and others by the perfumers, &c. They are 
 diflinguilhed by different epithets, in refpeft either of 
 (he fpecifick virtues of the water, or the parts of the body 
 for the cure whereof they are intended, or the difeales 
 they aie good againft, or the ingredients they are com¬ 
 pounded of, or their different ufes, &c. 
 
 And as thefe waters are exceeding numerous, and the 
 manner of making them is not always the fame, we muft 
 refer the chymical or medical reader to the difpenfatories, 
 wherein he will find, that every one gives his own me¬ 
 thod as the beft. 
 
 We have only three general remarks to add, with re¬ 
 gard to thole intended for drinking, viz. 
 
 1. I hat fucli wherein any thing is infufed, as bruifed 
 fruits, pounded herbs, &c. or ground fpices, mull be 
 always paffed through a filtre, to make them finer and 
 purer. 
 
 2. That thofe made with brandy, or fpirit of wine, 
 are ufually diftilled after mixing their ingredients, which 
 renders thofe liquors exceeding ftrong and dangerous. 
 
 3. That the waters which take their names from par¬ 
 ticular things, as cinnamon, &c. have often fome other 
 ingredients joined with them, according to the tafte or 
 lmell required. 
 
 Holy- Water, a water prepared every Sunday in the 
 Komilh church, with divers prayers, exorcilms, he. 
 ulcd by the people to ciofs themfelves withal, at theil 
 entrance to and going out of church ; and pietended to 
 have the vntue of wafhing away venial fins, driving 
 away devils, prefervmg from thunder, difiolving charms! 
 lecunng from, or curing difeales, he. 
 
 Many of the reformed take the ufe of holy-water to 
 have been borrowed from the luftral-watcr of the an¬ 
 cient Romans. See Lustration, he. 
 
 Water-Ordeal, ox 1 rial, among our anceftors 
 was of two kinds, by hot and by cold water. 
 
 Trial, or purgation, by boiling or hot water, was a 
 way of proving crimes, by immerging the body, or arm 
 m hot water, with divers religious ceremonies. In the 
 judgment by boiling water, the accufed, or he who per- 
 lonated the accufed, was obliged to put his naked arm 
 mto a caldron full of boiling water, and to draw out a 
 hone thence placed at a greater or lefs depth, according 
 to the quality of the crime. This done, the arm was 
 wrapped up, and the judge fet his feal on the cloth, and 
 at the end of three days they returned to view it. when 
 5 u 'if 
 
W A T 
 
 if it was found without any fcald, the accufed was de¬ 
 clared innocent. 
 
 The nobles, or great perfonages, purged thcmfelves 
 thus, by hot-water, and the populace by cold water. 
 
 The trial, or purgation by cold water, was thus : 
 after certain prayers and other ceremonies, the accufed 
 was fwaddlcd, or tied up, all in a pelotoon or lump, 
 and thus call into a river, lake, or veflel, of cold water, 
 where, if he funk, he was held criminal; if he floated, 
 innocent. 
 
 In the Levitical law, we find mention made of water 
 which lerved to prove, whether or no a woman was an 
 adultrefs; the formula, as it was performed by the 
 prieft, may be feen in the fifth chapter of the book of 
 Numbers. 
 
 Water, among jewellers, is properly the colour or 
 luftre of diamonds and pearls. The term, though lefs 
 properly, is fometimes ufed for the hue or colour of 
 other {tones. 
 
 Water-Measure. Salt, fea-coal,&c. while aboard 
 veflels in the pool or river, are meafured with the corn- 
 bufhel heaped up; or elfe five {tricked pecks are allowed 
 to the bufhel. This is called water-meafure. 
 
 Water-Mill, a machine for grinding corn, &c. 
 driven by the water. 
 
 In water-mills, the momentum of the falling water is 
 the power; the force to be overcome is the great attri¬ 
 tion of the two itones in grinding the corn, he. which 
 is effected wholly by a complication of wheels and axles. 
 A query may here be put, Why, fmee the power con- 
 flantly a£ts upon the wheel, the motion of the wheel 
 fhould be equable, and not accelerated ? The anfwer is. 
 The increments of velocity keep riling, till their mo¬ 
 mentum is equalled by the reflftance of the machine ; 
 
 - q e r which equilibrium, the wheel goes ©n with an uni¬ 
 form motion. 
 
 Water-Shoot, a young fprig which fpringsoutof 
 the root or flock of a tree. 
 
 Water-Table, in archite&ure, a fort of ledge left 
 inftone, or brick walls, about eighteen or twenty inches 
 from the ground, from which place the thicknefs of the 
 wall begins to abate. 
 
 Water-Way, in a {hip, is a fmall ledge of timber, 
 lying fore and aft on the deck, dole by her fldes, to 
 keep the water from running down there. 
 
 Water-Works, in general, denote all manner of 
 machines moved by, or employed in railing or fuftaining 
 water ; in which fenfe, water-mills of all kinds, fluices, 
 aqucdu&s, &c. may be called water-works. 
 
 The term water-works, however, is more particularly 
 ufed for luch machines as are employed only in raifing 
 water. 
 
 Explanation of Plate LXXVIII, reprefenting the Water¬ 
 works at Nympbemburg. 
 
 Thehydraulick machine atNymphemburgh was ere&ed 
 by order of the eleiflor of Bavaria, in order to fupply the 
 gardens of that palace with water. It was proje&ed by 
 the Count de Whal, mailer of the works to that prince, 
 and is a well-contrived machine for anlwering the pur- 
 pofes intended. It raifes the water fixty feet high into 
 a refervoir erefted in the gardens for its reception. 
 
 We have given two views of this ufeful machine in 
 Plate LXXVIII. and, inordcr to render its conftruftion 
 more ealy to be underflood, the fame letters are placed in 
 both figures to the fame parts of the machine. 
 
 Fig. i. Is a front perfpeftive view of the whole ma¬ 
 chine, when the building in which the pumps, he. are 
 inclofed is taken away. And [fig- 2.) an oblique per- 
 fpe&ive view of one half of the machine, the other being 
 inclofed in the building. 
 
 The machine confifls of twelve forcing pumps, con- 
 ftrufted in the common form j and are worked in the 
 following manner : 
 
 A, K [fig. i.) are cranks at the ends of the axis of the 
 water-wheel. From thefe cranks firong iron rods, B, B, 
 are extended to the balances C, C, (fee both figures.) 
 Thefe cranks, by their revolutions, give an alternative 
 motion to the balances, and confequently caule the pif- 
 ton rods, F, F, taftened to each fide of the balances, to 
 move up and down in an alternate manner. G, G, G, 
 are the upper parts of the tubes of the pumps, three of 
 which on each fide of the machine, are fixed in the 
 troughs II, I, K. From each of thefe pumps is a tube 
 
 WAV 
 
 L, L, L, through which the water is forced up by the 
 motion of the piflons. Thefe three tubes unite into one 
 large pipe t O, a little above the wood-work of the ma¬ 
 chine ; and foon after, the pipes O, O, unite into a ftill 
 larger one, as P, P. The latter are continued to the 
 refervoir erefted to receive the water. The troughs irl 
 which the pumps are fixed, are fupplied with water by 
 the condudl pipe R. 
 
 The whole machine is put in motion by means of the 
 water in the canal Q_, which, falling down an inclined 
 plane, turns the great water-wheel, and confequently 
 works the forcing pumps. 
 
 WATERING, in the manufactures, is to give a luftre 
 to fluffs, he. by w’etting them lightly with gum-water, 
 and then pafiing them through the prefs, or calender, 
 whether hot or cold. 
 
 The gum-water ought to be pure, thin, and clear, 
 otherwife the folds of the fluff will flick together : the 
 operation muft alfo be performed when the water is very 
 hot, that it may penetrate. 
 
 WAVE, Unda , in philofophy, a cavity in the furface 
 of water, or other fluid, with an elevation afide thereof. 
 See Fluid. 
 
 The waves of the fea are of two kinds, natural and 
 accidental. The natural w T aves are thofe which are ex¬ 
 actly proportioned in fize to the llrength of the wind, 
 whole blowing gives origin to them. The accidental 
 w-aves are thofe occafioned by the wind’s re-adling upon 
 itl'elf by re-percuffion, from hills and mountains, or high 
 fhores, and by the wafhing of the waves thcmfelves, 
 otherwife of the natural kind, againft rocks and {heals: 
 all thefe cafes give the waves an elevation, which they 
 can never have in their natural ftate. 
 
 Mr. Boyle has proved, by numerous experiments, that 
 the moft violent wind never penetrates deeper than fix 
 feet into the water; and it fhould feern a natural confe- 
 quence of this, that the water moved by it can only be 
 elevated to the fame height of fix feet from the level of 
 the furface in a calm : and this fix feet of elevation being 
 added to the fix of excavation, in the part whence that 
 water fo elevated was railed, fhould give twelve feet for 
 the utmoft elevation of a wave. 
 
 This is a calculation that does great honour to its au¬ 
 thor ; for Count Marfigli meafured carefully the elevation 
 of the waves near Provence, and found that, in a very 
 violent tempeft, they arofe only to feven feet above the 
 natural level of the fea, and this additional foot in 
 height he eafily refolved into the accidental {hocks of 
 the water againft the bottom, which was, in the place 
 he meafured them in, not fo deep as to be out of the 
 way of afFefting the waves; and he allows, that the ad¬ 
 dition of one-fixth of the height of a wave, from fuch 
 a difturbance from the bottom, is a very moderate alte¬ 
 ration from what would have been its height in a deep 
 fea ; and concludes, that Mr. Boyle’s calculation holds 
 perfectly right in deep feas, where the waves are purely 
 natural, and have no accidental caqfes to render them 
 larger than their juft proportion. 
 
 In deep water, under the high {bores of the fame part 
 of France, this author found the natural elevation of 
 the waves to be only five feet; but he found alio, that 
 their breaking againft rocks, and other accidents, to 
 which they were liable in this place, often raifed them to 
 eight feet high. 
 
 We are not to fuppofe, from this calculation, that no 
 wave of the fea can rile more than fix feet above its 
 natural level in open and deep water ; for waves im- 
 menfely higher than thefe are formed, in violent tem- 
 pefts, in the great feas. Thefe, however, are not to be 
 accounted waves in their natural ftate, but they are 
 Angle waves formed of many others ; for in thefe w r ide 
 plains of water, when one wave is raifed by the wind, 
 and w r ould elevate itfclf up to the exatt height of fix 
 feet, and no more, the motion of the water is fo great, 
 and the fucceffion of the waves fo quick, that, during 
 the time this is rifing, it receives into it feveral other 
 waves, each of which would have been at the fame 
 height with itfelf; thefe run into the firft wave, one after 
 another, as it is rifing ; by this means its rife is conti¬ 
 nued much longer than it naturally would have been, 
 and it becomes terribly great. A number of thefe com¬ 
 plex w’aves arifing together, and being continued in a 
 long fucceffion, by the continuation of the ftorm, makes 
 

 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 I ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
WAX 
 
 t\ie waves fo dangerous to fhips, which the Tailors, in 
 their phrafe, call mountains high. 
 
 Wave-Offering, in Jewifh antiquity, a lacrifice 
 offered by agitation, or waving, towards the four cardi¬ 
 nal points of the compafs. See Sacrifice. 
 
 WAVED, Wavy, or Wavey, in heraldry, is faid 
 of a bordure, or any ordinary, or charge, in a coat of 
 arms, having its out-lines indented, in manner of the 
 rifing and failing of waves : it is ufed to denote, that the 
 firtt of the family in whofe arms it Hands, acquired its 
 honours for fea-fervice. 
 
 WAVING, in the Tea-language, is the making figns 
 to a vcfiel to come near, or keep off. 
 
 WAX, or Bees- Wax, in natural hiftory, a firm and 
 folid fubftance, moderately heavy, and of a fine yellow 
 colour, formed by the bees from the farina of flowers, 
 which they work up and comprels into a mafs, or fort 
 of cake, and of which they form their lioncy-combs. 
 See Apis. 
 
 The beft fort is that of a lively yellow colout, and 
 an agreeable fmell, fomewhat like that of honey : when 
 new, it is toughilh, yet eafy to break ; but by age it 
 becomes harder and more brittle, lofes its fine colour, 
 and in a great meafure its fmell. 
 
 From the common yellow wax, bv the mere effeCt of 
 fun and air, or by what is called bleecliing, is formed 
 what we term white wax, and fomc, very improperly, 
 virgin wax. As the greater the furface is in proportion 
 to the quantity, the fooner and more perfectly this ope¬ 
 ration is performed. 1 he ufual way is to melt the wax 
 in hot water; when melted, they prefs it through a 
 {trainer of tolerable fine linen, and pour it into round 
 and very (hallow moulds. When hardened by cooling, 
 it is taken out andexpoied to the fun and air, fprinkling 
 it now and then with water,' and often turning it; by 
 this means, it foon becomes white. 1 he belt fort is of 
 a clear and almoft tranfparent whitenels, dry. hard, brittle, 
 and of an agreeable fmell, like that of the yellow wax, 
 but much weaker. 
 
 The common yellow wax is of very great ufe, both 
 in medicine and many of the arts and manufactures. It 
 is fometimes given internally, as in dyfenteries, and other 
 erofiohs of the inteftines ; but its great ufe is in the 
 making of ointments and plaifters for ex..rnal ufe, and 
 the greater part of thofe of the (hops owe their confid¬ 
 ence to it. The white wax is alfo an ingredient in fome 
 of the cerates and ointments of the (hops; and is ufed 
 in making candles, and in many of the nicer arts and 
 manufactures, where wax is required. 
 
 j Preparations of Wax. The butter and oil of wax 
 are thus prepared: cut the wax in pieces, and put them 
 into a retort, which mull be half filled with thefe 
 pieces ; and the reft of the retort being filled with fand, 
 it muft be placed in a fand furnace. At firft, an acid 
 fpirit arifes; and afterwards a thick oil, called the butter 
 of wax, fticks in the neck of the retort, unlefs it be 
 heated by applying a live coal. I his may be rectified 
 into a thin oil, by diftilling it fcveral times, without ad¬ 
 dition, in a fand heat. 
 
 The butter is an extremely foft and anodyne unguent, 
 highly emollient and relaxing, agreeable to the nerves, 
 and, when rubbed on contracted limbs, proves of great 
 benefit to them. It is an excellent liniment for the piles, 
 and takes off the pain attending them in a very fudden 
 and furprizing manner. It alio keeps the {kin foft, and 
 is one of the beft things known to keep it from cracking 
 
 or chopping in the winter. 
 
 The oil of wax has alfo a very Angular virtue in 
 curing contracted tendons, and reftoring flexibility to the 
 parts. It cures chapped nipples in women who give 
 fuck, beyond any ether application ; and it is as fuccels- 
 ful again ft chapped lips, and the cracking ol the fkin of 
 the hands, only rubbing them once in three or four 
 days with it. It is alfo of great ufe in difeufling cold tu¬ 
 mours arifing on the face, and thofe on the fingers in 
 winter. _ 
 
 G afting-W ax, a compofition ferving to bind the 
 graft to the cleft of the ftock. } or the manner of making 
 which, fee the article Grafting. 
 
 Sea/ing-'W ax, a compofition ufed in fealing letters, 
 &c. Fine fealing-wax is made in the following manner : 
 
 Take half a pound of fhell-lack, an ounce of Ver¬ 
 million, and a drachm of gum benjamin; melt and mix 
 
 W E A 
 
 I them well over the fire, and when of a proper cooTnels, 
 
 I make it up into rolls or cakes. , 
 
 Green fealing Wax is made after the fame manner, 
 and in the fame proportions, by mixing with the ingre¬ 
 dients verdigreafe inftead of Vermillion. 
 
 Blue Jealifig Wax is alfo made after the fame manner, 
 by putting in fine blue fmalt, or ultramarine. 
 
 Purple fealing Wax is made by putting in Vermillion 
 mixed with ivory-black, or lamp-black. 
 
 Black Jealmg Wax is made with ivory-black, inftead 
 of vermillion. 
 
 WAY, a paffage or road. 
 
 Milky- Way. See Galaxy. 
 
 W ay of a Ship, is fometimes the fame as her rake, or 
 run, forward or backward : but this term is molt com¬ 
 monly underftood of her failing. Thus when fhe goes 
 apace, it is faid that fhe hath a good way, or makes a 
 freffi way. So when an account is kept how far fhe fails, 
 by the log, it is called keeping an account of her way ; 
 and becaufe moft fhips are apt to fall a little to leeward 
 of their true courfe, they always, in calling up the log- 
 board, allow fomething for her leeward-way. 
 
 Way of the Rounds, in fortification, is a fpace left for 
 the paffage of the rounds between the rampart and the 
 wall of a fortified town. This is not now much in ufe ; 
 becaufe the parapet, not being above a foot thick, is foon 
 overthrown by the enemy’s cannon. 
 
 Way-Wiser, an inftrumentotherwifecalled peram¬ 
 bulator. See Perambulator. 
 
 Way-Wode, a title given to thfe governors of the 
 chief places in the empire of Mufcovy, as alfo in Poland, 
 WEANING. A new-born infant requires aliment 
 fuitable to their tender ftomachs, therefore nature has 
 not only provided it for them at their mother’s breaft ; 
 but has alfo given us plain directions when to change it 
 for a ftronger and more fubftantial diet. 
 
 Exercife and motion, are the well-known promoters 
 of digeftion, therefore as a child is incapable of fufficient 
 exercife and motion to digeft folid food, a thin fluid is 
 provided for its luftenance, which is almoft converted 
 into nourifhment before it is taken into the ftomach of 
 the infant. And, left the mother fhould be fo impru¬ 
 dent as to offer it improper aliment, Providence feems 
 to have fecured the tender ftomach, in fome degree, 
 from the milchiefs of indigeftion, by a Angular artifice, 
 namely, that of denying the child the ufe of teeth for 
 the firft months. Hence is it not obvious, that nature 
 points out the proper time when a child ought to be 
 weaned, by giving it teeth, and rendering it capable of 
 motion fufficient to comminute, and afterwards to digeft 
 an aliment more folid, and more difficult to diflolve than 
 its mother’s milk. 
 
 As nature does wonderfully provide the infant, by de¬ 
 grees, with inftruments of maftication, and the power 
 of ufing exercife, fo does fhe thereby point out that the 
 tranfition ought to be gradual from milk to folid food. 
 But as it is impoffible to lay down rules for the weaning 
 of children, adapted to every cafe that may occur ; let 
 regard be had to the health and ftrength of the mother, 
 as well as that of the child, purfuing as much as poffi- 
 ble, the method which feems to be pointed out by na¬ 
 ture. See Infant. 
 
 WEAR, or Wier, a great ftank or dam in a river, 
 fitted for the taking of fifh, or for conveying the ftream 
 to a mill. 
 
 New wears are not to be made, or others altered, to 
 the nuifance of the publick, under a certain penalty. 
 
 W EAT HER, the ftate or di Ipofition of the atmoJphcre, 
 with regard to heat, cold, wind, rain, froft, &c. 
 
 As \l is in the atmofphere that all plants and animals 
 live, and as that appears to be the great principle of moft 
 animal and vegetable productions, alterations, &c. there 
 docs not feem any thing, in all pliilofophy, of more im¬ 
 mediate concernment to us than the ftate of the wea¬ 
 ther, and a knowledge of the great influence it has on our 
 bodies. Whatvaft, but regular alterations, a little turn 
 of weather makes in a tube filled with mercury, or fpirits 
 of wine, or in a piece of firing, See. every body knows, 
 in the common inftances of barometers, thermometers, 
 Sec. and it is owing partly to our inattention, and partly 
 to our unequal and intemperate courfe of living, that we 
 do not feel as great and regular alterations in the tubes, 
 chords, and fibres of our own bodies. 
 
 WEATHERING, 
 
w E I w E I 
 
 ... WEATHERING, among failors, fignifies the doub-1 that with a greater or lefs velocity, as they are more or 
 hng or failing to windward of a head-land, or other | lefs denfe, or as the medium they pafs through is more 
 
 P 1 ^.'_ _ or lefs rare. ' ° 
 
 In the common ufe of language, weight and gravity 
 aie confidered as one and the fame thing. Some authors, 
 however, make a difference between them ; and hold 
 gravity only to exprefs a nifus, or endeavour to defeend ; 
 but weight, an actual defeent. But there is room for a 
 better diftimftion. Ineffedl, one may conceive gravity to 
 be the quality as inherent in the body; and weight the 
 lame quality, exerting itfelf either againft an obftacle, or 
 otherwife. Hence, weight may be diftinguiffied, like 
 gravity, into abfolute and fpecifick. See Gravitv. 
 
 Sir Ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the weights of all 
 bodies, at equal diftances from the centre of the earth, 
 aie proportionable to the quantities of matter each con¬ 
 tains. Whence it follows, that the weights of bodies 
 have not any dependance on their forms, or textures; 
 and that all fpaces are not equally full of matter. Hence, 
 alfo, it follows, that the weight of the fame body is dif¬ 
 ferent, on the furface of different parts of the earth ; by 
 reafon its figure is not a fphere, but a fpheroid. See 
 the article Earth. 
 
 Weight, Pondus, in mechanicks, is any thing to be 
 iailed, fuftained, or moved by a machine, or any thing 
 that in any manner refills the motion to be produced. 
 
 Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known 
 weight, appointed to be put in the balance againft other 
 bodies, whole weight is required. 
 
 The iecurity of commerce depending, in great mea- 
 jnre, on the juftnefs of weights, which are ufually of 
 lead, iron, or brafs, moft nations have taken care to pre¬ 
 vent the falfification thereof, hy ftamping or marking 
 them by proper officers, after being adjufted by fome 
 original ftandard. Thus, in England, the ftandard of 
 weights is kept in the Exchequer, by a particular officer, 
 called the clerk of the market. 
 
 Weights may be diftinguiffied into ancient and mo¬ 
 dern, foreign and domeftick. 
 
 Ancient Weights, i. Thofe of the ancient Jews, 
 reduced to the Englilh troy-weights, will ftand as in the 
 following table: 
 
 WEAVING, the art of working a webof cloth, filk. 
 or other fluff, in a loom with a fhuttle. 
 
 Weaving-Loom, a machine for weaving cloth, 
 f lk, &c. by railing the threads of the warp in order to 
 throw in the ffioot, and ftrike it dole. Of thefe there 
 are various kinds, diftinguiffied by the different forts of 
 cloths, fluffs, lilks, &c. in which they are employed, 
 and which are chiefly diftinguiffied by the number and 
 variety of the threads they raife in order to work the 
 warp, either plain or in figures, hy making more or lefs 
 of the woof or fhoot appear through the warp. 
 
 WEB, a fort of tiffue, or texture, formed of threads 
 interwoven with each other ; fome whereof are extended 
 in length, and called the warp ; and others drawn acrofs 
 and called the woof. See Cloth, Warp, &c. 
 
 Spider’s Web. See Spider’j Silk. 
 
 WEDGE, Cuneus , one of the mechanical powers, as 
 they are called. 
 
 1 he wedge is a triangular prifm, whofe bafes are 
 equilateral acute-angled triangles. See Mechanical 
 Powers. 
 
 WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, fo 
 called from a Saxon idol named Wooden, fuppofed to be 
 Mars, worfhipped on this day. 
 
 ^-Wednesday, the flrft day of Lent, fo called 
 from thecuftom obferved in the ancient Chriftian church 
 of penitents exprefling their humiliation at this time, by 
 appearing in fackcloth and allies. 
 
 WEED, a common name for all wild and rank herbs, 
 that grow of themfclves, to the detriment of other ufeful 
 herbs they grow among. 
 
 Weed, in the miners language, denotes the dege¬ 
 neracy of a load, or vein, of line metal, into an ulelefs 
 marcafite. 
 
 WEEK, in chronology, a divilion of time comp riling 
 feven days. 
 
 1 he origin of this divilion of weeks, or of computing 
 time by fevenths, is greatly controverted. Some will 
 have it to take its rife from the four quarters or intervals 
 of the moon, between her changes or phafes, which, 
 being about feven days diftance, gave occafion to the 
 divilion. 
 
 Be this as it will, the divilion is certainly very an¬ 
 cient. The Syrians, Egyptians, and moft of the orien¬ 
 tal nations, appear to have ufed it from all antiquity: 
 though it did not get footing in the weft tillChriftianity 
 eftablilhed it; the Romans reckoned their days not bv 
 fevenths but by ninths, and the ancient Greeks by decads 
 or tenths. 
 
 Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it 
 was upon a different principle from the eaftern nations ; 
 God himfelf appointing them to work fix days, and to 
 reft the fabbath, in order to keep up the fenfe and remem¬ 
 brance of the creation ; which being effected in fix days, 
 he relied the feventh. * 
 
 Prtjfion-W eek, or the Holy Week, is the laft week 
 in Lent, wherein the church celebrates the myftery of 
 our Saviour’s death and paffion. 
 
 WEIGH, Wa y, orWEY, a weight or quantity of 
 clieefe, wool, &c. containing 256 pounds avoirdupoife. 
 Of corn, the weigh contains forty bufhcls ; of barley or 
 malt fix quarters. In fome places, as Effex, the weigh 
 of cheefe is 300 pounds. 
 
 WEIGHER, an officer in divers cities appointed to 
 weigh the commodities bought or fold in a publick ba¬ 
 lance. 
 
 WEIGHING, the aft of examining a body in the 
 balance to find its weight. 
 
 Weighing-Chair, a machine contrived by Sanc- 
 torius, to determine the quantity of food taken at a meal, 
 and to warn the feeder when he had his quantum. 
 
 Wei a h i n g-A nchor, is the drawing it out of the 
 ground it had been call into, in order to fet fail, or quit 
 a port, road, or the like. 
 
 WEIGHT, gravity, Potidus, inphyficks, a quality in 
 natural bodies whereby they tend downwards, towards 
 the centre of the earth. 
 
 Or, weight may be defined, in a lefs limited manner, 
 to be a power inherent in all bodies, whereby thev tend 
 to fome common point, called the centre of gravity; and 
 
 Shekel — 
 60 Maneh 
 
 3000 
 
 50 |Talent. — 
 
 lb. oz. dwt. gr. 
 00 00 09 OZy 
 02 03 06 IOy 
 I 13 IO OI IOy 
 
 Grecian and Roman weights, reduced to Englilh 
 troy-weight, will ftand as in the following table : 
 
 oz. dwt. gr. 
 
 Lentes — ■■ - 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 Siliq 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 use 
 
 Obc 
 
 2 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 144 
 
 56 
 
 12 
 
 192 
 
 48 
 
 16 
 
 576 
 
 144 
 
 48 
 
 6912 
 
 1728 
 
 s 7 & 
 
 Scriptulum 
 Drachma 
 1 ' 
 
 96 
 
 Sextula - 
 
 Sicilicus — 
 Duella — 
 
 3 lUncta 
 
 72 48 3 6} 12|Libra. 
 
 00 00 NrA 
 00 00 03^ 
 00 00 09^ 
 00 00 i8 T 3 f 
 00 00 o6 t 9 t 
 00 03 oof 
 00 04 13I- 
 00 06 oif 
 00 18 05f 
 10 18 i3f 
 
 The Roman ounce is the Englilh avoirdupois ounce, 
 which they divided into feveral denarii, as well as eight 
 drachms: and fince they reckoned their denarius equal 
 to the Attick drachm, this will make the Attick weights 
 one-eighth heavier than the correfpondingRoman weights. 
 
 Modern European Weights. 1. Englilh weights: 
 By the twenty-feventh chapter of Magna Charta, the 
 weights all over England are to be the fame ; but for 
 different commodities, there are two different forts, viz. 
 avoirdupois-weight and troy-weight. The origin from 
 which they are both railed, is a grain of wheat, gathered 
 in the middle of the ear. 
 
 In troy-weight, 24 of thefe grains make one penny¬ 
 weight fterling ; 20 penny-weights make one ounce ; and 
 12 ounces one pound. 
 
 By this weight we weigh gold, filver, jewels, grains, 
 and liquors. The apothecaries alfo ufe the troy pound, 
 ounce, and grain ; but they differ from the reft in the 
 intermediate divifions. They divide the ounce into eight 
 
 drachms; 
 
V/ E I 
 
 drachms; the drachm into three fcruples, and the fcruple 
 into 20grains. I 
 
 In avoirdupois-weight, the pound contains 16 ounces; 
 but the ounce is lei's, by near one-twelfth, than the troy 
 ounce; this latter containing 490 grains, and the for¬ 
 mer only 448. The ounce contains 16 drachms. 80 
 ounces avoirdupois are only equal to 73 ounces troy ; 
 and 17 pounds troy equal to impounds avoirdupois. 
 
 By avoird upois-weight arc weighed mercury and grocery 
 wares, bafe metals, wool, tallow, hemp, drugs, bread, &c. 
 
 ‘fable of Troy- Weight, as ufed by the Goldfmitbs. 
 Grains 
 
 Penny-weight 
 
 2 4 
 
 480 
 
 576° 
 
 20 Ounce 
 24o|i2jPound. 
 
 Table of Troy- Weight, as ufed by the Apothecaries, 
 Grains 
 
 60 
 
 480 
 
 3 _ 
 
 _24 
 
 4760I288 
 
 Scruple 
 
 Drachm 
 
 ""sjOunce 
 
 96 |i 2 |Pound. 
 
 Table of Avoir dupois-VJ EIGHT. 
 
 Scruples 
 
 
 Drachm 
 
 24 
 
 8 I 
 
 384 
 
 128 | 
 
 43008 
 
 1433 6 
 
 860100 
 
 28672O 
 
 Ounce 
 
 179 - 
 
 35840 2240 
 
 Pound 
 
 Quintal, or Hundred 
 2o|Ton. 
 
 The moneyers, jewellers, &c. have a particular clafs 
 of weights, for gold and precious {tones, viz. carafl and 
 grain ; and for lilver, the penny-weight and grain. See 
 Caract. 
 
 The moneyers have alfo a peculiar fubdivifion of the 
 grain troy, viz. 
 
 The 
 
 p Grain -* r 
 
 ] Droit j ] 
 
 l Perit J l 
 
 20 Mites, 
 24 Droits, 
 20 Perits, 
 24 Blanks. 
 
 The dealers in wool have likewife a particular fet of 
 weights, viz. the fack, weigh, tod, {tone, and clove. 
 
 2. French weights : the common or Paris pound 
 16 ounces; which they divide two ways: the firll divifion 
 3s into 2 marcs; the marc into 8 ounces, the ounce 
 Into 8 grofs ; the grofs into 3 penny-weights; the penny 
 weights into 24 grains ; the grain equal to a grain of 
 wheat. The fecond divifion of the pound is into 2 half 
 pounds ; the half pound into 2 quarters ; the quarter 
 into 2 half quarters; the half quarter into 2 ounces; and 
 the ounce into 2 half ounces. 
 
 The weights of the fir ft divifion are ufed to weigh gold 
 filver, and the richer commodities ; and the weights of 
 the fecond divifion, for commodities of lefs value. 
 
 Half ounce 
 Ounce 
 
 320c 
 
 2 |Half-quarter pound 
 Quarter pound 
 
 _4 
 
 8 
 
 _i6_ 
 
 [600 
 
 Half pound 
 2 Pound 
 20011 oo| Quintal. 
 
 Voi. II. No. 77. 
 
 W E L 
 
 But the pound is hot the fame throughout France; 
 At Lyons the city pound is only 14 ounces ; fo that 10b 
 Lyons pounds make only 88 Paris pounds. But befide 
 the city pound, they have another at Lyons for filk, 
 containing 16 dunces; At Tholoufe, and throughout 
 the Upper-Languedock, the pouhd is 13 ounces and a 
 half of Paris weight; At Rouen, befide tile common 
 Paris pound and marc, they have the weight of the 
 vicompte ; which is 16 ounces, a half, and five-fixths of 
 the Paris weight. 
 
 The weights, enumerated under the two articles of 
 Englifh and French weights, are the fame that arc ufed 
 throughout the greateft part of Europe; only under 
 fomewhat different names, divifions, and proportions. 
 
 Particular nations have alfo certain weights peculiar to 
 themfclves : thus Spain has its arrobas, containing 25 
 Spamfh pounds, or one-fourth of the common quintal: 
 its quintal macho, containing 150 pounds, or doe-half 
 common quintal, or 6 arrobas : its adarme, containing 
 one-fixteenth of its ounce. And for gold, it has its 
 caftillan, or one-hundredth of a pound : its tomin, con¬ 
 taining 12 grains, or one-eighth of a caftillan. The fama 
 are in ufe in the Spanifh Weft Indies. 
 
 Portugal has its arroba, containing 32 Lifbon arratels, 
 or pounds. Savary alfo mentions its faratelle, containing 
 2 Lilbon pounds ; and its rottoli, containing about 12 
 pounds. And for gold, its chcgo, containing 4 carats. 
 The fame are ufed in the Portuguefe Eaft Indies. 
 
 Italy, and particularly Venice, have their migliaro, 
 containing four mirres ; the mirre, containing 30 Venice 
 pounds : the faggio, containing a fixth part of an ounce. 
 
 Genoa has five kinds of weights, viz. large weights, 
 whereby all merchandizes are weighed at the cuftom- 
 houfe; cafh-weights for piaftres, and other fpecies : the 
 cantara, or quintal, for the coarfeft commodities : the 
 large balance for raw filks; and the fmall balance for the 
 finer commodities. Sicily has its rotollo, 32 and a half 
 pounds of Melfina. 
 
 Germany, Flanders, Holland, the Hanfe-Towns, Swe¬ 
 den, Denmark, Poland, &c. have their fchippondt, which 
 at Antwerp and Hamburgh, is 300 pounds; at Lubeck, 
 320 ; and at Coningfberg, 400 pounds. In Sweden, 
 the fchippondt for copper is 320 pounds ; and the fchip¬ 
 pondt for provifions 400 pounds. At Riga and Revel, 
 the fchippondt is 400 pounds ; at Dantzick, 340 pounds; 
 in Norway, 300 pounds ; at Amftcrdam, 300 ; contain¬ 
 ing 20 lyfpondts, each weighing 15 pounds. 
 
 In Mufcovy, they weigh their large commodities by 
 the bercheroft, or bexkewits, containing 400 of their 
 pounds. They have alfo the poet, or poede, containing 
 40 pounds, or one-tenth of the bercherodt. 
 
 In order to fhew the proportion of the feveral weights 
 ufed throughout Europe, we {hall add a reduction of 
 them to one ftandard, viz. the London. 
 
 Proportion of the weights of the principal places of 
 Europe. 
 
 The 100/L of England, Scotland, and Ireland, are 
 equal to 
 
 lb. oz. 
 
 91 8 of Amfterdam, Paris, &c. 
 
 96 8 of Antwerp or Brabant 
 
 88 o of Rouen, the vifeounty weight 
 
 106 o of Lyons, the city weight 
 
 90 9 of Rochelle 
 
 107 11 of Touloule, and Upper-Languedock 
 113 o of Marleilles or Proyence 
 
 81 7 of Geneva 
 
 93 5 of Hamburgh 
 
 89 7 of Francfort, &c. 
 
 96 1 of Leipfick, &c. 
 
 137 4 of Genoa 
 
 132 11 of Leghorn 
 
 1 53 11 of Milan 
 152 o of Venice 
 
 154 10 of Naples 
 
 97 o of Seville, Cadiz, &c. 
 
 104 13 of Portugal 
 
 96 5 of Leige 
 
 112 j of Rultia 
 107 ~ of Sweden 
 
 89 -i of Denmark. 
 
 WELD, or dyers-weed, Lufeola, in botany, a plant 
 5 X whof& 
 
W H A 
 
 whofe root is Angle, White, and woody, with a few fibres; 
 the leaves are oblong, narrow, finooth and entire; among 
 thefe rife italics to the height of three feet; thefe are 
 round, hard, finooth, greenifh, branched and furniihed 
 with leaves that are lefs than thole below. The flowers 
 are produced on the tops of the ftalks ; they are of a 
 beautiful yellowilh green colour, and of the fame form 
 as thole of the refeda, of which it is now held a fpecies. 
 
 It is very common in England, and grows upon dry 
 banks, and on the tops of walls and buildings. 
 
 The feeds ot weld lhould be i'own in Auguft, foon after 
 they are ripe , they will come up the firft moift weather, 
 and will grow very flrong the fame autumn, provided they 
 are fown by themfelves. When they are pretty flrong, 
 they fliould be hoed out, as is pradtifed with turneps, to 
 deflroy the weeds, and to thin them where too thick. 
 The (led muft not be too ripe fflien gathered, for then 
 it will fall out; nor yet muft the ftalk be unripe, for then 
 it will be good for nothing. It muft be bound in hand¬ 
 fuls, and let to dry like flax, taking care not to fhake out 
 the feeds, which are ufually fold at ten fhillings a bufhel; 
 and a gallon will fow an acre. 
 
 It is of great ufe among the dyers, for dying bright 
 yellow and lemon colours ; a great quantity of it is fown * 
 in fome parts of Kent; and they cultivate it in Langue- 
 dock and Normandy in France, where they boil it in 
 water, with allum, and then it will colour white wool 
 yellow, and blue fluffs green. 
 
 WELDING-Heat, in fmithery, a degree of heat 
 given to iron, &c. fulftcient only for bending, or doub¬ 
 ling it up. 
 
 WELL, a hole underground, ufually of a cylindrical 
 form, walled with ftone and mortar ; its ufe is to colleft 
 the water of the ftrata around it. 
 
 W ell, in the military art, a depth which the miner 
 finks underground, with branches or galleries running 
 out from it ; either to prepare a mine, or to difeover and 
 di(appoint the enemy’s mine. 
 
 Well-Hole, in building, is the hole left in a floor 
 for the flairs to come up through. See Stairs. 
 
 WEN, a tumour or excrefcence that ariles on different 
 parts of tl^e body, and contains a cyftus, or bag filled 
 witli fome peculiar matter, of which phyficians reckon 
 three kinds, viz. when this matter is foft, refembling 
 pulp, the wen is called atheroma; if like honey, meli- 
 ceris : and if like fuet, fteatoma. See Tumour. 
 
 WERE, in our old law-books, denotes a fum paid 
 for killing a perfon, when fuch crimes were punilhed 
 with pecuniary muldt, and not death. 
 
 WLRELADA, among our Saxon anceftors, the de¬ 
 nying an homicide on oath, in order to be quit of the fine 
 called Were. 
 
 WERGILD, or Weregeld, in our ancient cuf- 
 toras, the price of a man’s head ; a part of which was 
 paid to the king, for the lofs of his fubjett, a part to the 
 lord whofe vaffal he was, and a part to the neareft rela¬ 
 tion of the perfon flain. 
 
 WEST, in cofmography, one of the cardinal points 
 of the horizon, diametrically oppofite to the eaft ; and 
 ftri&ly defined, the interfe&ion of the prime vertical 
 with the horizon, on that fide the fun fets it. See the 
 article Horizon. 
 
 WHALE, Balana, in ichthyology, the name of a 
 fifh, which grows to a monftrous fize ; the head is ex¬ 
 tremely large, and of an irregular figure, the lower jaw 
 is much larger than the upper, and covers it at the fides; 
 the upper, is narrow and oblong, thefiftula is double, or 
 has two diftindt apertures, and is fituated in the middle 
 ol the head, between the eyes; the eyes are very fmall 
 in proportion to the enormous bulk of the head, and are 
 placed a great diftance from one another; the whole head 
 is fomewhat depreffed, and has feveral irregularities on 
 its furface ; the body is very thick, and fomewhat round¬ 
 ed ; but towards the extremity of the back, there is a 
 fubacute angle, extending itfclflongitudinally to the tail; 
 the tail is fomewhat forked, very large, and in its hori¬ 
 zontal fituation makes a very fingular figure. It is an 
 inhabitant of the northern leas, the principal objedt of the 
 Greenland filhery, 
 
 Whale-Bone, or as it is otherwife called, whale- 
 fins, in commerce, a commodity procured from the 
 whale ; uled as ftiffening in flays, fans, bulks, lkreens, 
 &c. What we call whale-bone, or fins, is a horny la- 
 
 W H E 
 
 mina? in the upper jaw of the balama, which fupply the 
 place of teeth, but there are none fuch in the lower-jaw. 
 
 [ heft laminae arc commonly called whilkers, which" 
 fplit and fafhioned, arc the whale-bone. The pizzlc, or 
 genita! member of the animal, ferves iikewife for the time 
 purpofe. 
 
 WHARF, a fpace oil the banks of a haven, creek, or 
 hltlie, provided for the convenient loading and unloading 
 vefiels upon. ° 
 
 The fee paid for the landing of goods on a wharf or 
 for (hipping them off, is called wharfage, and the perfon 
 who has the direftion and overfight of the wharf re¬ 
 ceives wharfage, Ac. is called tire wharfinger. 
 
 WHEAT, Triticum, in botanv, a genus of plants 
 the corolla of which confifts of two valves, nearly equal 
 m fize, and of the bignefs of thole which form the cup • 
 the exterior valve is bellied, with an obtufe end termi¬ 
 nated by a point, and the inner valve is plane ; the (la¬ 
 mina are three capillary filaments, topped with oblong 
 bifurcate anther*; the piftillum confifts of a turbinated 
 gerrnen, fupporting two hairy reflexed ftyles, each crowned 
 with a plumofe ftigma : there is no pericarpium the 
 corolla mdofing the fled, which is (ingle, of an ovato- 
 oblong form, blunt at the ends, convex on one tide, and 
 furrowed on the other. 
 
 There are feveral kinds of wheat; as the white or red 
 wheat without awns j the red-eared, the bearded wheat 
 the cone wheat, grey wheat, or ducks-bill wheat, Po¬ 
 land wheat, many-eared wheat, Junrmer wheat, long¬ 
 grained wheat, white-eared wheat, naked bailey-wheat 
 with fome other (bits The feafon for ('owing wheat is 
 in autumn, and the earlier the better, if the weather is 
 moift, as lefs feed is required to an acre than when it is 
 fown late, becaufe lefs of it will die; and poor land 
 fliould always be allowed more feed than rich, becaufe 
 a greater number of the plants will periflr on fuch land 
 than on the other. Another thing to be confidpred in 
 order to find the proper quantity of leed, is, that fome 
 kinds of wheat have their grains twice as large as others ; 
 
 111 this cafe, a bufliel containing but half the number of 
 grains that it does in the fmall-grained wheat, one bufhel 
 of the fmall-grained will plant juft as much as two bufli- 
 els of this ; therefore the fize of the feeds ought to be re¬ 
 garded as well as the meafure. 
 
 It might be fuppofed, that a large-grained wheat will 
 produce larger and finer plants than the fmall-grained 
 fort, but experiments have proved that there is nothing 
 in this, for the fmalleft grained wheat produces fully as 
 large plants as the other. The ufual allowance of feed- 
 wheat to one acre of land, is three bufliels; but, from re¬ 
 peated trials, it has been found that half that quantity is 
 fufficient; therefore if the farmers have regard to their 
 own intereft, they fliould fave this expence of feed, which 
 amounts to a confiderable article in large farms, efpe- 
 ciaily when it is to be purchafed, which mod (kilfui farm¬ 
 ers do at lead every year, by way of change ; for they 
 find that^ the feeds continued long upon the lame land, 
 will not i'ucceed fo well as when they procure a change 
 of feeds from a diftant country : and in the choice of 
 the feed, particular regard fliould be had to the land on 
 which it grew, for if it is light land, the wheat which 
 grew upon flrong land is the bed, and vice verfa. 
 
 Poor light land muft be extremely well manured, in 
 order to the maintaining wheat a year, the ufual time it s 
 is on it, if the wheat is fown in the common broad-caft 
 way; and ifit be fown late, the greater part of it perifhes, 
 not being able to furvive the winter while fo poor and oil 
 fuch land ; and if it be fown in the fame manner very 
 early on ftrong rich land, many of the plants are de- 
 ftroyed. But the new method of horfe-hoeing gives both 
 to fireng and to light land all the advantages neceffary 
 and takes off all the difadvantages of both ; by this me¬ 
 thod the ftrong land may be planted with wheat as early 
 as the light, if plowed dry; and the hoe-plough, if 
 rightly applied, will be able togive it nourithment alnioft 
 equal to that of dung in both torts of land. 
 
 1 he ulc of wheat is univerfal, it making better bread 
 than any other corn, being more glutinous and nu- 
 tiitious. 
 
 However, in the eaflern countries they generally prefer 
 rice thereto, for which reafon it is not fo much culti¬ 
 vated there, efpectally among the original inhabitants ■ 
 not but it will grow well, for it has been juftly obferved’ 
 
 by 
 
W H E 
 
 by the ancients as well as moderns, that wheat will grow 
 in almod any part of the world ; and that as it is the 
 plant mod; neceflary to mankind, fo it is the mod general 
 and the mod fruitful. It grows well not only in the 
 temperate climates, but in the very hot and very cold 
 ones; and when in places where it never grew fpontane- 
 oufly, fucceeds as well as where it has been always com¬ 
 mon. But where it was originally a native it is noteafy 
 to determine, though it is generally l'uppofed thatfome part 
 of Africa is the country, becaufe in the earlied accounts 
 wc have of it, there is mention of its being transported 
 from thence to other countries ; and Sicily was the fird 
 country in Europe where this grain was cultivated. 
 
 The price of wheat in this country varies continually, 
 and this variation is often very great in the fpace of one 
 or two years; fo that from being fo cheap as that the 
 farmers could not pay their rents, in the compafs of a 
 • vear or tw'o the price has been doubled ; for one or 
 two plentiful harveds have lowered the price of wheat 
 fo much, as to make it difficult to the needy farmer to 
 go on with his bufinefs, who wants ready money for his 
 crops as foon as he can prepare them for market. This 
 has edablifhed a let of people called dealers in corn, who 
 have taken the advantage of the farmer’s neceffity, and 
 engrofled their corn to keep it for better markets ; and 
 tliefe dealers have of late years increafed fo greatly in their 
 numbers, to the great prejudice of the raifers and con- 
 fumers of corn, as may in time prove of the word con- 
 fequence, by monopolizing the greated part of the pro¬ 
 duce, and then fet their own price upon it; fo that be¬ 
 tween corn-factors, as they are called, and the didillcrs, 
 together with the monopolizers of farms, the price of 
 bread may be too great for the labouring poor , which is 
 a confideration that requires more publick attention than 
 it has hitherto met with. 
 
 Mii/rCuw Wheat, a term ufed by our hufband- 
 men to exprefs a peculiar kind of wheat, which is very 
 drong, and lias a large ear. 
 
 It is the bed kind for lowing in fields fubje£l to the 
 blight; for the dalks of it being, for the mod part, folid 
 or full of pitch like a rulh, not hollow like thole of com¬ 
 mon wheat; the inledts that caufe the blight feizing on 
 the dalks of other wheat, does this no injury, even 
 though they Ihould attack it; the dalks of this kind be¬ 
 ing often found full of black fpecks, which are always 
 the marks of the infedt having been there, and yet the 
 ear full, and the grain good. 
 
 This wheat makes very good bread, if the miller does 
 not grind it too finall, or the baker make his dough too 
 hard ; it requiring to be fomewhat larger than other wheat 
 flour, and fomewhat fofter in the dough. A bufhel of 
 white cone-wheat will make confiderably more bread 
 than a bulhel of lammas-wheat; but it gives it fome- 
 vvhat of a yellowilh cad. 
 
 Smyrna-WuEAT, a peculiar kind of wheat that has an 
 extremely large ear, with many lefler or collateral ears 
 coming all round the bottom of the great one. 
 
 As this is the larged of all forts of wheat, fo it will 
 difpcnfe with the nourilhment of a garden, without be¬ 
 ing over fed, and requires more nourilhment than com¬ 
 mon hufbandry in the large way can give it. In the com¬ 
 mon way, its ears grow not much larger than thofe of 
 the common wheat. 
 
 This fort of wheat feems, of all others, the mod proper 
 for the new method of horfe-hoeing hufbandry, as that 
 method feems capable of giving as much nourilhment as 
 the farmer pleales, by often repeating the hoeing. Next 
 to this, the white-cone wheat is bed for this fort of huf¬ 
 bandry, than the grey-cone wheat. 
 
 Wheat-ear, in ornithology, the Englifh name of 
 a fpecics of motacilla, with a grey, black, and white fore¬ 
 head. 
 
 WHEEL, Rote, in mechanicks, a Ample machine, 
 confiding of a round piece of wood, metal, or other 
 matter which revolves on an axis. The wheel is one of 
 the principal mechanick powers; it has place in mold 
 engines; in efleft, it is of an aflemblage of wheels that 
 moid of our engines are compofed. 
 
 With regard to the wheels of coaches, waggons, See. 
 otlierwife called wheel-carriages, the whole do&rine 
 thereof may be reduced to the following particulars; viz. 
 
 i. Wheel-carriages meet with lefs refidance than any 
 other. 2. The larger the wheel, the eafier is the draught j 
 
 W H E 
 
 of the carriage. 3. A carriage upon four wheels of 
 equal fize, is drawn with lefs force than with two of thefe 
 wheels and two of a lefler fize. 4. If the load be laid on 
 the axle of the larger wheels, it will be drawn with lefs 
 force than if it had laid on the axis of the lefler wheels, 
 contrary to the common notion ol loading carriages be¬ 
 fore. 5. The carriage goes with much lefs force on 
 fridlion wheels than in the common way. The wheels 
 of carriages mud be exaftly round, and the fellies fhould 
 be at right angles to the naves, according to the inclina¬ 
 tion ol the fpokes; that is, the plane of the curvature of 
 the wheel Ihould cut the nave at right angles though it 
 need not pals through the fpace where the fpokes are in¬ 
 ferred into the nave. 1. It is a general rule in all cafes 
 that the wheels be exadlly round ; for if they were not 
 fo, and- the nave out of the centre, it is certain that fuch 
 a wheel in turning, would be aflefted in the fame man¬ 
 ner upon plane ground as other wheels are when they 
 rife and fall, and would not be in equilibrio. 
 
 2. The fellies mud not crols wind, but be at right- 
 angles with the naves, according to the inclination of 
 the lpokes ; for otherwile the wheel, in turning, would 
 find inequalities, as it happens when the whole of the 
 nave is too big, and the wheel moves from fide to fide; 
 which comes to the fame purpofe as if the wheel was out 
 of round , and when the inequality of the fpokes, which 
 would be too leaning or too draight, upon the nave de¬ 
 scending into a hole, or rifing upon an eminence, oppo- 
 lite to their inclination, would caufe them, or the fellies, 
 to break. 
 
 3. The fpokes mud be inclined to the naves, that the 
 wheels may be difliing or concave. If the wheels always 
 turned upon a fmooth and even ground, it is certain 
 that the fpokes ought to be draight upon the naves; that 
 is, at right-angles to their axes; becaufe then they 
 would bear perpendicularly, which is the dronged way 
 for wood. 
 
 But becaufe the ground is unequal, and when the 
 wheels fall into the ruts, that wheel which is in the rut 
 bears a greater part of the weight than the other, becaufe 
 it is lower : in fuch cate, the fpokes of a dilhing-wheel 
 become perpendicular in the rut, and therefore have the 
 greated drength ; vvhild the oppoflte wheel, being upon 
 higher ground, bears a lefs part of the weight; and con- 
 fcquently, the fpokes need not be at their full drength, 
 and fo will have a fufficient force, though that force be 
 lefs than what they have upon even ground. 
 
 4. The axle-tree mud be draight in all refpefls, and 
 at right-angles to the fhafts of the pole. In the motion 
 of all bodies, there is oneway of moving, which is the 
 called of all the red, and happens here when the axle- 
 tree is every way draight; for if its ends Ihould bend 
 backwards, lo as to bring the wheels nearer together be¬ 
 hind, and fpread them much before, it is certain that 
 they could not go into the ruts, nor turn in going for¬ 
 ward, or at lead with great difficulty, dragging indead 
 of rolling. 
 
 T here would be the fame inconveniencies in bending 
 the axle-tree forward, fo as to bring them nearer the pole 
 and make them fpread behind. 
 
 T he lefs the axle-tree is bent, the lefs the inconveni- 
 ency; but there will always be fome, when the wheels 
 aie not parallel, and there will be no inconveniency when 
 the axle is draight. The axle mud alfo be at right-angles 
 to the pole or fhafts; for if the pole or fhafts were on 
 one fide, the carriage would be drawn on one fide, and 
 almod all the weight would bear upon one horfe. 
 
 5. Great wheels are always more advantageous for 
 rolling than little ones, in any cafe, or upon any ground 
 whatfoever. The wheels of carriages are confidered ac¬ 
 cording to the velocity and fri&ion they have upon the 
 axle-tree, and like wife according to their refidance, or 
 finking in upon the ground. 
 
 If we confider them according to the fri&ion, it is 
 certain, that a wheel whole diameter is double that of an¬ 
 other, will make but one turn, whild the little one makes 
 two for the fame length of way; the circumference 
 which is in proportion to the diameter, being double* 
 Therefore, in refpeft to friflion, a wheel of double the 
 diameter will have double the advantage, there being but 
 one turn indead of two, which doubles the friftion in 
 the final 1 wheel. 
 
 If we confider the wheels according as they fink into 
 
 the 
 
W H I 
 
 the earth, or fall into holes, there will be the fame 
 advantage for one, and incoiiveniency for the other. 
 If we confider the bearing, it is double in the great wheel; 
 therefore it will fink but half the way ; and if we con¬ 
 fider hollows, it will give the fame advantage in l'omc 
 caies; but then, in others, as, for example, where the 
 holes are deep, the little wheel will have much more dif¬ 
 ad van tage. 
 
 We mayfuppofe thefame to happen in marfhygrounds, 
 where a little wheel would fink wholly in the fame hole 
 that a great one would fink but in part. 
 
 The advantage then of high wheels is, that they pafs 
 the rubs moll eafily, have the lei's fridtion, fink lefs in 
 the dirt, and more eafily prefs down an obftaclc; and 
 their difadvantage is. that they eafily overturn, and make 
 cattle draw too high ; for they can apply their ftrength 
 belt when they draw low and upwards, which is the ad¬ 
 vantage of low wheels ; yet if the wheels arc high, they 
 may be made to draw low, by fixing the limmers or traces 
 as far below the axle as you will, which will then be an 
 equal advantage with low wheels: for the power not 
 pulling at the wheel, but at the carriage, may draw from 
 any part of it. There is another advantage, which is, 
 that they are better to turn with. 
 
 A waggon with four wheels is more advantageous than 
 a cart with two wheels, efpecially on fand, clay, he. 
 Narrow wheels and narrow plates are a difadvantage. 
 
 6 . It would be much more advantageous to make the 
 four wheels of a coach or waggon large, and nearly of a 
 height, than to make the fore-wheels of only half the 
 diameter of the hind-wheels, as is ufual in many places. 
 
 Wheel is alfo the name of a kind of punifliment 
 which great criminals are put to in divers countries. In 
 France, their alfaifins, parricides, and robbers on the 
 highway, are condemned to the wheel; i. e. to have their 
 bones firft broken with an iron bar on a fcaffold, and 
 thus to be expofed and left to expire on the circumference 
 of a wheel. In Germany they break their bones on the 
 wheel itfelf. 
 
 Wheel, in the military art, is the word of com¬ 
 mand, when a battalion or fquadron is to alter its front 
 either one way or the other. To wheel to the right di¬ 
 rects the man in the right angle to turn very flowly, and 
 every one to wheel from the left to the right, regarding 
 him as their centre ; and vice verfa , when they are to 
 wheel to the left. When a divifion of men are on the 
 march, if the word be to wheel to the right or to the 
 left, then the right or left hand man keeps his ground ; 
 only turning on his heel, and the reft of the rank move 
 about quick till they make an even line with the faid 
 right or left-hand man. 
 
 WHEEZING, the name of a diftemper in horfes, 
 accounted by the generality of people to be the fame with 
 that called purfivenefs. 
 
 WHELP, the young of a dog, fox, lion, or any wild 
 beaft. 
 
 Whelps, in a fhip, the feamaiTs term for thofe 
 brackets which are fet up on the capftan clofe under the 
 bars ; they give the fweep to it, and are fo contrived, 
 that the cable winding about them may not furge fo much 
 as it might otbenvife do, if the body of the capftan were 
 quite round and fmootli. 
 
 WHETSTONE, a ftone which ferves for the whet¬ 
 ting of knives and other tools upon. 
 
 WHEY, the ferum, or watery part of milk. 
 
 WHIG, a party in England oppofite to the tories, 
 from whom they differ chiefly in their political principles. 
 
 WHIN, a name ufed in the northern parts of Eng- 
 lan for the ulex, or furze. 
 
 WHIP, or Whip-Staff, In a fhip, a piece of 
 timber, in form ot a ftrong ftaff, faftened into the helm, 
 for the fteerfman, in fmall fliips, to hold in his hand, in 
 order to move the rudder and direct the fhip. 
 Whip-Grafting. See Grafting. 
 WHIRL-Pool, an eddy, vortex, or gulph, where 
 the water is continually turning round. In rivers tliefe 
 arc very common, from various accidents, and are ufu- 
 ally very trivial, and of little confequence. In the fea 
 they arc more rare, but more dangerous. 
 
 Sibbald has related the effefls of a very remarkable 
 marine whirl-pool among the Orcades, which would 
 prove very dangerous to ftrarigevs, though it is of no 
 confequence to the people who are ufed to it. This is 
 1 
 
 W H I 
 
 not fixed to any particular place, but appears In vari* 
 ous parts of the limits of the fea among thofe iflands. 
 Wherever it appears it is very furious ; and boats, &c. 
 would inevitably be drawn in and perifli with it; but 
 the people who navigate them are prepared for it, and 
 always carry an empty calk, a log of wood, a large 
 bundle of ftraw, or fome fuch thing, in the boat with 
 them : as foon as they perceive the whirlpool, they tofs 
 this within its vortex, keeping themfelvcs without it. 
 I his l'ubftance, whatever it be, is immediately received 
 into the centre, and carried under water; and as foon 
 as this is done, the furface of the place where the whirl¬ 
 pool was, becomes fmooth, and they row over it with 
 l’afety ; and in about an hour they fee the vortex begin 
 again in fome other place, ufually at about amilediftant 
 from the firft. 
 
 WHIRLWIND, a wind that rifes fuddenly, ex¬ 
 ceeding rapid and impetuous when rifen, but foon fpenr. 
 It turns rapidly every way, and lweeps all round the 
 place. It ufually delcends from the clouds. It is fre¬ 
 quent in the Eaftern Ocean, chiefly about Siam, China, 
 he. and renders the navigation of thofe parts exceeding 
 dangerous. 
 
 WHISPERING Places, depend upon this prin¬ 
 ciple : if the vibrations of the tremulous body are pro¬ 
 pagated through a long tube, they will be continually 
 reverberated from the fides of the tube into its axis, and 
 by that means prevented from fpreading, till they get 
 out of it; whereby they will be exceedingly increafed, 
 and the found rendered much louder than it otherwife 
 would be. 
 
 Hence it is, that found is conveyed from one fide of 
 a vvhifpering gallery to the oppofite one, without being 
 perceived by thofe who Hand in the middle. 
 
 The form of a whifpering-gallery is that of a fegment 
 of a fphere, or the like arched figure. Accordingly, all 
 the contrivance in whifpering places is, that near the 
 perfon that whifpers there may be a fmooth wall, arched 
 either cylindrical^ or eLliptically. A circular arch will 
 do, but not fo well. 
 
 The moft confiderable whifpering places in England 
 are, the whifpering-gallery in the dome of St. Paul’s, 
 London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard 
 from fide to fide, and a very eafy whifper be fent all 
 round the dome. The famous whifpering place in Glou- 
 cefter cathedral, is no other than a gallery above the 
 eaft end of the choir, leading from one fide thereof to 
 the other. It confifts of five angles and fix fides, the 
 middlemoft of which is a naked window, yet two 
 whifperers hear each other at the diftance of twenty-five 
 yards. 
 
 WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies. 
 
 White is not fo properly faid to be any one colour, as 
 a compofition of all colours; for it is demonftrated by 
 Sir Ifaac Newton, that thofe bodies only appear white, 
 which refleift all the kinds of coloured rays alike. 
 
 White, in painting in miniature, he. The beft 
 white for painting in water-colours, is flake white, which 
 is better than white lead ; and if it be pure, far exceeds 
 it in beauty; becaufe white lead is apt to turn blackilh, 
 efpecially if it be ufed in a hard water: but if you ufe 
 white lead, fit ft reftify it with white-wine vinegar in the 
 following manner : grind well the fineft white lead upon, 
 a porphyry with vinegar ; then put it into a glafs of water, 
 ftir it about, and prefently pour off the water, while it 
 is white, into fome other clean glafs, or vcffel; let it 
 fettle, and then pour off the water from it, and it will 
 be exceeding fine. When this white is fettled, put to it 
 gum water, to bind it, and to give it a glaze. 
 
 Some recommend a white made of the whiter part of 
 oyfter fhells, reduced into an impalpable powder ; this is 
 called pearl-white, and will mix with any colour. Some 
 alfo recommend the powder of egg-fhells of the brighteft 
 colour, and well cleaned and walhed, ground with gum- 
 water, to which may be added about a twentieth part of 
 white fugar-candy : the egg-Ihells fliould be ground to 
 an impalpable powder. 
 
 Experience Ihews, that egg-fhell powder is of very 
 great l'ervice as a white in water-colours, and both that 
 and the powder of oyfter-ftiells, well rettified and mixed 
 with the white of an egg well beat, will make an extra¬ 
 ordinary mixture in other colours, and will ctu reft them 
 from changing or altering their qualities. 
 
 White. 
 
W H O 
 
 White of the Eye , denotes the firft tunick or coat of 
 the eye, called albuginea and cpnjundtiva, becaufe it 
 ferves to bind together or inclofe the reft. See the article 
 Eye. 
 
 W h i t e -H art-S i l v er , a mul£l or tribute paid into 
 the Exchequer, out of certain lands in or near the foreft 
 of White-hart in Dovfetftiire ; impofed by Henry III. 
 upon Thomas de la Linde, for killing a beautiful white 
 hart which that prince had before fpared in hunting. 
 
 White-Lead, alfo called cerufe. Sec Ceruse. 
 
 White-Line, among printers, a void fpace of the 
 depth or bieadth of a line. See Printing. 
 
 WHITENESS, Albedo, the quality which denomi¬ 
 nates a body white. Sir Ifaac Newton (hews, that white- 
 nefs confifts in a mixture of all the colours ; and that 
 the light of the fun is only white becaule conlifting of 
 rays of all colours. 
 
 From the multitude of rings of colours which appear, 
 upon comprefling two prifms or object-glafles of tele- 
 fcopcs together, it is manifeft that thefe do lo interfere 
 and mingle with one another at laft, as, after eight or 
 nine reflections, to dilute one another wholly, and con- 
 ftitute an even and uniform wliitenefs ; whence, as well 
 as from other experiments, it appears, that wliitenefs is 
 certainly a mixture of all colours, and that the light 
 which conveys it to the eye, is a mixture of rays endued 
 with all thofe colours. 
 
 The fame author lhews, that wliitenefs, if it be ftrong 
 and luminous, is to be reckoned of the firft order of 
 colours; but if lefs, as a mixture of the colours of 
 feveral orders. Of the former fort, he reckons white 
 metals; and of the latter, the wliitenefs of froth, paper, 
 linen, and moft other white fubftarices. And as the 
 white of the firft order is the ftrongeft that can be made 
 by plates or tranfparent fubftances, fo it ought to be 
 ftronger in the denfer fubftances of metals, than in the 
 rarer ones of air, water, and glafs. 
 
 Gold, or copper, mixed either by fufion or amalga¬ 
 mation, with a very little mercury, with filver, tin, or 
 regulus of antimony, becomes white ; which lhews both 
 that the particles ol white metals have much more fur- 
 face, and therefore are fmaller than thofe of gold and 
 copper ; and alio, that they are fo opakc as not to fuffer 
 the particles of gold or copper to fliine through them. 
 And as that author doubts not but that the colours of 
 gold and copper are of the fecond and third order, there¬ 
 fore the particles of white metals cannot be much bigger 
 than is requifite to make them reflect the white of the Iirft 
 order. 
 
 WHITING, in ichthyology, the Englifh name for 
 the white gadus with no.beard, with three fins on the 
 back, and the upper jaw longeft. 
 
 Whiting-Pollock, in ichthyology, a fpecics of 
 gadus with three back fins, the lower jaw longeft, and 
 the lateral line crooked. The ufual length of this fifh is 
 from eight to thirteen inches; it is confiderably thick in 
 proportion, and in moft other refpe&s refembles the com¬ 
 mon whiting. 
 
 WHITLOW, in medicine. See Paronichia. 
 
 WHITSUNDAY, a folemn feftival of theChriftian 
 church, oblervcd on the fiftieth day after Eafter, in me¬ 
 mory of the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the apoltles, 
 in the vifible appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of 
 thofe miraculous powers which were then conferred upon 
 them. 
 
 It is called Whitfunday, or White-funday, becaufe 
 this being one of the ftated times for baptifm in the an¬ 
 cient church, thofe who were baptized put on white gar¬ 
 ments, as types of that fpiritual purity they received in 
 baptifm. As the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the 
 apoftlcs happened upon the day which the Jews call 
 Pentecoft, this feftival retained the name of Pentecoft 
 among the Chriftians. See Pentecost. 
 
 WHOODINGS, or Hoodings, a fea term, ufed 
 for planks joined and faftened along the Ihip’s fides into 
 the ftem. 
 
 WHORLBAT, or IIurlb at, a kind of gauntlet, 
 or leathern ftrap, loaden with plummets ; ufed by the 
 
 * For a more particular account of Wickliffe and his followers. 
 Rev. Erafmus Middleton, and fold in numbers, (price fix-pence, with 
 
 In this important work, the lives, charafters, and writings, of t 
 our readers will be able to trace the nature and progrel's of the Re 
 the days of Wickliffe to the prefent time, 
 
 Vol. II. No. 77. 
 
 W I F 
 
 ancient Romans in their folemn games and exercifeL 
 and by them called cieftus. 
 
 WHORTLE-Berr y, in botany. SeeVACc inium. 
 
 W ICK, a place on the fca-fliore, or on the bank of a 
 river ; though it properly lignihes a town, village, or 
 dwelling place ; and fometimes a machine. 
 
 WICKER, atwigot the oiler lhrub, Angle or Wrought. 
 
 WICKET, a ftnall door in the gate of a fortified 
 place, or a hole in a door, through which to view what 
 pafles without. 
 
 W ICKLIFFISTS, or Wickliffites, a religious 
 fe£I, which fprung up in England in the reign of Ed¬ 
 ward III. and took its name from John Wickliffe, doc¬ 
 tor and profeflbr of divinity in the univerflty of Oxford, 
 who maintained that the fubftance of the facramental 
 bread and wine remained unaltered after confecration } 
 and oppofed the doCtrine of purgatory, indulgences, 
 auricular confeflion, the invocation of faints, and the 
 worlhip of images. 
 
 He maintained, that the children of the religious may 
 be laved without being baptized; that priefts may ad- 
 minifter confirmation ; that there ought to be only two 
 orders in the church, that of priefts, and that of dea- 
 conSi He made an Englifh verfion of the Bible, and 
 compofed two volumes, called Alethiea, i. e. Truth ; 
 from which John Hufs learned moft of his do&rincs' 
 In fhort, to this reformer we owe the firft hint of the 
 reformation, which was effected about two hundred years 
 after *. 
 
 WIDOW, a woman who has loft her lnifband. In 
 London, a freeman’s widow may exercife her hulband’s 
 trade, as long as fhe continues fuch. 
 
 Marriage with a widow, in the eye of the canon law, 
 is a kind of bigamy. 
 
 Wido w of the King, was fhe who after her hufband’s 
 death, being the king’s tenant in capite, could not marry 
 again without the king’s confent. 
 
 WIFE, a married woman, or one joined with, and 
 under the protection of, an hufband. 
 
 Mid- W1 fr y, is the art of aflifting nature in bring¬ 
 ing forth a perfeCl feetus, or child, from the womb of 
 the mother. The knowledge of this art depends greatly 
 on an intimate acquaintance with the anatomy of the 
 parts of generation in women, both internal and exter¬ 
 nal. We muft therefore refer to the different parts of 
 that fcience upon which the knowledge of midwifry de¬ 
 pends. See Anatomy, Pelvis, Generation, 
 Foetus, Uterus, &c. 
 
 Of the increafe of the Uterus after conception. It is 
 luppofed, that the ovum fwims in a fluid, which it ab- 
 forbes fo as to increafe gradually in magnitude, till it 
 comes in contaCt with all the inner furface of the fundus 
 uteri; and this being diftended in proportion to the aug¬ 
 mentation of its contents, the upper part of the neck be¬ 
 gins alfo to be ft retched. 
 
 About the third month of geftation, the ovum in big— 
 nels equals a goofe egg; and then nearly one fourth of 
 the neck, at its upper part, is diftended equal with the 
 fundus. At the fifth month, the fundus is increafed to 
 a much greater magnitude, and riles upwards to the mid¬ 
 dle fpace betwixt the upper part of the pubes and the 
 navel; and at that period, one half of the neck is ex¬ 
 tended. At the feventh month, the fundus reaches as 
 high as the navel ; at the eighth month, it is advanced 
 midway between the navel and/crobiculus cordis ; and 
 in the ninth month, is railed quite up to this laft men¬ 
 tioned part, the neck of the womb being then altogether 
 diftended. 
 
 Now that the whole fubftance of the uterus is ftretch- 
 ed, the neck and os internum, which were at firft the 
 ftrongeft, become the weakeft part of the womb, and the 
 ftretching force being ftill continued by the increafe of the 
 feetus and fecundines, which are extended by the inclofed 
 waters in a globular form, the os uteri begins gradu¬ 
 ally to give way. In the beginning of its dilatation, the 
 nervous fibres in this place, being more fenfible than any 
 other part of the uterus, are irritated, and yield an un- 
 eafy fenfation; to alleviate which, the woman fqueezes 
 
 ee his life in theBiocRAPHiAEvANCELiCA, juftpublifhed by the 
 an elegant engraving in each number) by the publiftier of this work, 
 he molt illuftrious reformers and divines are exhibited ; from which 
 formation, in the moft agreeable and entertaining manner, from 
 
 S Y 
 
W I F W I F 
 
 her uterus, by contra£ling the abdominal mufeles, and at 
 the fame time filling the lungs with air, by which the 
 diaphragm is kept down ; the pain being rather increafed 
 than abated by this {training, is communicated to all the 
 neighbouring parts, to which the ligaments and vefiels are 
 attached, fuch as the back, loins, and iniide of the thighs ; 
 and by this comprelfion of the uterus, the waters and 
 membranes are lqueezed againft the os uteri, which is, of 
 confequence, a little more opened. 
 
 The woman being unable to continue this effort, for 
 any length ot time, from the violence of the pain it oc- 
 cafions, and the ftrength of the mufeles being thereby a 
 little ex haufted and impaired, the contrafling force abates; 
 the tenfion of the os tineas being taken off, it becomes 
 more foft, and contrails a little; fo that the nervous fi¬ 
 bres are relaxed. This remiffion of pain the patient en¬ 
 joys for fomc time, until the fame increafing force renews 
 the firetching pains, irritation, and fomething like a te- 
 nefmus at the os uteri ; the comprelfion of the womb 
 again takes place, and the internal mouth is a little more 
 dilated, either by the preffure of the waters and mem¬ 
 branes, or when the fiuid is in final! quantity, by the 
 child’s head forced down by the contra&ion of the uterus, 
 which in that cafe is in contafl with the body of the foetus. 
 
 In this manner the labour-pains begin, and continue to 
 return periodically, growing flronger and more frequent, 
 until the os uteri is fully dilated, and the membranes are 
 deprefied and broke; fo that the waters are difeharged, 
 the uterus contrails, and, with the aififiance of the muf- 
 cles, the child is forced along and delivered. 
 
 How to diffmguilh the falfe Labour from the true, and 
 the means to be ufed on that occafion. If the os uteri 
 remains clofe fhut, it may be taken for granted that the 
 woman is not yet in labour, notwithftanding the pains 
 file may fuffer : with regard to which, an accurate in¬ 
 quiry is to be made ; and if her complaints proceed from 
 an over-firetching fullnefs of the uterus or veff-.'s belong¬ 
 ing to the neighbouring parts, blooding in the arm or 
 ancle, to the quantity of fix or eight ounces, ought to 
 be preferibed, and repeated occafionally. If the pains 
 are occafioncd by a look-nefs or diarrhoea, it muff be im¬ 
 mediately reftrained with opiates. Cholick pains are dif- 
 tinguifhed from thofe of labour, by being chiefly con¬ 
 fined to the beil., without going off and returning by dif- 
 tin6l intervals : they are for the mofl part produced hv 
 faeces too long retained in the colon, or bv fuch ingeftaas 
 occafion a rarefa&iou or expanfion of air in the inteilines; 
 bv which they are violently ftretched and vellicated. 
 This complamt muff be removed by opening glyfters, to 
 empty the guts of their noxious contents : and this eva¬ 
 cuation being performed, opiates may be admbuffered to 
 affuage the pains; either to be injedled by the anus, 
 taken by the mouth, or applied externally in form of 
 epithem or embrocation. 
 
 Sometimes, the os internum may be a little dilated, 
 and yet it may be difficult to judge whether or not the 
 patient be in labour ; the cafe, however, may'be afeer- 
 tained, after fome attendance, by thefc confederations : if 
 the woman is not arrived a- her full time ; if no foft or 
 glary mucus hath been difdmiged from the vagina; if 
 the pains are limited to tli region of the belly, without 
 extending to the back and infide of the thighs; if they 
 are flight, and continue without intermiffion or increafe, 
 nay, it they have long intervals, and recur without force 
 fufficient to pulh down the waters and membranes, or 
 child’s head, to open the os internum ; if this part be 
 felt thick and rigid, inftead of being foft, thin, and yield¬ 
 ing ; we may fafely pronounce, that labour is not yet be¬ 
 gun ; and thole alarms are to be removed as we have di- 
 re£ted in the cafe of falfe or cholick pains. Betides, if 
 the pulle be quick and ftrong, and the patient attacked 
 by flitches in the fides, back, or head, blooding will be 
 lkewife neceffary. 
 
 The divifion of Labours. A natural labour is when 
 the head prefents, and the woman is delivered by her 
 pains and the affiftance commonly given : but, ffiould 
 the cafe be fo tedious and lingering, that we are obliged 
 to ufe extraordinary force, in ftretching the parts, cx- 
 trafting with the fo cepts, or (to lave the mother’s life) 
 in opening the head and delivering with the crotchet, it 
 is diftinguifhed by the appellation of laborious : and the 
 preternatural comprehends all thole cafes in which the 
 chiid is brought by the feet, or the body delivered before 
 
 the head. Neither do we mind how the child prefents, 
 lo much as the way in which it is delivered : for there 
 are cafes in which the head prefents, and for feverai 
 bouts we expert the child will be delivered in the natural 
 way ; but if the woman has not ftrength enough to force 
 down the child’s head into the pelvis^ or in floodings, 
 we are at length obliged to turn and bring it by the feet* 
 becaufe it is io high that the forceps cannot be applied ; 
 and if the child is not large, nor the pelvis narrow, it 
 were pity to deftroy the hopes of the parents, by opening 
 the fkuli and extrafling with the crotchet. In this cafe^ 
 therefore, although the child prefents in a natural way, 
 we are obliged to turn and deliver it in the ' , ■ -inner 
 
 as if the fhoulder, breaft, or back, h id presented ; and 
 generally, this operation is more difficult than in cither 
 of thofe cafes, becaufe, if the waters are all difeharged, 
 and the uterus clofe conn ailed round the feetus, ft is 
 more difficult to raife the head to the fundus. When 
 the breech prefents, we are frequently obliged to puib it 
 up, and fearcli for the legs; which being found, we pro¬ 
 ceed to deliver the body, and lafily the head. If the 
 head is large, or the pelvis narrow, and the waters not 
 difeharged. we ought, if poffibie, to urn the child into 
 the natural pofition. 
 
 For a further illuftration, and to inform young prac¬ 
 titioners that difficult cafes do not frequently occur, fup- 
 po!e, of three thoufand women in one town or village, 
 one thoufand fhall be delivered in the fpace of one year* 
 and in nine hundred and ninety of thefe births, the child 
 lhall be born without any other than common affiftance : 
 fifty children of this number fhall offer with the fore¬ 
 head turned to one fide, at the lower part of the pelvis, 
 where it will flop for fome time ; ten fhall come with 
 the forehead towards the groin, or middle of the pubes ; 
 five fhall prefent with the breech, two or three with the 
 (ace, and one or two with the ear; yet, all thefe fhall 
 be fafely delivered, and the cafe be more or lefs lingering 
 and laborious, according to the fize of the pelvis and child, 
 or ftrength of the woman : of the remaining ten that 
 make up the thoufand, fix fhall prefent with the head 
 differently turned, and two with the breech ; and thefe 
 cannot be faved without ftretching the parts, uling the 
 forceps or crocket, or puffing up the child in order to 
 bring it by the feet; this neccffity proceeding either from 
 the wcaknefs of the woman, the rigidity of the parts, a 
 narrow pelvis, or a large child, &c. the other two fhould 
 lie acrofis, and neither head nor breech, but fome other 
 part of the body prefent, fio that the child mull be turned 
 and delivered by the feet. Next year, let us fuppofc 
 another thoufand women delivered in the fame place ; not 
 above three, fix, or eight, fhall want extraordinary af¬ 
 fiftance ; nay, fometimes, though feldom, when the child 
 is young, or unufually fmall, and the mother has ftrono- 
 pains and a large pelvis, it fhall be delivered even in the 
 very vvorft pofition, without any other help than that of 
 the labour-pains. 
 
 As the head, therefore, prefents right in nine hundred 
 and twenty of a thoufand labours, all fuch are to be ac¬ 
 counted natural; thofe of the other feventy, that require 
 affiftance, may be deemed laborious ; and the other ten 
 to be denominated laborious or preternatural, as they are 
 delivered by the head or feet. 
 
 In order therefore to render this treatife as diftinll as 
 poffibie, for the fake of the reader’s memory, as well as 
 of the dependance and connexion of the different labours, 
 they are divided in the following manner: that is ac¬ 
 counted natural, in which the head prefents, and the 
 woman is delivered without extraordinary help ; thofe 
 births are called laborious or nonnatural, when the head 
 comes along with difficulty, and muft be affifted either 
 with the hand in opening the parts, or with the fillet or 
 forceps, or even when there is a neceffity for opening and 
 extratting it with the crotchet; and .thofe in which the 
 child is brought by the breech or feet, are denominated 
 preternatural, becaufe the delivery is performed in a pre¬ 
 ternatural wa/. 
 
 Of the different pofitions of women in Labour. In 
 aim oft all countries, the woman is allowed either to fit, 
 walk about, or reft upon a bed, until the os uteri is 
 pretty much dilated by the gravitation of the waters, or 
 (when they arc in fmall quantity) by the head of the foe¬ 
 tus, fo that delivery is foon expelled; when fhe is putin 
 fuch pofition as is judged more fiffe, eafy, and conveni¬ 
 ent 
 
W I F 
 
 ent for that purpofe : but the patient may he put upon 
 labour too prematurely, and bad confequences will at¬ 
 tend fuch miftakes. 
 
 Among the Egyptians, Grecians, and Romans, the 
 woman was placed upon an high ftool; in Germany and 
 Holland they uie the chair which is dei'cribed by Deventer 
 and Heifter ; and tor hot climates the ftool is perfeftly 
 well ad ted : but in northern countries, and cold wea¬ 
 ther, luch a pofition mult endanger the patient’s health. 
 
 In the Weft Indies, and fome parts of Britain, the 
 woman is feated on a ftool made in form of a femicircle: 
 in other places the is placed in a woman’s Jap; and fome, 
 ki. ding on a large cufhion, are delivered backwards. 
 
 In France the pofition is chiefly that ot halt fitting and 
 half lying, on the fide or end of a bed; or the woman 
 being in naked bed, is raifed up with pillows or a bed- 
 chair. 
 
 The London method is very convenient in natural and 
 eafy labours ; the patient lies in bed upon one fide, the 
 knees being contracted to the belly, and a pillow put be¬ 
 tween them to keep them afunder. But the in oft com¬ 
 modious method is to prepare a bed and a couch in the 
 fame room , a piece of oiled cloth or drefied Iheep Ikin is 
 laid acrofs the middle of each ; over the undcr-fhcet, and 
 above this, arc Ipread feveral folds of linen, pinned or tied 
 with tape to each fide of the bed and couch ; thefe are de- 
 figned to fpunge up the moifture in time of labour and 
 after delivery, while the oiled cloths or Ihecp Ikins below 
 preferve the feaiher-bed from being wetted or fpoiled : 
 fo' this purpofe, fome people lay befides upon the bed 
 feveral under-fheets over one another, fo that by Aiding 
 out the uppermoil every day, they can keep the bed dry 
 and comfoi table. 
 
 1 he couch muft be no more than three feet wide, and 
 provided with caftors ; and the woman without any other 
 drefs than that of a Ihort or half Ihift, a linen lkirt or pet¬ 
 ticoat open before, and a bed-gown, ought to lie down 
 ■upon it, and be covered with cloaths according to the fea- 
 fon of the year. She is commonly laid on the left fide, 
 but in that particular fhe is to conl’ult her own eale; and 
 a large fheet being doubled four times or more, one end 
 muft be flipt in below her breech, while the other hangs 
 over the fide of the couch, to be fpread upon the knee ol 
 the accoucheur or midwife, who fits behind her on a 
 low feat. As foon as file is delivered, this lheet muft be 
 removed, a foft warm cloth applied to the os externum, 
 and the pillow taken from betwixt her knee-s : Ihe then 
 muft be lhifted with a clean, warm, half fhift, linen lkirt, 
 and bed-gown, and ber belly kept firm with the broad 
 head-band of the lkirt, the ends of which are to be 
 pinned acrofs each other. Thefe meafures being taken, 
 the couch muft be run clofe to the bed-fide, and the pa¬ 
 tient gently moved from one to another ; but, if there is 
 no couch, the bed muft be furniiTied with the lame appa¬ 
 ratus. Some, again, are laid acrofs the foot of the bed, 
 to the head of which the cloaths are previoufly turned up 
 till after delivery, when the woman’s pofture is adapted, 
 and then they are rolled down again to cover and keep 
 her warm : by this expedient, the place of a couch is fup- 
 piied, and the upper part of the bed preferved foft and 
 clean ; whereas thofc who are laid above the cloaths muft 
 be taken up and fhifted while the bed is put to rights; in 
 which cafe, they are lubjedft to fainting; ana to fuch as 
 are very much enfeebled, this fatigue is often fatal. 
 
 Women are moft eafily touched, Icaft fatigued, and 
 kept warmelt, when they lie on one fide ; but if the la¬ 
 bour fliould prove tedious, the Parifian method fcems 
 moft eligible ; becaufe when the patient half fits, half lies, 
 the brim of the pelvis is horizontal, a perpendicular line 
 falling from the middle lpace between the lcrobiculus cor¬ 
 dis and navel, would pafs exa£l!y through the middle of 
 the bafin. In this pofition, therefore, the weight of the 
 waters, and, after the membranes are broke, that of the 
 child’s head, will gravitate downwards, and alfift in open¬ 
 ing the parts ; while the contracting force of the abdo¬ 
 minal mufcles and uterus, is more free, ftrong, and equal 
 in this tfian in any other attitude. Wherefore, in all na¬ 
 tural cafes, when the labour is lingering or tedious, this 
 or any other pofition, fuch as Handing or kneeling, ought 
 to be tried, which by an additional force, may help to 
 pufh along the head, and alter its direction when it does 
 not advance in the right way. Neverthelefs, the patient 
 muft by no means be too much fatigued, 
 
 W I F 
 
 When the woman lies on the left fide, the right hand 
 muft he uled in touching, and vice verfa ; unlefs Ihe is 
 laid acrols the bed ; in which cafe, either hand will equally 
 anfwer the lame purpofe : but, if Ihe lies athwart, with 
 the breech towards the bed’s foot, it will be moft con¬ 
 venient to touch with the left hand when Hie is upon the 
 left fide, and with the right when in the oppofite po¬ 
 fition. And here it will not be amifs to oblerve, that 
 in laborious and preternatural deliveries, the reader 
 muft fuppole the woman lying on her back, except 
 when another pofture is preferibed ; and that in natural 
 and laborious labours, whether file be upon her fide or 
 back, the head and fhouldeis are a little railed into a 
 reclining pofture, fo that Ihe may breathe eafily, and alfift; 
 the pains. 
 
 But in preternatural labours, when there is a necelfity 
 for ufing great force in turning the child, the head and 
 Ihoulders muft lie lower than the breech, which being 
 dole to the fide or foot of the bed, ought to be raift-d 
 higher than either, becaufe when the pelvis is in this 
 fituation, tilt hand and arm are eafily pulhed up in a right 
 line, along the back part of the uterus, even to its fun¬ 
 dus. Sometimes, however, when the feet of the child 
 are towards the belly of the mother, they are more eafily 
 Hit and managed when Ihe lies on her fide. At other 
 times, placing the woman on her knees and elbows on a 
 low couch, according to Deventer’s method, will fucceed 
 better, by diminilhing in part the ftrong refiftance from 
 the preflurc and weight of the uterus and child, by which 
 the feet will fometimes he eafier found and delivered : but 
 then it is fafer for the child, and eafier to the operator 
 and mother, to turn her to her back before you deliver 
 the body and head. 
 
 Ot the management of women in a Natural Labour. 
 In a woman come to full time, labour commonly begins 
 and proceeds in the following manner: 
 
 1 he os uteri is felt foft, and a little opened ; the cir¬ 
 cumference being fometimes thick, but chiefly thin : from 
 this aperture is dilcharged a thick mucus, which lubti- 
 cates the parts, and prepares them for ftretching. This 
 difeharge ufually begins fome days before, and is ac¬ 
 counted the forerunner of real labour : at the fame time, 
 the woman is leized at intervals with flight pains that 
 gradually ftretch the os uteri, fitting it for a larger dila¬ 
 tion ; and when labour a&ually begins, the pains become 
 more frequent, ftrong, and lading. 
 
 At every pain, the uterus is ftrongly comprefied by the 
 fame effort which expels the contents of the rettum at 
 ftool, namely the inflation of the lungs, and the contrac¬ 
 tion of the abdominal mufcles. 
 
 If the child be lurrounded with a large quantity of 
 waters, the uterus cannot come incontatt with the body 
 of it, but at every pain the membranes are pulhed down 
 by the fluid they contain, and the mouth of the womb 
 being fufficiently opened by this gradual and repeated dif- 
 tenfion, they are forced into the middle of ihe vagina; 
 then the uterus contra&s and comes in contadl with the 
 body of the child, and, if it be fmall, the head is pro¬ 
 pelled with the waters. Here the membranes ufually 
 break ; but, if that is not the cafe, they are pulhed along 
 towards the os externum, which they alfo gradually 
 open, and appear on the outfide, in the form of a large 
 round bag. Mean while, the head advances, and the os 
 externum being by this time fully dilated, is alfo pro¬ 
 truded ; when, if the membranes, inftead of burfting in 
 the middle of the protuberance, are tore all round at the 
 os externum, the child’s head is covered with fome part 
 of them, which goes under the name of the caul, or 
 king’s-hood. If the placenta is, at the fame time, fepa- 
 rated from the uterus, and the membranes remain un¬ 
 broken, the fecundities, waters, and child, are delivered 
 together; but, if the placenta adheres, they muft of 
 courfe give way : and fliould they be tore all around from 
 the placenta, the greateft part of the body as well as the 
 head of the child will be inveloped by them, from which 
 it muft be immediately difengaged, that the air may have 
 a free palfage into the lungs. 
 
 W hen the head is large, fo that it does not defeend 
 immediately into the pelvis, the membranes are forced 
 down by themfclves ; and being ftretched thinner and 
 thinner, give way; when all the waters which are further 
 advanced than the head, run out; then the uterus com¬ 
 ing in contaft with the body of the child, the head is 
 
 fqueezed 
 
W I F 
 
 fqueezed down into the mouth of the womb, which it 
 Jiiugs up fo as to detain the reft of the waters. 
 
 Sometimes, when the quantity of waters is very fmall,' 
 and the uterus embraces the body of the child, the head, 
 covered with the membranes, is forced downwards, and 
 gradually opens the os internum ; but, at its arrival in 
 the middle of the pelvis and vagina, part of the waters 
 will be pufhed down before it, fometimes in a large, and 
 fometimes in a fmall proportion, towards the back part 
 ol the pelvis. At other times, when the waters are in 
 fmall quantity, no part of them are to be diftinguifhed 
 further than the head, which defcending lower and lower, 
 the attenuated membranes are fplit upon it; while, at 
 the fame time, it fills up the mouth of the womb and up¬ 
 per part of the vagina, in fuch a manner as hinders the 
 few remaining waters from being difeharged at once ; 
 though in every pain, a fmall quantity diftils on each fide 
 of the head, for lubricating the parts, fo as that the child 
 may flip along the more eafily. 
 
 The uterus contratts, the pains become quicker and 
 ftronger, the-crown of the head is pulhed down to the 
 lower part of the pelvis, againft one of the ifehia, at its 
 lower extremity; the forehead, being at the upper part 
 oftheoppofite ifehium, is forced into the hollow of the 
 under part of the facrum, while the vertex and hindhead 
 is prefled below the os pubis, from whence it rifes in a 
 quarter turn, gradually opening the os externum : the 
 framum labiorum, or fourchette, perineum, fundament, 
 and the parts that intervene betwixt that and the extre¬ 
 mity of the facrum, are all ftretchcd outwards in form of 
 a large tumour. The perinseum, which is commonly 
 but one inch from the os externum to the anus, is now 
 ftretched to three, the anus to two, and the parts be¬ 
 tween that and the coccyx are ftretched from two inches 
 to about three or more. The broad facrofciatick liga¬ 
 ments reaching from each fide of the lower part of the fa¬ 
 crum, to the under part of each ifehium, are alfo out¬ 
 wardly extended, and the coccyx is forced backward ; 
 while the crown of the head, where the lambdoidal croftes 
 the end of the fagittal future, continues to be pulhed along, 
 and dilates the os externum more and more. 
 
 When the head is fo far advanced, that the back part 
 of the neck is come below the under part of the os pubis, 
 the forehead forces the coccyx, fundament, and perineum, 
 backwards and downwards ; then the hindhead rifes 
 about two or three inches from under the pubes, making 
 a halt round turn in its afeent by which the forehead is 
 equally raifed from the parts upon which it prefted, and 
 the perinseum efcapes without being fplit or torn : at the 
 fame time, the fhoulders advance into the fides of the 
 pelvis at its brim, where it is wideft, and, with the body, 
 are forced along and delivered: mean while, by the con¬ 
 traction of the uterus, the placenta and chorion are looled 
 from the inner furface to which they adhered, and forced 
 through the vagina, out at the os externum. 
 
 When the head refts at firft above the brim of the pel¬ 
 vis, and is not far advanced, the fontanelle may be plainly 
 felt with the finger, commonly towards the fide of the 
 pelvis : this is the place where the coronal croftes the fa¬ 
 gittal future, and the bones are a little feparated from 
 each other, yielding a foftnefs to the touch, by which 
 may be diftinguifhed four futures, or rather one crofting 
 another. Thefe may be plainly perceived, even before 
 the membranes are broke; yet the examination muft not 
 be made during a pain, when the membranes are ftretched 
 down and filled with waters ; but only when the pain 
 begins to remit, and the membranes to be relaxed ; 
 otherwife they may be broke too foon, before the os in¬ 
 ternum be fufficiently dilated, and the head properly ad¬ 
 vanced. 
 
 When the vertex is come lower down, the fagittal fu¬ 
 ture only is to be felt; becaufe, as the hindhead defeends 
 in the pelvis, the fontanelle is turned more backwards, 
 to the fide, or towards the concavity of the facrum : but, 
 after it has arrived below the under part of the ofia pu¬ 
 bis, the lambdoidal may be felt crofting the end of the 
 fagittal future, the occiput making a more obtufe angle 
 than that of the parietal bones, at the place where the 
 three are joined together. But all thefe circuinftances 
 dre more eafily diftinguifhed after the membranes are 
 broke, or when the head is fo comprcfted that the bones 
 ride over one another, provided the hairy fcalp be not 
 exceftively fwelled. 
 
 3 
 
 W I F 
 
 How and when to break the Membranes. If the child 
 be lurrounded with a large quantity of waters, the uterus 
 cannotcome in contaCl with the body fo as to prefs down 
 the head, until the membranes arc pufhed a conlidcrable 
 way before it into the vagina ; nor even then, until they 
 are broke, and the fluid, diminifhed in fuch a manner as 
 will allow the womb to contrail, and, with the aftiftance 
 of the pains, force along the child. When the mem¬ 
 branes therefore are ftrong or unadvanced, and continue 
 fo long unbroke that the delivery is retarded, provided 
 the os internum be fufficiently dilated, they ought to be 
 hroke without further delay ; efpecially if the woman 
 hath been much fatigued or exhaufted with labour, or is 
 feized with a\iolent flooding : in which cafe, the rup¬ 
 ture of the membranes haftens delivery, and the haemor¬ 
 rhage is diminilhed by the contraction of the uterus, 
 which leflens the mouths of the veftels that arc alio coin- 
 prefled by the body of the child. 
 
 I he common method of breaking the membranes is by 
 thrufting the finger againft them when they are protruded 
 with the waters during the pain, or by pinching them with 
 the finger and thumb ; but if they are detained too high 
 to be managed in either of thefe methods, the hand may 
 be introduced into the vagina, if the os externum is 1b 
 lax as to admit it eafily: and if this cannot be done w ith- 
 out giving much pain, the fore and middle fingers being' 
 pufhed into the vagina with the other hand, let a probe 
 or pair of pointed lciflars be diredled along and between 
 them, and thruft through the membranes, when they are 
 pulhed with the waters below the head. This operation 
 muft be cautioully performed, left the head fhould be 
 wounded in the attempt; and as for the membranes, let 
 the opening be never fo fmall, the waters are dilcharged 
 with force fufficient to tear them afundcr. 
 
 If the vertex, inftcad of refting at the fide of the brim 
 of the pelvis, or at the os pubis, is forced further down 
 to the os internum, and the waters happen to be in imall 
 quantity, the head is pulhed forwards, and gradually 
 opens the mouth of the womb without any fenlible in- 
 terpolion of the waters : then it advances by degiees inro 
 the vagina, and the membranes being fplit or tore, little 
 or nothing is difeharged until the body of the child be 
 delivered : and in this cale, the hair of the head being 
 plainly felt, will be a fufficient indication that the mem¬ 
 branes are broke. If no hair is to be felt, but a fmooth 
 body prelents itfelf to the touch; and the woman ha' un¬ 
 dergone many ftrong pains, even alter the mouth c the 
 womb hath been largely dilated, and the head foiced in¬ 
 to the middle of the pelvis; you may conclude, that de¬ 
 livery is retarded by the rigidity of the membranes; that 
 there is but a fmall quantity of waters ; and that, it the 
 containing lacs were broke, the head would come along 
 without further hefitation. 
 
 Sometimes, no waters can be felt while the head is no 
 further advanced than the upper part of the pelvis, be¬ 
 caufe it plugs up the paflage and keeps them from dclcend- 
 ing; but, as it advances downwards, the uterus contracts, 
 and they are forced down in a fmall quantity towaids the 
 back part: from thence, as the head defeends, or even 
 though it Ihould flick in that fituation, they are pulhed 
 further down, and the membranes may be eafily broke ; 
 but the talk is more difficult when no waters come aown, 
 and the membranes are contiguous to the head. In this 
 cafe, they muft be fcratched a little during every pain, 
 with the nail of a finger, which, though fhort and imooth, 
 will, by degrees, wear them thinner and thinner, until 
 they fplit upon the head bv the force of labour. \ el this 
 expedient ought never to be ufed until you are certain 
 that delivery is retarded by their rigidity ; for, it that be 
 not the Iiinderance, the difficulty muft proceed from the 
 weaknefs of the woman, a large head, or narrow pelvis: 
 in which cafe, the delivery is a work of time, and will 
 be obftrudled by the premature difcharge of the waters, 
 which by gradually palling by the head, ought to keep 
 the parts moift and ftippery, in order to facilitate the 
 birth : for when the membranes are not b r okc until the 
 head is forced into the middle of the pelvis, the largeft 
 part of it being then paft the upper part of the facrum, 
 is commonly fqueezed along, opens the os externum, and 
 is delivered before all the waters are difcbaiged from the 
 uterus; fo that what remains, by moiftening and lubri¬ 
 cating the parts, help the fhoulders and body to pafs with' 
 more cafe. When the membranes are too foon broke, 
 
 the 
 
W I F 
 
 the under part of the uterus contracts fometimes To 
 ftrongly before the lhoulders, that it makes the reiiftance 
 Hill greater. 
 
 In moll: natural labours, thefpace betwixt the fore and 
 back fontanelles, viz. the vertex, prcfents to the os in¬ 
 ternum, and the forehead is turned to the fide of the 
 pelvis ; becaufe the baiin at the brim is wide!! from fide 
 to fide ; and frequently, before the head is pufhed in and 
 fall wedged among the bones, the child (after a pain) is 
 felt to move and turn it to that fide orfituation in which 
 it is leaf! prefled and hurt, if it was not prefenting in that 
 pofition before : but this pofition of the head may alter, 
 viz. in thofe where it is as wide, or wider, from the 
 back part to the fore part of the brim, than from fide to 
 fide, the forehead may be turned backwards or forwards. 
 But this form of the pelvis feldom happens. 
 
 This pofture is always obferved in a narrow pelvis, 
 when the upper part of the facrum jets forward to the 
 pubes; but, as the child is forced lower down, the fore¬ 
 head turns into the hollow at the inferior part of the fa¬ 
 crum, becaufe the vertex and occiput find lefs refifiance 
 at the lower part of the ofTa pubis than at the ifehfum, 
 to which it was before turned ; the pelvis being at the 
 pubes, as formerly defcribed, no more than two inches 
 in depth, whereas at the ifehium it amounts to four. 
 If, therefore, the forehead flicks in its former fituation, 
 without turning into the hollow, it may be aflifled by 
 introducing fome fingers, or the whole hand, into the 
 vagina, during a pain, and moving it in the right po¬ 
 fition. 
 
 When the head of the feetus prefents, and is forced 
 along in any of thofe pofitions, the labour is accounted 
 natural ; and little elfe is to be done, but to encourage 
 the woman to bear down with all her llrength in every 
 pain, and to reft quietly during each interval: if the 
 parts are rigid, dry, or inflamed, they ought to be lu¬ 
 bricated with pomatum, hog’s lard, butter, or ung. al- 
 theas: the two firft are moil proper for the external 
 parts; and the two laft (as being harder and not fo eaiily 
 melted) ought to be put up into the vagina, to lubricate 
 that and the os internum. 
 
 1 he mouth of the womb and os externum, for the 
 moll part, open with greater difficulty in the firft than in 
 the fucceeding labours, more efpecially in women turned 
 of thirty. In thefe cafes, the os externum muft be gra¬ 
 dually dilated in every pain, by introducing the fingers in 
 form of a cone, and turning them round, fo as to llretch 
 the parts by gentle degrees; and the whole hand being 
 admitted into the vagina, it will be fometimes found 
 neceflary to infinuate the fingers, with the flat of the hand 
 between the head and os internum ; for, when this pre¬ 
 caution is not taken in time, the os uteri is frequently 
 pufhed before the head (efpecially that part of it next the 
 pubes) even through the os externum ; or if the head 
 palles the mouth of the womb, it will protrude the parts 
 at the os externum, and will endanger a laceration in the 
 perina?um. '1 his dilatation, however, ought to be cau- 
 tioufly performed, and never attempted except when it is 
 abfolutely neceflary ; even then it muft be effected flowly, 
 and in time of a pain, when the woman is leaft fenfible 
 of the dilating force. 
 
 When the labour happens to be lingering, though 
 every thing be in a right pofture, if the affiftants are cla¬ 
 morous, and the woman herfelf too anxious and im¬ 
 patient to wait the requifite time without complaining, 
 the labour will be actually retarded by her uneafineis, 
 which we muft endeavour to furmount by arguments and 
 gentle perfuafion ; but if fhe is not to be fatisfied, and 
 ilrongly imprefled with an opinion that certain medicines 
 might be adminiftered to haften delivery, it will be con¬ 
 venient to preferibe fome innocent medicine, that fhe 
 may take between whiles, to beguile the time and pleafe 
 her imagination : but, if fhe is actually weak and ex- 
 haufted, it will be neceflary to order fomething that will 
 quicken the circulating fluids, fucb as preparations of 
 amber, caftor, myrrh, volatile fpirits, the pulv. myrrh, 
 compofit. of the London, or pulv. ad partum of the 
 Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with every thing in point of 
 diet and drink that nourifhes and ftrengthens the body. 
 If the patient is of a plcthorick habit, with a quick ftrong 
 pulfe, the contrary method is to be ufed, fuch as vene- 
 icCtion, antiphlogiftick medicines, and plentiful draughts 
 of weak diluting fluids. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 78-s- 
 
 W f F 
 
 I How to behave when the birth is obftruCted by the 
 I Navel-ftring or Shoulders of the Child , or a narrow Pelvis. 
 Although the head is pufhed down into the pelvis, and 
 the vertex employed in opening the os externum, the 
 forehead being lodged in the concavity formed by the 
 coccyx and lower part of the facrum; yet frequentiv af. r 
 the labour-pain is abated, the head again is withdrawn 
 by the navel-llring happening to be twilled round the 
 neck; or when the lhoulders, inftcad of advancing, are 
 retarded at the brim of the pelvis, one refting over the 
 ofla pubis, while the other is fixed at the facrum ; or 
 when (the waters having been long evacuated) the under¬ 
 part of the uterus contrails round the neck and before the 
 lhoulders, keeping up the body of the child. 
 
 When the head is therefore drawn back by any of 
 thefe obftacles, and the delivery hath been retarded dur¬ 
 ing feveral pains, one or two fingers being introduced 
 into the reCtum before the pain goes off, ought to prefs 
 upon the forehead of the child at the root of the nofe; 
 great care being taken to avoid the eyes : this preflure 
 detains the head till the return of another pain, which 
 will fqueeze it further down, while the fingers pufhing 
 flowly and gradually, turn the forehead half round out¬ 
 wards and half round upwards. By this affiftance, and 
 the help of ftrong pains, the child will be forced along, 
 although the neck be entangled in the navel-ftring ; 
 tor, as the child advances, the uterus contrails, and 
 confequently the placenta is moved lower : the funis 
 umbilicalis will alio llretch a little, without obftruCting 
 the circulation. 
 
 The head being thus kept down, the lhoulders too 
 are prefled in every fucceeding pain until they are forced 
 into the pelvis, when the whole comes along without 
 further difficulty. And this,expedient will, moreover, 
 anfwer the purpofe, when the under part of the uterus 
 or os internum is contracted round the neck of the child, 
 and before the lhoulders ; alfo, when the head is very 
 low, prefling a finger on each fide of the coccyx exter¬ 
 nally will frequently aftift in the fame manner; alfo in 
 lingering calcs, when the woman is weak, the head large, 
 or the pelvis narrow, you may affitl the delivery by gentlv 
 ftretching both the os externum and internum with vour 
 fingers, in time of the pains, which will increafc the 
 fame, as well as dilate ; but this is only to be done when 
 abfolutely neceflary, and with caution, and at intervals, 
 for fear of inflaming or lacerating the parts. 
 
 Over and above thefe obftacles, the head may be ac¬ 
 tually delivered and the body retained by the contrac¬ 
 tion of the os externum round the neck, even after the 
 face appears externally. In this cafe it was generally 
 alledged that the neck was clofe embraced by the os 
 internum ; but this feldom happens when the head is 
 delivered, becaufe then the os internum is kept dilated 
 on the back part and fides by the breaft and arms of 
 the feetus, unlels it be forced low down with or before 
 the head. 
 
 When the head is delivered and the reft of the body 
 retained from the largenefs or wrong prefenting of the 
 lhoulders, or by the navel-ftring’s being twilled round 
 the body or neck of the child, the head muft be grafped 
 on each fide, the thumbs being applied to the occiput, 
 the fore and middle fingers extended along each fide of 
 the neck, while the third and fourth of each hand fup- 
 port each fide of the upper jaw : thus embraced, the 
 head muft be pulled ftraight forwards ; and if it will not 
 move cafily along, the force muft be increafed, and the 
 directions varied from fide to fide, or rather from fhoul- 
 der to fhouJder, not by fudden jerks, but with a flow, 
 firm, and equal motion. If the body cannot be moved 
 in this manner, though you have exerted as much force 
 as poflible without running the rifk of over-ftraining the 
 neck, you muft endeavour to flip the turns of the navel- 
 ftring over the head : but fltould this be found impracti¬ 
 cable, you ought not to trifle in tying the firing at two 
 places, and cutting betwixt the ligatures, as fome people 
 haveadvifed: fuch an operation would engrofs too much 
 time; bclides, the child is in no danger of fuffocating 
 from the ItriCture of the funis, becaufe it feldom or never 
 breathes before the breaft is delivered. 
 
 The better method is, immediately to Aide along one 
 or two fingers, either above or below, to one of the arm- 
 pits ; by which you try to bring along the body, while, 
 with the other hand, you pull the neck at the fame time. 
 
 5 z if 
 
w I F W I F 
 
 ft u ftill continues unmoved, fhift hands, and let the 
 other arm-pit fuflain the force ; but, if this fail, cut the 
 navel-firing, and tie it afterwards. If the flioulders lie 
 lb high that the fingers cannot reach far enough to cut 
 or take fulficient hold, let the fiat of the hand be run 
 along the back of the child : or fhould the os externum 
 be llrongly contra&cd round the neck, pufh up your hand 
 along the bread, and pull as before ; and fhould this me¬ 
 thod fail, you mull have rccourfe to the blunt hook in¬ 
 troduced and fixed in the arm pit; but this expedient mud 
 be ul'ed with caution, led the child fhould be injured, or 
 the parts lacerated. 
 
 | be child being born, the funis umbilicalis mud be 
 divided, and the placenta delivered, according to the di- 
 re&ions that will occur in the fequcl. 
 
 How to manage the Child after Delivery. The child 
 being delivered, ought to be kept warm beneath the bed- 
 cloaths, or immediately covered with a warmed flannel or 
 linen cloth : if it ciies and breathes, the umbilical cord 
 may be tied and cut, and the child delivered to the nude 
 without delay ; but, if the air does not immediately rulh 
 into the lungs, and the circulation continues between it 
 and the placenta, the operation of tying and cutting muft 
 Ire delayed, and every thing tried to flimulate, and Some¬ 
 times to give pain. If the circulation is languid, refpi- 
 ration begins with difficulty, and proceeds with long 
 intervals; and if it be entirely flopped in the funis, the 
 child, if a 1 i vc, is not eafily recovered ; fometimes a great 
 many minutes are elapfed before it begins to breathe. 
 W hatever augments the circulating force, promotes refpi- 
 t auon ; and as this incrcafes, the circulation grows 
 ilronger, lo that they mutually affifh each other. In 
 order to promote the one and the other, the child is kept 
 warm, moved, fhaken, whip';; the head, temples, and 
 breaft rubbed with Spirits, garlick, onion, or muftard 
 applied to the mou.fi and nofe ; and the child has been 
 fometimes recovered by blowing into the mouth with a 
 filver canula, f'o as to expand the lungs. 
 
 when the placenta is itfelf delivered, immediately or 
 foon after the child, by the continuance of the labour- 
 pa; ns, or hath been extracted by the operator, that the 
 uterus may contract, fo as to reftrain too great a flood¬ 
 ing ; in this cafe, if the child has not yet breathed, and a 
 puliation is felt in the vefills, fome people (with good 
 reafon) order the placenta, and as much as poffible of the 
 navel-firing, to be thrown into a bafon of warm wine or 
 water, in order to promote the circulation between them 
 and the child ; others advife us to lay the placenta on 
 the child’s belly, covered with a warm cloth; and a 
 third let order it to he thrown upon hot afhes : but, of 
 thefe, the warm water fee ms the moft innocent and effec¬ 
 tual expedient. Neverthelefs, if the placenta is flill re¬ 
 tained in the uterus, and no dangerous flooding enfues, 
 it cannot be in a place of more equal warmth, while the 
 operator endeavours, by the methods above deferibed, to 
 bring the child to life. 
 
 In lingering labours, when the head of the child hath 
 been long lodged in the pelvis, fo that the bones ride over 
 one another, and the fhape is pre ter naturally lengthened, 
 the brain is frequently fo much compreffed, that violent 
 convulfions'enlue before or foon after the delivery, to the 
 d lgerand oft-tii ‘ion of the child. This 
 
 diforder is frequently relieved and carried off, and the 
 bad confequences of the long compreifion prevented, by 
 cutting the navel-firing before the ligature is made, or 
 tying it fo {lightly as to allow two, three, or four large 
 Spoonfuls to ho difcliarged. 
 
 If the child has been dead one or two days before 
 delivery, the lips and genitals (el’pecially the ferotum 
 in boys) are of a livid hue ; if it hath lain dead in the 
 uterus two or three davs longer, the fkin may be eaiily 
 ftript from every part of the body, and the navel-firing 
 appears of the fame colour with the lips and genitals : in 
 ten or fourteen days, the body is much more livid and 
 mortified, and the hairy fcalp may be feparated with 
 eafe; and indeed, anv part of the child which hath been 
 {Ironglv prefled into the pelvis, and retained in that fitu- 
 ation for any length of time, will adopt the fame mortified 
 appearance. 
 
 How to tie the funis umbilicalis. Different praCliti- 
 oners have ufed different methods of performing this 
 operation : fome propofing to tie and feparate the funis 
 before the placenta is J. I wd, to apply one ligature 
 
 clofe to the belly of the child, with a view to prevent a 
 rupture of the navel; and making another two inches 
 above the former, to divide the rope between the two 
 tyings : by the fecond ligature, they mean to prevent a 
 dangerous haemorrhage from the woman, provided the 
 placenta adheres to the uterus. But all thefe precautions 
 are founded upon miftaken notions, and the following 
 feems to be that which is cafleil and beft: if the placenta 
 is not immediately delivered by the pains, and no flood¬ 
 ing obliges you to haften the extra&ion, the woman 
 may be allowed to reft a little, and the child to recover ; 
 if it does not breathe, or the refpiration is weak, let 
 the methods above preferibed be put in practice, with 
 a view to flimulate the circulation ; hut if the child is 
 lively, and cries with vigour, the funis may he immedi¬ 
 ately tied in this manner : having provided a ligature or 
 two, compofed of fundry threads waxed together, fo as 
 to equal the diameter of a pack-thread, being feven inches 
 in length, and knotted at each end, tie the navel-firing 
 about two fingers breadth from the belly of the child, by 
 making at iirft one turn, if the funis he fmall, and fecur- 
 ing it with two knots ; but if the cord be thick, make 
 two more turns, and another double knot; then cut the 
 funis with a pair of fharp feiflars one finger’s breadth 
 from the ligature towards the placenta ; and in cutting 
 run the feiflars as near as poffible to the root of the 
 blades, elfe the funis will be apt to flip from the edge, 
 and you will be obliged to make fevcral fnips before 
 you can effeCl a reparation : at the fame time, guard the 
 points of the feiflars with your other hand. The child 
 being waffied, a linen rag is wrapped round the tied 
 funis ; which being doubled up along the belly, a fquare 
 comprefs is laid over it, and kept firm or moderately tight 
 with what the nurfes call a belly-band, or roller round 
 the body. 
 
 This portion of the funis foon fhrinks, turns firft livid, 
 then black, and about the fifth day falls off clofe to the 
 belly; and let the navel-firing be tied in any part, or at 
 any dillance wliatfoever from the belly, it will always 
 drop off at the fame place : fo that ruptures in the navel 
 feldom or never depend upon the tying of the funis, but 
 may happen when the comprefs and belly hand are not 
 kept Sufficiently firm, and continued fome time after the 
 reparation of the withered portion, efpecially in thofe. 
 children that cry much : the bandage ought always to be 
 applied fo flight as not to afFeCl refpiration. 
 
 The ligature upon the funis muft always be drawn fo 
 tight as to fhut up the mouths of the veflcls : therefore, 
 if they continue to pour out their contents, another liga¬ 
 ture muft be applied below the former; for if this pre¬ 
 caution be neglected, the child will foon bleed to death : 
 yet, if the navel-ftring is cut or tore afunder at two or 
 three hand-breadths from the belly, and expofed to the 
 cold without any ligature, the arteries will contract them- 
 lelves, fo as that little or no blood (hall be loft; nay, 
 fometimes, if the funis hath been tied and cut at the dis¬ 
 tance of three finger-breadths from the child’s belly, fo 
 as that it hath been kept from blooding for an hour or 
 two, although the ligature be then untied, and the navel- 
 ftring and belly chafed, and foaked in warm water, no 
 more blood will be difcliarged. 
 
 Of delivering the Placenta. The funis being feparated, 
 and the child committed to the nurfe, the next care is 
 to deliver the placenta and membranes, if they are not 
 already forced down by the labour-pains. We have 
 already obferved, that if there is no danger from a flood¬ 
 ing, the woman may be allowed to reft a little, in order 
 to recover from the fatigue flie has undergone; and that 
 the uterus may, in contracting, have time to fqueezeand 
 feparate the placenta from its inner furface : during which 
 paufe alfo, about one, two or three tca-cups full of blood 
 is difcliarged through the funis, from the veflels of the 
 placenta, which is thus diminifhed in bulk, fo that the 
 womb may be the more contracted ; and this is the 
 reafon for applying one ligature only upon the cord. In 
 order to deliver the placenta, take hold of the navel- 
 ftring with the left hand, turning it round the fore and 
 middle fingers, or wrapping it in a cloth, that it may not 
 flip from your grafp ; then pull gently from fide to fide, 
 and defire the woman to afllft your endeavour, by {fram¬ 
 ing as if flie were at ftool, blowing forcibly into her 
 hand, or provoking herfelf to reach by thrufting her 
 finger into her throat If by thefe methods the placenta 
 2 cannot 
 
W i F 
 
 cannot .be brought away, introduce your hand flowly 
 into the vagina, and feel for the edge of the cake ; which 
 when you have found, pull it gradually along ; as it 
 comes out at the os externum, take hold of it with both 
 hands and deliver it, bringing away, at the fame time, 
 all the membranes, which, if they adhere, mull be pulled 
 along with leifure and caution. 
 
 When the funis takes its origin towards the edge of 
 the placenta, which is frequently the cafe, the cake comes 
 caller off by pulling, than when the navel-firing is in- 
 ferted in the middle, unlefs it be uncommonly retained 
 hy its adhefion to the womb, or by the ftrong contraction 
 of the os internum. If the funis is attached to the 
 middle of the placenta, and that part prefents to the os 
 internum or externum, the whole mafs will be too bulky 
 to come along in that pofition : in this cafe you mull 
 introduce two fingers within the os externum, and bring 
 it down with its edge foremofl. 
 
 When the placenta is feparated by the contraction of 
 the uterus, in confequence of its weight and bulk, it is 
 pufhed down before the membranes, and both arc brought 
 away inverted. 
 
 When part of the placenta hath palled the os inter¬ 
 num, and the reft of it cannot be brought along by eafy 
 pulling, becaufe the os uteri is clofe contracted round 
 the middle of it, or part of it ftill adheres to the womb, 
 flide the fiat of your hand below the placenta through 
 the os internum; and having dilated the uteius, flip 
 down your hand to the edge of the cake, and bring it 
 along: but, if it adheres to the uterus, pufh up your 
 hand again, and having feparated it cautioufly, deliver it 
 as before. 
 
 If, inftead of finding the edge or middle of the placenta 
 prefenting to the os externum or internum, you feel the 
 mouth of the womb clofely contra&ed, you muft take 
 hold of the navel-firing as above directed, and flide your 
 other hand along the funis into the vagina; then flowly 
 pufh your fingers and thumb, joined in form of a cone, 
 tlirough the os uteri, along the fame cord, to the place 
 of its infertion in the placenta : here let your hand reft, 
 and feel with your fingers to what part of the uterus the 
 cake adheres : if it be loofe at the lower edge, try to 
 ■brino- it along; but if it adheres, begin and feparate it 
 flowly, the back of your hand being turned to the uterus, 
 and the fore-part of your fingers towards the placenta : 
 and for this operation the nails ought to be cut fliort and 
 finooth. In feparating, prefs the ends of your lingers 
 more againft the placenta than the uterus; and if yon 
 cannot diftinguiih which is which, becaufe both feel loft 
 (though the uterus is firmer than the placenta, and this 
 laft more folid than coagulated blood ;) in this cafe, flide 
 down your fingers to its edge, and conduft them hy the 
 feparated part, preffing it gently from the uterus, until 
 the whole is difengaged. Sometimes, when part of it is 
 feparated, the reft will loofen and come along, it you 
 pull gently at the detached portion ; but, if this is not 
 effeCted with eafe, let the whole of it be feparated in the 
 moft cautious manner : fometimes, alfo, by grafping the 
 infide of the placenta with your hand, the whole will be 
 loofened without further trouble. As the placenta comes 
 along, Aide down your hand and take hold of the lower 
 edge, by which it'muft be extrafted, becaufe it is too 
 bulky to be brought away altogether in a heap ; and let 
 it be delivered as whole as pofliblc, keeping your thumb 
 or fingers fixed upon the navel-firing, by which means 
 laceration is often prevented. 
 
 When the woman lies on her back, and the placenta 
 adheres to the left fide of the uterus, it will be moft com¬ 
 modious to feparate the cake with the right hand; where¬ 
 as the left hand is moft conveniently ufed when the pla¬ 
 centa ad lie res to the right fide of the womb ; but when it 
 is attached to the forepait, back, or fundus, either hand 
 will anfwer the purpol'e. 
 
 That part of the uterus to which the placenta adheres, 
 is kept ftill diftended, while all the reft of it is contradled. 
 
 The nearer the adhefion is to the os internum, the 
 eafier is the placenta feparated, and vice verfa ; bccauie 
 it is difficult to reach up to the fundus, on account of the 
 contraction of the os internum, and lower part of the 
 womb» which arc not ftretched again without great force 
 after they have been contracted for any length of time. 
 
 When therefore the placenta adheres to the fundus, 
 and all the lower part of the womb is ftrongly contracted, 
 
 W I F 
 
 the hand muft be forced up in form of a cone into the va¬ 
 gina, and then gradually dilate the os internum and in¬ 
 ferior part of the Uterus. If great force is required, exert 
 it ilowly, refting between whiles, that the hand may not 
 be cramped, nor the vagina in danger of being tore from 
 the’womb ; for in this calc, the vagina will lengthen con- 
 fiderably upwards. 
 
 While you arc thus emploved, let an afiiftant prefs with 
 both hands on the woman’s belly; or while you pufh with 
 one hand, prefs with the other, in order to keep down the 
 uterus, elfe it will rife high up, and roll about like a large 
 ball, below the lax parietes of the abdomen, fo as to 
 hinder you from effeding the neceffary dilatation. 
 
 When you have overcome this contraClion, and intro- 
 duced your hand into the fundus, feparate and bring the 
 placenta along, as above dircCled ; and ihould the uterus 
 be contraCled in the middle like an hour-glafs, a circum- 
 ftance that fometimes, though rarely happens, the fame 
 method muft be praCtifed. 
 
 In every cafe, and clpeclally when the placenta hath 
 been delivered with difficulty, introduce your hand after 
 its extraction, in order to examine if any part of the ute¬ 
 rus be pulled down and inverted ; and if that be the cafe, 
 pufh it up and reduce it without lofs of time, then cleat 
 it of the coagulated blood, which otherwile may occafion 
 violent after-pains. 
 
 For the moft part, in ten. fifteen, or twenty minutes, 
 more or lefs, the placenta will come away of itfelf; and 
 though feme portion of it, or of the membranes, be left 
 in the uterus, provided no great flooding enfues, it is com¬ 
 monly dilcharged in a day or two, without any detriment 
 to the woman : but at any rate, if poffible, all the fe¬ 
 cundities ought to be cxtra£led at once, and before you 
 leave your patient, in order to avoid reflections. 
 
 Thofe labours called laborious and preternatural, we 
 would recommend to thofe, who mean to make it their 
 ftudy, a careful perufal of Dr. Smcllie’s book on mid- 
 wifi v, and a late publication by Mr. Hamilton, lur- 
 geon, in Edinburgh. 
 
 The figns of a dead Child. When the head prefents, 
 and cannot be delivered by the labour-pains; when all 
 the common methods have been ufed without fuccefs, 
 the woman being exhaufted, and all her efforts vain ; 
 and when the child cannot be delivered without fuch 
 force as will endanger the life of the mother, becaufe the 
 head is too large or the pelvis too narrow; it then be¬ 
 comes abfolutely neceffary to open the head, and extraCl 
 with the hand, forceps, or crotchet. Indeed this lafl me¬ 
 thod formerly was the common prattice when the child 
 could not be eafily turned, and is ftill in ufe with thofe 
 who do not know how to fave the child by delivering 
 with the forceps: for this reafon, their chief care and 
 ftudy was to diftinguiih whether the foetus was dead or 
 alive; and as the figns were uncertain, the operation was 
 often delayed until the woman was in the moft immi¬ 
 nent danger; or when it was performed fooner, the 
 operator was frequently accufed of rafhnefs, on the fup- 
 polition that the child might in time have been delivered 
 alive by the labour-pains: perhaps he was fometimes 
 confcious to himfelf of the juftice of this imputation, al¬ 
 though what he had done was an upright intention. 
 
 The figns of a dead foetus were, firft, the child’s ceaf- 
 ing to move and ftir in the uterus. Secondly, The eva¬ 
 cuation of meconium, though the breech is not preffed 
 into the pelvis. Thirdly, No perceivable puliation at the 
 fontanelle and temporal arteries. Fourthly, A large fwell- 
 ing or tumour of the hairy fealp. Fifthly, An uncom¬ 
 mon laxity of the bones of the cranium. Sixthly, The 
 difeharge of a feetid ichor from the vagina, the effluvia 
 of which l'urround the woman and gave rife to the opi¬ 
 nion that her breath conveyed a mortified fmell. Se¬ 
 venth! v, Want of motion in the tongue, when the face 
 prefents. Eighthly, No perceivable puliation in the ar¬ 
 teries of the funis umbilicalis, when it falls down below 
 the head ; nor at the wrift when the ann prefents ; and 
 no motion of the fingers. Ninthly, The pale and livid 
 countenance of the woman. Tenthly, A collapfing and 
 fiaccidity of the breaft. Eleventhly, A coldnefs felt in 
 the abdomen, and weight, from the child’s falling like a 
 heavy ball to the fide on which fhc lies. Twelfthly, A 
 feparationof the haiiy fealp on the fliglueft touch, and a 
 diftindt perception of the bare bones. 
 
 All 
 
W I F 
 
 All or moft of thefe figns are dubious and uncertain, 
 except the lad, which can only be oblervcd after the foe¬ 
 tus hath been dead feveral days. One may alfo certainly 
 pronounce the child's death, if no pulfation hath been 
 
 . ln thc , navd ft ™S for the fpaco of twenty or thirty 
 minutes ; but thc tame certainty is not to be acquired 
 from the arm, unlels thc fkin can be dripped off with cafe. 
 
 When the Crotchet is to be ufed. Midwifry is now 
 lo much improved, that the neceffity of defcoying the 
 child does not occur fo often as formerly : indeed it ne¬ 
 ver mould be done, except when it is impoffible to turn 
 or to deliver with the forceps ; and this is feldom the cafe 
 but When the pelvis is too narrow, or the head too large 
 to pals, and therefore reds above tile brim : for this rea- 
 on, it is not fo neceffary for the operator to puzzle him- 
 lelf about dubious figns; becaufe in thefe two cafes, there 
 is no room for hefitation : for if the woman cannot pof- 
 hbly be delivered m any other way, and is in imminent 
 danger of her life, the bed praBice is undoubtedly to 
 have recourfe to that method which alone can be ufed for 
 her preiervation, namely, to diminifh the bulk, of the 
 head. IC 
 
 . 1,1 * IS cafe ’ of dedroying, you are really fav- 
 
 and child'are loft!‘ ^ ° P “ **='both mother 
 
 The method of ufing the SciJJhn, Blunt-Hook, and 
 Cnuhet. When the head prefents, and fuel, is the cafe 
 that the child can neither be delivered by turning, nor 
 extrafled with the forceps, and it is abfolutely neceffary 
 o deliver the woman to fare her life, this operation mud 
 then be performed in the following manner : 
 
 The operator mud be provided with a pair of curved 
 ci otchets, made according to the improvements upon thofe 
 piopofed by Mefnard, together with a pair of feiffars 
 about nine inches long, with reds near the middle of the 
 blades, and the blunt hook. 
 
 1 'i le T!le patient ought to be 
 
 laid on her back or tide in the lame polition direfted in 
 the ufe of the forceps; the operator mud be feated on a 
 low chair, and the inftruments concealed and difpofed in 
 the fame manner, and for the fame reafon mentioned in 
 treating of the forceps. The parts of thc woman have 
 already, in all likelihood, been fufficiently dilated by his 
 endeavours to turn or deliver with the forceps: or if no 
 efforts of that kmd have b f en ufed, becaufc by the touch 
 lie had learned that no fuch endeavours would fuccecd 
 as in the cafe of a large hydrocephalus, when the bones 
 of the cranium are often feparated at a great diftance from 
 each other; or upon perceiving that the pelvis was ex- 
 tremely narrow : if, upon thefe confiderations, he hath 
 made no trials in which tlife parts were opened, let him 
 gradually dilate the os externum and internum, as for¬ 
 merly dire&ed. 
 
 The head is commonly kept down pretty firm, by the 
 ftrong contraction of the uterus round the child \ bur 
 fhould it yield to one fide, let it be kept fteady by the 
 hand of ail affiftant, preffing upon the belly of the vvo- 
 h, “ jntroduce his hand, and prcli two fingers 
 againft one of the futures of the cranium ; then take out 
 his fdffars from the place in which they were depofited, 
 and gmduig then, by the hand and fingers till they reach 
 the hairy icalp, pulh them gradually into it, until their 
 progrefs is flopped by the refts. 
 
 It the head flips afide, in fuch a manner, as that thev 
 cannot be pulhed into the fkull at the future, they will 
 make their way through the folid bones, if they are moved 
 ill a iemicircular turn, like thc motion of boring, and this 
 method continued till you find the point firmly fixed' 
 bones! h ‘ S 1S n0t obferved i the P oillts Hide along the 
 
 1'he feiffars ought to be fo fharp at the points as to 
 
 a mo I 3 ' 6 ,' 11 ? lnte 8“ ments and bones when^pufhed with 
 a moderate force ; but not fo keen as to cut the opera- 
 
 t0r Th'T'm th e vaginam introducing them. P 
 
 rt J he n fClirar l bcin S thus forccJ in ‘° ‘He brain, as far as 
 the refts at the middle ot the blades, let them be kept 
 ti m in that fituation ; and the hand that was in the va- 
 
 fhe hand| gW1 M a "[ n : the °P Crat0 ‘ mU(l tak = bold Of 
 
 the handles with each hand, and pull them afunder, that 
 he b.ades may dilate and make a large opening in the 
 
 lkull ; then they muff be fliut, turned, and again pulled 
 afunder, lo as to make the incifion crucial; by which 
 ■msnas tits opening will be enlarged, and Efficient room 
 
 I 
 
 W I F 
 
 made for the introduction of the fingers : let them he si, 
 teiwaids clofed, and introduced even beyond the refts 
 
 fro’mfide 3 !oTd ft aEai, ' bc °P enc d> and turned half round 
 from fide to fide, until theftruftmre of the brain is foef- 
 
 ThiTin de f ftr0) ' | cd .’ that “ can be evacuated with eale. 
 and b L ng P erformed > let the feiffars be flint 
 
 and withdrawn ; but ,f this inftrument will not anfwer 
 he laft purpofe the bufinels may be done by introducing 
 he crotchet within thc opening of the fkull. The brain 
 
 him hit h rnd deft r ycd ’, and thc moment withdrawn, let 
 i 1,ltrod «ce his right hand into the vagina, and two 
 
 a, " U °r‘r C ° peni ? s which bath been'made, tl.at if 
 
 bmkei o P / P n ter t °‘ the boncs ™»in. they m, be 
 broken^off and taken out; left they fhould injure the 
 vonian s vagina, or the operator’s own lingers, 
 on .1, • C rn C be M !T d,oce Pbalus, let him fix his fingers 
 inr h and nfid< i and hlS thumb 0,1 ,hc ootfide of the open- 
 pam “tr f^ ‘° pUlIalon E the in time of a 
 L shift i ,tIabour,s '™k, he muft defire the woman 
 
 o aff ft his endeavours by forcing down ; and thus the 
 child is frequently delivered ; bccaufe, the water beine- 
 evacuated, the head eollapfes of courfe. S 
 
 greater ft P e b ' S > s narrow, the head requires much 
 
 are W , ° ", brou E btalon «i “nlefs the labour-pains 
 
 fquee/m« on, ,! g T'* “ down and diminish it, by 
 
 lqueezing out the cerebrum : in this cafe, let the opera- 
 
 h"" lt |’ draw , hls , fi ' ,gcrs bfm the opening, and. Aiding 
 
 left hancTfakT htad ’ ? a< ? ,hc os uteri; then ’ with hi s 
 
 ts concealment S 'T T cro,chets ftom tIle pl»« of 
 , concealment introduce it along his right hand with 
 
 cl itfm't t0Wa 1 th K C !' iId ’ S hrad - a,ld it above the 
 t s or n baC , k part of “'e neck, or above the 
 
 ing fixed M *j n y place where it will take firm hold : hav- 
 and with ill !v ft i™u ent ’ 1" hlm withdraw his right hand, 
 
 U en in rod 1 1 ° n the end 0r handle of thecrotchet 
 of t Zlr h u‘ S )eb ‘° t iZe ,he boncs a ‘ ‘be opening 
 fteadv ft ,nd ( n b ? Ve d,reaed ) “'at the head may be kepf 
 T? y i d P , u l a ! on S WIth hands. P 
 
 nefs of thlTnpIv^ 11 ? de 1 t ? ine . d ^ the uncommon narrow- 
 theonnnfir P r! V ' S ’- let 'T ln “° d ooe his left hand along 
 whirh P h fi r 't’ m r rder t0 guide ‘be other crotchet; 
 fi| h bein f aIfo a Pphed and locked or joined with its 
 fellow, in the manner of the forceps, he muft pu wi 
 
 fauces um C ,h ^ to and^s it ad- 
 
 Ind extraft s ? re , ? d lnt ° the bobow ofthefacrum, 
 the head and ‘be forceps, humouring the fhape of 
 be performed P fl V1S , ,h e operation, wind, ought to 
 d P ™ WI ‘b great judgment and camion , 
 
 howfhe hea r aPPearS abfo]utel y neceffary to know 
 muft be fix d pre j n , ts ’ 111 order ‘° j«dgc how the crotchet 
 vamage ’ thC hCad broug bt along to the beft ad- 
 
 bod! ^ hen .l! e 1>Cad J S del ' vcred in this manner, the 
 (welled of a rf e - traacd ’ on acc °nnt of its being much 
 
 he cafe) the n° n ° U r r’ u ( "’ hich is m °boommonly 
 tl ecale) the narrownefs of the pelvis; let him defiftfrom 
 
 and im* d^ - the hCa 1 (h ould be feparated from thc body, 
 
 to !he fhon'! C r g n'j hand . fo as t0 rcach w i‘b his fingers 
 to the fhoulder-blades or breaft, conduft alone it one of 
 
 Mvith tC a firm tbE P ° in * k ‘ ovvards fe ‘nl and fix 
 " U ‘ 3 firm application ; then withdrawing Ins hand 
 
 er7i7n’th , e n f PUlllng ' hC Cr ° tChCt > WhUc the 
 
 chUd if he ft manne ‘ u P on ‘be head and neck of the 
 child if the inftrument begins to lofe its hold, he mull 
 pulh it further up, and fixing it again, repeat his efforts 
 trailed^ “ ftlUh ‘ Sher and higher, until the body is ex- 
 
 Of the Marwgiment of IVomtn from the time of the 
 delivery to the end of the month, with the feveral difeafes 
 to Which they are fubjeft during that period. 
 
 v„?d f e The woman being deli- 
 
 vered of the child and placenta, let a foft line/cloth 
 wanned, be applied to the external parts ; and iffhecom- 
 P ams much of a fmarting forenefs.fome pomatum may 
 be fpread upon it The linen that was laid below her 
 to fpunge up the difcharges, muft be removed, and re¬ 
 placed with others that are clean, dry, and warm. Let 
 icr he on her back, with her legs extended clofe to each 
 other; or upon her fide, if (he thinks Ihe can Tie eafcr 
 m that pofition, until flie recovers from the fatigue • if 
 fhe is fpent and exbaufted, let her take a little warm wine 
 ™j C ’ ° r ’ acc °rdine to the common cuftom, fome 
 nutmeg and fugar grated togetlier in a fpoon : the prin- 
 
 cipal 
 
W I F 
 
 Cipal defign of ad miniftering this powder, which among I 
 the good women is feldom negleftcd, is to fupply the | 
 want of fome cordial draught, when the patient is too’ 
 weak to be raifed, or fuppofed to be in danger of teach¬ 
 ings from her ftomach’s being overloaded. When fhe 
 hath in fome meafure recovered her ftrength and fpirits, 
 let the cloths be removed from the parts, and others 
 applied in their room ; and, if there is a large difeharge 
 from the uterus, let the wet linen below her be alfo 
 fhifted, that file may not run the rifque of catching cold. 
 
 When the patient is either weak or faintilh, file ought 
 not to be taken out of bed, or even raifed up to have her 
 head and body drifted, until Ihc is a little recruited ; 
 other wife fhe will be in danger of repeated faintings, 
 attended with convulfions, which fometimes end in death. 
 To prevent thefe bad confequences, her fkirt and petti¬ 
 coats ought to be loofened and pulled down over the legs, 
 and replaced by another well warmed, with abroad head- 
 band to be flipt in below, and brought up over her thighs 
 and hips : a warm double cloth mull be laid on the belly, 
 which is to be furrounded by the head-band of the Ikirt 
 pinned moderately tight over the cloth, in order to com- 
 prefs the vifeera and the relaxed parietes of the abdomen, 
 more or Jefs, as the woman can ealily bear it; by which 
 means the uterus is kept firm in the lower parts of the 
 abdomen, and prevented from rolling from fide to fide 
 when the patient is turned : but the principal end of this 
 compreflion, is to hinder too great a quantity of blood 
 from rufhing into the relaxed veflels of the abdominal 
 contents; efpecially when the uterus is emptied all of a 
 fudden, by a quick delivery. The preflure being thus 
 fuddenly removed, the head is all at once robbed of its 
 proportion of blood, and the immediate revulfion pre¬ 
 cipitates the patient into dangerous lypothymia. 
 
 For this reafon the belly ought to be firmly comprcfled 
 by the hands of an afliflant, until the bandage is applied ; 
 or, in lieu of it, a long towel, fheet, or roller, to make 
 a fuitable compreffion : but, for this purpofe, different 
 methods arc ufed in different countries, or according to 
 the different circumflances of the patients. The liead- 
 cloaths and fhift ought alfo to be changed, becaufe with 
 fweating in time of labour they are rendered wet and 
 difagreeable. Several other applications are neceflary, 
 when the external or internal parts are rent or inflamed, 
 misfortunes that fometimes happen in laborious and pre¬ 
 ternatural cafes. 
 
 Of Air, Diet, Sleeping and Watching, Motion and Rjl, 
 Retention and Excretion , and the Pajjiom of the Mind. 
 Although we cannot remove the patient immediately 
 after delivery into another climate, we can qualify the 
 air, fo as to keep it in a moderate and falutary temper, 
 by rendering it warm or cold, moifl or dry, according to 
 the circumflances of the occafion. With regard to diet, 
 women in time of labour, and even till the ninth day 
 after delivery, ought to eat little folid food, and none at 
 all during the firft five or feven : let them drink plenti¬ 
 fully of warm diluting fluids, fuch as barley-water, 
 gruel, chicken-water, and teas ; caudles are alfo com¬ 
 monly ufed, compofed of water-gruel boiled up with 
 mace and cinnamon, to which, when drained, is added a 
 third or fourth part of white wine, or lefs, if the patient 
 drinks plentifully, fweetened with fugar to their taile : 
 this compofition is termed white caudle; whereas, if ale 
 is ufed inllead of wine, it goes under the name of brown 
 caudle. In fome countries, eggs are added to both kinds; 
 but, in that cafe, the woman is not permitted to eat 
 meat or broths till after the fifth or feventhday : in this 
 country, however, as eggs are no part of the ingredients, 
 the patient is indulged with weak broth fooner, and 
 fometimes allowed to eat a little boiled chicken. But all 
 theie different preparations are to be preferibed weaker 
 or flronger, with regard to the fpices, wine, or ale, 
 according to the different conflitutions and fituations of 
 different patients : for example, if fhe is low and weak, 
 in confequence of an extraordinary dilcharge of any 
 kind, cither before or after delivery, or if the weather is 
 cold, fhe caudles and broths may be made the flronger ; 
 but if file is of a full habit of body, and has the leaf! 
 tendency to a fever, or if the feafon is exceflively hot, 
 thefe drinks ought to be of a very weak confidence, or 
 the patient reftrifted to gruel, tea, barley and chicken 
 water, and thefe varied according to the emergency of 
 the cafe. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 78- I 
 
 W I F 
 
 I Her food mufl be light and eafy of digeflion, fuck ai 
 I panada, bifeuit, and fago; about the fifth or feventh day 
 file may eat a little boiled chicken, Or the lighted kind 
 of young meat: but, thefe lad may be given looner or 
 later, According tbthe circumflances of the cAfe, and the 
 appetite of the patient. In the regimen as to earing and 
 drinking, we fhbuld rather err on the abdemious fide, 
 than indulge the woman with meat and drong fermented 
 liquors, even if thefe lad fliould be mod agreeable to her 
 palate : for we find by experience, that they arc apt to 
 increafe or bring on fevers, and that the mod nourifhing 
 and falutary diet is that which we have above preferibed. 
 Every thing that is difficult of digedion, or quickens the 
 circulating fluids, mud of neceffity promote a fever ; by 
 which, the neceflary difeharges are obftrufted, and the 
 patient’s life endangered. 
 
 As to the article of fleeping and watching, the patient 
 mud be kept as free from noife as poffible, by covering 
 the floors and dairs with carpets and cloths, oiling the 
 hinges of the doors, lilencing the bells, tying up the 
 knockers, and in noify flreets drowing the pavement 
 with draw ; if, notwithftanding thefe precautions, fhe 
 is dillurbed, her ears mud be duffed with cotton, and 
 opiates adminiflered to procure deep , becaufe watching 
 makes her redlefs, prevents peripiration, and promotes a 
 fever. 
 
 Motion and red are another part of the nonnaturals 
 to which we ought to pay a particular regard. By tolling 
 about, getting out of bed, or fitting up too long, the 
 peripiration is dilcouraged and interrupted ; and in this 
 lall attitude the uterus, yet not fully contrafted, hangs 
 down, dretching the ligaments, occafioning pain, cold 
 fhiverings, and a fever: for the prevention of thefe bad 
 fymptoms, the patient mud be kept quiet in bed till after 
 the fourth or fifth day, and then be gently lifted up in 
 the bed-cloaths, in a lying polture, until the bed can be 
 adjuded, into which file mud be immediately re-con¬ 
 veyed, there to continue for the moll part, till the ninth 
 day, after which period women arc not fo fubjeft to 
 fevers, as immediately after delivery. Some there are, 
 who, from the nature of their conflitutions, or other 
 accidents, recover more flowly ; and fuch are to be 
 treated with the fame caution after, as before, the ninth 
 day, as the cafe feems to indicate : others get up, walk 
 about, and recover, in a much flvorter time; but thefe 
 may fome time or other pay dearly for their foolhardi- 
 nefs, by encouraging dangerous fevers : fo that we ought 
 rather to err on the fafe fide, than run any rifque what- 
 foever. 
 
 "W hat next comes under confideration, is the circum- 
 dance of retention and excretion. We have formerly 
 obferved, that in time of labour, before the head of the 
 child is locked into the pelvis, if the woman has not had 
 eafy paflage in her belly that fame day, the reftunr and 
 colon ought to be emptied by a glyller, which will affifi 
 the labour, prevent the difagreeable excretion of the 
 foeces before the child’s head, and enable the patient to 
 remain two or three days after, without the neceffity of 
 going to dool. However, fhould this precaution be 
 neglefted, and the patient very codive after delivery, we 
 mud beware of throwing up llimulating glyders, or ad- 
 minidering drong catharticks, led they Ihould bring 011 
 too many loofe lloois, which, if they cannot be dopt, 
 fometimes produce fatal confequences, by obftruftino- 
 the peripiration and lochia, and exhaufling the woman, 
 fo as that fire will die all of a fudden ; a cataflrophe 
 which hath frequently happened from this praftice. 
 Wherefore, if it be neceflary to empty the intedines, 
 we ought to preferibe nothing but emollient glyders, or 
 fome very gentle opener, fuch as manna, or cleft, leni- 
 tivum. But no excretion is of more confequence to the 
 patient’s recovery, than a free peripiration; which is fo 
 abfolutely neceflary, that unlefs flic has a moiilure con¬ 
 tinually on the lurface of her body, for fome days after 
 the birth, die feldom recovers to advantage : her health, 
 therefore, in a great meafure depends upon her enjoying 
 undillurbed repofe, and a conflant breathing fweat, which 
 prevents a fever, by carrying off the tenfion, and affifls 
 the equal difeharge of the lochia : and when thefe are 
 obftrufted, and a fever enfues with pain and redleflnefs, 
 nothing relieves the patient fo effeftually. as reft and 
 profufe lweating, procured by opiates and'fudorificks at 
 the beginning of the complaints; yet thefe lall mud be 
 ° & more 
 
W I F 
 
 it!ore cautioufly prefcribed in excefiive hot than in cool 
 weather. 
 
 The laft of the nonnaturals to be confidered are the 
 paffions of the mind, which alfo require particular at¬ 
 tention. The patient’s imagination muft not be dii- 
 turbed by the news of any extraordinary accident which 
 may have happened to her family or friends : for fuch 
 information hath been known to carry off the labour- 
 pains entirely, after they were begun, and the woman 
 has funk under her deje&ion of Ipirits : and even after 
 delivery, thefe unfeafonable communications have pro¬ 
 duced fuch anxiety as obftrufted all the neceffary excre¬ 
 tions, and brought on a violent fever and convulfions, 
 that ended in death. 
 
 Ol violent Floodings. All women, when the placenta 
 feparates, and after it is delivered, lofe more or lei's red 
 blood, from the quantity of half a pound, to that ol 
 one pound, or even two ; but lhould it exceed this pro¬ 
 portion, and continue to flow without diminution, the 
 patient is in great danger of her life : this hazardous 
 haemorrhage is known by the violence of the di(charge, 
 wetting ftelh cloths as faft as they can be applied ; from 
 the pulfe becoming low and weak, and the countenance 
 turning pale ; then the extremities grow cold, Ihe links 
 into huntings, and, if the dilchargeis not fpeedily ftopt, 
 or dimimfhed, is feized with convulfions, which often 
 terminate in death. 
 
 This dangerous efflux is occafioned by every thing 
 that hinders the emptied uterus from contrafting, fuch 
 as great weaknefs and laflitucle, in confequence of re¬ 
 peated floodings before delivery ; the fudden evacuation 
 of the uterus; fometimes, though feldom, it proceeds 
 from part of the placenta’s being left in the womb ; it 
 may happen when there is another child, or more, ftill 
 undelivered ; when the womb is kept diftended with a 
 large quantity of coagulated blood ; or when it is inverted, 
 by pulling too forcibly at the placenta. 
 
 In this cafe, as there is no time to be loft, and in¬ 
 ternal medicines cannot aft fo fuddcnly as to anfwer the 
 parpofe, we muft have immediate recourfe to external 
 application. If the diforder be owing to weaknefs, bv 
 w hich the uterus is di Tabled from contracting itfelf, lo 
 that the mouths of the vefiels are left open ; or, though 
 contrafted a little, yet not enough to reft rain the haemor¬ 
 rhage of the thin blood ; or if in feparating the placenta, 
 the accoucheur has fcratched or tore the inner furface or 
 membrane of the womb; in thefe cafes, fuch things 
 muft be ufed as will afflft the contraftile power of the 
 uterus, and hinder the blood from flowing fo faft into it 
 and the neighbouring vefiels ; for this purpofe, cloths 
 dipped in any cold aftringent fluid, fuch as oxycrate, or 1 
 red tart wine, may be applied to the back and belly. 
 Some preferibe venefeftion in the arm, to the amount 1 
 ol five or fix ounces, with a view of making revulfion : ' 
 il the pulfe is firong, this may be proper ; otherwife, it 
 will do more harm than good. Others order ligatures, 
 tor comprcffing the reluming veins at the hams, arms, 1 
 and neck, to retain as much blood as poffiblc in the ex¬ 
 tremities and head. Befides thefe applications, the vagina 
 may be filled with tow or linen rags, dipped in the above- 1 
 mentioned liquids, in which a littfe allum, or fachar- 1 
 laturni hath been diffolved ; nay, fome praftitioners injeft 
 proof-fpirits warmed, or, leaking them up in a rag or 
 fpunge, introduce and fqueeze them into the uterus, in 
 order to conftiinge the vefiels. 
 
 it the flooding proceeds from another child, the reten¬ 
 tion ot the placenta, or coagulated blood, thefe ought 
 immediately to be extrafted ; and if there is an invention 
 of the uterus, it muft be fpeedily reduced. Should the 
 haemorrhage, by thele methods, abate a little, but ftill 
 continue to flow, though not in fuch a quantity as to 
 bring on fudden death, Tome red wine and jelly ought to 
 be prefaibed for the patient, who lhould take it fre¬ 
 quently, and a little at a time; but above all things, 
 chicken or mutton broths, adminiftered in the fame 
 manner, for fear of overloading the weakened ftomach, 
 and occafioning Teachings: thefe repeated in ftnall quan¬ 
 tities, will gradually fill the exhauiled vefiels, and keep 
 up the circulation. If the pulle continues ftrong, it will 
 be pro. er to order repeated draughts of barley-water, 
 acidulated with elixir vitriol : but if the circulation be 
 weak and languid, extraft of the baik, difl'olved in aq. 
 cinnamomi tenuis, and given in lmall draughts, or ex- 
 
 W I F 
 
 hibited in any other form, will be ferviceabie ; at the 
 lame time, lulling the patient to reft with opiates. Thefe* 
 indeed, when the firft violence of the flood is abateJ, if 
 properly and cautioufly ufed, are generally more eiFeftual 
 than any other medicine. 
 
 Of the A;ur-pains . After-pains commonly happen 
 when the fibrous part of the blood is retained in the 
 uterus or vagina, and formed into large clots, which 
 are detained by the fudden contraftion of the os inter¬ 
 num and externum, after the placenta is deliveicd : or, 
 if thefe lhould be extrafted, others will fometimes be 
 formed, though not fo large as the firft, bccaufe the 
 cavity of the womb is continually diminilhing after the 
 birth. The uterus, in contrafting, prefles down thele 
 coagulums to the os internum ; which being again 
 gradually ftretchcd, produces a degree of labour-pains, 
 owing to the irritation of its nerves : in confequence 
 of this uneafinefs, the woman fqueezes the womb as 
 in real labour; the force being increafed, the dots are 
 :>ulhed along, and when they are delivered, fhegows 
 eaiy. The larger the quantity is of the coa;ula;eJ 
 Mood, the feverer are the pains, and the longer they 
 continue. 
 
 Women in the firft child feldom have after-pains; 
 becaule, after delivery, the womb is fuppofed to c m- 
 traft and pulh off the clots with gicater force in the firft; 
 than in the following labours : after-pains may alfo 
 proceed from obftruftions in the vefiels, and irritations 
 at the os internum. In order to prevent or remove ,hefe 
 pants, as foon as the placenta is feparated and delivered, 
 the hand being introduced into ihe uterus, may clear it 
 of all the coagula. When the womb is felt through the 
 parietes of the abdomen larger than uiual, it may be ta , n 
 for granted, that there is either another child, or a large 
 quantity of this clotted blood ; and, which foever it may 
 be, there is a necelfity for its being extrafted. If the 
 placenta comes away of itfelf, and the after-pains aie 
 violent, they may be alleviated and carried off by an 
 opiate : for, by Sleeping and fweating plentifully, the 
 irritation is removed, the evacuations are increafed, the 
 os uteri is inleniibly relaxed, and the coagula Aide eafily 
 along. W'hen the dilcharge of the lochia is fmall, the 
 after-pains, if moderate, ought not to be reftrained ; 
 becaule the fqueezing which they occalion, promotes the 
 other evacuation, which is neceffarv for the recovery of 
 the patient. After-pains may alfo proceed Iron) an ob- 
 ftruftion in Tome of the vellels, occafioning a final! in¬ 
 flammation of the os internum and ligaments ; and the 
 fqueezing thereby occafioned, may not only help to 
 propel the obftrufting fluid, but alfo (if not too violent) 
 contribute to the natural dilcharges. 
 
 Of the Lochia. We have already obferved, that the 
 delivery of the child and placenta is followed bv an 
 efflux of more or left blood, diicharged from the uterus,, 
 which, by the immediate evacuation of the large veffels, 
 is allowed to contract itfelf the more freely, without the 
 danger of an inflammation, which would probably happen 
 in the contraftion, if the great vefiels were not emptied 
 at the fame time : but, as the fluids in the fmaller vellels 
 cannot be fo foon evacuated, or returned into the vena 
 cava, it is neceffary, that, after the great difeharge is 
 abated, a flow and gradual evacuation lhould continue 
 until the womb lhall be contrafted to near the fame fize 
 which it had before pregnancy ; and to this it attains 
 about the eighteenth or twentieth day after delivery, 
 though the period is different in different women. 
 
 When the large vellels are emptied immediately after 
 delivery, the difeharge frequently ceafes for fevcral hours, 
 until the fluids in the fmaller vefiels are propelled into 
 the larger, and then begins to flow again, of a paler 
 colour. 
 
 The red colour of the lochia commonly continues till 
 the fifth day, though it is always turning more and more- 
 ferous from the beginning ; but, about the fifth day, it 
 flows off a clear, or fometimes (though leldom) of a grecn- 
 ifh tint; for, the mouths of the vellels growing gradually 
 narrower, by the contraftion of the uterus, at laft allow 
 the ferous part only to pafs: as for the greenifh hue, it 
 is fuppofed to proceed from a diffolution of the cellulir 
 or cribriform membrane or mucus, that furrounded the 
 furface of the placenta and chorion ; part of which being 
 left in the uterus, becomes livid, decays, and, diffolving, 
 mixes with and tinftures the dilcharge as it pafles along. 
 
 z Though 
 
W I F 
 
 Though the lochia, as we have already obferved, com¬ 
 monly continue to the eighteenth or twentieth day, they 
 are every day diminiftiing in quantity, and fooneft ceafe 
 in thofe women who fuckle their children, or have had an 
 extraordinary difeharge at firft ; but thecolour, quantity, 
 and duration, differ in different women : in fome patients, 
 the red colour difappears on the firft, or fecond day; 
 and in others, though rarely, it continues more or lefs to 
 the end of the month : the evacuation in fome is very 
 /mall, in others exceffive : in one woman it ceafes very 
 loon, in another flows during the whole month : yet, all 
 of thefe patients fhall do well. 
 
 Some alledge, that this difeharge from the uterus is the 
 fame with that from a wound of a large furface : but it is 
 more reafonable to fuppofe, that the change of colour and 
 diminution of quantity proceed from the flow contrac¬ 
 tion of the velfels; becaufe, previous to pus, there mull 
 have been lacerations or impoflhumes, and in women 
 who have fuddenly died after delivery no wound or ex¬ 
 coriation hath appeared upon the inner furface of the 
 womb, which is fometimes found altogether fmooth, and 
 at other times rough and unequal on that part to which 
 the placenta adhered. The (pace that is occupied before 
 delivery, from being fix inches in diameter, or eighteen 
 inches in circumference, will, foon after the birth, be con¬ 
 tracted to one third or fourth of thefe dimenfions. 
 
 Of the Milk Fever. About the fourth day, the breafts 
 generally begin to grow tutgid and painful. We have 
 formerly obierved, that, during the time ol uterine gelta- 
 tion, the breafts in molt women gradually increafe till 
 the delivery, growing fofter as they are enlarged bv the 
 velfels being more and more filled with fluids; and by 
 this gradual detention they aie prepared for fecretingthe 
 milk from the biood, after delivery. During the two or 
 three firft days after parturition, efpecially when the wo¬ 
 man has undergone a large difeharge, the breafts have 
 been fometimes obferved to fubfide and grow flaccid ; and 
 about the third or fourth day, when the lochia begin to 
 decreafe, the breafts fwell again to their former iize, and 
 ftretch more and more, until the milk, being fccretcd, is 
 either fucked by the child, or frequently ofitfelf runs out 
 at the nipples. 
 
 Molt ot the complaints incident to women after deli¬ 
 very, proceed either from the obltruCtion of the lochia in 
 the uterus, or of the milk in the breafts, occafioned by 
 any thing that will produce a fever ; fuch as catching 
 cold, long and fevere labour, eating food that is hard of 
 digeftion, and drinking fluids that quicken die circulation 
 of the blood in the large velfels; by which means the 
 fmaller, with all the fecrctory and excretory duCts, are 
 obftruCted. 
 
 The difeharge of the lochia being fo dilferent in wo¬ 
 men of different conftitutions, and befides in fome mea- 
 fure depending upon the method of management, and the 
 way of life peculiar to the patient, we are not to judge of 
 her fituation from the colour, quantity, and duration of 
 them, but from the other fymptoms that attend the dif¬ 
 eharge ; and if the woman feems hearty, and in a fair 
 way of recovery, nothing ought to be done with a view 
 to augment or diminifh the evacuation. If the difeharge 
 be greater than fhe can bear, it will be attended with all 
 the fymptoms of inanition ; but as the lochia feldom flow 
 fo violently as to deflroy the patient of a fudden, fhe may 
 be fupported with a proper nourifhing diet, affilled with 
 cordial and reftorative medicines. Let her, for example, 
 ufe broths, jellies, and afles milk ; if the pulfe is languid 
 and funk, fhe may take repeated dofes of the confec. car¬ 
 diac. with mixtures compofed of the cordial waters and 
 volatile fpirits : fubaftringents and opiates frequently ad- 
 miniftered, with the cort. Peruvian, in different forms, 
 and auftere wines, are of great fervice. On the other 
 hand, when the difeharge is too fmall, or hath ceafed- 
 altogether, the fymptoms are more dangerous, and re¬ 
 quire the contrary method of cure : for now the bufinefs 
 is to remove a too great plenitude of the velfels in and 
 about the uterus, occafioning tenfion, pain, and labour, 
 in the circulating fluids; from whence proceed great heat 
 in the part, reflleffnefs, fever, a full, hard, quick pulfe, 
 pains in the head and back, naufea, and difficulty in 
 breathing. Thefe complaints, if not at firft prevented, 
 or removed by reft and plentiful fweating, muft be treated 
 with venefe£lion and the antiphlogiftick method. 
 
 When the obftrudtiou is recent, let the patient lie 
 
 W I F 
 
 quiet, and encourage a plentiful diaphorefls, by drinking 
 frequently of warm, diluting fluids, fuch as water-gruel, 
 barley-water, tea, or weak chicken-broth. 
 
 Should thefe methods be ul'ed without fuccefs, and the 
 patient, far from being relieved by reft, plentiful fweat¬ 
 ing, or a lufficient difeharge of the obftrufted lochia, la¬ 
 bour under an hot dry fkin, anxiety, and a quick, hard, 
 and full pulfe, the warm diaphoreticks muft be laid afide; 
 becaufe, if they fail of having the defired effedt, they muft 
 necellarily increafe the fever and obftruftion, and recourfe 
 be had to bleeding at the arm or ancle to more or lefs 
 quantity, according to the degree of fever and obftruc- 
 tion ; and this evacuation muft be repeated as there is 
 occafion. When the obftru&ion is not total, it is fup- 
 poled more proper to bleed at the ancle than at the arm ; 
 tmd at this laft, when the difeharged is altogether flopped. 
 Her ordinary drink ought to he impregnated with nitre. 
 
 If fhe is coftive, emollient and gently opening glyfters 
 may be occallonaily injc&cd ; and her breafts muft be fo¬ 
 mented and fucked, either by the mouth or pipe-glaffcs. 
 If, by thefe means, the fever is abated, and the necclfary 
 difcharges return, the patient commonly recovers; but, if 
 the complaints continue, the antiphlogiftick method muft 
 flill be purlued. If, hot withllanding thefe efforts, the 
 fever is hot diminiffied or removed by a plentiful difeharge 
 of the lochia from the uteius. the milk from the breafts, or 
 liy a critical evacuation by fwcat, urine, or ftool, and the 
 woman is every now and then attacked with cold fhiver- 
 ings; an abfcels or abfcelfes will probably be formed in 
 the uterus or neighbouring parts, or in the breafts; and 
 fometimes, the matter will be tranflated to other fitua- 
 rions, and the feat of it foretold from the part’s being af¬ 
 fected with violent pains: thefe abicefles are more or Jefs 
 dangerous, according to the place in wh :h they happen, 
 theiargenefs of the l'uppuration, and the good or bad con- 
 ltitution of the patient. 
 
 If when the pains in the epigaftrick regions are violent, 
 and the fever increafed to a very high degree, the patient 
 lliould all of a ludden enjoy aceffation from pain, with¬ 
 out any previous difeharge or critical emption, the phy- 
 ciaii may pronounce that a mortification is begun ; efpe¬ 
 cially if, at the lame time, the pulfe becomes low, quick, 
 wavering, and intermitting: if the woman’s countenance, 
 from being florid, turns duiky and pale, while fhe her- 
 felf, and all the attendants, conceive her much mended ; 
 in that cafe, fhe will grow delirious, and die in a very 
 lhort time. 
 
 What we have faid on that fubjetft, regards that fever 
 which proceeds from the obftruCted lochia, and in which 
 the breafts may likewil'e be affeCled : but the milk fever 
 is that in which the breafts are originally concerned, and 
 which may happen though the lochia continue to flow in 
 fufficient quantity ; neverthelefs, they mutually promote 
 each other, and both are to be treated in the manner al¬ 
 ready explained ; namely, by opiates, diluents, and dia¬ 
 phoreticks, in the beginning; and, thefe prefcriptions fail¬ 
 ing, the obftru&ions muft be relolved by the antiphlo¬ 
 giftick method deicribed above. The milk-fever alone, 
 when the uterus is not concerned, is not fo dangerous, 
 and much more eaftly relieved. Women of an healthy 
 conftitution, who fuckle their own children, have good 
 nipples, and whofe milk comes freely, are feldom or never 
 fubjedl to this diforder, which is more incident to thofe 
 who do not give fuck, and negledt to prevent the fecre- 
 tion in time; or, when the milk is fecreted, take no mea- 
 lures for emptying their breafts. This fever likewife hap¬ 
 pens to women who try too foon to fuckle, and continue 
 their efforts too long at one time ; by which means, the 
 nipples, and confequently the breafts, are often inflamed, 
 fwelled, and obftrufted. 
 
 In order to prevent too great a turgeney in the veffels 
 of the breafts, and the i'ecretion of milk, in thofe women 
 who do not chufe to fuckle, it will he proper to make ex¬ 
 ternal application of thofe things which by their prclfure 
 and repercuffive force will hinder the blood from flowing 
 in too great quantity to this part, which is now more 
 yielding than at any other time : for this purpofe, let the 
 breafts be covered with emp.de minio, diapalma, oremp. 
 limp, fpreadupon linen, or cloths dipped in camphoiated 
 fpirits, be frequently applied to thefe parts and the arm- 
 pits ; while the patient’s diet and drink is of the lighteft 
 kind, and given in fmall quantities. Notwithftanding 
 thefe precautions, a turgeney commonly begins about 
 
W I L 
 
 the third day ; but by reft, moderate fweating, and the 
 ufe of thefe applications, the tenfion and pain will fub- 
 lide about the filth or fixth day, cfpecially if the milk 
 runs out at the nipples : but if the woman catches cold, 
 or is of a full habit of body, and not very abftemious, 
 the tenfion and pain increafing, will bring on a cold fhi- 
 vering fucceeded by a fever; which may obftrudl the 
 other excretions, as well as thofe of the breaft. 
 
 In this cafe, the ludorificks above recommended muft 
 be prefcribed ; and if a plentiful fvveat enfues, the patient 
 will be relieved ; at the fame time the milk muft be ex¬ 
 tracted from her breafts, by fucking with the mouth or 
 glafles : iliould thefe methods fail, and the fever increafe, 
 ihe ought to be blooded in the arm ; and inftead of the 
 external applications hitherto ufed, emollient liniments 
 and cataplafms muft be fubftituted, in order to foften and 
 relax. If, in fpite of thefe endeavours, the fever pro¬ 
 ceeds for foine days, the patient is frequently relieved by 
 critical fvveats, a large dilcharge from the uterus, miliary 
 eruptions, or loole ftools mixed with milk, which is 
 curdled in the inteftkies; but, Iliould none of thefe eva¬ 
 cuations happen, and the inflammation continue with in¬ 
 creafing violence, there is danger of an impofthume, 
 which is to be brought to maturity, and managed like 
 other inflammatory tumours; and no aftringents ought 
 to be applied, left they fhould produce fchirrous lwell- 
 ings in the glands. 
 
 As the crifiis of this fever, as well as of that laft de- 
 feribed, often confifts in miliary eruptions over the whole 
 iurface of the body, but particularly on the neck and 
 breaft, by which the fever is carried off, nothing ought 
 to be given, which will either greatly increafe or dimi- 
 nifh the circulating force, but fuch only as will keep out 
 the eruptions. But if, notwithftanding thefe eruptions, 
 the fever, inftead of abating, is augmented, it will be 
 neceffary to diminifh its force, and prevent its increafe, 
 by thofe evacuations we have mentioned above. On 
 the contrary, fhould the pulfe fink, the eruptions begin 
 to retreat inwardly, and the morbifick matter be in dan¬ 
 ger of falling upon the vilcera, we muft endeavour to keep 
 them out, by opiates and fudorifick medicines ; and here 
 blifters may be applied with fuccefs. 
 
 Of the Evacuations neceffary at the end of the month 
 after Delivery. Thofe who have had a lufficient difeharge 
 of the lochia, plenty of milk, and fuckle their own chil¬ 
 dren, commonly recover with eafe ; and as the fuperflu- 
 ous fluids of the body are drained off at the nipples, fel- 
 dom require evacuations at the end of the month : but if 
 there are any complaints from fullnefs, fuch as pains and 
 ftitches, after the twentieth day, fome blood ought to be 
 taken from the arm, and the belly gently opened by fre¬ 
 quent glyfters, or repeated dofes of'laxative medicines. 
 
 If the patient has tolerably recovered, the milk having 
 been at firft fucked or difcharged from the nipples, and 
 afterwards dilcuffed, no evacuations are neceffary before 
 the third or fourth week; and fometimes not till after 
 the firft flowing of the menfes, which commonly hap¬ 
 pens about the filth week ; it they do not appear within 
 that time, gentle evacuations muft be prefcribed, to carry 
 off the plethora, and bring dovvn the catamenia. 
 
 WILDS, a term ufed by our farmers to exprefs that 
 part of a plough by which the whole is drawn forwards. 
 
 WILDERNESS, in gardening, a kind of grove of 
 large trees, in a lpacious garden, in which the walks are 
 made either to interfebt each other in angles, or have the 
 appearance of meanders and labyrinths. 
 
 W ildernefles, fays Mr. Miller, fhould always be pro¬ 
 portioned to the extent of the gardens in which they are 
 made; for it is very ridiculous to fee a large wildernefs 
 planted with tall trees, in a fmall fpot of ground ; and, 
 on the other hand, nothing can be more abfurd, than to 
 fee little paltry iquares, or quarters of wildernefs work, 
 in a magnificent large garden. As to the fituation of wil- 
 derneffes, they fhould never be placed too near the habi¬ 
 tation, nor lb as to obftrubl any diftant profpedt of the 
 country; there being nothing fo agreeable as an uncon- 
 fined profpeft ; but where from the fituation of the place, 
 the fight is confined within the limits of the garden, no¬ 
 thing can fo agreeably terminate theprolpeft, as a beau¬ 
 tiful leeqe of the various kinds of trees judicioufly planted; 
 and if it is fo contrived, that the termination is planted 
 circularly, with the concave towards the fight, it will 
 have a much better effeft, then if it end in ftraiglu lines 
 
 W I L 
 
 or tingles. The plants fhould always be adapted tb .the 
 fize of the plantation ; for it is very'abfurd for tall trees 
 to be planted in the final! fquares of a little garden ; and 
 ln l5 r S e defigns fmall ihrubs will have a mean appearance. 
 It fhould rwfo be obferved, never to plant ever-greens 
 amongft deciduous trees ; but always to place the ever¬ 
 greens in a wildernefs in a feparate pait by themfelves 
 and that chiefly in light. 
 
 As to the walks, thofe that have the appearance of 
 meanders, where the eyecannot difeover more than twenty 
 or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all 
 others, and thefe fhould now and then lead into an open 
 circular piece of grafs; in the centre of which may be 
 placed either an obelifk, ftatue, or fountain ; and, if in 
 the middle of the wildernefs there be contrived a large 
 opening, in the centre of which may be erefted a dome 
 or banquetting-houfe furrounded with a green plot of 
 grafs, it will be a confiderable addition to the beauty of 
 the whole. From the iides of the walks and openings, 
 the tiees Iliould rife gradually one above another to the 
 middle of the quarters, where fhould always be planted 
 the larged growing trees, fo that the heads of all the trees 
 may appeapto view, while their lienis will be hid from 
 the fight. Thus ill thofe parts which are planted with 
 deciduous trees, rods, honey-fuckles, fpiraeafrutex, and 
 other kinds of low flowering fhrubs, may be planted next 
 the walks and openings ; and at their feet, near the fidcs 
 of the walks, may be planted primxofes, violets, daffodils. 
 See. not in a draight line, but fo as to appear accidental, 
 as in a natural wood. Behind the firft row of Ihrubs 
 Iliould be planted fyringas, althaea, frutex, mezereons, 
 and other flowering Ihrubs of a middle growth ; and thefe 
 may be backed with many other lorts of trees, riling 
 gradually to the middle of the quarters. 
 
 1 he part planted with ever-greens, may be difpofed 
 in the following manner, viz. in the firft line next the 
 great walks, may be placed the lauruftinus, boxes, fpurge 
 laurel, juniper, lavin, and other dwarf ever-greens. Be¬ 
 hind thefe may be placed laurels, hollies, arbutufes, and 
 other ever-greens of a larger growth. Next to thefe may 
 be planted aiternufes, phyllireas, yews, cypreffes, Virgi¬ 
 nian cedars, and other trees of the fame growth ; behind 
 thefe may be planted Norway and filver firs, the true 
 pine, and other forts of the fir growth ; and in the mid¬ 
 dle fhould be planted Scotch pines, pinafter, and other of 
 the larger growing ever-greens, which will afford a moft 
 delightful profpebt, if the different fhades of the green9 
 are curioufly intermixed. 
 
 But befide the grand walks and openings (which Iliould 
 always be laid with turf, and kept well mowed) there 
 fhould be lome fmaller lerpentine walks through the 
 middle of the quarters, where perfons may retire for pri¬ 
 vacy ; and by the fides of thefe private walks may alfo be 
 (cattered fome wood-flowers and plants, which, if art¬ 
 fully planted, will have a very good effebl. 
 
 In the general defign for thefe wildernefles, there 
 lhould not be a ftudied and ftiff correfpondency between 
 the fevcral parts; for the greater diverfity there is in the 
 diftribution of thefe, the more pleafure they will afford. 
 
 WILL, or lajl Will, in law, fignifies the declara¬ 
 tion of a man’s mind and intent relating to the difpofition 
 of his lands, goods, or other eftate, or of whai he would 
 have done after his death. 
 
 In the common law, there is a diftinblion made be¬ 
 tween a will and a teftament; as that is called a will, 
 where lands or tenements are given ; and when the dif¬ 
 pofition concerns goods and chattels alone, it is termed 
 a teftament. 
 
 In the making of a will there are thefe feveral rules to 
 be obferved, viz. i. That it be done while the teftator 
 is of found mind and memory. 2. That there be two 
 parts thereof, the one to remain in the hands of the party 
 that made it, and the other in the cuftody of lome friend, 
 in order to render it lefs liable to be fupprefled after the 
 teftator’s death. 3. That the whole be written in one 
 hand-writing, and, ifpoflible, in one Iheet of paper or 
 parchment. 4. In cafe there be more Iheets than one, 
 that the teftator fign and feal every Iheet, before the wit- 
 neffes prefent at the execution. 
 
 Will with a JFifp , or Jack with a Lanthorn . a meteor 
 known among the people under thefe names, but more 
 ulually among authors, under that of ignus fatuus. 
 
 This meteor is chiefly feen in hummer nights, frequent¬ 
 ing 
 
W I N 
 
 ing meadows, maiihes, and other moift places. It Teems 
 to arife from a vifcous exhalation, which being kindled 
 in the air, reflefts a fort of thin flame in the daik, with¬ 
 out any fenfible heat. 
 
 It is often found flying along rivers, hedges, &c. by 
 reafon it there meets with a ft ream of air to direft it. 
 The ignis fatuus, fays Sir Ifaac'Newton, is a vapour 
 lhining without heat; and there is the fame difference 
 between this vapour and flame, as between rotten wood 
 lhining without heat, and burning coals of fire. 
 
 WILLOW, Sa/ix, in botany, a genus of trees, pro¬ 
 ducing male and female flowers on feparate plants ; 
 they are difpofed in oblong imbricated katkins. and are 
 both deflitute of petals : the male flower confifts of a 
 Cylindrick nettarious honey gland in the centre of each 
 fcalc ; the {lamina are two {lender erett filaments, top¬ 
 ped w'ith quadrilocular twin anthers ; the female flower 
 contains an ovate narrow germen, crowned by two bifid 
 erett fligmas ; the fruit is an oval, awl-fhaped, unilo¬ 
 cular capfule, opening with two revdlute valves, and 
 containing many fmall ovate feeds crowned with a hairy 
 down. 
 
 There are various kinds of willows, fome of which 
 grow to the fize of a large tree, while other forts are of 
 a more humble growth, they all delight in moift marfhy 
 places, and on the lidcs of brooks and rivers. The 
 propagation of willows is ealily effetted either by fas or 
 cuttings : thofe forts which are cultivated for their tim¬ 
 ber are generally planted from branches eight or nine 
 feet long ; thefe are commonly fharpened at their lower 
 end, and thruft into the ground by the fides of ditches 
 and banks, where the ground is moift, in which they 
 will freely grow. The bell fealon for planting is early 
 in the fpring, though they will fuccccd if planted in 
 autumn. 
 
 Willow is of ufe to make wooden heels for Ihoes, for 
 cricket bats, as alfo to the turners in many kinds of 
 light wares: the loppings are ufed for feveral purpofes ; 
 and the ofier which belongs to this genus is the moil 
 proper for making bafkets. 
 
 WIN, in the beginning or end of the names of places, 
 {Ignifies that fome great battle was fought, or a vittory 
 gained there. 
 
 WIND, Vent us, in phyftology, a ft ream of air, flow¬ 
 ing out of one place, or region, into another. 
 
 As the air is a fluid, its natural ftate is that of reft, 
 which it endeavours always to keep or retrieve by an 
 univerfal equilibrium of all its parts. When, therefore, 
 this natural equilibrium of the atmofphere happens by 
 any means to be deftroyed in any part, there ncccftaiily 
 follows a motion of all the circumjacent air towards that 
 part to reftore it; and this motion of the air is what we 
 call wind. 
 
 Hence, with refpett to that place where the equili¬ 
 brium of the air is difturbed, we fee the wind may blow 
 from every point of the compafs at the fame time ; and 
 thofe who live northwards of that point, have a north 
 wind; thefe who live fouthwards, a foutb wind ; and 
 fo of the reft : but thofe who live on the fpot, where all 
 thefe winds meet and interfere, arc opprefted with tur¬ 
 bulent and boifterous weather, whirlwinds, and hurri¬ 
 canes ; with rain, tempeft, lightening, thunder, &c. 
 For fulphureous exhalations from the fouth, torrents of 
 nitre from the north, and aqueous vapours from every 
 part, are there confufedly huddled, and violently blended 
 together, and rarely fail to produce the phenomena above 
 mentioned. 
 
 Many arc the particular caufes which produce wind, 
 by interrupting the equipoife of the atmofphere ; but the 
 moft general caufes are two, viz. heat, which, by rari- 
 fying the air, makes it lighter in fome places than it is 
 in others ; and cold, which by condenfing it, makes it 
 heavier. Hence it is, that in all parts over the torrid 
 zone, the air being more rarified by a greater quantity 
 of the folar rays, is much lighter than in the other parts 
 of the atmofphere, and moft of all over the equitorial 
 parts of the earth. And fince the parts at the equator 
 arc moft rarified, which are near the fun ; and thofe 
 parts are, by the earth’s diurnal rotation eaftward, con¬ 
 tinually fliifting to the weft; it follows, that the parts 
 of the air which lie on the weft fide of the point of the 
 greateft rarefaftion, and, by flowing towards it. meet it, 
 have lefs motion than thofe parts on the eail fide of the 
 
 Vol. II. No- 78- 
 
 W I N 
 
 faid point, which follow it; and therefore the motion of 
 the caftern air would prevail againft that of the weftern 
 air, and fo generate a continual eaft wind, if this we" 
 all the effect of that rarefattion. But we arc to con- 
 fider, that as all the parts of the atmofphere are fo greatly 
 rarified over the equator, and all about the poles greatly 
 condenfed by extreme cold, this heavier air from either 
 pole is conftantly flowing towards the equator, to re- 
 ftore the balance deftroyed by the rarefaction and levity 
 of the air over thofe regions : hence, in this relpett 
 alone, a conftant north and fouth wind would be ge¬ 
 nerated. 
 
 The fun, by heating that part of the air over which 
 be is vertical, and confequently rendering it lighter, will, 
 by his apparent motion from call to weft, caufe a con¬ 
 tinual ft ream of air to flow in that direction. 
 
 This being clearly underftood, all the reft is eafy ; 
 for no one can find it difficult to conceive how the cold 
 air from each pole mull necefiarily let in towards the 
 equator dircdlly, where meeting and interfering with 
 the eaftern current, it does with that compound a new 
 diredlion for the moving air which lies between both 
 the former, viz. a north-eafl current on the north fide, 
 and a louth-eaft on the fouth fide : all which naturally 
 relults from the doCtrine of the compofition of oblique 
 forces. 
 
 And this we find to be verified in the general trade- 
 winds, which conftantly blow from the noith-caft and 
 louth-eaft, to about thirty degrees on each fide the 
 equator, where thofe parts are over the open ocean, and 
 not affetted with the reflection of the fun-beams from 
 the heated lurface of the land; for in this cafe the wind 
 will always fet in upon the land, as on the coaft of 
 Guinea, and other parts of the torrid zone, wc know 
 it does. 
 
 Velocity ami force of the W ind. As the motion of 
 the air has a greater or lefs velocity, the wind is ftronger 
 or weaker ; and it is found from oblervation, that the 
 velocity of the wind is various, from the rate of one to 
 fifty or fixty miles per hour. The bell way to prove 
 this, is to chufe a free open place, where the wind or 
 current of air is not at all interrupted, but flows uni¬ 
 formly, or as much fo as the undulatory Hate of the 
 atmofphere will admit : in fuch a place, a leather, or 
 other very light body, is to be let go in the wind; apd 
 then, by a half-fecoiid watch, or pendulum, you mull 
 oblerve nicely to what diftanCe it is Carried in any num¬ 
 ber of half-leconds, or in how many half-feconds it has 
 palled over a given or meafured fpace. This wall give 
 the rate of velocity in the wind per fecond, and of courfe 
 per hour ; which has been found, at a medium, to be 
 twelve or fifteen miles per hour; even the moft vehe¬ 
 ment wind does not fly above fifty or fixty miles per 
 hour; and fometimes the wind is fo flow, as not to 
 exceed the velocity of a perfon riding or walking in it; 
 and in that cafe, il the perfon goes with the wind, he 
 finds no wind at all, becaufc there is no difference of 
 velocity, or no relative wind, which is that only which 
 we are fenfible of, whilft in motion. 
 
 Cardinal Winds, arc thofe which blow from the 
 call, weft, north, and fouth, which are called cardinal 
 points. 
 
 Collateral Winds, are thofe which blow between the 
 cardinal points. The number of thefe is infinite, as the 
 number of points they blow from are ; a lew of them 
 only are confidcred in praClice, and thefe have names 
 compounded of the cardinal points between which they 
 blow. 
 
 W1 n n - Gun , or Air-Gun. See Air-Gun. 
 
 Wind -Mill, a kind of mill, the internal parts of 
 which are much the lame with thofe of a water-mill; 
 from which however it differs, in being moved by the 
 impulfe of the wind upon its vanes, or fails, which are 
 to be confidcred as a wheel on the axle. 
 
 In mills built of wood, the whole body of the mill 
 turns round to the wind, on a tampin, or perpendicular 
 poll; but in thole of ftonc, only the upper part turns in 
 this manner; in order to which, the roof is built turret- 
 wile, the turret being encompafied with a wooden ring, 
 in which is a groove, at the bottom of which a number 
 of brafs truckles arc placed at certain difiances ; and 
 within this groove is another ring, upon which the whole 
 turret {lands. To the upper or moveable ring are con- 
 6 B netted 
 
WIN WIN 
 
 lifted beams with a rope, by means of which, and a 
 windlafs below, the top of the machine, together with 
 the fails, may be turned round, and put in the direftion 
 required. 
 
 Pofition of , and force of the W ind upon the Sails. As 
 to the pofition of the fails, we mull confider, that if they 
 are placed diredl to the wind, or at right angles to the 
 axis of the mill, they will receive the whole force of the 
 wind, which in this cafe will tend to blow them forward, 
 and confequently to blow down the mill; which pofition 
 of courfe cannot be admitted. 
 
 If the fails are fet right to the wind, or parallel with 
 the axis of the mill, it is plain, that in that pofition, 
 the wind cannot adt upon them at all, and therefore 
 they cannot be turned round, nor the mill put in mo¬ 
 tion ; which pofition of the fails mull likewife be re- 
 jedled. 
 
 Since neither the diredl nor right pofition of the fails 
 will do, an oblique pofition mull, as there can be no 
 other; and accordingly the fails of vertical wind-mills 
 are always in an oblique pofition to the wind. 
 
 The force of the wind on the fail will be as the fquare 
 of the fign of incidence ; but if we fuppofe the velocity 
 of the wind to vary, the force thereof will be as the 
 fquare of the velocity ; for the greater the velocity, the 
 greater will be the ilroke of each fingle particle, and alfo 
 the greater will be the number ol particles coming upon 
 the fail in the fame time ; the force will be therefore as 
 the fquares of the velocity. 
 
 Again, if the area of the fail be variable, the force of 
 the wind will be diredlly as the area or fupcrficies of the 
 fail ; becaufe the number of particles of the air coming 
 upon it, will always be proportional thereto, and con¬ 
 fequently the force with which they flrike it. 
 
 When the area of the fail and its pofition in rcfpedl to 
 the wind, continue the fame, the force which turns the 
 fails will be as the fquares of the velocity ; and fince 
 the wind fcarce ever blows with one uniform velocity, 
 but varies with almofl every blall, the force upon the 
 fail will be much more variable and unequal; and there¬ 
 fore the adlion or working of a wind-mill cannot be fo 
 equal, uniform, or Heady, as that of a water-mill, whole 
 power is always of the lame tenor, when the jet of water 
 is fo. 
 
 When the angle of incidence begins to be oblique, 
 the force increafes with the obliquity of the laid angle 
 to a certain number of degrees ; bccaufe that part of 
 the force which is parallel to the axis, becomes lefs in 
 proportion to that which is perpendicular to it: but 
 after it has paffed this limit, it again decreafes and be¬ 
 comes nothing, when the angle of incidence vanifhes ; 
 as is eafy to underffand, by confidering that the quantity 
 of wind on the fail does in this cale continually de- 
 creafe. 
 
 There is therefore one certain pofition of the fail, in 
 Which the force of the wind is greatell of all upon it, 
 or a maximum : and this the ingenious Mr. Parent has 
 fhewn to be 54°44'. 
 
 Put this angle is only that which gives the wind the 
 greatefl force to put the fail in motion, but not the angle 
 which gives the force of the wind a maximum upon the 
 fail when in motion. What this angle is, Mr. Mac 
 Laurin has fhewn in his book of fluxions, to which we 
 refer the reader. 
 
 Mr. Parent has alfo fhewn, that an elliptick form of 
 the fails is better than a parallelogram, or long fquare; 
 and that the bell pofition of the fail is not that which is 
 common, viz. with its longeil fide or diameter parallel 
 to the axis of the fail; but, on the contrary, it ought to 
 be perpendicular to it. 
 
 There are three things yet wanting to the perfection 
 of a wind-mill. i. Some contrivance in the nature of 
 a flv, to regulate the motion of the train, under the 
 unequal and irregular impulfe of the wind. 2. Some 
 other contrivance to fupply the hopper, or floncs, with 
 more or lefs corn, in proportion to the greater or lei’s 
 flrength of the wind. 3. A method of altering the angle 
 of the fail’s obliquity, from its maximum of 54 0 44', at 
 the beginning of the motion, to its minimum, when in 
 motion. 
 
 Wind, in the menage. A horfe that carries in the 
 wind, is one that toffes his nofe as high as his ears, and 
 does not carry handfomely. The difference between 
 
 carrying in the wind, and beating upon the hand, is, 
 that the horfe who beats upon the hand, fhakes his head, 
 and refills the bridle ; but he who carries in the wind, 
 puts up his head without fhaking, and only fometimes 
 beats upon the hand. The oppofite to carrying in the 
 wind, is arming and carrying low. 
 
 Wind-Flower, Anemonie , in botany. Sec the ar¬ 
 ticle Anemonie. 
 
 W ind-Gall, a name given by our farriers to a dif- 
 temperature of horfes. In this cafe there are bladders 
 full of a corrupt jelly, which, when let out, is thick, 
 and of the colour of the yolk of an egg. They vary in 
 fize, but are more ufually fmall than large. Their place 
 is about the fetlock-joint, and they grow indifferently on 
 all four legs, and are often fo painful, efpeciaily in the 
 fummer feafon, when the weather is hot, and the ground 
 dry and hard, that they make the creature frequently 
 Humble, or even fall down. The general method of 
 cure is to open the fwelling, about the length of a bean, 
 and to prefs out the jelly : when this is done they apply 
 a mixture of the oil of bays, and the white of an egg, 
 covering it with tow. Another method is, after the 
 jelly is all fqueezed out, to wrap round the part a wet 
 woollen cloth, and then applying a taylor’s hot iron, 
 this is to be rubbed over till the moifiure is carried away; 
 it is then to be daubed all over with pitch, maHich, 
 and refin, boiled together, laying tow in plenty over all. 
 The wind-galls that are fit mated near the finews, are 
 much the moH painful of all, and foonefl make the horfe 
 lame. 
 
 I he general caufe of wind-galls is fuppofed to be ex¬ 
 treme work or exercife in hot weather; but it is to be 
 obferved, that thofe horfes which have long joints, will 
 be wind-galled if they work never fo little. The worft 
 wind-galls are thofe of the hinder legs; all the above- 
 mentioned methods will frequently mils of fuccefs in 
 thefe, and nothing but fire will cure them. 
 
 W ind-Hatch, in mining, a term'ufed to exprefs 
 the place at which the ore is taken out of the mines. 
 
 Wind-Shock, a name given by our farmers to a 
 difiemperature to which fruit-trees, and fometimes tim¬ 
 ber-trees, are fubjedl. 
 
 Mortimer is of opinion, that the wind-fhock is a fort 
 of bruife and fliiver throughout the whole fubfiance of 
 the tree ; but that the bark" being often not affedlcd by 
 it, it is not feen on the outfide, while the infide is twified 
 lound, and greatly injured. 
 
 It is by lome luppoled to be occafioned by high winds; 
 but others attribute it to lightening. Thofe trees are 
 mofi ufually affedlcd by it, whole boughs grow more out 
 on one fide than on the other. 
 
 The befi way of preventing this in valuable trees, is 
 to take care, in the plantation, that they are fheltered 
 well, and to cut them frequently in a regular manner, 
 while young. The winds not only twifi trees in this 
 manner, but they often throw them wholly down ; in 
 this cafe the common method is to cut up the tree for 
 firing, or other ufes; but if it be a tree that is worth 
 preferving, and it be not broken, but only torn up by 
 the roots, it may be proper to raife it again, by the fol¬ 
 lowing method : let a hole be dug deep enough to receive 
 its roots, in the place where they before were : let the 
 firaggling roots be cut off, and lome of the branches, 
 and part of the head of the tree ; then let it be railed ; 
 and when the torn-up roots are replaced in the earth, in 
 their natural fituation, let them be well covered, and 
 the hole filled up with rammed earth ; the tree will, in 
 this cafe, grow well, and perhaps better than before. 
 If nature be left to herfelf, and the tree be not very 
 large, the pulling off the roots will raife it. 
 
 WINDAGE of a Gun, the difference between the 
 diameter of the bore, and the diameter of the ball. 
 
 WINDLASS, or Windlace, a machine ufed to 
 raife huge weights withal, as guns. Hones, anchors, Nc. 
 
 It is very fimple, confifiing only of an axis, or roller, 
 fupported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces of 
 wood and a pulley : the two pieces of wood meet at top, 
 being placed diagonally, fo as to prop each other; the 
 axis, or roller, goes through the two pieces, and turns 
 in them. The pulley is fattened at top where the pieces 
 join. LaHly, there are two Haves or hand fpikes go 
 through the roller, whereby it is turned, and the rope 
 which comes over thepuiley is wound off and on the fame 
 
 WINDOW^ 
 
W I N 
 
 WINDOW, q. d. wind-door, an aperture or open 
 place in the wall of a houfe, to let in the wind and light. 
 See House. . 
 
 We have various forms of windows, as, arched win¬ 
 dows, circular windows, elliptical windows, fquare and 
 flat windows, round windows, oval windows, Gothick 
 windows, ruftick windows, and fky-lights. 
 
 The chief rules in regard to windows are, I. That 
 they he as few in number, and as moderate in dimen- 
 flons, as may confift with other due refpeCts ; inafmuch 
 
 as all openings are weakenings. 2- That they be placed 
 
 at a c uvenient diftance from the angles, or corners of 
 the bu;Ui ng ; becaufe that part ought not to be enfeebled, 
 whofe office is to fupport and fallen all the reft of the 
 build;; ;. 3. That care be taken that the windows are 
 
 all equal one with another, in their rank and order; fo 
 that thole on the right hand may anl'wer to thofe on the 
 left, and thofe above the right over thofe below ; for this 
 fltuation of windows will not only be liandfome and uni¬ 
 form, but alfo the void being upon the void, and the 
 full upon the full, it will be a great ftrengthening to the 
 whole fab rick. 
 
 As to their dimenfions, care is to betaken not to give 
 them more or lefs light than is needful; that is, to make 
 them no bigger, nor lefs, than is convenient; therefore, 
 regard is to be had to the bignefs of the rooms which are 
 to receive the light: it is evident, that a great room needs 
 more light, and, confequently, a greater window than a 
 little room. The apertures of windows, in middle-fized 
 houfes, may be four and a half, or five feet, between the 
 jaumbs, and in greater buildings fix and a half, or feven 
 feet, and their height may be double their length at the 
 leaft. But in high rooms, or large buildings, their height 
 may be a third, a fourth, or half a breadth more than 
 double their length. Thcfe are the proportions of the 
 windows for the firft ftory ; and according to thefe muft 
 the upper ftorics be for breadth ; but, as for height, they 
 muft diminifh : the fecond ftory may be one-third part 
 lower than the firft, and the third one-fourth part lower 
 than the fecond. 
 
 WINE, Vinum , abrifle, agreeable, fpirituous, and cor¬ 
 dial liquor, drawn from vegetable bodies and fermented. 
 See Fermentation. 
 
 The chara&cr of wine, according to Boerhaave, is, 
 that the firft thing it affords by diftillation, be a thin, 
 oily, inflammable fluid, called a fpirit. 
 
 This diftiiiguifhes wines from another clafs of fer¬ 
 mented vegetable juices, viz. vinegar ; which, inftead of 
 fuch fpirit, yields, for the firft thing, an acid, uninflam¬ 
 mable matter. 
 
 All forts of vegetables, fruits, feeds, roots, &c. afford 
 wine; as grapes, currants, mulberries, elder-berries, cher¬ 
 ries, apples, pulfe, beans, peafe, turneps, radifhes, and 
 even grafs itfelf. Hence, under the clafs of wines, or 
 vinous liquors, come not only wines abi'olutely fo called, 
 but ale, cyder, See. See Vinegar. 
 
 Wine is, in a more peculiar manner, appropriated 
 to that which is drawn from the fruit of the vine, by 
 ftamping its grapes in a vat, or crulhing and expreffing 
 the juiceout of them in a prefs, and then fermenting 
 them, Sec. 
 
 The goodnefs of wine confifts in its being neat, dry, 
 fine, bright, and brifk, without any tafte of the foil, of 
 a clean ftcady colour, having a ftrength without being 
 .heady, a body without being four, and keeping without 
 growing hard or eager. The difference of flavour, tafte, 
 colour, and body, in wines, is perhaps, as much owing 
 to the different manner and time of prefling, gathering, 
 and fermenting the grape, as to any difference of the grape 
 itfelf. 
 
 In Hungary, whence tockay and fome of the richeft 
 and higheft-flavoured wines come, they are extremely cu¬ 
 rious in thefe rcfpe&s : for their prime and raoft delicate 
 wines, the grape is luffered to continue upon the vine 
 till it is half dried by the heat of the fun : and, if the 
 fun’s heat fhould not prove fufficient, they are dried by 
 the gentle heat of a furnace, and then picked one by one 
 from the ftalks; the juice of this grape, when preffed 
 out, is of a fine flavour, and fweet as fugar : this, after 
 due fermentation, is kept for a year, and then racked 
 from the leys, when it proves a generous, oily, rich 
 wine, and is fold at a very high rate. 
 
 The Hungarians prepare a fecond fort of wine by col- 
 
 W I N 
 
 le&ing together the better kind of grapes, carefully pick* 
 ing the fruit from the ftalks, and then preffing out the 
 juice : this is extremely fweet, and is made richer by in¬ 
 filling in it, after it has fermented for fome days, a fuffi¬ 
 cient quantity of half-dried grapes. This wine, befides 
 being very fweet, is oily, and of a grateful tafte, and re¬ 
 tains thefe qualities for a longtime. 
 
 There is a third fort, made from the pure juice of this 
 kind of grape, without any addition. This is a more 
 brifk and lively wine, and far lefs iweet. 
 
 They -likewife prepare a fourth fort, from grapes of 
 different goodnefs mixed together; this, though not lo 
 generous, is neverthelefs an excellent wine. 
 
 Thefe Hungarian wines are remarkable for preferving 
 their fweetnefs, and for the delicacy ol their tafte and 
 ftnell; they, likewife, do not grow eafily vapid, and may 
 be kept in perfection for many years. 
 
 Wine being a liquor moftly of foreign produce, the 
 divers names, forms, kinds, diftin&ions, See. thereof, 
 are borrowed from the countries where it is produced; 
 the principal whereof, at this day, is France, to wines 
 of which country, a good part of what we have to fay of 
 this noble liquor, will more immediately belong. 
 
 Wine, in France, is diftinguilhed from the feveral de¬ 
 grees and fteps of its preparation, into, 1. Meregoutte, 
 mother drop, which is the virgin wine, or that which 
 runs of itfelf out at the top of the vat wherein the grapes 
 are laid, before the \intagcr enters to tread or ftatnp the 
 grapes. 2. Muft, furmuft, or ftum, which is the wine 
 or liquor in the vat, after the grapes have been trod or 
 ftamped. 3. Preffed wine, being that fqueezed with a 
 prefs out of the grapes half bruized by the treading. The 
 hulks left of the grapes are called rope, murk, or mark, 
 by throwing water upon which, and preffing them afreffi, 
 they make a liquor for fervants ufe, anfwering to our 
 cydcrkin, and called boiffon, which is of fome ufe in 
 medicine, in the cure of diforders occafioned by the vifeid 
 humours. 4. Sweet wine is that which has not yet worked 
 orfermented. 5. Bouru, that which has been prevented 
 working by calling in cold water. 6. Worked wine, 
 that which has been let work in the vat, to give it a co¬ 
 lour. 7. Boiled wine, that which has had a boiling be¬ 
 fore it worked, and which by that means ftill retains 
 its native fweetnefs. 8. Strained wine, that made by 
 lleeping dry grapes in water, and letting it ferment of 
 itfelf. 
 
 Wines are alfo diftinguilhed with regard to their co¬ 
 lour, into white wine, red wine, claret wine, pale wine, 
 rofe or black wine; and, with regard to their country, 
 or the foil that produces them, into French wines, Spa- 
 nilh wines, Rhenilh wines, Hungary wines, Greek 
 wines, Canary wines, Sec. and more particularly into 
 Port wine, Madeira wine, Sec. 
 
 Method of makings fining, &c. Wine. In the fouthem 
 parts of France, their way is with red wines to tread or 
 lqueeze the grapes between the hands, and to let the 
 whole Hand, juice and hulks, till the tinCture be to 
 their liking; after which they prefs it. But for white 
 wines, they prefs the grapes immediately; when preffed 
 they tun the muft and flop up theveflcl, only leaving the 
 depth of a foot or more to give room for it to work. At 
 the end of ten days they fill this fpace with fome other 
 proper wine, that will not provoke it to work again. 
 This they repeat from time to time, new wine fpending 
 itfelf a little before it comes to perfection. 
 
 The ufual method of fining down wines, fo as to ren¬ 
 der them expeditioufly bright, clear, and fit for ufe, is 
 this : Take an ounce of ifinglafs, beat it into thin Ihreds 
 with a hammer, and diflolve it, by boiling, in a pint of 
 water; this when cold becomes a ftiff jelly. Whilk up 
 fome of this jelly into a froth with a little of the wine in¬ 
 tended to be fined, then ftir it well among the reft in the 
 calk, and bung it down tight; by this means the wine 
 will become bright in eight or ten days. 
 
 This method, however, is found to be bell fuited to 
 the white wines; for the red ones, the wine-coopers com¬ 
 monly ufe the whites of eggs beat up to a froth, and 
 mixed in the fame manner with their wines. 
 
 They fine it down alfo by putting the {havings of green 
 beech into the veflfel, having firft taken off all the rind, 
 and boiled them an hour in water to extraCl their rank- 
 nefs, and afterwards dried them in the fun, or in an 
 oven. A bufhel of thefe ferve for a tun of wine : and 
 
 being 
 
W I N 
 
 ben-,* mafhed, they ferve again and again, till almoft 
 quite confumed. 
 
 F°r Englifh wine, the method recommended by Morti¬ 
 mer, is firft to gather the grapes when very dry, to pick, 
 them from the Falks, then to prefs them, and let the 
 juice Hand twenty-four hours in a vat covered. After¬ 
 wards to draw it off from the grofs lees, and then put it 
 up in a calk, and to add a pint or quart of Frong red or 
 white port to every gallon of juice, and let the whole 
 work, bunging it up dole, and letting it Fand till Ja¬ 
 nuary; then bottle it in dry weather. Bradley chufes ro 
 have the liquor, when preSIed, hand with the hulks, 
 llalks, and all in the vat, to ferment for fifteen days. 
 
 1 he method of converting white wine into red, fo 
 much pradiled by the modern wine-coopers, Dr. Shaw 
 obferves, is this : Put four ounces of turnelole rags into 
 an earthen veflel, and pour upon them a pint of boiling 
 water; cover the veflel clofc, and leave it to cool; Frain 
 ofi the liquor, which will be ol a fine deep red, inclining 
 to purple.^ A Small portion of this colours a large quan¬ 
 tity ol wine. This tin&ure might be either made in 
 brandy, or mixed with it, or elfie made into a firup, 
 with Sugar, for keeping. A common way with the wine- 
 coopers is to infufe the rags cold in wine for a night or 
 more, and then wring them out with their hands; but 
 the inconveniency of this method is, that it gives the 
 wine a dilagreeable taFe; or what is commonly called the 
 taFe of the rag; whence the wines thus coloured, ufually 
 pals among judges for prefled wines, which have all this 
 taFe from the canvas rags in which the lees are prefled. 
 
 The way of extrafling the tin&ure, as here direfted, 
 is iiot attended with this inconvenience ; but it loads the 
 wine with water; and if made into a firup, or mixed in 
 brandv, it would load the wine with things not wanted, 
 lince the colour alone is required. Hence the colouring 
 of wines lias always its inconveniencies. 
 
 In thole countries which do not produce the tinging 
 grape, winch aflords a blood-red juice, wherewith the 
 p ines of France a:e often ftained, in defcCt of this, the 
 juice of elder-berries is ul'ed, and fometimes logwood is 
 ufed at Oporto. 
 
 The colour afforded by tile method here propofed, gives 
 wine the tinge of the Bourdeaux-red, not the port; 
 whence the foreign coopers are often diFrefled for want 
 of a proper colouring for red wines in bad years. This 
 might perhaps be Supplied by an extra# made by boiling 
 flick-lack in water. I he fkinS of tinging grapes might 
 alfo be ul'ed, and the matter of the turnelole procured^in 
 a folid form, not imbibed in rags. 
 
 Stahl obferves, that it is a common accident, and a 
 difeafe in wines, to be kept too hot; which is not eafy 
 to cure when it lias been ol any long continuance, other- 
 wife it may be cured by introducing a fmall artificial fer¬ 
 mentation, th.it new ranges the parts of the wine, or ra¬ 
 ther recovers their former texture : but the adtual ex- 
 poling of wine to the fire, or the fun, prefently difpofes 
 it to turn eager; and the making it boiling hot, is one 
 of the quickcF ways of expediting the procefs of making 
 of vinegar. 
 
 On the other hand, wine kept in a cool vault, and 
 well Secured from the external air, will preferve its tex¬ 
 ture intire in all the conFituent parts, and Sufficiently 
 Frong for many years, as appears not only from old 
 wines, but other foreign fermented liquors, particularly 
 t'.iofe of China, prepared from a decoftion of rice, which 
 being well doled down in a veflel, and buried deep under 
 ground, will continue for a long feries of years, rich, 
 generous, and good, as the liiFoties of that country uni- 
 verfally agree in alluring us. 
 
 1 lie molt general remedy hitherto known for all the 
 difeafes of wines, is a prudent ufe of tartarized fpirit of 
 wine, which not only enriches but difpoles all ordinary 
 wines to grow fine. 
 
 If cither by hand or accident a larger portion of water 
 is mixed with wine than is proper for its confiFencc, and 
 no way neceflary or eflential, this fuperfluous water does 
 not only deprave the taFe, and fpoil the excellence of the 
 wine, but alio renders it lcls durable ; for humidity in 
 general, and much more a fupeifluous aqueous humidity, 
 is the primary and leFlcfs inFrument of all the changes 
 that are brought on by fei mentation. It may, doubtlefs, 
 therefore be uleful, and fometimes abfolutdy neceflary, 
 to take away ibis luperliuous water from the other part 
 2 
 
 W I N 
 
 which Unfitly and properly conFitutcs the wine. This 
 has been agreed upon all hands as a thing proper; but 
 the manner of doing it has not been well agreed on. 
 fome have propofed the effe&ing it by means of heat and 
 evaporation, others by percolation, and others by various 
 other methods, all found unfuccelsful when brought to 
 the trial, but the way propofed by Dr. Shaw from Stahl, 
 is the moil certain and commodious; this is done by a 
 concentration of the wine, not by means of heat, but of 
 cold. 
 
 , an Y of wine, but particularly fuch as has never 
 been adulterated, be in a I'ufficient quantity, as that of 
 a gallon or more, expofed to a I'ufficient degree of cold 
 in froFy weather, or be put into any place where ice 
 continues all the year, as in our ice-houfes, and there 
 fuffered to freeze, the fuperfluous water that was ori¬ 
 ginally contained in the wine, will be frozen into ice, 
 and will leave the proper and truly eflential part of the 
 wine unfrozen, unlefs the degree of cold Should be very 
 intenfe, or the wine but weak and poor. This is the 
 principle on which Stahl founds his whole fyFcm of con- 
 denfing wines by cold. When the froft is moderate, the 
 experiment has no difficulty, becaufe not above a third or 
 fourth part of the fuperfluous water will be froze in a 
 whole night; but it the cold be very intenfe, the beft 
 way is, at the end of a few hours, when a tolerable quan¬ 
 tity of ice is formed, to pour out the remaining fluid 
 liquor, and let it in another veflel to freeze again by 
 itfelfi ] 
 
 If the veflel, that thus by degrees receives the feveral 
 parcels of the condenfed wine be fuffered to Fand in the 
 cold freezing place, where the operation is performed, 
 the quantity lying thin in the pouring out, or otherwife, 
 
 \\ nl be very apt to freeze anew ; and it it be fet in a warm 
 place, fome of this aqueous part thaws again, and l'o 
 weakens the roll. 1 he condenfed wine, therefore, fhould 
 be emptied vn fome place of a moderate degree as to cold 
 or heat, where neither the ice may diflolve nor the vi¬ 
 nous fubFance mixed among it be congealed. B ut the beft 
 expedient of all is to perform the operation with a large 
 quantity of wine, or that of feveral gallons, where the 
 utmoft exaftnelis, or the danger of a trifling waFe, need 
 not be regarded^ 
 
 By this method, when properly performed, there firft 
 freezes about one third part of the whole liquor; and 
 this is properly the more purely aqueous part of it, info- 
 inuch that when all the vinous fluid is poured off, ro be 
 again expofed to a concentration, the ice remaining be¬ 
 hind, from this firF freezing, being fet to thaw in a warm 
 place, diflolvcs into a pure and taFeleis water. The 
 frozen part, or ice, conliFs only of the watery part of 
 the wine, and may be thrown away, and the liquid part 
 retains all the Frength, and is to be preferved. This 
 will never grow four, mufty, or mouldy afterwards, and 
 may at any time be reduced to wine of the common kind 
 again, by adding to it as much water as will make it up 
 to the quantity that it was before. 
 
 Wines in general may by this method be reduced to 
 any degree of vinofity or perfection. 
 
 1 he benefit and advantage of this method of congela¬ 
 tion, if reduced to praClice in the large way, in the wine 
 countries, mull be evident to every body. Concentrated 
 wines, in this manner, might be lent into foreign coun¬ 
 tries, inFead of wine and water, which is ufually now 
 font; the wines they export being loaded, and in danger 
 of being Spoiled, by three or four times their own quan¬ 
 tity of unneceflary, luperfluous, and prejudicial water. 
 
 An eafy method of recovering pricked wines may be 
 learned from the following experiment: Take a bottle of 
 red-port that is pricked, add to it halt an ounce of tarta- 
 rized fpirit of wine, fhake the liquor well together, and 
 i'ct it by for a few days, and it will be found very remark- 
 ably altered for the better. 
 
 1 his experiment depends upon the ufeful doCtrine of 
 acids and alkalies. All perfefit wines have naturally l'omc 
 acidity, and when this acidity prevails too much, the 
 wine is faid to be pricked; which is truly a Fate of the 
 wine tending to vinegar: but the introdufilion of a fine 
 alkaline lalt, Inch as that of tartar, imbibed by fpiiit of 
 wine, has a dire# power of taking off the acidity ; and 
 the fpirit of wine alfo contributes to this, as a great pre- 
 fervative in general of wines. If this operation be dex¬ 
 terously performed, pricked wines may be absolutely re¬ 
 covered 
 
W IN WIN 
 
 covered by It, and remain faleable for fome time : and 
 the fame method may be ufed to malt liquors juft turned 
 lour. 
 
 The age of wine is properly reckoned by leaves ; thus 
 they lay of wine two, four, or fix leaves, to fignify wine 
 of two, four, or IN years old ; taking each new leaf put 
 forth by the vine, fince the wine was made, fora year. 
 
 Wine is all'o a denomination applied in medicine and 
 pharmacy to divers mixtures and compofitions wherein 
 the juice of the grape is a principal ingredient. 
 
 With regard to the medical ufes of wines, it is obferved, 
 that among the great variety of wines in common ufe 
 among us, five are employed in the fhops as menllrua 
 for medicinal limples : that is, the vinum album Hifpa- 
 nicum, or mountain wine; the vinum album Gallicum, 
 or French white wine ; the Canary wine, or lack ; the 
 Rhenifh wine ; and the red port. 
 
 The effe£ts of thefe liquors on the human body, are 
 to chcar the fpirits, warm the habit, promote perfpira- 
 tion, render the veffels full and turgid, raife the pulfe, 
 and quicken the circulation. The effefts of the full- 
 bodied wines arc much more durable than thole of the 
 thinner ; all fweet wines, as Canary, abound with a glu¬ 
 tinous, nutritious fubftance, whilft the others are not 
 nuirimental, or only accidentally lo, by {Lengthening the 
 organs employed in digellion Sweet wines, in general, 
 do not pafs off freely by urine ; and they heat the confti- 
 tution more than an equal quantity of any other, though 
 containing full as much fpirit; red port, and moll of 
 the red wines, have an allringent quality, by which thev 
 ftrengthen the tone of the ltomach, and thus prove fer- 
 viccablefor reflraining immoderate fecretions; thofe which 
 are of an acid nature, as rhenilh, pafs freely by the kid- 
 nies, and gently loofen the belly. It is fuppofed that 
 thefe lalt exafperate and occalion gouty calculous difor- 
 ders, and that new wines of every kind have this effedt. 
 
 Wine-Spirit, a term ufed by our diftiliers, and 
 which they leem to mean the fame thing with the phrafe 
 of fpirit of wine; but they are taken in very different 
 fenfes in the trade. 
 
 Spirit of wine is the name given to the common malt- 
 fpirit, when reduced to an alcohol, or totally inflammable 
 flate; but the phrafe, wine-lpirit, is ufed to exprefs a 
 very clean and tine fpirit, of the ordinary prooflfrength, 
 and made in England from wines of foreign growth. 
 
 The way of producing it is by limplc dillillation, and 
 it is never redlifk-d any higher than common bubble proof. 
 The fcveral wines of different natures, yield very differ¬ 
 ent proportions of fpirit; but, in general, the ftrongeft 
 yield one-fourth, theweakelf in fpirits one-eighth part of 
 proof-fpirit; that is, they contain from a fixteenth to an 
 eighth part of their quantity of pure alcohol. 
 
 Wines that are a little four, lerve not at all the worfe 
 for the purpofes of the diftiller, they rather give a greater 
 vinofity to the produce. This vinofity is a thing of 
 great ufe in the wine-lpirit, whole principal ufe is to mix 
 with another, that is tartarized, or with a malt-fpirit, 
 rendered alkaline by the common method of redtifica- 
 tion. All the wine-fpirits made in England, even thofe 
 from the French wines, appear very greatly different from 
 the common French brandy ; and this has given our dif- 
 tillers a notion that there is fome fecret art pradlifed in 
 France, for the giving the agreeable flavour to that fpi- 
 vit; but this is without foundation. 
 
 WING, Ala, that part of a bird, infedl, See. whereby 
 it is enabled to fly. 
 
 Warbling of the Wings, in falconry, is when a hawk, 
 after having mantled herfelf, croffes her wings over her 
 back. 
 
 Wings, in heraldry, are born fometimes Angle, 
 fometimes in pairs, in which cafe they are called con¬ 
 joined ; when the points are downward, they are faid to 
 be inverted ; when up, elevated. 
 
 Wing, Ala, ox Axilla, in botany, the angle which 
 the leaves of a plant, or the pedicles of the leaves, form 
 with the Item, or a branch of the plant. 
 
 This angle is commonly acute, and always turned 
 upward. It has its name from its refembling the angle 
 which the wings of a bird form with the body : or ra¬ 
 ther, from the angle which a man’s arms makes with 
 his trunk, which is alfo called ala, wing. 
 
 Wings, in gardening, Sec. denote fuch branches of 
 trees, or other plants, as grow up-afide of each other. 
 Vol. II. No. 79. 
 
 La Qulntlny fays, the term is particularly applied 
 to artichoaks, whole wings, or ala?, are the lefs heads 
 or fruits that grow up with the principal one, on the 
 lame Talk. 
 
 Wings, Alee, in the military art* are the two flanks 
 or extremes of an army, ranged in form of battle ; be¬ 
 ing the right and left fldes thereof, and including the 
 main body. 
 
 The cavalry are always polled in the wings ; i. e. on 
 the flanks, or the right and left Tides of each line; to 
 cover the foot in the middle. 
 
 Pan, one of Bacchus’s captains, is faid to .have been 
 the firil inventor of this method of ranging an army ; 
 whence, fay they, it is that the ancients painted him with 
 horns on his head ; what we call wings, being by them 
 called cornua, horns. 
 
 This, at leaf!, is certain, that the method of arrang¬ 
 ing in wings is very ancient. The Romans, we know, 
 ufed the term ala?, or wings, for two bodies of, men in 
 their army ; one on the right, the other on the left, 
 confifting each of 400 horfe, and 4200 foot ufually, and 
 wholly made up of confederate troops. Thei'e were de- 
 figned to cover the Roman army, as the wings of a bird 
 cover its body. 
 
 The troops in thefe wings they called alares, and alares 
 copia?; and we at this day diftinguilh our armies into, 
 the main-body, the right and left wings. 
 
 Wings are alfo ufed for the two files that terminate 
 each battalion, or fquadron, on the right and left. The 
 pikes are ranged in the middle, and the mufquctecrs in 
 the wings. 
 
 Wings, in fortification, denote the longer fides of 
 horn-works, crown-works, tenailles, and the like out¬ 
 works ; including the ramparts, and parapets, with which 
 they are bounded on the right and left, from their gorge 
 to their front. 
 
 Thefe wings, or fides, are capable of being flanked, 
 either with the body of the place, if they Hand not too 
 far diftant; or with certain redoubts ; or with a traverfe 
 made in their ditch. 
 
 St. Michael's W ino, is the name of a military order 
 in Portugal, inflituted according to the jefuit Mendo, 
 in 1165; or, according to di Michieli, in his Teforo 
 Militar de Cavalleria, in 1171. Its inftitutor was Al- 
 phonfus Henry I. king of Portugal ; and the occalion 
 was a vidlory gained by him over the king of Sevil, and 
 his Saracens; for which he thought liimfelf beholden to 
 St. Michael, whom he had chole for his patron in the war 
 againfl the infidels. 
 
 The banner they bore was a wing refembling that of 
 the arch-angel, of a purple colour, encompafled with 
 rays of gold. Their rule was that of St. Benedict ; the 
 vow they made was to defend theChriftian religion, and 
 the borders of the kingdom, and to protcdl orphans. 
 Their motto, Quis ut Deus. 
 
 WINGED, in botany, a term applied to fuch ftems 
 of plants as are furnifhed, all their length, with a fort 
 of membranous leaves. 
 
 Several kinds of thiftles have winged Talks, and 
 branches. 
 
 Winged-Le aves, in botany, are thofe which are 
 compofed of feveral folioli, or little leaves, ranged on 
 each fide the common foot-ftalk like wings ; but as thefe 
 are difpofed in different forms, fo they have different 
 appellations. See Pinnated Leaves. 
 
 Winged-Seeds, are thofe which are furnifhed with 
 down or hairs, by the help of which they are buoyed 
 up in the air, and carried a confiderable diflance ; fuch 
 are thofe of the dandelion, fow-thiftle, See. 
 
 Winged, in heraldry, is applied to a bird, when 
 its wings are of a different colour, or metal, from the 
 body. 
 
 Winged is alfo applied to any thing reprefented with 
 wings, though contrary to its nature; as a winged, or 
 flying hart, Sec. 
 
 WINNOW, fignifies to fan, or feparate corn from 
 the chaff by wind. 
 
 WINTER, one of the four feafons or quarters of the 
 year. 
 
 Winter commences on the day when the fun’s diflance 
 from the zenith of the place is the greateft, and ends on 
 the day when its diflance is at a mean between the greateft 
 and leaft. 
 
 6 C 
 
 Notwith- 
 
W I R 
 
 Not with Handing the coldnefs of this feafon, it is 
 proved, in aftronomy, that the fun is really nearer to 
 the ear-til in winter than in fumfner. 
 
 Under the equator, the winter, as well as the other 
 feafons, return twice every year ; but all other places 
 have only one winter in the year; which, in the northern 
 hemifphere, begins when the fun is in the tropick of 
 Capricorn ; and in the louthern hemifphere, when in 
 the tropick of Cancer ; fo that all places in the fame 
 hemifphere have their winter at the fame time. 
 
 Winter, among printers, that part of the printing- 
 prefs lerving to (uftain the carriage, £cc. 
 
 Winter’s Bark, Cortex JVinter anus, in botany, a 
 name given to the bark of the white or wild cinnamon 
 tree. 
 
 The winter’s bark is a thick and firm bark, though we 
 have a different thing fometimes under its name: it comes 
 to us rolled up in the manner of the common cinna¬ 
 mon, into a kind of tubes or pipes; but they are ufually 
 thicker, and always fhorter than the fine tubes of cinna¬ 
 mon. It is externally of a greyifh colour, and of a redilh 
 brown within ; it is properly indeed a double bark, 
 the outer and inner of the fame tree, not the inner bark 
 alone, feparated from the other, as the cinnamon and 
 cailia arc. The outer rind is of an uneven furface and 
 of a loole texture, very biittle, and eafily powdered. The 
 inner bark, which has the principal virtue, is hard, and 
 of a dufky redilh brown. The outer one is often cracked 
 and open in ieveral places, the inner one never in any. 
 
 It is of an extremely fragrant and aromaiick fmell, and 
 of a lharp, pungent, and aromatick tafte, much hotter 
 than cinnamon ill the mouth, and leaving a more lafting 
 flavour on it. 
 
 It is to be chofcn in pieces not too large, with the 
 inner or brown part (ound and firm, and of a very fharp 
 tafte. It is apt to be worm-eaten ; but in that cafe it is 
 wholly to be rejected, as having loll the far greater part 
 ol its virtue. 
 
 "1 he cortex wintcranus was wholly unknown to the 
 ancients ; the diicovery of it among us is owing to cap¬ 
 tain Winter, who, in the year 1567, going as far as the 
 ftraights of Magellan with Sir Francis Drake, found this 
 bark on that coaft, and bringing a large quantity of it 
 with him in his return to England, it became ufed in 
 medicine, and was ever after called by his name. It is 
 not, however, peculiar to the place he found it in, but 
 is frequent in many parts of America. 
 
 The virtues of this bark were difeovered by the Eng- 
 lifh bailors on board captain Winter’s fhip ; they firft 
 ufed it by way of (pice to their foods, and afterwards for 
 the (curvy. It is alio good in palfies and rheumatifms ; 
 and a decoclion of the leaves is good, by way of fomen¬ 
 tation, for the parts externally afte&ed by the (curvy. 
 The Englilh Jailors made it famous for its virtues againft 
 the poilon cf a certain filh, common about the Magel¬ 
 lan ick lea, which they called the lea-lion : they eat the 
 flelh of this filh, and fell into many illnefles by it; among 
 which was one attended with a peeling off the fkin of 
 their whole bodies, not without excellive pain ; this they 
 remedied by the cortex Winter anus: but by the accounts 
 we have of the effccls of eating this filh, as it is called, 
 they were rather fymptoms of an inveterate feurvy, and, 
 therefore, it is no wonder this bark did them great fervice. 
 
 Winter-Qu arters. SeeW inter-Quarters. 
 
 Winter-Rig, among hulbandmen, fignifies to fal¬ 
 low or till the land in winter. 
 
 Winter-Solstice. See Solstice. 
 
 WIRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of 
 an iron into a thread, of a finenefs anlwerable to the hole 
 it palfed through. 
 
 Wires are frequently drawn fo fine, as to be wrought 
 along with other threads of filk, wool, fiax, See. 
 
 The metals mod commonly drawn into wire, are geld, 
 filver, copper, and iron. Gold wire is made of cylindri¬ 
 cal ingots of diver, coveied over with a (kin of gold, and 
 thus drawn fucceffively through a vaft number of holes, 
 each fmailer and (mailer, till at lad it is brought to a 
 finenefs exceeding that of a hair. That admirable dua¬ 
 lity which makes one of the diftinguilhing charaffers of 
 gold, is no where more confpicuous than in this gilt 
 wire. A cylinder of forty-eight ounces of filver, co¬ 
 vered with a coat of gold, only weighing one ounce, as | 
 Dr. Halley informs us, is ulually drawn into a wire, two 
 a 
 
 W I R 
 
 yards of which weigh no more than one grain ; whence 
 ninety-eight yards ot the wire weigh no more than forty- 
 nine grains, and one (ingle grain of gold covers the 
 ninety-eight yards; fo that the thoufandth part of a grain 
 is above one-eighth of an inch long. The fame author, 
 computing the thicknefs ot the ikin of gold, found it to 
 be tttW part of an inch. Yet fo perfectly does it co¬ 
 ver the filver, that even a microicope does not difeover 
 any appearance of the filver underneath. M. Rohault 
 likewife obferves, that a like cylinder of filver, covered 
 with gold, two feet eight inches long, and two inches 
 nine lines in circumference, is drawn into a wire 307200 
 feet long, i. c. into 115200 times its former length. Mr. 
 Boyle relates, that eight grains of gold, covering a cy¬ 
 linder of filver, is commonly drawn into a wire 13000 
 feet long. See Gold and Ductility. 
 
 Silver wire is the fame with gold wire, except that 
 the latter is gilt, or covered with gold, and the other 
 is not. 
 
 There are alfo counterfeit gold and filver wires ; the 
 firll made of a cylinder of copper, filvered over, and then 
 covered with gold ; and the fecond of a like cylinder of 
 copper, filvered over, and drawn through the iron, after 
 the fame manner as gold and filver wire; 
 
 Brafs-wire is drawn after the fame manner as the for¬ 
 mer. Of" this there are divers fizes, fuited to the differ¬ 
 ent kinds of works. The fineft is ufed for the firings of 
 mufical inftruments, as fpinnets, harpfichords, mani- 
 chords, &c. See Spinnet, &c. 
 
 1 he pin-makers, likewife, tile vaft quantities of brafs- 
 wire, to make their pins of. Iron-wire is drawn of va¬ 
 rious fizes, from half an inch to one-tentli of an inch 
 diameter. 
 
 Thefirft iron that runs frorh the ftone, when melting, 
 being the l'oftcft and toughed, is preferved to make wire 
 of. Iron-wire is made from fmall bars of iron called 
 efieom-iron, which are firft drawn out to a greater length, 
 and to about the thicknefs of one’s little finger, at a fur¬ 
 nace, with a hamriicr gently moved by water. Thclb 
 thinner pieces are bored round, and put into a furnace 
 to aneal for twelve hours. A pretty firong fire is ufed 
 for this operation. After this they are laid under water 
 for three or four months, the longer the better ; then 
 they are delivered to the workmen, called rippers, who 
 draw them into wires through two or three holes. After 
 this they aneal them again for fix hours, and water them 
 a fecond time for about a week, and they are then de¬ 
 livered again to the rippers, who draw them into wire of 
 the thicknefs of a large packthread. They aic then 
 anealed a third time, and then watered for a week longer, 
 and delivered to the fmall wire-drawers, called over- 
 houfe-men. 
 
 In the mill where this work is performed, there are 
 fcveral barrels hooped with iron, which have two hoops 
 on their upper fides, on each whereof hang two links 
 which ftand acrofs, and arc (aliened to the two ends of 
 the tongs, which catch hold of the wire, and draw it 
 through the hole. The axis on which the barrel moves 
 does not run through the centre, but is placed on one 
 fide, which is that on which the hooks are placed ; and 
 underneath there is faftened to the barrel a (poke of wood, 
 which they call a fwingle, which is drawn back a good 
 way by the cogs in the axis of the wheel, and draws back, 
 the barrel, which falls to again by its own weight. The 
 tongs hanging on the hooks of the barrel, are by the 
 workmen faftened to the end of the wire, and by tl>e 
 force of the wheel, the hooks being pulled back, draw 
 the wire through the holes. The plate in which the 
 holes are, is iron on the outfide, and ftccl on the infide; 
 and the wire is anointed with train-oil, to make it run 
 the eafier. 
 
 Wi re- Mill, a water-mill conftru£led in a particular 
 manner for drawing wire. 
 
 We have given four figures of this curious and ufefuL 
 machine on Plate LXX 1 X. 
 
 The water-wheel of rhis mill has two motions, di- 
 redily contrary to each other, occalioned by the water’s 
 being turned alternately on each fide of the wheel ; by 
 which means the tongs which lay hold of the wire arc 
 lhifted, and a length of wire equal to the circumference 
 of the drawing-wheel is finifhed at each turn of the 
 I water-wheel. 
 
 | Fig. 1. Is a plan of the whole machine. A, A, a 
 > large 
 
W I T 
 
 iar<re l iver, on the banks of which the mill is ercdtcd. B, 
 the axis of the water-wheel. C i, C 2, two penftocks, 
 which let the water out of the -river, in order to work 
 the mill. D, the water-wheel. E, the rack, which 
 moves forward and backward with the alternate motion 
 of the water-wheel. F, G, two penftocks, which let the 
 water upon the wheel alternately, they being l'uccellively 
 drawn up. The darts fhew the courfe of the ft ream. 
 FI, I, two channels which carry off the back-water, a, 
 a lock acrofs the river, tor railing the water, b , a pen- 
 ftock, for carrying off the wafte-watcr. 
 
 Fig. 2. Is a fedtion of the apparatus for drawing the 
 penftocks alternately. A, B, is the lever by which the 
 two penftocks, F, G, are drawn. In the pofition repre- 
 iented in the figure, the penftock F is drawn up, and G 
 is ihut. The pofition C, D, fhews the oppofite motion, 
 the penftock G being juft beginning to be drawn, and 
 that at F almoft doled. E is the water-wheel. 
 
 Fig. 3. Is a front view of the water-wheel, with one 
 of the penftocks, ike. A, B, the axis of the water-wheel. 
 C, the lever of the penftock. D, the penftock, E, a 
 cog-wheel turned by a trundlc-liead, on the fhaft of the 
 water-wheel. F, a toothed wheel on the Hiatt of the 
 -cog-wheel E. 
 
 Fig. 4. A view of the rack, and the manner how it is 
 moved forwards and backwards, by the vibratory motion 
 of the water-wheel. A, part of the trundle-head on the 
 fhaft of the water-wheel. B, the cog-wheel. C, another 
 cog-wheel on the fhaft of B. D, the rack which the 
 toothed wheel C moves forwards and backwards. 
 
 In order to work this mill, two men are polited, one 
 at the end A of the lever AB [fig. 2.) and the other at 
 the end B ; and by pulling down each fucceffively, the 
 water falls on each fide of the wheel alternately, and con- 
 fequently caufes it to move in a vibratory manner; and 
 the rack, to which the tongs arc fixed, to move forwards 
 and backwards. 
 
 WISDOM, Sapience , ufually denotes a higher and 
 more refined knowledge of things, immediately p c- 
 icnted to the mind, as it were, by intuition, without the 
 afliftance of ratiocination. See Understanding, 
 Reason, Knowledge, &c. 
 
 In this fenfs, wifdom may be faid to be a faculty of 
 the mind, or at leaft a modification and habit thereof. 
 See Faculty, Modification, Habit, &c. 
 
 Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed in a 
 moral fenfe, for what we call prudence, or diferetion ; 
 which confifts in the foundnefs of the judgment, and a 
 condudl anfwerable thereto. 
 
 The fchool-divines, fometimes reftrai 11 wifdom to the 
 knowledge of the more fublimc and remote objedts, as 
 that of God, &c. In which fenfe, theology is properly 
 faid to be wifdom. 
 
 The Latin word for wifdom, is fapietitia , which lite¬ 
 rally exprefles the fenfe of tailing; to which wifdom is 
 fuppoied to have fome conformity. The fight, and 
 other fenfes, only reprefent to us the furface of things : 
 tafte goes deeper, penetrates into the fubftances ; fo that 
 what, e. gr. to the feeling feemed cold, to the tafte 
 lhall be found hot: fo wifdom, arifing from a deep at¬ 
 tention to our ideas, goes further, and frequently judges 
 otherwife than the common apprelienfions of men would 
 reach to. 
 
 WIST, Wist a, a quantity, or meafure of land 
 among our Saxon anceftors ; of different dimenfions, 
 in different places. In the Monafticon, it is faid to be 
 half a hide, or fixty acres: in an old chronicle of the 
 monaftery of Battle, it is faid to be forty-eight acres. 
 
 WIT, a faculty of the mind, confifting, according 
 to Mr. Locke, in the aifembling, and putting together 
 of thofe ideas with quicknefs and variety, wherein can 
 be found any refemblance or congruity ; whereby to 
 make up plcafant pictures, and agreeable vifions to the 
 phantafy. 
 
 This faculty, the fame great author obferves, is juft 
 the contrary of judgment, which confifts in the fepa- 
 rating carefully from one another, fuch ideas wherein 
 can be found the leaft difference, thereby to avoid being 
 milled by ftmilitude, and, by affinity, to take one thing 
 for another. 
 
 It is the metaphor and allufton wherein, for the moft 
 part, lies the entertainment and pleafantry of wit; which 
 illik.es fo lively on the fancy, and is therefore fo accep- 
 
 W 1 T 
 
 table to all people, becaufe its beauty appears at firft fight, 
 and there is required no labour of thought, to examine 
 what truth or reafon there is in it. 1 he mind, without 
 looking any further, refts fatisfied with the agreeablenefs 
 of the pi flu re, and the gaiety of the imagination; and 
 it is a kind of affront to go about to examine it by the 
 fevere rules of truth, or reafon. Whence it fhould 
 feem, that wit confifts in fomething that is not perfedtly 
 conformable to them. Ejjay on Human Underjl. Lib. 1 . 
 cap. 11. 
 
 W 1 t is alfo an appellation, given to perfons pofleffed 
 of the faculty called wit, efprit. 
 
 A French author, who, in 1695, publifhed a treatife 
 of wit, du bel efprit, lays down four charadterifticks 
 thereof. 
 
 i°. A man, who, with an open air, and eafy mo¬ 
 tions, affedls thofe he convcrfes withal agreeably ; and 
 on any lubjedt that prefents itfelf, advances new thoughts, 
 and adorns them with a fpritely turn ; is, all the world 
 over, a wit. 
 
 2°. Another, who, lefs folicitous about the choice and 
 delicacy of his fentiments, knows how to make himfelf 
 valued by I know riot what elevation of dilcourle; who 
 draws a deal of attention, and (hews a deal of vivacity in 
 hisfpeaking, and readinels in his anfwers; is likevvife 
 acknowledged a wit. 
 
 3 0 . A third, who takes lefs care about thinking, than 
 about fpeaking well; who affcdls fine words, though per¬ 
 haps low and poor in matter ; who pleafes by an eafy 
 pronunciation, and a certain tone of voice, is placed in 
 the fame rank. 
 
 4 0 . Another, whofe chief aim is not to make himfelf 
 efteemed, fo much as to raife mirth and laughter : who 
 jokes pertinently, rallies pleafantly, and finds fomething 
 to amufe himfelf withal in every petty fubjedt; is like- 
 wife, allowed a wit. 
 
 Yet, it may be obferved, that in all thefe cafes, there 
 is nothing of real wit, as above defined ; but the whole 
 is imagination, or memory at moft ; nay the whole is no 
 more than temperament may give. 
 
 A true wit muft have a juft faculty of difeernment; 
 muft have, at the fame time, both a deal of energy, and 
 of delicacy in his fentiments; his imagination muft be 
 noble, and withal happy and agreeable, his expreffions 
 polite and well turned : without any thing of parade or 
 vanity in his dilcourfe, or his carriage. It is not at all 
 eflential to a wit, to be ever hunting after the brilliant; 
 ftill ftudying fine thoughts, and affedling to fay nothing 
 but what may ftrike and furprize. 
 
 This is a fault very frequeitt in dramatick perfons : the 
 duke of Buckingham rallies it very juftly : 
 
 ‘ What is that thing which wc fheerwit do call ? 
 
 ‘ ’Tis when the wit of fome great writer fhall > 
 
 ‘ So overflow, that is, be none at all : j 
 
 * That even his fools fpeak fenfe.* 
 
 Humour, fay our criticks, is the genuine wit of co¬ 
 medy. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT, the crime of forcery, efpccially in 
 women. 
 
 There may, perhaps, be fome foundation for what we 
 call fafeination, and witchcraft. We have infinite in- 
 ftances, and hiftories to this purpofe ; which it were not 
 fair to fet afide, merely becaufe they are not reconcileable 
 to our philofophy : but, as it happens, there feems to 
 be fomething in philofophy to countenance them. 
 
 All living things, we know, emiteffluvia, both by the 
 breath, and the pores of the Ikin. All bodies, therefore 
 within the fphere of their perfpiratory, or expiratory 
 effluvia, will be affcdled by them ; and that, in this or 
 another manner, according to the quality of the effluvia; 
 and in this or that degree, according to the difpofition 
 of the emittent, and recipient parts. 
 
 Thus far is inconteftable; nor need we produce in- 
 ftances of animals exhaling fweet, or ftinking fmells; or 
 of infedtious difeafes conveyed by effluvia, &c. in con¬ 
 firmation thereof. 
 
 Now, of all parts of an animal body, the eye, we know, 
 is the quickeft. It moves with the greateft celerity, and 
 in all the variety ofdiredtions. Again, its coats and hu¬ 
 mours are permeable as any other part of the body, 
 (witnefs the rays of light it fo copioufly receives.) The 
 eye, therefore, no doubt, emits its effluvia like the other 
 
 parts, 
 
W I T 
 
 parts. The fine humours of the eye mud be continually 
 exhaling. I lie heat of tlie pervading, rays will rarefy 
 and attenuate them : and that, with the fubtde juice, or 
 .i'pu it ol the neighbouring optick nerve, l'upplicd, in great 
 abundance, by the vicinity of the brain, mull make a 
 fund of volatile matter to be difpenfed, and, as it were, 
 determined by the eye. 
 
 Here, then, we have both the dart, and the hand to 
 fling it. The one furnifhed with all the force and vehe¬ 
 mence, and the other with all the fharpnefs and adlivity, 
 one would require. No wonder if their effedts be great! 
 
 Do but conceive the eye as a fling, capable of the 
 fwifteft and intenfeft motions and vibrations: and, again, 
 as communicating with a fource ot luch matter, as the 
 nervous juice elaborated in the brain ; a matter fo fubtile 
 and penetrating, that it is luppofed to fly inftantane- 
 oufly through the (olid capillaments of the nerves ; and 
 fo aftive and forcible, that it diftends and convulfes the 
 xnufcles, and diftorts the limbs, and alters the whole ha¬ 
 bitude of the body, giving motion and aftion to a mafs 
 of inert, ina&ivc matter. A projettile of fucli a nature, 
 flung by fuch an engine as the eve, mull have an effedi 
 wherever it ftiikes; and the efteft will be limited and 
 modified by the circumftances of diftance, the impetus 
 pf the eye, the quality, fubtility, acrimony, Ac. of the 
 juices, and the delicacy, coarfenefs, Ac. of the object it 
 falls on. 
 
 This theory, we are of opinion, may account for fomc 
 of the phenomena of witchcraft, particularly of that 
 branch called fafcination. It is certain the eye has al¬ 
 ways been efteemed the chief feat, or rather organ of 
 witchcraft; though, by inoft, without knowing why, 
 or wherefore: the cflcdl was apparently owing to the eye; 
 but, how was not dreamed of. Thus, the phrafe, to 
 have an evil eye, imports as much as to be a witch. And 
 hence Virgil—Nefcio quis tencros oculus milii fafeinat 
 agnos. Again, old, bilious perlons, are thofe mofl fre¬ 
 quently fuppofed to have the faculty; the nervous juice 
 in them being depraved, and irritated by a vicious habi¬ 
 tude of body ; and fo rendered more penetrating, and 
 malignant. And young perlons, chiefly children and 
 girls, are moft aife&ed by it; by reafon their pores are 
 patent, their juices incoherent, and their fibres delicate, 
 and lufceptible. Accordingly, the witchcraft mentioned 
 by Virgil, only reaches to the tender lambs. Laftly, 
 the faculty is only exerciled when the perfon is difpleafed, 
 provoked, irritated, Ac. It requiring fome extraordi¬ 
 nary ftrefs, and emotion of mind, to dart a proper quan¬ 
 tity of the effluvia, with a fufficient impetus, to produce 
 the effect at a diftance. 
 
 That the eye has fome very confiderable powers, is 
 paft difpute. The antient naturalills allure us, that the 
 bafilifk, and opoblcpa, kill other animals merely by 
 flaring at them. If this fail of credit; a late author al¬ 
 lure us to hare feen a moufe running round a large toad, 
 which flood looking earneftly at it, its mouth open : ftill 
 the moufe made lefs and lefs circles about it; crying all 
 the while, as if compelled thereto; and, at laft, with a 
 deal of feeming reludtance, ran into the gaping mouth, 
 and was ftraight fwallowed. 
 
 Who has not obferved a fetting-dog; and the effe£l of 
 its eye on the partridge ? The poor bird, when once its 
 eyes meet thofe of the dog, Hands as if confounded, re- 
 gardlefs of itfelf, and eafily lets the net be drawn over it. 
 We remember to have read of fquirrels ftupified, and 
 overcome by a dog’s flaring hard at them, and thus made 
 to drop out of the trees into his mouth. 
 
 That man is not fecure from the like affections, is mat¬ 
 ter of ealy obfervation. Few people but have, again and 
 again, felt the effects of an angry, a fierce, a command¬ 
 ing, a difdainful, a lafeivious, an intreating eye, Ac. 
 
 T hefe effects, no doubt, are owing to the different eja¬ 
 culations from the eye ; and are a degree of witchcraft. 
 
 WITENA-Mot, or Witena-Gemot, among 
 our Saxon anceftors, was a term which literally fignifled 
 the aflembly of the wile men, and was applied to the 
 great council of the nation, of latter days called the 
 parliament. 
 
 WITHERNAM, in law. a reprifal, or taking of 
 other goods or cattle, in lieu of thofe unjuftly taken and 
 efloined, or otherwife wirh-liolden. 
 
 V here goods are taken by colour of diftrefs, and 
 driven to an hold, or out of the county; fo that the ftieriff 
 
 W O M 
 
 cannot, upon replevin, make deliverance thereof to the 
 party diftrained : in this cafethf writ of withernam, or 
 de vetito namio, is iflued, directed to the fheriff, for the 
 taking as many of the party’s beafts, as he did thus un¬ 
 lawfully reftrain ; or as much goods of his, till lie has 
 made deliverance of the firft diftrefs. 
 
 W II HERS of a liorfc, the juncture of the fhoulder- 
 bones at the bottom of the neck and main, towards the 
 upper part of the fhoulder. 
 
 WITNESS, Tejiis, a perfon who certifies, or afferts 
 the truth of any faft. 
 
 Among the Romans, it was a cuftom to pull or pinch 
 the ears of witneffes prefent at any trailfaftion ; that they 
 might remember it when they were called to give in their 
 teftimony. Two eye-witnelfes, or de vifu, not fufpcCted, 
 are deemed a conclufive proof. 
 
 Fall'e witneffes, fuborners of witneffes, Ac. in Eng¬ 
 land, are punilhed with the pillory ; in feveral other 
 countries, with death- 
 
 In a fynod at Rome, under Conftantine, in the year 
 320, it was decreed, that there ihould be feventy-two 
 witneftes heard, to condemn a bifliop ; which was called 
 libra teftium, a pound of witneftes. Accordingly there 
 were feventy-two witneffes heard againft Pope Marcelli- 
 nus; who, fays the hiftorian, erant eleCti libra occidua. 
 
 Antiently there were fynodial witneffes, teftes fyno- 
 dales, in each parifli, cliol'e by the bifliop, to enquire 
 into the herefles, and other crimes of the parifliioners • 
 and to make oath thereof on the relicks of the faints. 
 
 WOAD, Guadum , or Glajlum, a drug ufed by the 
 dyers, to give a blue colour. See Is at is. 
 
 It arifes from a feed, Town annually in the fpring ; 
 which puts forth a plant called glaftum fativum, whole 
 leaves referable thofe of ribwort-plantain. They have 
 ufually three, four, or five crops of leaves every year; 
 but only the two or three firft are of any value; whereof 
 the firft is beft, and the reft in their order. 
 
 When the leaves arc ripe, they gather them ; and let¬ 
 ting them lie fome time, put them under the wheel to 
 bruife or grind them : after which, they are laid eight or 
 ten days in piles or heaps; and at laft reduced into a kind 
 of balls, which are laid in the ftiade, or hurdles, to dry. 
 
 'This done, they break or grind them to powder; and 
 when ground, fpread it on a floor, and water it, which 
 they call couching. 
 
 Here they let it fmoke and heat, till, by torrifying it 
 every day, it becomes quite dry, which they call filver- 
 ing. A week after which, it is in a condition to be ufed 
 in dying. The ancient Britons ufed to dye their bodies 
 herewith j and fome hold, that it was from this plant 
 glals took its denomination ; though others derive both 
 glafs, and glaftum, from the Britifh glafs, which, to this 
 day, denotes a blue colour. 
 
 A woad blue, is a very deep blue, almoft black ; and 
 is the bafe of fo many forts of colours, that the dyers 
 have a fcale, whereby they compote the divers cafts or 
 degrees of woad, from the brighteft to the deepeft. 
 
 WOLD, fignifies a plain down, or open champaign 
 ground, hilly and void of wood. 
 
 Wold, or Weld, among dyers. Sec Weld. 
 
 \Y OLF, Lupus , in zoology, a very large and fierce 
 animal, being equal to the biggell; maftiff in fize, and 
 having much of the general appearance of that creature. 
 
 Wolf’s-Bane, in botany, the Englifh name for the 
 aconitum. See Aconite. 
 
 WOLFESHEAD, or Wulversiiead, Caput lu- 
 pinum, denoted the condition of thofe out-lawed for cri¬ 
 minal matters in the Saxons time, and not yielding 
 themfelves to juftice. For if they could have been taken 
 alive, they muft have been brought to the king; and if 
 they, for fear of being apprehended, did defend them¬ 
 felves, they might be flain, and their heads brought to 
 the king; for their head was no more to be accounted 
 of than a wolf’s head. L L. Ediu. in Lamp. fol. 127. and 
 Brafl, Lib. III. TraCt. 2. cap. 11. 
 
 YV QLVES Teeth, of an horfe, are over-grown 
 grinders, the points of which being higher than the 
 reft, prick his tongue and gums in feeding, fo as to 
 hinder his chewing. They are feldom met with in any 
 befides young horles ; but if they be not daily worn by 
 chewing, they will grow up even to pierce the roof of 
 the mouth. 
 
 WOMAN, Foemina, Mulier , the femaleofman. 
 
 St. 
 
woo 
 
 St. Auguftm calls women the devout fex: at leaft this 
 is the common opinion ; though others rather think, that 
 in the prayer ufually attributed to that father, and hill 
 rehearied in the Romifti church to the holy virgin, the 
 words intercede pro devoto feemineo fexu, are to be un- 
 deriiood of women devoted, or conlecrated to God in 
 religious houfes, which had been fufficiently expreffed 
 by the words, ora pro populo, interveni pro clero. 
 
 It is a popular tradition among the Mahometans, 
 which obtains to this day, that women fhall not enter 
 Paradife. 
 
 An anonymous author, about the clofe of thefixteenth 
 century, publilhed a little Latin differtation, to prove 
 that women are not men; that is, are not reafonable 
 creatures : differtatio perjucunda qua anonymus probare 
 nititur mulieres homines non efle. He alfo endeavours 
 to prove, what naturally follows from this principle, viz. 
 that women {hall not be laved; that there is no future 
 life, or happinefs for them. 
 
 - His proofs, he fays, are all either taken from or founded 
 on Scripture. Though, after all, his aim is not fo much to 
 degrade women to the condition of brutes; as to ridicule 
 the principle or method of many Proteftants, who, in 
 points of controverfy, admit of no proofs or confidera- 
 tions, but what are taken from feripture alone. This 
 appears from the conclulion of the work. Probavi, opi- 
 nor, invittiffimis SS. Literarum teftimoniis, mulierem 
 non efle hominem, nec earn falvari: quod li non effeci, 
 oftendi tamen univerfo mundo quo modo hujus temporis 
 haeretici, & praefertim Anabaptiftac, fact um foleant ex- 
 plicare feripturam, & qua utantur methodo ad ftabilienda 
 fuaexecranda dogmata. 
 
 Yet, Simon Gediccus, a Lutheran divine, wrote a 
 ferious confutation of this piece in 1595; wherein his 
 abfurd rcafonings and vile perverfion of the fcciptures arc 
 fufficiently expofed. 
 
 The ancient Marcionites allowed their women to bap¬ 
 tize ; as we arc allured by S. Epiphanius, Har. 42. c. 4. 
 The Montanifts admitted women to the priefthood, 
 and even the epifeopate. Epiph. Har. 49. c. 2. The 
 modern Quakers alio permit their women to preach and 
 prophefy, on an equal footing with the men. 
 
 It is a point much controverted, how far learning and 
 ftudy become the fex ? Erafmus handles the queftion at 
 large in one of his letters to Budams. Lud. Vives, in 
 his Injlitutio Famines ChriJUanec , has a chapter exprefs on 
 the fame fubjett. Madam Schurman, a German lady, 
 has gone beyond them both, in a treatife on this pro¬ 
 blem ; Num Fceminae Chriftiana? conveniat ftudium li¬ 
 terarum ? 
 
 Several of the women remarkable for learning, have 
 been alio diftinguifhed for their want of conduit. The 
 reafon, no doubt, lay in this; that their firft ltudies ly¬ 
 ing in books of gallantry and intrigue, the imagination 
 was early turned that way, and the memory filled with a 
 fort of ideas, which a favourable difpofition, and age, 
 adopted too eafily, and improved too fall. It is not that 
 ftudy in itfelf has any natural tendency to produce fuch 
 effects; rather the contrary : the clofe abftrailed re- 
 fearches of metaphyficks, logicks, mathematicks, phy- 
 ficks, criticifm, Ac. no doubt, will be one of the fureft 
 means to fecure and eftablifh the virtue of continency in 
 a woman. 
 
 A woman, in England, as foon as {he is married, 
 with all her moveables, is wholly in poteftate viri, at the 
 will and difpofal of her hufband. 
 
 WOMB, Uterus. See Uterus. 
 
 WONDER. The feven wonders of the world, as 
 they are popularly called, were the Egyptian pyramids ; 
 the maufoleum, eredted by Artemiiia; the temple of 
 Diana, at Epliefus; the walls and hanging gardens of 
 the city of Babylon; the coloffus, or brazen image of 
 the fun at Rhodes ; the ftatue.of Jupiter Olympius ; and 
 the pharos, or watch-tower of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 
 WOOD, Lignum, a folid fubftance, whereof the 
 trunks and branches of trees confift. 
 
 The wood is all that part of a tree included between 
 the bark and the pith. 
 
 Mortimer obferves, that all kinds of wood are to be 
 preferred from the worm, and from many other occafions 
 of decay, by oily fubftances, particularly the effiential oils 
 of vegetables. Oil of fpike is excellent; and oil of juni¬ 
 per, turpentine, or any other of this kind, will ferve the 
 Vol. II. No. 79. 
 
 WOO 
 
 purpofe ; tliefe will preferve tables, inftruments, &c. 
 from being eaten to pieces by tliefe vermin ; and linfeed- 
 oil will ferve, in many cafes, to the fame purpofe ; pro¬ 
 bably nut-oil will do alfo, and this is a tweeter oil, and 
 a better varnilh for wood. 
 
 Cutting in Wood, is ufed for various purpofes ; as 
 for initial and figured letters, head and tail-pieces of 
 books, and even for fchemes, mathematical and other 
 figures, to fave the expence of engraving on copper; 
 alio for prints, and {tamps for papers, callicoes, lin¬ 
 ens, &c. 
 
 The invention of cutting in wood, as well as that in 
 copper, is aferibed to a goldfmith of Florence ; but 
 Albert Durer and Lucas brought both thefe arts to per¬ 
 fection. 
 
 About two hundred years ago, the art of cutting in 
 wood was carried to a very great pitch, and might even 
 vie, for beauty and juftnels, with that of engraving on 
 copper : at prelent it is much negleCted, the application 
 of artifts being wholly employed on copper, as the more 
 eafy and promifing province : not but that wooden cuts 
 have the advantage of thole in copper in many refpetts, 
 chiefly for figures and devices in books; as being printed 
 at the fame time, and in the fame prefs with the letters : 
 whereas for the other, there is required a particular and 
 feparate impreffion. 
 
 The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank, or 
 block, of thefize and thicknefs required, and very even 
 and fmooth on the fide to be cut: for this they ufually 
 take pear-tree, or box ; but the latter is bell:, as being 
 clofeft, and leaft liable to be worm-eaten. On this 
 block they draw the defign with a pen or pencil, exadtly 
 as they would have it printed ; or they fallen the defign 
 drawn on paper upon the block with pafte and a little 
 vinegar, the ftrokes or lines turned towards the wood. 
 As foon as the paper is dry, they wafh it gently with a 
 fponge dipped in water, and then take it off by little 
 and little, rubbing it firft with the tip of the finger, till 
 nothing is left on the block but the ftrokes of ink that 
 form the defign, which mark out what part of the block 
 is to be fpared or left {landing. The reft they cut off 
 very carefully with the points of very fharp knives, chif- 
 fels, or gravers, according to the bignefs or delicacy of 
 the work. 
 
 Wood, Silva, in geography, a multitude of trees 
 extended over a large continued tradl of land, and pro¬ 
 pagated without culture. The generality of woods only 
 confift of trees of one kind. 
 
 The ancient Saxons had fuch a veneration for woods, 
 that they made them fandtuaries. 
 
 The burning of woods, or under-wood, is declared to 
 be felony ; alfo thole perfons that malicioufly cut or 
 fpoil timber-trees, fruit-trees, Ac. fhall be fent to the 
 lioufe of corredlion, there to be kept three months, and 
 whipt once a month. 
 
 Wood and Wood, in the fea-language, is when two 
 pieces of timber are fo let into each other, that the wood, 
 of the one joins clofe to the other. 
 
 WOOD-CORN, is a certain quantity of oats, or 
 other grain, anciently given by cuftomary tenants to 
 their lord, for the liberty to pick up dead or broken 
 wood. 
 
 WOOD-GELD, W odgeldum, in our ancient 
 cuftoms, the gathering, or cutting of wood within the 
 foreft. Or, it may denote the money paid for the fame, 
 to the fo Tellers. 
 
 Sometimes it alfo feems to fignify an immunity from 
 this payment, by the king’s grant. Crompton fays ex- 
 prcily, it lignifies to be free from the payment of money 
 for taking of wood in a foreft; 
 
 WOOD-HAY, an ancient cuftom at Exeter; where¬ 
 by a log out of every feam of wood brought over Ex 
 bridge, is taken towards the reparation of that bridge. 
 Antiq. of Exeter . 
 
 WOOD-MOTE, the ancient name of that foreft - 
 court, now called the court of attachment. 
 
 WOOD-PLEA-Court, is a court held twice a year 
 in the foreft ot Clun in Shropfhire, for determining all 
 matters relating to wood, and the feeding of cattle there. 
 Perhaps it was originally the fame with wood-motc- 
 court. 
 
 WOODWARD, an officer of the foreft, whofe 
 function it is to look alter the woods, and obferve anv 
 6 D offence 
 
w o o 
 
 offences either in vert or in venifon, committed within 
 his charge, and to prevent the fame; and in cafe any 
 tieer are found killed, or hurt, to inform the verderer 
 thereof, and to prefent them at the next court of the 
 foreft. See Forest. 
 
 WOOF, among mamlfaflurers, the threads which 
 the weavers llioot a-crofs, with an inftrumentcalled the 
 fliutllc, between the threads of the warp, to form the web. 
 
 1 lie woof is of different matter, according to the piece 
 to he wrought. In taffety, both woof and warp are lilk. 
 
 ln mohairs, the woof is ufually wool, and the warp 
 hlk. In lattins, the warp is frequently flax, arid the 
 Woof (Ilk. 
 
 WOO!,, Lana, the hair, or covering of Iheep; which, 
 wanted, thorn, dreffed, combed, fpun, wove, &c. makes 
 divers kinds ot fluffs, cloths, &c. for apparel, furni¬ 
 ture. &c. rr 
 
 While the wool remains in the ftate it was firft fhorn 
 ofl the Iheep’s back, and not forted into its different 
 kinds, it is called fleece. 
 
 Each fleece coniiffs ot wool of divers qualities, and de¬ 
 grees ot finenefs, which the dealers therein take care to 
 ieparate. 
 
 The French arid Englifh ufually feparate each fleece 
 into three lorts; viz. T. Mother-wool, which is that of 
 the back and neck. 2". The wool of the tails and le>re 
 ;; . I hat of the breaft, and under the belly. 
 
 The Spaniards make the like divilion into three forts 
 which they call prime, fecond, and third; and, for the 
 greater eafe, denote each bale or pack with a capital let 
 ter, denoting the fort. If the triage, or reparation be 
 well made, 111 fifteen bales there will be twelve marked 
 R ; that is, refine, or prime; two marked F, for fine 
 01 Iccond ; and one S, for thirds. 
 
 fhe wools moft efleemed are the Englifh, chiefly 
 thole about Ecominfter, Cotfwold, and the lfk of White; 
 the Spanilh, principally thole about Segovia; and the 
 fieneli, about Berry: which laft are faid to have this 
 peculiar property, that they will knot or bind with ailv 
 other lore . whereas the reft will only knot with their 
 own kind. 
 
 Among the ancients, the wools of Attica, Megara, 
 Laodicea, Apulia, and efpecially thofe of Tarslitum, 
 Parma, and Allino, were tire moft valued. Columella 
 fets the two laft even above that of Tarentum, Lib. VII. 
 c. 2. And Varro allures us, the people there tiled to 
 clothe their fheep with ikins, to fccure the wool front 
 being damaged. De Re Rajl. Lib. II. c. 2. 
 
 Tavernier affirms, that the wools in Alia are incom¬ 
 parably finer than thofe of Europe ; and that there is no 
 doubt, but that wool was the golden fleece fought for at 
 Colchis. 
 
 The art of preparing and working wool, is-attributed, 
 
 by the ancients, to Minerva; who, accordingly, is made 
 the genius and protect refs thereof. 
 
 hnglijh Wool. The wools of England have always 
 
 been in the higheft repute; and that more abroad titan 
 at home. Some we have, which, manufaftured by our 
 own clothiers, Cliamberlayne obferves, does, both for 
 ioftnefs and firmnefs, vie with tlie choice* filks. Spa- 
 nilh wools, we know, bear a great price among us but 
 it is certain, much the greareftpart of that, which when 
 roanufadtured, our clothiers, &c. call Spanifh cloth, 
 grows in England. Add, that the French can make no 
 good cloth of their own wool, without, atleaft, one third 
 of Englifh wool mixed with it. It is allowed, the good- 
 nels of the Spanifh wools is owing to a few Englifh fheep 
 felt over into Spain, as a prefent, by Henry II. of Eng¬ 
 land ; or, as others will have it, though we think mif- 
 takenly, by Edward IV. in 1465. 
 
 T Ire finenefs and plenty of our wools is owing, in 
 feme nreafure, to the fwcet, fhort grafs in many of our 
 paftures and downs ; though the advantage of our fheeps 
 feeding on this grafs all tile year, without being obliged 
 to be fhut up in folds during the winter, or to fecurc 
 them from wolves at other times, contributes not a little 
 thereto. 
 
 ft he Scotch and Irifh wools, are commonly fold 
 abioad for Englifh ; and upon the fame footing. But 
 foreigners, ikilled in thole matters, find they come far 
 fhort of it in finenefs; though, in feme markets,.the 
 irilh is even faid to be preferred to tlie Englifh. 
 
 The yearly produce of wool in England, is calculated 
 2 
 
 w o o 
 
 Imr Dr ’ D,lvcnanl ’ and Mr - Kmg, at two millions fter- 
 
 AncicmJy the principal commerce of the nation con- 
 lilted m wool unmanufaftured; which foreigners, efpe- 
 c.ally the French, Dutch, and Flemitl, bought of us 
 Infomuch, that the cuftoms ot Englilh wool exported in 
 Edward the third s reign, amounted, at 501. a pack, to 
 2500°°/. per annum. An immenfe fum in thofe days 1 
 
 „,r n cuftom on the ex P° rt unmanufac¬ 
 
 tured wool, fet our people to the making it into cloth 
 themlelves In which they fuccecded lo well, that to¬ 
 wards the clofe ot the fixteenth century, under the rcimi 
 ot queen Elizabeth, the exportation of anv wool at all 
 was abiolutely prohibited ; and this, upon pain of hav- 
 mg the right hand ftruck of}. 
 
 From that time, England has been exceedingly jea¬ 
 lous of its wool. To prompt their vigilance, the judges; 
 «c. in parliament, are ieated on wool packs. Acconl- 
 mgiv, Icarce a parliament but has renewed, and rein¬ 
 forced the prohibition ; particularly, about the middle of 
 the Icventeenth century, the exporting of wool was made 
 a capital crime. 
 
 But all tliefe precautions are incffeflual; the Englilh 
 themlelves, particularly about the coafls of Suffex 
 making trie of the long winter nights to waft over their 
 wools to France : being fine of carrying them to a good 
 market, they defpile the penalty, with an intrepidity, 
 mat the reft of Europe are amazed at. 
 
 M. Colbert, a name the French manufaflures and 
 commerce are infinitely indebted to, had entertained a de- 
 ltgn of procuring fome of our Englilh iheep, and propagat¬ 
 ing them in France ; hoping, that by chuling (hem, in the 
 provinces of that kingdom, fuch paftures, and fuch alky 
 as they had in their own ifland, they might thetc be pei- 
 petuated, and P ranee be Fro longer obliged precariouflv to 
 depend on the clandcft’ine fupplies of wool from the Eng- 
 lilli owlers. But the count de Cominges, then ambaf- 
 lador of France at the Englifh court, laid the impoffibi- 
 "ty having fuch an export of fheep, and the almolt 
 equal impoffibility of keeping and making them multiply 
 there, lo ftrongly before him, that he abandoned the 
 defign. 
 
 \\ ool is reckoned by the lack, containing two weirhs; 
 the weigh, lix tod and a halt; the tod, two ftone; tlie 
 ftone, two cloves ; ami the clove, feven pounds. Twelve 
 lacks make a laft, or 4368 pounds. 
 
 A fack ot wool, or 364 pounds, is lufficient for four 
 llandard cloths, to render them true breadth, i. e. fix 
 quarters and a half; true weight, i. e. fixty pounds ; and 
 true length, i. e. twenty four y-rds. 
 
 Wool, is alfo uied for the foft hair growing on fevcral 
 wild hearts, the fkins of which are diltinguifhed by the 
 name of furs. 
 
 Cotton- W001. See Cotton. 
 
 Wool-Drivers, are thofe who buy wool of the 
 fheep-owneis in the country, and carry it on horleback 
 to the clothiers, or market-towns, to fell it again. 
 
 \A< ool-St a ?le, denotes a city or town where wool 
 ufed to be fold. 
 
 Wool-Windf. r s, are perfons employed in winding 
 up fleeces of wool into bundles to be packed and fold by 
 weight. Thofe are fworn to do it duly between the 
 owner and the merchant. 
 
 Woollen Manufacture, includes the feveral 
 ,forts of commodities into which wool is wrought, as 
 broad cloth, long and fhort kerfeys, bays, ferges, flannel 
 perpetuanas, fays, fluffs, Prize, penniflones, flockings, 
 caps, rugs, &c. 
 
 Explanation of plate LXXX. reprefentin? a Dyehoufc for 
 IVoollen Goods, Hats , iffc. 
 
 Fig. 4. The beating-room, or tlie place where the 
 materials are beat together. A, B, the bafm m the table, 
 where the goods are beaten. 
 
 F'i- 5 - ^ apartment where the materials for mak¬ 
 ing hats are bowed, or mixed well together, and the duft 
 feparated from them by means ot a bow ; with a work¬ 
 man employed in that part of the work. 
 
 A, the flick of the bow. 
 
 -B, the groove of the bow-firing. 
 
 C, the place where the hurdle or wicker-frame changes 
 from a plane into a curve. 
 
 D, the guard fixed upon the bow-flick, where the 
 workman Axes his hand, 
 
 E, the 
 
Plate LXXX 
 
 lac mp* Woollen-Ma liufae ti ire. 
 
W O R 
 
 E, the cord, by which the bow-flick is fufpcnded 
 from the ceiling. 
 
 F, the notch-flick, by which the boW-flring is drawn. 
 
 G, the fluff, or materials expofed to the adlion of 
 the bow-firing. 
 
 H K, H K, the back of the hurdle. 
 
 L L, L L, the truffles, which fupport the hurdle. 
 
 W, the hurdle, or wicker-frame, on which the fluff 
 is bowed, and through the interfaces of which the dufl 
 and refufe of the materials fall. 
 
 Fig. 6. A perfpcftivc view of the furnace, where the 
 goods are rolled and prepared for dying. 
 
 A, the mouth of the ilove. 
 
 H, the fhaft of the chimney. 
 
 i, 2, A regifler or vent-hole in the chimney. 
 
 KK, K K, the benches of the furnace, on which 
 the goods are rolled ; with a workman rolling a piece of 
 goods. 
 
 L, a little bench on which the fluff is laid. 
 
 M, a tub for holding the materials. 
 
 N, N, N, N, buttons of irtfn or wood to flop the 
 rollers. 
 
 O, a fkimmer. 
 
 P, a broom. 
 
 Fig. i. Rcprefents the vibrations of the bow-firing. 
 
 A B, the bow-flick. 
 
 AD, D B, A C, C B, the bow-firing drawn in op- 
 pofite directions. 
 
 m b , the fmaller vibrations. 
 
 Fig. 2. A plan of half the furnace: 
 
 C, the doOr of the furnace-hole. 
 
 I, 1, the furnace of copper. 
 
 K, K, the bench of the furnace. 
 
 Fig. 3. A longitudinal feflion of the furnace. 
 
 A, the fine of the chimney. 
 
 B, a regifler. 
 
 C, the door of the furnace. 
 
 E, the under part of the furnace. 
 
 F, F, F, bars that fupport the bottom of the furnace. 
 
 H, the fhaft of the chimney. 
 
 I, I, the furnace. 
 
 K, K, the bench of the furnace. 
 
 N, N, the buttons, either of iron or wood, that flop 
 the roller. 
 
 WORD, in language, an articulate found, defigned 
 to reprefent fome idea. 
 
 The port-royalills define words to be diflinft articu¬ 
 late founds, agreed on by mankind to convey their 
 thoughts and fentiments by. 
 
 Word, in writing, is defined to be an affemblage of 
 fcveral letters forming one or more fyllables, and ex¬ 
 prefling the name, quality, or manner of a thing. 
 
 Etymology and fyntax being the two parts of gram¬ 
 mar converfant about words, the firfl of thefe explains 
 the nature and propriety of words, and the other treats 
 of the right compofition of words in difeourfe. 
 
 The mofl remarkable thing in the pronouncing of 
 words, is the accent, or the elevation of the voice, on 
 fome particular fyllable of the word, which elevation is 
 neceflarily followed by a depreflion of the voice. 
 
 Grammarians generally divide words into eight claffes, 
 Called parts of fpeech. 
 
 Words are again divided into primitives and deri¬ 
 vatives, Ample and compound, fynonimous and equi¬ 
 vocal. 
 
 With regard to their fyllables, words arc further di¬ 
 vided into rnonofyllables and pollofyllables. 
 
 The grammatical figures of words which occafion 
 changes in the form, &c. thereof, are proflhefis, aphas- 
 refis, diaerefis, metathelis, and antithefis. 
 
 The ufe of words, we have obferved, is to ferve as 
 fenfible figns of our ideas ; and the ideas they fland in 
 the mind of the perfon that fpeaks, are their proper fig- 
 nifications. 
 
 Simple and primitive words have no natural connec¬ 
 tion with the things they fignify, whence there is no 
 rationale to be given of them ; it is by mere arbitrary 
 inftitution and agreement of men, that they come to 
 fignify any thing. Certain words have no natural pro¬ 
 priety or aptitude to exprefs certain thoughts more than 
 others; were that the cafe, there could have been but 
 one language. But in derivative and compound words, 
 the cafe is fomewhat different. In the forming of thefe, 
 
 W O R 
 
 we fee regard is had to agreement, relation, and ana¬ 
 logy, thus moil words that have the fame ending, have 
 one common and general way of denoting or fignifying 
 things ; and thofe compounded with the fame prepofi- 
 tions have a fimilar manner of exprefling and fignifying 
 fimilar ideas, in all the learned languages where they 
 occur. 
 
 For the perfe&ion of language, it is not enough, Mr. 
 Locke obferves, that founds can be made figns of ideas, 
 unlefs thefe can be made ufe of fo as to "comprehend 
 fcveral particular things ; for the multiplication of words 
 would have perplexed their ufe, had every particular thing 
 needed a diftinfl name to be fignified by. To remedy 
 this inconvenience, language had a further improvement 
 in the ufe of general terms, whereby one word was made 
 to mark a multitude of particular cxiflences ; which ad¬ 
 vantageous ufe of founds was obtained by the difference 
 of the ideas they were made figns of, thofe names be¬ 
 coming general which aie made to fland for general ideas, 
 and thofe remaining particular, where the ideas they are 
 ufed for arc particular. 
 
 It is obfervable, that the words which fland for a&i- 
 ons and notions, quite removed from fenfe, are bor¬ 
 rowed from fenfible ideas ; as to imagine, apprehend, 
 comprehend, underfland, adhere, conceive, inflil, dif- 
 gufl, diflurbance, tranquility, he. which are all taken 
 from the operations of things fenfible, and applied to 
 modes of thinking. Spirit, in its original fignification, 
 is no more than breath ; angel, a meffenger. By which 
 we may guefs what kind of notions they were, and 
 whence derived, which filled the minds of the firfl begin¬ 
 ners of languages; and how itatu.e, even in the naming 
 of things unawares, fuggefled to men the originals of 
 all their knowledge : whilll to give names that might 
 make known to others any operations they felt in them- 
 felves, or any other ideas that came not under the fenfes, 
 they were forced to borrow words from the ordinary and 
 known ideas of fenfation. 
 
 The ends of language, in our difeourfe with others 
 are chiefly three; firfl, to make our thoughts or ideas 
 known one to another. This we fail in, 1. When we 
 ufe names without clear and diftin£l ideas in our mind. 
 
 2. When we apply received names to ideas, to which the 
 common ufe of that language doth not apply them. 
 
 3. When we apply them unfleadily, making them {land 
 now for one, and anon for another idea. Secondly, to 
 make known our thoughts with* as much eafe and quick- 
 nefs as poflible. This men fail in when they have com¬ 
 plex ideas, without having difiimfl names for them 
 which may happen either through the defeft of a lan¬ 
 guage which has none, 01 the fault of the man who has 
 not yet learned them. Thirdly, to convey the know¬ 
 ledge of things. This cannot be done but when our 
 ideas agree to the reality of things. He that has names 
 without ideas, wants meaning in his words, and fpeaks 
 only empty founds. He that has complex ideas without 
 names for them, wants difpatch in his expreffion. He 
 that ufes his words loofely, and unfleadily, will either 
 not be minded, or not underflood. He that applies 
 names to ideas, different from the common ufe, wants 
 propriety in his language, and fpeaks gibberifh ; and he 
 that has ideas of fubilances difagreeing with the real ex- 
 iilence of things, fo far, wants the materials of true 
 knowledge. 
 
 Word, ox Watch Word, in an army orgarrifon, is 
 fome peculiar word or fentence, by which the fold’iers 
 know and diftinguifh one another in the night, &c. and 
 by which fpies and defigning perfons are difeovered. It 
 is ufed alio to prevent furprizes. The word is given out 
 in an army every night to the lieutenant, or major gene¬ 
 ral of the day, who gives it to tile majors of the brigades 
 and they to the adjutants; who give it firfl to the field 
 officers, afterwards to a ferjeant of each company, who 
 carry to the fubalterns. In garrifons it is given, after 
 the gate is fhut, to the town major, who gives it to the 
 adjutants, and they to the ferjeants. 
 
 WORK-HOUSE, a place where indigent, vagrant, 
 and idle people are fet to work, and maintained with 
 clothing, diet, &c. 
 
 Such is Bridewell, and feveral other places about 
 the city, or fuburbs ; particularly that in Bilhopffiate- 
 flreet, for employing the poor children of the city and 
 liberties, who have no fettlement; and that for the pa- 
 
 rifli 
 
W O R 
 
 vifh of St. Margaret’s, Wcftminfter, called the grey-coat- 
 hofpital. 
 
 At Amfterdam they have a famous work-houfc, or 
 houfe of correction, called the Rafphuyfe, which, by a 
 privilege granted in 1602, has alone the right of lhaving, 
 and cutting the dyers woods, as brazil, fantal, campeche, 
 fa (Tafias, he. 
 
 Each perfon, tolerably flrong, kept in the houfe, is 
 obliged to furnifh 250 pounds of ralped wood per day ; 
 and the weaker, a certain quantity of chips. 
 
 WORKS, Opera , in fortification, the feveral lines, 
 trenches, ditches, he. made round a place or army, or 
 the like, to fortify and defend it. 
 
 WORLD, Mundus, the alfemblage of parts which 
 compofe the uniyerfe. See Universe. 
 
 The duration of the world, is a thing which has been 
 greatly difputed. Plato, after Ocellus Lucanus, held it 
 to be eternal; and to have flowed from God, as rays 
 flow from the fun. Ariflotle was much of the fame 
 mind : he aflerts, that the world was not generated, fo 
 as to begin to be a world, which before was none : and, 
 in effedt, his whole eighth book of Phyf and firlt book 
 de Ccelo, is (pent in proving the eternity of the world. 
 
 He lays down a pre-exifting and eternal matter, as a 
 principle ; and thence argues the world eternal. His ar¬ 
 gument amounts to this, that it is impoflible an eternal 
 agent, having an eternal paflive fubjcdt, (hould continue 
 long without adtion. 
 
 His opinion was generally followed ; as feeming to be 
 the fitteft to end the dilpute among fo many fedts about 
 the firft caufe. 
 
 Epicurus, however, though he makes matter eternal, 
 yet Thews the world to be but a new thing, formed out 
 of a fortuitous concourfe of atoms. Sec Lucretius, Lib. V. 
 
 Some of the modern philofophers refute the imaginary 
 eternity of the world, by this argument: that, if it be 
 ab eterno, there mull have been a generation of indivi¬ 
 duals, in a continual fucceflion from all eternity ; fince 
 no caufe can be affigned why they lhould not be gene¬ 
 rated, viz. one from another. Therefore, to confider 
 the origin of things, and the feries ofcaufes, we muft go 
 back in infinitum, i. e. there muft have been an infinite 
 number of men, and other individuals already genera¬ 
 ted ; which fubverts the very notion of number. And 
 if the caufe which now generates have been produced by 
 an infinite feries of caufes; how fliall an infinite feries 
 be finite, to give room for new generations ? 
 
 Dr. Halley fuggefts a new method of finding the age of 
 the world, from the degree of faltnefs of the ocean. 
 
 It is another popular topick of controverfy, whether 
 the world be finite, or infinite ? 
 
 It is likewife difputed, whether the plurality of worlds 
 be poflible ? 
 
 Some hold the affirmative, from an opinion of the in¬ 
 finite power of the Deity ; it being a letting bounds to 
 omnipotency, to fay, that he created fo many bodies at 
 firft, and that he could not create more. 
 
 The Cartefians maintain the negative, upon thefe prin¬ 
 ciples : that it is a contradiction to lay, there are feveral 
 worlds exifting at the fame time, fince this implies fe¬ 
 veral univerfes of created beings, the world being the to 
 Trav. That if there were feveral worlds, they muft either 
 be at a diftance from one another, or contiguous; but 
 neither can be faid: for were they contiguous, they 
 would only conftitute one; and were they diftant, there 
 muft be fomething between. But what can be between r 
 If it be extended, it is corporeal; and inftead of fepa- 
 rating the feveral worlds, will conned them into one. 
 
 The world is fometimes divided into upper and lower. 
 
 Lower, or J'ublunary Wo rld, is the globe of our earth. 
 
 Upper World, includes the heavens, and heavenly 
 bodies. 
 
 WORMS, in the Linntean fyfteiji of nature, a clafs 
 of infedls which have the mufcles of their body affixed 
 to a folid balls. The feveral fpecies of worms are very 
 numerous ; as the cliaetia, or the hair worm, called alio 
 the guinea worm; the afearis, the lumbricus or the 
 earth worm; the fea-worm ; the taenia, or tape worm ; 
 the ficyania, or gourd worm; the iulus, or gally- 
 vvorm, &c. 
 
 Worms, in hufbandry, are very prejudicial to corn¬ 
 fields, eating up the roots of young corn, and deftroying 
 great quantities of the crop. Sea-ialt is the belt of all 
 
 t 
 
 W O R 
 
 things for deftroying them. Sea-water is proper to 
 iprinkle on the land, where it can be had ; where the 
 •alt fprings are, their water is fufficient; and where 
 neither are at hand, a little common or bay-falt does as 
 well. Soot will deftroy them in fome lands, but is not 
 to be depended upon, for it does not always fucceed. 
 Some farmers ftrew on their lands a mixture of chalk 
 and lime ; and others truft wholly to their winter-fallow¬ 
 ing to do it, if this is done in a wet feafon, when they 
 come up to the lurface ol the ground, and fome nails 
 with lharp heads be driven into the bottom of the plough, 
 the defired effedt will be produced. If they are trouble- 
 fome in gardens, the refufe brine of falted meat will 
 ferve the purpole ; or fome walnut leaves fteeped in a 
 ciftern of water for a fortnight or three weeks, will give 
 it luch a bitternefs that it will be a certain poifon to them. 
 A decodlion of wood alhes, fprinkled on the ground, 
 will arifwer the fame purpofe ; and any particular plant 
 may be fecured both from worms and l'nails, by firew- 
 ing a mixture of lime and allies about its roots. It is a 
 general caution among the farmers to fow their corn as 
 fhallow as they can, where the field is very lubjedt to 
 worms. 
 
 Worms, Lumbrid , or Vermes, in medicine, a difeafe 
 arifing from fome of tliofe reptiles being generated, and 
 growing in the body: whence, frequently, dire fymp- 
 toms do proceed. 
 
 The ordinary place of the worms, is the inteftines : 
 though there is fcarce any part of the body but is fome¬ 
 times infedled with them : for befides the vermes intefti- 
 nales, there are dentales, gingivales, pulmonarii, car- 
 diaci, fanguinarii, cutaneous, umbilical, hepatick, fali- 
 val, he. 
 
 They are all ufually fuppofed to be ingendered from 
 the eggs of iome infedt, depofited in fomething that is 
 taken into the body by way of food ; or fome other way : 
 an hypothefis, however, which will hardly account for 
 certain fpecies of thefe inledts, not to be found but in 
 the bodies of animals. A folutionof this difficulty will, 
 perhaps, be hard to find, without having recourfe to the 
 firft ftamina of animals, and the principles of generation. 
 
 There are three fpecies of worms, moft frequent in the 
 human body : the terctes, or round and thick, moftly 
 found in the duodendum; the latus, or flat, called alfo 
 tcenia; and the round and fmall, found in the redtum, 
 called afearides. Sometimes, indeed, there are anoma¬ 
 lous worms expelled; as horned, hairy, four-footed, two- 
 headed, he. worms. 
 
 The fymptoms of this difeafe arc, vomiting, head- 
 ach, heart-burn, fighing, fwooning, feeble pulle, heavy 
 fleep, deliria, fquinancy, pleurify, canine hunger, and 
 innumerable others ; occafioned by the animals fucking, 
 moving, vellicating, gnawing, confuming the chyle, ir¬ 
 ritating the nerves, wounding the folids, he. 
 
 As to the latus, befide the other common fymptoms, 
 thole affedted with this, have one peculiar to them; 
 which is, that with their ftools they difeharge feveral 
 little bodies, like gourd-feeds. 
 
 Dr. Tyfon, in the PhilofophicalTranfadtions, N°i46. 
 gives a curious account of the flat worm, or lumbricus 
 latus; called by Hippocrates, t aivia, and in Englifh, or¬ 
 dinarily, the tape-worm, or joint-worm. This is al¬ 
 ways Angle: it lies varioufly convoluted ; being fome¬ 
 times as long as all the guts ; and fometimes, vaftly ex¬ 
 ceeds that length. 
 
 Olaus Borrichius affures us, a patient of his, in a 
 year’s time, voided 800 foot of this worm, though he- 
 had not yet met with the head : in voiding, the patient 
 always obferved it to break off. 
 
 Dr. Tyfon parallels this cafe with that of a patient of 
 bis, who voided vaft quantities of this worm, for feveral 
 years together; but in various pieces : fome two, three, 
 four, fix, or more yards long: but all put together, he 
 fays, would much exceed the length of that of Borrichius. 
 
 The joints in this worm are very numerous ; in one 
 of 24 feet long, Dr. Tyfon numbered 507 joints. Above 
 the middle of the edges of each joint, he oblerved a pro^- 
 tuberant orifice. Thole orifices he takes for fo many 
 mouths; the beft microfcopes difeovering no mouth in 
 what ufually palTes for the head. 
 
 The worm is frequent enough in moft kinds of ani¬ 
 mals; as dogs, oxen, crabs, herrings, pikes, he. Some 
 authors alfertthat it is not one, but many worms linked 
 
 together, 
 
W O R 
 
 together, and included in a fpolium of the inteftines; and 
 that this fpolium is not animated, but receives its fenfe 
 and motion from a fort of vermiculi cucurbitini inclofed 
 in it. This, Gabucinus, de Lumb. Com. fays, he has 
 plainly difeovered: but Dr. Tvfon abundantly evinces 
 the contrary. 
 
 In Periia, he. there arc very long {lender worms, fix 
 or feven yards long, bred in the legs, and other parts of 
 men’s bodies: when arrived at a certain pitch, they put 
 out their heads, necks, he. and withdraw them (if dif- 
 pleafed or hurt) again, caufing intolerable pains, fevers, he. 
 
 Ariftotle obferves, that all deer have worms under 
 their tongues. Sheeps nofes often abound with them. 
 
 In the Philofoph. Tranfatt. N° 113, wc have accounts 
 of divers remarkable operations whereby worms were 
 taken out of divers unlufpe&ed parts of the body ; the 
 operators being chiefly women. Mrs. Mary Haftings is 
 there recorded, as famous for the difeovering of worms 
 hid in the face, gums, tongue, he. which Ihe managed 
 with fuch addrefs, that Ihe took them out of any part 
 affedled, with a goofe-quill. Mr. Dent relates, that he 
 himfelf was cured of certain odd tumours on his tongue, 
 bv one of thofe worm-do£trefTes, Mrs. French ; who, 
 piercing the parts affe&ed with a lancet, drew out five 01 
 fix worms at a time. In lei's than eight days, he allures 
 us, Ihe took out of his tongue above a hundred worms, 
 and thirty out of his gums. 
 
 Sir Theodore Mayerne allures us, in the Philofoph. 
 Tran fa£ 1 . N° 211, that the famous fugar, or remedy given 
 by Pontaeus, (a celebrated chymicai empirick) for the 
 worms in children, is fifteen grains of mercurius dulcis, 
 with five grains of fcammony, or two or three times as 
 much fugar, made up in lozenges. He adds, that this 
 clofe, which in Fiance purges grown pei lons, is inef¬ 
 fectual in England, to perfons of above fifteen years old, 
 and ought to be augmented. 
 
 Worm, in gunnery, a ferew of iron to be fixed on 
 the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock, 
 carabine, or piflol, being the fame with the wadhook, 
 only one is more proper for fmall arms, and the other 
 for cannon. 
 
 Worm, in chymiftry, denotes a long, winding pew¬ 
 ter-pipe, which diftillers and apothecaries place in a tub 
 of water, to cool and condenle the vapours in the diftilla- 
 tion of fpirits. 
 
 This the chymifts alfo call a ferpentine. Formerly, 
 this worm, or fomething like it, was placed above the 
 head of the ftill, with a refrigeratory at the upper end of it, 
 which is ufeful enough in the diftilling of i'pirit of wine. 
 
 Worm, a cable, or hawler, in the lea-language, is 
 to {Lengthen it by winding a fmall line all along between 
 the {Lands. 
 
 To Worm a Dog, is to take out a kind of worm from 
 under his tongue; which, if let alone, would make him 
 mad. 
 
 Worm-Seed, Semen cont r a, fernen fanfium, or femen 
 fantonicum, is a hot, bitter, drying kind of feed, proper 
 to deftroy worms generated in a human body, particu¬ 
 larly in children. 
 
 This feed is lmall, of a brownifh colour, an oblong 
 figure, a bitter talle, and a {Long lmell. It mull be 
 cholen new, greenifh, ofafharp, bitter, aromatick tafle, 
 not a little dil'agreeable. 
 
 The place where it is produced, is Perfia, about the 
 frontiers of Mufcovy. It is brought to us from Aleppo, 
 he. Naturaliils are not agreed about the plant that pro¬ 
 duces it. J. Bauhine has a large diflertation on the fub- 
 je£t. Some will have it the fpecies of abfynthium, or 
 worrmvood, called fantonicum, or marinum, ablynthium; 
 others will have it the tanacetum, others the abrotanum. 
 
 M. Tournefort gives us the following account of this 
 notable drug, in the fecond volume of his travels. The 
 lementine, or worm-powder, is not gathered like our 
 feeds. The plant grows in the meadows, and mull be 
 let ripen; and the mifehiefis, that as it grows near to 
 maturity, the wind lcatters a good part of it among the 
 grafs, where it is loft ; and this it is makes it lo dear. 
 
 As they dare not touch it with the hand, for fear of 
 making it fpoil the fooner; when they vyould gather 
 what is left in the ear, they have recourfe to this ex¬ 
 pedient. They take two hand-bafkets, and, walking 
 along the meadows, fweep the balkcts, the one from 
 right to left, the other from left to right, as it they 
 Vox.. II. No. 79. 
 
 W O U 
 
 were mowing ; by this"means the feed is fhook out into 
 the balkets. 
 
 WORMWOOD, Abjinthium, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, whofe flower is compofed of many tubulofe 
 hermaphrodite florets, which form the difek, and leveral 
 female florets, which are naked and compofe the rays , 
 they are contained in a roundifh imbricated cup, and are 
 fucceeded by naked feeds, affixed to a hairy receptacle. 
 
 The common wormwood is perennial, and has a lig¬ 
 neous and fibrous root, with ftalks of an indeterminate 
 height, branched out into many fmall fl.oots, with 
 large, hoary, mingled, and ferrated leaves, of a ftrong 
 pungent fmell, and bitter tafte. In the beginning of 
 July, it produces feveral ligneous ft iated blanches, hav¬ 
 ing at their tops each a fpike of fmall flowers, of a pale 
 yellow, growing many together. This fort grows ufually 
 bv the lides. of highways and foot-paths, in many parts 
 of England ; but the Roman wormwood, which has 
 leaves much fmaller than the other, is propagated in 
 gardens, and may eafily be raifed by planting the flips in 
 the fpring or autumn. 
 
 Of wormwood, there are only four forts ufed in me¬ 
 dicine, viz. the Roman wormwood, the fmall fort or 
 pontick, the lea wormwood, and the abfinthium alpi- 
 num ; belides thefe, botanifts make twenty-eight other 
 kinds, which are all included by Linnaeus among the 
 arte mi lias. 
 
 Wormwood has always been looked upon as a valuable 
 medicine, to promote the heat and circulation of the 
 blood, and to recover the ofcillation of the fibres, when 
 fluggilh; by which means, the grofs humours are attenu¬ 
 ated, and brought back into the common road of circula¬ 
 tion : it reftorcs the debilitated fun&ions of the vifeera, 
 and is an excellent ftomachick : it is good in the dropfy, 
 green ficknefs, cachexies, and agues, which laft it has 
 often been known to cure. It all'o, by its great bitter- 
 nefs, is of lome fervice againft worms, by refolving the 
 mucilaginous humours in which their eggs are contained: 
 however, in all hot difeafes and inflammatory difpofi- 
 tions it is not fafe, 
 
 WORSHIP of God, Cultus Dei, amounts to the fame 
 with what we otherwife call religion. 
 
 This worfhip confills in paying a due refpeft, vene¬ 
 ration, and homage to the Deity, under different modes, 
 according to the leveral parts of the world ; as prayers, 
 facrifices, thankfgivings, he. 
 
 But true worlhip is that internal religion of the heart, 
 without which, all outwa:d forms of worfhip are but of 
 hr ; account: Buliiy exereje profiteth little ; but tme in¬ 
 ternal godlinefs is profitable unto all things, having tie pro- 
 mi [e of the life that now is , and of that which is to come. 
 1 Tim. iv. 8. 
 
 The Quietifts, and fome other mvftick divines, fet 
 slide not only all ufc of external worfhip, but the con- 
 fidcration of rewards and punilhfnents. 
 
 Yet, even the heathens had a notion, that God did 
 not require us to ferve him for nought: Dii quamobren 
 colendi funt, lavs Cicero, non inteliigo, nullo nec ac- 
 cepto ab ill is nec fperato bono. 
 
 The fchool-divines divide worfhip into divers kinds, 
 viz. latria, that rendered to God ; and idolatria, that 
 rendered to idols, or images. To which theRomanifts 
 add, dulia, that rendered to faints; and liyperdulia, that 
 to the virgin. 
 
 WORSTED, orWooLSTED, in matters of com¬ 
 merce and manufa£lure, is a kind of woollen thread. 
 
 Worfted is, properly, a thread fpun ot wool that has 
 been combed, and which, in the fpinning, is twilled 
 harder than ordinary. 
 
 It is chiefly ufed either to be knit, or wove into ftock- 
 ings, caps, gloves, or the like. 
 
 The name worfted, is fuppofed to be borrowed from 
 a town thus called, in Norfolk, noted for fine fpin¬ 
 ning. They who write it woolfted, do it on a luppofi- 
 tion of the word’s being formed from wool, the matter 
 of this thread. 
 
 WOULDING, a fea term for the winding of ropes 
 round a mall or yard of a fhip, that has been {Lengthened 
 by a piece of timber nailed to it. 
 
 WOUND, Vulnus, in medicine and chirurgery, a 
 recent feparation, made in the loft or flcfhy parts of the 
 body, frojn an external caufe ; and particularly the 
 adlion of fome hard and lharp inftrument. 
 
 6 E Qr, 
 
w o u 
 
 Or, it is a folution or the continuity of a fiefhy part, 
 hi ad e by l'ome penetrating body ; while it yet remains 
 frefli, bloody, and without putrefaflion : by which cir 
 tumftances a wound is diftinguilhed from an ulcer. 
 
 A like leparation happening in a bony part, is called a 
 fracture. 
 
 All wounds proceed either from pUnfture, incifion, or 
 contufion, according to the nature and make of the in- 
 ftrument they were caufed by. 
 
 Wounds are ufuaJly divided, with rcfpe£t to their 
 caufe, circumftances, cure, Ac. into fimple and com¬ 
 pound. Simple wounds are thole made by pun&urc, 
 incilion, or contufion feparately ; thofeof the outerfkin, 
 without any confiderable lofs of i'ubftance, or hurting; 
 any remarkable veflcl; and thole not complicated with 
 any dangerous fymptoms. 
 
 Compound wounds, are thofe made both by puncture 
 and incilion. at the fame time, to which is fometimes alio 
 added contufion ; thofe attended with great lofs of flelh, 
 or the hurt of fome confiderable veflel; and, thofe made 
 by envenomed inftruments, or attended with violent 
 fymptoms. 
 
 1 he hiflory of a wound is thus delivered by Boer- 
 haave. Immediately upon the folution, the wounded 
 parts recede further and further from each other. The 
 blood gullies out, at fir ft, with fome violence ; but flops 
 ot itlclf: then a bloody fcab is formed in the cavity of 
 the wound, and a thin ruddy humour oozes out; the 
 lips of the wound begin to redden, ach, fvvell, and turn 
 back; and (in great wounds) a fever and thirllinefs 
 fiicceed. On the third or fourth day, there is found 
 a white, vifcid pus; upon which, the hear, rednefs, 
 tumour, Ac. abate, and the cavity gradually fills up from 
 the bottom upwards, and from the circumference to tile 
 centre with growing flelh. Laftly, the wound dries, 
 and cLatrifcs. 
 
 But note, thefe fymptoms vary according to the na¬ 
 ture and caufe of the wound. Thus, if it be by incilion, 
 and a large blood-veflcl be cut, the haemorrhage is more 
 violent ; elpecially if it be an artery ; in which cafe florid 
 blood flies out impetuoufly, and by Harts : if only a vein 
 be cut, the flux is more moderate and equable, and the 
 blood of a dai ker colour. If the wound be attended with 
 contufion, the haemorrhage is fmall. 
 
 In wounds, where any large artery is quite cut in two, 
 the flux ufually proves mortal. A iefs artery, cut tranf- 
 verfely, flies back againft the folid parts, and will have its 
 mouth flopped : if an artery be not quite cut off, there 
 a riles a perpetual flux ; or, if that be Hopped, an ancu- 
 ryfma. A nerve being cut off, flies back, produces a 
 pain, and obftruftion about the wound ; and below it, a 
 numbiusls, and wafting immobility ; the cafe is much the 
 fame in wounded tendons, and membranes. Wounds 
 of the temporal mufcle are rarely cured; but generally 
 bring on horrible convulfions. 
 
 The following wounds are commonly reputed mortal; 
 viz. thofe of the cerebellum, and of the cerebrum if thev 
 be deep enough to hurt the medulla oblongata ; deep 
 wounds in the fpinal marrow, efpecially the upper part 
 thereof; thofe of die heart, lungs, liver, ipleen, kidneys, 
 pancreas, melentery, ftomach, inteftines, Ac. is thofeof 
 the cava, aorta, carotides, pulmonary, and other large 
 veins and arteries ; thofe of the bronchia, thorax, dia¬ 
 phragm ; large wounds of the oefophagus, trachea, and 
 the bladder; and all invenomed wounds. 
 
 In young children, and aged perfons, wounds fre¬ 
 quently prove mortal, which feemed but flight, Thofe 
 wounds generally prove troublefomc which happen in an 
 ill Hate of body, and elpecially a low, or fpare diet. All 
 wounds are reputed more dangerous and difficult of cure 
 in winter, than fummer; in autumn, than in fpring. 
 
 The cure of wounds confifts in uniting the divided 
 parts; which is the workot nature alone, and which the 
 chirurgeon can only contribute to by removing external 
 impediments, aqd applying medicines familiar to the 
 part, called vulneraries, and balfamicks. 
 
 1 he lull Hep, then, to he taken in a Ample wound, is 
 to clean'; it, and extract any heterogeneous body that 
 may chance to be lodged therein. Next, the cavity to 
 be gently wiped with dolfils dipt in warm red wine. The 
 lips now to be brought together by bandages or futures ; 
 
 :< id the wound to be covered with a pledget dipt in bal- 
 iam of Peru, or oil of Jweet almonds. The pain thus 
 
 W R E 
 
 eafed, and the fymptoms removed, the wound is to bar 
 , luppurated, deterged, incarnated, and cicatrized after the 
 manner of tumours and ulcers. 
 
 if the wound be dangerous, the fymptoms violent, 
 and the body cacochymick, more powerful means are had 
 recourfe to ; as, firft, phlebotomy, then gentle cathar- 
 ticks, or clyfters; then vulnerary drinks, apozems, and 
 ptifans ; with cardiacks and parcgoricks interpofed. In 
 internal wounds, vulneraries and alkalies do well, parti¬ 
 cularly album grrecum, river lobfters, mercurials, Ac. 
 
 Freffi wounds are cured, ordinarily, in three or four 
 days, without any other means, than applying a few 
 drops of baifam of Peru. Sometimes, however, di^ef- 
 tives are required. 
 
 Gun-fhot wounds are ufually the worft of all, by rca- 
 fon of the violent contufion and leparation of the parts ; 
 which prevent their coming to digeftion for the fpace of 
 three or four days. 
 
 In the cure of large wounds, bandages and futures are 
 required, to fit and dilpolc them for healing. 
 
 Wounds in Horfes. Themoft terrible wounds thefe 
 creatures are fubjeft to, are thofe got in the field of 
 battle. The farriers that attend camps have a coarfe way 
 of curing thefe ; but it is a very expeditious and efFe£lual 
 one. 
 
 If the bullet be within reach, they take it out with a 
 pair of forceps ; but if it lie too deep to be come at, 
 they leave it behind, and drels up the wound in the lame 
 manner as if it were not there. 1 hey firft drop in fome 
 varnilh from the end of a feather, and when the bottom 
 is thus wetted \vi:h it, they dip a pledget of tow in the 
 fame varnilh, which they put into the wound, and then 
 cover the whole with the following charge ; take a quar¬ 
 ter of a pound ot powder of bole armoniack, half a pound 
 of linfeed oil, and three eggs, flieils and all ; add to thefe, 
 four ounces of beau-flour, a quart of vinegar, and live 
 ounces ol turpentine ; this is ali to be mixed over the 
 fire, and the wound covered with it. 
 
 1 his application is to be continued four or five days ; 
 then the tent put into the wound is to be dipped in a 
 mixture ol turpentine and hogs-lard ; by this means a 
 laudable matter will be difoharged, inftead of the thin 
 lharp water that was at firft. Then the cure is to be 
 completed by drefling it with an ointment made of tur¬ 
 pentine, fit ft well wallied, and then diflolved in yolks of 
 eggs, and a little faffron added to it. 
 
 1 his is the practice in deep wounds that do not go 
 through the part; but in cafes where the bullet has gone 
 quire through, they take a few weavers linen thrumbs, 
 made very knotty; thefe they make up into a kind of 
 link, and dipping it in varnilh, they draw it through the 
 wound, leaving the ends hanging out at each fide ; by 
 means of thefe they move the link or lkain three or four 
 times a day, always wetting the new pait that is to be 
 drawn into the wound with frelh varnilh. 
 
 They put on a charge of bole armoniack, Ac. as before 
 deferibed, on each fide of the wounded part, and con¬ 
 tinue this as long as the wound dilcharges thin watery 
 matter, or the fides continue fwelled. After this, they 
 drefs it with the ointment of turpentine, yolks of eggs, 
 and faffron, till it is perfectly cured. 
 
 WREAT H, in heraldry, a roll of fine linen, or filk, 
 (like that of a Turkilh turbant) confifling of the colours 
 born in the cfcutcheon ; placed, in an atchievement, be¬ 
 tween the helmet and the creft, and immediately lupport- 
 ing the creft. 
 
 WRECK, Wrack, or Aa-Wreck, in natural 
 hiflory, a kind of herb growing in the fea, upon rocks 
 and which the waves tearing off, call upon ffiore. * 
 
 In fome places it is ufed to manure the ground. In 
 Normandy, and other parts, they burn it; and of the 
 allies make a kind of foda, which they ufe in the making 
 of common green glafs, to promote the fufion or vitrifi^ 
 cation of the other materials. 
 
 Wreck, or Ship- Wreck, in law, is when a fliip 
 penffies on the fea, and no perfon efcapes alive out of it. 
 in this cafe, if the fliip fo perilhed, or any part thereof, 
 or the goods of the fliip come to the land of any lord’ 
 and are left there, the lord fliall have the fame, as beina 
 a wreck of the lea , but if any Angle perfon, or even a 
 dog, or other living creature, efcape alive out of the 
 ffiip, the party to whom the goods belong, may come 
 within a year and a day, and proving the goods to be his, 
 
 he 
 
W R I 
 
 ■'he (hall have them again. And it is held, that they are 
 no wrecks fo long as they remain at fea, within the 
 jurifdiftion of the admiralty. 
 
 It is enafted by 12 Ann. c. 18. that if a wreck happen 
 by any fault or negligence of mailer or mariners, the 
 mailer muft make good the lofs; but if the fame was 
 occalioned by tcmpcft, enemies, dec. he fliall be excufed : 
 making holes in fhips, or doing any thing wilfully 
 tending to the lofs thereof, is by that ilatute declared 
 felony. 
 
 Wreck, in metallurgy, a veiTel in which the third 
 walking is given to the ores of metals. 
 
 WRESTLING, a kind of combat, or engagement 
 between two perfons, unarmed, body to body, to prove 
 their ilrength and dexterity ; and try which can throw 
 his opponent to the ground. 
 
 Wreilling, pala?ftra, is an exercife of very great anti¬ 
 quity and fame. It was in ufc in the heroick age, wit- 
 nels Hercules, who wreftled with Antaeus. 
 
 It continued a long time in the highefl repute, and 
 had very confiderable rewards and honours afligned it at 
 the Olympick games. It was the cuflom tor the athletse 
 to anoint their bodies with oil, to give the lei's hold to 
 their antagoniil. 
 
 Ablancourt obferves, that Lvcurgus ordained the Spar¬ 
 tan maids to wreftle in publick, quite naked, to break 
 them of their too much delicacy and nicenels ; to make 
 them appear more robull, and to familiarize the people, 
 &c. to fuch nudities. 
 
 Wrist, Carpus , in anatomy, a part of the hand, 
 confifting of eight finall, unequal, and irregu.ar bones, 
 all which taken together, repreient a fort of gioito, of an 
 irregular quadrangular figure, and conncfted principally 
 with the balls of the radius. 
 
 Wrist, in the menage. The bridle-wrill is that 
 of the cavalier’s left hand. A horfeman’s wrill and his 
 elbow fhouid be equally railed, and the \\iill lhould be 
 two or three fingers above the pummel of the laddie. 
 
 WRIT, Breve, in law, a precept of the king in wri¬ 
 ting, under feal, whereby any thing is commanded to be 
 done, touching a fuit, action, or procefs for juftice. As, 
 the fummoning a defendant, taking a dillrcl's, redrefling 
 difleifin, or the like. 
 
 Writs arc varioufiy divided, and in various refpefts. 
 Some, with regard to their order, or manner of grant¬ 
 ing, are terminated original, and others judicial. 
 
 Urig'n al Writs, are thofe fent out of the high court 
 of chancery, to fummon the defendant in a perfonal, or 
 tenant in a real aft ion ; either before the l'uit begins, or 
 to begin the l'uit thereby. 
 
 'Judicial Writs are thofe fent by order of the court 
 where the caufe depends, upon emergent occafions, after 
 the fuit begins. 
 
 Judicial Writs are diftinguifhed from original, in that 
 their telle bears the name of the chief juftice of that court 
 whence they come ; whereas the original arc, telle me- 
 ipfo, in the name, or relating to the king. 
 
 Writs are alio diltinguilhed, according to the nature of 
 the aftion, into real and perfonal. Real, are either 
 touching the pollelfion, called writs of entry; or the pro¬ 
 perty, called writs of right. 
 
 Perfonal Writs, are thole relating to goods, chattels, or 
 perfonal injuries. 
 
 To which may be added, mixt writs, for the recovery 
 both of the thing and damages. 
 
 Some writs, again, are at the fuit of the party; fome, 
 of office ; fome, ordinary; fome, of privilege. A writ 
 of privilege, is that which a priviledged perlon brings to 
 the court for his exemption, by reafon of fome privilege 
 which he enjoys. 
 
 Writ of Affiflance, is a warrant that iftues out of the 
 Exchequer, to authorize perfons to take a conftable, or 
 other publick officer, to feize goods or merchandizes pro- 
 
 W Y T 
 
 hibited and uncuftomed, Ac. by virtue of which <vrif, 
 any perfon may, in day time, and in the prefence of fuch 
 conftable, See. break open doors, chefts, warehoufes, and 
 other places, to fearch for and l'cize uncuftomed goods. 
 
 "There is alio a writ of this name that is uled to give 
 pollelfion of land ; and likewile for the general alfiftance 
 of fherift's, Ac. 
 
 Writ of Inquiry and Damages, a judicial writ that 
 illues out to a lhcriff upon a judgment by default, in 
 aftion of the calc, covenant, trefpafs, trover, Ac. com¬ 
 manding him to fummon a jury to inquire what damages 
 tire plaintiff hath fuftained, occalione przemiflbrum ; and 
 when this is returned with the inquifition, the rule for 
 judgment is given upon it; and if nothing be laid to the 
 contrary, judgment is thereupon entered. 
 
 Writ of Rebellion , is a writ ifining out of the court 
 of Chancery, or Exchequer, againlt a perfon who is ill 
 contempt for not appealing m one of thefe courts, Ac. 
 
 Writs Viconntiel , are iuch as arc triable in the fhe- 
 riff’s, or county court. 
 
 WRITER of the Tallies, an officer of thc'Exchequer, 
 being clerk to the auditor of tire receipt, who writes upon 
 the tallies the whole letter of the teller’s bill. 
 
 WRITING, Script ura, the art or aft of fignifying 
 and conveying of our ideas to others, by letters, or cha¬ 
 racters vifible to the eye. 
 
 Writing is now chiefly praftifed among us by means 
 of pen, ink, and paper ; though the ancients had other 
 methods. 
 
 To write without blacking the fingers, Mr. Boyle di- 
 refts as follows : prepare the paper with a fine powdef 
 made ol three parts of calcined copperas, two of galls, 
 and one of gym arabick ; thefe being frefh mixed, rub 
 them vvit'h a hare’s foot into the pores of the paper, and 
 write with fair water, and the letters will immediately 
 appear black. 
 
 To make new writing appear old, the fame author di¬ 
 rects to moiften it well with oil of tartar per dcliquium, 
 more or lefs diluted with water, as you defire the ink to 
 appear more or lefs decayed. 
 
 We may write without ink or its materials: for this 
 purpofe, take a fine powder of calcined hartlhorn, of 
 clean tobacco-pipes (or rather of mutton bones burnt to 
 a oerfeft whitenefs) and rub it upon the paper, and then 
 write with a filver bodkin, or the like. 
 
 WYCII-House, a houle in which fait is boiled. 
 
 WYDR AUGHT, a water-courfe, or water-paflage, 
 to carry oft' the filth of a houle ; properly a fink, or com¬ 
 mon fewer. See Cloaca and Sewer. 
 
 WYKE, anciently fignilied alarm, hamlet, or little' 
 village. 
 
 Wyte, Wyta, or Wite, Wit a, in our ancient 
 cuitoms, a pecuniary penalty, or mulft. 
 
 The Saxons had two kinds of punilhments, were, and 
 wyte ; the firft, for the more grievous offences. 
 
 The wyte was for the lefs heinous ones. It was not 
 fixed to any certain fum ; but left at liberty, to be varied 
 according to the cafe. 
 
 Hence, alfo, wyte, or wittree, one of the terms of pri¬ 
 vilege granted our portlmen ; fignifying a freedom or im¬ 
 munity from fines, or amercaments : or, as it is vul¬ 
 garly conceived, from being liable to be begged for fools, 
 lor lack of wit. 
 
 Wyta, wWita Plena, fignified a forfeiture of oner 
 hundred and twenty (hillings. Si pundbreche fiat in 
 curia regis plena wita fit; alibi quinque marca?. 
 
 To fwear according to the wyte, lecundum witam ju- 
 rare, was to purge one’s felf bv the oaths of fo many wit- 
 11 efies, as the nature of the crime, and the punilhment, 
 or wyte, did require. 
 
 Hence, alfo, bloodwite, legerwite, ferdwite, childwite, 
 wardwite, Ac. 
 
 WYTHE, in law, the fame as waif. 
 
 
X 
 
 X Y L 
 
 A double confonant, and the twenty-fecond let¬ 
 ter of the Engliffi alphabet. 
 
 I he letter X was not ufed by the Hebrews or 
 ancient Greeks , for as it is not a Ample but compound 
 letter, the ancients, who ufed great fimplicity in their 
 Writings, eXpreffed it bvo, the letters which cdmpofej 
 it ; thus, inftead of the modern v the ancient At- 
 ticks wrote '/tmutu. 
 
 X is alfo a numeral letter, fignifying ten, as it repre¬ 
 sents two V’s placed one on the top of the other. 
 
 When laid hat, thus X, it fignifies a thoufand ; and 
 ’when a dalh is added over it, as x, it fignifies ten thou¬ 
 fand. 
 
 XANTHICA, in antiquity, a Macedonian feftival, 
 fo called becaufe it was obferved in the month Xanthus, 
 die fame with our April. 
 
 XANTHIUM, the lefler burdock, in botany, a genus 
 of plants, producing male and female flowers ; the co¬ 
 rolla is compound, uniform, tubulofe, and equal, and 
 difpofed in an hemifpheiical form ; the partial flower is 
 monopetalous, tubulofe, funnel-fhaped, ereift, and di¬ 
 vided into five fegments at the limb : the fruit is a dry 
 ovato-oblong berry, bifid at the apex, hairy, and covered 
 with hooked prickles, containing an oblong feed, plane 
 on one fide, and convex on the other. 
 
 XEPiANTHEUM, the Auflrian fineeze-wort, inbo¬ 
 tany, a genus of plants, whole flower is compound and 
 unequal, the corollulce, which form the diick, are tubu¬ 
 lofe and hermaphrodite ; and a few female quinquifid 
 florets compofe the radius: there is no pericarpium , but 
 t’ne cup, which is imbricated and cylindrick, contains 
 the feeds, which are oblong and crowned with hair. 
 
 The flowers of thefe plants being gathered when full 
 blown, and properly dried, will continue freth and beau¬ 
 tiful leveral months; and by dipping them into various 
 tmflures, they may be ftained of different colours. They 
 are propagated by lowing the feeds, either in fpring or 
 autumn, and afterwards the plants Ihould be let where 
 thev are intended to blow. 
 
 XEROPHAG 1 A, in church-hiftory, the eating of 
 dried foods : fo the ancient Chriftians called certain fall 
 days, on which they eat nothing but bread and fait, and 
 drank only water: fometimes they added pulfe, herbs, 
 and fruits. This fort of faffing was obferved chiefly 
 in the holy week, out of devotion, and not by obliga¬ 
 tion. 
 
 XESTA, an Attick meafurc of capacity. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Measure. 
 
 X 1 PHIAS, a fiery meteor, in form of a fword. It, 
 differs from the acontias in this, that the latter is longer 
 and more like a dart; and the former Ihorter and broader 
 ill the middle. 
 
 XIPHOIDES, in anatomy, a cartilage adhering to 
 the flernum called all’o cartilago enfiformis. 
 
 XYEO-Aloes, or Aloe-Wood, in pharmacy, a 
 drug dillinguiHied into three forts ; the calamback, the 
 common lignum aloes, and calambour. 
 
 The calamback, or fineft aloe-wood (called by authors 
 lignum aloes preftantilfimum, and, by the Chinefe, fuk- 
 hiang) is the moll refinous of all the woods we are ac¬ 
 quainted with : it is of a light fpongy texture, very 
 poious, and its pores fo filled up with a foft and fragrant 
 refill, that the whole may be preffed and dented by the 
 fingers like wax, or moulded about by chewing in the 
 mouth, in the manner of maffick. 
 
 This kind, laid on the fire, melts in great parts like 
 refin, and burns away in a few moments, with a bright 
 flame and perfumed i'mell. Its feent, while in the mafs, 
 is very fragrant and agreeable; and its taffe acrid and 
 bitterilh, but very aromatick and agreeable ; it is fo vari- 
 
 X Y S 
 
 able in its colour, that fome have divided it into three- 
 kinds ; the one variegated with black and purple ; the 
 fecond, with the fame black, but with yellowilh inftead 
 ol purple ; and the third, yellow alone, like the yolk 
 of an egg: this laft is the leaft lcented of the three ; the 
 fubffance, however, in them all, is the fame in every 
 refpedt, except the colour. It is brought from Cochin- 
 china. 
 
 The lignum aloes vulgare, is the fecond in value. 
 This is of a more denfc and compadl texture, and con¬ 
 sequently lei's refinous than the other : there is lome of 
 it, however, that is fpongy, and has the holes filled up 
 with the right refinous matter , and all of it, vyhen good, 
 has veins of the fame refin in it. 
 
 We meet with it in fmall fragments, which have been 
 cut and fplit from larger; thefe are of a tolerably denle 
 texture, in the more (olid pieces, and of a dulkv brown 
 colour, vaiiegated with refinous black veins. It is in 
 this ffate very heavy, and lefs fragrant than in thole 
 pieces which lhew a multitude of little holes, filled up 
 with the fame blackilh matter that forms the veins in 
 others. The woody part of thefe laft pieces is fomewhat 
 darker than the other, and is not unfrequently purplilh, 
 or even blackilh. The fmell of the common aloe-wood 
 is very agreeable, but not fo ftrongly perfumed as the 
 former. Its taftc is fomewhat bitter and acrid, but very 
 aromatick. This is alfo brought fiom Cochinchina, and 
 lbmetimes from Sumatra. 
 
 1 he calambour, or, as fome write it, the calambouck, 
 is alfo called agallochum fylveftre, and lignum aloes 
 Mexicanum. It is a light and friable Wood, of adulky 
 and often mottled colour, between a dulky green black, 
 and a deep brown. Its fmell is fragrant and agreeable, 
 but much lels lvreet than that of either of the others ; 
 and its tafte bitterifh, but not fomuch acrid or aromatick 
 as either of the two former. We meet with this very 
 frequently, and in large logs ; and thefe fometimes en¬ 
 tire, lbmetimes only the heart of the tree, the cortical 
 part being ieparated. This is brought from the ifland 
 of Timor, and is the aloe-wood uled by the cabinet¬ 
 makers and inlayers. 
 
 It is clleemed a cordial, taken inwardly ; and they 
 fometimes give it in diforders of the ftomach and bowels, 
 and to deftroy worms. A very fragrant oil may be pro¬ 
 cured from it by dillillation, which is recommended in 
 paralvtick cafes, from five to fifteen drops. 
 
 XYLO-B als amum, a name which naturalifts give 
 to the wood of the tree which yields that precious gum 
 known to the Latins by the name of opobalfamum, and 
 to us by the name of balm of Gilead. 
 
 We have branches of this tree brought from Cairo ; 
 they are very ftraight, brittle, unequal, and full of knots; 
 their hark is redilh without, and greenifh within. 
 
 XYNOECIA, a feaft among the ancient Athenians, 
 inftituted on occafion of Theius’s uniting all the petty 
 communities of Attica into one commonwealth ; the af- 
 femblies whereof were to be held at Athens, in the Pry- 
 taneum. 
 
 XYSTARCHA, in antiquity, the mafter or direc¬ 
 tor of the xyftus. 
 
 In the Greek gymnafium, the xyftarcha was the fe¬ 
 cond officer ; the firft was the gymnafiarcha. The xyf¬ 
 tarcha was his lieutenant, and prefided over the two xyfti, 
 and all exercifes of the athletce therein. 
 
 XY STUS, in ancient architecture, among the Greeks, 
 was a long fpacious portico, wherein the athletce, and 
 others, pradlifed vvreftling and running. 
 
 Xy stus, among the Romans, was an alley, or double 
 row of trees, interweaving their boughs a-top, and a 
 Ihade to walk under. 
 
 Y, The 
 
Y 
 
 Y A R 
 
 The twenty-third letter of our alphabet, and 
 one of the ambigenial letters, being a confonant 
 ^ in the beginning of words, and placed before all 
 vowels, as in yard, yield, &c. but before no confonant, 
 but at the end of words it is a vowel, and fubftituted for 
 the found of i, as in try, delcry. In the middle of words 
 it is not ufod fo frequently as i is, unlels in words de¬ 
 rived from the Greek, as in chyle, empyreal; though it 
 is admitted into the middle of foine pure Englifli words, 
 as in dying, flying, &c. 
 
 Y is alfo a numeral, fignifying 150, or, according to 
 Baronius, 159; and, with a dafh over it, thus, y, it 
 fignified 150,000. 
 
 YACHT, or Yatch, a kind of veflel ufed by the 
 Engiilh, furnifhed with mails and fails, fit to go by fea, 
 and commodiouily contrived and adorned, withinfide 
 and without, to fuit it for ftate-paflengers, &c. 
 
 Yatchts are vefTels with one deck,^carrying from four 
 to 12 guns, with from 20 to 40 men ; being of burden 
 from 30 to 160 ton. They draw little water, and are 
 ufed for running, and making fhort trips, &c. Their 
 make and form is various. 
 
 The Dutch have alfo yachts, but not fo well prepared 
 to live at fea. They are feldom ufed, but to fail on ri- 
 ve'rs and canals. 
 
 YAM, the name of a plant much cultivated in the 
 Weft-Indies : the root is the iize of a man’s leg, of an 
 irregular form, and of a dirty brown colour on the out- 
 fidc, but, when cut, is white and mealy within. 
 
 The llalks of this plant are triangular and winged ; 
 the leaves are heart-lhaped ; the flalks climb to the height 
 of ten or twelve feet, when they grow near trees or Ihrubs, 
 to which they fallen themlelves, otherwife they trail on 
 the ground. 
 
 Yams are propagated by cutting the root into pieces, 
 obferving to preferve an eye or bud to each, as is prac- 
 tifed in planting potatoes; each piece being planted, will 
 grow and produce three or four large root?. In America, 
 they are fix or eight months in the ground before the 
 roots are taken up for ufe. Thefe roots are voafted or 
 boiled, and eaten by the inhabitants, and fometimes 
 made into bread. 
 
 This plant cannot be preferved in this country with¬ 
 out the afliftance of a hot-houle, on account of its ten- 
 dernefs and fulceptibility of cold. 
 
 YARD, Virga , a long meafure, ufed in England and 
 Spain, chiefly to meafure cloth, fluffs, &c. See the ar¬ 
 ticle Me AS UR e. 
 
 The Engiilh yard contains three feet. It was firfl 
 fettled by Henry I. from the length of his own arm. 
 
 The Engiilh yard is jufl feven-ninths of the Paris ell/ 
 fo that nine yards make feven ells. To reduce ells, 
 therefore, into yards, fay, if feven ells give nine yards, 
 how many yards will the given number of ells give ? 
 
 Yards are converted into ells Flemifh, by adding a 
 third part; into ells Englifh, by fubtra&ing a fifth part; 
 or multiplying by eight, and calling off the right-hand 
 figure. Ells Engiilh are converted into yards, by adding 
 a fourth. To turn ells Flemifh into yards, fubtradl one 
 quarter. 
 
 The Spanifh vara, or yard, chiefly ufed at Sevil, is, in 
 fome places, called barra. It contains \\ of the Paris ell, 
 fo that 17 ells make 24 Spanifh yards. 
 
 Yarb, in anatomy, the penis, or virile member; 
 ferving for the evacuating of the urine and feed. 
 
 Yards, or Ss/7-Yards, ofafhip, are long pieces of 
 timber, tapering at each end, fitted acrofs the feveral 
 mails, to carry the fails. 
 
 The fails are fattened to the yards at the heads, fo as 
 to be hoifled up and let down together with them, by 
 iopes called halliards. 
 
 Vol. II. No. 80, 
 
 YAW 
 
 The main yard, is that of the main-matt. The mi2- 
 zen yard, the bolt-fprit yard, &c. are thofe of the miz- 
 zen, &c. 
 
 They have feveral phrafes, and words of command, 
 relating to the management of the yards, as, Brace the 
 yard, which fignifies to traverfe aft the yard-arm, whofe 
 brace is haled; fo that to traverfe the yard, is the fame 
 as to fay, brace it aft. Square the yard, is as much as 
 to fay, fee that it hang right a-crofs the fhip, and one 
 yard-arm not traverfed more than the other. Top the 
 yards, that is, make them hang even. 
 
 Yard-Arm, is that half of the yard that is on either 
 fide of the matt, when it lies athwart the fhip. 
 
 Yard-Land, is taken tofignify a certain quantity of 
 land, in fome counties being fifteen acres, and in others 
 twenty; in fome twenty-foiir, and in others thirty and 
 forty acres. 
 
 Yards alfo denote places belonging to the navy,- 
 where the fhips of war, &c. are laid up in harbour. 
 
 The king’s yards are Chatham, Deptford, Wool¬ 
 wich, Portfmouth, Sherenefs, Plymouth, and Harwich ; 
 each of which is provided with feveral docks, wharfs, 
 launches, and graving places for the building, repairing, 
 and cleaning his majefly’s fhips. 
 
 YARE, among failofs, implies as much as, nimble, 
 ready, quick, expeditious. Hence, to be yare at the helm, 
 as fome fay, fignifies to fet a frefh man at the helm. 
 
 YARN, wool or flax fpun into thread, of which they 
 weave cloth. 
 
 YARRINGLES, or Yarrincle Blades , a kind of 
 reel, or inflrument, with which hanks of yarn are wound 
 on to clues, or balls. 
 
 YAWNING, Ofciatio , an involuntary opening of the 
 mouth, occafioned by a vapour, or ventofity, endeavour¬ 
 ing to efcape; and generally witneffing an irkfome weari- 
 nefs, or an inclination to fleep. 
 
 The remedy Hippocrates preferibes againft continual 
 yawnings, is to make long breathings, or refpirations. 
 The fame he recommends againft the hiccough. 
 
 The nervous membrane of the oefophagus, has been 
 held the feat of yawning, which, according to the uluat 
 fyftem, is produced, whenever any irritation determines 
 the fpirits to flow thither in too great abundance. The 
 caufe of the irritation is fuppofed to be fome troublefomc 
 humour, wetting the inner membrane of the oefophagus; 
 which humour may proceed either from the glands fpread 
 throughout that membrane, or from acid vapours arifing 
 from the ftomach, and condenfing on the fides of the 
 oefophagus. By fuch means, the nervous fibres of the 
 membrane of the gullet being irritated, dilate the gullet; 
 and the mouth is conftrained to follow the fame motion, 
 as being lined with the fame membrane. But this.fyftem 
 of ofeitation has, of late, given way to a better, and more 
 mechanical one. 
 
 Yawning is performed by expanding almoft all the 
 mufcles of voluntary motion at the fame time ; but moll 
 confiderably thofe of the lungs : by infpiring a great 
 quantity of air, very fiowly, and after retaining it fome' 
 time, and rarifying it, by expelling it again, fiowly, and 
 reftoring the mufcles to their natural ftate. 
 
 Hence, its effefls are to move, accelerate, and diftribute 
 all the humours of the body, equably through all the vef- 
 (els; thereby difpofing the organs of fenfation, andall the 
 mufcles of the body, for the performance of their refpec- 
 tive funflions. 
 
 YAWS, or Y awes, in the fea-language. A fhip is 
 faid to make yawes, when, through tire fault of him at 
 the helm, fhe is not kept Heady in her eourfe ; but makes 
 angles in and out. 
 
 To prevent this, the Conner cries to him at the helm- 
 fteady, Heady. 
 
 6 F Yaws^ 
 
YEA 
 
 Yaws, a diftemper endemial to Guinea and the hotter 
 climates in Africa. 
 
 YEAR, Annus , the time the fun takes to go through 
 the twelve figns of the zodiack. This is properly the 
 natural or tropical year, and contains 365 days, 5 hours, 
 and 49 minutes; or, rather, of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
 minutes, and 57 feconds. 
 
 The viciflitude of feafons feems to have given occafion 
 to the firft inflitution of the year. Man, naturally curious 
 to know the caufe ot that diveriity, loon found it was the 
 proximity and diflance of the fun ; and, upon this, wave 
 the name year to the fpace of time wherein that luminary, 
 performing his whole courl'e, returned to the fame point 
 of his orbit. 
 
 And hence, as it was on account of the feafons, in a 
 great meafure, that the year was inftituted, their chief 
 regard and attention was, that the fame parts of the year 
 fhould always correfpond to the fame feafons; i. e. that 
 the beginning ot the year fhould always be when the fun 
 was in the fame point of his orbit; and that they fhould 
 keep pace, come round, and end together. 
 
 ] his different nations aimed to attain by different ways, 
 making the year to commence from different points of 
 the zodiack, and even the time of his progrefs different. 
 So that l'ome of their years were much more perfect than 
 others, but none of them quite juft ; i. e. none of them 
 but whole parts fliifted, with regard to the parts of the 
 fun’s courfe. 
 
 I he Greeks counted their year by the motion of both 
 fun and moon; and finding that there was 11 days dif¬ 
 ference between the lunar and folar years, at firft they 
 added an intercalary month every two years, containing 
 22 days. Afterwards, confidcring the 6 hours alfo, they 
 put their embolifm off 4 years, and then making the three 
 firft years to contain 354 days each, this made the fourth 
 year to have 399 days : and to make this intercalation 
 the more remarkable, they inftituted the Olympick games 
 on every fucli fourth year; whence came the computa¬ 
 tion by Olympiads. 
 
 M he Egyptians had two forts of years, the erratick and 
 the fixed, or aftiack. The erratick was called thcNabo- 
 naflarcan, from the epocha which takes its rife from Na- 
 bonaffar, king #f the Chaldees. As it negle&s the fix 
 hours, which, in the Julian form, make a leap-day once 
 in four years, its beginning anticipates the Julian every 
 fourth year by a day, and therefore it is juftly called 
 erratick. 
 
 d he anticipation of one day in 4 years, gains of the 
 Julian years 1 in 1460; fo that 1461 Nabonaffareanyears 
 make but 1460 Julian years. 
 
 The fixed Egyptian year obferves the Julian form of 
 365 days and 6 hours, making a leap-day of the 6 hours 
 once in 4 years. It differs from the Julian in this, that 
 its months are the fame with thofe of the Nabonaffarean; 
 that it begins on Auguft 29, inftead of January 1, or, 
 on Auguft 30, if it be a leap-year; that it takes in the 
 leap-day, not in February, but at the end of the year. 
 
 The Perfian erratick year goes by the name Yezdeger- 
 dfck, by reafon that the Perfian epocha commences from 
 the death of Yezdegird, the laft Perfian king, who was 
 killed by the Saracens. It con lifts of 12 months, con¬ 
 taining 30 days each, and 5 fupernumerary ones ; fo that 
 it differs from the Nabonaffarean only in the names of 
 the months, and the commencement of the epocha. 
 
 7 he Gelalean year, ufed alfo by the Perfians, is very 
 well adapted to the folar motions. It takes in a leap- 
 day every fourth year, but every fixth or lcventh turn it 
 throws it forward to the fifth vear, by which means the 
 equinoxes and folflices are fixed to almoft the fame days 
 of the month. 
 
 1 he Syriack year confifts of three hundred and fixty- 
 fivedays and fix hours, being divided into twelvemonths 
 of equal extent with thofe of the Julian year, to which 
 they correlpond. T his year begins October 1, fo that 
 the month called Tifhrim agrees with our Odlober. The 
 aftronomical year is twofold, viz. the tropical and fide- 
 real: by the latter, is meant that fpace of time which the 
 fun takes in departing from a fixed ftar, and returning 
 to the fame again. This year confifts of three hundred 
 and fixty-five days, fix hours, and ten minutes. 
 
 As the form ot the year is various among different na¬ 
 tions, lo likevvife is the beginning : the Jews began their 
 ecclefiaftical year with the new moon of that month 
 3 
 
 Y E L 
 
 whofe full moon happens next after the vernal equinox; 
 and every feventh year they kept as a fabbatick year dur¬ 
 ing which they let their land lie at reft. The ancient 
 Jewifh year was made to agree with the folar year, by 
 the adding of eleven, and fometimes of twelve days, at 
 the end of the year, or by an embolifmick month. 
 
 The beginning of the Athenian or Attick year was 
 reckoned from that new moon, the full moon of which 
 comes next alter the iummer lolftice. 
 
 The Macedonian lunar year agrees with the Athenian, 
 excepting that the former takes its beginning, not from 
 the iummer lolftice, but from the autumnal equinox. 
 
 1 he Ethiopick year is a folar year, agreeing with the 
 a&iack or fixed Egyptian year, except in this, that the 
 names of the months are different, and that it com¬ 
 mences with the Egyptian year, on Auguft 29th of the 
 Julian year. 
 
 The Arabian or Mahometan year is called alfo that of 
 the hegira, becaufe the calculation of thefe years runs 
 from the epocha of the hegira, when Mahomet lied from 
 Mecca to Medina. They had twelve civil months in a 
 year, which contained twenty-r>inqand thirty days, by 
 turns, abating for their leap-years, in which the month 
 Dulheggia has always thirty. 
 
 The Mahometans begin their year when the fun en¬ 
 ters Aries; the Perfians, in the month anfwering to our 
 June; the Chinefe, and moft of the Indians, begin it 
 with the firft moon in March. 
 
 At Rome, there are two ways of computing the year, 
 the one beginning at the nativity of our Lord, which the 
 notaries ufe ; the other in March, on occafion of the in¬ 
 carnation, and it is from this the bulls aie dated. 
 
 In England, the civil or legal year, as well as the 
 hiftorical year, commences January 1, by the late a£t 
 for the alteration of the ftylc. The church, as to her 
 folemn fervice, begins the year on the firft Sunday in 
 Advent, which is always that next St. Andrew’s day. 
 
 Julian Year, the year as it was corrctted and fettled 
 by Julius C-.efar. See Bissextile. 
 
 Gregorian Year, the tropical year as corrcfted by 
 pope Gregory, and which is atprefent ufed in England. 
 See Bissextile. 
 
 Year and Day, in law, fignifics a certain time that 
 by law determines a right, or works prelcription in di¬ 
 vers cafes ; as in the cafe of an eftray, if the owner do 
 not challenge it within that time, it becomes forfeited 
 to the lord ; fo of a wreck, Ac. The like time is given 
 to profecute appeals in ; and where a perfon wounded 
 dies in a year and a day after the wound received, it 
 makes the offender guilty of murder. , 
 
 YEARN, in hunting, fignifies to bark, as beagles 
 properly do, at their prev. 
 
 YELLOW, a bright colour, refle&ing the moft light 
 of any, after white. See Colour and Light. 
 
 There are divers yellow fubftances that become white, 
 upon wetting, and drying them again feveral times at 
 the fun; as wax, linen-cloth, he. 
 
 1 he lame bodies, if they be already white, and con¬ 
 tinue a long time in the air without being wetted, turn 
 yellow. 
 
 Paper and ivory applied near the fire, become fuc- 
 ■ceflively yellow, red, and black. Silk, when turned 
 yellow, is whitened again with the fumes of fulphur. 
 
 Yellow, in dying, is one of the five fimple and 
 mother colours. 
 
 For the fineft yellows, they firft boil the cloth, or 
 ftnfF, in alum and pot-afhes; then give the colour with 
 weld, or would. 
 
 I urmerick hkewife gives a good yellow, though not 
 the heft. There is alfo an Indian wood that gives a 
 yellow colour bordering on gold. A fourth fort of yel- 
 low is made with lavoury, but this is interior to them 
 all. 
 
 Greens are ufually made of yellow and blue mixed. 
 With yellow, madder red, and goat’s hair prepared with 
 madder, are made the golden yellow, aurora, panfv, 
 nacarate, ifabella, and chamois-colour; which are all 
 cafts or fliades of yellow. 
 
 Painters and enamellers make their yellow of mafficot, 
 which is cerufs raifed by the fire ; or with yellow okcr. 
 Limners and illuminers make it with faff) on, and 
 F rench berries, orcanette, &c. 
 
 Brantom obferves, it was anciently the cuftom to paint 
 
 a man’s 
 
Y N C 
 
 a man’s door yellow, and ftrew his houfe with fait ; to 
 declaie him traitor to his king. 
 
 YELLOWS, a difeafe in a horfe, much the fame 
 with that called jaundice in man. 
 
 There are two kinds of it, the yellow and the black. 
 
 The yellows is a very frequent diforder, fay the far¬ 
 riers, arifing from obftru&ions in the gall-pipe, or the 
 little duCts opening into the fame, occalioned by vifeid 
 or gritty matters lodged therein, or a plenitude and 
 compreilion of the ncighbouiingblood-veflels; by means 
 whereof, the matter that lhould be turned into gall, is 
 taken up by the vein, and carried back into the mafs of 
 blood, which it tin&ures yellow ; l'o that the eyes, iniidc 
 of the lips, and other parts of the mouth capable of 
 lhewing the colour, appear yellow. 
 
 The effeCt whereof is, that a horfe will be dull, heavy, 
 and low-lpinted , ealily jaded by the leall labour or ex- 
 ercile, &c. 
 
 YTOMAN, the firft or higheft degree among the 
 pkbians of England, next in order to the gentry. 1 he 
 veomcn arc properlv fieeholders, who having land of 
 their own, live on good hulbandrv. 
 
 Yeoman, is alio a title of office in the king’s liouf- 
 liold, of a middle place or rank between an ulher and a 
 groom. 
 
 Yeomen of the Guard , were anciently two hundred 
 and fifty men of the bell rank under gentry, and of larger 
 ftature than ordinary, each being required to be fix feet 
 high. At prefent there are but one hundred yeomen in 
 conftant duty, and feventy more not in duty ; and as 
 any of the hundred dies, his place is fupplied out of the 
 feventy. 
 
 . Y’ERKING, in the menage, is when a horfe ftrikes 
 with his hind legs, or flings and kicks back with his 
 whole hind quarters ; ft retching out the two legs nearly 
 together, and even to their full extent. 
 
 YEST, Yeast, or Barm, ahead or feum riling 
 upon beer or ale, while working or fermenting in the 
 vat. It is ufed for a leaven or ferment in the baking of 
 bread, as ferving to fwell or puff it up very confidcrably 
 in a little time, and to make it much lighter, fofter, and 
 more delicate. When there is too much of it, it renders 
 the bread bitter. 
 
 YEW-TREE, Taxus, in botany. 
 
 Yew, is alfo a term ufed by the falt-workers of Li- 
 •mington, and fome other parts of England, to exprels 
 the fir ft riling of a (cum upon the brine in boiling. 
 
 YIELDING and paying , a law phrafe, formed by 
 corruption from the Saxon geldan, or gildan, to pay. 
 Hence, in Domefday, gildare is frequently ufed for 
 folvere, reddere ; the Saxon G being eafily converted 
 into a Y. 
 
 YNCA, Yncan. or Inca, an appellation anciently 
 given to the kings of Peru, and the princes of their 
 blood; the word fignifying, literally, lord, king, empe¬ 
 ror, and royal blood. 
 
 The king himfelf was particularly called capack ynca, 
 i. e. great lord. His wife, pallas, and the princes limply, 
 ynca’s. 
 
 Thefe ynca’s, before the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 were exceeding powerful. Their people revered them to 
 excefs, as believing them to be the fons of the fun, and 
 never to have committed any fault. If any perfon of¬ 
 fended the royal majefty in the fmaileft matter, the city 
 he belonged to was totally demoliffied. 
 
 W r hen they travelled, whatever chamber they lay in 
 on the road, was walled up as foon as they departed, 
 that no body might ever enter in after them. The like 
 was done to the room wherein the king died ; in which, 
 
 Y Q^U 
 
 likewife, all the gold, filver, and precious furniture 
 were immured, and a new apartment built for his fuc- 
 ceffor. 
 
 His beloved wives, domefticks, &c. likewife facri- 
 ficcd themfelves, and were buried alive in the fame tomb 
 along with him. See the liiftory of the Yncas, by 
 Garcilalfo de la Vega. 
 
 Y r OAK, orYoKE, in agriculture, a frame of wood, 
 fitted over the necks of oxen, whereby they are coupled 
 together, and harneffied to the plough. 
 
 Yoak of Land, in our ancient cuftoms, was the fpace 
 which a yoak or a pair of oxen may plough in a day. 
 
 Sea- Yoak. When the fea is lo rough that the helm 
 cannot be governed by the hands, the fcamen make a 
 yoak to fteer by, that is, they fix two blocks,to the end 
 of the helm, and reeving two fmall ropes through them, 
 which they call falls, by having fome men at each tackle, 
 they govern the helm by direction. They have another 
 way of making a fea-yoak, by taking a double turn about 
 the end of the helm with a fingle rope, the ends bqing 
 laid to the flfip’s fides, by means whereof they guide the 
 helm. 
 
 Y'OIDES, otHyoides, in anatomy, a bone fituate 
 at the root of the tongue, and compofed of divers little 
 bones, united by cartilages which lometimes ofiify. 
 
 It is not contiguous to the extremity of any other 
 bone, nor has any articulation wjth them : on which 
 account, it is not ffiew n in the Ikeletons. 
 
 Its ufe is to fortify the bafe or root of the tongue, and 
 facilitate the pafiage of the air into the trachea, and the 
 food into the gullet. 11 has five pair of mulcles, which 
 move it together with the tongue. 
 
 YOLK, or Yelk, Vitcilus, the yellow part in the 
 middle of an egg. See Egg. 
 
 The chicken is formed out of and nourifhed by the 
 white alone, till it be growp to fome bulk : after which, 
 the yolk lerves it for nourilhment; which it likewife does, 
 in part, after it is hatched. For a good part of the yolk 
 remains after exclufion ; being received into the chicken’s 
 belly ; and being there referved, as in a ftore-houfe, is 
 by the duCtus inteftinalis, as by a funnel, conveyed into 
 the guts, and lerves inftead of milk. IViliugh. Urnithol. 
 Lib. I. c. 3. This was even known to Pliny : Ipfum 
 animal ex albo liquore ovi corporetur: cibusejus in lutco 
 eft. Lib. X.. c. 53. 
 
 YOUNG, in the army, that regiment, or officer, is 
 faid tp be the vounger, junior, which was laft railed, or 
 whofe commillion is of lateft date, whatever be the age 
 of the man, or however long he may have ferved in 
 other capacities. 
 
 Y^OUNKERS, among failors, are the younger failors, 
 otherwife called foremaft-men ; whofe bufinels is to take 
 in the top-fails, furl the fails, fling the yards, &c. 
 
 YTSILOIDES, in anatomy, the third genuine future 
 of the cranium, thus called from its refembling a Greek 
 T upfilon. 
 
 YQUETAYA, in natural liiftory, a plant in Brafil, 
 long uled as a medicine in that country ; and lately dif- 
 covered to the Europeans by a French furgeon. 
 
 It has beenfince found in France, where, being culti¬ 
 vated and examined by M. Marchant, it appears to be a 
 kind of Icrophulary, or blood-nettle. 
 
 It has this remarkable property, that it takes away 
 from fenna all its tafte and fmell; which property of cor¬ 
 recting the infufion of fenna, was unknown in the fero- 
 phulary. 
 
 To ufe this plant, it mull be dried ten or twelve days 
 in theffiade, and afterwards expoied to the fun, till quite 
 dry. 
 
z. 
 
 Z E A 
 
 The twenty-fourth and laft letter, and the nine¬ 
 teenth confonant of our alphabet. 
 
 9 It has been reputed a double confonant, hav¬ 
 ing the found d s; but fome think with very little reafon; 
 and, as if wc thought otherwife, we often double it, as 
 in puzzle, muzzle, &c. 
 
 Among the ancients, Z was a numeral letter, fignify- 
 ing two thoufand ; and with a dalh added at top z, fig- 
 nified two thouland times two thoufand, or four mil¬ 
 lions. 
 
 ZAFFER, or Zaffre, inchvmiftry, the name of a 
 blue fubftance, of the hardnefs and form of a Hone, and 
 generally fuppofed to be a native foffil. 
 
 It is in reality, however, a preparation of cobalt; the 
 calx of that mineral being mixed with powdered flints, 
 and wetted with water to bring it into this form. See 
 Cobalt. 
 
 ZAIM, a portion of land, allotted for the fubfift- 
 cnce of a horfe-man in the Turkiih militia ; called alfo 
 timar. 
 
 ZA 1 RAGIA, or Zairagiah, a kind of divina¬ 
 tion in ufe among the Arabs ; performed by means of 
 divers wheels, or circles, placed concentrick to one ano¬ 
 ther, and noted with feveral letters, which are brought 
 to anfwcr to each other, by moving the circles accord¬ 
 ing to certain rules. 
 
 This is alfo called zaraiah, by reafon the circles of 
 this machine, which are called mutazariat, laflak, &c. 
 correfpond to the orbs of the planets, and the atmo- 
 ipheres of the feveral elements. 
 
 ZAPATA, or Safata, a kind of feaft, or ceremony 
 held in Italy, in the courts of certain princes, on St. 
 Nicholas’s day, wherein people hide prefents in the fhoes 
 or flippers of thole they would do honour to, in fuch 
 manner, as may furprize them on the morrow when they 
 come to drefs. 
 
 It is done in imitation of thepi’a&ice of St. Nicholas, 
 who ufed, in the night time, to throw purfes of money 
 in at the windows, to marry poor maids withal. 
 
 F. Meneflricr has deferibed thefe zapatas, their origin, 
 and different ufages, in his treatife des ballets anciens, 6c 
 moderns. 
 
 ZEA, Indian corn, in botany, a genus of plants, pro¬ 
 ducing male and female flowers in fpikes; the corolla of 
 the male flower is a bivalvular glume, with two com- 
 prefled very lhort ne&aria : the ftamina are three capil¬ 
 lary filaments, topped with quadrangular antherse; the 
 corolla of the female flower confifts of two membrana¬ 
 ceous broad, perfiftent valves : there is no pericarpium ; 
 but the feeds, which are roundifh and comprelled, arc 
 half inclofed in a large long receptacle. 
 
 This corn is ground to flour, and the pooreft fort of 
 people in America, Italy, and Germany, make their 
 bread with it, and in fome countries drefs the fpikes dif- 
 feren . ways : but this grain feldom agrees with thofe who 
 have not been accuflomed to cat it. However, it is a 
 bette: fubflitute than bean-flour, or other forts which 
 have, in times of fcarcity, been ufed in England; and 
 will always be found a hearty food for cattle, hogs, and 
 poultry : fo that in light fandy lands, where beans and 
 peas fucceed not well, this grain may be cultivated to 
 advantage. The feafon for fowing the feed is the latter 
 end of March, or beginning of April. 
 
 ZEAL, the exercife of a warm animated affection, or 
 paflion, for any thing. See Passion. 
 
 ZEALOTS, an ancient fed! of the Jews, fo called 
 from their pretended zeal for God’s laws, and the honour 
 of religion. The zealots were a moft outrageous and 
 ungovernable people ; and on pretence of afierting God’s 
 laws, and a ftridtnefs and purity of religion, affumed a 
 
 Z E P 
 
 liberty of quefiioriing notorious offenders, without Hay¬ 
 ing for the ordinary formalities of law’. 
 
 ZEBLICIUM, jVI armor, in natural hiftory, a name 
 gi ven by feveral authors to a foft green marble variegated 
 with black and white ; and though the authors who have 
 described it have not obferved it, yet it no way differs 
 from the white ophites of the ancients. 
 
 ZEBRA, the wild als, in zoology, a fpecies ofequus, 
 tranfverfely flriated. 
 
 riie whole animal is party-coloured, or beautifully 
 flriped in a tranfverfe direction, with long and broad 
 ftreaks, alternately of a deep, glolfy, and fhining brownifh 
 and wliitifh, with fome abfolutely black. It is a native, 
 of many parts of the eaft. 
 
 ZECHARIA, a canonical book of the Old Tefla- 
 inent, containing the predictions of Zechariah, the fon 
 of Barachia, and grandfon of Iddo. Fie is the eleventh 
 of the twelve Idler prophets. 
 
 ZEDOARY, in the materia medica, a root, the fe¬ 
 veral pieces of which differ fo much from one another in 
 fhape, that they have been divided into two kinds, as 
 if two different things, under the names of the long and 
 round zedoary, being only the feveral parts of the fame 
 root. 
 
 Zedoary, diftillcd with common water, affords a thick 
 and denfe effential oil, which foon concretes ofitlelf into 
 a kind of camphire, and on this oil its virtues principally 
 depend. It is a ludorifick, and is much recommended 
 by fome in fevers, efpecially of the malignant kinds. It 
 is alfo given with fuccefs as an expe&orant in all dif- 
 orders of the hreaft, arifing from a tough phlegm, which 
 it powerfully incides and attenuates, it is alfo good againft 
 flatulencies, and in the cholick ; it ftrengthens the lto- 
 rnach and alfills digeftion ; and, finally, is given with 
 luccefs in nervous cafes of all kinds. 
 
 ZEND, or Zendavesta, a book containing the 
 religion of the magicians, or worfhippers of fire, who 
 w'ere difciples of the famous Zoroafler. 
 
 This book was compofed by Zoroaller, during his re¬ 
 tirement in a cave, and contained all the pretended re¬ 
 velations of that impoltor. 
 
 ZENITH, in aftronomy, the vertical point; or a 
 point in the heavens direCtly over our head. 
 
 Or, the zenith is a point in the furface of the fphere, 
 from which a right line, drawn through the fpeCtator’s 
 head, pafles through the centre of the earth. 
 
 Hence, there are as many zeniths as there are dif¬ 
 ferent places on the earth, where the heavens may be 
 feen ; and upon the changing our place, we alfo change 
 our zenith. 
 
 1 he zenith is alfo called the pole of the horizon, bc- 
 caule 90° diflant from each point thereof. 
 
 It is alfo the pole of all the almucanturs, or parallels 
 of the horizon, whereby the altitude of the ftars is cfli- 
 mated. 
 
 Through the zenith pafs the vertical-circles, or azi-. 
 muths. 
 
 I he point diametrically oppofite to the zenith, is 
 called the nadir ; which is the point direCtly under our 
 feet. 
 
 1 he nadir is the zenith to our antipodes, as our zenith 
 is the nadir to them. 
 
 Zenith-Distance, is the complement of the 
 fun’s, or a ftar’s meridian altitude; or what the meridian 
 altitude wants of 90°. 
 
 ZENSUS, in arithmetick, a name given to a fquarc 
 number, or the fecond power, by fome authors. 
 
 ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tclta- 
 ment, containing the predictions of Zephaniah the fon 
 ofCufhi, and grandfon of Gcdaliali; being the ninth 
 2 of 
 
Z I N 
 
 of he twelve letter prophets. He prophefied in the time 
 of king Jofiah, a little after the captivity of the ten tribes, 
 and before that of Judah; fo that he was cotemporary 
 with Jeremiah. 
 
 ZEPHYR, Zepbyrus , the weft wind ; or that which 
 blows from the cardinal point of the horizon oppolite the 
 eaft. See Wind and West. 
 
 ZEST, the woody thick Ikin, quartering the kernel 
 of a walnut; preferibed by fome phyficians, when dried 
 and taken with white-wine, as a remedy againft the gravel. 
 
 Zell is alfo ufed for a chip of orange or lemon-peel; 
 fuch as is ufually fqueezed into ale, wine, &c. to give 
 it a flavour; or the line etherial oil which fpurts out of 
 that peel on fqueezmg it. 
 
 ZETETICK Method, in mathematicks, the me¬ 
 thod made ufe of to invefligate or folve a problem. 
 
 ZETA, or Zetecula, a little clofet, or with- 
 drawing-chamber, with pipes running along the walls, 
 to receive, from below, either the cool air, or the fleam 
 of warm water. 
 
 ZEUGMA, a figure in grammar, whereby an ad¬ 
 jective, or verb, which agrees with a nearer word, is 
 alfo, by way of l'upplement, referred to another more 
 remote. 
 
 Thus Terence, Utinam aut hie furdus, aut ha?c muta 
 fafta fit. So Virgil, Hie illius arma hie currus fuit. 
 In which cafes, the words fafta fit, agreeing piimarily 
 with Iijec muta, are alfo made to agree or extend to hie 
 furdus: and the verb fuit, is not only referred to hie 
 currus, which it properly refpefts, but further, to hie 
 illius arma. 
 
 The Latins, it may be obferved, take a liberty in con- 
 ttruftion, which fome of the nicer criticks among the 
 moderns, particularly the French, will not allow in the 
 modern tongues. 
 
 ZIBETH1CUS, the civet-cat. See Civet. 
 
 ZIBETHUM, or Zibetta, in natural hiflory, 
 civet; a prefume like mulk, contained in a kernelly 
 bladder, in the groin of a civet cat. 
 
 ZIMENT-W a ter, or copper-water, in natural hif- 
 tory, the name by which fome have called water found 
 in places where there are copper-mines, and lightly im¬ 
 pregnated with particles of that metal. See Co peer. 
 
 The mofl famous fpring of this kind is a mile diflant 
 from Newfol, in Hungary, in a great copper-mine, 
 where the water is found at different depths, and is re¬ 
 ceived into different bafons, for the purpofe of fepa- 
 rating the copper from it. In fome of thefe it is much 
 more highly fated with this metal than in others, and 
 will make the fuppofed change of iron into that metal 
 much fooner. The mofl common pieces of iron ufed 
 in the experiments, are horfe-fhoes, nails, and the like; 
 they are found very little altered in fhape after the opera¬ 
 tion, except that their furfaces are more raifed. The 
 water which performs this wonderful operation appears 
 greenifh in the bafons where it Hands; but if a glafs of 
 it be taken up, it looks clear as cryflal; it has no fmell, 
 but has a very flrong vitriolick and aflringent tafle, info- 
 much, that the lips and tongue are blillered and fcorched 
 on tailing it. The miners ufe this water as a medicine; 
 and whatever ficknefs they are feized with, they firfl at¬ 
 tempt its cure with large dofes of this water, which 
 ufually both vomits and purges them briikly ; they alfo 
 ufe it in diforders of the eyes. The copper produced 
 from thefe waters are valued by the people much beyond 
 any other copper, as being more duftile, and running 
 eafier in the fire. And from the feveral experiments made 
 upon the water, the true nature of it may be eafily un¬ 
 derflood. It contains a large quantity of the vitriol of 
 copper, which it probably owes to a folution of that me¬ 
 tal, by means of the acid of the common pyrites and 
 water. When this is known, theeffefts are not difficult 
 to be accounted for; there being no real change of one 
 metal into another, but the true flate of the cafe being 
 that the particles of one metal are diflolved and carried 
 away, and thofe of another metal depofited in their 
 place ; a water thus impregnated is a menflruum capable 
 of diffolving iron, and in the folution of that metal be¬ 
 comes fo weakened as to let go the copper it before con* 
 tained in fmall parcels. 
 
 ZINDIKITES, a feft among the Mahometans, de¬ 
 nominated from their leader Zindik, whom Grotius 
 makes to be one of the magi, and a follower of Zoroafler. 
 V©l. II. No.. 80. 
 
 Z O D 
 
 The Zindikites believe no providence nor refurreC" 
 tion. They allow no other God but the four elements, 
 and in this fenfe afiert, that a man, being a mixture of 
 thofe Ample bodies, returns to God when he dies. 
 
 ZINK, afemi-metallickfubflance, which, more than 
 all the others of that clafs, approaches to the nature of 
 true metals. It is very heavy, and lefs hard than bif- 
 inuth. and greatly lefs friable than either antimony or 
 that mineral. It, in fome meafure, approaches to mal¬ 
 leability, being duftile to a certain degree, though that 
 a very limited one, efpecially when made warm. It is 
 very little fufceptible of ruft; and though in itfelf is not 
 fonorous, yet, in mixture with other metals, it renders 
 them much more fo than they were before. It melts 
 with a very fmall degree of fire, and if urged by a heat 
 a little more intenfe, it flies wholly off in fumes. If 
 thefe fumes are preferved, they are found to form a pe¬ 
 culiar fort of flowers, not eafily reducible into zink again. 
 Zink is of a blueifh white colour, very elegant, and 
 much approaching to that of filver; and though it wants 
 lomewhat of the bifmuth, yet it has that lofs amply made 
 up to it, in its more metalline appearance. If burnt 
 away in an open fire, it yields a flame of a beautiful 
 green colour. It melts very readily with lead and tin, 
 and renders both of them the lefs malleable, in propor¬ 
 tion, as it is mixed in a larger proportion with them. It 
 may alfo be mixed in fufion with copper and iron ; but 
 when mixed with thefe, or any other of the metals that 
 do not melt eafily, caution muff be ufed that the degree 
 of fire neceffary to fufe them do not burn away. For 
 this purpofe, the metals fhould be made into thin plates 
 ot filings, and be heated red-hot in a crucible, before 
 the zink is added; and as loon as this is done, the fire 
 fhould be made very brilk immediately, and the opera¬ 
 tion ended with all poffible expedition. 
 
 Zink, mixed in this manner, with four times its 
 weight of copper, makes a very beautiful yellow metal, 
 called by us Bath metal, and prince Rupert’s metal ; 
 which, if its malleability equalled the beauty of its co¬ 
 lour, would be a very valuable compofition. Zink has 
 alfo this peculiar quality, that when urged by a large fire 
 in mixture with the other metals, it does not go off 
 alone, but carries up a great part of them, alfo, inform 
 of flowers. This is the origin of pampholyx, tutty, 
 and the cadmia fornacum, which are principally pro¬ 
 cured from the furnaces where copper and calamine, 
 which is the ore of zink, and afts only as zink on thefe 
 occafions, are melted together. 
 
 Zink is foluble in aqua regia, and other of the Ilronger 
 acids. It is to be chofen the heavieft and brightefl co¬ 
 loured that can be found, and fuch as will not extend 
 under the hammer ; for the people who fell it fometimes 
 have the difhonelly to mix lead among it; but this is dif- 
 covered by the too great degree of malleability it gives to it. 
 
 The ores of zink have, till very lately, been but little 
 known. The principal of them, indeed, has been well 
 known for many ages, as a foffile fubflance of ufe in 
 medicine; but though it was found to have the fame ef- 
 feft on copper as zink, and in the fire, if kept in clofe 
 veflels, to fublime in the fame fort of flowers ; yet it did 
 not occur, of a long time, to any body to fiafpeft that 
 thefe two fubflances belonged in any manner to one an¬ 
 other. The ore we mean is the common lapis calami- 
 rvaris, or calamine, which, as it is known by a peculiar 
 appellation, and is famous for many virtues independent' 
 of the zink it contains, we have treated of under its 
 common name. See C a l am i n e . 
 
 ZIZIPHUS, a name fometimes given to a kind of 
 fruit, more ufually called jujub. See Jujubes. 
 
 ZOCCO, Zoccolo, Zocle, or Socle, in archi¬ 
 tecture, a kind of Hand or pedeflal, being a low fquare 
 piece or member, ferving to fupport a builo, flatue, pc- 
 dellal, &e. 
 
 ZOD1ACK, Zodiacus, inaflronomy, a fafeia, or broacf 
 circle, whofe middle is the ecliptick, and its extremes 
 two circles parallel thereto, at fuch a diflance from it, as 
 to bound the excurfion-of the planets. 
 
 The zodiack, on the globe r is marked with the cha-> 
 rafters of the twelve figns, which are thefe ; t a n 23 
 SI njL 1O1 n\ f y r K ; and in it is found out the fun’s 
 place, which is under what liar or conflellation he ap¬ 
 pears to be at noon. 
 
 By this are determined the four quarters of the year; 
 6 G and 
 
 

 Z G D 
 
 ahd accordingly it is divided into four parts, and as the 
 fun goes on here, he hath more or lefs declination north 
 and fouth. 
 
 Alfo, from the middle of this circle, the latitudes of 
 the planets and fixed ftars arc accounted from theecliptick 
 towards its poles. And thofe poles are 23 degrees 30 
 minutes diftant from the poles of the world, or of the 
 cquinodial; and by their motions are the polar circles 
 deferibed. 
 
 In thefe poles all the circles of longitude, which are 
 drawn through the zodiack, terminate (as the meridians 
 and hour-circles do in the poles of the world) and as the 
 azimuth circles do in the zenith and nadir. 
 
 The breadth of this circle, or rather zone, in the hea¬ 
 vens, is 20 degrees; for beyond 10 degrees north, or 10 
 degrees fouth, the latitude of no planet ever reaches. 
 
 It feems to have been divided into 12 parts (which 
 they call figns) becaufe, while the fun in a year's time 
 is running through the zodiack or ecliptick, there happen 
 to be 12 lunations; or the moon undergoes all her 
 changes and phafes 12 times, pretty near. Each fign is 
 divided into 30 degrees, lb that the whole makes 360 : 
 and they begin to reckon at the eaftern interfettion of the 
 equinoctial and ecliptick, or at the vernal equinox, 
 where they place the firft point of Aries ; going on thence 
 to Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, A-c. and when you count 
 thus forward on, according to the ufual order and courfe 
 of the figns, they call it, in confequentia; but if you 
 count backwards from Taurus to Aries, he. they fay, it 
 is in antecedents. 
 
 The reafon of the name of this circle, and its origin, 
 was this ; 
 
 The ancient aftronomers obferved the fun in his ap¬ 
 parent annual motion to ddcribe always one and the 
 fame line or track in the heavens, and never to deviate 
 from this path cither to the north or the fouth, as all 
 the other planets they found did more or lefs. And be¬ 
 caufe they oblcrved the fun to Ihift as it were backwards, 
 through all the parts of this circle or path, fo that in his 
 whole year’s courfe he would rife, culminate, and fet 
 with every point of it, they diftinguifhed the lixed ftars, 
 which appeared in or near this circle, into 12 conftclla- 
 tions or divilions, which they called figns, becaufe they 
 were marks to diftinguifh whereabout the fun was. Thefe 
 figns they painted ufually in the form of animals, and 
 thence came the word zodiack ; and the very middle of it 
 is called the c-.liptick, becaule the eclipfes only happen 
 when the moon is alfo in that line. 
 
 Ancient tradition has handed down to us the inge¬ 
 nious method which the firft men made ufe of, to know 
 exactly the line which the fun defcribes under the hea¬ 
 vens in the perpetual changings of its place, and to di¬ 
 vide the year into equal portions. This tradition is 
 found in two ancient authors, the one Roman, the other 
 Greek. The firft attributes it to the Egyptians; the 
 other, to the firft inhabitants of Chaldea. 
 
 They every day law the fun and the whole heavens 
 turning and paffi'ng from eaft to weft. In the mean time 
 they obferved that the fun, by a motion peculiar to it, 
 from day to day receded from fome certain ftars, and 
 took its place under others, always advancing towards 
 the eaft. Whilft the moon was making twelve times 
 that revolution, the fun made it only once ; but fhe 
 began the thirteenth again, before the fun had as yet 
 compleated its own. The habit of dividing the year 
 into pretty near twelve lunations, made them wifh that 
 they had twelve divilions of a year perfectly equal, or 
 twelve months, which might be exactly equivalent to 
 the year itfelf, and which might, as it were, be pointed 
 at with one’s finger in the heavens, by (hewing fome 
 certain ftars under which the fun paffes during every one 
 of thefe months. Here is then the method in which they 
 divided the courfe of the fun in twelve equal portions or 
 collections of ftars, which are called afterifms or con- 
 ftellations. Our aftronomers took a couple of brafs open 
 vefiels, the one pierced at the bottom, and the other 
 without any orifice below. Having flopped the hole of 
 the firft, they filled it with water, and placed it fo as 
 that the water might run out into the other vefiel, the 
 moment the cock (hould be opened. This done, they 
 obferved in that part of the heaven, where the fun has 
 its annual courfe, the riling of a liar, remarkable either 
 for its magnitude or brightnefs; and at the critical in- 
 
 Z O D 
 
 ftant it appeared on the horizon, they began to let the 
 water flow out of the upper vefiel into the other during 
 the reft ot the night, and the whole following day, to 
 the very moment when the fame ftar being come to the 
 eaft again, began to appear anew on the horizon. The 
 inftant it was again leen, they took away the under 
 vefiel, and threw the water that remained in the other 
 on the ground. The obfervers were thus fure of having 
 one revolution of the whole heaven, between the firft 
 rifing of the ftar and its return. The water, which had 
 flowed during that time, might then afford them a means 
 of mealuring the duration of one whole revolution of the 
 heaven, and of dividing that duration into fcveral equal 
 portions; fince, by dividing that water itfelf into twelve 
 equal parts, they were fure of having the revolution of a 
 twelfth part of the heaven during the efflux of a twelfth 
 part of the water: they then divided the water of the 
 under vefiel into twelve parts perfectly equal, and pre¬ 
 pared two other fmall vefiels capableof containing exa&ly 
 one of thofe portions, and no more. They again poured 
 into the great upper vefiel the twelve parts of water all 
 at once, keeping the vefiels (hut. Then they placed 
 under the cock, (till (hut, one of the two fmall vefiels, 
 and another near it to fucceed the firft, as foon as it 
 lhould be full. 
 
 All thefe preparations being ready, they, the next 
 night, obferved that part of the heaven towards which 
 they had for a long while remarked that the fun, the 
 moon, and the planets, took their courfes, and (laid 
 for the rifing of the conftellation, which is fince called 
 Aries. The Greeks, perhaps, gave that name to fome 
 ftars different from thofe which went by it before the 
 ftood : but this enquiry is not neceffary at prefent. The 
 inftant Aries appeared, and they faw the firft ftar of it 
 afeending, they let the water run into the little mea- 
 fure. As foon as it was full, they removed it, and 
 threw the water out. In the mean time they put the 
 other empty mcafure under the fall. They obferved 
 exa&ly, and fo as to remember very well, all the ftars 
 that rofe during all the periods which the meafure took 
 in filling; and that part of the heaven was terminated in 
 their obfervations by the ftar which appeared the laft on 
 the horizon, the moment the meafure was juft full; fo 
 that, by giving the two little vefiels the time neceffary 
 to be alternately filled to the brim three times each dur¬ 
 ing the night, they had, by that means, one half of the 
 courfe of the fun in the heaven, that is, one half of the 
 heaven itfelf; and that half, again, was divided into fix 
 equal portions, of which they might (hew and diftinguifh 
 the beginning, the middle, and the end, by ftars, which, 
 from their fize, number, or order, were rendered diftin- 
 guifhable. As to the other half of the heaven, and the 
 fix other conftellations which the fun runs over therein, 
 they were forced to defer the obfervation of them to 
 another feafon. They (lopped till the fun, being placed 
 in the middle of the now known and obferved conftel¬ 
 lations, (hould leave them at liberty to fee the other dur¬ 
 ing the night. 
 
 Doubtlefs, fome precautions are neceffary, not to mif- 
 take as to the fall of the water, which muft How more 
 (lowly, in proportion as its mafs is lefs high. How¬ 
 ever, after having by this, or fome fuch means, made 
 themfelves fure of the great annual courfe, which the 
 fun faithfully follows in the heavens, and of the equality 
 of the (paces filled by the twelve collections of ftars that 
 limit that courfe, the obfervers thought of giving them 
 names. They in general called them the ftations or 
 the houfes ot the fun, and afligned three of them to each 
 feafon. They then gave each conftellation a peculiar 
 name, whole property did not only confift in making 
 it known again to all nations, but in declaring, at the 
 fame time, the circumftance of the year (which was of 
 concern to mankind) when the fun lhould arrive at that 
 conftellation. 
 
 By a particular care of providence, the dams of the 
 flocks commonly happen to be pregnant about the end 
 of autumn. They bring forth duiing the winter, and 
 in the beginning of the fpring. Whence it happens 
 that the young ones arc kept warm under the mother 
 during the cold, and, afterwards, eafily thrive and grow 
 aClive at the return of heat. The lambs come the firft, 
 the calves follow them, and the kids fall the laft. By 
 this means the lambs, grown vigorous and ftrong, may 
 
 follow 
 
Z O D 
 
 follow the ram to the fields, as the fine days come on. 
 Soon after the calves, and at laft the kids venture abroad, 
 and, by incrcafing the flock, begin to augment the re¬ 
 venues of their matter. 
 
 Our ancient obfervers, feeing that there were, during 
 the fpring, no productions more ufeful than lambs, calves, 
 and kids, gave the conftellations, under which the fun 
 pafles during that l'eafon, the names of the three animals 
 which enrich mankind molt. The firft was named 
 Aries, the fecond Taurus, the third the two kids (Ge¬ 
 mini) the better to characterize the fecundity of goats, 
 which more commonly bring forth two young ones than 
 one, and an abundance of milk more than fiufficient to 
 nourifh them. 
 
 The bulk of mankind had already very often re¬ 
 marked, that there was a point to which the fun raifed 
 itfelf in its coming towards them, but which it never 
 exceeded ; and that it afterwards funk daily, in receding 
 from them for fix months together; till it arrived at an¬ 
 other point a great way under the firft, but below which 
 it never defeended. This retreat of the fun, made very 
 flowly, and always backward, gave the obfervers the oc- 
 cafion of diflinguifhing the ftars, which follow the two 
 kids, or Gemini, by the name of the animal that walks 
 backward, viz. the crab. When the fun pafles under 
 the next conftellation, it makes our climate feel fultry 
 heats, but chiefly the climates where men were at that 
 time all gathered together. When poets attribute to that 
 eonftellatipn the fiercenefs and raging of the lion, of 
 which it bears the name, it is very eafy to guefs at what 
 might determine that choice from the beginning. Soon 
 after, the houfing of the hay and the corn is entirely 
 over throughout the call, there remain on the ground 
 only a few ears fcattered here and there, which they 
 cauled to be gleaned by the leaft neceflary hands: this 
 work is left to the youngeft girls. How then could they 
 represent the conftellation under which the fun fees no 
 longer any crops on the ground, better than by the name 
 and figure of a young maid a-gleaning ? The wings you 
 fee her have in the fpheres are ornaments added of later 
 date, after the introduction of fables. The virgin, which 
 follows the lion, is certainly no other than a gleaning 
 girl, or, if you will, a reaper; and, left we fhould mif- 
 take her functions, fhe befides has in her hand a duller 
 of cars: a very natural proof of the origin here attri¬ 
 buted to her. 
 
 The perfeCt equality of days and nights, which hap¬ 
 pens when the fun quits the fign Virgo, caufcd aftrono- 
 mers to give the next fign the name of Libra, that is, of 
 a balance. The frequent difeafes which the fun leaves 
 behind him, or caufes by his retiring, procured the next 
 fign the name of Scorpio ; becaufe it is mifehievous, and 
 drags after it a fling and venom. Towards the end of 
 autumn, the fall of the leaf expofes wild bcafts, leaving 
 them lefs covering: vintage and harveft are over: the 
 fields are free, and it is of ill confequence to fuffer the 
 propagation of beafts at the approach of winter. Every 
 thing then invites us to hunt, and the fign, in which the 
 fun is at that time, has from thence obtained the name of 
 Sagittarius; that is, the archer or huntfman. 
 
 What is the proper and diftinCtive cliaiafter of the 
 wild goat, or Capricorn, of which the firft fign of winter 
 has the name ? It is to look for its food, getting from 
 the foot of the mountains to the higheft fummit, and al¬ 
 ways climbing from rock to rock. 
 
 The name of Capricorn was then fit to inform men of 
 the time when the fun, having reached the loweft verge 
 . of its courfe, was ready to begin to aicend again towards 
 the higheft, and to continue to do fo for fix months to¬ 
 gether. This is quite the reverfe of the crab (Cancer) ; 
 and the happy concurrence of the oppofite characters of 
 thefe two animals, is a proof of what direCted the firft 
 obfervers in the impofition of all thefe names. 
 
 Aquarius and Pilces, without any difficulty, mark out 
 the rainy feafon, and the time of the year when fifties, 
 fatter and nicer than in any other time, bring on again 
 the profit and pleafure of filhing. 
 
 It may be remarked, that of the twelve conftellations, 
 there are ten, the names of which arc borrowed from 
 feveral animals ; which caufed aftronomers to give the 
 annual circle, which they compofe, the name of Zodi- 
 ack. It is as much as if you fliould fay, the circle of 
 animals. 
 
 Z O N 
 
 By this very plain induftry, men acquired a new me¬ 
 thod of meafuring time, and of regulating all their works. 
 They already knew, without any trouble or care howto 
 regulate the order of their feafts and common bufinefs, by 
 infpeCtion only of the phffcs of the moon. From the 
 knowledge of the zodiack, they obtained an exaCt know¬ 
 ledge of the year : the conftellations became to them lb 
 many very fignificant iigns, which, both by their names 
 and refpcCtive fituations, informed them of the order of 
 their harvefts, and of the cautions they were to take, in 
 order to bring them about, openly and daily fliewing 
 them, how long they were to flay for them : the people 
 were neither obliged to call up the days, or mark out the 
 order of times to regulate themfelves. Twelve words 
 applied to twelve different parts of the heaven, which 
 every night revolved before their eyes, were to them a 
 part of knowledge no lefs convenient and advantageous, 
 than eafy to be acquired. When men, after the letting 
 of the fun, faw the ftars of the fign Aries afeend the op¬ 
 pofite horizon, and diftant from the fun by one half of 
 the heaven, they then knew that the fun was under the 
 fign Libra, which, being the feventh ofthe celeftial figns, 
 was diftant from the firft by one whole half of the zo¬ 
 diack. When at the approach of day ihcy faw in the 
 middle of the heaven, and at an equal diftance from eaft 
 and weft, the fineft ftar of the fign Leo, they eafily un- 
 derftood that the fun, then ready to rife, was at the dif¬ 
 tance of three figns from Leo, and removed towards the 
 eaft one quarter part of its circle. Thus, without fee¬ 
 ing -he ftars which the fun drowned by its brightnefs as 
 became under them, they laid with a perfeCt affurance, 
 that the fun is now in Scorpio ; two months hence we 
 fhall have the fhorteft day. They could, on fight of a 
 Angle conftellation, placed in the eattern, or middle, or 
 weftern part of the heaven, immediately fay where the 
 fun was, how far the year was advanced, anil what kind 
 of work it was fit they fliould bufy themfelves about. 
 After this manner fhepherds and farmers ftill regulate 
 their works; and if we at prelent are now ignorant of 
 the ftars, if we are not able to determine the diftance be¬ 
 tween one conftellation ffiewn us, and the aCtual place 
 of the fun, it is becaufe we can read and write. The 
 firft men perufed the heavens for want of writing; and 
 is on account of the conveniency of writing, that the ge¬ 
 nerality of men now difpenfe with looking among the 
 ftars, for the knowledge of the operations and order of 
 the year. But writing itfelf, that fo ufeful invention, is 
 one ofthe produ&s of aftronomy ; and it may be eafily 
 ftiewn all'o, that the names, given the twelve celeftial 
 figns, gave birth to the invention both of painting and 
 writing. The hiftory of the heavens promifes a very 
 agreeable novelty, and it will continue to inform us of 
 the helps, for which we are indebted to the ftudy of 
 nature. 
 
 Zodiack of the Comets. Caffini hath obferved a cer¬ 
 tain tra£l in the heavens, within whole bounds (by many 
 obfervations) he found moll comets, though not all, to 
 keep. This he makes as broad as the other zodiack, and 
 marks it with figns or conftellations like that; which arc 
 Antinous, Pegafus, Andromeda, Taurus, Orion, the 
 leflerDog, Hydra, the Centaur, Scorpion, and Sagittary. 
 
 ZONE, in geography and aftronomy, a divifion of 
 the terraqueous globe, with refped to the different de¬ 
 grees of heat found in the different parts thereof. 
 
 There are five Zones. One of which is called the 
 torrid zone, and is that fpace, or track of the earth which 
 is comprehended between the two tropicks. The ancients 
 imagined this track of the earth to be uninhabitable, oil 
 account of the heat of the fun there. There are two 
 frigid zones, the one is that portion of the earth’s fur- 
 facewhichis included within the arflick circle, the other 
 within the antardlick. The remaining two are the tem¬ 
 perate zones, lying on one fide the equator, and the other 
 on the other, between the frigid and the torrid ones. 
 
 ZONNAR, a kind of belt, or girdle of black lea¬ 
 ther, which the Chriftians and Jews of the Levant, par¬ 
 ticularly thofe in Alia, and the territories of the grand 
 feignior, are obliged to wear; to dillmguifh themfelves 
 from the Mahometans. 
 
 It was Motavakkel X. kaliph of the family of the 
 Abaflides, that firft enjoined the Chriftians to wear the 
 zonnar. 'Fhe ordinance to this effe£l was publifhed in 
 the year of the Hegira 235. 
 
 Hcnce ; 
 
zoo 
 
 Hence, as moft of the Chriftians of Syria, Mefopo- 
 tamia, &c. are either Neftorians, or Jacobites; thofe 
 fe&aries are often called Chriftians of the girdle. 
 
 ZOOLOGIA, Zoology, a difeouri'e or treatife 
 upon animals, or living creatures. 
 
 Zoology makes a confiderable article in natural hiftory; 
 comprehending what relates to the form, ftru&ure, me¬ 
 thod of living, feeding, propagating, &c. of the divers 
 lpeaes of brute creatures. 
 
 ZOPHORICK Column, a column that fupports 
 the figure of an animal. 
 
 ZOOPHORUS, or Zopiiorus, in the ancient 
 architecture, the fame thing with the frieze in the mo¬ 
 dern. 
 
 It was thus called in Greek, becaufe anciently adorned 
 with the figures of animals, from &ev, animal, and 
 ftp, I bear. The Greeks fometimes alfo call the zo- 
 diack, zophorus, becaufe of the figns and conftellations 
 therein. 
 
 ZOOPHYTON, Zoophyte, in natural hiftory, 
 a kind of intermediate body, partaking both of the na¬ 
 ture of a fenfitive and a vegetable. 
 
 Such is the planta pudica commonly fuppofed to be, 
 though with little foundation. The ancients alfo re¬ 
 puted fponges to be zoophytes. 
 
 The foetus, while in the womb, appears to be a real 
 zoophyte, growing to the mother by the funiculus um- 
 bilicalis, as plants do to the earth by their flem. 
 
 Olearius mentions a very extraordinary fort of zoo¬ 
 phyte, called agnus Scythicus, or boiametz, growing 
 near Samara on the Volga. It is a kind of melon fhaped 
 hke a lamb, all the parts whereof it has, and grows to 
 the earth by a ftera, which ferves it for a navel-firing. 
 As it grows, it changes place as much as its Hem will 
 allow of; and it confumes and dries up all the grafs 
 where it grows. When ripe, the Hem withers, and the 
 body, or fruit, becomes covered with a downy fkin, 
 which may be drefled and ufed as fur. 
 
 Olearius was Ihewn fome of this fkin, taken off the 
 covering of a bed, which the people fwore came from the 
 fruit; it was covered with a foft curled wool, like that 
 of a young lamb. Scaliger adds, that this fruit lives, 
 and grows, till fuch time as it wants grafs. 
 
 Z Y T 
 
 ZOOTOMY, the art or aa of drifting animals 
 or i.vmg creatures. b aJS> 
 
 Zootomy amounts to the faille with anatomy, or ra- 
 flier comparative anatomy. J 
 
 n Z °f P !? SA ’ a naval P itch » or that draped off from the 
 tides of mips that have been a long time at fea. It is a 
 compofnion of pitch and tar, impregnated by the fait of 
 the lea; and is ufed in external applications as a refolu- 
 tive and deiiccative. 
 
 ZUINGLIANS, a branch of the ancient Clrriftian 
 Keformers or Proteflants, fo called from their author 
 HuJdrick Zuinglius, admneof Switzerland! who, loon 
 after Luther had declared againft the church of Rome 
 and being then minifter of the church at Zurich, fell in 
 with him, and preached openly againftindulgences the 
 inals, the celibacy of the clergy, &c. # 
 
 ZYGOMA, in anatomy, a bone of the head, other- 
 wife called os jugale. 
 
 The zygoma is nofingle bone, but an union or affem- 
 blage of two proccfles, or eminences of bones; the one 
 from the os temporis, the other from the os-mala;. 
 
 Thefe two eminences, or apophyfes, are joined to¬ 
 gether by a future, thence called zvgomaticus. 
 
 ZYGOMAT1CUS Musculus, in anatomy, is a 
 mufcle which comes from the zygoma, and, pafW 
 obliquely, is inferted near the angle of the lips. It helps 
 to draw the lips obliquely upwards. 
 
 Zvgomaticus, is alfo an epithet applied to the 
 future which joins the two procelfes of the zygoma to¬ 
 gether. a 
 
 ZYMOSIMETER, an inftrument propofed by 
 owammerdam, in his book de Refpiratione, to meafure 
 the degree of fermentation, occafioned by the mixture of 
 different bodies, and the degree of heat they acquire in 
 fermenting; as, alfo, the.heat or temperament of the 
 blood of animals. 
 
 ZY FHOGALA, a term frequently met with in Sv- 
 denham, fignifying a poffet-drink, or a mixture of beer 
 and milk. 
 
 ZYTHUM, orZYTHos, a fort of malt liquor, in 
 ufe among the ancient Germans. 
 
 Matthiolus reprefents the ancient zythum, and curmi 
 as the fame with our beer and ale. 
 
 , *, Fo ' a m ° re p^ticular account of Zuinglius and his followers, fee his life in the Biographia Evangelica i„ft 
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L 
 
 SUBS 
 
 A. 
 
 M R. James Afhman. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Allan, Dockhead. 
 Mr.Anderfon, Middle Orde, Berwick. 
 Mr. Benjamin Acocks, Goodge-ftreet. 
 Mr. George Atton, Shoe-lane. 
 
 Mr. J. Allen. 
 
 Mr. Gabriel Arrowfmith. 
 
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 Aleffrs. Boldero, and Co. 
 
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 A 
 
 I s 
 
 O F T H E 
 
 C R I 
 
 Mr. Robert Benting, jun. Yarmouth. 
 Mr. Jofeph Burnell, Thetford. 
 
 Mr. Beech, Wigfton Magna. 
 
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 Dr. Barry, Brentwood, 
 
 Mr. Jacob Bennet, Ipfwich. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Baildon. 
 
 Mr. John Brown, Little Drury-lane. 
 Mr. Thomas Bourne, Kingfton upon 
 Thames. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Blaffon. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Brown, Luton Park. 
 Mr. Samuel Belt, Orange-ftreet. 
 
 Mrs. Sufannah Butler, Tower. 
 
 Mr. George Burling, Southwark. 
 
 Mr. William Barnfley, Penrith. 
 Thomas Butler, Efq; 
 
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 Mr. Timothy Buck, Wandfworth. 
 Mrs. Baker, Putney. 
 
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 Mr. John Browning. 
 
 Mr. Brittain, Dean-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Burton, Bermondfey-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Burton, Snows-fields. 
 
 Mr. Bachoffner, Strand. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Geo. Brown, Author of the 
 Englifh Letter Writer, &c. 
 
 C. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Cranner, Weftminfter. 
 Rev. Mr. Carrington, Norwich. 
 
 Mr. Conftable, Highgate. 
 
 Mr. Robert Coles, Little Britain. 
 Mr. John Cecil, Chancery-lane. 
 
 M r. T i m oth y C h i fman, Hor fley d o w n - 
 lane. 
 
 Mr. William Colcraft, Hayes. 
 
 Mr. Robert Caftle, Lower Thames-ftr. 
 Mr. William Collins, Chambers-ftr. 
 Mr. John Cockroft. 
 
 Silvanus Crofwellar, Efq; Charlton- 
 ftreet. 
 
 Mr. James Chamberlin, Cloth Fair. 
 Mr. Coates, Teacher of Mathematics 
 at Newfham. 
 
 Mr. Crowford, Swainfby, Yorkfhire. 
 Mr. Churchy, Hay. 
 
 Rev. Air. Cordakes, York. 
 
 John Cowley, Efq; Eaftholt, York¬ 
 fhire. 
 
 Air. John Crompton. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Common, Shilbottle. 
 Mr. Chifman, Thomas-ftrcct. 
 
 Mr. Jonah Cartwright, Wombourne. 
 Mr. Robert Chalk, Deal. 
 
 Mrs. Coibett, Bartlett’s-buildings. 
 Air. John Calder, Briftol. 
 
 Mr. B. Clfeypole. 
 
 T 
 
 B E R S. 
 
 Capt. Conway, Lion-ftreet, Bloomf- 
 bury. 
 
 Mr. Robert Collet, Cheapfide. 
 
 Mr. Collins, Whenfter-yard, South¬ 
 wark. 
 
 Mr. Wm. Compton, Sherborne-lane. 
 Mr. James Collar, Deptford. 
 
 Mr. Edward Clementfon, Alutton 
 Mowbray. 
 
 Mr. William Crane, Leather-lane, 
 Holborn. 
 
 Mr. Carfton Henry Cole. 
 
 Mr. Carr, Bardfey. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Collier, Penrith. 
 
 Mr. Cary, Shepton Mallet. 
 
 Mr. Coffee, Pepper-ftreet, Southwark. 
 Mr. Cleland, Newington Butts. 
 Mr.Chamberlain,Bartholomew-clofe. 
 Mr. Chambers, Cheapfide. 
 
 Mr. Coleman, Poultry. 
 
 Mr. Carter, Bank-buildings. 
 
 Mr. Creffwell, Whitechapel. 
 
 Mr. Carr, Little Britain. 
 
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 Mr. William Clark, Arthur-ftreet. 
 Mr. Coare, Newgate-ftreet. 
 
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 Sir Gray Cooper, Parliament-ftreet, 
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 Mr. Cole, New North-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Croft, Lamb’s Conduit'-ftreet. 
 
 D. 
 
 Mr. Dodd. 
 
 Mr. Davidfon, Copeland, Northum¬ 
 berland. 
 
 Mr. John Dodfon, Merlin’s-cave. 
 Mr. James Darry, Hay. 
 
 Mr. Cornelius Donovan, NewBroad- 
 ftreet. 
 
 Air. Thomas Donald, St. John-ftr. 
 Mr. William Dangerfield, Tipton, 
 StafFordfhire. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Dales, Cheapfide. 
 
 Mr. Robert Goodwyn Deeping, St. 
 
 James’s, Lincolnfhire. 
 
 Mr. William Plymouth Duke. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Dickinfon. 
 
 Air. George Dickinfon. 
 
 Mr. John D’Coodere, Northleach, 
 Gloucefterfhire. 
 
 Mr. David Des Carriere, Duke-ftr. 
 Mr. Dent, Portugal-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Jofeph Dainton. 
 
 Mr. Davidge, Arthur-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. John Davies, Leek. 
 
 Mr. Dale, Cheapfide, 
 
 6 H Mr, 
 
F THE SUBSCRIBERS, 
 
 LIST O 
 
 Mr. £)epIo, French Ordinary-court. 
 Mr. Davivs, Lemon-ftreef. 
 
 Mr. Devon, New Broad-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Lewis Duval, Throgmorton-ftr. 
 Mr. H. D’Auglair,.Throgmorton-fir. 
 Mr. Davis, Caftle-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Du Bough, Noble-ftrect. 
 
 Mr. Dardon, Bow-ftreet. 
 
 William Danfield, Efq; Highgate. 
 Mr. Nathaniel Davies, Lothbury, 
 Mr. Drummond; 
 
 E. 
 
 John Edwards, Efq; Northampton. 
 Mr. Charles Ecfmonds, Noblc-ftreet. 
 Mr. William Edington, Horfefcrry- 
 road, Weftminften 
 Mr. T. M. Evans. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Edmead, King-ftfeet; 
 -Mr. Philip Evans, Briftol. 
 
 Mr. WdJicim Edwards, Ixwort-h. 
 
 Mr. Peter Edwards, Fifher-ftreet. 
 Mr. Eaftbqrn, Aufthorpe. 
 
 Fir. John Edjvas, Gofwell-ftreet; 
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 Mr. Elliot, Crerwn-ftreet,Weftminfter 
 Mr. Elliot. 
 
 Mr. Edwards, Attorney at L,aw. 
 
 Mr. George Elliott, Fetter-lane, 
 
 F. - 
 
 1 he Right Hon. the Earl ©f Fife. 
 Whitehall. 
 
 George I’owler, Efq; Liverpool. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Filher, Chillingham, Nor¬ 
 thumberland. 
 
 Mr. Richard Friend, Long - lane, 
 Southwark* 
 
 Mr. Baruch Fox, Beamifter. 
 
 Mr. 1 hpmas Friendj Darlington. 
 
 Mr. Forfter, Northwould, Norfolk, 
 Mr, William Filher, Poultry. 
 
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 Air. Flin, Litchfield. 
 
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 buildings, Weft mi niter. 
 
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 Author of the Hiftory of the Bible 
 in Verle, and Grace Triumphant, 
 a Poem. 
 
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 ton, Gloucefterlhire, 
 
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 G. 
 
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 N. B. Grefley, Efq; Litchfield. 
 
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 mas Apoftles. 
 
 George Alexander Gordon, M. D. 
 author of the complete Englilh 
 Phyfician. 
 
 Mr, Gilfon, Aldgate. 
 
 Mr, Thomas Gall, Wickham. 
 
 H. 
 
 Air. Hamilton, Minories. 
 
 Rev. Dr. Hurd, Gloucefterlhire, au¬ 
 thor of the Religious Rites and 
 Ceremonies of all Nations. 
 
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 Sufiex. 
 
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 l 
 
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 Erneft Alexander Jaeyerfchmid, E% 
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 Air. John Ingham. 
 
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 Air. D. M. Jenkins. 
 
 Air. Peter Jones, Ruthin, Denbigh- 
 lhire. 
 
 Mr. Evan Jons, Ruthin. 
 
 Mr. Jofeph Juftice, Garlick-hifl. 
 
 Air. Jones, John-ftreet, Tottenham* 
 court-road. 
 
 — Jordan, Efq; Dartmouth-ftreet, 
 Mr. David Jaffray, Wclls-ftreet, Ox¬ 
 ford-road. 
 
 Air. Jacob Perrington, Ifle of Wight-, 
 Air. Thomas Jones, Southwark. 
 
 Air. J ones, Walworth. 
 
 Mr. John Joice, Batterfea. 
 
 Mr. Jewell, Bridgeford, Devon. 
 
 Air. Jackfon, Albemarle-ftreet. 
 
 Air. [ones. Long-lane, 
 
 Mr. Jones, Three Crown-court, South¬ 
 wark. 
 
 Mr. Jones, Southampton-ftrcet. 
 
 Mr. James, Strand. 
 
 Air. Jones, Ludgate-hill. 
 
 Air. illiain Inglefby, Bartholomew- 
 clofe. 
 
 Mr. Jackfon, Newgate-ftreet. 
 
 K. 
 
 Mr. Kennedy, Terry-ftr. Lamhctb. 
 
 Mr. King, Woolwich. 
 
 Mr. Roger K nknian.Broinpron. Kent. 
 Mr. Ackmau Kirkland. 
 
 - Mr.. 
 
jVTr. Henry King, Camberwell. 
 
 IVIr. William King,Long-lane,South¬ 
 wark. 
 
 Mr. John King, Little Britain. 
 
 Mr. Henry King, Hungerford-market. 
 Mr. Kardon, New-court, Colcman- 
 ftreet. 
 
 Mr. King, John-ftreet, Bedford-row. 
 Mr. James Kennion, Hallifax. 
 
 Mr. Alex. Kenworthy, Appleby, Weft- 
 morland. 
 
 Richard King, Efq; 
 
 Mr. Thomas Kempfon, Birmingham. 
 
 L. 
 
 ’’Thomas Lowe, Efq; Manchefter. 
 
 Mr. David Lowes. 
 
 Mr. Loader, Millba'nk-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Lawrance, Richmond. 
 Mr. Lowes, Compton-ftreet, Soho. 
 Mr- William Lawton, Cloth-fair. 
 
 Mr. Leftly, Wells, Norfolk. 
 
 Mr. Lomas, Bobbers Mill, Notting- 
 h'amfhire. 
 
 Mr. Lothbury, Lamb’s Conduit-ftr. 
 Mr. Thomas Lathana, Wigan, Lan- 
 caftiire. 
 
 Mr. Lee Lewes, Bow-ftreetr. 
 
 Mr; P. Lefiie, at Eyemouth. 
 
 Mr.- Locock, Knare(borough. 
 
 Thomas Legge, Efq; Prefteigne. 
 
 Mr. Lewis, Bread Clift, Devon. 
 
 Capt. Robert Llekots, Silver-ftrcet. 
 Mr. Lawton, Alderfgate-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Langfton, Clieapfide. 
 
 Mr. Lloyd, George-ftrect. 
 
 Mr. Lefcara, Eaft-ftreet, Spittle-fields. 
 Mr. Lancafter, Bread-ftrect. 
 
 M/. Lorimer, Strand. 
 
 Mr. Loder, Norwich-. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mr. John Hamilton Moore, author 
 of the new and complete Collec¬ 
 tion of Voyages and Travels, 
 and matter of the academy in 
 Brentford. 
 
 Mr. Richard M‘Daniel, Tower. 
 
 Mr. Mitchell, Hampftead. 
 
 John Marlhall, Efq; Whitechurch, 
 Salop. . 
 
 Mr. Richard Mufgrave, Upper Moor- 
 fields. 
 
 Mr. W. Mather, Deptford. 
 
 Mr. M‘Lean. 
 
 Mr. Henry Micliell, jun. Penzance. 
 Mr. John Middleton. 
 
 Mr. Anthony Metcalfe, Richmond, 
 Yorklhire. 
 
 Mr. James Marfh, Richmond, York¬ 
 lhire. 
 
 Mr. Jonah Mitford, Truro. 
 
 Mr. Metcalfe, North Allerton. 
 
 .Mr. William Maken. 
 
 Robert Milford, Elq; Elyhaugh. 
 
 Mr. J. Mefiing. 
 
 Mr. William Auguftus Mitchell, En¬ 
 field. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Maddox. 
 
 Mr. Jeremiah Mitchell, St. Martin’s- 
 le-Grand. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Major. 
 
 Mr. E. Maniftrce, Healftead. 
 
 *M f. 'Richnr d 1 \£oon. 
 
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 Mr. Morel, Fleet-ftreet. 
 
 Mr.-Mugg, Exeter. 
 
 Mr. Maudfley, George-ftreet. 
 
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 Mr. M‘Danick, Tower. 
 
 Mr. Malpas, Mary-le-Bone. 
 
 Mr. John Maples, North Allerton. 
 
 Mr. Mathews, Strand. 
 
 Mr. Manning, GlafgoW. 
 
 N. 
 
 Mr. William Norden, Pickering. 
 
 Mr. Norris, Caftle-yard. 
 
 William Nicholls, Efq; Trerief. 
 
 Mr. Nefbitt, John-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Nicholls,Tower-ftreet. 
 Mr. E. Newman, Hoddefdon. 
 
 Mr. John Nifbct, Hayes, Kent. 
 
 Mr. HenryNelfon, Lamb-ftreet, Spit¬ 
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 Rev. Mr. Newcomen, Taunton, So- 
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 Mr. Jofeph Needham, Leek. 
 
 Mr. Nicoll, Great Tower-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Newell, Ivy-lane. 
 
 Mr. Noift, Newington-caufcway. 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Newman, Jewin-ftreet. 
 Jofeph Newman, Efq; I fie of Wight. 
 
 O. 
 
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 Mr. T. Olderfham, Iflington. 
 
 Mr. John Overftall. 
 
 Mr. Stephen Oliver, Melford. 
 
 Dennis O’Kelly, Efq; Piccadilly. 
 
 Mr. Richard Oxlade, Wimbleton. 
 
 Mr. Overftall, Old-ftreet-fquare. 
 
 Mr. Owen, Clerkenwell-green. 
 
 Mr. Henry Olding, Cocker-mouth. 
 Mr. William Orry, Yarmouth. 
 
 Mr. Luke Oakham,Tiverton,Devon. 
 Stephen Oliver, Efq; 
 
 P. 
 
 Mr. Philipfon. 
 
 Mr. Price. 
 
 Mr. Prickett, Highgate. 
 
 Mrs. Sarah Phillips, Lambeth. 
 
 Mr. Patcrfon, Fowberry, Northum¬ 
 berland. 
 
 Mr. Payne, Lambeth. 
 
 Mr. Payne, Poultry. 
 
 Mr. John Pain, Poole, Dorfet. 
 
 Mr. Evan Pryce, Llanfyjlin, Mont- 
 gomcryfhire. 
 
 Mr. Peyton, Navy Office. 
 
 Mr. J. Painter, Truro. 
 
 Mr. James Pafmore, New Windfor. 
 Rev. Mr. John Pierce, Ruthin. 
 
 Mr. Pyle, Cecil-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. John Pratt, Deptford. 
 
 William Player, Efq; 
 
 Mr. James Phipps, Gutter-lane; 
 Samuel Pugh, Elq; 
 
 Mr. James Patrick, Ipfwich. 
 
 Mr. Prigg, Ipfwich. 
 
 Mr. Evan Powell, Bankfide. 
 
 Mr. Richard Poole. 
 
 Mr. Richard Parke, New Sleaford. 
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 Mr. Plumly, Ludgate-hill. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Pafte, Leeds, Hallifax. 
 Mr. Robert Pollard. 
 
 Mr. Plummer, Lime-ftrcet. 
 
 Mr. Payne, Bell-yard. 
 
 Mr. Palmer, Pearle-ftrect. 
 
 Mr. Pircey, Flcur-de-lucc-court. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Perkins, Caftle-ftreet, 
 Long Acre. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Pafham, Black-friars. 
 
 Mr. Parks, Gray ’is -I nm 
 
 Q. 
 
 Mr. George Quafh, Falmouth. 
 
 Mr. Alex. Queen, Hempftead. 
 
 Mr. Quintondick. 
 
 Mr. Philip Quarie. 
 
 Mr. John Quality, Chancery-lane. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Romaine, Black-friars. 
 
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 Mr. Adam Reed, Woolwich. 
 
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 Mr. William Ringftead, Berner’s-flr. 
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 Mr- Wm. Robinfon, Sall'ronWalden, 
 Mr. William Raper, Appleby. 
 
 Mr. Stephen Robinfon, Duxford, 
 Cambridgelhire. 
 
 Mr. William Redman, Swaffllam. 
 Mr. Ellis Roberts, Ruthin. 
 
 Mr. William Robfon, Newcaftle upoii 
 Tyne. 
 
 Mr. John Robifon, Loman’s Pond. 
 Charles Robbins, Efq; Newberry. 
 
 Mr. Richardfon, Worlingworth. 
 
 Mr. Row, Phcenix-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Rainbolt, Curfitor-ftr, 
 Mr. Thomas Rufby. 
 
 Mr. Raven, Booking. __ 
 
 Rev. Mr. Reynolds, Kingftoit. 
 
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 Mrs. Rofs, St. Mary Axe. 
 
 Mr. Ranfom, Old Jewry. 
 
 Mr. Ray, Berkley-court. 
 
 Mr. Rooke, John-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Ritcher, Great Newport-ftreet. 
 Mr. Runqueft, Soho-fquare. 
 j\Jr. Thomas Ribright, jun. Poultry; 
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 S. 
 
 William Simpfon, Efq; Peter-ftreet, 
 Weftminfter. 
 
 Mr. Sparrow. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Savage, jun. Deptford. 
 Lieut. Gen. Sorrell, Somerfet-ftreet, 
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 Mr. George Singleton, Richmond. 
 Mr. Samuel Smith, Richmond. 
 
 Mr. Edward Selby, Yardhill, Nor¬ 
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 Mr. Jofeph Scott, Botolph-lane. 
 
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 Mr. John Steers, Strand. 
 
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 Mrs. Selby, Foxton-hall. 
 
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 Mr. Salt, Green Walk. 
 
 Mr. Timothy Simpfon, Papplewick, 
 near Nottingham. 
 
 Meflrs. Smith, Payne, and Smith, 
 George-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. James Shipdem, Deal. 
 
 Mr. Edward Storey, Wapping. 
 
 LIST OF THE SUBSCRIBERS. 
 
 Ml-. Meredith, Water-ftreet, Black- 
 friars. 
 
LIST OF THE SUBSCRI 
 
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 • Shaw, Litchfield. 
 
 . I homas Steel, Whitecrofs-flreet 
 . Geo. Saint, Adelphi. 
 
 . Swan, Yarmouth. 
 
 . Sarch, Gravcl-ftreet. 
 
 John Sharman, Peterborough. 
 Charles Stokes, Chelmsford. 
 Samuel Stephens, Shoe-lane. 
 
 -Shepley, Bedford-ftreet. 
 
 S. Smith, Leifton. 
 
 John Strother. 
 
 . Studd, Needham-market. 
 
 . Geo. Shade. 
 
 . Sparrow, Tower. 
 
 .James Scarnell, Mitcham. 
 Thomas Shepherd, Albion Place, 
 Black-friars 
 
 I. Smitheman, Braintree. 
 Thomas Steele, Bunhill-row. 
 John Smith, Goodman’s-fields. 
 John Spierring, Chancery-lane. 
 Francis Sollers, Strand. 
 
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 Stafford, ditto. 
 
 Scott, Great Tower-hill. 
 
 George Slenmer, Manfeli-ftreet 
 Willoughby Stevens, Stains. 
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 Savage-, Bifhopfgate-ftrect. 
 Stewart, Little Winchefler-ftreet 
 Sharpe, Millman-ftreet. 
 
 Spencer, Great Geoige-ftreet. 
 Saint, Dclphs Buildings. 
 Stevenfon, Gough-fquare. 
 Shadvvack, New-ftreet. 
 
 Sherwin, Dodlor’s Commons. 
 Smith, Seven Dials. 
 
 Swain, Newgate-flreet. 
 
 B E R S. 
 
 T. 
 
 Sir H Tempeft,Tong-hall, Yorkfhire. 
 Mr. John 1 horapfon. 
 
 Wm. Turner, Efq; Richmond. 
 
 Mr. Archibald I urnbull, Barmoor, 
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 Mr. Jobfon Turvelaws, ditto. 
 
 Mr. Richard Travers, Loders, near 
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 Mr. Hamford Truckets. 
 
 Mr. Taite, York. 
 
 Mr. Teler, ditto. 
 
 Mr. James Taylor. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Davis Totten. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Taylor, Swaffham. 
 
 Mr. Terence, Adelphi. 
 
 Mr. John Thompfon, Rotherhithe. 
 Henry Tuckford, Efq; Harley-ftreet. 
 Mr. Mathew Thomafon. 
 
 Mr. Taylor, Ipfwich. 
 
 Mr. Tolington. 
 
 Mr. Thorn, Exon. 
 
 Mr. Robert Thuklton, New Sleaford. 
 
 Mr. Trewman, Exeter. 
 
 Mr. 1 ulk, Upper Thames-ftreet. 
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 Mr. Richard Trimmer, Ducks-foot 
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 Mr. Turnbull, Aldgate. 
 
 Mr. Terry, Pater-nofter-row. 
 
 Mr. Thiftlewood, Crutched-friars. 
 Mr. Teffyman, York. 
 
 U. 
 
 Mr. William Ufticke, Penzance. 
 
 Mr Edward Uttin, Aldgate 
 Mr. Underwood, Blackman-ftreet. 
 Mr. Underhill, St. James’s. 
 
 Edward Upton, Efq; Salop. 
 
 V. 
 
 Mr. I. Vogler, Glafshoufe-ftrcet. 
 
 Mr. Gerard Vogler, ditto. 
 
 Mr. Cuonzs Vidall. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Van Swinden, Charles-ftr 
 Mr. Varley, Great Ormond-llreet. 
 Mr. Thomas Vinicombe, Wine Of- 
 ficc-court, Fleet-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. William Vafe, Teacher of Ma¬ 
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 -Verier, Efq; Camberwell. 
 
 Mr. Vietch, at Sir Thos. Ackland’s 
 Mr. Vandcwall, Fofter-lane. 
 
 Mr. Vere, Southampton-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Vallance, Cheapfide. 
 
 Humphry Vere, Elq ; Taunton. 
 
 W. 
 
 Rev. Jofiah Worthington, L. L. D. 
 Cambridge 
 
 George Wright, Efq ; Hatton-ftreet. 
 Mr. W illcox, Whitechapel. 
 
 Mr. John Wilkcr, Drury-lane. 
 
 Mr. Francis Wyman, Queen-fire'-' 
 Mr. Wood, Queen’s Col lege, Oxford. 
 Mr. R. W. Walmfley. 
 
 Mr. George Wright, Richmond. 
 
 Mr. James Wainwright, St. John’s 
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 Mr. Wall, Shad well. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Wefton, jun. 
 
 Mrs. Wilfon, Strand. 
 
 Mr. George Witz, Bilhop’s-court 
 Old Bailey. 
 
 Mr. Robt. Woodward, Difs,Norfolk. 
 Mr. William Williams, Wood-fir. 
 Richard Wood, Efq; Bafinghall-flr. 
 Mr. I. Wright, Spellbrook. 
 
 Mr. Jofeph Waddington. 
 
 Mr. George Wilfon, Borough. 
 
 Rev. John Wootton, Mafier of the 
 free Grammar-fchool, at Tux 
 ford in the Clay, Nottingham!}] 
 
 Mr. Thomas Walker. 
 
 Mr. William Williams, BrifioJ 
 Mifs Way, Bridport. 
 
 Mr. Waters, Darlington. 
 
 Mr. Henry Wray, Tadcafier. 
 
 Mr. JamesWilliams,Plymouth-dock. 
 
 Mr. John Weft, Livington. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Watfon, Beak-fireet. 
 Mr. James Wollen, Freeman’s-court. 
 Mr. Wyatt, Fetter-lane. 
 
 Mr. 'Whittingham, Noble-fireet. 
 
 Mr. Weaftcoat, Falcon. 
 
 Mr. William Whiterole, Papplewick, 
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 Mr. William Williams, near Ruthin. 
 Mr. Thomas Wawen, Friday-fireet. 
 Rev. Mr. Harry Williams, Hereford. 
 Mr. William Ward,Wigfion Magna, 
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 Mr. S. Waight, Newgate-fireet. 
 
 Hon. Lord W altham, Boreham, Eflex. 
 Mr. William Webb, Ipfwich, 
 
 Mr. Thomas Wade. 
 
 Mr. Jofeph Wilfon. 
 
 Mr. William Wolfe, Pall-mali. 
 
 Mr. Chriftopher Woodward. 
 
 Mr. Jofima Waraer, Ipfwich. 
 
 Mr. Wilkinfon, Leeds. 
 
 Mr. Wallis, Booking. 
 
 Samuel Winns. Efq; Edmonton. 
 
 Mr. Benjamin Whitley. 
 
 Mr. James Williams, St. AuftclJ, 
 Cornwall. 
 
 Mr. Humphry Whifhaw, Leek. 
 
 Mr. Waters, Newmgton Butts. 
 
 Mr. Woften, Abchurch-yard. 
 
 Mr. Watfon, Love-lane. 
 
 Mr. Watterfon, Lambeth-ftreet. 
 Mr. Wdkinfon, Lothbury. 
 
 Mr. Wilfon, King-fireet. 
 
 Mr. Wright, High-ftreet, Borough. 
 Mr. \/ard, Great Ormond-ftreet. 
 Mr. Wilfon, Cecil-fireet, Strand. 
 Mr. Watfon, Arundel-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Wyatt, Fleetwood-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Wright, Ludgate-hill. 
 
 Mr. Warner, Noble-fireet. 
 
 Mr. White, Walthamftow. 
 
 Mr. Walker, Rofomond’s-row. 
 
 Mr. Wraight. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Mr. John Yarrell, Oxford-fireet. 
 Hon. Mifs Yonge, Waltham. 
 
 Mr. Young, Alderfgate-ftreet. 
 
 Mr. Robert Yeoman, Ncw-ftreet. 
 Mr. Jofeph Yigby, St. Martin’s-lane 
 Mr. Benjamin Ycllowley. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Mr. Zucchie, Adelphi. 
 
 Mr. Zamlue, Dundee. 
 
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