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TREATISES 
 
 ON 
 
 ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, 
 
 BY WILLIAM HOSKING, F.S.A. 
 
 MASONRY AND JOINERY, 
 
 BY THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. 
 
 AND 
 
 CARPENTRY, 
 
 BY THOMAS YOUNG, M.D., F.R.S. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/treatisesonarchiOOhosk 
 
TREATISES 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 BUILDING, MASONRY, JOINERY, 
 
 AND 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 WILLIAM HOSKING, THOMAS TREDGOLD, AND THOMAS YOUNG. 
 
 WITH THIRTY-SIX PLATES ENG-RAVED ON STEEL. 
 
 NE W-YORK : 
 
 D. APPLETON A COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 
 M.DCCC.LH. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The term Architecture is derived from the name of 
 its professor, Architect. It is the art of contriving and 
 constructing buildings ; and the thing produced is by 
 metonomy called by the name of the art which produces 
 it, as the art itself is named from its professor. The 
 word is directly from the Latin architecture i, irregularly 
 formed from the deponent verb architector, which is itself 
 from the Greek substantive ag%irtxruv, Latinized archi- 
 tector, architecto, and architectus ; all of which are used by 
 Latin authors. A more regular but less relevant deriva- 
 tion of the Latin words architectus and architectura is 
 found in the substitution of the participles of the verb tego, 
 to cover, &c. for the derivative of the Greek nv^ai, to 
 build, &c. 
 
 When architecture is spoken of simply, without a quali- 
 fying adjective, the designing and building civil and religi- 
 ous edifices, such as palaces, mansions, theatres, churches, 
 courts, bridges, &c. is intended ; and it is called civil, to 
 distinguish it from naval and military architecture. Al- 
 though every description of building may thus have the 
 term applied to it, it is by common consent restricted to 
 such edifices as display symmetrical arrangement in the 
 general design and fitting proportions in its parts, with a 
 certain degree of enrichment effected by means of cor- 
 nices, blocking courses, architraves, or pillared, columnar, 
 or arcaded arrangements. Architecture may indeed be 
 said to bear the same analogy to building, that literature 
 does td language. A plain brick wall covered in the ordi- 
 nary way with bricks on their edges isnot architectural, be- 
 cause it is poor, rude, and unadorned : it produces no pleas- 
 ing effect, and is such as a totally uninstructed workman 
 would construct merely to answer the purpose required of 
 it. As man, however, is endowed by nature with a taste 
 for beauty and elegance, mere rugged utility does not de- 
 light him ; as he becomes civilized, he seeks to embellish 
 whatever he produces, that it may give him positive in- 
 stead of negative pleasure, by presenting to his sense of 
 vision what his mind may dwell on with complacency ; 
 and he is thus disposed to avail himself of the dispositions 
 and decorations which constitute architecture. It may be 
 asked, what standard of beauty there is in this art, on which 
 taste may be formed ; though it must be obvious, that, like 
 other children of the imagination, such as poetry and music, 
 no other can be assigned than such compositions and modes 
 of arrangement as by their harmony and simplicity attract 
 the attention of the rudest mind, which is pleased without 
 being conscious why, and of the most learned or practised, 
 which discovers in them those proportions and peculiari- 
 ties of form which always produce the most pleasing im- 
 pressions, and appear to be dictated by nature. Painting 
 and sculpture have, to a certain extent, their originals in 
 the external works of nature, so that the most uncultured 
 taste may be gratified, or otherwise, with them, as their 
 works are faithful or unfaithful imitations ; music is more 
 artificial, and the taste must be cultivated to judge of and 
 enjoy its higher productions ; but architecture is purely 
 conventional, requiring a knowledge of its system, and a 
 mind informed as to the principles on which it depends for 
 beauty, even to its appreciation . 1 
 
 As it is necessary, in erecting a new edifice where an 
 old one has stood, to remove all that was falsely construct- 
 
 ed and insecure, if not entirely to clear out the founda- History, 
 tions ; so it is at this time necessary, in writing a treatise -y-'w 
 on architecture, to show the false grounds on which the 
 old system is founded, and remove the false impressions 
 which it has generally induced. 
 
 The earliest extant author on the subject is Vitruvius, 
 who, being ignorant of any other than his native architec- 
 ture, which was Roman, and generally derived from the 
 Greek, concocted or adopted a silly fable about the origin 
 of building, and pretends to trace from it the invention of 
 what are called “ the orders” by the Greeks ; giving, how- 
 ever, to each a separate fable of its own. He professes 
 to give the proportions, arrangements, and disposition of 
 the architectural works of the latter people, and the rules 
 by which they were composed. He describes with con- 
 siderable minuteness various species of temples and other 
 edifices of both the Greeks and Romans, and endeavours to 
 give reasons for almost every thing connected with them. 
 
 His account of the advance of man from a state of savage 
 wildness to civilization, the discovery and acquisition of 
 fire, and progress in the art of building, made by the early 
 fathers of the human race, is only surpassed in absurdity 
 by his stories of the invention and proportioning of the 
 various columnar ordinances of which the ancients made 
 use; if we except perhaps the fact, that this crude system 
 has been received and propagated throughout the civi- 
 lized world ever since the resuscitation of the work, four 
 centuries ago. How could a man, who evidently knew 
 nothing of the early history of the world, of the Celtic 
 monuments, or of the history and architecture of Egypt 
 and the East, be supposed capable of describing the in- 
 ventions and advances in knowledge of the human race? 
 
 Nor is this all : How can Vitruvius be received as an 
 authority, when it is found that he does not correctly de- 
 scribe any existing edifice in either Greece or Italy, and 
 that no example of ancient architecture, either Greek or 
 Roman, is in perfect accordance with his laws ? This we 
 shall show in its proper place, and proceed now to take a 
 view of the rise, progress, and history of our subject, with- 
 out reference to the popular system, which is based on such 
 fallacious ground. 
 
 Although it is very probable that men built houses to Origin and 
 shelter themselves from the inclemencies of the weather history of' 
 before they constructed temples to the divinity, yet it arL 'hitec- 
 must be obvious to all who have studied the early history ture ' 
 of the human race in connection with its antiquities, and 
 have considered the analogies afforded by the rude and 
 simple nations of the world at the present time, and parti- 
 cularly by those who occupied the western side of the 
 Americas on the discovery of those continents, that 
 though the art of building may have originated in the per- 
 sonal wants of man, the science of architecture was the 
 result of his devotional feelings and tendencies. In Egypt 
 and in India, in Greece and in Italy, in Gaul and in Bri- 
 tain, in Mexico and in Peru, structures connected with 
 the worship of the divinity existed, and still exist, of the 
 earliest date, or rather of dates beyond the range of posi- 
 tive chronological information ; some evincing a greater and 
 others a less advance in taste and refinement, but all re- 
 taining some analogy, bearing upon the same point, and 
 tending to what may be called architectural arrangement. 
 
 * Count Algarotti, speaking of the absence of any thing in nature on which architecture, may be modelled, says, “ with good rea- 
 son it may be said to hold the same place among the arts, that metaphysics does among the sciences.” ( Opcre del Conte Algarotti, 
 edizione novissima, tomo iii. p. 25.) 
 
c> 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, there were others in the same country which no longer 
 w exist, that must have surpassed those which do remain ; 
 
 and they speak also of the cities of Assyria, as unparal- 
 leled in the extent and splendour of their edifices, whose 
 sites, even, are not now determinable. The pyramids, 
 however, mausoleums of a nation — and the temples, mo- 
 numents of human folly — speak more strongly than any 
 historian can, and compel our belief of what they have 
 been by what they are ; whereas the others do not exist 
 but in name. Nineveh and Babylon were — but Thebes 
 and Memphis still remain. It is strange, indeed, that a 
 people who displayed such energies in the construction 
 of tombs, pyramids, and temples, should have left no work 
 of any description that could be applied to any really 
 useful purpose. Denon, speaking of Thebes, says, “ Still 
 temples — nothing but temples — not a vestige of the hun- 
 dred gates, so celebrated in history ; no walls, quays, 
 bridges, baths, or theatres ; not a single edifice of public 
 utility or convenience. Notwithstanding all the pains I 
 took in the research, I could find nothing but temples, 
 walls covered with obscure emblems, and hieroglyphics 
 which attested the ascendency of the priesthood, who 
 still seemed to reign over the mighty ruins, and whose 
 empire constantly haunted my imagination.” * 1 Champollion, 
 however, in his late researches, speaks of the remains of 
 quays, and calls some of the structures palaces instead of 
 temples; but as the former exist only in connection with the 
 latter, they can hardly be considered as any thing more 
 than mere embankments ; and the regal and hierarchical 
 offices having been so closely connected in the economy 
 of ancient Egypt, it is of little or no consequence to our 
 position whether the same edifices be called palaces or 
 temples. Diodorus Siculus says, in one place, that 
 “ Busiris,” believed to be one of the Pharaohs who per- 
 secuted Israel, “ built that great city which the Egyp- 
 tians call Heliopolis and the Greeks Thebes, and adorned 
 it with stately public buildings and magnificent temples, 
 with rich revenues and that “ he built all the private 
 houses, some four, and others five stories high.” 2 Shortly 
 after, speaking of Memphis, to account for the splendour 
 with which the Egyptians built their tombs, and the com- 
 parative meanness of their houses, the same author says, 
 “ They call the houses of the living inns, because they 
 stay in them but a little while ; but the sepulchres of the 
 dead they call everlasting habitations, because they abide 
 in the grave to infinite generations. Therefore they are 
 not very curious in the building of their houses ; but in 
 beautifying their sepulchres they leave nothing undone 
 that can be thought of.” Strabo also speaks of a splendid 
 dwelling which was erected for the priests at Heliopolis, 
 but that probably was one of the sacred palaces just re- 
 ferred to ; for none of the ancient writers describe the do- 
 mestic structures of the Egyptians, from personal know- 
 ledge of them, as being worthy of any notice ; and that 
 assertion of Strabo is too loose and unsupported by con- 
 temporary authority or analogy to deserve confidence of 
 itself. To the statement of Diodorus, that private houses 
 were built to four and five stories high, we can give no 
 credence whatever; for the construction of edifices in 
 tiers or stories was very imperfectly understood even in 
 his time, which was many centuries after the destruction 
 even of Thebes ; and none of the existing remains of that 
 city give the slightest indication of a second story, or in- 
 deed of aptitude to construct one, except the rude land- 
 ings in some of the propylma. Herodotus says that the 
 Egyptians were the first who erected altars, shrines, and 
 
 temples ; but of their private houses he says nothing ; History, 
 neither does he describe any of the temples as they ex- 
 isted in his time in Egypt ; so that he in fact affords no 
 assistance in determining the comparative antiquity of the 
 various architectural structures which remain to the pre- 
 sent time in that country. Indeed the ancient historians 
 and topographers speak for the most part so wildly of 
 dates and dimensions, that they are, at the best, most un- 
 satisfactory, if not fallacious, guides; and in the present 
 case, that of Egypt, the style of architecture is so uni- 
 form, or so imperfectly understood, that no argument can 
 with safety be drawn from it, as there may in other cases. 
 
 In Hamilton’s JEgyptiaca, the author says, with reference 
 to this question : “ In Egyptian architecture there is an 
 uniformity of structure, both in the ornaments and in the 
 masses, which, if unassisted by other circumstances, re- 
 duces us to mere conjecture ; and that not only for the 
 difference of a century or two, but perhaps for a thousand 
 years.” 3 Again : “ The monuments of antiquity in Upper 
 Egypt present a very uniform appearance ; and his first 
 impressions incline the traveller to attribute them to the 
 same or nearly the same epoch. The plans and disposi- 
 tions of the temples hear throughout a great resemblance 
 to one another. The same character of hieroglyphics, 
 the same forms of the divinity, bearing the same symbols 
 and worshipped in the same manner, are sculptured on 
 their walls from Hermopolis to Philae. They are built of 
 the same species of stone ; very little difference is dis- 
 cernible in the degrees of excellence ofl workmanship, or 
 the quality of the materials ; and where human force has 
 not been evidently employed to destroy the buildings, they 
 are all in the same state of preservation or decay.” 4 But 
 we are fortunately now about to be rid of that difficulty 
 by the erudition and industry of those learned men who 
 have given their attention to the hieroglyphic literature 
 of the Egyptians. M. Champollion professes to have de- 
 termined the date of every monument of antiquity in that 
 country which is inscribed, by the inscriptions, which he 
 has qualified himself to read. As yet, however, we are 
 not in possession of the whole result of his discoveries. 
 
 Hypogea, spea, or caves formed by excavation, are found 
 of earlier date than any existing structures. Internally 
 they present square piers, which were left to support the 
 superincumbent mass of mountain or rock when their 
 magnitude rendered it necessary. These were originally 
 tombs ; and the cave of Machpelah, of which Abraham 
 made the purchase as a burying-place for his family, was, 
 doubtless, one of that kind. Oratories or chapels were 
 afterwards made in the same manner, but, it would ap- 
 pear, not until columnar architecture had come into use ; 
 for their entrances are generally sculptured into the re- 
 semblance of the front of a rude portico, or an actual por- 
 tico or pronaos is constructed before them. Many such 
 are found on the banks of the Nile, in its course through 
 Nubia and Egypt. At Ibrim, which the Greeks call 
 Primis, in the former country, there are several of these 
 cavern temples, the earliest of which, according to M. 
 Champollion, bears date of the reign of one of the Pha- 
 raohs, who was contemporaneous with Abraham, or his 
 son Isaac, or about eighteen centuries before Christ ; the 
 latest is of the time of Ilhameses Sethos, the Sesostris ot 
 Greek history. To some of the cavern tombs and temples 
 in Upper Egypt M. Champollion accords even a still 
 higher degree of antiquity. The earliest columnar struc- 
 tures which are found within the same range of country 
 do not appear to bear a higher date than that ot the 
 
 4 Voyage dans la Basse ct la Haute Egypte, p. 170. Par V. Denon. 3 JEgyptiaca, by Wm. Hamilton, Esq. F. S. A. Part I. p- 200. 
 
 1 Diod. Sic. lib. i. cap. iv. 4 Ibid. p. 10. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, earliest kings or Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty of 
 'Manetho, which began about the time of the Jewish pa- 
 triarch Abraham, and ended with the Pharaoh from whom 
 his descendants escaped under the conduct of Moses. 
 The temple at Amada, to which we have already referred, 
 is of the time of Moeris, who was contemporary with the 
 patriarch Jacob, and consists of twelve square piers or 
 pillars, and four columns, which possess the form and cha- 
 racter of the Greek Doric, and may, it is suggested, be 
 called protodoric. The same intention, if it may be so 
 called, is found in others of the early monuments, but in 
 none so perfect as in this, as almost all the structures of 
 ancient Egypt were either destroyed or seriously damag- 
 ed by the Persians at the time of their invasion under 
 Cambyses ; and they are supposed not to have ascended 
 the Nile much above Psalcis or Dakke, but to have turned 
 off' by the way across the desert to Ethiopia, so that the 
 temple at Amada, which is considerably above Dakke, 
 escaped. 
 
 Of all the Pharaohs, Sesostris, the first of the nineteenth 
 dynasty, was the most distinguished for the great and ex- 
 tensive works he executed in architecture. Most of the 
 existing ruins in Egypt, anterior to the Persian invasion, are 
 attributed to that monarch by M. Champollion. The im- 
 mense ruins at Thebes, which have been by turns called the 
 Memnonium and the tomb of Osymandyas, and are popular- 
 ly called Medinet Abou, are proved by that gentleman to be 
 those of the Palatial Temple of Rhameses the Great, or Se- 
 sostris, and which he therefore calls the Rhamesseion, the 
 ruins at Luxor being those of the Memnonium ; that edifice 
 or series of edifices having been constructed by Amenophis 
 Memnon, of the eighteenth dynasty, one of the good and 
 beneficent princes by whom the children of Israel were 
 protected during their sojourn in Egypt. The magnificent 
 structure at the village of Carnack, within the same city, 
 appears however to excel all the rest in extent and 
 grandeur, and is at least their equal in antiquity. It is 
 generally known as the temple of Carnack, but it has 
 been distinguished as that of Jupiter Ammon. It bears 
 inscribed the name of Thothmosis II., the predecessor 
 of Amenophis Memnon. From the existing remains of 
 Thebes, and the relations of historians combined, that 
 city may be assumed to have attained its highest degree 
 of splendour in the time of Sesostris ; few of the ruins it 
 presents being of later date than the time of that monarch. 
 This being admitted, and we believe it can hardly be de- 
 nied, it must be admitted also that the science of archi- 
 tecture, and the practice of the mechanical arts, were al- 
 ready well understood ; for the composition of the monu- 
 ments displays an exquisite combination of simplicity and 
 harmony, which produce the finest effects of beauty and 
 grandeur; while their construction is the apparent result 
 of perfection in the use of mechanical powers. All the 
 Pharaonic monuments, indeed, throughout Egypt and 
 Nubia, are wonders of science and art. The structures of 
 Ombos, Apollinopolis Magna, and Latopolis, between 
 Thebes and the cataract, M. Champollion determines to 
 be generally of the age of the Ptolemies, and some even 
 of the Roman dominion ; all, however, of these of compa- 
 ratively modern date are evidently restorations ; others, 
 probably of the earliest ages, having occupied the same 
 sites. Indeed M. Champollion asserts generally that the 
 Ptolemies, and the Ethiopian Ergamenes himself, only re- 
 built temples where they had already stood in the times 
 of the Pharaohs, and to the same divinities that had al- 
 ways been worshipped there. He goes on to say, that the 
 religious system of this people was such a complete whole, 
 so connected in all its parts, and fixed from time imme- 
 morial in so absolute and precise a manner, that the do- 
 minion of the Greeks and of the Romans did not produce 
 
 any innovation ; the Ptolemies and the Caesars only re- 
 stored in Nubia what the Persians had destroyed, and re-' 
 built temples where they had formerly stood, and dedi- 
 cated them to the same gods. 
 
 Of the arrangements of an Egyptian temple we shall 
 speak when we come to treat of Egyptian architecture as 
 a style. In construction the Egyptians appear to have 
 used wrought stones at a very early period : this probably 
 was induced by the still earlier habit of excavating rocks 
 to form tombs ; for the walls in their oldest structures are 
 composed of rectangularly cut blocks in parallel courses ; 
 whereas we shall find that the most ancient specimens of 
 walling in Greece and Italy are not so. In the Pharaonic 
 monuments, besides walls built in parallel courses of 
 wrought stone, we find squared piers also; and frequently, 
 in the same structure with them, the peculiarly formed 
 tumescent column with a bulbous capital or head, covered 
 with an abacus or square tablet, corresponding with the 
 size of the piers, and warranting the supposition that that 
 species of column is a mere refinement on the simple 
 square pillar. What dictated its singular form must re- 
 main matter of speculation. The cylindrical column with 
 a bell-shaped capital was the next advance, and that also 
 is found in the same structures, though not in the simplest 
 and earliest of them, in which piers occur. Terminal or 
 Caryatic figures are common in those early works also-, 
 not absolutely supporting an entablature, but placed be- 
 fore piers which do, and having the appearance of doing 
 it themselves when seen in front. Bold, massive, rectan- 
 gular architraves extend from pier to pier and from co- 
 lumn to column, and are generally surmounted externally 
 by a deep coved coping, or cornice, with a large corded 
 and torus-formed moulding intervening. This masks the 
 ends of the stones which are placed transversely on the 
 architraves to form the ceiling internally, the whole be- 
 ing flushed square on the top, and forming a flat terrace 
 or floor. The pyramidal form of the moles or propylaea, 
 peculiar to Egyptian temples, may have been suggested 
 by the pyramids, as neither that form nor those adjuncts 
 to a temple appear to have been used before the period 
 at which it is supposed the former were constructed. 
 The grandeur and dignity inherent to that form would in- 
 deed hardly be suspected till its appearance in the pyra- 
 mids themselves ; and certainly the impression of its ef- 
 fect must have been strong, to induce men to seek it in a 
 truncated pyramid under a very acute angle, as in the 
 propylaea, relying on the tendency of its outline alone. It 
 was gradually, too, that this tendency was generally ap- 
 plied, for in the earliest Pharaonic structures the vertical 
 outline is most common, except in the propylaea, where 
 they exist ; and in the structures of the Ptolemies the 
 inclined outline pervades every thing. The monolithic 
 obelisk is of Egyptian origin also. Its tapering form may 
 be the consequence of the impression the pyramidal ten- 
 dency had occasioned, though perhaps the object itself is 
 the representative of the single stone by which religious 
 feeling appears first to have expressed itself. Obelisks 
 were set up by the Egyptians, sometimes in the courts or 
 atria of their temples, and sometimes before the entrances 
 to them. 
 
 Of all the architectural works of the Egyptians, how- 
 ever, none have excited so much the wonder and curiosity 
 of men as the pyramids themselves ; not in consequence of 
 any particular beauty in their composition, or ingenuity in 
 their construction, but simply because of their immense 
 magnitude, and unknown use, and antiquity. Denon makes 
 the following observation on his first visit to the great py- 
 ramid of Gizeh, at Memphis. “ If we reflect upon these 
 pyramids, we shall be inclined to think the pride that 
 constructed them greater even than these masses them- 
 
 Historv. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, selves, and shall scarcely know whether to reprobate most 
 the insolent tyranny which commanded, or the stupid ser- 
 vility of the people which executed, the undertaking. 
 None but sacerdotal despots would ever have undertaken 
 them, and none but a stupid fanatical people would ever 
 have built them. ...The most honourable reason that can 
 be assigned for their erection is the emulation of man to 
 excel the works of nature in immensity and duration, and 
 in this project he has not been altogether unsuccessful. 
 The mountains near the pyramids are not so high, and 
 have suffered more from time than the pyramids them- 
 selves.” 1 But Memphis itself was of late foundation in com- 
 parison with other cities on the Nile. According to Pro- 
 fessor Heeren, 2 civilization descended by the Nile from 
 Ethiopia with the caste of priests who brought with them 
 the worship of Ammon, Osiris, and Phtha (the Jupiter, 
 Bacchus, and Vulcan of the Greeks), and “ the spread of 
 this worship, which was always connected with temples, 
 affords the most evident vestiges of the spread of the 
 caste itself ; and those vestiges, combined with the records 
 of the Egyptians, lead us to the conclusion that this caste 
 was a tribe which migrated from the south, above Meroe, 
 in Ethiopia, and, by the establishment of inland colonies 
 around the temples founded by them, gradually extended 
 and made the worship of their gods the dominant religion 
 in Egypt. Proofs of the accuracy of this theory,” he as- 
 serts, “ may be deduced from monuments and express 
 testimonies concerning the origin of Thebes and Ammon 
 from Meroe ; that it might indeed have been inferred 
 from the preservation of the worship of Ammon in this 
 last place.” The same author goes on to say, that “ Thebes 
 was, if not the most, one of the most, ancient cities 
 of Egypt and that “ Memphis and other cities of the 
 vale of the Nile are known to have been founded from 
 Thebes.” Now Thebes exists to the present time in the 
 ruins of her magnificent temples, the works of the Pha- 
 raohs, but without the vestige of a pyramid, so that it 
 may be concluded that none was ever built there ; and 
 Memphis may be said to exist in the everlasting pyramids 
 of Gizeh and Saccharah, which occupy two of its extre- 
 mities; but no indication remains of the existence of a 
 temple of any kind: indeed the exact site of the city 
 cannot be determined except by the pyramids. Herodo- 
 tus, however, speaks of temples at Memphis, particularly 
 of that of Vulcan or Phtha; but certainly no vestige of 
 such has existed for a long period of time within that vi- 
 cinity. Memphis was a great and ancient capital, and 
 why should it not retain some evidence of the existence 
 of temples in it? But Thebes was a greater and more an- 
 cient capital, and indeed the metropolis of all Egypt; and 
 why has it no pyramids ? These things are equally un- 
 accountable and inexplicable, affording groundwork for 
 almost any theory, but giving perfect support to none. 
 Mr Hamilton, in his JEgyptiaca , before quoted, places 
 Memphis considerably further south, where some ruins 
 have been discovered which may be thought to give a 
 colour to his supposition. But the ruins are of very in- 
 considerable extent, and are all prostrate, so that nothing 
 can be positively determined by them ; and the statement 
 of Pliny as to the relative distances of the Nile and the 
 city from the pyramids of Gizeh being proved to be cor- 
 rect in the one, may be admitted in the other. If Hero- 
 dotus’s account of the building of the pyramids be receiv- 
 ed, they are of comparatively modern date, the oldest hav- 
 ing been constructed several generations after the time 
 of Sesostris, under whom Thebes attained its highest 
 degree of splendour; but this would leave unaccounted 
 for the tendency to pyramidal forms in Egyptian archi- 
 
 tecture before referred to, unless every example exhi- History, 
 biting that tendency were itself referred to a date poste- 
 rior to that assigned to Cheops and Cephron, which can- 
 not be done in accordance with the assertions of M. 
 Champollion as to the structures of Thebes, Elephantina, 
 and Nubia generally. 
 
 From its immense size, the dimensions of the great py- 
 ramid of Gizeh, at Memphis, are variously given by the 
 various persons who have measured it. M. Nouet, who 
 was of the French commission in Egypt, and had perhaps 
 the best opportunity of being correct, determined its base 
 to be a square whose side is 716 French or 768 English 
 feet in length, occupying about the area of the great 
 square of Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields in London ; and its height 
 421 French or 4-52 English feet, or about one third as 
 high again as St Paul’s cathedral. It is built in regular 
 courses or layers of stone, which vary in thickness from 
 two to three feet, each receding from the one below it, to 
 the number of 202 ; though even this is variously stated 
 from that number to 260, as indeed the height is given by 
 various modern travellers at from 444 to 625 feet. And 
 the ancient writers differ as widely, both among them- 
 selves and with the moderns. On the top course the area 
 is about 10 English feet square, though it is believed to 
 have been originally two courses higher, which would 
 bring it to the smallest that in regular gradation it could 
 be. It is a solid mass of stone, with the exception of a 
 narrow corridor leading to a small chamber in its centre ; 
 and a larger ascending corridor or gallery, from about half 
 the distance of the first to another larger chamber at a 
 considerable distance, vertically above the former, in 
 which there is a single granite sarcophagus, not more than 
 large enough for one body, putting the intention of the 
 structure clearly beyond doubt. The other pyramids dif- 
 fer from that of Cheops (as the largest is called) in size, 
 and slightly in form and mode of construction, some having 
 the angles of the steps or courses of stone worked away 
 to a plain surface, and some not diminishing in a right line. 
 
 One of the middle-sized pyramids is unlike all the rest, in 
 being neither smooth nor in small steps, but in six large 
 steps or stories, apparently of equal height, and dimi- 
 nishing gradually. But the circumstance which most dis- 
 tinguishes it is, that it is constructed of rude unshapen 
 blocks of stone, cemented together with a very large pro- 
 portion of mortar. Another is of unburnt brick, and has 
 consequently become ruinous and mis-shapen. 
 
 The famous labjwinth, of which Herodotus speaks as 
 having been built by the twelve kings of Egypt, beyond 
 the lake Moeris, is believed by Denon, after examination 
 of the described site, to be little better than fabulous, and 
 that the historian was imposed on by the priests, from 
 whom he derived most of his information. He says, in- 
 deed, that he saw and examined it himself; but his de- 
 scription is so vague, that an architect who should endea- 
 vour to make a design from it, would be greatly embarrass- 
 ed. As we can therefore derive no information from it 
 with regard to architecture, it need not be further dis- 
 cussed here. It has been suggested as probable, and in- 
 deed the opinion has been maintained, that the pyramids 
 stand over immense substructures; that their areas are 
 occupied by chambers, in which may be found the arcana 
 of Egyptian lore, of which they are the depositories. If 
 it really be so, may not the labyrinths just referred to 
 have been under the pyramid, which the historian says 
 was constructed at the point where the labyrinth termi- 
 nates, instead of near it? His expression is so ambiguous, 
 that it leaves room for a suggestion of the kind. 
 
 Of the domestic architecture of the Egyptians we have 
 
 * Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Egypte, p. 77- Par V. Denon. 
 
 5 Manual cf Ancient History , p. 58. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. f) 
 
 History, no knowledge whatever. The statements of the ancient 
 writers on the subject have been alread} r mentioned ; but 
 supposing them to be more explicit, and more in confor- 
 mity with probability, than they really are, without exist- 
 ing remains we could form but a very imperfect idea of 
 what it was. Reasoning from analogy, and the slight in- 
 formation of historians, we should conclude that the habi- 
 tations of the Egyptians were of a very unpretending de- 
 scription. The already quoted statement of Diodorus 
 Siculus, that “ they are not very curious in the building 
 of their houses,” even in his time, after their long inter- 
 course with Greece, and their more recent connection 
 with luxurious Rome ; added to the fact, that no indica- 
 tions of domestic structures exist in any part of the coun- 
 try, and that the presumed habitations of the priests, in 
 the ancient temples, are small and inconvenient cells ; and 
 all these things, taken in conjunction with the mildness of 
 the climate and the salubrity of the atmosphere, we think 
 it must be admitted, warrant the conclusion. 
 
 No style of architecture of which we have any know- 
 ledge is so well qualified to produce impressive effects on 
 the mind as the Egyptian. The mere assumption of its 
 forms, however, is not sufficient to produce its effects ; 
 and drawing is more incompetent to convey an idea of it 
 than perhaps of any thing else in art. To this point the 
 authors of the great work of the French Institute on the 
 antiquities of Egypt bear testimony in strong language. 
 Speaking of the incompetence of drawings to convey just 
 ideas of the grandeur, magnificence, and beauty of the 
 Egyptian temples, and other remains of antiquity, they say, 
 “ Despite the care we have given ourselves to describe 
 the Egyptian monuments, we cannot even hope that we 
 have succeeded in giving to others the ideas which we 
 ourselves received from actual views and present contem- 
 plation of them; for there are things which drawings and 
 descriptions cannot convey. Geometrical drawings are 
 without doubt quite competent to show the form and 
 proportions of an edifice, its disposition and distribution ; 
 but far indeed are they from giving satisfactory ideas of 
 the elegance and effect of structures. Frequently we had 
 to regret how much of the beauty of the original was lost 
 in its geometrical representation on paper ; for what in 
 execution was light and graceful, often in the geometrical 
 drawings appeared heavy and inelegant .” 1 
 
 The materials used in the construction of the Egyptian 
 architectural monuments are, for the most part, granite, 
 breccia, sandstone, and unburnt brick. The granite was 
 principally supplied by the- quarries at Elephantina and 
 Syene, for which the Nile offered a ready mode of con- 
 veyance ; some species were brought down the river from 
 Ethiopia, but we do not find that the materials were at 
 any time brought from any other foreign country. It may 
 be remarked, too, that in the earliest structures the com- 
 mon gres or sandstone is principally employed. Excepting 
 the obelisks and some few of the propylsea, all the temples 
 at Thebes are of that material. In Lower Egypt, on the 
 contrary, and in the works of later date generally, almost 
 every thing is constructed of granite. 
 
 Persian, Herodotus informs us that the ancient Persians had 
 Assyrian, neither statues, temples, nor altars ; and Diodorus Siculus 
 anrl Phce- a ffj rms that the p a l aces 0 f Persepolis and Susa were not 
 architec- huilt till after the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, and 
 ture. that they were constructed by architects of that nation. 
 
 In this case, as in that of India, we are at a great loss for 
 evidence. The Persepolitan remains, though frequently 
 visited and slightly sketched, have not been explored and 
 delineated by such men as Stuart and Revett, or the 
 
 authors of the great French work we have so often allud- History, 
 ed to. That the Persian style, though very different i n 
 particulars, does bear a relation to the Egyptian family, 
 however, is very evident. Sir Robert Ker Porter, in his 
 travels in the East, says that the first impression he re- 
 ceived in his first walk among the ruins of Persepolis was, 
 that “ in mass and in detail they bore a strong resem- 
 blance to the architectural taste of Egypt .” 2 Neverthe- 
 less, there is a strong probability that the Persian is itself 
 an original style, and that the resemblance is merely for- 
 tuitous, similar results arising from the same causes, as in 
 Egypt and India ; for the eastern parts of that country 
 are believed to have been the earliest seat of the human 
 race. Professor Heeren says of Persia, “ it cannot be 
 doubted, that long before the rise of the Persian power, 
 mighty kingdoms existed in these regions, and particular- 
 ly in the eastern part of Ractria ; yet of those kingdoms 
 we have by no means a consistent or chronological his- 
 tory — nothing but a few fragments, probably of dynasties 
 which ruled in Media properly so called, immediately 
 previous to the Persians ;” 3 from whom the style of archi- 
 tecture may be derived, though indeed we know of no re- 
 mains of earlier date than those which are properly called 
 Persian. But we may be said to know nothing of Bac- 
 tria ; it may, and probably does, rival Elora, Salsette, and 
 the banks of the Nile, in primitive specimens of architec- 
 ture. 
 
 We have neither historical nor archaeological informa- 
 tion that can be depended on to prove what the state or 
 style of architecture was among the ancient Assyrians. 
 
 Lucian says, however, that their temples were less ancient 
 than those of Egypt. The ruins believed to be those of 
 the great capital of Babylonia present nothing but shape- 
 less masses of brick, from which no idea whatever can be 
 formed as to the style of architecture, or the progress it 
 had made in that country ; but some cylindrical and other 
 seals and fragments, in terra cotta, lately found by excava- 
 tion among those ruins, now in the British Museum, are 
 sufficiently in accordance with the rest of the eastern an- 
 tiquities to be received as evidence of the general assimi- 
 lation of its style of design with that which was common 
 to the neighbouring nations. 
 
 The Phoenicians, we are told by Lucian, built in the 
 Egyptian style ; but their country retains no memorials of 
 its ancient architecture by which we might confirm or 
 correct his information. Doubtless Carthage and the 
 other colonies of Phoenicia followed their parent country 
 in this particular. 
 
 As far as we can judge from the trifling documents we 
 possess of the architecture of the ancient Mexicans and 
 Peruvians, it was of a rude but massive character, and may 
 be thought also to resemble the early architecture of In- 
 dia, Egypt, and Persia more than we can see any reason 
 for, except in the tendency of the mind of man to the 
 same result when he is placed under similar circum- 
 stances. An impression to this effect appears to have 
 been made on Humboldt, who, when speaking of a pyra- 
 midal mass of ancient Mexico, says, “ It is impossible to 
 read the descriptions which Herodotus and Diodorus 
 Siculus have left us of the temple of Jupiter Relus, without 
 being struck with the resemblance of that Babylonian 
 monument to the teocallis of Anahuac .” 4 
 
 It is an illustration of the fact that the wants and fan- 
 cies of man lead him to nearly the same results as he be- 
 comes civilized, without communication and consequent 
 imitation, that the plans given by Sir William Chambers, 
 of Chinese public and private buildings, might be taken. 
 
 1 Description de V Egypte, vol. i. p. 292. 
 
 * Travels in Georyia , Persia , fyc. by Sir It. K. Porter, vol. L p. 529. 
 
 3 Manual of Ancient History, p. 26'. 
 
 4 Humboldt’s Personal Narrative , voL i. p 82. 
 
10 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Jewish 
 
 architec- 
 
 ture. 
 
 History, at the first glance, for either Hindoo, Greek, Roman, or 
 Moresco — of course not considering magnitude of parts, 
 but general forms and arrangements. Indeed, the remark 
 may be extended beyond the mere plans ; for all have, to 
 a certain extent, insulated columns placed equidistant, and 
 crowned with an entablature ; and the general appearance 
 of many Chinese buildings is quite Moorish. 
 
 Architecture was not likely to flourish among the shep- 
 herd tribes of Israel. It is in agricultural and commercial 
 countries, such as Egypt and Greece, that its noblest 
 works are produced, and not among the nomades of Ara- 
 bia and Palestine. Saul, the first king of Israel, appears 
 to have had no settled place of abode ; and the most sa- 
 cred ceremonies of the Jewish religion were performed at 
 Gilgal, where was the temple of unhewn stones set up 
 by Joshua on taking possession of the promised land, and 
 making a covenant between God and the people, until 
 the building of the temple at Jerusalem in the place ren- 
 dered holy by Abraham’s great sacrifice. Saul himself 
 was confirmed in the kingdom at Gilgal, and there the 
 nation swore allegiance to him with sacrifices to the Al- 
 mighty ; but as yet nothing existed there in which to per- 
 form the rites, but the ancient Celtic structure to which 
 we have alluded. After the division of the tribes into two 
 kingdoms, a splendid temple was erected on the site of 
 Gilgal, in Mount Gerizim, as the national temple of the 
 kingdom of Israel. Like his predecessor on the throne, 
 David appears to have been but indifferently lodged till 
 towards the end of his reign, when he is said to have 
 built himself a house; and until the temple was built in 
 the following reign, the ark of the covenant was never in 
 a fixed place ; — it was at one time in a private house, at 
 another in captivity among the Philistines ; and, indeed, 
 King David expressed his shame that he had a house of 
 cedar, whilst the ark of the Lord still dwelt in a tent. 
 These things, and the fact that Solomon sent to Tyre for 
 workmen, and indeed for an architect also, are, we think,- 
 conclusive evidence, that in whatever state architecture 
 was among the Jews from the building of the temple at 
 Jerusalem, it was very low before that time ; and from the 
 descriptions we have of that edifice itself in the Bible, it 
 appears to have exhibited a greater degree of barbaric 
 splendour than of classic elegance. From mere descrip- 
 tion, however, it is impossible to understand an unknown 
 species of building, as many things we shall have occasion 
 to refer to will clearly prove. 
 
 Few things have occasioned controversies more amus- 
 ing, from the singularity of some assumptions, and the ab- 
 solute futility of them all, than the style and manner in 
 which Solomon's temple was built. Yillalpanda, a Spanish 
 Jesuit, appended to a commentary which he wrote on the 
 prophecies of Ezekiel, a long dissertation on the first and 
 second temples of Jerusalem, in which he insists that the 
 theory and practice of permanent architecture commenced 
 with the building of that temple by Solomon — that with 
 it, “ the orders,” which, he says, are falsely attributed to 
 the Greeks, came into existence — that indeed the design 
 (from a passage in the first book of the Chronicles), per- 
 fect in all its details, was given to David, drawn by the 
 hand of God ! Fie moreover pretends to show, that the 
 proportions assigned by Vitruvius to the dilferent orders 
 accord exactly with the descriptions given of the temple 
 of Solomon ; and accuses Callimachus of usurping the ho- 
 nour of inventing the Corinthian capital, which could not 
 belong to him, as it was of divine origin, and had been 
 executed in the temple at Jerusalem centuries before be 
 was born. Some learned, and in some respects sensible 
 men, have attempted to support this theory ; and others 
 have thought it worth while to controvert it, by proving 
 
 that the architect and the principal workmen were all History, 
 either Egyptians or Phoenicians, and that consequently the'— 
 edifice must have been in the Egyptian style. A learned 
 architect of the present day has endeavoured to show that 
 it was in the Greek style, and that its form, proportions, 
 and distribution, were not dissimilar to those of the 
 temple of Ceres at Eleusis. As the Phoenicians, who 
 were principally employed by Solomon, themselves built 
 in the Egyptian manner, we think the probability is great 
 that it was in the Egyptian or Phoenician style, as far as 
 the Jewish ceremonial would permit; and certainly the 
 descriptions of its distribution accord better with that of 
 an Egyptian than of a Grecian temple. The pillars of 
 Jachim and Boaz, which are said to have been set up be- 
 fore the temple, correspond exactly in relative situation 
 with the obelisks in temples at Thebes. Clemens of Alex- 
 andria, too, gives a description of an Egyptian temple very 
 much like that of the Jewish ; and the palm-leaves, roses, 
 fruits, and flowers, in the latter, are very common in ex- 
 isting specimens of the former, whereas in the Greek re- 
 mains of early date no such things are to be found. 
 Whether the Jews in after-times possessed a national 
 style of architecture or not, we cannot tell : there is no 
 reason, however, for supposing that they did ; for their 
 monotheistic structure at Jerusalem was not repeated in 
 other places, as the temples of the heathen divinities were 
 among the Greeks and Romans, by which they might 
 have acquired a peculiar mode of composition and com- 
 bination. The non-existence of a national Jewish style 
 of architecture tends also to strengthen our position, that 
 architecture did not originate in the disposition and de- 
 coration of buildings for domestic purposes, of which the 
 Jews must, when settled, have made as much use as 
 other nations ; and a multiplicity of religious edifices, in 
 the construction of which they might have acquired one, 
 was forbidden by their code. 
 
 In various parts of Greece and Italy, specimens of rude Pelasgic 
 walling are found of such remote antiquity that they are, arc ^' tec * 
 as by common consent, referred to the fabulous ages, and, ture ‘ 
 for want of a more distinctive term, are called Cyclopaean. 
 
 Now it appears, from the concurring evidence and opi- 
 nions of most antiquaries, that a people who have been 
 called Pelasgi, or sailors, migrated from Asia Minor, or 
 the coast of Syria, at a very early period, and possessed 
 themselves of various countries, some of which were un- 
 occupied, and others inhabited by Celtic tribes. Mr 
 Godfrey Higgins says that the Pelasgi were Canaanites, 
 and being a hardy sea-faring race, they soon subdued the 
 Celtic inhabitants of Delphi in Greece, or of Cuma in 
 Italy, who, from their first quitting the pai'ent hive, never 
 had occasion for an offensive weapon, except against wild 
 beasts ; and that they were the people who settled Car- 
 thage, Spain, and Ireland. Bishop Marsh has proved the 
 Pelasgi to be Dorians, Dr Clarke has proved the Etrusci 
 to be Phoenicians, and Gallseus has proved the Dorians to 
 be Phoenicians. Thus, says Mr Higgins, the Pelasgi, the 
 Etrusci, and the Phoenicians, are all proved to be the 
 same. According to Professor Heeren, also, who affixes 
 dates to the various migrations, the Pelasgi were of 
 Asiatic origin. “ Their first arrival in the Peloponnesus 
 was under Inachus, about 1800 years b. c. ; and accord- 
 ing to their own traditions,” he says, “ they made their 
 first appearance in this quarter as uncultivated savages. 
 
 They must, however, at an early period, have made some 
 progress towards civilization, since the most ancient states, 
 
 Argos and Sicyon, owed their origin to them ; and to 
 them, perhaps with great probability, are attributed the 
 remains of those most ancient monuments generally 
 termed Cyclopic.” 1 He adds, that the Hellenes, a people 
 
 1 Manual of Ancient History , p. 111). 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 II 
 
 History, of Asiatic origin also, expelled the Pelasgi from almost 
 every part of Greece, about 300 years after their first 
 occupation of it ; the latter keeping their footing only in 
 Arcadia and in the land of Dodona, whilst some of them 
 migrated to Italy, and others to Crete and various islands. 
 The arrival of the Egyptian and Phoenician colonies in 
 Greece, Professor Heeren thinks, was between 1600 and 
 1400 b. c. 
 
 The connection of Greece and Italy with each other, 
 and with Egypt and Phoenicia, is thus made evident. The 
 Cyclopaean structures, however, were the works of the 
 rude Pelasgi before that connection took place, except as 
 far as it existed in their having a common origin. They 
 occupied, either simultaneously or consecutively, both 
 Greece and Italy; and this accounts for the sameness 
 of that peculiar and original mode of structure which, we 
 have said, is found in both countries, though no evidence 
 exists of its ever having been practised elsewhere. If, in- 
 deed, the things in question were the work of the earlier 
 Celtic inhabitants, a still more remote date must be as- 
 signed them than they could derive from the Pelasgi ; 
 and this is the opinion of Mr Higgins, supported, he 
 contends, by the suffrages of Dodwell, Clarke, and others, 
 who say that the doorway called the Gate of the Lions, 
 in the Acropolis of Mycenae, is built exactly like the 
 remains of Stonehenge. The most ancient specimen 
 of Cyclopic walling is found at Tyrinthus, near My- 
 I’lace LV. cense. It is composed of huge masses of rock roughly 
 Fig- 14. hewn and piled up together, with the interstices at the 
 angles filled up by small stones, but without mortar or 
 cement of any kind. The next species is in stones of va- 
 rious sizes also, shaped polygonally, and fitted with nicety 
 one to another, but not laid in courses. Specimens of 
 this are found at Iulis and Delphi, as well as at the places 
 already mentioned, in Greece, and in various parts of 
 Italy, particularly at Cossa, a town of the Volsci. This 
 also was constructed without mortar. The mode of build- 
 ing walls, which took the place of that, is not called Cyclo- 
 Fig. IS. paean ; it is in parallel courses of rectangular stones, of un- 
 equal size, but of the same height. This is common in 
 the Phocian cities, and in some parts of Bceotia and Ar- 
 golis. To that succeeded the mode most common in, and 
 which was chiefly confined to, Attica. It consists of hori- 
 zontal courses of masonry, not always of the same height, 
 but composed of rectangular stones. 
 
 The oldest existing structure in Greece of regular form 
 is of far superior construction to the Cyclopaean walling, 
 and must be referred to the Egyptian or Phoenician co- 
 lonists. It is at Mycenae, and consists of two subterra- 
 nean chambers, one of which is much larger than the 
 other. The outer and larger one is of circular form, and 
 is entered by a huge doorway at the end of a long ave- 
 nue of colossal walls, built in nearly parallel courses of 
 rectangular stones, roughly hewn, however, and laid with- 
 out mortar. Its external effect is that of an excavation, 
 though the structure of the front is evident; and inter- 
 nally it assumes the form of an immense lime-kiln ; its 
 vertical section being of a somewhat conical form, under 
 nearly parabolic curves, like a pointed, or what is vulgarly 
 called a Gothic arch. The construction of this edifice 
 was thought to afford clear evidence that the Greeks 
 were acquainted with the properties of the arch ; but 
 in the most material point this was destro 3 'ed on finding 
 that it consisted of parallel projecting courses of stone in 
 horizontal layers, in the manner called by our workmen 
 battering, or more correctly perhaps corbelling. It proves, 
 however, that its architect understood the principle of the 
 arch in its horizontal position ; for Mr Cockerell has dis- 
 covered, by excavations above it, that the diminishing rings 
 of which the dome is composed are complete in them- 
 
 Grecian 
 
 architec- 
 
 ture. 
 
 selves for withstanding outward pressure ; the joints of the History, 
 stones being partly wrought concentric, and partly ren- 
 dered so by wedges of small stones driven tightly into 
 them behind. The apex is formed, not by a key-stone, 
 for the construction does not admit of such, but by a 
 covering stone, which is merely laid on the course imme- 
 diately below it. It may be added, that internally the 
 lower projecting angles of the stones are worked off to 
 follow the general outline. Though this is the largest 
 and most perfect, its internal diameter at the base being 
 48 feet 6 inches, and its height from the floor to the co- 
 vering stone 45 feet, yet edifices exhibiting similar struc- 
 ture are found in many other places in Greece itself, in 
 Egypt, in Sicily, and in Italy. They all however tend to 
 prove, that the principle of the construction of the verti- 
 cal arch was unknown at the time of their erection in all 
 those countries ; and their erection is as evidently of the 
 most remote antiquity, perhaps of the presumed era of 
 Dasdalus, to whom some have assigned many of them, as 
 well as the discovery of so much of the principle of the 
 arch as is exhibited in the arrangement of the horizontal 
 rings or layers in the Mycenaean monument. Neither 
 could the mechanical powers have been unknown to their 
 constructors. In the edifice which we have described, 
 and which is thought by some to be the Treasury of Atreus, 
 or the Tomb of bis son Agamemnon, mentioned by Pau- 
 sanias as existing among the ruins of Mycenae in his time, 
 the inner lintel of the doorway is 27 feet in length, 16 feet 
 deep, and nearly 4 feet thick, weighing, it is computed, 
 upwards of 130 tons ; and the lintel of the Gate of the 
 Lions in the Acropolis of the same city, is, from its im- 
 mense magnitude, also strongly illustrative of the great 
 mechanical skill of the people of those times. As the 
 treasury of Atreus at present exists, it exhibits nothing 
 like an attempt at decoration, except that the doorway is, 
 on the outside, sunk in two faces all round, as if to harmo- 
 nize with some architectural composition ; and the inte- 
 rior of the edifice may be supposed to have been lined, 
 probably with plates of metal, like the tower of Acrisius, 
 as bronze nails for attaching them to the vault still re- 
 main. Some sculptured fragments of marble which have 
 been found among the ruins of the fallen parts and the 
 rubbish which chokes up the entrance, together with in- 
 dications on the external front of the edifice that it was 
 cased, have led to an ingenious attempt at restoration, 
 upon the supposition that the fragments were parts of a 
 frontispiece. The fact that such frontispieces were some- 
 times carved, and sometimes constructed, in connection 
 with the entrances of excavated tombs and other spca in 
 Egypt and Nubia, gives a degree of probability to the 
 idea that it would not otherwise have ; for the fragments 
 do not resemble the earliest existing specimens of Greek 
 architectural forms; though indeed these latter maybe 
 traced to Persepolis, and Ibrim in Nubia, according to 
 several ingenious antiquaries and architects. In curious 
 accordance with this Mycenaean structure is the ancient 
 monument at New Grange, near Drogheda, in Ireland. 
 
 Ruder in every respect than the former, in form, con- 
 struction, and mode of access, it bears such a striking 
 similarity to it, that it is almost impossible to be supposed 
 the effect of mere chance. The opinion of Mr Godfrey 
 Higgins, that the Pelasgi, who peopled many of the coun 
 tries on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, peopled 
 Ireland also, appears to be supported by this coincidence 
 between the so-called Treasury of Atreus, or Tomb of 
 Agamemnon, in the Peloponnesus, and the monument at 
 New Grange in Ireland. 
 
 We know of no columnar edifice in Greece, or else- Plate I. V. 
 where in the Grecian style, of earlier date than the ruin- Fig. 10. 
 ed temple at Corinth, which is in the plainest and sim- 
 
12 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, plest form of what lias been called the Doric Order, 
 though it would he more correctly designated the Doric 
 Style ; for the term Order is objectionable, because it sup- 
 poses rules and limitations to what in its best times was 
 subjected to neither. As, however, it is the term best 
 understood, we shall not hesitate to continue it. It is dif- 
 ficult, if not impossible, to ascertain where and in what 
 manner the Doric order originated. The example we have 
 referred to, though the earliest, does not differ in its lead- 
 ing features and characteristics from the more perfect 
 specimens of later date ; and it bears no direct and easy 
 analogy to any species of columnar arrangement of other 
 countries and earlier times. The story of Vitruvius, even 
 supposing it rational, does not coincide with the Greek 
 style of Doric at all, hut, if with any thing, with the Ro- 
 man examples of it, which at the best are mean and in- 
 elegant deteriorations of the simple and beautiful original. 
 This author says that “ Dorus, the son of Hellenus and of 
 the nymph Orseis, king of Achaia and of all the Pelopon- 
 nesus, having formerly built a temple to Juno in the an- 
 cient city of Argos, this temple was found by chance 
 to be in that manner which we call Doric .” 1 In another 
 place he deduces the arrangements of this same order 
 from those of a primitive log-hut in the first place, through 
 all the refinements of carpentry, leaving nothing to chance, 
 but settling with the utmost precision what, in the latter, 
 suggested the various parts of the former. Chance in 
 one case, and experience in another, however, are not 
 enough for this author ; but he also tells us that the Doric 
 column was modelled by the Grecian colonists in Asia 
 Minor, on the proportions of the male human figure, and 
 was made six diameters in height, because a man was found 
 to be six times the length of his foot; and that eventual 
 improvements occasioned the column to be made one dia- 
 meter more, or seven instead of six. “ Thus the Doric 
 column was first adapted to edifices, having the propor- 
 tions, strength, and beauty of the body of a man !” The 
 earliest examples of this order, however, are those which 
 least agree with the primitive forms and proportions of 
 Vitruvius ; the columns at Corinth hardly exceed four 
 diameters in height, while in later examples they gradu- 
 ally extend, till, in the temple of Minerva on the promon- 
 tory of Sunium, the columns are nearly six diameters, be- 
 ing one of the tallest specimens of pure Greek origin ever 
 executed. If the trunks of trees used in the structure of 
 tents suggested the first idea of columns, and of the Doric 
 in particular, as many contend, how is it that the earli- 
 est specimens discovered are the most massive ? For the 
 merest saplings would have formed the wooden proto- 
 columns, and necessarily, when imitated in stone, they 
 would not have been made more bulky than the less tena- 
 cious nature of the material required; much less would 
 the slender wooden architrave have been magnified into 
 the ponderous entablature of the primitive permanent ar- 
 chitectural structures of all nations. In the construction 
 of edifices with the trunks of trees, and timber generally, 
 then, we do not find the origin of Doric architecture. If 
 we have recourse to Egypt, the mother of the arts and 
 sciences, we shall indeed find many things even in the 
 more ancient structures which may have furnished an idea 
 of the Boric arrangements to the fertile imagination of a 
 Greek. The later works of that country cannot be trust- 
 ed for originality, as they may themselves have been in- 
 fluenced by Greek examples ; but we hardly dare assert 
 that the Doric order was suggested by any thing in Egyp- 
 tian architecture, though in making such assertion we 
 should be supported by the opinions of many competent 
 
 judges. The temple at Amada in Nubia can hardly be History, 
 positively assumed as an example of the proto-Doric, K ^''^~ 
 though it may of the proto-columnar. Nevertheless, the^ at£ ' 
 example is striking, as it certainly possesses the Doric 
 character. The broad square abacus, and the cylindrical 
 or even conoidal tendency of the shaft, marked as it is, as 
 if for fluting, with the plain, simple, and massive epistyle 
 or architrave superimposed, are all in accordance with the 
 Hellenic columnar ordinance ; but still there is nothing 
 to connect that rude model with the positive and some- 
 what formally arranged example at Corinth with which 
 we began. It must be remembered, however, that two 
 connecting links between Egyptian and Greek architec- 
 ture are lost ; Lower Egypt, with its splendid capital 
 Memphis, and Phoenicia; through which latter the learn- 
 ing and taste of the inhabitants of the former country ap- 
 pear to have taken their course ; but of neither of these 
 do we possess architectural remains that bear on the sub- 
 ject in question. In the Pharaonic structures of Thebes 
 we find both the tumescent and the cylindrical columns ; 
 and an amalgamation and modification of the two would 
 easily produce the Doric column, or something very much 
 like it, which may have been executed in those places, and 
 so transferred to Greece. Of the triglyphs, the most dis- 
 tinguishing part of the Doric entablature, there are many 
 indications in the early works of Upper Egypt ; and in the 
 structures of the Ptolemies they are still more evident; 
 though it may be objected that, in these, those indications 
 were borrowed from the Greeks after the Macedonian con- 
 quest. But it must be borne in mind that the Egyptian na- 
 tion did not change its character, religion, or usages by the 
 change of its governors ; and the Egyptians were, through 
 the whole period of their existence as a nation, an origi- 
 nating and not an imitative people ; whereas the Greeks 
 seized on a beauty wherever they found one, and made it 
 their own by improving it. The forms and arrangement, 
 too, of many of the Greek mouldings, and the manner of 
 carving to enrich them, are common in the earliest ornate 
 works of the Egyptians ; and such things are as strong 
 evidence of community of origin, as the existence of simi- 
 lar words having the same meaning in different languages 
 is of theirs. We may be asked, why the Greeks cannot 
 be allowed to have originated that beautiful style of ar- 
 chitecture which they brought to the perfection it displays 
 in their works ? To which we think it a sufficient answer, 
 that it would be against the common course of events if it 
 were so. In Egypt we can trace a progress from the ruder 
 to the more advanced, and, with trifling discrepancies, to 
 the most perfect ; but in Greece, the earliest specimen of 
 columnar architecture that presents itself displays almost 
 all the qualities and perfections which are found in works 
 of periods when learning and civility were at their acme in 
 that country. We cannot find in Greece a stepping-stone 
 from the Celtic or Pelasgic Gate of the Lions of Mycenae, to 
 the Doric columns at Corinth, and hardly to the Fane of 
 Minerva in the Acropolis of Athens ; and have therefore to 
 seek the gradations among the people with whom we have 
 seen they w r ere connected, and whose country furnishes 
 them in a great measure, if not entirely. Differences in 
 climate and in political constitution, as well as in forms 
 of religion, account sufficiently for the differences between 
 the arrangements of the religious structures of the Greeks 
 and those of Egypt. At the present day we find, that 
 though they may be built in the same style, and for the 
 worship of the same divinity, there is a wide difference be- 
 tween a church in Italy and a church in England, and a 
 still greater between a church in the former country and 
 
 1 Vitruvius, lib. i. cap. i. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 13 
 
 History, one in Scotland. The model, however, of the Greek 
 temple is found in many places in Egypt, generally placed 
 as a chapel or aedicula, subsidiary to, and in connection 
 with, the larger structures, as well as in the earlier Nubian 
 temples themselves. 
 
 None other than the Doric style or order was used in 
 Greece till after the Macedonian conquest, about which 
 period that beautiful and graceful variety called the Ionic 
 was brought into use. It is as difficult to determine its origin 
 as that of the Doric. Vitruvius says that the Ionian colo- 
 nists, on building a temple to Diana, wished to find some 
 new manner that was beautiful ; and by the method which 
 they had pursued with the Doric, proportioning the column 
 after a man, they gave to this the delicacy of the female 
 figure ; in the first place by making the diameter of the 
 column one eighth of its height, then by putting a base to 
 it in twisted cords, like the sandals of a woman, and putting 
 volutes to the capital, like the hair which hangs on both 
 sides of her face. To crown all, he says that they chan- 
 nelled or fluted the column, to resemble the folds of female 
 garments, by which it would appear that Vitruvius did 
 not know that the Greeks never executed the Doric order 
 without fluting the columns. “ Thus,” he goes on to say, 
 “ they invented these two species of columns, imitating in 
 the one the naked simplicity and dignity of a man, and in 
 the other the delicacy and the ornaments of a woman.” It 
 can hardly be doubted that the voluted or Ionic order did 
 originate in Ionia, at least we know of no earlier ex- 
 amples of it than those which exist there ; and it does 
 not appear to have been known to the European Greeks, 
 and certainly was not practised by them, till after the pe- 
 riod rve have indicated. It probably took its rise from 
 some peculiarities in Persian architecture ; though many 
 believe that the Ionic order had a much earlier origin, de- 
 riving it from Egypt, where, it is true, many indications 
 are found of its volutes in the spiral enrichments of capi- 
 tals ; but it must be observed that they are in edifices 
 now ascertained to be of the age of the Ptolemies, and 
 consequently later than the structures which exhibit the 
 voluted order in Ionia and its islands. We think, too, 
 that many persons are influenced in assigning a higher 
 degree of antiquity to this style than facts will bear out, 
 by their respect for the authority of Vitruvius ; though 
 Mr Gwilt (his latest translator into English) confesses 
 that “ upon his authority in matters of historical research 
 not much reliance is to be placed.” 1 We are willing to 
 admit that much may be adduced in support of the opinion, 
 that this style was known and used in Greece even before 
 the age of Pericles; specimens of it having been found in 
 connection with sculpture, certainly less perfect, and there- 
 fore presumed to be of earlier date, than the works of 
 Phidias and his pupils and compeers. 
 
 It is no less difficult to determine the origin of what is 
 called the Corinthian order. The not inelegant tradi- 
 tionary tale by Vitruvius of the invention of its capital, is 
 the only reason of the name it bears. His account of 
 the origin of this third species of columnar composition 
 is more summary, and not less absurd, than that of the pre- 
 ceding. He says that it was arranged “ to represent the 
 delicacy of a young girl whose age renders her figure 
 more pleasing and more susceptible of ornaments which 
 may enhance her natural beauty.” With much more 
 reason might the Doric be called the Corinthian order ; 
 for, as we have stated, at Corinth there exists the oldest 
 example of that style ; whereas there is nothing, either in 
 ruins or authentic record, to prove that the latter was ever 
 known in that city. Columns with foliated capitals are 
 
 not of very early date in Greece ; earlier exist in Asia History. 
 Minor, and foliage adorns the capitals of columns in some'^^^ 
 of the Pharaonic monuments of Egypt ; not arranged, 
 indeed, as in the later Corinthian capital, which by pos- 
 sibility may have been the result of some such accident 
 as Vitruvius relates of Callimachus and the basket on the 
 grave of the Corinthian virgin. The interior of the temple 
 of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus in Ionia exhibits the 
 earliest example of the acanthus leaf arranged round the 
 drum of a capital in a single row, surmounted by the 
 favourite honeysuckle ; but that edifice was constructed 
 about a century before Callimachus is understood to have 
 lived. The only perfect columnar example in Greece it- Plate LX. 
 self of this species of foliated capital is of later date than, Pigs. I, -j, 
 and is a great improvement on, that of Miletus ; it is the & 3 * 
 beautiful little structure called the Choragic monument 
 of Lysicrates at Athens. Specimens are less uncommon 
 in Greece of square or antse capitals, enriched with foli- 
 age, than of circular or columnar capitals ; but they are 
 almost invariably found to have belonged to the interior 
 of buildings, and not to have been used externally. In 
 considering Greek architecture, it is necessary to bear in 
 mind that it ceases almost immediately after the subjec- 
 tion of Greece to the Roman power ; for there are many 
 edifices in that country in the style of columnar arrange- 
 ment of which we are now speaking besides those re- 
 ferred to, but they belong to Roman and not to Greek 
 architecture. The earliest of them perhaps, and certainly 
 the least influenced by Roman taste, is the structure called 
 the Tower of the Winds, or of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, at 
 Athens. A spurious example of Greek Doric, evidently 
 executed under the Roman domination, may be referred 
 to here ; it is that of the Agora, or Doric portico, as it is 
 sometimes distinguished, in the same city. 
 
 Besides the three species of columnar arrangement we 
 have enumerated, the Greeks employed another in which 
 statues of women occupied the place of columns. The 
 reason of this too Vitruvius furnishes in a story which is, 
 as usual, totally unsupported by history or analogy; but 
 the consequence of it is, that such figures are called 
 Caryatides ; and the arrangement has been called by 
 some the Caryatic order. The use of representations of 
 the human and other figures with or instead of columns 
 is, however, common in the structures of Egypt and In- 
 dia ; and to the former the Greeks were doubtless indebt- 
 ed for the idea, though they appear to have restricted 
 its application to human female figures. Mr Gwilt in- 
 fers, from various facts connected with the worship of 
 Diana Caryatis, “ that the statues called Caryatides were 
 originally applied to or used about the temples of Diana ; 
 and instead of representing captives or persons in a state 
 of ignominy (as the Vitruvian story goes), were in fact 
 nothing more than the figures of the virgins who celebrat- 
 ed the worship of that goddess.” 2 
 
 The only architectural works of the Greeks that re- 
 main to us of any consequence, besides temples, pro- 
 pylaea, and Choragic monuments, are theati'es ; but these 
 latter do not retain any thing connected with architec- 
 tural decoration to make them interesting, except to the 
 architect and antiquary. They are generally situated on 
 the side of a hill, and were rather excavated or carved 
 out in the earth or rock, than built ; except the prosce- 
 nium and parascenium, which being at the lower part, in 
 front, and requiring elevation, must of necessity be built ; 
 but very little of the constructed portions in any case ex- 
 ists. It does not appear that the theatres afforded any 
 provision for sheltering the spectators, or indeed the ac- 
 
 Gwilt’s Chamben’t Civil Architecture, p. 30. 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 57- 
 
14 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, tors, from rain, except perhaps a covered cyrtostylar co- 
 lonnade within the upper boundary wall, which, even when 
 it existed, was of necessity very narrow and small for so 
 large a number of people as were generally assembled ; 
 for the theatres were calculated to hold from five to fifteen 
 and even twenty thousand persons. This, to say the least 
 ofit, must have subjected the public to great inconve- 
 niences, even in so fine a climate as that of Greece; for 
 they were unsheltered from the sun at all times, and effec- 
 tually debarred of a favourite amusement in wet weather. 
 
 No remains exist of the domestic structures of the 
 Greeks ; and we are too well aware, from the example of 
 others, of the futility of following mere descriptions on 
 the subject, to attempt it here ; especially as the most ex- 
 plicit are those of Vitruvius, whom we know to have been 
 ignorant of the arrangement of Greek temples, by those 
 of them which exist, and may therefore reasonably sus- 
 pect of ignorance with regard to things of which we have 
 no remains. It may be taken for granted that the houses 
 of the Greeks were less extensive than those of the 
 Romans, as they were a poorer and less luxurious peo- 
 ple ; and we shall be able to determine those of the lat- 
 ter nation with great exactitude, from the actual remains 
 of Roman towns and country mansions. The exquisite 
 beauty of form and decoration which pervades every ar- 
 ticle of Greek origin, whether coins, medallions, vases, 
 implements of war or husbandry, or even the meanest ar- 
 ticle of domestic or personal use of which we have speci- 
 mens or representations, is evidence of the fine taste with 
 which the mansions of the Greeks were furnished. How- 
 ever, ignorance of the use of the arch, inferior carpentry, 
 the absence of glass, and ignorance of the use of chimneys, 
 were disadvantages which the Greeks laboured under in the 
 construction and convenient arrangement of their houses, 
 that no degree of taste and elegance could completely 
 countervail. 
 
 In the construction of their edifices, the Greeks sel- 
 dom, if ever, had recourse to foreign materials ; the stone 
 used in their temples being almost invariably from the 
 nearest convenient quarries, which supplied it of suffi- 
 ciently good quality. The structures of Athens are built 
 of marble from the quarries of Pentelicus, and those of 
 Agrigentum of a fossil conglomerate which the place it- 
 self furnishes. 
 
 Invention We have taken it for granted that the Greeks were ig- 
 
 of the arch.norant of the properties of the arch, having too high an 
 opinion of their good sense to think that they could be 
 acquainted witb so admirable and useful an expedient, and 
 never use it; and no instance of its adaptation occurs in 
 the construction of Greek edifices before the connection 
 of Greece with Rome took place. Whether its invention 
 should be referred to Italy or not is another question. If 
 the great sewer at Rome called the Cloaca Maxima was 
 constructed in the time of Tarquinius Priscus, it must be 
 conceded that the properties of the arch were known and 
 practised in that country at an earlier period than we 
 know the principle to have been understood and applied 
 elsewhere ; for neither Egypt nor Greece, nor any of the 
 Grecian colonies, can furnish evidence that it was known 
 to either Egyptians or Grecians till a long time after the 
 period referred to, and when it may have been communi- 
 cated from Italy. But it is contended that the Cloaca 
 Maxima, as it now exists, is a work of much more recent 
 date, and that it may have succeeded the sewer con- 
 structed by the first Tarquinius, who was moreover himself 
 a Greek. If the first part of the objection be correct, the 
 evidence in favour of Italy is destroyed, as far as that 
 
 work is concerned ; the second is fallacious, because it is History, 
 not necessary that the monarch should have brought the v -^ v ^ w “ 
 knowledge with him ; though indeed he might have ac- 
 quired it in Etruria, or it might have existed in Rome be- 
 fore his arrival there. Most writers on the subject are of 
 opinion that the principle of the arch was not known, in 
 Europe at least, nor to the nations of Western Asia and 
 Africa, till after the Macedonian conquest, about which 
 time it may have been invented, or acquired from some 
 of the eastern nations who were visited by the conque- 
 rors. To these suggestions the objections hold that the 
 arch was not applied in Egypt in the architectural works 
 which remain of the Ptolemies, nor is it found in the Per- 
 sian and Indian monuments which date beyond that pe- 
 riod. The author of the Munimenta Antiqua , after a 
 comprehensive review of all the authorities and examples 
 on tlie subject, gives it as his own opinion that “ Sicily 
 was the country where this noble kind of ornament first 
 appeared, and that Archimedes was the inventor of it.” 1 
 The evidence appears, we think, generally stronger in fa- 
 vour of its Italian origin ; but to whomsoever the inven- 
 tion may be attributed, and whensoever it was made, the 
 Romans were the first to make extensive practical use of 
 it ; and by means of it they succeeded in doing what their 
 predecessors in civilization never effected. It enabled 
 them to carry permanent and secure roads across wide 
 and rapid rivers, and to make a comparatively frail and 
 fragile material, such as brick, more extensively useful 
 than the finest marbles were in the hands of the Greeks 
 without that principle. To the Greeks, however, the Ro- 
 mans were indebted for their knowledge of the more po- 
 lished forms of columnar architecture ; for, before the 
 conquest of Greece, the structures of Rome appear to 
 have been rude and inelegant. The few specimens of 
 architecture which exist of date anterior to that period 
 evidently resemble the works of the ancient Etrurians, 
 who, though they had made considerable advances on 
 the architecture of their Pelasgic ancestors, were far in- 
 ferior in taste and refinement to the Greeks ; yet it is to 
 that people we are inclined to attribute the invention of 
 the arch, from whom the Romans acquired their know- 
 ledge of its use, and that degree of civilization which 
 they possessed before the epoch referred to. It may be 
 presumed that the Etrurians had also originated the style 
 of columnar architecture which Vitruvius describes and 
 calls Tuscan; but as no example of it exists, at least no- 
 thing that answers his description ofit, we cannot tell posi- 
 tively what it really was ; for, as we have before remarked, 
 descriptions without a model, of architecture particularly, 
 are quite unintelligible, as far as understanding a new 
 style goes. Whatever then was the style of architecture 
 in Rome before the conquest of Greece, it was either ex- 
 ploded by the superior merit and beauty of what the Ro- 
 mans found in that country, or combined with it, though 
 frequently the combination tended to destroy the beauty 
 of both. In the porticoes of the temple of Antoninus and 
 Faustina, and of the Pantheon, at Rome, the chaste sim- 
 plicity of a Greek columnar composition is preserved ; 
 and in the magnificent dome of the latter edifice, and in 
 the long extended aqueduct, it is fully equalled. But the 
 triumphal arch of the Romans, a hybrid composed of co- 
 lumns and arches, is devoid alike of simplicity and har- 
 mony, indeed of every quality which constitutes beauty in 
 architecture. 
 
 In the transference of Greek columnar architecture to Rnman 
 Rome, a great change was effected, independently of those 
 combinations. The less refined taste of the Romans 
 
 1 Munim. Antiq. by Edward King, Esq. F-R. S. and S.A. vol. li. p. 2G8. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, could not appreciate the simple grandeur and dignified 
 ''""’V'"'' beauty of the Doric, as it existed in Greece. They appear 
 to have moulded it on what we suppose their own Tuscan to 
 have been ; and the result was the mean and characterless 
 ordinance exemplified in the lowest story of the theatre of 
 Marcellus at Rome, and in the temple at Cora, between 
 30 and 40 miles south of that city. Not less inferior to 
 the Athenian examples of the Ionic order, than the Doric 
 of Cora is to the Doric of Athens, are the mean and taste- 
 less deteriorations of them in the Roman temples of 
 Manly Fortune and Concord. It was different, however, 
 with the foliated Corinthian, which became to the Romans 
 what the Doric had been to the Greeks — their national 
 style. But though they borrowed the style, they did not 
 copy the Greek examples of it. In Rome the Corinthian 
 order assumed a new and not less beautiful form and 
 character, and was varied to a wonderful extent, but with- 
 out losing its original and distinctive features. The ex- 
 ample of the temple of Vesta at Tivoli hardly differs less 
 from that of the temple of Jupiter Stator in Rome, than 
 the latter does from the ordinance of the Choragic monu- 
 ment of Lysicrates at Athens ; and all three are among the 
 most beautiful examples of the Corinthian order in exist- 
 ence — if indeed they are not pre-eminently so — and yet 
 they do not possess a single proportion in common. It 
 must be confessed, moreover, that if the Romans had not 
 good taste enough to admire the Doric and Ionic models 
 of Greece, they had too much to be fond of their own, for 
 they seldom used them. Both at home and abroad, in all 
 their conquests and colonies, wherever they built, they 
 employed the Corinthian order. Corinthian edifices were 
 raised in Iberia and in Gaul, in Istria and in Greece, in 
 Syria and in Egypt; and to the present day Nismes, 1 Pola, 
 Athens, Palmyra, and the banks of the Nile, alike attest 
 the fondness of the Romans for that peculiar style. We 
 cannot agree with the generally received opinion, that 
 Greek architects were employed by the Romans after the 
 connection between the two countries took place ; for the 
 difference between the Greek and Roman styles of archi- 
 tecture is not merely in the preference given to one over 
 another peculiar mode of columnar arrangement and com- 
 position, but a different taste pervades even the details: 
 though the mouldings are the same, they differ more in 
 spirit and character than do those of Greece and Egypt, 
 which certainly would no.t have been the case if Roman 
 architecture had been the work of Greek architects. In- 
 deed, were it not for historical evidence, which cannot 
 absolutely be refuted, an examination and comparison of 
 the architectural monuments of the two countries would 
 lead an architect to the conclusion, that the Corinthian 
 order had its origin in Italy, and that the almost solitary 
 perfect example of it in Greece was the result of an acci- 
 dental communication with thatcountry, modified by Greek 
 taste ; or that the foliated style was common to both, with- 
 out either being indebted to the other for it. The Ro- 
 mans conquered Egypt as well as Greece, but we do not 
 find that they adopted any of the peculiarities of Egyptian 
 architecture. They carried away indeed the obelisks and 
 many of the sculptures of Egypt, as trophies of their con- 
 quests or as ornaments of their city ; but they neither made 
 obelisks nor constructed temples to Egyptian divinities in 
 
 15 
 
 the Egyptian style. If, however, Greek architects were History, 
 employed by the Romans, they must have made their 
 taste and mode of design conform to those of their con- 
 querors much more readily than we can imagine they 
 would as the civilized slaves of barbarian masters; and it 
 is too clear to be disputed, that the Roman architecture 
 is a style essentially distinct from the Greek. This is 
 elucidated by the fact that many of the minor works of 
 sculpture in connection with architecture, such as candela- 
 bra, vases, and various articles of household furniture dis- 
 covered at the villa of Adrianus, near Rome, and at Her- 
 culaneum and Pompeii, are fashioned and ornamented in 
 the Greek style, while others are as decidedly Roman in 
 those particulars ; rendering it evident that such things 
 were either imported from Greece, or that Greek artists 
 and artisans were employed in Italy, who retained their 
 own national taste and modes of design. It is probable, 
 nevertheless, that both the architects and artists, natives 
 of Rome, qualified their own less elegant productions by 
 reference to Greek models ; but that the Romans derived 
 their architecture entirely from the Greeks, may certainly 
 be disputed. 
 
 Half the extent and magnificence of the architectural 
 works of the Romans is attributable to their knowledge and 
 use of the arch, which enabled them, as we have already 
 intimated, to make small parallelopipedons of burnt earth 
 more extensively applicable to useful purposes than any 
 other material could be, from the greater cost of provid- 
 ing and preparing it; whereas brick can, in almost every 
 place, be made on the spot in which it is wanted. There 
 is a very false notion abroad as to the richness of the ma- 
 terials used for building in Rome, induced by the inflated 
 accounts of travellers and poets, who attempt to disguise 
 their ignorance, or their want of knowledge and taste, by 
 raving of Vitruvian proportions, and marble temples, pa- 
 laces, and baths. The truth is, that Rome was built, not 
 of marble, nor even of stone, but of brick ; for in compari- 
 son to the quantity of brick, it may be safely asserted that 
 there is more stone in London than there was in imperial 
 Rome. Almost all the structures of the Romans indeed 
 were of brick— their aqueducts, their palaces, their villas, 
 their baths, and their temples. Of the present remains, it 
 is only a few columns and their entablatures that are of 
 marble or granite, and two or three buildings of Traver- 
 tine stone ; — all the rest are brick. The Colosseum, the 
 Mausoleum of Adrian, the Cloaca Maxima, the Temple of 
 Manly Fortune, and the ancient bridges on the Tiber, are 
 of Travertine stone ; the remaining columns of the more 
 splendid temples, the internal columns and theiraccessories 
 of the Pantheon, the exterior of the imperial arches, and 
 the cenotaphial columns of Trajanus and Antoninus, are 
 of marble : but the Imperial Mount of the Palatine, which 
 holds the ruins of the Palace of the Caesars, is but one 
 mass of brick ; the Pantheon, except its portico and in- 
 ternal columns, &c. is of brick ; the Temples of Peace, of 
 Venus and Rome, and of Minerva Medica, are of brick ; 
 and so, for the most part, were the walls of others, though 
 they may have been faced with marble or freestone. The 
 Baths of Titus, of Caracalla, and of Diocletianus, are of 
 brick; the city walls are of brick; so are the extensive 
 remains of the splendid villa of Adrianus near Rome ; 
 
 1 Bordeaux did. A century and a half ago there existed at Bordeaux very considerable remains of a most interesting Roman 
 edifice, of which no authentic record is preserved hut a slight sketch by Perrault, the architect of the great front of the Louvre, who 
 delineated it a few years before its destruction by the government, and who termed it one of the most magnificent and most entire of 
 the Roman monuments then remaining in France. The editor of the new edition of Stuart’s Athens, speaking of this, says, “ on this 
 occasion the reflection presents itself, that while the Turks are reprobated for appropriating the columns of ancient Athens, in their 
 haste to raise a wall to defend their town from the predatory Albanians, here, in the vaunted age of Louis XIV. (in his kingdom 
 and under his government, may be added) the finest production of ancient architecture in France was more recklessly demolished to 
 make place for the fortifications of Bordeaux, deliberately constructed by Vauban ; and no architect, either of the city or government, 
 has preserved for posterity the details of so noble a monument.” ( Antiquities of Athens, new edition, vol. iii. c. xi. p. 120.) 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 JG 
 
 History, the villa of Mecaenas at Tivoli ; the palaces of the Roman 
 
 'T'*"’' emperors and patricians at Baiae and in other parts of 
 Italy ; and so, it may be said, are the remains of Hercu- 
 laneum and Pompeii, for the houses in those cities are 
 generally built of alternate double courses of brick, and 
 courses of stone or lava. In most cases, at Rome and in 
 the provinces, stucco formed the surface which received 
 the decorations. From the above enumeration, it will ap- 
 pear how much more variously the Romans built than any 
 of their predecessors in civilization did. In Egypt we find no 
 indications of edifices of real utility or convenience, nothing 
 but temples and tombs, — and in Greece there is but a small 
 addition to this list ; but in Rome are found specimens of 
 almost every variety of structure that men in civilized 
 communities require. Much of this also may be attributed 
 to the knowledge they possessed of the properties of the 
 arch, which may be considered among the most admirable 
 and useful discoveries ever made in the practical applica- 
 tions of mechanical science. It entered into the composi- 
 tion of every structure, and made the rudest and cheapest 
 material of more real value than the most costly. It not 
 only superseded the use of long stone beams, but was 
 constantly used in places where indeed joists of wood 
 would have been much more convenient, giving support 
 to the opinion that even the Romans were not skilled in 
 the application of timber to their edifices ; though, on the 
 contrary, it is difficult to understand how Rome could 
 become subject to such a dreadful conflagration as that 
 which occurred in the reign of Nero, if timber had not 
 been employed in the ordinary houses of the city to a 
 much greater extent than would appear from existing re- 
 mains. The domestic structures of Herculaneum and Pom- 
 peii were evidently never very susceptible of fire, from the 
 small quantity of timber required in their construction ; 
 and discoveries which are made from time to time, of por- 
 tions of the ordinary houses of ancient Rome, under the 
 pavements of the modern city, evince that they were very 
 similar to them in almost every particular. The infrequency 
 of stairs, and the meanness of those which exist, leading to 
 upper apartments in the houses of those cities, leads to the 
 belief that the Romans seldom built above the ground story, 
 and that their skill in carpentry was not very great ; other- 
 wise they would more frequently have had recourse to so 
 easy and convenient a mode of extending room as upper 
 stories offer. There are, however, other things which tend 
 to prove that carpentry was well understood by the Ro- 
 mans; and the most remarkable is the bridge that Trajan 
 built over the Danube, the piers of which are said by Dion 
 Cassius to have been 150 feet high and 170 feet apart. 
 Now, whether the bridge itself consisted of a wooden plat- 
 form, as there is much reason to believe, or was of stone 
 arches, as the historian intimates, the skill which con- 
 structed centring for the latter, or laid the platform from 
 pier to pier in the former case, of that immense extent, 
 was amazing; nevertheless, such skill in carpentry is not 
 evinced by the remains of the civic and domestic struc- 
 tures of the Romans, in which arching in all its varieties 
 was used where carpentry would have been better. Of 
 their joinery we know nothing; but it does not appear, 
 from the last-quoted mode of ascertaining such things, to 
 nave been much practised by them — mosaic pavements 
 supplying the place of flooring, and stucco that of wain- 
 scoting: the luxury of windows being unknown, their 
 fittings were not required ; and doors, it would appear, 
 were uncommon, except externally — the internal door- 
 ways being most probably covered with something equi- 
 valent to the quilted leather mats suspended from the 
 lintel, which are used instead of swinging doors at the 
 entrances of the churches in Italy at the present time. 
 Although the Romans did not use marble to the extent 
 
 that has been supposed, yet they were extremely luxurious History, 
 in the use of costly stones. Marbles of every variety, "Y''— ' 
 
 and from all parts, were used in Rome ; and columns were 
 made of Egyptian and other granites, and porphyry. In 
 Greece, and the Grecian colonies which were conquered 
 by Rome, the edifices of the Romans might be distin- 
 guished by the foreign marbles used in them, if the style 
 of their execution were not sufficient otherwise to deter- 
 mine them. 
 
 The mingling of columnar and arcaded arrangements in 
 the same composition appears to have been the grand 
 cause of the deterioration of Roman architecture. It oc- 
 casioned unequal and inordinately distended intercolum- 
 niations and broken entablatures : these a vitiated taste 
 repeated, where the necessity that had first occasioned 
 them did not exist; and harmony and simplicity being 
 thus destroyed, the practice of the science went on de- 
 teriorating, till it was made to produce such monstrous 
 combinations as the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, and 
 the Temple of Pallas, or ruins of the Forum of Nerva in 
 Rome, present. It was indeed a fall from the grandeur, 
 harmony, and noble simplicity of the interior of the Pan- 
 theon in its pristine state, to the hall or xystum of the 
 baths of Diocletian, which now exists as the church of 
 Santa Maria degli Angeli, with its straggling columns and 
 broken and imperfect entablature ; or from the temple of 
 Jupiter Stator to that of Concord or the arch of Septi- 
 mius Severus. 
 
 Architecture was already extinct among the Romans 
 when the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople ; 
 so that, however great was the extent and splendour of 
 its edifices, we cannot suppose them to have possessed any 
 of those qualities which give to the Parthenon at Athens, 
 and to the interior of the Pantheon at Rome, the charm 
 they possess ; unless the Greeks had recourse to the 
 monuments of their own country, and used them as founts 
 from which to draw matter for the composition of the edi- 
 fices of their new capital. This, indeed, is possible, for 
 there appears to have been, even in Rome, at and after 
 the time of Constantine, a recurrence to the ancient sim- 
 plicity, though, truly, without any of that beauty and 
 elegance of form in the details, and of proportion in the 
 general arrangement, which constitute half the merit of 
 works of architecture. The change of religion which 
 took place under Constantine led to the destruction or 
 destitution of many of the noblest structures in Rome. 
 
 The ancient Christian basilicas are for the most part con- 
 structed of the ruins of the more ancient Pagan temples, 
 baths, and mausoleums ; and in them a much greater degree 
 of simplicity, and consequent beauty, pervades the colum- 
 nar arrangements than existed perhaps in some of the 
 previous combinations of the same materials. Frequently, 
 however, the collocation of various parts was most unapt ; 
 and gross inconsistencies were recurred to, to get rid of 
 the difficulty of combining discordant fragments. Some- 
 times it was necessary to make up with new, what was 
 wanting of old materials, whose forms were rudely imi- 
 tated. 
 
 In those countries which received the Christian re- Gothic 
 ligion from Rome, but which did not contain mines of or Pointed 
 architectural material in temples, amphitheatres, and pa- 
 laces, as Italy did, and indeed in the other parts of Italy ture ' 
 itself which did not contain them as Rome did, churches 
 were constructed in imitation of those of the metropolis 
 of the Christian world. These, being the work of a semi- 
 barbarous and unpolished people, were of necessity rude 
 and clumsy. Hence arose the Gothic architecture of the 
 middle ages, and not from any previously existing style 
 of architecture among the northern nations who overran 
 Italy and subverted the Roman power. The rude Celtic 
 
A R C H I T 
 
 History, monuments were the only specimens of architecture they 
 possessed, and the performance of their unhallowed rites 
 appears to have been long transferred even from them to 
 the groves, or it may be that the stone circles and temples 
 themselves were called groves. This, however, is of but 
 little consequence to our purpose. The fact is indisput- 
 able, that nothing existed among those nations that could 
 have given rise to the rude style of architecture referred 
 to, which was indeed introduced to them by the Christian 
 religion in the manner we have stated. It will be found 
 in what are called the Saxon and Norman styles of this 
 country, and to a greater or less extent in all the coun- 
 tries of Europe in which the Romans had been masters, 
 and particularly in those which adhered to the Roman 
 communion in the great division of the churches. The 
 general forms and modes of arrangement peculiar to Ro- 
 man architecture may be traced throughout; in some 
 specimens they are more, and in others less obvious, but 
 the leading features are the same. This is more evident 
 in Italy than elsewhere. In the early Roman basilicas and 
 churches, some of which are of the Constantinian age, and 
 which were constructed with the matter and in the man- 
 ner related, the first divergencies occur ; in those which 
 are later they are still greater, and distance of time and 
 place appears still to have increased them, till what may 
 be called a new style was formed, having peculiarities of 
 its own, but yet more clearly deducible from its origin 
 than Roman is from Greek or Greek from Egyptian. As 
 might be expected, this style was not the same in all the 
 countries which practised it; it was derived, in them all, 
 from the same source as we have shown, but was mate- 
 rially influenced by the habits, manners, and state of civi- 
 lization in which the various nations were, and much too 
 by their means of communication with Rome. This, with 
 strict propriety, may be called Gothic architecture, as it 
 was partly induced by the Gothic invasions of Italy, and 
 was most generally practised by the nations to whom that 
 term may with equal propriety be applied. It arose in 
 the fourth century, and was subverted in the twelfth by 
 the invention or introduction of the pointed arch, which 
 marks a new era, and was destined to give birth to a new 
 style in architecture. Where, when, and by whom it was 
 invented or originated, has been more discussed and dis- 
 puted than the discovery of the properties of the arch it- 
 self. Some have contended that it was suggested by the 
 intersections of semicircular arches, as they were employ- 
 ed in ornamenting the fronts of edifices in the preceding 
 style ; some, that groined arches of the same form gave 
 the idea ; others have referred it to the interlacing of the 
 branches of trees when planted in parallel rows, — to an 
 imitation of wicker-work, — to a figure used on conventual 
 seals, — to the principle of the pyramid, — to Noah’s Ark, 
 — to chance. Its invention has been accorded to almost 
 every nation, civilized and uncivilized. It has been claim- 
 ed by Germans for Germany, by Frenchmen for France, 
 by Scotsmen for Scotland, and by Englishmen for Eng- 
 land. Italians have not directly laid claim to the honour 
 for themselves, but it has been given them by others. 
 Such a mass of conflicting opinions, almost all supported 
 by some show of reason, and more or less by evidence, 
 may be called a proof of the impossibility of determining 
 the question, and therefore we shall not attempt it. There 
 is one striking fact, however, which has been too much 
 overlooked by many of the theorists in the discussion of 
 the question ; it is, that the pointed arch made its appear- 
 ance almost at the same moment of time in all the civi- 
 lized countries of Europe. This is proved by the contro- 
 versies of those who, more patriotically than philosophi- 
 cally, claim its invention for their respective nations ; for 
 none of them can produce genuine specimens of it before 
 
 ECTURE. 17 
 
 a certain period, to which they can all reach. Now, if it History, 
 had been invented in any of the European nations, that S ^"Y' W 
 one would certainly have been able to show specimens of 
 it of a date considerably anterior to some of the others ; 
 for though it might by chance have been soon communi- 
 cated to any one of them, the improbability is great that 
 it would have reached them all, and have been adopted 
 by all, to the subversion of their previously existing style 
 of architecture, immediately. The infrequent and im- 
 perfect modes of communication between the different 
 countries of Europe at the period referred to, furnish an- 
 other reason why it is not probable that a discovery of 
 the kind should travel rapidly from one to another. Con- 
 sidering these things, and particularly the fact of the al- 
 most simultaneous introduction of the pointed arch to the 
 various nations of Europe, as it appears by their monu- 
 ments immediately after the first crusade, in which they 
 all bore a part, connected with existing evidence that it 
 was commonly used in the East at and anterior to that 
 period, it seems to be the most rational theory, that a 
 knowledge of it was acquired by the crusaders in the 
 Holy Land, and brought home to their respective coun- 
 tries by them. This, indeed, is the opinion of many of 
 those who have written on the subject; and without con- 
 tending that the evidence in its favour is quite conclu- 
 sive, we think it more satisfactory than any other. In 
 Europe there are found rude approaches to the pointed 
 arch in some of the earlier Gothic structures; but we 
 believe it may be safely asserted, that nothing can be 
 indicated of a date beyond that of the first crusade, ap- 
 proaching the simple but perfect lancet arch, which, it 
 is not denied, came into use immediately after that pe- 
 riod ; whereas tolerably well authenticated examples of 
 it are found in the East, of sufficient antiquity to in- 
 duce the opinion that it w r as at that time imported from 
 thence. It is, moreover, indisputable that the Saracenic 
 or Mahometan nations do use, and have used, the point- 
 ed arch ; but they were never known to adopt any Eu- 
 ropean custom or invention of any kind till very lately 
 How then can they be supposed to have availed them- 
 selves so readily as they must have done, if it be of Eu- 
 ropean origin, of so unlikely a thing to attract a Mos- 
 lem’s attention, as the peculiar form and structure of an 
 arch ? and when and where in Europe had they an oppor- 
 tunity of contemplating it till long after it is admitted to 
 have been in common use among them ? With what na- 
 tion of the East, and in what manner, the pointed arch ori- 
 ginated, are points equally difficult to solve. We have 
 not been able to discover that the properties of the arch 
 were known to the Egyptians or the Greeks, and much 
 less so were they to the Persians and Indians, till it may 
 have been communicated from Italy ; but structures are 
 found among those nations, in which chambers are domed, 
 and apertures headed, in the form of a pointed arch, 
 but produced by battering or corbelling over. It is not 
 improbable, therefore, that such things being before the 
 eyes of men, when the principles of the arch had been ac- 
 quired, that form would be repeated upon it, and the re- 
 sult would be the lancet arch, — the prototype, the germ of 
 the style. The pointed arch, on its introduction into Eu- 
 rope, does not appear to have been accompanied by its 
 ordinary accessories in after-time ; its light clustered pil- 
 lars — its mullions, foliations or featherings, and graceful 
 tracery — these resulted from its adoption : so that whe- 
 ther the arch itself was invented in Europe, or imported 
 from the East, to the European nations must be assigned 
 the credit of educing the beautiful style of architecture 
 whose distinguishing feature it is. 
 
 It may be doubted whether Venice was not the parent 
 of the style, for very early specimens of the pointed arch 
 
18 A R CHIT 
 
 History, are certainly found there, in private houses as well as in 
 
 '"•’'Y''"'' the basilica of St Mark. In the former they are gene- 
 rally of the ogee or contrasted form, in windows formed by 
 columns or mullions, with, in certain places, approaches to 
 foliations and tracery; and in the basilica the lancet arch 
 is not uncommon. The commercial connection of that city 
 with the eastern nations may easily account for its presence 
 there, even before the first crusade ; and Venice is known 
 to have been one of the thoroughfares from the other 
 parts of Europe to the Holy Land. But the peculiar 
 mode of arrangement in the Venetian style does not ap- 
 pear to have been adopted north of the Alps ; so that, 
 however original it may be, it can hardly be considered 
 the progenetrix of the school, or the model on which it was 
 formed. 
 
 Before proceeding further with this subject, it is neces- 
 sary to determine by what name to call the style whose 
 progress we have yet to contemplate. There would be 
 no greater propriety in calling it Saracenic because its dis- 
 tinctive feature originated in the East, even if that point 
 were conceded, than in calling all architectural combina- 
 tions which derive their character from the use of co- 
 lumns in them by the name of the nation in whose works 
 we find columns first used, and from whom the idea of 
 them may have been acquired. Neither can it with any 
 degree of fitness be called Gothic : that term, we have 
 seen, applies to the style that preceded it, and was first 
 given to the pointed-arch style opprobriously, during the 
 offuscation of good taste that succeeded its subversion. 
 In Italy it had never taken root, as in the countries north 
 of the Alps — the ancient Roman monuments having con- 
 tinued to influence the national architecture, it would ap- 
 pear, throughout the middle ages ; for the ecclesiastical 
 structures of that country, though rude, were never so 
 rude as they were in other places, and a better style had 
 so far formed itself before the introduction of the pointed 
 arch, that it was hardly received there. Indeed, whatever 
 edifices of merit Italy possesses in its manner, are, with 
 hardly an exception, by German architects, few Italians 
 having ever qualified themselves to practise it. When, 
 therefore, what has been called “ the revival of architec- 
 ture” took place in the fifteenth century, under Brunel- 
 leschi and his successors, the rude structures of their own 
 country, the precursors and contemporaries of our Saxon 
 and Norman edifices, were called Gothic ; but the pointed 
 style was always distinguished as the German manner, 
 Maniera Tedesca. The disgrace of applying the oppro- 
 brious term Gothic to it attaches itself to an Englishman, 
 Sir Henry Wotton, who wrote on architecture early in the 
 seventeenth century. It was continued by Evelyn, who ap- 
 plied it more directly ; and the authority of Sir Christo- 
 pher Wren finally settled its application. Its injustice is, 
 
 Plate however, rendered very obvious, by comparing the front 
 
 LXXIY. of Pisa cathedral, the best example, perhaps, of Gothic, 
 or merely deteriorated Roman architecture, with that of 
 York Minster, which holds an equal rank in the pointed 
 style. The presence of the pointed arch, on the singular 
 oriental-looking cupola of the former, shows it to be one 
 of the latest edifices in its style, overtaken by that beftwe 
 it was completely finished. Within the last half-century 
 a better taste has been formed, in this country particu- 
 larly, and has led to the appreciation of that, which is, in- 
 deed, our national style ; and within that period many 
 attempts have been made to explode the universally-de- 
 cried, unjust, and totally irrelevant appellation, but with- 
 out effect. Sir Christopher Wren himself attempted to 
 change it to Saracenic, believing that not merely the arch, 
 but the style generally, was borrowed from the Saracens. 
 It was, however, too late — he had already used the other. 
 Dr Stukely wished to call it Arabian. Some writers called 
 
 ECTU R E. 
 
 it Italian, others German, others Norman or French, History, 
 others British, and many have contended for the exclu- ' 
 
 sive term English ; and to this last the Society of Anti- 
 quaries lent its influence, but with equal inefficiency, for 
 the term Gothic still prevails. Mr Britton, than whom 
 perhaps no man possesses an equal right to affix an appel- 
 lation to the pointed-arch style, from the splendid services 
 he has done it in the publication of his Cathedral and Ar- 
 chitectural Antiquities, wishes to introduce a term which 
 is not at all unlikely to succeed, as it is equally appro- 
 priate and independent of national feeling and hypothetic 
 origin. He calls it Christian architecture. This, as a 
 generic term, would admit each nation possessing speci- 
 mens of it to distinguish its own species or style ; and as 
 the varieties of Hellenic architecture are known by the 
 names of the tribes or nations who are presumed to have 
 originated them — Dorian, Ionian, and Corinthian — so might 
 Christian architecture be English or British, German, 
 
 French, &c. for each has its peculiarities. These species 
 would again individually admit of classification, according 
 to the changes each underwent in the course of its career. 
 
 One strong objection, however, in our view of the case, 
 lies to Mr Britton’s distinctive appellation. It is, that 
 “ Christian” applies as well, if not better, to the real 
 Gothic style — that which arose on the extinction of Roman 
 architecture, and was subverted by the introduction of 
 the pointed arch, and which, indeed, owed its diffusion 
 and progress, if not its origin, to the Christian religion. 
 
 We are therefore still left to seek an appellation ; and, in 
 the absence of a better, will use the term Pointed, which 
 is not only distinctive, but descriptive ; and it has, too, the 
 merit of being general, so that it may mark the genus, 
 while the national species and their varieties may be dis- 
 tinguished by their peculiarities as before. 
 
 The Pointed Arch was a graft on the Gothic architec- 
 ture of northern Europe, as the circular arch of the Ro- 
 mans had been on the columnar ordinances of the Greeks ; 
 but with a widely different result. The amalgamation in 
 the latter case destroyed the beauty of both the stock 
 and the scion ; while in the former the stock lent itself to 
 the modifying influence of its parasitical nursling, gradu- 
 ally gave up its heavy, dull, and cheerless forms, and was 
 eventually lost in its beautiful offspring, as the unlovely 
 caterpillar is in the gay and graceful butterfly. 
 
 We have seen that architecture had its origin in reli- 
 gious feelings and observances — that its noblest monu- 
 ments among the pagan nations of antiquity were temples 
 to the divinity — that the rude nations of the north in the 
 middle ages devoted their energies, after their conversion 
 to Christianity, to the construction of edifices for the 
 worship of the Almighty ; and we find, again, that the 
 most extensive and most splendid structures raised by the 
 same people, when the light of learning had begun to 
 shine upon them, and a new and more beautiful style of 
 architecture was introduced, were dedicated to the same 
 purpose. In addition, however, many, hardly less mag- 
 nificent, and not less beautiful, were raised for the pur- 
 poses of education, and became the nurseries of science 
 and literature. Kings and nobles also employed architec- 
 ture in the composition, arrangement, and decoration of 
 their palaces and castles ; but still, for domestic purposes, 
 its aid was hardly required beyond the carving grotesque 
 ornaments on the wooden fronts of houses in towns. 
 
 When the practice of building houses in stories com- 
 menced cannot be correctly ascertained ; but it appears to 
 have arisen during the middle ages. We frequently, in- 
 deed, find an apparent equivalent for the term story used 
 by the ancient writers, both sacred and profane ; but it 
 must have reference to something else — some peculiarity 
 of which we are not aw r are ; for none of the ancient re- 
 
A R C H I T 
 
 History, mains, whether of public or private structures, give rea- 
 son to believe that it was a common practice even among 
 the Romans ; much less was it likely to be so among the 
 eastern nations, with whom the practice is not very gene- 
 ral, nor is it carried to great extent even at the present 
 day. Indeed, without considerable proficiency in the art 
 of construction, it is hardly practicable to build in stories 
 with such slight materials as were used by the Romans in 
 their domestic edifices; and their remains do not evince 
 the requisite degree of proficiency. We find, however, 
 in the oldest existing works of the middle ages, and par- 
 ticularly in some of the secular structures of Venice which 
 are among them, a degree of intelligence evinced in that 
 respect far surpassing any thing in those of the ancients. 
 Possibly the skill was principally acquired in that city 
 from the necessity of making artificial foundations, in the 
 first place, which in their turn exacted walls not unne- 
 cessarily cumbrous ; and to make slight ones sufficiently 
 strong, they must be skilfully bonded in themselves, and 
 bound together, which could only be done by means of a 
 material possessing considerable length and great fibrous 
 tenacity — whence framed floors of timber. These, by 
 their strength, their obvious utility and convenience, add- 
 ed to the want of space which existed in a thriving and 
 populous community on a very restricted spot of dry 
 land, superinduced, in the second place, the building of 
 additional stories, which would soon be imitated in other 
 places. But in what manner soever the improvement 
 took place, the fact is certain that the acquisition was 
 made; and we find it applied in all the works of the Euro- 
 pean nations, both ecclesiastical and civil, from the ninth 
 and tenth centuries downwards. The combination of 
 masonry and carpentry in building tended greatly to the 
 advancement of both ; for, it being required at times to 
 make them act independently of each other, additional 
 science and art were necessary, as the proportions must 
 be retained that were given to similar works in which they 
 co-operated. Hence the wondrous skill evinced in the 
 vaulted roofs and ceilings, in the towers and lofty spires, 
 of some of our Pointed cathedrals for the one, and the 
 splendid piece of construction in the roof of Westminster 
 Hall for the other. To this point Sir William Chambers, 
 who was no depredator of the merits of the Romans in 
 architecture, says, “ In the constructive part of architec- 
 ture the ancients do not seem to have been great profi- 
 cients i” 1 then having referred many of what he calls the 
 “ deformities observable in Grecian buildings” to want of 
 skill in construction, he continues, “ neither were the Ro- 
 mans much more skilful ; the precepts of Vitruvius and 
 Pliny on that subject are imperfect, sometimes erroneous, 
 and the strength or duration of their structures is more 
 owing to the quantity and goodness of their materials 
 than to any great art in putting them together. It is not, 
 therefore, from any of the ancient works that much infor- 
 mation can be obtained in that branch of the art. To 
 those usually called Gothic architects we are indebted for 
 the first considerable improvement in construction. There 
 is a lightness in their works, an art and boldness of execu- 
 tion, to which the ancients never arrived, and which the 
 moderns comprehend and imitate with difficulty. Eng- 
 land contains many magnificent specimens of this species 
 of architecture, equally admirable for the art with which 
 they are built, the taste and ingenuity with which they are 
 composed.” To this Mr Gwilt, in his new edition of Sir 
 William’s work, adds in a note, “ there is more construc- 
 tive skill shown in Salisbury, and others of our cathedrals, 
 than in all the works of the ancients put together.” 
 
 E C T U II E. 19 
 
 Pointed architecture took root and grew with the great- History, 
 est vigour in Germany and Great Britain, and in those 
 provinces, principally, of France which were connected 
 with England; but in this country its course is the most 
 marked, and its advances are the most easily traceable. 
 
 We find in various portions of the same edifice, according 
 to the period of its construction, exemplifications of the 
 style, from the ingrafting of the simple lancet arch on the 
 Norman or Gothic piers in the time of Henry II. to the 
 highly enriched groinings and ramified traceries of the 
 age of Henry VII.; but the changes are so gradual, and 
 are so finely blended, that the one in advance appears natu- 
 rally to result from that which comes before it. Whether 
 the nations of the Continent, then, borrowed from us, or 
 were themselves originators, it is very clear that we did 
 not borrow ; for our structures bear the strongest pos- 
 sible marks of originality, as the advances can be traced 
 from one thing to another on them ; and such is not so com- 
 pletely the case with theirs. Moreover, the latest manner, 
 and certainly not the least beautiful, the Corinthian order 
 of Pointed architecture, is almost peculiar to this country. 
 
 Neither Germany nor France can produce edifices in the 
 style of St George’s Chapel at Windsor, King’s College 
 Chapel at Cambridge, and Henry VII.’s Chapel at West- 
 minster. The structures of Scotland in the Pointed style 
 so much resemble those of England, that they must be 
 considered of the same school ; Roslin Chapel is one of 
 the few specimens which indicate a connection with the 
 Continent. Ireland contains but few examples in any 
 degree of perfection, and they are, of course, of the Eng- 
 lish school. The German school was next in merit to the 
 English in the practice of Pointed architecture. In the 
 extent and magnificence of its attempts, perhaps, that 
 country excelled ; but few of the great structures in Ger- 
 many were ever completed. In regularity, however, they 
 have generally an advantage over those of England, being 
 mostly in the same manner throughout, as far as they 
 were carried ; whereas few of the greater edifices of this 
 country were begun and completed without considerable 
 variations in the style. But the Germans were never so 
 successful in the splendour and beauty of their interiors as 
 the English ; indeed in that particular our Pointed struc- 
 tures are strikingly superior to every other ; nor is their 
 ornament generally so effective as ours. The Flemish 
 style of Pointed architecture is hardly a variety of the 
 German, but may be classed with it through the whole 
 course of its history. Italy, we have said, possesses but 
 few structures in the Pointed style, and they are for the 
 most part the work of German architects, which their 
 appearance indeed bespeaks. Milan cathedral, or “ the 
 Duomo,” as it is called, is the most renowned edifice in 
 the style that Italy contains; but it has few beauties in 
 the eyes of those who are accustomed to the models of 
 Great Britain, Normandy, and Germany. The Patri- 
 archal Church of St Mark at Venice is a genus per se. It 
 was constructed by a Constantinopolitan architect in the 
 ninth or tenth century, and may be a specimen of the ar- 
 chitecture of the Byzantine capital at that time. The few 
 examples in Sicily of the pointed arch may be attributed 
 to the Norman conquerors of that island; and so indeed 
 may most of those which are found in the continental 
 part of the same kingdom. Although France contains 
 many fine specimens of Pointed architecture, it can hardly 
 be considered indigenous to that country. On the Ger- 
 man frontier they resemble the German style; and in the 
 provinces which were formerly connected with England 
 they are different, and more like the English styles : cer- 
 
 1 Gwilt’s Chambers's Civ. Arch. p. 128. 
 
20 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, tain it is, that after their connection with this country 
 was broken off, its practice fell into disuse, and nothing 
 of consequence in it was posteriorly produced in any of 
 them. This fact is an argument against the presumption 
 that England was indebted to Normandy and Norman 
 architects for its improvements in Pointed architecture ; 
 it tends rather to prove the opposite. It must be con- 
 fessed, moreover, that there is an air of cumbrous mas- 
 siveness in the Pointed style of Normandy which renders 
 it peculiar, and perhaps marks its more close relationship 
 with the earlier Norman Gothic. Like the German 
 examples, too, those of France are generally inferior in in- 
 ternal richness and beauty to those of England. Pointed 
 architecture in Spain never acquired that degree of con- 
 sistency and elegance which might justify us in speaking 
 of the Spanish specimens of it as forming a style. The 
 edifices in Spain of the ages of Pointed architecture are 
 more in accordance with the Moorish than with the Euro- 
 pean manner, and may perhaps be more correctly con- 
 sidered as an off-shoot of the former than of the latter. 
 Though not in the Pointed style, the Moorish or Saracenic 
 structures in Spain may be referred to here. They are 
 in a very peculiar manner, which, it would appear, their 
 authors brought with them from the East. Probably it 
 grew out of some of the earlier styles of architecture, as 
 the Gothic and Pointed did out of the Roman, and was not 
 the result of design. The really distinctive feature of the 
 Saracenic style is the horse-shoe arch, which is the greater 
 segment of an ellipsis, nearly, on a conjugate chord. The 
 columns from which the arches are sprung are slender, 
 and the superincumbent masses are broad and heavy, 
 giving an air of the intermingling of Chinese and Egyp- 
 tian, both of which this style may be said to assimilate. 
 The enrichments of Saracenic architecture are very much 
 confined to flat surfaces, the walls being sculptured all 
 over with monotonous ornaments, which produce an effect 
 verv similar to that produced by the hieroglyphics on the 
 flat surfaces of the Egyptian temples, and possibly were 
 derived from them. The most distinguished monument 
 of this style in Spain is the Alhamra at Granada. The 
 most distinguished specimen of Pointed architecture in 
 Portugal is the church of the convent of Batalha, which 
 was constructed by an Irish architect, who appears to 
 have modified the style of his own country (the English), 
 by the manner of the country itself, which is nearly that 
 of Spain. 
 
 What the expansive dome is to Roman architecture, the 
 graceful spire is to Pointed. Bell-towers appear to have 
 been added to Christian churches at a very early period ; 
 but it is much to be doubted whether the pyramidal pin- 
 nacle or spire was ever used before the introduction of 
 the pointed arch, though one or two doubtful examples 
 exist. These, certainly the earliest specimens of it, are 
 simple cones, whose vertical bisection would be nearly an 
 equilateral triangle : the angle at the apex was gradually 
 made less, and as it diminished the altitude was increased, 
 till at length resulted an object even more beautiful than 
 an Egyptian obelisk, which would of itself indeed be a 
 sufficient warranty for the appellation we have given to the 
 style that it crowns. The spire was at first round, solid, 
 and unornamented; it then became polygonal, and finally 
 octagonal, though there are examples of square spires. 
 They were sometimes plainly ribbed, sometimes crocket- 
 ed, and in some instances were pierced ; and were almost 
 invariably surmounted by a rich finial in the style of or- 
 nament peculiar to the time of its execution. In some 
 cases the whole structure was a pyramis or spire, and in 
 others the spire rested on a rectangular and upright tower. 
 The Rev. W. L. Bowles has suggested that the spire was 
 at first built on the bell-tower as a beacon or land-mark 
 
 for the guidance of the traveller and the distant parish- History 
 ioner ; and adduces as evidence, the fact, that in the hilly 
 parts of England spires are hardly to be found except, in 
 modern churches. The old village church on a hill has a 
 plain square tower, merely consisting of about two cubes, 
 which can be seen at the greatest distance the nature of 
 the country will allow any object to be distinguished ; 
 whereas in the level parts of the country, where a low 
 tower would be lost amidst the foliage of its own church- 
 yard, and be completely indistinguishable at a very short 
 distance, spires are their almost invariable accompani- 
 ment. It may be added, that the tapering spire is almost 
 unknown in Italy and France, except Normandy ; and in 
 no part of the Continent is it so common as in this coun- 
 try. 
 
 We have already given our reasons for thinking that 
 the pointed arch originated in the East ; but whether it did 
 or did not, it has been very extensively used in various 
 parts of Asia, and nowhere in more sumptuous edifices, 
 or to such effect, as by the Mohammedan conquerors of 
 India in various parts of that country. 
 
 The opening of the Italian school of architecture on Italian 
 the resuscitated dogmas of Vitruvius was the signal for school of 
 the extinction of that of the beautiful Pointed style. For- arcll * tec * 
 tunately, however, its effects were a full century in reach- ture ' 
 ing this country, and during that period many of our 
 most elegant structures came into being; and many of 
 those of earlier date which had been commenced before, 
 or during the wars of the Roses, and left unfinished, were 
 completed. The first indication we have of the pre- 
 sence of the Cinquecentist , the real Goth, is in the tomb 
 of Henry VII., which was executed by Torregiano, an 
 Italian artist, who, it would appear, was obliged to have 
 some respect to the style of the edifice in which his work 
 was to rest ; but his preconceived ideas of propriety and 
 beauty were too strong to allow him to omit the cha- 
 racteristics of his school, and the result is a strange mix- 
 ture of both. From that time the Pointed style was 
 rapidly deteriorated, being overborne by the devices of 
 Italy. On the Continent the latter were already predo- 
 minant, for during the whole of the fifteenth century the 
 current had been setting from Italy over every part of 
 Europe which received its religion from Rome ; and this 
 country was only the last to be overwhelmed by it. Be- 
 fore quitting the part of the subject having reference to 
 our national style of architecture, it may be well to con- 
 trovert the absurd but too prevalent idea, that we are in- 
 debted to foreigners, and particularly Italians, for the ex- 
 cellence of our ancient works. After what has been al- 
 ready said, perhaps it may be unnecessary to do so here, 
 seeing that we have described our specimens of the Point- 
 ed style as being not only fully equal in composition, con- 
 struction, and execution to those of any other country, 
 but that they are absolutely in a different manner, having 
 peculiarities which no other nation has ever equalled in 
 beauty and elegance. But, to put the case in a clear point 
 of view : If foreigners were employed to design and ex- 
 ecute for us, it is not less strange that they should sur- 
 pass their own works at home, than that they should make 
 inventions and improvements for us (or let them be call- 
 ed mere variations) which were not in turn executed in 
 their own countries. We know very well that works of 
 architecture and sculpture which have been executed by 
 foreigners in this country, since the explosion of Pointed 
 architecture, are in the style of Italy or France, and not 
 according to the manner prevalent in this country at the 
 time of their execution. Moreover, for one whole cen- 
 tury this nation alone adhered to the Pointed style, dur- 
 ing which works were produced, that, for originality, exu- 
 berance of fancy, and beauty, spirit, and excellence of ex- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, ecution, have been seldom equalled and never surpassed ; feet this? Did they examine and study the remains of History, 
 while all the architects, artists, and workmen of the Con- antiquity in Greece and Rome, in Italy and elsewhere ? 
 tinent were rendered totally unable to assist us by the No ! they referred to the writings of an obscure Latin 
 change which had taken place in their practice. If this author, who professed to give the principles and practice 
 required proof, it is proved in the case of Torregiano of architecture among the Greeks and Romans, but paid 
 just referred to, who sculptured Henry VII.’s tomb, and no more attention to the existing architectural works of 
 in that of Hans Holbein, who designed architectural works those nations than if they had never been, although one 
 for us in the classical manner ; and if the Torregianos could hardly walk the streets of any of the old cities in 
 and Holbeins had been employed during the 15th century, the south of Italy without seeing Roman edifices, whilst 
 would they not have done the same ? Rome and its vicinity was, as it still is, full of them. All 
 
 If the architecture of Italy never fell away so much the use, however, that these self-called “ restorers” of 
 from the more classic style of Imperial Rome as that of architecture made of the works of the ancients, was to use 
 the northern nations did, neither did that country ever them as lay-figures, or frame-work, to model on, according 
 possess that more than equivalent, whose splendid course to the proportions and directions given by Vitruvius ; and 
 we have last noticed. Whilst the Pointed style was al- the effect was formality and mannerism in those who ad- 
 most exclusively known and practised in Germany, France, hered to the dogmas of the school, and wild grotesqueness 
 and the British Islands, the Italians were gradually im- in those who allowed themselves to wander from them, 
 proving on their Gothic style ; yet the improvement was whilst simplicity, and its consequence good taste, were 
 more evinced in their secular than in their ecclesiastical effectually banished from the works of them all. 
 structures. Florence, Bologna, Ferrara, Venice, and many It will be necessary here, perhaps, before we advance 
 other cities of Italy, contain palaces and mansions of the further in our remarks on the Italian school, to disabuse 
 twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, which for the public mind as to the merit of the works of Vitruvius, 
 simplicity and classical beauty far excel most of those in whose anilities have so long passed for authorities, that a 
 the same and other places of the three subsecutive cen- writer would be suspected of prejudice who spoke of them 
 turies. The contemporary churches, however, do not ex- slightingly without adducing reason and evidence to prove 
 hibit the same degree of improvement, forming, as it were, them valueless ; except, indeed, as records of the architec- 
 an anomaly in the history of architecture ; a change in it tural practice, and the opinions and acquirements of an ar- 
 being first developed in secular structures, and then ap- chitect of a distant age. It is of very little consequence 
 plied to those devoted to the worship of the divinity ; for that Vitruvius is only known by his own writings, but that 
 many of the churches of the fifteenth century are in this, mention of him by a contemporary or other ancient author 
 which may be called the early Italian style, or Trecento, as would probably determine the age in which he lived, 
 that which followed it is known as the Cinquecento d Cir- From several things he mentions, and his inscription or 
 cular arches, and plain continuous horizontal cornices, and dedication to the “ Imperator Caesar,” it has been con- 
 pilasters but slightly projected, with simple but generally eluded that he lived in the time of Augustus ; but certain- 
 tasteful and elegant enrichments of foliage and carved ly without sufficient reason ; for if the man he speaks of 
 mouldings, are the most striking characteristics of the Tre- as the son of Masinissa had been the son of the celebrat- 
 cento ; but columns, and the arrangements depending on ed Numidian of that name, in the course of nature neither 
 them, except as collocated with pilasters, are very infre- he nor Vitruvius could have lived to the time of Augustus, 
 quent in it. In various parts of Italy, and particularly in But he addresses an emperor who succeeded his father 
 Venice and some of the Venetian cities, this style pro- an emperor, and speaks of a temple of Augustus; so that 
 duced many of its best works, both secular and ecclesias- he must have been a contemporary of some period of the 
 tical, even during the fifteenth century ; but it gradually empire. If that period had been the Augustan, he would 
 gave way to, though in some instances its influence may doubtlessly have made some reference to some of the 
 be traced even when it had been overborne by, the new many distinguished men of that age, or have been refer- 
 style. red to by some of them if he had himself been at all 
 
 The first step taken towards the reformation of archi- known or distinguished as his admirers insist he was; 
 lecture was by Filippo Brunelleschi, a Florentine archi- neither of which is the case; and, moreover, his language 
 tect, who was employed to finish the cathedral or duomo is not that of an educated man of the Augustan age. 
 of his native city early in the 15th century ; a work which This, however, does not affect the merit of his work as 
 had been commenced more than a century before on the a treatise on architecture ; but his fables about the ori- 
 design of Arnolpho, a Florentine also, but which still re- gin of building, the invention of the orders, and the ar- 
 quired the cupola when its completion was intrusted to rangements which grew out of certain modes of construc- 
 Brunelleschi. The edifice is in the Italian Gothic style, tion, do so ; by proving his total ignorance not only of 
 slightly modified by what we have termed the Trecento , the architectural works of the more ancient eastern na- 
 which his superior taste and talent induced him to at- tions, but of those of Greece itself, which he professes to 
 tempt to supersede, and bring the world back to the clas- describe. Now his classical taste, in consequence of his 
 sic style of ancient Rome. The construction of the cupola knowledge of antiquity, is vaunted by Perrault, one of 
 gained him great reputation and the confidence of the pub- his commentators, and given by him as a reason why Vi- 
 lic, which he employed to advance his favourite scheme, truvius was not much employed by the whimsical Romans 
 To use the words of an Italian writer on the subject, in tbeir love of variety, to which he would not administer. 
 
 “ On the example of so wise and skilled a man, other How far his knowledge of antiquity, that is, according to 
 architects afterwards devoted themselves to free architec- himself, of the works of the Greeks, extended, may be 
 ture of the monstrosities introduced by barbarism and ex- readily determined by comparing the designs of Greek 
 cessive license, and to restore it to its primitive simplicity structures, made by Perrault and others, according to 
 and dignity.” * 2 But to what did they have recourse to ef- the directions of Vitruvius, with the Greek structures 
 
 Cinquecento means literally five hundred , but it is used as a contraction for fifteen hundred, or rather for one thousand five hundred , 
 by the omission of mille , the century in which the revival of architecture, of which we are about to speak, took place ; and the manner 
 consequent is so designated. Trecento would be three hundred, or the third , for the thirteenth century. 
 
 2 I.e Fab. e i Disegni. di A. Palladio da O. B. Scamozzi, tomo i. p. 4. 
 
22 ARC H I T 
 
 History, themselves as they exist at the present time, and are 
 faithfully delineated in various modern works, but espe- 
 cially in Stuart and Revett’s Antiquities of Athens. It 
 is indeed not less strange than true, that not a single ex- 
 ample of Greek architecture will bear out a single rule 
 which Vitruvius prescribes, professedly on its authority ; 
 and not an existing edifice, or fragment of an edifice, in 
 form or proportion, is in perfect accordance with any law 
 of that author, nor indeed are they generally referable to 
 the principles he lays down. Examples might be cited 
 almost to infinity in support of this statement, and to 
 prove the inutility of a work consisting of mere descrip- 
 tions without delineations, even if it were otherwise cor- 
 rect. The latter may certainly be supplied from the an- 
 cient remains when they exist ; but to a man in posses- 
 sion of the specimens, descriptions and directions for 
 their composition are quite unnecessary. Even Sir Wil- 
 liam Chambers, a distinguished disciple of the Italian or 
 Vitruvian school, speaks very lightly of the advantage to 
 be gained from the study of the Vitruvian principles of 
 construction ; and Mr Gwilt, in the introductory treatises 
 to and notes on Sir William Chambers’s work, has done 
 much to undermine the authority, by exposing the absur- 
 dities and fallacies of the Magnus Apollo of pseudo-classi- 
 cal architecture. A student would acquire as correct a 
 knowledge of history and geography from the Seven 
 Champions of Christendom and Gulliver’s Travels, as of 
 architecture from the text of Vitruvius 1 
 
 The adoption of the Vitruvian laws by the Italian archi- 
 tects of the 15th century led to the formation of the 
 “ Five Orders.” It will have been observed that, in 
 speaking of the course of Greek and Roman architecture, 
 the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles were mentioned. 
 Vitruvius describes, in addition to these, another, which 
 he calls Tuscan — possibly a style of columnar arrange- 
 ment peculiar to Italy, and most likely of Etrurian ori- 
 gin ; but, in the absence of delineations, the Cinquecentists 
 could only apply the proportions he laid down for it, to 
 what appeared to approximate them in the ancient re- 
 mains ; and hence arose a fourth, or “ the Tuscan Order.” 
 It is, however, a mere modification of the Roman debase- 
 ment of the Doric, and may be considered, in its present 
 form, as of purely modern Italian origin. The same 
 “ Revivers,” on looking among the ruins of ancient Rome 
 for the forms of their Vitruvian orders, found specimens 
 of a foliated ordinance, which the bad taste of the Ro- 
 mans had compounded of the foliated and voluted styles of 
 the Greeks. This was seized upon as a fifth style, sub- 
 jected to certain rules and proportions, and called “ the 
 Composite Order.” The very poor Roman specimens of 
 Doric and Ionic fitted themselves without much difficulty 
 to the Vitruvian laws ; but the examples Rome afforded of 
 the Corinthian were less tractable, and being as various 
 as they are generally beautiful, they were all passed over, 
 and their places supplied by a mere changeling — an epitome 
 of the Vitruvian theory. Thus we have the “ Five Orders” 
 of the Italo-Vitruvian school, and in this manner they 
 are arranged: First, the Tuscan, of which there is no re- 
 cognised example of antiquity, but which owes its form 
 to the descriptions of Vitruvius and the fancies of the re- 
 vivers ; second, the Doric, a poor and tasteless arrangement 
 of the general features of the style on a Roman model ; 
 third, the Ionic, which is almost as great a debasement of 
 the Grecian originals, and was produced in the same 
 manner as the last-mentioned ; fourth, the Corinthian, a 
 something totally unlike the ancient examples of both 
 Greece and Rome in beauty and spirit ; and , fifth, the 
 Composite, an inelegant variety of the Corinthian, or a 
 hybrid mixture of the horned or angular-ionic volutes, 
 with a deep necking of the foliage of the preceding order. 
 
 £ C T U 11 E. 
 
 The first to publish this system was Leon Battista Al- History, 
 berti, a pupil of Brunelleschi. He has been followed by v ~^"'v^v- 
 many others, the most distinguished of whom are, Pal- 
 ladio, Vignola, Scamozzi, Serlio, and De Lorme, archi- 
 tects ; and Barbaro, a Venetian prelate, and an esteemed 
 translator of, and commentator on, Vitruvius. None of 
 these, it must be understood, agreed with any other of 
 them, but each took his own view of the meaning of 
 their common preceptor ; and yet none of their produc- 
 tions evince the slightest approach to the elegance of 
 form and beauty of proportion which distinguish the 
 classic models of the columnar architecture of antiquity. 
 
 Palladio and Serlio were the first to publish delineations 
 and admeasurements of the Roman architectural remains 
 in Italy ; but the total absence of verisimilitude to the 
 originals, and, in many cases, the absolute misrepresen- 
 tations, in both works, prove how incompetent the au- 
 thors were to appreciate their merits ; and the exagge- 
 ration of their defects proves with equal clearness the 
 general bad taste of the school in which they are masters. 
 
 The worst qualities of the Roman school of architecture 
 were embraced and perpetuated by the Cinquecento . 
 
 The inharmonious and unpleasing combinations which 
 arose out of the collocation of arches with columnar ordi- 
 nances became the characteristics of the Italian : unequal 
 intercolumniations, broken entablatures, and stylobates, 
 enter alike into the productions of the best and of the worst 
 of the Cinquecento architects. The style of this school 
 is marked, too, by the constant attachment of columns 
 and their accessories to the fronts or elevations of build- 
 ings; by the infrequency of their use in insulated (their 
 natural) positions to form porticoes and colonnades ; by 
 the thinness or want of breadth in the smaller members 
 of their entablatures, and the bad proportion of the larger 
 parts, into which they are divided, to one another; by 
 the general want of that degree of enrichment which 
 fluting imparts to columns ; by the too great projection 
 of pilasters, and the inconsistent practice of diminishing, 
 and sometimes fluting them ; by the use of circular and 
 twisted pediments, and the habit of making breaks in 
 them to suit the broken ordinance they may crown ; and 
 by various other inconsistencies and deformities, which 
 will be rendered more evident when we come to treat of 
 the style in detail. The merit of the Italian school con- 
 sists in the adaptation and collocation of the prolate hemi- 
 spheroidal cupola, which appears to have grown out of 
 its opposite in the Roman works during the Gothic ages, 
 as we find it in the early cathedrals ; though it is highly 
 probable that the idea was brought from the East, in the 
 forms exhibited by the cupolas of St Marks at Venice, 
 and of Pisa cathedral. A very noble style of Palatial 
 architecture also was practised by many of the Italian 
 architects. It consists of the use of a grand crowning 
 cornice, running in one unbroken line, unsurmounted by 
 an attic, or any thing of the kind, superimposing a broad, 
 lofty, and generally well-proportioned front, made into 
 graceful compartments, but not storied, by massive block- 
 ing courses and other things, which are at the disposal of 
 the judicious architect. Not unfrequently, however, the 
 faults of the school interfere to injure a composition of 
 this kind ; for, to produce variety in the decorations of the 
 windows, some of them have been made like doors, with 
 distyle arrangements of columns, surmounted by alterna- 
 tions of circular and angular pediments, and sometimes 
 with all the vagaries which deform the front of an Italian 
 church. It is indeed the ecclesiastical architecture of 
 the school in which its faults are most rife and its 
 merits most rare. An Italian church possesses nothing 
 of the stern simplicity and imposing grandeur of an 
 Egyptian sacred structure — nothing of the harmonious 
 
A R C H I T 
 
 History, beauty and classic dignity of a Grecian fane — nothing 
 of the ornate and attractive elegance of a Roman temple 
 — and nothing truly of the glittering grace and capti- 
 vating harmony of a Pointed cathedral. No other style 
 of architecture presents so great a contrast, in any 
 two species of its productions, as the Italian does, in 
 one of its ordinary church fronts, with the front of 
 a nobleman’s mansion or palace, in the manner already 
 referred to ; and in no city of Italy is the contrast so 
 strong, by the egregiousness of the examples it contains 
 of both, as Rome. The stately portico is hardly known in 
 Italian architecture ; and in the rare cases which exist in it 
 of insulated columns, they are for the most part so meagre 
 in themselves, and so thinly set, according to the Vitru- 
 vian laws, that the effect produced by them is poor and 
 wretched in the extreme. This applies most particular- 
 ly to Italy itself: in some other countries, and especially 
 in this, those architects who have been of the Italian 
 school have generally preferred the proportions and ar- 
 rangements which they found in the Roman examples of 
 antiquity, to those laid down by their Italian masters. 
 Still, Italian church architecture boasts the cupola, — cer- 
 tainly its redeeming feature ; and the architects of Italy 
 must have full credit for the use they have made of it, both 
 internally and external ly. Perhaps no two edifices display 
 Plates more > and in a greater degree, both the merits and de- 
 LXVIII f ects °f the school which produced them, than the Far- 
 LXIX. nese palace and the basilica of St Peter in Rome. The 
 and LXX.principal front of the former edifice is exquisite in its pro- 
 portions, but frittered in its details. It has an immense 
 crowning cornice, whose general effect is surpassingly 
 grand ; but the mouldings are too much projected, and its 
 vertical parts want the breadth which the blocking courses 
 possess. The lowest of its three tiers of windows is cha- 
 racterized by the most charming simplicity and good 
 taste in almost every particular ; but the other two are 
 crowded with sins against both those qualities, in the 
 dressings of the windows. The cortile and back front, 
 though both very differently arranged from the front, and 
 from each other, are not less filled with contrarieties ; and 
 so of the structure throughout. The front of St Peter’s 
 is not more distinguished by its magnitude than by its 
 littleness and deformity. It contains the materials of a 
 noble octaprostyle, and consists of an attached tetrastyle. 
 It is divided into three unequal stories, within the height 
 of the columns, whose entablature is surmounted by a 
 windowed attic. In length it is frittered into a multitude 
 of compartments, between which not the slightest har- 
 mony is maintained ; while tawdriness and poverty are 
 the distinguishing characteristics of its detail. A total 
 absence of every thing which produces grandeur and 
 beauty in architecture, marks, indeed, the whole of the 
 exterior of the edifice, except the glorious cupola, than 
 which architecture never produced a more noble and 
 magnificent object. Internally, the structure is open to 
 similar praise and similar dispraise. Gorgeousness in 
 matter and meanness in manner characterize the interior 
 of St Peter’s, except the sublime concave which is formed 
 by its redeeming feature without. 
 
 The Cinquecento architects of Italy were exceeding man- 
 nerists : but besides the manner of the school, each had 
 his own peculiarities ; so that there exists in their works 
 what may almost be called monotonous variety 1 Brunel- 
 leschi’s designs are distinguished by a degree of sim- 
 plicity and comparative good taste, which cause regret 
 that he had not referred more to the remains of antiquity 
 in Italy, and sought out those of Greece, and less to the 
 dogmas of Vitruvius ; for then his works would have been 
 more elegant than they are, and the school he founded 
 would have done him much more honour than it does. 
 
 ECTURE. 23 
 
 The works of Bramante possess a more classical character History, 
 than those of any other architect of the school. Bra- '-^ v ^- > 
 mante’s design for St Peter’s was preferred by Pope 
 Julius II. to a great many others by the most esteemed 
 men of the time. He it was who suggested the cu- 
 pola ; but, unfortunately, after his death men of less taste 
 and talent were allowed to alter the design, and the 
 edifice has resulted very differently from what it would 
 have done had Bramante been adhered to. This we 
 judge from his works generally, and not from any positive 
 knowledge of the design, which indeed does not exist. 
 
 The elder Sangallo w r as far inferior to his contemporary 
 and rival Bramante, and his works are full of the faults 
 of the school. Michel Angelo Buonaroti was a man of 
 great genius, but of very bad taste in architecture ; and 
 to him may be attributed many of the bad qualities of the 
 Italian style. His principal works are the buildings of the 
 Capitol, and the College della Sapienza in Rome, and the 
 Laurentian Library at Florence ; and these are all dis- 
 tinguished for their singular want of architectural beauty 
 and propriety in every particular. Michel Angelo was 
 the Dante of Italian painting, but the Berni of its ar- 
 chitecture. Raffaelle, too, had a very bad style in ar- 
 chitecture, and so indeed had almost all the painters 
 who professed to be architects also. They generally car- 
 ried to extremes all the faults of the school. Sansovino 
 and Sanmichele were men of considerable talent: their 
 works display more originality and less servility than 
 those of most of their contemporaries. Peruzzi was less 
 employed than many who had not half his merit: his 
 productions are with reason considered among the most 
 classical of the Italian school. Vignola had a more correct 
 taste than perhaps any other Italian architect of the 16th 
 century: his works are indeed distinguishable by their su- 
 periority in harmony of composition and in general beauty 
 of detail. Palladio very much affected the study of the an- 
 tique, but his works do not indicate any appreciation of its 
 beauties. He appears to have been very well qualified 
 by nature for an architect, but spoiled by education. He 
 did not look at the remains of antiquity with his own 
 eyes, but with those of Vitruvius and Alberti, and of 
 course was much influenced by the manner of the ad- 
 mired works of his predecessors. Palladio made greater 
 use of insulated columns than the Italian architects ge- 
 nerally, but his ordinances are deficient in every quality 
 that produces beauty ; his porticoes may be V itruvian, 
 but they certainly are not classic ; and all his works 
 evince that he studied the Colosseum, the Theatre of 
 Marcellus, and the Triumphal Arches, more than the co- 
 lumns of Jupiter Stator and Mars Ultor, the Temple of 
 Antoninus and Faustina, the Pantheon, the Portico at 
 Assisi, and the other classic models, which he drew, but 
 clearly did not appreciate. His columns upon columns, 
 his attached and clustered columns, his stilted post-like 
 columns, his broken entablatures, his numberless pilasters, 
 straggling and unequal intercolumniations, inappropriate 
 and inelegant ornaments, circular pediments and the like, 
 are blemishes too numerous and too great to be passed 
 over because of occasional elegance of proportion and 
 beauty of detail. Scamozzi did not improve on the style 
 of his master, which, however, he very much affected. 
 
 Indeed the term PaUadian has long been in general use 
 throughout the civilized world for beautiful and excellent 
 in architecture, so that it cannot be wondered at that 
 Palladio’s pupils and successors should imitate him; nor 
 is it surprising that they did not surpass, or even equal 
 him, for they were taught to look to his works as the no 
 plus ultra of excellence. Giacomo della Porta, a con- 
 temporary of Palladio, followed Michel Angelo in several 
 of his works, and imbibed much of his manner, on which 
 
21 
 
 ARCHITECTU R E. 
 
 History. 
 
 Influence 
 of the 
 Italian 
 school. 
 
 lie certainly improved ; but still bis own is far from being 
 good. Della Porta was much employed in Rome ; and it 
 fell to him, in conjunction with Domenico Fontana, to put 
 the cupola on St Peter’s. Fontana’s style of architecture 
 is not particularly distinguished for its good or bad quali- 
 ties ; he obtained more reputation as an engineer than 
 as an architect, having been engaged in removing and 
 setting up most of the obelisks which give so much inte- 
 rest to the architectural scenery of Rome. The Lunghi, 
 father, son, and grandson, the Rainaldi, Maderno, Bor- 
 romini, Bernini, Carlo Fontana, Fuga, Vanvitelli, and 
 many others in the course of the 17th and 18th cen- 
 turies, carried the peculiarities of the Italian school to 
 the greatest extremes. Of those enumerated, Bernini was 
 perhaps the least offensive, and Borromini the most ex- 
 travagant ; but throughout that period, except in extreme 
 cases, individual manner is less distinguishable, and that 
 of the school more strongly marked. 
 
 It may be gathered from the preceding remarks, that 
 the secular architecture of the Italian school is generally 
 preferable to the ecclesiastical, and that the architects of 
 the 15th and 16th centuries were generally superior to 
 those who followed them. In Italy the school has not 
 yet ceased to exist, nor indeed has its style ceased to be 
 studied. Designs are still made by the students of the va- 
 rious academies in the manner of the Cinguecento , and on 
 the models with which the country abounds. The pre- 
 cepts of Vitruvius are yet inculcated, and the works of the 
 men whose names we have mentioned are looked up to as 
 master-works of architecture in the country which con- 
 tains the Roman Pantheon and the Greek Neptunium, 
 besides the power of referring to the more exquisite works 
 of Greece herself. 
 
 In the 15th century such was the reverence of men for 
 the revived works of ancient literature and science, that 
 the profession of the Italians, that they had restored ancient 
 classical architecture on the precepts of an architect of 
 the Augustan age, was sufficient to open the way for them 
 all over civilized Europe. In the course of that and the 
 following century Italian architecture was adopted and 
 Italian architects employed in France, Spain, Germany, 
 Great Britain, and their respective dependencies ; and 
 now, in the 19th century, Vitruvius and Palladio are as 
 predominant on the shores of the Baltic as on those of 
 the Mediterranean Sea; though in this country and in 
 some parts of the Continent their influence is consider- 
 ably diminished since the time of Inigo Jones and Claude 
 Perrault. It has been already remarked, too, that the 
 Cinguecento was later in gaining a footing here than on the 
 Continent, in consequence of the existence of a beautiful 
 national style of architecture, which our ancestors do not 
 appear to have been induced to resign to the barbarian 
 innovators of the South, as readily as the interjacent na- 
 tions were to give up theirs ; for which indeed the reason 
 exists in the greater attractions of ours, and the conse- 
 quent greater difficulty of inducing the nation to part 
 with it. The French, though they received the Vitruvian 
 architecture from the Italians, were patriotic enough, as 
 soon as they had acquired its principles, to confine the 
 practice of it almost entirely to native architects, in whose 
 hands it assumed a different character from that which it 
 possessed in Italy, and became what may be called the 
 French style of Cinguecento. Its ecclesiastical structures 
 are less faulty than are those of the corresponding period 
 in Italy, but its secular edifices are as far inferior to those 
 of that country. The grand palatial style, which is ex- 
 emplified in the Farnese palace in Rome, never found its 
 way into France ; but instead, there arose that monstrous 
 and peculiarly French manner, of which the well-known 
 palaces of the Tuilleries and Luxembourg are egregious 
 
 examples. In the age of Louis XIV. the French appear to History, 
 have reverted to the Italian manner in a certain degree, 
 for the palace of Versailles includes almost all the extra- 
 vagancies of that school in its worst period, and contains 
 moreover architectural deformities which Italy never 
 equalled till it imitated them. They consist in the style 
 of enrichment which is distinguished by the name of that 
 monarch in whose reign it had its origin, and of whose gross 
 taste and vulgar mind it is an apt emblem. The same pe- 
 riod produced one of the most classical architects of the 
 French school — its Palladio or Inigo Jones, Perrault, whose 
 design for the buildings of the Louvre was preferred to that 
 of Bernini, though indeed the preference was no compli- 
 ment to the one nor discredit to the other, considering to 
 whom the decision was of necessity referred. The Hotel 
 des Invalides is of the same age : it exhibits the graces of 
 the Italian cupola, surmounting a composition which in- 
 cludes more than all the faults of St Peter’s in Rome. The 
 church of Saint.e Genevieve, or the Pantheon, a work 
 of the following reign, was intended to be in the ancient 
 Roman style, and of Roman magnificence ; but it is rather 
 papally than imperially so. Ancient Rome was regarded 
 in the columnar ordinance, but modern Rome in the ar- 
 chitectural composition. In it the ecclesiastical style of 
 the Cinguecento is commingled with the simple beauties of 
 Roman architecture, almost indeed to the destruction of 
 the latter : to this structure also there is a handsome cu- 
 pola. Of late years the works of the ancients have been 
 studied by the architects of France, greatly to the ameli- 
 oration of their style ; as yet, however, they are but im- 
 perfectly acquainted with the peculiarities of the Greek, 
 and many of them still appear to retain their devotion 
 to Vitruvius and the 15th century. Spain servilely re- 
 ceived the Italo-Vitruvian architecture, and to the present 
 day knows no other. Less patriotic than the French, the 
 Spaniards have for their greatest works employed the ar- 
 chitects of France and Italy ; so that of course the coun- 
 try can boast of no peculiarity in the style of its archi- 
 tecture redounding to its own credit. The palace of the 
 Escurial being by a French architect, and abounding in 
 the deformities of the French and Italian schools, cannot 
 be cited in favour of Spain. The Italian Revival was the 
 means of extinguishing the Pointed style of architecture 
 in Germany, and certainly without affording it an equiva- 
 lent. Italian architects were employed in Germany, and 
 Germans acquired their manner; but they did not im- 
 prove it, nor did they make it productive of so many good 
 effects as the Italians themselves did. The change in re- 
 ligion which supervened the change in architecture in so 
 large a part of Germany, may have tended to prevent the 
 latter from acquiring that degree of exuberance there 
 which it did in Italy ; but even in Catholic Germany the 
 splendid Pointed cathedrals have never given way to mo- 
 difications of the pseudo-classic St Peter’s. In the use of 
 Cinguecento architecture for secular structures, it may be 
 truly said that the Germans have not excelled the Ita- 
 lians ; nor, on the other hand, have they equalled them 
 in the absurdities and extravagancies which are so fre- 
 quently observable in the works of some of the latter. 
 
 The Germans also have lately turned their attention to 
 the works of the ancients, and the fruit of it is already , 
 evident in many parts of the country, and most particu- 
 larly in Prussia : still, however, they appear to have yet 
 to learn the right use of the Greek models, and a proper 
 sense of the exquisite perfection of their detail ; as well 
 as to emancipate themselves from many of the trammels 
 of the Vitruvian school. The northern continental na- 
 tions have been dependent on Germany, France, or Italy 
 for their architecture, and can produce nothing that gives 
 them a claim to our consideration in such a review as the 
 
I 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, present. St Petersburg is exclusively the work of ar- 
 v -*"'v~ x ~ y chitects of the nations just enumerated, and presents a 
 mass of the merest common-places of Italian architecture, 
 in structures calculated by their extent, like Versailles, the 
 Escurial and St Peter’s, to impose on the vulgar eye. 
 
 We have already more than once had occasion to refer 
 incidentally to the introduction of Cinquecento architec- 
 ture into Britain ; and in noticing it more particularly, 
 and tracing its course, we are saved the trouble of keep- 
 ing up a distinction between the different parts of our 
 triple nation, because, at the time it actually crossed the 
 channel, the amalgamation of the kingdoms had taken 
 place by the union of their crowns on the head of the 
 Scotish sovereign. 
 
 English ar- When the Pointed style received its deathblow in Eng- 
 chitecture. land, in the reign of Henry VIII., it did not immediately 
 cease to exist ; nor was it immediately succeeded by the 
 Italian when it became extinct. It was gradually de- 
 clining through all the 16th century, during the latter 
 part of which period, what has been called the Elizabethan 
 style became somewhat permanent. It consists of a singu- 
 lar admixture of the Italian orders, with many peculiari- 
 ties of the Pointed style, and in many examples the latter 
 appears predominant. With such difficulty, indeed, did 
 that fascinating manner give up its hold on the minds of 
 men in this country, that the cinquecentists appear to have 
 relinquished the hope of effecting its destruction, — unfor- 
 tunately, however, not until the injury was done ; and for 
 some time we were left without architecture of any kind, 
 unless that may be called by the name which marks the 
 edifices of the reign of James I., and of which the oldest 
 parts of St James’s palace are a specimen. 
 
 The destruction of the Pointed style has been referred 
 by some to the change in religion which took place under 
 the Tudor line of English monarchs ; but such was cer- 
 tainly not the case. It was the “ Reformation” of architec- 
 ture in Italy, and not that of religion in Great Britain, that 
 affected it ; and it may be doubted whether the change 
 would not have taken place sooner in this country, if its 
 connection with Italy had not been so materially affected 
 by the moral change here, and so delayed that of architec- 
 ture; for it was Germany and France that supplied us with 
 architectural reformers during the reigns of Henry VIII. 
 and his children, and not Italy, whose professors might 
 possibly have obtained more credit than their disciples did. 
 
 So dilatory were we, indeed, in the cultivation of the 
 Italian style, that the first professor of it who was actual- 
 ly employed on edifices in this country came hither from 
 Denmark ! It is true, he was an Englishman ; but so little 
 hope did he appear to have of success at home, that he 
 accepted an invitation from the king of that country, when 
 he was at Venice, whither he had gone to study painting ; 
 but becoming enamoured of architecture, as he saw it in 
 the works of Palladio, he had made that his study instead, 
 and had already acquired considerable reputation in that 
 - city, when Christian IV. of Denmark invited him to his 
 court to occupy the post of his first architect. A train of 
 circumstances, to which we need not here advert, brought 
 him to England a few years after James I. came to the Eng- 
 lish crown, and he was appointed architect at first to the 
 queen, and subsequently to Henry prince of Wales. But 
 he does not appear in consequence to have then obtained 
 employment; for after the death of the prince, he went 
 again to Italy, where he remained till the office of survey- 
 or general, which had been promised him in reversion, fell 
 vacant. This was the celebrated Inigo Jones, who has 
 been called the English Palladio ; and indeed he succeed- 
 ed so well in acquiring the peculiar manner of that archi- 
 tect, that he richly deserves whatever credit the appella- 
 tion conveys, it is unfortunate, however, for his own re- 
 
 25 
 
 putation, that he had not looked beyond Palladio and their History, 
 common preceptor Vitruvius, to the models the latter pre- v -‘*“ v '' v - // 
 tends to describe ; in which case he might have been the 
 means of restoring, or at least of introducing, to his own 
 country, the truly classical architecture of the ancients. 
 
 But instead of that he brought nothing home but Italian 
 rules and Italian prejudices. Jones commenced the truly 
 Gothic custom of thrusting Cinquecento fittings into our 
 Pointed cathedrals, by putting up an Italian screen in that 
 of Winchester ; and he barbarized the ancient cathedral 
 of St Paul in London, by repairing it according to his 
 notions of Pointed architecture, for it was in that style, 
 and affixed to it an Italian front. Fortunately the great 
 fire supervened, and made room for the present magnifi- 
 cent structure, by clearing away that early specimen of 
 pseudo-classic taste. Of the Palladian style, however, 
 it must be confessed Jones was a complete master. He 
 designed a royal palace which was to have been built at 
 Whitehall, in a manner as far superior to those of Versailles 
 and the Escurial, as the works of Palladio are to those of 
 Borromini. The only part of it ever executed is the 
 structure called the Banqueting-House in London, whose 
 exterior is an epitome of many of the faults, and most of 
 the beauties, of the Palladian school. It rises boldly from 
 the ground with a broad, simple, and nearly continuous 
 basement or stereobate, and the various compartments of 
 its principal front are beautifully proportioned ; but the 
 circular pediments to the windows, the attached unfluted 
 columns, with broken entablatures and stylobates, the attic 
 and balustrade, though they be the materials of Palla- 
 dian, it may be confidently denied that they are consist- 
 ent with classical architecture. Another well-known work 
 of this architect is the Italo-Vitruvian Tuscan church of 
 St Paul, Covent-Garden, whose eastern portico is well- 
 proportioned in general, but grossly deformed in detail. 
 
 Architecture was in abeyance in this country, again, 
 from the troublous times of Charles I. till the restoration 
 of the monarchy in the person of his son, whose French 
 taste would have completely Gallicized the architecture, 
 as well as the manners and morals, of the nation, if the 
 resplendent genius of Sir Christopher Wren had not been 
 present to avert the infliction, or rather to modify it ; for 
 it cannot be denied that the influence of the French man- 
 ner had an effect on the architecture of this country from 
 that period down to the middle of the last century. In- 
 deed Wren himself only knew the style he practised from 
 books and the structures of France, except the few that 
 existed of Inigo Jones in this country ; and, in conse- 
 quence of his visit to France, the peculiarities of the 
 French style are obvious in many of his less esteemed 
 works. Fortunately, however, he was proof against the 
 grosser peculiarities of the Cinquecento, whether in the 
 books of the Italians or in the edifices of the French ; 
 and his own productions evince that he had imbibed 
 much of the spirit of the antique monuments of Italy, 
 which he could have known only from engravings, and 
 those very imperfect ones. The field that was opened to 
 his genius by the great fire of London in 1666, and its re- 
 sult, are equally well known. It is true that the general 
 offuscation of taste and feeling with regard to the Pointed 
 style extended even to him. Wren was guilty of many 
 offences in that respect, besides giving authority to the 
 opprobrious term Gothic ; and in no case more so than in 
 the construction of the towers to Westminster Abbej, 
 which are a lasting proof of his ignorance of its most ob- 
 vious principles. Nevertheless, to the influence of our 
 beautiful native style on his mind, architecture is indebt- 
 ed for some of its most charming works. If Wren had not 
 been accustomed to contemplate the graceful and elegant 
 pyramids or spires of his native country, he would never 
 
26 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History, have originated the tapering steeple, in the composition 
 
 which with the materials of Italian architecture he 
 still stands as unrivalled as he was original. Witness the 
 steeples of Bow Church and St Bride’s in London, the 
 former of which is hardly surpassed in grace and elegance 
 by the Pointed spires themselves. It must remain a con- 
 stant subject of regret that this great head of the English 
 school of Cinquecento architecture did not know the re- 
 mains of ancient Greece and Rome from personal obser- 
 vation. With his splendid genius and fine taste, if he had 
 not been imposed on by the specious pretence of the Italo- 
 Vitruvian school, his works would have been models 
 for imitation and study, as they are objects of admi- 
 ration : as it was, he avoided many of the faults of that 
 school, and improved on many of its beauties. Without 
 knowing the Greek style at all, and knowing the Roman 
 only through imperfect mediums ; without, indeed, ever 
 having seen an example of either; whenever he has varied 
 from the Italian practice, it has been towards the propor- 
 tions and peculiarities of the Greek ! The great west front 
 Plate of St Paul’s, though it is said to be imitated from that of 
 LXVIIT. St Peter’s in Rome, or rather from what it was proposed 
 to be, with the two towers to form its wings, is a much 
 finer, a more imposing, and more classical specimen of ar- 
 chitecture than its prototype ; for the advantage the latter 
 should have in being of columns in one height is lost en- 
 tirely in their poverty and the miserable arrangement of 
 the whole front; whereas that of St Paul’s is in two noble 
 pseudo-prostyle and recessed porticoes, with the columns 
 fluted, and generally conceived and executed in much 
 better taste than those of the former. The entablatures, 
 though massive, are finely proportioned, and sufficiently 
 ornate to be elegant; they are, too, quite continuous, and 
 the upper one is surmounted by a noble pediment, whose 
 pyramidal form gives at the same time dignity and a finish- 
 ed appearance to the whole front. The coupling of the 
 columns, however, and the putting of one columnar ordi- 
 nance over another, can only be defended by the practice 
 of the Italian school; though, in the present case, both are 
 rendered less offensive by the judicious management of 
 the architect. Nothing shows more strikingly the supe- 
 riority of St Paul’s to St Peter’s, as an architectural com- 
 position, than a parallel of their flanks. The great mag- 
 nitude of the latter may strike the vulgar eye with admi- 
 ration in the contrast ; but the rudest taste must appre- 
 ciate the surpassing merit of the former in the form and 
 arrangement of the cupola, and the noble peristyle with 
 its unbroken entablature and stylobate, out of which it 
 rises, when compared with the sharper form and depressed 
 substructure of that of St Peter’s. The superiority of 
 St Paul’s in the composition of the main body of the edi- 
 fice is not less in degree, though perhaps less obvious, 
 than in the superstructure. In the one it is broken and 
 frittered, and in the other almost perfectly continuous, in 
 broad, bold, and effective masses. 
 
 The history of the works of Sir Christopher Wren is 
 the history of the architecture of the period in this coun- 
 try ; and as it must be admitted that he was not so suc- 
 cessful in the composition of the architecture of secular 
 structures as of ecclesiastical, it will follow that our se- 
 cular edifices of that time are of inferior merit. If it 
 were not indeed an historical fact, it would hardly be 
 credited, that Chelsea College, the old College of Physi- 
 cians in London, and the halls of some of the city com- 
 panies, are by the architect of Bow Church and St Paul’s. 
 
 The style introduced by Sir John Vanbrugh, who may 
 be said to have succeeded Sir Christopher Wren in the 
 direction of architecture in England, was distinguished by 
 massiveness unsuited to the style in which he built, which 
 was of course Italian. It was, however, free from the va- 
 
 garies and extravagancies which characterize that style History, 
 generally in other countries at the same period, but was 
 certainly more suited to the soberer character of ecclesi- 
 astical than of secular structures, whereas his principal 
 works were noblemen’s mansions. Vanbrugh’s faults were 
 generally those ot Michel Angelo: he was a painter’s ar- 
 chitect, and did not understand beauty of proportion and 
 detail so well as the pictorial arrangement of lights and 
 shadows; to produce which in the Cinquecento it is almost 
 necessary to part with all the higher beauties of architec- 
 ture. Hawksmoor added to the style of his master that 
 noble ornament in which Italian works are so very deficient 
 — a prostyle portico. His compositions are marked by 
 severe simplicity, and only want to be absolved from a few 
 faults and enriched with a few elegancies to be among the 
 best of modern times. Not the least distinguished archi- 
 tect of the same age (the first half of the 18th century) 
 was the Earl of Burlington, who was a passionate admirer 
 of the style of Palladio and Inigo Jones. Many of the 
 edifices erected by Kent are believed to be from the de- 
 signs of that amiable nobleman, who, with considerable 
 talent, was, however, a somewhat bigoted devotee to 
 Vitruvius and the Cinquecento generally, as well as to Pal- 
 ladio in particular ; for he has frequently used columns 
 representing half-barked trees, in conformity with the silly 
 tales of Vitruvius, and the sillier whims of his disciples. 
 
 The portal of his own house in Piccadilly, and that of the 
 King’s Mews, are special examples of this bad taste, and 
 of other faults of the school besides. Lord Burlington 
 built for himself at Chiswick a villa on the model of the 
 Villa Capra, or Rotonda, near Vicenza — a structure which 
 has been called the masterpiece of Palladio. In form and 
 proportion it is certainly elegant, but its details strongly 
 exhibit the poverty of Italian columnar architecture, when 
 unaided by the frittering which is its bane, and almost its 
 sole dependence for effect. Gibbs was a contemporary 
 of the same period. He too, like Hawksmoor, had imbibed 
 a taste for the classic prostyle portico, which he evinced 
 in St Martin’s church in London ; but that he also was in 
 the trammels of the Italian school is no less evident, in 
 the same structure, to a considerable extent, and still 
 more so in the church of St Mary in the Strand, which is 
 a bad specimen of architecture, and a favourable one of 
 its style. During the following half-century (the latter 
 half of the 18th) Sir William Chambers and Sir Robert 
 Taylor were the most distinguished architects of this 
 country. They were both men of talent and genius, who 
 had availed themselves of the remains of Roman antiquity 
 to good purpose ; for as yet those of Greece were either 
 unknown or unappreciated ; and the former of them has 
 left us, in the Strand front of Somerset House in London, 
 perhaps the best specimen of its style in existence. Other 
 parts of the same edifice, however, are far from deserving 
 the same degree of praise : indeed, as an architectural 
 composition, the river front is altogether inferior in merit 
 to the other, though of much greater pretence. The inner 
 fronts to the great quadrangle, though exhibiting good 
 parts, are, as a whole, not above mediocrity. An air of 
 littleness pervades them ; and the general effect of the 
 fronts themselves is made still worse by the little clock 
 towers and cupolas by which they are surmounted ; and 
 to this maybe added the infinity of ill-arranged chimneys, 
 which impart an air of meanness and confusion that no- 
 thing can excuse. While Sir William Chambers and a 
 few others were applying the best qualities of Italian ar- 
 chitecture, indeed improving its general character, and, it 
 may be said, making an English style of it, there were 
 many structures raised in various parts of the country in 
 a manner hardly superior to that of the time of James I ; 
 structures in which all the meanness ana poverty of the 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 History. Cinquecento are put forth, without any of its elegance of 
 proportion, or that degree of effectiveness which men of 
 talent contrived to give it. During the same period, too, 
 the seeds of a revolution were sown, which has almost 
 succeeded in ejecting the Italian style and its derivative 
 from this country, without perhaps having as yet fur- 
 nished a complete equivalent. 
 
 In the year 1748 James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, 
 two painters pursuing their studies in Rome, having 
 moreover paid some attention to architecture, issued 
 “ Proposals for publishing an accurate description of the 
 Antiquities of Athens, &c.” These proposals met with 
 general approbation, and in consequence they determin- 
 ed on prosecuting their plan ; but various hinderances 
 prevented their arrival in Athens till March 1751, when 
 they commenced measuring and delineating the architec- 
 tural monuments of that city and its environs. In this 
 work Messrs Stuart and Revett were unremittingly em- 
 ployed (as far as their own exertions went, for they 
 were frequently interrupted by the Turks) for several 
 years, so that they did not reach England with the re- 
 sult of their labours until 1755 ; and, by a series of al- 
 most unaccountable delays, the first volume of their work 
 did not appear until the year 1762. Sixteen years more 
 expired before the second issued from the press; and 
 the third was not published until 1794, being nearly 
 fifty years from the time the work was first announced ! 
 Avarice and envy had induced a Frenchman of the name 
 of Le Roy, who was at Rome when our countrymen is- 
 sued their proposals, to forestall them with the public, 
 and rob them of the profit and reputation they were so 
 hardly labouring to earn. This man went to Athens, 
 and in a very short time collected some loose mate- 
 rials, with which he published at Paris, in 1758, a work 
 which he called Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens 
 de la Grece, Sfc., in which he makes not the slightest 
 mention of Stuart and Revett, nor of their labours or in- 
 tentions, with all of which he was well acquainted. This 
 work is moreover notoriously and grossly incorrect ; so 
 incorrect indeed, as to make it difficult of belief that its 
 author ever saw the objects of which he professes to give 
 the representations. Such as it is, however, it was from 
 M. le Roy’s work that the public had to judge of the 
 merits and beauties of Greek architecture ; for we have 
 said that the first volume Of Stuart and Revett’s did not 
 appear for several years after it, and that does not con- 
 tain any pure specimen of the national or Doric style : 
 the second, which does, .was not published for twenty 
 years after Le Roy’s. Considering, therefore, the source 
 from which the public had to derive information on the 
 subject, it can hardly be wondered at that Greek ar- 
 chitecture was vituperated on all sides ; and by none 
 with greater acrimony than by Sir William Chambers, 
 whose apology must be, ignorance and the prejudices of 
 education. He really did not know the style lie carped 
 at ; and his education in the Italo-Vitruvian school had 
 unfitted him for appreciating its grand, chaste, and simple 
 beauties, even if he had known it. Notwithstanding the 
 misrepresentations of Le Roy, the vituperations of Cham- 
 bers, the established reputation of Italian architecture, 
 and the trammels which Vitruvius and his disciples had 
 fixed on the public mind, when Stuart and Revett’s work 
 actually appeared, the Greek style gradually advanced in 
 esteem, by dint of superior merit alone — for it has had no 
 factitious aids ; and since that period Greece and all her 
 colonies which possess remains of her unrivalled archi- 
 tecture have been explored, and we now possess correct 
 delineations of almost every Greek structure which has 
 survived, though in ruins, the wreck of time and the de- 
 solation of barbarism. To our country and nation, then, 
 
 is due the honour of opening the temple of Greek architec- Historv. 
 tural science, — of drawing away the veil of ignorance which 
 obscured the beauties it contains, — and of snatching from 
 perdition, and consequent oblivion, the noble relics of an- 
 cient architecture which bear the impress of the Grecian 
 
 mind. Not only indeed were we the first to open the 
 
 mine, but by us it has been principally worked ; for among 
 the numerous publications which now exist on the Hel- 
 lenic remains, by far the greatest number, and indisput- 
 ably the most correct, are by our countrymen, and were 
 brought out in this country. It required, however, a 
 generation for the effects of ignorance and prejudice in 
 some, and imperfect knowledge in others, to wear away, 
 before the beneficial effects of the Greek style could be 
 obvious in our structures. The works of the Adamses, 
 who were contemporaries of and immediate successors to 
 Sir William Chambers, evince a taste for the beauties of 
 Greek architecture, but a very imperfect knowledge in- 
 deed of the means of reproducing them. The architects 
 who have had the direction of our principal works during 
 the first quarter of this century had the disadvantage of 
 being pupils of those who were themselves, as we have 
 shown, incompetent to appreciate the Greek style ; and 
 at a time too when the state of Europe shut up all access 
 to the remains of Greece and Rome ; so that no great 
 improvement could perhaps be expected from them. 
 
 When they shall have passed away, it is to be hoped that 
 we shall find a new class, some of whom, indeed, are al- 
 ready before the world, who, having received their edu- 
 cation since peace has opened the Continent, are prepared 
 by the actual contemplation and study of the works of 
 Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Italy, in all their varieties, to 
 form new and pleasing combinations of their beauties, 
 adapted to our wants, — to produce what may equal, if not 
 surpass them all The structures of Egypt may show 
 how to arrange large masses harmoniously and effectively ; 
 those of Greece and Rome how to impart grace and dig- 
 nity; and the structures of Italy how the materials of an- 
 cient architecture maybe moulded to modern uses, while 
 at the same time they give practical warning of what may 
 result from the abuse of the most obvious principles of the 
 science. 
 
 The difference between the representations of the 
 Athenian antiquities by Stuart and his colleague, and the 
 misrepresentations of them by Le Roy, appear to have 
 opened the eyes of the world to those of ancient Rome, 
 to see if they too had not been dealt with unjustly ; for 
 of late years much more correct delineations of them have 
 appeared than those of Palladio and Desgodetz, — delinea- 
 tions of them as they exist, exhibiting the spirit of the 
 originals, and not warped to the Vitruvian precepts, and 
 thereby stripped of their best quality, truth. The exca- 
 vation of the ancient cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
 has opened to us much interesting matter, and some that 
 is instructive : their ruins too have the advantage of being 
 correctly delineated ; so that we are at this time in pos- 
 session of more knowledge of the architecture of the an- 
 cients, acquired in a few years by the actual examination 
 of its relics, than our predecessors of the last generation 
 were, after talking, and writing, and reading Vitruvius 
 about it, for nearly four centuries. 
 
 It is an argument in proof of the classical beauty of the 
 Pointed style, that when the eyes of men were opened to 
 the perfections of Greek architecture, they began to dis- 
 cover its merits also. Pointed architecture, under the op- 
 probrious name Gothic, had long been a subject of discus- 
 sion among antiquaries ; that is, essays were written by 
 them to prove how the Pointed arch originated, but none 
 appreciated its beauties. Our Pointed cathedrals and 
 churches were, after the example of Inigo Jones, ruth- 
 
28 ARCHIT 
 
 History, lessly barbarized in repairing and fitting up. If an archi- 
 tect were employed to do any tiling in or to one of them, 
 he appears to have thought it incumbent on him to con- 
 vert it to the doctrines of his own faith — to Italicize it. 
 Deans and chapters for the most part intrusted their 
 commissions to country masons and plasterers, who also 
 operated according to the laws of the “ five orders.” 
 About the middle of the 18th century one Batty Lang- 
 ley endeavoured to draw the attention of the world to 
 Pointed architecture, by reducing it to rules, and dividing 
 it into orders. Fortunately he was only laughed at, and 
 both he and the book he published on the subject were 
 soon forgotten. One of the first men in rank and influ- 
 ence of his time, in matters of taste particularly, Horace 
 Walpole, ’patronized Pointed architecture, hut ineffec- 
 tually. He had himself neither taste nor feeling to ap- 
 preciate its beauties, as his Strawberry Hill clearly evinces; 
 so that his patronage of it must have been the effect of 
 mere whim, or a wish to lead a fashion. Delineations 
 were indeed put forth from time to time, but generally 
 so rude and imperfect, that, like M. le Roy to Greek 
 architecture, they did more harm than good. The So- 
 ciety of Antiquaries, however, at length took up the sub- 
 ject, engaged Mr John Carter, an ardent and judicious ad- 
 mirer of our national architecture, and commenced the 
 publication of a series of splendid volumes, containing en- 
 gravings of its best specimens, from drawings and admea- 
 surements by him. The “ Antiquities of Athens” had al- 
 ready done much to dispossess men of their prejudices, 
 by showing that Greek architecture, though neither Vi- 
 truvian nor Palladian, was nevertheless beautiful ; and the 
 great work of the Society of Antiquaries did the same for 
 Pointed architecture. Since the death of Mr Carter, our 
 native style has been beautifully illustrated, in a series of 
 valuable works by Mr Britton, and elucidated in detailed 
 “ specimens,” by Mr Pugin, a French gentleman but an 
 English artist, and by a great variety of other useful and 
 excellent publications; so that, at the present time, the 
 Pointed style, too, is studied and understood, and not a 
 few of our architects are now competent, not only to be 
 intrusted with the repairs and restorations of the ancient 
 structures, but also to originate new ones, which may 
 rival all but their prototypes in beauty. 
 
 We have now, in this part of the subject, only to add a 
 few remarks on the improvement which has taken place in 
 domestic architecture, since men have begun to consider 
 their own comfort and happiness of as much importance 
 to them as the splendour of their religious edifices. The 
 exhumated city of Pompeii lias very clearly proved, that 
 notwithstanding the extent and general beauty of the pub- 
 lic buildings of the Romans, the houses of the common- 
 alty were exceedingly plain and confined, while those of 
 the higher classes, though internally elegant, were exter- 
 nally unpretending. The rooms were small and badly ar- 
 ranged, imperfectly secluded from the public gaze, and 
 quite exposed to the inmates ; pervious alike to the sum- 
 mer’s heat and winter’s cold. Indeed, the house of a Ro- 
 man gentleman presents a very convenient model for a 
 prison, but without many of the comforts which in mo- 
 dern times are thought necessary even in such places. Of 
 this, however, we shall treat more in detail when we come 
 to consider Roman architecture as a style. It has been 
 stated as probable, that the use of wooden floors, and the 
 consequent power of making additional stories without 
 enormously thick walls, arose during the middle ages. 
 That improvement, together with the use of glass for win- 
 dows, gives an air of comfort and convenience to the ear- 
 liest domestic structures of modern times, of which the 
 ancients could have had no idea ; but the latter were de- 
 ficient in elegance, though indeed the use of windows 
 
 E C TU-RE. 
 
 tended to the introduction of external architectural deco- History, 
 ration. With learning and civilization came refinement — — ** 
 and luxury, and men began, though at a great distance, to 
 imitate in their houses what they found of beautiful and 
 splendid in the churches and monasteries. The exclusion, 
 by glass windows, of currents of cold air, which carried 
 the smoke off to the funnel in the roof of a hall or large 
 room, when the fire was exposed in the middle of it, led 
 to the invention and use of chimneys, which should convey 
 it away without occupying the room at all. This is more 
 particularly applicable to the colder countries north of 
 the Alps, and it is in them that domestic building is best 
 understood, and is best applied to produce comfort and 
 convenience. Not that the Palazzi of Italy are not gene- 
 rally more pretending in their externa! architecture than 
 the town mansions of this country; but they are deficient 
 in those internal arrangements which tend to produce the 
 greatest possible advantages, which, indeed, promote the 
 enjoyments of domestic life. 
 
 In consequence of the refinements which now pervade 
 the manners, habits, and customs of civilized life, and 
 civilization having extended itself from the noble and the 
 learned through almost the whole social system, men are 
 no longer contented to admire the beauty and magnifi- 
 cence of public edifices, whether ecclesiastical or civil, and 
 to witness the splendour and elegance of the palaces and 
 mansions of the wealthy; but all are anxious to see in 
 their own habitations that degree of decoration and beauty 
 which they find so productive of pleasure and pleasurable 
 emotions. Thus architecture is no longer confined to the 
 temples of the divinity and the palaces of the great, but 
 its beauties are sought everywhere. In every edifice 
 whose inhabitant lias been fitted by education and habit 
 to appreciate and enjoy the charm which arises from sym- 
 metry of form, beauty of proportion, and elegance of de- 
 tail, the aid of architecture is required. 
 
 Of Egyptian Structures. 
 
 The architecture of ancient Egypt is characterized by 
 the boldness and magnitude of its parts, and the almost 
 monotonous uniformity which pervades its features. The 
 existing monuments of Egyptian architecture consist for 
 the most part of temples and pyramids. Obelisks are gene- 
 rally found in connection with the former, so that perhaps 
 they can only be considered as belonging to them, and 
 not as distinct architectural works, or the sphinxes and 
 other things of a similar nature must be considered as such 
 also. Neither can the hypogea or excavations be correct- 
 ly described as belonging to architecture, though they 
 bear many of its features, and were perhaps the antitypes 
 of regular architectural combinations. 
 
 The pyramids are almost solid masses of masonry, whose 
 bases are squares, and whose inclined sides are nearly 
 equilateral triangles : some of them are truncated, and 
 some run up to a point. They are generally much injured 
 on the surface by long exposure, so that it is impossible 
 to say whether any of them were considered finished 
 while in steps or receding courses, or if the angles were 
 either filled up or worked off, to make smooth surfaces on 
 the exterior. Some of them not only were made plain by 
 working off, but remain so still ; whilst others bear no in- 
 dication of ever having been finished in that manner. In 
 one existing example, that of the great southern pyramid 
 of Dashour, the angles of the receding courses have been 
 wrought oft’; and it is singular that the blocks of stone are 
 not laid in horizontal courses, but at an angle inclined to 
 the base ; nor are its sides carried up to the top in one 
 continued plane, but at about two thirds from the base they 
 incline towards each other under a more obtuse angle. 
 
 It has been imagined, but not determined, that most of 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 29 
 
 Egyptian them have natural hills, either of earth or stone, for cores, 
 Structures.g r rather that hills have been cut to the shape, and built 
 over with large courses of stone to give them the appear- 
 ance of being solid masonry. If this be the case, the 
 chambers and the passages to them, which have been dis- 
 covered in some of the pyramids, have been carefully 
 built around to have the appearance of being left in the 
 construction, which is not very probable. Another sug- 
 gestion, to account in some measure for the immense 
 quantity of matter in them, is, that they are actually cut 
 in living rock to a considerable height, and built above. 
 This may be the case with regard to those which are of 
 the stone the place affords ; but some of them are of foreign 
 material, externally at least, and of consequence cannot 
 have been hewn in the native rock. More consistent with 
 the genius of Egyptian undertakings, but hardly more pro- 
 bable is it, that the pyramids include or cover some such 
 constructions as the labyrinth beyond Lake Mceris, spoken 
 of by Herodotus, according to the suggestion we have 
 made in another place, or chambers of some kind which 
 may have been the depositories of the arcana of Egyptian 
 learning and science. Such indeed is the immense extent 
 of some of these extraordinary monuments of human in- 
 dustry and human folly, that no suggestion with regard 
 to them can be considered wild, as they afford full scope 
 for the imagination, without presenting any thing to sup- 
 port or refute any theory that may be applied to them. 
 
 The Egyptian temples, without possessing that entire 
 uniformity of plan which those of the Greeks do, are very 
 similar in arrangement and manner. The larger and 
 more perfect structures do not externally present the ap- 
 pearance of being columned, a boundary wall or peribolus 
 girding the whole, and preventing the view of any part of 
 the interior, except perhaps the towering magnificence of 
 some inner pylones ; of the lofty tops of an extraordinary 
 avenue of columns, with their superimposed terrace ; of 
 the tapering obelisks which occupy, at times, some of the 
 courts ; or of a dense mass of structure, which is the body 
 of the temple itself, inclosing the thickly columned halls. 
 The immense magnitude of these edifices may perhaps 
 have made them independent, in their perfect state, of 
 considerations which have weight in architectural compo- 
 sition at the present time, and on which indeed its har- 
 mony depends. The various portions of the same temple 
 differ in size and proportion ; and being intermingled, the 
 cornices of the lower abut indefinitely against the walls of 
 the higher parts, while the latter are not at all in accord- 
 ance among themselves. 
 
 Pi. LVI. The structure we produce to exemplify Egyptian archi- 
 tecture, though not, according to Mr Champollion, one of 
 the Pharaonic monuments, is perfectly characteristic of 
 the style and arrangement of Egyptian temples, and is a 
 more regular specimen than any other possessing the na- 
 tional peculiarities. It is known as the temple of Apol- 
 linopolis Magna, or of Edfou, in Upper Egypt, on the 
 banks of the Nile, between Thebes and the first cataracts. 
 
 The plan of the inclosure behind the propylaea is a long 
 parallelogram, the moles or propylaea themselves forming 
 another across one of its ends. The grand entrance to the 
 great court of the temple is by a doorway between the 
 moles, to which there may have been folding gates, as the 
 notches for their hinges are still to be seen. Small cham- 
 bers, right and left of the entrance, and in the core of the 
 propylaea, were probably for the porters or guards of the 
 temple : a staircase remains on each side, which leads to 
 other chambers at different heights. To furnish these with 
 light and air, loop-holes have been cut through the exter- 
 nal walls, which disfigure the front of the structure. The 
 court-yard, cloister, or vestibule, has on three of its sides 
 a colonnade, against the wall of the peribolus, forming a 
 
 covered gallery. This, and the gradual ascent by corded Egyptian 
 steps to the great portico or pronaos, will be better under- Structures, 
 stood by reference to the plan and section. The pronaos, 
 or covered portico, consists of three rows of six columns 3 & ' 4 ' 
 each, parallel and equidistant, except in the middle, where 
 the intercolumniation is greater, because of the passage 
 through. The front row of columns is closed by a sort of 
 breast-work or dado, extending to nearly half their height, 
 in which moreover they are half-imbedded ; and in the 
 central opening a peculiar doorway is formed, consisting of 
 piers, with the lintel and cornice over them cut through, 
 as exhibited in the elevation of the portico. From the Fig. 2. 
 pronaos another doorway leads to an atrium or inner ves- 
 tibule, consisting of three rows of smaller columns, with 
 four in each, distributed as those of the pronaos are. 
 
 Beyond this vestibule there are sundry close rooms and 
 cells, with passages and staircases, whose intention is not 
 obvious. The insulated chamber within the sixth door 
 was most probably the adytum or sanctuary, the holy of 
 holies, which was honoured by the presence of the divi- 
 nity: the rest is inexplicable. 
 
 In many cases the temples are without the peribolus 
 and propylaea, the edifice consisting of no more than the 
 pronaos and the parts beyond it ; and in others, parti- 
 cularly in those of Thebes, this arrangement is doubled, 
 and there are two pairs of the colossal moles, the second 
 being placed where the pronaos is in this, and another 
 open court or second vestibule intervening them and the 
 portico. In these the central line across the courts is 
 formed by a covered avenue of columns, of much larger 
 size than ordinary ; and the galleries around are of double 
 rows of columns instead of one row with the walls, as in 
 this case. The obelisks marked in the plan, and indicat- 
 ed in the section, before the propylaea, occupy the situa- 
 tion in which they are generally found, though they do 
 not exist with this example. Colossal sedent figures are 
 sometimes found before the piers of the gateway ; and from 
 them, as a base, a long avenue of sphinxes is frequently 
 found ranged like an alley or avenue of trees from a man- 
 sion to the park-gate, straight or winding, as the case may 
 require. 
 
 The longitudinal section of the edifice shows the relative Fig. 3. 
 heights of the various parts, and the mode of constructing 
 the soffits or ceilings, which are of the same material of 
 which the walls and columnar ordinances are composed : 
 this is in some cases granite, and in others freestone. 
 
 The elevation of the pronaos shows also a transverse sec- Fig. 2. 
 tion of the colonnades and peribolus. It displays most of 
 the general features of Egyptian columnar architecture ; 
 the unbroken continuity of outline, the pyramidal tendency 
 of the composition, and the boldness and breadth of every 
 part. The good taste with which the interspaces of the 
 columns are covered may be remarked. Panels standing 
 between the columns would have had a very ill effect, 
 both internally and externally ; and if a continued screen 
 had been made, the effect would be still worse, as the 
 columns must then have appeared from the outside ab- 
 surdly short ; but as it is, their height is perfectly obvious, 
 and their form is rendered clear by the contrast of light 
 and shade occasioned by the projection of the panels, 
 which would not exist if they had been detailed between 
 the columns. The lotus ornament at the foot of the Figs. C &. 7* 
 panels is particularly simple and elegant; and nothing can 
 be more graceful and effective than the cyma above their 
 cornice, which is singularly enriched with ibis mummy- 
 cases. The jambs forming a false doorway in the central 
 interspace, are a blemish in the composition ; and they in- 
 jure it very much by the abruptness of their form, and 
 their want of harmony with any thing else in it. It may 
 be remarked, that the effect of the front generally is that 
 
30 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Egyptian of an excavation rather than of a structure, the end piers 
 Structures. an( J entablature having a unity of purpose, which leads 
 to t ] ie idea that the rest was similar, or the whole at first 
 a plain wall afterwards pierced and carved into its present 
 form. This view of it would support the supposition that 
 the excavations or hypogea are the antitypes of columnar 
 architecture. 
 
 Fig. 1 . The front elevation of the moles or propylasa, with the 
 grand entrance between them, is peculiarly Egyptian; and 
 very little variety is discoverable between the earliest and 
 latest specimens of this species of structure. It is an ob- 
 ject that must be seen to be appreciated ; simplicity and 
 an inherent impressiveness in the pyramidal tendency are 
 all on which it has to depend for effect, except magnitude, 
 which alone would certainly make no agreeable impres- 
 sion on the mind. The projecting fillet and coving which 
 form a cornice to the structures, though large and hold, 
 appear small and inefficient when compared with the bulk 
 they crown ; and there is nothing particularly striking in 
 the torus which marks the lateral outline and separates 
 the straight line of the front from the circular of the cor- 
 nice. Neither are they dependent for their effect on the 
 sculpture, for their appearance is as impressive at such 
 a distance as to make the latter indistinct, as near, if not 
 more so. The effect of the sculptures and hieroglyphics 
 generally on Egyptian architecture is to enrich the sur- 
 faces, but not to interfere with the general form of a struc- 
 ture, or even with those of its minor parts. 
 
 A portion of the portico is given on a larger scale, to 
 show more clearly the forms and arrangement of Egyptian 
 columnar composition. The shaft of the column in this 
 Fig- 5. example is perfectly cylindrical. It rests on a square 
 step, or continued stylobate, without the intervention of 
 a plinth or base of any kind ; and has no regular vertical 
 channelling or enrichment, such as fluting, but is marked 
 horizontally with series of grooves, and inscribed with 
 hieroglyphics. The capitals are of different sizes and 
 forms in the same ordinance. This example is about one 
 diameter of the column in height, exclusive of its receding 
 abacus. Its outline is that of the cyma, with a reversed 
 ovalo fillet above, and its enrichment consists principally 
 Fig- 2- 0 f l 0 t us flowers. The capital of the column next to this, 
 in the front line, is much taller, differently formed, and 
 ornamented with palm leaves ; the third is of the same 
 size and outline as the first, but differently ornamented; 
 and the corresponding columns on the other side of the 
 centre have capitals corresponding with these, each to its 
 fellow, in the arrangement. Above the capital there is a 
 square block or receding abacus, which has the effect of a 
 deepening of the entablature, instead of a covering of the 
 columns when the capitals spread, as in this case. In the 
 PI. LV. earlier Egyptian examples, however, in which the columns 
 
 Fig- 7- are swollen, and diminished in two unequal lengths, the 
 
 result is different, and the form and size of the abacus 
 PI. LVI. appear perfectly consistent. The height of this column 
 Fig- 5- and its capital, without the abacus, is six diameters. 
 
 The entablature consists of an architrave and cornice, 
 there being no equivalent for the frieze of a Greek entab- 
 lature, unless the coving be so considered, in which case 
 the cornice becomes a mere shelf. The architrave, in- 
 cluding the torus, is about three quarters of a diameter 
 in height, which is half that of the whole entablature. 
 The architrave itself is in this example sculptured in low 
 relief, but otherwise plain. The torus, which returns and 
 runs down the angles of the building, is gracefully band- 
 ed, something like the manner in which the fasces are 
 represented in Roman works. The coving is divided into 
 compartments by vertical flutes, which have been thought 
 to be the origin of triglyphs in a Doric frieze ; but these 
 are arranged without reference to the columns, and are 
 
 in other respects so totally different from them as to give Hindoo 
 but little weight to the opinion. The compartments are Structures, 
 beautifully enriched with hieroglyphics, except in the V ^^ v ^ w ' 
 centre, where a winged globe is sculptured, surmounting 
 another on the architrave, as shown in the elevation of 
 the pronaos. The crowning tablet or fillet is quite plain 
 and unornamented. Angular roofs are unknown in an- 
 cient Egyptian buildings, and consequently pediments are 
 unknown in its architecture. 
 
 Of the style of architecture used in the domestic edi- 
 fices of the Egyptians we can give no idea, as no docu- 
 ments remain by which it may be known ; neither can we 
 judge of it by analogy from what we know of that of 
 other nations of antiquity, for no direct analogy exists 
 between the styles of their mutually existing structures. 
 
 Indeed the Romans are the only people, above the Chris- 
 tian era, of whose domestic architecture we know any 
 thing with certainty; and the advantages they possessed 
 over their predecessors in their knowledge of the use of 
 the arch was so great, for that purpose especially, that 
 theirs affords no ratio for that of the Greeks even, and 
 still less for that of the Egyptians. 
 
 Of Hindoo Structures. 
 
 From local circumstances, structures in India are ex- 
 posed to rapid destruction as soon as they lose the pro- 
 tecting power of man ; and thus the absence of any posi- 
 tive architectural works in that county which can be de- 
 termined to be of high antiquity may be partly accounted 
 for. But religious intolerance and devastating war have 
 conspired together to aid natural causes in the destruc- 
 tion of the ancient edifices of the Hindoos. Whatever 
 of antiquity fell in the route of that ruthless conqueror 
 Mali mood of Ghizni, in his twelve expeditions into India, 
 was defaced or destroyed ; and those structures in the more 
 remote parts, impervious to his march, either want data to 
 pronounce on their antiquity, or, when they possess any, it 
 is in a character still unintelligible to the learned. But 
 there are some to which tradition — and this we should not 
 altogether reject — assigns a date beyond the age of Alex- 
 ander ; and we understand that the unity of style of these 
 warrants the assumption of immense priority for them to 
 all now existing in Gangetic India. It is from Rajpootana 
 that we may yet look for developments of the ancient 
 architecture of the Hindoos ; a field of great magnitude, 
 only just begun to' be explored, and still remaining unde- 
 lineated. Extensive excavations, however, of much greater 
 magnitude even than those of Egypt, and, it is presumed, 
 of at least equal antiquity, are found in various parts of In- 
 dia ; and they may be supposed to bear some resemblance 
 to their contemporaneous structures, of which, most like- 
 ly, they were either the representations or the originals. 
 
 But we thus arrive only at the style: the composition 
 and arrangement of structures cannot be deduced from 
 the hypogea; for though these latter in Egypt agree in 
 style with the architecture, they would not suggest the 
 other particulars. 
 
 The most common Hindoo pagoda of the present day 
 is composed of a rectangular mass, surmounted by a gra- 
 duated truncate pyramid. That this species of structure 
 is of very considerable antiquity, may he concluded from 
 the fact, that every thing in its composition and arrange- 
 ment is determined by immutable precepts of a religious 
 nature. This was ascertained by Colonel Tod, the learned 
 annalist of Central India, from a man to whom the pre- 
 cept had descended with his profession from his ancestors 
 through more than forty generations. 
 
 These kinds of evidence, however, though interesting, 
 are not conclusive; and we must consent, for the pre- 
 sent at least, to remain in ignorance of the Hindoo archi- 
 
ARCR1T 
 
 Grecian tecture of the early ages, to which our inquiry is more 
 Structures. i mmec Ji a tely directed. The splendid works of the Mos- 
 lem conquerors of that country bear no relation whatever 
 to its indigenous architecture. 
 
 Of Grecian Structures. 
 
 As no nation has ever equalled the Egyptians in the 
 extent and magnitude of their architectural monuments, 
 neither have the Greeks been surpassed in the exquisite 
 beauty of form and proportion which theirs possess. Ex- 
 treme simplicity and perfect harmony pervade every part 
 of a Greek structure ; and to the evanescence of the finer 
 spirit of these qualities may be referred the difficulty — 
 for great difficulty certainly exists — of applying Grecian 
 architecture to modern practice. The national style, or 
 Doric Order, is in every respect the most distinguished 
 and the most intractable. The voluted Ionic being more 
 complicated, is more plastic ; and the foliated Corin- 
 thian, from its still greater divergence from Doric sim- 
 plicity and harmony, is the most easily moulded to 
 various purposes. Unfortunately nothing remains from 
 which we might acquire a knowledge of the practice 
 of the Greeks themselves in the architecture of do- 
 mestic and general structures ; but it may be inferred 
 from some existing edifices, particularly the Choragic 
 monuments, that the Doric columnar style was not used 
 by them except for the temples of the gods and some 
 of their accessories. But whether this arose — if the 
 feeling really did exist — from the sanctity of its cha- 
 racter, in consequence of that appropriation, or from the 
 difficulty of moulding it to general purposes, cannot be 
 determined. It is very certain, however, that the few 
 structures which do exist of Greek origin, not of a reli- 
 gious character, are either Ionic or Corinthian, or a mix- 
 ture of one of them with some of the features of the Do- 
 ric ; and in all Greece and the Grecian colonies, except 
 Ionia, there are very few examples of religious edifices 
 not of the Doric order, and none which are of the Corin- 
 thian. 
 
 We have already given our reasons for mistrusting the 
 descriptions of ancient writers on architectural subjects ; 
 and when they merely make reference to different parts 
 of a structure, without pretending to describe, in the ab- 
 sence of examples or models they must be unintelligible, 
 and therefore no more valuable to the architectural anti- 
 quary than those of the others, whom existing specimens 
 of what they profess to describe prove to have been to- 
 tally ignorant of their subject. We shall therefore not 
 attempt to develope what does not exist, either from in- 
 ferences to be drawn from Homer and others, from the 
 professional dicta of Vitruvius, or from the description of 
 Pausanias ; but confine ourselves to the remains of the 
 architecture itself of the Greeks, which are actually be- 
 fore our eyes, for the elucidation and exemplification of 
 the Grecian style. 
 
 Like the architecture of Egypt, that of Greece is known 
 to us principally by means of its sacred monuments, and 
 from them is deduced almost all we know of its principles. 
 The Doric temples of the Greeks are uniform in plan, 
 and differ only in arrangement and proportion, as they are 
 of greater or less size ; for every part depends on the same 
 thing. If the dimensions of a single column, and the pro- 
 portion the entablature shall bear to it, were given to two 
 individuals acquainted with the style, with directions to 
 compose a hexastyle peripteral temple, or one of any other 
 description, they would produce designs exactly similar 
 in size, arrangement, features, and general proportions, 
 differing only, if at all, in the relative proportions of mi- 
 nor parts, and slightly perhaps in the contour of some of 
 the mouldings. This can only be the case with the Do- 
 
 ECTURE, 3i 
 
 ric, and it arises from the intercolumniation being deter- Grecian 
 mined by the arrangement of the frieze with triglyphs Structures, 
 and metopes; the frieze bearing a certain proportion in'^^' ,/ ^- y 
 the entablature to the diameter of the column, and so on, 
 in such a manner that the most perfect harmony is pre-Pl. LVI1. 
 served between every part. Thus, in the example, the Figs. 1 & 4. 
 column is so many of its diameters in height ; it diminishes 
 gradually from the base upwards, with a slightly convex- 
 ed tendency or swelling downwards ; and is superimposed 
 by a capital proportioned to it, and coming within its 
 height. The entablature is so many diameters high also, 
 and is divided, according to slightly vai’ying proportions, 
 into three parts — architrave, frieze, and cornice. A triglyph 
 bearing a certain proportion to the diameter of the co- 
 lumn is drawn immediately over its centre ; the metope is 
 then set off equal to the height of the frieze ; another 
 triglypli is drawn, which hangs over the void ; then a me- 
 tope as before ; and a second triglyph, the centre of which 
 is the central line for another column ; and so on to the 
 number required, which, in a front, will be four, six, eight, 
 or ten columns, as the case may be, the temple being tetra- 
 style, hexastyle, octastyle, or decastyle; and on the flanks 
 twice the number of those on the front and one more, PI. LVIII. 
 counting the columns on the angles both wavs. Thus Fig- 3. 
 a hexastyle temple will have thirteen columns on eachtjk . ViI ’ 
 flank, an octastyle seventeen, and so on. It must be °b- j--“ s & 4 
 served, however, that to ease the columns at the angles, ° ’ 
 they are not placed so that the triglyph over them shall 
 impend their centre as the others, but are set in towards 
 the next columns so far that a line let fall from the outer 
 edge of the triglyph will touch the circumferential line of 
 the column at the base, or at its greatest diameter. It 
 has been generally thought that the object in this dispo- 
 sition was to bring the triglyph to the extreme angle, to 
 obviate the necessity of a half-metope there ; and many 
 imitators have puzzled themselves to no avail to effect it, 
 without contracting the intercolumniation or elongating 
 the first metope ; though it is perfectly obvious that the 
 intention of the Greek architects was to ease the columns 
 in those important situations of a part of their burden, 
 and for no such purpose as Vitruvius and his disciples 
 have thought. Indeed, this has been a problem to the 
 whole school, which their master proposed, and which 
 they have settled only by putting a half-metope beyond 
 the outer triglyph ; thus preserving the intercolumniation 
 equal, but rendering the angles more infirm, or perhaps 
 less stable, than the Greek architects judiciously thought 
 they should be. Besides contracting the intercolumnia- 
 tion, the Greeks also made the corner columns a little 
 larger than the rest, thus counteracting in every way the 
 danger that might accrue to them, or to the structure 
 through them, from their exposed and partly unconnected 
 situation. The graduated pyramidal stylobate on which 
 the structure rests also bears a certain proportion to the 
 standard which is the measure of all the rest ; and so 
 every part is determined by the capacity of the sustain- 
 ing power. Though the Doric order thus possesses, as it 
 were, a self-proportioning power, which will secure har- 
 mony in its composition under any circumstances, yet 
 skill and taste in the architect are necessary to deter- 
 mine, according to them, the number of diameters the 
 column shall have in height, and according to that assign 
 the height of the entablature. For these two points in 
 proportioning, and for appropriate detail and enrichment, 
 lie may, without servility, refer to the ancient examples ; 
 with the confidence, moreover, that in availing himself of 
 their beauties he acquires the power of producing an ob- 
 ject that shall be itself beautiful, while he can avoid being 
 a mere copyist in the adaptation and arrangement of the 
 materials of his composition, as well as in the selection 
 
S c 2 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Grecian of them. We cannot discover that the elevation of the 
 Structures, pediment depended so immediately on the common stand- 
 W*"" 1 ard, though in the best examples the tympanum will be 
 found to be about one diameter and a half in height. 
 
 The Ionic and Corinthian, or Voluted and Foliate 
 orders, do not possess that innate principle of harmony 
 which pervades the Doric, and therefore they are, as 
 styles, less perfect, and depend more on factitious combi- 
 nations. The Greek compositions of Ionic and Corinthian 
 are of such consummate beauty in every particular, that 
 their examples appear perfect, and may therefore be taken 
 as models for study, in preference to the rules which have 
 been laid down for those orders, without a knowledge of 
 these exemplifications. With a consciousness of their in - 
 ferior capacity to produce grand and harmonious effects 
 in such arrangements as their temples require, the Greeks 
 never applied either the Ionic or the Corinthian peripte- 
 rally, and, as far as we have certain knowledge, only the 
 latter in prostyles. Whether the Ionians did or did not, 
 cannot be satisfactorily ascertained, as their temples are in 
 every case so much destroyed, that it is impossible, at least 
 without more care and attention than they have yet re- 
 ceived, to make out satisfactorily what their plans were. 
 In the Ionic and Corinthian orders, the proportions of the 
 various parts are generally made dependent on the diame- 
 ter of the column, as in the Doric ; but the intercolumni- 
 ations, and consequently the general proportions, of a com- 
 position, are not determined by the column and its acces- 
 sories according to their capacity, but must be left to the 
 taste and skill of the architect, as well as the columnar 
 proportions themselves. This gave rise to the rules re- 
 ferred to, which are laid down by Vitruvius, for what he 
 calls the “ Five Sorts of Edifices,” or, more correctly, 
 species of intercolumniation. They are pycnostyle, systyie, 
 diastyle, arasostyle, and eustyle, to each of which a fixed 
 space is assigned. Architects will, however, act more 
 wisely in judging for themselves, by reference to the best 
 models of antiquity, what proportion constitutes an Eustyle 
 intercolumniation, according to the application of his 
 ordinance, than by attending to such irrational dogmas as 
 are contained in that classification. 
 
 The temples of the Greeks are described, according to 
 their external arrangement, as being either in antis, pro- 
 style, amphiprostyle, peripteral, pseudo-peripteral, dip- 
 teral, or pseudo-dipteral ; and internally, as cleithral or 
 hypaethral. The columnar arrangement in antis is not com- 
 mon in Greek architecture, though there are examples 
 Ft. LVII. of it, generally of the Doric order. The inner porticoes or 
 F>g- 2, andpronaoi of peripteral temples are for the most part placed 
 l-JUU^'in antis, as may be seen by reference to the examples, 
 in which columns stand between the antae. The Ionic 
 temples of Athens are the principal examples of the 
 simple prostyle. They may be called apteral, if it be ne- 
 cessary to distinguish them from peripteral, as the latter 
 are prostylar ; but the former term alone is sufficient. 
 Neither does Greek architecture present more than one 
 example, and that is at Athens also, of an amphiprostyle, 
 except in the same peripteral structures, which are also 
 amphiprostylar. Almost all the Doric temples are perip- 
 teral, and being peripteral, they are, as a matter of course, 
 amphiprostylar, as we have just remarked ; so that the for- 
 mer term alone is used in describing an edifice of that 
 kind, with the numeral which expresses the number of 
 columns in each of its prostyles. There is but one known 
 example of Greek antiquity of a pseudo-peripteral temple, 
 and that is the gigantic fane of Jupiter Olympiusat Agri- 
 
 gentum in Sicily. It is not even prostylar, for the columns Grecian 
 on its fronts are attached, as well as those on its flanks. Structures. 
 The dipteral arrangement is found at Selinus, in an octa- ^ 
 style temple ; and in some cases the porticoes of peripteral 
 temples have a pseudo-dipteral projection, though no per- 
 fect example of the pseudo-dipteros exists. 
 
 Most of the temples of the Greeks were cleithral ; those 
 to the inferior and demi-gods were invariably so. The 
 fanes of the supreme divinity were almost as invariably 
 hypaethral, and frequently those of other superior gods 
 were of the latter description also. The Doric order was 
 never used by the Greeks in mere prostyles ; consequent- 
 ly there is no Doric temple of the tetrastyle arrangement, 
 for it is incompatible with the peripteral, the tetrastyle 
 examples which do exist being all Ionic. 1 With very few 
 exceptions, all the Doric temples of the Greeks are hexa- 
 style. Their queen, however, the unmatched Parthenon, PI. LIV. 
 is octastyle ; and the pseudo-peripteral fane of Jupiter 
 Olympius at Agrigentum, just referred to, presents the 
 singular arrangement, heptastyle. No example exists in 
 Greek architecture of a portico of more than eight columns, 
 except the mis-shapen monument called the Basilica at 
 Psestum, theThersites ofits style, be so considered, and that 
 has a front of nine columns, or an enneastyle arrangement. 
 
 It may be here remarked, in support of the opinion we 
 have given as to the authority of Vitruvius, that, ac- 
 cording to him, peripteral temples have on each flank 
 twice the number of intercolumniations they have in front ; 
 thus giving to a hexastyle eleven, to an octastyle fifteen 
 columns, and so on, whereas in the Greek temples this is 
 never the case, for they always have more. The best ex- 
 amples have two, some have but one, but many have three, 
 and in one instance there are four intercolumniations more 
 in flank than in front. Again, he limits the internal hy- 
 pscthral arrangement to those structures which are exter- 
 nally decastyle and dipteral, though an example, he says, 
 existed in Greece of an octastyle hypaethros, and that was 
 a Roman structure. Now, the Parthenon is an octastyle 
 hypaethros, but all the other hypaethral temples, both in 
 Greece and her colonies, are hexastyles, except perhaps 
 the octastyle dipteral at Selinus ; and there is no evidence 
 in existence that the Greeks ever constructed a decastyle 
 dipteral temple. 
 
 A Greek temple, whose columnar arrangement is sim- 
 ply in antis, whether distyle or tetrastyle, consists of pro- 
 naos and naos or cella. A tetraprostyle may have be- 
 hind it a pronaos and naos. An amphiprostyle has, in ad- 
 dition to the preceding, a posticum, but is not understood 
 to have a second entrance. The porticoes of a peripteral 
 temple are distinguished as the porticus and posticum, 
 and the lateral ambulatories are incorrectly called peri- 
 styles. It may indeed be here suggested, that as the ad- 
 mixture of Latin with Greek terms in the description ot 
 a Grecian edifice cannot be approved of, it would perhaps 
 be better to apply the term stoa to the colonnaded plat- 
 form or ambitus altogether, and distinguish the various 
 parts of it by the addition of English adjectives : or the 
 common term portico would be quite as well with front, 
 back, and side or lateral, prefixed, as the case may be. 
 
 Within the back and front stoas or porticoes, then, a pe- Pl.LVIII. 
 ripteral temple has similar arrangements in antis, which Fig- 3. 
 are relatively termed the pronaos and opisthodomus, with 
 an entrance only from the former; unless there should 
 exist, as there does in the Parthenon, a room or chamber PI. LVII. 
 within the opisthodomus, supposed to be the treasury, Fig. 3. 
 when a door opens into it from the latter. Besides these. 
 
 1 Athens itself containing a Doric tetraprostyle, may seem to contradict this ; but it must be recollected that we have already 
 said (page 410), that in speaking of Greek architecture, we exclude all the examples, even in Greece itself, which were executed 
 under the Roman dominion, for they bear the Roman impress ; and that is one of them. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Grecian a Greek temple of the most ramified description consists 
 
 Structures. on ]y 0 f a ce ll, j n those which are cleithral; and of a naos, 
 which is divided into nave and aisles, to use modern eccle- 
 siastical terms, in an hypaethral temple. 
 
 The only pure Greek architectural works that remain 
 to us, and of which we have certain information, besides 
 temples, are, it has been already stated, propylaea, cbora- 
 gic monuments, and theatres. The Propyla?um, by way of 
 eminence, that to the Acropolis of Athens, is the entrance 
 or gateway through the wall of the peribolus into it. It 
 consists of a Doric hexaprostyle portico internally, with 
 a very singular arrangement of its columns, the central 
 intercolumniation being ditriglyph. This was done pro- 
 bably to allow a certain procession to pass, which would 
 have been incommoded by a narrower space. Within the 
 portico there is a deep recess, similar to the pronaos in a 
 temple, but without columns in antis ; a wall pierced with 
 five doorways corresponding to the intercolumniations of 
 the portico, close the entrance ; and beyond it is a vesti- 
 bule, divided into three parts by two rows of three Ionic 
 columns, and forming an outer portico, fronted externally 
 by a hexaprostyle exactly similar to that on the outside. 
 Right and left of it, and setting out about one intercolum- 
 niation of the portico from its end columns, at right angles, 
 are two small triastyle porticoes in antis, with chambers be- 
 hind them. These have been called temples, but most 
 probably they were nothing more than porters’ lodges or 
 guard-houses. The whole structure, though extremely 
 elegant, and possessing many beauties, is not a good ar- 
 chitectural composition : the unequal intercolumniation 
 detracts from its simplicity and harmony. The use of Ionic 
 columns in a Doric ordinance is equally objectionable; 
 and their elevation from the floor of the portico on insu- 
 lated pedestals is even worse, though their intention is 
 obvious ; and without raising them, the ceiling might have 
 been too low, or they must have been made taller. 1 The 
 uneven style of the small temples or lodges is not pleasing, 
 even though they be taken as flank and not as front com- 
 positions ; and, moreover, their entablature abuts indefi- 
 nitely against the walls of the larger structure, both in- 
 ternally and externally, to the total destruction of the 
 harmony of the general composition. Indeed the unequal 
 heights of the entablature of the greater ordinance in- 
 volves a fault, if there were not something to prevent 
 them from being seen in the same view, which it requires 
 more than all the beauties of detail and harmony of pro- 
 portion to countervail. 
 
 PI. LX. The choragic monument of Lysicrates, vulgarly called 
 
 Fig. 1 &2. th e Lanthorn of Demosthenes, at Athens, is a small struc- 
 ture, consisting of an elegant rusticated quadrangular 
 basement or podium, which is more than two fifths of the 
 whole height, surmounted by a cyclostyle of six Corin- 
 thian columns, attached to, and projecting rather more 
 than one half from, a wall which perfects the cylinder up 
 to the top of their shafts, where it forms a podium for tri- 
 pods the height of the capitals. A characteristic enta- 
 blature rests on the columns, and receives a tliolus or 
 dome, which is richly ornamented, and terminates in a 
 foliated and heliced acroterium. To this Stuart has add- 
 ed dolphins as supporters, and has placed on the summit 
 a tripod, which was the prize in the choragic festival ; 
 thus completing perhaps the most beautiful composition 
 in its style ever executed. In Vitruvian language the ar- 
 rangement of this edifice would be called monopteral ; 
 but it is more correctly cyclostylar, or, perhaps, because 
 of the wall or core, it may be termed a pseudo or attached 
 
 DO 
 
 cyclostyle. The basement of this monument is eminently Grecian 
 bold and simple, admirably proportioned to the rest of the Structures, 
 structure, and harmonizing perfectly with it. The 
 lumnar ordinance is the only perfect specimen of the style 1 
 in existence of pure Greek origin, and it has never been 
 surpassed, perhaps not equalled, in beauty elsewhere. The 
 most exquisite harmony reigns throughout its composi- 
 tion : it is simple without being poor, and rich without 
 being meretricious ; and the same applies to the super- 
 imposed tripod and its supports. 
 
 Totally different in style and arrangement, and far in- 
 ferior in merit, is the choragic monument of Thrasyllus. 
 
 It bears, however, the impress of the Grecian mind. This 
 composition is merely a front to a cave, consisting of three 
 pilasters proportioned and moulded like Doric antse, and 
 supporting an entablature similar in style, but too shallow 
 to harmonize with them. Above the entablature there is 
 an attic or parapet, divided into three compartments hori- 
 zontally. The two external form tablets with a cornice or 
 impost on them, and the central is composed of three re- 
 ceding courses, on the summit of which is seated a draped 
 human figure, whether male or female, in its mutilated 
 state is not determinable. The entablature, instead of 
 triglyphs in the frieze, has laurel wreaths; and it would 
 appear as if the absence of that feature had deranged the 
 whole composition. The two outer pilasters are of good 
 proportion, and the architrave is well proportioned to them ; 
 but the frieze and cornice are both too narrow, and 
 the spaces between the pilasters, equivalent to interco- 
 lumniations, are too wide. The third pilaster, itself in- 
 harmonious, is absurdl} r narrow, being narrower than the 
 others; and, standing immediately under the statue, evi- 
 dently to support it, its meagreness is the more obvious 
 and striking. In spite of all this, the general outline of 
 the structure is simple and pleasing, the detail is elegant, 
 and the execution spirited and effective. This little mo- 
 nument is, however, a proof that the Greeks were not so 
 excellent in architectural compositions at all times, as in 
 the self-composing Doric temples, and in the choragic 
 monument of Lysicrates ; and to this evidence may be 
 added that of the triple temple in the Acropolis of Athens. 
 
 It consists of an Ionic hexaprostyle in front, resting on a PL LIX. 
 bold, continuous, and well-proportioned stylobate, and 
 forming the entrance to a parallelogramic cella, but, 
 from all that has yet been discovered, without a pronaos 
 in antis. The back-front consists of four columns like 
 those of the portico, attached in antis ; and the flanks are 
 broad and bold, crowned by the well-proportioned and 
 chaste entablature, with the enriched congeries of mould- 
 ings and running ornament of the antae under it. In the 
 absence of a pronaos to give depth to the portico, the 
 composition was defective, but otherwise simple and har- 
 monious. It was, however, completely spoiled by the at- 
 tachment of a tetiaprostyle to one of its sides, Ionic cer- 
 tainly, like that in front, but not only in a different man- 
 ner, but of a different size ; beautiful in itself, but a blot 
 on the main building, with which it harmonizes in no one 
 particular, being altogether lower ; for the apex of its pe- 
 diment only reaches to the cornice of the former. This 
 and the Caryatidean portico are omitted in the example. 
 
 In a similar situation, against the other side is attached a 
 similar arrangement of Caryatides, ate traprostyle of female 
 figures raised on a lofty basement, and yet not reaching 
 to the entablature of the main building, — according in no 
 one particular either with it or with the portico on the 
 other side, and altogether forming the most heterogeneous. 
 
 1 An editorial note in the new edition of The Antiquities of Athens says that “ they are incorrectly mounted on pedestals” in Stuart 
 and Revett’s Restoration. This structure cannot perhaps fairly be judged of, until its site and remains shall have been examined 
 without the jealous supervision of a Turkish governor. 
 
34 ARC H I T 
 
 Grecian and inharmonious combination imaginable. Yet the two 
 Structures. Ionic porticoes are the most beautiful examples of their 
 order in existence, and perhaps, it may be added, that 
 were ever executed, — arranged in the finest proportion, 
 and with the most exquisite details and enrichments. 
 The Caryatidean frontispiece, also, for more it cannot be 
 called, is full of architectural beauties, though it is most 
 injudiciously collocated. 
 
 The theatres of the Greeks, it has been already inti- 
 mated, present but little to interest in the view we are 
 taking of architecture. They were not structures, but ex- 
 cavations ; and whatever decoration they may have re- 
 ceived to make them objects of interest externally, is, in 
 every known example, entirely gone ; and attempts to re- 
 store them from their existing remains, and the informa- 
 tion to be derived from ancient writers, would be futile, 
 without a knowledge of Greek architecture gained else- 
 where, proving that they themselves cannot furnish it, 
 and of course cannot yield it to us. No example of it 
 furnishing us with matter for architectural illustration, we 
 should gain no information in furtherance of our present 
 subject by treating of it here. 
 
 The division of the columnar architecture of the Greeks 
 and Romans into orders by the Italian architects of the 
 fifteenth century, according to the laws of Vitruvius, and 
 the universal reception of that mode of arranging it, al- 
 most imposes on us the necessity of adopting the same 
 course, and laying down a standard or model for each. 
 But instead of so doing, we think it better to give each 
 school separately, and describe the general features of the 
 orders as they occur in the works of each, — pointing out, 
 moreover, the varieties that exist, and prevent the mono- 
 tony consequent on restricted forms and proportions. We 
 retain, too, the term “ Order,” and the names in general 
 use, without consenting to the propriety of either the one 
 or the other ; for if it be judicious to divide Greek and 
 Roman columnar architecture into orders, there can be 
 no reason why Egyptian, Hindoo, Persian, or any other 
 style, should not be classed in a similar manner. More- 
 over, there is nothing in any one “ order” that, were it 
 not for custom, would not be thought as fitting in any 
 other as in that to which it may belong. The Greeks did 
 not hesitate to put triglyphs in the frieze of an entablature 
 whose columns were fillet-fluted and had foliated capi- 
 tals, as some ruins at Paestum attest. As to names, the 
 Doric might, as we have said, be called Corinthian with 
 more propriety; the Ionic, Samian; and the Corinthian, 
 Athenian ; referring to the oldest known examples of 
 each. The term Style would be more correct than Order, 
 as it would indicate the column as the feature referred 
 to, without conveying the idea of fixed rules ; and archi- 
 tectural works into which columns do not enter need not 
 be constrained to admit the arrangement of some Order 
 in the composition, proportion, and detail of its various 
 parts. In naming, too, the Doric might be called the 
 Greek sacred or triglyphed style; the Ionic, the Voluted 
 style ; and the Corinthian, the Foliated ; thus admitting 
 any varieties of combination which could be expressed as 
 composites of the voluted and foliate, or of the foliate and 
 triglyphed, as the case might be. 
 
 An Order, according to Mr Gwilt, is “ an assemblage 
 of parts, consisting of a base, shaft, capital, architrave, 
 frieze, and cornice, whose several services requiring some 
 distinction in strength, have been contrived or designed 
 in five several species,... each of which has its ornaments 
 as well as general fabric proportioned to its strength and 
 character.” Perrault says that an order may be defined 
 “ a rule for the proportion of columns, and for the form 
 of certain parts which belong to them, according to the 
 different proportions which they have.” We would have 
 
 ECTUR E. 
 
 it understood to be a species of columnar arrangement, Grecian 
 differing in its forms and general proportions, and in some Doric, 
 leading features, from any other. Greek columnar archi- 
 tecture may thus be divided into the three arrangements 
 or orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, which form its 
 classes or styles. In considering them, however, it is 
 necessary to discharge the mind of all the absurdities of 
 the Italo-Vitruvian school about the proportions of the 
 human figure being applied to columns, whether virile, ma- 
 tronal, or virginal ; about the trunks of trees and rafters’ 
 feet ; whether Doric columns should not have bases be- 
 cause men have feet, or that Ionic columns should have 
 them because women wore sandals ; that the guttae in a 
 Doric entablature should be conical, and not pyramidal, 
 because they are to look like drops of water ; that sculls, 
 furies, thunderbolts, and daggers may be used to enrich 
 a Doric frieze, but that spears, and swords, and stars, and 
 garters may not; — these, with the thousand other puer- 
 ilities of the Cinquecentists, whether Italian, French, or 
 English, — whether acquired from the writings of Palladio 
 and Scamozzi, of Perrault and Leclerc, or of Wotton and 
 Chambers, — must be forgotten, and the greater or less 
 degree of beauty resulting from this or that mode of ar- 
 rangement and detail alone attended to. 
 
 Not to induce the idea that the quoted examples of the 
 antique should be imitated to the line and letter, but ra- 
 ther in spirit, we shall speak of the proportions of their 
 various parts generally; though it must at the same time 
 be understood that much of the beauty of a columnar 
 composition depends on its minutiae : still it is not neces- 
 sary that these minutiae should be mere repetitions of an 
 original ; it is in the spirit of the antique models that ex- 
 cellence is to be sought, and not in crude rules for their 
 reproduction. 
 
 Of the Grecian Doric. 
 
 This order may be divided into three parts, Stylobate, 
 
 Column, and Entablature. The stylobate is from two 
 thirds to a whole diameter of the column in height, in 
 three equal courses, which recede gradually the one above 
 from the one below it, and on the floor or upper step the 
 column rests. That graduation, it may be remarked, does 
 "not appear to have been made by the ancients to facilitate 
 the access to the floor of the stoa or portico, but on the 
 principle of the spreading footings of a wall, to give both 
 real and apparent firmness to the structure, both of which 
 it does in an eminent degree. 
 
 The column varies in different examples from four to PI. LV. 
 six diameters in height, of which the capital, including Fig- 
 the necking, is rather less than half a diameter: in those ^11. 
 cases in which a necking does not exist, the capital itself pi^j/VIII. 
 occupies nearly the same proportion. The shaft dimi- p;,, 4> 
 nishes in a slightly curved line, called entasis, from its base 
 or inferior diameter upwards to the hypotrachelium, leav- 
 ing it at that place, or at the superior diameter, from two 
 thirds to four fifths of the lower or inferior, which latter 
 is the diameter always intended when the term is used as 
 a measure of proportion. The capital consists of a neck- 
 ing, an echinus or ovalo, and an abacus ; the necking is 
 about one fifth of the height of the capital, and the other 
 two members equally divide the remaining four fifths : 
 when there is no necking, the ovalo occupies the greater 
 proportion of the whole height. The abacus is a square 
 tablet, whose sides are rather more than the inferior dia- 
 meter of the column. The corbelling of the ovalo adapts 
 it to both the diminished head of the shaft and the ex- 
 tended abacus, flowing into the one, and forming a bed 
 for the other by means of a graceful cyma-reversa ; but Fig. C & 7 . 
 its lower part is encircled by three or four rings or annu- 
 lets, which are variously formed in different examples, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 35 
 
 Grecian and which are the means of giving the echinus form to 
 Doric, the great moulding, although it is, as we have said, part 
 of a cyma-reversa. The shaft is divided generally into 
 twenty flutes; but there are several examples with sixteen, 
 PL LVII. ant [ there is one with twenty-four. The flutes are some- 
 pi VIII t ‘ mes se g ments of circles, sometimes semiellipses, and 
 Fie it &14 sometimes eccentric curves. They always meet in an arris 
 ° or edge, and follow the entasis and diminution of the 
 
 column up through the hypotrachelium to the annulets, 
 under which they finish, sometimes with a straight and 
 sometimes with a curved head. At the base they detail 
 on the pavement or floor of the stylobate. 
 
 Fig. 4. The third part of the order, the entablature, ranges in 
 various examples from one diameter and three quarters to 
 rather more than two diameters in height, of which about 
 four fifths is nearly equally divided between the architrave 
 and frieze, and the cornice occupies the remaining one 
 fifth : this is in some cases exactly the distribution of the 
 entablature. The architrave is in one broad face, four 
 fifths, and sometimes five sixths of its whole height; and 
 the remaining fifth or sixth is given to a projecting con- 
 tinuous fillet called the taenia, which occupies one half the 
 space, and a regula or small lintel attached to it, in lengths 
 equal to the breadth of the triglyphs above in the frieze. 
 From the regulae six small cylindrical drops called guttae 
 depend. There are examples to the contrary, but it may 
 be taken as a general rule, that the architrave is not in 
 the same vertical line with the upper face of the shaft, or 
 its circumferential line, at the superior diameter, but is 
 projected nearly as much as to impend the line or face of 
 the column at the base. The frieze, vertically, is plain 
 about six sevenths of its whole height, and is bounded 
 above by a fascia, slightly projecting from it, which oc- 
 cupies the remaining seventh. Horizontally, however, 
 it is divided into triglyphs and metopes, which regulate 
 the intercolumniations in the manner that has been al- 
 ready described ; the former being nearly a semidiame- 
 ter in width, and the latter the space interposed between 
 two triglyphs, generally an exact square, its breadth 
 being equal to the whole height of the frieze, including 
 the fascia. This latter breaks round the triglyphs hori- 
 zontally, and is a little increased in depth on them. Each 
 glyph, of which there are two whole ones and two halves 
 to every tablet, is one fifth of the width of the whole, 
 and the interglyphs are each one seventh of the whole 
 tablet or triglyph. The glyphs detail on the taenia of the 
 architrave, but are variously finished above. In some ex- 
 amples they are nearly sq.uare-lieaded, with the angles 
 rounded off; in others the heads are regular curves, from 
 a flat segment to a semiellipsis. The semiglyphs are 
 finished above in a manner peculiar to themselves, with a 
 turn or drop ; but hardly two examples correspond in that 
 particular. The tablets in which the glyphs are cut are 
 vertical to the face of the architrave, the metopes recede 
 from them like sunk panels ; these are often charged with 
 sculptures, and indeed almost appear contrived to receive 
 them. The third and crowning part of the entablature, 
 the cornice, in what may be considered the best examples, 
 projects from the face of the triglyphs and architrave 
 about its own height. Vertically, it is divided into four 
 equal parts, one of which is given to a square projecting 
 fillet at the top, with a small congeries of mouldings, dif- 
 ferent, and differently proportioned to each other, in vari- 
 ous examples. Two other parts are given to the corona, 
 and the remaining fourth to a narrow sunk face below it, 
 with the mutules and their guttae. These latter form the 
 soffit or planceer of the cornice, which is not horizontal or 
 at right angles to the vertical face of the entablature ge- 
 nerally, but is cut up inwards at an angle of about 80°. 
 The width of the mutules themselves is regulated by that 
 
 of the triglyphs over which they are placed, to which it Grecian 
 is exactly equal. They are ornamented each with three Doric, 
 rows of six small cylinders, similar to those which depend ’'■“’’'Y'** 
 from the regulae under the triglyphs and on the archi- 
 trave. There are twice the number of mutules that there 
 are of triglyphs, one of the former being placed over every 
 metope also in the manner the examples indicate. 
 
 This completes the Greek Doric Order according to the 
 generally received sense of the term ; but there are other 
 parts necessary to it. In the front or on the ends of a PI. LVII I. 
 temple, or over a portico, a pediment is placed. Its in- Fig. 1. 
 tention is obviously to inclose the ends of the roof, but it 
 forms no less a part of the architectural composition. In 
 reason, it should be raised as much as the roof required; 
 but when the span is great that would be unsightly ; and 
 reference appears to have been made to the common 
 standard of proportion, as the pediments of most Doric 
 temples are found to be about one diameter and a half in 
 height at the apex of the tympanum, which in a hexastyle 
 arrangement makes an angle at the base of about 14°, 
 and in an octastyle about 12^°. The pediment is covered 
 by the cornice, without its mutules, rising from the point 
 of its crowning fillet, so that no part of it is repeated in 
 profile. Another moulding, however, is superimposed : 
 sometimes this is an ovalo with a fillet over it, and some- 
 times a cymatium. It varies much in its proportion to the 
 cornice, but in the best examples it is about one half the 
 depth of the latter without its mutules. Ornaments of 
 various kinds, statues or foliage, are believed to have been 
 placed on the apices and at the feet of pediments as 
 acroteria. Of these, however, we have no actual remains; 
 but indications of the plinths or blocks which may have 
 received them exist, and such things appear represented 
 in ancient coins and medallions. The tympana of pedi- 
 ments are well known as receptacles of ornamental sculp- 
 ture. On the flank of a Doric temple, the cornice sup- pp LVII 
 ported a row of ornamented tiles called antefixae. These Fig. 1. 
 formed a rich and appropriate ornament, but they rather 
 belonged to the roof than to the columnar arrangement or 
 order. The antefixae covered the ends of the joint-tiles 
 as the pediments did those of the roofs ; and correspond- 
 ing ornaments called stelai rose out of the apices of the 
 joint-tiles, forming a highly enriched ridge. 
 
 A secondary Doric order arises in the disposition of a Fig. 9. 
 Grecian temple, from the columns of the pronaos and 
 the inner part of the external entablature continued and 
 repeated. Of this the frieze is generally without triglyphs, 
 though there may be regulae and guttae on the architrave. 
 
 The fascia of the frieze is either moulded or enriched on 
 the face ; and, instead of a cornice, the beams of the ceiling 
 are laid at equal intervals to support sunk panels or cof- 
 fers, in which there may be flowers or other enrichments. 
 
 The proper composition and arrangement of antae are as 
 necessary to the perfection of the Doric order as that of 
 the columnar ordinance itself, especially if the latter be 
 in antis. A slight projection is made from the end and Fig. 2, 3, 
 side face of a wall, forming a species of pilaster, whose & 10; and 
 front shall be nearly equal to the diameter of the columns LVIII. 
 to which it is attached, exactly equal indeed to the soffit 3 ’ 
 of the entablature, whose faces have been described to 
 impend the circumferential line of the column a little 
 above its base. This rests on the stylobate in the same 
 manner as the columns do, with sometimes a small conti- 
 nuous moulding as a base; and its capital is a congeries 
 of mouldings, about the depth of the abacus, with a plain 
 fascia corresponding to the ovalo of the columnar capital. 
 
 The entablature of the order to which it is attached rests 
 on it, and, continuing along the flank of the building, is re- 
 ceived by a similar combination at the other end. These, 
 it may be remarked, were never diminished or fluted. 
 
36 
 
 A R C II I TEC T U 11 E. 
 
 Grecian Being projections from the ends of walls, they could not 
 Ionic. ij e diminished without involving an absurdity ; and fluting 
 on a straight surface must be productive of monotony, as 
 the flutes can only project a series of equal and parallel 
 shadow's. Not so, however, with columns, on whose ro- 
 tund surface fluting produces a beautiful variety of light 
 and shade in all their gradations, which it could not pos- 
 sess without that enrichment; for on a plain column nei- 
 ther are the lights so bright nor the shadows so dark as 
 in the former case, nor are they so finely diffused over the 
 whole surface in the one as in the other. 
 
 In the only example which occurs in the ancient archi- 
 tectural remains of attached Doric columns, that of the 
 pseudo-peripteral temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen- 
 tum, the stylobate is peculiarly arranged. The upper gradus 
 is grooved, and detailed round the columns and along the 
 walls between them ; and a congeries of vertically arranged 
 mouldings and fillets rests on it, and receives the base of 
 the column. 
 
 Such are the materials of which the Greeks composed 
 their beautiful temples, the manner of whose composition 
 has been already described. Of their effect, however, it is 
 impossible to form a competent idea without seeing one. 
 And whence, it may be asked, does their interest arise ? 
 
 PI. LIV. From their simplicity and harmony; — simplicity, in the 
 long unbroken lines which bound their forms, and the 
 breadth and boldness of every part ; such as the lines of 
 the entablature and stylobate, the breadth of the corona, 
 of the architrave, of the abaci, of the capitals, and of their 
 ovalos also ; in the defined form of the columns, and the 
 breadth of the members of the stylobate ; — harmony, in 
 the evident fitness of every part to all the rest. The en- 
 tablature, though massive, is fully upborne by the columns, 
 whose spreading abaci receive it, and transmit the weight 
 downwards by the shafts, which rest on a horizontal and 
 spreading basement ; the magnitude of every part, as we 
 have before had occasion to remark, being determined by 
 the capacity of the sustaining power. Besides graceful 
 and elegant outline, and simple and harmonious forms, 
 these structures possess a bewitching variety of light and 
 shade, arising from the judicious contour and arrange- 
 ment of mouldings, every one of which is rendered effec- 
 tive, — by the fluting of the columns and the peculiar form 
 of the columnar capital, whose broad, square abacus pro- 
 jects a deep shadow on the bold ovalo, which mingles it 
 with reflections, and produces on itself almost every va- 
 riety. The play of light and shade, again, about the in- 
 sulated columns, is strongly relieved and corrected by 
 the deep shadows on the walls behind them; and in the 
 fronts, where the inner columns appear, the effect is en- 
 chanting. For all the highest effects which architecture 
 is capable of producing, a Greek peripteral temple of the 
 Doric order is perhaps unrivalled. 
 
 Of the Grecian Ionic. 
 
 Not less Hellenic in its detail than the national Doric 
 is the graceful and elegant style called the Ionian, whose 
 proportions and peculiarities we take from the perfect ex- 
 amples of the Athenian Acropolis. 
 
 PI. LIX. This order may also be considered in three similar parts, 
 Stylobate, Column, and Entablature. The stylobate is in 
 three receding equal courses or steps, whose total height 
 is from four fifths of to a whole diameter. The column, 
 consisting of base, shaft, and capital, is rather more than 
 nine diameters in height, of which the base is two fifths of 
 a diameter; and the capital, including the hypotrachelium, 
 is in one case three fourths, and in the other seven eighths 
 of a diameter high. The base consists of a congeries of 
 mouldings, extending gradually from one diameter and a 
 third to a diameter and a half, and its height is in three 
 
 nearly equal parts, with two equal fillets separating them. Grecian 
 The lowest, a torus, rests on the top of the stylobate or ^ Ionic, 
 floor of the portico, a fillet divides that from a scotia, a — 
 second fillet intervenes that and a second torus, and a 
 third fillet bases the apophyge or escape of the shaft. 
 
 The upper torus of the base is, in one example, fillet-fluted 
 horizontally; and, in the other, the same member is en- 
 riched with the guilochos. The shaft diminishes with en- 
 tasis from its lower or whole diameter, to above five sixths 
 of it immediately under the hypotrachelium. It is fluted 
 with twenty-four flutes and alternating fillets, which fol- 
 low the diminution and entasis of the column. The flutes 
 in plan are nearly semiellipses, and they finish at both 
 ends with the same curve : a fillet is in thickness nearly 
 one fourth the width of a flute. The difference in the 
 height of the capital is in the length of the necking, 
 which in one case is separated from the head of the shaft 
 by a carved bead, and in the other by a plain fillet. 
 
 Above the necking, a height of about one third of a dia- 
 meter is occupied by a congeries of three spreading or 
 corbelling mouldings, a bead, an ovalo, and a torus, which 
 are all appropriately carved. On these rest the parallelo- 
 gramic block, on whose faces are the volutes, and whose 
 ends are concaved into what is technically termed a bol- 
 ster, to connect them. This part is about one third of a 
 diameter in height, and includes a rectilinear abacus, 
 whose edges are moulded to an ovalo, and carved with 
 the egg and tongue ornament. The volutes are three 
 fifths of a diameter in depth, and extend in front to 
 one diameter and a half ; and they are nearly a semidia- 
 meter apart. The flowing lines which connect the volutes 
 can only be understood by reference to the example. The Fig. 5. 
 bolsters are fluted vertically, with alternate fillets, on Fig. 12. 
 which are carved beads. An ornament composed of the 
 honeysuckle with tendrils encircles the necking of the 
 column. It must be remarked, that as the capitals are 
 parallelogramic, and present but two similar fronts, to pre- 
 serve the appearance of volutes externally on all sides, 
 the capitals of those columns which occupy the external 
 angles of porticoes are differently arranged. The outer Fig. 13. 
 volute is bent out at an angle of 45°, and volutes are put 
 on the end or side-front of the capital also, the outer one 
 being the other side of the angular, volute of the front. 
 
 To suit the angle internally, the two volutes of the inner 
 face are placed at right angles to each other : this is, 
 however, at best but an awkward expedient, and need 
 not be employed when a portico projects only one inter- 
 columniation. 
 
 The entablature, which is rather more than two diame- Fig. 5 
 ters in height, is also divided into three parts — architrave, 
 frieze, and cornice — which may be proportioned by divid- 
 ing the whole height into five parts, four of which, as in 
 the Doric, may be again equally divided between the ar- 
 chitrave and frieze. The cornice, however, in the exam- 
 ples referred to, does not occupy one fifth of the entabla- 
 ture; but if it had a fillet over the upper moulding, which 
 it appears to want, that would be just its proportion. If 
 the architrave be divided into nine parts, seven of them 
 may be given to three equal fascias, which slightly pro- 
 ject the one before the other ; the first or lowest, which 
 is vertical to the circumferential line of the inferior dia- 
 meter, being covered by the second, and the second by 
 the third. The remaining two ninths form a band of 
 mouldings corbelling a broad fillet, which separates the 
 architrave from the frieze : these mouldings are enriched. 
 
 The frieze, which does not project quite so much as the 
 lowest fascia of the architrave, is, in the Athenian exam- 
 ples, quite plain ; but it may be enriched with foliage, or 
 made the receptacle of sculpture in low relief. The cor- 
 nice projects from the face of the frieze rather more than 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 37 
 
 Grecian as much as its whole height, and is composed of bed 
 Ionic, mouldings, a corona, and crown mouldings. The first are 
 a carvec j b eat i and carved cyma-reversa, the former of 
 which only occupies a portion of the height of the cor- 
 nice, as the planceer is cut up inwards in the manner re- 
 presented by dotted lines in the example, to a sufficient 
 depth for it ; the crown mouldings, which consist of a 
 carved ovalo above a carved bead, are rather more than 
 one fourth of the whole cornice; and the corona occupies 
 the rest of its height, except that small portion given to 
 the bead of the bed mould. A fillet above the crown 
 mouldings, as already intimated, is certainly necessary to 
 complete the order and receive the antefixae, as described 
 in the Doric, for the flank of a temple. 
 
 Fig. 1 & 2. The pediments in the Ionic examples are rather flatter 
 than in the Doric, the angle made by the covering cor- 
 nice with the base being, in a hexastyle, less than 14°. 
 A vertical fillet, with a small moulding, equal in depth to 
 the two crown mouldings of the cornice, covers them in 
 the pediment, in the place of the cyma-recta or ovalo 
 used in the Doric order. The intercolumniation used in 
 these examples is, in the one two diameters, and in the 
 other three diameters and one sixth. 
 
 A much greater variety is found in the composition of 
 the Ionic than of the Doric order. Indeed the examples 
 of the Athenian Acropolis alone have neckings ; in all 
 the others the shaft runs up to the corbelled mouldings, 
 which bed the block of the volutes, and the flutes finish 
 under them. Neither have they a torus in that congeries, 
 but a bead and ovalo alone, which latter makes an incon- 
 venient projection under the pendent lines that connect 
 the volutes, and thus the capital is not more than half a 
 diameter in height. 
 
 The Ionian or Asiatic examples of this order are far 
 inferior to those we have referred to. Their bases are dif- 
 ferently, and certainly less elegantly composed. They 
 are without hypotrachelia, as may have been inferred ; 
 they want the torus in the capital ; and, in most cases, in- 
 stead of flowing, pendent lines, they have straight lines 
 connecting the volutes. Their entablatures are not so 
 finely proportioned, nor so delicately executed. The coro- 
 nas want breadth, and the bed moulds of the cornice are 
 as much too heavy as those of Athens are perhaps too 
 light. Indeed, upon the whole, they have more of the 
 grossness of Roman architecture than of the delicacy and 
 elegance of Grecian, though the Ionian examples are 
 supposed to be the models of those of Athens. 
 
 Fig. 10. The width of the ante of the Ionic order is determin- 
 ed, as in the Doric, by the soffit of the entablature; and 
 it will, of course, be exactly the same as, or rather less 
 than, the inferior diameter of the column. It is slightly 
 raised, too, from the face of the wall at the ends of which 
 it stands. The base of the ante is, in one of the two ex- 
 < amples of the Acropolis, a little deeper than that of the 
 column, having a small projecting moulding between the 
 lower torus and the floor ; and the lower torus itself is 
 reeded. In the other example there is no difference in the 
 form and proportion of the ante and columnar bases, but 
 both the tori are fluted horizontally, with beaded fillets 
 between the flutes. The ante cap consists of a congeries 
 of corbelling mouldings, nearly one third of a diameter in 
 height. It is divided into three nearly equal parts, the 
 lowest of which is composed of a bead and an ovalo ; the 
 second of another bead and a cyma-reversa, all carved ; 
 and the third of a plain flat cavetto, with a narrow fillet 
 and small crowning cyma-reversa, forming an abacus. The 
 necking is like that of the capital, and is enriched in the 
 
 Fig- 3. same manner. The cap or cornice thus formed breaks 
 round the projection of the ante, and is continued along 
 the wall under the entablature the whole length of the 
 
 building, or till it is impeded by some other construction, 
 and the base is continued in like manner. 
 
 Attached columns have the voluted capital, but their 
 base is that of the ante; and it is detailed round them and 
 along the wall to which they belong, as with the ante. It 
 must be remembered, however, that the attached columns 
 in the triple temple are about one ninth less in diameter 
 than those which are insulated, though they are similar in 
 other respects, and have the same entablature. 
 
 The back of the triple temple, between the attached 
 columns, presents the only example in Greek architec- 
 ture of windows. These are rather more than twice their 
 width in height, and are narrower at the top than at the 
 bottom. They rest on a broad, bold sill, which is equal in 
 depth to two sixths of the opening, and are surround- 
 ed externally by a congeries of mouldings, which, with a 
 plain fascia, constitute an architrave. This architrave is 
 one fourth the opening in width; it diminishes with the 
 window, and in the same proportion, and is returned above 
 in two knees, which are made vertical to its extreme point 
 at the base. 
 
 Grecian 
 
 Corinthian, 
 
 Fig. 2, 
 
 Of the Grecian Corinthian. 
 
 The importance which the Greeks attached to a gradu-Pl- I.X. 
 ated stylobate, and the necessity of giving it a relevant Fig- *- 
 proportion in a columnar ordinance, are evinced in the 
 only example of this order which remains to us of Gre- 
 cian origin. Unlike the Doric and Ionic in its applica- 
 tion, which is in temples of rectangular form, whose whole 
 height they occupy, this is attached to a small circular 
 structure, resting on a lofty square basement ; and yet, 
 like those orders, it has a stylobate in receding courses, 
 and in plan, too, corresponding with the arrangement ofFig. 2. 
 the columns, and not with that of the substructure ; thus 
 offering further proof that the stylobate was considered a 
 part of the columnar ordinance. Thus the Corinthian Fig. 1 & 3. 
 order also consists of stylobate, column, and entablature. 
 
 The stylobate is rather more than a diameter in height, 
 and is divided into three parts, but not equally, in con- 
 sequence, it is probable, of the peculiar position of the 
 ordinance. The two lower grades have vertical faces, are of 
 equal depth, and they occupy three fourths of the whole 
 height ; the third step occupies the remaining one fourth, 
 and is moulded on the edge, in exquisite harmony with the 
 more ornate style, of which it forms a part. Like the 
 column of the Ionic order, that of the Corinthian consists 
 of base, shaft, and capital: it is ten diameters in height. 
 
 The base is rather more than one third of a diameter high, 
 and is composed of a torus and fillet, which are nearly 
 two fifths of its whole height ; a scotia and another si- 
 milar fillet, rather less than the former ; and a second 
 torus or reversed ovalo, one fifth the height of the base, 
 on which rests a third fillet basing the apophyge of the 
 shaft. The extent or diameter of the base, at the lower 
 torus, is rather more than one diameter and a half. The 
 shaft diminishes with entasis to five sixths of its diameter 
 at the hypotrachelium, and, like that of the Ionic order, has 
 twenty-four flutes and fillets. The flutes are semiellipses, so 
 deep as nearly to approach semicircles : they finish in the 
 apophyge at the foot of the shaft, in the same manner and 
 form ; and at the head they terminate in leaves, to which 
 the fillets are stalks. The fillets are rather more than one 
 fourth the width of the flutes. The hypotrachelium is a 
 simple channel or groove immediately under the capital. 
 
 The capital itself is a diameter and rather more than one 
 third in height : its core is a perfect cylinder, in bulk rather 
 less than the superior diameter of the shaft. This is band- 
 ed by a row of water leaves, whose profile is a flat cavetto, 
 one sixth of the whole height, and another of leaves of the 
 acanthus, with flowered buttonsattachingthem to the cylin- 
 
38 ARCHITEC T UUE. 
 
 Grecian der. These latter have the contour of a cyma-recta, and 
 
 Corinthian. are twice the height of the last, or one third of the whole 
 capital. Rather more than another third is occupied by 
 helices and tendrils, which latter support a honeysuckle 
 against the middle of the abacus; and the abacus itself, 
 resting on and covering the whole mass, is but little more 
 than one seventh of the whole height. This member in 
 plan can only be described as a square whose angles are 
 cut off at 45°, and whose sides are deeply concaved. In 
 profile it consists of a narrow fillet, an elliptical cavetto or 
 reversed scotia, and another fillet surmounted by a small 
 ovalo, or rather a moulding whose profile is the quadrant 
 of an ellipsis. 
 
 The entablature of this order is two diameters and two 
 sevenths in height. It also consists of architrave, frieze, 
 and cornice, of which the first occupies one tenth more 
 than a third, the second rather more than as much less 
 than that proportion, and the cornice is so much more 
 again above one third. The architrave is divided, like 
 that of the Ionic order, into three equal fascias, which 
 occupy all but one sixth of its whole height, and that is 
 given to a corbelled band, consisting of a bead, cyma-re- 
 versa, and fillet, separating the two members of the en- 
 tablature. The fascias of the architrave, it must be re- 
 marked, are not perpendicular, but incline inwards, so 
 that their lower angles are all in the same vertical line, 
 which impends the surface of the shaft about one third of 
 its height from the base. The frieze is one plain band, 
 slightly inclining inwards, like the fascias of the archi- 
 trave, and slightly projected beyond them : in this ex- 
 ample it is enriched with sculptures. The cornice con- 
 sists of a deep congeries of bed mouldings, and a corona, 
 with the accustomed small crown mouldings and fillet. Its 
 extreme projection is nearly equal to its whole height : of 
 this the bed-mouldings project about two fifths. As in 
 the Ionic cornice, additional height is given to the bed- 
 moulds, by undercutting the planceer. In this case, indeed, 
 it is done to nearly one fourth the height of the corona. 
 One sixth the height of the cornice is given to a flat bead 
 and an ovalo, which are immediately above the frieze, 
 and which base a broad dentilled member that occupies 
 more than one fourth of the whole cornice. This is sur- 
 mounted by a listel or broad fillet, above which is a cyma- 
 recta, whose narrow fillet nearly reaches the horizontal 
 plane of the planceer, and separates it from a cyma-reversa 
 that beds the superimposed projecting corona. This lat- 
 ter is only three eighths of the whole cornice, and nearly 
 one of the three is given to the ovalo and fillet, the bed- 
 moulds alone occupying five eighths. The cornice is sur- 
 mounted by a cut fascia supporting honeysuckle antefixse, 
 which may indeed be taken as a part of the order, as the 
 solitary example in question presents it. This, however, 
 we know, from the Doric and Ionic structures, to be 
 a modification of the flank ornament of temples ; and we 
 may suppose from analogy, that if used in a portico the 
 cornice of this order would have a cyma-recta to ciown 
 it on the inclined side of the pediment. The intercolum- 
 niation of this example is two diameters and one third. 
 
 Of Corinthian antae we have no examples, nor indeed 
 have we of insulated columns ; but as we find in the Ionic 
 examples quoted, that the attached columns are less in 
 proportion to the entablature than those which are insu- 
 lated, we may conclude that it would be the same with this ; 
 thus reducing the entablature to two diameters, the ordi- 
 nary average of that part in Greek columnar architecture. 
 
 Of the Caryatides , or Caryatic Order. 
 
 Fig. 4, C & The solecism in architecture of which we have now to 
 speak has but the one existing example in the works of 
 the Greeks, to which we have already referred. It is the 
 
 third portion of the triple temple in the Athenian Aero- Carvatic 
 polis, and is a projection from the flank of the principal Order. 
 Ionic structure, formed by a stereobatic dado raised on 
 the stylobate and antae-base mouldings of it, with a sur- 
 base consisting of a carved bead and carved ovalo corbel- 
 ling a broad lintel, with a narrow projecting fillet above it. 
 
 On this rests a square plinth, which bases a draped female 
 figure, on the head of which there is imposed a circular 
 moulded block, with a deep rectangular abacus, two thirds 
 of whose face is vertical, and the other third is a cavetto, 
 fillet, and small cyma-reversa. The stereobate, including 
 the moulded base of the temple, is about three fourths 
 the height of the statue-pillar with its base and capital. 
 
 The entablature is rather less than two fifths of the same, 
 but it consists of architrave and cornice alone, between 
 which parts the height is nearly equally divided. Rather 
 more than one fifth of the former is given to a carved 
 bead and carved cyma-reversa, with the flat, plain cavetto 
 and fillet which they corbel ; the other four fifths are di- 
 vided nearly equally into three fascias, of which the third 
 or upper one has a fraction more than the other two, and 
 is studded with plain circular tablets, whose diameter is 
 five sixths of its depth. The cornice consists of bed- 
 mouldings, corona, and crown mouldings. Two fifths of its 
 whole height is given to the bed-mould, to which one 
 seventh of that may be added for the portion cut up in 
 the planceer. Half that increased height is occupied by a 
 dentilled member, and the other half by a broad plain 
 fillet, a carved bead, carved cyma-reversa, and a narrow 
 fillet above it. The remaining three fifths of the whole 
 cornice being again divided into five parts, rather less than 
 two of them is given to the corona ; a little more than one 
 to a plain cyma-reversa and fillet, of which the latter is 
 the wider; and of the rest a carved ovalo occupies five 
 sevenths, and a listel or crowning fillet, with a carved bead 
 on it, the other two. A pier, pilaster, or antse, projects 
 from the wall of the greater temple, and receives the end 
 of the entablature behind the inner figure ; for the projec- 
 tion is of two statues and their interspaces. It does not, 
 however, rest on the stereobate, but runs down to the base- 
 mouldings of the temple, the dado and surbase abutting 
 against it. The antse is capped by a congeries of carved 
 mouldings, which support a narrow cavetto and fillet ; the 
 height of the cap is half the diameter of the antse. There 
 is also a hypotrachelium, consisting of a carved bead and 
 the honeysuckle ornament, occupying about one third of 
 a diameter in height. This Caryatidean portico displays 
 very clearly the arrangement of the ceiling, with its coffers 
 or cassoons. Internally the architrave is plain two thirds 
 of its height ; of the remaining third rather more than one 
 half is a plain, slightly projected fascia; and the other is 
 occupied by a carved bead and ovalo. In the absence of 
 a frieze, the ceiling rests on this, and is divided by carv- 
 ed beads into panels, which are deeply coffered, and dimi- 
 nished by three horizontal moulded fascias. 
 
 Of Grecian Mouldings and Ornament. 
 
 Greek architecture is distinguished for nothing more PI- LX] 
 than for the grace and beauty of its mouldings ; and it 
 may be remarked of them generally, that they are eccen- 
 tric, and not regular curves. They must be drawn, for 
 they cannot be described or struck ; so that though they 
 be called circular, or elliptical, it is seldom that they are 
 really so : not but that they may be, but, if they are, it is 
 evidently the result of chance, and not of design. Hence 
 all attempts to give rules for striking mouldings are worse 
 than useless, for they are injurious : the hand alone, direct- 
 ed by good taste, can adapt them to their purpose, and 
 give them the spirit and feeling which renders them effec- 
 tive and pleasing. 
 
ARCHITECTU 11 E. 39 
 
 Grecian The leading outline of Greek moulding is the grace- 
 Mouldings. fully flowing cyma. This will indeed be found to enter 
 into the composition of almost every thing that diverges 
 from a right line ; and even combinations of mouldings are 
 frequently made with this tendency. It is concave above 
 and convex below, or the reverse ; and though a long and 
 but slightly fleeted line connect the two ends, they will 
 always be found to correspond ; that is, the convexity 
 and the concavity will be in exactly the same curve, so 
 that if the moulded surface were reversed, and the one 
 made to assume the place, it would also have the ap- 
 pearance, of the other, and the effect would be the same. 
 It is, in fact, the Hogarthian line of beauty ; and it is not 
 a little singular that Hogarth, in his well-known Analysis 
 of Beauty , although he did not know, and indeed could 
 not have known, the contours of Greek architectural 
 mouldings, has given the principle of them, and, under 
 his line of beauty, has described many of the finest Greek 
 forms. The Roman and Italian mouldings were called 
 Greek in his day, and he assumed them to be so ; but they 
 evidently do not agree with his theory, whereas, in prin- 
 ciple, the now well-known Greek forms do most com- 
 pletely. 
 
 The cyma-recta is generally found to be more upright 
 and less deeply fleeted than the cyma-reversa ; it is al- 
 most always the profile of enrichments on flat surfaces, of 
 foliage, of the covering moulding of pediments, of the un- 
 dercut or hooked mouldings in antae-caps, the overhang- 
 ing not affecting the general principle ; and it pervades, 
 as we have said, fleeted architectural lines generally, 
 whether horizontal or vertical. The cyma-reversa has all 
 the variety of inflection that its opposite possesses, but 
 the line connecting its two ends is, for the most- part, 
 more horizontal, and its curves are deeper. It pervades 
 many architectural combinations, but is most singularly 
 evinced in the composition of the Greek Doric capital, 
 PI. LVII. which is a perfect cyma-reversa, with the ends slightly 
 & LVIII. b u t sharply fleeted, as it flows out of the shaft below, and 
 Fig. 6 & 7- turns 
 
 in under the abacus above. The obviousness of the 
 former is prevented by the annulets which divide the 
 cyma into an ovalo and a cavetto, but the principle is 
 PI. I.IX. clear. 1 * The cyma is the governing outline in the con- 
 Fig. 5. geries of mouldings in bases also, as may be noticed in 
 ^ ie Ionic and Corinthian examples quoted and referred to. 
 
 ' ‘ An ovalo is but the upper half of a cyma-reversa, even 
 when it is used as a distinct moulding, and unconnected 
 PL LX I. with the waving form. Its name expresses its apparent 
 rather than its real tendency ; for its contour is not that 
 of an egg in any section, though the ornament which is 
 carved on it, when used as a running moulding, is formed 
 like an egg ; and from that it was named. 
 
 The upper torus of a base forms, with the escape or 
 apophyge of the shaft, a perfect cyma, and the scotia and 
 , lower torus do the same ; so that the torus and scotia 
 are referable to the same principle when in composition, 
 and they are not found together except in the combina- 
 tion referred to. 
 
 The bead is an independent moulding, varying in con- 
 tour ; but it is generally the larger segment of a circle. 
 It is used, however, sometimes to mask the waving form, 
 and sometimes to separate it. 
 
 The cavetto, or simple hollow, is part of a cyma also, as 
 we have shown ; but it is also applied independently, to 
 obviate a sharp angle, or to take from the formality of a 
 vertical line, as in the abaci of Ionic antae-caps. Its form, 
 
 nevertheless, is not the segment of a circle, for the upper Grecian 
 part of a cavetto is the most fleeted, and it falls below Mouldings, 
 almost into a straight line. 
 
 There is a hooked moulding common in Greek archi-Pl. LVII. 
 tecture, particularly in the Doric antae-caps, which is Fig- 5& 11. 
 technically called the hawk’s-beak. It is a combination ofpj L ym 
 curves which cannot be described in words; but it has pj’ 5&10.' 
 been already referred to in speaking of the cyma-recta, 
 which is brought into its composition. 
 
 The cyma-recta is never found carved, or sunk within PL LXI. 
 itself; but it sometimes has the honeysuckle, or other 
 ornament of the kind, wrought on it in relief, particularly 
 when used as the covering moulding — the cymatium — of 
 a pediment. The enrichment of the cyma-reversa consists 
 of a contrasted repetition of its own contour meeting in a 
 broad point below, and joining by a circular line above, 
 and making a sort of tongued or leafed ornament, whose 
 surface is inflected horizontally also. Between the leaves 
 a dart-formed tongue is wrought, extending from the cir- 
 cular flexure above to the bottom of the moulding, whose 
 contour it takes in front alone. As this would not mitre 
 or join well on the angles of the cyma, a honeysuckle is 
 gracefully introduced in the manner, shown in the ex- 
 ample. This enrichment is not wrought in relief on the 
 moulding, but is carved into it, so that the surfaces of 
 the parts of the ornament alone retain the full outline of 
 the cyma. The ovalo is enriched with what is called the 
 egg and dart ornament. This will be best understood by 
 reference to the example. Its angles also are made with 
 a honeysuckle, and the inflections are made in the mould- 
 ing itself. The torus is sometimes enriched with the in- 
 terlaced ornament called the guilochos: this too is cut 
 into the moulding itself. We have no Greek example of 
 an enriched scotia, and from its form and position, which, 
 to be effective, must be below the eye, it hardly seems 
 susceptible of ornament which could operate beneficially. 
 
 The bead is carved in spheres or slightly prolate sphe- 
 roids, with two thin rings or buttons, dilated at their 
 axes, placed vertically between them. A cavetto is not 
 enriched at all, nor is the hawk’s beak, except by paint- 
 ing, which does not appear to have been an uncommon 
 mode of enriching mouldings among the Greeks; that 
 is, the ornament was painted on the moulded surface in- 
 stead of being carved into it. Fascias are also found en- 
 riched hy painted running ornaments, such as the fret or 
 meander, the honeysuckle, and the lotus. Sometimes plain 
 colour was given to a member, to heighten the effect it 
 was intended to produce. Ornaments were painted and 
 gilt on the cohered panels of ceilings too. 
 
 The few examples which exist of sculptured ornament 
 on straight surfaces exhibit varieties of nearly the same 
 combinations as those last mentioned, — the honej'suckle 
 with the lotus, and sometimes a variety of itself on scrolls, 
 either throwing out tendrils, or plain. This is found on 
 the necking of the Ionic columns of the Athenian Acro- 
 polis, and on those of their antae, and continuing along 
 under the congeries of mouldings, as previously described. 
 
 The varieties of foliage used in the enrichments of Greek 
 architecture are few, and will be found generally exem- 
 plified in the Corinthian capital of the choragic monu-PL LX. 
 ment of Lysicrates, and in the rich acroteral pedestal or* 1 ^ 3 ’ 
 stem of the same edifice, than which we possess no more Fig- 1* 
 elaborate specimen of foliate enrichment of the Greek 
 school. There exist many specimens of architectural or- 
 nament on vases and fragments, in marble and terracotta, 
 
 1 The presence of the cyma in the Doric capital was, we believe, first pointed out by Mr T. L. Donaldson, in the supplementary 
 
 volume to the new edition of Stuart’s Athens , though the true contour of the cyma itself appears to have escaped that gentleman's 
 
 attention. 
 
40 A R C H I T 
 
 Roman in which human figures, both male and female, are com- 
 Scructures. posed, with a greater variety of foliage than is generally 
 found in Greek architectural works ; and many of the 
 beautiful marble and bronze utensils discovered in Her- 
 culaneum and Pompeii have enrichments obviously of 
 Greek origin, from which, as well as from the specimens 
 of ornament on positive architectural monuments, we may 
 judge of their productions generally, as well as acquire 
 or imbibe somewhat of the fine taste which originated 
 them. 
 
 It would be puerile to speculate on the domestic edi- 
 fices of the Greeks any further than we have done, as we 
 possess no genuine data on which to proceed. Their sa- 
 cred structures have taught us their style of architecture; 
 but for its application to general purposes we have no re- 
 source but to consult the Roman remains of the exhu- 
 mated Campanian cities and other places, and gather from 
 analogy what Greek domestic architecture was. 
 
 Of Roman Structures. 
 
 Temples With a treatise on Roman architecture by a Roman 
 and other architect, in our hands, mere transcription would appear 
 
 r’? i c to be all that is necessary in writing on the subject. But 
 builaincrs. j . o 
 
 a ' finding that author and existing specimens at variance, 
 
 we cannot help determining in favour of the superior au- 
 thority of the latter, to which, therefore, we shall refer 
 to elucidate Roman edifices and the Roman style, as we 
 did to the Greek remains to elucidate the Grecian. 
 
 Though far inferior in simplicity and harmony to the 
 columnar architecture of the Greeks, that of the Romans, 
 whether derived from it or not, is evidently of the same 
 family, and is distinguished by boldness of execution 
 and elaborate profusion of ornament. The tastes of the 
 two nations are exemplified in the Doric of the former 
 PL LVII. and the Corinthian of the latter ; the one a model of 
 & I VIII. simple grandeur, perfect in its peculiar adaptation, but al- 
 most inapplicable to any other purpose ; and the other, 
 PI. LXXI. less refined, but more ornate, making up in extrinsic what 
 it wants in intrinsic beauty — imperfect in every combina- 
 tion, but almost equally applicable to every purpose. As 
 in Greece, so also in Rome, the noblest specimens of co- 
 lumnar architecture are in the temples of the divinity ; 
 but it does not appear that the Romans were in the habit 
 of constructing them peripterally, as the Greeks so con- 
 stantly did. There are indeed ruins which induce the 
 belief that they at times built dipteral temples ; but their 
 common practice (as far as existing examples are authori- 
 ties) was to make them pseudo-peripteral, or apteral and 
 prostylar : of an amphiprostyle, even, we have not an ex- 
 ample. It certainly is the custom to restore the ruined 
 temples, whose remains are a few columns only, as if they 
 had been peripteral; but it isdone notonly without sufficient 
 authority, but against that which the more perfect struc- 
 tures present. The great projection, too, that the Romans 
 gave their porticoes, is evidence that they were depend- 
 ent entirely on themselves for effect ; for they are gene- 
 rally projected three columns and their interspaces be- 
 fore the cella, which, however, has no pronaos with co- 
 lumns in antis ; nor does it appear from existing remains 
 that the Romans were accustomed to use that arrange- 
 ment. Circular or peristylar temples are not uncommon 
 in Roman architecture ; and there are temples to which it 
 can hardly be supposed that columns were ever attached: 
 these are for the most part polygonal. Neither do the Ro- 
 mans appear ever to have constructed hypasthral temples 
 with columns internally, as the Greeks did. Indeed it is 
 a question whether all their temples were not cleithral ; 
 for it is not generally admitted that the Pantheon, which 
 is hypasthral by the open eye of the dome, was originally 
 a temple ; and where the structures remain tolerably per- 
 
 ECTUR E. 
 
 feet, the ceilings and roofs appear to have been formed Roman 
 by arching from flank to flank, and thereby quite inclos- Structu-es. 
 ing them. 
 
 The application of columns internally is most strikingly PI. LXIV. 
 effective in the Pantheon, where they are arranged in Pig- 4 & 5. 
 front of niches, or deep recesses, composed with antae to 
 carry a crowning entablature round under an attic on 
 which the cupola rests. No representation can convey 
 even the most incompetent idea of the effect of this ar- 
 rangement, to those who cannot gather it from the plan. 
 
 A section presents only one compartment correctly; all 
 the rest must of necessity be foreshortened. It is far 
 otherwise with the temple of peace and the hall of the 
 baths of Diocletian, in which columns stand before the 
 piers to have the entablature broken over them. This, in- 
 deed, was the result, as we have before intimated, of the 
 combination of columns with arches ; and it is most clearly 
 exemplified in those works which most probably originat- 
 ed the practice, and which are next in pretence to the 
 temples : — these are the triumphal arches. 
 
 The Romans had not adopted the simple graduated 
 stylobate of Greek columnar architecture in their temples, 
 but made the access to their porticoes in front with thin Fig. 6, 7, & 
 steps, and built vertical stereobates along the flanks for 8. 
 the walls of the cella, or as stylobates, if there were at- 
 tached columns. In applying a columnar arrangement to Fig. 10 & 
 the triumphal arch, this lofty stylobate was taken also. 1 L 
 The breadth of the opening prevented the columns from 
 being placed equidistant; they were, therefore, coupled, 
 the entablature was broken over them, and necessarily the 
 stylobate was cut through, leaving mere attached pedes- 
 tals to stilt the columns, so that the whole ordinance was 
 deprived of every thing that could render it as a composi- 
 tion beautiful : its simplicity and harmony were entirely 
 gone ; and instead of giving a graceful character to the 
 structure, it became a mere attached frontispiece, that 
 could only deform it. As if conscious that the Corinthian 
 was too beautiful to maltreat in such a manner, the Ro- 
 man architects produced the hybrid, which has since been 
 called the Composite order, to use in these compositions : PI. LXIII. 
 in them, indeed, it is chiefly found ; and if it were not Ex - 2 - 
 evidently a mere deterioration of the Corinthian, it might 
 with truth and propriety be called the Roman order. 
 
 Coupled columns, broken and recessed entablatures 
 and pedestals, and the Composite order, are among the 
 greatest blemishes in Roman architecture ; for the mis- 
 formed and inappropriate abortions which have obtained 
 the name of Ionic and Doric, in Roman works, are hardly Ex. 3 & 4, 
 to be attributed to the school, but to individuals of it, as 
 they are of very infrequent occurrence, and generally ap- 
 pear only in works which are otherwise ungainly. Such 
 are the amphitheatres, whose elliptical forms can never 
 be graceful, and whose architecture was invariably the 
 worst the time produced. The immense structure in P1- LXIV. 
 Rome, which, from its magnitude, has been called the^'S- *■ 
 Colosseum, bears in relief the gross architectural solecism 
 of columns in stories, which, moreover, have recessed sty- 
 lobates and immense intercolumniations, with large arches 
 in them, which again reduce the effect of the column still 
 more, making the continuity of the entablatures themselves 
 a fault, by their consequent infirmity. The architectura! 
 details of this structure are coarse and inelegant, plain 
 without simplicity, and laboured without elegance. But 
 internally these blemishes disappear, columns and arches 
 piled upon columns and arches give way to the long con- 
 tinuous lines which graduated from the arena to the gal- 
 lery, and must have produced as grand an effect as al- 
 most any object in architecture : its magnitude and ruined 
 state produce the imposing effect so striking at the pre- 
 sent time ; but the mind can easily restore it, or it may 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Homan be contemplated in miniature in the amphitheatre at 
 Structures. Verona. 
 
 The most perfect specimens of the Roman theatre re- 
 maining are those of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Like 
 those of the Greeks, they, too, rest on the side of a hill ; 
 but instead of being hewn, they are built in it, as there 
 is no rock out of which they might have been excavated. 
 Their general form, however, is very similar to that of 
 the Greek theatre, but they received a greater degree of 
 architectural decoration than the latter was susceptible of. 
 Of this the theatre of Marcellus in Rome is an example ; 
 for though otherwise destroyed, its external wall remains, 
 and presents columnar ordinances, with intervening arches 
 in stories, according to the vicious and inelegant practice 
 of the Roman school. This, however, is on a plain, and 
 presents external walls, which other examples do not so 
 completely. 
 
 The baths of the Romans were structures of immense 
 extent, and of splendid appearance internally. What their 
 exteriors were we have no competent means of determin- 
 ing ; fragments, however, give us reason to believe, that 
 in architectural merit they did not surpass the exteriors 
 of the amphitheatres. The walls internally were covered 
 with stucco, and painted with foliage, figures of animals, 
 and compositions, architectural landscape or history : the 
 floors were of mosaic, laid in compartments, and variously 
 ornamented : the ceilings were vaulted and stuccoed like 
 the walls ; sometimes they were enriched with coffered 
 panels containing sculptured flowers or other architectural 
 ornament, and sometimes they were merely painted with 
 what are termed arabesques. Columnar ordinances do 
 not appear to have been much used, and when they were, 
 it was not always with good taste, as we have had occa- 
 sion already to remark; though the structure called the 
 Pantheon, which, with a great show of probability, is be- 
 lieved to have been a saloon in the baths, perhaps of 
 Agrippa, on the contrary presents a beautiful adaptation 
 Fig. 2 & 3 . of one. That the Pantheon was part of a more extended 
 edifice, is very clear from its external form and appear- 
 ance, which are unsightly in the extreme, presenting a 
 mis-shapen and unfinished mass. Now, domed chambers 
 are very common in the baths and palaces of the Romans. 
 They are not only more effective than rectangular apart- 
 ments, but were much more convenient in the absence of 
 glass; for a small opening left in the apex lights and ven- 
 tilates the domed saloon most completely, whilst the rain 
 that could pass through it was necessarily small in quantity, 
 and could be easily avoided by those walking on the floor. 
 In rectangular vaults this could not be effected, so that 
 rooms of that form depended on lateral openings for light 
 and air, and were thereby exposed and uncomfortable. 
 Again, there is a rectangular portico attached to the Pan- 
 theon, having no single feature in common with it, the 
 former being a noble Corinthian octaprostyle of three in- 
 tercolumniations projecting, with two others of antae and 
 pilasters behind ; and the other a polygonal, bulbous mass 
 of brickwork, much loftier than the portico, having cor- 
 nices and blocking courses, too, none of which range with 
 the entablature or any part of it. A conclusive argument, 
 moreover, against the commonly received opinion, that the 
 portico and the circular temple are an original composi- 
 tion, proving indeed that the former was an adaptation of 
 what most likely had previously existed elsewhere in a 
 different situation, and of course could not be intended 
 for its present adjunct, is, that it now fronts north, and 
 consequently the sun never shines full on it, so that it is 
 in fact always in shadow ; and that was never permitted 
 by the ancients in their original compositions ; for two 
 thirds of the beauty of a portico, consisting in the beauti- 
 ful play and contrast of light and shade it affords, are thus 
 
 ECTURE. 41 
 
 sacrificed. But in an after-appropriation, as we imagine in Roman 
 this case, it might have been, and clearly was done ; pro- Structures, 
 bably through ignorance, as well as bad taste, in those who 
 did it. If, then, the Pantheon, whose diameter is nearly 
 150 feet, was but an apartment — suppose the grand saloon 
 or xystum — in the baths, the whole structure must have 
 been immense ; and if its proportions and internal archi- 
 tecture be taken, as they certainly may be, as a specimen 
 of the style and manner of the interior of the edifice gene- 
 rally, we shall obtain a very high opinion of the magnifi- 
 cence of the Roman baths or thermae. That they were 
 adorned with admirable works of sculpture, too, is proved 
 by the fact, that some of the noblest specimens of that art 
 have been discovered in and among the ruins of the baths 
 in Rome. It may be further remarked of the Pantheon, 
 that its effect has been seriously injured since its original 
 construction, by the removal of the columns from the re- Fig. 4 & 5 . 
 cess opposite to the entrance, making the opening greater, 
 fixing the columns before the antae with the entablature 
 broken round them, and turning an arch over the whole ; 
 thus destroying, as far as that part could affect it, the 
 simplicity and perfect harmony of the primitive composi- 
 tion. The same bad taste which dictated that alteration 
 affixed little pedimented excrescences, now used as altars, 
 against the piers which alternate with the compartments 
 of columns. 
 
 The still extensive remains of the villa of Adrian, near Palaces 
 Tivoli, bespeak its original magnificence; and the archi- and villas, 
 tectural fragments with which the site even now abounds, 
 though it has furnished specimens to almost every coun- 
 try in Europe, after having suffered the spoliation and 
 destruction attending the incursions of barbarians and 
 the lapse of so many centuries, attest its pristine beauty, 
 and the fine taste of its imperial builder. This, however, 
 furnishes no evidence that its exterior was attractive. 
 
 Every thing about it appears directed to internal splendour 
 and effect alone ; and indeed all collateral evidence tends 
 to the same point, that the exterior of Roman palaces 
 and mansions was not heeded, being merely plain brick 
 walls. This is the case at Pompeii, as we shall see ; and 
 the ruins of mansions in various parts of Italy, from that 
 of Sallust on the Benacus or Lago di Garda, to those of 
 other Roman nobles on the shores of the Bay of Baiae, 
 present no indications whatever that their exteriors were 
 subjected to architectural decoration. The palace of 
 Diocletian at Spalatro, and the splendid remains of Bal- 
 bec and Palmyra, some of which perhaps belonged to se- 
 cular structures, offer evidence to the contrary of this, if 
 they are correctly restored in the works which treat of 
 them ; for they present in their elevations so many of the 
 worst features of the Italian school, that there would be 
 room for doubt, if views of the ruins did not help to bear 
 the restorers out. But this does not appear to have been 
 the case in the earlier ages of the empire, when archi- 
 tecture among the Romans was in its best state. Notwith- 
 standing the extent of the structure, and its general magni- 
 ficence, however, the mouldings and ornaments in the in- 
 terior of the villa of Adrian, though in themselves classical 
 and elegant, are small, and have a general air of littleness, 
 especially when compared with the apartments to which 
 they belong ; — not that the apartments are generally large, 
 but they are for the most part lofty. The ceilings appear 
 to have been formed by vaulting ; there are no indications 
 of windows, and none of stairs of any magnitude — so that 
 the rooms must have been nearly if not quite open at 
 one end, to admit light and air; and the probability is 
 that there were no apartments above the ground floor, 
 though it is likely enough that terraces formed on the 
 vaulted roofs were used for the purposes of recreation 
 and pleasure. The floors were of mosaic, several of 
 
42 
 
 ARCH1TECTU R E. 
 
 Roman which are preserved entire in the Museum of the Vati- 
 Structures. can ; and many fine specimens of ornamental sculpture 
 in vases and candelabra, besides busts, statues, and groups 
 in bronze, marble, porphyry, and granite, of various styles, 
 the remains of the noble collection Adrian made during 
 
 his progress through his extensive dominions, found among 
 the ruins of the villa, are conserved in the same place. 
 
 The ruins of the palace of the Caesars present no forms 
 or arrangements from which it would be possible to form 
 a rational notion of its original plan, still less of its gene- 
 ral elevation, or indeed of the elevation of any part of 
 it. Large vaulted apartments, with here and there a 
 little stucco, sometimes moulded and sometimes plain or 
 painted, and a few small unconnected chambers scattered 
 up and down in a mountain of brick and rubble, convey 
 too vague an idea, or rather they are incompetent to con- 
 vey an idea of a palace at all. 
 
 Roman If evidence were required to prove the futility of writ- 
 
 streets. ten descriptions of buildings when their general model is 
 unknown, it would be enough to compare the house of a 
 Roman gentleman in Pompeii with the various designs 
 which have been made of the same thing from the de- 
 scriptions and directions of Vitruvius, before the exhu- 
 mation of that city. Their authors could only work upon 
 the notion they had of laying out houses ; and therefore 
 the plans produced are those of ill-contrived modern re- 
 sidences, so arranged that they may present a uniform 
 and architectural external elevation, which the Roman 
 houses have not ; with windows properly lighting every 
 apartment, which are totally wanting in the latter ; with 
 staircases to upper stories that did not exist; with corri- 
 dors and doors uniformly disposed, which was unheeded 
 in laying out a Roman house. The Vitruvian restorers 
 put columns wherever they could, whereas the Roman 
 architects appear only to have put them where they could 
 not avoid it. In dimensions, too, the former erred no less 
 than in distribution ; they thought none too extensive for 
 a Roman domicile : but the apartments in Roman houses, 
 wherever they are, are generally small, and in ordinary 
 cases their whole site is exceedingly restricted. In pro- 
 portioning the various parts, they adhered to rules the 
 Romans never heeded ; and applied the details of the 
 architecture of temples and triumphal arches to domestic 
 edifices, in whose composition the plasterer, painter, and 
 mason, almost appear to have been the only architects ! 
 
 Far inferior as Pompeii was to Rome in magnitude and 
 splendour, there is no more reason for supposing that 
 houses in the latter were so very dilFerently arranged 
 from those in the former that the same general descrip- 
 tion of them should not apply to both, than there would 
 be for a future antiquary to hesitate in applying the plan 
 of a Brighton or Bath house, which may be preserved, to 
 a London mansion ; for we know that in ordinary cases 
 they nearly coincide. It is, too, a recorded fact, that 
 wealthy Roman citizens had mansions at Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum ; and we have already stated that discove- 
 ries made of ordinary houses under the present level of 
 Rome show them to be exactly like the more perfect ones 
 of the Campanian city, except in their state of preserva- 
 tion ; so that, “ parvis componere magna ,” in Pompeii we 
 may see the domestic as well as public architecture of 
 ancient Rome. 
 
 The streets of Pompeii are very narrow, their average 
 width being not more than twelve or fifteen feet; fre- 
 quently they are not more than eight feet wide, and very 
 few in any part exceed twenty. The principal excavated 
 street in the city, that leading from the Forum to the gate 
 towards Herculaneum and the street of the tombs, is, at 
 the widest, twenty-three feet six inches, including two 
 footways, each five feet wide. The streets are all paved 
 
 with lava, and almost all have side pavements or footways, Roman 
 which, however, are for the most part so narrow, that, Structures, 
 with few exceptions, two persons cannot pass on any 
 them. That the cars or carriages of the inhabitants could 
 not pass each other in most of the streets, is proved by 
 the wheel-ruts which have been worn on the stones, and 
 the recesses made here and there for the purpose of pass- 
 ing. Their narrowness and inconvenience are aptly exem- 
 plified in London by the narrow lanes which come be- 
 tween St Paul’s and Thames Street, about Doctors’ Com- 
 mons. The Forums, on the contrary, though not very 
 spacious, are of regular forms, and have wide and con- 
 venient footways, completely colonnaded. In immediate 
 connection with them are the theatres, the principal tem- 
 ples, the basilica, the courts of justice, and other public 
 edifices : the amphitheatre is by itself, in an extreme an- 
 gle of the city. The use of some of the buildings on one 
 flank of the great Forum is not obvious : they are not ar- 
 ranged like temples, and indeed possess no peculiar cha- 
 racter by which they may be distinguished : it is tolera- 
 bly clear, however, from circumstances, 'that they were for 
 the use of the public. The temples differ but little from 
 the ordinary Roman structures of that description, but are 
 generally inferior to them in the quality of the materials 
 of which they are constructed, in the style of their archi- 
 tecture, and in the manner of its execution. The basilica is 
 not unlike a modern church, it being a long rectangular 
 edifice, having an arcaded porch at one end, being divided 
 internally by rows of columns into nave and aisles, and 
 having a columned recess at the west end of the nave for 
 a tribunal. There are, however, no indications of win- 
 dows, so that it was probably hypsethral, though that ar- 
 rangement would have made the place very inconvenient 
 for its purpose. 
 
 The streets of Pompeii are lined on either side with PI. LXV. 
 small cells, which served for shops of various kinds; and Fig- L 
 they are strikingly like the ordinary shops in towns in the 
 south of Italy 7 and in Sicily at the present time. Like 
 them, too, there appear in very few cases to be accommo- 
 dations in connection with the shops for the occupiers 
 and their families, who must have lived elsewhere, as mo- 
 dern Italian shopkeepers very commonly do. These pre- 
 sent no architectural decoration whatever ; the fronts are Fig. 3. 
 merely plain stuccoed brick walls, with a large square 
 opening in each, part of which is the door, and part the 
 window, for lighting the place and showing the goods. 
 
 Whenever a private house or gentleman’s mansion oc- Houses 
 curs in a good place for business, like the ground floor of a . n d domes, 
 many modernltalian noblemen’s palaces, the street-front, or 
 fronts, was entirely occupied with shops, a comparatively 
 narrow entrance being preserved to the house in a conve- 
 nient part between some two of them. The door to this 
 is sometimes quite plain, but at times it is decorated 
 with pilasters. When the site permitted such an arrange- 
 ment, the entrance door being open, a passer by could 
 look completely through the house to the garden, or, in 
 the absence of a garden, to the extreme boundary wall, on 
 which was painted a landscape or other picture. An ar- 
 rangement, it may be observed, not unlike this, is com- 
 mon in some of the Italian cities at the present day ; but 
 the mansions being now built in stories, and the upper 
 stories alone being occupied by the families, a merely 
 pleasing effect is produced ; but in the former, persons 
 crossing from one apartment to another were exposed, 
 and domestic privacy thus completely invaded to produce 
 a pretty picture. Within the entrance passage, which 
 may be from ten to twelve feet in depth, there is a ves- 
 tibule or atrium, generally square, or nearly so, on which 
 various rooms open, that vary in size from ten feet square 
 to ten feet by twelve, or even tw r elve feet square : they 
 
A R C H I T 
 
 Roman have doors only, and were probably used as sleeping- 
 Structures. chambers by the male servants of the family. In the 
 centre of this court there is a sunk basin or reservoir for 
 receiving the rain, called the compluvium, rendering it 
 likely that this was roofed over, with a well-hole to admit 
 light and air, and allow the rain to drop from the roof 
 into the reservoir. Connected with this outer court was 
 the kitchen and its accessories. If the site allowed the 
 second court to be placed beyond the first in the same di- 
 rection from the entrance, the communication was by a 
 wide opening not unlike folding doors between rooms in 
 modern houses, generally with a space intervening, which 
 was variously occupied ; if the site did not allow of that 
 arrangement, a mere passage led from one to the other. 
 The second or inner vestibule, atrium, or court, is gene- 
 rally much larger than the first, is for the most part paral- 
 lelogramic, but variously proportioned. It forms a tetra- 
 stoon, being open in the middle and arranged with a pe- 
 ristyle of columns, colonnading a covered walk all round. 
 On this the best and most finished apartments open; but 
 they are of such various sizes, and are so variously ar- 
 ranged, that it is not easy to determine more than that 
 they included the refectory, the library, and sleeping- 
 rooms. Some of them, indeed, are such as must have 
 been useless except for the last purpose : these, perhaps, 
 were the apartments of the female branches of a family, 
 at least in most cases. Some houses, however, have a 
 nest of small cells in an inner corner or secluded recess, 
 which may have been the Gynasceum ; but that is far from 
 being common. Exhedrae or recesses, open in front to 
 the atrium, are common, and are often painted with 
 more care and elegance than any other part of the house ; 
 but generally the walls are everywhere painted — in the 
 more common places flat, with a slight degree of orna- 
 ment perhaps, and in the best rooms with arabesques and 
 pictures in compartments. The architectural decorations 
 are mostly painted : the ornaments are not unfrequently 
 elegant, but the architecture itself of the mansions is bad 
 in almost every sense. The rooms being windowless, 
 would, when covered, be necessarily dark ; the doors are 
 arranged without any regard to uniformity, either in size 
 Fig. 8. or situation. The street-fronts of those houses which, not 
 being in a good business situation, were not occupied with 
 shops, were not merely unadorned, but were actually de- 
 formed by loop-holes to light some passage or inner closet 
 which had no door on one of the courts. The columns of 
 the second courts are generally in the worst style possi- 
 ble: those which have foliated capitals, and may be con- 
 sidered compositions of the Corinthian order, are the best; 
 but the imitations of Doric and Ionic are both mean and 
 ugly. From the duty they had to perform, and the wide- 
 ness of their intercolumniations, together with the fact 
 that none of them remain, it is probable that the entabla- 
 tures were of wood, and were consequently burnt at the 
 , time of the destruction of the city, and broken up by the 
 inhabitants, almost all of whom certainly escaped, and 
 who, it is very evident, returned, when the fiery shower 
 and the conflagration had ceased, to remove whatever 
 they could find of their property undestroyed ; for it must 
 be remembered that the roofs and ceilings all over the 
 city are entirely gone, and the uncovered and broken 
 walls remain, from eight to ten feet only in height. Every 
 thing, indeed, clearly demonstrates that great exertions 
 were used to recover whatever was valuable ; and it is 
 very probable, moreover, that the place was constantly 
 resorted to by treasure-seekers for perhaps centuries af- 
 ter the calamity occurred. It may also be remarked that 
 the loftier edifices, which would have been unburied by 
 the ashes, had been thrown down by a terrible earthquake 
 about sixteen years before the volcanic shower fell, and 
 
 E C T U II E. 43 
 
 therefore were the more easily covered. Other showers Roman 
 must have fallen since that which destroyed the city, to Structures, 
 produce the complete filling up of every part and the ge- 
 neral level throughout ; as the one must have been pre- 
 vented by those roofs and ceilings which were fire-proof 
 in the first instance, and the other would be the result of 
 the same, if it were not deranged by the subsequent ex- 
 cavations. It is indeed the fact, that the superstrata of 
 ashes are evident and unbroken, while the substratum is 
 mingled with ruins. Hence we are still uninformed as to 
 the structure and disposition of the roofs and ceilings of 
 the houses of the ancients. The doors, too, of whatever 
 materials they were composed, are entirely gone : there 
 remain, however, here and there, indications of wooden 
 door-posts — in some cases, indeed, charred fragments of 
 them — but they are to outer or street-doors, leaving it 
 probable, as we have before suggested, that a matting of 
 some kind, suspended from the lintel, formed the usual 
 doors to rooms, — or perhaps they were closed by cur- 
 tains only. In these particulars, unfortunately, Hercu- 
 laneum affords but little assistance, as the mode of its 
 destruction was similar to that of Pompeii, and it, too, 
 was doubtlessly exposed in nearly the same manner ; its 
 subterranean situation, moreover, at present, renders it 
 difficult to examine ; but, upon the whole, Herculaneum 
 is more likely to furnish information on these particulars 
 than its sister in misfortune. Although it has been as- 
 certained that the Romans understood the manufacture 
 of glass, or at least that they possessed some utensils of 
 that material, it must not be supposed that they were ac- 
 customed to apply it to exclude the weather and trans- 
 mit light ; for in no case has a glass window of any kind 
 been discovered in any ancient structure ; and, without 
 contemplating the houses of Pompeii, it is impossible to 
 appreciate the advantages we derive in our habitations 
 from the application of that beautiful production of the 
 useful arts, and how much superior it alone renders them 
 to those of the ancients. The floors of the houses of 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum are all of mosaic work, coarser 
 and simpler in the less esteemed parts, and finer and 
 more ornate in the more finished apartments : the orna- 
 ments are borders, dots, frets, labyrinths, flowers, and 
 sometimes figures. In this, too, the superior advantages 
 the moderns enjoy are evident. The ancients did not un- 
 derstand how to construct wooden floors, at least the ap- 
 plication of timber to that use was not made by them ; for, 
 though it were admitted, which, however, it cannot be with 
 justice, that, in the warmer climate of the south of Italy, 
 lithic floors would be more grateful, that would not be 
 the case in this country ; and we find the remains of Ro- 
 man houses, baths, &c. in England, with floors of mosaic, 
 as in Naples and Sicily. All the indications which are 
 found in Pompeii of an upper story consist in a few rude 
 and narrow staircases, which, it is very probable, were to 
 afford access to the terraces or flat roofs, for they are not 
 common, and no portion of an upper story remains in any 
 part, though the lower or ground-floor rooms, it is most 
 likely, were arched over. In one part of the city the 
 houses on one side of a street are on a declivity : there a 
 commodious flight of stairs is found to lead from the 
 atrium in front, to another atrium and rooms below, not 
 under the houses, but behind them ; for neither do we find 
 an under-ground or cellar story in the Pompeian houses. 
 
 On the shores of the Bay of Baias, and of the Gulf of 
 Gaeta, at Cicero’s Formian Villa, however, there are 
 crypts or arched chambers under the level of the man- 
 sions ; for the sites require substructions ; but it may be 
 questioned whether even these were used as parts of the 
 house, and as we use cellars ; for they present no indica- 
 tions of stairs, and have no regular means of intercommu- 
 
44 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Roman nication. Neither had the houses of the Romans chim- 
 Structures. ne y S 0 f an y kind ; their only mode of warming their apart- 
 ments was by means of braziers, many specimens of which 
 have been taken out of both Herculaneum and Pompeii ; 
 and their cooking fires were on fixed gratings over a sort 
 of stove, but without Hues ; so that most probably char- 
 coal alone was burnt for domestic purposes. In this re- 
 spect the modern Italians are not far beyond their prede- 
 cessors ; and the mode used by them of applying fire in 
 warming and cooking appears very similar to that used 
 by the Romans. Indeed many of the peculiarities we 
 have noticed in the Pompeian houses are still found in 
 various parts of Italy and Sicily; the cortili, courts, or 
 cloisters of palaces, mansions, monasteries, and inns, are 
 representatives of the cavacdia, vestibula, atria or courts, 
 of Pompeian or Roman mansions. It is common, too, in 
 the former, for bed-rooms to open on open galleries, as on 
 the colonnaded courts of the latter. There are instances 
 also in the countries referred to, of rooms wdiich have 
 no aperture but the doorway. Shops, we have said, are 
 frequently mere cells, having an opening towards the 
 street, part of which is a door, and the other part, with a 
 low dado, a window. It was only in the forums and pub- 
 lic places, then, that architectural beauty and magnifi- 
 cence were displayed in a Roman city. Street architec- 
 ture was unknown, and the decoration of houses was the 
 work of the plasterer and painter rather than of the ar- 
 chitect. 
 
 If such as we have described were the imperfections 
 and inferiority of the domestic architecture of the Ro- 
 mans, who knew that of the Greeks and Egyptians, and 
 had, moreover, knowledge of the use of the arch, and were, 
 we have reason to believe, better carpenters than either, 
 besides possessing greater wealth, and a greater taste for 
 luxury than they, with a less mild and serene climate than 
 Greece and Egypt, — what must the domestic edifices of 
 those nations have been ! A person accustomed to the 
 comforts and conveniences of houses in this country finds 
 much to complain of in a modern Italian mansion, but 
 not so much as an Italian would in the house of an an- 
 cient Roman ; and from analogy we may believe that a 
 Roman of the empire would have had reason to complain 
 of a Grecian domicile, even of the Periclean age ; and a 
 Greek, again, might have been abridged of the comforts 
 of his house in the palace of an Egyptian. 
 
 Superior as the habitations of civilized men in modern 
 times may be to those of the ancients, a degree of classic 
 beauty and elegance pervaded the decorations and furni- 
 ture, and even the domestic utensils, in the houses of 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum, which we do not equal, 
 though we imitate them ; and from the Hellenic taste 
 which reigns in their forms and enrichments, their origin 
 may generally be attributed to Greek artists ; so that, it 
 may be supposed, in these particulars the Greeks even 
 excelled the Romans. It is indeed not a little singular, 
 that though the architecture of these cities is completely 
 Roman, the painted ornaments and ornamental sculp- 
 ture generally are in style and manner perfectly Greek. 
 There are certainly modifications found of Greek Doric 
 columns in Pompeii ; but they bear so slight a degree of 
 relationship to their original, that its existence may al- 
 most be denied, — they have the form without the feeling. 
 Sepulchral As works of architecture, the sepulchral monuments of 
 monu- the Romans were of more importance than their domes- 
 ments. ti c structures. There is more architectural display in the 
 street of the tombs at Pompeii, than in any street of the 
 city itself ; and the mausoleum of Adrian on the right 
 bank of the Tiber at Rome was a much more important 
 object in its perfect state than his villa near Tivoli could 
 ever have been. It was perhaps the most solendid struc- 
 
 ture of the kind ever executed ; excelling the Memphian Roman 
 pyramids as much in architectural pretence as they sur- Corinthian, 
 pass it in magnitude. There was, too, a degree of har- v ^^ N ^ 
 mony and simplicity in its composition, which can only 
 be accounted for by supposing that the imperial builder, 
 who was himself an adept in architecture, had acquired 
 better taste than the architects of Rome generally pos- 
 sessed, by the contemplation of the monuments of Greece 
 and Egypt. It consisted of a deep quadrangular basement, 
 each of whose sides was about 250 feet in length. This was 
 surmounted by a lofty circular mass, on which was a gra- 
 duated stylobate, supporting a noble peristyle of Corin- 
 thian columns, with their entablature ; forming, with its 
 circular cone, a species of peristylar temple, something 
 like that below the cupola of St Paul’s Cathedral in Lon- 
 don. Above this there was, most probably, a species of 
 dome, whose acroterium is said to have been a metal pine- 
 cone, which was the receptacle of the ashes of the empe- 
 ror. The mausoleum of Augustus was inferior in size, in 
 splendour, and in good taste, we may believe, from the 
 descriptions which exist of it when in a more perfect 
 state than it is at present, to that of Adrian; but it was 
 nevertheless a magnificent monument. Its form was 
 conical ; it diminished in stories and terraces, probably 
 columned round, and terminated at the apex in a bronze 
 figure of its founder. The sepulchral monuments of Ce- 
 cilia Metella, of the Plautian family, and others, are evi- 
 dences of the same fact. The sarcophagus from the first- 
 mentioned of these is simple and elegant in the extreme ; 
 and indeed it exhibits a greater degree of good taste than 
 almost any thing of the same kind that remains to us of 
 the ancients. 
 
 Of the Roman Corinthian. 
 
 Like the Greek orders, the Roman Corinthian may be PI. LXIV- 
 said to consist of three parts, stylobate, column, and en-Fig- 6, 8, 
 tablature; but, unlike them, the stylobate is much loftier, 9 ’ & 
 and is not graduated, except for the purposes of access 
 before a portico. Its usual height is not exactly deter- 
 minable, in consequence of the ruined state of most of 
 the best examples ; but it may be taken at from two and 
 a half to three diameters. In the triumphal arches the 
 height of the stylobate sometimes amounts to four, and 
 even to five diameters. It is variously arranged, more- 
 over, having, in the shallower examples, simply a congeries 
 of mouldings forming its base, with perhaps a narrow 
 square member under it, a plain dado, and a covering 
 cornice or coping, on the back of which the columns rest. 
 
 In the loftier examples a single, and sometimes a double 
 plinth, comes under the base mouldings ; and a blocking 
 cornice superimposes the coping, to receive the bases of 
 the columns. This last is only necessary when the height 
 of the stylobate is such as to take the columnar base 
 above the human eye, when the coping cornice would in- 
 tercept it if a blocking cornice did not intervene. 
 
 The column consists of base, shaft, and capital, and PI. LXIL 
 varies in height from nine and a half to ten diameters. The 
 base has, ordinarily, in addition to the diminishingcongeries 
 of mouldings which follows the circular form of the shafts, 
 a square member or plinth, whose edges are vertical ; with 
 this the whole height of the base is about half a dia- 
 meter. The rest of this part of the column is variously 
 composed, but it generally consists of two plain tori and 
 a scotia, with fillets intervening, as in the Greek examples 
 of this order, but differently proportioned and projected, 
 as the examples indicate. Sometimes the scotia is divided 
 into two parts, by two beads with fillets, as in the Jupiter 
 Stator example, in which also a bead is placed between the Ex. I. 
 upper torus and the fillet of the apophyge. The spread 
 of the base varies from a diameter and one third to a dia- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 45 
 
 Roman meter and four ninths. In the best Roman examples, as 
 Corinthian. we j] as j n (q, e Greek, the shaft diminishes with entasis: 
 the average diminution is one eighth of a diameter. The 
 shaft was always fluted when the material of which it was 
 composed did not oppose itself ; for the Romans often 
 used granites, and sometimes a stratified or laminous 
 marble called cipottino, for the shafts of columns ; the 
 former of which could not be easily wrought and polished 
 in flutes, and the latter would scale away if it were cut 
 into narrow fillets. Like the Greek Corinthian and 
 Ionic orders, the Roman Corinthian has twenty-four fil- 
 lets and flutes. The flutes are generally semicircles, and 
 they terminate at both ends, for the most part, with that 
 contour. Dividing the space for a fillet and a flute into 
 five parts, four are given to the latter, and one to the for- 
 mer. The hypotrachelium is a plain torus, about half the 
 size of the upper torus of the base, or half the width of a 
 flute, as these nearly correspond : it rests on a fillet above 
 the cavetto at the head of the shaft. 
 
 The ordinary height of the capital is a diameter and 
 one eighth ; but there is a very fine example in which it 
 hardly exceeds one diameter, and another in which it is 
 not quite so much. It is composed of two rows or bands 
 of acanthus leaves, each consisting of six, placed upright, 
 and ranged side by side, but not in contact ; of helices and 
 tendrils trussed with foliage ; and an abacus, whose faces 
 are moulded and variously enriched. The lower row of 
 acanthus leaves is two sevenths the whole height of the 
 capital ; the upper row is two thirds the height of the 
 lower above it, and its leaves rest on the hypotrachelium 
 below, in the space left between the others. They are 
 placed regularly, too, under the helices and tendrils 
 above, which support the angles, and are under the middle 
 of each side of the abacus. The construction and arrange- 
 ment of the next compartment above must be gathered 
 from the examples ; for an idea of them cannot be con- 
 veyed in words. The abacus is one seventh of the height 
 of the capital ; in plan it is a square whose angles are cut 
 off, and whose sides are concaved in segments of a circle, 
 under an angle at the centre of from 55° to 60°. Its ver- 
 tical face is generally a flat cavetto, with a fillet and 
 carved ovalo corbelling over at an angle of about 125°. 
 The cavetto is sometimes enriched with trailing foliage, 
 and a rosette or flower of some kind overhangs the ten- 
 drils from the middle of each side of the abacus. 
 
 Every example of this order differs so much in the form, 
 proportion, and distribution of the various parts, of its 
 capital particularly, that it cannot be described in gene- 
 ral terms, like the Greek Doric and Ionic : the example 
 Ex. 1. we have referred to in this definition is that of the Jupiter 
 Stator, the most elegant, perhaps, of all the Roman spe- 
 cimens. 
 
 The entablature varies in different examples from one 
 diameter and seven eighths to more than two diameters 
 ' and a half in height. Perhaps the best proportioned are 
 Ex. 4 . those of the portico of the Pantheon, and of the temple 
 
 Ex. 3 . of Antoninus and Faustina ; the former being rather more 
 
 than two diameters and a quarter, and the latter rather 
 less than that ratio. The entablature of the temple of 
 Jupiter Stator is more than two diameters and a half in 
 height, of which the cornice alone occupies one sixth 
 more than a full diameter, leaving to the frieze and archi- 
 trave something less than one diameter and a half be- 
 tween them. In this latter particular it nearly agrees 
 with the other two quoted examples, so that the great 
 difference in the general height is in the cornice almost 
 alone, the cornices of the others being about a sixth less, 
 instead of as much more, than a diameter in height. The 
 Roman Corinthian entablature may be taken, then, at two 
 diameters and a quarter in height. Rather more than 
 
 three fifths of this is nearly equally divided between the Roman 
 architrave and frieze, the advantage, if any, being given Corinthian, 
 to the former ; the cornice, of course, takes the remaining ' 
 
 two fifths, or thereabouts. The architrave is divided into 
 three unequal fascias and a small congeries of mouldings, 
 separating it from the frieze. The first fascia is one fifth 
 the whole height ; one third of what remains is given to 
 the second, and the remainder is divided between the 
 third fascia and the band of mouldings, — two thirds to the 
 former, and one to the latter. A bead, sometimes plain 
 and sometimes carved, taken from the second fascia, which 
 is itself enriched in the Jupiter Stator example, marks its 
 projection over the first ; and a small cyma-reversa, carved 
 or plain as the bead may be, taken from the third fascia, 
 marks its projection over the second. The band consists 
 of a bead, a cyma-reversa, carved or plain according to 
 the general character of the ordinance, and a fillet. In 
 non-accordance with the practice of the Greeks, the face 
 of the lowest or first fascia of the architrave, in the Roman 
 Corinthian, impends the face of the column at the top of 
 the shaft, or at its smallest diameter ; and every face in- 
 clines inwards from its lowest face up. The whole projec- 
 tion of the architrave, that of the covering fillet of the 
 band, is nearly equal to the height of the first fascia. The 
 frieze impends the lowest angle of the architrave. Its face 
 is either perpendicular, or it slightly inclines inwards, like 
 the fascias of that part of the entablature : in some cases 
 it is quite plain, and in others is enriched with a foliate 
 composition, or with sculptures in low or half relief. The 
 cornice consists of a deep bed-mould, variously propor- 
 tioned to the corona ; but it may be taken generally, when 
 it has modillions, at three fifths, and when it has none, at 
 one half the whole height. It is composed of a bead, an 
 ovalo or cyma-reversa and fillet, a plain vertical member, 
 sometimes dentilled, another bead, and a cyma-reversa 
 and fillet or ovalo, as the lower may not be : this is sur- 
 mounted, when modillions are used, by another plain 
 member, with a small carved cyma-reversa above it. On 
 this the modillions are placed, and the cyma breaks 
 round them. They are about as wide as the member from 
 which they project, and are about two thicknesses apart. 
 
 In form they are horizontal trusses or consols, with a 
 wavy profile, finishing at one end in a large, and at the 
 other in a small, volute ; and under each there is gene- 
 rally placed a raffled or acanthus leaf. In proportioning 
 the parts of this bed-mould in itself, one third of its height 
 may be given to the modillion member, and the other two 
 thirds divided nearly equally, but increasing upwards into 
 three parts, one for the lowest mouldings, one for the 
 plain or dentil member, and the third and rather largest 
 portion for the mouldings under the modillion member. 
 
 The mouldings of this part of the cornice are carved or 
 left plain, according to the character of the ordinance ; 
 and its greatest projection, except the modillions them- 
 selves, that of the modillion member, is about equal to 
 half its height. The upper part of the cornice, — the co- 
 rona, with its crown mouldings, — consists of the vertical 
 member called the corona, which is two fifths the whole 
 height; — this, in the examples of the temples of Jupiter 
 Stator and Antoninus and Faustina, is enriched with ver- 
 tical flutes ; — a narrow fillet, an ovalo, and a wider fillet, 
 occupy one third of the rest, the other two thirds being 
 given to cyma-recta, with a covering fillet which crowns 
 the whole. Its extreme projection is nearly equal to the 
 whole height of the cornice. 
 
 The ordinance of the temple of Vesta, or of the sibyl Ex. 2 . 
 at Tivoli, whose entablature is the very low one mention- 
 ed, is not generally in accordance with the scale we have 
 given, and it must be referred to for its own peculiar 
 proportions. 
 
46 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Roman Pediments with the Roman Corinthian order are found 
 Corinthian. be steeper than they were made by the Greeks, vary- 
 ing in inclination from eighteen to twenty-five degrees ; 
 but they are formed by the cornice of the entablature in 
 the same manner. Antefixae do not appear to have been 
 used on flank cornices as in Greek ordinances, in which 
 the cymatium is confined to pediments ; but in Roman 
 works it is continued over the horizontal or flank cornice, 
 as we have described ; and frequently it is enriched with 
 lions’ heads, which were at the first introduced as water- 
 spouts. The planceer or soffit of the corona is, in the 
 Jupiter Stator example, coffered between the modillions, 
 and in every coffer there is a flower. The soffit of the 
 entablature in this order is generally panelled and enrich- 
 ed with foliate or other ornament. The intercolumnia- 
 tion is not the same in any two examples. In the temple 
 of Vesta in Rome it hardly exceeds a diameter and a 
 quarter ; in the Jupiter Stator example it is a fraction less 
 than one diameter and a half ; in that of Antoninus and 
 Faustina, nearly a diameter and three quarters ; in the 
 portico at Assisi, rather more than that ratio ; in the por- 
 tico of the Pantheon, almost two diameters ; and in the 
 Tivoli example, a fraction more than that proportion. 
 
 The antae of the Roman Corinthian order is generally 
 parallel; but pilasters are mostly diminished and fluted 
 as the columns. Of two of the existing examples of antae, 
 in one — that of the temple of Mars Ultor — they are plain, 
 to fluted columns ; and in the other — that of the Pantheon 
 portico — they are fluted, to plain columns. The capitals 
 and bases are transcripts of those of the columns, fitted to 
 the square forms. 
 
 Ceilings of porticoes are formed, as in the Greek orders, 
 by the frieze returning in beams from the internal archi- 
 trave to the wall or front of the structure, supporting coffers 
 more or less enriched with foliage or flowers. This, how- 
 ever, could only have been effected when the projection was 
 not more than one, or at the most two intercolumniations, 
 if stone was used ; and it is only in such that examples 
 exist. Porticoes ordinarily must have had arched ceilings, 
 as that of the Pantheon has, or the beams must have been 
 of wood ; in which latter case probably the compartments 
 of the ceiling would be larger. How, in the former, it 
 was arranged we cannot tell, as the arches only remain ; 
 and they may not be of the date of the rest of the portico. 
 
 The ancient examples of what is called the Composite 
 order do not differ so much from the ordinary examples 
 of the Corinthian as the latter do among themselves, ex- 
 cept in the peculiar conformation of the capital of the co- 
 lumn. In other respects, indeed, its arrangement and 
 general proportions are exactly those of the Corinthian. 
 The Composite was used, we have said, in triumphal 
 arches, and, in the best ages of Roman architecture, in 
 them alone. The difference in the capital consists in the 
 enlargement of the volutes to nearly one fourth the whole 
 height of the capital, and in connecting their stems hori- 
 zontally under the abacus, giving the appearance of a dis- 
 torted Ionic capital. The central tendrils of the Corin- 
 thian are omitted, and the bell of the capital is girded un- 
 der the stem of the volutes by an ovalo and bead, as in 
 the Ionic. Acanthus leaves, in two rows, fill up the whole 
 heightfrom thehypotracheliumto the bottom of thevolutes, 
 and are consequently higher than in the Corinthian capi- 
 tal ; this difference is given to the upper row. Besides 
 this Composite, however, the Romans made many others, 
 the arrangements and proportions of the ordinances being 
 generally those of the Corinthian order, and the capitals 
 corresponding also in general form, though in themselves 
 differently composed. In these, animals of different spe- 
 cies, the human figure, armour, a variety of foliage, and 
 other peculiarities, are found. Shafts of columns also are 
 
 Pl.LXIII 
 Lx. 2. 
 
 sometimes corded or cabled instead of being fluted : those Roman 
 of the internal ordinance of the Pantheon are cabled one Ionic- 
 third their height, and the flutes of the antae of that or- 
 dinance are flat, qccentric curves. There are fragments of 
 others existing, in which the fillets between the flutes are 
 beaded ; some in which they are wider than usual, and 
 grooved ; others, again, whose whole surface is wrought 
 with foliage in various ways ; and it would be no less ab- 
 surd to arrange all these in different orders, than it is to 
 make a distorted foliate capital the ground-work of an 
 order. 
 
 Of the Homan Ionic. 
 
 The only existing example of this in Rome, in which PL LXIV- 
 the columns are insulated, is in the Temple of Manly For- Fig- 12. 
 tune, except that of the Temple of Concord, which is too 
 barbarous to deserve consideration. Its stylobate, like that 
 of the Roman Corinthian, is lofty and not graduated, 
 having a moulded base and cornice or surbase. The Pl.LXIII. 
 column is nearly nine diameters in height; its base is Ex. 3. 
 half a diameter in height, and consists of a plinth, two 
 tori, a scotia, and two fillets ; the shaft has twenty fillets 
 and flutes, and diminishes one tenth of a diameter ; the 
 capital is two fifths of a diameter in height ; the volutes, 
 however, dip a little lower, being themselves about that 
 depth without the abacus ; the corbelling for the volutes is 
 formed by a bead and large ovalo, half the height of the 
 capital ; the latter of these is carved ; a straight band con- 
 nects the generating lines of the volutes, whose ends are 
 bolstered and enriched with foliage ; and a square abacus, 
 moulded on the edges, covers the whole. The entablature 
 is rather less than two diameters high ; three tenths of this 
 are given to the architrave, the same to the frieze, and 
 the cornice occupies the remaining two fifths. The archi- 
 trave is unequally divided into three fascias, and a band 
 consisting of a cyma-reversa and fillet ; the lowest angle 
 impends the upper face of the shaft of the column. The 
 frieze is in the same vertical line, and is covered with 
 a fillet which receives the cornice ; it is also enriched 
 with a composition of figures and foliage. The cornice con- 
 sists of a bed-mould, two fifths of its height, and a corona 
 with crown mouldings. The bed-mould is divided nearly 
 equally between a cyma-reversa and fillet, a square den- 
 tilled member and fillet, and another fillet and ovalo. The 
 corona is two fifths the height of the rest of the cornice ; 
 another fifth is occupied by two fillets and a cyma-rever- 
 sa, and the rest is given to a cyma-recta and crowning fil- 
 let. The whole projection is nearly equal to the height 
 of the cornice. The cymatium is enriched with acanthus 
 leaves and lions’ heads, and the mouldings of the bed- 
 mould and architrave band are carved. The soffit of the 
 corona is hollowed out in a wide groove, whose internal 
 angles are rounded off in a cavetto, but without ornament 
 of any kind, forming indeed a mere throating. Like the 
 angular capitals of the Greek Ionic, the external volute of 
 this is turned out and repeated on the flank: either that 
 or the abuse of it in the Composite capital gave rise to 
 distortions of this order, in which all the volutes of the 
 capital are angular, and consequently all its four faces are 
 alike. In other respects, however, it does not differ ge- 
 nerally from the ordinary Roman examples of Ionic. The 
 Temple of Manly Fortune is pseudo-peripteral, and con- PI. LX IV 
 sequently has neither antae nor pilasters, nor do ancient Fig- 12. 
 examples exist of either. 
 
 Of the Roman Doric. 
 
 This is even a ruder imitation of the Grecian original FLLXIIJ. 
 than the mean and tasteless deterioration of the voluted 
 Ionic is of the graceful Athenian examples. The speci-Ex. 4 
 men of it which is considered preferable to the others is 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Roman that of the theatre of Marcellus in Rome. The column is 
 
 Doric, nearly eight diameters in height : it consists of shaft and 
 capital only. The shaft is quite plain, except fillets above 
 and below, with escape and cavetto; and it diminishes one 
 fifth of its diameter. The capital is four sevenths of a 
 diameter high, and is composed of a torus which forms the 
 hypotrachelium, and, with the necking, occupies one third 
 the whole height. Three deep fillets, with a semitorus or 
 quarter-round moulding, are intended to represent the 
 ovalo and its annulets of the Greek capital. They occupy 
 three sevenths of the rest ; the other four sevenths are 
 given to the abacus, three fifths of whose depth is plain 
 and vertical ; and the other two are divided between a 
 cyma-reversa and a fillet. 
 
 The corona and crown mouldings of the cornice being 
 destroyed, the whole height of the entablature cannot be 
 correctly ascertained ; but from analogy it may be taken, 
 with the bed-mould, part of which exists, at about two 
 thirds of a diameter, making, with the architrave and 
 frieze, an entablature nearly two diameters high. Of this 
 the architrave is rather more than one fourth, indeed ex- 
 actly half a diameter. Three tenths of its depth are un- 
 equally occupied by the taenia, regula, and guttae, the first 
 being rather the widest, projecting more than its own 
 depth, and the second the narrowest. The guttae are six 
 in number, and are truncate semicones in form. The rest 
 of the surface of the architrave is plain and vertical, im- 
 pending a point rather within the superior diameter of the 
 column. The frieze is two fifths the whole height of the 
 entablature. A fascia, one eighth of its own height, bands 
 it above the triglyphs, and projects about one third of its 
 depth ; the rest of its surface is plain vertically, but hori- 
 zontally it is divided into triglyphs, which are half a dia- 
 meter in width, and are placed over the centres of the 
 columns. These are channelled with two full and two 
 hemi-glyphs, whose heads are cut square on the outer 
 edge, but inclined downwards at the angle of the glyphs. 
 The space between the- triglyphs is equal to the height of 
 the frieze without its plat-band or fascia, making in effect 
 perfectly square metopes. All that can be traced of the 
 cornice is a small cyma-reversa, immediately over the 
 frieze, and a square member with dentils on it. In the 
 example the cornice is completed from that of the Doric 
 of the Colosseum. 
 
 The temple at Cora presents a singular specimen of the 
 Doric order, evidently the result of an examination of 
 some Greek examples, but moulded to the Roman pro- 
 portions and to Roman taste. The columns are enormous- 
 ly tall, but the shafts are partly fluted and partly cham- 
 fered for fluting, like the Greek. The capital is ridiculously 
 shallow, but the abacus is plain, and the echinus of a some- 
 what Hellenic form. The entablature is very little more 
 than a diameter and one third in height, and the archi- 
 trave of it is shallower even than the capital ; but the 
 frieze and cornice are tolerably well proportioned, though 
 the triglyphs in the former are meagre, narrow slips, and 
 the latter is covered by a deep widely projecting cavetto, 
 that would be injurious to even a better composition. In- 
 stead of regular mutules with guttae, the whole of the 
 planceer of the cornice is studded with the latter ; but, like 
 the Greek, the triglyph over the angular column extends 
 to the angle of the architrave, which does not appear to 
 have been the practice of the Romans ; yet the reason for 
 so doing does not appear to have been understood, for the 
 external intercolumniations are the same as the others. 
 
 As far as we have the means of judging, the Romans 
 made the antae of their Doric similar to the columns, only 
 that they were of course square instead of round ; though 
 indeed an attached column appears to have been gene- 
 rally preferred. 
 
 E C T U R E. 47 
 
 It may, however, be here again intimated, that these two Roman 
 orders, the Ionic and Doric of the Roman school, ought Mouldings, 
 hardly to be considered as belonging to the architecture ' 
 
 of the Romans. They are merely coarse and vulgar adap- 
 tations of the Greek originals, of which we now possess 
 records of the finest examples. If it were not, therefore, 
 that custom required it, we should have omitted all men- 
 tion of them, or at least have left them to the Italo-Vitru- 
 vian school, to which they properly belong. Yet their 
 meanness and tastelessness, when compared with the 
 Grecian models, will more strikingly show the superiority 
 of the latter, and show, moreover, how the architects of 
 the Italian school must have been blinded by their system, 
 when they fancied such wretched exemplars as those of 
 which we have been speaking to be beautiful. 
 
 Of Homan Mouldings and Ornament. 
 
 The mouldings used in Roman architectural works are Pi. LXL 
 the same as the Grecian in general form, but they vary 
 materially from them in contour. The Roman cyma-recta 
 is projected much more than the Greek, with a deeper 
 flexure ; and the two parts or ends seldom correspond, 
 the one being generally larger than the other. On the 
 contrary, the Roman cyma-reversa does not project so 
 much, or at so large an angle with its base, as the Grecian, 
 nor is it so deeply fleeted as the Greeks made it. The 
 upper or convex part of this moulding is almost always 
 larger than the lower or concave ; and it is frequently 
 allowed to finish below in a sharp arris projecting from 
 whatever may be below it, and above it abuts the hori- 
 zontal soffit of its covering fillet in a similarly harsh man- 
 ner. The ovalo of Greek architecture is represented in 
 the Roman style by a moulding whose outline is nearly 
 the convex quadrant of a circle, or a quarter round, and 
 sometimes it is nearly that of the quadrant of an ellip- 
 sis. The Roman torus is either a semicircle or a semi- 
 ellipsis ; and the bead is a torus, except in its applica- 
 tion, and in being smaller, and generally projected rather 
 more than half the figure whose form it bears. The 
 cavetto, in Roman architecture, is nearly a regular curve, 
 being sometimes the concave quadrant of a circle, or in- 
 deed the reverse of an ovalo, and sometimes a smaller 
 segment. A Roman scotia is more deeply cut, and is 
 consequently less delicate than the same member in a 
 Greek congeries : its form frequently approaches that of 
 a concave semiellipsis. 
 
 This correspondence in general form, and disagree- 
 ment in spirit, of Greek and Roman mouldings, appear to 
 have arisen entirely from the ignorance or inattention of 
 the Romans to the governing principle of Greek combi- 
 nations ; as we have seen that in these the individual 
 mouldings are not independent, as the Romans made 
 them, but that they take their contour and direction from 
 each other, under a certain pervading outline. 
 
 The enrichments of Roman mouldings are for the most 
 part similar to those of the Greek, but less delicate and 
 graceful both in design and drawing. Those of the cyma 
 and ovalo are particularly referred to, but the Romans 
 used others besides. Raffled leaves form a favourite en- 
 richment in the architecture of the Romans : indeed these 
 are hardly less frequent in their works than the honey- 
 suckle is in those of the Greeks. Mouldings were en- 
 riched with them; and a raffled leaf masks the angles of 
 carved cymas and ovalos in the former, as a honeysuckle 
 does in the latter. Nevertheless, the honeysuckle and 
 lotus are both found in Roman enrichments, particularly 
 the latter, and perhaps even more than in Greek. It is 
 not uncommon to find examples of Roman architecture 
 completely overdone with ornament, — every moulding 
 carved, and every straight surface, whether vertical or 
 
43 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Italian horizontal, sculptured with foliage, or with historical or 
 Arehitec- characteristic subjects in relief. This fault is most ob- 
 ture. vious in those works which exhibit similar bad taste in 
 v the general composition. The triumphal arch of Septimius 
 Severus, the little arch of the goldsmiths, and the half- 
 buried ruin called the temple of Pallas, in the forum of 
 Nerva at Rome, are egregious specimens. The entabla- 
 ture of the arch of Titus, too, is overloaded with orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Frieze enrichments, consisting of foliage composed with 
 animals, and a variety of other things, are very common 
 in Roman architecture. Many specimens indeed are not 
 found in existing structures, hut there are numerous 
 fragments of entablatures of destroyed edifices which ex- 
 hibit them in great variety. Their general character is 
 exuberance, and a tendency to frittering, from the variety 
 and incoherence of form in their composition ; but their 
 effect can only fairly be judged of when seen in appro- 
 priate situations. One existing example of an enriched 
 frieze of the kind referred to, that of the temple of Anto- 
 ninus and Faustina, speaks strongly in its favour, for nothing 
 can surpass its efficiency and simple beauty; but it must, 
 moreover, be confessed that, when examined in detail, 
 the enrichment is less exuberant, and is composed of 
 fewer parts, than most others of the species to which that 
 example belongs. Architectural ornament, however, is 
 not confined to purely architectural works. We find many 
 beautiful specimens of it on the vases and candelabra 
 which decorated the baths and mansions of the ancient 
 Romans, and whose elegance of form rivals even the 
 beauty and delicacy of their enrichments. Whether these 
 should be referred or not to the Romans, is doubtful ; for 
 it has been already intimated, from the style of many of 
 them, both in outline and ornament, which appertain more 
 to the Greek, that they are the productions of Grecian 
 artists; but indeed they belong exactly to neither, for they 
 frequently possess the beauties, and sometimes exhibit the 
 defects, of both. There are existing works, too, clearly 
 of Roman origin, and far inferior in every respect to the 
 things just quoted. These are for the most part ceno- 
 taphial monuments, sarcophagi, and altars, whose compo- 
 sition, details, and enrichments, are gross and inelegant 
 when compared with the objects alluded to. The dif- 
 ference may arise merely from the inferiority of the artists 
 of the one to those of the other, and not from the difference 
 of their schools ; but the prevalence of Greek taste in the 
 superior productions is not the less striking because it 
 was acquired by education, while it is wanting in the in- 
 ferior, whose authors had not been imbued with the spirit 
 and fine feeling of the Greek style. 
 
 Of Italian Architecture. 
 
 Gothic architecture, — that is, the style which preceded 
 the Pointed, — being for the most part a mere deterioration 
 of Roman, and possessing no peculiar character which 
 can recommend it as a subject for study and imitation 
 that may not be deduced from the Roman style, and 
 Pointed architecture being a genus per se, we have 
 thought it better to allow the Italian, or revived Roman 
 style, to usurp its chronological place ; as the latter more 
 naturally follows what it pretends to be derived from, than 
 it would follow the Pointed, or than the Pointed would 
 the Roman. 
 
 We have already stated that Italian architecture, 
 though professedly a revival of the classical styles of 
 Greece and Rome, was formed without reference to the 
 existing specimens of either, but on the dogmas of an ob- 
 scure Roman author, and the glosses of the “ revivers” 
 on his text. Vitruvius described four classes or orders 
 of columnar composition; and, on the principles which go- 
 
 verned him in subjecting to fixed laws all the varieties Italian 
 with which he appears to have been acquainted, they form- Architec- 
 ed a fifth, of a medley of two of his, thus completing tu ”^, 
 the Italian orders of architecture. The school which 
 was founded on the Vitruvian theories has systematized 
 every thing, and laid down lav/s for collocating and pro- 
 portioning all the matter it furnishes for architectural 
 composition and decoration. It teaches that columns 
 are modelled from the human figure; that the Tuscan 
 column is like a sturdy labourer — a rustic ; the Doric 
 is somewhat trimmer, though equally masculine — a gen- 
 tleman, perhaps; the Ionic is a sedate matron; the Co- 
 rinthian a lascivious courtesan ; and the Composite an 
 amalgam of the two last ! In a composition which admits 
 any two or more of them, the rustic must take the lowest 
 place ; on his head stands the stately Doric, who in his 
 turn bears the comely matron, on whose head is placed 
 the wanton, and the wanton again is made to support the 
 lady of doubtful character ! But as we in this place are 
 neither apologists for nor impugners of any particular doc- 
 trines, we proceed at once to point out the general fea- 
 tures of the Italian style ; premising only, that, according 
 to the practice of the school, every thing is confined 
 to an exclusive use and appropriation ; such columns may 
 be fluted, and such must not ; such a moulding may be 
 used here, but not there ; and so on. The proportions and 
 arrangements of an order, of any part of one, or of any 
 thing that may come within an architectural composition, 
 are fixed and unchangeable, whatever may be the purpose 
 or situation for which it is required; whether, for instance, 
 an order be attached or insulate, the column must have 
 exactly the same number of modules and minutes in 
 height. It is true that the masters of the school are not 
 agreed among themselves as to those things in which they 
 are not bound by Vitruvius; but every one not the less 
 contends for the principle, each, of course, prescribing 
 his own doctrine as orthodox on the unsettled points. 
 
 Mouldings are considered as constituent parts of an or- 
 der, and are limited to eight in number, strangely enough 
 including the fillet. They are the cyma-recta, cyma-re- 
 versa, commonly called the ogive or ogee, the ovalo, the 
 torus, the astragal or bead, the cavetto, the scotia, and 
 the fillet. They are gathered from the Roman remains, 
 but reduced to regular lines or curves, which may be 
 drawn with a rule or struck with a pair of compasses. 
 
 Arranged according to certain proportions, with flat sur- 
 faces, modillions, and dentils, a profile is formed ; no two 
 conjoined mouldings maybe enriched, but their ornaments, 
 as well as the modillions and dentils, must be disposed so 
 as to fall regularly under one another, and, when columns 
 occur, above the middle of them. 
 
 An order is said to be composed of two principal parts, PI- LXVI. 
 the column and the entablature ; these are divided into 
 base, shaft, and capital, in the one, and architrave, frieze, 
 and cornice in the other, and are variously subdivided in 
 the different orders. The Tuscan column must be made 
 seven diameters in height, the Doric eight, the Ionic 
 nine, and the Corinthian and Composite ten. The height 
 of the entablature, according to some authorities, should 
 be one fourth the height of the column, and, according to 
 others, two of its diameters. The parts of the entablature 
 of all but the Doric may be divided into ten equal parts, 
 four of which are given to the cornice, three to the frieze, 
 and three to the architrave ; and in the Doric, the entab- 
 lature being divided into eight parts, three must be given 
 to the cornice, three to the frieze, and the remaining two 
 to the architrave. For the minor divisions a diameter of 
 the column is made into a scale of sixty minutes, by 
 which they are arranged ; but this is obviously irrelevant 
 if the whole height of the entablature is determined by 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Italian the height of the column, and not by its diameter ; in this 
 Architec- case , therefore, they must be proportioned from the ge- 
 , |' ure ]_i, neral divisions already ascertained. Columns must be 
 diminished, according to Vitruvius, more or less as their 
 altitude is greater or less ; those of fifteen feet high, or 
 thereabout, being made one sixth less at their superior 
 than at their inferior diameter, and that proportion is 
 lessened gradually, so that columns fifty feet high shall 
 be diminished one eighth only. On this subject, however, 
 many of his disciples controvert the authority of their 
 master ; and some of them have fixed the diminution at 
 one sixth of a diameter for columns of all sizes in all the 
 orders. The entasis of columns is disputed also, some 
 authorities making it consist in preserving the cylinder 
 perfect one quarter or one third the height of the shaft 
 from below, and thence diminishing in a right line to the 
 top ; while others, following Vitruvius, make the column 
 increase in bulk in a curved line from the base to three 
 sevenths of its height, and then diminish in the same 
 manner for the remaining four sevenths, thus making the 
 greatest diameter near the middle. 
 
 It being difficult to determine among the masters of 
 the Italo-Vitruvian school whose designs of the various 
 orders are to be preferred, we have selected those of 
 Palladio, certainly not for any superior merit they possess, 
 but because he is more generally esteemed than any other, 
 and because he the most strictly adhered, as far as he 
 could understand them, to the precepts of Vitruvius. 
 It should be remarked, however, that although Palladio 
 has fluted all but the shaft of the Tuscan column, he 
 very seldom fluted columns in his own practice ; and 
 indeed it may be called the custom of the Italian school 
 not to flute, how much soever their doctrine may be to 
 the contrary; for fluted columns in Italian architecture 
 are exceptions to the general practice. Swelled or pil- 
 lowed friezes are not peculiar to Palladio ; they are more 
 or less common to the works of most of the masters 
 of the same school. Prostyles being almost unknown 
 in Italian architecture, antae are not often required ; 
 but when they are, the meanest succedaneum imagin- 
 Pl. LXX. able is recurred to. Of this, Palladio’s Villa Capra, near 
 Fig. 3. Vicenza, and Lord Burlington’s Palladian Villa at Chis- 
 wick, afford striking examples. Pilasters, however, are 
 very common, so common, indeed, that they may be call- 
 ed pro-columns, as they are often used as an apology for 
 applying an entablature. They are described as differing 
 from columns in their plan only, the latter being round, 
 and the former square ; for they are composed with bases 
 and capitals, they are made to support entablatures ac- 
 cording to the order to which they belong, and are fluted 
 and diminished with or without entasis, just as columns of 
 the same style would be. When they are fluted, the flutes 
 are limited to seven in number on the face, which, it is said, 
 makes them nearly correspond with the flutes of columns; 
 
 , and their projection must be one eighth of their diameter 
 or width when the returns are not fluted ; but if they are, 
 a fillet must come against the wall. Pedestals are not con- 
 sidered by the Italo-Vitruvian school as belonging to the 
 orders, but they may be employed with them all, and 
 have bases and surbases or cornices to correspond with 
 the order with which they may be associated. The dado 
 of a pedestal must be a square whose side shall be equal 
 to that of the plinth of the column or pilaster which rests 
 on it, or a parallelogram a sixth or even a fourth of a dia- 
 meter taller. The intercolumniations of columns are call- 
 ed pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, diastyle, and araeostyle, 
 and are strictly adhered to in Italian architecture when 
 columns are insulated, and that is not very often ; when 
 they are attached, the interspaces are not limited, except 
 when a peculiar arrangement called arasosystyle is adopt* 
 
 E C T U R E. 49 
 
 ed. This consists of two systyle intercolumniations, the Italian 
 column that should stand in the mid-distance between two Arehitec- 
 others being placed within half a diameter of one of them, , ^ ure - 
 making in fact coupled columns or pilasters. It is applied 
 to insulated columns as well as to those which are attach- 
 ed. Following Vitruvius, the Italian school makes the cen- 
 tral intercolumniation of a portico wider than any of the 
 others. Arched openings, in arcades or otherwise, are Plate 
 generally about twice their width in height; if, however, LX VII. 
 they are arranged with a columnar ordinance, having co- 
 lumns against the piers, they are made to partake of the 
 order to which the columns belong, being lower in propor- 
 tion to their width with the Tuscan than with the Doric, 
 and so on ; and the piers are allowed to vary in the same 
 manner, from two fifths to one half of the opening. With Fig. 11 & 
 columnar arrangements, moulded imposts and archivolts 12. 
 are used ; the former being made rather more than a semi- 
 diameter of the engaged columns in height, and the latter 
 exactly that proportion. Variously moulded key-stones 
 are used, too, projecting so that they give an appearance of 
 support to the superimposed entablature. Smaller columns Fig. 12. 
 with their entablature are sometimes made to do the duty 
 of imposts, and sometimes single columns are similarly ap- 
 plied ; at others, columns in couples are allowed to stand for Fig. in. 
 piers to carry arches. In plain arcades the masonry is gene- Fig. 13. 
 rally rusticated, without any other projection than a plain 
 blocking course for an impost, and a blocking course or cor- 
 nice crowning the ordinance. Niches and other recesses 
 are at times introduced in the plain piers, which are in that 
 case considerably wider than usual, or in the spandrels over 
 rvide piers. Very considerable variety is allowed in these 
 combinations, which will be best understood by reference 
 to the examples. Doors and windows, whether arched or 
 square, follow nearly the same proportions, being made, in 
 rustic stories, generally rather less than twice their width 
 in height, and in others either exactly of that proportion, 
 or an eighth or a tenth more. If they have columned or 
 pilastered frontispieces, these are sometimes pedimented ; 
 and, except in rustic stories, whether with or without 
 columns, a plain or moulded lining called an architrave is 
 applied to the head and sides of a door or window. This 
 architrave is made from one sixth to one eighth the width 
 of the opening it bounds, and it rests on a blocking course 
 or other sill, as the case may be. In the absence of 
 columns or pilasters in the frontispiece, their place is fre-Fig.2&4, 
 quently supplied by consols or trusses of various form and and Plate 
 arrangement, backed out by a narrow pilaster, which may^XX. 
 be considered as the return of the frieze of the entablature, * 
 and supporting the cornice. It is not uncommon for the 
 architrave lilting to project knees at the upper angles, 
 and this is sometimes done even with consols and their 
 pilasters. With columned frontispieces to gateways, doors, 
 and windows, arose the custom, so frequent in Italian 
 architecture, of rusticating columns, by making them 
 alternately square and cylindrical, according to the heights 
 of the courses of rustic masonry to which they are gene- 
 rally attached, and with which they are less offensive than 
 in other collocations. The practice of the Cinquecento 
 school of piling columns on columns, with their accessories, 
 is warranted by the doctrine of its master ; but his pre- 
 cepts not being practicable, recourse has been had to the 
 inferior works of the Romans, which present examples ofPlate 
 it. The difficulty of preserving any thing like a rational LX IV. 
 arrangement is acknowledged on all hands to be great, if Fl §- 
 not insurmountable ; for if the first or lowest order be at 
 an intercolumniation fitting its proportions, the second or 
 next above it, though diminished ever so little, is already 
 deranged, for it has the same distance from column to 
 column that the inferior order has, whilst the columns 
 themselves are smaller in diameter, and their entablature 
 
50 ARCHITECT IJ R E. 
 
 Italian consequently shallower. This derangement must of course 
 Architec- increase with every succeeding ordinance, rendering it 
 . tur f' indeed impossible to make such a composition consistent. 
 
 The most approved practice in arranging order above order 
 appears to be, that the upper column shall take for its dia- 
 meter the superior diameter of the one below it; that 
 when the columns are detached their axes shall be in the 
 same perpendicular line ; but when attached or engaged, 
 the plinth of the pedestal of the upper shall impend the 
 top of the shaft of the lower column. The most rational 
 mode, however, for diminishing, if reason can be applied to 
 such compositions, is to carry the diminution through, the 
 outlines of the columns of the lowest order being drawn 
 up in the same direction, and so the columns of every 
 story would take up their place and be diminished in re- 
 Pl. LXX. gular gradation. When columns are attached, or pilasters 
 Fig. 2. used, in Italian architecture, the almost invariable custom 
 is to break the entablature over every column or pilaster, 
 Pl.LXIX. or over every two when they are in couples. Because of 
 the great length of the intercolumniation, it would appear 
 to have been done at first ; but it has frequently been done 
 by some of the most esteemed practitioners of the school, 
 even without that excuse, so that it may be held as approv- 
 ed by them. A basement is either a low stereobate or a 
 lofty story, as it may be intended to support a single ordi- 
 nance the whole height of the main body of the structure, 
 or indeed the lowest of two or more orders ; or as it may 
 occupy the ground story of a building, and support an 
 ordinance, or the appearance of one, above. In either 
 case, much is necessarily left to the discretion of the 
 architect ; but in the latter the height of the order it is to 
 support is the generally prescribed height of the base- 
 ment. A basement may be rusticated or plain; if it be 
 low, and is not arranged like a continued pedestal, it 
 must have neither cornice nor blocking course ; but if 
 lofty, a deep, bold, blocking course is indispensable. An 
 attic may vary in height from one quarter to one third the 
 height of the order it surmounts ; attics are arranged with 
 a base, dado, and coping cornice, like pedestals, and gene- 
 rally have pilasters broken over the columns below. The 
 rule for the form, composition, and application of pedi- 
 ments in Italian architecture, if it may be gathered from 
 the practice of the school, appears to be to set good taste 
 at defiance in them all. We find pediments of every shape, 
 composed of cornices, busts, scrolls, festoons, and what not, 
 and applied in every situation, and even one within another, 
 to the number of three or four, and each of these of differ- 
 ent form and various composition. The proportion laid 
 down for the height of a pediment is from one fourth to 
 one fifth the length of its base, or the cornice on which it 
 is to rest. Balustrades are used in various situations, but 
 their most common application is in attics or as parapets, 
 on the summits of buildings, before windows, in otherwise 
 close continued stereobates, to flank flights of steps, to 
 front terraces, or flank bridges. Their shapes and propor- 
 tions are even more diversified than their application : that 
 of most frequent use is shaped like an Italian Doric 
 column, compressed to a dwarfish stature, and consequent- 
 ly swollen in the shaft to an inordinate bulk in the lower 
 part, and having its capital, to the hypotrachelium, revers- 
 ed to form a base to receive its grotesque form. The base 
 and coping cornice of a balustrade are those of an ordinary 
 attic, or of a pedestal whose dado may be pierced into 
 balusters. The general external proportions of an edifice, 
 when they are not determined by single columnar ordi- 
 nances, appear to be unsettled. The grand front of the 
 PL LXX. Farnese Palace in Rome is in two squares, its length being 
 Fig- L twice its height ; the length of each front of Vignola’s 
 celebrated pentagonal palace of Caprarola is twice and a 
 quarter its height above the bastions. In Palladio’s works 
 
 we find the proportions of fronts to vary so considerably, Pointed 
 as to make it evident that he did not consider himself Architec- 
 bound by any rule on that point. In some cases we find ture * 
 the length to be once and one sixth the height, in others 
 once and a fourth, once and a half, twice, twice and a 
 sixth, and even three and a sixth ; and elevations by other 
 masters of the school are found to vary to the same ex- 
 tent. The proportions of rooms, again, range from one to 
 two cubes inclusive, though it is preferred that the height 
 should be a sixth, or even a fifth less than a side when the 
 plan is a square ; but the sesquialteral form, with the 
 height equal to the breadth, and the length one half more, 
 is considered the most perfect proportion for a room. 
 
 There is considerable variety and beauty in the foliate 
 and other enrichments of an architectural character in 
 many structures in Italy, but very little ornament enters 
 into the columnar composition of Italian architecture. 
 
 Friezes, instead of being sculptured, are swollen ; the shafts 
 of columns, it has been already remarked, are very seldom 
 fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in the extreme ; 
 mouldings are indeed sometimes carved, but not often ; 
 rustic masonry, ill-formed festoons, and gouty balustrades, 
 for the most part supply the place of chaste and classic 
 ornaments. This refers more particularly to the more 
 classic works of the school; in many of the earlier Trecento 
 structures of Italy, and on monuments of various kinds, 
 we find what may be called a graceful profusion of orna- 
 ment, of the most tasteful and elegant kind ; few carved 
 mouldings, however, and very few well-profiled cornices, 
 are to be met with in Italian compositions of any kind. In 
 many of the later architectural works of that country we 
 find again a profusion of ornament of the most tasteless 
 and inelegant description, chiefly in the gross and vulgar 
 style, which is distinguished as that of Louis XIV. of 
 France. 
 
 Of Pointed Architecture. 
 
 There are so many varieties of this beautiful style, and 
 the variations are at the same time so considerable and 
 so minute, that it is impossible to describe it generally. 
 
 Every country in which it was practised had some pecu- 
 liarities in its composition, and, to develope it perfectly, 
 all of them should be pointed out. This, however, would 
 far exceed our limits ; and as the specimens of our own 
 are not excelled, if indeed they are equalled, by those of 
 any other country, a consideration of the style as exhi- 
 bited by them will afford us a better opportunity of de- 
 veloping it than could be obtained by making our obser- 
 vations more general. 
 
 Various classifications of Pointed architecture have 
 been made, and in almost all of them the arch is con- 
 sidered the index, as the column is in columnar architec- 
 ture ; for, like that, it is more expressive of variety than 
 any other feature in the composition to which each be- 
 longs. These, too, form the grand distinctions between 
 the Greek and its derivative styles, and the Pointed; but, 
 independently of the column in the one and the arch in 
 the other, the two species of architecture may be said each 
 to have certain governing principles, which sufficiently dis- 
 tinguish and make it impossible to mould them together 
 in one composition, and almost to apply any of the lead- 
 ing forms of the one to the other. They may be thus 
 generally laid down. In Greek and Roman architecture 
 the general running lines are horizontal, as in entabla- 
 tures and single cornices. In Pointed, the general run- 
 ning lines are vertical. In the former, arches are not ne- 
 cessary to a composition ; in the latter, arches are a really 
 fundamental principle. In Greek and Roman, again, 
 columns require an entablature ; in the Pointed style no 
 such thing as an entablature composed of parts is appli- 
 
ture. 
 
 7, 8, & 9. 
 
 A R C H I T 
 
 Pointed cable to the pillars, columns, or shafts. ( Vide Rickman’s 
 Architec- Attempt , &c. p. 110.) 
 
 These, however, only determine the generic differences 
 which exist ; the varieties in the former style we have 
 found to be marked by such and such distinctive features 
 in the columns and their accessories, which allowed them 
 to be divided into orders. In the latter the varieties arise 
 chronologically, and, consisting for the most part in the 
 forms and arrangements of details, are not incoherent; 
 nor are certain proportions either fixed or determinable, 
 and consequently they cannot be rendered into orders. 
 
 It has been customary, in treating of Pointed architec- 
 ture, to class with it the Saxon and Norman Gothic styles. 
 This is at least unnecessary, as they have no direct rela- 
 tion to it, except that of immediate precedence in point 
 of time, and that the one was the stock on which the 
 other was grafted. The peculiarities of Pointed archi- 
 tecture are indeed totally independent of those of its pre- 
 decessor the Gothic ; nevertheless we should hardly be 
 excused for passing over the latter in total silence. 
 
 According to the best authorities, there are very few 
 specimens of architecture now in existence in this coun- 
 try which can properly be called Saxon, that is, of a date 
 anterior to the Conquest, and not of Roman origin ; and 
 those few are of the rudest and most inferior description. 
 Saxon, therefore, as far as the architecture of this coun- 
 try is concerned, is an improper term. All the ancient 
 structures which are distinguished by the semicircular 
 PI. LXXI. arch may be called Anglo or Anglo-Norman Gothic. It 
 Pig- b 2, consists principally of massive columnar piers supporting 
 a. <t. C, semicircular arches, similarly arched doors and windows, 
 and arches on small columns in relief, against a dead wall, 
 to ornament it. The pier when round has a rude foliate 
 or rounded capital, and generally a moulded base, and is va- 
 riously ornamented on the surface, being altogether a rude 
 resemblance of the columns of Roman architecture ; it is 
 at times polygonal, and sometimes piers consist of clusters 
 of small round shafts. In doors and windows thin columns 
 with rude capitals and bases frequently receive the mould- 
 ings of the arch ; and, when the opening is divided, they 
 are placed like mullions, to support the inner arches. 
 There are examples of this style which are quite plain 
 in every particular ; but it is generally enriched by deep 
 congeries of mouldings on the arches, and, when there 
 are no columns, running down the jambs of doors. These 
 are again frequently carved, and mostly with the zigzag 
 or chevron ornament : grotesque masks, and rude repre- 
 sentations of animals, foliage, and flowers, form also com- 
 mon enrichments in Anglo-Gothic architecture. 
 
 This style prevailed down to the reign of Henry II. of 
 England, when the pointed arch made its appearance. A 
 degree of impressive grandeur pervades its productions, 
 notwithstanding their clumsiness, arising from the great 
 simplicity of manner and massiveness of proportion by 
 which it is distinguished. The best existing specimens 
 in London are the vestibule of the Inner Temple church, 
 which, moreover, exemplifies the transition ; many parts 
 of the church of St Bartholomew in Smithfield, and the 
 chapel of the Tower of London. Exemplifications of the 
 style are also to be found in the interiors of Norwich, 
 Chichester, Gloucester, Canterbury, Worcester, Roches- 
 ter, Winchester, Durham, Peterborough, Oxford, and Here- 
 ford Cathedrals. According to Mr Rickman, the naves 
 of Peterborough and Rochester are the most unmixed 
 specimens. Parts, which are easily distinguished, of the 
 exteriors of many of the same edifices, portions of Lin- 
 coln, and the towers of Exeter Cathedrals, Bigod’s Tower 
 at Norwich, and the White Tower in the Tower of Lon- 
 don, afford characteristic external examples of the Anglo- 
 Gothic style. The most striking castellated remains are 
 
 E C T U R E. 51 
 
 those of Rochester in Kent, Hedingham in Essex, Conis- Pointed 
 brough in Yorkshire, and Guildford in Surrey. Many Architec- 
 minor edifices, principally ecclesiastical, exist in almost ^ u re ' 
 every county in Great Britain. Mr Rickman remarks 
 two specimens of this style as peculiarly deserving of 
 attention; the one in the vestibule or entrance of the 
 chapter-house at Bristol, and the other in the staircase 
 leading to the registry of Canterbury Cathedral ; the for- 
 mer for its simplicity and beauty of composition, and the 
 latter for its singularity, and as exhibiting a very fine 
 specimen of enrichment. The roofs, or ceilings rather, 
 of the Anglo-Gothic edifices, were mostly of wood; but 
 there are various examples of stone-groined ceilings to be 
 found in crypts, which appertain to this style. Spires 
 were unknown ; there are, however, turrets crowned with 
 large pinnacles of a date anterior to the introduction of 
 the pointed arch, as in Rochester Cathedral, and the 
 Church of St Peter in the East at Oxford. Towers were 
 not uncommon ; they are square massive structures, ris- 
 ing to no great height above the roof of the buildings to 
 which they are attached. It may be remarked in addi- 
 tion, that many of our ancient structures retain the circu- 
 lar-headed or Anglo-Gothic door, when all the rest has 
 been removed, and replaced by work of a later date. 
 
 Architects and antiquaries have generally agreed in 
 dividing Pointed architecture into three styles of three 
 succeeding periods. The first commences with the esta- 
 blishment of the pointed arch, and the formation of the 
 style or manner which accompanies it, in the latter part 
 of the twelfth century, the time of Henry II. of Eng- 
 land ; the second arose in the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century, in the latter part of the reign of Edward I., 
 and was itself superseded before that century closed, about 
 the time of Richard the II., by the third style, which is 
 the latest, for with it, on the introduction of the Cinque- 
 cento , Pointed architecture ceased to exist. A difficulty 
 arises in appropriately naming these three styles, for on 
 that point there is no degree of accordance among those 
 who are best qualified to be considered as authorities. 
 
 Mr Rickman calls the first the “ Early English” style, 
 the second the “ Decorated English,” and the third the 
 “ Perpendicular English ;” to all of which terms Mr Brit- 
 ton objects, and, without giving appellations, except to 
 the first, which he calls the “ Lancet Order of Pointed 
 Architecture,” suggests that the second might be named 
 with propriety the “ Triangular Arched,” and the third 
 the “ Obtuse Arched.” Objecting strongly to the term 
 “ Order,” used by Mr Britton, we think with him that 
 the first might be appropriately called the “ Lancet Arch” 
 style ; but bis other distinctions are certainly not more 
 defensible than Mr Rickman’s. In the absence, there- 
 fore, of unobjectionable distinctive terms, as the varieties 
 arise chronologically, we will speak of them as Periods. 
 
 Of the First Period of Pointed Architecture. 
 
 Mr Rickman describes this style as being distinguished Plate 
 by pointed arches, and long narrow windows without LXXII. 
 mullions, and a peculiar ornament, which, from its resem- Fl g- 1 • 
 blance to the teeth of a shark, he calls the toothed orna- 
 ment. There is very considerable variety in the forms 
 and proportions of its different examples, as they retain 
 the massive character of the Anglo-Gothic, or tend to the 
 more florid style of the next period. In the former the PI. LXXI. 
 sharp lancet arch is found at times, in a series of its nar- Fig- 12. 
 row windows, with rude piers between them, occupying 
 the place of the precedent large circular-headed opening; 
 and in other places springing from the round columnarpiers Fig. 1 1 & 
 of the former period. In its more advanced works we 13> 
 find the same long narrow window systematically arranged, j 
 
 singly or triply, with light clustered columns, against the jjjk ” j 
 
52 
 
 A R C H IT EC T URE. 
 
 Pointed piers which divide them, receiving the deep congeries of 
 Architec- mouldings which forms the archivolt. Its columned pier, 
 ^^too, consists of clustered shafts, generally on a round core, 
 and always forming cylindrical masses, girded at different 
 heights with slight rings or belts of mouldings. Their 
 PI. LXXI. capitals consist for the most part of congeries of mould- 
 ing- 14. ings following the form of the shafts, though rich and 
 LXXIII ^ ovver ' n § capitals are not uncommon. Moulded bases, 
 
 ‘ too, are generally used, not dissimilar in form to what is 
 called the attic base of Italian architecture. 
 
 The lancet arch is described from two centres about an 
 acute-angled isosceles triangle in the line of its base, with 
 a radius equal to twice and one third (in some cases more, 
 and in some less) the length of that base, or of the span 
 the arch is to embrace. This, though the ordinary, is not, 
 however, the universal form of the arch in the first period ; 
 but the absence of mullions, and in general of tracery, 
 may almost be considered a criterion : yet foliations or 
 featherings are not uncommon, especially in doors, and as 
 enrichments to flat surfaces, though every thing of the 
 kind certainly indicates an approach to the style of the 
 succeeding period. Ribs on the angles formed by the in- 
 tersections of arches in groined ceilings, not in ramified 
 tracery, but with bosses at their apices alone, appertain to 
 works of the first period. These ribs sometimes spring 
 from corbels, and sometimes from the heads of slight 
 shafts, which may run uninterruptedly from the floor to 
 the springing of the arched ceiling, against the walls or 
 against the columnar piers; and a small cornice or tablet 
 continuing round them, runs along horizontally to sepa- 
 rate the vertical from the vaulted surface. Buttresses in 
 Plate general, of various forms, sometimes in diminishing stages 
 
 LX XI I. and sometimes upright, with acutely gabled heads with- 
 I'ig- out crockets, but having finials — and flying buttresses in 
 particular — belong to this style. The tablets or cornices, 
 mouldings, ornaments, and the variety and arrangement 
 of niches, must be gathered from examples. The parapet 
 or battlement is straight and uninterrupted, and is either 
 plain or ornamented with series of arches or panels with 
 foliations. Turrets are in some cases square, in others oc- 
 tagonal ; but the pinnacles which surmount them are al- 
 most always of the latter form, and plain or crocheted, as 
 the work may be more or less ornate. Towers, in the 
 style of this period, were generally made to receive that 
 beautiful characteristic of Pointed architecture, the spire. 
 This, in the best examples, is octagonal in its plan, and 
 of pyramidal elevation, running to a point, or nearly so, 
 under an angle of about 12°, the angle at the base being 
 consequently 84°. In some cases the spire is richly crochet- 
 ed like the pinnacles; but whether plain or crocheted, it 
 is surmounted by a bold finial. 
 
 The most perfect structure in this style throughout is 
 Salisbury Cathedral, which, unlike any other Pointed cathe- 
 dral in England, except perhaps that of Bath, was begun 
 and finished in the same manner; and so excellent an 
 example is it, that it has been proposed to call the style 
 of the period the Salisbury style. Not inferior in merit, 
 and hardly less perfect a model of the same, is Beverley 
 Minster. That which is of later date in it is easily dis- 
 tinguishable ; and being confined to particular parts, it 
 hardly interferes with the unity of the composition. The 
 transepts of York Minster are also of the first period, and 
 so is a great part of Westminster Abbey. The fronts of 
 Ely, Lincoln, and Peterborough Cathedrals exhibit good 
 specimens of it. Indeed there is hardly one of all our 
 Pointed cathedrals which does not partake of this style 
 in a greater or less degree. It will be most generally 
 found interwoven with and superimposing the Anglo- 
 Gothic where that exists, and inferior to, when in con- 
 nection with, works of a later period. Many of the mo- 
 
 nastic structures with which this country abounds pre- Pointed 
 sent very beautiful specimens of this style also. Among Architec - 
 other excellent examples of it may be particularized the , • 
 
 chapter-houses of Lincoln and Lichfield. Those beauti- 
 ful monuments which the affection of Edward I. induced 
 him to raise to the memory of his wife, called the Crosses 
 of Queen Eleanor, are in the style of the first period, 
 though they verge on that of the second, and indeed mark 
 the transition which took place in the latter part of that 
 king’s reign. 
 
 Of the Second Period of Pointed Architecture. 
 
 The style of this period, which is thought by many to 
 be the classic age of Pointed Architecture, is described 
 by Mr Rickman as being distinguished “ by its large win- 
 dows, which have pointed arches divided by mullions, and 
 the tracery in flowing lines forming circles, arches, and 
 other figures, not running perpendicularly; its ornaments 
 numerous and very delicately carved.” Mr Britton says 
 that “ during this period the Pointed style received its 
 greatest improvements ;” and that, limiting it to the time 
 of Edward III., “ the form of the arch then principally 
 in vogue admitted of an equilatei'al triangle being pre- 
 cisely inscribed between the crowning point of the arch 
 and its points of springing at the imposts.” The mullions of 
 this style clearly result from the slender shafts which were 
 used in that of the first period against the piers dividing 
 a number of windows. The piers being removed, it be- 
 came necessary that an arch should be turned from side 
 to side, leaving a space to be filled up in the head above 
 the smaller arches. This was done by repeating and con- 
 tinuing their contours, and connecting them by gracefully 
 flowing lines and foliations. It is indeed but an extension Plate 
 of the former; for in some of the early examples theLXXII. 
 mullions are thin columnar shafts having capitals and^Ԥ ,2&3 * 
 bases, and the head of the arch is generally filled up with 
 regular figures, such as foliated circles, leaving spandrels 
 or triangular circular-sided spaces in various parts. It is 
 in the more advanced works of this period that the tracery Fig. 4 & 5, 
 
 run through, and for the most part without the inter- 
 vention of any horizontal mouldings at the impost or 
 springing of the arch. Besides the ordinary covering 
 cornice or drip-stone following the form of the arch, we 
 find a moulded cornice, generally arranged pediment-wise, 
 embracing a window or door, having crockets and finials, 
 and resting on corbels, which are almost always masks. 
 
 This may be called an attached canopy. The columnar Plate 
 piers of this period are nearly square in plan, and areLXXIIl. 
 placed diagonally. They are sometimes composed of Fl S‘ 
 clustered shafts, and sometimes of shafts separated by 
 deep hollows. Their capitals are either moulded simply 
 in rather a deep congeries, or with woven foliage under a 
 moulded abacus. Their bases are a diminishing series of 
 bold mouldings, supported generally by a vertical-faced 
 octagonal plinth. The shafts which support the ribs of 
 the roof or ceiling tracery, in the finest examples of this 
 style, spring from rich and bold corbels in the angles of the 
 arches, or the spandrels, immediately above the piers. The 
 groining ribs do not adhere to the angles of the groins mere- 
 ly, but are set more profusely to form tracery ; and rich bosses 
 are put at every intersection. Buttresses of the second pe- 
 riod are exceedingly various : on angles they are mostly set 
 diagonally. They either diminish gradually in heights or Plate 
 stories, and finish under the cornice, or they run through LXXI V. 
 and are surmounted by pinnacles. In some cases the sets- 1 ^ l - 
 off in diminishing are made simply with an inclined shelf; 
 in others every set-off is formed with a pediment properly 
 
 becomes what may be truly called flowing. The mullion and 1 lats 
 is angular and moulded, and the mouldings run all through t,!j j 1 ' 
 the composition ; the jamb or architrave mouldings also 
 
ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 53 
 
 Pointed enriched, and the face of the buttress is generally orna- 
 Architec- mented with blank tracery in panels or niches. Flying 
 ' Ul re- buttresses in this style are also more ornate than those of 
 
 ' the preceding; indeed in this they became ornaments, 
 
 whereas in the former they appear to have been kept out 
 of sight as much as possible. Parapets are either pierced 
 or embattled, and a similar variety is maintained in pedi- 
 ments. Pinnacles are generally square, but they stand 
 diagonally with regard to the turret or buttress on which 
 they are placed, their angles resting on the apices of the 
 pediments which surmount the faces of the substructure. 
 These pinnacles are richly ornamented with crockets and 
 finials. Spires are less common in the more extensive 
 works of this period than in the precedent ; but in those 
 of minor importance they are frequent, differing little, 
 however, from the same object in works of the first period, 
 except in being more highly enriched. Towers are richly 
 pinnacled; but the pinnacles rest for the most part on 
 small turrets rising from the angles of the tower itself, 
 and seldom from projecting turrets or from the heads of 
 buttresses, which latter are generally found to die away 
 below the cornice. The details and enrichments of this 
 style are too curious and complicated for verbal descrip- 
 tion, but they may be gathered from the examples. 
 
 We possess no one complete cathedral of the second 
 period, but almost all our larger Pointed structures pre- 
 sent specimens of it in a greater or less degree. Except- 
 ing perhaps the upper story or belfries of the towers of 
 York Minster, which are of the third period, its west 
 front is a model for this style, and it presents specimens 
 of almost all its external peculiarities. The nave of the 
 same edifice, and the interior of Exeter Cathedral, are 
 perhaps the finest examples of the second period. The 
 latter edifice, indeed, has the reputation of presenting a 
 greater and more pleasing variety of tracery than any 
 other of the same style. To these may be added the 
 cathedrals of Lincoln and Ely, both of which contain much 
 that is valuable. Next to these cathedrals may be placed 
 Beverley Minster, which is not only a mine of beauty of 
 the first, but it presents many exquisite specimens of this 
 period also. The steeple of St Mary’s Church, Oxford, 
 is a fine example in this style of the combination of tower 
 and spire. Many minor works in England, and several 
 in Scotland, are excellent; particularly much of what re- 
 mains of the High Church, Edinburgh, much of the re- 
 mains of Elgin Cathedral, and the largest portion of those 
 of Melrose Abbey, which, it would appear, was not ex- 
 celled, when perfect, by any thing in the kingdom. 
 
 Plate 
 LXXIV. 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Of the Third Period of Pointed Architecture. 
 
 This is that period of the style commonly known as 
 florid Gothic. The first authority quoted with regard to 
 the styles of the two preceding periods calls it the Per- 
 , pendicular English, and says that this name clearly desig- 
 nates it ; “ for the mullions of the windows and the orna- 
 mental panellings run in perpendicular lines, and form a 
 complete distinction from the last style.” Mr Britton, 
 however, insists that the term perpendicular, though per- 
 haps proper enough, if the style could be sufficiently dis- 
 tinguished by the mullions of the windows and the up- 
 right forms and continuity of the panelling over entire 
 surfaces, “ gives no idea of the increased expansion of the 
 windows, nor of the gorgeous fan-like tracery of the vault- 
 ings, nor of the heraldic description of the enrichments 
 which peculiarly distinguished this period; neither does 
 it convey any information of the horizontal lines of the 
 door-ways, nor of the embattled transoms of the windows, 
 nor of the vast pendents that constitute such important 
 features in the third division.” Although windows with 
 tracery in them may be determined as belonging to this 
 
 period, by the perpendicular and parallel lines found in the Pointed 
 head or arch, and by the use of transoms to divide the Architec- 
 bays into heights, yet the presence of a window of 
 kind does nothing towards fixing the style of the edifice p] ate 
 generally to which it may belong ; for in hundreds of cases LXXII. 
 this sort of window will be found where it is the only Fig. 6. 
 specimen of its age or style in the structure. Other points 
 must therefore be attended to. 
 
 The simpler arches of this style are, like those of the pre- 
 ceding periods, struck from two centres only ; the two sides 
 or halves of the arch are similar segments of a circle whose Plate 
 radius in this case is about three fourths the width of theLXXV. 
 opening. Others are segments of ellipses, and are of course Fig- l. 
 struck from four centres ; but some are eccentric curves, 
 which may be drawn, but cannot be described. Many of 
 both the latter descriptions are extremely flat or depressed, 
 the angle at their apex being very obtuse. The ogee or con- Fig. 8 & 11. 
 trasted arch is also found in works of this period, but this 
 is more common in internal tracery than in external form. 
 
 The modes of arranging tracery must be gathered from 
 examples, for they possess no degree of regularity to ren- 
 der it possible to describe them generally in words. Mul- 
 lions are richly moulded, and so are the architraves of 
 both doors end windows ; the deep congeries of mould- 
 ings forming architraves are not intercepted by horizontal 
 or impost mouldings, but run through from the head down 
 the sides or legs. The angular or pedimented canopy to Plate 
 an arched opening in the style of the second period as- LXXIV. 
 sumes in this the form of a contrasted arch ; it is corbell-Fig- 1. 
 ed and enriched with crockets and finials as in that. Doors, 
 however, in this style are peculiar, because whatever the-pj ate 
 form of the arched head may be, it is inscribed in a square LXXV. 
 frame or canopy, the spandrels being variously enriched. Fig. 1. 
 Columnar piers of this period are of almost para! lelogramic Fig- 4. 
 form, thinner in the direction of the arches, and generally 
 plain on the longer sides, but deeply moulded and running 
 to a thin shaft on the outer edges. These mouldings are 
 those which enrich the arch, there being no capital of any 
 kind to intercept them, so that they run, as in windows 
 and doors, all round the opening. To this, however, there 
 are exceptions. The thin shaft which is formed on the 
 outer edge of the pier continues through from floor to 
 ceiling, to receive the groining ribs ; and it has a thin con- 
 geries of mouldings at either end to form base and capi- 
 tal. The tracery of the ribs of groined ceilings of this 
 period is most profuse, and beyond description intricate. 
 
 To this also belongs the absurdity called basket groining, 
 in which the arches are made to spring on one of their 
 sides from a pendent mass, which, though rich and gor- 
 geous in appearance, threatens constant ruin. Corner 
 buttresses standing diagonally are not so common in this 
 as in the preceding style : in form, however, they are not 
 dissimilar, excepting that the sets-off are plain moulded 
 slopes for the most part, instead of having pedimented or 
 triangular vertical heads, as in that. Flying buttresses 
 are, like the style generally, very much enriched, and are 
 very commonly used. Parapets are variously arranged ; 
 indeed they embrace almost every peculiarity, being either 
 plain, panelled, pierced, or embattled ; and each of the 
 latter modes is effected by different means. Pinnacles inFig.8&lL 
 this style are generally square, but there are examples 
 of them having a greater number than four sides; in the Fig. 1. 
 former and most usual case they are sometimes placed 
 with their sides parallel to those of their pedestals, and 
 sometimes diagonally : they are of course in every case 
 highly enriched with crockets and finials. Spires of this 
 are hardly distinguishable from those of the preceding 
 period; and towers, of which there are innumerable spe- 
 cimens, may be known by the construction of their but- 
 tresses, and by the arrangement of the tracery ip the heads 
 
54 ARC H ITECTURE. 
 
 Pointed of' their windows, as the windows of towers are generally 
 Architec- contemporaneous with that story, or stage of it at least, 
 tu re. t() they belong. Octagonal or otherwise polygonal 
 
 ' turrets at the angles of buildings are not uncommon, and 
 
 they generally finish with an embattled parapet. The 
 pedestals which support the pinnacles on the angles of 
 towers, and at the heads of buttresses, seldom have pedi- 
 mented faces, as in the preceding period, but finish with a 
 corbelled battlement, and not unfrequently send up minor 
 turrets and pinnacles from its angles. 
 
 In the more ornate works of this style the enrichment 
 of flat surfaces is carried to great excess, and it is gene- 
 rally effected by means of panelling. Niches with their 
 canopies, tabernacles, screens, and stalls, exhibit the most 
 exuberant profusion of ornament, for the most part effect- 
 ed in this manner; but we find, besides, a considerable 
 variety of ornaments, foliate and heraldic ; of the former 
 the Tudor flower, which is a combination of the roses, is 
 pleasingly predominant. 
 
 The only one of the cathedrals entirely of this period 
 is that of Bath ; but being generally inferior in merit 
 to many other examples, it need not be cited. Many of 
 the cathedrals, however, have large portions in this style, 
 which can hardly be mistaken if the form of the arches, 
 the arrangement of the tracery, and the mode of enrich- 
 ment, be attended to. The finest west fronts to any of 
 them are possessed by those of Gloucester, Winchester, 
 m and Chester ; but that of Beverley Minster is by far the 
 most perfect and most classic specimen in existence, if we 
 Plate except the front of Westminster Hall, which is also of 
 LXXV. surpassing merit, and is moreover a classic exemplification 
 f'g- *• of most of the peculiarities of the style. Taken as sepa- 
 rate edifices, the chapels of St George at Windsor, of 
 Henry VII. at Westminster, and of King’s College at 
 Cambridge, are the most complete, as they are entirely 
 and peculiarly of the third period. The central towers 
 of the archiepiscopal fanes of Canterbury and York, the 
 tower of Gloucester Cathedral, that of Magdalene College, 
 Oxford, Boston Tower, and the tower of St Mary Magda- 
 lene at Taunton, are singularly excellent examples of the 
 style. To smaller edifices, those of Wrexham and Gres- 
 ford in Wales, and of St Neot’s in Huntingdonshire, are 
 particularly beautiful. Of steeples, that is, towers having 
 spires superimposed, there are many fine specimens ; but 
 the most perfect, perhaps, in composition are those of 
 Bloxliam in Oxfordshire, and of Louth in Lincolnshire: the 
 former is most admirable rather in general than in detail. 
 Many of the monastic ruins throughout the country pre- 
 sent excellent specimens of this style also ; indeed it is 
 to ecclesiastical structures we must look for architectural 
 display in Pointed architecture, as in that of the Egyptians, 
 Greeks, and Romans. We have just specimens enough 
 existing of the architecture of the secular structures of 
 our ancestors to show how inferior it was in merit to that 
 of the ecclesiastical ; and if the castellated mansions of 
 the nobility, and the palaces of the sovereigns, cannot vie 
 in excellence with the cloistered cells of the monks, we 
 may be well assured that ordinary domestic architecture 
 was of a still more inferior cast. 
 
 Elements of Beauty in Architecture. 
 
 Simplicity and harmony are the elements of beauty in 
 architecture ; simplicity in the general form and arrange- 
 ment of a subject, and harmony in the collocation and 
 combination of its various parts. Without these qualities 
 a structure can never possess either dignity or grace, and 
 with them it will certainly possess the attractions of both. 
 The outline, then, most conducive to beauty in architec- 
 ture, is that which bounds the most simple forms. These 
 are the parallelogramic and pyramidal, in which the lines 
 
 are straight and uninterrupted throughout their whole Beauty in 
 length. The ancient monuments of Egypt, of Greece, Architee- 
 and of Rome, offer the most complete exemplifications of v tu re * 
 this. No other than the long, unbroken line which bounds 
 the temples of Egypt could produce an effect so grand ; PL LVI. 
 and no other than the simple, square, and pyramidal 
 forms, could be productive of so much dignity as they 
 possess. In the pyramids and obelisks of the same coun- 
 try the effect of this simplicity is even more obvious. In 
 the temples of Greece, again, the same dignified simpli- PI. LIV. 
 city is still predominant; for although in them the paral- 
 lelogram and pyramid are combined, they are not con- 
 fused ; their mass consisting of a parallelopipedon whose" 
 ends are surmounted by vertically faced pyramids, con- 
 nected by an unbroken line of ridge running parallel to 
 the horizontal boundaries of the sides. Those of the Ro- 
 man monuments which are deficient in simplicity are also 
 deficient in beauty. Such are the triumphal arches, PL LXIV 
 whose general form is broken by columns and arches Fig. 10 & 
 which subject themselves to no commanding outline, but 11- 
 are all at the same time prominent features of and ex- 
 crescences from the general composition. In the temples 
 which are on the Greek model it is not so ; nor is it so in 
 the long series of arches in the Roman aqueducts, which 
 are crowned and connected by commanding lines, unim- 
 peded by projections or protuberances of any kind. The 
 crucial form of the Pointed cathedral may be thought to 
 detract somewhat from its simplicity, and so much from 
 its beauty ; but it is an aggregation of simple forms, per- 
 fectly coherent with the tendency of the leading lines in 
 the style, which, we have seen, is vertical ; and the lines are 
 therefore not broken by the projected masses of the tran- 
 septs, as they would be in the Egyptian and other styles, 
 the tendency of whose commanding lines is horizontal. 
 Otherwise the Pointed cathedral is a modification merely 
 of the form of a Greek temple, with other parallelogramic 
 forms added to it, as towers, or pyramidal, as spires. The 
 same principle will be found to pervade the best works of 
 the Italian school, more or less modified according to its 
 application. 
 
 Next to the straight line is the circular ; but the greater 
 complexity of this latter, and the variety of which it is 
 capable, render it more subtile, and for the most part less 
 competent to produce grand and impressive effects, ex- 
 cept under peculiar circumstances of situation and combi- 
 nation. A cupola such as the cupolas of St Peter’s atPLLXIX 
 Rome and St Paul’s in London, if placed on its base on 
 the ground, or even on a low structure, like a large bee- 
 hive, would be not merely ineffective, but absolutely ugly ; 
 and if, in the situations they occupy, the cupolas referred 
 to were without the diminishing pinnacles above them, to 
 bring their general outlines within that of the pyramid, it 
 is a question whether they would possess the attractive 
 beauty they now do. If St Paul’s be looked at in the 
 gray twilight of morning or evening, or when a mist ren- 
 ders its form indistinct, the impression conveyed by the 
 mass is that of a lofty pyramid or cone, rising out of the 
 substruction which the cathedral forms, and running off 
 to a point in the sky. The superstructure of St Peter's 
 is, as we have seen, more depressed, and less perfectly 
 formed in this particular; yet nevertheless it maybe sub- 
 mitted to the same test, and the same or nearly the 
 same result will follow. Furthermore, let a hemisphere 
 or an oblate hemispheroid be supposed in the place of 
 the prolate hemispheroid, as at present, and this reason- 
 ing will be rendered more clear; for neither of those 
 forms, even with the accessories these possess, would be 
 as beautiful ; and without them they would be ungainly 
 deformities, as is proved by that example on the new 
 palace in London, on the site of Buckingham House. 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Beauty in The cupola of the London University exemplifies this 
 Architec- point also ; for though its profile is elegant, and its acces- 
 , Ulre ' ; sories are generally good, the composition does not re- 
 solve itself into a simple form, and the result is far from 
 being beautiful. 
 
 When the circular form is employed cylindrically, the 
 utmost simplicity is required to be preserved in its hori- 
 zontal, as well as in its vertical lines, or the result will be 
 totally devoid of all architectural beauty. In proof of 
 this, let the broken and dentilled columnar ordinance 
 which surrounds the tholobate of St Peter’s be compared 
 with the noble, unbroken peristyle in the corresponding 
 part of St Paul’s. In the former the cylindrical mass is 
 studded with a series of minute excrescences of coupled 
 columns ; and in the latter it forms a grand, beautiful, and 
 effective compartment of the composition. 
 
 The preceding remarks do not of course apply to the 
 interior of a structure in the same manner ; for although 
 as high a degree of simplicity is required internally as ex- 
 ternally, similar combinations are not necessary, nor are 
 they indeed always available. A spacious concave, of what- 
 ever form its profile may be, so that its plan be a perfect 
 circle, is one of the grandest works of architecture, and at 
 the same time one of the most simple, whether it occupy 
 a compartment of the structure to which it belongs, as in 
 St Peter’s and St Paul’s, or cover the complete edifice to 
 PI LXIV. which it appertains, as in the Pantheon at Rome. In 
 t 'g- *t. such situations it is indeed almost impossible to destroy 
 its inherent simplicity ; and being unconnected with exter- 
 nal circumstances, it requires no coherence with any thing 
 else, being as independent of its substructure as of its ex- 
 ternal contour for effect. Irregular and intricate forms, 
 however, in works of architecture, whether internally or 
 externally, will be found unpleasing. Few can admire the 
 Fig. 1 & 2 . external effect of the Pantheon, or of the structure in 
 London called the Colosseum, which has been subjected 
 to the same arrangement, though certain features in both 
 may be indisputably good. To these may be added the 
 church in Langham Place, London, and indeed many 
 others ; but that is an egregious example in point. The 
 complication of straight and circular in their composition, 
 and the consequent irregular forms and undefined out- 
 lines, totally destroy both simplicity and harmony. The 
 comparison of an Egyptian obelisk with a monumental 
 column of the same relative size will afford the strongest 
 proof of the superiority the more simple form possesses 
 over the more complicate. None, however, but those who 
 have visited Rome, in which city alone the comparison 
 can properly be made, can duly appreciate this evidence ; 
 but London furnishes a contrast almost as much to the 
 purpose, in the monument on Fish Street Hill, and the 
 lofty shot tower by the south-west angle of Waterloo 
 Bridge. They are both of cylindrical form; but the one 
 is crowned by a square abacus, and the other by a bold 
 cornice, which follows its own outline. The greater sim- 
 plicity and consequent beauty of the latter is such as to 
 strike the most unobservant. 
 
 Not only in general form and outline is simplicity ne- 
 cessary to beauty in architecture, but in all its details, 
 and even in its enrichments, also. In exemplification of 
 this, a Greek entablature may be compared with one in 
 the Roman style, in which every thing is sacrificed to 
 profuse ornament; and the style of ornament in the latter 
 may again with equal advantage be compared with that 
 of the age of Louis XIV. of F/ance. In the arrangement 
 of the parts of a composition, as well as in the composi- 
 tion itself, simplicity is essentially necessary to the beauty 
 of the whole ; every style will afford exemplifications of 
 PI. LIX. this also, in the comparison of the more simple with the 
 lig. £>. more complicate specimens of the same. Compare the 
 
 ECTURE. 53 
 
 few simple and well-defined parts of a Grecian Ionic en- Beauty in 
 tablature with a Roman or Italian example of that order: Architec- 
 in the latter will be found a complexity and straining at t , 
 
 effect not at all consistent with beauty and dignity, de-pj ^ 
 termining the comparison much in favour of the first; jV. 3. 
 and so in many other cases which might be cited. Thatpi. LXVX 
 the more simple arrangement of columns at equal dis-Fig. 4 . 
 tances is superior to that in which they are coupled or 
 placed only alternately equidistant, is clear from the fact 
 that the latter mode was first proposed, and is only used 
 to obviate difficulties, and not from choice, except in the 
 works of the merest pretenders. 
 
 Harmony, concord, or fitness — of proportion, of form, 
 of one part of a composition to another, and in the collo- 
 cation of the various enrichments which architecture re- 
 quires, — is as necessary to its beauty as simplicity. We do 
 not speak of the agreement which should exist between 
 the manner or character of a structure and its application, 
 for that is purely conventional, and totally independent of 
 any architectural consideration. The merit or demerit 
 of a composition is not at all affected by the use to which 
 the edifice is applied; neither would its front be more 
 tolerable, nor its cupola less beautiful, if St Peter’s in 
 Rome were, by the course of events, to become a demo- 
 cratic forum instead of a papal basilica ; nor is the monu- 
 ment of London a more or less elegant object, whether it 
 be understood to record a triumph or a defeat — the burn- 
 ing of the city, or its re-edification. Harmony in archi- 
 tecture is that agreement which exists between its various 
 parts, as in the relation of a column to its entablature and 
 stylobate, in the accordance of a cornice with the eleva- 
 tion it crowns, and in the coherence of one part of a com- 
 position with another. It is that which exists in the com- 
 mon tendency of the leading lines of a structure ; and it 
 is that which blends the straight and circular in enrich- 
 ment or decoration, as in the capital of an Ionic column 
 whose square and horizontal form is harmoniously adapted 
 to the vertical lines and cylindrical form of the shaft, by 
 the intervention of the volutes. An inharmonious combi- 
 nation arises out of the collocation of the same voluted 
 capital with a pilaster or square pier. This quality re- 
 quires a judicious arrangement of ornament. That a cer- 
 tain degree of enrichment should pervade the whole of a 
 composition, and not be confined to one part of it — for in- 
 stance a Corinthian ordinance, in which the columns are 
 unfluted and the entablature is quite plain — is inharmoni- 
 ous ; for the capitals being masses of rich foliage, are 
 spots, having nothing to connect them with the rest. A 
 degree of harmony must exist, too, between the solids and 
 vacuities of an edifice. An Italian portico, with its thin 
 and straggling columns, is an inharmonious object, for it 
 conveys an idea of infirmity and poverty, which is not the 
 case with one proportioned like the best Greek and Ro- 
 man examples. In the front of a house, windows and the 
 piers between them being too wide or too narrow will af- 
 fect its character in this respect. The comparative size 
 of various portions of the same composition, though they 
 be in themselves simple and harmonious, may be such that 
 they shall not be so in combination. The portico of the 
 London University is of almost unequalled magnificence 
 and beauty, and the cupola behind and above it is of elegant 
 form, though deficient in another particular, as we have 
 already stated; yet they do not harmonize — the one is much 
 too large for the other, and their forms are incoherent. 
 
 Thus harmony has reference to comparative magni- 
 tude, strength, decoration, disposition, and proportion. 
 
 To acquire a knowledge of all these sufficient to produce 
 a worthy result, a long course of study and careful obser- 
 vation are necessary : but such can only be necessary to 
 the architect ; it is enough for the general student to be 
 
56 ARCH! T E CTUR E. 
 
 Composi- able to appreciate them when present, and to detect their 
 tionf absence. 
 
 ' -l ' 
 
 Principles of Architectural Composition. 
 
 These must be different in the widely differing species 
 of architecture, whose tendencies in the one are to hori- 
 zontal or depressed, and in the other to vertical or upright 
 lines and forms; the former including all those varieties 
 which derive from the Greek and Roman modes of de- 
 sign, or columnar and circular-arched architecture ; and 
 the latter embracing those which arise out of the pointed 
 arch, and which we have distinguished by the term 
 Pointed. Except in the elements of architectural beauty, 
 which must be the same in all architectural works, there 
 is no similarity whatever between the principles which 
 govern composition in the two species. Simplicity of form, 
 and harmony between the parts, are as essentially neces- 
 sary to the one as to the other ; but instead of the leading 
 horizontal lines required by the former, the latter is dis- 
 tinguished by the absence of commanding lines having 
 that tendency, and by the presence of strongly marked 
 lateral projections and vertically inclined lines. The rec- 
 tangular figure formed by the front of a Greek temple, 
 below the pediment, rests on one of its longer sides as a 
 base. In a Pointed composition that order is reversed, 
 and one of the shorter sides becomes the base ; and the 
 pediment, instead of being a depressed obtuse-angled tri- 
 angle, becomes upright and acute-angled ; the whole mass, 
 moreover, follows the change thus described, so that the 
 same figure, a parallelopiped, is set for horizontal or ver- 
 tical composition, as a larger or smaller side is made the 
 base. This being the case, it will be necessary to treat 
 of them separately; for rules which apply to the one are 
 totally inapplicable to the other, and the former, being of 
 most common application, may be taken first. We shall 
 quote the principles which appear to have actuated the 
 Greek and Roman architects in the production of their 
 best works, or rather the principles which those works de- 
 velope, instead of citing all existing ancient works as au- 
 thorities; and determine on those principles how to pro- 
 duce similar results in cases of which examples do not 
 appear in ancient practice. In the same manner, we must 
 deduce the principles for general composition in the 
 Pointed style, from those which appear to enter into its 
 best existing works. 
 
 Of Horizontal Composition. 
 
 Every thing tending to break the continuity of the lead- 
 ing horizontal lines in a composition should be avoided. 
 The advantage of adhering to this, and the disadvantage 
 PI. LXX. resulting from the breach of it, are clearly exemplified in 
 P’g- 1- the front of the Farnese Palace, and in the flank of St 
 PI. LXIX. Peter’s at Rome. In London, too, the fronts of the Ban- 
 Fig- 2. queting House at Whitehall, and of Somerset House to 
 the Strand, offer similar exemplifications of the principle; 
 the former having both the entablatures and the stylobate 
 of the upper ordinance broken round every column, which 
 makes the ordinances mere excrescences, and the latter pre- 
 serving the leading lines continuous and unbroken through- 
 out, to the manifest advantage of the whole composition. 
 This applies equally to columned and arcaded ordinances, 
 and to compositions in which neither is used; and it is as 
 much opposed to the projection of masses to form wings 
 and centres, whether shallow or deep, as to the breaking 
 of an entablature or stylobate round one or two columns. 
 Sufficient variety of light and shadow is attainable with- 
 out the use of columnar ordinances at all, as the Farnese 
 Palace evinces. But if, however, it be required to give 
 a greater degree of importance to an elevation than can 
 
 be attained in that manner, it may be produced without Compcsi- 
 either attaching or insulating columns the whole extent, tion - 
 by means of antae and recessed compartments with co-'^~ v-x ^ / 
 lumns in them, as on either side of the gates in the north 
 or Lothbury front of the Bank of England, and on the flanks 
 of the churches of St Pancras and St Martin in London ; but 
 a mere pilastraded ordinance, or pilasters with an entabla- 
 ture and without columns, is bald, tasteless, and unmean- 
 ing, as the front of Crockford’s Club-house, in London 
 also, very clearly shows. In speaking of the Italian style, 
 we have shown the injudiciousness of putting order above 
 order, because of the impossibility of maintaining a ra- 
 tional arrangement with regard to diminution and inter- 
 colunmiation. We made that, too, an objection to the ele- 
 vation of the Roman Colosseum ; but the practice is more- PI. LXI V. 
 over objectionable, because of the repetition of the simi-Fig. l. 
 lar parallel lines of the entablatures, similarly projected too, 
 which destroy the breadth a composition should possess ; 
 and because the upper and crowning cornice, if in propor- 
 tion to its own ordinance, must be disproportioned to the 
 whole elevation which takes from that member a charac- 
 ter of grandeur or meanness, as it may or may not be fit- 
 ted to its whole height. This is made very evident by 
 the opposed fronts of the United Service and Athenaeum 
 Club-houses in London, the former of which is finished 
 by the thin shelf-like cornice of a second order, and the 
 latter by a bold massive crowning cornice in the style of 
 that of the Farnese Palace. In a similar manner, and for 
 the same reason, the practice of raising lofty basements 
 to support columnar ordinances is injudicious ; and this 
 detracts much from the merit of the front of Somerset 
 House just referred to, by making the crowning cornice of 
 less importance than it should be. In St Paul’s this fault 
 is partially relieved by the somewhat exaggerated size of 
 the cornice of the upper order, and by the insertion of 
 cut blocks, in the manner of upright modillions, under it 
 the whole depth of the frieze. Nothing, again, should be 
 allowed to superimpose a crowning cornice, except what 
 may form a part of itself, as antefixae ; where, however, 
 something is absolutely necessary, as on a bridge, a close 
 simple parapet, as low as it may be conveniently, should 
 be resorted to. On the principle first developed, porti- 
 coes should not be projected from the front of a building, 
 unless they occupy the whole extent of it, as in a Greek 
 or Roman temple, and so carry the horizontal lines unbro- 
 ken to the flanks ; or they should be made distinct and 
 independent objects, to which the rest of the composition 
 may be subservient, as in the London University. A porti- 
 co should moreover be considerably projected, or the sur- 
 face behind it recessed, that the columns may have a back- 
 ground of shadow, otherwise it will be poor and inefficient. 
 
 Of this the Greek temples offer a favourable exemplifica- 
 tion; and most of our churches, and other modern edifices 
 which have porticoes to them, prove the correctness of the 
 principle in the breach of it. Exceptions more or less 
 favourable certainly exist, whose superior merit is suffi- 
 cient to indicate them. A pediment should never be used 
 unless it is made to embrace the whole of the end or 
 front to which it is attached. Numberless absurdities 
 have arisen in Italian architecture from the injudicious 
 application of this form ; so general, indeed, is it, that 
 the fact of a pediment existing under any circumstance 
 in a work of that style is almost a sufficient reason for 
 avoiding a similar use of it. Nothing is more difficult 
 than to combine straight and circular, or otherwise bend- 
 ing lines, with propriety and good taste, and therefore 
 their collocation, in general composition particularly, should 
 be seldom attempted. It is when they harshly contrast, 
 as in circular pediments, and in mixed compositions of 
 columns or pilasters, with their accessories, and arches and 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Composi- their piers, that the combination is bad ; but not so in tbe 
 tion. connection of the arch with its pier, so that the former 
 be semicircular or semielliptical, and not smaller segments, 
 in which cases they fall naturally and gracefully together. 
 The incoherence and inelegance of contrasted straight and 
 circular forms are very evident in the New Exchange at 
 Paris, where two tiers of circular-headed windows are seen 
 within a Corinthian peristyle. Circular prostyles or cvr- 
 toprostyles should be avoided, as their horizontal lines 
 cannot be made to harmonize perfectly with any form to 
 which they may be attached. This however does not apply 
 to peristyles ; and both the one and the other are exempli- 
 fied by the transept porticoes and columned tholobate of 
 St Paul’s. The use of coupled columns is so absurd, and 
 they are confessedly so inelegant, that it seems almost 
 unnecessary to proscribe them. Suppose apertures, such 
 as windows, arranged in couples throughout an elevation, 
 with very narrow and very wide piers alternating, and both 
 tbe absurdity and the inelegance become manifest : now, 
 neither the one nor the other can be either lessened or 
 changed by reversing the case, and putting alternately 
 wide and narrow openings, as in coupled columnar ordi- 
 nances. Columns may with propriety be put further apart 
 when they are attached than when they are insulated, 
 because the entablature, resting in part on the wall, is 
 neither in fact nor in appearance made infirm by tbe dis- 
 tension, as it would be if it rested on the columns alone. 
 All the parts of the same edifice which come into view, 
 under any circumstances at the same time, should corre- 
 spond ; but insulated and attached columns of the same 
 ordinance and in the same elevation may, under certain 
 circumstances, without impropriety be arranged with a dif- 
 ferent intercolumniation. 
 
 An arcaded ordinance should be considered as only 
 more massive than, and differently shaped from, a colum- 
 nar, and may therefore be governed by nearly tbe same 
 principles. A pier is but a differently shaped and more 
 massive column, and the archivolt but a succedaneum 
 for the architrave ; while a bold blocking course, or a com- 
 mensurate cornice and frieze, as the composition may be 
 more or less ornate, will complete the ordinance. Under 
 this view nothing can be more absurd than to affix columns 
 or pilasters to the piers of an arcade to support an enta- 
 blature, and certainly nothing can be more inharmonious, 
 from the contrast which arises, as we have just remarked, 
 between the rectangular lines of the latter, and the in- 
 scribed circular lines of the arch, as well as the incon- 
 gruity necessarily attending the interspaces of the columns. 
 
 In speaking of Greek and Roman architecture, we have 
 shown why columns should, and why anta; and pilasters 
 should not, be fluted ; and have shown also, that a certain 
 degree of richness or plainness of surface should pervade a 
 composition, and not be confined to particular parts of it. 
 It will now be enough to add, that in composing, lights 
 and shadows should not be scattered on a surface as they 
 are on the front of the Banqueting House, by broken ordi- 
 nances ; nor should either be too much narrowed, as the 
 light on the corona of a Roman cornice too frequently is, 
 by the too great projection of the cymatium. It will be 
 found, moreover, that shadows projected horizontally are 
 more in coherence with the horizontal style of composi- 
 tion, than those which fall laterally, or from a vertically 
 projecting object. 
 
 Columns, 8fc . — Tbe proportions of the columnar orders 
 will be best sought in the existing examples of the an- 
 cients ; and those we give of them afford sufficient va- 
 riety. What is deficient in one may be made up from 
 another; and what appears superfluous in one example 
 may be omitted, as its omission may appear beneficially 
 to affect another. The Doric may be adopted from the 
 
 E C T U R E. 57 
 
 Parthenon or the temple of Theseus, as tbe best existing Composi- 
 models of the order. If an ungraduated stylobate be tion - 
 used, which should be avoided if possible, it should not 
 exceed one diameter in height. The intercolumniation £ lyj]J 
 should not exceed one triglyph, as in the Greek temples, 
 though for compositions of a generally less dignified cha- 
 racter it may, perhaps, be extended to two. A good mo- 
 dern example of the Doric order, in a work of the latter 
 description, may be seen in the small entrance portico to 
 the University Club-house in London. The Ionic example PI. LIX. 
 from the Erechtheum, which we have given, may be 
 used as a model for that order, with the same restriction 
 with regard to the stylobate which is made to the Doric. 
 Additional depth may with advantage be allowed to the 
 bed-mould of the cornice, and it may be effected by the 
 insertion of a dentilled member, which indeed some of 
 the ancient Greek (though not Athenian) examples pos- 
 sess. The intercolumniation should not be less than one 
 diameter and a half, nor should it exceed two diameters. 
 
 In London this order is admirably applied in tbe front of 
 an Episcopal chapel on the east side of North Audley 
 Street ; and this particular example is very correctly co- 
 pied on the exterior of the church of St Pancras. The Pl.LXIII. 
 great inferiority of the Roman examples of the Doric and Ex. 3 & 4 
 Ionic orders is too evident to require that what it consists 
 in should be pointed out, and they are the models of the 
 Italian. The Greek example of the Corinthian order PI. LX. 
 might perhaps be improved by making the dentil member Fig- 3. 
 of the cornice a little shallower, by projecting the corona 
 rather less, and by correcting the form of some of the 
 mouldings of the entablature generally. If the columns 
 be used in a prostyle or other insulate position, they may 
 with advantage be made half a diameter less in height ; 
 and the intercolumniation also should be made less than 
 it appears in the original, where the columns are attached. 
 
 This example has been well executed in the entrance to 
 the Philadelpheion or Exeter Hall, in the Strand ; but the 
 pedestals and the attic are blemishes in the composition. 
 
 Of the Roman examples of this order, that of the temple PI. LXII. 
 of Jupiter Stator is certainly the best. Its greatest faultFx. 1. 
 is the too great magnitude of tbe cornice, of which every 
 member, except tbe corona, might advantageously be re- 
 stricted one tenth of its height; that which is dentilled 
 might indeed be reduced one fifth. The projections might 
 also be diminished in the same proportion, removing the 
 greater diminution of one fifth in this particular from the 
 dentilled member to the cymatium, and the ovalo under 
 it, both of which project by far too much. The three fas- 
 cias of the architrave are too unequally divided. The 
 lowest may be made as wide as the middle one, by de- 
 ducting their difference from the third or upper one. In 
 the Tivoli example the architrave is too shallow, and so Ex. 
 are the dentil band and corona of the cornice ; and the 
 cymatium is both too deep and too much projected. The 
 cornice would moreover be improved by denticulating the 
 dentil band, and by enriching the frieze with an ornament 
 less coarse and less massive. If this example be used in 
 a generally ornate composition, some of the mouldings of 
 the entablature should be enriched. The parts of the 
 entablature of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina are Ex. 3. 
 well proportioned to each other. The cornice of this ex- 
 ample would be improved by giving additional height to 
 the dentil band at the expense of the moulding above it, 
 and by denticulating it also. The cymatium is rather too 
 shallow, and may be widened out of the moulding under 
 it; and both should be restricted in their projection at 
 least one fifth. The capital of this example is poor, and 
 its abacus is too shallow. The shaft requires fluting, and 
 one half the depth of the upper fillet of the base might be 
 added with advantage to the tori and scotia. The cited 
 
58 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 Composi- example from the portico of the Pantheon has, like the 
 Aon. last mentioned, the parts of its entablature well propor- 
 tioned to each other. As in the Jupiter Stator example, 
 PL LXII. {fog architrave should be more equally divided. The 
 k x ' mouldings, too, separating the fascias, should be made 
 less ; and the superior moulding, at least of the archi- 
 trave, carved, unless the frieze were enriched, and then it 
 would not be necessary. In the cornice a fifth or sixth 
 should be taken from every member of the bed-mould 
 and added to the corona. In the presence of modillions, 
 however, the dentil band is judiciously kept plain, though 
 the moulding below it would be better if enriched. The 
 capital of this example is as faulty as that of Antoninus 
 and Faustina, and in the same particulars. The shaft also 
 requires fluting, and the base might with advantage be 
 made to spread more. The ordinance of the temple of 
 Pl.LXIII.Mars Ultor, though the most masculine, is, from its good 
 Ex. 1. proportions, and the bold character of its foliage, one of 
 the most excellent of the Roman Corinthian examples. 
 Most of the entablature being supplied from a not well 
 authenticated source, may not be original ; but that is of 
 no consequence, if it be beautiful. The corona, like that 
 member in most Roman entablatures, wants greater depth ; 
 and the cymatium perhaps less, and certainly less projec- 
 tion. In this, as in the first-mentioned Roman example, 
 with modillions there are dentils. This is injudicious; 
 the member would be better plain, as in the Pantheon 
 ordinance. The architrave, which is authentic, is exceed- 
 ingly well proportioned, and the column is fine in all its 
 parts. These examples all vary in their intercolumnia- 
 tion, from rather less than one diameter and a half to a 
 fraction more than two diameters, beyond which propor- 
 tions, either less or more, it would not be well to go. A 
 stylobate to the order might judiciously be adapted from 
 the Greek ; for the stilted effects produced by insulated 
 pedestals, and even by continuous vertical stylobates, are 
 injurious to the general appearance of a columnar compo- 
 sition ; and the thin steps in common use detract exceed- 
 ingly from its beauty under any circumstances. 
 
 There are many varieties of the foliate capital which 
 may be used with advantage ; one of the least elegant, 
 however, is that which assumes the distinction of being 
 called the Composite order. The example of it from the 
 Ex. 2. arch of Titus is one of the best, if not the best ; but it 
 will be seen, on comparison, to be strikingly inferior to 
 the Corinthian examples, or those in which the volutes 
 of the capital are made subservient to the foliage, instead 
 of being distended into huge mis-shapen knobs. The en- 
 tablature, too, is only an exaggerated Corinthian. If it be 
 wished to use foliate capitals differently composed from 
 the ordinary, it may be well to preserve the character 
 and proportions of the entablature the same, or nearly so. 
 Under any circumstances, however, care should be taken 
 in composing an entablature, that it have sufficient height, 
 and yet not be too heavy ; that it be sufficiently divided, 
 and yet not frittered ; that the parts have sufficient 
 breadth, and be not so much projected as to bury all 
 that is below them in shadow ; and that ornament be pro- 
 perly distributed, and in sufficient quantity, without over- 
 loading the composition with it, as in the ordinance of the 
 arch of Titus. 
 
 If again it be wished, under any circumstances (though 
 PI. LX. the practice cannot be recommended), to use human 
 Fig. 4. 5, figures as columns, there appears to be no reason why 
 & the entablature should be executed without a frieze, as it 
 
 is in the example of the Pandroseum ; and if a frieze be 
 inserted, it should be by lessening the other parts, and 
 not by increasing the whole, as that entablature (taking 
 it as a model) is quite deep enough in proportion to the 
 height of the ordinance. 
 
 Entasis in columns need not be regarded, unless they Composi- 
 exceed eighteen or twenty feet in height; but it adds tion- 
 much to their beauty, and should not be neglected when 
 they ai’e above that magnitude. No rule can be given for 
 its production, but it may be thus described. The shaft, 
 instead of being the frustrum of a regular cone, is the 
 frustrum of a cone whose outline is not straight, but 
 slightly convex ; so that if it were perfect, its vertical sec- 
 tion would have the form of a very acute pointed arch. 
 
 This convexity should, however, be so slight as in the 
 finished shaft to be hardly perceptible. Its abuse is evi- 
 dent in the columns of the east front of the church of St 
 Paul, Covent Garden, and indeed in some of the less es- 
 teemed works of the Greeks themselves. The modes of 
 fluting in the different orders may be gathered from the 
 examples. The flutes should be deeper or shallower, as 
 the collocation of the ordinance may require a greater or 
 less depth of shadow on the surface of the columns. The 
 elliptical or nearly elliptical contour seems to be the 
 most generally pleasing. The flutes meet in an arris on 
 columns of the Doric order, and are separated from each 
 other by alternating fillets in the Ionic and Corinthian. 
 
 Antce and Pilasters . — These should seldom be used, ex- 
 ternally at least, unless with columns, for their real use is 
 to connect a columnar ordinance with the walls to which 
 it is attached ; and being, as they are, but slight projec- 
 tions from walls for that purpose, nothing can be more 
 absurd than to give them the features of columns, either 
 by the application to them of similar capitals and bases, 
 by diminishing, or by fluting. The use of antse was right- 
 ly understood by the Greeks, but not by the Romans ; and 
 their proper use may be seen in the works of the former. 
 
 The examples in London of their judicious application, 
 most worthy of remark, are in those edifices already men- 
 tioned as exhibiting good specimens of the Greek orders, 
 in the Bank of England, and in the portico only of the 
 London University. The adaptation in these of other than 
 the bold foliage and branching cauliculi of the columnar 
 capitals in the Corinthian ordinances to the antae caps is 
 particularly worthy of notice (though they are not all of 
 equal merit as compositions), as the Greek remains are 
 without a regular example of Corinthian antse, and the 
 Roman practice is inelegant. 
 
 Pediments . — As there is no mode by which the pitch of 
 a pediment can be determined, it must be left to the taste 
 of the designer to be governed or not by the examples of 
 Greek and Roman antiquity: it may, however, be pre- 
 mised of them generally, that those of the former school 
 are too flat, and those of the latter too steep. The pedi- 
 ment of the portico of the London university is admirably 
 proportioned to the rest of the composition, but its pitch 
 would be absurdly flat if applied to a tetrastyle portico. 
 
 The inclined sides of a pediment are covered by a cornice 
 similar to that which forms its base, except that all blocks, 
 modillions, and dentils are omitted, even if the bed-mould 
 itself be retained, and a cymatium superadded. 
 
 Cornices , fyc . — Although a perfect entablature should 
 not be applied to crown an edifice, except it be in con- 
 nection with columns of some sort, or their legitimate re- 
 presentatives, piers, yet a single cornice, or a cornice and 
 frieze, is not so ; and it forms the most pleasing termina- 
 tion to an elevation in which columns are not used. The 
 proportion of one or the other may be best found by set- 
 ting out a columnar ordinance of the style preferred at 
 the height of the elevation ; and the size of the cornice or 
 cornice and frieze thus given will aptly become it. The 
 Vignolan or block cornice, in which the frieze is occu- 
 pied by cut blocks, is exceedingly effective : it is this 
 which Sir Christopher Wren has employed in the upper pi. LXX. 
 entablature of St Paul’s, and Vignola himself in the front Fig. 2. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 59 
 
 Composi- of the Villa Guilia. With these cornices rustic quoins 
 tion. consort very pleasingly, and so they do indeed with all 
 single cornices which are of a bold character, and all such 
 should be so. 
 
 PI. LX VI. Arcades, fyc. — The most graceful average proportion 
 for these is, that the opening be twice the width of the 
 pier, and twice its own w’idth in height to the crown of 
 the arch. The practice of the Italian school in the com- 
 position of arcaded ordinances may be generally followed 
 with advantage, except in mingling and confusing them 
 with columnar. The pier is based by a deep square plinth, 
 and surmounted by a square or moulded cap or impost, 
 the upper surface of which is the base line of the arch. 
 In rusticated work the radiating stones of the arch show 
 their joints, and are cut to a uniform appearance with 
 the ordinary surface of the wall. In other cases there is 
 a moulded arcliivolt, whose width varies from an eighth to 
 a tenth of the opening of the arch. A dropping keystone 
 is generally used; but this very much injures the simpli- 
 city, and consequently the beauty of the arch, and should 
 be avoided. 
 
 Doors and Windows, 8fc . — The most approved propor- 
 tion for these apertures, also, is twice their width in height. 
 In an elevation which comprises several tiers or stories, it 
 is customary to make those of the lowest or ground story 
 rather less than that proportion in height; those of the 
 first or principal story rather more ; those of the second 
 somewhat less again ; and those of the third (if there be 
 so many) square or even lower. If, however, the eleva- 
 tion consist of but two, the ground story should be the 
 principal, and its windows of the most importance (if 
 any difference be made between them at all), those of the 
 upper story being then less than the stated proportion in 
 height. The modes of ornamenting doors and windows 
 are so various, and they depend so much on the coherent 
 parts of the composition, that it is impossible here to go 
 into their varieties, or to give particular instructions for 
 their adaptation. The practice of the Italian school may 
 in this case also be generally followed, avoiding those 
 things in it which are injurious, and referring to the Greek 
 for the details of mouldings and ornament. The applica- 
 tion of a columnar ordinance to every door or window, 
 giving it the effect of a little edifice in relief, exemplified 
 by the windows of the principal story of the Farnese Pa- 
 lace, must be censured as injudicious ; and so must pedi- 
 ments of all kinds, but particularly those formed with cir- 
 cular lines, or lines twisted in any way, or, though right 
 lined, not meeting in a point at the apex. In basements 
 or ground stories windows or doors may be lined with 
 rustic courses with good effect, though the face of the 
 wall be not rusticated; and if it be so, no other lining is 
 thought necessary. The windows of a principal story may 
 he lined with an architrave, either quite straight or re- 
 turning in knees at the head, and resting on a continuous 
 blocking course below. This architrave may be surmount- 
 ed by an enriched frieze and cornice, the former bounded 
 at the ends, and the latter upborne by trusses or consoles, 
 which may rest on or be affixed to a species of pilaster, 
 outside the architrave, and parallel to it; if detached sills 
 are preferred, a shorter and bolder truss may be judicious- 
 ly applied below the sill, under the foot of each pilaster, 
 to complete the composition : the architrave is generally 
 a sixth or a seventh of the opening in width, and the con- 
 sole and its pilaster about a ninth or tenth. Upon no ac- 
 count should rustics be run through the architrave lining 
 of a window, as on the flanks of St Martin’s Church in 
 London. A series of circular-headed windows conjoined, 
 as in the earlier works of the Venetian school, is produc- 
 tive of a pleasing effect; but the large circular-headed, 
 with two conjoined smaller rectangular windows, found in 
 
 the later works of the Italian school, and called Venetian, Composi- 
 is radically inelegant ; and there is such a one in the tion - 
 east end of the structure last mentioned. Blank windows 
 should be recurred to as seldom as possible ; and when 
 they cannot be avoided, they should have sash-frames and 
 sashes as if they were real windows, otherwise they give a 
 maimed effect to an elevation. 
 
 Niches . — There are very few cases in which these do 
 not act injuriously on a composition, from the difficulty of 
 making them cohere with the other parts : the usual 
 mode in Italian practice is to give them the effect of win- 
 dows, which cannot be approved of. Internally they may 
 be used with much better effect than on exteriors. If a 
 niche is intended to receive a statue, it should have a cir- 
 cular head ; if a vase, it will perhaps be better straight ; 
 the plan of a niche is semicircular. 
 
 Parapets. — The pierced parapet or balustrade is not in- 
 elegant when the forms of which it is composed are sim- 
 ple and chaste, as piers ; but the close continuous parapet 
 is generally preferable, because of its greater simplicity, 
 and its accordance with the principles developed in the 
 most classic works of architecture. The parapet of a pro- 
 jected balcony, to give an appearance of lightness, may 
 perhaps be better pierced ; but if a stereobate continue 
 straight through a window without projection, it should 
 remain close and uncut, unless there exist some special 
 reason for wishing to make the window appear so much 
 higher. 
 
 Balconies . — These, whether continuous or broken to 
 every window, act for the most part injuriously in a com- 
 position. In the former case they cannot be kept sufficient- 
 ly under not to appear of too much importance ; and in 
 the latter they have the effect of a broken cornice or en- 
 tablature. In both cases, when a balcony is above the eye, 
 it destroys the proportion of the windows opening on it, 
 by intercepting more or less of their height. 
 
 Proportion and Arrangement of Booms . — Whatever the 
 length of a room may be, it will not be disagreeably pro- 
 portioned if its height and breadth are the same; and if 
 the length may be limited, once and a half the breadth is 
 the most pleasing. Galleries, of course, will be much 
 longer than that proportion ; and corridors will necessarily 
 be narrower than they are high. Entrance-halls should 
 be cubical, regularly polygonal, or circular. Access should 
 be given to a room by the end; it should be lighted on 
 one side, and the fire-place may be at the other end, or 
 on the other side : if the former, there should be two 
 doors, or one and the appearance of another, that the fire- 
 place may not be immediately opposite to a door. Many 
 things, however, from localities and otherwise, constantly 
 occur to make it absolutely impossible to attend to such 
 suggestions as these. In halls and saloons not command- 
 ing a pleasing view, the windows may be advantageously 
 placed above the usual level, for agreeable effect, for light, 
 and for ventilation. In rooms lighted from above, as the 
 Pantheon in Rome is, a columnar ordinance may be judi- 
 ciously adapted; but otherwise columns and their acces- 
 sories can seldom be well disposed internally. 
 
 Chimneys . — If a chimney be in the end of a room, it 
 should be similarly proportioned, the height and breadth 
 of its opening corresponding with the height and breadth 
 of the room; if it be on a side, it should be somewhat 
 wider than it is high ; if the room be longer than the 
 sesquialteral proportion, it should have two fire-places, 
 either at the two ends or equidistant from the centre of 
 one of the two sides. The chimney-piece should be bold 
 and massive, not frittered into small parts and much mould- 
 ed ; it may, however, have its vertical faces enriched with 
 great advantage. 
 
 Ceilings . — The ceiling of a room should be nearly plain, 
 
(50 ARCHITECTU R E. 
 
 Composi- but it may rest on a bold and enriched cornice, not com- 
 tlo n - posed like an external cornice, as it is differently lighted, 
 but with deep covings instead of broad flat surfaces. Such 
 cornices are highly susceptible of ornament, and they may 
 have additional effect given to them by means of colour. 
 In large rooms the area of the ceiling may be pleasingly 
 contracted, and so made to appear lighter, by coving the 
 angles altogether, and thus bringing the cornice on which 
 it rests lower down on the walls. This mode of arrange- 
 ment is used, too, in the small rooms of a lofty story, to 
 take off from their too great height. The horizontal sur- 
 face of a ceiling may be treated like a large panel, with 
 broad borders and slight sinkings ; or, if it be very large 
 and lofty, coffering or panelling all over, with moulded 
 or painted ornaments, will produce an agreeable effect. 
 Domed ceilings should be coffered, especially when they 
 are lighted from above ; but if the light be from below, 
 as in St Paul’s and St Peter’s Cathedrals, ribbing is far 
 better. Heavy cumbrous masses of foliage in a ceiling 
 should be avoided ; frets, guiloches, and arabesque orna- 
 ments, are the best suited enrichments for a ceiling on 
 which ornament is necessary. 
 
 Stabs . — In a structure whose principal apartments are 
 on the ground floor, the staircase is a secondary considera- 
 tion, and should be secluded ; but where they are above 
 the level of the entrance door, it becomes an important 
 part of the interior, and should be of immediate and easy 
 access. The rise of a step should not be more than six 
 inches, and the tread not less than twelve. In a square 
 staircase winders should not be used ; and in no case 
 should there be more than ten or twelve flyers without a 
 quarter or half space, both to prevent fatigue in ascending, 
 and to avoid even the appearance of danger in the de- 
 scent. Winding staircases are less convenient and less 
 pleasing in effect than those which are square and with- 
 out winders. Much room may be saved, however, where 
 it is of consequence, by using the former. Handrails 
 should follow the character of the staircases to which 
 they are attached ; but a somewhat square form, with the 
 sides or edges moulded, should be given to them under 
 all circumstances, because of its simplicity, as well as the 
 greater degree of firmness or solidity which the whole 
 composition derives from it, both in effect and in appear- 
 ance, than can be acquired for it otherwise. The hand- 
 rail and balusters of an in-door staircase is indeed but the 
 parapet of an external flight of steps or of a terrace, exe- 
 cuted with more lightness and a greater degree of deli- 
 cacy because of their location. The balustrading, also, 
 should therefore be characterized by boldness and sim- 
 plicity, though it is indeed a difficult thing to compose 
 with propriety, because of its inclination, and the want of 
 parallelism between the graduating base formed by the 
 ends of the steps and the hanging level of the coping or 
 handrail. The first step of a staircase has a voluted or 
 curtail end (or ends if it be insulated, as in a staircase 
 with a double returning flight) supporting a column or 
 newel, on which the voluted or scrolled end of the hand- 
 rail rests. The steps of a staircase are wrought with 
 moulded nosings, which are returned at the exposed ends ; 
 the under surface is either cut straight and parallel to the 
 inclination of the flight, or moulded to form a pleasing ob- 
 ject when seen from below. 
 
 Mouldings and Ornament . — The Greek examples offer 
 the most beautiful forms for mouldings, and the Grecian 
 mode of enriching them is unsurpassed for beauty and effi- 
 ciency. By adhering to them, and observing the manner 
 in which they are produced and combined, it will not be 
 difficult to produce and combine mouldings in sufficient 
 variety for every purpose. 
 
 For ornament the Homan examples may vie with the 
 
 Greek ; but in composing or adapting, it is necessary to Composi- 
 
 avoid alike the tendency to too great luxuriance in the 
 
 one, and to poverty in the other. The remains of Her- 
 
 culaneum and Pompeii have furnished us with a great 
 
 deal of ornament that is new and beautiful ; and much 
 
 that is excellent may be found on the earlier architectural 
 
 and sculptural monuments of Italy of the middle ages. 
 
 It should nevertheless be always borne in mind that the 
 object in architectural enrichment is not to show the or- 
 nament, but to enrich the surface, by producing an effec- 
 tive and pleasing variety of light and shade ; but still, al- 
 though the ornament should be a secondary consideration, 
 it will develope itself, and should therefore be of elegant 
 form and composition, as well as the means of producing 
 a good effect on the architecture to which it is attached. 
 
 Of Vertical or Pointed Composition. 
 
 The towers of Westminster Abbey are an excellent 
 practical illustration of the essential difference which 
 exists between the horizontal and vertical styles of archi- 
 tectural composition. In general form they belong to 
 the Pointed style, and in so far cohere with the structure 
 generally; but the running lines of the buttresses, if their 
 angle piers may be so called, are constantly intercepted by 
 transverse cornices ; and all the details are strangely in dis- 
 cordance with the character derived from the pointed arch. 
 
 Buttresses in a Pointed composition must not be con- 
 sidered simply as buttresses, or supports to the angles, or 
 sides of a structure, any more than a cornice in horizon- 
 tal composition may be thought only necessary to cover 
 or protect the wall on which it rests. That these were 
 the uses for which they were severally applied originally, 
 cannot perhaps be doubted ; but although they may be 
 useful as such, we must now consider them as aids to ar- 
 chitectural effect. Buttresses, then, are of the same use 
 in the vertical style that cornices are in the horizontal — 
 to give character to an elevation, by throwing a mass of 
 shadow, to relieve it of the monotony necessarily attend- 
 ant on a flat surface, however it may be pierced or en- 
 riched. The sides of the buttresses should be either 
 quite perpendicular the whole height they have to run, 
 or be slightly diminished, if the wall behind them dimi- 
 nishes, in lengths and not by inclined lines. Their faces 
 also must run up vertically to the sets-off, and these should 
 be in the same inclined line, and that line pointing to the 
 apex of their pinnacles, when pinnacles surmount them. 
 
 Indeed it cannot be too strongly enforced that there should 
 be a constant tendency in the outlines of compositions in 
 this style to meet, although the surfaces be themselves so 
 generally perpendicular; and the more acute the angle 
 under which they incline, the more graceful and becoming 
 the style the result will be. The commanding lines of every 
 part of a composition should lead through from its summit 
 to the base. Thus, a spire or pinnacle should rest on a tower 
 or turret whose angles are not interrupted, but never on 
 a merely flat wall, however it may be faced with but- 
 tresses to give an apparent projection. Neither should 
 low porches be projected from the face of a structure, lor 
 such can only have the effect of excrescences, and tend to 
 injure a composition ; nor should external doors be made 
 but in places where the harmony of the composition is 
 not injured by them as irregular apertures. Internally, 
 square forms are seldom used ; but piers consist of clustered 
 cylindrical shafts, and thin shafts of the same form, lofty, 
 and uninterrupted by crossing lines, act as pilasters. On 
 these, capped with deeply inflected congeries of mould- 
 ings or foliage for the former, and lighter ones made con- 
 tinuous and breaking round them for the latter, rest the 
 arches and arched ceilings. Flat surfaces are susceptible 
 of high enrichment by means of tracery and panelling ; 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 61 
 
 Glossary, mouldings are enriched, not by carving on them, but by 
 rounding out foliage and other ornament in covings and 
 other deep inflections. Corbels should not be substituted 
 for shafts to support arches when it can be avoided; but 
 they have a pleasing effect as supports to the dripstone or 
 canopy of a door or window ; and indeed there are many 
 other situations in which they are almost necessary, but 
 they should always be considered as succedaneous, and 
 not as necessary to a composition. 
 
 To avoid glaring inconsistencies in composing, it will 
 be well to adhere generally to the style of some particu- 
 lar period, and to employ the proportions and enrichments, 
 as well as the forms, peculiar to it ; but, nevertheless, a 
 more ornate may superimpose a plainer part, so that the 
 difference be not violent. Windows of the second period 
 may be placed over an arched composition of the first, 
 and appear naturally to result from it; but the transition 
 would be so great from the first to the third, as to make 
 the result inharmonious. It need not however be denied, 
 to those who feel themselves competent to use the mate- 
 rials with good taste and propriety, to select matter from 
 examples of the various periods, and make compositions 
 not exactly in the style of any of them. With a clear 
 perception of the principles of the style generally, which 
 we have endeavoured to point out, and a practical ac- 
 
 quaintance with the classic exemplars of it, such may Glossary, 
 certainly be produced ; and they may as certainly be ''‘’""T''*"' 
 adapted to all the purposes to which any species of archi- 
 tecture can be applied. 
 
 Rules for practice might be made to infinity, but they 
 are unnecessary in this case, there being no authorized 
 modern practice, like that of the Italian school in horizon- 
 tal composition, to counteract. It is but to use the forms, 
 proportions, decorations, and enrichments, and follow the 
 mode of combination, which appear in the examples : these, 
 with constant reference to the principles we have attempt- 
 ed to develope, will be the surest and safest guides in 
 composing and arranging any subject. They are, too, so 
 rife with materials for general purposes, that few cases 
 can occur in which there need be any difficulty in finding 
 parallels. Buttresses, piers, shafts, arches, pediments, 
 parapets, turrets, pinnacles, windows, doors, niches, ceil- 
 ings, tablets, with mouldings and ornaments in great 
 profusion, — indeed almost every thing that can be re- 
 quired in practice, — appear in existing works of the style; 
 preventing the necessity of determining from the mode of 
 procedure in one case how we should act in another, as 
 the comparative paucity of materials in the Greek and 
 Roman remains rendered it necessary to do in developing 
 the horizontal style. (h. h.) 
 
 GLOSSARY OF NAMES AND TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE . 1 
 
 Abaciscus (diminutive of Abacus, q. v.). This term is 
 applied to the chequers or squares of a tessellated pave- 
 ment. 
 
 Abacus (Gr. a£a£, a square tile or table). The rectan- 
 gular and equilateral tablet covering the ovalo of the 
 capital of the Doric column, and on which the super- 
 imposed entablature rests, is called the abacus; and 
 from it the similar part (though differently shaped) of 
 all capitals is distinguished by the same term. Abacus 
 means the same thing, but is opposed in application to 
 Plinth, q. v. See also Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Acroterium (Gr. uxgurrigiov, the summit or vertex), a 
 statue or ornament of any kind placed on the apex of a 
 pediment. The term is often incorrectly restricted to 
 the plinth, which forms the podium merely for the acro- 
 terium. The statue of the saint on the apex of the 
 pediment of the western front of St Paul’s is an acrote- 
 rium ; the other statues may be called acroteral figures. 
 
 Amphiprostyle (Gr. ay<pi, around or about, and pro- 
 style, q. v.). A temple with a portico at each end is said 
 to be an amphiprostyle. This term would be more cor- 
 rectly applied to a structure having projecting porticoes 
 on all its sides, especially if it be equilateral like the 
 Bourse or Exchange at Paris, allowing no distinction of 
 flanks or wings to make it peripteral. See Plate LIX. 
 fig. 3 and 4, and Description, page 69. 
 
 Annulet (Lat. annulus, a ring). This term is applied 
 to the small fillets or bands which encircle the lower 
 part of the Doric capital immediately above the neck 
 or trachelium. 
 
 Ant.® (probably from the Gr. amof, or some other com- 
 pound of the preposition am, for, or opposite to ; it 
 has no singular), the pier-formed ends of the walls of 
 a building, as in the portico of a Greek temple. A 
 portico is said to be in antis when columns stand be- 
 tween antae, as in the temple of Theseus, supposing the 
 peristyle or surrounding columns removed. Plate L VIII. 
 fig. 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 Antefix® (Lat. ante, before, and fixus , fixed), upright 
 blocks with an ornamented face placed at regular inter- 
 vals on a cornice. Antefixae were originally adapted to 
 close and hide the lower ends of the joints of the co- 
 vering tiles on the roof of a temple as they appear in the 
 examples. Plate LVII. fig. 1, 2, and 4; and Plate LIX. 
 fig. 3. 
 
 Apophyge (Gr. avofivyr;, a flying off), the lowest part 
 of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the 
 highest member of its base if the column be considered 
 as a whole. The apophyge is the inverted cavetto or 
 concave sweep, on the upper edge of which the cylin- 
 drical shaft rests. Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Apteral (Gr. a priv. and Trig ov, a wing), a temple with- 
 out columns on the flanks or sides. The Greek Ionic 
 temple, Plate LIX., is apteral. 
 
 Ar®ostyle (Gr. aga/oj, rare or weak, and eruXos, a co- 
 lumn), a wide intercolumniation. (See Eustyle.) The 
 space assigned to this term is four diameters. 
 
 Ar®osystyle (compounded of arceostyle and systyle, 
 q. v.). This term is used to express the arrangement 
 attendant on coupled columns, as in the western front 
 of St Paul’s Cathedral. Plate LXVIII. fig. 1. 
 
 Arcade, a series of arches. 
 
 Arch (Lat. arcus, a bow), a construction of separate or 
 distinct blocks or masses of any hard material, cut 
 wedge-wise, and arranged in a bowed form, so as to 
 bear from end to end horizontally, or across an open- 
 ing, though abutting or being supported only at the 
 ends. 
 
 Architrave (Gr. ag^r), chief, and Lat. trabs, a beam), 
 the chief beam, — that part of the entablature which 
 rests immediately on the heads of the columns, and is 
 surmounted by the frieze: it is also called the episty- 
 lium or epistyle. Plate LXVI. fig. 1. The moulded 
 enrichment on the sides and head of a door or window 
 is called an architrave. 
 
 Archivolt. This term is a contraction of the Italian 
 
 * Those marked thus -f are either entirely, or almost entirely, peculiar to Pointed Architecture. 
 
62 ARCHITECT TJ R E. 
 
 Glossary. architrave voltato. It is applied to the architrave 
 moulding on the face of an arch, and following its con- 
 tour. 
 
 Arris, the sharp edge or angle in which two sides or 
 surfaces meet. 
 
 Astragal (Gr. ocgrguyu'kog, a vertebral joint), a con- 
 vex moulding. This term is generally applied to small 
 mouldings, and torus to large ones of the same form. 
 (See Torus.) 
 
 Attic, a low story above an entablature, or above a 
 cornice which limits the height of the main part of an 
 elevation. The etymology of this term is unsettled : 
 probably the upper range of columns in a Greek hypae- 
 thral temple (see Plate LVII. fig. 1) was called urtiyov, 
 from having no coherent wall ; whence the Latin atticum, 
 and its application to a story superimposing the general 
 ordinance. Otherwise such a thing is unknown in 
 Greek architecture; but it is very common in both 
 Roman and Italian practice. What is here termed the 
 tholobate in St Peter’s and St Paul’s cathedrals are 
 generally termed attics. 
 
 Baluster, a small column or pier supporting the coping 
 in a pierced parapet : the parapet itself when pierced is 
 hence called a balustrade. 
 
 Band or Taenia, nearly synonymous with Fillet, q. v. 
 This term is, however, most generally applied to that 
 listel in the Doric entablature which separates the 
 frieze from the architrave, and connects the lower parts 
 of the triglyphs. 
 
 Base (Gr. £a<ng, from the verb to bear). The congeries 
 of mouldings generally placed under the shaft of an 
 Ionic or Corinthian column is called its base. Plate 
 LXVI. fig. 1. The term is applied also to the lowest 
 part of a pedestal or stylobate ; to the vertical moulded 
 fittings which go round walls on the floor ; and gene- 
 rally to every thing that is put lowest, for any thing to 
 rest on. 
 
 Batter (Fr. battre, to beat). Building over in projecting 
 courses, like inverted steps, is termed battering, beat- 
 ing, or corbelling over. 
 
 f Battlement, a pierced or machicolated parapet. 
 
 f Bay. The space between the mullions of a window, be- 
 tween piers, and between the principal beams of a roof, 
 floor, or ceiling, is a bay. 
 
 Bead, a small cylindrical moulding of frequent use. 
 Plate LXI. 
 
 Bed-mould, the congeries of mouldings which is under 
 the projecting part of almost every cornice, and of 
 which indeed it is a part. Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Blocking-course, a deep but slightly projecting course 
 in an elevation, to act as cornice to an arcade, or to 
 separate a basement from a superior story. (See 
 String-course.) 
 
 j- Boss, a sculptured knob which is placed on the inter- 
 sections of ribs in groined ceilings. 
 
 ■f Buttress, the projected piers against the angles of 
 towers, and against the ordinary piers of walls, to 
 strengthen them, and receive the outward thrust of the 
 inner transverse arches. 
 
 Cabling. The flutes of columns are said to be cabled 
 when they are partly occupied by solid convex masses, 
 or appear to be refilled with cylinders after they had 
 been formed. 
 
 f Canopy, a covering or hood, the enriched projecting 
 head to a niche or tabernacle. The tablet or drip-stone, 
 whether straight or circular, over the heads of doors or 
 windows, if enriched, is called a canopy. 
 
 Capital, Cap (Gr. the head), the spreading, 
 
 moulded, voluted, foliate, or otherwise enriched head Glossary, 
 of a column. Plate LXVI. fig. 1. The term cap is 
 applied, in contradistinction, to the congeries of mould- 
 ings which forms the head of a pier or pilaster. 
 
 Caryatides. Human female figures used as piers, co- 
 lumns, or supports, are called Caryatides; and, adjec- 
 tively, Caryatic is applied to the human figure general- 
 ly, when used in the manner of Caryatides. Plate LX. 
 fig. 4 and 6. 
 
 Cassoon (ItaL), a deep panel or coffer in a soffit or ceil- 
 ing. This term is often written, after the French cais- 
 son, whereas we derive it directly from the Italian 
 cassone, the augmentative of cassa, a chest or coffer. 
 
 Cathetus (Gr. xa&ros, a perpendicular line). The eye 
 of the volute is so termed because its position is deter- 
 mined, in an Ionic or voluted capital, by a line let down 
 from the point in which the volute generates. 
 
 Cauliculus (Lat. a stalk or stem), the inner scrolls or 
 tendrils of the Corinthian capital are called Caidiculi. 
 
 It is not uncommon, however, to apply this term to the 
 larger scrolls or volutes of the same also. Plate LXVI. 
 fig. 1. 
 
 Cavetto (Ital. cavare, to dig out), a moulding whose 
 form is a simple concave, and impending. Plate LXI. 
 
 Cella (Lat.), the cell or interior of a Cleithral temple. 
 
 The Greek term is Naos, q. v. 
 
 Chamfer. An edge or arris taken off equally on the two 
 sides which form it, leaves what is called a chamfer , or 
 a chamfered edge. If the arris be taken off more on 
 one side than the other, it is said to be splayed or be- 
 velled. 
 
 f Cinquefoil, tracery in five foliations or featherings. 
 
 The windows in the towers of Westminster Hall, Plate 
 LXXV., are cinquefoiled. 
 
 Cleithral ( vide Cleithros). This is used of a covered 
 Greek temple, in contradistinction to Hypcethral , which 
 designates one that is uncovered. 
 
 Cleithros (Gr. zKu&^og, an inclosed or shut up place). A 
 temple whose roof completely covers or incloses it is a 
 Cleithros. Plate LV1II. fig. 1, 2, 3; and Plate LIX. 
 fig. 1, 2, 3, and 4. 
 
 Coffer, a deep panel in a ceiling. 
 
 Column (Lat. columna ), a tapering cylindrical mass, 
 placed vertically on a level stylobate, in some cases 
 with a spreading congeries of mouldings called a base, 
 and having always at its upper and smaller end a di- 
 lating mass called a capital. Columns are either insu- 
 lated or attached. They are said to be attached or 
 engaged when they form part of a wall, projecting one 
 half or more, but not the whole of their substance. 
 
 Plate LIX. fig. 1 exhibits insulated, and fig. 2 attached 
 columns. See also Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Consol or Console, a bracket or truss, generally with 
 scrolls, or volutes, at the two ends, of unequal size and 
 contrasted, but connected by a flowing line from the 
 back of the upper one to the inner convolving face 
 of the lower. 
 
 Coping, the covering course or cornice of a wall or para- 
 pet. The term coping is generally applied to a plain, 
 slightly projected, covering course, and cornice to a 
 larger moulded coping. 
 
 j- Corbel, a knob, boss, or consol, projecting from a ver- 
 tical face, to act as a prop or support. Its jutting or 
 overhanging has induced the application of the term 
 to describe the projection of one thing over another. 
 
 Cornice (Gr. zoguvig, the highest part, that which is 
 placed last on a building), the highest part of an en- 
 tablature — that which rests on the frieze. Plate LXVI. 
 fig. 1. The term cornice is very generally applied to 
 any bold congeries of mouldings occupying the highest 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 63 
 
 Glossary. place in a composition, whether external or internal. A 
 plain covering to a wall or parapet is called a coping, q. v. 
 
 Corona ( vide Cornice). This term is applied to the 
 deep vertical face of the projected part of the cornice 
 between the bed-mould and the covering mouldings. 
 Plate LX VI. fig. 1. 
 
 f Crocket (probably from the old English word crok, a 
 curl), an ornament of foliage or animals running up 
 the back of a pediment, arch, pinnacle, or spire, from 
 the corbels below to the finial above, in which latter 
 the crockets on both sides appear to merge. Plate 
 LXXV. fig. 3 and 5. In the earlier examples the crocket 
 is a mere curl, or bent tendril, with an enriched end. 
 
 Cupola (Ital. cupo, concave, profound), a spherical or 
 spheroidal covering to a building, or to any part of it. 
 Plate LXIV. fig. 2, 3, and 4 ; Plate LXIX. ; and Plate 
 LXXIV. fig. 2. 
 
 f Cusp (Lat. cuspis, a spear), the points in which the 
 foliations of tracery finish. These are sometimes them- 
 selves enriched, and are sometimes plain. 
 
 Cyclostylar (Gr. xmXog, a circle, and eruXog, a column). 
 A structure composed of a circular range of columns 
 without a core is cyclostylar, for with a core the range 
 would be a peristyle. This is the species of edifice 
 falsely called by Vitruvius Monopteral. (See Monop- 
 teros.) 
 
 Cyma (Gr. xgaa, a wave), the name of a moulding of 
 very frequent use. It is a simple, waved line, concave 
 at one end and convex at the other, like an Italic f In 
 that manner it is called a cyma-recta; but if the con- 
 vexity appear above, and the concavity below on the 
 right hand, it is then a cyma-reversa. Plate LXI. 
 
 Cyrtostyle (Gr. xvgro g, convex, and ffruXog, a column), 
 a circular projecting portico. Such are those to the 
 transept entrances to St Paul’s cathedral, Plate LXIX. 
 fig. 1. 
 
 Dado or Die, the vertical face of an insulated pedestal, 
 between the base and cornice or surbase. It is ex- 
 tended also to the similar part of all stereobates which 
 are arranged like pedestals in Roman and Italian archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Decastyle (Gr. dexa, ten, and arvXog, a column), a por- 
 tico of ten columns in front. (See note to the term 
 Hexastyle.) The portico to the London University 
 is of this description ; more particularly described, it is 
 deca-prostyle and recessed. 
 
 Dentil (Lat. dens, a tooth). The cogged or toothed 
 member, so common in the bed-mould of a Corinthian 
 entablature, is said to be dentilled ; and each cog or 
 tooth is called a dentil. Plate LX VI. fig. 1. 
 
 Design. Architects apply this term to what is vulgarly 
 called a plan, intending by it the scheme or design of 
 a building in all its parts, the term plan having a dis- 
 tinct application to a technical portion of the design. 
 (See Plan.) The plans, elevations, sections, and what- 
 ever other drawings may be necessary for an edifice, 
 exhibit the design. 
 
 Detail. As used by architects, detail means the small- 
 er parts into which a composition may be divided. It 
 is applied generally to mouldings and other enrich- 
 ments, and again to their minutiae. 
 
 Diameter (superior and inferior). The greater diameter 
 of the shaft of a column is technically termed its infe- 
 rior, because it is that of the lower end ; and the lesser, 
 that of the upper end, its superior diameter. 
 
 Diastyle (Gr. dia, through, and aruXog, a column), a spa- 
 cious intercolumniation, to which three diameters are as- 
 signed. ( Vide Eustyle.) 
 
 Dipteral. (See Dipteros.) 
 
 Dipteros (Gr. big, twice, and trngov, a wing), a double Glossary, 
 winged temple. The Greeks are said to have con- 
 structed temples with two ranges of columns all round, 
 which were called dipteroi. A portico projecting two 
 columns and their interspaces is of dipteral or pseudo- 
 dipteral arrangement. See description of fig. 3, Plate 
 LVIII. page 69. 
 
 Distyle (Gr dig, twice, and ffruXog, a column), a portico 
 of two columns. This term is not generally applied 
 to the mere porch with two columns, but to describe a 
 portico with two columns in antis. The elevation of 
 the pronaos of the hexastyle peripteral temple, Plate 
 LVIII. fig. 2, exhibits an example of distyle in antis. 
 
 Ditriglyph (Gr. dig, twice, and triglyph, q. v.), an in- 
 tercolumniation in the Doric order, of two triglyphs. 
 
 (See Monotriglypii.) 
 
 Dodecastyle (Gr. bubexa, twelve, and aruXog, a column), 
 a portico of twelve columns in front. (See note to 
 Hexastyle.) There is no portico of this description 
 in London at present. The lower one of the west front 
 of St Paul’s Cathedral (Plate LXVIII.) is of twelve co- 
 lumns, but they are coupled, making the arrangement 
 pseudo-dodecastyle. (See Pseudo-Prostyle.) The 
 Chamber of Deputies in Paris has a true dodecastyle. 
 
 Dome (Gr. dw/iu, a structure of any kind; whence the 
 Latin domus, a house or temple), a cupola or inverted 
 cup on a building. The application of this term to its 
 generally received purpose is from the Italian custom 
 of calling an archiepiscopal church, by way of emi- 
 nence, II duomo, the temple ; for to one of that rank, 
 the cathedral of Florence, the cupola was first applied 
 in modern practice. The Italians themselves never call 
 a cupola a dome : it is on this side the Alps the mistake 
 has arisen, from the circumstance, it would appear, that 
 the Italians use the term with reference to those struc- 
 tures whose most distinguishing feature is the cupola, 
 tholus, or (as we now call it) dome. (See Cupola.) 
 
 j- Dripstone, the moulding or cornice which acts as a 
 canopy to doors and windows. Horizontal running 
 mouldings are sometimes called tablets and sometimes 
 dripstones. 
 
 Drops. (See Gutiye.) 
 
 Echinus (Gr. iyjmg, an egg), a moulding of eccentric 
 curve, which (when it is carved) being generally cut 
 into the forms of eggs and anchors alternating, the 
 moulding is called by the name of the more conspicu- 
 ous. It is the same as Ovalo, q. v. 
 
 Elevation, the front, or facade as the French term it, of a 
 structure. A geometrical drawing of the external up- 
 right parts of a building. Architects speak of front, 
 back-front, and side or end elevations. 
 
 Entablature or Intablature (Lat .in, upon, and talnda, 
 a tablet). The superimposed horizontal mass in a co- 
 lumnar ordinance, which rests upon the tablet or abacus 
 of a column, is so called. It is conventionally compos- 
 ed of three parts, architrave, frieze, and cornice, q. v. 
 
 Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Entasis (Gr. ivrutng, a stretching or swelling). Columns 
 are said to have entasis when they do not diminish re- 
 gularly, but in a curved line. (See page 58.) 
 
 Epistylium or Epistyle (Gr. m, upon, and arvXog, a 
 column). This term may with propriety be applied to 
 the whole entablature, with which it is synonymous ; 
 but it is restricted in use to the architrave or lowest 
 member of the entablature. 
 
 Escape, a term sometimes used for the apophyge ot a 
 column. (See Apophyge.) 
 
 Eustyle (Gr. tv, well, and aruXog, a column), a species 
 of intercolumniation, to which a proportion of two dia- 
 
64 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 meters and a quarter is assigned. This term, together 
 with the others of similar import, — pycnostyle, systyle, 
 diastyle, and araeostyle, — referring to the distances of 
 columns from one another in composition, is from Vi- 
 truvius, who assigns to each the space it is to express. 
 It will be seen, however, by reference to them indivi- 
 dually, that the words themselves, though perhaps suf- 
 ficiently applicable, convey no idea of an exactly de- 
 fined space, and by reference to the columnar struc- 
 tures of the ancients, that no attention was paid by 
 them to such limitations. It follows, then, that the 
 proportions assigned to each are purely conventional, 
 and may or may not be attended to without vitiating 
 the power of applying the terms. Eustyle means the 
 best or most beautiful arrangement; but as the effect 
 of a columnar composition depends on many things be- 
 sides the diameter of the columns, the same proportion- 
 ed intercolumniation would look well or ill, according 
 to those other circumstances ; so that the limitation of 
 eustyle to two diameters and a quarter is absurd, and 
 so it is in the case of the other similar terms. With 
 Doric intercolumniation it is different, as may be seen 
 by reference to the word Monotriglyph. 
 
 FA9ADE, (See Elevation.) 
 
 Fascia (Lat. a band). The narrow vertical bands or 
 broad fillets into which the architraves of Corinthian 
 and Ionic entablatures are divided, are called fasciae or 
 fascias ; and the term is generally applied to any simi- 
 lar member in architecture. 
 
 f Featherings. (See Foliations.) 
 
 Fillet, a narrow vertical band or listel, of frequent use 
 in congeries of mouldings, to separate and combine 
 them, and also to give breadth and firmness to the 
 upper edge of a crowning cyma or cavetto, as in an 
 external cornice. The narrow slips or breadths between 
 the flutes of Corinthian and Ionic columns are also call- 
 ed fillets. 
 
 f Finial (Lat .finis, the end). This term is equivalent 
 to the Greek Acroterium. It is applied to the carved 
 apex of pediments, piers, pinnacles, and canopies. 
 
 Flute, a concave channel. Columns whose shafts are 
 channelled are said to be fluted, and the flutes are col- 
 lectively called flutings. 
 
 ■f Foliations or Featherings, small arches meeting in 
 points or cusps, which are plain or enriched. They are 
 used as an enrichment in tracery, and are distinguish- 
 ed as trefoils, quatrefoils, and cinquefoils, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Frieze (Ital .fregio, from the Lat. plirygionius , enriched 
 or embroidered), that portion of an entablature between 
 the cornice above and the architrave below. Plate 
 LXVI. fig. 1. It derives its name from being the reci- 
 pient of the sculptured enrichments either of foliage or 
 figures which may be relevant to the object of the 
 structure. The frieze is also called the zoophorus, q. v. 
 
 Frontispiece, the front or principal elevation of a struc- 
 ture. This term, however, is generally restricted in 
 application to a decorated entrance. 
 
 Gable. When a roof is not hipped or returned on itself 
 at the ends, its ends are stopped by carrying up the 
 walls under them in the triangular form of the roof it- 
 self. This is called the gable, or, indeed, the pediment. 
 The latter term, however, is restricted to the ornamen- 
 
 tal and ornamented gable ; and gable itself is applied Glossary, 
 to a plain triangular end. 
 
 Gradino (Ital. dim. of gradus, a step). Architects fre- 
 quently use the plural of this term, gradini, and to gra- 
 dinate, instead of the English, steps, and to graduate, 
 perhaps without sufficient reason, though they find 
 them useful to distinguish what they intend from the 
 meaning of the latter words in their ordinary accepta- 
 tion. 
 
 Groining. In vaulting or arching over from insulated 
 piers, the cross vaults meet in angles, and lead to a 
 common centre or apex. This is called groining. 
 
 Guiloche or Guilochos (Gr. ywov, a member, and Xo%o{, 
 a snare). An interlaced ornament like network, used 
 most frequently to enrich the torus. Plate LXI. 
 
 Guttle (Lat. drops). The small cylindrical drops used 
 to enrich the mutules and regula; of the Doric entabla- 
 ture are so called. 
 
 Helix (Gr. sX/g, a wreath or ringlet), used synonymous- 
 ly with Cauliculus, q. v. It forms in the plural He- 
 lices. 
 
 Hemiglyph (Gr. riyiovs, half, and yXutpri, an incision or 
 channel). The half-channels, or rather chamfered 
 edges, of a triglyph tablet, may be so called. The two 
 hemiglyphs are included to make the third channel, 
 and complete the triglyph. (See Triglyph.) 
 
 IIexastyle (Gr. sg, six, and tfruXoj, a column). A por- 
 tico of six columns in front 1 is of this description. Most 
 of the churches in London which have porticoes have 
 hexa-prostyles. (See Prostyle.) 
 
 Hypotiral. (See Hypa;thros.) 
 
 PlYPiETiiRos (Gr. iwro, under, and aiSga, the air), a 
 temple open to the air, or uncovered. The Greeks fre- 
 quently made the temples of the supreme divinities 
 hypaethral. For instance, those of Jupiter Olympius at 
 Agrigentum in Sicily, of Neptune at Paestum, and of 
 Minerva Parthenon at Athens, are all of this descrip- 
 tion. The term may be the more easily understood by 
 supposing the roof removed from over the nave of a 
 church in which columns or piers go up from the floor 
 to the ceiling, leaving the aisles still covered. In that 
 case it would be hypaethral, after the manner of the 
 Greek hypaethros. The Pantheon in Rome having an 
 opening in the centre of the dome, is thereby rendered 
 hypaethral. See Plates LVII. and LXIV. fig. 4 and 5. 
 
 Hyfogea (Gr. a-o, upon, and yrj, the earth). Construc- 
 tions under the surface of the earth, or into the sides of 
 a hill or mountain, are hypogea. 
 
 Hypotracheliqm (Gr. iino, upon, and rgaj^jjXos, the neck), 
 the part forming the junction of the shaft with the 
 capital of a column ; the neck of the capital itself. In 
 some styles it is a projecting fillet or moulding, and in 
 others, as the Doric, it is composed of a channel or 
 groove, and sometimes of more than one. Plate LXVI. 
 fig. 1. 
 
 Jamb, the side-post or lining of a door-way or other 
 aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame 
 are called reveals. 
 
 Ichnograpiiy (Gr. r/voi, a footstep or track, and ygafjj, 
 a description or representation). A plan, or the repre- 
 sentation of the site of an object on a horizontal plane, 
 is its ichnography. The term plan (q. v.) is, however, 
 much more frequently used than this. 
 
 * The words “ in front” are used to prevent the mistake which might arise from a supposition that all the columns in a portico 
 should be counted to designate it. The porticoes of the churches of St Martin in the Fields, and St Mary-le-bone, in London, for 
 instance, have eight columns each, but are lieXastyle, there being but six in their front rows. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 
 Glossary. Impost (Lat. impositus, laid upon). The horizontal con- 
 geries of mouldings forming the capital of a pier, or edge 
 pilaster, which has to support one leg of an arch, is call- 
 ed the impost; sometimes, and more conveniently, this 
 term is used for the pilaster itself, when its capital is 
 called the impost cap or impost mouldings. 
 
 Xntercolumniation (Lat. inter, between, and column, 
 q. v.). The distance from column to column, the clear 
 space between columns, is called the intercolumniation. 
 
 -j- Label, the level moulding or dripstone over a door 
 or window, common in the later Pointed works. It is 
 generally turned down at the ends at right angles, and 
 slightly returned again horizontally and outwards. 
 
 Lacunar (Lat.), a panelled or coffered ceiling or soffit. 
 The panels or cassoons of a ceiling are more classically 
 called lacunaria. 
 
 f Lantern (Lat. lanlerna ), a turret raised above a roof 
 or tower, and very much pierced, the better to trans- 
 mit light. In modern practice this term is generally 
 applied to any raised part in a roof or ceiling, contain- 
 ing vertical windows, but covered in horizontally. 
 
 Metope (Gr. /iirovri, a middle space), the square recess 
 between the triglyphs in a Doric frieze. It is sometimes 
 occupied by sculptures. Plates LVII. and LVIII. fig. 4. 
 
 Mezzanine (Ital. mezzanino , dim. of mezzo, the middle), 
 a low story between two lofty ones. It is called by the 
 French entresol, or inter-story. 
 
 Modillion (Lat. modulus, a measure of proportion), so 
 called because of its arrangement in regulated distances; 
 the enriched block or horizontal bracket generally 
 found under the cornice of the Corinthian entablature. 
 Plate LXVI. fig. 1. Less ornamented, it is sometimes 
 used in the Ionic. See also Mutule. 
 
 Module (Lat. modidus , a modus, a measure or rule). This 
 is a term which has been generally used by architects 
 in determining the relative proportions of the various 
 parts of a columnar ordinance. The semidiameter of 
 the column is the module, which being divided into 
 thirty parts called minutes, any part of the composition 
 is said to be of so many modules and minutes, or minutes 
 alone, in height, breadth, or projection. The whole 
 diameter is now generally preferred as a modus, it being 
 a better rule of proportion than its half. 
 
 Monopteral. (See Monopteros.) 
 
 Monopteros (Gr. flows, one, or single, and irrsjov, awing). 
 This term is incorrectly used by Vitruvius to describe 
 a temple composed of a circular range of columns sup- 
 porting a tholus, cupola, or dome, but without walls. 
 (See Peripteral.) Such an edifice would be more 
 correctly designated as Cyclostylar, q. v. 
 
 Monotriglyph (Gr.ftows, one, or single, and triglyph, q. v.). 
 
 - The intercolumniations of the Doric order are determin- 
 ed by the number of triglyphs which intervene, instead 
 of the number of diameters of the column, as in other 
 cases ; and this term designates the ordinary interco- 
 lumniation of one triglyph. Plate LVIII. fig. 1. 
 
 Mouldings, eccentric curves of various kinds, intended 
 to enrich and ornament, by producing light and shade, 
 and obviating the monotony attendant on many flat 
 and angular surfaces. They may be variously carved 
 to increase their efficiency. The most usual forms of 
 mouldings are called the cyma-recta and reversa, 
 cavetto, scotia, torus, astragal or bead, and the echinus 
 or ovalo, q. v. Plate LXI. In Pointed architecture, 
 mouldings are not limited either to those names or to 
 the forms they are intended to designate, nor indeed is 
 any other style, except by absurd custom and authority. 
 
 f Mullion, the columnar vertical bar used to divide a 
 
 window into breadths ; the trunk out of which tracery Glossai 
 flows. " 
 
 Mutule (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), the rect- 
 angular impending blocks under the corona of the Doric 
 cornice, from which guttae or drops depend. Mutule is 
 equivalent to modillion, but the latter term is applied 
 more particularly to enriched blocks or brackets, such 
 as those of Ionic and Corinthian entablatures. 
 
 Naos (Gr. mos, a temple). This term is sometimes used 
 instead of the Latin Celia, as applied to the interior ; 
 strictly, however, it means the body of the edifice itself, 
 and not merely its interior or cell. 
 
 Newel, the solid or hollow column or cylinder which bears 
 up the handrail of a staircase at the foot and in the most 
 material parts. It means also the core or hollow, as the 
 case may be, about which a circular staircase winds. 
 
 Niche, a concave recess in a wall, with a straight or 
 circular head. Niches are generally made to receive 
 statues, vases, &c. 
 
 Octastyle (Gr. oxrca, eight, and arukos, a column). A por- 
 tico of eight columns in front. (See note to Hexastyle.) 
 
 There is no portico in London of this description at pre- 
 sent, though the upper one of the west front of St Paul’s 
 (Plate LXVIII.) is of eight columns ; but they are 
 coupled, making the arrangement tetrastyle. It may 
 indeed be called a pseudo-octa-prostyle. (See Pseudo- 
 prostyle.) 
 
 Ogee, the vulgar name for the Cyma, q. v. 
 
 Qpisthodomus (Gr. oiusdw, behind, and bo/iog, a house or 
 other edifice), the part behind a Greek temple corre- 
 sponding with the Pronaos before it. (See Pronaos.) 
 
 Order. A column with its entablature and stylobate is 
 so called. (Plate LXVI. fig. 1.) The term is the result 
 of the dogmatic laws deduced from the writings of Vi- 
 truvius, and has been exclusively applied to those ar- 
 rangements which they were thought to warrant. 
 
 Ordinance, a composition of some particular order or 
 style. It need not, however, be restricted to a columnar 
 composition, for it will apply to any species which is 
 subjected to conventional rules for its arrangement. 
 
 Orthography (Gr. oodog, straight or true, and ygap»j, a 
 description or representation). A geometrical elevation 
 of a building or other object, in which it is represent- 
 ed as it actually exists, or may exist, and not perspee- 
 tively, or as it would appear, is called its orthography. 
 
 Orthostyle (Gr. ogdog, straight or true, and cruXog, a 
 column), any straight range of columns. This is a 
 term suggested to designate what is generally but im- 
 properly called a peristyle, q. v. ; that is, columns in 
 a straight row or range, but not forming a portico. 
 
 Ovalo (Ital.), egg-formed (see Echinus). This is the 
 name most commonly applied to the moulding which 
 appears to have originated in the moulded head of the 
 Doric column, and, with an abacus, forming its capital. 
 
 Panel, a compartment with raised margins, moulded 
 or otherwise. Deep panels in a ceiling are called Cas- 
 soons and Lacunaria, q. v. 
 
 Parapet (Ital. parapetto, against the breast, or breast- 
 high), the low breast-high wall which is used to front 
 terraces and balconies, to flank bridges, &c. The most 
 common application of the term in this country is to so 
 much of the external walls of a house as stands above 
 the level gutters of the roof behind. 
 
 Parastas (Gr. wagatfm s, standing before), an antas or 
 end pilaster. This is the Greek term for which the 
 Latin antae is generally used, and it lias the same mean- 
 ing. (See Ant.®.) 
 
66 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Glossary- 
 
 Pedestal (Gr. nrovs, a foot, and tfrvXog, a column). An 
 insulated stylobate is for the most part so called. The 
 term is, moreover, generally applied to any parallelo- 
 gramic or cylindrical mass used as the basement of any 
 single object, as a statue or vase. 
 
 Pediment, that part of a portico which rises above its 
 entablature to cover the end of the roof, whose trian- 
 gular form it takes. The cornice of the entablature, 
 or its corona and part of the bed-mould only, with the 
 addition of a cymatium, bounds its inclined sides, and 
 joins in an obtuse angle at the apex. In Pointed archi- 
 tecture, however, the angle of a pediment is for the 
 most part acute. 
 
 •j- Pendent (Lat. pendens , hanging). In some of the 
 later works of the Pointed style, large masses depend 
 from enriched ceilings, and appear to be formed by the 
 other legs of intersecting arches : these are called pen- 
 dents. They also occur in canopies. See Plate LXXV. 
 fig. 1, 8, 9, 11, and 12. 
 
 Peribolus (Gr. around or about, and CaXXco, to gird 
 or throw around), an inclosure. Any inclosed space 
 is a peribolus ; but the term is applied more particu- 
 larly to the sacred inclosure about a temple. The wall 
 forming the inclosure is also called the peribolus. 
 
 Peripteral. (See Peripteros.) 
 
 Peripteros (Gr. kipi, around or about, and vrigov, a wing). 
 A temple or other structure with the columns of its 
 end, prostyles or porticoes, returned on its sides or 
 wings, and one intercolumniation distant from the walls. 
 Almost all the Doric temples of the Greeks were pe- 
 ripteral. The term is, however, incorrectly applied by 
 Vitruvius to peristylar structures, though it is clear that 
 a perfectly round building, such as he describes to be 
 peripteral, cannot be said to be winged or to have wings. 
 
 Peristylar, having a peristyle. (See Peristyle.) 
 
 Peristyle (Gr. mp, around or about, and ervXog, a co- 
 lumn), a range of columns encircling an edifice, such 
 as that which surrounds the cylindrical drum under the 
 cupola of St Paul’s. The columns of a Greek perip- 
 teral temple form a peristyle also, the former being a 
 circular and the latter a quadrilateral peristyle. The 
 same term is generally but incorrectly applied to a 
 range of columns in almost any situation when they do 
 not form a portico. (See Orthostyle.) 
 
 Pier. The solid parts of a wall between windows, and 
 between openings generally, are called piers. The term 
 is also applied to masses of brickwork or masonry, 
 which are insulated to form supports to gates or to 
 carry arches. 
 
 Pilaster (Lat. pila, a pillar, and the Ital. augmentative 
 astro, which indicates an inferior quality), an inferior 
 sort of column or pillar ; a projection from or against 
 a pier, having the form and decorations of antae, when 
 used correctly ; but too frequently they have capitals, 
 like those of columns, assigned them. 
 
 Pillar (Lat. pila, and Ital. piliere ), a columnar mass 
 of no particular form. Columns are vulgarly called 
 pillars ; but architects make a distinction, restricting 
 this term to such pillars as do not come within the de- 
 scription of a column. (See Column.) 
 
 Pillowed. A swollen or rounded frieze is said to be 
 pillowed or pulvinated. 
 
 f Pinnacle, the slender tapering head of a turret or 
 buttress. A small spire, or the head of a spire or 
 steeple. 
 
 Plan, a horizontal geometrical section of the walls of 
 a building ; or indications, on a horizontal plane, of the 
 relative positions of the walls and partitions, with the 
 various openings, such as windows and doors, — recesses 
 and projections, as chimneys and chimney-breasts, — 
 
 columns, pilasters, &c. This term is often incorrectly Glossary- 
 used in the sense of Design, q. v. 
 
 Planceer is sometimes used in the same sense as soffit, 
 but incorrectly, as it is from the French plancher, to 
 board or floor. It is more particularly applied to the 
 soffit of the corona in a cornice. 
 
 Plinth (Gr. tXaDoj, a square tile). In the Roman orders 
 the lowest member of the base of a column is square 
 and vertically faced ; this is called a plinth. 
 
 Polytriglyph (Gr. mkvs, many, and triglyph, q. v.). 
 
 An intercolumniation in the Doric order of more than 
 two triglyphs. (See Monotriglyph and Ditri- 
 glyph.) 
 
 Portico (an Italicism of the Lat. Portions), an open 
 space before the door or other entrance to any build- 
 ing, fronted with columns. A portico is distinguished 
 as prostyle, or in antis, as it may project from or recede 
 within the building, and is designated with either of 
 these terms by the number of columns its front may 
 consist of. (See Distyle, Tetrastyle, Hexastyle, 
 OcTASTYLE, &C.) 
 
 Porticus (Lat. See Portico). In an amphiprostylar or 
 peripteral temple, this term is used to distinguish the 
 portico at the entrance from that behind, which is 
 called the posticum. 
 
 Posticum (Lat.). A portico behind a temple. (See 
 Porticus and Portico.) 
 
 Pronaos (Gr. ergo, before, and vaoj, a temple). The inner 
 portico of a temple, or the space between the porticus, 
 or outer portico, and the door opening into the cella. 
 
 This is a conventional use of the term ; for, strictly, the 
 pronaos is the portico itself. 
 
 Propylasum (Gr. ergo, before, and ervX»j, a portal), any 
 structure or structures forming the entrance to the pe- 
 ribolus of a temple ; also the space lying between the 
 entrance and the temple. In common usage this term, 
 in the plural (propylaea), is almost restricted to the en- 
 trance to the Acropolis of Athens, which is known by 
 it as a name. 
 
 Prostyle (Gr. ergo, before, and an\o{, a column). A 
 portico in which the columns project from the building 
 to which it is attached is called a prostyle. It is tau- 
 tologous to say a prostyle portico, — a prostyle is a por- 
 tico. Custom, however, seems to warrant the impro- 
 priety, for the word portico is always superadded. In 
 determining the number of columns of which a portico 
 consists, the Greek numerals are prefixed to the term 
 Style, q. v., and prostyle is repeated. It would be 
 more concise, and, at the least, equally correct, to put 
 the numeral before prostyle, and say tetra-prostyle, 
 hexa-prostyle, &c. instead of tetrastyle-prostyle, &c. ; 
 as the custom is ; that mode is adopted in this article 
 throughout. 
 
 Pseudo-dipteral (Gr. false, and dipteral, q. ?;.), 
 
 false double-winged. When the inner row of columns 
 of a dipteral arrangement is omitted, and the space 
 from the wall of the building to the columns is pre- 
 served of the consequent double projection, it is pseudo- 
 dipteral. The portico of the London University is 
 pseudo-dipterally arranged, the returning columns on 
 the ends or sides not being carried through behind 
 those in front. 
 
 Pseudo-peripteral (Gr. -v^aebjj, false, and peripteral, 
 q. v.), false-winged. A temple having the columns 
 on its flanks attached to the walls, instead of being ar- 
 ranged as in a peripteros, is said to be pseudo-peripteral. 
 
 Pseudo-prostyle (Gr. -vJ/jufojf, false, and prostyle, q. v.). 
 
 This is a term not in general use, but is suggested to 
 designate a portico projecting less than the space from 
 one column to another, as the western porticoes to St 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Glossary. Paul’s Cathedral, and the portico to the East India 
 House, in London ; but that they are recessed also, and 
 therefore may be described as pseudo-prostyle and re- 
 cessed. The front of Trinity Church in the new road, 
 near the Regent’s Park, in London also, presents a 
 mere pseudo-prostyle. 
 
 Pulvinated (Lat. pulvinus, a cushion or bolster), a 
 term used to express the swelling or bolstering of the 
 frieze which is found in some of the inferior works of 
 the Roman school, and is common in Italian practice. 
 It is used indifferently with pillowed. 
 
 Pycnostyle (Gr. mnivog, dense, and GruXog, a column), 
 columns thickly set. The space or intercolumniation 
 assigned to this term is one diameter and a half. (See 
 Eustyle.) 
 
 f Quatre-foil, tracery in four foliations or featherings ; 
 but applicable only to circular or square panels, and 
 not to arches. 
 
 Quoin (Lat. ancon, an elbow or corner, whence the Lr. 
 coin), a corner-stone. The stones which are made 
 to project from the regular surface of the walls at the 
 angles of a building are technically called quoins. The 
 front of the Farnese Palace exemplifies them. (See 
 Plate LXX.) 
 
 Regula (Lat.), a rule or square. The short fillet or rect- 
 angular block, under the taenia, on the architrave of the 
 Doric entablature, is so called. 
 
 f Rose or Catherine-wheel Window, the large cir- 
 cular window filled with various tracery, which is com- 
 mon in the upper part of transept fronts in churches 
 and cathedrals. Plate LXXII. fig. 1. 
 
 Scotia (Gr. tfjcor/a, shadow or darkness), a concave 
 moulding, most commonly used in bases, which projects 
 a deeper shadow on itself than any other form would 
 possess in an underview position. It is like a reversed 
 ovalo, or rather what the mould of an ovalo would pre- 
 sent. Plate LXI. 
 
 Scroll, synonymous with volute. The term scroll is 
 commonly applied to the more ordinary purposes, while 
 volute is generally restricted to the scrolls of the Ionic 
 capital. 
 
 Section, a drawing showing the internal heights of the 
 various parts of a building. It supposes it to be cut 
 through entirely, so as to exhibit the walls, the heights 
 of the internal doors, and other apertures ; the heights 
 of the stories, thicknesses of the floors, &c. It is one 
 of the species of drawings necessary to the exhibition 
 of a Design, q. v. 
 
 Shaft. The body or tapering cylindrical mass of a co- 
 lumn, from the base below to the capital above, is so 
 called. Plate LXVI. fig. 1. 
 
 Sill or Sole (Lat. solum, a threshold, whence the Fr. 
 seuil). The horizontal base of a door or window-frame 
 is called its sill, though in practice a technical distinc- 
 tion is made between the inner or wooden base of the 
 windovv-frame and the stone base on which it rests, 
 the latter being called the sill of the window, and the 
 former that of its frame. This term is not restricted 
 to the bases of apertures ; the lower horizontal part of 
 a framed partition is called its sill. It is often incor- 
 rectly written cill. 
 
 Soffit (Ital. sojfitla, a ceiling), the inverted horizontal 
 face of any thing. The horizontal face of an entabla- 
 ture resting on, and lying open between, the columns, 
 is its soffit. The underface of an arch, where its thick- 
 ness is seen, is its soffit. 
 
 Spandrel. The unoccupied angles, or rather the ex- 
 
 67 
 
 eluded triangles, of a square, described about a circle, Glossary, 
 are called spandrels; whence almost any triangular 
 space is designated by the same term. 
 
 f Spire, the tapering mass which forms the summit of a 
 steeple. 
 
 Steeple. This term is used in contradistinction to tower, 
 the latter being upright, or nearly so, and terminating 
 almost abruptly, or with pinnacles, and the steeple run- 
 ning to a point with sides converging from the base up- 
 wards, or from a certain height only. 
 
 Stele (Gr. arrikr\, a cippus or small monument). The or- 
 naments on the ridge of a Greek temple, answering to 
 the antefixae on the summit of the flank entablatures, 
 are thus designated. 
 
 Stereobate (Gr. Gngiog, firm or solid, and Caaig, a base 
 or fulciment), a basement. It is sought to make a 
 distinction between this term and Stylobate, q. v., by 
 restricting the latter to its real import, and applying 
 stereobate to a basement in the absence of columns. 
 
 Stoa (Gr. aroa, a portico). This is the Greek equivalent 
 for the Latin porticus and the Italo-English portico, 
 q. v. 
 
 String or String-course, a narrow, vertical-faced, and 
 slightly projecting course in an elevation. If window- 
 sills are made continuous, they form a string-course; 
 but if this course is made thicker or deeper than ordi- 
 nary window-sills, it becomes a blocking-course. 
 
 Style (Gr. crvXog, a column). The term style is of very 
 constant use in the composition of architectural names 
 and distinctions, and in those compositions it is not to 
 be understood in its ordinary and almost unlimited ap- 
 plication, but in its simple and original meaning, — a 
 column. It is, however, not used in that sense unless in 
 composition ; but in its ordinary acceptation it is applied 
 to the varieties of architecture, as the Greek and Ro- 
 man styles, &c. 
 
 Stylobate (Gr. Grukog, a column, and Qaaig, a base or 
 fulciment), a basement to columns. (See Stereobate.) 
 
 Stylobate is synonymous with pedestal, but is applied 
 to a continued and unbroken substructure or basement 
 to columns, while the latter term is confined to insu- 
 lated supports. 
 
 Surbase (Lat. super, whence the Fr. sur, above or upon, 
 and base, q. v.), an upper base. This term is applied 
 to what, in the fittings of a room, is familiarly called the 
 chair-rail. It is also used to designate the cornice of a 
 pedestal or stereobate, and is separated from the base 
 by the dado or die. 
 
 Systyle (Gr. cuv, together with, and arukog, a column), 
 columns rather thickly set. An intercolumniation to 
 which two diameters are assigned. (See Eustyle.) 
 
 j- Tabernacle, a canopied recess or niche. The rich or- 
 namental tracery forming the canopy, &c. to a taber- 
 nacle, is called tabernacle-work : it is common in the 
 stalls and screens of cathedrals, and in them is general- 
 ly open or pierced through. 
 
 j- Tablet. Projecting mouldings, or moulded strings in 
 the Pointed style, are better described as tablets than 
 as cornices. 
 
 TjEnia (Lat.) a band. (See Band.) 
 
 Terminal. Figures of which the upper parts only, or 
 perhaps the head and shoulders alone, are carved, the 
 rest running into a parallelopiped, and sometimes into 
 a diminishing pedestal, with feet indicated below, or 
 even without them, are called terminal figures. 
 
 Tetrastoon (Gr. rtrga, four, and area, a portico). An 
 atrium or rectangular court-yard, having a colonnade 
 or projected orthostyle on every side, is called a tetra- 
 stobn. 
 
G8 ARC H ITECTUR E. 
 
 Descrip- Tetrastyle (Gr. reroa, four, and ffu/Xog, a column), a 
 lions of portico of four columns in front. (See note to Hexa- 
 Plates. style.) 
 
 Tholobate (Gr. dokog, a dome or cupola, and ZaSig, a 
 base or substructure), that on which a dome or cupola 
 rests. This is a term not in general use, but not the less 
 of useful application. What is generally termed the 
 attic above the peristyle and under the cupola of St 
 Paul’s, would be correctly designated the tholobate. A 
 tholobate of a different description, and one to which 
 no other name can well be applied, is the circular sub- 
 structure to the cupola of the London University. 
 
 Tholus or Tholos (Gr.), a dome or cupola, or any round 
 edifice. This is the only term used by Greek writers 
 that can be supposed to apply to the conical chambers 
 which approach, in internal form, to that of the modern 
 cupola or dome, and is therefore made the Greek equi- 
 valent for those terms. 
 
 Torus (Lat.), a protuberance or swelling, a moulding 
 whose form is convex, and generally nearly approaches 
 a semicircle. It is most frequently used in bases, and 
 is for the most part the lowest moulding in a base. 
 Plate LXI. 
 
 Tower, a circular, square, or polygonal structure, with 
 upright or slightly converging sides, running to a height 
 equal to or greater than its diameter or base, and ter- 
 minating abruptly or in horizontal lines. A tower may 
 be flanked by buttresses whose pinnacles surmount it, 
 and be superimposed by a turret, lantern, or spire. 
 
 -j- Tracery. The transoms, mullions, and interlaced or 
 flowing continuations of the latter, with their foliations 
 in windows, on doors, panels, and in tabernacle-work, 
 are so called. The ribs on groined ceilings, and almost 
 all eccentric moulded enrichments, come under the 
 same denomination. 
 
 Trachelium (Gr. the neck). In Doric and 
 
 Ionic columns there is generally a short space inter- 
 vening the hypotrachelium and the mass of the capital, 
 which may be called the trachelium or neck. 
 
 ■f Transom, the horizontal bar used to divide a mullioned Descrip- 
 window into heights ; the straight and horizontal parts tions oi ' 
 of tracery. 
 
 f Trefoil, tracery in three foliations or featherings. 
 
 Triglyph (Gr. rgug, three, and y\u<pri, an incision or 
 channel). The vertically channelled tablets of the 
 Doric frieze are called triglyphs, because of the three 
 angular channels in them, two perfect and one divided ; 
 the two chamfered angles or hemiglyphs being reckon- 
 ed as one. The square sunk spaces between the tri- 
 glyphs on a frieze are called metopes, 
 
 •f Turret, a small tower, or a tower of small base in 
 proportion to its height. Turrets are sometimes placed 
 on the angles of towers ; but in the later works of the 
 style they are attached to the angles of structures in- 
 stead of buttresses, and they run up above their height 
 in’ lieu of pinnacles. 
 
 Tympanum, the triangular recessed space inclosed by the 
 cornice which bounds a pediment. The Greeks some- 
 times placed sculptures representing subjects in con- 
 nection with the purposes of the edifice, in the tym- 
 pana of temples. 
 
 Vault, an arched ceiling or roof. A vault is, indeed, a 
 laterally conjoined series of arches. The arch of a 
 bridge is, strictly speaking, a vault. Intersecting vaults 
 are said to be groined. (See Groining.) 
 
 Volute (Lat. volutum , a volvo, rolling up or over, con- 
 volving). The convolved or spiral ornament which 
 forms the characteristic of the Ionic capital is so called. 
 
 The common English term is scroll, q. v. Volute, 
 scroll, helix, and cauliculus, are used indifferently for 
 the angular horns of the Corinthian capital. 
 
 Zoophorus (Gr. an animal, and to bear). This 
 term is used in the same sense as frieze, and is so call- 
 ed because that part of the entablature is made the re- 
 ceptacle of sculptures which are frequently composed 
 of various animals. 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES. 
 
 Plate LIV. The view of the Parthenon in its present state 
 is from an original drawing made on the spot in the year 
 1821, by Mr W. W. Jenkins. It consequently exhibits 
 the appearance of the splendid ruin before the disasters 
 of the late revolution befell it, as the restored view, un- 
 der the same aspect, does of the structure in its origi- 
 nal state. This is introduced as a frontispiece to the 
 subject, as being an acknowledged master-work of archi- 
 tecture, as well as to enable the reader the better to 
 understand the details of the style of which it is an ex- 
 ample, and the composition of that class of structures 
 of which it may be reckoned the principal. 
 
 Plate LV. This plate exhibits the varieties of columns 
 and columnar composition which the ancient architec- 
 ture of various countries presents, and is intended to 
 elucidate their presumed derivation from the single 
 pillar of the earliest records ; together with specimens 
 of ancient modes of structure. 
 
 Fig. 1 presents an example of the single pillar or 
 stone of memorial, the Monolithon ; fig. 2 of the Bili- 
 thon, the cromlech of the Celtic nations ; fig. 3 of the 
 Trilithon, an example afforded by Stonehenge; and fig. 
 4) exhibits the immediately succeeding arrangement of 
 pillars, with a continuous entablature. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the flank of the portico of the temple at 
 Amada in Nubia, consisting of square piers or pillars as 
 in fig. 4, and a cylindrical column, which is evidently 
 
 formed of a similar pillar by working off its angles, the 
 abacus and plinth remaining of the same size and form 
 of which the pillars are. 
 
 Fig. 6, pillars with a plain entablature as in fig. 4, 
 from the Rhamesseion at Thebes. The statues placed 
 before the pillars most probably gave rise to the use of 
 such figures to support an entablature, which these 
 have the appearance of doing when seen in front. 
 
 Fig. 7, an early Egyptian columnar composition, from 
 Thebes also. In this, as in the example at Amada, the 
 square abacus shows the form and size of the original 
 pillar out of which the singular bulbous column has 
 been sculptured. 
 
 Fig. 8, piers of one of the cavern temples of Ellora. 
 These likewise exhibit the tendency to the cylindrical 
 form, and may be assumed as an example of the style 
 of architectural columnar composition at the time they 
 were executed. 
 
 Fig. 9, ancient Hindoo columnar piers, in the Mokun- 
 dra Pass, from Colonel Tod’s (unpublished) second 
 volume of the Annals of Rajasthan, and by his kind 
 permission. The similarity in character which exists 
 between these and the piers at Ellora in the preced- 
 ing example, tends to strengthen the remark accom- 
 panying them, and affords proof of their contemporane- 
 ousness. 
 
 Fig. 10, Doric columns and their architrave from the 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 69 
 
 Descrip. ruins at Corinth, being the earliest known example of 
 tions of their style. 
 
 Plates. Fig. 11, ancient Persian columns from Persepolis, in 
 
 front and in profile, the latter showing the mode in 
 which they were probably made to receive an entabla- 
 ture, though a distinguished oriental traveller asserts 
 that the capitals are wrought on the backs in such a 
 manner as to render it improbable that they were ever 
 intended to have any thing placed on them. 
 
 Fig. 12, columns in front of the rock sculptures at 
 Mundore, in Marwar, from Colonel Tod’s first volume. 
 
 Fig. 13, from the ruins of Bheems Chlori, also in the 
 Mokundra pass, from Colonel Tod’s unpublished volume. 
 These present another variety of Hindoo columnar com- 
 position of early date, though later, it is probable, than 
 the example, fig. 9, supra. Figs. 14 and 16 exhibit the 
 modes of structure described in the text at page 414; 
 and fig. 15 is a view of the entrance to the great pyra- 
 mid at Memphis from Denon and shows the mode of 
 its structure. 
 
 Plate LVI. An example of the Egyptian style, sufficiently 
 explained at pp. 410, 432, et seq. 
 
 Plate LVII. A Greek Doric octastyle, peripteral, and hy- 
 paethral temple, with the details of the Parthenon. The 
 plan (fig. 3) is that of the Parthenon {vide Plate LIV.) 
 slightly modified, the better to include the class to 
 which it belongs. In the Parthenon the opisthodomus 
 has six columns, as in the pronaos, and not four in antis 
 as here laid down : this, however, exhibits the ordinary 
 mode of arrangement. The internal columns are ar- 
 ranged in this plan as they are generally found in other 
 similar structures ; and the pedestal for the statue of 
 the divinity is placed in its most probable position. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows part of the flank of the temple and the 
 internal composition of the hypaethral cella with its 
 upper range of columns or attic, of the inner chamber 
 or treasury, and of the opisthodomus and posticum : 
 
 , much of this, however, is necessarily taken at a venture, 
 
 because of the imperfection of the remains of the Gre- 
 cian edifices. 
 
 Fig. 2 exhibits an elevation of the opisthodomus be- 
 hind the outer range of the portico, not according to 
 the Parthenon, but in antis. 
 
 Fig. 3 is the plan. In front, on the left-hand side, is 
 the entrance porticus ; behind this is the pronaos ; 
 within the pronaos is the hypaethral naos or cella, the 
 middle space between the columns being open ; the 
 spaces between the columns and the walls on either side 
 are covered ; doors (these are not generally laid down 
 to the Parthenon, but are assumed as probable) lead to 
 the inner chamber, said to be the treasury, — this is by 
 some called the opisthodomus, into which it opens, and 
 the opisthodomus stands in the same relation to the 
 posticum that the pronaos does to the porticus. 
 
 Fig. 4 is the external order of the Parthenon ; fig. 5 
 the profile of its corona to a larger scale, to show its de- 
 tail ; fig. 6 a half-capital of the same, enlarged also, 
 with its annulets larger still. 
 
 Fig. 9 is the order of the pronaos ; fig. 8 the profile of 
 its corona enlarged ; fig. 7 its capital enlarged, with 
 the annulets still larger. 
 
 Fig. 10 the antae cap enlarged ; and fig. 12 a half-plan 
 of a column of the Parthenon, showing the contour of 
 its flutes. ( Vide page 437 et seq.) 
 
 Plate LVIII. A Greek Doric hexastyle, peripteral, and 
 cleithral temple, with the details of the temple of The- 
 seus at Athens. 
 
 F’ig. 1, front elevation of the temple. 
 
 Fig. 2, section behind the outer range of the portico, 
 showing the elevation of the pronaos. 
 
 F’ig. 3, plan of the temple. The arrangement of the Descrip- 
 porticus here (to the left) is pseudo-dipteral; a space equal tions 
 to two intercolumniations and the intervening column *^es. 
 being left between the external range and the fi'ont of ~ 0r ~'T^ 
 the pronaos, — the projection of the posticum is irregular. 
 
 Fig. 4, the external order of the temple of Theseus, 
 with a half-plan of the column ; fig. 5, the profile of the 
 corona enlarged ; fig. 6, half the capital enlarged ; fig. 
 
 7, half the capital of the order of the pronaos enlarged 
 also ; fig. 9, the antae, with profiles of the outer and inner 
 entablatures of the pronaos, — this shows also the ar- 
 rangement of the ceilings. 
 
 Fig. 10, enlarged profile of the antae cap. 
 
 Fig. 11, inverted plan of part of the ceilings of the 
 porticus and pronaos, showing the arrangement of the 
 coffers, lacunae, or cassoons. 
 
 Fig. 12, inverted plan of the planceer of the cornice, 
 showing the form and arrangement of the mutules of 
 the external entablature. 
 
 Fig. 13 is a plan of the triglyphs of the same on an 
 external angle. 
 
 Figs. 8 and 14 are enlarged plans of the flutings of 
 the columns, to show their contours. ( Vide p. 437 et seq.) 
 
 Plate LIX. A Greek Ionic hexa-prostyle apteral temple, 
 with details of the temple of Erechtheus at Athens. 
 
 Fig. 1, elevation of the portico. 
 
 Fig. 2, rear elevation of the temple, showing an at- 
 tached tetrastyle in antis, with windows as they exist 
 in that of the temple of Erechtheus. 
 
 Fig. 3, flank elevation. The dotted projection to the 
 right, of the posticum, indicates the amphiprostylar ar- 
 rangement, which is shown on the plan fig. 4 also, and 
 in the same manner. 
 
 Fig. 5, the order of the temple of Erechtheus, except 
 the two lowest steps of the stylobate, which may be 
 easily supplied, to a larger scale, with indications of the 
 carved mouldings, &c. 
 
 Figs. 6, 7, and 8 are enlarged profiles of those parts 
 of the entablature which are immediately behind and 
 above them. 
 
 Fig. 10, the antae of the same example, showing the 
 ornament which enriches its necking, and runs along the 
 flank of the edifice ; fig. 11, profile of the antae cap en- 
 larged. 
 
 Fig. 12, flank elevation of tne capital ; all the vertical 
 beads in this are carved. Fig. 13. transverse section of 
 the capital. 
 
 Fig. 14, half the longitudinal section of the capital. 
 
 Fig. 15, an inverted plan of the capital, showing the 
 arrangement of the flutings. 
 
 Fig. 16, an inverted plan of one of the angular capi- 
 tals. ( Vide p. 439 et seq.) 
 
 Fig. 9, the Ionic volute, enlarged to show the mode 
 of striking it, and the contour of its face. 
 
 The point at which the volute shall commence, its 
 height, and the diameter of its eye, must be given or 
 assumed ; then, “ from either end of the whole height 
 of the spiral, cut off the diameter of the given circle 
 ( o — o) ; divide the remainder into as many equal 
 parts as there are to be revolutions in the spiral (this 
 example is of three revolutions), and divide each of 
 those parts again into four others, so that the remain- 
 der or difference between the given circle and the 
 height will be divided into four times the number of 
 revolutions (making in this case twelve) ; then take half 
 the number of these parts and one part more (seven), to- 
 gether with half the diameter of the eye (o — o), and 
 set it from the top of the perpendicular downwards, it 
 will give the centre of the volute ; take half of one of 
 the parts, and set it from the centre, cutting the per- 
 
70 
 
 ARC H ITEC T U R E. 
 
 Descrip, 
 tions of 
 Plates. 
 
 pendicular or height of the volute upwards ; through 
 that point draw a horizontal line ; take half of one of 
 the parts, and set it on each side of the perpendicular, 
 on the horizontal line ; from these two points draw 
 diagonals to the centre (refer to the larger diagram to 
 the right of the volute) ; through the centre draw 
 another line parallel to the horizontal line; through the 
 upper end of each diagonal draw lines parallel to the 
 perpendicular, cutting the horizontal line that passes 
 through the centre into two equal parts ; divide each 
 of those parts into as many equal parts as you intend 
 to have revolutions (three). If the volute is intended 
 to be on the left hand (as this is), divide the part next 
 to the centre on that side into two equal parts, but for 
 the right hand volute on the contrary; from the point 
 of bisection draw two lines parallel to the diagonals 
 downwards ; then through each of the divisions on the 
 line which passes through the centre draw lines parallel 
 to the perpendicular, cutting the diagonals at both ends 
 of these perpendicular lines; then join the opposite 
 points of each diagonal by horizontal lines, and the 
 centres will be completed upon each angle o.f the fret. 
 Begin at the right hand on the upper centre, extend 
 the compass to the height of the perpendicular, and 
 describe the quadrant of a circle to the left hand ; then 
 set the compass on the next centre on the left hand, 
 and extend the other leg of the compass to the end of 
 the quadrant, where you left off in the last quadrant ; 
 go the same way round to the next centre, and proceed 
 in this manner till you arrive at the last quadrant, 
 which ought to touch the given circle on the upper 
 side upon the perpendicular. Lastly, with one leg of 
 the compasses on the centre of the spiral, and the other 
 foot extended to the distance that the last quadrant 
 cuts the perpendicular, describe a circle, and the spiral 
 will be completed.” (Nicholson’s Principles, &c. vol. ii. 
 p. 23.) To complete the volute as in fig. 5, this pro- 
 cess should be repeated for every line indicated at the 
 point of springing in fig. S, the height of course altering 
 to every one but the eye of the volute, and the point 
 of springing remaining the same. 
 
 Plate LX. Fig. 1 the elevation, fig. 2 the plan, and fig. 3 
 the details, of the order of the Choragic Monument of 
 Lysicrates at Athens. ( Vide p. 440.) 
 
 Fig. 4 presents the elevation, and fig. 5 the plan, of 
 the Caryatic prostyle, which is attached to the flanks 
 of the temple of Erechtheus at Athens. 
 
 Fig. 6 shows the detail of the hands and feet of the 
 figure, and of the entablature and stereobate of the 
 same. ( Vide p. 441.) 
 
 Plate LXI. contains Greek and Roman mouldings, with 
 their usual enrichments, all drawn from ancient ex- 
 amples, and detached profiles of them all, together 
 with two examples of Greek and one of Roman orna- 
 ment. The specimen of Greek ornament on the left 
 hand of the centre is from the neck of the ante-cap 
 of the tetrastyle portico on the flank of the temple of 
 Erechtheus, generally known as that of Minerva Polias ; 
 and the other half of the same is the enrichment of the 
 neck of the antae of the temple of Erechtheus itself, 
 as shown in Plate LIX. figs. 3 and 10. The Roman 
 specimen of ornament is that of the frieze of the temple 
 of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome. ( Vide Plate LXII. 
 Ex. 3, and p. 441 and 451.) 
 
 Plate LXII. Four Roman examples of the Corinthian 
 order. Ex. 1 is that of the temple of Jupiter Stator in 
 Rome ; Ex. 2 is that of the temple of Vesta at Tivoli 
 ( vide Plate LXIV. fig. 9) ; Ex. 3 is that of the temple of 
 Antoninus and Faustina in Rome ( vide Plate LXIV. 
 figs. 6, 7, and 8) ; and Ex. 4 is the example of the porti- 
 
 co of the Pantheon in Rome (vide Plate LXIV. figs. 2, Descrip- 
 3, 4, and 5). To every example fig. 1 shows the de- Rons of 
 tails enlarged, the shafts being cut away ; and fig. 2 ITte s. 
 the elevation of the column and entablature. In every 
 case, also, the distance from the inner surface of the 
 column fig. 2 to the vertical line dividing the examples 
 is one half the intercolumniation at which that example 
 is composed. ( Vide p. 447 et seq.) 
 
 Plate LXIII. Examples of the Roman orders. Ex. 1 
 is the Corinthian of the temple of Mars Ultor; Ex. 2 
 the Composite of the arch of Titus ( vide Plate LXIV. 
 fig. 11) ; Ex. 3 the Ionic of the temple of Fortuna Viri- 
 lis ( vide Plate LXIV. fig. 12) ; and Ex. 4 the Doric of the 
 Theatre of Marcellus, completed from that of the Co- 
 losseum. All of these are in Rome. Figs. 1, as in 
 Plate LXII., show the entablatures, capitals, and bases, 
 
 &c. at an enlarged scale ; and figs. 2 the complete ele- 
 vation of each order, except their stylobates, some of 
 which are not ascertained, and those which are may 
 be obtained from the structures they are referred to in 
 Plate LXIV. ( Vide p. 447 et seq.) 
 
 Plate LXIV. Elevations, plans, and sections of sundry Ro- 
 man edifices, all drawn to the same scale. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a longitudinal elevation of the Colosseum. 
 
 ( Vide p. 443.) 
 
 Fig. 2 is the front elevation, fig. 3 the flank eleva- 
 tion, fig. 4 a section, and fig. 5 the plan, of the Pan- 
 theon. The dotted lines before the recess opposite the 
 entrance, fig. 5, show the places the outstanding co- 
 lumns originally occupied. ( Vide p. 443 and 444.) 
 
 Fig. 6 is the front elevation, fig. 7 the plan, and fig. 
 
 8 the flank elevation, of the temple of Antoninus and 
 Faustina : of this the front steps and stylobate are re- 
 storations. ( Vide p. 443, and PI. LXII. Ex. 3.) 
 
 Fig. 9 is the plan and elevation of the temple of 
 Vesta at Tivoli ; of this the antefixae and roof are resto- 
 rations. ( Vide PI. LXII. Ex. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 10 is the plan and elevation of the triumphal 
 arch of Septimius Severus. ( Vide p. 443.) 
 
 Fig. 11 is a plan and elevation of the arch of Titus. 
 
 ( Vide ut sup. and PI. LXIII. Ex. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 12 is a plan and elevation of the temple of For- 
 tuna Virilis. ( Vide p. 443, and PI. LXIII. Ex. 3.) 
 
 Plate LXV. Plans, sections, elevations, &c. of Roman 
 mansions from Pompeii. 
 
 Fig. 1 is a plan of one of the most extensive and most 
 regular of the domestic structures of Pompeii, with its 
 immediate vicinage ; it is known as the house of Pansa. 
 
 The following nomenclature is generally that of Sir 
 William Gell: — 1, The entrance or recessed porch; 2, 
 the vestibule ; 3, the cavaedium or atrium ; 4, the com- 
 pluvium or well for receiving the rain from the roof 
 covering this part of the house (vide fig. 2) ; 5, penaria, 
 or perhaps cubicula ; 6, alae or wings ; 7, tablinum 
 or parlour ; 8, pinacotheca, or perhaps the library ; 9, 
 a passage from the first to the second atrium without 
 passing through the tablinum ; 10, cubiculum or bed- 
 chamber; 11, peristylium or oicus — the house ; 12, im- 
 pluvium (vide sup. in 4, et fig. 2) ; 13, exhedrae or alae — in 
 these the siesta was taken — they were also used for con- 
 versation; 14, cellae familiaricae ; 15, triclinium — here 
 couches and seats were placed, and company received ; 
 
 16, lararium or receptacle for the family gods ; 17, cu- 
 biculum ; 18, hall to the gynaeceum or women’s apart- 
 ment ; 19, the gynaeceum — this is believed by some 
 to be a distinct house, and not a part of that of Pansa ; 
 
 20, porticus or pergula; 21, hortus or garden; 22, a 
 passage from the oicus to the pergula and garden, to 
 avoid the necessity of passing through the triclinium ; 
 
 23, kitchen ; 24, store-room or larder ; 25, an open court, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Descrip- 
 tions of 
 Plates. 
 
 communicating with the street by a doorway. This 
 comprehends the whole of the apartments, &c. appro- 
 priated to domestic use — the residence ; the other por- 
 tions of the edifice are distinct from it. 26 is another 
 smaller house ; 27, a passage leading to the house of 
 Pansa from the street on the right-hand side ; all the 
 places marked 28 are shops open to the street, as shown 
 in the elevation, fig. 3 ; the rooms marked 29 are store- 
 rooms to the shops into which they open ; 30 is a bake- 
 house, in which the mills, &c. are indicated as they 
 exist; 31 is the oven; in the angle of the two adjoin- 
 ing streets on the left hand (32) is the shop of a seller 
 of wine and hot drinks ; 33 is a fountain. The walls in- 
 dicated on the other sides of the streets surrounding 
 the house, &c. of Pansa are the fronts of shops and of 
 some private houses, &c. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a section through the house of Pansa from 
 the street to the garden, showing the manner in which 
 it is probable the roofs, &c. were arranged. 
 
 Fig. 3 is the probable elevation of the entrance front 
 of this mansion, though the sketch (fig. 4) of part of 
 the same in its present state shows how slight the evi- 
 dence for it is. 
 
 Fig. 5 is an outline of the side of a room, with the 
 ornaments, &c. with which it is decorated. This is an 
 average specimen ; many were much plainer, and some 
 were more enriched. 
 
 Fig. 6 is the plan of an ordinary sized house in one 
 of the private streets of Pompeii : the uses of the va- 
 rious parts may be generally gathered from those of 
 the similar portions of the house of Pansa. The word 
 Salve, printed across the threshold, is there wrought 
 in mosaic. 
 
 Fig. 7 presents the presumed arrangement of the 
 roofs, &c. of this house in section. 
 
 Fig. 8 is the elevation of it towards the street. This 
 absolutely cannot have been better than it appears 
 here, and must have been the ordinary average appear- 
 ance of the street fronts of Pompeian houses. ( Vide 
 p. 445 et seq .) 
 
 Plate LXVI. Fig. 1, an example to show how the term 
 order is applied, and to what parts of it the various 
 technical terms are applied, or are intended to indicate. 
 
 Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, are the orders of the Italo- 
 Vitruvian school as arranged by Palladio ; fig. 2, the 
 Tuscan; fig. 3, the Doric; fig. 4, the Ionic; fig. 5, the 
 Corinthian ; and fig. 6, the Composite. ( Vide p. 451.) 
 
 Plate LXVII. Varieties of Italian composition from exist- 
 ing structures in Italy and elsewhere, in the Italian style. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, are windows of various form 
 and arrangement. 
 
 Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9, are doors of various composition, 
 with plans to show their arrangement and ichnographic 
 projections, &c. 
 
 Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13, are arches and arcades, rus- 
 ticated and with columns, &c. The plans show their 
 forms and ichnographic projections. ( Vide p. 452 etseq .) 
 
 Plate LXVIII. Front elevations alone of the fronts of St 
 Paul’s in London and St Peter’s in Rome. These two 
 structures exhibit many of the peculiarities of the eccle- 
 siastical architecture of the Italian school. In this 
 plate their comparative magnitude has not been attend- 
 ed to ; they are drawn to different scales to bring them 
 more nearly of the same size, so as to render the con- 
 trast more effective. ( Vide p. 426 and 429.) 
 
 Plate LXIX. Flank elevations of St Peter’s and St Paul’s, 
 drawn to the same scale, to show their comparative mag- 
 nitude, and to enable the reader to judge of their respec- 
 tive merits, as well as to elucidate observations which 
 will be found in the text passim. ( Vide p. 429, &c.) 
 
 Plate LXX. Elevations of three esteemed Italian mansions. Descrip- 
 The merit of this (the principal) elevation of the Farnese tions of 
 Palace is divided between Antonio Sangallo and M. A. v Pla tes. 
 Buonaroti. The villa Giulia, near Rome, is esteemed 
 one of the best works of Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola; 
 and the villa Capra near Vicenza, by Palladio, is, by the 
 admirers of his style, considered the most perfect of his 
 works. ( Vide p. 426, 429, 452, 453, &c.) 
 
 Plate LXXI. A series of arches in the Gothic and Pointed 
 styles, from various structures in England. It exhibits 
 the advance of the circular arch from the plainness ex- 
 hibited in figs. 1 and 2, to the richer and more complicate 
 arrangements of those examples which follow, until the 
 ingrafting and gradual advance of the pointed arch. 
 
 This first appears in fig. 10. Fig. 12 shows the substi- 
 tution of the latter for the circular of fig. 9 in a similar 
 composition. Fig. 13 exhibits the pointed arch on 
 Gothic pillars or columns; and fig. 14 the perfected 
 pointed arch with the clustered shafts which become 
 identified with the Pointed style. ( Vide p. 453 et seq.) 
 
 Plate LXXII. the elevation of the south transept of 
 Beverley Minster. This affords a perfect and beautiful 
 example of external composition of the first period of 
 Pointed architecture. The presence of the circular 
 arch embracing the pointed arches of the doorway, 
 and composing with others, shows how gradual the ad- 
 vance of the new style was ; the upper part of the 
 front showing also how completely it was already sys- 
 tematized when the circular arch was not yet quite dis- 
 carded. The plan of this front shows the various ich- 
 nographic projections, and the arrangement of the clus- 
 tered shafts of the doors and windows. Fig. 2 is a 
 niche in front of, and fig. 3 a pinnacle to, one of the 
 buttresses of the nave of the same edifice : these are of 
 the second period. Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are windows 
 from various edifices, showing the gradual advance from 
 the plain lancet arch of the Beverley Minster transept 
 to the arch the most elaborately enriched with tracery. 
 
 Fig. 4 is but a modification of the composition of the 
 doorways of fig. 1, as that is of figs. 9 and 12, Plate 
 LXXI.; and the advance from that may be almost 
 termed natural. 
 
 Plate LXXIII. Fig. 1 is a sectional compartment of the 
 nave of Lincoln Cathedral ; it exhibits the mode of in- 
 ternal composition peculiar to the style of the first 
 period; tending, however, to the transition, it will be 
 observed, in many particulars, and as a comparison of it 
 with the adjacent example, of the next period, will more 
 clearly show. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a similar sectional compartment of the choir of 
 Lincoln Cathedral, exemplifying the internal composition 
 of the second period of the Pointed style; the plans of the 
 shafts to both examples show their forms and arrange- 
 ment. The subjects of the three last plates are drawn 
 entirely, by his kind permission, from Mr Britton's 
 Chronological History of Ecclesiastical Architecture. 
 
 Plate LXXIV., the front of York Minster, exemplifies the 
 external composition of the second period, as that of 
 Beverley Minster transept (Plate LXXII. fig. 1) does 
 that of the first period; and the difference will be ren- 
 dered very clear by comparing them. The upper part 
 of the towers of the front of York Minster, however, it 
 must be remembered ( vide p. 456), are of the third 
 period, and so is the central tower which appears in the 
 distance between them. 
 
 The front of Pisa Cathedral is here introduced in 
 contrast with that of York Minster, to show the striking 
 difference which exists between the real Gothic archi- 
 tecture of Italy and the Pointed style which supersed- 
 ed it so completely, in this country particularly, and to 
 
72 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Descrip- elucidate our observations to that effect at page 16 
 tions of e t se q „ The cupola which appears behind and in the 
 
 Plates. distance is surrounded at the base by pointed arches and 
 
 pinnacles, all of which are evidently of much later date 
 than the Gothic front. 
 
 Plate LXXV. Fig. 1 is an elevation of Westminster Hall. 
 It exemplifies the style of external composition of the 
 third period. It was selected because of the variety of 
 matter it contains elucidatory of the period to which it 
 belongs particularly, and of the Pointed style generally. 
 The door, windows, and canopied tabernacles on the 
 second story of the towers are peculiar ; the lower ta- 
 bernacles are more general, and the pinnacles, crockets, 
 corbels, tablets, &c. may also be taken in exemplifica- 
 tion of such things in the style generally. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a plan of the front, showing the ribs of the 
 groined entrance, the ichnographic projections of the 
 tabernacles, &c. 
 
 Fig. 3 is one of the flying buttresses of the flank of 
 the edifice. 
 
 Fig. 4 is a spandrel of the entrance porch enlarged. Descrip- 
 
 Fig. 5, crockets of the gable running from the towers tions 
 to the crowning turret, enlarged. Plates. 
 
 Fig. 6, part of the head of one of the upper windows 
 of the towers, enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 7, a foliated heraldic panel from under the pe- 
 destals of the lower tabernacles or niches of the front, 
 enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 8, canopies and pinnacles, &c. of the lower taber- 
 nacles, enlarged ; the buttresses on which they rest are 
 also shown at large in intercepted lengths. 
 
 Fig. 9, an enriched foliate pendent of the foregoing 
 example, marked a, at a still larger scale. 
 
 Fig. 10, one of the pedestals for the reception of 
 statues within the niches or tabernacles, enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 11, part of one of the canopies, &c. of the tower 
 tabernacles, enlarged. 
 
 Fig. 12, one of the foliate pendents, marked b, of the 
 foregoing ; and fig. 13 the corbel, marked c, of the same, 
 at a still larger scale. 
 
Building. The art of building comprises the practice of civil ar- 
 chitecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to 
 carry the designs of the architect into effect. It is not 
 unfrequently called practical architecture ; but the adop- 
 tion of this term would have tended only to confuse, by 
 rendering it difficult to make the distinction generally un- 
 derstood between architecture as a fine or liberal art, and 
 architecture as a mechanical art. The execution of works 
 of architecture necessarily includes building; but building 
 is frequently employed when the result is not architec- 
 ture : a man may be a competent builder without being 
 an architect ; but no one can profess himself a complete 
 architect unless he be competent to specify and direct 
 all the operations of building. A scientific knowledge of 
 the principles of masonry, carpentry, joinery, &c. and of 
 the qualities, strength, and resistance of materials, though 
 of the utmost importance to an architect, is not sufficient 
 of itself, without a minute acquaintance with a great variety 
 of less ambitious details. Such are those which relate to 
 the arrangement of a plan for the greatest possible degree 
 of convenience on the smallest space, and at the least ex- 
 pense ; its transference to the ground ; the preparation 
 and formation of foundations ; the arrangement and con- 
 struction of drains, sewers, and cess-pools ; the varieties 
 of walling with stone, and of bonding bricks in brick-work ; 
 the merit of the various modes of bonding and tying walls 
 with timber and otherwise ; the arrangement of gutters 
 on roofs, to get sufficient fall, and to lead the water to the 
 least inconvenient places for placing trunks to carry it 
 down ; the arrangement and formation of flues ; the pro- 
 tection of walls from damps, of timbers from moisture and 
 
 stagnant air, and of metals generally from exciting causes ; Building, 
 the cost of materials and labour, and the quantity of each 
 required to produce certain effects. Together with these, 
 it is important to be practically acquainted with all the 
 modes of operation in all the trades or arts required in 
 building. Every thing must be clearly understood, or it 
 will be impossible properly to specify beforehand, in de- 
 tail, every thing and every operation to be done and per- 
 formed ; and minutely to estimate, beforehand also, the 
 absolute cost involved in the execution of a proposed 
 structure. The power to do the latter necessarily involves 
 that of measuring work, and ascertaining quantities after it 
 is done. These things may certainly be referred to the 
 surveyor or measurer, but they are not the less incumbent 
 on the architect, who cannot be said to be thoroughly mas- 
 ter of building, or the practice of his profession, unless he 
 be skilled in these operations. 
 
 The architect having furnished the specification and 
 working drawings of his design, the first operation is the pre- 
 paration of the foundation. (See article Stone-Masonry, 
 sect. 60.) Much in this particular, it is evident, must de- 
 pend on localities. It is not of so much importance that the 
 ground be hard, or even rocky, as that it be compact, and 
 of similar consistence throughout ; that it be so constituted 
 as to resist entirely and throughout, or yield equally to the 
 superincumbent weight. In the latter case, however, there 
 must be some contrivance to generalize the pressure, or 
 the piers would sink away from the parts above and below 
 the apertures. This danger is obviated, if the soil be to- 
 lerably consistent, by turning inverted arches, as we shall 
 show in its place ; or, the soil being too soft to offer resist- 
 
74 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, ance in the space occupied by a brick, by planking with 
 timber or cast-iron frames, by laying one or more courses 
 of strong thick paving stones, as wide at least as the whole 
 extent of the footings of the walls, and each stone as large 
 as may be ; or, what in most cases is by far the best, by 
 laying a compact mass of concreted rubble, sand, and quick- 
 lime, which will harden into a solid unbroken bed. 
 
 No foundation is more ineligible for a heavy structure 
 than one that is rocky, especially if the rocks are in small 
 masses, or, if a sufficient surface is offered of one mass, 
 in strata which dip considerably : in the former case, from 
 the rottenness of the soil in which rocks are generally 
 bedded, and which consists for the most part of their 
 detritus; and in the latter, from the liability of stratified 
 rock to crack and slip, against which no precaution is 
 available. Dry gravelly soils, again, are not only loose and 
 infirm, but are exceedingly liable to vacuities of various 
 extent, which are hardly sufficiently provided against by 
 piling : wet gravel is generally more compact, and may 
 be better trusted both with and without piles, or with the 
 concretion before mentioned. A deep compacted sand 
 will be found firm if a sufficient surface of it be embraced 
 by the footings, which should be wider in that than most 
 other cases. In large and deep beds of alluvial deposits 
 the heaviest building may be laid with security, if the pre- 
 caution before suggested be attended to for the equal dis- 
 tribution of the pressure throughout. The city of New 
 Orleans, in a delta at the mouth of the Mississippi, rests 
 on a bed of mud, which is held together by a bonding of 
 trunks and arms of trees, but on a broad level bed below. 
 Here the only precaution taken in erecting a structure of 
 the greatest magnitude is to make the trenches for the 
 walls wide and level, and to floor the whole of their sur- 
 face with thick planks properly bonded ; on these the foot- 
 ings are laid, and if any settlement occurs, it is of the whole 
 edifice, and no injury accrues to any part of it at any time. 
 Clayey and chalky soils are generally understood to form 
 the best natural foundations : in these, under ordinary 
 circumstances, no preparation is required, though for very 
 heavy and unequally pressing works, such as bridges, which 
 are placed on piers made as small as they possibly can be, 
 piling has been considered a necessary precaution. In- 
 deed, except perhaps on an extensive horizontal bed of firm 
 compact rock, no foundation can be considered better than 
 that afforded by piling in a deep clay. (For the process 
 of Piling, see the article under that head.) 
 
 In the ordinary processes of building, however, the arti- 
 ficial preparation of foundations hardly need be consider- 
 ed. Common prudence would refer it to professional ma- 
 nagement, when such is found necessary ; and a work of 
 this kind cannot contain sufficient information and instruc- 
 tion to qualify a man to act professionally on any subject, 
 and more particularly on those subjects which demand ini- 
 tiatory practice and experience. We therefore proceed 
 to the ordinary routine of practice. 
 
 The artificers whose trades come within the immediate 
 range of the builder’s business are the following : Digger 
 or excavator, bricklayer, mason, slater, sawyer, carpenter, 
 joiner, plasterer, modeller, carver and gilder, plumber, 
 smith, glazier, painter and decorator. Paving is done by 
 the bricklayer or mason, as it may be of brick or stone, 
 and tiling by the bricklayer. 
 
 Digger or Excavator . — The digger works with a pick- 
 axe and a spade or shovel. With the pick-axe he breaks 
 down the soil if it be hard or very stiff, and throws it out 
 with the shovel ; but compacted sand and alluvial soil is 
 spitted and thrown out with the spade alone, without pre- 
 vious breaking down. In the former case, the digger works 
 onward, or with his work before him, and in the latter back- 
 ward, or standing on the part to be thrown out, as a gar- 
 
 dener does. When rock occurs in a foundation, the assist- Building, 
 ance of the quarryman is requisite to cut through or blast 
 it, as the occasion may require. The digger must be care- 
 ful to produce a perfect level in every direction, and es- 
 pecially in trenches for walls ; nor may this be done by pla- 
 cing again loose matter, but the level must be produced on 
 the solid or undisturbed bed. 
 
 Digger’s work is valued by the cubic yard, and is gene- 
 rally made to include, besides excavating, the removal of 
 the soil and rubbish. The price per yard is therefore ne- 
 cessarily contingent on the stiffness of the soil, the depth 
 to which the excavations may reach below the surface, and 
 the distance the stuff is to be removed ; so that it is im- 
 possible to determine what the cost may be, without refe- 
 rence to each and all of these particulars, most of which 
 must be different in every different place ; and all are again 
 affected by the local cost of labour or wages. A good ex- 
 cavator will dig and throw out, of common soil, into a bas- 
 ket or wheel-barrow, eight or ten yards per diem ; but of 
 stiff clay or firm gravel, not more than six yards. If the 
 soil is to be carted away from the site of the proposed 
 building, it may be more advantageously basketed out of 
 the foundation, and deposited at once in the cart, whereby 
 the labour of throwing or shovelling a second time is avoid- 
 ed ; but if the soil is to be deposited in the immediate vi- 
 cinity of the site, or thrown into a barge, wheeling is the 
 quicker and more economical operation. The quantity of 
 digger’s work is ascertained by multiplying the length 
 of the excavation by its breadth, and their result by the 
 mean depth for cubic feet : these divided by 27 will give 
 the amount in cubic yards. 
 
 Bricklayer . — The manufacture of brick being made the 
 subject of a separate article, we need only refer to that for 
 information on the subject ; and in the same manner the 
 components and merits of mortars and cements will be 
 found in sections 20 et seqq. of the article under the head 
 Stone-Masonry. A few observations on the composi- 
 tion of mortar for bricklaying will nevertheless be neces- 
 sary here. 
 
 Particular attention must be paid to cleansing the sand 
 to be used for mortar, of every particle of clay or mud that 
 may adhere to or be mixed up with it. Sea sand is ob- 
 jectionable for two reasons : it cannot be perfectly freed 
 from a saline taint, and the particles are moreover gene- 
 rally rounded by attrition, caused by the action of the sea, 
 which makes it less efficient for mortar than if they retain- 
 ed their natural angular forms. Lime should not be slaked 
 until the moment it is to be mixed up with the sand in mor- 
 tar, but the sooner that is done after it is burnt the better. 
 
 The proportion of lime to sand is generally taken at one 
 third or one fourth of the whole mass ; but if both the ma- 
 terials be of good qualit}', that is, if the lime slake freely, 
 and become a fine pungent impalpable powder, perfectly 
 clear from argillaceous or any other foreign matter, and 
 the sand clean and sharp, and of variously sized particles, 
 one sixth of lime to sand is quite enough; more is injuri- 
 ous. The ingredients should be well mixed and beaten in 
 a pug-mill, and as little water used as will suffice to make 
 the compound consistent and paste like. Rain, or any 
 other soft water, should be used for the purpose of mak- 
 ing mortar, and not spring or hard water, though any 
 other may be preferred to what is brackish even in the 
 slightest degree. When mortar is made, if not immedi- 
 ately used it should be put into a close pit or case, and 
 kept from the air, in which manner it will improve rather 
 than deteriorate, though it be for weeks or even months : 
 if however, the moisture be allowed to exude, it will set 
 and be spoiled. When taken out to be worked up, it should 
 be again well beaten, and wetted sufficiently to work free- 
 ly, but no more : nor should it be re-made in this manner 
 
BUIL 
 
 Building, in larger quantities than are required for immediate or 
 daily use. A quick-setting cement, such as that which 
 is most commonly used in building in this country, and 
 known as Parker’s or Roman cement, can only be mixed 
 or gauged as it is required for use. A bricklayer will keep 
 a labourer fully employed in gauging cement for him alone. 
 It is mixed with sand in the same manner that lime is in 
 common mortar, in the proportion of about three or four 
 of sand to one of cement, according to the quality of the 
 latter; and the labourer, as he gauges on one board, supplies 
 the mixture to the bricklayer fit for use on another board, 
 a spadeful at a time : it must then be applied within half 
 a minute, or it sets and is spoiled. 
 
 The average size of bricks in this country is a fraction 
 under nine inches long, four and a half wide, and two and 
 a half inches thick ; and as their magnitude is limited by 
 law, or rather by the duty imposed by law, the variation 
 cannot be great. In consequence of this uniformity of size, 
 a wall of this material is described as of so many bricks in 
 thickness, or of the number of inches which result from 
 the multiplying of nine inches by any number of bricks ; a 
 nine inch or one brick wall ; a fourteen inch wall, or of 
 one brick and a half (13| inches would be more correct, 
 in fact; for although a joint of mortar must occur in this 
 thickness, yet the fraction under the given size of the brick 
 is enough to form it) ; eighteen inch or two bricks, and so 
 on. A half-brick wall is not, or ought not to be, known, 
 except in partitions to fill in between quartering or upright 
 timbers, when it is called brick-nogging; and then not more 
 than six courses are laid without being bonded by a piece 
 of wood, called an intertie, skew-nailed at each end to the 
 quarters : brick-nogging is either flat or on edge, as the 
 partition may be 4^ or 2\ inches thick. 
 
 The great art in bricklaying is to preserve and main- 
 tain a bond, to have every course perfectly horizontal, 
 both longitudinally and transversely, and perfectly plumb ; 
 which last, however, may not mean upright, though that 
 is the general acceptation of the term, for the plumb-rule 
 may be made to suit any inclination that it is wished the 
 wall may have, as inward against a bank, for instance, or 
 in a tapering tower ; and also to make the vertical joints 
 recur perpendicularly over each other ; this is vulgarly and 
 technically called keeping the perpends. By bond in brick- 
 work is intended that arrangement which shall make the 
 bricks of every course cover the joints of those in the 
 course below it, and so tend to make the whole mass or 
 combination of bricks act as much together, or dependent- 
 ly one upon another, as possible. The object of this will 
 Plate be understood by reference to the diagram, fig. 1. Here 
 CXXXVI.it is evident, from the arrangement of the bricks, that any 
 weight placed on a would (supposing, as we are obliged 
 to suppose, that every brick feels equally, throughout its 
 whole length, a stress laid on any part of it) be carried 
 down and borne alike in every course from b to c ; in 
 the same manner the brick d is upborne by every brick 
 in the line ef and so throughout the structure. But this 
 forms a longitudinal bond only, which cannot extend its 
 influence beyond the width of the brick ; and a wall of 
 one brick and a half or two bricks thick, built in this man- 
 ner, would, in effect, consist of three or four half-brick-thick 
 walls, acting independently of each other, as shown in the 
 plan at i, in the diagram, under fig. 1. If the bricks were 
 turned so as to show their short sides or ends in front, in- 
 stead of their long ones, certainly a compact wall of a whole 
 brick in thickness would be produced ; but the longitudinal 
 bond would be shortened one-half, as at g c h, and a wall 
 of any greater thickness, in the same manner, must be com- 
 posed of so many independent one-brick walls, as at k, in 
 the plan before referred to. To obviate this, to produce 
 a transverse, and yet preserve a good longitudinal, bond, 
 
 DIN G. 75 
 
 the bricks are laid in alternate courses of headers and Building, 
 stretchers, or of ends and sides, as shown in fig. 2, thus '***~y^*j 
 combining the advantages of the two modes of arrange- 
 ment a b c and g c h fig. 1, in a b c fig. 2. Each brick 
 in fig. 2 showing its long side in front, or being a stretcher, 
 will have another lying parallel to it, and on the same level, 
 on the other side, to receive the other ends of the bricks 
 showing as headers in front, which in their turn bind, by 
 breaking the joint between them, as shown in the end of 
 such a wall at d. Thus a well-bonded nine-inch or one 
 brick wall is produced. The end elevations of the same wall 
 at e andy show how the process of bonding is pursued in 
 walls of one and a half and two bricks thick, the stretcher 
 being abutted in the same course by a header ; thus, in a 
 fourteen-inch wall inverting the appearance on the oppo- 
 site sides, as seen at e, and producing the same appearance 
 in an eighteen-inch wall, as at f In the diagram under 
 fig. 2, at g, is the plan of a fourteen-inch wall, showing the 
 headers on one side and the stretchers on the other, and at 
 h is the plan of the course immediately above it, in which 
 the headers and stretchers are inverted ; at k and i are 
 shown, in the same manner, the plans of two courses of an 
 eighteen-inch wall. This is called English bond. Thicker 
 walls are constructed in the same manner by the extension 
 of the same principle. 
 
 But a brick being exactly half its length in breadth, it 
 is impossible, commencing from a vertical end or angle, to 
 make a bond with whole bricks, as the joints must of neces- 
 sity fall one over the other. This difficulty is obviated by 
 cutting a brick longitudinally into two, or transversely into 
 four, equal parts, making half headers. One of these is 
 placed next to a whole header, inward from the angle, and 
 forms with it a three-quarter length between the stretchers 
 above and below, thus making a regular overlap, which may 
 then be preserved throughout : these half headers are tech- 
 nically termed closers. (See the joints in the heading 
 courses next the upright angle of the wall fig. 2, and the 
 first joints inwards from the square ends by the headers 
 in the plans at g and A.) A three-quarter stretcher is ob- 
 viously as available for this purpose as a half header, but 
 the latter is preferred, because, by the use of it, uniformity 
 of appearance is preserved, and whole bricks are retained 
 on the quoins or angles. In walls of almost all thicknesses 
 above nine inches, to preserve the transverse, and yet not 
 destroy the longitudinal bond, it is frequently necessary 
 to use half bricks ; but it becomes a question whether more 
 is not lost in the general firmness and consistence of the 
 wall by that necessity, than is gained in the uniformity of 
 the bond. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, 
 that a brick should never be cut if it can be worked in 
 whole, for a new joint is thereby created in a construc- 
 tion, the difficulty of which consists in obviating the debi- 
 lity arising from the constant recurrence of joints. Great 
 attention should be paid to this, especially in the quoins 
 of buildings, in which half bricks most readily occur ; and 
 there it is not only of consequence to have the greatest 
 degree of consistence, but the quarter bricks used as closers 
 are already admitted, and the weakness consequent on their 
 admission would only be increased by the use of other bats, 
 or fragments of bricks. 
 
 Another mode of bonding brick-work, which may be 
 supposed to have arisen from the appearance of the ends 
 of a wall according to the former mode of arrangement 
 (see e and f fig. 2), instead of placing the bricks in alter- 
 nate courses of headers and stretchers, places headers and 
 stretchers alternately in the same course, fig. 3. The plans 
 below this at c and rf are of two courses of a fourteen- inch 
 wall, with their bond, showing in what manner the joints 
 are broken in the wall horizontally as well as vertically on 
 its face. This is called Flemish bond. Closers are used 
 
76 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, equally to English and Flemish bond, in the same manner, 
 and for the same purpose ; half bricks also will occur in 
 both, but what has been said with reference to the use of 
 them in the former applies even with more force to the 
 latter, for they are more frequent in Flemish than in Eng- 
 lish, and its transverse tie is thereby rendered less strong. 
 Their occurrence is a disadvantage which every care should 
 be taken to obviate. The arrangement of the joints, how- 
 ever, in Flemish bond, presenting a neater appearance than 
 that of English bond, it is generally preferred for external 
 walls when their outer faces are not to be covered with 
 stucco, or plaster composition of any kind ; but English 
 bond should have the preference when the greatest degree 
 of strength and compactness is consideredof the highest im- 
 portance, because it affords, as we have already noticed, a 
 better transverse tie than the other, and transverse tie is 
 even more important than longitudinal. 
 
 It has been attempted to improve the bond in thick 
 walls, by laying raking courses in the core between exter- 
 nal stretching courses, and reversing the rake when the 
 course recurs. This obviates whatever necessity may exist 
 of using half bricks in the heading courses, but it leaves 
 triangular interstices to be filled up with bats, as the dia- 
 gram fig. 4 shows. This represents the plan of a thirty-six 
 inch or three-brick wall with raking courses at a, between 
 external ranges of stretchers, and lyingon a complete course 
 of headers, and at b a wall of the same thickness herring- 
 boned; courses of headers would bed and cover this also, 
 and, in the second course above, the raking or herring-bon- 
 ing would be repeated, but the direction of the bricks in- 
 verted. It will be seen that the latter demands, in addi- 
 tion to the triangular filling-in bats at the outer ends of the 
 diagonally placed bricks, half bricks to fill up the central 
 line of interstices, rendering herring-boning more objec- 
 tionable in that particular, though it has some advantages 
 over simply raking, or thorough diagonal courses, in some 
 other points. Neither mode should, however, be recurred 
 to for walls of a less thickness than three bricks, and that 
 indeed is almost too thin to admit of any great advantage 
 from it. 
 
 Skilful and ingenious workmen are well aware of the 
 necessity of attending to the bond, and are ready both to 
 suggest and to receive and practise an improvement; but 
 generally the workmen themselves are both ignorant of its 
 importance and careless in preserving it, even according 
 to the common modes. Their work should therefore be 
 strictly supervised as they proceed with it; for many of 
 the failures which are constantly occurring may be refer- 
 red to their ignorance or carelessness in this particular. 
 
 Not second in importance to bonding in brick-work is, 
 that it be perfectly plumb, or vertical, and that every 
 course be perfectly horizontal, or level, both longitudinal- 
 ly and transversely. The lowest course in the footings of 
 a brick wall should be laid with the strictest attention to 
 this latter particular ; for the bricks being of equal thick- 
 ness throughout, the slightest irregularity or incorrectness 
 in that will be carried into the superimposing courses, and 
 can only be rectified by using a greater or less quantity of 
 mortar in one part or another, so that the wall will of course 
 yield unequally to the superincumbent weight, as the work 
 goes on, and perpetuate the infirmity. To save the trouble 
 of keeping the plumb-rule and level constantly in his hands, 
 and yet to insure correct work, the bricklayer, on clearing 
 the footings of a wall, builds up six or eight courses at the 
 external angles (see fig. 5), which he carefully plumbs 
 and levels across, and from one to the other. These form 
 a gauge for the intervening parts of the courses, a line 
 being tightly strained from one end to the other, resting 
 on the upper and outer angles of the gauge bricks of the 
 next course to be laid, as at a and b, fig. 5, and with this 
 
 he makes his work range. If, however, the length be great, Building, 
 the line will of course sag ; to prevent which, it is carefully v *^"y~ w/ 
 set and propped at sufficient distances. Having carried 
 up three or four courses to a level, with the guidance of 
 the line, the work should be proved with the level and 
 plumb rule, and particularly with the latter at the returns 
 and reveals, as well as on the face : a smart tap with the 
 end of the handle of the trowel will generally suffice to 
 make a brick yield what little it may be out, while the 
 work is so green, and not injure it. Good workmen, how- 
 ever, take a pride in showing how correctly their work will 
 plumb without tapping. To work which is circular on the 
 plan, both the level and the plumb-rule must be used, to- 
 gether with a gauge-mould or a ranging trammel, to every 
 course, as it must be evident that the line cannot be ap- 
 plied to such in the manner just described. To every wall 
 of more than one brick thick, two men should be employ- 
 ed at the same time, one outside and the other in ; one 
 man cannot do justice from one side, even to a fourteen- 
 inch wall. Inferior workmen and apprentices are general- 
 ly employed as inside men, though the work there is of 
 quite as great importance as exteriorly, except for neat- 
 ness, and for that only if the brickwork is to show on the 
 outside. 
 
 In the operation of bricklaying, the workman holds the 
 trowel in his right hand, and with the left he takes up the 
 bricks from the scaffold, and lays them in their places. 
 Spooning or shovelling up mortar from the board with the 
 trowel, he throws it on the course last laid, and with the 
 point strews it over the surface to form a bed for that 
 which he is about to set ; whatever bulges or projects over 
 the outer edge of the work below is struck off, and being 
 caught on the flat face of the trowel, is put against the 
 side or edge of the last brick laid in the new course. Then 
 taking up a brick, he presses it down in its place until its 
 upper and outer angle comes exactly to the line ; and if 
 this be not readily effected by the hand, a slight drawing 
 blow with the obtuse point of the edge of the trowel does 
 it, or a tap with the end of the handle both draws it and 
 settles it down farther than the hand can press it. The 
 small quantity of mortar that is pressed out in front, by 
 this operation, being struck off, the joints are neatly drawn 
 by compressing the mortar with the point of the trowel, 
 and thus producing a fine smooth surface, — that is, if the 
 work is to be seen ; for if it is to be plastered, the rough 
 face is left that the plastering may the more readily at- 
 tach itself, and the joint is not drawn at all, but the work- 
 man proceeds in the same manner with the next brick in 
 advance along the course, or to fill in behind the one he 
 has laid in front to meet the work of his mate on the other 
 side of the same wall. This is the common mode of lay- 
 ing bricks. They should not however be merely laid ; 
 every brick should be rubbed and pressed down in such a 
 manner as to force the slimy matter of the mortar into 
 the pores of the bricks, and so produce absolute adhesion. 
 Moreover, to make brick-work as good and perfect as it 
 may be, every brick should be made damp, or even wet, 
 before it is laid, otherwise it immediately absorbs the mois- 
 ture of the mortar, and, its surface being covered with dry 
 dust, and its pores full of air, no adhesion can take place ; 
 but if the brick be damp, and the mortar moist, the dust 
 is enveloped in the cementitious matter of the mortar, which 
 also enters the pores of the brick, so that when the water 
 evaporates, their attachment is complete, the retention 
 and access of air being thus altogether precluded. To 
 wet the bricks before they were carried on to the scaffold 
 would, by making them heavier, add materially to the 
 labour of carrying : in dry weather they would, moreover, 
 become dry again before they could be used ; and for the 
 bricklayer to wet every brick himself would be an unne- 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 77 
 
 Building, cessary waste of his time : boys might therefore be ad- 
 vantageously employed to dip the bricks on the scaffold, 
 and supply them in a damp state to the bricklayer’s hand. 
 A watering pot with a fine rose to it should also be used 
 to moisten the upper surface of the last laid course of 
 bricks, preparatory to strewing the mortar over it. In 
 bricklaying with quick setting cements these things are 
 of even more importance ; indeed, unless the bricks are 
 quite wet to be set with cement, it will not attach itself 
 to them at all. 
 
 As mortar is a more yielding material, used in brick-work 
 merely for the purpose of making the detached portions of 
 the staple adhere, by filling up their interstices and pro- 
 ducing exhaustion, and the object being to produce as un- 
 yielding and consistent a mass as possible, as much of it 
 should be used as is sufficient to produce the desired re- 
 sult, and no more. No two bricks should be allowed to 
 touch, because of their inaptitude to adhere to each other ; 
 and no space between them should be left unoccupied by 
 mortar which may produce adhesion. When the bricks are 
 a fraction under two and a half inches thick, no four courses 
 of bricks and mortar, or brick-work, should exceed eleven 
 inches in height ; and if they are fully that thickness, four 
 courses should not reach eleven and a half inches. The 
 result of thick beds of mortar between the bricks is, that 
 the mortar is pressed out after the joint is drawn, on the 
 outside, in front ; and being made convex instead of slight- 
 ly concave, the joints catch every drop of rain that may 
 trickle down the face of the wall, and are thus saturated ; 
 the moisture freezes, and in thawing bursts the mortar, 
 which crumbles away, and creates the necessity which is 
 constantly recurring, of pointing the joints to preserve the 
 wall. The diagram shows the section of a 
 nine-inch wall, with the joints on the side a 
 as drawn, and on the side b as bulged, in con- 
 sequence of the quantity of mortar in them 
 yielding to the weight above. This, too, is in 
 addition to the inconvenient settling, which 
 is the consequence of using too much mor- 
 tar in the beds. 
 
 In practice, bricklayers lay the mortar on the course last 
 finished, and spread it over the surface with the trowel, 
 without considering, or caring for it, that they have put 
 no mortar between the bricks of that course, except in 
 the external edges of the outside joints ; that the mortar 
 is not, or ought not to be, so thin as to fall into the joints 
 by its own weight ; and that unless they press it down, half 
 the height of the space between the bricks remains in 
 every case unoccupied, and the wall is consequently hol- 
 low, incompact, and necessarily imperfect. To obviate 
 this, it is common to have thick walls grouted in every 
 course ; that is, mortar made liquid, and called grout, is 
 poured on to, and spread over the surface of the work, 
 that it may run in and fill up the joints completely. This, 
 at the best, is but doing with grout what should be done 
 with mortar ; and the difference between the two consist- 
 ing merely in the difference in the quantity of water they 
 contain, mortar must be considered the best; for the ten- 
 dency of grout is, by hydrostatic pressure, to burst the 
 wall in which it is employed ; and, moreover, it must, by 
 taking a much longer time to dry and shrink than the mor- 
 tar of the beds and external joints, make and keep the 
 whole mass unstable, and tend to injure rather than be- 
 nefit it. Filling or flushing up every course with mortar 
 is therefore far preferable, and may be done with very 
 little additional exertion on the part of the workmen. 
 
 It is a very common thing for two sorts of mortar to be 
 used in the same wall, a finer and whiter for the outside, 
 and a coarser for the inside work; the former made of 
 cleaner and finer sand, and a greater quantity of lime, than 
 
 the latter, with the intention of exposing a better looking Building, 
 and more durable material to the view and the weather, 
 
 The sand, we have already shown, ought to be as clean as 
 it can be made for mortar under all circumstances ; there- 
 fore there should be no possibility of making a difference 
 in that particular ; and the addition of a greater quantity 
 of lime than is necessary to make good mortar makes it 
 less durable, and occasions a sacrifice in an important qua- 
 lity for the sake of an unimportant advantage. Moreover, 
 the mortar which contains the greater quantity of lime 
 will yield or settle more than that which has the greater 
 proportion of sand. 
 
 All the walls of a building that are to sustain the same 
 floors and the same roof should be carried on simultane- 
 ously ; under no circumstances should more be done in one 
 part than can be reached from the same scaffold, until all 
 the walls are brought up to the same height, and the ends 
 of the part first built should be racked back, as at a b, fig. 
 
 2, and not carried up vertically with merely the toothing 
 necessary for the bond, as at a b, fig. 3. 
 
 Brick- work should never be carried on in frosty weather, 
 nor even when it is likely that frost will occur before the walls 
 can be covered in and become so dry as not to be affected 
 by frost. Covering an unfinished wall with a thick layer 
 of straw, when frost may supei-vene, is a very useful pre- 
 caution ; on the straw, weather boarding should be laid, to 
 prevent access of moisture from rain or snow. Merely wet 
 weather may be guarded against by following the directions 
 given above as to flushing every course of the work well 
 up with mortar, so that no interstices be left into which 
 water may insinuate itself, and by covering the walls with 
 boards to act as a coping when the men are not actually 
 at work on them ; the joints in the face of a wall that is 
 not to be plastered in any way should be protected in this 
 manner with great care. 
 
 In ordinary practice the bricklayer’s scaffolds are carried 
 up with the walls, and are made to rest on them. Having 
 built up the walls as high as he can conveniently from the 
 ground, and from a scaffold on trestles perhaps, he plants a 
 row of poles, which vary in height from thirty to forty and 
 even fifty feet, parallel to and at a distance of about four 
 feet six inches from the walls, and from twelve to fourteen 
 feet apart. To these, which are called standards, are attach- 
 ed by means of ropes other poles called ledgers, horizontal- 
 ly and on the inside, with their upper surface on a level with 
 the highest course of the wall yet laid ; and on the ledgers 
 and wall short transverse poles called putlogs or putlocks 
 are laid as joists to carry the floor of scaffold boards. These 
 putlocks are placed about six or seven feet apart, accord- 
 ing to the length and strength of the scaffold boards ; and 
 the ends which rest on the walls are carefully laid on the 
 middle of a stretcher, so as to occupy the place of a head- 
 er brick, which is inserted when the scaffolds are struck 
 after the work is finished. On the floor of the scaffold 
 thus formed the bricklayer stands, and the materials are 
 brought to him by labourers, in hods, from the ground 
 below, or they are hoisted up in baskets and buckets by 
 means of a pulley wheel and fall. The mortar is placed on 
 ledged boards of about three feet square, placed at conve- 
 nient distances along the scaffold ; and the bricks are strewn 
 on the scaffold between the mortar boards, leaving a clear 
 way against the wall for the workmen to move along unob- 
 structedly. The workman then recommences the operation 
 of bricklaying, beginning at the extreme left of his course, 
 and advancing to the right until he reaches the angle or 
 quoin in that direction, or the place where his fellow-work- 
 man on the same side may have begun. Thus he goes on 
 with course after course until the wall is as high as he can 
 conveniently reach from that scaffold, when another ledger 
 is tied to the poles, another row of putlocks laid, and the 
 
78 BU1LDIN 0. 
 
 Building, boards are removed up to the new level. The ledger and 
 v— most of the putlocks, however, remain to give steadiness 
 to the temporary structure, and so on to the full height 
 of the wall, piecing out the poles by additional lengths as 
 may be required. If a scaffold be very much exposed, and 
 run to a great height, it must be braced. This is done by 
 tying poles diagonally across on the outside to the stan- 
 dards and ledgers, and it may be further secured by tying 
 the ends of some of the putlocks to the ledgers; but an out- 
 side scaffold should never be attached in any way to the 
 building about which it stands. A scaffold should never 
 be loaded heavily, as well on account of the work as of the 
 scaffold itself; for the putlocks resting, as they do, on single 
 bricks, in a green wall, they exert an injurious Influence 
 on it, which every additional pound weight on the scaffold 
 must necessarily increase. A constant and steady supply 
 of bricks and mortar on the part of the labourers, without 
 overloading the scaffold at any one time, should be strictly 
 required. It would indeed be an advantage if every scaf- 
 fold were made with a double row of poles and ledgers, 
 one being on the inside, within a few inches of the wall. 
 This would obviate the necessity of resting the putlocks 
 on the walls, and do away with putlock holes ; but the 
 inner row of poles would be constantly in the way of the 
 bricklayer, who could not either set the bricks or draw 
 the joints so well as if he were unobstructed. Access is 
 given to scaffolds by ladders, and by inclined planes ; the 
 former are more commonly used externally, and the latter 
 internally. 
 
 Arches in brick-work are plain, rough, cut, or gauged. 
 Plain arches are built of uncut bricks, and the bricks being 
 parallelopipedons, an arch built of them must be made out 
 with mortar ; that is, the difference between the outer and 
 inner periphery of the arch requiring the parts of which an 
 arch is made up to be wedge-formed, as at a, 
 which the brick is not, the 
 difference must be made 
 in mortar, as at b, so that 
 the inner or lower angles of bricks used for 
 this purpose should absolutely touch, and the mortar should 
 be more consistent than that used in ordinary walling ; nor 
 should the centre on which an arch of this kind is set or 
 built be struck or removed until the work is absolutely dry, 
 or rather all such arches should be set in cement which 
 will dry immediately. In consequence of this inherent 
 defect in uncut-brick arches, in extensive continuousworks, 
 such as sewers, tunnels, vaults, &c. it is advisable to make 
 them in thin independent rings of half-brick or one brick 
 thick, as the case may be ; that is, a nine-inch arch should 
 be in two half-brick arches, as at a, fig. 6, and an eigh- 
 teen-inch arch in two one-bricks, as at b, each arch in the 
 latter case being bonded in itself as in a common nine-inch 
 wall with headers and stretchers. It is evident that, by 
 this mode of structure, a greater quantity of the solid ma- 
 terial comes into the back or outer ring or arch than into 
 the lower one ; and if they had been bonded together into 
 one arch, as at c, all that difference must have been made 
 up with mortar. Moreover, whatever pressure comes on 
 the outer ring is carried by it directly to the inner or 
 lower, from whose joints, however, the mortar cannot es- 
 cape or be pressed out, the inner angles of the bricks, by 
 meeting, preventing it below, and the bricks themselves 
 of the upper arch, which conveys the pressure, are them- 
 selves opposed to the back of the same joints, so that its 
 power of resistance is made equal to that of the bricks them- 
 selves, except at the ends ; which, in such works as we have 
 supposed, are remote, and may be protected by the use of 
 cement in their joints, whilst mortar is used in the rest. 
 
 Rough arches are those in which the bricks are roughly 
 cut with an axe to a wedge form, and are used over open- 
 
 ings, such as doors and windows, when the work is to be Building, 
 plastered on the outside, or in plain back fronts, out- 
 houses, garden-walls, &c. when, however, they are neatly 
 pointed with what is called a tuck or tucked joint. Semi- 
 circular and elliptical arches are generally made plain, or 
 without cutting the bricks; but arches composedof a small- 
 er segment of a circle (vulgarly and technically called 
 scheme arches), if not gauged, are cut or axed. Very flat 
 arches are technically distinguished from the quicker seg- 
 ment, or scheme, by the term camber, from the French 
 word cambrer, to round like an arch. It is arches of this 
 kind which are generally employed over windows and doors 
 in external work, and they too are either cut or gauged. 
 
 Gauged arches are composed of bricks which are cut 
 and rubbed to gauges and moulds, so as to form perfectly 
 fitting parts, as in masonry. Gauging is equally applica- 
 ble to arches and to walling, as it means no more than the 
 bringing every brick exactly to a certain form, by cutting 
 and rubbing, or grinding it to a certain gauge or measure, 
 so that it will exactly fit into its place, as in the finer works 
 of masonry. Gauged brick-work is set in a putty instead 
 of common mortar, but it is seldom used except for arches 
 in the fronts of houses, &c. which are to be neatly finished. 
 
 These are for the most part straight, and are generally from 
 eleven to twelve inches in depth, or the height of four courses 
 of brick-work. Their valueas archeswill be best understood 
 by reference to the diagram, fig. 7, by which it appears 
 that all the material between the soffit of the straight arch 
 or head of the opening b c, and the dotted line b f c, is 
 useless, the intrados or soffit of the really efficient part of 
 the arch being at that dotted line itself. This is the arc 
 of an angle of 60° ; its chord, the width of the opening, 
 being the base of an equilateral triangle constructed on it, 
 and the joints are the radii of a circle whose centre is at 
 a. b d and c e, the continuations of the sides of the 
 triangle or radii a b and a c, are technically termed the 
 skew-back of the arch. Sometimes the arc is made that 
 of a more acute angle, in which case the skew-back is less, 
 that is, the external angles c b d, and bee, are less ob- 
 tuse ; a smaller inavailable portion of the arch is thus left 
 between the arc and its chord, but that portion is less 
 securely retained under the flatter segment, because the 
 joints or radii diverge less, or are more nearly parallel. 
 
 These gauged arches being, as they for the most part are, 
 but a half brick in thickness, and not being tied by a bond 
 to anything behind them — for indeed almost the whole, if 
 not the whole, of their height, is occupied behind by the 
 reveal and the wooden lintel — require to be executed with 
 great care and nicety. It is a common fault with workmen 
 to rub the bricks thinner behind than before, to insure a very 
 fine joint in front, which must tend to make it bowoutwards: 
 it should rather be inverted, if it be done at all, though the 
 best work is that in which the bricks are gauged to a per- 
 fect parallel in their lateral thickness. Fig. 8 is a trans- 
 verse section of fig. 7, and the gauged arch, lintel, &c. in 
 it showing the total disconnection of the gauged arch with 
 any surrounding brick-work to which it might be bonded. 
 
 The absurdity of constructing arches circular on the plan, 
 especially in a thin unbonded shell of bricks, is so clear 
 as hardly to require notice. 
 
 Gauged facing to a wall is exceedingly objectionable, un- 
 less the bricks used for the gauged work be originally a 
 little larger than those which are to be worked in behind, 
 whose size should be their gauge, othenvise no bond can 
 be kept between the bulk of the wall and its face ; and the 
 same mortar or putty should be used throughout, of equal 
 consistence, and with joints of equal thickness, or the w r ork 
 cannot be sound and compact. 
 
 Everything relating to the construction of niches, groins, 
 domes, &c. may be referred to the articles Arch, Bridge, 
 
BUIL 
 
 Building, and Stone-Masonry ; the difference between stone and 
 brick, as far as the principle is concerned, being only in 
 the comparative magnitude of the parts ; for to make per- 
 fect arches, &c. it is clear that the bricks must be cut to 
 the same forms that are required in stone. 
 
 It is generally held that nothing but its own components 
 should be admitted into a brick wall, except what is abso- 
 lutely necessary for its connection with the other parts of 
 a building, such as wall-plates and wood-bricks (and that 
 these should be avoided as much as possible), templates, 
 lintels, &c. Wall-plates are required to receive the ends 
 of the joists, and distribute the weight of the floor to which 
 they belong equally along the walls. If the joists tailed 
 singly on the naked bricks, their thin edges would crush 
 those immediately under them, and the rest of the brick- 
 work would escape immediate pressure altogether. Wall- 
 plates may be superseded by the use of templates ; but this 
 involves the necessity of framed floors, which are carried 
 by a few large beams, under whose ends stout pieces of 
 timber three or four feet in length are placed. These are 
 intended, like a wall-plate, to distribute the weight over a 
 considerable part of the wall, and prevent the necessity of 
 placing the beam on the naked friable bricks, and are call- 
 ed templates. Lintels are used over square-headed win- 
 ' dows and doors, instead of arches in brick-work. They are 
 useful to preserve the square form and receive the joiner’s 
 fittings, but they should always have discharging arches 
 over them, and should not tail into the wall at either end 
 more than a few inches, that the discharging arch be not 
 wider than is absolutely necessary. If, however, discharg- 
 ing arches be not turned over them, the lintels should tail 
 in at each end considerably, and have small templates or 
 wood bricks placed transversely under them, as shown in 
 the diagram, fig. 9. This indicates the elevation of the 
 inside of part of an external wall with a window in it, and 
 shows the lintel over the latter, with a discharging arch 
 over it, and wood bricks under its ends, on the jambs of 
 the opening. Discharging arches should be turned over the 
 ends of beams, and templates also, as in fig. 10. They may 
 generally be quadrants of a circle, or even flatter, and 
 should be turned in two or more half bricks over doors 
 and windows, and other wide openings, but over the ends 
 of beams they need not be in more than one half brick. 
 
 Wood bricks are used to prevent the necessity of driv- 
 ing wedges into the joints of brick-work to nail the joiner’s 
 work to. They are pieces of timber generally cut to the 
 size and shape of a brick, and worked in as bricks in the 
 inner face of a wall, where it is known the joiners have 
 occasion for something of the kind. This is principally in 
 the jambs of the windows and doors for their fittings, and 
 along the walls, at proper heights, for the skirtings or wains- 
 cotting, as the case may be. 
 
 The use of bond timber in brick walls is objectionable, 
 because of its liability to shrink and swell, to decay, and 
 to be consumed by fire, in any of which cases the struc- 
 ture to which it belongs is either injure^, endangered, or 
 absolutely destroyed. It is, however, valuable to tie the 
 angles of walls, and to distribute the various weights equal- 
 ly throughout the walls, thus tending to prevent irre- 
 gular settlements, whether arising from any defect in a 
 foundation, or from an extraordinary imposition of weight 
 in any particular part. The objections to bond timber de- 
 pend on contingencies against which it may be in a great 
 degree protected by care and judicious management. If 
 the timber be of a durable sort, sound and well seasoned, 
 neither shrinking nor swelling need be feared if it be not 
 placed in a damp situation, or where moisture can gain 
 access to it ; nor will it decay if it be entirely incased in 
 anything, to the total exclusion of the external atmosphere. 
 If timber be laid in the heart of a wall, it should be well 
 
 DING. 79 
 
 imbedded in, and flushed round and over with mortar, as Building, 
 we have shown that bricks should be for other reasons ; 
 and if it be laid in the face of a wall, it should be only 
 where its exposed face can be effectually protected from 
 access of moisture, as when it is covered by the plasterer. 
 
 Damage by fire is a remote contingency ; and as it may be 
 confidently asserted that bond timber was never the part 
 of a structure in which a fire commenced, except perhaps 
 from some gross misplacement of it, it is moreover the last 
 combustible part that a fire could reach, and therefore, 
 when it is arrived at, almost all the damage that can be 
 done has already accrued. Bond timber certainly may 
 be, and constantly is, exposed to all the cited contingen- 
 cies ; but they generally arise from circumstances which it 
 may be in a greater or less degree protected from. Flat 
 wrought-iron bars have been recommended as ties in lieu 
 of bond timber; but besides the equal liability of that 
 metal to decay if it be exposed to damp or to a confined 
 atmosphere, bars of it cannot be properly worked up or 
 combined with brick-work ; and its susceptibility of changes 
 of temperature renders it far more unfit than timber to 
 be compounded with materials whose greatest merits are 
 firmness, and an inaptitude to change under any circum- 
 stances. The frangibility of cast iron makes it also exceed- 
 ingly objectionable as a bond or tie in brick walls. 
 
 It will be generally found that a brick wall built with 
 mortar and faced with ashlar has settled inward to a 
 greater or less extent, as the work has been more or less 
 carefully performed. Indeed in the nature of things it 
 cannot be otherwise, unless the brick backing be worked 
 in some cement which sets and hardens at once ; for the 
 outer face is composed of a layer of unyielding material, 
 with few and very thin joints, which perhaps do not oc- 
 cupy a fiftieth part of its extent, while the back is built 
 up of an infinity of small parts, with fully one eighth its 
 height of joints, which are composed of material that 
 must both yield to pressure and shrink in drying. Some 
 part of the ill effect attendant on this is obviated by the 
 bond-stones, which tail in or run through the wall, and 
 tend to keep the discordant materials together ; but still 
 much of it remains : and besides this, the internal or cross 
 walls, which have no stone in them, will either settle down 
 and shrink away from the external walls, or drag them in- 
 ward, as they happen to be well or ill bonded or tied. 
 
 For these reasons, brick-work built in this manner with 
 masonry should be executed with exceedingly well-tem- 
 pered mortar, made with no more lime than is absolutely 
 necessary to cement the particles of sand together, and 
 the sand again to the bricks, worked as stiff as it can be, 
 and laid in as thin courses as may be to answer the pur- 
 pose required of it. Above all, work of this kind must not 
 be hurried, but allowed time to dry and shrink as it goes on. 
 
 Discharging arches over vacuities having been disposed 
 of incidentally, we have now only to speak of them under 
 openings, in which situation their use is to distribute the 
 superincumbent weight equally over the substructure, or 
 along the foundation, as the case may be. For this pur- 
 pose the arch is inverted, as shown in the diagram, fig.pi ate 
 14, and by means of it the weight brought down by thecxxxVIL 
 piers is carried along the footings, which are thus equal- 
 ly borne upon throughout their whole length. Arches 
 of two half bricks are indicated here, that being suffi- 
 cient for ordinary purposes, and to develope the principle ; 
 in large and heavy works, arches of three half bricks, and 
 even greater, may be judged necessary. Any arc be- 
 tween a quadrant and a semicircle may be used with ad- 
 vantage ; but an arc ofless than 45° cannot be recommend- 
 ed for the inverted discharging arch under piers. If it 
 should so happen that an old well or cess-pool, that cannot 
 without great inconvenience and expense be filled up with 
 
80 B U I L 
 
 Building. soun( l walling, or in some other efficient manner, or other 
 irremediably bad place, occur in a foundation, and fall un- 
 der a pier, the ground being sound on either side of it, a 
 second discharging arch may be formed under the pier 
 and over the unsound part, resting its legs on, or springing 
 from, the inverted arch under the opening, and on the 
 sound ground, as indicated by the dotted arch in the last 
 quoted diagram, fig. 14. 
 
 Not the least important part of the bricklayer’s art is 
 the formation of chimney and other flues. Great tact is 
 required in gathering over properly above the fire-place, 
 so as to conduct the smoke into the smaller flue, which 
 itself requires to be built with great care and precision, 
 that it be not of various capacity in different parts, in 
 one place contracted to a narrow strait, and in another 
 more widely expanded, and so on. With the present im- 
 perfect means of cleaning chimney flues, it is absolutely 
 necessary that they be of a certain magnitude, which should 
 be carefully maintained throughout ; but it would be bet- 
 ter that they were made oval, or with the angles taken oft’ 
 at least, than parallelograms in plan, as the practice is. 
 Chimney flues are plastered or pargetted with a mortar in 
 which a certain proportion of cow-dung is mixed, which 
 prevents it from cracking and peeling oft’ with the heat to 
 which it is exposed. Experiment has proved that a taper- 
 ing and nearly cylindrical flue of much smaller bore than 
 is now required is the best for carrying away smoke ; and 
 with a more humane and more efficient mode of cleaning, 
 such a one would be unexceptionable. Of course, too, the 
 bore should be regulated by the size of the fire-place, or 
 rather by the quantity of smoke to which it is required to 
 give vent. 
 
 Sewers and drains which are not cylindrical should be 
 built with concave bottoms, although the sides be parallel 
 and the covering horizontal. The concave channel keeps 
 the stream more together, and enables it the better to carry 
 its impurities along with it ; whereas a flat-bottomed drain 
 offers a large surface for the particles of soil to attach 
 themselves to, and the stream of water, being more scat- 
 tered, is less efficient in force. All drains in houses and 
 in other places where it may be necessary to open them 
 at any time, should be of the form of which a, fig. 11, is a 
 section, with a flat covering of stone paving, or large, 
 strong, paving tiles, set and jointed with cement. Gun- 
 barrel drains, as at b, are the best in exposed situations, 
 because they are the strongest ; but as there is no mode 
 of cleaning but by breaking them up, if they are too 
 long to be raked, they should not be employed except 
 with a considerable fall, and a frequent or constant stream 
 of water through them, as from a pump-trough, rain-wa- 
 ter trunks, &c. They are constructed on a barrelled 
 centre, which the bricklayer drags on as he advances 
 with his work, finishing as he goes. Large sewers, which 
 are accessible from the ends by men to clear or remove 
 any accidental obstructions, are best circular or ellipti- 
 cal ; the latter of the two is generally preferred, be- 
 cause, in proportion to its capacity, its height is greater ; 
 but most frequently the sides of large sewers are made 
 vertical and parallel, with a flat, inverted arch below, 
 and a semicircular head, as at c. This form, however, it 
 is evident, is disqualified to resist lateral pressure to any 
 extent ; nor indeed is the circular or elliptical sewer secure 
 in its arched form, unless the weight above is sufficient 
 to counteract any force the sides may be subjected to. 
 No drain should have an inclination or fall of less than 
 one quarter of an inch to a foot; and where the stream 
 is infrequent and dull, as much more would be a great 
 advantage. In building drains it is of great importance 
 that proper traps should be constructed to prevent the 
 return of smells and the passage of vermin. At every 
 
 DING. 
 
 sink there should be a bell-trap, and a well-trap within Building, 
 that, or near the hither end of the drain. Suppose a 
 drain of the form of that shown at a, fig. 11, nine inches 
 wide and nine inches deep, leading from a kitchen or 
 scullery to the common sewer of the house, in which it 
 meets that which comes from the water-closet and other 
 places. The bell-trap in the sink itself will prevent the 
 return of smell when it is constantly in use, but it is 
 liable to be broken and otherwise injured by the ignorance 
 and impatience of servants and others, or it may become 
 dry by evaporation in some situations ; it is therefore ne- 
 cessary to have a trap not so liable to contingencies. Let 
 a well be made eighteen inches or two feet in diameter, 
 square or round, and two feet six inches or three feet 
 deep, across and below the level of the drain, as shown in 
 the plan, fig. 12, and longitudinal section of the same, 
 fig. 13 ; it must be built around with brick, in cement, and 
 be plastered on the inside with the same material, which 
 will make it capable of retaining fluids. Uprightly across 
 this well, and in the transverse direction of the drain, 
 must be placed a sound piece of paving stone, so long that 
 its ends may be inserted in the sides of the well, as shown 
 in fig. 12, and so wide that its upper edge shall touch the 
 covering of the drain, and that its lower may reach six or 
 nine inches down into the well below the bottom of the 
 drain. Mortar or cement must prevent the passage of 
 air between the upper edge of this trap-stone and the 
 cover of the well and drain, and the trap is complete. 
 
 The water coming from the sink flows along the drain 
 from a to b (fig. 13), where it falls into the well, and fill- 
 ing it up to that level, it flows on again from c in the di- 
 rection of d, to the cess-pool or common sewer, from 
 which, however, no smell can return ; for the trap-stone 
 e, the lower half of which is thus immersed in water, com- 
 pletely bars the passage. It is evident, however, that if 
 the well should leak, the water in it may fall below the 
 lower edge of the stone, and the efficiency of the trap be 
 destroyed ; but if it be made perfect in the first instance, 
 there can be no danger of any inconvenience that a bucket 
 of water thrown in at the sink will not cure. It is from the 
 drying up of the water in these well-traps (vulgarly call- 
 ed stink-traps ) that uninhabited houses are so frequently 
 offensive. It must be clear, moreover, that these traps 
 form an effectual bar to vermin, and they may there- 
 fore be advantageously placed at the entrance of water- 
 closet drains, to prevent rats from getting at the soil- 
 pipes, which they will gnaw and destroy if they can get 
 access to them. Internal drains, or those which go through 
 a house, should always pass under the doorways if pos- 
 sible, and above the inverted arch, which should be al- 
 ways found under them, in external walls at least. If, 
 however, circumstances should render it absolutely ne- 
 cessary to take a drain through a wall, an arched ring or 
 bull’s eye should be made for it to pass by. 
 
 Cess-pools should be made cylindrical, and be bricked 
 round ; but whether they are made to retain fluids or not, 
 can seldom be a matter of consequence, as they are ge- 
 nerally put in secluded places, where, if the object be not 
 to get rid of the waste, there is seldom, at least, any de- 
 sire to retain it. In towns and cities where the common 
 sewerage is as complete as it should be, and water-closets 
 are used instead of privies, cess-pools are unnecessary, as 
 the soil becomes so much diluted by the water that goes 
 down with it, that it flows readily enough through the 
 private drains to the common sewer, and so on with the 
 rest, to the common receptacle. Sometimes, indeed, it 
 may be found necessary to clean out the well-traps, but 
 this cannot often occur. 
 
 The construction of ovens and furnaces, and well-steen- 
 ing, are certainly within the range of the bricklayer’s art, 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 81 
 
 Building, but as they are not immediately connected with our present 
 subject, they do not come within the scope of this article. 
 
 Brick and tile paving is performed by the bricklayer. 
 Brick paving is either flat, or on edge, in sand, or in mor- 
 tar or cement. Brick flat paving in sand, that is, with 
 the bricks laid on their broadest surfaces, and bedded in 
 and on dry sand, is very slight and fragile, and brick flat 
 paving set and bedded in mortar is very little better; 
 for if the soil on which the paving is laid be light and 
 sandy, the bricks are easily displaced by being pressed 
 unequally; and if it be clayey it will probably be moist, 
 and the thin porous brick absorbing the moisture, will ge- 
 nerally become saturated, and present a damp, unwhole- 
 some floor. Paving with bricks on their edges, how- 
 ever, forms a much better floor, and is preferable to a 
 stone paving, if the latter be laid on the ground without 
 the intervention of footings. Brick-on-edge paving in 
 sand is generally used in beer cellars, pantries, dairies, 
 stables, &c. as its numerous open joints allow wasted or 
 discharged fluids readily to escape ; and it is both cool 
 and dry under ordinary circumstances. In mortar or ce- 
 ment, bricks on their edges form a sound, dry floor; the 
 smallness of the surface exposed by each brick in this 
 manner leaves them of course less susceptible of partial 
 pressures, and the depth from the soil to the surface is 
 such that damp rarely shows through. The paving brick 
 differs from the common brick only in thickness, its di- 
 mension in that direction being rather less than two inches 
 instead of two inches and a half, and in being rather 
 harder and more compact. Dutch clinkers are paving 
 bricks, smaller and much harder than the English ; they 
 are six inches long, three inches wide, and one inch and 
 a half thick, and are always set on edge and herring- 
 boned ; that is, instead of being placed in parallel lines, they 
 are set at right angles to each other \ x\ /X / 
 thus, — with nevertheless a perfectly sV\/a\\// C'xV'/V 
 even face. Paving tiles are made 
 nine inches and a half and eleven 
 inches and a half square, though they x/ \x \x 
 are called ten inch and twelve inch or foot tiles respec- 
 tively, the former being one inch, and the latter one inch 
 and a half thick ; they are set in courses, as stone paving 
 would be. Paving tiles make a neater, but not so sound 
 and durable a pavement, as brick on edge. 
 
 Tiling being much less in vogue than formerly, in con- 
 sequence of the better appreciation of the superior quali- 
 ties of slate for covering roofs, and the moderate cost at 
 which slates are now furnished to the builder, it no longer 
 maintains its separate artificer, but is performed, when it 
 is required, by the bricklayer. It consists, for the most 
 part, of two sorts — plain tiling and pan tiling. Plain tiles 
 are simple parallelograms, generally about ten inches and 
 a half in length, six inches wide, and five eighths of an 
 i inch thick ; and each tile has a hole pierced through it 
 near one end, to receive the wooden pin by which it is 
 hooked on to the lath. The tiles are laid in mortar on 
 the laths, which in this country are of oak or fir, with an 
 overlap of six, seven, or eight inches. The greatest overlap 
 or smallest gauge makes the securest work, though it does 
 not present so good an appearance externally as a longer 
 gauge does ; and it requires, moreover, a greater number 
 of tiles and laths, thereby adding materially both to the 
 weight and the cost. The great overlap and the mortar are 
 both necessary, nevertheless, to prevent the rain and snow 
 from driving in between and under the tiles. Plain tiling 
 requires the pitch of the roof to be at an angle of at least 
 50°, and is one of the heaviest coverings that can be used, 
 though it is at the same time one of the warmest. The 
 tiles, however, readily and rapidly absorb moisture, which 
 they communicate to the laths and rafters under them, to 
 
 the serious injury of both the latter; and the mortar in Building, 
 which they are set requires to be frequently pointed, the 
 constant atmospheric changes to which it is exposed occa- 
 sioning it to crumble and fall away in a very short time. 
 
 Pan tiles are parallelograms of irregular surface, straight 
 in the direction of their length, which is thirteen inches 
 and a half, but twisted to this form if A . — ^ in the trans- 
 verse section. Measuring the whole surface across, a tile 
 is nine inches wide, but in a right line from point to point 
 not more than seven, and its thickness is half an inch ; a 
 small tongue or lip is bent down at one end, from its flat- 
 ter convexity, on the under side, to hook it on to the lath 
 by, instead of a wooden pin through it, as in a plain tile. 
 
 Pan tiles are set dry or in mortar, on laths. They are not 
 laid side by side, but overlapping laterally, thus ; conse- 
 quently all the overlap they have lon- 
 gitudinally is three or four inches only, 
 or enough to prevent rain and snow 
 from driving up under the upper, over 
 the end of the lower tile ; and thence 
 pan tiling is but little more than half 
 the weight of plain tiling. It is never- 
 theless a much less warm covering for houses, and is more 
 liable to be injured by violent gales or gusts of wind, than 
 the latter is ; but again, it presents a far more pleasing ap- 
 pearance to the eye. Pan tiling will not bear a much flatter 
 pitch than the other, but it is greatly improved by being 
 pointed on the inside with lime and hair ; sometimes indeed 
 the whole of the work is, as we have said, set in mortar ; 
 but this mode has disadvantages to which pointing inter- 
 nally is not liable, and its superiority in other respects is 
 questionable. To both pan and plain tiling there is a 
 large concave tile used to cover the hips and ridges of a 
 roof. These are not generally made to overlap each other 
 in any situation, but are set in mortar, and fastened with 
 nails and hooks fitted for the purpose. 
 
 When the top of a brick wall is not protected by a 
 roof, it must be covered or coped in some manner, or it 
 will soon be destroyed by the weather. Sometimes this 
 is done by means of a course of bricks set across it on 
 their edges in cement, and called a barge course, but it 
 is a very imperfect covering, for water will trickle down 
 the face of the wall on both sides, as the coping brick 
 can be no longer than the thinnest wall is in thickness. 
 
 Two double courses of plain tiles may be put side by side 
 under the barge course, making a projection over either 
 face of about one inch and a half ; thus, — 
 
 Section. Elevation. 
 
 Sc 
 
 nr 
 
 This is much better than the barge course alone: but still 
 the covering possesses no inclination outwards to throw the 
 water off ; the upper surfaces are all horizontal. The same 
 objection exists to foot-paving tiles, which are also used as 
 a coping ; but none of these methods is available for any 
 wall above nine inches in thickness. Stone coping, there- 
 fore, which may be made of sufficient width, and be both 
 weathered and throated, is much to be preferred. 
 
 One of the greatest faults in the modern practice of 
 building, both architecturally as a matter of taste, and 
 practically as a matter of prudence, is, that these copings, 
 and cornices which serve as such, do not project suffi- 
 ciently to protect the face of the wall on which they may 
 be placed, from the weather. A bold, massive, and well- 
 projected cornice on a wall serves as a roof or pent-house 
 to it, and, besides imparting great beauty to the plainest 
 structure, protects the wall from the premature decay of 
 
 Barge course. || ] 1 1 I II 1 I 1 I I l! 
 Tile creasing. ■■ 31 • ■ 1 - • % ■ = ■ - *-■ === 
 
82 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, its upper part especially, and of the joints generally, if it ascertain the quantities and bring them to a standard, is Building, 
 be unplastered brick-work, which thereby calls for the con- as follows : — 
 
 stant repetition of pointing. Effective and pleasing cor- The exact superficies of so much of a wall as may be 
 nices and blocking courses may be formed with uncut of the same thickness is taken, and the number of bricks 
 bricks alone; and these, set in cement, would, with judi- it is in thickness placed marginally; all the different por- 
 cious management, add materially both to the appearance tions or parts being of the same thickness are taken in like 
 and durability of brick-work, without the foreign aid of manner, and then deductions, as of window openings and 
 the plasterer or mason. doorways, are taken as such, in superficies, with their re- 
 
 From the injury which accrues to the joints of brick- spective thicknesses placed marginally also. The dimen- 
 work through bad management in its execution, and im- sions, on being squared, are abstracted in half bricks, the 
 perfect protection when executed, arises the necessity so deductions made of like thicknesses from like thicknesses, 
 frequent at the present day of pointing. and the whole reduced by multiplying each quantity by 
 
 Sometimes frost will have supervened before the sur- the number of half bricks in the thickness of the parts of 
 faces of the joints in a wall are dry; consequently the the wall which the margin expresses, and dividing the 
 mortar bursts and peels away, and the whole then re- product by three (the number of half bricks in one brick 
 quires to be pointed. Preparatory to this operation the and a half, the standard), the reduced quantity which re- 
 scaffold, if it has been struck, must be re-erected, the suits, divided again by 272, the number of feet in a rod, 
 mortar raked out of the joints to a depth of about three gives the quantity of rods and feet in the wall ; as, for ex- 
 eighths of an inch, or deeper if the injury have reached ample, — The frontwall of a house is thirty-five feet in length 
 further; — this can be done by a labourer; — a brick-layer on the ground floor. (Fig. 14.) It has a basement story 
 then goes over the whole with a hard hair-brush and wa- twelve feet high from the top of the footings to the level of 
 ter to cleanse and moisten the joints ; and then, with mor- the ground floor, and two and a half bricks thick, which is 
 tar prepared for the purpose, he carefully fills them all up, a half brick more than the wall above. The footings are 
 and neatly draws them with his trowel. This mortar three spreading courses high, each course a half brick thicker 
 must be of the best quality; it is generally compounded than the one above it. In the basement wall there are a 
 with a certain proportion of forge ashes, which gives it a door and two windows, the former seven feet by three feet 
 blue tinge, and greatly aids its power of resisting the ac- six inches between the reveals, and the latter five feet by 
 tion of the weather. Cement is sometimes used instead three feet nine inches between the reveals also. The mea- 
 of this blue mortar. If the wall to be pointed be a front surement of thus much will show how all the rest must be 
 or other important one, in which peculiar neatness is re- done. 
 
 quired, every joint is marked with a narrow parallel ridge The footings consisting of three equally spreading 
 of a fine white putty, in the composition of which bone courses, the extent of the middle one both in length and 
 lime forms a principal ingredient. The former is called breadth will be an average of them all, so that they may 
 flat-joint, and the latter tuck-pointing. If it be an old wall be taken in one height. To the length of the ground 
 that requires pointing, a scaffold must be erected before floor, thirty-five feet, must be added twice three sets-off 
 it; and where the putlocks cannot be rested on window of one fourth of a brick at each end of the basement, and 
 sills and the like, half bricks are generally drawn from of the two first courses of footings for the length of the 
 the wall to make rests for them, and restored again when second of them ; this is equal to three half bricks, or thir- 
 the work is done. The former process is then gone through teen and a half inches, which, added to thirty-five feet, 
 with a common wall ; but if it require tuck-pointing, the makes thirty-six feet one and a half inch the dimension 
 whole surface is well washed, and then coloured, to look of length for the footings, by nine inches, their height ; 
 like new, before the pointing is done. The gauged arches their average thickness, to 
 over the windows and doors are always coloured, and the be placed in the margin, is 
 joints drawn with peculiar neatness. If in the original three and a half bricks, the 
 building of the wall the perpends have not been preserv- highest course being three 
 ed, that is, if the vertical joints have not been made to fall bricks, the second three and 
 perpendicularly in the alternately recurring courses, the a half, and the third or low- 
 workman in pointing stops up the old joints, which are ir- est'four bricks. That is the 
 regular, with putty of a brick colour, and forms false new first quantity. The next is of 
 ones in the proper places. the wall above. The length 
 
 The tools and implements mostly employed by the (one half brick, for the two 
 bricklayer are the trowel, the plumb-rule, the level, the sets-off, added to thirty-five 
 square, the bevel, line-pins and lines, the raker, and the feet, gives) thirty-five feet 
 hammer, together with a hod and spade for his labourer, four and a half inches, by the 
 Besides these there are sundry others used in cutting and height twelve feet, two and 
 gauging bricks, and some which are peculiar to tiling and a half bricks thick. The de- 
 paving ; but the most material operations can be performed ductions are seven feet by 
 with those enumerated here. A pug-mill and screens for three feet six inches in one 
 mixing and tempering mortar are also auxiliaries of great brick for the door, between 
 importance. the reveals, and seven feet 
 
 Brick-work is valued by the rod. A rod of brick-work is four and a half inches by four 
 a quantity whose superficies is 272£ feet (taken in practice feet three inches in one and 
 at the round number 272 without the fraction), and thick- a half brick behind the re- 
 ness one brick and a half. Reckoning the one brick and veals, the rest of the thick- 
 a half at thirteen inches and a half, — its average extent, — ness of the wall, an addition 
 the cubic foot is to the reduced superficial foot as eight of one half brick being made 
 to nine, so that a cubic rod of brick-work consists of 306 to the height, and of two half 
 
 feet, the result of 272 multiplied by nine and divided by bricks to the width, because of the reveals. The windows 
 eight. The reduced superficial rod, however, is that com- are taken in exactly the same manner, with the same addi- 
 monly used in practice ; and the process of measuring, to tions ; but as the two are of the same size, their number 
 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 Footings. 
 
 
 1 H w 1 
 
 0 
 
 424 
 
 6 
 
 Basement wall 
 from the top of 
 
 
 
 i °co 
 
 
 
 footings to the 
 level of ground 
 floor. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 Deduct for door 
 between there- 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 veals. 
 
 Do. behind the 
 reveals. 
 
 2) 
 
 
 1 ° 05 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 Do. for the win- 
 dows between 
 
 2) 
 
 
 
 
 
 the reveals. 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 $ 
 
 48 
 
 
 Do- behind the 
 
 reveals. 
 
 Abstract of the above Quantities. 
 
 £ brick. 
 
 Deductions 
 in £ brick. 
 
 189 7 
 2122 6 
 
 71 'C ^ 
 tn to 
 
 000 
 
 2312 1 
 
 363 1 
 
 145 li 
 
 3)1949 0 
 
 565 1£ 
 
 272JG49 8(2 rods 105 feet 8 inches. 
 544 
 
 105 8 
 
83 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, is marked against the one dimension. The dimensions are 
 now to be squared, and the squaring is done by duodeci- 
 mals, or cross-multiplication. 36 feet 1-| inches X - 9 inches 
 = 27 feet 1 inch; 35 feet 4| inches X 12 feet is = 424 
 feet 6 inches, and so on with the rest. An abstract is then 
 made of these quantities in two columns, the first is marked 
 “ one half brick,” and the second “ deductions in that thick- 
 ness.” In the first column is placed the first quantity, mul- 
 tiplied by seven, the number of half bricks in three and a 
 half, which stands marginally to it ; 24 feet 6 inches X 7 
 — 189 feet 7 inches. The second dimension follows in 
 the same column, multiplied by five, the number of half 
 bricks in its thickness ; the next quantity is a deduction, 
 that is placed in the second column, multiplied by two, 
 the thickness of the part deducted being one brick, and 
 the rest in the same manner. The abstract being com- 
 pleted, the columns are added, and the amount of the se- 
 cond deducted from that of the first, and the difference 
 divided by three, which brings it to the reduced standard. 
 Dividing now by 272, the number of rods and feet in the 
 given wall appears to be 2 rods, 185 feet, 8 inches. The 
 quantities are more generally abstracted in one-brick and 
 one and a half brick columns, with deductions in other 
 parallel columns, to which thicknesses they are all readily 
 brought. The single column in one half brick is, however, 
 assumed here as the more simple and the more easily ex- 
 plained. 
 
 It must be remembered, that in taking the return or end 
 walls, the thickness of that which has been already taken 
 in front is to be deducted from their length, or the angle- 
 pier or quoin will be taken twice. Work which is circu- 
 lar on the plan may be taken separately, and charged at a 
 higher price altogether, or it may be measured as plain, 
 and an extra taken at so much the superficial foot. Chim- 
 ney breasts are taken as additional quantities, with the 
 thicknesses they project, and the opening for the fire- 
 place is deducted ; but the flues are measured as solid, 
 the extra labour and mortar in forming and pargetting 
 them being fully equal in value to the bricks saved. 
 
 A rod of brick-work will consume about 4500 bricks, 
 though the number will be a few more or less than this, 
 as the bricks happen to be below or above the average 
 size, and as the joints are made thicker or thinner. The 
 quantity of mortar, it is evident, will be affected by the 
 latter consideration also ; but in London it is generally 
 reckoned at from ninety to a hundred striked bushels, or 
 from four to four and a half cart loads, each containing 
 about one cubic yard, to the rod. The labour on a rod of 
 brick-work may be taken on an average at the wages of 
 a bricklayer, and his assistant or labourer, for four days ; 
 this, however, does not include making and beating the 
 mortar, nor scaffolding, which latter must be separately 
 considered. Many things will, however, affect the time 
 1 in which the work may be performed, both of the brick- 
 layer and his labourer ; the former can do one fourth as 
 much more, at the least, in walls which are to be plastered, 
 as in those in which he has to keep the perpends and 
 draw the joints, &c., and more in thick walls than in thin 
 ones ; and the capability of the latter will depend, inverse- 
 ly, on the rate at which the former can proceed, on the 
 distance he may have to carry the bricks and mortar to 
 the foot of the ladder, and mainly on the height he has to 
 carry the materials up the ladder. In great heights, how- 
 ever, the materials should always be hoisted. 
 
 Gauged arches are taken at so much per foot superfi- 
 cial, in addition to being measured in as brick-work. Both 
 the vertical and horizontal surfaces are measured to ob- 
 tain the superficies of the arch, or rather of the work upon 
 it. Rough arches are also taken as an extra superficial 
 quantity ; but plain arches in vaults, &c. and discharging 
 
 arches, are not considered extras, though an allowance is Building, 
 made for cutting to moulds, for inverted discharging arches, 
 at per foot run. 
 
 If a wall be faced with bricks of a more costly sort than 
 that of which the bulk is composed, or worked in a pecu- 
 liar manner, it is calculated by the foot superficial, also in 
 addition to its measurement as brick-work. It should be a 
 matter of previous agreement whether or not there shall 
 be an extra charge for plumbing quoins and reveals. Un- 
 der ordinary circumstances no allowance is made for it ; 
 but oblique vertical angles, both internal and external, 
 which require to have bricks neatly cut to form them, 
 are taken at so much per foot running measure. Exter- 
 nal oblique angles are technically termed squint-quoins, 
 and internal, birds-mouth. Oblique angles within a build- 
 ing are taken as run of cut splay. Cuttings to rakes or 
 inclined straight lines are taken by the running foot also, 
 but with reference to the thickness of the w r all. Cuttings 
 to ramps or concave lines are measured and valued in the 
 same manner. Sailing or projecting courses, preparations 
 for plaster cornices, and brick cornices themselves, are all 
 taken at so much per foot run, according to the labour 
 and materials involved in working them, over and above 
 the regular charge for the brick-work by the rod. 
 
 Every thing, indeed, which adds to the labour of exe- 
 cuting brick-work, and consumes more than the ordinary 
 quantity of materials, is taken in addition, either by the 
 foot superficial, or by the foot running, or in numbers, as 
 the setting of chimney-pots, bedding and pointing door 
 and sash-frames, &c. Bond-timbers, lintels, and whll- 
 plates, are generally measured in with the brick-work, on 
 account of the trouble of bedding them, and the delay ge- 
 nerally occasioned to the bricklayer in setting them. If 
 they are not included with the brick-work, bedding them 
 is an extra charge, at so much per foot run ; and then fill- 
 ing in between the ends of the joists and beams generally 
 requires to be taken also. 
 
 Brick-nogging is measured by the superficial yard, in- 
 cluding the quarterings and interties, and making no de- 
 ductions but for openings. Drains and sewers are mea- 
 sured by the foot run, according to their form and capa- 
 city. The quantity of materials consumed, and labour 
 required in constructing them, maybe readily obtained by 
 calculating the one, and observing the quantity a man with 
 a labourer can execute under the circumstances, whatever 
 they may be, within a given time. 
 
 Paving is measured by the superficial yard of nine feet; 
 tiling by the square of one hundred feet; — eaves courses, 
 ridges, and hips, being extra charges, by the foot run. 
 Pointing, whether to old or new work, is measured by the 
 superficial foot; and the scaffolding for it, when scaffold- 
 ing is required, is either included in the price per foot for 
 pointing, or a charge is made for the use of it, together 
 with the cost of carting, and the men’s time in setting up 
 and removing it. 
 
 Mason . — We must refer to the separate article under 
 the heads Stone-Masonry and Stone-Cutting for in- 
 formation on those subjects generally. It will, however, 
 be necessary to give a few particulars here on masons’ 
 work, as it has to do with other artificers’ works in the pro- 
 cess of building, and especially with reference to various 
 species of walling, or modes of constructing walls of stone. 
 
 Prom the regular and determined form of bricks, modes 
 or systems for setting or arranging them may be formed, 
 and any workman, by habit and an exertion of memory 
 merely, may become competent to build a brick wall as 
 well as it can be built; but it is not so with stone used in 
 common masonry walling. The workman in this material 
 has for the most part to do with masses of all forms and 
 of all sizes, and a continual exercise of the judgment is 
 
84 B U I L 
 
 Building, required from him beyond the tact or skill which may be 
 acquired by practice. For this reason workmen are ge- 
 nerally less to be trusted to themselves, or to their own 
 discretion, in stone than even in brick-laying or walling. 
 The best or highest sort of stone walling is the easiest 
 to set; it is that in which the stones are all tooled and 
 gauged in regular parallelogram ic figures, to range in 
 courses and suit the thickness of the wall to which they 
 are to belong; and the most difficult to execute properly 
 is that in which amorphous stones are used, — the mason 
 being allowed merely to dress them roughly with his ham- 
 mer or axe, and fit them in as he best can to form the most 
 compact mass: this is called rubble walling. 
 
 From the brittle nature of stone, great tact is required 
 in setting, to prop or bear up the longer pieces in every 
 part, or they will break across, and thus occasion more in- 
 jury than could accrue if their whole mass had been made 
 up of small pieces. Very long lengths, therefore, should 
 be avoided, even in regular tooled courses, with which the 
 bearing is or should be perfectly even, and a settling down 
 of the work itself is hardly to be feared. There is a cer- 
 tain medium which may be preserved; and although the 
 object is obviously, in stone as in brick walls, to form a 
 compact mass, as unbroken into parts as possible, a mason 
 will act more judiciously in breaking a long stone into two 
 or more shorter ones, and working them in in that state, 
 though he thus makes two or more additional joints, well 
 knowing that he has the power of counteracting to r cer- 
 tain extent the ill effect of joints made by himselr, but 
 that those made by accident are irremediably injurious. 
 
 The observations made in the section of this article on 
 bricklaying, on the use of mortar, will apply here also. Of 
 whatever quality the stone may be of which a wall is to 
 be built, it should consist as much of stone and as little 
 of mortar as possible. If it be inferior in durability and 
 power of resisting the action of the atmosphere, &c. to the 
 mortar, besides the certain fact that the mortar will yield 
 until it has set hard, and so far act injuriously, no ulterior 
 good is gained ; and if the stone be the more durable ma- 
 terial, the more of it that enters into the wall the better. 
 Indeed, in rough walling, if the stones be pressed together 
 until the more prominent angles on their faces come into 
 actual contact, the interstices being occupied by mortar, 
 it will be better than if a thick yielding mass were allow- 
 ed to remain between them. Absolute contact, however, 
 should not be permitted, anymore than in brick-work, lest 
 the shrinking of the mortar in drying leave the stones to 
 such unequal bearing as the prominent parts alone would 
 afford. Stone being generally of a less absorbent nature 
 than brick, it is not a matter of so much importance that 
 it be wetted before setting; nevertheless, adhesion on the 
 part of the mortar is more certain and more complete if 
 the stones be worked in in at least a damp state. What 
 bond is, and the necessity for it, have also been shown in 
 the preceding section ; and bond is of not less importance 
 in stone walling than in bricklaying. We have also hint- 
 ed above at the greater difficulty of understanding, form- 
 ing, and preserving it in the former, and can now only add 
 a few observations in addition that can be of any use, and 
 these with reference to rubble walling particularly. In- 
 stead of carefully making the joints recur one over the other 
 in alternate courses, as with bricks and gauged stones, the 
 joints should as carefully be made to lock, so as to give 
 the strength of two or three courses or layers between 
 a joint in one course, and one that may occur vertically 
 over it in another. In bonding through a wall, or trans- 
 versely, it is much better that many stones should reach 
 two thirds across, alternately from the opposite sides, than 
 that there should be a few thorough stones, or stones ex- 
 tending the whole thickness of the wall. Indeed, one of 
 
 I) I N G. 
 
 the many faults of stone-masons is that of making a wall Building, 
 consist of two scales or thin sides, with thorough stones '-y-'—/ 
 now and then laid across to bind them together, the core 
 being made up of mortar and small rubble merely. This 
 is a mode of structure that should be carefully guarded 
 against. I here is no better test of a workman’s tact and 
 judgment in rubble walling than the building of a dry wall, 
 or a wall without mortar, affords; — walls are frequently 
 built with mortar that without it would have fallen down 
 under their own weight in a height of six feet, in conse- 
 quence of their defective construction; — thus rendering it 
 evident that they are only held together by the tenacity of 
 the mortar, which is very seldom an equivalent for a pro- 
 per bond of stone. Masons are very apt to set thin broad 
 stones on their narrow edges to show a good face, by 
 which the wall is injured in two ways ; it tends to the for- 
 mation of a mere case on the surface of a wall, and it for 
 the most part exposes the bed of the stone to the atmo- 
 sphere, as a stone is more likely to be broad in the direc- 
 tion of its bed than across it. 
 
 Rubble walling is either coursed or uncoursed. In the 
 latter sort, fig. 15, the work is carried on with stones of 
 any sizes, as they may occur, and without reference to 
 their heights, somewhat in the manner of the Cyclopaean 
 walling of antiquity; the interstices of the larger being 
 filled up with smaller stones. For this work the mason 
 uses no tool but the trowel to lay on the mortar, the scab- 
 ling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities 
 from the stones, and the plumb-rule to keep his work per- 
 pendicular. The line and level are equally unnecessary, 
 as the work is independent of considerations which are 
 affected by them. An attentive and intelligent workman 
 will, however, make a sound wall with this species of con- 
 struction, by fitting the stones well together and packing 
 them with as little mortar as possible, yet filling every 
 crevice with it, and carefully bonding through to secure 
 compactness, transversely at the least. 
 
 In coursed rubble walling, fig. 16, the line and level are 
 used, the work is laid in courses, each course being care- 
 fully brought up to the same level in itself, though no at- 
 tention is paid to uniformity in the heights of the different 
 courses. For this species of walling the stones are gene- 
 rally roughly dressed by the workman in the gross before 
 he begins building. He is careful to get parallel beds to 
 them, and he brings the best face of each stone to a toler- 
 ably even surface at right angles to the beds ; the ends, 
 too, receive some little attention, and for this purpose he 
 uses an axe in addition to his scabling hammer. The 
 quoins in coursed rubble walling are generally built with 
 peculiar neatness and precision, and they are set to serve 
 as gauge courses for the rest. This, when well executed, 
 makes a sound and excellent wall. It presents, however, 
 rather a rough and homely appearance, and in finer works 
 must be covered with stucco or cement, or faced with 
 ashlar. 
 
 Ashlar is an external rind of gauged stones in equal 
 courses, having tooled or closely-fitting joints to give a 
 wall a neat and uniform appearance ; it is axed, tooled, 
 or rubbed, as may be thought most in character with the 
 structure, or that part of it to which it is to belong. Ash- 
 lar stones, or ashlars as they are commonly called, are 
 made of various sizes on the surface, as the character of 
 the edifice may require or convenience demand, and vary 
 in thickness from five to eight or nine inches. Some of 
 the ashlar stones must, it is clear, be used transversely as 
 bond stones, or the facing, having nothing to connect it 
 with the wall behind, would soon totter and fall. Bond 
 stones are generally put in alternate courses, with the 
 backing to the jambs of openings, such as windows, and 
 oftener, if these do not recur within a length of five or six 
 
BUILDING. 85 
 
 Building, feet; the bond stones themselves, too, should notfall in the 
 same vertical chain, except when they are in the jambs of 
 openings, but break in their alternate courses. Ashlar is 
 commonly set in a fine mortar or in putty. It is generally 
 recommended that ashlars should not be made regular 
 parallelopipedons, but run back irregularly to tooth in with 
 the backing, the vertical joints being left open from about 
 an inch within the face of the wall, and the upper surface 
 or bed of the stones made narrower than, though perfectly 
 parallel to, the lower. These things may exert a slightly 
 beneficial influence under some circumstances ; but the 
 mode of construction involved is so radically bad, that 
 unless the backing is set in a quick-setting cement, or be 
 so well packed as to be proof against its general tendency 
 to settle away from the ashlar facing, no means of the 
 kind can materially improve it. A well-compacted wall 
 of coursed rubble, the courses being frequently made up 
 of whole stones and faced with ashlar, may be made toler- 
 ably sound and trust-worthy. Brick backing, with ashlar 
 facing, cannot be considered as good, though it has the 
 advantage of not requiring battening and lathing for in- 
 side plastering, as the stone-backed wall does. Uncours- 
 ed rubble with ashlar has all the disadvantages of both 
 the preceding, with nothing to recommend it above either 
 of them. 
 
 There are, besides, many sorts of walling or modes of 
 structure arising from the nature of the materials furnish- 
 ed in various localities. That of most frequent occurrence, 
 perhaps, is a manner in which either broken or rounded 
 flints are used. These depend almost entirely on the 
 mortar with which they are compacted, and on a coursed 
 chain, which is commonly introduced at short intervals of 
 larger stones or bricks, to act as a bond ; the quoins, too, 
 in this species of structure are generally constructed of 
 dressed stones or brick. 
 
 Whatever objections lie against bond timber in brick- 
 work apply with equal force at least to the use of it in 
 stone walls; and it is of less importance generally as a tie 
 in the latter than in the former, because a chain may be 
 made by means of metal cramps and dovetails of wood or 
 cast iron. A chain of this kind does not distribute pres- 
 sure, however, as well as a chain of timber bond does, be- 
 cause of the liability of the material to fracture when it is 
 borne upon unequally, and therefore may not be consider- 
 ed an equivalent for wall-plates or templates. 
 
 Discharging arches, it must be evident, are as necessary 
 in and to stone walls as to walls of brick, and they may be 
 treated much in the same manner. 
 
 Rubble walls are scaffolded with single, and ashlar front- 
 ed or other gauged stone walls with double fronted scaf- 
 folding, the former tailing one end of the putlocks in on 
 the wall, and the other having an inner row of standard 
 poles and ledgers parallel to the outer, making the scaf- 
 fold entirely independent of the wall. In some places, 
 however, it is the custom to dispense altogether with an 
 external scaffold in building stone walls, particularly with 
 gauged stones. With light and plain work this may be 
 done without much inconvenience or retardation ; but if 
 the work be heavy or delicate, considerable delay and in- 
 correctness result. Sometimes the finer work, such as 
 that to mouldings, flutes, and foliate or other enrichments, 
 is merely boasted or roughed out before the stones are 
 set, and finished afterwards. This can be done well only 
 from a secure floor or scaffold, on which the workman may 
 move freely. 
 
 When walls are not entirely of masonry, in the ordinary 
 course of economic building, stone is frequently used for 
 copings, cornices, string and blocking courses, sills, land- 
 ings, pavings, curbs, steps, stairs, hearth-stones and slabs, 
 and chimney-pieces ; to these may be added, quoins and 
 
 architectural decorations, or dressings for windows, doors, Building. 
 &c., though both the former and latter are not * unlre- 
 quently executed in plaster composition, or cements. Cop- 
 ings (see Glossary to the article Architecture) to cover 
 walls, parapets, &c., are worked with a plain Horizontal 
 bed, two vertical faces, and an inclined or weathered back 
 or upper surface ; either forming an acute angle with the 
 outer and wider, and an obtuse angle with the inner and 
 narrower face, to throw the water off, as shown at a , 
 fig. 19 ; or to both sides from the middle, as at b; the latter 
 is technically termed saddle-back coping. In both cases 
 they are made to project over the wall or parapet on both 
 sides ; and in the projected part of the bed under the edge 
 or edges towards which the inclination is given, a channel 
 or groove, called a throat, is cut, to intercept the water in 
 its inclination to run inwards to the wall. On gables or 
 other inclined planes the coping is neither weathered nor 
 throated, as the water is necessarily impelled along its 
 course to the lower end, and not over the sides. To pro- 
 tect the separate stones of a coping course from the dan- 
 ger of being displaced by high winds or other accidental 
 cause, and to form a chain through its whole length, the 
 stones are linked together by cramps of copper or iron let 
 into their backs and run with lead. These metals, how- 
 ever, especially the iron, for the most part act very inju- 
 riously, from their exceeding susceptibility of atmospheric 
 changes, and their greater or less tendency to oxidation ; 
 indeed, the stone invariably suffers more than the work 
 benefits from the metal cramps. Tenons, dowels, joggles 
 or dovetails of stone, or of hard wood or cast iron, applied 
 so as to be protected from the weather, would be far bet- 
 ter, and would answer every desirable purpose sufficiently. 
 Cornices (vide ut sup.) are but ramified copings, and are or 
 may be subjected to the same general laws. Care must 
 be taken, however, in arranging them, that their centre of 
 gravity be not brought too far forward, in the anxiety to 
 project them sufficiently, lest they act injuriously on the 
 wall by pressing unequally, and their own safety be also 
 endangered. String courses ( vide ut sup.) economically, 
 in contradistinction to architecturally, are meant to pro- 
 tect a set-off in a wall, by projecting over its lower face in 
 the manner of a coping (see fig. 17, at c) ; the beds are 
 worked parallel, and the outer face vertical or at right 
 angles to them, but so much of the upper surface is wea- 
 thered or sloped off as protrudes from the upper part of 
 the wall to carry the water off ; and, for the reason above 
 stated with regard to copings, the lower bed just within 
 the outer face is throated. A stone string course, cramp- 
 ed or dove-tailed as above, forms an excellent chain round 
 a brick wall ; but the part of it in the wall should be of the 
 exact thickness of one, two, or more courses of brick. A 
 blocking course (vide ut. sup.) is either a very thick string 
 projecting over or flush with the face of the lower part of 
 the wall, or it is a range of stone over a crowning cornice 
 to bring the centre of gravity more in on the wall than it 
 otherwise would be ; in the former case it is treated exact- 
 ly as a string, excepting that, if it be flush below, there is 
 no occasion for a throat ; and in the latter it has a hori- 
 zontal bed, parallel vertical sides, and a weathered back 
 or upper surface. Sills (vide ut sup.) are weathered and 
 throated like the parts of a string course (see fig. 17, at 
 a and b); they are laid across the feet or bases ot win- 
 dow openings, &c. to receive the sash-frame, and carry 
 the water off from the wall below ; distinct sills in the 
 same line may, indeed, be considered as an intercepted 
 string course. In the ordinary practice of building, win- 
 dow sills are seldom set in brick walls until they are ab- 
 solutely required to set the sash-frames on ; or they are set 
 but not bedded, except at the ends. The object of this 
 is to prevent any settlement that may occur in the piers 
 
86 B U I LOIN G. 
 
 Building, from breaking the sills across on the unyielding part of Masonry to receive architectural decorations is gene- Building, 
 the wall undei the windows. A necessity lor this, how- rally worked into the walls as they are carried up; but as 
 ever, can only arise from bad construction ; for with in- they are seldom homogeneous either in matter or construc- 
 ted arches under the openings, and a good bond in the tion, the result is mostly the converse of what it purports 
 brick-work, all would settle together, and the sills might to be, for the work is more frequently weakened than 
 be completely bedded across at once. Landings are plat- strengthened by the decorative masonry. Stones of which 
 forms of stone, either over an area before a door, at the columns are to be composed, whether each column is to 
 head ot a flight ot stairs, or as the floor of a balcony. They be of one stone or more, are generally roughly boasted out 
 are made four, five, six, or eight inches in thickness, ac- before they are set, and are finished afterwards to travers- 
 coiding to then extent and bearing; it not of one piece mg moulds and templets with a plumb-rule, whose sides 
 of stone, they are of nicely jointed pieces joggled and are cut to the diminution, whatever it may be. Flutes are 
 plugged together, and are worked on the face find edges cut at the same time and in the same manner. The beds 
 just as their situation may demand. Stone pavings are of of the joints in columns should be worked with the great- 
 various kinds, and are prepared, shaped, and laid in vari- est precision, that they may fit firmly and closely together; 
 ous ways. Stone paving that is not exposed to the sun and they must not, however, be worked hollow to make & a close 
 air, if next the ground, should be laid on footings of brick joint externally, or the arrises will chip off. It is consi- 
 or stone, or it will be constantly damp if the soil be close dered a good plan to put a piece of thin milled lead be- 
 am! clayey; but in yards, open areas, &c. it may be laid tween the beds, cut circular, and extending to within a 
 on the ground, bedded in sand, and jointed with mortar or short distance of the surface, and that the rest be filled 
 cement. Stone paved floors are either on brick arches, with a fine adhesive putty, made as nearly of the colour of 
 or on a timber floor prepared for the purpose : the latter the stone as possible. This makes a solid bed, and pro- 
 is a very bad mode of supporting paving, as the impression tects the arrises effectually ; but it will not do so well for 
 derived from the presence of the latter is, that the floor is slight columns, because it narrows the bed so materially, 
 incombustible ; but if it be bedded on combustible mate- A joggle or dowel of hard wood or cast iron let into the core 
 rial, the danger to human life in the event of fire is greater might be a sufficient counteraction, and it would certainly 
 than if the stone paving did not exist at all. It is worked, add to the stability of a polylithic shaft. The other parts 
 cut, and set more or less expensively, according to cir- of a columnar composition may be sufficiently cramped and 
 cumstances. A curb is a range or course of thicker and joggled together with wood and metals, according to the 
 stronger stone to bound a pavement, and is either flush situation, though it may be again remarked, that neither 
 with the paving, showing as a step on its outer edge, or the one nor the other should be used, except where they can 
 raised above it to receive a balustrade, and shows on the be protected from the access, even, of the atmosphere, 
 outer side as a blocking course ; in the latter situation it Stone walling is generally measured by the perch of 
 is generally joggled and plugged in the joints. The term twenty-one feet superficial, at a standard of eighteen 
 step or steps alone is generally understood to mean exter- inches in thickness, or a cubic quantity of thirty-one feet 
 nal steps, whether arranged in long or short flights, or the six inches. Sometimes it is taken by the rod of 272 feet, 
 single step in a doorway into which the door frame is te- like brick-work, but at the eighteen inch standard instead 
 noned. A step should have a plain horizontal bed, and a of the fourteen inch, or a brick and a half, as in the latter 
 very slightly weathered tread or upper surface; the front species of walling. The perch, however, as first stated, 
 or riser worked plain and vertical, or with a moulded nos- is the standard of this country. The quantities may be 
 ing, and the back sunk with a joggle or bird’s-mouth joint ascertained in the same manner that they are in measur- 
 to receive the step or landing above or behind it. Stairs ing brick-work, the number of inches the wali is in thick- 
 are but a flight or combination of steps used internally ; ness being substituted in the margin for the number of 
 the principles upon which they are constructed will be brick lengths. In abstracting, the superficial quantities 
 found under the heads Stone-Masonry and Joinery, ^may be taken out in columns under the different thick- 
 Hearths are the stone flooring of fire-places ; and a slab is 
 that part of the floor of a room which lies immediately be- 
 fore the fire-place and along the extent of its front. This 
 slab is supported by a flat brick arch called a brick trim- 
 mer, which is turned from the chimney-breast under the 
 hearth on one side, to the trimmer joist on the other. 
 
 (See a section of all these at fig. 18.) Chimney-pieces 
 consist simply of mantle and jambs ; that is, the vertical 
 sides, and the architrave or transverse covering with its 
 shelf or cornice. The parts of a chimney-piece are gene- 
 rally put together with an adhesive plaster or cement, and 
 affixed to the wall or chimney-breast behind with cramps, 
 hold-fasts, and plugs. The material of which chimney- 
 pieces are composed varies from the coarsest stone to the 
 finest marble ; and the labour on them varies to a still great- 
 er extent. Quoin-stones are gauged and wrought blocks 
 with parallel beds and vertical faces, placed on the angles 
 of buildings with the intention of adding to their beauty 
 and strength ; they are used either with brick or stone 
 walls, and are generally made to project before the face 
 of that to which they are attached, mostly with a weather- 
 ed angular joint, or with a rectangularly grooved or mould- 
 ed one. The quoins are coursed with the rest of the 
 wall if it be of stone, and are made to occupy the exact 
 space of a limited number of courses of brick in a brick 
 wall. (See fig. 17.) 
 
 nesses; the amount of each column being multiplied by 
 the thickness in inches, and divided by eighteen, gives 
 the reduced quantity; but if the work be taken in cubic 
 quantities, it is evident that the three dimensions of every 
 part multiplied together brings the whole at once to cubic 
 feet, and no further process is necessary, unless it be re- 
 quired to bring the total quantity into reduced perches, 
 which may be done by dividing it by thirty-one and a 
 half. 
 
 The custom being different in different places with re- 
 gard to the double measurement of quoins or angle piers, 
 and as to whether openings, such as windows and doors, 
 shall or shall not be deducted, because of the greater 
 care and trouble required in setting and plumbing quoins 
 and reveals, these particulars should be made matter of 
 previous agreement. Perhaps the best w ; ay is to take the 
 quantities exact!}?, and allow a running measurement extra 
 on the parts requiring more than the usual quantity of 
 labour, or, the nature of the work being of course obvious 
 beforehand, the price per perch, per rod, or per toot 
 cube, on the exact quantity, may be made to include the 
 proposed extras. In the same manner, chisel-dressing 
 (that is, facing the stones neatly and truly with the chi- 
 sel), whether plain or sunk, may or may not be charged 
 extra, according to agreement, or, in the absence of a 
 previous agreement, to the custom of the place. To 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 87 
 
 Building, ascertain the value of stone walling, the cost of every 
 ' thing that enters into some fixed quantity on the spot 
 must be calculated, for almost every thing connected with 
 it varies in almost every place. The original price of the 
 stone at the quarry ; the expense of carrying it from thence 
 to the place where it is to be worked up ; its texture or 
 comparative hardness, which will materiallyaffect the quan- 
 tity of walling a mason may execute in a certain time ; the 
 cost on the spot, of lime and sand, and the height to which 
 stones must be carried or hoisted from the ground ; must 
 all be ascertained and considered, as well as the wages of 
 masons and labourers, and the sort of walling proposed to 
 be executed. 
 
 Stone used in string and blocking courses, sills, copings, 
 cornices, steps, quoins, columns, entablatures, &c. is mea- 
 sured by the foot cube, and the work on it is taken as plain, 
 sunk, or moulded, by the foot superficial. The dimensions 
 for the cubic quantities are taken on the unreduced block, 
 or rather on the greatest breadth and thickness which the 
 finished work exhibits ; for instance, the string course, 
 which appears in section at c, fig. 17, would be taken as of 
 the thickness throughout which it holds in the wall ; and 
 in the same manner, the thickness of the sill at b would 
 be taken under the wooden sill of the sash frame, which 
 must have been the original thickness of the whole scant- 
 ling. Stone sawed into thin slabs for paving, chimney 
 pieces, &c. is taken by the superficial foot, at a certain 
 thickness, the value being ascertained from the cubic 
 quantity and the cost of sawing on the surface, whilst 
 some articles, being of a fixed breadth and thickness fit- 
 ting them to peculiar purposes, are taken by the running 
 foot ; but both these latter modes suppose labour included. 
 
 Plain work is the even surface produced on stone by 
 the chisel, without the necessity of taking away more 
 than the mere inequalities, and is equivalent to what the 
 joiner calls trying-up, that is, making the surfaces per- 
 fectly straight both longitudinally and transversely, and 
 so that it shall be quite out of winding, which indeed is a 
 term to express the result of trying-up. Sunk work arises 
 from the necessity of chiseling or hacking away below 
 the level surface of the plain work, such as the weather- 
 ing of copings, string courses, cornices, &c. ; and mould- 
 ings cut in stone produce what is called moulded work. 
 Sunk and moulded work are either straight or circular; 
 circular plain work is certainly spoken of, but incorrectly, 
 for every flexure in stone must be produced by sinking. 
 The joints and beds, that is, the upper and lower hori- 
 zontal sides, and the vertical ends of stones, are taken as 
 plain work, as well as their faces and edges, if they have 
 been wrought with the chisel to produce the surface ; or 
 their superficies are taken as sawing or half plain work, 
 if the surfaces are as the saw left them. An extra charge 
 is made on plain work for rubbing to produce a smooth 
 unchannelled surface ; and again, a higher charge is made 
 for plain work if it be equally channelled or furrowed in 
 vertical lines over the surface ; this latter operation is 
 technically termed tooling. Whenever any two surfaces 
 meet in an oblique angle, one of them may be taken as 
 sunk work, and it will generally be that which is not 
 parallel to its opposite side. It is valued at about two 
 sevenths more than plain work; and circular sunk work, 
 that is, circular in the direction of its length, at about 
 one sixth more than straight sunk. Moulded work is 
 measured by girding the moulding or mouldings with a 
 cord or tape, carrying it into all the quirks, and round all 
 the arrises ; the dimension thus given is multiplied by 
 the length for the superficial quantity. This is valued at 
 about one fifth more than sunk work, and circular mould- 
 ed at about one half more than straight. Narrow joint- 
 ings, groovings, throatings, jogglings, &c. arc taken by the 
 
 foot run. Mortises, holes, notches, cramps, dovetails, &c. Building, 
 are numbered and charged at so much a piece, according 
 to the labour and cost involved in making them. The 
 common pavings, landings, copings, sills, and steps gene- 
 rally used in London for ordinary purposes, are of a lami- 
 nated stone from Yorkshire, and they are for the most 
 part worked to size and shape in the quarry, so that there 
 can be very little labour on them beyond the mere fitting 
 and setting, making mortises, fitting coal-plates, traps, &c. 
 when such are required, unless they be rubbed, which 
 occasions, of course, an extra charge. York pavings and 
 landings are taken by the superficial foot, at such a thick- 
 ness ; and copings, sills, steps, &c. by the foot run, accord- 
 ing to their size. 
 
 Plasterer, Sfc . — No art in the economy of building con- 
 tributes more to produce internal neatness and elegance, 
 and no one is less absolutely important, as far as the use 
 and stability of a structure are concerned, than that of the 
 plasterer. Its very general application, too, is of compa- 
 ratively late date ; for wainscotted walls, and boarded or 
 boarded and canvassed ceilings, or naked joists alone, are 
 frequently found in houses of even less than a century old, 
 both in this country and on the Continent. 
 
 The plasterer, as the term imports, works in plastic, 
 adhesive compositions, which are laid on walls, both in- 
 ternally and externally, to stop crevices, reduce inequali- 
 ties, and produce an even, delicate surface, capable of 
 receiving any decoration that may be applied to it, either 
 iti colour or otherwise. These compositions are as vari- 
 ous as the modes of applying them, the rudest being a 
 compost of loam, a marly clay, and lime ; this is used 
 only for the commonest purposes, and being laid on in 
 one coat, is washed over with a thin mixture of lime and 
 water, which process is termed white-washing ; the high- 
 est work of the plasterer is the making an imitation of 
 marbles and other costly stones, of the purest calcined 
 gypsum, mixed with a solution of gum and isinglass, and 
 colouring matter to produce the required imitation. For 
 the more common operations of plastering, however, com- 
 paratively few tools and few materials are required. The 
 plasterer is attended by a labourer, who supplies his 
 boards with mortar, and by a boy on the scaffold with 
 him to feed his hawk ; he is necessarily furnished with a 
 lathing hammer, a laying-on trowel, a hawk, floats, brushes, 
 jointing trowels and rules, moulds and straight edges, 
 together with a screen, spade, rake, and hod, for his la- 
 bourer, and a feeding-spade or server for his hawk-boy. 
 
 The lathing hammer is chequered on the face with indent- 
 ed lines, to make it less liable to slip over the head of the 
 nail ; the upper or back part of the hammer is made like 
 a hatchet, but very narrow, and on its inner side or edge 
 there is sometimes a square nick or groove, by means of 
 which the workman is enabled to draw a nail that has gone 
 awry. The laying-on trowel is a thin plate of hardened 
 iron or steel, ten inches long and two and a half inches wide, 
 rounded at one end and square at the other end or heel ; 
 it is very slightly convex on the face ; and to the back, 
 about the middle of it, the spindle or handle is rivetted 
 in at right angles, which, returning in the direction of the 
 heel parallel to the tool, fits into a rounded wooden handle, 
 by which the workman grasps it. The plasterer is obliged 
 to keep this implement particularly clean and dry when 
 he is not actually using it, lest it rust in the slightest de- 
 gree, as it is clear that the brown oxide of iron would 
 sadly discolour his finer work on touching it again with the 
 trowel. The hawk is a piece of wood about ten inches 
 square, to receive a small portion of mortar on, for the 
 convenience of carrying it readily up to the wall or ceil- 
 ing, to be there delivered and spread by the trowel. The 
 hawk is traversed across the back by a dove-tailed piece. 
 
88 B U I L 
 
 Building- into which the wooden handle is fixed at right angles, 
 and by this the workman holds it in his left hand. A 
 hand-float is a piece of board shaped something like a 
 plastering trowel, with a ledge-handle to it, and is used 
 to rub over the finished work, to produce a hard, smooth, 
 and even face. A quirk-float is of wood also, and is an- 
 gularly shaped to work in angles ; and a derby is a long 
 two-handed float, which is that principally used in form- 
 ing the floated coat of lime and hair. The plasterer’s 
 brush is broad and thin, with a stout or slight row of 
 coarse or fine hair, as it may be required for rough or 
 fine work. Jointing trowels are thin plates of polished 
 steel, of triangular shape, the point being a very acute 
 angle ; the handle is adapted to the heel or base of the 
 tool. They are of three or four different sizes, and are 
 principally used in making good cornices, and joining 
 them at their internal and external angles, which is called 
 mitering. Jointing rules are auxiliary to the jointing 
 trowel. Moulds are pieces of hard wood cut to the con- 
 tour of cornices or separate mouldings, to assist the work- 
 men in forming them readily. For work of any importance 
 the moulds are cut in copper plates, which are inserted 
 in the wooden stock, and narrow pieces of wood are fixed 
 to the moulds transversely, to guide and steady them 
 along the screeds. A straight edge is a board of consi- 
 derable length, shot perfectly straight on one edge, to 
 bring the plastering on a wall or ceiling to a perfectly 
 even surface, by traversing it in every direction. A screen 
 is a large parallelogramic wooden frame, on which metal 
 wires are fixed at regulated distances from each other, 
 to act as a sieve. This is propped up in nearly a vertical 
 direction by a counter-frame hinged to it like a common 
 step ladder, and the coarser materials which enter into the 
 composition of plastering mortar are thrown against its 
 outer face, to separate the particles which are too large for 
 the purpose from the finer. The sand and lime, too, are 
 mixed much more efficiently and completely by screening 
 them together than in any other manner. The spade and 
 hod are like those of the bricklayer’s labourer. The rake 
 is used to separate the hair used in the mortar, and distri- 
 bute it throughout the mass. The hawk boy’s server is 
 about the size and shape of a common garden hoe, but the 
 handle is in the direction of the instrument. With it the 
 boy rebeats the mortar on the board, to destroy any set it 
 may have taken, and delivers it in small pats or portions 
 on to the plasterer’s hawk. 
 
 The plasterer’s materials are laths and lath nails, lime, 
 sand, hair and plaster, of which are formed coarse stuff 
 or lime and hair, fine stuff, gauge stuff, &c. ; and besides 
 these, a variety of stuccoes and cements, together with va- 
 rious ingredients to form colouring washes, &c. are more 
 or less in request. 
 
 Laths are narrow strips of some straight grained wood 
 (in this country they are generally of fir, though oak laths 
 are sometimes used), in lengths of three and four feet, or 
 to suit the distances at which the joists or quarterings 
 are set, and in thickness a quarter and three eighths of 
 an inch ; those of the former thickness are called single, 
 and those of the latter lath and a half. Lath nails are 
 either wrought, cut, or cast, and of course vary in length to 
 the thicker and thinner laths ; cast nails are in common use 
 in this country with fir laths. Coarse stuff is composed 
 of ox or horse hair from the hide, in addition to the lime 
 and sand mortar of the bricklayer and mason ; this is in- 
 tended to act as a sort of bond to net or tie it together, 
 by being distributed throughout the whole mass, and in 
 single hairs if it were possible. The hair should be as long 
 as it can be procured, and free from grease and filth of 
 every kind. Road drift is unfit to be used for mortar, un- 
 less it be completely cleansed from all animal and vegetable 
 
 DING. 
 
 matter, and of all mud and clay. Loamy or argillaceous Building 
 earths are constantly used in the composition of this mor- 
 tar, as its quality is thought unimportant, so that it can 
 be made to hang together. The presence of clayey matter 
 making the mortar unctuous and tenacious, they are used 
 without or with very little hair; the consequence is, that 
 the slightest injury affects the work made with them. 
 
 The mortar thus composed readily absorbs and retains 
 moisture, bursts, and crumbles away ; and if it be effec- 
 tually protected from injury of that kind, it becomes rot- 
 ten in a comparatively short space of time, and frequently 
 is the means of decay in the laths, and even in the larger 
 timbers. Nothing but clean sharp sand should be used 
 with the lime and hair in the composition of this, any 
 more than of brick mortar. Fine stuff is a mortar made 
 of fine white lime, exceedingly well slaked with water, 
 or rather macerated in water to make the slaking com- 
 plete ; for some purposes a small quantity of hair is mixed 
 up with this material. Fine stuff very carefully prepared 
 of the finest powdered lime macerated so completely as 
 to be held in solution by the water, thus forming a mere 
 paste, which is then allowed to evaporate until it is of a 
 sufficient consistence for working, is called putty. Gauge 
 stuff is composed of about three fourths of putty and one 
 fourth of calcined gypsum or plaster of Paris ; this may 
 be mixed only in small quantities at a time, as the plaster 
 or gauge renders it liable to set very rapidly. Bastard 
 stucco is made of two thirds fine stuff, without hair, and 
 one third of very fine and perfectly clean sand (the clean- 
 liness or purity of sand may be determined by the facility 
 with which it may, when in a moist state, be struck off 
 from the hand without leaving a soil) ; and common stucco 
 is composed of about three fourths of clean sharp sand 
 and one fourth of the best lime, well incorporated. This 
 must be protected from the air from the time it is made 
 until it is required to be laid oh the walls. The cement 
 best known and most commonly used in this country is 
 called Parker’s, or Parker’s Roman cement. This mate- 
 rial, when of good quality, with fine clean sharp sand, in 
 the proportion of about three of the former to one of 
 cement, and well executed, forms an admirable external 
 coating for walls, and is generally preferable to any other 
 with which we are acquainted. 
 
 The various coatings of plastering are thus designated : 
 
 On laths, plastering in one coat simply is said to be laid, 
 and in two coats, laid and set. In three-coat plastering on 
 laths, however, the first is called the pricking up, the se- 
 cond is said to be floated, and the third set. On brick or 
 stone walls, without the intervention of laths, plastering 
 in one plain coat is termed rendering; with two coats, a 
 v r all is said to be rendered and set; and in three, render- 
 ed, floated, and set. Before the plasterer begins to lath a 
 ceiling, he proves the under face of the joists, to which he 
 has to work, by the application of a long straight edge, 
 and makes out any slight inequalities in them, when the 
 work is not to be of a very superior description, by nailing 
 on laths or slips to bring them as nearly even as he can. 
 
 When the inequalities are great, or if the work is to be 
 of fine quality, he recurs to the carpenter, who takes off 
 inordinate projections with his adze, and nails on proper- 
 ly dressed slips where the joists do not come down low 
 enough, and thus brings the whole to a perfect level. This 
 operation is called firring, that is, putting on pieces of fir, 
 though it is vulgarly termed and frequently spelt furring. 
 
 If it be a framed floor of ceiling joists the plasterer has to 
 work to, it is tolerably sure to be straight; but the car- 
 penter must have firred down on the beams or binders to 
 the level of the ceiling joists, from end to end of them. 
 
 When the ceiling joists are nailed to the beams or binders, 
 however, nothing of this kind need be necessary. If a 
 
BUIL 
 
 Building, ceiling is to be divided into compartments or panels, the 
 V'-' projecting or depending portions must be bracketed or 
 cradled down to receive the laths. It is an important 
 point to be attended to in plastering on laths, and in ceil- 
 ings particularly, that the laths should be attached to as 
 small a surface of timber as possible, because the plaster- 
 ing is not supported or upborne by its adhesion or attach- 
 ment to the wood, but by the keying of the mortar itself, 
 which passes through between the laths, and bends round 
 over them. If then the laths are in constantly recurring 
 contact with thick joists and beams, the keying is as con- 
 stantly intercepted, and the plastering in all such places 
 depends entirely on the portions between them which are 
 properly keyed. Under a single floor, therefore, in which 
 the joists are necessarily thick, a narrow fillet should be 
 nailed along the middle under the whole length of them 
 all, to receive the laths and keep them at a sufficient dis- 
 tance from the timber, to allow the plastering to key un- 
 der it; and thus too the surface might be made more per- 
 fectly even, by blocking out the fillets, and contrariwise, 
 as it is in single floors that inequalities mostly occur. 
 This being all arranged, the plasterer commences lathing. 
 The laths should be previously sorted, reserving the crook- 
 ed and knotty, if there be such, for inferior works, and se- 
 lecting the best for the work of most importance, so that 
 the workman shall find none to his hand that is not fit to 
 be brought in. Taking a lath that will reach across three 
 or four openings, he strikes a nail into it on one of the in- 
 termediate joists, at about three eighths of an inch from 
 the one before it, and then secures the ends of that and 
 the one that it meets of the last row with one nail, leav- 
 ing the other end of the lath he has just set to be secured 
 in the same manner with that which shall meet it of the 
 next’ bay in continuation. It is of importance also that he 
 pay attention to the bonding of his work, either by using 
 longer and shorter laths in bays or squares, and in break- 
 ing the headings, or with laths of the same length, the first 
 and last courses or bays only having the bond formed by 
 half laths. In lathing on quartering partitions and battened 
 walls, the bonding is not a matter of much importance ; 
 nor is the thickness of the timbers behind the latter of so 
 much consequence as in a ceiling, because the toothing 
 which the thickness of the lath itself affords to the plaster- 
 ing is enough to support it vertically ; but, nevertheless, 
 the more complete the keying, even in works of this kind, 
 the better, as the toothing above will not protect it from 
 any exciting cause to fall forwards, or away from the laths. 
 The thinner or weaker sort of lath too is generally consi- 
 dered sufficiently strong for partitions, whilst the stronger 
 is used for ceilings. Thin weak laths, if used in a ceiling, 
 are sure to produce inequalities, by sagging with or yield- 
 ing to the weight attached to them. A chance one or 
 two weak ones in a ceiling of otherwise strong laths may 
 , be the ruin of the best piece of work. Care should be 
 taken therefore not to allow a thin lath, or one of unequal 
 thickness, to go on to a scaffold with thicker and more 
 equable ones, lest the workman should, through careless- 
 ness or otherwise, put it up with the rest. When the lath- 
 ing is completed, the work is either laid or pricked up, ac- 
 cording as it is to be finished with one, two, or three coats. 
 Laying is a tolerably thick coat of coarse stuff or lime and 
 hair brought to a tolerably even surface with the trowel 
 only ; for this the mortar must be well tempered, and of 
 moderate consistence, — thin or moist enough to pass rea- 
 dily through between the laths, and bend with its own 
 weight over them, and at the same time stiff enough to 
 leave no danger that it will fall apart, a contingency, 
 however, that in practice frequently occurs in consequence 
 of badly composed or badly tempered mortar, or bad work- 
 manship, sufficient force not having been used with pro- 
 
 D I N G. 89 
 
 perly consistent mortar to force it through and form keys. Building. 
 If the work is to be of two coats, that is, laid and set, 
 when the laying is sufficiently dry, it is roughly swept with 
 a birch broom to roughen its surface, and then the set, a 
 thin coat of fine stuff, is put on. This is done with the 
 common trowel alone, or only assisted by a wetted hog’s 
 bristle brush, which the workman uses with his left hand 
 to strike over the surface of the set, while he presses and 
 smooths it with the trowel in his right. If the laid work 
 should have become very dry, it must be slightly moisten- 
 ed before the set is put on, or the latter, in shrinking, 
 will crack and fall away. This is generally done by 
 sprinkling or throwing the water over the surface from 
 the brush. For floated or three-coat work, the first, or 
 pricking up, is roughly laid on the laths, the principal 
 object being to make the keying complete, and form a 
 layer of mortar on the laths to which the next coat may at- 
 tach itself. It must, of course, be kept of tolerably equal 
 thickness throughout, and should stand about one quar- 
 ter or three eighths of an inch on the surface of the 
 laths. When it is finished, and while the mortar is still 
 quite moist, the plasterer scratches or scores it all over 
 with the end of a lath in parallel lines from three to 
 four inches apart. The scorings should be made as 
 deep as possible without laying bare the laths ; and the 
 rougher their edges are the better, as the object is to 
 produce a surface which the next coat will readily attach 
 itself to. When the pricked up coat is so dry as not 
 to yield to pressure in the slightest degree, prepara- 
 tions may be made for the floating. Ledges or margins 
 of lime and hair, about six or eight inches in width, 
 and extending across the whole breadth of a ceiling 
 or height of a wall or partition, must be made in the 
 angles or at the borders, and at distances of about four 
 feet apart throughout the whole extent; these must be 
 made perfectly straight with one another, and be proved 
 in every way by the application of straight edges: tech- 
 nically these ledges are termed screeds. The screeds are 
 gauges for the rest of the work ; for when they are ready, 
 and the mortar in them is a little set, the interspaces are 
 filled up flush with them ; and a derby float or long straight 
 edge being made to traverse the screeds, all the stuff that 
 projects beyond the line is struck off, and thus the whole 
 is brought to a straight and perfectly even surface. To 
 perfect the work, the screeds on ceilings should be le- 
 velled, and on walls and partitions plumbed. When the 
 floating is sufficiently set and nearly dry, it is brushed 
 with a birch broom as before described, and the third 
 coat or set is put on. This for a fine ceiling that is to be 
 whitened or coloured must be of putty ; but if it is to be 
 papered, ordinary fine stuff with a little hair in it, will be 
 better. Walls and partitions that are to be papered are 
 also of this latter, or of rough stucco ; but for paint the set 
 must be of bastard stucco trowelled. This coat must be 
 worked of exactly the same thickness throughout, to pre- 
 serve to the external surface the advantage that has been 
 obtained by floating. For all but this last mentioned, the 
 set on floated work, the trowel and brush are considered 
 sufficient to produce fine and even work ; but trowelled 
 stucco must moreover be hand-floated. In this operation 
 the stucco is set with the trowel in the usual manner, and 
 brought to an even surface with that tool to the extent of 
 two or three yards. The workman then takes the hand- 
 float in his right hand, and rubs it smartly over the sur- 
 face, pressing gently to condense the material as much as 
 possible. As he works the float he sprinkles the surface 
 with water from the brush in his left hand, and eventually 
 produces a texture as fine and smooth almost as that of 
 polished marble. The process of plastering on the naked 
 brick or stone wall differs but little, except in names, from 
 
90 B U I L 
 
 Building, that we have described as the mode on lath. The single 
 
 '‘“'T'"**'' coat, or equivalent for laying, on lath, is rendering, and it 
 need differ only in the quantity of hair, which may be less 
 than is necessary for laying, and in the consistence of the 
 mortar, which may be made more plastic, to work easier, 
 and because in a moister state it will attach itself more 
 firmly to the wall : the wall, however, must itself be wet- 
 ted before the rendering is applied. The set is the same, 
 and is put on in the same manner as tp two-coat work on 
 lath. For three coat, or floated work, the first or rough 
 rendering should be made to fill up completely whatever 
 crevices there may be in the work behind it, and be incor- 
 porated with it as much as possible. As its name imports, 
 its surface may, indeed should, be rough; but it is not 
 scratched or lined as the similar coat on lath is : for this, 
 too, the wall must be previously wetted, that the mortar 
 may the better attach itself to it. For the floating, screeds 
 must be formed as before described, and the consecutive 
 process is exactly the same as on lath, both for the floated 
 and for the set coat. In almost every case in which plas- 
 tering is to be floated, the workman finds a guide for the 
 feet of his wall screeds in the narrow grounds which the 
 joiner has previously fixed for his skirtings ; from these 
 he plumbs upwards, and makes his work perfectly flush 
 with them. 
 
 Mouldings and cornices, as large combinations of mould- 
 ings and flat surfaces are called, in the angles of rooms, 
 immediately under their ceilings, are formed with running 
 moulds, and are generally executed before the setting 
 coat is put on the walls and ceiling. If the cornice do 
 not project more than about an inch and a half, or two 
 inches, from the ordinary work, a backing of lime and hair 
 will be sufficient ; and if any one part only happen to be 
 more than ordinarily protuberant, a row of nails from six 
 to twelve inches apart stuck into the wall or ceiling in the 
 line of that part will give it sufficient support. But if the 
 general mass of the cornice be more than that amounts 
 to, and extend above six or eight inches along the ceil- 
 ing, it must be bracketed out, and the bracketing lathed 
 and pricked up, as for ordinary work. This pricking up, 
 or other preparation, must of course be perfectly set be- 
 fore the cornice is run ; and there should be one fourth of 
 an inch at least of clear space between the preparation and 
 the mould in the nearest part. A wooden screed or pa- 
 rallel straight edge is tacked with brads on to the wall, 
 and another on the ceiling, if the cornice be large and 
 heavy, as guides or gauges for the mould, whose rests are 
 chased to fit them ; and then one man laying on gauge 
 stuff in an almost fluid state with an angular trowel, ano- 
 ther works the mould backwards and forwards over it, 
 which strikes off what is superfluous, and gives the in- 
 verse of its form to the rest. The mould is never taken 
 down from the work at right angles to the line of it, 
 but is drawn off at the end, so that none of the parts 
 of the moulding or cornice is injured or torn by it, which 
 must otherwise frequently be the case, from the peculiar 
 forms at times given to the details. If a cornice be too 
 large and heavy to be executed at once, it may be done 
 in the same manner at two or more times, in so many 
 parts ; and if any part or parts of a moulding or cornice 
 is to be enriched, the space for it is left vacant by the 
 mould, and the enrichment is afterwards supplied. As a 
 cornice cannot be completed up to the angles by the 
 mould, it is worked by hand in those situations to a joint. 
 The joinings are termed mitres, and in forming them the 
 plasterer uses the jointing tools we have already described. 
 Models for enrichments are made by the modeller, accord- 
 ing to the design or drawing submitted to him, and from 
 them the plasterer makes wax moulds, or, as in ordinary 
 practice, the modeller supplies the moulds in which the 
 
 DING. 
 
 ornament is cast in plaster of Paris. If the ornament be Building, 
 in recurring lengths or parts, as is usually the case, only 
 one length or part is modelled, and casts of as many as 
 are required are taken from the mould ; some single or- 
 naments, again, which are very large, require to be mould- 
 ed and cast in parts, which are put together by means of 
 cement. When the cast ornaments are sufficiently dry 
 the pieces are scraped and trimmed, the joints made clean 
 and even, and they are set in the cornice with plaster of 
 Paris, with white lead, or with a composition called iron 
 cement, as the case may require. If the castings have 
 something in the cornice to rest upon, the first will do ; 
 but if there is nothing to retain or attach them but the 
 cement, one of the two latter must be used. Flowers 
 and other ornaments in ceilings which are too large and 
 heavy to be trusted to adhesive matter alone, must be 
 screwed on to wooden cradling behind and above them. 
 
 In plastering a wall with common stucco, and its use is 
 mostly for outside work, the first thing to be done is to 
 remove the dust from it by brushing, and then wetting it 
 very completely with water ; if the wall to be stuccoed 
 be an old one, or one of which the joints have been drawn, 
 the mortar of the joints must be chipped or even raked 
 out, and the bricks picked, to expose a new and porous 
 surface to the plastering before brushing and wetting. 
 
 The wall is then covered with stucco in a fluid state, ap- 
 plied with a broad and strong hog’s bristle brush, like 
 common white-washing. When this is nearly dry the 
 stucco must be laid on as in common rendering, unless the 
 work is to be floated, when the process is nearly similar 
 to that in floated plastering. Screeds must be formed at 
 the highest and lowest extremities of the wall, or of that 
 part of the wall which is in the same vertical line, and is 
 not intercepted by string courses, and be returned at the 
 angles, putting the whole surface into a sort of frame. 
 
 These must be made perfectly straight and plumb, so as 
 to be quite out of winding, by the careful application of 
 the plumb-rule and straight edge. Inner vertical screeds 
 must then follow at three or four feet apart across the 
 whole surface, and be made to range exactly with the 
 outer ones, and then the interstices must be filled in as be- 
 fore. As the work is made good it must be well rubbed 
 with the hand-float, as in the execution of trowelled stucco 
 internally, to compress the material, and produce a hard, 
 even, and glossy surface. Preparations for cornices and 
 other projections from the straight surface of the work 
 must have been previously made in or on the brick or 
 stone-work, by the protrusion of bricks, tiles, or whatever 
 may be best suited to form a core, and the mouldings and 
 cornices are run with moulds, in the manner described for 
 the same things internally, only that in work of this kind no 
 plastic material but the stucco itself is used; that is, there 
 is no preparation of any softer material than the stucco it- 
 self put under it. In running cornices in this material, work- 
 men are very apt to mix a little plaster of Paris with the 
 stucco to make it set under the mould, and thus give sharp- 
 ness and fulness to the mouldings; but this should not be 
 permitted ; for the plaster is not qualified to stand the wea- 
 ther as the stucco is, and, if mixed with it, will produce 
 premature decay. (For information concerning the various 
 modes of preparing it, see the article Stucco). When the 
 stucco is perfectly dry, it may be painted in oil colours, or 
 be coloured in distemper ; and in either case it is generally 
 ruled over the surface with a lead point, to give it the ap- 
 pearance of gauged stone-work. 
 
 Rendering in Roman cement is executed almost ex- 
 actly in the same manner as stucco rendering is, only 
 that it is laid on the saturated wall directly, without the 
 preliminary operation of roughing in, or washing the sur- 
 face with a solution of the material. The same process. 
 
BUI.L 
 
 Building, too, is followed in floating this cement, and with the same 
 exceptions ; and as, in addition to its superior hardness 
 and capacity for duration, it is a quick-setting cement, it 
 is far preferable to any of the common stuccoes for run- 
 ning cornices, mouldings, &c. Roman cement, or, as it is 
 vulgarly called by most persons concerned in the opera- 
 tions of building, compo, a contraction of composition, 
 may, like stucco, be painted in oil or coloured ; but instead 
 of a size colour, which is used for almost every other pur- 
 pose in plastering, the colour for this composition is mixed 
 with diluted sulphuric acid. This too may be lined and 
 tinted to imitate stone and stone-work of any description. 
 
 It may not be amiss here to refer to the causes of the pre- 
 mature decay which takes place in stuccoes and cements 
 when used externally as a coating to walls. The primary 
 cause is the presence of muddy earth and decayed ani- 
 mal and vegetable matter in the sand used with the lime 
 and cement. To this may be added frequent impurities 
 in the limes and cements themselves, particularly of ar- 
 gillaceous matter in the former, and sometimes to the 
 too great proportions of lime or cement to sand. These 
 things might, however, remain quiescent for a long time, 
 if the work were well protected from access of moisture, 
 which is the grand exciting cause. The paint, or distem- 
 per wash, on the surface, is generally sufficient to prevent 
 the rain which may beat against a vertical face from 
 penetrating, especially if the work have been well hand- 
 floated and trowelled, to make it close and compact; but 
 the evil arises from exposure above, and from the num- 
 berless horizontal unfloated surfaces which are constantly 
 presented. These receive and collect the water, and con- 
 vey in streams over the vertical surfaces what is not imme- 
 diately absorbed ; and the work thus becoming saturated, 
 frost seizes and bursts it, or warmth calls the vegetative 
 powers of the impurities in it into action, and the whole 
 is covered with a green sward. Let the sand of which a 
 plaster composition is to be formed, whether with lime or 
 cement, be washed until it no longer discolours clean wa- 
 ter, and be well compounded with cementitious matter 
 free from the impurities with which it is so frequently 
 charged; let the work be well hand-floated and trowel- 
 led, particularly on the backs or upper horizontal surfaces 
 of projections, and protected above by projecting eaves 
 or otherwise ; and the work, with common care and atten- 
 tion to paint or distemper at intervals, will last as long as 
 any thing of the kind can be expected, or is found, to last 
 anywhere. 
 
 A cheap and useful covering for external walls which 
 are protected by projecting eaves, in plain buildings, is 
 rough cast. This is executed in the following manner. 
 The surface is first roughed in, or rendered with lime and 
 hair ; and when that is set dry, another coat of the same 
 material is superadded, laid as evenly as it can be without 
 floating, and as soon as a piece of two or three yards in 
 extent is executed, the workman lays on it an almost 
 fluid mixture of fine clean gravel and strong lime, which 
 have been well mixed together. This is immediately 
 washed with any ochreous colour that may be desired, and 
 the whole dries into one compact mass. 
 
 In renovating and repairing plastering, the whole sur- 
 face is first well washed to remove the dirt which may 
 have attached itself, and as much of the earthy matter of 
 the previous coat of whitening or colouring as will come 
 away; any injuries the work may have received, such as 
 cracks and fractures, are then repaired; and when the 
 new stuff is quite dry, the joinings are scraped to produce 
 an even surface, and the whole is again whitened or co- 
 loured once or twice, or oftener, as may be required, to 
 make it bear out well. Stuccoed walls which have been 
 painted must be well rubbed with pumice stone, to take 
 
 D I N G. 91 
 
 off the old paint as much as possible before they are newly Building, 
 painted. ' 
 
 Plastering is measured in feet and inches, and valued 
 by the yard superficial of nine square feet. It is taken 
 under separate heads according to the nature and descrip- 
 tion of the work, such as, rendered ; rendered and set ; ren- 
 dered, floated, and set; and with lath, for the lathing and 
 plastering are valued together; lathed and laid; lathed, 
 laid, and set ; and lathed, plastered, floated, and set. 
 Whitening and colouring are taken under separate heads, 
 and the quantities of them are reduced to yards also. 
 
 Work done in narrow slips, such as to the jambs and soffits 
 of doorways and other openings, is measured by the foot 
 superficial, and so are the backs of niches, niche-heads, &c. 
 
 Arrises, or external angles and quirks, are taken extra by 
 the running foot, and beads and other very small mould- 
 ings are measured in the same manner. Larger mouldings, 
 however, and cornices, whether plain or enriched, are ta- 
 ken by the foot superficial, and the quantity is ascertained 
 by multiplying the length, minus once the projection, by 
 the girth, of the moulding or cornice, which is best deter- 
 mined by measuring its mould with a tape or cord. En- 
 richments are either numbered or taken at so much the 
 running foot, making the modeller’s an extra charge, if 
 the design was original and required special modelling 
 and moulding ; and mitres are taken at so much a piece 
 beyond a limited number. This number, in an ordinary 
 room, is generally the four which necessarily occur in its 
 four angles, making those which are usually occasioned by 
 the projection of the chimney-breast extra; but it is not 
 an uncommon practice to bring them within the limit, 
 and count only all that may occur above eight, for no 
 difference is made between internal and external angles. 
 
 Circular work, whether it be convex or concave, of every 
 kind, may be charged about one fourth higher than straight. 
 
 Stuccoes and other compositions are also valued by the 
 yard, and according to the description of the work, with 
 almost similar exceptions to those mentioned with regard 
 to common plastering. Used externally, however, all the 
 arrises or external angles, throatings, grooves, chamfers, 
 
 &c. are taken as extra by the running foot at such a width. 
 
 In the practice of measuring plasterer’s work, it is cus- 
 tomary to take the whole surface at first, and then what- 
 ever deductions there may be. Thus the side of a room 
 is measured over all, from the upper edge of the skirting 
 grounds up to the cornice. The windows and doors are 
 deducted by taking to the outside of their framed grounds 
 for the width, and from the skirting grounds up to the 
 top of those of the door or window for the height. If 
 there be more than one of each, or either of them, to de- 
 duct, of course the same dimension will serve for all, mul- 
 tiplied by as many times as each deduction occurs. A 
 ceiling also is generally taken over the whole surface, 
 from cornice to cornice, a chimney-breast or other projec- 
 tion being made a deduction. It is a moot point whether 
 the plasterer should not be allowed that part of the ceil- 
 ing and wall which is covered by the cornice, as he has 
 actually finished the whole except setting. When the 
 cornice is bracketed, however, he may fairly claim up to 
 the brackets. 
 
 Scaffolding is not generally made an extra charge with 
 new work ; but with old work it is, if scaffolding be ne- 
 cessary ; for, under ordinary circumstances, the plasterer 
 is enabled to wash, stop, and whiten the ceilings and walls 
 of rooms from trestles, with boards laid across them. In 
 lofty saloons and halls, churches, &c. scaffolding is indis- 
 pensable, and must then be charged. A scaffold is neces- 
 sary, too, to a front that is to be plastered in any way; 
 but it may be afterwards washed, repaired, and coloured, 
 from a ladder, without the intervention of a scaffold. 
 
92 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 IS 
 
 made wide enough 
 iglit slating it is necessary 
 
 Building. Slater .— The principle on which slates are laid is that 
 
 which is employed in plain tiling. To a roof with pro- 
 jecting eaves, a wide board is placed over the rafters’ feet ; 
 but when the eaves tail into gutters, the gutter-board 
 to receive the eaves-course. For 
 to board a roof all over. This 
 is done by the carpenter, and is called sound-boarding ; 
 but for strong heavy slates, fillets or battens are better ; 
 and these are laid by the slater himself, to suit the length 
 of his slates. Three inches wide and one inch thick is a 
 sufficient size for them, if the rafters be not more than 
 twelve inches apart. Against gable or party-walls, a fea- 
 ther-edged board called a tilting fillet is laid to turn the 
 water from the wall. 
 
 Before he begins to work on a roof, the slater shapes 
 and trims the slates on the ground. With a large knife 
 or chopper called a saixe, sax, or zax, he strikes off the 
 unevennesses on one side of a slate, making it as nearly 
 straight as he can ; he then runs a gauge along it, marking 
 the greatest width the slate will bear, and, cutting to that 
 line, makes it perfectly parallel. He next, with a square, 
 brings the thickest and best end to right angles with the 
 sides, generally by chopping, but sometimes by sawing; 
 and then marking upward from the squared foot or tail, 
 makes two nail holes, where, by calculating the gauge 
 the slate in hand will bear, he knows the fillet must come. 
 All the slates being thus gauged to width, dressed, and 
 sorted in lengths, they are then carried on to the roof by 
 the labourers in rotation, beginning with the longest and 
 largest for the lowest courses. The first course the slater 
 lays is little more than half the length of that which is 
 intended to cover it, and is necessary to break the joints 
 at the eaves. This is called the doubling eaves-course ; 
 and the covering eaves-course is brought to the same foot- 
 line, completely to cover it. Then to ascertain the gauge : 
 From the length of the slate deduct the bond, which should 
 never be less than two inches, and need not be more than 
 three and a half inches, and the half of what remains will be 
 the gauge. Thus, if the bond be fixed at three inches, and 
 the slate is two feet three inches in length, the gauge will 
 be one foot. This gauge or margin is set up from the foot 
 of the eaves-course at each end, and a line strained to 
 mark it along the whole length, and so on, to the ridge 
 or top, where another half-course is required to complete 
 the work, and that is in its turn secured by a covering df 
 sheet lead. To a hipped roof care is taken to complete 
 every course up to the angle, by cutting slates to fit its 
 inclination ; and these are also covered by an overlap of 
 sheet lead. In nailing a slate, it must not be strained or 
 bent in the slightest degree, or it will certainly fly in some 
 sudden atmospheric change, to which it is of course con- 
 
 stantly liable, even if it escape fracture, from being trod- 
 den on by the workmen themselves or by others. Copper, 
 being less liable to oxidize from exposure to common 
 causes than any other metal that will answer the purpose, 
 is generally used for slate nails. Zinc is also used for the 
 purpose ; and iron tinned and painted nails are sometimes 
 substituted by dishonesty on the part of the workman or 
 builder, or bad economy on that of the proprietor. Slat- 
 ing should be well pointed on the inside, or torched, as 
 the operation is sometimes termed, with lime and hair, to 
 keep out the wind, and prevent snow from driving in, 
 which it will do in an almost incredible manner if it be 
 not thus hindered." Particular attention should be paid 
 to this, as the neglect of it occasions more damaged ceil- 
 ings than even broken slates, and more catarrhs than arise 
 from broken panes of glass. 
 
 A very light and neat covering is produced, by laying 
 wide slates side by side, and covering their joints with 
 narrow slips bedded in putty, the overlap at the ends 
 
 being no more than the bond is with the usual mode. It Building, 
 is known as patent slating, and was introduced by the '"T' w/ 
 late Mr Wyatt, though he never obtained a patent for it. 
 
 Indeed it is in principle the mode which was adopted in 
 ancient Greece in covering the roofs of temples. Neither 
 boards nor fillets are used, the slate bearing from rafter to 
 rafter, and to the rafters the slates are screwed. The co- 
 vering slips are also screwed, as well as bedded in putty. 
 
 Slating of this kind may be laid at no greater elevation 
 than ten degrees ; whereas, for slating in the ordinary 
 way, the angle should never be much less than twenty- 
 five degrees, though large slates with a three and a half 
 inch bond, carefully laid and well pointed, may perhaps be 
 trusted at a rise of twenty degrees. 
 
 The mode above described of ascertaining the gauge 
 or margin by the bond, is equally applicable to every sort 
 of roof-covering that is made up of small inflexible paral- 
 lelogramic slabs or tablets ; and it should be borne in mind 
 that the greater the angle is at which the rafters rise, or, 
 in technical language, the higher the pitch of the roof, 
 the less the bond may be, and vice versa. With slabs or 
 tablets that vary in length, too, as slates generally do in 
 this country as they are brought to market, it is the bond 
 which it is of importance to observe ; but if they are of 
 an invariable length, as tiles are, it is sufficient that the 
 gauge or margin be attended to. 
 
 The best slate this country produces is from the quar- 
 ries of Bangor in Caernarvonshire, and of Kendal in Vfest- 
 moreland. Good slate is also procured in the neighbour- 
 hood of Tavistock in Devonshire, and in some parts of 
 Scotland. The scantlings of slate are cut in the quarries 
 to set sizes, and these are split into tablets, thicker or 
 thinner according to the size of the slab and the capacity 
 of the slate, for the inferior qualities are neither so com- 
 pact in material, nor so clearly laminated or schistose, as 
 the superior, and will not therefore rend so freely. The 
 sizes of slates best known in the British market are distin- 
 guished by the names of ladies, countesses, duchesses, and 
 queens. Ladies measure fifteen inches by eight, coun- 
 tesses twenty inches by ten, duchesses twenty-four inches 
 by twelve, and queens thirty-six inches by twenty-four; 
 and they are esteemed in proportion to their magnitude. 
 
 Besides these, there is a slate which equals the queen in 
 extent of surface, but is of very much greater thickness ; 
 this is called Welsh rag. A smaller slate, again, which is 
 less indeed than the lady, and is cut from the refuse of 
 large scantlings, is called a double. In size it does not 
 often exceed twelve inches by six. Westmoreland slates 
 are thick and heavy like the Welsh rag, but do not ge- 
 nerally run so large. 
 
 The best slate is of a bluish-grey colour, and breaks 
 before the zax like well-burnt pottery, and will ring in the 
 same manner on being struck. Whitish or light grey- 
 coloured slate is for the most part stony: dark blue or 
 blackish slate, on the other hand, cuts very freely ; but it 
 absorbs moisture, and decays rapidly. 
 
 Slater's work is measured by the square of a hundred 
 superficial feet. In a parallelogramic piece of slating, as 
 in a gabled roof with projecting eaves, the length along 
 the eaves by the breadth or height from that to the ridge, 
 with the addition to the latter dimension of the gauge or 
 margin for doubling the eaves, will give the quantity of 
 one side. Projections for chimney-shafts or breasts, sky- 
 lights, &c. must be deducted; but an addition must be 
 made of the run round them by six inches, for cutting and 
 waste. In a hipped roof the length from point to point 
 of the eaves on one of the long sides of a quadrilate- 
 ral roof, by the breadth or height, with the addition as 
 before, will give that side and half of each of the ends. 
 
 The other side will, of course, in the same manner, include 
 
93 
 
 B U I L 
 
 Building, the other halves of the ends. The length of the hips taken 
 as a superficial dimension in feet, or hy twelve inches, is 
 added for cutting and waste, and valleys are taken and 
 added in the same manner when they occur. 
 
 Carpenter . — For the scientific principles of carpentry 
 we must refer the reader to the article under that head, 
 and to the articles Roof, Strength of Materials, and 
 Timber. Here we have merely to speak of the practical 
 details of carpenters’ work in the operations of building, — 
 indeed, of carpentering, or the practice of carpentry, con- 
 sidering it as a mechanical art. 
 
 The carpenter works in wood, which he receives from 
 the sawyer in beams, scantlings, and planks, or boards, 
 which he cuts and combines into bond-timbers, wall-plates, 
 floors, and roofs. He is distinguished from the joiner by 
 his operations being directed to the mere carcass of a 
 building, — to things which have reference to structure 
 only. Almost every thing the carpenter does in and to an 
 edifice is absolutely necessary to its stability and efficiency, 
 whereas the joiner does not begin his operations until the 
 carcass is complete ; and every article of joiners’ work 
 might at any time be removed from a building without 
 undermining it or affecting its most important qualities. 
 Certainly, in the practice of building, a few things do oc- 
 cur which it is difficult to determine to whose immediate 
 province they belong ; but the distinction is nevertheless 
 sufficiently broad for general purposes. The carpenter, 
 with the bricklayer or mason, and some of the minor ar- 
 tificers, constructs the frame or hull ; and the joiner, with 
 the plasterer and others, decorates and rigs the vessel : 
 on the former the actual existence of the ship depends, 
 and on the latter depends her fitness for use. 
 
 The carpenter frames or combines separate pieces of 
 timber by scarfing, notching, cogging, tenoning, pinning, 
 and wedging; and the tools he uses are the rule, the axe, 
 the adze, the saw, the mallet, hammers, chisels, gouges, 
 augers, hook-pins, a square, a bevel, a pair of compasses, 
 and a gauge, together with the level and plumb-rule ; be- 
 sides these, planes, gimlets, pincers, a sledge hammer, a 
 maul or beetle, wedges, and a crow-bar, may be considered 
 useful auxiliaries, though they are not absolutely necessary 
 to the performance of works of carpentry. 
 
 To scarf is to cut away equally from the ends, but on 
 the opposite sides, of two pieces of timber, for the purpose 
 of tying or connecting them lengthwise. This is done to 
 wall-plates and bond-timber, and especially to beams when 
 they are required of greater length than can be procured 
 without joining. (See Carpentry.) The usual mode of 
 scarfing bond and wall-plates is by cutting about three 
 fifths through each piece on the upper face of the one and 
 the under face of the other, about six or eight inches from 
 the end, transversely, making what is technically termed 
 a calf or kerf, and longitudinally from the end, from two 
 fifths down on the same side, so that the pieces lap toge- 
 ther with a sort of half dovetail. The heavy supervening 
 weight of the wall and joists renders it impossible that 
 they should be drawn apart without tearing the fibres 
 Piate asunder or lifting the weight. (See fig. 20.) Neverthe- 
 cxxxvm. less these joints are generally spiked, and it is always 
 required that they be made to fall in or under a pier. 
 Notching is either square or dovetailed: it is used in 
 connecting the ends of wall-plates and bond-timber at 
 the angles, in letting joists down on beams or binders, 
 purlines on principal rafters, &c. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, 
 fig. 21, show varieties of notches applied as we have de- 
 scribed. No. 1 is a simple square notch or halving of the 
 ends of bond-timbers or wall-plates at a right angle; No. 
 2, a dovetailed notch. No. 3, the notch most commonly 
 used ; it is similar to No. 1, but that the ends are allowed 
 to run on so that the one piece grasps the other, and each 
 
 forms a cog to the other. No. 4 is an oblique-angled, Building, 
 dovetailed notch ; and No. 5 shows how joints are notched 
 or let down on beams and binders, and purlines on princi- 
 pal rafters. A notch is cut into the under edge of the 
 joist or purline an inch or an inch and a half in depth, and 
 considerably shorter than the beam, binder, or rafter is in 
 thickness. Notches are also cut down on the upper angles 
 of the bearing pieces as long as the rider is thick, as deep 
 as the notch before described of the latter is, and so far 
 in as to leave a thickness on its own edge equal to the 
 length of the notch in the riding joist or purline. In the 
 diagram one joint is indicated in its place let down in the 
 notch, and another indicates the notch in its own edge, 
 and leaves exposed the notches in the binder. Cogging, 
 or cocking as it is vulgarly termed, is the last- mentioned 
 species of notch extended on one side, and leaving a nar- 
 row tooth or cog alone in the bearing-piece flush with its 
 upper face, No. 1, fig. 22. It is used principally in tailing 
 joists and beams on wall and tem-plates, and the cog is here 
 made narrower, because the end of the joist or rider com- 
 ing immediately beyond the plate, that part which forms 
 the shoulder of the notch would be liable, on being strain- 
 ed, to be chipped off or torn away, if it were not kept as 
 long as possible ; and it is not of so much importance to 
 guard against weakening a wall-plate which is supported 
 along its whole length, as a beam, binder, or principal raft- 
 er, which rests on distant points alone. No. 2 of the same 
 diagram shows another mode of tailing on joists and beams 
 by a dovetail notch, which, to distinguish it from the flat 
 notches, Nos. 2 and 4, fig. 21, is called cocking, or cogging 
 also, though the operation decidedly is not cogging. This is 
 a good mode if the timber be so well seasoned as not to be 
 likely to shrink more ; but it would be improved by allowing 
 the rider to take a bearing in a notch like that to No. 1 be- 
 fore the dovetail commenced, as at No. 3, for in the ordi- 
 nary mode it is weakened in a point of great importance. 
 
 Tenoning implies mortising also, as a matter of course. 
 
 They are the names of the two operations necessary to 
 one result, — that of producing a connection between two 
 pieces by inserting part of the end of one into a hole 
 of similar size cut in the side or edge of the other. A 
 tenon is formed by cutting in on each side or edge of a 
 piece of timber, near its end, transversely, to a certain 
 depth, or rather, leaving a certain part of the breadth or 
 depth uncut, and then cutting in longitudinally from the 
 ends as far from each edge as the transverse cuts have 
 been made in depth, thus removing two square prisms and 
 leaving a third undivided. This is the tenon. An exca- 
 vation in the side of a piece of timber, of a certain depth, 
 in the direction of its thickness, parallel to its edges, and 
 bounded lengthwise by lines at right angles to them, is a 
 mortise. Tenons and mortises are made of exactly cor- 
 responding size, and are most frequently at equal distances 
 from one or the other side or edge of the two pieces to be 
 conjoined ; and for the most part, too, every angle formed 
 in tlie process of tenoning, both internal and external, is 
 a right angle. Tenons are called joggles in some situations, 
 when they are not intended to be borne upon; and their 
 use is merely to keep the piece of timber to which they 
 belong steadily in its place, without being liable to slight 
 accidents from lateral pressure or violence. In combining 
 timbers by means of mortises and tenons, to produce as 
 great a degree of strength as possible, it must be obvious 
 that the object to be kept in view is to maintain the end 
 or tenon of the one as large and efficient as it may be, and 
 weaken the other as little as possible in forming the mor- 
 tise. For the efficiency of the mortised piece in a hori- 
 zontal bearing, it is clear that as much of its thickness 
 should be below the mortise as possible, as at a, fig. 23; 
 for if it be put low, as at b, the superincumbent weight on 
 
94 BUI L 
 
 Building, the tenon would more readily split or rend it in the direc- 
 tion of the grain, as indicated; but the case is inverted 
 with the tenoned pieces. With the mortise at a the tenon 
 could only have the efficacy of so much of the piece to 
 which it belongs as there is of it above its under surface, 
 which is a very small part of its depth ; whereas with the 
 tenon at b it would command the power of the greatest 
 part of the piece. To guard as much as possible against 
 the danger of too great a mortise and too small a tenon on 
 one side and the other, and to obviate the difficulty aris- 
 ing from the efficiency of one or the other of the two 
 pieces being affected by putting the tenon too high or too 
 low, a compound, called a tusk tenon, is used for almost 
 all horizontal bearings of any importance, especially to 
 joists and binders, to trimmers, beams, girders, brestsum- 
 mers, &c. The body of the tenon in this is a little above 
 the middle of the end, and it runs out two, three, or four 
 inches, or more, as the case may require. Below it the 
 tusk protrudes, and above it the shoulder is cut down at 
 an obtuse angle with the horizontal line, giving the strength 
 of the whole depth of the timber above the under tusk to 
 the tenon, and giving it a bearing in a shallow mortise, 
 whilst a greater depth of the mortised piece than the tusk 
 rests on receives the body of the tenon, and so protects its 
 comparatively narrow margin from undue pressure. The 
 diagram No. 1, fig. 24, shows the tusk tenon, with the section 
 of a beam into which it is mortised ; and No. 2 indicates 
 perspectively the appearance of the mortise in front. See 
 also Carpentry. 
 
 Pinning is the insertion of nearly cylindrical pieces of 
 wood or iron through a tenon, to detain it in the mortise, 
 or prevent it from being drawn out by any ordinary force. 
 For this purpose the pin is inserted either in the body, or 
 beyond the thickness, of the mortised piece, as indicated 
 at a , fig. 24, or at a, fig. 25. Wedging (see bb, No. 2, fig. 
 25) is the insertion of triangular prisms, whose converg- 
 ing sides are under an extremely acute angle, into or by 
 the end of a tenon, to make it fill the mortise so complete- 
 ly, or bind it so tightly, that it cannot be easily withdrawn. 
 The wedging of tenons also assists in restoring to the 
 mortised piece of timber much of the strength it had lost 
 by the excision of so much of its mass, which indeed the 
 tenon itself does if it fit closely in every direction ; but the 
 assistance of the wedge renders the restoration more per- 
 fect than the tenon could be made to do of itself, by com- 
 pressing the fibres of both, longitudinally to those of the 
 one, and transversely to those of the other, thus removing 
 the tendency of the mortised piece to yield in any degree 
 in the weakened part, though it cannot make up the loss 
 in its tenacity occasioned by the section of its fibres. 
 
 In scarfing, cogging, and notching, the shoulders are al- 
 ways cut in with the saw ; but the cheek is for the most 
 part struck out with the mallet and chisel, or adze, as may 
 be most convenient. Tenons should be made entirely with 
 the saw : mortises are generally bored at the ends with an 
 auger whose diameter equals their thickness ; the interven- 
 ing part is taken out with a wide chisel, cutting in the di- 
 rection of the fibre ; and the ends are squared down with a 
 chisel whose breadth just equals the thickness of the mor- 
 tise. Wood pins must be rent to insure the equal tenacity 
 of their whole mass. Wedges are cut with the saw, but 
 straight grained stuff is always preferred for them. 
 
 Bond-timbers and wall-plates should be carefully notch- 
 ed together at every angle and return, and scarfed at 
 every longitudinal joint. The scarf shown at fig. 20 is 
 sufficient for the purpose ; and the notch at No. 3, fig. 21, 
 may be preferred where notching is required ; neither pinn- 
 ing nor nailing, however, can be of great use to either the 
 notch or the scarf. Bond-timbers are passed along and 
 through all openings, and are not cut out until such open- 
 
 D I N G. 
 
 ings are to be permanently occupied, that is, windows with Building, 
 their sash-frames, &c. because they assist in preventing v '*“ 
 irregular settlements, by helping to carry the weight of a 
 heavy part along the substruction generally, instead of allow- 
 ing it to press unduly upon the part ijnmediately under it. 
 
 Whatever notches and cogs for beams and joists are re- 
 quired in wall and tern-plates, should be made before they 
 are set on or in a wall ; for, as they are always bedded in 
 mortar, any thing that may break the set must be avoided. 
 
 It is incumbent on the carpenter to supply the brick- 
 layer or mason with wood bricks in sufficient quantity, and 
 to direct him where they should be placed to receive the 
 joiner’s fittings, or the battening, which the carpenter him- 
 self may have to put up for the plasterer. 
 
 The framed quartering partitions which may be requir- 
 ed should be set up in every story before the beams and 
 joists of the floors are laid, that their horizontal timbers 
 may be notched on to the wall-plates, and that the joists 
 or binders may be notched on to them if occasion require 
 it ; but they should be fixed rather below than above the 
 level of the wall-plates, because they are not liable to set- 
 tle down so much as the walls, though even that will de- 
 pend in a great degree on the nature of the walling, and 
 its liability to yield. 
 
 The carpenter makes and fixes or sets centres of all 
 kinds, whether for single arches, vaults, or drains. The 
 striking out of the centres, in the first instance, is neces- 
 sarily contingent on the arches to be turned on them, for 
 the forms of which the carpenter must look to the brick- 
 layer or mason, whose instructions for describing arches 
 will be found under the head Stone-Masonry. Large 
 centres are framed in distinct ribs, and are connected by 
 horizontal ties ; whilst small ones are made of mere boards 
 cut to the required sweep, nailed together, and connected 
 by battens notched into or nailed on their edges. Preci- 
 sion and stability are nevertheless equally and absolutely 
 necessary, as it is impossible for an arch to be turned or 
 set correctly on an incorrect or unstable centre. 
 
 The timbers or frame-work of floors is called naked floor- 
 ing, and it is distinguished as single, double, and framed. 
 
 Of these the first, under ordinary circumstances, is the 
 strongest. Single flooring (see No. I and 2, fig. 29) con- plate 
 sists of one row or tier of joists alone, bearing from oneCXXXlX. 
 wall or partition to another, without any intermediate sup- 
 port, receiving the flooring boards on the upper surface or 
 edges of the joists, and the ceiling, if there be one, on the 
 lower. Joists in single floors should never be less than two 
 inches in thickness, because of their liability to be split by 
 the brads or nails of the boards if they are thinner ; and they 
 should never be much more, because of the keying of the 
 ceiling, which is injuriously affected by great thickness of 
 the joists. Twelve inches from joist to joist is the distance 
 generally allowed ; that dimension, however, from centre to 
 centre of the joists would be better. Strength to almost any 
 extent may be given by adding to the depth of the joists, 
 and diminishing the distance between them ; and they may 
 be made firm, and be prevented from buckling or twisting, 
 by putting struts between them. These struts are 
 short pieces of batten, which should not be less 
 than an inch, and need not be more than an inch and 
 a half thick, and three or four inches wide, placed 
 diagonally between the joists, to which they are nailed, in 
 a double series, or crossing, as indicated by the full and 
 dotted lines in the diagram, fig. 26 ; and they should be 
 made to range in a right line, that none of their effect may 
 be lost ; and these ranges or rows should be repeated at 
 intervals not exceeding five or six feet. The struts should 
 be cut at the ends with exactly the same inclination or 
 bevel, to fit closely. Great care should be taken, too, not 
 to split the struts in nailing ; but the trouble of boring 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 95 
 
 Building. with a gimlet is saved by making a slight nick or incision 
 with, a wide-set saw for each nail, of which there should 
 not be less than two at each end ; and the nails used 
 should be clasp-nails. If the struts were 
 notched into the joists, it would add very 
 materially to their efficiency, but perhaps 
 not in proportion to the additional labour it 
 would involve. This strutting should be 
 done to single flooring under any circumstances, as it adds 
 materially to its firmness, and indeed to its strength, by 
 making the joists transmit any stress or pressure from one 
 to another. The efficiency of single flooring is materially 
 affected by the necessity which constantly occurs in prac- 
 tice of trimming round fire-places and flues, and across va- 
 cuities. Trimming is a mode of supporting the end of a 
 joist by tenoning it into a piece of timber crossing it, and 
 called a trimmer, instead of running it on or into the wall 
 which supports the ends of the other joists generally. A 
 trimmer requires for the most part to be carried or sup- 
 ported at one or both of its ends by some of the joists, 
 which are called trimming joists, and are necessarily made 
 stouter than if they had to bear no more than their own 
 share of the stress. Commonly it is found enough to 
 make the trimmers and trimming joists from half an inch 
 to an inch thicker than common joists. In trimming, tusk 
 tenons should be used ; and the long tongue or main body 
 of the tenon should run not less than two inches through, 
 and be draw-pinned, and wedged, moreover, if it do not 
 completely fill the mortise in the direction of the length 
 of the latter. The principal objection, however, to single 
 flooring is, that sound readily passes through, the attach- 
 ment of the boards above and of the ceiling below being 
 to the same joists throughout. Another objection, and one 
 already referred to, is the necessity of making the joists 
 so thin, not to injure the ceilings, that they with difficulty 
 receive the flooring brads in their upper edges without 
 splitting, A partial remedy for both these disadvantages 
 is found in a mode sometimes adopted of making every 
 third or fourth joist an inch or an inch and a half deeper 
 than the intervening joists ; and to these, ceiling joists are 
 notched and nailed, or nailed alone, as shown in the dia- 
 gram, fig. 26. This, by diminishing the number of points 
 of contact between the upper and lower surface, for the 
 ceiling joists must be carefully kept from touching the 
 shallower joists of the floor, is less apt to convey sound 
 from one story to another, and allows conveniently thin 
 joists to be used for the ceiling without affecting those of 
 the floor. It clearly, however, involves the necessity of 
 cogging the deeper joists down so much more on the wall- 
 plates on which their ends rest. 
 
 Double flooring (see sections No. 1 and 2, fig, 27, and 
 plan No. 3, fig. 29) consists of three distinct tiers of joists, 
 which are called binding, bridging, and ceiling joists. 
 The binders in this are the real support of the floor ; they 
 run from wall to wall, and carry the bridging joists above 
 and the ceiling joists below them. Binders need not be 
 less and should not be much more than six feet apart, 
 that is, if the bridging or flooring joists are not inordinate- 
 ly weak. The bridging joists form the upper tier, and are 
 notched down on the binders with the notch shown at 
 No. 5, fig. 21. The ceiling joists range under the binders, 
 and are notched and nailed as shown at No. I, fig. 27 ; 
 but the notch must be taken entirely out of the ceiling 
 joists, for the lower face or edge of the binder may not be 
 wounded by any means or on any account, and moreover 
 no good would be gained in any other respect by doing so. 
 When it is an object to save height in the depth or thick- 
 ness of this species of floor, the ceiling joists may be 
 tenoned into the binders, instead of being nailed on to 
 them ; in this case the latter must be chase-mortised on 
 
 one side, for the convenience of receiving the former when Building. 
 
 they are themselves set and fixed. A chase is a long ~ 
 
 wedge-formed groove of the breadth or thickness of the 
 
 mortise, of which it is indeed an _ '//'//Ay// 
 
 elongation, so that the tenon at 
 
 one end of a ceiling joist being chase mortise 
 
 inserted in the regular mortise i 
 
 in the binder prepared for it, that at the other end is driven 
 
 along the chase up to its place in the mortise in the next 
 
 binder. When ceiling joists are thus chase-mortised, their 
 
 lower or under faces are allowed to come a little below the 
 
 under face of the binders, and the space across is firred 
 
 down by slips not wider than the ceiling joists are thick. 
 
 No. 2, fig. 27, shows a transverse compartment, or bay, of a 
 floor in this manner; but it is not so good a one as the 
 preceding ; for, besides weakening the binders, by cutting 
 so many mortises and chases in them, it is almost impos- 
 sible to give the ceiling floor the degree of firmness and 
 consistency it possesses in the other way, besides requir- 
 ing the firring down on the binders. The same space 
 would be better gained by cutting the bridging joists so 
 much lower down ; as they may, with the sort of notch in- 
 dicated above, be let down fully half their depth without 
 great injury to either bridging joists or binder, for they 
 can always be made to fit tightly or firmly, and very little 
 more labour is involved in notching deeply than slightly. 
 
 Flooring is said to be framed when girders are used to- 
 gether with binding, bridging, and ceiling joists. (See sec- 
 tions No. 1 and 2, fig. 28, and plan No. 4, fig. 29.) Girders 
 are large beams, in one or more pieces, according to the 
 length required, and the size and strength of which tim- 
 ber can be procured. They are intended for longer bear- 
 ings than mere binders may be trusted at, and may be 
 strengthened to almost any extent by trussing ; but to be 
 efficient, the height of the truss must always be greater 
 than the depth of the beam itself, and the strength is in- 
 creased by extending that height as the space or bearing 
 increases. A truss is indeed a wooden arch, whose late- 
 ral thrust will of course be greater the smaller the angle 
 subtended by it, and vice versa. It has been a commonly 
 received opinion, that a truss within the depth of a girder 
 adds materially to its strength ; but experiments have 
 proved that very little advantage is gained by such a one 
 when executed in the best manner, and that, badly exe- 
 cuted, the beam or girder is weaker with the truss than 
 without it. Binders are made dependent on the girders 
 by means of double tusk tenons, and on and to them the 
 bridging and ceiling joists are attached in the manner 
 before described. No. 1, fig. 28, shows the transverse sec- 
 tion of a compartment or bay of a framed floor ; No. 2 the 
 same longitudinally of the girder, and of the bridging and 
 ceiling joists, and transversely of the binders. No. 1, fig. 
 
 29, is the plan of a single floor of joists tailing in on wall- 
 plates with two chains of struts, and trimmed to a fire- 
 place. No. 2 is a floor similar to No. 1, with ceiling joists 
 nailed to deeper flooring joists at intervals, as shown in 
 fig. 26. No. 3 is the plan of a double floor; and No. 4 is 
 that of a framed floor of joists, bays of which are shown in 
 
 section at fig. 27 and 28. 
 
 Partitions of timber are called quartering partitions, 
 and they are generally framed. Common quartering par- 
 titions which rest on a wall or floor, and have nothing to 
 carry, consist merely of a sill, a head, and common up- 
 rights to receive the lath for plastering : these last may 
 be simply joggled or tenoned into the head and sill, in the 
 manner shown at c, fig. 23, and stiffened by struts or 
 stretching pieces put between them and nailed. When, 
 however, a quartering partition is over a vacuity, or rests 
 only on certain points, and has, moreover, to sustain a 
 weight, a floor perchance, it is framed and trussed with 
 
96 BUIL 
 
 Building, king or queen posts and braces, on the principle of a roof ; 
 
 an d the filling in of common uprights or quarters for the 
 laths is generally performed by joggling them at one end 
 into either head or sill, and nailing them securely to the 
 raking braces. In the diagram No. 1, fig. 30, it is supposed 
 that an opening or doorway is to be made in the partition, 
 so that the timbers of the truss are placed around it with 
 queen-posts, and a small internal truss is put over the door- 
 head to prevent it from sagging, and to carry the long 
 part of the partition, which we suppose required to bear 
 a floor, so that the partition acts also, in fact, the part of a 
 trussed girder in the most available form. No. 2 presents 
 another method of framing a similar partition. 
 
 Shoring or propping up walls or floors, shoring for 
 sewers, &c. is done by the carpenter. In appearance it is 
 a simple operation, and under ordinary circumstances it 
 really is so ; but nevertheless it often demands the exercise 
 of considerable skill and tact to determine and to counter- 
 act the tendency the part or thing to be supported has 
 in one direction or another. 
 
 Pugging floors, firring down joists, and bracketing and 
 cradling for plastering, and some other things, are ope- 
 rations performed indifferently by the carpenter or joiner, 
 for they are not necessarily connected with the one more 
 than the other of these two mechanical arts. 
 
 The labour of carpenter’s work is valued by the square 
 of one hundred superficial feet whenever it will admit of 
 being so measured, and the timber is as generally valued 
 by the cubic foot. It is customary for the carpenter’s 
 work to be measured at the same time with the walls and 
 roof covering, or when the carcass of a building is com- 
 pleted, and before the joiner and plasterer commence their 
 operations; for then it is all still exposed, and may be 
 correctly and certainly measured, whereas much must be 
 taken on trust if the measurement be deferred until the 
 works are completely finished. 
 
 Bond timber, wood bricks, and wall and tem-plates, are 
 taken under the same head, and are reduced to cubic feet 
 of timber at so much per foot, including the labour of 
 every kind on it. The naked flooring is taken on the sur- 
 face from wall to wall, with a description of the nature of 
 it, whether it be single, double, or framed — if trimmed to 
 chimneys, party walls, stairs, or to any thing else — if 
 notched or cogged to wall-plates and partition heads-^the 
 number and size of the large timbers, ceiling joists as 
 notched and nailed to wall-plates, and as framed or notch- 
 ed and nailed to binders or common joists ; and every 
 thing indeed that affects the quantity of labour required 
 in forming it. The superficial feet are reduced to squares 
 for the labour and nails involved and used in forming and 
 fixing or setting the floors. The timbers of which the 
 flooring is composed are then taken in detail and in cubic 
 quantities, and are said to be without labour, or with no 
 labour. Roofing is measured in the same manner, by the 
 superficial square, for labour and nails, taken on the com- 
 mon rafters from ridge to heel ; the length of a rafter by 
 the length of the roof for one side of a common span, and 
 repeated or doubled for the other, noting also a descrip- 
 tion of the roof, whether it be lean-to or shed roofing, if 
 on purlines and with struts ; common span-roofing ; curb 
 roofing ; span roofing with purlines and collar beams, 
 strutted or otherwise, from walls or partitions ; span roof- 
 ing with framed principals, tie-beams, king-posts or queen- 
 posts, straining beam, straining sill, struts, purlines, pole- 
 plates, and so on or as the case may be, and this too for 
 labour and nails. All the timbers are then taken, measur- 
 ing every one to the extent of any tenon or tenons at its 
 ends, in cubic quantities also, and as without labour. 
 Bolts, bars, straps, stirrups, &c. are taken separately, and 
 their dimensions noted from which to ascertain their 
 
 D I N G. 
 
 weight. Gutter-boards and bearers are measured and va- Building, 
 lued by the foot superficial, according to the thickness of 
 the former. Rough boarding for lead on flats, and sound 
 boarding for slates or lead, are taken superficially, and re- 
 duced into squares. Centring to vaults is measured on the 
 periphery of the arch, or round back of the centre, for the 
 breadth, by the length, and is valued by the square; to aper- 
 tures in the thickness of walls, by the foot, and to camber- 
 arches, by number, so much a piece. Quartering partitions 
 are measured by the square for labour and nails, and the ma- 
 terial is taken by the cubic foot. Battening to walls is also 
 measured by the square, but the stuff is generally included 
 with the labour, as in boarding. Cradling and bracketing is 
 valued by the foot superficial, and with reference to the 
 quantity of stuff required or worked up. Any planing that 
 may have been necessary, and it will happen at times on 
 beams, joists, &e. when it is not intended to have a ceiling 
 under the floor, is charged by the foot on the surface, and 
 any beading or other moulding by the foot running. 
 
 It sometimes happens that a superficial quantity for la- 
 bour and nails on framed timber cannot be obtained; in 
 that case the timber is measured by the cubic foot as 
 framed, or with the labour of framing included with its 
 own cost, &c. In this case, however, it is necessary to 
 make a distinction between one quantity and another, as 
 the labour employed upon an equal quantity of stuff in 
 framing some parts of a roof is much greater than is re- 
 quired in most floors. Many things, such as strong door 
 and window frames, that are to be worked into the walls, 
 story-posts, brestsummers, &c. are always taken as framed 
 timber, with any addition that may occur of wrought, re- 
 bated, beaded, &c. as the case may be. 
 
 The price or value to be attached to the varieties of 
 carpenter’s work depends almost as much on the texture or 
 hardness of the timber employed, as on its cost. What the 
 timber itself should be charged at may be thus determin- 
 ed. To its price in the gross at the timber merchant’s 
 must be added the cost of carriage to the spot where it is 
 to be employed, which will be so much the load of fifty 
 cubic feet, or so much per foot ; then to the cost of each 
 cubic foot of timber add the price of four superficial feet 
 of sawing, which will form a fair average for the variously 
 sized scantlings, and one eighth of the increased amount 
 to it as an allowance for waste in cutting up and working. 
 
 This gives the actual cost, to the builder, of the timber as 
 it is worked up ; and if it is to be charged as with no la- 
 bour, his profit and a remuneration for his own labour of 
 superintending, &c. alone remain to be included. If, how- 
 ever, labour of any kind is to be charged with the stuff, it 
 should be added first, and the builder’s profit, &c. takeh 
 on both, or on the increased amount for the price per foot. 
 
 The cost of labour depends so much upon such a variety 
 of circumstances, that it is impossible to aid the inquirer 
 materially in apportioning prices for the various opera- 
 tions. In this, as in other things, it is well, when the 
 parties are not otherwise qualified to determine a scale of 
 charges, to observe the time a man or a certain number 
 of men are employed in executing so much work of a cer- 
 tain description, and compare the quantity by measure- 
 ment with the time employed in executing it, or rather 
 with the wages of the workmen for the time. In fixing a 
 price for labour in carpenter’s work, the size of the timbers, 
 and the heights they have to be hoisted, together with 
 such scaffolding and machinery for hoisting as may be found 
 necessary, if the timbers be heavy, and the height and ex- 
 pense great, must be considered. As the timber used in 
 shoring is not consumed, a charge is made for use and waste 
 to the amount of one third of its value if it be much cut up, 
 and one fourth if but little, in addition to the labour of set- 
 ting up and taking down, whatever that may be. 
 
Building. 
 
 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 97 
 
 Joiner . — The principles of joinery also will be found in 
 an article under that head in another part of this work ; 
 here ^e have merely to do with the modes of operation, 
 and the tools employed by the workman, together with the 
 manner of estimating or determining the value of his work. 
 
 The distinction between the operations of the carpen- 
 ter and the joiner is shown in the commencement of the 
 preceding section on the trade of the former. A man may 
 be a good carpenter without being a joiner at all; but he 
 cannot be a joiner without being competent, at least, to all 
 the operations required in carpentry. It is, indeed, very 
 truly remarked in the article Joinery, “ that the rough 
 labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree unfit 
 to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is 
 expected from a modern joiner but it is no less true that 
 the habit of neatness and the great precision of the joiner, 
 make him a much slower and less profitable workman than 
 the practised carpenter, in works of carpentry. 
 
 The joiner operates on battens, boards, and planks, with 
 saws, planes, chisels, gouges, hatchet, adze, gimblets and 
 other boring instruments, which are aided and directed by 
 chalked lines, gauges, squares, hammers, mallets, and a 
 great many other less important tools ; and his operations 
 are principally sawing and planing in all their extensive 
 varieties, setting out, mortising, dovetailing, &c. A great 
 range of other operations, none of which can be called un- 
 important, such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, 
 fixing, fitting, and hanging, and many things besides which 
 depend on nailing, &c. such as laying floors, boarding 
 ceiling, wainscotting walls, bracketing, cradling, fiering, 
 and the like. In addition to the wood on which the joiner 
 works, he requires also glue, nails, brads, screws, and 
 hinges, and accessorily he applies bolts, locks, bars, and 
 other fastenings, together with pulleys, lines, weights, 
 white-lead, holdfasts, wall-hooks, &c. &c. 
 
 Battens are narrow boards running from half an inch to 
 an inch and a half or two inches thick, and from three to 
 six or seven inches wide. A piece of stuff of too small a 
 scantling to be a batten is called a fillet. The term board 
 is applied to sawed stuff when its width exceeds that of a 
 batten, and its thickness does not exceed two inches or 
 two inches and a half. The term plank is applied to large 
 pieces of stuff whose width is great in proportion to their 
 thickness, and whose thickness nevertheless does not ex- 
 ceed three or four inches. In London these terms are 
 used in much more restricted senses than they are here 
 described to mean, because of the fixed and regular sizes 
 and forms in which stuff for the joiner’s use is for the most 
 part brought to market there. A batten, to a London 
 joiner, is a fine flooring board from an inch to an inch and 
 a half in thickness, and just seven inches wide. A board 
 is a piece cut from the thickness of a deal whose width is 
 exactly nine inches ; and every thing, almost, above that 
 width, and not large enough to be called a scantling of 
 timber, is a plank. 
 
 The joiners’ work for a house is for the most part pre- 
 pared at the shop, where every convenience may be sup- 
 posed to exist for doing every thing in the best and readi- 
 est manner; so that little remains to be done when the 
 carcass is ready, but fit, fix, and hang, that is, after the floors 
 are laid. The sashes and frames, the shutters, back flaps, 
 backs, backs and elbows, soffits, grounds, doors, &c. are all 
 framed and put together, that is, wedged up and cleaned 
 off, at the shop; the flooring boards are prepared, that is, 
 faced, shot, and gauged with a fillister rebate; and all the 
 architraves, pilasters, jamb linings, skirtings, mouldings, 
 &c. are all got out, that is, tried up, rebated, and moulded, 
 at the shop. 
 
 When the carcass of a building is ready for the joiner, 
 the first thing to be done is to cut the bond timber out of 
 
 the openings, set the sash frames, and fill them with old Building, 
 sashes or with oiled paper on frames, to exclude the 
 weather, but admit light. The flooring joists are then 
 proved with straight-edges, and any inequalities in them are 
 removed with the adze ; the flooring boards are next cut 
 down to their places, and they are turned with their faces 
 downwards until the ceilings are done; but first the pug- 
 ging floors, if any are intended, are formed, and the pugged 
 clay is put in on them. Floors are in ordinary cases either 
 straight joint or folding, and are edge or face nailed. 
 
 Folding floors are those in which three, four, or five boards 
 are laid at a time, with their heading joints all on the 
 same joist, and of course in the same straight line. In 
 laying them, one board being tirmly nailed to the joists at 
 the extremity of the floor, another is laid parallel to it at 
 the distance of the width of three or four others, or rather 
 within their width, and these are then forced down anct 
 nailed, the forcing having brought all the joints up close. 
 
 This is a bad mode, however, and should never be used. 
 
 Straight joint flooring is when every board is laid sepa- 
 rately, or one at a time, the heading joint or joints being 
 broken or covered regularly in every case. Straight joint 
 flooring may be with square joints, when it is entirely face 
 nailed, or it may be dowelled or tongued, when it is side or 
 edge nailed only. Dowelling is the driving pins of wood 
 or iron half their length into the edge of the last laid 
 board, the outer edge of which has been skew-nailed, their 
 other ends running into holes prepared for them in the 
 inner edge of the next board, in the way the head of a 
 cask is held together, and then its outer edge is skew- 
 nailed in the same manner, and so on. Tongueing is effect- 
 ed by grooving both edges of every board, and fitting thin 
 slips and tongues into them, as described in the article 
 Joinery. The boards are forced together by pressure 
 applied to the outer edge; wedges with iron dogs driven 
 into the joists are commonly used, but they are very ob- 
 jectionable instruments. The nail used in face-nailing 
 floors is called a flooring brad ; it has no head, but a mere 
 tongue projecting on one side of the top of the nail, which 
 is put in the direction of the grain, that it may admit of 
 being punched in below the surface level, otherwise the 
 superficial inequalities could not be reduced when the 
 floor was completed, because of the projecting heads of 
 the nails. For side or edge nailing, however, clasp-nails, 
 nails whose heads extend across on two of the opposite 
 sides, are used. 
 
 Another early operation the joiner has to attend to, is pj CXI. 
 the fixing of the framed door and window and the narrow 
 skirting grounds (see fig. 35) to which the plasterers may 
 float their work. The skirting grounds are generally dove- 
 tailed at the angles, and are well blocked out, so that they 
 may not vibrate on being struck, or yield to pressure when 
 the plasterer’s straight-edge passes roughly over their 
 surface; they must also be set with the utmost truth and 
 precision. When the floors are cut down and the grounds 
 fixed, the joiner’s operations in a building should be sus- 
 pended until the plasterers have finished, or nearly so, 
 and then the floors may be laid. By deferring this opera- 
 tion until that period, the workmen of the two different 
 trades are prevented from interrupting each other, and 
 indeed injuring each other’s work ; and joiners always find 
 employment in the shop preparing, as before intimated. 
 
 The preparation flooring boards receive, is planing on 
 the face, shooting on the edges, and gauging to a thick- 
 ness ; the common fillister, or stop rebate plane, being 
 used to work down to the gauge mark, from the back of 
 every board, and about half an inch in on each edge. When 
 a board is to be laid, it is turned on its face in the place it 
 is to occupy, and the workman with his adze cuts away 
 from the back over every joist down to the gauge rebate. 
 
98 BUI L 
 
 Building, so that on being turned over it falls exactly into its place, 
 
 W 'V' and takes the same level with all its fellows, which have 
 been brought to the same gauge ; then follows the process 
 of laying as before described, and the result must, if the 
 work be done well, be a perfectly even and level surface. 
 The slight inequalities of surface which may occur are 
 reduced with a smoothing-plane, the brads being previous- 
 ly punched below the surface if'the door be face-nailed. 
 See the article Joinery, sections 35 and 36. 
 
 In getting out skirtings, if the work be of a superior de- 
 scription, the boards should be tried up as if for framing 
 in every particular except bringing to a width, which need 
 not be done. The face edges, however, must be worked with 
 great precision, and moulded or rebated as tbe case may re- 
 quire. Rebating or tongueing will be necessary when the 
 skirting consists of more than one piece, that the different 
 pieces may be made to fit neatly and firmly together ; and 
 all but the lowest piece must of necessity be brought to a 
 width, as well as tried up in other particulars. A skirting 
 in a single width is called by that term; but when it is made 
 up of more than one part it is designated a base : the lowest 
 board is then called the skirting board, and the upper the 
 base moulding or mouldings. (Fig. 31 and 35.) The reason 
 why the skirting board is not brought to a width is, that 
 the labour would be lost according to the ordinary mode of 
 fixing it. The board is applied to its place with its lower 
 edge touching the floor ; but as the most perfectly wrought 
 floor will be likely to have some slight unevenness of surface 
 so close to the wall, a straight-edge would not fit closely 
 down it in every part. The board is therefore propped 
 up at one end or the other until the upper or faced edge 
 is perfectly parallel with the average line of the floor, or 
 rather to be perfectly level. A pair of strong compasses, 
 such as those used by the carpenter, is taken, and opened 
 to the greatest distance the lower edge of the skirting 
 board is from the floor throughout its length ; the outer 
 edge, near the point of one leg of the compasses, is then 
 drawn along the floor, whilst the point of the other, being 
 kept vertically above it, is pressed against the face of the 
 board, on which it marks a line exactly parallel to the sur- 
 face of the floor, indicating, of course, every, even the 
 slightest irregularity there may be in it. If the floor be 
 not a very uneven one, the excluded part may be ripped 
 off with the hand or the panel saw, which may generally 
 be made to follow the traced or inscribed line exactly ; 
 if, however, the line be a very irregular one, having quick 
 turns in it, the hatchet must be used. This operation is 
 called scribing , and the result of it is evidently to make 
 the skirting fit down on the floor with the utmost preci- 
 sion. Care must be taken, in performing the operation, 
 that the upper edges of the skirtings be not only level, 
 but that all which are in immediate connection be scribed 
 to an equal height, that their upper edges may exactly 
 correspond. Sometimes skirtings are let into a groove 
 in the floor, as indicated in the diagram, fig. 35, and thus 
 a slight degree of shrinking is made of less importance, 
 and scribing rendered unnecessary. Before skirtings are 
 fixed, vertical blocks are put at short intervals, extend- 
 ing from the floor to the narrow grounds, and made ex- 
 actly flush with and true to the latter, and are firmly 
 nailed. These form a sound backing, to which the skirt- 
 ings may be bradded or nailed; and so prevent them from 
 warping or bending in any manner. If, however, the 
 skirting be not very wide, and be sufficiently stout to 
 stand without a backing, a fillet only is nailed along the 
 floor as a stop for its lower edge ; but this is rendered un- 
 necessary if the skirting be tongued into the floor, as the 
 tongue will answer every purpose of a stop. The ends 
 of skirtings should be tongued into each other when it is 
 necessary to piece them in length ; and on returns or an- 
 
 D I N G. 
 
 gles the end of one should be tongued into the return- Building, 
 ed face of the other in the square parts, and mitred in the 
 oblique-angled or moulded. 
 
 When a chair-rail or surbase is required, grounds simi- 
 lar to those for the base are fixed to range like them with 
 the face of the plastering ; the surbase itself must be wide 
 enough to cover the grounds and the joints formed by 
 them and the plastering, completely ; it is in effect a cor- 
 nice to the stereobate and the space intervening it, and 
 the base is generally understood to be wainscotted, though 
 it is more frequently plastered. 
 
 In framing or framed work, the outer vertical bars which 
 are mortised are called styles ; and the transverse, those on 
 whose ends the tenons are formed, are called rails. (Fig. 32.) 
 
 In doors, particularly, the open spaces or squares formed 
 internally by the rails and styles are divided in the width 
 by bars parallel to the styles. These are tenoned into the 
 rails, and are called mountings, or, vulgarly, muntins. The 
 frame being formed by trying up, setting out, mortising, 
 and tenoning, the inner or face edges of the styles, and of 
 the highest and lowest rails, and both edges of the muntins 
 and of the inner rails, are grooved with the plough to receive 
 the edges and ends of the filling-in parts, or panels of the 
 frame-work. Panels are either flat, raised, or flush. (Fig. 
 
 33.) Flat panels are no thicker than the grooves into which 
 they are fitted, and consequently their faces are as much 
 below the surface of the framing as the groove is in from 
 each side of the styles and rails. Raised panels are thicker 
 than the groove in the framing, but are not so thick as to 
 reach the surface ; nor is the panel thickened through its 
 whole extent. It fits exactly into the groove, and thick- 
 ens gradually for an inch or two, and then sets off at a 
 right angle with the surface, increasing suddenly three or 
 four sixteenths of an inch. A panel may be raised on one 
 side only, or on both sides. Flush panels are rebated down 
 from one face to the distance the plough groove is in from 
 the surface of the framing ; and the back of a panel thus 
 rebated on one side is worked down to be even with the 
 other edge of the groove, leaving a tongue to fit it exactly ; 
 for if it be required to make panels flush on both sides, 
 it is generally effected by filling in on the back or flatten- 
 ed side with an extraneous piece. Framing is not, how- 
 ever, often finished in the manner above described, espe- 
 cially with raised and flush pannels ; mouldings are gene- 
 rally introduced, and are either struck or worked in the 
 solid substance of the framing, or in separate pieces or 
 slips, and laid in with brads. If a moulding be struck or 
 laid in on one side only, and the other is left plain, the 
 framing is described as moulded and square, a flat panel 
 being in that case understood ; if the panel be raised the 
 framing will be described as moulded with a raised panel 
 on one side, and square or flush the other. It may be 
 moulded with a flat panel, or moulded with a raised panel, 
 on both sides ; and the moulding may, as before intimated, 
 be either struck in the solid, or laid in in any of the pre- 
 ceding cases. Mouldings which are laid in round the 
 panels of framing are neatly mitred at the angles, and 
 bradded, to appear as much as possible as if they were 
 struck in the solid. In nailing or bradding the mouldings, 
 the brads should be driven into the frame-work, and not 
 into the panels. With a flush panel, however, the mould- 
 ing is always either a bead, or a series of beads called reeds; 
 and is, in the case of a single bead, which is most com- 
 mon, always struck on the solid frame, and the work is 
 called bead-flush ; but reeds are generally struck on the 
 panel in the direction of the grain, and laid in on the panel 
 across it, or along the ends ; this is termed reed-flush. Flush 
 panels in inferior works have a single bead struck on their 
 sides in the direction of the grain alone, the ends abutting 
 plainly, as in the first diagram of a flush panel, and this ia 
 
BUILDING, 99 
 
 Building, termed bead-butt, the fact that the panels are flush being 
 ‘-''A - '""'' inferred. The plainest quality of framing, in which it is 
 square on both sides, is used in the fittings of inferior 
 bed-rooms, inner closets, and the plainer domestic offices, 
 but always internally; framing moulded on one or both 
 sides, in rooms and places of a greater degree of import- 
 ance, and in places where the work may be more gene- 
 rally seen ; in some cases a flat panel may be enriched by 
 a small moulding laid on its surface, leaving a margin be- 
 tween it and the larger moulding at its extremities ; this 
 may be done in drawing-rooms and apartments of that 
 class, especially if they be in an upper story ; and raised 
 panels should be confined to the framed fittings of dining- 
 rooms and other apartments on a ground or principal story. 
 Framing with flush panels is almost restricted to external 
 doors, &c. one side of a door being bead-flush, and the 
 other flat and moulded, perhaps, or the face may be mould- 
 ed with a raised panel, and the back bead-flush ; and this for 
 principal entrances. Bead-butt framing is found in exter- 
 nal doors to offices, &c. Doors are made four panelled for 
 the most part when the panels are flat and the framing 
 square, six panelled when the latter is moulded, and six, 
 eight, or even ten panelled when the framing is of the su- 
 perior descriptions. Doors which are hung in two equal 
 widths to occupy the doorway, and are hung to the oppo- 
 site side posts or jambs of the frame, are said to be double 
 margined ; that is, the styles or margins are repeated ne- 
 cessarily in the middle where they meet. Doorways are 
 fitted with jamb linings, and architraves or pilasters. Jamb 
 linings may be framed to correspond with the door on the 
 outer faces ; and when they exceed nine or ten inches in 
 width they should always be so, or they may be solid. 
 Narrow and plain jamb linings to inferior rooms are re- 
 bated on one side only, and the rebate forms the frame 
 into which the door is fitted. To superior work they are 
 rebated on both sides, as if it were intended to put a door 
 on each side. The jambs are fixed to the inner edges of 
 the grounds; and if they are wide, and not framed, back- 
 ings are put across to stiffen them ; and these backings are 
 dovetailed into the edges of the grounds. Architraves and 
 pilasters are variously sunk and moulded, according to the 
 fancy of the designer. They are fixed to the grounds with 
 their internal edges exactly fitting to the rebates in the 
 jambs, and they form the enriched margin or moulding of 
 the frame in which the door is set. Architraves are mi- 
 tred at the upper angle, but pilasters have generally a con- 
 sole or an enriched block or cap resting on them, to which 
 they fit with a square joint; both the one and the other 
 either run down and are scribed to the floor, or rest on 
 squared blocks or bases, which may be the height of the 
 skirting board, or of the whole base. 
 
 The parts of the outside frame of a sash are distin- 
 guished by the terms applied to the similar parts of com- 
 , mon framing. The upright sides are styles, and the trans- 
 verse or horizontal ones, which are tenoned into the ends 
 of the styles, are rails; but the inner frame-work or divi- 
 sions for the panes are called merely upright and cross 
 bars ; the upright being the mortised, and the cross bars 
 the tenoned, nevertheless, as with the outer frame-work. 
 (Fg. 31.) Sashes are got out like common framing; the 
 parts are tried up, set out, mortised and tenoned, exactly 
 in the same manner, allowance being made in the length 
 of the rails and all tenoned pieces, in the setting out, as in 
 common framing also, for the portions of the mortised 
 styles and upright bars, which are worked away in forming 
 the moulding and rebate. The meeting rails of sashes 
 which are in pairs, to be hung with lines, are made thicker 
 than the other parts by the thickness of the parting bead, 
 and they are bevelled or splayed off, the one from above and 
 the other from below, that they may meet and fit closely. 
 
 When the frame-work is completed, although it cannot be Building, 
 put together because of what has just been referred to, 
 the rebate is formed by the sash fillister on the further 
 part of the face edge, and the moulding struck on its hither 
 angle. These things being done, the moulded edges are 
 either mitred or scribed at the shoulders and haunches, 
 and the sash may be put together. If sash bars are mi- 
 tred at the joints they require dowels in the cross bars to 
 act as tenons ; but if they can be scribed, dowelling is r.ot 
 required. Sashes are either fixed or hung with hinges, or 
 with lines, pulleys, and weights. Fixed sashes are put into 
 frames, of which every part may be solid but the stop, 
 which must be put in behind the sash to detain it. Sashes 
 hung with hinges require solid rebated frames; but there 
 can be no stops to them except their own movable fasten- 
 ings, and the outer stop, which of course the rebate fur- 
 nishes. Sashes hung with lines require cased frames to 
 receive the pulleys and weights. The sill of the frame is 
 made, as in the former cases, solid, is sunk and weathered, 
 and is generally made of a more durable material than the 
 rest of the frame ; the sides in the direction of the thick- 
 ness of the frame are of one and a quarter or one and a 
 half inch board, very truly tried up, and grooved to receive 
 a parting bead ; for it must be obvious that sashes hung 
 with lines to run vertically up and down within the height 
 of the frame must be themselves in two heights, and must 
 pass each other in two separate and distinct channels. The 
 ends of these boards are fixed into the upper face of the 
 solid sill below, and into a similar board parallel to the sill 
 which forms a head above, and they are called pulley pieces, 
 or styles, because they receive the pulleys, which are let 
 into them near their upper ends. Linings from four to six 
 inches in width, and from three fourths of an inch to an 
 inch in thickness, are nailed on to the edges of the pulley 
 pieces, and to the sill and head above and below, inside and 
 outside in the direction of the breadth of the sash frame, 
 and are returned along the head in the direction of its 
 length. The outside linings are made to extend within 
 the pulley pieces about half an inch, to form a stop for the 
 upper and outer sash ; and the inside linings are made 
 exactly flush with their inner faces. The casing is com- 
 pleted by fixing thin linings on to the outer edges of the 
 outside and inside linings, parallel to the pulley pieces, to 
 prevent any thing from impeding the weights. Thin slips 
 called parting beads are fitted tightly into the grooves 
 previously noticed in the pulley pieces, but they are not 
 fixed, as the upper sash can be put in or taken out only 
 by the temporary removal of the parting bead. An out- 
 er or stop bead is mitred round on the inside to complete 
 the groove or channel for the lower sash ; the stop bead 
 covers the edge of the inside linings on the sides and head, 
 and is fixed by means of screws, which may be removed 
 without violence when it is required to put in or take out 
 the sashes. A hole covered with a movable piece, large 
 enough to allow the lead or iron weight to pass in and out, 
 is made in each of the pulley pieces, so that the sashes may 
 be hung after the frames are set, and to repair any accident 
 that may occur to the hangings in after-use. (Fig. 34.) 
 
 It may be here remarked, that sash-frames require greater 
 truth and precision from the workman than any thing else in 
 the joiner’s work of a building ; and unless the stuff em- 
 ployed be quite sound and perfectly seasoned, all the work- 
 man’s care in operating will be thrown away. The fittings 
 of a window which has boxed shutters consist of back 
 linings, grounds, back, elbows and soffit, together with 
 shutters and back flaps, and architraves or pilasters round 
 on the inside to form a moulded frame. (Figs. 31 and 34.) 
 
 Back linings are generally framed with flush panels ; they 
 fit in between the inside lining of the sash frame and the 
 framed ground, to both of which they are attached, and 
 
100 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, form the back of the boxing into which the shutters fall 
 back. They are tongued into the inside lining by their inner 
 edge, and on their outer edge the ground is nailed, and they 
 are set at right angles to the sash-frame, or obtusely out- 
 wards, as the shutters may be splayed or not. The back is 
 the continuation of the window fittings from the sash-sill to 
 the floor on the inside ; the elbows are its returns on either 
 side under the shutters, and the soffit is the piece of 
 framing which extends from one side of the window to the 
 other, across the head, the width or extent of the shutters. 
 These are all framed to correspond with the shutters on 
 the face ; but, as they are fixed, their backs are left un- 
 wrought. Window shutters are framed in correspondence 
 with the door and other framed work of the room to which 
 they belong, in front, and generally with a flush panel be- 
 hind : the back flaps are in one or two separate breadths 
 to each shutter, according to the width of the window and 
 the depth of the recess; they are made lighter than the 
 shutters themselves ; and they should, when shut to, pre- 
 sent faces exactly corresponding with those of the shut- 
 ters, both internallyand externally. The shutters are hung 
 to the sash-frame with butt hinges, and the back flaps are 
 hung to their outer styles with a hinge called a back flap, 
 from its use. The shutters and their back flaps are hung 
 in one, two, or more heights, as maybe found convenient. 
 The moulded margin round the boxings of a window on 
 the inner face are made to harmonize generally with the 
 similar parts of the doors of the room or place to which it 
 belongs. The fixing and hanging of window fittings or 
 dressings are hardly less important, for the accuracy re- 
 quired, than the making and fixing of the sash-frame itself; 
 the slightest infirmity or inaccuracy in any part will be 
 likely to derange some important operation. Sashes, it may 
 be remarked, are never fitted until the frames are immov- 
 ably fixed, so that if there be any inaccuracy in the latter, 
 the sashes are cut away or pieced out to make them fit ; 
 but, as they are intended to traverse, the fitting in that case 
 can only apply to one particular position, and in every one 
 but that there must be something wrong. Any incorrect- 
 ness in the sash-frame, again, must throw the shutters 
 and their back flaps out; indeed the sash-frame, though 
 apparently a secondary part of the arrangement, is that 
 which affects all the rest beyond anything else. When 
 sashes have been fitted, a plough groove, wide and d&ep 
 enough to receive the sash-line, is made in the outer edges 
 of the styles, for about two thirds of their length, at their 
 upper ends. They are then primed and glazed, and when 
 the putty is sufficiently set the joiner hangs them. He 
 is furnished with sash-line, tacks, and iron or lead weights, 
 which are generally made cylindrical, with a ring at one 
 end, to which the line may be attached. A sash is weighed, 
 and two weights are selected which together amount to 
 
 within a few ounces of the same gravity. The line is then 
 passed through the pulley, which was previously fixed in 
 the pulley style ; the end is knotted to a weight which is 
 passed in at the hole left for the purpose, and at a suffi- 
 cient distance, which a common degree of intelligence will 
 readily determine; the line is cut off and the end tacked 
 into tlie groove in the style of the sash. 
 
 Glue is used principally in putting framed work toge- 
 ther, but not at all in fixing ; and even for the former pur- 
 pose it is much less used by good workmen than by infe- 
 rior ones. When the stuff is well seasoned, and the trying 
 up, setting out, mortising, and tenoning, are well and ac- 
 curately executed, there is no necessity for glue on the 
 tenons and shoulders ; the wedges alone need be glued, to 
 attach them to the sides of the tenons, that their effect 
 may not depend on mere compression. Joiners are gene- 
 rally furnished with a cramp, with which to force the 
 joints of framing into close contact; it is either of wood 
 
 acting by means of wedges, or of iron with a screw. This, Building, 
 too, is unnecessary with good work, every joint of which v — 
 may be brought perfectly close without great violence of 
 any kind. The cramp will sometimes give bad work the 
 semblance of good, but it cannot make it really so. If 
 any cracking and starting be heard in the joiners work of 
 a new building, it generally indicates one of two things; 
 either the cramp has been required in putting the fram- 
 ing together, or, having been put together, it has been 
 forced out of winding in fixing, and the constrained fibres 
 are seeking to regain their natural position. A good 
 workman does not require a cramp, nor will his work, if 
 he has been supplied with seasoned stuff, ever require to 
 be strained ; and consequently the cracking and starting 
 of joiner’s work indicates unfit stuff or bad work, or per- 
 haps both. It is true that glued joints will sometimes fly ; 
 but when they do, there need be no hesitation in deter- 
 mining the presence of both bad work, and stuff' in an 
 improper state. 
 
 Floors are measured and valued by the square of a 
 hundred superficial feet ; but any thing beyond the mere 
 flooring, such as the mitred borders generally put as a 
 margin to the stone slab of a fire-place, is taken extra by 
 the foot superficial, or running, as the additional work may 
 be above or below three inches in width. The first im- 
 portant thing to note in measuring a floor is the thickness 
 of the boards, by which to determine the cost of the prin- 
 cipal material. A floor of boards unplaned on the face, 
 and shot on the edges, laid folding, is the roughest that 
 can be supposed; with the boards wrought or planed on 
 the face, and laid in the same manner, will be the next in 
 advance; and straight joint flooring, in all its varieties, is 
 the most troublesome, and consequently the most expen- 
 sive in common and general use. Whether the boards be 
 wide or narrow is a consideration to be noted, an equal 
 surface being of course more rapidly covered with wide 
 than with narrow boards ; whether they be gauged, and if 
 brought to a thickness throughout, or only rebate gauged, 
 and cut down on the joints with the adze; in what man- 
 ner the heading joints are formed and secured ; how the 
 longitudinal joints are executed, whether square, plough- 
 ed and tongued, or dowelled ; and whether the boards are 
 face or edge nailed. Solid frames, as for outside doors, 
 
 &c. are measured and valued by the cubic foot, labour 
 being calculated upon the stuff according to the nature 
 and extent of what may have been applied to it. 
 
 With trifling and unimportant exceptions, every thing 
 else in joiner’s work that exceeds three inches in width 
 is taken by the superficial foot ; and the dimensions are 
 taken on the finished and fixed work, so that allowances 
 must be made for whatever waste may have been of neces- 
 sity made. The stuff worked up by the joiner is always 
 supposed to have been in planks and boards a certain 
 number of quarters of an inch in thickness, so that what- 
 ever the finished work may stand, it is taken as of the thick- 
 ness which in quarters of an inch it is next below ; thus, 
 if the styles of a door stand at even less than an inch and 
 seven eighths, it is taken as a two-inch door; for a piece 
 of framing is always considered to be of the thickness of 
 its outer frame-work, the description determining the sub- 
 stance of the panels. Framed grounds are measured round 
 on the outside for the length ; their width is not that of 
 the frame, but of the styles and head as they actually are ; 
 and their thickness that of the stuff before it was planed 
 at all. NarroAv grounds are taken by the foot running, 
 their width being noted in the description of them. Jamb 
 linings are measured to the full length they may be of by 
 their width, the thickness being noted, together with a 
 description of the work on them, — if they are single or 
 double rebated, if framed, and in what manner, &c. 
 
BUIL 
 
 Building. The dimensions of a door are generally taken within the 
 
 '“"“'/“""■''rebates in which it is to hang, with its thickness and de- 
 scription noted, — as of four, six, or eight panels, mould- 
 ed on one or both sides, with flat or raised panels, &c. ; 
 if it be double margined, that is stated, and the amount 
 of the lap or rebate in their meeting styles is added to the 
 width, to increase the superficies by so much. The hinges 
 with which a door is hung, and the lock or other fasten- 
 ings which may be on it, are taken, with a description of 
 their sizes and qualities, immediately after the door itself. 
 If sashes are in a solid frame they are taken alone, but 
 sashes in cased frames are measured in and with the 
 frames. To the clear height between the sill and the 
 head, three inches are added for the thickness of the sill, 
 and four inches for the depth of the case at the head, for 
 the height; and to the width between the pulley-styles is 
 added eight, nine, or ten inches, as the case may be, for 
 the breadth of the casing on each side, for the width; 
 these give the superficies of the sashes and frame. The 
 sashes and frame are described, with the thickness of the 
 former, which determines that of the latter ; the sill is 
 described as sunk or merely weathered ; the pulley-styles 
 as of such a thickness ; the pulleys, line, and stuff employ- 
 ed in the different parts of the frame as of such and such 
 qualities and sorts ; and whether the sashes be single or 
 double hung, with what fastenings, &c. The boxings for 
 the shutters are taken in a superficial quantity, as square 
 or splayed, if circular on plan, whether with a flat or 
 quick sweep, or if circular headed, and straight on plan. 
 The back linings, the backs, elbows, and soffits, the shut- 
 ters and the back flaps, are all measured by the super- 
 ficial foot, according to their thicknesses and descriptions, 
 the hinges and fastenings of the shutters and back flaps 
 being numbered and noted independently of them. The 
 capping to backs is taken by the running foot ; and elbow 
 cappings are numbered. Moulded architraves are taken 
 superficially, the length by their girt, or by the run at 
 such a girt. Skirtings are measured superficially at such 
 a thickness, as scribed or tongued, as square or moulded, 
 or rebated for base moulding, as the case may be. Base 
 and surbase, and indeed all other moulding which girds at 
 four inches and above, should be taken superficially; and 
 mouldings which are of less girt may be taken by the run 
 if they be taken independently of the other work, or that 
 to which they belong, at all. A moulding projecting from 
 the face of the work to which it belongs may be assumed 
 as independent of it ; whereas a receding one, if it be small, 
 will merely add the character of moulded to the work, 
 and if large will qualify all in immediate connection with 
 it to be taken as a superficial quantity of moulding. All 
 circular work, or work which diverges from a straight line, 
 is noted and charged proportionally to the additional la- 
 bour and waste of stuff involved ; the shorter the radius 
 of the arc, or quicker the sweep, the higher must be the 
 proportioned charge. Things which have been bent to 
 their fleeted form are less costly in proportion than those 
 which must have been worked in the solid or glued up in 
 thicknesses. 
 
 Stairs are measured by the superficial foot, the length 
 of one step being taken by the breadth of a step and riser, 
 increased by once the thickness of the former for a quantity, 
 and this multiplied by the number of steps there may be of 
 the same kind ; that is, when the steps are flyers ; for in 
 winding steps the treads and risers are taken in separate 
 dimensions, for greater accuracy. The thicknesses of the 
 steps and risers are noted, as well as the mode in which 
 they are worked ; they have either rounded or moulded nos- 
 ings, are housed into the string, or have returned nosings, 
 the riser being mitred to the string or to cut brackets on 
 the ends of the steps. Curtail ends to steps are numbered. 
 
 DING. 101 
 
 The frame-work or bearers on which the stairs rest is in- Building, 
 eluded with the stairs themselves. String-boards are taken 
 according to their thickness and the quantity of work on 
 them ; the grooves or housings in them are numbered. 
 
 The capping on a close string is taken by the run ; but 
 when the nosings of the steps are returned, the strings 
 are said to be cut ; and if there are any cut and mitred 
 blocks, they are numbered. Stair skirting is taken as 
 raking and scribed, and as straight, circular, ramped, or 
 wreathed, by the foot superficial ; wooden balusters are 
 taken by the run, and the mortises or dovetails in which 
 they are set are numbered ; newels are taken by the run 
 for the stuff and the fixing, and the turnings on them are 
 numbered. Hand-rails are said to be merely rounded, or 
 moulded ; they are measured by the running foot ; and a 
 distinction is kept up between the straight, the circular, 
 the ramps, the wreaths, and the scroll ; nuts and screws 
 in their joints are numbered. 
 
 All sortS of framing, whether it be fixed or hung — all 
 linings above three inches in width — all sorts of ledged 
 work, such as plain doors and shutters, partitions in lofts 
 and stables, bracketing, cradling, &c. — must be measured 
 superficially. All narrow linings, very narrow skirtings, 
 staff beads, fillets, water trunks and spouts, legs, rails, 
 and runners to dressers, groovings, flutings, reedings, cap- 
 pings, &c. and any work on superficial quantities that 
 does not pervade the whole, but is in itself peculiar, should 
 be taken lineally, or by the running foot. Insulated parts, 
 such as short, interrupted grooves, blocks, pateras, brack- 
 ets, trusses, cantilevers, holes, mortises for articles taken 
 lineally, mitres to cornices, heads and feet to flutes and 
 reeds, &c. are numbered and charged at so much a piece. 
 Ironmongery goods employed by the joiner are numbered 
 under their different heads, and charged as fixed ; that is, 
 to the price of a lock is added a charge for the labour 
 employed in fitting and fixing it, and whatever accessories 
 it may have required which are not included in its own 
 cost, such as screws, &c. to a rim or dead lock. To the 
 price of hinges, however, only the cost of screws should 
 be added, as the fixing of them is usually included in hang- 
 ing the work to which they are attached. 
 
 The cost at which joiners’ work can be executed can only 
 be determined by calculation and observation. The cost of 
 the materials employed may be readily determined by dis- 
 secting a piece of work and reckoning its contents ; but the 
 labour depends on so many contingencies, that very accu- 
 rate observation indeed is necessary to determine the quan- 
 tity that may have been required to produce a certain re- 
 sult. In carpenters’ work, the material forms the principal 
 part of the charge ; but in joiners’ work the materials are for 
 the most part of far less importance than the labour which 
 has been expended on them. The stuff employed in a 
 sash must be costly indeed to amount to as much as the 
 labour of making the sash ; whereas, in most doors, under 
 ordinary circumstances, the materials may cost as much 
 as the labour. 
 
 Sawyer . — The labour of the sawyer is applied to the 
 division of large pieces of timber or logs into forms and 
 sizes to suit the purposes of the carpenter and joiner. His 
 working place is called a saw-pit, and his almost only im- 
 portant tool a pit-saw. A cross-cut saw, axes, dogs, files, 
 compasses, lines, lamp-black, black-lead, chalk, and a rule, 
 are all accessories which may be considered necessary to 
 him. 
 
 Unlike most other artificers, the sawyer can do abso- 
 lutely nothing alone : sawyers are therefore always in 
 pairs ; one of the two stands on the work, and the other in 
 the pit under it. The log or piece of timber being care- 
 fully and firmly fixed on the pit, and lined for the cuts 
 which are to be made in it, the top-man standing on it, 
 
102 
 
 BUILDING. 
 
 Building, and the pit-man below or off from its end, a cut is com- 
 Y-x— menced, the former holding the saw with his two hands 
 by the handle above, and the other in the same manner 
 by the box handle below. The attention of the top-man 
 is directed to keeping the saw in the direction of and out 
 of winding with the iine to be cut upon, and that of the 
 pit-man to cut down in a truly vertical line. The saw 
 being correctly entered, very little more is required than 
 steadiness of hand and eye in keeping it correctly on 
 throughout the whole length. It is the custom to project 
 so much of the log over the first transverse bearer as can 
 be done without rendering it liable to vibrate or be inse- 
 cure; and when all the cuts proposed are advanced up to 
 that bearer, the end is slightly raised to allow the bearer 
 to be passed out beyond the termination of the advanced 
 cuts. The advantage of, or rather the necessity for, the 
 movable handle at the lower end of the saw is now evi- 
 dent, the top-man removing the saw readily from cut to cut 
 from above, his mate having merely to strike the wedge 
 in the box one way or the other, to fix or loosen it. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that the top-man should stand 
 in such a manner on the log or piece operated on, that a 
 line down the centre of his body shall fall exactly upon 
 the line of the cut he is to work on, and be as exactly per- 
 pendicular to it and to the plane of the horizon. He must, 
 therefore, when the cut is near the outer edge, be pro- 
 vided with a board or plank, one end of which may rest on 
 something firm at a short distance from the log, and the 
 other on or against it, to put the outer foot on, and so keep 
 himself in such a position that he may always, and with- 
 out constraint, see his saw out of winding, and so that a 
 spectator standing on the fore end of the pit may see the 
 saw an imaginary line passing down the centre of the 
 workman’s body, and the line of the cut in exactly the 
 same vertical plane. The labour of the top-sawyer should 
 consist solely in lifting the saw up by the handle as high 
 as his arms can carry it, and that of the pit-man in draw- 
 ing it down with a slight pressure or tendency onward, 
 sufficient to make it bite into the timber as much as his 
 strength will enable him to make it cut away. The only 
 assistance the pit-man should give in lifting the saw is in 
 holding it back that the teeth may not drag against the 
 cut in the ascent; and all the top-man should do in cut- 
 ting downward is to keep the teeth steadily and firmly in 
 contact with the part to be eroded. Good workmen may 
 work with a narrower or closer set to their saw than bad 
 ones can, though the wider or more open set saw is more 
 liable to make bad work. It works more slowly and con- 
 sumes more stuff than the close set; but it is not so likely 
 to hang in the cut with the unnecessary pushing up of the 
 pit-man and jerking down of the other, as if it were set 
 more closely. A good top-man, nevertheless, is of much 
 more importance, though he be badly mated, than the con- 
 verse. Indeed the best possible pit-man could not work 
 satisfactorily with a bad top-man, and therefore the latter 
 is always considered the superior workman, and on him 
 devolves the care of sharpening and setting the saw, &c. 
 In the operations of the carpenter and joiner much de- 
 pends on the manner in which the sawyers have perform- 
 ed their part. The best work on the part of the carpenter 
 cannot retrieve the radical defects in his materials from 
 bad sawing; and although the joiner need not allow his 
 work to suffer, bad sawing causes him great loss of stuff 
 and immense additional and otherwise unnecessary labour. 
 Planks or boards, and scantlings, on coming from the saw- 
 pit, should be as straight and true in every particular, ex- 
 cept mere smoothness of surface, as if they had been tried 
 up on the joiner’s bench ; and good workmen actually pro- 
 duce them so. Saw-mills, too, by the truth and beauty 
 with which they operate, show the sawyer what may be 
 
 effected ; for though he can hardly hope to equal their 
 effect, he may seek to approach it. 
 
 Sawyers’ work is valued at so much the hundred super- 
 ficial feet ; the sawing on a board or squared scantling 
 being once its length, by a side and an edge, or half the 
 amount of its four sides. In squared timber, however, it 
 is generally valued at so much per load of fifty cubic feet, 
 four cuts to the load, any cuts exceeding that number 
 being paid for at so much per hundred feet ; in this case 
 the length of the cut by its depth gives the superficial 
 quantity of sawing in it. Pieces again of determined and 
 equal length and breadth, such as the deals and planks 
 commonly used for joiners’ work in this country, admitting 
 of a regulated scale, the sawing that may be required in 
 them is valued at so much the dozen cuts. 
 
 Modeller . — The modeller copies, in a solid material, the 
 drawings of designs which may have been prepared for 
 enrichments, in whatever material they are to be cast, 
 whether in plaster, in metals, or in composition of any 
 kind, for the plasterer, smith, or decorator. The model is 
 made in a finely tempered and plastic clay, or in wax ; and 
 the modeller works with his fingers, assisted by a few ivory 
 or bone tools for finishing off neatly and sharply, and for 
 working in parts which he cannot reach with his fingers. 
 He is generally the best workman who can do most to- 
 wards producing the required forms with his fingers un- 
 assisted by artificial tools, as a greater degree of ease and 
 freedom almost always results from the use of the hands 
 alone. The model being completed, it is moulded, that 
 is, moulds are made fitting it exactly in every part, and 
 fitting exactly to each other at the edges, and in these, 
 casts are made to any extent that may be required. 
 
 The modeller having some pretensions to be considered 
 an artist rather than a mere artificer, he is for the most 
 part paid according to his merits as such, rather than for 
 so much time, according to the ordinary mode of deter- 
 mining the value of artificers’ works. 
 
 Carver and Gilder . — The carver is strictly an indepen- 
 dent artist, whose business it is to cut ornaments and en- 
 richments in solid and durable material, such as wood and 
 stone, so that, like the modeller, he must be paid accord- 
 ing to the taste and power he may exhibit in his works, 
 rather than as a common artificer. Carving has, however, 
 been in a great measure superseded by modelling and 
 casting, so that the carver is hardly known in economic 
 building except in connection with the gilder. Gilding 
 ■may indeed be applied to castings as well as to carvings ; 
 but the former being, almost as a matter of course, less 
 sharp and spirited in their flexures and details, as well as 
 less firm in substance than the latter, castings can less bear 
 to be further subdued by the application of foreign matters 
 to their surfaces than carvings may. 
 
 Gilding is the application of gold leaf to surfaces, which 
 require, however, to be previously prepared for its recep- 
 tion. The work is first primed with a solution of boiled 
 linseed oil and carbonate of lead, and then covered with 
 a fine glutinous composition called gold size, on which, 
 when it is nearly dry, the gold leaf is laid in narrow slips 
 with a fine brush, and pressed down with a piece of cotton 
 wool held in the fingers. As the slips must be made to 
 overlap each other slightly, to insure the complete cover- 
 ing of the whole surface, the loose edges will remain un- 
 attached ; these are readily struck off with a large sable 
 or camel-hair brush, fitted for the purpose ; and the joints, 
 if the work be dexterously executed, will be invisible. 
 This is called oil gilding, and it is by far the best fitted 
 for the enrichment of surfaces in architecture, because it 
 is durable, and is easily cleaned, and does not destroy or 
 derange the forms under it so much as burnished gilding 
 does. This latter requires the work to be covered with 
 
 Building. 
 
U I L D I N 
 
 103 
 
 Budding. various laminsE of gluten, plaster, and bole, which last is 
 mixed with gold size, to procure the adhesion of the leaf. 
 The most durable mode of gilding metals in common use 
 is by amalgamation. 
 
 The surfaces generally operated on by the gilder are so 
 diverse, that the real value of his work can be determined 
 satisfactorily only by taking his time and the materials 
 employed and consumed in executing a piece of work. 
 
 Plumber. — Lead, as the name imports, is the material 
 in and with which the plumber operates. The previous 
 preparation, casting and milling of lead into sheets, pipes, 
 &c. and the composition and uses of solder, will be found 
 described under the head Plumbery. 
 
 The principal operations of the plumber are directed to 
 the covering of roofs and flats, laying gutters, covering 
 hips, ridges, and valleys, fixing water trunks, making cis- 
 terns and reservoirs, and laying on the requisite pipes and 
 cocks to them, fixing water-closet apparatus, setting up 
 pumps, and applying indeed all the hydraulic machinery 
 required in economic building. His tools are knives, chisels, 
 and gouges for cutting and trimming, rasps or files and 
 planes for fitting and jointing, a dressing and flatting tool 
 for the purposes its name expresses, iron hammers and 
 wooden mallets for driving and fixing, ladles in which to 
 melt solder, grozing irons to assist in soldering, a hand- 
 grate or stove which may he conveniently moved from 
 place to place, for melting solder and heating the grozing 
 irons, a stock and bits for boring holes, and a rule, com- 
 passes, lines and chalk for setting out and marking, together 
 with weighing apparatus, as the quantities of most of the 
 materials used by the plumber must he either proved or 
 determined by weight. A plumber is always attended by 
 a labourer, who does the more laborious work of carrying 
 the materials from place to place, helps to move them 
 when they are under operation, melts the solder and heats 
 the grozing irons, attends to hold the one or the other, as 
 neither may be set down or put out of hand when in use, 
 and assists in some of the minor and coarser operations. 
 In boarding roofs, flats, and gutters for lead, clasp-nails 
 or flooring brads should be used; and the first care of the 
 plumber should be to punch them all in from an eighth to 
 a quarter of an inch below the surface, and stop the holes 
 carefully and completely with putty, or a chemical process 
 will ensue on the slightest access of moisture if the iron 
 heads of the nails come in contact with the lead, and the lat- 
 ter will, in the course of no long period, be completely perfo- 
 rated over every one of them. Neither should lead in sur- 
 faces of any extent be soldered, or in any manner fastened 
 at the edges, without being turned up so as to make suffi- 
 cient allowance for the expansion and contraction which 
 it is constantly undergoing during the various changes in 
 the temperature of the atmosphere. It may be taken, in- 
 deed, as a general rule, that solder should be dispensed 
 1 with as much as possible. Like glue to the joiner, it is 
 indispensable in many cases ; but like glue also, it is in 
 ■ common practice made to cover many defects, and much 
 bad work, that ought not to exist. 
 
 Sheet lead, whether cast or milled, is supplied of va- 
 rious weight or thickness; and it is always described as 
 of such a weight in pounds to the superficial foot. This 
 varies from four to ten or twelve, so that the weight to 
 the foot being ascertained, the whole weight of any quan- 
 tity of the same thickness may be determined by admea- 
 surement. There are very few purposes, indeed, in build- 
 ing, in which lead of less than six pounds to the foot 
 should be used, and very few in which the weight need 
 to exceed ten. For roofs, flats, and gutters, under or- 
 dinary circumstances, eight-pounds lead is a very fair 
 and sufficient average; for hips and ridges, lead of six 
 pounds to the foot is thick enough ; and for flashings five- 
 
 pound lead need not be objected to. Cast lead is to be Building, 
 preferred for the former purposes, because its surface is 
 harder, and it is somewhat less susceptible of meteoric 
 vicissitudes than milled ; but the latter bends better, and, 
 presenting a neater appearance, may be preferred for hips, 
 ridges, flushings, &c. As the sheets are generally made 
 of limited length and breadth, the cast being about six- 
 teen or eighteen feet, and the milled from the latter di- 
 mension to twenty-five feet in length, and the one and 
 the other seldom exceeding six feet wide, to avoid solder- 
 ing, the lateral joints are made on rolls, and longitudinally 
 in falls or drips. A roll is a piece of wood made about 
 two inches thick and two or three inches wide, rounded 
 on one edge, and fixed with that edge uppermost, so as to 
 come a few inches within the width of a sheet of lead, 
 that the edges may be turned up and folded round and 
 over it, being lapped by, or lapping the similar edge of the 
 adjoining sheet, (Fig. 37.) Lead sufficiently stout, dressed 
 neatly and closely down to the boards under it, and over 
 the rolls at its edges, will require no fastening of any kind, 
 unless it lie on a very inclined plane, and have no stop be- 
 low. Rolls occur for the most part in roofs and flats, and 
 drips principally in gutters. The drip is formed in the 
 first instance by the carpenter in laying the gutter boards 
 according to an arrangement with the plumber. It is a 
 difference made in the height of the gutter of about three 
 inches, where one sheet terminates in length, and meets 
 another in continuation. The end of the lower is turned 
 up against the drip, and that of the upper is dressed 
 down over it, so as effectually to prevent water from driv- 
 ing under it. Gutters should have a current of at least 
 a quarter of an inch to the foot, and in flats it should not 
 be much less ; ends and sides which are against a wall 
 should turn up against it from five to seven inches, ac- 
 cording to the circumstances ; and the turning up under 
 the slates, tiles, or other roof covering, to a gutter, should 
 be to the level of that against the wall at the least. The 
 turning up against the wall should be covered by a flash- 
 ing. This is a piece of lead let into one of the joints of 
 the wall above the edge of the gutter lead, and dressed 
 neatly down over, to prevent water from getting in behind 
 it. (Fig. 36.) Lead on ridges and hips not being in suffi- 
 cient masses to be secured by its own weight, must be se- 
 cured by nails. 
 
 In making cisterns and reservoirs, unless they be cast, 
 the sheets of lead must of necessity be joined by solder- 
 ing; but the water they are intended to contain protects 
 the lead from the frequent and sudden changes it is in 
 the other more exposed situations subjected to. 
 
 Water trunks and pipes are made of a certain number 
 of pounds weight to the yard in length, to every variety 
 of bore or calibre that can be required. Water trunks or 
 pipes are fitted with large case heads above, to receive 
 the water from the gutter spouts, and with shoes to de- 
 liver the water below ; they are fixed or attached to the 
 walls of buildings with flan ches of lead, which are secured 
 by means of spike nails. Service and waste pipes to cis- 
 terns, &c. are generally supported and attached by means 
 of iron holdfasts. 
 
 Plumbers’ work is for the most part estimated by the 
 hundredweight of a hundred and twelve pounds, though 
 there are of course many things which must be taken in 
 detail, by the pound weight, by number, and even by size. 
 
 It has been already shown in what manner the quantity 
 of lead consumed may be determined, whether it be in 
 sheets or in pipes ; the weight per superficial foot of the 
 one, and per lineal foot or yard of the other, being known, 
 and it is always ascertainable, the dimensions of the vari- 
 ous parts or portions of the work readily give the total 
 amount in hundredweights or tons. The waste of lead 
 
104 B U I L 
 
 Building, in working is very trifling, as cuttings all go to the melt- 
 mg pot again with little or no loss but that of refounding 
 or casting ; and even old lead is taken by the lead mer- 
 chant in exchange for new, at a very trifling allowance 
 for tare and the cost of re-working. Water closet appa- 
 ratus, pumps, cocks, bosses, ferules, washers, valves, balls, 
 grates, traps, funnels, &c. can all readily be counted and 
 noted according to their sizes and peculiarities; and so 
 may the various requisite joints in pipes, and attachments 
 of cocks, &c. to the pipes, which must also be taken in 
 addition to the articles themselves. The prices of all 
 these goods, from the sheets of lead and the pipes, to the 
 smallest articles used by the plumber, may be ascertained 
 from the wholesale merchants and manufacturers ; an ad- 
 dition of thirty per cent, to these prime costs will, under 
 ordinary circumstances, afford the builder or tradesman 
 an ample profit, and payment, with sufficient profit on 
 them also, for labour, solder, and nails, excepting cost of 
 carriage, and any other contingent expense, which must 
 be added to the gross. The materials may, however, be 
 taken with a recognized profit added to the prime costs 
 and the actual labour expended ; and solder and nails work- 
 ed up may be reckoned from observation, or account kept 
 of the workmen's time, &c. 
 
 These things are mentioned more particularly, because 
 a nefarious custom has obtained in this country, and is 
 still allowed to a very great extent, by which the plumber 
 is permitted to take not only an extortionate profit on his 
 goods, but actually to charge twice for labour and the ac- 
 cessories. There is nothing more common than to find in 
 a plumber’s account a charge for lead (meaning sheet-lead) 
 and labour, at so much per hundredweight, — charges for 
 pipe of a certain bore or diameter at so much per foot, — for 
 so many joints in pipe of such a size, — that is, for the labour 
 and solder consumed and expended in making them, — and 
 so on through all sorts of things, the account winding up 
 at length, or being interspersed from time to time, with 
 so many pounds or hundredweights of solder, and so many 
 days’ work of plumber and labourer ! The now prevalent 
 custom of artificers’ work being done by general builders 
 by tender and contract, has considerably lessened the in- 
 jury to the public from this abuse, and proved it to be 
 really so by the moderate profits the same men will con- 
 tent themselves with if they make a tender, who ^ould 
 persist in charging at the old rate if they were instructed 
 to do the work without being bound by a contract. Such 
 too is the effect of custom on the courts of justice in 
 England, that the abuse referred to has been protected by 
 them, and probably would be so still, because it was the 
 custom and had been allowed ! 
 
 Smith and Founder . — The goods supplied by the smith 
 are charged by the pound according to the quantity of 
 labour on them, and the founder has generally an average 
 charge for iron castings at so much per hundredweight or 
 per ton. The working up or fitting and fixing of iron-work 
 devolves for the most part on the carpenter in whose 
 favour it is taken, generally however, in combination with 
 some of his own peculiar works. 
 
 Glazier . — The business of the glazier may be confined 
 to the mere fitting and setting of glass ; even the cutting of 
 the plates up into squares being generally an independent 
 art, requiring a degree of tact and judgment not neces- 
 sarily possessed by the building artificer. (See the arti- 
 cles Glass, Manufacture of, and Glass-Cutting.) The 
 glazier is supplied with a diamond cutting tool, laths or 
 straight-edges of various lengths, a square, a glazing-knife, 
 a hacking-knife, hammer, duster, sash-tool, and rule ; and 
 his materials are simply glass, putty, and priming or paint. 
 
 The glass is supplied by the glass-cutter in squares or 
 panes, of the sizes and qualities required for the parti- 
 
 I) 1 N G. 
 
 cular work to be executed. The putty is made by the Building, 
 glazier himself or by a labourer, of fine clean powdered 
 chalk or whitening, and linseed oil, well mixed and com- 
 bined, and kneaded to the consistence of dough. No more 
 putty should be made at once than is likely to be worked 
 up in the course of a day, as, the oil drying out, it becomes 
 hard and partially set, and is therefore less available for 
 its purposes. Priming is a thin solution of white, with a 
 little red, lead in linseed oil. When the sashes come to 
 the glazier from the joiner, they have been fitted into their 
 places, and only require to be glazed before they may be 
 permanently set or hung. Supposing that no preliminary 
 process is required, such as stopping (the result of bad 
 joiner’s work) and knotting (and knotty stuff' should not 
 be admitted in sashes), the sashes require to be primed. 
 
 The priming is laid on every part of the sash except the 
 outer edges of the styles and of the bottom and top rails, 
 with the sash tool or painting brush, that is, if the sashes 
 are intended to be painted; for if not, the rebates only must 
 be primed. The object of this is to prepare the material 
 of which the sash is composed for the reception of the putty, 
 which would not otherwise attach itself so readily as it does 
 after this preparation. The priming being sufficiently dry, 
 the workman cuts the panes of glass down into their places, 
 making every one fall readily into the rebates without bind- 
 ing in any part ; indeed the glass should fit so nicely as not 
 to touch the wood with its edges any where, and yet hard- 
 ly allow a fine point to pass between it and the sash-bar or 
 rebate, the object being to encase it completely in putty, 
 and yet that the putty should not be in greater quantity 
 than is absolutely necessary. The glass being fitted or 
 cut down, the workman takes the glazing-knife in his right 
 hand, and a lump of putty in the palm of his left, the sash 
 being laid on its face, that is, with the rebates upward, be- 
 fore him ; with the knife he lays a complete bedding of 
 putty on the returning narrow stops of the rebates, all 
 round to every pane. This being done, the panes of glass 
 are put in on it as they have been fitted, and every one 
 is carefully rubbed down with the fingers, forcing the putty 
 out below and around the edges of the glass, until they are 
 nearly brought into contact with the wood or other mate- 
 rial of the sash. The rebates are then filled in with putty 
 behind, the mass forming exactly a right-angled triangle, 
 its base being the extent of the stop of the rebate, and its 
 perpendicular the depth from the glass to the outer edge 
 of the rebate ; the third side or hypothenuse is neatly 
 smoothed off, and the sash being then turned on its edge 
 and held uprightly by the left hand, the protruded putty 
 of the bedding is struck off with the knife, and the section 
 of it neatly drawn. The sashes are now deposited on their 
 faces, to allow the putty to set, and then they may be hung 
 and painted. To very large squares, and to plate-glass, 
 small tacks or spuds are used ; but it is much better to do 
 without them if prudence will permit it. 
 
 Lead-work, as it is termed, is the glazing of frames rather 
 than of sashes with small squares or quarries of glass, 
 which are held together by reticulations of lead ; and 
 these are secured to stout metal bars, which are fixed to 
 the window frames. The leaden reticulating bars are 
 grooved on their edges to receive the quarries, and are 
 tied by means of leaden ribands or wires to the saddle 
 bars, which, in their turn, are affixed to the stouter bars 
 before mentioned, if the bay or frame be so large as to re- 
 quire both. 
 
 Glazing is valued by the superficial foot, the squares or 
 panes being measured between the rebates in which they 
 are set. The value of plate-glass is very much affected 
 by the sizes of the panes, every additional inch in extent 
 of surface adding materially to the cost of production of 
 the whole piece or plate ; it must therefore be carefully 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 105 
 
 Building, noted according to its magnitude. Common window glass 
 is divided into best, seconds, and thirds, and is charged 
 higher as the panes increase in size, because for large 
 panes the table cuts to waste more than in cutting small 
 ones. In ordinary practice, panes containing two super- 
 ficial feet and under are classed together ; then from two 
 feet to two feet six inches, and so on ; and according to 
 the quality of the article. Flatting, bending, grinding, 
 staining, &c. are all subjects of separate and independent 
 charge. 
 
 Lead lights are taken by the superficies generally of a 
 hundred feet, lead and glass being included in the same 
 charge, which, however, depends on the size of the quar- 
 ries. Stay and saddle bars are taken separately, accord- 
 ing to their number and magnitude. 
 
 Painter . — The processes of economical painting will be 
 found described in an article under the head Painting. 
 The real object of painting is to protect wood, metals, 
 and stuccoes from being readily acted upon by the atmos- 
 phere, by covering their surfaces with a material which is 
 capable of resisting it. A continued succession of mois- 
 ture and dryness, and of heat and cold, soon effects the 
 decomposition of woods, causes oxidation in most of the 
 metals used for economical purposes, and destroys the 
 generality of stuccoes if their surfaces be exposed naked- 
 ly to it. A solution of ceruse or white lead in linseed oil 
 spread over them prevents these injuries in a great mea- 
 sure, and for a considerable period of time ; and as the 
 application of such an unction can be repeated without 
 much trouble or expense as often as occasion may require, 
 it may be said to furnish a protection against the cited 
 contingencies. In addition to the utility of painting, it is 
 also available as an ornament, by bringing disagreeably or 
 diversely coloured surfaces to a pleasing and uniform tint, 
 or by diversifying a disagreeable monotony of tint, to suit 
 the taste and fancy; and this is done in a great measure 
 by the addition of various pigments to the solution before 
 mentioned. 
 
 The painter works with hog’s bristle brushes of various 
 sizes, which, with the exception of pots to hold his colours, 
 a grinding stone and grinder or muller for grinding or tri- 
 turating them, a pallet and a pallet knife, are almost his 
 only implements. His materials are comparatively fewalso ; 
 but for some purposes these require a great variety of in- 
 gredients, the preparation and combination of which, how- 
 ever, devolves principally on the manufacturer or colour- 
 man, and not on the painter himself. 
 
 The first thing the workman has to attend to in paint- 
 ing wood-work, is to prepare its surface for the reception 
 of paint, by counteracting the effect of any thing that may 
 tend to prevent it from becoming identified with the ma- 
 terial. Thus, in painting pine woods of any kind, the resin 
 contained in the knots which appear on the surface must 
 , be neutralized, or a blemish will appear in the finished 
 work over every resinous part. Inequalities or uneven- 
 nesses of surface, too, must be reduced with sand-paper 
 or pumice-stone, or made up with putty. The necessary 
 process for killing knots, just referred to, will generally 
 leave a film, which must be rubbed down ; and the heads of 
 nails and brads having been punched in, will present in- 
 dentations, which should be stopped. In painting or lay- 
 ing on the colour, the brush must be constantly at right 
 angles to the face of the work, only the ends of the hairs, 
 in fact, touching it, for in this manner the paint is at the 
 same time forced into the pores of the wood and distri- 
 buted equally over the surface ; for if the brush be held 
 obliquely to the work, it will leave the paint in thick 
 masses wherever it is first applied after being dipped for 
 
 a fresh supply into the pot, and the surface will be daub- Building, 
 ed but not painted. Painting, when properly executed, ''—'y-w 
 will not present a shining, smooth, and glossy appearance, 
 as if it formed a film or skin, but will show a fine and re- 
 gular grain, as if the surface were natural, or had received 
 a mere stain without destroying the original texture. Imi- 
 tative grainings, however, and the varnishes which are 
 intended to protect them, and make them bear out, neces- 
 sarily produce a new and artificial texture ; and for this 
 reason they are all to a greater or less extent disagreeable, 
 how well soever the imitations may be effected. 
 
 As it must be presumed that all the wood submitted to 
 the operations of the painter, which has passed through the 
 hands of the joiner, was already well seasoned and properly 
 dry, it is only necessary to say generally, that work should 
 be free from moisture of any and every kind before paint is 
 applied to it, or it will at the least prove useless, and pro- 
 bably injurious rather than beneficial. This remark ap- 
 plies alike to wood and to plastered work, both internal 
 and external ; that is, whether they be subjected to the 
 more violent changes of the weather or not. Dampness oY 
 moisture in woods, and stopped in or covered up with paint, 
 will, under ordinary circumstances, tend to their destruc- 
 tion ; and in stuccoes it will spoil the paint, and most pro- 
 bably injure the plastering itself too. 
 
 Painters’ work, on extended surfaces, is valued bv the 
 yard superficial, according to the number of coats, or the 
 number of times the paint has been applied to the surface, 
 and to the, manner in which, and matter with which, it is 
 finished. On skirtings, surbases, narrow cornices, reveals, 
 single mouldings, sills, string courses, &c. it is measured 
 by the foot run ; sash-frames and the squares or panes of 
 sashes are numbered, the latter by the dozen ; and so are 
 other things which do not readily admit of being measur- 
 ed. Rich cornices, expensive imitations, &c. are taken by 
 the foot superficial ; and preparations before the work can 
 be commenced are most fairly charged for by the time they 
 occupy and the materials they consume. The work is ta- 
 ken as one, two, three, four, or more times in oil, common 
 colour ; or so many times finished of a certain colour that 
 is more expensive than what is called common ; or as so 
 many times, and flatted of such a colour, the flatting being 
 an extra coat ; or as painted so many times, and grained 
 and varnished. Common colours are those which are pro- 
 duced by the addition of lamp-black, red-lead, or any of 
 the common ochres to white-lead and oil ; blues, greens, 
 rich reds, pinks, and yellows, &c. being more costly, are 
 taken as such. Unflatted white is a common colour ; 
 flatted, it classes with the rich colours. If the same sur- 
 face be painted of two different tints, it is said to be in 
 party colours, and an allowance is made in the price for the 
 additional trouble of finishing in that manner. Carved 
 mouldings and other enrichments having to be picked in 
 with a pencil or small brush, that the quirks, &c. be not 
 choked up, must be taken extra, by the run or by num- 
 ber ; and if the picking in be in party colours, the labour 
 is necessarily greater than if the work be plain. 
 
 What is termed decorating, is divided between the 
 painter and the paper-hanger. Decorations must neces- 
 sarily depend upon the taste and skill required or employ- 
 ed in producing them ; and the remuneration must also of 
 course be contingent. Decorative papers are paid for by 
 the piece or yard, a piece being made in this country 
 twelve yards long and twenty inches wide, and the hang- 
 ing is charged at so much the piece. Borders are charged 
 by the yard for the material, and by the dozen for hang- 
 ing. Sizing and otherwise preparing the walls are con- 
 sidered extra to the charges for hanging. (n. n.) 
 
MASONRY 
 
 Mason ry. 
 
 v '— V-— ' 
 
 Masonry 
 
 defined. 
 
 Early his- 
 tory. 
 
 1 . Masonry is the art of building with stones. 
 
 The art 
 
 Greek 
 
 masonry. 
 
 Roman 
 
 masonry. 
 
 Early Eng. 
 lish milson. 
 
 T y- 
 
 of reducing stones to regular or determinate forms is some- 
 times called stone-cutting , but is usually considered a branch 
 of masonry. Workers in marble are also called masons ; 
 but it is stone-masonry only which we intend to treat of in 
 this article, as marble masonry is rather a manual than a 
 scientific art. 
 
 2. The art of building with stone is undoubtedly of great 
 antiquity ; and its early history is difficult to trace beyond 
 the existing remains of ancient buildings, the oldest of 
 which are objects of wonder, chiefly on account of the diffi- 
 culty of moving, with ordinary powers, the immense stones 
 of which they are formed. There is one thing remarkable 
 in these stupendous efforts of human labour : its directors 
 have often been happy in the choice of almost imperishable 
 materials, for a lasting evidence of their command of power. 
 The remains of this kind of gigantic masonry are found in 
 various parts of the earth ; some of the finest specimens are 
 the ancient Egyptian buildings, which seem to have been 
 intended to resist the power of men, as well as the slow 
 operations of time. 
 
 3. The masonry of the ancient Greeks closely resembles 
 that of the Egyptians. It is a more refined application of 
 the same principles of construction, to a series of chaste and 
 beautiful architectural forms, in which the ornamental part 
 of the art has evidently attained to that state of perfection, 
 which is rarely, if ever surpassed. The roof of the Octagon 
 Temple of the Winds maybe considered as the best example 
 of their constructive skill, whilst it betrays their ignorance 
 of the principles of the arch. 
 
 4. In Roman masonry we find less of ponderous strength, 
 and of solid construction, than in the Egyptian and Greek, 
 and rarely anything approaching to the accurate and highly 
 finished labours of the latter, but considerably more artifi- 
 cial and economical knowledge. If the manner of forming 
 arches and domes 1 was not actually invented by the Ro- 
 mans, at least the merit of applying them successfully, in 
 the art of building, was undoubtedly theirs ; and they also 
 excelled in the composition of mortars and cements. Hence, 
 they found it easy to construct large works at a moderate 
 expense, which could not have been accomplished by the 
 limited methods of building known to their predecessors. It 
 gives us a high notion of the intrinsic value of the art of ma- 
 sonry, to examine its application by the Romans, whether 
 it be in the celebrated Cloacae, Aqueducts, Bridges, or the 
 Military Roads of that enterprising people. To them also 
 we owe the beautiful idea of covering a temple with a dome. 
 
 5. After the decline of the Romans, the art of masonry, 
 in Europe, gradually acquired its former importance, through 
 its application to the construction of castles, towers, and 
 other places of defence ; and eventually, it gained a com- 
 plete ascendancy over the other building arts, in the con- 
 struction of cathedrals, monasteries, and such like edifices. 
 In our own island it made an equal if not a greater degree 
 of progress than it did upon the continent. The science of 
 masonry 2 appears to have attained the most perfect state it 
 
 arrived at in those times, about the period when King’s Masonry. 
 College Chapel, at Cambridge, was built, that is, about 1512. x -— ■ Y ~—'' 
 From that time, or soon after, the knowledge of construction 
 declined ; but the researches of men of science have, in mo- 
 dern times, more than replaced those lost principles which, 
 there can be little doubt, the elder free-masons possessed. 
 Unfortunately, such principles are, even at the present time, 
 as inaccessible to a plain workman as the mysteries of the 
 master-mason were to the apprentice and fellow-craft of 
 former ages ; unless it be in some rare instances, where the 
 force of natural genius has risen superior to all difficulties, 
 and a mere workman, like the “ ’prentice of Roslin Castle,” 
 has outstripped the masters of technical science. 
 
 6. The most important principle of the free-masons, or, Principles 
 as they are usually called, the “ Gothic builders,” was that 01 Gothic 
 of reducing all the pressures of a vaulted roof to a few prin- mason| y- 
 cipal supports. These supports were either strong pillars, 
 
 or buttresses, accordingly as the support was within the 
 area, or formed a part of the external wall. The buttresses 
 were made of considerable depth in the direction of the 
 pressure, with a thin wall from buttress to buttress, for 
 enclosing the building. If they had made the external 
 walls of uniform thickness, according to the modern prac- 
 tice, a much greater quantity of material would have been 
 required to balance the pressure of the vaulting. For simi- 
 lar reasons, the strength of their best vaulting consists in 
 deep-moulded ribs ; the spaces between these ribs being 
 formed of thin light stones, supported from rib to rib. The 
 principles of construction of the Gothic builders may be 
 readily shewn by a model of wicker work, in the manner of 
 Sir James Hall’s truly elegant mode of explaining his ideas 
 respecting the origin of Gothic vaulting. 3 The earliest 
 notice we have seen, in architectural works, of anything 
 resembling the principles of construction just noticed, is 
 given by Alberti, who, alluding to a method of building 
 known to former architects, says, “ The arches upon which 
 the roof was placed were drawn quite down to the founda- 
 tion with wonderful art, known but to few ; so that the 
 work upheld itself by being only set upon arches ; for those 
 arches having the solid earth for a chain, no wonder they 
 stood firm without any other support.” 4 
 
 7. Masonry, with some other arts, having been drawn Masonry of 
 out of their ordinary course by the peculiar state of society tlle six- 
 
 in the middle ages, fell back to their common level, if not teenth and 
 below it, at the Reformation ; and the natural consequence of ^ntli -en 
 this change was the loss of the greater part of the know- tur ; eSi 
 ledge which had been gained by the experience of several 
 centuries. But even in the most depressed state of masonry, 
 there were individuals in whom the love of that excellence 
 which animated their predecessors, was not subdued by 
 want of encouragement ; and some scattered works were ex- 
 ecuted which are deserving of notice, if our limited plan 
 would allow of it. 
 
 8. When Britain had happily become free from all inter- Present 
 nal disturbances, and there was little to occupy the time state of 
 and attention of a rapidly increasing population, except the British ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 1 Perhaps the oldest arches, at present known, are those which Mr. Relzoni discovered in Egypt ; they are executed in bricks of the 
 same size, and of the same material, as those which the Egyptians used in the construction of their walls and pyramids. For further re- 
 marks upon the subject of Arches, see the Article Bridge ; and the Earl of Aberdeen’s Inquiry respecting Grecian Architecture, page 191 
 — 211 . 
 
 2 What other term than science can be applied to that knowledge, which enables a mason to dispose large masses of stone- work over a 
 considerable area, with only a few distant supports ? 
 
 3 Essay on the Origin , History, and Principles of Gothic Architecture, London, 1813. Ware has collected most of the forms employed, 
 in his Tracts on Vaults, &c. London, 1822. 
 
 4 Architecture of Leo Baptista Alberti (Leoni’s translation), book i. chap- xii. 
 
108 
 
 M A S O N R Y. 
 
 State of 
 masonry oil 
 the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 French 
 
 masonry 
 
 Masonry, improvement of their own condition in life, the chief fruit 
 s — ^ of their exertions for this purpose was, an unprecedented 
 extension of the foreign and domestic trade of the country; 
 wharfs, docks, harbours, and lighthouses were constructed ; 
 canals, locks, roads, and bridges, became the necessary ap- 
 pendages of this new state of things ; and, accordingly, it 
 was found desirable again to cultivate the art of masonry. 
 
 These important works also called forth a new profession, 
 of which the celebrated Smeaton has been called the father. 
 Smeaton’s first work was the Eddystone Lighthouse, which, 
 in originality of design, and soundness of construction, has 
 not been equalled. Since its erection, such a succession of 
 bold and useful works have been accomplished, that it 
 would be difficult to enumerate them and it may be suf- 
 ficient to remark, that the masonry of our own age and 
 country, as it is exhibited in these works, is without a par- 
 allel in preceding times. 
 
 9. In the northern states of Europe, their best works are 
 chiefly modelled after ours ; and, with the exception of 
 France, there is not in the southern states any considerable 
 degree of encouragement given to any branch of masonry. 
 It may nevertheless be remarked, that the principles of 
 construction form a popular subject of study in Italy. 
 
 10. In France masonry has always been a popular art ; 
 partly, perhaps, from Paris being situated in the midst of a 
 district which abounds in excellent building stone. The 
 French government has constantly directed a considerable 
 share of attention to the construction of roads, bridges, and 
 military works ; and, consequently, has afforded sufficient 
 scope for its improvement. When, however, the larger 
 works of the French masons are compared with those of our 
 own countrymen, one very remarkable difference may be 
 observed : the French works have more of the character of 
 daring experiments, than that which ought to belong to the 
 works of regular professors of an art ; whilst the British 
 works of the same kind have evidently been directed by 
 men much better versed in practical construction than in the 
 refinements of science. There is, perhaps, more of novelty 
 in the French works than is to be found in ours ; but it 
 may be remarked, that this novelty of character is often 
 obtained by a sacrifice of fitness, as in the catenarian dome 
 of the Pantheon ; or of strength, as in the bridges of Nogent, 
 Neuilly, and others. The true criterion of excellence in a 
 useful art seems to be, fitness for producing the desired end 
 in the best possible manner. 
 
 I OF MATERIALS USED IN MASONRY. 
 
 Materials. 11. The first object of attention, in a treatise on mason- 
 ry, might to be, the nature of the materials employed in it, 
 because the greater part of the principles of an art always 
 depend on the nature of the substances it is to be exercised 
 upon. 
 
 Of Stones. 
 
 Nature of 12. Building stone is a dense, coherent body, of consi- 
 stories. derable hardness and durability, but generally brittle. It 
 possesses these qualities in various degrees, according to 
 the nature of its chemical elements, or the state of aggre- 
 gation of its parts. The structure of stones is either lami- 
 nated or granulated, or of a mixed kind. The chemical con- 
 stituents of building stones are silica, alumina, lime, mag- 
 nesia, and metals, combined with acids, water, and sometimes 
 with alkalis ; some other chemical elements are found in 
 building stones, but not often in sufficient quantity to affect 
 Laminated t ^ e nature °f the stones. 
 
 stones.' 13. Laminated stones consist of thin plates, or layers, 
 
 cohering more or less strongly together ; but when the layers Masonry. 
 
 are of considerable size, and cohere so slightly that they ’ 
 
 may be easily separated, the stones are said to be slaty. 
 
 The layers are always nearly parallel to the quarry-beds of 
 the stone, and they should always be horizontal, or as nearly 
 so as possible, in a building, otherwise the action of the 
 weather will cause them to separate, and fall off in flakes. 
 
 In sandstones, the direction of the layers may often be dis- 
 covered by their different shades of colour ; and in others, by 
 the position of minute scales of mica, which always lie 
 parallel to the layers. In most stones the direction of the 
 layers may be ascertained by the facility with which the 
 stone yields to the tool in that direction ; but a considerable 
 degree of practice is necessary to acquire so nice a discri- 
 mination of resistance, and good workmen only attain it. 
 
 Amongst laminated stones, those are the most durable in 
 which the laminae are least distinct, and the texture uniform. 
 
 When the laminae do not perfectly cohere, they are soon in- 
 jured by frost, and they are wholly unfit for places alternate- 
 ly wet and dry. 
 
 14. Granular stones consist of distinct concretions resem- Granular 
 bling grains, either of the same or of different simple miner- stones, 
 als cohering together. When the structure is uniform, and 
 
 the grains or concretions are small, stones of this kind are 
 always strong and durable, if the concretions themselves be 
 so. Granular stones are sometimes open and porous, but 
 when they are uniformly so, they seldom suffer materially 
 by frost, because their uniform porosity allows the expan- 
 sive force of congealing water to be distributed in every di- 
 rection. 
 
 15. Stones of a compound structure, partly laminate and Compound 
 partly granular, have more or less of the characters of the stones, 
 two classes before described ; for it may be observed in coarse- 
 grained granite that the laminated structure of some of its 
 
 parts renders it very susceptible of disintegration. All kinds 
 of stone obtained from quarries are found divided by vertical 
 or inclined seams, which are sometimes so close that they 
 cannot be distinguished till the stones are wrought ; but 
 they often separate under the tool at such seams ; and it is 
 not safe to employ stone to resist any considerable transverse 
 strain on account of the difficulty of knowing where those 
 seams are. 
 
 16. In the present state of our knowledge of this impor- Durability 
 tant subject, we may attribute the failure of building stones 0 * stones, 
 to two causes ; the one chemical, and the other mechani- 
 cal, which we shall here distinguish by the terms decom- 
 position and disintegration. 
 
 17. Decomposition consists in the chemical elements ofDe com P°- 
 a stone entering into new combinations with water, oxygen, Slt1011, 
 
 or carbonic acid gas. Stones containing such elements as 
 are readily acted upon by these external causes will be found 
 most subject to decomposition ; and the process will be, in 
 many kinds, much hastened by a loose texture. Stones 
 containing saline matter, as the felspar of some granites, are 
 acted upon by water, particularly where the soluble salt is 
 in considerable proportion ; and in some stones the applica- 
 tion of salt water soon destroys them. Dolomieu says, the 
 houses at Malta are built with a fine-grained limestone, of 
 a loose and porous texture, which speedily moulders away 
 when it has been wetted with sea water. I 2 * Stones contain- 
 ing iron, which is not in a maximum state of oxidation, are 
 often destroyed by the absorption of oxygen and carbonic 
 acid ; the presence of moisture accelerates their decompo- 
 sition, and it is always still further hastened by increase of 
 temperature. According to the observations of Kirwan, 
 stones containing iron, in a low state of oxidation are of a 
 black, a brown, or a bluish colour ; and in some instances, 
 when united with alumina and magnesia, they are of a grey, 
 
 1 See the Articles Brll-Rock Lighthouse, Bridge, Breakwater, and Navigation Inland. 
 
 * Kirwan’s Geological Essaijs, p. 1 48, 1 49. 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 109 
 
 tion. 
 
 Masonry, or of a greenish grey ; the former, as they become more oxy- 
 genized, change to purple, red, orange, and finally pale 
 yellow ; the latter become at first blue, then purple, red, &cd 
 But stones containing iron, combined with its maximum of 
 oxygen, do not readily decompose, such are red porphyry, 
 jaspers, &c. When stones contain manganese, lime, alumina, 
 carbon, or bitumen, in particular states, they are subject to 
 decomposition, from the affinities of one or other of these 
 bodies ; but nothing very decisive is, or perhaps can be, 
 known respecting such changes, till some improvement be 
 made in analytical chemistry, by which the state of combi- 
 nation of the constituents of minerals can be determined 
 with more certainty. 
 
 Disintegra^ 1 8. Disintegration is the separation of the parts of stones 
 by mechanical action. The chief cause is the congelation 
 of water in the minute pores and fissures of stones, which 
 bursts them open, or separates small parts according as the 
 structure is slaty or irregularly granulated. The south 
 sides of buildings, in northern climates, are most subject to 
 fail ; because the surface is often thawed and filled with 
 wet in the sunny part of the day, and frozen again at night. 
 This repeated operation of freezing is also very injurious to 
 sea walls, the piers of bridges, and other works exposed al- 
 ternately to water and frost. 1 2 The decay and destruction 
 of rocks being the effects of the same natural causes, the 
 reader will find some further illustration of this subject in 
 the article Mineralogy. 
 
 1 9- The resistance of stones to wear and tear is, for many 
 purposes, a subject which it would be useful to investigate, 
 since on this resistance depends also the labour of working 
 them. From some experiments made by Rondelet, it ap- 
 pears that granite will bear eight times as much wear as 
 veined white marble ; and that the labour of sawing gran- 
 ite was about ten times greater than that of sawing veined 
 white marble. 3 
 
 Scotland abounds in quarries of excellent building sand- 
 stone ; such, in particular, are the quarries at Culello, in 
 Fifeshire, which furnished the stones for the monument erect- 
 ed at Yarmouth to the memory of Lord Nelson, and that at 
 Edinburgh to the memory of Lord Melville. Nothing can 
 exceed the beauty of the sandstone used in those noble 
 structures ; and besides beauty, and other valuable quali- 
 ties, it has in a high degree that of being easily chiselled 
 into the smoothest and finest forms. 
 
 Resistance 
 to wear. 
 
 Mortars 
 and ce- 
 ments. 
 
 Nature of 
 
 common 
 
 mortar. 
 
 Of Mortars and Cements. 
 
 20. In the greater part of works executed in stone, it is 
 necessary to use some kind of cementitious matter for con- 
 necting the parts together, to render them firm and com- 
 pact. Works to be exposed to the action of water, immedi- 
 ately after being built, require this cementitious matter to 
 be of such a nature that it will indurate under water. 
 Hence it is, that we have occasion for two species of mor- 
 tar ; one which will set and harden under water, called a 
 water mortar, or cement ; and common mortar. 
 
 21. If a piece of limestone, or chalk, be slowly calcined, 
 so as to expel the whole, or nearly the whole, of its car- 
 bonic acid, it loses about 44 per cent, of its weight ; and on 
 a small quantity of water being added, it swells, gives out 
 heat, and falls into a finely divided powder, called slacked 
 lime. The bulk of the powder is about double that of the 
 limestone. If this powder be rapidly formed into a stiff 
 paste with water, it sets or solidifies as a hydrate of lime, 
 and ultimately hardens by the absorption of carbonic acid 
 from the air. This constitutes common building mortar. 
 Hydrate of lime consists of lime, 100 parts, and water 31 
 parts. 
 
 22. If any substance, reduced to powder, and containing Masonry, 
 much iron in a low state of oxidation, be mixed with slacked 
 
 lime, the mixture will become harder and more coherent Water 
 than when lime alone is employed ; and it possesses the mortai * 
 valuable property of acquiring an equal, or perhaps greater 
 degree of hardness, if it be immersed in water as soon as it 
 is formed into a paste. This constitutes water mortar. A 
 paste of hydrate of lime alone softens and dissolves in water. 
 
 Alumina, silica, and manganese, are endowed with the same 
 property as oxide of iron, but in an inferior degree. It 
 may be observed, in forming such combinations, that when 
 the lime is in excess, it separates ; and in favourable situa- 
 tions, either crystallizes or forms stalactites ; indicating that 
 there is a definite proportion according to which the ma- 
 terials should be combined to form the best cement. 
 
 23. If some kind of matter, in the state of particles or Use of 
 of grains, be mixed with the cementing material, and then sand in 
 the mixture be formed into a paste with water, the strength mortar, 
 and hardness of the cement will greatly depend on the na- 
 ture of the particles added to it. In order that the cement 
 
 may be improved by such addition, it is necessary that the 
 hardness of the particles should at least be equal to the 
 greatest degree of hardness the cement can acquire ; and 
 also, that the affinity between these particles and the ce- 
 menting matter should exceed the affinity between the parts 
 of the cement itself. From this explanation it will readily 
 appear, that any substance which is added to a cement for 
 the purpose of increasing its bulk, its hardness, or its strength, 
 ought to be in particles or grains ; and that no soft, earthy, 
 or pulverent matter is fit for this purpose. It will be equally 
 apparent, to those who have considered the nature of che- 
 mical combination, that the cementing part of the materials 
 employed in the composition of mortars and cements, should 
 be in the finest state of division that it is possible to reduce 
 them to. 
 
 An attentive consideration of these principles will afford 
 an easy solution of some of the most interesting questions 
 to which this important subject gives rise ; and correct some 
 errors that have originated from a partial examination of the 
 phenomena. We have now to examine the qualities of 
 those materials which naturally occur in the earth ; from 
 these must be selected the kinds that can be obtained at 
 the least expense for the place they are to be employed at, 
 when their quality is suitable to the nature of the work. 
 
 24. The cementing materials are chiefly obtained from Limestones, 
 the different species of limestone, to which may be added puz- 
 
 zolana, terras, iron ores, basalt, and other substances of a 
 like character. The limestones may be divided, as regards 
 cements and mortars, into three classes ; common lime- 
 stone, poor limestones ( chaux maigre of the French), and 
 cement stones. 
 
 25. Common limestones consist of carbonate of lime with Common 
 very httle of any other substance; they produce a white limestones, 
 lime, which slacks freely when well burned ; they dissolve 
 
 in diluted muriatic acid with only a small portion of residue, 
 and never contain more than a trace of iron. They differ 
 much in external characters, as chalk, marble, common com- 
 pact limestone, &c. These limestones do not form water 
 cements without the addition of other kinds of cementing 
 matter ; and hence they are usually employed for common 
 mortar. The hardest marble and the softest chalk make 
 equally good lime when well burned ; but chalk lime will 
 slack when not perfectly burned, and, therefore, has seldom 
 a sufficient quantity of fire ; whereas stone lime must have 
 sufficient to make it slack. It has also been observed, that 
 stone lime does not re-absorb carbonic acid so rapidly as 
 chalk lime. 4 
 
 1 Kirwan’s Geological Essays, p. 145, 6. 
 
 2 The decayed state of the piers of Westminster and Blackfriars’ Badges shews us how very little this important subject has been 
 
 studied ; as well as the necessity of studying it. 
 
 1 Traitc de I'art de bdtir, tome i. p. 95, 4 Higgins on Mortars and Cements, p 29. 
 
1 10 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 Poor 
 
 limestones. 
 
 Cement 
 
 stones. 
 
 Masonry. Lime, made from common limestones, sustains very little 
 injury from being kept after it has been formed into a thin 
 paste with w'ater, provided the air be effectually excluded ; 
 indeed, Alberti mentions an instance of some which had 
 been covered up in a ditch for a very long time, that was 
 of an excellent quality. 
 
 26. Poor limestones consist of carbonate of lime united 
 with silica, alumina, and metalic oxides. They in general 
 produce a buff-coloured lime, but sometimes it is white. 
 When the lime is white, there are no metalic oxides present. 
 They contain a considerable portion of matter, which is 
 insoluble in acids. They differ considerably in external cha- 
 racters ; the blue lias, the Sussex clunch, and Sutton lime- 
 stones, may be cited as instances. The lime of poor lime- 
 stones does not slack freely ; and it would always be desir- 
 able to reduce it to powder by grinding, in preference to 
 slacking, because in slacking a part of its setting property 
 is destroyed. When poor lime is slacked, it should be made 
 into mortar, and used immediately. Moisture does such 
 lime more injury than the re-absorption of carbonic acid ; 
 and mortar made of it ought not to be disturbed after it has 
 begun to set or harden. Poor limestones are subject to 
 vitrify in burning, unless the heat be increased gradually ; 
 but by a little management in this respect they will bear a 
 heat sufficiently intense to convert them into good lime. 
 The lime of poor limestones makes excellent common mor- 
 tar, when the precautions we have pointed out have been 
 attended to. It is much superior to mortar made from com- 
 mon limestones. It is not, however, sufficiently powerful for 
 a water cement without the addition of puzzolana, terras, or 
 other like substances. 
 
 27- Cement stones. We have taken the liberty of giv- 
 ing this name to the class of earthy bodies which afford a 
 good water-cement without addition ; and it appears to be 
 essential for that purpose that there should be at least 50 
 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the stone. Those ce- 
 ments which answer best are made from stones containing 
 about 60 per cent. The other substances usually contain- 
 ed in these stones are, silica, alumina, oxide of iron, some- 
 times oxide of manganese, carbonate of magnesia, with 
 traces of other alkaline and earthy salts. Cement stones 
 are in a great measure soluble, with effervescence, in diluted 
 muriatic acid ; they lose about one-third of their weight by 
 calcination, after which they do not slack, but may be ground 
 into a fine powder, of a brown colour, of different degrees 
 of intensity according to the nature of the stone. Those 
 now used to make cement are found in rolled pieces, or in 
 nodules, with septa of carbonate of lime, on the sea-coast 
 at Sheppy, Harwich, and near Whitby, and at Boulogne on 
 the French coast. The nodules are plentifully dispersed 
 throughout the London clay stratum, and the alum shale of 
 Whitby ; they are termed clay-balls, ludus helmontii, sep- 
 taria, &c. Cement stones are also liable to vitrify in burning, 
 either from being quickly exposed to a strong heat, or by 
 making the heat too intense. 
 
 When cement stones have been calcined and ground, the 
 powder thus obtained should be kept in a very dry place, 
 as its setting property is soon destroyed by moisture. It 
 absorbs moisture rapidly from the air ; and, therefore, it 
 should be as little exposed as possible ; but when closely 
 packed, and in a dry place, it may be kept a considerable time. 
 
 28. There are perhaps few mineral bodies which would 
 answer as well as clay-balls for making cement, unless it 
 be calcareous marls ; but there are very few situations where 
 the means of forming an artificial cement are wanting ; the 
 manner of proceeding must depend upon the nature of the 
 substances employed. In general it will be necessary to 
 mix slacked lime with the substance containing silica, alu- 
 mina, and oxide of iron, and calcine them together, and 
 afterwards grind them. The iron should be in the state of 
 protoxide, to the amount of from 13 to 18 per cent, by 
 
 Artificial 
 
 cement. 
 
 weight. The quantity of lime may be about 30 per cent. Masonry, 
 or 53 per cent, of carbonate of lime ; the silica and alumina 
 being in equal portions ; and hence, in the raw materials, 
 
 one hundred parts by weight may 
 
 consist of 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 53 
 
 Protoxide of iron 
 
 18 
 
 Silica and alumina.... 
 
 29 
 
 
 100 
 
 29. There are several mineral bodies which, combined 
 with lime, form good cements. Some of these may be used 
 in their natural state, but others require calcination. Puz- 
 zolana and tarras are of the former kind ; basalt, iron ores, 
 and ferruginous clay, belong to the latter class. 
 
 Puzzolana is a volcanic production much used in making Puzzolana. 
 water cements. It was known to the Romans, and employ- 
 ed by them both in ordinary buildings and in water works. 
 
 Its colour is reddish or reddish brown, and grey or grey- 
 ish black ; that of Naples is generally grey, that of Civita 
 Vecchia more generally reddish brown. Its surface is rough 
 and uneven, and it has a baked appearance ; when broken 
 and examined by a magnifying glass it appears to be a 
 spongy substance, with innumerable cavities like a cinder, 
 and not much harder. It comes to this country in pieces 
 varying in size from the bulk of a nut to that of an egg. It 
 is very brittle, and has an earthy smell ; its specific gravity 
 being from 2-570 to 2-785. It does not effervesce with 
 acids; and is not diffusable in cold water. The iron it con- 
 tains is not oxidated ; and being finely divided and dispersed 
 throughout its mass, offers a large surface which quickly 
 decomposes the water with which it is mixed when made 
 into mortar. The union of the oxygen of the water with 
 the iron is the principal cause of the solidification of water 
 mortar ; and this union is greatly facilitated by the heat 
 given out by the quicklime. 
 
 30. The substance called Tarras or Trass, found near An- Tarras. 
 dernach, on the Rhine, is endowed with similar properties. 
 
 Its colour is light grey or brownish grey ; its surface is rough 
 and porous ; and it is often found mixed with other matter. 
 
 It is sometimes so hard that it yields with difficulty to the 
 knife. According to Bergman, it contains more lime than 
 puzzolana does, and effervesces slightly with acids. Smeaton 
 found puzzolana to be equal, if not superior, to tarras in 
 forming a water cement with Aberthaw lime ; he also ob- 
 served that tarras is inferior for work which is to be alter- 
 nately wet and dry. 
 
 31. If any stone be employed in which the iron is per- 
 fectly oxidized, it will be necessary to abstract some 
 portion of the oxygen from the iron in the process of calci- 
 nation, on the same principle as the reduction of iron from 
 the ore is effected. (See Iron-Making.) It is also neces- 
 sary to employ similar means to restore the cementing power 
 of materials that have attracted moisture after being cal- 
 cined. 
 
 II. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF STABILITY AND 
 
 STRENGTH IN MASONRY. 
 
 32. The strength and the stability of stone-work depends 
 partly on its mass or weight, and partly on the resistance 
 of the materials. And, since we cannot imagine incom- 
 pressible fulcra, nor that the materials of masonry are infi- 
 nitely hard and inflexible, as writers on elementary mechanics 
 consider them to be, therefore, it is essential that the re- 
 sistance of materials should be considered, and the effect of 
 their weight allowed for in estimating the power of the 
 straining force. 
 
 The resistance of stones being dependent on their state 
 of aggregation, and not on the hardness or density of their 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Masonry, elementary parts, their comparative strength cannot be 
 v -“ judged of by these qualities ; indeed, there are few kinds of 
 materials of which the resistance is so uncertain as that of 
 stone, and hence, it is not at all adapted for any support 
 where its resistance depends on its cohesion only, unless it be 
 very carefully examined, and abundant strength be allowed. 
 (See § 15.) The resistance of stone to compression is less 
 affected by its irregular nature, particularly as it is usually 
 employed in blocks of inconsiderable height; and, in gene- 
 ral, there is scarcely any reason to be sparing of a material 
 which it is often more expensive to reduce than to employ 
 in large blocks. When, however, works of great magni- 
 tude are to be constructed, the weight of the materials 
 , themselves forms the chief part of the straining force ; and, 
 consequently, in such cases it becomes desirable to form a 
 tolerably accurate estimate of their power. 
 
 33. This power is limited by a property of bodies, that has 
 not received that degree of attention which its importance 
 would lead us to expect. We shall in this place make it the 
 basis of an investigation of the power of materials to resist 
 a force applied in any given direction, and shew its appli- 
 cation to some of the cases where a mason is most likely to 
 need the assistance of calculation. 
 
 When any material is strained beyond a certain extent, 
 every time the strain is increased to the same degree, there 
 is a permanent derangement of the structure of the material 
 produced; and a frequent repetition will increase the derange- 
 ment till the parts actually separate. (See the article Car- 
 pentry.) When a small base rests upon a considerable 
 mass of matter, as a pier on the ground, the quantity of de- 
 rangement will increase only till the mass be compressed to 
 that degree which renders the increase insensible ; but in 
 many cases a number of years will elapse before the settle- 
 ment becomes insensible. 
 
 34. The strain which produces permanent derangement 
 in the structure of a material varies from one-fourth to two- 
 fifths of that which would destroy its direct cohesion. In 
 stone the lower value should be taken, on account of its 
 being subject to so many defects ; and, for the present, let 
 this strain be denoted by /lbs. upon a superficial foot. 
 
 35. Imagine AB CD to be a block, Plate CCCXLV. fig. 1, 
 
 strained either in the direction EF or FE, by a force W ; 
 and let BDF be a line drawn in the same plane as the di- 
 rection of the straining force, and perpendicular to the 
 axis ab of the block. Now, if we consider the resistance 
 of the block to be collected at the centres of resistance t 
 and c; then rfF will represent a lever acted upon by three 
 forces ; that is, the resistance at t and c, and the straining 
 force at F. If the angle FE<?, be denoted by a; then, the 
 effect of the force W, reduced to a direction perpendicular 
 to the lever, will be expressed by cos. aW. (1.) 
 
 Also, if T be the resistance at t, and C the resistance at 
 c, we shall, in the case of equilibrium, have C — T— cos. a 
 W. (2.) 
 
 And, by the property of the lever, 
 tcx T 
 
 =W cos. a (3.) 
 
 tc C 
 
 Hence, -=-=vfr— 1 (4.) 
 
 ch 1 
 
 36. Without stopping to notice some maxims furnished 
 by this equation, (see the article Bridge.) We will pro- 
 ceed to explain the notation used in the investigation which 
 follows : 
 
 /zrthe length AB. 
 
 d— the depth BD, measured in the same plane as the 
 direction of the strain. 
 
 5~the breadth. 
 
 z=the distance of the neutral point e from the axis ab. 
 
 yzzthe distance of the point <j from the axis ab. 
 
 p( \d — z), and p{\d-\-z) the respective distances of the Masonry, 
 centres of resistance t and c from the neutral v — v - — ' 
 point; and, consequently, 
 pd— the distance, ct, between them. And, 
 g(\d — z), and g(\d-\-z) the respective distances of the 
 centres of gravity of the sections into which the 
 neutral axis divides the block, counted from the 
 neutral point. 
 
 The leverage, cF, expressed in this notation, will be 
 l sin. a 
 
 4 -y — \pd-\-{ — p)z ; consequently, equation (4) 
 
 cos. a 
 becomes 
 
 pd 
 
 -+g—ipd + (1 —p)z 
 
 (5.) 
 
 37. Now, it has been shewn, by writers on the resistance 
 of solids, that the resistance of any section, collected at its 
 centre of pressure, is equal to its cohesive force multiplied 
 by the distance of its centre of gravity from the neutral 
 axis, and divided by the distance of the point of greatest 
 strain from the neutral axis. (Emerson’s Mechanics , prop. 
 77. 4to. ed.) 
 
 Accordingly we have C — — (6.) 
 
 And T= ^MfcfI 2 (7 .) 
 
 %d+z v 
 
 C P-d+z)‘ 
 
 Therefore— — ^ ^ — y 2 ; which being substituted in equa- 
 tion (5), we obtain 
 
 (3/? — 2)z 2 — 2z +frd*=o (8.) 
 
 \ CUo« Cl / 
 
 2 
 
 If the block be rectangular />=-, and, therefore, the 
 
 distance of the neutral point from the axis is 
 
 d? 
 
 // sin. a \ 
 121 \-y ) 
 
 \ cos. a — J j 
 
 (9.) 
 
 38. The value of z for a rectangular section being deter- 
 mined, the magnitude of the straining force is easily found, 
 so that it may not exceed the power of the material ; for, 
 by the properties of the lever, 
 pdC 
 
 W cos. a=-;-A 
 
 l sin. a 
 
 and since C 
 
 +y-\-\p d + z Q-—p) 
 
 cos. a 
 
 —fbgdd+z) by equation (6), and 
 d? 
 
 /I sin. « \ 
 
 12 +y) 
 
 \ cos. a ) 
 
 of the section, we have 
 
 fbd 1 
 
 by equation (9), and g~\ by the form 
 
 W — -V 
 
 ( 10 .) 
 
 d cos. a-j-6/ sin. a-f 6y cos. a 
 39. In particular cases this formula becomes more simple ; 
 as, for example, when the distance of the point g from the 
 axis ab is o, that is, when y~o, 
 
 W= f M \ < 1L ) 
 
 d cos. «-f-6/ sin. a 
 
 In a column, or pillar, the section of greatest strain will 
 be at the middle of the length, as at BD in fig. 2 ; and the 
 direction EF of the straining force is usually parallel to the 
 axis; and then sin. a=o, and cos. a= 1, and therefore, 
 fbd 2 
 
 W= 
 
 d+6y 
 
 ( 12 .) 
 
 When the direction of the straining force coincides with 
 
112 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 Masonry, the axis, or when y—o, the strain on a column or pillar is 
 V v expressed by the equation W=r fbd (13.) 
 
 These equations apply also to tensile forces. 
 
 When the strain becomes transverse, or when EF is per- 
 pendicular to the axis, as in fig. 3, then cos. a~o , and sin. 
 
 a— 1, hence W (14.) 
 
 If the block be supported at the ends, and the load be 
 applied in the middle of the length, as in fig. 4, the fracture 
 will take place at BD ; and W in equation (14) will be the 
 pressure on either supDort, which is obviously half the load 
 in the middle. 
 
 40. In any of these equations it is perfectly immaterial 
 how the load be distributed, provided the line of direction be 
 that which passes through the centre of gravity of the mass 
 supported, and the weight be the whole weight of that 
 mass. Or, if the strain be the combined effect of several 
 pressures, then the direction must be that of the resultant 
 of these pressures, as determined by the principles of me- 
 chanics. (See the article Carpentry.) 
 
 41. If a slab of equable thickness and width be supported 
 along two of its sides, as at AC, AB in fig. 5, and it be 
 strained by a force acting at D, in a direction perpendicu- 
 lar to its surface, and DE be made equal to DB, then the 
 fracture will take place in the direction EB ; for it may be 
 
 shown, by the principles of the maxima and minima of Masonry, 
 quantities, that the resistance, according to that line, is a ^ 
 
 minimum. And since, in that case, EB=2 FD, we shall 
 
 fd 2 
 
 have, by equation, (14), W= - 
 
 (15.) 
 
 A force uniformly diffused over the surface of the slab 
 would fracture it in the direction CB, shown by a dotted 
 line in the figure, and if w be the load in pounds upon a 
 square foot of the surface, then the proper values being 
 substituted for the leverage and breadth in equation, (14), 
 
 fd 2 (CD 2 + DB 2 ) 
 
 w — — (lb-) 
 
 CFF-j-DB 2 v 
 
 The strength of a seines of steps bearing upon one ano- 
 ther, as in the perspective sketch, fig. 6, may be determined 
 with sufficient accuracy by the last equation, supposing the 
 depth to be the mean vertical depth of any one step ; as, 
 for example, taken at GFI in fig. 7, the figure showing the 
 ends of the steps. 
 
 42. The case to which equation (14) applies, affords the 
 most convenient, as well as the most accurate, means of 
 determining the value of f for any material ; and, suppos- 
 ing it to be one-fourth of the absolute cohesion (§ 34), the 
 last column of the following table of experiments gives its 
 value for various stones, mortars, & c. in the nearest simple 
 numbers under the calculated value. 
 
 Table I — Experiments on the Transverse Strength of Stones , fyc. to the Case Equation (14.) 
 
 No. of 
 Expts. 
 
 Substance tried- 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot. 
 
 Length l. 
 
 Depth d. 
 
 Breadth b. 
 
 Breaking 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Values off= i 
 of the absolute 
 strength of a 
 Square Foot. 
 
 1 
 
 Statuary marble, 
 
 169-12 lbs. 
 
 15 inches. 
 
 1-075 in. 
 
 1-075 
 
 25 lbs. 
 
 65,000 lbs. 
 
 2 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 • • • 
 
 7-5 
 
 1-08 
 
 1-05 
 
 55 
 
 73,000 
 
 3 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 • • • 
 
 7 
 
 1-075 
 
 1-075 
 
 65 
 
 78,000 
 
 4 
 
 Dundee stone 
 
 163-80 
 
 7 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-45 
 
 207 
 
 95,000 
 
 5 
 
 Portland stone, 
 
 132 
 
 21 
 
 1-5 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 28,000 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 1-45 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 30,000 
 
 7 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 
 6 
 
 1-55 
 
 2-07 
 
 135 
 
 35,000 
 
 8 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 
 15 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-2 
 
 30 
 
 26,000 
 
 9 
 
 Craigleith white sandstone, 
 
 147-6 
 
 7 
 
 1-55 
 
 1-55 
 
 68-5 
 
 26,000 
 
 10 
 
 "White sandstone from Hailes Quarry 
 
 134-8 
 
 7 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-55 
 
 61-5 
 
 26,000 
 
 11 
 
 White sandstone from Longannet,... 
 
 138-25 
 
 9 
 
 1-525 
 
 1-45 
 
 46 
 
 26,000 
 
 12 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 
 4-5 
 
 1-45 
 
 1-525 
 
 80 
 
 23,000 
 
 13 
 
 Ditto, 
 
 ... 
 
 3.5 
 
 1-55 
 
 1-55 
 
 116-5 
 
 24,000 
 
 14 
 
 Bath stone, 
 
 ... 
 
 2-75 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 17,000 
 
 15 
 
 Red porphyry, 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 0-4 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 101,000 
 
 16 
 
 Welsh roof slate, 
 
 
 6 
 
 0-25 
 
 n 
 
 30 
 
 414,000 
 
 17 
 
 Scotch roof slate, 
 
 
 6 
 
 0-25 
 
 H 
 
 25 
 
 345,000 
 
 18 
 
 Common brick, new, 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 4 
 
 201-5 
 
 6,900 
 
 19 
 
 Ditto old, 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 4 
 
 171-5 
 
 5,900 
 
 20 
 
 Best stock brick, 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 4 
 
 222 
 
 7,600 
 
 21 
 
 Mortar from an old castle in Sussex, 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18-5 
 
 12,000 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 Mortar, common, 
 
 Mortar in the joints of two inch 4 
 
 • • • 
 
 0-75 
 
 0-35 
 
 1-5. 
 
 11-5 
 
 9,300 
 
 
 cubes of stone, one month after > 
 being joined, ) 
 
 ... 
 
 8 pou. 
 
 2 pou. 
 
 2 pou. 
 
 6-75 liv. 
 
 1,400 
 
 Numbers 18, 19, and 20, are from Barlow’s Essay on the 
 Strength of Timber, (p. 250), each being a mean of three 
 trials. Number 23 is from Rondelet’s Traite de V Art de 
 batir , (tome iii. p. 377), lowest result; the rest of the ex- 
 periments were made by the writer of this article. 
 
 We have not here availed ourselves of the experiments of 
 Gauthey (Rozier’s Journal de Physique, tome iv.) on the 
 transverse strength of stones ; because those he fixed at one 
 end appear to have been injured in fixing, and only a cal- 
 culated result is given for the other specimens supported 
 
 at both ends. As to this, see the article on the Strength 
 of Materials. 
 
 43. Several experiments have also been made, with the 
 intention of measuring the direct resistance to extension or 
 compression ; but theory indicates so nice an adjustment 
 of the direction of the straining force as necessary in these 
 experiments, that the reader may expect the results to differ 
 as widely amongst themselves as they are found to differ 
 from theoretical calculation. 
 
4v 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 113 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 Table II — Experiments on the Direct Resistance of Stones, fyc. to the Case Equation (]3.) Masonry. 
 
 No. of 
 Expts. 
 
 Substance tried. 
 
 Wejght °f Areaof 
 
 a <? ublc Specimen, 
 root. 
 
 Weight 
 that pulled 
 it asunder. 
 
 Value of f=\ 
 of the absolute 
 strength of a 
 Square Foot. 
 
 1 
 
 Hard stone of Givry, 
 
 147 lbs. 96 lines 
 
 164 livres 
 
 8,400 lbs. 
 
 2 
 
 Tender stone of Givry, 
 
 130 324 
 
 183 
 
 1,400 
 
 3 
 
 Mortar of sand and lime sixteen years old, 
 
 ... j 1 pouce 
 
 53 
 
 1,800 
 
 4 
 
 Plaster of Paris, 
 
 1 
 
 76 
 
 2,500 
 
 5 
 
 Adhesion of mortar to lias stone, joined six months, 
 
 ! 4 
 
 64 
 
 547 
 
 6 
 
 Adhesion of mortar to brick, joined six months, 
 
 i 4 
 
 138 
 
 1,180 
 
 7 
 
 Adhesion of mortar to tile, joined six months, 
 
 1 4 
 
 141 
 
 1,200 
 
 The experiments, Nos. 3, 4, 5, G, and 7, are extracted 
 from Rondelet’s E Art de batir, (tome i. p. 312.) Nos. 1 
 and 2, are by Gauthey, (Rozier’s Journal de Physique, tome 
 iv. p. 414.) 
 
 44. In the resistance to actual fracture, from a compres- 
 sive force, the joint effect of cohesion and friction is con- 
 cerned, and, therefore, a much greater force is required to 
 crush than to tear asunder the same quantity of material. 
 The resistance to fracture might be investigated on principles 
 analogous to those we intend to employ in determining the 
 pressure of earth against retaining walls, &c. (See the article 
 Carpentry.) But we conceive, that it is neither prudent, 
 nor useful, nor necessary, to load the parts of a structure be- 
 yond that limit we have made the basis of our investigation. 
 
 (See § 34.) Rondelet has observed, that the load under 
 which a stone began to split was nearly always two-thirds 
 of that which crushed it ; but that stone of some kinds began 
 to split with half the load that crushed it, ( EArt de batir, 
 iii. 86 et 101). The value of/ should, therefore, not exceed 
 one-fourth of the force which splits stone, and supposing 
 the splitting froce to be always half the crushing one, we 
 shall have /—one-eighth of the crushing force. 
 
 45. In this, as in the preceding tables, the reader will 
 observe, that the results of all experiments are given in the 
 original weights and measures ; but that the value of f and 
 the weight of a cubic foot, are in English pounds avoirdu- 
 pois, and for an English foot. The foreign weights and 
 measures are distinguished by their foreign names. 
 
 Table III. — Experiments on the Resistance to Crushing . 
 
 No. of 
 Expts. 
 
 Substance tried. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 Porphyry, 
 
 * 
 
 Granite, Aberdeen blue, 
 
 Peterhead, hard and close grained, 
 
 Cornish, 
 
 gray,.... 
 
 rose Oriental, 
 
 Marble, white statuary, 
 
 ' ? * 
 
 ‘ * 
 
 veined white, Italian, 
 
 variegated red, Devonshire, 
 
 Dundee stone, 
 
 Craigleith stone, with strata, 
 
 Do., 
 
 Bromley Fall sandstone near Leeds, with the strata, 
 
 Portland stone, 
 
 Do., 
 
 Culello white sandstone, 
 
 Yorkshire paving stone, 
 
 Hard stone of Givry 
 
 Tender stone of Givry, 
 
 Saillancourt stone, of which the arches of the { 
 
 bridge of Neuilly are constructed, f 
 
 Fourneaux stone, used for the pillars of All ( 
 
 Saints, at Angers, J 
 
 Bagneux stone, used for the lower part of the { 
 
 pillars of the pantheon at Paris, f 
 
 Stone used for the bridge of St. Maxence, 
 
 Caserte stone, in Italy, 
 
 Stone of which the temples at Paestum are built,... 
 Travertino, of which the chief of the ancient j 
 
 buildings at Rome are built, f 
 
 Derbyshire grit, a friable red sandstone, 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot. 
 
 Area of Spe- 
 cimen. 
 
 Weight that 
 crushed it. 
 
 Value of /= l of 
 the Crushing 
 Force for a 
 Square Foot. 
 
 179-44 lbs. 
 
 20 lines 
 
 5,208 livres 
 
 640,000 lbs. 
 
 174-9 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 119,808 
 
 500,000 
 
 164-06 
 
 2-25 inch. 
 
 24,556 lbs. 
 
 196,000 
 
 
 2-25 
 
 18,636 
 
 149,000 
 
 166-37 
 
 2-25 
 
 14,302 
 
 114,000 
 
 171-06 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 39,168 livres 
 
 165,000 
 
 166-32 
 
 4 
 
 52,704 
 
 220,000 
 
 172-5 
 
 2-25 inch. 
 
 13,632 
 
 109,000 
 
 
 1 
 
 3,216 
 
 57,000 
 
 168-37 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 19,584 livres 
 
 83,000 
 
 170-37 
 
 2-25 inch. 
 
 21,783 lbs. 
 
 174,000 
 
 . . . 
 
 2-25 
 
 16,172 
 
 129,000 
 
 158-12 
 
 2-25 
 
 14,918 
 
 119,000 
 
 153-25 
 
 2-25 
 
 15,550 
 
 124,000 
 
 
 2-25 
 
 12,346 
 
 98,000 
 
 156-62 
 
 2-25 
 
 13,632 
 
 109,000 
 
 151-43 
 
 2-25 
 
 10,284 
 
 82,000 
 
 • • • 
 
 4 
 
 14,918 
 
 67,000 
 
 151-43 
 
 2-25 
 
 10,264 
 
 82,000 
 
 156-68 
 
 2-25 
 
 12,856 
 
 102,000 
 
 147-31 
 
 324 lines 
 
 11,208 livres 
 
 85,000 
 
 129-43 
 
 576 
 
 5,880 
 
 25,000 
 
 141-31 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 7,280 
 
 30,000 
 
 160-68 
 
 4 
 
 26,600 
 
 110,000 
 
 137-12 
 
 25 centim. 
 
 6,125 kilog. 
 
 62,000 
 
 156-25 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 23,380 livres 
 
 97,000 
 
 169-87 
 
 4 
 
 36,142 
 
 150,000 
 
 140-87 
 
 4 
 
 13,720 
 
 58,000 
 
 147-37 
 
 4 
 
 18,112 
 
 77,000 
 
 144-75 
 
 2-25 inch 
 
 7,070 lbs. 
 
 56,000 
 
114 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 No of 
 Expts. 
 
 Substance tried. 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot. 
 
 Area of Spe- 
 cimen. 
 
 Weight that 
 crushed it. 
 
 Value of /=§ of 
 the Crushing 
 Force for a 
 Square Foot. 
 
 31 
 
 Ditto, from another quarry, 
 
 151-75 
 
 2-25 
 
 9,776 
 
 78,000 
 
 32 
 
 Roe stone, Gloucestershire, 
 
 
 2-25 
 
 1,449 
 
 11,500 
 
 33 
 
 Tufa, from Rome, 
 
 76-00 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 3,520 
 
 15,000 
 
 34 
 
 Chalk, 
 
 
 2-25 inch. 
 
 1,127 lbs. 
 
 9,000 
 
 35 
 
 Pumice-stone, 
 
 37-81 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 2,100 
 
 8,900 
 
 36 
 
 Brick, hal’d and well burnt, 
 
 97-31 
 
 378 lines 
 
 5,280 
 
 34,000 
 
 37 
 
 pale red, 
 
 130-31 
 
 2-25 inch. 
 
 1,265 lbs. 
 
 10,100 
 
 38 
 
 red, mean of two trials, 
 
 135-5 
 
 2-25 
 
 1,817 
 
 14,500 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 Stourbridge fire, 
 
 Mortar of lime and sand well beat together, 18 ) 
 
 118-31 
 
 2-25 
 
 3,864 
 
 30,900 
 
 months old,... j 
 
 4 pouces 
 
 2,552 livres 
 
 10,900 
 
 41 
 
 Do. 16 years old, — 
 
 
 4 
 
 2,864 
 
 12,000 
 
 42 
 
 Do. not beaten, 18 months old....... .............. 
 
 101-56 
 
 4 
 
 1,866 
 
 7,900 
 
 43 
 
 Do. of lime and pit sand, 18 months old, 
 
 99-25 
 
 4 
 
 2,475 
 
 10,600 
 
 44 
 
 Do. beaten together, 18 months old, 
 
 118-93 
 
 4 
 
 3,420 
 
 14,600 
 
 45 
 
 Do. of lime and pounded tiles, 18 months old, 
 
 91-06 
 
 4 
 
 2,896 
 
 12,300 
 
 46 
 
 Do. beaten together, 18 months old,. 
 
 103-93 
 
 4 
 
 3,970 
 
 16,900 
 
 47 
 
 Do. do. 16 years old, 
 
 
 4 
 
 4,948 
 
 21,000 
 
 48 
 
 Do. from an ancient wall at Rome, 
 
 89-37 
 
 4 
 
 4,248 
 
 18,000 
 
 49 
 
 Do. from the Pont du Gard, 
 
 93-75 
 
 4 
 
 3,090 
 
 13,000 
 
 50 
 
 Lastrico, brought from Naples, 
 
 62-5 
 
 4 
 
 4,664 
 
 19,400 
 
 Actual 
 load put 
 on stone 
 in practice 
 
 The experiments, Nos. 1, 21, 22, and 36, were made by 
 Gauthey. (Rozier, Journal de Physique , tome iv. p. 406.) 
 Those numbered 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, to 20, 30, 31, 32, 34, 
 37, 38, and 39, were made by Mr. George Rennie. ( Philo- 
 sophical Transactions for tire year 1818.) The others were 
 made by Rondelet. ( Trade de V Art de hdtir , tome i. and 
 tome iii.) We have selected those which will be most 
 useful, with others of a more interesting and curious nature ; 
 such are Rondelet’s experiments on the effect of beating 
 mortar, the strength and density of ancient mortar, and the 
 resistance of stones used in ancient and in modern structures. 
 
 46. It was observed by M. Rondelet, in the course of his 
 very numerous experiments, that it was not the heaviest 
 stones which offered the greatest degree of resistance to 
 compression, but those of a fine even grain and close tex- 
 ture, with a deep colour ; that of granites, the most com- 
 pact and perfectly crystallized were the strongest, ( L’Art de 
 batir, tom. i. 213, 215); and that, when all other qualities 
 were the same, the strength was in proportion to some func- 
 tion of the specific gravity. 
 
 The writers who have contributed to our experimental 
 knowledge of the strength of stones are not numerous. The 
 chief are Emerson, in his Mechanics , 4to. ed. p. 115; 
 Gauthey, in his Memoire sur la Charge que peuvent porter 
 les Pierres in Rozier’s Journal de Physique , tome iv. 
 1774, and in his Construction des Ponts, tome i. p. 267 ; 
 Coulomb, in his Memoires presentes a 1’ Academic, 1773; 
 Rondelet, in his Traite de VArt de batir , tome i. et iii. 
 (The latter volume contains the experiments made by Per- 
 ronet and Soufflot) ; Rennle, in the Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1 81 8, or Philosophical Magazine , vol. liii. ; 
 and Tredgold, in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. lvi. p. 
 290. 
 
 47. The last column in each of the three tables of expe- 
 riments shows the greatest load that we suppose should be 
 borne by a superficial foot of the different kinds of stone 
 contained in those tables. We now propose to give the 
 
 results of some calculations respecting the extent to which 
 stone has in practice been loaded. The foreign ones are 
 reduced to our own weights and measures, and the whole 
 stated in round numbers. 
 
 The pillars of the Gothic church of All-Saints at Angers, 
 of the stone, No. 24, Table III. support on each superficial 
 foot a pressure of 86,000 lbs. 1 The pillars of the dome of 
 the Pantheon at Paris, the lower part of which are of Bag- 
 neux stone, (No. 2151, Table III.), support on each superfi- 
 cial foot 60,000 lbs.' 1 The pillar in the centre of the chap- 
 ter-house at Elgin, which is of red sandstone, supports on 
 each superficial foot 40,000 lbs. 3 The piers which support 
 the dome of St. Paul’s, in London, sustain a pressure on 
 each superficial foot of 39,0001bs. 2 The piers which sup- 
 port the dome of St. Peter’s at Rome, sustain a pressure on 
 each superficial foot of 33,000 lbs. 2 The pressure on the 
 key-stone (No. 23, Table III.) of the Bridge of Neuilly has 
 been estimated for each superficial foot at 18,000 lbs. 4 
 
 In regard to these examples we have to remark, that the cal- 
 culators of them have considered the pressures as uniformly 
 distributed over the pressed surface ; but this can only be 
 true when the direction of the resultant of the straining force 
 coincides with the axis of the pier or pillar ; besides, stones 
 cannot be wrought absolutely level, nor bedded in perfect 
 contact. From these circumstances, the strength of piers, 
 columns, pillars, and arch-stones, should be estimated by 
 equation (12), and when the line of direction falls within 
 the pier, always making y — half the least dimension of the 
 section, an allowance which will include the effect of the 
 greatest possible inequality of action. We shall, in that 
 case, have 
 
 fbP 
 
 dff6d-~ 4 ““'' ( 17 .) 
 
 2 
 
 If the pressure on the Bagneux stone in the piers of the 
 dome of the Pantheon at Paris be estimated by this for- 
 
 1 Gauthey, Rozier’s Journal de Physique, tom. iv p. 409, and Construction des Fonts, tom. i. p. 273. 
 
 2 Rondelet, L'Art de batir, tom. iii. p 74. 
 
 3 Telford, Edinburyh Encyclopedia, Art. Bridge, p. 505. 
 
 * Gauthey, Construction des Ponts, tome i. p. 260. 
 
 v 
 
MASONRY. 
 
 walls. 
 
 Masonry, mula, it will be found that it is sufficient to split the stones, 
 
 ' v" -7 and this has actually happened. 1 
 
 Principles 48. The chief elements of the theory of arches have 
 of arches, already been given in the Article Bridge, (sect, ii.) to 
 domes, &c. w hi c h we re f er the reader, at the same time expressing a 
 hope that the excellent article referred to will be useful in 
 correcting some absurd notions respecting catenarian and 
 other curves, which are too commonly entertained. The 
 conical support of the lantern of St. Paul’s is a fine example 
 of an appropriate form, whilst the catenarian dome of the 
 French Pantheon exemplifies a scientific blunder of the 
 first magnitude. 2 
 
 The principles of domes, of groins, and of vaulting of 
 ' every kind, are the same as those of arches, excepting that 
 each kind has its peculiar manner of distributing the load 
 on the different parts. See prop. M and N, art. Bridge. 
 
 Of the Pressure of Earth, Fluids , fyc., against Walls. 
 
 Pressure 49. When a high bank of earth, or a fluid, is to be sus- 
 of earth tained by a wall, as it is often necessary to do in forming 
 agamst bridges, locks, quays, reservoirs, docks, and military works, 
 the construction is very expensive, however economical the 
 means employed may be ; hence it is desirable to devote 
 some space to an object of which the importance is manifest. 
 
 Let EC, Plate CCCXLV. fig. 8, be the line according to 
 which the earth would separate, if the wall were to yield in 
 a small degree ; then AEC will represent the section of 
 the prism of earth, the pressure of which causes the wall to 
 yield. 
 
 Put W=the weight of the prism AEC, when its length is 
 unity. 
 
 R=.the resistance of the wall, when its length is unity. 
 «=tlie angle EC«, which the plane of fracture makes 
 with a vertical line. 
 
 e=the angle A Co, which the back of the wall makes 
 with a vertical line. 
 
 F=the friction of the earth when the pressure is 
 unity. 
 
 // = the vertical height of the wall aC in feet, 
 and S=the weight of a cubic foot of earth, water, or other 
 matter to be supported. 
 
 If g be the centre of gravity of the prism of earth, the 
 triangles rpg, CaE, being similar, the effort of the prism to 
 slide, in the direction EC, reduced for the friction, will be 
 _ W(1 — F tan, a) 
 
 sec. a \ v 
 
 This effort is to be opposed by the resistance of the wall, 
 which let us suppose to be collected at c, the centre of 
 pressure, and, reducing it to the direction CE, the effect of 
 friction being allowed for, it becomes 
 R(F+ tan. a) 
 
 (19.) 
 
 Hence, in the case of equilibrium, 
 
 W(1 — F tan. a) R(F + tan. a ) 
 sec. a sec. a ’ 
 
 Or, 
 
 V b -f-tan. a J 
 
 50. But, in the case now considered. 
 
 115 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 ( 20 .) 
 
 unity. 
 
 PS t 
 
 Wzz— (tan. i 
 
 tan. c 
 
 the 
 
 Therefore, R = 
 F tan. An 
 
 radius being 
 
 ( 21-1 
 
 PS F (tan, a — tan, c ) x_( 1 - 
 TL F + tan. a J‘ 
 
 And, from the state of the variable quantities in this 
 equation, it is obvious that it has a maximum value, which 
 determines the angle of fracture. By the principles of 
 maxima and minima, the maximum pressure takes place 
 when 
 
 tan. a= — F+ (l +F tan. c + ^+F 2 )" (22.) 
 
 If the angle which the plane of repose (Bridge, Sect. III.) 
 makes with a vertical plane be denoted by i, then 
 
 F= — - — ; and tan. a — 
 tan. i 
 
 — 1 -{-(tan. c tan. 3 f-{-tan. 2 f-{- tan. c tan. ? + l)i (23.) 
 
 tan. i 
 
 If the back of the wall be vertical, tan. c—o, and then 
 this equation reduces to the simple form, which Prony ob- 
 tained, of tan. «=tan. fi. (24.) 
 
 51. When we substitute in equation (21) the value of 
 the tan. a, which has been found in equation (23), it be- 
 
 « 1 • 2 
 comes R=— ; tan. i + tan. c. -j- - 
 
 2 tan. i 
 
 tan. i 
 
 / . tan. c+ 1 \A ) 
 
 (25.) 
 
 tan. i 
 
 And, when the back of the wall is vertical, it becomes 
 
 R = ^(tan.%> (26.) 
 
 The tan. i being the co-tangent of the angle of repose, if 
 the matter to be supported be of so fluid a nature that it 
 naturally assumes a sensibly level surface when at rest, the 
 tan. \i becomes equal to unity, and consequently, 
 
 R=~ (27.) 
 
 The same result may be obtained from the common prin- 
 ciples of hydrostatics in the case of fluids. 
 
 Since the only variable quantity which enters into the 
 calculation of the distance of the centre of pressure is the 
 height h, whatever the nature of the supported material 
 may be ; therefore that distance counted from the base will 
 always be ^h, as in the pressure of fluids. (See Hydro- 
 statics.) 
 
 52. Table IV. — Table of Constant Quantities necessary for calculating the Pressure of some Materials. 
 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Angle of 
 Repose. 
 
 Weight of a 
 Cubic Foot 
 = S 
 
 Value of R in 
 Equation (26.) 
 
 Value of R in 
 Equa. (25) when 
 C2=10°. 
 
 1 
 
 Water, 
 
 0° 
 
 62-5 lbs. 
 
 R=31 \h°- 
 
 R=31-]-/t 2 
 
 2 
 
 Fine dry sand, 
 
 33° 
 
 92 — 
 
 R=13-8 h 2 
 
 ll=4-8/i 2 
 
 3 
 
 Do. moist, 
 
 — 
 
 119 — 
 
 R=17-85/< 2 
 
 Rz=6-2/t 2 
 
 4 
 
 Quartz sand (dry), 
 
 35° 
 
 102 — 
 
 R— 13-77/t 2 
 
 R=4-64/t 2 
 
 1 Gauthey, Construction des Fonts, tome i. p. 273. 
 
 2 La charge considerable que cette voOte devait porter k son sommet, a determine h choisir pour la courbe de son ceintre la chainettt. 
 ( TraitS l Art de bdlir, ii. 308.) 
 
116 
 
 M A S O N II Y. 
 
 Masonry. In sand, clay, and earthy bodies, the natural slopes should 
 
 '“"~v J be taken when the material is dry, and the clay and earth 
 
 pulverised. When any of these bodies are in a moist state, 
 the parts cohere, and the angle of repose is greater, though 
 the friction be actually less. The preceding Table shews 
 that the pressure of water is greater than that of any of the 
 other kinds of matter, and from the nature of fluids it is 
 evident, that if water be suffered to collect behind a re- 
 taining wall, calculated to sustain common earth only, it 
 will most likely be overturned. Such accidents may be 
 prevented by making proper drains. 
 
 53. The preceding analysis will apply, without sensible 
 error, to the curved walls which have lately become fashion- 
 able. Fig. 10 is a section of one of these walls, as execut- 
 ed from a design by Rennie. The vertical height, AB, 21 
 feet ; the wall of uniform thickness, with counterforts 1 5 
 feet apart ; and the front of the walls described by a 69 feet 
 radius, with the centre in the horizontal line DA produced. 
 The wall is built of brick, and the uniform part is 4‘5 feet 
 thick. The radius is usually thrice the vertical height of 
 the wall ; when this proportion is adhered to, the angle c 
 will be ten degrees, for which the value of R is calculated 
 in the Table. 
 
 Resistance of Walls. 
 
 54. In the first place, we propose to investigate the re- 
 sistance a wall offers to being overturned ; and, in so doing, 
 it appears desirable that the resistance of the mortar in the 
 joints should be considered one of the elements of the 
 strength of the wall. Good mortar adds much to the 
 firmness of walls, and still more to their durability, and, all 
 things considered, its first cost is less than that of bad ; be- 
 sides, the resistance of mortar to compression must be con- 
 sidered, for, in practice, we have no perfectly hard arrises 
 to fulfil the conditions of common mechanical hypotheses. 
 
 Put Ar=the area of the wall. 
 
 «'=tlie weight of a cubic foot of masonry. 
 y— the horizontal distance, go, between the vertical 
 passing through the centre of gravity of the wall, and the 
 point where the axis cuts the plane of fracture, the same 
 notation being applied to the other quantities as in the 
 foregoing equations. 
 
 Let G, fig 9, be the centre of gravity of the wall ; and 
 on the vertical Gg set off gl, the height of the centre of 
 pressure : also, let IK represent A x w— the weight of the 
 wall, and HI the force R of the earth. 
 
 Then, completing the parallelogram, El will represent 
 the direction and intensity of the straining force ; conse- 
 
 Resistance 
 of walls. 
 
 , R 
 
 quently, . == tan. a 
 
 Which determines its direction, and its intensity is 
 A w 
 
 COS *Ci 
 
 But, we have found, equa. (10), 
 w 
 
 (28.) 
 
 ; and as W= 
 
 - ; equa. (28.) ; l—fh, art. 
 
 d cos. a-j-6/ sin. a -j- Gy cos. a 
 
 Aw f , . \ R 
 
 equa. (29.) ; tan.a=:- — 
 
 cos.av / A w 
 
 51 ; and bz= unity ; the equation reduces to fd - — Adw — 6 
 Awy=.2Rk. (30.) 
 
 If the section of the wall be a parallelogram, then A— hd, 
 and — \h tan. c= y ; these values of A and y being substi- 
 tuted in equa. (30), it becomes — ichd'- -\-f d- -{- 3h 2 wd tan. 
 c=2Rh. (31.) 
 
 Or, d = 
 
 h-w 
 
 + 
 
 A 
 
 9 tan. 2c\ 
 
 — * i~' )• 
 
 -3 tan. c ( f2\\(f — hw) 
 2 * h‘‘w 2 
 
 When the section of the wall is a rectangle y~ o, therefore Masonry, 
 equa. (31) reduces to 
 
 (33.) 
 
 d—J 2RA 
 
 f—hw 
 
 This last equation is also correct for a wall of which the 
 back is vertical, and the front sloping. We suppress the in- 
 vestigation, to afford the young student an opportunity of 
 proving that the diminution of weight is exactly counter- 
 balanced by the alteration of the distance of the centre of 
 gravity from the axis. 
 
 The tendency of a wall to slide forward may be easily 
 prevented, by giving an inclination to the joints. 
 
 55. To illustrate these rules we shall give two examples, 
 and in these shew the construction of a table, which the 
 reader may enlarge at his pleasure. 
 
 Example I. Let it be required to determine the thick- 
 ness of a rectangular wall for supporting the front of a 
 wharf 10 feet in height, the earth being a loose sand, and 
 the wall to be built of brick. 
 
 The weight of a cubic foot of brick-work may be esti- 
 mated at 100 lbs., and the resistance of mortar being valu- 
 ed at 5000 lbs .per superficial foot, the experimental value 
 being 7900 lbs., Table III. Experiment 42, and the differ- 
 ence an allowance for any irregularity in building, conse- 
 quently, f= 5000 ; ?e=:100 ; and by Table IV. R = 13’8A 2 ; 
 hence equa. 
 
 , d= J 2R/< = J 2 X 13-8 
 
 f—hw 5000 — 1 00/« 
 
 Z»3 
 
 . When h— 10 feet, then the thickness of 
 
 181— 3-62A 
 
 the wall d— 2‘644 feet. If h be made successively 10, 20, 
 30, 40, &c. feet, the numbers under the head of dry sand 
 in the following Table will be obtained, observing that 
 they are only calculated to the nearest tenth of a foot. 
 
 The proper thickness being found for supporting one 
 kind of material, that for any other may be easily deter- 
 mined ; as the thickness varies as the square root of R, 
 equa. (33)- Let the thickness for dry sand be d, then 
 
 */l3 - 8 i av/31'25 : : d‘. L 5d the thickness for supporting 
 
 water, 1 3"8 :*/ 17*85 ’ 'd lT4rf the thickness for sup- 
 
 porting moist sand. In this manner, by means of Tabie 
 IV. the thicknesses for other kinds are easily calculated. 
 
 Example II. If a retaining wall be intended to support 
 a sandy and loose kind of earth, to be constructed of brick, 
 and to be inclined 10 degrees from the vertical, the thick- 
 ness being uniform ; it is required to determine that thick- 
 ness for any given height. 
 
 _ , . , h s w f 3 tan. c 
 
 By equa. (32), d=^-—f + 
 
 (33) 
 
 J 
 
 m c=10°, tan. c-18, 
 lienee — = - 27, and its square = '0729. Also /— 5000, 
 
 and W— 100, consequently, d= 
 
 h- 
 
 50 ~—h 
 
 (_.2- + yA^%. 0729 ) 
 
 Id 
 
 For sandy earth R=4-8/< 2 , therefore d =— — 5 
 " 50 — n 
 
 (32) 
 
 t . - 4*3 \ 
 
 [ — -J '0113) ; and making h successively 10, 
 
 20, & c. feet, the numbers obtained will be the same within 
 
MASON R Y. 
 
 1 17 
 
 Masonry, one-tenth of a foot, as those in the following Table, co- 
 lomn fifth. 
 
 56. Table V A Table of the Thicknesses for Retaining 
 
 Walls, Revetments, Dock-walls, §c. 
 
 Height of 
 Wall. 
 
 Thickness of Rectangular AValls 
 to support. 
 
 Thickness of 
 Leaning and 
 Curved Walls 
 for supporting 
 Dry Sand, the 
 angle of incli- 
 nation being 
 10°. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dry Sand. 
 
 Moist Sand 
 
 1 0 feet 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 
 4-0 feet 
 12-9 
 29-2 
 62-5 
 
 2-7 feet 
 8-6 
 
 19-4 
 
 41-7 
 
 3T feet 
 9-8 
 22-2 
 47-5 
 
 M feet 
 2-8 
 5-2 
 9-2 
 
 Our investigation informs us that the mortar of high walls 
 must be of a superior strength ; indeed, we know that when 
 its consolidation takes place, under considerable pressure, it 
 is of much greater strength. According to what function 
 of the pressure the strength increases, we have not experi- 
 ments to determine, and we therefore point out the circum- 
 stance to the notice of experimental inquirers. 
 
 Construe- 57. The preceding analysis being confined to the condi- 
 tion of tions under which the equilibrium could not be disturbed by 
 
 M alls. jpg pressure, it would he quite unnecessary to consider the 
 
 phenomena of actual fracture, if it were not for the proof 
 which even these phenomena afford of the defects of the 
 common mode of constructing these walls. The back of the 
 wall is generally formed of inferior materials, hence the 
 technical term /ace mortar and backing mortar ; but, even 
 with inferior mortar, the workmanship is so carelessly done, 
 towards the back of the wall, that when it fractures a por- 
 tion is left behind. A moment’s attention to the direction 
 of the pressure (see fig. 9) must shew the importance of 
 using good mortar, and making good bond at the back of 
 the wall ; if any part be neglected it ought to be the middle, 
 which is of least importance, provided the wall be well bound 
 together by cross bond stones. 
 
 The strength of a wall to sustain earth will always be 
 greatly increased by any roughness or irregularity in the 
 back of the wall, such as projecting stones or bricks ; in 
 stone work it is easy to gain much stability by this means. 
 The friction against a smooth M r all must add much to its 
 strength ; we have not thought it necessary to include its 
 effect in our calculations, but intend that, with counterforts, 
 it should be considered as a set-off against accidental pres- 
 sures, &c.’ 
 
 Counterforts are usually placed at about three times the 
 thickness of the wall apart, and are made of the same width 
 as the thickness of the wall. In fig. 1 1 is shewn a plan for 
 building a wall to sustain the pressure of earth according to 
 the form proposed by Vitruvius, (lib. vi. cap. ix.) And 
 fig. 12 is a plan from Perrault’s Notes. Various other plans 
 have been proposed, the chief of which Colonel Pasley has 
 collected in his Course of Fortification ; but most of them 
 have little to recommend them. It seems desirable that 
 every kind of curved work should be avoided ; and perhaps 
 that plan which unites the most economy with the greatest 
 stability is shewn by figs. 13 and 14, Plate CCCXLVI. 
 The spaces A, A, A, are proposed to he filled with gravel 
 or fragments of stone ; the whole of the stone-work to be 
 well bonded ; and the front and back wall of that thickness 
 which is best suited for bond, in the kind of material to be 
 employed. 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 Bond of Walls and Cramps. 
 
 58. It is not sufficient to depend entirely upon the ce- ■ Bon(1 °* 
 menting power of mortar in the construction of walls ; the wa s ‘ 
 stones themselves should also be bound together by their 
 disposition. The art of disposing stones for this purpose is 
 called bonding. Part of the longest stones should be em- 
 ployed to bind the M ali in length, and the other part to bind 
 it cross-ways ; the former are called stretchers, the latter 
 headers. 
 
 Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, shew various methods of 
 bonding walls ; these are selected from Greek and Roman 
 examples. The courses of stone are often irregular, as in 
 fig. 17 ; and in some works we find both irregular courses 
 and broken ones ; that is, such as are intercepted by large 
 blocks of stone. Broken courses should be avoided, because 
 they occasion irregular settlements. 
 
 The bond of walls requires to be most carefully attended 
 to in the construction of piers, angles, and, in general, every 
 part exposed to great strain. 
 
 On this subject it may also be remarked, that crossing 
 the joints properly is a more effectual means of bonding a 
 wall than that of employing very long stones, unless they be 
 very strong ones. For if a stone exceed about three times 
 its thickness in length, it cannot be so equally bedded but 
 that it is liable to break from unequal pressure ; and the 
 fracture commonly takes place opposite to a joint, and there- 
 fore destroys the bond of the wall. This defective mode of 
 construction we have often had occasion to notice. 
 
 In works of hewn stones destined to support great pres- 
 sure, or to bear the action of a heavy sea, it is necessary 
 that the stones should be of great bulk, and connected in 
 the firmest manner. Sometimes this is effected by forming 
 the stones so as to lock them together. The Eddystone and 
 Bell-Rock Light-houses are bound together at the base on 
 this principle. 
 
 Where less strength is required, iron cramps are used, 
 and sometimes pieces of hard stone are dove-tailed into the 
 adjoining blocks. We think cramps of cast-iron might be 
 employed with much advantage in all these cases. 
 
 59- The proper quantity of mortar to be employed in 
 stone-work is another point to which it M ill be useful to di- 
 rect the mason’s attention. A stone cannot be very firmly 
 bedded upon a very thin layer of mortar ; and if the stone 
 be of an absorbent nature, the mortar will dry too rapidly to 
 acquire any tolerable degree of hardness, (Vitruvius, lib. ii. 
 cap. viii.), however well it may have been prepared. On 
 the other hand, if the bed of mortar be thicker than is neces- 
 sary to bed the stone firmly, the work will be a long time 
 in settling, and will never be perfectly stable. 
 
 When the internal part of a wall is built with fragments 
 of stone, they should be closely packed together, so as to 
 require as little mortar as possible. Walls are often bulged 
 by the hydrostatic pressure of mortar, M’hen it is too plen- 
 tifully thrown into the interior, to save the labour of filling 
 the spaces with stones. 
 
 The Myalls of houses are frequently built with hewn stone 
 on the outside, and rubble stone on the inside. The settle- 
 ment of these two kinds of stone-work during the setting of 
 the mortar are so different, that the walls often separate ; 
 or where this separation is prevented by bond stones, the 
 wall bulges outwards, and bears unequally on its base. These 
 evils are best prevented by using as little mortar as possible 
 in the joints of the interior part of the M all, and not raising 
 the wall to a great height at one time. 
 
 Foundations. 
 
 60. The nature of the materials employed in masonry 1 0lin< ’ a ‘ 
 
 1 J J tions. 
 
 1 See Philosophical Magazine, vol li. p. 401, where the effect of such friction is considered. 
 
118 MASONRY. 
 
 Masonry, having been considered, and also the methods of uniting 
 "■“"v— them, we have, in the next place, to turn our attention to 
 the nature of those foundations on which it is commonly re- 
 quired to raise permanent structures of such heavy matter. 
 
 In founding on dry ground, the nature of the foundation 
 is ascertained without much difficulty. When it is found to 
 be of firm hard rock, that will bear the action of the weather, 
 no particular precautions are necessary ; but in all other 
 cases it is desirable to level the trenches to such a depth as 
 will prevent them from being affected by the change of sea- 
 sons. Frost, we believe, seldom penetrates so low as two 
 feet below the surface, (see the article Climate) ; but 
 in clayey ground, the effect of shrinkage, by heat, is often 
 sensible at four feet below the surface; for to that depth the 
 cracks in summer often extend. Consequently, in clay, the 
 depth of the foundations should never be less than four feet, 
 and in heavy buildings, deeper in proportion to the weight 
 they are to support. 
 
 In large works it is also necessary to examine the matter, 
 inclination, and thickness of the under strata, particularly 
 when the upper stratum is of inconsiderable thickness. For 
 this purpose, the older writers on architecture, with much 
 propriety, recommend that a well should be dug near the 
 place, to ascertain these points. A knowledge of the incli- 
 nation and nature of the strata will also be of use in plan- 
 ning drains, a subject of no small importance to the durabi- 
 lity and comfort of a mansion. 
 
 In soft ground the base of the wall should be made wide, 
 and it may be reduced to the proper thickness by small off- 
 sets or steps, as in fig. 20. On clay or dry sand the breadth 
 at the bottom may be double the thickness of the wall. On 
 compact gravel or chalk the breadth may be to the thickness 
 as 3 is to 2. 
 
 If the ground be soft and wet, with a firm bottom within 
 the reach of piles, then piles may be employed with advan- 
 tage ; but they are very likely to rot in a few years, where 
 the ground is not wet ; and, therefore, in the case of soft 
 ground, not sufficiently wet to preserve piles from decay, we 
 should recommend, in preference, a very wide base or foot- 
 ing, well bonded together with bars of cast-iron, disposed so 
 that one part could not settle without causing the adjoining 
 ones to go down at the same time ; and the whole of the 
 base should, for greater strength, be built in the best water 
 cement. 
 
 It is a practice with some architects to employ timber 
 beams and planking in such cases, and in consequence of its 
 decay, in many instances it has been necessary to replace 
 the timber with stone and brick at an enormous expense. 
 It should be a maxim in construction never to employ tim- 
 ber in a permanent structure, where it is not either abso- 
 lutely wet or perfectly dry. 
 
 When ground is very soft and wet, and the solid stratum 
 is beyond the reach of piles, a solid mass may be formed to 
 erect the superstructure upon, by means of a grating of tim- 
 ber, planked over. The brick or stone-work which is built 
 upon the planking should be joined with a water cement. 
 
 When such ground is not absolutely wet, instead of plank- 
 ing we would employ a connected grating of cast-iron, with 
 stone or brick-work built in water mortar. 
 
 In all these cases the greatest difficulty consists in pre- 
 venting irregular settlements ; and hence the advantage of 
 employing wood or iron to bind the base together, and ren- 
 der it as far as possible an inflexible and solid mass. 
 
 In all edifices which press perpendicularly on their foun- 
 dations, the centre of pressure should coincide, as nearly as 
 may be, with the centre of gravity of the surface which sus- 
 tains it. In wharf walls, terrace walls, abutments and piers 
 of bridges, and the like, the resultant of the pressures should 
 
 fall in the centre of gravity of the surface which supports it. Masonry. 
 Foundations are most difficult to manage where the ground v — 
 is irregular, particularly for highly finished buildings, which 
 are so much disfigured by a small settlement. In such cases 
 we would endeavour to procure an inflexible base by means 
 of cast-iron beams. It is a good plan to form counter arches 
 under the openings, provided these arches be carefully built; 
 but where they are not well built, they yield so much as to 
 be no better than common walling. Excavating and re- 
 moving the earth from foundations is frequently a consider- 
 able part of the expense of large works ; hence the peculiar 
 species of management which will economize this branch of 
 labour, has become an interesting subject of investigation. 
 
 We intended to give an outline of the manner of treating 
 it, but we find that it would extend this article far beyond 
 its proper limits. 
 
 61. Founding in water may be done in various ways ; but New me- 
 most of them are very expensive, presenting many difficulties thod of 
 in deep and rapid water. We shall confine our attention to this founding in 
 case only. The best method now in use consists in exclud- vvater> 
 ing the water from the space to be founded upon by means 
 
 of a dam, called a coffer-dam, formed by rows of piles, with 
 bricks or clay between the rows. When bricks are used, it 
 is necessary to caulk the interstices between pile and pile. 
 
 The space is kept clear of water by means of engines, and 
 the foundation deepened and piled if necessary. 
 
 Considering the immense expense and risk of life which 
 is encountered in excluding water of thirty or forty feet 
 depth, we shall here propose, for suitable ground, a more 
 economical and safe method, which is adapted for founding 
 piers, abutments, sea-walls, & c. The space for the founda- 
 tion being cleared, let the space it is to occupy be inclosed 
 by a single row of piles, driven near to one another, but not 
 so close as is necessary for a dam. The upper ends of these 
 piles must be high enough for a stage to be formed upon 
 them; which should be just above the height of floods or 
 tides, as the case may be. From this stage the ground 
 within the inclosure may be excavated, by means of a ma- 
 chine, formed so as to combine the principle of the field 
 plough with that of the dredging-machine. (See Dredg- 
 ing-Machine.) When the foundation has been cleared to 
 a proper depth by this process, and levelled, the stone-work 
 may be built in courses with a proper bed and joint of water 
 cement. (See sect. i. art. 22.) A simple machine might 
 easily be contrived for the purpose. If brick be employed 
 instead of stone, it may be done by forming the bricks into 
 blocks of three feet long and eighteen inches square, with 
 cement, and using these blocks instead of stones. This 
 method of building with blocks is already in use for con- 
 structing sewers in London. When the work is brought to 
 that height which will enable the workmen to proceed in the 
 ordinary manner, either then or afterwards, the piles may be 
 cut off at low- water line, and a cap-sill being fixed upon 
 their tops, they will remain, and serve as a protection to the 
 work below water. 
 
 62. For many purposes it would not be necessary to ex- 
 cavate, nor yet to build in courses ; for example, let us sup- 
 pose it to be the pier of a light bridge, the row of piles 
 being driven in an elliptical form, a strong chain should en- 
 circle it at one or two places, and the internal space filled 
 with rough stones, thrown in with water cement, to fill the 
 interstices between them. As the cement indurated, the 
 whole mass would become one solid stone. This mode of 
 construction is effected on the same principle as that which 
 the French term “ Lesenrochements en be ton;” 1 and wehave 
 the advantage of a much superior cement to any they have 
 employed. 
 
 Gauthey, Construction des Fonts, li. p. 276. 
 
M A SO N R Y 
 
 119 
 
 Masonry. 
 
 III. STONE-CUTTING. 
 
 Of the beds 6.3. Before we proceed to explain the methods of forming 
 or joining stones to the particular shapes required for arches, vaults, 
 surfaces. Sec., it may be remarked, that the young mason shovdd be 
 extremely careful to avoid making the beds of stones con- 
 cave or hollow ; for if this be done in any case where the 
 stones have to bear much pressure, they will flush, or break 
 off in flakes at the joints, and entirely disfigure the work. It 
 is better that they should be slightly convex. In the con- 
 struction of piers and columns, where perfectness of form is 
 at least as much regarded as strength, this maxim should be 
 carefully attended to. Nothing can be more offensive to 
 the eye than a flushed joint, since it not only deforms, but 
 also gives the idea of want of strength. 
 
 Methods of 64. Stone-cutting may be equally well done by various 
 stone-cut- methods ; the most certain consists in forming as many 
 tin £ - plane surfaces to the stone as may be necessary, in such 
 
 manner that these surfaces may include the intended form, 
 with the least waste of stone, or in the most convenient way 
 for applying the moulds. Upon the plane surfaces thus pre- 
 pared, the proper moulds are to be applied, and the stone 
 worked to them. It will generally happen that the bed of 
 the stone will be one of the first plane surfaces, and the ar- 
 rangement should always be made, so that there may be as 
 little re-working as possible. 1 
 
 Describing 65. When an arch is square to the face of the wall, the 
 arches. only difficulty is in drawing it to the proper curve. When 
 the arch is circular, it may be described from a centre, unless 
 . the centre be very distant ; and in that case a method pro- 
 
 posed by Dr. T. Young 2 will be found extremely convenient 
 for the mason’s purposes. Fig. 21 represents the instru- 
 ment. Three points in the curve being known, it is easily 
 adjusted to the curve, and will also answer as a mould in 
 many cases. AB is a straight bar of any convenient length ; 
 at each end, a small roller is fixed by means of two plates 
 of brass ; against these rollers the elastic bar CD slides as 
 it adapts itself to a regular curvature, when moved by the 
 screw E. The natural form of the elastic bar is shewn by 
 C' D', the depth in the middle, H, should be double the 
 depth at either end, and the breadth uniform throughout the 
 length. This bar, when of wood, should be of straight- 
 grained ash, or lance-wood ; the latter is best. 
 
 An elliptic arch may be' described by continued motion, 
 in the following manner. On a straight bar AB, fig. 22, if 
 AC be made equal to the height of the arch, and CB equal 
 to half the span, then if the. end A be moved along a straight 
 edge, ED, while the point B moves along another straight 
 edge, ED, the point C will describe an ellipse. 3 If the bar 
 be made to move on rollers, an arch on a large scale may be 
 easily and accurately described in this way, when a tramnael 
 would become very unmanageable. For other methods see 
 
 ' EuLIPTO GRAPH. 
 
 To find the direction of the joints, with a radius equal to 
 half the span, from the point K, fig. 22, as a centre describe 
 the arc GH, which determines the points G, II, called the 
 foci. Let it now be required to draw the joint I, join IG, 
 and IH, draw LI to bisect the angle GIH, and it is the joint 
 at I. A parabolical arch may be drawn very easily on a 
 large scale by means of tangents. Make AE, fig. 23, equal 
 to the rise CA, and join ED and EB. Draw FG parallel to 
 DB, and divide DF and EG (which are equal) each into the 
 same number of equal parts, then join 11, 22, 33, &c., as is 
 
 shewn in the figure ; a curve drawn to touch these tangents Masonry, 
 is a parabola. Arches are most conveniently drawn on a v -— ■ 
 large scale by means of parallel ordinates ; and an extremely 
 simple method of this kind, for a parabolic arch, has been 
 described by Sir John Leslie. (Inquiry into the Nature oj 
 Heat, p. 503.) Let AB, fig. 24, be the span, and CD the 
 height. Divide AB into twenty equal parts, and raise a 
 perpendicular from each point of section. Let CD be 100 
 by a scale of equal parts, make the next ordinate on each 
 side 99 parts, or 9 X 11, by the scale ; the next pair of or- 
 dinates make 96 parts, or 8 x 12, and so on ; those numbers 
 being respectively as the rectangles of the segments into 
 which AB is divided. To draw the joints of a parabolic 
 arch, let I be a point, at which a joint is to be drawn, fig. 
 
 24; draw Id parallel to BA, and make DT equal to Y)d ; 
 join IT, and make El perpendicular to IT, which is the joint 
 required. 
 
 66. The finest form for a Gothic arch is a cubic parabola, Gothic 
 which is easily constructed from its equation. Observing that arches, 
 the vertex of the curve is at the springing of the arch, and 
 making x the abscissa, and y its corresponding ordinate, by 
 y 3 
 
 the nature of the curve x——. Now, if we make y suc- 
 cessively equal to 1, 2, 3, &c., feet, we shall have -=A; 
 
 8 ii 27_ hi 64_ iv 1 25 v 216 vi 343_ vii 
 
 a a 'a ’a ’a ’a 
 
 512 viii 729 ix 
 
 — =x =:x ;&c. 
 
 a a 
 
 To find a, when x is equal to half 
 
 the span CD, fig. 25, Plate CCCXLVII, and y— the height 
 AD 3 
 
 AD ; we have a — - , . . . If it be desirable that the ordi- 
 
 L U 
 
 nates should be 1 — nth part of a foot apart, then divide 
 each by the n 3 , which gives the dimensions in feet. 
 
 Example. In a Gothic building it is proposed to make 
 an arch to an opening 10 feet wide, the height of which is 
 to be 4 feet 6 inches above the springing line. There CD 
 
 = 5 feet, and AD = 4-5 feet, therefore =— - — = 
 
 CD 5 
 
 18‘225. And using this number for a divisor, the ordinates 
 are easily found, by once setting a slide rule, to be, 
 
 x 
 
 = ■0548 feet o =-0068 feet 
 
 ii 
 
 a = -438 ... 
 hi 
 
 a = 1-48 ... 
 
 IV 
 
 X - 3 51 ... 
 v 
 
 x — 6'86 ... 
 
 ii 
 
 o = -185 
 
 = -857 
 
 And dividing the first, third, and fifth, each by 8 (consider- 
 
 i ii hi 
 
 ingwzz 2),givesthe intermediate ordinates; o , o ,o . The 
 advantage of this method consists in the facility of setting 
 out the work on either a large or small scale. Every prac- 
 tical man is aware of the trouble of dividing a distance into 
 equal parts, or of performing other geometrical operations on 
 a platform or floor ; but here, by an easy arithmetical ope- 
 ration, this is avoided. Draw the springing line CD, and 
 the middle line AD, and let the line EC be drawn parallel 
 
 1 Frazier may be consulted with advantage on this subject. Coupe des Pierres, tome ii. p. 14. 
 
 v Lectures on Natural Philosophy, vol. i. plate vi. fig. 83. This instrument might be usefully applied in ship-building. 
 
 3 See Edinburgh Review, vol. vi. p. 387- A most ingenious extension of the principles of describing curved lines has been invent- 
 ed by Mr. Joseph Jopling, and promises to be of much use in the arts, as well as a curious subject for mathematical speculation. I he 
 system is somewhat obscurely announced in a pamphlet, entitled The Septenary System of Generating Curves by Continued Motion. Lon- 
 don, 1823. 
 
120 
 
 M ASON R Y. 
 
 Masonry. to AD. Beginning at D, make a mark at every six inches tion of the joint. To find the depth of the key-stone, let Masonry. 
 
 the horizontal thrust m — 935 be multiplied by the mean' 
 specific weight of a cubic foot of the materials to form the 
 bridge, and calculate the depth by equation (17). Suppose 
 the mean to be 160 lbs., then the horizontal pressure will 
 
 v — on DA, and also on CE, beginning at C ; then, through 
 these divisions draw the parallel ordinates. Let the ab- 
 scissas be measured off on these ordinates, from the line CE, 
 by a rod divided into feet, tenths and hundredths of a foot. 
 Put a nail in at each point found in the curve, and bend an 
 uniform lath against the nails, and mark the curve. 
 
 Arches for 67. Our next example is for the purpose of shewing the 
 large principles of constructing an arch for a bridge, when the 
 
 bridges. S p an ; s considerable. In the article Biudc.e, prop. S, the 
 
 equation of the curve of equilibrium is found to be y— 
 
 Y i Y* f or a disposition of the load which has place 
 in 
 
 Making x successively 10, 20, 30, 
 
 commonly in bridges. 
 &c. feet, we have 
 
 i 
 
 y 
 
 =^(«+ ie #)- 
 
 n 200 / .Tran 
 
 y = — (a 4 - bbr-.b). 
 
 m 
 
 :J" = 4 A l (a+ ,50i). 
 
 V = 
 
 
 m 
 
 — (a + 2 mU). 
 
 7)1 
 
 1 9A0 
 
 (a + 4l6§5). 
 
 VI 
 
 y ‘ i= (a-}-600ft). 
 
 y 
 
 -(a-f 8l6§ft), &c. &c. 
 
 The curve of equilibrium being to pass at the middle of the 
 depth of the arch-stones, CB, PI. CCCXLII. fig. 26, will be 
 the height = h, and AB the semi- span = S; also let the depth 
 of the arch and roadway at the crown, or a, be 7 feet; andsup- 
 pose the quantity of matter be so regulated by hollow span- 
 
 drils that ft= — Under these conditions we shall have 
 
 S 2 
 
 :S *(“+-H= 
 
 
 If the semi-span be 
 
 feet, and the height 24 feet, then m— 936, and ft = ‘00193. 
 Calculating the ordinates from these data, we shall have 
 i 
 
 in 
 
 y — 
 
 IV 
 
 y 
 
 •375 
 1-52 
 3-5 
 = 6-4 
 = 1 0-4 
 = 15-7 
 
 be 149,760 lbs., and -—- = 149,760; which, considering ft 
 
 y VII =22-4 
 AD =24-0 
 
 Construct the curve according to these ordinates, and divide 
 it for the arch-stones. The joints should be perpendicular 
 to this curve ; but great accuracy is not necessary in this 
 respect, provided the inclination from that perpendicular be 
 considerably within the angle of repose. (See article Bridge, 
 prop. Z.) The joints may be drawn thus, with any radius: 
 from the next division on one side of the joint, a describe an 
 arc, and from the next division on the other side, with the 
 same radius describe another arc to intersect the former one, 
 through the intersection and the division a draw the direc- 
 
 = unity, gives eft- 
 
 599,040 
 
 f ' 
 
 For Craigleith stone, No. 15, 
 
 Table iii., the key-stone should be six feet deep. To find 
 the depth of the arch-stones at any other part of the arch, 
 set off Be equal the depth at the key-stone, and draw be 
 parallel to a tangent to the curve of equilibrium at the point 
 where the depth is to be determined, then be is the depth 
 at that point. The depth at a sufficient number of points 
 being found as above, and set off equally on each side of the 
 curve of equilibrium, the form of the intrados will be deter- 
 mined, which may be terminated by a circular arc at the 
 springing ; and it is not a little remarkable that the arch, 
 thus described from principle, is a pointed arch. 
 
 68. When an arch cuts a plane wall in an oblique direc- Oblique 
 tion, there is a little more scope for the art of the sto»e- arches, 
 cutter. But previously to attempting to proceed further, 
 we would recommend the young student to make himself 
 master of the principles of projection, development, and 
 solid angles. The first section of the article Joinery is 
 wholly restricted to these principles ; all of which being 
 equally applicable to both arts, it will be unnecessary to re- 
 peat them in this place. Let an elliptical arch be supposed to 
 cut a plane wall obliquely, and the walltobe inclined, ABCD, 
 fig. 27, is the plan of the arch ; EF a section at right angles 
 to its direction ; IH a section at right angles to the line AB. 
 
 Project the inclined face of the wall, as shewn at AO PB, by 
 the method of projecting planes (Joinery, sect. 1 and 7) ; and 
 in doing this it will be found an advantage to produce the 
 joints till they cut the base line EF, because the angles will 
 be set out with greater accuracy from long lines. In the 
 case where the wall is vertical, the section and projection 
 of the face are not required. Next let the soffit be devel- 
 oped, on the supposition that the arch is a polygon of as 
 many sides as there are arch-stones. (See Joinery, sect. 1, 
 art. 13.) KLMN shews the development of the soffit or 
 moulds. The form of the bed of each stone is shewn by 
 the planes a, ft, c, and d, and is thus found, for the joint, 4, 
 draw he and mf parallel to EF, and produce the joint 84 on 
 the development to cut he in g ; set off ge equal to 4 i, and 
 draw ef parallel to 48 ; then, a line drawn from e through 
 the point 4, will give the bevel at one end, and a line 
 drawn from f through 8 gives the bevel at the other end ; 
 its width is equal to 4 k on the section. As there are no 
 curved parts, except the soffit of the arch, the stones may 
 be worked by means of bevels, without having moulds made 
 tor the soffits and beds. 2 
 
 69- When a road crosses a canal in an oblique direction, Oblique or 
 the bridge is often made oblique. When the angle does skew 
 not vary more than ten or twelve degrees from a right angle, bridges, 
 the arch-stones may be formed as already described ; but 
 in cases of greater obliquity, a different principle of con- 
 struction is necessary. These cases should, however, be 
 avoided wherever it is possible ; as, however solid the con- 
 struction of an oblique bridge may be in reality, it has 
 neither that apparent solidity nor fitness which ought to 
 characterise an useful and pleasing object. An oblique arch 
 may be constructed on the principle of its being a right arch 
 
 ' Monge, in an elaborate article on the application of Descriptive Geometry to the use of Architects, has drawn a very erroneous con- 
 clusion respecting the joints of vaults and arches ; for it is the direction of the pressure, and not the form of the soffit, which determines the 
 best direction for a joint ; but the views developed in the article Bridge were not known at the time Monge wrote. In othei respects, the 
 article of Monge is well worthy of the attention of the mason. ( See Geometric Descriptive, article 130, 4me ed. Paris, 1820. ) 
 
 2 Our method is analogous to that called Biais par Ahrege by the French writers. (See Frezier, tome ii. p. 133.) Other methods are 
 given by Frezier, Simonin, Rondelet, Nicholson, &c. in the works referred to at the end of this article- 
 
MASON!! Y. 
 
 121 
 
 Masonry, of a larger span, as is shewn in fig. 28. Let ABCD be the 
 v -— -v — J plan, and EFGH the corresponding points in the eleva- 
 tion, in this elevation the dotted lines shew the parts which 
 would not be seen. The joints of the arch are supposed to 
 be divided upon the middle section, and therefore drawn to 
 the mean centre K, which corresponds to the point I on the 
 plan. Divide AD into any number of equal parts as at 1, 
 2, 3, &c. and transferring these points to the elevation ; de- 
 scribe the arch belonging to each point, and also draw the 
 parallel lines 11, 22, & c. on the plan. To find the mould 
 for the arris of any joint, as a, draw ab parallel to the base 
 line EF, and from a , as a centre, transfer the distances of 
 the points where the arches cut the joint, to the line ab. 
 Then let fall perpendiculars from the points in the line ab 
 to the lines 1 1 , 22, &c. in the plan, whence we find a, m, 
 n, o, p, in the curve of the mould for the arris of the joint 
 a. The mould for any other joint may be found in the same 
 manner. The ends of the arch-stones will be square to the 
 joints, sm&pcde will be the mould for one end, and acdf the 
 mould for the other end. It will be of some advantage in 
 working the arch-stones to observe, that the arch-stone 
 being in its place, the soffit should be everywhere perfectly 
 straight in a direction parallel to the horizon. 1 
 Arches in 70. If it be required to construct an arch in the wall of 
 circular a circular building, as in fig. 29, where ABCD is the plan 
 
 walls. of the wall, the elevation EF should be drawn, and the joints 
 
 in the same manner, as if the arch were in a plane wall. 
 The curved surface of the soffit should be correctly develop- 
 ed by the process described in the article Joinery, art. 13, 
 and the moulds made of some flexible material ; these soffit 
 moulds are shewn at a , b, c, & c. The mould for the joint 
 2 may be found by dividing the joint into any number m, 
 n, &c. parts ; and let a perpendicular fall from each point of 
 division to the curved lines representing the faces of the 
 wall on the plan, and from each point in which the curved 
 lines are intersected by these perpendiculars, draw a line 
 parallel to EF. Also, from 2, as a centre, transfer the di- 
 visions on the joint to the horizontal line f 2, and from 
 thence let perpendiculars fall, which will cut the lines that 
 are parallel to EF in the points through which the curves 
 of the mould must be drawn, as shewn by the shaded part 
 P on the plan. Any other joint may be described in the 
 same manner. 2 In the figure, the section is drawn, because 
 it shews somewhat more distinctly the size of the arch- 
 stones ; it is not necessary in finding the moulds, except 
 the face of the wall be inclined, a case of very rare occur- 
 rence in practice. An arch in a circular wall always has 
 the appearance of a want of strength on the convex side ; 
 and when the curvature is considerable, it becomes abso- 
 * lutely insecure. The method describing the raking mould- 
 ings, so as to mitre with horizontal ones, has been explain- 
 ed in the article Joinery, and the same methods apply in 
 masonry. 
 
 Stairs. 71. Respecting the general principles of stairs, we may 
 
 also refer the reader to Joinery, art. 39, 40, where the pro- 
 portions of steps, &c. are shewn ; in masonry the kinds 
 termed geometrical stairs are the only ones which offer any 
 considerable difficulty in the execution. Each step of a 
 geometrical stair is partly supported by wedging its end in- 
 to the wall of the staircase, and it is further strengthened 
 by resting upon the step below it. The outward end of a 
 seriesof these steps is represented by fig. 7, Plate CCCXLV ; 
 the line abc shews the form of the joint between two ad- 
 joining steps ; in the straight part of a flight of stairs, ab is 
 made about an inch, and the part be is made perpendicular 
 
 to the soffit of the stair, and of such a depth as may be re- Masonry, 
 quired for the kind of stone. As this depth is determined' 
 by the mean depth necessary to render a stair safe, we shall 
 here give an example of computing the mean depth of a step 
 for Craigleith stone, by equa. 16 (art. 41). Put ?e=the 
 greatest uniform load on a square foot, including the weight 
 of the stone itself, — 300 lbs. the horizontal distance between 
 C and D (fig. 6), =10 feet, and the length of the step BD 
 
 * , . w X (CD) 2 x (DB) 2 Jo 
 =6 feet, then y (CUS + DE ,- ) =<l-. « 
 
 J 
 
 300 X 100 X 36 
 26,000 x( 100 + 36/ 
 
 :’55 feet, the mean depth GII, fig. 7. 
 
 That part of a step which is inserted into the wall of the 
 staircase is made about eight or nine inches long for ordi- 
 nary staircases, but ought to be longer when the steps are 
 longer. Steps, and landings, and balconies, should be made 
 to bear as evenly and firmly as possible upon their supports ; 
 and from a little consideration of the nature of the strains 
 to be resisted in such operations, the mason may perhaps 
 derive some instruction, since a mistaken view of the sub- 
 ject is likely to be attended with serious consequences. 
 
 Let AB, fig. 30, Plate CCCXLVII., be a step fixed in a 
 wall, CD being the face of the wall, and CA the part in- 
 serted in the wall. It will be obvious that the weight of 
 the projecting part DB, of the step, with any load upon it, 
 will tend to raise the fixed part at A, and to depress it at 
 C. But it will require a less force at A to sustain the step 
 than at any other point between A and D ; and the nearer 
 to D, the greater the strain will be, consequently a greater 
 risk of failure. Hence the effectual resistance on the upper 
 side should be at the extremity, A, of the step, and the sup- 
 port at C should be immediately at the face of the wall. 
 
 We have often observed in stone stairs where steps are al- 
 ternately in straight flights and winding ones, the soffit of 
 the stair to be irregular, with sudden and abrupt changes 
 of form where the winding steps began and terminated. 
 
 These may always be avoided, by making a development 
 of the ends of the steps, and forming the abrupt changes 
 into easy curves, as a joiner does the hand-rail of a stair. 
 
 (See Joinery, fig. 43.) 3 
 
 The earliest author on stone-cutting appears to have been liters on 
 Philibert De L'Orme, who, in the introduction to the fourth stone . cut . 
 book of his w r ork, remarks, that he had “ never heard ofting. 
 anything that had been written on stone-cutting, either by 
 ancient or modern architects.” The labours of De L’Orme 
 on this subject form the third and fourth books of his Trea- 
 tise on Architecture , Paris, 1567, in folio. We shall close 
 this article w ith the following list of some other authors 
 on stone-cutting, in the order they were published : — Ma- 
 thurin Jousse,Le Secret de l’ Architecture, 1642, folio. Fran- 
 cois Derrand, E Art des Traits et Coupe des Voutes, Paris, 
 
 1643, folio. Abraham Bosse, Practiquedu Trait a preuves 
 de M. Desargues, 1643. J. B. De la Rue, Trade de la 
 Coupe des Pierres, folio, 1728 ; this was a republication 
 of Derrand’s work, w ith additions. Batty Langley, An- 
 cient Masonry, London, 1733, folio. Frezier, Trade de 
 la Coupe des Pierres, 3 tomes 4to, 1737-1739- Ency- 
 clopedic, article Ma^onnerie. Encyclopedic Mithodique, 
 Ma^onnerie, 1785. Simonin, Trade Elementaire de la 
 Coupe des Pierres, 4to, 1792. P. Nicholson, Carpenters’ 
 and Joiners’ Assistant, 4to, London, 1797. J. Rondelet, 
 
 Trade Theorique et Practique de V Art de bdtir, tom. ii. 
 
 4 to, Paris, 1804. (g. g. g. g.'I 
 
 1 For further information respecting oblique or skew bridges, the reader may consult Gauthey, Construction des Fonts , tom. i. p. :i90 ; 
 Chapman, in Rees' Cyclopaedia, art. Oblique Arch ; and the article Navigation, Inland, in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. 
 
 * Other methods are given by Frdzier, Nicholson, & c. 
 
 3 The French methods of constructing stairs differ considerably from those of our own country ; but it would extend this article too 
 much to explain them ; therefore, the reader may consult the works of Frdzier, Rondelet, and Simonin, where he will find these methods 
 detailed. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 Carpentry 
 
 defined. 
 
 Joinery 
 
 defined. 
 
 Joinery. Is one of the useful arts which contributes most mate- 
 s ~— ■ ‘V"””' rially to the comfort and convenience of man. As the 
 arts of joinery and carpentry are often followed by the 
 same individual, it appears, at first view, natural to con- 
 clude, that the same principles are common to both these 
 arts. But a closer examination of their objects leads us to 
 a different conclusion. 
 
 The art of Carpentry is directed almost wholly to the 
 support of weight or pressure ; and, therefore, its principles 
 must be found in the mechanical sciences. In a building, 
 it includes all the rough timber-work necessary for sup- 
 port, division, or connection ; and its proper object is to 
 give firmness and stability. See the Article Carpentry. 
 
 The art of Joinery has for its object the addition in a 
 building of all the fixed wood-work necessary for conve- 
 nience or ornament. It is the Intestinum opus of Vitru- 
 vius, and the Menuiserie des batmens of the French. 
 
 The joiner’s works are many of them of a complicated 
 nature, and require to be executed in an expensive mate- 
 rial ; therefore joinery requires much skill in that part of 
 geometrical science which treats of the projection and de- 
 scription of lines, surfaces, and solids, as well as an inti- 
 mate knowledge of the structure and nature of wood. 
 
 It may also be remarked, that the rough labour of the 
 carpenter renders him in some degree unfit to produce that 
 kind of accurate and neat workmanship which is expected 
 from a modern joiner. 
 
 Progress of £n early times, very little that resembles modern joinery 
 ^neryin was known ; every part was rude, and joined in the most 
 n g an • ar tless manner. The first dawnings of the art appear in 
 the thrones, stalls, pulpits, and screens of our cathedrals 
 and churches ; but, even in these, it is of the most simple 
 kind, and is indebted to the carver for every thing that is 
 worthy of regard. Whether in these monuments, the car- 
 ver and the* joiner had been one and the same person we 
 cannot now determine, though we imagine, from the mode 
 of joining in some of them, that this was the case. 
 
 During several centuries joinery seems to have been 
 gradually improving, but nothing appears to have been 
 written on the art before 1677? when Mr Joseph Moxon, a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, published a work, entitled 
 Mechanick Exercises , or the Doctrine of Handgivorks. In 
 this work the tools, and common operations in joinery, are 
 described, with a collection of the terms then in use. It 
 must have been a valuable work at that time, but to a mas- 
 ter in the art it would convey little if any thing that was 
 new. Sash-windows were introduced into England some 
 time before the date of Moxon’s work, but he has not no- 
 ticed them. According to the observations of Dr Thom- 
 son this important improvement has not yet found its way 
 into Sweden. 1 
 
 About the beginning of the last century several works 
 of a most interesting kind made their appearance. Forms 
 began to be introduced in architecture, which could not 
 be executed at a moderate expense without the aid of new 
 principles, and these principles were discovered and pub- 
 lished by practical joiners. As might naturally be ex- 
 pected, these authors had but confused notions, with a 
 scanty portion of geometrical knowledge ; and, according- 
 ly, their descriptions are often obscure, and sometimes er- 
 roneous. 
 
 The hand-rails of stairs offered many difficulties, and an 
 imperfect attempt to remove them was first made by Half- 
 
 penny, in his Art of Sound Building, published in 1725. Joinery. 
 Price, the author of the British Carpenter, published in v '— "v"""*' 
 1733, was more successful, and his remarks show a con- 
 siderable degree of knowledge of the true nature and ob- 
 ject of his researches. 
 
 The publication of Price’s work must have produced a 
 considerable sensation among joiners, for it was soon fol- 
 lowed by many other works of different degrees of merit. 
 
 Of these the works of Langley and Pain were the most 
 popular. 
 
 The establishment of the principles of joinery, on the 
 sound basis of geometrical science, was reserved for Ni- 
 cholson. In his Carpenters'’ Guide, and Carpenter and 
 Joiners’ Assistant, published in 1792, he has made some 
 most valuable corrections and additions to the labours of 
 his predecessors. 
 
 Corresponding improvements were also made in the 
 practice of joinery, for which we are much indebted to the 
 late Mr James Wyatt. This celebrated architect kept to- 
 gether some of the best workmen in London, who were 
 looked up to with a degree of emulation by young men, 
 which had a beneficial effect on the progress of joinery. 
 
 But the art is still far short of perfection. We conceive 
 that many of those operations, on which the soundness of 
 work chiefly depends, might be done with greater exact- 
 ness, and less labour, by means of tools contrived for these 
 purposes. The truth and certainty which have been in- 
 troduced in block-making, is sufficient to encourage some 
 one to extend the same manner of mortising in joinery. 
 
 See Block-Machinery. 
 
 The principles of joinery were cultivated in France by Progress of 
 a very different class of writers. In the extensive work of Joinery i>» 
 Frezier, entitled Coupe des Pierres et des Bois, 3 vols. 4to, France. 
 1739, all the leading principles are given and explained 
 with tedious minuteness, offering a striking contrast to the 
 brevity of our English writers. The first elementary work 
 on that part of geometrical science, which contains the 
 principles of joinery, appeared in France in 1705, from the 
 pen of the celebrated Gaspard Monge, who gave it the 
 name of Geometrie Descriptive. Much of what has been 
 given as new in English works, had been long known on 
 the Continent ; but there does not appear to have been 
 much, if any, assistance derived from these foreign works 
 by any writer prior to Nicholson. 
 
 The latest French work which treats of joinery is Ron- 
 delet’s Id Art de Bdtir. It is also the best foreign work 
 on the subject that we have seen ; but it is not at all 
 adapted to the state of joinery in England. In practice, 
 the French joiners are very much inferior to our own 
 Their work is rough, slovenly, and often clumsy, and at 
 the best is confined to external effect. The neatness, 
 soundness, and accuracy, which is common to every part 
 of the works of an English joiner, is scarcely to be found 
 in any part of the works of a French one. The little 
 correspondence, in point of excellence, between their 
 theory and practice, leads us to think that their theoreti- 
 cal knowledge is confined to architects, engineers, &c. in- 
 stead of being diffused among workmen, as it is in this 
 country. 
 
 In cabinet-work the French workmen are certainly su- 
 perior, at least as far as regards external appearance ; but 
 when use, as well as ornament, is to be considered, our 
 own countrymen must as certainly carry away the palm. 
 
 ‘ Travels in Sweden, p. 0. 
 
124 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Joinery. The appearance of French furniture is much indebted to a 
 'y - '-'' superior method of polishing, which is now generally known 
 in this country. 1 For many purposes, however, copal var- 
 nish (such as coachmakers use) is preferable ; it is more 
 durable, and bears an excellent polish. 
 
 Geometri- Geometry is useful in all, and absolutely necessary in 
 cal know- some, parts of a joiner’s business ; but it is absurd to en- 
 ledge ne- CO unter difficulties in execution, and to sacrifice good 
 cessary. t as te, convenience, economy, and comfort, merely for the 
 
 purpose of displaying a little skill in that science. It is, 
 however, a common fault among such architects as are 
 better acquainted with geometrical rules than with the 
 production of visible beauties, to form designs for no other 
 purpose than to create difficulties in the execution. 
 
 But, when geometrical science is properly directed, it 
 gives the mind so clear a conception of the thing to be 
 executed, that the most intricate piece of work may be 
 conducted with all the accuracy it requires. 
 
 Practice of The practice of joinery is best learned by observing the 
 Joinery, methods of good workmen, and endeavouring to imitate 
 then?. But the sooner a workman begins to think for him- 
 self toe better ; he ought always to endeavour to improve 
 on the processes of others ; either so as to produce the same 
 effect with less labour, or to produce better work. 2 
 
 We intend, in this article, to give a plain and simple ex- 
 position of the most valuable principles of the art of join- 
 ery, which will, we hope, place many parts of the practice 
 under a new point of view, and ultimately tend to improve 
 them. 
 
 Cabinet- Cabinet-making, or that part of the art of working in 
 Making, wood which is applied to furniture, has little affinity with 
 joinery, though the same materials and tools be employed 
 in both. Correctness and strict uniformity are not so es- 
 sential in moveables as in the fixed parts of buildings ; 
 they are also more under the dominion of fashion, and 
 therefore are not so confined by rules as the parts of build- 
 ings. 
 
 Cabinet-making offers considerable scope for taste in 
 beautiful forms, and also in the choice and arrangement of 
 coloured woods. It requires considerable knowledge in 
 perspective, and also that the artist should be able to sketch 
 with freedom and precision. 
 
 If the cabinet-maker intend to follow the higher depart- 
 ments of his art, it will be necessary to study the different 
 kinds of architecture, in order to make himself acquainted 
 with their peculiarities, so as to impress his works with the 
 same character as the rooms they are to furnish. 
 
 In as far as regards materials, and the principles of join- 
 ing work, the cabinet-maker will find some useful informa- 
 tion in the second and third sections of this article. In 
 ornamental composition he may derive much benefit from 
 Tatham’s Etchings of Ancient Ornamental Architecture , 
 London, 1799 ; Perrier and Fontaine’s Recueil des Decora- 
 tions Interieures comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a 
 VAmeublement , Paris, 1812; and, for general information, 
 the Cabinet Dictionary , and the Cabinet-Maker and Up- 
 holsterer’s Drawing-Book of Sheraton, may be consulted. 
 
 Sect. I. — On maring Working Drawings. 
 
 1. In this section we propose to lay before the reader 
 the most important part of .the principles of describing, on 
 a plane surface, the lines necessary for determining bevels, 
 forming moulds, or any other purpose required in the prac- 
 tice of joinery. The limits within which such an article as 
 
 joinery must be confined, in a work like this, will not permit Joinery, 
 us to enter much into detail on the various points to be il- ' 
 
 lustrated in this section ; but we hope, by judicious selec- 
 tion, to place under one point of view the principles that 
 are most useful to the joiner. 
 
 Projection of Bodies. 
 
 2. A clear idea of the nature of projection is so essential Nature of 
 in making working drawings, that, in our endeavours to il- Projection 
 lustrate it, we cannot proceed upon principles too simple, illustrated. 
 In the first stage of such an inquiry, experiment furnishes 
 
 at once the most clear and satisfactory evidence, parti- 
 cularly to those who are not familiar with mathematical 
 subjects. 
 
 If some small pieces of wood, or pieces of wire, were 
 joined together, so as to represent the form of a solid body, 
 a cube for example, and if this figure were held between 
 the sun and the surface of a plane board, then the shadow 
 of the figure upon the board would be its projection upon 
 that plane. From this simple experiment, it will appear, 
 that the projection of any line placed in the direction of 
 the sun’s rays will be a point : the projection of any line 
 parallel to the plane will be of the same length as the line 
 itself, and the projection of any line inclined to the plane 
 will be always shorter than that line. 
 
 3. We have supposed the board to be placed at any 
 angle with the direction of the rays of the sun ; but, for our 
 present purpose, it is sufficient to consider them to fall per- 
 pendicularly upon it ; hence it is obvious, that to project a 
 straight line upon a plane, a perpendicular to the plane 
 should be let fall from each end of the line, and the line 
 joining the points where the perpendiculars meet the plane 
 will be the projection required. 
 
 When a projection is made upon a horizontal plane, it is 
 usually called a plan of the body. When the projection is 
 upon a vertical plane, it may be an elevation or a section of 
 the body ; it is a section when a portion is supposed to be 
 cut off ; and the plane of projection is usually parallel to the 
 plane of the section. 
 
 4. Bodies may be divided into three classes, according 
 to the kinds of surfaces by which they are bounded. The 
 first class, comprehending those which are bounded by plane 
 surfaces, such are cubes, prisms, pyramids, and the like. 
 
 The second class contains those which are bounded in part 
 by plane surfaces, and the rest by curved surfaces, as cy- 
 linders, cones, &c. The third, including those which are 
 bounded by curved surfaces onlv, as spheres, spheroids, 
 
 &e. 
 
 The projections of the first class of bodies will consist of 
 straight lines ; those of the second class, of curved as well 
 as straight lines ; and those of the third class, of curved 
 lines only. 
 
 4. Let ABCD, and CDEF, Fig. 1, be two plane sur- Projection 
 faces, connected by a joint at CD, so that while the plane of lines. 
 
 CDEF remains horizontal, the 
 plane ABCD may be placed per- 
 pendicular to it, and thus repre- 
 sent a vertical plane. Then, if a 
 line be so placed in space that ab 
 is its projection on the vertical 
 plane, and a'b' its projection on 
 the horizontal plane, its projection 
 on any other vertical plane, HGEC, 
 may be determined. This is easily 
 effected, for we have seen, that if a perpendicular be drawn 
 
 1 The method of making and using the French polish is minutely described in Dr Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy , vol. xi. p. 1 19 
 
 and 371. , 
 
 2 Descriptions of the tools, with instructions for using them, may be found in Moxon’s work before quoted, and in Nicholsons 
 Mechanical Exercises, Taylor, London, 1812. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 125 
 
 J oinery. 
 
 To deter- 
 mine the 
 length of a 
 projected 
 line. 
 
 Projection 
 of planes. 
 
 Projection 
 of curved 
 lines. 
 
 Fig- 2. 
 
 to the plane from each end of the given line, they will give 
 the positions of the ends of the line in the projection (Art. 3). 
 Now, the same thing will be done, by drawing a' a" and 
 Vb" perpendicular to EC, and setting off the points a" and 
 V at the same height above EC respectively, as a and b 
 are above CD, then the line a”b" is the projection re- 
 quired. 
 
 The heights may be transferred from one vertical plane 
 to another when they are both supposed to be laid flat, by 
 drawing the line IC, so as to bisect the angle ECD, and if 
 cb be parallel to CD, meeting IC in c, then a line drawn 
 parallel to EC, from the point c, will give the height of the 
 point b", and so may be found the height of any other 
 point. 
 
 6. In the particular case we have drawn, none of the 
 projections represents the real length of the given line. To 
 obtain this length, draw a! e parallel to CD, and with the 
 radius ab' describe the arc V e cutting a' e in e; draw de 
 perpendicular to CD, cutting the line cb\nd\ join ad, and 
 it is the length of the given line. 
 
 The real lengths of lines frequently are not given, there- 
 fore another general method of finding them will be found 
 useful, and which may be stated as follows : the length of 
 an inclined line projected upon a plane is equal to the hy- 
 pothenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which one side is 
 the projection upon the plane, and the other side is the dif- 
 ference between the perpendicular distances of the extremes 
 of the line from the plane. 
 
 7. In fig. 2, a'b' cd represents the horizontal projection, 
 or plan, of a rectangular surface, and the elevation ab 
 
 shows its inclination ; and its pro- 
 jection against another vertical 
 plane, making any angle ECD 
 with the former, or plane of eleva- 
 tion, is shown by a"b" d d'. GC 
 being perpendicular to EC, and A C 
 perpendicular to CD, the heights 
 may be transferred by means of 
 arcs of circles described from C as 
 a centre. This is a better method 
 than that by bisecting the angle given in fig. 1 ; but neither 
 of them so good, in practice, as setting of the heights with 
 the compasses, or with a lath. In our figures it is desira- 
 ble to shew the connection of corresponding parts as much 
 as possible; therefore, the reader will bear in mind that 
 many of the operations we describe may be done with fewer 
 lines when the operator is fully master of his subject. 
 
 8. It may be further noticed in this place, that when a 
 point is to be determined in one line by the intersection of 
 another, the lines should cross each other as nearly at right 
 angles as possible ; for, when the intersecting lines cross 
 very obliquely, a point cannot be determined with any to- 
 lerable degree of accuracy. 
 
 9- A curved line can seldom be projected by any other 
 means than by finding a number of points through which 
 the projected line must be drawn, or finding a series of 
 tangents to the section. In giving an example of the pro- 
 jection of a body bounded by a curved surface, we shall 
 select a case of frequent occurrence in practice, referring 
 to the Geometrie Descriptive of Monge, for more general 
 methods. 
 
 Let ABC be part of the plan of the base of a solid, fig. 3, 
 and FED its end elevation ; the upper side of the solid 
 being bounded by the curved surface FD. This solid is 
 supposed to be cut at AB by a plane perpendicular to the 
 base, and our intention is to shew the form of the section. 
 
 Draw EH parallel to BA, and GIHE will represent the 
 plane upon which the section is to be projected. Set off 
 
 any convenient number of points, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the given Joinery. 
 
 curve FD,from each of these points v 
 I *£• 3 - draw a line perpendicular to ED, 
 
 to meet BA ; and from the points 
 in BA, thus determined, erect per- 
 pendiculars, which will cut HE at 
 right angles. Make GH equal to 
 FE, and set off the points 1, 2, 3, 
 
 &c. in GHE at the same distances 
 respectively from HE as the cor- 
 responding points 1, 2, 3, &c. in 
 EFD are from the line ED. A 
 curve being drawn through the 
 points E, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, G will com- 
 plete the section. In large works, 
 the joiner will often find it useful to put nails in the points, 
 and to bend a regular lath against the nails ; with the as- 
 sistance of the lath, the curve may be drawn with more 
 regularity. 1 
 
 If the curve FD were very irregular, or a mixed line of 
 straight parts and curved ones, the same method would de- 
 termine the section ; all the caution required is, that a suf- 
 ficient number of points should be fixed upon in the given 
 curve ; and upon the proper selection of these points much 
 of the accuracy of the section will depend. 
 
 The angle ribs of groined ceilings, the angle ribs for 
 coved ceilings, or brackets for large cornices, and the angle 
 cantilevers for balconies or other works of a similar kind, 
 are found by this method. If FD be the cross rib of a 
 groin, then GE will be the form of the corresponding angle 
 rib. Also, if the angle of a room be represented by LAC, 
 and FD be the cove for the ceiling, then GE will be the 
 proper angle rib for such a cove. 
 
 In some cases, the section may be determined by means 
 of the properties of the given curve, when the nature of 
 that curve is known. Thus the oblique section of a cylin- 
 der is an ellipse, and the sections of a cone are certain fi- 
 gures depending on the direction of the plane of section 
 (see the article Conic Sections) ; but if an architect were 
 confined to the use of geometrical curves, there would be 
 small scope, indeed, for a display of taste in his art ; there- 
 fore the joiner must generally have recourse to the simple 
 method we have described. 
 
 1 0. The section of a body may often be drawn by a more 
 simple and direct process ; and yet where the principle is 
 still the same. Thus the section of the half cylinder 
 ACB, in fig. 4, being compared with the process in fig. 3, 
 
 will be found to be the 
 same in every respect, ex- 
 cepting in the position of 
 the parts of the figure. In 
 fig. 4, ACB is the end or 
 plan of the cylinder, and 
 DE the inclination of the 
 plane by which it is cut. Let 
 the ordinates a 1, b 2, &c. 
 in the plan, be drawn per- 
 pendicular to AB, and con- 
 tinued till they cut the in- 
 clined line DE. Also draw 
 the ordinates a! V, b' 2', &c. 
 perpendicular to the line 
 DE, and make the distan- 
 ces a'V, V 2', &c. respectively equal to the corresponding 
 distances a 1 , b 2, &c. upon the plan. Through the points 
 E, 1', 2', See. draw the curve DFE. 
 
 As the curve DFE is an ellipse, when ABC is a circle, 
 in that case it will be better to draw an ellipse with a train- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 1 A simple and convenient instrument for this purpose is described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, vol. xxxv. 
 
 p. 10b. 
 
126 
 
 J O I N E R Y. 
 
 Joinery, mel, or any other machine that produces the curve by a 
 continued motion. (See the article Elijptograph.) DE 
 is the transverse, and F d the semi-conjugate axis of the 
 ellipse. 
 
 The most important application of the case, in fig. 4, is 
 to the hand-railing of a staircase, with a curvilineal well- 
 hole, or opening down the middle. For, if Ae, or aB, 
 show the breadth of the rail, ArCaB would be its plan ; 
 and 1) e' F a' E the form of a mould, commonly called a 
 face mould, for cutting out the rail by, when DE is the in- 
 clination of the plank. We cannot, however, proceed di- 
 rectly to the subject of stair-rails, without considering the 
 development of the surfaces of bodies. 
 
 To deve- 
 lope a py- 
 ramid. 
 
 To deve- 
 lopea cone, 
 
 Development of Surfaces. 
 
 11. To develope the surface of a solid, is to draw, on 
 some plane surface, a form that would cover it. If this 
 form were drawn upon paper, and the paper were cut to it, 
 the paper, so cut, ought to cover exactly the surface of the 
 solid. Now, in joinery, it is often required that a mould 
 should apply to a curved surface ; and, therefore, the deve- 
 lopment of that surface upon a flexible material gives the 
 form of the mould. 
 
 The covering of a square pyramid may be found by erect- 
 Fi°. 5 ing a perpendicular from the middle of one 
 of the sides of its base, as from a in the side 
 AB, fig. 5. Upon this perpendicular set off 
 a C equal to the slant height of the pyra- 
 mid ; then, with the radius AC and cen- 
 tre C describe the arc A3, and set off 
 the distance AB three times upon the 
 arc. Join the points C3, C2, Cl, CA, 
 and CB, and draw the lines 32, 21, 1 A, 
 which determine the covering requir- 
 ed. 
 
 It is obvious, that we could develope a pyramid of which 
 the base might have any number of sides, by the same me- 
 thod ; and that a near approximation to the development 
 of a right cone might be effected by the same means, 
 which, in fact, is the means usually employed. But the fol- 
 lowing method of spreading out the surface of a cone will 
 be found more correct. 
 
 12. Let ABC, fig. 6, be the elevation of a cone, and 
 ADB half the plan of its base. With the 
 radius AC describe the arc AE, which will 
 be the line bounding the development; 
 and, to find the length of the arc, or rather 
 the angle containing it, multiply 360 by 
 the radius A a of the base, and divide the 
 product by the slant height AC of the cone ; 
 the quotient will be the number of degrees 
 in the arc AE, when the surface ACE ex- 
 actly covers the whole cone. Thus, let A a 
 
 Fig. 
 
 be 12 feet, and AC 40 feet ; then 
 
 360 X 12 
 _ 40 
 
 = 108 degrees, 
 
 ana making ACE an angle of 108 degrees, we have the 
 sector ACE that would cover the cone. 
 
 This applies to the soffits of windows, where they are 
 enlarged towards the inside, to admit light more freely than 
 square recesses would do. If ab be the width of the soffit, 
 draw cb parallel to AB, and from the centre C describe 
 the arc cd. Then half the developement AE cd will be 
 the mould for the soffit ; or the form of a veneer that would 
 cover it. 
 
 To deve- 13. The development of a cylinder is also of use in 
 Under C ^" f° rm ' n g tlie mould for soffits, but is still more useful in the 
 construction of stairs ; and, as we are obliged to consider 
 
 it as a prism with numerous sides, it is obvious that anv Joinery, 
 other body of a like kind may be developed by the same v «— - v— ~ 
 means. 
 
 Let ABC, fig. 7, be the plan of half a cylinder, and A'E 
 its height. Divide the curve ACB into any convenient 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 number of equal parts, and let these parts be set off from 
 C to A, and from C to B'. When the curve is a semicir- 
 cle, divide the diameter AB into the proposed number of 
 parts, and make «D equal to three-fourths of the radius. 
 
 From D, through the points A and B, draw the lines DA', 
 
 DB', then A'B' is nearly equal to the curve ACB stretched 
 out and, by drawing a line from D through each of the 
 divisions in AB, the line A'B' will be divided into the, same 
 number of equal parts. 
 
 In either case, erect a perpendicular from each point of 
 division, and EA'B'F will be the development of the sur- 
 face. 
 
 If we suppose A'B' to be divided into the number of 
 steps that would be necessary to ascend from B to A, in a 
 circular staircase, the development of the ends of these 
 steps may be drawn as in the upper part of the figure. The 
 projection G of the cylinder, with the lines of the develop- 
 ment drawn upon it, and the ends of the steps, shews the 
 waving line formed by the nosings of the steps, and conse- 
 quently by the hand-rail of a circular staircase. 
 
 When a part of a cylinder is cut off by a plane, the line 
 of section will be a curved line upon the development, as 
 is shewn in the lower part of the development, fig. 7- The 
 faint lines shew the manner of finding the edge of the co- 
 vering, and is the same as finding a mould for a soffit form- 
 ed by an arch cutting obliquely into a straight wall. 
 
 14. In an oblique cone, the lines drawn on its surface, To deve- 
 from its base to the vertex, would be of different lengths ; lope an ob- 
 and as those lengths are not shewn by the plan or eleva- li( l ue cone * 
 tion, they may be had by means of the principle stated in 
 art. 6. 
 
 Let ABC, fig. 8, be the given cone, and AEB a plan of 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 1 This has been shown by Dr C. Hutton, in his Mathematical Tracts, vol. i. p. 160. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 127 
 
 Joinery, half its base ; to find the development, produce AB, and 
 -v— '"from the vertex C let fall the perpendicular CD. Divide 
 the circumference of the base into any number of equal 
 parts, and from each point of division describe an arc from 
 D, as a centre, to cut the line AB at 1, 2, 3, &c. From 
 C, as a centre, describe the arcs A A', 11, 22, &c. and with 
 a radius equal to one of the divisions of the circumference 
 of the base, and the centre B cross the arc 55, which de- 
 termines the point 5 in the development, with the same 
 radius, and the point 5, as a centre cross the arc 44, and so 
 on for the remainder of the arcs. Join A'C, and draw a 
 curve line through the points A', 1 , 2, &c. which gives the 
 covering for half an oblique cone. 
 
 If the cone be cut by a plane, a b, parallel to the base, 
 the surface B b a' A! will be the covering of a soffit for a 
 conical arch cutting obliquely into a straight wall. 
 
 To find the 1 5. As it often happens that there is not a sufficient 
 covering of space between the head of a door, or a window, and the 
 cornice of the ceiling, to admit of the same bevel being 
 preserved at the crown or top, as at the sides of the win- 
 dow ; in such cases the soffit is made level at the crown, or 
 with such an inclination only as will prevent the architrave 
 cutting into the cornice of the room. 
 
 Let ABCD, fig. 9, be the plan of the space to be cover- 
 ed with a soffit, ED the arch of half the opening, which is 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 a soffit. 
 
 in its proper position when set perpendicularly over the line 
 CD ; and let F c be the height of the arch over AB. Pro- 
 duce AC. and BD to meet, at G ; set off cm equal to c F, 
 and 3 n equal to 3 E, then draw a line through the points 
 m n, which will give the inclination of the soffit at the high- 
 est part of it. Divide the arch ED into any number of 
 equal parts (in our example we have only divided it into 
 three parts), and from each point of division let fall a per- 
 pendicular to CD, meeting the line CD in the points 1, 2. 
 Through these points draw the lines G a, G b, cutting the 
 line AB in the points a b, and from each point erect a per- 
 pendicular to AB. Set off, on 3 n, the heights of the points 
 in the curve ED, and divide the line me in the same pro- 
 portion as n 3, which will give the corresponding heights 
 for the arch FD, and through the points thus found the 
 arch FD should be drawn. 
 
 Make G o perpendicular to GE, cutting a line passing 
 through the points m n in o, and draw lines through the 
 corresponding points of division in the lines me, 7i 3, so that 
 G o may be divided in the same proportion as n 3. Draw 
 Gp perpendicular to GD, and equal to Go, and set off 
 upon it the same distances as are upon Go. Then, with 
 a radius Gl, and the first division on Gp, as a centre, de- 
 scribe an arc at s, and with a radius equal to one of the 
 divisions of the arc ED and D as a centre, cross the arc s, 
 
 which gives one point. Also, with a radius G 2, and the Joinery, 
 second division on G p as a centre, make an arc at t, which, ~ v — - / 
 
 being crossed by an arc described with a radius, equal to 
 one of the divisions of the arc ED, and s as a centre, de- 
 termines another point in the edge of the covering. Pro- 
 ceed in the same manner till half the development of one 
 edge be completed ; the other edge will be obtained by 
 drawing lines through the points s, t , u, from the corres- 
 ponding points in G p, and making sw equal to a 1 ; tx 
 equal to b 2, &c. 
 
 As both sides are the same, the soffit mould for one side 
 requires only to be reversed for the other side. If the sof- 
 fit be level at the crown, the process may be rendered 
 shorter ; but, where it is possible to get space for a slight 
 inclination, the appearance of the soffit is always materially 
 improved. 
 
 If the plan of the wall be circular, find the develop- 
 ment of the arc ED as before, and transfer the distances 
 from CD of the points in the curved wall, to the corres- 
 ponding lines in the development, in the same manner as 
 was done to find the edge B w x y. 
 
 16. The development of a sphere, or globe, can be ef-To deve- 
 fected only by an approximate process, as it is impossible l°P e a 
 to apply a plane surface so as to touch more than one point s P here * 
 at a time ; but various methods may be employed which 
 
 are useful in forming spherical surfaces. 
 
 A sphere may be divided into numerous zones, the sur- 
 face of each zone may be considered as that of the frustum 
 of a cone, and developed in the same manner as has been 
 described for a portion of a cone in art. 1 2. The upper 
 part of fig. 10 shews half a sphere developed in this man- 
 ner : and when it is divided into very T; fr . [q. 
 
 narrow zones, the covering found by 
 this process has some advantages, in 
 practice, that are peculiar to it. 
 
 17. The surface of a sphere may 
 also be developed by inscribing it in 
 a cylinder, LMNO, fig. 10, and con- 
 sidering a small portion, or gore, ABD, 
 to coincide with the surface of the 
 cylinder. Then, if the portion ABD, 
 considered as part of a cylinder, be 
 developed by the process described 
 in art. 13, one gore, ABrf will be 
 obtained ; and by dividing the circumference of the sphere 
 into any number of equal parts, and making AB equal to 
 one of these parts, the same mould will serve for the whole 
 of the sphere. 
 
 Another method of developing a sphere consists in sup- 
 posing it to be a polyhedral, or many-sided figure ; but this 
 method has no advantage over the preceding ones, while 
 it has the inaccuracies of both of them. 
 
 In lining and boarding domes, the position of the ribs to 
 which the boards are to be fixed will determine the method 
 of developement that ought to be adopted ; but the form 
 of the veneers for a spherical surface may be determined 
 by either method. 
 
 To determine the Angle formed by two Inclined Planes. 
 
 1 8. The angle made by two planes which cut one ano- To find the 
 ther, is the angle contained by two straight lines drawn angle of 
 from any, the same, point in the line of their common sec- planes in- 
 tion, at right angles to that line ; the one in the one plane, t ' inc< * to 
 and the other in the other. 1 This angle is the same as^® r ano ' 
 that which the joiner takes with his bevel, the bevel being 
 
 always applied so that its legs are square from the arris, or 
 common section of the planes. 
 
 1 This is the definition given by Professor Playfair, in his Elements of Geometry, and it is better suited to our purpose than Euclid’s 
 definition. 
 
 VOL. XII. 4 H 
 
128 
 
 JOINER Y. 
 
 Joinery. If two lines, AB and CD, be drawn upon a piece of paste- 
 board, at right angles to one another, crossing at the point 
 E, and the pasteboard be cut half through, according to 
 
 Fig. II 
 
 
 the line AB, so that it may turn 
 upon that line as a joint ; then, to 
 whatever angle, CED, fig. 11, the 
 \ parts may be turned, the lines EC 
 
 and ED will be always in the same 
 plane.' Also, a line FD, drawn 
 from any point D, in the line ED, 
 to any point, F, in the line EC, will 
 be always in the same plane. From 
 these self-evident properties of 
 planes, it is easy to determine the 
 angle formed by any two planes, 
 when two projections, or one projection and the develop- 
 ment of the surfaces, are given. 
 
 19. Let ABC, fig. 12, be the plan of part of a pyramid, 
 
 Fig. 12. and BD the elevation of the arris, 
 
 or line formed by the common sec- 
 tion of the planes in respect to the 
 line EB ; EB being the projection 
 of that arris upon the plan. 
 
 Draw AC perpendicular to EB, 
 cutting it in any point E, and from 
 E draw EF perpendicular to DB. 
 With the radius EF, and centre E, 
 cross EB in f, and join A/ and fC, 
 then the angle A/C is the angle 
 formed by the planes of the pyra- 
 mid. 
 
 The angle may be constructed 
 when the plan and elevation of any 
 two lines drawn in thepla nes, so as to intersect in the arris, 
 are given ; but as these projections are not often given in 
 drawings of joiners’ work, we have inserted the preceding, 
 though it be a less general method. 1 
 
 The backing, or angle for the back of hip-rafters in car- 
 pentry, and of hipped sky-lights, is found in this manner ; 
 ABC being, in that case, supposed to be the plan of an 
 angle of the roof or sky-light, and DB the inclination of 
 the hip-rafter. 
 
 20. To shew how the angle formed by two planes may 
 be found when the plan and development are given, let it 
 be required to find the angle contained by the two faces of 
 a square pyramid, fig. 5. 
 
 Draw FB perpendicular to AC, and with the radius BF, 
 and centre B, describe the arc FG. Then, with the ra- 
 dius DB, and centre F, cross the former arc in G, join BG, 
 and FBG is the angle formed by two, the inclined faces of 
 the pyramid. 
 
 Raking Mouldings. 
 
 Kaking 21. When an inclined or raking moulding is intended to 
 mouldings. join with a level moulding, at either an exterior or an in- > 
 terior angle, the form of the level moulding being given, it 
 is necessary that the form of the inclined moulding should 
 be determined, so that the corresponding parts of the sur- 
 faces of the two mouldings should meet in the same plane, 
 this plane being the plane of the mitre. It may be other- 
 wise expressed, by saying that the mouldings should mitre 
 truly together. 
 
 If the angle be a right angle, the method of finding the 
 form of the inclined moulding is very easy ; and as it is not 
 very difficult for any other angle, it may perhaps be best 
 to give a general method, and to illustrate it by examples 
 of common occurrence. 
 
 Fiff. 13. 
 
 General Method of describing a Raking Moulding , when Joinery- 
 the Angle and the Rake, or inclination of the Moulding, s — — - ' 1 
 
 is given. 
 
 Let AB C, fig. 1 3, be the plan of the angle of a body, General 
 
 which is to have a level method, 
 moulding on the side AB ; 
 and this level moulding is 
 to mitre with an inclined 
 moulding on the side BC. 
 
 Also, let CBD be the 
 angle the inclined moulding 
 makes with a level or hori- 
 zontal line BC. 
 
 Produce AB, and draw 
 C b perpendicular to AB ; 
 also make DC perpendicu- 
 lar to BC, and d C perpen- 
 dicular to b C. Set off C d 
 equal to CD, and join bd ; 
 then the inclined moulding must be drawn on lines parallel 
 to b d. 
 
 Let 1, 2, 3, 4, & c. be any number of points in the given 
 section of the level moulding ; from each of these points 
 draw a line parallel to b d, and draw A 6' perpendicular to 
 bd. Set off the points 1', 2', 3', 4', &c. at the same dis- 
 tances respectively from the line A 6', as the correspond- 
 ing points 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. are from the line AB, and through 
 the points V, 2', 3', Sec. draw the moulding. The mould- 
 ing thus found will mitre with the given one ; also, suppos- 
 ing the inclined moulding to be given, the level one may 
 be found in like manner. 
 
 If the angle ABC be less than a right angle, the whole 
 process remains the same ; but when it is a right angle, BD 
 coincides with bd; and the method of describing the mould- 
 ing becomes the same as that usually given ; as it does not 
 then require the preparatory steps which are necessary 
 when the angle is any other than a right angle. 
 
 22. It is in pediments, chiefly, that the method of form- p or 
 
 Fig. 14 represents part of me nts. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 ing raking mouldings is of use. 
 
 a pediment ; AB is that part of toe evel moulding which 
 mitres with the inclined moulding; all that part of the cor- 
 nice below B, being continued along the front, the lower 
 members of the raking cornice stop upon it, and, therefore, 
 do not require to be traced from the other. 
 
 In that part of the cornice marked AB, set off a suffi- 
 cient number of points ; and from each of these points draw 
 a line parallel to the rake, or inclination of the pediment. 
 Also, let a verticle line be drawn to each of the same points 
 from the horizontal line rs. Make s't perpendicular to the 
 inclination of the pediment, and with a slip of paper, or by 
 
 1 On this subject the reader may consult Monge’s Geometric Descriptive, Art. 19 et 20, par. 23 and 24, 4th edition, Paris, 1020. 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 129 
 
 Joinery, means of arcs of circles,' transfer the distances on rs to 
 “V— — ' the line r's, and from the points thus found, draw lines 
 parallel to st ; the intersection of these, with the inclined 
 lines, will determine the form of the moulding, as is indi- 
 cated by the letters. 
 
 When a pediment has a cornice with modillions, the caps 
 of the modillions require to be traced by the same method. 
 For skirt- 23. It sometimes happens, that an inclined base-mould- 
 ings. ing has to mitre with a level one at an angle ; and as the 
 same thing occurs still more frequently with other mould- 
 ing, such as cornices under the steps of stairs, &c. we shall 
 give another example, which will serve still farther to illus- 
 trate the method of proceeding in such cases. 
 
 In fig. 15, a raking base-moulding is shewn, where the 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Remarks 
 
 inclined moulding B is traced to mitre with the horizontal 
 moulding C ; and the horizontal moulding A is traced to 
 mitre with the inclined one B. The preceding examples 
 being understood, the lines and letters in the figure will be 
 sufficient to show the mouldings are traced. 
 
 24. Mouldings being almost the only part of modern 
 on mould- joiners’ work, which can, in strictness, be called ornamen- 
 ings ‘ tal, and consequently that in which the taste of the work- 
 man is most apparent, we shall offer a remark or two that 
 may have their use. The form of a moulding should be 
 distinct and varied, forming a bold outline of a succession 
 of curved and fiat surfaces, disposed so as to form distinct 
 masses of light and shade. If the mouldings be of consi- 
 derable length, a greater distinction of parts is necessary 
 than in short ones. 
 
 Mouldings for the internal part of a building should not, 
 however, have much projection ; the proper degree of shade 
 may always be given, with better effect, by deep sinkings 
 judiciously disposed. The light in a room is not sufficient- 
 ly strong to relieve mouldings, without resorting to this 
 method ; and hence it is that quirked mouldings are so 
 much esteemed. 
 
 Qualifica- 
 tions of a 
 good 
 joiner. 
 
 Sect. II. — On the Construction of Joiners’ Work. 
 
 25. The goodness of joiners’ work depends chiefly upon 
 the care that has been bestowed in joining the materials. 
 In carpentry, framing owes its strength to the form and 
 position of its parts ; but in joinery, the strength of a frame 
 depends upon the strength of the joinings. The import- 
 ance, therefore, of fitting the joints together as accurately 
 as possible, is obvious. It is very desirable, that a joiner 
 should be a quick workman ; but it is still more so that he 
 should be a good one ; that he should join his materials 
 with firmness and accuracy ; that he should make surfaces 
 even and smooth, mouldings true and regular, and the parts 
 intended to move so that they may be used with ease and 
 freedom. 
 
 Where dispatch is considered as the chief excellence of 
 a workman, it is not probable that he will strive to improve 
 
 angles. 
 
 himself in his art, further than to produce the greatest Joinery, 
 quantity of barely tolerable work with the least quantity of^— 
 labour. In some articles of short duration, dispatch in the 
 manufacture may be of greater importance ; but in works 
 that ought to remain firm for years, it certainly is bad eco- 
 nomy to spare a few shillings’ worth of labour at the risk 
 of being annoyed with a piece of bad work as long as it 
 will hold together. 
 
 We have seen, with no small degree of pleasure, the 
 effect of encouraging good workmanship in the construc- 
 tion of machinery, and would recommend that a like en- 
 couragement should be given to superior workmen in other 
 arts. 
 
 Joining Angles. 
 
 26. When the length of a joint at an angle is not con- On joining 
 siderable, it is sufficient to cut the Fig. 16. 
 
 joint, so that when the parts are join- 
 ed, the plane of the joint shall bisect 
 the angle. This kind of joint is shewn 
 for two different angles, by fig. 16. 
 
 When an angle of considerable 
 length is to be joined, and the kind 
 of work does not require a joining 
 should be concealed, fig. 17 is often 
 employed ; the small bead renders the 
 appearance of the joint less objectionable, 
 because any irregularities, from shrinkage, 
 are not seen in the shade of the quirk of 
 the bead. 
 
 A bead upon an angle, where the na- 
 ture of the thing does not determine it to 
 be an arris, is attended with many ad- 
 vantages ; it is less liable to he injured, and admits of a 
 secure joint, without the appearance of one. Fig. 18 shews 
 Fig. 18. Fig. 16. Fig. 20. 
 
 a joint of this description, which should always be used in 
 passages. 
 
 Fig. 19 represents a very good joint for an exterior angle, 
 whether it be a long or short one. Such a joint may be 
 nailed both ways. But the joint represented by fig. 20 is 
 superior to it ; the parts being drawn together by the form 
 of the joint itself, they can be fitted with more accuracy, 
 and joined with certainty. The angles of pilasters are often 
 joined, as fig. 20. 
 
 Interior angles are commonly joined, as shewn by fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 21. If the upper or lower edge be visible, the 
 • 1 joint is mitred, as in fig. 16, at the edge 
 
 only, the other part of the joint being groov- 
 ed, as in fig. 21. In this manner are put 
 together the skirting and dado at the inte- 
 rior angles of rooms, the backs, and back- 
 linings of windows, the jambs of door-ways, 
 and various other parts of joiners’ work. 
 
 Framing. 
 
 27. Frames in joinery are usually connected by mortise The object 
 tenon joints, with gooves to receive pannels. Doors, win-offram- 
 dow-shutters, &c. are framed in this manner. The object in S- 
 in framing is, to reduce the wood into narrow pieces, so 
 that the work may not be sensibly affected by its shrink- 
 
130 
 
 Joinery. 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Joining 
 
 curved 
 
 pieces. 
 
 age ; and, at the same time, it enables us to vary the sur- 
 face without much labour. 
 
 From this view of the subject, the joiner will readily per- 
 ceive, that neither the parts of the frame nor the pannels 
 should be wide. And as the frame should be composed 
 of narrow pieces, it follows, that the pannels should not be 
 very long, otherwise the frame will want strength. The 
 pannels of framing should not be more than 1 5 inches wide, 
 and 4 feet long, and pannels- so large as this should be 
 avoided as much as possible. 1 The width of the framing 
 is commonly about one-third of the width of the pannel. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance, in framing, that the tenons 
 and mortises should be truly made. After a mortise has 
 been made with the mortise chisel, it should be rendered 
 perfectly even with a float ; an instrument which differs 
 from a single cut, or float file, only by having larger teeth. 
 An inexperienced workman often makes his work fit too 
 tight in one place, and too easy in another, hence the mor- 
 tise is split by driving the parts together, and the work is 
 never firm ; whereas if the tenon fill the mortise equally, 
 without using any considerable force in driving the work 
 together, is is found to be firm and sound. The thickness 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 of tenons should be about one-fourth 
 of that of the framing, and the width 
 of a tenon should never exceed about 
 five times its thickness, otherwise, 
 in wedging, the tenon will become 
 bent, and bulge out of the sides of 
 the mortise. If the rail be wide, 
 two mortises should be made, with 
 a space of solid wood between ; 
 fig. 22 shews the tenons for a wide 
 rail. 
 
 In thick framing, the strength and firmness of the joint 
 is much increased by putting a cross or feather tongue in 
 on each side of the tenon ; these tongues are about an 
 inch in length, and are' easily put in with a plough proper 
 for such purposes. The projected figure of the end of a 
 rail, fig. 22, shews these tongues put in, in the style there 
 are grooves ploughed to receive them. 
 
 Sometimes, in thick framing, a double tenon in the thick- 
 ness is made ; but we give the preference to a single one, 
 when tongues are put in the shoulders, as we have describ- 
 ed ; because a strong tenon is better than two weak ones, 
 and there is less difficulty in fitting one than two. 
 
 The pannels of framing should be made to fill the grooves, 
 so as not to rattle, and yet to allow the pannels to shrink 
 without splitting. 
 
 28. When a frame consists of curved pieces, they are 
 Fig. 23. often joined by means of pieces of 
 
 ^ ^ hard wood called keys. Fig 23 is 
 
 JiSiJU the h ea d of a Gothic window frame, 
 
 joined with a key, with a plan of the 
 joint below it. A cross tongue is 
 put in on each side of the key, and 
 the joint is tightened by means of 
 the wedges a a. 
 
 It is, however,, a better method to 
 join such pieces by means of a screw 
 bolt instead of a key, the cross tongues being used which- 
 ever method is adopted. 
 
 Joining with Glue. 
 
 Joining 29. It is seldom possible to procure boards sufficiently 
 with glue, wide for pannels without a joint, on account of heart shakes, 
 
 
 which open in drying. In cutting out pannels, for good Joinery, 
 work, shaken wood should be carefully avoided. That part — —n J 
 near the pith is generally the most defective. 
 
 If the pannels be thick enough to admit of a cross or 
 feather tongue in the joint, one should always be inserted, 
 for then, if the joint should fail, the surfaces will be kept 
 even, and it will prevent light passing through. 
 
 Sometimes plane surfaces of considerable width and 
 length are introduced in joiners’ work, as in dado, window 
 backs, &c. ; such surfaces are commonly formed of inch, 
 or inch and quarter, boards joined with glue, and a cross 
 or feather tongue ploughed into each joint. When the 
 boards are glued together, and have become dry, tapering 
 pieces of wood, called keys, are grooved in, across the back, 
 with a dovetail groove. These keys preserve the surface 
 straight, and also allow it to shrink and expand with the 
 changes of the weather. 
 
 30. It would be an endless task to describe all the me- Glueingup 
 thods that have been employed to glue up bodies of such curved 
 varied forms as occur in joinery; for every joiner forms wor ^* 
 methods of his own, and merely from his being most fami- 
 liar with his own process, he will perform his work, accord- 
 ing to it, in a better manner than by another, which, to 
 
 an unprejudiced mind, has manifestly the advantage over 
 it. The end and aim of the joiner, in all these operations, 
 is to avoid the peculiar imperfections and disadvantages of 
 his materials, and to do this with least expense of labour 
 or material. The straightness of the fibres of wood ren- 
 ders it unfit for curved surfaces, at least when the curva- 
 ture is considerable. Hence short pieces are glued toge- 
 ther as nearly in the form desired as can be, and the ap- 
 parent surface is covered with a thin veneer ; or the work 
 is glued up in pieces that are thin enough to bend to the 
 required form. Sometimes a thin piece of wood is bent to 
 the required form upon a cylinder or saddle, and blocks 
 are jointed and glued upon the back ; when the whole is 
 completetely dry it will preserve the form that had been 
 given to it by the cylinder. 
 
 The proper thickness for the pieces to be bent may be To deter- 
 easily determined by an easy experiment on a piece of the mine the 
 same kind of wood. Thus, select a piece of wood, of the thickness 
 same kind as that to he used, and bend it as much as it ° - e ^g to be 
 will bear without injury ; then ascertain the radius of cur- gjuTd to- 
 vature, and also the thickness of the piece, at the most gether. 
 curved part of it. From these data the proper thickness 
 for any other curve will be determined by the following 
 proportion : 
 
 As the radius of curvature, found by experiment, is to 
 the thickness of the piece tried ; so is the radius of any 
 other curve to the thickness of the piece that may be bent 
 into it. 1 
 
 For example, we have found that a piece of straight 
 grained white deal, of an-, inch in thickness, may be bent, 
 without injury, into a curve of which the radius is 120 
 
 radius 
 
 inches, therefore, 120:1:: radius : thickness = ^ That 
 
 is, a piece of deal of the same quality may be bent into any 
 curve, of which the radius is not less than 120 times its 
 thickness. 
 
 A piece of work glued up in thicknesses should be very 
 well done ; but it too often happens that the joints are vi • 
 sible, irregular, and in some places open ; therefore other 
 methods have been tried. 
 
 31. If a piece of wood be boiled in water for a certain Bending 
 time, then taken out and immediately bent into any parti- f’J steam - 
 
 ‘'I lnrr nr 
 
 cular form, and it be retained in that form till it be dry, a 
 
 boiling. 
 
 1 Pannels of external doors and shutters may be rendered more secure by boring them, and inserting iron wires. See Trans, of the 
 Society of Arts, vol- xxv. p. 106. 
 
 2 The reader will find some interesting propositions relating to fixture in the Article Carpentry, p. 624, vol. ii. 
 
JOINER Y. 
 
 131 
 
 Joinery, permanent change .takes place in the mechanical relations 
 of its parts ; so that though, when relieved, it will spring 
 back a little, yet it will not return to its natural form. 
 
 The same effect may be produced by steaming wood ; 
 but though both these methods have been long practised to 
 a considerable extent in the art of ship-building, we are 
 not aware that any general principles have been discovered, 
 either by experiment or otherwise, that will enable us to 
 apply it to an art like joinery, where so much precision is 
 required. We are not aware that it has been tried; but, 
 before it can be rendered extensively useful, the relation 
 between the curvature to which it is bent, and that which 
 it assumes, when relieved, should be determined, and also 
 the degree of curvature which may be given to a piece of 
 a given thickness. 
 
 The time that a piece of wood should be boiled, or steam- 
 ed, in order that it may be in the best state for bending, 
 should be made the subject of experiments ; and this being 
 determined, the relation between the time and the bulk of 
 the piece should be ascertained. 
 
 For the joiner’s purposes, we imagine, that the process 
 might be greatly improved, by saturating the convex side 
 of each piece with a strong solution of glue, immediately 
 after bending it. By filling, in this manner, the extended 
 pores, and allowing the glue to harden thoroughly before 
 relieving the pieces, they would retain their shape better. 
 
 32. Large pieces of timber should never be used in join- 
 ery, because they cannot be procured sufficiently dry to 
 prevent them splitting with the heat of a warm room. 
 Therefore, the external part of columns, pilasters, and works 
 of a like kind, should be formed of thin pieces of dry wood ; 
 and, if support be required, a post, or an iron pillar, may 
 be placed within the exterior column. Thus, to form co- 
 lumns of wood, so that they shall not be liable to split, nar- 
 row pieces of wood are used, not exceeding five inches in 
 width. These are jointed like the staves of a cask, and 
 glued togethei - , with short blocks glued along at each joint. 
 Fig. 24 is a plan of the lower end of a column glued up 
 
 Glueing up 
 
 wooden 
 
 columns. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 in staves ; the bevel at A is used for 
 forming the staves, that at B is used 
 for adjusting them when they are 
 glued together. A similar plan must 
 be made for the upper end of the co- 
 lumn, which will give the width of the 
 upper end of the staves. The bevels 
 taken- from the plan, as at A and B, 
 are not the true bevels ; but they are 
 those generally used, and are very nearly true, when the 
 columns are not much diminished. To find the true bevels, 
 the principle we have given in art. 1 9 should be applied. 
 The same method may be adopted for forming large pillars 
 for tables, &c. . 
 
 If a column have flutes, with fillets, the joints should be 
 in the fillets, in order to make the column as strong as pos- 
 sible ; also, if a column be intended to have a swell in the 
 middle, proper thickness of wood should be allowed for it. 
 
 When columns or pillars are small, they may be made of 
 dry wood ; and to secure them against splitting, a hole may 
 
 Small co- 
 lumns, ta- 
 ble legs, be bored down the axis of each column. 
 & c. 
 
 Fixing 
 work to- 
 gelher. 
 
 Fixing Joiners’ Work. 
 
 33. We have hitherto confined our remarks to that part 
 of joinery which is performed at the bench ; but by far the 
 most important part remains to be considered. For, how- 
 ever well a piece of work may have been prepared, if it be 
 not properly fixed, it cannot fulfil its intended purpose. 
 As in the preceding part, we shall state the general prin- 
 ciples that ought to be made the basis of practice, and il- 
 lustrate those principles by particular examples. 
 
 If the part to be fixed consist of boards jointed together, 
 
 but not framed, it should be fixed so that it may shrink, or Joinery, 
 swell without splitting. The nature of the work will gene- ' 
 rally determine how this may be effected. Let us suppose 
 that a plain back of a window is to be fixed. Fig 25 is a 
 Fig. 25. section shewing B the back of the win- 
 dow, A the window-sill, D the floor, and 
 C the skirting. The back is supposed to 
 ^ be prepared, as we have stated in art. 29, 
 and that it is kept straight by a dovetail- 
 ed key a. Now, let the back be firmly 
 nailed to the window-sill A, and let a nar- 
 row piece d, with a groove, and cross 
 tongue, in its upper edge, be fixed to bond 
 timbers or plugs in the wall ; the tongue 
 being inserted also into a corresponding 
 groove in the lower edge of the back of B. 
 
 It is obvious, that the tongue being loose, the back B may 
 contract or expand, as a pannel in a frame. The dado of 
 a room should be fixed in the same manner. In the prin- -p— 
 cipal rooms of a house, the skirting C is usually grooved skirting 
 into the floor D, and fixed only to the narrow piece d, for rooms, 
 which is called a ground. By fixing, in this manner, the 
 skirting covers, the joint, which would otherwise soon he 
 open by the shrinking of the back, and from the skirting 
 being grooved into the floor, but not fastened to it, there 
 cannot be an open joint between the skirting and floor. 
 
 When it is considered, that an open joint, in such a situa- 
 tion, must become a receptacle for dust, and a harbour for 
 insects, the importance of adopting this method of fixing 
 skirting will be apparent. 
 
 In fixing any board above five or six inches wide, similar 
 precautions are necessary ; otherwise it is certain to split 
 when the house becomes inhabited. We may, in general, 
 either fix one edge, and groove the other, so as to leave it 
 at liberty, or fix it in the middle, and leave both edges at 
 liberty. 
 
 Sometimes a wide board, or a piece consisting of several Fixing 
 boards, may be fixed by means of buttons, screwed to the landing of 
 back, which turn into grooves in the framing, bearers, or stairs, 
 joists, to which it is to be fixed. If any shrinking takes t0 P s 
 place the buttons slide in the grooves. In this manner the ta) es ’ &c 
 landing of stairs are fixed, and it is much the best mode of 
 fixing the top of a table to its frame. 
 
 34. The extension of the principle of ploughing and Forming 
 tonguing work together is one of the most important ofarchi- 
 the improvements that have been introduced by modern traves, &c. 
 joiners. It is an easy, simple, and effectual method of 
 combination, and one that provides against the greatest de- 
 fect of timber work, its shrinkage. By means of this me- 
 thod, the bold mouldings of Gothic architecture can be ex- 
 ecuted with a comparatively small quantity of material ; and 
 even in the mouldings of modern architecture it saves much 
 labour. For example, the moulded part of an architrave 
 Fig. 26. may be joined with the plain part, 
 
 Iff as shewn by fig. 26. If this me- 
 
 1L ; thod be compared with the old 
 
 method of glueing one piece upon 
 i f another, its advantage will be more 
 
 evident. 
 
 33. The architraves, skirtings, and surbase mouldings, Fixitr? 
 are fixed to pieces of wool called grounds ; and as the grounds, 
 straightness and accuracy of these mouldings must depend 
 upon the care that has been taken to fix the grounds truly ; 
 it will appear, that fixing grounds, which is a part often left 
 to inferior workmen, in reality requires much skill and at- 
 tention ; besides, they are almost always the guide for the 
 plasterer. Where the plasterer’s work joins the grounds, 
 they should have a small groove ploughed in the edge to 
 form a key for the plaster. 
 
 36. In our remarks on construction, we must not omit Laying 
 to say a few words on laying floors, because it will give us floors. 
 
132 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Joinery, an opportunity of pointing out a defect which might be 
 — ' easily remedied. The advice of Evelyn, to tack the boards 
 down only the first year, and nail them down for good the 
 next, is certainly the best, when it is convenient to adopt 
 it ; but, as this is very seldom the case, we must expect 
 the joints to open more or less. Now these joints always 
 admit a considerable current of cold air, and also, in an 
 upper room, unless there be a counter floor, the ceiling be- 
 low may be spoiled by spilling a little water, or even by 
 washing the floor. To avoid this, we would recommend a 
 tongue to be ploughed into each joint, according to the 
 old practice. When the boards are narrow, they might be 
 laid without any appearance of nails, in the same way as a 
 dowelled floor is laid, the tongue serving the same pur- 
 pose as the dowels. In this case we would use cross or 
 feather tongues for the joints. 
 
 Folding There is a method sometimes used in laying floors, which 
 floors cen- W orkmen call folding; according to this method, two boards 
 are laid, and nailed at such a distance apait, that the space 
 is a little less than the aggregate width of the boards in- 
 tended for it ; these boards are then put to their places, 
 and, on account of the narrowness of the space left for them, 
 they rise like an arch between its abutments. The work- 
 men force them down by jumping upon them. According- 
 ingly, the boards are never soundly fixed to the joists, nor 
 can the floor be laid with any kind of evenness or accuracy. 
 W e merely notice this method here, in order that it may 
 be avoided. 
 
 As boards can seldom be got long enough to do without 
 Fig. 27 . Fig. 28. 
 
 ^ A 
 
 Headin. 
 
 joints. 
 
 |L 
 
 Sill 
 
 joints, it is usual, except in very inferior work, to join the 
 ends with a tongued joint, as shewn in fig. 27, where B is 
 the joist. The etched board is first laid, and nailed to the 
 joist. 
 
 In oak floors, the ends are forked together sometimes, as 
 shewn at A, fig. 28, in order to render the joints less con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 The joints should be kept as distant from one another as 
 possible. 
 
 Hinging. 
 
 Binging. 37- It requires a considerable degree of care to hang a 
 door, a shutter, or any other piece of work in the best man- 
 ner. In the hinge, the pin should be perfectly straight, and 
 truly cylindrical, and the parts accurately fitted together. 
 
 The hinges should be placed so that their axes may be 
 in the same straight line, as any defect in this respect will 
 produce a considerable strain upon the hinges every time 
 the hanging part is moved, which prevents it from moving 
 freely, and is injurious to the hinges. 
 
 In hanging doors, centres are often used instead of hin- 
 ges ; but, on account of the small quantity of friction in 
 centres, a door moves too easily, or so that a slight draft of 
 air accelerates it so much in falling to, that it shakes the 
 building, and is disagreeable. We have seen this in some 
 degree remedied by placing a small spring to receive the 
 shock of the door. 
 
 The greatest difficulty, in hanging doors, is to make 
 them to clear a carpet, and be close at the bottom when 
 shut. To do this, that part of the floor v/hich is under the 
 door, when shut, may be made to rise above a quarter of 
 an inch above the general level of the floor ; which, with 
 placing the hinges so as to cause the door to rise as it opens, 
 will be sufficient, unless the carpet should be a very thick 
 one. Several mechanical contrivances have been used for 
 either raising the door, or adding a part to spring close to 
 the floor as the door shuts. The latter is much the better 
 
 method. the reader who may be desirous of examining .Toinerv. 
 this method, may consult the Transactions of the Society 
 of Arts, (vol. xxvi. p. 196.) 
 
 38. \ arious kinds ol hinges are in use. Sometimes they 
 are concealed, as in the kind of joints called rule joints ; 
 others project, and are intended to let a door fold back over 
 projecting mouldings, as in pulpit doors. When hinges 
 project, the weight of the door acts with an increased lever- 
 age upon them, and they soon get out of order, unless they 
 be strong and well fixed. 
 
 I he door of a room should be hung so that, in opening Room 
 the door, the interior of the room cannot be seen through doors, 
 the joint. I his may be done by making the joint accord- 
 ing to fig. 29. I he bead should be continued round the 
 door, and a common but- hinge answers for it. 
 
 The proper bevel for the edge of a door or sash may beTheproper 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 bevel for 
 joints of a 
 door. 
 
 found by drawing a line from the centre of motion C, 
 fig. 30, to e, the interior angle of the rebate, draw ed per- 
 pendicular to C e, which gives the bevel required. In prac- 
 tice, the bevel is usually made less, leaving an open space 
 in the joint when the door is shut ; this is done on account 
 of the interior angle of the rebate often being filled with 
 paint. 
 
 Stairs. 
 
 39. The construction of stairs is generally considered Stairs, 
 the highest department of the art of joinery, therefore we 
 treat of it under a distinct head. 
 
 The principal object to be attended to in stairs is, that 
 they afford a safe and easy communication between floors 
 of different levels. The strength of a stair ought to be ap- 
 parent as well as real, in order that those who ascend it 
 may feel conscious of safety. In order to make the com- 
 munication safe, it should be guarded by a railing of pro- 
 per height and strength ; in order that it may be easy, the 
 rise and width, or tread, of the steps should be regular and 
 justly proportioned to each other, with convenient landings; 
 there should be no winding steps, and the top of the rail 
 should be of a convenient height for the hand. 
 
 The first person that attempted to fix the relation be- p 
 tween the height and width of a step, upon correct princi- proportion 
 pies, was, we believe, Blondel, in his Cours d’ Architecture, for stairs. 
 If a person walking npon a level plane move over a space, 
 
 P, at each step, and the height which the same person could 
 ascend vertically, with equal ease, were H ; then, if h be 
 trie height of a step, and p its width ; the relation between 
 p and h must be such, that when p — P, h = o; and when 
 H — h, p — o. These conditions are satisfied by an equa- 
 tion of the form h — H 0-0 . Blondel assumes 24 
 
 inches for the value of P, and 12 inches for that of H; 
 substituting these values in our equation, it becomes 
 
 h — ^ (24 — p), which is precisely Blondel’s rule. We do 
 
 not think these the true values of P and H ; indeed, it 
 would be difficult to ascertain them ; but they are so near, 
 and agree so well with our observations on stairs of easy 
 ascent, that they may be taken for the elements of a prac- 
 tical rule. Hence, according as h or p is given, we have 
 
 h z=. ^ (24 — p, or p — 24 — 2 h. 
 
 Thus, if the height of a step be six inches, then 24 — 1 2= 
 
 12, the width or tread for a step that rises six inches. 
 
 40. The forms of staircases are various. In towns, where 
 
JOINERY. 
 
 133 
 
 Joinery, space cannot be allowed for convenient forms, they are 
 often made triangular, circular, or elliptical, with winding 
 steps, or of a mixed form, with straight sides and circular 
 ends. In large mansions, and in other situations, where 
 convenience and beauty are the chief objects of attention, 
 winding steps are never introduced when it is possible to 
 avoid them. Good stairs, therefore, require less geometri- 
 cal skill than those of an inferior character. 
 
 The best architectural effect is produced by rectangular 
 staircases, with ornamented railing and newels. In Gothic 
 structures scarcely any other kind can be adopted, with pro- 
 priety, for a principal staircase. Modern architecture ad- 
 mits of greater latitude in this respect ; the end of the stair- 
 case being sometimes circular, and the hand-rail continued, 
 beginning either from a scroll or a newel. 
 
 41. When a rectangular staircase has a continued rail, 
 it is necessary that it should be curved so as to change gra- 
 dually from a level to an 
 
 Rectangu- 
 lar stair- 
 case. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 
 To find the 
 cap for 
 newel. 
 
 inclined direction. This 
 curvature is called the 
 ramp of the rail. The 
 plan of a staircase of this 
 kind is represented by 
 ABCD, fig. 31, and fig. 
 32 shews a section of it, 
 supposing it to be cut 
 through at ab, on the 
 plan. 
 
 The hand-rail is sup- 
 posed to begin with a 
 newel at the bottom, and 
 the form of the cap of the 
 newel ought to be deter- 
 mined, so that it will mi- 
 tre with the hand-rail. 
 Let H, fig. 33, be the 
 section of the hand-rail, 
 and ab the radius of the 
 newel ; then the form of 
 the cap may be traced at 
 C by the method we have 
 already described. (Art. 
 9 and 10.) 
 
 The sections of hand- 
 rails are of various shapes ; 
 some of the most com- 
 mon ones are too small ; 
 a hand-rail should never 
 be less than would re- 
 quire a square, of which 
 the side is 2| inches, to 
 circumscribe it. 
 
 For the level landings 
 of a staircase the height 
 of the top of the hand-rail should be about 40 inches, and 
 in any part of the inclined rail the height of its upper side 
 above the middle of the width of the step should be 40 
 inches less the rise of one step, when measured in a verti- 
 cal direction. 
 
 To describe To describe the ramps, let rs be a vertical line drawn 
 the ramps through the middle of the width of the step, fig. 32 ; set 
 ru equal to rs, and draw ut at right angles with the back 
 of the rail, cutting the horizontal line st in t. From the 
 point t , as a centre, describe the curve of the rail. When 
 there is a contrary flexure, as in the case before us, the 
 method of describing the lesser curve is the same. 
 
 42. The hand-rail of a stair often begins from a scroll ; 
 and that kind of spiral which is called the logarithmic spi- 
 ral, has been proposed as the best for the purpose. It is 
 shewn by writers on curve lines, that any radial lines drawn 
 from the centre will be cut by the logarithmic spiral in one 
 
 Height for 
 rail, &c. 
 
 of rails. 
 
 To draw 
 the loga- 
 rithmic 
 spiral. 
 
 and the same angle. By means of this property of the joinerv. 
 curve, it may be described as follows : 
 
 and draw AB perpendicu- 
 lar to DE, crossing it in 
 C. Bisect the angles by 
 the lines ab, cd. Draw 
 eBb to cut CB at the an- 
 gle proposed for the curve, 
 and to meet C b in b ; 
 draw cb perpendicular to 
 be, cutting C c in c ; draw 
 c a perpendicular to c b cut- 
 ting C a in a; and pro- 
 ceed round with as many 
 revolutions as may be re- 
 quired in the same man- 
 ner. Then B, E, A, D, 
 
 F, G, &c. are points in 
 the curve, and the lines 
 eb, cb, ca, ad, &c. are tangents to the curves at these 
 points. Therefore, the curve may be either drawn by 
 hand, or by means of circular arcs. Also, any number of 
 interior or exterior spirals may be drawn by drawing lines 
 parallel to the tangents, as xy, yz, &c. 
 
 If eb were to cross BC at a right angle, the curve would 
 be a circle. 
 
 43. The scrolls and volutes used in architecture are al- a new gp i_ 
 ways made to terminate in a circle at the centre ; conse- ral propo- 
 quently none of the curves described by mathematicians sed for vo- 
 are adapted for these purposes. But the construction we lute ?^ 
 have employed for the logarithmic spiral readily leads to a scrt>1 ’’ c ‘ 
 species of spiral that appears well suited for scrolls or vo- 
 lutes. In the logarithmic spiral the angle of the curve is 
 constant ; but imagine the angle to change regularly, and 
 to become a right angle at the point where the circle called 
 the eye begins. This would afford us a regular and pleas- 
 ing curve, unfolding itself from a circle in the centre. 
 
 This curve might be called the Architectural Spiral. 
 
 Let C be the centre, fig. 35, and round this centre de- 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 scribe a circle for the eye of the scroll, or volute. Divide 
 this circle into eight equal parts, and draw lines from the 
 centre through the points of division. 
 
 With any radius a C, and C as a centre, describe the 
 arc ac, and upon this arc set oft any number of equal divi- 
 sions. The extent of a division must be regulated by the 
 quantity the curve may unfold at each revolution, and the 
 number depends on the number of revolutions. 
 
 Then, beginning at A, draw Ab perpendicular to C a; 
 db parallel to C' ; de perpendicular to C2 ; ef parallel to 
 C3 ; and so on for any number of revolutions. The points 
 A, B, D, E, F, G, and FI, in the curve, and the tangents 
 to these points, are found ; therefore the curve may be de- 
 scribed by hand, or by means of circular arcs. 
 
 The tangents to any interior or exterior spiral will be 
 parallel to the ones first found, and, therefore, any number 
 may be drawn with the greatest facility. 
 
 Let C be the centre, fig. 34, 
 Fig- 34. 
 
134 
 
 JOINER Y. 
 
 Joinery. Neither the logarithmic nor the architectural spiral can 
 — v— be drawn truly by circular arcs ; but we shall here point 
 out the principle by which such spirals may be drawn. 
 When a spiral is drawn by means of circular arcs only, the 
 centres of the adjoining arcs must always be upon the same 
 straight line ; and the regularity of the curve will depend 
 on the number of arcs employed to describe one revolu- 
 tion. Let the proposed distance between the revolutions 
 be divided into as many equal- parts as there are to be cir- 
 cular arcs in one revolution ; and, on the eye as a centre, 
 construct a regular polygon of the same number of sides as 
 the number of divisions, and on each side equal to one di- 
 vision. Then the angles of the polygon will be the centres 
 for describing the spiral, as shewn by the figures below, 
 where the triangle, square, and hexagon, are given as ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Fig. 36. Fig. 37. 
 
 If a spiral be drawn to begin from a circle at the cen- 
 tre, let the arcs be described from the angles of a rectan- 
 gular fret, as in fig. 39, the sides of which may increase in 
 any regular proportion. Or, a figure may be drawn in the 
 same manner as the tangents of the spiral, fig. 35, and the 
 arcs described in the angle, as in fig. 40. By either of 
 these methods a pleasing curve may be obtained. 
 
 44. Fig. 41 represents the plan of a staircase, beginning 
 
 with a scroll, and having steps winding round the circular 
 part of the well -hole. 
 
 In the first place, let the end of the steps be developed Joinery, 
 according to the method we have given in Art. 1 3. Fig. 43 ~ N .— — 4 
 
 shews this development. 'Now, the hand-rail ought to 
 follow the inclination of a line drawn to touch the nosings 
 of the steps, except where there is an abrupt transition 
 from the rake of the winding to that of the other steps ; at 
 such places it must be curved ; the curve may be drawn 
 by the help of intersecting lines, as in fig. 44, if the work- 
 man cannot trust to his eye. 
 
 The part which is shaded in fig. 43, represents the hand- Develop- 
 rail and ends of the steps, when spread out, and the hand- ment of the 
 rail is only drawn close to the steps for convenience, as it circular 
 would require too much space to raise it to its proper posi- * ,ai *" 
 tion. This development of the rail is called the falling 
 mould. 
 
 The wood used for hand-rails being of an expensive 
 kind, it becomes of some importance to consider how the 
 plank may be cut so as to require the least quantity of ma- 
 terial for the curved part of the rail. Now, if we were to 
 suppose the rail executed, and a plain board laid upon the 
 upper side of it, the board would touch the rail at three 
 points ; and a plank laid in the same position as the board 
 would be that out of which the rail could be cut with the 
 least waste of material. 
 
 Let it be required to find the moulds for the part ab of To find 
 the rail, fig. 41, and to avoid confusing the lines in ourthef'ace- 
 small figure, the part a b has been drawn to a larger scale rnou ^ s ’ 
 in fig. 42. The plain board, mentioned above, would touch 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 the rail at the points marked C and B in the plan ; draw 
 the line CB, and draw a line parallel to CB, so as to touch 
 the curve at the point E. Then E is the other point on 
 the plan ; and a', e\ and V, are the heights of these points 
 in the development, fig. 43. 
 
 Erect perpendiculars to CB, from the points C, E, and 
 B, fig. 42, and set off C a, on fig. 42, equal to a!c, fig. 43 ; 
 
 Ee equal to dd, and B b equal to fb. Through the points 
 C and E, draw the dotted line C/i ; through ae draw a line 
 to meet CE in h ; and through the points ab, draw a line 
 to meet CB in g ; then join kg, and make C i perpendicu- 
 lar to hg. 
 
 Now, if Cd be equal to Co, and perpendicular to C i ; 
 and di be joined, it will be the angle which the plank 
 makes with the horizontal plane, or plan. Therefore, draw 
 FD parallel to C and find the section by the process de- 
 scribed in Art. 10. This section is the same thing as 
 would be obtained by projecting vertical lines from each 
 point in the hand-rail against the surface of a board, laid 
 to touch it in three points. The inexperienced workman 
 will be much assisted in applying the moulds if he acquires 
 a clear notion of the position when executed. 
 
 To find the thickness of the plank, take the height to Xo find the 
 the under side of the rail cr in the development, fig. 43, thickness of 
 and set it off from s, in the line C i, to r , in fig. 42 ; from the plant 
 
JOINER Y. 
 
 Joinery, the point ? draw a line parallel to di, and the distance be- 
 v '- — v"-" tween those parallel lines will be the thickness of the plank. 
 To apply The mould, fig. 42, which is traced from the plan, is 
 die called the face mould. It is applied to the upper surface 
 
 moulds. 0 p t ] ie p] an ]^ which being marked, a bevel should be set to 
 the angle id C, and this bevel being applied to the edge 
 will give the points to which the mould must be placed to 
 mark out the under side. It is then to be sawn out, and 
 wrought true to the mould. In applying the bevel, care 
 should be taken to let its stock be parallel to the line di, if 
 the plank should not be sufficiently wide for di to be its 
 arris. 
 
 After the rail is truly wrought to the face mould, the 
 falling mould, fig. 43, being applied to its convex side, will 
 give the edge of the upper surface, and the surface itself 
 will be formed by squaring from the convex side, holding 
 the stock of the square always so that it would be vertical 
 if the rail were in its proper situation. The lower surface 
 is to be parallel to the upper one. 
 
 The sudden change of the width of the ends of the steps 
 causes the soffit line to have a broken or irregular appear- 
 ance ; to avoid it, the steps are made begin to wind before 
 the curved part begins. Different methods of proportion- 
 ing the ends of the steps are given by Nicholson, Roubo, 
 Rondelet, and Krafft. We cannot in this place enter into 
 a detail of these methods, but for the reader’s information 
 a list of the principal writers on staircases is subjoined. 
 
 Price, in his British Carpenter, 4 to. 1735 ; Langley, 
 Builders’ Complete Assistant, 8vo, 1738; Frezier, Coupe 
 des Pierres et des Bois, 4to, 1739 ; Roubo, L’Art du Me- 
 nuisier, folio, 1771 ; Skaife, Key to Civil Architecture, 8vo, 
 1774; Nicholson, Carpenters’ New Guide, 4to, 1792 ; 
 Carpenters’ and Joiners’ Assistant, 4to, 1792; Architec- 
 tural Dictionary, 4to ; Transactions Society of Arts, &c. 
 for 1814 ; Treatise on the Construction of Staircases and 
 Handrails , 4to, 1820 ; Rondelet, Traite de l’ Art de Bd- 
 tir, tome iv. 4to, 1814 ; and Krafft, Traite sur l’ Art de la 
 Charpenter, part ii. folio, 1820. 
 
 Sect. III. — Os Materials. 
 
 Import- 45. There is no art in which it is required that the struc- 
 am-e of theture and properties of wood should be so thoroughly under- 
 subject. stood as in joinery. The practical joiner, who has made 
 the nature of timber his study, has always a most decided 
 advantage over those who have neglected this most im- 
 portant part of the art. 
 
 In the article Anatomy, Vegetable (vol. iii. p. 61 and 
 82), the structure of wood is described ; in this place, there- 
 fore, we shall only show how the joiner may, in a great 
 measure, avoid the warping caused by its irregular tex- 
 ture. 
 
 Boards cut 46. It is well known that wood contracts less in propor- 
 in a parti- tion, in diameter, than it does in circumference ; hence a 
 tki^wili. 60 " w h°l e tree always splits in drying. Mr Knight has shown 
 not retain that, in consequence of this irregular contraction, a board 
 their form, may be cut from a tree that can scarcely be made, by any 
 means, to retain the same form and position when subject- 
 ed to various degrees of heat and moisture. From the ash 
 and the beech he cut some thin boards, in different direc- 
 tions relatively to their transverse septa, so that the septa 
 crossed the middle of some of the boards at right angles, 
 and lay nearly parallel with the surfaces of others. Both 
 kinds were placed in a warm room, under perfectly similar 
 
 135 
 
 circumstances. Those which had been formed by cutting Joinery, 
 across the transverse septa, as at A in fig. 44, soon changed 
 their form very considerably, the one side becoming hollow, 
 and the other round ; and in drying, they contracted nearly 
 14 per cent, in width. 
 
 The other kind, in which the septa were nearly parallel Difference 
 to the surfaces of the boards, as at B in fig. 44, retained, in shrink- 
 with very little variation, their primary form, and did not a S e- 
 contract in drying more than three and a half per cent, in 
 width. 1 
 
 As Mr Knight had not tried resinous woods, two speci- 
 mens were cut from a piece of Memel timber ; and, to ren- 
 der the result of our observation more clear, conceive fig. 
 
 45 to represent the section of a tree, the annual rings beii g 
 shewn by circles. BD represents the Fig. 45. 
 manner in which one of our pieces was 
 cut, and AC the other. The board AC 
 contracted 3 - 75 per cent, in width, and 
 became hollow on the side marked b. 
 
 The board BD retained its original 
 straightness, and contracted only 0*7 
 per cent. The difference in the quan- 
 tity of contraction is still greater than in 
 hard woods. 
 
 From these experiments, the advantages to be obtained 
 merely by a proper attention in cutting out boards for pan- 
 nels, &c. will be obvious ; and it will also be found that 
 pannels cut so that the septa are nearly parallel to their 
 faces, will appear of a finer and more even grain, and re- 
 quire less labour to make their surfaces even and smooth. 
 
 The results of these experiments are not less interesting 
 to cabinet-makers, particularly in the construction of bil- 
 liard-tables, card-tables, and indeed every kind of table in 
 use. For such purposes, the planks should be cut so as to 
 cross the rings as nearly in the direction BD as possible. 
 
 We have no doubt that it is the knowledge of this property 
 of wood that renders the billiard-tables of some makers so 
 far superior to those of others. 
 
 In wood that has the larger transverse septa, as the oak, 
 for example, boards cut as BD will be figured, while those 
 cut as AC will be plain. 
 
 47* There is another kind of contraction in wood whilst Cause of 
 drying, which causes it to become curved in the direction pieces 
 of its length. In the long styles of framing we have often 
 observed it; indeed, on this account, it is difficult to pre- t - on 0 f tll 
 vent the style of a door, hung with centres, from curving, l e n<uh. 
 so as to rub against the jamb. A very satisfactory reason 
 for this kind of curving has been given by Mr Knight, 2 
 which also points out the manner of cutting out wood, so 
 as to be less subject to this defect, which it is most desir- 
 able to avoid. The interior layers of wood, being older, 
 are more compact and solid than the exterior layers of the 
 same tree ; consequently, in drying, the latter contract 
 more in length than the former. This irregularity of con- 
 traction causes the wood to curve in the direction of its 
 length, and it may be avoided by cutting the wood so that 
 the parts of each piece shall be as nearly of the same age 
 as possible. 
 
 48. Besides the contraction which takes place in drying, Changes 
 wood undergoes a considerable change in bulk with the va- produced 
 nations of the atmosphere. In straight-grained woods the b . v t '’ e 
 change in length is nearly insensible; 3 hence they are vvea ier * 
 sometimes employed for pendulum rods ; but the lateral 
 dimensions vary so much, that a wide piece of wood will 
 serve as a rude hygrometer. 4 The extent of variation de- 
 
 1 Philosophical Transactions, part ii. for 1817, or Philosophical Magazine , vol. 1. p. 437- 2 JIM. 
 
 3 Mr Ramsden and General Roy made some experiments on the expansion in length. See Account of the Trig. Survey, vol.i. p. 4G 
 
 end 49. 
 
 4 See Phil. Trans. Lowthorpe’s Abridg. vol. ii. p. 37. 
 
136 
 
 JOINERY. 
 
 Joinery, creases in a few seasons, but it is of some importance to 
 
 v—' the joiner to be aware, that even in very old wood, when 
 
 the surface is removed, the extent of variation is nearly 
 the same as in new wood. 
 
 It appears, from Rondelet’s experiments, 1 that in wood 
 of a mean degree of dryness, the extent of contraction and 
 expansion, produced by the usual changes in the state of 
 the atmosphere, was, 
 
 in fir wood, from -L to _L part of its width ; 
 
 360 75 1 
 
 and in oak, from— L to-L part of its width. 
 
 412 84 1 
 
 Consequently, the mean extent of variation in fir is 
 
 and in oak, — ; and at this mean rate, in a fir board 
 14<U 
 
 about 12^ inches wide, the difference in width would be 
 Jpth of an inch. This will show the importance of attend- 
 ing to the maxims of construction we have already laid be- 
 fore the reader ; for, if a board of that width should be 
 fixed at both edges, it must unavoidably split from one end 
 to the other. 
 
 Kinds of 49. The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery 
 
 wood. are, the oak, the different species of pine, mahogany, lime- 
 tree, and poplar. 
 
 Oak. Of the oak, there are two species common in this island. 
 
 That which Linnaeus has named Quercus Robur is the most 
 valuable for joiner’s work ; it is of a finer grain, less tough, 
 and not so subject to twist as the other kind. Oak is also 
 imported from the Baltic ports, from Germany, and from 
 America. These foreign kinds being free from knots, of a 
 straighter grain, and less difficult to work, they are used in 
 preference to our home species. Foreign oak is also much 
 used for cabinet-work ; and lately, the fine curled oak that 
 is got from excrescences produced by pollard, and other 
 
 old trees, has been used with success in furniture. When Joinery, 
 well managed, it is very beautiful, and makes a pleasing ' w 
 variety. It is relieved by inlaid borders of black or white 
 wood, but these should be sparingly used. Borders of in- 
 laid brass, with small black lines, give a rich effect to the 
 darker coloured kinds. 
 
 The greater part of joiner’s work is executed in yellow Fir. 
 fir, imported from the north of Europe. White fir is often 
 used for internal work, and American pine is much used 
 for mouldings. 
 
 The forest of Braemar, in Aberdeenshire, furnishes yel- 
 low fir of an excellent quality, little inferior to the best 
 foreign kinds. 
 
 For the general purposes of joinery, the wood of the larch Larch, 
 tree seems to be the best. This useful tree thrives well on 
 our native hills. We have seen some fine specimens of 
 this wood from Blair-Athol. It makes excellent steps for 
 stairs, floors, framing, and most other articles. 
 
 Mahogany, in joinery, is only used where painted work Mahogany, 
 is improper, as for the hand-rails of stairs, or for the doors 
 and windows of principal rooms. For doors it is not now 
 so often used as it was formerly; its colour is found to be 
 too gloomy to be employed in large masses. In cabinet- 
 work it is almost the only kind used for ornamental work. 
 
 Lime-tree, and the different species of poplar, make very Lime-tree 
 good floors for inferior rooms, and may often be used for poplar, 
 other purposes, in places where the carriage of foreign tim- 
 ber would render it more expensive. Lime-tree is valu- 
 able for carved work, and does not worm-eat ; but carving 
 is at present seldom used in joinery. 
 
 For farther information on wood, in addition to the works 
 referred to, the reader may consult Evelyn’s Silva, Dr 
 Hunter’s edition ; Duhamel, Liu Transport, de la Conser- 
 vation, et de fa Force des Bois, Paris, 1767 ; Barlow’s Es- 
 say on the Strength and Stress of Timber, 1817 ; Tred- 
 gold’s Elementary Principles of Carpentry , sect. x. 1820 ; 
 and the article Dry-Rot. 2 
 
 ' Traite Thtoretique et Pratique de l' Art de Bdtir , article MenuiseRIE, tome iv. p. 425, 1 o 14. 
 
 2 When the roof of Westminster Hall was under repair, an opportunity was taken to examine the wood of which it is construct- 
 ed ; and it was found to be of oak, and not of chestnut, as stated in the Article Dry-Rot ^ vol. viii. p. 233. The oak has been of an 
 excellent kind, but is now much worm-eaten. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 We must begin by informing our readers, that the bulk 
 of the present article was written by the late Professor 
 Robison, in order to form, with those on Roof, and 
 Strength of Materials, also written by him for this 
 Encyclopaedia, a uniform system of the most useful depart- 
 ments of practical mechanics, deduced, in the same fami- 
 liar and elementary manner, from the simple principles of 
 the composition of forces. In here reprinting his contri- 
 bution, we shall premise some introductory observations, 
 which may be considered as a retrospective summary of 
 the doctrine of Passive Strength, accompanied by some 
 of the most useful propositions respecting the resistance 
 of elastic substances, derived from the principles which 
 have been already laid down in our article Bridge ; and 
 subjoining a few notes on such passages as may appear to 
 require further illustration or correction. Some of the 
 demonstrations will be partly borrowed from a work which 
 has been published since the death of Professor Robison, 
 but others will be more completely original ; and of the 
 remarks, the most important will probably be those which 
 relate to the form and direction of the abutment of raft- 
 ers ; a subject which seems to have been very incorrectly 
 treated by former writers on Carpentry . 1 
 
 I. ABSTRACT OF THE DOCTRINE OF PASSIVE STRENGTH. 
 
 The effects of forces of different kinds, on the materials 
 employed in the mechanical arts, require to be minutely 
 examined in the arrangement of every work dependent on 
 them ; and of these effects, as exhibited in a solid body at 
 rest, we may distinguish seven different varieties ; the ex- 
 tension of a substance acting simply as a tie ; the com- 
 pression of a block supporting a load above it ; the detru- 
 sion of an axis resting on a support close to its wheel, and 
 resisting by its lateral adhesion only ; the flexure of a 
 body bent by a force applied unequally to its different 
 parts ; the torsion or twisting, arising from a partial de- 
 trusion of the external parts in opposite directions, while 
 the axis retains its place ; the alteration or permanent 
 change of a body which settles, so as to remain in a new 
 form, when the force is withdrawn ; and lastly, the frac- 
 ture, which consists in a complete separation of parts be- 
 fore united, and which has been the only effect particu- 
 
 larly examined by the generality of authors on the strength 
 of materials. 
 
 The analogy of the laws of extension and compression 
 has been demonstrated in a former article (Bridge), and 
 their connection with flexure has been investigated ; 
 but it is not easy to compare them directly with the re- 
 sistance opposed to a partial detrusion, the effects of 
 which are only so far understood as they are exhibited in 
 the phenomena of twisting ; and these appear to justify us 
 in considering the resistance of lateral adhesion as a pri- 
 mitive force, deduced from the rigidity or solidity of the 
 substance, and proportional to the deviation from the na- 
 tural situation of the particles. The resistance exhibited 
 by steel wire, when twisted, bears a greater proportion to 
 that of brass than the resistance to extension or compres- 
 sion, but the forces agree in being independent of the 
 hardness produced by tempering. 
 
 Flexure may be occasioned either by a transverse or by 
 a longitudinal force. When the force is transverse, the ex- 
 tent of the flexure is nearly proportional to its magnitude ; 
 but when it is longitudinal, there is a certain magnitude 
 which it must exceed in order to produce, or rather to 
 continue, the flexure, if the force be applied exactly at 
 the axis. But it is equally true that the slightest possible 
 force applied at a distance from the axis, however minute, 
 or with an obliquity however small, or to a beam already 
 a little curved, will produce a certain degree of flexure ; 
 and this observation will serve to explain some of the dif- 
 ficulties and irregularities which have occurred in making 
 experiments on beams that are exposed to longitudinal 
 pressure. 
 
 Stiffness, or the power of resisting flexure, is measured 
 by the force required to produce a given minute change 
 of form. For beams similarly fixed, it is directly propor- 
 tional to the breadth and the cube of the depth, and in- 
 versely to the cube of the length. Thus a beam or bar 
 two yards long will be equally stiff with a beam one yard, 
 provided that it be either twice as deep or eight times as 
 broad. If the ends of a beam can be firmly fixed, by con- 
 tinuing them to a sufficient distance, and keeping them 
 down by a proper pressure, the stiffness will be four times 
 as great as if the ends were simply supported. A hollow 
 substance, of given weight and length, has its stiffness 
 
 1 These introductory observations to Professor Robison’s article, and the notes subjoined to it, were written by the late Dr Tho- 
 mas Young. 
 
138 0 A R PENTR Y. 
 
 Carpentry. near ]y proportional to the square of the diameter; and 
 hence arises the great utility of tubes when stiffness is 
 required, this property being still more increased by the 
 expansion of the substance than the ultimate strength. 
 It is obvious that there are a multiplicity of cases in car- 
 pentry where stiffness is of more importance than any 
 other property, since the utility as well as beauty of the 
 fabric might often be destroyed by too great a flexibility 
 of the materials. 
 
 If we wish to find how much a beam of fir will sink when 
 it is loaded in the middle, we may multiply the cube of 
 the length in inches by the given weight in pounds, and 
 divide by the cube of the depth, and by ten million times 
 the breadth ; but, on account of the unequal texture of 
 the wood, we must expect to find the bending somewhat 
 greater than this in practice, besides that a large weight 
 will often produce an alteration, or permanent settling, 
 which will be added to it: a beam of oak will also sink a 
 little more than a beam of fir with the same weight. 
 
 With respect to torsion, the stiffness of a cylindrical 
 body varies directly as the fourth power of the diameter, 
 and inversely in the simple proportion of the length : it 
 does not appear to be changed by the action of any force 
 tending to lengthen or to compress the cylinder ; and it 
 may very possibly bear some simple relation to the force 
 of cohesion, which has not yet been fully ascertained ; 
 but it appears that, in an experiment of Mr Cavendish, 
 the resistance of a cylinder of copper to a twisting force, 
 acting at its surface, was about of the resistance that 
 the same cylinder would have opposed to direct extension 
 or compression. 
 
 Alteration is often an intermediate step between a tem- 
 porary change and a complete fracture. There are many 
 substances which, after bending to a certain extent, are 
 no longer capable of resuming their original form ; and in 
 such cases it generally happens that the alteration may 
 be increased without limit, until complete fracture takes 
 place, by the continued operation of the same force which 
 has begun it, or by a force a little greater. Those Substan- 
 ces which are the most capable of this change are called duc- 
 tile ; and the most remarkable are gold, and a spider’s web. 
 When a substance has undergone an alteration by means 
 of its ductility, its stiffness, in resisting small changes on 
 either side, remains little or not at all altered. Thus, if the 
 stiffness of a spider’s web, in resisting torsion, were suffi- 
 cient at the commencement of an experiment to cause it 
 to recover itself, after being twisted in an angle of ten de- 
 grees, it would return ten degrees, and not more, after hav- 
 ing been twisted round a thousand times. The ductility of 
 all substances capable of being annealed is greatly modi- 
 fied by the effects of heat. Hard steel, for example, is in- 
 comparably less subject to alteration than soft, although 
 in some cases more liable to fracture ; so that the degree 
 of hardness requires to be proportioned to the uses for 
 which each instrument is intended ; although it was prov- 
 ed by Coulomb, and has since been confirmed by other 
 observers, that the primitive stiffness of steel, in resisting 
 small flexures, is neither increased nor diminished by any 
 variation in its temper. 
 
 The strength of a body is measured by the force re- 
 quired completely to overcome the corpuscular powers 
 concerned in the aggregation of its particles, and it is 
 jointly proportional to the primitive stiffness and to the 
 toughness of the substance, that is, to the degree in 
 which it is capable of a change of form without permanent 
 alteration. It becomes, however, of importance in some 
 cases to consider the measure of another kind of strength, 
 which has sometimes been called resilience, or the power 
 of resisting a body in motion, and which is proportional to 
 the strength and the toughness conjointly, that is, to the 
 
 stiffness and the square of the toughness. Thus, if we Carpentry, 
 double the length of a given beam, we reduce its abso- 
 lute strength to one half, and its stiffness to one eighth ; 
 but since the toughness, or the space through which it will 
 continue to resist, is quadrupled, the resilience will be 
 doubled, and it would require a double weight to fall from 
 the same height, or the same weight to fall from a double 
 height, in order to overcome its whole resistance. If 
 we wish to determine the resilience of a body from an 
 experiment on its strength, we must measure the dis- 
 tance through which it recedes or is bent previously to 
 its fracture; and it may be shown that a weight which 
 is capable of breaking it by pressure, would also break it 
 by impulse if it moved with the velocity acquired by fall- 
 ing from a height equal to half the deflection. Thus, if a 
 beam or bar were broken by a weight of 100 pounds, after 
 being bent six inches without alteration, it would also be 
 broken by a weight of 100 pounds falling from a height of 
 three inches, or moving in a horizontal direction with a 
 velocity of four feet in a second, or by a weight of one 
 pound falling from a height of 300 inches. This substi- 
 tution of velocity for quantity of matter has, however, one 
 limit, beyond which the velocity must prevail over the 
 resistance, without regard to the quantity of matter ; and 
 this limit is derived from the time required for the suc- 
 cessive propagation of the pressure through the different 
 parts of the substance, in order that they may participate 
 in the resistance. Thus, if a weight fell on the end of a 
 bar or column with a velocity of 100 feet in a second, and 
 the substance could only be compressed of its length, 
 without being crushed, it is obvious that the pressure 
 must be propagated through the substance with a velocity 
 of 20,000 feet in a second, in order that it might resist the 
 stroke ; and, in general, a substance will be crushed or 
 penetrated by any velocity exceeding that which is ac- 
 quired by a body falling from a height, which is to half 
 that of the modulus of elasticity of the substance, as the 
 square of the greatest possible change of length is to the 
 whole length. From the consideration of the effect of 
 rigidity in lessening the resilience of bodies, we may un- 
 derstand how a diamond, which is capable of resisting an 
 enormous pressure, may be crushed with a blow of a small 
 hammer, moving with a moderate velocity. It is remark- 
 able that, for the same substance in different forms, the 
 resilience is in most cases simply proportional to the bulk 
 or weight, while almost every other kind of resistance is 
 capable of infinite variation by change of form only. 
 
 The elaborate investigations of M. Lagrange, respect- 
 ing the strength and the strongest forms of columns, ap- 
 pear to have been conducted upon principles not altoge- 
 ther unexceptionable ; but it is much easier to confute 
 the results than to follow the steps of the computations. 
 
 One great error is the supposition that columns are to be 
 considered as elastic beams, bent by a longitudinal force ; 
 while, in reality, a stone column is never slender enough 
 to be bent by a force which it can bear without being 
 crushed ; and even for such columns as are capable of being 
 bent by a longitudinal force, M. Lagrange’s determina- 
 tions are in several instances inadmissible. He asserts, for 
 example, that a cylinder is the strongest of all possible 
 forms, and that a cone is stronger than any conoid of the 
 same bulk; but it appears to be demonstrable in a very 
 simple manner, and upon incontestable principles, that a 
 conoidal form may be determined, which shall be stronger 
 than either a cone or a cylinder of the same bulk. 
 
 When a column is crushed, its resistance to compres- 
 sion seems to depend in great measure on the force of la- 
 teral adhesion, assisted bj r a kind of internal friction, de- 
 pendent on the magnitude of the pressure ; and it com- 
 monly gives way by the separation of a wedge in an 
 
CARFENTR Y. 
 
 139 
 
 Carpentry, oblique direction. If the adhesion were simply propor- 
 tional to the section, it may be shown that a square 
 column would be most easily crushed when the angle of 
 the wedge is equal to half of a right angle ; but if the ad- 
 hesion is increased by pressure, this angle will be dimi- 
 nished by half the angle of repose appropriate to the sub- 
 stance. In a wedge separated by a direct force from a 
 prism of cast iron, the angle was found equal to 321°, 
 consequently the angle of repose was 2 X 12^° = 25°, and 
 the internal friction to the pressure as 1 to '466, the tan- 
 gent of this angle; there was, however, a little bubble in 
 the course of the fracture, which may have changed its 
 direction in a slight degree. The magnitude of the late- 
 ral adhesion is measured by twice the height of the wedge, 
 whatever its angle may be. In this instance the height was 
 to the depth as T57 to I, consequently the surface, afford- 
 ing an adhesion equal to the force, was somewhat more 
 than three times as great as the transverse section, and 
 the lateral adhesion of a square inch of cast iron would be 
 equal to about 46,000 pounds ; the direct cohesive force 
 of the same iron was found by experiment equal to about 
 20,000 pounds for a square inch. It is obvious that expe- 
 riments on the strength of a substance in resisting com- 
 pression ought to be tried on pieces rather longer than 
 cubes, since a cube would not allow of the free separation 
 of a single wedge so acute as was observed in this expe- 
 riment ; although, indeed, the force required to separate 
 a shorter wedge on each side would be little or no great- 
 er than for a single wedge. The same consideration of 
 the oblique direction of the plane of easiest fracture would 
 induce us to make the outline of a column a little convex 
 externally, as the common practice has been ; for a circle 
 cut out of a plank possesses the advantage of resisting 
 equally in eveiy section, and consequently of exhibiting 
 the strongest form, when there is no lateral adhesion ; 
 and in the case of an additional resistance proportional to 
 the pressure, the strongest form is afforded by an oval 
 consisting of two circular segments, each containing twice 
 the angle formed by the plane of fracture with the hori- 
 zon. If we wish to obtain a direct measure of the lateral 
 adhesion, we must take care to apply the forces concerned 
 at a distance from each other not greater than one sixth of 
 the depth of the substance, otherwise the fracture will 
 probably be rather the consequence of flexure than of de- 
 trusion. Professor Robison found this force in some in- 
 stances twice as great as the direct cohesion, or nearly in 
 the same proportion as it appears to have been in the ex- 
 periment on the strength of cast iron ; Mr Coulomb thinks 
 it most commonly equal only to the cohesion; and in 
 fibrous substances, especially where the fibres are not per- 
 fectly straight, the repulsive strength is generally much 
 less than would be inferred from this equality, and some- 
 times even less than the cohesive strength. 
 
 , It is well known that the transverse strength of a beam 
 is directly as the breadth and as the square of the depth, 
 
 , and inversely as the length ; and the variation of the re- 
 sults of some experiments from this law can only have de- 
 pended on accidental circumstances. If we wish to find 
 the number of hundredweights that will break a beam of 
 oak supported at both ends, supposing them to be placed 
 exactly on the middle, we may multiply the square of the 
 depth in inches by 100 times the breadth, and divide by 
 the length ; and we may venture in practice to load a 
 beam with at least an eighth as much as this, or, in case of 
 necessity, even a fourth. And if the load be distributed 
 equally throughout the length of the beam, it will support 
 twice as much ; but for a beam of fir the strength is some- 
 what less than for oak. A cylinder will bear the same 
 curvature as the circumscribing prism, and it may be 
 shown that its strength, as well as its stiffness, is to that 
 
 of the prism as one fourth of its bulk is to one third of the Carpentry, 
 bulk of the prism. The strength of a beam supported at ■ ' 
 
 its extremities may be doubled by firmly fixing the ends 
 where it is practicable ; and we have already seen that 
 the stiffness is quadrupled : but the resilience remains 
 unaltered, since the resistance is doubled, and the space 
 through which it acts is reduced to a half. It is there- 
 fore obviously of importance to consider the nature of the 
 resistance that is required from the fabric which we are 
 constructing. A floor, considered alone, requires to be 
 strong ; but in connection with a ceiling, its stiffness re- 
 quires more particular attention, in order that the ceiling 
 may remain free from cracks. A coach-spring requires 
 resilience for resisting the relative motions of the carriage, 
 and we obtain this kind of strength as effectually by com- 
 bining a number of separate plates, as if we united them 
 into a single mass, while we avoid the stiffness, which 
 would render the changes of motion inconveniently abrupt. 
 
 In all calculations respecting stiffness, it is necessary to 
 be acquainted with the modulus of elasticity, which may 
 be found for a variety of substances in the annexed table. 
 
 Height of the Modulus of Elasticity in Thousands of Feet. 
 
 Iron and steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 Fir wood 
 
 10,000 
 
 Copper.. 
 
 .... 5,700 
 
 Elm 
 
 8,000 
 
 Brass 
 
 .... 5,000 
 
 Beech 
 
 8,000 
 
 Silver 
 
 .... 3,240 
 
 Oak........ 
 
 5,060 
 
 Tin 
 
 .... 2,250 
 
 Box 
 
 5,050 
 
 Crown glass 
 
 .... 9,800 
 
 Ice 
 
 850 
 
 II. PROPOSITIONS RELATING TO FLEXURE. 
 
 A. The stiffness of a cylinder is to that of its circum- 
 scribing rectangular prism , as three times the bulk of the cy 
 Under is to four times that of the prism. 
 
 We may consider the different strata of the substance 
 as acting on levers equal in length to the distance of each 
 from the axis ; for although there is no fixed fulcrum at 
 the axis, yet the whole force is the same as if such a ful- 
 crum existed, since the opposite actions of the opposite 
 parts would relieve the fulcrum from all pressure. Then 
 the tension of each stratum being also as the same dis- 
 tance x, and the breadth of the stratum being called 2 y, 
 the fluxion of the force on either side of the axis will be 
 g x 2 ydx , while that of the force of the prism, the radius 
 being r, is 2rx 2 dx. Now z being the area of half the por- 
 tion included between the stratum and the axis, of which 
 
 the fluxion is ydx, the fluxion of z — — will be 
 J rr 
 
 y’k/x ?>y 2 xdy 
 
 yclx 
 
 ■ U dx ( 1 — tj) — -^sr- y (h J- 
 
 But 1 
 
 r 
 
 r 2 
 
 — —5-5 and 
 r* 
 
 ydy — xdx. 
 
 therefore the fluxion is 
 
 a 2 ydx 3 cdydx 4 x 2 ydx 
 
 -fT + ’ ~ ^ ; 
 
 consequently the fluent of 2 x-ydx is \Fz — v, which, 
 when y — 0, becomes \Fz, or one fourth of the product 
 of the square of the radius by the area of the section, 
 while the fluent of 2 rx 2 dx, that is, | -rx 2 , the force of the 
 prism, becomes § r 4 or ^ r 2 X 2 r 2 , one third of the pro- 
 duct of the same square into the area of the section of 
 the prism. 
 
 lienee the radius of curvature of a cylindrical column, 
 
 , „ M aa , . T , , M aa , 
 
 instead of ■ . (Art. Bridge, Jrrop. (jr), will be 77-71 the 
 
 12 fy y . / R>/y 
 
 weight of the modulus M decreasing in the same propor 
 
140 
 
 CARPENTR Y. 
 
 Carpentry, tion as the bulk when the prism is reduced to a cylinder. 
 
 The force is supposed in this proposition to be either 
 transverse or applied at a considerable distance from the 
 axis; but the error will not be material in any other case. 
 
 B. When a longitudinal force f is applied to the extremi- 
 ties of a straight prismatic beam, at the distance b from 
 the axis, the deflection of the middle of the beam will be 
 
 b ^secant W(ff) • ~] — 1^ ; M being the weight of the 
 
 modulus, e the length of the beam, and a its depth. 
 
 The curvature being proportional to the distance from 
 the line of direction of the force, or to the ordinate, when 
 that line is considered as the absciss, the elastic curve 
 must in this case initially coincide with a portion of the 
 harmonic curve, well known for its utility in the resolu- 
 tion of a variety of problems of this kind. Now if the 
 half length of the complete curve be called h, correspond- 
 ing to a quadrant of the generating circle, and the great- 
 est ordinate y, c being the quadrant of a circle of which 
 the radius is unity, the radius of curvature r correspond- 
 hk 
 
 ing to y will be — — , that is, a third proportional to y and 
 
 — the radius of the generating circle ; consequently 
 
 kk , , Maacc , , , , M , , , 
 
 = , kk — , - - . , and k — a »/-; ac ; but by the na- 
 
 ccy 12 J - 3/ 
 
 ture of the curve, y : b = 1 : cos. 
 
 2k 
 
 'J 
 
 at the middle ; and the deflection from the natural situa- 
 tion is y — b. 
 
 It follows that, since the secant of the quadrant is infi- 
 
 nite, when 
 
 ¥ 
 
 M ' 
 
 — becomes equal to c, the deflection will 
 a 
 
 be infinite, and the resistance of the column will be over- 
 come, however small the distance b may be taken, provid- 
 ed that it be of finite magnitude; and since in this case 
 
 3fee _ . _ 
 
 Maa ~ 
 
 M aacc 
 3ee 
 
 = ‘8225 M — , which is the utmost 
 
 ee 
 
 comes d — at 
 
 monic curve ; and supposing the quadrantal length ofCarpentr 
 this curve k, we have again, as in the last proposition, '—■'n-"- 
 
 h — \ ^ — .ac, or, for a cylinder, k = V . ac. Now, 
 
 6 J J 
 
 the tangent of the inclination of the harmonic curve varies 
 as the sine of the angular distance from the middle ; con- 
 sequently, as sin. • c > or cos. -p is to the radius, so 
 
 is the tangent t, expressing the difference of inclination 
 of the end of the beam and the direction of the force, which 
 is also that of the middle of the supposed curve, to the 
 tangent of the extreme inclination of the curve to its ab- 
 
 . . . 6C 
 
 sciss, which will therefore be t sec. -r - ; consequently the 
 
 ft 
 
 greatest ordinate will be — sec. and since the ordi- 
 c k 
 
 nates are as the sines of the angular distances from the 
 origin of the curve, the ordinate at the fixed end of the 
 
 €C 
 
 beam, corresponding to the angle — , that is, the deflec- 
 
 ft 
 
 lit PC PC 
 
 tion, will be — sec. — . sin.— 
 c k k 
 
 kt ec , ,M 
 
 TANG. — /f-^-at 
 
 c A 2 3 f 
 
 2e 3 f . M \e 
 
 tang. — or, for a cylinder, ^ V~ • at tang. — - 
 
 a 
 
 — sec. — r : 1, and 
 2k 
 
 
 — b sec. — b sec. • -» which is the ordinate 
 2k v iVl a 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 
 force that the column will bear : and for a cylinder we find, 
 
 by the same reasoning, f — — -6169 M — . If b 
 
 be supposed to vanish, we shall have in theory an equili- 
 brium without flexure ; but since it will be tottering, it 
 cannot exist in nature. 
 
 By applying this determination to the strength of wood 
 and iron, compared with the modulus of elasticity, it ap- 
 pears that a round column or a square pillar of either of 
 these substances cannot be bent by any longitudinal force 
 applied to the axis, which it can withstand without being 
 crushed, unless its length be greater than twelve or thir- 
 teen times its thickness respectively ; nor a column or pil- 
 lar of stone, unless it be forty or forty-five times as long 
 as it is thick. Hence we may infer, as a practical rule, 
 that every piece of timber or iron intended to withstand 
 any considerable compressing force, should be at least as 
 many inches in thickness as it is feet in length, in order 
 to avoid the loss of force which necessarily arises from 
 curvature. 
 
 C. When a beam, fixed at one end, is pressed by a force 
 in a direction deviating from the original position of the axis 
 in a small angle, of which the tangent is t, the deflection be- 
 M / 12 f e\ 
 
 -nr IABO YM -■-»)■ 
 
 The inclination of the curve to the absciss being incon- 
 siderable, it will not differ sensibly from a portion of a har- 
 
 By means of this proposition we may determine the ef- 
 fect of a small lateral force in weakening a beam or pillar 
 which is at the same time compressed longitudinally by a 
 much greater force, considering the parts on each side of 
 the point to which the lateral force is applied, as portions 
 of two beams, bent in the manner here described, by a 
 single force slightly inclined to the axis. 
 
 D. A bar fixed at one end, and bent by a transverse force 
 applied to the other end, assumes initially the form of a cu- 
 
 4<?y 
 
 bic parabola, and the deflection at the end is d — 
 
 The ordinate of a cubic parabola varying as x?, its se- 
 cond fluxion varies as 6x ( dx ) 2 , or since the first fluxion 
 of the absciss is constant, simply as the absciss x, mea- 
 sured from the vertex of the parabola, which must there- 
 fore be situated at the end to which the force is applied, 
 and the absciss must coincide with the tangent of the bar. 
 But if we begin from the other end, we must substitute 
 e — x for x, and the second fluxion of the ordinate will be 
 as 6 (e — x) (dx) 2 , the first as 6 exdx — 3 x?dx, and the flu- 
 ent as 3ex 2 — x 3 , which, when x = e, becomes 2&, while it 
 would have been 3c 3 if the curvature had been uniform, 
 and the second fluxion had been everywhere 6e(dx) 2 . Now 
 
 the radius of curvature at the fixed end being r — 
 
 l2e S 
 
 and the versed sine of a small portion of a circle being 
 
 66 . 
 
 equal to — , this versed sine will be expressed by ^j^ ; 
 4e¥ 
 
 and two thirds of this, or . r -, will be the actual deflection, 
 Maa 
 
 E. The depression of a bar, fixed horizontally atone end, 
 
 3g4 
 
 and supporting only its own weight, is d — 2maa ’ 
 
 the height of the modulus of elasticity. 
 
 The curvature here varies as the square of the distance 
 from the end, because the strain is proportional to the 
 weight of the portion of the bar beyond any given point, 
 and to the distance of its centre of gravity conjointly, 
 that is, to (e—x) £ (e—x), so that if the second fluxion 
 
CAKPENTR Y. 
 
 141 
 
 Carpentry, at the fixed end be as e?(dx) 2 , it will elsewhere be as 
 ( e — x) 2 (dx) 2 ; and the corresponding first fluxions being 
 e 2 xdx and fxdx — ex 2 dx -f- \ x?dx, the fluents will be 
 | e?x?, and <?x? — \ ex? -|- jfx 4 , or, when x = e, e 4 , and 
 ( \ — i + ff)e? zr ^ e 4 ; consequently the depression must 
 be half the versed sine in the circle of greatest curva- 
 ture. Now the radius of curvature becomes here 
 
 12 fd 
 
 — the force being applied at the distance he; and 
 6ef 
 
 since the weight of the bar is to that of the modulus of 
 elasticity in the proportion of the respective lengths, we 
 
 , f e . maa . . , . „ , 
 
 have ~r = — , and r — — - — , and the versed sine tor the 
 
 M m 6ee 
 
 Maa 
 
 ordinate e will be 
 
 3e 4 
 
 half of which is the actual de- 
 
 pression. 
 
 F. The depression of the middle of a horizontal bar, fixed 
 at both ends, and supporting its own iveight only, is d — 
 5e 4 
 
 32 maa' 
 
 The transverse force at each point of such a bar, re- 
 sisted by the lateral adhesion, is as the distance x from 
 the middle (Art. Bridge, under Prop. L) ; but this force 
 is proportional to the first fluxion of the strain or curva- 
 ture, consequently the curvature itself must vary as the 
 corrected fluent of r ±zxdx, taking here the negative sign, 
 because the curvature diminishes as x increases ; and the 
 corrected fluent will be ^e 2 — x 2 , since it must vanish 
 when x=^e; the first fluxion of the ordinate will then 
 be \&xdx — ^ x?dx , and the fluent £e 2 x 2 — x 4 , or for 
 
 the whole length e 4 , instead of or yjjg, which 
 
 would have been its value if the curvature had been equal 
 throughout. Now the strain at the middle is the differ- 
 ence of the opposite strains produced by the forces act- 
 ing on either side ; and these are the half weight acting 
 at the mean distance £ e, and the resistance of the support, 
 which is equal to the same half weight, but acts at the 
 distance ^e, the difference being equivalent to the half 
 weight, acting at the distance \e, so that the curvature at 
 the middle is the same as if the bar were fixed there, and 
 loose at the ends ; that is, as in the last proposition, sub- 
 
 ^TYICLCL 
 
 stituting \ e for e, — ; and the versed sine at the 
 
 See 
 
 e? 
 
 Se? 
 
 5c 4 
 
 4 of this will be s . 
 
 S'imaa 
 
 distance A e being — , or 
 
 * ° 8 r lb maa 
 
 This demonstration may serve as an illustration of two 
 modes of considering the effect of a strain, which have not 
 been generally known, and which are capable of a very 
 extensive application. 
 
 It follows that where a bar is equally loaded through- 
 out its length, the curvature at the middle is half as great 
 as if the whole weight were collected there, the strain de- 
 rived from the resistance of the support remaining in that 
 case uncompensated. The depression produced by the 
 divided weight will be f as great as by the single weight, 
 since X £ is to as 5 to 8. M. Dupin found the propo- 
 sition, by many experiments, between § and g-; and | is a 
 very good mean for representing these results. 
 
 III. ELEMENTS OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 Definition. “ Carpentry is the art of framing timber for the pur- 
 poses of architecture, machinery, and, in general, for all 
 considerable structures.” 
 
 It is not intended in this article to give a full account 
 
 of carpentry as a mechanical art, or to describe the various Carpentry, 
 ways of executing its different works, suited to the varie- 
 ty of materials employed, the processes which must be 
 followed for fashioning and framing them for our purposes, 
 and the tools which must be used, and the manner in 
 which they must be handled. This would be an occupa- 
 tion for volumes, and, though of great importance, must 
 be entirely omitted here. Our only aim at present will be 
 to deduce, from the principles and laws of mechanics, and 
 the knowledge which experience, and judicious inferences 
 from it, have given us concerning the strength of timber, 
 in relation to the strain laid on it, such maxims of con- 
 struction as will unite economy with strength and efficacy. 
 
 This object is to be attained by a knowledge, ls<, of the 
 strength of our materials, and of the absolute strain that is 
 to be laid on them ; 2 dig, of the modifications of this strain, 
 by the place and direction in which it is exerted, and the 
 changes that can be made by a proper disposition of the 
 parts of our structure ; and, 3 dly, having disposed every 
 piece in such a manner as to derive the utmost advantage 
 from its relative strength, we must know how to form the 
 joints and other connections in such a manner as to secure 
 the advantages derived from this disposition. 
 
 This is evidently a branch of mechanical science which An import- 
 makes carpentry a liberal art, constitutes part of the learn- ant branch 
 ing of the Engineer, and distinguishes him from the °( m , ech . a ' 
 workman. Its importance in all times and states of civil ence 
 society is manifest and great. In the present condition of 
 these kingdoms, raised by the active ingenuity and en- 
 ergy of our countrymen to a pitch of prosperity and in- 
 fluence unequalled in the history of the world, a condition 
 which consists chiefly in the superiority of our manufac- 
 tures, attained by prodigious multiplication of engines of 
 every description, and for every species of labour, the 
 Science (so to term it) of carpentry is of immense conse- 
 quence. We regret therefore exceedingly that none of 
 our celebrated artists have done honour to themselves and 
 their country, by digesting into a body of consecutive doc- 
 trines the results of their experience, so as to form a sys- 
 tem from which their pupils might derive the first prin- 
 ciples of their education. The many volumes called Com- 
 plete Instructors, Manuals, &c. take a much humbler 
 flight, and content themselves w r ith instructing the mere 
 workman ; or sometimes give the master builder a few ap- 
 proved forms of roofs and other framings, with the rules 
 for drawing them on paper, and from thence forming the 
 working draughts which must guide the saw and the chisel 
 of the workman. Hardly any of them offer any thing that can 
 be called a principle, applicable to many particular cases, 
 with the rules for this adaptation. We are indebted for principally 
 the greatest part of our knowledge of this subject to the indebted to 
 labours of literary men, chiefly foreigners, who have pub- foreigners 
 lished in the memoirs of the learned academies disserta- j° 1 j a 
 tions on different parts of what may be termed the Science t 
 of Carpentry. It is singular that the members of thej ect , 
 
 Royal Society of London, and even of that established 
 and supported for the encouragement of the arts, have con- 
 tributed so little to the public instruction in this respect. 
 
 We have observed some beginnings of this kind, such as the 
 last part of Nicholson’s Carpenter s and Joiner s Assistant-, 
 and it is with pleasure we can say, that we were told by 
 the editor this work was prompted in a great measure by 
 what has been delivered in our articles Roof and Strength 
 of Materials. It abounds more in important and new 
 observations than any book of the kind that we are ac- 
 quainted with. We again call on such as have given a 
 scientific attention to this subject, and pray that they would 
 render a meritorious service to their country by imparting 
 the result of their researches. The very limited nature 
 of this w'ork does not allow us to treat the subject in de- 
 
142 C A R P E N T u Y. 
 
 Carpentry, tail ; and we must confine our observations to the funda- 
 mental and leading propositions. 
 
 Theory The theory, so to term it, of carpentry is founded on 
 founded on two distinct portions of mechanical science, namely, a 
 wliat ' knowledge of the strains to which framings of timber are 
 exposed, and a knowledge of their relative strength. 
 
 We shall therefore attempt to bring into one point of 
 view the propositions of mechanical science that are more 
 immediately applicable to the art of carpentry, and are to 
 be found in various articles of our work, particularly Roof 
 and Strength of Materials. From these propositions 
 we hope to deduce such principles as shall enable an at- 
 tentive reader to comprehend distinctly what is to be 
 aimed at in framing timber, and how to attain this object 
 with certainty ; and we shall illustrate and confirm our 
 principles by examples of pieces of carpentry which are 
 acknowledged to be excellent in their kind. 
 
 Composi- The most important proposition of general mechanics 
 tion and to the carpenter is that which exhibits the composition 
 resolution and resolution of forces ; and we beg our practical read- 
 ot foices. ers t0 endeavour to form very distinct conceptions of it, 
 and to make it very familiar to their minds. When ac- 
 commodated to their chief purposes, it may be thus ex- 
 pressed : 
 
 1. If a body, or any part of a body, be at once pressed 
 in the two directions AB, AC (fig. 1, Plate CXLVIL), 
 and if the intensity or force of those pressures be in the 
 proportion of these two lines, the body is affected in the 
 same manner as if it were pressed by a single force acting 
 in the direction AD, which is the diagonal of the paralle- 
 logram ABDC formed by the two lines, and whose inten- 
 sity has the same proportion to the intensity of each of 
 the other two that AD has to AB or AC. 
 
 Such of our readers as have studied the laws of motion, 
 know that this is fully demonstrated. Such as wish for a 
 very accurate view of this proposition will do well to read 
 the demonstration given by D. Bernoulli, in the first vo- 
 lume of the Comment. Petropol., and the improvement of 
 this demonstration by D’Alembert in his Opuscules and in 
 the Comment. Taurinens. The practitioner in carpentry 
 will get more useful confidence in the doctrine, if he will 
 shut his book, and verify the theoretical demonstrations 
 Illustrated by actual experiments. They are remarkably easy and 
 by experi- convincing. Therefore it is our request that the artist, 
 who is not so habitually acquainted with the subject, do 
 not proceed further till he has made it quite familiar to 
 his thoughts. Nothing is so conducive to this as the ac- 
 tual experiment; and since this only requires the trifling 
 expense of two small pulleys and a few yards of whipcord, 
 we hope that none of our practical readers will omit it : 
 they will thank us for this injunction. 
 
 2. Let the threads A d, AF&, and AEc (fig. 2), have the 
 weights d, b, and c, appended to them, and let two of the 
 threads be laid over the pulleys F and E. By this appa- 
 ratus the knot A will be drawn in the directions AB, AC, 
 and AK. If the sum of the weights b and c be greater 
 than the single weight d, the assemblage will of itself 
 settle in a certain determined form : if you pull the knot 
 A out of its place, it will always return to it again, and 
 will rest in no other position. For example, if the three 
 weights are equal, the threads will always make equal 
 angles, of 120 degrees each, round the knot. If one of 
 the weights be three pounds, another four, and the third 
 five, the angle opposite to the thread stretched by five 
 pounds will always be square, &c. When the knot A is 
 thus in equilibrio, we must infer that the action of the 
 weight d, in the direction Ad, is in direct opposition to 
 the combined action of b in the direction AB, and of c in 
 the direction AC. Therefore, if we produce dA to any 
 point D, and take AD to represent the magnitude of the 
 
 force, or pressure exerted by the weight d, the pressures Carpentry, 
 exerted on A by the weights b and c, in the directions AB, 'w— 
 
 AC, are in fact equivalent to a pressure acting in the di- 
 rection AD, whose intensity we have represented by AD. 
 
 If we now measure off by a scale on AF and AE the 
 lines AB and AC, having the same proportions to AD 
 that the weights b and c have to the weight d, and if we 
 draw DB and DC, we shall find DC to be equal and pa- 
 rallel to AB, and DB equal and parallel to AC ; so that 
 AD is the diagonal of a parallelogram ABDC. We shall 
 find this always to be the case, whatever are the weights 
 made use of; only we must take care that the weight 
 which we cause to act without the intervention of a pulley 
 be less than the sum of the other two ; if any one of the 
 weights exceeds the sum of the other two, it will prevail, 
 and drag them along with it. 
 
 Now since we know that the weight d would just ba- 
 lance an equal weight g, pulling directly upwards by the 
 intervention of the pulley G ; and since we see that it 
 just balances the weights b and c, acting in the directions 
 AB, AC ; we must infer that the knot A is affected in the 
 same manner by those two weights, or by the single weight 
 g ; and therefore that two pressures, acting in the. directions 
 and with the intensities AB, AC, are equivalent to a single 
 pressure having the direction and proportion of AD. In 
 like manner, the pressures AB, AK, are equivalent to 
 ATI, which is equal and opposite to AC. Also AK and 
 AC are equivalent to AI, which is equal and opposite to 
 AB. 
 
 We shall consider this combination of pressures a little 
 more particularly. 
 
 Suppose an upright beam BA (fig. 3), pushed in the 
 direction of its length by a load B, and abutting on the 
 ends of two beams AC, AD, which are firmly resisted at 
 their extreme points C and D, which rest on two blocks, 
 but are nowise joined to them ; these two beams can re- 
 sist no way but in the directions CA, DA, and therefore 
 the pressures which they sustain from the beam BA are 
 in the directions AC, AD. We wish to know how much 
 each sustains : Produce BA to E, taking AE from a scale 
 of equal parts, to represent the number of tons or pounds 
 by which BA is pressed. Draw EF and EG parallel to 
 AD and AC ; then AF, measured on the same scale, will 
 give us the number of pounds by which AC is strained or 
 crushed, and AG will give the strain on AD. 
 
 it deserves particular remark here, that the length of 
 AC or AD has no influence on the strain arising from 
 the thrust BA, while the directions remain the same. The 
 effects, however, of this strain are modified by the length 
 of the piece on which it is exerted. This strain compress- 
 es the beam, and will therefore compress a beam of double 
 length twice as much. This may change the form of the 
 assemblage. If AC, for example, be very much shorter 
 than AD, it will be much less compressed : the line CA 
 will turn about the centre C, while DA will hardly change 
 its position ; and the angle CAD will grow more open, 
 the point A sinking down. The artist will find it of great 
 consequence to pay a very minute attention to this cir- 
 cumstance, and to be able to see clearly the change of 
 shape which necessarily results from these mutual strains. 
 
 He will see in this the cause of failure in many very great 
 works. By thus changing shape, strains are often produ- 
 ced in places where there were none before, and frequent- 
 ly of the very worst kind, tending to break the beams 
 across. 
 
 The dotted lines of this figure show another position 
 of the beam AD'. This makes a prodigious change, not 
 only in the strain on AD', but also in that on AC. Both 
 of them are much increased ; AG is almost doubled, and 
 AF' is four times greater than before. This addition was 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 143 
 
 Carpentry, made to the figure to show what enormous strains may 
 be produced by a very moderate force, AE, when it is 
 exerted on a very obtuse angle. 1 
 
 The fourth and fifth figures will assist the most unin- 
 structed reader in conceiving how the very same strains, 
 AF, AG, are laid on these beams, by a weight simply 
 hanging from a . billet resting on A, pressing hard on AD, 
 and also leaning a little on AC ; or by an upright piece, 
 
 AE, joggled on the two beams AC, AD, and performing 
 the office of an ordinary king-post. The reader will thus 
 learn to call off his attention from the means by which the 
 strains are produced, and learn to consider them abstract- 
 edly merely as strains, in whatever situation he finds them, 
 and from whatever cause they arise. 
 
 We presume that every reader will perceive, that the 
 proportions of these strains will be precisely the same if 
 every thing be inverted, and each beam be drawn or pull- 
 ed in the opposite direction. In the same way that we 
 have substituted a rope and weight in fig. 4, or a king- 
 post in fig. 5, for the loaded beam BA of fig. 3, we might 
 have substituted the framing of fig. 6, which is a very usual 
 practice. In this framing, the batten DA is stretched by 
 a force AG, and the piece AC is compressed by a force 
 
 AF. It is evident that we may employ a rope or an iron 
 rod hooked on at D, in place of the batten DA, and the 
 strains will be the same as before. 
 
 This seemingly simple matter is still full of instruction ; 
 and we hope that the well-informed reader will pardon us, 
 though we dwell a little longer on it for the sake of the 
 young artist. 
 
 By changing the form of this framing, as in fig. 7, we 
 produce the same strains as in the disposition represented 
 by the dotted lines in fig. 3. The strains on both the 
 battens AD, AC, are now greatly increased. 
 
 The same consequences result from an improper change 
 of the position of AC. If it is placed as in fig. 8, the 
 strains on both are vastly increased. In short, the rule is 
 general, that the more open we make the angle against 
 which the push is exerted, the greater are the strains 
 which are brought on the struts or ties which form the 
 sides of the angle. 
 
 The reader may not readily conceive the piece AC of 
 fig. 8 as sustaining a compression ; for the weight B ap- 
 pears to hang from AC as much as from AD. But his 
 doubts will be removed by considering whether he could 
 employ a rope in place of AC. He cannot ; but AD may 
 be exchanged for a rope. AC is therefore a strut, and 
 not a tie. 
 
 In fig. 9, Plate CXLVIII. AD is again a strut, butting 
 on the block D, and AC is a tie ; and the batten AC may 
 be replaced by a rope. While AD is compressed by the 
 force AG, AC is stretched by the force AF. 
 
 If we give AC the position represented by the dotted 
 lines, the compression of AD is now AG', and the force 
 stretching AC' is now AF'; both much greater than they 
 were before. This disposition is analogous to fig. 8, and 
 to the dotted lines in fig. 3. Nor will the young artist 
 have any doubts of AC' being on the stretch, if he con- 
 sider whether AD can be replaced by a rope. It cannot, 
 but AC' may ; and it is therefore not compressed, but 
 stretched. 
 
 In fig. 10 all the three pieces, AC, AD, and AB, are 
 ties, on the stretch. This is the complete inversion of fig. 
 3 ; and the dotted position of AC induces the same changes 
 in the forces AF, AG', as in fig. 3. 
 
 Thus have we gone over all the varieties which can Carpentry, 
 happen in the bearings of three pieces on one point. All 
 calculations about the strength of carpentry are reduced 
 to this case ; for when more ties or braces meet in a point 
 (a thing that rarely happens), we reduce them to three, 
 by substituting for any two the force which results from 
 their combination, and then combining this with another; 
 and so on. 
 
 The young artist must be particularly careful not to 
 mistake the kind of strain that is exerted on any piece of 
 the framing, and suppose a piece to be a brace which is 
 really a tie. It is very easy to avoid all mistakes in this 
 matter by the following rule, which has no exception. 
 
 (See Note AA.) 
 
 Take notice of the direction in which the piece acts Rule for 
 from which the strain proceeds. Draw a line in that di-distin- 
 rection from the point on which the strain is exerted, guishing 
 and let its length (measured on some scale of equal parts) t * iecaseso ^ 
 express the magnitude of this action in pounds, hundreds, sp^and" 
 or tons. From its remote extremity draw lines parallel to ex t e nsion. 
 the pieces on which the strain is exerted. The line pa- 
 rallel to one piece will necessarily cut the other, or its di- 
 rection produced. If it cut the piece itself, that piece is 
 compressed by the strain, and it is performing the office 
 of a strut or brace; if it cut its direction produced, the 
 piece is stretched, and it is a tie. In short, the strains on 
 the pieces AC, AD, are to be estimated in the direction 
 of the points F and G from the strained point A. Thus, 
 in fig. 3, the upright piece BA, loaded with the weight B, 
 presses the point A in the direction AE ; so does the rope 
 AB in the other figures, or the batten AB in fig. 5. 
 
 In general, if the straining piece is within the angle 
 formed by the pieces which are strained, the strains which 
 they sustain are of the opposite kind to that which it ex- 
 erts. If it be pushing, they are drawing; but if it be 
 within the angle formed by their directions produced, the 
 strains which they sustain are of the same kind. All the 
 three are either drawing or pressing. If the straining 
 piece lie within the angle formed by one piece and the 
 produced direction of the other, its own strain, whether 
 compression or extension, is of the same kind with that of 
 the most remote of the other two, and opposite to that of 
 the nearest. Thus, in fig. 9, where AB is drawing, the 
 remote piece AC is also drawing, while AD is pushing or 
 resisting compression. 
 
 In all that has been said on this subject, we have not 
 spoken of any joints. In the calculations with which we 
 are occupied at present, the resistance of joints has no 
 share ; and we must not suppose that they exert any 
 force which tends to prevent the angles from changing. 
 
 The joints are supposed perfectly flexible, or to be like 
 compass joints, the pin of which only keeps the pieces to- 
 gether when one or more of the pieces draws or pulls. 
 
 The carpenter must always suppose them all compass 
 joints when he calculates the thrusts and draughts of the 
 different pieces of his frames. The strains on joints, and 
 their power to produce or balance them, are of a different 
 kind, and require a very different examination. 
 
 Seeing that the angles which the pieces make with each General 
 other are of such importance to the magnitude and the expression 
 proportion of the excited strains, it is proper to find out°Hh ema g' 
 some way of readily and compendiously conceiving and 
 expressing this analogy. 
 
 In general the strain on any piece is proportional to the 
 straining force. This is evident. 
 
 1 The reader is requested to add accents to the extreme letters D and F of fig. 3, which correspond to the position of the beam 
 AGD indicated by the dotted lines. Accents are also wanted to the upper F and the lower C and G in fig. 9 : also to the upper F 
 and lower G in fig. 10 ; and in this b should be C. In fig. 11, the i towards the left should be t , and an accent is wanting over the 
 upper f. In fig. 12, the dotted line CK should be continued upward and marked L. In fig. Ifi, the letters should stand thus, A 
 CEeD/FB. 
 
144 
 
 C A R P E N T R Y. 
 
 Carpentry. 
 
 Strains 
 propagated 
 to the 
 points of 
 support. 
 
 Action of a 
 
 straining 
 
 beam. 
 
 . Secondly, the strain on any piece AC is proportional to 
 the sine of the angle which the straining force makes with 
 the other piece directly, and to the sine of the angle which 
 the pieces make with each other inversely. 
 
 For it is plain that the three pressures AE, AF, and 
 AG, which are exerted at the point A, are in the propor- 
 tion of the lines AE, AF, and.FE (because FE is equal to 
 AG). But because the sides of a triangle are proportion- 
 al to the sines of the opposite angles, the strains are pro- 
 portional to the sines of the angles AFE, AEF, and FAE. 
 But the sine of AFE is the same with the sine of the angle 
 CAD, which the two pieces AC and AD make with each 
 other ; and the sine of AEF is the same with the sine of 
 EAD, which the straining piece BA makes with the piece 
 
 AC. Therefore we have this analogy, Sin. CAD : Sin. 
 
 c i n R A 1 
 
 EAD = AE: AF,andAF= AE x (EA Now the 
 
 Sin. CAD 
 
 sines of angles are most conveniently conceived as deci- 
 mal fractions of the radius, which is considered as unity. 
 Thus. Sin. 30° is the same thing with 0-5, or and so 
 of others. Therefore, to have the strain on AC, arising 
 from any load AE actiqg in the direction AE, multiply 
 AE by the sine of EAD, and divide the product by the 
 sine of CAD. 
 
 This rule shows how great the strains must be when 
 the angle CAD becomes very open, approaching to 180 
 degrees. But when the angle CAD becomes very small, 
 its sine (which is our divisor) is also very small; and we 
 should expect a very great quotient in this case also. But 
 we must observe, that in this case the sine of EAD is also 
 very small ; and this is our multiplier. In such a case, the 
 quotient cannot exceed unity. 
 
 But it is unnecessary to consider the calculation by the 
 tables of sines more particularly. The angles are seldom 
 known any otherwise but by drawing the figure of the 
 frame of carpentry. In this case, we can always obtain 
 the measures of the strains from the same scale, with equal 
 accuracy, by drawing the parallelogram AFCG. 
 
 Hitherto we have considered the strains excited at A 
 only as they affect the pieces on which they are exerted. 
 But the pieces, in order to sustain, or be subject to, any 
 strain, must be supported at their ends C and D ; and we 
 may consider them as mere intermediums, by which these 
 strains are made to acton those points of support : There- 
 fore AF and AG are also measures of the forces which 
 press or pull at C and D. Thus we learn the supports 
 which must be found for these points. These may be in- 
 finitely various. We shall attend on!}' to such as some- 
 how depend on the framing itself. 
 
 Such a structure as fig. 1 1 very frequently occurs, where 
 a beam BA is strongly pressed to the end of another beam 
 
 AD, which is prevented from yielding, both because it 
 lies on another beam HD, and because its end D is hin- 
 dered from sliding backwards. It is indifferent from what 
 this pressure arises: we have represented it as owing to a 
 weight hung on at B, while B is withheld from yielding 
 by a rod or rope hooked to the wall. The beam AD may 
 be supposed at full liberty to exert all its pressure on D, 
 as if it were supported on rollers lodged in the beam HD ; 
 but the loaded beam BA presses both on the beam AD 
 and on HD. We wish only to know what strain is borne 
 by AD. 
 
 All bodies act on each other in the direction perpendi- 
 cular to their touching surfaces ; therefore the support 
 given by HD is in a direction perpendicular to it. We 
 mav therefore supply its place at A by a beam AC, per- 
 pendicular to HD, and firmly supported at C. In this 
 case, therefore, we may take AE, as before, to represent 
 the pressure exerted by the loaded, beam, and draw EG 
 perpendicular to AD, and EF parallel to it, meeting the 
 
 perpendicular AC in F. Then AG is the strain compress- Carpentry, 
 ing AD, and AF is the pressure on the beam HD. 
 
 It may be thought, that since we assume as a principle qq ie f onn 
 that the mutual pressures of solid bodies are exerted per- of the 
 pendicular to their touching surfaces, this balance of pres- abutting 
 sures, in framings of timbers, depends on the directions ofJ oint °* n0 
 their butting joints; but it does not, as will readily appear S re f t im * 
 by considering the present case. Let the joint or abut- 1 
 ment of the two pieces BA, AD, be mitred in the usual 
 manner, in the direction fAf. Therefore, if Ac be drawn 
 perpendicular to A f it will be the direction of the actual 
 pressure exerted by the loaded beam BA on the beam 
 AD. But the re-action of AD, in the opposite direction 
 A^, will not balance the pressure of BA ; because it is not 
 in the direction precisely opposite. BA will therefore 
 slide along the joint, and press on the beam HD. AE re- 
 presents the load on the mitre joint A. Draw Ec perpen- 
 dicular to Ac, and E f parallel to it. The pressure AE will 
 he balanced by the re-actions cA and/A ; or, the pressure 
 AE produces the pressures Ac and Af of which A/must 
 be resisted by the beam HD, and Ac by the beam AD. 
 
 The pressure Af not being perpendicular to FID, cannot 
 be fully resisted by it ; because (by our assumed principle) 
 it re-acts only in a direction perpendicular to its surface. 
 Therefore dra wfp,fi, parallel to HD, and perpendicular 
 to it. The pressure Af will be resisted by HD with the 
 force pA ; but there is required another force iA, to pre- 
 vent the beam BA from slipping outwards. This must be 
 furnished by the re-action of the beam DA. (See Note 
 BB.) In like manner, the other force Ac cannot be fully 
 resisted by the beam AD, or rather by the prop D, act- 
 ing by the intervention of the beam ; for the action of that 
 prop is exerted through the beam in the direction DA. 
 
 The beam AD, therefore; is pressed to the beam HD by 
 the force Ac, as well as by Af To find what this pres- 
 sure on HD is, draw eg perpendicular to HD, and co pa- 
 rallel to it, cutting EG in r. The forces gA and oA will 
 resist, and balance Ac. 
 
 Thus we see that the two forces Ac and Af which are 
 equivalent to AE, are equivalent also to Ap, A i, A o, and 
 A g. But because Af and cE are equal and parallel, and 
 Er and fi are also parallel, as also cr and fp, it is evident, 
 that if is equal to /-E, or to oF, and iA is equal to rc, or 
 to Gg. Therefore the four forces A g, A o, Ap, A i, are 
 equal to AG and AF. Therefore AG is the compression 
 of the beam AD, or the force pressing it on D, and AF is 
 the force pressing it on the beam HD. Ihe proportion of 
 these pressures, therefore, is not affected by the form of 
 the joint. 
 
 This remark is important; for many carpenters think 
 the form and direction of the butting joint of great impor- 
 tance; and even the theorist, by not prosecuting the ge- 
 neral principle through all its consequences, may be led 
 into an error. The form of the joint is of no importance, 
 in as far as it affects the strains in the direction of the 
 beams ; but it is often of great consequence, in respect to 
 its own firmness, and the effect, it may have in bruising 
 the piece on which it acts, or being crippled by it. 
 
 The same compression of AB, and the same thrust on ^ 
 
 the point D by the intervention of AD, will obtain, in tbeTtrain 
 whatever way the original pressure on the end A is pro- on a t j e _ 
 duced. Thus, supposing that a cord is made fast at A, beam, 
 and pulled in the direction AE, and with the same force, 
 the beam AD will be equally compressed, and the prop D 
 must re-act with the same force. 
 
 But it often happens that the obliquity of the pressure 
 on AD, instead of compressing it, stretches it; and we 
 desire to know what tension it sustains. Of this we have 
 a familiar example in a common roof. Let the two rafters 
 AC, AD (fig. 12), press on the tie-beam DC. We may 
 
CARPENTRY. 145 
 
 Carpentry, suppose the whole weight to press vertically on the ridge 
 A, as if a weight B were hung on there. (See Note CC.) 
 We may represent this weight by the portion A b of the 
 vertical or plumb line, intercepted between the ridge and 
 the beam. Then drawing bf and bg parallel to AD and 
 
 AC, Ag and Af will represent the pressures on AC and 
 
 AD. Produce AC till CIT be equal to Af. The point 
 C is forced out in this direction, and with a force repre- 
 sented by this line. As this force is not perpendicular- 
 ly across the beam, it evidently stretches it ; and this ex- 
 tending force must be withstood by an equal force pull- 
 ing it in the opposite direction. This must arise from a 
 similar oblique thrust of the opposite rafter on the other 
 end D. We concern ourselves only with this extension 
 at present ; but we see that the cohesion of tire beam does 
 nothing but supply the balance to the extending forces. 
 It must still be supported externally, that it may resist, and 
 by resisting obliquely, be stretched. The points C and 
 D are supported on the walls, which they press in the di- 
 rections CK and DO, parallel to Ah. If we draw HK 
 parallel to DC, and HI parallel to CK (that is to Ab), 
 meeting DC produced in I, it follows from the composi- 
 tion of forces, that the point C would be supported by the 
 two forces KC and IC. In like manner, making DN = 
 Ag, and completing the parallelogram DMNO, the point 
 D would be supported by the forces OD and MD. If 
 we draw go and fk parallel to DC, it is plain that they are 
 equal to NO and Cl, while Ao and Ah are equal to DO 
 and CK, and Ab is equal to the sum of DO and CK (be- 
 cause it is equal to Ao + Ah). The weight of the roof 
 is equal to its vertical pressure on the walls. 
 
 Thus we see, that while a pressure on A, in the direc- 
 tion Ab, produces the strains Af and Ag, on the pieces 
 AC and AD, it also excites a strain Cl or DM in the 
 piece DC. And this completes the mechanism of a frame ; 
 for all derive their efficacy from the triangles of which 
 they are composed, as will appear more clearly as we pro- 
 ceed. 
 
 External But there is more to be learned from this. The con- 
 action of a sideration of the strains on the two pieces AD and AC, 
 frame. by the action of a force at A, only showed them as the 
 means of propagating the same strains in their own direc- 
 - tion to the points of support. But, by adding the strains 
 exerted in DC, we see that the frame becomes an inter- 
 medium, by which exertions may be made on other bodies 
 in certain directions and proportions, so that this frame 
 may become part of a more complicated one, and, as it 
 were, an element of its constitution. It is worth while to 
 ascertain the proportion of the pressures CK and DO, 
 which are thus exerted on the walls. The similarity of 
 triangles gives the following analogies : 
 
 DO: DM = Ab : bD 
 Cl, or DM : CK = C b : Ab 
 Therefore DO : CK = C b : bD. 
 
 Or, the pressures on the points C and D, in the direction of 
 the straining force Ab, are reciprocally proportional to the 
 portions of DC intercepted by Ab. 
 
 Also, since Ab is = DO + CK, we have 
 
 Ab : CK = Cb + Z»D (or CD) : bD, and 
 Ab : DO = CD : bC. 
 
 In general, any two of the three parallel forces Ab, DO, 
 CK, are to each other in the reciprocal proportion of the 
 parts of CD, intercepted between their directions and the 
 direction of the third. 
 
 And this explains a still more important office of the 
 frame ADC. If one of the points, such as D, be support- 
 ed, an external power acting at A, in the direction Ab, 
 and with an intensity which may be measured by Ab, may 
 be set in equilibrio with another acting at C, in the di- 
 rection CL, opposite to CK or Ab, and with an intensity 
 
 represented by CK ; for since the pressure CH is partly Carpentry, 
 withstood by the force IC, or the firmness of the beam y-~- 
 DC supported at D, the force KC will complete the ba- 
 lance. When we do not attend to the support at D, we 
 conceive the force Ab to be balanced by KC, orKC to be 
 balanced by Ab. And, in like manner, we may neglect 
 the support or force acting at A, and consider the force 
 DO as balanced by CK. 
 
 Thus our frame becomes a lever, and we are able to 
 trace the interior mechanical procedure which gives it its 
 efficacy : it is by the intervention of the forces of cohesion, 
 which connect the points to which the external forces are 
 applied with the supported point or fulcrum and with each 
 other. 
 
 These strains or pressures Ab, DO, and CK, not being it becomes 
 in the directions of the beams, may be called transverse, a lever. 
 
 We see that by their means a frame of carpentry may be 
 considered as a solid body : but the example which brought 
 this to our view is too limited for explaining the efficacy 
 which may be given to such constructions. We shall 
 therefore give a general proposition, which will more dis- 
 tinctly explain the procedure of nature, and enable us to 
 trace the strains as they are propagated through all the 
 parts of the most complicated framing, finally producing 
 the exertion of its most distant points. 
 
 We presume that the reader is now pretty well habitu- General 
 ated to the conception of the strains as they are propagat- proposition, 
 ed along the lines joining the points of a frame, and we 
 shall therefore employ a very simple figure. 
 
 Let the strong lines ACBD (fig. 13) represent a frame 
 of carpentry. Suppose that it is pulled at the point A by 
 a force acting in the direction AE, but that it rests on a 
 fixed point C, and that the other extreme point B is held 
 back by a power which resists in the direction BF : It is 
 required to determine the proportion of the strains excit- 
 ed in its different parts, the proportion of the external 
 pressures at A and B, and the pressure which is produced 
 on the obstacle or fulcrum C. 
 
 It is evident that each of the external forces at A and 
 B tend one way, or to one side of the frame, and that each 
 would cause it to turn round C if the other did not pre- 
 vent it ; and that if, notwithstanding their action, it is 
 turned neither way, the forces in actual exertion are in 
 equilibrio by the intervention of the frame. It is no less 
 evident that these forces concur in pressing the frame on 
 the prop C. Therefore, if the piece CD were away, and 
 if the joints C and D be perfectly flexible, the pieces CA, 
 
 CB, would be turned round the prop C, and the pieces 
 AD, DB, would also turn with them, and the whole frame 
 change its form. This shows, by the way, and we desire 
 it to be carefully kept in mind, that the firmness or stiff- 
 ness of framing depends entirely on the triangles bound- 
 ed by beams which are contained in it. An open quadri- 
 lateral may always change its shape, the sides revolving 
 round the angles. A quadrilateral may have an infinity 
 of forms, without any change of its sides, by merely push- 
 ing two opposite angles towards each other, or drawing 
 them asunder. But when the three sides of a triangle 
 are determined, its shape is also invariably determined ; 
 and if two angles be held fast, the third cannot be moved. 
 
 It is thus that, by inserting the bar CD, the figure be- 
 comes unchangeable ; and any attempt to change it by 
 applying a force to an angle A, immediately excites forces 
 of attraction or repulsion between the particles of the stuff 
 which form its sides. Thus it happens, in the present 
 instance, that a change of shape is prevented by the bar 
 CD. The power at A presses its end against the prop ; 
 and in doing this it puts the bar AD on the stretch, and 
 also the bar DB. Their places might therefore be sup- 
 plied by cords or metal wires. Hence it is evident that 
 
146 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Carpentry. DC is compressed, as is also AC ; and, for the same rea- 
 son, CB is also in a state of compression ; for either A or 
 B may be considered as the point that is impelled or with- 
 held. Therefore DA and DB are stretched, and are re- 
 sisting with attractive forces. DC and CB are compress- 
 ed, and are resisting with repulsive forces ; and thus the 
 support of the prop, combined with the firmness of DC, 
 puts the frame ADBC into the' condition of the two frames 
 in fig. 8 and fig. 9. Therefore the external force at A 
 is really in equilibrio with an attracting force acting in 
 the direction AD, and a repulsive force acting in the 
 direction AK. And since all the connecting forces are 
 mutual and equal, the point D is pulled or drawn in the 
 direction DA. The condition of the point B is similar to 
 that of A, and D is also drawn in the direction DB. Thus 
 the point D, being urged by the forces in the directions 
 DA and DB, presses the beam DC on the prop, and the 
 prop resists in the opposite direction. Therefore the line 
 DC is the diagonal of the parallelogram, whose sides have 
 the proportion of the forces which connect D with A and 
 B. This is the principle on which the rest of our inves- 
 tigation proceeds. We may take DC as the representa- 
 tion and measure of their joint effect. Therefore draw 
 CH, CG, parallel to DA, DB. Draw HL, GO, parallel 
 to CA, CB, cutting AE, BF, in L and O, and cutting DA, 
 DB, in I and M. Complete the parallelograms ILKA, 
 MONB. Then DG and AI are the equal and opposite 
 forces which connect A and D ; for GD — CLI — AI. 
 In like manner DH and BM are the forces which connect 
 D and B. 
 
 The external force at A is in immediate equilibrio with 
 the combined forces, connecting A with D and with C. 
 AI is one of them, therefore AK is the other; and AL 
 is the compound force with which the external force at A 
 is in immediate equilibrium. This external force is there- 
 fore equal and opposite to AL. In like manner, the ex- 
 ternal force at B is equal and opposite to BO ; and AL is 
 to BO as the external force at A to the external force at 
 B. The prop C resists with forces equal to those which 
 are propagated to it from the points D, A, and C. There- 
 fore it resists with forces CH, CG, equal and opposite to 
 DG, DH ; and it resists the compressions KA, NB, with 
 equal and opposite forces C/e, Cm. Draw kl, no, parallel to 
 AD, BD, and draw C IQ, CoP: It is plain that kCHl is a 
 parallelogram equal to KAIL, and that Cl is equal to AL. 
 In like manner Co is equal to BO. Now the forces Ck, 
 CH, exerted by the prop, compose the force Cl; and Cm, 
 CG, compose the force Co. These two forces Cl, Co, are 
 equal and parallel to AL and BO ; and therefore they are 
 equal and opposite to the external forces acting at A and 
 B. But they are, primitively, equal and opposite to the 
 pressures, or at least the compounds of the pressures, ex- 
 erted on the prop, by the forces propagated to C from A, 
 D, and B. Therefore the pressures exerted on the prop 
 are the same as if the external forces were applied there 
 in the same directions as they are applied to A and B. 
 Now if we make Cv, Cz, equal to Cl and Co, and complete 
 
 the parallelogram Cvyz, it is plain that the force yC is Carpentry, 
 in equilibrio with 1C and oC. Therefore the pressures at 
 A, C, and B are such as would balance if applied to one 
 point. 1 
 
 Lastly, in order to determine their proportions, draw 
 CS and CR perpendicular to DA and DB. Also draw 
 Ad, B/i perpendicular to CQ and CP ; and draw C g, C i, 
 perpendicular to AE, BF. 
 
 The triangles CPR and Bl^are similar, having a com- 
 mon angle P, and a right angle at R and f. 
 
 In like manner, the triangles CQS and AQ d are similar. 
 Also the triangles CHR, CGS, are similar, by reason of 
 the equal angles at LI and G, and the right angles at R 
 and S. Hence w*e obtain the following analogies : 
 
 Co : CP = on : PB, = CG : PB 
 
 CP:Cll= PB:/B 
 
 CR : CS = CH: CG 
 
 CS : CQ == Ad : AQ 
 
 CQ: Cl = AQ : hi, = AQ: CLI. 
 
 Therefore, by equality, 
 
 Co : Cl = Ad :/B 
 
 or BO : AL = Cg : CL 
 
 That is, the external forces are reciprocally proportional 
 to the perpendiculars drawn from the prop on the lines of 
 their direction. 1 
 
 This proposition, sufficiently general for our purpose, is Extensive 
 fertile in consequences, and furnishes many useful instruc- consequen. 
 tions to the artist. The strains LA, OB, CY, that are ces- 
 excited, occur in many, we may say in all, framings of 
 carpentry, whether for edifices or engines, and are the 
 sources of their efficacy. It is also evident that the doc- 
 trine of the transverse strength of timber is contained in 
 this proposition; for every piece of timber maybe con- 
 sidered as an assemblage of parts, connected by forces 
 which act in the direction of the lines which joined the 
 strained points on the matter which lies between those 
 points, and also act on the rest of the matter, exciting 
 those lateral forces which produce the inflexibility of the 
 whole. See Strength of Materials. 
 
 Thus it appears that this proposition contains the prin- 
 ciples which direct the artist to frame the most powerful 
 levers; to secure uprights by shores or braces, or by tiers 
 and ropes ; to secure scaffoldings for the erection of spires ; 
 and many other more delicate problems of his art. He also 
 learns from this proposition how to ascertain the strains 
 that are produced, without his intention, by pieces which 
 he intended for other offices, and which, by their trans- 
 verse action, puts his work in hazard. In short, this pro- 
 position is the key to the science of this art. 
 
 We would now counsel the artist, after he has made 
 the tracing of the strains and thrusts through the vari- 
 ous parts of a frame familiar to his mind, and even amused 
 himself with some complicated fancy framings, to read 
 over with care the articles Strength of Materials 
 and Roof. He will now conceive its doctrine much more 
 clearly than when he was considering them as abstract 
 theories. The mutual action of the woody fibres will now 
 
 1 “ The learned reader will perceive that this analogy is precisely the same with that of forces which are in equilibrio by the in- 
 tervention of a lever. In fact, this whole frame of carpentry is nothing else than a built or framed lever in equilibrio. It is acting in 
 the same manner as a solid, which occupies the whole figure compressed in the frame, or as a body of any size and shape whatever that 
 will admit the three points of application A, C, and B. It is always in equilibrio in the case first stated ; because the pressure pro- 
 duced at B by a force applied to A is always such as balances it. The reader may also perceive, in this proposition, the analysis or 
 tracing of those internal mechanical forces which are indispensably requisite for the functions of a lever. The mechanicians have been 
 extremely puzzled to find a legitimate demonstration of the equilibrium of a lever ever since the days of Archimedes. Mr Vince has 
 the honour of first demonstrating, most ingeniously, the principle assumed by Archimedes, but without sufficient ground for his de- 
 monstration ; but Mr Vince’s demonstration is only a putting the mind into that perplexed state which makes it acknowledge the 
 proposition, but without a clear perception of its truth. The difficulty has proceeded from the abstract notion of a lever, conceiving 
 it as a mathematical line — inflexible, without reflecting how it is inflexible; for the very source of this indispensable quality furnishes 
 the mechanical connection between the remote pressures and the fulcrum ; and this supplies the demonstration (without the least dif- 
 ficulty) of the desperate case of a straight lever urged by parallel forces.” See the article Rotation. 
 
CARPENTK Y. 
 
 Carpentry.be easily comprehended, and his confidence in the results 
 '-'v'"-' ' will be greatly increased. 
 
 Decision of There is a proposition (see article Roof) which has 
 a^disputed been called in question by several very intelligent persons ; 
 and very an( j sa y Belidor has demonstrated, in his Science 
 important Ingenieurs, that a beam firmly fixed at both ends is 
 q ’ not twice as strong as when simply lying on the props ; 
 
 and that its strength is increased only in the proportion of 
 two to three ; and they support this determination by a list 
 of experiments recited by Belidor, which agree precisely 
 with it. Belidor also says that Pitot had the same result 
 in his experiments. These are respectable authorities, 
 but Belidor’s reasoning is any thing but demonstration, 
 and his experiments are described in such an imperfect 
 manner that we cannot build much on them. It is not 
 said in what manner the battens were secured at the ends, 
 any further than that it was by chevalets. If by this word 
 is meant a trestle, we cannot conceive how they were em- 
 ployed ; but we see it sometimes used for a wedge or key. 
 If the battens were wedged in the holes, their resistance 
 to fracture may be made what we please ; they may be 
 made loose, and therefore resist little more than when 
 simply laid on props. They may be (and probably were) 
 wedged very fast, and bruised or crippled. 
 
 Our proposition mentioned distinctly the security given 
 to the ends of the beams. They were mortised into re- 
 mote posts. Our precise meaning was, that they were 
 simply kept from rising by these mortises, but at full li- 
 berty to bend up at E and I, and between G and K. Our 
 assertion was not made from theory alone (although we 
 think the reasoning incontrovertible), but was agreeable 
 to numerous experiments made in those precise circum- 
 stances. Had we mortised the beams firmly into two 
 very stout posts which could not be drawn nearer to each 
 other by bending, the beam would have borne a much 
 greater weight, as we have verified by experiments. We 
 hope that the following mode of conceiving this case will 
 remove all doubts. 
 
 Let LM be a long beam (fig. 14) divided into six equal 
 parts, in the points D, B, A, C, E. Let it be firmly sup- 
 ported at L, B, C, M. Let it be cut through at A, and 
 have compass joints at B and C. Let FB, GC, be two 
 equal uprights, resting on B and C, but without any connec- 
 tion. Let AH be a similar and equal piece, to be occa- 
 sionally applied at the seam A. Now let a thread or wire 
 AGE be extended over the piece GC, and made fast at 
 A, G, and E. Let the same thing be done on the other 
 side of A. If a weight be now laid on at A, the wires 
 AFD, AGE, will be strained, and may be broken. In the 
 instant of fracture we may suppose their strains to be re- 
 presented by A f and A g. Complete the parallelogram, 
 and A a is the magnitude of the weight. It is plain that 
 nothing is concerned here but the cohesion of the wires ; 
 for the beam is sawed through at A, and its parts are per- 
 fectly movable round B and C. 
 
 Instead of this process, apply the piece AH below A, 
 and keep it there by straining the same wire BHC over it. 
 Now lay on a weight. It must press down the ends of 
 BA and CA, and cause the piece AH to strain the wire 
 BHC. In the instant of fracture of the same wire, its re- 
 sistances FIA and He must be equal to A f and Ag, and 
 the weight AH which breaks them must be equal to A a. 
 
 Lastly, employ all the three pieces FB, AH, GC, with 
 the same wire attached as before. There can be no doubt 
 but that the weight which breaks all the four wires must 
 be = a A + AH, or twice A a. 
 
 The reader cannot but see that the wires perform the 
 very same office with the fibres of an entire beam LM held 
 fast in the four holes D, B, C, and E, of some upright posts. 
 
 In the experiments for verifying this, by breaking slen- 
 
 147 
 
 der bars of fine deal, we get complete demonstration, by Carpentry, 
 measuring the curvatures produced in the parts of the 
 beam thus held down, and comparing them with the cur- 
 vature of a beam simply laid on the props B and C ; and 
 there are many curious inferences to be made from these 
 observations, but we have not room for them in this place. 
 
 We may observe by the way, that we learn from this The best 
 case that purlins are able to carry twice the load when manner of 
 notched into the rafters that they carry when mortised ^ ran ?. in S 
 into them, which is the most usual manner of framing P ur ins ‘ 
 them. So would the bending joists of floors ; but this 
 would double the thickness of the flooring. But this method 
 should be followed in every possible case, such as brest- 
 summers, lintels over several pillars, &c. These should 
 never be cut off and mortised into the sides of every up- 
 right; numberless cases will occur which show the im- 
 portance of the maxim. 
 
 We must here remark, that the proportion of the spaces 
 BC and CM, or BC and LB, has a very sensible effect on 
 the strength of the beam BC ; but we have not yet satis- 
 fied our minds as to the rationale of this effect. It is un- 
 doubtedly connected with the serpentine form of the curve 
 of the beam before fracture. This should be attended 
 to in the construction of the springs of carriages. These 
 are frequently supported at the middle point (and it is an 
 excellent practice) ; and there is a certain proportion 
 which will give the easiest motion to the body of the car- 
 riage. We also think that it is connected with that de- 
 viation from the best theory observable in Buffon’s expe- 
 riments on various lengths of the same scantling. The 
 force of the beams diminished much more than in the in- 
 verse proportion of their lengths. 
 
 We have seen that it depends entirely on the position In what 
 of the pieces in respect of their points of ultimate support, case ties 
 and of the direction of the external force which produces are better 
 the strains, whether any particular piece is in a state of t '* lan struta ‘ 
 extension or of compression. The knowledge of this cir- 
 cumstance may greatly influence us in the choice of the 
 construction. In many cases we may substitute slender 
 iron rods for massive beams, when the piece is to act the 
 part of a tie. But we must not invert this disposition ; 
 for when a piece of timber acts as a strut, and is in a state 
 of compression, it is next to certain that it is not equally 
 compressible in its opposite sides through the whole length 
 of the piece, and that the compressing force on the abut- 
 ting joint is not acting in the most equable manner all 
 over the joint. A very trifling inequality in either of 
 these circumstances (especially in the first) will compress 
 the beam more on one side than on the other. This can- 
 not be without the beam’s bending, and becoming concave 
 on that side on which it is most compressed. When this 
 happens, the frame is in danger of being crushed, and 
 soon going to ruin. It is, therefore, indispensably neces- 
 sary to make use of beams in all cases where struts are 
 required of considerable length, rather than of metal rods 
 of slender dimensions, unless in situations where we can 
 effectually prevent their bending, as in trussing a girder 
 internally, where a cast-iron strut may be firmly cased in 
 it, so as not to bend in the smallest degree. In cases 
 where the pressures are enormous, as in the very oblique 
 struts of a centre or arch frame, we must be particularly 
 cautious to do nothing which can facilitate the compres- 
 sion of either side. No mortises should be cut near to 
 one side ; no lateral pressures, even the slightest, should 
 be allowed to touch it. We have seen a pillar of fir twelve 
 inches long, and one inch in section, when loaded with 
 three tons, snap in an instant when pressed on one side 
 by sixteen pounds, while another bore four and a half tons 
 without hurt, because it was inclosed (loosely) in a stout 
 pipe of iron. (See Note DD.) 
 
1 4 R 
 
 CARPENTR Y. 
 
 Carpentry. In such cases of enormous compression it is of great 
 importance that the compressing force bear equally on the 
 whole abutting surface. The German carpenters are ac- 
 customed to put a plate of lead over the joint. This pre- 
 vents, in some measure, the penetration of the end fibres. 
 M. Perronet, the celebrated French architect, formed his 
 abutments into arches of circles, the centre of which was 
 the remote end of the strut. *By this contrivance the un- 
 avoidable change of form of the triangle made no partial 
 bearing of either angle of the abutment. This always has 
 a tendency to splinter off the heel of the beam where it 
 presses strongest. It is a very judicious practice. (See 
 Note EE.) 
 
 When circumstances allow it, we must rather employ 
 ties than struts for securing a beam against lateral strains. 
 When an upright pillar, such as a flag-staff, a mast, or the 
 uprights of a very tall scaffolding, are to be shoared up, 
 the dependence is more certain on those braces that are 
 stretched by the strain than on those which are compress- 
 ed. The scaffolding of the iron bridge near Sunderland 
 had some ties very judiciously disposed, and others with 
 less judgment. 
 
 We should proceed to consider the transverse strains 
 as they affect the various parts of a frame of carpentry ; 
 but we have very little to say here in addition to what 
 will be found in the articles Strength of Materials 
 and Roof. What we shall add in this article will find 
 a place in our occasional remarks on different works. It 
 may, however, be of use to recal to the reader’s memory 
 the following propositions. 
 
 General 1. When a beam AB (fig. 15) is firmly fixed at the end 
 theorems A, and a straining force acts perpendicularly to its length 
 concerning at an y p 0 j n t g. the strain occasioned at any section C be- 
 ^^■tween 1* an< I A > s proportional to CB, and may therefore 
 be represented by the product tv X CB ; that is, by the 
 product of the number of tons, pounds, &c. which measure 
 the straining force, and the number of feet, inches, &c. 
 contained in CB. As the loads on a beam are easily con- 
 ceived, we shall substitute this for any other straining force. 
 
 2. If the strain or load is uniformly distributed along 
 any part of the beam lying beyond C (that is, farther from 
 A), the strain at C is the same as if the load were all col- 
 lected at the middle point of that part ; for that point is 
 the centre of gravity of the load. 
 
 3. The strain on any section D of a beam AB (fig. 16) 
 
 • , , A , „ . ADXDB 
 
 resting freely on two props A and 13, is tv X — . 
 
 (See Roof, No. 19, and Strength of Materials, No. 
 92, &c.) Therefore, 
 
 4. The strain on the middle point, by a force applied 
 there, is one fourth of the strain which the same force 
 would produce if applied to one end of a beam of the 
 
 same length having the other end fixed. 
 
 0.0 
 
 5. The strain on any section C of a beam, resting on two 
 props A and B, occasioned by a force applied perpendicu- 
 larly to another point D, is proportional to the rectangle 
 
 . . . . ACXDB 
 
 of the exterior segments, or is equal to tv X 
 
 beams. 
 
 7VB ’ 
 
 Therefore, 
 
 The strain at C occasioned by the pressure on D is the 
 same with the strain at D occasioned by the same pres- 
 sure on C. 
 
 6. The strain on any section D, occasioned by a load 
 uniformly diffused over any part EF, is the same as if the 
 two parts ED, DF, of the load were collected at their mid- 
 dle points e and / Therefore, 
 
 The strain on any part D, occasioned by a load uniform- 
 ly distributed over the whole beam, is one half of the strain 
 that is produced when the same load is laid on at D ; and 
 
 The strain on the middle point C, occasioned by a load Carpentry 
 uniformly distributed over the whole beam, is the same 
 which half that load would produce if laid on at C. 
 
 7. A beam supported at both ends on two props B and 
 C (fig. 14), will carry twice as much when the ends be- 
 yond the .props are kept from rising, as it will carry when 
 it rests loosely on the props. 
 
 8. Lastly, the transverse strain on any section, occa- 
 sioned by a force applied obliquely, is diminished in the 
 proportion of the sine of the angle which the direction of 
 the force makes with the beam. Thus, if it be inclined to 
 it in an angle of thirty degrees, the strain is one half of 
 the strain occasioned by the same force acting perpendi- 
 cularly. 
 
 On the other hand, the relative strength of a beam, 
 or its power in any particular section to resist any transverse 
 strain, is proportional to the absolute cohesion to the sec- 
 tion directly, to the distance of its centre of effort from the 
 axis of fracture directly, and to the distance from the 
 strained point inversely. 
 
 Thus, in a rectangular section of the beam, of which b 
 is the breadth, d the depth (that is, the dimension in the 
 direction of the straining force), measured in inches, and / 
 the number of pounds which one square inch will just 
 support without being torn asunder, we must have/ XbXd 2 , 
 proportional to tv X CB (fig. 15). Or,/ X b X d 2 , mul- 
 tiplied by some number m, depending on the nature of the 
 timber, must be equal to tv X CB. Or, in the case of 
 the section C of fig. 16, that is strained by the force tv ap- 
 
 , „ . , „ _ ACXDB 
 
 plied at D, we must have m X fbd 2 — tv X . 
 
 1 J AB 
 
 Thus, if the beam is of sound oak, m is very nearly 
 = ^ (see Strength of Materials, No. 116.) There- 
 
 AC X CB .p, XT T , T . . 
 tv x tv; • (See Note FI.) 
 
 r r fbd 2 
 tore we have ^ — = 
 
 AB 
 
 Hence we can tell the precise force tv which any sec- 
 tion C can just resist when that force is applied in any 
 way whatever ; for the above-mentioned formula gives 
 
 w — for the case represented by fig. 15. But the 
 case represented in fig. 16, having the straining force ap- 
 plied at D, gives the strain at C (= tv) =.f X r *7^ 
 
 y A C X Ld 
 
 Example. Let an oak beam, four inches square, rest 
 freely on the props A and B, seven feet apart, or eighty- 
 four inches. What weight will it just support at its mid- 
 dle point C, on the supposition that a square inch rod will 
 just carry 16,000 pounds, pulling it asunder? 
 
 , . , 16000 X 4 X 16 X84 
 
 1 he formula becomes tv = 
 
 86016000 
 
 9 X 42 X 42 
 
 ~ , = 5418 pounds. This is very near 
 
 what was employed in Buffon’s experiment, which was 
 5312. 
 
 Had the straining force acted on a point D, half way 
 between C and B, the force sufficient to break the beam 
 
 at C would be = 
 
 16000 X 4 X 16 X 84 
 
 = 10836 lbs. 
 
 9 X 42 X 21 
 Had the beam been sound red fir, we must have taken 
 / = 10,000 nearly, and m nearly 8 ; for although fir be 
 less cohesive than oak in the proportion of five to eight 
 nearly, it is less compressible, and its axis of fracture is 
 therefore nearer to the concave side. 
 
 Having considered at sufficient length the strains ofOf joints, 
 different kinds which arise from the form of the parts of a 
 frame of carpentry, and the direction of the external forces 
 which act on it, whether considered as impelling or as 
 supporting its different parts, we must now proceed to con- 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 Carpentry, sider the means by which this form is to be secured, and 
 ''—'■'y the connections by which those strains are excited and 
 communicated. 
 
 The joinings practised in carpentry are almost infinite- 
 ly various, and each has advantages which make it prefer- 
 able in some circumstances. Many varieties are employed 
 merely to please the eye. We do not concern ourselves 
 with these : nor shall we consider those which are only 
 employed in connecting small works, and can never appear 
 on a great scale ; yet even in some of these, the skill of 
 the carpenter may be discovered by his choice ; for in all 
 cases, it is wise to make every, even the smallest, part of 
 his work as strong as the materials will admit. He will 
 be particularly attentive to the changes which will neces- 
 sarily happen by the shrinking of timber as it dries, and will 
 consider what dimensions of his framings will be affected 
 by this, and what will not; and will then dispose the pieces 
 which are less essential to the strength of the whole, in 
 such a manner that their tendency to shrink shall be in 
 the same direction with the shrinking of the whole fram- 
 ing. If he do otherwise, the seams will widen, and parts 
 will be split asunder. He will dispose his boardings in 
 such a manner as to contribute to the stiffness of the whole, 
 avoiding at the same time the giving them positions which 
 will produce lateral strains on truss beams which bear 
 great pressures ; recollecting, that although a single board 
 has little force, yet many united have a great deal, and 
 may frequently perform the office of very powerful struts. 
 
 Our limits confine us to the joinings which are most 
 essential for connecting the parts of a single piece of a 
 frame when it cannot be formed of one beam, either for 
 want of the necessary thickness or length ; and the joints 
 for connecting the different sides of a trussed frame. 
 Ofbuilding Much ingenuity and contrivance has been bestowed on 
 up beams, the manner of building up a great beam of many thick- 
 nesses, and many singular methods are practised as great 
 nostrums by different artists ; but when we consider the 
 manner in which the cohesion of the fibres performs its 
 office, we will clearly see that the simplest are equally 
 effected with the most refined, and that they are less apt 
 to lead us into false notions of the strength of the as- 
 semblage. 
 
 Building Thus, were it required to build up a beam for a great 
 up a girder ] ever or a girder, so that it may act nearly as a beam of 
 or lever. t ]ie same s ; ze 0 f one ] 0 „ ; t raa y either be done by plain jog- 
 gling, as in Plate CXLIX. fig. 17, A, or by scarfing, as in fig. 
 Joggling 17, B or C. If it is to act as a lever, having the gudgeon 
 preferable on t h e lower side at C, we believe that most artists will 
 to scar ng. p re fg r the form B and C ; at least this has been the case 
 with nine tenths of those to whom we have proposed the 
 question. The best informed only hesitated ; but the or- 
 dinary artists were all confident in its superiority, and we 
 found their views of the matter very coincident. They 
 considered the upper piece as grasping the lower in its 
 hooks; and several imagined, that by driving the one very 
 tight on the other, the beam would be stronger than an 
 entire log ; but if we attend carefully to the internal pro- 
 cedure in the loaded lever, we shall find the upper one 
 clearly the strongest. If they are formed of equal logs, 
 the upper one is thicker than the other by the depth of 
 the joggling or scarfing, which we suppose to be the same 
 in both ; consequently, if the cohesion of the fibres in 
 the intervals is able to bring the uppermost filaments into 
 full action, the form A is stronger than B, in the propor- 
 tion of the greater distance of the upper filaments from 
 the axis of the fracture. This may be greater than the 
 difference of the thickness if the wood is very compres- 
 sible. If the gudgeon be in the middle, the effect, both of 
 the joggles and the scarfings, is considerably diminished ; 
 and if it is on the upper side the scarfings act in a very 
 
 149 
 
 different way. In this situation, if the loads on the arms Carpentry, 
 are also applied to the upper side, the joggled beam is 
 still more superior to the scarfed one. This will be best 
 understood by resolving it in imagination into a trussed 
 frame. But when a gudgeon is thus put on that side of 
 the lever which grows convex by the strain, it is usual to 
 connect it with the rest by a powerful strap, which em- 
 braces the beam, and causes the opposite point to become 
 the resisting point. This greatly changes the internal ac- 
 tions of the filaments, and in some measure brings it into 
 the same state as the first, with the gudgeon below. Were 
 it possible to have the gudgeon on the upper side, and to 
 bring the whole into action without a strap, it would be 
 the strongest of all; because in general the resistance to 
 compression is greater than to extension. In every situa- 
 tion the joggled beam has the advantage, and it is the 
 easiest executed. (See Note GG.) 
 
 We may frequently gain a considerable accession of 
 strength by this building up of a beam, especially if the 
 part which is stretched by the strain be of oak, and the 
 other part be fir. Fir being so much superior to oak 
 as a pillar (if Muschenbroeck’s experiments may be con- 
 fided in), and oak so much preferable as a tie, this con- 
 struction seems to unite both advantages. But we shall 
 see much better methods of making powerful levers, gir- 
 ders, &c. by trussing. 
 
 Observe that the efficacy of both methods depends en- 
 tirely on the difficulty of causing the piece between the 
 cross joints to slide along the timber to which it adheres. 
 Therefore, if this be moderate, it is wrong to make the 
 notches deep ; for as soon as they are so deep that their 
 ends have a force sufficient to push the slice along the 
 line of junction, nothing is gained by making them deeper ; 
 and this requires a greater expenditure of timber. 
 
 Scarfings are frequently made oblique, as in fig. 18 ; 
 but we imagine that this is a bad practice. It begins to 
 yield at a point where the wood is crippled and splintered 
 off, or at least bruised out a little. As the pressure in- 
 creases, this part, by squeezing broader, causes the solid 
 parts to rise a little upwards, and gives them some ten- 
 dency, not only to push their antagonists along the base, 
 but even to tear them up a little. For similar reasons, we 
 disapprove of the favourite practice of many artists to 
 make the angles of their scarfings acute, as in fig. 19. 
 
 This often causes the two pieces to tear each other up 
 The abutments should always be perpendicular to the di- 
 rections of the pressures. Lest it should be forgotten in 
 its proper place, we may extend this injunction also to 
 the abutments of different pieces of a frame, and recom- 
 mend it to the artist even to attend to the shrinking of 
 the timbers by drying. When two timbers abut obliquely, 
 the joint should be most full at the obtuse angle of the 
 end ; because, by drying, that angle grows more obtuse, 
 and the beam would then be in danger of splintering off 
 at the acute angle. 
 
 It is evident that the nicest work is indispensably ne-We must 
 cessary in building up a beam. The parts must abut on not wedge 
 each other completely, and the smallest play or void takes t0 ° 
 away the whole efficacy. It is usual to give the butting 
 joints a small taper to one side of the beam, so that they 
 may require moderate blows of a maul to force them in ; 
 and the joints may be perfectly close when the external 
 surfaces are even on each side of the beam. But we must 
 not exceed in the least degree, for a very taper wedge 
 has great force ; and if we have driven the pieces toge- 
 ther by very heavy blows, we leave the whole in a state 
 of violent strain, and the abutments are perhaps ready to 
 splinter off’ by a small addition of pressure. This is like 
 too severe a proof for artillery; which, though not suffi- 
 cient to burst the pieces, has weakened them to such a 
 
150 
 
 CARPENTR Y. 
 
 Carpentry, degree, that the strain of ordinary service is sufficient to 
 complete the fracture. The workman is tempted to ex- 
 ceed in this, because it smooths off and conceals all un- 
 even seams ; but he must be watched. It is not unusual 
 to leave some abutments open enough to admit a thin 
 wedge reaching through the beam. Nor is this a bad 
 practice, if the wedge is of material which is not com- 
 pressed by the driving or the strain of service. Iron would 
 be preferable for this purpose, and for the joggles, were it 
 not that, by its too great hardness, it cripples the fibres 
 of timber to some distance. In consequence of this it 
 often happens, that in beams which are subjected to de- 
 sultory and sudden strains (as in the levers of reciprocat- 
 ing engines), the joggles or wedges widen the holes, and 
 work themselves loose ; therefore skilful engineers never 
 admit them, and indeed as few bolts as possible, for the 
 same reason ; but when resisting a steady or dead pull, 
 they are not so improper, and are frequently used. 
 
 Beams are built up, not only to increase their dimen- 
 sions in the direction of the strain (which we have hither- 
 to called their depth), but also to increase their breadth, 
 or the dimensions perpendicular to the strain. We some- 
 times double the breadth of a girder which is thought too 
 weak for its load, and where we must not increase the 
 thickness of the flooring. 
 
 Building The mast of a great ship of war must be made bigger 
 of masts, athwartship, as well as fore and aft. This is one of the 
 nicest problems of the art; and professional men are by 
 no means agreed in their opinions about it. We do not 
 presume to decide, and shall content ourselves with exhi- 
 biting the different methods. 
 
 The most obvious and natural method is that shown in 
 fig. 20. It is plain that (independent of the connection 
 of cross bolts, which are used in them all when the beams 
 are square) the piece C cannot bend in the direction of 
 the plane of the figure without bending the piece D along 
 Method w 'th it. This method is much used in the French navy ; 
 used in the but it is undoubtedly imperfect. Hardly any two great 
 trees are of equal quality, and swell or shrink alike. If 
 C shrinks more than D, the feather of C becomes loose in 
 the groove wrought in D to receive it; and when the 
 beam bends, the parts can slide on each other like the 
 plates of a coach-spring ; and if the bending is in the di- 
 rection cf there is nothing to hinder this sliding but the 
 bolts, which soon work themselves loose in the bolt-holes. 
 
 Fig. 21 exhibits another method. The two halves of 
 the beam are tabled into each other in the same manner 
 as in fig. 17. It is plain that this will not be affected by 
 the unequal swelling or shrinking, because this is insen- 
 sible in the direction of the fibres ; but when bent in the 
 direction a b, the beam is weaker than fig. 20 bent in the 
 direction cf. Each half of fig. 20 has, in every part of its 
 length, a thickness greater than half the thickness of the 
 beam. It is the contrary in the alternate portions of the 
 halves of fig. 21. When one of them is bent in the di- 
 rection AB, it is plain that it drags the other with it by 
 means of the cross butments of its tables, and there can 
 be no longitudinal sliding. But unless the work is accu- 
 rately executed, and each hollow completely filled up by 
 the table of the other piece, there will be a lateral slide 
 along the cross joints sufficient to compensate for the cur- 
 vature ; and this will hinder the one from compressing or 
 stretching the other in conformity to this curvature. 
 
 The imperfection of this method is so obvious that it 
 has seldom been practised ; but it has been combined 
 with the other, as is represented in fig. 22, where the 
 beams are divided along the middle, and the tables in 
 each half are alternate, and alternate also with the tables 
 of the other half. Thus 1, 3, 4, are prominent, and 5, 2, 6, 
 are depressed. This construction evidently puts a stop to 
 
 French 
 
 navy. 
 
 Another 
 
 method. 
 
 Its imper- 
 fection. 
 
 both slides, and obliges every part of both pieces to move Carpentry, 
 together, a b and cd show sections of the built-up beam ■'Y"'-"' 
 corresponding to AB and CD. 
 
 No more is intended in this practice by any intelligent 
 artist, than the causing the two pieces to act together in 
 all their parts, although the strains may be unequally dis- 
 tributed on them. Thus, in a built-up girder, the binding 
 joists are frequently mortised into very different parts of 
 the two sides. But many seem to aim at making the beam 
 stronger than if it were of one piece ; and this inconsider- 
 ate project has given rise to many whimsical modes of ta- 
 bling and scarfing, which we need not regard. 
 
 The practice in the British dock-yards is somewhat dif- British me. 
 ferent from any of these methods. The pieces are tabled th°d. 
 as in fig. 22, but the tables are not thin parallelopipeds, 
 but thin prisms. The two outward joints or visible seams 
 are straight lines, and the table No. 1 rises gradually to 
 its greatest thickness in the axis. In like manner, the 
 hollow, 5, for receiving the opposite table, sinks gradually 
 from the edge to its greatest depth in the axis. Fig. 23, 
 
 No. 1, represents a section of a round piece of timber 
 built up in this way, where the full line EFGH is the 
 section corresponding to AB of fig. 22, and the dotted 
 line EGFH is the section corresponding to CD. 
 
 This construction, by making the external seam straight, 
 leaves no lodgment for water, and looks much fairer to the 
 eye ; but it appears to us that it does not give so firm a 
 hold when the mast is bent in the direction EH. The 
 exterior parts are most stretched and most compressed by 
 this bending; but there is hardly any abutment in the ex- 
 terior parts of these tables. In the very axis, where the 
 abutment is the firmest, there is little or no difference of 
 extension and compression. 
 
 But this construction has an advantage, which, we ima- 
 gine, much more than compensates for these imperfec- 
 tions, at least in the particular case of a round mast; it 
 will draw together by hooping incomparably better than 
 any of the others. If the cavity be made somewhat too 
 shallow for the prominence of the tables, and if this be 
 done uniformly along the whole length, it will make a 
 somewhat open seam ; and this opening can be regulated 
 with the utmost exactness from end to end by the plane. 
 
 The heart of those vast trunks is very sensibly softer than 
 the exterior circles ; therefore, when the whole is hooped, 
 and the hoops hard driven, and at considerable intervals 
 between each spell, we are confident that all may be com- 
 pressed till the seam disappears ; and then the whole 
 makes one piece, much stronger than if it were an original 
 log of that size, because the middle has become, by com- 
 pression, as solid as the crust, which was naturally firmer, 
 and resisted farther compression. We verified this be- 
 yond a doubt by hooping a built stick of a timber which 
 has this inequality of firmness in a remarkable degree, and 
 it was nearly twice as strong as another of the same size. 
 
 Our mast-makers are not without their fancies andwhims; 
 and the manner in which our masts and yards are gene- 
 rally built up is not near so simple as fig. 23 ; but it con- 
 sists of the same essential parts, acting in the very same 
 manner, and derives all its efficacy from the principles 
 which are here employed. 
 
 This construction is particularly suited to the situation Attended 
 and office of a ship’s mast. It has no bolts; or, at least, with pecu- 
 none of any magnitude, or that make very important parts liar advan * 
 of its construction. The most violent strains perhaps ta ^ es ‘ 
 that it is exposed to, is that of twisting, when the lower 
 yards are close braced up by the force of many men act- 
 ing by a long lever. This form resists a twist with pecu- 
 liar energy ; it is therefore an excellent method for build- 
 ing up a great shaft for a mill. The way in which they 
 are usually built up is by reducing a central log to a poly-? 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 151 
 
 Carpentry, gonal prism, and then filling it up to the intended size by 
 ^ ■'Y'*-' •planting pieces of timber along its sides, either spiking 
 them down, or cocking them into it by a feather, or jog- 
 gling them by slips of hard wood sunk into the central 
 log and into the slips. N.B. Joggles of elm are sometimes 
 used in the middle of the large tables of masts ; and when 
 sunk into the firm wood near the surface, they must con- 
 tribute much to the strength. But it is very necessary to 
 employ wood not much harder than the pine, otherwise it 
 will soon enlarge its bed, and become loose, for the tim- 
 ber of these large trunks is very soft. 
 
 The most general reason for piecing a beam is to in- 
 crease its length. This is frequently necessary, in order 
 to procure tie-beams for very wide roofs. Two pieces 
 must be scarfed together. Numberless are the modes of 
 doing this, and almost every master carpenter has his fa- 
 vourite nostrum. Some of them are very ingenious ; but 
 here, as in other cases, the most simple are commonly 
 Various the strongest. We do not imagine that any, the most in- 
 methods ofgenious, is equally strong with a tie consisting of two 
 scarfing, pieces of the same scantling laid over each other for a 
 certain length, and firmly bolted together. We acknow- 
 ledge that this will appear an artless and clumsy tie-beam, 
 but we only say that it will be stronger than any that is 
 more artificially made up of the same thickness of timber. 
 This, we imagine, will appear sufficiently certain. 
 
 The simplest and most obvious scarfing, after the one 
 now mentioned, is that represented in fig. 24, No. 1 and 2. 
 If considered merely as two pieces of wood joined, it is 
 plain that, as a tie, it has but half the strength of an en- 
 tire piece, supposing that the bolts (which are the only 
 connections) are fast in their holes. No. 2 requires a 
 bolt in the middle of the scarf to give it that strength, 
 and in every other part is weaker on one side or the other. 
 (See Note HH.) 
 
 But the bolts are very apt to bend by the violent strain, 
 and require to be strengthened by uniting their ends by 
 iron plates ; in which case it is no longer a wooden tie. 
 The form of No. 1 is better adapted to the office of a pil- 
 lar than No. 2, especially if its ends be formed in the 
 manner shown in the elevation No. 3. By the sally given 
 to the ends, the scarf resists an effort to bend it in that 
 direction. Besides, the form of No. 2 is unsuitable for a 
 post ; because the pieces, by sliding on each other by the 
 pressure, are apt to splinter off the tongue which confines 
 their extremity. 
 
 Fig. 25 and 26 exhibit the most approved form of a 
 scarf, whether for a tie or for a post. The key represent- 
 ed in the middle is not essentially necessary ; the two 
 pieces might simply meet square there. This form, with- 
 out a key, needs no bolts (although they strengthen it 
 greatly) ; but, if worked very true and close, and with 
 square abutments, will hold together, and will resist bend- 
 ing in any direction. But the key is an ingenious and a 
 very great improvement, and will force the parts together 
 with perfect tightness. The same precaution must be ob- 
 served that we mentioned on another occasion, not to pro- 
 duce a constant internal strain on the parts by overdriv- 
 ing the key. The form of fig. 25 is by far the best ; be- 
 cause the triangle of 26 is much easier splintered off by 
 the strain, or by the key, than the square wood of 25. It 
 is far preferable for a post, for the reason given when 
 speaking of fig. 24, No. 1 and No. 2. Both may be form- 
 ed with a sally at the ends equal to the breadth of the key. 
 In this shape fig. 25 is vastly well suited for joining the 
 parts of the long corner posts of spires and other wooden 
 towers. Fig. 25, No. 2, differs from No. 1 only by having 
 three keys. The principal and the longitudinal strength 
 are the same. The long scarf of No. 2, tightened by the 
 three keys, enables it to resist a bending much better. 
 
 None of these scarfed tie-beams can have more than Carpentry, 
 one third of the strength of an entire piece, unless with 
 the assistance of iron plates ; for if the key be made thin- 
 ner than one third, it has less than one third of the fibres 
 to pull by. 
 
 We are confident, therefore, that when the heads of the 
 bolts are connected by plates, the simple form of fig. 24, 
 
 No. 1, is stronger than those more ingenious scarfings. It 
 may be strengthened against lateral bending by a little 
 tongue, or by a sally, but cannot have both. 
 
 The strongest of all methods of piecing a tie-beam 
 would be to set the parts end to end, and grasp them be- 
 tween other pieces on each side, as in fig. 27, Plate CL. 
 
 This is what the ship-carpenter calls fishing a beam, and Fishing a 
 is a frequent practice for occasional repairs. M. Perronet beam, 
 used it for the tie-beams or stretchers, by which he con- 
 nected the opposite feet of a centre, which was yielding 
 to its load, and had pushed aside one of the piers above 
 four inches. Six of these not only withstood a strain of 
 1800 tons, but, by wedging behind them, he brought the 
 feet of the truss 2J inches nearer. The stretchers were 
 14 inches by 11 of sound oak, and could have withstood 
 three times that strain. M. Perronet, fearing that the 
 great length of the bolts employed to connect the beams 
 of these stretchers would expose them to the risk of bend- 
 ing, scarfed the two side pieces into the middle piece. 
 
 The scarfing was of the triangular kind ( Trait de Jupiter ), 
 and only an inch deep, each face being two feet long, and 
 the bolt passed through close to the angle. 
 
 In piecing the pump-rods and other wooden stretchers 
 of great engines, no dependence is had on scarfing ; and 
 the engineer connects every thing by iron straps. We 
 doubt the propriety of this, at least in cases where the 
 bulk of the wooden connection is not inconvenient. These 
 observations must suffice for the methods employed for 
 connecting the parts of a beam ; and we now proceed to 
 consider what are more usually called the joints of a piece 
 of carpentry. 
 
 Where the beams stand square with each other, and the Square 
 strains are also square with the beams, and in the plane ofjoints. 
 the frame, the common mortise and tenon is the most per- 
 fect junction. A pin is generally put through both, in 
 order to keep the pieces united, in opposition to any force 
 which tends to part them. Every carpenter knows how 
 to bore the hole for this pin, so that it shall draw the te- 
 non tight into the mortise, and cause the shoulder to butt 
 close, and make neat work ; and he knows the risk of tear- 
 ing out the bit of the tenon beyond the pin, if he draw it 
 too much. We may just observe, that square holes and 
 pins are much preferable to round ones for this purpose, 
 bringing more of the wood into action, with less tendency 
 to split it. The ship-carpenters have an ingenious method Fox-tail 
 of making long wooden bolts, which do not pass complete- wedging, 
 ly through, take a very fast hold, though not nicely fitted 
 to their holes, which they must not be, lest they should be 
 crippled in driving. They call it fox-tail wedging. They 
 stick into the point of the bolt a very thin wedge of hard 
 wood, so as to project a proper distance ; when this reaches 
 the bottom of the hole by driving the bolt, it splits the 
 end of it, and squeezes it hard to the side. This may be 
 practised with advantage in carpentry. If the ends of the 
 mortise are widened inwards, and a thin wedge be put into 
 the end of the tenon, it will have the same effect, and 
 make the joint equal to a dove-tail. But this risks the 
 splitting the piece beyond the shoulder of the tenon, which 
 would be unsightly. This may be avoided as follows : Let 
 the tenon T, fig. 28, have two very thin wedges a and c 
 struck in near its angles, projecting equally ; at a very 
 small distance within these, put in two shorter ones b, d, 
 and more within these if necessary. In driving this tenon. 
 
CARPENTR Y. 
 
 152 
 
 Carpentry, the wedges a and c will take first, and split off a thin slice, 
 which will easily bend without breaking. The wedges b, 
 d, will act next, and have a similar effect, and the others 
 in succession. The thickness of all the wedges taken to- 
 gether must be equal to the enlargement of the mortise 
 towards the bottom. 
 
 When the strain is transverse to the plane of the two 
 beams, the principles laid down in No. 85, 86, of the 
 article Strength of Materials, will direct the artist 
 in placing his mortise. Thus the mortise in a girder for 
 receiving the tenon of a binding joist of a floor should be 
 as near the upper side as possible, because the girder be- 
 comes concave on that side by the strain. But as this ex- 
 poses the tenon of the binding-joist to the risk of being 
 torn off, we are obliged to mortise farther down. The 
 form (fig. 29) generally given to this joint is extremely 
 judicious. The sloping part a b gives a very firm support 
 to the additional bearing e d, without much weakening of 
 the girder. This form should be copied in every case 
 where the strain has a similar direction. 
 
 Oblique The joint that most of all demands the careful attention 
 
 mortiseand of the artist, is that which connects the ends of beams, 
 
 tenon ' one of which pushes the other very obliquely, putting it 
 into a state of extension. The most familiar instance of 
 this is the foot of a rafter pressing on the tie-beam, and 
 thereby drawing it away from the other wall. When the 
 direction is very oblique (in which case the extending 
 strain is the greatest), it is difficult to give the foot of the 
 rafter such a hold of the tie-beam as to bring many of its 
 fibres into the proper action. There would be little diffi- 
 culty if we could allow the end of the tie-beam to project 
 to a small distance beyond the foot of the rafter ; but, in- 
 deed, the dimensions which are given to tie-beams for 
 other reasons, are always sufficient to give enough of abut- 
 ment when judiciously employed. Unfortunately this 
 joint is much exposed to failure by the effects of the wea- 
 ther. It is much exposed, and frequently perishes by rot, 
 or becomes so soft and friable that a very small force is 
 sufficient either for pulling the filaments out of the tie- 
 beam, or for crushing them together. We are therefore 
 obliged to secure it with particular attention, and to avail 
 ourselves of every circumstance of construction. 
 
 One is naturally disposed to give the rafter a deep hold 
 by a long tenon ; but it has been frequently observed in 
 old roofs that such tenons break off. Frequently they are 
 observed to tear up the wood that is above them, and push 
 their way through the end of the tie-beam. This in all 
 probability arises from the first sagging of the roof, by the 
 compression of the rafters and of the head of the king-post. 
 The head of the rafter descends; the angle with the tie- 
 beam is diminished by the rafter revolving round its step 
 in the tie-beam. By this motion the heel or inner angle 
 of the rafter becomes a fulcrum to a very long and power- 
 ful lever much loaded. The tenon is the other arm, very 
 short ; and being still fresh, it is therefore very powerful. 
 It therefore forces up the wood that is above it, tearing 
 it out from between the cheeks of the mortise, and then 
 pushes it along. Carpenters have therefore given up 
 long tenons, and give to the toe of the tenon a shape which 
 abuts firmly, in the direction of the thrust, on the solid 
 bottom of the mortise, which is well supported on the un- 
 der side by the wall-plate. This form has the further ad- 
 vantage of having no tendency to tear up the end of the 
 mortise. This form is represented in fig. 30. The tenon 
 has a small portion ab cut perpendicular to the surface of 
 the tie-beam, and the rest be is perpendicular to the raf- 
 ter. (See Note CC.) 
 
 But if the tenon is not sufficiently strong (and it is not 
 so strong as the rafter, which is thought not to be stronger 
 than is necessary), it will be crushed, and then the raf- 
 
 ter will shade out along the surface of the beam. It is Carpentry, 
 therefore necessary to call in the assistance of the whole ''■“'"v'-w' 
 rafter. It is in this distribution of the strain among the 
 various abutting parts that the varieties of joints and their 
 merits chiefly consist. It would be endless to describe 
 every nostrum, and we shall only mention a few that are 
 most generally approved of. 
 
 The aim in fig. 31 is to make the abutments exactly Most ap. 
 perpendicular to the thrusts. (See Note CC.) It doesP rove d 
 this very precisely; and the share which the tenon and^ orms- 
 the shoulder have of the whole may be what we please, 
 by the portion of the beam that we notch down. If the 
 wall-plate lie duly before the heel of the rafter, there is 
 no risk of straining the tie across or breaking it, because 
 the thrust is made to direct to that point where the beam 
 is supported. The action is the same as against the 
 joggle on the head or foot of a king-post. We have no 
 doubt but that this is a very effectual joint. It is not, 
 however, much practised. It is said that the sloping seam 
 at the shoulder lodges water ; but the great reason seems 
 to be a secret notion that it weakens the tie-beam. If 
 we consider the direction in which it acts as a tie, we 
 must acknowledge that this form takes the best method 
 for bringing the whole of it into action. 
 
 Fig. 32 exhibits a form that is more general, but cer- 
 tainly worse. Such part of the thrust as is not borne by 
 the tenon acts obliquely on the joint of the shoulder, 
 and gives the whole a tendency to rise up and slide out- 
 ward. 
 
 The shoulder joint is sometimes formed like the dotted 
 line abedefg of fig. 32. This is much more agreeable to 
 the true principle, and would be a very perfect method, 
 were it not that the intervals bd and df are so short that 
 the little wooden triangles bed, def, will be easily pushed 
 off their bases bd, df. 
 
 Fig. 33, No. 1, seems to have the most general appro- 
 bation. It is the joint recommended by Price, and copied 
 into all books of carpentry as the true joint for a rafter 
 foot. The visible shoulder-joint is flush with the upper 
 surface of the tie-beam. The angle of the tenon at the 
 tie nearly bisects the obtuse angle formed by the rafter 
 and the beam, and is therefore somewhat oblique to the 
 thrust. The inner shoulder ac is nearly perpendicular to 
 bd. The lower angle of the tenon is cut off horizontally, 
 as at ed. Fig. 34 is a section of the beam and rafter foot, 
 showing the different shoulders. 
 
 We do not perceive the peculiar merit of this joint. 
 
 The effect of the three oblique abutments, ab, ac, ed, is 
 undoubtedly to make the whole bear on the outer end of 
 the mortise, and there is no other part of the tie-beam 
 that makes immediate resistance. Its only advantage 
 over a tenon extending in the direction of the thrust is, 
 that it will not tear up the wood above it. Had the inner 
 shoulder had the form eci, having its face ic perpendicular, 
 it would certainly have acted more powerfully in stretch- 
 ing many filaments of the tie-beam, and would have had 
 much less tendency to force out the end of the mortise. 
 
 The little bit ci would have prevented the sliding upwards 
 along ec. At any rate, the joint ab being flush with the 
 beam, prevents any sensible abutment on the shoulder ac. 
 
 Fig. 33, No. 2, is a simpler, and in our opinion a prefer- 
 able, joint. We observe it practised by the most eminent 
 carpenters for all oblique thrusts; but it surely employs 
 less of the cohesion of the tie-beam than might be used 
 without weakening it, at least when it is supported on the 
 pther side by the wall-plate. 
 
 Fig. 33, No. 3, is also much practised by the first car- 
 penters. 
 
 Fig. 35, No. 1, is proposed by Mr Nicholson as prefer- 
 able .to fig. 33, No. 3, because the abutment of the inner 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 153 
 
 . Carpentry. part is better supported. This is certainly the case; but 
 it supposes the whole rafter to go to the bottom of the 
 socket, and the beam to be thicker than the rafter. Some 
 may think that this will weaken the beam too much, when 
 it is no broader than the rafter is thick; in which case 
 they think that it requires a deeper socket than Nichol- 
 son has given it. Perhaps the advantages of Nicholson’s 
 construction may be had by a joint like fig. 35, No. 2. 
 Cireum- Whatever is the form of these butting joints, great care 
 stance to should be taken that all parts bear alike; and the artist 
 ed tQ ten< *' W ‘M attend to the magnitude of the different surfaces. In 
 the general compression, the greater surfaces will be less 
 compressed, and the smaller will therefore change most. 
 When all has settled, every part should be equally close. 
 Because great logs are moved with difficulty, it is very 
 troublesome to try the joint frequently to see how the 
 parts fit; therefore we must expect less accuracy in the 
 interior parts. This should make us prefer those joints 
 whose efficacy depends chiefly on the visible joint. 
 
 It appears from all that we have said on this subject, 
 that a very small part of the cohesion of the tie-beam is 
 sufficient for withstanding the horizontal thrust of a roof, 
 even though very low pitched. If therefore no other use 
 is made of the tie-beam, one much slenderer may be used, 
 and blocks may be firmly fixed to the ends, on which the 
 rafters might abut, as they do on the joggles on the head 
 and foot of a king-post. Although a tie-beam has com- 
 monly floors or ceilings to carry, and sometimes the work- 
 shops and store-rooms of a theatre, and therefore requires 
 a great scantling, yet there frequently occur in machines 
 and engines very oblique stretchers, which have no other 
 office, and are generally made of dimensions quite inade- 
 quate to their situation, often containing ten times the ne- 
 cessary quantity of timber. It is therefore of importance 
 to ascertain the most perfect manner of executing such a 
 joint. We have directed the attention to the principles 
 that are really concerned in the effect. In all hazardous 
 cases, the carpenter calls in the assistance of iron straps ; 
 and they are frequently necessary, even in roofs, notwith- 
 standing this superabundant Strength of the tie-beam. 
 But this is generally owing to bad construction of the 
 wooden joint, or to the failure of it by time. Straps will 
 be considered in their place. 
 
 There needs but little to be said of the joints at a jog- 
 gle worked out of solid timber ; they are not near so diffi- 
 cult as the last. When the size of a log will allow the 
 joggle to receive the whole breadth of the abutting brace, 
 it ought certainly to be made with a square shoulder ; or, 
 which is still better, an arch of a circle, having the other 
 end of the brace for its centre. (See Note EE.) Indeed 
 this in general will not sensibly differ from a straight line 
 perpendicular to the brace. By this circular form, the 
 settling of the roof makes no change in the abutment ; 
 but when there is not sufficient stufl’ for this, we must 
 avoid bevel joints at the shoulders, because these always 
 tend to make the brace slide off. The brace in fig. 36, 
 No. 1, must not be joined as at b, but as at a, or in some 
 equivalent manner. Observe the joints at the head of the 
 main posts of Drury Lane theatre, fig. 44, Plate CLII. 
 Butting When the very oblique action of one side of a frame of 
 joints. carpentry does not extend, but compress, the piece on 
 which it abuts (as in fig. 11), there is no difficulty in the 
 joint. Indeed a joining is unnecessary, and it is enough 
 that the pieces abut on each other ; and we have only to 
 take care that the mutual pressure be equally borne by all 
 the parts, and that it do not produce lateral pressures, 
 which may cause one of the pieces to slide on the butting 
 joint. A very slight mortise and tenon is sufficient at the 
 joggle of a king-post with a rafter or straining beam. It 
 is best, in general, to make the butting plain, bisecting the 
 
 angle formed by the sides, or else perpendicular to one of Carpentry, 
 the pieces. In fig. 36, No. 2, where the straining beam, 
 ab, cannot slip away from the pressure, the joint a is 
 preferable to b, or indeed to any uneven joint, which 
 never fails to produce very unequal pressures on the dif- 
 ferent parts, by which some are crippled, others are splin- 
 tered off, &c. 
 
 When it is necessary to employ iron straps for strength- Directions 
 ening a joint, considerable attention is necessary, that wef° r placing 
 may place them properly. The first thing to be deter- lron stra P s- 
 mined is the direction of the strain. This is learned by 
 the observations in the beginning of this article. We must 
 then resolve this strain into a strain parallel to each piece, 
 and another perpendicular to it. Then the strap which 
 is to be made fast to any of the pieces must be so fixed 
 that it shall resist in the direction parallel to the piece. 
 Frequently this cannot be done ; but we must come as 
 near to it as we can. In such cases we must suppose 
 that the assemblage yields a little to the pressures which 
 act on it. We must examine what change of shape a 
 small yielding will produce. We must now see how this 
 will affect the iron strap which we have already suppos- 
 ed attached to the joint in some manner that we thought 
 suitable. This settling will perhaps draw the pieces 
 away from it, leaving it loose and unserviceable (this fre- 
 quently happens to the plates which are put to secure the 
 obtuse angles of butting timbers, when their bolts are at 
 some distance from the angles, especially when these plates 
 are laid on the inside of the angles) ; or it may cause it to 
 compress the pieces harder than before, in which case it 
 is answering our intention. But it may be producing cross 
 strains, which may break them, or it may be crippling them. 
 
 We can hardly give any general rules ; but the reader will 
 do well to read what is written in No. 36 and 41 of the 
 article Roof. In No. 36 he will see the nature of the strap 
 or stirrup, by which the king-post carries the tie-beam. 
 
 The strap that we observe most generally ill placed is that 
 which connects the foot of the rafter with the beam. It 
 only binds down the rafter, but does not act against its 
 horizontal thrust. It should be placed farther back on the 
 beam, with a bolt through it, which will allow it to turn 
 round. It should embrace the rafter almost horizontally 
 near the foot, and should be notched square with the back 
 of the rafter. Such a construction is represented in fig. 37. 
 
 By moving round the eye-bolt, it follows the rafter, and 
 cannot pinch and cripple it, which it always does in its 
 ordinary form. We are of opinion that straps which 
 have eye-bolts in the very angles, and allow all motion 
 round them, are of all the most perfect. A branched strap, 
 sucli as may at once bind the king-post and the two braces 
 which butt on its foot, will be more serviceable if it have 
 a joint. When a roof warps, those branched straps fre- 
 quently break the tenons, by affording a fulcrum in one of 
 their bolts. An attentive and judicious artist will consi- 
 der how the beams will act on such occasions, and will 
 avoid giving rise to these great strains by levers. A skil- 
 ful carpenter never employs many straps, considering 
 them as auxiliaries foreign to his art, and subject to im- 
 perfections in workmanship which he cannot discern or 
 amend. We must refer the reader to Nicholson’s Car- 
 penter and Joiner s Assistant for a more particular account 
 of the various forms of stirrups, screwed rods, and other 
 iron work for carrying tie-beams, &c. 
 
 As for those that are necessary for the turning joints of 
 great engines constructed of timber, they make no part of 
 the art of carpentry. (See Note II.) 
 
 After having attempted to give a systematic view of Examples 
 the principles of framing carpentry, we shall conclude by ot'ditferent 
 giving some examples which will illustrate and confirm pieces ot 
 the foregoing principles. carpentry. 
 
154 
 
 CARFEN T R Y. 
 
 Carpentry. 
 
 ltoof of 
 
 Greenwich 
 
 chapeL 
 
 St Paul’s, 
 
 Covent 
 
 Garden. 
 
 Birming- 
 
 ham 
 
 theatre. 
 
 Fig. 38, Plate CLI. is the roof of the chapel of the 
 Royal Hospital at Greenwich, constructed by Mr S. Wyatt. 
 
 Inches 
 
 Scantling. 
 
 A A is the tie-beam, 57 feet long, spanning 51 
 
 feet clear 14 by 12 
 
 CC, queen-posts 9 X 12 
 
 D, braces 9 X 7 
 
 E, straining beam 10 X 7 
 
 F, straining piece 6 X 7 
 
 G, principal rafters 10 X 7 
 
 H, a cambered beam for the platform 9 X 7 
 
 B, an iron string, supporting the tie-beam 2 X 2 
 
 The trusses are seven feet apart, and the whole is co- 
 vered with lead, the boarding being supported by horizon- 
 tal ledgers h, h, of six by four inches. 
 
 This is a beautiful roof, and contains less timber than 
 most of its dimensions. The parts are all disposed with 
 great judgment. Perhaps the iron rod is unnecessary, 
 but it adds great stillness to the whole. 
 
 The iron straps at the rafter feet would have had more 
 effect if not so oblique. Those at the head of the post 
 are very effective. 
 
 We may observe, however, that the joints between the 
 straining beam and its braces are not of the best kind, and 
 tend to bruise both the straining beam and the truss beam 
 above it. 
 
 Fig. 39, the roof of St Paul’s, Covent Garden, designed 
 by Mr Hardwick, and constructed by Mr Wapshot in 1796. 
 AA, tie-beam spanning fifty feet two inches... 16 X 12 
 
 BB, queen-posts 9 X 8 
 
 C, straining beam 10 X 8 
 
 D, king-post (fourteen at the joggle) 9X8 
 
 EE, struts 8 X 71 
 
 FF, auxiliary rafters (at bottom) 10 X 8| 
 
 HH, principal rafter (at bottom) 10 x 8-1 
 
 gg, studs supporting the rafter 8 X 8 
 
 The trusses are about ten feet six inches apart, and the 
 dotted lines in the middle compartment show the manner 
 in which the roof is framed under the cupola. 
 
 This roof far excels the original one put up by Inigo 
 Jones. One of its trusses contains 198 feet of timber. 
 One of the old roof had 273, but had many inactive tim- 
 bers, and others ill disposed. The internal truss FCF is 
 admirably contrived for supporting the exterior rafters, 
 without any pressure on the far projecting ends of the 
 tie-beam. The former roof had bent them greatly, so as 
 to appear ungraceful. (See Note KK.) 
 
 We think that the camber (six inches) of the tie-beam 
 is rather hurtful, because, by settling, the beam lengthens ; 
 and this must be accompanied by a considerable sinking of 
 the roof. This will appear by calculation. (See Note LL.) 
 
 Fig. 43, Plate CLII. the roof of Birmingham theatre, con- 
 structed by Mr George Saunders. The span is eighty 
 feet clear, and the trusses are ten feet apart. 
 
 A is an oak corbel 9X5 
 
 B, inner plate 9x9 
 
 C, wall-plate 8 X 51 
 
 D, pole-plate 7X5 
 
 E, tie-beam 15 X 15 
 
 F, straining beam 12X9 
 
 G, oak king-post (in the shaft) 9 X 9 
 
 H, oak queen-post (in the shaft) 7x9 
 
 I, principal rafters 9x9 
 
 K, common ditto 4 X 21 
 
 L, principal braces 9 and 6X9 
 
 M, common ditto 6X9 
 
 N, purlins 7X5 
 
 Q, straining sill 51 X 9 
 
 S, ridge piece 
 
 This roof is a fine specimen of British carpentry, and is Carpentry, 
 one of the boldest and lightest roofs in Europe. The 
 straining sill, Q, gives a firm abutment to the principal 
 braces, and the space between the posts is 191 f ee t wide, 
 affording roomy workshops for the carpenters and other 
 workmen connected with a theatre. The contrivance 
 for taking double hold of the wall, which is very thin, is 
 excellent. There is also added a beam (marked R), bolt- 
 ed down to the tie-beams. The intention of this was to 
 prevent the total failure of so bold a trussing, if any of the 
 tie-beams should fail at the end by rot. 
 
 Akin to this roof is fig. 44, Plate CLII. the roof of Drury- Drury- 
 Lane theatre, eighty feet three inches in the clear, and Lane 
 the trusses fifteen feet apart, constructed by Edward Grey theatre* 
 Saunders. 
 
 A, beams 10 by 7 
 
 B, rafters 7x7 
 
 C, king-posts 12 X 7 
 
 D, struts 5 X 7 
 
 E, purlins 9x5 
 
 G, pole-plates 5X5 
 
 H, gutter plates framed into the beams 12 X 6 
 
 I, common rafters 5 X 4 
 
 K, tie-beam to the main truss 15 X 12 
 
 L, posts to ditto 15 X 12 
 
 M, principal braces to ditto 14 and 12 X 12 
 
 N, struts 8 X 12 
 
 P, straining beams 12 X 12 
 
 The main beams are trussed in the middle space with 
 oak trusses five inches square. This was necessary for 
 its width of thirty-two feet, occupied by the carpenters, 
 painters, &c. The great space between the trusses afford 
 good store-rooms, dressing-rooms, &c. 
 
 It is probable that this roof has not its equal in the 
 world for lightness, stiffness, and strength. The main 
 truss is so judiciously framed, that each of them will safe- 
 ly bear a load of three hundred tons ; so it is not likely 
 that they will ever be quarter loaded. The division of the 
 whole into three parts makes the exterior roofings very 
 light. The strains are admirably kept from the walls, and 
 the walls are even firmly bound together by the roof. 
 
 They also take off the dead weight from the main truss 
 one third. 
 
 The intelligent reader will perceive that all these roofs .Remarks, 
 are on one principle, depending on a truss of three pieces 
 and a straight tie-beam. This is indeed the great prin- 
 ciple of a truss, and is a step beyond the roof with two 
 rafters and a king-post. It admits of much greater variety 
 of forms, and of greater extent. We may see that even 
 the middle part may be carried to any space, and yet be 
 flat at top; for the truss-beam maybe supported in the 
 middle by an inverted king-post (of timber, not iron), car- 
 ried by iron or wooden ties from its extremities ; and the 
 same ties may carry the horizontal tie-beam K ; for till 
 K be torn asunder, or M, M, and P be crippled, nothing 
 can fail. 
 
 The roof of St Martin’s church in the Fields is con- 
 structed on good principles, and every piece properly dis- 
 posed. But although its span does not exceed forty feet 
 from column to column, it contains more timber in a truss 
 than there is in one of Drury-Lane theatre. The roof of 
 the chapel at Greenwich, that of St Paul’s, Covent-Gar- 
 den, those of Birmingham and Drury-Lane theatres, form 
 a series gradually more perfect. Such specimens afford 
 excellent lessons to the artist. We therefore account 
 them a useful present to the public. 
 
 There is a very ingenious project offered to the public Project by 
 by Mr P. Nicholson. ( Carpenters Assistant, p. 68.) HeMrNi- 
 proposes iron rods for king-posts, queen-posts, and all cholson. 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 Carpentry, other situations where beams perform the office of ties. 
 
 He receives the feet of the braces and struts in a socket 
 very well connected with the foot of his iron king-post ; 
 and he secures the feet of his queen-posts from being 
 pushed inwards, by interposing a straining sill. He does 
 not even mortise the foot of his principal rafter into the 
 end of the tie-beam, but sets it in a socket like a shoe, at 
 the end of an iron bar, which is bolted into the tie-beam 
 a good way back. 1 All the parts are formed and disposed 
 with the precision of a person thoroughly acquainted with 
 the subject; and we have not the smallest doubt of the 
 success of the project, and the complete security and du- 
 rability of his roofs. We abound in iron ; but we must 
 send abroad for building timber. This is therefore a va- 
 luable project; at the same time, however, let us not over- 
 rate its value. Iron is about twelve times stronger than 
 red fir, and is more than twelve times heavier ; nor is it 
 cheaper, weight for weight, or strength for strength. 
 
 Our illustrations and examples have been chiefly taken 
 from roofs, because they are the most familiar instances 
 of the difficult problems of the art. We could have wish- 
 ed for more room even on this subject. The construction 
 of dome roofs has been, we think, mistaken, and the dif- 
 ficulty is much less than is imagined ; we mean in re- 
 spect of strength ; for we grant that the obliquity of the 
 joints, and a general intricacy, increases the trouble of 
 Wooden workmanship exceedingly. Wooden bridges form another 
 bridges. class equally difficult and important; but our limits are 
 already overpassed, and will not admit them. The prin- 
 ciple on which they should all be constructed, without ex- 
 ception, is that of a truss, avoiding all lateral bearings on 
 any of the timbers. In the application of this principle 
 we must further remark, that the angles of our truss should 
 be as acute as possible ; therefore we should make it of 
 as few and of as long pieces as we can, taking care to 
 prevent the bending of the truss beams by bridles, which 
 embrace them, but without pressing them to either side. 
 When the truss consists of many pieces, the angles are 
 very obtuse, and the thrusts increase nearly in the dupli- 
 cate proportion of the number of angles. 
 
 Framing of With respect to the frames of carpentry which occur 
 great le- in engines and great machines, the varieties are such that 
 vers. it would require a volume to treat of them properly. The 
 principles are already laid down ; and if the reader be 
 really interested in the study, he will engage in it with 
 seriousness, and cannot fail of being instructed. We re- 
 commend to his consideration, as a specimen of what may 
 be done in this way, the working beam of Hornblower's 
 steam-engine. (See Steam-Engine.) When the beam 
 must act by chains hung from the upper end of arch-heads, 
 the framing there given seems very scientifically con- 
 structed; at the same time we think that a strap of 
 wrought iron reaching the whole length of the upper bar 
 (see the figure) would be vastly preferable to those par- 
 , tial plates which the engineer has put there, for the bolts 
 will soon work loose. 
 
 But when arches are not necessary, the form employed 
 by Mr Watt is vastly preferable, both for simplicity and 
 for strength. It consists of a simple beam, AB (fig. 45, 
 Plate CLII.), having the gudgeon, C, on the upper side. 
 The two piston rods are attached to wrought-iron joints, A 
 and B. Two strong struts, DC, EC, rest on the upper 
 side of the gudgeon, and carry an iron string, ADEB, 
 consisting of three pieces, connected with the struts by 
 proper joints of wrought iron. A more minute descrip- 
 tion is not needed for a clear conception of the principle. 
 No part of this is exposed to a cross strain ; even the beam 
 
 155 
 
 AB might be sawed through at the middle. The iron Carpentry, 
 string is the only part which is stretched ; for AC, DC, 
 
 EC, BC, are all in a state of compression. We have made 
 the angles equal, that all may be as great as possible, and 
 the pressure on the struts and strings a minimum. Mr 
 Watt makes them much lower, as AcfeB, or AdsB. But 
 this is for economy, because the strength is almost insu-* 
 perable. It might be made with wooden strings ; but the 
 workmanship of the joints would more than compensate 
 the cheapness of the materials. 
 
 We offer this article to the public with deference, and 
 we hope for an indulgent reception of our essay on a sub- 
 ject which is in a manner new, and would require much 
 study. We have bestowed our chief attention on the 
 strength of the construction, because it is here that per- 
 sons of the profession have the most scanty information. 
 
 We beg them not to consider our observations as too re- 
 fined, and that they will study them with care. One prin- 
 ciple runs through the whole ; and when that is clearly 
 conceived and familiar to the mind, we venture to say that 
 the practitioner will find it of easy application, and that he 
 will improve every performance by a continual reference 
 to it. 
 
 iv. — NOTES. 
 
 A A, p. 158. This rule may be somewhat more accu- 
 rately expressed in these words : From the point at which 
 any three forces meet and balance each other, draw a line 
 in the actual direction of any one of them, and from the 
 extremity of this line draw two others, parallel to the di- 
 rections of the other two forces respectively ; then sup- 
 posing the pieces affording these two forces to be produ- 
 ced indefinitely at their remoter ends, either of them which 
 is cut by one of the two lines will be compressed, and act 
 as a brace, and either of them which is not cut will be 
 stretched, and act as a tie. 
 
 BB, p. 159. It is, however, difficult to imagine how the 
 beam DA can furnish a force iA, to prevent the force A f 
 from carrying the beam BA towards H, when DA only 
 affords a repulsive abutment. The true resolution of the 
 force AE is found by considering the intersection of GE 
 with Ae, which are the directions of the separate forces 
 composing it: these lines meeting in a point a little above 
 r, we may call their intersection r * : then in the triangle 
 AEr*. the side Ar* will represent the pressure on the 
 mitred joint, and r*E the pressure on the beam HD; and 
 the former being again resolved into AG and Gr*, we have 
 ultimately AG and G r* + r*E = GE = AF, for the ho- 
 rizontal and vertical forces, however they may be modi- 
 fied by intermediate combinations. 
 
 CC, p. 160. The reasoning contained in this and some 
 of the subsequent articles may serve as an approximation 
 to the truth in many cases of common occurrence ; but 
 the supposition on which it is founded is by no means 
 generally admissible as affording a result mathematically 
 accurate ; for, in reality, the distribution of the weight of 
 a roof over the whole extent of the rafters, or the concen- 
 tration of the whole weight in the point where they meet, 
 is far from being an indifferent alternative, either with re- 
 spect to the magnitude of the thrusts, or to the proper di- 
 rections of tlTe abutments or joints. In the case here dis- 
 cussed, where there is no king-post, it is clear that the 
 centre of gravity of the whole roof must be much nearer 
 to the middle of the figure than the angular point, and 
 that consequently the weights supported by the two walls 
 will be very different from those which would be support- 
 
 1 See figures 40, 41, 42, Plate CLI. and Mr Nicholson’s work, p. 68, where these figures are particularly described. 
 
156 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Carpentry, ed if the whole load were placed at the summit ; although, 
 where there is a heavy king-post, supporting also, as it 
 ought to do, about half the weight of the tie-beam, with 
 its floors or ceiling, the case will approach much nearer to 
 the supposition here assumed. 
 
 For a common light roof, without a king-post, the cal- 
 culation or construction is very simple. When two rafters 
 only meet at the summit, they must support each other by 
 a horizontal thrust (see Art. Bridge, Prop. Y) ; and this 
 thrust, acting on each rafter as a lever, of which the lower 
 end is the fulcrum, must be equivalent to the weight, act- 
 ing at the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity from 
 the fulcrum, which is a quarter of the whole span ; conse- 
 quently the thrust must be to the weight as a quarter of 
 the span to the height, and the compound oblique thrust 
 on the abutment will be represented by the hypotenuse 
 of the triangle of which those lines are the sides ; so that 
 if we had a roof of the same height, and of half the breadth, 
 the direction of its rafters would exactly represent the 
 actual direction of the compound thrust on the end of the 
 tie-beam, and would consequently indicate the proper form 
 for the abutment of the given structure. 
 
 But in the case of the unequal rafters represented in 
 the figure, the determination becomes more complicated, 
 and we must first find the direction cf the mutual thrust 
 of the rafters, wdiich must evidently be such, that the per- 
 pendiculars falling on it from each end of the tie-beam 
 may be in the inverse proportion of the motive powers of 
 the weights of the rafters, that is, of the products of those 
 weights into the horizontal distances of the centres of 
 gravity from the respective fulcrums, or into the segments 
 of the tie-beam made by a vertical line passing through 
 the summit, which are proportional to these distances ; 
 and if we produce the base of the triangle, and find in it 
 a point, of which the distance is to the length of the tie- 
 beam as the smaller product to the difference of the pro- 
 ducts, a line drawn from the summit to this point will show 
 the true direction of the thrust ; and its magnitude may 
 then be readily determined by dividing either of the pro- 
 ducts by the respective perpendicular falling on this line. 
 
 Where, however, there is a king-post supporting a heavy 
 tie-beam, it is necessary to determine the centre of gravity 
 of the half roof, together with this addition ; and the dis- 
 tance of the centre of gravity from the middle will then 
 be to the half span, as the weight of one of the rafters with 
 its load is to the weight of the whole roof, including the 
 tie-beam and ceiling; and if we erect a perpendicular pass- 
 ing through the centre of gravity thus found, and equal to 
 the height, the oblique thrust on the abutment will be in 
 the direction of the line joining the upper end of this per- 
 pendicular and the end of the tie-beam. 
 
 DD, p. 162. In order to obtain a distinct idea of the ope- 
 ration of the forces concerned in this experiment, we must 
 have recourse to proposition C of this article, and substitute 
 in the formula for the deflection 
 
 7 - 7 / M 
 
 d - at ^Uf 
 _ 8 _ 1 
 
 a - f - 6720 - 840’ 
 
 / I6f e\ 
 
 TANG - VWa} 
 
 M = 1,900,000 pounds, the 
 
 specific gravity of fir being *56, f — 6720, and e — 6, 
 the middle of the pillar being considered as the fixed 
 16/' e 
 
 point : we then find • - = 1*427, which is the length 
 
 of an arc of 81° 45', and the tangent becomes 6*9, whence 
 we have d= -j- X 4*2 X 6*9 = *0345, or somewhat more 
 than the thirtieth of an inch : consequently the strength 
 
 must have been reduced in the proportion of 1*207 to 1. Carpentry. 
 (Art. Bridge, Prop. E.) But considering how near the 
 arc thus determined approaches to a quadrant, it is obvi- 
 ous that any slight variations of the quantities concerned 
 in the calculation must have greatly affected the magnitude 
 of the tangent ; so that the loss of strength may easily 
 have been considerably greater than this, as it appears to 
 have been found in the experiment. It would, however, 
 scarcely have been expected that such a pillar, however 
 supported, could withstand the pressure of ninety hun- 
 dredweight, since Emerson informs us that the cohesive 
 strength of a pillar of fir an inch in diameter is only about 
 thirty-five: but supposing the facts correct, the coincidence 
 tends to show the near approach to equality of the forces 
 of cohesion and lateral adhesion, as explained in the in- 
 troduction to this article. 
 
 EE, p. 163. A similar remark of the author has already 
 been noticed in the article Bridge, at the end of the fifth 
 section. In the form in which it is here expressed, it be- 
 comes still more objectionable ; for with whatever part of 
 a circular abutment a rafter equal to the radius may be 
 brought into contact, it is very plain that its opposite end 
 can never be either higher or lower than the original cen- 
 tre of curvature : and even if the curvature were made 
 twice as great, so that the rafter might be equal to the dia- 
 meter of the circle, it would be necessary that the lower end 
 should slide upwards on the abutment as much as the up- 
 per end fell, in order to preserve the contact ; and there 
 would obviously be no force in the structure capable of 
 producing such a change as this. Any general curvature 
 of the joint must therefore be totally useless; but a judi- 
 cious workman will make it somewhat looser below than 
 above, when there is any probability that the rafters will 
 sink, taking care, however, to avoid all bearing too near 
 the surface, lest it should splinter, and, for these reasons 
 combined, making the end a little prominent somewhat 
 above the middle of the surface which rests on the abut- 
 ment. 
 
 With this precaution, the direction of the joint between 
 a rafter and a tie-beam ought to be made precisely perpen- 
 dicular to the true thrust of the rafter, determined as al- 
 ready explained (Note CC) ; for, in the first place, unless 
 we trust either to the friction, or to straps, the bearing 
 cannot be more nearly horizontal than this, without danger 
 of the rafters sliding outwards ; and, in the second place, if 
 we made it more nearly vertical, we should lessen the verti- 
 cal pressureon the end of the tie-beam, immediately beyond 
 the joint ; a pressure which gives firmness to the wood, 
 by pressing its fibres more closely together, and increas- 
 ing their lateral adhesion, or rather internal friction. If, 
 however, the tie-beam were not deep enough to receive 
 the whole of the rafter so terminated, without too great a 
 reduction of its depth, it would be proper to make the joint 
 a little flatter, or more horizontal, and to restrain the end 
 from sliding upwards by an iron strap fixed in a proper di- 
 rection. We should preserve the end of the rafter as little 
 diminished in breadth as possible, when the tie-beam is 
 wide enough to receive it ; a moderate thickness, left on 
 each side of the mortise in the tie-beam, being sufficient to 
 assist in securing the connection of the ends of the beam 
 with the intermediate parts. 
 
 FF, p. 163. The doctrine of the initial equality of the 
 resistances to compression and extension, as stated in the 
 article Bridge, enables us to demonstrate that the trans- 
 verse strength can never exceed one sixth of that which 
 would be derived from the resistance of all the fibres, 
 co-operating at the distance of the whole depth from a fix- 
 ed fulcrum, and acting with the weaker of the two powers 
 appropriate to the body. It is true that the results of 
 some direct experiments seem to favour the opinion that 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 157 
 
 Carpentry, the cohesive power is the weaker ; but where the flexure 
 " ""v"— is already considerable, it is probable that this circumstance 
 materially diminishes the primitive power of resisting com- 
 pression, so that the principles on which the calculation 
 proceeds are by no means strictly applicable to the case 
 of a bar so broken. 
 
 GG, p. 164. There seems to be a little confusion in 
 the idea of the possibility of altering the nature of the ac- 
 tion of the fibres of a beam by altering the place of the 
 gudgeon in this manner ; but the author has very proper- 
 ly abstained from making any practical application of the 
 supposed modification thus introduced. With respect to 
 the strength required for scarfing or joggling, it may be 
 observed, that the whole of the compressed fibres of the 
 concave side may be considered as abutting against the 
 whole of the extended fibres on the convex side ; and this 
 abutment is equally divided throughout the length of the 
 beam ; so that if the scarfings or joggles in the whole 
 length of the arm of a lever, taken together, are as strong 
 as one half of the depth of the lever, exerting half its 
 powers, from the inequality of tension there will be no 
 danger of the failing of these joints ; and from this prin- 
 ciple it will be easy to determine the depth to which the 
 joints ought to extend in any particular case. Hence also 
 we may understand how a beam may become so short as 
 to be incapable of transverse fracture in its whole extent ; 
 for the lateral adhesion between the dilferent fibres of 
 „ wood is generally far inferior to the longitudinal strength 
 
 of the fibres : and if, for example, it were only one fourth 
 as great, a beam less than twice as long as it is deep would 
 separate, if urged in the middle by a transverse force, into 
 two strata, from its incapacity of affording sufficient abut- 
 ment, before its longitudinal fibres would give way. 
 
 HH, p. 166. If the bolts were sufficiently numerous 
 and sufficiently firm, so as to produce a great degree of 
 adhesion or of friction between the parts, this joint might 
 
 be made almost as strong as the entire beam, since there Carpentry, 
 is nothing to prevent the co-operation of each side with ' 
 
 the other throughout its extent ; but much of the strength 
 would be lost if the bolts became loose, even in an incon- 
 siderable degree. 
 
 II, p. 169. The author has reasoned upon the direction 
 of straps, as if it were universally necessary to economize 
 their immediate strength only, without regard to the effect 
 produced on the tightness of the joint ; but it may happen 
 that the principal purpose of the strap will be answered 
 by its pressing the rafter firmly upon the beam, and this 
 effect may be produced by a certain deviation from the 
 horizontal position, with but little diminution of the 
 strength of the strap ; a deviation which has also the ad- 
 vantage of allowing the strap to embrace the whole of the 
 beam, without weakening it by driving a bolt through it. 
 
 We must not, however, run the risk of crippling the end 
 of the beam ; and the straps represented in fig. 38 may be 
 allowed to be somewhat too erect. 
 
 KK, p. 169. It does not appear to be desirable that the 
 ends of the rafters should be supported without any pres- 
 sure on the ends of the beams, since these ends would 
 bear a small weight without any danger of bending, and 
 would thus lessen the pressure on the king-post. 
 
 LL, p. 169. The half length being 25 feet, and the 
 camber 6 inches, the excess of the oblique length will 
 be a / 625 - 25 — 25, or of a foot, that is, of an inch, 
 which is all that the beam would appear to lengthen in 
 sinking ; nor would the settling of the roof be more “ con- 
 siderable” than about a quarter of an inch. But there 
 seems to be no advantage in this deviation of the tie-beam 
 from the rectilinear direction ; and the idea, which appears 
 to be entertained by some workmen, that a bent beam 
 partakes of the nature of an arch, is one of the many mis- 
 chievous fallacies which it is the business of the mathe- 
 matical theory of carpentry to dispel. 
 

ARCHITECTURE 
 
 PLATE LIT. 
 
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 The Temple of, Ultima 'Parthenon at Athens 
 l Xertli -west view.) 
 
 In its present state 
 
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PLATE IJ 
 
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 Fig. 3. 
 
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 PLATE A. 1-17 . 
 
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CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE (.MAH. 
 

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 Fig. 10. 
 

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