books NK 2280 . W5 1905 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/couchesbedsofgreOOwill STUDIES IN ANCIENT EURNITURE P' f V w ■.V ■ -.n K ' . V' ■ ■ f: ; STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE COUCHES AND BEDS OE THE GREEKS ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS BY Caroline L. Ransom FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO CHICAGO THE UNlVERSri'Y OF CHICAGO PRESS 1905 Copyright igos, h' The University of Chicago January, 1905 PREFACE This book was begun as an archeeological study. At the last, however, in the hope that it might appeal also to certain lay readers, some statements have been introduced which would otherwise be superfluous. The task has been a very differ- ent one from that undertaken by a person writing on furniture of the last few hundred years, because the facts have had to be gleaned and pieced together from comparatively meager sources. The nature of the ancient evidence is set forth in the Introduction. In chap, i is given a rapid chronological survey of the forms of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman couches; in this chapter some forms rare on the monuments are noticed which have had to be ignored later because of lack of further evidence in regard to them. All statements as to provenience, dimen- sions, etc., of the material published in the plates, and longer discussions which would have interrupted the main trend of the general chapters, have been relegated to a section of the Supplementary Matter, “Discussion of Plates.” It would be useless to try to enumerate in all particulars the extent and nature of my indebtedness to previous writers. Some acknowledgments will be found in the footnotes, as well as references to some of the earlier results which it has not seemed necessary to summarize here. I have been most aided by the following treatises: Blumner, Technologie und Termiuologie der Gewerbe imd Kiinstc bei Griechen und Rbniern; Mau, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encydopadie der dassischen Altertumswissenschaft, article Betten; Girard, in Daremberg and Saglio, Didion- naire des aniiquitds grecqiies et romaines, article I.ectus; Graeven, Antike Schnit- zereien aus Elfenbein wid Knodien. Many references to passages in ancient authors have been obtained from the first three of the works just mentioned. For still other references I have to thank Professor F. B. Tar bell. Extensive independ- ent foraging in ancient literature and inscriptions, and the discussion of purely philological c|uestions apropos of beds, I must leave to specialists in the fields referred to. This study would never have been attempted but for the material gradually accumulated in visits to various European museums. In the midst, however, of many other interests during student life abroad, my observations along this line were not always as detailed and accurate as I could now wish that they had been. It is also a matter of regret that the collections of bronzes in the Na})lcs museum and in the Palazzo dei Conservator! in Rome were inaccessil)le during my stay in Italy, and that I was unal)le to visit the museums in smaller Italian cities. I was greatly interested in provincial museums in England, France, and Germany, and 7 8 PREFACE was impressed by the amount of material for the study of the industrial art of the Romans which is thus widely scattered. The beautiful damascened rail repro- duced in Plate XIX, which was found not far from Lyons, France, is an illustration of this. 1 also hope by the publication of objects found in Egypt (Plates Vila and XXIXa) to emphasize another fruitful source of material for the history of late Greek and Roman industries. Excavations on classic sites and the consideration of the monuments gathered in the great national collections of Europe have chiefly absorbed the energies of classical archaeologists uj) to this time. These more impor- tant activities have now reached a stage where greater attention may profitably be given to outlying fields. There is a vast work to do — on which beginnings here and there have Ijeen made — in examining the finds of sites removed from the centers of ancient civilization. It should be determined, as far as possible, how many of these objects were importations from older artistic centers, and their evidence should be added to better-known material for the study of the various minor arts of Greece anrl Rome. In the case of local products, local artistic forms should be distinguished from those showing more or less classic influence. I cannot speak too warmly of the liberal treatment accorded the American student abroad both in museums and in universities in the dej^artments in which I have had experience- -Egyptian anvd Classical Archaeology. Specific acknowledg- ment of hitherto unpublished material which I have been allowed to use will be made on the pages where it is discussed. INIy indebtedness to Professor Tarbell, of the University of Chicago, is very great. He was the one who, several years ago, awakened my interest in the furniture of the Greeks. Besides the service mentioned on the preceding page, I owe to his generous help many stimulating suggestions and the elimination of numerous errors, for all of which I wish to express here my sin- cere gratitude. I am also glad to add a word of grateful acknowledgment to the various other persons who by their kind advice and encouragement have helped me through the perplexities attendant upon the production of this book. C. E. R. Chicago, August, 1904. CONTENTS PAGE List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . ii Introduction. Ancient Sources ........ 13 a) Literary h) Monumental Chapter I. Chronological Survey of Forms . . . . . .19 Chapter II. Materials, Technic, and Centers of Manufacture ... 39 Chapter III. Interlaced Filling of Couch Frames ...... 62 Chapter IV. Furnishings — Mattresses, Pillows, Valances, and Draperies . 66 Chapter V. Style ........... 72 Supplementary Matter — Section i. Discussion of Plates ........ 90 Section 2. Table of Greek and Latin Terms . . . . .109 Section 3. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . 113 Subjects and Sources of the Text Illustrations . . . . .116 General Index . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Index of Passages in Ancient Authors Referred to in Text . . 125 Index of Places 127 9 ik V. 0 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Amelung, Fiihrer Am. Journ. Arch. Ann. d. I. Ant. Denkm. Anz. Arch. Zeit. A then. Mitt. Baumeister Beschr. der Glypt. Blumncr, Technologic B. M. Bronzes B. M. Terracottas B. M. Vases Brizio Buchholz Cat. des bronzes ant. de la Bibl. nat. Compte-rendn Elite cer. Furtwangler-Reichhold Girard G jotbasch i- Trysa G racven I lartwig, M eisterschalen Walther Amelung, Fiihrer durch die Antiken in Florenz. The American Journal oj Arclueology. Annali delP Instituto di corris pondenza archeologica. Antike Denkmdler. A publication of the German Archieological Institute. Archaologischer Anzeiger. Supplement to the Jahrbuch des kaiserlkh deutschen archiiologischen Tnstituts. Archtiologische Zeitnng. Mitteilungen des kaiserlkh deutschen archiiologischen Tnstituts. Athenische A bteilung. A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen Altertums. Adolf Furtwangler, Beschreibung der Glyptothek Kdnig Ludwig's I. zu Munchen. Hugo Bliimner, Technologic und Terminologie der Gewerbe und Kiinste bei Griechen und Rdmern. H. B. Walters, Catalogue oj the Bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department oj Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. H. B. Walters, Catalogue oj the Terracottas in the Department oj Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Catalogue oj the Greek and Etruscan Fu^cs in the British Museum. Edoardo Brizio, in Notizie degli scavi di antichita, 1902, pp. 445 ff., “Tombe dell’ epoca romana (ad umazione).” Buchholz, Die homerischen Realien. Ernest Babelon and A. Blanchet, Catalogue des bronzes antiques de la Bibliotheque nationale. Compte-rendu de la commission impadale archeologique de Sain t-Petersbourg. Lenormant and Dc Witte, FJite des monuments ca-aniographiques. Adolf Furtwangler and K. Reichhold, Die griechische Fu.sc»- malerci. Auswahl hervorragender Vasenbildcr. P. Girard, in Darembcrg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquitcs grecques et romaincs, article IvCCtus. Otto Bcnndorf and George Niemann, Das 11 croon von Gjdl- baschi- Trysa. Hans Graeven, Antike Schnitzcrcien aus Eljcnbein und Knochen. Paul Harlwig, Die griechischen Meisterschalen der Bliithezeit des strcngen roth pgitrigen Stiles. 12 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Ilelbig, Fiihrcr I. a. Jahrb. J alircsh. J. IF S. Mail Man. d. I. Monuments Plot Pasqui Pcrrot and Chipiez Potticr, Cat. des vases ant. Rayct and Collignon, Cer. gr. Rom. Mitt. Schumacher Vases ant. du Louvre Verz. der iigypt. Altert.^ P^erlin Wien. Vorlegebl. = Wolfgang Helbig, Fiihrer ditrch die djjentlichen Sammhmgen klassischcr Altert timer in Rom. = Insert ptiones Graecae. The corpora of Greek inscriptions issued by the Berlin Academy will be cited according to the system recently introduced by Professor von Wilamowitz-Mocllendorff. = J ahrbiich des kaiserlicli deutschen archdologischcn Instituts. = .laliresliejte des bstcrreichischen archaologischen Instituts. = The Journal oj Hellenic Studies. = August Mail, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der clas- sischen Altertumswissenschajt, article Bettcn. = Monumenti inediti pubblicati dalT Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica. = Fondation Eugene Piot. Monuments et memoires. = A. Pasqui, in Monumenti anticlii pubblicati per cura deW Acca- demia dei Lincei, Vol. I (1889), article “Di un antico letto di osso scoperto in una tomba di Norcia.” = Georges Perrot and Charles Chipiez, Histoire de Part dans r anti quite. = Edmond Pottier, Catalogue des vases antiques du Musee du Louvre. = Olivier Rayet and Maximo Collignon, Uliistoire de la ceramique grecque. = M itteilungen des kaiserlicli deutschen archdologisclien Instituts. Rbmische Abteilung. = Karl Schumacher, Besclircibung der Sammlung antiker Bronzen zu Karlsruhe. = Edmond Pottier, Album des vases antiques du Louvre. = Ausjuhrliches Verzeichniss der agyptischen Altertiimer und Gi psabgussej Berlin. = Wiener Vorlegebl litter jiir archdologische Ubungen. INTRODUCTION ANCIENT SOURCES The only extensive extant attempt on the part of an ancient author to impart information in regard to furniture was made liy the Greek lexicographer Pollux, who lived in the second century A. D. In his subject dictionary, embracing many phases of public and private life, is a collection of words and c[uotations from earlier writers apropos of beds and their furnishings.' These follow one another with few explanations, and their meanings are in many cases obscure. Explicit and detailed definitions after the manner of a Century Dictionary did not enter into Pollux’s conception of his task. In the treatise on the Latin language by Varro (116-27 B. C.),^ parts of which are preserved, are some fantastic ideas about the derivations of words referring to beds. Only the late lexicographers — Isidorus (seventh century A. D.), Suidas (tenth century A. D.), and those followed by Stephanus — give proper definitions. Their opinions are often helpful, especially when they support them by passages from earlier authors; otherwise there is always the possibility that usage may have changed since classical times. Aside from the sections pertaining to beds in the works just named, there are numerous incidental references in ancient literature, which are mostly, however, tantalizing from the point of view of any one interested in this class of antiejuities. For instance, the dream recounted by Cicero^ of an egg suspended from the cords of a bedstead does not leave one any the wiser as to the appearance of beds or the method of cording them. There is not in all later literature another so detailed description of a bed as the Homeric one of the bed of Odysseus;'/ yet that is alto- gether indefinite in regard to design and technic. Some passages such as that just referred to give information about the materials used in constructing beds or the makes of beds and furnishings which were famous in antiquity. Otherwise, except for the names applied to beds or their several parts or furnishings,-^ the liter- ary sources yield little. Even this is more than literature affords for some other branches of ancient industrial art, as for instance the potter’s; but the want of full literary evidence is felt more in this case because the monumental evidence also is far from satisfactory. ' Onomaslikon, VI, 9 IT., and X, 32 IT. Pliilologists liavc yet something to do in deterndn- ^ see Book V, 35, 166-68. with gmatcr exactitude the usage of these ,, words. It is to be hoped that such useful articles 3 De Div., ll, 1^4. ^ , , , , as those ol 1 rolessor Anderson and I rolessor Man, ‘'See p. 39, n. i. defiiung julcrum, may be followed by others (see 5 On pp. 109 IT. is given a table of terminology. p- ni, n. 16). LITERARY MONUMENTAL 13 14 ANCIENJ^ SOURCES Brie/ Summary of Monumental Eiiz., p. 8). However, this study. DIFFICULTIES IN USING MONUMENTAL EVIDENCE 15 due to the medium of reproduction; this is particularly likely in a transference of forms into stoned For the same reason one may not be sure always what the materials were in the structure reproduced. The smaller the reproduction, as a rule, the less one gets of details. The small terra-cotta given in the frontispiece is a happy exception to this rule; if we possessed even one such for each century covered in this dissertation, there would be fewer doubtful points. Yet all reproductions in the round, however sketchy, have an advantage over those on flat surfaces in giving with greater probability the proportions and general lines of a design. In using later reliefs and wall-paintings, those which are copied directly from earlier productions or are more or less eclectic must be carefully distinguished from those (Roman soldiers’ gravestones, for instance) which may be trusted to show forms of the period in which they were made. With regard to vase-paintings, which in the number of the representations of beds which they furnish are far in excess of all other classes of reproductions, there are two important questions; viz., how far allowance must be made for artistic conventions, and how far the relative frequency with which certain forms appear on the vases is a guide to the relative frequency of their actual use. Often it is impossible to control the evidence in these par- ticulars.^ It may be of interest to consider how these beds, both the originals and the various antique reproductions with which we have to deal, stood in relation to the every-day life of the periods which they represent. The Greek and Roman bed or couch had a double importance in that it was used for reclining at meals as well as for sleeping. There is nothing to indicate that there was any differentiation in form in accordance with difference of function in the Greek period. Couches for both purposes are called by the common name KKlvai, and probably in many instances the same structure was used both for dining and sleeping. In Italy there is a dis- tinct name for the sleeping-couch as distinguished from the banquet couch, ^ but it is probable that the differences were minor ones.-* We hear in Latin literature also of couches for reading and writing.^ The surviving couches and parts of couches ' Cf. the question raised on p. 95. ^ An instance of a recognizal)le artistic convention is seen on black-figured vases and red-figured vases of the severe style in the side-view of thrones having rectangular, incised legs. This class of throne is fre- quent enough in reproductions in the round from the Branchiche statues down to late forms such as that shown in the tail[)iece of chap. 4 to j)rove that the legs presented invariably a broad ornamented front and a narrow unornamented side. Yet on the vases in f[uestion the most ornate and advanta- geous view of the legs is given even when the chair is seen from the side, a front-view of the legs being thus combined with a side-view of the rest of the chair. 3 The first, Icctiis cubicidaris; the second, Jectus Iridiniaris. ■* See on p. 33 the statements in regard to head- rests and foot-rests on slee])ing and banquet couches. 5 Leclicuhi lucuhraloria, Sukt., - 1 /fg. yS; M. Girard (GtR.\Ri), j). 1022) calls attentit>n to the fact that this passage proves the study-couch to be a piece of furniture distinct from the bed. Professor i6 ANCIEN 7 ' SOURCES of late Greek and Roman date served probably in the main for banqueting-/ there may be among them a few which were used for sleeping. Those found in tombs may or may not have seen actual non-funerary use/ but, like the marble reproduc- tions in tombs and the terra-cotta cinerary urns in couch form, they represent either dining-couches or sleeping-couches, according to the ideas of the particular tomb cult.-’ The marble couch discussed on pp. 93 ff. was not found in a tomb, but in the ruins of the Library at Pergamon. Perhaps it was placed out of doors or in some open colonnade and was used by priests or visitors; or, whatever its position, it may have been sacred to some divinity. Most of the small terra-cotta couches of the Hellenistic period and later, and the Roman couches known in reliefs, are structures which seem much more like modern couches and sofas than like modern beds (c/. p. 38). They are narrow, piled up with cushions, and usually have people seated on them conversing, or lying loosely covered upon them. So far as one can judge, they were used to sleep on at night and lounge on in the daytime;^ at least, we have no representations, among these terra-cottas and reliefs, of other Mail (Mau, col. 371) thinks that diminutives (Ov., Trist., I, II, 37, and Plin., Ep., V, 5, 5) point to smaller size and remarks that such smaller couches arc frequent on the monuments. His further state- ment, “naturlich musste dieser Icclus due Lchne (phiicus, Pers., 1 , 106) haheu, die auch dicnen komile, uni darauf zu schrdhen," does not seem to me to be supported by the monuments. I cannot name any ancient reproduction showing a reclining person actually in the act of reading or writing. While no couches for reading or writing have been identified with certainty, it seems to me not improbable, as Professor Vlau suggests, that some of the smaller Roman couches (f/. on jioint of length, n. 5 and pp. 37, 38) known through monumental evidence may have been used for these purposes. It should be noted, however, that study couches were not invariably designated by the diminutive form; cj. Pers., I, 52, and Sen., Ep., 72, 2. ' This opinion is based principally on the circum- stances of finding, in a few cases, and the Dionysiac character, more appropriate to a dining-couch than to a sleeping-couch (see pp. 85, 86), of much of the ornament. ^ The bone couch discussed on jip. 102 ff. is far too weak a piece of construction actually to have been used. Such beds were no doubt made expressly to serve as funerary couches. Cj. Pasijui, col. 241. 3 See Plate I, where a recumbent figure in his last sleep is represented, and Fig. 14, where the person is sitting up holding a drinking-vessel. The representation of the deceased banqueting is far more common. Cj. Altman, Architcctur und Ornamentik dcr autiken Sarkophage, pp. 34, 35. * Cj. the fourth-century marble reproduction of a couch dedicated to Dione on the Acropolis at Athens (the inscription, i^eXriov kpxouoXoyiKov, 1890, p. 145, 3; mentioned, Furtwangler, Masterpieces oj Greek SeuJplure, p. 429, n. 12), and the representation in stone of a couch dedicated to Asclepius at Epidaurus {’ Epyjf^epls ApxaioXoyiKrj, 1883, col. 27, 3, and Furt- wangler, loc. cit.). Professor Furtwangler (!oc. cit., ]ip. 429, 430) advances some interesting opinions in regard to the ritual use of real couches which were dedicated in sanctuaries, and cites the dedica- tions at Plataea and in the Parthenon (mentioned here with references to ancient sources on pp. 41 and 54, n. 3), and others noted by Pausanias (II, 17, 3; VIII, 47, 2; X, 32, 12). In the case, however, of the couches dedicated to Hera at Plataea the text does not, to my mind, make certain that these couches were placed within the sanctuary rather than in the adjacent inn. 5 But a few couches must have been intended only for waking use, as they are too short to sleep on in comfort; that is, if the reproductions are accurate in the relative sizes of couches and occupants. See further on this point, pp. 37, 38. EVIDENCE OE VASES 17 styles of beds used for sleeping. The pictures of couches on vases are restricted to certain stock scenes, chiefly of banqueting and of the laying out of the dead. The banqueting scenes in the red-flgured period are, as a rule, pure genre; earlier the participants are usually mythological characters. The later red-figured pottery shows mythological personages seated or lounging on couches. On vases, as else- where, the sleeping-couch is of rare or doubtful occurrence.' ' C/., however, Fig. 37, from the death scene of British Museum (mentioned with reference p. 33, Adonis and the surer instance on a bronze mirror, n. 4), too rude, however, to give a fair idea of a cited in n. i on p. 38; also a terra-cotta in the good bed. CHAPTER I CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS For the prehistoric period direct monumental evidence fails us. We can infer prehistoric that a people which produced such works of art as have been found in the palace at Cnossus, and particularly chairs of such a developed form as the one of stone in the throne-room, must also have had highly ornate bedsteads. Among Mycencean remains there is evidence for a furniture industry (which presumably would include also beds) in various terra-cotta models of armchairs.^ The Homeric writings, while making clear that people sat in chairs to eat, and frequently slept on the ground, yet establish beyond doubt that beds were a common household article. Except the facts, however, that some had turned legs, and that, while some were portable, others occupied a fixed position in the house, and therefore are likely to have been of heavier construction,^ we get no hints as to their forms. There is absolutely no evidence to identify any of the forms familiar to us on later monu- ments as survivals from the prehistoric age.^ Throughout the Greek period the better-made couches fall into two general General classes, those with legs built on a rectangular plan and those with turned supports. (rpciTrefa) und die Betten macht, sind zu dlirftig, als dass sie sich zu erhaltenen oder auf Bildwerken dargestellten Exemplaren in Beziehung setzen liessen.” Buchholz (pp. 155-57) is in the realm of hypotliesis when he attempts a concrete, though sketchy, picture of the S^/xi/ia in the words : “Sie l)cstandcn wold aus eincm Comjdex von holzernen Brcttern, welche dcr Lange nach iiber zwel odor mclirere UntersLitze oder Tragbocke gelegt wurden, und mit dicsen gleichsam einen kleincn Aufbau ( 54 fiu>) bildeten, welche fiir die Aufnahme des Bettwerkes sowohl, wic auch des Schllifers, die crfordliche 'Fragfaldgkeit besass.” ' In the Berlin Antiquarlum Is such a model. Inventory No. 7812, from the Lecuyer Collection. See also Schliemann, Tiryns, Plate XXIIIc. These are referred to in Furtwangler, Master- pieces 0} Greek Sculplure, p. 429, n. 9. ^ This statement is based on Buchholz, Vol. II, Part II, pp. 147 ff. 3 Professor Helrig in Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmdlern erldulerP, p. 124, dismisses fur- niture with the remark; “Die Andeutungen, welche das Epos Uber die niedrigeren Ichncnloscn Sessel (ol0/5os), die Schemel a-£k!Er, Miiser Napoleon HI, Museum, No. B 679. J’late XXXV = Mon. d. /., Vol. VI, Plate 1,1. 3 E. g., “Harpy Monument.” 24 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS Reliefs on cinerary urns show very commonly beds with turned legs such as that given in Fig. 7' on an urn from Chiusi in the British Museum. The same type appears also in wall-paintings (Fig. 8)^ and even on bucchero vases. ^ These resemble the Chalcidian bed (Fig. 5), with this ditference that the legs at the lower end of the bed rise above the level of the frame, although not to the height of the legs at the head, and may have supported a low footboard. Fijth Century The stylcs of bccls just mentioned })re- vailed on into the fifth century; indeed, some of the examples already cited may possibly belong to the earlier years of the fifth century. An Etruscan mirror (Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel, Plate CXXV) and a wall-painting in Tarquinii [Mon. d. /., Vol. I, Plate XXXIl) show the same type of bed, with many turnings on the headpost above the frame, which we noted first on the Chalcidian vase (Fig. 5) and have just followed in later instances (Figs. 7 and 8), and shall encounter again in Attica. An Etruscan cinerary urn of the early fifth century, however, (Plate I) presents a new variety of the class with incised legs. This has the legs at head and foot alike in height and in being terminated above by volutes; instead of a slight rail, as in all previous examples, there is one reaching in width almost to the incisions and marked off by various moldings into two panels, the upper plain, the lower occupied by a relief, in the middle two lions attacking a bull, at each end a recumbent human figure. An Etruscan wall-painting {Ant. Denkin., II, Plate 43), belonging, to judge from its style, to the same period as the Attic severe red-figured vases, has rectangu- lar legs sloping toward the bottom, such as are found in Attica, as we shall see, in the same period. Both the legs and the slender rail are ornamented with a simple maeander. Attica Red-figured vases afford as abundant evidence with regard to fifth-century beds in Attica as do black-figured vases for the sixth century. It is again a question, however, how this evidence is to be interpreted. There is a decided predominance of very plain beds in these vase-paintings. A recent writer** concludes, therefore, that there was a radical change of taste early in the fifth century, due perhaps ' There is a whole series of archaic Etruscan Vol. IX, Plate XIII, from the tomb dei vasi dipinti. limestone urns from Chiusi in the British Museum Cj. Martha, ibid., p. 430, Fig. 285 =iIT)«. d. /., in Cases 27, 34, and 35 of the first Etruscan room, Vol. II, Plate II. on which are beds of the form shown in Fig. 7. Cj. i Vases ant. du Louvre, Series I, Plate 26, C Martha, L’art etrusque, p. 279, Fig. 187. 639. ^ Marth.a, ibid., p. 383, Fig. 262=Mon. d. /., Girard, p. 1017. Fig. 7. — Etruscan couch. Detail from the relief- decoration of a limestone cinerary urn . — British Museum. FIFTH CENTURY 25 to Spartan influence, which led to the almost complete banishment of the luxuri- ous couch pictured on black-figured vases in favor of very plain styles. But may there not be another explanation? The painters of the early red figured vases were occupied with problems of drawing and technic, and cared less than their story-telling predecessors for mere elaborate details, requiring patience, but no new skill. Further, they were interested in scenes from contemporary life, and every-day personages could be represented on every-day beds, whereas for the gods and heroes of the black-figured period the best in the way of beds which fact Fig. 8. — Banqueting-sceiie. Detail frum a wall-painting in an Etruscan tomb. — Conieto-Tarquinia. and fancy could suggest would have been none too good. It seems to me, there- fore, probable that in the great variety of beds represented on red-figured vases we have that which is lacking for the black-figured period — something approaching a complete catalogue of the forms actually in use, of common as well as of elegant beds. The occasional occurrence on red-figured vases" of the older elaborate tyj)e of bed with rectangular, incised legs testifies to its existence unmodified until at least the middle of the century. Within this time the related design already ‘ .See Haumfjs'I'KR, Vol. I, Fij;. -n)i= Mon. d. I., Monuments Riot, Vo!. 1 (1894), I’iale VII, and \’ol. Vol. VIII, Plate 27; Overbeck, Allas dcr Kiinstmy- LX (1902), Plate II, and IFariwic, Mcistcrschalcn, Ihologic, Plate VI, 2 and 3 =(/IR.\rd, Fig. 4388; Plate LXX, 2. 26 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS noted in one Etruscan example (Plate I), which has the legs at the head and foot of equal height and all terminating above in volutes, makes an appearance in Attica (hcadjhccc, chap. i). Other styles of beds show the influence of the chief type known through black- figured vases in having a head-rest and volutes at the head of the bed and shorter legs at the foot. They do not have incisions or pal- mettes, rosettes, or other ornaments; the legs differ further from incised legs in that they taper more or less toward the bottom and sometimes have, almost at the ground-line, ring-like or ball-like inter- ruptions of their otherwise straight outlines (Figs. 26 and g).^ A few vase-paintings show similar beds with a vase-like termination of the legs at the head instead of volutes (Fig. 22)." But even plainer beds than these were frequent — frameworks of rectangular, straight legs and connecting rails, without head-rests or adornment (Fig. 25). Other beds are completely hidden by drapery; the presumption is that they were of very rough construction.^ Among rude common beds were two styles knov/n each in only a few represen- tations (Figs. 23 and 24). This seems a recognizable instance when the relative frequency of forms on vases is not a safe criterion of their relative frequency in actual use. (C/. p. 15.) One might indeed be inclined to think these the chance creations of the vase-])ainters, were it not that the forms of the legs are known on stools; they were, therefore, in all probability copies of existent beds. The same argument applies to certain beds with turned legs of a simple and ' Wien. Vorlegebl., Series D, Plate XII, 3 & = GjolbascJii-Trysa, p. 103, Fig. iog=Mon. d. Vol. X, Plate LIII, i; Compte-rendii, 1869, Plate VI; Millingen, Peintures antiques de vases grecs de la collection dc Sir John Cogliill, Plate VIII; Jahrb.,V. 440, as the legs at the foot have the same form as above in Fig. 7; the upper part of the leg at the head of the l>cd is destroyed. 'Phe turned legs shown in Murr.-w, Designs ji'oiii Greek I'usc.v in the British Miisciini, Plate XV, No. 60 = Mon. d. /., \'ol. V, Plate XldX, and in Gkkil.ard, Coupes cl vases du Musec dc Berlin, Plate II, are .somewhat dilTerent in design, more like the form which ap|)ears above in Fig. 6. 28 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS incised types.' A little Benotian terra-cotta couch {Atheii. Mitt., Vol. X [1885], Plate IV), dating from the early part of the century, is unfortunately too rude to be entirely trustworthy and clear as to form, l)ut it seems to have plain, rectangu- lar legs and, what is particularly interesting thus early, at the two ends very high rests slightly curved outward. Fourth Century The material for the next few liundred years until the Roman period is not nearly so abundant as for the fifth century and is geographically from widely scat- tered sources. Fourth-century beds, so far as we know them, belong to the two general classes, those with rectangular and those with turned legs, and are adapta- tions of older styles. Eutcea A marble funerary couch in a tomb at Eretria (Atheii. Mitt., Vol. XXVI [1901], Plate XIII) shows the differentiation of head and foot familiar in beds on the black-figured vases, but the rectangular legs have lost their characteristic incisions and rosettes. The amphicephaloiis variant of the older type, however, has become the prevailing one, and the legs never present the exact scheme of ornament famil- iar from an earlier period. Now the rosettes are lacking, and the palmettes and incisions occupy the legs entirely to the rails, "" or the rosettes are replaced by medal- lions in which are faces, ^ or the incisions disappear and the leg is covered with ornamental details which nevertheless are reminiscences in part of the older style (frontis})iece). Wide rails are now common, or there are two, a wide upper one and a narrow lower one. This last arrangement is characteristic of the Macedonian funerary couches of marble (see Fig. 12), dating, according to their discoverer, from the close of the century. The constructional lines of the terra-cotta model given in the colored plate are like those of the Macedonian couches; the space between the rails is here filled in with reliefs, which look inconveniently high; further, the place of the volutes is taken in this especially rich couch by panels in low relief, representing figures in rapid motion. South Italian vases show curved rests on beds with rectangular legs — beds similar to the fifth-century example given, only more elaborate, with ornamented rail and the foot decorated with various moldings, and in one instance with figures. ^ One of the earliest representatives of its class, perhaps belonging to the close of the fourth century, is a marble funerary couch in a tomb at Vathia on the island of Fluboea {Athen. Mitt., Vol. XXVI [1901], Plate XVI, here Fig. 38). This has ^ Gjolhaschi-Trysa, cj. Plates VII, VIII with Plates XX, XXL ^ .JaJirb., Vol. XV (1900), p. 78, Fig. i^^Arch. Zeil., 1867, Plate 220. 3 Mon. d. I., 1854, Plate 16. There is a possi- bility that this and the preceding example may belong to the closing years of the fifth century rather than to the opening of the fourth, where I would place them. 4 Haumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 792=3/0;;. d. /., Vol. V, Plate XI and Elite ccr. Vol. II, Plate 23A = B. M. Vases, Vol. IV, F. 399. Like the vases cited in the two preceding notes these may however date from the close of the fifth century. FOURTH CENTURY 29 a curved rest at the head, but none at the foot. Its turned legs are of a pattern differing distinctly from earlier ones. There are more members; the three rings above and the introduction toward the bottom of a nonturned member — in this case claws — are features common on many subsec|uent examples. It is noticeable in the end-view that the supports at the back of the couch are of a different pat- tern from those at the front. Fig. 12. — Marble funerary couch. Found in a tomb in Macedonia. — Louvre. There are also some couches whose forms are not evident because of envelop- ing drapery (see Fig. 37). Small terra-cottas, representing one or more j)ersons seated or lying on a Hellenistic couch, furnish considerable evidence for the Hellenistic ])criod. The Myrina Asia Minor grou])s all have turned legs of a pattern (Fig. 30) similar to tliat already noted on the Vathia couch; instead of claws there arc sphinxes introduced between the turned members and often foliage forms as well, ddicsc couches have sometimes one and sometimes two curved rests. Another style of turned leg is shown on terra-cottas of Italian origin in the Uaiy form of couches having a single reclining figure (Plate \dl/;). In these the legs 30 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS Egypt Etruria Italy Southern Russia Asia Minor are heavy and monotonous, consisting of numerous exactly similar, cushion-like members. Fig. 13 shows another turned pattern on a bit of Egyptian faience," dating probably from this period. Some Etruscan terra-cotta cinerary urns of small size arc partially in the form of couches, the legs being in relief on the front of the urns, and the mattress and recumbent hgurcs forming the cover. These have no rests, the rail is strikingly slender, and the legs arc turned, being varied more than those mentioned at the beginning of this paragraph, but bearing no resemblance to the Myrina type.^ Other late cinerary urns very closely resemble the Myrina couches; the sphinxes arc higher up on the legs in the specimens shown in Figs. 14 and 50,^ and toward the bottom is one member consisting of foliage, instead of two as in Fig. 30. Fig. 14 shows a feature common in couches and chairs from this time on; i. r., the rails rest upon the suji- ports instead of extending between them.'* An actual couch from southern Russia, the earliest specimen (with the exception of the unique early bronze couch of the Vatican, sec p. 20) which is at all completely preserved, probably dates from the middle of the third century.^ It has a curved head-rest, but no foot-rest; per- haps the latter has been lost. The turned legs are only in part preserved, but are nevertheless clearly of slender proportions and of a pattern wholly unlike that of the Vlyrina couches. Closely similar in the pattern of the legs is another slightly later extant couch, the one from Priene in the Berlin museum,'^ a couch that certainly dates from the second century B. C. As restored it has a curved rest only at the head and braces in both directions between the supports. That turned legs of slender pro})ortions and comparatively few members existed simultaneously with Fig. 13. — Fragment of Egyptian Faience. — Berlin. ' This is to be published elsewhere in colors, together with another fragment from the same vase. See p. 97, n. 2. ^ There are a large number of these in the Archaeological Museum in Florence which, so far as I know, are not published. 3 Published: Amelung, Rom. Mitt., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 271, Fig. I. 4 C/. Jahrh., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 133. 5 Dr. Amelung, loc. cii., p. 274, speaks of this couch as from a south-Russian grave of the fourth century. It was found, however, not in the grave but in the earth piled up over it, and the date given by Stephani for the contents of the grave {Conipte- rendu, 1880, pp. 25, 26), not earlier than 284 B. C., is substantiated by a coin found in it of the king Ikerisades II., who ascended the throne in 284 B. C. Now, the couch, if not contemporary with the grave, is more likely to be later than earlier. ^ Jahrb., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 134, Fig. ii. HELLENISTIC PERIOD 31 such heavier, more complicated designs as those of the Myrina terra-cottas is shown in the so-called Icarius reliefs where both styles appear. " The combination of the curved rests wdth rectangular legs, which has been noted on vases, apparently did not survive into the Hellenistic period. The Tele- Fig. 14. — Terra-cotta cinerary urn . — Musco Kirchcriano, Rome. phus frieze from Pergamon shows both turned and incised bed-legs p unfortunately there is only a fragment of each bed remaining. The turned leg seems to be of the pattern made familiar in the Myrina terra-cottas. The incised leg is tlie latest ^ Jalirb., Vol. XV (1900), Plate 1 , 21 and 51. ‘ Arch. Zeit., 1881, Plate 14. CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS Etruria Asia Minor ROMAN Early Period Continuance of Greek De- signs example known to me of its kind on a loecl; it would seem as if beds with rectangular, incised legs went out of style during the Hellenistic aged ddie degeneration (the beginnings of which we have already noted) of the incised pattern is very marked at this period. Even mongrel specimens appear, as on a second-century Etruscan urn (Martha, L'art Hrusque, p. 353, Eig. 242). In this the legs show on the u})per part features of the rectangular, incised pattern, and below a bell-like termination, wdiich is evidently turned work. Eurther, curved rests, not volutes, crown the legs. Plates IV, V, and VI show two fragments of a marble couch from Pergamon of the early second century. The restoration is discussed on pp. 93 ff., and the view is advanced that, in the absence of corroborating representations, it cannot be assumed that supjforts in the form of a griffin instead of regular legs were ever features of real couches. The one style of elegant couch common in the early years of the Roman empire is that known to us hrst in the second half of the hfth century; this, undergoing some changes, apparently gained its fullest pojjularity in the early Roman age. I speak of the bed with turned legs and one or two curved rests, already so frequently referred to in this sketch. This is the period from which the greatest number of preserved parts of couches has come, and they are all of the type just mentioned. The Boscoreale bed in Berlin,^ the three couches^ from a Pompeian triclinium in the Naples museum, and the Ancona beds,'* all are examples which have been set together as couches, in at least approximately correct form. The Orvieto (Plates XX-XXVI) and Norcia^ beds are wrongly restored. There are very many so-called hiseUia (Plates VIII and XVIII)^ which are no doubt made up of parts of couches and would admit of correct restoration. In addition to these more or less complete httings of individual beds, there exists a vast quantity of the curved rests (Plates XI, XII, and XVI), seldom with their full adornment; also of separate ^ The incised leg appears later on chairs in Pompeian wall-paintings and in the sculptures of the Ara Pads. But the instances in paintings are probably taken over with the designs as a whole from earlier originals. Professor Petersen has ])ointed out (Am Pads Aiigiistae, p. 68) that the Temple of the Great Alother on the Ara Pads must be a co]>y of the edifice erected 204--191 B. C. This takes the chair form in the pediment of this temple as represented on the Ara Pads back to the time of the Telephus frieze. ^ Jahrb., Vol. XV (1900), Aus., p. 178. 3 One of these has been reproduced numerous times; for example, Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 329, and Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii: Its Lije and ArP, P- 367, Fig- 188. 4 Brizio, pp. 445 ff., Figs. 8-27. 5 Pasqui, cols. 234 ff. ® Besides those published here, the “Capitoline Bisellium” (Bidlcttino della commissione arclieo- logica cornmimale di Roma, Vol. II, Plates II-IV, pp. 22-32 =Amelung, Rom. Mitt., Vol. XVII [1902], p. 271, Fig. i=Helbig, Fiihrcr^, Vol. I, p. 383, No. 569), one in the Louvre (Giraudon, photograph No. 188 of series of bronzes in the Louvre), and two in Naples (Real museo borbonico, Vol. II, Plate XXXI) may be cited. EARLIER ROMAN PERIOD 33 pieces (Plates XIII, XIV, XVa, h, d, and XVII) belonging to such rests, and of parts of turned legs, although the latter when detached are less commonly thought worthy of exhibition. This type of bed has been the subject of considerable dis- cussion. It seems generally conceded that couches not used for dining had at this period two rests; that, of the three in a triclinium, the upper couch had a head-rest, the lowex a foot-rest, and the middle none at all. ' The correct sloping position of these rests, extending in a graceful curve beyond the lines of the bed, has been made clear by Professor Pernice;^ it was the form inherited from the Greek period. Dr. Amelung, in the Rom. Mitt., Vol. XVII (1902), pp. 271 ff., however, cites a few instances where the monuments show rests of quicker curve occupying a perpen- dicular position directly above the legs. These are probably early manifestations of the Roman tendency (very marked in forms of Roman development, as we shall see) to make the rests straighter as well as higher. One of the examples published by Dr. Amelung {loc. cit., p. 273, Fig. 2) shows further the construction of the rests at the ends. In this case three rails curving slightly outward, with spaces between them and between the lowest rail and the frame of the couch at the seat- level, connect the curved ornamental pieces at the front and back of the couch. This is valuable evidence, as in restorations these front and back uprights have always been connected by a solid surface having the same curve as the uprights, which arrangement we now know was certainly not always, if ever, in vogue. A connecting-piece which is not solid has the support of analogies on earlier rests, ^ one of them of the same type (with curved uprights) as that under discussion. Also some early parallels to the outward curve may be cited. ^ The Romans did not long continue to use the form of couch taken over from the Hellenistic world. Just when it went out of style is difficult to say; I believe about the close of the first century A. D.^ We must now turn to distinctly Roman beds, of which representations abound on late monuments. These all, with a few possible exceptions, have turned legs '■ This statement is sometimes made to apply in general to the type with curved rests. It holds good, so far as I know, for the Roman period. But there exist earlier couches with only one rest which were not for banquets, as in certain terra-cottas of the Myrina type. The “ Aldobrandini Wed- ding” is a case in point, for, though executed in the Augustan periorl, it is a copy of an earlier painting. * Jahrb., Vol. XV (igoo), Anz., ]>]>. 178 ff. 3 Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 7g2=GiRARn, Fig. 4387, and Baumeister, Fhg. 328 = Girard, F'ig. 4389- It looks as if the head-rest of the second bed referred to in the previous note might be an instance. A terra-cotta in the British Museum from Eretria, No. C 208, is curved out at the frame-level (B. M. Terracottas, I'late XXXIV, but not very clear in the side-view given). Analogous to this is the j)lacc for the head in the marble funerary couch given in the Revue, arclicologique, 1876, Plate XIII. 3 It is not common even on early imjicrial monu- ments and never ajipears on distinctly late Roman reliefs. The style of the details on the jireserved sjiecimens seems to me for the most part to jioint to the first century 1). Later Period Characteristically Roman Designs 34 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS of ugly patterns (see Fig. 15) and are comparatively low, some extremely low; the legs never extend above the level of the frame. So far as the monuments give details, the frame when not plain shows one of the schemes of Fig. 16 {cf. Figs. 14, 31, Plates XXVIII, and Plate XXIXu) rather than rosettes, animals, or any of the motives common in the Greek period. Fig. 15. — Specimens of turned legs from Roman couches. There are couches without backs and with curved rests at the two extremities, very different, however, in appearance from the earlier Roman couches. The rests are of various designs, are higher and in an upright position in a line with the bed-legs, and the curve is slighter, sometimes amounting merely to an outward turning of the upper edge. A sar- cophagus cover in couch form of the first half of the third century is shown in Fig. 17; the rests end above in horses’ heads, below in lions’ heads. A very favorite motive, one which permeates Roman decoration generally and occurs also on other late types of couches (see p. 36), is the dolphin.' This appears on couches with the dolphin head resting on the frame, and the body and tail swinging in lively curve aloft (Plate XXVIII). - , Beds with headboards of a height equal to ^ ^ that of the legs, and very low foot-boards or none at all, seem also to have existed.^ But the greatest innovation of the Romans was the introduction of a back; it would be interesting to know just how early it came in. The word pluteus, perhaps “back,” is used of couches, so far as I know, first in Propertius (see p. in, n. 17). Plate XXlXh shows what is probably one of the earliest examples of a back in couch representations. The structure is unusual in the following particulars: the back is open rather than solid and has a middle rail, a bracing-bar appears above the 3 c Fig. 16. — Patterns from the rails of Roman couches. ' See Baumeister, Vol. Ill, Fig. i6io = Combe, Ancient Marbles in the British Museum, Vol. V, Plate IX, 3; Graeven, Phot. i. Very common, according to Graeven, p. i, n. i, on early Christian ivories. Another late example, rejjroduced by Girard, Fig. 4396, is from the Vatican manuscript of Virgil. There are numerous extant dolphins of metal in the British Museum, the Cabinet des Medailles, and elsewhere. Some of these have been thought to be parts of articles of furniture. The “Campana relief” in the British Museum, No. D 603 (IVIansell, photograph No. 1400; CouB'E, Ancient Terracottas in the British Museum, Plate 10 and B. M. Terracottas, Plate XLIII) shows two dolphins diagonally placed between the seat and round of Athena’s stool, and one of the extant metal dolphins in the same museum has a slant suitable to such a position. Others of the extant pieces are intended to occupy an upright position, and may perhaps come from couches. ^ Graeven, Phot, i; Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 5; relief in the Lateran Museum, Room XIII, No. 849. LATER ROMAN PERIOD 35 floor-level between the legs, and the arms are lower than the back. In fact, it seems better adapted for use as a settee than as a couch for reclining, and it agrees in most particulars with the piece of furniture on which the emperor Augustus and the goddess Roma are seated, as depicted on a famous cameo in Vienna.' None of the representations of couches with solid backs of the common forms now to be enumerated, with which I am familiar, would antedate the latter half of the first century A. D. One of the stock subjects on Roman gravestones, whether found in England, along the Rhine, on the Greek islands, or in some other part of the old Roman dominions, was an adaptation of the time-honored “funerary bancpiet” motive. The study of a large number of these reliefs and their accompanying inscriptions would no doubt yield information as to the chronology of beds with backs, as well as matter of much greater interest. Figs. 40 and 18 give two couches from grave- stones of this class, found on the island of Paros. Fig. 40 shows the more usual form with curved end-pieces, but of extra large size. It will be seen that the upper part of the couches is very jnominent. The legs look weak and insignificant, and their height does not ecjual that of the sujiported jiortion. Three sides are inclosed; the back and cnd-])ieces are of the same height and apparently solid; the back often ' Furtwangler, Die anlikcn Gemmcn, Plate form must have liecn tliat sugf'c.sted above. Tlic LVl. d’he terra-cotta, of course, necessarily shows analogy of the Vienna cameo, which is not ambiguous the spaces between the rails solid, but unless we on this point, strengthens the view which 1 have arc to su])po.se these spaces in the structure repro- taken. Cj., however, B. M . Terracollos, j>. 365, duced to have been paneled up at the back, the No. I) 359. CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORMS has the same profile with the sides, as sarcophagi in couch form show.' Such sarcoiihagi or the representations of these couches on sarcophagi are less rude, as a rule, than the gravestones. No doubt the models, too, were often better couches. In Fig. 31, reproducing the front of a sarcophagus from Syria, the pattern of the turned legs and of the crossboard and the conventionalized dolphin form of the front extremities of the rests are all evident. A certain number of Roman beds have the headboards, foot- boards, and back (usually present) all consisting of t wo mem bers, the upper one, either curved or straight, issuing from the lower member, which is always curvecF (Plate XXVIII and Figs. 19 and 20). It is a question whether any of these late couches ever had any- thing in the nature of upholstery. In Plate XXIXu is reproduced a small terra-cotta found in Egypt. It muII be seen that there is a pattern of con- centric squares twice on the back and also once on the end of the pillow. The same design appears on the end-pieces both on the inner and outer faces, and also on the outer surface of the back. It docs not seem probable that on such a realistic piece of work as this very modern-looking couch, with the dogs curled up upon it, the ornaments could have been a mere fanciful addition of the coro})last. It looks as if the frame of the couch were covered with a heavy patterned material which was padded. Otherwise the ornamental sc{uares must be supposed to be carved or in some way executed in a hard material composing the couch; and this has the objection that such orna- ment usually adorns and emphasizes the constructional parts of couches, the legs, rails, and uprights of the headboards and footboards, but is not ordinarily dropped promiscuously all over the structure as here. Attention is called in the Rom. Mitt., Vol. VII (1892), p. 45, to a number of couch representations (see Figs. 20 and 21) with lines upon them which look as if they represented masonry. These are t TO A lAn AHKAEl'T'HjI Fig. 18. — Relief on a Roman gravestone . — Island of Paros. Fig. 19 ' I have photographs, kindly given me by Dr. Vassits, of Belgrade, of a specimen found at Vinii- nacium, Moesia Superior; and now in the gymnasium at Pojarevatz in Servia. ^ In the Archteological Museum in Florence, part of a marble couch, Amelung, Fiihrer, p. 192, No. 2i^=Rom. Mitt., Vol. I (1886), pp. 161 ff., Plate VIII, and ibid.,Vo\. VII (1892), p. 45, above, Fig. 19; also ibid., p. 45, Fig. VIII, 2 and 6. Also an unpublished ( ?) sarcophagus standing in the south corridor of the Museo delle Terme, Rome. LENGTFIS OF BEDS 37 explained as reproductions of marble beds, built up of Idocks, and are supposed to have been used by the living in summer, or perhaps to have been placed in tombs. This theory is not very satisfying,' whereas the reliefs become perfectly intelligible if we may assume that a i mdded j^ck is represented fastened down along the vertical and horizontal lines. If an a priori argument is worth anything, it seems not unlikely that the practical Romans, having once developed such high supports on their couches, would have given them the added comfort of a permanent padding of some sort, as distinguished from pillows and other removable furnishings. One other c|uestion may be touched upon in closing this chronological survey of forms. It must have been evident to the reader before this that Greek, Etruscan, and Roman couches, as represented, are in many instances very short — too short to permit their occupants to stretch out at full length. Were the paintings, reliefs, and terra-cottas faithful in this par- ticular to facts, or have we to do here with an artistic convention ? Couches long enough for the extended human body are shown in prothesis scenes (Figs. 4 and 29) and a few cinerary urns (Plate I) ; in fact, whenever a recumbent person is represented his couch is of suitable length. The normal lengths given to extant couches in the process of restoration are vouched for, in a few cases, by traces observed on the floor at the time of finding,^ even though their wooden rails have invariably perished. Evidence is not lack- ing, then, for couches of comfortable length for lying flat upon. Greek art never hesitated to take liberties with the relative sizes of people, animals, and inanimate objects when the general decorative filling of spaces could be better attained thcrcljy. Mence it should not surprise us in vase-paintings and relief sculptures — and the statement holds good for the Roman period also — to find a person too large for the bed he is resting on. I believe, therefore, that the shortness of many beds seen ' In the first place, it does not seem to me j)rob- ablc that the Romans would have built such couches of masonry; they would rather have carved them out of whole blocks of marble, as they did sarcoph- a)fi. Hut even if couches of masonry existed, they were then in desif^n only copies or modifications of usual household couches, and would not have been rej)roduced upon marble reliefs, but their models rather would have served as the models also for relief scidpture. ^ .See Pkknice, Jahrb., \'ol. XV (rgoo), .l«c., p. 178. 38 CHRONOLOGICAL SURVFA’ OF FORMS on Greek vases is due to arbitrary variation from facts.' The (juestion becomes more difficult in the case of couch reproductions in the round such as those in Fig. 14 and Plate XXIX/n Did the artist depart from literal truth in order to avoid an unoccu- pied stretch of bed beyond the feet of the half-reclining person, and thus to gain compactness of design ? I am inclined to think not. The production of short couches is better vouched for in terra-cottas such as the one reproduced in Plate XXTXu. Here there are no occupants that affect the general lines of the compo- sition, and one cannot see why the terra-cotta couch should be so short unless its pro- portions had a real existence in structures familiar to the designer of the terra-cotta. Finally, in endeavoring to make vivid to ourselves these ancient couches, a comparison with modern styles may be useful. There is no one of all the forms we have been reviewing which bears any resemblance to modern single bedsteads^ with their high footboards and still higher headboards; much less are there any double beds recognizable on the classic monuments. Some of the draped Greek couches, with their numerous pillows, look not very unlike the modern college divan; the earlier ones are higher, to be sure, than is thought desirable now, but some of those represented on late red-figured ware are as low as modern couches, and |)rol)ably would not look out of place in a present-day room. Put it is among Roman couches that we find the greatest number of recent-looking structures. There are the short couches referred to in the preceding paragraph, which find numerous parallels in modern furniture. The form shown in Fig. 18 is very like a high backed settle, and others in their main lines are not dissimilar to some large davenports of the present day. The dolphins occasionally seen on the arms of modern couches-^ are surely a revival of the Roman motive. ' This seems to me far more probable than that Greek lianquet couches were commonly short. This view is strengthened by a parallel case; a design on a bronze mirror (Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel, Vol. II, Plate CXXV =Cal. des bronzes ant. de la Bibl. nat., ]>. 499, Fig. 1284) represents xVlcmene and tlie newly born Heracles in bed propped up among the jjillows; the bed would not be long enough for Alcmene, were she to lie out- stretched u])on it. We are not prepared to accept this evidence literally as denoting the existence of short beds. Since the explanation as an artistic convention seems almost inevitable here, the same may be the more readily accepted for dining-couches which appear short. ^ Cp, however, the toy bedstead of palm sticks found in the Faioum, and now in the collection of Professor W. Flinders Petrie, at University College, London (Petrie, Hawara, Bialinui and Arsinoe, p. 12 and Plate XIX, 5). This is said to date from the latter half of the third century A. D. 3 For instance, sec the Empire sofa owned by Mrs. William V^oung of Baltimore, Md., which is pictured in Singleton, The Furniture oj Our Fore- fathers, p. 573, and is thus described in the text; “a fine example of the period with the metal dol pliins gracefully curved along the scroll ends.” CHAPTER II MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE The one detailed description in Homer of a bed is of that of Odysseus.' It was of olive wood, carefully and accurately cut with the help of a plumb-line, and polished; gold, silver, and ivory contributed to its adornment. The statement is explicit as to the materials employed, but not as to the method of putting them together. The adjective Stvwrd?, applied in one instance to a bed,^ in another to a chair, ^ in all probability refers to legs of turned work. There is no passage that suggests the use of metal otherwise than for adornment. The principal material used in the construction of Greek couches of historical times was wood. Common beds were no doubt made entirely of it. Better couches in the early period had their constructional parts of wood and their ornament of richer materials. In the Hellenistic period couches made largely of metal were frequent, but even in these wood was retained for some of the constructional parts. How extensively and by what technical processes metal was employed in making couches before the Hellenistic period cannot with certainty be determined. Besides the obvious fact that wood must have been cheaper and more easily worked than metal, there are positive indications of the large use made of it in the construction of Greek beds. The forms of beds as we know them on Greek monu- ments look as if made of wood, especially in the patterns of the legs and the frequent representations of tenons in mortises which served to unite the head-rails and the foot-rails with the legs. An instance of the reproduction of the grain of wood on a vase-painting is given in Fig. 22. Added to the evidence of the monuments is that of literature. In an account of property left by Demosthenes’s father, which included a plant for making knives and another for the manufacture of beds, timbers for beds are mentioned. In Munich there is a fourth-century inscription-^ giving part of a temple inventory, which enumerates under objects of wood KXa^rj afXLKpa I. Theophrastus refers to various kinds'^ of wood as used for making couches, and Theocritus mentions a couch of cedar (XXIV, 43). ' Kal t6t' €ttht' (XTrAoi/'a k6/j.t]v TavvtpvWov Kopjj-bv S' iK pi^ris irpoTapMv eS Kal iirLiTTapivuys^ Kal ivl ardOprjp Wvva^ ippTv' aaKriffaij Tirp-qva 5^ irdvra Tep^rpep, iK 5^ ToO dpxSptvo% S(ppa riXeasa^ SaiSdWwv xpvdipre Kal dpydpip rjS' iXicpavri' iv o' irdwaa' ipdpra dobs (polvtKi (pauvbv. — 0 ( 1 ., XXIII, 195-201. <)>■ tcrcbintli wood. See Ui.umnkr, I cclinologtc, ^ 11 ., HI, 391. II, i>p. 327 and 246 ff. .3d 3 0 ( 1 ., XIX, 56. ■'Dan., XXVII, 10 IT. s /. (/■., IV, 39 = Fuktvv.\N('.lkk, Bcschr. dcr Glypt., ]). 152, No. 196. T'hese are: lieech, two kinds of majjle, a.sh, persca, and a reddish-linged variety of turpentine PREHISTORIC HELLENIC PERIOD General Statement in Regard to Ma- terial and Tech- nic Evidence for Wood 40 MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE (^ther Materials Somc woodcii couclics wcrc cnrichecl with other materials. Chief among these was i\'ory. Ivory was used in the construction of beds in one of the workshops l)elonging to Demosthenes’s father (see preceding paragraph)." An inventory, dating from the last half of the fourth century, of the Herfeum on the island of Samos records that a KXtt'TTjptcr/co? i\ealaces in Amos 3:15; 6:4; Ps. 45:8; I Kings io;i8, 22; Ezek. 27:6. Cj. finally the extant ivory carvings from a wooden sarcophagus, referred to p. 46, close of n. 3. ^ It seems on the face of it probable that gold and silver, which were apj)lied to wooden furniture in Egypt (e. g., the so-called chair of Hatshepsut in the British Museum) and in Greece in the Homeric period (see p. 39, n. i), should have had occasional use in Greece in historical times on especially fine pieces. Pollux in Book X, 35, says, arts, too, seem to show metallic feeling. Therefore, I con- sider these designs eclectic creations, the .separate elements of which go back to wooden technic, but the jjresent combination of which was invented for work in metal. At least one example of Roman date exists of the design executed in bronze, i. e., the “Capitoline Bisellium” (see p. 32, n. 6). ^ Cj. p. 112, n. 27. ■3 Herod., IX, 80-82. It seems safe to assume that when mention is made of a gold, silver, or ivory couch or ]>art of a couch, the object really had the appearance of being of the material in (piestion, and was not merely inlaid with it or adorned with scattered ornaments of it. Herodotus calls the same couches in one ]>aragraph (82) dpyvp^as; in tlie other (80), iirixpdffovs Kai irrapyvpovi^ which last words are thought to refer to jdating (BbcKii, /bV Stiuitshaushiiltiuig dcr Athaicr^, \'ol. 11 , p. 148). Fig. 30. — Small tcrra-coUa . — National Museum, Athens. with thin l^its of ivory, so that the result was a couch presenting a semblance of having at least many of its parts of solid ivory. This was certainly done later, as we shall see, and it w’ould seem very probable that, like the metal technic exempli- 52 MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE Technic of Ivory It remains only to mention another method of producing the designs with curved rests and turned legs, which was probably practiced in the Hellenistic period, if not earlier. I refer to the almost complete veneering of a wooden frame GREEK PERIOD. CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE 53 fied in the two Hellenistic couches, which was very popular in Roman times, it too had a non-Roman origin. It seems to me possible that the following lines by Plato, the comic poet (quoted Athen., II, qSu, />), refer to couches of this sort; Kar ev kRipuk iXecjiapToiroaLP^ Kal arpco/jiaaL 7rop(f)vpol3d7rTOi<; /cap (poipiKi'ai ^apSLa/caicnp Koapujadp-epoi KardKeiPTUL. Again, .Rlian {Var. Hist., XII, 29), quoting Timams (about 352-256 B. C.), says of the Agrigentines: koI ikepOL Kal rpairepai, P^XTurra Trap' aiirois idrjp.tovpyeiTo, Kal Kuiftaiv 6 .XaKuiviKbs evdoKlpei pAXuara TTpbs rds crTpardas, &s tfirjai. Kpirtas, I’l.liT. Lyciirg. 9 = Gritias, fragm. 26 f|i. 95, ed. Bach). It is a (juestion how closely chairs, stools, and beds were associated in the process of manufacture. Ajiparently the slaves of Demosthenes’s father did not also make chairs, or the fact would have been mentioned. The passage in Plato is favorable to the view that couch-making was a distinct trade from chair-making. On the other hand, beds very frequently had the same sort of legs as chairs. The earlier Greek couches, in fact, are little more than enlarged stools ; that is, they consist merely of four legs, similar to the four legs of con- temporary stools, connected by sufficiently long rails to give dimensions for accomodating a person in a reclining position. The addition of a head-rest, when that came in, did not change the character of the couches otherwise. It seems a jilausible theorv, therefore, that in all these cases of similarity between the legs of chairs and couches the legs would have been made ii|i in large (luanlities and in various sizes, and then have been put together with an addition of rails, interlacing, etc., as chairs, stools, or beds in the same or in another workslio|i. Turned legs in jiarticu- lar might well have been jiroduced in one establish- ment and the cabinet-work proper of .setting the ])iecesof furniture togetherliave been done in another. 54 MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE ROMAN General Statement in Regard to Material and Technic ])hon saw some couches in the region of Salmydessus on the Black Sea which were part of the wreckage of Greek merchant ships/ We learn from Critias^ that two kinds of beds were especially famous in the fifth century — those of Miletus and those of Chios. A certain number of both styles was included in the Parthenon treas- ured there were also some Milesian beds in the household property of Alcibiades.'* If these were of a single distinct design and the design is known to us, it is }>rob- ablv the one exhibiting deeply incised, rectangular legs.^ The earlier couches of Roman date apparently followed very closely Hellen- istic precedents in material and technic as in design. Among them were couches of the costliest materials, some imported, others suggested by foreign models,^ but excelling, it may be, even anything the Hellenistic world had produced in the extravagance of rich materials which they exhibited. With the development ' Atiah., VII, 5, 14. ^ I, 5. Critias (fragm. i, 1 . 5, p. 31, ed. Bach = Athen., I, 286), mentioning various localities and the things for which they were famous, says: cvvalov 5 ^ Xlxoos (e'foxa) KaXXos iMiXijros re Xi'os t’, eVaXos ttoXis OIvottiiovos. There is yet another mention by Critias of these beds in a fragment from his “Constitution of Lace- dtemon” (Athen., XI, 486? = Critias, fragm. 28, p. 95, ed. Bach). K\irrj 'SU'KrjaiovpyrjS Kal d'uppos iSUXriaiovpyris, nXirr] Xiovpyr)S ral rpairc^a "P-qytoepyTji. 3 Among the accessions of the year 434-3 to the treasures kept in the Parthenon are eiglu K\irai 'KiovpyeA and ten KXiuai 'Mi'K-qaiovpycts, and these items continue to appear in succeeding lists until after the archonship of Euclides, when the Chian lieds disap- pear and the number of Milesian beds is increased to si.xteen. Again, after the year 385-4 the Vldesian beds are reduced to ten, and are described as being in need of repair. 4 Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscripliomim Grae- cariun,^ No. 44 and Wilhelm, Jahresh., Vol. VI (1903), pp. 236 ff. 5 Rayet, Monuments antiques, article “Tom- beau de Xanthos, dit monument des harpyes,” p. 4, discussing the Harpy monument, calls the chair with rectangular legs and incisions Vlilesian, and the chair with turned legs Chian, d'here is no defense of the view in the passage referred to nor in any other of Rayet’s writings known to me. Professor Benndorf {Gjolbasclii - Trysa, p. 96), and Professor Petersen following him (Ara Pacts Aiigustae, p. 67, n. i), also associate the Milesian furniture with the style having rectangular legs with incisions, but make no mention of Chian beds. Unless these authorities have evidence which has escaped my notice, the identification, although a plausible hypothesis, cannot be called obvious and indisputable. There is a fairly large stock of couch and chair representations of the fifth century, a greater variety really than for any other period, and literary evidence shows that Chian and Milesian furniture were especially famous in the fifth century. There is then a pre- sumption that these styles would be included in the couch representations on the monuments. The elegance and richness of the couch with rec- tangular legs and incisions distinguish it from all others as that most likely to have been highly valued and the character of the design suggesting Asiatic origin (elaborated in the chapter on “Style” p. 73, n. 3) is favorable to the identification. Unfor- tunately there is no means of knowing whether Chian and Vlilesian furniture were alike or not. If they differed in design, as Rayet thought, the only reason that I can see for calling the important style with rectangular legs having incisions Vlilesian rather than Chian lies in the greater prominence of Vliletus commercially. At least the fact that Milesian stools as well as beds are mentioned in literature, whereas we hear only of Chian beds, it seems to me, is very likely to be accidental, and not therefore significant on this point. * Plin., N. H., XXXIII, 144. ROMAN PERIOD. MATERIALS 55 later of a back, the Roman couch became a much more complicated structure, comparable technically with modern high-backed sofas. The production of couches of luxury seems to have increased rather than abated in the late Roman period. Wood not combined with other materials no doubt continued to be used con- siderably for common couches.' Costly woods, probably in the form of veneers, were not unusual in expensive couches, although not employed to such an extreme extent as for tables.^ Wood was also used for some or all of the constructional parts of couches whose beauty and richness depended upon other materials. If we may trust negative evidence, ivory had little use in the Roman period as an accessory material,^ that is to say, for inlays or otherwise in small quantities. But so-called “ivory” couches, those, in all probability, which were veneered com- pletely or nearly so with ivory were very popular. ^ The bones of horses and of other animals were employed as a cheap substitute for ivory. The use of tortoise shell on couches seems to have begun about loo B. C.^ Whether the introducer of the process learned it from the eastern world or some- one in Italy invented it does not appear. In two passages (the second derived, however, from the first) it is implied that shell for this purpose was obtained from India.'' A large part of the surface of the structures must have been covered to warrant their being regularly called “tortoise-shell” couches.^ Silver ^ gold , and jewels were at times combined with tortoise shell,* but always, as far as literary evidence shows, as secondary materials. Iron was sometimes used as an invisible support within the legs of couches,® and possibly was otherwise employed in their manufacture. ' Sen., Ep., 17, 12. Willow and maple (prob- ably one of the commoner sorts) are referred to by Ov., Met., VIII, 656-59, and Ep. ex Ponto, III, 3, 14. The couches which appear on the gravestones of Roman soldiers from the second century on look for the most part to be entirely of wood. ^ Mart., XIV, 85, and Rers., I, 52, 53. Besides the fact that tables are much more frequently mentioned in literature, it is evident from Mart., IX, 59, 9, that it was not considered necessary for the dining-couches and tables to match in material. 3 d'here are no extant sj)ecimens of ivory inlays, although inlaid work in metal of Roman date is not rare, and there are few passages which could imply a sjjaring use of ivory. See, however, Cle- ment of Alexandria, Paedag., II, 3, p. 188, where among things one should not desire couches with silver legs, further adorned with ivory, are mentioned. + Hor., Sat., II, 6, 103, speaks of couches of ivory among the objects to be seen in a rich man’s house; ivory couches were used at a dinner given to the pontiffs in the time of Julius C;esar (Macrob., Saturn., Ill, 13, ii); Julius Cssar’s funeral couch was of ivory (Suet., I id., 84). 5 Plin., N. H., IX, 39; XXXIII, 144. Lucian, Asin., 621, and Apul., Met., X, 34. ’’ See the long list of references given by Malt, col. 371. d'here are no jiassages known to me which imply a sparing use of it as ornament. ^Digest, XXXII, TOO, 4; Lucian, Asin., 621; Mart., XII, 66, 5. Sec Brizio, p. 451, Pig. 18. 1 know no literary evidence for the use of iron in the construction of beds during the Roman jieriod. The Musco delle Terme in Rome and the IMuscA' Materials Wood Ivory and Bone Tortoise .Shell Iron 56 MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE Bronze The Precious Metals Jewels Technic Early Period Bronze Couches Couches of Bone There are a few references in literature" to lironze beds, but the many sur- viving ])arts of beds with l^ronze attachments are Ijctter testimony to the large use of the ]>roduct in this way. It was usually enriched with inlays of silver and often also with inlays of copper. “Gold” and “silver” couches came into notice in Italy about the same time with those of tortoise shell. ^ Yet they did not jicrhaps become very general articles of luxury until about the beginning of the Christian cra.^ The terms “gold” and “silver” thus used arc probably to be understood in a way analogous to “ivory” and “tortoise shell;” that is, as denoting couches whose visible surfaces were nearly or quite covered with plating or washes of the precious metals.-" After the beginning of the second century A. D. there were instances of couches of solid silver.^ Both silver and gold found constant subsidiary use in enriching other materials. Finally couches were even adorned with jewels.^ The technic of two classes of early Roman couches is illustrated in extant specimens. I refer to the various bronze and bone parts of couches scattered in the museums of Europe and the United States. Hitherto unpublished specimens in bronze are given in Plates VIII-XIX, and details in regard to them in Section I of the Supplementary Matter. For the general facts as to the construction of these beds see under the Greek ])eriod, pp. 41 and 50. Only recently has the construction of couches of bone been better under- stood. The first specimen to attract attention, one found at Norcia, was put together by Pasqui without reference to other monumental evidence.^ The bed from Orvieto which is published here (Plates XX-XXVI) was apparently restored de St. Germain possess folding stools of iron, and there is another in j:)rivate possession in England (formerly in the Forman Collection; see the Sale Catalogue, p. 232). Since these other articles of furniture were made of iron, it is not impossible that iron was sometimes used for the parts of Ijeds. ' E. g., Juv., XI, 98; Plin., N. II; XXXIV, 14; Liv., XXXIX, 6. ^ Plin., N. II., XXXIIl, 144. 3 Ihid., 146, and for a public banriuet in the reign of Caligula, not ivory (c/. p. 55, n. 4), but silver, couches were used (Suet., Calig., 32). 4 From the last passage referred to in the pre- ceding note it is clear that silver was sometimes in the form of removable plates. C/. on this point also Mart., IX, 22, 6. Mart., VIII, 33, 6, sug- gests exceedingly thin plating or foil. In the gold-room of the Louvre is a folding stool from Ostia, of iron plated with silver. This suggests that the Roman silver couches like the bone ones may at least have had an iron core in the legs. 5 Digest, XXXllI, 10, 9, i; Hist. Aug. Vit. Elag., 20, 4. * See the end of the preceding paragraph, also under “tortoise shell.” 7 Lucan, X. 310, i26;VI.art., XII, 66, 5; Digest, XXXIIl, 10, 3, 3; possibly also Sen., Ep., no, 12. * Me himself states this (Pasqui, col. 236): “Proposta la ricostruzione di quel letto .... si pensb risolvere il problema coll’esame stesso dei frammenti e sopratutto coi rapporti di dimensione, piuttosto che cogli esempi di klinai e di letti funebri, che pitture parietali e vasculari, sculture e ceramiche decorate di rilievi in copia grandissima ci presen- tano.” ROMAN PERIOD. TECHNIC 57 in accordance with the one from Norcia." In 1902 in tombs near Ancona remains of beds of bone were found and were recognized by Signor Brizio, who published them/ to be of the design rendered familiar by the Pompeian beds of wood com- bined with bronze. One of these couches has been put together: the restoration appears to me ciuestionable in only one important point; namely that the legs at about half their height have been braced by rails on all sides of the bed.^ Signor Brizio refers to the Norcia bed, without, however, pointing out (if he recognized the fact) that it ought to be restored like the one from Ancona, after the design of the Pompeian couch. The Norcia bed is fully discussed by Dr. Graeven,'* who gives a photographic view of it and publishes with very instructive comments a large number of other fragments from beds of bone or ivory. He points out that the medallions, and the moldings of bone framing them in their present situation on the rails of the bed (cf. Plate XX), are parts of f ulcra and that the slant given to the frame from the bottom outward is unwarranted; he accepts, however, the width of the rails and the placing of the lions’ masks at the corners. This last seems to me open to grave doubts. The narrow rails of the restored Ancona bed are made to con- form to the Pompeian design. The greater width of those of the Norcia and Orvieto couches is determined by the dimensions of the lions’ masks and the hgures in relief (see Plate XX) which it is assumed must have adorned them. But it is strange that in general these couches should have conformed to the type which seems to have been the prevailing one in the late Greek and early Roman })eriods, and yet differ from it in this one important particular. The bed published in the frontis- piece has, indeed, a wide rail with high relief ornaments, but it is of an entirely different type. In all the numerous representations of beds with turned legs and curved fulcra there is not a single one known to me showing wide rails and orna- ment in relief, nor is one to be found among the bronze survivals from such couches. Therefore, until monumental evidence in sujjport of such a restoration is found, it appears to me safer to doubt the attribution of a given bone carving to a given ^ Reference is made in the documents accom- panying this bed when it came into the possession of the Field Columbian Museum to the bed from Norcia as the one other existent specimen of the kind. Further, a conijKirison of the two shows many jwints of agreement. ^ Rrizio, pp. 445 ff.; described briefly, Jahi'h., Vol. XVIII (1903), A)iz., p. 89. 3 'Fhese, the restorer thinks, are a constructional necessity because of the great height (67 cm.) of the couches. ('File height is fixed by llie length of the iron rods which formed the strength of the legs, Hkizuj, p. 456.) But the couches may have been manufactured merely for the tomb, as Pasqui sug- gested in the case of the Norcia couch (Pasqui, col. 241 ) and may not have been very firm. F’urlhcr, this is not an isolated instance; on the contrary, as has been seen, a height so great as apjiarently to involve unsteadiness is frequent in ancient couches, ami the jiroblem was not solved, so far as monu- mental evidence shows, by the use of rails half way between the floor and the frame of the bed {rj. p]). 43 ff.). 'Phe braces of the “bi.sellia” tiled by Signor Brizio in siqipoil of his restoration are them- selves restorations. Grakven, pp. 82 IT. 58 MATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE couch when no other place can l^e found for it than on the rail. Various objects were buried in tombs, the use of Ijone was not conhned to beds, and medallions and masks ornamented other structures than beds. It is not essential, therefore, to assume that e\'ery carving in bone found in a tomb in which there was a bed of bone belonged on that bed. In the case of the couch from Orvieto, however, the relief carvings may Ije otherwise disposed of, in a way suggested by Dr. Graeven for similar carvings of which he gives a photograph.' They probably ornamented the legs of the couch. For this good analogies may be cited on ancient monu- ments. The wadter just named refers to the publication by Dr. Hauser^ of a marble chair-leg of turned members, interrupted l)y a circlet of hgures in relief; there are also instances on Pompeian wall-paintings.^ This is the more probable in the case of the Orvieto couch l^ecause the legs are otherwise quite jjlain, whereas the couch from Norcia has members adorned with foliage patterns. Further, the carvings on the bed from Orvieto are so curved that they must have surrounded some circular object, and, if on the bed at all, they then necessarily decorated the legs. It is inconceivable that they should have been left, even in a provincial, crude art, so unworkmanlike as they now a])})ear with interstices between the panels. An examination of the present structure proves, if it is not sufficiently evident from Plates XXIV and XXV, that it is impossible to adjust these carvings neatly to a corner j^osition. Some of the medallions of bone published by Dr. Graeven, like those of the Orvieto couch, have considerable projection; others are in low relief. The same writer has recognized a low-relief carving in bone belonging to the curve between the extremities^ of an upright of a fulcrum and upper end-pieces of uprights, which, unlike the horses’ heads of the Ancona couch and their bronze prototypes, are in low relief.'' That these last also go back to bronze models seems clear, as is pointed out, from the fact that they represent aquatic birds, with heads turned about in a position as nearly like that of the bronze heads in the round as it is possible to get in relief, and, what is more significant, that they exhibit the same double-curved termination^ where the neck stops as is found in bronzes. This extant work in bone and bronze has the additional interest of suggesting how more expensive couches may have been made. I am convinced that all speculations as to the con- struction of the elegant Roman couches of the first century before and the first century after Christ must reckon with the prevalence of the type of couch known ' Graeven, pp. 90 ff., Phot. 55. * Graeven, Phot. 33, 34, 37. Jahrb., Vol. IV (1889), pp. 255 ff. 5 Ibid., Phot. 59. 3 Dr. Hauser cites Raoul Rociiette, Peintures ^ Ibid., Phot. 31 and 61. de Pom pci, Plate X. There is another example in the , explanation of this form is offered, p. 86. house of the Vettii: Brogi, photograph No. 11,203. ROMAN PERIOD. CENTERS OF MANUFACTURE 59 Fig, 31. — Roman Sarcophagus from Syria. — Constantinople. 6o lilATERIALS, TECHNIC, AND CENTERS OE MANUEACTURE Late Period Places oj Mauii- jactiire to US in preserved specimens. There have been no certain couch remains recog- nized which are irreconcilable with the design having turned legs and curved jiiJcra and the variety and number of existent bone and bronze parts of couches fitting into the general design in question are abundant positive evidence of its prevalence. Accordingly, I should imagine the tortoise-shell couches to have had a frame of wood, strengthening-rods of iron through the legs, and a veneering of the shell, the ornaments of the jiilcra being treated flatly, like some of the ornaments in bone mentioned above. It seems ])articularly reasonable to suppose that bone was a cheap substitute for ivory, and that the provincial structures of bone repro- duce for us in a crude way the beautiful ivory beds of the wealthier centers of civilization. Nor do I believe that the silver and gold couches departed very far in their construction from the models afforded by the commoner couches of wood with bronze attachments. Varro’ indeed implies variety in the size and shape of couches of his day, but not greater than is secured in the different renderings of the design in question. The changes in form which gradually took place in the first century A. D. — that is, the increase in the height of the fulcra and the upright position gi ven to them — prepared the way for the introduction of the back. Whatever we may think of the comparative aesthetic merits of the Greeco-Roman couch just under consideration and the high-backed Roman type, there can be no doubt that the latter is a much more developed construction. On Plate XXVII is given a working drawing to be executed entirely in wood, which was prepared on the basis of the couch pictured in Fig. 31.^ There is much more that is conjectural than in the drawing for the Greek couch (Plate II), but it is an interesting attempt to divine the Roman workman’s methods. It seems to me probable that in the couch rep- resented in Plate XXVIII the legs, the panels at the corners of the rails, and the uprights in dolphin form of the headboard and footboard were of metal. It remains only to say the little that is possible on the subject of the places of manufacture. Delian and Punic couches were in use in Italy in the last century before Christ and gave rise to imitations the Punic couches are described by Isidorus as small and low.-* Vlany of the existent parts of couches give evidence in style of having come from the same factory; for instance, many of the mules’ heads crowned with ivy agree closely enough to imply a common origin. But nothing definite is known about any of these Italian centers of manufacture. Brunn recognized the provincial character of the beds of bone. Pasqui thought that Norcia ' L. L., VIII, 31, 32. ^ See p. 54, n. 6. ^ This I owe likewise to the courtesy of the ^ Isid., Orig. XX, 11,3, says; “Punicani lecti Tobey Furniture Company and the careful over- parvi, et humiles, primum a Carthagine advecti, et sight of Mr. Twyman. Cj. p. 45. inde nominati. Cf. also Cic., Pro Mur., 36, 75. COUCH-MAKERS 6i might have been the center of their production/ The discovery of similar work at Ancona and Orvieto suggests that they were made in many places. Idbyan couches^ were probably not a class distinct from Punic. The names of two couch-makers of the first century A. D. are known^ who were famous for the humbleness of their products; these are Archias and Soterichus. Peitenus was a couch-maker of one of the Greek islands in Roman times. One would like to know more about Carvilius Polliod the introducer of rich couches of gold, silver, and tortoise shell — whether he was concerned commercially in these innovations, or whether he was merely a wealthy man who set the fashion for others. ' Pasqui, col. 242; cj. p. 108. Verg., Cir., 440. 3 Hor., Ep., I, 5, i; Sen., fragm. 114. I. G., II, 2135 and Bulletin de la Societe nationale des Antiquaires de France, 1900, Michon, “StMe de Beitenos Hermes.” Miss Mary B. Peaks has kindly brought to my notice several other couch- makers whose names I am able to add in the proof. These are: Rhesus, slave of Caninius {Corpus In- scriptionum Lalinariim, VI, 2, 7988), the slave Romanus (op. cit., VI, 2, 9503), the freedman Lucius Hostilius Amphio {op. cil.,Vl, 2, 7882), and probably Gains Parc .... {op. cit., XI, 2, 5439). Two of these artisans seem to have been Greeks. C/. p. 89. .5 See p. 55, n. 5. CHAPTER III INTERLACED FILLING OF COUCH FRAMES An interwoven filling for couch frames as for chair frames was common in antir(uity. Actual remains of plaiting in various materials have been preserved in Egypt, dating from at least as early as the New Empire down to the Graeco-Roman period. ^ It is highly probable that the strap of red leather mentioned in the Homeric description of the bed of Odysseus^ was for this purpose. The earliest Greek couch representations, those on vases of the Dipylon class, occasionally show a plaiting (see headpiece of this chapter).^ There is literary and monumental evidence sufficient to jjrove that such interlaced filling was common in the historical Greek and Roman periods.'* That it was the only filling used is perhaps too much to assert; yet I cannot see where Professor Bliimner gets the information: “auf die Gurte, deren Stelle mitunter auch ein jestes Brett vertritt, wurden die Matratzen oder Polster gelegt.”-'' It would seem on the face of it probable that a flexible interlacing would ' Almost every larf^e collection of Egyptian antiejuities has one or more pieces of furniture showing the traces of attachment to the frame if not bits of the actual plaiting. But few of these remains of j^laiting are published. See, however, Verz. der dgypi. Allertd, of the Royal Vluseums at Berlin, pp. 194 ff., and Jahrb., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 132, Fig. 7. ^ See p. 39, n. i. 3 See also Rayet and Collignon, Cer. gr., Plate l=Mou. d. Vol. IX, Plates XXXIX and XL. ■t Herod., IX, 118; Thug., IV, 48, 3; C.yto, De Agric., 10, 5; Cic., De Div., II, 134; Petron., 97; Poll., X, 36. The well-known low bronze bed in the Etruscan museum of the Vatican (Museo etriisco gregoriano, I, Plate XV =Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 326 = Helbig, FiihreD, Vol. II, p. 360, No. 1333) presents a full-sized example of a bed-lacing of early date. One gets occasionally experiments in perspective whereby the bottoms of chairs appear (Arch. Zeil., 1869, Plate 17; ibid., 1885, Plate 15; Furtwangler-Reichhold, Plate 20; a coin of Macedonia, Head, A Guide to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins 0} the Ancients, Plate 65, 8). The unique bed of Procrustes (Reinach, Peintures de vases antiques, Millingen, Plate 9 = Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 327) also has slight indications of cross- ing strands and their attachment to the rails. An unpublished, small leaden bed, found with other toys in a child’s grave in Eretria, and now in the Louvre, and the small terra-cotta from Egypt (Plate Vila, but unfortunately not showing the top in the illustration), both have their interlacing indicated. See other examples mentioned farther on in this chapter. 5 Article Betten in Baumeister, p. 312. 62 MATERIALS USED 63 have been preferred on all pieces of furniture for reclining, as affording greater comfort/ Perhaps flexible fillings of material in large pieces, instead of in narrow interwoven strips, were sometimes used, but there is no evidence known to me for this. One passage in Herodotus (TX, 118) points to leather as a material which was Materials whkh interwoven in couch frames, since besieged people on the verge of starvation boil interwoven the thongs, as we may here translate rovot, of their beds for food. Horse’s hide was used for this purpose, if Dr. Wilhelm’s surmise in regard to k( 1 ]\oj iirireLco Suo, occurring in the lists of the property of the Hermocopidae, is correct.^ The word lora, somewhat uncommon, however, in application to beds, seems to have been used only of leather. In the inventory given by Cato^ of furnishings necessary to run a farm of 240 iitgera, the items lediis in ciihiculo /, lecti laris suhtenti HH, lecti III occur. Beds stretched with lora are to be distinguished from other beds, and in the absence of decisive evidence for anything else than an interlaced filling, the difference would seem to have been in the material stretched; the other beds might well have been corded. SrrdpTaL, from its derivation,'^ would probably have been applied only to vegetable materials. The opinion of Suidas in regard to other Greek terms is not to be ignored. He defines KeipLa as eI8o? {&J079 eX o-^ot- vLO)v, TTapeoLKoq Ip-dpTL p SeerpovexL ra? /eXtVa?, and of its diminutive says, Keipiov 8e TO a"xoLVLOv. Under toco? he gives t 6 vo<; kol tov Kpa^/^drov rd (X')(OLVLa. Pollux cjuotes (X, 64), apropos of athletics, a fragment of Tlschylus, Xtea 8e, TTLcrcra K^poXivov paKpol t6vol\ hence Tovoq was a comprehensive term which included cords of flax, or of whatever species of reeds or rushes is denoted by crxoivia, as well as the leather strips apparently meant in the passage from Herodotus. With all this literary evidence it is safe to conclude that in Greek and Roman beds, as in Egyptian, both cordage of various vegetable substances and interwoven strips of leather were employed. Turning to the monuments, one finds few representations of the tops of beds realistic or clear enough to be decisive ' This was certainly the rule in E^ypt. .Although some extant stools have wooden bottoms, none of the couches have. ^ See p. Ill, n. 20. 3 For reference, sec p. 62, n. 4. In Seiler-Capeli.e, Vollslaiidigcs Worierbitch iiher die Gcdichle des Honieros mid dcr II omeriden and Ebeling, Lexicon Jlomeriatm, both following CuKTius, Grundziige der griechischrn Elymologie p. 288, the word aw&pTov is said to be related to enrdpa and to be derived from airdpoi^ “to twist, coil.” 'File term would naturally have been a])plied to vegetable fibers which needed to be twisted together to produce strands for interweaving, whereas it is inappropriate to leather which was not twisted, but cut in strips of suitable width. Ebeling and the authorities whom he (juotes all understand the Homeric term as denoting plant materials. For its application in later times to ropes made from hemp and other ])lants, and its transference finallv to a ])lant introduced from Spain and to cordage made from the latter, we have the authority of Varro and Pliny. See passages (pioted in HlUiMNEK, Tcchnologie, V'ol. I, ]>. 294, n. 4. 64 INTERLACED FILLING OF COUCH FRAMES Methods oj Plaiting and Attachment on this j^oint. One interesting confirmation, however, of the use of leather plaiting on lieds is furnislied by tlie marble fragment from Pergamon of a fulbsizeil repro- duction of a bed, shown from the top in Plate V. There can be no doubt, on close view, that leather bands arc intended. Any vegetable material of the nature of modern cane would have a slightly convex surface; ropes arc certainly not repre- sented. T.eathcr is tlicrefore the most probable material, and the stri])s look like leather; the varying width, the sliglit curling of the edges, and the thickness are extremely well rendered. An analogy to this interlacing may be mentioned in the chair-back of the higli-rclicf Zeus figure of jioros in the Acropolis museum. It, too, has a framework richly ornamented with rosettes and other motives, and the leather strips, which are narrower, are in three colors, woven closely without interstices in a checked pattern.' On the monuments interlacings almost invariably appear to be diagonal.^ In some cases, no doubt, the strands actually ran diagonally, as in the Pergamon couch and in the back of the chair of the Zeus relief. In others, however, they may have been merely so woven as to produce diagonal patterns, while in reality lying parallel with the rails, as in numerous preserved Egyptian bits of rope or rush ])laiting. The true diagonal interlacing was ]>erhaps due to a practical reason — the wish to use without visible splicing the varying lengths which would result in cutting u[) a hide.-’ The primitive method in attaching an interlacing to the frame of a chair or couch was for the separate strands to be slung about the rails and variously knotted on their inner faces. Eviflence of the use by the Greeks of this method, which was common in Egypt, is seen in the vertical lines on the rails of funiiture as portrayed in vase-paintings. The disappearance of these lines corresponds no doubt to the introduction of the practice of piercing the rails with holes to accommodate the strands of the interlacing.^ In the absence of actual remains of Greek or Roman date, an Egyptian couch'^ ' The chair stands in the museum ordinarily with the back to the wall, and would have escaped my notice but for the kindness of Dr. Schrader, second secretary of the German Institute, who called my attention to it. I am able, just as these pages are going to press, to add the reference Wiegand, Die archaische Poros-Architektur dcr Akropolis zu Athai, ]). 99, Fig. 99 and Plate VIII. In the vase-painting of a chair. Arch. Zeit., 1885, Plate 15, the strands perhaps run parallel with the sides of the frame. ^ There is no advantage in resisting strains in the diagonal method; on the contrary, strands parallel with the rails distribute the strain at any given place more completely over the entire inter- lacing. d'he corded bedsteads which in modern times preceded the present slats and springs or woven wire mattresses were, so far as I can learn, corded lengthwise and crosswise, not diagonally. 4 See the bed figured in J. II. S., Vol. II (1881), Plate 10. and further remarks on this theme in the Jahrh., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 132. 5 A few instances of dots on the rails of furniture as portrayed in vase-paintings may be intended for such holes. See the bed of Procrustes referred to on p. 62 in n. 4. ® In the Egyptian Department of the Royal Museums at Berlin: Verz. dcr dgypt. Altert.^, p. 196, No. 9592. See p. 97, n. 2. METHODS OF INTERLACING 65 which has some of its leather interlacing still preserved is of interest. Figs. 32 and 33 give a vertical section and a sketch from the inner face of a rail of this couch. The strands are fastened somewhat like machine stitching; that is, they are drawn up and down through the same hole, being caught below by another strap of leather which passes continuously along the lower edge of the rail, performing the same Fig. 32. — Section. Fig. 33. — Sketch of wooden rail of an Egyptian couch. Inner side . — Berlin office for all the holes of that rail. This makes possible a single, taut interlacing reaching to the very surface of the rail, since all the strands enter the interlacing from the same level. Possibly the filling of the Pergamon couch represents the same principle. The thickness of the rail, as shown in Plate VI, is so great as to make it improbable that the holes were pierced vertically. A proposed sectional restoration through one of the holes is given in Fig. 34. A neat feature of the Pergamon couch is the strip which hides the adjustment of the leather bands into their holes, and with its double curve forms a transition from the level of the frame to the slightly lower level of the interlacing. Petronius’s talc' of the boy Giton in hiding under a bed, clinging with hands and feet to its institae, suggests either an interlacing with extremely large inter- stices, or one in which on the under surface stranrls were carried from side to side without interweaving.^ Fig. 34. ' Petron., 97. ^ 'I'his arrangement would give three levels of strands, the ujijier interlaced surface and the two under s^ts of strands j)assing in directions at right angles to one another. In the anthropological collection housed in the Natural History Museum at Hamburg is a rude couch from cast Africa, No. C 799, which has such a filling. Lowest of all are the strands passing from side to side of the couch, in the middle are those running from end to end, and in the upper surface are the two sets woven in a diagonal pattern. CHAPTER IV FURNISHINGS— MATTRESSES, PILLOWS, VALANCES, AND DRAPERIES Four kinds of furnishings may be noted in antique representations of Greek and Roman couchesP These are mattresses, pillows, valances, and loose dra- peries, the last either covering the occupants of the bed or thrown over the bed itself, often in such a way as to perform the ofhee of a valance. Three factors chiefly would seem to have determined the nature of the bed-furnishings in a given case: the styles prevalent at the time, the sort of couch to be furnished, and the purpose for which it was to be used. All couches had for comfort a mattress or other covering over the interlacing and one or more pillows; those for sleeping were provided with various coverlets.^ The thickness of the mattress, however, the stuffs and patterns of the furnishings, and other details naturally varied at different periods.^ Draperies covering the couch and valances do not belong to the essential furnishings, and are accordingly often absent from the representations of couches. They were used either as lu.xurious accessories on very fine couches, or apparently to conceal rude or very plain structures, ^ or possibly in some cases to hide the under surface of the interlacing. On a few of the Dipylon vases with prothesis scenes a covering which was over the top of the couch under the corpse is represented (see Fig. i). It is of checked pattern in the few instances known. ^ The large Corinthian craters (see ^ In the Homeric period skins and woolen bed- clothes were in use at night. Buchholz thinks that Homeric beds had also mattresses and pillows, and perhaps linen coverlets in addition to those of wool. See Buchholz, Vol. II, Bart II, pp. 157-161. ^ The drapery of the occupants of banquet couches seems to be their himatia or other outer garments, to judge by the way the folds are drawn up over their shoulders, rather than especially provided coverings. In literature it is usually not clear just how the various draperies mentioned were disposed. ^ This is not, of course, to assert that there was absolute uniformity at any one time. So Professor Winter thinks in the case of a funerary couch on a white lecythus published by him under the title; Eine atiischc Lckytlios des Berliner Museums; see p. 6. s See also Rayet and Collignon, Cer. gr., p. 27, Fig. 19. MONUMENTAL EVIDENCE. SIXTH CENTURY 67 Figs. 35 and 2)' of the earlier half of the sixth century show both beds with incised, rectangular legs, and those with turned legs furnished with a thick mattress ; thrown over this is a covering which hides the bed-frame and in part the legs.^ These draperies often have running lengthwise broad stripes of solid red or of cross- hatchings, scale or other patterns, and fringe on their lower edges. Each person is provided with one pillow under his elbow, and the lower part of his figure is enveloped in his hima- tion.^ Perhaps as old as these Corinthian vases is a black-figured Attic cylix in Berlin'' on which occur thick mattresses with fringed draperies over themC On a Co- rinthian vase of slightly later date the bed portrayed (Fig. 4) also has a very thick mattress, and above it a thinner one. The thicker mattress is on top in a Chalcidian vase-painting'' (Fig. 5), dating from about the mid- dle of the sixth century. In the Etruscan wall decoration of Eig. 8, from the latter half of the century, there is again a single thick mattress.^ All these have close-fitting, often patterned cases on the mattresses, instead of the fringed coverings prevalent earlier. The Etruscan example cited has also over the mattress a wide-bordered cloth; this may have served the purpose of holding the thick mattress in place. Fig. 35. — Achilles attended in illness by Thetis. Detail from a Corin- thian vase-painting. — Louvre. ' See also Vases ant. dti Louvre, Series I, Plate 45, E 623; Plate 46, E 629 and E 630; Plate 48, E 634 and E 635. “ There can be no doubt that there is a thick mattress underneath the drapery, for no other supposition will account for the great height of the reclining person from the floor. 3 The bed, also from a Corinthian vase, rej)re- sented in Fig. 3, is exceptional at this period in having no visible mattress, and in being furnished with what to all appearance is a valance fastened to the rail between the legs. 4 Furtwanglek, Beschreibung der Vasensamm- lung iin Antiquarium (Berlin), No. 17. s Other early exami)les of the fringed drajicry thrown over mattress and upper part of couch ap- j)ear on a black-figured oenochoe from the necrop- olis of Suessula, jiublished in the Kdm. Mill., Vol. II (1887), Plate XI-XII, 4, and the British Vluseum lebes, B 46, given in B. M. Vol. II, p. 62 under imitations of Corinthian ware, and by Dr. Karo in .J. H. S., Vol. XIX (1899), p. 144 as Ionic; also J. II . S., Vol. VII (1886), p. 197; Bulletin dc correspondance hellcnique, Vol. XVII (1893), p. 236, Fig. 4. ^ Cj. the approximately contemporary Chalcidian vase, Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. i]>. 93 ff. 5 Discussed at length, p. 97. .\Lso Rohekt, Antikc Sarkophag-Reliejs, \’ol. II, Plates \'in and Xl\b Cj. also the thick mat- tress shown here in Plate XXV’llI. 70 FURNISHINGS~.\fATTRESSES, PILLOWS, VALANCES, AND DRAPERIES From literary evidence' it is known that mattresses and pillows were usually covered with linen, that wool was also used for both these articles, and leather to some extent for pillows. INIattresses and pillows as figured in vase-paintings might well be covered with cither of the first two materials mentioned, but any- thing looking like leather is extremely rare; M. Girard has pointed out instances on Etruscan sarcophagi in couch form of the sixth century." Silk probably found some use for pillows. The patterns seen in the ancient representations were prob- ably, as a usual thing, woven in, but were sometimes embroidered. A great variety of materials was used for the stu fling of pillows and mat- tresses.-^ The commonest material used by the Greeks seems to have been refuse Fig. 38. — Funerary couch of marble in a tomb at Vathia on the island of Euboea. wool, torn off in carding or in fulling cloth. The transference of the name of this wool, Kve(f)ak\ov, to mattresses, and perhaps also to pillows, speaks for the frequency of its use. Both refuse wool and wool especially prejiared for the purpose were used Ijy the Romans for stuffing. The Greeks and Romans employed as a sub- stitute for wool the soft leaves of the gnaphalium or cud-weed ( ?). The state- ment that straw, rushes, hay, and kindred plant materials were used before the practice of stuffing with wool came in, and continued to be in use by poor people, rests entirely on the evidence of Latin authors,'* luff is as likely to have been true of Greece as of Italy. Feather pillows are mentioned as early as the fourth century. "Fo judge liy the frequent references to them in Latin authors, they became much more common in the Roman period. The down of certain northern birds also found favor among the Romans for pillows. Cotton seems never to have had for any purpose a general use. The only mention of it as a filling for mattresses and ' This is most fully and conveniently stated by Tcchnologie, I, p. 205; Marquardt-Mau, Das Mau, col. 373. Privatleben dcr Romer^, p. 724; Matj, cols. 372-3. ^ Girard, p. 1020. 4 Unless the avdi^X-n of Poll., X, 41, is an ^ The ancient sources are fully stated in Blumner instance. LITERARY EVIDENCE 71 pillows is in Strabo (XV, 693), who quotes Nearchus as saying that it was thus employed by the Macedonians; 7 .^., probably those accompanying Alexander into Asia. Linen and wool were the principal materials out of which stuffs were woven by the Greeks and Romans,' and accordingly found employment for the coverlets and draperies of beds. Cotton stuffs were probably not made at all in Greece or Italy. Silk was in use as early as the time of Aristotle, and probably was employed for bed-hangings, especially by the luxury-lovers among the Romans. Skins^ and rush mats^ were also used on beds. Pollux (X, 38 ff.) enumerates a vast number of bed-draperies, and distinguishes those which had a nap on two sides or on one only. In the absence of more explicit statements, the epithets which he applies to the various draperies are suggestive — such, for instance, as “fine,” “of fine thread,” “pliable;” other expressions imply that they were brightly colored, purple, scarlet, and gold being often mentioned. The patterns of these draperies as of mattress and pillow covers were sometimes woven, sometimes embroidered, often in elaborate designs. Apparently stuffs of all degrees, from thin, washable^ linen to heavy tapestries (see Plates IV and VI), were used on beds. Some special makes of bed-furnishings are celebrated in literature. In the pre-Alexandrine period we hear of Milesian coverings.*' Writers quoted by Athenasus refer to cloth of Amorgus and to Sardian draperies,^ to the latter once as expensive and smooth-faced, and again as of purple color. In Latin authors there is mention of Leuconian blankets^ (from Gaul?) and of Assyrian purple.^ One kind of couch draperies imported from the East was known as “ Babylonica.”'° Pliny,” quoting Cornelius Nepos, relates that the once highly prized purple cloth came into disfavor for togas because it had been used so much for couch coverings. The “Attalic mattresses” of Propertius” were probably mattresses covered with tapestries of a sort which originated in Pergamon. ' Blumner, Technologie, Vol. I, Parts II-IV. ^ Plat., Prot., 315c?; Cic., Pro Mur., 36, 75. 3 See p. 68, n. 3. E. g., Catull., 64, 48 ff. 5 Hor., Sal., II, 4, 84. Aristoph., Ran., 542. 7 Athen., II, 48/), and VI, 255P. * Mart., XIV, 159. 9 Verg., Cir., 440. Plaut., Stick., 378. " iV. H., IX, 137. ” II, 13, 22; IV, 5, 24. C/. Plin., N. II., VIII, 196, where Altai icus vestis is said to be woven with gold and to have been invented by Attains. CHAPTER V STYLE In considering the stylistic f|iialities of Greek and Roman beds, attention may protitaldy be turned, on the one hand, to the main lines of the structures, and, on the other hand, to the ornamental details The interest of the inquiry, however, is not in couches as isolated ])roducts of ancient industrial art, but rather in them as related to other contemporary greater and minor productions. The pottery and coins of the Greeks are striking examples of the high level to which humble industrial ])roducts may rise in the midst of a people gifted with artistic feeling. Do Greek and Roman couches show any similar superiority which would give them a unique place in a history of furniture of all times ? Do they raise or lower our opinion of standards of taste among the Greeks and Romans ? These c|uestions have evoked the opinions offered in the following paragraj^hs. Here again an exhaustive study is out of the question, for lack both of space and of proper material, and I must conhne my remarks chiefly to three classes of beds — those most clearly defined to us in ancient reproductions and preserved specimens, viz., the sixth-century and fifth-century couches with rectangular legs having incisions, the Graeco-Roman beds with turned legs and curved head-rests and foot-rests, and the high-backed Roman couches. In couches of the sixth and of the earlier half of the fifth century straight lines predominate; upright supports and horizontal rails are the rule, and head-rests, when present," are usually built up on straight lines. This is a reflection of the same structural tendencies manifest in works of architecture, which, representing the post and lintel system, exhibit chiefly vertical and horizontal lines, and have at this time in the Doric style very massive columns. Heavy proj)ortions in the human figure also, as seen in works of sculpture, terra-cottas, etc., are character- istic of the period. These couches, then, considered as designs have a severity and massiveness to be expected at this time. Many of them, however, do not show the harmony of proportion which we have been taught to look for in Greek ])rod- ucts. The heavy legs have in reality very little to support; the rails are often narrow and seem uner[ual to the ])rospective weight implied by the supports. Many couches with rectangular legs have a further serious fault, viz., deep incisions which interrupt the outlines of the legs, and which, because they look weak,^ are ' The type of couch shown in Fig. 28 has a ^ C/. pp. 44-46. combination of curved and straight lines in its head- rest. 72 STRUCTURAL LINES. COUCHES WITH RECTANGULAR, INCISED LEGS 73 aesthetically objectionable. Professor Bliimner is the only writer on Greek furni- ture who seems to have appreciated this fact, or at least who has commented on it." Dr. Vollmoller, on the other hand, thinks that the incisions lighten the heavy appearance of the legs.^ If, in the use of ornament, there is any one law which is fundamental, it is that decorative designs must not break constructional lines. I have searched in vain in ancient art for anything similar in nonconformity to this principle to these couch legs. Assyrian furniture {e. g., Fig. 39)^ frequently shows two double volutes with a connecting-link like those on many of the couches in question; these are surface ornaments, however, inclosing, but not encroaching into, the mass of the members which they decorate. The incised legs of Greek couches ' In “Der altgriechische Mobelstil,” 3d article, Part 4, in Kunst mid Gewerbe, 1885, Parts 10--12, writing of chairs with the same type of legs, the author says: “Man muss gestehen, es iiberrascht, dass bei einem Sitzmobel, dessen schwere Formen sonst durchweg den Eindruck des Soliden hervor- rufen, gerade die Beine durch diese Einkerbung so geschwacht erscheinen; man erhalt den Eindruck, als wiirde der schmale Steg, welche die beiden Palmetten verbindet, die Last des auf dem Stuhle Sitzenden nicht aushalten konnen Sicherlich waren es nicht bios asthetische, sondern auch technische Griinde, wenn man weiterhin da wo der Rundstab frei ausgearbeitet ist, denselben in der Mitte durch knollenartige oder kugelformige Ansatze verstarkt hat.” ^ Athen. Mitt., Vol. XXVI (1901), p. 348: “Die plumpe Schwere des Tragers wird dadurch er- leichtert, dass der Handwerker am unteren Teil des Fusses zu beiden Seiten geschweifte Ausschnitte anbringt, deren Form dann durch ein Ornament, zwei aufrecht gestellte und in der Mitte verbundene Doppelvoluten, motivirt wird.” 3 Portion of an Assyrian throne found at Nineveh and now in the British Museum. This can be dated only on its rescmlrlance to relief sculpture; conseriuently there is a wide latitude, as the double volute ornaments and other features of this extant ])iece were very common on Assyrian furniture. Uj)on sculptured slabs in the British Museum I noted the following j)ieces of furniture of a style similar to the ])rcserved specimen: the throne of Azzurnazipal (884-860 B. C.) on relief 22 in the Nimroud Gallery; furniture and a chariot with body in chair form on three slabs of the time of Sargon II (722-705 B. C.), Nos. 2 t, 22, and 25 in the Assyrian Transept; the throne of Sennacherib (7o5-68r B. C.), Slab 28 in the Assyrian Saloon (A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities, Plate III); finally the chair of the queen in the well- known scene of Assurbanipal (668-626 B. C.) and his queen feasting in the royal garden, Slab 121 of the Assyrian Gallery {Monographien zur Welt- geschichte. No. XVIII, Bezold, Nineveh und Babylon, p. 121, Fig. 91). The use of the double-volute motive is a striking point of similarity between this series of typical Assyrian furniture and the class of Greek furni- ture under discussion; further, the gap of time between the latest known examples of the one group and the earliest of the other (see p. 20) is a short one, probably not more than fifty years. These facts, in my opinion, point to a probable origin of the Greek style somewhere in Asia Minor under Assyrian influence (c/. p. 54, n. 5). The volute capitals were certainly a Greek addition, for some chairs of early seated figures from Branchidie (sec p. 47, n. 2) and beds on Corinthian craters (Figs. 3 and 35) do not yet have them. Whether the pattern of the legs otherwise was a seventh-century Greek arrangement of Assyrian motives, or was found in its present form in Assyrian models unknown to us, is impossible to say. C/. in Koi.dewey, Die antiken Baurcste der Inscl Lesbos, p. 45, the suggestion that a volute ca])ital of the same design as that which is the regular crowning of chair and bed sujiports is an .Eolic invention. But cf. finally also the discovery of Corinthian letters on the ivory carvings mentioned, p. 46, end of n. 3, and Pro- fessor G. Korte’s theory that these carvings may have been importations to Gordion fronr Corinth. 74 STYLE and chairs arc as barbarous in their way as the columns of temples would be with outlines broken at a third of their height by great volutes carved out of their thick- ness. Whether or not the Greeks were originally responsible for this inartistic application of the volute forms shown in Fig. 39 (sec p. 73, n. 3), they at least gave From a photograph by \V. A. Mansell & Co. Fig. 3q. — P arts of an Assyrian scat and footstool . — British Museum. it the indorsement of use during several centuries. It is of interest, however, to see that in the later related design represented in the frontispiece the two unpleasing features have been eliminated. Plere the rail has a substantial width in keeping with that of the supports, and the ornament of the legs is in surface carvings, STRUCTURAL LINES. COUCHES WITH CURVED END-RESTS 75 leaving their outlines uninterrupted." The entire design is consistent and for massive effects satisfying.^ About the time that in vase-painting the so-called “Fine Style,” making greater use of curved lines, came into vogue, and in sculpture poses became less rigid and drapery less formal, the developed artistic spirit of the age was not unfelt in the craft of couch-making, for the best thing aesthetically which the Greeks did in the way of a design for a bed makes its first appearance somewhere near the middle of the fifth century (Fig. 44). The legs of the fifth-century examples are sub- stantial, but not too heavy ; the upper part alcove the frame is pleasingly contrasted with and emphasized by the curve of the two rests and their projection beyond the supporting lines of the bed. Early examples are too rare to trace developments, but it looks as if the legs of beds for a time grew more slender, keeping pace with the slender proportions in the columns of temples and in the human figure as por- trayed in art; then in the Roman period, apparently, they became shorter and somewhat squat; but this theme has been developed elsewhere,^ and I will not go into it here. The couch in the tomb at Vathia (Fig. 38) has fairly heavy propor- tions and legs which are distinguished by the introduction of a claw-foot at about a third of their height. There seem, indeed, to be two classes of these couches with curved rests — the first, purer and more restrained in style, with legs consisting entirely of turnings;'* and the second, in which other motives, floral or animal, are introduced as working members among the turned parts. ^ These couches, with excellent main lines, had a long history and continued in vogue past the x\ugustan period of Roman art. Then came the gradual straight- ening of the rests, bringing their lines into the upward direction of those of the legs, and thus producing a more monotonous structure. With the increase in the height of the end-boards and the introduction of the back the upper part of the couches became very prominent. The late Roman couches differ greatly among them- selves, so far as the relative proportions of the different parts are concerned. The little sofa of Plate XXIXu is one of the happiest efforts. The most frequent defect is a weakness of the legs, just the reverse of the defect seen on the first type with rectangular legs, for here the supported portion is too heavy for that below (c/. Fig. 40). iMarked characteristics are the unbroken upper line defining back and arms, and the invariableness of perpendicular legs. There are no instances among ' Cj. Plate I, where the rail is wide, but the ornament of the legs is in ]>art cut out. ^ The only disturbing item, in my estimation, is the height of the relief decoration on the rail. 3 Jahrb., Vol. XVII (1902), pp. 133 If. * 'Phis does not die out with the introduction of the second style. The e.xtant bronze couches, with one exception, belong to this class. s See Figs. 14, 30, 38, and 50; the “Caj)itoline bisellium” is also an exam])le (for references see ]). 32, n. 6); cj. also Plate XX, where the boy figures now on the corners of the frame probably belong on the legs of the couch. ?6 STYLE Roman couches of the end-rests lower than the l^ack/ or of the back having a higher middle part, thus breaking the horizontal line. Legs curving out at the floor level, such as are common on modern sofas, are unknown on Roman couches. It is surely not a flight of fancy to say that the Roman sofas are just the sort of thing one would exjject the Romans to produce — severcjuid lacking in fine and beautiful lines, but practical, technically skilful, and not without some merits of design ; for instance, the straightness of the legs is sounder sesthetically, Fig. 40. — Relief from a Roman gravestone . — Island of Paros. considering the weight to be borne, than the curve mentioned above as frequent in modern sofa-legs. It would be as impossible to think of the Romans making couches like the typical “Empire” sofa as to think of the Roman high-backed couch as an e.xprcssion of the age and land in which the Empire style originated. To turn our attention now to ornament, that of the couches with rectangular legs having incisions has considerable interest. The constant features are the double-volute incisions, more or less modified,'’ the palmettes placed above and ' Except the two settee-like couches spoken of on pp. 34, 35, one of which is pictured in IMate xxrx5. ^ These incisions appear variously on works of art, often in inexact or abbreviated forms. I am convinced that the normal form is an adaptation of the motive seen in the Assyrian bronze of Fig. 39; this seems also to be Dr. Vollmoller’s view, to judge by the description quoted p. 73, n. 2. A clear early example is on the legs of a chair of one of the seated figures from Branchidte (for references see p. 47, n. 2) in the British Museum; the details of these chair-legs are inaccurately given in publications; for instance, in Overbeck, Geschichte der grie- chischen Vol.I, p. loi, instead of the rounded projections and the line like the end of a tenon, there should be a link or band passing around the volutes; the only feature of the Assyrian motive ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH RECTANGULAR, INCISED LEGS 77 below the incisions, rosettes on the upper part of the legs, and volute capitals of distinctive forms. The rails occasionally have ornament, but this is variable and without special interest, and need not be considered here. The rosette is one of the commonest motives in ancient decorative art and is variously composed. The particular star-like form which is seen here is not espe- cially frequent. It appears most often filling in squares left in mseander patterns, as on sarcophagi from Clazomenae' and on the stuccoed sima of the temple S at Selinunte,^ and similarly on the frieze of a temple at Metapontum.^ It is of con- stant occurrence as a type on coins of Miletus. The other ornamental motives on these couch legs are closely associated with one another. Instances occur on black-figured vases where rectangular furniture legs not represented as incised nevertheless have the full design, palmettes and the conventionalized upright volutes, painted not plastically rendered on the chair from Branchidie is the middle line marking the boundary between the two double volutes; this line may have been painted. The entire design including developed palmettes appears plastically rendered on the legs of the very primitive Etruscan sarcophagus repre- senting a couch which is in the British Museum; see Murray, Terracotta Sarcophagi, Greek and Etruscan, in the British Museum, Plate IX, and a detail from the foot of the sarcophagus given above in Fig. 41. On red-figured vases, where the drawing is more to be trusted than on earlier ware, a link binding the stems of the two double volutes together in the middle, j)recisely as in the Assyrian example, is sometimes seen (e. g., Monuments Piot, Vol. I [1894], Plate VII). Other red-figured vase-]>aintings give the volutes in some detail (e. g., Baumeister, Vol. Ill, Fig. iji4=Elite cer., IV, 87). Again, a red- figured vase shows on a chair (above. Fig. 42) double volutes as nearly identical with the motive on the Assyrian bronze as is possible in the case of two objects of such different sizes. The marble repro- duction of a couch in the “Tomb of the Reliefs” at Cervetri (Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries oj Etruria^, Vol. 1 , p. 252) jiresents another example practically identical with the Assyrian ]>rototype. On the other hand, the majority of the black- figured and some of the red-figured vases do not show a link; they have in the miildle between the upper and lower volutes horizontal jirojections, drawn either in one continuous line with the stems or as circles tangent to the stems. 'I'he first form, on them. These show that the design perhaps the original one, is illustrated in Fig. 43, where the projections are the fields for tiny palmettes. The circles (Fig. 27), in my opinion, are conventional substitutes for the more organic form, projections accommodating minor ornaments. Since these circles occur in relief sculpture as well as in vase- paintings, they were perhaps frequent on furniture, and were not simply a convention confined to repre- sentations in art of couches and chairs. Occasion- ally the link appears also with the circles, as in the case of Amphitrite’s chair upon a cylix from the workshop of Euphronius (Furtwangler-Reich- HOLD, Plate 5). Finally, the double volutes may be seen on the legs of many chairs and beds related in design to the incised types; for instance, repeated frequently on the legs of three marble thrones in (Munich (Beschr. der Glypt., Nos. 327, 346, and 347 [here Fig. 47<; and c]). There is a similar marble throne in the Lansdowne Collection, which has its high back preserved (Michaklis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain, p. 441, No. 20). Cj. a tiny bronze chair in Cologne (tailpiece of chap. 4), and further remarks in regard to these late designs on p. 91, n. i. Monuments Piot, Vol. IV (1897), Plates VI and VJl; Murray, Terracotta Sarcophagi, Greek and Etruscan, in the British Museum, Plates I \'. =' 1’erkot and CiiiinEZ, Vol. VI 1, La Grixe dc I 'epopee. La Grixe archa'ique (le temple), ]). 587, Fig. 260. 3 Perkot and Chipiez, ibid., Plate IX. 78 STYLE was present in the artist’s mind as a whole;" for the volutes were represented even when perhaps not thought of as cut outd The upper half of the main design con- tains the same elements as those in the capital above, only that on the lower part of the legs the palmette is emphasized and the volutes are conventionalized, and on the ca])itals the volutes are large and the palmette small. A pattern taken from a Alelian vase-painting, and antedating therefore the earliest known instances of these couch legs (although perhaps not earlier than the origin of the type), affords an interesting analogy (tailpiece, chap. 5). The only fundamental dift'erence is that the volutes lie in a hori- zontal position and are linked together vertically. There are other variations in the size and position of the different parts, but substantially the same elements are present as in the design of the couch legs, and the whole is likewise a complete pattern of rectangular plan. After the intro- duction of the “orientalizing” style into Greek industrial art, vases, bronzes, and other productions teem with a great variety of combina- tions of scrolls and mettes, the scrolls assuming the form of volutes. These patterns tc later to become simpler. With the elimination stop-gaps, ornamental designs of the sort on klelian vases and on these couch legs are rarer. Instead, a much larger proportion of the patterns in Fig. 42. — Figure of Hera enthroned, use are in borders, either continuous, or consisting ™se-paintmg. of one or more small designs juxtaposed.^ It has already been pointed out*" that the volute capitals on beds and chairs are ' C/. the early Etruscan example given in Fig. 41. “ See on this point p. 45, n. i. 3 The influence of the border arrangement is felt in many terminal ornaments, as, for instance, in the case of some grave stelae (see P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of Hellas, p. 120, Fig. 42), where the sidewise direction of the unrolling stems of the volutes (which are cut off without finish by the ‘-mits of the slab) is to be rationally explained only on the ground that the pattern is a section from a continuous design running horizontally. Cf. also Olympia, Furtwangler, Vol. IV, Die Bronzen, Plate XLIII, Nos. 762-64, where, as also in the instance mentioned above, the design seems to be taken from the border of alternating palmettes and lotuses. Pechstein, Das ionische Capitell, p. 56. ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH RECTANGULAR, INCISED LEGS 79 From a photograjih Ijy Romualdo Moscioni. 8o STYLE not of the tyi)c known as Ionic. The two commonest forms on furniture are shown in Plate I and Fig. 43.' Both are in their prominent lines, exclusive of the abacus, the halves of two double volutes lying adjacent and connected or not connected by a link, whereas the main lines of the Ionic capital of architecture are of one double volute. In Plate I is shown the form which is the more frequent of the two just mentioned; here the volutes are to be thought of as continued vertically, being parts of a design similar to that on the lower part of the legs of the couches. In Fig. 43, on the con- trary, the volutes are to be continued in imagination horizontally and are really excerpts from border patterns similar in j)rinciple to those mentioned in n. 3 on p. 78; a link in the last case binds the two single volutes together. Both these forms seen on furniture occur also in a few instances as capitals of columns — the first in a capital from a building at ancient Ncandrcia,^ and again in one found on the island of Lesbos;^ the second in a capital from the Acropolis at Athens,** one which surmounted originally the columnar pedestal of a votive offering. There is a third form of volute capital which is unlike the normal Ionic styles. This is also known in architecture, all the architectural examples coming, so far as I am aware, from Cyprus. From the field of industrial art some small ivory reliefs'* showing the same capital, which were found at Nineveh and are supposed to be of Phoenician workmanship, may be mentioned. The distinctive feature of this third type is a triangle with side on the base line of the capital and point extending up into the design. The stems of the volutes disappear behind the point of the triangle, but usually in such directions that they could not possibly converge in the manner of the volutes of the capital from Neandreia and its analogues on furniture; I can see, therefore, no connection between these two types. ^ In many of the Phoenician + Ant. Denkm., I, Plate XVIII, 3. 5 Pkrrot and Chipiez, Vol. VII, Phenide, Cypre, p. ii6, Figs. 51-53; one of these, which are all in the Louvre, is repeated in the Am. Joitrn. Arch., Vol. II (1886), p. 15, Fig. 7. I have noted also in Vienna and Berlin examples which are not, so far as I am aware, published. These Professor Michaelis (Springer, Handbuch der Kiinstge- scliiclite, I, “Das AltertumV’ p. 69) thinks are distinctly Cypriote as distinguished from Phoenician, but the ivories found at Nineveh (see main text above, following sentence) are testimony that the motives appear in the form of capitals elsewhere than on the island of Cyprus. ^ Clarke, Am. Joiirn. Arch.,Yo\. II (1886), p. 10, Fig. 3- 7 Mr. Clarke’s words {op. cit., pp. ii, 12) are: “They are essentially the same as the early Greek ^ A few other forms occur sporadically. For example, in Fig. 4 the volutes are inverted; in other words, correspond to the lower half of two vertically lying double volutes. An instance on a chair pictured in an Attic vase-painting (Furtwangler- Reiciiholt), Plate 20) seems to approximate to the form of the Ionic capital. Again, the develop- ment of the palmette varies in different capitals; it is sometimes even omitted altogether. The beds from tombs at Eretria, on the island of Eubcca, and at Pydna in Macedonia (see p. 28 and Fig. 12) have the addition of tendrils curling into the upper corners from the lower part of the palmettes, and some late vases show similar tendrils. ^ Clarke, Am. Joitni. Arch., Vol. II (1886), pp. I ff. 3 Koldewey, Die antiken Baureste dcr Inset Lesbos, p. 45, Plate 16. ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH RECTANGULAR, INCISED LEGS capitals, further, the volutes seem to be formed really of a curved band, doubling back of the stem of the volutes and often reappearing above the triangle, thus being part of an interlaced pattern, which, if imagined continued below the base line of the capital as above it, would be continuous and unbroken. On the other hand, the two types on furniture, as has been stated, may be reduced to somewhat simpler ground forms, the halves of two double volutes juxtaposed vertically or laterally. Some of the Phrenician capitals have the ornament above the volutes, corresponding to the palmettes, much more elaborated than anything known on the two other types of capitals. The Phmnician capital, oddly enough, does not appear on Greek furniture at all ; apparently it did not find favor in Greece. ' It is remarkable how many of the Greek ornamental patterns antedating the introduction of the acanthus may be reduced to just the few elements present on these furniture legs; viz., (i) double volutes with their stems variously connected, (2) palmettes, and (3) links or bands fastening together certain parts of the design which do not run into one another. By varying the relative size and position of these details an infinite variety of patterns was obtained.^ Such designs as run dead into a base line are clearly, it seems to me, halves of complete patterns. The most important motive in use at the time of the development of these couches, and not represented on them, is the lotus. The earliest examples of the bed with curved rests (Figs, ii, 44, and 38) are without distinctive ornament. The extremities of the uprights of the rests run into volutes. The bed of the “ Aldobrandini Wedding” seems to have a head- rest with unornamented upright curling over above into a volute, which fact fits well into the theory that the painting is a copy of a Greek original, dating back perhaps as far as the time of Alexander.^ All representations of these couches of later origin than the fourth century, when they show the rests distinctly, have capital of Mount Chigri [ =Neandreia], from which they differ only in the imperfect spiral of the volute, and in the triangle masking the convergent lines at the base.” See n. i on this page. ' The various architectural capitals mentioned above seem to have been derived from the scroll motives with which artistic expression was perme- ated in the seventh century. They represent various experiments in the application to higher art of forms which were common property, already long in use in the field of industrial production. The fine artistic instincts of the Greek architects led them to develop the style of capital of which the double volute lying horizontally is the l>asal motive, rather than any one of the other types of caj)ita!s; for these last require the eye to complete the design, or at least leave a feeling of dissatisfaction at the abrupt cutting off of the stems of the volutes before they arrive anywhere. The style of the beds with incised legs, on the other hand, does not represent the best results of which Greek artistic selection was ca])al)le. Nevertheless, even on furniture the Phoenician type of capital was avoided by the Greeks. ^ See the piece of bronze applique (tail{)iece of chap. 2) in the Antiquarium of the Royal IMuseums at Berlin, and various examjdes given Olympia, Furtwangler, Vol. IV, Die lironzcn, I’lates MI, No. 84, XLII, XLIII, and L. 3 Robert, in Hermes, Vol. XXXV' (igoo), p. 661. 82 STYLE an animal’s head at the upper corner and a medallion ornament at the lower (c/. Figs. 14 and 50). The number of such monuments is small/ but we are neverthe- less better off for the study of this type of couch than of any other of classical anticjuity, by reason of the two extensive series of extant specimens; the more import- ant scries is of bronze, the second is of beds veneered with bone and illustrates provincial work. The earliest extant bronze upright, the one from southern Russia, ends both above and below in a medallion with bust in relief, and it is not improb- able that a medallion, fitting as it does into the curves of a volute, was the first step in elaborating the original design. Perhaps the date of the introduction of the motive of an animal’s head looking sideways was between the date of the St. Peters- burg couch and the beginning of the second century, from which time there is a specimen from Priene, adorned with a horse’s head. Whatever the exact time of its introduction, it was an artistic improvement, for the rests are thus varied and their lines rendered more rhythmic. The sidewise direction of the curve of the rests is continued in the animal’s neck, and the desirable emphasis of the front of the couch is provided by the turning of the face to view. Part of a human figure was sometimes substituted for the animal’s head, as in the case of a Pompeian ' The numerous small terra-cotta couches are not clear enough to be decisive. ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH CURVED END-RESTS 83 couch,' but it is not as fortunate a choice and seems to have been exceptional. The human body does not accommodate itself as comfortably and with the same appearance of naturalness to the curve of the rests as the more usual animal’s head and neck. With the neck, however, a great liberty is taken in that it is made narrow below, to follow the curve of the rests. No horse’s or mule’s shoulders are as narrow as they are represented in these bronzes (see Plates XI, XII, and XVI) ; yet this part is often otherwise realistically rendered with collar and panther’s skin. The motive is a spirited one, and in the case of the horses’ and mules’ heads often enhanced by an open mouth.'* Aquatic birds are frequently represented,^ and are particularly adaptable to the purpose. They apparently occupied the inferior positions at the back of the couch. The upper corner ornaments of other rests, those probably on the front of the couches, are the heads of various animals — panthers^ and lions^ (Fig. 50), for instance — but with especial frequency the horses and mules. In literature we hear of asses’ heads, ^ but none exist among ancient bronzes, so far as I can learn.® ' Sommer, photograph No. 11,120 = Mau- Kelsey, Pompeii: Its Life and ArP, p. 367, Fig. 188. ^ Professor Furtwangler explains this frequent characteristic of horses in ancient art on the ground that they wore very uncomfortable bits (Furt- wangler-Reichhold, p. 99). 3 Swans on the Pompeian “bisellia” now in Naples (Herculanmn und Pofnpeii, Bronzen, 3d Series, Plate ?>g=Real niuseo borbonico, Vol. II, Plate XXXI, 3), and much more commonly ducks; cj. Plates X and XVu; cf. also the analogous motive on bone carvings representing the heads of mer- gansers or sawbills (Graeven, pp. 51, 52, and Phot. 31). 4 The reason for thinking this is that in the case of a number of bronze attachments consisting of both animals’ heads and birds’ heads, to be dis- tributed on one couch or on the couches of one triclinium, the animals’ heads are always the more elaborate and richly inlaid, and would seem there- fore to belong on the front of the couches. Cj. Mau, N achrichten von der kbniglichen Gesdhchajl der Wissenschajlen zu Gottingen, 1896, p. 78. 5 Brizio, p. 445, Fig. 8; p. 446, Fig. 9; and p. 450, Rig. 17. * Svoronos-Barth, Das Athener National- Museum, Plate IX, 3. 7 juv., XI, 96; Hyg., Fab, 274, is no doubt correctly emended to read capita asellorum. ® There seems to be some confusion on this point, which is not without interest, considering the ancient evidence for asses’ heads (n. 7). Dr. Graeven writes; “Bronzene jidcra mit Pferde- beziehungsweise Maultier-oder Eselbiisten sind nicht eben selten” (Graeven, p. 85); and Professor Anderson, describing some of the British Museum bronzes, which are among those published here (Plates VIII-XIV), says: “They all represent the head and shoulders of a mule or ass, turning side- ways and backwards, with ears put down and a vicious expression, which is rendered in a peculiarly natural manner” {Classical Review, Vol. Ill [1889], p. 322). It is not clear whether these writers mean that all the heads are alike, and they are uncertain whether mules or asses are intended, or that the bronzes differ, and some of them represent mules’ heads and others asses’ heads It seems probable that the mule and ass were distinguished in ancient art; the domestic ass has in general longer ears, a head shorter and thicker above the eyes for its length, and of greater size in proportion to the body, than the mule. In all of the bronzes in ([ucstion which I have examined the conformation of the heads appears to be that of mules. Cj. the asses ( ?) on a sarcophagus relief publisheil in the .Ircli. Zeil., 1864, I’late CLXXXVI, i, and the mules on a sixth-century Greek bronze relief (Schumacher, j). 47, No. 268, Plate VI, 1 ), on an Attic crater (Furtwangi.er-Reichuold, Plate 7), and here Fig. 44. 84 STYLE 44ie horses’ and mules’ heads are rendererl with considerable fidelity. They differ in artistic value, some l.)cing very poor, others good. It is hoped that the possibility afforded in the plates of comparing a large number of these bronzes will be welcome, even though in general the illustrations fail to do the bronzes justice. It is difficult to get favorable photographs of heads in such positions as these; the ears, for example, do not look as unnatural on the bronzes themselves as in some of the illustrations. In Plate XIV it is clear how successfully the horses’ and mules’ heads arc differentiated. In {a) and (c) of this plate, not only the patent distinction in the length of the ears, but the narrower, somewhat shorter, and more pointed formation of the mule’s head below the eyes, is evident. In (c) of the same plate the different shape of the muzzle of the mule is plain; it has a more rounded gradual curve, more droo])ing lower lip, and less sensitive nostrils than that of the horse (c/. d). The roached mane characteristic of mules is also well rendered. These mules are, however, somewhat idealized ; in most cases they give the impres- sion of being nobler animals than mules. None of them show such marked con- trast to the horse, as, for instance, the mules’ heads on the attachment of a vase handle in the Bibliotheque Nationale." The idealization is aided by the laying back of the ears; it would have been fatal to artistic effects to represent them erect! The “vicious expression” to which Professor Anderson calls attention (p. 83, n. 8) is marked in a large number of these heads; in Plate VIII, for instance, the mule at the right seems to be drawing down his upper lip — a token of irritation like the extreme laying back of the ears. Other heads, however, are amiable as {d) in Plate XIV, which is one of the best of the horses’ heads; in {a) of Plate XIV and {h) of Plate XI the expression is a distinctly startled one. Professor Anderson writes further of the British Museum bronzes: “The head is in almost every case decorated with a garland of vine leaves entwined with tendrils and bunches of grapes, while the shoulders are covered with a curious leather collar, the top of which is turned down just where it joins the shaggy skin of some wild animal, which is thrown over it. This collar seems to be almost unic|ue in its kind, and well deserves investigation, for it is evidently borrowed from actual life and is of a fixed type in all these bronzes.” Professor Anderson is in error in one point: the wreath is ivy, not grape. In Plate XIII it is very evident that ivy berries, not grapes, are reproduced.^ It is of interest that the ivy adornment does not occur on horses’ heads. One of the Pompeian “bisellia” (the low one) has mules’ ' Cat. des bronzes ant. de la Bibl. nat., p. 585, No. 1.455. ^ Cj. in Monuments Plot, Vol. IV (1897), Plate X, the case of ivy twined about the body of a bronze panther. Two branches tied on the breast terminate in clusters of berries in artistic portrayal identical with the berries on the bronze mules’ heads. Cj. also here the ivy on the head of the maenad in Plate XVI. ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH CURVED END-RESTS heads, which at present at least have no ivy branches; the same may be said of the “bisellium” in the British Museum (Plate VIII). But the absence of ivy in the case of mules is exceptional. In the illustrations given here, Plates XIII, XIVu c, XV/^, probably also d, and XVII, all represent heads of one type. The maeander on the collar, the shape of collar and tassel, and the two clusters of ivy berries on the forehead, one close to each eye, are similar in all these heads. That no two, much less all of them, are from the same mold, although they might well be from the same factory, is evident from differences in size, and other variations such as the angle at which the head is turned. Plate XlVb represents another type; the collar is of different form and has ivy ornamentation instead of a maeander; the ivy on the head is without berries and is differently arranged, with a curled stem hang- ing down the middle of the face. Unfortunately, I cannot throw any light on the peculiar collar to which Professor Anderson calls attention; so far as I am aware, it occurs only on these bronze attachments of beds. If one could get hold of any considerable number of other representations of mules, contemporary with the extant ornaments of fulcra, the collar might be found to be peculiar to mules. It probably was not worn by horses, or it would occur on some of the numerous re])- resentations of horses in late Greek or Roman art. "Phe skin fastened about the shoulders of mules in addition to the collar, and separately about many horses’ shoulders (see Plates XJb, XIIu, XlVrf, and XVI), was probably an article of fairly common use; it extended also over the back of the animal, thus adding to the rider’s comfort. This skin is present on the earliest of the bronze couch orna- ments representing a horse’s head and shoulders — the one found at Priene — which takes its use back to the beginning of the second century B. C.,' and it is an occasional equipment of the riding-horse of Roman date.^ It is a question whether there is any particular appropriateness in these heads, or whether they were chosen merely because their decorative effect was good. 1 shall be able to show presently that the other ornament on the early Roman beds has nothing about it which is exceptional for the period, or necessarily significant. If only the heads of horses and of aquatic birds were used in the terminal orna- ments, I should reject all theory of significance. Ducks’ heads are frequent in * A gold medallion from Tarsus of the time of the emjicror Commodus has on the reverse Alexander hunting a lion; in this the horse wears a skin. (Morgan, Xenophon on Horsemanship, p. 33, tailpiece = Kopp, Uber das Bildniss Alexanders dcs Grossen, p. 3.) However, it is impossible to say whether the skin was a contribution of the time of Commodus to the type, or a faithful rendering from earlier originals of a feature of the tra[)])ings of .'Mexander’s horse. None of the other so-called ecpiestrian portraits of Alexander show it. ^ On a relief in the Palazzo dei C^onservatori, Rome, from a monument of Marcus Aurelius (Helbig, Fiihrcr^, V(d. 1, ]>. 377, No. 550), and on another relief of 'I'rajanic date now upon the Arch of Constantine (.\nder.son, i)hotograph No. 2546). 86 STYLE metal-work, notakly as side attachments to the handles of vessels where they join the rim, and horses’ lieads have occasional use as handles of knives' or of lamps. Hut the choice of a mule for the most prominent position in the ornament requires some explanation; the wreath with which his head, unlike the horse’s head, is always adorned suggests that the mule had a peculiar significance. Both the ivy and the mule are associated with Dionysus; Dionysus and his attendants, the satyrs, are occasionally portrayed in ancient art riding mules^ (c/. Fig. 44). That the artists should intentionally introduce a reminder of the god of wine in the decoration of banquet couches is not improbable. The horses’ heads have no sucli significance, and it is accordingly not strange to find a preponderance of mules’ heads among these bronzes. The ducks’ heads are also meaningless, but they were needed in ecpial numbers to balance at the back the more elaborate decoration of the front. Dr. Graeven calls attention, apropos of an analogy in bone carvings, to the curved transition wrought in relief between the lower ends of the terminal orna- ments and the middle of the rests. ^ This is in all probability a leaf,^ one of the circlet from which the animal’s neck is conceived as emerging (c/. the terra-cotta of Fig. 45). It would be strange indeed if on such extensively decorated couches as these that which is perhaps the most marked peculiarity of Roman ornament, a combination into one motive of both ])lant and animal forms, were wholly lacking. Fig. 45. — Terra-cotta handle ( ? ). — Kestner Museum, Hanover. ' An instance is cited in the Cat. des bronzes ant. de la Bibl. nat., p. 477, No. 1151. U'^RiEURiCHS, Kleincre Kiuist und Industrie im Altertuin, p. 183, No. 723. Unpublished detached handles, of which many were probably fastened to lamps, e.xist in various museums. The same use has been suf^gested as possible for the terra-cotta from the Kestner Museum in Hanover, given in Fig. 45. See p. 84, n. 2, and p. 107, n. 5, of the work there cited. 3 Roscher, AuslahrUches Le.xikon der grie- chischen und rbmischen AlytJwIogie, Vol. I, col. 1095. 4 Graeven, p. 51. The passage is as follows: “Der bronzene Entenhals geht unten in einen Btigel aus, mit dem das Zierstiick gleichsam auf- geschoben ist auf die Holzunterlage. Bei alien Bronzezierraten, die den gleichen Zweek wie der Entenkopf gehabt haben, kehrt der Btigel wieder, doch bildet er nicht immer einen einfachen Bogen, oft ist er in der Mitte geknickt.” 5 It has the same general shape, broad and rounded, and with the edge curled over in the middle, as that which occurs frequently in silver work and in sculpture, and seems often arbitrarily combined to make blossoms. Cj. the four-petaled open blossoms on the pilaster from the tomb of the Haterii (Wickhoff-Strong, Roman Art, Plate VIII) and the leaves rising from the lower part of some silver vessels {Monuments Riot, Vol. V [1899], Plate IX, and Pernice and Winter, Der Hildes- heimer Silberjund, Plate VI). ORNAMENT. COUCHES WITH CURVED END-RESTS 87 This combination takes place in two ways: either there is an apparent organic union of the vegetable and the animal or human forms, or, as here, the protome of the latter issues from a leafy calyx. The first combination is perhaps the older;' at least, the bronze rest from Priene affords the earliest instance known to me of the second, which in the years immediately following Christ’s birth runs rampant. The facts that the bed with curved rests may be traced back into the fifth century B. C., and that the two prominent motives of Roman ornament mentioned may be seen on pre-Roman monuments, are significant indications that the roots of Roman art lie in an earlier period. The entire ornament of the one ancient upright of the head-rest on the couch in St. Petersburg is cast in one piece and is in relief. This style of couch in its final development, however, had plastic adornment at the two extremities of the uprights of the rests, but an inlaid pattern on the curved part between. The corners of the couch frame were ornamented with strips of bronze inlaid with various patterns, and this decoration was even extended in some cases to the legs. The ornaments forming the upper corner termini of the rests have been fully discussed in the preceding pages. At the lower corners were always medallions, usually a bust with considerable projection, but sometimes a head or other design in low relief (see Plates X and XI). Heads of satyrs, of niccnads, and of Eros are favorite motives, and have numerous |)arallels in the art of sculpture ; these from beds often show considerable artistic merit (see Fig. 49 and Plate IX). Animals’ heads occur in this position also, but less frecpiently than the human heads; a pleasing example is afforded by one of the Anticythera bronzes, the head of a dog of shaggy type, with one ear pricked up and the other lopping down.^ The satyrs’ and maenads’ heads occurrmg in connection with the heads of mules strengthen the theory of a reference to Dionysus. But taken alone one would not attach any special significance to them, for they belong to the popular motives of an age fond of episodes of love and revelry, and of light and playful themes. The inlaid work on these uprights is usually of fforal patterns, such as two branches of myrtle start- ing from the corners and having their tips crossed in the center (illustrated on the “biselHum” in the British Museum, Plate IX). ^ But the “Capitolinc biscllium” ' For instance, a caryatid, whose drapery runs out in foliage, and whose legs merge into scroll-work, occurs on a number of architectural capitals. Examples are: a very much shattered capital in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin, which, so far as I know, is unj)ublished; another from Miletus in the Louvre (Giraudon, photographs Nos. 1085 and 2035); a third from Salamis (Cyprus) now in the British Mu.seum (A. II. S.mitii, A Catalogue oj Sculpture in the Department oj Greek and Roman Antiquities, Vol. II, j). 264, No. 1510, and Plate XX\'II). Mr. Smith cites examj)les of this motive dating back to the beginning of the fourth century B C^. ^ SvoRONOS-B.'Umi, Das Athener National- Museum, Plate IX, I. .\l.so very poorly given in Ai(prjfj.epd ' Apxai-o'KoyiKri, 1902, col. 164, Fig. 13. 3 On a silver ve.ssel (M onuments Riot, Vol. \’ [1899], Plate 1 ) having in its center a medallion personifying the city of Alexandria, there is a border 88 STYLE ^7 w » i\i/i)iri\ shows a more amljitious design — a vintage scene. The legs when inlaid have wreaths of myrtle or other ]jlants around the most prominent part of some of the turnings, and similar l)ranehes on the lowest member,' that which covers the ends of the braces at the lloor-level. Fig. 46 gives a selection of designs from the rails of couches. These designs are made up of small elements repeated many times in a single stretch of ornament. Unique, so far as I am aware, but entirely in the spirit of Roman art, is the pattern shown in Plate XIX. This is also from a rail, but is more akin to the floral decoration of the middle section of some of the uprights than to the designs of Fig. 46. It has an approximate, but not rigid, sym- metry; as can be discovered on close inspection, no two of the nearly equal-sized divisions marked off above and below the intertwined stems by the larger grape leaves are exactly alike. The material at our dis])osal is not ade- quate to a study of the ornament of late Roman couches. But I cannot close this chapter with- out returning for a moment to the cpiestions raised in the introductory paragraph. I have not attempted in this discussion of style any comparison with the furniture of other countries and periods. Nevertheless, I think it may be safely said that the couches which have been considered do not exhibit striking merits, warranting us to claim for them an e.xalted position in a history of furniture, ddiey do not show that marked superiority which is undeniable in ll pWpiMpB pI A m *1^ p fi ❖ pU jj^lo n Fig. 46. — Piittcrns from the rails of couches. lightly incised immediately below the rim; this border consists of four branches arranged in twos, with stems tied together by ribbons and with tips meeting. 'I'he general arrangement of the branches and one of the two highly conventionalized plants represented are closely like the corresponding features of the motive in riuestion on the couches. It is interesting to see the motive, with this difference that the branches are naturalistically treated instead of being conventionalized, on another of the silver vessels from Boscoreale (T’late XVII of the work cited at the beginning of this note). Here two olive branches form the decoration of a cup; the branches start in the middle of one side, and their tips meet, barely touching, in the middle of the other side. The conventionalized wreath has a pre-Roman history; it is common, for instance, about the rims of late red-figured vases. Perhajfs the naturalistic treatment of such wreaths is distinctly Roman. Cj. Wickhoff-Strong, Roman Art, pp. 34 and 56. ' On the bed from Boscoreale olive branches adorn the lowest members of the legs {Jahrb., Vol. XV [1900], Anz., p. 179). ORNAMENT. LATE ROMAN COUCHES 89 contemporary vases, at least in those of the best Greek period. Vases of the sixth and fifth centuries are marvelous in their beautiful lines and effective contrasts of dark and light. But at the very period during which these vases were produced the couches with the disagreeably incised legs were in vogue. The study of Greek couches then teaches that Greek artistic taste in the industrial field was far from infallible. Nevertheless, it does not seriously chal- lenge our traditional faith in the presence in the Greek people of a deeply rooted, all-pervading artistic sense. If we have found some features of design far from commendable, we have yet been impressed by the extent, in the Greek period, of the influence upon furniture of other arts. In the decoration of the earlier beds — those with rectangular, incised legs — the relations are more particularly to other industrial products; all these — tripods, household utensils, in short, the common articles of every-day use — abound in more or less beautiful artistic motives. Begin- ning in the fourth century, the application also of the higher art of sculpture in couch designs is noticeable. The reliefs ornamenting the upper ends of the supports of the couch represented in the frontispiece (see also Plate III), for instance, might have been inspired by the frieze in the temple of Phigaleia, so closely do they resemble in style the figures of that series of sculptured slabs. It has been pointed out that medallions such as the satyrs’ heads of Plate IX and Fig. 49 are probably derived from greater works of sculpture.' The survival long into the Roman period of couches having sculptured orna- ment is probably due to the interest fashionable among the Romans in Greek pro- ducts. Probably the manufacture of couches remained for a long time in the hands of Greek artisans. The ornamental details of late Roman couches are less well known to us. But this much is clear: late couches were plainer in design than earlier ones, although probably often no less rich in materials (see p. 55). They represent the utilitarian and practical spirit of the Romans, and have accordingly in design more in common with present-day furniture. The critic who approves of severity and simplicity in articles for common use will admire perchance the Roman couch with the con- ventionalized dolphins on the rests {e. g., Fig. 31), rather than the late Greek type which has more flowing lines and many decorative details, each detail in itself being often a charming work of art. ' Cj. pp. 87 and 99. ^ Cf. p. 61, n. 4. SUPPLEMENTARY MATTER Frontispiece Plate I Plate II Plate III and Frontispiece SECTION I DISCUSSION OF PLATES Epontispiece. — See under Plate III. Plate I." — Etruscan terra-cotta cinerary urn, representing a couch. In the British Museum in Case 74 of the Etruscan Saloon. Eouncl in Cervetri. Entire length, 59 i cm.; height to the highest point of the cover, 34 cm. B. M. Ter- racottas, B 629. Described or referred to here on pp. 16 (n. 3), 26, 45, 47, 75 (n. i), and 80. The cover is in the form of a recumbent person with head and feet exposed; long curls hang down over the drapery, which envelops the rest of the figure. The supports have three parts — the capitals, the legs proper, and bases of curved prohle which probably represent the ends of liraccs running through to the other side of the couch. The tenons show prominently (f/. pp. 42, 43). There is a similar urn pictured by Heuzey in RecJierches sur tes tits antiques, p. 18, probably one of those in the Louvre. Three specimens also found at ancient Caere and belonging to the Campana Collection are exhibited in the Louvre. Of these, two seem exactly alike; in the third the reclining figure is somewhat smaller. But the reliefs in the example published here and in the three just mentioned are alike and may well be from the same mold. These all date perhaps from the close of the sixth century. Plate II. — Working drawing for a bed with rectangular, incised legs. Based on the vase-painting reproduced in Fig. 27. See pp. 45, 46. Plate III and Frontispiece. — Terra-cotta in the Louvre." Found in a tomb at Tanagra. Eength, 28 cm.; height to level of seat, 12 cm.; to top of pillow, 17.2 cm.; width of pillars, 2.5 cm. Pictured and briefly described, Girard, Fig. 4385, p. 1017. Described or referred to here, pp. 28, 46, 47, 68, 74, 75, and 89. ' This, Plates VIII-XIV inclusive, (c) and (d) of Plate XV, {b) of Plate XXIX, and Fig. 49, are from photographs taken for me in the British Museum. The permission to use the material I owe to the kindness of the late keeper of classical antiquities. Dr. A. S. Murray. This permission the present keeper. Dr. Cecil Smith, has been so good as to confirm . ^ I have to thank Monsieur E. Pettier, assistant curator of the Louvre, for bringing this terra-cotta to my attention and for permitting me to publish it. 90 TERRA-COTTA FROM TAN AGRA. LOUVRE 91 The pillars are plank constructions and show in their ornament reminiscences of the incised type of leg.' The couch is alike at the two ends (a/j.(pifcepear above and below, but not as in (a) growing out of the central volutes. The two palmettes are present, but are likewise disconnected from one another and from the remainder of the design. In (c) there is the triple division of the leg hori- zontally as in (b), without, however, a reminder in the middle division of volute incisions. On the con- trary, double volutes without projections or hori- zontal links (see p. 76, n. 2, second paragraj)h) edge the ujiper and lower divisions. The scheme of ornament in (c) is really a combination of two derivatives of the rectangular, incised ty]>e. These derivatives are rej)resentcd (i) in (b), which (c) resembles in the triple horizontal division, and (2) in the tail])iece of chaj). 4, which (c) is like in the repetition of the double volutes. On the chair shown in the tailpiece mentioned the double volutes 92 DISCUSSION OF PLATES relief arc here purely ornamental, without subject significance/ They are remarkably beautiful for work on such a small scale and in such rude material; unfortunately the illus- trations fail to do them justice, either artistically or in bringing out details. The relief at the left end of the couch (Plate Ilia) represents a woman moving rapidly to the right. She wears an ungirded Doric chiton which has an overfold reaching below the waist. The chiton has become loosened on the right shoulder and has slipped down, exposing her right breast. She holds in each hand a corner of a mantle which falls from her head and forms a background for her figure. The head is seen in profile, looking down and back- ward. Her hair is waved over her forehead and is adorned with a fillet The other relief (Plate Ill/i) represents a youth moving to the left. He is nude except for a chlamys which is fastened by a round brooch under his chin and floats out behind. His form is lithe and energetic, although of stalwart jiroportions. His hair is effectively rendered as if blown back by the wind. These two reliefs were formed separately and then attached to the terra-cotta. The interest and charm of the terra-cotta are greatly increased by the remains of color upon it (frontispiece). Red has been the most enduring color. It filled in the volutes carved on the pillars. The background of the reliefs on the rail and of the figures sur- mounting the pillars was solidly red. Zigzags and rows of circles on the rail, maeanders ("not visible in the illustration), and stripes on pillows and seating were also red. Other bits of this vivid color may be seen on the tails of the dolphins and the lips of the masks adorning the rail. Considerable blue is still clear in the furnishings of the couch, meanders, dots set in rows, wave patterns, and stripes, all in blue, being included in the designs of these richly colored stuffs. There are traces of gilding visible on the hair of the mask to the right, and of white in various places on the terra-cotta; undoubtedly the little couch originally had much more gilding and more white color. The terra-cotta must be thought of as representing a structure with an interlacing, which may well have been fastened in the same manner as the interwoven leather strands reproduced in the marble fragment from Pergamon (Plate V and p. 65, Fig. 34); the inter- laced surface was thus at a slightly lower level than the to]> of the rails. A long and narrow tapestry, admirably rendered in the terra-cotta, fitted exactly in width and thickness the space inclosed by the side-rails and the interlacing, thus making the whole surface of the have not lost the original form seen in the Assyrian prototype (Fig. 39). Each of the two larger divi- sions of (c) contains further an adaptation of the traditional arrangement of palmettos. Finally in (d) the departure from the incised type is very great. All feeling for the cut-out, double volutes is lost. Toward the top is repre- sented a winged creature with single head and two bodies, which is unique as a motive on the legs of couches. Nevertheless the horizontal divisions con- necting {d) with the designs in {h) and (c), the S-shaped volutes establishing a relation to’(a) and (h), and the plank-like appearance of the legs prove that (d) also is a derivative from the rectangular, incised type. ^ Probably they are excerpts from some compo- sition, representing a definite scene, which was within the repertory of the designer of the terra- cotta. But scenes in which appear fleeing or pur- suing women and youths are too numerous to permit us to name the particular one to which we owe these reliefs. FRAGMENTS OF MARBLE COUCH FROM P ERG AM ON 93 couch even, as it appears in the frontispiece, and contributing to the comfort of the occu- pants. This covering was drawn up over the end-boards and fell half-way to the floor, with corners hanging still lower. The cushions were also covered with a richly colored, striped material, and were furnished with tassels at each corner. The couch is to be dated chiefly on grounds of style and belongs in all probability somewhere between the close of the fifth and the close of the fourth century B. C. I am inclined to place it in the third quarter of the fourth century B. C.' Plates IV- VI. — Two fragments of a marble couch. ^ Found in the Library piates iv-vi attached to the precinct of Athena Polias at Pergamon, and therefore probably dating from the reign of the builder of the Library, Eumenes II. (197-159 B. C.). Now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. One piece, represented in two views in Plates IV and V, is 55 cm. high and about 25X20 cm. on top; the other (Plate VI) is 26 cm. long, 15 cm. high, and 15 cm. wide. Briefly described in the small official Fiihrer (lurch das Pergamon-Musenm, p. 45. Mentioned here, pp. 16, 32, 64, 65, and 69. The interlacing of the one piece, the pillow of the other, and the valance appearing on both identify these blocks at once as parts of a couch. Many features of the original monu- ment are clear from what remains. It had the interwoven filling, cushion at one end and richly figured valance just referred to, an ornamented rail, and at least at one upper corner a ^ We have seen that the wide rails occur in the case both of chairs and couches on late red- figured ware (p. 49 and n. i); and we have found evidence for the existence in Attica, at least as early as the middle of the fifth century, of couches with the two ends alike, although they were apparently only coming in then and did not become common until later (pp. 26 and 28). The poses of the two figures in relief do not aid us. The striding attitude, with one leg bent at the knee and the other nearly straight, and often with the face turned away from the direction of movement, as in the case here of the girl, is very common in Greek relief sculpture from the archaic period down to the Neo-Attic school. (C/., for instance, the girl’s figure in the center of the front side of a sarcophagus in the Uffizi Gallery; Amelung, Fiihrer, j). 24, No. 27=Alinari, j)hotograph No. 1313.) I'hc i)roj)ortions of the figures in relief on the terra-cotta are perhajrs significant of a date before the introduction by Lysipjms of a new canon. It is jirincipally for this reason that I have suggested above a date between the years 350 and 325 H. C. Yet even here caution must be exercised, since the figures in question are on so small a scale, are of humble material and were made in a place removed from the center of the influence of Lysippus. Modifications of the design seen on rectangular, incised legs are found as early as the fifth century (p. 27) and are frequent in the fourth century (p. 28); the pattern of the legs of this terra-cotta, how- ever, has features in common with that of the legs of chairs assigned to the Roman period, and one would like therefore to place these as late as possible. Finally the find-spot, Tanagra, according to the views prevalent at present, is favorable to setting the date of this terra-cotta after 350 B. C. (See B. M. Terracottas, Introduction, jqi. XXXIX, XL.) ^ My obligation is great to Geheimrath Kekule von Stradonitz, director of the Department of Classi- cal Antiquities of the Royal Museums in Berlin, for calling my attention to these marble fragments aiul allowing me to j)ublish them. My thanks are due to him also for the photograjflis reproduced in (/>) of Plate VII, in {a) and [h) of Plate XVq in Plate XXVIII, and in the tailj)iece of chap. 2. 94 DISCUSSION OF PLA TES griffin support instead of an ordinary couch leg. If we look closer, it is evident that these are end-pieces, and that they cannot belong to the same end of the couch. In the side- view of the one (Plate IV) are folds indicating the drawing up of the valance to a corner, and in the top-view (Plate V) of the same block small portions of the frame show on two sides. The other fragment (Plate VI) is clearly from a corner, and the low cushion or pillow distinguishes it as belonging to the head of the couch. In the fragment from the foot of the couch, owing to the unfortunate breaking off of the corner, the nature of the support at the lower end is not apparent, but it may be assumed to have been like that at the head. The valance and ornamented rail would naturally have been on the front of the structure. The main points of doubt, then, are whether the couch was hnished all around or was designed to stand against a wall, and therefore left plain behind, and how the griffin sup- ports and the ends otherwise are to be restored. In case the couch was finished all around, the two long sides were no doubt alike, and there were griffin supports at all four corners. But if it stood against a wall, and it was accordingly appropriate in the design to emphasize the front as distinguished from the back, it is very possible that there were legs of one of the ordinary forms at the back {cf. the instance of less ornate legs at the back of the Vathia funerary couch. Fig. 38). There are, however, two other possibilities, in case the couch stood against a wall: one is that since the couch-form had merely a surface rendering upon a solid block of marble, and therefore supports at the back were not constructionally essential, these supports were omitted altogether; the second is that up to the wall on both ends the couch was hnished like one designed to stand out, visible on all four sides. The griffins faced outward. They may have been crouching or standing, their bodies being carved in relief along the ends of the bed; their tails would then probably have formed an S-shaped curve, with ends apparently helping to support the rail of the couch. But there is another plausible restoration; that is, after the manner of the supports of the marble tables (cartihula) seen in the alria of Pompeian houses {e. g., Fig. 48). In these, only the head, wings, and a portion of the body of the griffin are represented; below, the body passes into one huge leg with claw-foot.' Other more or less elaborate designs fill in the space between the two opposite supports. Our main interest, however, is not in this marble couch as such, but in it so far as it is a translation into stone of contemporary real couches. There can be no question that the ' It is unfortunate that the Pergamene fragments are indecisive on this point. One would like to know whether this kind of griffin support which was common in the Roman period in work in marble was in use in the Hellenistic age. Certainly there are similar combinations of very ancient origin. For instance, the archaic Etruscan sarcophagus of terra- cotta in the British Museum rests upon supports (see the detail of this sarcophagus given in Fig. 41), which consist each of the upper part of a sphinx or siren passing, without leaves or other forms to disguise the incongruity, into a heavy claw-foot. This hybrid is analogous to the older of the two combina- tions of plant and animal forms (see p. 87) in the one respect that the two parts in the two classes of motives appear to be organically united. The various Greek and Roman decorative motives in which mythological animals or other unreal com- binations of animal forms, as well as vegetable and animal forms together, appear, would repay extended study and analysis. FRAGMENTS OF MARBLE COUCH FROM PERGAMON 95 interlacing, valance, and ornate frame are not marble forms. For all of these, analogies can be found in representations of what were certainly ordinary beds or couches in use in interiors. But the griffin support in the representation of a bed is, so far as I know, unique.' This may be mere chance. On the other hand, it is possible that the griffin was introduced in this case by the designer because particularly appropriate to work in marble. Besides the Pompeian examples in marble mentioned in the preceding paragraph, animal supports are numer- ous in relief sculpture, in small bronzes, and in terra-cottas.^ It is perhaps possible to explain them as fanciful conceits, or as miniature copies of cult statues in bronze or marble, rather than as modeled on common household furniture. Certainly animal supports made out of wood or bronze would render an indoor article of common use heavy and unwieldy, whereas solidity in effect and in actual weight are desirable in marble. Further, the distribution of the apparently support- ing members is a matter of indifference (except to artistic feeling) where these members are carved or cast in relief and the real burden is borne by the solid background. It is difficult to conceive of some forms seen on the monuments as practical in the round even in bronze. In the case under consideration, the constructional difficulty of connecting the end-rail with the side-rail, which seems to lie at a slightly lower level (Plate VI), is in favor of the view that the griffin is an introduction into the design as adapted to work in marble. The rails seen in Plates IV-VI undoubtedly represent wooden construction, but it is not so clear whether the ornament on the front-rail and the griffin support were of wood or of bronze, if, contrary to the view set forth above, the griffin was a feature of an actual couch which served as a model to the worker in marble. There is a sharpness of relief in the palmette depicted on the rail ( Plate VI) which suggests that this palmette was an a{)plied Fig. 48. Pompeii. -Marble table in the atrium of the “ House of Meleager,” ’ Cj. p. II2, n. 27. ^ There is in the Archaeological Museum in Florence a terra-cotta cinerary urn in the form of a seated life-size figure; the supports of the chair of this figure are sphinxes facing to the front witli wings clasped about the sides of the chair. In numerous small terra-cottas, as well as in larger works in marble, rcfiresenting Cybele seated, lions occupy a similar position (see RKtNACii, Repertoire de la statuaire grecque cl romainc, Vol. I, pp. 182-85). Two bronze female figures in the British Museum stand on stools that have animal suiiports; these supports are in the one case, No. 493 in the Etruscan Saloon, lions; in the other, a fifth-century Greek bronze (Bulletin de correspondance hcllenique, \'ol. XXII [1898], Plate I), they are pegasi. fragment of a relief from Rhodes representing Serapis and Isis, which is also in the British Mu.seum, shows a chair with sphinx su])|)ort extending in relief on the side. These examples might be multiplied. 96 DISCUSSION OF PLATES ornament of metal rather than one carved in the wood of the rail. Moldings like the one forming at the top a transition from the rail to the interlacing (p. 65 and Plate V) serve a similar purpose for the decorative panels on the side of the rail, curving from the surface of the rail to the ground of the sunken panels. One of the most interesting features of these marbles is the representation of a valance. From the appearance of the folds, the valance is to be thought of as of fairly heavy stuff, and probably as woven rather than embroidered, possibly as the kind which at a later date was exported to Italy and used on mattresses (r/. p. 71 and n. 12). I have found no other valance e([ually elaborate in design, unless it is the one of different character on the little terra-cotta from Egypt })ictured in Plate Vila. In vase-paintings a plain border and polka-dots or rosettes scattered over the surface of the valance are common, and rows of animals, as in the headpiece of chap. 4, are occasional. Here the pattern is in horizontal registers containing a great variety of common and uncommon motives. Beginning at the top (Plate IV), the first register after the break in the stone contains two varieties of rosettes, alternating and placed in squares. Both these rosette forms are closely composed and have a small circle in the center. One is made up of four broad leaves with the rounded ends outward and tendrils between the leaves. The other is formed of four leaves pointed at the outer extremities and broad in the middle, with rays occupying the space between them. (C/. Plate VI, where one of the rosettes made up of ])etals with rounded ends is visible just below the rail.) The next register shows a somewhat narrower, running tendril design, of a kind known from the Mycenaean periocP down to Roman times. Then comes the widest field of the entire valance. The preserved portion of it is occupied by a tripod (tall, with claw-feet, and no doubt to be thought of as made of bronze) and a griffin. Both wings of the griffin show; his head is turned looking back, his left paw is raised, and his tail curves up over his back. There was doubtless a second griffin in a corresponding position on the other side of the tripod. The next design is unusual in Greek art, although a common one on Assyrian monuments (Perrot and Chipiez, Vol. II, Chaldee et Assyrie, Figs. 41, 42, 86, 102, 104-7, 1 1 2, 1 18, 359, and Plate XIV). Its position here should be noticed, for it is properly an upper terminal border. For instance, it is the regular upper finish of braziers of bronze of the Roman period.^ Almost the same motive is seen in Moorish art, the only difference being that the line connecting the steps in the Moorish type is no longer vertical, but is a diagonal turning inward. ^ The next register below is nearly as wide as that containing the griffin and tripod. In it parts of sea monsters may be made out — to the left, a sinuous, scaly body; to the right, the fore feet and head of some sea creature. Next comes a very graceful variety of the alternating palmette and lotus pattern; in this the component parts of the palmettes have the ends curved in. Below this is the familiar ‘ Cj. Riegl, Stdjragcn. Gnuidleguiigeii zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik, on “Die Entstchung der Ranke,” pp. 113 ff. ^ Examples in Lyons, France (Catalogue som- maire des ntusees de la ville de Lyon, j)p. 229, 230, Fig. 70) and in Naples (Mau-Kelsey, Pompeii: Its Life and Art^, p. 377, Fig. 207, and Real niuseo hor- bonico, Vol. II, Plates XLVI, 2, and LIV). ^ E. g., a parapet around the tops of buildings, such as the Mosque of Cordova, and the upper bor- der of the mosaic of tiling which occupies the wall- space below the plaster work in the Alhambra. TERRA-COTTA FROM EGYPT. BERLIN 97 astragal of Greek art, and then a design which is far from clear. Finally, there are traces of a fringe. Not only is this work remarkable as picturing an elaborate valance, but it is rare as an attempt to render in marble a figured stuff. The one other notable example, aside from the mattresses of marble sarcophagi in couch form, is the more beautiful sculptured piece of drapery from Lycosura in the National Museum at Athens. This last has the same horizontal divisions and indications of fringe and some similar decorative motives — as the sea monsters. It seems to me that the existence of such similar work in the Pergamon couch is favorable, so far as it goes, to dating the Lycosura marbles in the second century B. C.' Plate Vila. — Terra-cotta in the Egyptian Department of the Royal Museums Plate viia at Berlin.^ Verz. der dgypt. Altert.% p. 280, No. 13,696. Mentioned here, pp. 62 (n. 4) and 69. That a bed is represented is clear from the indications of an interlacing in paint upon its upper surface. The design of the valance has a broad central division and two narrow side divisions. In the center is a goddess^ standing in a boat and holding in each hand a lotus flower with long stem. The side divisions are occupied by grotesque figures of the god Bes. Although the patterns of the valance are distinctly Egyptian, this style of couch was unc|uestionably brought into Egypt through foreign influence. ^ The rude terra-cotta reproduces imperfectly the form of a bed which no doubt had rectangular legs at the front as at the back, and was of plank construction similar to that of Eig. 25. The valance may well have extended also along the sides. There is no means of fixing with certainty the date of this terra-cotta. The fifth- century analogy just noted (Eig. 25) is favorable to placing it also in the fifth century. Yet, except perhaps for the extremely high proportions, this simple form might well occur later. Eigures of Bes were especially popular in the Roman period, but as representations of this god arc known even from the New Empire of Egyptian history, their occurrence on the valance is no hindrance to a tentative dating of the terra-cotta in about the fifth century B. C. ' A recent utterance in regard to this much- disputed point is by Mr. A. M. Daniel (/. //. S., Vol. XXIV [1904], pp. 41 ff.), in favor of a date in the fourth century B. C. ^ I am indebted to Professor Adolf Erman, direc- tor of the Egyptian Department of the Berlin Museums, for permission to reproduce this terra- cotta as well as to use the following material; the terra-cotta of Plate XXIXa, the Egyptian couch whose rail is given in Eigs. 32 and 33, and the frag- ment of Egyf)tian faience pictured in Fig. 13. i Professor J. II. Breasted, of the University of Chicago, has kindly called my attention to the resemblance of this figure to the Syrian goddess Kcdesh (c/. Maspero, Struggle oj the Nations, p. 159), and to the fact that a purely Egyptian divinity would hardly be represented in full front view. Late Egyjitian couches, known in small terra- cottas similar to the one of Plate Vdlu, have lions’ legs; these, unlike the claw-feet of non-Egyptian furniture, which usually turn out, are placed as an animal’s legs are, all directed forward. Egyjitian couches are very low; further, they have footboards, but instead of headboards small rests to lit under the neck. 98 DISCUSSION OF PLATES Plate viih Plate VIT/l’ — T erra-cotta from southern Italy. In the Antiquarium of the Royal Museums at Berlin. Height, 12 cm. Cf. Kekule von Stradonitz, Die antiken Termkotten, Vol. Ill, Winter, Die Typen der figiidicJien Terra- kotten, p. 206, No. 9, where a replica is pictured and a third e.xample cited, both also in the Berlin Anticjuarium. Mentioned here, pp. 29 and 68. Plates viii-x Plates VIII-X.^ — Parts of a couch restored as a seat. In the British Museum. Height of present structure, 48 cm.; width, 30 cm. Uprights of fulcra, from tops of mules’ heads to outer edges of medallions, 28 cm. ; diameter of medal- lions, 5.7 cm. B. M. Bronzes, p. 330, No. 2561.^ Mentioned here, pp. 32, 50, 83 (ns. 3, 8), 84, 85, 87, and 89. United in this scat are parts of a couch of the type with curved rests. By lengthen- ing the rails, placing the uprights of the fulcra in their proper position above the rails, those with mules’ heads in front, and those with ducks’ heads (Plate X) at the back, restoring the wooden parts which once connected the uprights, removing the unwarranted braces from leg to leg, and using their bronze casings for the back corners of the rails, and supplying finally at the ends the floor-level braces of wood which are implied"^ by the form of the lowest members of the legs, the ancient couch in approximately its origi- nal appearance, exclusive of interlacing and fur- nishings, would be recovered. The winged heads of the medallions (Plate X) in low relief which were on the back of the couch are similar to (or identical with ?) heads on the so-called “biscllia” in Naples. ^ The medal- lions of the front of the couch (see Plate IX and a slightly different view in Fig. 49) are especially worthy of attention. They represent youthful, laughing satyrs. Little horns growing from the foreheads, pointed ears, and small protu- berances on the neck mark them as satyrs. The fawn-skins over their left shoulders and ' See p. 93, n. 2. ^ See p. 90, n. i. 3 By some oversight the erroneous statement has crept in that the mules’ heads of the fulcra are adorned with vine-wreaths. Otherwise the turned legs would certainly end in slender members. This guide has been correctly followed in supplying the floor-level braces of the couch from Boscoreale, now in Berlin {JaJirb., Vol. XV [1900], Anz., p. 178, Fig. i). On many bronze legs of couches, as on those of Plates VIII and XVIII, in the process of restoration, the openings intended to receive the ends cf the wooden braces have been closed with metal. 5 Real mitseo borhouico, Vol. II, Plate XXXI, 3. According to Amelung, Rom. Mitt., Vol. XVII (1902), p. 270, n. I, one at least of these “bisellia” has now been reconstructed as a bed. BRONZES IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM 99 ivy crowning their heads are also appropriate to satyrs. The firm flesh of the cheeks, heaxy brows, modulations of the forehead, broad nose, curve of the lips, and above all the rollick- ing, irresponsible expression are well rendered in these bronzes. These heads are interest- ing as compared with similar types known in sculpture, such as the superb bronze head in Munich {BescJir. der Glypt., p. 369, No. 450) and the marble one in the Louvre, reproduced in Reinach, Recueil de tetes antiques ideates ou ideal isees, Plate 261. The bronze and marble heads mentioned are Hellenistic work,' but these bronzes resembling them are not necessarily of contemporary date. Indeed, if the same rule holds good in small bronzes that has been recognizecP in the case of marble sculpture, the form of the satyrs’ busts of Plate IX, showing as they do so much of the arms and breast, indicates that they were made in the reign of Trajan or of Hadrian.^ Plates XI and XII. — Bronze uprights of the fulcra of couches. In the British Plates xi and xii Museum. The inlaid patterns formerly filling the frame (c/. Plate VIII) are now lost. B. M. Bronzes, p. 331, XMs. 2563-67. Mentioned here, pp. 32, 83, 84, 85, and 87. Plate XIa and b (= Nos. 2567, 2566) are alike in size, 42.5 cm. from the top of the head to the outer edge of the medallion, and are probably from the front and back of the same couch. No. 2566 is said in the catalogue (B. M. Bronzes) to have on a bridle; there is cer- tainly none now present on the bronze, .'\bout the horse’s neck is a panther’s skin, as frequently in these bronzes, not a collar terminating in a dog’s head, as suggested in the catalogue. The disk, similar to that of {a), which once ornamented the medallion of (6), has been lost. Plate Xlla ( = No. 2565). Diagonal dimension taken as above, 28 cm. Feminine bust, at the lower end of the upright, distinguished as Artemis by the quiver visible above the right shoulder. ' Professor Furtwangler assigns the Munich bronze to the Alexandrian period, and M. Reinach thinks that the marble in the Louvre may be an original of Pergamene or Rhodian workmanship. ^ By P. Bienkowski. See Revue archeologique, Series 3, Vol. XXVII (1895), pp. 214 and 293 - 97 - 3 I have not been able, with the material at my command, to work out the chronology of the various bronze attachments of couches. One other point besides the different forms of the busts should be mentioned which may be indicative of differences of date. This is the varying shape of the frame of the uf)rights at the outer, lower corners, oj)posite the medallions. There are two distinct forms notice- able. In one, represented in Plates VIIl-X and in Plate XXI, the molding runs out in an acute angle and then turns back on itself, forming an inner acute angle. In the other form the corner is not so attenuated, and the upright strip of molding ter- minates upon the lower strip in a tiny volute (Plates XI, XII) or simply passes into the lower strip with a preceding slight inward curve (Plate XVI). But that these corner forms are to be considered chrono- logical peculiarities is not the only explanation which may be offered. It is equally possible that this detail is the same in bronzes issuing from one fac- tory, and that the forms mentioned were in use simultaneously in different cities or workshops. In either case the matter is of interest. There is a chance, it seems to me, by using these bronzes which exist in such abundance as a starting-point, to arrive at some interesting conclusions in regard to the chronology and common place of production of many objects of Roman industrial art. See p. 90, n. i. lOO DISCUSSION OF PLATES Plate XII ( = No. 2564). Diagonal dimension, 34 cm. The medallion contains an unattractive head of Eros with childish chubby cheeks and open mouth; the front hair is gathered into a topknot, and there are small wings with recurved tips. Around the neck is a heavy garland similar to that seen on the medallion of bone in Plate XXII. Plate XIIc ( =^No. 2563). Diagonal measurement, 27 cm. Cast, as the two jrreceding, all in one piece, including the medallion. The holes for attachment to the wooden parts of the jiilcnuH arc 5 mm. in diameter; the bronze nails are still clinging in some of them. A head of Eros adorns the lower end; in this case the god is apparently represented as a half-grown lad. Plates xiii, XIV, Plates XIll, XIV, AND ((/) OF Plate XV."-— Upper corner ornaments of fulcra a^d^ {d) oj Plate which. Contrary to the technical method pursued in the case of the uprights of jiilcra represented in the preceding plates, were cast separately, and have thus become detached. Now in the British Museum. In B. M. Bronzes, p. 330, Nos. 2562 j_ 5, six mules’ heads are briefly described. I am unable to correlate the statements with the individual bronzes represented here, except that No. 25623 = Plate XlV/n Alentioned here, pp. 33, 50, 84, and 85. In these heads the eyes were in whole or in part inserted of another material, and the inserted portions have in many cases dropped out. The collars were more or less richly inlaid with silver. Plate xva and b Plate XVu AND hU — Upper coHier omaments of fulcra. In the Antiquarium of the Royal Aluseums at Berlin. The duck’s head, (u), bears the miscellaneous inventory number 3771 and is from Pompeii. The mule’s head, (b), is pub- lished by Professor Pernice in the JaJirh., Vol. XIX (1904), Anz., p. 30, Fig. 36. I have rejjeated it here, since the photograph reproduced in Plate XVb gives a slightly different view of the head, and since the representation of a ring in the mouth for the attachment of a leading-rein is unique among these bronzes. Professor Pernice calls attention to the particularly careful work- manship on this head. The ivy adorning it, as in many previous cases, is wrought out in high relief, parts being completely detached from the ground. "Phe eyes were of silver inserted, with the pupils inlaid in another material. The pattern of the collar was also once inlaid with silver. Mentioned here, PP- 33. 83 (n- 3 )> and 85. Plate xvc Plate XVc." — One of two busts of boys. Probably a lower corner ornament of the fulcrum of a couch. In the British Museum. Height, 10.2 cm. B. M. Bronzes, p. 273, No. 1717. Hair very thick and wavy; that of the upper part ' See p. 90, n. r. “ See p. 93, n. 2. BRONZES IN VIENNA, PARIS, AND LYONS lOI of the head gathered into a topknot. Childish features of peculiar type, the lower face being heavy, the cheeks fat, lips small and full, nose broad and stubby, and eyes set wide apart. Plate XVd. — See above. Plates XIII, etc. piate xvd Plate XVI.' — Bronze upright of the fulcrum of a couch. In the Kunsthistorisches Plate xvi Hofmuseum in Vienna, Room XIII, Case IX, No. 749. Diagonal measure- ment from top of horse’s head to outer edge of medallion, 15 cm. Cast in one piece, except for the filling (now lost) of the frame between the two ter- minal ornaments. Provenience unknown. Mentioned, pp. 32, 83, 84 (n. 2), and 85. The feminine head of the lower ornament is marked as that of a mgenad or possibly of Ariadne by the wreath of ivy. Less is seen of the shoulders and bust than in the instances in the preceding plates. The hair above the forehead is parted in the middle; in the neck it hangs in long, wavy locks. The horse’s head of the upper end of the bronze has the fore- lock gathered into a tuft.^ A panther’s skin is placed about the shoulders. Plate XVII. ^ — Two bronze mules’ heads from the uprights of the fulcra of a Plate xvii couch. Found at Vienne, France. In the Louvre, in the Thierry Collection, Nos. 48 and 49. Height, 12.5 cm. Mentioned, pp. 33 and 85. Plates XVIII and XIX. — Parts of a couch restored as a seat. In Lyons. The piates xviii and entire structure as it now appears is given in Plate XVIII, a detail from one rail in Plate XIX. Height, 55 cm.; width, 98 cm. Found at Jallieux, near to Bourgoin (Isere), in 1848. Catalogue sommaire des musees de la ville de Lyon, p. 229, No. 71. Mentioned here, pp. 8, 88, and 98 (n. 4). Unless the bronze uprights of one or two fulcra have been lost, we have here the j)arts of a middle couch, which in a triclinium requires no end-rest (cf. p. 33). In Plate XVIII, by close inspection, the entire pattern on the lower corner strip to the left may be made out. There are two rosettes at each extremity: two vines, one ivy, the other grape, start from each end and run intertwined toward the center, where they terminate each side of a central lozenge. (Cf. p. 88.) Details of the pattern and the present corroded condition of the bronze are clearly shown in Plate XIX. ‘ My thanks are due to Professor Rolrert von Schneider, curator of classical antiquities in the Imperial Museums of Vienna, for permission to jjublish this bronze and for the photograph repro- duced in this plate. “ See in regard to the forelock arranged in a tuft, .Morgan, Xenophon on Horsemanship, j). 175, note on p. 44. 3 Reproduced from a photograph taken at my reipiest by M. Giraudon, with the kind permission of the authorities of the Louvre. •* From photographs taken at my recpiest by M. Silvestre, of Lyons, with the kind consent of M. Dissard, curator of classical antiejuities in the Lyons Museum. 102 DISCUSSION OF PLA TES Plates A'A'-A'A'T7 Plates XX-XXVI. — Funcrarv couch found in a tomb at Orvieto some time pre- vious to the year 1896, when it was accjuired by the Field Columbian Museum of Chicago.' The restoration was made in Italy by Campanini.^ The museum records contain only the further statement that at the time of finding the bone parts, having fallen away from the wooden frame, were lying in lines and heaps, and were gathered by the excavators into bags. Probably, there- fore, all the antique parts of the present structure were found in one tomb chamber, d'he modern parts are numerous, consisting of the frame of wood, much of the mosaic of plaster and bone covering this frame, some entire figures in bone, and patches on the carvings in both bone and plaster. Mentioned, pp. 32, 56-58, 75 (n. 5), 99 (n. 3), and 100. The original design of the couch has been discussed on pp. 56-58. It remains here to consider details and to determine as far as possible what anticjue carvings now on the couclr are foreign to the original structure, probably having belonged on some other object or objects deposited in the tomb chamber. In the accompanying plates^ examples are given of the various classes of carved ornament represented on the present couch. An enunreration of all the carvings follows: T. Two pairs of medallions with heads in high relief. Height, 9.7 cm. One pair given in Plates XXI and XXII. These heads are all of one type, the only difference between the two pairs being in the bust. In the one pair it was adorned with a garland (Plate XXII) ; in the other it had a garment draped over one shoulder as in Plate XXI, where the bust is modern, but is restored from the other pair of medallions. The heads of each pair are symmetrical, one being turned to the right and the other to the left. In the case of the two with drapery, the latter is over the left shoulder of the one figure and over the right shoulder of the other. 2. Four lions’ heads of a single type. Height, 11.4 cm. Plate XXIII. ^ ' I wish here to express my thanks to the authori- ties of the Field Columbian Museum for permitting me to publish this bed. ^ See chap. 2, p. 57, n. i. 3 Plate XX is from a jihotograph taken when the bed was still in Italy. As the bed is too fragile to be moved readily, and is now inclosed in a case, I was unable to get a better general view of it. The views of details reproduced in Plates XXI-XXVI were made by the museum photograj)her, Mr. C. H. Carpenter, who succeeded admirably, considering the difficulties of unfavorable light on some parts of the bed and the necessity of working through glass. 4 The bust of Plate XXI is restored, without, however, wings, which should just fill out the circle of the medallion (c/. Graeven, Phot. 54). The chin, top of head, back, right side piece, and bits on front of bust of Plate XXII seem to be renewed; the wings, made up partly of old, partly of new pieces, are much too large and spreading. The figure of Plate XXII shows in the general view of the bed, Plate XX; the two medallions framed in moldings (in part antique) to the right and left are themselves wholly modern. On the opposite side of the bed, in the middle, is one medallion of the other pair, also provided by the restorer with large, spreading wings. This has the medallion shown in Plate XXI on the left and its own com- ])anion-piece similarly framed on the right. 5 The left ear, the mane on the left side, and the top of the head have been renewed. The three other heads have been more or less patched and the eyes repainted. C/. Plate XX; these four lions’ heads now occupy positions between the medallions and the corners on the long rails of the couch. FUNERARY COUCH OF BONE FROM ORVIETO 103 3. A series of figures carved in relief. These are on panels 10.4 cm. high, having a slightly curved surface and joints cut radially. Their width varies slightly, from 4 to 4.8 cm.^ Plates XXIV-XXV.^ The following have enough antique parts to guarantee them: a) Three panels bearing a horn of plenty above and a diminutive putto below. On the lower part of the horn is visible a hand holding it, and filling in the space beside it is an arm. The putto is looking back in the opposite direction from that in which he is walk- ing. Of the three preserved specimens, two, in which the putto is walking to the right, are alike, and the third is exactly reversed. h) Three figures walking and looking in the same direction with a garment draped about one leg and drawn up over the shoulder on the same side, also passing in a roll across the other thigh. Of these, two are moving to the right and have the drapery mostly on the left side of the figure, the third is moving to the left and has the drapery on the right side. c) Eleven figures, nude except for a very slight scarf-like drapery passing over one shoulder and under the other arm with end hanging down from the shoulder; heads and legs turned in opposite directions. Of these, five are moving to the right and six to the left, and the figures of the two sets are in every way symmetrical. d) Parts of four torches and hands holding them. 4. One lion’s head. Somewhat smaller (height, 9.9 cm.) than those of (2) and differing slightly in stylistic details. Plate XXVI. ^ In the light of the evidence presented in chap. 2, pp. 56 ff., it seems reasonably certain that the original couch had curved rests at each end with the medallions of (i) at their lower extremities, and that the carvings of (3) were on the legs. It is not so clear how the fulcra appeared otherwise, or how the carvings enumerated under (2) and (4) were originally used. The filling of the curve of the uprights of the fulcra between the two terminal orna- ments is certainly lost; this would have been cither a plain covering of bone or an ornament flatly executed — incised or carved in very slight projection — analogous to that of some bronze uprights of fulcra (cf. Plates VIII-X). The upper corner ornaments of the fulcra are also gone, unless they be some of the lions’ heads. Those of (2) are of the proper number to suit this position, and their similarity to one another corresponds to the resem- blance between the medallions, the two pairs of uprights then, in case the lions’ heads occupied the position in question, having been almost exactly alike. The heads of other ' This is not surprising, as it was probably occasioned by the varying size of the bones at the disposal of the workman. ^ Plate XXIV seems entirely antique, except the right arm and the triangle between the legs of the figure on the left. In Plate XXV the jirincipal restorations are the arms, right leg, and triangle of the figure to the right, the lower j)art of the cornu- copia, and the entire smaller figure to the left. 3 Tip of nose and part of mane next the head on the right and the whole of the mane on the left seem to have been renewed. Cf. Plate XX, which shows this head as now situated in the middle of an end- rail. In a corresponding jiosition on the other end- rail is an impossible-looking, draped half-figure, which on examination ])roved to be chiefly plaster. 1 can make nothing of the few pieces of bone which are incorjxirated into it. 104 - D I SC U SSI ON OF PLATES animals than horses and mules occur as the upper corner ornaments of jukra (cf. Fig. 50), so that there is no objection on the score of their being lions’ heads to the proposed restora- tion. If these lions’ heads were so used, their necks, now lost, as well as tips of leaves form- ing a transition to the moldings below, no doubt filled out the usual scheme. In technic, then, the ujiper ornaments would represent a stage in the use of bone between carving in the round, as the heads of the Ancona beds arc executed, and low relief, represented in other ornaments from the upper corners of jiilcra (sec p. 58). Here the projection is considerable, but the heads arc nevertheless not finished at the back and are to be attached to a ground. The single smaller lion’s head does not find any possible place in the original design as just sketched. Besides this carving, I doubt also whether the bronze shoes (visible in Plate XX) belong to the original struct- ure. They arc a feature not present on the Norcia and Ancona couches, and there is a more serious objection to supposing that they belonged on a couch; the bronzes themselves have a slight curve which makes them an inappropriate and ill-fitting termination of straight legs. This curve is more pronounced in a specimen in the Kestner Museum, Hanover, given in Fig. 51.^ In Zan- noni, Scavi della Certosa, Plate XIX, 42, is an attempted reconstruction of a piece of furniture having such shoes. The cut is reproduceeP in Schumacher, p. 55, apropos of two examples. Nos. 320 and 321, in the Karlsruhe Museum. Both Zannoni and Dr. Schumacher call the article of furniture a table. But tables, so far as I am aware, in both the Greek and Roman periods had upright legs with claw-feet or other animals’ feet, at least never crossed legs, as in this restoration. Zannoni’s drawing looks exactly like the stool with crossed legs of compound curve which ap}>ears as early as on south-Italian red-figured vases (Fig. 52) and soon superseding the Greek ocladias with legs ending in lions’ or deers’ feet is Fig. 50. — Part of a terra-cotta cinerary urn — Palermo. ' I have to thank the director of the Kestner Museum, Dr. Schuchhardt, for the photograph reproduced above, as also for that of Fig. 45. The bronze is 16 cm. high, with a lower diameter of 3.5 cm. The left-hand prong has been broken off at a little less than half its height and is fastened again in place; the ball-like object at its upper end on the rivet passing to the other prong is modern cement. The British Museum has a similar speci- men, not included in the catalogue of bronzes, so far as I can find. It measures 5.8 cm. to the top of one of the lower prongs (the higher prongs are broken off above) and 3.7 cm. in diameter at the lower end. Within are remains of wood, a part of the furniture leg to which it was once attached; this is proof that the shoe was not at the end of a metal rod such as perhaps always formed the strength of the legs of bone (c/. p. 55, n. 9). ^ Also in Montelius, La civilization primitive en Italic depiiis V introduction des midaux, Part I, Plate 102, 15. FUNERARY COUCH OF BONE'^FROM ORVIETO 105 frequent on monuments down to a late Roman period.' Now, these stools are the only pieces of furniture having the legs ending below in a curve which the bronzes would fit ; the stools vary among themselves in proportions, to judge by the monu- ments, some being tall enough to render the lower curve as slight as that of some of the preserved bronze shoes. Zannoni’s restoration therefore, apart from the name applied to it, is probably correct, although I am unable to cite any certain, ancient representations^ of the bronze shoes in place. The probability of the identification is further increased by the fact that in at least two cases^ round ornaments have been found with the shoes, such as the monuments show at the crossing of the legs of many folding ( ?)4 stools. This brings me to the suggestion that the tomb chamber in which this funerary bed was found may have contained such a stool veneered in bone, with the smaller lion’s head (Plate XXVI) and another like it, not preserved, at the crossing of the legs, and the two pairs of bronze shoes protecting the lower ends of the legs. Fig. 52 from a red-figured vase of south Italy shows a stool of this type with a human mask at the intersection of the legs, and lions’ masks are ecjually suitable to such a position. It is possible to make out with considerable assurance the arrangement of the carvings on the legs of the original couch through the aid afforded by the symmetry observable in the preserved pieces. Pig. 51. — Bronze shoe from a stool. — Kesbicr ^ ^ ^ Museum. Hanover. To tum back to (3) it will be at once clear that ' For example, a bronze statuette in the Louvre seated on sucli a stool (Reinach, Repertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine, Vol. II, p. 686, i; clearer in Giraudon’s photograph. No. 114 [series of bronzes in the Louvre]), likewise an Etruscan scaraba-us (Baumeister, Vol. Ill, Fig. 1839), a marble statue in the Museum of Saint-Germain, No. 28,218, and a small bronze figure in the British .Museum (B. M. Bronzes, No. 849 = Reinach, ibid., p. 630, 2). That these stools continued long in use is jmived by their occurrence on Christian sar- cophagi, as on two in the Lateran Museum (.\Ios- cioni, jihotographs Nos. 6759 and 2916). 'Fhese succe.ssors of Greek folding stools, although having their chief features of design in common, differ in some particulars among themselves; but this is not the place to enter into such details. ^ The bronze statuette in the Louvre, cited at the beginning of the previous note, ami some others, do indeed show on stools a profile which at the floor-level is similar to that of the bronze shoes, but I have never discovered the longer and shorter jirongs characteris- tic of these bronzes in any ancient re])roductions. ■I I refer to the specimens in Karlsruhe and to others found by Zannoni. For references see p. 104. In many instances, at least, the stools have a wide rail which would prevent their folding. 67- Fig. 52, where there is not only a wide rail, but an ornament filling in the triangle formed by rail aiul legs. io6 DISCUSSION OF PLATES the three carvings enumerated under {a) imply a fourth now lost, and similarly in the case of {b). The hgures of (iK€(f7aXo<;.^-* V’eneered ( ?), veneered with lioxwood (?): dp,(f)iKoXXo<;p^ 7rapdKoXXo<;p^ irapd- 7TU^09.^5 ( ?) apppoTTOv^;.^'^' Having sphinxes introduced in the design of the legs ( ?) : Tr)s, KpdppaTov. The diminutive form need not be taken as necessarily denoting smaller size. TABLE OF GREEK AND LATIN TERMS III 7 Poll., VI, 9. ® Athen., II, 48?); VI, 255«; Poll., X, 34. Cj. k\ivQiv -rrSSes^ /. G., I, pp. 't^m 33. Pro- fessor Michaelis in Der Parthenon, p. 291, says: “die 12 [should be 13] versilberten Fiisse von Ruhe- betten haben schwerlich etwas damit gemein” (speaking of the famous chair of Xerxes, which had silver legs), and Dr. Vollmoller speaks more decisively on this point in the Athen. Mitt., Vol. XXVI (1901), p. 371, n. 2. Most beds must have been made to take down and put up (c/. p. 48, n. 2), and at this time the decoration of couches was largely lavished on their supports, so that there is nothing impossible or very remarkable in the presence of detached legs of couches among the treasures kept in the Parthenon. 9 Ter., Ad., 585; Ov., Met., VIII, 656-59. M. Girard thinks that this word was applied to the tegs (Girard, p. 1015), but the passages that he cites do not prove the statement, and Artem., I, 74, referred to by Professor Mau (Mau, col. 370), seems conclusive for the usual translation given above. ” In Poll., VI, g, apparently intended as a synonym for ivrfkaTov. “ IsiD., XX, II, 5, and Hor., Epod., 3, 22, indi- cate the use of the term for the front rail only or the front portion of the couch. Other passages, such as Ov., Met., VIII, 656, and Petron., 97, seem conclusive for the meaning, the couch frame, viz., the four rails taken collectively. Poll., VI, 9, shows that these terms are syn- onymous, and X, 34, that they denote parts of a bed; the legs and frame being otherwise jirovided with names, and the etymology of the word being favor- able, the translation given above seems highly probable. Corp. Gloss. Lat., II, 74, 8. '5 Etym. M., 90, 30. Cj. Wilhelm, Jahresh., Vol. VI (1903), p. 240. 'rhe meaning of this word was made clear by Professor Anderson in the Classical Reincw, Vol. Ill (1889), pp. 322 ff., in an article entitled “The Meaning of Fulcrum and Fulcri Genius;” the word is discussed by Professor Mau, a])j)ar- ently without knowledge of the earlier article, in the N achrichlen von dcr koniglichen GeseUschajt der Wissenschajten zu Gottingen, 1896, pp. 76 ff., under “Fulcra Lectorum. Testudines Alveorum.” Corp. Gloss. Lat., II, p. 152, 39. Cj. IMau, col. 371. Occurs in reference to beds in three passages. Prop., IV, 8, 68; Mart., Ill, 91, 10; Suet., Calig., 26; for all of which the translation “back” seems appropriate, although the passages are not abso- lutely conclusive for this interpretation. Artem., I, 74. The word admirably describes the end-boards and back of late Roman couches. Cj. Figs. 18 and 40. Artemidorus lived at a time when such couches were in vogue. See pp. 62 ff. An item in the newly published fragment of the lists of the property of the Hermocopida; is Kd]Xo Hnnrdo Svo (WiLHELM, JaliresJl., Vol. VI[l903], p- 239)- Poll., X, 36, mentions the terms as doubtful, and Suidas does not give this meaning under the words themselves, although he employs them in his explanation of Keipta, etc. See p. 39. Heuzey (Mission archeologique en Macedoine, p. 256) and M. Girard (Girard, p. 1014) think that the term refers to rectangular legs with incisions. It seems to me extremely improbable that this well- known type of historic times is older than the sev- enth century (see p. 73, n. 3). The term has also been interpreted as referring to holes for the accom- modation of the interlacing. See further Buchholz, Vol. II, Part II, p. 152. The form aix 48 - 53 » 56, 58, 59> 82-92, 97-99, and 100. (28) Monumenti antichi pubblicati per cura dell' Accademia dei Lincei, Vol. I (1889), cols. 233 ff., “Di un antico letto di osso scoperto in una tomba di Norcia.” e. parts of wooden couches ( ?) Ransom, C. L.: (29) Jahrb., Vol. XVII (1902), pp. 125-40, “Reste griechischer Holzmbbel in Berlin.” BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, W. C. F. : Blumner, Hugo: Marquardt, Joachim, and Mau, August : Mau, August: 115 F. TERMINOLOGY (30) Classical Review, Vol. Ill (1889), pp. 322-24, “The Meaning of Fulcrum and Fulcri Genius.” (31) Technologie und Terminologie. (32) Das Privat-Lehen der Romer,^ Vol. VII of Handbuch der romischen Altertliiimer, by J. Marcpiardt and T. Mommsen. (33) N achrichten von der konigliclien Gesellschajt der Wissen- schajten zti Gottingen, 1896, pp. 76-82, “Fulcra Lectorum. Testudines Alveorum.” Consult also articles cited under A, 4 and 5. SUBJECTS AND SOURCES' OF THE TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. I, p. 20. — Body lying in state; seated and standing mourners. Part of a Dipylon vase-painting. From Uu5e’5 ant. dii Louvre, Plate XX, A 541. Fig. 2, p. 21. — Heracles reclining upon a dining-couch in the house of Eurytus. Detail from a Corinthian vase-painting. Louvre. After Rayet and Collignon, Cer. gr., Plate 6= De Longjierier, Miisee Napoleon HI, Plate XXXIV. Fig. 3, }). 21. — Man reclining on a bancjuct-couch. Part of a Corinthian vase-painting. From the Jalirb., Vol. V (1890), p. 242. Fig. 4, p. 22. — The body of Achilles lying in state. Part of a Corinthian vase-painting. Louvre. From Heuzey, Recherches sur les I its antiques, p. 8. Fig. 5, p. 22. — Phineus reclining on a dining-couch. Detail from a Chalcidian vase- painting. Wurzburg. Drawing after Furtwangler-Reichhold, Plate 41. Fig. 6, p. 23. — Woman spinning, seated upon a couch. Fragment of a terra-cotta placpie. Acropolis Museum, Athens. Drawing after .J . H. S., Vol. XVII (1897), P- 3 ° 9 > Fig- i- Fig. 7, p. 24. — Etruscan couch. Detail from the relief decoration of a limestone cinerary urn. British Museum. Sketched from original. Fig. 8, p. 25. — Banqueting-scene. Detail from a wall-painting in an Etruscan tomb. Corneto-Tarquinia. From Bulle, Der schone Mensch; Alterthum, Plate 66. Fig. 9, p. 26. — Banc[ueting-scene. Detail from a red-hgured vase-painting. Corneto- Tarquinia. From GjolbascJii-Trysa, p. 176, Fig. 150. Fig. 10, p. 27. — Part of a dining-couch. Fragment of a red-hgured vase. From Jahrb., Vol. XIV (1899), p. 105. Fig. II, p. 27. — Theseus slaying Procrustes. Detail from a red-figured vase signed by Aison. Madrid. From the Ant. Dcnkin., II, Plate I. Fig. 12, p. 29. — Alarble funerary couch, found in a tomb near Pydna in Macedonia. Louvre. From a photograph, Giraudon, No. 1439. Fig. 13, p. 30. — Person reclining on a couch. Fragment of Egyptian faience. Berlin. Drawing from original. See p. 97, n. 2. Fig. 14, p. 31. — Man reclining on a couch and holding a drinking-bowl. Two attendants below. Terra-cotta cinerary urn. Museo Kircheriano, Rome. From a photograph. Fig. 15, p. 34. Specimens of turned legs from Roman couches. Sketch based on the following sources (counting from the left): (i) photograph of a late Roman sarcoph- agus in the Museo Kircheriano, Rome, Tuminello, No. 397; (2) photograph of a ' In the following list the name of the house could be otherwise sure in the matter. In a few issuing a given photograph is stated in every case instances, however, I have to my regret been unable where that name appears on the photograph or I to identify the photographs used. FIGURES 16-27 117 late Roman sarcophagus found in Servia (see p. 36, n. i); (3) photograph of a tomb- relief in the Lateran Museum = Helbig, Fiikrer,^ Vol. I, p. 462, No. 691; (4) photo- graph of a Roman gravestone on the island of Paros, No. 92, Paros series taken for the German Archceological Institute; (5) photograph of Alcestis sarcophagus in the Vatican = Helbig, ibid., p. 43, No. 76; (6) photograph of a relief in the Lateran Museum; (7) picture of a Roman gravestone. Fig. 108, p. 118, in Haverfield, Cu/a- logue of the Roman Inscribed and Sculptured Stones in the Grosvenor Museum, Chester. Fig. 16, p. 34. — Patterns from the rails of late Roman couches. Sketch based on the following sources (counting from the top); (i) Clarac, Musee de sculpture antique et moderne, Vol. II, Plate 153 (333), sarcophagus of a young girl; (2) see Fig. 17; (3) the work cited under Fig. 15, 3; (4) sketch of end-piece of a sofa in marble = Amelung, Fiihrer, p. 192, No. 215. Fig. 17, p. 35. — Cover in couch form of a Roman sarcophagus. Museo Torlonia, Rome. From Robert, Antike Sarkophag-Reliefs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXXIV. Fig. 18, p. 36. — Relief on a Roman gravestone. Island of Paros. Drawing from a photograph of the German Archaeological Institute, No. 85, Paros series. Fig. 19, p. 36. — Detail from a sofa of Roman date. From Rom. Mitt., Vol. VII (1892), P- 45. Fig- VIII, 3. Fig. 20, p. 37. — Detail from a sofa of Roman date. From the Rom. Mitt., Vol. VII (1892), p. 45, Fig. VIII, 6. Fig. 21, p. 37. — Relief on a Roman cippus. From Clarac, Musee de sculpture antique et moderne, Vol. II, Plate 135 (339). Fig. 22, p. 40. — Detail from a banciuet-scene on a red-figured vase. British Museum, No. E 47. From Hartwig, Meisterschalen, Plate XXXIV. Fig. 23, p. 42. — Detail from the scene “Theseus slaying Procrustes.” Red-figured vase. After Noel des Vergers, UEtrurie et les Etrusques, Vol. Ill, Plate XIV. Fig. 24, p. 42. — Detail from the scene “Theseus slaying Procrustes.” Red-figured vase- painting from the workshop of Chachrylion. Archaeological Museum, Florence. After Harrison and McColl, Greek Vase Paintings, Plate X=d/»5co Italiano di antichita classica, Vol. HI, Plate II. Fig. 25, p. 43. — Couch from a banquet-scene on a red-figured vase. Sketched from origi- nal in the British Museum, No. E 493. Fig. 26, p. 43. — The slaying, upon the return of Odysseus, of the suitors of Penelope. Detail from a red-figured vase-painting. Berlin. From Bulle, Dcr schbne Mcnsch: Alterthum, Plate 132. Fig. 27, p. 45. — Heracles reclining upon a dining-couch, attended Iw Hermes, Athena, and a serving-lad. Black-figured vase-painting in the style of Andocides. Munich. From Furtwangler-Reichhold, Plate 4. SUBJECTS AND SOURCES OF THE TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS 1 18 Fig. 28, p. 48. — Banquet-scene on a vase signed by Duris. British Museum. From Kullurhistorischer Bilderatlas, I, Schreiber, Altertum, Plate LXXVII, g = Wien. Vor- legehl., Series VJ, 10. Fig. 29, p. 49. — The body of Archemorus lying in state. Detail from a red-figured vase- painting. Naples. From Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 120. Fig. 30, p. 52. — Small terra-cotta in the National Museum, Athens. Found in Asia Minor. From a photograph. Fig. 31, p. 59. — Roman sarcophagus from Syria. Constantinople. From a photograph, No. 76 of series on sale in the Imperial Ottoman Museum. Fig. 32, p. 65. — Section of wooden rail of an Egyptian couch. Berlin. Scale-drawing from the original. See p. 97, n. 2. Fig. 33, p. 65. — Sketch of wooden rail of an Egyptian couch, inner side, showing method of attaching the interlacing. Berlin. Erom original. See p. 97, n. 2. Eig. 34, p. 65. — Sectional view (proposed restoration) of rail of couch represented in the marble fragments from Pergamon. Fig. 35, p. 67. — Achilles attended in illness by Thetis. Detail from a Corinthian vase- painting. Louvre. Erom Jahrb., Vol. VII (1892), Plate I. Eig. 36, p. 68. — Various styles of Greek pillows and bolsters. From vase-paintings. Beginning in upper left-hand corner, these details of pillows are derived from the fol- lowing sources: (i) Jahrb., Vol. VI (1891), Plate V; (2) sketch from original. No. E 433 in the British Museum; (3) Hartwig, Meisterschalen, p. 332, Eig. 44a; (4) Baumeis- ter, Vol. II, Eig. 857; (5) Eurtwangler-Reichhold, Plate 32; (6) Wien. VorlegebL, Series E, Plates VII, VIII; (7) Hartwig, ibid., Plate XXXV, i. Eig. 37, p. 69. — Eros ministering to the dying Adonis. Part of a red-figured vase-painting. Naples. Prom Baumeister, Vol. I, Fig. 18. Fig. 38, p. 70. — Funerary couch of marble in a tomb at Vathia on the island of Euboea. Sketch based on the colored reproduction in Athen. Mitt., Vol. XXVI (1901), Plate XVI. Eig. 39, p. 74. — Parts of an Assyrian scat and footstool. British Museum. From a pho- tograph, Mansell, No. 583. Fig. 40, p. 76. — Relief from a Roman gravestone. Island of Paros. From a photograph of the German Archicological Institute, No. 94 of the Paros series. Fig. 41, p. 78. — View of one end of an Etruscan terra cotta sarcophagus. British Museum. Erom a photograph, London Stereoscopic Co., No. 161 of British Museum series. Eig. 42, p. 78. — Figure of Hera enthroned. Detail from a red-figured vase-painting. Karls- ruhe. From Wien. VorlegebL Scries E, Plate III, i = Mon. d. /., Vol. I, Plate XLIX. Eig. 43, p. 79. — Etruscan terra-cotta sarcophagus. Museo di Papa Giulio, Rome. Erom a photograph, Moscioni, No. 9331. FIGURE 44— HEADPIECE, CHAPTER IV IIQ Fig. 44, p. 82. — Dionysus and x\riadne riding a mule, attended by a satyr. St. Peters- burg. Red-figured vase-painting. From Compte-rendii, 1863, Plate V. F1G.45, p. 86. — Terra-cotta handle( ?). Kestner Museum, Hanover. From a photo- graph. See p. 104, n. i. Fig. 46, p. 88.' — Ornamental patterns from the rails of couches. Sketch based on the fol- lowing: (i) Castellani’s restoration of the “Capitoline bisellium,” Tuminello, pho- tograph No. 1273; (2) a photograph of the British Museum “bisellium,” (c/. Plate IX); (3) couch in the Naples Museum, Sommer, photograph No. 11,120; (4) “ bisel- lium” in the Naples Museum, Sommer, photograph No. ii,iii; (5) “bisellium” in the Museo Kircheriano, Rome, sketch from original; (6) fragment from a couch rail in Karlsruhe (Schumacher, p. 56, No. 325). Fig. 47, p. 91. — Various types of chair and couch supports. From photographs, (a) Detail of a marble seat in the Glyptothek, Munich, Bbttger, photograph No. 2^46 = Beschr. der Glypt., p. 335, No. 346. (b) Detail from a seated figure pictured in the Escorial Codex, Arndt-Amelung, Einzelne- Aujnahmen, No. 1497. (c) Detail of a marble seat in the Glyptothek, Munich; Bottger, photograph No. 327 =Beschr. der Glypt., p. 327, No. 327. {d) Detail of terra-cotta in the Louvre, from a photograph; cj. frontis- piece of this book. Fig 48, p. 95. — Marble table in the atrium of the “House of Meleager,” Pompeii. From a photograph, Sommer, No. 1257. Fig. 49, p. 98. — Satyrs’ heads on the “bisellium” in the British Museum. From a pho- tograph. See p. 90, n. i. Cf. Plate IX. Fig. 50, p. 104. — View of the head of a couch with occupant and attendants. Terra- cotta cinerary urn. Palermo. Drawing from a photograph of the German /Archaeo- logical Institute, No. 301, Roman series. Fig. 51, p. 105. — Bronze shoe from a stool. Kestner Museum, Hanover. From a }>ho- tograph. See p. 104, n. i. Fig. 52, p. 106. — Darius enthroned. Detail from a vase-painting. Naples. From a pho- tograph =Mo«. d. I., Vol. IX, Plate L. Fig. 53, p. 106. — Diagram showing probable arrangement of carved ornaments on the legs of the Orvieto couch. Headpiece, Chap. I. — Detail from the scene “The Dioscuri coming to the feast of the Theoxenia.” On a black-figured vase with white ground. British Museum, No. B 633. After Frohner, Deux peintures de vases grecs de la necropole de Kamciros. Headpiece, Chap. HI. — The dead upon a bier. Two mourners. From a Dipylon vase- painting. From KuUurhislorischer Bilderatlas, I, Schreiber, Altertum, Idate XCV, 2. Headpiece, Chap. IV. — Banquet-scene. A Boeotian vase-painting. Athens. From Rayet and Collignon, Cer. gr., p. 291, Fig. iii. 120 SUBJECTS AND SOURCES OE THE TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS Tailpiece, Chap. I. — Detail from a relief on the back of an Etruscan terra-cotta sarcoph- agus. British Museum. Sketched from original. C/. Murray, Sarcophagi, Greek and Etruscan, in the British Museum, Plate X. Tailpiece, Chap. II. — Bronze ornament, once applied to some wooden object. Berlin. Published Jahrh.,Vo\. XIX (1904), p. 30, Fig. 35. From a photograph. See p. 93, n. 2. 'Bailpiece, Chap. IV. — Tiny bronze chair (about 9 cm. in height). In the Wallraf- Richartz Museum, Cologne. Found in Cologne. Sketch from original. Tailpiece, Chap. V. — Detail from the decoration of aMclianvase. Athens. After Riegl, StHjragoi. Grundlegungcn zn einer Geschichte der Ornament ik, p. 155, Fig. 66. GENERAI. INDEX' Acropolis, at Athens, capital found on, 8o. Agrigentines, ivory beds of, 53. A jour work, see under Technic. Alcibiades, furniture included in property of, 54. See also Hermocopidae. Aldobrandini Wedding, 33, n. i; 81. Amorgus, cloth of, 71. d^t0iK^0aXos, 28, 91, 109. d^t^AoXXos, 41, n. i; 109. Amphio, Lucius Hostilius, 61, n. 4. Ancona, beds of bone found at, 32; 50, n. i; 57; 58; 104; 107; 108. Animal supports, 95. See also under Griffins. Appliques, see under Technic. Ara Pacis, 32, n. i; 54, n. 5. Archias, 61. Armchairs, Mycenaean models of, 19. Artemis, 99. Asses, 83. Assyrian furniture, 41, n. 3; 50, n. 2; 51; Fig. 39; 73. Purple, 71. Astragal, figured on a valance, 97. Attalic mattresses, 71. Babylonica, 71. B.ack, 34, 60, 76, 109. Beitenus, 61. Bes, 97. Birds, aquatic, heads of, 58, 83, 85, 86. See also Ducks and Mergansers. Bisellia, so-called, 32; 83, n. 3; 84; 85; 87; 98; iig. See also “Capitoline bisellium.” Bone, carvings of, 58, 107. Couches of, 56 ff.; see also under Ancona and Norcia. Substitute for ivory, 55, 60. Border designs, 78. Boscoreale, bed from, 32; 88, n. i; 98, n. 4. Sil- ver vessels from, 87, n. 3. Boy, bust of, 100. Braces, floor-level, 43; 49; 90; 98, n. 4; cf. Figs. 2, 22, 25, 27, and Plate II. Restored between legs, 5°, 57, 98- Branches, arranged in twos, 87, n. 3. Br.anchidae, seated figures from, 47, n. 2; 73, n. 3; 76, n. 2. Capitals, architectural, akin to types on furniture, 80. Caryatid, 87, n. i. Furniture types, 80. Ionic, 80. Phoenician type, 80, 81. Capitoline bisellium, 32, n. 6; 51, n. i; 87; 119. Cartihida, 94; Fig. 48. Carvilius Pollio, 61. Carving, see under Technic. Caryatids, 87, n. i. Chalcidian beds, 22; Fig. 5. Chian beds, 54. Cinerary urns, Etruscan, 30, Fig. 14; 90, Plate I. Details from, 24, Fig. 7; 104, Fig. 50. Clazomen^, sarcophagi from, 77. Coll.ar, worn by mules, 84, 85, 100. Corinthian beds, 20; 21; 66; 67; 73, n. 3; Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 35. Cotton, 70, 71. Dedicated couches, 16, n. 4. Delian beds, 60. Demosthenes, workshop belonging to the father of, 39; 40; 41, n. 2; 44, n. 3; 53. Dionysus, reference to, in ornament of banquet- couches, 86, 87. Perhaps represented, 107. Riding a mule, 86, Fig. 44. Dog, head of, 87. Ikying on a sofa, Plate XXIXa. Dolphins, as uprights of end-rests, 34, 36, 60, Plate XXVIII. Between round and seat of a stool, 34, n. i. E.xtant specimens of metal, 34, n. I. Modern usage, a revival of the Roman motive, 38. Ornament on rail, frontispiece, 92. Drapery, 66 ff. Enveloping couches entirely, 26, 29, Fig. 37. Fringed, 67, 97. Lycosura, sculp- tured, from, 97. Ducks, heads of, 83, n. 3; 85; 100. See also Birds. Egyi’tian couches, 97, n. 4. I'Igypt, objects from; ivory couch legs ( ?), 33, n. 2. Wooden sarcophagi from .\busir, 47, n. i; 49. 'I’oy bedstead of ])alm sticks, 38, n. 2. ' Greek and I.alin word,s occurring only in the Table of Terms, pp. 109 ff., are not repeated here. 122 GENERAL INDEX End-rests, 36, 75, log. Construction of, 33, 50. Number of, 33. Position of, 33, 34. Kros, heads of, 87, 100. Feathers, used in stuffing pillows, 70. Footboard, 97, n. 4. See under End-rests. Forge work, 51. Fringe on draperies, 67, 97. Fiilcra, see End-rests. Funerary couches, 16, 102 ff. Gjoi.b.ascih, reliefs from, 27, 69. Cnaphaliiim, 70. (iORDiON, fragment of a bed from, 14, n. i. Star- like rosettes, carved in ivory, from, 46, n. 3; 73, end of n. 3. Or'Vpe vine, in ornament of a couch rail, 88, loi. Griffins, couch supports, 32, 94, 95. On a val- ance, 96. Haterii, tomb of, 86, n. 5. Head-rest, construction of one, 48. Egyptian, 97, n. 4. End-view of, Eigs. 9, 28; cf. 33, ns. 3 and 4. See also End-rests. Hermocopid^e, 63; III, n. 20. See also under Alcibiades. Hollow casting, see under Technic. Homeric beds, 19, 39. Horn of plenty, 107, Plates XXIV, XXV, Eig. 48. Horses, heads of (on beds), 34, Eig. 17; 82; 84; 107, n. 4. (Handles), 86, Eig. 45. Hostilius Amphio, Lucius, 61, n. 4. ICARIUS RELIEFS, 31, 107. Inlaying, see under Technic. Interlacing, 62 ff., 92. Ionic capitals, 80; 81, n. i. Ivory, see under Materials. Reliefs from Nineveh, 80. Ivy, associated with Dionysus, 86. On collars of mules, 85. On heads of mules, 84, 85, 86. On maenad’s head, loi. On heads of satyrs, 99. On a rail, loi. KciXu 'iTTiretu 5 fo, 63; III, n. 20. Kedesh, 97, n. 3. Keipia, 63. k7)/c4s, 44, n. 3. kXkvCiv Trader (Trdpyvpoi^ 41; 31; III, II. 8. Leaf motive on fulcra, 86. Leather, used for pillows, 70. Lccticula lucubriitoria, 15, n. 5. Lectus aibicularis, 15, n. 3. TricUniaris, 15, n. 3. Legs, 109. Plank constructions, 47; plain, 26, 43, 97; with volute capitals, 26, 44; with volute capitals and incisions, 20 ff., 44-46, 72, 73; derivatives of type with incisions, 91. Rudely hewn, 26, 42, 43. Turned, see under Technic. Turned and carved, 29; see also unfler Sphinxes. Length of couches, 15, n. 5; 16, n. 5; 37; 38. Lesbos, capital found on island of, 80. Leuconian blankets, 71. Linen, 70, 71. Links, combined with volutes in ornamental designs, 76, n. 2; 80; 81. Lions, heads of, 34, 83, Eig. 50, 102, 103, 107. I.egs of, supports of Egyptian couches, 97, n. 4; supports of Greek folding stools, 104. Supports of chair of goddess Cybele, 95, n. 2. Lora, 63, 109. Lycosura, sculptured drapery from, 97. M,e.ander, combined with rosettes, 77. On collars of horses and mules, 85. On rails, 23; 88, Eig. 46. Monads, heads of, 87; Plate XVI, loi. Making couches, conditions of, 53, n. 6. Names of artisans employed in, 61. VIardonius, gold and silver couches of, 51. Materials; bone, 53; see also under Bone. Bronze, 40, 41, 36. Gold, 40, 41, 36. Iron, 41, 55. Ivory, 40, 53 . 55 - Jewels, 36. Metal, 41, 42. Silver, 40, 41, 36. Tortoise shell, 40, 33. Wood, 39; 41, n. 3; 55 - Med.allions, 87; 91, n. i; 98; 99; 100; 102; 103; 107. Mergansers, 83, n. 3. IMetapontum, temple at, 77. Milesian beds, 34. Coverings, 71. Miletus, coins of, 77. Mortising, see under Technic and Tenons. Mules, heads of, 83, 84, 83, 100. Sacred to Diony- sus, 86, Eig. 44. Munich, satyr’s head in, 99. Seats of marble in, 76, end of n. 2. Myrina terra-cottas, 29, 31, Eig. 30. Myrtle, 87, 88. Neandreia, capital from, 80. Nineveh, ivory reliefs from, 80. Norcia, couch found at, 32, 56, 37, 107. Nut-galls, used in stains, 44, n. 3. GENERAL INDEX 123 OCLADIAS, 104. Odysseus, bed of, 13, 39, 62. Olive, branches of, 88, n. i. Ornament, Roman, important motives, 86; 87; 94, n. I. Significance of, on conches, 85, 87. Painting of wood, 49. PalmetteS; 81. Bronze applique, 61, tailpiece chap. 2. Furniture legs, on, 76; 80, n. i; 91, n. i. Rails, on, 88, Fig. 46; 95. Valance, figured on, 96. Cj. also Figs. 41, 42, tailpiece chap. 5. Panthers, heads of, ornaments of fulcra, 83. Skin of, worn by Roman riding-horses, 85, 99. Small bronze, 84, n. 2. Paphus, couch with silver legs of youth of, 41, SI- irapd-tTV^os, 41, n. i; IO9. Parc. . . . , Gains, 6i, n. 4. Paris, marble head of a satyr in I.ouvre, 99. Parthenon, furniture kept in, 16, n. 4; 40; 54, n. 3; III, n. 8. Peg.asi, supports of a stool, 95, n. 2. Perg.amon, frieze of altar, 107. Phigaleia, frieze of temple at, 89. “Phineus vase,” 22. Pillows, 66 ff.; Fig. 36; 93; Plates VI, VII/), XXVIII, and XXIX. Plank constructions, 43 ff., 47, gi, 97. PlaTvEA, beds dedicated at, 16, n. 4; 41; 51. Plating, see under Technic. Polishing wood, 44, ns. 2 and 3. Pompeii, couches found at, 32, 57. Priene, couch from, 30, n. 5; 41; 51; 82; 85; 87. 68, n. 3; no. Ptolemy Philadelphus, golden couches used at accession festivities of, 41, 51. Punic couches, 60. Purple cloth, 71. Rails, 30, 42-45, 95, 109. Adornment of, 34, 49, 88, loi, frontispiece; Figs. 16, 29, 46; Plates I, VI, IX, XIX. Material of, 41, n. 3. Two in number paneled up at back, 47, frontispiece. Wide, analogies in chairs, 49; 93, n. i. “Reliees, Tomb of the,” 76, n. 2. Repousse, 44, n. 5; 51. Rhesus, slave of Caninius, 61, n. 4. Romanus, 61, n. 4. Rosettes, 21; 77; 88, Fig. 46; 91, n. i; g6. See also under Gordion, Sarcophagi, Etruscan, 22; 23; 76, n. 2; Figs. 41 and 43. Roman, 36, Fig. 31; 34, Fig. 17. Sardlan draperies, 71. Satyrs, attending Dionysus, 107, Fig. '44. Heads of, 87, 89, 98, 99. Sawbills, 83, n. 3. Selinunte, temple S at, 77 Shark skin, used in finishing wood-work, 44. Shoes of bronze, 104, Fig. 51. Silk, 70, 71. Skins, bed-coverings, 71, no. Worn by horses, 85, 99, lOI. SOTERICHUS, 61. Sparta, furniture industry in, 53. o-Traprai, 63, 109. a 4 nyy 6 iroSetj 51; 109; 112, n. 27. Sphinxes, a feature in the design of couch legs, 29; 30; 51, n. i; Figs. 14, 30, 50; cf. 112, n. 27. Sup- porting chairs, 95, n. 2. Staining, 44, n. 3. Stool, folding, 104, 105. Stop-gaps, elimination of, 78. St. Petersburg, bed from southern Russia in, 30, 41, 50, 82, 87. (jTpoyyv'KbTroSe%^ in, n. 26. Swans, heads of, 83, n. 3. See also Birds. Tables, 94, Fig. 48; 104. Tanagra, 93, end of n. i. Technic; a jour work in metal, 44, n. 5; in wood and ivory, 46, n. 3. Appliques, of ivory, 46, n. 3; of metal, 44, n. 5; of wood, 46, n. 3; 47, n. i; cf. rail of frontispiece. Carving in bone, 104, 107; limitations of, 103, n. i; 107. Carving in wood, 44, 47, Fig. 43. Forge work, 51. Hollow casting, 50; Egyptian and Assyrian e.xamples of, 50, n. 2. Inlaying, with ivory, 46, n. 3; in bronze with silver and copper, 56, 87, 88, 100, Plates IX, XHI, XIV, XVT, XVII, XVHI, XIX. Metal encasing all surfaces, 51. Mortising, 43, 44; cf. Figs. 27 and 26; see also under Tenons. Painting wood, 49. Plating with precious metals, 56, n. 4. Polishing wood, 44, ns. 2 and 3. Repousse, 44, n. 5; 51. Staining, 44, n. 3. Soldering together of metal castings, 50. Turned work, couch legs, 20-24, 27-34, 39, 48, 49; ]iart of head-rest, 48; imitated in metal castings, sometimes retouched on wheel, 50; 51, n. i. Veneering, with wood, 41, 5S; with ivory, 46, n. 3; 52; 55. Telepiius frieze, 31. 124 GENERAL INDEX Texons, round, Fig. 24. Rectangular, lying verti- cally, Fig. 23. Rectangular, lying horizontally, Fig. 25. Showing prominently, 90, Plate I. t6tos, 63, 109. Topknot, hair gathered into, loi. Florse’.s fore- lock arranged in a, Plate XVI; loi, n. 2. Torch, 103, 106. Associated with Dionysus, 107. Triclinulm, 33, lOI. Tripod, figured on a valance, 96. Turned work, see under Technic. Upholstery ( ?), 36, 37. Uses, 16, 17. Valances, 68, 96, 97. Vatican, bronze bed in, 20; 62, n. Veneering, see under Technic. Volutes, 73, n. 3; 74; 76-81; 91. Wool, 70, 71. INDEX OF PASSAGES IN GREEK AND LATIN AUTHORS REFERRED TO IN TEXT i?iLiAN, Var. Hist., XII, 29 — p. 53. Apuleius, Met., X, 34 — p. 55, n. 6. Aristophanes, I.ysisir., 916 ff. — p. 112, n. 42. Nub., 730 — p. 1 12, n. 41. Ran., 342 — p. 71, n. 6. Arteihdorus, I, 74 — p. Ill, ns. 10, 18. Athan^us, I, 28b — p. 54, n. 2. II, 48a, b — pp. 53; 71, n. 7; III, 11. 8. II, 48c— p. 1 12, n. 38. VI, 2sse— pp. 41, n. 8; iii, n. 8; 112, n. 31. V, 197a — p. 112, n. 27. V, 197a, b — p. 41, n. 9. VI, 255e— p. 71, n. 7. XI, 486e— p. 54, n. 2. Bion, I, 67 — p. 41, n. 9. Cato, De Agric., 10, 5 — p. 62, n. 4. Catullus, 64, 48 ff. — p. 71, n. 4. Cicero, De Div., II, 134 — pp. 13; 62, n. 4. Pro Mur., 36, 75 — pp. 60, n. 4; 71, n. 2. Clement of Alexandria, Paedag., II, 3, p. 188 — P- 55, n. 3. Critias, I, 5— p. 54, n. 2. Fragm. i, 1. 5 (p. 31, ed. Bach) — p. 54, n. 2. Fragm. 26 (p. 95, ed. Bach) — p. 53, n. 5. Fragm. 28 (p. 95, ed. Bach) — p. 54, n. 2. Demosthenes, XXVII, 10 ff. — p. 39, n. 4. XXVII, 31— p. 40, n. I. Digest, XXXII, 100, 4 — p. 55, n. 8. XXXIII, 10, 3, 3— P- 56, n. 7. XXXIII, 10, 9, I— p. 56, n. 5. Herodotus, IX, 80-82 — p. 51, n. 3. IX, 118 — pp. 62, n. 4; 63. Hist. Aug. Vit. Elag., 20, 4 — p. 56, n. 5. Homer — p. 13. 11 ., HI, 391 — p. 39, n. 2. Od., XIX, 56— p. 39, n. 3. Od., XXIII, 195-201— p. 39, n. I. Horace, F.p., I, 5, i — p. 61, n. 3. Epod., 3, 22 — p. Ill, n. 12. Sat., II, 4, 84 — pp. 71, n. 5; 112, n. 44. Sat., II, 6, 103— p. 55, n. 4. Hyginus, Fab., 274~p. 83, n. 7. Isidorus, Orig., XX, ii, 3— p. 59, n. 4. XX, ii, 5— p. iiT, n. 12. Juvenal, XI, 96— p. 83, n. 7. XI, 98— p. 56, n i. Livy, XXXIX, 6— p. 56, n. i. Lucan, X, 310, 126 — p. 56, n. 7. Lucian, /LCh., 621 — p. 55, ns. 6, 8. Macrobius, Saturn., HI, 13, ii — p. 55, n. 4. Martial, III, 91, 10 — p. iii, n. 17. VIII, 33, 6 — p. 56, n. 4. IX, 22, 6— p. 56, n. 4. IX, 59, 9— p. 55, n. 2. XII, 66, 5— pp. 55, n. 8; 56, n. 7. XIV, 85— p. 55, n. 2. XIV, 159— pp- 71, n. 8; 112, n. 39. Ovid, Ep. ex Ponto, HI, 3, 14 — p. 55, n. i. Met., VIII, 656 — p. Ill, n. 12. Met., VIII, 656-59 — pp. 55, n. i; III, n. 9. Trist., I, ii, 37— p. 15, n. 5. Persius, I, 52— p. 15, n. 5. I, 52, 53— p. 55, n. 2. I, io6~p. IS, n. 5. Petronius, 97 — pp. 62, n. 4; 65; iii, n. 12. Plato, Prot., 3is<^ — p. 71, n. 2. Republ. X, $g6b — S 97 &— P- 53 - Pl.ato (comic poet), quoted in Athen., II, 48a, b — P- 53 - Plautus, Stick., 378 — p. 71, n. 10. Pliny, Ep., V, 5, 5 — p. 15, n. 5. A^. H., VIII, 196 — p. 71, n. 12. N. II . IX, 39 — p. 55, n. 5. N. H. IX, 137— p. 71, n. II. N. H., XXXIII, 144 — pp. 54, n. 6; 55, n. 5; 56, n. 2. N. H., XXXIII, 146 — p. 56, n. 3. N'. II., XXXIV, 2, 9 — p. 41, n. 2. N. H., XXXIV, 14— p. 56, n. i. Plutarch, Lycurg., 9 — p. 53, n. 5. Pollux — p. 13. VI, 9 — p. iii, ns. 7, ii, 13. VI, 10-— pp. no, n. 3; 112, ns. 33, 34, 38. VII, 160 — p. no, n. 3. X, 34— p. in, ns. 8, 13. X, 35 — pp. 40, n. 6; no, n. 6. X, 36 — pp, 62, n. 4; III, ns. 21, 24. X, 38 — p. 112, n. 32. X, 41 — ■ pp. 70, n. 4; 112, n. 29. X, 42 — p. 112, ns. 33, 37 - N 43— P- ”2, ns. 42, 43. X, 64— p. 63. Propertius, II, 13, 22 — p. 71, n. 12. IV, 5, 24 — p. 71, n. 12. IV, 8, 68 — p. Ill, n. 17. Seneca, Ep., 17, 12 — p. 55, n. i. Ep., 72, 2 — p. IS, n. 5. Ep., 87. 2^p. 112, ns. 36, 40. Ep., no, 12 — p. 56, n. 7. Fragm., 114 -p. 61, n. 3. 125 126 PASSAGES IN GREEK AND LATIN AUTHORS Strabo, X\^, 693 — p. 71. Sitetonius, Aug., 78 — p. 15, n. 5. Calig., 26 — p. Ill, n. 17. Calig., 32— p. 56, n. 3. Ini, 84— P- 55 . n. 4 - SuiDAS, — p. 13. 5 . VV. KHpla and rbvoi — p. 63. J. V. &(TKaPTOS — p. no, n. 4. Terence, Ad., 585 — p. in, n. 9. Theocritus, XXIV, 43 — p. 39. Theophrastus, — p. 39. H. P., IV, 8, 4 — p. 112, n. 42. Thucydides, III, 68, 3 — p. 41, n. 2. IV, 48, 3 — p. 62, n. 4. Tim^us, quoted in Aelian, Var. Hist., XII, 29 — P- 53- Varro, — p. 13. L. L., V, 167 — p. 112, n. 35. L. L., VIII, 31, 32— p. 60, n. I. Virgil, Cir., 440 — pp. 61, n. 2; 71, n. 9. Xenophon, Anab., VII, 5, 14 — p. 54. INDEX OF PLACES^ Athens: Acropolis Musenm, terra-cotta plaques, 23, Fig. 6; 27, n. 2; 49; 68. Central Museum, terra-cotta, 52, Fig. 30; 29; 51; 69; 75, n. 5; 112, n. 27. — Vase, Boeotian, detail from, 66, head- piece, chap. 4; 69. — Vase, Melian, detail from, 89, tailpiece, chap. 5; 78. Berlin: Antiquariuni, duck’s head, 100. — Lead, relief in, 108. — Palmette-ornament, 61, tailpiece chap. 2; 44, n. 5; 81, n. 2; 93, n. 2. — Terra- cotta, 98. — Vase, detail from red-figured, 43, Fig. 26; 26; 68. Egyptian Department, iaience, fragment of, 30, Fig. 13; 68, n. 3; 69; 97, n. 2. — Wooden couch, rail of, 65, Figs. 32, 33; 64; 97, n. 2. — Terra-cotta, 108. Pergamon Museum, fragments of marble couch, 93 £f. Cervetri (Caere), cinerary urn from, 90. Chicago, Field Columbian Museum, bed of bone, 102 ff. Cologne, W allraj -Richartz Museum, tiny bronze chair found in Cologne, 71, tailpiece chap. 4; 15, n. 2; 47, n. 2; 76, end of n. 2; 91, n. i. Constantinople, sarcophagus from Syria, 59, Fig. 31; cf. Plate XXVII; 34; 36; 89, 108. Corneto-Tarquinia, vase, detail from red-figured, 26, Fig. 9; 44, n. i; 68. — Wall-painting in a tomb, detail from, 25, Fig. 8; 23; 24; 43; 49; 67. Egypt, objects from, see Berlin, Egyptian Depart- ment. Florence, Archceological Museum, vase, detail from red-figured, 42, Fig. 24; 26. Hanover, Kestner Museum, shoe of bronze, 105, Fig. 51; 104. — Terra-cotta handle ( ?), 86, Fig. 45. Jallieux, parts of a couch found at, loi. Karlsruhe, vase, detail from red-figured, 78, Fig. 42; 76, n. 2. London, British Museum: Assyrian furniture, 74, I’ig- 39; 41, n. 3; 73.— “Bisellium,” 98.— Bronzes (various attachments of couches), 99 ff. — Cinerary urn, 90; detail from another, 24, Fig. 7; 23; 24; 27, n. 2; 49. — Sarcophagus, Etruscan, view of end of, 78, Fig. 41; 22; 76, n. 2; detail from design on back of, 38, tailpiece chap, i; 22. — Terra-cotta, 108, — Vase, black-figured on white ground, detail of, 19, headpiece chap, i; 26; 91. — Vases, red-figured, details from, 40, Fig. 22; 26; 39; 68.-43, Fig. 25; 26; 44; 47; 49; 97.-48, Fig. 28; 20, n. 2; 27; 68; 72. Lyons, bronze parts of a couch in, loi. Macedonia, couch found in tomb at Pydna, see under Paris. Madrid, vase, detail from red-figured, 27, Fig. ii; 81 ; III, n. 24. Munich: Glyptothek, seats of marble, details from 91, Fig. 47; 119. Antiquarium, vase, detail from black-figured, 45, Fig. 27; cf. Plate II; 22; 44; 46; 47; 49; 76, n. 2. Naples, vases, details from red-figured, 49, Fig. 29; 37; 68.-69, Fig. 37; 17, n. i; 29; 68.— 106, Fig. 52; 104; 105. Orvieto, couch of bone from, 102 ff. Palermo, cinerary urn in, detail of, 104, Fig. 50; 30; 75- n. 5; 82; 83; 112, n. 27. Paris, Louvre: marble couch from Pydna in Mace- donia, 29, Fig. 12; 28; 80, n. i; in, n. 24. — Mules’ heads, loi. — Terra-cotta, 90 ff. — Vase, Dipylon, detail from, 20, P'ig. i; 66. Vases, Corinthian, details from, 21, Fig. 2; 20; 49; 67. —22, Fig. 4; 21; 23, n. I, 37; 45; 67; 80, n. i. —67, Fig. 35; 21; 73, n- 3- Paros, Roman gravestones on the island of, 36, Fig. 18 and 76, Fig. 40; 35; 38; 75; in, n. 18. Pergamon, fragments of a marble couch found at, 93 ff- Pompeii, duck’s head found at, 100. — Marble table in “House of Meleager” in, 95, Fig. 48; 94. Pydna, couch found in tomb at, see under Paris. ' Find spots (so far as known) and jjrescnl situations of objects pictured in tliis book. Other ini[)ortant objects referred to under the names of i)laces are included in the general indc.x. 127 128 INDEX OF PLACES Rome: Museo Kircheriivw, cinerary urn, 31, Fig. 14; 16, n. 3; 30; 34; 38; 75, n. 5; 82; 112, n. 27. Masco di Papa Giiilio, sarcophagus, 79, Fig. 43; 23; 44; 45; 76, n. 2; 80. Masco Torlonio, sarcophagus, cover of, 34; 35, Fig. 17; 69. St. Petersburg, vase, detail from red-figured, 82, Fig. 44; 27; 50, n. 2; 68; 75; 81; 83, n. 8; 86. Syria, sarcophagus from, see under Constantinople. Vathia, couch in tomb at, 70, Fig. 38; 28; 69; 75; 81 ; 94; III, n. 26. Vienna, bronze upright of an end-rest, loi. Vienne, bronze mules’ heads found at, loi. Wurzburg, vase, detail from red-figured, 22, Fig. 5; 23; 24; 49; 67- V STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE I ETRUSCAN TERRA-COTTA CINERARY VKN.— British Museum. STUDIES /.V ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE II RELIEFS ON TERRA-COTTA MODEL OF A COXJCB..— Louvre. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE IV FRAdMKNT OF ANCIRNT MARBLR RKl’RODUCTION OF A COLK'II. FRONT-VIKW SII(-)\VIN(i VALANCR . — Pcrgamon Museum, Berlin. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE V FRAGMENT OF ANCIENT MARBLE REPRODUCTION OF A COUCH. TOP-VIEW SHOWING INTERLACING . — Pergamon Museum, Berlin. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE VI FRAGMENT OF ANCIENT MARBLE REPRODUCTION OF A COUCH— Perga mon Museum, Berlin. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE VII a b TWO SMALL TERRA-COTTAS— ' .',?'■?*'■ «"'!■»- ■*fc ’ •* y ' i. ' - ;:v -■ i - ' i - ’. .. '* •-■' . ^ . "Ci .r/fjijiV •4Ai;£r\'*' *AUfSreJ • ^» irf.** >*' .^4T7 «i STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE VIII PARTS OF COUCH RESTORED AS A SEAT .—British Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE IX BRONZE ATTACHMENTS OF COUCH RESTORED AS A SY.AT.— British Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE X BRONZE ATTACHMENTS OF COUCH RESTORED AS A SEAT.— British Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XI UPRIGHTS OP FULCRUM OF A COUCH.— ZIr;7«// Museum. Sl'UDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XII UPRIGHTS OF FULCRA OF COUCHES.— Musciuii. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XIII UPPER CORNER-ORNAMENT OF FULCRUM OF A COUCH.— Brilish Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XIV Uri’KR CORNER-ORNAMENTS OE FULCRA OF COVCllKS.—Brilisli Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT EURNITURE, I PLATE XV A B UPPKR CORNKR-ORNAMKNTS OF FULCRA OF COUCHES— C D ORNAMENTS OF FULCRA OF COUCUKS— British Museum. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XVI UPRIGHT OF FULCRUM OF A COUCH.— STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XVII UPPER FRONT CORNER-ORNAMENTS OF EUI.CRA OF A COUCU— Louvre. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XVIII STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XIX PLATE XX STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXI FUNERARY COUCH. BONE ORNAMENT FROM LOWER! CORNER OF A FULCRUM.— E/cW Columbian Museum, Chicago. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXII STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXIII FUNKRARY COUCH. HEAD OF LION CARVED IN liOSiK.— Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXIV I'UNI'.RARY Cf^UCII. FIGURICS CARVGil) IN HONlv Columbian Museum, Chicago. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXV FUNERARY COUCH. FIGURES CARVED IN liONE.— F/cW Columbian Museum, Chicago. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXVI 1/ ^ T' rUNKRARY COUCH. IIF.AD OF LION CARVKl) IN RONE.— F/e/d Columbian Museum, Chicago. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXVII STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXVIII RELIEF IN LEAD. PROBABLY FROM END-PIECE OF A COFFIN.— Be;-//;;. STUDIES IN ANCIENT FURNITURE, I PLATE XXIX a a. SMALI. TKRRA-COTTA.— h. SMALL Tl'-RRA-COTTA . — British Museum. V. ts 1 iis aiiiiii