Ulrich Middeldorf 
 
USE OF STUDENTS; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY FIFTY -ONE ENGRAVINGS, 
 
 PLAIN AND COLOURED, 
 
 CONTAINING SEVERAL HUNDRED EXAMPLES, FROM THE WORKS OF THE 
 . GREATEST MASTERS. 
 
 BY GEORGE HAMILTON, 
 
 DRAWING-MASTER. 
 
 Houtton : 
 
 PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, 
 
 No. 47, LUDGATE HILL ; 
 
 AND TO BE HAD OF ALL BOOKSELLERS, WITH THE FULL 
 ALLOWANCE TO MASTERS AND SCHOOLS. 
 
 (Price Twenty -seven Shillings Half -hound.) 
 
 1812 . 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 No Art is so instructive to the mind, so improving 
 to the taste, and so pleasing an employment, as that of 
 Drawing. Exercise and improvement in it bring us 
 into contact, and intimate acquaintance, with every kind 
 of object ; and an obligation to pourtray with accuracy, 
 calls for the exertion of the most precise discrimination, 
 and serves as a practical illustration of every species of 
 knowledge. 
 
 How vague are our conceptions of things before we 
 have had occasion to draw their outline, shadow them, 
 and colour them ! Drawing is, in fact, a universal lan- 
 guage, intelligible to all nations, and in its exercise teach- 
 ing universal knowledge. No study, therefore, is more 
 beneficial to youth, none more useful in middle age, 
 and none more gratifying in the listless period of decre- 
 pitude. 
 
 As a branch of liberal, and even of necessary and 
 useful education, thi^ Art has long been generally 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 recognized in considerable schools ; and if it has not 
 been introduced more generally, the omission may 
 perhaps be ascribed to the total want of an Elementary 
 Book, serving as an Assistant to the Master, and as a 
 practical guide to the Student. Such a Volume is here 
 submitted to the Public ; its purpose being that of 
 a book of examples, and a compendium of instruction 
 for Drawing Masters — a substitute for living 
 Instructors in Schools, where their assistance cannot 
 be procured or afforded, — and a means, in many ne- 
 cessary instances, of learning to draw without a 
 Master. 
 
 It is the Author’s presumption to believe, that the 
 Student will be a Master of the Art as soon as he has 
 produced perfect copies of the various examples con- 
 tained in this Work, and has read, and studied with 
 attention, the observations, instructions, and principles 
 contained in the letter press. 
 
 Aware, as the Author has repeatedly declared 
 in the work, that none but superior examples should 
 be copied and studied, he scarcely need to observe, that 
 nearly the whole of his subjects are taken from the 
 Works of the greatest Masters, and may therefore be 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 V 
 
 drawn with confidence, and relied on as authorities, in 
 their outline and treatment. In this age of Art, when 
 every well-educated person is either an amateur or con- 
 noisseur, it would have been trifling to have exhibited an 
 Elementary Work of the low character of the ordinary 
 Drawing Books; the Author has, therefore, attempted to 
 attain a character of novelty, and to soar above me- 
 diocrity : — on that principle founding his claims to the 
 preference and patronage of the Public. 
 
 He has purposely confined his instructions to 
 Drawing only, as practised in outline, in shadow, and in 
 water-colours; and has not treated of other branches 
 of the Art, because the major part of Students require 
 nothing further, — because what he has done is the foun- 
 dation of every other branch, — and because other 
 branches, after what is contained herein, are rather con- 
 sequential and mechanical, than novel or liberal. 
 
 With respect to the mode of teaching or studying 
 this Art, little can be added to the practical directions 
 scattered through every part of the letter press ; but 
 if the Author may advise with additional emphasis in 
 this place, he would recommend, that freedom in each 
 set of examples should be followed by the practice of 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 copying those objects after nature. The effort may be 
 difficult at first, but the difficulty will speedily vanish, 
 while the advantages will be solid, and the gratification 
 excessive. Not only will the facility of drawing be 
 improved, and the manner become decided ; but the 
 ideas of light and shade will be corrected, and the 
 principles of perspective, established by practice, will be 
 duly felt and ascertained. Let the Tutor and the Stu- 
 dent bear in mind, that the means of this study are 
 prints, and examples of Masters, but that its end is 
 accurately to pourtray Nature. 
 
 In taking leave of his readers, the Author may, 
 perhaps, without improper egotism, remark, that his is 
 the first arranged and comprehensive work on this Art 
 ever published in England ; he calculates, therefore, on 
 the cordial support of Masters in general, and on the 
 liberal sanction and recommendation of his work 
 among the intelligent part of the Public. 
 
 London, 
 
 July ^th, 1812. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pag; 
 
 DEFINITIONS 1 
 
 Invention, 3.. . Composition, 4... Design, . 5 .. .Designs, 6... 
 Colouring, 7- 
 
 IMPLEMENTS 9 
 
 Drawing-boards, 9.. . Pencils, 13... Indian Ink, 15.. .Chalks, 
 
 19, &c.. . Paper, 23. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 13 
 
 Study, 26.. . Outline. 29.. . Division, 33.. . Situation of Paper, 
 
 35. 
 
 LIGHT AND SHADE 16 
 
 General Rule, 36.. . Relief, 37, &e.. . Distances, 40., . Lights, 
 
 42, &c. 
 
 HUMAN FIGURE 19 
 
 Its parts, 46... Order, 47.. . .Proportions, 52.. . Of Children, 
 
 52.. . Statues, 52, Obs.. . .Care, 54, 55, &c.. . Proportion of 
 
 head, &c.. . Figure, 63, &c.. . Opposing parts, 65.. . Portrait, 
 
 66, &c.. . Expression, 69.. . Air, 70.. .The passions, 71, &c. 
 
 ..Attention, 78 Admiration, 79 Veneration, 81... 
 
 Rapture, 82.. . Desire, 83.. . Laughter, 85.. . Pain, 86, &c.. . 
 Weeping, 89, 90.. . Scorn, 91.. . Horror, 92.. .Terror, 93.. . 
 Anger, 94.. . Hatred, 95.. . Despair, 96, 
 
 anatomy 37 
 
 Its use, 97.. . Bones, 28, &c,. .Head, 102, &c.. .Trunk, 105, 
 
 &c.. . Extremities, 110, &c.. . .Muscles, 118, &c.. . .Position, 
 
 124. 
 
 > DRAPERY 4G 
 
 Its folds, &c. 130, &c.. . Its motiph, 135, &c. 
 
vlii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 PERSPECTIVE 48 
 
 Its object, 139... Its principle, 140, 141. ..The point of sight 
 
 and ground line, 142, &c The point of distance, 145. 
 
 The ground and perspective planes, 146.. . Diagrams, 147.. . 
 Vanishing points, 148, and Obs. 149, &c. and Ob Prac- 
 
 tical rules, 153, and Observations.. . .Proportion of objects, 
 
 155, &c,, . Arithmetical rule, 158, &c. 
 
 ON COLOURING 57 
 
 Natural and artificial colouring, 161, &c... Their opposition 
 and arrangement, l64, &c.. . Light and shade, 170, &c... 
 Gradations of Indian ink, l63, and Obs, . .Varied tints, 175, 
 and Observations.. . Primitive colours, 176, &c.. . Dark and 
 light colours, I78.. . Single and compound colours, 179, 180. 
 
 . . Mixed colours, 181.. . Composition of various colours, 181 
 Observations., . Colouring landscapes, 186, &c.. .Skys, &c, 
 
 188, &c.. .Trees, 19O, &c.. . Retiring hills, I93.. . Finishing, 
 194... Gum water, I94 Observation. .... .Liquid gold, I94 
 Observations. 
 
 FLOWERS, ANIMALS, &c 75 
 
 Fruits, 195.. . Flowers, 196., .Trees, I97.., Birds and quadru- 
 peds, 197-. . Particular fruits, 198,. . Particular flowers, 199, 
 and Obs,. . Horses, &c. 200.. . Birds, 201 . 
 
 ENLARGING AND CONTRACTING 84 
 
 Varying the size, 202, and Obs. 
 
 BEAUTY, &c 85 
 
 Beauty, 204, 205,. . Simplicity, 206,. . .Uniformity 207-. • -Re- 
 gularity, 208.. . Variety, 209.. . Proportion, 210, and Obser- 
 vations., . .Colour, 212.. .Form, 213... -.Expression, 214... 
 Grace, 215, &c. and Observations.. . Symmetry, 219, and 
 Observation. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Oi 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate I,. . Elementary Forms. 
 
 Plate II.. . The Nose. 
 
 Plate III.. . The Eyes, 
 
 Plate IV., . The Nose, Mouth, and Chin. 
 
 Plate V.. . The Ear. 
 
 Plate VI,. . Proportions of the Head. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Plate VII.. . Head, from the Cartoons of Raffaelle. 
 
 Plate VIII.. . Head, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate IX.. . Head, from Le Bren. 
 
 Plate X.. . Admiration, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate XI.. . Terror and Fright. 
 
 Plate XII.. . Hands and Arms, from the Cartoons of Raffaelle. 
 Plate XIII.. . Feet, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate XIV.. . Children, from Cipriani. 
 
 Plate XV.. , Boys, from Cipriani. 
 
 Plate XVI.. . From Morland. 
 
 Plate XVII.. . From Ditto. 
 
 Plate XVIII.. . The Bones. 
 
 Plate XIX.. . The Muscles. 
 
 Plate XX.. . Ditto. 
 
 Plate XXI.. . Ditto. 
 
 Plate XXII.. . Hercules. 
 
 Plate XXIII. , . Apollo Belvidere and Antinous. 
 
 Plate XXIV.. . The Laocoon. 
 
 Plate XXV.. . Heads of Animals. 
 
 Plate XXVI... I he Goat. 
 
 Plate XX VII... The Ass. 
 
 Plate XXVIII... The Horse. 
 
 Plate XXIX.. . The Wild Boar and Dog. 
 
 Plate XXX., Bull and Cow. 
 
 Plate XXXI,. . Outline Groups. 
 
 Plate XXXII.. . Outline Groups. 
 
 Plate XXXIII.. . Group of Horses, from Howett, 
 
 Plate XXXIV.. . Military Macaw. 
 
 Plate XXXV.. . Progressive Lesson — Cottages, 
 
 Plate XXXVI., . Cottage Landscape. 
 
 Plate XXXVII. . . Cottage Landscape. 
 
 Plate XXXVIII... Ditto. 
 
 Plate XXXIX.. . Ditio. 
 
 Plate XL.. . Landscape, with Horses and Water, 
 
 Plate XLL. , Sea Piece, from Vandervelde. 
 
 Plate XLIL. . Plain Landscape, preparatory for colouring, 
 Plate XLIIL. . Coloured Landscape, after Varley. 
 
 Plate XLIV.. . Pink. — Progressive Lesson. 
 
 Plate XLV.. . Flowe's, with Buds. 
 
 Plate XLVL. . Group of Flowers, 
 
 Plate XLVIL. . Cherries, from Whichelo. 
 
 Plate XLVIIT.. . Peaches, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate XLIX.. . Fishes, from Elmer. 
 
 Plate L... Shells, 
 
 Plate LI., . Butterflies, 
 
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ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 
 
 1. The object of the Arts of Drawing is to represent Nature, 
 animated or unanimated, so as to revive the recollection, or 
 preseive the likeness, of any object or scene. This purpose 
 is effected by means of pencils, chalk, crayons, indian-ink, 
 or water-colours, on paper, vellum, or ivory. 
 
 2. Drawing, in a more general sense, is the art of repre- 
 senting all objects of nature visibly, by lines and colours on a 
 plain surface. It has also the power of expressing, by the 
 same means, conceptions and images of the mind which do 
 not actually exist in nature, and is to be considered as an art 
 displaying, either conjointly or separately, the powers of ima- 
 gination and imitation : being divided into Invention, Com- 
 position, Design, and Colouring. 
 
 Ohervalion. Amongst the artists of antiquity Appelles was the 
 most eminent for the beauty of his drawing. Since the revival of 
 the art, Michael Agnolo appears to have been the most learned 
 draughtsman, Raffaelle the most correct and graceful. The Roman 
 and Florentine Schools excelled all others in this fundamental part 
 of painting, Of the former, Raffaelle, Romano, Polydore, and their 
 
 B 
 
r> 
 
 ELEMENTS OP THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 scholars; of the latter, Agnolo, Vinci, and Sarto, have been the 
 most excellent. In the Bolognese school, Annibal Caracci is par- 
 ticularly distinguished. In the French school, Poussin, Le Sajur, 
 and Le Brun. In our own, Mortimer and Barry have been the most 
 celebrated. 
 
 3. Invisntion consists generally in the choice of such 
 subjects as are best calculated to answer some great and inte- 
 resting end; and particularly in discovering or selecting such 
 subjects as are capable of being most appropriately expressed 
 by painting, and of producing a powerful effect by such means 
 as are within the compass of that art. 
 
 4. Composition regards the arrangement of the subject, 
 both as to forms, and to the general effects of light and shade, 
 and colour. It comprehends the general distribution and 
 grouping of tlie figures, their combinations or contrasts, the 
 choiee of attitudes, the disposal of draperies, the situation of 
 the scene itself, as well as the distribution and connection of 
 the various parts of scenery and ornament. Composition 
 in architecture is the due arrangement of tlie parts of an or- 
 der or building. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . To make d good design or picture, the composition should 
 not le overcharged. A composition is said to be overcharged when 
 the component parts, either by their multiplicity, arrangement, or 
 distribution, destroy the effect of the whole, or do not contribute to 
 the object of the piece. It is not the quantity or number of subjects 
 introduced that renders a composition rich ; but, on the contrary, they 
 often destroy the simplicity and truth of the story intended to be 
 related. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In- composition those figures that particularly relate to 
 the story are called principals, and the less essential ones that complete 
 the groupe, accessories. In the language of the arts accessories are 
 those objects which are introduced into a design without being indis- 
 pensably necessary to the elucidation of the subject. In an historical 
 design the figures which act and explain the subject are the principals, 
 and the rest accessories, — As for instance : — In designing the story of 
 Telemachus relating his adventures to Calypso in the cave, after bin 
 
ELEMENTS OP THE ART OP DRAWING. 3 
 
 shipwreck on the island of the Goddess j Calypso, Telemachus, and 
 Mentor, are principals} but some Nymphs, introduced to perfect the 
 grouping, are accessories. Fruit, vases, &c. are also proper acces- 
 sories, which, at the same time, considerably enrich the composition, 
 Ohs. 3. The artist who aspires above mediocrity, should he care- 
 ful in the choice of accessories in his composition, as a superabundance, 
 or improper application of them, will infallibly ruin the best com- 
 position, He should use and dispose them in such a manner as not 
 to spoil the effect of the principal groupe, with which they should 
 always concur, and at the same time assist the general effect. The 
 most skilful painters and sculptors of antiquity have avoided acces- 
 soiies in their compositions, which, however, often occasions too great 
 driness and insipidity } but omitting them altogether is much to be 
 preferred to introducing them improperly, for nothing is more insup- 
 portable to the eye of a true judge of perfection in art, than to see 
 designs crowded with accessories which have no connection with the 
 principal object, or where they are only introduced to fill up or con- 
 ceal the vacuity of the principal object, or the want of genius in the 
 artist. To avoid a poverty of grouping in composition is of as much 
 consequence as its opposite extreme, and should be as carefully 
 avoided. A just composition includes, of truth and propriety of group- 
 ing, correctness of costume, and appropriate action and expression. 
 
 Ohs. 4. The principal fgures, which decide what is the subject, 
 should have the principal place in the picture, and should be so placed 
 as to engage and strike the eye at the frst glance. This is one of the 
 most important things to be remembered in composing a design, and 
 is one of the most prominent excellencies- in the great masters.— 
 Raffaelle particularly observed this j— St. Paul, in his cartoon of 
 that Apostle preaching at Athens, stands decidedly principal ; his situ- 
 ation, his attitude, his form, is most prominent. In Rubens’ De- 
 scent from the Cross, the dead body of Christ is in the principal 
 
 place, catches the principal light, and is altogether the principal 
 figure. 
 
 Paint not conspicuous on the foremost plain 
 Whate’er is false, impertinent, or vain } 
 
 But, like the Tragic Muse, thy lustre throw. 
 
 Where the chief action claims its warmest glow." 
 
4 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Ohs. 5. The principal Jigures should not he hidden hy any of 
 the other Jigures or accessories, however grouped ; on the contrary, the 
 judicious artist should make all the second-rate figures and accessories 
 serve to elucidate the story, and render the principal figure more obvi- 
 ously in sight. 
 
 Ohs, 6. The principal groupe should receive the principal light, 
 and the principal figure of that groupe the principal light of that 
 groupe. By this means, the attention of the spectator is immediately 
 directed to the most important part of the picture, the subject sooner 
 developes itself to his mind, and the subordinate parts arise in suc- 
 cession, and prepossesses him more forcibly in favour of the work. 
 
 Ohs. 7. In grouping (or in the composition of groupes) let every 
 figure appear to hold a just situation, and without appearance of 
 restraint conform to an agreeable form in that groupe j and if more 
 than one groupe is introduced, let them, as well as the single Jigures, he 
 different in general form and composition. A neglect of this precept 
 will occasion a tiresome and blameable monotony, that will be de- 
 structive to the best drawing, colouring, and expression individually 
 painted. In the works of the great Raffaelle this beauty and fault are 
 both perceptible. In the cartoon of Paul preaching at Athens, there 
 is a wonderful contrast of the figures and grouping. 
 
 5. Design is the first idea of a large work, drawn roughly, 
 with an intention to be executed and finished. The essential 
 requisites of Design are correctness, taste, elegance, character, 
 expression, and perspective. 
 
 Correctness depends on the justness of the proportions, 
 and knowledge of anatomy. 
 
 Taste is a certain correctness of manner peculiar to the 
 artist, derived either from nature, masters, or studies, or all of 
 them united, producing elegance. 
 
 Character is what is peculiar to each thing, in which there 
 must be diversity, insomuch that every thing has Its peculiar 
 character to distinguish it. 
 
 Expressim is the representation of an object, according to 
 the circumstances it is supposed to be in. 
 
 Perspective is the representation of the parts of a paint- 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 5 
 
 ing, or a figure, according to the situation they are in with re- 
 gard to the point of sight and to each other. 
 
 Obs. 1. Designs are sometimes drawn in crayons, or ink without 
 any shadows. Sometimes etched j that is, the shadows are expressed 
 by sensible outlines, usually drawn across each other with the pen or 
 crayon. Sometimes the shadows are done with the crayon rubbed so 
 as that there do not appear any line : at other times, the grains or 
 strokes of the crayon appear, as not being rubbed : sometimes the de- 
 sign is washed, that is, the shadows are done with a brush in indian- 
 ink, or some other liquor : and sometimes the design is coloured, 
 that is, colours are laid on much like those intended for the ground 
 work. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The art of designing is to be acquired chiefly by study and 
 observation, rules being of less avail than in any other branch of art. 
 The principal rules that regard design are, that novices should accus- 
 tom themselves to copy good originals at first sight ; not to use 
 squares in reducing, lest they stint and confine their judgment ; to de- 
 sign well from life, before they practise perspective j to learn to ad- 
 just the size of their figures to the visual angle, and the distance of 
 the eye from the model or object j to mark out all the parts of their 
 design before they begin to shade ; to make their contours in great 
 pieces, without taking notice of the little muscles, and other breaks j 
 to make themselves masters of the rules of perspective ; to observe 
 the perpendicular, parallel, and distance, of every stroke j to compare 
 and oppose the parts that meet and traverse the perpendicular, so as 
 to form a kind of square in the mind, which is the great, and almost 
 the only, rule of designing justly j to have regard not only to the 
 model, but to the parts already designed, there being no such thing as 
 designing with exactness, but by comparing and proportioning every 
 part to the first object. 
 
 6. Designs are denominated Historical, Architectural, 
 Landscape, Marine, Portrait, Still-life, Flower, Animal, ac- 
 cording to their respective subjects. 
 
 Historical Painting is that kind in which the figures 
 are made to concur in representing sotne action described ia 
 history. 
 
6 ELEMENTS OE THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Ohs. Although this is the strict definition of the term, yet cus- 
 tom has given greater latitude to the phrase, as it now comprises, in 
 the language of the arts, subjects taken from mythology, allegory, 
 battles, and sometimes even portraits. Historical design is, in the 
 language of the elegant author of the Elements of Art, 
 
 Big with the moral of each maddening age. 
 
 War’s ruffian power, and revolution’s rage. 
 
 Grave history presents her ample stores. 
 
 And man’s fierce passions while she paints deplores.” 
 Shee’s Elements of Art, Canto 4. v. 1 Q 5 . 
 
 Architectural Drawings are representations of build- 
 ings, drawn eitlier geometrically or perspectively, according to 
 the rules of architecture. 
 
 Ohs. This is a very important study, and is followed as a profes- 
 sion, the professors of which are termed Architects. But to be a painter 
 or draughtsman of architectural views already executed, does not re- 
 quire so much study. An insight into the elements of the orders, their 
 arrangement, and a knowledge of perspective, are sufficient. Archi- 
 tecture is also an important accessory to the historical and portrait 
 painter, and should be attentively studied. The blunders in architec- 
 ture committed by modern artists is the less excusable, because it can 
 be so easily remedied, and is such a palpable deficiency in any artist. 
 Mr. Shee describes it as “ the stately art,” which 
 
 Supplies of ornament and use she brings. 
 
 Proud fanes for gods, and palaces for kings. 
 
 To noblest acts a suited scene provides. 
 
 And o’er the back-ground’s gorgeous store presides.” 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto 2. v. pi. 
 
 Landscape Drawing, or Landscape, as it is generally 
 called, is that class of drawings, paintings, or engravings, 
 which represent some view of the country. 
 
 Ohs. This is a branch of art the most delightful in its effects and 
 agreeable in its study. The great variety of beauties that it contains, 
 render it among the most attractive of the arts of design. It calls in 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 7 
 
 all the accidents of nature, and even of art, to its composition, from 
 the solitude and horror of the rocky desert, the sublimity of the 
 forest, the calm beauty of the flowery meadow, the stillness of the 
 limpid stream, to the destructive tempest. In short, every mild or 
 strong effect that nature is capable of producing. 
 
 “ The landscape artist, gay and deftly moves 
 
 Through glade, glen, valley, woodland, green alcoves.” 
 Tresham’s Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 6 . v. 89. 
 
 Marine Drawings are those which take into their re- 
 presentation, not only views of the sea, but shipping, sea- 
 ports, naval battles, and similar subjects. 
 
 Ol)S. This is a branch of art connected with the last, as being 
 derived from the same source, an attentive study of nature j but it 
 requires, in addition, a knowledge of the naval sciences, naval archi- 
 tecture, and perspective. Few men would, like Vernet, the most 
 distinguished marine painter of the French school, venture to sea in 
 the most tempestuous weather, when, made fast to the shrouds, he 
 observed attentively, and treasured up incidents for the magical pic- 
 tures which he has left. 
 
 " What daring artist in a storm 
 
 Grappled with terror, imitate Vernet, 
 
 Or Wilson like, secure, sublimely flies 
 Through troubled waters and ill-omen’d skies.” 
 
 Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 5. V. 47 . 
 
 Portrait Painting is that department of art which 
 represents, in any manner, the figure and exact resemblance 
 of any particular person. 
 
 Ol>s. This department of the fine arts is, next to its critical 
 design, (which, to a degree, assimilates with it) one of the most use- 
 ful and most interesting. It maintains among the arts a most 
 distinguished rank, when performed with ability 5 but is, when ill- 
 done, or even in mediocrity, unworthy of much estimation. The 
 essential qualities to form a good portrait are, correct drawing, an 
 
,Q 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 exact and perfect representation of the person represented, natural 
 colouring, an easy unaffected air, attitude, and character. 
 
 Animal Painting, unconnected with other divisions of 
 the arts, is the representation of -the portraits of animals, 
 either in action or at rest. 
 
 Obs. To paint or design animals well, is a respectable province 
 in art, and requires much study and perseverance. They should 
 always be represented naturally j their action should be characteristic j 
 and their anatomy well understood. 
 
 Still-life, is the representation of inanimate substances, 
 when unconnected with living nature and historical facts. 
 
 Ohs. This department of art, although it has its merits, is one of 
 the lowest. It embraces the correct copying of furniture, glasses, 
 musical instruments, fruit, vegetables, &c. when mixed together on a 
 table; but if each kind is taken separately, they are then classed 
 under fruit, flowers, &c. The Dutch masters have long been cele- 
 brated as excelling in this tedious and laborious branch of art, which 
 requires but little invention, and less genius. Imitation of such dull 
 fac-similies should be avoided by students of real genius; minutiae 
 mongers,” 
 
 “ Who spend on petty cares their puny powers. 
 
 And live to polish pores and hairs, and flowers.” 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto 5. v. 281. 
 
 or who, like 
 
 Batavians paint with microscopic truth. 
 
 Foul linen, squalling brats, and feats uncouth ; 
 
 Their native nature; native filth embrace. 
 
 And chastely shun that foreign harlot— G race.” 
 
 Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 6. v. 75. 
 
 Flower Painting, is the representation of flowers, 
 arranged in some beautiful order, and composed only of flowers, 
 with, perhaps, the addition of a vase or basket to hold them. 
 
 Obs. Flower painting, when executed with botanical correctness, 
 is an enticing and beautiful line of art. When flowers are used as 
 accessories to history or portrait, a much less careful finishing and 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING, 
 
 9 
 
 arrangement are necessary than when they make a distinct picture of 
 themselves. In this case, they should be careful portraits of the 
 flowers, and a certain knowledge of botany is as indispensably neces- 
 sary to excel in flower painting as anatomy in portrait or history. 
 
 7 . Colouring or Shadowing regards, first, the infinite 
 variety of hues, with which nature distinguishes her forms, 
 agreeably to the degree and mixture of the rays of light which 
 their surfaces reflect ; and, secondly, the distribution, apposi- 
 tion, and accompaniment, of various hues or tints, so as to 
 produce the effect most pleasing to the sight ; a circumstance 
 in which nature does not always delight. It embraces, also, the 
 liglit and shade of objects, as far as by the diminution or in- 
 crease of these the harmony of tints before-mentioned can be 
 effected; but that mixed effect of colour and of light, and 
 shade, w'hich is denominated chiaro-scuro, is more justly re- 
 garded as a branch of composition. 
 
 Ois. The perfection of an artist depends, therefore, on Inven- 
 tion, Composition, Design, and Colouring, conjointly; yet it is 
 by the last of these only that he can establish a special idea of his art, 
 since it is by this that he gives effect to the former, whether he depend 
 on light and shade, or endeavour to imitate the tints of nature. This 
 subject will be resumed at length in the subsequent part of the work. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 
 
 8. The Implements necessary for drawing are, a drawing- 
 board, a ruler, compasses, charcoal, black-lead pencils, pen- 
 knife, porte-crayons, black, white, and red chalk, crayons, 
 Indian- ink, crow-quill pens, camels’-hair pencils, boxes of 
 colours, paper of several sorts, and poite-folios. 
 
 9. Drawing-boards are used to fix the paper so that it 
 may not shift, and also to strain it, to prevent the colours, when 
 laid wet on the paper, from causing it to swell, so as to become 
 uneven. Tire simplest sort is made of a deal-board, framed 
 
10 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING - 
 
 square, with a strong piece across each endj to prevent warp- 
 ing. Upon this the paper may be fixed with pins, wafers, or 
 sealing-wax, or it may be strained wdth paste or glue. The 
 best kind of drawing-boards, however, are made with a frame 
 and moveable pannel, upon whieh the paper is simply put wet, 
 and then forced into the frame, where it is confined by wedges 
 at the back. This strains without the trouble of pasting, so 
 that you may dry it at the fire ; and it also looks much neateiv 
 Such drawing-boards may be bought at most colour-shops. 
 
 10. Parallel Rulers are used for drawing parallel 
 lines; they are made of two pieces of ebony fastened together 
 by brass bars, so as always to open parallel to each other. 
 
 11. Tee-squares are rulers made in the form of a T, 
 which are used with drawing-boards ; the short end, called the 
 stock, being applied to the edge of the board, so as to slide 
 forwards and backwards, while the long part, called the blade, 
 is used for drawing lines by. These are more convenient than 
 parallel rulers, when a drawing-board is used, as by them you 
 rule lines at right angles to each other at once, \vithout using 
 the compasses. 
 
 12. Drawing -compasses are instruments of brass and 
 steel, for dividing lines, and laying down measures from scales, 
 &c. They are generally sold in cases, containing also a steel 
 PEN, for drawing lines cleaner than can be done by a common 
 pen, and are very useful where neatness is required ; and points 
 with a black-lead pencil, for putting into the compass, when 
 circles are to be described. These cases also contain scales of 
 equal parts ; and protractors for laying down angles. 
 
 13. Black-lead Pencils are made of a mineral substance, 
 called plumbago, or black-lead, sawed into slips, and fitted into 
 sticks of cedar. They are either hard or soft ; the best are 
 w'ithout any grit, not too soft, and cut easily without breaking. 
 The inferior kind is made by mixing the dust of black-lead 
 with gum or glue, and forming a composition ; these are gritty 
 and brittle, and do not answer so well. 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWiNCf, 11 
 
 Ols. Accustom yourself to hold your pencil farther from the 
 point than you do in writing, which will give you a better command 
 of it, and contribute to render your strokes more fiee and bold. The 
 use of your pencil is to draw the first sketches or outlines of your 
 piece j as any stroke or line that is amiss may be more easily rubbed 
 out j and when you have made your sketch as correct as you can with 
 the pencil, you may then carefully mark the best outline you have 
 got with the crow-quill pen and indian-ink. 
 
 14. Indian-rubber has the useful property of erasing 
 lines drawn with hlack-lead, and is brought from South 
 America, in the form of small bottles, which, for use, should be 
 cut into slips. 
 
 0/:s. This very curious substance is originally the juice of a tree 
 that grows abundantly in Surinam, and is like mil.< when exuded from 
 the tree, but soon becomes solid. The natives form balls of clay, 
 which they smear over with this milk, and when this coating is dry, 
 they apply another, and so on, till it is of the required thickness j they 
 then moisten the clay and wash it out. These bottles are used by the 
 natives for carrying water, or other liquors. It is a production com- 
 mon to the East Indies also, whence it is imported in various forms, 
 more convenient for use than in the bottles above-mentioned. 
 
 15. Indian-ink is a very useful substance, brohght 
 from China, where it is used for ordinary writing, which the 
 Chinese perforrn with a brush instead of a pen. It is a solid 
 substance, of a brownish-black colour, and is conjectured to 
 be made of the gall of a species of cuttle-fish. When ground 
 up with water upon a clean tile, shell, or earthenware plate, it 
 may be made either lighter or darker, as required, by adding to 
 it more or less water. The best is always stamped with Chi- 
 nese characters, breaks with a glossy fracture, and feels smooth, 
 and not gritty, when rubbed against the teeth. An inferior 
 kind, made in this country, may easily be known by its grit- 
 tiness. 
 
 Obs. Having completed the outlines, indian-ink is used for sha« 
 dowing, as it may be diluted with water, so as to be of any required 
 
12 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 darkness, and may be softened or fined off, where the objects require 
 it, with water only and a clean hair-pencil. 
 
 ] 6. Hair-pencils are made of camels’-hair, put into a 
 goose or swan's quill. Moisten them a little, and if they come 
 to a point without splitting, they are good ; if not, they are not 
 fit for drawing. The brushes used by the Chinese, made of a 
 white hair fitted up in reeds, are very excellent for drawing, as 
 they are more elastic. They are not sold in common, but may 
 sometimes be met with. 
 
 17* Charcoal is used for slightly sketching the outlines 
 of figures, in order to get the proportions previous to making 
 a drawing in chalk. The best charcoal for this purpose is that 
 of the willow ; it is cut into slips, and the strokes made with 
 it may easily be rubbed out with a feather of goose’s or duck’s 
 wing. 
 
 18. Porte Crayons, are tubes made of brass or steel, 
 and calculated to hold chalks, pencils, crayons, charcoal, &c. 
 
 19. Black-chalk is a fossil substance, resembling slaty 
 coal, and is cut into slips for drawing. It is generally used in 
 aporte-crayon. It is much employed for drawing figures, and 
 is the best substance for the purpose of making drawings from 
 plaister, or after the life. It is more gritty than black-lead, 
 but is of a deeper black, and has not the glossiness of the 
 former. It is of two kinds, French and Italian ; the former is 
 soft, the latter hard. 
 
 Obs. For mellowing and softening the shadows into each other, 
 when black-chalk is used, stumps are necessary. They are pieces of 
 soft shamoy leather, or blue-paper, rolled up quite tight, and cut to a 
 point. 
 
 20. White-chalk is used, together with black, for lay- 
 ing on the lights. This is different from common chalk, be- 
 ing much harder, and tobacco-pipe clay will do very well in- 
 stead of it. 
 
 21. Red-chalk is a fossil substance of a red ochre co- 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 13 
 
 lour, sometimes used for drawing, but not so much as for- 
 merly, the black being preferred to it ; but the red, being 
 cheaper, does very well for some purposes. 
 
 Obs. Red-lead, and red or black chalk, are used in the same 
 maner as black-lead. White-chalk and tobacco-pipe clay are used in 
 heightening, or giving strong lights, and in drawing on coloured pa- 
 per. Pastils, or crayons, are any colours mixed with tobacco-pipe 
 clay, which, while soft and in the consistency of a paste, is rolled up 
 in pieces, about the thickness of a quill, and two or three inches in 
 length, and then dried : they are generally used on coloured paper 3 
 and the colours are rubbed and wrought one into another in such a 
 manner that no strokes appear, but the whole looks as if it was done 
 with a brush. 
 
 22. Drawing-paper, made without any wire-marks, 
 called wove-paper, is generally used. It is made of various 
 sizes and thickness, and may be had of every stationer. Mid- 
 dle-Tint Paper, is paper of a brownish or of a grey colour, 
 which is used for drawing upon with black and white 
 chalk. 
 
 23. Crow-pens, or Reed-pens, are used for fixing the, 
 outlines with ink, after it has been determined by the pencil. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 24. Having provided yourself with the above-mentioned 
 necessary materials, begin by drawing upright lines, and simple 
 geometrical figures, both straight and curved, either with 
 tlie pencil or chalk, holding them a greater distance from the 
 point than the pen in writing, to give freedom and command 
 to the hand. After being able, from some practice, to draw 
 upright lines, squares, polygons, ovals, &c. without rule or 
 compass, proceed to the elementary parts of the human head ; 
 a few examples of which are given in the plates. 
 
 Ols. The circle is of use in the several orbicular forms, as the 
 swn, moon, globes, See. The oval, in giving a just proportion to the 
 
14 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 face or mouth ; and the square confines any picture you are to copy. 
 The triangle is of use in drawing a side or half- face j angles, and 
 arches, in perspective ; and the polygon in ground-planes, fortifica- 
 tions, &c. The cone, in spires, steeples, tops of towers, &c. 
 
 25. Having placed whatever you mean to copy before 
 you, proceed to draw it slightly with a pencil or chalk. Then 
 look closely into it, and proceed to mend those parts that are 
 deficient, correcting it by degrees till you have brought it to 
 the highest degree of perfection. 
 
 26. Before you begin, view the original with attention ; 
 divide it in your mind into its several parts ; observe its length, 
 its breadth, and the similitude of each part ; consider their 
 proportion to each other and to the whole ; the distances from 
 one part to the other, and the parts that lie opposite to each 
 Other. 
 
 27. Whatever copies or examples you draw from, reduce 
 them to other proportions, either larger or smaller, till by re- 
 peated trials you acquire correctness of copying. 
 
 Obs. It is better to depend on the eye than on the mode of reduc.. 
 ing by corresponding squares, except when great accuracy is required. 
 
 28. Correctness of drawing should be attained before you 
 attempt either colouring or painting. If this is not acquired, 
 no perfection can be attained. The first grand requisite 
 for an artist is draujmg ; the second, drawing; and the third, 
 drawing. Mr. Shee impresses this subject very forcibly. 
 
 Ply then, the bright port-crayon till you find 
 Correctness with facility combin’d : 
 
 Till the firm outline flows at your command. 
 
 And forms become familiar to your hand.” 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto l. v. 317. 
 
 29. Outlines must be drawn in a gliding manner, large 
 and smooth, which will give them the resemblance of life and 
 motion. Correctness of outline is the first point to be attained. 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 15 
 
 and can only be the result of patient diligenccj long practice, 
 and varying the size of your copies. 
 
 Ohs. Here it is proper to admonish (he student never to be in a 
 hurry ; but to make himself perfectly master of one figure before he 
 proceeds to another, and the advantage of this will appear as he pro- 
 ceeds. Two other observations may also be added ; — 1. That he ac- 
 custom himself to draw all his figures very large, which is the only 
 way of acquiring a free, bold manner of designing. 2. That he 
 practise drawing till he has gained a tolerable command of his pencil, 
 before he attempts to shadow. 
 
 30. In drawing figures in indian-ink, the use of the 
 pencil is to draw the first sketches or outlines ; as any stroke 
 or line that is amiss, may in this be more easily rubbed out 
 than in any other material ; and when you have made your 
 sketch as correct as you can with the pencil, you may then 
 draw carefully the best outline you have got, with your crow- 
 quill pen and ink. After using the ink you may rub out the 
 pencil-lines. 
 
 31. The outlines next the light should be drawn more 
 famt ; and when you have drawn one feature, it should be a 
 direction for you, in some measure, to draw another, by ob- 
 serving with your eye the distance from that to the next fea- 
 ture, making a small mark at the place with your pencil j then 
 draw it, and so on to the next, till you have drawn the whole 
 subject. 
 
 32. Observe the middle of the picture you WDuld copy, 
 and touch it upon the paper with your pencil; afterwards ob- 
 serve the more conspicuous and prominent figures, if there are 
 more than one, which touch lightly in their proper places. 
 Observ'e also the distance of one limb, joint, or muscle, from 
 another, and the same in all other accidents of a figure; as the 
 length, breadth, turnings, &c. 
 
 33. Having drawn the outlines true with a pencil, you are 
 to proceed to trace the true lines again with a pen and Indian - 
 ipk, &c. dravving them with exactness, and imitating all the 
 
1<5 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 touchings and waivings, with their exact distances one from 
 another, and their erossings, turnings, and windings, with 
 boldness and freedom. 
 
 34. Having acquired some facility in handling the port- 
 crayon or pencil, in copying other drawings, you may proceed 
 to copy from a plaister cast, or other model, set before you, of 
 the size of nature or not, to use yourself to correctness of eye. 
 To do this the figure should be set in an advantageous light, 
 which should proceed from the left-hand side, the draughts- 
 man should sit opposite to it at some distance, at least more 
 than twice the height of the figure he copies, with the light 
 to his left-hand. 
 
 35. Begin the draught on your own left side, as Is cus- 
 tomary in writing, and by so doing, you will always have the 
 part that is done before your eyes, and the rest will follow 
 with easej whereas, if you begin on the right side, your hand 
 and arm will cover what you do first. 
 
 OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 36. The best rule for the correct distribution of Lights 
 and Shades is, to consider from what point, and in what direc- 
 tion, the light falls upon the objects, and to let all the lights 
 and shades be placed according to that direction throughout 
 the whole. It is the skilful management of light and shade 
 that gives the appearance of substance, roundness, and dis- 
 tance, and which raises the subject from the paper. 
 
 Ols. Draw a circle on a piece of paper ; fill it up with any even 
 colour, and it will appear to be a surface with a round circumference j 
 but by shadowing it stronger in the middle, and causing the colour 
 gradually to weaken towards the circumference, it will receive a con- 
 vex appearance like that of a ball or globe : wherever the vivacity of 
 colour is strongest, that part of the object catches the sight first, and 
 appears nearest to it j whereas its weakness seems to fiy farther from 
 
ELEMENTS OP THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 the sight. In rounding the parts of any object, the extremities in 
 turning must lose themselves insensibly and confusedly, without pre- 
 cipitating the light on a sudden into the shadows, or shadows into the 
 light, but the passage of the one into the other must be imperceptible 5 
 or by degrees of light into shadow, and shadow into light. 
 
 37 . Objects that are drawn light, must have a sufficient 
 breadth of shadow to sustain them; and dark bodies must 
 have a sudden light behind, to detach them from the ground, 
 or from those objects that are placed behind them; otherwise 
 they will appear coniuscdly, as sticking upon each other; 
 whereas the opposition of shade to a light object, and of light 
 
 to a daik one, gives a projection, and separates them from 
 other bodies. 
 
 38. There should be a balance preserved between the 
 lights and shadows : a broad light ought not to be introduced 
 into a draught without a large shadow. The nearer any ob- 
 ject IS to the eye, it is seen so much the stronger and plainer : 
 the sight IS vyeakened by distances, and the more remote any 
 object IS, It IS seen in a more imperfect manner. Therefore, 
 those objects which are placed foremost ought to be more 
 finished than those that are cast behind ; and objects should have 
 a dominion over each other, so that one object by its high 
 finish should seem to cause others to retire. Titian used 
 to say, that he knew no better rule for the distribution of lights 
 
 and shadows, than the observations to be drawn from a bunch 
 of grapes. 
 
 39. That part of the object, whether in naked figures, 
 rapery, or buildings, that stands farthest out, must be 
 
 made the lightest. Satins and silks, and all other shining 
 stuffs, have glaring reflections, exceedingly bright where the 
 light falls strongest. So in armour, brass pots, or any other 
 glittering metal, a sudden brightness in the middle or centre 
 
 of the light, distinguishes their shining nature See the 
 
 Plates. 
 
 40. It is not sufficient that remote objects be coloured 
 
IS liLBMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 more faintly ; but, according to their distance, the parts must 
 appear more or less distinct. Pure white, unless supported hy 
 black, will seem to fly off to the remotest parts. Pure black 
 brings the objects nearer to the sight, and must he placed in 
 masses in the foreground. A strong light requires a strong 
 shade ; a fainter light a fainter shade ; and an equal balance 
 must be preserved throughout the piece, between the lights and 
 shades. Parts which are to appear round require but one stroke 
 in shading ; and parts which are to appear steep or hollow, ren 
 quire two strokes across each other, or sometimes three. Care 
 should also ’be taken to make the outlines faint and small in 
 such parts as receive the light j but where the shadows fall, the 
 outline should be strong and bold. 
 
 41. If the objects are in the fields, or open air, or ob- 
 scured by clouds, you must then introduce a universal light, 
 and the shades must be faint. . When the sun is conspicuous, 
 and shines in full lustre, the light must be very stiong and 
 bold, and the shadows very dark. 
 
 42. A small light occasions the shadow’s on the daik side 
 to be large, and their extremities to be very bold. On the 
 other hand, a broad light makes the shadows on the daikei 
 side to be more distinct and more soft. 
 
 43. If the light falls sideways on the picture, the other 
 side, which is the farthest from the light, must be made the 
 darkest. That part of the body must be made lightest which 
 has the light most opposite to it; if the light be placed above 
 the head, then the top of the head must be made lightest; the 
 shoulders. must receive the next degree ot Hgnt; ccc. 
 
 44. Shadowing is performed with the hair-pencil, in which 
 gi’eat taste and judgment is required. The light comes in, if . 
 tiaiural, either from the right-hand or left. Whenever the 
 light appears in the middle of a picture, and glares more than 
 ordinary, it is caused by a candle, or other luminous body, and 
 is called artificial light. Two equal lights must never be made 
 in the same picture ; and the strongest light should tall upon 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 19 
 
 the middle of the piece, where the principal figure ought to 
 stand, diminishing the effect gradually towards the extre- 
 mities. 
 
 OF THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 45. Drawing the Human Figure has always been 
 considered as the most important branch of ait. The study of 
 the human figure includes all the finest principles ; and when 
 the eye of the student has been accustomed to copy faithfully 
 all the minute circumstances which constitute the character of 
 man, and to attend to the innumerable beauties and graceful 
 forms which he presents, it will be better qualified to pursue 
 every other branch of the fine arts. 
 
 46. In drawing the human figure, it is necessary to begin 
 with each part separately, and, after sufficient practice in that, 
 to proceed to put them together. The head being the most im- 
 poitant part of the human body, it should be studied first. 
 For this purpose, the student should copy the best drawings he 
 can procure of the nose, eye, mouthy and ear, separately, and 
 on a large scale; and of these a front view, profile or side 
 view, oblique view, Sic.See the Plates. 
 
 Obs. The readiest materials for drawing these, as well as all 
 other parts of the figure, are black-lead, or black-chalk ; the former 
 to be used upon white paper, and the latter upon middle-tint paper. 
 The false lines of the black-lead may be removed by the indian- 
 rubber : but the student must remember to be as sparing as possible 
 of this, as it is more improving to endeavour to draw every thing 
 correct and decided at once. The shadows may be laid on by 
 drawing parallel curve lines, according to the situation of the part, 
 crossing them occasionally, and softening them in with more delicate 
 lines. Sometimes the shadows are rubbed in, or their edges are 
 softened, with a stump, which is a very expeditious way, and produces 
 fine effect; but it should be used with discretion, as it is better to 
 
 c 2 
 
^ ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 execute the shadows in a clear and regular manner by soft lines. 
 Care should be taken not to make the lines harsh and hard, like those 
 of an engraving j they should be softer and more mellow. 
 
 47. In drawing the human figure, whether from nature 
 er otlierwise, observe the following order : — 
 
 <(, Mark out the extent on the paper that you propose 
 the figure to occupy. 
 
 'b. Sketch in the outline of the head, according to the 
 regular proportions. 
 
 -c. Proceed with the shoulders, trunk, and arms. 
 
 d. Draw ^rst the leg on which the body principally stands, 
 i«n J then the other ; find finish as before directed. 
 
 ^8. In drawing after a naked body, all the muscles are not 
 tpD be «xpressed as in anatomical figures. In drawing young- 
 persons, the muscles must not appear so hard as in elder and 
 ^11-grown persons ; the same thing is to be observed as to fat 
 and fleshy persons, and such as are very delicate and beautllul ; 
 *nd in women scarcely any muscles are to be expressed. 
 
 49. The motion of the body must be considered in draw- 
 ing the muscles ; as in the rising and falling of the arms, the 
 muscles of the breast appear either more or less ; the hips do 
 the like, as they are bent outward or inward ; and it is the 
 same in the shoulders, sides, and neck, according to the several 
 actions of the body. 
 
 50. All the parts of a human figure are composed of 
 curved surfaces; no straight lines are ever admissible, but 
 every line should have a graceful turn ; and it is this circum- 
 stance particularly that occasions the study of the figure to 
 give so much freedom in drawing. 
 
 51. Care should be taken that no lines cross each other at 
 right angles, which gives a disagreeable appearance ; neither 
 should the crossingbe too oblique, as then they appear confused; 
 a proper medium will be acquired by the study of good draw- 
 ings or prints ; in general, however, crossing should be avoided 
 as. much .as possible. 
 
THK HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 Ohs. In learning to draw, it is of more importance than ft 
 generally supposed, to copy from the finest works only. The most pre- 
 judicial quality of a model is mediocrity. The bad strike and disgust, 
 but those that are not good, nor absolutely bad, deceive us, by offering 
 a dangerous facility. Having copied frequently the parts of a face, 
 proceed next to the entire head, drawing first a front view, then a 
 profile, a three-quarter figure, and so on, varying it in every possible 
 direction, till thoroughly acquainted with the appearance of all 
 the principal lines in every situation. The student should then ac- 
 company his lessons by making observations on good casts and living 
 models j but more particularly the former, as individual nature is 
 seldom fine, and there is danger in copying what is bad, and acquiring 
 false ideas of beauty. By these exercises he will have acquired some 
 facility in handling his pencil, and he will be thus prepared for the 
 study of the whole figure. But before he can proceed to this with 
 advantage, we would recommend to him the study of anatomy. But 
 it is to be remarked, that it is not necessary for the designer to study 
 anatomy as a surgeon, nor to make himself acquainted with all the 
 nerves, veins, &c. It is sufficient to study the bones, and thf 
 muscles which cover them, and of these he should more particularly 
 make himself familiar with those muscles which most frequently 
 appear and come into action. For this purpose, he should procure 
 plaster casts of the anatomy of the human body, and consult treatises 
 written upon the subject j and if he has opportunity, it may be proper 
 afterwards to attend dissections and lectures on anatomy. Until the 
 student has imbibed a proper relish for beautiful proportions, and been 
 well-grounded in their principles, he should not proceed to draw from 
 living models. In drawing from plaster casts, a good deal depends 
 upon choosing a proper view, and placing the model properly with 
 regard to the light, which should come in obliquely from above, as it 
 generally does in the day-time. If a candle is used, it should be so 
 high as to cast the light downwards upon the model. The light 
 should only come from one part, as cross-lights distract and spoil 
 the shadows 
 
 52. In measuring of the several pafts ^ the hmns^i 
 tht moderns ordinarily divide it into ten fauifs ; th^t is^ froi» 
 
22 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, in the manner 
 following; all of which should be committed to memory; — 
 
 From the crown of the head to the forehead, is the thkd-part 
 of the face. 
 
 The face begins at the lowest hairs which are upon the fore- 
 head, and ends at the bottom of the chin. 
 
 The face is divided into three proportional parts : the first 
 contains the forehead, the second the nose, and the third the mouth 
 and chin. 
 
 From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones are two 
 lengths of the nose. 
 
 From the pit betwixt the collar-bones to the bottom of the 
 breast, one face. 
 
 From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face. 
 
 From the navel to the genitals, one face. 
 
 From the genitals to the upper-part of the knee, two faces. 
 
 The knee contains half a face. 
 
 From the lowet' part of the knee to the ancle, two faces. 
 
 From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face. 
 
 A man, when his arms are stretched out, is from the longest 
 finger of his light- hajid to the longest of his left, as broad as he 
 is long. 
 
 From one side of his breast to the other, two faces. 
 
 The bone of the arm, called humerus, is the length of two 
 faces, from the shoulder to the elbow. 
 
 From the end of the elbow to the root of the little finger, the 
 bone called cubitus, with part of the hand, contain two faces. 
 
 From the box of the shoulder-blade to the pit betwixt the 
 collar-bones, one face. 
 
 The sole of the foot is the sixth-part of the figure, 
 
 ■ The thumb contains a nose. 
 
 The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle dis- 
 appears, which makes the breast, called the pectoral muscle, to the 
 middle of the arm, four noses. 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 23 
 
 From the middle of the arm to the beginning of the hand, 
 five noses. 
 
 The utmost •parts of the teats, and the pit hetwioct the 
 collar-bdnes of a woman, make an equilateral triangle. 
 
 The hands are twice as long as they are broad, and each of 
 their parts has its length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 The length of the foot is -a sixth-part of the height. 
 
 The length oj the face and hands ought to be exactly equcd, 
 and it makes just the tenth-part of the height. 
 
 53. The rules in drawing children are as follow : — 
 
 A child contains five measures of the head. 
 
 From the top of the head to the privities, three heads, and in 
 the thighs and legs, two more. 
 
 The breadth betiveen the two shoulders, is the length of a 
 head and a half. 
 
 The bi’eadth of the body above the navel, the length of one 
 
 head. 
 
 The small of the leg, and the brawn of the arm, are of the 
 thickness of the neck. 
 
 Ohs. The following Table exhibits the proportions of the parts of 
 the famous Apollo Belvidere and Venus di Medici. Supposing the 
 figures to stand upright and duly poised on both legs, the whole 
 heighth of the former is divided into thirty-one and a half partner 
 fourths, being seven heads, three-fourths, and six-twelfths 3 and that 
 of the latter, into thirty-one parts, being seven heads and three parts. 
 
 Length of the Head and Trunk of the Body. 
 
 Apollo. 
 
 H. F. T. 
 
 From the top of the head to the bottom of 
 
 the chin four-fourths, or 1 0 0 
 
 the bottom of the chin to the top of the 
 
 sternum, or breast-bone 0 1 7 
 
 the top of the sternum to the pit of the 
 
 stomach 0 3 10 
 
 the pit of the stomach to the navel. ... 0 210 
 
 the navel to the pubis 0 3 Q 
 
 Venus. 
 H. F. T. 
 
 1 0 O 
 
 0 18 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 027 
 
 039 
 
 Length of the head and trunk of the body. , . 3 3 9 
 
 336 
 
24 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING, 
 
 Length of the Lower Extremities. 
 
 From the pubis to the small of the thigh, H. F. T. 
 
 above the patella, or knee-pan 12 6 
 
 the small of the thigh to the joint, or 
 
 middle of the knee 0 1 g 
 
 the joint of the knee to the small of the 
 
 leg above the ankle i i g 
 
 the top to the bottom of the ankle 0 1 0 
 
 the bottom of the ankle to the bottom 
 
 of the heel 0 0 g 
 
 Length of the lower extremities 3 5 g 
 
 Length of the head and trunk, as above. .. 339 
 
 Total length of the figures. .73 6 
 
 Length of the Arm. 
 
 From the top of the shoulder to the elbow. . . l 2 3 
 
 the elbow to the hand ] 1 2 
 
 the joint of the hand to the root of the 
 
 middle finger 0 1 8 
 
 the root to the top of the middle finger O 110 
 
 Length of the upper extremities. .3 2 11 
 
 H. 
 
 F. 
 
 T. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 Side View. 
 
 Length from the top of the head to the 
 
 shoulder 1 1 8 
 
 the top of the shoulder to the 
 
 loins above the hip 1 3 3 
 
 the loins to the lower part of 
 
 the hip 1 0 2 
 
 the hip to the side of the knee, 
 opposite to the top of the 
 
 patella 1 2 0 
 
 the side of the knee to the 
 
 bottom of the heel 2 0 5 
 
 1 1 6 
 1 1 7 
 1 2 1 
 
 1 0 11 
 2 0 11 
 
 Length of the figure. .736 
 
 730 
 
 Other antique statues differ a little from these proportions, the 
 Laoqoon measuring 7h. 2f. 3t. the Hercules, 7h. 3f. yt. the Pyramus, 
 7h. 2f. the Antinous, 7h. 2f. and the Shepherdess, ^h. 3f. 6t. 
 But all their proportions are agreeable to the characters they 
 
THJ5 HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 2 $ 
 
 represent. The most remarkable differences of the symmetry of 
 a man and woman to be observed from the table are : First, the 
 shoulders of a man are broader, measuring two heads ; and the 
 haunches narrower, measuring ih. If. 5t, whereas the shoulders of a 
 woman measure only ih. 3f 8t. and the haunches measure ih. 2f 3t. 
 The sternum, or breast-bone, of a man is longer, measuring 3f 8t, 
 and the sternum of the woman only3f 3t. On the contrary, the 
 pelvis of a man is less, measuring from the top to the bottom only 4f. 
 whereas the pelvis of a woman measures from the top to the 
 bottom 4f. 3t. 
 
 53. Mark the exact extent which you propose to give to the 
 figure, both in height and breadth ; next, divide agreeable to 
 the above general proportions ; and having thus ascertained the 
 place where each part is to be drawn, sketch the head, then 
 the shoulders, in their exact breadth; then the trunk of the 
 body, beginning with the arm-pits, (leaving the arms till after- 
 wards) and so down to the hips on both sides, being sure to 
 observe the exact breadtlt of the waist. When you have done 
 this, draw that leg upon which the body stands, and after- 
 wards the other ; then draw the arms, and last of all the 
 hands, 
 
 54. Endeavour to form all the parts of the figure with 
 truth, and in just proportion, not one arm or one leg bigger 
 than the other ; not broad shoulders with a slender waist, 
 nor raw and bony arms with thick gouty legs ; but let there 
 be a regular harmony among the members, and an agreeable 
 symmetry throughout the whole figure. 
 
 55. As the essence of drawing consists in making at first 
 a good sketch, you must, in this particular, be very careful and 
 accurate ; finish no part, till you have seen wliether the whole 
 draught be good ; and when you have altered that to your taste, 
 you may then finish one part after another as precisely as you 
 can. In drawing the eyes, ears, legs, ai’ins, hands, feet, &c, 
 great care, study, and accuracy are requisite. 
 
26 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 56. In drawing a labouring man, you must represent him 
 •with strong limbs and raised muscles, swelling and standing 
 out, especially in bearing burdens, drawing weights, leaping, 
 running, combating, or such violent exercises. 
 
 57 . The actions and postures of the hand are so many 
 and various, that no rules can be given for drawing them 
 that will universally hold good ; and as the hands and feet 
 are difficult members to draw, it is necessary to bestow due 
 time and pains about them, carefully imitating their various 
 postures and actions, so as not only to avoid deformity and 
 imperfection, but to give them life and spirit. 
 
 58. It is usual to divide the head into four equal parts. 
 
 1. From the crown of the head to the top of the forehead. 
 
 2. From the top of the forehead to the eye-brows. 3. From 
 the eye-brows to the bottom of the nose. 4. From thence to 
 the bottom of the chin. But this proportion is not constant; 
 those features in different men being often very different in 
 length and shape. In a well-proportioned face, however, these 
 proportions are nearly correct. 
 
 59. In forming a perfect face, the first business is to 
 draw an oval, or rather the form of an egg ; down the middle of 
 which, draw a perpendicular line, and through the centre, or 
 middle of this line, dra\^ a diameter. — On these lines all the 
 features of the face are to be placed as follows : — 
 
 Divide the perpendicular line into four equal parts : the 
 first is appropriated to the hair ; the second extends from the 
 top of the forehead to the top of the nose ; the third extends 
 from thence to the bottom of the nose ; and the fourth in- 
 cludes the lips and chin. 
 
 60. The diameter line, or the breadth of the face, is al- 
 ways supposed to be the length of five eyes ; you must, there- 
 fore, divide it into five equal parts, and place the eyes upon it, 
 so as to leave exactly the length of one eye betwixt them. 
 This is to be understood only of a full front face ; for if it 
 turn to either side, then the distances are to be lessened on that 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 2/ 
 
 aide which turns off, more or less, in proportion to its incli- 
 nation. 
 
 6 1 . The top of the ear is to rise level with the eye-brows, 
 at the end of the diameter line ; and the bottom of it must be 
 level with the bottom of the nose. The nostrils ought not to 
 come out farther than the corner of the eye in any face ; and 
 the middle of the mouth must always be placed upon the per- 
 pendicular line. 
 
 62. If the face be fat, the cheeks will seem to swell ; if 
 lean, the jaw-bones will stick out, and the cheeks fall in ; but 
 if it be neither too fat nor too lean, it will be nearly round. 
 Touch the surface slightly, where the eyes, nose, mouth, and 
 chin should stand ; then begin to draw them exactly, and so 
 proceed till you have finished the face; after which draw 
 the hair, its inflections, and shadows. 
 
 63. To draw the whole of the human figure in length, 
 first sketch the head; then draw a perpendicular line from the 
 bottom of the head seven times its length, the length of the 
 head being nearly one-eighth part of the length of the figure. 
 The best proportioned figures of the ancients are seven heads 
 and three-fourths in height. If, therefore, the figure stands up- 
 right, draw a perpendicular line from the top of the head to 
 the heel, which must be divided into two equal parts, the 
 bottom of the abdomen being exactly the centre. Divide the 
 lower part into two equal parts again, the middle of which is 
 the middle of the knee. 
 
 64. For the upper part of a figure, take with your com- 
 passes the length of the face, which is three parts in four of 
 the length of the head ; from the throat-pit to the pit of the 
 stomach is one face, from thence to the navel is another, and 
 from thence to the lower rim of the belly is a third. The line 
 must then be divided into seven equal parts. At the end of 
 the first division place the breasts ; at the second, the navel ; 
 at the third, the privities ; at the fourth, the middle of the 
 thigh ; at the fifth, the lower part of the knee ; at the sixth. 
 
38 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the lower part of the calf ; and at the seventh, the bottom of 
 tlie heel, the heel of the bearing leg being always exactly 
 under the pit of the throat. 
 
 Ols. Let the learner remember, in whatever he intends to draw, 
 first to sketch its several parts, measuring the distances and propor- 
 tions between each with his finger or pencil, without using the com- 
 passes, and then judge of them by the eye, a practice which, by 
 degrees, will teach him to judge of truth and proportion, and will 
 become his best and principal guide. 
 
 6b. If one side of the body bend in, the other must stand 
 out ; if the back bend in, the belly must stick out ; if the knee 
 bend out, the ham must fall in ; and so of any other part of the 
 body. If a figure is standing, the foot must be placed in a 
 right line, or perpendicular to the trunk or bulk of the body, 
 where the centre of gravity is supposed to fall. The centre is 
 determined by the heel ; or, if the figure is on tiptoe, then the 
 ball of the great toe is the centre. The muscles of the leg 
 which supports the body ought to be swelled, and their tendons 
 drawn more to an extension than those of the other leg. 
 
 Ois. Suppose Hercules, with a club, striking at any thing before 
 him towards the left-side : then let his right-leg be placed so as to 
 receive the whole weight of the body, and the left loosely touch 
 the ground with its toes. Here the external muscles of the right- 
 leg ought to be expressed very strong ; but those of the left scarcely 
 appearing. The foot being extended, the muscles which cwn- 
 pose the calf of the leg are in action, and appear very strong j though 
 it is not meant that al/ the muscles of the right-leg, which supports 
 the weight of the body, should be expressed very strong. If either of the 
 mastoid muscles act, the head is turned to the contrary side, and the 
 muscle which performs that action appears very plain under the skin. 
 If the arms are lifted up, the deltoid muscles placed on the shoulders, 
 which perform that action, swell, and make the extremities of the 
 spines of the shoulder-blades, called the tops of the shoulders, appear 
 indented or hollow. The shoulder-blades following the elevation of 
 the arras, their bases inclining at that time obliquely downward. If 
 tlte arms are drawn down, put forwards, or pulled backwards, the 
 
TUB HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 29 
 
 shoulder-blades necessarily vary their positions accordingly. When 
 the cubit, or fore-arm, is bent, the biceps has its belly very much 
 raised. The same happens in the triceps, when the arm is extended. 
 
 the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight of the body rests 
 on that side, the glutasus or buttock muscle makes a very different 
 appearance from what it offers at another time } but if the thigh be 
 drawn backwards, that muscle appears still more and more swelled. 
 When the whole leg is drawn upwards and forwards, and at the same 
 time the foot is inclined inwards, the upper part of the sartorius ttius- 
 de appears to rise very strong j in other positions of the thigh, that 
 ruusdle makes a furrowing appearance in its whole progress. If a man 
 is upon tiptoe, the extending muscles of the leg placed on the fore 
 part of the thigh, and those of the foot that compose the calf of the 
 leg, appear very strong, and the long peronceus makes a considerable 
 indentation or furrowing at that time, in its progress on the outside of 
 the leg.-— See the subsequent Pages. 
 
 66. In drawing after the Life, the greatest perfection 
 of a Portrait is extreme likeness. The resemblance of men to 
 one another is seldom or ever so complete, but that some 
 particular turn or view of the face will indicate a difference j 
 and it is the business of the artist accurately to discriminate, 
 and nicely appropriate, those peculiar features, lines, and turns 
 of the face, the representation of which will effectually convey 
 the distinct and special idea of the very person whose portrait 
 is to be drawn and no other. 
 
 67 . The resemblance, as well as every other excellence, of 
 a Portrait, depends on the Features, Expression, and Am. 
 
 Man s changeful race, the sport of chance and time. 
 
 Varies no less in aspect than in clime; 
 
 Mark well the difference, and let each be seen. 
 
 Of various age, complexion, air, and mien.” 
 
 Mason’s Febsnoy. 
 
 68. The Features require to be carefully examined and 
 studied, by inspection in many different views, so that at tlie 
 
so ELEMENTS OP THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 moment when the painter puts his pencil to the canvas, he may 
 be possessed, not only of the apparent form of each particular 
 feature in the view in which he represents it, but of its rela- 
 tive and characteristic form also, the full expression of wdiich 
 is not discernable in every view. Each particular feature 
 should appear so distinctly shaped, that an exact model of 
 the real head may be formed from the picture, if requisite ; 
 and they must, at the same time be, so blended in the general 
 mass of the face, that no one shall obtrude itself on the eye 
 beyond the rest. The peculiar mode of touch, or execution, 
 whereby each feature is best discriminated, can only be learnt 
 by practice, and by the attentive study of the best masters. 
 
 69. In Expression, the student should observe, that the 
 greatest care is to be used in drawing a portrait, that the fea- 
 tures may be uniform and consistent with each other. The 
 mouth is sometimes represented smiling, while the eyes are sad, 
 and vice versa. The painter must, therefore, constantly bear 
 in mind the general idea he has formed of the countenance he 
 intends to express, and must be watchful of the corresponding 
 forms of the features in moments of similar expression. The 
 same remark may be extended to the larger portions of the 
 figure. The same expressions must be clearly depicted in the 
 motion or direction of the hands, arms, legs, and body, that 
 appears to prevail in the countenance and turn of the head. 
 It is this combination only which can give the exact resem- 
 blance of the expression of nature, under the impulse of 
 which no particular limb ever deviates from the general inten- 
 tion of the whole body. 
 
 70. The Air principally regards the lines of the face or 
 figure ; the attire of the head or person ; and the stature, or 
 make of the general form. The proper lines of the face or 
 figure depend on accuracy of drawing, and an entire agree- 
 ment of the parts of the same form with one another. No- 
 thing so entirely disguises or alters the appearance of an indi- 
 vidual person as a change of head-dress, whether it is the 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 31 
 
 adjustment of liair or attire. The greatest attention, therefore, 
 is to be used in adapting the arrangement of this part of the 
 portrait to the general costume of the person represented. 
 The stature and make, in the same manner, contribute to the 
 force of resemblance, and never fail considerably to influence 
 the air of the person. It is, therefore, requisite to the truth 
 of a portrait, that this part of the picture should be as faith- 
 fully studied from the sitter as the face itself. 
 
 Ols. Vandyke’s custom in painting portraits, was to appoint 
 the day and hour for the person’s sitting, and he worked not above an 
 hour on any portrait, either in rubbing in, or finishing; so that as 
 soon as the clock informed him that the hour was out, he rose, and 
 dismissed his sitter, appointing another hour on some other day. His 
 servant then came to clean his pencils, and brought a fresh pallet, 
 while he was receiving another sitter, whose day and hour he had 
 appointed. After having lightly dead-coloured the face, he put the 
 sitter into some attitude, which he had before contrived; and, on 
 grey paper, with white and black crayons, he designed, in a quarter of 
 an hour, his shape and drapery, carrying it to the canvas at his leisure. 
 
 71* Though every part of the face contributes towards 
 expiessing the sentiments of the heart, yet the eye-brow is 
 the principal seat of expression, and there the passions best 
 make themselves known. The pupil of the eye, by its fire 
 and motion, shows tlie agitations of the soul ; but tlien it does 
 not express the kind or nature of such agitation ; whereas 
 the motion of the eye-brow differs as the passions change their 
 nature. 
 
 72. To express a simple passion, the motion is simple ; 
 to express a mixed passion, the motion is compound : if the 
 passion be gentle, the motion is gentle ; and if it be violent,, 
 the motion is so 'too. We may observe further, that there are 
 two kinds of elevation in the eye-brows. One, in which the 
 eye-brows rise up in the middle; this elevation expressing 
 agreeable sensations, and it is to be observed, that then the 
 mouth rises at the corners ; another, in which the eye- brows 
 
32 
 
 ELEMENTS OP THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 rise up at the ends, and fall in the middle ; and this motion de- 
 notes bodily pain; and then the mouth falls at the corners. 
 
 73. In Laughter all the parts agree; for the eye-brows, 
 which fall toward the middle of the forehead, make the nose, 
 the mouth, and the eyes, follow the same motion. In weep- 
 ing, the motions are compound and contrary; for the eye- 
 brows fall toward the nose and over the eyes, and the mouth 
 rises that way. 
 
 74. The mouth is a part of the face, which particularly 
 expresses the emotions of the heart : for when the heart com** 
 plains, the mouth falls at the corners ; when it is at ease, the 
 corners of the mouth are elevated ; and when it expresses aver- 
 sion, the mouth shoots forward, and rises In the middle. 
 
 75. The head contributes more to the expression of the 
 passions than all the other parts of the body put together. As 
 humility, by hanging it down ; arrogance, by lifting it up ; 
 languishing, by rttclining it on one side; and obstinacy, 
 when, with a stiff and resolute air, it stands upright, fixed, and 
 stiff between the two shoulders. The lipad also best show* 
 supplication, threat, pride, love, joy, and grief. 
 
 76 *. The whole face, and every feature, contribute some-» 
 thing; especially the eyes, which are the windows of the soul. 
 The passions they more particularly discover are, pleasure, 
 languishing, scorn, severity, mildness, admiration, and anger; 
 to which we may add joy and grief, if they did not proceed 
 more particularly from the eye-brows and mouth ; l)ut wheit 
 those two passions concur with the language of the eyes, the 
 harmony is wonderful. 
 
 77. Though the passions of the soul are most visible in 
 the lines and features of the face, they often require the as- 
 sistance also of the other parts of the body. Without the 
 hands, for instance, all action is weak and imperfect ; their 
 motions, which are almost infinite, create numberless expres- 
 sions ; it is by them that we desire, hope, promise, call, send 
 Jiack ; they are the instruments of threatening, priyer, horror. 
 
OP THE P4S&IONS. 
 
 53 
 
 and praise ; by them we approve, condemn, refuse, admit, fear, 
 ask ; and express our joy and grief, our doubts, regrets, pain, 
 and admiration. 
 
 78. The effects of Attention are to make the eye-brows sink 
 and approach the sides of the nose ; to turn the eye-balls to- 
 wards the object that causes it j to open the mouth, and espe- 
 cially the upper part; to decline the head a little, and fix it 
 without any other remarkable alteration. 
 
 79. Admiration causes but little agitation in the mind, and 
 therefore alters but very little the parts of the face ; neverthe- 
 less the eye-brow rises ; the eye opens a little more than or- 
 dinary ; the eye-ball, placed equally between the eye-lids, 
 appears fixed on the object; the mouth half opens, and makes 
 no sensible alteration in the cheeks. 
 
 80. The motions th^taccompsiny Admiration with Astonish- 
 ment are little different from those of simple admiration, only 
 they are more lively and stronger marked ; the eye-brows more 
 elevated; the eyes more open; the eye-ball further from the 
 lower eye-lid, and more steadily fixed ; the mouth is more 
 open, and all the parts in a much stronger emotion. 
 
 81. Admiration begets esteem, and this produces Veneration, 
 which, when it has for its object something divine, or beyond 
 our comprehension, makes the face decline, and the eye-brows 
 bend down ; the eyes are almost shut and fixed ; the mouth is 
 shut. These motions are gentle, and produce but little alte- 
 rations in the other parts. 
 
 82. Although Rapturehas the same object as veneration, only 
 considered in a different manner, its motions are not the same; 
 the head inclines to the left side, the eye-balls and eye-brows 
 rise directly up ; the mouth half opens, and the two corners 
 are also a little turned up : the other parts remain in their 
 nat Ural state. 
 
 83. The passion of Desire brings the eye-brows close toge- 
 ther and forwards towaids the eyes, which are more open than 
 Oldinary ; the eye-ball is inflamed, and places itself in the middle 
 
 D 
 
34 ELEMENTS GP THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 of the eye ; the nostrils rise up, and are contracted toward* 
 the eyes ; the mouth half opens, and the spirits being in mo- 
 tion give a lively glowing colour. 
 
 84. Very little alteration is remarked in the face of those 
 who feel within themselves the Sweetness of Joy, or Joy with Tran- 
 quillity. The forehead is serene; the eye-brow without mo- 
 tion, elevated in the middle ; the eye pretty open, and with a 
 laughing air ; the eye-ball lively and shining ; the corners of 
 the mouth turn up a little; the complexion is lively, the cheeks 
 and lips are red. 
 
 85. Laughter, which is produced by joy mixed with surprise, 
 makes the eye-brows rise towards the middle of the eye, and 
 bend towards the sides of the nose ; the eyes are almost shut, 
 and sometimes appear wet, or shed tears, which make no 
 alteration in the face ; the mouth half open shews the teeth ; 
 the corners of the mouth drawn back cause a wrinkle in the 
 cheeks, which appear so swelled, as to hide the eyes in some 
 measure; the nostrils are open, and all the face is of a led 
 colour. 
 
 86. Acute pain makes the eye-brows approach one anothei, 
 and rise towards the middle ; the eye-ball is hid under the eye- 
 brows ; the nostrils rise, and make a wrinkle in the cheeks ; 
 the mouth half opens and draws back ; all the parts of the 
 face are agitated in proportion to the violence of the pain. 
 
 87. Simple bodily pain produces proportionately the same 
 motion as the last, but not so strong : the eye-brows do not ap- 
 proach and rise so much ; the eye-brow appears fixed on some 
 object ; the nostrils rise, but the wrinkles on the cheeks are 
 less perceivable ; the lips are further asunder towaids the 
 
 middle, and the mouth is half open. 
 
 88. The dejection that is produced by Sadness makes the 
 eye-brows rise towards the middle of the forehead more than 
 towards the cheeks ; the eye-ball appears full of perturbation ; 
 the white of the eye is yellow ; the eye-lids are drawn down, 
 And a little swelled; all about the eyes is livid; the nostrils 
 
OP THE PASSIONS. 
 
 35 
 
 are drawn downward ; the mouth is half open, and the corner* 
 are drawn down 5 the head carelessly leaning on one of the 
 shoulders j the face is of a lead colour ; the lips pale. 
 
 89. The alterations that Weq)ing occasions are strongly 
 marked ; the eye-brows sunk down towards the middle of the 
 forehead; the eyes are almost closed, wet, and drawn down 
 towaids the cheeks; the nostrils swelled; the muscles and 
 veins of the forehead appear; the mouth is shut, and the 
 sides of it are drawn down, making wrinkles on the cheeks ; 
 the under lip pushed out presses the upper one : all the face is 
 wrinkled and contracted ; its colour is red, especially about the 
 eye-brows, the eyes, the nose, and the cheeks. 
 
 90. The lively attention to the misfortunes of another, which 
 is called Compassion, causes the eye-brows to sink towards the 
 middle of the forehead ; the eye-ball to be fixed upon the 
 object; the sides of the nostrils, next the nose, to be a little 
 elevated, making wrinkles in the cheeks ; the mouth to be 
 open, the upper lip to be lifted up and thrust forwards ; the 
 muscles, and all the parts of the face, sinking down and 
 turning towards the object which excites the passion. 
 
 91. The motions of Scorn are lively and strong : the fore- 
 head is wrinkled ; the eye-brow is knit; the side of it, next the 
 nose, sinks down, and the other rises very much; the eye is 
 very open, and the eye-ball is in the middle ; the nostrils rise 
 and draw towards the eyes, and make wrinkles in the cheeks; 
 the mouth shuts its sides, sinking down, and the under lip is 
 pushed out beyond the upper one. 
 
 92. An object despised sometimes causes Horror, and then 
 the eye-brow knits and sinks a great deal more. The eye-ball, 
 placed at the bottom of the eye, is half covered by the lower 
 eye-lid ; the mouth is half open, but closer in the middle than 
 the sides, which being drawn back makes wrinkles in the 
 cheeks ; the face grows pale, and the eyes become livid ; the 
 muscles and the veins are marked. 
 
 93. The violence of Terror or Fright alters all the parts of the 
 
 D 2 
 
3G elements of the AR.T OF DRAWING, 
 
 face j the eye-brow rises in the middle j its muscles are 
 marked, swelled, pressed one against the other, and sunk to- 
 wards the nose, which draws up as well as the nostrils ; the 
 eyes are very open ; the upper eye-lid is hid under the eye- 
 brow j the white of the eye is encompassed with red; the eye- 
 ball fixes towards the lower part of the eye ; the lower part of 
 the eye-lid swells, and becomes livid; the muscles of the nose 
 and cheeks swell, and these last terminate in a point toward 
 the sides of the nostrils; the mouth is very open, and its cor- 
 ners very apparent; the muscles and veins of the neck 
 stretched; the hair stands on end; the colour of the face, that 
 is, the end of the nose, the lips, the ears, and round the eyes, 
 is pale and livid ; and all ought to be strongly marked. 
 
 94. The effects of Anger shew its nature : the eyes become 
 red and inflamed; the eye-ball is staring and sparkling; the 
 eye-brows are sometimes elevated, and sometimes sunk down 
 equally ; the forehead is very much wrinkled, with wrmkks 
 between the eyes ; the nostrils are open and enlarged ; the lips 
 pressing against one another, the under one rising over the 
 upper one leaves the corners of the mouth a little open, mak- 
 ing a cruel and disdainful grin. 
 
 95. Hatred or Jealousy wrinkles the forehead; the eye-brows 
 are sunk down and knit; the eye-ball is half hid under the 
 eye-brows, which turn towards the object ; it should appear 
 fidl of fire, as well as the white of the eye and the eye-lid ; 
 the nostrils are pale, open, and more marked than ordinary, and 
 drawn backward so as to make wrinkles in the cheeks ; the 
 mouth is so shut as to shew the teeth are closed ; the corners 
 of the mouth are drawn back, and very much sunk; the 
 muscles of the jaw appear sunk; the colour of the face is 
 partly inflamed, and partly yellowish; the lips pale or hyid. 
 
 6G. As Despair is extreme, its motions are so likewise: the 
 forehead wrinkles from the top to the bottom ; the eye-brows 
 bend down over the eyes, and press one another on the sides of 
 the nose; the eye seems to be on fire, and full of blood, the 
 
OF ANATOMY. 
 
 37 
 
 eye-ball is disturbed, hid under the eye-brow, sparkling, and 
 unfixed j the eye-lid is swelled and livid; the nostrils are large, 
 open, and lifted up ; the end of the nose sinks down ; the 
 muscles, tendons, and veins, are swelled and stretched ; the 
 upper part of the cheeks is large, marked, and narrow towards 
 the jaw ; the mouth drawn backwards, is more open at the 
 sides than in the middle ; the lower lip is large and turned 
 out ; they gnash their teeth ; they foam ; they bite their lips, 
 which are pale, as is the rest of their face ; the hair is straight, 
 and stands on end. 
 
 OF ANATOMY. 
 
 97 . To ask if the study of Anatomy is useful to the per- 
 fect artist, is the same thing as to ask if, in order to learn any 
 science, a man must first make himself acquainted with the 
 principles of it. Nor is it merely to represent athletie and 
 vigorous bodies, in which the parts are most bold and deter- 
 mined, that anatomy is requisite : — it should be understood to 
 represent correctly persons of the most delicate frame and 
 condition, even women and children, whose members are 
 smoothest and roundest. But it is unnecessary for an artist 
 to study systems of nerves, blood-vessels, and viscera, which 
 are removed from the sight. It is enough to be acquainted 
 with the skeleton ; in other words, with the figure and con- 
 nection of the bones, which are the props of the human body; 
 with the origin, progress, and shape of the muscles, which 
 cover those bones ; and with the different degrees in which 
 nature has clothed the muscles with fat. Above all, he should 
 know in what manner the muscles effect the various motions 
 and gestures of the body. 
 
 98. Bonks are the frame or prop-work of the body, and 
 give if firmness and shape ; but for their motions they are in- 
 debted to the muscles, A bone is generally distinguished by 
 
38 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 anatomists, as having two parts, viz. its body and extremities. 
 The body is called the diaphysis ; and the extremities are di- 
 vided into processes and epiphyses: the former is an eminence 
 continued from the body of the bones ; but the latter is a sort 
 of an appendage to the bone by means of a cartilage or gristle. 
 Processes generally obtain their names from their shape, size, 
 or use : thus a large process, of a spherical form, is called the 
 caput, or head j if the head be flatted, it is termed condyle, 
 See. 
 
 99. Bones are adapted to each other with that nicety, 
 that the end of every bone is exactly received by, or admits, 
 the end of another. This connexion of the bones is called 
 their articulation, and is divided into moveable, immoveable, 
 and mixed articulation. 
 
 100. Bones are united by means of cartilages, and by liga- 
 ments. Cartilages are white, solid, smooth, substances, of an 
 elastic nature, and of a fibrous texture ; between the hardness 
 of the bones and ligaments. Ligaments are white inelastic 
 bands, very compact in their substance, and serve to connect 
 the bones together. 
 
 101. The bones in the human frame are divided by ana- 
 tomists into the head, trunk, and extremities. — The first divi- 
 sion includes the bones of the cranium and face. The bones 
 of the trunk are the spine, ribs, sternum, and bones of the 
 pelvis. The upper extremity, on each side, consists of the two 
 bones of the shoulder : namely, the scapula and clavicle ; the 
 bone of the arm, or os humeri, extending from the shoulder to 
 the elbow ; and bones of the fore-arm, from the elbow to the 
 wrist, with those of the hand. The lower extremities, on each 
 side, consist of the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot. 
 
 102. The Head is of a roundish figure, rather oval ; its 
 greatest diameter is from the forehead to the occiput. The 
 upper part of the head is called the vertex, or crown of the 
 head ; the anterior, or the fore part, is the face ; the upper of 
 
OF THE BONES. 
 
 39 
 
 this the sinciput, or forehead; its sides the temples; its poste- 
 rior, or hind part, the occiput ; and its interior part, the basis. 
 
 103. The bones of the head are divided into those of the 
 cranium and face. — The cranium consists of, — 1. The coronal 
 bone, or os frontis. 2. The two parietal bones, or ossa breg- 
 matis. 3. The os occipitis. 4. The two temporal bones. 
 5. The sphenoid bone. 6*. The os ethmoides, or cribriforme. 
 — All these, except the os occipitis and ossa bregmatis, are 
 common both to the cranium and face. 
 
 104. The face is divided into the upper and lower jaws. 
 The upper jaw consists of thirteen bones, exclusive of the 
 teeth; six being placed on each side of the maxilla superior, 
 and one in the middle. Of those which are in pairs are the 
 ossa malarum, ossa maxillaria, ossa nasi, ossa unguis, ossa 
 palati, and ossa spongiosa inferiora; the single bone is the 
 vomer. 
 
 105. The Trunk consists of the spine, thorax, and the 
 pelvis. 
 
 106. The spine, or vertehrcc, consists of a great number 
 of bones, forming a long bony column, somewhat bent at each 
 end, and is generally described as like the letter f. It extends 
 from the head to the lower part of the body ; and is divided 
 principally into two parts, tlie upper of which is called the 
 true vertehrcB, and the lower one, the false vertebra, from the 
 joints being immoveable in the adult. It is upon the bones of 
 the spine that the body turns. 
 
 107 . The spine answers many great and important uses : 
 in its canal it secures the medulla spinalis from injury. It 
 serves as a defence to tlie abdominal and thoracic viscera. It 
 supports the head, and gives strength, grace, and motion, to 
 the whole trunk of the body. From the number of its articu- 
 lations it admits of a very free motion ; and from its numerous 
 processes, ligaments, cartilages, &c. it partakes of the strength 
 and firmness of one entire bone. At the top, in the neck, it 
 projects somewhat forward, in order to support the head. 
 
40 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING^ 
 
 Lower down in the thorax it curves outwardly, and thereby 
 increases the cavity of the chest. In the loins it again pro- 
 jects forward, approaching the centre of gravity. Towards its 
 inferior extremity it again recedes backward, and affords room 
 for the cavity called the pelvis. 
 
 108. The Thorax, or chest, consists of the sternum, ribs, 
 and dorsal vertebrae. The sternum is that long bone, which 
 extends from the upper to the lower part of the breast ante- 
 riorly. It is articulated with the clavicle on each side, and also 
 joined to the fourteen true ribs, viz. to seven on each side. 
 The ribs are those bones formed like a bow, composing the 
 sides of tlie chest. They are twenty-four in number, twelve 
 on each side, distinguished into true and false ribs : the former 
 are the seven upper ones articulated to the sternum ; the other 
 five, on each side, are called false ribs, and are not immediately 
 attached to the sternum. 
 
 109. The Pelvis is that cavity of the body which contains 
 the urinary bladder, intestinuni rectum, and other viscera. It is 
 composed principally pf the os sacrum, os coccygis, and ossa 
 innominata. 
 
 110. The Extremities are divided into the upper and 
 lower extremity. The upper extremities consist of the shoul- 
 ders, arms, and hands. The lower extremities contain the 
 thighs, legs, and feet. The shoulder consists of two bones, 
 the clavicula and the scapula. The clavicula, sometimes called 
 the jugulum, or collar-bone, is not thicker than the little 
 finger, but longer. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is fixed to 
 the hinder part of the true ribs, somewhat in the manner of a 
 buckler. In shape it is nearly triangular ; convex externally, 
 and internally concave, to fit it to the form of the ribs. 
 
 111. The arm is divided into two parts, articulated together 
 at the elbow ; that part from the shoulder to the elbow is pro- 
 perly called the arm. The other part, from the elbow to the 
 wrist, is called the fore-arm. The bone of the arm, or os 
 humeri, is of a cylindrical shape, except at its extremities. The 
 
OF THE BONES. 
 
 41 
 
 fore-arm consists of two bones : the ulna, or elbow-bone, and 
 the radius. The former is less than the os humeri, and be- 
 comes gradually smaller as it approaches the wrist ; there are 
 two processes, and two cavities, at the upper part of this bone. 
 The radius supports the two first bones of the wrist on the 
 sides of the thumb ; and the ulna is articulated with that bone 
 of the wrist which corresponds with the little finger. The 
 space between the ulna and radius is filled up by a ligament. 
 
 112. The hand comprises the wrist, and hand properly so 
 called. The carpus, or wrist, consists of eight small irregular 
 shaped bones, placed in two unequal rows. Those of the 
 upper row are aiticulated with the ulna and radius ; and those 
 of the lower row with the metacarpus. The metacarpus, or 
 hand, consists of four bones, which serve to support the 
 fingers. The five fingers of each hand consists of fifteen 
 bones, disposed in three ranks, called phalanges : the bones of 
 the first phalanx are the longest, and united to those of the 
 metacarpus ; those of the next phalanx less in size ; and those 
 of the last phalanx the least. All the bones of the wrist, 
 hand, and fingers, (amounting to twenty-seven in each hand) 
 are articulated to each other, and their articulations strength- 
 ened by ligaments. 
 
 113. The lower extremities consist of the thighs, legs, and 
 feet. Each lower extremity contains — 1. The os femoris, or 
 thigh-bone : 2. the rotula, or knee-pan : 3. the leg : and, 4. 
 the foot. 
 
 114. The os femoris, or thigh-bone, is the largest and 
 strongest in the human frame ; of a cylindrical shape, convex 
 before, and behind somewhat concave, where it receives several 
 muscles. 
 
 115. The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, is a flat bone about 
 four or five inehes in circumference, placed at the fore part of 
 the joint of the knee. Its use is to defend the articulation of 
 the knee from external injury ; it also tends to irrcrease the 
 power of the extensor muscles of the legs, by removing their 
 
43 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 direction favtlier -from the centre of inotloiij in the manner of 
 a pulley^ 
 
 116 . The leg Is composed of two bones : the tibia, which 
 is the larger and inner one, and the fibula, which is less. The 
 tibia is of a prismatic form : the hinder part is the broadest ; 
 anteriorly it hag a prominent ridge called the shin. The fibula 
 is less than the tibia, and situated on the outside thereof ; it is 
 of a triangular form, somewhat hollowed internally. Its upper 
 extremity does not reach quite so high as that of the tibia j but 
 its lower extremity extends beyond the extremity of that bone. 
 
 117. The foot is distinguished as divided into three parts, 
 viz. the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. The tarsus consists of 
 seven bones. The metatarsus consists of five bones, arti- 
 culated by one extremity with the cuneiform bones and the os 
 cuboides ; and by the other extremity with the toes. Each of 
 the toes consists of three bones, except the great toe, which has 
 only two. The bones of the four smaller toes, like those of 
 the fingers, are divided into three phalanges. The toes serve 
 to bring the centre of gravity of the body perpendicular to the 
 advanced foot : they also increase the concavity of the foot, 
 and thereby enable it to adapt itself to any inequalities that may 
 occur in walking. 
 
 118 . The motions of the human body, are performed by 
 means of muscles. These are distinct portions of flesh, capa- 
 ble of contraction and extension : and are divided into voluntary 
 and involuntary muscles. Some muscles act in opposition to 
 each other, from whence they are called antagonistcB : thus 
 every extensor muscle has a flexor one for its antagonist, and 
 vice vei'sa. Those muscles which concur in the same action 
 are styled congeneres. That end of a muscle which adheres to 
 the more fixed part of the bone is usually called the on~ 
 gin ; and that which adheres to the more moveable part the 
 insei'tion. 
 
 119 . Each muscle contains two kinds of fibres ; viz. one 
 of a soft nature, red in colour, sensible, and irritable, called 
 
OP THE MUSCLES. 
 
 43 
 
 JJeshy ^hres’, the other kind, called tendinous fibres, are of a 
 firmer texture, of a white glistening colour, insensible, and 
 without irritability, or the power of contracting. The former 
 generally prevail in the belly or middle part of the muscle, and 
 the Ifittei at the extremities : sometimes they are intermixed. 
 If the tendinous fibres are formed into a round slender shape, 
 they form what is called the tendon of the muscle ; but when 
 they aie spread into a broad fiat surface, the extremity of the 
 muscle is called aponeurosis. 
 
 Obs. A muscle is composed of two tendinous and slender 
 parts, one called the head, the other the tail, both terminating at the 
 bones j and of an intermediate part, called the lelhj. The action of a 
 muscle consists in an extraordinary swelling of this intermediate part, 
 while the head remains at rest, so as to bring the tail nearer the head, 
 and consequently the bone, to which the tail of the muscle is fixed, 
 nearer to that bone on which the head is inserted. There are many 
 motions, to effect which several muscles (called co-operating muscles) 
 must swell and operate together, while those calculated to effect a 
 contrary motion (called antagonist muscles) appear soft and flaccid. 
 For example, the biceps and the brachioeus internus labour when the 
 arm is to be bent, and become more prominent than usual while the 
 gemellus, the brac/iicsus externus, and the anconceus, whose office is to 
 , extend the arm, continue, as it were, flat and idle, The same hap- 
 I pens respectively in all the other motions of the body. When the 
 antagonist muscles of any part operate at one and the same time, such 
 part becomes rigid and motionless, Mr. Bell has lately published a 
 work on the Anatomy required by painters, and to that work we shall 
 
 refer the student who is anxious to perfect himself in this branch of 
 art. 
 
 120. A muscle when in a state of action, and, consequently, 
 contracted in its length, is increased in hulk, and thereby increases 
 the surroundirig parts; and when in a state of rest, and extended 
 i to Its full length, its bulk and the surrounding parts are diminished. 
 
 ; This is the unavoidable consequence of the effect of muscular 
 motion, which is performed by a dilatation in the breadth, and 
 consequent contraction in the length of the muscle, and vice 
 
44 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 versa. A member therefore by this means Requires an addi- 
 tional bulk : this appears conspieuously in the arm ; for when 
 both parts of that member lie in the same line, it is nearly an 
 eighth part of its eircumference less, than when bent at the 
 elbow ; for the os humeri, withdrawing from the cavity of the 
 cubitus, adds the circummensuration of an angle, formed by 
 that motion, to the length of the arm ; and this addition is 
 greater or less as the angle made by bending is more acute or 
 obtuse. 
 
 121. The arm, by its articulation at the shoulder, is capa- 
 ble of being moved in every direction ; the farthest extent of the 
 arm across the stomach, brings the elbow even with the pit of 
 the stomach, whereby the two shoulders and that elbow form an 
 equilateral triangle. When the two arms are extended behind 
 the back, the elbows are distant from each other just the 
 length of the fore-arm, from the elbow to the fingers’ end ; so 
 that the two arms form a square. This member, when farthest 
 removed from its natural posture, exerts the greatest force to 
 recover its original station. Thus, in throwing a dart oi stone, 
 the arm is drawn back, to such a distance from the body, as to 
 acquire a rapid motion in returning to its natural posture : and 
 the force is greater or less, as the arm is drawn farther or less 
 backward. 
 
 122. The wrist experiences a change in its dimension from 
 the opening or shutting of the hand. When the hand is shut 
 it becomes less than when the hand is open ; the arm, on the 
 contrary, becomes larger when the hand is shut, and less when 
 it is open; the reason is, that in opening the hand, the mus- 
 cles are extended ; and when the hand is shut, contracted in 
 length, and thereby dilates the arm. The fingers, as well as 
 the toes, partake of the customary changes, of enlarging them- 
 selves on all sides, when the joints are bent; and suffering a 
 proportionable decrease when extended. 
 
 123. The legs are more circumscribed in their motions 
 than the arras. The chief use of these members, being either 
 
OP THE MUSCLES. 
 
 45 
 
 to support the body, or as a mean of walking, their muscles 
 and bones are much stronger than those of the arms, whereby 
 they are capable of bearing longer and greater exercise. Their 
 motions are more direct ; and to turn the foot or leg outwards 
 or inwards, requires a motion from the upper part of the os 
 femoris or thigh-bone. The knee is the only joint that is dimi- 
 nished in bending, and augmented in its bulk by being straight- 
 ened. 
 
 124. Upon every change of motion or attitude of the 
 body a great variation is observable. For instance, in a figure 
 standing perfectly still, resting equally on both feet, each leg 
 sustains an equal weight, and the pit between the clavicles 
 hangs in the perpendicular line, which rises from between the 
 feet ; but if the figure extend one arm, that pit quits its station, 
 and reeedes towards the other side ; or if he move his leg, the 
 pit is also moved. By the extension of his arm, the weight of 
 his hand, together with that of his arm, act like a lever, and 
 thereby alter the centre of gravity in his body, and render it 
 necessary that he counterpoise it by some addition on the oppo- 
 site side of the body, otherwise he' would fall j therefore he 
 inclines his shoulder to the contrary side : this inclination of 
 the shoulder is observable, chiefly by the hips. 
 
 125. When a person from a state of rest proceeds to walk, 
 he, in a similar manner, protrudes the centre of gravity for- 
 wards, and that in proportion to the briskness of his pace. In 
 walking leisurely this is scarcely perceivable ; but in one run- 
 ning swiftly it becomes very apparent ; his head and shoulders 
 advancing considerably before that foot which springs from the 
 ground : and if he run against a strong wind, in order to over- 
 come its resistance, he throws the centre of gravity still more 
 forwards j and protrudes his head and shoulders so much, that, 
 were the wind suddenly to stop, he would inevitably fall 
 forwards. 
 
 126. In endeavouring to leap, a man bends his body to 
 acquire a spring, thus quickly extends the junctures of the 
 
46 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 tliighs, knees, and feet : by this extension, the body describes 
 an oblique line inclining forwards, and rising upwards ; the 
 motion directed forwards carries the body in that direction ; 
 and the motion intended upwards elevating it ; these conjoined 
 motions enable the body to describe a large arch, which is the 
 direction described in jumping. 
 
 OF DRAPERY. 
 
 127- The beauty of drapery depends in a great measure 
 on the form and disposition of the folds. Their construction 
 should therefore form a principal object of the student’s atten- 
 tion. The general form of the clothing must also be particu- 
 larly regarded. 
 
 128. The drapery must be adapted to the quality of the 
 wearer : kings, magistrates, the clergy, &c. are to have large 
 ample draperies with flowing graceful folds; ladies, nymphs, &c. 
 should have light soft draperies, with more numerous folds, 
 and softer shades ; peasants, slaves, &c. must have coarse 
 short draperies, with fewer folds, agreeable to the coarseness of 
 their garments. 
 
 129. The drapery is not so much intended to conceal the 
 limbs or parts of the body which it covers, as to shew us the 
 true shape thereof, as far as probability and experience will 
 justify. Many artists were so sensible of the necessity of this 
 rule, that they first drew the naked figure, and afterwards 
 clothed it. 
 
 130. The drapery must however not appear to bind the 
 body; but should flow round it, and yet embrace it; and in 
 such a manner that the body may seem to have a free motion, 
 perfectly unencumbered. 
 
 131. The greater folds should be drawn first, and then 
 divided into -lesser ones ; they should however be all as large 
 as possible ; that is, as far as the quality of the stuff, and quan- 
 
OF DRAPERY. 
 
 *7 
 
 tity of the clothing, will make probable. They must not cross 
 each other injudiciously j nor run in a direction contrary to 
 the natural inclination of the motion of the drapery. 
 
 132. A repetition of folds of a circular form serves to indi- 
 cate a fore-shortened limb. In the order of drawing the dra- 
 pery, it must be observed, that those parts which adhere 
 closest to the body are to be described first, before the other 
 parts which fly loose ; otherwise the student may place his figure 
 in a wrong position, if he draw the looser parts first. 
 
 133. The clothing must partake of the attitude of the 
 figure. Where the figure inclines inward, the drapery must 
 also incline the, same way, if it sit close to the bodyj but, if 
 it be loose, it will hang pendant : where the body bends out- 
 wardly, the garments will also have the same appearance ; in 
 which place they will be nearly, and sometimes wholly, des- 
 titute of folds. 
 
 134. Ihose parts where the drapery sits closer to the body 
 must have smaller and narrower folds. Folds not only give 
 grace and dignity, but, if judiciously constructed, impart much 
 spirit and vivacity, as they may be made to represent motion, 
 more or less violent, by the moving member which create* 
 tliem, drawing them with different degrees of force. 
 
 135. If the figure be in motion, the drapery should flow 
 gently the contrary way, as if gently blown by the wind ^ and 
 if the motion be swift, the drapery should flow to a greater 
 extent, the wind acting upon it with more violence. 
 
 136. If the figure be at rest, the drapery should indicate no 
 motion, but fall in easy graceful folds. In shading the drapery, 
 it must be remembered, that each fold consists of two shades, 
 and no more ; the inner side being shaded the deepest. The 
 lighter parts of the figure are not to have very deep shades, 
 lest they appear too much indented ; and by these means the 
 members appear broken. 
 
 137. In silks and fine linen, the shades should be thick and 
 soft, consequently, the shadows must be light, and the fold# 
 
48 ELEMENTS OR THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 small. In a word, the learner must be very attentive to natur<J 
 in this, as in every other, part of the art : he must avoid tak- 
 ing his rules for drapery from observations of statues however 
 excellent, as in this particular they are very imperfect copies. 
 
 OF PERSPECTIVE AND OF LANDSCAPE. 
 
 138. In landscapes, the student must be particular with 
 regard to the relative sizes of objects : upon which the prin- 
 cipal beauty of this part of the art depends. He must habi- 
 tuate himself to judge of distances, and measure them by his 
 eye. It is needless, after the general directions, to deliver any 
 rules for drawing landscapes from copies, as by this time the 
 student is supposed capable of imitating all the dilferent ob- 
 jects of which a landscape consists, consequently, he will find 
 no more difficulty in drawing them in one piece than sepa- 
 rately : but when Nature herself becomes his copy, separate 
 rules are necessary. 
 
 139. The study of perspective, or of size and relation, 
 should go hand in hand with that of anatomy, as equally fun- 
 damental and necessary. The contour of an object drawn 
 upon paper or canvas, represents nothing more than such an 
 intersection as would arise on a glass put in the place of the 
 paper or canvas. The situation of an object on the other side 
 of a glass being given, the delineation of it on the glass itself 
 depends entirely on the situation of the eye on this side of the 
 glass. Perspective, according to da Vinci, forms the reins and 
 rudder of painting. It teaches in what proportion the parts 
 fly ofl; and lessen to the eye j how protruding figures are to be 
 placed on a plain surface, and how fore-shortened. 
 
 140. Artists are apt to annex ideas of great intricacy to 
 the practice of perspective. Nothing, however, is more sim- 
 ple, and it is founded, and arises entirely out of the obvious 
 principle, tMt the apparent size of an object is in the contrary 
 
OF PERSPECTIVE AND OF LANDSCAPE. ' 49 
 
 proporfio7i of its distance from the eye. This simple principle 
 duly considered, and applied by the Artist in practice, consti- 
 tutes the whole science of Perspective. 
 
 141. The art of drawing in Perspective purposes, there- 
 fore, to represent every object in its proper place, and in its 
 relative size and figure, as seen from the spot where the view is 
 taken. The eye of the drauglitsman is supposed to he fixed, 
 and he is to pourtray every object as though he saw it through 
 a pane of glass the size of his paper or canvas. The general 
 principles of practice are not difficult, provided two or three 
 technical terms and general principles are well understood. 
 
 Obs. In drawing after nature, it is useful in early practice to 
 adopt seme mechanical means of fixing the point of view or sight. 
 This may be done by a hole through a staff fixed in the ground j and 
 sometimes still further to assist the eye, a frame with cross threads or 
 ■wires is affixed between that sight-hole and the objects to be drawn. 
 In that case the paper or canvas is divided into a like number of 
 squares, and the objects in the squares of the frame are exactly trans- 
 fered to their corresponding squares on the paper. After some prac- 
 tice, however, such mechanical means will be found unnecessary. 
 
 142. When a draughtsman has formed a scene in his 
 mind, and supposed that the principal figures lie close to the 
 hack of his canvas, he is next to fix upon some point on his side 
 of the canvas, from which his eye is supposed to view the ob- 
 jects on the other side. In choosing this point, which is 
 called THE POINT of sight, regard should be had to its situa- 
 tion to the right or left of the middle of the canvas : but, 
 above all things, to its distance and its height with respect to 
 the lower edge of the canvas ; which edge is called the base 
 OR GROUND LINE, and is parallel to an horizontal line that 
 passes through the point of sight. 
 
 143. By assuming the point of sight, and consequently 
 the horizontal line, too low, the surfaces or planes upon whieh 
 the figures stand will appear a great deal too shallow ; and by 
 assuming it too high, they will appear tag steep, so as $0 render 
 
iO ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 the piece less light and airy than it ought to be. In like man- 
 ner, if the point of sight be taken at too great a distance from 
 the canvas, the figures will not admit of lowering enough to 
 be seen with sufficient distinctness ; and if taken too near it, 
 the lowering will be too quick and precipitate to have an agree- 
 able effect. 
 
 144. When a picture is to be hung high, the point of 
 sight should be assumed low, and vice vei'sa / in order that the 
 horizontal line of the picture may be, as near as possible, to 
 the horizontal plane of the spectator. When a picture is to be 
 placed very high, it will be proper to assume the point of sight 
 so low, that it may lie quite under the picture, no part of 
 whose ground is, in that case, to be visible. There is seldom 
 any necessity for such extraordinary exactness ; and unless in 
 some particular cases, the point of sight had better be rather 
 high than low; because we are more accustomed to behold 
 objects on the same plane with ourselves, than either higher or 
 lower. 
 
 145. The point of distance, or supposed distance of the 
 eye from the picture or glass, is next to be determined. In doing 
 this, a draughtsman should attend to three things : first, that 
 the spectator may be able to take in, at one glance, the whole 
 and every part of the composition ; secondly, that he may see 
 it distinctly ; and thirdly, that the lowering of the figures and 
 other objects of the picture be sufficiently sensible. Practice 
 in copying and in designing after good masters supercede pre- 
 cise rules for doing this with happy effect. 
 
 Ol’s. The best landscapes include an angle of from 45 to dO de-f 
 grees, or the eighth or sixth of the whole Panorama of 360 degrees. 
 
 146. The ground plane, is the plane or level on which 
 stand both the spectator and the objects that are to be drawn. 
 The perspective plane, is a supposed plane standing perpenT 
 .dicular upon the ground plane, as the pane of glass, on which the 
 .images of ejects are ’supposed to be intercepted; so that their 
 perspective appearance, when drawm, is the appearance they 
 
OP PERSPECTIVE AND OP DRAWING. 
 
 51 
 
 would have on this perspective plane. The ground line, 
 is the line on which the perspective plane or glass is supposed 
 to rest. 
 
 147 . The point of sight, is that point in the perspective 
 plane which is nearest to, or opposite, the eye, and is at the 
 same proportional distance from the ground line as the height 
 of the eye is above the ground plane. The horizontal line, 
 is the line upon the perspective plane, drawn through the point of 
 sight, parallel to the ground line ,* and the perpendicular is a 
 line on the perspective plane, drawn through the point of sight 
 perpendicular to the ground line and to the horizontal line. 
 
 Oh. The point A, where the perpendicular and horizontal lines 
 cross, is the point of sight, or vanishing point, of all lines running out 
 from the eye perpendicular to the perspective plane. 
 
 Horizon 
 
 tal Line. 
 
 GROUND LINE. 
 
 148. Points of distance are points on the perspective 
 plane set off from the point of sight, sometimes on the horizontal 
 line, sometimes on the perpendicular, at the same proportional 
 distance from the point of sight as the eye itself is from the 
 objects. Measuring points are points from which any lines in 
 the perspective plane are measured, by laying a ruler from them 
 to divisions laid down upon tlie ground line. Vanishing 
 POINTS are points on the perspective plane in which parallel 
 lines in nature seem to meet or vanish to the eye. 
 
 Obs. Vanishing points produce that effect of which painters of 
 scenery avail themselves, and is founded on the principle, that if the 
 earth were an extended plain, all objects would seem to vanish from 
 their progressive smallness. Of course, if any set of objects vanish in 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 a right line from the eye, the diminution takes place more rapidly 
 than when it takes place obliquely ; and the vanishing point in objects 
 receding opposite the eye is in the point of sight, but if they recede 
 obliquely then the vanishing point is to the right or left of the point of 
 sight, 
 
 149. The rules for drawing are, that all lines that are 
 parallel to the perspective plane, must be drawn parallel to each 
 other; and that all other parallel lines meet, or have vanishing points 
 in some part of the perspective plane. If the lines lie upon the 
 graundplane, they vanish somewhere in the horizontal linej which 
 is, therefore, called the vanishing line of the ground plane. 
 If the parallel lines run perpendicular from the ground line, 
 they vanish in the point of sight; but if they are oblique to it, 
 or have a declination from such perpendicular, the angle of this 
 obliquity or declination must be set olF to the right or left to 
 find the vanishing point. 
 
 150. All the measures of lines upon the ground plane are 
 to be laid down upon the ground line, and the measuring point 
 of all lines parallel to the ground line, is either of the points of 
 distance on the horizontal line, or the point of sight. The 
 measuring point of any line, perpendicular to the ground line, 
 is in the point of distance "bn the horizontal line ; and the 
 measuring point of a line oblique to the ground line is found 
 by extending the compasses from the vanishing point of that 
 line to the point of distance on the perpendicular, and setting 
 it olf on the horizontal line. 
 
 151. The pictures of all lines parallel to the perspective 
 plane are parallel to the lines themselves. The pictures of all 
 vertical lines are vertibal, and the pictures of horizontal lines 
 are horizontal, because these lines are parallel to the perspec- 
 tive plane. The point of sight is the vanishing point of all 
 lines perpendicular to the perspective plane. Every line which 
 in the object is straight, perpendicular, or parallel to its base, 
 should be so in its delineations. Objects standing on the right 
 hand, should be placed on the right hand of the point of sight, 
 and those on the left hand on the left hand of the point. 
 
OP PERSPECTIVE AND LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 53 
 
 152. In setting oiF altitudes, measure the height from the 
 ground line, and a line from that point to the horizontal line, 
 wherever it happens to be placed. If in a landscape there are 
 any standing waters, place the horizontal line level with the 
 farthest appearance of it. If there be any houses, consider 
 their position, that you may find from what point in the hori- 
 zontal line to draw the front and sides. 
 
 Ohs. It is in vain by the rules of perspective to describe all the 
 little hollows and prominences of objects j the different light and 
 shade of their parts j the windings and turnings of the boughs and 
 leaves of trees ; or the features and limbs of men, See. Its peculiar 
 province is to exhibit a kind of ground-work, and to ascertain the 
 general proportions and places of the objects, leaving the rest to 
 be finished, beautified, and ornamented by experience. Yet the 
 knowledge of the general laws of this science is of great and neces« 
 sary use to inform the judgment in what manner the images of any 
 proposed lines should run, which way they should tend, and where 
 terminate j and when the ground or general plan of the principal 
 parts of a picture are laid down according to rule, every remarkable 
 deviation from the rules will be the more readily perceived, and be 
 the easier avoided or rectified. 
 
 153. In sketching after nature, you are to consider your 
 paper as a piece of upright glass, through which you see the 
 objects in their natural sizes and productions. The^r^t thing 
 is to determine on the boundaries of your picture ; the second 
 on the middle point j and the third, on the parallel height of 
 the principal set of objects. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Ail this is best done by holding the pencil at arm’s length, 
 first perpendicularly, and then horizontally, and by repeating the 
 same guide or guage as often as is needful while the sketch proceeds. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The student should take his station on a rising ground, 
 where he may have a large field of view, and an extended horizon. 
 
 Ohs. 3. He should next divide his paper or tablet, upon which 
 be is at work, into three equal divisions, from the top to the bottom, 
 and (if he think necessary) into any number of equal divisions, from 
 one side to the other, and in his own mind divide the landscape or 
 field of view exactly in the same manner. 
 
54 
 
 ELEMENtS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Ols. 4. Then let him describe, upon the middle division, those 
 objects which are directly before his eyes ; next those towards his left 
 hand 3 and, lastly, those on his right hand : observing that he change 
 not the situation of his body, nor move from his place, till he have 
 obtained a draft of the whole. 
 
 Ohs. 5. The nearest objects should appear the highest j and 
 those farther off decline in height according to their distance 3 the 
 most distant appearing almost level with the horizon. 
 
 Ohs. 6. They are also to decrease in the strength of their shades, 
 as well as size, in proportion to their distance from the observer. 
 
 Ohs, 7 . In consequence of their being more faintly shaded, they 
 ■will appear less distinct, and more confused, the further they are 
 removed from the point of view. 
 
 Ohs. 8 . The lights and shades must all fall the same way. 
 
 Ohs. 9 . Every thing is to have its proper motion according to 
 nature : as trees shaken by the wind, the greater branches bending 
 less than the smaller ones 3 and the tall slender trees more than the 
 stout ones : observing they all incline the same way. 
 
 Ohs. 10. In drawing the sky, those clouds nearest the observer 
 must be placed towards the top of the piece, and more strongly 
 shaded, and distinctly marked, than the others more remote : and the 
 farther they are removed from the observer, the lower must be their 
 situation, and more faint their shades, till they mingle with the hori- 
 zon, where they become lost to view. 
 
 Ohs. 11 . Water has very different appearances : when it is calm 
 and still, it reflects the light strongly, and must therefore have little 
 or no shade : and if it be required to be represented as reflecting a 
 strong light, the adjacent parts must have some shade, in order to form 
 the contrast. When violently agitated, it is to have some very deep 
 and broken shades 3 and other parts striking against rocks, ships, or 
 other objects, are to have a black and white contrasted shade, to 
 represent the foaming of the water. 
 
 154. It is necessary that the student he cautioned against 
 falling into an error too prevalent among artists, viz. that of 
 making their objects in the piece rise higher, the farther they 
 are removed from view (which makes the landscape appear as 
 if it was situated on the side of a hill), on the bottom of which 
 
OF PERSPBCTIVB AND LANDSCAPE PAINTING, 55 
 
 the artist took his station. These pieces always have an un- 
 graceful appearance, not to mention the absurdity of the idea, 
 and how seldom such a view occurs in nature. When this, 
 however, is the case, the artist must draw his piece in this form ; 
 for lie can never err, while he follows that great mistress of 
 perfection. Nature. 
 
 155. At the same time, it is necessary to fix the point 
 opposite to the eye, called the point of sight, and the horizon- 
 tal line passing through the point of sight, and to remember 
 that all objects are to be drawn of a size inversely proportioned 
 to their distance from the point of sight. As objects conti- 
 nually diminish as they recede, even till they vanish, the hori- 
 zontal line contains, therefore, the vanishing points of all ob- 
 jects standing on the level of the spectator. 
 
 156. Having fixed five or six main points of the picture, 
 proceed to sketch faintly the shapes of all the principal objects — 
 then join them together — then correct their figures and 
 outlines, and then mark in, or indicate the shadows. 
 
 Obs, Prefer to redraw an incorrect line to the rubbing of it out, 
 as the false line will guide to the true one, and take care before you, 
 finish that every object has its true figure, as seen from the fixed point 
 of sight. Of course only the objects in the foreground require finish- 
 ing, and the distant objects are to be expressed in their general 
 eflfect, lightly and imperfectly. 
 
 157. Authors usually make a great parade about the intri- 
 cacy of perspective, and treat it as a science of mystery and 
 difficulty. It is, however, not so, and may be learnt as easily 
 as any of the rules of Arithmetic. Its purpose is to enable us 
 to draw objects as they appear in nature, and this will be easy 
 to persons having an accurate eye by a slight attention to some 
 plain principles. 
 
 158. The student should first understand that all objects 
 of the same real size appear diminished in proportion to their 
 distances from the eye, and in understanding this, he under- 
 stands the whole arcana of perspective. Thus a man six feet 
 high appears twice the height at ten feet distance, than he does 
 
56 
 
 Blements op the art op drawing. 
 
 at twenty feet, and ten times as large as he would at a hundred 
 feet distance. 
 
 159. And a man six feet high, at ten feet distance, is as 
 large to the eye as a house sixty feet high, at a hundred feet 
 distance. All then that is requisite in drawing any objects from 
 nature is to draw the objects of a size diminished in proportion 
 to their actual distances, and according to their actual sizes. Thus 
 some object should be drawn in the foreground of a known 
 size, and then all other objects should be reduced according to 
 their distances and sizes, in their proportion to that object. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Suppose a tree one hundred feet from the draughtsman, 
 and one hundred feet high, is. made ten inches long in the drawing, 
 it is evident, that a house fifty feet high, and one thousand feet distant, 
 should be half an inch long in the drawing. Measured accuracy is 
 unnecessary 5 it is simply necessary to guess with moderate precision 
 at the relative heights and distances, and after the purpose has been 
 effected in a few exercises, it w ill be easy to pursue it mechanically. 
 
 Ohs. 2 . All the rules of perspective proceed on the principle of 
 admeasurement, so that nothing is lost by substituting a ready and 
 brief calculation for geometrical projections, by the scale and com- 
 passes, but measurement is seldom necessary. 
 
 Obs. 3. The size of every object is to be drawn directly as the size, 
 and as the distance ; if therefore, you multiply the drarzira 
 
 dimensions of one object by its distance, and by the real dimensions of 
 some other object, whose drawn size is required; and then divide 
 that product by the product of the real size of the drawn object with 
 the distance of the required object, the guotient is the size which that 
 object is to be drawn. Thus if a man six feet high, at four yards from the 
 perspective plane, be drawn two inches high, — how large is a pillar to 
 be drawn which is sixty feet high and forty yards distant ? Multiply 
 the two by four and by sixty, and the product is 480 ; and then six by 
 forty is 240, which goes twice in 480, consequently the pillar must be 
 two inches, or exactly the height of the man. The variations of 
 the distance from the ground kne will give the true effect in the pic- 
 ture. Nothing, therefore, is more easy than to ascertain the relative 
 sizes to arithmetical exactness, at which objects should be drawn, 
 till the eye determines it more readily by experience. 
 
( 57 ) 
 
 ON COLOURING. 
 
 Who can paint 
 
 Like Nature ? Can Imagination boast. 
 
 Amid its gay creation, hues like her’s ? 
 
 Or can it mix them with that matchless skill. 
 
 And lay them on so delicately fine. 
 
 And lose them in each other, as appears 
 In ev’ry bud that blows ? 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 160. Colouring is that important part of art in which 
 tlie artist imitates the colours of all natural objects, and gives 
 to artificial objects those hues which are most calculated to 
 please or to deceive the sight. It is the duty of the colourist 
 to consider, that as there are two sorts of objects, the natural 
 or real, and the artificial or painted, so there are also two sorts 
 of colours, viz. the natural, or that which makes all the objects 
 in nature visible to us, and the artificial, or that which, by a 
 judicious mixture of simple colours, imitates those natural 
 ones in all their various situations and circumstances. 
 
 161. An artist must first endeavour to acquire a perfect 
 knowledge of these two sorts of colours ; of the natural, in 
 order to distinguish with precision which of them he ought to 
 imitate ; and of the artificial, in order to compose the tint most 
 proper for representing the natural colour. The natural colour 
 is of three sorts: 1st, the true colour of the object; 2d, the 
 reflected colour ; 3d, the colour of the light incidental to the 
 object. In the artificial colours, their force and softness should 
 be distinguished separately and by comparison. In order that a 
 proper judgment may be exerted in heightening or attenuating 
 them, as the sulqect may require. 
 
 162. It should be considered, that a picture is, for the 
 most part, a flat superficies ; that, some time after the colours 
 are laid on, they necessarily lose their freshness ; and the dis- 
 tance at which a picture is viewed takes from it much of its 
 
58 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 brightness and vigour ; and it is, therefore, impossible to guard 
 against these drawbacks on the elFects of his pencil, without a 
 complete mastery of that artifice which is the chief object of 
 the art of colouring. 
 
 163. Although imitation is the principal aim of colouring, 
 the artist must by no means be the slave of natural objects, but 
 the judge and judicious imitator of them : he must not imitate 
 all the colours which present themselves indifferently to his 
 eye ; but he must chuse the most proper for his purpose, and 
 add or temper with others, to complete the beauty of effect in 
 his work. He must sometimes abate the vivacity of life, and 
 sometimes strive to heighten it by superior force and brightness 
 of colours, in order to convey to the eye, with precision and 
 truth, the spirit and real character of the object. There are 
 few, and those only among the greatest painters, who have 
 arrived at the perfect management of this difficult part of art. 
 
 164. On the apposition of colours, and on the knowledge 
 of chiaroscuro , depends all the harmony of colouring. In 
 what that happy arrangement of colours consists, which pro- 
 duces effects delightful to the eye, no rules can pretend to 
 ascertain. If the source of information in this point is not in 
 the mind of the painter, he will in vain seek for it elsewhere. 
 Improvement, however, may, and must, be superadded to natu- 
 ral discrimination : to acquire the necessary improvement, he 
 will find the best school in the works of those great masters 
 who have possessed the power of colouring in an eminent 
 degree. 
 
 166. We must learn to view nature to advantage, in order 
 to represent her well. There are two manners of colouring : 
 the one depending on habit, the other on the true knowledge 
 of colours. The first is confined, the second unlimited. The 
 harmony of nature in her colours arises from objects partici- 
 pating of one another by reflection ; for there is no light which 
 does not strike some body; nor is there any enlightened body 
 which does not reflect its light and colour at the same time^ in 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 50 
 
 pfoportion to the force of the light, and according to the nature 
 of the colour. This participation of reflection in light and 
 colour, constitutes that union of colouring which it is the busi- 
 ness of the painter to imitate. 
 
 166. The desirable union of colour is sometimes consi- 
 derably aided in pictures by the proeess of glazing ; that is, by 
 the use of colours which, having little body, are diaphonous ; 
 and are, by means of a light brush or pencil, passed over (or, 
 as painters express it, scumbled over) such parts of the work as 
 are unpleasantly staring, or otherwise discordant. Variety of 
 tints, very nearly of the same tone, employed in the same 
 figure, and often upon the same part, with moderation, con- 
 tribute much to harmony. 
 
 167. The turn of the parts, and the outlines which insen- 
 sibly melt into their grounds and artfully disappear, bind the 
 objects together, and preserve them in union ; as they seem to 
 conduct the eye beyond what it sees, and persuade it that it 
 sees what it really does not see, or at least that it conceives that 
 continuity which the extremities of the objects conceal. 
 
 168. Any loading or overcharging of colouring, for what- 
 ever purpose it is used, must be so discreetly managed, as not 
 to destroy the character of the object. The repetition of the 
 same colour in a picture is to be avoided, unless where it serve* 
 to connect the various masses of a composition. The eye 
 becomes tired with viewing the same object : it loves variety 
 artfully presented to it. 
 
 169. Several colours which, placed unmixed by one 
 another, have a kind of aerial brightness, when mixed toge- 
 ther, produce a disagreeable earthy colour : for instance, ultra- 
 marine with fine yellow, or fine vermilion. Colours which by 
 mixture lose strength, and become harmonious, are called 
 broken colours, and contribute as greatly to the sweetness and 
 softness of tones in pictures as they substract from their bright- 
 ness. 
 
 170 . The knowledge of lights and shades forms an im- 
 
60 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 portant part of the art of colouring. But the incidence of 
 particular lights and shades on bodies placed on certain planes, 
 and exposed to certain lights, is a very small part of that gene- 
 ral knowledge of effect which is denominated ehiaro-scuro, by 
 which is meant the art of skilfully distributing the lights and 
 shades which ought to appear in a picture as well for the repose 
 as satisfaction of the eye. 
 
 171. Chiaroscuro, as it is called, demands a perfect know- 
 ledge of the effects of light and shade, of aerial perspective, 
 of the proportional force of colours, or of those qualities by 
 which they appear to advance to, or recede from, the eye, and 
 of their various degrees of transparency or opaqueness. It 
 consists, 1st, in connecting and combining the figures or 
 objects of a composition in such masses of light and of shade, 
 as are both the most pleasing to the eye, and the best calculated 
 for the just developement and display of the subject. 2dly, 
 In assigning to each object the colour most corresponding (on 
 account of the force or qualities abov'e-mentioned) to its re- 
 spective place in the general mass or group, and at the same 
 time best harmonizing with the other colours of the picture, 
 either by its natural and proper tone, or by the reflected hues 
 which it receives from adjoining or surrounding objects. The 
 beauty of these reflexes depends on the skilful adaptation of 
 transparent or opaque colours. 3dly, In the judicious ifltio- 
 duction of such accidents as contribute to strengthen the gene- 
 ral effect and character of the work. It is on chiaro-scuro, 
 that depends the expression of the character of a picture, whe- 
 ther it is gay or gloomy, cheerful or solemn. 
 
 172. The distribution of objects forms the masses of 
 chiaro-scuro, by combining or connecting their lights and 
 shades in such a manner as to prevent the eye from wandering 
 confusedly over the work. Titian exemplified this precept in 
 the instance of a bunch of grapes, of which each grape, if 
 seen separately, would have its light and shade in a similar 
 degree, and thus distracting the sight, would produce a tire- 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 61 
 
 some confusion ; but when collected in one bunchy and becom- 
 ing but one mass of light and shade, the eye is capable of 
 embracing them all together as a single object. 
 
 173. In shading with indian ink mix three gradations of 
 tints, a weak, a middle, and a deep tint. The weak tint is to 
 be laid over every part, except the whites. The middle tint is 
 then, when the former is dry, to be laid over all the parts re- 
 ceding from the light, leaving a part of the weak tint between 
 the white and the middle tint. The deep tint is then to be 
 employed to put in the masses and the parts requiring force, 
 
 Obs. Sometimes the edges of the tints are fined off with water, 
 and the whole may be finished by repeated washings over the tint ; 
 but it will then have a woolly effect, and want spirit. Four succes- 
 sive tints are also frequently used for high finishing, Indian ink 
 drawings are often improved by a wash, or two washes, of yellow 
 ochre, sometimes followed by light red or lake. 
 
 174. Colours should be used with great caution and judg- 
 ment. Nothing is so disgusting ,as to see coloured drawings 
 where the reds, greens, and blues, are laid on in the most 
 violent manner, without any regard to harmony. Those who 
 execute such vile daubings, will say in their defence, that no- 
 thing can be greener than grass, nor bluer than the sky ; but 
 they should consider, that nature employs such a multitude of 
 little shadows, and such a variety of different tints intermixed 
 with her colours, that the harshness of the original colour is 
 corrected, and the effect of the whole is very different from a 
 raw and distinct colour laid upon white paper. 
 
 175. A single distinct colour is always bad in a landscape; 
 and the tints should always be varied and broken in every part. 
 Though we should have recourse to the study of nature, in 
 preference to any master, for the study of colouring, yet it re- 
 quires some judgment to know'^ what part of nature is to be 
 studied, and what is to be avoided; for in nature herself, there 
 are many parts which are bad, and to copy them would do 
 more harm than good. 
 
62 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Cl;s. 1. The student in colouring must examine, with everj pos« 
 sible attention, the colouring of old walls, broken and stained by time 
 and the weather, old thatch, old tiles, rotten wood 5 in short, ad ob- 
 jects which are covered with moss, stains, and tints of various kdids j 
 there he will find all that is most perfect and harmonious in colocring. 
 Let him copy these with every possible care, and avoid as bad ad ob- 
 jects which are of a uniform decided colour. This has been the prac- 
 tice of all the great masters who have excelled in this captivating part 
 of the art. In short, after learning the first principles of drawing, he 
 cannot too soon have recourse to nature ; he will obtain from her the 
 materials for acquiring every species of excellence, in a greater degree 
 than from the works of the first masters. The study of these, how- 
 ever, will greatly abridge his labour, and it should go hand-in-hand 
 with drawing from nature. 
 
 0/;s. 2 . In landscapes, the scenes most generally to be met with, 
 and which are most generally interesting, are of the picturesque kind, 
 such as cottages and rustic scenery. In these, straight lines should be 
 •voided, and every thing that is regular and formal. In general, every 
 think that is old and broken is preferable to what is new, as affording 
 more variety. Old thatch, old tiles, old plaister, old fencing, are more 
 picturesque, and fitter for the pencil, than the same species of objects 
 when new and entire. An old house, almost tumbling down, whose 
 parts are broken and ruinous, some bulging out, and the whole stained 
 and tinted with a variety of chaste and harmonious colours by the 
 pencil of nature, is infinitely preferable, as a subject for a picture, to 
 any new house or gentleman’s seat, though the latter may be a more 
 comfortable habitation to live in. In the same way, an old worn-out 
 cart-horse is a much fitter animal to draw from, and a finer subject 
 for the pencil, than a sleek and clean poney ; and an ass with a rough 
 coat is more picturesque than the same animal kept in nice order. In 
 subjects of the grand kind on the contrary, such as magnificent build- 
 ings, cities, streets, &c. straight lines are often necessary and proper, 
 as these objects are rather of the sublime than the picturesque kind 3 
 and straight lines, and a degree of regularity, form part of the 
 sublime. The employment of straight lines, however, requires great 
 skill and knowledge of the art, to prevent them from appearing bad. 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 63 
 
 and they can only be employed with success by those who have 
 attained to considerable eminence. 
 
 176. The sun’s rays are composed of seven prinlitive 
 colours ; but late observations have reduced them to three : — 
 red, blue, and yellow; so that all the vast variety of tints which 
 we see in nature, is formed by the mixture of these in various 
 proportions. If we had pigments of these colours perfectly 
 pure, we should have no occasion for more than these three ; 
 but this is not the case, and therefore we are obliged to have 
 recourse to materials of other broken tints. 
 
 Obs. The colours that are found to be the most useful in drawing 
 landscapes in w.iter-colours are, lake, indigo, Prussian blue, gamboge, 
 light red, yellow ochre, burnt terra Sienna, burnt umber, and Cologne 
 earth. Some of the other colours may be occasionally useful 3 but 
 these are all that are necessary for general use. The best sort of 
 water-colours are those mixed with gum and made up into cakes, as 
 these may be used by rubbing upon a tile, in the same manner as 
 Indian ink. 
 
 177 - The principal colours used by painters are red and 
 white- lead ; yellow and red ochres ; several kinds of earth, 
 umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt ivory, black lead, Vermil- 
 lion, gamboge, lacca, blue and green ashes, verdigris, bistre, 
 bice, smalt, carmine, ultramarine : each of which, with their 
 uses, &c. are to be found under their proper articles. Of these 
 colours some are ground with gum-water, some used with oil, 
 and others only in fresco. 
 
 178. Artists reduce all the colours they use under the two 
 classes of dark and light colours. Black, and all that are 
 obscure and earthy, as umbre, bistre, &c. are of the first de- 
 scription. Under light colours are comprehended white, and 
 all that approach nearest to it. Colours are also distinguished 
 into simple and mineral. Under simple colours they rank all 
 those which are extracted from vegetables, and which will not 
 bear the fire ; as the yellow made of saffron, French berries, 
 lacca, and other tinctures extracted from flowers, &c. 
 
64 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 179 . Colours may be considered as either single or cons- 
 pound. Single co4eurs are such as require nothing to be super- 
 added to them, in order to make a full strong colour, without 
 regarding whether they are formed of many or few ingredients ; 
 and in this view, white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, calces of 
 iron, &c. are simple colours. Compound c lours are formed 
 by the union of two or more colouring substances ; as blue and 
 yellow united together to form a green, red and yellow to form 
 an orange, a white earth or calx, with the red colour of cochi- 
 neal or brazil, to form a lake, &c. ; and thus carmine, lake, 
 rose-pink, Dutch-pink, English-pink, dpc. are compound co- 
 lours. 
 
 180. The general, or simple colours are — white, black, 
 brown, red, yellow, blue, and green. 
 
 The Whites are — Ceruse, constant white, white lead, 
 Spanish white, flake white, and spodium. 
 
 Blacks . — Burnt cherry-stones, ivory black, Keating’s 
 black, and lamp-black. 
 
 Browns . — Spanish brown, Spanish licorice, umber, bistre, 
 burnt terra di Sienna, unburnt ditto, and sessia. 
 
 Reds . — Native cinnabar, burnt ochre, Indian red, red- 
 lead, minium, lake, vermilion, carmine, red-ink, and Indian 
 lake. 
 
 Yellows , — English ochre, gall-stone, gamboge, masticot, 
 ochre de luce, orpiment, Roman ochre, Dutch pink, saffron- 
 water, king’s yellow, gold yellow, and French berries. 
 
 Blues. — Saunder’s blue, terre blue, blue verditer, indigo, 
 lltmose, smalt, Prussian blue, light ditto, ultramarine, ultra- 
 marine ashes, and blue bice. 
 
 Greens.— Green bice, green verditer, grass green, sap 
 green, and verdigrise distilled. 
 
 Obs. In using colours and preparing the various tints, saucers 
 and a delf-palette with a division, is required. Ihe cake of colour is 
 dipped in water, rubbed on the saucer or palette, and then reduced 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 65 
 
 with water to its proper tint. Pencils of all widths and sizes are also 
 to be at hand for washes of various sizes. 
 
 181. The Mixed Colours are as follow: — 
 
 Ash Colour. — Ceruse, Keating’s black and white, shaded 
 with cherry-stone black. 
 
 Bay. — Lake and flake white, shaded with carmine j bistre 
 and vermilion, shaded with black. 
 
 Changeable Silk. — Red-lead and masticot water, sbaut 
 with sap-green and verdigrise : or, lake and yellow, shaded with 
 lake and Prussian blue. 
 
 Cloud Colour. — Light masticot, or lake and white, shaded 
 with blue verditer; or, constant white and Indian ink, with a 
 little vermilion ; or, white, with a little lake and blue verditer, 
 makes a very agreeable cloud colour, for that part next the 
 horizon. 
 
 Crimson. — Lake and white, with a little vermilion, shaded 
 with lake and carmine. 
 
 Flame Colour. — Vermilion and orpiment, heightened with 
 white ; or, gamboge, shaded with minium and red-lead. 
 
 Flesh Colour. — Ceruse, red-lead, and lake ; for a swarthy 
 complexion, and yellow oker; or, constant white and a little 
 carmine, shaded with Spanish licorice, w’ashed with carmine. 
 
 French Green. — Light pink and Dutch bice, shaded with 
 green pink. 
 
 Glass Grey. — Ceruse, with a little blue of any kind. 
 
 Hair Colour. — Masticot, oker, umber, ceruse, and cherry- 
 stone black. 
 
 Lead Colour. — Indigo and v/hite. 
 
 Light Blue — Blue bice, heightened with flake-wLite ; or, 
 blue verditer, and white of any sort, well ground. 
 
 Light Green — Pink, smalt, and white ', or, blue verditer 
 and gamboge ; or, gamboge and verdigrise. The chief use of 
 this green is to lay the ground-colours for trees, fields, &c-. 
 
 Lion Tawny. — Red-lead and masticot, shaded with umber. 
 
 Murrey. — Lake and white-lead. 
 
 F 
 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 G6 
 
 Orange. — Red-lead and a little masticot, shaded with gall- 
 stone and lake. 
 
 Orange Tawny. — Lake, light pink, a little masticot, 
 sliaded with gall-stone and lake. 
 
 Pearl Colour. — Carmine, a little white, shaded with lake. 
 
 Popinjay Green. — Green and masticot; or, pink and. a 
 little indigo, shaded wdth indigo. 
 
 Purple. — Indigo, Spanish brown, and white ; or, blue 
 bice, red and white lead ; or, blue bice and lake. 
 
 Russet. — Cherry-stone black and white. 
 
 Scarlet. -Red-lead and lake, with or without vermilion. 
 
 Sea 'Green. — Bice, pink, and white, shaded with pink. 
 
 Sky Colour. — Light masticot and wliite, for the lowest and 
 liglitest parts ; second, red-ink and white; third, blue bice and 
 white ; fourth, blue bice alone. These are all to be softened 
 into one another at the edges, so as not to appear harsh. 
 
 Sky Colour for Drapery. — Blue bice and ceruse; or, ul- 
 tramarine and white, shaded with indigo. 
 
 Straw Colour. — Masticot and a very little lake, shaded 
 with Dutch pink. 
 
 Violet Colour. — Indigo, white and lake ; or, fine Dutch 
 bice and lake, shaded with indigo and litmose, smalt, and bice, 
 the latter most predominant. 
 
 Water. — Blue and white, shaded with blue, and heightened 
 with white; or, blue verdigrise, shaded with indigo, and 
 heightened with white. 
 
 Obs. 1. Alum and sal ammoniac considerably heighten the colour 
 of cochineal, brazil, turmeric, fustic, madder, logwood. See. The 
 same thing is done, though in a less degree, by common salt, Glauber’s 
 salt, salt-petre, and many other of the neutral salts. Solutions ot 
 iron in all the acids strike a black with every one of the above-men- 
 tioned substances j and likewise with sumach, galls, and other astrin- 
 gents. Solutions of lead unirersally debase red colours to a dull pur- 
 ple. Solution of copper changes the purple colour of logwood to a 
 pretty good blue ; and, in general, solutions of this metal are friendly 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 67 
 
 to blue colours. The effects of solutions of gold, silver, and mer- 
 cury, are not so well known : they seem to produce dark colours of 
 no great beauty. The most powerful solution, however, with regard 
 to a great number of colours, is that of tin, made in aqua regia. Tin 
 has, in a state of solution, the most extraordinary effects. The colour 
 of cochineal is changed by it into the most beautiful scarlet 3 a similar 
 change is made upon the colouring matter of gum lac. Brazil-wood 
 is made to yield a fine purplish crimson j logwood, a beautiful dark 
 purple ; turmeric, fustic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and 
 flowers, are made to communicate colours far more beautiful than cart 
 be got from them by any other method. The blue colour of the 
 flowers of vi(jlets, eye-bright, iris, &c. are heightened so as to equal, 
 if not excel, the blue produced by a solution of copper in volatile 
 alkali. In short, this solution seems to be of much more extensive 
 use in colour-making, when properly applied, than any thing hitherto 
 thought of. It is not, however, universally serviceable. The colour 
 of madder it totally destroys, and likewise that of saf-flower, chang- 
 ing them both to a dull orange. It likewise spoils the colour of 
 archil : and what is very remarkable, the fine red colour of tincture 
 of roses made with oil of vitriol, is by solution of tin changed to a 
 dirty green. Those substances which are most remarkable for keep- 
 ing their colour, contain a gummy matter, so combined with a resinous 
 one as to be soluble both in water and spirit of wine. The most 
 durable red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very strongly 
 resinous, though at the same time so far glutinous, that the colouring- 
 matter can be extracted from it by water. Next to gum-lac are mad- 
 der roots and cochineal. The colouring-matter of the former is solu- 
 ble both in water and spirit of wine. Along with the pitre red, how- 
 ever, there is in madder a kind of viscous astringent substance, of a 
 dark brown colour, which seems to give durability to the whole. The 
 colouring-matter of cochineal, though soluble both in water and spirit 
 of wine, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which it bears some 
 resemblance to the purpura of the ancients, which kept its colour 
 exceedingly well. 
 
 Ols. 2. Black consists of lamp-llack, ivory-black, blue-black, 
 and indian-ink. The first is the finest of what are called the Soot- 
 blacks, and is more used than any other. The dregs and pieces of 
 
 F 2 
 
ELEMENTS OP THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 GS 
 
 bark left after straining the turpentine are burnt in a low oven, from 
 which the smoke is conveyed through a long passage into a square 
 chamber, having an opening on the top on which is a large sack made 
 of thin woollen stuff: the soot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the 
 chamber, from whence it is swept out once in two or three days. 
 Ivory -Mack is prepared from ivory or bones burnt in a cloSe vessel. An 
 opaque deep black for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black 
 With gum-water on a marble flab, or with size. Blue-Mack is said to 
 be prepared from the burnt stalks and tendrils of the vine. Indian-ink 
 is an excellent black for water-colours. There is another very agree- 
 able and useful black called Keating’s-black, and may be had at most 
 eolour-shops ready prepared, 
 
 Oks. 3. The Jlake-whilc and w/ii^e-lead are, properly speaking, 
 the same. These are the only whites that can be used in oil, all the 
 rest being transparent unless they are laid on with water. Spanish- 
 white is only a finely-prepared chalk j and Pearl-white is made from 
 oyster-shells. The magistery of bismuth is apt to turn black, as are 
 also flake-white, and white-lead, when used as water-colours. The 
 best white for painting in water-colours is flake-white • some recom- 
 mend a white made of pearl and oyster-shells brought to an impal- 
 pable powder, called -a pearl white, which will mix well with any 
 colour. 
 
 Oks. 4. Red. The red colours used in painting are of two sorts; 
 viz. those w'hich incline to the purple, and such as are of a full scarlet 
 and tend rather to the orange. The first are carmine, lake, rose-pink, 
 red-ochre, and Venetian-red. The second are vermilion, red lead, 
 scarlet-ochre, common indian-red, spanish-brown, and terra di, Sienna, 
 burnt. Carmine is the brightest and most beautiful red colour known 
 at present; the best comes from France. Lake differs from it in 
 being capable of mixture with oil ; which carmine is not, unless with 
 great difficulty. The former is also much more inclined to purple 
 than carmine. This last quality, however, is reckoned a defect ; and 
 accordingly, the more that lake approaches to the scarlet or true 
 crimson, the more it is valued. On dropping solution of tin into an 
 aqueous tincture of brazil-wood, a beautiful precipitate falls, of a 
 purplish crimson colour. This may be very well substituted in place 
 ®f the dearer lakes on many occasions. Rose-pink inclines more to 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 69 
 
 purple than scarlet It seems to be made of chalk, coloured with a, 
 decoction of brazil-wood j but it is exceedingly perishable. Red 
 ockre and Venetian-red differ in nothing from the calces of iron when 
 made to incline either to a purple or scarlet, by the manner in which 
 the calcination js perfotmed. A litjuid colour of a very good crimson, 
 may be made as follows : In twelve ounces of pale stale beer, boil 
 one ounce of ground Brazil wood, till the colour is as strong. a& 
 you desire 5 strain it through a linen cloth, and bottle it up for ase. 
 
 Obs. 5. The only true orawge paints are red orpiment and orange 
 lake. The first is a .sublimate formed of arsenic and sulphur j the 
 other may be prepared from turmeric infused in spirit of wine, having 
 its colour struck upon calx of tin, and brightened by a solution of that 
 metal. All the shades of orange, however, may be extemporaneously, 
 prepared by mixing red and yellow together, in due proportions. As 
 vermilion and gamboge, the latter most predominant, in which you 
 are presented with a pleasant and serviceable colour, in painting lilies, 
 and all other orange-colour flowers. 
 
 Obs. 6. King's-yellow is an arsenical preparation. Its, colour is 
 exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade ; on which account, and its 
 great price, it is seldom used. Naples-yellow has lead for its, basis. It 
 is therefore apt to turn black and lose its colour, which makes it the 
 less valuable. It is nevertheless used instead of king’s-yellow, on 
 account of its cheapness. X)uich-pink is said to be prepared by strike 
 ing the colour of yellow berries upon alumine : but this is doubtful. 
 Masticot is prepared by calcining white-lead, till it assumes a yellowish 
 colour. It is not apt to change, but the colour is so dull that it is sel- 
 dom used either in oil or water. Common orpiment is a pretty, bright 
 greenish-yellow, prepared by subliming arsenic with sulphur. It has a 
 nauseous smell j nor does it keep its colour for any length of time. 
 Gamboge is, beyond doubt, one of the mellowest colours nature hasf 
 produced, and wants neither gumming nor grinding, for the most 
 agreeable and pleasant yellow tints. Gall stone is a very rich deep 
 yellow, tending towards a brown j it is exceedingly useful in many 
 cases, needs but little gumming or grinding, and works free, but will 
 not shade itself. Yellow ochre makes a very good pale yellow ; and, 
 being ground with gum- water, will prove extremely useful. Another 
 very useful yellow is made by infusing the plant celandine in clear 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 70 
 
 water, gently pressing it, adding to the liquor some alum-water, letting 
 it boil. The virtues of the yellow extracted from French berries is 
 well known j and you may likewise make a yellow, by infusing saffron 
 in pure water, from the roots of ginger j which make a good green, 
 when mixed with transparent verdigrise. 
 
 Ohs. 7 . The only simple green colour that has a tolerable degree 
 of brightness is vferdigris, or at least the preparations of it. It is 
 improved in colour, though not in durability, by dissolution and crys- 
 tallization in distilled vinegar ; in which state it is called distilled ver- 
 digris. A more durable water-colour is made by dissolving the verdi- 
 gris in crystals of tartar : but in oil this is found to be equally fugitire 
 with the verdigris itself. Compound greens are either made of Prus- 
 sian or some other blue, mixed with yellow. Sap-green is a simple 
 colour } it is a colour extremely serviceable, and the best green for 
 water-colours, being of a gummy substance, and easily diluting in 
 water. It produces an endless variety of tints, and has the advantage 
 of shading itself. Another green sometimes used is called tcrre verte, 
 which is a native earth, probably impregnated with copper. It is of 
 a blueish green colour, much of that tint called sea-green, is made by 
 mixing indigo and sap-green, w'hich may be made darker or lighter, 
 by adding more or less indigo ; it is a very serviceable colour, easily 
 worked, and productive of many tints. Another green is made with 
 indigo and gamboge, well ground together, extremely useful in painting 
 of trees, grass, vegetables, &c. With the addition of sap-green, it 
 is very serviceable in flowers, and in the shading of garments. A 
 transparent green is made by mixing verdigrise and yellow to various 
 
 tints, by leaving either predominant. 
 
 Ohs. 8. Of blue colours the ultramarine is the finest, but its great 
 price hinders its being much used. It is a preparation from lapis laziili, 
 and is an exceeding bright colour, and never fades with whatever 
 substance it is mixed. Prussian blue, which is accounted of the be.st 
 quality when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple. It ought 
 to be tried by a mixture with white lead, as the brightness of the 
 colour will appear much more when diluted than when concentrated 
 in the lumps of the blue itself. Blue bice is a colour of a very good 
 body, and flow’s very agreeably in the pencil. Blue verditer is a very 
 bright pleasant blue, of a good body, and works well when ground 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 71 
 
 with gum»vvater, and is mostly used for a sky or garments. Saun- 
 ders’ blue is extremely serviceable in the shading of ultramarine^ 
 where no very dark shades appear, Lilmose is also a very agreeable 
 blue. Indigo is the darkest blue^ is a soft free colour, and runs very 
 freely in the pencil: it requires to be well washed and ground; and 
 may be made darker or lighter, by the addition of more or less gum- 
 water. 
 
 Obs. Q. The only purple colour of this kind used at present is 
 the substance usually called colcothar of vitriol. Beautiful purple 
 lake may be prepared from logwood. Take eight ounces of logwood, 
 a pint of rain-water, and an ounce of alum j infuse it well over a 
 slow fire, in a well-glazed pan or pipkin, for about twenty-four hours ; 
 add a quarter of an ounce of gum-arabic; let it stand for a week; 
 strain it through a piece of fine cloth. Or make a redder purple, by 
 adding to one ounce of the above, four ounces of Brazil-wood, and a 
 pint of stale beer, boiling it till the liquor is as strong as you desire. 
 It may be made darker, by adding more logwood. The richest purple 
 is made by blending carmine and Prussian-blue, or indigo, to what 
 shade you please. 
 
 Obs. 10. Burnt and unburnt terra de Sienna are, the warmest 
 lrow?is for front grounds, dead leaves, &c. Bistre is a good and ser- 
 viceable colour, and the best sort is very bright and close. It is a 
 colour difficult to work of itself, mix, therefore, a little Spanish lico- 
 rice with it, that will mellow and take off its harshness. The higher 
 it is gummed, the better it is for use. Spanish licorice is productive 
 of a variety of brown tints, of very agreeable colour. A brown mix- 
 ture is made by incorporating sap green and carmine, which is of an 
 extraordinary soft nature ; and is a colour extremely serviceable. By 
 blending vermilion and bistre thoroughly, you produce a brown of 
 excellent quality. 
 
 182, Lay your colours on but thinly at first, deepening 
 and mellowing them by degrees, as you see occasion. The 
 quicker you lay them on, the evener and cleaner your drawing 
 will appear. Take care to preserve all your colours from dust; 
 and before you use them, wupe your shells and palette every 
 time they are used. 
 
 183. For face-painting, mix up a little light carnation, or 
 
72 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OiF DRAWING. 
 
 flesb-colour, with guta-Water, in a shell by itself. If it be for 
 a fair complexion, mix vermilion and flake-white together ; 
 and for a swarthy one, add to the former a little masticot or 
 English ochre, or both. Let your flesh-colour be always lighter 
 than the complexion you would paint, for by working on it 
 you may bring it to its true colour. In a large shell, or upon 
 your palette, lay your different shades of flesh-colour, at a con- 
 venient distance from each other, and always have ready a 
 sufficient quantity of white to lighten your shadows. 
 
 184. For cheeks and lips, use a mixture of lake and red- 
 lead, or carmine, as occasion requires ; and for blue tints, (as 
 the eyes and veins) indigo, or ultramarine, and white. 
 
 185. For grey faint shadows, use white, English oker, 
 sometimes masticot j for deep shadows, W'hite, English oker, 
 umber; for darker shadows, lake and pitik, which make a good 
 fleshy shadow’. 
 
 186. In colouring landscapes, at first only lay dead co- 
 lours smooth all over the piece, leaving no part uncovered, and 
 be not over curious in this part of the performance, but rather 
 use a masterly freedom; and the work, though seemingly 
 rough to the eye, will have a good effect when placed at a dis- 
 tance. 
 
 187. Let not the roughness of the colour discourage you, 
 for it is easily to be softened by degrees with the other sha- 
 dows, observing only to sweeten and heighten them according 
 as the light falls. In some places lay on strong touches, and 
 in those places bring your work up together to an equal round- 
 ness and strength ; tempering and sweetening your colours 
 with a sharper pencil than tlie first, that no lumps or harsh 
 edges be left, but that all your shadows may be dispersed, soft, 
 and smooth, gliding gently, as it were, one in another. 
 
 Obs. To produce a great or striking light on a mass of colours, 
 or restore a light destroyed, pass a pencil with clean water over the 
 part, when the water is soaked into the colour, it may be dried with a 
 cloth, and the colour removed with a piece of bread. 
 
aN COtoCRING. 
 
 75 
 
 i-SS. Having laid your dead colours, begin first with the 
 lightest parts, as the sky, sun-beams, &c. then the yellowish 
 beams (which are to be done with masticot and white) j next 
 the blueness of the sky, with ultramarine or smalt alone. For 
 purple clouds only mix lake and white, making your colours 
 deeper as they go upwards from the horizon, except in tem- 
 pestuous skies. The tops of distant mountains must be worked 
 so faint, that they may seem to lose themselves in air. 
 
 1S9. Bring your colours forward as your distance de- 
 creases ; painting your first ground next the horizon downwards 
 of a blueish sea-green, and as you advance forwards, of a red- 
 dish or darker green, till you eome to the fore-ground itself, 
 which, as it is to be the darkest part of all, do with dark green, 
 shaded with a dark brown or yellow ; which rule of shadow 
 will also serve for the trees on each respective ground. 
 
 190. In colouring trees, boughs, and branches, touch in 
 all the dark shades first, raising the lighter leaves above the 
 darker, by adding masticot to the dark green, which may be 
 made with bice, pink, and indigo ; for the uppermost of all, 
 which are to be done last, touch lightly the extremities of the 
 leaves with a little green, masticot, and white, and set off the 
 darkest shadows with sap-green and indigo. 
 
 191. The most useful colours for landscapes are lake, 
 Rurnt ochre, gamboge, indigo or light red, sepia, 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE, and terra de sienna. 
 
 192. Skies are tinted with indigo, and the distant hills, 
 may also receive a finish wash of the same colour. Buildings, 
 ground, and roads should be tinted with ochre. The bushes and 
 grass may be forwarded with a tint of gamboge. The distances 
 may be heightened with a tint of lake, and the dark shadows 
 of the buildings may be tinted with sepia. 
 
 Ois. A simple tint is thus produced by one cake reduced with 
 water to the tint required. A compound tint is a mixture of colours, 
 as lake of indigo for purple and blue, yellow and red for green. The 
 
74 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 simple are more clear than the compound j and they are unfavoured 
 in effect by being contrasted with contrary compounds. 
 
 193. In retiring hills tint the whole with weak blue, then 
 the nearer ones with indigo and lake, then add a little gamboge 
 to the next, keeping one subordinate to the other, the most 
 distant being lost in the aerial tints. Clouds should be tinted 
 with seppia. Opposing masses of trees should be tinted with 
 seppia and indigo, and distant trees with grey, the lights 
 warmed with gamboge and ochre, and their shades deepened 
 with indigo. Force is acquired by adding sepia with indigo to 
 the cold parts, and seppia with lake to the glowing parts. 
 Breadth of light is obtained by destroying the scattered lights 
 with grays. 
 
 194. Tint with ochre to give warmth to the whole, and 
 shadow the ground with tints of ochre and sepia. Mark the 
 breaks of buildings, the shades and dark trees with ochre, 
 indigo, and lake. Wash the masses in the distances with in- 
 digo and lake. Finish the trees with indigo, ochre, and gam- 
 boge, forming green ; and give a glow to the lights with a red 
 formed of ochre and gamboge. Tints of indigo always reduce 
 too abrupt glows, and those of ochre confer warmth when 
 required. 
 
 Ohs. 1. To make Gum Water . — Dissolve one ounce of pure 
 white gum-arabic, and half an ounce of double-refined sugar, in a 
 quart of spring water ; strain it through a fine sieve, or a piece of 
 muslin, and bottle it off for use, keeping it free from dust. With 
 this water you may temper most of your colours j using such a quan- 
 tity that, being touched when dry, the colour will not come off. If 
 the colour shine, there is too much gum in it. 
 
 Ohs. 2. To make Liquid Gold . — Grind the finest leaf-gold with 
 strong gum-water very fine, adding, as you grind it, more gum-water, 
 as you see necessary. When you have ground it as fine as you can, 
 wash it in a large shell ; then temper it with a little mercury sublimate, 
 bind it in the shell with a little dissolved gum, shake and spread it 
 equally all over the shell, and use it with fair water only j and to 
 
OF FRUITS, FLOWERS, AND TREES. 
 
 75 
 
 make liquid silver from the same process with that for liquid gold, 
 observing in the using it to temper it with glare of eggs instead of 
 water. 
 
 Ohs. 3. To keep the colours from sinking . — Boil four ounces of 
 roch-alum in a pint of spring water, till it is thoroughly dissolved ; 
 then filter it through brown paper, and keep it for use j and before 
 you lay on your colours, take a sponge, and wet the back of your 
 paper with this water while it is hot. 
 
 OF FRUITS, FLOWERS, AND TREES. 
 
 195. Fruits are the most simple in their form of any 
 natural bodies. They generally depart a little in their outlines 
 from the regular circle and oval. Some partake of the form of 
 an oblate spheroid, as an orange ; others resemble a prolate 
 spheroid, as the lemon, melon, &c. ; and others are nearly a 
 regular spheroid, as cherries, grapes, &c. Some partake of a 
 double form, being protruded at one end, as the pear. Conse- 
 quently all these are easily imitated, by first drawing the out- 
 line, and shading them with two or three shades of india-ink ; 
 three shades being in general sufficient, at the most. 
 
 196. Flowers are the next whicli should engage the at- 
 tention of the student : these fonn a very pleasing part of this 
 practice ; and afford sufficient exercise for his pencil, in deli- 
 neating their various and complicated forms. It need hardly 
 be observed, that in drawing these, the outline is first to be 
 described, next the principal divisions, and afterwards the less 
 divisions, and inner parts. Flow’ers in general require more 
 care and attention in shading than fruits, being composed of 
 several different parts. They are so various in the form of their 
 general outlines as to admit of no rule. The learner must ac- 
 quire a knowledge of their forms from imitating good copies 
 thereof, or drawing them from nature ; the former method must 
 how'ever be pursued at first, as the different shades are more 
 
ELEMENTS OP THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 76 
 
 accurately described, or at least more apparent to bis eye on a 
 plain surface, than in the objects themselves. 
 
 197. Trees form a useful, and, in landscape, an essen- 
 tial part of drawing : these, though at first view to a learner 
 they may appear somewhat difficult, are nevertheless very sim- 
 ple, and easily imitated ; the foliage, which appears so difficult 
 to describe, is no more than a number of small, irregular 
 angles, drawn with little or no order, and filled with two or 
 three different shades of ink, though in general two are suffi- 
 cient. But birds, quadrupeds, fishes, reptiles, insects, &c. 
 it may be observed, once for all, that the outline is to be de- 
 scribed first ; beginning with the forehead, and drawing the 
 nose, upper and under jaw, and part of the throat ; then pro- 
 ceed to describe the ears, neck, back, and buttocks : after which 
 finish the throat, and draw the breast, legs, belly, and all the 
 other parts, till you arrive at the buttocks. Having attained, 
 the outline, draw the smaller parts^ which do not fall on the 
 outline, as the eyes, nostrils, appearances of the muscles, &c. 
 Lastly, give the figure its proper shades, according to the copy 
 or original. In drawing a bird or quadruped, it is generally 
 expepted, and always increases the effect, to have a small piece 
 of Hndscape with the figure, by way of ornament, which must 
 always be suitable to the nature of the animal, and natural to 
 the country : thus an eagle may be described upon a rock ; a 
 squirrel, in or near a tree ; a horse, in a pasture, &c. 
 
 OF COLOURING FRUIT, &c. 
 
 198 . Apples . — Thin masticot mixed with verdigrise, 
 shaded with brown-ochre ; give them abloom with lake, height- 
 ened with, masticot and white. 
 
 Pears. — Masticot, deepened and mellowed with brown- 
 oehrc; the bloom the same as the apple. 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 77 
 
 carmine, 
 
 €hen'ies . — Vermilion and lake, shaded with 
 heightened with vermilion and white. 
 
 Strawberries. — White ; draw it over with vermilion and 
 lake, shaded with fine lake, heightened with red-lead and mas- 
 ticot mixed, and after with white ; stipple them with wdiite and 
 tliin lake only. 
 
 Blue Grapes. — Dark purple, shaded with blue •, the bloom 
 
 bice. 
 
 White Grapes. — A mixture of verdigrise and masticot, 
 shaded with thin verdigrise, heightened with masticot and 
 white. 
 
 Peaches. — Thin masticot, shaded with brown -ochre; the 
 bloom lake heightened with white. 
 
 OF FLOWERS. 
 
 199. Auriculas. — A tender wash of gamboge, shaded with 
 sap-green and carmine blended together. Round the centre 
 leave a broad white space, which shade with indian-ink and 
 sap-green mixed. Stipple the gamboge with a purple extracted 
 from logwood ; the cup in the inside strong yellow, shaded with 
 Dutch pink or gall-stone ; stipple it with white, darkening the 
 white gradually with indian-ink as the shade increases. 
 
 Anemones. — A thin wash of gamboge, shaded with bistre, 
 or carmine and sap-green blended together ; the stripes car- 
 mine, shaded with the same ; indigo in the darkest parts, or 
 stipple witli it ; the leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo and 
 French berries ; the stalk brown. 
 
 Yellow Crown Imperials . — A thin w^ash of gamboge ; upon 
 that, another of washed red-lead, shaded with carmine; the 
 leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo and French berries. 
 
 Orange Crown Irnpeiiab. — A thin wash of red-lead; the 
 light shades carmine ; the dark, vermilion and bistre mixed; 
 
78 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the seed the same as the flower. The leaves and stalks as the j 
 
 preceding. j 
 
 Double Holhjhoclis.—A slight wash of carmine, preserving j 
 the white paper for heightening; hatch with carmine; the | 
 darker shades sap-green ; the bloom pale liquid puiple; but 
 in the buds make no use of purple. The stalks and leaves 
 begin and finish with sap-green. 
 
 Honey-Suckles— The inside of the petals white, shaded 
 with sap-green, or masticot, shaded with sap-green, or gam- 
 boge and bistre ; which insides are to be shewn by curling the 
 leaves back at the ends, or splitting them : the outsides, a thin 
 wash of carmine and lake mixed, shaded with carmine ; indigo 
 for the darkest shades. It is to be observed, that some of the 
 
 flowers, growing on the same stalk, are inclinable to purple, 
 others to carmine ; the style and buttons seen at the ends of 
 the flower are of a taint green. Ihe stalks sap-green and cai- 
 mine; the leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo and French 
 berries. 
 
 Blue Bell Hyacinths.— {Jhi'niimrlne, or verditer; be care- 
 ful to put in your first hatches very free and soft ; shaded with 
 Prussian blue in the same manner ; for the darkest, indigo. 
 The leaves and stalks as orange-lilies. 
 
 Double Hyacinths.— White, shaded with indigo, indian- 
 ink, and a very little sap-green; for tiiose with a crimson 
 blush, wash a faint tinge of carmine, leaving in the white 
 towards the top, strengthening it towards the bottom. The 
 leaves and stalks Prussian blue and sap-green, shaded with sap- 
 green and indigo. 
 
 Jessamines.^Whhe, shaded with Indian-Ink and sap- 
 
 green blended together, and worked extremely soft ; for the 
 darkest shades add more indian-ink ; may also, in a few places, 
 
 add some soft tints of French berries, at the backs of some of 
 the flowers, and others entirely yellow. The leaves and stalks 
 mix sap-green, verdigiise, and a little indigo, adding more 
 indigo for the darkest shades. 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 7i^ 
 
 Polyanthoses . — The edges and cup pure gamboge, shaded 
 with gall-stone; marble the leaves with Prussian blue and car- 
 mine mixed ; wash the flowers at the back with carmine and a 
 little lake, shaded with carmine and sap-green. 
 
 Passion Floivers.— The petals white, shaded with sap- 
 green and indian-ink, mixed ; the treads are ranged in sucli 
 order as to form three circles, each of a different colour : the 
 first, or outer one, is blue verditer, shaded with Prussian blue ; 
 the second, white, to be expressed by carrying on the stroke 
 with flake white ; the space between the strokes, indigo and 
 indian-ink ; the third circle reddish purple, by blending car- 
 mine and Prussian blue together. The inside of the five but- 
 tons yellow, as the centre of the flow'er ; the other parts, which 
 project from the centre, are light green, those three from the 
 top excepted, which are blueish purple. The leaves French 
 beirieS and indigo; for the shades add a little indian-ink; the 
 tendrils and stalks, sap-green and carmine. 
 
 Sweet-scaited Peas . — The blossoms are composed of red 
 and purple leaves ; the red begun and finished as the mundi 
 rose; for purple ones, a thin wash of liquid purple ; for the 
 darker shades, a mixture of carmine and Prussian blue, finished 
 with indigo. The leaves and stalks, a little white and sap- 
 green, shaded with sap-green alone. 
 
 Ranunculuses. A fine wash of red-lead, striped with cati*' 
 mine, finislied with carmine and sap-green mixed ; the seeds 
 indigo or indian-ink, stippled with white. The leaves and 
 stalks as fritillaries. 
 
 Roses. A light tint of pure carmine, over which another 
 equally light of Prussian blue, which will give the flowers a 
 tint of that bloom which appears In nature ; proceed with 
 darker shades of carmine of the best sort; in the darkest parts 
 of the flower add a little indigo, which will give a roundness 
 and body to your work ; if the seeds are seen, lay on some 
 gamboge, shaded with gall-stone ; the upper side of the leaves 
 sap-green, shaded with indigo and French berries mixed j the 
 
80 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. * 
 
 •i 
 
 Dnder part white, indigo, and sap-green mixed, shaded \\ith 
 the same. The stalks brown, made of sap-green and carmine, 
 shaded with indigo. 
 
 Rose Buds.^We shall not here undertake to describe the 
 different colours and various tints with which nature has fur- 
 nished us. A pale wash of carmine, shaded with a stronger 
 wash of the same ; let the hatchings be extremely tender, pre- 
 serving that transparency and sweetness the flower has by na- 
 ture. The stalks and leaves begin and finish with sap-green, 
 
 after which a slight wash of carmine. 
 
 Guelder Flake-white, shaded with indian-ink and 
 
 sap-green mixed, keeping a proper gradation of shades. The 
 leaves as crown imperials ; the stalk bistre, shaded with indian- 
 ink, so as to express wood. 
 
 Sun jptoiem.— There are only two sorts, the common sun- 
 flower, and the same improved ; for the first, a slight wash of 
 carmine, deepen that with another; shaded with vermilion, 
 carmine, and bistre, mixed; finish the deepest shades with 
 the same, being careful to relieve the flower, making it look 
 round ; the seeds shade the same as the flower, the darkest 
 much deeper ; the seeds on the light side heighten, stippling 
 them with flake-white, washed over with gamboge very lightly ; 
 the lights in the same manner. The leaves and stalks sap- 
 green and gamboge mixed, finished with sap-green alone. 
 
 Single Stocks.^ A thin wash of carmine; proceed with. a 
 stronger layer of the same ; finish with sap-green and carmine 
 mixed; shade round the seeds sap-green. The leaves and 
 stalks gamboge, white, and sap-green ; shaded with a tint of 
 indigo, finished with a darker of the same. 
 
 Double Stocks . — There are of these flowers different co- 
 lours ; some are a purplish crimson only, others mottled with 
 crimson and white, and some are all white. For the crimson, 
 a little Prussian blue and carmine mixed: for the mottled ones 
 use the same colour, stipple them with flake w'hite : the w'hite 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 81 
 
 sort shade with indian-iiik and sap-green mixed. The leaves 
 and stalks pleasant green, inclining to a white. 
 
 Tulips. — Begin by striping with white, well blended with 
 carmine ; add some very tender stripes with gamboge, height- 
 ened with carmine ; for the darkest shades a little sap-green, 
 mixed with it : shade the yellow stripes with the same mixture ; 
 the darkest shades vermilion and bistre ; or, begin by striping 
 with gamboge ; proceed with purple stripes ; in doing of which 
 be careful to preserve the white ones, which will give an agree- 
 able effect ; the darker shades liquid purple, to which (if re- 
 quisite) add a little Prussian blue. The leaves and stalks sap- 
 green, shaded with the same. 
 
 Wall-Flofwers. — For the common sort, gamboge, shaded 
 with gall-stone. But that sort most esteemed by the florist, 
 is called the bloody-wall. The outer petals gamboge, tinged 
 with a little of the purple of logwood ; the inner petals red- 
 lead, finished with carmine j the cup purplish browm. The 
 leaves and stalks blueish green; to be worked as those of the 
 flowers of the same colour. 
 
 Double JVJiite iVcirci^swi'.— Flake-white ; the first shade 
 sap-green, and a little indian-ink, adding more indian-ink in 
 the darker shades ; tinge the bottom of each petal green ; the 
 narrow edge that surrounds a tuft of small petals in the centre, 
 carmine. The stalks and leaves the same as Irises. The sheath 
 at the bottom pale browm. 
 
 Obs. Particular colours seem to be appropriated to particular 
 parts of plants. Thus, white is most common in roots, sweet berries, 
 and the petals of spring flowers. JTater colour, in the filaments and 
 styles. Black, in the roots and seeds ; rarely in the seed vessel, and 
 scarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is frequently in the 
 antheras or tops of the stamina ; as likewise in the petals of autumnal 
 flowers, and the compound legulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is 
 common in the petals of summer flowers, and the acid fruits. Blue 
 and viol€t~co\oux , in the petals; Green, in the leaves and calyx, but 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 OF THfi ABT OF DUAWING. 
 
 rarely in the petals. In the interchanging of colours, which in plants 
 is found to depend upon differences in heat, climate, soil, and cul- 
 ture, a sort of elective attraction is observed to take place. Thus, 
 red is more easily changed into wl^e and blue : blue into white and 
 yellow ; yellow into white ; and white into purple. A red colour is 
 often changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother of thyme, 
 betony, pink, viscous campion, trefoil, orchis, fox glove, 
 
 thistle, cudweed, saw-wort, rose, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. 
 Red passes into blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in bell- 
 flower, greek-valerian, bindweed, columbine, violet, vetch, milk- 
 wort, goat's rue, viper’s bugloss, comfrey, borage, hyssop, dragon s 
 head, scabious, blue-bottle, and succory. Blue is changed into yel- 
 low in crocus. Yellow passes easily into white in melilot, agrimony, 
 mullein, tulip, Mattaria, or moth-mullein, and corn marigold. White 
 is changed into purple in wood-sorrel, thorn-apple, pease, and daisy. 
 As flowers gradually open and are exposed to the air, they throw off 
 their old colour, and acquire a new one. In fact, no flower has its 
 proper colour till it has fully expanded. Many flowers change their 
 colours thrice successively 5 thus, the very young buds of lady’s look- 
 ing-glass, bugloss, and the like, are all white j the larger buds purple, 
 or murrey ; and the open flowers blue. A yellow colour generally 
 indicates a bitter taste j as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and 
 other yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or sour taste 3 as in 
 cranberries, barberries, currants, raspberries, mulberries, cherries; 
 the fruit of the rose, sea-buckthorn, and service-tree. Herbs that 
 are turned towards autumn, have likewise a sour taste ; as sorrel, 
 wood-sorrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude alkaline taste, 
 as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale colour denotes an insipid taste, 
 as in endive, asparagus, and lettuce. White promises a sweet luscious 
 taste ; as in white currants and plums, sweet apples, &c. Lastly, 
 black indicates a harsh, nauseous, disagreeable taste ; as in the ber- 
 ries of deadly night-shade, myrtle-leaved sumach, herb-christopher, 
 and others ; many of which are not only unpleasant to the taste, but 
 pernicious and deadly in their effects. 
 
( S3 ) 
 
 OF HORSES AND OTHER ANIMALS. 
 
 200. Cli€snut~Brown, — Red-ochre and 'blaek mixed toge- 
 ther, shaded with black, heightened with red-ochre and white. 
 
 Gre^.— Black and white mixed, shaded with black, height- 
 ened with white. 
 
 fVkite.—Black and white mixed, shaded with black, white, 
 and bistre ; heightened with pure water. 
 
 Black.— Black, lightly laid on, shaded with Keating’s 
 black. 
 
 Sheep. — White, shaded with Spanish licorice. 
 
 Brown-ochre, shaded with Keating’s black and 
 bistre, heightened with masticot. 
 
 Lions . — Colour much the same manner as hogs, adding 
 lake in the ground-colour. 
 
 J5ear5.— Brown-ochre, red -ochre, and black mixed j shaded 
 with bistre and ivory black. 
 
 fVolves.— Spanish licorice and black, shaded with black. 
 
 Black and white, mixed 5 or add a little brown- 
 ochre, shaded with black. 
 
 Elephants . — Black and white, and Spanish licorice, 
 mixed 5 shaded with black and bistre j the inner part of the 
 nose vermilion and white, shaded with black. 
 
 Monkies, S^c. Dutch pink and black, heightened with 
 masticot and white : the face black and bistre mixed, as also 
 their feet and below their bellies, shaded with black and pink, 
 mixed with a little brown-ochre. 
 
 Stags. — Brown -ochre, shaded with bistre towards the 
 back ; the neck and belly white, the mouth and ears inclining 
 to red, the hooss black, and legs shaded with black. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 201. Eagles . — Black and brown, shaded with indigo j the 
 G 2 
 
64 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING, 
 
 feathers heightened with brown-ochre and white ; the beak and 
 claws saffron, shaded with bistre ; the eyes with vermilion, 
 heightened with masticot, or saffron shaded with vermilion. 
 
 Turkey s.-^Both male and female, the back black and 
 white, mixed gradually, shaded off to a white under the belly, 
 sprinkled and shaded with black. 
 
 Swans. — White, shaded with black ; the legs and bills 
 black ; the eyes yellow, a ball in the midst. 
 
 Ge«e.— Ceruse, shaded with black ; the legs black, the 
 
 bill red. 
 
 Pheasants.’— White and black mixed ; the eyes like those 
 ef the falcon j the legs Dutch pink, shaded with black. 
 
 Owls.— Ochre mixed with white in different shades j the 
 legs yellow-ochre. 
 
 OF ENLARGING AND CONTRACTING DRAWINGS. 
 
 202. Triere are several methods of varying the size of a 
 drawing from the original. 
 
 1. Ry the pentograph, an instrument which properly 
 belongs to the mathematical and mechanical parts of drawing, 
 and a very un wieldly and improper instrument for an artist of 
 genius. 
 
 ,2. The second method of reducing a figure or di’awing is 
 by the help of a camera obscura, A piece of landscape, with 
 all the objects therein, as men, trees, houses, cattle, &c. is very 
 clearly and accurately represented from nature itself, on the 
 glass of this instrument, or on a sheet of white paper, placed 
 ill a proper situation, according to the form of the instrument, 
 and method of using it. 
 
 3. The most general method of enlarging and contract^ 
 ing, is to divide the original piece and copy into a certain num- 
 ber of squares, or parallelograms, by perpendicular aad trans- 
 
ON BJ3AUTY. 
 
 «5 
 
 verse lines, making as many of each in the original as in the 
 space designed for the copy, and numbering the corresponding 
 lines alike. Then observe through what parts of each square 
 the different lines rurv in the original, and draw similar lines 
 through the same parts of the corresponding squares in the 
 eopy. 
 
 Ols. After all, the most useful exercise which the student can 
 pursue is, to vary the size by his eye, and never to resort to mechanical 
 means except where mechanical precision is required. 
 
 MILES RELATIVE TO BEAUTY, SYMMETRY, AND 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 203. It is not absolutely necessary that the student of the 
 
 fine arts should understand the full extent and meaning of 
 these terms ^ it is sufficient if he know their causes j how to 
 produce them in visible objects j and their effects upon the 
 mind of the beholder. ' 
 
 204. Beauty is of two kinds. Intrinsic and Relative. 
 The former is visible at first sight, and strikes the mind, with- 
 out viewing the object in regard to its uses or design : thus We 
 are immediately struck with all the finished productions of 
 nature j as a spreading tree, a flowing river, blooming flowers, 
 fertile plains, &c. Relative beauty owes its existence to the 
 understanding and reflection, and does not appear till we be 
 acquainted with some of the properties of the object, and view 
 it in a comparative light with regard to its ends and uses. 
 When both these kinds of beauty unite in an object, it appears 
 delightful; such are the different members of the human 
 body, and many other parts of animated nature. 
 
 205. Several circumstances must concur to produce com- 
 bined property of beauty, as simplicity, uniformity, regularity^ 
 tariety, aud proportibn. 
 
86 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 206. Simplicity strikes the mind with more force, and 
 creates a deeper impression than an object of a more complex 
 nature. A multitude of ideas crowding into the mind at once, 
 disturb the attention, and are not easily retained by the me- 
 mory : for the same reason, an object having a multiplicity of 
 parts, is not so easily comprehended as a simple object, which 
 may be comprehended at one view. Thus, a circle is more 
 beautiful than a square, the attention not being divided among 
 the lines and angles : and the square, likewise, takes preference 
 to the hexagon or octagon. 
 
 207. Uniformity contributes not a little to the circum- 
 stance of beauty. Where uniformity prevails, in a proper 
 measure, the mind is before-hand advertised of what is to 
 follow ; and, in the examination of a subject, is able to anti- 
 cipate the eyes. . But this property should not be pursued to 
 the extreme, otherwise it degenerates into a tedious sameness j 
 and some artists, whose judgments are to be respected, con- 
 sider it as hardly deserving mention ; but, at the same time, 
 esteem its opposite (variety) as one of the inseparable appen- 
 dages to beauty. 
 
 208. Regularity is not deficient in the composition of 
 those objects which owe their beauty to a comparative view; 
 or, in other words, it enters into relative beauty. None can 
 deny the beauty and fitness of a regular parallelogram, for the 
 form of doors, windows, and other parts of buildings, wheie 
 the chief beauty arises from the consideration of their utility : 
 the whole of a building must also possess regularity, or it will 
 disgust the eye. Nevertheless, as a check to the artist, and to 
 prevent him from running into an extreme of uniformity and 
 regularity, a strict attention must be paid to that essential 
 requisite. 
 
 209. Without Variety the eye is quickly satiated: it 
 requires, as well as the mind, to be recreated by change, eithej 
 of object or situation. From hence arises the pleasure we 
 receive in viewing a landscape : these pieces possess an infinite 
 
ON REGULARITY AND PROPORTION, 87 
 
 diversity of forms and colours ; in the trees, buildings, and 
 hues of the clouds. Even huge and shapeless rocks and 
 mountains, judiciously introduced, increase the variety, and 
 form a contrast peculiar to themselves, 
 
 210. Proportion is so requisite a circumstance, and so 
 obvious, that it need not be insisted upon here. It is here 
 only mentioned as an assemblage of beauty, being more fully 
 treated of hereafter. 
 
 211. Regularity, Uniformity, and Proportion, are essen- 
 tials of architectural drawings in particular. Variety and Sim- 
 plicity belong to every part of both animate and inanimate 
 objects. 
 
 Obs. 1. The profiles of most objects, as well as faces, are rather 
 more pleasing than their full fronts. Whence it is clear, the pleasure 
 does not arise from seeing the exact resemblance which one side bears 
 to the other, but from the knowledge that they do so, on account of 
 fitness, with design, and for use. For when the head of a fine 
 woman is turned a little to one side, w'hich takes off from the exact 
 similarity of the two halves of the face, and somewhat reclining, so 
 varying still more from the straight and parallel lines of a formal 
 front face, it is always looked upon as most pleasing. This is accord- 
 ingly said to be a graceful air of the head. 
 
 Obs. 2. It is a constant rule of composition, in painting, to avoid 
 xepetition. When we view a building, or any other object in life, 
 •we have it in our power, by shifting the ground, to take that view of 
 it which pleases us best ; and, in consequence of this, the painter (if 
 he is left to his choice) takes it on the angle, rather than in front, as 
 most agreeable to the eye 5 because the regularity of the lines is taken 
 away by their running into perspective, without losing the idea of fit- 
 ness : and when he is, of necessity, obliged to give the front of a 
 building, with all its equalities and parallelisms, he generally breaks 
 (as it is termed) such disagreeable appearances, by throwing 3 tree 
 before it, or the shadow of an imaginary cloud, or some other object 
 that may answer the same purpose of adding variety, whiph is the 
 pame with taking away uniformity. 
 
 Obs. 3. Odd numbers have the advantage oyer even ones, as 
 
88 
 
 ELEMENTS OP THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 variety is more pleasing than uniformity, where the same end is an- 
 swered by both ; and I cannot help observing, that nature, in all her 
 works of fancy, if I may be allowed the expression, where it seems 
 immaterial, whether even or odd numbers of divisions were preferred, 
 most frequently employs the odd ; as, for example, in the indenting 
 of leaves, flowers, blossoms, &c. 
 
 Ols. 4. The oval also, on account of its variety with simplicity, 
 is as much to be preferred to the circle, as the triangle to the square, 
 or the pyramid to the cubej and this flgure, lessened at one end like 
 the egg, thereby being more varied, is singled out by the author of all 
 variety to bound the features or a beautiful face. When the oval has 
 a little more of the cone added to it than the egg has, it becomes more 
 distinctly a compound of those two most simple varied figures. This 
 is the shape of the pine-apple, which nature has particularly distin- 
 guished, by bestowing rich ornaments of mosaic upon it, composed 
 of contrasted serpentine lines j and the pips, as the gardeners call 
 them, are still varied by two cavities, and one round eminence in 
 each. 
 
 212. Colour is the most apparent and striking of all the 
 parts of beauty. Colours always please by opposition ; and it 
 is in this part they are placed wdth all the diversity and liberty 
 of variety and contrast. The eye receives its beauty from its 
 bright contrasted colours, wherein, very often, may be seen 
 those various degrees of shade from the enamel of a beautiful 
 pearl, which serves as the ground to tlie deepest black in the 
 pupil : the ruby cheeks and coral lips heighten the brilliancy of 
 a fair complexion, while this gives those their superior bloom. 
 
 213. The next part of beauty, is form. This compre- 
 hends the symmetry of the whole body, and the exterior turn 
 of every and the most minutest parts, even to that of the eye- 
 brow or the falling of the hair. It also comprehends the atti- 
 tude of a person, and the position of each part of his body ; 
 as the turning of his neck, the extending of his arm, the plac- 
 ing of a foot, &c. The chief beauty of form arises from pro- 
 portion, or an union and harmony between the body and all its 
 different parts ; for which regard must be had to the sex, age. 
 
ox GRACE AND EXPRESSION. 
 
 89 
 
 and other circumstances of the figure. The beauty of form 
 in a female, consists in delicacy and softness j and in a male, 
 either in apparent strength or agility. 
 
 214. Expression forms an important part of heauty. By 
 this is to be understood the expression of the passions, or the 
 changes and emotions of tlie mind, as far as they are visible in 
 our looks and gestures. This quality has its seat principally 
 in the countenance, but the other parts ofi the body concur 
 therewith j and, on some occasions, there is not a member but 
 is capable of indicating a sensation of the mind : the arms, by 
 their languishing fall, or vehement exertion, indicate weari- 
 ness, languor, or rage, &c. 
 
 Man’s changeful race, the sport of chance and time. 
 
 Varies no less in aspect than in clime j 
 Mark well the difference, and let each be seen. 
 
 Of various age, complexion, air, and mien.” 
 
 Mason’s Fresnot. 
 
 215. The last and noblest constituent part of heauty is 
 GRACE, by which I would be understood, not to intend merely 
 the grace of attitude, though that has a considerable share in 
 the composition of our amiable quality, beauty j but it extends 
 to the most trivial of all our motions, countenances, mode of 
 speaking, modulation of the voice, and a variety of other orna- 
 ments, wdiich will be better understood from the following 
 description than by any elaborate definition of the word. 
 Grace, though not easily described, is, nevertheless, obvious 
 to every beholder : it has nothing to do with the low'er part of 
 beauty, called colour j is but little obligated to form or shape j 
 but is very much beholden to expression. The three other 
 parts of beauty are pleasing, in some degree, separately or 
 jointly ; but grace is pleasure itself. 
 
 216. There are two kinds of grace, viz. The grace of 
 the attitude, which may exist in every limb of the body; and 
 the grace qf countenance. The grace of the attitude is so uni- 
 
90 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 versally expected, that the most illiterate observer can discover 
 its absence. It is necessary in every situation, and it adds 
 beauty to every individual ; and though the artist cannot in a 
 figure give the progress of motion, yet, by an artful imitation, 
 he describes the object in its most graceful form. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the portraiture of a dancer, that attitude should be 
 chosen when, in a minuet, right hands are reciprocally offered : the 
 grace of this posture appears from the palm of the hand from being 
 turned inwards to the other person, begins to be turned outwards : 
 this motion is communicated to the arm, and from thence to the 
 shoulder; the line of motion being gradually lengthened from part to 
 part, without interruption, and thereby forms a complete but uniform 
 motion. And while the figure describes a circular course in advancing, 
 the head turns towards the partner, at an easy angle from the line of 
 progress, which contrast imparts that genteel and graceful air observ- 
 able in this movement. 
 
 Obs. 2. Contrast seldom fails to bestow grace, which is the 
 reason, in some good portraits, the eyes look one way, while the breast 
 is gently turned the other. The length of lines greatly contributes to 
 grace, as is evident from the graceful motions of those animals whose 
 limbs are long. A horse derives his beauty from this principle, the 
 length of his limbs giving more liberty, ease, and spirit to his actions, 
 than is observable in the clumsy uncouth movements of a hog, whose 
 awkward motions are the result of the shortness of his legs. A 
 greyhound has the same advantage over a cur ; and the graceful move- 
 ments of the neck of a swan as far surpass the frequent repeated 
 motions of that of a duck. 
 
 Obs. 3. There are two particulars which universally hold good 
 with regard to the grace of the attitudes : the first is, that “ there is 
 no grace without motion that is, some pleasing motion either of the 
 whole body or of some limb, or at least of some feature. The second 
 observation is, that there can be no grace with impropriety or, 
 in other words, nothing can be graceful that is not adapted to the 
 character. 
 
 217. The grace of the countenance has its seat princi- 
 pally about the mouth, as beauty has in the eyes, though it is 
 capable of being seen in every limb of the body. In a very 
 
ON SYMMETRY. 
 
 graceful face there is a certain beauty, by some called a deli- 
 ciousness, that almost always lives about the mouth, in some- 
 thing very nearly resembling a smile ; and sometimes a little 
 dimple is observable in the chin, and at the corners of the 
 mouth, not fixed, but vanishing almost as soon as it appears, 
 and then ^pearing again j 
 
 218. Grace is undoubtedly the chief of all the constituent 
 parts of beauty, and the only one which is absolutely and 
 universally admired. The other parts are only relative. One 
 may like a Brunette beauty better than a fair one ; some admire 
 little women, others large ones ; a person of a mild temper 
 will be fond of the gentler passions in the face ; but one of a 
 bolder turn may choose to have more vivacity, and more vigor- 
 ous passions expressed. But grace, though found in few, is 
 pleasing to all. It is a natural endowment, and never wholly 
 to be acquired, though it may be improved. It is the distin- 
 guishing character of the works of the most celebrated of the 
 ancient and modern artists, Apelles and Raphael. 
 
 219. Symmetry should form the next branch of the stu- 
 dent’s studies. Though the knowledge of anatomy be the 
 foundation of the portrait painter’s skill, yet for the superstruc- 
 ture he is beholden to symmetry and proportion. It will little 
 avail him to be acquainted with the form of the different parts 
 of the human body, and the offices of the different members, 
 if he be at the same time ignorant of the order and proportion 
 of those parts, both with regard to the whole in general, and to 
 each other in particular. 
 
 Ol>s. The young artist must be careful not to be led astray by 
 the ambition of composing easily, or attaining what is called a mas~ 
 terly handling of the chalk or the pencil a pernicious attempt, by 
 which students are excluded from all power of advancing in real 
 excellence. A student should apply his strength to that part of art 
 where real difficulties lie j to that part which distinguishes it as a libe- 
 ral art, and not by mistaken industry lose his time in that which is 
 merely ornamental, He who endeavours to copy accurately the figure 
 
92 
 
 ELEMENTS OP THE ART OP DRAWING. 
 
 before him, not only acquires a habit of exactness and precision, but 
 is continually advancing in his knowledge of the human figure ; and 
 though he seems, to superficial observers, to make a slower progress, 
 he will be found at last capable of adding that grace and beauty which 
 is necessary to be given to more finished works. Sir Joshua Rey- 
 KOLDS recommends to students to keep their minds fixed on th& 
 highest excellencies.— If you compass them, and compass nothing 
 more, you are still in the first class. We may regret the innumerable 
 beauties which you may want : you may be very imperfect j but still 
 you are an imperfect person of the highest order. I inculcate as fre- 
 quently as I can your forming yourselves upon great principles and 
 great models. — Your time will be much mispent in every other pui- 
 fiuit. Small excellencies should be viewed, not studied j they ought 
 to be viewed, because nothing ought to escape a painter s observation, 
 but for no other reason. There is another caution which I wish tb 
 give you. Be as select in those whom you endeavour to please, as In 
 those whom you endeavour to imitate. Without the love of fame 
 you can never do any thing excellent ; but by an excessive and undis- 
 tinguishing thirst after it, you will come to have vulgar views ; you 
 will degrade your style j and your taste will be entirely corrupted. It 
 is certain, that the lowest style will be the most popular, as it falls 
 within the compass of ignorance itself, and the vulgar will always be 
 pleased with what is natural in the confined and misunderstood sense 
 of the word.” 
 
 ^ Some lofty theme let judgment first supply, 
 
 .S I Supremely fraught with grace and majesty j 
 *S S J For fancy copious, free to every charm 
 .H 'I* \ That lines can circumscribe, or colours war.m j 
 g I Still happier, if that artful theme dispense 
 * A poignant moral and instructive sense. 
 
 % . ( Then let the virgin canvas smooth expand, 
 
 M .5 /To claim the sketch and tempt the artist’s hand ; 
 
 €0 V 
 
 I Then, bold Invention, all thy powers diffuse, 
 i jOf all thy sisters thou the noblest Muse : 
 
 I’ g I Thee, every art, thee, every grace inspires, 
 
 ^Thce, Pbffibus fills with all his brightest fires. 
 
Cra<-e. Pfirtlnence. Truth. Disposition. 
 
 ON CHOICE OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 93 
 
 { 
 
 Choose such judicious force of shade and light 
 As suits the theme, and satisfies the sight ; 
 
 Weigh part with part, and with prophetic eye 
 The future power of all thy tints descry ; 
 
 And those, those only on the canvas place. 
 Whose lines are social, whose effect is grace. 
 Vivid and faithful to the historic page. 
 
 Express the customs, manners, forms, and age j 
 Nor paint conspicuous on the foremost plain 
 Whate’er is false, impertinent, or vain j 
 But, like the Tragic Muse, thy lustre throw. 
 Where the chief action claims its warmest glow. 
 
 { This rare, this arduous task no roles can teach. 
 No skill’d preceptor point, no practice reach ; 
 
 ’Tis taste, ’tis genius, ’tis the heav’nly ray 
 Prometheus ravish'd from the car of day. 
 
 Mason’s Feesnoy. 
 
OF TERMS USED IN DRAWING AND PAINTING. 
 
 Abrial Perspective, is a gradation of the tones 
 of colours, which throws olF the distances of grounds and 
 objects; and which judiciaus artists practice, by diffusing a 
 kind of thin vapour over them, that deceives the eye agreeably. 
 It shews the diminution of the colours of objects, in propor- 
 tion as they recede from the eye, by the interposition of the 
 air between the eye and the object, as if the object was seen 
 through a column of air. 
 
 Antique. By this term are implied and understood, 
 such painting and sculptures as were made at tliat period of 
 time, when those arts were in their greatest perfection among 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans, from the age of Pericles to 
 that of Caracalla. The term Antique is more particularly ap- 
 plied to the sculptures of the period before mentioned ; such as 
 statues, basso-relievos, medals, intaglios, or engraved stones. 
 However, all those remains of antiquity are not equally excel- 
 lent or good : but even in those that are indifferent, there is a 
 certain degree of, beauty which distinguishes them from the 
 works of the moderns. But it is the most perfect of the works 
 of the ancient great masters which are to be the objects of our 
 taste and imitation, as they continue still to be the objects of 
 our w^onder and astonishment. 
 
 Attitude, in painting, is the posture or disposition 
 of the limbs and members of a figure, by which we discover 
 the action in which it is engaged, and the very sentiment sup- 
 posed to be in the mind of the person represented. It com- 
 prehends all the motions of the body, and requires a perfect 
 knowledge of ponderation, and whatever refers to the centre of 
 gravity ; but whatsoever attitude be given to any figure, that 
 attitude must shew the beaiitiful parts, as much as the subject 
 will jipermit, let the subject be what it will. It must, besides. 
 
clossary op terms. 
 
 95 
 
 liaYe such a turn, as, without departing from probability, or 
 from the character of the figure, may diffuse a beauty over the 
 action. It is allowed, that the choice of fine attitudes consti- 
 tutes the greatest part of the beauties of grouping. 
 
 Casting of Draperies. By this term is implied, 
 the distribution of the folds ; and draperies are said to be well 
 cast, when the folds are distributed in such a manner as to 
 appear rather the result of mere chance, than of art, study, or 
 labour. In that manner or style of painting, which is called 
 the Grand, the folds of the draperies should be great, and as 
 few as possible, because their rich siinplicity is more susceptible 
 of great lights. But it is an error to design draperies that are 
 too heavy and cumbersome ; for they ought to be suitable to 
 the figures, with a combination of ease and grandeur. Order, 
 contrast, and a variety of stuffs and folds, constitute the ele- 
 gance of draperies; and diversity of colours in those stuffs 
 contributes extremely to the harmony of the whole in historic 
 compositions. 
 
 Charge, or Charged, is a term used by artists to 
 signify any thing that exceeds ; such as exaggerating the out- 
 lines, in order to shew a superior degree of skill, and by that 
 means exceeding the bounds of a regular simplicity. Yet (De 
 Piles observes) there are charged outlines that please, because 
 they are above the lowliness of ordinary nature, and carry with 
 them an air of freedom, with an idea of a great taste, which 
 deceives most painters, who call such excesses the grand man- 
 ner. And although, to such persons who have a true idea of 
 correctness, simplicity, and elegance of nature, these excesses 
 may seem superfluous, as they only adulterate the truth, yet 
 one cannot forbear to commend some things that are over- 
 charged, in great works, when the distance from whence they 
 are to be viewed softens them to the eye ; or when they are 
 used with such discretion, as makes the character of truth more 
 I apparent. It is worthy of being remarked, that in the antique 
 i statues, which are allowed to be the rule of beauty, nothing 
 
96 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 appeared diaiged, nothing affected ; nor is there any thing of 
 tliatdcind in the works of those who have always imitated them j 
 as Raphael, Domenichino, Nicolo Poussin, and some others. 
 
 Chiaro-Scuro, is the art of advantageously distri- 
 buting the lights and shadows which ought to appear in a pic- 
 ture, as well for the repose and satisfaction of the eye, as for 
 the effect of the whole together. As to the meaning of the 
 word Chiaro (translated clear or transparent), it implies not only 
 any thing exposed to a direct light, but also all such colouis 
 as are in their nature luminous. Scuro (translated dark or 
 darkness), not only implies all the shadows directly caused by 
 the privation of light, but likewise all the colours which are 
 naturally brown j such as, even when they are exposed to the 
 , maintain an obscurity, and are capable of grouping with 
 the shades of other objects. Of which kind, for instance, are 
 deep velvets, brown stuffs, polished armour, and the like, 
 which preserve their natural or apparent obscurity in any light 
 whatever. By the chiaro-scuro, objects recei\''e more relief, 
 truths and roundness ; and it particularly signifies the gieat 
 lights, and great shades, which are collected with such industry 
 and judgment as conceals the artifice. 1 he distribution of the 
 objects forms the masses of the chiaro-scuro, when, by an 
 artful management, they are so disposed, that all theii lights 
 are together on one side, and their darkness on the other. 
 
 Contour, or Outline, is that which terminates and 
 defines a figure j and the great part of the skill of a paintei 
 consists in managing the contours judiciously. 
 
 Contrast, is an opposition or difference in the posi- 
 tion of two or more figures, contrived to make a variety in 
 painting. Thus, in a group of three figures, when one appears 
 in front, another shews his back, and a third is placed side- 
 ways, there is said to be a contrast. A well-conducted con- 
 trast is one of the greatest beauties of a painting. It is not 
 only to be observed in the position of the several figuies, but 
 also in that of the several members of the same figure. If 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 97 
 
 nature requires the painters and sculptors to proportion the 
 parts of their figures ; it requires also that they contrast their 
 limbs and their different attitudes. One foot placed like ano- 
 ther, or one member extended or depressed like another, 
 excites our disgust j because symmetry deprives us of the plea- 
 sures arising from variety, and makes the attitudes appear too 
 frequently tlie same ; as we may observe in Gothic figures, 
 which, by want of that judicious contrast, always resemble each 
 other. 
 
 Correctness, is a term which implies a design that is 
 without a defect in its measures and proportions. 
 
 Costume, is an Italian word, which signifies custom or 
 usage ; and the term implies, that a painter, in representing 
 some historical passages, action, or event, must not only be 
 exact in describing the particular fact, but he must also repre- 
 sent the scene of action j the country where the action has 
 passed ; whether it was at Rome or Athens ; whether at a river 
 or on the sea-shore ; in a palace or a field ; in a fruitful or a 
 desert country ; observing to distinguish, by the dresses, cus- 
 toms, and manners, peculiar to each people, whether they are 
 of one country or the other j whether Greeks, Romans, Jews, 
 or Barbarians. 
 
 Design, implies the representation of one or more 
 human figures or animals ; or some parts or members of either; 
 or a scene taken from nature ; a plant, fruit, flower, insect, 
 or piece of drapery, all taken from the life, in order to be in- 
 serted in some part of a picture ; and in this sense it is called 
 a study. It is also taken for the outline of objects ; for the 
 measures and proportions of exterior forms. Design consists 
 of several parts, of which the principal are, correctness, style, 
 character, variety, and perspective. 
 
 Distemper, is a preparation of colours without oil, 
 only mixed with size, whites of eggs, or any such proper, 
 glutinous, or unctuous substance ; with which kind of colour 
 
 H 
 
9S 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 all the ancient pictures, before the year 1410, were painted, as 
 also are the celebrated cartoons of Raphael. 
 
 Dryness, is a term by which artists express the com- 
 mon defect of the early painters in oil, who had but little 
 knowledge of the flowing contours, which so elegantly shew 
 the delicate forms of the limbs, and the insertion of the mus- 
 cles; the flesh in their colouring appearing hard and stiff, 
 instead of expressing softness and pliancy. The draperies of 
 those early painters, and particularly of the Germans, con- 
 cealed the limbs of the figures, without truth or elegance of 
 choice ; and even in their best masters, the draperies very fre- 
 quently either demeaned or encumbered the figures. 
 
 Elegance in a design, is a manner which embel- 
 lishes and heightens objects, either as to their form or colour, 
 or both, without destroying or perverting truth. It appears 
 most eminently in the antiques, and next to those painters who 
 have imitated them best, the principal of which is Raphael. 
 De Piles observes, that elegance is not always founded on cor- 
 rectness, as may be evident from the w'orks of Raphael and 
 Correggio ; in the latter of whom, notwithstanding his incor- 
 rectness of design, his elegance in the taste of it, and in the 
 turn which he has giv'en to his actions, must needs be admired, 
 for he rarely departs from elegance. 
 
 Expression, principally consists in representing the 
 human body, and all its parts, in the action suitable to it ; in 
 exhibiting in the face the several passions proper to the figures, 
 and marking the motions they impress on the other external 
 parts. Frequently, the term Expression is confounded with 
 that of Passion ; but the former implies a representation of an 
 object agreeably to its nature and character, and the use or 
 office it is intended to have in the work ; and passion, in paint- 
 ing, denotes a motion of the body, accompanied with certain 
 airs of the face, which mark an agitation of soul. So that 
 every passion is an expression, but not every expression a 
 passion. 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 99 
 
 Fresco, is a kind of painting performed on fresh plas- 
 ter, or on a Mjall covered with mortar not quite dry, and with 
 water colours. The plaster is only to be laid on as the paint- 
 ing proceeds ; no more being done at once than the painter can 
 dispatch in a day. The colours, being prepared with water, 
 and applied over plaster quite fresh, become incorporated with 
 the plaster, and retain their beauty for a great length of time. 
 
 Grace, principally consists in the turn that a painter 
 gives to his objects, to render them agreeable, even those 
 that are inanimate. It is more seldom found in the face than 
 in the manner; for our manner is produced every moment, and 
 can create surprise. In a word, a woman can be beautiful but 
 one way, yet she can be graceful a thousand. Grace is neither 
 found in constrained, nor in affected manners, but in a certain 
 freedom and ease between the two extremes. 
 
 Grotesque. This term, which is now familiar among 
 all the lovers of the art of painting, was by the Italians 
 appropriated to that peculiar manner of composition and inven- 
 tion, observed among the antique monumental paintings which 
 were discovered in the subterraneous chandlers, that had been 
 decorated in the times of the ancient Romans. And as the 
 Italians apply the word Grotto to express every kind of cave or 
 grot, all paintings, which were in imitation of the antique 
 designs, discovered in those subterraneous chambers, which for 
 ages had been covered with ruins, are now called or 
 
 grotesque; implying a style, in which the imagination, and the 
 wildness of inventive fancy, are principally exerted, without 
 any strict adherence to nature, truth, or probability. 
 
 Group, is the combination or joining of objects in 
 a picture, for the satisfaction of the eye, and also for its repose. 
 And although a picture may consist of different groups, yet 
 those groups of objects, managed by the chiaro-scuro, should 
 all tend to unity, and one only ought to predominate. That 
 subordination of groups creates that union and harmony, which 
 is called the iouUensemble, or the whole together. By a predo- 
 
100 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 minant group the eye is agreeably fixed ; and, by means of 
 the reposes caused by breadth of lights and shades, neither the 
 effect of the other groups, nor of the subordinate objects, is 
 hindered. 
 
 Local Colours, are such as faithfully imitate those of 
 a particular object, or such as are natural and proper for 
 each particular object in a picture. And colour is distinguished 
 by the term Local, because the place it fills requires that par- 
 ticular colour, in order to give a greater character of truth to 
 the several colours around it. 
 
 Linear Perspective, is that which describes, or repre- 
 sents, the position, magnitude, form, &c. of the several lines' 
 or contours of objects, and expresses their diminution, in pro- 
 portion to their distance from the eye. 
 
 Manner, is that habitude which painters have ac- 
 quired, not only in the management of the pencil, but also in 
 the principal parts of painting, invention, design, and colour- 
 ing. It is by the manner in painting that a picture is judged 
 to be by the hand of Titian, Tintoret, Guido, the Caracci, 
 and others. Some masters have had a variety in their manners 
 at different periods of life ; and others have so constantly ad- 
 hered to one manner, that those who have seen even a few of 
 them will immediately know them, and judge of them without 
 any risque of a mistake. The variety observable among artists, 
 in their manner and taste, arises from the manners of the diffe- 
 rent schools in which they have received their instruction, or 
 of the artists under whom they have studied. Yet there -are 
 many instances of great artists, who have divested themselves 
 of that early partiality to a particular manner, and have altered 
 it so effectually, as to fix on one abundantly more refined, and 
 better adapted to their particular genius, by which means they 
 have arrived at excellence. Thus, for instance, Raphael pro- 
 ceeded, and acquired a much more elevated manner, after he 
 had quitted the school of Perugino. 
 
 Oruonnance, is the arrangement of the figures, in 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 101 
 
 respect of the whole composition ; or particular disposition of 
 figures as to the different groups, masses, contrasts, decorum, 
 and situation. 
 
 Outline, is that which traces the circumferences of 
 objects in a picture. The outline is to be drawn as thin and 
 fine as possible, so as scarcely to be discerned by the eye ; and 
 it ought to be observed, that a correct outline may excite plea- 
 sure, even without any colouring, but no colouring can afford 
 equal satisfaction to a judicious eye, if the outline be incor- 
 rect; for, no composition, no colouring, can merit praise, 
 where the outline is defective. 
 
 Passion, in painting, implies an emotion of the body, 
 attended with certain expressive lines In the face, denoting an 
 agitation of soul. 
 
 Pastici, is a term by which the Italians distinguish 
 those pictures which cannot be called either originals or cojiies; 
 being the works of some artists, who have had the skill to imi- 
 tate the manner of design and colouring of other eminent mas- 
 ters; sometimes borrowing part of their pictures, sometimes 
 imitating their touch, their style of invention, their colouring, 
 or expression. Several painters, of considerable reputation for 
 their own original performances, have made themselves remark- 
 able in this way ; but none of them more than David Teniers, 
 who so successfully counterfeited Giacopo Bassan, as to deceive 
 the most judicious, in many instances, at the first sight; 
 though upon a closer inspection, his light and easy pencil, and 
 a predominant grey tint, which is observable in the colouring 
 of that master, will shew a perceptible difference between his 
 pencil and colouring, when they are carefully examined, and 
 compared with Bassan’s ; for, although Teniers understood the 
 union of colours extremely well, yet Bassan was superior to 
 him in the sweetness and vigour of his tints. De Piles recom- 
 mends it to all persons who would not wish to he deceived by 
 Pastici, to compare the taste of design, the colouring, and the 
 character of the pencil, with tlie originals. Teniers, Luca 
 
102 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 Giordano, and Bon Boullogne, are those who have appeared 
 with the greatest reputation for imitating other great masters y 
 and beside these, many other artists have employed themselves 
 in painting Pastici. 
 
 Site, in landscape, signifies the view, prospect, or 
 opening of a countiy, derived from the Italian word Sito, 
 situation; and it is in use among painters, as being more 
 expressive. 
 
 The preceding Elements and Principles of Art are, after 
 all, subordinate to practice, and will chiefly be useful as con^ 
 nected with the diligent copying of the following examples; 
 first, of the given size ; then, of a size somewhat enlarged ; and 
 then, of a reduced size; so that no dijfficulty shall afterwards 
 arise in copying I^ature itself of any required size. 
 
r ‘■vj' 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 The annexed Plate will be found very useful to the Student. 
 
 Figure I, represents the way to form an oval. 
 
 Figure II, describes the names of lines. 
 
 Figure III, the way to raise a perpendicular from an 
 horizontal. 
 
 Figure IV, the way of shading a round substance gra» 
 dually decreasing to a point. 
 
 Figure V, represents a flat surface. 
 
 Figure VI, represents a round substance. 
 
 Figure VII, represents a concavity. 
 
 Figure I, draw the line A, B, C, fix the compasses at B, 
 and dot it at A, C j then from B to D, E, then from A to F, then 
 divide F, B, into four equal parts, and dot the fifth G, extend 
 the compasses from G to A, and strike from A, H, H ; then fix it 
 at G, and strike H H ; then the same on the other side of the 
 oval, extend the compass from H to H, and strike J ; then fix 
 the compass at J, and strike H H ; the same on the other side. 
 
 Figure II, represents a square. A, A, are perpendicular 
 lines, B, B, horizontal lines, and C, C, diagonal. 
 
 Figure III, to raise a perpendicular from a given hori- 
 zontal, divide the line A, B, C ; fix the compass at A, and 
 strike D ; then at C, and likewise strike D ; then draw a line 
 from B to P, 
 
 I 
 
PLATE IL 
 
 
 THE NOSE. 
 
 Th is is the centre feature of the face, and if well pro- 
 portioned, is exactly the size of the ear. 
 
 Profiles. Sketch with black lead pencil, or chalk the 
 outline, of the external form, being particular to place the 
 nostril in its proper situation. When you have obtained a cor- 
 rect outline, touch in with firmness the nostril and under the 
 aose ; then the most conspicuous lines ; after which, hatch up 
 to the colour ©f the original, remembering that the most trifling 
 touches are essential to the general effect. 
 
 
 Front. As this is a front view you will of course draw a 
 line down the centre, as in Plate VI ; then proceed as above 
 described. 
 
/<r 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 THE EYES. 
 
 In delineating the human face this feature should be the 
 first consideration. We present the student with, nearly a front 
 view and profile, both in different states. The centre Eye is 
 looking up, and is selected from one of Le Brun’s Passions. 
 
 Front. Sketch in the Iris and Pupil, then the ball ; after 
 
 the Eyebrow, being particular to place the Ball in its 
 proper place. In making the outline correct, you may find it 
 necessary to rub it down several times with bread, free from 
 grease ; then proceed carefully to finish it to its proper effect. 
 
 Profile, This Eye is seen in profile, the outline of which 
 is finished rather more than the front. Great care must be 
 taken with the Eye-lashes and Ball. 
 
 Looking up. Outline, as before ^described, being parti- 
 cular to hide part of the Iris under the Lid. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 THE NOSE, MOUTH, AND CHIN. 
 
 To the left is the Mouth and Chin ; next follow the under 
 part of the Nose representing the Nostrils ; under that is the 
 bottom part of the Nose, and Mouth with the commencement 
 of th:? Chin. The lesson to the right is the Mouth and Chin 
 seen in front. 
 
 These selections are well adapted to improve the student, 
 and repeated trials should be made of them, till he is com- 
 pletf'y perfect. 
 
 Proceed as described in the last Plate, being particular not 
 10 .sketch the light parts too strong j and as the subject to the 
 j V hf is a front view of the Mouth and Chin, the line of course 
 must be drawn in the centre, as described in Plate VI. 
 
'i'ld 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 THE EAR. 
 
 The Ear is the most diffienlt feature to draw in the 
 human Head. The annexed Plate was drawn and engraved from 
 two excellent plaster models of Turnerrelli. This feature is in 
 general too much neglected, even by men of talent. 
 
 Top Ear. Sketch in the external form of the Ear, remem- 
 bering that a correct proportion is to be half as broad as long. 
 When the outline is correct, touch in the dark parts with firm- 
 ness, such as the cavities, and behind the Ears j then proceed 
 to finish to the effect of the original. 
 
 Bottom Ear. This Ear is seen sideways and fore- 
 shortened, which makes it of course seem narrower, and above 
 twice as long as it is broad. 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD. 
 
 Figure I, is a front view of the Head. It is divided 
 lengthways into four equal parts ; first, the root of the Hair ; 
 second, tlie Eyes ; third, the Nose ; 2Hidi fourth, the Mouth and 
 Chill. The Ear is exactly the length of the Nose, the Nose, 
 seen in front is in the centre of the Head, the distance 
 between the Eyes is the length of the Eye, and the ball is one- 
 third of the Eye. 
 
 Figure II, is a three quarter face. 
 
 Figure III, is between a front and three quarter. 
 
 Figure IV, is a profile. 
 
 Figure V, is a Head looking up, and as it is fore-shor- 
 tened ; the Eye must be the guide. 
 
 Figure VI, is a female Head looking down. 
 
 Figure VII, is a boy's head. Infantine proportion will 
 be found different from maturity. The lines that cross the 
 face, in this and the others, will sufficiently elucidate it. 
 
 Figure VIII, is a Female Profile. 
 
 Figure IX, a Boy looking down. 
 
 Figure X, is a three-quarter aged Head. 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
 We have here a Head selected from one of the Cartoons 
 of Raffaelle, and a sedulous study of it will be of infinite 
 service to the student. 
 
 It is looking down, and its thoughtful pleasing benignity 
 of countenance, is of itself sufficient to convince us of the 
 extraordinary talent of that great artist. The drawing is well 
 preserved, the light and shade admirably managed, and the 
 drapery round it peculiarly fine. 
 
 Commence as usual with the lines, as a guide for the dis- 
 position of the feature of the Face, as in the preceding Plate, 
 being particularly careful they are very light. Then sketch 
 the Eyes, Nose, and Mouth, on the lines, as directed in the 
 preceding Plate. The Beard, the Forehead, and the Cheek 
 bones will be the next consideration. Then follows the Drapery. 
 
 When the outline is correct, proceed to finish with chalk 
 or pencil, to the effect of the originaL 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
 This is another Head selected from the Cartoons, and is 
 an additional proof of the abilities of that superior artist. The 
 countenance of this Head is widely different from the last. 
 The light and shade has a wonderful effect. 
 
 Commence, as you invariably must, by placing the foun- 
 dation lines as a guide for the features, and then proceed as 
 described in the last Plate. 
 
 This lesson will be found very useful as an example of 
 light and shade, and therefore is particularly recommended as a 
 study. As there is a great quantity of colour, you must, of 
 course, execute all the lines boldly and decidedly ; and always 
 the greater the colour of the subject, so much the stronger 
 must it be commenced. 
 

 ‘S-": 
 
 
* 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 In this Head, the passion Rapture is admirably de- 
 scribed. It is copied from the famous Le Brim, whose abili- 
 ties in pourtraying the passions are too well known to need any 
 eulogium. How^easy it is to discover the soul-like gratification 
 of tliis countenance ! 
 
 In commencing, begin by faintly sketching the funda- 
 mental lines that the features may take their right situation. 
 As this head is looking up the curves must bend upwards, as 
 described in Plate VI. 
 
 Sketch lightly the features of the face, being particularly 
 careful to place the ear in its right situation. When a correct 
 outline is obtained, put in the dark shadows ; as those under 
 the eye- brows, the pupil of the Eye, under the Nose, inside 
 of the Mouth, and under the Chin; then proceed to finish it 
 by touching with the pencil or chalk, until the effect of the 
 Plate is obtained. 
 
PLATE X. 
 
 Here the student is presented with another of the 
 Passions from Le Brun, and it is scarcely nftcessary to say, 
 it represents the feeling of Admiration. It fills us, indeed, 
 with admiration to see such correct features put together, 
 and expressing so happily the sentiment. We never know 
 which to admire most in this artist, his extraordinary execu- 
 tion, or his sublime conception. 
 
 Proceed, as described in Plate VI, being careful in dispos- 
 ing the features, as that is the foundation ; and as all the atten- 
 tion afterwards paid to the finishing, will be lost if the features 
 are not properly placed. 
 

 F.S I OUT, 
 
 Zn9ra»<* 
 
 d^y 
 
 
 zyr^ 
 
PLATE XL 
 
 TERROR OR FRIGHT. 
 
 The violence of Terror acts powerfully on every feature 
 of the Face. The Muscles are in extreme action ; the Eyes are 
 open, and the Balls are seen in full ; the upper Eyelids are hid 
 under the Brow ; the Nose is drawn up ; the Mouth is extended, 
 with its corners very conspicuous; and the Muscles of the 
 Neck are also protruded. 
 
 In delineating this subject, attention must be given to the 
 preceding remarks, as it is essentially requisite to study the 
 character of every subject before its delineations are begun. 
 The same fundamental principle must be adopted, as in the 
 last four Plates, being particular you leave the light on the 
 Forehead, Nose, Cheek-hone, &c. 
 
PLATE XII. 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 This Plate represents Hands and Arms, selected from the 
 Cartoons of Raffaelle. The attention of the student is particu- 
 larly required to these extremities of the Figure, as it is often 
 painful to see a well-executed performance ruined through 
 neglect in delineating these parts. 
 
 Strict attention must be paid to the joints of the Fingers, 
 to the Nails, and to the uniting of the Hand to the Wrist. 
 When the outline is correct, proceed to shade with care and 
 attention, recollecting that the object of shadowing in round 
 objects is to effect rotundity. 
 
PLATE XIII. 
 
 THE FEET. 
 
 The extremities here selected are likewise from the Car- 
 toons, and they afford examples of Feet in all positions, in 
 front, profile, and fore-shortened. 
 
 Great attention must be paid to the Joints and Nails of 
 the Toes. Two of the Feet are represented with sandals, and 
 care must be taken that they are so outlined as to fit well to the 
 Feet. When you have a complete outline of each, put in the 
 shadows of the Feet, and the dark touches under and between 
 the Toes, which will be a guide to the finishing. 
 
PLATE XIV. 
 
 The subjoined Etching, is from Ciprianij whose delinea- 
 tion of Children have rendered his works eminently conspi- 
 cuous. The actions of the Figures are excellent as emblems 
 of Cowardice, Courage, and Unconcern, 
 
 Sketch in lightly the disposition of the Figures, recol- 
 lecting that all the Limbs must have a greater roundness than 
 in Adults. When the Figures have been correctly disposed, 
 with careful decision touch in the Eyes, Nose, Mouth, and 
 exterior of the Limbs, being particular not to make them too 
 dark that they may be corrected in case they should be incor- 
 rect. 
 
Pl'ul 
 
PLATE XV. 
 
 This Plate is likewise etched from Cipriani. 
 
 The upper sulagect represents a Child sleeping ; the bot- 
 tom is the same Boy reading. 
 
 Boy Sleeping. The Head of this Child is fore-shor- 
 tenedf and rests on the right shoulder. In drawing this subject, 
 the chief difficulty to the student will be to delineate the Head, 
 and he must be careful in the disposition of the fundamental 
 lines for the features. When he has thus properly begun, he 
 may proceed to mark in the features of the Face, and proceed 
 as before. 
 
 Boy Reading. The fixed attention of this Boy, 
 proves that Cipriani well understood the infantine charac- 
 ter. In copying it, take care to sink the Head on the Shoulder, 
 to bend the Belly inwards, and to fix the left Hand well on the 
 
PLATE XVI. 
 
 This Plate has been engraved from an original sketch of 
 Morland’Sj in his style. Nature was never more bountiful to 
 any man, than to Morland, and the facility with which he 
 executed any subject was wonderfully great. 
 
 This subject is engraved so as to represent a chalk draw- 
 ing, and may be copied, either in black or red. The exe- 
 cution must be bold, firm, and decisive. 
 
PLATE XVII. 
 
 The annexed Plate is likewise from Morland. What a 
 beautiful rustic simplicity is evident in the countenance of 
 this Female ! 
 
 In copying this subject, the Face must be the first and 
 principal consideration. The Cap, Shoulders, and Arms, 
 must be the next. The Male Hand that grasps the Hand of 
 the Female must also be particularly attended to. The execu- 
 tion of the whole cannot be too free and bold. Freedom is 
 requisite in all drawing ; but it is particularly so in this style 
 of drawing. 
 
 3 ^ 
 
PLATE XVIII. 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 The Bones are the frame work and supports of the 
 Human Body, and the Muscles are the mechanisms which 
 move the Bones. The Bones are joined to each other, in tlie 
 manner of a ball and socket, in some cases, or like a hinge in 
 others, and the Muscles when they act, contract, or become 
 shorter, and by that means draw the Bones different ways. 
 
 The names of the several Bones are indicated by the 
 figures as beneath. 
 
 1. Os Fronds, or Bone of the Forehead. 
 
 2. Os Parietalia. 
 
 3. Os Malae. 
 
 4. The Upper Jaw. 
 
 5. The Lower Jaw. 
 
 6. The Clavicula, or Collar Bone. 
 
 7. 7th, or last true Rib. 
 
 8. 12th, or last of the five false Ribs. 
 
 9. The five Lumber Vertebrw, with their intermediate 
 Cartilages. 
 
 10. Os Sacrum. 
 
 11. Os Ilium. 
 
 12. Os Ischium. 
 
 13. Os Pubis. 
 
 14. The Humerus, or Bone of the Arm. 
 
 15. The Radius. 1 
 
 16. The Ulna. / 
 
 17. The Bones of the Carpus, or Wrist. 
 
 18. The Bones of the Mitacarpus, or Hand. 
 
 19. The Bones of the Fingers. 
 
 20. The Femur, or Thigh Bone. 
 
 21. The Patella, or Knee Pan. 
 
 22. The Tibia, or the larger Bone of the Leg. 
 
 23. The Fibula. 
 
 24. The os Calcis, or Heel Bone. 
 
 25. The Tarsus or Instep, composed of six Bones besides 
 the os Calcis. 
 
 26*. Bones of the Metatarsus or Foot. 
 
 27. Bones of the Toes. 
 
PLATE XIX. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 1. Sterno hyoidaeus. 
 
 2. Mastoidseus, Plate XX. 
 
 3 1 Trapezius, Plate XXI. 
 
 4. Pectoralis. 
 
 5. DeltoideSj Plate XX. 
 
 6. Biceps. 
 
 7. Brachiaeus internus. This is partly covered by the 
 Biceps, and is marked with two Figures j to prevent iU being taken 
 for two Muscles. 
 
 8. Gemellus, Plate XXI. 
 
 9. Pronator rotundus. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus. 
 
 11. Flexor Carpi radialis. 
 
 1 2. Flexor Carpi ulnaris. 
 
 13. Palmaris. 
 
 14. The Mass of Flesh that appears under the Flexor 
 Carpi radialis, and the Palmaris^, is composed of thf Perforatu? 
 and Perforans. 
 
 15. E;ctehsor Carpi radialis, Plate XX. 
 
 17 . Extensor Pollicis, Plate XX. 
 
 20. Serratus major anticus, Plate XX. 
 
 21. Obliquus descendens, Plate XX. 
 
 22. RectuSi 
 31. Triceps. 
 
 82. Membranosus, Plate aX. 
 
 33. Sartorius. 
 
 34. Gracilis, Plate XXI. 
 
 38. Rectus Femoris. 
 
 39. Vastus externus. 
 
 40. Vastus internus. 
 
 41. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 42. Gasterocneraius, Plate HXI. 
 
 43. Soleus, Plate XXI. 
 
 44. Perongeus, Plate XX. 
 
 45. Extensor Digitorum Pedis. 
 
PLATE XX. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 2. Mastoidaeus. 
 
 3. Trapezius, Plate XXL 
 
 5. Deltoides. 
 
 6 . Biceps, Plate XIX. 
 
 7. Brachiasus internus, Plate XIX. 
 
 8. Gemellus, Plate XXL 
 
 9. Pronator rotundus, Plate XIX. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus, Plate XIX 
 
 11. Flexor Carpi radialis, Plate XIX. 
 
 12. Flexor Carpi ulnaris, Plate, XIX. 
 
 13. Palmaris, Plate XIX. 
 
 15. Extensor Carpi radialis. 
 
 16. Extensor Carpi ulnaris. 
 
 17- Extensor Pollicis. 
 
 18. Extensor Digitorum. 
 
 19. Extensor minimi Digiti. 
 
 20. Serratus major anticus. 
 
 21. Obliquus descendens. 
 
 23. Latissimus Dorsi. 
 
 24. Teres major. 
 
 25. Infraspinatus. 
 
 29. Glutaeus major, Plate XIX. 
 
 30. Glutaeus medius, Plate XIX. 
 
 32. Membranosus. 
 
 33. Sartorius, Plate XIX, 
 
 34. Gracilis, Plate XIX. 
 
 35. Biceps Femoris, Plate XIX. 
 
 36. Seminervosus, Plate XIX. 
 
 37. Semimembranosus, Plate XIX. 
 
 39. Vastus externus, Plate XIX. 
 
 40. Vastus internus, Platq XIX. 
 
 42. Gasterocnemius, Plate XIX. 
 
 43. Solaeus, Plate XIX. 
 
 44. Peronaeus, 
 

PLATE XXI. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 2 . Mastoidseus, Plate XX. 
 
 3. Trapezius, or Cucullaris. 
 
 5. Deltoides, Plate XX. 
 
 7. Brachiaeus internus, Plate XIX. 
 
 8. Gemellus. 
 
 9. Anconaeus. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus, Plate XIX. 
 12. Flexor Carpi ulnaris, Plate XIX. 
 
 15. Extensor Carpi radialis, Plate XX. 
 
 16. Extensor Carpi ulnaris, Plate XX. 
 
 17. Extensor Pollicis, Plate XX. 
 
 18. Extensor Digitorum, Plate XX, 
 
 1 9. Extensor minimi Digiti, Plate XX. 
 
 23. Latissimus Dorsi, Plate XX. 
 
 24. Teres major, Plate XX. 
 
 25. Infraspinatus, Plate XX. 
 
 26. Splenius. 
 
 27. Sacrolumbaris. 
 
 28. Longissimus Dorsi. 
 
 29. Glutaeus ma;or. 
 
 30. Glutaeus medius. 
 
 31. Triceps, Plate XIX. 
 
 32. Membranosus, Plate XX. 
 
 33. Sartorius, Plate XIX. 
 
 34. Gracilis. 
 
 35. Biceps Femoris. 
 
 36. Seminervosus. 
 
 37. Semimembranosus. 
 
 42. Gasterocnemius. 
 
 43. Solaeus. 
 
PLATE XXII. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 This Colossal Figure is an admirable production of art, 
 and represents great muscular strength. It is in an easy 
 position, the Muscles being strongly marked, and all at rest. 
 
 Lightly sketch in the inclination of the Figure ; then 
 consider the proportion of each part, bearing in mind the 
 divisions of the body ; and do not fail to draiv the lines for the 
 proportion of the features of the Face. When the Figure is 
 rightly placed, mark in with attention the features of the Face, 
 the shades of the Muscles, &c. 
 
PLATE XXIII. 
 
 APOLLO AND ANTINOUS. 
 
 The Student is here presented with a side view of the 
 famous master piece, the j4pollo Belviderej and of the AnthiouSf 
 two extraordinary antique figures. 
 
 These may be drawn in chalk or pencil, taking care 
 to fix the Figures well on their feet, so that they appear to 
 stand firm and solid. It is too common an error in drawing to 
 be neglectful in this respect. How ridiculous it is to see a 
 Figure that should stand firm on its feet, tottering as though it 
 had received a sudden blow ! Fail not to consider the exact 
 proportions of the several parts as you proceed in their deli- 
 neation . 
 
PLATE XXIV. 
 
 THE LAOCOON. 
 
 This is the centre Figure of the celebrated Laocoon, 
 (a groupe of three Figures in marble) which was discovered at 
 Rome in the year 1508, in a recess of the ruins of the baths 
 of TituSf where it most probably stood in the time of Pliny, 
 who described it as standing there in the reign of that 
 Emperor. 
 
 The attentive study and repeated copying of this chef 
 d'cmvre, is recommended to all Students. 
 
 It may be drawn in chalk or pencil. The convailsed cha- 
 racter of the Head should be preserved, and the Clavicula, or 
 Collar Bone should be well fixed. The Muscles of this 
 Figure are in extreme action owing to the contest with the 
 Snake, and form, therefore, a contrast to the Hereules. 
 Plate XXII. 
 
PLATE XXY. 
 
 ANIMALS’ HEADS. 
 
 The annexed Plate represents the Head of a Sheep, of a 
 Greyhound, and a Bull Dog, and are engraved to represent 
 chalk sketches. 
 
 In delineating the Heads of Animals, a similar principle 
 to that adopted in the Human Head, in regard to the dis- 
 position of the features varying according to their several cha- 
 racters, ought to be attended to. For example, the distance 
 of the bottom of the Nose from the Eyes in the Sheep and 
 Greyhound are widely different from the Bull Dog j yet we 
 find, the same feature invariably fixed in the centre of the 
 Head between the Eyes. The Eye of all Animals is a feature 
 that should be particularly studied. 
 
PLATE XXVL 
 
 THE GOAT. 
 
 This hardy Animal is likewise engraved to represent the 
 ehalk style. In delineating this subject the sharp-pointed cha- 
 racter of the Head, the flowing Beard, the hairy Body, and 
 the square formed character of the Legs and Hoofs should be 
 nieserved j the appearance of this Animal is very picturesque, 
 owing to the contrast of form. Be particular in attaching the 
 Ears well to tlie Head, the Head to the Neck, and the Feet to 
 the Body. 
 
Tl. 
 
J'l. -27 
 
PLATE XXVII. 
 
 THE ASS. 
 
 The Head of this Animal is shewn in front, it will there- 
 fore be advisable to draw the lines for the disposition of the 
 features,' as in the human Head, taking care to place the Ears 
 exactly over the Eyes, and to unite the Limbs well to 
 the Body. It is unnecessary to describe the progress, as that 
 has been amply done in the preceding Plates. 
 
PLATE XXVllI. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 J HIS Animal Is etched as an example to be drawn with 
 pen and ink, or pencil, and will give an idea of the useful 
 art of etching. 
 
 When the Student has attained a correct outline with the 
 pencil, he must prepare two Crow quill pens, to mark different 
 strengths of colour. He should likewise prepare two or three 
 different degrees of colour of indian-ink ; he will then get a 
 I omplete outline of the wliole, with the ink according to the 
 colour of the original. He may then proceed to finish it to 
 the effect of the Engraving. 
 


PLATE XXIX. 
 
 A WILD BOAR AND DOG. 
 
 This subject is a Wild Boar badgered by a Dog; the 
 Boar is worked up to a pitch of madness which is indicated 
 by the fire of his Eyes, the erection of his Ears, and his 
 half-opened Mouth. The position of the Dog is teasing but 
 cautious. In delineating this subject take care to fix the Boar 
 well within the weeds, give the natural turn to the Head, and 
 fore- shorten the Side. 
 
PLATE XXX. 
 
 BULL AND COW. 
 
 This lesson represents a side view of a Bull^ and a perspec- 
 tive one of a Cow ; the contrast between the colour and posi- 
 tions of the two animals produces a pleasing effect. In deli- 
 neating this subject, great attention must be bestowed on the 
 position of the Animals, particularly the Cow, which will be 
 found an excellent example of fore-shortening. When you have 
 a complete outline, proceed as previously described, paying par- 
 ticular attention to the anatomy, which is correctly preserved. 
 
p/. 30. 
 

 
 OFTX^C^jE 
 
PLATE XXXI. 
 
 OUTLINE GROUPS. 
 
 The Student is here presented with Groups in outline, 
 containing varieties to be copied with tlie Crow-pen and ink, or 
 pencil. 
 
 The upper subject is a Group of Travellers selected from 
 Bewick. 
 
 The centre is from the famous picture of Hogarth’s Can- 
 vdssingfoi' Votes. 
 
 The bottom is a group of Sheep and Cows, from Howett. 
 
 The Student, in drawing in this style need not be told that 
 he must be very exact, as there is nothing to recommend 
 it, but a correct and spirited outline, and it has not the assist- 
 ance either of shade or colours. 
 
PLATE XXXII. 
 
 OUTLINE GROUPS. 
 
 The annexed Plate likewise consists of outlines for exer- 
 cise. 'The upper subjects are the Arabian Horse and domestic 
 Cat. 
 
 The centre a blind Man passing a bridge. 
 
 The bottom a group of Turks, &c. 
 
 In delineating the Horse, be particular to preserve its 
 grace. In the blind Man passing the bridge, as the wind has 
 blown the hat ofl^ take care to bend the trees with the wind, 
 in a uniform manner. 
 
 1 
 
/■y. 33 . 
 
PLATE XXXIII. 
 
 GROUP OF HORSES. 
 
 This group of Horses, Dogs, &c. from Howett, may be 
 drawn either with pen and ink, pencil, or chalk. 
 
 Every minimal in this subject affords a useful exercise in 
 the practice of fore-shortening. The last Horse in front is very 
 effective. The fore- shortening of the Horse behind him is 
 well managed. The perspective of the Cart in the second 
 distance, is happy. 
 
PLATE XXXIV. 
 
 THE MILITARY MACAW. 
 
 As but one Plate is given in this department of draw- 
 ing, it is in Colours. 
 
 Having sketched the outline correct, put in the sha- 
 dows with indian-ink, so as to produce the rotundities, leaving 
 breadths of light for the pure Colours. When the drawing 
 of the subject is correct, proceed with the Colours as follow : 
 
 The Bill in Vandyke Brown, with a little Yellow. 
 
 The Red Tuft on the Head in pure Lake and Gam- 
 boge, shaded with Lake, Blue, and Yellow. 
 
 The Circle of the Eyes in Gamboge and Lake. 
 
 The Neck and Body in Gamboge and Blue, shaded with 
 Gamboge, Lake, and Blue, carefully mixed to form a neutral 
 Tint. 
 
 The Wings in Indigo, and a very little Lake. 
 
 The Red Feathers on the Tail in Lake, and a little 
 
 Yellow. 
 
2^ late 35. 
 
 fe 
 
 Pf|i 
 
 
 
 
 
PLATE XXXV. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE LESSON— COTTAGES. 
 
 This lesson represents two Cottages in three different 
 States j the first in outline j the second in outline and half 
 finish j and the third finished. 
 
 After the outline is completed, mix in Saucers, three or 
 four different degrees of Tint of indian-ink, as near as pos- 
 sible to the Colour of the original. Take the lightest Tint, 
 and wash it carefully, as in the half Tint subject, being parti- 
 cularly Careful to leave the high lights. When it is perfectly 
 dry, take the second Tint, and proceed as in the finished 
 subject; then the third. Then should follow the spirited 
 finishing and effective touches. 
 
PLATE XXXVI. 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 The Student is here presented with an example of Cottage 
 Scenery, which are followed by three others; this style of 
 Drawing being pleasing and expeditious. 
 
 Be careful to obtain a correct outline with a lead 
 Pencil, being spirited in the parts that require spirit. Then 
 mix a Tint of Colour no stronger than the lightest Tint in the 
 original, washing that over the whole drawing, but leaving 
 the high lights. When that is done, take the second Tint, 
 and work that over the drawing, omitting the light parts ; then 
 follow the third and fourth Tint ; and then the finishing and 
 spirited touches. 
 
PLATE XXXVIL 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This is another example of Cottage Scenery, and the same 
 process as described in the last Plates must be usedj the obser- 
 vations to he added are, that the Student should be attentive to 
 the Sky, being careful it is not hard and heavy, but light and 
 transparent. Most Landscapes are deficient in their skies, 
 and it is necessary to observe, that the sky is the first part of a 
 Landscape to be tinted j then the greatest distance j advancing 
 until you reach the fore-ground. 
 
PLATE XXXVIIL 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This subject represents a Perspective View of a Cottage, 
 situated at the bottom of a Hill ; a piece of Water is intro- 
 duced in shade. The Hill behind the House is in a deep 
 Tint, and the principal light is brought on the Cottage, and 
 the edges of the Clouds. The Student will, of course, com- 
 mence with the Sky and Clouds ; then touch the Hills 5 and 
 lastly, the fore-ground, being very particular in having the 
 different degrees of tints carefully mixed before he begins. 
 
:ei. 38. 
 

 J 
 
 In Imitation ot‘l/i(tian In./c. 
 
PLATE XXXIX. 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This Plate likewise represents a Cottage in Perspective, 
 tbe principal light is on the Cottage, behind which is a cluster 
 of Trees, the management of which in demi-tint, produces 
 the burst of light on the Cottage. On the opposite side is a 
 Barn in shade, which likewise contributes to the effect of the 
 light on the Cottage. The part that requires the greatest care 
 is the delineation of the Perspective of the Cottage, and the 
 gradations of the light. 
 
PLATE XL. 
 
 LANDSCAPE WITH HORSES AND WATER. 
 
 This subject is from Howitt. The principal light is thrown 
 on the White Horse, to effect which a dark Horse is intro- 
 duced. The water is still and transparent, which must be care- 
 fully attended to in the drawing. The same process of tinting 
 is required in the execution of this subject as described in the 
 last four Plates; that is, proeeed from the greatest distance 
 to the fore-ground. The Student must be careful he does not 
 get such a subject too strong. 
 
TL. 4J-. 
 
 
PLATE XLL 
 
 SEA PIECE FROM VANDERVELDE. 
 
 In this department of Art, the Student is presented with 
 one Plate, the subject from Vaiidervelde, who in Sea Pieces 
 stands unequalled. We do not know which to admire most, 
 the transparency of the Water, the composition and aereal 
 effect of the skies, or the rigging and setting of the Vessels in 
 the Water. These beauties are conspicuous in this lesson, and 
 care must be taken to produce the same transparent effect. After 
 the outline has been finished, the Student must carefully wash 
 in the Sky, being careful not to cover the high lights ; then 
 proceed as previously recommended. 
 
PLATE XLII. 
 
 PLAIN LANDSCAPE. 
 
 PREPARATORY FOR COLOURING. 
 
 The Student is first to sketch the outlines faintly with a 
 Black Lead Pencil, and then proceed with the Hair Pencil to 
 tint and shadow without the intervention of the Crow iPen, or 
 without any other fixed outline than w'hat the tints and shadows 
 produce. 
 
 The mixture of the grey Colour is made of burnt Umber, 
 Indigo, and Lake, each to be rubbed in a Saucer separately, 
 and then mixed in due proportion in a fourth Saucer, so as to 
 produce the exact Colour, which may be called a warm Grey. 
 
 The Colour is then to be thinned with Water, for the light 
 tints, as the sky, distances, &c. Deeper tints are to be used 
 for the darker shadows, and near parts, fining off, and soften- 
 ing with w'ater, till the exact effect is produced. 
 
 He may then proceed to colour as described in the next 
 Plate. 
 
PLATE XLIII. 
 
 •’ 1 “ ' 
 
 COLOURED LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This beautiful subject is fi’om a drawing of that tiuly 
 ingenious Artist Mr. Varley, who has obligingly favoured us with 
 a list of the colours used by him in drawing ; together with the 
 mixtures prepared under his direction, and which render mix- 
 tures unnecessary on the part of the Pupil. 
 
 COLOURS USED FOR COLOURING DRAWINGS. 
 
 By Mr. J. Varley, Broad Street, Golden Square. 
 
 Coal Brown. 
 
 Rosy Madder. 
 
 Prussian Blue. 
 
 .. . Indigo. 
 
 Brown Sienna. 
 
 Roman Ochre. 
 
 Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Venetian Red. 
 
 Gamboge. 
 
 Burnt Sienna. 
 
 Lamp Black. 
 
 Vandyke Brown. 
 
 Purple Lake. 
 
 From the above, mixtures have been made under Mr. 
 Varley’s direction, which are sold by all dealers in Drawing 
 Materials. 
 
COLOURS USED IN THIS LANDSCAPE. 
 
 The Clouds are produced by a thin mixture of Indigo and 
 Lake. 
 
 The Azure Sky, towards the horizon, is of Lake and 
 Gamboge, and should be done with a clear brush. 
 
 The hwer or horizontal Clouds are tinged with Ultramarine. 
 
 The distant Lands are of Ultramarine and Lake. 
 
 The distant Trees are also of Ultramarine, with a wash of 
 Indigo, Gamboge, and burnt Sienna. 
 
 The middle distance Trees behind the House, are produced 
 by a thin wash of burnt Sienna and Gamboge. 
 
 The near Trees are tinted with a wash of burnt Sienna, • 
 Indigo, and Gamboge. Towards the shadows more Indigo is 
 incorporated. 
 
 The Grass is washed with a mixture of burnt Sienna, 
 Indigo, and Gamboge. That in shadow on the right hand has 
 rather more Indigo. 
 
 The road and paths are produced by a mixture of Lake, 
 burnt Umber, and burnt Sienna. 
 
 The House is tinted with a mixture of Lake and Gamboge. 
 The tiling and shadows have an excess of Lake. 
 
 The Windows are of Indigo and burnt Umber. 
 
 The Smoke is Lake and Indigo. 
 
 The Sheep are of burnt Umber and Gamboge. 
 
 The Figures are touched with Lake and Indigo. 
 
 For Landscapes no other colours than the above are requi- 
 site, and tlmy can be purchased in the best state at all the 
 respectable Colour Shops, in prepared cakes, viz. 
 
 Indigo, 
 
 Lake, 
 
 Gamboge, 
 
 Burnt Sienna 
 Burnt Umber, 
 Ultramarine. 
 

PLATE XLIV. 
 
 PINK. — A PROGRESSIVE LESSON. 
 
 This lesson is in four diiferent states. From the outline 
 proceed to the second and third state, which must be drawn 
 with a Camel’s hair pencil, in a neutral colour. When it is 
 completed to the third state, proceed to colour it as in the 
 fourth state. The Colours necessary are Lake, Gamboge, 
 Indigo, Ultramarine, and Vandyke Brown. Lake for the 
 general ground of the Pink 5 Gamboge and Blue for the 
 ground of the Green part ; and the four Colours, carefully 
 mixed, for the spirited touches. 
 
PLATE XLV. 
 
 , . FLOWERS WITH BUDS. 
 
 /• > \ 
 
 This lesson is in outline and finish. The outline of this 
 
 subject must be extremely tender, and the outline of all Flowers 
 should invariably be delicate. When you have it correct, pro- 
 ceed to finish with colours to the effect of the original. The 
 colours necessary for this subject are exactly the same as the 
 last ; viz. Lake, Ultramarine, Indigo, Gamboge, and Vandyke 
 Brown. 
 
PLATE XLYL 
 
 GROUP OF FLOWERS. 
 
 The colours necessary are Lake, Gamboge, Indigo, Ultra- 
 marine, Vandyke Brown, and Burnt Sienna. After a correct out- 
 line is obtained, with a Grey tint made of Lake, Gamboge, and 
 Blue, wash in the rotundities of the different parts, leaving broad 
 lights for the pure colours ; then mix pure colours, and wash 
 them over the different parts. Finish with the Browns, &c. It 
 is impossible by words to describe the exact tints used for 
 the different Flowers; we must leave that to the genius, 
 experience, and attention of the Student, 
 
PLATE XLVIL 
 
 CHERRIES. 
 
 This and the following Plate are Fruit subjects j the 
 present is a sprig of Cherries, from a drawing by Mr, Whi- 
 chelo. The same principle in regard to execution is requisite as 
 in the three preceding Plates. In the outlining of this sub- 
 ject, the Student must be attentive to the characteristic form 
 of the Bough, Fruit, and Leaves ; in short, in delineating all 
 objects, it is necessary to study their peculiar and natural cha- 
 racteristics. The necessary colours for this lesson are Lake, 
 Indigo, Gamboge, Burnt Sienna, and the Grey colour. 
 
PLATE XLVIII. 
 
 PEACHES. 
 
 This subject is likewise from a drawing of Mr. Whi- 
 cH£LO. The same course must be pursued as in the last four 
 plates. The necessary colours are Gamboge with a little 
 Lake for the first tint of the Peaches j then wash a little Ultra- 
 marine over the plum parts ; then with pure Lake finish 
 them to the elFect of the original : the first tint for the plum is 
 Lake and Indigo, shaded with the same strengthened for the 
 leaves ; Gamboge and Blue mixed to a Green for the green 
 leaves, shaded with the same colour mixed with a little 
 of the Grey Tint ; for the decayed leaf. Gamboge and Lake, 
 lightly tinted with Blue in parts, and finished in the spirited 
 places with Lake and Vandyke Brown. 
 
 M 
 
PLATE XLIX. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 This Lesson is engraved from Elmer, who stands conspi- 
 cuous in this department of art. With a Ground Tint (com- 
 posed of Gamboge, Lake, and Blue, with a little Grey Tint) 
 work in the out-line, and shadowing so as to produce the 
 rotundities of the Fish. Then with pure colour tint the 
 different parts, as near the lesson as possible, from that state 
 work up to the original. Lake, Indigo, Burnt Sienna, 2nd 
 Gamboge, are the colours used for the Fish. 
 
She EE § 
 
 i* 
 
 
V 
 
 PLATE L. 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 As brilliancy is as necessary in Shells as Flowers or 
 Fruits, the principles of colouring must be followed as was 
 recommended in them. Lake, Gamboge, Ultramarine, Indigo, 
 Vandyke Brown, Burnt Umber, and the Grey Tint, are. 
 colours necessary to be used in this department of drawing. 
 The Student must be careful that the bright light of the 
 Shells are of pure colour, and he should use a little of the 
 
 Grey Tint in the shadows, which will give an additional lustre 
 to the lights. 
 
PLATE LI. 
 
 BUTTERFUES. 
 
 This Subject requires the same treatment as the last. 
 Lake, Gamboge, Ultramarine, Indigo, Vandyke Brown, Burnt 
 Umber, and the Grey Tint, are the necessary colours. 
 
 0^1 
 
 G. Sidney, Printer, 
 Northumberland-street, Strand, London, 
 
‘W 
 
L ^"““5B«nchSrfor,heuTe:,f| 
 
 1 13 Hamilton (Cieorge; inc^xiiw.tSlr3-_- /-<;i;.nn I 
 
 Branches, for the Use of Students . . . 1812. Illustrated zvttn 
 51 engravings i a number coloured. Original quarter roan. 
 
 A nice fresh copy. $65.00 or £25 
 
 AC, ^ j _ ^ 
 
 I