THE PRACTICE
OP
DRAWING AND PAINTING LANDSCAPE
FROM NATURE,
9n Water coiourd:
EXEMPLIFIED
IN A SERIES OF INSTRUCTIONS
CALCULATED TO
FACILITATE THE PROGRESS OF THE LEARNER ;
INCLUDING
The Elements of Perspective, their Application in Sketching from Nature ;
and the Explanation of various Processes of Colouring, for
producing from the Outline a Finished Picture;
WITH
OBSERVATIONS ON THE STUDY OF NATURE,
AND
VARIOUS OTHER MATTERS RELATIVE TO THE ARTS.
By FRANCIS NICHOLSON.
LONDON:
Printed for the Author j and Published by J. Booth, Duke Street, Portland Place*
qpd T. Clay, Ludgate Hill,
1820.
TO THE
HONOURABLE MRS. FORTESCUE.
Madam,
In dedicating this Work to you, I consult
alike my inclination and duty : The first, in con-
sequence of the great proficiency you have attained
in the Art of which it treats, as your Performances
sufficiently evince; and the latter, in the most
grateful recollection of the numerous Favours and
acts of kindness which I have on every occasion
received from you, and from every branch of
your family v
I am, with the greatest respect,
Madam,
Your most obliged servant,
FRANCIS NICHOLSON.
CONTENTS.
Page
INTRODUCTION
* i— iv
Of the Rules of Perspective .
Aerial Perspective
The Local Colour
incidental Light *
Chiaro Scuro
Accidents in Painting ,
Drawing from Nature
Light and Shadow
Licences in Drawing
Colouring
The Neutral Tints
t 1
"'- r- v 10
11
i 12
ib.
\ * 13
.15
f •* * 28
' | 35
.41
62
Processes in Colouring t ^
Pormation of Lights by the Removal of Colour 65
Observations on the Methods of Practice in Painting 67
Composition » M
* 70
Mounting and Varnishing Paintings in Water Colours 7S
The Advantages and supposed Disadvantages of Painting in Water Colours 81
INTRODUCTION.
Of the gratifications which the mind is capable of receiving through
the medium of the senses, there is perhaps none greater than that
arising from the practice of the arts of design ; which incessant appli-
cation is so far from lessening, that the pleasure and satisfaction
resulting therefrom is continually increasing, and proportionate to the
degree of exertion and consequent progress made by the student.
Regarded as an amusement only, it is of the* most innocent and
inoffensive, as well as delightful kind ; but, taken in another point of
view, when it is considered to how many purposes it may be applied,
which can hardly, if at all, be effected without it, and that every art,
science, and manufacture of which we have any knowledge is in a
great degree dependent thereon for its improvement, its importance
becomes almost inconceivable. In mechanics, and in the construction
of machinery, description is frequently impracticable without the
assistance of drawing ; and the degree of perfection to which various
manufactures have arrived, would hardly, perhaps never, have been
attained without its aid, in communicating ideas and inventions, such
as cannot be otherwise conveyed or described.
Every department of art is gratifying to its professors, and to
those who have made it the object of their choice: but the practice of
landscape, from the infinite variety of its subject, and the general
interest which it excites, may be considered as being more universally
pleasing than any other. When it is practised as an amusement only,
a moderate degree of proficiency is more tolerable in this than in the
other branches of the art; but a professor has so many of the phe-
nomena of nature to make himself acquainted with, that, if he would
excel, his pursuit is upon the whole not many degrees less difficult
than any other.
B
\
A
INTRODUCTION.
Many of the advantages of travel are lost to, or beyond the reach
of those, who are not qualified by some knowledge of art to delineate
on the spot a beautiful scene in nature, or the interesting remains of
ancient magnificence : a power which by moderate application any
person may acquire. He who is so prepared, can secure to himself the
perfect recollection of numerous objects and circumstances, that
would otherwise escape his memory; he is also capable of receiving a
degree of pleasure from the view of natural objects, of which another
not so prepared can hardly form any conception ; the difference being
like that, between two persons of equally defective sight, one of whom
by optical assistance is enabled to see distinctly every object, which
to the unaided sense of the other appears confused and indistinct.
Nor can any one wholly uninstructed in the art be capable of des-
cribing with propriety the scenes he may have visited, since, knowing
nothing of art but its technical terms, he can hardly avoid the mis-
application of them. A mere literary man may represent a scene in na-
ture as possessing the characteristics of Claude Lorrain and Salvator
Rosa, without being aware that he is ascribing to it an incongruity of
character which cannot exist, as a small degree of acquaintance
with the principles of art would enable him to perceive.
" It is scarcely in the power of words to convey to an unpro-
fessional reader any adequate idea of the irrelevancy of classical
ingenuity, when exercising its strength in criticism on the arts of
design : with regard to this point, much more could be said by
painters than can perhaps be said without offence to those whom it is
their interest and wish to please. It often creates astonishment in
artists, who are apt to conceive that every kind of knowledge is
bestowed by a liberal education, to find scholars of the profoundest
erudition in letters very little better informed of the properties of
painting than the idlest boy in an academy." — Hoares Enquiry.
Verbal description of scenery in nature, without graphic illustration,
is at best very imperfect, and is frequently made more so by the use of
vague terms and indiscriminate admiration. The tourist, who is more
desirous of displaying his powers of description, than of conveying to
INTRODUCTION.
iii
the mind of the reader any just idea of forms and their combination,
selects such features of his subject as he thinks beautiful, and makes
the most of them, very often to the great disappointment of those who
follow his track with the expectation of being gratified.
A person who is conversant with the principles of design is thereby
qualified to perceive and judge of the defects, in such arrangements of
natural or artificial objects as have been made without their assistance ;
such as are frequently conspicuous in many of those noble domains,
which have been laid out and clumped as caprice has directed, or, what
is still worse, with geometric regularity. A little acquaintance with
the rules of art would enable a proprietor to consider and treat his
place as a picture, and to produce all the effect his materials are
capable of, by planting or building with design, and according to those
principles.
In a national point of view, we have lately had a convincing proof of
the importance of works of art : one in which the subject has been too
little attended to by those whom it most concerns. To whatever
country the most valuable productions of art can be drawn, that
country will be the centre of attraction to the civilized world. Such
undoubtedly was the idea of the late ruler of the French nation ; and
such a centre of attraction would Paris have continued to be, if the
dispersion of the works of art, collected under a system of rapine and
plunder, had not taken place.
The productions of art in the present age will be of increased value
at future periods. We have in this country many objects of great
interest : such are the remains of monastic and other buildings ; the
former are decaying so rapidly, that in another century they will be
known only by such delineations as have been or may be made of them
while they yet exist, for mere verbal description, at a period when there
is little of the kind to refer to, will convey but an inadequate idea of
what they have been.
Many persons, of whose education drawing has formedV part, are
yet unable to do more than copy the works of others ; it is principally
for the use of such persons, an$ those who are still less advanced, that
INTRODUCTION,
this work is intended. The rudiments only of perspective are treated of,
and in a manner as little dependent as possible upon such geometrical
rules as cannot be conveniently applied, in drawing landscape from
nature, which must ever depend principally upon the eye. To com-
municate with all the clearness and precision in my power the precepts
contained in this work, to those for whose use it is designed, was my
principal aim ; if I have succeeded in the attempt, it is all, with regard
to the manner, that was intended, or that I have been solicitous about.
The favourable notice and encouragement I have during many years
received from the public, for such exertions as it has been in my power
to make, having ever been greater than I could expect or reasonably
hope for; I trust this additional effort, in the service of that public to
which I am under so great obligation, will not be unfavourably received.
5$, Charlotte Street, Portland Place.
THE
ART
OF
FROM NATURE.
Of the Rules of Perspective, so far as they are requisite in Drawing
Landscape from Nature.
Ik sketching landscape frt» nature, the troth of linear delineation
depends chiefly on the exact observance of the vanishing pom* oi th
,ines by which buildings, or other regular objects in ^ ^ u
bounded, and the horizontal line. When these are found * nature
and their places are ascertained upon the paper intended to con am
the sketch, the eye is easily enabled to direct the hand in the pet-
formance with sufficient accuracy.
The knowledge of a few problems in perspective is necessary, and
TO y be easily acquired: these relate to the delineation of the square,
the circle, and curved lines, by which the outlines of regular objec s
are formed. As the geometrical plans and proportions of such objects
are not to be obtained in drawing upon the spot from nature, they
cannot be delineated from them ; but a part must necessarily be as-
sumed by estimation of the eye, from which part the rep.t may be found
by these rules, so as to enable the artist to produce a representation
in which he may avoid not only such errors as are usually committed,
but all that arc in any degree obvious to the sight, which is all that
is required of him. An error that is not obvious, or that is not to be
discovered without the assistance of rulers and compasses, is not to-be
s
PERSPECTIVE,
deemed of any importance whatever in the performance of the land-
scape painter, whose intention is to produce a representation which
shall satisfy the eye and the mind, and not a subject for mathematical
demonstration.
cc By Nature taught, he strikes the unerring lines,
" Consults his eye, and as he sees designs."
PERSPECTIVE
Is the art of delineating on a plane surface the representation of
objects. Thus, if a plate of glass be placed between the eye and the
objects, and the lines of every object be accurately traced, keeping
the eye in a fixed point, this will give a true linear representation of
them on that plane which is to be considered as the picture : the per-
formance of this by geometrical rules is called perspective.
The rules of perspective are peculiarly applicable to architectural
subjects, machinery, and objects in general of which the proportions
are known. In landscape, the greatest part of its subject is such as
they cannot be applied to geometrically ; yet a person who is acquainted
with their principles will have no difficulty in applying the rule in the
mind at sight, with sufficient accuracy, without having recourse to
mathematical proj ection.
DEFINITIONS.
U The plane of the picture,
Is not only the picture itself, but a continuation of its surface on
every side. If ABFD (Fig. 1.) represent the picture, all the rest of
the paper will be in the plane of that picture.
2. The horizontal line
Is a line drawn across the picture at the height of the eye, and
parallel to the ground line or bottom of the picture. If the eye be
raised thehorizontal line rises with it, and the contrary if it be lowered.
3. The point of sight
Is the place of the eye when viewing the object.
4. The point of distance
Is the distance of the eye from the picture, which ought always to
PERSPECTIVE.
3
be at least equal to its greatest length. By working with a shorter dis.
tance the representations of objects will appear to be distorted, except
when viewed exactly from that point, which may be too near to take in
the subject, or to have distinct vision. The distorted appearance of
objects, frequently seen in the examples given in treatises on perspec-
tive, is caused by the want of sufficient room on the plate containing
them, to place this point at a proper distance ; the representation is.
nevertheless true, and would appear so if it could be viewed from the
point of distance that has been chosen. The point of distance is usually
placed over the picture, but for the convenience of delineation it is
sometimes transferred to the horizontal line, on either side of the cen-
tre of the picture. Let ABFD (fig. 1.) be the picture, HL the hori-
zontal line, and E the distance of the picture ; if the point E be raised
perpendicularly to the plane of the picture, it will there represent the
place of the eye ; but in that situation lines cannot be drawn from it,
therefore it is necessary to bring it into the plane of the picture, by
placing it above ; and it is occasionally transferred to the horizontal
line on either side of the centre, as at e.
5. The centre of the picture
Is the point where a perpendicular from the place of the eye
would meet the picture, as at C, fig. 1. The horizontal line being
always at the height of the eye, the centre of the picture is conse-
quently in that line ; but it is not necessary that it should be equi-
distant from the ends : the artist frequently places it nearer to one
end than the other, when he would reject a part of his subject at either
end of the view.
6. The vanishing point of a line
Is that point in the plane of the picture where all lines parallel to
each other would meet, except such as are parallel to the picture ; these
have no vanishing point, but are in the representation also parallel. All
right lines perpendicular to the picture have their vanishing-point in the
centre of the picture.
7. Indefinite representation.
The continuation of a line to its vanishing point is called the inde-
finite representation of that line.
4
PERSPECTI VE.
PROBLEM I.
To measure or set off any given portioji of a line in perspective.
The Rule. A t the vanishing point of the line place one foot of the
compasses, extend the other to the point of distance, and transfer that
distance to the horizontal line. When the nearest part to be cut off is
at the ground line ; from the point of intersection, set off the given mea-
sure, on the ground line, and from the extent thereof draw a line to
the point of distance in the horizontal line, which will cut the indefinite
perspective line in the measure required.
Ex. 1. Let AD (fig. 2.) be the indefinite representation of a line in
perspective, on which it is required to set off a part equal to that of
the ground line AB.
With one foot of the compasses in D, the vanishing point of the line
AD, extend the other to E the point of distance, and transfer it to the
horizontal line at e, draw the line Be, which will cut the indefinite in
d, Ad being the measure required.
Ex. 2. Whem the part to be set off does not begin at the ground
line, draw a parallel to the ground line at the nearest point to be mea-
sured ; as at a, imake ah equal to AB, and from b draw aline to the point
of distance, whiich will intersect the indefinite in the measure required.
By this problem the perspective diminution of the spaces between
the windows, c olumns, or other equal divisions in buildings, &c. may
he ascertained ; it is also applied in the following problems, to the
perspective delineation of the square, &c.
PROBLEM II.
To draw the perspective representation of a square having one of its sides
at the ground line.
Let ABDF (fig. 3.) be the square to be represented, HL the horizon-
tal line, E the point of distance, and C the centre of the picture. AB
being on the ground line, and the sides AD and BF perpendicular to
the picture, therefore their vanishing point (by def. 6) is in C, the cen-
tre of the picture.
PERSPECTIVE.
Draw AC and BC the indefinites of the sides AD and BF, with
one foot of the compasses in their vanishing point C, extend the other
to E the point of distance, and transfer it to the horizontal line at e ;
from A draw the line Ae, which will cut the indefinite BC in f ; there-
fore Bf is the perspective representation of a quantity equal to AB,
from f draw a line parallel to AB which will complete the representa-
tion required.
If another square beyond the first be required, draw a line from d to
e, and where it cuts the indefinite draw aline parallel to AB, &c. Ex.
2. Prob. I.
PROBLEM III.
To draw the perspective representation of a square, one of its vanishing
sides being given.
Let Ad (fig. 2) be the given side, being a portion of the indefinite
AD, from D its vanishing point transfer the point of distance E to the
horizontal line at e, from e draw through d the line eB which will cut
the ground line in B. AB will then be the side of the square on the
ground line; the sideBf being parallel to Ad, must have the same
vanishing point D, BD is therefore the indefinite of that side, and the
line d f, being drawn from d parallel to AB will give the representation
required.
PROBLEM IV.
To draw the square in perspective, its sides being oblique to the picture, and
at a distance above the ground like.
LetBGCfiig. 4) a portion of the indefinite perspective line AD, be
the given side of a square to be represented in perspective. D being
the vanishing point of the side BG and of its parallel FI, to E the
point of distance draw DE and at a right angle thereto draw EH,
which may be done by laying a square with its angle on E and one of
its sides corresponding <vith the line DE, the other side of the square
will cut the horizontal line HL in H, the vanishing point of BF and
GI, draw BH the indefinite of the side BF, from the vanishing points
6
PERSPE'CTI V E.
D and II bring down the point of distance E to the horizontal line in
el, and e; at B the nearest part of the given side (by Prob. I.) draw
f g parallel to the ground line and draw the line e 1, G, which gives B g
the real length of the side of which BG is the representation, set ofFBf
equal to Bg and draw the line ef intersecting the indefinite in F, then is
BF the perspective length of that side of the square, from F and G
draw lines to their respective vanishing points D and H, which by their
intersection at I will give FI and GI, and complete the square.
PROBLEM V.
To put the circle into perspective.
Find a sufficient number of points in the circumference by enclosing
it in a square the side of which is equal to the diameter of the circle,
and reticulated so that the intersections maybe in the circumference ;
this square with its reticulations being put into perspective, the points
are found through which a line being drawn will be the representation
required. (Fig. 5).
PROBLEM VI.
To draw the cube in perspective.
A square ABDF, equal to a side of the cube, being drawn in per-
spective (by Prob. II.), at its angles erect perpendiculars, and make AG
and BI equal to AB, draw GI parallel to AB, which will form the front
of the cube. Draw GC and IC the indefinites of GK and IM; a line
drawn from G to e will cut the indefinite IM in M ; from M draw KM
parallel to AB, which will form the upper side and complete the cube.
The foregoing Problem applied to the delineation of a house in perspective.
It is required to draw the front and end of a house whose length is
equal to twice its breadth.
Draw a square A BFD (fig 6) in perspective, whose side is equal to the
given breadth, and by Prob. 2, draw another square DFdf beyond the
first, which will determine the perspective length of the house. Erect
perpendiculars at the angles, and proceed as in the delineation of the
cube ; the flat roof is not represented, being above the horizontal line.
PERSPECTIVE.
7
To find the places of the windows in the foregoing representation.
According to the rule in Prob. 1. for cutting off any part of a line in
perspective ; at the nearest part of the base line of the house, B (fig. 7)
draw Bd parallel to the ground line of the picture, transfer the point of
distance to e in the horizontal line, and draw the line eF, continuing it
to cut Bd in d, Bd is then the geometrical length of which BF is the
representation ; divide Bd equally into the given number of windows
and spaces, and draw lines from these divisions to the point of distance
e, these lines will cut the base line of the building ; and from the points
of their intersections draw perpendiculars, which will give the perspec-
tive distances of the windows. At the nearest corner of the house set
off a window, from which draw lines to the vanishing point, these will
intersect the perpendiculars in the places of the others.
PROBLEM VII.
To delineate the gable ends and roof of a house.
Find the centre of the perspective representation of the ends of the
house by the intersection of the diagonals af and bd (fig. 8) ; at the point
of their intersection draw a perpendicular to the ground line ; in this
perpendicular will be the point of the gable, the height of which and
pitch of the roof may be assumed by estimation of the eye.
There is nothing in the practice of landscape painting, in which error
is more frequently committed by tiiose who are unacquainted with the
rules of perspective, than in the delineation of this figure ; the point of
the gable being frequently made equidistant from the points a and h ;
and it is equally common to err in representing the perspective dimi-
nution of the receding part of the end, by placing the point a above or
below its true situation.
Application of the 1st and 7th Problems to the delineation of arches in
perspective.
Let ABDF (fig. 9.) be a plane in perspective, on which it is required
to draw three equal arches, the spaces between them being also equal.
From C, the vanishing point and centre of the picture, transfer the
3
PERSPECTIVE.
point of distance to the horizontal line at e, and from e through F
draw a line to meet the parallel to the ground line in f ; then is Bf the
geometrical measure of which BF is the representation. On this line
set off the three required arches at equal distances, and with equal
spaces, from the divisions draw lines to the point of distance e, which
will intersect the base line of the perspective plane; at their intersec-
tions, perpendiculars to the ground line of the picture being drawn
will determine the apparent width of the arches, and the perspective
centre of each is found by the intersection of the diagonals (as in pro-
blem 7) ; from each intersection a perpendicular to the ground line
will be that in which the point or crown of the arch will be found ; the
curvature of the arch may be given with sufficient truth by the eye,
without the application of geometrical rules.
" Then, as the work proceeds, that work submit
" To sight instinctive, not to doubting wit ;
The eye each obvious error quick descries,
Hold then the compass only in the eyes." Mason's Du Fresno y.
To ascertain the perspective diminution of the hvman (or other) figure,
according to its distance from the foreground.
Let IK (fig. 9) be the height of (he figure on the foreground ; draw
to the vanishing point in the centre of the picture the lines IC and KC ;
at any distance, a perpendicular to the ground line drawn upon the
line KC, will cut IC in the height of the figure at that distance : and
consequently on any part of a line parallel to the ground Jine at the
same distance. If the station of the figure he above the ground plane,
a perpendicular must be drawn from it to the ground, and the height
of the figure at that point will be found by the above method, which
height must be transferred to the station of the figure.
By the foregoing rules the perspective appearance of an object may
be delineated, from the assumption of a part thereof by estimation of
the eye, without the assistanee of the ground plan; they are as little
dependent on geometrical projection as possible, my intention being to
treat of such rules only as are indispensable in drawing landscape from
OF REFLECTION S.
9
nature. To the learner, whose subjects are architectural, or such as
being of known dimensions and proportions, the geometrical rules of
perspective may be applied to, I would recommend Mr. Malton's
Treatise on the subject, the second edition of which was published in
1779, in folio ; also the Lectures on Perspective delivered at the Bri-
tish Institution by Mr Wood, whose publication is accompanied with
an apparatus, ingeniously contrived to demonstrate those principles
which cannot be so easily explained by linear diagrams.
/-^y^ //// // /////
OF REFLECTIONS.
By an invariable law in optics, the angles of incidence and reflection
are equal ; the angle of incidence is that formed between a ray from the
object, and a perpendicular to the reflecting surface, thus A (fig. 10) is
the object, ADF is the angle of incidence, and EDF is that of reflec-
tion from the plane 1D2. To an eye any where in the line DE the
reflected image of the object at A will appear to be at a.
To determine the reflected image of an object, from the surface of water at
rest. (Fig. 11).
If the seat of the object be above the level of the water, continue it
down to that level at the distance of the object, from that point take the-
height of the object, and apply it downward on the water, which will
give the extent of the reflected image.
When the reflected image is viewed from a station near the level of
the water, it will be nearly that of the object inverted, but if seen from
an elevated point it will not be so; thus, an animal standing in the water,
and seen from above, will have the under parts reflected, and not the
part of the back seen in the figure.
Of reflection from water when in motion. (Fig. 12).
From water in motion the reflection of an object is considerably ex-
tended towards the spectator, there being in the convex part of each
undulation, a point from whence it will be reflected : therefore, if the
£
10
OF AERIAL PKilSPECTl V E.
elevated part of each wave be considered as a portion of the surface of a
cylinder, the optical law before explained being applied to that figure in
a transverse section thereof, which is a circle, the place of reflection will
thereby be found.
If lines be drawn from the place of the object, and that of the eye to
the centre of a cylindric mirror, they will there make an angle, the Dis-
section of which will cut the surface of the cvlinder in the reflecting
point. (Fig. 12).
The incidental rays coming from a luminous body, at almost an inf^
nite distance, as those from the sun, are parallel.
OF AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
Aerial perspective is the art of giving the due diminution of light,
shadow, and colour of objects, according to their distance, and the
medium through which they are seen ; the gradation throughout the
picture being taken from the highest lights, in regard to strength and
colour. The principal lights may be of any degree of brightness, but
the gradation must be according to the scale chosen, as the musician
may chuse his key, but having done so, he must keep to that key and
its relatives. Thus the picture is said to be wrought from a high or low
tone, acc ording to that of the principal lights, if those are low the rest
of the picture must have its depth of shadow and colour regulated
accordingly.
By keeping, is meant the due proportion of light, shadow, and colour
over the whole picture. If any object in it, by having too great, or not
sufficient strength, appears 10 come forward or to recede too much, it is
said to be " out of keeping."
The eye does not judge of the distance of an object so truly by its
magnitude as by the relative strength of colour, and distinctness of its
parts. Objects appear larger when viewed through a foggy medium,
in consequence of being seen under a greater angle than they would
subtend at the distance indicated by the indistinctness of their form and
colour.
LOCAL COLOUR.
11
OF THE LOCAL COLOUR.
By original or local colour, is meant the colour of the object when
seen by a full, clear light, and at a small distance. This is altered by
severaKcauses, such as the distance of the object, the reflected colour
communicated to it bynear objects of a different colour,or its being seen
through a coloured medium, as that of a hazy atmosphere.
Light colours reflect more than dark ones, and are less affected by
distance ; and those of objects are so much altered by reflection from
others, that they seldom come to the eye pure and unbroken ; this is
the cause of that beautiful harmony seen in nature, so different from
the effect caused by an arrangement of unbroken and positive colours.
The forms of the shadows are also softened and blended by numerous
penumbral alterations, which increase this harmony. For this reason
a strict application of the mathematical rules for determining the pro-
jection of shadow, without taking into consideration the above causes,
is calculated to produce the same kind of erroneous representation as
in colouring would be occasioned by pointing each object of its true
local colour, without regard to the alteration caused by its relative
situation. It is the business of the artist rather to avoid mathematical
forms, and such abrupt terminations of the shadows as offend the eye;
perhaps there are few examples of excellent effect to be found in the
works of those who have been guided principally by the mathematical
rules of art, which, however correct in linear delineation, are usually
untrue in harmony, and poor in effect. A relish may be acquired for
exhibiting too much of the cause to the injury of the effect. The con-
cealment of art being necessary to the perfection of its productions, so
nothing can be more injurious to it than the ostentatious display of its
rules.
9i He best employs his art who best conceals." Du Fresnoy.
A principle the reverse of this, generally pervades such works as I
allude to ; instead of concealing the cause, it is exhibited in every part
of the subject, and on every occasion, for the performer cannot pre-
vail upon himself to keep down or conceal any part of that precision
he values himself upon, in order to produce the best effect of the whole.
j 2 OF THE LOCAL COLOUR.
The geometrical rules of perspective are not strictly true when they
are applied in the delineation of such objects as are greatly affected by
t he atmosphere, its refractive power being 1 not taken into consideration;
nor can it be allowed for by any fixed rule, since it is observed in very
different degrees in different situations ; remote objects appear to be
considerably raised thereby, and a degree of curvature is given to dis-
.ant and extended vanishing lines, sufficiently perceptible to the eye of
an artist to prevent him from representing them by such as are drawn
along the edge of a straight rnler. In this case he will, like the astro-
nomer whose operations are affected by the same cause, make an allow-
ance for it according to the circumstances and his judgment. I am
aware that this refraction is not thought to be of much importance, and
I consider the neglect of it to be one of the causes of that unnatural
stiffness which is observable in many of such works as are the result of
a strict application of geometrical rules only.
INCIDENTAL LIGHT
Is that which illuminates the object when it is not obstructed by the
interposition of other objects.
CHIARO SCURO
Is an Italian compound simply signifying light and shade, but is used
in a more extended sense to denote the artificial distribution of light and
dark in a picture, so as to produce the best effect of the whole together,
whether the light be incidental, and such as the objects naturally re-
ceive, or caused by local colours that are bright and luminous in them-
selves, in oppositi on to the browns, and other dark colours, whether
local or representing shadow ; the opposition being not only of light
and shadow, but also that of light coloured objects contrasted with
dark ones, by an arrangement of such local colours as will extend the
breadth of light, or keep down those parts of the picture that require
to be obscured.
ACCIDENTS;
The works of Rubens, Rembrandt, Sir Joshua Reynold's, with thbsW
of many other Flemish and English artists, abound in excellent exanfc
pies of chiaro scuro, which are preserved in the prints from them ; this
is not the case with regard to many of those from the old masters • the
early engravers having given the light and dark of nearly the same tone,
whatever the local colour of the objects may be. The modern engra-
vers have greatly improved this part of their art, by expressing in theitf'
prints the relative strength of the light and shadow according to the
brightness or obscurity of the local tints, so as to produce the general
tone of the picture.
It may be proper to remark, that very little of the principle of the
chiaro scuro can be found in any work of art produced before the time
when Giorgione, Titian, and Coreggio flourished. From the Venetian
it was derived to the Flemish school, by Rubens, Vandyke, &c, and in
this country Sir Joshua Reynolds, Wilson, Barrett, and Gainsborough,
with many others, have, like the Flemings, carried the principle and
practice to a greater degree of perfection than was ever attained by the
Venetian painters. It is therefore needless to seek abroad, or in the
works of the old masters, for information in this part of the artj which,
may be better learned from the moderns, and at home.
ACCIDENTS.
An accident in painting is an obstruction of the light, by the inter-
position of clouds, &c. in such manner that it strikes partially and
in sudden gleams, as it is frequently observed to do in nature; these
must be accounted for in the management of the sky, and whether
caused by such clouds as are in the picture, or are supposed to be .-.
beyond its limits, the effect should appear to be probable.
The works of Gaspar Poussin contain examples of great excellence
in this part of the art : a comparison between the prints from his works ,
14
ACCIDENTS.
and those from Claude, which being without colour, will shew the
superiority of the former, to the tame and almost insipid gradation of
the latter, who depending upon colouring, in which he greatly excelled,
never ventured to introduce, and probably did not feel, those almost
electrical effects caused by the skilful management of sudden bursts of
light, as treated by Gaspar Poussin, Rembrandt, Rubens, Wilson, and
other great masters.
OF
DRAWING FROM NATURE.
The foundation for drawing and painting from nature should be laid by
studying- and copying the works of the best masters, in order to ascer-
tain their methods of practice, and principles of composition. With
such assistance, the learner will acquire the power of seeing what is
most perfect in nature ; without this preparation he cannot be expected
to discover what is fittest for the pencil. When he is become familiar
with the works of those masters, he will readily perceive. in nature what
would otherwise have been unnoticed: the mind so prepared on the
sight of what is grand or beautiful, feels this to be like Wilson or Pous-
sin, or that like Salvator Rosa, and by finding what the choice of those
and other great artists has been, learns to prefer similar forms and com-
binations of objects wherever they present themselves : the principal
and most important part of painting being to know what is most beauti-
ful in nature, and most proper for imitation. The masters to be re-
commended for this purpose, are those who have obtained the highest
reputation ; and the learner would do well to avoid giving his at ' i on
to any other until he has so far matured his judgment, as to be able to
look at the productions of an inferior class without being tempted to
imitate them. He may then find in the works of the Flemish and
Dutch artists, every thing that is excellent in colouring, chiaro scuro,
and handling, without being influenced by their vulgar choice of com-
mon nature, or of being seduced by their finishing and minor qualities,
from his pursuit after what he ought to prefer, and acquire a relish for,
in preference to all lesser considerations. A considerable portion of
the life of an artist is often lost before he can determine what he ought
to prefer, every thing that is excellent in its way forcing itself upon
16
OP DRAWING FROM NATURE.
his attention : and that of an inferior kind is more likely to do so than
what is better, being moVe within his comprehension, and requiring
none of that preparatory knowledge necessary to enable him to per-
ceive excellence of a higher kind.
The advancement of art must be gradual, and depend upon the
continual addition of something to the stock of knowledge gained by
an attentive study of the works of preceding artists. Those who do
not avail themselves of this advantage will proceed but little farther
than a first inventor, except that as they cannot avoid seeing frequently
such works as he had no opportunity of observing, their neglect of
these cannot be so entire but that they must learn something from
them.
" Whoso will be excellent must both spende much time in practice, and looke
" over the doings of other men."— Morley."
Young performers are frequently misled by ignorant advisers, who
continually urge them to the imitation of nature before they are quali-
fied by an attentive study of the works of preceding artists, to see in
nature what is most proper for their imitation. In nature, every thing
defective as readily as what is excellent may be found, and a relish for
the former is much more likely to be imbibed than a taste for the latter,,
by one who is unqualified to perceive it, and who imagines he has
nothing to do but to represent every thing as he finds it.
On proceeding to the study of nature, and practising in order to
acquire the power of giving correctness of form and truth of character,
it may be a matter of indifference at what time it is done, provided
the forms can be seen distinctly. When. the learner shall have to con-
sider his subject with regard to the effect of light and shadow, he will
find that it is not the best when viewed in full day-light, but rather
early in the morning, or, which is still better, late in the day, and about
the time of sunsetting. At those times the shadows are broad, and the
parts of the subject so united, that only the principal features are made
out, the subordinate parts and little detail being lost in the general
masses. There are few people who have not observed a grand and
striking effect on seeing a view for the first time by twilight, and who
f
OP DRAWING FROM NATURE.
17
on seeing it again by day-light, have not been surprised at finding it
poor, and void of effect.
An artist is perfectly aware of the cause of this difference, and
therefore, when he does not observe a good effect on the spot, he either
returns to it at another time, or treats the subject as his mind, by
practice, informs him how it would be at that time, under a better dis-
position of light and shadow.
Considerable help may be derived from the use of the blackened
convex mirror, in discovering what is proper for the pencil, as it takes
in as much, or nearly so, as should come into the picture : many sub-
jects, particularly those that are near and strongly illuminated, will by
this means be found to possess great beauty, and such picturesque
effect, as a person of little practice would overlook.
The effect of objects seen in the mirror, will be like that in the
camera obscura; and for the same reason, the dark parts reflecting less
than the lights, the opposition of the lh>ht and shadow will be greater
than in nature ; but there is no harm to be apprehended from this cir-
cumstance that can affect a beginner.
»f Much will the mirror teach, or evening grey,
When o'er some ample space her twilight ray
" Obscurely gleams." Mason's Du Fkesnoy.-
Subjects treated as seen by full day light, may receive effect by the
admission of accidental shadows, such as are caused by clouds, or some
other object which is supposed to be out of the picture; without such
expedients, a good effect, can seldom be produced.
Those accidents are frequently of great use to throw into obscurity
some part, or to hide the defects of others ; as in a mountain of an;
unpleasing form, the outline may be concealed, either entirely or par-
tially, by the interposition of clouds introduced for that purpose.
On the choice of the subject and method of sketching f rom nature.
In the choice of the subject, these are to be preferred that are com-
posed of few parts, and of large forms. The point of view should be
that where the objects appear to combine together, and group to the
G
{.$ OF DRAWING PROM NATURE.
greatest advantage ; if the composition consists of three masses, that
is, of one principal, and the others subordinate to it, with such open-
ing as may be requisite to shew the distance, of which a small portion
may be sufficient ; it will be found more proper for picturesque repre^
sentation, than such as are composed of many small parts, and that a
beginner will be apt to prefer.
In this respect, the mirror will be found exceedingly useful, by shew-
ing him that the multitude of objects, which in nature appear pleasing
to him, frequently have the poorest effect possible, and that those of
the distance and middle grounds, are so diminutive in the representa-
tion, as to be incapable of contributing, in any considerable degree, to
the genera] effect.
The subject being chosen, the next thing to be determined is the
station or point of view ; the height of this is of some importance, yet
there is no rule concerning the choice of it, that can be generally
applied, farther than that it is to be preferred rather low than otherwise,
provided it be not so low as to cause some of the objects to intercept
the view of others in a greater degree than the composition will admit
without injury ; it being not necessary that every object known to be in
the scene should appear, on the contrary, the composition may require
that many of them should be seen partially, and some not at all. From
-a low station, the objects Oh and iiear the foreground appear more ele-
vated, and with better effect than from a height, yet the latter is to be
sometimes preferred in the view of a very extensive and rich distance.
The Swiss artists, in the representation they give of scenes in their
own country, rarely choose a station proper for picturesque combi-
nation or effect; their general practice being to select art elevated situa-
tion, from whence they see a multitude of objects, and to introduce as
much of what they see, as can be brought within the limits of the pic^
ture.
The station being determined, the learner must ascertain how much
of the subject will come into his sketch ; on referring to page 2, he will
find the proper distance of the eye from the picture to be not less than
its length. If the paper be of the size and proportion of the intended
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE,
19
sketch, by holding' it before the eye, at, or near a distance equal to
its length, in that situation it will appear to cover as much of the sub-
ject as may generally be introduced into the picture.
In this situation of the paper, particular notice should be taken of
the objects terminating' the view at each end, as they must be referred
to, in order to find the relative situations of others.
The next thing* to be found is the line where the foreground will
commence to the best advantage. The artist cannot draw the ground
he stands upon, for the obvious reason, that he cannot see it and his
subject at the same time. How far he may remove it will depend on
circumstances : as if the objects are elevated, or the scene be in a
mountainous country, he will find, that unless the nearest part of his
foreground be at a sufficient distance from his station, he will exclude
the sky; therefore, holding up the paper as before directed, and
raising it until it covers so much of the sky as will be requisite to the
picture, and observing what part of the ground coincides with the
lower edge, that may be considered as the line of the nearest fore-
ground, and the bottom of the picture.
When objects of great altitude are to be delineated, as will frequently
happen, it will be found best to make the sketch in what is called the
upright form, that is, with its depth greater than the length.
In landscape, the usual proportion of the length to the depth of the
picture is as 3 to 2, or nearly so ; but in a flat and widely extended
scene, the character of the country may be much better represented by
extending the length considerably.
The space to be included in the sketch having been determined, the
horizontal line in nature must be found ; this being always at the height
of the eye, if a string or thread be stretched horizontally across, and
«ear the eyes, it will pass through certain objects, or parts of objects,
in the view ; and it should be observed, where it crosses these at the
termination of either side ; to find the place of the horizontal line on
the paper, and its height above the bottom of the picture, hold up the
paper as before, with its lower edge coinciding with the line determined
to be the nearest partof the foreground, and mark upon the side of the edge
20
OP DRAWING FROM NATURE.
thereof, the apparent place of the object terminating the scene through
which the horizontal line in nature was observed to pass ; from this
point a line drawn across the paper parallel to the bottom, will be the
horizontal line in the sketch, and the line on which to place those
objects through which it appeared to pass in nature.
The places of the principal objects and their relative distances, may-
be determined, as near as the eye can judge, in the following manner.
Having observed the terminating objects at each end of the view,
examine if there be any object in or near the middle of the space be-
tween them, and mark its place by a touch of the pencil, in or near
the middle of the paper, then, taking notice of what other objects are
between the middle and each end, in such proportions as the eye can
determine, as one-half, one-third, one-quarter, &c. of the space, mark
the places of those also at the same proportional distances in the
sketch. When a sufficient number of the principal objects have been
marked in their places in this manner, proceed to sketch lightly, their
general forms, and afterwards, in the same light manner, the interme-
diate objects, which must fall in their proper places, if the principal
ones are so ; it will be then found, that there is room enough for every
part of the subject, and nothing to spare, which is not likely to be the
case if this division of the subject be neglected.
The apparent situation and proportion of every object in the view
may be found with great accuracy by the following method, which in
some cases may be useful, as when dispatch is necessary ; but I would
advise those who wish to attain any degree of proficiency in the art, to
depend upon the eye, and to abstain, generally, from the use of such
expedients, as they would from those of measuring or tracing in making
a copy.
The size of the sketch having been determined, suppose the length
to be sixteen inches, provide a ruler of the same length, divided into
any number of equal parts, to the middle of this ruler fasten a string,
a knot being tied on it at that length, vi%. sixteen inches, when taken
between the teeth will allow the ruler to be removed to such a distance
from the eye, as will cause it to cover just the length of the space to
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
21
be represented. If it be requisite to take in a little more or less, the
knot may be a little nearer to, or farther from the ruler. The knot
being taken between the teeth, and the ruler held at its distance in that
situation, the end must correspond with the object terminating the view
at either end, the intermediate objects will then correspond with some
of the divisions of the ruler, and that being of the length of the paper
prepared for the sketch, on being applied to it, will shew the place of
every object, always taking care to bring the ruler to correspond at its
end exactly with the same object, or part of an object, which is to ter-
minate the scene.
The apparent height of any part may be found by holding the ruler
perpendicularly, at the same distance from the eye, with its lower end
at the line of foreground; the division corresponding with the height of
the object is to be laid upon the sketch in the same manner.
If to this ruler a slip of wood be added, of any convenient length,
moveable on a joint pin at one end, to open like a carpenter's rule, and
sufficiently stiff to remain in any position it is set to, it may be used in
ascertaining apparent angles, or in finding the vanishing points : if the
rule be held so as to coincide with any perpendicular line, the moveable
slip being brought to correspond with a vanishing line in nature, will
shew the direction in which that line tends to its vanishing point.
This, and every other mechanical or optical contrivance, should be
considered by the artist as unworthy of his no ice. The student who is
desirous to excel in art, will not avail himself of those helps for the
indolent, that are not intended for him, and which will be resorted to
only by those who cannot be induced to make any considerable exertion,
to whom, as little or nothing is to be expected from them, so no harm?
will be done.
The general forms of the objects being slightly sketched in, the out-
lines should be completed by going more carefully over the several parts,
marking with more determined lines and touches the form of each, and
correcting the first outline where it may be necessary. In trees the
general form may be given with the greater certainty by drawing the
trunk in its shape and inclination, then the branches, marking their
H
23
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
bendings and situations, with respect to each other, as correctly as
possible ; lastly, add the foliage by disposing it in such masses as it
appears to have in nature, marking firmly and distinctly their lights.
The character and lightness of foliage depending very much upon the
touch and execution, more particularly at the extremities, it is very
necessary for the learner to acquire a good touch of the pencil, which
should be done in some measure previously to the study of nature, bv
a careful imitation of the works of such masters as have excelled in
that particular.
Since the invention of lithography, various works containing the
elements of landscape and examples of penciling, designed for the use
of learners, have been published; these are so numerous and easily to be
had at all the print shops, that it is expedient to refer the learner to
them, rather than to give examples of the same kind in this work, the
confined space on the page being scarcely sufficient for the purpose.
The peculiar advantage of the impression from stone consists in its
being given by the lines and touches of the artist himself, and not from
a copy or imitation of them as in the usual methods of engraving on
copper, therefore the print is in every respect equal to, and may be
considered as an original sketch.
In regard to the forms of mountains, &c. it is not enough to give the
general outline only ; but within that, the variety of surface observed
in nature should be indicated, as wood, rock, broken ground, or the
lines, if any, forming those lesser parts the object is composed of J
the neglect of this will render it impracticable to make a picture with
sufficient local truth from the sketch, when out of sight of the scene in
nature.
The buildings being marked in their proper places and slightly
sketched in, may be corrected by the rules of perspective if necessary,
or proved whether they are right. For this purpose find the vanishing
points of the lines parallel to the horizon, in such planes of the
building as appear to the spectator. Those points are in the hori-
zontal line, and may be ascertained with sufficient exactness by hold-
ing a thread so as to coincide with one of them in the upper part
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
of the building', or where such a vanishing line makes the greatest
angle with the horizontal line, it will intersect that line in the vanishing
point of all lines parallel to the ground in that plane of the building.
Being seen on the angle, and consequently having two vanishing sides
to be represented, the vanishing point of the lines in the other will be
found in the same manner ; if those points fall within the picture their
place will be in, or near some object already sketched in, if beyond it
on either side they may readily be found, by comparing the space they
are beyond it with that occupied by the subject. If greater accuracy
be required, it may be obtained by holding a ruler divided into equal
parts, so as to coincide with the horizontal line in nature, and suffi-
ciently near to the eye to cover the space taken up by the subject, and
extend to the vanishing point beyond its boundary. By comparing the
number of divisions of the scale in the subject with those between its
boundary and the vanishing point, the distance of the latter will be
ascertained.
The outlines of buildings, as of every other object, should be drawn
by hand, otherwise they will inevitably be stiff and formal ; if the ruler
be used at all, the line should be marked by it as slightly as possible,
and afterwards be gone over by the hand. Compasses and rulers are
instruments with which the artist who is advanced beyond the rudi-
ments of his art, should have as little to do as possible ; not only
because he ought to be independent on such helps, but because what
is done without them will be less formal than what is done mechani-
cally, although the cause of difference may not be discoverable without
the assistance of instruments. To be incapable of applying the rules
to the objects of landscape without the use of compasses, would be
scarcely less discreditable to an artist than the inability to draw a line
sufficiently straight without a ruler.
The following is an explanation of the subject on the annexed plate,
as drawn from nature :
On holding the paper as directed in page 2, that is, at a distance
from the eye equal to its length, it was found to cover so much of the
subject as is contained between the tower at the left hand side, and the
24
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
cottage at the other end of the view, a part of each of those objects
being also hid by it. To give the requisite space in depth to the sky
and subject, the paper was held so that its lower edge (being the bottom
of the picture) coincided with the stone on which the figure rests, that
is therefore the nearest part of the ground which ought to be repre-
sented.
To find the horizontal line in nature, a thread being stretched hori-
zontally, and exactly at the height of the eye, passed through the
window of the cottage, and by holding up the paper again with its
lower edge at the stone, and at the same distance from the eye as before,
the edge of it at L corresponded with the window, from this point a
line being drawn parallel to the ground line MN is the horizontal line
of the picture.
To ascertain the places of the leading features of the subject, I ob-
serve the farthest end of the chapel on the hill is near the middle of the
space to be represented ; and mark the place at A ; I observe also that
the building occupies a space somewhat greater than half the length
from A to the right hand side of the picture, which I estimate by the eye
to be at B, the lower edge of the roof I suppose to be at D, (but its
apparent height above the horizontal line may be found if required, by
the graduated ruler and string, as before mentioned). The chapel may
then be sketched slightly in its place, as in the example. This object
may serve to determine the height of the tower, the top of which is
nearly at the same height above the horizontal line as the ground on
which the chapel is situated, its base being at nearly the same distance
below the horizontal line ; this may be slightly sketched in also. The
top of the roof of the cottage is a little lower than the ground at the
end of the chapel, and may be sketched in accordingly. By referring
to those, the intermediate objects are to be put in slightly like the rest."
The next operation is to find the vanishing point in nature. Facing the
centre of the view, a thread stretched at a sufficient distance from the
eye, and held so as to coincide with the line AD in the roof of the
chapel, and of a sufficient length to intersect the horizontal line crossed
it at H, a small distance beyond the limit of the picture, this is the
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
25
vanishing point of AD, and of all lines that are parallel to it. In the
same manner, by a line passing through the lower corners of the roof
of the cottage, or those at its foundation, the vanishing point was found
in C the centre of the picture. By the intersection of the diagonals
(by Prob. 7) the point of the gable is found. These particulars being
ascertained, the whole may be correctly sketched, and the parts requi-
site in the detail may be added as in the lower example.
It may not be improper to advise the learner to make his sketch on a
scale rather large than otherwise; an artist can express all that he
wants to do, or will have occasion for, in a small space, but what may
be sufficient for his purpose, will be comparatively useless in the hands
of a person of little practice; by the latter, the disadvantage of a
small sketch will be experienced when he would make a drawing from
it, especially if it be necessary to enlarge it, he will then find great
difficulty in expressing many things requisite to the detail, which in the
sketch he had not room to indicate.
Young performers are frequently curious with regard to their mate-
rials, especially pencils ; it will soon be discovered that by using a
hard one for the distances, and a softer for the foreground, the grada-
tion may be better expressed than by using one of the same kind
throughout. Those who are somewhat advanced in- practice will not
attend to such trifling matters, but will take a pencil, chalk, or any
thing else that may be at hand. So far from being particular in the
choice of materials, I would rather recommeud an endeavour to
acquire the power of managing those of any or of every kind.
With regard to the style of sketching, something may be offered by
way of caution, as well as of instruction, particularly with respect to
execution, which is much to be admired when it is combined with other
and greater requisites. Many, however, are so much misled by their
admiration of this kind of excellence, and are so eager to acquire it,
that they begin their practice where it should end, and by a few un-
meaning dashes, tell their tale " full of sound and fury signifying
nothing." He who has the ill luck to be solicited to look at, and ex-
pected to commend such performances, is* usually made to understand
1
OF DRAWING FROM NATURE.
in how few minutes they were done ; but if it should be asked " what
is this part composed of ? " or if it be observed " of this mountain I see
nothing' but the outline against the sky, if it be rocky, covered with
wood, or divided into subordinate masses, why did you not express it
so? "The answer ever is, " I had not time." Such a sketch is to be con-
sidered as little better than the scrawling of a child in its imitation of
wiiting. The endeavour of the learner should rather be, to draw cor-
rectly the form ; when he can do this with certainty, he will do it
readily, and it will be then only that his performance can be free.
When free and rapid execution is prematurely attempted, he may be
assured his freedom will be any thing but what is masterly, and be
characterized by nothing but the want of truth.
By doing quickly he will never learn to do well, by doing well he
may learn to do quickly.
In the endeavour to gain freedom of hand, a beginner is sometimes
induced to suppose that his success will be facilitated, by drawing the
object he would represent of a large size. On this head I need
only observe, that its dimensions are of very little importance to him
in that respect, and that he has nothing whatever to do with freedom of
hand and execution until he has first acquired the power of expressing
correctly the form.
Except in making studies of particular parts of the subject, or when
the effect observed in nature happens to be good, the practice of work-
ing up the sketch to effect, upon the spot, is generally a waste of time,
or worse, if it should induce the young student to neglect the general
character of nature, and to bestow too much of his attention upon its
little peculiarities ; the latter being more within his power, and appa-
rently more interesting to him, and to the generality of those who view
his works, than the former, in which a few expressive touches, giving*
the different characters of the parts of the subject, will be much more
to the purpose.
The apparent slightness of an artist's sketches may mislead those who
do not comprehend that he who has made considerable progress in the
art, can give character by a very few touches of his pencil ; and indeed
OP DRAWING FROM NATURE.
2?
his sketch is not considered as being done in an artist-like manner if it
be otherwise. Being made for his use, more than the purpose of being
shewn, and as he can secure all that is wanted by such means, he avoids
allthat are snperfluousor unnecessary. This power will never be acquired
by executing such unmeaning performances as we frequently see. All
the parts of a sketch should be treated in such a manner, that there
would be no difficulty to the person who made it, or to any other who
can paint at all, to produce from it at any future time, a finished picture.
I would therefore earnestly advise the learner to accustom himself (no
matter what time it may require), to draw as correctly as possible, what-
ever he undertakes to imitate ; always endeavouring to give the pecu-
liar character of every object as well as he can. He will acquire all the
facility he can desire by practice, and it is only in that way it can be
gained, whatever he may have been led to imagine to the contrary.
If the sketch be finished with the black lead pencil, it may be
secured from injury by washing it over with any glutinous fluid, such
as beer, very weak gum water, a weak solution of isinglass, or if the
pencil have been hard, water only will be sufficient for the purpose.
The learner having had some practice in copying the works of others,
in order to acquire a good touch and style of handling of the pencil,
such as will express the character of the object, should then take every
opportunity of studying the detail of the parts of objects in nature, by
making as faithful copies of them as possible.
Studies of the stems of trees, masses of rock, broken ground, foliage,
sky, water, &c. will be more conducive towards improvement, than the^
delineation of the whole of general subjects, independent of the great
use to be made of them on future occasions, in the composition or inu
provement of various subjects. These should be closely copied, and as
highly finished in every respect as the time will admit ; but when an
effect of light and shadow observed in nature is to be secured, it must
be done as speedily as possible, being of short duration, and wanted
for other purposes than truth of detail or individual character ; finish-
ing or making out the parts will not then be requisite, the breadths of
light and shadow being all that will be necessary for the purpose.
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW.
Studies of foreground are required on almost every occasion, as it
seldom happens to be good in nature at the station where all the other
requisites may be the best; and the foreground being of such conse-
quence to the picture, and so much subject to the discretion of the
artist, that there are few cases in which he may not throw it about as
he pleases. For however incumbent it may be on the learner to imitate
every thing he finds in his subjects as closely and accurately as he can,
it will not be necessary that he should continue to do so, beyond the
time when he is in a. considerable degree advanced in tlic art ; then, a
great deal more will be expected from him than the exact delineation of
that only which happens to be before him. This consideration will be
treated of hereafter under the head of licences.
Those who apply themselves to the arts by way of amusement, have
seldom sufficient practice in making what are called studies from nature ;
that is, very close and exact copies of what they would represent, to be
able to give the truth of form, character, or colour. A professor of
art being obliged to attend closely to every thing from which he may
derive information, gives much more time and attention to this part of
his practice than can be expected from others. Dn Fresnoy, in his sen-
timents on the works of the principal and best painters of the two
last ages, says of Titian, « for eight or ten years' space he copied with
great labour and exactness, whatsoever he undertook ; thereby to
make himself an easy way, and to establish some general maxims for
his future conduct." What was the practice of Titian in this respect
has been that of other masters, and will be that of all who desire to
arrive at excellence.
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW.
The production of effect depends principally on the judicious
management of the distribution of light and shadow. A learner may
very soon acquire the knowledge necessary to enable him to give the
light and shadow to every object in his picture considered singly ; but
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW,
29
that, so far from producing a good effect of the whole, is the most
effectual way by which it can be destroyed.
The leading principles by which effect is produced, are neither com-
plicated nor difficult to be comprehended, yet they are in a great
measure subject to the taste and discretion of the artist.
It may be observed, that effects of nearly equal excellence may be
obtained by treating the same subject differently in the management of
the light and shadow.
In every mode of distribution the following rules are to be observed,
and these apply so generally, that they can hardly be infringed without
some injury to the effect of the whole.
There must be a principal light in some part of the picture, to which
every other must be subordinate, either in brightness or in. quantity ;.
this principal mass maybe in the sky, or on the objects in the land-
scape, it being sufficient that it is principal. If the design will admit,,
it should be thrown on such objects as will receive it so as to produca
a pleasing form of the mass. All geometrical shapes are to be avoided.
If the principal light be in the sky, the various shapes and combinations
of the clouds being subject to the discretion of the artist, he has the
opportunity of forming it there to the best of his judgment. The part
of the picture where this and the subordinate lights can be placed with
the best effect, must depend in some measure on the arrangement and
combination of the various objects. It is desirable to have it rather
towards the middle than the extremities, but this being not always
practicable, must depend on such circumstances as the presence of
objects, ground, &c. capable of receiving it ; and as great liberty may-
be taken in the composition of the foreground, objects may be, and
often are, introduced there for the purpose of receiving it and increa-
sing the breadth.
The secondary lights should not be fewer than two ; and if they are
nearly equal in brightness to the principal mass, but inferior in mag-
nitude, the harmony and effect will be better than when they are below,
it in both respects; in that ease the principal light will appear as a spot,
more or less according to the degree of its predominance. Lesser
K
30
OF LIGHT AND SUA DOW".
lights may be admitted in various parts of the picture, bat they ought
to be placed so as not to injure the effect of the principal light, by catch-
ing the eye and drawing the attention of the spectator from it ; neither
should they be allowed to cut or divide the principal breadths of
shadow.
The disposition of shadow is governed by the same general rule ; it
ought to have, in like manner, its principal breadths, which should not
be broken or disturbed by the admission of portions of light to sepa-
rate them into smaller parts. In nature, the forms of objects are
distinctly made out, principally in the lights, which are supported by
the shadow floating in breadth, but with less decided form.
These general rules may therefore be reduced into a very small com-
pass, viz. the light intended to be principal should predominate over
every other, either in brightness or magnitude, and should not be
disturbed by the admission of many little portions of shadow. And the
principal breadths of shadow should not be separated into little part*
by the admission of portions of light.
Notwithstanding these rules are sufficiently plain and simple, no
precept whatever can be more neglected by a learner, who, when he
attempts to treat his own subject, generally proceeds to give every
object its light and shadow separately, neglecting that breadth of each
without which effect cannot be obtained.
It may be observed, that beginning to draw from nature without
previous practice, tends very much to cause this neglect, as it seldom
happens except at certain times, or under particular circumstances, the
general effect seen in nature is good. On the contrary, the lights are
commonly dispersed too much over the whole scene, and the shadows
are not sufficiently united ; therefore, he who is not capable of con-
ceiving them otherwise than as he happens to see them, will very rarely
succeed in giving even a tolerable effect.
The same advantage, with regard to light and shadow, may be deri-
ved from a careful study of prints, after those masters whose works have
been recommended as guides to the acquirement of the knowledge
requisite to discover in nature what is proper for selection ; and for
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW. 3l
the same reason, prints may be preferred, to pictures ; as, they exhibit
form, light,, and shadow, independent of colour.
To apply the knowledge thus gained, it is advisable for the learner to
make an outline of bis subject, and upon that endeavour to arrange
the light and shadow to his satisfaction, by using such materials as will
admit of any alteration. A ready way to do this may be practised
upon a grey or leaden coloured paper, with black chalk to make out the
shadows, and a little white chalk for the lights, the colour of the paper
serving for the middle tint. The chalk being easily removed by a little
bread, the shadow can be altered in any degree, or removed entirely,
until a satisfactory disposition of it is gained ; at least half the quan»-
tity of the paper should remain uncovered, to represent the intermediate
degree between light and shadow, and the white should be sparingly
used, its full strength being given only in a few touches for the brightest
lights.
Another way may be adopted, by giving each object its light and
shadow with seppia or Indian ink, and after considering where the
principal masses may have the best effect, the student may proceed to
give breadth to the shadows, uniting those not immediately adjoining
by throwing the intermediate lights into shade ; if this be judiciously
done, the principal and secondary lights will be left ; and if they are
not sufficiently broad, two or more of them, may be joined by the in-
troduction of an object that shall receive the light, and occupy the place
of the shadow separating them.
In this latter way, the shadows being made out in each object sepa-
rately, by washing them in with Indian ink or seppia, they will be fixed,
and tbe parts requiring to be subdued may be worked upon witii black
chalk, which can be altered or removed without defacing what was
washed in, or destroying the forms.
The learner may then proceed with some degree of certainty to
transfer the disposition of light and shadow so obtained, into his draw-
ing ; practice will enable him to do without this kind of trial, but that
it is advantageous, is proved by the custom of the greatest masters';
even Rembrandt^ who is inferior to none in the management of light
32
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW.
and shadow, was so careful in this respect, that for some of his pictures,
there are still in existence many preparatory sketches of the same sub-
ject made as studies of effect.
The following- plates are intended to explain the method here recom-
mended, being the same in subject, but treated differently in the dis-
tribution of light and shadow. In the first example, the light is over
the whole, every object having its light and shadow unconnected with
those of any other part (as it is usually seen in the performance of a
beginner).
In the second, the bushes near the foreground being chosen for the
place of the principal light, those behind it are united in a breadth of
shadow, for its support ; and to separate it from the secondary lights in
the sky, and on the building, the upper part of which is thrown into
shadow, to oppose it to the sky, and to reduce the quantity of light
upon it, to make it subordinate to the principal light ; the whole of the
distance being kept in shadow.
In the third example, the principal light is thrown upon the building,
and that which is secondary, on the foreground ; to separate these, a
breadth of shadow is thrown upon the bushes between that part and
the building, and the distance is kept in shadow, nearly as in the se-
cond example.
In the fourth, the light comes from the left hand (the three former
examples having it from the right), the principal light is in the sky,
and what is in shadow in the others, is here the secondary light, nearly
the whole of the building and foreground being in shadow.
Other methods of distribution might be adopted; these examples arc
given to shew that the effect may be produced by various mean-s, and
that it depends chiefly upon preserving the principal and secondary
lights, and on keeping the shadow buoad and undisturbed, either by
the admission of light, or too much making out of the parts in shadow.
The reflected light must appear on these parts, but tender, and not of
such strength as to divide the breadth or injure the effect of the direct
light.
In, finishing, care should be taken to give the due relief to each
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW. 33
-object, but not more than it appears to hate in nature at those times
when the light is good and the shadows are broad and with good effect.
The eye of the unlearned requiring little more than that the parts
should be relieved from each other, the learner in the early part of his
practice, may be induced to give this relief by the too frequent oppo-
sition between the lights and the shadows of contiguous objects, which
will be destructive of breadth ; the principles of the chiaro scuro re-
quiring that the shadows in many places should be relieved, not by the
opposition of light, but by still darker shade. The difficulty being, not
in freeing objects from each other so much as in knowing where it is to
be doneand when it should be avoided. This knowledge maybe attained
by careful attention to the preservation of the breadth of light and
shadow, and close observation of beautiful nature; the detail, or
making out the parts being only a secondary consideration*
The method of handling and style in finishing should accord with
the character of the scene, and may depend in some measure upon the
size of the picture, and the distance from which it ought to be viewed.
If it possess sublimity or wildness of character, high finishing would
be injurious to it. The handling proper for the scenery of Claude
employed on that of Salvator Rosa or Poussin, would be like piping on
the flageolet the sublime compositions of Handel.
A mean stile in art is the result of servile attention to the detail, and '
a degree of minuteness beyond the visible truth of nature. It is an
erroneous principle upon whieh the artist allows himself to make out .
the parts more than as they appear to him in nature, under the idea
that the distance from whence the picture should be viewed, will re-
duce them to the requisite effect. In this he may be influenced by his
desire to please too indiscriminately, and to satisfy the ignorant, who
consider the highest degree of excellence in a picture to be, that in
addition to its effect at a distance, it will bear the closest inspection. If
it could bear the latter without the sacrifice of what is of more impor-
tance, a portion of the spirit of the former, there would be no harm
done, but that is impossible. In painting, the conjunction of many-
little parts will not, as in geometry, produce what is great. Finish-
L
ft 4
OF LIGHT AND SHADOW.
ing unnecessarily high is but an expedient by which the artist endea-
vours to produce his effect by mere patience and tame labour, instead
of powerful and determined certainty of operation.
Although great attention to general breadth and form be insisted on
above all other considerations, it is not meant to recommend a sweep-
ing breadth beyond that of nature, such as we sometimes see in the
later works of Gainsborough and others. Without a sufficient portion
of the detail, the work will be deficient in the appearance of local
truth ; but when the breadth is lost or neglected, the effect will be
injured rather than improved by much labour and minute attention to
the Matter.
On the foreground, the objects, &c. should be made out in all their
parts, but at a short distance ; little more than the general form can be
distinguished in nature, and therefore ought not to be otherwise ex-
pressed in the representation, however the contrary may delight the
ignorant. The making out on the foreground of the figures, herbage,
utensils, &c, however detailed or decided, may be better done by
giving the parts with as few touches as it is possible to express them
by, than by labour and high finishing.
Of the organs of sense, the eye is one of the most acute, but it is the
most deceptive of them all. In a certain manner the usual operation of
objects upon this organ tends to confirm their deceptive appearance,
inasmuch as we are by habit rendered capable of conceiving the forms
of distant objects with which we are acquainted, with greater precision
than the sense of seeing alone, without association, will warrant:
having habitually formed their images in the mind, we refer to those,
and thus are enabled to supply the lesser parts we know such objects
to be composed of, but do not distinctly or really see. This conside-
ration is of great importance to the artist in determining to what degree
the making out (as it is technically called) of objects should be carried,
in order to be true to nature, since without it he will ever be tempted to
go beyond the truth. To discover in how great a degree this deceptive
appearance takes place, let him take every opportunity of delineating
(at a sufficient distance from them) such objects as he is but little or
OF LICENCES IN DRAWING AND PAINTING.
35
not at all acquainted with; on a nearer approach, he will find how
much of the detail of their parts he was unable to ascertain, but would
have supplied had he been more intimately acquainted with it. This is
also the case with regard to the colours of objects we are accustomed
to view ; unquestionably the eye may be enabled by practice and obser-
vation to overcome the deceptive appearance of the objects of sight,
so as to determine of them with great exactness. To attain this power
should be the continual endeavour of the student.
OF LICENCES IN DRAWING AND PAINTING.
With these the learner has nothing to do until he has attained, not
only the power of drawing- with correctness, but has also matured his
judgment, in some degree, by a careful study of the works of the best
masters, and through them is enabled to see what is beautiful in nature.
It is the more requisite that he should first enable himself to express
correctly what he sees, as the power of doing so has seldom been
acquired after the neglect of it in early practice. Until this be accom-
plishedj he should not allow himself any licence, for he is not to sup-
pose tbat he may use it according to his unsettled and capricious notion
of things, but should remember that the attempt to do more than is
before him, will either do credit to his taste and judgment, or expose
his deficiency in those respects.
By licence is not to be understood the liberty of departing from nature,
but that of adding to, rejecting, or concealing certain parts of the sub-
ject, the artist being, notwithstanding this allowance, strictly confined
to nature. When it may be expedient to improve any thing in the scene,
the part introduced must be such as may be found in nature, and as
faithfully imitated from thence as any thing else in the picture : the
licence extending no farther than to improve nature by herself, the parts
imperfect by those most perfect, for there is no beauty to be found but
in nature, the defects being only accidents and variations from her
general character.
OF LICENCES IN PAINTING AND DRAWING.
The subject of a picture being" composed of many parts, it can hardly
be expected to happen that the whole will be arranged so advanta-
geous as might be desired with respect to combination of forms or
distribution of colour. In the latter, when cold coloured trees occupy
the places of the principal lights, the variety of the autumnal tints will
allow of the licence to substitute warmer ones, which are still In nature.
It will also very commonly happen, that the trees on and near the
foreground are thin and of little power to give strength to it, while
those more distant are powerful, such as oak, elm, &c, and again in
regard to magnitude, it may unfortunately happen, that the trees in
nature become larger as they are removed from the foreground, coun-
teracting the perspective diminution. It is true the aerial tints will
give them the effect of distance, but will not make such a composition
pleasing ; those parts of the subject being so much changed by time
and circumstances, there ought to be no hesitation in transposing any
thing of the kind that is capable of a better arrangement. It should
not be understood that this liberty can be allowed in every subject.
The view of a street, for instance, will not admit of substitution ; if in
such scenes any thing be offensive or injurious to the general arrange-
ment and effect, it may be concealed by large objects introduced for
that purpose. Much may be done by this means to give more interest
than the subject naturally possesses; but this, and the artificial
management of light and shadow, are all that can be allowed in repre-
sentations that derive their value from strict adherence to local truth.
For the same reason the artist is confined to the exact delineation of
what is before him, in such works as are intended to convey topogra-
phical information. Great defects are commonly to be found in
representations of this kind ; when the subject has in it but few of the
requisites for a picture, and is .such as will not admit of the change of
any thing for what is better, the defect is not always to be considered
as arising from want of knowledge in the art, being very frequently the
consequence of circumstances by which the artist is induced to com-
ply with, or give way to the wishes of his employer ; to which, as sub-
jects of this description have little in them of what is interesting to
OF JUCENCES IN DRAWING AND PAINTING.
37
him as an artist, he finds the less difficulty in accommodating- him-
self.
In the performance of the landscape painter no licence whatever
can be admissible to the violation of all probable and possible truth,
such as we sometimes find in works of great excellence in other res-
pects ; it is a very insufficient apology, though frequently made to excuse
a glaring deviation from nature, that the artist wanted this or that for
the sake of effect : no artificial legerdemain can compensate for the
total absence of truth. He may, and sometimes must conceal, for he
is not obliged to tell the whole truth, but he is not at liberty to tell what
is false or impossible.
Although unbounded licence cannot be allowed to the mere land-
scape painter, it may be requisite in the landscape accompaniments of
the painter of mythological or ideal subjects, his business being to
carry the mind of the spectator back to a very remote period, by a re-
presentation in which there is little of that appearance of nature with
which we are familiar.
For this reason, Sir Joshua Reynolds justly censures Wilson for
introducing mythological subjects into his works, because his land-
scapes were not of this description, but faithful representations of
beautiful nature as we are accustomed to see it, and therefore not.
proper for the reception of such figures.
He who is desirous to please those alone whose approbation is of
value, will not hesitate to remove or conceal any subordinate part that
is injurious to the composition of his subject. If this conduct be re-
quired in giving the most favourable representation of local scenery,
it is much more necessary in the higher department of art, where no-
thing should be admitted that is not as perfect as the artist has the
power of conceiving it. When the student is .capable of treating his sub-
ject in an artist like manner, he will feel any thing but satisfaction from
being told his picture is very like the place it represents. If the spec-
tator be ignorant of art it may be concluded that the subject is treated
in such a manner as is level with his comprehension ; trl^i .same obser-
vation made by a person who is better informed, conveys a very different
M
OP LICENCES IN DBA WING AND PAINTING,
meaning, which may be rendered a having- not the power to make the
most of your subject, you have not ventured to attempt any thing- more
than to produce a servile copy of that only which was before you."
There 'have been many artists, who, having- neglected to prepare
themselves for the perception of what is most beautiful in nature, by a
close observation of the works of the best masters, and continuing to
imitate with equal attention all that they happen to see in their subject,
have never acquired the knowledge necessary to enable them to make a
judicious choice, or to avoid more of the detail than is sufficient to give
interest to the picture ; on the contrary, they have become by habit
desirous of marking all the little peculiarities of their subject, which
they imagine will increase that interest. With the ignorant it certainly
will do so, as they require nothing more, being unqualified to appre-
ciate any thing beyond the microscopic detail. When an artist has
unfortunately imbibed a fondness for such mischievous trifling, and is
satisfied with the praise of those who can be pleased with it, if he
should attempt to make any selection at all, he will be almost certain,
in consequence of his habits, to choose deformity.
The imitation of nature being the purpose of the artist, it may seem,
that in proportion to the exactness of this imitation in every part of the
Subject, his purpose will be attained ; but this is not necessarily the
consequence : the picture ought rather to be such as will best convey to
the mind the idea of the place represented, when out of sight of the
real scene.
To have that effect, the likeness must result from the truth of the
leading, general, and permanent features of the subject, being those by
which the real view in nature is impressed upon and retained by the
memory. In the work nothing should appear to arrest the attention of
the spectator but what is essential to the scene, least of all those little
peculiarities, frequently such as are temporary, and are so far from form-
ing any part of the character, that they can be seen only from a par-
ticular station, and may be of so little conseqence that their existence
would scarcely be noticed.
It must appear paradoxical to those who are but little conversant
OF LICENCES IN DRAWING AND PAINTING. 1
With art, to maintain that the delineation of a scene in nature may have
more of the general character, and consequently truth of resemblance,
by treating it not exactly as it is seen from a particular spot ; it is never-
theless true, for it will very frequently happen, that from such a point
some feature essential to the view will be hid by. an object of no impor-
tance to it at all, but which may on the contrary be a deformity, and
probably such as will not be permanent. In a view from nature, the
best station being chosen, that is, not where the most can be seen, but
where the parts group and compose in the best manner, from this spot
a principal and well known object may not be visible, although so con-
spicuous from every other, as to form a leading feature of the subject
It may be a river or building, &c. and be hid only by a hillock or clump
of trees, or other obstruction that takes place in that spot only. In
such cases the resemblance will be given with more general truth to
nature by removing the obstruction. Unless this licence be taken, the
picture is true as seen from that station only, and the spectator who
views it, feels the absence of an object he knows should be in the re-
presentation; but without going to the spot he would not be aware that
it could not be seen from thence, nor would he otherwise discover the
licence taken in removing the intercepting object. In sketching gene-
ral scenery, the time when the trees are divested of their foliage is in
some respects to be preferred, as many objects of advantage to the
subject may then be perceived which are at other times concealed by
such trees as may be better removed or thinned. The want of foliage is
of no importance, the student being supposed to have had sufficient
practice in the different kinds, and to be in possession of studies which
he can apply as they may be wanted.
Most of the objects presented to our view have their defects. For
this reason the best artists have never been in the practice of taking
nature as they found it, but have formed compositions from studies pre-
viously made of various parts of beautiful scenery, or when employed
in representing a particular scene, have on this principle rejected or
concealed the defective parts, and supplied what was wanting to the
perfection of others.
OF LICENCES IN DRAWING AND PAINTING,
To those who cannot easily comprehend how any departure from the
strict observance of local peculiarity can be advantageous to pictu-
resque representation, the subject may perhaps be placed in a clearer
light by reference to the practice of different artists, in a department
where the difference of result between the application of this princi-
ple and the total absence of it may be more readily perceived, as it
maybe exemplified by a comparison between the works of Vandyke
and JDenner j both of whom painted portraits with a degree of truth to
nature that has never been exceeded. In the works of the former we
find every excellence by selection that the subject will admit ; the latter
is remarkable for having had no power of rejection at all, but has
treated his subject with the most minute attention to the detail of what-
ever was before him, representing singly the hairs of the head, eye-
brows, &c, the image of the window of his painting room with all its
divisions reflected from the speck of light on the pupil of the eye, and
the pores of the skin, with microscopic exactness; but with all this accu-
racy of detail, is there any person possessing the least feeling for excel-
lence in works of art, who can prefer the disgusting representations of
Denner to the kind of truth shewn in the works of Vandyke ?
The same difference exists in every department of art ; and many of
those who would be thought to know something of the matter, still pre-
fer the detailed deformities of the Dutch school, which engage their
attention and excite their admiration in a greater degree than the works
of Wilson or Gaspar Poussin.
Little deference is due to any man on account of his taste, who can
view an exhibition of well scoured pots and pans with bunches of vege-
tables, or an exquisitely coloured representation of a man eating oys-
ters, and an old woman pJueking a fowl or frying sausages, without
feeling deep regret that so much talent 'should have been thrown a*vay
upon s'uch subjects*
The -mind accustomed to contemplate what; is great, cannot without
daSculty descend to the notice of what is i it tie ^ it is scarcely in human
nature tot It can be capable of relishing both ; when it g*ves the pre-
ference to one it will neglect or despise the other j witere the atte#ioa
OF COLOURING,
41
is directed to great and general considerations, little irregularities will
be overlooked, such as would never have been committed, and are
readily discovered by one whose limited powers enable him to view
only near and microscopically, what never occupied the attention of
the superior artist. The ascent from little to great is still more difficult,
and is seldom attempted, in consequence of the satisfaction the mind
fitted for the former feels, in what it imagines to be a greater degree
of nicety and exactness of judgment, or neatness in performance.
OF COLOURING.
The communication of the result of their experience, by professional
men, has ever been considered as the most effectual way by which an
art can be improved ; but there are many circumstances to prevent,
and few to induce the professor to communicate what he has acquired.
It is not among the least of his considerations, that in an art which is not
strictly reducible to rules, and respecting which perhaps no two per-
sons think exactly alike, with regard to style or method of working,
many things advanced relative to it must be liable to objections which
may be well founded, or because they do not accord with the peculiar
habits and practice of the reader, and sometimes will even proceed
from the desire of cavilling, such diversity in opinion and practice
affording abundant opportunities, to those who are more inclined to
indulge themselves in that way than to contribute towards the advance-
ment of the subject in question.
It can hardly be doubted these considerations have deterred many
artists from giving to the world some account of their methods of
practice; their reserve cannot have been occasioned by the desire of
keeping them secret, because it is well known to those who are capable
of giving such information, that the art cannot be communicated with-
out great study and application on the part of the learner; and that
what they could have imparted to us, might greatly assist, but would
never without such exertion, make a painter.
N.
42
OF COLOUaiNG.
What would we not give for the discovery of such papers as would
explain the methods of practice followed by the old masters, and what
artist does not continually regret, that they and their scholars have
neglected to leave behind them in writing, what would have been con-
sidered next to their works* the most valuable legacy they could have
bequeathed to us ?
The methods of practice in colouring are so various, that excepting
those who are mere copyists, there is scarcely a person to be found who
has not in his manner of working something peculiar to himself; the
particulars of which it is so difficult to explain verbally, that the attempt
would be useless, and tend rather to perplex than inform those who are
but little beyond the commencement of their practice, for whose use
this work is intended. Little more than general rules can be laid down,
the rest must depend on readiness of observation, and a continual
endeavour to derive advantage from failure, by investigation of its
cause. This appears to me the only way in which improvement can be
gained beyond the rudiments of the art. Of profsssional men there i9
scarcely an instance of one, who has arrived at any considerable degree
of eminence, but by being taught from unsuccessful experiments more
than was ever communicated to him by the instructions of a master.*
Progress in art is made by degrees almost imperceptible to the
learner, who does not perceive his own advancement but by reference to
his former productions ; as the practical musician discovers his, by the
ability acquired to execute with facility what he was not at a former pe-
riod capable of performing. In every art, the knowledge and practice
of which is to be acquired by an almost infinite number of acts, the
progression can hardly be felt without this comparison. The failure of
those who do not advance, is caused more by attempting to do what
they are not prepared for, than on every other obstruction put toge-
ther. He who without sufficient preparation thinks he will make a
* Haydn when a chorister often regretted that he had no master to instruct him in com-
position) but in his latter days he rejoiced that he had been compelled, by his situation and
circumstances, to study without an instructor, and that by his own exertion and perseverance
he had accomplished his object.
OF COLOURING,
45
drawing as by a receipt from this or any other book, will find himself
greatly disappointed. All the rules and directions that can be given
are helps, as crutches are to a man who can command the use of some
of his limbs, but which are quite useless to him who is paralyzed in
them all.
Very few learners acquire the power of drawing correctly ; consider-
ing the outline as only a preparatory step, which they feel no more
interest or pleasure in preparing than in straining the paper. In their
impatience to get forward and put on colour, which they imagine will
set all right, they leave something undone in every operation, which is
never supplied in the next, and nothing at last is done as it should be,
or so well as it might be, by one who can restrain his impatience so far
as not to attempt what is altogether beyond his present powers. It is
somewhat extraordinary, that very few can conceive the necessity of
regular progression in the art of painting, yet all can readily perceive
it in that of music, and see the absurdity of giving to a beginner as a
first lesson, a difficult sonata of Cramer or a symphony by Haydn. A
royal road to the art is so eagerly desired, that a professor who will en-
gage to impart the whole of its practice in a few lessons, will be sure
to find pupils among those who do not know that he undertakes what
is impossible to perform, and that it is not in the power of any man to
communicate to them what they are not prepared to learn.
Notwithstanding an acquaintance with the productions of art has
been within a few years so widely diffused, still the art itself is so little
known, that many people continue to imagine that it consits in certain
secrets which may he purchased, and in a short time applied to practice.
It is the interest of such as profess to have secrets they would dis-
pose of, that they should continue to think so ; and to those who would
undeceive them the task is not easy, since the few difficulties that are
obvious to them, and of which they usually complain, are those of
mixing and distinguishing the tints ; the least they have to encounter.
Many previous trials and experiments should be made before the
learner can be capable of, or should attempt to put colour on his draw-
ing ; in doing which, as form is required, he must first gain something
44
OF COLOURING.
of the power to produce it. He ought not to make on his picture ex-
periments; the result of which he should have known before ; this is
Seldom attended to sufficiently by a learner. In his eagerness to pro-
ceed to picture making", it is difficult to convince him of the advantage
he would gain by washing a great many scraps of paper, only as trials
to lay the colour equally, or in any required form ; instead of which he
will begin on the picture, where he presently finds that he cannot do
what he would, but only what the colour will, if it may be so expres-
sed, when it runs into what forms chance may direct.
The end cannot be attained without using the means, and these must
be applied with great attention and close observation. The learner will
receive little advantage from that careless kind of practice in which the
mind has not a principal share.
Much of the difference of progress made by learners arises from
readiness of observation in some, and inattention in others, to circum-
stances which though seen, are suffered to pass without notice or
reflection. In a number of pupils one may be found who is eager to
avail himself of every means of information, and who suffers not an
accident to pass without deriving from it something to his advantage.
The rest account for his superiority by saying, " he has a genius for the
art never considering that the means by which this superiority has
been gained may be as much in their power as in his. This ready way
of accounting for the performance of whatever appears to be difficulty
operates powerfully to prevent exertion on the part of the learner, who
not unfrequently is too readily disposed to consider the object as being to
him unattainable.
Although the degrees of mental capacity bestowed on different indi-
viduals vary like those of their stature and bodily strength, wherein
but few greatly exceed a certain standard, yet what may be attained by
the observance of certain rules is within the reach of all. But in every
art not altogether mechanical, there is much to be acquired, which
rules cannot reach, or be applied to. By a strong impulse, whatever
its appellation may be, which nothing can divert from its object, some
are inclined to a particular pursuit in preference to every other ; in
OF COLOURING.
45
which the efforts of the individual being steadily applied, will produce
a proportionate degree of improvement, to those who feel not this impulse,
application is so intolerably irksome that they cannot submit to it in such
a degree, and during such length of time and practice as no man can
arrive at excellence without having been subject to.
Mr. Locke, in speaking of the powers of the mind, observes, " as it is in
the body, so it is in the mind, practice makes it what it is, and most even
of those excellencies which are looked on as natural endowments, will be
found, when examined into more narrowly, to be the product of exefcise,
and to be raised to that pitch by repeated actions.' *
There are certain difficulties in the management of water colours, which
must be surmounted, and methods of practice in manual operation to be
acquired, before the learner can hope to make any progress. He who
without method, will begin to make his efforts at random, and hardly
knowing what he intends to do, must necessarily fail, for although many
parts of a work of art may in some measure be subject to accidents of
which advantage may be taken by a master, \et the whole can never be
produced by chance, or be formed by a combination of such accidents.
The first difficulties experienced by a beginner, are those of spreading
a breadth of any colour with an equal strength of tint ; and of laying it
so as to produce the desired or intended form. I shall offer a few observa-
tions by which those who have not the aid of a master may be assisted in
their endeavour to overcome those difficulties. Until that is done it will
be in vain to proceed, for how can he execute any thing of what is required
in a picture, who cannot govern his materials as he intends, or prevent
his colour from taking such forms as result only from chance }
In the first operation, that of making an equal wash with any colour,
the following precautions are to be used.
1st. The colour must be mixed of an equal tint, and in a sufficient
quantity to cover the given space ; so as not require any alteration dur-
ing the operation.
In these trials, India Ink, or Sepia, may be substituted for colour.
2d. It should be diluted until it be sufficiently fluid to flow freely from
the pencil, and to be distributed readily upon the paper ; in doing which
o
46
OF COLOURINO.
a large pencil is to be preferred, as it will contain more of the colour,
and keep it more equally moist than a smaller one will do.
3. The paper should be held with a moderate degree of inclina-
tion, by placing the drawing board on the lap with the upper part
leaning against the easel, or a table, then beginning at the upper part,
and descending, the colour will run downward a little and settle
equally.
4. In order that it may do so, the pencil ought not to be used with too
much haste, or be carried over the paper faster than the colour will
follow it, the readiness to do which will depend upon the inclination of
the surface.
The learner will soon discover, that to cause this equality it is requisite
that the whole of the space covered should be equally wetted with the
colour as possible. In his first attempts he will probably continue to
drive it until the pencil is exhausted, and by neglecting too long to sup-
ply it, the part where the addition is made will be unequal, in consequence
« of its being more wet than that it was joined to.
The attraction between the parts of the same, or of different colours,
according to their different degrees of moisture, being the principal cause
of that inequality of tint, the learner finds it difficult to avoid, he ought
to observe how it acts, and use the means to prevent its operation. He
may observe that in a breadth of colour, if from delay in spreading it, or
any other cause, one part is beginning to dry while another in contact
with it continues quite wet, the drier part will attract the more fluid
colour, until it is prevented by too great a degree of dryness from con-
ducting it farther ; where it stops a streak will be formed, of unequal
tint and darker than any other part of the space. For this reason the
colour should not be unnecessarily worked about by the pencil, in a
space already covered with it, as it will by that means be continued wet
there when the edges and extreme parts are beginning to dry. This
should be carefully attended to, being that which renders the practice
of painting in water colours in some respects more difficult than painting
in oil, the latter allowing time enough for every operation.
The water with which the colour is mixed and diluted should be of the
OF COLOURING.
47
softest kind ; with hard spring water it will neither unite nor spread well,
nor will the tints blend when it may be desired. The best is distilled
water, but as this is not always to be had, and is so little preferable to
that taken from a clear standing pool or river, it is little used ; the last is
better after being boiled, and may be used while yet warm, in that state
it will unite with the tints and the paper more readily.
When it is required to lay the colour so as to produce certain forms,
these should be well considered, to avoid any alteration if possible during
the operation ; for the reasons before assigned the colour should be spread
as speedily as it may be, and without needless alteration of the form, or
attempt to rectify what is carelessly done by a touch or dash equally
careless and at random. When the form is expressed the sooner it is left
the better, working upon it longer than while the colour continues
sufficiently fluid to spread freely, will cause muddiness and inequality
of tint. Any required alteration may be best made after the part has
been dried with the same tint, extending it carefully into the desired
form: this should be done with little colour in the pencil, and neatly
joined to the part to which it is added ; the least touch of the colour
over what was done before will form a dark place, making the additional
part appear as a patch, which should be carefully avoided.
A gradation of tint, or what is called " softening off," may be made
in extending the colour by touching upon its edge, with the pencil and
water only : by keeping in readiness another large and clean pencil to
apply the water the operation will be facilitated ; this will attract the
colour and cause it to descend and spread upon the part so wetted. In
some cases where forms less determined or made out may be desired, a*
in clouds, the undefined reflections of objects from water, &c, a space
more than sufficient to receive such forms may be first washed over with
water only, while this continues quite wet the required forms may be laid
in, and the colour will spread itself in every direction if the drawing be
placed horizontally ; or it may be made to descend by giving it a little
inclination. If it do not take as much of the form as may be desired, it
should be assisted, and led into it by a few touches of the pencil.
Of the colours used in landscape painting, some are preferred hi
48
OF COLOURING.
consequence of their being applicable to a particular purpose, to the
peculiar practice of the artist, or for their permament quality.
All the necessary tints may be made by the combination of a few sub-
stances; the primitive colours blue, red, and yellow, when applied on a
white ground, being nearly all that are absolutely necessary ; but as ther e
is a considerable variety of each, some are to be preferred for particular
uses.
The endeavour of the colourist should be to produce not fine, but true
tints ; it would greatly tend to promote the advancement of the arts,
if instead of discovering new and fine colours, of which we have already
more than we want, the attention of the colour manufacturer were di-
rected to the means of making those we have as true and permanent as
possible. The recent discoveries in the science of chemistry render
this very practicable, but it is to be regretted that circumstances which
seem to promise so much, have produced so little, and frequently the
reverse of what might have been expected ; these discoveries having
been less applied to the improvement of the substances they have been
employed to produce, than to the means of making them by cheaper or
more expeditious processes, and what is still worse, to the adulteration of
euch of them as are capable of affording to the manufacturer, by that
practice, an increase of profit.
If the artist will take the trouble to do what any one may find time
for, and would reap advantage from, he might by availing himself of
that knowledge which at present is perverted to his injury, have not only
as good, but much better materials than were used at any former period.
He will not be degraded by an employment which was thought worthy
of the attention of Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, and the most eminent of
the Venetian, with nearly all of the Flemish School ; a comparison
between their w orks, and such of the modern productions as have been
done but a few years, will sufficiently demonstrate the importance of the
subject.
I am induced to make these remarks in consequence of having observ-
ed that some artists affect to consider the preparation of their materials
as the mechanical business of the colourman, and beneath their notice.
OF COLOURING.
49
Colours may be divided into three classes, viz. primitive, compound,
and broken.
The primitive colours are those which cannot be made by any mixture
of the others .
There are but three primitive colours in nature, red, blue, and yellow-,
purple, orange, and green being compounds. White in the prismatic
scale is produced by the mixture of all the colours, and black is caused
by the absence of them all.
Any two of the primitive colours will harmonize in their mixture, and
preserve in their union the qualities of the component colours.
Compound colours are those made by the mixture of any two of the
primitives ; thus, red and blue produce purple, red and yellow, orange ;
and blue with yellow, green. %
Broken colours are those resulting from the mixture of a primitive
colour with one or more of the compounds. These are always discord-
ant, that is, the qualities of their constituent colours are destroyed by
the mixture.
Red.
Yellow*
In the preceding diagram, the three primitives, red, blue, and
yellow, being placed at the angles of the triangle, the result of their
mixtures, and harmony or discordance, will appear by inspection. Thus,
between red and yellow, orange is produced ; between red and blue,
purple; and between blue and yellow, the compound is green.
The broken colours will be found by the diagram to result from the
50
OF COLOURING.
mixture- of any one of the primitives, and the Compound on the opposite
side of the triangle, as red and green, blue and orange ; or yellow and
purple.
If to any two of the primitives the opposite compound to either or both
be added, the mixture will be a broken colour.
A mixture of the three primitives will also produce a broken colour,
since it necessarily includes the compounds purple, orange, and green.
The tint will be grey or brown according to the predominance of either
of the constituents. The derivation of this tint from the three primitives
will account for its harmonizing quality,
There being no more than three primitive colours in nature, that num-
ber of substances employed on a white ground, as in the practice of
painting in water colours, would produce all the variety that can be
required ; provided we had materials that would give the true colours
which we have not ; those we are acquainted with partaking of the com-
pound colours ; the reds inclining, some to purple, and others to
orange ; the blues, to purple or green ; and the yellows to orange or
green. This being the case, we are under the necessity of employing
different colouring substances, according to the qualities of the hues
that may be required ; for, as it has been observed, no mixture of tints
whatever, will produce a primitive colour.
That the ancient masters used only four colours, and out of them made
all their tints, according to the account given by Pliny, I should not
have been disposed to doubt, but rather to conclude that their colours
were more perfect than such as we now possess, had he not specified
their names and those of the substances they were prepared from ; it is
therefore clear that they were incapable of being applied in any manner
whatever, so as to produce the effects ascribed to them. The white was
a native earth from the Island of Melos ; the yellow, attic ochre ; the
red, sinopis, a red earth of Lemnos ; and the black, atramentum, which
was a common name for all black colours. That prepared from the
busks of the grape, which afford a blue black, he says was used by Po-
.lygnotus, and Micon ; that of Apelles was burnt Ivory,
To those who are acquainted with the practice of the art, it will appear
OF COLOURING.
51
that Pliny was not correctly informed with regard to the colours used
by the ancient painters, and that there can be little doubt they possessed
substances approaching nearer to blue than the blue black made from
a charred vegetable production. The total destruction of all the works
of Apelles and of his contemporaries, has rendered it impossible to gain
any information concerning them that may be depended upon, but it can
hardly be doubted that they had materials sufficient for the production
of a variety of each of their four colours, as we have for those used in the
modern practice, such being to be found in every country, and we can-
not suppose those very eminent men were wanting in their endeavours to
discover them. It is at least certain that in the oldest works of whicU
there are remains, the blues are as brilliant and perfect as any of the
other tints used at the period when they were performed.
In the same book of Pliny (35th, c. 6 and 7) we have his account
of the colours used by the Roman artists in his time, to the number of
twenty-four ; the greatest part of which are either inferior to, or sueh as
we have at present.
The following are the principal colours used in the practice of painting
in water colours ; on the properties and defects of some of them, a few
remarks may be useful to the learner.
Blues ; — Indigo, Prussian Blue, Ultramarine, Smalt.
Yellows Yellow Ochre, Roman Ochre, Gamboge, Indian Yellow,
Raw Terra di Sienna.
Reds ; — Light Red, Burnt Terra di Sienna, Indian Red, Venetian
Red, Lake.
Brown ;-— Raw Umber, Burnt Umber, Brown Madder, Cologne
Earth, Vandyke Brown.
Of the Blues, Indigo is the best for general purposes. Prussian Blue
may be of use in the sky ^nd distances, but it is not proper for the com-
position of the greys or greens of other parts ; on account of its coldness,
predominating quality, and injurious effect on some of the other colours.
Ultramarine may be used to advantage occasionally, but it does not
work well in water, especially where it may be requisite to repeat a wash
done with it ; the purity of its tint admitting of as little gum, or othjer
OF THE NEUTRAL TINT.
binder in the vehicle, as it is possible to fix it with, it is easily removed
by going over it again. Smalt is used as a substitute for Ultramarine,
but it has the same defect in working, and the additional one of wanting
permanency.
Of the Yellows, I depend on none but the Ochres and Sienna, and
would have the Greens composed of those with Indigo. Gamboge and
Indian Yellow being unnecessary ; if used at all, jt may be sparingly in
a few parts to clear the greens ; the flying of a pad of such colour used
for that purpose is not of any consequence, the effect as to strength of
colour being already gained by the Ochres.
Of Reds, I consider the Indian Red, notwithstanding the objections
that may be made to it, to be the best we have for the composition of the
grey, or as it is called, the neutral tint.
OF THE NEUTRAL TINT.
In the composition of the grey, or neutral tint, various mixtures are
used, such as,
Indigo and Indian Ink ;
Indigo, Lake, and Yellow, or burnt Sienna ;
Indigo, and light Red, or Venetian Red ; and
Indigo and Indian Red ;
or any red that with blue will make a tint inclining to purple. The
second, viz. Indigo, Lake, and Yellow, has been much used, but is
liable to great objection, being less permanent than other mixtures
that maybe used for the same purpose. The great beauty of this tint,
and while it retains its hue, its truth, and agreement with the aerial tint
of nature, have tempted many to prefer it; if works in which it has been
used be kept from the light or in a port-folio, they may remain a consi-
derable time, but if they be exposed to the action of the light, in a very
few years they will lose that truth, and the pearly greys become by the
flying of the lake of a dirty greenish hue.
In the third, the light red inclining to orange rather than to purple,
OF THE NEUTRAL TINT.
gives a greenish hue to the grey, but this mixture is preferred by some,
partly from the consideration of its red being of more equal gravity with
the Indigo, than Indian red, and of course not subsiding like the latter.
This tint may be improved by the addition of a little madder lake.
In the fourth, the Indian red being much heavier than Indigo will not
long remain suspended in it, therefore the tint should be mixed in a
saucer, and in a sufficient quantity, somewhat more red than it will be
wanted ; to allow for the change made by the settling of a part of it : in a
few minutes the colour at the top may be gently poured off for use.
A neutral tint may be made of the charcoal of the twigs or cuttings of
the Vine, this being finely ground and mixed with gum water will make
a bluish black, better for the purpose than Indian Ink, and such as may
be depended upon for its permanency, charcoal being one of the most
unchangeable substances known. The counterfeit Indian Ink made of
Lamp-black, or charred substances, is preferable on this account to that
which is genuine, and said to be made principally of Sepia, which being
an animal substance, cannot be so permanent as the other.
The charcoal may be prepared by filling a crucible with the cuttings,
covering it with a plate of iron, or something that will resist the fire when
placed thereon ; unless the air be excluded they will burn to ashes.
All the colours used in the broad washes are better when mixed in
saucers in a considerable quantity and as much diluted as may be requi-
site, they will thus continue in the same state better than on a palette,
where they become unequal in consequence of drying upon it soon.
Of paper, the best for general purposes is that which is regularly
granulated on the surface ; the degree of roughness may depend on the
nature of the subject to be painted, and the intended manner of treating
it; if the paper be of a clear and light cream colour, it will be better
than the whitest, the bleaching of the latter being effected by such
means as are injurious to some of the substances used in painting, neither
is white paper wanted, since all the opposition that is requisite in a
well coloured picture can be obtained with better effect without it.
54
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
I shall in the next place endeavour to describe a few processes in
colouring, and begin with the easiest, which consists in making out
with greys the effect of light and shadow, and in adding the colours
upon it.
The paper being prepared by damping it on both sides, while it is wet
fasten it by the edges on a board or frame of a proper size, with glue or
strong paste ; or it may be confined on a pannelled drawing board, or
folding frame, such as are to be had at the colour shops for that purpose.
Care should be taken not to draw it too tight when wet ; being then of
larger dimensions than when dry ; if an allowance be not made for the
contraction, it will break in drying, especially if it be dried too quickly,
by placing it near the fire.
When quite dry it will be ready for the outline, in which there will
be no occasion to mark the detail so much as it has been recommended
to do in the sketch from nature ; the lights should be decidedly formed,
and the rest of the subject correctly drawn, but with no greater strength
than will be sufficient to determine the forms, it being desirable that the
outlines should not appear in the finished drawing.
Having mixed the Indigo and Indian red in separate saucers, in a
sufficient quantity, pour a little of each into a third to make the grey,
adding of one or the other until it is of the tint required : this as well as
the Indigo should be sufficiently diluted so as not to need alteration
during an operation. It is of importance that the colour should be pre-
vented from drying as long as possible in order to gain time to spread it,
which may be done by wetting the whole of the surface of the paper
before any colour is put on it ; then absorbing the superfluous water by
means of tissue or blotting paper, until the shining on the surface
disappears, the colour will not then spread beyond where it is carried by
the pencil, and the moisture remaining in the paper will prevent it from
drying quickly. Or the paper may be wetted on the back, if it be upon
an open frame, the inside dimensions of which are as large as the drawings
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING. 55
but care should be taken to leave no part of it dry, as in that case the
correspondent part in front will receive the colour so as to dry darker
than in ihe surrounding parts ; the colours being applied on wet paper,
will become lighter in drying, than when used on it dry, an allowance
for which should be made, or the proper degree of strength may be
obtained by repetition. When a colour appears while wet, to have not
more than the proper degree of strength, it may of course be concluded
that it will when dry, be deficient in that respect ; the knowledge requi-
site to enable the learner to allow sufficiently for the change, can be
gained only by practice and observation.
With the Indigo lay in the clear blue of the sky ; forming with it the
light edges of the clouds ; leaving breadth enough for the intended light
upon them. If the learner have not acquired such facility as will enable
him to form the lightest shadows of the clouds, &c. while the Indigo
continues quite wet, he would do better to let it remain until it is so far
dryed that the shining has disappeared, the grey may then be put on the
places of those shadows without running into or disturbing the Indigo;
the moisture in the paper will still remain sufficiently to give time to
spread the colour in the required forms, if not, it will be better to wet the
paper on the back. Every part of the clouds except the highest lights
must be washed over with the grey very thin, that is, much diluted, but
in a sufficient quantity to flow freely and spread into the intended form ;
carrying it over every part of the picture except the' places where the
brightest lights are to be, these must be left white to receive with clear-
ness the tints to be put on them in finishing. When the shining again
disappears, the grey is to be repeated on the second degree of shadow
on the clouds, continuing it over every part of the drawing, that may
not have received enough by the first wash, except the fore-ground,
which should be of a very warm reddish tint. This must be repealed,
always leaving those parts only which have enough, until the whole is
brought to sufficient strength and effect of light and shadow. If the
gradation in the different washes be not too sudden there will seldom be
any need to soften or blend them into each other, on the contrary, it is
better generally to leave them flat and equal in strength with the edges a
56
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
little defined, but by no means darker than the breadth, as they will be
if the colour be kept wet by working too long upon the part; blending
and softening the shadows will produce wooliness. In the latter washes
requisite to give depth to the shadows, the grey may be strengthened,
so as to avoid more repetition than is needful, and should be more red as
it approaches to the foreground. If the grey be too strong, or the forms
hard and edgy, they may be improved, previous to the tinting, by wash-
ing over the whole with a flat brush and water, which will remove a part
of the grey and takeoff the sharpness of the edges. If the brush be
insufficient for that purpose, a soft sponge may be used, but it will first
be requisite to wet the whole with the flat pencil before the sponge is
applied ; without this precaution the colour will be taken off in streaks,
and it will soil those parts that should be kept light in passing over them,
which cannot be avoided but by wetting the whole well as directed ; the
colour that may then wash from the dark, and pass over the light parts
will not fix upon them, but may easily be removed by a large clean
pencil.
This is an expedient, the learner will be very ready to avail himself of,
and depend upon to rectify any effect of carelessness or mismanagement,
but it will be very apt to disappoint him, as he will be little the better
for washing in and washing out, unless he can comprehend the effect he
intends to produce, which is not to be expected from chance, but must
be produced upon some principle. He must be considerably advanced
in the art before he can be capable of turning accidental circum-
stances to advantage.
When the desired effect of light and shadow is obtained, the tinting
must follow in thin washes of warm colour, as light red, or burnt
terra di sienna, these may go over nearly the whole of the drawing,
except the parts where the clearest light greens may be wanted, the
local colour may then be put in of various tints of green, &c. ; these
may be thinly spread over both light and shadow of the objects to which
they belong, and be repeated upon the lights, which in all cases must
have more of the local colour than the shadow; if the shadows want
warmth on and near the foreground it may be given with terra di sienna,
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
57
or maddtr brown. The greens of the distance should be of yellow ochre
and Indigo, being more aerial than that of Roman ochre, the latter may
be used en the nearer parts of the middle ground ; and in the fore-ground
in some }arts, terra di sienna with Tndigo may be required, if more be
necessan it will probably be strength of fore-ground, this may be given
by strong touches, (not washes) of vandyke brown, or Cologne earth.
The examples on the annexed plate, shew the progress of washing with
the grey, the places of the shadows, and of the secondary lights ; the
first being a general wash over every part except those of the brightest
lights.
In the second, third, and fourth, the additional washes are put on
and gradually strengthened as before directed.
The fourth is the subject finished by tinting upon it with the local
colours.
By whatever process the drawing is to be executed, the whole of the
subject should be carried forward together, that is, no part should be
finished before the rest are advanced to a certain degree. The neglect
of this general method will cause the learner to be deceived with regard
to the due strength of the several parts, especially those of the sky and
distance, which will probably be left too faint if they are finished before
the midd.e and fore-grounds are put in with a considerable degree of
strength.
It will be less difficult to preserve clearness of colouring, if instead of
the ochres, terra di sienna with a little gamboge be substituted for them ;
this tint may be varied, by making the Indigo or either of the yellows
predominate, so as to give the autumnal variety of greens in the foliage.
The burnt sienna, gamboge, and Indigo, will give those on the fore-
ground ; in this, as in the following processes, the breadth of colour are
better if made by different tints nearly of the same tone, than with a
continuity of the same colour, which not only tends to produce monotony
of tint, but the colours in that way have not the richness that a small
variation of the tones will give.
The colours are classed as warm, or cold, the former being the reds,
yellow, and browns, the cold are blue, grey, and green ; but the two
R
58
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING
latter are made less cold by adding a greater proportion of red to the grey,
and of yellow to the green.
The warm tints should be employed principally in the lights, and
ought to predominate in the picture, the cold colours may be distributed
in the intermediate parts between light and shadow, but not much in the
shadow, particularly in its deepest parts, which should be of the warm
purplish browns, with no more green than is sufficient to make them
harmonize with the rest of the picture.
In every method of colouring, if the greatest brilliancy be required in
some parts of the subject, those parts of the paper intended to receive it
should be left without any wash of grey, previous to the colour.
The foregoing process being attended with little difficulty, may be
proper for the practice of a beginner ; the principal objection to it is,
that the light and shadow being fully produced with grey, or nearly so,
before the colouring, it may have too much the appearance of a coloured
print, being nearly on the same principle.
SECOND PROCESS.
The next method I shall describe is more difficult, being less depen-
dant except in the remote distances, upon the grey.
The Indigo and neutral tint being prepared, and property diluted as
before, the sky and distances are to be washed in the same manner,
through the first and second degrees of the grey. In the following
operations the places of the shadows are not to be carried to their depth
with it, as they will require to be made much warmer in the middle and
fore-grounds, the use of the neutral tint on those parts being chiefly for
the purpose of subduing the white paper, and by that means preventing
loo great a degree of brightness in the shadows ; the parts are also to be
less made out in the grey than before either in form or in strength ; when
this is done the warm colours may be put on ; not as before in general
washes, "but with all the variety their distribution especially in the lights
will give; for the production of harmony, which depends on the agree-
ment of various tints, and not at all on monotonous unity, the shadows
should be warmed with a little Indian red, in the parts at some distance.
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING. 59
and in the places of those nearer with burnt terra di seinna, or brown
madder, and to be filled with all therieh tints that can be brought together,
not thinly washed over all, but by laying- them so as to appear between
the parts of each other, and powerfully as they can be well laid on ; being
varied so as to produce somewhat of harmony in the whole ; no rule can
be given for their distribution, except that the warm tints should predo-
minate, the rest must depend upon the eye.
Particular directions with regard to this part of the art would be too
diffuse, without answering the intended purpose, as no certain arrange-
ment of tints can be applied to the same object when it is placed under
different circumstances with respect to the light, or its relative situation
and combination with other objects with which it may be required to
harmonize. In this the Flemish painters are the best guides, their works
being admirably coloured, and very many of them in the highest preser-
vation. Of the Italian masters, few were eminent in landscape, and the
greatest part of their works being done by methods less calculated than
those of the former to ensure their permanency, are in such a state from
dirt, varnish, and what is still worse, the offscourings and retouchings
of the picture cleaner, that it is difficult for any one except an artist to
see into them, and to discover what they have been, 01: to derive any
considerable advantage in colouring from them.
Proceeding to the finishing, first of the distance, if any thing there
want more of strength, distinctness of form, or colour. In the nearer
parts give the required forms and strength by touching upon them with
the grey and a little yellow ochre in such proportions as to produce a
neutral tint inclining to green, which it will not do if the grey be loo
red; in that case it must be rectified by adding more Indigo; 011 the other
hand it must not be too purely green by having too much of the Indigo.
A little practice will enable the learner to discover when it is right. &
The whole of the forms are to be treated in this manner up to the
fore-ground, observing as they approach nearer to use a richer yellow
with the grey, and to apply the touches with a stronger body of
colour, the order of which will be thus. The grey and jeiJow ochre
for making out all the distant parts of the middle ground, the grej
60
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
and Roman ochre for the nearer parts, and grey with raw terra di sienna as
they approach to the foreground ; the foreground may be worked up to
the effect, with a variety of mixtures, such as umber with a little Indigo;
burnt sienna and Indigo; umber, Indigo and brown madder ; vandyke
brown, and Cologne earth according to the tone of colouring and strength
required. Those mixtures which produce brown are preferable, except
in the last touches to the positive hues of vandyke brown, or Cologne
earth; such as that of burnt umber, terra cli sienna, indigo and brown
madder; those made by the madder harmonize better with the local co-
lours than the former, both of which incline to be crude and inhar-
monious, especially if not laid on a ground sufficiently deep to prevent
it, but the Cologne earth may be used to advantage by working with it
upon the other browns when great depth is required.
The raw terra di sienna is particularly useful in mixture with the greys,
to give depth to the middle and some parts of the foreground. This
colour is considered by many as being too untractable to be used without
the addition of a little gall, which is sometimes put into it by the colour-
man ; in this state it is good for nothing except in washes : the fatness
complained of I consider as peculiarly advantageous in producing a
richness and depth of effect, and for admitting of a firmness of pencil-
ing not to be obtained by mere washing colour.
THIRD PROCESS.
The principal difference between this and the foregoing, consists in
washing over the whole drawing with water only, upon the sky and dead
colouring of the rest of the picture.
The clear part of the sky with the forms and shadows of the clouds
being put in, let every other part be laid in with grey as before, making
it more warm by the audition of red or madder brown, as it approaches to,
and upon the foreground ; then add the local colours upon the lights,
with a little on the middle tints and shadows. These as well as the greys
may be made somewhat stronger than in the first and second processes,
because a considerable part of each will be displaced or come off in the
washing.
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
61
When the whole is quite dry, take a large flat brush of the breadth
of two or three inches, and wet the entire surface of the drawing ; by
continuing to wash over it with the same brush, a part of the colour
will be removed, or may be suffered to remain on the shadows which
were left in the dead colour, with but little of the local tints on that
account. The brush will remove the colour sufficiently in the sky and
distances; if more be required in the nearer parts and foreground, the
sponge may be used, always taking care to keep the whole quite wet, or
it will wash in streaks, and the colour so removed will soil the lights
and sucli parts as are suffered to become dry. The washing in this
manner will improve the aerial tints, and leave a beautiful granulation
upon the surface of the paper. On this preparation, the tints and mix-
tures for the touches may be the same as in the second process ; they
should be done with a full body of colour, and free touch of the pencil,
otherwise they will bewooly, and wanting in clearness, inconsequence
of the blending of the dead colours in the general wash. If the effect
be not satisfactory, the whole, or any part, may be again washed up
to produce a variety of ground or increased granulation and roughness
of the surface, on which the finishing may be conducted as before, and
repeated as often as may be necessary.
When considerable depth has been gained by repeated layers of
colour, the ground will frequently be covered uniformly, or lost, it is
therefore recommended to the learner to produce the parts of their
respective depths as nearly as possible without repetition. By prepa-
ring the finishing tints of sufficient thickness, any part may be carried
down, or nearly so, at once; with this advantage, the colour while wet
will readily take such varied forms of touch as the character of the
object may require ; and by an unequal degree of pressure with the
pencil, the ground or dead colour will appear between the more opaque
parts of the finishing colours, without this partial appearance of the
ground, the whole will be apt to be deficient in clearness and transpa-
rency.
s
62
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
FOURTH PROCESS.
Another method may be pursued, by beginning with the local
colours, and the neutral tint of different degrees of warmth according
to the situations and distances of the objects, tinting the lights and
working down the shadows, from the colour of the paper, without pre-
paration ; this will give great clearness and brilliancy, but without
considerable practice, the work will frequently be deficient in harmony,
breadth, and above all in repose.
As clearness and transparency cannot be obtained by glazing with
water colours, in the same manner as in oil, in which the constituent
colours of the ground and glazing preserve themselves distinctly, while
in the former the transmission is imperfect, and their effect is more
like that of mixture ; it must therefore be sought for in other means by
which the parts of each tint may appear, not through, but between
those of the other. To facilitate this, the rough-grained paper is to be
preferred, upon which the colour when driven thin will remain lighter
upon the prominent parts than between them, if it be used thicker and
with less in the pencil, it will drag upon the prominences, touching
these only, and leaving the intermediate parts lighter : either of these
methods will preserve clearness in ttie same manner as it may be kept
in a pencil, or chalk drawing ; these materials when worked upon the
grain of the paper, without filling equally its cavities, will be always
clear, however dark the parts may be; but if the whole be covered by
rubbing with the finger or a stump (which is made of leather or paper
rolled up hard, and cut to a point for that purpose) it immediately be-
comes muddy.
The clearness of colouring may therefore be injured or destroyed, by
blending the tints and incorporating them too much by the motion of
the pencil; this may also be caused by concealing the ground or dead
colouring by repeated layers of colour. To preserve clearness, the
colours ought to be in such a state, that in working it a strong touch
or pressure of the pencil will so drive it, as to shew some part of the
ground through or between the parts of the finishing colours.
When the colouring has become muddy, the defect may be remedied
QF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
63
(if not already too deep) by working over it with darker shadow-tints,
and with a light kind of hatching touch, so as to leave some part of
what was already done as an intermediate tint ; and as the defect is
usually accompanied with indecision of the forms, these may be de-
termined at the same time, by playing as it were with the point of the
pencil, and with a light touch, until the requisite degree of sharpness
is obtained. If the part be already too deep to admit of these addi-
tional touches, a part of the colour may be removed (as before directed)
and the ground laid open, then treated as above with such varied tints
as the local colours of the objects may require.
Many other methods might be enumerated, but I shall confine my-
self to the following, which was communicated by me to the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c, and published in their Transactions,
in the year 1799.
The intention of this process is to secure the lights, both in their
sharpest touches and breadths, by covering them, as soon as they have
received their proper depth of local colour, with a composition which
defends them from injury or alteration, in passing over them with other
tints, or the colours of the shadow. The composition may then be
removed, and the lights will re-appear in their different forms and gra-
dations, as secured by it, and of the different tints put on before its
application.
The composition is made by dissolving a small quantity of whitened
bees'-wax in oil of turpentine, to which may be added as much flake-
white as will give it sufficient body to appear opaque when the touches
made with it on the paper are held between the eye and the light.
The quantity of wax may be found by trial, and need not be more
than will fix the flake-white so as to prevent its removal by washing
over it with the colours.
The sky and distances being done as in the first and second processes,
the warm tints of the brightest lights should be put in their places, and
may be thinly spread over nearly the whole of the drawing ; those will
be chiefly of light yellow ochre and light red, or burnt terra di sienna,
according to the different local tints. While these are drying, take a
64
OF THE PROCESSES IN COLOURING.
small piece of flake white, about half the size of a hazle nut, and with
a pallet knife grind it in a little of the turpentine and wax, putting it
into a small saucer where it will not spread with a large surface, as that
will cause the oil of turpentine to evaporate more quickly; when dilu-
ted to that degree that it will work freely with the pencil, and the
touches made with it when the paper is between the eye and the light
appear distinct and rather opaque, take a fine pointed sable pencil, and
with the composition touch sharply all the places where the highest
lights are intended to be; if the paper be upon an open frame, by
placing it as directed the touches will be more visible than in any other
situation; when the quantity of colour is afterwards increased, it will
not be necessary: they will be seen distinctly enough in any position.
When the composition is dry enough by the evaporation of the oil
of turpentine, which will be in a few minutes, wash over the whole
with the colours of the next degree of light.
Then apply the composition to the second order of touches in the
brightest lights, extending them towards the shadow, at the same time
put on the first sharp touches of the secondary lights, if the colour
already done be deep enough for their highest parts.
After this the local colours may be increased, and the shadows
lightly put in their places ; applying alternately the colours and the
composition, extending the latter by broader touches, tfo collect those
of the first and second into masses for the formation of breadth of
light, and to extend them farther towards the shadow.*
Lastly, the middle colours must be put in, and the shadows
strengthened nearly to the intended depth.
When the whole of the water colours are dry, with a hog's-hair brush
and oil of turpentine wash away the composition jj as it dissolves wipe
it off with a rag, and continue to do so with more clean turpentine
and a fresh rag until no more white appeal's ; this will not affect the
colours, because those used with gum water are not soluble in oil of
turpentine.
* If the composition should become thick by evaporation, it may be diluted by adding a
few drops of the oil of turpentine only, as there will be already enough ef the wax, which
cannot fly off.
OF THE FORMATION OF LIGHTS, &c.
65
If it be desirable to remove the oil of turpentine remaining in the
paper, it may be clone by washing* it with highly rectified spirit of wine,
both on the front and back.
When the drawing is dry, as it will soon be, it may be tinted down
and harmonized where that is wanted, and the shadows may be
strengthened in their deepest parts if depth be required.
The advantages of this method are, the lights may be expressed with
all the freedom and sharpness of touch possible, and of various tints
according to the colours laid on before and between the different appli-
cations of the composition ; they are also more brilliant, and without
the chalky effect caused in removing the colours by wetting and rub-
bing them up, but the latter in the representation of some objects, such
as rocks, &c, has peculiar advantages.
OF THE FORMATION OF LIGHTS, &c.
BY REMOVAL OF THE COLOUR.
The effects produced by removing the colour by a sponge or other
means, may be made greatly superior to those by the pencil alone ;
this method may be applied in every state of the picture until the last.
By putting in the breadths of grey and local colour with force and
variety, with more depth than is intended to remain, on sponging over
the whole, the aerial tints will be improved, and a granulation of the
surface will be caused, which will dispose it to receive more colour to
great advantage. By repeating the operations, a mixture of tints will
be obtained, such as cannot be analyzed, richer, and more harmonious
than can be made by other means; the oftener this is repeated the
greater variety of accidental forms and tints will be produced. After
the use of the sponge, by wetting the subject partially, then rubbing
it strongly with a cloth or the India rubber, this will tear up the sur-
face in the foreground, &c. in a great variety of accidental forms, of
which advantage may be taken to work them up by the pencil to a
better effect than could be otherwise produced, or perhaps was intended.
OF THE FORMATION OF LIGHTS, Sec.
In this way the characters of rock, trunks of trees, &c.' may bCetf-
pressed more faithfully than in any other. Smaller touches of light,
such as those in foliage, weeds, branches of trees, &c. may be made
by wetting- the part carefully by a fine pencil with water, and removing
the colour by the cloth or India rubber. If great sharpness of form be
desired in the touches, after being wetted, a piece of tissue or blotting-
paper may be extended across the place so as to absorb the superfluous
moisture, and prevent its spreading on being rubbed.; the colour will
then come oft* with great sharpness of form by using the rubber. After
the lights have been produced in this manner, they will require to be
tinted, in doing which, care should be taken not to use the colour so
strong as to conceal or injure the forms gained by rubbing; lastly, a
few touches of the pencil will be found wanting to give strength and
sharpness to some of the parts, especially those of the foreground.
If after this the effect be not satisfactory, the rubbing into other
forms and tinting may be repeated as often as may be requisite or as
the paper can bear, which will be much more than the learner can be
aware of.
On some occasions it may be requisite to remove the colour for the
restoration of light, without affecting the surface of the paper by
friction ; especially in the sky and extreme distances ; when that is
desired, the part may be wetted in the required form, and when the
colour is sufficiently moistened, some crumbs of stale bread being-
thrown upon it and rubbed by the hand, they will in their rolling
motion, take up the colour without injury to the surface of the paper.
The operation may be repeated until the desired quantity of light is pro-
duced.
If the part be made too wet, the bread by imbibing the moisture
may smear the colour ; on some occasions it will be better to wet the
part thoroughly, and to absorb the superfluous moisture a little by blot-
ting or tissue paper; then without loss of time, and while the part still
remains moist, apply the bread as before directed.
( $7 )
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE METHODS OF PRACTICE
IN PAINTING.
The art of painting being addressed through the eye to the mind, its
productions derive their value according to the degree in which they
possess those requisites that depend on intellectual energy : hence
painting has ever been ranked as a liberal art, not as a mechanical
employment, or such as may be exercised with little of mental exer-
tion. In the early part of his practice, the learner is advised to
accustom himself to copy, with scrupulous exactness, what he under-
takes to delineate $ when he has attained the power of expressing form
with correctness and precision, he should select what is best in nature
and most capable of expressing the idea he intends to convey. As in
the relation of facts, a dry detail of their particulars is insufficient to
create that interest which they may receive, without any diminution of
the truth, from the embellishments that may be given to them by the
narrator ; so the student is not to conclude that the processes given in
this work, or any other that can be communicated verbally, will ena-
ble him to perform any work of excellence, but by the exercise of the
mind, in applying the means according to the circumstances and nature
of his subject. Neither ought he *to consider any of those masters
whose works have been recommended as subjects for nis study, as
models for his imitation in every part of their practice, the best being
defective in some part of it ; it is nature he must follow, and the art of
seeing it he must learn from them ; a power not so easily or generally
acquired as may be imagined, as will appear from the various manners
•adopted by different artists when treating the same subject.
In the production of a work of art, some kind of method is requi-
site, the application of which must depend on the mind ; without this
intellectual co-operation, the result will be nothing more than that of a
mechanical operation, of little value, although it may exhibit marks of
the greatest facility in execution and the manual dexterity gained by
practice.
6S
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE
Various have been the devices offered for the adoption of students in
the art, the utility of which have sometimes depended less on the
methods devised than on the capacities of those who applied them ;
what the mind does not conceive the hand will be unable to execute.
Some years ago, the public were taught to admire a method of manu-
facturing pictures .from the ideas suggested by a blotted paper, and a
kind of practice that demands the most comprehensive knowledge of
the principles of art, was proposed as a most advantageous manner of
designing, to those who had scarcely any acquaintance with its princi-
ples at all. This expedient may furnish valuable hints to the real artist,
who can avail himself of its use, but will be of little service, or rather
injurious to others : as the taste may be improved by the contemplation
of what is beautiful, so it may be vitiated and reconciled to deformity
by dwelling upon what is of an opposite character. The practice of
collecting and combining such materials as fall almost by chance, is
calculated to habituate the performer to the indulgence of every kind
of licentiousness, so far as relates to forms ; and in their combinations
there is scarcely to be found, even in the works of the Chinese, any
thing more unnatural and preposterous than appears in some that I
have seen, and those I am in possession of, done upon this plan.
Such are not the productions of those great men whose works are held
up as examples to be followed : being free from extravagance, as re-
mote from the common appearance of nature, they have obtained their
high reputation by their accordance with the immutable principles of
reason and general truth.
In the exercise of the imagination there is boundless scope, and we
are readily inclined to be satisfied with that which accords with our own
conceptions, rather than to scrutinize with due accuracy and attention,
such works as are submitted to our examination ; many things being
admired, and considered as the emanations of genius, which bear no
mark of a sound uuderstanding, and have nothing extraordinary in
them but some kind of extravagance, which by its novelty is calcu-
lated to strike those who can approve before they reflect.
Whatever excites notice only by its singularity or extravagance,
METHODS OF PRACTICE IN PAINTING. 69
however it may take the spectator by surprise, will gain little approba-
tion when that has ceased ; many of those dashing performances so
much admired for their spirit, the prototype of which cannot possibly
be found in nature, may be considered as proceeding- less from genius
than from a disordered or perverted imagination. These things are
brought forth as specimens of a kind of epic painting, or of something
imaginary, and beyond what appears in nature ; this, however allow-
able in poetry, cannot be admitted with equal license in painting ; as
no man can possibly have any conception of form that is beyond
nature, or embody an idea of that which has never been seen, but by
clothing it in a form, the parts of which exist m nature.
'* What can we reason but from what we know ?
Thus celestial beings are represented under such forms as are- made
by the selection and combination of the most perfect parts observed in
different bodies, but are never found united in an individual ; this per-
fect form has never been seen, yet all its parts being in nature, their
union in the individual is possible, and therefore appropriate, being the
utmost we can conceive, with regard to the beauty of form.
We are unable to convey the idea of monstrous deformity without
borrowing our materials from the brute creation; and we depict an
infernal being by representing him with the tail, horns, or claws of a.
beast, and the leathern wings of the bat.
The most dreadfully grand portrait that has been drawn, is that of
the King of Terrors, by Milton, in his " Paradise Lost ; " the parts of
this imaginary form are suggested by those in nature, but the unde*
termined making out, and the effect of obscurity, are wonderfully
great.
" the other shape,
u . If shape it might be call'd, that shape had none
" Distinguishable in member, joint, or limb ;
" Or substance might be call'd, that shadow seemed,
For each seemed either j— black it stood as night,
'* Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell,
" And shook a dreadful dart ; what seemed his head,
" The likeness of a kingly crown had on."
U
( 70 )
OF COMPOSITION.
I am led to offer a few observations on composition, or the art of
< combining several parts that are in nature so as to produce the best
effect of the whole, and convey, in the most perfect manner, the ideas
of the artist.
There being scarcely any real scene, in the representation of which
some degree of composition is not requisite, or that can be advan-
tageously given altogether without it, the liberty of removing subor-
dinate parts, and of supplying their places by others, comes under the
head of composition, and is in some degree on almost every occasion
indispensable ; the artist seldom can find a subject, the task of repre-
senting the whole of which, exactly as it appears on the spot, he can
willingly submit to.
The term composition is usually applied to such works as are not
intended to represent any real view ; in the management of this, the
artist being perfectly at liberty to arrange his materials according to his
discretion, he has much more room, and greater opportunity to dis-
play his talent, than in cases where he is confined by local considera-
tions. Truth being one of the first requisites, without which no work
can be valuable or interesting, that which is probable, or at least
possible, should never be lost sight of, as it may happen to be, in the
practice of the artist who composes his subject from the ideas formed
in his imagination alone, without reference to, or the application of
such studies as have been made from various objects and parts of the
scenery in nature. The objects introduced must be such as will accord
with the nature of the scene, the prevailing character of which should
be sustained throughout the whole: proofs of carelessness in this res-
pect, or of incompetency to the task, may be observed in the patched
compositions that are sometimes made of the parts gleaned from other
pictures, to execute which with success, will demand qualifications
.-scarcely inferior to those required to produce an original design.
The disposition of the parts of the picture ought to be such as
OF COMPOSITION,
71
will admit of union for the production of breadth, or of contrast by
their opposition ; the artifice of this, however studied, should rather
be concealed than suffered to obtrude itself on the spectator with the
affectation of art, to which the greatest and most inartificial simplicity
is preferable.
As nature and the possible or probable truth are to be consulted
before all other considerations, the objects introduced in the scene must,
be such as are to be found in the like situation in nature ; trees of par-
ticular kinds, rocks, plants, &c. being peculiar to some situations, and
never to be met with in others of a different character or climate.
Every part of a well conducted composition should be made to contri-
bute to the general character of the subject ; the most sublime scene
will lose much of its grandeur when coloured in a light and gay style,
or when the touch and handling are minute and trifling: to subjects of
this description, neatness of finishing, and great attention in making out
the subordinate parts, are ruinous ; of every species of composition,
this will the least admit of such treatment. Whatever the general
style of the artist may be, he should accommodate it to the subject ;
when this consistency is overlooked or neglected for the microscopic
detail, by which the attention of the spectator is diverted from the
work to the workman, it may be concluded that he did not compre-
hend or feel his subject as he ought to have done.
Irt grouping the objects of which it is to be composed, great art
may be exercised ; but it ought to be so conducted, that its contrivance
may be concealed as much as possible. Of those forms which are con-
sidered picturesque, such as that of the pyramid, &c.,the objects compo-
sing them should appear to associate naturally, and come together as it
were by the nature of the scene, or by accident, that the artifice of
bringing them together for the production of a certain form of the
group may not be perceived, or so obvious as to call the attention of
the spectator more to the means than to the effect.
Geometrical forms thus catch the eye, and offend by their regularity ,;
for the same reason parallel and similar forms are unpleasing, and may
be avoided by artificial contrast ; but this should be used with discre-
pF COMPOSITION.
tion, or the remedy will be worse than the evil ; few things being more
offensive to the eye of taste than affected contrast.
The student will do well by departing occasionally from that kind
of practice which may be deemed common-place : such as the intro-
duction of a great tree at one side of the picture, with another subor-
dinate to it at the opposite side ; when the distance does not require
such opposition, and when it may be produced by an object of con-
siderable magnitude and force on or near the foreground, this kind of
termination may be well dispensed with, and the distance may be
interrupted, before it meets the boundary r of the picture, by an object
rising from the fore or middle ground, and elevated not much above
the horizon.
In local scenery the artist is not always at liberty to reject those
parts that are useless, but in composition none should be admitted
except such as contribute to the effect of the whole, which will be
better obtained by an arrangement of few and large features, than by
crowding into it too many good things.
Manner, in painting, is that peculiarity by which the works of an
artist are known and distinguished from those of other artists. This
may be seen in the composition, as well as in the colouring or handling
in a picture, and, being a defect, should be avoided as much as possible:
to escape the contraction of it entirely is next to impossible, the com-
munication of our ideas by manual operation inducing a degree of
regularity, and a habit similar to that acquired in writing, by which
the hand of one person is distinguished from that of others.
If due attention be given by the learner to such works of the old
masters as have been enumerated, their style in composition as well as
in other parts of the art will be observed, and great advantage may be
derived therefrom • nearly all of their works are composition, in the
arrangement of which they differ as much as in every other quality.
As every person will be inclined to prefer one or the other of these,
the utmost he can do is to avail himself of what he finds best, and
convert it to his own use. A composite style formed upon the works
of various artists is hardly practicable; scarcely any part of a picture
OF COMPOSITION; £3
of Claude will associate with another of Poussin or Salvator Rosa,
and appear to be the offspring of the same mind.
A manner may be contracted in the effort to avoid it ; when an artist
avails himself of the works of others, he selects from each, or any of
them, what he deems proper for his purpose ; bat in the use thereof, he
applies it so as to escape the imputation of being a copyist or imitator,
and imperceptibly falls into a manner of his own, by which his per-
formances are as readily known as those of any other. This may be
discovered by some peculiarity in composition, and his choice or pre-
ference of certain forms of trees, clouds, rocks, figures, or the hand-
ling of his materials, touch of the pencil, and general practice in
colouring. By one or all of these, the works of every artist are known :
with regard to those of the old painters, by many of their admirers
manner is not considered as a defect ; they look for the peculiarity of
the master, and their admiration of his works is bestowed according to
the degree in which it is discovered.
In nature there is none of this peculiarity, and the means by which
the contraction of it may be avoided as much as possible, are a conti-
nual reference to her works, and by endeavouring to express the
character and parts of objects by various methods of execution in
handling and colouring. The artist cannot divest himself entirely of
the habits he has formed with regard to this part of his art, but he may
do it in some degree, so as to render them less conspicuous.
OF MOUNTING AND VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN
WATER COLOURS.
To prepare the mount, provide a strong and smooth board of suffi-
cient dimensions, then take three sheets of drawing paper, a little
larger than the intended mount, and wet them by a sponge on both
sides; if they are rolled up in that state, and remain so a few
minutes, the moisture will be imbibed more equally. Then take
one of the sheets, lay it on the board flat, turn up the edge of each
x
OF COUNTING AND
'Hide- about the breadth of an inch, paste over this part and lay it down
again, pressing- it closely to the board.
The next sheet should be less than the first by about half an inch on
each side, and being laid in its place upon the first (which is fast to the
board only by its edges), turn up one half of it, cover it with paste
equally spread, and lay it down again gradually, so as to drive the air
before it without leaving bubbles, which it would be difficult to get rid
of without raising the sheet again ; the other half of the sheet is then
to be raised, pasted over, and laid down in the like mannr. The paper
is to be pasted by halves after being laid in its place, with its edges at
an equal distance from those of the first sheet, because it would be
difficult to lay it so if pasted all over at once, or to shift it when not in
the right place. The third sheet may be made a little less than the
second; and being laid in its place, should be turned up and pasted like
the other. The reason why the upper papers are directed to be less
than the first is, that the first being but of one thickness, may become
dry and firmly fixed to the board before the contraction of the whole
can take place, otherwise they will fly off or break at the edges.
It will be hest not to draw the papers too tight, but rather to allow
as much liberty as may be convenient, as the mount will contract
strongly in drying ; if the sheets are stretched to their full extent, the
monnt may break, or the board may warp in drying, which it should
do slowly, and not by exposure to the sun or the fire.
When dry, the drawing being cut to its size, must be placed with its
face downward on a sheet of clear paper, on which being held firmly
by one hand, the back is to be covered with the paste, carefully avoid-
ing any movement of the drawing, lest the face of it should be smeared
with paste ; this should be spread equally, and as the drawing should
not be laid on the mount until the paste has softened it a little, it may
be worked across in different directions to spread it and keep it equally
moist: in two or three minutes, according to the strength and thick-
ness of the paper it is done upon, it may be laid with the pasted side
do the mount, a clean sheet of paper must be laid over it, which will
VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS,
75
prevent the drawing from being injured by the rubbing necessary to
fix it. If on taking up the paper from the face of the drawng any air
bubbles appear, the end nearest to them must be raised up to allow
them to escape, as they will not easily be got out by any other means.
If a couple of straight pieces of wood be provided somewhat longer
than the breadth of the drawing, and covered with baize or flannel : by
holding down with one of these, and passing over the paper on the face
of the drawing the air will be driven out before it better than it can
be done by the hand.
Care should be taken that the edges lay close, which they will not
do readily if the drawing be done on strong paper, or be put on the
mount before it is softened sufficiently by the paste.
The whole should remain a few days in this state, or as long as g.
may be convenient to allow it to do so ; when it is quite dry it may he
taken from the board, by cutting it round just within the pasted edges
of the first sheet, when the whole will come from the board. It will
still contract a little when at liberty, however dry it may seem to be,
and will warp unless it be kep't in a portfolio during some time, or
placed under some flat surface that will press upon the whole ; then the
further contraction that may take place will be equal and it will con-
tinue flat.
When the drawing is to be varnished, it may be more conveniently
done while it continnes upon the mounting board, and it should eemaia
there until it is properly dryed, when it may be cut off.
OF VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS,
When these are to be placed as ornamental furniture, they should
be covered with glass or varnish; to the former there are several
objections, especially with regard to large works for which no glass
except plate can be had. This being more perfectly flat and uniform
than any other, every object in the room is reflected by it so strongly,
that it is difficult to get into a situation so as to be rid of the inconve-
7#
OF VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS.
nience and see the picture at the same time. On this account varnish
is preferable, but it should not be applied in so great a body as to
appear polished, else it will have in some degree the imperfection of
glass. It may be sufficient if it will defend the picture from injury,
and admit of its being washed with a sponge and water when it is re-
quired. Many people, object to the application of varnish for this
purpose, on the supposition of its being injurious to the aerial tints,
and from its giving to the work somewhat more of transparency, so as
to cause it to appear like a feebly coloured oil picture. This may be the
case with slightly washed drawings, but I speak of water coloured pic-
tures, that is, of such as have all the force that is necessary for colour
to give ; these will not appear to lose by it : on the contrary, the sha-
dows will be increased in strength and clearness, expressing depth,
obscurity, and space, as great as can be obtained in oil.
Varnishes supposed to be of peculiar excellence have been offered
to the public, the recipes for the composition of which are considered
by their possessors as valuable secrets. All of them being made by the
solution of resinous substances in various solvents, such as alcohol,
Ahe essential oils of turpentine, lavender, &c, there is no great secret
in the business, nor any difficulty in the preparation, except in effect-
ing the most complete solution of the harder kinds, such as copal,
without injury to their transparency. The resins of a softer and more
tractable kind, as mastic, sandarac, seed-lac, shell-lac, &c. may be
compounded in every possible way, and in any proportion according to
the fancy of the operator, or the required degree of hardness, for the
purpose they are to be applied to.
Those made by the solution of mastic, sandarac, &c. in alcohol,
have less colour than the oil varnishes ; but are not sufficiently hard,
neither do they produce their effect unless they are repeated until the
surface they are employed upon becomes more polished and glossy
than may be desired. Those applied upon paintings in oil colours are
made of the same resins, principally mastic dissolved in the essential
oil of turpentine, they are nearly colourless, but soon lose so much of
their transparency as to require renewal and become brown if not re-
it
OF VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS.
17
moved ; in some situations this varnish is liable to chill, and contract a
kind of prismatic hue on the surface by which the picture is obscured ;
this may be removed by friction with a silk handkerchief, until in time
it accumulates to such a degree as to make the removal of the varnish
necessary.
The qualities of good varnish are transparency and durability; those
made by the solution of the resins in alcohol are deficient in the latter ;
on this account the essential oils are preferable as solvents, the var-
nishes formed with them possessing-, in addition to the best qualities of
the first mentioned, that of durability.
The following forms for the preparation of copal varnish with the
essential oils, are extracted from Tingry's " Varnishers' Guide."
" Take copal of an amber colour and in powder 1 J ounces, essence
of turpentine 8 ounces.
" Expose the essence to a balneum marioe, in a wide mouthed
matrass with a short neck : as soon as the water of the bath begins to
boil, throw into the essence a large pinch of copal powder and keep
the matrass in a state of circular motion. When the powder is in-
corporated with the essence, add new doses to it ; and continue in
this manner till you observe that there is formed an insoluble deposit
Then take the matrass from the bath, and leave it at rest for some
days. Draw off the clear varnish and filter it through cotton.
" At the moment when the first portion of the copal is thrown into
the essence, if the powder precipitate itself under the form of lumps, it
is needless to proceed any further. This effect arises from two causes,
either the essence does not possess the proper degree of concentration,
or it has not been sufficiently dephlegmated (deprived of water) ; ex-
posure to the sun, employing the same matrass, to which a cork
stopper ought to be fitted, will give it the qualities requisite for the
solution of the copal. This effect will be announced by the disappear-
ance of the portion of copal already put into it.
" Copal varnish made by means of an intermediate substance.
" Take copal in powder ... 1 ounce.
" Essential oil of lavender . 2 do.
" Essence of turpentine. . . 6 ounces.
78
OF VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS.
" Put the essential oil of lavender into a matrass of a proper size,
placed on a sand bath heated by an Argand's lamp, or over a moderate
fire, add the oil when very warm and at several times the copal pow-
der, and stir the mixture with a stick of white wood rounded at the
end ; when the copal has entirely disappeared, add at three different
times, the essence almost in a state of ebullition, and keep continually
stirring the mixture until the solution is complete.
ft Copal Varnish by the medium of camphor and essential oil of laven-
der.
" Take pulverized copal ... 2 ounces.
" Essential oil of lavender . 6 do.
" Camphor ~ of an ounce.
" Essence of turpentine a sufficient quantity, accordiug to the consis-
tence required to be given to the varnish.
" Put into a phial of thin glass, or into a small matrass, the essen-
tial oil of lavender and the camphor ; and place the mixture on a
moderate open fire, to bring the oil and the camphor to a slight state
of ebulition. Then add the copal powder in small portions, which
must be renewed as they disappear in the liquid. Favour the solution
by continually stirring it with a stick of white wood ; and when the
copal is incorporated with the oil, add the essence of turpentine boil-
ing ; but care must betaken to pour in at first only a small portion.
# These operations ought to be performed in the day time, lest the
inflammable vapours which may escape should be set on fire by the
candles, and produce an explosion that may endanger the operator ;
on this account it will be better to perforin them in the open air; the
vessel ought to be furnished with high edges, that the vapours which
escape may not communicate with the flame which often extends be-
yond the fire-place ; care should also be taken to dispose the vessel so
as to cover the fire entirely, and to prevent any portions of the varnish
which may be thrown up by the movements of the spatula from falling
into it. When the solution is completed, the whole should be suffered
Xo remain to cool in the open air.
OF VARNISHING PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS, j-g
" In these processes it is nesessary that the essence should be of the
purest quality.
" To those who may be inclined to prefer the alcoholic varnishes,
the following is offered.
" Take pure alcohol (spirit of wine) . 32 ounces.
" Purified mastic 6 do.
" Gum sandarac 3 do.
" Very clear Venice turpentine .... 3 do.
" Glass coarsely powdered 4 do.
; * Reduce the mastic and sandarac to fine powder ; mix this powder
with that of the glass, from which the finest parts have been separated
by means of a sieve ; put all these ingredients with the alcohol into a
short necked matrass, and adapt to it a stick of white wood rounded
at the end, and of a length proportioned to the matrass, that the con-
tents may be put in motion by it. Expose the matrass in a vessel filled
with water, made at first a little warm, and which must afterwards be
maintained in a state of ebullition for an hour. The matrass may be
made fast to a ring of straw.
^The first impression of the heat tends to unite the resins into a mass,
this union is opposed by keeping the matters in motion, which is
easily affected by the stick, without stirring the matrass. When the
solution appears to be sufficiently extended, add the turpentine, which
must be kept separately in a phial or pot, and which must be melted
by immersing it in water. The matrass must be still left in the water
for half an hour, at the end of which it is taken off, and the varnish is
stirred continually until it is somewhat cool. The next day it may be
drawn off and filtered through cotton.
" Simple digestion by exposure to the heat of the sun, may be suffi-
cient, and in general, the digestion is terminated by some hours' ex-
posure to it ; this approaches very near to the use of the water bath,
and like it requires the precaution of renewing the surfaces by stirring
the sediment with a clean rod. The use of the pounded glass is to
divide the parts of the ingredients, and by retaining the same quality
during the operation, it not only facilitates the action of the alcohol,
80 OP VARNISH J NG PAINTINGS IN WATER COLOURS.
but by its weight, which surpasses that of resins, it prevents these
resins from adhering to the bottom of the matrass."
The foregoing forms are inserted for the use of those who have no
opportunity of procuring their varnishes from the varnish maker \ when
that can be done, it will not be advisable to be at the trouble aud the
risk sometimes incurred in making them, by those who are hot accus.
tomed to such operations.
Previous to the application of any kind of varnish, the picture
should be covered with two or three coats of size. This may be made
by dissolving isinglass in water kept hot until the part which is soluble
is melted it must then be filtered through a fine cloth, to free it from
the skins or other impurities, and remain until it is cold, when it should
have the consistence of a strong jelly. If it be too strong it will not
spread freely or equally before it begins to set, and must be diluted
with a little hot water ; if it be too weak it will not answer the purpose
it is intended for, that of bearing up the varnish so as to prevent any
part of it from penetrating or coming into contact with the paper.
When it is of the proper degree of strength, if cold, the vessel con-
taining it may be placed in a pan of hot water, which will render it
fluid and of sufficient warmth to be spread freely. It should be laid
on by a large flat brush, and by as little rubbing in the first coat at
possible, lest the colours be removed by it ; they will be in less danger
from the second or a third, if the first be quite dry before the next be
applied.
When the isinglass is perfectly dry, the varnish is to be applied by
means of a soft brush of hogs'-hair, and laid as equally as may be ; if a
second application of it be requisite, the first must be quite dry, which
will be very soon when any of the alcoholic (or spirit) varnishes are
used, but with those of the essential oils, it will be better to let it
remain a few days before the application be repeated.
When the spirit varnish is to be applied, the picture should be made
moderately and equally warm; in that state the varnish may be ap-
plied and spread as quickly as possible, the evaporation of the alcohol
being sudden it allows but little time for the operation. In applying
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
81
the varnish repeated^, the picture should be warmed in the same
manner, or it will chill and sink unequally ; and sufficient time should
be given to allow the former coats to be dry, lest they should be dis-
solved by the succeeding one.
OF THE ADVANTAGES AND SUPPOSED IMPERFECTION
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
The methods and expedients employed in painting are so numerous,
that the possibility of discovering any system, by which every advan-
tage may be gained, and every inconvenience and defect avoided, may
be doubted ; every method possessing its peculiar advantages, it be-
comes a subject of considerable interest to discover whether, and how
far, the perfections of each may be united. The imitation of nature
being the object of the artist, that method ought to be preferred by
which it can best be attained ; to arrive at any reasonable conclusion 1 ,
these advantages should at least be understood, which, so far as paint-
ing with water colours is concerned, is by no means the case. Few
people are aware of the degree of perfection to which it may be
carried, and many being under the influence of some prejudice res-
pecting it ; an attempt to explain the former, and remove the latter,
may not be unimportant with regard to a department of the arts, from
the cultivation and unexampled progress of which, the artists of thi s
country have obtained a greater increase of reputation than has been
gained in any other.
This enquiry is the more interesting, as the cultivation of a depart-
ment of art that has already been practised with considerable success,
may be attended with peculiar advantages in this country, where from
various causes, painting in oil cannot be expected to arrive again at the
degree of perfection it was advanced to by men who are no more, and
at which it has not been sustained by their successors ; not in conse-
quence of the diminution of talent, but want of opportunity and
sufficient encouragement to call forth its energies, by being employed
z
82
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
on great public works, such as their predecessors were formed by. The
artist has little inducement at present to enter into a pursuit, in which
his efforts will be attended to by few, and assisted or rewarded by
fewer, rather than another in which he will be secure of both.
No fair inference can yet be drawn from a comparison between such
works as probably may never be equalled, and those in an art still in its
progress, the possibility of perfecting which, ought rather to be ascer-
tained and promoted by encouragement, than unfairly represented and
opposed, as it has sometimes been, by those who were but poorly quali-
fied to appreciate its properties.
In the production of the artist, truth of imitation, and the permanence
of the work, may be assumed as principal considerations. In the first,
paintings in water colours, have in some respects an advantage over
works in oil ; and in the last, the difference is not such as the public
have been led to believe.
The distances of landscape, it is generally allowed, may be executed
in water colours with more truth and clearness, than in oil. The lat-
ter is supposed to be capable of producing greater force and depth, but
that is not proved, as many pictures have been painted with water
colours, in which the depth and force are as great as oil colour can or
ought to exhibit.
The most perfect imitation of nature is that seen in the camera
obseura, the only imperfection of which, if that can be deemed an
imperfection, by which the effect of nature is heightened, arises from
the increased opposition of light and shadow, the latter by reflecting
less than the former has more depth than appears in nature, yet not-
withstanding the supposed incapacity of water colours to express that
depth, this representation always appears as a finished picture done
in such colours, rather than like a painting in oil.
The advantage of oil painting on the other hand, is considerable ;
especially by the use of what is technically called glazing, which con-
sists in spreading a transparent colour upon another, prepared as a
ground to receive it, producing by that means a greater degree of
brilliancy and richness than can be given by solid and opaque colour.
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
83
This was, till of late, called a trick by many who would not follow or
admit any method but that which they called fair painting". It may be
considered as a proof of the increased and diffused knowledge of art,
that we hear no sueh nonsense now, every expedient being con-
sidered allowable by which the artist can best accomplish his intended
effect.
The objection usually urged against the use of water colours is their
supposed want of permanency. If this be advanced at the present day*
it must be by those who take their opinion on trust, or have not ob-
served any thing but such slight performances as were done formerly,
and called washed or stained drawings ; those being thinly tinted, and
generally with vegetable colours, could not be expected to remain ;
but to infer from thence that water colours must be very fugitive
argues nothing but ignorance of the present practice, and of what it
may be extended to.
Neither does the change that may be observed in some modern pro-
ductions prove any thing, but a continuance of the use of such perish-
able materials* by artists who prefer their present effect to one that is
not quite so pleasing at first, but will be lasting.
The causes of the change of colour have not been generally attended
to ; in oil painting it arises in a great measure from the vehicle, which
becoming in a very considerable degree dark and opaque, the colour
used with it is affected by the change, especially when the oil is dry-
ing, by being boiled with sugar of lead, litharge, &c. This is much
used in the dead colouring and with the dark tints. Drying oil by
being exposed to the action of the atmosphere and absorbing its oxy-
gen, undergoes a slow combustion, by which it assumes the character
of resin, the colour gradually increasing until it becomes neatly black,
such parts of a picture as were originally dark thus become still more
so, until at last they acquire the degree of blackness and obscurity
* Especially lake, in the composition of the neutral tint, for which purpose good Indian
red is not easily procured, 1 therefore render some service to those who prefer it to the other
reds, in saying- that it is prepared in a superior manner by Mr. Haugh, an artist resident at
Doncaster ; of whom it may be had, and also at Mr. Newman's, Soho Square.
84
OF PAtNTlNG IN WATER COLOURS.
observed in many old pictures. I speak here of linseed oil, because it
is generally used, and is subject to this change in a greater degree than
other oils. If the artist should use any other with his light colours
and delicate tints, he scruples not to employ this in the darker ones
under the idea that they are less affected by it. I conceive the contrary
to be the fact, for the shadows being painted with a thinner body of
more transparent colour than the lights, have more of the vehicle, and
this being increased in the glazings by a coat of the oil, little more
than stained with transparent colour, these shadows do not preserve
themselves so well as the lights, which have more of the colouring
matter; white and all its mixtures having more body, or less of the
glazing property, than any of the darker colours.
In whatever way this opinion may be received, it has not been formed
hastily, nor without the means of information. Having painted in oil
many years of the early part of my life, and prepared my own mate-
rials, I have had such opportunities of noticing their properties, as
seldom can occur to those who have them prepared by the colourman.
Water being used as the vehicle in painting, is not subject to change;
consequently the alteration that may take place, will be in the colours
only ; this is caused principally by the action of light, and in propor-
tion to its intensity and its continuauce, they will become lighter : but
I am persuaded that in a good body of such substances as those I have
mentioned, it will not be by any means so great as that of the same
colours in oil.
The changing of oil colours in a certain degree is considered as ad-
vantageous, so far as they become what is called " mellowed by time."
If this change could be arrested at any desired point, it might be so,
but until the means of doing that shall be discovered, I cannot consi-
der it to be on the whole an advantage, but rather the contrary.
It should be observed that I speak of linseed oil only, there being
other oils less subject to alteration, but they are often rejected in con-
sequence ef wanting some desirable property, such as that of drying
readily.
The celebrated picture of the last supper, by Lionardo da Vinci,
OF PATNTING IN WATER COLOURS
85
now generally known through the beautiful engraving by Morghen,
njay be cited as one of the most remarkable instances of the perishable
nature of oil colours. This picture, painted on one of the end walls of
the former refectory of the Dominican Convent at Milan, was finished
about the year 1498. Yet in the year 1540 it is said to have been nearly
half gone; and ten years later nothing but the outline remained. In
1726, an artist who pretended to be in the possession of a secret for
reviving faded colours, undertook to restore it ; but he was allowed to
work behind a screen, and in fact he repainted the whole picture. It
was again retouched by one Mazza in the year 1770, but notwithstand-
ing these various attempts to uphold it, the painting is now just dis-
cernible and no more, on the dusky wall, a dim shadow of what it once
was. On the opposite wall however of the same hall, under presisely
similar circumstances, a fresco, that is, a water colour painting, exe-
cuted in the time of Lionardo, retains all the vivacity of its original
colouring.
The ancient painting known undei the name of the Aldobrandini
marriage, which has lately passed into the Pope's collection in the
Vatican, retains its vivid colouring in fresco at the end of at least
seventeen ages.
But examples of the durability of water colours still more to the
point may be found in the ornamented Romish missals, preserved in
public libraries, both in this country and on the continent. In many
of these books we may see water colours, and even transparent washes,
still bright and fresh after the lapse of several hundred years.
In portraiture the use of water colours has been nearly confined to
miniature, in which there has never been any attempt in oil that can
come into competition with it: not so much from the practicability of
working with greater delicacy of colour and finishing in that manner,
as from its truth to nature, and freedom from that greasiness of sur-
face inseparable from oil painting. I see no reason to doubt that the
advantage would be the same if equal practice and attention were be-
stowed on the subject of the full size of the life, every requisite being
by the present methods of practice, fully within the power of the artist.
% A
86
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
The most valuable productions of the old masters are in water
colours, being- done in distemper or in fresco ; for it must be allowed
that the easeJ pieces of Raphael, and of other eminent painters of his
time, are not such as would have established the reputation these great
men obtained, if they had produced nothing superior to their pictures
in oil. Their greatest works excel in the higher requisites, in design,
composition, and expression, which do not depend on any peculiar
method of practice. In colouring, and other minor parts of the art,
-they were deficient, in consequence of having neglected those branches
of it, to cultivate such as are higher and of much greater importance.
The well known observation of Michael Angelo, that painting in oil is
an employment fitted for women and children, was such as might be ex-
pected from a giant in the art like him, who held all the minor requisites,
in which it has any advantage over other methods, to be of little im-
portance.
It is one of the imperfections of paintings in oil, that they require the
application of varnish to bring- out and refresh the tints ; this is only a
temporary expedient, requiring to be repeated occasionally. The
varnish usually employed is made of the softer resins, that its removal
may be the less difficult, in order to renew the application when it is
needful. This is the cause of great mischief, insomuch that there are
very few works of the old masters that have not been materially injured
by this operation, especially in the glazings and scumbling on the sur-
face ; these being thin and tender, are so liable to be destroyed, that it
is hardly possible, whatever may be pretended to the contrary, to
remove the varnish without some injury to them. This is the chief
cause why we have so little by the old masters that is genuine ; for it
is not to be supposed that the state in which we now see many of their
works is at all like that in which they left them.
The French are charged with having caused the deterioration of
many of the works of the old masters, while they were in their pos-
session, by repainting considerable parts of some of them. However
that may be, it must be allowed that they have given a rare example of
liberality, by throwing open their splendid collection to the public,
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
87
and especially to artists - f wl*o at all times, and without expence, had
admission, and the ready assistance of attendants, appointed for the
purpose of furnishing them with every kind of accomodation they
might require.
Certainly " they order this matter better in France," and have dis-
covered the means of excluding improper persons without a pecuniary
demand for admission. I do not mean to reflect on the conduct of the
members of the Royal Academy, by alluding to the advertisement pre-
fixed to the catalogue of their first exhibition, in which they think it
necessary to declare, that they have not been able to suggest any other
means, than that of receiving money for admission, to prevent the
room being filled by improper persons; because it cannot be expected
that a body of artists should, at their own expence, support an exhibi-
tion for the gratification of the public. But when a sum has been
raised by voluntary contributions, the interest of which is abundantly
sufficient to defray every expence attending an exhibition, the admis-
sion to it ought at least to be free to artists of every description.
In the practice of painting with water colours, the scale is more
simple, and nearer to the prismatic scale of nature than that in oil
painting ; white being quite unnecessary in the former ; black is by no
means indispensable in either, except as a local colour : the full depth
of obscurity, so far as colour can express it, may be as well if not
better gained without it.
The combination of oil with water colours, or the application
of the former upon the latter, was practised by many of the Ve-
netian masters ; and it does not appear certain that John of
Bruges, the supposed inventor of painting in oil, employed it accord*
ing to the present usage ; that is, with colours ground or mixed with
oil. His researches being directed to discover a fluid or varnish, by
means of which he might secure his works from injury ; and linseed
oil, on account of its property of drying, appeared to him proper for
that purpose. I have seen no account of his practice that can warrant
a more probable conclusion, than that bis pictures were painted or.pre r
88
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
pared with water colours, or in distemper, as it was practised in ins
time ; the application of oil upon such a picture, by producing a greater
degree of depth and transparency in the shadows, than opaque colours
in distemper or size are capable of giving, would soon suggest to
him the idea of extending it farther by glazing with oil, and a little
colour to regulate and harmonize the tints.
The prevailing opinion that John Van Eyck was the inventor of
painting in oil rests upon the testimony of Vasari, which is contra-
dicted by the clearest proof that it was practised in this country, both
by house painters and artists^ so early as in the 12th century, long
before Van Eyck was born. Without doubt his method, which so
powerfully excited the attention of the Italian artists of his time, as to
induce them to employ every means to become acquainted with it, was-
grounded on some very considerable improvement upon theirs ; but
Avhat that improvement was, it is become difficult to ascertain. Van
Man der,' whose account is not very clear, relates after Vasari, that
John Van Eyck discovered a method of varnishing his distemper
colours with some oils which gave great lustre to them ; but after-
wards observes, that he mixed his colours with the oils. We may
suppose the latter was for the purpose of glazing or retouching. By
this method, a picture executed in distemper (water) colours, or dry
crayons, and afterwards varnished or saturated with oil, would derive
from thence a degree of richness and transparency not attainable in
fresco, or with body colours in water; both of these methods of
painting being in that respect defective. In the former method the
picture would admit of being retouched with oil colours to tone down
the parts, and receive those sharper touches which are best given, by
the pencil.
Many of the paintings by the masters of the Venetian school seem
tn have been done by a method somewhat, similar to this, which is
still more apparent to those who have been much employed in clean-
ing and repairing them. Vasari, and others who have written on the
subject, notice the great attention paid by artists to the preparation
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
89
of their grounds, considering them to be of the utmost importance ;
perhaps this circumstance may have disposed artists some years ago,
to receive with greater eagerness the supposed discovery of the Vene-
tian process, the communication of which was made with great caution,
and under penal restriction. This consisted in the preparation of an
absorbent ground of distemper colour, upon which the picture was
painted with oil colours ; but that method, after many trials were
made by artists who had entertained great expectations of its success,
has been discontinued. The principal objection to it appears to arise
from the quality of the ground, the advantages of which were lost by
its becoming saturated with oil, before the effect of a finished picture,
pot prepared by a dead colouring with some other vehicle than oil,
could be obtained ; by which means it might be made to require little
more than glazing upon the shadows, andtouching with opaque colours
on the lights.
When I was in the practice of painting in oil, on an occasion where
dispatch was necessary, I dead coloured my picture in distemper, that is,
with water colours bound with size, upon which the finishing colours
in oil were laid ; and presently found that they united with great ad-
vantage, not only by the slight degree of absorbency of the water
colour, but that they had greater brilliancy and clearness, without the
unequal sinking which takes place in drying when no such preparation
is used. It may be needless to say that I continued the practice, but
being in a remote part of the country, and out of the reach or sight of
any work of art from which information could be obtained, I was not
then aware that such a method had been used by artists ; though com-
monly practised by the house painter, who prepares his work for the
finishing by a wash of water colour with size; this is called clear-
coating or clear-coaling, and serves to bear out the finishing colour,
which would otherwise sink partially, however numerous the coats of
oil colour might be.
To remedy that defect (the sinking of the colour) and to bring out
the tints, the artist has recourse to varnishing, which in the other case
is less, if at all necessary ; neither is the effect of it when used for this
2 B
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOUttS.
purpose, equal to that of varnish or oil applied upon dry colours, or
such as have a watery vehicle, with a slight binder of gum, or of size,
which is pervious to oil. The cause of this I conceive to be, in the
reparation of the particles of such colours, which are never close and
united, like those of the same substances when ground in oil. In the
latter way they form a compact coat or skin, without those minute
interstices of the former, by which the appearance of the ground is
transmitted. From the same cause, many of the colouring substances
when finely ground in oil* are less clear on being applied, than when
they have not been so intimately united with the vehicle, and retain a
kind of minute granulation.
In treating of the properties of painting with water colours, and
with those in oil, my intention has not been to prefer one method at
the expence of the other, but rather to suggest the benefit of an
enquiry respecting the means by which either of them may be appilied
to the improvement of the other. If I have been induced to dwell
more particularly on the advantages of the former, it was in conse-
quence of the systematic opposition it has had to encounter ; not only
where it might have been, but also where it could not have been ex-
pected. It is not a little extraordinary, that in an establishment
professedly instituted to promote the advancement of the art of
painting in Great Britain, all productions in the only department of it
that is peculiar to this country, and, with the exception of portrait
painting, almost the only one that is, or is likely to be cultivated here
with success, are excluded from the walls of its exhibition. It is,
however, fortunate for the professors of this branch of the art, that
in consequence of the favourable notice of the public, the practice
thereof has been so widely diffused, that they have been but little
affected by such opposition : the public being now too well informed
in matters relative to painting, to be led by a few ; still less to be
dictated to in regard to what so many are competent to judge of and
decide upon for themselves.
Artists who have devoted much of their time and attention to the
instruction of others, have been the means of spreading very exten-
OF PAINTING IN WATER COLOURS.
91
sively, the knowledge and practice of painting in water colours ; the
general preference of productions in that department, and the growing
taste for it, may be deemed a natural consequence of the interest excited
in individuals by whatever is similar to, or connected with their own
pursuits.
Few branches of the arts have greater claim to encouragement, or
have contributed more towards the advancement of the whole, than
that of engraving : since the knowledge of every principle in painting,
except what relates to colour, has been more universally diffused
through its means, by multiplying the designs of the great artists of
every country, than without such assistance they could have been by
the works of those masters themselves.
In conclusion, I will take occasion to observe, that those are not
the patrons of artists, who confine their encouragement to a particular
department of art ; and who cannot endure that any other should
come in competition with it. The real partron is one who is ready to
encourage it in all its branches ; who is gratified by seeing every part
operate together, like those of a great machine ; and mutually con-
tributing to produce the utmost effect possible of the whole.
FINIS.
M
GETTY CENTER LIBRi