DICTIONARY 
 
 ARPHTTECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 THE LIED ARTF. 
 
POPULAR 
 
 DICTIOMRI OF ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND THE ALLIED ARTS. 
 VOL. I. 
 
POPULAR 
 
 DICTIONAEY 
 
 OF 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 THE ALLIED ARTS. 
 
 A WORK OF REFERENCE 
 FOR THE ARCHITECT, BUILDER, SCULPTOR, DECORATIVE 
 ARTIST, AND GENERAL STUDENT. 
 
 WITH 
 
 NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM ALL STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 FEOM THE EGYPTIAN TO THE EENAISSANCE. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM JAMESjAUDSLEY, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE EOYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ABCHITECTS 
 AND 
 
 GEORGE ASHDOWN AUDSLEY, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE EOTAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ABCHITECTS, 
 MEMBEB OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF JAPAN, 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 (Third Edition). 
 
 - NEW YORK: 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS. . . 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON. 
 
 MDCCCLXXXI. 
 
mi QETTY mm 
 
TO 
 
 M. VIOLLET-LE-DUC, 
 
 ARCHITECT TO THE GOVERNMENT AND LATE INSPECTOR-GENERAL OF 
 THE DIOCESAN EDIFICES OF FRANCE; 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 DICTIONNAIRB BAISONNE DE L' AECHITECTUEE FRANCAISE ; 
 DICTIONNAIEE KAISONNB DE MOBILIER FRANC AIS; 
 ENTRETIENS SUE L' ARCHITECTURE ; &0., &o.; 
 
 THIS WOEK IS DEDICATED 
 
 (BY PERMISSION) 
 WITH FEELINGS OF THE HIGHEST APPRECIATION AND ESTEEM, 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE WORK. 
 
 This Work is not intended to rival, or in any way to equal, the great 
 essays which have been made in a similar direction ; we do not pretend 
 to the comprehensiveness of that important undertaking, the Dictionary of 
 the Architectural Publication Society, or the learned exhaustiveness of 
 M. VioUet-le Due's " Dictionnaire Raisonne de I'Architecture Frangaise; " 
 but we do aim at producing what the Architectural and general Art 
 Student has not at present got, namely, a useful and handy book for 
 every day reference, on matters relating to Architecture and those arts 
 which have ever been allied with it. And this great want, which has 
 for many years been felt by the members of the architectural profession, 
 as well as by every Art Student, must be our apology for issuing what we 
 hope will, to some extent, fill up the vacancy which exists in their 
 library shelves. 
 
 ITS NATURE AND EXTENT. 
 
 This Dictionary is the result of many years' study of Architectural and 
 Art Works at home and abroad. It is, strictly speaking, a Dictionary 
 Raisonne, in which each term is treated with as great fulness as is 
 desirable in a work specially intended for ready reference on all matters 
 
iv. 
 
 relating to Architectural and Art nomenclature. We have described, 
 in as condensed a form as possible, all minor terms, but dwelt 
 at great length, and with the necessary fulness, on those of more 
 importance, giving drawings in all cases where they are requisite to 
 enable the reader to properly understand the matter treated of. We 
 cannot do better than direct our readers' attention to the opening 
 articles in the Dictionary, which will more fully explain our intentions 
 with reference to the entire Work than any words here could do. 
 
 In selecting the terms, we have given the preference to those which 
 are purely architectural, or relate to arts intimately allied with Archi- 
 tecture ; and which have reference to the artistic, rather than to the 
 mechanical aspect. We have therefore excluded such terms as are 
 more properly treated of in works on Engineering and Building Con- 
 struction generally. 
 
 While desiring to make the present Work, properly speaking, an 
 English Dictionary, we have found it desirable, and in many cases 
 necessary, to introduce terms from other languages. We have only 
 selected those, however, for which we have no exact equivalent in our own 
 tongue, or such as are becoming generally used by the architectural 
 profession, and incorporated in the language of Art. 
 
 ITS ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 In a Dictionary of Architecture, if the Work is to be of any real 
 value as a text-book or daily help to the student, a large and well- 
 selected series of illustrations is absolutely necessary, and these illus- 
 trations must be on the spot, so to speak ; that is, they must be mixed 
 up with the text, ever present to assist its meaning, to supply the 
 reader with what he wants at once, and without unnecessary trouble or 
 loss of time. M. Viollet-le-Duc realised this ; and it is his superb 
 series of illustrations, distributed throughout the pages of his Dictionary 
 of French Architecture, which is the crowning glory of his Work; on 
 the other hand, it is the almost total absence of text illustrations which 
 has destroyed much of the utility of our English Dictionaries, including 
 that of the Architectural Publication Society. We are clearly of opinion, 
 
and we speak from personal experience, that Plates detached in any 
 way from the text they are intended to illustrate, or bound in separate 
 volumes, are a mistake, especially in a work designed for ready reference. 
 
 The selection of the illustrations is a matter of considerable difficulty, 
 but we shall do our utmost to give those most to the point; and we 
 hope that many, extracted from our own sketch-books, and made in our 
 travels, and at other times, will be found of great suggestive value to the 
 Architect, Sculptor, and Decorative Artist. In all cases, we shall give 
 details in geometrical rather than perspective drawings, being of more 
 practical value. When advisable, however, we shall adopt the latter style. 
 
 TO WHOM ADDRESSED. 
 
 This Work is specially addressed to the Architect, the Archaeologist, the 
 Painter, the Sculptor, and every Art Workman connected with practical 
 Architecture and its attendant Arts. And should it tend to make all these 
 take a more loving and intellectual interest in their daily work, we shall 
 consider our years of study and labour well spent. 
 
 Our Dictionary is also addressed to the general reader, and particularly 
 to the reader who feels an interest in Architecture and Art, and who travels 
 to inspect their marvels. To him it will be of great value, explaining the 
 true meaning of terms he meets everywhere in his studies, and giving him 
 the explanation of the uses of and names for the countless details and 
 interesting objects he sees in buildings of all styles and periods of 
 Architecture. It will likewise prove a satisfactory guide to the study of 
 Ancient Art, whether in sculpture, painting, mosaic, enamel, metal-work, 
 stained-glass, or embroidery. 
 
 In conclusion, we have gratefully to acknowledge the labours of all 
 who have gone before us, from which we have learned all we know, or 
 through which we have been directed into channels of private study 
 and investigation; and in the hope of doing something not altogether 
 unworthy of our teachers, we commend our Dictionary to the considera- 
 tion of our readers. 
 
 W. & 0. AUDSLEY. 
 
 LivEKPOOL, 1878. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 There is probably no task more agreeable to an author than that of 
 writing a preface to the second edition of his Work, for in it he has an 
 incontestable proof that his labours have received the public recognition he 
 ventured to look and hope for. We take the task in hand with feelings 
 of natural pride and gratification, for in a Work of this size, treating 
 exclusively of subjects which are only interesting, strictly speaking, to 
 the more highly cultivated readers and students of art, one can merely 
 look for a moderately wide-spread recognition and support. The success 
 of our Work has, therefore, surpassed our most sanguine expectations. 
 
 We have received much kind encouragement from several influential 
 and accomplished gentlemen, who have expressed their approval of both 
 the aims and the treatment of our Dictionary; first among whom was the 
 late M. Viollet-le-Duc, who, from the earliest stages of our undertaking, 
 supported us with his warm approval. The letter written by him on 
 receiving the first volume, very shortly before his death, we transcribe 
 in this preface. We need not say that such a letter from so learned an 
 architect, artist, archaeologist, and author is highly valued by us, and 
 the receipt of it will ever remain one of the brightest incidents connected 
 with the publication of our Work. 
 
 We have now to say a few words about the scheme of our Dictionary, 
 which has, in one or two quarters, either been carelessly or wilfully mis^ 
 understood. We have been questioned as to the principle adopted in the 
 
selection of the terms described. Our principle is a simple one — as the 
 work is a Dictionary of Architectm-e and all the Arts which have been 
 allied with it, so it contains all the chief terms met with in Architecture, 
 Sculpture, Painting, and the Decorative Arts. The proper study of all 
 these is impossible without the study of Archaeology; we have therefore 
 brought abreast of them all those archaeological matters which are 
 intimately linked with them. We venture to say that not one term 
 in our volumes will be found to lie outside this at once simple and 
 comprehensive scheme. M. Viollet-le-Duc readily realised the importance 
 of such a bringing together of Architecture and Archaeology, and the 
 following letter shows how thoroughly he approved of our scheme : — 
 
 27 Juillet, 79. 
 
 G8 Rue Condorcet, 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Monsieur et cher confrere. 
 
 J'ai recu le 1^^ volume de votre beau dictionnaire pupulaire (T architecture, 
 et je me fais un plaisir de vous exprimer la satisfaction que j'ai eprouvee en le 
 parcourant. Vous rendrez ainsi un grand service aux jeunes architectes anglais 
 en leur presentant suivant une methode critique tous les elements constitutifs de 
 notre art. Get ouvrage qui manquait, me semble-t-il chez vous, comme il manque 
 encore dans d'autres pays, permettra d'apprecier avec plus d' interet et d'attention 
 les oeuvres du passe qui peuvent enseigner tant de choses aux contemporains. II 
 n'y a pas d'etude architectonique possible aujourd'hui sans connaissances archeo- 
 logiques et votre dictionnaire aura cat avantage de faire ressortir comment ces 
 deux connaissances sent intimement liees. 
 
 Permettez-moi en meme temps de vous renouveler mes remerciements pour 
 rhonorable dedicace que vous avez placee en tete de cet ouvrage. Get hommage 
 que des confreres Anglais veulent bien rendre a mes travaux est fait pour me 
 toucher profondement. 
 
 Veuillez agreer, Monsieur et cher confrere, Texpression de mes sentiments les 
 plus distinguees. 
 
 E. VIOLLET-LE-DUC. 
 
 The present edition has been carefully revised, and the typographical 
 and other errors corrected. 
 
 W. & G. A. 
 
 Christmas, 1879. 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 ARCHITECTUEE 
 
 AND 
 
 THE ALLIED ARTS. 
 
 A 
 
 A (Alpha). The first letter of the Greek alphabet. This letter 
 has frequently been introduced in Christian art in conjunction with the 
 last letter of the alphabet, Omega (12), for the purpose of expressing the 
 words in the Eevelation of St. John : "I am Alpha and^ Omega, the First 
 and the Last." In early art, they appear in connexion with the cross and 
 the monogram of the name Christ in Greek (XPI2T02), or inscribed on 
 the nimbus of the Agnus Dei. Numerous examples occur in the Catacombs, 
 and on the sarcophagi of the earliest epoch of the Christian era. In a 
 fresco in the apse of the crypt of the Cathedral of Auxerre (XII century), 
 the alpha and omega are written on the pages of an open book held in the 
 left hand of the figure of the Deity. In all these works the omega is of 
 the ancient form (w). See Agnus Dei and Nimbus. 
 
 AARON'S ROD. An enrichment, consisting of a straight rod from 
 which almond leaves are represented sprouting on each side. The detail 
 may be said to belong almost exclusively to plaster work. The term has 
 been applied incorrectly to a rod round which a serpent is coiled. 
 
 ABACISCUS. (Lat.) A small angular- shaped slab of coloured 
 marble, glass, or other material, used in the construction of ornamental 
 pavements or floors. The term is also given to square divisions of a 
 pavement containing designs formed of the above tesserae. The term has 
 a third signification, being applied to small square tablets or bracketed 
 stands for statuettes or other classic ornaments. 
 
[ ABACUS J 
 
 2 
 
 ABACULUS. (Lat.) A word having a meaning similar in all 
 respects to that of Abaciscus. 
 
 ABACUS. (Lat.) The upper portion or crown of the capital of a 
 column or pillar, upon which the architrave in Classic, and the springers 
 of the arches in Gothic architecture immediately rest. The abacus is a 
 detail which appears, more or less accentuated, throughout the whole range 
 of ancient and modern columnar architecture, but plays its most prominent 
 part in the works of the middle ages. 
 
 It is not necessary, for the purposes of the present book, to enter upon 
 the consideration of what the origin of the abacus may have been in the 
 earliest epoch of the art of building ; but we may hazard a conjecture that 
 it arose out of a structural necessity. When wooden posts were planted 
 upright in the ground, and beams laid on their upper ends, it soon became 
 evident to the primitive builders that it would be of advantage to interpose 
 between the top of the posts and the under surface of the beam, either a 
 block of wood, with the grain placed crossways to that of the beam, or a 
 slab of stone or brick, which would fulfil the double purpose of protecting 
 the cross-cut grain of the wood of the upright post and of equalising the 
 pressure of the beam. The abacus thus introduced is also the germ of 
 the entire capital which appeared in the earliest efforts of art- architecture. 
 
 In Egyptian architecture, the abacus assumes three leading forms, only 
 one of which resembles the later Greek examples. The first form consists of 
 a square block or slab of stone placed upon the upper surface of the capital^ 
 as in the peristyle of the Palace of Gournah at Thebes (1), or directly on 
 
 the top of the column, as in a tomb at Beni Hassan. This latter 
 example is the prototype of the Grecian Doric order. The abacus is 
 sometimes inscribed with hieroglyphics, as in the South Temple at 
 Elephantine. The second variety, and the one most commonly met 
 with, belongs to the later order of columns ; it consists of a square 
 block of stone, about the dimension of the diameter of the necking of 
 the shaft below, placed in the centre of the upper surface of the wide- 
 spreading bell of the full-blown papyrus capital. The block or abacus 
 
3 
 
 [abacus ] 
 
 is of the same size as the width of the architrave it . supports, and 
 appears more properly to belong to it than to the capital, and to be 
 introduced for the purpose of lifting the architrave entirely free from the 
 spreading capital rather than for a constructional expedient. Examples 
 of this abacus are to be found in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnac, the 
 Hypaethral temple of the Island of Philae, and the grand temple at Edfou. 
 The abacus is in some few cases lengthened upward into what might be 
 termed a superimposed pier, and seems to foreshadow that relation between 
 the superstructure and column which obtained on the introduction of the 
 arch. The third form, and most debased in style, is that which reaches 
 its culminating point in the portico of the grand temple at Denderah. 
 The capital in this case is formed of four heads of Isis, and the abacus 
 assumes the shape of a small temple with four pylons. Practically, it is a 
 cubical mass of stone, about the dimensions of the capital, ornamented 
 with four temple fa9ades and gateways. There are variations of this late 
 type in other buildings which do not call for particular mention here. 
 
 In Grecian architecture, the abacus is found in its greatest development 
 in the Doric order, where it assumes the form of a thick square slab laid 
 upon the upper surface of the capital. (2, from the Propylaea at Athens.) 
 
 SQUARE 
 
 2 
 
 It projects but very slightly beyond the capital at the cardinal points, 
 but of necessity it has a considerable projection at its four angles, as in 
 the case of its Egyptian prototype at Beni Hassan. The adoption of a 
 square abacus, or one closely approaching that form, was absolutely 
 necessary in trabeated systems like those of the Egyptians and Greeks. 
 In the Ionic capital, the abacus is still square in plan, but is reduced in 
 importance, assuming the form of a thin tablet enriched round its edges, 
 as in the Erechtheium at Athens. The Corinthian order presents an 
 abacus rather thicker than that of the Ionic, moulded on its edges, and 
 although it meets the requirements of the architrave, has curved sides and 
 its corners cut off, as in the Ohoragic Monument of Lysicrates. The 
 Roman abaci generally resemble those of the G-reek orders, the Doric, 
 which is much lighter in proportions than the Grecian order of the same 
 name, has a square abacus, with the addition of a projecting moulding. 
 The Roman modification of the Corinthian capital has an abacus similar 
 to that of the original. (3, from the Portico of the Pantheon at Rome.) 
 
[ ABACUS ] 
 
 4 
 
 The abacus is sometimes much enriched, as in the Temple of Jupiter 
 Stator. The composite capital has an abacus resembling that of the 
 Corinthian. 
 
 In a necessarily condensed survey of the development of the abacus, 
 it is quite impossible to take up every link ; it is enough to note 
 each radical change which it was made to undergo, from time to time, 
 during the rise and progress of the more important national styles of 
 architecture. 
 
 With Roman architecture, we may take leave of the Pagan styles, and 
 direct our attention to those which were fostered under the Christian 
 religion. The numerous offshoots from Roman architecture, grouped 
 under the term Romanesque, as might be expected, at first retained its 
 details more or less intact; but, in the hands of different races and 
 architects, these borrowed details rapidly became modified. Such is the 
 case with the abacus. The introduction of the arch, and the subsequent 
 abandonment of the entablature, intervening between it and the capital of 
 the supporting column, did more, probably, than any other agent to 
 change the shape of the abacus and its relation to the bell and foliage 
 of the capital. 
 
 In the Byzantine and Western Romanesque styles, the abacus begins 
 to assume forms which foreshadow the importance it was destined to reach 
 in the succeeding or Pointed Gothic styles. In Byzantine Romanesque, we 
 have a good example of what may be called a transitional abacus in the 
 capitals of the church of St. Apollinare in Classe, at Ravenna (a.d. 540). 
 Here the entablature is abandoned, but its architect has placed a diminu- 
 tive of it, in the form of a superior abacus, to equalise the pressure of the 
 heavy arch upon the capital. This cushion- shaped block, derived in 
 reality from the Classic entablature, is not more important in size or office 
 than the abaci of the early Gothic styles. In the Romanesque architecture 
 of Germany and France, the abacus almost invariably assumes the square 
 form, is splayed from its lower edges, and projects beyond the line of 
 the capital. In German examples, it is frequently decorated with 
 carving, as in the ancient palace at Gelnhausen, the church at Hildes- 
 
 L i 
 
 3 
 
6 
 
 [ ABACUS ] 
 
 heim, and St. James, Eatisbon (4). The French varieties are also at 
 times richly sculptured on the lower or splayed portion, as in the doorway 
 of the church of Tonnerre in Burgundy, St. Benoit-sur-Loire, and in 
 numerous other buildings in the southern provinces. Simple mouldings 
 
 appear upon the abacus in works of the twelfth century, as in figure 5, 
 copied from a capital in the church of Semur. The octagonal abacus 
 makes its appearance in French Romanesque architecture, as in the church 
 of St. Benoit-sur-Loire. 
 
 In the Norman style in England, which obtained from the middle of the 
 eleventh to about the end of the twelfth century, the abacus resembles that 
 of French Romanesque, in so much that it is generally square in plan, 
 overhangs the capital, and is splayed or simply moulded from its lower 
 
 6 
 
 edge. It is plain splayed in Norwich cathedral and St. Peter's, 
 Northampton, but perhaps the most common sections are those shown 
 in figure 6. Examples of these occur at Canterbury, Worcester, St. 
 Alban's abbey, and numerous other buildings. The fillet above the 
 
[ ABACUS ] 
 
 6 
 
 splay or moulding is sometimes ornamented, as at St. Peter's, Northampton, 
 (7), or the splay is sculptured, as at Wooten, Gloucestershire. Large 
 circular pillars commonly have circular capitals, and the abaci take their 
 shape ; and in late examples, cruciform and octagonal capitals and abaci 
 
 7 
 
 appear, as at Lindisfarne and Kirkstall. The latter, however, is practi- 
 cally an octagonal abacus on eight grouped capitals. In the succeeding, 
 or Transition period, the abacus begins to lose its severity, though the 
 fillet and square upper edge, the leading characteristics of the Romanesque 
 abacus, still remain. 
 
 In certain examples of Transitional work, we find the square abacus 
 placed on the circular bell of the capital, in a manner resembling its treat- 
 ment in the Doric orders ; but the overhanging corners were offensive to 
 the Gothic eye, and, accordingly, angle leaves were projected from the 
 foliage of the bell, to bear them up. An interesting example of this occurs 
 in Oxford cathedral, of which we give a drawing (8). This treatment 
 
 8 
 
 does not appear to have been carried much further in English architecture, 
 but it was fully developed in the French work of the first half of the 
 succeeding century. 
 
7 
 
 [ ABACUS ] 
 
 In Early English architecture, the abacus undergoes a complete change, 
 appearing, in pure work of about the commencement of the thirteenth 
 century, circular in plan, and formed of projecting rounds, with deeply cut 
 hollows between them. As the style advanced, the abacus increased in 
 richness of contour, and the projecting members were filleted. 
 
 The abaci of clustered capitals, so common at this period, took their 
 outlines from the arrangement of the pillars below, and consequently 
 appeared as groups of large and small circular abaci dying into one 
 another. (9, from Salisbury cathedral.) In French architecture of 
 
 9 
 
 the same period, the abacus remained square, was very simply moulded, 
 and projected well beyond the line of the foliage. It was sometimes 
 ornamented by beads or other simple enrichments, as shown in figure 10, 
 copied from a capital in the south transept of Noyon cathedral, or with 
 foliage, as in the capitals of the north door in the western fagade of Rouen 
 cathedral (11). The retention of the square form at so late a date as the 
 
 10 11 
 
 beginning of the thirteenth century, is doubtless due to the classic tradi- 
 tions which still obtained, even in central France, and has been used as an 
 argument in favour of the greater advancement of English Pointed archi- 
 tecture. The usual type of the French abacus, 1200-1225, is given in 
 figure 12. About the middle of the century, the abacus became polygonal 
 
[ ABACUS J 
 
 8 
 
 in form, and more richly moulded, the square upper edge disappearing, and 
 the foliage projecting beyond its line. In the north and north-west 
 provinces, the circular abacus was introduced about this time, probably 
 derived from English work, which it resembled in general treatment. 
 
 In works of the Decorated period, or from the end of the thirteenth 
 to the after part of the fourteenth century, the abacus gradually decreases 
 in importance ; in the moulded capitals, so frequently met with, it almost 
 loses its individuality, merging into the other mouldings of the bell. 
 In early work it is treated as a distinct feature, and is formed from a 
 separate slab of stone, but in later work it is formed, along with the 
 capital, from a single block. In many examples of both Early English and 
 Decorated capitals, the foliage is thrown up against the mouldings of the 
 abacus, completely connecting it with the rest of the capital. Such a 
 treatment is not found in Romanesque architecture at home or abroad. 
 In fig. 13 are given sections of the most characteristic abacus mouldings 
 found in Decorated work. 
 
 In French architecture of the fourteenth century, the abacus resembles 
 that found in English work of the same date, in so much as it is shallow, 
 light in its mouldings, and of slight projection ; but its contour does not 
 resemble English examples ; sometimes it has its upper member square 
 edged, a treatment never found in our Decorated abacus. During the 
 fifteenth century the capital is comparatively seldom introduced in English 
 architecture, and when used it assumes very humble proportions. Gene- 
 rally speaking, the abacus is a much less important feature in Perpendicular 
 architecture than in the previous styles, and in some instances it almost 
 entirely disappears. In cases where the capital assumes the form of an 
 
 13 
 
9 
 
 [ ABAT-SONS ] 
 
 enriched band at the springing of the arch, as in some Devonshire exam- 
 ples, it is questionable if the upper member assumes the importance of an 
 abacus at all, recessed, as it is, within the line of the fohage, and with not 
 much greater projection than the neck moulding below the fohage. 
 Sections of the most ordinary Perpendicular abaci are given in fig. 14. 
 
 In French architecture of the fifteenth century, the abacus is treated in 
 a manner similar to that in English work, as above described. 
 
 In the following century, which brought in a revived taste for Classic 
 architecture, the abacus, of course, assumed the forms which obtained in 
 the original models. 
 
 ABAISER. The name given by painters to ivory black, which they 
 employ for the purpose of lowering the tones of bright colours. 
 
 ABATED. An ancient term, applied to those portions of any work in 
 metal or stone which were lowered or sunk below the surface. In 
 inscriptions or ornamental patterns, the ground was sometimes abated, so 
 that the letters or ornaments might stand out in relief. The abated 
 portions were occasionally enriched by impressed dot-work, diaper, or 
 cross-hatching. The word is used in the above sense in an agreement or 
 contract relating to the Beauchamp chapel at Warwick. The clause in 
 which it appears runs thus—" In the two long plates they shall write in 
 Latine in fine manner, all such scripture of declaration as the said execu- 
 tors shall devise, that may be conteined and comprehended in the plates ; 
 all the champes about the letter to be abated and hatched curiously to set 
 out the letters."* 
 
 ABAT-JOUR. {Fr.) A skylight, or opening in a ceiling or roof, 
 constructed for the admission of light. 
 
 ABAT-SONS. {Fr.) The name given to the inclined louvre-boards, 
 covered with lead or slates, attached to the timber-work of belfries, to 
 protect the bells and bell-frames from the rain, and to deflect the sound 
 of the bells downwards. 
 
 14 
 
 * See Britton's Architectural Antiquities. Vol. iv. p. 13. 
 B 
 
[ ABATTOIR ] 
 
 10 
 
 ABATTOIR. A name derived from the French verb abattre, to 
 knock down, and given, in the reign of Napoleon the First, to buildings set 
 apart for the slaughter of animals required for human food. 
 
 In the time of Nero, the butchers of Eome had the privilege of furnish- 
 ing all the meat consumed by the inhabitants of the city ; and their market 
 and slaughter-houses, congregated together, formed an important and 
 extensive establishment. Previous to this time, the slaughter-houses 
 were distributed throughout the city. 
 
 In Paris, previous to the year 1818, the shambles were more or less 
 private property, and were located in situations most convenient to their 
 owners. Sometimes, indeed, the animals were slaughtered and dressed in 
 the open streets before the butchers' shops, the offal being deposited in 
 tubs, very much to the annoyance of the inhabitants in the vicinity, if 
 not to the danger of the public health. 
 
 Such a state of affairs could not long be tolerated, and, accordingly, in 
 the year 1810, a decree was issued, under Napoleon's direction, that public 
 abattoirs should be constructed on the outskirts of Paris, at the expense 
 of the city ; and that in future the slaughtering of animals necessary for 
 food should be confined to them. Sites were selected at Roule, Villejuif, 
 •Grenelle, Menilmontant, and Montmartre, and five abattoirs were erected. 
 
 Consideral)le study and attention were given to these buildings, and 
 during the eight years occupied in their erection every detail received the 
 careful consideration of the architects and engineers who were appointed 
 by the Government. 
 
 A brief description of one of the abattoirs, built at Roule, will give a 
 general idea of abattoir arrangement. The site selected was originally 
 sloping, and during the levelling of the ground the excavated earth was 
 formed into an esplanade before the entrance, upon which avenues of trees 
 were planted. At the entrance to the enclosure are two houses, which 
 are occupied by the resident inspectors and other officials attached to 
 the estabhshment. The duty of the inspectors is to examine all the 
 animals sent, and to decide if they are fit for food. The animals, on 
 entering the abattoir, are driven into two square enclosures, on the 
 opposite side of the quadrangle to the residences, where they wait 
 the arrival of their owners. From thence they are taken to the stall- 
 houses, which extend on each side of the enclosures, and surround, on 
 three sides, the blocks of slaughter-houses. The latter are two in number, 
 and comprise each two rows of shambles, separated by a long court or 
 yard. Each slaughter-house measures about 32 feet by 16 feet, and is 
 furnished with every convenience; it has two entrances, one for the 
 admission of the living animals and the other for the exit of the dressed 
 carcasses. Abundant water is supplied, and a drain for the conveyance of 
 the bloody water and other impurities resulting from the process of washing 
 and dressing. Each cell is also fitted up with mechanical appliances for 
 hoisting the animals to be skinned, for hanging up the dressed carcasses, 
 &c. Ample provision is made for a free circulation of air throughout 
 
11 
 
 [ ABBEY 1 
 
 all the slaughter-houses, and overhanging roofs assist in keeping the tem- 
 perature cool within them. On each side, but removed some distance 
 from the residences, are two large melting and tripe-dressing houses, 
 furnished with boilers of various capacities. Offal yards, water-works, 
 stables, and other necessary accessories make up the remaining features 
 of this large and complete establishment. 
 
 ABAT-VENT. {Fr.) The name given to the small roofs which cover 
 the belfries and towers of churches. A pent-house to throw off the rain. 
 
 ABAT-VOIX. (Fr.) A canopy, or other construction, erected over 
 a pulpit, or a ceiling formed above a rostrum or stage, for the purpose 
 of deflecting the sound of the voice downwards. 
 
 ABB ATI A. (Lat) The residence set apart for the abbot in a 
 monastic establishment, also called Palatium. (See Abbofs Lodging.) 
 
 ABBEY. Properly a religious community of men or women under the 
 rule of an abbot or abbess. These communities were both numerous and 
 important during the middle ages, and Architecture, Art, and Literature 
 owe much to their fostering care. On this subject, one of our greatest 
 Uving authorities* says, "In the middle ages, the abbeys were the 
 guardians of literature, science, and civilisation ; protesting against force 
 by learning, against corrupt morals by purity, against the abuses of wealth 
 by poverty, against the licence of power by submission. Agriculture, 
 music, and the arts were all indebted to those houses of religion. Monas- 
 ticism commenced in the East during the third century. In Egypt 
 there were communities of thirty or forty monks living in one house, and a 
 corresponding number of such dwellings formed a monastery under the rule 
 of an abbot ; the subordinate houses were governed by a provost or prior, 
 and over each ten monks a dean presided. From the fifth to the seventh 
 century, in the West, each monastery had its abbot, who owed obedience 
 only to the diocesan ; and its dependent houses or cells were governed by 
 removable priors. In the tenth century the reform of Clugni took place ; 
 one abbot presided over the whole order, — all subordinate heads of houses 
 being called priors. The Cistercians, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
 appointed an abbot in each monastery, all of whom were required yearly 
 to attend the General Chapter ; but the parent abbey of Citeaux preserved 
 a large amount of authority over her ' four daughters,' La Ferte, Pontigny, 
 Clairvaux, and Morimond. The mitred abbeys (in England) were — 
 
 Abingdon, St. Mary. 
 ■Alban's, St. 
 Bardney, St. Oswald. 
 Battel, St. Martin. 
 Bury, St. Edmund's. 
 
 Canterbury, St. Austin's. 
 Colchester, St. John. 
 Crowland, St. Guthlac. 
 Evesham, St. Mary. 
 Glastonbury, St. Mary. 
 
 Kev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott, in Sacred Archeology. London, 1868. 
 
[ ABBEY j 
 
 12 
 
 Gloucester, St. Peter. 
 Hulme, St. Benet. 
 Hyde, SS. Peter and Paul. 
 Malmesbury, St. Aldhelm. 
 Peterborough, St. Peter. 
 Kamsey, St. Mary and Bennet. 
 Beading, St. James. 
 
 Selby, St. German. 
 Shrewsbury, SS. Peter and Paul. 
 Tavistock, St. Mary. 
 Thorney, St. Mary. 
 Westminster, St. Peter. 
 Winchcomb, St. Mary. 
 York, St. Mary. 
 
 St. Alban's long claimed precedence, but at length Westminster 
 succeeded in securing the first place. 
 
 At Kome, there are nine Mitred Abbots General, Benedictines of Monte 
 Casino, Basilians, Canons Kegular of St. John Lateran, the orders of the 
 Camaldoli and Vallombrosa, Cistercians, Olivetans, Sylvestrinians, and 
 Jeromites." 
 
 As might be expected, these influential religious communities at an 
 early date began to pay great attention to the arrangement and construction 
 of their establishments, and particularly to the most important portion, the 
 church, which was in all cases to be the grand feature of their designs, the 
 crowning glory of their labours. Round the church the domestic build- 
 ings were arranged in such order and disposition as seemed most 
 convenient for their special modes of living or government. These 
 buildings, or rather groups of buildings, were in many instances of 
 immense extent, almost attaining the dignity of towns, and at once took 
 the name of the community, being called abbeys. In the present day, the 
 term has almost ceased to be used in its original sense, being commonly 
 understood in its architectural signification; thus, in speaking of the 
 abbey of Westminster, St. Mary's, York, and St. Alban's abbey, we are 
 understood to allude to the churches, and whatever may remain of the 
 conventual buildings belonging to those foundations, and not to the 
 communities for whom they were built. 
 
 In giving a general idea of the extent and arrangement of an abbey, we 
 have selected, for illustration, that of St. Gall, which, on account of a 
 ninth century plan of its arrangement being in existence, has always been 
 a favourite example with archaeologists. Our illustration is copied from a 
 modernised version of the ancient plan given in the fifth volume of the 
 ArchaolocjicalJournal, as being rather more intelHgible than the original 
 outline plan. The original, which is of the ninth century, is preserved in 
 the archives of the monastery in Switzerland, and may be briefly described 
 as follows :— It is delineated upon a large sheet of parchment, the size of 
 the plan being about 42 inches by 38 inches ; all the walls, fittings, 
 and furniture of the entire group of buildings are drawn with single red 
 lines of uniform thickness, making the plan practically a skeleton diagram, 
 without any attempt at correctness of proportion and scale. This method 
 of drawing has, of necessity, rendered the whole very confusing and 
 troublesome to make out ; without very careful study a reading of the plan 
 is next to impossible. This consideration has inclined us to reproduce, 
 on a very small scale, Mr. Robert Willis's modernised version, in which 
 
13 
 
 [ ABBEY ] 
 
 all the permanent walls are represented by thick black lines, and the internal 
 fittings by thin red ones. 
 
 ■~ir~ 
 
 I I 
 
 Description of Plan. — A is the church, terminating eastward and 
 westward in apses and independent choirs ; a is the eastern choir, with 
 its stalls for the ecclesiastics and the two ambons for the reading of the 
 epistle and gospel ; b the presbytery, with the high altar of St. Mary and 
 
[ ABBEY ] 
 
 14 
 
 St. Gall. ; c is the western choir, and d the exedra ; e is the baptismal 
 font; and the remaining objects in the body of the church, to which small 
 crosses are attached, are altars dedicated to different saints ; f is the 
 western paradise ; g the public entrance vestibule ; h h, towers dedicated 
 to SS. Michael and Gabriel ; i i are the entrance vestibules for the hospi- 
 tium and school, and for the monastery, both open into the paradise. On 
 the south of the church is the cloister B, entirely surrounding the garth, 
 in the centre of which a large tree is indicated. C is the refectory, 
 furnished with seats and tables for the abbot, the brethren, and guests ; 
 on the south side is placed the reader's pulpit ; a door at the west end 
 communicates with the kitchen j, which is connected by a passage with 
 the brew-house k, and bake-house L A room is placed above the refectory 
 for the storage of clothes. D is the wine and beer cellar, with a 
 larder above. E is the dormitory, with the rows of beds indicated in the 
 centre, and, along each side, passages open from the south end into the 
 closets and urinals ra, and the bath-rooms n. F is the room for the pre- 
 paration of the holy bread and oil, communicating with the sacristy O, 
 above which is the vestry. On the opposite side of the presbytery is 
 placed the scriptorium p, with library over. G is the abbot's house, with 
 bath, cellar, kitchen, and rooms for the servants, adjoining q. Eastward 
 of the church is situated the infirmary H, with its chapel K, and bath 
 and kitchen t, and on the south side of these buildings the convent for 
 novices I, with its chapel J, and the bath and kitchen u. On the north 
 side of the infirmary are placed the doctor's house L, with physic garden 1, 
 and house for bloodletting and giving physic M. On the south side of 
 the novice convent is the cemetery N, planted with various fruit trees. 
 O is the school-house. P the hospitium for distinguished guests, with 
 its kitchen, bake-house, brew-house, and store-rooms, r. On the other 
 side of the paradise is situated the hospitium Q, for poor guests, with its 
 suite of kitchen offices s. The large block of buildings R, on the south 
 side, is devoted to workshops for shoemakers, saddlers, cutlers, turners, 
 curriers, trencher makers, goldsmiths, smiths, and fullers. The work- 
 shops for coopers, 5, 6, are near the hospitium for paupers ; 7 is the 
 cloister parlour; 8, the almoner's room; 9, rooms for strange monks; 
 10, schoolmaster's lodgings; 11, the lodging for porters. The whole of 
 the remaining buildings are devoted to the home farm. S is the 
 gardener's house, with kitchen garden attached, 2 ; T the fowl-keeper's 
 place, with hen and duck-houses, 3, 4 ; U is the larger threshing floor ; 
 V the smaller threshing floor ; v the mills, and w the mortars ; x is the 
 malt kiln. W is the house for grooms and herdsmen, with the stables y, 
 and stalls for oxen z attached. The sheds marked X are for sheep, goats, 
 cows, and pigs. Y is the place for country servants, and Z the stables 
 for country horses. The block marked 12 is so indistinctly lettered on the 
 original plan that its use is unknown ; in all probability it comprises the 
 lodgings for the retinues of distinguished guests. 
 
 It will be seen, on reference to the plan, that the numerous buildings 
 
15 
 
 [ abbot's lodging J 
 
 are arranged with considerable skill, forming a small town, with streets 
 running at right angles to each other. The church, with its cloister, and 
 the more important monastic buildings, occupy the centre of the site. ^ The 
 infirmary, with its chapel, the educational estabUshment for novices, with its 
 chapel, the cemetery, kitchen garden, and part of the agricultural buildings, 
 are placed towards the east. On the north of the church are situated the 
 abbot's lodgings, school, and guest houses; and on the south and west 
 are located the agricultural or home-farm buildings. Speaking of the 
 plan, Mr. Willis remarks—" The entire establishment resembles a town 
 composed of isolated houses, with streets running between them. This 
 is probably due to their haying been erected of wood, with the exception 
 of the church. The church has a cloister attached to its south side, and 
 the latter is surrounded by three large buildings in the usual manner, 
 appropriated respectively to the dormitory, the refectory, and the cellarium 
 or provision department. Also on the east side of the church stands a 
 crroup of buildings arranged about a couple of courts, and including the 
 Lfirmary and convent of the novices. With these exceptions, the 
 monastery is composed of thirty-three separate houses, comprising various 
 offices, as well as the residences of the abbot and physician, a hospitium 
 for distinguished guests, and one for paupers, and, lastly, a complete 
 series of farm buildings. Moreover, there is a physic garden, a vegetable 
 garden, and a cemetery, each separately enclosed. To judge by the length 
 and breadth of the church, the entire space occupied by the monastery 
 will be about 430 feet square. 
 
 " The draughtsman has not merely given us the disposition of the apart- 
 ments, but has also delineated the furniture of each room, so that the plan 
 becomes extremely interesting for the elucidation of the domestic habits 
 of the period. Thus, for example, the hospitium for the distinguished 
 guests may be supposed to represent the usual arrangements of a large 
 house for that class of persons. The abbot's house is another variety of 
 the ordinary dwelling-house of the ninth century. The arrangements of 
 the farm buildings, in the like manner, must belong as much to the laity 
 as to the ecclesiastical order, so that this curious document is by no means 
 confined to the elucidation of monastic habits." For further information 
 on this subject, we must refer our readers to the Archaological Journal, 
 vol. v., pp. 85-117. 
 
 ABBOTS LODGING. The residence provided for the abbot in a 
 monastic establishment. In arrangement and accommodation it difi"ered 
 in accordance with the extent of the abbey and the time in which it 
 was built. It is perfectly safe to take it for granted that, in all 
 essential features, an abbot's lodging resembled the first-class dwelling- 
 house of the period. In the plan of the abbey of St. Gall (see Ahhey), 
 the residence of the abbot is situated on the north side of the church, 
 outside the monastery, and surrounded with a fence. It consists of two 
 buildings, one for the lodging of the abbot, and the other for his ser- 
 
[ ABUTMENT ] 
 
 16 
 
 vants. The principal building is of two stories, the lower of which is 
 divided into two rooms; one the abbot's sitting-room, furnished with 
 stove, benches, and presses, and opening into a covered way connected 
 with the church; the other the abbot's bed-room, fitted with eight beds, 
 a stove, bench, and such-like conveniences. This story has open porti- 
 coes on its east and west sides. The upper story contains a large 
 chamber and some smaller ones. Speaking of the abbot's lodgings, or 
 palatium, Mr. Willis says: — "According to the rule of S. Benedict, 
 there shall be a kitchen as well in the abbot's house as in the hos- 
 pitium, in order that the brethren may not be disturbed in their 
 arrangements by the unexpected entrance of strangers into the cloisters. 
 Accordingly, the servants' house contains the kitchen of the abbot, and 
 adjoining to it his cellar and provision store; behind these rooms three 
 chambers are provided for the domestics." 
 
 In England, the abbot's lodgings, in some instances, assumed large • 
 proportions, containing a private chapel, great hall, chamber, library, 
 several bed-rooms, with kitchen, ofiices, etc., attached. The abbot's 
 chapel remains at Gloucester, and the abbot's hall at Peterborough. 
 The latter is an important apartment, measuring about 96 feet by 36 
 feet. The chamber at Peterborough was also large, measuring about 
 99 feet by 30 feet. 
 
 ABSI8. Same signification as Apse. (See Apse.) 
 
 ABSORBENT GROUND. The term applied by artists to a surface 
 prepared with a coating of distemper composition, for the purpose of 
 absorbing the excess of oil with which the colours used in painting 
 are mixed. 
 
 ABUTMENT. A construction of stone, brick- work, or other mate- 
 rial, which receives the thrust or lateral pressure of an arch, vault, or 
 strut. Abutments form characteristic features in the architecture of 
 the middle ages, and great ingenuity and science are displayed in their 
 construction. An abutment properly calculated to resist the thrust of 
 an arch, vault, or strut, must have its statical weight considerably in 
 excess of the forces these exert upon it. It is not necessary that the 
 weight should be massed below the line of the thrust; it may be carried 
 above it when it is desirable that the construction below should not 
 assume large proportions. The middle age architects, bearing this fact 
 in view, developed some of the most picturesque features of their build- 
 ings to satisfactorily meet the requirements as regards statical weight. 
 See Buttress and Pinnacle. 
 
 In carpentry the term abutment is applied to a joint in which one piece 
 of timber joins or abuts against another at a right angle : the grain or 
 fibres of the receiving piece being practically parallel, and of the abutting 
 piece perpendicular to the joint. 
 
17 
 
 [ ACANTHUS ] 
 
 ACADEMIA. (Gr.) A grove or villa situated in the vicinity of 
 Ancient Athens, and used for the exhibition of public athletic sports and 
 gymnastic exercises. It is supposed by some to have derived its name 
 from a citizen of Athens, called Academus, who is said to have founded it 
 in the time of Theseus. According to others its name was derived from 
 Cadmus, who introduced the Greek alphabet. This was the academy 
 where Plato and the great philosophers of Greece assembled and taught 
 their systems. The grounds were adorned with temples, and cool and 
 shady groves, and within its precincts were the tombs of many Athenian 
 warriors. 
 
 ACANTHINE. A name applied to ornaments or decorative designs 
 formed from the acanthus leaf treated conventionally. 
 
 ACANTHUS. The name given to a leaf which was introduced for 
 ornament in ancient Greek art, and which has appeared, more or less 
 modified in form and general treatment, in several of the more important 
 succeeding styles of architecture. Even in the earliest examples of 
 the leaf, the treatment is of so conventional a nature that it is very 
 improbable that its origin would have been readily discovered by artists 
 had not Vitruvius pointed it out in a beautiful legend ; in the later 
 modifications, the task of tracing the origin would have been almost 
 hopeless. The legend alluded to may briefly be told thus: — A lovely 
 Athenian maid, just reaching womanhood, was seized with a disorder which 
 terminated fatally. She had a nurse who dearly loved her, and who, as a 
 simple mark of affection, after her death, gathered together the toys her 
 young mistress had prized most in her lifetime, and, placing them in a 
 basket, laid them on her grave, covering the top of the basket with a square 
 tile. As it chanced, the basket happened to be laid over a root of an 
 acanthus plant, which, in due season, sent forth its leaves. These, .finding 
 their way from under the basket, grew upwards round its sides until 
 their points came in contact with the overhanging corners of the tile, 
 when they gracefully coiled themselves into volutes. At this juncture the 
 accidental composition, fraught with much suggestion to an artistic eye, 
 happened to be seen by one Callimachus, a sculptor of great renown in 
 Athens, and he was so struck with it that he at once modelled some 
 capitals in its likeness for a building at Corinth, arranging symmetrical 
 acanthus leaves round a bell, which took the place of the basket, and 
 introducing volutes at the angles of an abacus, which represented the tile 
 covering. From these capitals are said to have sprung the Corinthian 
 order. 
 
 - The legend is pretty, and, whether there be any truth in it or not, it is 
 evident that the natural plant from which the Greek sculptors derived their 
 ideas for the foliage of the Corinthian capital is the Acanthus spinosus, 
 which grows in Greece and the islands of the Archipelago. Its leaf is 
 pinnatifid, with its lobes irregular and bidentate, displaying a complex and 
 
 c 
 
[ ACANTHUS ] 
 
 18 
 
 varied outline. It is highly probable that the study of the palm-leaf 
 capitals of Egyptian architecture suggested to the Greek artists the idea of 
 arranging the acanthus leaves round a circular spreading bell ; their own 
 invention supplying the abacus and the angle volutes which completed the 
 composition. 
 
 The Grecian sculptured acanthus is purely a conventional rendering, 
 displaying none of the freedom and irregularities of the natural leaf. It 
 follows, to a certain extent, the outline of the natural example, but departs 
 entirely from its structural composition. The acanthus, as found in the 
 capitals and terminal ornaments of the Greek buildings, has a broad base 
 line, from which all the principal veins start, curving gracefully upward to 
 the numerous lobes. In the natural leaf the veins of the lobes join the 
 centre vein at intervals corresponding to the size of the lobes, and the 
 latter do not grow in any regularity on both sides of the leaf. In the 
 sculptured leaf the beautiful modelling and regular disposition of the lobes 
 are departures from the natural model ; they are graduated from the base 
 to the summit, and, by their most prominent points, describe an outline 
 of great beauty. The divisions of the lobes are sharp pointed, and are 
 depressed towards their centre lines, forming angular flutings : these 
 
 1 
 
 are continued in graceful curves from the points of the divisions, through 
 the surface of the lobes, towards the base line, where they gradually lose 
 themselves in the hollows which mark the principal veins. This mode of 
 modelling the surface of the leaf imparted the greatest possible effect to 
 it, especially as it was to be seen almost invariably under a bright and 
 shadow-casting sunlight. The lobes are divided by sunk eyes, from which 
 raised pipings are carried down towards the base line, following, of course, 
 the curves of the lobe veins. The treatment of the leaf varies slightly 
 
19 
 
 [ ACANTHUS ] 
 
 in the several examples preserved to us, one of the most beautiful of which 
 is that shown in fig. 1, from the Ohoragic Monument of Lysicrates. 
 
 In Eoman art the acanthus differs materially from the severe and 
 refined Grecian type, being extremely luxurious in its treatment, and in 
 many instances exaggerated in its modelling. This is quite in keeping with 
 the general feeling of Eoman architecture ; and it is not to be wondered at 
 that the artists of Kome looked upon the Greek renderings of the foliage, 
 presented in the finest works at Athens and elsewhere, as too angular and 
 severe to accord with their luxurious ideas. 
 
 The acutely pointed bidentate lobes of the Greek leaf are never imitated 
 in the Eoman, the nearest approach to them being found in the capitals of 
 the Temple of Vesta; but as this building is understood to have been built 
 by Greeks, the resemblance presented is reasonably accounted for. In the 
 generality of Eoman examples the divisions of the lobes are rounded on 
 their sides, and obtusely pointed, as in the capitals of the Temple of Mars 
 Ultor, the Basihca of Antoninus, the Baths of Diocletian, the Arch of 
 Titus, and the Pantheon (fig. 2). In these leaves the divisions are 
 
 hollowed or scooped out, and have no indications of the angular fluting of 
 the Greek models. In the foliage of the Jupiter Stator capitals, the lobes 
 and their divisions take more flowing outlines and present compound 
 curves, and veins are marked down the centres of the divisions (fig. 3). 
 The effect of this foliage is graceful and essentially luxurious. There are 
 other varieties of lobe treatment to be found in Eoman work, as in the Arch 
 of Septimus Severus and the Temple of Vesta, at TivoH, but they do not 
 call for special illustration in an article like this. 
 
 The lobes of the Eoman acanthus, generally speaking, are softly 
 modelled and deeply concave, throwing the pipings of the eyes very 
 prominently forward, and thus creating heavy shadows in the hollows 
 
[ ACANTHUS ] 
 
 20 
 
 as they approach the base of the leaf. These dark shadows cut up 
 the field of the leaf in a very pronounced manner, and produce an efi'ect 
 entirely di£ferent from that of the Greek foliage. 
 
 3 
 
 It is a matter of doubt whether the Romans derived the ideas for 
 their treatment of the acanthus foliage from the variety of the natural 
 plant which grows in their own country, the Acanthus mollis, and which 
 does not display the same sharp and spiky outline as the Grecian 
 Acanthus spinosus; or whether they were inspired by the Greek exam- 
 ples, and modified them to suit their own debased and luxurious tastes. 
 This question may never be set at rest, but the chief argument in 
 favour of the latter idea lies in the fact that none of the best Roman 
 examples at all resemble the natural leaf of the Acanthus mollis. 
 
 In the styles of Christian architecture, which immediately followed the 
 Classic, the acanthus still appeared as the leading motive in their sculp- 
 tured ornamentation. In the Byzantine style and its ofi"shoots, as might 
 be expected, the Greek forms of the conventionalised leaf were followed as 
 models, the sharp-pointed divisions of the lobes and their angular grooving 
 being adhered to. The general form and treatment of the Greek acanthus 
 were, however, materially departed from. 
 
 In the Christian architecture of the West, which derived its inspiration 
 from Roman art, the acanthus also appears as the model for sculpture. 
 The overlapping lobe, with its rounded divisions, as presented in the foHage 
 of the Pantheon, the temple of Mars Ultor, or the Arch of Titus, and the 
 more elaborately outlined lobe of the leaves of the Arch of Septimus 
 Severus, are those which can be distinctly traced in the early architectures 
 ol Italy, Germany, and France. Occasionally, traces of Byzantine influ- 
 ence appear in Western art, and the Greek form shows itself, treated, how- 
 ever, with rather uncertain hand, and carried to no great extent. 
 
21 
 
 [ ACCOLADE ] 
 
 In the later periods of Christian architecture, the acanthus virtually died 
 out as a motive for ornament ; but with the opening of the Renaissance, 
 and notably during its best period, the acanthus was again treated as in 
 Classic art. 
 
 ACCESS. A passage, or any portion of a building designed for com- 
 munication between two or more apartments. 
 
 ACCESSORIES. Any ornaments or portions in an architectural com- 
 position introduced for the purpose of giving variety or richness to it, but 
 which, by design or accident, do not appear essential to the character or 
 utility of the structure. In painting, accessories may be described as 
 those objects which are in every way subordinate to the principal object 
 of a picture, but introduced for the purpose of enriching, explaining, or 
 giving force to the scene represented or the idea to be conveyed. 
 
 ACCOLADE. (Fr.) This word signifies literally an embrace. In 
 architecture it is employed to designate the splayed or moulded ogee curves 
 which ornament the external faces of the hntels of doors and windows in 
 buildings of late Gothic architecture. The simplest form of the accolade 
 is most usually found in French domestic architecture of the fifteenth 
 century, and generally consists of a plain splay, of the outline shown in 
 the accompanying illustration, sunk from the lower portion of the face of 
 the lintel, artistically bracing or connecting together the splays of the 
 jambs. The horizontal bed of the lintel is retained beyond the sinking of 
 
 the accolade. In fig. 1 is given a richly moulded example, from a door- 
 way of a house at Cluny, France. 
 
 The term is also applied by the French architects to the projecting and 
 moulded ogees which embrace and surmount the arches of the architecture 
 of the sixteenth century. For illustrations of these, and the earlier forms, 
 see Dictionnaire Raisonne de V Architecture Frangaise, par M. Viollet- 
 le-Duc. 
 
[ ACCOUPLEMENT ! 
 
 22 
 
 ACCOUDOIR. (Fr.) This word means a leaning place or support 
 for the elbows. In civil architecture it is applied to a balustrade, or wall 
 high enough to lean the arms upon, placed before a window or other 
 opening, on a retaining wall of a terrace, or between the pedestals of a 
 colonnade. In ecclesiastical architecture the term is used to designate the 
 partitions which divide the stalls placed in the choirs of cathedrals and 
 churches; and which are so formed as to give support to the arms when 
 the body is in a standing position or resting against the ledge of the 
 miserere. In early architecture they were formed simply from a thick 
 plank of wood, carved and moulded, as is illustrated by the remains of 
 stalls of the twelfth century found in the Cathedral of Ratzburg (fig. 1). 
 
 These interesting relics are fully illustrated by M. Eamee, and described 
 by M. Gailhabaud, to whose valuable work on architecture we are indebted 
 for the drawing of the stalls in a restored form, as shown in the above 
 illustration. 
 
 In later examples the accoudoirs are not formed from single flat planks, 
 but are fitted with a horizontal capping, moulded on its edge, and shaped 
 in curves, which, between the divisions, fit the back of the occupant while 
 standing, and which, over the divisions, spread towards the front, forming 
 round and roomy arm rests. (See Arm Rest and Stall.) 
 
 ACCOUPLEMENT. (Fr.) The French architects employ this term 
 to express the mode of coupling detached columns in modern architecture ; 
 that is, the placing together of two columns with only sufficient space 
 between them to prevent their respective bases and capitals touching each 
 
23 
 
 [ ACERRA ] 
 
 other. This practice does not appear to have any sanction given it by 
 ancient art. On this subject, De Quincy remarks as follows : — " Accouple- 
 ment was unknown to the ancients, and no satisfactory example has yet 
 been found in the numerous remains of their monuments of all ages and 
 countries, for it was by mistake that Serlio, and those who repeated it after 
 him, maintained that the columns of the Arch at Pola were coupled. The 
 modern travellers who have lately measured the edifices of that place have 
 all corrected the error of Serlio. A mistake was made by others in believ- 
 ing that they found, in the small Temple of Spoleto, an ancient authority 
 in favour of the coupling of columns. In this case, the coupling, if it can 
 be called such, exists between the pilaster which forms the angle of the 
 cella, or wall of the pronaos, and the column of the peristyle. But that 
 pilaster must be considered only as the antae, and though the disposition is 
 not a very happy one, nothing can be deduced from it in support of the 
 practice of coupling columns, so much the more as the pilaster is not even 
 isolated from the adjoining column. Wood & Dawkins, in the Ruins of 
 Palmyra, have, however, shown us examples favourable to the system, 
 but as their plans are not accompanied by measurements, and as we are 
 warranted, from all the details of their travels, in distrusting the fidelity 
 of their elevations, we cannot accept as proofs drawings made in haste 
 and wanting in the authenticity necessary for such works. 
 
 However, the small number of coupled columns which we notice in the 
 drawings of the English travellers, are found against walls, like those of 
 the peristyle of the Louvre ; but in the numerous colonnades yet standing 
 amongst the ruins spoken of, we can see no coupled columns; on the contrary, 
 they are all of them disposed and spaced in equal inter-columinations, so 
 that the authority, at its best, must only be looked upon as unique, and 
 as giving no sanction to the modern abuse. 
 
 We must distinguish, in what are usually called coupled columns, more 
 than one variety of disposition. For example, we distinguish columns 
 called coupled from those called by some geminated, that is to say, those 
 which are associated, but separated by a considerable interval. Although 
 such columns may be disposed two by two, they are removed from the true 
 coupling in being usually employed, not as isolated columns, but as leaning 
 against flat surfaces of walls. In that fashion some geminated columns 
 are to be seen on the piers of certain ancient triumphal arches." 
 
 ACCUBITUS. The name given to an apartment, sometimes attached 
 to a large church, in which the principal officiating priests retired to rest at 
 any time during the day. 
 
 ACERRA. {Lat.) A small box, of square or oblong form, used by the 
 Romans for holding perfumes or incense at their feasts and sacrifices ; and 
 also a portable altar upon which perfumes were burnt before a corpse 
 previous to burial. It is frequently represented in sculptures, and is orna- 
 mented with various devices, showing that it was looked upon as an object 
 
[ ACROPOLIS ] 
 
 24 
 
 of considerable importance, Acerra, or Acerna, are names given to the 
 vessels used by the Latin church for holding incense. They have been, by 
 some writers, used to designate the thurible, in which the incense is burnt. 
 
 ACORN. The seed of the oak tree. In architecture, the name is 
 applied to knobs or other ornaments which resemble the natural seed. 
 In ornamental sculpture or carving the acorn very frequently appears. 
 It has been used in Classic architecture in lieu of the egg for the enrich- 
 ment of the echinus ; and in late English Gothic work, acorns along with 
 the leaves of the oak, formed favourite and characteristic enrichments. 
 Diaper work of the Decorated period, composed of acorns and leaves, is to be 
 found in Lincoln cathedral (fig. 1). Crockets of the same period, formed 
 
 1 of^ 
 
 '.V 
 
 of groups of four acorns and three leaves, exist in Exeter cathedral ; 
 and running ornaments, into which the acorn enters, are to be found in 
 Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, and other buildings of the 
 Perpendicular period. 
 
 ACR0LITHU8. {Gr.) The name given to statues whose heads, hands, 
 and feet were of marble, while their draped bodies were of wood or other 
 materials, most probably decorated with colour and gilding. Yitruvius tells 
 us that the sculptors antecedent to Phidias made only the extremities 
 of their statues of pure white marble, and the bodies of bronze or gilt 
 wood. Phidias himself is said to have executed a Pallas in this style 
 of art. 
 
 ACROPODIUM. {Lat.) A term generally understood to signify the 
 pedestal or base upon which a statue is supported. 
 
 ACROPOLIS. {Gr.) In the generality of instances the important 
 cities of Greece were built upon hills or rocky places, and each city had 
 an upper division, or citadel, erected upon the most elevated portion. This 
 
25 
 
 L ADAM 
 
 citadel was termed the Acropolis (higher or upper city). Amongst the 
 several which we read of, the most celebrated was the Acropolis of Athens. 
 It was erected upon a commanding rock, fortified with massive walls, and 
 richly adorned with temples, statues, and other works of art. Important 
 remains of the temples which were built here during the best period of 
 Greek art still exist, and are objects of the greatest interest to the student 
 of architecture. 
 
 AC ROTE R I A. In Classic architecture, the pedestals placed on the 
 centre and extremities of pediments for the reception of statuary. This 
 
 term has been incorrectly applied to certain ornaments which rise from 
 the upper edges of copings and parapets, and also to the pedestals 
 which divide balustrades. 
 
 ADAM. In all periods of Christian art the various incidents of the 
 Creation, as set forth in the first chapter of Genesis, afforded favourite 
 subjects for representation, in sculpture, mosaic, painting, and stained 
 glass; and great ingenuity was exercised by artists in devising graphic 
 modes of delineating, or of conveying intelligibly to the eye, the several 
 works of the first six days. Three series of representations of the greatest 
 interest exist — one of the eleventh century, in the mosaic decoration of a 
 cupola, in the vestibule of St. Mark's, at Venice; another in the mural 
 decorations in the chapel of St. Peter, in the Palace at Palermo; and the 
 third in the mosaics of the Cathedral of Monreale, executed during the 
 early part of the thirteenth century. (See Creation.) 
 
 At present, we have particularly to speak of Adam, the first man, as he 
 has been treated in art works. His first appearance is of course his 
 creation, and in that he is represented in two stages — one as formed from 
 the ground, but lifeless, and the other as receiving the breath of life from 
 the Deity. 
 
 So late as the fourteenth century the inert figure is introduced; the 
 breathing "into his nostrils the breath of life" is variously represented; 
 in the St. Mark's cupola, the Deity, as the second person of the Trinity, 
 is giving the "living soul" to Adam, who stands upright before Him. 
 The soul is depicted as a small winged figure leaving the right hand of God 
 and ascending towards Adam's nostrils. In later works, such as iJhose at 
 Monreale, a more literal reading of the Scripture account is resorted to, 
 
[ ADAM ] 
 
 26 
 
 and Adam is represented as receiving directly the life-giving breath from 
 the lips of his Creator. 
 
 In the Ghiberti gates at Florence, Adam is modelled in the act of rising 
 from the ground at the touch of God, who holds his left hand, and stoops 
 forward, as in the act of imparting the breath of life. 
 
 Adam, in the garden of Eden, has not been a favourite subject with 
 artists ; a solitary naked figure amidst trees, or surrounded with beasts and 
 birds, being all that Scripture sanctioned. 
 
 The first important event in Adam's life was the creation of Eve, from 
 a rib which the Lord Grod took from his side while asleep; and, as 
 might be expected, the earlier representations of this event were rendered 
 very literally — Adam being shown in deep sleep, and the Creator in the act 
 of extracting a rib from his side. In later times artists left the literal 
 reading of the words of Scripture and introduced another rendering of the 
 subject ; it doubtless struck them that, in strict accordance with the text, — 
 "and the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept; 
 and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof ; and 
 the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and 
 brought her unto the man" — two independent events had to be portrayed 
 before the creation of the woman could be fully set forth to the eye ; and 
 that the early artists, in simply representing the first event, namely, the 
 extraction of the rib, failed to tell clearly Avhat was aimed at. Under this 
 conviction the later artists endeavoured to combine both events in one, 
 with a desire to set forth, in the plainest possible manner, the power of the 
 Creator. At their hands, therefore, the subject assumed this form — Adam 
 is stretched upon the ground in sleep, while the Creator, standing by, 
 raises a female figure which issues from his side. In the generality of 
 instances, this conventional rendering is grotesque and displeasing. There 
 are instances, however, where artistic skill has overcome the great diffi- 
 culties which beset this subject, and one notable example is to be seen in 
 the Ghiberti gates, where Adam is reclining, with his head supported on 
 his left arm, and Eve, a graceful figure, appears borne upwards by angels 
 towards the Creator, who holds her right arm in one hand and blesses her 
 with the other. No opening is shown in Adam's side, and although 
 consistency is given to the subject by the position of Eve's lower limbs, 
 there is nothing which destroys the idea that her creation was directly 
 the result of the Divine will while Adam slept. This composition 
 may in reality have been intended by Ghiberti to depict the second and 
 culminating event in Eve's creation, the extraction of the rib from the 
 sleeping Adam being understood to have previously taken place. Adam's 
 side is closed up, and the position of Eve's feet, which are behind his 
 side, towards the shoulder, may have been devised to indicate her 
 relation to him, but with no desire to overthrow the literal reading of the 
 text. 
 
 In representations of the Temptation and Fall, Adam is variously 
 treated ; he is, however, usually depicted as a man in the prime of life, 
 
27 
 
 AEGICRANES ] 
 
 with expressions of yielding reluctance, in the act of receiving the forbidden 
 fruit from the hand of Eve, or in the act of helping himself from the 
 houghs of the tree. In the succeeding events, Adam commonly appears, 
 in early art, clothed with skins, the "coats of skins" which the Lord 
 God made and gave to the fallen pair. In late representations of the 
 expulsion from Eden, Adam is naked, although Scripture does not 
 sanction his being so treated. The last scene in which Adam appears in 
 art works is that in which he assumes the lot of a bread-winner, and is 
 accordingly depicted toihng at various agricultural operations. Adam is 
 now literally a man of sorrows, and is aged and worn down with labour and 
 care. 
 
 ADIT. (Latin, Aditus.) A passage or entrance to a building. The 
 Romans used the term to signify the entrances to the stairs of a theatre or 
 circus. It is now commonly used in mining phraseology. 
 
 ADYTUM. (Lat.) The secret or holy chamber in ancient heathen 
 temples, into which none but the priests were permitted to enter, and from 
 which the oracles were delivered. The adytum is supposed to have been 
 devoid of any aperture save that used for entrance and exit, and to have 
 been raised some steps above the floor of the cella. The entrance appears 
 sometimes to have been through a subterranean passage. The term has 
 sometimes been used in conne3don with Chrii5tian churches, where it 
 signifies the sacrarium or chancel in which the altar is placed. 
 
 AECCLE8I0LA. A term understood to mean a chapel subordinate 
 to a mother church. In this sense it is frequently used in Domesday 
 Book. 
 
 AEDES. (Lat.) The name given by the Romans to an important 
 town residence. It was also understood to signify an inferior description 
 of temple, one which was not formally consecrated, and which might be 
 put to profane uses. Such a building was* designated aedes sacka. The 
 term has been used by medifBval writers to denote a chapel, but they have 
 sometimes applied it to a house. 
 
 AEDICULA. (Lat.) A very small house or temple. The name given 
 to a shrine placed in a temple to receive the statue of a deity. The term 
 w as also applied in Classic architecture to those recesses in walls which 
 held small altars, or the statues of the Lares and Penates. In Christian 
 art it has been applied to the models of buildings, carried in the hands of 
 tlie founders of important churches, when they are represented in sculpture, 
 piainting, or stained glass. 
 
 AEGICRANES. (Gr.) The heads or skulls of rams, used in Classic 
 architecture as sculptured enrichments for temples and altars. 
 
[ AGATHA, ST. ] 
 
 28 
 
 AEOLUS. Ill mythology, the (iod of the Winds. He is represented as 
 confining all the winds in an immense cavern, allowing them occasionally 
 to escape to blow over the lands and waters of the world. 
 
 AERARIUM. (Lat.) The name given by the Komans to a public 
 treasury. 
 
 AERUGO. (Lat.) The term used by the Eomans for the bright green 
 surface which appeared upon works executed in bronze when exposed to 
 the action of the atmosphere. It was considered to enhance the beauty of 
 statues and other works of art, and was accordingly imitated. When of 
 natural production it was termed aerugo nobilis. It is a carbonate of 
 copper. The artificial aerugo was produced by wine refuse, and was simply 
 verdigris or acetate of copper. It has been termed abruca. 
 
 AES. (Lat.) An alloy of copper and tin, commonly known as bronze. 
 It was very extensively used by the ancients for works of art. 
 
 AESCULAPIUS. In mythology, the God of Medicine. He is repre- 
 sented as an aged man, bearded, and leaning upon a staff, round vhich a 
 serpent is twined. 
 
 AETIAIOI. (Gr.) The term used by the architects of Gieece to 
 designate the slabs of marble used for facing the tympanum of tie pedi- 
 ment of a temple. 
 
 AETOMA. (Gr.) The name given by the Greeks to the inner tri- 
 angular portion or tympanum of the pediment or fastigium of a temple. 
 (See Aetos.) 
 
 AETOS. (Gr.) The term was derived from uetos, an eagle, and applied 
 by the Greek architects to designate the pediment of a temple. Two 
 reasons are given by writers for its adoption. Some believe that as it was 
 customary to place representations of an eagle on the highest points of 
 temples, especially those sacred to Jupiter, the name was given to tie most 
 elevated portions, even when no bird was introduced, and afterwaids was 
 applied to the pediments. Others believe the name to have been suggested 
 by the resemblance of a pediment to the outline of an eagle with its wings 
 outspread laterally ; the idea first occurring to the minds of the Greek 
 architects on observing the winged balls, or sacred falcons with spreading 
 wings, which surmounted the entrances of the Egyptian temples. 
 
 AGATHA, ST. Virgin and Martyr. In Christian art this saint is 
 usually represented as young and beautiful, bearing in her hands one or 
 more of the emblems of her painful martyrdom. Agatha was a maiden of 
 Catania in Sicily, who sufi"ered death, by the orders of Quintianus, .dug of 
 
29 
 
 [ AGNES, ST. ] 
 
 the island, because she would not listen to his dishonourable proposals, 
 steadfastly adhering to the faith of Christ. She was cruelly tortured by 
 having her breasts torn and cut by iron pincers and shears. According to 
 the legend, these were miraculously healed and restored by ointment 
 brought to her prison cell by St. Peter. On Quintianus hearing of her 
 recovery, he ordered her to be burned. Therefore the emblems of St. 
 Agatha are a pincers or shears, a female breast, held in the jaws of the 
 pincers, or cut off and carried on a dish, or on a book held in her hand. 
 She is also depicted with a chafing dish by her side, with executioners 
 cutting off her breasts; or upon a funeral pile. When represented as the 
 patron saint of Sicily, in addition to some emblem of her martyrdom, 
 she generally carries a palm branch. She is usually invested with a 
 long bridal veil, and is sometimes crowned as the bride of Christ. There 
 are three churches in England dedicated to St. Agatha : at Brightwell, 
 Berkshire, and at Easby and Gilling, Yorkshire. In the Roman, Old 
 English (Sarum use), French, German, Scottish and Greek calendars, 
 her day is February 5, the day on which it is understood she suffered 
 martyrdom, in the year a.d. 251. 
 
 AGNES, ST. Virgin and Martyr. In Christian art this saint has 
 been specially favoured. Representations of her date from the early 
 part of the fourth century, and appear in every successive period of 
 Christian art, from that time down to its decadence. Her legend is one 
 of the oldest in the Church, and may be briefly outlined thus:— Agnes 
 was a Roman maiden of wondrous beauty, and endowed with rare gifts of 
 kindness, meekness, and innocence. At the age of thirteen, so great were 
 her perfections of body and mind, that the son of the Roman prefect 
 fell deeply in love on first beholding her. He sought to marry her, but 
 she refused to become the wife of any man, saying that she was espoused 
 to one far above any earthly lover; on hearing this, his grief was so 
 intense that it caused a severe illness, which the physicians pronounced to 
 be the result of unrequited affections. On questioning his son, the 
 prefect, learning how matters stood, went to the parents of Agnes, and 
 anxiously besought them to give their daughter in marriage; but the 
 maiden firmly refused to wed with any man. Enraged at what appeared 
 to him to be an unreasonable repulse, Sempronius, for such was the 
 prefect's name, sought to learn whom it was that Agnes said she loved, 
 and on being assured that she was a Christian, and that the lover of whom 
 she spoke was the Lord Jesus Christ, he had her seized and bound with 
 chains, threatening her with cruel tortures and death if she did not 
 renounce her faith and worship idols. She steadfastly refused to become 
 the servant of false gods ; and on this he had her carried to an infamous 
 place, intending her to be subjected to outrage. A miracle took place, for, 
 on her being stripped of her garments, her hair immediately formed a 
 covering for her whole person. On seeing this, even the brutal soldiers 
 became awe-struck, and, in fear, locked her up in a room. While in this 
 
[ AGNUS DEI ] 
 
 30 
 
 place of confinement, Agnes prayed that she might be spared further 
 indignity, asking rather to die as a martyr for the Lord she loved ; as she 
 prayed, a shining garment was given her, and her prison was filled with 
 light. At this time the son of Sempronius visited her, and was struck 
 down as one dead on beholding her, but was restored to health in the 
 presence of his father and relatives by the prayers of Agnes, Sempronius, 
 struck with remorse, now tried to release and restore the maiden to her 
 family ; but, alas, the priests and people claimed her life, calling her a 
 sorceress. She was accordingly thrown upon a pile of burning fagots, but 
 the flames were miraculously extinguished ; on seeing this, one of the 
 executioners killed her with his sword. So died in holy martyrdom the 
 young and pure Saint Agnes, on January 21, a.d. 804. 
 
 In Christian art, St. Agnes is almost invariably represented with a 
 lamb, which is commonly placed by her side, but is sometimes held in her 
 hand, or is laid upon a book which she carries. The lamb has evidently 
 an intimate connexion with her name, which may have been originallv 
 given her as expressive of the lamb-like gentleness and spotless purity of 
 her life. The incidents of the martyrdom of St. Agnes have also supplied 
 artists with further emblems. She has been represented carrying a 
 sword, the instrument of her death ; with a sword in her throat, denoting 
 that she was beheaded ; with a sword in her hand, and flames at her feet ; 
 with a burning pile near her ; vnth. a palm branch, the usual emblem of 
 glorified martyrdom ; and with a book, expressive of her faith in the Holy 
 Gospel of Christ. She is sometimes depicted clad in her radiant garment, 
 or attended by an angel, who is clothing her with a robe; or by angels, who 
 are covering her with theu* hair. At other times she is represented naked, 
 veiled only with her miraculous growth of hair. Both St. Jerome and St. 
 Augustine write about St. Agnes. Two churches are dedicated to her 
 in Eome, and two bear her name in England, one at Adstock, Bucking- 
 hamshire, and the other at West Bilney, in Norfolk. In the Roman, 
 French, Spanish and Grerman calendars, St. Agnes' day falls on Jaauary 
 21st; in both the Old English (Sarum use) and the Scottish calendars 
 she has two days, the first on January 21st, and the second on Jaauary 
 28th. Tillemont conjectures that the second festival commemorates her 
 stated miraculous appearance to her sorrowing parents eight days after her 
 martyrdom. 
 
 AGNUS DEI. The symbol of our Lord, which has been used in all 
 departments of Christian art. It is, perhaps, at once the most beaitiful 
 and appropriate symbol, and one which has the authority of both tha Old 
 and New Testaments for its adoption. Christ is typified by the Lamb 
 under the Mosaic law, and the Prophets in several instances employed the 
 symbol in speaking of the future Messiah. In the New Testament 
 writings the image is again used in a more direct manner. In the Gospel 
 according to St. John, i. 29, the Baptist exclaims, on seeing Jesus, 
 ''Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world." 
 
31 
 
 [ AGNUS DEI ] 
 
 In the catacombs many examples of the lamb are to be found, which 
 differ somewhat in their details. These representations appear both in 
 fresco and bas-relief. In the earliest examples, the lamb is depicted in a 
 standing position, devoid of the nimbus, but in some instances its head is 
 surmounted by a small cross, or the Greek monogram of the name of 
 Christ (X crossed by a P). 
 
 The most beautiful representations of the Agnus Dei are those in 
 which it is depicted invested with an inscribed nimbus, standing upon a 
 small hill, from which four streams are flowing. This composition is full 
 of symbolic meaning ; the hill represents the Church of Christ — the moun- 
 tain of God's House ; the streams, the four Holy Gospels — the four rivers 
 of Paradise, ever flowing through and invigorating the pastures of the 
 church on earth. The inscribed nimbus usually presents the Greek 
 monogram, associated with the alpha (a) and omega (co). 
 
 After the sixth century the lamb became somewhat altered in general 
 appearance. In works of architectural sculpture, painting, embroidery, &c., 
 executed since that date, the mount and rivers are not introduced ; the 
 lamb appears standing on the ground, with one fore leg uplifted, holding 
 a cross, symbolical of the Passion, and a small cross-adorned banner, 
 symbolical of Christ's victory triumphant over Death and Hell, or is 
 depicted with the blood flowing from a wound in its breast into a chalice ; 
 it is universally invested with the divine nimbus. 
 
 An example of the symbol occurs in a sculpture of the tenth century, 
 which has the nimbus, with a small cross marked on each of its three rays 
 
 1 
 
 When intended to set forth the lamb of the Apocalypse, it is furnished 
 with the "Seven Horns and Seven Eyes," which are in themselves symbols 
 of the Seven Spirits of God, and express omniscience and Almighty 
 power. 
 
 The Agnus Dei also appears in portraitures of St. John the Baptist, 
 represented as lying upon a book held in his hand, or in an aureole, as 
 in the statue of the Saint in Chartres Cathedral (twelfth century). 
 (See Aureole.) 
 
[ AGRAFE ] 
 
 32 
 
 AGORA. An open space, in an ancient Greek city, used as a market 
 place, or for public meetings or promenade. The agora was surrounded by 
 public buildings and porticoes. " Thus, in the agora of Megalopolis, 
 Pausanias first describes the portico called the Phillipeon, then a temple of 
 Mercury, after which another portico ; he then describes the myropolis, or 
 portico of perfumes, then an enclosure sacred to the Lycian Jupiter, then 
 Bouleuterion, or council-house, then another portico, called Aristandrea, 
 from its founder, then a temple to Jupiter Soter, then an enclosure sacred 
 to Ceres and Proserpine, who are called the great Goddesses, then the 
 Gymnasium, which, like that at Ephesus, is on the west side, after which 
 is the portico of Philip, already described. In a similar manner was the 
 agora of Elis surrounded by public buildings and porticoes, though 
 Pausanias states it was of ancient foundation, and unlike those of the 
 lonians. He describes porticoes, separated from each other, but having 
 passages through them. That towards the south was triple, and built 
 after the Doric manner. Adjoining this portico was the portico called 
 Corcyraica, built with spoils from Corcyra. It was also after the Doric 
 fashion, and consisted of a double portico, with a wall along the middle, on 
 each side of which were statues. By the side of this portico, but separated 
 from it by a road, was the Hellanodicon. Other buildings, which he 
 describes either about the agora, or within its circuit, were the tomb of 
 Achilles, a splendid temple of Apollo Acesius, a temple of the Graces, a 
 temple of Silenus, the sepulchre of Oxylus, and the mansion of the Sixteen 
 Women ; and, in addition to these, he enumerates a great number of altars 
 and statues." * 
 
 Mr. Falkener, in the work from which the above quotation is made, 
 describing the city of Ephesus, states that it contained three agorae. One, 
 called by him for the sake of distinction the Agora Civilis, was large, 
 surrounded by the various public buildings of the city, and had a lake in 
 its centre. So far as regards the last feature, the great agora of Ephesus 
 was probably unique. In some Grecian cities a stream of water ran through 
 the agora, as at Celsense, Sardis, and Teos. The second, or Agora Venalis, 
 was used as a market place, and, according to Mr. Falkener's investiga- 
 tions, was in the form of a square surrounded with a colonnade, and shops 
 and stalls. It was entered on the west side by a long pathway, with stalls 
 on both sides. The third agora was also used as a market. It was much 
 smaller than the Agora Venalis, and opened off the south side of the Agora 
 Civilis. 
 
 AGRAFE. (Fr.) This word signifies literally a brooch or clasp, and 
 is, therefore, given to any ornament which makes or seems to make a 
 union between parts, especially of articles of clothing. 
 
 In architecture, the term is applied to the sculptured enrichments which 
 project from the keystones of arches in ancient Roman and Renaissance 
 
 * Ephesus and the Temple of Diana, by Edward Falkener, p. 64. 
 
33 
 
 [ AILE ] 
 
 architecture. The agrafe here forms a sort of ornamental clasp, having 
 the effect of uniting the divisions of the archivolt cut by the accentuated 
 keystone. In modern architecture the agrafe has been designed in a great 
 variety of fantastical forms, many of which altogether destroy its true 
 artistic purpose. A characteristic example of the agrafe in ancient art 
 may be seen in the Arch of Titus at Kome. 
 
 In building, the term is applied to metal clamps used for the purpose of 
 securely attaching heavy stones together, in cornices, copings, and other 
 portions of the masonry of buildings. 
 
 AGREEMENT. The term used by architects to denote that condition 
 of perfect accord which exists, either between the leading feature of a 
 structure and its subordinate parts, or between one detail and another. 
 Agreement is secured by a just balance of size, proper distribution of 
 ornament, or by skilful contrast. It is properly an sesthetical condition, 
 and cannot be arrived at by any system of rules. 
 
 AGRIPPA. One of the Sibyls. Represented in Christian art as fifteen 
 years of age. Her emblem is a scourge. (See Sihyl.) 
 
 AIGUILLE. (Fr.) The term applied by French architects to all those 
 portions of middle-age buildings which assume the acutely pyramidal form, 
 such as spires, pinnacles, and the like. It is also applied to the Egyptian 
 Obelisk. Aiguilla, a late Latin word, has the same general signification. 
 
 AILE, OR AISLE. The lateral division or sub-division of a church, 
 which is partially separated from the main portion or body of the building 
 by columns or piers. The term has been incorrectly applied to the centre 
 portion, as well as to the lateral divisions. It is not uncommon to hear the 
 nave of a church spoken of as the " centre aile," or the "broad aile " ; and, 
 both in conversation and in works on architectural subjects, buildings are 
 frequently described as being three-ailed or five-ailed, as the case may be. 
 Such expressions are strictly incorrect, for, properly speaking, an aile must 
 be an addition to, and an adjunct subordinate to, the main body of a 
 building . As it. will be seen farther on, an aile may belong to a nave, a 
 choir, a chancel, or a transept ; and, for sake of distinction, may be called a 
 nave-aile, a choir-aile, a chancel-aile, or a transept- aile, but it derives its 
 true signification from its being subordinate to these greater divisions ; and 
 hence it would be obviously incorrect to apply the term, however qualified, 
 to the nave, choir, or transept proper. 
 
 It is also incorrect to apply the term aile to the many divisions of a 
 hypostyle hall, as that at Karnac ; or to the numerous divisions of equal 
 dimensions to be found in ancient mosques, as that at Cordoba, in Spain. 
 
 Ailes are almost invariably found in cathedrals and churches of any 
 magnitude which were built during the middle ages; and, indeed, are 
 
 E 
 
[ AILE ] 
 
 34 
 
 amongst their most characteristic features, imparting picturesqueness 
 externally, and richness in disposition of parts, and beauty of proportion 
 internally. 
 
 The earliest buildings in which the aile occurs, in the sense it is strictly 
 understood by English architects, are the civil basilicas of ancient Rome, 
 and those ecclesiastical basilicas founded by Constantino in the fourth 
 century. The finest example of the civil basilica was that of Trajan, the 
 main portion of which was a parallelogram, with two ailes on each side and 
 at each end, divided from the centre portion, and each other, by rovs^s of 
 columns (fig. 1). In the ecclesiastical basilica of St. Paul, founded by 
 
 m M 
 m ^ 
 m M 
 m ^ 
 
 1 
 
 Constantino, a similar disposition of ailes occurs at both sides, but not at 
 the extremities of the nave. The great basilica of St. Peter, which was 
 erected prior to that of St. Paul, and which stood where the present cathedral 
 stands, had also four ailes. 
 
 All the later basilicas, with one unimportant exception, had a single aile 
 on each side of their naves. 
 
 In the cathedrals and churches of Great Britain, it is seldom that more 
 than two ailes are to be found. As regards the cathedrals, there is only one 
 which was designed originally with four ailes, the cathedral at Elgin, the 
 plan of which is given here (fig. 2). Chichester Cathedral has also four 
 ailes to the nave, but the two outer ones were not contemplated in the 
 original plan. As they were additions, built at a much later date than the 
 nave and its two ailes, the building as it stands cannot strictly be quoted as 
 an example of a four-ailed cathedral. The nave of Elgin Cathedral, 
 therefore, remains the only true example in this country. 
 
 While the English architects may be said to have been invariable in their 
 custom of designing the naves and choirs of their cathedrals with single 
 ailes on both sides, they do not appear to have had any recognised system 
 with reference to the application of ailes to the transepts. Examples exist 
 entirely devoid of them, as at Worcester, Chichester, Norwich, and Exeter ; 
 with an aile on one side only, as at Salisbury, Peterborough, Durham, and 
 Lincoln ; with single ailes on both sides, as at Ely, York, and Wells. 
 Westminster Abbey has an aile on both sides of its north transept, and on 
 the east side only of its south transept. 
 
 m 
 m 
 
35 
 
 [ AILE ] 
 
 As the apsidal termination was very seldom adopted by English architects, 
 the choir-ailes usually terminate square at their eastern ends ; but in those 
 cathedrals where the apse has been adopted, they sweep round and join, 
 forming a continuous path from one limb of the transept to another, as at 
 Westminster, Canterbury, and Norwich. 
 
 There are a few examples of churches in England which have more than 
 two ailes ; for instance, the church of St. Mary, Taunton, has four — two on 
 each side ; and the churches of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford ; Higham 
 Ferrars, Northamptonshire ; Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire ; Bloxham, 
 Oxfordshire ; and Yelvertoft, Northamptonshire, have three ailes — two on 
 one side and one on the other. There are numerous churches which have 
 only one aile, placed either on the north or south of their respective 
 naves. 
 
 Turning our survey to the Continental cathedrals, we find several examples 
 with four ailes ; for instance, the cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, Beauvais, 
 
[ AILERON ] 
 
 36 
 
 Troyes, Cologne, and Seville, have four ailes to both their naves and choirs ; 
 the cathedrals of Chartres, Reims, Amiens, Le Mans, and Coutances have 
 double ailes to their choirs only ; and the cathedral of Milan has four ailes 
 to its nave. Antwerp Cathedral furnishes an example of a nave with three 
 ailes on each side. 
 
 The addition of lateral chapels to the ailes of many French cathedrals, 
 impart to the interior perspective much the same effect as an extra aile 
 would do, especially when viewed from the opposite side of the building. 
 This is strikingly to be observed in the cathedrals of Paris, Coutances, 
 Tours, and Rouen. Amongst the best examples of two-ailed cathedrals 
 are those of Laon, Noyon, Soissons, Sens, Rouen, Seez, and Bayeux. 
 The cathedrals of Chartres, Laon, Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, 
 Rouen, Cologne, and Milan have transepts, with a single aile on both sides ; 
 the cathedral of Sens has an aile on the east side only of its transept; 
 and the cathedrals of Paris, Noyon, Troyes, Tours, Mans, Bayeux, and 
 Coutances have transepts devoid of ailes. All the Continential examples 
 mentioned above, with the exception of the cathedrals of Laon and Seville, 
 have the apsidal termination to their choirs, with the ailes continued 
 round. 
 
 In the generality of examples of four-ailed buildings, the ailes are vaulted 
 or roofed internally at one height ; the two most remarkable exceptions to 
 this rule are to be found in the cathedrals of Bourges and Milan. In the 
 Cathedral of Bourges, the inner ailes are a little more than half the height 
 of the nave, while the outer ones are somewhat less than a quarter the 
 height of the nave, and accordingly less than half the height of the inner 
 ailes, into which they directly open. In the case of Milan Cathedral, the 
 relative proportions are very different ; there the inner ailes are nearly 
 two-thirds the height of the nave, and the outer ones about one-half 
 its height. 
 
 At the present day the term under review is generally spelt Aile, 
 or, less correctly. Aisle ; in old English documents, however, it is found 
 in the following forms: — Isle, Ele, Yle, Hble, Elyng, Alley, 
 
 HVLING, &c. 
 
 AILERON. (Fr.) Term applied by the French architects to a descrip- 
 tion of buttress which takes the form of an inverted console, either with 
 one or two volutes (fig. 1). Amongst the most noticeable examples of this 
 buttress are those which support the dome of Sta Maria della Salute, at 
 Venice, erected in 1631. They are constructed of such large dimensions 
 as to extend over the aile, and consist of single volutes where they spring 
 from the aile wall, carry pedestals and statues, and terminate in pilaster 
 capitals under the entabalature of the dome. 
 
 The term should, generally speaking, be applied to the buttresses, when 
 of small dimensions, such as those frequently found at the sides of dormer- 
 windows, door-ways, and such like. 
 
 The small wings or guards which were worn on the shoulders during the 
 
[ ALABASTTIUM ] 
 
 37 
 
 thirteenth century were termed Ailekons or Ailettes. They were made of 
 leather, which was sometimes covered with cloth or silk, and richly orna- 
 
 1 
 
 mented with armorial bearings or other devices, and were secured to the 
 hauberk with laces or arming-points. 
 
 AIR TINT. In painting, that tint which is cast over the representa- 
 tions of natural objects to convey the impression of greater or lesser 
 distance. In nature, distant objects assume modified or even different 
 colours, according to the length and condition of the column of air which 
 intervenes between them and the eye. 
 
 ALA. {Lot.) This word literally signifies a wing. Vitruvius uses the word 
 to designate a small apartment which was placed on each side of the atrium 
 of a Roman dwelling-house, and which was open to it. The term has also 
 been applied to the lateral porticoes of peripteral temples, and to the lateral 
 walls of the court leading to the pronaos of an Egyptian temple. 
 
 ALABASTRUM. (Lat.) A vessel, in the shape of a pot or bottle, 
 formed of alabaster, and used by the ancients for holding perfumed oint- 
 ments. Although the term was derived originally from the material of 
 which these vessels were formed, it, in later times, was applied to vessels 
 of other materials, which were used for holding precious ointments. 
 Theocrites speaks of golden alabastra. Oriental alabaster was, however, 
 
1 ALBABIUM OPUS J 
 
 38 
 
 usually preferred for the manufacture of these vessels. Alabastra varied 
 much in shape, the most common one, however, being that of a bottle, with 
 a round end, tapering towards the neck and mouth ; they were also made 
 in the form of animals, the human figure or its limbs, and various other 
 devices. This term is sometimes written Alabastron. 
 
 ALBA GRETA. This term occurs in early treatises on Art, and usually 
 signifies pure chalk ; it, however, sometimes evidently means gypsum. 
 
 ALBAN, ST. The proto-martyr of Britain, was born of noble parents 
 in the city of Verulamium, which stood near the present town of St. Albans, 
 and was a place of considerable importance in Eoman times. St. Alban 
 was a pagan at the time Diocletian's edicts were first put in operation 
 against the Christians in Britain, and was converted by a priest of Caerleon, 
 named Amphibalus, who sought shelter and protection in St. Alban's house. 
 Amphibalus escaped, disguised in St. Alban's cloak, and the enraged 
 soldiers, who sought in vain for him, seized the Saint, and brought him 
 before the Koman judge. St. Alban was then put to the test, by being 
 ordered to sacrifice to the idols. This he refused to do, and was accord- 
 ingly ordered to be scourged, and afterwards beheaded. Legend states 
 that the martyrdom of St. Alban was attended by miraculous events, 
 amongst which was the sudden conversion of the executioner appointed, 
 and who was martyred along with the Saint. 
 
 In Christian Art, St. Alban is generally represented as youthful, of an 
 agreeable countenance, dressed in civil costume, and holding a sword in his 
 right hand and a long cross in his left. The sword, the instrument of his 
 martyrdom, and the cross, symbolical of his triumphant faith, are the 
 proper emblems of St. Alban. The Saint is sometimes depicted clad in 
 complete armour, crowned, and holding cross and sceptre ; or in ordinary 
 garments, with sword, palm-branch, and crucifix. 
 
 The heraldic bearings assigned (fifteenth century) to St. Alban, are — 
 Azure, a saltier, or. 
 
 On the spot of St. Alban's martyrdom, the venerable Bede says, *' a 
 church was built of wonderful workmanship." The great Benedictine 
 Abbey of St. Alban was afterwards erected upon the site of the original 
 church ; and its abbot was mitred, and had precedence over all other 
 abbots, on the ground that the patron saint of his abbey was the first saint 
 and martyr of Britain. In the Old English (Sarum use), the Old English, 
 and the Scottish Calendars, his day is June 22nd. In the Calendar of the 
 English Church his day is June 17th. The year of his martyrdom is not 
 clearly fixed, and, according to different historians, ranges between the 
 years a.d. 286 and 305. 
 
 ALBARIUM OPUS. (Lat.) There is some little uncertainty about 
 the exact nature of the work to which this term was applied. It is by some 
 supposed to have been a superior kind of whitewash, prepared from lime 
 
39 
 
 [ ALEOIS] 
 
 made from marble. A passage in Vitruvius speaks of albarium opus as 
 highly suitable for the ceilings of baths, but states that another description 
 of work, called tectorium opus, may be used as a substitute. There is 
 great probability that the albarium opus was a hard kind of plaster or 
 stucco, capable of receiving a highly-finished surface, such as would resist 
 the vapour of a bath without being painted. This term is written in late 
 Latin, Album Opus. 
 
 ALBE. A long white linen garment, worn by priests during the cele- 
 bration of the mass. In early times it appears to have been quite plain, 
 but from about the twelfth century it was frequently ornamented on the 
 edge of the skirt and on the cuffs of the sleeves with rich embroideries, 
 called apparels. It was bound round the body by a broad embroidered 
 belt or a simple cord. 
 
 ALB US. The name given, by early writers on Art, to a white pigment, 
 generally understood to be white lead. 
 
 ALCHA. A name given, during the middle ages, to a room, in a large 
 establishment, set apart for keeping the drinking vessels. 
 
 ALCOVE. Term commonly applied to a recessed portion of an apart- 
 ment, or to a smaller apartment built out from a greater, and connected 
 therewith by a large arched or lintelled opening. In its strictest sense it is 
 applied to those chambers or recesses with coved or vaulted ceilings which 
 are met with in ancient Spanish buildings, such as the Alhambra, in Grenada, 
 and the Alcazar, at Seville. The term has been commonly used by English 
 writers and architects, to denote a bayed recess, a portion of a bed-chamber 
 constructed for the reception of the bed, or a division of a chamber, 
 having its floor slightly raised above the general level, and rendered 
 distinct, to a great extent, by a balustrade, a colonnade, or an arrangement 
 of curtains. This last treatment is frequently met with in state bed- 
 chambers. In England the alcove is not a common feature, but on the 
 Continent it is frequently introduced as an adjunct to the bedroom, and 
 almost invariably contains the bed. It forms both a useful and ornamental 
 feature, protecting the bed from draughts, and rendering the close hanging 
 bed-curtains unnecessary; the only curtains required are those which 
 hang across the opening of the alcove, and which, when drawn, effectually 
 shut off the view of the bed from the room during the day-time. 
 
 ALEATORI U M . (Lat.) The name given to an apartment in an ancient 
 Roman house, appropriated to the playing of games with dice. 
 
 ALEOIS. In military architecture, the loopholes pierced in the walls, 
 through which the cross-bow bolts and ordinary arrows were discharged in 
 time of siege. 
 
[ ALHAMBRESQUE ] 
 
 40 
 
 ALEXANDRINUM, OPUS. This is a species of mosaic work used in 
 Italy for ornamental paving. Wyatt, in his " Specimens of Geometrical 
 Mosaic," describes it as the third division of mediaeval mosaic, consisting 
 of tesserae, usually in porphyry or serpentine marbles, laid in grooves cut 
 in the surface of the pavement-slabs, and forming geometrical designs. It 
 was the usual Italian church paving from the fourth to about the thirteenth 
 century. Specimens of this mosaic work exist, in this country, in the 
 Cathedral of Canterbury and Westminster Abbey. 
 
 ALHAMBRESQUE. The name given to styles of ornamentation 
 designed in imitation of those which were introduced in the Alhambra, or 
 palace of the Moorish kings in Grenada. The styles of ornamentation 
 divide themselves into two groups ; the first, which comprises designs in 
 relief, disposed on the walls, arches, capitals, and ceilings ; and the second, 
 which consists of geometrical patterns on walls, executed in glazed tiles. 
 
 1 2 
 
 A characteristic example of the relieved wall designs of the Alhambra is 
 given in fig. 1 ; and of the geometrical tile- work in fig. 2. 
 
 The term is also frequently applied to colour ; thus Alhambresque 
 Colouring signifies a mode similar to that adopted by the Moorish artists 
 in the painting and wall-tiling of the Alhambra. The colours chiefly 
 employed on the relieved work were the primaries blue and red, with 
 a lavish use of gold, representing the remaining primary, yellow. In 
 the wall-tiling, the secondary colours were introduced, namely, green, 
 purple, and orange, with the addition of blue and white. (See Moresque.) 
 This term is sometimes written Alhambraic. 
 
41 
 
 [ ALLEGORY ] 
 
 ALI EN PRIORY. A name given to a small religious house established 
 in one country, but dependent on an important monastery in another country. 
 There were several alien priories in England belonging to Continental mon- 
 asteries, but they were dissolved by statute during the reign of Henry V. 
 
 ALIPTERIUM. The name given to a room in a Roman bath or 
 palaestra, in which the bathers and athletes anointed themselves. 
 
 A L KO R A N S. The name sometimes given to the minarets or lofty towers 
 which are attached to Oriental mosques. The use of the term has arisen 
 from the practice of the priests attached to the mosques, who, at certain times 
 of the day, ascend to the open balconies of the towers, and publicly 
 recite passages from the Koran, and call the faithful to prayers. (See 
 Minaret.) 
 
 ALLEGE. (Fr.) The name applied to that part of a building which 
 is situated between the floor-line and the lower part or cill-piece of a 
 window. The term is only properly applied when the part in question is 
 constructed so as to separate itself from the general wall surface ; being 
 defined on each side by the mouldings, columns, or splays of the window 
 jambs, on the top by the opening of the window, and at bottom by a pro- 
 jecting base-course, an entablature of a lower story, or a string-course. 
 
 The allege is a feature commonly found in civil buildings dating from 
 the fourteenth century, and assumes several ornamental treatments during 
 the succeeding centuries ; tracery, arcades, armorial bearings, bas-reliefs, 
 arabesques, and balustrades being amongst the most favourite enrichments 
 introduced. 
 
 The allege is usually constructed much thinner than the wall, being 
 carried down to the floor on the inside, linable with the inner face of the 
 window-frame ; and, in ancient buildings, the inside is seldom decorated. 
 
 ALLEGORY. In sculpture and painting, a figure or subject in which 
 the true and intended signification is set forth by a visible form which 
 resembles it in its properties or circumstances. Every allegory, therefore, 
 has a double expression, the general and the particular. The general 
 expression is that which is directly derived from the outward or visible 
 forms or figures used by the artist ; the particular expression is that 
 hidden idea or signification aimed at by the artist in his composition. An 
 allegory in art must exist as a complete work, beautiful in its outward 
 semblance, and embodying and distinctly giving forth the particular idea 
 or purpose of its author ; it must, in all essentials, be self- asserting, and 
 require reference to no other object. All great works of painting and 
 sculpture, which express action, and in the embodiment of which a fanciful 
 condition of the mind has asserted itself, are more or less allegories. That 
 work alone is not an allegory which simply pleases the eye without appeal- 
 ing to the intellect or imagination. 
 
 F 
 
42 
 
 Allegory, itself, has been suitably personified as a beautiful female, 
 covering herself with a semi-transparent veil. 
 
 ALLERION. The name used in heraldry to denote the charge of an 
 
 eagle, displayed, but v^ithout beak or feet (example — Argent, an AUerion, 
 sable). 
 
 ALLEY. A narrow passage between two buildings. The term has 
 frequently been applied to a church aile, and to a subordinate part of a 
 building, constructed to give access from one portion to another. This 
 term may appropriately be applied to the many divisions of a hypostyle 
 hall or mosque. 
 
 ALMEMAR. The reading-desk erected in the centre portion of a 
 Synagogue, and from which the law is read to the congregation. It 
 is elevated, and usually approached by two flights of steps. 
 
 ALMERY, OR AUMBRY. (Armoire — Fr.) This term correctly 
 signifies a wall recess, or cupboard, furnished with a door having a lock 
 attached; it is also applied to a movable piece of furniture, constructed 
 with shelves and lock-up doors, for the purpose of keeping in safety 
 valuable articles of ecclesiastical or domestic use. Almeries are frequently 
 met with in churches and monastic buildings, where they occupy different 
 positions, according to the uses to which they were appHed. 
 
 Speaking of the medifeval almery, the Rev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott 
 says : — " In many cases the Eucharist reserved for the last Communion was 
 stored in an aumbry near the altar, as is still the case in Italy. In the 
 cloister the books used in reading-time were kept in an aumbry placed 
 either within the church, close to the door, or else in a locker adjoining it 
 at the north-east angle. At St. Alban's it was in the former position, and 
 enriched with colour. The Greeks had an aumbry for holding the vest- 
 ments of the religious, — a sort of hanging wardrobe over the altar ; from 
 the fifth century presses for the same purpose were erected in the sacristies 
 of the Western Church. There are sometimes two, but more generally one 
 aumbry on the Epistle side in French churches. At Chester there are two 
 
43 
 
 [ ALMEHY ] 
 
 on the Gospel side. The Carthusians had two aumbries, one on the right 
 for the vessels, and another for books. Aumbries to contain processional 
 crosses, the bier, taper- stands, and burial furniture, occur in walls near the 
 cloister and cemetery. Three of w^ood, formerly behind the reredos, are 
 preserved at Carlisle, two of these of the fifteenth century, and one of earlier 
 date, and carved. Several of the fifteenth century are remaining at Selby. 
 Two remain behind the high-altar at Hythe and Sompting. At Salisbury 
 there are several good stone specimens, one retaining its original doors. 
 At Durham there are double aumbries on either side of the altar platform, 
 which held the ewer, books, cruets, chalices, patens, and altar linen. All 
 the keys were locked up by the sacristan at night in a master aumbry until 
 early in the morning. Usually the aumbry is provided with a slab." 
 
 The following passages from the Rites of Durham, clearly prove the 
 purposes to which the ancient church almeries were put : — 
 
 In the north side of the Quire there is an Almerye neere to the high altar, fastened 
 in the wall, for to lay any thinge in pertaininge to the High Altar. Likewise there is 
 another Almerye in the south side of the Quire nigh the high Altar enclosed in the 
 wall, to sett the chalices, the basins, and the crewetts in, that they did minister withall 
 at the high masse, with locks and keys for the said almeryes. 
 
 In the wainscott at the south end of the Alter (namely Jesus Altar in the body of the 
 church,) ther was iiij. faire Almeries for to locke the chalices and sylver crewetts, 
 with two or three sewts of Vestments and other ornaments, belonging to the said Alter, 
 for the holie dales and principall daies." * 
 
 Numerous almeries were distributed throughout monastic buildings, for 
 various purposes connected with the domestic life of the inmates. 
 
 The following quotations from the Rites of Durham show such to have 
 been the case : — 
 
 " On the south syde of the cloister .... near the Frater -house dour, ther 
 was a faire Almerie joyned in the wall and an other of the other syd of the said dour, 
 and all the forepart of the Almeries was thorowgh carved worke (for to geve ayre to the 
 towels) and iij dors in the forepart of either almerie, and a locke on every doure, and 
 every Monncke had a key for the said almeryes wherin did hinge in every almerie 
 cleane towels for the Monncks to drie their hands on, when they washed and went to 
 dynner. 
 
 Within the Frater-house door . . . . is a strong Ambrie in the stone-wall, 
 where a great Mazer, called the Grace-cup, did stand, which did service to the monks 
 everyday, after grace was said, to drink in round the table .... In that Ambrie 
 lay all the chief plate that served the whole convent in the said Frater-house, on festival 
 dayes, and a fine work of carved wainscot before it, and a strong lock, yet so as none 
 could perceive there was any Ambrie at all ; for the key-hole was under the carved work 
 of the wainscot." f 
 
 Stone almeries exist in almost all the more important ecclesiastical 
 edifices of the middle ages, and vary much in size and design, from the 
 simple wall recess, closed with a plain hinged and locked door, to a large 
 and elaborate construction, with buttresses, statues, tracery-work, and the 
 
 * t Prom quotations in Glossary of Architecture. 
 
[ ALMERY ] 
 
 44 
 
 other adjuncts of a florid Gothic design, as in the fifteenth century 
 almery, preserved in the transept of the abbey church of Souvigny. In 
 English churches, almeries of elaborate workmanship, such as the example 
 just alluded to, do not exist. Fig. 1 is a good specimen of a Decorated 
 almery from the church of St. Peter, Claypole, Lincolnshire. 
 
 1 
 
 In French churches, almeries were sometimes constructed in wall 
 arcades, one division being deeply recessed, and enclosed by doors. 
 Examples of these occur in the choir chapels of the abbey church of 
 Vezelay. The doors of almeries were usually hung with ornamental 
 
45 L ^LMS DISH ] 
 
 hinges of iron, and secured with bolts and locks, and were frequently 
 
 decorated with paintings. . , i 
 
 We are not aware of any ancient portable ecclesiastical almeries, con- 
 structed of wood, existing at the present day in this country, but some are 
 still preserved on the Continent. The two most notable examples are 
 those at Noyon and Bayeux.* 
 
 The following forms of the term are met with m ancient writings : 
 Ambry, Aumery, Ambre, Ambrie, Almarium, Armarium, and Almariolum. 
 For particulars of the domestic Almery, see Cwphoard. 
 
 ALMOND TREE. Introduced in Christian art as an emblem of the 
 Virgin Mary; and probably in allusion to Aaron's rod, which blossomed 
 and yielded almonds. 
 
 ALMONRY. An apartment or place in which alms are distributed. 
 An almonry was invariably attached to important monastic establishments; 
 and was placed in close proximity to the principal entrance, so as to be 
 convenient for the poor who came for their daily dole. The buildmg was 
 usually of stone, and, in some instances, contained lodgmg apartments tor 
 the choristers belonging to the church, as at Canterbury and Durham 
 These singing boys were hence called " The children of the Almonry, and 
 were under the charge of the Almoner. 
 
 ALMS BOX OR ALMS CHEST. A box placed near the entrance 
 of churches, for the reception of alms for the poor. The alms box was 
 usual in churches of the middle ages, but few examples have been pre- 
 served ; there is a good medieval specimen at Selby, Yorkshire, and an 
 iron one of fifteenth century workmanship, at St. George's Chapel, 
 Windsor An injunction that every parish church should be furmshed 
 with an alms chest was issued in 1 Edward VI., 1647, and again in 1603, by 
 the Synod of London (84th canon). At the present time, the alms box is 
 generally constructed of oak, strongly bound with ornamental wrought-iron 
 work- has an opening in its lid through which the offerings are dropped; 
 and is furnished with lock and key. It is either supported on a standard, 
 with a heavy base, or strapped to a wall or column. 
 
 Alms boxes were also fixed in Continental churches. An mterestmg 
 example is to be seen in the cathedral of Frankfurt-on-the-Maine ; it is of 
 stone furnished with an iron cover. In the church of St. Burchardus, 
 Wiirzburg, is an alms chest carved from a single stone, supported on a 
 pedestal, in all about 3 feet 6 inches high. 
 
 ALMS DISH OR BASIN. A dish for the reception of alms, and in 
 which to -present and place" the offertory on the altar, in accordance 
 with the rubric : usually made of latten, and ornamented with repousse. 
 
 * Illustrations of these are given in VioUet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire Raisonne Mobilier 
 Francais, and in Nesfield's Specimens of Mediccval Architecture. 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 46 
 
 ALMS HOUSE. A building erected and endowed for the reception 
 and maintenance of the aged poor. Alms houses have, from medieval 
 times, been more common in this country than in any other; and, in 
 some instances, reached such dimensions as to be provided with a special 
 chapel, refectory, and other adjuncts, as at St. Cross, near Winchester. 
 Numerous alms houses exist, which have been founded by trade guilds and 
 private munificence. 
 
 Alms houses usually consist of numerous small dwellings, clustered 
 together, and opening from a general court or common garden ; in other 
 instances, they are of moderate extent, consisting of a row of small one- 
 story dwellings, with a few yards of garden ground attached to each. 
 
 ALORING. A parapet wall, erected in front of the main roof-gutter, 
 or aile-gutter of a church. The gutter itself, when used as a passage, 
 was sometimes termed an Alure. (See Alura.) 
 
 ALPHEGE, ST. Archbishop and Martyr. This saint is represented 
 in Christian art as a man somewhat above middle age, with a battle-axe in 
 his hand, or with his chasuble containing stones, the emblems of his 
 martyrdom. St. Alphege was born of noble English parents, about the 
 year a.d. 954, and, at an early age, retired to the monastery of Dersherste, 
 in Gloucestershire. He afterwards became abbot of a religious house in 
 Bath, was appointed in 984, by St. Dunstan, to the bishopric of Win- 
 chester, and, in 1006, was translated to the see of Canterbury. 
 
 In 1010 the Danes invaded England, and in their progress sacked 
 the city of Canterbury, and, after seven months' imprisonment, ultimately 
 killed St. Alphege, on his refusing to give up the treasures of his church 
 as a ransom for his own life. He was martyred at Greenwich, by being 
 first stoned, and then despatched with a battle-axe. 
 
 The parish church of Greenwich, built over the spot of the martyrdom, 
 is dedicated in his honour. In the Old EngHsh, the Sarum, and Scottish 
 Calendars, his day is April 19th, and the year of his martyrdom was 1012. 
 
 ALTAR. A construction of brick, stone, metal, wood, or other 
 materials, in the form of a pedestal or table, upon which, in ancient times, 
 sacrifices, libations, and incense were offered up to deities ; and, in the 
 Christian Church, upon which the elements of the Holy Eucharist are 
 consecrated. 
 
 Ancient altars were made in different forms and sizes according to the 
 purposes for which they were intended ; and were frequently sculptured, or 
 otherwise richly ornamented. The earliest form of altar was a single 
 square stone, upon which the devotee laid the offerings to his god ; when 
 sacrifices of blood and burnt offerings were adopted, the altars were 
 increased in size, and their shapes were modified according to the nature 
 of the victim and the manner of sacrificing. Altars for burnt offerings 
 were commonly flat on their upper surfaces, but occasionally they had 
 
47 
 
 [ ALTAR ] 
 
 sunk portions to contain the fire, and channels to carry ofi' the blood of the 
 animals. Those altars which were used for libations were hollowed out 
 like a basin ; and those for burning incense or perfumes were of small size, 
 generally portable, and constructed to hold the small quantity of fuel 
 necessary to consume the incense. 
 
 Egyptian altars were generally conical or cylindrical, and inscribed with 
 hieroglyphics. The altars of the Greeks and Romans were either quadrangu- 
 lar, circular, or triangular in plan, and consisted of a base, die, and cornice. 
 They were formed of various materials, amongst the most usual of which 
 were stone, marble, and bronze. They varied in height according to the 
 divinities to which they were consecrated. Vitruvius informs us of this 
 fact, in the eighth chapter of the fourth book, where he says: — "The aspect 
 of altars should be to the east, and they should always be lower than the 
 statues in the temple, so that the supplicants, and those that sacrifice, in 
 looking towards the deity, may stand more or less inclined, as the reverence to 
 be shown may proportionally require. Hence altars are thus contrived; the 
 heights of those of Jupiter and the celestial gods are to be as high as they 
 may conveniently be ; those of Vesta, the Earth, and the Sea are made 
 lower. On these principles, altars in the middle of temples are fitly 
 proportioned."* 
 
 Stone and marble altars were almost invariably ornamented with sculp- 
 tured enrichments, which were either in the shape of the attributes of the 
 deity to whom the altar was erected, or of emblems, indicating the desc'rip- 
 tion of sacrifice or ofi'ering the altar was used for. In addition to these 
 permanent enrichments, it was usual to decorate the altars on festivals or 
 at times of sacrifice with garlands and festoons of certain leaves and flowers 
 which were consecrated to such uses. 
 
 Bronze altars were usually made in the tripod form, and of small 
 dimensions ; they were used for incense and libations. Temple altars were 
 of the most permanent and ornate description ; and they occupied different 
 positions, being erected before the temple or before the statue of the 
 divinity in the cella. Those which were placed before the temple were 
 altars for sacrifice or burnt ofi'erings ; those within the building were for 
 libations, bloodless ofi'erings, and incense. 
 
 The first altars used by the Christian Church were doubtless simple 
 constructions of wood ; tables, in fact, representing that on which the Last 
 Supper was spread. Such altars were convenient during those times of 
 persecution, for they presented no special characteristics to attract notice, 
 and were easily transported from one place of meeting to another. The 
 use of stone altars probably originated in the Eoman catacombs, where the 
 tombs of the early martyrs were made to serve as altars for the Sacrament 
 of the Holy Eucharist. When the Church emerged from its hiding places, 
 and could celebrate its worship in the light of day, it remembered those 
 tomb-altars, in the dark cells of the catacombs, beneath which slept its early 
 saints, and upon which, in profound secret, it had offered up the Blessed 
 * Vitruvius. Gwilfs Translation. 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 48 
 
 Sacrament, and reproduced them both in form and purpose ; erecting them 
 in many instances over the grave of a saint, or on the spot of a holy 
 martyrdom. 
 
 It is certain that at a very early date altars of stone were considered 
 essential by the Church, for in a.d. 509 the Council of Epone (France) 
 enacted that no altars should be consecrated with chrism of holy oil but 
 those which were entirely of stone. The formal introduction of stone altars 
 in the Western Church is generally attributed to Pope Sylvester, a.d. 313 ; 
 and after this date, and during the first half of the century, several Councils 
 of the Church decided in favour of stone altars. 
 
 St. Athanasius (326-372) and St. Augustine (395-430), in their writings, 
 speak of altars of wood being used in their times; and St. Gregory 
 of Nyssa (362-390) mentions stone altars as being adopted in both the 
 Eastern and Western Churches. From these writers, therefore, we gather 
 that between the years 326 and 430 both wood and stone altars were used ; 
 and from the enactment of the Council of Epone in 509 we learn that wood 
 altars had ceased to be considered correct, and that altars of stone only 
 were to be properly consecrated. 
 
 The most interesting ancient wooden altar is that of St. John's Lateran ; 
 it is formed in the shape of a tomb or coffer, and is constructed hollow. 
 
 Speaking of this early piece of church furniture, Webb remarks:— 
 " This altar is one of the most famous in the world, being of wood, and 
 believed to be one upon which St. Peter himself celebrated. It is the only 
 wooden altar allowed in the Eoman Communion, and is used exclusively 
 by the Pope. It is mentioned in all ritualists, as the one exception to the 
 rule about stone altars ; e.g., in Durandus' Rationale, I., vii., 28. (Cam- 
 bridge Translation, p. 153.) I was very curious to see this altar, and after 
 some trouble succeeded in doing so, the frontals, &c., being removed : but 
 still it was enclosed in a kind of network, and not quite easy to be made 
 out. The following sketch will give an idea of it. It is said to be of 
 
49 
 
 [ ALTAK ] 
 
 nailed planks, three in number. The upper plank considerably overhangs 
 the base. It is about four feet high. Inside, I suppose, it is hollow, but 
 is said to contain reliques." * 
 
 The two materials adopted in the ancient altars are understood to have 
 been approved of for their symbolic meaning ; the wood symbolising the 
 Cross on which our Lord suffered ; and the stone symbolising Christ Him- 
 self, who is the chief corner-stone— (Psalm cxviii., 22)— the stone cut 
 without hands, that smote the image and became a great mountain, filling 
 the whole earth — (Daniel ii., 34-5). 
 
 As already mentioned, there is little doubt that after the times of perse- 
 cution many altars were made in the likeness of the tomb-altars of the 
 catacombs, being erected over the graves of saints, or spots hallowed by 
 martyrdoms. When such positions were unfavourable, the altars were 
 sometimes constructed to contain the remains of saints and martyrs. This 
 form does not, however, appear to have continued in general favour, nor to 
 have superseded the table form. 
 
 2 
 
 The earliest stone altars preserved to us consist of single slabs, supported 
 on one or more vertical pieces of stone or columns. An example of an 
 altar with a single support exists in the Crypt of St. Cecilia's, at Kome ; 
 and a later one is to be found in the Lady Chapel of the Church of 
 Montreal, in Burgundy ; the latter is believed to be of the twelfth century. 
 In the Crypt of the Church of St. John the Evangelist, at Ravenna, is an 
 altar, of the first half of the fifth century, which consists of a stone slab, or 
 
 * Sketches of Continental Ecclesiology. Kev. B. Webb, M.A. London, 1848. 
 
 G 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 50 
 
 mensa, resting on four square and fluted supports at the corners, and on a 
 central pier, in which a sort of almery or locker is formed. The slab is 
 slightly hollowed on its upper surface. Figure 2 is a sketch of the altar 
 in the Church of Bois-Sainte-Marie (Saone-et-Loire), a work of the eleventh 
 century. 
 
 It consists of a thick mensa, moulded into three members round its 
 edge, and supported on five short columns, all of which rest on a base 
 extending under the mensa, and of about the same dimensions as it. In 
 All Saints, Katisbon, there is an altar somewhat resembling the above ; it 
 has a massive mensa, formed of three slabs overhanging each other, and 
 supported by a square central pier, with four Eomanesque columns at the 
 corners. In St. Maria Novella, at Florence, is a large stone altar, 
 probably of fourteenth century workmanship, with a moulded mensa resting 
 on four round columns at its angles, and on a centre quatrefoiled shaft, all 
 with bases and capitals, and standing on a moulded plinth. In the Church 
 of SS. Trinita (St. Stefano, Bologna) is an altar of red marble, consisting 
 of a plain mensa, supported on nine columns, one in the central position, 
 and two at each of the corners. 
 
 In the Greek Church, the altar was usually of the table form, the mensa 
 being supported on five shafts, as in fig. 2. This arrangement is believed 
 to have originated from a desire to symbolise, by the five supports, Christ 
 surrounded by His four Evangelists. The mensa symbolised the table of 
 the Last Supper, and the Church of Christ on earth resting securely on 
 His promises and His religion, set forth in the four Holy Gospels. 
 
 We are not aware of any ancient altars of this form existing in our own 
 country, but they were doubtless used here as elsewhere. Some few 
 examples of attached altars, supported in front by columns, are to be met 
 with, though generally in an imperfect state. There is one in what was 
 originally a chapel attached to the chancel of the Church of Chipping- 
 Norton, Oxfordshire. Altar slabs attached to walls, and supported on 
 brackets, are also to be met with in England. Attached altars were some- 
 times supported in front by a single stone placed on edge, and extending 
 lengthwise, as in one of the ancient examples remaining in the Crypt of 
 the Cathedral at Ghent. 
 
 Altars constructed of solid masonry became common in and after the 
 twelfth century; and numerous examples remain on the Continent. In the 
 south aile of the Church of St. James, at Bruges, is a late Eomanesque 
 altar, consisting of a blue marble mensa, supported on a plain mass of 
 masonry; in St. Cunibert's, at Cologne, is a solid altar, with moulded 
 mensa and base plinth; and in the Church of Boppard is another 
 Romanesque altar of solid masonry, with panelled front and nook-shafts at 
 the corners. Towards the end of the twelfth century the fronts and ends 
 of stone altars were frequently covered with elaborate sculpture. Two 
 representative altars of this epoch remain, one in the Church of Avenas, 
 and the other, which was found in the interior of a Baptistery, in the 
 neighbourhood of Asti. This latter is a good specimen of Italian art ao 
 
51 
 
 [ ALTAR ] 
 
 the end of this century. Its front contains, in the centre, a seated 
 figure of our Lord, invested with the tri-radiated nimbus ; in the spandrils 
 of the quatre-foiled aureole, in which the figure is placed, are the four 
 emblems of the Evangelists ; and on the sides are standing figures of the 
 Virgin, St. John, and six other apostles, in arcades ; the whole composition 
 is surrounded by a border of foliage. This altar is of small dimensions, 
 formed of two stones, one placed on the other, and without an independent 
 mensa. The front of the altar of Avenas is illustrated in fig. 3. The 
 
 composition is in all essential points similar to that above described ; a 
 seated figure of Christ in Glory, that is invested with the nimbus and 
 surrounded with the aureole, occupies the central position, the Evangelistic 
 symbols are placed in the spandrils, and on each side are six seated figures 
 of the Apostles. At the corners are bold angle shafts, with capitals of 
 foliage. There appears to be only one ancient altar of the solid form 
 in England, namely, that preserved in Arundel Church, Sussex. It is 
 formed of a mensa — 12 feet 6 inches long, 4 feet broad, and about 
 inches thick — resting on a perfectly plain mass of masonry. 
 
 Altars were sometimes constructed with slabs placed on edge, and form- 
 ing the die upon which the mensa rested. In the Chapel of SS. Nazareo e 
 Celso, at Ravenna, is a very ancient altar, constructed of three slabs of 
 alabaster supporting the mensa. On the front is carved a cross between 
 two sheep, and at the sides, wreaths and crowns ; on the end slabs are 
 crosses. 
 
 In all times the mensa has been held to be the more important portion of 
 the Christian altar, and it rarely changed its general conditions, whatever 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 54 
 
 its support might be. In those altars which did not enclose the bodies or 
 relics of saints, the mensa was usually hollowed out to receive small relics, 
 which were ultimately covered over by a slab let into the surface of the 
 mensa. This slab, which marked the place of the relics, became the true 
 altar-stone, and upon it was placed the chalice and paten at the time of 
 celebration. 
 
 When the altar was consecrated, five crosses were usually cut in the 
 upper surface of the mensa, one in the centre, or on the slab over the 
 relics, and the remaining four at the corners. (Fig. 4.) These crosses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 were sometimes cut diagonally, as on the ancient altars of the Church of 
 Altenahr, and St. Cunibert's, Cologne. 
 
 As we have already pointed out, the Latin and Greek Churches have for 
 many centuries advocated and enjoined the adoption of the stone mensa, 
 whatever material the supports of the altar might be ; but, as it was con- 
 sidered sufficient by the Western Church to celebrate upon stone, altars 
 of wood or metal were frequently made, with a slab of consecrated stone 
 let into the upper surface, or a portable altar laid upon it during cele- 
 bration. 
 
 Portable altars appear to have been introduced about the end of the 
 seventh century ; they were usually made of stone, marble, or ornamental 
 marble mosaic, and sometimes were elaborately mounted with precious 
 metals. Portable altars are frequently mentioned in ancient ecclesiastical 
 writings, and inventories of Church treasuries. In the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries they came into very general use, and were carried by 
 ecclesiastics in their journeys from place to place, so as to enable them 
 to celebrate wherever circumstances directed, in an unconsecrated building, 
 or even in the open air. 
 
 The materials employed in the construction and decoration of Christian 
 altars have been very various. In the primitive times, as we have already 
 shown, wood was commonly used ; not of any special description, so far 
 as can be learnt, but probably of that most conveniently to be obtained 
 in the locality. At the same time, it is reasonable to conjecture that 
 wood held to be most durable and precious would be preferred for a purpose 
 
55 
 
 [ ALTAR ] 
 
 SO sacred. When churches came to be built, and permanent altars erected, 
 stone naturally suggested itself as the most suitable material, and, as an 
 appropriate symbolical signification could be attached to it, it was unhesi- 
 tatingly adopted, and received the highest sanction of the Church, which, 
 indeed, ultimately enjoined its universal adoption, and insisted in all cases 
 on the mensa, or a portion of it at least, being of stone ; stone being 
 understood to mean any natural production, such as sand-stone, oolite, 
 lime-stone, marble, porphyry, granite, &c. Altars of plain stone were in- 
 tended to be richly clothed with costly materials or embroideries; but when 
 elaborately sculptured, or constructed of fine and precious marbles, they 
 were not usually hidden from view by hangings of any description, the 
 upper surface and ends of the mensa alone being covered. As the Church 
 grew in wealth and dignity the most precious products of nature and art 
 were lavished upon the construction and decoration of altars. We learn 
 that at as early a date as the beginning of the fourth century, Pope Sylvester 
 had made for him an altar of gold and silver work, richly jewelled, and 
 wrought with ornament ; and from the writings of Paul the Silentiary, 
 that Justinian placed in St. Sophia, at Constantinople (a. d. 532-563), an 
 altar of gold, supported on columns, and enriched with precious stones. 
 Fortunately, there are still preserved some specimens of this sumptuous 
 species of altar art ; and it may not be out of place to give here a brief 
 description of the most representative. 
 
 First in order of importance comes the altar preserved in the Church of 
 St. Ambrose, at Milan, one of the most remarkable examples of early 
 goldsmith's art in existence. It is formed of gold and silver, enriched 
 with precious stones and coloured enamels. 
 
 This interesting work, commonly known as the " Palliotto," was fabri- 
 cated by an artist named Wolvinus, in a.d. 835, for Angilbert II., 
 Archbishop of Milan, and certainly proves that the art of the goldsmith 
 had reached a high degree of importance at that early date. The metal 
 work extends over the sides and ends of the altar, the frontal being of 
 gold, and the back and ends of silver, enriched with gold. We give draw- 
 ings of all the portions of this remarkable altar ; and, assisted by the 
 following explanation, our readers will be able to form a correct idea 
 regarding its composition and treatment. 
 
 The frontal (fig. 5) is divided into three leading compartments by raised 
 members, decorated with enamels. In the central compartment is an oval 
 medallion containing a seated figure of our Lord, holding in His hands a 
 cross and the Gospels (is) ; from this medallion extend the arms of a cross, 
 in which are placed the symbols of the evangelists (i4, 15, 16, i?). Between 
 the arms of the cross are the twelve apostles, arranged in groups of three 
 (18, 19, 20, 2i). In the left hand compartment (looking towards the altar) are 
 six square panels, containing the Annunciation (i), the Birth of Christ (2), 
 the Presentation in the Temple (3), the Miracle at the Marriage Feast (4), 
 Cleansing the Leper (5), and the Transfiguration (e). In the right hand 
 compartment are a corresponding number of panels, containing Christ 
 
57 
 
 [ ALTAR ] 
 
 driving the Money Changers from the Temple (7), Christ giving sight to 
 the Blind (s), the Crucifixion (9), the Descent from the Cross (10), the 
 Resurrection (n), and the Ascension (12). All these panels are executed in 
 repousse, and placed in a framework decorated with enamels, alternating 
 with precious stones fen cabochonj. The central medallion and cross are 
 also bordered with a raised member, enriched with enamels and jewels. 
 
 On examining the panels 10, 11, and 12, their style will be found to differ 
 from that of all the others ; these are of modern workmanship, the originals 
 having long been lost or destroyed. 
 
 The back of the altar (fig. 6) is divided, in a manner similar to the 
 front, into three main compartments. The central one is occupied by two 
 doors, which fold together, and are secured by a clasp ; on these doors are 
 four circular medallions filled with figures representing the Archangel 
 Michael, with the inscription, scs. MICHAEL (13) ; the Archangel 
 Gabriel, scs. GABRI (14) ; St. Ambrose receiving the altar from the 
 hands of the Archbishop Angilbert, and placing a crown on his head, 
 inscribed, SCS. AMBROSivs and DOMINVS ANGILBERTVS (15); and St. 
 Ambrose blessing the artist Wolvinus, inscribed, scs. AMBROSIVS and 
 WOLVINVS MAGIST PHABER (16). In the two side compartments are 
 twelve square panels, containing scenes from the life of St. Ambrose, 
 arranged in the following order : — St. Ambrose, as an infant, sleeping in 
 his father's palace at Aries, with the bees swarming round his cradle, 
 inscribed, VBI EXAMEN APVM PVERI OS COMPLEVIT AMBROSII (i) ; St. 
 Ambrose setting out to take command of the Ligurian provinces — VBI 
 AMBROSIVS emiliam PETIT AC LIGVRIAM (2); St. Ambrose, being elected 
 Bishop of Milan by the unanimous voice of the people, tries to avoid the 
 dignity by taking fiight — VBI FVGIENS SPIRITV SANCTO FLANTE REVER- 
 
 TITVR (3) ; the Baptism of the Saint— VBI A CATHOLico BAPTIZATVR 
 EPISCOPO (4) ; after eight days St. Ambrose is ordained Bishop of Milan — 
 VBI OCTAVO DIE ORDINATVR EPISCOPVS (5) ; St. Ambrose, while asleep 
 at the altar in Milan, is miraculously carried to Tours — VBI SVPER ALTARE 
 DORM I ENS TVRONIAM PETIT (e) ; St. Ambrose buries the body of St. Martin 
 of Tours — VBI SEPELIVIT CORPVS BEATI MARTINI (?) ; St. Ambrose 
 prompted by an angel whilst preaching in the cathedral — VBI PR/EDICAT 
 ANGELO LOQVENTO AMBROSIVS (s) ; St. Ambrose healing the sick and 
 lame — VBI pedem ambrosivs calcat dolenti (9) ; St. Ambrose visited 
 by our Blessed Lord — VBl JESVM AD SE VIDET VENIENTEM (10) ; Bishop 
 Honoratus gives St. Ambrose the Viaticum — VBl ammonitvs honoratvs 
 EPISCOPVS DOMINI OFFERT CORPVS (ii) ; and the Death of St. Ambrose, 
 and his soul received by angels— VBI AN! MA IN CELVM DVCITVR CORPORE 
 IN LECTO POSITO (12). 
 
 On the raised portions round and between the three main compartments 
 there are inscriptions, forming the following lines : — 
 
 EMICAT ALMA FORIS, RVTILOQVE DECORE VENVSTA 
 ARCA METALLORVM, GEMMISQVAE COMPTA, CORVSCAT. 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 58 
 
 THESAVRO TAMEN H/EC CYNCTO POTIORE METALLO 
 OSSIBVS, INTERIVS POLLET DONATA SACRATIS. 
 EGREGIVS QVOD PRAESVL OPVS SVB HONORE BEATI 
 INCLITVS AMBROSII TEMPLO REGVBANTIS IN ISTO 
 OPTVLIT ANGILBERTVS GRANS, DGMINGQVE DIGAVIT 
 TEMPORE, QVO NITIDAE SERVABAT GVLMINA SEDIS. 
 ASPIGE SVMME PATER, FAMVLG MISERERE BENIGNO, 
 TE MISERANTE DEVS DONVM SVBLIME REPORTET. 
 
 Both the ends are similar in general treatment : in the centre of each is 
 a lozenge-shaped compartment, connected to the angles by radiating 
 members ; in it is a cross, the arms of which extend to four segmental 
 corner-pieces. In these segmental spaces are placed circular medallions, 
 containing busts of saints. On the Epistle end (fig. 7) are those of St. 
 Ambrose, with the inscription, ABR (i) ; St. Protasius, PRO (2) ; St. 
 Gervasius, GER (3) ; and St. SimpHcianus, SIPL (4). On the Gospel end 
 (fig. 8) are the busts of St. Martin, MART (5) ; St. Nabor, nabo (e) ; St. 
 Nazarius, NAZA (7) ; and St. Maternus, MANV (s). In the angular spaces, 
 outside the lozenge compartments, are figures of angels, and between the 
 arms of the crosses are figures of saints, in the attitude of prayer. 
 
 The ornamental metal-work, throughout the entire altar, is of the most 
 elaborate description ; and the introduction of coloured enamels and 
 precious stones, on what may be termed the framework, imparts great 
 richness and relief to the whole. The minute drawings we give, from 
 the fine engravings in D'Agencourt's History of Art, render a more 
 detailed description unnecessary. 
 
 There is little doubt that the precious metals were employed in many 
 instances in the construction and decoration of altars during the middle 
 ages ; we are told it was not Italy alone that distinguished herself in the 
 ninth century by the magnificent productions of her goldsmiths. France 
 had preserved the artistic processes transmitted to her by St. Eloy. The 
 bishops of Auxerre, especially, were celebrated for their love of the arts, 
 and their taste for rich specimens of ecclesiastical metal-work. Bishop 
 Angelelme (813-828) endowed the Church of St. Stephen with silver altar- 
 tables. Herebald, his successor (867), followed his example. Abbon, 
 having failed to realise in his lifetime the project he had formed of over- 
 laying the high altar with gold and precious stones, secured to his church, 
 by his will, the means of accomplishing this work.* The Archbishop of 
 Sens (999) gave to his cathedral a superb golden altar, more than nine feet 
 long, enriched with bas-reliefs. This magnificent specimen of the gold- 
 smith's art, the execution of which is attributed to two canons of Sens, 
 named Bernelin and Bernuin, skilful goldsmiths, existed, we are informed 
 by Labarte, till the year 1760, at which time it was destroyed by order of 
 Louis XV., in aid of the expenses of the war.f 
 
 * L'Abbe le Boeuf, Mem. sur Vhist. d' Auxerre — quoted by Labarte in Handbook of the 
 Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. 
 
 t An ezigraving of this is given in Du Somraerard's Album, 9th series, pi. xiii. 
 
59 
 
 [ ALTAR ] 
 
 The other important specimens of altar art in the precious metals are 
 two in number : the " Pala d'Oro," preserved in the Cathedral of St. Mark, 
 at Venice, and the golden " Tabula," which was presented by Henry II., 
 in 1019, to the Cathedral of Bale, and now preserved in the Musee de 
 Cluny, Paris. The former is probably the most remarkable specimen of 
 Byzantine art metal-work in existence. It was fabricated at Constantinople, 
 in the end of the tenth century, to the order of Doge Pietro Orseolo, and 
 was brought to Venice in the time of Doge Ordelafo Falier, about the year 
 1102. It was restored and added to in the first years of the thirteenth 
 century, by Doge Pietro Zani, and again in 1345, by Andrea Dandolo. 
 Under these circumstances it has lost much of its original character, and 
 presents details of different styles of art. It is not so remarkable on 
 account of its metal- work, which is inferior to that of the Palliotto, as 
 its fine series of cloisonne enamels, all of which belong to the original 
 design, and are the work of Greek artists of Constantinople. (See Enamel, 
 Cloisonne.) 
 
 The golden Tabula of Bale is executed entirely in repousse work in 
 high relief, and in this respect differs from both the Palliotto and the 
 Pala d'Oro, which present enamels and precious stones in their ornamenta- 
 tion. The Tabula and the Pala d'Oro have been considered and described 
 by some writers as the fronts of altars, but that they were never constructed 
 as frontals we think is very certain. They were intended to be placed 
 upon altars in the form of retables. We have spoken of them here as 
 illustrations of what has been done in the shape of precious decoration for 
 the Christian altar, and in support of our argument that the precious 
 metals and the cunning work of the jeweller and goldsmith were not 
 unfrequently expended upon the construction and adornment of the altar 
 itself. 
 
 Gold and silver were used prior to the. ninth century, in the formation 
 of plates to be laid upon or af&xed to altars of wood or other materials. 
 These plates, called propitiatories, received the sacred vessels during the 
 celebration of the Eucharist. M. VioUet-le-Duc informs us that Anastasius, 
 the Librarian, says, in his " Life of Pope Pascal I.," that that pontifif caused 
 propitiatories of silver to be placed on the altars of St. Peter, St. Prassede, 
 St. Maria in Cosmedin, and the basilica of St. Maria Maggiore, ; and that 
 Pope Leo IV. had one made for the altar of St. Peter's, in which no less 
 than eighty pounds of gold and seventy-two pounds of silver were used. 
 
 Portable or super- altars were commonly encased or decorated with 
 gold and silver, and were in some instances entirely constructed of 
 precious materials. (See Super-Altar.) 
 
 Bronze was also used in the construction of altars, as is proved by 
 the interesting example preserved in the Cathedral of Brunswick, in which 
 five columns of bronze support a mensa of marble. 
 
 Altars have been made in all varieties of marbles, plain and elaborately 
 inlaid. Fine examples of altars and altar-pieces in pietra-dura are to be 
 found in late Italian churches ; that in St. Lorenzo, at Florence, is 
 
[ ALTAR ] 
 
 60 
 
 executed in precious marbles, lapis lazuli, and other richly- coloured 
 minerals. Both figure subjects and landscapes decorate the altar-piece, 
 and are executed with consummate skill. The cornice of the tabernacle 
 is entirely of lapis lazuli, and an extremely rare and beautiful red marble 
 is introduced in the frieze and tympanum. The high altar of St. Mark's, 
 at Venice, is of marbles and porphyry ; the altar in the small eastern apse 
 is of very precious marbles, and the mensa of the altar in the baptistry is 
 of Oriental granite. The altar of St. Fermo Maggiore, at Verona, is of 
 inlaid marbles ; that of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, at Rome, is of marble, 
 rich with mosaic work ; in St. Pietro, in Vincoli, is preserved an altar of 
 the seventh century, composed of a mensa, supported on spiral columns, 
 decorated with mosaic ; and in SS. Nazareo e Celso, at Ravenna, is 
 one formed of three sculptured slabs of alabaster supporting a mensa. 
 These illustrations are quite sufficient to give a fair idea of the variety 
 of materials employed, from the earliest times, in the construction and 
 ornamentation of altars. 
 
 The position of altars in Christian churches varied in difterent localities 
 and times. The primitive altar was placed near the centre of the church, 
 and the celebrant stood on the east side, and consecrated in full view of 
 the worshippers. Later on, the altar was moved more eastward, and was 
 placed within a ciborium, which was usually in the form of a dome, 
 supported upon four angle columns. Curtains were hung from rods 
 extending between these columns, and were drawn close during the time of 
 consecration. Altars placed under ciboria exist at the present day in the 
 Churches of St. Peter, St. Maria Maggiore, St. Lorenzo (beyond the walls), 
 St. Paolo (beyond the walls), at Rome; St. Mark, at Venice; St. Ambrogio, 
 at Milan ; St. Zenone, at Verona ; St. Apollinare in Classe, at Ravenna ; 
 the Cathedral of Ratisbon, and in numerous other churches, some of which 
 are of modern date. (See Ciborium.) 
 
 In the Eastern Church, from the earliest times to the present day, the 
 single altar used in each church was placed in the chord of the great or 
 central apse ; it undoubtedly occupied that position in the church of St. 
 Sofia, as finished by Justinian. In the Western basilica, the altar was 
 commonly placed a short distance in advance of the chord of the apse. In 
 the basilica of St. Peter, built by Constantine in the beginning of the 
 fourth century, the altar is understood to have been so placed. In St. 
 Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, consecrated in 549, and in the eleventh 
 century basilica at Torcello, the altar was placed slightly in advance of the 
 chord. In St. Mark's, at Venice, the high altar is similarly situated. 
 And in nearly all the thirteenth and fourteenth century churches of the 
 West, which terminate in apses and chevets, the altar occupies the position 
 of the chord, or did so originally. 
 
 More than one altar does not appear to have been introduced in Western 
 churches prior to the end of the sixth century ; but during the time of 
 Gregory the Great the Latin Church sanctioned the erection of additional 
 
61 
 
 [ ALTAR-CLOTH ] 
 
 altars. These were at first placed in eastward positions at the ends of the 
 ailes, and accordingly were two in number ; but more were introduced as 
 the Church gained in dignity, and assumed a more elaborate ritual, and 
 positions were found for them against the east walls of transepts, or in 
 chapels specially built for their reception. In the important Continental 
 cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, numerous chapels are 
 projected, in a radiating fashion from their chevets, or laterally from 
 their nave and choir ailes. The principal, or Lady Chapel, for the recep- 
 tion of the altar to the Virgin, usually occupies the position due east of the 
 high altar, and in some instances assumes more important dimensions 
 than the other chapels, as in the cathedrals of Amiens, Rheims, Le 
 Mans, and Troyes, and the church of St. Ouen, at Rouen. (See Apse 
 and Chevet.) 
 
 ALTAR-CLOTH. The term applied to the rich and embroidered cover 
 or hangings for the Christian altar, and also to the white linen coverings 
 used during celebration of the Eucharist. 
 
 Ancient altars were very commonly covered entirely with cloths, either 
 of wool or silk, rich in texture and colour, and frequently embroidered with 
 sacred symbols and figures ; and, in addition to such artistic enrichments, 
 ornaments in gold and precious stones were attached to them. Altars 
 which were formed of marbles, and were decorated with architectural work 
 and sculptures, were seldom entirely draped ; on high festivals, however, 
 precious frontals, resplendent with all that wealth and middle age art 
 could lavish on their adornment, were hung from their mensas. Altars 
 which were supported on columns were usually furnished with hanging 
 frontals, and sometimes with cloths, which extended all round, suspended 
 from rods fixed to the underside of the mensas. These curtains were 
 introduced when shrines or reliquaries were placed under the altars, and 
 were drawn to protect them from dust. 
 
 Very few examples of ancient altar-cloths exist in this country at the 
 present time. Mrs. Dolby, in her work on Church Embroidery, states 
 that a truly remarkable altar-cloth is preserved at Steeple Aston, on which 
 is pourtrayed the crucifixion of our Lord, and the martyrdom of many of 
 the apostles and saints, and that its workmanship " is a glory to contem- 
 plate." Movable altar frontals appear to have been very generally used 
 by the Anglican Church up to the time of the Reformation, at which 
 epoch we are informed that "every parochial church was furnished with 
 complete sets of frontals, and hangings for the altars." We can judge 
 somewhat of their usual style and treatment by the following extracts from 
 the inventories of York and Lincoln Cathedrals : — 
 
 Item, three pieces of white Baudekin, with gold flowers wove in it ; Item, two pieces 
 of white velvet, one of them with a Crucifix, the other with the Salutation of the Blessed 
 Virgin ; Item, two pieces of blue sarcenet, with the images of the Crucifix, Mary, and 
 John, stained; Item, two pieces of white linen cloth, with red cross, for Lent; Item, 
 one great pall for Good Friday ; Item, twelve diaper palls ; Item, a pall of cloth, with 
 
[ ALTAR-CLOTH ] 
 
 62 
 
 front parts wrought iu gold (cloths for the high altar). — Inventory of the Cathedral of 
 York. DugdaWs Monasticon. 
 
 Imprimis, a costly cloth of gold for the high iiltar, for principal feasts, having in the 
 midst images of the Trinity, of our Lady, four Evangelists, four angels about the 
 Trinity, with patriarchs, prophets, apostles, virgins, with many other images, having a 
 frontlet of cloth of gold, with scriptures, and a linen cloth enfixed to the same. * 
 * Item, a purpur cloth, with an image of the crucifix, Mary, and John, and many 
 images of gold, with a divers frontlet of the same suit, with two altar-cloths, one 
 of diaper. Item, a cloth of gold, partly red and partly white, with an image of our 
 Lady in the midst, with her Son in a circle, with eight angels ; and on her right hand 
 an archbishop standing in a circle, with eight angels ; and on her left hand a bishop 
 standing in a circle, with eight angels ; with a frontlet of the same suit, having in the 
 midst the Trinity, with two angels incensing on every side. * * * Item, a cloth 
 of white, with troyfoils of gold, having the Salutation of our Lady in a red circle, having 
 a frontlet of the same, with two cloths of diaper. — Inventory of the Cathedral of 
 Lincoln. Dugdales Monasticon. 
 
 In early times it was the custom to lay over the altar-cloth a piece of 
 silk or linen during the celebration of the holy Eucharist ; and after the 
 ninth century a linen cloth was invariably spread over the altar shortly 
 before celebration, and removed after conclusion of the service. 
 
 About the end of the fourteenth century three cloths were used for 
 covering the mensa, and at the present time the Rubric of the Latin 
 Church directs three linen cloths to be used, in addition to the cere-cloth, 
 or waxed linen cloth, which is laid directly on the consecrated stone to 
 protect it from dust and dirt. The cere-cloth exactly fits the mensa, and 
 usually has a turned-down edge, sewn at the corners, to prevent it moving 
 out of place ; on this two pieces of linen, the dimensions of the mensa, are 
 placed, and over these the third white linen cloth is laid. The last is 
 generally longer and a little wider than the altar, and hangs down over each 
 end, and very slightly over the front edge ; it is usually marked with five 
 small crosses, and ornamented with borders and fringes at its ends. 
 
 In the Eastern Church altars have, from the earliest times, been clothed in 
 the following manner : — At each corner of the mensa are placed small square 
 pieces of cloth, inscribed with the names of the Evangelists ; and over these 
 are laid three cloths, the upper one serving as a corporal. (See Corporal.) 
 
 In the English Church, at the present day, the altar is clothed in 
 different ways. 1. With an oblong piece of velvet or silk, fringed, and 
 embroidered with a cross or monogram, laid over the altar, and allowed to 
 fall in full folds at the corners. 2. With a cloth cut and sewn at the 
 corners so as to fit the altar closely ; this form is usually more elaborately 
 ornamented than the preceding. 3. With a frontal or ante-pendium, made 
 the exact dimensions of the front of the altar, and suspended so as to hang 
 as flat as possible ; on the top of the altar is laid a covering, to the front 
 edge of which is attached a strip of cloth, commonly called the super- 
 frontal, which hangs down over the upper part of the frontal. Both the 
 frontal and super-frontal are usually of some rich material, embroidered 
 with gold and coloured silks. (See Altar-frontal and Superfrontal.) 
 
63 
 
 [ ALTAR- CROSS ] 
 
 Altar-cloths are of various colours according to the ecclesiastical seasons 
 during which they are placed on the altar. (See Colours, Ecclesiastical.) 
 
 The term altar-cloth, as will be gathered from the above remarks, is 
 indifferently applied to the cloth which entirely covers the altar ; to that 
 which is of white linen, and is only used at celebrations ; and to that which 
 is an ornamental hanging placed in front of the altar only. "We should 
 rather confine the term to the first description, calling the second, or white 
 linen one, the Communion cloth. The correct name for the last is certainly 
 altar-frontal or ante-pendium. 
 
 ALTAR-CROSS. A fixed or movable cross, formed of various mate- 
 rials, supported on an elevated base or ornamental stand, and placed upon 
 an altar. 
 
 Movable altar-crosses do not appear to have been introduced prior to the 
 tenth century, and for some centuries afterwards they were not universally 
 adopted. In the Vatican collection of Christian antiquities, however, there 
 are several ancient metal crosses, which seem to have been made for the 
 altar. When an altar was placed under a ciborium, a cross usually sur- 
 mounted its dome. Later, when altars became more numerous, and were 
 erected without ciboria, fixed crosses were placed on the top of their 
 retables, or surmounted the tabernacles or canopies frequently erected 
 behind them. In a beautiful painting by Van Eyck, now preserved in 
 London, an altar is depicted with a low retable, having a large cross fixed 
 on its upper ledge. Both the retable and cross bear evidences of having 
 been copied from originals of about ninth century date. In the painting 
 preserved in the sacristy of the cathedral of Arras, the ancient high altar is 
 depicted with a lofty pier and canopy behind, the top of which is termi- 
 nated with a crucifix and figures of St. John and the Virgin ; three small 
 angels are also shown receiving the blood from the hands and feet into 
 small cups. No cross is placed on the altar or its retable. 
 
 In and after the thirteenth century, altar-crosses became very common, 
 and were frequently made of the precious metals, enamelled, and set with 
 jewels. They also were formed as reliquaries for containing reputed pieces 
 of the true Cross, and other relics. The following extracts from the inven- 
 tories of the cathedrals of Lincoln and York will give some idea of the 
 altar-crosses used in this country during the middle ages. 
 
 Item, a Cross of crystal, with a crucifix, silver and gilt, with one socket and one 
 knob silver and gilt, with the arms of England and France, and other divers 
 scutcheons, with a lamb in the back, and four Evangelists, silver and gilt, weighing 
 forty-five ounces, wanting three stones, set in silver gilt. 
 
 Item, a Cross, silver and gilt, having four Evangelists, like men standing upon four 
 lions in the foot, with one man kneeling, and a chalice in his hand, weighing thirty- 
 three ounces. 
 
 Item, a Cross of work plated with gold without, with one little part of the Holy 
 Cross, with divers stones of many colours, and pearls, weighing thirty-three ounces 
 and a half, with a foot, copper and gilt, with a long beryll and other stones. 
 
 Item, a double Cross flory, of gold and silver, standing upon a plain foot of four 
 
[ ALTAR-CURTAIN ] 
 
 64 
 
 lions, containing part of the Holy Cross, and reHcks of S. Machabeo, Alexander, 
 Christopher, and Stephen, and of the hair of S. Peter, and the relicks of S. George and 
 of the Innocents, weighing ten ounces and half a quarter. 
 
 Item, a little Cross, silver and gilt, round in the head, standing upon a squared foot, 
 with six stones red and blue, containing the Scripture in the back, De ligno Domini 
 Sancti Andrece, and in the middle of the cross a little cross, weighing one ounce and 
 one quarter. 
 
 Item, a Cross, silver and gilt, like a quatrefoil, containing a crucifix in the middle, 
 with Mary and John at the foot of the crucifix ; and at the right side of the crucifix 
 an image of Abraham offering his son Isaac, and a lamb behind him, and an angel, 
 wanting a wing; and on the left side the image of Abel and Cain, and in the height 
 two angels, both of them having but one wing, having eleven stones, blue and red, 
 weighing seventy-three ounces and a hall— Inventory of Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
 Item, a great gilt Cross with a silver foot, and on that foot a gold image, with the 
 hands bound hke Christ, weighing eight pounds and six ounces. 
 
 Item, a small gold Cross, with a piece of the Wood of our Saviour's Cross in the 
 middle, and a silver gilt foot, weighing two pounds and six ounces. 
 
 Item, a gilt Cross, with a large diamond in the foot, and three great diamonds at the 
 feet of the crucifix * * weighing seven ounces. 
 
 Item, one large silver Cross gilt, with an image of the Blessed Virgin in a taber- 
 nacle at the lower part, and the image of Christ crucified, with Mary and John in the 
 upper part standing upon four angels * * weighing eight pounds ten oimces. 
 
 Item, two Crosses with the image of the crucifix silver gilt, of the same make, with 
 the four EvangeHsts at the comers, of white silver, and two images of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary in tabernacles on the foot standing on four lions * * weighing five 
 pounds and three ounces. 
 
 Item, a silver Cross gUt, with the images of Mary and John, with a round foot, and 
 round knob, between the foot and the crucifix, weighing two pounds and nine ounces. 
 
 Item, a Cross of red jasper stone, adorned with silver gilt, with stones set in the 
 wooden painted foot. 
 
 Item, a crystal Cross, with a beautiful foot well carved, weighing four pounds five 
 ounces and a half.— Inventory of York Cathedral. 
 
 That Continental cathedrals and churches were equally rich with our 
 own, if not in many cases far richer, in precious ornaments for the altar, 
 we think there can be little doubt ; certainly, ample proofs still remain in 
 their treasures that works quite as sumptuous as those curtly noted in the 
 above inventories were very generally fabricated for the Church in the best 
 periods of middle age art. Many magnificent and costly reliquary crosses 
 still exist, which were doubtless used as altar-crosses on great festivals. 
 (See Reliquary.) 
 
 In the Latin Church, at the present day, the altar-cross is in the form 
 of a crucifix, and is made in various ornamental designs, and of various 
 materials. In the English Church it is not generally adopted, and when 
 it is placed on the altar it is usually in the form of a cross without the 
 figure, and as a rule it is made of poHshed brass, engraved, and set with 
 stones or crystals. 
 
 ALTAR-CURTAIN. A hanging of costly stuff or embroidery, sus- 
 pended from rods to the sides of ancient ciboria ; or at the back and ends, 
 or at the ends only, of altars. 
 
65 
 
 [ ALTAR-DESK \ 
 
 The curtains of ciboria were hung from rods attached to their four 
 angle columns, and were, in early times, drawn close during the consecra- 
 tion of the elements. (See Cihorium.) 
 
 The mode of hanging the curtains of detached altars varied, but, if we 
 may judge from representations in ancient pictures and miniatures, they 
 were commonly hung from rods, supported by columns or standards, at 
 about six or eight feet from the floor. The curtains were of coloured or 
 richly figured stuff, and were fringed at their lower edges, or ornamented 
 with borders, which came near to, or just touched, the pavement. 
 
 In an ancient painting, representing the high altar of the cathedral of 
 Arras, now preserved in the sacristy of that building, we observe that the 
 altar is surrounded on back and ends with curtains, about seven feet high, 
 hung upon rods extending between six columns of silver and silver-gilt, 
 with bases, bands, and capitals, and supporting the figures of angels 
 bearing the emblems of the Passion. A similar disposition of the curtains 
 appears to have obtained in the furniture of the high altar of the cathedral 
 of Notre Dame, at Paris, which was constructed in the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century. This altar is represented, in an ancient engraving 
 (1662), flanked with curtains hung on rods, supported by four columns, 
 with bases and capitals, upon which latter are figures of angels bearing 
 four of the emblems of our Lord's Passion. The columns, to which the 
 curtain-rods were attached, appear to have sometimes carried prickets for 
 candles, or angels bearing candlesticks. 
 
 Pugin, alluding to modern altars of the Latin Church, says :— " Curtains 
 should be hung on either side of the altar, about eighteen inches from the 
 ends : these may be supported either by irons fixed into the wall, or rods 
 running from the wall to upright shafts on each side of the altar, supporting 
 images of angels with lights." 
 
 ALTAR-CUSHION. A small cushion, laid upon the altar for the 
 purpose of supporting the service-book in an inclined position. That 
 cushions for this purpose were used during the middle ages is proved by a 
 miniature in a missal of the fifteenth century, in the library of the late 
 M. Ambrose Firmin-Didot. This miniature represents the miraculous 
 mass of St. Gregory the Great ; and upon the altar is placed a circular 
 cushion supporting the service-book. A tassel is attached to each end 
 of the cushion, probably for the purpose of Ufting it readily along with the 
 open book. 
 
 ALTAR-DESK. A small sloping desk, or book-rest, placed upon the 
 altar at the time of celebration, for the purpose of supporting the service- 
 book in a position convenient for reading. 
 
 At the present time altar-desks are usually made of polished brass or 
 carved oak, and of a moderate size, so that they may be easily moved from 
 one part of the altar to another. In the middle ages cushions were some- 
 times used for resting the service-books upon. (See Altar- Cushion.) 
 
 I 
 
[ ALTAR-FRONTAL ] 
 
 66 
 
 ALTAR- FRONTAL. A decorative work, in metal alone, or enriched 
 with enamels and precious stones, — in carved wood, painted and gilded, — 
 or in some rich tissue, embroidered in gold and colours, and placed or 
 suspended in front of an altar. 
 
 Altar-frontals in all the above materials have been used from the 
 earliest ages of the Church, and many were of the most precious and 
 beautiful workmanship. The custom of placing frontals to altars, however, 
 does not appear to have become general in the middle ages ; and we may 
 safely surmise that they were applied to those altars only which were 
 perfectly plain in their construction. Even these altars were deprived of 
 their frontals on Good Friday and Holy Saturday. On Easter Sunday the 
 most precious frontals were fixed. 
 
 That altar frontals of the precious metals were often constructed there 
 can be little doubt ; the superb gold and silver altar in the church of St. 
 Ambrose at Milan ; the Pala d'Oro in St. Mark's at Venice ; the Palliotto 
 of silver in the treasury of the cathedral at Monza ; the golden Tabula pre- 
 served in the Musee de Cluny at Paris ; and numerous mediseval records, 
 clearly prove that the most sumptuous and costly modes of decoration were 
 expended on the adornment of ancient Christian altars. 
 
 The Pala d'Oro and Tabula of Bale have frequently been described as 
 altar-frontals, and some little confusion apparently exists amongst 
 archaeological writers on the subject ; a confusion probably arising from 
 looseness of nomenclature. These ancient works were evidently intended 
 for retables, to be placed on the altar, and not in front of it. The fine 
 thirteenth century retable preserved in Westminster Abbey has also 
 incorrectly been called a frontal. 
 
 Mr. Webb assures us that the Monza Palliotto is an altar-front. It is 
 of silver, and presents the Baptism of our Lord in a centre medalHon, with 
 six compartments on each side, containing scenes from the life of St. John 
 the Baptist. 
 
 At all times the altar-frontals most in use were those which took the 
 form of a straight hanging, and were made of rich stuffs, plain, figured, or 
 embroidered. Enough remains of ancient frontals to tell us how gorgeous 
 many of them must have been, covered with their decorations in coloured 
 silks, gold, and jewels. Altars are frequently found depicted with great 
 accuracy in paintings, and in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts, and 
 from these sources we can readily form an idea of the frontals used in the 
 middle ages. In the painting preserved in the sacristy of the cathedral of 
 Arras, which shows the ancient altar of that building, the frontal is 
 represented as of a costly tissue, powdered with fleur-de-lys ; and, in a 
 miniature of a manuscript, preserved in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, 
 an altar is represented with a frontal of red material, with two vertical bands 
 of yellow stuff near its ends, and embroidered with gold ; it has also a 
 super-frontal of red, fringed with green. 
 
 Kich and elaborate altar-frontals are still used in Continental churches. 
 Mr. Webb describes one which he saw in the church of St. Maria Novello, 
 
67 
 
 [ ALTAR-FRONTAL ] 
 
 at Florence, in these words : — "At one high mass I noticed here the most 
 beautiful embroidered frontal I ever saw. It seemed to be of cloth of gold, 
 embroidered with figures of the twelve Apostles under canopies, six on 
 each side of a central compartment in which was the Coronation of the 
 Blessed Virgin with four attendant angels. The super-frontal was fringed, 
 and also embroidered in subjects." * 
 
 In the Museum of the Palazzo il Bargello, at Florence, is preserved a 
 remarkably fine embroidered altar-frontal, with its attendant super-frontal. 
 The frontal contains, in the centre, a Coronation of the Virgin, with angels, 
 blowing trumpets and bearing lilies, disposed on either side. On the lateral 
 divisions of the frontal are figures of thirteen Apostles, with St. John the 
 Baptist, and in the spandrils are angels with wings outspread. The flesh 
 throughout is most delicately worked in minute stitches. The robe of the 
 Vir gin is beautifully ornamented, and two jewels, in settings, are intro- 
 duced as brooches to the robes of our Lord and the Virgin. The nimbus 
 of Christ is embroidered with flowers, and, instead of the usual nimbus, 
 the Virgin has an elaborate head-dress, surmounted by a crown of raised 
 gold, set with pearls and rubies. A border of foliage and birds extends 
 round the frontal. The entire of the above is executed upon a gold 
 ground, relieved with raised diapers of difi'erent designs. 
 
 The super-frontal has the following eleven subjects, most carefully 
 embroidered : — The Birth of the Virgin ; Presentation of the Virgin in the 
 Temple ; the Marriage of the Virgin ; the Annunciation ; the Salutation 
 of Elizabeth ; the Nativity ; the Adoration of the Magi ; the Presentation 
 in the Temple ; Mary finding Christ amongst the Doctors ; the Death of the 
 Virgin ; and the Assumption of the Virgin. Small figures of saints 
 alternate with these subjects. 
 
 There is no doubt that in the middle ages England was singularly rich 
 in all articles of Church furniture, in which embroidery assumed an impor- 
 tant part, and Anglicum Opus, a species of English embroidery, was for a 
 long period prized throughout the whole Christian world. Kich altar- 
 frontals are frequently mentioned by ancient writers, and in church inven- 
 tories. The destruction of all articles of ecclesiastical use, which- took 
 place at the Keformation, left little in the shape of rich altar-frontals, for 
 against all that appertained to the altar a peculiar hatred existed. The 
 most noteworthy example remaining at the present day is that preserved at 
 Steeple Aston, the date of which is about the reign of Edward III. It is 
 embroidered with the Crucifixion, and martyrdoms of several of the 
 apostles and saints. 
 
 It was customary in ancient times to hang round the edge of the mensa, 
 and over the frontal proper, a strip of cloth or tissue, embroidered and 
 fringed. This is now commonly known as the super-frontal, although that 
 term was originally applied to another portion of the decorations of an 
 altar. (See Super-Frontal.) 
 
 * Sketches of Continental Ecclesiology, by the Rev. Benjamin Webb, M.A. London, 1848. 
 
[ ALTAR-RAIL ] 
 
 68 
 
 Both the frontals and super- frontals were of certain colours, according 
 to the days on which they were used, and the embroideries were also 
 characteristic in design and expressive of the various fasts and festivals to 
 which the frontals were appropriated. (See Colours Ecclesiastical.) 
 
 At the present day the use of appropriately coloured and richly 
 embroidered frontals and super-frontals has been carefully revived in 
 the English Church, and many of our religious edifices can boast of 
 magnificent suites of altar-vestments for all the seasons and special 
 festivals. 
 
 ALTAR-PIECE. An ornamental construction containing sculptures 
 or mosaics, or a frame-work containing paintings, placed at the back of an 
 altar, and displaying itself above the upper surface of the mensa. An 
 altar-piece is frequently an independent construction of stone, marble, or 
 other material, resting on the floor of the sacrarium, and against which a 
 movable or fixed altar is placed. Sometimes the altar-piece is erected 
 on the mensa, and is a component part of the altar ; at other times it is 
 simply projected from a wall, with either a fixed or movable altar in 
 front; and, lastly, it is met with in the form of a comparatively light 
 frame-work, containing panel or canvas pictures, suspended to a wall or 
 resting on the altar. 
 
 The term, although commonly used with reference to all the forms 
 above enumerated, is not altogether satisfactory ; and we are of opinion 
 that its sense should be confined to the last description, namely, that of 
 pictures in any way framed, and more or less portable. 
 
 All the ancient triptychs, which were placed over altars, may appropri- 
 ately be termed altar-pieces. (See Eeredos, Retable, and Triptych.) 
 
 ALTAR- RAIL. The railing of stone, marble, metal, or wood, which 
 extends across the sacrarium and in front of the communion table in the 
 Anglican Church. Communicants kneel in front of the altar-rail while 
 receiving the elements from the hands of the celebrant. In modern 
 churches, or in those restored in accordance with modern ideas, the altar- 
 rails are usually designed so as to be light and unobtrusive, serving simply 
 as arm-rests to the communicants. They consist frequently of simple rods 
 of metal or wood, supported on standards of wrought iron or brass, placed 
 at wide intervals. An entrance is left in the centre for the priest to pass 
 through, and this is sometimes closed by a sliding-rod or hinged piece. 
 Altar-rails should not be so high from the kneeling-step as in any way to 
 interfere with the action of the arms while receiving the elements, nor so 
 high as to render it necessary to draw back and lift the chalice over it. 
 The proper height from the surface oi the kneeling-step, mat, or cushion, 
 is about 2 feet 2 inches. 
 
 Altar-rails are placed in English churches in accordance with the seventh 
 canon (London, 1640), which directs that the holy tables are to stand where 
 the altars did, and to be railed in. 
 
69 
 
 [ ALTERNATE J 
 
 ALTAR-SCREEN. The screen-work or wall against which an altar is 
 placed, or that which surrounds an altar for its protection. In the former 
 case it may be a construction of stone, marble, wood, or metal, of con- 
 siderable height, stretching entirely across a choir or chancel, or any other 
 portion of a church, erected for the purpose of advancing an altar, or 
 with the view of screening it off from a space behind. Altar- screens, 
 constructed for the protection of altars, or to enclose a certain space 
 around them, may be in the form of walls, balustrades, or open-work in 
 any of the materials already mentioned. 
 
 The term altar- screen has frequently been applied to what is more 
 strictly a reredos, an article which, in its proper capacity, does not partake 
 of the nature of a screen at all. We are of opinion that too much care 
 cannot be taken in matters of architectural nomenclature ; and, as regards 
 the term under consideration, it should certainly not be applied to any- 
 thing in connexion with an altar, unless it partakes of the nature of a 
 screen or wall of separation. 
 
 ALTAR-STEPS. The steps which are placed immediately in front of 
 a Christian altar, and which lead to the foot-pace on which it is elevated. 
 It has been the custom, from the earliest times, to elevate altars on special 
 foot-paces, with one or more steps. An ancient foot-pace exists in the 
 abbey of Altenberg, with three steps ; in the church of St. Zaccaria, at 
 Venice, with five steps in front only ; and the altar-floor is approached by 
 seven steps in the basilica of St. Francisco, at Eavenna. (See Foot-pace.) 
 
 ALTAR-TOM B. A description of elevated tomb, formed in the shape 
 of a Christian altar. Tombs of this kind were frequently constructed in the 
 middle ages, and usually bore on their upper slabs the full-length effigies 
 of the dead in whose honour they were erected. Many fine and richly- 
 ornamented examples are preserved in this country. This term, although 
 it may be said to be expressive, is certainly incorrect ; the tomb was never 
 used as an altar, and its simple resemblance to that object scarcely 
 warrants the addition of its name. In early times, some altars were, 
 strictly speaking, tombs, containing the remains of saints or martyrs ; and, 
 during the times of persecution, the tombs of the early Christians in the 
 catacombs were used as altars for the Holy Eucharist. These were strictly 
 tomb-altars. 
 
 Leland uses the term High Tomb, which is preferable, although not so 
 expressive of the general outward form as that under consideration. As 
 this description of tomb was originally designed to receive, and usually 
 does bear, a sculptured effigy, it might appropriately be designated a 
 Pedestal-Tomb. Leland's term may be applied to those which are com- 
 pleted with flat upper slabs, such as are commonly met with in church- 
 yards. 
 
 ALTERNATE. The heraldic term used when tinctures or figures 
 succeed each other alternately. 
 
[ AMAZON ] 
 
 70 
 
 ALTO-RILIEVO. (Ital.) A term used in Art to signify work 
 executed in very high relief. Sculptures in relief are divided into three 
 classes : 1. — Work in low relief, where the figures or ornaments are just 
 sufficiently raised from the ground to be distinct, is termed basso-rilievo, 
 or bas-relief. 2. — Work considerably raised, but not undercut in the 
 principal masses, is called mezzo -rilievo. 3. — Work in high relief, in 
 which all the principal portions are much undercut, and the minor portions 
 entirely disconnected from the ground, is termed Alto-eilievo. 
 
 The term is applied to works in marble, stone, wood, metal, ivory, terra- 
 cotta, and other materials. 
 
 ALURA OR ALU RE. These terms are used in mediaeval writings to 
 signify a gallery between one apartment and another; a passage along the 
 clerestory of a cathedral ; covered walks in the public streets ; and the 
 passage way behind the roof parapets of a church or battlements of a castle. 
 
 AMALTHAEA. The name of the Cumasan Sibyl, also known as 
 CuMANA. Certain writers call her Demophile or Hierophile. She is 
 understood to be the Sibyl who offered to Tarquin the Elder the nine books 
 containing the Sibylline verses. (See Sibyl.) Her emblems are a crib, or 
 manger, and a crutch. 
 
 AM ATI TO. The name given, in old treatises on fresco painting, to a 
 natural pigment of a rich red colour, used by artists in their works. There 
 has been some uncertainty regarding the exact nature of Amatito, but the 
 researches of Mrs. Merrifield may be said to have effectually settled the 
 question. The pigment was evidently prepared from red htematite or fibrous 
 red iron ore, calcined and ground ; it was of an intense red colour, and 
 when applied to the wall remained perfectly unaffected by the lime of the 
 intonaco. The other names given to this pigment by the several old writers 
 are: — Albin, Sinopia, Rubrica, Almagre, Pabonazo, Ferretta d'Spagna, 
 and Terra rossa d'Inghilterra. 
 
 AMAZON. A female warrior, frequently represented in Ancient Art. 
 The existence of the race of Amazons is certainly legendary, but the 
 Greeks firmly believed that such beings did exist, and their poets and 
 artists invested them with many peculiar characteristics. They are stated 
 to have undergone mutilation, by having their right breasts removed, by 
 cutting and burning, so that they could use the bow freely in battle. 
 They usually are represented robust in form, with powerful limbs, clad in 
 light drapery, or wearing the Doric chiton ; sometimes on foot, but more 
 generally fighting on horseback, armed with bow, battle-axe, and spear, 
 and carrying small shields of a crescent shape, as moon worshippers. 
 
 Representations of battles of the Amazons are to be found in bas-reliefs, 
 as in the series amongst the Elgin Marbles in the British Museum, which 
 depicts the battle between them and Theseus; and in the Phigaleian 
 Marbles, which represent a battle between them and centaurs. 
 
71 
 
 [ AMBITUS ALTAKIS ] 
 
 Amazons are frequently met with in the decorations of ancient vases ; 
 and statues of them are preserved in the Vatican Gallery, and the Museo 
 Borbonico, at Naples. 
 
 AMAZON STONE. A very hard and compact variety of felspar, of 
 a colour inclining to emerald green, opaque, and with nacrous reflections ; 
 and capable of taking a high polish. It was used in the earliest periods 
 of art. The signet cylinder of Sennacherib, which was discovered by 
 Mr. Layard, is of this description of stone. It was frequently used by the 
 ancient Mexican lapidaries for figures of idols, and numerous specimens 
 have been found in tombs. 
 
 AMBER. A natural material, usually of a yellow colour, brittle, trans- 
 lucent, and with a resinous lustre. It appears to have been known from 
 the earliest times. 
 
 It is found in many places all over the world, but probably most 
 plentifully along the shores of the Baltic, where it occurs in beds of 
 bituminous wood, or washed up by the sea. It is generally believed to be a 
 vegetable gum or resin which has undergone a modification through the 
 agency of natural chemical substances in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Amber has been freely used in art under two conditions — in its natural 
 state it has been largely employed in the construction of articles for 
 personal adornment, and, after the fashion of precious stones, for the 
 enrichment of goldsmiths' work and church furniture, on account of its 
 beautiful colour and the ease with which it could be cut and polished ; for 
 such purposes it was invariably cut en cahochon — and in painting, as a 
 vehicle or varnish, dissolved in certain oils, balsam, turpentine, &c. The 
 varnish prepared by dissolving amber in linseed oil by heat, and then 
 diluting it with turpentine, is one of the most durable known in the arts. 
 
 AMBITUS ALTARIS. (Lat.) A wall of marble, stone, or other 
 materials enclosing a space around an altar. The term is sometimes 
 applied to the portion of the walls of a church which immediately defines 
 an altar space, such as the wall of an apse. 
 
 The ambitus altaris appears to have been commonly adopted prior to the 
 tenth century. We gather from the Liber Pontificalis that it was con- 
 structed of stone, marble, and occasionally of the precious metals and costly 
 hangings. * One, erected by Pope Sergius II (844-877) in the church of 
 
 * In the richer churches silver columns bearing arches of the same metal were often 
 erected on the marble enclosure, and from these arches hung rich curtains, and frequently 
 vessels or crowns of the precious metals ; repeated mention of such decorations may be 
 found in the Lib. Pontif., and a passage in the will of Fortuuatus Patriarch of Grado (Hazlitt, 
 Hist, of the Republic of Venice, vol. i. App.), who died in the early part of the 9th century, 
 describes a like arrangement very clearly in the following words : " Post ipsum altare alium 
 parietem deauratum et deargentatum similiter longitudine pedum xv. et in altitudine 
 pedes iv. et super ipso pariete arcus volutiles de argento et super ipsos arcus imagines de 
 auro et de argento." — A. Nesbitt, F.S.A., in Diet, of Christ. Antiq. 
 
[ AMBO OR AMBON ] 
 
 72 
 
 St. John Lateran, is described as having been composed of marble columns 
 and slabs, sculptured with interlaced ornament, and the whole richly 
 decorated. 
 
 No authentic example of an ancient ambitus altaris is known to exist 
 entire, but fragments of slabs, pierced and carved with the interlaced work, 
 characteristic of the early Italian art, are met with, which may be supposed 
 to have formed portions of such a work. Fragments of this nature are 
 preserved in the cloisters of St. John Lateran, and they are believed to 
 have belonged to the gift of Pope Sergius II. 
 
 We may reasonably conjecture that in the generality of cases the ambitus 
 altaris was constructed in a style very similar to that which is to be seen 
 in the enclosure of the chorus cantorum in the church of St. Clement, at 
 Rome. This is a wall, about five feet six inches high from the floor of the 
 nave, formed of thin slabs of marble, some of which are sculptured in relief 
 with crosses, monograms, and wreaths, and others pierced and carved 
 in interlaced work. These slabs are supported on edge by marble posts 
 placed at intervals, and carry a cornice or coping. 
 
 The term Ambitus literally signifies " a going about,"* and has occa- 
 sionally been applied to a space round a tomb ; that left round a Roman 
 dwelling-house ; and in later times, by Eusebius and other writers, to the 
 passage way round the choir of a church. On the same grounds it may 
 be applied to the space round an altar, enclosed by the wall above described. 
 
 AMBO OR AMBON. In Christian churches, an elevated desk or 
 pulpit, approached either by one or two flights of steps, and used for the 
 reading of the Holy Scriptures, and more especially the Epistles and 
 Gospels. 
 
 Originally there was only one ambo in a church, placed in the centre or 
 towards one side of the nave, and different positions were taken in reading 
 the lessons. In the upper portion, or the ambo proper, there were usually 
 two steps ; from the lower one the sub-deacon read the Epistles towards 
 the east or altar, and from the upper the Gospels were read by the 
 deacon towards the nave. The inconvenience of having only one ambo 
 soon asserted itself, and in churches of any importance two, and in some 
 instances three, ambones were erected. In the ancient plan of the abbey 
 of St. Gall there are shown two square ones, placed north and south of the 
 choir, and a large circular one in a central position in front of the choir. 
 (See plan, page 13 — Ahhey.) 
 
 In basilican churches two ambones were usually erected, one on each 
 side of the choir, which was separated from the nave and ailes by a low 
 wall. The best existing example of this arrangement is in the church of 
 Clemente, at Rome, and may be briefly described as follows. (The church 
 not being, in the usual fashion, placed with its sacrarium towards the east, 
 but in reality in the direction of north-west, we cannot describe it clearly 
 
 * Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
 
73 
 
 [ AMBO OR AMBON ] 
 
 by using the points of the compass.) At the altar end of the building a 
 low wall extends across the interior, passing through the second bay from 
 the apse ; this wall is elevated on a platform and has three entrances, two 
 from the ailes and one in front of the tribune or centre apse. The choir, a 
 space of about half the width of the nave, and above a third its entu-e 
 length, is projected opposite the tribune, and separated from the nave 
 by a wall formed of carved and pierced slabs of marble, supported by 
 marble piers at intervals. On each side of the choir, and near the centre 
 of its length, is erected an ambo ; that on the south side, or on the left 
 hand as one looks towards the altar, is the more important or Gospel ambo, 
 that on the opposite side being the Epistle ambo. The Gospel ambo 
 is of considerable size, and consists of two semi-octagonal reading 
 recesses, facing the lateral ailes, and placed on each side of a square 
 platform, reached by two flights of fourteen steps each. On one of the 
 piers of the lower stage of this ambo is placed the paschal-candlestick, 
 a spiral column, richly decorated with mosaic work, and terminated by 
 a capital at twelve feet from the floor. There are no fixed book-rests to 
 the recesses, and, both being alike, it is probable they were both used 
 for reading from, a movable desk being employed. The Epistle ambo 
 is altogether difi'erent in construction ; it is smaller in dimensions than 
 the one used for the Gospel, square in shape, and ascended by one 
 flight of steps. It is, however, finished with two desks at different levels ; 
 the higher one faces the altar and the lower one the opposite direction, or 
 towards the nave. The disposition of the four reading places in these 
 ambones is remarkable ; they are so constructed as to permit the readers 
 to face either side or either end of the church, according to the ritual 
 enjoined. 
 
 The illustration (Fig. 1), from a miniature in a Latin M.S. of the 
 eleventh century, preserved in the Barberini Library, gives the representa- 
 tion of a Gospel ambo, which in all essential points resembles that just 
 described. The deacon, standing in the ambo, holds the scroll over the 
 desk to be censed by the thuriferarius, and on his right hand is placed 
 the paschal-candlestick, an important object rising from the floor. The 
 ambo itself is richly carved, and no doubt is a faithful representation 
 of one which existed at the time. 
 
 These interesting examples convey a perfect idea of the forms and 
 appointments of ambones, and it is scarcely necessary, in a circumscribed 
 work like this, to go more deeply into the subject; but we may briefly 
 mention a few of the other ancient specimens still preserved. The 
 most ancient ambo in existence is probably that in the church of St. Spirito, 
 at Ravenna ; it is formed of marble, oblong, and with curved sides ; it dates 
 about the sixth century. Two ambones exist in the Duomo, at Pisa. Webb 
 speaks of them thus : — " The ritual arrangements (of the Duomo) are very 
 interesting. The high altar, raised on four steps, is on the chord of the 
 apse ; the apse itself is made no use of, except that a small altar is placed at 
 its extremity. The space of the eastern one of the two arches of the choir is 
 
 K 
 
[ AMBO OR AMBON ] 74 
 
 the sacrarium; two steps lower is the choh-, occupying the other arch, and also 
 extending into the crossing under the cupola as far as the columns which divide 
 the transepts from their eastern ailes. This chorus has low marble walls 
 north and south, and returned at the west end. There are two ambones 
 against the piers of the choir-arch, facing north and south respectively, and 
 reached by steps from the east, which are built immediately behind the low 
 walls that bound the choir at the north and south sides. I heard the Epistle 
 and Gospel properly read from these ambones. At the Gospel, there were five 
 persons in the ambon ; two ceroferarii, who planted their standard candle- 
 sticks one on each side of the desk, at which stood the deacon attended 
 
 1 
 
 by the sub-deacon at his right hand, and a thuriferarius on his left." In 
 the church of St. Lorenzo (outside the walls), at Kome, are two very beautiful 
 ambones, richly decorated with precious marbles and glass mosaic work. 
 They resemble, in all essential features, those in the church of St. Clemente 
 but are reversed in position. The Gospel ambo is on the south side, or 
 towards the right hand as one looks towards the altar from the nave ; it is 
 in the form of an octagon, with eagle book-desk, and with two flights of stairs, 
 and has a paschal-candlestick, a twisted column of mosiac work, resting on 
 
75 
 
 [ AMBO OR AMBON ] 
 
 the backs of two lions. The Epistle ambo is square in form, with a book- 
 desk facing east, and reached by a single flight of steps. In the church 
 of St. Maria in Cosmedin are two ambones very similar to those just 
 described. The Epistle ambo is square, placed on the north side, with a 
 book-desk facing east ; the Gospel ambo, placed on the south side, is octa- 
 gonal, with double stairs, and a paschal-candlestick. The ambones in the 
 churches of St. Clemente, St. Lorenzo, and St. Maria in Cosmedin, repre- 
 sent the true forms adopted by the early Latin Church, which fell into 
 disuse about the end of the thirteenth century. The latest ambo erected 
 in Kome is believed to have been one which existed in the church of St. 
 Pancrazio, and which bore the date of its construction, 1249. This no 
 longer exists, but a representation of it is given by Ciampini. In the church 
 of St. Ambrogio, Milan, is a stone ambo supported on columns, and having 
 on its south side a book-desk supported on a brass eagle. In the Duomo, at 
 Torcello, is an ambo of white marble, placed on the north side of the nave 
 in front of the rood-screen. Webb gives this accurate description of its 
 construction : — " The ascent to it begins on the north side, from the 
 aisle, behind the screen : these steps mount to a platform which clings to 
 the third column, and a few more steps southwards along the west face of 
 this column reach another platform, to which there is a circular front, and a 
 stone desk facing south : this was probably for the Epistle : five more steps, 
 from this platform, in. a direction due west, bring one to a higher pulpit 
 projecting into the nave, and almost reaching the fourth column, of almost 
 an oval form, with low walls round it and a desk facing south-west." 
 A somewhat similar arrangement exists in the church of St. Miniato, at 
 Florence, but the single ambo is on the north side, or the opposite side to 
 that in the Duomo, at Torcello. 
 
 In later churches, where the choirs were surrounded with high walls or 
 screens, it is obvious that the original basilican arrangement of the ambones 
 was impracticable. The ambones at Torcello and in St. Miniato are illus- 
 trations of one way of overcoming the difficulty ; but in the generality of 
 monastic churches the choirs, with all their adjuncts, were enclosed ; and 
 the Epistles, Gospels, and several other portions of the service were read or 
 chanted from desks or ambones constructed over the western screen of the 
 choir, and approached by staircases. (See Juhe and Roodloft.) 
 
 Sermons were occasionally delivered from the ambo. St. Chrysostom is 
 recorded to have preached from it so as to be more distinctly heard by the 
 congregation. 
 
 The term ambo has been applied to the choir, or the place of the singers, 
 without any immediate reference to a reading-desk; for instance, the 
 Council of Laodicea uses it in this sense.* 
 
 The following names for the ambo occur in ancient writings : — Analogium, 
 Auditorium, Gradus, Lectorium, Ostensorium, and Pyrgos. {Ft. 
 Ambon, Pupitre, and Jube.) 
 
 * Sacred Arelmology, p. 24. 
 
[ AMBKOSE, ST. ] 
 
 76 
 
 AMBROSE, ST. Bishop, Confessor, and Doctor of the Church; and 
 Patron Saint of Milan. This saint, although highly venerated throughout 
 the whole of Western Christendom, does not appear in works of art so 
 frequently as might be expected. Representations of him as Patron Saint 
 are amongst the most rare, the finest known being that painted in the 
 chapel dedicated to him in the church of the Frari, at Venice, by two artists 
 named Vivarini and Basaiti, in the year 1498. Mrs. Jameson describes 
 the treatment of the subject thus : — "He is seated on a throne, raised on 
 several steps, attired in his episcopal robes and mitre, and bearing the 
 triple scourge in his hand. He has a short grey beard, and looks straight 
 out of the picture with an expression of stern power ; — nothing here of the 
 benignity and humility of the Christian teacher ! Around his throne 
 stands a glorious company of saints : on the right, St. George, in complete 
 armour ; St. John the Baptist ; a young saint, bearing a sword and palm, 
 with long hair, and the most beautiful expression of mild serene faith, 
 whom I suppose to be St. Theodore ; St. Sebastian ; and another figure 
 behind, part of the head only seen. On the left, St. Maurice armed ; the 
 three Doctors, St. Gregory, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and two other saints 
 partly seen behind, whose personality is doubtful. All these wait round 
 St. Ambrose, as guards and counsellors round a sovereign ; two lovely 
 little angels sit on the lower step of the throne hymning his praise." 
 
 When represented alone, he is usually vested as a bishop, mitred, and 
 holding in his hand the crosier ; he sometimes carries, as in the picture 
 above described, a scourge with three thongs, his usual attribute, given to 
 him in commemoration of his triumph over the Arians in Italy, and perhaps 
 also with an allusion to the memorable penance he inflicted on the Emperor 
 Theodosius. Occasionally his other symbol, a bee-hive, is depicted, as in 
 Callot's Images, where he is represented standing, with mitre and nimbus 
 on his head, exhorting the Emperor Theodosius, who, crowned and clad in 
 regal garments, humbly kneels before him ; on a stand behind St. Ambrose 
 is the bee-hive, with bees flying about it. 
 
 St. Ambrose was the son of a Prefect of Gaul, and was born at Treves in 
 the year 340. Paulinus states that an event, prognosticating his future elo- 
 quence, occurred in his early childhood ; while he was asleep in his cradle, 
 a swarm of bees came and lighted on his lips. It is from this reputed oc- 
 currence that his emblem, the bee-hive, has been given. A representation 
 of the event forms the first of the twelve scenes from his life, which decorate 
 the back of the Palliotto preserved in his church at Milan. (See Altar.) 
 On the death of his father he was taken by his mother to Eome, where, after 
 acquiring great proficiency in the learning of the day, he was appointed 
 counsellor to Probus, the Praetorian Prefect of Italy, and a Christian. 
 About 373, Ambrose was promoted by Emperor Valentinian I. to the 
 government of the northern provinces of Italy, and accordingly took up his 
 residence in Milan. On departing to his new sphere of action, Probus is 
 reported to have uttered the prophetic advice : — " Go govern, not as a 
 judge, but as a bishop." In the year 374, Auxentius, bishop of Milan, 
 
77 
 
 r AMBROSE, ST. j 
 
 died, and his succession gave rise to serious disputes between the Catholics 
 and Arians of the city. Auxentius had for many years been a leader 
 amongst the Arians of the West, and that party was anxious for a bishop 
 with similar views to be elected. The CathoHc party was resolved that 
 another Arian should not be elevated to the see, and a tumult threatened to 
 break out, when the governor entered the church, where the contest over 
 the election was going on, with the hope of allaying the fierce excitement 
 of both parties. 
 
 While addressing the assembly, a child, it is stated, cried out three times, 
 " Ambrose shall be bishop !" The whole assembly took up the cry, and it 
 was quickly caught by the multitude outside the church, and carried to all 
 parts of the city. Ambrose in vain protested against such an idea being 
 carried into effect, stating that he was only a catechuman, and not yet a 
 baptized Christian. His objections only fixed the more firmly the resolu- 
 tion of the leaders of both parties, and Ambrose was baptised, his appoint- 
 ment sanctioned by the emperor, and, within eight days after the child's 
 suggestion, was consecrated bishop of Milan (December 7, a.d. 374). 
 
 Up to this time Ambrose was a laic and a man of the world in every 
 sense ; but no sooner was he consecrated than he gave up the world, 
 distributed his wealth and possessions to the Church and the poor, and 
 devoted himself to earnest prayer, patient study, and works of piety. 
 
 He also distinguished himself above all the ecclesiastics of his time, by 
 the great dignity and grandeur he imparted to the ceremonial of the Church, 
 and by the improvements he introduced into its music. He was the active 
 means of bringing to perfection a style of ecclesiastical music known as 
 the Ambrosian. The Te Deum is said to have been composed by St. Ambrose 
 at the baptism of St. Augustine, his most celebrated convert to the faith. 
 It is generally understood that the " Ambrosian Rite" was compiled by 
 him ; but it is probable that it was merely named in his honour, after having 
 been first introduced in his church. 
 
 Probably the most remarkable event in his career was his excommunica- 
 tion of the Emperor Theodosius, who, in a moment of passion, ordered the 
 massacre of the inhabitants of Thessalonica. St. Ambrose denounced this 
 inhuman proceeding, and shut the doors of his church against him, 
 instructing all the ecclesiastics under his jurisdiction to deny him the 
 sacraments of the Church. The emperor for eight months threatened and 
 supplicated St. Ambrose by turns, but the bishop stood firm. At last he 
 relented, on condition that he should issue an edict delaying capital 
 punishment until thirty days after conviction, and that he should undergo 
 a public and humiliating penance. These things the emperor agreed to ; 
 and, clad in a garment of sackcloth, and with dust and ashes sprinkled on his 
 head, he prostrated himself at the feet of the imperious and offended bishop, 
 before the altar, craving forgiveness for his rash and bloodthirsty act. 
 
 Several miraculous events are recorded in legendary history to have 
 taken place in the life of St. Ambrose, but it is unnecessary to allude to 
 them here. 
 
[ AMBULATORY ] 
 
 78 
 
 The only ancient church dedicated to his honour in England is that of 
 Ombersley, in Worcestershire. In the Old English (Sarum use), Scottish, 
 and French calendars his day is April 4th ; in the Roman, Greek, German, 
 and Spanish calendars his day is December 7th. 
 
 AMBULATIO. (Lat.) An ambulatory. The term has been applied 
 by ancient writers to a promenade roofed or open to the sky. It has also 
 been used to designate the pteroma or space which is between the wall of 
 the cella of a temple and the columns of the peristyle. 
 
 AMBULATORY. A passage or pathway of considerable length, con- 
 structed either inside or outside a building, or in a public thoroughfare, 
 wholly or partially under cover, or entirely open to the sky, and used only 
 for walking in. The term may, accordingly, be applied to a covered way 
 round a building, as the space between the columns and the cella of a 
 peripteral temple ; or round an open space, as the cloisters of a monastic 
 church, the Campo Santo at Pisa, or the atrium of an ancient basilica, 
 as at St. Ambrogio at Milan. The term is also correctly applied to the 
 covered ways which were frequently constructed in the streets of mediaeval 
 towns, as those which existed, on the level of the streets, at Elgin, or 
 those which at present exist, above the level of the streets, at Chester, 
 commonly known as the rows. Such covered ways appear to have been 
 called De AMBULATORIES. In the Boke of Troye, written by Lydgate in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century, we find the word used with such 
 a signification : — 
 
 " Deuysed were longe large and wyde 
 
 Of euery streate in the fronter syde 
 
 Freshe alures with lusty hye pynacles 
 
 And mounstrying outward costly tabernacles 
 
 Vaulted aboue lyke to reclynatoryes 
 
 That called were deambulatoryes 
 
 Men to walke togithers twaine and twaine 
 
 To kepe them drye when it happed to rayne." 
 
 The term ambulatory has occasionally been given to ailes of a cathedral, 
 when continued round the apse ; and, from the fact that such ailes are, for 
 the most part, used as processional paths and as passages round the enclosed 
 choirs in continental churches, the term cannot be said to be incorrectly 
 applied. Still, as we intend advocating throughout these pages simplicity 
 and clearness in all matters of architectural nomenclature, we should not 
 recommend the application of the present term to that portion of a church 
 which is more clearly individualised by the name aile. It would be well 
 to realise that the term ambulatory is of limited signification, and should, 
 correctly speaking, be employed to designate that part, and that part only, 
 of any building habitually used by pedestrians. When applied to a cloister 
 or an atrium, it practically signifies the covered pavement of these structures, 
 
79 
 
 [ AMETHYST ] 
 
 and is by no means of sufficient comprehensiveness to be used as an equiva- 
 lent of either cloister or atrium. 
 
 AM ESS. A hood and tippet of cloth, lined with fur, and worn in winter 
 by monks and canons while engaged in reciting the Divine Office. The 
 colour of the cloth, and the description of fur used, varied in different 
 countries and places. 
 
 AMENTUM. (Lat.) The loop or strap of leather attached to several 
 descriptions of ancient spears or darts. It was usually fixed to the pole at 
 its centre of gravity, and was used in throwing the weapon. The Greeks 
 called this loop ayxoXvj. The term amentum was sometimes applied by the 
 Romans to the leathern thong employed in fastening across the instep 
 certain forms of shoes or sandals. 
 
 AMETHYST. A precious stone, transparent, and of a fine violet 
 colour, inclining in some specimens towards purple. The ordinary 
 amethyst is a fine description of quartz, known as amethystine quartz, but 
 the most rare and precious variety of the stone is that known as the oriental 
 amethyst, which is classed as a description of sapphire, of a deep and 
 intensely rich violet colour, of great brilliancy and hardness. 
 
 With reference to the several varieties of the stone, Pliny remarks : — 
 ** In the first rank belongs the amethystos of India, having in perfection 
 the richest shades of purple, and it is to attain this colour that the dyers in 
 purple direct all their endeavours ; this stone is also found in the part of 
 Arabia that adjoins Syria, and is known as Petra ; as also in Lesser Armenia, 
 Egypt, and Galatia ; the very worst of all and the least valued being those 
 of Thasos and Cyprus. Another variety approaches more nearly the hya- 
 cinthus (sapphire) in colour ; the people of India call this tint ' socon,' and 
 the stone itself, ' socondian.' Another was in colour like that of wine, and 
 a last variety, but little valued, bordering very closely upon that of crystal, the 
 purple gradually passing off into white. A fine amethyst should always 
 have, when viewed sideways (in suspectu) and held up to the light, a certain 
 purple effulgence, like that of the carbunculus, slightly inclining to a tint 
 of rose. To these stones the names of 'Psederos' and 'Venus' eyelid' 
 (Veneris gena a<t>poS<TT]j ^Xs<potpov) was given, being considered as particularly 
 appropriate to the colour and general appearance of the gem." * 
 
 The amethyst was largely used by the Egyptian artists in the formation 
 of sacred scarabsei, and by the Greeks and Romans for gem engraving ; 
 probably more examples of this description of Classic art excuted in 
 amethyst exist than in any other precious stone. Engraved gems of 
 Oriental amethyst are, however, of the greatest rarity ; some are stated to 
 be preserved in the Vatican collection. The amethyst was held as sacred 
 to Bacchus, and was accordingly used for figures of the god and Bacchana- 
 lian subjects in preference to other stones. 
 
 * Quoted in H. M. Westropp's Handbook of Archceology. 
 
[ AMICE ] 
 
 80 
 
 In mediaeval jewellery and other works of art, amethysts are frequently 
 met with, where they are invariably cut en cabochon, or presented in the 
 form of ancient gems mounted with their engraved sides outwards. 
 
 The application of precious stones as decorations to articles of church 
 furniture was carried to a great extent in the middle ages, as will be seen 
 by the following quotation from the work by F. J. Doublet on the 
 Antiquities of the Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris,* where he alludes 
 to the enrichments of the principal altar : — " Tout le devant de cet autel 
 est couvert d'or, et enrichy de belles perles rondes d'Orient, d'aigues 
 marines en fond de cuve, de topazes, grenats, saphirs, amatistes, cornalines, 
 presmes d'esmeraudes, esmaux d'applique et cassidoines, avec trois belles 
 croix posees sur la pointe de chacun pignon du cercueil, dont celle du milieu 
 est d'or, et les autres d'argent dore, enrichies de beaux saphirs, de belles 
 amatistes, de grenats, et presmes d'esmeraudes." 
 
 In the Renaissance period the largest crystals of amethystine quartz 
 were sought after by artists for the purpose of forming precious cups and 
 vases, and many specimens of these are preserved in the cabinets of 
 collectors. 
 
 The amethyst, as one of the twelve foundation stones mentioned in the 
 Apocalypse, was in early times invested with mystical and symbolical 
 significations. Marbodus, Bishop of Rennes, who wrote during the first 
 quarter of the twelfth century, gives us a clue to the symbolism of the 
 precious stones, and clearly proves that they were frequently used by the 
 artists of the middle ages in accordance with their symbolic significations. 
 
 The Rev. J. M. Neale, in his Medieval Hymns and Sequences, gives a 
 translation of a Prose" by Marbodus, in which the twelve stones are treated 
 of. The verse devoted to the amethyst is here given : — 
 
 " Last in the holy city set 
 
 With hue of glorious violet, 
 
 Forth from the Amethyst are rolled 
 
 Sparks crimson-bright, and flames of gold : 
 
 The humble heart it signifies 
 
 That with its dying master dies." 
 
 In heraldry the amethyst represents purpure or the purple tincture, and 
 the term amethyst was formerly used instead of purpure in describing 
 English armorial bearings. 
 
 In modern jewellery this stone is the only one considered suitable to be 
 worn in mourning. 
 
 AMICE. A white cloth or napkin, worn by all ecclesiastics above the 
 four minor orders. It is the first of the sacred vestments put on by the 
 priest, who places it on his head, and then adjusts it round his neck. 
 Pugin informs us that " in several dioceses of France the priests, deacons, 
 
 * Antiq de Vabbaye de Sainct-Denys en France, par P. J. Doublet, 1625. 
 
81 
 
 [ AMICE ] 
 
 and sub-deacons wore the amices on their heads, from the Feast of All- 
 Saints till Easter, letting them fall back on their shoulders during the 
 Gospel, and from the secret till the first ablution." 
 
 The amice is now usually plain linen, but was, during the middle ages, 
 commonly embroidered or apparelled, and sometimes set with precious 
 stones, when it formed a rich collar, adjusted round the neck. This 
 description of amice is almost invariably found sculptured on the ancient 
 effigies of ecclesiastics. We do not learn of the amice being embroidered 
 
 1 
 
 or ornamented with gold previous to the beginning of the tenth century, 
 but after that date it was generally more or less enriched, in keeping with 
 the other ecclesiastical vestments. 
 
 The amice has sometimes been called the superhumeral, but the latter 
 term is more correctly applied to an archbishop's pallium. In the 
 accompanying drawing (Fig. 1), from a work of the fifteenth century, both 
 vestments are represented. A is the amice, which, in this instance, is 
 evidently a plain linen cloth, and B is the superhumeral or pallium. 
 (See Pallium.) 
 
 Middle-age lithurgical writers speak of the amice also under the following 
 terms : — ^Amictus, Anaboladium, Anagolaium, and Anabolagium. 
 
 The embroidered portion or apparel which formed the collar, when the 
 amice was finally adjusted round the neck, was termed the plaga or parura, 
 and, in late times, the collaria. 
 
 h 
 
[ AMPHIPRO STYLE ] 
 
 82 
 
 AM ICTUS. (Lat.) A term used by the Romans with a general 
 signification. It was applied indifferently to all articles of outer clothing, 
 such as the toga, abolla, pallium, paludamentum, sagum, paenula, &c. 
 
 AMORTISSEM ENT. (Fr.) This word literally signifies a termination, 
 and is applied by French architects to such objects as finials, vases, figures, 
 animals, or indeed any ornamental detail used to terminate a building 
 upwards, or any portion of a building. It is, properly speaking, applied to 
 a terminating feature superadded to what is structurally necessary, although 
 it is occasionally used with a more extended signification. 
 
 AMPELITIS. (Gr.) A brown-black pigment employed in painting 
 and for various other purposes by the ancients. Pliny uses the term, and 
 mentions that it resembles asphaltum. It appears to have been produced 
 by a charring or burning process, and is supposed by some authorities to 
 have been prepared from vine charcoal. The term is apparently derived 
 from ampelos, a vine, but whether the pigment was a product of the vine, or 
 used in some manner in vine dressing, is undecided. From Pliny's descrip- 
 tion we are inclined to agree with certain chemists who believe ampehtis 
 to have been a preparation of a manganeseous and ferruginous coal. 
 
 AM PHI PROSTYLE. The term used by Vitruvius in his chapter on 
 the Design and Symmetry of Temples (Book III., chapter 1) to designate a 
 
 temple having columns at both ends, forming a pronaos and posticum, bu1 
 
83 
 
 [ AMPHITHEATRE ] 
 
 without any at the sides. The passage, according to Gwilt's translation, is 
 as follows :— " A temple is called in antis, when it has antae or pilasters 
 in front of the walls which enclose the cell, with two columns between the 
 ant£e, and crowned with a pediment, proportioned as we shall hereafter 
 direct. There is an example of this species of temple, in that of the three 
 dedicated to Fortune, near the Porta CoUina. The prostylos temple is 
 similar, except that it has columns instead of antse in front, which are 
 placed opposite to antse at the angles of the cell, and support the entabla- 
 ture, which returns on each side as in those in antis. An example of the 
 prostylos exists in the temple of Jupiter and Faunus, in the island of the 
 Tyber. The amphiprostylos is similar to the prostylos, but with the 
 addition, that the columns and pediment in the front are repeated in the 
 rear of the temple." From the above passage we gather that the amphi- 
 prostyle temple had only four columns at either end. A plan of this 
 description of temple is given in Fig. 1. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE. A building of an elliptical or circular form, 
 having a space in the centre, surrounded with rows of seats for spectators, 
 arranged one above the other on an inclined plane, and furnished with 
 entrances, corridors, and staircases for access to all parts. The ancient 
 amphitheatre was the building in which people congregated to witness 
 gladiatorial combats, fighting with wild beasts, and naval engagements. 
 
 A representative amphitheatre, in Koman times, may be briefly described 
 as follows :— The plan is that of an ellipse, the major axis of which is 
 between five and six hundred feet long, and the minor axis about one 
 hundred feet less. The outer wall rise^ from the ground to about the height 
 of one hundred and forty feet, and is divided into three or four stories, the 
 two or three lower of which are pierced with numerous arches and decorated 
 with columns and their usual attendant architectural features. Continuous 
 entablatures, resting on these columns, divide the stories. The upper story 
 is higher than the others, and is pierced with openings which serve both 
 as windows and apertures for the free admission of air ; to the upper part 
 of this story are fixed wooden posts, carrying an awning of woollen cloth 
 or other material to protect the spectators from rain or the overpowering 
 heat of the sun. This awning is called the velum or velarium. Two 
 inner walls, pierced with arches to correspond with those of the outer 
 wall, are erected at short distances from the outer wall, and from each other, 
 and are connected at each story by vaults. By this means double corridors 
 completely surround the building on each story, and give access, under 
 cover, to every portion of the interior. The whole of the arches on the 
 ground story serve as entrances ; and at intervals, all round the building, 
 are staircases, which rise from the arches of the second corridor, land at 
 an inner passage, and then extend to the corridor above. Each story 
 has a corresponding number of similar staircases. 
 
 In the centre of the large space, enclosed by the walls, is an area of ellipti- 
 cal shape, the minor axis of which is about one-third of that of the main 
 
[ AMPHITHEATRE ] 
 
 84 
 
 structure. This is the place of the combats and displays, and it is called 
 the arena, because it is covered with sand to prevent the gladiators from 
 slipping, and to readily absorb the blood of the slain men and animals. 
 The arena is surrounded by a wall, about fifteen feet high, pierced with 
 doors which open into passages from the exterior, certain apartments, and 
 the dens (carceres) for the retention of wild animals. At the top and 
 behind the line of the wall is a platform, wide enough to hold two or three 
 rows of seats or chairs. This platform is considered the best situation for 
 viewing the scenes of the arena, and is accordingly devoted to seats for the 
 senators, and all personages of rank and distinction ; it is termed the 
 podium, a name also applied to the wall below it. A certain portion of 
 the platform (termed cuhiculum) is raised above the ordinary level, and richly 
 decorated and seated for the reception of the emperor and his court. 
 As the podium is not considered perfectly safe from the wild beasts, even 
 at the height of fifteen feet, an additional guard (ferrea clathra) is placed 
 in front, consisting of a railing or grill of metal-work, with projecting spikes. 
 When peculiarly savage and dangerous beasts are to be let loose in the 
 arena, a ditch {euripus) is sometimes sunk in front of the podium. At 
 the back of the platform rises a wall (halteus) to the height of about eight or 
 ten feet, in which there are numerous doors opening from the passages 
 and staircases. From the top of this wall rises the first maenianum, or 
 arrangement of seats for the accommodation of the equestrian order. A 
 continuous landing at the top of these seats divides them from the second 
 maenianum, or seats for the populus, and a similar landing, with a wall of 
 about fifteen feet high, divides the second from the third maenianum, or seats 
 set apart for the pullati. Above these seats are those appropriated to 
 women. The landings are called praecinctiones. Each maenianum is 
 divided into radiating divisions by flights of steps, called scalaria or scalae; 
 each division being termed cuneus, from its wedge shape. Numerous 
 staircases give access to all portions of the amphitheatre, and the passages 
 (fornices, concamerationes) which encircle the building at every stage 
 communicate with the outer galleries and the entrances to the seats called 
 vomitoria. The entire arrangement of seats is termed the gradus, and the 
 whole interior of the amphitheatre is called the cavea. 
 
 The architecture of amphitheatres was invariably heavy in style, and, 
 constructionally, of the most massive description. The arch and vault were 
 used throughout their external designs and internal constructions ; indeed, 
 it was in their amphitheatres and baths that the Komans displayed their 
 highest constructive skill in connexion with arching and vaulting. 
 Enough of these buildings remain to assure us of this fact. Stability of 
 structure, facility of access to every portion of the interior, and perfect 
 drainage, were the three great considerations ever before the minds of the 
 architects in designing their amphitheatres, and they succeeded admirably 
 in all. 
 
 The system of drainage was in all cases very similar, and may be thus 
 briefly described :— The portion of the interior which received the greatest 
 
85 
 
 [ AMPHITHEATRE ] 
 
 amount of rain was, of course, the arena, for not only was it uncovered, but 
 all the water from the velarium was discharged into it. The arena 
 was accordingly made sufficiently convex to throw the water towards the 
 podium, where it was received into a drain at its foot ; radiating drains at 
 intervals carried the water from this to the great coUecting drain, con- 
 structed round the exterior of the building. The velarium was neither a 
 fixture nor a perfect shelter, and of necessity the gradus and galleries had 
 to be furnished with the means of readily collecting and getting rid of their 
 water ; this was done by a system of channels leading into vertical conduits, 
 in the body of the main piers, which delivered their contents into continu- 
 ous drains under the corridors on the ground floor, which in turn dis- 
 charged themselves into the great aqueduct outside. Urinals were also 
 provided for the convenience of the spectators, and were connected with 
 the conduits. * 
 
 No amphitheatres were erected by the Greeks previous to their conquest 
 by the Romans; and although it is probable that as a nation they never 
 became partial to the cruel sports and scenes of blood which so dehghted 
 the Roman people, they may have found themselves compelled to conform, 
 to some extent, to the tastes of their conquerors, and to assist in erecting m 
 their own cities places for the exhibition of gladiatorial combats, and those 
 cruel spectacles in which so many innocent victims were sacrificed for the 
 gratification of the eye. Athens, however, we are informed, refused to 
 follow the example of other towns, and no amphitheatre was erected there 
 
 at any time. , -u 
 
 According to general belief, the Romans were the first to build 
 amphitheatres; but there appears to be gooi reason to give the Etruscans 
 the credit of introducing them, as well as the class of sports and spectacles 
 for which they were constructed. The Etruscans had certainly reached a 
 high degree of civilisation before the existence of Rome, and amphitheatres 
 were constructed in the Etruscan towns of PozzuoH, Capua, and Pompeii 
 long before the Roman conquest {Velleius Paterculus, Book I., cap. 7). 
 The Etruscans formed their amphitheatres either in the sides of hills or by 
 excavating where the site was level. Architectural structures, in the form 
 we now understand in speaking of amphitheatres, originated in Rome, where 
 ultimately the grandest example was raised under the successive efforts of 
 Vespasian and Titus (a.d. 72-84), and was finished by Domitian. 
 
 The first Roman amphitheatre is said to have been constructed by Cams 
 Scribonius Curio, an influential personage in Rome during the reign of 
 Csesar. In the entertainments given to the people, on the occasion of his 
 
 * "Les canalisations pour les eaux pluviales Staient admirablement comprises; nous les 
 avons etudiges dans I'amphitheatre de Nimes, le seul peut-Mre o^ les traces d'egouts soient 
 assez visibles et assez conservees pour s'en rendre un compte exact. Dans cet amphitheatre 
 cinquante-six tuyaux de descente en gages dans I'gpaisseur des maQonnenes et creus6s dans 
 la Pierre qui portaient les grands escaliers, servaient a I'^coulement des eauxpluviales et peut- 
 etred'urinoirs pour les spectateurs places dans les troisi^me et quatriSme precinctions. - 
 E. Bosc, Diet, raisonne d'Archt. 
 
[ AMPHITHEATRE ] 
 
 86 
 
 father's obsequies, he resolved to mtroduce a decided novelty, and so gain 
 historical celebrity, which he most certainly has done. He constructed two 
 theatres of wood, the first relative position of which was a short distance 
 from each other, and back to back ; they were placed on pivots and rollers, 
 so as to turn half round. Two stages were provided, one facing each 
 theatre ; and on the conclusion of the dramatic performances, the theatres, 
 with the people seated in them, were turned round by powerful machinery 
 so as to face each other. Short barricades and a few additional seats were 
 probably fixed at once between the two semicircular theatres, and the result 
 was an oval enclosure {arena), with people seated all round. This must, 
 after all, have been a very small affair, and of necessity imperfect; its 
 novelty alone, however, distinguished it. 
 
 For a considerable time after this experiment, wood continued to be used 
 in the construction of amphitheatres, and we learn from Pliny that serious 
 accidents happened by the giving way of the timber supports while the 
 seats were crowded with people. The first stationary amphitheatre made 
 of wood was erected by Julius Casar in the Campus Martins, and it 
 was to this building that the name Amphitheatrum (from a/^cf^j, on both 
 sides, Ha.Tpov, a theatre) was given. 
 
 The insecurity and perishable nature of such structures in wood, and the 
 immense popularity of the entertainments given in them, induced the 
 Romans to essay their construction in stone. At first, however, they con- 
 tented themselves by forming the more important portions in that material, 
 using wood largely in the seats and other minor parts. Such was the 
 amphitheatre built by Statilius Taurus in the Campus Martins, during the 
 reign of Augustus, and partly destroyed by fire in the same reign. Augus- 
 tus himself proposed erecting a large permanent amphitheatre in the 
 centre of Rome, but never carried out his scheme. 
 
 The first amphitheatre built entirely of stone, and of a thoroughly archi- 
 tectural character, was that commenced by Vespasian, with the view of 
 carrying out the desirable scheme of Augustus. To this building he 
 devoted an immense sum of money during ten years of his reign. It 
 fell to Titus to inaugurate this wonderful amphitheatre, which he did with 
 a truly barbaric grandeur, for we are told that the inauguration entertain- 
 ments lasted for nearly one hundred days, and that five thousand wild 
 beasts were killed in the sports of the arena. We may from these figures 
 form some faint idea of the human suffering caused, as well as the number 
 of victims who must have been slain in this inaugural festival. 
 
 This building, known as the Amphitheatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was 
 from that time the scene of gladiatorial combats and wild beast fights for a 
 period of nearly four hundred years. It is now a majestic ruin, one of the 
 glories of Rome, and a wonder of the architectural world. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to give a description of this famous amphi- 
 theatre, as it has already been described by the pens of many able writers ; 
 but a few words must be passed on its salient features, or this article would 
 be obviously too incomplete even for the circumscribed nature of our work. 
 
87 
 
 [amphitheatre 1 
 
 The plan is that of an ellipse, measuring (approximately*) along the 
 major axis to the outside of the walls, 616 feet ; and along the minor axis 
 511 feet. The exterior wall rises to the height of 157 feet, and consists of 
 four stories, divided by continuous entablatures resting on attached columns 
 of different orders. The ground or first story consists of eighty columns 
 of the Doric order, carrying a frieze and cornice devoid of triglyphs or 
 mutules ; between these columns are eighty arches, with archivolts, 
 springing from impost mouldings carried round the piers and abutting 
 against the attached columns. All the arches were used as entrances, a 
 few being reserved for the convenience of distinguished persons, and the 
 rest left for the use of the general public. They are all numbered except 
 one arch, which is a little wider than the others ; this, from certain other 
 evidences, is supposed to have been the private entrance from the palace of 
 Titus, situated on the Esquiline Hill. The second story has columns of 
 the Ionic order, standing on a dado, and supporting a plain entablature, and 
 between them are arches similar in treatment and number to those of the 
 ground story. The third story has columns of the Corinthian order, 
 standing on a dado, and supporting an entablature, and has arches to 
 correspond with both the lower stories. The fourth story is in all respects 
 different to those already described, so much so as to give rise to doubts 
 whether it formed part of the original design. It consists of a lofty wall, 
 pierced at intervals with small square-headed openings, and reheved by 
 pilasters of the Corinthian order, standing upon a dado and stilted sub- 
 plinths. A horizontal row of 240 corbels projects at about two-thirds the 
 height of the wall, three corbels in each space between the pilasters ; and 
 above these, sinkings occur in the architrave and frieze, in which it is 
 supposed the wooden posts or standards fitted, their lower ends resting on' 
 the corbels, and their upper parts passing through holes formed in the 
 projecting cornice. These standards were for the support of the outer 
 edge of the velarium. 
 
 Two inner walls, built lineable with the external wall above described, 
 and connected by vaults, form continuous gaUeries on every story, features 
 which must have been not only of the greatest convenience to the thousands 
 of spectators in entering and leaving the building, but absolutely indispen- 
 sable in an amphitheatre, for the purpose of preventing undue crushing 
 and most serious accidents. 
 
 In the centre of this vast enclosure is the arena, an ellipse, surrounded 
 with a podium equidistant at all points from the external circumference of 
 the building. The arena measures (approximately) 280 feet along the major 
 axis, and 176 feet along the minor. It is vaulted underneath its entire 
 area, a fact discovered by the French during their temporary occupation of 
 Rome. What the exact use of these vaults may have been, beyond mere 
 structural considerations, is not known; it has been conjectured by 
 certain writers that they were employed as dens for the retention of wild 
 
 • Nearly all authorities differ with regard to the dimensions of this building. 
 
[ AMPHITHEATRE ] 
 
 88 
 
 animals ; but we hardly think that places much under the level of the 
 arena would be convenient either for securing or releasing such wild 
 beasts as were introduced in the spectacles. It is certain that dens are 
 provided round the podium, communicating directly with the arena. 
 Main doors of entrance for those taking part in the combats are provided 
 in the podmm at the ends of the major and minor axes, and also the door 
 (porta libitinensis) through which the slain were removed. 
 
 From the top of the halteiis, or wall behind the podium platform, rise 
 the gradationes, or two principal maeniana, divided from each other by a 
 broad praecinctio. In this landing are gratings at intervals for the purpose 
 of lighting the passages beneath ; and opening on to this praecinctio are 
 the entrances to the first maenianum. On the top of the second maenianum 
 is another praecinctio, with a high wall behind, pierced with doors and 
 window openings. A parapet crowns this wall, and behind it is the space 
 for the third maenianum, most probably formed of wooden staging and seats. 
 The whole of this enormous interior was surrounded by a colonnade or 
 arcade, upon the roof of which was the platform for working the velarium. 
 In the colonnade were wooden seats for the accommodation of female 
 spectators. A complete system of corridors, passages, and staircases leads 
 to all parts of the interior ; and the drainage throughout is most perfect, 
 resembling that briefly described in the commencement of this article. 
 
 The velarium extended over the entire gradus from the line of the 
 podium to the upper colonnade.* Nero is stated to have stretched one over 
 the entire interior, of a purple colour, embroidered, and powdered with 
 gold stars. 
 
 The outer wall of the Colosseum encloses an area of about six acres ; and, 
 although calculations made by different persons vary considerably, it may 
 safely be stated to have accommodated in all its seats not less than 87,000 
 spectators ; this is the calculation made by Lepsius and Victor. Fontana 
 calculates, when every available place of sight was occupied — which, no 
 doubt, was frequently the case — that it would hold 109,000 persons. 
 
 There are remains of several other amphitheatres built by the Romans 
 in different places, the most important being at Verona, Nimes, Aries, 
 Pozzuoli, Capua, Pola, Tarragona, El-jemm near Tunis, Pompeii, and 
 
 *" The following has been supposed as a method of spreading the velarium, of which 
 Fontana gives a representation, but no description. To a cable placed round and made fast 
 on the edge of the podium, and following its curve, strong ropes were attached in the direc- 
 tion of the radiating walls. These ropes passed through pullies in the poles, 240 in number 
 at top of the building, which rested on the corbels above mentioned, and thus raised the 
 velarium to the required height. It would follow the inclination of the seats, and the cloth, 
 of whatever fabric or materials it might be, being formed in gores equal on the outer 
 edges to the distance of the masts from each other, might move on the radiating ropes by 
 rings attached to the edges of each gore, so as to be moved backwards and forwards by persons 
 stationed on the parapet. Marine soldiers were employed for this purpose. The velarium 
 was sometimes of silk, but more usually yellow or brown woollen cloth. Nero once had a 
 purple velarium stretched across the building, representing the heavens with stars of gold 
 upon it, and a design embroidered thereon of the Chariot of the 8vLn."—Gwilt's Encyclopedia 
 of Architecture, 
 
89 
 
 [ AMPHITHEATRE j 
 
 Poestum. The interior of the amphitheatre at Verona is almost in an entire 
 state ; this is attributed to its having been used for tournaments during 
 the middle ages. Externally the building had three stories of arcades, 
 only four bays of which remain to give us an idea of its design. It is evi- 
 dently of late date, and, indeed, its erection has been attributed to the time 
 of Maximianus. Maffei calculates it to have seated 22,000 spectators. 
 The amphitheatre of Nimes consists of two stories of arcades. Pilasters 
 are placed against the piers of the lower and Doric columns between the 
 arches of the upper stories ; the cornices, unlike those of the Colosseum 
 and the Verona example, are broken over every pilaster and column, and 
 pediments are introduced in certain bays. This building is calculated to 
 have seated 17,000 persons. The amphitheatre of Capua had three stories 
 similarly treated to those of the Colosseum, but with the Doric order 
 throughout. That at Pola has its outer wall alone remaining, and from 
 this fact it is supposed that the interior was mostly of wood ; it presents 
 three stories, and its elliptical form is broken with four projecting portions, 
 probably intended for staircases, which, from certain indications in the 
 masonry, are believed to be additions to the original design. 
 
 The following table of dimensions of the principal amphitheatres is given 
 by Maffei {Degli anfiteatri*) : — 
 
 Amphitheatre 
 at 
 
 Major Axis 
 Exterior. 
 
 Minor Axis 
 Exterior. 
 
 Major Axis 
 of Arena. 
 
 Minor Axis 
 of Arena. 
 
 Surface of 
 Arena. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 POZZUOLI . . . 
 
 626 
 
 6 
 
 475 
 
 4 
 
 448 
 
 8 
 
 216 
 
 1 
 
 62,245 
 
 Rome 
 
 616 
 
 0 
 
 510 
 
 8 
 
 274 
 
 10 
 
 175 
 
 11 
 
 38,834 
 
 Capua 
 
 557 
 
 5 
 
 458 
 
 0 
 
 249 
 
 9 
 
 150 
 
 4 
 
 29,466 
 
 Verona 
 
 505 
 
 10 
 
 270 
 
 0 
 
 248 
 
 4 
 
 145 
 
 8 
 
 28,370 
 
 Tarragona . . . 
 
 486 
 
 0 
 
 390 
 
 0 
 
 277 
 
 1 
 
 181 
 
 2 
 
 39,304 
 
 El- JEMM 
 
 457 
 
 2 
 
 392 
 
 2 
 
 253 
 
 8 
 
 188 
 
 1 
 
 37,425 
 
 PoLA 
 
 452 
 
 1 
 
 369 
 
 5 
 
 229 
 
 8 
 
 147 
 
 0 
 
 26,488 
 
 Arles 
 
 447 
 
 9 
 
 352 
 
 0 
 
 228 
 
 0 
 
 129 
 
 1 
 
 23,089 
 
 Pergamus ... 
 
 446 
 
 9 
 
 420 
 
 3 
 
 167 
 
 3 
 
 121 
 
 5 
 
 15,400 
 
 Pompeii 
 
 445 
 
 0 
 
 341 
 
 5 
 
 218 
 
 8 
 
 264 
 
 1 
 
 19,723 
 
 Nimes 
 
 433 
 
 8 
 
 333 
 
 7 
 
 226 
 
 10 
 
 126 
 
 5 
 
 22,498 
 
 In addition to those already mentioned, amphitheatres are known to 
 have existed at the following places, by remains or indications more or less 
 extensive : — Agrigentum, Alba, Albanum, Amiternum, Anamour, Ancona, 
 Angers, Argos, Arretium, Autun, Beauvais, Beneventum, Besanyon, 
 Beziers, Bordeaux, Bourges, Bruyeres, Cahors, Cassano, Catania, Cimiez, 
 
 * Gordon's translation. London, 1780. 
 M 
 
[ AMPHORA ] 
 
 90 
 
 Citta Lavinia, Constantina, Corinth, Cormier, Cyzicus, Die, Douai, Dren- 
 auld, Drevant, Fgesulee, Florentia, Frejus, Grand, Hispalis, Jerusalem, 
 Limoges, Lucca, Luna, Lyons, Melos, Metz, Montargis, Narbonne, Neris, 
 Orange, Otricoli, Paris, Perigueux, Placentia, Pollentium, Reims, Rhodez, 
 Rusicada, Saintes, Sardis, Seguntum, Smyrna, Spello, Syracuse, Taormina, 
 Tarragona, Terni, Tintinac, Torre, Toul, Toulouse, Tusculum, Udena, 
 Vallonges, Velleia, Vienne, and Volterra. In England, remains show that 
 amphitheatres were constructed at Cirencester, Dorchester, Silchester, and 
 Verulam. Numerous as the remains of such important buildings are, we 
 have reason to believe that they are of but few out of the many erected by 
 the Romans, who doubtless constructed them wherever their victorious 
 arms were carried. 
 
 AMPHORA. A vessel of baked clay or other material, of an elongated 
 form, pointed at its lower end, so that it could not stand upright unless it 
 
 was stuck in the ground, or placed in or 
 against some support ; it usually had a long 
 neck and two handles. The term is also 
 applied to a class of ancient painted vases, 
 with pointed egg-shaped bodies, short necks, 
 and loop handles : the points of their bodies 
 are bedded in small projecting bases or feet, 
 which are permanently attached for convenience 
 in use. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans 
 used amphorae generally for holding wine, 
 and when filled they were stopped by plugs, 
 covered with pitch or gypsum. Oil, honey, and 
 such like materials were frequently kept in 
 amphorae ; and we learn from certain authors 
 that they were occasionally used as cinerary 
 urns. The earthenware amphorae which were 
 most highly esteemed were those made in 
 Chios and Samos. Amphorae were also made 
 of other materials than earthenware, such as 
 stone, brass, glass, and even the precious 
 metals ; when of these latter, they did not 
 assume large dimensions, and were not used 
 for the preservation of wine. Fig. 1 is a representation of an Egyptian 
 amphora placed in a stand, evidently constructed for the purpose of holding 
 the vessel, and with its plug remaining unremoved. This is taken from 
 the paintings of a tomb at Thebes-Kourna. 
 
 The amphorae which are furnished with bases and sometimes decorated 
 have certain distinguishing names given to them, such as Tyrrhenian, 
 Panathenaic, Bacchic, Nola, and Apulian. Outlines of the shapes of 
 these varieties are given by Westropp in his Handbook of Archceology. 
 
91 
 
 [ AMPYX ] 
 
 Terra cotta vessels, resembling amphorae in form, but without necks, 
 were used by the early Christian architects in dome construction. The 
 lower portion of the dome of St. Vitale, at Eavenna, built in the sixth 
 century, is formed of such vessels, each about twenty-two inches long and 
 eight inches in diameter, placed one over the other, the point of the upper 
 being in the mouth of the lower. The remainder of the dome is con- 
 structed with pointed vessels, about seven inches long and two inches 
 diameter, laid horizontally, and forming a continuous spiral from about the 
 middle to the summit of the dome. All these vessels are bedded in and 
 filled up to a uniform surface with cement. 
 
 AMPUL OR AMPULLA. A small vessel, formed of the precious 
 metals, glass, or other materials, used for holding the Crism, the holy oil, 
 or the consecrated oil for the sick. 
 
 Item, an Ampul plain, with a foot of silver and gilt, and a spoon with an acorn 
 ordained for Chrism; Item, an Ampul of berral, closed in silver and gilt for the 
 Oleum Sanctum, with a spoon having an acorn in the top ; Item, an Ampul of glass, 
 wherein is contained the Oleum Infirmorum, with a spoon of silver, &c. — Inventory of 
 the Cathedral of Lincoln — Dugdale's Monasticon. 
 
 The name is also given to the cruet which contains the wine for the 
 Holy Eucharist. 
 
 The most interesting historical ampul was that preserved in the 
 monastery of St. Remi, at Reims, and which contained the sacred oil 
 used in anointing the kings of France at their coronations. It was com- 
 monly known as the Sainte Ampoulle, and had been used from the baptism 
 of Clovis to the coronation of Louis XVI., after whose death it was broken 
 by a Republican named Ruhl. It was of antique glass, about one inch 
 and a half in height, seven-eighths of an inch in circumference at the 
 neck, and one inch and five-eighths at the base. This vessel was inclosed 
 in a reliquary, in the form of a dove of gold, in a circlet of silver gilt, 
 studded with gems, and carried by a silver chain. 
 
 An ampul of the seventh century is preserved at Monza.; it is of a 
 white metal, circular in the body, having a small neck, and engraved with 
 an Adoration and inscriptions in Grreek characters. 
 
 The term Ampulla was also used to designate a bottle of glass or 
 earthenware, chiefly of a globular form, used by the ancient Romans 
 for holding the oil for anointing the body after bathing. The ampulla 
 is frequently mentioned in connexion with the bath, and is represented 
 in ancient sculptures. Numerous specimens exist in cabinets of 
 antiquities. 
 
 AMPYX. (Gr.) An ornamental band or frontal, constructed of the 
 precious metals and sometimes enriched with gems ; worn by ladies of rank 
 amongst the ancient Greeks and Romans. This species of head-dress is 
 frequently represented in works of art, usually adorning the heads of 
 
[ ANACHRONISM J 
 
 92 
 
 divinities. The term was also applied to certain frontals placed on the 
 heads of horses and elephants on state occasions. 
 
 AMU LA OR AM A. A vessel used in the early centuries of the Church 
 for the reception and presentation of wine for the Holy Eucharist. 
 
 Amula were, apparently, made of various sizes ; some were very large, as 
 we learn from the Liber Pontificalis, which states that Pope Adrian 
 (772-795) presented to the Church of St. Adrian, at Kome, an " amulam 
 offertorium," formed of silver, and weighing sixty-seven pounds. Amula 
 of smaller size were more common, and in some instances appear to have 
 been made of gold, enriched with precious stones ; and at others of onyx, 
 crystal, or variegated glass. 
 
 When the practice of presenting personal offerings in kind was dis- 
 continued, the amula fell into desuetude, and its place was taken by the 
 wine ampulla or cruet. 
 
 AMULET. A charm, or object of any description supposed to be 
 possessed with miraculous powers to ward off evil from the wearer ; it was 
 usually hung round the neck, and either assumed some distinctive form or 
 was enclosed inside some characteristic object. In Egyptian times amulets 
 were made in the shape of necklaces, the component parts of which were 
 sacred symbols or small figures of the gods, strung together by beads. In 
 Classic times all sorts of objects were worn as amulets, and many were of an 
 indecent nature. As a rule, it appears, by the examples preserved to us, 
 that the ugly and the offensive were more frequently consulted in the 
 formation of amulets than the pleasing and the beautiful. 
 
 The Eev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott gives the following definition : — 
 " A preservative ; from the Arabic hama-il, a small Koran hung as a 
 necklace, as a safeguard ; from hamala, to carry. It was applied to the 
 Holy Eucharist by Christians. The Christian amulet, from being carried 
 in the breast, was often called encolpium, or philacteria ; sometimes they 
 were in the form of a medal of bronze, marked with a cross, and of a hand, 
 with the salutation Zekes, ' Mayest thou live ; ' a portion of the Gospels 
 hung round the neck ; a relic ; or a formulary within a box of precious 
 wood, like one preserved at Monza." 
 
 AMUN-RA. In Egyptian mythology, the Sun, and king of the gods; 
 represented in the form of a man wearing on his head a lofty crown, the 
 upper part of which resembles two straight feathers placed edge to edge. 
 He holds in one hand the mystic emblem of generation, and carries a 
 sceptre in the other. 
 
 ANACHRONISM. In art, a peculiar treatment of a subject, a mode of 
 representing an event, or some special object or accessory introduced into 
 the representation of an event, through which the proper order of time is 
 destroyed. Anachronisms are frequently met with throughout the works of 
 
93 
 
 [ ANALOGY ] 
 
 fche middle ages, in representations of Scriptural scenes, where they chiefly 
 display themselves in articles of costume, arms, and armour, and such 
 architectural features as may be introduced. To these anachronisms we 
 are indebted, to a large extent, for our knowledge of the costumes of 
 different countries and times. We have heard of a Dutch painting, repre- 
 senting one of the scenes from the Passion of our Lord, in which a soldier 
 appears dressed in the costume of the sixteenth century, wearing enormous 
 jack-boots, smoking a clay pipe, and reading a printed broadsheet. The 
 anachronisms here are obvious and absurd. 
 
 AN AD EM. The name given by the ancient Greeks to a plain narrow 
 band worn by young persons of both sexes. It is frequently found in art 
 works, where it appears worn over, and as if to confine, the hair ; and 
 extends round the head from the back, above the neck, to the front, 
 immediately above the forehead. 
 
 ANAGLYPHA or ANAGLYPTA. (Gr.) The term applied to vases 
 or other vessels of gold, silver, or bronze, ornamented with work in relief, 
 produced by embossing and chasing. The term has also, been applied to 
 cameos and gems which present designs in relief, produced by cutting 
 away and sinking the ground. 
 
 ANAGLYPH I C. Term applied to artistic work in relief; but most 
 commonly applied to embossed work in metal. Repousse. 
 
 A device or ornament embossed in relief is termed an Anaglyph. 
 
 ANALOG I A. Term signifying proportion in architectural composition. 
 It is used by some ancient authors, including Vitruvius, who, in the first 
 chapter of his third Book, says : — " The design of Temples depends on 
 symmetry, the rules of which Architects should be most careful to observe. 
 Symmetry is dependent on proportion, which the Greeks call avctKoylx. 
 Proportion is a due adjustment of the size of the difi'erent parts to each 
 other and to the whole ; on this proper adjustment symmetry depends. 
 Hence no building can be said to be well designed which wants symmetry 
 and proportion." (Gwilt's Translation.) 
 
 ANALOG I UM. The name given to a reading-desk used in Christian 
 churches. It was either movable or fixed, and at an early date was made 
 in the form of an eagle with outspread wings. The term has also been 
 frequently applied to an ambo, or more correctly to a second or precentor's 
 desk attached to it ; and in some instances to the enclosure of the tombs of 
 Saints ; we find it used with this latter signification by Ducange in his 
 Glossary. 
 
 ANALOGY. In the fine arts the agreement or likeness between objects 
 in certain conditions or effects while the objects themselves are otherwise 
 entirely different. In the science of colour the term is applied to a certain 
 
[ ANCHOR ] 
 
 94 
 
 description of harmony : thus harmony op analogy implies the juxta- 
 position or the association of colours different in their tones and hues but 
 having a common base. Purple and red, purple and orange, brown, 
 red, and orange, have all red in common ; blue and green, green and 
 violet, have blue in common ; green, orange, and yellow, have yellow in 
 common ; and black, brown, and grey, have black in common ; all these 
 groups, therefore, are analogous in certain properties, and when skilfully 
 graduated and arranged present harmonies of analogy. 
 
 ANCHOR. In architecture, the name is given to an ornament shaped 
 somewhat like the fluke of an anchor, but which more closely resembles a 
 barbed arrow-head. It is only met with in Classic architecture, where it 
 alternates with the egg ornament in the decoration of the echinus, or ovolo. 
 The term is applied by the French architects to an article constructed of 
 iron, in the shape of an S, Y, or or of any ornamental form of a spreading 
 outline, and employed by them for the purpose of tying walls together which 
 may have a tendency to spread laterally from the pressure of internal arches 
 or vaults, or which incline from the perpendicular from any other cause ; 
 and also for the purpose of stalling tall chimneys or such elevated objects 
 which are much subjected to the force of the wind. The anchor is passed, 
 at a point near its centre, through an eye on the end of an iron rod or chain, 
 and rests against the external surface of the wall to be supported. The rod 
 or chain passes through the wall, and is attached at its other end to the 
 
 1 
 
 nearest construction capable of withstanding its strain. Fig. 1 is from an 
 example on a sixteenth century house at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 In Christian art, the anchor in its proper form has been used from the 
 earliest times, being frequently found sculptured on the tombs in the 
 catacombs, and engraved on ancient Christian gems. It has been accepted 
 in all periods of Christian art as the symbol of hope, steadfastness, and 
 
95 
 
 [ ANDIRON ] 
 
 patience. St. Paul speaks of hope as an " anchor of the soul, both sure 
 and steadfast," and from these words the symbol most probably was 
 originally devised. An anchor is the emblem of St. Clement, P.M., St. 
 Felix, P.M., and St. Nicholas, B.C. 
 
 ANCILE. The sacred shield sent from heaven to Numa, with the 
 information that the welfare of Rome depended upon its safe keeping. It 
 was, along with eleven other shields made in imitation of it, carried in 
 procession by the Salii, or priests of Mars Gradivus, on the festival of the 
 Deity ; and at all other times securely kept in the temple of Mars on the 
 Palatine hill. The shape of the shield is described as oblong, rounded at 
 each end, and curved inward on the sides. The eleven shields, made in 
 exact imitation of the true ancile, were fabricated by an armourer named 
 Mamurius Veturius, to the order of the king, who desired by such a 
 multiplication to render the safety of the heaven-sent shield more certain. 
 The ancilia are found represented on ancient gems and coins. 
 
 AN CON. This term has different significations, but it is most generally 
 applied to the consoles which support the ends of the cornice over the 
 ornamental dressings of doorways in Classic architecture. It is used with 
 this signification by Vitruvius in the sixth chapter of his fourth Book : — 
 " The ancones or prothyrides, which are carved on the right and left, reach 
 to the bottom of the level of the architrave, exclusive of the leaf. Their 
 width on the face is one-third of the dressing, and at the bottom one-fourth 
 part less." As may be seen from this quotation the consoles were also 
 called Prothyrides. The term Ancon has also been applied to a quoin ; 
 and in some rare instances to a cross beam of a roof or a rafter. It is not 
 commonly used with any of these significations at the present time. 
 
 ANDIRON. A term frequently met with in old writings, where it is 
 employed to signify the article now commonly called a fire-dog. Ancient 
 andirons were made in various shapes, and were used singly or in pairs. 
 Single ones were formed of two upright standards, with spreading feet, 
 connected together by a bar, upon which the logs of wood were supported 
 in an inclined position. When used in pairs, each one had a standard in 
 front and a horizontal bar extending behind with the end turned down as a 
 support ; the logs were either laid horizontally from bar to bar, or cross- 
 wise against each bar alternately. The only portion of the andiron which 
 admitted of artistic treatment was the standard, and it frequently assumed 
 important dimensions, and was elaborately decorated with figures, heraldic 
 devices, and conventional ornaments. The standards were made of iron, ' 
 copper, or brass ; and were sometimes enriched with ornaments in silver. 
 
 "The roof o' the chamber 
 With golden cherubims is fretted: Her andirons 
 (I had forgot them,) were two winking Cupids 
 Of silver, each on one foot standing, nicely 
 Depending on their brands." — Gymheline, Act II., Scene 4. 
 
[ ANDREW, ST. ] 
 
 96 
 
 The latter part of this passage has been differently read by commentators ; 
 but it is obvious that the andirons described by Shakspeare were those he 
 had somewhere seen, the standards of which were surmounted with roguish- 
 looking cupids, in silver, supporting burning torches, which were in fact 
 their main points of attachment to the lower portions of the standards. 
 We do not think that the "brands" allude to the irons which supported the 
 logs, as we are asked to believe by one commentator. Burning torches 
 were appropriate objects on andirons, and cupids their appropriate sup- 
 porters. The following terms are also met with: — Handiron, Andyorone, 
 Andirne, Aundhyryn and Hawyndyrne, all of which have the same 
 signification as the term above described. 
 
 ANDREW, ST. Apostle, and Patron Saint of Scotland and Kussia. 
 He is usually represented in Christian art as an aged man, of venerable 
 countenance, and with a long flowing white beard ; as the younger brother 
 of St. Peter, artists have given his face a likeness to that of the great 
 Apostle ; and he is almost invariably represented with his emblem, the 
 instrument of his martyrdom, the cross in the form of an X. 
 
 The directions for his representation, given in the Guide de la 
 Peinture,^ are : — *' Saint Andre : vieillard, cheveux frises, barbe separee en 
 deux. II porte une croix et un cartel non deroule." 
 
 St. Andrew is not mentioned in the Scriptures after our Lord's Ascen- 
 sion ; but legendary history states that, after that event, St. Andrew visited 
 Scythia, passing through Cappadocia, Galatia, and Bithynia, preaching the 
 Gospel to all the inhabitants. He is further stated to have carried the 
 Grospel to Byzantium, where he converted many, founded a church, and 
 ordained Stachys its first bishop. After many journeys in Thrace, 
 Macedonia, and Thessaly, he arrived at Patrse, a city of Achaia, where 
 he fell under the displeasure of Aegeas, Proconsul of the province, for 
 having turned the inhabitants from their idolatries and converted his wife 
 Maximilla and his brother to the Christian religion. Aegeas called St. 
 Andrew before him, and, after publicly scorning the new religion founded 
 by one who had suffered an ignominious death upon the cross, told him 
 that unless he sacrificed to the deities of the country he should be put to 
 death upon a cross like that he had extolled, and the Master he had so 
 fearlessly magnified. Next day, on the Saint defying the Proconsul, he 
 was sentenced to be seven times scourged on his naked body, and then 
 crucified by being bound by cords to a cross. On approaching the cross 
 the Saint delivered his famous invocation : — " Hail, precious Cross, that 
 hast been consecrated by the body of my Lord, and adorned with his limbs 
 as with rich jewels. I come to thee exulting and glad ; receive me with 
 joy into thy arms. 0, good Cross, thou hast received beauty from our 
 Lord's limbs : I have ardently loved thee. Long have I desired and sought 
 thee ; now thou art found by me, and art made ready for my longing soul : 
 
 * Manuel DHconor/raphie Chr6tienne, Didron. Paris, 1845. 
 
97 
 
 [ ANDRONITIS OR ANDRON J 
 
 receive me into thy arms, taking me from among men, and present me 
 to my Master ; that He who redeemed me on thee may receive me by 
 thee." Surrounded by a sorrowing crowd, and amidst the regretful 
 murmurs of many whom he had converted, the Saint was bound to the 
 cross, where, steadfast in his faith, and continually exhorting those 
 around him, he lingered two days. 
 
 Mrs. Jameson informs us that "when Guide and Domenichino painted, 
 in emulation of each other, the frescoes in the chapel of Saint Andrea in 
 the church of San Gregorio, at Kome, Guide chose for his subject the 
 Adoration of the Cross. The scene is supposed to be outside the walls 
 of Patras, in Achaia ; the cross is at a distance in the background ; St. 
 Andrew, as he approaches, falls down in adoration before the instrument 
 of his martyrdom, consecrated by the death of his Lord ; he is attended 
 by one soldier on horseback, one on foot, and three executioners; a 
 group of women and alarmed children in the foreground are admirable 
 for grace and feeling. * * * On the opposite wall of the chapel 
 Domenichino painted the Flagellation of St. Andrew, a subject most 
 difficult to treat effectively, and retain at the same time the dignity of the 
 suffering Apostle, while avoiding all resemblance to a similar scene in the 
 life of Christ. Here he is bound down to a sort of table ; one man lifts 
 a rod, another seems to taunt the prostrate Saint ; a lictor drives back 
 the people. * * * The judge and lictors are seen behind with a 
 temple and a city in the distance." 
 
 The form of the cross on which he suffered has not been unanimously 
 agreed upon ; but the X form has been most generally accepted as the 
 correct one : it is known as the cross of St. Andrew, crux decussata, and 
 in heraldry as the cross saltire. In some rare instances St. Andrew carries 
 an ordinary Latin cross, or one formed like the letter Y. (See Cross.) 
 
 The armorial bearings given in the fifteenth century to St. Andrew 
 are :— Gules, a saltire, argent. And the proposition of the Apostles Creed 
 apportioned to him in Middle Age theology and art, is the second :— 
 " ET IN JESUM CHRISTUM, FILIUM EJUS UNICUM, DOMINUM NOSTRUM." 
 
 (See Apostles.) 
 
 In addition to his being the Patron Saint of Scotland and Russia, St. 
 Andrew is the Patron Saint of the Order of the Golden Fleece and' the 
 Scottish Order of the Thistle. 
 
 About six hundred churches are dedicated to St. Andrew in England, 
 and three are dedicated to him in conjunction with other saints. In the 
 Old English (Sarum use), the Eoman, Scottish, French, Spanish, and 
 Greek Calendars, his day is November 30th. The year of his martyrdom 
 is A. D. 70. 
 
 _ ANDRONITIS or ANDRON. A portion of a Grecian house, consist- 
 ing of certain apartments with an open hall or court, set aside for the 
 exclusive use of men, and into which women were not expected to enter. 
 Vitruvius uses the word in describing the arrangement and parts of 
 
 N 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 98 
 
 Grecian houses. In Gwilt's translation the passage is as follows : — " The 
 libraries are on the east side, the exedrae on the west, and on the south 
 are square oeci, of such ample dimensions that there is room therein for 
 four trinclinia and the attendants on them, as well as for the games. 
 These ceci are used only for entertainments given to men ; for it is not the 
 practice with women to recline on a couch at dinner. The peristylium, and 
 this part of the house, is called Andronitis, because the men employ them- 
 selves therein without interruption from the women." — {Vitruvius, Book 
 VI., chap. 10.) 
 
 Andron is generally understood to signify the same suite of apartments, 
 but Vitruvius applies it to a passage between two halls : — " Between the 
 peristylium and the lodging rooms are passages, which are called Mesaulse 
 from their situation between two aulse (halls). By us these are called 
 Andrones. But it is remarkable that this appellation seems to suit neither 
 the Greek nor Latin terms. For the Greeks call the ceci, in which male 
 guests are entertained, avSpwvg?, because the women do not enter them." — 
 {Vitruvius, Book VI., chap. 10.) The term has been used by other writers 
 to signify a passage. 
 
 ANDRO-SPHINX. The term employed in art to distinguish that 
 variety of the Egyptian sphinx which presents the head of a man and the 
 body of a lion. The great sphinx, in front of the pyramid of Chofo, is an 
 andro-sphinx, originally one hundred and fifty feet long, carved almost 
 entirely out of the solid rock, and having a small temple between its fore 
 legs. (See Sphinx.) 
 
 AN E LACE. The name given to a weapon worn by civilians in the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It is frequently shown on monumental 
 brasses ; and appears, from these representations, to have been longer than 
 the dagger of the same period, and worn suspended from a belt in a 
 vertical position. 
 
 ANGEL. In Christian art, the conventional representation of any 
 member of that heavenly hierarchy which is believed to surround the 
 throne of God, and whose several orders act as His councillors, ministers, 
 and messengers. ' Such is the signification of the term in its widest sense ; 
 we shall show, later on, that in strict terminology it has a more limited 
 application. At present we shall treat the term angel under its general 
 signification. 
 
 Throughout the entire range of Christian art we find angels more or less 
 frequently introduced ; most commonly in their ofiice of messengers 
 between God and mankind, but sometimes in their higher capacities. 
 Thus the angel of the Expulsion with the flaming sword, and the angel of 
 the Agony, are ministers or officers of God, while the angels of Abraham's 
 ofi'ering, the Annunciation, and the Nativity are messengers only. In 
 
99 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 the cathedrals and churches, and, indeed, in many of the civil edifices 
 of the middle ages, figures of angels are met with in great profusion ; 
 and, although they are generally treated with becoming reverence, they are 
 sometimes deputed, if we may so speak, to menial offices, especially in 
 late buildings. Angels, bearing heraldic shields, candlesticks, forming 
 uncomfortable-looking corbels to timber roofs, or for the support of statues, 
 or serving as vanes, can scarcely be considered to be properly treated, either 
 from a symbolic or artistic point of view. 
 
 It is somewhat difficult to acquire an accurate knowledge of the ideas 
 held by the early and middle age artists with reference to the angels they 
 depicted, yet such a knowledge is necessary before we can intelligently 
 criticise or appreciate their higher works. Jacques de Voragine, an arch- 
 bishop of Genoa, in his Legenda Aurea, describes the angels as being 
 higher than man by the gifts of perfect intelligence and prescience. There 
 are objects, he says, created by God, which exist but do not live, as the 
 stars; which exist and live, but do not feel, as the plants; beings which 
 exist, live, and feel, but have no reason, as the lower animals; which exist, 
 live, feel, and are endowed with reason, but are without prescience, as 
 man ; and lastly there are higher beings in whom all these qualities and 
 gifts are united with perfect and supernatural intelligence, as the angels. 
 Vincent de Beauvais, the great encyclopaedist, who wrote about the middle 
 of the thirteenth century, speaks of angels as having been created by God 
 so that He might be continually adored, beloved, and comprehended 
 throughout the universe; he further speaks of the heavenly angel as the 
 Spirit of Good and the fallen angel as the Spirit of Evil. Durandus, 
 bishop of Mende, in his Rationale Divinorum Officiorum, says that the 
 term angel signifies messenger, that it is the name of an office held by 
 an order of celestial beings, and not the name of the oj'der itself. It is, 
 however, to the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite, who is stated to 
 have been the convert of St. Paul, we have to look for the source of 
 the several ideas upon which all later representations of angels were 
 based. Of his Celestial Hierarchy we shall have to speak, to some length, 
 later on; it is only necessary to remark now that his chief threefold 
 division gives them the offices of councillors, governors, and ministers 
 or messengers. In addition to the writings of early and contemporary 
 theologians, Christian artists had a fount of inspiration in the numerous 
 allusions to angels which occur in both the Old and New Testaments. 
 From these allusions they assumed the right of representing angels in all 
 the following conditions and offices: — 1. As beings of a higher order than 
 mankind, endowed with supernatural powers, and gifted with perfect know- 
 ledge.^ 2. As messengers sent by God with information and instructions 
 to man.^ 3. As guardians and deliverers.^ 4. As agents of destruction 
 
 ^ Implied in every allusion to angels made in Scripture. 
 
 2 Gen. xvi. 7-11 ; Gen. xxii. 11-12 ; Judg. vi. 12 ; Judg. xiii. 3 ; 1 Kings xiii. 18; 1 Kings 
 xix. 5, 7 ; 2 Kings i. 3 ; Luke i. 13, 19, 26, 85. 
 
 8 Dan. iii. 28; Dan. vi. 22; Psalm xxxiv. 7; Gen. xlviii. 16. 
 
[ ANGEL 1 
 
 100 
 
 and wielding the sword of God.* 5. As guides sent to lead men from one 
 place to another, with powers to remove all obstructions in the way. ^ 6. As 
 couriers sent before man to assist his undertakings.^ 7. As holding con- 
 versation direct with man.' 8. As being in the form of men.^ 9. As 
 having countenances very terrible. ^ 10. As capable of carrying objects in 
 their hands. ^° 11. As clothed in white raiment." 12. As devoid of 
 human passions and weaknesses. Such, then, were the materials from 
 which Christian artists, in all ages, derived the ideas which guided them in 
 the conventional and symbolical representation of the angels of God. 
 
 Now let us turn our attention to the practical aspect of this interesting 
 subject, and briefly review the various attributes with which artists have 
 invested their impersonations. 
 
 In all epochs of Christian art angels have, with common consent, been 
 represented with wings. Scripture sanctioned the practice, and all the 
 ideas held of them, as the swift messengers of God, continually descending 
 and ascending between heaven and earth, and bearing His commands to 
 the outermost realms of the universe, rendered the appropriation of wings, 
 as indicative of swiftness and power, not only a correct but an absolutely 
 imperative proceeding on the part of the early artists to fulfil the conditions 
 of symbolic representation. It must not be understood, however, that the 
 idea of adding wings to the human form originated with the first Christian 
 artist who depicted an angel ; on the contrary, we must recognise the 
 great antiquity of the idea, and look for its origin in the art works of Egypt 
 
 1 
 
 or Assyria, for wings were given by the artists of both these ancient nations 
 to their representations of certain mythological beings. In Egyptian 
 mythological art, Neith, the goddess of the heavens, was sometimes 
 represented with wings (Fig. 1), and in the marbles of Nineveh we find 
 
 i 2 Sam. xxiv. 16 ; 1 Chron, xxi. 15-30 ; 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 ; Numb. xxii. 22, 31 ; 2 Kings 
 xix. 35 ; Gen. xix. 13 ; Eev. xii. 7 ; Eev. xvi. 1-18. 
 ° Exod. xxiii. 20-23 ; Exod. xxxiii. 2. 
 6 Gen. xxiv. 7, 40 ; Exod. xxiii. 20 ; Exod. xxxii. 34. 
 
 Zech. i. 9, 14 ; Numb, xxii. 32, 35. 
 « Judg. xiii. 9-20. 
 9 Judg. xiii. 6 ; Matt, xxviii. 3. 
 
 10 Judg. vi. 21 ; Rev. viii. 2, 3 ; Rev. x. 2 ; Rev. xx. 1 ; Numb. xxii. 23. 
 
 11 Matt, xxviii. 3 ; John xx. 12. » 
 1^ Proved by every allusion to angels made in Scripture. 
 
101 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 human figures displaying four wings. The Jews doubtless borrowed the 
 idea from Egypt, and were therefore the first people who represented 
 beings, connected with the true God, with wings (Exodus xxv. 20). In 
 Classical art wings were given to Hermes, Eos, Psyche, Eros, and 
 numerous genii. The figures of Victory in the spandrils of the triumphal 
 arches of Titus (first century), Septimus Severus (second century), 
 and Constantine (fourth century), are all winged. As the early Chris- 
 tians were familiar with representations of these mythological and alle- 
 gorical beings, it is highly probable that they immediately derived from 
 them the idea of depicting with wings the swift messengers of God ; and 
 the sanction Scripture gave to the practice* doubtless fixed it for acceptance 
 through all the future epochs of Christian art. 
 
 Wings were given to angels not only with the intention of expressing 
 extreme swiftness, but also with the view of denoting power. In two 
 bas-reliefs, on the facade of the Loggia dei Lanzi, at Florence, executed by 
 Andrea Orcagna, about the middle of the fourteenth century, are two 
 figures, one emblematic of Power and the other of Faith or Religion. 
 Power alone has wings, his appropriate attributes. A bas-relief on the 
 south door of the baptistery at Florence, represents Hope under the figure 
 of a youth wearing a hexagonal nimbus and with wings : here the wings 
 are evidently emblems of power — the power of Hope. 
 
 A great variety of treatments are to be met with throughout the entire 
 range of art, but it is in the earlier works we find the most satisfactory. In 
 these we meet with wings in all degrees of severe conventionality and 
 poetical idealism ; like nothing in nature, and on that account infinitely 
 more appropriate and artistic than the relaxed and insipid copies of the 
 wings of swans or eagles which disfigure late art. In works executed 
 previous to the ninth century only two wings appear to have been 
 considered appropriate, but after that date a more literal reading of the 
 passages in Isaiah (vi. 2) and Ezekiel (i. 6, 9, 11) was resorted to, and 
 accordingly we meet with angels represented with four and six wings. Of 
 these we have more to say further on. 
 
 Not content with a simple departure in form from all natural wings, the 
 early and middle age artists resorted to many expedients to invest their 
 angels' wings with unearthly characteristics. Colour was a fertile field for 
 their ingenuity, and they lavished all the brilliant hues in accentuating or 
 separating the several orders of feathers composing the wings : now 
 rivalling the rainbow, now applying the startling contrasts of the most 
 gorgeous tropical butterfly ; at other times sprinkling or tipping the richly 
 painted feathers with burnished gold, or making them appear alive with 
 brilliant eyes. 
 
 The resources of these artists were only bounded by the capabilities of 
 the materials in which they worked ; and be that material what it might 
 — ^metal, enamel, glass, silk, mosaic, or pigment — it mattered little, they 
 
 * 1 Kings, vi. 24; 2 Chro. iii. 11, 12; Exod. xxv. 20; Isa. vi. 2; Ezek. 1. 6, 9, 11; 
 Ezek. X. 5, 12, 16, 19, 21. 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 102 
 
 were equally successful. The angel in gold had glittering wings enriched 
 with coloured enamels ; the angel in glass had wings that might have heen 
 formed from plates of emerald, ruby, sapphire, and topaz ; the angel in 
 embroidery, displayed feathers of silk, dyed with all the skill of the East, 
 and twisted gold of Byzantium or Persia ; and angels in mosaic or painting 
 vied with each other in the splendour of gold and colour. Certain colours, 
 however, were preferred to others, on account of their symbolic expressions ; 
 thus blue, which signifies divine contemplation, heavenly knowledge, 
 and godliness ; and red, which signifies divine love, power, and royal 
 dignity, were selected as most appropriate for the wings at as early a 
 date as the seventh century. In a mosaic of that period, in the church 
 of St. Sophia, at Thessalonica, angels are depicted with wings coloured 
 blue and red. 
 
 Angels do not often appear in the works of art which were executed 
 during the first six centuries of the Church ; and previous to the fifth 
 century they were, so far as we can learn from existing examples, invariably 
 represented without the nimbus — that attribute of divinity with which they 
 were invested throughout the entire range of middle age art. The nimbi 
 given to all the orders of the Angelic Hierarchy are circular in form, with 
 their fields either plain or covered with numerous radiating lines or rays. 
 Examples of the latter treatment are to be seen in the bas-reliefs of the 
 altar in the church of St. Ambrose, at Milan (illustrated in article Altar, 
 Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8) ; in the thirteenth century fresco paintings by Cimabue and 
 Giunta, of Pisa (Fig. 2) ; in the church of St. Francis, at Assissi ; and 
 in numerous works of both Eastern and Western art. In Greek paintings 
 
 these radiated nimbi were commonly gilded on a ground-work executed in 
 slight relief, produced by pressing a carved wooden disc or seal against the 
 moist intonico, or coating of plaster, laid on to receive the painting ; 
 the result was an impression partly above and partly below the general 
 surface of the wall. Sometimes the relief ornamentation was executed 
 
103 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 with threads of different thicknesses, dipped in plaster, and applied to the 
 wall surface. Western artists, working on these ideas, frequently imparted 
 great richness to their decorative works by raising and gilding the nimbi 
 surrounding the heads of their angels and saints. 
 
 In addition to the perfectly plain and the radiated nimbi, other designs 
 were frequently adopted ; sometimes we find them formed of broad borders 
 of ornament, a disc or ring surrounded with stars, or bordered and inscribed, 
 as that round the head of the archangel Eaphael, in a painting of the 
 -Coronation of the Virgin, by Barnabas of Mutina (1374).* The latest form 
 was that applied indifferently to all divine and saintly personages, namely, 
 a ring of light depicted floating above the head. It is needless to remark 
 that this untraditional form ceases to be the expressive attribute of earlier 
 art. (See Nimbus.) 
 
 We do not wish it to be understood that during the middle ages angels 
 were invariably invested with nimbi ; in Italian art of the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries we occasionally find them without, while other 
 personages associated with them have the attribute. Illustrations exist in 
 the ciborium of the church of St. Paolo (fuori delle mura), and the monu- 
 ment of Cardinal Gonsalvo in the church of St. Maria Maggiore, at Eome ; 
 both works of the thirteenth century. In the latter example the angels 
 which stand at the head and feet of the effigy are devoid of nimbi, while 
 the Virgin and Child, St. Matthew, and St. Jerome, depicted in the 
 tympanum, are all invested with the attribute. 
 
 With reference to the colour of the nimbus, it is to be surmised that 
 beings, dwelling in the full brightness of the glory of heaven, could only be 
 appropriately invested with nimbi representing light itself. Such we find 
 to have been the views held by the early and mediaeval artists, for yellow, 
 the colour of the sun, was most commonly adopted, or rather gold, its 
 equivalent and the brightest and most glittering material at their disposal. 
 In Greek or Byzantine art the nimbus is almost without exception gold, 
 sometimes bordered with colour. In Western art gold also has the 
 preference, but we find in works of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
 rich colours frequently used in addition. 
 
 It is natural that, in the early centuries of the Church, Christian artists 
 should have gone direct to Scripture for ideas with reference to the vesture 
 of angels ; and accordingly we find in early art the white vesture, spoken of 
 by St. Matthew^ and St. John^, almost invariably adopted, consisting of 
 garments resembling the Classic tunica and pallium, sometimes bound with 
 the " golden girdles " of the Eevelation. In the mosaics at Eome and 
 Ravenna, executed prior to the seventh century, white vestments are 
 usually met with ; but in the seventh century mosaics in St. Sophia, at 
 Thessalonica, angels are represented with coloured garments over their 
 white tunics. Apart from the direct sanction of Scripture, white must 
 
 * Illustrated by D'Agencourt. Painting, pi. 133. 
 1 Matt, xxviii. 3. ^john xx. 12. Rev. xv. 6. 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 104 
 
 have recommended itself to the early artists, being the symbol of purity, 
 innocence, joy, and life. 
 
 The vesture of angels became richer as the Church encouraged the 
 adoption of expensive and highly ornamented vestments ; and as a rule we 
 find the heavenly beings represented in ecclesiastical costumes characteristic 
 of the times in which they were delineated. Pugin remarks : — " Angels 
 are often represented by the artists of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth 
 centuries as vested in copes, chasubles, dalmatics, and tunacles ;* also in 
 apparelled albes with stoles ; but in the earlier works they are usually 
 figured in albes, white, with gold wings, and barefooted. Sometimes 
 angels were drawn as feathered all over like birds ; and this representation 
 is by no means uncommon in carving and stained glass of the latter part of 
 the fifteenth century. Examples are to be found in Tattershall church ; 
 Beauchamp chapel, Warwick ; Wells church, Norfolk ; Southwold church, 
 Suffolk ; and many others ; but the effect is far from good, bordering 
 indeed upon the ludicrous, and the idea is not warranted by the traditions 
 of Christian antiquity." 
 
 As allusion has been made in the above quotation to angels covered 
 with feathers, we must not omit drawing attention to those in Andrea 
 Orcagna's fresco of the Triumph of Death, in the Campo Santo, at 
 Pisa; dating probably between 1375-80. In this painting the angels, 
 bearing to heaven the souls of the righteous, are partly vested, and have 
 their lower extremities in the form of large wings, on which they appear 
 to float in the most graceful manner. There is nothing ludicrous 
 here ; indeed the conception is highly idealistic and poetical. 
 
 In Byzantine art we find angels robed in the several ecclesiastical 
 vestments peculiar to the Eastern Church. In early works they wear the 
 sticharion, plain or decorated with coloured stripes ; in later works more 
 elaborate costume, with the orarium, or stole of a deacon, and occasionally 
 the omophorion, or scarf of -a bishop. In the earliest mosaics of the 
 cathedral of Monreale, which display Byzantine traditions in every line, 
 angels are represented attired in richly ornamented imperial and sacerdotal 
 vestments. These we shall have again to allude to. 
 
 From the latter part of the thirteenth century we find Italian artists 
 vesting their angels in various ways. Those by Cimabue (1270), in the 
 church of St. Francis, at Assissi, are attired in a tunic reaching nearly to 
 the feet, bound at the waist by a sash, and wearing an outer garment 
 fastened at the neck only, and falling in soft folds from the shoulders. 
 Giotto's angels, in his painting of St. Francis Glorified, in the lower church 
 at Assissi (painted in the first years of the fourteenth century), are less stiff 
 and severe than those of Cimabue, and are vested with long flowing albes 
 
 * " These vestments, when represented on angels, should be all of cloth of gold, dia,pered 
 with orphreys of pearls and precious stones. The angels sculptured in the arches of the 
 magnificent portals of Amiens cathedral, are represented habited in tunics and dalmatics, 
 holding crowns, candlesticks, thuribles, and incense ships." — Glossary of Ecclesiastical 
 Ornavient. 
 
105 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 apparelled on the breast and at the feet, and in some cases wear long outer 
 garments fastened at the neck. Numerous angels in the works of Andrea 
 Orcagna appear as warriors, clad in armour resembling that worn by the 
 Roman generals ; and in the works of Francesco da Volterra, in the Campo 
 Santo, they wear tunics and an outer garment similar to the Classic toga. 
 Fra Angelico's angels are usually vested with flowing robes, richly banded 
 and ornamented, as in the Coronation of the Virgin, in the Louvre. Of 
 later Italian works it is unnecessary to speak, the vesture of angels being in 
 almost all instances a loose and flowing garment simply girdled at the 
 waist. In German art of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries we find 
 angels represented, robed in every variety of uncomfortable grandeur, and 
 bound to earth as it were by the weight of large and gorgeously embroidered 
 copes. Such are the angels of Wilhelm of Cologne, Van Eyck, and others 
 of the same school. 
 
 In art works executed previous to the seventh century, angels are 
 seldom represented carrying any object in their hands; indeed, the early 
 artists, probably from feelings of extreme reverence, appear to have been 
 too timid to give free scope to their own imaginations with reference to 
 the heavenly beings. It is seldom, therefore, that we find before the tenth 
 century anything ventured by artists beyond what the literal reading 
 of Scripture warranted. The first object we meet with is a slender wand or 
 reed, probably the "golden reed" of the Revelation (xxi. 15) and the 
 vision of Ezekiel (xl. 3). As early as the sixth century angels were repre- 
 sented with trumpets, attributes sanctioned by the Revelation (viii. 2, 6).* 
 From the tenth to the sixteenth century they frequently appear as heavenly 
 musicians, playing almost all the varieties of musical instruments known 
 at the time of their delineation. 
 
 In the numerous sacred and legendary subjects in which middle age 
 artists introduced angels, a great variety of characteristic attributes are 
 placed in their hands : in the Expulsion from Eden a sword, flaming, or of 
 the ordinary form, is invariably given to the guardian; in the Fall of 
 Lucifer, the Overthrow of the Egyptians, and the Last Judgment, the 
 angels are usually armed with swords or with spears and shields ; in the 
 Crucifixion they hold cups to receive the blood from our Saviour's wounds ; 
 in the Ascension, the Heavenly Glory of Christ, the Adoration of the Lamb, 
 and the Joys of Paradise, they bear the emblems of the Passion, musical 
 instruments, scrolls, sceptres, or wands ; in the Annunciation the angel 
 carries a sceptre surmounted by a fleur-de-lys, or a white lily. The angel 
 of the Agony carries a cup or chalice, a scroll, or a staff. In the Baptism 
 of our Lord angels are introduced carrying cloths or napkins. 
 
 In the Divine Liturgy, a subject much in favour in the Greek Church, 
 angels are represented carrying the several articles required at the cele- 
 bration of the Eucharist, namely, the cruets, thurible, incense-vessel, and 
 
 * Ciampini, in his Vetera Monumenta, gives drawings of the sixth century mosaics of 
 the church of St. Michael, at Eavenna, in which St. Michael, as patron saint, holds a reed 
 surmounted by a small cross, St. Gabriel a plain reed, and seven angels bear trumpets. 
 
 0 
 
[ ANGEL J 
 
 106 
 
 tapers ; and others bearing the emblems of the Passion.* Speaking of the 
 Liturgy of Angels, Mrs. Jameson says: — "In the cathedral of Rheims 
 there is a range of colossal angels as a grand procession along the vaults 
 of the nave, who appear as approaching the altar : these bear not only the 
 gospel, the missal, the sacramental cup, the ewer, the taper, the cross, &c., 
 but also the attributes of sovereignty, celestial and terrestrial : one carries 
 the sun, another the moon, a third the kingly sceptre, a fourth the globe, 
 a fifth the sword ; and all these, as they approach the sanctuary, they seem 
 about to place at the feet of Christ, who stands there as priest and king in 
 
 Of certain attributes in addition to those above enumerated we shall 
 speak in our descriptions of the nine choirs of angels, which we are now 
 entering on. 
 
 The Celestial Hieraechy. — Dionysius the Areopagite, bishop of 
 Athens, was the first Christian writer who treated at length the hierarchy 
 of heaven, and classified the several orders of angels alluded to by St. Paul, 
 in his Epistles to the Romans, Ephesians, and Colossians. f Dionysius is 
 believed to have been converted by St. Paul, and to have had instructions 
 from him relative to these heavenly mysteries. The early Church, under 
 this belief, accepted his writings as authorities of almost apostolic weight ; 
 and, so far as his hierarchy of angels is concerned, they have been followed 
 by SS. Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, Jerome, Gregory the Great, 
 Bernard, and others, and have been freely accepted by both the Eastern 
 and "Western Churches. Certain of the above writers have diff'ered, 
 however, on the single point relative to the proper arrangement of the nine 
 choirs. 
 
 The hierarchy is first divided into three Orders, and these are sub- 
 divided into three Choirs, making in all nine denominations, called the 
 nine choirs of angels. The names and arrangement of these, according 
 to Dionysius, are : — 
 
 ^ * La. Divine Liturgie. — Une coupole. Au-dessous, une table sur laquelle est ie saint 
 Evangile ; au-dessus, le Saint-Esprit, AuprSs, le PIre 6ternel assis sur un tr6ne ; il b6n:t 
 de ses saintes mains, et dit sur un cartel: " Je t'ai engendre de mon sein avant Lucifer." 
 Du c6t6 droit de la table, le Christ en habit de patriarche et bSnissant. Devant lui, tous ks 
 ordres des anges saisis de respect, en habits sacerdotaux, formant un cercle qui reviert 
 jusqu'au c6t6 gauche de la table. Le Christ prend un disque sur la tSte d'un ange habill6 ea 
 diacre. Quartre autres anges sont auprfes: deux encensent le Christ et deux portent de 
 grands chandeliers. II y en a aussi d'autres par derri^re ; ils portent : I'un une petite cuillSre , 
 I'autre une lance, I'autre un roseau, I'autre une §ponge, I'autre une croix, et d'autres des 
 cierges. — Manuel d'Iconographie Chretienne. Didron. Paris, 1845. 
 
 glory. 
 
 First Order - - 
 
 Seraphim. 
 Cherubim. 
 Thrones. 
 
 • Councillors oj God. 
 
 t Kom. Tiii. 38 ; Ephes. i. 21 ; Colos. i. 16. 
 
107 
 
 [ ANGEL J 
 
 Second Order 
 
 Third Order - 
 
 Dominations. 
 
 Virtues. 
 
 Powers. 
 
 Principalities. 
 
 Archangels. 
 
 Angels. 
 
 Governors of God. 
 
 Ministers or 
 Messengers of God. 
 
 This arrangement has been slightly altered by later authorities. We 
 find, for instance, in the Guide to Painting ,-—SLn interesting work on 
 Greek Iconography, and a reliable authority on the traditional modes of 
 representing sacred beings and events according to the directions of the 
 Eastern Church,— that the Thrones are placed at the head of the first 
 order, and the Seraphim in the third place. St. Gregory and St. Bernard 
 alter the relations of the choirs in the second and third orders, and with 
 some show of reason differ from the arrangement of Dionysius. Their 
 hierarchy is as follows :— 
 
 First Order 
 
 Seraphim. 
 Cherubim. 
 Thrones. 
 
 Second Order - 
 
 Dominations. 
 Principalities. 
 Powers. 
 
 Third Order 
 
 Virtues. 
 
 Archangels. 
 
 Angels. 
 
 They argue that the first order consists of the intimate councillors of 
 God, the second order of the governors, and the third order of the 
 ministers, the first receiving commands direct from God, the second obey- 
 ing the instructions of the first, and the third obeying the behests of the 
 second order. Such being the case, they place the Principalities along with 
 the Dominations and Powers, in the order of governors ; and Virtues with 
 the Archangels and Angels, in the order of ministers. The arrangement 
 of these authors has much to recommend it, and their second order, com- 
 prising Dominations, Principalities, and Powers, is more consistent and 
 connected than that of Dionysius. Of course, we must consider if we 
 rightly estimate the arrangement of Dionysius, and whether the word 
 translated into our language as Virtues is properly rendered. The Eev. W. 
 B. Harriot translates the original names of the three choirs forming the 
 second order (xup»0T>)Te5, I0ouo-ja», dwaixeig), Dominions, Authorities, Powers, 
 but adopts the usual translation of the name of the first choir of the third 
 
 * Manuel d' Iconographie Ghretienne. 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 108 
 
 order {otpxai), namely, Principalities.* But, even with this alteration, 
 there seems to be no good reason for disputing the arrangement of 
 SS. Gregory and Bernard, and the Principalities still appear to belong to 
 the order which contains the kindred choirs. Dominations and Powers. In 
 the complete hierarchy, represented in the late fourteenth century stained 
 glass of New College chapel, Oxford, the nine choirs, although distributed 
 over several windows, appear to be arranged in the following order: — 
 Cherubim, Seraphim, Thrones; Principalities, Dominations, Powers; 
 Virtues, Archangels, and Angels. This arrangement differs slightly from 
 that of SS. Gregory and Bernard, but it is similar, inasmuch as it groups 
 the same choirs in each of the orders. 
 
 The hierarchy of Dionysius became firmly fixed in art from the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century, when Dante wrote his Vision, 
 giving, in the Paradise, the following approval of it : — 
 
 " In the first circles, they, whom thou beheld' st, 
 Are seraphim and cherubim. Thus swift 
 Follow their hoops, ia likeness to the point, 
 Near as they can, approaching ; and they can 
 The more, the loftier then vision. Those 
 That round them fleet, gazing the Godhead next. 
 Are thrones ; in whom the fii-st trine ends. And all 
 Are blessed, even as their sight descends 
 Deeper into the truth, wherein rest is 
 For every mind. 
 
 The other trine, that with still opening buds 
 In this eternal springtide blossom fair, 
 Fearless of bruising from the nightly ram, 
 Breathe up in warbled melodies threefold 
 Hosannas, blending ever ; from the three, 
 Transmitted, hierarchy of gods, for aye 
 Eejoicing ; dominations first ; next them, 
 Virtues ; and powers the third ; the next to whom 
 Are princedoms and archangels, with glad round 
 To tread their festal ring ; and last, the band 
 Angehcal, disporting in their sphere. 
 AU, as they circle in their orders, look 
 Aloft ; and, downward, with such sway prevail, 
 That all with mutual impulse tend to God. 
 These once a mortal view beheld. Desire, 
 In Dionysius, so intensely wrouglit, 
 That he, as I have done, ranged them ; and named 
 Their orders, marshal' d in his thought. From him, 
 Dissentient, one refused his sacred read. 
 But soon as in this heaven his doubting eyes 
 Were open'd, Gregory f at his error smiled." 
 
 Gary's Dante, Par. Canto xxviii. 
 
 * Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. London, 1875. 
 
 t Gregory.-] Gregory the Great. " Novem vero angeloriun ordines diximus ; quia vedelicet 
 esse, testante sacro eloquio, scimus : Angeles, archangelos, virtutes, potestates, principatus, 
 dominationes, tlnonos, cherubin atqi;e seraphin." Divi Gregorii, Horn., xxxiv. f. 125, Par. 1518.' 
 
109 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 Seraphim. Perfect love. The chief of this choir is Uriel (the fire of 
 God), and its office is to sing the glory, praise, and love of God before His 
 throne for ever. In art. Seraphim are usually represented with six wings, 
 two of which rise and cross each other above the head, two issue from the 
 shoulders and extend outwards as if to fly, and the remaining pair issue 
 from the breast, fall downwards, and cross above the feet. When thus 
 represented the head is invariably invested with the circular nimbus, and 
 the feet are bare, resting sometimes on small winged wheels, as in the 
 thirteenth century mosaics in the cathedral of Monreale. We give, in 
 Fig. 3, an illustration of one of the Seraphim from this interesting building. 
 
 8 
 
 The wings vary in colour in the different representations, but are chiefly 
 executed in shades of blue, green, and drab, with white, red, and gold 
 sparingly introduced ; the main feathers are invariably black, the nimbi 
 gold with a red border, and the wheels in red and black. All the wings 
 are studded with eyes. Other representations in the same church show 
 the Seraphim with the head behind the wings, only part of the face being 
 visible through a lozenge- shaped opening at the junction of the upper and 
 lower pairs of wings ; in all other respects they are similar to those above 
 described and illustrated. 
 
 In the Guide to Painting, Seraphim are briefly described as having six 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 110 
 
 wings, two rising upwards towards the head, two descending towards the 
 feet, and two for flying with ; and holding in each hand a flabellum or 
 fan, inscribed with the words " Holy, holy, holy," as one reads in the 
 Prophet Isaiah (vi. 2, 3). Didron, in describing the paintings in the 
 church dedicated to the Archangels in the great convent of Iviron, on 
 Mount Athos, tells us that the Seraphim are represented completely red 
 like fire, with three pairs' of red wings, a flaming sword in their right 
 hand, naked feet, and with no vestments, being covered with their wings. 
 In the arches of the south porch of Chartres cathedral there is a fine 
 series of sculptured figures (thirteenth century) representing the nine 
 choirs. Here the Seraphim are figures with six wings, holding in their 
 hands flames of fire, expressive of the ardour of their love for God. 
 Sylvanus Morgan says : — " Seraphim, whose chief is Uriel, are represented 
 with wings, signifying their spiritual motion ; and their ardent affection is 
 signified by a flaming heart. Their office is to sing continually the praises 
 of God."* In the glass of New College chapel, Oxford, this choir is 
 
 represented by a full-length figure, covered with feathers and studded with 
 eyes ; two large wings issue from the shoulders, two droop from the waist 
 over the hips, and two small wings are attached to the elbows ; the head is 
 invested with the nimbus, a loose scarf is fastened round the neck, and the 
 hands are unoccupied (Fig. 4). The polour appropriated to the Seraphim 
 by mediaeval artists is red, the emblem of ardent love, power, and royal 
 dignity. 
 
 Cherubim. Perfect Wisdom. The chief of this choir is Jophiel. The 
 modes of representing Cherubim differ ; indeed, there appear to have been 
 
 * Sphere of Gentry, by Sylvanus Morgan, 
 
Ill 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 such conflicting ideas regarding their nature in the minds of the early 
 and mediaeval artists, that no universally accepted method of delineating 
 them obtained at any time. The passages of Scripture in which Cherubim 
 are mentioned contain few hints on which artists could work. The 
 descriptions given in Ezekiel (i. 5-11 ; x. 12, 14) of the heavenly 
 creatures with the four faces, there termed Cherubim, have been almost 
 literally rendered in art. From these descriptions, combined with the 
 passages in the Kevelation (iv. 6-8), materials were found for the 
 conception of that compound creature known in art as the Tetramorph, 
 whose single body carries four heads, namely, those of a man, a lion, 
 an ox, and an eagle (the symbols of the four Evangelists) ; six wings 
 studded with eyes, and bare feet resting on winged and fiery wheels, 
 similar to those of the Seraphim. For further particulars and a repre- 
 sentation of this symbolic creature we must refer our readers to our 
 article Tetramorph. 
 
 The Guide to Painting simply informs us that Cherubim are to be 
 depicted with a head only and two wings. Didron describes the Cherubim, 
 in the church of the Archangels, as figures fully attired in three vestments, 
 elaborately ornamented with embroideries, the outer garment or tunic 
 reaching to the knee, their feet covered richly, and having two wings only. 
 In Chartres cathedral, the Cherubim are figures with six wings, carrying 
 in their hands the object called, during the middle ages, the seal of Grod 
 (Fig. 8). According to Sylvanus Morgan : — " Cherubim, signifying fulness 
 of knowledge and wisdom, are represented young, having four wings to 
 cover their faces and feet, and looking one upon another ; of this order was 
 Jophiel." In the mosaic, in the cathedral of Monreale, representing the 
 Expulsion from Eden, the Cherub (?) guarding the entrance is delineated 
 as a figure with six wings and armed with a sword, executed in tints of red 
 throughout. This figure so closely resembles the Seraph of Byzantine art, 
 and is of the colour appropriated to the Seraphim, that it is doubtful if the 
 artist intended it to represent a Cherub, notwithstanding the text of Genesis. 
 In the glass of New College chapel, this choir is set forth by a full-length 
 figure, invested with a circular nimbus, the body covered with feathers, the 
 legs and feet bare, having four wings on the shoulders, and small wings 
 drooping over the thighs and attached to the elbows. It carries an open 
 book, and has scarfs tied round its neck and hips (Fig. 5). The colour 
 appropriated to Cherubim by mediaeval artists is blue, the emblem of divine 
 contemplation. 
 
 It is not necessary to describe the weak and untraditional representations 
 of Cherubim found in late Italian art, with their baby faces and half- 
 fledged wings ; they are both meaningless and inartistic. 
 
 Thrones. Perfect Rest. The chief of this choir is Zaphkiel. In the 
 Vision of Ezeldel * mention is made of wheels within wheels, with rings 
 full of eyes, and all of the colour of beryl. This description of certain super- 
 
 * Ezekiel i. 15-21 ; iii. 13 ; x. 19 ; xi. 22. 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 112 
 
 natural and heavenly creatures, vague as it is, furnished early Christian 
 artists with materials for the representation of the third choir of angels. 
 
 We here give a drawing (Fig. 7) from a miniature of the Ascension, in a 
 Syriac M.S. of the sixth century, preserved in the library of St. Lorenzo, 
 
 at Florence. The creature represented with the wheels on either side 
 supports the aureole surrounding our Lord,^'^ and is evidently intended as 
 a literal rendering of the description in the first chapter of Ezekiel. 
 
 In the Guide to Painting, artists are instructed to depict the Thrones as 
 wheels of fire having wings all round them ; the centre of the wings to be 
 sprinkled with eyes; and the whole configuration to represent a royal 
 throne. In the paintings in the church of the Archangels, the Thrones are 
 represented as wheels of fire, each with four wings and the head of an 
 angel, with the nimbus, issuing from the lower part of the wheel and 
 ascending towards its centre. In the Chartres cathedral sculptures, the 
 Thrones are represented as figures with four wings, vested in ornamented 
 tunics, and with bare feet resting upon a wheel. Sylvanus Morgan 
 says : — " The last of the first triplicity is Thrones, represented kneeling, 
 whose ensigns are a palm and a crown, representing Equity and Justice, 
 under the dominion of Zaphkiel." In the New College chapel glass, 
 this choir is set forth by a figure very similar to that representing the 
 Cherubim, but with only two large wings on its shoulders, and its hands 
 uplifted and unoccupied. It wears a diadem, and stands upon the step of 
 a seat or throne (Fig. 6). 
 
 Dominations. The chief of this choir is Zadkiel. Dominations are 
 usually represented by full-length figures, vested, and bearing sceptres 
 and swords or orbs. The Guide to Painting directs them to be vested 
 
 * The entire miniature is illustrated in Plate xxvii. of Painting.— D'Agencourt's History 
 of Art. 
 
113 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 in albes descending to the feet, green stoles, and sashes of gold ; and to 
 have rods of gold in their right hands and the seal of God (Fig. 8) in 
 their left. In the paintings in the church of the Arch- 
 angels, they are depicted vested in a plain robe and cloak, 
 having their feet covered, and a pair of wings.; carrying 
 in their right hands a long baton terminating in a cross, 
 and in their left an orb, inscribed with the monograms 
 of our Lord fc . iCc . In the sculptures of Chartres 
 cathedral, the Dominations appear as figures with two 9 
 wings, vested in tunic and mantle, feet covered, wearing 
 a crown, and carrying a sceptre. Sylvanus Morgan says : — "Dominions, 
 disposing of the office of angels, whose ensign is a sceptre, under the 
 regiment of Zadchiel, bearing a sword and cross." In the New College 
 chapel this choir is represented by a figure vested in a garment reaching to 
 the knees, a rich tippet over the shoulders, and with shoes on its feet ; two 
 
 10 11 
 
 large wings occupy the usual position, and it bears the three attributes of 
 dominion, the crown on its head, and the sceptre and sword in its 
 hands (Fig. 9). 
 
 Principalities. The chief of this choir is Kamiel. They most gene- 
 rally appear in art as figures vested in military garments, and carrying 
 in their hands difi'erent weapons. In the Guide to Painting, instructions 
 are given for them to be clothed as soldiers, having golden sashes, and 
 carrying in their hands javelins with axes attached. In the church of the 
 Archangels, they are represented with two wings, vested in a robe, tunic, 
 and cloak richly ornamented, their feet covered, and carrying in their 
 right hand a branch of lily. In the south porch of Chartres cathedral, the 
 Principalities are figures vested in embroidered amice, albe, and diaconal 
 
 p 
 
r ANGEL ] 
 
 114 
 
 dalmatic; they have their feet covered, and carry a book in their 
 hands. According to Sylvanus Morgan: — "Principalities, which take 
 charge of Princes, to the bridling of their power and might, whose 
 ensign is a sceptre and girdle across the breast, being the angel 
 guardians of kingdoms, whose chief is Camael." In the New College 
 chapel this choir is represented by a figure in complete armour, with 
 two wings, and carrying in the right hand a lance with a small cross 
 banner. (Fig. 10.) 
 
 Powers. The chief of this choir is Kaphael. In early art, the Powers 
 appear to have been represented very similar to the Dominations ; indeed, 
 the Guide to Painting directs them to be depicted in the same vestments 
 and carrying the same attributes. In the church of the Archangels, the 
 powers are vested in robe, tunic reaching to the knee, and cloak ; the robe 
 and tunic having rich borders, and the cloak a collar of embroidery. The 
 feet are bare, two wings issue from the shoulders, and the hands hold the 
 baton with cross and the orb with monograms, as in the representations 
 of the Dominations. In the porch of Chartres cathedral, the Powers 
 are figures with two wings, vested in tunic and mantle, feet covered, 
 and carrying a sceptre ; they are not crowned. Sylvanus Morgan, speaking 
 of this choir, remarks : — "Powers, being the assistant spirits to withstand 
 the power and assaults of evil angels, under their chief captain, Raphael, 
 whose ensigns are a thunder-bolt and flaming sword." In late medieval 
 art they are represented as warriors, as in the glass of New College chapel, 
 where the figure is clad in plate armour, with bauldric and rich tippet, 
 and has a small helmet on its head; two pair of wings are attached to 
 the shoulders, and a baton is carried in the left hand. (Fig. 11.) 
 
 Virtues. The chief of this choir is Haniel. In eastern art, the Virtues 
 are usually represented by figures with two wings, vested in robe or albe 
 and mantle, and bearing the seal of God in their hands ; in western art 
 they are vested as deacons, carrying a book, or are depicted as warriors. In 
 the Guide to Painting directions are given for them to be delineated, 
 similar to the Dominations and Powers, with albes descending to the feet, 
 green stoles, and golden sashes round the waist ; carrying the seal of God 
 in their left hand and a rod of gold in their right. In the church of the 
 Archangels, they are drawn with two wings, unornamented robe and cloak, 
 naked feet, and the orb inscribed with the monograms IC. xc. in their left, 
 and a long wand with cross in their right hand. In the Chartres cathedral 
 sculptures, the Virtues are represented by figures, vested in amice, albe 
 and dalmatic, carrying a book. According to Sylvanus Morgan : — 
 "Virtues, being a degree of angels that execute His holy Will, whose 
 ensign is a crown of thorns in the right hand, and a cup of consolation in 
 the left; their principal is Haniel." In the New College chapel, they are 
 represented by a warrior clad in plate armour, but without helmet, having 
 two large wings at the shoulders and two lesser ones falling over the 
 thighs, and carrying in the right hand a spear and cross banner, and 
 in the left a battle-axe. (Fig. 13.) 
 
115 
 
 f ANGEL ] 
 
 Aechangels. This choir is represented by figures, differently attired, 
 most commonly wearing military garments or suits of armour, but some- 
 times robed in sacerdotal vestments. They have two wings, and usually 
 carry some description of weapon in their hands. We here give a 
 drawing (Fig. 12) of one of the Archangels represented in the thirteenth 
 century mosaics of the cathedral of Monreale. The figure is vested in a 
 
 and carrying in their right hand a sword pointed upwards, and in their 
 left an orb with the monograms Tc". XC. In the sculptures at Chartres 
 cathedral, the archangels are clothed in tunic and mantle, armed with lance 
 and shield, and represented crushing a dragon under their feet. Sylvanus 
 Morgan says : — " Archangels are extraordinary ambassadours, whose ensign 
 is a banner hanging on a cross, as representing victory ; and armed, having 
 a dart in one hand, and a cross on the forehead, whereby Michael and his 
 angels warred with the devil and his angels." In the New College chapel, 
 this choir is set forth by a figure with two wings, the body covered with 
 feathers, which develop themselves into wing-like appendages at the thighs 
 and elbows, the head, legs and fore-arms uncovered, and carrying in the 
 right hand a trumpet. Sashes are tied round the neck and hips. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 12 
 
 sticharion of a light blue colour, 
 ornamented with orphreys, and 
 bound at the waist with a narrow 
 girdle ; wearing an omophorion and 
 a broad sash elaborately embroidered 
 with gold on rich red and blue 
 grounds. The wings are in shades 
 of blue and gold, with the main 
 feathers in black, as indicated in our 
 drawing. The head is invested 
 with a circular gold nimbus outlined 
 with red ; the feet are covered with 
 red shoes embroidered with white ; 
 and the right hand carries a long 
 wand. Certain of the archangels 
 in this series wear ample cloaks of 
 dark blue and purple, diapered and 
 powdered with gold, and fastened on 
 the right shoulder with a brooch. 
 In the Guide to Painting, instruc- 
 tions are given to represent 
 Archangels clothed as soldiers, with 
 sashes of gold, and holding in their 
 hands spears with axes attached to 
 them. Didron describes those in 
 the church of the Archangels as 
 being attired like soldiers, having 
 two wings, a cuirass, but no helmet, 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 116 
 
 Angels. The modes of representing individuals of this choir are 
 absolutely countless, each artist freely indulging his fancy in their por- 
 traiture. In this place, however, we have to confine our remarks to 
 their peculiarities when represented along with the other eight choirs 
 as members of the celestial hierarchy. The Guide to Painting gives the 
 same directions for their delineation as for the previous choir. In the 
 church of the Archangels, they are depicted vested in albe, tunic, and 
 manaple, as deacons ; holding in their right hand the orb with the sacred 
 monograms, and in their left a baton surmounted by a cross. At Chartres, 
 this choir is represented by twelve figures ; four are vested in tunic and 
 mantle, and blowing long trumpets ; four are vested in amice and albe, 
 and hold torches ; and four, similarly attired, carry thuribles and incense- 
 vessels, Sylvanus Morgan says: — "Angels having the government of 
 men, being messengers of grace and good tidings, — men being made little 
 lower than the angels, — to whom Gabriel brought the glad tidings of 
 peace; whose ensign is a book and a staff; they are represented young, to 
 
 13 14 15 
 
 show their continual strength ; and winged, to show their unweariedness ; 
 and girt, to show their readiness ;— their garments either white, to show 
 their purity, or gold, their sanctity and glory." In the glass of New College 
 chapel, the figure inscribed "Angeli" has four wings on the shoulders; 
 the body and arms covered with feathers, and two small wings falling over 
 the thighs ; two scarfs are tied round the neck and hips ; and in the right 
 hand is a staff with a trefoiled head. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 Complete representations of the nine choirs are not so frequently met 
 with in art works as one might be inclined to suppose, knowing, on the one 
 hand, the high estimation in which the hierarchy of Dionysius was held 
 by the early and mediaeval theologians, and, on the other, the love of the 
 
117 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 middle age artists for everything which could be reduced to order or admit 
 of classification. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries this love of 
 classification became almost a prevailing mania in the monastic cloister, 
 and produced many summaries or encyclopaedias, amongst which were 
 the Legenda Aurea, of Jacques de Voragine, the Summa Theologi<z, of 
 Thomas Aquinas, and the celebrated Speculum Universale, of Vincent de 
 Beauvais. Didron, in the introduction to his valuable work, Iconographie 
 Chretienne-Histoire de Dieu, shows the effect this love for classification 
 had upon the contemporaneous art, briefly describing the magnificent 
 system of sculptures at Chartres cathedral, and its relation to the arrange- 
 ment of the treatises in the Speculam Universale. (See Sculpture-Middle 
 Age.) 
 
 The writings of Dionysius more directly affected the art of the eastern 
 Church, and accordingly the representation of the celestial hierarchy 
 became more common in it than in western art. We are not aware of 
 a complete hierarchy existing in any Italian church ; and not even in the 
 wonderful series of mosaics which cover the interior of the cathedral of 
 Monreale, near Palermo, do we find any attempt to depict the nine choirs. 
 Seraphim (Fig. 3) and Tetramorphi decorate certain domes and walls ; the 
 four Archangels, SS. Michael, Gabriel, Kaphiel and Uriel, are several 
 times introduced ; and angels very frequently appear in the numerous 
 Scripture scenes depicted, but no grand subject with the pomp of the 
 entire hierarchy of heaven is to be seen. This is somewhat remarkable, 
 for the decorations and iconography of this building are evidently Byzan- 
 tine throughout. In France, complete hierarchies exist in sculpture at 
 Chartres cathedral (thirteenth century), at the cathedral of Cahors, and the 
 chapel of Vincennes (fifteenth century). M. Viollet-le-Duc states that a 
 complete series of angels decorates the arch of the north portal of the 
 cathedral of Bordeaux; and that in the church of Saint-Chef (Isere) 
 there is a representation of the hierarchy in painting of the twelfth 
 century. It is to be regretted that he does not give a description of the 
 latter, as it would be most interesting to students of Christian iconography. 
 In England, the only representation of the hierarchy complete appears to 
 be that in the stained glass of New College chapel, before described and 
 illustrated. * 
 
 Although the complete hierarchy is seldom met with in art, groups of a 
 few of the choirs, and arrangements of angels, without direct reference to 
 the hierarchy, are of very frequent occurrence in the rich rose windows of 
 Continental cathedrals, and in painting and sculpture of the thirteenth and 
 two following centuries. The finest series of angels in this country is that 
 in the retro-choir of Lincoln cathedral (1270-82), commonly known as the 
 angel choir. Here are figures of thirty angels, occupying the spandrils of 
 the triforium arches, sculptured in the highest style of the art of the 
 period, and displaying artistic culture and workmanship probably unsur- 
 
 * These illustrations are enlarged from the careful drawings made by Mr. 0. Jewitt for 
 the Calendar of the Anglican Church. 
 
[ ANGEL ] 
 
 118 
 
 passed by any English sculpture of the thirteenth century. We cannot 
 write of these beautiful angels without referring to Mr. C. R. Cockerell's 
 valuable exposition, printed in the Lincoln volume of the Arch^ological 
 Institute ; and in concluding our present article we cannot do better than 
 give a few extracts from his valuable essay. Speaking of the vigour, fresh- 
 ness, and the originality they display, he says :—" They betray no trace 
 whatever of the stiff Byzantine style so frequent in the English sculpture 
 of the preceding century, and which was still adhered to in works of the 
 contemporary ItaHans — Cimabue, Gaddi, Duccio, and others; no formal 
 constraint or superstitious enthusiasm, nor any undue employment of 
 allegory (with which they are reproached) offend us in the sculptures of 
 Lincoln; all the freedom and naturalness attributed subsequently to Giotto, 
 who was but an infant when these works were executed, are here antici- 
 pated, and strike us in every instance. Complete emancipation from any 
 known prototype or prevailing manner is apparent; the artist dealt with 
 his subject and material with all the originality and freedom of a master." 
 
 The angel-choir consists of five bays; accordingly, taking both sides, 
 there are ten triforium spaces, divided from each other by the vaulting 
 shafts and ribs; in each space there are two arches, leaving three spandrils 
 in which the angels are sculptured. Mr. Cockerell has studied these 
 angels with great care, and has ventured to explain their signification ; as 
 we know no authority more worthy of our readers' attention, we here give 
 his complete list : — 
 
 First hay, south side, beginning at south-east angle. 
 
 1. Angel of the Day-spring. 
 
 2. Angel of the Patriarch David. 
 
 3. Angel with scroll, alluding to the prophecies in the Psakns. 
 
 Second hay. 
 
 4k. Angel with trumpet, soundiag the fame of David. 
 
 5. Angel of Soloman. 
 
 6. Angel with scroll : " possibly alluding to the prophecy of Abijah." 
 
 Third hay. 
 
 7. Angel with double trumpet: (the prophecy verified, and the kingdom divided). 
 
 8. Angel with pipe and tabret : representing the fallen state of Israel. " The pipe 
 and tabret are in their feasts." 
 
 9. Angel of Daniel, with sealed book. 
 
 Fourth hay. 
 
 10. Angel of Isaiah. An abortion under his feet. " The children are come to the 
 birth." 
 
 11. Angel of Ezekiel, with hawk. 
 
 12. Angel of Jeremiah. 
 
 Fifth hay. 
 
 13. Angel of the twelve minor prophets. 
 
 14. Angel holding a small figure (the human soul) towards 
 
 15. The Virgin, who supports the Holy Child. An angel is censing them. 
 
119 
 
 [ ANGEL ] 
 
 First hay, north side, beginning at north-west angle. 
 
 16. Angel holding the crown of thorns. 
 
 17. Angel of Expulsion : he holds the sword with his right hand, and drives forth 
 Adam and Eve with the other. 
 
 18. Angel holding the spear, and the sponge on a reed. 
 
 Second hay, 
 
 19. The Saviour, crowned with thorns, displays the wound ia His side, and holds 
 His hand (one finger of wliich is open) toward Adam and Eve, in the first bay. On 
 the other side an angel holds towards Him a soul, with hands raised in prayer. 
 
 20. Angel of the Judgment, with balance. 
 
 21. Angel swinging a thurible. 
 
 Third hay. 
 
 22. Angel with palm branch ; the reward of the righteous. 
 
 23. Angel holding crowns : " the crown of glory which fadeth not away." 
 
 24. Angel of the Eevelation, searching a scroll, (the book of life). 
 
 Fourth hay. 
 
 25. Angel with stringed instrument, and 
 
 26. Angel with viohn, represent " the joys of Heaven, the reign of peace." 
 
 27. Angel with palm and scroll : " the everlasting Gospel." 
 
 Fifth hay. 
 
 28. Angel with harp. 
 
 29. Angel with the sun and moon. (The Church appears in the moon in the form 
 of a female head, and thence a scroll depending, and containing the doctrines of which 
 she is the sacred depository.) 
 
 30. Angel with scroll. (Angel of the last chapter of the Eevelation : " I am Alpha 
 and Omega.") 
 
 For further information regarding these most interesting and beautiful 
 sculptures, as well as for drawings of them, we must refer our readers to 
 Mr. Cockerell's well known paper. 
 
 Several series of angels are to be seen in the timber roofs of our late 
 middle-age churches, as at Wymondham, Outwell, and Knapton, Norfolk ; 
 Bacton, Suffolk; and the church of St. Martin, Leicester. The finest 
 series is in the roof of Wymondham church, where angels, with large 
 wings and holding scrolls, form the main and intermediate hammer-beams, 
 while others appear in the cornice and corbels supporting the pendant-post. 
 
 Sculpture having, at all times, been more largely introduced by the 
 French architects, on the exteriors of their cathedrals and churches, than by 
 the English, we find representations of angels very frequently decorating the 
 more important features of their designs. In the tabernacles of the main 
 buttresses of the cathedral of Eeims are a fine series of angels, standing, 
 with wings outspread, and holding in their hands the sun, moon, instru- 
 ments of the Passion, and the several articles employed in the Mass. 
 Angels are sculptured in the portals of almost every important ecclesiastical 
 edifice in France. They are also introduced as terminals to gables, 
 pinnacles, and roofs. 
 
[ ANGLE BUTTRESS ] 
 
 120 
 
 In interior decoration they do not so frequently occur ; they are, how- 
 ever, to be seen sculptured in the spandrils of the triforium in the cathedral 
 of Nevers ; and in applied-work (see Application) in the spandrils of the 
 arcade in Sainte-Chapelle, Paris. 
 
 ANGLE. In architecture and art, this term usually bears its popular 
 signification. It is the point at which two lines meet ; the line, vertical, 
 horizontal, or inclined, formed by the junction of two planes, as the angle 
 of a wall, at the base of a spire, and the sides of a pyramid. Correctly 
 speaking, an angle is the aperture or space formed at the junction of two 
 lines or planes. The junction or point of meeting is termed the vertex, 
 and the angle is measured, in degrees, on an arc struck from the vertex, 
 between the lines (termed legs) or planes. A right angle is one of 90°. 
 
 ANGLE BEAD. A small circular member or moulding attached to 
 the outer or inner angle of any architectural work : three varieties under 
 this definition are given in Fig. 1. 
 
 1 
 
 The term is, however, most commonly applied to the small bead or stafi" 
 of wood affixed to the outer angles of walls or partitions, and against which 
 the plaster work is finished. In this case the bead is not an artistic 
 feature, but is simply introduced to prevent the angle from being easily 
 injured. 
 
 ANGLE BUTTRESS. In mediaeval architecture, a buttress which 
 projects from the outer angle of a wall, in the manner shown in the accom- 
 
 1 2 
 
 panying illustrations. Buttresses projecting diagonally from right angles 
 
121 
 
 [ ANGLE CAPITAL ] 
 
 of walls, as in Fig. 1, were not commonly introduced in English medifBval 
 architecture before the Decorated period. Two examples, however, of 
 angle buttresses of the Early English period exist at Warmington and 
 Morton Pinkney churches in Northamptonshire. In the fourteenth and 
 fifteenth centuries they were frequently used ; and numerous examples are 
 to be met with in Decorated and Perpendicular buildings. 
 
 Buttresses projecting from obtuse angles, as in Fig. 2, are to be seen in 
 the octagonal chapter-houses of York and Wells cathedrals, the apse of 
 Wells, and the chapels of the choir of Westminster Abbey. They are also 
 met with in those Continental churches which have polygonal chevets, or 
 apisdal terminations ; for instance, in the cathedrals of Le Mans, Amiens, 
 Tournay, and Cologne ; the churches of St. Ouen, at Kouen, and Sainte- 
 Chapelle, at Paris. . 
 
 ANGLE CAPITAL. In its strict sense this term designates any 
 description of capital, placed under the right-angle of an entablature ; and 
 accordingly in one of the main angles of a building or in an angle of any 
 subordinate part thereof. 
 
 Capitals of circular form with square abaci, or those which present, 
 along with their abaci, four similar faces, do not require any modification 
 to adapt them for an angular position. All the varieties of Egyptian 
 capitals are included in this category, but they were seldom used in angu- 
 lar positions ; in the Hypaethral temple of the Island of Philae, however, 
 four angle capitals occur, similar to those used for the sides of the struc- 
 ture. Of the capitals of the Classic Orders, the Ionic alone requires to be 
 modified ; the Tuscan, Doric, Corinthian, and Composite are never altered. 
 
 The Ionic angle capital has volutes placed at right angles to each other, 
 with those coming together at the angle of the entablature curved out- 
 wards, on a centre line at an angle of 135° with the plain of the front. 
 
 Q 
 
[ ANGLE CORBEL J 
 
 122 
 
 Capitals of this description were used by the Greek architects in the temple 
 on the Ilissus (Fig. 1) and the Erechtheum at Athens. 
 
 The above description of capital has sometimes been called an Angu- 
 lar Capital, but such is obviously an example of loose nomenclature. 
 Angular Capital can only be properly used in the same sense as angular 
 building, or, indeed, any term which has the prefix angular : it must of 
 necessity imply the possession of angles in the object to which the term 
 alludes, without any reference to its position, relative or otherwise. The 
 modified Ionic capital, as above described, is an angle capital, because it is 
 suited for an angular position, and invariably occupies it; but, on the other 
 hand, it is not an angular capital, in so much that it does not present a 
 decidedly angular formation in itself. (See Angula.r.) 
 
 ANGLE COLUMN. A column placed at an angle of a building, or 
 any subordinate part of a building. An angle column does not require to 
 be of a different form from those with which it is associated, as in the 
 portico or colonnade of a Classic temple. It may either be detached, as in 
 the generality of instances, or attached, as in the temples of Fortuna 
 Virilis, at Rome, and Caius and Lucius (La Maison Carree), at Nimes ; 
 
 1 
 
 and it may either occupy an external or internal angle, as at A in the 
 accompanying illustrations. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 Columns occupying the positions above enumerated have been incorrectly 
 termed Angular Columns; it must be obvious, however, if there is any 
 limit to the signification of words, that an angular column is a column 
 which differs from the normal or circular form, by presenting several 
 angles on its shaft. (See Angular Shaft.) 
 
 ANGLE CORBEL. A corbel placed at an external or internal angle 
 of a building, and otherwise fulfilling all the ofiices of an ordinary corbel. 
 
123 
 
 [ ANGLE CORBEL ] 
 
 Numerous beautiful examples of this feature or detail are met with in 
 Middle Age structures, both at home and on the Continent. The illustra- 
 
 tion here given is from one in a chapel of the cathedral of Laon (Fig. 1). 
 Great diversity of design and treatment is to be found in corbels generally ; 
 but when the angle corbel belongs to a series, as in this chapel, it does not 
 materially differ from those which project from the flat wall, beyond being 
 modified to suit its angular position. (See Corbel.) 
 
[ ANGLE LEAF ] 124 
 
 ANGLED. The term used in heraldry to denote a line, bent into two 
 angles at or about its centre, and employed to part the field of a shield in 
 any of the acknowledged directions or positions (example — Party 'per bend, 
 
 angled, argent and gules). Certain ordinaries are said to be angled when 
 they are comprised within lines of the above form. 
 
 ANGLE LEAF. An ornamental detail, in the form of a leaf, more 
 or less conventionalised, employed by the architects of the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries to fill up the corner spaces left when a circular or 
 octagonal object was placed upon a square of the same dimensions as its 
 diameter. The angle leaf is most commonly met with applied to the 
 circular bases of pillars, which rest on square sub-bases or plinths, as in 
 plan, Fig. 1. 
 
 1 
 
 In addition to the leaf of the mediaeval base, the term may correctly be 
 applied to any description of ornamental leaf occupying an angular 
 position. 
 
 There appears, by the remains of ancient Classic architecture preserved 
 to us, to have been no desire on the part of the architects to soften the 
 contrast which existed between the circular bases of their columns and the 
 square plinths upon which they sometimes placed them. But with the 
 early dawn of Pointed architecture, and indeed before the round arch had 
 been abandoned, this harsh contrast was felt to be at variance with the 
 
125 
 
 [ ANGLE LEAP ] 
 
 principles of the style, and something was accordingly sought for which 
 would artistically tie the dissimilar forms together and accord with the 
 softer outlines which were beginning to obtain throughout the architecture 
 of the period.* Ornaments were accordingly placed in the angular spaces, 
 in the generality of instances attached to or apparently springing from the 
 lower member of the base, as in Fig. 2 from Sens cathedral. In the 
 Romanesque and Early Pointed styles, in France, these ornaments were 
 
 very generally introduced ; indeed, they form a characteristic feature of the 
 bases of the twelfth century ; they were also freely used during the first 
 half of the thirteenth century, but from that time became more and more 
 rarely introduced, until they entirely disappeared at the close of the 
 fourteenth. In English architecture the angle leaf is comparatively a rare 
 detail, and may almost be said to be confined to twelfth century work. 
 The early abandonment of the square plinth in this country may be 
 accepted as the reason of the rarity of the angle leaf. Good examples, 
 of twelfth century date, are to be found in Rochester cathedral ; St. Peter's 
 church, Northampton ; church of St. Cross, Winchester ; and Canterbury 
 cathedral, the last clearly showing French influence. An early thirteenth 
 century example is to be seen at Stockbury, Kent. We are not aware of 
 
 * " Le tore inferieiir, au lieu d'etre coupe suivant un demi-cercle et de laisser entre lui et 
 la plintlie une surface horizontale qui semble toujours prete a se briser sous- la charge, 
 s'appuie et semble comprime sur cette plinthe. Mais les arcliitectes du XII « siecle vent plus 
 loin : observant que, malgre son empatement, le tore inferieur de la base laisse les quatre 
 angles de la plinthe cai-ree vides, que ces angles peu epais s'epaufrent facilement pour peu 
 que la base subisse un tassement ; les architectes, disons-nous, renforcent ces angles par un 
 nerf, un petit contre-fort diagonal qui, partant du tore infSrieur, maintient cet angle saillant. 
 Get appendice, que nous nommons griffe aujourd'hui, devient un motif de decoration, et 
 idonne a la base du XII"^ siecle un caractere qui la distingue et la separe compl^tement de la 
 base romaine." — Dictionnairc Raisonne de L'architecture Frangaisc, par M. VioUet-le-Duc. 
 
126 
 
 [ ANGLE LEAF ] 
 
 a single base existing in England with angle leaves, dating after the middle 
 of the thirteenth century. 
 
 3 
 
 In Continental mediaeval architecture we find the angle leaf applied in 
 three methods : the first, and most common, is that in which the leaf 
 springs from the upper part of the lowest member of the base and curves 
 
 \ 
 
 4 
 
 downwards towards the angle of the plinth, as in Fig. 2 ; or issues from 
 the fillet, falls over the lower part of the base, and coils back upon itself at 
 the corner of the plinth, as in Fig. 3, from Naumburg cathedral (early 
 thirteenth century) : the second method is that in which the leaf issues at 
 
127 [ ANGLE LEAF ] 
 
 the junction of the shaft with the base and descends over the entire 
 mouldings of the base to the angle of the plinth, as in Fig. 4, from 
 Tournay cathedral (twelfth century) : the third is that shown in Fig. 5, 
 
 from Chartres cathedral (early thirteenth century), where the angle leaf is 
 employed to reheve the transition from the square to the octangular plinth 
 situated under the circular base. A slight modification of this latter treat- 
 ment is to be seen in the base plinths of the columns in the choir chapels 
 
 6 
 
 of the cathedral of Troyes (early thirteenth century), where the angle 
 leaves, placed immediately under the circular bases, relieve an abrupt 
 transition from the square plinths to the octagonal surfaces upon which 
 the circular bases are placed. The base of the centre octangular pillar in 
 the sacristy of the cathedral of Auxerre (twelfth century) has leaves from 
 its lower member to the angles of the square phnth. 
 
 In Italian Mediaeval architecture the angle leaf rarely occurs, and is only 
 
[ ANGLET ] 
 
 128 
 
 met with on small bases, as in the railing of the steps to the pulpit in the 
 church of St. Antonia, Padua, and in a tomb in the lower church, at 
 Assisi. In the latter work it is in the form of a trefoil leaf, the best of all 
 forms for filling a small triangular space. 
 
 In EngHsh architecture, the angle leaf is applied in two methods ; the 
 first, and most frequent, is that in which it proceeds from the bottom 
 member of the base to the corner of the plinth, as at St. Cross, 
 Winchester ; New Shoreham church, Suffolk ; Canterbury cathedral, and 
 numerous other places ; and the second is that met with at Eochester 
 cathedral, where it is used to connect the small splayed base of an 
 octangular shaft with the square plinth. (Fig. 6.) A noteworthy excep- 
 tion to both the above methods occurs in St. Peter's, Northampton, 
 where the base ornament, more resembling an animal's claw than a leaf, 
 projects from the second member of the base. (See Griff e.) 
 
 According to the extended signification of the term, angle leaves are met 
 with in certain capitals which spring from circular shafts and carry square 
 abaci; applied to cover the mitres of cable and other mouldings which 
 cannot consistently be carried round a right angle ; and in certain special 
 objects, as the basin of the font in the cathedral of Noyon, where they are 
 introduced for the purpose of artistically connecting its circular lower part 
 with its square upper portion. The treatment here is very similar to that 
 of the base, only, of course, inverted. 
 
 ANGLE MODILLION. A modillion which is met within late and 
 debased Roman architecture, placed under the angle of the corona of a 
 cornice, on the line of its mitring. No examples of this feature have yet 
 been found in works of the earlier periods, and it was probably introduced, 
 when cornices with great projections were adopted, either from a structural 
 view, or artistically, for the purpose of relieving the awkward corner space 
 left when rectangularly projected modillions alone were used. From the 
 drawings of the remains at Baalbec and Palmyra, by Wood and Dawkins, 
 we learn that angle modillions were there employed in certain of the 
 massive entablatures ; and we are informed that they are also to be found in 
 the remains of the palace of Dioclesian, at Spalatro. 
 
 ANGLE OF VISION. In art, this term is applied to perspective 
 drawing, and signifies the angle included between two planes, which 
 diverge from the vertex, or point of sight, to the extreme limits laterally 
 of the view depicted. The angle of vision includes what the eyes can 
 clearly see at one time, and without moving them. It has not been 
 definitely settled what this angle is, and in practice artists adopt, according 
 to their own ideas, angles ranging between 30° and 60°. 
 
 AN G LET. {Fr.) Term commonly applied by French architects 
 to the angular channel formed by the splayed edges of the stones in 
 rusticated work (Fig. 1). This channel is most usually rectangular, but it 
 
129 [ ANGLICUM, OPUS ] 
 
 is sometimes modified by having additional members introduced, as at A.B. 
 
 1 
 
 The term is also applied to the angular sinkings commonly employed in 
 monumental and other inscriptions executed in stone or marble. 
 
 ANGLICUM, OPUS. This term signifies, literally, English work, 
 but it appears to have been, during the middle ages, applied exclusively to 
 a description of embroidery, not only executed in England, but presenting 
 certain peculiarities of manipulation which distinguished it from the 
 embroideries of other nations. The term frequently occurs in foreign 
 middle age writings, and has greatly puzzled Continental archaeologists. 
 Wherein lay the difi'erence between the embroidery of England and that of 
 other countries, which caused it to be distinguished by the special designa- 
 tion "Opus Anglicum,'' a term which ever implied a certain superiority? 
 is a question which has been frequently asked in vain. In his work on the 
 ancient embroideries, etc., of the Cathedral of Tournai, Canon Voisin 
 remarks, in speaking of a cope of English embroidery II serait 
 curieux de savoir quelle broderie ou quel tissu on designait sous le nom 
 de opus Anglicum."* 
 
 Pugin, in his Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament and Costume, does 
 not venture to describe the characteristics of this embroidery, but simply 
 says: — " Anglicanum Opus. The English embroidery of sacred vest- 
 ments was so famous during the middle ages, as to be known on the 
 Continent under this denomination, and was so described in ancient 
 inventories." 
 
 " Quinque aurifrigia quorum tria sunt de opere Cyprensi, et unum est de opere 
 Anglicano. — Ducange, 438." 
 
 It appears to have been left to the study and skill of Dr. D. Kock to 
 
 * Notice sur les Anciennes Tapisseries de la Cathedral de Tournai, par Canon Voisin, p. 16. 
 
 B 
 
[ ANGLO-NOBMAN AnCHITECTURE J 130 
 
 discover the special difference and beauty in the ancient English work 
 which gained it so much favour and its distinguishing name ; and we 
 cannot do better than devote the concluding part of this article to quota- 
 tions from his valuable dissertation.* 
 
 "At the latter end of the thirteenth century our women struck out for 
 themselves a new way of embroidery. Without leaving aside the old and 
 usual 'opus plumarium,' or feather-stitch, they mixed it with a new 
 style, both of needle-work and mechanism. So beautiful and telling was 
 the novel method deemed abroad, that it won for itself from admiring 
 Christendom the complimentary appellation of * opus Anglicum,' or 
 English work. In what its peculiarity consisted has long been a question 
 and a puzzle among foreign archaeological writers. * But the reader 
 may ask what is the opus Anglicum, or English work, about which one 
 heard so much of old ? Happily, we have before us in the present collec- 
 tion (Collection of Textile Fabrics in South Kensington Museum), as well 
 as elsewhere in this country, the means of helping our continental friends 
 with an answer to their question. 
 
 "Looking well into that very fine and invaluable piece of English 
 needle-work, the Syon cope,f we find that for the human face, all over it, 
 the first stitches were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in 
 circular, not straight lines, into which, however, after the further side had 
 been made, they fell, and were so carried on through the rest of the 
 fleshes ; in some instances, too, even all through the figure, draperies and 
 all. But this was done in a sort of chain-stitch, and a newly practised 
 mechanical appliance was brought into use. After the whole figure had 
 thus been wrought with this kind of chain-stitch in circles and straight 
 lines, then with a little thin iron rod ending in a small bulb or smooth 
 knob slightly heated, were pressed down those middle spots in the faces 
 that had been worked in circular lines ; as well, too, as that deep wide 
 dimple in the throat, especially of an aged person. By the hollows thus 
 lasingly sunk, a play of light and shadow is brought out, that, at a short 
 distance, lends to the portion so treated a look of being done in low 
 relief. Chain-stitch, then, worked in circular lines, and relief given to 
 parts by hollows sunk into the faces, and other portions of the persons, 
 constitute the elements of the ' opus Anglicum,' or embroidery after the 
 English manner. How the chain-stitch was worked into circles for the 
 faces, and straight lines for the rest of the figures, is well shown by a 
 wood-cut, after a portion of the Steeple Aston embroideries, given in the 
 Archaological Journal, t. iv. p. 285." 
 
 ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. The term occasionally used 
 to individualise the Norman style of architecture introduced and adopted 
 
 * Textile Fabrics; a Descriptive Catalogue. Science and Art Department, South Kensing- 
 ton. London, 1870. 
 
 t No. 918:i, in the Collection at Sonth Kensington Museum. Fully described in Dr. Eock's 
 Catalogue, pp. 275-291. 
 
131 1 ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE ] 
 
 in England after the Conquest, in a.d. 1066. The prefix Anglo is given 
 with the intention of indicating that the Norman architecture of this 
 country has an individuality secured by a slight modification of that 
 practised in Normandy. (See Norman Architecture.) 
 
 ANGLO-ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. The term which 
 has been employed to individualise the round arched styles of British 
 architecture which obtained from about the eighth to the end of the twelfth 
 century; including the works of the Saxon, Norman, and Anglo-Norman 
 builders. The term may appropriately be employed in speaking of our 
 round arched styles in a collective and general way. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE. The term applied to the 
 styles of architecture generally, which obtained in England from about the 
 sixth century to the Norman Conquest. 
 
 Although the study of Anglo-Saxon architecture can never prove more 
 than an interesting one to the practical architect, it will doubtless, from its 
 very difficulty and vagueness, continue to exercise antiquarians and archaeo- 
 logists, but, unfortunately, few important results can be obtained, as their 
 labours in the past prove. When so accomplished an archaeologist as 
 Mr. Parker writes: — "The character of the architecture of the Anglo- 
 Saxons has not yet been fully ascertained, neither is it decided whether 
 any specimens of their work still remain. * * It is contended by 
 some antiquarians that several of our churches exhibit specimens of Saxon 
 masonry. The truth of this theory, however, is not fully established, nor 
 has the subject of Saxon architecture been yet sufficiently investigated to 
 clear away the obscurity in which it is involved " — when Mr. Parker writes 
 thus, we may be allowed to advise the student of architecture to leave the 
 Saxon period to antiquarians, and to direct his studies to the works of 
 later times, which are more replete with interest and instruction. 
 
 To carry omt the scheme of the present Work, we are compelled to briefly 
 describe the peculiarities of the examples which are generally looked upon 
 as the productions of the Anglo-Saxon architects. In doing so, however, 
 we shall be giving simply a short digest of the investigations and opinions 
 of those antiquarians and archaeologists who have attentively studied our 
 most ancient buildings. There can be little doubt that the material gene- 
 rally used by the Saxon builders was wood, either alone or associated with 
 a rude description of masonry, and their buildings were accordingly of 
 a Hght character, and easily destroyed by time or violence. Wooden 
 churches app<ear to have existed at as late a date as 1032, for King 
 Canute's charter to Glastonbury Abbey is dated from .the wooden church of 
 that place. B^ede, however, mentions stone churches as having been erected 
 at Wearmoutli and Jarrow, about the end of the seventh century; and, 
 from the tenor of his words, we may very safely conclude that the erec- 
 tion of the sitone church at Wearmouth was the true starting-point of 
 ecclesiastical architecture in England. He says: — "A year after the 
 
[ ANGLO-SAXON AKCHITECTUBE ] 132 
 
 monastery of Wearmouth had been built, Benedict crossed the sea into 
 Gaul, and no sooner asked than he obtained and carried back with him 
 masons to build him a stone church in the Koman manner, which he had 
 always admired."* Bede also states that Naitan, King of the Picts 
 (a.d. 710), sent to Ceolfrid, Abbot of Jarrow, asking him to send architects 
 to build a church in his country, after the Koman manner, promising 
 to dedicate it to St. Peter. Ceolfrid sent the architects to Scotland, and 
 they, in all probability, were the first to introduce stone church-building in 
 that country. 
 
 From the beginning of the eighth century to the Norman Invasion, the 
 development of ecclesiastical architecture and the adoption of stone as a 
 building material steadily progressed, so much so that the Doomsday Book 
 only mentions one wooden church out of the one thousand seven hundred 
 churches which were taken possession of by the Normans. 
 
 The most important existing buildings which present work attributed 
 to Saxon architects are the churches of Hexham, Northumberland ; Earls 
 Barton, Barnack, Brixworth, Wittering, and Brigstock, Northamptonshire ; 
 Barton-upon-Humber, Lincolnshire; Monkswearmouth and Jarrow, Dur- 
 ham; Deerhurst, Gloucestershire; Kepton, Derbyshire; Sompting, Sussex; 
 Wyckham, Berkshire ; and Stanton Lacy, Shropshire. 
 
 The chief characteristics presented by those portions of the buildings 
 above enumerated, which are attributed to the Saxon period, are as follows. 
 The walls, generally, are built of a rough description of rubble, and 
 sometimes partly of herring-bone work, that is, with stones set aslant in 
 courses, inclining in contrary directions, with thin horizontal courses 
 between them. At the angles are quoins, formed of what is usually deno- 
 minated "long and short work," or of hewn stones placed alternately flat and 
 on end, and projecting sKghtly from the face of the rubble wall, which was 
 doubtless covered with a coating of plaster, the quoins being left exposed. 
 In addition to the quoins, the external surface of the walls are sometimes 
 divided or ornamented by vertical flat strips of stone, which project slightly 
 from the wall, and, like the attendant quoins, are of long and short work, 
 as at Barnack church. In the tower of Earls Barton church, we meet with 
 a richer system of surface decoration. It is divided horizontally into 
 stories by string courses, and vertically into numerous parts by strips of 
 stone, connected together at the first string course by arched pieces, and 
 in the upper stories by inclined stones, forming diamonds and triangles. 
 All these are of the same projecting hewn work as the vertical strips, and 
 are bonded into the rubble by header stones, which show themselves 
 externally by being more prominent and rather wider than the rest of the 
 hewn stone-work. All this bears strong evidence of being suggested by 
 timber construction, and there is every likelihood of its having been 
 borrowed direct from the wooden structures of the period. The walls are 
 invariably without buttresses. 
 
 * Bede, Vita Abb. Wiremuth et Gerv., Giles. 
 
133 [ ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE ] 
 
 The arches are always semicircular, and with single plain soffits, as in 
 Roman work, and are occasionally constructed with Roman bricks, set with 
 very wide mortar joints, as at Brixworth church. 
 
 The doorways are either round arched or triangular-headed, the latter 
 being formed by long inclined stones, resting on the jambs or imposts, 
 and meeting together at the top, as at Barnack, Brigstock, and elsewhere. 
 The jambs are either formed of long and short work, or of massive pilasters 
 and imposts, the latter being either plain or rudely moulded, or ornamented, 
 as at Earls Barton church. In this example a moulded archivolt appears, 
 and the entire doorway is surrounded by a projecting strip of stone. A 
 somewhat similar treatment obtains in St. Peter's church, Barton-upon- 
 Humber ; but neither the arch nor the impost have any mouldings. The 
 impost is simply splayed underneath. No mouldings are met with in the 
 triangular-headed doorways. 
 
 The windows are invariably of small dimensions, as might be looked for 
 in the works of a period in which glass was a rare luxury, and, at best, of 
 imperfect manufacture.* The windows which are preserved are, for the 
 most part, belfry lights of towers ; and appear as small round arched or 
 triangular-headed openings, with or without imposts, and having small 
 baluster-shafts, or short columns, supporting the arches, when the Hghts 
 are grouped, as at Monkswearmouth, Wyckham, Earls Barton, Brixworth, 
 and Deerhurst. The baluster-shafts bear strong evidence of being copied 
 from woodwork, and were probably reproduced direct from the roughly 
 turned or shaped posts introduced in contemporary timber buildings. The 
 baluster- shafts are generally placed in the centre of the thickness of the 
 wall, and carry a block of stone, or sort of superior abacus, which extends 
 to both sides of the wall, and from which the arches spring. Two shafts 
 are in some instances introduced, one behmd the other, to better support 
 this long abacus. In one of the windows at Earls Barton the baluster- 
 shafts project from the face of the wall, and are in that case simply orna- 
 mental features. Baluster- shafts, similar to those in the above-mentioned 
 examples, are to be seen in late eleventh century work at St Alban's abbey, 
 and in middle twelfth century work at Tewkesbury abbey. It is not to be 
 wondered at, however, that early traditions should have lingered in certain 
 quarters for a century after the introduction of the Norman style by the 
 Conqueror. 
 
 * That glass was made in England at an early period we have historical evidence. It 
 appears from the Acts of the Bishops of York, that St. Wilfred (who died in 702) was the first 
 to use it in this country, having brought workmen from France to manufacture it. Benedict 
 Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth (in 715), also brought French artists in glass-working to teach 
 the Saions the useful art. Wliat description of glass was made at these early dates we have 
 no means of knowing ; it was in all probabihty made in very smaU pieces and otherwise very 
 imperfect Before the eighth centmy, windows of churches and other important buildings 
 were fiUed with lattice-work in fine weather and linen blinds in winter. We are led to believe 
 that glass staining was known to the Anglo-Saxons, but very imperfectly so until about the 
 tenth century They probably never attempted figures, but windows constructed of white 
 glass with simple mosaic patterns of coloured glass were doubtless commonly made m the 
 ninth and tenth centuries. 
 
[ ANGULAR SHAFT ] 
 
 134 
 
 The greatest plainness pervades Saxon architecture, moulding and 
 sculptured enrichments being very rarely met with, and when introduced 
 they are of the most primitive description. A few crosses, as at Earls 
 Barton, flutmgs, as at Deerhurst, and some rude foliage and knot-work, as 
 at Barnack, are amongst the most ambitious efforts at sculpture we know 
 to exist. The baluster-shafts sometimes have annulated bodies and 
 moulded bases and capitals, as at Earls Barton and Wyckham. The 
 . doorway at Earls Barton has a moulded archivolt, and rude mouldings of 
 many small members are worked on the imposts of certain arches at 
 Barnack, Corehampton, and other churches. 
 
 How far the Saxon style became modified during the remainder of the 
 eleventh century after the settlement of the Normans in England, or to 
 what extent native workmen were employed 'by the conquerors in the first 
 buildmgs they erected, no investigations of existing remains can satis- 
 factorily show. With the exception of some of the more important 
 buildmgs, which were erected by Norman architects and workmen, it is 
 probable that the native builders were but little interfered with until the 
 beginning of the following century. 
 
 ANGULAR. The word prefixed to certain architectural terms to 
 clearly denote that the ordinary condition of the objects alluded to are 
 modified by the introduction of angles in their formation or design. 
 
 ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE. The ordinary manner of perspective 
 drawing adopted m the delineation of architectural works. The term is 
 employed to designate that class of perspective in which the horizontal 
 hues of both the sides of a building shown converge to their respective 
 vanishmg points. It is not very often used, the simple word perspective 
 when without any prefix or qualification, being commonly understood to 
 express what is covered by the present term in full. Angular perspective 
 is properly employed when another variety is also being alluded to, such as 
 Parallel Perspective, which designates that class in which the horizontal 
 hues of one side only converge to a vanishing point, those of the other 
 remaining parallel. 
 
 ANGULAR SHAFT. The shaft of a column or pillar which presents 
 several angles, such as a quadrangular or octangular shaft. The term is 
 commonly used in a general sense; for instance, one might speak of the 
 pillars of a church having circular and angular shafts alternately; but if 
 one were aware of the number of sides and angles, a more definite term 
 would probably be employed in describing the angular shaft, a term which 
 would clearly denote the figure presented by its horizontal section. 
 
 Although the angular shaft cannot now be looked upon as the normal 
 form m architecture generally, it was in all probabihty the earliest form in 
 the stone pillar. Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, speaking of the early E<.yp- 
 tian pillars, says Egyptian columns often borrowed from each other- 
 
135 
 
 [ ANGULAR SHAFT ] 
 
 and though the last Orders differ so widely from the square pillar, and from 
 the polygonal column, the original relationship even of these may still be 
 traced.' The square pillar was the oldest; it continued, however, to he used 
 in tombs, in covered courts, and in the peristyles of temples, even after the 
 invention of the round column. It had frequently a plinth, or base, but 
 rarely a capital and abacus. The polygonal column was formed from it by 
 cutting off the four angles, which was done in order to give more room for 
 passage in crowded spaces ; and its eight faces were afterwards increased 
 to twelve, sixteen, twenty, and thirty-two. The next step was to hollow 
 out these faces, or facettes, into grooves; and the only trace of the origmal 
 unfluted column was then the central facette, which was left flat in order to 
 receive a line of hieroglyphics. Such was the gradual formation of the 
 fluted shaft; which was evidently the prototype of the Greek Doric."* The 
 angular shaft is a very common feature in ancient Indian architecture. 
 Octangular ones occur in the great cave-temples at Karli and Ajunta. 
 There is no doubt that in India, as in Egypt, the first pillars were square, 
 succeeded by those entirely octangular, as at Ajunta, or partly octangular, 
 formed by cutting away the angles of the square shafts for a portion of 
 their height only, leaving square blocks at bottom and top. Shafts with a 
 greater number of angles soon became common, and a mode of treatment 
 was introduced which has obtained in no other style of architecture. This 
 consisted of a system of doubling the angles of the shaft in different stages 
 of its height. A characteristic example of this treatment exists at Ajunta, 
 in which'' the shaft, quadrangular at the bottom, becomes octangular in its 
 middle stage, and finishes with an upper stage of sixteen angles.! 
 
 Putting aside antae and pilasters, as not properly included under the 
 present term, there are no remains which show that angular shafts were 
 adopted by the Classic architects, round and fluted shafts being used 
 exclusively in their temples and other important buildings. 
 
 In English medieval architecture the angular shaft frequently appears. 
 In the Norman period quadrangular and octangular shafts were occasionaUy 
 introduced; examples of the former, and most ancient form, exist in 
 Bakewell church, Derbyshire ; and of the latter, in Canterbury cathedral, 
 and other important buildings. In the succeeding period octangular shafts 
 were frequently used in smaller works, as at Boxgrove, Sussex. The 
 octangular shaft becomes very common in the Decorative period, and 
 examples are to be found in a great number of small churches throughout 
 the country. In the Perpendicular period they were not very often used, 
 but examples are to be found, as in the chapel at Henley-in-Arden, 
 Warwickshire. 
 
 Shafts of the sections shown in Fig. 1 are met with in Norman work ; to 
 th<ese the term compound angular shaft may appropriately be given ; as, 
 for the sake of clearness, it is well to confine the original term to those 
 
 * The Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs, by Sir J. Gardner WilMnson. London, 
 18i57 
 
 t Illustrated m Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, p. 39. London, 1859. 
 
[ ANIMAL J 
 
 186 
 
 shafts which present several angles produced by unrecessed faces 
 planes. 
 
 or 
 
 In Continental medieval architecture the angular shaft may be said to 
 have no true existence ; it certainly does appear in a very timid form, as in 
 the stop-chamfered shafts of the wall arcade in the ailes of the nave at Le 
 Mans; m certain pUasters in early work; and in some few examples of 
 domestic architecture of the thirteenth and two following centuries An 
 octangular shaft is also to be seen in the sacristy of the cathedral of 
 Auxerre. It never was accepted by French architects as a suitable form 
 for pillars, although circular shafts very frequently have angular bases, or 
 plmths ; and, m the generality of cases, have capitals with angular abaci. 
 
 ANIMAL In architecture and ornamental art, the representation of 
 any natural beast, or chimerical creature designed with some reference to 
 the animal structure, and employed either with a symbolical or allegorical 
 significance, or as a simple ornamental adjunct or detail, devoid of any 
 direct meaning. *' 
 
 Under this term we shall confine our remarks to the subject of animal 
 representation in its general aspect, referring the reader for details con- 
 cernmg the most important animals found in art works, to our treatises 
 thereon under their respective names. (See Dragon, Lamb, Lion, Ox 
 Sphinx, &c.) ' 
 
 ^ What train of thought first induced mankind to represent animal forms 
 m art works, or at what period of the world's history or by what people 
 they were first introduced, there is little likelihood of our ever knowing 
 We may hazard a supposition, however, that their first appearance was the 
 result of Idolatry. Without the knowledge of a God, but with that myste- 
 rious cravmg for some being to worship which the Creator has implanted 
 m the human heart it is highly probable that in the earliest epochs man 
 turned to the animal world around him, selecting some creature larger and 
 stronger than himself, which he deified in his own imagination, and fell 
 down and worshipped. But, as animals so large and powerful could 
 neither be safely caught nor detained for his worship, he carved or 
 modelled for himself rude representations of them, which he worshipped, 
 m the first place as symbols only of his adopted god, and in the course 
 01 time as his god absolutely. 
 
187 
 
 [ ANIMAL ] 
 
 Leaving the remote epochs, and coming with a single step to the his 
 toric period, we find in the oldest existing piece of sculpture an animal 
 of a symbolical or semi-religious character, with dimensions and a grandeur 
 of treatment never again to be essayed by man. We surely cannot accept 
 the Great Sphinx as the first effort in animal sculpture ; it rather appears 
 to be the culminating effort of untold ages, before which every other work 
 in a like direction was to dwindle into insignificance. 
 
 Living animals were worshipped by the Egyptians. At Memphis a 
 temple was built for the bull-god Apis, and in it the sacred bull was kept 
 and tended by a college of priests ; at Mendes a sacred goat was wor- 
 shipped with obscene rites ; and in every city some one or other of the 
 animals held sacred by the nation was specially favoured. Mr. Sharpe 
 says : — " It is not easy to understand the feelings which gave rise to 
 this worship of the cats, dogs, crocodiles, ibises, serpents, and the rest. In 
 some cases perhaps it was the usefulness of the animal, and in some cases 
 its strangeness. Thus the dog and the jackal devoured the carcases which, 
 if left to rot in the streets, might bring disease upon the inhabitants. The 
 cat kept the houses free from much vermin ; the ibis broke the crocodile's 
 eggs, and lessened the number of these dangerous animals ; the hooded 
 snake may have gained respect because it stood upright on the strong 
 folds of its tail and seemed to wear a crown ; the ox ploughed the field, 
 and its flesh was not wanted for food, as the people for the most part lived 
 on vegetables ; and it was perhaps worshipped the more zealously to mark 
 their quarrel with their Arab neighbours, who did not know the use of 
 a plough, and who killed and ate the animal by whose labour the Egyptians 
 lived." This strange veneration for the lower animals doubtless led the 
 Egyptians to represent them so frequently in their art works; and no 
 nation has so imposingly associated their representations with architectural 
 structures. The great avenues of sphinxes, leading to the entrances of 
 their temples, must have presented an idea of grandeur and power pro- 
 bably never aimed at by other architects, not even by the Assyrians, who 
 were the only other people we know of who used colossal animal forms as 
 leading features in architecture. The Egyptians did not attempt any natu- 
 ralistic representation in their sculptures, rather striving to impart great 
 power, dignity, and repose, by a severe conventional treatment. They 
 further increased their effect on the mind of the observer by the employ- 
 ment of the most unyielding materials in their construction, by the adop- 
 tion of colossal proportions, and by their great repetition, placing the 
 sculptures at regular intervals, and otherwise so disposing them as to 
 present a grand perspective to the eye. The architect is called upon to 
 look with respect on the sphinx of the Egyptians, for, in the entire range 
 of his art, the ingenuity of man has been unable to devise any treatment 
 or combination of animal forms which so absolutely lends itself to the 
 severity of the greatest architectural works. Indeed, the sphinx itself 
 may be considered architecture, so perfectly suited is its treatment for the 
 material in which it was executed, and to the position it occupied in tbe 
 
[ ANIMAL J 
 
 138 
 
 temple plan. For description of the varieties of this symbolical animal 
 we must refer our readers to our article Sphinx. 
 
 Eepresentations of animals in bronze and other materials, in painting, 
 and in hieroglyphics, were common in all periods of Egyptian art; and the 
 gods Kneph, Seb, Pasht, Anubis, and Typhon, were depicted with the 
 heads of different animals. The last-named was commonly represented in 
 the form of a hippopotamus erect on its hind legs. The gods Thoth, 
 Chonso, and Horus had the heads of birds. 
 
 In the architectural works of the Assyrians and Persians, animal forms 
 appear to have been largely introduced, and we are all more or less familiar 
 with those huge sculptures of winged bulls with human heads which 
 modern exploration has brought to light, and painstaking enterprise placed 
 within our reach in the museums of London and Paris. At Persepolis, 
 the few ruins which remain clearly show that animals were largely used in 
 the sculptured decorations, and in certain of the more important architec- 
 tural features, as in the capitals of the pillars of the western portico of the 
 great hall of Xerxes, which were formed of the heads and foreparts of two 
 bulls.* 
 
 In Indian Buddhist architecture we find animal sculpture, in a pro- 
 nounced form, to be associated with its earliest known remains. The 
 monumeiits of the Buddhist religion, known as Lats, which were erected 
 in the third century before Christ, appear to have in all cases been sur- 
 mounted by figures of lions. Two examples are stated by Fergusson to 
 exist, with their lions complete, near the river Gunduck, in Tirhoot, and 
 he gives an illustration of one of these terminations in his Handbook of 
 Architecture. The great pillar in front of the Cave Temple at Karli is 
 surmounted with the heads and foreparts of four animals; and, in the 
 interior of the temple, the thirty piers which divide the ailes from the 
 central portion, or what we may designate the nave, have each a richly 
 sculptured capital surmounted with two elephants, kneeling. In the later 
 periods of Indian architecture, and especially in the buildings of the 
 southern portion of the country, animal forms occur with great frequency. 
 As architectural details they most usually occupy prominent positions in 
 the bracket construction peculiar to the buildings of the Hindus. Of the 
 almost countless forms in which animals are introduced as purely orna- 
 mental adjuncts, both for the internal and external decorations of these 
 buildings, it is impossible to speak within the circumscribed limits of an 
 article such as this ; nor is it possible to treat of the subject of animal 
 forms as presented in the idols of India. 
 
 Continuing our hurried survey still further eastward, we find animal 
 forms introduced in the architecture and art of both the Chinese and 
 Japanese, but they are confined to a few types, sanctioned by sacred tradi- 
 tion, and repeated ad infinitum. The three most important of these are 
 
 * An illustration of one of these pillars is given in Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, 
 p. 196. 
 
139 
 
 [ ANIMAL ] 
 
 chimerical — the dragon, a great scaly monster, with attenuated body and 
 spinous back, long coiling tail, four legs, with three, four, or five claws 
 each, and a large ferocious -looking head, armed with horns, a conventional 
 conception, based on a lizard form ; the kirin or kylin, an animal with the 
 body and hoofs of a deer, but with the former covered with small scales, 
 and the head of the dragon; and the dog-lion, a beast with a large head, 
 displaying an enormous mouth, well furnished with tusks and teeth, flowing 
 or curly mane, bushy tail, and sharply-clawed feet. At what period these 
 fabulous monsters were introduced into the religion and art of the Orient 
 we have no power of ascertaining ; they are found in the most ancient 
 work exactly in the forms we find them depicted by the artists of to-day. 
 Representations of the dragon are to be seen in almost every detail of the 
 architecture and throughout the entire range of the decorative arts of the 
 Chinese and Japanese, generally rendered with remarkable force and 
 character. The dog-lion is commonly placed in front of Buddhist temples 
 and shrines, as if to act as guardian of the sacred place. Kirins, with 
 several other chimerical animals which it is not necessary to describe here, 
 are less frequently introduced. 
 
 Coming now to Classic art, we find animal forms, comparatively speak- 
 ing, seldom introduced by the architects of Greece and Rome ; although 
 the former derived many of their ideas from the architectural works of 
 Egypt and Assyria, they appear to have found little in their animal adjuncts 
 or decorations which commended itself to their minds. Animal capitals, 
 as in Assyrian buildings, were never attempted by the Classic architects ; 
 and for detached and purely decorative sculptures they adopted the higher 
 art, in which the human figure was the leading motive. The horse, and 
 some other of the animals used by man, were frequently introduced in 
 their figure compositions ; and their mythology and poetical legends 
 furnished fabulous creatures, such as the centaurs and satyrs, half man 
 half beast, which were employed in architectural sculptures. A notable 
 example of the representation of the former is supplied by the frieze of the 
 temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, now preserved amongst the valuable marbles 
 in the British Museum. Although animal forms were not commonly used 
 as architectural features, the Classic artists introduced numerous chimerse 
 and hybrid animals in their decorative paintings, and on their works of 
 keramic art and engraved gems. In the paintings on the walls of the 
 buildings of Pompeii, grotesque and fanciful animal forms are of frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 The Etruscans were skilled in the representation of animals, as is 
 undoubtedly proved by the celebrated bronze wolf at the Capitol, and the 
 chimaera amongst the antiques in the gallery of the Ufiizi at Florence. 
 Winged sphinxes, griffins, and hippocamps were frequently represented 
 by the Etruscan artists in their sculptured and decorative works. 
 
 In the Saracenic styles of architecture and art, animal forms were never 
 legitimately used ; forbidden by their creed to represent natural things, the 
 Saracenic artists, with one consent, devoted their energies and inventive 
 
[ ANIMAL ] 
 
 140 
 
 powers to the creation of styles of architectural ornamentation which should 
 be entirely independent of them. How ably they succeeded is known to 
 every student of decorative art. Two examples, however, of a departure 
 from their strict rule exist in the palace of the Moorish kings in Granada. 
 In one of the courts of the Alhambra is a fountain, the basin of which is 
 supported on the backs of standing lions ; these are very severely conven- 
 tionalised, and in no way graphically represent the natural animals. The 
 other example is supplied by a vase of pottery, in the ornamentation of 
 which attenuated animals are introduced, treated in a purely decorative 
 fashion. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of the styles or periods of Christian 
 architecture and art ; and in all of them we find animal forms to have been 
 largely introduced, and chiefly with a symbolical or allegorical intention.* 
 As full notes of all the symbolical animals used in Christian art will be 
 found in their proper places throughout the pages of this Work, it is 
 unnecessary to describe them in detail here; we shall therefore confine 
 our concluding remarks to the general disposition and treatment of animal 
 forms as presented by the more important works of the early and middle 
 ages. In the first efforts of Christian painting and sculpture, certain 
 animals are frequently to be seen, the lamb and lion, both symbols of our 
 Lord, being the most common. Some others are introduced without any 
 direct significance, as in the paintings of Orpheus, found in the catacombs. 
 Throughout the entire range of mediaeval Christian art, from the earliest 
 to the latest periods, certain unnatural and mysterious creatures have been 
 represented; these were based upon the descriptions given in the Vision of 
 Ezekiel and the Revelation of St. John. Sometimes artists essayed a 
 literal rendering of the text, but we more often find the modified render- 
 ings, known as the symbols of the Evangelists. These four creatures, two 
 
 * " The object of the symbolism which pervaded the architecture, sculptm'e, and painting of 
 the church during the first six centuries of its existence was, in the words of Dionysius the 
 Areopagite, 'Ascendere per formas ad veritatem.' Strict watch was kept over the subjects 
 represented, which were carefully restricted to those which recalled the promise of a future 
 world, and thus sustained the Christian under the sore trials and grievious persecutions wliich 
 were his portion in this. Daniel in the lions' den, and the three young men who walked 
 unharmed through the fiery furnace, taught the efficacy of faith amid many and great 
 dangers ; the peacock, the fish, the stag, and the phoenix spoke of immortality, baptism, and 
 the resurrection ; while the flowers, vines, and crowns of myrtle used as ornaments, being aU 
 of a joyful, peaceful character, tended to promote cheerfulness of spirit. Of the same charac- 
 ter were certain heathen subjects which, being capable of a double interpretation, were used at 
 a period when concealment of meaning was necessary. Of these we may mention Orpheus, 
 Deucalion, Jason, and the Fom Seasons, which latter typified the constantly varying nature 
 of human hfe. The letter of St. NUus to Olympiodorus, which speal^s of hares, goats, and 
 every sort of running beasts pursued by men and dogs, and of fishes, horses, and serpents ; 
 and that of St. Dionysius, which mentions oxen, lions, eagles, &c., &c., as figures through 
 which men arrive at ascetic truths, also proves that the custom of sculpturing these animals 
 in the friezes and upon the arches and door-posts of Christian chm-ches was general before 
 the sixth century. Those especially styled mystic, as symbohc of the EvangeHsts, are most 
 commonly to be met with, as weU as the horse, the dove, the lamb, the fish, and the goat." — 
 Tuscan Scul^ptors, by C. C. Perkins. 
 
141 
 
 [ ANIMAL ] 
 
 of which may strictly be classed under the present term, are met with, 
 disposed in some way or other, in nearly all the important ecclesiastical 
 structures of the middle ages ; sometimes as prominent sculptures, as at 
 the angles of the tower of Saint Jacques-la-Boucherie, at Paris ; associated 
 with figures of Christ in Glory, as in the tympanum of the central 
 western portal of Chartres cathedral;* the tympanum of the church of 
 Saint- Trophime, at Aries; and on the altar in the church of Avenas 
 (Saone-et-Loire), an illustration of which is given in article Altar 
 (Fig. 3) ; and very frequently alone, occupying the angular spaces 
 round rose windows, in spandrils of arches, in bosses, as in the north 
 transept portal of Notre Dame, at Paris, in sculptured capitals, and in 
 the ornamentation of tombs, as in that of Lady Elizabeth de Montacute, 
 in Oxford cathedral. In early mosaics these creatures are occasionally 
 to be seen, as in those of the tribune of St. Prassede, at Kome ; in metal 
 work, as in the interesting bronze font of the cathedral of Hildesheim 
 (illustrated in article Evangelists, Symbols of), and in the Paliotto 
 of the church of St. Ambrose, Milan (see article Altar, Fig. 5) ; in 
 stained glass, as in the southern rose window of Chartres cathedral ; 
 in embroidery, as in a compartment of the Steeple Aston altar-cloth ; 
 and very frequently in paintings and illuminations. (See Evangelists, 
 Symbols of.) 
 
 As purely architectural features and decorations, animals are found in 
 the greatest profusion in the structures of the middle ages, especially in 
 those of France. French architects appear to have been much more 
 partial to their introduction than English, German, or Italian. There 
 is good reason to believe that the generality of the animal forms had a 
 certain significance, and were introduced with a symbolical or allegorical 
 view. Many of their significations we are perfectly conversant with, others 
 we can only surmise the intention of.t Glancing at the structural 
 details of the cathedrals, churches, and the larger civil buildings of the 
 middle ages, we find an endless variety of both natural and grotesque animals 
 employed as gargoyles (the study of which alone would be an interesting 
 but no light task), and, in certain French and Italian examples, as the 
 bases or supports of pillars, as in the projecting porches of the cathedrals 
 
 * Dans le tympan de la porte centrale, Jesus-Christ triomphant est repr6sente au centre 
 d'une gloire ovo)idale, assis svir un trone ; iin escabeaii, personnification de la terre, est sous ses 
 pieds ; il a la barbe courte et les cheveux longs et plats ; il donne au monde la grace et la 
 science : la grace avec la main droite qui bcnit, la science avec le livre qu'il tient a la main 
 gauche ; il est vetu d'une double tunique et du manteau royal. J6sus est entoure des quatre 
 animaux evangeliques, ailes comme le veut I'iconographie clnretienne : a la droite du Christ, 
 I'homme et le lion ; a sa gauche, I'aigle et le taureau. L'aigle seul est nimbe ; le lion et le 
 taureau tiennent le livre des evangiles ouvert ; I'homme et l'aigle tiennent des banderolles, 
 aujourd'hui presque entierement brisees. — Description de la CatMdrale de Chartres, par M. 
 I'Abbe Bulteau, p. 56. 
 
 + For further information on this subject we must refer our readers to the able articles. " Du 
 Bestiare " and " Bas-reliefs Mysterieux, " in Nouveaux Melanges d'Archeologie, par Le P. 
 Ch. Collier, Paris, 1874. 
 
[ ANIMAL ] 
 
 142 
 
 of Aries, Verona, and Cremona,* the pulpit in the baptistery, at Pisa, and 
 in the tomb of Cardinal Ivo, in the cathedral of Treves. Animals are 
 frequently introduced as prominent decorations, like those, already men- 
 tioned, on the angles of the tower of St. Jacques : but still more remarkable 
 examples are presented by the cathedrals of Laon and Paris ; in the former, 
 colossal oxen look out from the lofty tabernacles of the buttresses of the 
 western towers ; and in the latter, animals are seated on the angles of the 
 parapet at the belfry stage. A drawing of one of the most spirited of the 
 latter is given in Fig. 1. No instance of a similar treatment of animal 
 forms exists in English architecture 
 
 1 
 
 * " Dans d'autres eglises, les trois portes qui donnent accSs aux nefs, et souvent les portes 
 ouvertes dans les murs lateraux, sont prccedees de petits peristyles engages dans la muraille 
 et portes en avant sur deux colonnes, lesqueUes viennent elles-memes reposer sur le dos de 
 deux lions couches et portes sur des piedestaux (cathedrales d' Aries, de Plaisance, de San 
 Donino, de Parme, de Mod^ne, d'Ancone, etc., etc.). L'usage de placer ainsi des lions se 
 rattaclie, a ce qu'il parait, a celui qui existait de rendre la justice et de faire certains actes 
 publics devant le portail des eglises, qui devenait ainsi une espece de tribunal : de la la 
 formule inter leones que portaient certains actes. * * Quelquefois les lions, au Heu de 
 porter les colonnes, ont 6t6 places au-dessus des cliapiteaux ; je les ai trouv^s ainsi dans 
 beaucoup d'eglises d'ltalie, k St.-Michel-du Puy et a Cologne, mais ils n'ont jamais dans cette 
 position un volume tres-considSrable et souvent on n'a figiu-e que la tete et la partie antcrieui-e 
 de leur corps sortant de la muraille." — Ahecedaire, par M. De Caumont. 
 
148 
 
 [ ANIMAL ] 
 
 As might be expected, the widest range of animal representation is to be 
 found in the purely decorative sculptures which adorn mediaeval buildings, 
 both civil and ecclesiastical. In capitals alone their number is immense, 
 and their treatment varies considerably in the works of different countries, 
 places, and periods. In many cases the animals represented are symbolical, 
 and are frequently associated with human figures ; but in other examples 
 we are bound to accept them as purely fanciful emanations of the sculptor's 
 brain ; for instance, in G-erman Komanesque capitals we find animals with 
 long tails, tongue-like appendages, wings, and legs, coiled and interlaced 
 together into conventional devices which strongly remind us of the lacertine 
 animal decorations of Celtic illuminations, or the interlaced ornaments of 
 certain Kussian manuscripts of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.* 
 In other examples we find animals standing between the neck-mould and 
 abacus, and so disposed as to form capitals alike on their four faces. (See 
 illustration in article Abacus, Fig. 4.) The same treatment obtains in 
 French architecture, as in the capitals of the porch of the church of 
 Moissac. It is impossible for us here to enlarge upon the almost endless 
 variety of capitals formed of entwined animals, natural and chimerical, 
 of animal forms in some way or other associated with human figures, and 
 of animals and foliage combined, but some notes will be found on the 
 subject in our article Sculpture, Middle Age. We may remark, however, 
 that capitals covered with animal sculptures, probably the most curious to 
 be met with in this country, exist in the crypt of Canterbury cathedral. 
 Certain of these sculptures are clearly emblematic of the vices, amongst 
 which that of gluttony is very prominently set forth. 
 
 M, De Caumont, one of the most distinguished French archaeologists, 
 has made some interesting remarks on the subject of animal sym- 
 bolism, as presented by the middle age sculptures, and we cannot do 
 better than briefly give the substance of them at this point. Amongst 
 the sculptures which are found in such abundance in the different 
 monuments of the twelfth century, one meets very frequently with a 
 group composed of a man between two monsters, usually of the dragon 
 type ; this has been generally understood to express the potency of 
 religion, which enables man to withstand the attacks of his evil passions, 
 set forth by the monsters whispering into his ears their vile suggestions ; 
 but De Caumont rather inclines to read the group as expressive of the 
 power of the faith of Christ, represented by the early bishop overthrowing 
 the dragons, and causing them to acknowledge the power of the name of 
 Jesus. But one must guard against the tendency to push too far the 
 interpretation of the forms, and to extend the symbolism beyond moderate 
 limits. In all epochs phantasy has been one of the elements of art, and 
 
 * A fine fourteenth century Psalter is preserved in the hbrary of the convent of St. Serge, 
 at Moscow, and other valuable Eussian manuscripts are in the public museum of that city, all 
 of which present remarkable examples of grotesque and conventional animal ornaments. 
 Some of the animal initial letters in the Psalter are most suggestive to the artist. For further 
 notes on this subject see article Illumination. 
 
[ ANIMAL ] 
 
 144 
 
 one need not be astonished that in all the ornamentation of the middle ages 
 it is found to have been in full operation. Generally speaking, however, 
 the grotesque and sometimes obscene figures and subjects which are 
 seen on the exterior of religious edifices will be found to be personifica- 
 tions or emblems of human vices, placed there to warn those who enter 
 that they must leave outside all the passions which soil the soul. To cer- 
 tain persons such sculptures are devoid of signification, and are accordingly 
 pronounced to be works due to the temporary caprice of their sculptors. 
 It appears that at the time of their execution these grotesque works were 
 not invariably approved of; we find, for instance, St. Bernard writing, in 
 the year 1125, to William, Abbot of St. Thierry, and asking questions 
 somewhat in the following strain : — " To what good are all these grotesque 
 monsters in painting and sculpture ? — Why such deformity, or such beauty 
 deformed ? — What are the significations of these foul monkeys, these furious 
 lions, and these monstrous centaurs ? — What are the meanings attached to 
 these warriors and the hunters who are blowing horns, or these quadrupeds 
 with serpents' tails, etc ? " 
 
 The middle age sculptors, even when engaged on ecclesiastical buildings, 
 did not feel themselves obliged to produce religious or symbolical subjects ; 
 but adopted, from the fables of their day, those which, provided with 
 good morals, they considered suitable for the instruction of the people ; 
 for instance, scenes from the fable of the fox and the stork are to be 
 found sculptured on several churches of the twelfth century. 
 
 But now to return more directly to our subject. Animals frequently 
 decorate the tympani of the doorways of Continental churches ; sometimes 
 combined with scrollwork or foliated ornamentation, as in the tympanum 
 of the doorway of the church of Colleville-sur-mer (Calvados), or fronting 
 each other, with a plant form or tree between them, as at Marigny (Calvados). 
 The almost total abandonment of the tympanum by the thirteenth 
 century and later English architects has of course prevented many impor- 
 tant works of sculpture from being executed in this country ; and we have 
 accordingly lost many interesting animal representations. In the buildings 
 of the twelfth century, however, we find the tympanum occasionally intro- 
 duced and sculptured with animals, as at Stoneleigh church, Warwickshire ; 
 Barton Seagrave church, Northamptonshire ; and Penmon church, Anglesea. 
 On examining our ancient ecclesiastical buildings, or on looking over the 
 numerous drawings in works on English Gothic architecture, the student 
 cannot help being struck with the great paucity of animal representations 
 they display : so much is this the case that we may safely assert that all 
 our cathedrals taken together would scarcely supply the materials for a 
 study of animal enrichment equal to that furnished by one of the larger 
 French cathedrals. In the oak stall-work of several English churches 
 numerous representations of animals are to be seen, carved on the ends 
 as arm-rests, or in grotesques on the misereres. 
 
 In addition to the details already mentioned, animals are also found placed 
 at the feet of monumental effigies, in the enrichments of mouldings and 
 
145 
 
 [ ANKLET ] 
 
 bases, as crockets, terminals, corbels, etc. ; and represented in painting, 
 stained glass, tiling, and metal-work. In the last-mentioned material they 
 are met with in great numbers, mediaeval candlesticks alone furnishing 
 almost countless examples, amongst the most noteworthy of which are those 
 on the large bronze candelabra in the choir of Milan cathedral (thirteenth 
 century), and on a lower part of a candlestick (twelfth century) preserved 
 in the church of Saint-Remi, at Reims. 
 
 Of the several modes of depicting animals in heraldry, we shall have to 
 treat, under their proper names, in the future pages of our Work. 
 
 ANIMATED or ANIMATION. In painting and sculpture, a term 
 employed to designate an artistic condition which has been secured by a 
 peculiarly life-like representation. It is usually applied to works in which 
 the figures, depicting some expressive action, are so natural in their 
 relations to surrounding objects or passing events, shown or understood, 
 that they momentarily appear endowed with life. 
 
 ANKER- HOLD. A cell constructed in certain churches for the 
 reception of an anchoret, and furnished with a narrow window, through 
 which the occupant could view the celebrations at the altar. Certain other 
 openings were provided for the admission of food, and such conversation as 
 the recluse deemed necessary. 
 
 The Rev. M. E. C. Walcott says :— " At Kilkenny cathedral, there was 
 one at the north-east angle of the choir, 'through which, by a stone 
 window placed on the right horn of the altar, that is, the Gospel side, the 
 anchoret could see the mysteries ; ' an account which fully describes the 
 true intention of those openings hitherto pedantically known as hagioscopes 
 and lychnoscopes, words of recent coinage, and erroneously explained. 
 This cell was four feet below the choir-floor, but the recluse was enabled to 
 see the altar by means of an open niche, to which he went up by stairs ; it 
 contained a fireplace and rude lockers or aumbries. In Bavaria each cell 
 had three windows, one to see the Sacrament, a second for the admission of 
 food, and a third for light, being closed with horn or glass. * * Several 
 anker-holds still exist : at Fore, in Ireland, in the church ; at Wilbraham, 
 in the tower ; at Stanton, Somerset, adjoining the church ; and in the south 
 arm of the transept at Norwich ; each had its altar, crucifix, and images. In 
 Pembrokeshire, at Othery, Somerset, and several cruciform Cornish churches, 
 especially at Mawgan, the chamber or passage is pierced through the wall 
 at the junction of the transept and chancel, or where the end of the rood- 
 screen would terminate. These all have their external low-side windows." 
 
 ANKLET. A description of bangle or ornamental ring of the precious 
 metals, worn by the ancient Egyptians, Greek, and Roman ladies, and very 
 commonly by Oriental women, on the ankle, in the same manner as the 
 bracelet is worn on the wrist. The anklet is frequently met with in works 
 of ancient art, 
 
 T 
 
[ ANNE, ST. ] 
 
 146 
 
 ANNE, ST. The mother of the Virgin Mary. From very early times, 
 the parents of the Virgin appear to have been held in high respect by 
 both the Greek and Latin Churches, and have been frequently introduced 
 in art works which represent scenes in the infancy of Mary. * 
 
 Following our scheme of giving, in these pages, sufficient details relative 
 to the legends of the saints to enable students of middle-age art to grasp 
 the motives and intentions of the old artists in their popular representa- 
 tions of sacred subjects, we shall here briefly touch upon the legend of St. 
 Anne, referring our readers, who desire to have further particulars, to the 
 legend quoted at length in Mrs. Jameson's Legends of the Madonna. 
 
 Anne, a woman of Bethlehem, and a descendant of the line of David, 
 was the wife of a man of Nazareth, whose name was Joachim, also reputed 
 to be of the royal race. Their union was not blessed by any offspring, 
 and they were very sorrowful ; for was barrenness not held a reproach in 
 Israel, and were not Joachim's gifts in the temple refused by the high priest 
 with the bitter words, "It is not lawful for thee to bring thine offering, 
 seeing that thou hast not begot issue in Israel"? Joachim, filled with 
 grief, went away into the fields to the shepherds, leaving his wife lonely in 
 her own house; and there she remained mourning her double affliction. 
 As the feast of the Lord was come, and Anne still was stricken with 
 sorrow, her handmaid upbraided her for her gloomy deportment, offering 
 her a precious fillet for the head, and desiring her to attire herself as 
 became her station and the great occasion. After some time Anne listened 
 to her handmaid's words, and rose up and dressed herself in rich attire. 
 At the ninth hour she went into her garden to pray, and, looking up to 
 
 * " In early art, that is, up to the end of the fifteenth century, Joachim and Anna, the 
 parents of the Virgin, never appear except in the series of subjects from her Mfe. In the 
 devotional groups and altar-pieces, they are omitted. St. Bernard, the great theological 
 authority of those times, objects to the invocation of any saints who had lived before the 
 birth of Christ, consequently to their introduction into ecclesiastical edifices in any other 
 light than as historical personages. Hence, perhaps, there were scruples relative to the 
 representations of St. Anna, which, from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, placed the 
 artists under certain restrictions. 
 
 " Under the name of Anna, the Church has honoured, from remote times, the memory of 
 the mother of the Virgin. The Hebrew name, signifying Grace, or the Gracious, and all the 
 traditions concerning her, came to us from the East, where she was so early venerated as a 
 saint, that a church was dedicated to her by the Emperor Justinian, in 550. Several other 
 churches were subsequently dedicated to her in Constantinople during the sixth and seventh 
 centuries, and her remains are said to have been deposited there in 710. In the West, she 
 first became known in the reign of Charlemagne ; and the Greek apocryphal gospels, or at 
 least stories and extracts from them, began to be circulated about the same period. From 
 these are derived the liistoric scenes and legendary subjects relating to Joachim and Anna 
 which appear in early art. It was about 1500, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
 that the increasing veneration for the Virgin Mary gave to her parents, more especially to 
 St. Ann a,, increased celebrity as patron saints ; and they became, thenceforward, more 
 frequent characters in the sacred groups. The feast of St. Anna was already general and 
 popular throughout Europe long before it was rendered obligatory in 1584. The growing 
 enthusiasm for the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception gave, of course, additional 
 splendour and importance to her character. Still, it is only in later times that we find the 
 effigy of St. Anna separated from that of the Yir§'m."—-Letjends of tlie Madonna, p. 137. 
 
147 
 
 [ ANNEX J 
 
 heaven, her grief broke forth in words: — "Alas! and woe is me! who 
 hath begotten me ? who hath brought me forth? that I should be accursed 
 in the sight of Israel, and scorned and shamed before my people, and cast 
 out of the temple of the Lord ! Woe is me ! to what shall I be likened ? 
 I cannot be likened to the fowls of heaven, for the fowls of heaven are 
 fruitful in thy sight, 0 Lord ! Woe is me ! to what shall I be likened ? 
 Not to the unreasoning beasts of the earth, for they are fruitful in thy 
 sight, 0 Lord I Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to the 
 waters, for they are fruitful in thy sight, 0 Lord ! Woe is me ! to what 
 shall I be likened ? Not to the earth, for the earth bringeth forth her 
 fruit in due season and praiseth Thee, 0 Lord ! " When she had thus 
 spoken, an angel stood before her, and said, " Thy prayer is heard, thou 
 shalt bring forth, and thy child shall be blessed throughout all the earth." 
 With a great joy in her heart Anne replied, "Whatever I shall bring forth, 
 be it a man-child or a maid, I will present it an offering to the Lord," 
 and rising up she went to meet her husband, who, having also had good 
 tidings from an angel, was returning to his home. Meeting him at the 
 Golden Gate, and falling upon his neck, she said, " Now know I that the 
 Lord hath blessed me. I who was a widow am no longer one ; I who was 
 barren shall become a joyful mother." So they returned to their home ; 
 and when the time was come, Anne gave birth to a daughter, and called 
 her name Mary. 
 
 From this simple legend artists have selected several scenes for repre- 
 sentation; but the principal three in which St. Anne appears are the 
 Annunciation, the Meeting at the Golden Gate, and the Birth of the 
 Virgin. In all scenes prior to the birth, St. Anne is usually represented 
 middle-aged ; but when introduced, as she has been in a few instances, along 
 with the Virgin and Child, she appears as an aged female. Representations 
 of her are to be seen in the glass of West Wickham church, Kent, where 
 she appears richly attired, invested with a plain nimbus, and in the act of 
 teaching the youthful Mary to read; and in Cossey Hall chapel window, 
 where she is depicted in the Meeting at the Golden Gate, and in another 
 subject, standing behind the Virgin and Child. She is sometimes attended 
 by a dove, with a ring or crown in its beak, or bearing a crown in one hand 
 and a book in the other. In one instance, in an illuminated book of hours, 
 we have found her delineated with a triple crown in her left hand, the 
 significance of which attribute is somewhat obscure. 
 
 There are twenty-eight churches dedicated to her honour in England and 
 one in London to SS. Anne and Agnes. In the Old English (Sarum use), 
 Scottish, Roman, Spanish, and German calendars her day is July 26th ; in 
 the Greek calendar, July 25th; and in the French calendar her day is 
 July 28th. 
 
 ANNEX. In architecture, a term used to designate a building of a 
 subordinate description added to or attached to a main structure. In this 
 country the term is usually applied to buildings of a temporary character ; 
 
[ ANNULATED SHAFT ] 
 
 148 
 
 but the French architects use the word to signify permanent buildings 
 which are subordinate to any main building. They speak of farm annexes 
 and stable annexes, the latter alluding to such adjuncts as the harness- 
 room, hay-lofts, coach-house, &c. 
 
 ANNULAR. Having the form of a ring, or pertaining to a ring. A 
 word prefixed to certain architectural terms to denote that the objects 
 alluded to assume the shape of rings. 
 
 ANNULAR MOULDING. A term employed by architects to denote 
 any description of moulding which is in the form of a ring, or which 
 surrounds a cylindrical body, as the mouldings of the circular base of a 
 column, or those which are introduced on the shafts of pillars in certain 
 periods of mediaeval architecture. (See Annulated Column.) 
 
 ANNULAR VAULT. A vault which springs from two walls, circular 
 on plan, and placed concentrically. This term, for want of a better and more 
 expressive one, is also applied to a vault which is carried by a circular wall 
 and a central pillar, or to a vault of a circular staircase which ramps from 
 the central newal to the surrounding wall. The French architects, who 
 are certainly much better supplied with architectural terms than we are, in 
 addition to the general term voute annulaire, sometimes use the designation 
 berceaux tournants for vaults supported on concentric walls, and voute swr 
 le noyau to that which springs from the central pillar and a circular 
 surrounding wall. * 
 
 AN N U LATE D S H A FT. The shaft of a pillar which has a projecting 
 annular moulding introduced in its centre, or at different stages of its 
 height, dividing it into two or more parts. The term is also applied to a 
 detached shaft which is clasped with a metallic ring for the purpose of 
 linking it with another shaft or fixing it to an adjacent wall or support ; as 
 in certain pillars in the nave of Westminster abbey. 
 
 Annulated shafts were very frequently introduced both by the architects 
 of England and France during the latter part of the twelfth and the begin- 
 ning of the thirteenth centuries ; sometimes standing perfectly free, but 
 much more frequently grouped together or placed against a wall, to which 
 
 * " Voiite en berceau qui porte sur deux murs circulaires concentriques ; telles sont les 
 voutes qui dans les 6glises contournent le choeur arrondi en abside ; les ouvriers designent ces 
 genres de voutes par le nom de berceaux tournants. Si le point d'appui interieur se reduit a 
 un seul pilier rond et central outour duquel tourne la voute et cela sans discontinuite, on la 
 nomme voute sur le noyau; citons comme exemple la voMe de I'liotel Colbert, a Paris, a 
 Tangle des rues de I'ancien hotel Colbert et de la Bucherie ; plusieurs edifices antiques 
 possedent des votites annulaires: le mausolSe d'Adrien (aujourd'hui fort Saint-Ange), quelques 
 tombeaux de la voie Appia. Parmi les edifices modernes possedant des voutes annulaires, 
 citons la vo^te du premier Stage de la halle au ble k Paris." — Dictionnaire raisonne Archi- 
 tecture. E. Bosc. 
 
149 
 
 [ ANNULET J 
 
 they were attached by their hagues,* as in the clustered columns of Laon 
 cathedral. For further particulars and illustrations we must refer our 
 readers to the article Bague. 
 
 ANNULET. A small projecting member, circular on plan, and usually 
 square or angular in section, applied to the surface of a cylindrical object 
 or annular moulding, upon which it shows itself distinctly. The term is 
 usually applied to the three, four, or five projecting members, under the 
 echinus of the Greek Doric capital ; and to those small members formed 
 by annular sinkings on the hypotrachelium of the column. 
 
 The number and form of the annulets differ ; five, as in the capitals of 
 the temple of Minerva, however, being the greatest number known to have 
 
 12 3 
 
 been introduced by Classic architects. The accompanying sections show 
 the three most important forms they have assumed when placed under the 
 echinus. Fig. 1 is from the Temple of Theseus, at Athens; Fig. 2 
 
 4 5 
 
 from the temple of Corinth ; and Fig. 3 from the Doric Portico, at Athens. 
 
 * This is the term employed by French architects to designate the horizontal member of 
 the shaft which carries the annular mouldings, or the ring of metal we have above alluded to ; 
 we have adopted it in preference to the rather incorrect and ambiguous term band, commonly 
 used by English architects for this detail. (See Band.) 
 
[ ANTAE ] 
 
 150 
 
 Two varieties of the annulets of the hypotrachelium are given in Figs. 
 4 and 5 ; the former is from the temple of Corinth, and the latter from the 
 temple of Apollo, at Bassae. Annulets are also found in certain Greek 
 bases, as in those of the Erechtheum, at Athens. The terms Fillet, 
 Armilla, and Listel are sometimes used instead of Annulet. 
 
 Annulet, in heraldry, a circular ring, employed as a charge (example — 
 Gules, an annulet, argent). This annulet is added to arms for a difference, 
 
 when it denotes the fifth son of the house. (See Differences.) 
 
 ANTAE. The term employed to designate the description of pilasters 
 which terminate the ends of the side walls of a Greek temple which extend 
 into the pronaos or posticum. In amphiprostyle temples, the antae were 
 usually narrower on their outer face than in front or towards the adjoining 
 column, as at A A Fig. 1-the plan of the Ionic temple on the Ilissus, 
 where their outer faces are only about one-third that of their front and 
 inner faces. In the posticum of this temple the antae project half their 
 width from the back wall of the cella. The reason for this great reduction 
 of the outer face has not been satisfactorily explained, but in all probability 
 the Greek architects found that if they gave the antae their full width on 
 their outer faces they would appear unduly heavy, and accordingly very 
 unsatisfactory to the eye. The Eoman architects, however, did not accept 
 the practice, for we find, in the temple of Kome and Augustus, at Pola, the 
 antae with their three faces the full width. These are remarkable in 
 another way, being fluted, while the adjoining columns are plain. When 
 no columns were introduced between the inner faces of the antae, those faces 
 were sometimes similarly treated to the outer ones, appearing only about 
 one-half the width of the front, as in the Propytea, at Athens. The plan 
 of this building, given in The Antiquities of Athens, by Stuart and Revett, 
 may be satisfactorily consulted with reference to the treatment of the antii 
 in different positions. 
 
 Antae usually diminish slightly in width upward, sufiicient to impart to 
 them a feeling of lightness, but are not diminished to the same extent as 
 then- attendant columns. In Greek buildings they carry capitals which are, 
 in all cases, much lighter and entirely different in detail to those of the 
 columns; and in some cases have bases, while the columns have none; 
 
151 
 
 [ ANTECABINET ] 
 
 an instance of this is supplied in the Doric temple of Theseus. In Ionic 
 buildings the bases of the antae and columns are similar, as in the 
 Erechtheum. The antae of the temple of Eome and Augustus have 
 Corinthian capitals, designed to match those of the columns. 
 
 \m m m m 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 The term has been used by certain authors and architects to designate 
 other architectural features, such as the massive piers at the angles of 
 Egyptian temples, square unornamented piers at the sides of a large 
 opening, or the inner plain faces of jambs of doorways ; but the above 
 signification is the correct one, sanctioned by Vitruvius, and universally 
 accepted by English architects. 
 
 ANTE. The Latin preposition, signifying "before" or "preceding." 
 Sometimes prefixed to an architectural term for the purpose of designating 
 a certain portion of a building which leads to or precedes the part indicated 
 by the simple term. Thus, an anteroom is an apartment preceding a room 
 of greater importance and through which it is directly approached. 
 
 ANTECABINET. An apartment or waiting-room preceding the 
 cabinet or private audience-chamber of a royal personage, nobleman, or 
 statesman. It is usually of large proportions, forming a hall of assembly, 
 and, by the French architects, is sometimes called by that name (salle 
 d'assemblee). The antecabinet is an apartment of considerable importance, 
 
[ ANTECHURCH ] 
 
 152 
 
 and, from its position and uses, should be carefully designed and richly 
 decorated and furnished. 
 
 ANTECAPITULUM. A late Latin term, applied, according to 
 Ducange, to the bay or portion of a monastic cloister immediately in 
 front of the entrance to a chapter house. The vestibule which leads to 
 a chapter house, as that which opens from the cloister at Chester 
 cathedral, was probably designated by this term. 
 
 ANTECHAMBER. A term generally used in England to designate 
 an apartment of moderate dimensions adjoining a bedchamber, and through 
 which it is approached. The French architects, however, do not limit its 
 signification to this, but employ the word antichambre, as we do the term 
 anteroom, to signify any subordinate apartment connected with and 
 preceding another room devoted to business or entertainment. 
 
 ANTECHAPEL. The term sometimes applied to the unoccupied 
 portion of a chapel which immediately precedes the part devoted to the 
 celebration of the service and the accommodation of the worshippers, or 
 the entire portion westward of the screen. The antechapel assumes 
 difi'erent forms and dimensions in different edifices, being in some cases 
 of such importance that it might almost be called a nave, as in King's 
 College chapel, and in others little more than a vestibule. In numerous 
 chapels it does not exist at all. In certain collegiate chapels it runs 
 north and south across their west ends, somewhat similar to a transept, 
 which, indeed, it would become if a nave were added. Examples of this 
 arrangement, more or less modified, are to be seen in the chapels of Christ- 
 church, Magdalen, Merton, All Souls, and Wadham colleges, at Oxford. 
 
 ANTECHOIR. The term used to designate a space, more or less 
 enclosed, in front of the choir of a church ; a portion of the nave adjoining 
 the choir screen, and separated from the westward portion by a balustrade 
 or railing. The Rev. M. E. C. Walcott, speaking of the northern develop- 
 ment of the Lombardic style, says:— "The formation of the western apse, 
 the construction of an eastern aisle, the development of the choir, the for- 
 mation of the ante-choir, and the double gate at its entrance, with the altar 
 of the Saviour, were probably innovations of the northern architects." In 
 the plan of the abbey of St. Gall (see article Ahbey, p. 13), the portion 
 screened or railed in front of the eastern choir (a) is the antechoir. 
 
 ANTECHURCH. A building of more or less importance, and re- 
 sembling a narthex or large porch, erected westward of the nave in certain 
 mediaeval churches, as those of Cluny, Vezelay, Tournus, Charite-sur-Loire, 
 Dijon, and Paulinzelle. In this country, the Cistercians built similar 
 structures at Fountains and Beaulieu, and large antechurches existed at 
 Sherborne and Glastonbury. Both the Clugniacs and Cistercians appear 
 
153 
 
 [ ANTECHUBCH ] 
 
 to have considered the antechurch an indispensable feature of their plans. 
 That of the great abbey of Cluny is a structure of five bays with ailes, 
 approached by flights of steps between two square towers ; at its east end 
 is the great doorway, which gives access to the nave of twelve bays with 
 four ailes. M. Viollet-le-Duc applies both the terms antechurch (anteglise) 
 and narthex to this feature, and, speaking of those of Cluny and Vezelay, 
 says : — " En avant de I'eglise cinq degres conduisaient dans une sorte de 
 parvis au milieu duquel s'elevait une croix de pierre, puis on trouvait un 
 grand emmarchement interrompu par de larges paliers qui descendait a 
 I'entree du narthex, flanque de deux tours carrees : la tour meridionale 
 etait le siege de la justice, la prison ; celle du nord etait reservee a la garde 
 des archives. II ne semble pas que les eglises clunisiennes aient ete pre- 
 cedees de porches de cette importance avant le XIP siecle. Le narthex de 
 Cluny datait des premieres annees du XIIP siecle, ceux de la Charite-sur- 
 Loire et de Vezelay ont ete batis au XIP. A Vezelay, cependant, il existait 
 un porche construit en memo temps que la nef a la fin du XI^ siecle ou au 
 commencement du XII' ; mais il etait has et peu profond. II est difficile 
 de savoir exactement a quel usage cette avant-nef etait destinee; une 
 necessite absolue avait du forcer les religieux de la regie de Cluny, vers le 
 milieu du Xir siecle, d'adopter cette disposition, car elle se developpe tout 
 a coup, et prend une grande importance. A Cluny, a la Charite, a Vezelay, 
 le narthex est un veritable eglise avec ses coUateraux, son triforium, ses 
 deux tours. A Vezelay, le triforium se retourne au-dessus de la porta 
 d'entree de la nef interieure, et devient ainsi une grande tribune sur laquelle 
 avait ete place un autel au Xir siecle dans la niche centrale formant 
 originairement Tune des baies eclairant le pignon occidental. Ce vestibule 
 etait-il destine a contenir la suite des nobles visiteurs qui etaient re9us par 
 les moines, ou les nombreux pelerins qui se rendaient a I'abbaye a certaines 
 epoques de I'annee ? Etait-il un narthex reserve pour les penitents ? Cette 
 derniere hypothese nous paraitrait la plus vraisemblable, un texte vient 
 I'appuyer ; dans I'ancien pontifical de Chalon-sur-Saone, si voisin de Cluny, 
 on lisait : 'Dans quelques eglises, le pretre, par ordre de I'eveque, celebre 
 la messe sur un autel tres-rapproche des portes du temple, pour les 
 penitents places devant le portail de I'eglise.' A Cluny meme, pres la porte 
 d'entree a gauche, dans le vestibule, on voyait encore avant la revolution, 
 une table de pierre de quatre pieds de long sur deux pieds et demi de large, 
 qui pouvait passer pour un autel du XII siecle." And again, speaking ot 
 the church of Vezelay, he says, "Dans cette meme eglise de Vezelay, 
 vers 1160, on batit un porche ferme, veritable narthex ou anteglise, con- 
 formement a I'usage alors adopte par la regie de Cluny." The antechurch 
 of Vezelay is of two bays, with ailes and galleries over, and with a gallery 
 or tribune for an altar, carried across the bay next the doorway to the nave, 
 at the level of the triforium galleries from which the tribune is approached. 
 Stairs to the triforium galleries are placed at the west end. As M. Viollet- 
 le-Duc has, in the above quotation, alluded to the probable uses of the 
 antechurch, we need not make further conjectures here. (See Porch.) 
 
 u 
 
[ ANTEFIXUM ] 
 
 154 
 
 ANTECOURT. The larger court, in palaces and other important 
 buildings, which occupies a position in advance of the inner or principal 
 court. The antecourt gives access to the principal court; and all the 
 subordinate portions of the building open from it direct, or by means of 
 passages. 
 
 ANTEFIXUM. (Lat.) This term, correctly speaking, signifies an 
 ornament of terra cotta or other material, fixed in front of the frieze of an 
 entablature ; but it has been very commonly used to designate the 
 ornaments which were introduced by the Classic architects to terminate the 
 harmi, or joint tiles of a roof, at the eaves of a building. It has also 
 been applied to the lions' heads introduced on the cymatium of a classic 
 cornice. The French architects now use the term with all the above 
 significations. 
 
 Antefixae have been found in ancient Roman buildings attached to their 
 friezes by leaden nails. They usually assumed the form of flat slabs, 
 bearing ornamental designs in relief. Specimens of these are preserved in 
 the British Museum, and display variety of design and skilful manipulation. 
 Of the eave antefixae several descriptions have been found in ancient Greek, 
 Roman, and Romanesque buildings. Amongst the Greek examples, those 
 of the Parthenon, the temple of Apollo at Bassse (Fig. 1), and the Choragic 
 monument of Lysicrates are the most beautiful. They are of marble, and 
 
 1 1^ 
 
 richly carved, and were evidently introduced for the purpose of relieving the 
 severe horizontal line of the cornice, to which they served as an ornamental 
 cresting. Roman antefixae, in terra cotta, with short pieces of joint tile 
 attached, have been found in this country, and in numerous places on the 
 Continent ; they show foliated designs or masks, as in one found at Chester, 
 
155 
 
 [ ANTBPORTICO ] 
 
 Antefixae were frequently introduced in early Christian architecture as 
 terminations to the ordinary joint tiles, or to the larger hip tiles only. A 
 characteristic example is supplied by the church of Sainte-Madeleine de 
 Beziers (Herault), where the hips, covered with stone, terminate at the 
 cornice in square antefixae, decorated on the face with interlaced orna- 
 ment. * 
 
 The French architects sometimes apply the term antefixes to the crosses 
 which surmount the gables of Romanesque churches ; but the application 
 is evidently incorrect. They are, in correct French nomenclature, amor- 
 tissements. 
 
 ANTEHALL. The outer or subordinate hall of a large building, which 
 precedes and gives access to the grand entrauce-hall. The term has some- 
 times been applied to the large vestibule of a public hall, and to the 
 apartment which is used as a waiting-room to an audience-hall in a palace. 
 
 ANTEPAGMENTUM. (Lat.) The term used by Vitruvius (Book 
 iv., cap. 6) to designate the ornamental facing of the jamb of a doorway, the 
 portion now commonly called the architrave. With the addition of the 
 word superius, he uses the term to designate the horizontal architrave 
 on the lintel or supercilium. t 
 
 ANTEPENDIUM. The late Latin term for the hanging in front of an 
 altar or ciborium. (See Altar-Cloth and Altar- Frontal.) This word has 
 occasionally been written Antipendium, and that mode of spelling has 
 been adopted by Pugin, who probably took as his authority the following 
 passage in the Inventory of King's College chapel, Aberdeen. 
 
 Pro majori altari 3 antipendia; 1, cui historife Divae Virginis Mariae, filis byssinis 
 ac laneis sunt contexts. 2, effigies apostolorum, Petri, Andreae, et Johannis continet. 
 3, pro quotidiano usu altaris B. Marise Virginis. Antipendiae jusdem altaris, viz., 
 xmmn altra bascense, cui divarum effigies et flores, filis laneis subtilibus bysso 
 commixtis sunt contexti." 
 
 ANTEPORTICO. A portico of a subordinate description, placed in 
 advance of the portico of a temple ; and which gave access to the sacred 
 inclosure in which the temple stood, as that of the temple of Ceres, at 
 Eleusis. The term has also been applied by modern architects to a pro- 
 jecting porch placed in front of the blank wall of a cloister, as in some 
 Italian buildings. The term, however, is very seldom used in any sense. 
 
 * An illustration of one of these is given in M. Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire Baisonne de 
 V Architecture Frangaise, vol. ix., p. 324. 
 
 t " ANTIPAGMENTUM, is witten instead of Antepagmenttjm in the codices of the work 
 by S. PoMPEius Festus, De Significatione Verborum; and is one of the few instances in which 
 the correct orthography of a Latin word is beyond the discernment of a commentator. In 
 Festus, the passage is ' Antipagmenta, valvarum ornamenta, qus antis adpanguntur id est 
 adfiguntur.' "—Die. of Arch., Arch. Pub. Soc, Lond. 
 
[ ANTESOLABIUM J 
 
 156 
 
 ANTERIDES. The term used by Vitruvius (Book vi., cap. 11) to 
 designate conterforts or buttresses built for the purpose of strengthening 
 a basement wall, and enabling it to withstand the pressure of the earth 
 against its other side. Later writers have applied it to other objects, such 
 as piers, pillars, and shores. 
 
 ANTEROOM. An apartment opening from a vestibule or staircase, 
 and preceding another and more important room, which may either be a 
 second anteroom or a room for reception or entertainment. 
 
 Prior to the present century, anterooms were only introduced in palaces 
 and mansions ; and they were more common in Continental than in English 
 buildings. In moderate sized French mansions (hotels) the anteroom 
 usually preceded the dining-room (salle d manger), connecting it with 
 the entrance vestibule ; while in the houses of the citizens, the dining- 
 room opened direct from the vestibule without the intervention of anything 
 of the nature of an anteroom. In palaces and large mansions of the nobles 
 the anteroom which opened from the vestibule was frequently followed by 
 one or even two others, which, by way of distinction, were designated 
 waiting-rooms {salons d'attente). The first anteroom was generally a 
 comparatively plain apartment in which the servants waited ; visitors, 
 according to their rank, being ushered into the second or third anteroom to 
 await their admission to the audience- chamber or banqueting-hall. The 
 decorations and furniture of the salons d'attente were much richer than 
 those of the first anteroom. A large stove, bufi'ets, and plain seats usually 
 formed the entire fittings of the latter apartment, the salons d'attente 
 having ornamented fireplaces and more expensive furniture, to mark their 
 greater privacy and importance. In Italian palaces, anterooms are, as a 
 rule, both larger and more numerous than in those of France and other 
 countries. 
 
 In modern buildings anterooms are frequently introduced, and, although 
 they are not devoted to the same purposes as in the old times, they 
 continue to be of great utility and convenience, and impart much dig- 
 nity to suites of rooms. An anteroom is frequently placed between two 
 important rooms, with which it communicates by folding doors ; and, 
 opening from a vestibule, hall, or grand staircase, it is appropriately used 
 for announcement and reception, as in the fine suite of entertaining-rooms 
 in the Town Hall of Liverpool, where the anteroom is directly approached 
 by the grand staircase, and communicates with the two drawing-rooms 
 which serve as inner anterooms to the banqueting and ball-rooms. 
 
 ANTESOLABIUM. The late Latin term used to designate a portico, 
 verandah, or some such projecting structure, in front of the solars or 
 apartments of a mediaeval dwelling-house, such as those which are shown 
 attached to the Abbot's lodging in the plan of the Abbey of St. Gall. (See 
 plan in article Ahhey, page 13, and Abbot's Lodging.) 
 
167 
 
 [ ANTHONY, ST. ] 
 
 ANTETEMPLE. The term which has occasionally been used to 
 designate the nave of a cathedral or large church. It is now seldom, 
 if ever, employed in architectural terminology. 
 
 ANTEVANNA. The late Latin term for a wooden roof or projecting 
 weather-guard placed, during the middle ages, over windows, doors, or the 
 openings of street shops. An open pent-house. The term is also written 
 Antevenna and Auvanna. 
 
 ANTH EM ION. There exists considerable uncertainty with reference to 
 the true signification of the Greek term (av9e>»ov), different authors pro- 
 nouncing it to designate a spiral line introduced in the decoration of 
 columns ; the Ionic volute ; and the koneysuckle, palmette, or fleuron 
 enrichment introduced in the necking of certain columns of the Ionic 
 order, as in those of the Erechtheum, at Athens. 
 
 The latter signification has gained most favour with English architects, 
 and the term is commonly used at the present time to designate that 
 description of ornament wherever it is applied. 
 
 ANTHONY, ST. Of Egypt, abbot and confessor, sometimes called 
 Anthony the Great or the Hermit. Eepresentations of this saint are very 
 common in Christian art ; and his Temiptation, a subject taken from his 
 legendary history, is frequently met with,. 
 
 St. Anthony was born, of noble and wealthy Egyptian parents, at Coma, 
 in the neighbourhood of Heracleopolis, in the year a.d. 251. His parents 
 were Christians of great repute, and carefully instructed their son in the 
 principles of their faith, thus laying the foundations of his after life of 
 sanctity and devotion. At the age of eighteen Anthony found himself an 
 orphan, and the possessor of all his father's riches. Bereft of his loved and 
 honoured guides and advisers, he soon became troubled with the responsi- 
 bilities of his wealth ; and, with a desire to counteract their influence, 
 sought strength in religious exercises. His final resolution to leave the 
 cares and temptations of the world is attributed to his having heard, on two 
 occasions, as he entered different churches to seek direction by prayer, the 
 following passages of Scripture :— " Every one that hath forsaken houses, 
 or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, 
 for my name's sake, shall receive an hundredfold, and shall inherit ever- 
 lasting life ;" * and, "If thou wilt be perfect go and sell that thou hast, 
 and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven." t Accept- 
 ing these words as directions from God in his perplexity, the young man 
 went and sold all he possessed, distributed the money to the poor, and, 
 without even providing a change of raiment for himself, sought retirement 
 amongst some hermits who had devoted themselves to a religious life apart 
 from the cares and distractions of the world. 
 
 * Matt. xix. 29. f Matt. xix. 21. 
 
I ANTHONY, ST. ] 
 
 158 
 
 Now, his legend tells us of his great sanctity and self-denial, so perfect, 
 indeed, as to provoke the devil to resort to extraordinary temptations to 
 secure his downfall. Accordingly, all the allurements of the senses were 
 tried in succession, and the saint subjected to trials which required all his 
 fortitude and strength of soul to withstand. By constant prayer, however, 
 all were overcome, and Satan was vanquished. Twice again did the evil- 
 one essay his ruin, trying by pain and fear to shake his faith, but all in 
 vain. 'In suffering and misery the saint withstood the repeated attacks, 
 and conquered. He now went further away from mankind, and shut him- 
 self up in a cave, which became his solitary dwelling for twenty years. At 
 the age of fifty-five he left the cavern ; and, with a spirit purified and 
 strengthened by long fasts, vigils, and prayers, and a body miraculously 
 sustained through all its trials and mortifications, he again appeared 
 before his fellow-men, and wrought amongst them his great Christian 
 work. So perfect was he in all the saintly virtues, and so eloquent in 
 behalf of the religious life, that it is stated that at one time his converts, 
 who had become hermits under his guidance, numbered upwards of five 
 thousand. 
 
 He presided over his community in the desert until he was ninety years 
 of age, having lived a secluded life for seventy-five years. The thought of 
 his long self-imposed solitude and denial lifted up his heart with a feeling of 
 pride, destined, however, to be short-lived, for in a vision he was informed 
 that there was one named Paul who was holier than he, and who had served 
 God in solitude and penance for ninety years. When he awoke he set 
 out on a journey across the desert to find Paul, and after three days' weary 
 travelling, he came to the dwelling of the aged hermit, a cavern amidst 
 high rocks, shaded with palm trees, and beside a flowing fountain. After 
 some hesitation Paul admitted Anthony, and lovingly embraced him as a 
 brother in God. Here, seated beside the fountain, the two venerable 
 hermits were fed by the raven which had brought bread daily to Paul for 
 sixty years. After Anthony had rested and refreshed himself with the 
 miraculous food and holy conversation, Paul said unto him, "Brother, our 
 Heavenly Father hath sent thee here to receive my last breath and to bury 
 my aged body. Return, therefore, and bring hither the vesture given thee 
 by the holy bishop Athanasius, so that thou may'st wrap my body in it for 
 the grave." Full of wonder at Paul's superhuman knowledge of the gift of 
 the vestment, Anthony hastened to his monastery, and, taking the cloak, 
 returned immediately to Paul. He was too late, however, for on entering 
 the cavern he found him dead, in the posture of prayer. At the burial of 
 the saint, Anthony was assisted by two lions ; these dug the grave which 
 he was too infirm to dig. Wrapped in the cloak of Athanasius, Paul was 
 laid in the desert, and Anthony departed. 
 
 Fourteen years after this event Anthony died, and was buried in a 
 solitary spot, which he made his followers promise should never be revealed. 
 
 From the above legend artists have selected all the more important 
 events for representation. In the ordinary portraitures the saint is usually 
 
169 
 
 [ ANTHONY, ST. ] 
 
 clothed, in the black or brown habit of a monk, as the founder of monachism, 
 and appears as an aged man, with a long white beard. He generally 
 carries a crutch, to further denote his extreme age, a small bell, indicative 
 of his power to exorcise evil spirits, and is attended by a hog or wild boar. 
 The signification of the latter attribute has not been clearly made out ; 
 according to some authorities it alludes to his triumph over temptation, 
 the hog being a common emblem of gluttony, sensuality, and uncleanness ; 
 others hold the attribute simply to denote his life of solitude, in which 
 the beasts of the earth were alone his companions. This latter idea is 
 evidently supported by the old lines, under a painting on a screen in 
 Carlisle cathedral : — 
 
 %^\) libret^ ^.e in toU^erms fft^ 33m anb man 
 WRxt^ant 01X31 rompatm hut t^c togltr^e bofer. 
 
 And is further supported by the fact that two hogs are occasionally intro- 
 duced, and have bells suspended round their necks. If the hog was intended 
 as the representative of the demon of sensuality and gluttony, as Mrs. Jame- 
 son wishes us to believe, it would hardly carry the exorcising bell round its 
 neck. Mediaeval artists were always careful to preserve their symbolism. 
 
 Instead of the bell, St. Anthony occasionally carries an asperges, or rod 
 for sprinkling holy water, which unquestionably is intended to signify 
 his power of exorcising evil spirits. 
 
 In certain portraitures, and especially those executed by Greek artists, 
 or under the influence of Greek traditions, St. Anthony bears upon his 
 outer garment the tau cross T, commonly known as the cross of St. 
 Anthony, introduced as the sign of the elect. (See Cross.) 
 
 In mediaeval times the saint was held in great veneration as the special 
 protector against fire ; and accordingly he is sometimes met with repre- 
 sented with flames under his feet, as in a miniature in the Heures d'Anne 
 de Bretagne. 
 
 Alluding to the historical representations from the life of the saint, Mrs. 
 Jameson says : — " The subject called the ' Temptation of St. Anthony ' is 
 by far the most common. In the earlier pictures it is very simply treated : 
 St. Anthony is praying in his cell, and the fiend, in shape like a beautiful 
 woman, stands behind him ; the saint appears fearful to turn his head. In 
 the later schools, and particularly the Dutch schools, the artists have 
 tasked their fancy to the utmost, to reproduce all the foul and terrible 
 shapes, all the ghastly and obscene vagaries, which solitude could have 
 engendered in a diseased and excited brain." 
 
 On the other scenes from his life, such as the meeting of Anthony and 
 Paul, his return with the garment at the death of Paul, and his own death 
 amidst a few of his dearest followers, it is quite unnecessary to enlarge 
 here ; we have said enough to give the student an insight into the inten- 
 tions and motives of those works of art in which St. Anthony is the 
 principal figure. 
 
[ ANTICK ] 
 
 160 
 
 There are five churches dedicated to his honour in England. In the 
 Roman, Scottish, French, Spanish, German, and Greek calendars St. 
 Anthony's day falls on January 17th. The year of his death was a. d. 356. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHISM. This word signifies, strictly speaking, the 
 heresy of the ancient sect called Anthropomorphites, or those who believed 
 that the Supreme Being existed in a human form. The term has been 
 introduced into the nomenclature of art for the purpose of designating the 
 practice, so universal amongst the ancients, of representing deities in the 
 forms of humanity. The absolute incapacity of the mind to realise any- 
 thing endowed with visible shape and vitality more perfect than the 
 human form, compelled the ancient artists to resort to anthropomorphism, 
 or what may be called humanisation. This necessity of art, however, 
 in no way tended to lower the ideal, nor did it imply any restrictions of the 
 supernatural powers or attributes of the deities ; and it is to anthropomor- 
 phism we are indebted for the highest efforts and the greatest achievements 
 in figure sculpture. 
 
 Anthropomorphism is also met with in Christian art, although in a 
 much more timid form than in Pagan. Previous to the tenth century very 
 few attempts appear to have been made by artists to represent God the 
 Father and the Holy Ghost in the human form, but from the beginning of 
 the tenth century to the fifteenth they were frequently depicted anthropo- 
 morphous. (For particulars of these representations see article Trinity.) 
 
 ANTI. The Greek preposition signifying opposite to or against. 
 It is occasionally prefixed to an architectural term, with the intention of 
 denoting that the object alluded to is placed against or opposite to another 
 of a similar nature; or with the view of designating an object which 
 occupies a position opposite that signified by the term itself; thus an 
 antipodium, according to Ducange, is a seat placed opposite to the podium 
 of the clergy in the choir of a church. The addition of the prefix here does 
 not denote a podium placed opposite to another, but a seat placed opposite 
 to a podium. When the preposition is added to such terms as hall or 
 staircase, it simply denotes a second hall or staircase occupying a position 
 opposite to another of a similar description, and divided therefrom by a 
 corridor, wall, or any other medium of separation. 
 
 ANTICAGLIA. (Ital.) The term occasionally used to individualise 
 the smaller works of ancient art, such as bronzes, gems, weapons, house- 
 hold utensils, and articles of personal adornment. 
 
 ANTICK. A term used in art to designate a fantastic composition, in 
 which men, birds, beasts, and foliage are introduced, combined in a 
 manner contrary to nature. The ancients were very fond of these fanciful 
 compositions, several examples of which are to be seen amongst the terra 
 cotta bas-reliefs in the British Museum. The term is also applied to such 
 works as the arabesques of Raphael, 
 
161 
 
 [ ANTIQUE 1 
 
 ANTICUM. {Lat.) The space between the cella of a temple and the 
 columns of its portico. The term is also applied to a front door in opposi- 
 tion to a door in the rear iexmedi posticwm ; or, according to Elmes, to "a 
 porch to a door southward." The term is sometimes written Antica. 
 
 ANTIMINSION. {Gr.) A piece of consecrated cloth laid upon an 
 unconsecrated table, and upon which the chalice and paten are placed at 
 the celebration of the Holy Eucharist. The antiminsion in the Greek 
 Church is, in all essentials, similar in use to the portable-altar of the 
 Latin Church. The Syrian Church commonly uses the antiminsion in the 
 form of a slab of wood, and places it upon consecrated as well as 
 unconsecrated altars. This term is frequently written Antimensium, but 
 in the Greek it is invariably avTift/vcriov. 
 
 ANTIMONY YELLOW. A quiet-toned yellow, of a durable nature, 
 prepared from antimony, which remains unaffected by sulphuretted or 
 phosphuretted hydrogen. This colour is used both in oil and water, and 
 also in enamel and porcelain painting. 
 
 ANTI PODIUM. The term applied, according to Ducange, to the seat 
 placed opposite to and in rear of the podium, or reading-desk used by the 
 priests, in the choir of a church. 
 
 ANTIQUARIUM. The name given to the room in an ancient Koman 
 dwelling-house in which the proprietor kept and displayed his collection of 
 curiosities and works of art. 
 
 ANTIQUE. The term commonly applied in architecture and the allied 
 arts to works executed by the ancient Greeks, Etruscans, and Eomans. 
 We accordingly speak of an antique capital, an antique statue, an antique 
 vase, an antique gem, &c. The term is not correctly applied to works of 
 art which show any evidence of Christian influence, and therefore cannot 
 appropriately be employed in speaking of works executed after the third 
 century of our era. The word Ancient is frequently used instead of 
 antique, but, as it has a much wider signification, it is not so expressive 
 as the latter when applied to the refined works of Classic art. We may 
 correctly call Egyptian, Assyrian, Norman, or Early English sculptures, 
 ancient, but we cannot in strict nomenclature call them antiques* ; on the 
 other hand, we are allowed to speak of an ancient Greek statue, or an 
 ancient gem. 
 
 * "By Antiques we understand those works which have become, as it were, the types of 
 human form, the representations of Hfe in all its variety, which belong to true plastic Art, 
 such as the works of the chisel, the mould — statues, bas-rehefs, and mosaics. In a wider 
 sense we use the word ajitiques to express all the productions in the various plastic Arts of the 
 Greeks and Eomans, as distinguished from the Art of the remainmg ancient and imclassical 
 nations — Egyptians, Indians, etc., and also from aU later and modern Art. " — F. W. Fairholt, 
 F.S.A. 
 
[ ANTITHALAMUS ] 162 
 
 When a work of art is simply spoken of as an antique, much more than 
 its great antiquity is implied ; it is intended that it should, under that 
 term, be understood to have the refined element of perfect beauty, both of 
 conception and execution, which characterises the finest works of the 
 Greeks, and, subordinate only to them, the Roman artists. With the same 
 intention the French use the expression la belle antique. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. The existing remains of all ancient nations. This 
 term is very commonly used with a more limited signification, being under- 
 stood to particularly allude to the works of architecture and art executed at 
 any time previous to the period of the Renaissance. The writers of the 
 end of the last and the beginning of the present century used the term 
 chiefly with reference to the artistic works of the Greeks and Romans, 
 whom they looked upon as pre-eminently the ancients. 
 
 ANTIQUO-MODERN. The term applied by certain old writers on 
 art to the works of the middle ages, distinguishing them thereby from 
 those called antique, or the works of the ancient Greeks, Etruscans, and 
 Romans. 
 
 The Italian term Antico-moderno is sometimes used in art nomen- 
 clature to individualise the style of painting which obtained during the 
 latter half of the fifteenth century, or which extended between the time of 
 Massaccio (died 1443) and Francia (died 1518). Paintings of this period 
 present marked transitional characteristics, dividing the quaint and some- 
 what severe works of the early artists from the fully developed school of 
 Raphael and the other great painters of his time. 
 
 ANTITHALAMUS. A term used by Vitruvius, in his description of 
 the arrangement and parts of a Grecian house (Book vi., chapter 10), and 
 generally understood to signify a secondary bedchamber placed opposite 
 to the principal one, and divided therefrom by a passage or a part of the 
 house called the prostas. In Gwilt's translation the passage in which the 
 term occurs is as follows :— " On the right and left of the prostas are the 
 bedchambers, of which one is called the thalamus and the other the anti- 
 thalamus." The exact relation between the two apartments in the Grecian 
 house has not been clearly arrived at by the commentators upon Vitruvius 
 and other authorities on architectural matters. Certain writers consider 
 the antithalamus to have been a bedroom occupied by the attendants of the 
 person sleeping in the thalamus, while others hold it to have been a sort of 
 private sitting-room for the occupant of the principal bedroom. M. Bosc, 
 in his Dictionnaire raisonne, rather favours the latter opinion in describing 
 it as similar to the modern antechamber. We do not, however, agree with 
 him, for the orthography of the word clearly denotes that the antithalamus 
 is not placed in advance of the thalamus as an antechamber would be, but 
 opposite to it, and, as described by Vitruvius, divided from it by the recess 
 at the north end of the peristylium designated the prostas. Whatever uses 
 
163 
 
 [ ANTYX ] 
 
 the thalamus and antithalamus may have been respectively put to, there 
 can be little doubt that, according to the text of Vitruvius, they were apart- 
 ments of similar size, symmetrically disposed on each side of a central 
 recess opening from the inner court or peristylium. The term has also 
 been written Amphithalamus. 
 
 ANTITYPE. That which is prefigured by a type. In Christian art, 
 both the type and antitype are occasionally met with represented together, 
 and the mediaeval artists frequently adopted this expedient of conveying in 
 a graphic manner to the popular mind the events of Old and New Testament 
 history between which theologians discovered a connecting link. Thus the 
 lifting up of the brazen serpent in the wilderness, and the crucifixion, were 
 associated, the former being the type of the latter, which is accordingly 
 the antitype. 
 
 An illustration of this is to be found in the Biblia Pauperum, a work of 
 the fourteenth century.* In the centre of the subject is a crucifix, with 
 St. Mary and St. John ; on the left hand is represented the Sacrifice of 
 Abraham, and on the right Moses and the Brazen Serpent, both types of the 
 Crucifixion. In addition to the Biblia Pauperum, which contains forty 
 subjects or antitypes attended with their types, according to middle-age 
 theology, the student may refer to another work, of about the same date, 
 the Speculum Humance Salvationis, which contains fifty- eight types and 
 antitypes, t 
 
 ANTWERP BLUE. A pigment similar in nature and properties to 
 Prussian blue, but rather more brilliant in tint. It is used in the arts 
 both as an oil and a water colour. 
 
 ANTWERP BROWN. A pigment prepared from asphaltum or 
 bitumen and strong drying oil. The materials are combined by the 
 application of heat and a grinding process. The addition of the oil to the 
 asphaltum imparts a more durable character to it, and produces a 
 compound less liable to crack than asphaltum in its simpler form. 
 
 ANTYX. (Gr.) In ancient armour, the term used to designate the 
 metallic border or rim attached to shields formed of other and less durable 
 materials, such as wicker-work or wood covered with skins of animals. 
 The antyx was generally ornamented and secured to the shield by rivets or 
 studs of metal. The term was, in a more general sense, applied to the 
 margin or border of any object, and was commonly used to designate the 
 strong rounded rim of the ancient Greek chariot. 
 
 * The illustration alluded to is reproduced in The Histoi-y of Our Lord, vol. 1, p. 28. 
 
 f The entire contents of both the Biblia Pauperum and the Speculum Humance Salvationis 
 are given in The History of Our Lord, vol. ii. p. 417-428, 
 
r APARTMENT ] 
 
 164 
 
 AN U BIS. In Egyptian mythology, the son of Osiris and Isis ; and the 
 god whose of&ce it was to attend upon the dead, to superintend the laying 
 out of the hody, and secure its proper embalmment. He is represented 
 with a jackal's head, wearing the combined crowns of upper and lower 
 Egypt (see Crown, Egyptian), and carries in one hand a sceptre, and in 
 the other the usual emblem of generation. 
 
 ANVI L. In Christian art, the emblem of St. Adrian, who was martyred 
 by having his hands and feet cut off, while his wife was compelled to hold 
 his limbs upon an anvil. In portraitures, St. Adrian is represented with 
 an anvil in one hand and a sword in the other ; carrying an anvil in his 
 arms ; an anvil by his side upon which is a hand chopped off ; and an 
 anvil upon which his wife, St. Natalia, is holding his limbs. 
 
 The anvil is also introduced as the attribute of workers in metal, and is 
 accordingly given to St. EHgius or St. Eloy, bishop of Noyon, who was 
 one of the most skilful goldsmiths of his time. He is represented with a 
 hammer and an anvil, or standing by an anvil, as in the picture in the 
 Florence Academy. 
 
 APARTMENT. This term, as commonly used in the English 
 language, signifies a single room of any description. When written in the 
 plural (Apartments) it is understood to mean a suite of rooms, generally 
 comprising one or more sitting and reception-rooms, with bedrooms, &c., 
 attached, and with or without kitchen, pantries, store-rooms, and the 
 attendant adjuncts. The French use the term in the singular [apparte- 
 ment) for the several rooms, bedchambers and kitchen offices constituting 
 a complete habitation, which is practically the signification of our word in 
 the plural. 
 
 The term is frequently qualified by the addition of other words : thus. 
 Sleeping apartments are bedrooms, with antechambers, dressing-rooms, 
 bath-rooms, and all the other necessary appendages attached. Reception 
 apartments are sitting and entertaining-rooms, library, billiard-room, &c., 
 with the requisite adjuncts, and means of access to all the rooms. State 
 APARTMENTS are large and important reception-rooms, with anterooms, 
 cabinets, banqueting-rooms, ball-room, concert-room, &c., arranged en 
 suite, or in such relation to each other as to be approached by a central 
 hall or grand corridor. State apartments properly belong to palaces or 
 large mansions of the nobility. Private apartments are those rooms and 
 offices which are set apart in palatial residences for the every-day accom- 
 modation of the proprietor, his family, and domestics ; they form a 
 complete residence, usually distinct from the state apartments, or those 
 devoted to grand receptions or entertainments, and the lodgment of 
 visitors. The term is also frequently used to designate a suite of rooms in 
 any public establishment, occupied by an individual or a family, and 
 practically disconnected from the rest of the apartments. The rooms 
 occupied by the steward of a club or the matron of a charitable institution 
 
165 
 
 [ APEX ] 
 
 are commonly called the private apartments of such estabUshments. 
 Seevants' apartments are those rooms, with all their necessary 
 appendages, arranged for the accommodation of the domestics in large 
 dwellings or public buildings ; they are usually understood to include all 
 the rooms appropriated to the servants exclusive of the kitchen and its 
 immediate adjuncts, the principal apartments being the servants' -hall, 
 housekeeper's-rooms, and the entire bedroom accommodation. Official 
 apartments are those devoted in large public establishments to the 
 transaction of the business connected therewith ; they comprise the board- 
 room, committee-rooms, waiting-rooms, and of&ces for the manager and 
 his subordinate officers, clerks, &c. 
 
 Every description of apartment, when correctly designed, decorated and 
 furnished, should assert in the clearest manner the uses to which it is 
 devoted; and in groups or suites of apartments each one should be 
 designed in just relation to the others, all being duly subordinated to the 
 principal apartment both in scale and richness of decoration. For further 
 remarks on the several apartments we must refer our readers to the 
 descriptions under their proper names. 
 
 APE. In Christian art, the emblem of lust. It is frequently found in 
 the grotesque sculptures and wood carvings of the middle ages, introduced 
 with this symbolic signification. In miniatures of certain illuminated 
 manuscripts, in which king David is represented gazing on the fair 
 Bath-sheba, an ape is sometimes introduced in allusion to his sinful 
 passion. 
 
 APERTURE. In architectural nomenclature, an opening in a wall of 
 any size or shape for use or ornament. The term is most correctly used to 
 designate any opening which extends through the entire thickness of the 
 wall, as that constructed to serve as a doorway or window. Openings 
 which do not extend through the wall are more properly designated recesses, 
 niches, &c. The term aperture is strictly confined to the void, and has no 
 relation to the wall which surrounds it, nor does it in its unqualified state 
 imply any dimensions or shape. In describing any particular aperture, 
 therefore, additional terms must be employed, such as Square aperture. 
 Circular aperture, Cusped aperture, Arched aperture, Lintelled 
 aperture, &c, 
 
 APEX. {Lat.) In architecture, the term is used to designate the 
 termination upwards of any conical or pointed feature, such as a pyramid, 
 pinnacle, spire, &c. 
 
 In ancient Roman costume, the Apex was the name given to a spiked 
 cap or headdress worn by the flamines and salii. The chief part of this 
 was the spike, or pointed piece of olive-wood, which extended upwards from 
 the crown of the head. It was surrounded at its base with fleeces of wool, 
 and was held in its place by fillets only, or by a close-fitting cap tied under 
 
[ APHRODITE OR VENUS J 
 
 166 
 
 the chin. The cap derived its name from the olive-wood spike, to which 
 the term apex was properly confined. The cap, made of the skin of a 
 white victim which had been sacrificed to Jupiter, and worn by the flamin 
 dialis, had the apex of olive-wood. This cap was called the albogalerus. 
 The term apex has also been used to designate the spiked top piece of 
 certain mediaeval helmets. 
 
 APEX-STONE. The top stone of a pyramid. In ordinary archi- 
 tectural phraseology, the term is applied to the large stone which terminates 
 a gable, spire, or pinnacle, and upon which is worked the seat for the finial, 
 cross, or any other description of terminal. Apex-stones are invariably of 
 much larger dimensions than the ordinary stones used in the portion of 
 the structure they surmount, for they have not only to add stability to 
 the substructure by their statical pressure, but have also to support 
 the terminal against the effects of the strongest gales which may reason- 
 ably be calculated upon. 
 
 APHRODITE OR VENUS. In classic mythology, the goddess of love 
 and beauty. Keightley, in his Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy, 
 says : — " If a foreign origin can be assigned to any of the Olympians, it is 
 to this goddess. The prevailing opinion is, that she is the Astarte^ of the 
 Phoenicians, and that her worship was introduced by that people into the 
 island of Cyprus, and thence carried with them to Greece. This must, 
 however, have been long before the time of Homer, who gives her epithets 
 derived from the name Cyprus. It has also been very well observed,^ that 
 she seems to have obtained an of&ce — that of presiding over love and 
 marriage — which originally belonged to Hera, and a portion of which that 
 goddess always retained, being at all times regarded as the patroness of 
 marriage. The name Aphrodite may possibly be connected with Astarte ; 
 and could the mythus of Adonis be proved to be as old as the time of 
 Homer, it would go a great way towards deciding the question."' The 
 most popular legend amongst the ancients, in connexion with the goddess, 
 was that in which she is fabled to have sprung from the foam of the sea, 
 caused by the falling of the genitals of Uranus therein, when cut off by the 
 sickle of his wrathful son Kronus. Whether the goddess derived her name 
 from this legend, the word ufppog (foam), suggesting Aphrodite; or whether 
 the name of the goddess, derived from some other source, suggested the 
 legend of the foam-birth, remains an unsettled question. The word 
 a<$>pa'»vsjv (to become frenzied or mad) has been suggested as the origin of 
 the name,^ all love and passion being more or less wild infatuation or frenzy. 
 But to resume the legend :— So soon as Aphrodite rose from the ocean she 
 was placed in a beautiful shell, embellished with pearls, and wafted by 
 Zephyrus to the island of Cythera in the Aegean, and from thence to 
 
 1 " Astarte -was the goddess of the moon. In Scandinavian mythology, Freya is the goddess 
 of the moon and of love." 
 
 2 Buttmann, Mythologus, i. 7. ^ BelVs New Pantheon, Venus, p. 303. 
 
167 
 
 [ APHRODITE OR VENUS ] 
 
 Cyprus. She arrived in the month of April, and immediately on touching 
 the earth beautiful flowers sprang up. The goddesses of the Seasons 
 awaited her arrival, clothed her in celestial garments, and placed golden 
 ornaments amidst her tresses, round her lovely neck, and as pendants in 
 her ears. Thus attired, with the arch smiles with which she was born 
 still lingering on her lips, she was conducted to the assembly of the gods, 
 all of which loved her at first sight, and sought to win her favours. Here 
 we may pause, for as this is a work devoted to art and not mythology, it is 
 unnecessary to follow the goddess through her innumerable amours with 
 both gods and mortals. 
 
 So much has been written about the ancient representations of Aphrodite 
 that it is quite impossible to say anything new; instead, therefore, of 
 essaying the task, we here give a quotation from Bell's New Pantheon ; ^ 
 which, though written in the end of last century, is much fresher than a 
 great proportion of what has been written since:— "As Venus was the 
 goddess of Beauty, of Love, and of Pleasure, it is no wonder that the poets 
 should be lavish in describing her. Nor were the ancient sculptors and 
 painters behind them when drawn by so inviting a subject. Phidias 
 formed her statue of ivory and gold, with one foot resting on a tortoise ; 
 which was designed to show that women should not go much abroad, but 
 attend their domestic concerns. This statue was at Elis. Scopas repre- 
 sented her riding on a he-goat^; and Praxiteles wrought her statue at 
 Cnidos of white marble, half opening her lips with a smile. ^ Apelles 
 painted her as just emerged from the sea, and pressing the water out of her 
 hair. This production was reckoned the perfection of art.* It were endless 
 
 1 BelVs New Pantheon, or Historical Dictionary of the Gods, Demi-Gods, Heroes, and! 
 Fab^dom Personages of Antiquity. London. 1790. 
 
 2 " Scopa's brazen Aphrodite Pandemos at Elis, sitting on a goat, formed a remarkable 
 contrast to Phidias' Urania with the tortoise, which was placed beside it." — Miiller's Ancient 
 Art, p. 97. 
 
 ^ "Praxiteles worked chiefly in marble, and for the most part preferred subjects from the 
 cycles of Dionysus, Aphrodite and Eros. ... It was Praxiteles who in several exquisite 
 statues of Eros represented in consummate flower the beauty and loveliness of that age in 
 boys which seemed to the Greeks the most attractive ; who in the unrobed Aphrodite 
 combined the utmost luxuriance of personal charms with a spiritual expression in which 
 the queen of love herself appeared as a woman needful of love, and filled with inward longing. 
 However admirable these works might be, yet in them the godlike majesty and sovereign 
 might, which the earlier sculptors had sought to express even in the forms of this cycle, gave 
 place to adoration of the corporeal attractions with which the deity was invested. The Kfe of 
 the artist with the Hetarse had certainly some influence in promoting this tendency ; many a 
 one of these courtesans filled all Greece with her fame, and really seemed to the artist, not 
 without reason, as an Aplirodite revealed to sense." — Miiller's Ancient Art, p. 99. 
 
 Before all, however, ranks the great ApeUes, who united the advantages of his native 
 Ionia — grace, sensual charms, and rich colouring — with the scientific severity of the Sicyonian 
 school. To his richly endowed mind was imparted charts, a quality which he himself avowed 
 as peculiarly his, and which serves to unite aU the other gifts and faculties which the painter 
 requires ; perhaps in none of his pictures was it exhibited in such perfection as in his famous 
 Anadyomene." — Miiller's Ancient Art, p. 117. It is supposed that Apelles took his mistress, 
 Campaspe, for his model in painting this picture, the beautifid woman given to him by 
 Alexander the Great. The Anadyomene stood originally in the Asolepieion in Cos, and was 
 
L APHRODITE OR VENUS ] 
 
 168 
 
 to enumerate the variety of attitudes in which Venus is represented on 
 antique gems and medals ; sometimes she is clothed in purple, glittering 
 with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle intermixed with roses, and 
 drawn in her car of ivory by swans, doves, or sparrows ; sometimes she has 
 a flaming torch in her bosom, and holds a bow, with arrows tipped with 
 pleasures and delights ; at other times she is represented standing with the 
 Graces attending her, and in all positions Cupid is her companion. The 
 statue called the Medicean Venus is the best figure of her which time has 
 preserved. 'Venus,' says the author of Polymetis, 'in general has one of the 
 prettiest, as Minerva has sometimes one of the handsomest, faces that can 
 be conceived. Her look, as she is represented by the ancient artists and 
 poets, has all the taking airs, wantonnesses, and graces, that they could 
 give it. Her shape is the most exact and elegant imaginable, all soft, and 
 full of tenderness. The fineness of her skin and beauty of her complexion 
 were so exquisite, that it was the masterpiece even of Apelles to express it 
 as it ought to be. Her eyes were either wanton, or quick, or languishing, 
 or insolent, according to the occasion, and her face and all her air agreed 
 with them. She is very frequently described too as having a treacherous 
 insulting smile on her face ; but however she appears, or whatever she is 
 doing, everything about her, and every little motion of her, is all graceful, 
 bewitching, and charming. The Venus of Medici has often put me in 
 mind of a passage in Statins ; for either the general tenderness and fine 
 proportions of her whole make, seen all at once, take a great deal from the 
 beauty of her face, or the head is really, as has been suspected by some, not 
 of the same artist who made the body. As to the latter, it will ever be the 
 standard of all female beauty and softness. When one looks on it, one is 
 apt to make the same exclamation with the servant in Plautus. One might 
 very well, with him too, insist particularly on the beauty of the breasts, 
 which in the statue itself are the finest that can be conceived : they are 
 small, distinct, and delicate to the highest degree, with an idea of softness 
 much beyond what anyone can conceive that has not seen the original ; for 
 all copies do her an injury, and prints more particularly ; and yet with all 
 that softness they have a firmness too. The Venus of Medici, with all her 
 finess of shape, has what the Eomans call corpus solidum, and the French 
 the embonpoint : her waist, in particular, is not represented as stinted by 
 art, but as exactly proportioned by nature to all the other parts of her 
 body. Venus, in all attitudes is graceful, but in no one more than in that 
 of the Venus of Medici, in which figure of her if she is not really modest, 
 she at least counterfeits modesty very well. There is a tenderness and 
 elegance in all her form ; her legs are neat and slender, the small of them 
 
 transferred to Eome by Augustus, and placed by him in the temple dedicated to Juhus. It 
 was almost totally faded in the time of PHny ; and not a vestige of it has come down to modern 
 times. It is mentioned with great praise by certain Eoman authors, both in prose and verse. 
 She is spoken of as just born from the sea foam, perfect in all her wondrous beauties of face 
 and form ; and with the water, as glistening dew-drops, on her humid body ; dis,tractingly 
 lovely, and with a winning smile. 
 
169 
 
 [ APHRODITE OR VENUS J 
 
 is finely rounded, and her very feet are little, white, and pretty. To return 
 to the eyes and look of Venus. Her face is turned away a little from you ; 
 this single article has given several people occasion to observe that there 
 are three difierent passions expressed in the air of the head of this Venus. 
 At your first approaching her, as she stands in the fine apartment assigned 
 to this figure in the Great Duke's gallery, you see aversion or denial in her 
 look ; move on but a step or two farther, and she has compliance in it ; and 
 one step more to the right they tell you turns into a little insidious 
 and insulting smile, such as any lady has when she plainly tells you by her 
 face that she has made a sure conquest of you. The moral of all this may 
 be very true and natural, but I think it is not justified by the statue itself; 
 for though I have paid perhaps a hundred visits to the Venus of Medici in 
 person, and have often considered her in this very view, I could never find 
 out the malicious sort of smile which your antiquaries talk so much of. 
 But whether this sort of smile be really on the face of the Venus of Medici 
 or not, Venus certainly was represented smiling in many of her figures of 
 old : such probably were the figures of the Venus Erycina, whom Horace 
 calls Erycina Ridens ; and such the Venus Appius, whom Ovid frequently 
 describes with a malicious sort of smile on her face, and as delighting in 
 little mischiefs. — As Venus had a little insidious smile in some of her 
 figures, so is she represented in a wheedling posture in others : such is 
 the design on the reverse of a medal of Marcus Aurelius, in which Venus 
 is begging some favour of Mars. It is inscribed Veneri Victrici, and so 
 may teach us, by the way, that this goddess carries her point whenever she 
 condescends to wheedle even the roughest of her admirers. There is a 
 statue of Venus with Mars, in the Great Duke's gallery at Florence, exactly 
 in the same attitude, and so, probably, were the figures of these two deities 
 which stood anciently before the temple of Mars Ultor, at Rome. The 
 goddess holds one hand round his neck, and the other on his breast, and 
 seems enticing to grant her request ; as the god, amidst all his sternness, 
 has an air of complying with her. She is represented in the same manner 
 with other people as well as Mars, both by the poets, and in the remains of 
 the ancient artists. There is another way of representing Venus, not 
 much to her honour, though very common among the Ancients ; this one 
 might call the Venus Desidiosa ; and possibly some of the figures of this 
 kind, which pass now with everybody for Venus, were originally meant for 
 the goddess Desidia. . . . The Venus I am speaking of is represented 
 as the Genius of Indolence, lying in a languid posture on a bed, and 
 generally attended by Cupids, as ready to receive her orders, and bring her 
 everything that she wants, that she may not be put to the intolerable 
 fatigue of standing up upon her feet. It is this Venus who makes her 
 appearance in one of the finest coloured pictures that is left us of the 
 Ancients, that in the Barbarini palace at Rome ; the hair of whose head may 
 be compared with Guido's, as the colouring of the flesh puts one in 
 mind of Titian. Part of this picture is lost, and part restored by Carlo 
 Marat. . . I have seen a very pretty representation of Venus yet more 
 
 Y 
 
[ APHRODITE OR VENUS ] 
 
 170 
 
 indolent than this ; it is on an ancient sepulchral lamp. Not only Venus 
 herself, but the Cupids about her are all fast asleep. . . . Indolence 
 is the mother of Love in a moral sense, as Venus is the mother of Cupid in 
 the allegorical ; it was therefore a very just thought to represent Venus 
 under this indolent character. We meet with a character of Venus, on 
 some particular occasions, quite opposite to this, and which seems to 
 regard her rather as the goddess of Jealousy than as the goddess of Love. 
 I do not remember ever to have seen any figure of her under this 
 character, and I believe there is not any description of it to be found 
 in any of the Koman poets before those of the third age, in which Valerius 
 Flaccus and Statins have drawn two very terrible pictures of her. . 
 It is on occasion of the cruel massacre, committed by the women of 
 Lemnos upon their husbands, that we see Venus described, both in 
 Flaccus and Statins, more like an infernal fury than the goddess of the 
 softer passions : her very shape as well as her look is changed by them ; 
 she appears large and strong, with a disturbed and furious air, in black 
 funereal robes, and armed with a torch, with a sword, and with serpents, 
 the distinguishing attributes of the Furies; indeed, she is so like them, and 
 so unlike herself, that were we to find her in this character on a relievo, one 
 should most probably mistake her for an Alecto or a Tisiphone. Who 
 would think of the goddess that polishes savages, and softens all the world, 
 under so strange and so horrid a disguise?" 
 
 According to Homer (II. xiv. 214) Aphrodite wore an embroidered zone 
 or girdle, which had the magic power of inspiring love towards the being 
 who wore it. It is fabled to have been borrowed by Hera to inspire Zeus 
 with languishing desires. 
 
 In the most ancient temples dedicated to Aphrodite, in the island of 
 Cyprus, she was represented by a rude conical stone, the true signification 
 of which is somewhat uncertain. Such an object might possibly be a 
 phallic emblem., and, in combination with other attendant emblems, would 
 not be altogether out of place in temples dedicated to the goddess of love 
 and passion, who also presided over the generation of mankind. 
 
 In addition to the common appellatives, numerous other denominations 
 or surnames have been given to this goddess. We here give the more 
 important ones, with brief remarks as to their origin. 
 
 AciDALiA, the goddess of love, generating inquietudes. According to 
 some authorities, the name is from Acidalus, a fountain in the city of 
 Orchomenos, where the Graces are said to have frequently bathed with 
 her. 
 
 Amiga, the Athenian name, given to Venus as the active agent in 
 joining lovers' hearts together. 
 
 Anadyomene, the name signifying emerging from the water ; the Marine 
 Venus, to whom sacrifices were specially ofi'ered by sailors and others 
 who escaped perils by sea. The great picture by Apelles was of this 
 goddess. 
 
 Anosia, the unrelenting. This name was given to the goddess under 
 
171 
 
 [ APHKODITE OR VENUS ] 
 
 the conviction of her determined spirit of revenge towards all who seriously 
 offended her. She is fabled to have destroyed a number of the Thessalians 
 to avenge the murder of Lais in her temple ; for this she was also called 
 Androphonos, or the Homicide. 
 
 Armata, the denomination given by the Lacedemonians, who believed 
 that it was through the instrumentality of Venus that their wives gained 
 the victory over the Messenians when besieged by them. 
 
 CvpRiA, Cypris, or Cyprogenia, from the island of Cyprus, which was 
 sacred to Venus as the spot where she first landed after her ocean birth. 
 
 Cythera, Cytherea, or Cytheris, from the island of Cythera, in the 
 Aegean sea, near to which Venus rose from the foaming waters, and to 
 which she was first wafted. A magnificent temple was erected to her 
 honour in this island, and dedicated to her under the title of Aphrodite 
 Urania, the Celestial Venus. 
 
 Erycina, from mount Eryx, in Sicily, upon which her fabled son, 
 Aeneas, erected a temple for her worship. 
 
 Genetrix, the name given to the goddess as the special deity presiding 
 over generation ; the goddess of lawful or wedded love. There is a statue 
 of Venus Genetrix preserved in the Louvre, at Paris. 
 
 HoRTENSis, the denomination given to Venus as the goddess superin- 
 tending the propagation of seeds and plants. 
 
 LiBENTiNA. There was a temple in Rome dedicated to Venus under this 
 title, in which the young women, when they reached maturity, consecrated 
 their toys, and formally abandoned the occupations and amusements of 
 childhood. 
 
 Marina, given to the goddess as the sea-born. The Venus de Medici 
 is a statue of the goddess in this character. 
 
 Melaenis, Melandia, Melanis, surnames of the goddess, given in 
 allusion to the shades of night, which favour Love's pleasures and the 
 happy meetings of lovers. 
 
 Meretrix, the name given to the goddess because she was believed 
 to have taught the women of Cyprus to sell their favours for money. 
 
 MiGNOTis, a name expressive of the skill and power of Venus in the 
 management of all difficult love afi'airs. 
 
 Myrtea, the epithet derived from the myrtle-tree, which was sacred 
 to Venus. 
 
 RiDENS, as the goddess of mirth and laughter. Venus was born 
 laughing, and was accordingly frequently called the goddess of joy and 
 mirth. 
 
 Urania, the Celestial Venus, whose worship was strictly chaste. 
 Phidias' statue, at Elis, was of the goddess under this character. 
 
 Verticordia, the name given to her as the possessor of unlimited 
 power over the heart. The Greeks called her Aphrodite Epistrophia. 
 
 ViCTRix, the name given to the goddess as the conqueror of the human 
 heart, which she unresistingly bends to her will by the power of love. It 
 is as Venus Victrix she appears before Paris, and wins the golden apple, 
 
[ APIAEY ] 
 
 172 
 
 and in the representations with Mars. Statues of this Venus are preserved 
 at Naples and Paris; the former, known as the Venus Victrix, of Capua, 
 is represented with a cupid ; the latter in the Louvre, is known as the 
 Venus Victrix, of Melos. 
 
 The attributes of Aphrodite are the dove, swan, sparrow, and the bird 
 called iynx ; the myrtle-tree, the apple, the rose, and a hand-mirror. She 
 is also represented with a dolphin, two cupids (Eros and Anteros), and a 
 vase belonging to the bath. 
 
 The following are the most important ancient statues in existence : — The 
 Venus de Medici, Gallery at Florence ; Venus of the Capitol ; Venus 
 Genetrix, Louvre ; Venus of Aries, Louvre ; Venus Callipygos, Naples ; 
 Venus Victrix of Capua, Naples ; Venus Victrix of Melos, Louvre ; Venus 
 of Ostia, British Museum ; Venus (Townley), British Museum ; Venus of 
 Menophantus, Chigi Palace, Kome ; Venus (crouching), Gallery at 
 Florence; and Venus (repetition of the Venus of the Capitol), British 
 Museum. 
 
 APIARY. A small house, shed, or covered stand, containing bee-hives. 
 There is a great variety of opinion amongst bee-masters as to the best 
 form and mode of constructing an apiary, but the differences are chiefly 
 confined to details, which are only diverse means of arriving at one result, 
 namely, a construction which will conveniently hold the number of hives 
 required, will amply protect them from the rain and gales, and the 
 extremes of heat and cold, and will be the least liable to admit and 
 harbour unfriendly insects, such as spiders, wasps, etc. The ordinary bee- 
 houses commonly consist of a wooden shed, raised a short distance from 
 the ground on legs, open altogether in the front, closed at back and ends, 
 and covered with a sloping roof of wood or thatch. A great improvement 
 upon this simple affair is arrived at by having the back made to open in 
 two or more doors, and the front enclosed by fall-down shutters, provided 
 with oblong openings at their lower edge, next the landing-board, for the 
 entrance of the bees. The hives should be placed in one tier, and the 
 house made large enough to admit of its being readily brushed out without 
 disturbing the hives. 
 
 Probably the most convenient, efficient, and inexpensive apiary yet intro- 
 duced is that described by The Times Bee-master.* The shed I prefer is 
 as follows : — Let it be twelve feet six inches in length, six feet in height, 
 and two feet six inches in depth. Let it be made of good, strong, smooth 
 deal. Divide it into six equal compartments, divided off from each other. 
 Let the roof also be made of smooth deal, covered first with Croggon's 
 patent felt; and laid over the felt, and nailed down, let there be zinc plates, 
 projecting six or eight inches in front. Let an opening three inches wide 
 extend along the front from end to end, with a continuous landing-board 
 projecting beneath it, and sloping down at an angle of twenty-five degrees. 
 
 * Bee-keeping, by ," The Times " Bee-master, London, 1864. 
 
173 
 
 [ APIS ] 
 
 The floor should be about a foot or eighteen inches above the level of the 
 ground, and perfectly smooth. Behind let there be three doors, with 
 hinges attached to the floor, falling back when open, and thereby forming 
 a pleasant platform, when laid down and resting on the ground, for the bee- 
 master to watch and study, and deprive, and otherwise fulfil his mission. 
 I have found from experience that the smoother the surfaces of the bee- 
 shed inside, the less they are liable to the operations of the spider, one of 
 the greatest pests of bee-houses." To make this description, in the absence 
 of drawings, rather more intelligible, we may add that the roof slopes 
 towards the front, and hence its required projection there. We cannot 
 help thinking that the roof should incline towards the back, to avoid, as much 
 as possible, droppings falling on the landing-board. Neighbour's apiaries 
 are so roofed. The "three-inch wide" opening above the landing-board is 
 really a three-inch high opening, extending the whole length of the front, 
 and filled in with six neatly-fitting shutters, one for every compartment. 
 In the centre of the lower edge of each of these shutters a thin oblong piece 
 is cut out to form the entrance-way for the bees to the enclosed hives. The 
 back shutters only require to be about three feet high, the upper part being 
 boarded up. The shutters should be secured by strong padlocks to prevent 
 the hives being lifted by thieves. 
 
 With reference to the best position of an apiary. The Times Bee-master 
 aptly remarks : — "I prefer three of these bee-sheds, located in different parts 
 of my garden, to one very large shed with under and upper tiers of hives : 
 this makes less likelihood of confusion in swarming. I do not like the 
 sheds to be placed under large trees, the drippings of which tend to create 
 damp. . . Under and immediately around the hive should be closely- 
 mowed grass. The front of the hive is best due south, and, if convenient, 
 with an inclination to the east.* . . Do not place your bee-shed at a 
 great distance from the house : bees are civilised and domestic." For full 
 particulars relative to the construction and forms of the most suitable 
 hives, not the least important parts of an apiary, we refer our readers to 
 the manual we have above quoted from, where also will be found directions 
 for the construction of water- vessels, feeding-pans, and the other accesso- 
 ries of an apiary. 
 
 Apiaeium is the name given by the Romans to the garden in which 
 the apiary was placed. 
 
 APIS. In Egyptian mythology, the sacred bull. He was worshipped 
 chiefiy at Memphis, where a temple was erected in his honour, and a 
 college of priests established to maintain his worship with full ceremonial. 
 The bull-god is usually found represented in a natural form, and some- 
 times carries on his head a disc representing the moon, clasped by his 
 horns, which are understood to represent the crescent at two days old. 
 On his forehead is placed the sacred asp. 
 
 * Eichardson, in his Work on Bee-keeping, says a south-westerly aspect is best. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 174 
 
 A P LUSTRE. (Lat.) In ancient naval architecture, an ornamental 
 appendage, constructed of wood, placed at the stern of vessels, and 
 forming the highest portion of the poop. In the representations of ships, 
 met with on bas-reliefs, coins, gems, and other works of antique art, the 
 aplustre assumes several shapes, the most common being that of a group 
 of curved members attached at a part near the vessel, and spreading 
 fan-ways as they curve inwards over the gubernator. The point of junction 
 between the stern-post and the aplustre is in nearly all cases shown 
 covered with a circular disc or shield. The aplustre formed one of the 
 characteristic ornaments introduced in the sculptured decorations of the 
 temples dedicated to Neptune. It was also accepted as the emblem of a 
 naval victory. Numerous representations exist in antique sculptures, as 
 on the Trajan column. The term is sometimes written Aplusteum, and 
 in Greek Aphlaston (a^jAao-rov). 
 
 APOCALYPSE. The mysterious scenes of the Revelation of St. John 
 the Divine, as might be surmised, were not overlooked by the early and 
 mediaeval artists ; and, notwithstanding the almost insuperable difficulties 
 which beset their representation, they became favourite subjects after the 
 eleventh century, and frequently appeared in the more elaborate schemes 
 of church decoration. M. Viollet-le-Duc, who, it is to be regretted, does 
 not devote more than fifteen lines to this important subject in his invalu- 
 able Dictionary, very justly remarks that " the Apocalypse does not lend 
 itself to sculpture, but in revenge opens up a wide field to painting." We 
 are not aware that anything approaching a complete series of Apocalyptic 
 scenes has ever been attempted by the sculptors of any period, the most 
 important work in this direction being that presented by the right-hand 
 portal of the grand western triplet of Reims cathedral ; here, although 
 very incomplete, the Apocalypse is represented by about two hundred and 
 sixty-five figures. In a late work (1541), the tomb of Jean de Langheac, 
 bishop of Limoges, are several scenes, carefully sculptured in bas-relief. 
 It is in the mural paintings, illuminated manuscripts, and stained glass of 
 the middle ages, that we find scenes from the Apocalypse most frequently 
 introduced. In the churches of the Eastern monasteries on Mount Athos 
 and elsewhere the greatest profusion of paintings exists, and amongst 
 them the series of Apocalyptic subjects are commonly to be found, all 
 executed in one style and in strict accordance with the canons of Greek 
 Christian art, which know no change. We are most fortunate in possess- 
 ing a complete and perfectly reliable directorium of Greek art, written by a 
 painter of Mount Athos, named Panselinos, in the eleventh century, but 
 its possession only makes us regret that such an ancient work does not 
 exist with reference to western Christian art, as practised during the 
 culminating epochs of the middle ages. We can certainly, from the 
 numerous examples still preserved at home and abroad, compile a tolerably 
 complete summary of the modes of representing the scriptural and 
 legendary subjects in favour amongst the sculptors and painters of the 
 
175 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE J 
 
 middle ages ; aud it is with the view of assisting towards so desirable 
 a work that we devote so much space in the present dictionary to subjects 
 which are purely artistic. 
 
 The per ishable nature of mural painting has prevented any very impor- 
 tant early works reaching our time in a satisfactory state : and, indeed, 
 only isolated examples of paintings executed on the walls of our western 
 churches prior to the fifteenth century are in existence at all. In the crypt 
 of the cathedral of Auxerre there appears to have been painted a fine 
 series of subjects from the Eevelation, but only two subjects are preserved.' 
 In one of these is depicted God in Glory, surrounded by the evangehstic 
 creatures, and having on His right and left candelabra with seven 
 branches. In the other subject Christ is depicted mounted on a horse, 
 and placed between four angels, also on horseback. These paintings are 
 believed to have been executed at the close of the twelfth century. 
 Paintings, of the beginning of the twelfth century, exist in the porch 
 of the church of St. Savin, in Poitou, and display several scenes from the 
 Apocalypse. We have not been able to ascertain if any remains of middle- 
 age paintings of subjects from the Eevelation have been discovered in the 
 churches of this country. The only trace of anything approaching them 
 exists in a fourteenth century painting in the chapter-house of Westminster 
 abbey. Eastlake, in his History of Oil Painting, says of this work : - 
 " The general subject of this representation, therefore, is Christ, surrounded 
 by the Christian virtues : but many particulars correspond with descrip- 
 tions in the beginning of the book of the Revelation." In the representa- 
 tions of Christ in Glory, and in the subjects which surround the great 
 figures of our Lord, in the eastern ends of certain early churches in Italy, 
 we often find some objects introduced which have been derived from the 
 Apocalypse. For instance, in the ninth century mosaics on the eastern 
 wall of the church of St. Prassede, at Rome, is depicted, in the centre 
 above the arch of the tribune, the lamb lying upon a sort of altar, from 
 the back part of which rises a small Latin cross ; seven burning lamps 
 are arranged adjoining, three on one side and four on the other ; and on 
 the same line, in the lateral spaces, are four angels, and the four evan- 
 gelistic animals carrying closed books. Below, in the spandrils, are 
 delineated the four-and-twenty elders, approaching with their crowns as if 
 to cast them before the lamb. On the semi-dome of the tribune is 
 a large standing figure of our Lord, with SS. Peter and Paul, and 
 four other saints. Although there is no attempt here to give a literal 
 rendering of the first scene of the Apocalypse, enough has been done to 
 express the mysteries of heaven and the adoration of the lamb, as 
 revealed to St. John. The most interesting series of Apocalyptic subjects, 
 in the shape of mural and vault pictures, are those executed in mosaic in 
 the western division of the interior of the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice. 
 It is a rather remarkable fact that, notwithstanding its Byzantine origin, 
 
 1 Didron (1845). 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 176 
 
 the iconography of the cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, does not 
 comprise one subject from the Apocalypse. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of works in stained glass, and in 
 them we find the most complete representation of the more important 
 subjects from the Eevelation. The great rose windows so frequently intro- 
 duced by the French architects in their churches, presented, of all forms, 
 those most suitable for the display of scenes which, though diversified, 
 had a common relation to one central figure, and which, though numerous 
 in themselves, formed but one scheme of revelation. The two most perfect 
 rose windows of this description are the western one of the church of Notre 
 Dame, at Mantes (Seine-et-Oise), executed in the thirteenth century, and 
 the rose of the Sainte-Chapelle, at Paris, executed towards the end of the 
 fifteenth century. Speaking of these interesting works, M. VioUet-le-Duc 
 says that, in the Mantes rose, " the visions of St. John are reproduced with 
 remarkable energy ; " and in that of the Sainte-Chapelle " the same subjects 
 are rendered with excessive delicacy." In the southern rose of the cathe- 
 dral of Chartres the subject is the Grlorification of Jesus Christ, and in it 
 we find many features derived directly from the Apocalypse. A short 
 description of this window is given later on, under Subject II. 
 
 In the remaining portion of this article we give the complete series of 
 subjects or scenes which have been pictorially translated from the words of 
 the Revelation ; their modes of representation, chiefly according to Greek 
 art, in relation to which the work of Panselinos is an absolute authority ; 
 remarks, where advisable, relative to the Latin examples and modes of 
 treatment ; and, lastly, the text from which both the Greek and Latin 
 artists compiled their subjects. The student will, therefore, have no 
 difficulty in following the artistic rendering of the Apocalypse from its 
 beginning to its end. 
 
 Subject I. The first subject, taken from the opening chapter of 
 the Revelation,^ was usually represented in close adherence to the text 
 by both the eastern and western artists during the middle ages. According 
 to the traditions of Greek art, it presents a cave or grotto in which the 
 figure of St. John is seated, as if in an ecstacy, and intently gazing behind 
 him at a vision which illuminates the dark recesses of the grotto. This 
 vision consists of a figure of Christ, wearing a long white robe, girt about 
 with a golden girdle, with seven stars in His right hand, and with a two- 
 edged sword issuing from His mouth. Around the figure are seven golden 
 candlesticks or lamps, and a bright radiance is represented as emanating 
 
 1 TEXT. — I John, was in the isle that is called Patmos. I was in the spirit, and heard 
 behind me a great voice, as of a trumpet, saying, I am Alpha and Omega, the first and the 
 last; and, what thou seest, write in a book. I turned and saw seven golden candlesticks ; and 
 in the midst one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt 
 about the paps with a golden girdle. He had in his right hand seven stars : and out of his 
 mouth went a sharp two-edged sword : and his countenance was as the sun shineth in his 
 strength. The mystery of the seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand, and the seven 
 golden candlesticks. The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches : and the seven 
 candlesticks wliich thou sawest are the seven churches. — Eev. i. 9-20. 
 
177 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 from His countenance. The whole is surrounded with clouds. In 
 western art the treatment is in all essentials similar. The " two-edged 
 sword " is, however, represented in two ways; at least the artists have 
 adopted two readings of the text. In one, the sword is double-edged, and 
 held in the mouth of the Deity, as in a stained- glass window in the 
 cathedral of Bourges ; in the other, two swords are introduced issuing right 
 and left from the divine mouth, as in a sculpture inserted in one of the 
 lateral walls of the cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris. The single sword 
 is usually represented proceeding towards the left, or the side opposite to 
 the stars which are held by the right hand. Didron mentions an interest- 
 ing example of the Apocalyptic sword, and the probable significance 
 intended in its direction towards the left. This example is in the glass of 
 the old collegiate church of Champeaux, near Melun. The subject is that 
 of Christ judging the world, and the sword issues from the divine mouth 
 towards the left hand, or the quarter of the damned ; whilst towards the 
 right, or quarter of the blessed, a branch, covered with lilies, proceeds from 
 the mouth. The symbolism here is obvious. 
 
 Subject II. The materials for this subject are taken from the fourth 
 and fifth chapters, ^ and they are thus combined according to the directions 
 of the Greek Church : — In the upper part of the composition is a figure of 
 God the Father seated upon a throne, and bearing in His right hand a 
 book sealed with seven seals. Extending below and around the throne is 
 an expanse representing the sea of glass ; and in front of the throne are 
 placed seven burning lamps and the four symbolic creatures — tetramorphs, 
 with six wings and covered with eyes. On each side are twelve aged 
 figures, clothed in robes of white and wearing crowns of gold. These 
 four and twenty elders are seated on golden thrones, and hold in their 
 right hands golden vessels— -the vials full of odours — and in their left 
 harps. Before the throne, and in the centre of the composition, is 
 delineated a lamb, with seven horns, seven eyes, and a wound in its side, 
 and with its fore-feet placed on the book held by the Father ; and under- 
 
 ^ TEXT. — I looked, and, behold, a door was opened in heaven. And immediately I was in 
 the spirit : and, behold, a throne was set in heaven, and one sat on the throne. There was a 
 rainbow round about the tlnrone ; and round about the throne were four and twenty seats ; and 
 upon the seats I saw four and twenty elders sitting, clothed in white raiment ; and they had on 
 their heads crowns of gold. And there were seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, 
 which are the seven Spirits of God. Before the throne there was a sea of glass like unto 
 crystal : and rormd about the throne were four beasts full of eyes before and behind. The 
 first beast was like a lion, the second hke a calf, the tliird had a face as a man, and the 
 fourth was like a flying eagle. And the four beasts had each of them six wings about him ; 
 and they were full of eyes within. And I saw in the right hand of him that sat on the throne 
 a book, sealed with seven seals. And I saw a strong angel proclaiming. Who is worthy to open 
 the book, and to loose the seals thereof ? And I beheld, and, lo, in the midst of the throne 
 and of the four beasts, and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as it had been slain, 
 having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven Spirits of God sent forth into all 
 the earth. And he came and took the book out of the right hand of him that sat upon the 
 throne. And when he had taken the book, the four beasts and four and twenty elders fell 
 down before the Lamb, having every one of them harps, and golden vials full of odours, 
 which are the prayers of saints. — Eev. iv. 1-8 ; v. 1-8. 
 
 Z 
 
r APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 178 
 
 neath the throne is represented a large angel, winged, and with arms 
 extended, as if "proclaiming, with a loud voice. Who is worthy to open the 
 book, and to loose the seals thereof ? " 
 
 The most important object in this complicated subject is the divine 
 lamb ; and in western art it is sometimes represented alone, with one or 
 more feet placed on a book with seven seals, as in a miniature in a manu- 
 script copy of the Apocalypse (thirteenth century), preserved in the Biblio- 
 theque de I'Arsenal, at Paris, where the lamb is represented standing on 
 three legs, the right fore-leg being placed on a book, supported on a low 
 stand, and with seven lozenge-shaped seals on its upper cover. The lamb 
 has seven twisted horns radiating from its head, seven eyes, one in the head 
 and six in the neck, and a dripping wound in the side. In a thirteenth 
 century window in the Cathedral of Auxerre, the lamb is represented 
 standing upon the book with the seven seals. The sacred text supplies 
 us with the symbolism of the seven horns and eyes ; they are the 
 seven Spirits of God — power, riches, wisdom, strength, honour, glory, 
 and blessing. 
 
 A representation of the entire subject is to be found in late glass (1614), 
 in a nave window of the church of St. Etienne du Mont. In the south 
 rose of Chartres cathedral, the subject of which is the Glorification of 
 Jesus Christ, certain features of the subject are incorporated. The 
 contents of the window may be briefly described thus :— In the centre is a 
 figure of Christ, seated on a throne, between two lights, and giving His 
 benediction to the world with His right hand ; in His left hand is a chalice. 
 The first circle of medallions contains the four mystic animals, and eight 
 angels with thuribles ; the two other circles contain the twenty-four elders 
 of the Apocalypse, seated on thrones, and holding instruments of music, 
 and the vials filled with odours. The twenty-four elders are also to 
 be seen, in the same cathedral, sculptured in the south porch ; and 
 in the west portal of the church of St. Denis, and the cathedral of 
 Reims. Occasionally one finds the elders represented with difierent 
 forms of stringed instruments, as the fancy or knowledge of the artist 
 dictated. 
 
 Subject III. This subject is taken from the first half of the sixth 
 chapter,^ and is, in Greek art, delineated thus : — A tract of mountainous 
 country ; in the foreground are figures of human beings, some lying 
 prostrate, apparently dead, and others alive, but crouching in great terror. 
 Above them is a man, seated on a white horse, carrying a crown and a bow. 
 Behind him is another man, mounted on a red horse, holding a large sword. 
 
 1 TEXT. — When the Lamb opened one of the seals, I saw, and behold a white horse ; and 
 he that sat on him had a bow ; and a crown was given unto him ; and he went forth conquer- 
 ing, and to conquer. And when he had opened the second seal, there went out another horse 
 that was red ; and to him that sat thereon was given a great sword. And when he had 
 opened the tliird seal, I beheld, and lo a black horse ; and he that sat on him had a pair of 
 balances in his hand. And when he had opened the fourth seal, I looked, and behold a pale 
 horse ; and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. — Bev. vi. 1-8. 
 
179 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 Behind him again is a third man. riding on a black horse, and holding a 
 pair of scales. And lastly, the figure of Death, mounted on a pale green 
 horse, and carrying a scythe. 
 
 These four dreadful horsemen, the instruments of the justice and 
 vengeance of God, are, in western art, treated, as a rule, with close 
 adherence to the sacred text; the last one, however, is occasionally portrayed 
 in different shapes, amongst which, of course, a skeleton is included. 
 Didron informs us that on the tomb of Jean de Langheac, at Limoges, 
 where there are admirable sculptures of the four. Death is represented in 
 the form of a female of unearthly thinness, with a bandage over her eyes. 
 What authority the Greeks had for assuming the colour of the " pale 
 horse " to be green it is difficult to imagine, for green has ever been the 
 most obvious emblem of youth and spring life. The colour commonly 
 employed, however, is a green of a sallow, sickly tone, probably intended to 
 personify the pallid hue of death. In a window of the church of Saint- 
 Martin-es-Vignes, at Troyes, the third cavalier is mounted on a violet 
 instead of a black horse ; but, in ecclesiastical art, violet has ever been^ 
 recognised as the equivalent of black ; and it is obvious that the artist 
 adopted it in his glass on account of its transparency ; black glass would 
 simply have produced a most inartistic opaque mass. 
 
 Subject IV. This subject is confined to the opening of the fifth seal, ^ 
 and is represented in the following simple manner : — An altar, and under- 
 neath small figures clothed in white — the souls of the martyrs — with their 
 eyes and hands directed upwards ; on each side are angels which have 
 charge over them. 
 
 This subject was, as might be expected, a favourite one with Christian 
 artists, for it was an unmistakable record of the glorification of the 
 martyrs and those who suffered for the Faith. A beautiful sculpture of it is 
 to be seen on one of the buttresses of the west portals of the cathedral of 
 Reims, where the souls of the blessed are represented as little naked 
 infants, without sex, holding their arms towards God. 
 
 Subject V. The opening of the sixth seal ^ presented great difficulties 
 to the mediaeval artists, not only on account of the fearful scene it 
 displays, but also from the imperative demands it imposed upon their 
 limited powers of expressing motion. How were they to represent the 
 heavens departing as a scroll when it is rolled together ? We shall see. 
 
 ^ TEXT. — And when he had opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of them 
 that were slain for the word of God, and for the testhnony which they held. And white robes 
 were given unto them. — Eev. vi. 9, 11. 
 
 2 TEXT. — I beheld when He had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earth- 
 quake ; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood ; and 
 the stars of heaven fell unto the earth ; and the heaven departed as a scroU when it is rolled 
 together ; and every mountain and island were moved out of their places. And the kings 
 of the earth, and the great men, and the rich men, and the chief captains, and the mighty 
 men, and every bondman, and every freeman, liid themselves in the dens and in the rocks of 
 the mountains ; and said, Fall on us, and hide us from the face of him that sitteth on the throne, 
 and from the wrath of the Lamb, for the great day of liis wrath is come. — Eev. vi. 12-17. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 180 
 
 The subject is, according to the directions of PanseHnos, of Mount Athos, 
 thus depicted : — Masses of mountains and rocks in deep gloom, with great 
 crowds of men of all denominations, from the king to the slave, crouching 
 as if hiding themselves in caverns and fissures of the rocks. Above, the 
 sky resembling a scroll partially unrolled ; the sun as a black orb, and the 
 moon of the colour of blood ; and stars shown falling upon the earth. 
 
 A magnificent painting of this subject decorates the west wall of the 
 principal church of the Panagia-Phaneromeni, in the island of Kolouri 
 (anciently Salamis). In it a large angel is depicted bearing the heavens 
 as a long banner, upon which are painted the sun, moon, and stars, and 
 appears in the act of rolling it together. In flat, decorative painting, 
 where the chief aim of the artist is to record a fact or an event in the most 
 direct manner — and not, as in some essays of modern art, to attempt to 
 represent that which the human mind is incapable of realising — such 
 simple expedients as were resorted to by the devout artists of old, which 
 went no further than translating into form the written words of revelation, 
 and showing a simple faith in every line, must be looked upon with respect, 
 and not as ludicrous specimens of incapacity. Has an artist ever lived, 
 or will one ever be born, who will be one whit more truthful or more 
 expressive than the middle-age artists of Greece, in essaying to put on 
 wall or canvas the opening of the sixth seal ; and, by masses of coiling, 
 tumbling clouds, attempting to improve upon the written words: — "And 
 the heaven departed as a scroll when it is rolled together " ? 
 
 Subject VI. The text, from which this subject is taken,^ has been 
 almost literally translated into form by the middle-age artists. The earth 
 is represented as a square, with the sea, and trees growing upon the land. 
 At the four corners are placed personifications of the winds, near to which 
 are four angels armed with swords, keeping the winds from blowing upon 
 the earth. In the eastern quarter an angel is depicted borne upon clouds, 
 carrying in one hand the seal of Glod,^ and extending the other hand 
 towards the angels which have charge over the winds. Underneath all 
 this is another angel marking on the forehead a vast multitude of human 
 beings. 
 
 Didron gives a very interesting note with reference to the several modes 
 of representing the four winds, and the different names given to them. As 
 his Manuel d'iconographie Chretienne is now a very rare work, and few 
 libraries in this country contain copies, we consider it advisable to give the 
 note for reference. 
 
 "Le pastoral de saint Gregoire, manuscrit carlovingien qui est a I'eveche d'Auttin, 
 appelle les quatre vents en latin : Oriens, Auster, Occidens, Aquilo ; en grec : 
 
 ^ TEXT. — After these things I saw four angels standing on the four corners of the earth, 
 holding the four winds of the earth, that the wind should not blow on the earth, nor on the 
 sea, nor on any tree. And I saw another angel ascending from the east, having the seal of 
 the living God : and he cried with a loud voice to the four angels, saying, Hurt not the earth, 
 till we have sealed the servants of our God in their foreheads. — Eev. vii. 1-3. 
 
 2 An illustration of the seal is given in article Angel, page 113. 
 
181 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE J 
 
 Anatolis, Missimbria, Dissis ou Dyssis, Arctos. lis sont en buste, ayant a la tete 
 deux ailes elevees ; ils soufflent de larges bouffees de vent. A Eeims, dans nn 
 manuscrit de la fin du XII siecle, on voit la personnification de I'air, touchant 
 des pieds et des mains aux quatre vents qui sont nommes : Eurus, Auster, Ze^phyrus, 
 Aquilo. Oe sont des tetes ailees et soufflantes ; trois sont barbues et le Zephyre seul 
 est imberbe. On trouve dans les Annales arclieologiques, vol. I., Uv. II., une gravure 
 et un article ou sont dessiues et decrits ces quatre vents et cette personnification de 
 Fair. Au convent de Vatopedi, dans le mont Atlios, les quatre vents sont peints a 
 fresque dans un Jugement dernier, et portent le nom de TLowtvTis, Notos, Ze(f)vpos, 
 Bopeas. Le seul Notus est vieux et imberbe. Pour le Zephyre, la vieiUesse et la 
 barbe peuvent lui convenir, quoique ce nom de Zephyre rappeUe un petit vent 
 frais, matinal et naissant. Malgre tout, ce vent de I'occident, vent du point ou le soleU 
 se couche, ou la journee vieiUe s'acheve et meurt, le Zephyre, peut avoir de la barbe 
 et un grand age ; mais on comprend moins ces attributs donnes au Notus, au vent du 
 midi. 
 
 " A la cathedrale de Eeims, les vents ont la forme de masques antiques ; ils ne sont 
 ni en buste, comme sur le Pastoral de saint Gregoire, ni en tete, comme dans le 
 dessia du manuscrit de Eeims et la peintm-e du convent de Vatopedi, mais seulement 
 en face. Les anges qui tiennent ces masques, quoique ailes, ont ete pris par certains 
 antiquaires pour des representations de sainte Veronique ; ces gros vents joufflus et 
 soufflant des tempetes ont passe sans difficulte pour figurer la face de Jesus-Christ." 
 
 Subject VII. This subject is taken from the latter half of the seventh 
 chapter/ and is thus delineated according to Greek traditional art : — In 
 the centre is a figure of the Eternal Father seated upon a throne, and 
 before Him is the lamb opening the book of the Gospels, which rests on His 
 knees. Round the throne are placed the four tetramorphs and the nine 
 choirs of angels. Below the throne there is an immense crowd of people of 
 all denominations, clad in white, and carrying palms in their hands. On 
 each side of the throne are ranged the four-and-twenty elders ; and near to 
 them is depicted St. John, whose attention is directed towards the crown of 
 saints by the elder nearest to him. The entire composition is surrounded 
 with clouds, which confine the radiance issuing from the throne. 
 
 This subject is strictly the Adoration of the Lamb, in western art ; and 
 when represented the Father is seldom introduced in person; His presence 
 is usually indicated by a hand issuing from clouds and in the act of 
 blessing the lamb, which is the central object ; or by the symbol of the 
 Divine Spirit — a dove — as in the celebrated picture of the Adoration of the 
 Lamb, by Van Eyck, preserved in the cathedral of St. Bavon, at Ghent. 
 
 Subject VIII. The opening of the seventh seal was a difficult and 
 rather complex subject even for the graphic skill of the mediaeval artists ; 
 but, taking the directions of the Mount Athos master as an exponent of 
 
 1 TEXT. — I beheld, and, lo, a great multitude, which no man could number, of all nations, 
 and kindreds, and tongues, stood before the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed with white 
 robes, and palms in their hands. And all the angels stood round about the throne, and about 
 the elders and the foiu: beasts. And one of the elders answered, saying unto me, What are 
 these which are arrayed in white robes ? And he said to me, These are they which came out 
 of great tribulation, and have washed their robes, and made them white ia the blood of the 
 Lamb. Therefore are they before the throne of God, and serve him day and night in his 
 temple. — Bev. vii. 9-15. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 182 
 
 the most orthodox mode of rendering it, we cannot find fault on the 
 grounds of any grave departure from the text. ^ It is thus represented : — 
 A figure of the Eternal Father, robed in white, and seated upon a throne : 
 near Him are seven angels bearing trumpets; and before Him another 
 angel carrying a golden censer, with the smoke of the incense issuing from 
 it. Above all these is the sky, with the sun and moon one third darkened ; 
 and a number of stars, one third of which are black. Underneath the 
 censing angel is another angel bearing the inscription, " Woe, woe, to the 
 inhabitants of the earth when the trumpets of the remaining three angels 
 shall sound." Below the above composition are depicted the various 
 results of the sounding of the first, second and third trumpets ; waves 
 mingled with fire, a mountain therein devoured with flames, ships and 
 boats wrecked and engulphed ; beyond, land, with trees and plants on fire, 
 and a river, in the middle of which a large star has fallen, and on the banks 
 of which men are lying dead, while others are represented drinking its 
 bitter waters. 
 
 Subject IX. The materials for this subject, which immediately follows 
 the preceding, and is in reality a continuation thereof, are taken from the 
 first half of the ninth chapter."' According to the Greek formula, it is thus 
 depicted : — Clouds, below which is an angel, holding a key in his hand, 
 
 1 TEXT.— When he had opened the seventh seal, there was silence in heaven ahout the space 
 of half an hour. And I saw the seven angels which stood before God ; and to them were given 
 seven trumpets. And another angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer ; and 
 there was given unto him much incense, that he should offer it upon the golden altar which 
 was before the tlirone. And the seven angels which had the seven trumpets prepared them- 
 selves to sound. The first angel sounded, and there followed hail and fire mingled with 
 blood, and they were cast upon the earth : and the third part of trees was burnt up, and all 
 green grass was burnt up. And the second angel sounded, and as it were a great mountain 
 burning with fire was cast into the sea : and the third part of the sea became blood ; and the 
 third part of the creatures which were in the sea, and had life, died ; and the third part of the 
 ships were destroyed. And the third angel sounded, and there fell a great star from heaven, 
 burning as it were a lamp, and it fell upon the third part of the rivers, and upon the fountains 
 of waters ; and many men died of the waters, because they were made bitter. And the fourth 
 angel sounded, and the third part of the sun was smitten, and the third part of the moon, and 
 the third part of the stars ; so as the third part of them was darkened. And I beheld, and 
 heard an angel flying through the midst of heaven, saying. Woe, woe, woe, to the inhabiters 
 of the earth. — Kev. viii. 1-13. 
 
 2 TEXT. — The fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fall from heaven unto the earth : and 
 to him was given the key of the bottomless pit. And he opened the bottomless pit ; and 
 there arose a smoke out of the pit, as the smoke of a great furnace ; and the sun and the air 
 were darkened by reason of the smoke of the pit. And there came out of the smoke locusts 
 upon the earth : and unto them was given power, as the scorpions of the earth have power. 
 And it was commanded them that they should not hurt the grass of the earth, neither any 
 green thing, neither any tree ; but only those men which have not the seal of God in their 
 foreheads. And to them it was given that they should not kill them, but that they should be 
 tormented : and their torment was as the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man. And 
 the shapes of the locusts were like imto horses prepared unto battle ; and on their heads were 
 as it were crowns like gold, and their faces were as the faces of men. And they had hair as 
 the hair of women, and their teeth were as the teeth of lions. And they had breastplates, 
 as it were breastplates of iron ; and the soimd of their wings was as the sound of chariots. 
 And they had tails like unto scorpions, and there were stings in their tails. And they had a 
 king over them, which is the angel of the bottomless pit.— Bev. ix. 1-11, 
 
183 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE J 
 
 looking down, and blowing a trumpet. Underneath is a deep pit, from 
 which smoke ascends, obscuring the air and the sun, which is represented 
 in the upper part of the composition. In the smoke is a star, fallen from 
 heaven. Issuing from the pit and the smoke are animals with men's 
 heads and women's hair ; their teeth are like those of lions ; they have 
 golden crowns on their heads, and wear breastplates of iron. They have 
 tails resembling those of scorpions, with stings at their ends ; and they 
 have wings in the form of shields. On each side of the pit are mountains, 
 in the caves of which men are hiding themselves. 
 
 The treatment of this subject is of the greatest simplicity, and could not 
 fail to bring to the mind of the observer the mysterious passage in the 
 Apocalypse, of which it is a literal translation in form. 
 
 Although our space is very limited, we cannot resist the temptation to 
 give here a brief description of a most interesting miniature of this 
 subject, which is contained in a twelfth century manuscript Commentary 
 on the Apocalypse, in the library of the late M. Ambrose Didot. 
 
 The miniature is a square, divided horizontally into three divisions ; 
 the upper one, representing the heavens, is studded with stars ; the middle 
 one represents the darkened air, and the lower one the earth. The prin- 
 cipal object in the heavens is a large angel, looking downwards and blowing 
 a trumpet ; he is winged and invested with the nimbus. Close to him is 
 a dark orb, the obscured sun. Underneath the sun, and in the earth, is a 
 circular pit, vomiting smoke which ascends to the sun ; and in the 
 recesses of tha pit is depicted a figure carrying a key, and alongside it 
 the fallen star. Distributed over the remaining portions of the miniature 
 are five figures of men in different postures, and five beasts, like frogs in 
 shape, covered w4th scaly mail, with long tails and crowned heads. Each 
 beast is delineated in the act of stinging one of the men with its tail. 
 The whole composition is flat, quaint, and rude, but wonderfully graphic. 
 
 Subject X. This subject is taken from the latter half of the ninth chap- 
 ter,^ and is thus treated in accordance with the directions of Panselinos : — 
 The sky, under which is depicted the Eternal Father, robed in white, and 
 seated upon a throne. Before Him a golden altar ; and on His right hand 
 an angel, looking down and blowing a trumpet. At the bottom of the 
 composition is shown the earth and mountains, with four angels destroying 
 human beings ; and between the angels a crowd of soldiers on horseback, 
 
 1 TEXT. — The sixth angel sounded, and I heard a voice from the four horns of the golden 
 altar which is before God, saying to the sixth angel which had the trumpet, Loose the four 
 angels which are bound in the great river Euplirates. And the four angels were loosed, for to 
 slay the third part of men. And the number of the army of the horsemen were two hundred 
 thousand thousand. And thus I saw the horses in the vision, and them that sat on them, 
 having breastplates of fire, and of jacinth, and brimstone : and the heads of the horses were as 
 the heads of lions ; and out of their mouths issued fire and smoke and brimstone. By these 
 three was the third part of men killed, by the fire, and by the smoke, and by the brimstone, 
 which issued out of their mouths. For their power is in their mouth, and in their tails : for 
 their tails were like unto serpents, and had heads, and with them they do hurt. — Eev. 
 ix. 13-19. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 184 
 
 wearing breastplates of the colour of fire, and helmets of iron. Their 
 horses have lions' heads, and tails like serpents, terminating in heads, 
 out of the mouths of which issue fire and smoke. Under their feet are 
 men lying killed, while others are running away and looking behind 
 them in great terror. 
 
 Subject XI. This subject, which is not so elaborate in its composition 
 as those preceding, is taken from the tenth chapter, ^ and is thus 
 represented: — Above, the sky; beneath, land on one side and the sea 
 on the other. A large angel, partly covered with a cloud, standing upright 
 in the centre, with feet as of fire, the left placed on the earth and the right 
 resting on the water. His face is radiant as the sun, and his head is 
 surrounded with a rainbow issuing from the clouds : in one hand is a little 
 open book, and the other is elevated towards heaven. Near the left foot, 
 on the earth, kneels St. John. 
 
 Notwithstanding the simplicity and grandeur of this subject, we are not 
 aware of any important example of it in western art. It illustrated no 
 special dogma, nor brought prominently before the mind any pregnant 
 action or event, and, accordingly, was unlikely to be selected for separate 
 delineation in a treatment worthy of its inherent dignity. 
 
 Subject XII. This subject is taken from the opening of the eleventh 
 chapter,^ and is thus depicted :— Interior of the temple, with an altar, and 
 St. John measuring it with a rod; below, a winged beast wearing a 
 crown— the beast of the bottomless pit. The witnesses, Enoch and 
 Elijah, are ascending towards heaven on clouds. On each side of the 
 temple are the houses of a city, partially destroyed, with dead men therein ; 
 and in the foreground are men, stricken with fear, lifting up their hands 
 towards heaven. 
 
 Subject XIII. The vision which followed the sounding of the last of 
 the seven trumpets is one which lends itself to the highest powers of the 
 mural painter ; it is, in fact, a Glory, in which Jesus Christ is the central 
 figure, and not the Eternal Father, as in the generality of the preceding 
 
 1 TEXT.— I saw another mighty angel come down from heaven, clothed with a cloud: and a 
 rainbow was upon his head, and his face was as it were the sun, and his feet as pillars of fire : 
 and he had in his hand a httle book open : and he set his right foot upon the sea, and his left 
 foot on the earth. And the angel lifted up his hand to heaven, and sware by him that Uveth 
 for ever and ever, that there should be time no longer. And the voice which I heard from 
 heaven spake unto me again, and said. Go and take the little book which is in the hand of the 
 angel which standeth upon the sea and upon the earth. — Eev. x. 1-8. 
 
 2 TEXT.— And there was given me a reed hke unto a rod : and the angel stood, saying, 
 Else, and measure the temple of God, and the altar, and them that worship therein. But the 
 court which is without the temple leave out and measure it not. And I will give power unto 
 my two witnesses, and they shall prophesy. And when they shall have finished their testi- 
 mony, the beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit shall make war against them, and 
 shall overcome them, and kill them. And after three days and an half the Spirit of life from 
 God entered into them, and they stood upon their feet ; and great fear fell upon them which 
 saw them. And they heard a great voice from heaven saying unto them. Come up hither. 
 And they ascended up to heaven in a cloud. And the same hour was there a great earthquake, 
 and the tenth part of the city feU, and in the earthquake were slain of men seven thousand ; 
 and the remnant were affrighted, and gave glory to the God of heaven. Eev, xi. 1-13. 
 
185 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE J 
 
 scenes. The subject is taken from the latter portion of the eleventh 
 chapter,^ and, according to the Greek formula, was represented thus : — 
 Our Lord, above clouds, seated on a lofty throne, in a radiance of glory ; 
 the seven choirs of angels disposed in concentric circles around Him, and 
 the four-and-twenty elders prostrated before the throne. On the right 
 side of the throne is shown the interior of the temple, with the golden 
 ark therein. Below the elders is a great crowd of the blessed, and lower 
 still, are dark clouds discharging lightning and hail towards the earth. 
 
 Subject XIV. This subject is taken from the twelfth chapter,^ and, 
 according to the writings of Panselinos, is thus delineated : — Upon a 
 mass of clouds stands a figure of the Blessed Virgin, clothed in regal 
 garments of purple, invested with wings, wearing a crown surrounded with 
 twelve stars, and with her feet resting on the moon. Before her is a red 
 monster, with seven heads, bearing seven crowns and ten horns ; and with 
 a long tail, near the extremity of which are many stars. From the mouth 
 of the monster issues a great jet of water, which the earth is swallowing 
 up. Near the Virgin are angels, bearing upwards on a veil an infant, 
 invested with the divine nimbus. 
 
 The Greeks, as Didron very correctly remarks, are prompt in their 
 symbolism, and apply all the attributes of the mysterious woman of the 
 Apocalypse directly to the Virgin Mary, and in their representations of 
 this subject they depict her without any disguise or surroundings of 
 mystery whatever. In western art, however, the text is more closely 
 adhered to, and in the representation of the woman no attempt is made to 
 force the idea of the Virgin upon the mind of the observer. In investing 
 the child of the woman with the tri-radiated nimbus — the special mark of 
 the Godhead — the Greeks make him at once the Saviour, and so carry out 
 
 1 TEXT. — And the sevenih angel sounded ; and there were voices in heaven, saying, The 
 kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of om: Lord, and of his Christ ; and he shall 
 reign for ever and ever. And the four-and-twenty elders, which sat before God on their seats 
 fell upon their faces, and worshipped God, saying. We give thee thanks, 0 Lord God 
 Almighty, because thou hast taken to thee great power, and hast reigned. And the nations 
 were angry, and thy wrath is come, and the time of the dead, that they should be judged, 
 and that thou shouldst give reward unto thy servants the prophets, and to the saints, and 
 them that fear thy name ; and shouldst destroy them which destroy the earth. And the 
 temple of God was opened in heaven, and there was seen in his temple the ark of his testa- 
 ment : and there were lightnings, and voices, and thunderings, and an earthquake, and great 
 hail.— Eev. xi. 15-19. 
 
 2 TEXT.— And there appeared a great wonder in heaven ; a woman clothed with the sun, 
 and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars. And there appeared 
 another wonder in heaven ; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, 
 and seven crowns upon his heads. And his tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven, 
 and did cast them to the earth : and the dragon stood before the woman which was ready to 
 be delivered, for to devour her cliild. And she brought forth a man child, who was to rule all 
 nations with a rod of iron : and her child was caught up unto God, and to his throne. And 
 there was war in heaven : and the great dragon was cast out into the earth. And when the 
 dragon saw that he was cast imto the earth, he persecuted the woman. And the serpent cast 
 out of his mouth water as a flood after the woman, that he might cause her to be carried 
 away of the flood. And the earth helped the woman, and swallowed up the flood. — 
 Bev. xii. 1-16. 
 
 A I 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 186 
 
 their reading of the text. In the subject sculptured on the tomb of Jean 
 de Langheac, already alluded to, neither the woman nor the child is 
 invested with a nimbus ; this work is rather late, however, for us to lay- 
 much stress upon the fact of its omission : symbolism had materially 
 declined by the middle of the sixteenth century. In other instances the 
 woman has a nimbus, while the child is without one. 
 
 As might be expected, the beast with the seven heads and ten horns has 
 been represented in various ways. It was a fair subject for the ingenuity 
 of artists, and the disposition of the seven heads, and the ten horns on 
 those seven heads, were matters left entirely to their judgment or fancy. 
 The beast was sometimes depicted with one large head, and six smaller 
 ones issuing from the top of the neck : in such cases four horns were 
 given to the large head and one to each of the smaller. When the beast 
 was delineated with seven equal necks and heads, two horns were placed 
 on each of the first three heads, and one horn on each of the remaining 
 four. The heads of the beast are sometimes invested with nimbi, as in 
 the glass of the church of Saint Nizier, at Troyes. 
 
 Subject XV. This subject, taken from the first portion of the thirteenth 
 chapter,^ is represented thus : — On one side a tract of land, and on the 
 other the waves of the sea. Issuing' from the latter is a beast with seven 
 heads and ten horns, with crowns upon them, and before it another beast, 
 with two rams' horns on its head. On the land men are depicted 
 prostrating themselves in adoration before the greater beast with the 
 seven horns. 
 
 In the text of this subject we find two beasts mentioned, which make up 
 the triad of fearful monsters mentioned in the Apocalypse : and, as two of 
 them are described as having seven heads and ten horns, the student of 
 Christian iconography must be careful not to confuse them in reading the 
 significance of the scenes in which they are represented. M. Didron 
 gives a valuable note on this subject, which we quote in his own words : — 
 
 " H y a, dans 1' Apocalypse, trois monstres principaux et qu'il faut distinguer avec 
 d'autant plus de soin qu'ils se ressemblent davantage. Le premier, c'est le grand 
 dragon, nonune aussi le serpent, le diable et Satan (eh. xii., v. 9). II est roux, il a 
 sept tetes, sept diademes et dix comes. De sa queue, il entraine la troisieme partie 
 des etoUes du ciel. Celui-la est aux enfers ce que Dieu est au ciel, le Tout-Pmssant, 
 sans les ordres duquel rien ne se ferait. II a deux Heutenants auxquels il delegue une 
 partie de son pouvoir : I'un sort de la mer, I'autre de la terre. La bete de mer est la 
 plus terrible ; elle a presque autant de force que le dragon, et eUe est aussi monstreuse. 
 EUe a sept tetes, dont une est blessee a mort, dix cornes, dix diadems. Des 
 
 1 TEXT. — I stood upon the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea, having 
 seven heads and ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns. And the beast which I saw was 
 like unto a leopard, and his feet were as the feet of a bear, and his mouth as the mouth of a 
 lion. And I saw one of his heads as it were wounded to death ; and his wound was healed : 
 and aU the world wondered after the beast. And they worshipped the beast, saying. Who is 
 like unto the beast ? And I beheld another beast coming up out of the earth ; and he had 
 two horns like a lamb. And he exerciseth aU the power of the first beast, and causeth the 
 earth and them which dwell therein to worship the first beast.— Eev. xiii. 1-12. 
 
187 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 noms de blaspheme sont ecrits sur ses comes. Elle ressemble a wa leopard ; elle 
 a les pieds d'un ours et la gueule d'un Hon. Elle blaspbeine, combat les peuples et se 
 fait adorer. L'autre, suppot du dragon, est la bete de terre. Elle porte deux cornes 
 semblables a celles de I'agneau. Elle parle com me le dragon ; elle fait adorer la bete 
 de mer. C'est evidemment un demon inferieur (cli. xiii. v. 1, 2, etc.). Toute bete a 
 sept tetes, dont xme est blessee ou qui porte dix couronnes, est la bete de mer ; toute 
 bete a une tete seulement et deux cornes est la bete de terre; toute bete a sept tetes, 
 dix cornes, mais sept couronnes seulement, est la bete en chef le dragon." 
 
 Subject XVI. The materials for this sublime subject are derived from 
 the first half of the fourteenth chapter^ and are thus treated according to 
 Greek traditional art : — high mountain, upon the summit of which stands 
 a lamb, invested with the divine tri-radiated nimbus^, and holding in one of 
 its fore-feet the emblem of the Resurrection, a staff terminating in a cross, 
 and with a small red banner attached. In the heavens is the Eternal 
 Father, seated on a throne, at the four corners of which are the evangelistic 
 tetramorphs, and on each side the four-and-twenty elders and crowds of 
 angels holding harps. Extending from the heavenly host are numerous 
 figures of saints and virgins clothed in white, and looking with adoration 
 towards the lamb. Underneath this composition, are clouds and three 
 angels; one bears an open book — the Gospel — and a scroll, with this inscrip- 
 tion, " Eear God, and give glory to Him, for the hour of His judgment is 
 come ; " another, looking down and pointing to the city below, carries a 
 scroll thus inscribed, "Babylon is fallen, is fallen; " and the third angel 
 has another scroll, whereon is written, "If any man worship the beast, 
 and receive his mark, the same shall drink of the wine of the wrath of 
 God." At the bottom of the subject, is the earth and a city overthrown. 
 
 1 TEXT.— I looked, and, lo, a Lamb stood on the Mount Sion, and with him an himdred 
 forty and four thousand, having his Father's name written in their foreheads. And I heard 
 the voice of harpers harping with their harps : and they sang a new song before the throne, 
 and before the four beasts and the elders. And I saw another angel fly in the midst of 
 heaven, having the everlasting gospel to preach unto them that dwell on the earth, saying. 
 Fear God, and give glory to him ; for the hotir of his judgment is come. And there followed 
 another angel, saying, Babylon is fallen, is fallen. And the third angel followed them, saying. 
 If any man worship the beast, and receive his mark in his forehead or in his hand, the same 
 shaU drink of the wine of the wrath of God. — Eev. xiv. 1-10. 
 
 2 In the work of Panselinos, the lamb is described as wearing a crown ; but reference to 
 Greek paintings proves that the divine nimbus is signified. On this subject M. Didron 
 remarks: — "Chez nous, comme chez. les Grecs, on confond la couronne avec le nimbe. 
 Gmllaume Durand {Rationale divinorum officiorum, hb. I., cap. iii.) dit: 'Jesus semper coro- 
 natus depingitur. . . . Verumtamen Christi corona per crucis figuram a sanctorum 
 coronis distinguitur.' Durand, comme le Guide, donne done le meme nom au nimbe et a la 
 couronne. Cependant, ces deux attributs sont completement distincts pour la mani^re dont 
 on les place et la matiSre dont ils sont faits. La couronne se met horizontalement sur la 
 tete, que le nimbe environne verticalement ; la couronne est un riche ornement d'orfevrerie, 
 et le nimbe un disque de lumiere, une couronne immaterieUe, un rayonnement de la t^te. La 
 couronne est un attribut purement humain, et se donue aux rois et aux princes ; le nimbe est 
 celeste : c'est une couronne symbolique et qui designe la grandeur morale et la puissance 
 religieuse. Chez les Grecs, on donne le nimbe a tout ce qui est puissant ; chez nous, a pen 
 d'exceptions pres, on le reserve aux hommes vertueux, aux esprits celestes, aux personnes 
 divines. Dans I'Eglise latine, le nimbe est a peu pres exclusivement I'attribut de la 
 saintete. — Manuel d'Iconographie Clirctieiiiie, p. 253. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 188 
 
 Subject XYII. This subject is derived from the words of the latter 
 part of the fourteenth chapter/ and is represented as follows : — A layer of 
 clouds, above which is seated a figure of Christ, crowned with a golden 
 crown, and carrying in His hand a sickle, which reaches down through the 
 clouds to the earth beneath. In the sky is a temple and altar, and issuing 
 from it is an angel, looking and pointing towards Christ, and bearing in 
 one hand a scroll, inscribed with the words, " Thrust in Thy sickle, and 
 reap, for the time is come, and the harvest of the earth is ripe." On the 
 earth beneath is delineated an angel gathering grapes with his sickle, and 
 casting them into a winepress, which yields blood instead of wine ; and a 
 third angel issues from the sanctuary of the temple, pointing towards the 
 latter angel, and bearing an inscribed scroll, with the words, " Thrust in 
 thy sickle, and gather the wine of the earth, and cast it into the winepress 
 of the wrath of God." 
 
 In Greek art the "sickle" in the hands of Christ is in the form of 
 a scythe, but in Latin art it is generally in that of a reaping-hook, as 
 in the rose window of the Sainte-Chapelle and the glass of the cathedral of 
 Auxerre. The Greeks also give the angel who cuts the grapes a scythe, 
 while in western art he is sometimes represented with a reaping-hook, 
 and at others with a pruning-knife. 
 
 Subject XVIII. This subject, probably the most complex of all the 
 scenes of the Apocalypse, is taken from the fifteenth and sixteenth chap- 
 ters, ^ and, according to the Mount Athos directorium, is thus depicted : — 
 
 1 TEXT.— I looked, and behold a white cloud, and upon the cloud one sat like unto the Son 
 of man, having on his head a golden crown, and in his hand a sharp sickle. And another 
 angel came out of the temple, crying to him that sat on the cloud. Thrust in thy sickle, and 
 reap : for the time is come for thee to reap ; for the harvest of the earth is ripe. And he that 
 sat on the cloud thrust in his sickle on the earth ; and the earth was reaped. And another 
 angel came out of the temple which is in heaven, he also having a sharp sickle. And another 
 angel came out from the altar, and cried to him that had the sharp siclde, saying, Tlirust in 
 thy sharp sickle, and gather the clusters of the vine of the earth ; for her grapes are fully 
 ripe. And the angel gathered the vine of the earth, and cast it into the great winepress of 
 the wrath of God. And the winepress was trodden without the city, and blood came out of 
 the winepress. — Eev. xiv. 14-19. 
 
 2 TEXT. — I saw another sign in heaven, great and marvellous, seven angels having the 
 seven last plagues ; for in them is fiUed up the wrath of God. And I looked, and, behold, the 
 temple of the tabernacle of the testimony in heaven was opened : and the seven angels came 
 out of the temple, having the seven plagues, clothed in pure and white linen, and having 
 their breasts girded with golden girdles. And one of the four beasts gave unto the seven 
 angels seven golden vials full of the wrath of God. And I heard a great voice out of the 
 temple, saying, Go your ways, and pour out the vials upon the earth. And the first went, 
 and poured out his vial upon the, earth ; and there fell a noisome and grievous sore upon 
 the men which had the mark of the beast. The second angel poured out his vial upon the 
 sea ; and it became as the blood of a dead man. The third angel poured out his vial upon 
 the rivers and fountains of waters ; and they became blood. The fourth angel poured out his 
 vial upon the sun ; and power was given him to scorch men with fire. The fifth angel 
 poured out liis vial upon the seat of the beast ; and his kingdom was full of darkness. The 
 sixth angel poured his vial upon the great river Euplirates ; and the water thereof was dried up. 
 And I saw three unclean spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of 
 the mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet. And the seventh angel 
 
189 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 Mountains, at the base of "which are a great number of men, some sleeping 
 on the ground, while others are stricken down with plagues. In the 
 middle of this scene is Christ seated on a throne ; and below him are two 
 beasts, one winged and crowned, and the other with seven heads. Out of 
 the mouths of these monsters issue three impure spirits, in the form of 
 frogs. Near them is a town in ruins ; the sea and rivers of the colour of 
 blood; and above them the sun, darting its burning rays upon them. 
 Hail is shown falling from clouds. Above this scene is heaven, with the 
 temple of the tabernacle, out of which issue seven angels, clothed in white, 
 with golden girdles, and bearing cups. The first pours his cup on the 
 earth ; the second on the sea ; the third on the rivers ; the fourth on the 
 sun ; the fifth on the seat of the beast (the antichrist) ; the sixth on the 
 river Euphrates ; and the seventh angel pours his cup into the air. 
 
 Subject XIX. This subject is taken from the seventeenth chapter,^ 
 and is thus depicted: — The tops of seven mountains, above which is a 
 scarlet monster with seven heads and ten horns; and seated upon its 
 back is the figure of a woman, wearing a triple crown, and dressed in robes 
 of purple and scarlet, glittering with gems and gold. She holds in her 
 right hand a golden goblet, which she presents to ten kings, who stand 
 before her. Behind the beast is a great crowd of persons — the powers of 
 the earth. Above the head of the woman are the words, " Babylon the 
 Great, the mother of harlots and abominations of the earth." 
 
 Subject XX. — This subject is one of great grandeur, and has at all 
 times taxed the graphic powers of the Christian artist. It is taken from 
 the eighteenth and first part of the nineteenth chapters,^ and is depicted 
 
 poured his vial into the air. And there were voices, and thunders, and Ughtnings ; and there 
 was a great earthquake. And there fell upon men a great hail out of heaven ; and the plague 
 thereof was exceeding great. — Eev. xv. xvi. 
 
 1 TEXT. — And there came one of the seven angels and talked with me, saying unto me, 
 Come hither. He carried me away into the wilderness ; and I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet 
 coloiured beast, having seven heads and ten horns. And the woman was arrayed in purple 
 and scarlet colour, and decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup 
 in her hand full of abominations. And upon her forehead was a name written, MYSTEET, 
 BABYLON THE GBEAT, THE MOTHER OF HAELOTS AND ABOMINATIONS OF 
 THE EAETH. The beast that thou sawest was, and is not ; and shall ascend out of the 
 bottomless pit. The seven heads are seven mountains, on which the woman sitteth. And 
 there are seven kings : five are fallen, and one is, and the other is not yet come. And the 
 ten horns are ten kings, which have received kingdom as yet. And the woman which thou 
 sawest is that great city, which reigneth over the kings of the earth. — Eev. xvii. 
 
 " TEXT. — And after these things I saw another angel come down from heaven, having 
 great power ; and the earth was hghtened with his glory. And he cried, saying, Babylon the 
 great is fallen, is fallen. She shall be utterly burned with fire : for strong is the Lord God 
 who judgeth her. Eejoice over her, thou heaven, and ye holy apostles and prophets ; for God 
 hath avenged you on her. And a mighty angel took up a stone like a millstone, and cast it 
 into the sea, saying, Thus with violence shall that great city Babylon be thrown down, and 
 shall be found no more. And after these things I heard a great voice of much people in heaven, 
 saying, Alleluia ; Salvation, and glory, and honour, and power, unto the Lord our God. And 
 the four and twenty elders and the four beasts fell down and worshipped God that sat on the 
 throne, saying, Amen ; Alleluia. — Eev. xviii., xix. 1-4. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 190 
 
 thus : — The earth, with mountains, the sea, and a city in flames ; and 
 standing, looking at the city in great sorrow, a crowd of kings and men of 
 all denominations. Above this scene of destruction is the sky, in which 
 an angel appears in a circle of radiance, pointing with his right hand 
 towards the burning city, and holding in his left a scroll inscribed with 
 the words, " Babylon the Great is fallen, is fallen." Another angel, near 
 him, on the clouds, throws a large stone down into the sea ; on the scroll 
 in this angel's hand is written, " Thus with violence shall that great city 
 Babylon be thrown down." Below, amidst dark clouds, angels are hurling 
 fire and hail upon the earth. Above the angels with the scrolls is heaven, 
 with the Eternal Father seated on a throne ; on each side of which is an 
 angel carrying a scroll. On one is written, " Praise our God all ye his 
 servants," and on the other, " And ye that fear Him, both small and 
 great. " Eound about the throne are the four tetramorphs and the nine 
 choirs of angels, in a circle of glory ; and the four and twenty elders bend 
 in adoration, saying, "Amen, Alleluia." On either side are great crowds, 
 clad in white, and bearing scrolls containing, " Alleluia ; Salvation, and 
 glory, and honour, and power unto the Lord our God ; for He hath 
 avenged the blood of his servants." 
 
 Subject XXI. This subject is taken from the text contained in the 
 latter half of the nineteenth chapter, ^ and is delineated in the following 
 manner : — The open heavens, in the centre of which Christ appears, 
 mounted on a white horse, and clad in a scarlet robe, and wearing a crown 
 on His head. From His mouth issues a long sharp sword ; and above His 
 head is inscribed the words, "Jesus Christ, the Word of God, King of 
 Kings, and Lord of Lords." Behind Him are represented warriors clothed 
 in white and mounted on white horses ; their helmets and girdles are of 
 gold, and they carry sharp swords. In front are the kings, and mighty 
 men of the earth, mounted on tall horses and carrying swords. These are 
 depicted, some as if in flight, looking behind them in fear, some overthrown 
 and trampled to death by their horses, and some being devoured by carrion 
 birds. Above the sun is depicted an angel with a scroll in his hand, 
 whereon is written, " Gather yourselves together, that ye may eat the flesh 
 of kings, of captains, and of mighty men." Near to the vanquished host is 
 
 1 TEXT. — I saw the heaven opened, and behold a white horse ; and he that sat upon him 
 was called Faithful and True. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and on his head were many 
 crowns ; and he was clothed with a vesture dipped in blood : and his name is called The 
 Word of God. And the armies which were in heaven followed him upon white horses, 
 clothed in fine linen, white and clean. And out of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with 
 it he should smite the nations. And he hath on his vesture and on his thigh a name written, 
 King of Kings, and Loed of Lords. And I saw an angel standing in the sun ; and he 
 cried, saying to all the fowls that fly in the midst of heaven. Come and gather yourselves 
 together unto the supper of the great God ; that ye may eat the flesh of aU men, both free 
 and bond, both small and great. And I saw the beast, and the kings of the earth, and their 
 armies, gathered together to make war against him that sat on the horse. And the beast was 
 taken, and with him the false prophet ; these both were cast alive into a lake of fire burning 
 with brimstone. And the remnant were slain with the sword of him that sat upon the horse ; 
 and all the fowls were filled with their flesh. — Eev. xix. 11-21. 
 
191 
 
 [ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 the pit of hell and a river of fire, into which two angels are throwing the 
 seven-headed heast and the antichrist. 
 
 This subject, commonly designated the Triumph of Christ, has been 
 variously treated by western artists, from the simplicity of that in the crypt 
 of the cathedral of Auxerre to the dignity of that in the window of the 
 chapel of the Seven Joys, in the church of Notre Dame, at Brou. The 
 painting at Auxerre is on the vault in the eastern part of the crypt, and 
 presents, in its centre, a figure of Christ, clothed with a red robe, and grey 
 mantle, lined with yellow, and mounted on a white horse. He is invested 
 with the divine nimbus, of a blue colour, with three red rays ; and carries 
 in His right hand a black rod — the "rod of iron " with which He shall 
 rule the nations. (Kev. xix. 15.) His left hand holds the reins of the horse. 
 Extending upon the vault, from this figure, are the four arms of a cross, 
 and between them, in the corner spaces, are four angels clad in white, with 
 nimbi, and mounted on white horses. It will be observed that Christ is 
 not represented with the sword issuing from His mouth, nor are the four 
 angels armed. This subject, therefore, is intended to set forth the 
 Triumph of Christ, after the overthrow of the powers of the earth and the 
 destruction of the beast. Of the elaborate Triumph, in the church of 
 Notre Dame, at Brou, a lengthy description is given in Didron's Incono- 
 graphie Chretienne,^ to which we must direct the student's attention. 
 
 Subject XXII. This subject is taken from the first three verses of the 
 twentieth chapter,^ and is simply represented thus : — The heavens, with 
 a great angel, holding in one hand a key, and in the other a chain, which is 
 bound round the neck of Satan. Below is the bottomless pit, from which 
 fire issues, and into which the angel is about to hurl the Devil. 
 
 A very literal reading of the text is to be found in the manuscript 
 Commentary on the Apocalypse, already referred to in Subject IX ; it is a 
 square miniature, in the centre of which is depicted an angel, holding two 
 large keys in his left hand, and a huge serpent of many coils, by a chain, in 
 his right. At the lower left-hand corner is the figure of a demon, bound 
 by his neck, ankles, and wrists, in a frame or stocks. 
 
 Subject XXIII. The text contained in the latter portion of the 
 twentieth chapter furnishes the materials for the two grandest subjects ever 
 essayed by the painter, namely, the Second Coming of our Lord, and the 
 Last Judgment. In Greek art these two subjects are distinct, but in 
 western art they have generally been combined in one subject, called the 
 Last Judgment. We shall not enter upon their consideration in this place, 
 as their descriptions will be given in our articles Christ and Last Judgment. 
 
 1 In the original French work the description is to be found at page 315, where there is also 
 a drawing of the Auxerre painting ; in the English translation (Bohn, London, 1851), see page 
 309. 
 
 2 TEXT. — I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit and 
 a great chain in his hand. And he laid hold on the di-agon, that old serpent, which is the 
 Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, and 
 shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the nations no more, till the 
 thousand years should be fulfilled.— Rev. xs;. 1-8. 
 
[ APOCALYPSE ] 
 
 192 
 
 Subject XXIV. This, the concluding subject, is derived from the 
 twenty-first chapter,^ and is thus depicted in accordance with the canons 
 of Greek art: — A city — the new Jerusalem — of a square form, with walls 
 of gold, enriched with precious stones of different colours, with three gates 
 on each of its sides, and an angel standing at every gate, holding in his 
 right hand a golden rod, and in his left the seal of the Living God. Above 
 the city is Jesus Christ, seated on a throne, robed in white, invested with 
 the divine nimbus, and holding in His hands the emblems of sovereignty. 
 Kound the throne, and encircling it in a glory, are ranged the nine choirs 
 of angels and the four and twenty elders. From the throne a bright light 
 descends and illuminates the city. St. John is depicted on a mountain at 
 one side, gazing down on the city, while an angel in a cloud near him 
 points to it, and holds a scroll, with the words, "Behold the tabernacle of 
 God." Another angel is depicted in the act of measuring the walls of the 
 city. 
 
 There is a remarkably interesting representation of this subject in the 
 stained glass of the church of Saint-Martin-es-Vignes, and we cannot 
 resist giving a graphic description of it, as written by M. Didron : — 
 
 "Dans Saint-Martin-es-Vignes, a Troyes, est peinte sur verre une Jerusalem 
 celeste assez remarquable : elle est au rond-point, a gauche, et porte la date de 1606. 
 Au fond, a I'liorizon, s'etend la mer et montent des rochers. Un ange, debout sur 
 une montagne, montre a saint Jean, qui ecrit, la ville mysterieuse. La Jerusalem 
 celeste est carree, defendue par des murailles qui-sont percees de douze portes, trois 
 sur chaque face et en regard des points cardinaux. Cliacune des portes est gardee par 
 im ange aux ailes etendues, comma ceux qui dominent les contre-forts de la cathedrale 
 de Eeims, et qui assimilent cet edifice a la Jerusalem divine batie sur terre. La 
 grande cite est coupee en quatre, en forme de croix, et partagee par une quadruple 
 
 1 TEXT.— And I saw a new heaven and a new earth : for the first heaven and the first 
 earth were passed away ; and there was no more sea. And I John saw the holy city, new 
 Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven. And he that sat upon the throne said, 
 Behold, I make all things new. It is done. I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the 
 end. And there came unto me one of the seven angels which had the seven vials full of the 
 seven last plagues, and he carried me away in the spirit to a great and high mountain, and 
 showed me that great city, the holy Jerusalem, descending out of heaven from God, having 
 the glory of God : and her light was like unto a stone most precious, even like a jasper stone, 
 clear as crystal ; and had a wall great and high, and had twelve gates, and at the gates twelve 
 angels, and names written thereon, which are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of 
 Israel : on the east tlnee gates ; on the north three gates ; on the south three gates ; and on 
 the west three gates. And the wall of the city had twelve foundations, and in them the names 
 of the twelve apostles of the Lamb. And he that talked with me had a golden reed to measure 
 the city, and the gates thereof, and the wall thereof. And the city lieth foursquare, and the 
 length is as large as the breadth : and he measured the city with the reed. And the building 
 of the wall of it was of jasper : and the city was pure gold, like unto clear glass. And the 
 foundations of the wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious stones. The 
 first foundation was jasper ; the second, sapphire ; the third, a chalcedony ; the fourth, an 
 emerald ; the fifth, sardonyx ; the sixth, sardius ; the seventh, chrysolyte ; the eighth, beryl ; 
 the ninth, a topaz ; the tenth, a chrysoprasus ; the eleventh, a jacinth ; the twelfth, an 
 amethyst. And the twelve gates were twelve pearls ; and the street of the city was pure gold. 
 And I saw no temple therein. And the city had no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to 
 shine in it : for the glory of God did lighten it.— Eev. xxi. 1-23. 
 
193 
 
 [ APOPI-TYGE ] 
 
 avenue d'arbres et de verdure, venant aboutir a un carrefour, a une grande place 
 circulaii-e. Au milieu de ce carrefour se dresse une verte montagne, sur le plateau de 
 laquelle est I'agneau de Dieu, nimbe et portant sa croix de resixrrection. Au-dessus 
 plane le Saint-Esprit, iLluimnant la ville entiere. Plus haut encore, domine le Pere 
 sternel, vieillard habiUe en pape. Dans les quatre carres, formes par les quatre 
 avenues, sont assises quatre villes du moyen age, avec maisons a pignons obtus, 
 eglises a fleclies aigues, rues, places et fontaiaes. Eien n'est plus brillant que ce 
 tableau ; c'est tout un monde, dont la Triaite est le soleU vivant." 
 
 APODYTERIUM. (Lat,) The room in an ancient Roman bath in 
 which the bathers undressed, and left their garments, in the charge of the 
 capsarii, or slaves, whose duty it was to see them safely kept in the 
 presses or lockers with which the room was furnished. The apodyterium 
 gave direct access to the frigidarium, and also communicated with the 
 unctorium, or alipterium, in which the bathers were anointed with oil after 
 the bath. (See Bath.) 
 
 APOLLO. (See Phcebus Apollo.) 
 
 APONSA. The late Latin term employed in mediaeval writings to 
 designate a lean-to roof of simple construction, such as that which would 
 be used for a shed or an out-house. 
 
 APOPHORETA. A term met with in mediseval writings, where it is 
 used to designate a reliquary, or shrine containing relics of the saints. 
 
 APOPHYGE. In architecture, the term given to the hollow or curved 
 portion at the bottom of the shaft of a column, which serves to gracefully 
 connect the ascending lines of the shaft with the mouldings of the 
 base (a a a. Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The apophyge is separated from the 
 
 upper member of the base by a narrow fillet, a feature introduced to give 
 the necessary strength to its edge, and of great artistic value, serving to 
 separate and impart individuality to the outAvard and inward curves of the 
 torus and the apophyge. 
 
 The apophyge assumes different proportions in ancient examples, as may 
 
 B 1 
 
[ APOSTLES J 
 
 194 
 
 be seen by the accompanying drawings. Fig. 1 is from the temple of 
 Apollo at Bass£e ; Fig. 2 is from a tripod column near the Choragic 
 monument of Thrasyllus ; and Fig. 3 is from the arch of Hadrian. 
 
 The term is also applied, though not so generally, to the curved portion 
 at the top of a shaft, underneath the astragal. Vitruvius apparently gives 
 sanction to this practice. In Grwilt's translation is the following passage : — 
 " The height of the capital must be divided into three parts, of which one 
 is assigned to the plinth or abacus, another to the echinus, the third to the 
 hypotrachelium, with its apophyge." (Book iv., chapter 7.) There is a 
 difference of opinion with reference to the signification of the original word 
 here used, ^'apophysis ; "* and it has not been decided whether the com- 
 mentators on Vitruvius are correct in reading the word to signify the same 
 as apophyge, certain authorities rather inclining to read apophysis as 
 signifying the fillet in combination with the hollow, and not the hollow 
 portion alone. In modern nomenclature the term apophysis is never used; 
 and the term apophyge is invariably confined to the hollow or curved 
 portion as distinct from the fillet. In the Glossary of Architecture, 
 Apophyge, Apothesis, and Apophysis are given as synonymous terms, 
 and described as " the small curvature given to the top and bottom of the 
 shaft of a column, where it expands to meet the edge of the fillet or cinc- 
 ture above the torus of the base, and beneath the astragal under the 
 capital." As a general rule, architects apply the term apophyge to the 
 curvature at the bottom only, but as that at the top is in all essentials 
 similar, though rather less in size, there does not appear any good reason 
 against its being also called an apophyge. For sake of distinction, there- 
 fore, it would be only necessary to adopt the terms superior and inferior 
 apophyge, greater and lesser apophyge, or lower and upper apophyge. 
 The lower apophyge has also been termed the Shoot, Escape, or Spring 
 of the shaft. The French term is Conge. 
 
 APOSTLES. Throughout all the departments of Christian art, and in 
 the works of every period, representations of the followers of our Lord, the 
 chosen twelve sent by Him to preach the kingdom of heaven to all nations, 
 are of very frequent occurrence. Indeed, it is almost impossible to examine 
 the great masterpieces of early and mediaeval art, which have been spared 
 to us in anything like their original condition, without finding representa- 
 tions or emblems of the twelve apostles, in one form or another, in 
 sculpture, mosaic, painting, or stained glass. 
 
 In the earliest works of Christian art, the apostles appear to have been 
 invariably represented by certain simple emblems, the most common of 
 
 * Apophysis. A term used by Vitruvius, according to the best editions, in places where 
 his commentators use the word apophtgis. The explanation of either word is accompanied 
 with difficulty, inasmuch as the word occurs in Vit. iv., 7, in reference to the hypotrachelion 
 of the Tuscan column : which passage may mean either the fiUet and hoUow, or the hollow 
 alone ; but when speaking of the Tuscan base, it is admitted that he means by apophysis, 
 the fiUet without the hollow. — Die. of Arch., Arch. Pub. Soc., Lond. 
 
195 
 
 [ APOSTLES ^ 
 
 which were twelve sheep, probably suggested by our Lord's saying, *' I 
 send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves." In the works still 
 preserved, which prove this early practice, the sheep are usually placed in 
 groups of six on each side of a central figure of Christ, represented as the 
 Good Shepherd, or on each side of His early symbol, the lamb. In the 
 latter instances, which are much more common than the former, the twelve 
 sheep are arranged in two rows of six each, placed on either side of and 
 looking towards the holy lamb, usually represented standing on a small 
 mount, from which four streams are flowing, and invested with the tri- 
 radiated or inscribed nimbus. (See Agnus Dei and Lamb.) The twelve 
 sheep are never invested with nimbi. At the extremities of these composi- 
 tions, which occupy long narrow spaces, towers and gates are represented, 
 from which the sheep are supposed to have issued in procession towards 
 the lamb.* These towers are intended to represent Bethlehem and 
 Jerusalem, the places of our Lord's birth and passion, the places which 
 witnessed the first and last scenes of His life on earth ; that life during 
 which the apostles were chosen and instructed to be His witnesses and the 
 first teachers of the Christian faith throughout all lands. Examples of 
 these symbolical compositions are to be found in the sculptures of sarco- 
 phagi and in the decorations of the old churches of Kome, as in St. 
 Glemente, St. Cecilia, St. Prassede, &c. 
 
 The apostles have also been figured under the form of twelve doves, t 
 but this mode of representation does not appear to have gained the same 
 favour with the early artists as that we have just described. As in the 
 case of the generality of early symbols and emblems, the adoption of the 
 doves has the sanction of Scripture ; the passage in which they are 
 mentioned with relation to the apostles being a portion of that text which 
 authorised artists to represent the Twelve as sheep : — " Behold, I send you 
 forth as sheep in the midst of wolves : be ye therefore wise as serpents, and 
 harmless as doves." 1 In the apse of the church of St. Clemente, at Rome, 
 is a large crucifix (thirteenth century), upon which are represented twelve 
 
 * There is an exception to this prevailing mode of treatment in the church of St. Maria 
 Maggiore, at Eome, where the twelve sheep are delineated entering or approaching the gates 
 in the flanking towers, 
 
 t " Paulinas, bishop of Nola," (in his epistle to Severus, bishop of Milevis, in Africa) .... 
 "speaks of a mosaic picture on the roof of the apse of his church, on wlaich was represented, 
 inter alia, a Cross surroimded with a ' Corona,' a circle of hght, to use his own words, and 
 round about this Corona the figures of twelve doves, emblematic of the twelve Apostles. 
 Beneath tliis picture was the following inscription, descriptive of its meaning : — 
 ' Pleno coruscat Trinitas mysterio : 
 Stat Christus agno ; vox Patris caelo tonat ; 
 Et per columbam Spiritus Sanctus fluit, 
 Crucem corona lucido cingit globo, 
 Cui coronae sunt corona Apostoli, 
 Quorum figura est in columbarum choro.' 
 A representation of the Twelve, nearly answering to this description, forms the frieze of an 
 early sarcophagus preserved in the Museum at Marseilles." — Eev. W. B. Marriott, in Diet, of 
 Christ. Antiq. 
 jMatt. X. 16. 
 
[ APOSTLES ] 
 
 196 
 
 doves, generally accepted as signifying the twelve apostles — the twelve 
 chosen vs^itnesses of the Cross. The student of Christian symbolism must, 
 however, bear in mind that the dove has been employed as the symbol of 
 the Holy Ghost, and that a group of doves has been frequently introduced 
 by middle-age artists as indicative of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Seven 
 doves were usually employed for the latter purpose, but a lesser number 
 is occasionally met with, as in a nave window of the thirteenth century 
 in Chartres cathedral, where six doves in aureoles surround a centre 
 aureole containing a figure of our Lord, and held by the Virgin ; and in 
 the north transept rose window of the same cathedral, four doves are intro- 
 duced along with the figure of Christ. From these facts it will be gathered 
 that unless twelve doves are represented together it will be unwise to accept 
 them as the emblems of the apostles. (See Dove.) 
 
 Letters have also been used by the primitive artists as emblems of the 
 apostles, probably with the desire to avoid a too obvious allusion to the 
 Faith. One remarkable example of this practice has been found on the 
 walls of the Callixtine catacomb ; it consists of an inscription, in the centre 
 of which are two forms, one semicircular and the other angular (A), most 
 probably a rude rendering of a monogram formed of the alpha (A) and 
 omega (X2), which, in this instance, is intended as a symbol of Christ. 
 On each side of the monogram are arranged in a row six alphas, repre- 
 senting the twelve apostles, the alpha being the initial of 'AttoVtoAoj. 
 
 On the early sculptured sarcophagi we find the primitive mode of 
 representing the apostles in the human form ; they appear as twelve 
 men, accompanied by the emblematic sheep, but presenting no distinctive 
 characters to individualise them one from another, and arranged on either 
 side of a central figure representing our Lord. In works of rather later 
 date they are depicted as aged men, standing in a line or seated on thrones 
 on either side of the figure of Christ, and each carrying in his hands a 
 volumen or scroll, a codex or folding book, or a corona or wreath of leaves, 
 the crown of Victory in the Faith. Sometimes they are individualised by 
 having their respective names inscribed near them. 
 
 At what exact period artists abandoned monotony in the representation 
 of the Twelve, and sought to impart individuality to each apostle by essay- 
 ing portraiture based on traditional description it is difficult to decide. 
 The Greek artists, however, appear to have been before those of the Latin 
 Church in such essays, for about the end of the eighth century the art of 
 the Greek Church had reached its culminating point ; and the modes of 
 representing the apostles, as well as every other personage belonging to its 
 iconography, were fully defined, and have not, in any essential feature, been 
 altered up to the present day. It is this latter fact which imparts so much 
 importance to the work on Greek painting which we have so frequently 
 referred to and quoted in the preparation of our Dictionary. This work is 
 a manuscript written by a monk of Mount Athos, named Penselinos, in 
 the eleventh century, and entitled 'EpfXYjvslu Trig ^wypatpiKrjc, or Guide to 
 Painting. Its contents have been made available to western artists 
 
197 
 
 [ APOSTLES ] 
 
 through an accurate translation by Dr. Paul Durand, elaborated with an 
 introduction and valuable notes by M. Didron.* 
 
 In the present article we have to treat chiefly of the representations of 
 the apostles in the collective form ; and must, therefore, refer our readers, 
 for particulars with reference to their individual portraitures, to the separate 
 articles to be found under their respective names, where both the Greek and 
 Latin modes of representation are described. 
 
 The order in which the apostles should properly be arranged, when 
 depicted together, does not appear to have been definitely settled either by 
 the early or mediaeval artists ; of course, so long as no portraiture was 
 attempted the question of arrangement was of little moment, but when 
 individuality became a necessary element in art some order of precedence 
 had to be accepted as a guide. In examining a number of examples, of 
 various dates, we not only find dilferent arrangements adopted, but also 
 variety in the groups of the apostles selected to form the Twelve. The 
 latter variations have been caused chiefly by the insertion of St. Paul and 
 the Evangelists, St. Mark and St. Luke, in place of certain of the minor 
 apostles. The Greek list in the order given by the Guide to Painting is as 
 follows : — 
 
 Saint Peter. 
 Saint Paul. 
 Saint John. 
 Saint Matthew. 
 Saint Luke. 
 Saint Mark. 
 Saint Andrew. 
 Saint Simon. 
 Saint James Major. 
 Saint Bartholomew. 
 Saint Thomas. 
 Saint Philip. 
 
 In this group St. Paul, St. Luke, and St. Mark are inserted instead of 
 the apostles St. James Minor, St. Jude, and St. Matthias, which usually 
 appear in western arrangements. But even in the west the Greek list is 
 occasionally met with in early mediasval works which display Byzantine 
 influence ; as in a pulpit in the cathedral of Troyes ; t and in the original 
 bronze doors of the church of St. Paul (outside the walls) at Rome, which 
 are unfortunately now destroyed. I 
 
 * " Manuel d'Iconogeaphie Chretienne, Grecque et Latine, avec une introduction et des 
 notes par M. Didkon, de la Bibliotheque Royale, secretaire du Gomite Historique des Arts et 
 Monuments ; traduit du manuscrit Byzantin, le Guide de la Peinture, par le De. Paul Dueand, 
 correspondant du Gomite Historique des Arts et Monuments. Paris ; Imprimsrie Royale. 
 
 MDCCCXLT." 
 
 t The arrangement of the apostles is given in Sacred and Legendai-y Art, vol. 1, p. 176. 
 I See Vetera Monumenta, torn. I., cap. IV. 
 
[ APOSTLES ] 
 
 198 
 
 The highest authority which can be quoted for the names of the Twelve 
 and their arrangement, according to the Latin Church, is the canon of the 
 Mass ; in it we find the following list : — 
 
 Saint Petee, 
 Saint Paul. 
 Saint Andrew. 
 Saint James Major. 
 Saint John. 
 Saint Thomas. 
 Saint James Minor. 
 Saint Philip. 
 Saint Bartholomew. 
 Saint Matthew. 
 Saint Simon. 
 
 Saint Thadd^us or Jude. 
 
 The above Twelve are to be found, although differently arranged, in a 
 mosaic (fifth century) in the church of St. John in Fonte, at Ravenna. * 
 Mrs. Jameson gives the following short description of this mosaic : — " The 
 earliest instance of the Apostles entering into a scheme of ecclesiastical 
 decoration, as the consecrated and delighted teachers of a revealed 
 religion, occurs in the church of San Giovanni in Fonte, at Ravenna. 
 In the centre of the dome is the Baptism of Christ, represented quite in 
 the classical style, the figure of the Saviour being entirely undraped, and 
 the Jordan, signified by an antique river god, sedge-crowned, and bearing 
 a linen napkin as though he were an attendant at a bath. Around, in 
 a circle, in the manner of radii, are the twelve apostles. The order 
 is, — Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Simon, Jude, 
 James Minor, Matthew, Thomas, Paul ; so that Peter and Paul stand 
 face to face at one extremity of the circle, and Simon and Bartholomew 
 back to back at the other. All wear pointed caps, and carry the oblation 
 in their hands. Peter has a yellow vest and white mantle ; Paul a white 
 vest and yellow mantle, and so all round alternately. The name of each 
 is inscribed over his head, and without the title Sanctus, which, though 
 admitted into the Calendar in 449, was not adopted in works of art till 
 some years later, about 472." 
 
 It will be observed that, in the canon, the name of St. Matthias is 
 omitted from the Twelve, making room for the insertion of St. Paul ; his 
 name, however, is introduced along with the martyrs, after the Consecra- 
 tion. In a retable of the eleventh century, preserved in the abbey church 
 of St. Denis, are representations of the apostles in strict accordance with 
 the canon. 
 
 In the parish church of St. Peter, at Chartres, is a remarkable series of 
 Limoges enamels, executed by Leonard Limousin, upon which are depicted 
 
 * Illustrated in Vetera Monumenta, torn. I., tab. Ixx. 
 
199 
 
 [ APOSTLES ] 
 
 the following twelve apostles : — SS. Peter, Paul, Andrew, John, James 
 Minor, James Major, Thomas, Philip, Matthew, Matthias, Bartholomew, 
 and Simon. This arrangement materially differs from that of the canon, 
 and presents the name of St. Matthias in place of St. Jude. 
 
 Second only in authority to the canon of the mass, is the arrangement 
 given by Durandus {Rationale Divin. Offic), in which the apostles are 
 placed in the order of the propositions of the Creed which tradition has 
 attributed to them. According to this tradition, the apostles met together, 
 previous to their dispersion to convert and baptise all nations, and com- 
 posed the declaration of faith known as the Apostles' creed. Each apostle, 
 in turn, is said to have composed a proposition, and in the following 
 order : — 
 
 Saint Peter, credo in deum patrem omnipotentem, creatorem 
 
 CCELI ET TERR/E. 
 
 Saint Andrew, et in jesum christum, filium ejus unicum, 
 dominum nostrum. 
 
 Saint James Major. QUI conceptus est de spiritu sancto, 
 natus ex maria virgine. 
 
 Saint John, passus sub pontio pilato, crucifixus, mortuus 
 et sepultus. 
 
 Saint Philip, descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a 
 mortuis. 
 
 Saint Bartholomew, ascendit ad ccelos, sedet ad dexteram 
 dei patris omnipotentis. 
 
 Saint Thomas, inde venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos. 
 
 Saint Matthew, credo in spiritum sanctum. 
 
 Saint James Minor, sanctam ecclesiam catholicam, sanctorum . 
 communionem. 
 
 Saint Simon, remissionem peccatorum. 
 
 Saint Jude. carnis resurrectionem. 
 
 Saint Matthias, et vitam /eternam. 
 
 At the time the Creed was thus compiled, St. Paul was not an apostle, 
 and accordingly his name does not appear. In art works we do not find 
 the order of Durandus invariably adhered to when the Apostles are repre- 
 sented bearing their twelve propositions. Didron describes a noteworthy 
 example (early sixteenth century) in which a material departure is made 
 from it. We give the description in his own words : — " Dans la cathedral 
 d'Albi, a I'interieur de la cloture du choeur, les apotres sont representes en 
 pierre. Chacun d'eux porte une banderole ou est ecrit I'article du symbol 
 dont on le croit I'auteur. J'ai lu, entre autres variantes sur Gruillaume 
 Durand, que saint Philippe avait dit : * Sanctam Ecclesiam,' etc., a la place 
 de saint Jacques le Mineur ; que saint Jacques le Majeur avait prononce le 
 ' Resurrexit tertia die ' a la place de saint Philippe ; que saint Barthelemi, 
 et non saint Matthieu, avait apporte le ' Credo in Spiritum Sanctum.' Du 
 
[ APOSTLES ] 
 
 200 
 
 reste, dans la cathedrale d'Albi comme dans le Rationale de Guillaume 
 Durand, saint Pierre-ouvre le Credo et saint Matthieu le termine." Both 
 Mr. Parker and Mrs. Jameson give another arrangement of the apostles 
 with relation to the Creed, but they do not state their authority. The 
 arrangement is as follows :— " St. Peter : Credo in Deum Patrem omnipo- 
 tentem, creatorem coeli et terra. St. Andrew: Etin Jesum Christum Filium 
 ejus unicum, Dominum nostrum. St. James Major : Qui conceptus est 
 de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine. St. John : Passus sub Pontio 
 Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus et sepultus. St. Philip : Descendit ad inferos, 
 tertia die resurrexit a mortuis. St. James Minor : Ascendit ad coelos, 
 sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis. St. Thomas : Inde venturus 
 est judicare vivos et mortuos. St. Bartholomew : Credo in Spiritum 
 Sanctum. St. Matthew : Sanctam Ecclesiam CathoUcam ; sanctorum 
 cemmunionem. St. Simon-: Remissionem peccatorum. St. Matthias : 
 Carnis resurrectionem. St. Taddeus : Et vitam ceternam." 
 
 It is unnecessary to speak of certain other arrangements which are to be 
 met with in art works, dating from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, for 
 they are evidently more or less of a capricious character. In churches 
 dedicated to any of the apostles, it is reasonable to expect to find the 
 patron saint occupying a prominent position in representations of the 
 Twelve, as in the old bronze doors of the church of St. Paul, at Rome, 
 already alluded to, where the patron saint was placed at the head of the 
 group, St. Peter occupying the second place. 
 
 The twelve apostles, chosen by our Lord, were SS. Peter, James Major, 
 John, Andrew, Philip, Thomas, Bartholomew, Matthew, James Minor, 
 Simon, Jude, and Judas Iscariot. After the Crucifixion, St. Matthias was 
 chosen to occupy the place of the apostate Judas. (Acts i.) 
 
 Except where their names are inscribed, it is a matter of difficulty to 
 individualise the apostles in works of art executed prior to the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century ; but in the sculpture, glass, and painting of the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there is seldom any ambiguity. During 
 this period the apostles were almost invariably represented either bearing 
 emblems or the propositions of the Creed which served to distinguish them. 
 It is necessary to mention, however, that long prior to the fourteenth 
 century, attributes or emblems were given to SS. Peter and Paul. In a 
 Roman mosaic, executed in the opening years of the ninth century, we find 
 St. Peter bearing the keys and a cross, and St. Paul the sword. In a 
 miniature in the Benedictional of St. Ethel wold (tenth century) St. 
 Peter is delineated with the keys and sword. But with the exception of 
 these great apostles we do not find special attributes given in early repre- 
 sentations. The apostles certainly carried rolls or books, given to them as 
 teachers of the Divine Word, but these were attributes common to them all, 
 and had no individual significance. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, the legendary history of the apostles, almost 
 unknown to the early Church, supplied artists with ready and appropriate 
 modes of individualising their representations. Besides the attempts at 
 
201 [ APOSTLES ] 
 
 portraiture, conveying ideas of their ages and bodily characteristics, certain 
 attributes were given to them alluding to their martyrdoms or some 
 important acts of their apostolic lives. For particulars relative to these 
 martyrdoms and acts we must refer our readers to our separate articles on 
 the apostles ; it is sufficient here to simply enumerate the attributes or 
 emblems usually given to them in mediaeval art. 
 
 88. PETER. ANDREW. JAMES MAJ. JOHN. THOMAS. JAMES MIN. 
 
 St. Peter usually carries a pair of keys, the keys of heaven and hell, 
 and a book ; and occasionally a cross, in some instances inverted, in allu- 
 sion to his martyrdom. He is also represented with one large key, and, 
 in rare examples, with three, as in a mosaic in the Lateran Museum, the 
 third key signifying that of the earth. His lesser attributes are a church 
 and a fish, the former given to him as founder of the Latin Church, 
 and the latter in allusion to his original occupation. 
 
 St. Paul is almost invariably represented bearing a sword and book. 
 The sword appears to have a double signification, "the sword of the 
 Spirit," wherewith he fought for the Faith, and the emblem of his 
 martyrdom. He is, in some rare instances, represented with two swords, 
 the sword of the Spirit and that of his martyrdom. 
 
 St. Andrew commonly bears the emblem of his martyrdom, a cross in 
 the form of an X, or more rarely an ordinary Latin cross, or one formed 
 like the letter Y. 
 
 St. James Major is generally depicted carrying a pilgrim's staff and 
 scrip or wallet, and with a scallop-shell attached to some portion of his 
 garments. In some rare instances he carries the shell in his hand. 
 
 St. John, as an apostle, usually carries in his hand a cup, with a small 
 serpent issuing from it. For his other emblems and symbol, as an evan- 
 gelist, see John, St. 
 
 St. Thomas carries a builder's square, and sometimes a spear or dart, in 
 allusion to his martyrdom. 
 
 0 1 
 
[ APOSTLES ] 
 
 202 
 
 St. James Minor is depicted with a club or fuller's bat in his hand, the 
 instrument of his martyrdom. 
 
 St. Philip usually carries a cross, either of the Latin or Tau form, 
 commonly placed on the top of a long staff. His martyrdom is said to 
 have been crucifixion in an inverted position. On several of the English 
 rood-screens he is represented carrying a basket of bread, or with loaves in 
 hand. 
 
 St. Bartholomew is almost invariably depicted with the instrument of 
 his painful martyrdom, a large knife. In some examples he has, in 
 addition, a human skin over his arm. 
 
 St. Matthew, as an apostle, has several emblems, the most common of 
 which is a money-bag or box. In numerous examples however, he is, 
 shown bearing a pole-axe or battle-axe. For his symbol as an Evangelist 
 see Matthew, St. 
 
 St. Jude is depicted with several emblems, namely, a club, a halberd, a 
 carpenter's square, a boat, an inverted cross, bread, and fishes. 
 
 St. Simon is sometimes depicted with a fish or oar, in allusion to his 
 original occupation; and, in other examples, with a saw, the instrument of 
 his martyrdom. In the Kingland and Cawston rood-screens he is repre- 
 sented with a fuller's bat. 
 
 St. Mathias usually bears a halberd or axe, but occasionally holds a 
 sword or lance. 
 
 In the accompanying illustrations, from early woodcuts, are depicted the 
 twelve apostles (St. Paul omitted), each holding his most appropriate 
 emblem. 
 
 88. PHILIP. BARTHOLOMEW MATTHEW. JUDE. SIMON. 
 
 In the writings of Brunon, Durandus, and certain other theologians and 
 commentators, dating from the eleventh to the fourteenth century, we find 
 the twelve foundation stones of the "new Jerusalem" (Rev, xxi.) appor- 
 
203 
 
 [ APOSTLES ] 
 
 tioned, as emblems, to the twelve apostles. As precious stones, and 
 chiefly those mentioned in the Apocalypse, were at an early date invested 
 with certain symbolic significations, it is not to be wondered at that the 
 middle-age commentators, who loved to find links or bonds of sympathy 
 throughout the Scriptures, should have discovered in the foundation stones 
 emblems of the chosen Twelve — the true foundation stones of the Church 
 on earth. As the significations of the precious stones had already been 
 fixed, the middle-age theologians simply apportioned them to the apostles 
 as seemed most appropriate according to their mental characteristics or 
 their lives in the Faith. It is not necessary for us to do more than state 
 the above facts here ; the student will find the subject treated at length in 
 article Precious Stones, Symbolism of. 
 
 The mania for Scriptural classification, and for finding mystic links 
 between the personages and events of the Old and New Testament histories, 
 ran high amongst the theologians and encyclopedists of the middle ages ; 
 and, accordingly, we find both the prophets and patriarchs of the Old 
 Testament linked, . through certain imaginary bonds of sympathy or 
 similarity, with the apostles of the New. It is extremely difficult to 
 do more than hazard conjectures as to those bonds of sympathy, for 
 while some are apparently obvious, others are so remote as to defy our 
 endeavours to make them clear. 
 
 M. Didron, in his articles on Mount Athos, describes the decorations of 
 the church of Caracallou, the most ancient monastery on the holy moun- 
 tain ; and we here give, in his own words, the passage which relates to the 
 paintings of the great dome over the crossing of the church, in which both 
 the apostles and prophets are associated. The list is, of course, that 
 adopted by the Greek Church, although the order difi"ers somewhat from 
 that of the Mount Athos directorium of Penselinos, given on a previous 
 page. 
 
 " Mais les peintures les plus interessantes sont celles dont est decoree la coupole 
 qui couronne le centre de I'eglise ou de la croisee. 
 Aux pendentifs, les evangeUstes, ainsi disposes: 
 
 C'est la meme disposition normale que chez nous, pour les evangelistes et leurs 
 attributs : 
 
 Au tambour de la coupole, les douze principaux prophetes ayant sous eux les 
 douze apotres, suivant cet ordre : 
 
 Nord-Est, S. Matthieu — Est-Sud, S. Jean. 
 Ouest-Nord, S. Marc — Sud-Ouest, S. Luc. 
 
 S. Matthieu et Ange. 
 S. Marc et Lion. 
 
 Aigle et S. Jean. 
 Boeuf et S. Luc. 
 
 1. Sous Moise, 
 
 2. Sous Elie, 
 
 3. Sous Elisee, 
 
 4. Sous Daniel, 
 6. Sous Isai'e, 
 
 S. Pierre. 
 S. Paul. 
 S. Marc. 
 S. Andre. 
 S. Luc. 
 
 6. Sous Habacuc, 
 
 S. Jacques. 
 
 « 
 
[ APOSTLES ] 
 
 204 
 
 7. 
 
 Sous Jonas, 
 
 S. Thomas. 
 
 8. 
 
 Sous Johel, 
 
 S. Phmppe. 
 
 9. 
 
 Sous Ozee, 
 
 S. Barthelemi. 
 
 10. 
 
 Sous Zacharie, 
 
 S. Simon. 
 
 11. 
 
 Sous Jeremie, 
 
 S. Matthieu. 
 
 12. 
 
 Sous David, 
 
 S. Jean. 
 
 Les quatre evangelistes sont reproduits ici, quoique saint Luc et saint Marc ne 
 comptent pas a proprement parler parmi les apotres. II n'y a qu'un saint Jacques 
 BUT deux ; enfin saint Matliias et saiut Jude sont absents. Nous avons deja signals 
 plusieurs fois le desordre qui trouble, memo dans I'Eglise latine, le catalogue des 
 apotres. II est inutile d'y insister ici; mais U serait grand temps de remedier 
 a cette confusion, si facheuse en iconographie. 
 
 Dans la cathedrale de Chartres, au croisillon sud, les quatre grands prophetes 
 portent sur leurs epaules les quatre evangelistes, L'Ancien Testament sert de 
 piedestal au Nouveau, comme il convient. Ici, a Caracallou, c'est le contraire : 
 les apotres soutiennent les prophetes, I'Evangile porte I'Ancien Testament. Est-ce 
 avec intention ? Je ne le suppose pas ; mais il faut dire que le peintre et les moines, 
 qui ont ainsi dispose ou laisse disposer ces figures, etaient des ignorants ou des 
 indifferents. 
 
 Existe-t-il un rapport quelconque entre chaque prophete et son apotre? C'est 
 probable : Moise, chef du peuple de Dieu ou de la Synagogue, et saint Pierre, chef 
 de I'Eghse ; Ehe, enleve au ciel comme saint Paul y fut ravi ; Habacuc, le voyageur, 
 ayant pour compagnon saint Jacques, le pelerin ; Jonas et Thomas, les deux 
 sceptiques, oflErent des rapprochements assez evidents. Mais je ne saisis pas aussi 
 bien le rapport qui peut exister entre Ehsee et saint Marc, Daniel et saint Andre, 
 Isaie et saint Luc, Johel et saint Philippe, Ozee et saint Barthelemi, Zacharie et 
 saint Simon, Jeremie et saint Matthieu, David et saint Jean. J'indique aux lecteurs 
 des ' Annales ' ce sujet d'etude qui ne manque pas d'interet meme historique et, 
 a plus forte raison, iconographique." 
 
 It is quite impossible within our limits to give a description of the 
 various situations and ways in which the apostles are introduced in works 
 of architecture and decorative art ; they appear in almost every form and 
 material, from the colossal statues which adorn the south porch of 
 Chartres cathedral,* to the small figures, in the precious metals, which are 
 
 * " Les statues colossales des douze ApStres se dressent sur les parois de la porte et sont 
 posees sur des colonnes torses fort elegantes. Tous foulent aux pieds leurs persecuteurs ; tous 
 portent I'instrument de leur martyre ; tous sont v§tus de la tunique et du manteau ample- 
 ment drapes ; tous sont barbus, a I'exception de saint Jean, qui est imberbe ; tous ont les 
 pieds nus ; et neuf ont les cheveux longs flottants sur le dos comme les Nazar^ens. . . . 
 Sur la paroi gauche, en commen(jant pres de la porte, on trouve : 1° Saint Pierre ; il a les 
 cheveux crSpus et tient dans sa main droite les deux clefs, symboles de sa double puissance, 
 et dans la gauche une croix dont les bras sont casses. Sous le socle, Simon-le-Magicien 
 entrangle par une bourse remplie d' argent. — 2° Saint Andre ; avec sa croix dont les bras sont 
 aussi brises ; il montre avec gloire I'instrument de son supplice et semble dire sa belle pri6re : 
 0 tonne Croix, qui as tire ta gloire des membres du Sauveur, Croix longtemps desiree, ardem- 
 ment aimee, cherchee sans reldche et enfin preparee a mes ardents desirs, retire-moi d'entre les 
 Iwmmes et rends-moi a mon mattre. Sous le socle, Eg6as, proconsul d'Achai'e, qui est ici 
 couronne comme im roi. — 3*^ Saint Thomas, tenant une §p6e, et ^crasant sous les pieds le roi 
 d rinde superieure. — 4° Saint Philippe, tenant une epee nue. Sous le socle, le roi d'Hiero- 
 polis qui laissa crucifier et lapider le saint ap6tre. — 5° Saint Matthieu, tenant une 6pee et 
 ecrasant Hyrace, roi d'Ethiopie, qui fit frapper I'apotre d'un coup d'§pee.— 6° Saint Simon ; 
 il tient aussi une epee comme les trois precedents. Sous le socle, un des pretres paiens qui le 
 
205 
 
 [ APOSTLES ] 
 
 frequently to be seen on ecclesiastical vessels and ornaments, as on the 
 base of the fine processional cross in the treasury of Conques. Both 
 in works of sculpture and painting the apostles are frequently represented 
 along with the figure of Christ in Glory, as in the tympanum of the grand 
 portal of the abbey church of Vezelay (twelfth century), where our Saviour 
 occupies the central position, in an aureole, and stretches His arms laterally 
 above the apostles, who occupy the side spaces. Rays proceed from the 
 hands of Christ to the heads of the apostles, expressive of the gift of 
 the Divine Spirit. The apostles are all invested with the plain circular 
 nimbus, and carry books either open or closed. St. Peter alone has an 
 additional attribute ; he is on the right hand of Christ, and carries the 
 keys. In the tympanum of the doorway of the church of Saint-Oenest, 
 at Nevers, the apostles are arranged, in a row, underneath the figure 
 of Christ in Glory surrounded by the symbols of the evangelists : a 
 similar arrangement exists in the portal of Saint-Trophime, at Aries. 
 
 The apostles were also frequently introduced on the fronts of altars, 
 as on that in the church of Avenas, illustrated in article Altar (Fig. 3, 
 page 51). Detached statues of the apostles were occasionally introduced 
 by the middle-age artists as interior decorations of churches, as in the 
 cathedral of Albi (fourteenth century), the Sainte-Chapelle, at Paris 
 (thirteenth century), and other buildings. 
 
 Figure sculpture does not appear to have been practised to the sam^e 
 extent in England during the middle ages as on the Continent ; and 
 much of what we originally had was ruthlessly destroyed in Reformation 
 times. It is accordingly difficult to say anything definite as to what 
 extent representations of the apostles were introduced as architectural 
 embellishments in our ecclesiastical structures. A curious monument 
 (probably early twelfth century), preserved in Peterborough cathedral, 
 proves, however, that representations of our Lord and His apostles were 
 essayed at an early date. Six figures are all that remain on this work, 
 one of which, from the indications of the divine nimbus, was evidently 
 intended for Christ; and the other figures were doubtless the apostles. 
 Some authorities claim a much earlier date for this monument (end of 
 ninth century), but the evidences are not strong in favour of their claim. 
 
 tuerent. Sur la paroi de droite, on trouvera : 1" Saint Paul, au front chauve, une epee dans 
 les mains. Sous le socle, Nuron, qui lui fit trancher la tete.— 2° Saint Jean, jeune et imberbe ; 
 il est vetu de I'amict, de I'aube et de la chasuble, une large tonsure sur la tete, une palme 
 brisee dans la main droite, et un livre dans la gauche. Sous le socle, Aristodeme, grand-pretre 
 de Diane, qui lui presente im vase rempli de lezards et de serpents venimeux dont on fit un 
 poison subtil. . . 3° Saint Jacques-le-Majeur, I'epee dans les mains, portant la pannetiere 
 coquillagee. Sous le socle, le roi H6rode, qui lui fit trancher la tete. — 4" Sai7it Jacques-le- 
 Mineur; il a une longue massue a sa main gauche. Sous le socle, le foulon qui lui ecrasa la 
 
 tete. 5° Saint Barthelemy, tenant le couteau dans sa main gauche. Sous le socle, Astrag^s, 
 
 roi des Indes, qui le fit ecorcher vif. — 6" Saint Jude ou Tlmddee, tenant un livre dans les 
 mains. Sous le socle, un individu accroupi. — Toutes ces statues sont couronnees de dais et 
 de chapiteaux dignes d'attirer I'attention autant par la variete de leur composition que par 
 I'execution soignee de leurs ornements." — Description de la Cathedrale de Chartres. M. 
 I'Abbe Bulteau. 
 
[ APOTHECARERIUM ] 
 
 206 
 
 The two most important sculptured series of the apostles, existing' in 
 our mediaeval buildings, are to be seen in the western facades of Exeter 
 and Wells cathedrals. In the former, the statues occupy niches in the 
 upper part of the elaborate entrance screen ; they are of late fourteenth 
 century workmanship, with one exception — St. James the Less — a modern 
 restoration of the ancient statue which has perished. The series of Wells 
 is placed in the uppermost arcade of the west gable, underneath the niche 
 which originally contained a seated figure of our Lord. The apostles 
 St. Andrew and St. John occupy the central niches. The statues are of 
 late thirteenth century work, and were accordingly inserted some time after 
 the architectural portion of the front was completed for their reception. 
 
 We find representations of the apostles very frequently in the paintings 
 of rood-screens, as in those of the churches of Belaugh, Irstead, Eingland, 
 North Walsham, and Westwick, Norfolk ; Carlisle cathedral ; South wold 
 church; Suffolk ; and East Wellow church, Hampshire. 
 
 APOSTOL/EUM or APOSTOLIUM. {Gr. 'A7ro<yToXem.) The 
 name employed by early Christian writers to designate a church dedicated 
 to one or more of the apostles. Sozomen, in his Ecclesiastical History, 
 uses the word ' Awoa-ToXfrn in speaking of a church built by Rufinus, in the 
 neighbourhood of Calcedon, and dedicated to SS. Peter and Paul, and he 
 also speaks of the basilica of St. Peter, at Rome, as to UsTpoo airoTToXsiov. 
 
 APOTHECA. The name given by the Romans to the room in the 
 upper part of a house in which the amphorae containing wine were placed, 
 to be subjected to the heat of the sun from the roof, and the passage of the 
 smoke from the fumarium, above which the apotheca was usually situated. 
 The effect of the warm temperature and the smoke was to mature and 
 improve the flavour of the wine. The word, in its more extended signifi- 
 cation, was applied to store-rooms, granaries, and warehouses. 
 
 APOTH ECARERI U M. The late Latin name for that portion of a large 
 establishment, such as a palace, hospital, monastery, or any charitable 
 institution, in which drugs and other medical requirements were kept in 
 order for immediate use ; the portion which, in similar establishments, at 
 the present day, is called the dispensary. 
 
 During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the apothecarerium assumed 
 considerable importance, and was furnished, in some instances, in a most 
 artistic manner. The apothecarerium of the palace of Guidobaldo of 
 Urbino, was the most noteworthy in this respect, being furnished with 
 nearly four hundred vessels of majolica (faience), painted by Orazio 
 Fontana of Urbino, from designs said to have been by Raffaelle, and other 
 masters of his school.* At this time the manufacture of vases, jars, 
 
 * "Among the most celebrated (Keramic artists), special mention must be made of Orazio 
 Fontana of Urbino. He worked for the Dnke of Urbino from 1540 to 1560, and carried 
 enamel painting upon majolica to its highest perfection. He painted the vases retained by 
 
207 
 
 [ APPARELS ] 
 
 bottles, and other vessels for holding drugs, must have been considerable, 
 and their decoration, as may be judged from the above particulars and the 
 numerous specimens which have been preserved, employed the skill of the 
 best designers and pottery painters of the day. The celebrated apothe- 
 carerium of Dresden is said to have had fourteen thousand silver drug 
 caskets and other vessels. Other instances of the rich appointments of the 
 early dispensaries might be quoted, but enough has been said in explana- 
 tion of the present term. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS. (Or.) In painting and sculpture, the representation 
 of an individual undergoing deification, or being carried heavenwards to be 
 placed amongst the number of the gods. 
 
 The manner of this deification is differently illustrated in works of 
 ancient art, the more important showing the emperor or other great 
 personage being carried upward on an eagle. At the conclusion of the 
 obsequies, the ceremonies of the apotheosis were gone through, the chief of 
 which consisted of releasing an eagle from the highest part of the funeral 
 pile, just as the flames reached the bird. The eagle, frightened by the 
 fire, darted heavenward amidst the loud shouts of the attendant people, who 
 imagined that the soul of the departed was borne upwards on its wings. In 
 representations of the apotheosis of an empress, a peacock was frequently 
 introduced instead of an eagle. We find on medals the fact of deifica- 
 tion differently expressed, as that of an emperor by a radiated bust, by the 
 thensa, drawn by four horses or elephants, by the eagle, the phoenix, or by 
 a funeral pile. 
 
 The Eomans used the word consecratio for the ceremony of deification. 
 
 APOTH ESIS. The late Latin term for a small closet or recess, on the 
 south side of the chancel in early churches, fitted with shelves for books, 
 vestments, and articles required in the service. The apothesis ceased to 
 exist when the ceremonial of the Church became elaborate, and sacristies 
 had to be constructed for the accommodation of the numerous clergy. 
 
 The term has been used by Lucian, to designate a dressing-closet of a 
 public bath. 
 
 APPARELS. Oblong pieces of silk, velvet, cloth of gold, or other 
 textiles, embroidered with sacred devices, and sometimes enriched with 
 pearls and precious stones, employed for the adornment of albes, amices, 
 dalmatics, and tunicles. 
 
 Apparels were almost invariably applied to the albe during the thirteenth 
 and three following centuries, and were attached to its lower part and the 
 
 Guidobaldo himself, and also those given by that prince as presents to sovereigns. After the 
 death of Francesco Maria, last Duke of Urbino, the vases belonging to the Spezeria (apothe- 
 carerium) of the palace of Guidobaldo were carried to Loreto, where they are still to be seen. 
 When Christina of Sweden visited Loreto, she was so dehghted with their beauty, that she 
 offered to exchange these vases for an equal number of silver." — Handbook of the Arts of tJie 
 Middle Ages. Labarte. 
 
[ APPARELS ] 
 
 208 
 
 ends of the sleeves, so as to lie over the wrists of the wearer. In the 
 early times of their introduction the apparels took the form of broad 
 ornamental borders at the lower edge and round the wrists ; but later, and 
 more frequently, they assumed the shape of quadrangular pieces, stitched 
 to the material of the vestment. It is in this latter fashion that we see 
 them represented on monumental effigies and brasses. When applied to 
 the amice it occupied the middle of one edge, and formed a rich collar 
 when the amice was adjusted round the neck. (See Amice.) 
 
 An interesting collection of ancient apparels is to be seen in South 
 Kensington Museum ; and, for the convenient reference of the student, we 
 append the numbers and brief descriptions of the same. 
 
 APPARELS FOR THE ALBE. No. 1338. Of strong Unen, 13 inches square, 
 wrought with a lamb and a dove, and with twining branches bearing leaves and 
 flowers, in colom-ed silks, outlined with leather, which was originally gilt. Spanish 
 work of the fifteenth century. 
 
 No. 8128. Two apparels, each 2 feet 8^ inches by 10^ inches, for the front and 
 back of an albe. On one is represented the story of St. Anne and the birth of the 
 Virgin, in five subjects, namely, the annunciation, the meeting at the golden gate, 
 the birth of the Virgin, the offering of the child Mary in the temple, and the tuition 
 of the Virgin. (See Anne, St.) The second apparel contains five subjects from the 
 life of the Virgin, namely, the Annunciation by the archangel, the Salutation, the 
 Nativity, the Proclamation to the shepherds, and the journeying of the Maji to find 
 the child. The whole is of Enghsh embroidery, in coloured silks and gold, on 
 crimson velvet, executed about the end of the fourteenth century. 
 
 No. 8226. Portion of an apparel for the lower part of an albe ; embroidered with 
 figures of our Lord, St. Peter, St. Simon, and St. Philip. Sicilian work, executed 
 about the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 No. 8293. An apparel of linen, embroidered with a diaper pattern, in red silk, 
 with lozenge Bpaces ornamented with cross-crosslets in purple, yellow, and green 
 silks, and circular spaces, which were originally filled with devices, but are now 
 empty. 
 
 No. 8334. An apparel of crimson Genoese velvet, powdered with stars, in gold, and 
 embroidered with branches gracefully disposed and bearing leaves and conventional 
 flowers. Attached to the embroidery is a small silver-gUt case, with an imitation 
 precious stone in it; the numerous other settings with which the embroidery was 
 originally studded have been removed. ItaUan, fifteenth century. 
 
 No. 8710. An albe of white linen, having apparels at the cuffs, and before and 
 behind at the foot. The apparels are of crimson and gold stuff, figured with animals 
 and the foHated ornaments peculiar to the Sicilian looms of the fourteenth century. 
 
 APPARELS FOR THE AMICE. No. 1261. Apparel, measuring 14 inches by 5^ 
 inches, embroidered with a pattern of squares in green, blue, and purple, filled in 
 with gold, and representations of the mystic gammadion, in white and crimson silks. 
 German work of the fourteenth century. 
 
 No. 8307. An amice of hnen,. with its apparel of crimson silk, powdered with 
 small ornaments of silver and silver-gilt. German work of the fifteenth century. 
 
 No. 8311. An apparel, measuring 15^ inches by 3| inches, embroidered with con- 
 ventional designs and inscriptions, on a crimson ground. German work of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 No. 8328. An amice of linen, with its apparel of crimson velvet, woven with three 
 roses in gold, and bordered with green ferret. Spanish work of the fifteenth century. 
 
 No. 8615. An apparel, measuring 21 inches by 3 inches, of linen, block-printed in 
 black, with a design of fohage and birds, Flemish, fourteenth centm-y. 
 
209 
 
 [ APPLE ] 
 
 APPAEELS FOR THE DALMATIC. No. 8353. A dalmatic of yeUow silk, 
 ornamented with a pomegranate diaper in raised green velvet. " The two apparels on 
 the upper part, before and behind, are woven in gold, and measure 16t inches m 
 length, and 5^ inches in breadth ; the one on the back just under the neck is figured 
 with three golden-grounded squares, the centre one ornamented with a crimson 
 quatrefoU, barbed, and enclosing a various-coloured conventional flower ; the other 
 two, with a green tree blossomed with red flowers ; the apparel across the breast is 
 inscribed with the names, in large blue letters, of ' Jhesus,' ' Maria.' " 
 
 APPENDAGE. In architecture, the term used to designate an adjunct 
 or addition, usually of an ornamental character, attached to a building ; 
 but which is not an integral part of the main structure, or absolutely 
 necessary for its completeness. All additions to a building which are, 
 more or less, of a temporary nature, and which have been erected at a later 
 date than the building proper, may be correctly and generally called 
 appendages. 
 
 APPEND I A. One of the terms used in mediaeval writings to designate 
 any description of out-building, such as a shed for holding farm produce or 
 keeping domestic animals, or a farm labourer's cottage, commonly erected 
 in the neighbourhood of monastic estabhshments. The term is also met 
 with in the following forms :—Appendakia, Appendentium, Appendia- 
 MENTUM, Appendicia, Appendicium, Appendicula, Appenditia, Appenti- 
 NUM and Appentitia. 
 
 APPENSUM. A late Latin term of much the same signification as 
 the preceding ; but it appears to have been more correctly applied to a 
 lean-to or pent-house attached to another building. The term is also 
 written Appendix and Appondiamentum. The French architects apply 
 the term Appentis to a lean-to construction of wood, used to cover an 
 external stair or to form a shed against the wall of a building. 
 
 APPIANUM. (Lat.) Appian green, a natural pigment which derives 
 its colour from oxide of copper. It was commonly used by the ancients. 
 A similar colour is now known as Verona or Cyprus green, the finest and 
 richest earths being found there. 
 
 APPI LLAG I U M . A late Latin word signifying, according to Ducange, 
 a strut or shore used in building operations. 
 
 APPLE. In Classic art, the emblem of success or victory; and as such 
 is given to Venus victrix, who carried the prize of the golden apple from 
 Juno and Minerva, in the mythical competition before Paris. Venus 
 carries the apple when she is represented as triumphant over Mars, who 
 had defied the fascinations of all the other goddesses. According to 
 Fairholt :— " The maternal Aphrodite, or Venus genetrix, honoured by the 
 Bomans, often bore the apple, in explanation of which legends relate that 
 
 P 1 
 
[ APPLICATION J 
 
 210 
 
 she gave three apples to Hippomanes, by which the possession of Atalanta 
 was secured to him. This attribute meant originally the pomegranate, 
 because Aphrodite Cypria, so called from the worship of her in Cyprus, 
 planted the first pomegranate tree in that island." 
 
 In Christian art, the apple is accepted as the emblem of the Fall. It is 
 frequently introduced in representations of the Virgin and Child ; when 
 held in the hands of the Child it is the emblem of the fall of man, with the 
 additional allusion to the necessity of redemption through Christ ; when in 
 the hand of the Virgin it is her attribute as the second Eve, through whom 
 life is given, " Mors per Evam — vita per Mariam." 
 
 APPLICATION. In architecture and decorative art, the superimposi- 
 tion of one material on another. As application is almost exclusively 
 resorted to for the purpose of ornamentation, the materials applied are 
 usually of a more precious nature than those to which they are attached. 
 In application proper, the superimposed material is understood to be 
 simply attached to some uniform surface, and from which it can be broken 
 away or otherwise removed without permanently destroying that surface. 
 This is a distinctive feature of application which must not be lost sight of, 
 or one will readily confuse it with such processes of decorative art as 
 inlaying, damascening, champleve enamelling, and niello working. 
 
 In our remarks on the present term, we shall have to allude to several of 
 the most important decorative arts and processes, but we shall confine 
 ourselves to observations which are general, referring our readers for 
 details to the articles specially devoted to those arts and processes. 
 
 The principal modes in which application has displayed itself in works 
 of architecture and decorative art are given in the following list; the 
 materials which are applied being placed first, followed by the grounds or 
 materials upon which they are placed : — 
 
 Precious marbles on stone or brickwork. 
 
 Marble of one colour upon marble of a different colour. 
 
 Alabaster upon dark-coloured marbles. 
 
 Coloured cements or stucco upon marble. 
 
 Stamped stucco upon stonework. 
 
 Terra cotta upon marble or stone. 
 
 Bronze upon marble, stone, and wood. 
 
 Metal upon metal. 
 
 Alloys of a metal upon itself. 
 
 Metals and alloys upon a dark metallic ground. 
 
 Precious stones upon metal. 
 
 Ivory upon wood, marble, and metal. 
 
 Coral upon wood, ivory, and metal. 
 
 Amber upon wood, ivory, marble, and metal. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl upon wood, ivory, and metal. 
 
 Tortoise-shell upon wood, ivory, and mother-of-pearl. 
 
211 
 
 [ APPLICATION J 
 
 Mosaic and enamel plaques upon marble and other materials. 
 
 Glass upon wood, stone, marble, and metal. 
 
 Cements and composition upon glass. 
 
 Metal upon glass. 
 
 Leather and vellum upon wood. 
 
 There are several other varieties of the superimposition of materials, 
 introduced in the decorative arts, which may be classed under the general 
 head of application ; but, as they are universally Imown by separate names, 
 it is unadvisable to cause any confusion by mentioning them in the above 
 list. 
 
 That application has been resorted to, for ornamental purposes, from the 
 most remote epochs of art, there can be no doubt. Its first adoption being 
 readily suggested by the accidental placing of some object of a precious 
 nature or tasteful design upon another, which, from its more durable nature 
 or different colour, would well serve to display it in safety and with advan- 
 tage, or to enhance its effect by contrast. The value of application once 
 realized, its use would be limited only by the ingenuity and resources of 
 the artist. 
 
 The first historical records we have of its use, in connexion with archi- 
 tecture, is in the descriptions of the building of the tabernacle and 
 Solomon's temple. The most characteristic allusion being in the following 
 passage : — "The two doors were of fir tree : the two leaves of the one door 
 were folding, and the two leaves of the other door were folding. And he 
 carved thereon cherubims and palm trees and open flowers : and covered 
 them with gold fitted upon the carved work." — (I. Kings vi. 34, 35.) 
 The records in the Old Testament clearly point out that application and 
 some of the other ornamental processes were not unfamiliar amongst the 
 Jews; and there can be no question that they learnt them from the 
 Egyptians during their captivity. 
 
 To what extent the Egyptians and Assyrians practised application we 
 shall never be able to decide ; but we may be certain that, with so advanced 
 a civilization, and so much wealth and luxury in high places, it was freely 
 used in the precious adornment of articles of furniture, chariots, boats, 
 and in all probability, as in Solomon's temple, for the enrichment of the 
 doors and the other lesser portions of palaces and temples. The nature of 
 application is against its durability, and that consideration would alone 
 have limited, if not altogether prevented, its adoption in works of architec- 
 ture, which, in the hands of the Egyptians, appear to have been erected 
 with the view of remaining perfect for all time. 
 
 The ancient Greeks frequently applied ornaments of metal to the marble 
 surfaces of their buildings, and decorated their temples and houses with 
 devices in coloured stucco. In their toreutic art, several of the processes 
 were, strictly speaking, application, amongst which were those employed in 
 the adornment of vessels of the precious metals or bronze by the super- 
 imposition of figures and designs executed in different metals, ivory, or 
 
[ APPLICATION ] 
 
 212 
 
 amber. These figures, which were called emblemata, were sometimes so 
 applied as to admit of their ready removal from the surfaces of the vessels. 
 Application was still more extensively resorted to in the adornment of their 
 doors, lacunaria, and sumptuous articles of furniture, and statues of the 
 gods which were carved from wood. These were sometimes entirely 
 covered with plates of gold, or had their ornamentation applied in gold, 
 ivory, and other materials.-^ The most remarkable statue of antiquity, 
 which illustrated the use of application, was that of Zeus Olympius, by 
 Phidias, which was overlaid with ivory and gold.^ The application of 
 articles of costume, armour, and personal adornment, executed in bronze 
 gilded, to sculptures in marble, was also common. The ^Eginetan 
 sculptures supply illustrations of this practice ; numerous holes in the 
 marble, as well as other indications, showing where the pieces of metallic 
 armour were superimposed ; and there are evidences that the hair of the 
 figures was partly of wire. The application of so much gilded bronze was 
 balanced by rich colouring upon the exposed surfaces of the marble, of 
 which traces have been found on all except the flesh; the lips and eyeballs, 
 however, were coloured. The sculptures of the Parthenon also show 
 indications of applied metal enrichments. Belief figures of terra cotta 
 were also used as applications on votive shields, and probably on articles 
 of furniture, and for the adornment of walls and friezes in domestic 
 architecture. 
 
 The Romans, who borrowed, in matters of art, so largely from the Greeks, 
 used application very extensively for purposes of decoration. The practice 
 of placing upon marble statues enrichments of metal was maintained 
 throughout all the epochs of antique art ; but the Romans carried applica- 
 tion rather further than the Greeks, by occasionally using portions of 
 coloured marbles, instead of the more ancient modes of painting, to repre- 
 
 1 " In the studios of the ancients, with the toreutic art was likewise connected working 
 IN IVORY, which it was a favourite practice throughout antiquity to combine with gold, in 
 statues as well as all sorts of furniture. The ancients received from India, but especially 
 from Africa, elephants' teeth of considerable size, by the splitting and bending of which — a 
 lost art but which certainly existed in antiquity — they could obtain plates of from 12 to 20 
 inches in breadth. In executing a statue, then, after the surface of the model was distributed 
 in such a way as it could best be reproduced in these plates, the individual portions were 
 accurately represented by sawing, planing, and filing the ivory (this material being too elastic 
 to be wrought by the chisel), and afterwards joined together especially by the aid of isinglass, 
 over a kernel of wood and metal rods. The holding together of the pieces of ivory, however, 
 required incessant care ; moistening with oil (particularly oleum pissinum) contributed most to 
 their preservation. The gold, which represented hair and drapery, was embossed and fixed on 
 in thin plates." — Muller's Ancient Art and its Remains. 
 
 " The teeth of hippopotami likewise served instead of ivory, Pans. viii. 46, 2. Tortoise-shell 
 (chelyon) was used especially for lyres, dining sofas, and other furniture ; it also came partly 
 from Adule, Plin. vi. 34. Beliefs of the bones of animals. Works in mother-of-pearl, Sueton. 
 Nero dl."—Ibid. 
 
 2 " The throne of the Olympian Zeus was of cedar wood, with ornaments and reliefs in 
 gold, ivory, ebony, and precious stones, also painting. The sceptre was composed of every 
 kind of metal ; the footstool richly ornamented, the pedestal adorned with sculptures, but 
 probably only on a border on the front side. The barriers were painted by Pantenus (near the 
 back doors they were coloured blue), and probably also the flowers on the gold drapery." — Ibid. 
 
213 
 
 [ APPLICATION ] 
 
 sent drapery and accoutrements on statues. There can be no doubt that 
 the precious metals, ivory, and other valuable materials were largely used 
 by the Romans in the decoration of the interior of the sumptuous palaces of 
 their emperors and the furniture thereof; and the ornamental works in these 
 materials would not be of a structural nature, but simply applied to the 
 constructive features. The palace erected for Nero, by the architects Celer 
 and Severus, was so richly decorated with applied gold- work, that it was 
 called the Domus Aurea. It is stated that nothing could be imagined 
 more sumptuous or gorgeous than its enrichments. Pliny informs us, that 
 in completing merely a portion of this building, Otho expended a sum 
 amounting in value to about four hundred and four thousand pounds 
 
 sterling. ■ v. i. 
 
 The Roman architects frequently used bas-reliefs and other enrichments 
 of terra cotta and stucco, which they applied to the walls, friezes, and 
 other flat surfaces of their buildings. 
 
 In the very early Christian times it is scarcely to be expected that arts, 
 which were essentially of a luxurious nature, should be cultivated with any 
 degree of zeal. The first duties of the Christians, on emerging from the 
 seclusions and secret places to which persecution had driven them, were to 
 erect places of worship, or to adapt buildings already existing for the pur- 
 poses of religion. This they did, and their hands were for a long time too 
 full of bricks and mortar, so to speak, for their attention to be in any great 
 extent drawn towards the sumptuous arts. We have no just right, 
 however, to accuse them of wilfully neglecting, at any time, those decorative 
 arts and processes which could readily be pressed into the service of 
 religion. On the contrary, history informs us that no sooner was 
 Christianity firmly established in high places than all the wealth and 
 genius of man, available at the time, were concentrated on the adornment 
 of churches. 
 
 Amongst the arts, thus pressed into the service of religion, those which 
 may be grouped under the head of application took a very promment posi- 
 tion Bare walls were overlaid with slabs of precious marbles and mosaics ; 
 and precious marbles, in their turn, were enriched with superimposed 
 ornaments, in the precious metals, enamels, and jewels. It is almost 
 certain, from what we are able to learn of early Christian art, that m the 
 church' of St. Sophia, built by Justinian in the middle of the sixth century, 
 application had reached its culmination ; the walls glittered on all hands 
 with rich-coloured marbles and mosaics, and the altar and all the furniture 
 of the sanctuary were decorated with overlays of gold, plaques of enamel, 
 and settings with precious stones. The crosses, candlesticks, lamps, and 
 book-covers, which, we are told, were of gold, were doubtless incrusted with 
 carved ivories, engraved gems, and sacred symbols and devices in enamel. 
 
 The modes of decoration adopted in St. Sophia spread wherever Byzan- 
 tine influence was felt; and for a long time the artists of Constantinople 
 influenced the architectural taste of Chistendom, especially in its eastern 
 division. We find, in the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice, a proof that 
 
[ APPLICATION J 
 
 214 
 
 in the tenth century the same modes of applied enrichment were adopted 
 as we have alluded to in connexion with the walls of St. Sophia. The 
 mention of St. Mark naturally brings Venice before us ; and we may, in 
 passing, point out the fact that throughout the best periods of its architec- 
 ture, the adornment of its palaces and other buildings with rich-coloured 
 marbles was almost exclusively executed by means of their application in 
 thin slabs and slightly raised mouldings. The Palazzo Dario is probably 
 the best preserved example of this peculiar style of external decoration, 
 
 1 
 
 executed during the fifteenth century. Fig. 1 is one of the wall spaces 
 from this building showing the system of the marble application. The cele- 
 brated Ca'' d'Oro, when in its original state, was richly ornamented with 
 applied marbles and gilding. It is now in a restored condition, and, 
 although much of its marble incrustation remains, its ancient character has 
 been materially altered. On the exterior of the apse of the church of St. 
 Donato, in Murano (tenth century), there are the remains of a broad band 
 of enrichment, which originally consisted of a series of triangular slabs of 
 marble, sculptured in low relief, and applied to the face of the brickwork. 
 Very few of these remain, although enough, fortunately, to show the 
 style of application there adopted. On the facade of the Palazzo da Mula 
 (fourteenth century), on the same island, are enrichments of marble, plain 
 and sculptured, applied to the surface of the brickwork. The method 
 
215 
 
 [ APPLICATION ] 
 
 adopted by the architect of this building was rather an abuse of appHca- 
 tion ; for the sticking on of slabs at irregular intervals, and without 
 reference to any true principles of design, could not fail to produce a 
 restless and patchy elFect. Such was the impression an examination of the 
 fa9ade left upon our minds. 
 
 The decoration of walls, vaults, and domes by glass mosaics may fairly 
 be classed under the head of application, but as we treat the subject fully 
 in our article Mosaic, it is not necessary to enlarge upon it here. 
 
 We now turn our attention to the Middle- age art of western Christendom, 
 and there we find, in works dating from about the middle of the eleventh 
 century, application in several of its most legitimate and interesting forms. 
 From the time just mentioned to the close of what is commonly understood 
 as the middle ages, there appears to have been no attempt made by the 
 architects of England, France, Germany, or Spain to decorate either the 
 exterior or interior of their buildings with applications of precious marbles 
 or glass mosaics ; colour was considered most appropriate for the decoration 
 of the internal constructive stonework, and marble, if introduced at all, 
 was used structurally, as in several of our English cathedrals. The 
 climate of these north-western countries prevented exertions being made 
 to apply perishable decorations externally. In Italy, however, that land 
 of marbles, the beautiful and varied products of its quarries continued 
 to be applied as external and internal decorations all through the middle 
 ages, and if one desires to see to what extent marble application was 
 carried there, let him examine the exterior of the duomo, at Florence, and 
 particularly the enrichment applied to the structural marble work of 
 Giotto's campanile (1334). Although application was not resorted to by 
 the English, French, and German architects for the purpose of decorating 
 the walls and vaults of their buildings, it was largely used in the adorn- 
 ment of their furniture and fittings. * Their altars, retables, pulpits, tombs, 
 shrines, reliquaries, crosses, statues, candlesticks, book-covers, and, indeed, 
 almost all the articles of church furniture were enriched with applied-work 
 in various precious materials. One of the finest and earliest examples 
 extant is the ambo in the choir of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. This 
 interesting work of the eleventh century is still in a perfect state of pre- 
 servation ; it is the front of an ambo, trefoil in plan, constructed of wood, 
 most elaborately enriched with overlays of gold or gilded metal, and appli- 
 cations in the shape of ivory plaques, most of which are antique bas-reliefs, 
 enamels, and precious stones. This example doubtless represents a de- 
 scription of church furniture very common at the period of its manufacture, 
 but which, from the valuable nature of the enrichments, was peculiarly 
 liable to be stolen and destroyed during disturbed times, when warfare and 
 revolt gave license to all kinds of villainy. 
 
 France appears to have been extremely rich, during the middle ages, in 
 objects of church furniture, tombs, &c., in which applied work was used in 
 various ways ; and even in the last century, prior to the Revolution of 1792, 
 there remained numerous works of great artistic interest. We have to 
 
[ APPLICATION ] 
 
 216 
 
 bitterly regret such inconsiderate destruction of historical monuments and 
 works of art both at home and abroad, for our own inventories tell us of 
 the wealth of middle-age art which has not been allowed to reach our time, 
 but which, from its durable nature, might have defied the natural destruc- 
 tion of many centuries. French records inform us that plates of metal, 
 beaten-up, engraved, or enamelled, sculptured plaques and figures of ivory, 
 and casings set with jewels, were amongst the applications commonly used 
 for altars, retables, pulpits, and tombs. But few traces of these enrich- 
 ments remain save the marks left on the grounds to which they were 
 applied, and the holes which held their fixings ; and in not a few cases the 
 evidences of the ruthless manner in which they were torn away are only 
 too painfully evident. 
 
 We have in England, however, a few works remaining which illustrate 
 the very ancient practice of applying metal-work to grounds of other 
 materials, and these assist us in forming a tolerably correct idea of the 
 methods of metallic appHcation adopted by the artists of the middle 
 ages. There are several tombs in Westminster abbey, which, although 
 now in a very imperfect condition, were originally rich in applications of 
 gilded and enamelled metal. The most remarkable and instructive of 
 these is the tomb of William de Valence, supposed to have been constructed 
 by Limoges artists, in the closing years of the thirteenth century. 
 William de Valence died in 1296. The monument consists of a sub- 
 structure of stone, upon which is placed a chest of oak, originally enriched 
 with applications of copper, enamelled and gilt, but which have now 
 almost entirely disappeared ; on the upper surface of this chest is the 
 recumbent effigy of William de Valence. The wooden chest appears to 
 have been entirely covered with metal plates and applied architectural 
 enrichments, forming shallow arcaded work all round its sides. The 
 plates which formed the back-grounds to the arches were richly decorated 
 with champleve enamel and applied figures in relief, all the exposed 
 metal being gilded. On the top of the chest a ground-work of gilt metal 
 and enamel surrounded the effigy. The effigy is carved in oak; and 
 was, like the chest, entirely covered with plates of gilded metal, engraved 
 and enriched with super-imposed plaques of enamel and repousse borders 
 set with imitation jewels. The latter were chiefly employed for the purpose 
 of hiding the butting joints of the covering plates. This most interest- 
 ing work, of which so little now remains, was described by Keepe, as it 
 appeared in the year 1683. He says :— " A wainscot chest, covered over 
 with plates of brass, richly enamelled, and thereon the image of De 
 Valence, Earl of Pembroke, with a deep shield on his left arm, in a coat 
 of mail with a surcoat, all of the same enamelled brass, gilt with gold, 
 and beset with the arms of Valence. . Round about the inner ledge of 
 this tomb is most of the epitaph remaining, in the ancient Saxon letters, 
 and the rest of the chest covered with brass wrought in the form of 
 lozenges, each lozenge containing either the arms of England or of 
 Valence, alternately placed one after the other, enamelled with their 
 
217 
 
 [ APPLICATION ] 
 
 colours. Round this chest have been thirty little brazen images, some of 
 them still remaining, twelve on each side, and three at each end, divided 
 by central arches that serve as niches to enclose them ; and on the outward 
 ledge, at the foot of each of these images, is placed a coat of arms in brass 
 enamelled with the colours." A beautiful coloured drawing of the shield 
 of the effigy is given in Boutell's Manual of Heraldry. For detailed and 
 most accurate descriptions of this tomb and the others in the abbey, which 
 illustrate the application of metal-work, we must refer the student to the 
 article upon the tombs, from the able pen of Mr. W. Surges, F.E.I.B.A., 
 published in Sir G. G. Scott's Gleanings from Westminster Ahhey. 
 
 It will be seen by the previous portion of this article, that none of the 
 forms of application just alluded to can be considered as inventions of the 
 middle-age artists, most of them, indeed, dating too far back for history to 
 speak of their introduction. But we now come to the consideration of 
 certain processes, the invention of which cannot be altogether claimed by 
 the middle-age artists, though in common justice they should be credited 
 with their successful development and artistic employment. 
 
 The most strictly architectural phase of mediaeval application is that in 
 which white marble or alabaster is sculptured into arcaded, cusped, or 
 canopy work, pierced, and applied to flat grounds of black or dark coloured 
 marbles. This mode of decorating pedestal tombs, alta,rs, and retables 
 was frequently employed during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 One specimen of a tomb treated in this fashion exists in the abbey church 
 of St. Denis ; and in the monument of John of Eltham, in Westminster 
 abbey, we find alabaster work, with slabs of black slate, about half an inch 
 thick, apphed as backs to the niches, for the purpose of throwing forward, 
 by contrast, the small sculptured figures of the mourners. But probably 
 one of the most beautiful works of applied alabaster ever executed, was the 
 tomb of Queen Philippa, erected by a French or Flemish artist named 
 Hawkin Liege, about the year 1369. This monument, which is placed in 
 the Confessor's chapel, Westminster abbey, is unfortunately in a very 
 imperfect state, so much so that we have had to use the past tense in 
 speaking of its being one of the most beautiful specimens of alabaster 
 application ever executed. The tomb consists of a construction of dark 
 marble, round which was applied pierced tabernacle-work in white 
 alabaster, forming thirty niches, in which were placed statues of personages 
 related in some way to the Queen. Speaking of this monument in the 
 Gleanings from Westminster Abbey, Sir G. G. Scott remarks :— " Nearly 
 the whole of the tabernacle-work, though shown as perfect in the prints of 
 the early part of the last century, has since disappeared. The end of the 
 tomb has been immured in the lower part of the chapel of King Henry V., 
 and thinking it probable that the tabernacle-work and statuettes might 
 remain within the enclosing masonry, I obtained permission of Dean 
 Buckland to make an incision into it, which I found could be done without 
 injury to the latter monument : I was so fortunate as to find several niches 
 in a tolerably perfect condition, with two of the statuettes quite perfect, 
 
[ APPLICATION ] 
 
 218 
 
 and a number of fragments of others. I found also in the tabernacle-work 
 a most beautiful little figure of an angel with the wings of gilt metal. . 
 I found also enough of the architectural features to serve as a guide to the 
 recovery of the entire design. . One very curious feature in the design 
 is a scroll like the crook of a pastoral staff between the niches at the angles 
 of the monument; the architectural details had no decorative colouring, 
 but the foliage was gilt. The arms were of course coloured, and the figures 
 had beautiful patterns, chiefly in gold upon the draperies ; the hair was gilt, 
 the pupils of the eyes touched in with blue, and the lips with red. The 
 head-dresses of the female figures are beautifully enriched with gold and 
 colour. . . The open-work of the niches over the head of the effigy 
 itself has been filled in with blue glass. The magnificence of the entire 
 work may be imagined when it is known that it contained, when perfect, 
 more than seventy statues and statuettes, besides several brass figures on 
 the surrounding railing." From the above description of this remarkable 
 tomb we find that two kinds of application were represented; one 
 supplied in the alabaster work upon the dark coloured marble, and the 
 other by the attachment of metal wings to the small angels. In 
 addition to these, however, we find that glass beads were applied as 
 enrichments to the net- work of the head-dress of the effigy ; and that the 
 drapery of the figure was originally profusely decorated with applications, 
 in the form of gilt metal ornaments and imitation jewels. 
 
 For the purposes of decoration upon stone, wood, glass, and other 
 materials, application was freely resorted to by the artists of the middle 
 ages ; and, before leaving western art altogether, to take a short survey of 
 the modes adopted by the oriental nations, we must briefly allude to the 
 more important processes followed by native and continental decorators. 
 
 Upon statues and other sculptures of stone we find a minute raised 
 ornamentation sometimes introduced, either as borders to the draperies or 
 as powderings over their surfaces. These, being too minute, or requiring to 
 be too slightly relieved from the ground, to be readily executed in th^ 
 material of the statue or by the sculptor's chisel, were very commonly 
 applied in gesso, a fine description of plaster, and painted or gilded along 
 with the rest of the statue ; or, as in the case with borders, decorated, 
 while the larger surfaces of the drapery were left untouched. Application 
 of this description was, of course, best suited and most commonly employed 
 for internal work, though not invariably confined thereto. On the robe 
 of the Virgin, in the north porch of Notre Dame, at Paris, are borders 
 of applied gesso, which prove that it was sometimes used for external 
 decoration. Gesso of a very hard and durable nature was almost invariably 
 used for the applied decorations on statues, columns, mouldings, and 
 any small wall surfaces, up to the fifteenth century, when, as M. Viollet- 
 le-Duc informs us, a resinous composition was generally employed, 
 which, from the action of heat and cold, has in almost every case 
 peeled ofi". On this side of the Channel, however, gesso continued in 
 use up to 1420, at which date the tomb of William de Colchester wag 
 
219 
 
 [ APPLICATION ] 
 
 erected in Westminster abbey. It was originally decorated throughout 
 with colours and gilding; and the apparels of the albe and the embroideries 
 of the chasuble and maniple were applications in gesso. The modes of 
 treating the gesso applications were uniformly simple, consisting of 
 coatings laid on of a suitable thickness and impressed with moulds or 
 stamps of wood or metal ; or of thin coatings laid upon the surface of the 
 stone or woodwork, to which ornaments of gesso, which had been previously 
 prepared in shallow sunk moulds, were attached while moist. The former 
 process would produce patterns for the most part below the surface of the 
 gesso coating ; the latter method was followed for the purpose of producing 
 designs in relief only. Complicated patterns were readily formed by the 
 combination of both processes on one ground. 
 
 During the best periods of middle-age art, mouldings and panels of wood 
 which were to be painted or gilded were almost invariably covered with 
 applications of gesso, sometimes laid upon a previously applied covering of 
 vellum. Theophilus, a monk of the eleventh century, has left us, in his 
 Essay upon Various Arts, descriptions of the modes and materials adopted 
 in his day for covering and preparing the tablets for altars, doors, and such 
 like articles. We here give his three chapters on the subject, according to 
 Hendrie's translation : — 
 
 Chap. XVII. — Of the tablets of altars and doors, and the glue of cheese. 
 The tablets of altars, or of doors, are first carefuUy fitted together with the joinuig 
 instrmnent which carpenters or vat makers use ; they are then joined with the glue of 
 cheese, which is made in this manner : Soft cheese is cut very small, and is washed 
 with warm water in a small mortar with a pestle, until, being frecLuently poured in, 
 the water comes away pure. Then this cheese, compressed by the hand, is put into 
 cold water until it hardens. After this it is very finely ground, with another piece of 
 wood, upon a smooth wooden table, and in. this state it is again placed in the mortar, 
 and is carefoUy ground with the pestle, water mixed with quick-hme being added, 
 until it is made as thick as lees. The tablets of altars fastened together with this glue, 
 after they are dry, so adhere together, that neither heat nor humidity are able to 
 disjoin them. They should afterwards be smoothed with a planing iron, which, 
 cmved and sharp inside, has two handles, so that it may be drawn by both hands 
 (with which doors and shields are shaved), until they are made perfectly smooth. 
 They are then covered with the untanned skin of a horse, or ass, which is soaked in 
 water ; as soon as the hau's have been scraped off, some water is squeezed from it, 
 and thus moist, it is superposed with the curd glue. 
 
 Chap. XVIII. — Of glue of skins and stag-horns. The above being carefoUy dried, 
 take cuttings of the same skins, dried in hke manner, and carefully cut them up into 
 small pieces, and taking the stag-horns, broken very small with a smith's hammer 
 upon an anvil, place them together in a new pot, until it is half fiiU, and fill it up with 
 water, and so apply fire tmtU a third part of this water is evaporated, so, however, 
 that it may not boU. And you wiU thus try it ; moisten your fingers with this water, 
 and if, when they have become cool, they adhere together, the glue is good ; but if not, 
 cook it untU they do adhere together. Then pom- tliis glue into a clean vessel and 
 again fill the pot with water, and simmer it as before ; and do this four times. 
 
 Chap. XIX. — Of the white ground of gypsum. After this take gypsum, burnt 
 hke Hme, or chalk with which skins are whitened, and carefuUy grind it with water 
 
[ APPPLICATION ] 
 
 220 
 
 upon a stone, then place it in a baked earthen vessel, and, pouring in some glue made 
 from skins, place it over the coals, that the glue may liquefy, and in this manner 
 paint over the skin very thinly with a pencU, and when it is dry, paint somewhat 
 thicker, and, if needed, paint a third time. "When it is quite dry, take the herb called 
 shave-grass which grows like a buhush, and is ragged ; when you have gathered it in 
 summer you will dry it in the sun, and will rub this whitening with it until it is made 
 everywhere smooth and poHshed. 
 
 In the construction of flat panels or large uniform surfaces of woodwork, 
 in which there were many joints, it was, doubtless, usual to apply untanned 
 skin or vellum before the gesso coating; but it was not the universal 
 practice, as certain works in Westminster prove; in them we find the gesso 
 applied direct to the surface of the woodwork. There are three pieces of 
 furniture preserved in the abbey, namely, a retable, the sedilia, and the 
 coronation chair, which have the application of gesso, and, with the 
 exception of just over the joints of certain mouldings, there appears to have 
 been no under application. In the retable the whole surface was covered 
 with the composition, in some portions left plain to receive burnished 
 gilding, and in others indented and stamped with a moulding tool. We 
 shall have to speak more particularly of this interesting work later on. 
 The sedilia was, when in a complete state, a work of great beauty ; and 
 illustrated to a very full extent the art of decorating woodwork with 
 application, painting, and gilding, as practised during the thirteenth 
 century ; it is to be regretted that so little remains to enable one to form an 
 idea of its original magnificence. In this work we find the gesso on the 
 mouldings to have been stamped with a raised enrichment. On the corona- 
 tion chair we observe another mode of ornamenting the application, which 
 was also of gesso, gilded. Speaking of this, Mr. Burges says : — " The 
 surface was first of all covered with the usual gesso, then gold applied by 
 means of white of egg, then burnished, and a pattern pricked upon' it with 
 a blunt instrument before the ground and gilding had lost their elasticity. 
 Great care was required to prevent the instrument with which the dots 
 were made from going through the gold and showing the gesso underneath, 
 and stni greater patience in executing a design, every line of which was 
 to be expressed by very small dots alone. Of the exterior little is to be 
 said beyond that the panels are filled up with dotted foliage, and that 
 there is no work bestowed on the gilding of the mouldings."* 
 
 We have now to treat of other modes of application — those in which 
 vitreous materials take an important part. These modes group themselves 
 under three general styles ; first, that in which clear glass is superimposed 
 upon a previously applied material richly decorated, the glass being used 
 to enhance the efiect of the decoration, and, at the same time, to protect 
 it from injury ; second, that in which coloured glass is applied to a gilded 
 or silvered surface, for the purpose of acting as a ground for the reception 
 of a further application ; and third, that in which coloured pastes in 
 
 * Drawings of the dotted patterns are given in Gleanings from Westminster Abbey, 
 plate xxvi. 
 
221 
 
 [ APPLICATION ] 
 
 imitation of engraved gems and precious stones are applied, in metal or 
 other settings, upon various grounds. 
 
 The first style appears to have been very often used by middle-age 
 artists in the decoration of articles of church furniture. M. VioUet-le-Duc 
 informs us that in the abbey of St. Denis there exist numerous fragments 
 of an altar, the lower part of which was entirely covered with applications 
 of colourless glass upon paintings, executed in a manner almost as fine 
 and minute as that found in the ornamental portions of the illuminated 
 manuscripts of the thirteenth and two following centuries, the epoch 
 during which this mode of decoration was largely followed. The 
 Westminster rotable supplies us with examples of great interest, and we 
 cannot do better than here give Mr. Burges' description of them in his 
 own able words : — " The imitation enamels which occur in the framework 
 and in the principal parts of the architecture were thus made. The gesso 
 ground was gilded and burnished, and upon it was painted the various 
 colours of the enamels by means of tempera. All of them except the red are 
 opaque, but instead of imitating the champleve enamels, which at that time 
 were the most fashionable, the artist appears to have taken for his models 
 the more ancient cloisonne process, leaving thin lines of the gold ground 
 to separate his colours. Over all was placed a thick piece of white glass, 
 which was further prevented from slipping on the two sides where it was 
 not supported by the beads of the framework by two thin pieces of brass 
 let into the ground; the cement resembling putty was then applied all 
 round and gilded as in the case of the jewels. In those instances where 
 there were no beads at all to protect the glass, as in the ornaments which 
 occur in the middle panels, a shallow brass box was nailed to the wood, and 
 inside we find the gesso ground, the gilding, the painting, and the glass 
 secured with putty." 
 
 The second style was frequently used for larger works than those to 
 which the previous style was most applicable, being more suitable for the 
 decoration of surfaces of considerable size, and upon which very minute 
 work would prove ineffective. The most important known example of 
 middle-age art in which this style of application was largely used is the 
 Saiute-Chapelle, at Paris. In the quatrefoils of the wall arcade in the 
 upper chapel are a series of representations of the -martyrdoms of the 
 saints, executed in relief and richly painted upon an applied groundwork of 
 blue glass, backed with silver leaf for the purpose of showing and imparting 
 brilliancy to its colour. Upon the outer surface of the glass are patterns 
 in slightly raised composition, gilded. Of course what one sees in the 
 chapel at the present time are restorations carried out in accordance with 
 the original work. M. VioUet-le-Duc, speaking of these applications, 
 says :— " La Sainte-Chapelle de Paris nous a laisse un exemple complet de 
 ce genre d'applications. L'arcature qui forme tout le soubassement 
 interieur de cette chapelle contient des sujets representant des martyrs ; 
 les fonds d'une partie de ces peintures sont remplis de verres bleus appli- 
 ques sur des feuilles d'argent et rehausses a I'exterieur par des ornements 
 
I APPLICATION ] 
 
 222 
 
 tres-fins dores. Ces verres d'un ton vigoureux, rendus chatoyants par la 
 presence de I'argent sous-appose, et semes d'or a leur surface, jouent Temail. 
 Toutes les parties evidees de I'arcature, les fonds des anges sculptes et dores 
 qui tiennent des couronnes ou des encensoirs sont egalement appliques de 
 verres bleus ou couleur ecaille, rehausses de feuillages ou de treillis d'or. 
 On ne peut concevoir une decoration d'un aspect plus riche, quoique les 
 moyens d'execution ne soient ni dispendieux ni difficiles." We have again to 
 refer to the Westminster rotable for examples of this style of application, and 
 here give an illustration (Fig. 2) of the central portion of one of the compart- 
 
 2 
 
 ments, which shows the application of the blue glass and the superimposed 
 gilded enrichment, as well as the imitation enamels, before described, and 
 the applications of false jewels upon the raised mouldings. The drawing 
 shows the work restored; in reality only portions of the several applied 
 materials remain to indicate the original treatment and design. In the 
 centre of the cut is one of the metallic frames, holding the imitation 
 enamels, and between it and the raised mouldings is the groundwork of 
 deep blue glass, applied, without any gold or silver leaf on its back, to the 
 white gesso of the panel. Upon this glass is a tasteful scrollwork design, 
 apparently executed in some resinous or oleaginous varnish and gilded. The 
 
223 
 
 [ APPLICATION J 
 
 blue glass is attached to the framework with a description of putty. The 
 panels A have been covered with gesso gilded and painted with figure 
 subjects, now almost defaced. In the upper part of the central compart- 
 ment of the retable, there is a diaper pattern formed of octagonal pieces of 
 red glass and small squares of blue glass, applied to the gesso and attached 
 together with putty. The blue squares are plain, but the red octagons are 
 decorated with a lion, and a line border in gold. In the decoration of the 
 canopy of the sedilia, in the same church, blue glass placed upon silver, and 
 red glass upon gilded grounds, were used ; and, as these glasses covered 
 a considerable surface, there is little doubt that they were relieved with gold 
 ornamentation. 
 
 Little need be said upon the third style ; the application of imitation 
 cameos, engraved gems, and precious stones, to such articles of furniture 
 as the Westminster retable, was doubtless suggested by the practice of 
 setting the genuine stones on objects of gold and silver ; and indeed the 
 effect produced by them, upon the gilded and burnished gesso ground, was 
 identical with that produced by the real gems on the applied gold plates of 
 altars, shrines, book-covers, and the solid gold vessels of the sanctuary. 
 
 An article such as the present would be obviously incomplete without 
 reference being made to the methods of application adopted by the deco- 
 rative artists of China and Japan. In both these countries, from early 
 times, ornamental works have been produced, of wood, ivory, and metal, 
 upon which figure- subjects and other designs were superimposed in mate- 
 rials of different kinds, such as stones of various colours, coral, amber, 
 mother-of-pearl of all tints, tortoise-shell, stained and natural ivory, metals 
 and alloys of different colours, enahaels, and porcelain. The Chinese chiefly 
 practised the application of coloured stones, ivory, mother-of-pearl, enamel, 
 and porcelain, on grounds of dark wood, for the purposes of house decora- 
 tion and articles of furniture ; and, in the formation of their designs, carved 
 and otherwise wrought all the materials so as to produce considerable 
 relief. A description of one panel of dark wood, with a garden scene, 
 represented by raised coloured materials, will serve as an illustration of 
 Chinese application : — Trees, with stems of light brown stained ivory and 
 foliage of green stone ; rock- work, of brown and grey soap-stone, with tufts 
 of grass and small flowers, in green stones and stained ivory, growing from 
 its interstices ; and figures of porcelain. The latter are carefully modelled, 
 and richly painted with enamel colours and gold ; and all the rest of the 
 applied-work is minutely and skilfully carved. The Japanese, who are, in 
 most of the decorative arts, far in advance of the Chinese, produce 
 works similar in all essentials to that just described, but of the most 
 delicate and marvellously beautiful character. Who has not lost himself 
 in admiration over the ivory cabinets, card-cases, and boxes, upon which 
 figure-subjects, foliage, and birds are produced in delicately-carved relief, 
 and in the most brilliant colours, supplied by natural stones, shells, corals, 
 and metals ? In their metallic applications, or what we may call their 
 metallic painting, they have never been, and probably never will be, sur- 
 
[ APPLIQUE ] 
 
 224 
 
 passed. This work, which in Japanese is termed syakfdo, consists of a 
 dark metal ground, either bronze or iron, upon which is superimposed 
 a design or composition of figures, foliage, or birds, executed in metals, 
 such as gold, silver, platinum, copper, steel, and about a dozen shades of 
 bronze, in the preparation of which the Japanese metallurgists stand alone. 
 The artist looks upon all these metals and alloys simply as so many 
 colours on his palette, but colours to which he applies a graver instead of 
 a brush —colours which, under his hand, will start from the ground of his 
 work, not in semblance but in reality. Some specimens of this metallic 
 application are so marvellously beautiful, and display so much artistic and 
 manipulative skill, as to defy description. It may be an embroidered robe 
 which attracts one's admiration ; it is executed in a deep red copper, 
 almost like blood, decorated with masses of chrysanthemum flowers in 
 carved silver, lilies in gold, storks in silver, with tail feathers in black 
 platinum, and beaks and legs in bronze. It may be, on another work, the 
 figure of a warrior in his ponderous armour, every link and plate of which 
 are in the true metals, and his bloody sword is of steel, with the drops and 
 stain applied to it in red copper. Or it may be a moon-light scene, where 
 the moon of silver is half hidden by dull bronze clouds, and all the details 
 of the landscape, bereft of colour, are produced in silver or dull grey alloys. 
 
 We have made our remarks on the various kinds of decorative applica- 
 tion met with in architecture and art as brief as possible ; the limited 
 space at our disposal in the present work renders it impossible for us to 
 enlarge further upon the subject, deeply interesting as it is to us and 
 every architect and student of art. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS. The term occasionally 
 used by architects to designate the decorative introduction of two or 
 more of the orders in one design. Its meaning is restricted, however, to 
 the treatment in which the orders are placed on one level, and not 
 superimposed one above the other in different stories. The reason for 
 thus limiting the signification does not appear clear; and in our judgment 
 the nature of the term renders it an appropriate one to be used with 
 reference to the orders, in whatever manner they are combined in archi- 
 tectural structures. 
 
 APPLIQUE. (Fr.) The French architects commonly designate by 
 this term any description of ornamental work applied to a building or any 
 object for the purpose of decoration. It is, accordingly, almost identical 
 in signification with the preceding term, application. The word has been 
 introduced into English architectural terminology to express the attachment 
 of the orders or any portions thereof to the surface of a building, simply 
 for the purpose of enrichment; and it further conveys the idea of their 
 being merely stuck on, and that they could be removed without interfering 
 with the structural stability of the fabric. 
 
 The term is, however, most commonly used in connexion with em- 
 
225. 
 
 [ APSE j 
 
 broidery, where it signifies work executed with pieces of silk, cloth of gold, 
 velvet, or any other textile, cut into the required shape, and applied and 
 stitched to the ground. Applique has generally been adopted for the 
 garments of figures where large masses of uniform colours were required ; 
 the lines of the folds and any shadings being added by the needle. (See 
 Embroidery.) 
 
 APPODITIUM PILARIUM. A late Latin term signifying, according 
 to Ducange, a flying buttress. 
 
 APRON. The piece immediately below the sill of a window or other 
 aperture, covered with lead or zinc ; also, any broad piece of lead disposed 
 on a surface for the reception of a flow or discharge of water from a spout 
 or gutter. 
 
 APSE. A recess, semicircular on plan, covered over with a vault in the 
 form of a semi-dome; the simicircular or polygonal termination to the choir 
 of a church, or any other part such as an aile, transept, or chapel, covered 
 with a vault or any other description, of roof. 
 
 M. Yiollet-le-Duc extends the signification, applying the term to the 
 extremity of a choir, even when it terminates in a flat wall ; * it is never 
 applied by English architects to any portion of a building which is rectan- 
 gular on plan; and it is not desirable that its signification should be 
 extended beyond the limits defined in our first paragraph. 
 
 By all investigations now possible it appears that neither the Egyptian 
 nor the Greek architects introduced ihe apse in their buildings ; it is 
 certainly a feature at variance with purely trabeated architecture, whilst it 
 may be considered a characteristic feature of arched and vaulted architec- 
 ture, and was most probably first introduced in it. As neither the arch 
 nor the vault may be considered to have had any true existence in art 
 architecture before the Roman epoch, we may naturally look there for the 
 first appearance of the simicircular apse. We accordingly find it introduced 
 in the temple of Mars Ultor, built in the time of Augustus f (e.g. 31— 
 A.D. 14) ; and there seems to be a probability that it was adopted in the 
 designs of other temples of the same period. The apse became hence- 
 forward a characteristic feature in the larger works of Roman architecture, 
 and especially in the great civil basiiicfe erected in the first centuries of our 
 era. The ancient basilican apse, or, to use a more correct term, the 
 tribune, in its most developed form, is satisfactorily illustrated by the plan 
 
 • " ABSIDE, s.f . C'est la partie qui termine le choeur d'une eglise, soit par un hemicycle, 
 soit par des pans coupes, soit par un mur plat. Bien que le mot abside ne doive rigoureuse- 
 ment s'appliquer qu'^ la tribune ou cul-de-four qui cl6t la basilique antique, on I'emploie 
 aujourd'hui pour designer le chevet, Textremitg du choeur, et meme les chapelles circulaires 
 ou polygonales des transepts ou du rond-point."— Die ^tonnazVe Raisonne de Uarchitecture 
 Frangaise. 
 
 t For plan, see Taylor and Creasy's Architectural Antiquities of Rome. London, 1821. 
 
 F I 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 226 
 
 of Trajan's basilica (a.d. 98), a portion of which is here given (Fig. 1). 
 The semicircular part, or tribune, was raised several steps above the 
 general floor level of the building ; and had an altar placed in the centre 
 of its chord, used for sacrificing before the business of the day was com- 
 menced. Bound the semicircle was a platform, raised four steps above the 
 
 n m m m m m m m m s 
 
 I m m m m ^ 
 
 t m m m m ^ 
 
 I m m s 
 
 1 
 
 tribune floor ; here the assessors and other oflicers of the tribunal were 
 seated, while the throne of the qujestor, or presiding judge, was placed in 
 the centre recess, distinguished by greater depth from the others. The 
 large dimensions of the tribune may be realised from the fact that the 
 internal width of the basilica was no less than one hundred and eighty 
 feet ; the internal diameter of the tribune must accordingly have been 
 about one hundred and thirty feet, and the width of its arch about eighty- 
 seven feet. This basihca has been represented with double tribunes, that 
 is, one at each end, but no authority can be quoted in support of such a 
 disposition. The tribunal, or court of justice, was invariably confined to 
 the tribune in large basilic£e, which were open to the public as exchanges 
 or halls for the transaction of business ; but in smaller buildings the 
 tribune was devoted to the accommodation of the quaestor and officers of 
 the court, while a portion of the nave adjoining was set apart for the public 
 and attendants connected with the business of the tribunal. 
 
 Basilicse were erected in most if not all of the principal towns through- 
 out the Roman empire ; and as they were eminently suited, and indeed 
 designed, to hold large assemblies of people, and in their general arrange- 
 ment appeared to be in every way adapted for the purposes of Christian 
 worship, they naturally became the earliest types upon which churches 
 were designed. A basilica erected in the time of Constantino, at Treves, 
 is still in existence, and is really the simplest form which could be adopted 
 for a church. It consists of a parallelogram, devoid of ailes, about two 
 hundred and thirty-nine feet long, by ninety-eight feet wide, with a semi- 
 
227 
 
 [ APSE J 
 
 circular apse added at one end. We have tere, practically, a sacrarium 
 for the altar and the officiating priests, and a large unobstructed space for 
 the congregation. There is no doubt that the early Christians converted 
 numerous pagan temples into churches ; btit we have no evidence to prove 
 that they used the ancient basilicas for worship, notwithstanding that the 
 retention of the name would suggest that they did. Writing on this 
 subject, Texier remarks : — " The Christians, rapidly increasing in num- 
 bers, were still in want of churches, and upon the confiscation of goods 
 belonging to the temples, the lands and valuables with which they had 
 been endowed were transferred to a newly-constituted synod, and the 
 converts were permitted to take possession of the edifices themselves for 
 the purposes of their worship. 
 
 " Let us examine the truth of the statement that they also raised their 
 altars in the Basilica — Gerousia — or court of justice. We know of but 
 one instance in which the Koman basilica (the prototype of the churches of 
 Constantine) was transformed into a church ; this was in the case of the 
 Licinian basilica at Kome, in which the Christians were accustomed to 
 assemble; it was converted into a church in the year 370 by Pope 
 Simplicius; but we can mention numerous temples still existing that 
 were appropriated to Christian worship. 
 
 " The name basilica given to the churches after the time of Constantine 
 did not have reference solely to the resemblance these edifices had to the 
 courts of justice. 
 
 " From the earliest times the church was approached through an outer 
 hall, or narthex, which opened into the nave through three doorways, 
 which had their destination in the ceremonies of worship. The middle 
 doorway was termed the basilican, or royal gate (/3ao-<Ajx^ ttuAv)), and it 
 was of importance in ecclesiastical ceremonies, especially in those relating 
 to expiation. Leo Allatius, citing the Typic, frequently mentions this 
 door — ' As far as the basilican gates ; ' — ' and he entered by the basilican 
 gates. ' . . It was but a natural consequence that the term basilica 
 should be applied to the whole edifice."* 
 
 Be this as it may, it is an evident fact that of all the ancient buildings 
 existing at the time of the introduction of Christianity, the basilica was 
 considered the most appropriate one to be copied in the erection of 
 churches ; and it is in the tribune of the basilica that we must trace 
 the origin of the church apse, which it is now our task to describe as it 
 presents itself in the various styles and periods of Christian architec- 
 ture. 
 
 The earliest church of importance, erected after the final establishment 
 of Christianity by Constantine, was that dedicated to St. Peter, at Kome 
 (about A.D. 330). It was a large basilica, consisting of a nave, of about 
 two hundred and eighty feet in length, with four wide lateral ailes, making 
 a total internal width of above two hundred feet ; across the west end of 
 
 * Byzantine Architecture, by C. Texier and E. P. Pullan, p. 79. 
 
[ APSE J 
 
 228 
 
 nave and ailes there was erected a sort of transept, about fifty-five feet 
 wide, into which the nave and four ailes opened by arches. In the centre 
 of the long western wall of this transeptal portion was a semicircular 
 apse, with a radius of about twenty-nine feet. Against its wall was placed 
 a hemicycle of seats for the clergy, with the throne for the pontifi" in 
 the centre. The altar was placed slightly in advance of the chord ; and 
 eastward of it were erected six columns carrying an entablature. Six 
 more were subsequently placed in front of these, and probably were united 
 to them by a general entablature. The purpose of the first six columns 
 appears doubtful, but we incline to the belief that they were erected 
 to act as a sort of screen to the sanctuary ; and it is probable that 
 curtains were hung between them, to be lowered or drawn during certain 
 portions of the service at the altar. We know this practice of enclosing 
 the apse to have obtained elsewhere in early churches. The additional 
 six columns may have been added, as the Eev. M. E. C. Walcott suggests, 
 for the purpose of forming an imposing entrance to the confessionary. * 
 
 The basilica of St. Paolo fuori delle Mura, another large four-ailed build- 
 ing, with transeptal end and semicircular apse, was erected probably about 
 forty years after St. Peter's. A plan of the end is here given (Fig. 2) as 
 it was originally built ; in it one observes no particular departure from the 
 plan of St. Peter's, save that the apse assumes more importance, being in 
 this case wider than the nave and expanded, doubtless, for the accommo- 
 dation of a more numerous clergy and a more elaborate ritual. The altar 
 was probably in the first instance placed in the early position — in the 
 chord of the apse— but later, when the transept was divided lengthways 
 by a wall pierced with arches, as is shown on the generality of plans of this 
 building, it was removed and placed under a ciborium, a short distance 
 behind the line of the arch opening from the nave. The position is indi- 
 cated on our drawing. Unfortunately, this magnificent basilica, which 
 previous to 1823 was one of the best preserved of the ancient churches in 
 Kome, was almost totally destroyed by fire in that year. The great apse, 
 with its mosaics, were happily saved ; and the latter remain as valuable 
 illustrations of the style of decoration applied to the semi-dome. 
 
 * " OLD ST. PETEE'S AT ROME. St. Peter's at Eome had two aisles on each side of 
 the nave ; a transept on a level with the nave ; and an apse on the west side, with a floor 
 raised to a height of five feet " (?), " forming the platform of the presbytery, which extended 
 about nine feet into the transept. The entrance was at the east end. At the extreme west 
 point was the pontifical chair, raised on a platform above the level of the presbytery ; on the 
 right and left of the chair the walls of the apse were lined with the seats of the cardinals. At 
 the edge of the platform stood the high altar, under a ciborium or canopy : it was raised by 
 steps above the level of the presbytery. On each side a flight of five steps led down into the 
 transept. Beneath tliis platform was a semicircular crypt, close to the walls of the apse, used 
 as a burial-place of the popes. The entrances were at the junction of the choir and transept. 
 In front of the high altar was the entrance to the Confessio, the subterranean chapel of St. 
 Peter, containing an altar. In front of the steps were twelve columns of marble, in two rows, 
 said to have been brought from Greece or Solomon's Temple; and, being enclosed with 
 marble waUs breast liigh, and lattices of metal-work, formed the vestibule to the Confes- 
 sionary." — Church and Conventual Arrangement. ^ 
 
229 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 The basilica of St. Clemente, at Rome, is probably one of the best 
 existing examples of the plan of a moderate-sized church of the fifth 
 century; originally it consisted of a nave with single lateral ailes, the 
 
 former terminating in a semicircular apse, not quite the full width of the 
 nave. The present building was constructed exactly on the old plan by 
 Adrian I., towards the end of the eighth century, and restored by Paschal 
 II., in the first years of the twelfth century, when in all probability the 
 apses at the ends of the ailes were added. The building is at present 
 triapsal. The centre apse is richly decorated with mosaics.* 
 
 The introduction of more than one apse in Roman basilicas does not 
 appear to have been unknown in the fifth century, for we find in St. Pietro 
 in Vincoli, on the Esquiline hill, originally built by Eudoxia, the wife of 
 
 * As it may be interesting to our readers to form some idea of the ancient modes of decor- 
 ating the apse and semi-dome of the Christian basilica, we here give the Eev. B. W^ebb's 
 description of the mosaics of this building: — " The whole half-dome is covered by a bold 
 flowing pattern, in the interstices of which are shown birds and all kinds of figures. This 
 pattern springs in two branches from a kind of bush, out of which also rises a tail cross, 
 coloured blue, and with patterns on it, on which a very small figure of our Lord is represented, 
 and the Blessed Virgin Mary and S. Jolm stand immediately underneath the arms. Below 
 the cross issue four streams of a fountain from which some harts and peacocks are drinking. 
 Underneath the dome is a horizontal band in which is represented the Agnus Dei, with a 
 cruciferous nimbus, standing on a mount, between twelve sheep representing the apostles. 
 Underneath these again, round the wall of the apse, are full-length figures of our Lord and 
 the apostles, with palm-trees between every two figures. Outside the apse-arch — the arch of 
 triumph — are some more mosaics. . . . These mosaics are of the end of the thirteenth 
 century, and were put up by Cardinal Jacobo Tomasio." — SketcJies of Continental Ecclesiology. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 230 
 
 Valentinian, no fewer than five apses ; three of which are projected east- 
 ward, and the remaining two at the ends of the eastern transept. The 
 plan of this basiUca is probably the most symmetrical and perfect of all the 
 early Roman churches; and it may be accepted as the true type of the 
 Christian Roman basilica. It was restored in the eighth century, but 
 strictly on the original plan. We here give the eastern portion (Fig. 
 3), in which it will be observed that the great apse is no longer a 
 semicircle only, but is increased in depth, forming a spacious sacrarium. 
 
 The subsellia, or seats for the priests and deacons, are as usual placed 
 against the wall, with the cathedra, or bishop's throne, in the centre ; and 
 the altar is placed in the chord, with a considerable space between it and 
 the apse steps. 
 
 In early basiHcsB, when lateral eastern apses were added, as in this 
 example, they were usually shut off from the church by curtains ; that on 
 the right (prothesis) containing the credence, where the elements were 
 placed until they were carried to the altar for consecration, and where the 
 offerings of the faithful were received ; and that on the left {diaconicon 
 minus) being a sacristy and muniment room. As it is generally under- 
 stood that more than one altar was not introduced in Western churches 
 prior to the time of Gregory the Great (590), it is evident that the minor 
 apses in St. Pietro were not originally designed to serve as chapels. The 
 introduction of the side apses in the west is attributed to Greek influence, 
 and they were, for some time after their adoption, used as in the Eastern 
 church : the sanction given to the erection of sub-altars, and the construc- 
 tion of sacristies for the accommodation of a numerous clergy, effectually 
 did away with their original use, and they were accordingly turned into 
 
231 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 chapels. The two apses terminating the ailes of St. Clemente, which, as 
 we have already stated, were not in the fifth century plan, were unques- 
 tionably erected for the reception of altars. The basilica of St. Maria 
 Maggiore, built by Pope Sixtus III. (432), has only one apse. 
 
 It is not necessary to follow the apse through the succeeding four or five 
 centuries of church building in Borne ; it did not develop itself beyond the 
 state we have described in connection with the basilicas of St. Pietro, 
 St. Paolo fuori delle Mura, St. Clemente, and St. Pietro in Vincoli. 
 
 Next to Rome, the most important centre of early ecclesiastical art in 
 Italy was Ravenna. In this city numerous imposing basilicae were erected 
 during the fifth and sixth centuries. In all of them the semicircular apse 
 was introduced as in the Roman examples, but the transeptal adjunct, so 
 common in the latter, appears never to have found favour in Ravenna. The 
 ancient cathedral, founded in the year 380, was a basilica with a nave and 
 four ailes, and a single semicircular apse terminating the nave. The other 
 important churches in this city have all the semicircular apse. We find it 
 also introduced in the highly interesting church of St. Vitale, built by the 
 Emperor Justinian, in the year 547. This is not a basilica, but an 
 octagonal church, domed, and surrounded with an aile. From the eastern 
 side is constructed the choir, which is divided from the aile through which 
 it passes by arcades of three arches on each side, and is terminated by a 
 low semicircular apse which is projected beyond the aile wall. The stalls 
 for the clergy are round the apse, and accordingly behind the altar. This 
 portion of the church is the best preserved, and still presents several early 
 and beautiful mosaics. 
 
 The semicircular apse, which became so thoroughly a feature of Italian 
 church architecture in the first ages of Christianity, may be said never to 
 have disappeared from it. We meet it in widely distant places, and m all 
 epochs. The following examples may be quoted by way of illustration : — 
 St. Michael, at Rimini, a small cruciform church built in the fifth century, 
 with a semicircular apse terminating its choir : Cathedral of Parenzo, in 
 Istria, built in the year 542, a basilica with nave and single lateral ailes, 
 all terminating with apses ; this is an interesting example of an early 
 triapsal church : St. Julia, near Bergamo, probably built at the end of the 
 seventh century, with nave, single lateral ailes, a sort of eastern transept, 
 and three apses : St. Michael, Pavia, designed in the eighth century, with 
 a deep choir or chancel terminating in an apse ; the choir extends from a 
 transeptal portion which, projecting beyond the nave-ailes, gives the plan a 
 cruciform character : Church of the Apostles, at Florence, built in the 
 ninth century, a basilican arrangement, with an apse at the extremity of 
 the nave : St. Ambrogio, at Milan, an early basilica, rebuilt in the ninth 
 century, terminating eastward in a single apse : St. Mark, at Venice, 
 dedicated in the end of the eleventh century, a large cruciform building, 
 the eastern limb of which terminates in three apses (Fig. 4) ; a peculiarity 
 exists in the treatment of these, three small semicircular apses, or what we 
 may more correctly call niches, being sunk in the thickness of their walls : 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 232 
 
 St. Fosca, at Torcello, a small church, probably built at the end of the 
 tenth century, with its choir terminating in three apses; and the duomo of 
 Torcello, erected about the year 1000, a basilica of the simplest form, with 
 nave and two ailes terminating in semicircular apses. We must not pass 
 over the last-mentioned building without particularly dwelling upon the 
 
 appointment of its major apse, which still retains its ancient hemicycle of 
 seats and cathedra. In describing this interesting apse we cannot do better 
 than transcribe the words of an eminent ecclesiologist. * " The apses are 
 domically vaulted, and are covered with mosaics, of which hereafter. The 
 most singular arrangement — perhaps in the world — is that the central apse 
 is filled with concentric stone seats, six in number, rising one above the 
 other, like an amphitheatre ; while in the middle point, higher than all, is 
 the pontifical chair, raised considerably higher than the rest, with stone 
 side walls, and a steep separate ascent of thirteen steps immediately before 
 it. This arrangement is now put to no use ; the apse is stripped of all 
 fittings, and remains in its cold desuetude one of the most remarkable 
 ecclesiastical monuments in existence. The back of the pontifical chair is 
 of alabaster beautifully carved with a cross between stars and flowers : the 
 cross is covered with interlacing flower- work, with a hand in benediction in 
 the middle point. The slab is three feet one inch high and twenty-two 
 inches broad : it is flanked by two short columns, the caps of which are 
 connected by a band of carved flower- work. The seat is thirteen and a half 
 inches broad and seventeen and a half inches high. The lowest of the 
 concentric seats is on a considerably higher level than the choir : the seats 
 end abruptly, as if cut through by a vertical section, and they present on 
 
 " The Rev, Benjamin Webb, M.A., in Sketches of Continental Ecclesiology . Lo^don^ 1848^ 
 
233 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 each side the appearance of a precipice cut into steps. * The altar (which 
 is unfortunately quite modern) stands on a platform projecting out into the 
 choir from the middle of the raised seats. ... I imagine that the 
 ancient altar stood rather nearer the apse, and that the celebrant stood on 
 its eastern side, facing the church, and with his back to the bishop. But 
 this is merely a speculation, formed to account for the appearance the 
 present arrangement presents. . . 
 
 "And now to describe the mosaics. The great apse has in its dome a 
 single figure of the Blessed Virgin Mary on a gold ground. She is in blue ; 
 and holds the Blessed Child, whose nimbus is cruciferous and who is 
 draped. . . . The spandrils above the apse-arch, facing the nave, are 
 the figures of S. Gabriel and the Blessed Virgin Mary, in the Annuncia- 
 tion. The back of the apse, under the dome, has twelve figures, six on 
 each side of the window. They are in this order : from the middle going 
 northward, SS. Peter, John, James, Bartholomew, Thaddeus, and Thomas: 
 going southward, SS. Paul, Matthew, Andrew, James the Less, Symeon, and 
 Philip. Under the window in the middle is a half-figure of S. Heliodorus. 
 The apse on the south side has three figures : our Lord seated, in the act of 
 blessing, and holding a closed book between SS. Michael and Gabriel. . . 
 Below these, S. Gregory, S. Augustine, S. Ambrose, and S. Martin ; and 
 above the Agnus Dei and two angels. The apse of the north aile has no 
 mosaics." 
 
 Continuing our hasty survey of Italian churches, we now come to an 
 interesting example, St. Miniato al Monte, at Florence, a basilica built in 
 1013 ; the eastern portion of this church is elevated above a crypt, and is 
 terminated with a semicircular apse of the width of the choir and nave. 
 The duomo of Pisa, commenced in the year 1063, and consecrated in 1113, 
 is an important cruciform building, with a large semicircular apse eastward, 
 and two lesser ones terminating its well-developed transepts. The duomo 
 of St. Leo, a town in the duchy of Urbino, restored about the year 1175, 
 is a parallelogram on plan, triapsal eastward. In the lower church of St. 
 Fancesco, at Assisi, are five semicircular apses, one behind the shrine, two 
 at the extremities of the adjoining transepts, and two at the end of the 
 entrance transept or narthex : there is only one apse continued to the 
 upper church, namely, that behind the shrine. This interesting building 
 was completed in the first half of the thirteenth century. The semi- 
 circular apse, to which we have hitherto confined ourselves, continued in 
 favour amongst Italian architects far into the sixteenth century. The 
 church of The Consolation, near Todi, erected in the early part of the 
 century, is a perfect quatrefoil on plan, four large apses being added to a 
 central square. Three of the apses, however,, are polygonal on the exterior. 
 The three apses of St. Peter's, at Kome, are semicircular. 
 
 The polygonal apse is comparatively rare in Italian architecture ; It is, 
 
 * A drawing, which conveys a tolerably correct idea of the arrangement, is given in 
 Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, page 498. — W. & G. A. 
 
 G 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 234 
 
 however, to be met with in several churches, as in St. Anstasia, at Verona, 
 where there are apsidal chapels in addition to the great apse ; the latter 
 has five sides. The interesting basilica of St. Zenone, in the same city, 
 has a five-sided apse of fifteenth century date. The most noteworthy 
 examples, however, are supplied by the cathedrals of Florence and Milan. 
 The former, which may be looked upon as an early fourteenth century 
 design, so far at least as the feature under consideration is concerned, 
 has three immense apses opening from the great octagon under the dome 
 (Fig. 5) ; these practically form the choir and transepts (a), although the 
 
 5 
 
 ritual choir (b) is in the centre of the octagon, and is enclosed from its 
 greater area by a low wall. All the apses are based on an octagon, and both 
 internally and externally present somewhat more than half that figure ; this 
 leads to a rather peculiar treatment of their domes, which appear as true 
 octagonal ones sliced ofi" where they join the walls of the main structure. 
 Viewed externally one would imagine these apses to be surrounded with 
 ailes, but instead of them deep square chapels are formed as it were in 
 the thickness of the wall. The above plan clearly shows their peculiar 
 disposition. The choir of the cathedral of Milan terminates in a three- 
 sided apse ; it is based on an octagon, but as the north and south sides are 
 prolonged until they join the transepts, their individuality is lost. The 
 efi'ect of this apse externally, from its apparent shallowness, is not satis- 
 factory. The French architects fully realised the imperfection of the apse 
 with less than five distinct sides and six angles, and, as will be seen 
 further on, never made such a palpable mistake as the architect of Milan 
 cathedral did in planning the choir of that edifice. Two small three-sided 
 apses are projected from the centre of the north and south walls of the 
 transepts ; these do not belong, however, to the original design. The 
 
235 
 
 L APSE ] 
 
 transepts had entrances where these apses now are until the time of 
 Charles Barromeo (about 1577), by whom the alterations were made. 
 
 We have now to retrace our steps, so far as time is concerned, to the 
 point at which we commenced to treat of the apse in connexion with the 
 Christian architecture of Italy, and from that point briefly survey its treat- 
 ment in Byzantine architecture, under the conditions imposed by the ritual 
 of the Eastern Church. 
 
 Constantino abandoned paganism in the year 315 ; and after some 
 uncertainty as to where he should found the new capital which he desired 
 to establish, he finally decided upon the site of Byzantium, and the new 
 city was completed in the year 330. All the churches built by the Emperor 
 were unquestionably on the Roman model, that of the oblong basilica with 
 the semicircular apse. The first church of St. Sophia was a basilica with 
 a single apse. The Martyrium, erected by Constantino near the Holy 
 Sepulchre, at Jerusalem, is described by Eusebius as a basilica with nave 
 and two ailes, terminated with an apse decorated with twelve columns 
 carrying massive cups of silver; these columns were placed there as 
 emblems of the apostles ; whether they were ranged round the hemicycle 
 or in a straight line in front of the apse, as in St. Peter, at Rome, is not 
 clearly indicated, but it is probable the Roman precedent was here followed; 
 and it is also probable that curtains were suspended between them for the 
 purpose of shutting off the view of the bema or sanctuary from the con- 
 gregation, a practice observed in the Greek Church to this day. The 
 church of St. Demetrius, at Thessalonica, built in the beginning of the 
 fifth century, was designed as a basilica, with nave and four ailes, and the 
 choir terminating in a semicircular apse, pierced with five large windows. 
 In the same town is the mosque of Eski Djouma, originally a Christian 
 basilica, and believed to have been erected in the fifth century. It consists 
 of a nave, with a broad aile on each side, and an eastern apse pierced with 
 three windows. The practice of adopting three lights for the apse appears 
 to have very generally obtained long before the time of Justinian, to whom 
 the idea is said to have been conveyed by an angel in a dream, who 
 instructed him to light the apse of his church by three windows, emble- 
 matic of the Blessed Trinity. The basilican type was followed to the time 
 of Justinian (527-565), when it was finally abandoned in Byzantine archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 In the erection of St. Sophia, church architecture took a remarkable 
 step, and assumed an entirely new development. What were the circum- 
 stances which led to this development will probably never be known ; and 
 it seems hardly credible that it was due to the unaided genius of one man — 
 Anthemius, the chief architect employed by Justinian. 
 
 A glance at the plan of St. Sophia (see Byzantine Archite'cture) clearly 
 shows that the apse enters into it more prominently than into any other 
 known building of the period. The central portion of the church consists 
 of a square, surmounted by a circular dome, and two large apses placed 
 east and west of it, covered with semi-domes. The apse of the bema is 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 236 
 
 projected from the centre of the great eastern apse, and two other apsidal 
 features are constructed from the sides of each of the great apses. The 
 shape of the central portion of St. Sophia is therefore a square, with two 
 compound apses added to its east and west sides.* It will be observed that 
 there is a close resemblance between the internal form of the eastern com- 
 pound apse and the great apse of the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice, 
 with its three small apses ; a likeness due to the Byzantine origin of the 
 latter building. 
 
 In the generality of Byzantine churches erected after the consecration of 
 St. Sophia, we find three eastern apses introduced ; the centre or great 
 apse being that of the sanctuary or bema, and the smaller lateral ones 
 either forming in themselves or being the eastern portions of the two 
 chapels called the gazophylakion and skeuophylakion. The church of St. 
 Nicholas, Myra, probably erected towards the close of the sixth century, 
 furnishes a favourable example of the triple apse arrangement. The 
 accompanying illustration (Fig. 6) is the eastern portion of the plan of this 
 building; and, although externally the central apse presents the rather 
 
 unusual square form, the internal treatment is that found, with very little 
 alteration, in eastern triapsal churches; as in those of Theotocos, Con- 
 stantinople ; the Holy Apostles, St. Sophia, and St. Bardius, Thessalonica ; 
 St. Sophia, and the church of the Golden-Headed Virgin, Trebizond ; St. 
 Nicodemus, Athens ; the church at Pitzounda ; and the cathedral of Ani. 
 
 The church of St. Elias, at Thessalonica, presents a disposition of three 
 apses altogether different from that met with in any of the before-mentioned 
 buildings. It will be seen by reference to the accompanying plan (Fig. 7), 
 that the three apses are of the same size, and, although they do not project 
 externally to any great extent, they form internally, along with the arches 
 of the centre portion, a deep bema or choir and well-marked transepts, 
 somewhat resembling in this respect a western plan. AH the apses are 
 
 * A section, showing the relative heights and disposition of the semi-domes of all the apses, 
 is given in Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, p. 949. 
 
237 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 pierced with the symbolical three lights. It is probable that the three 
 apses were adopted with a view to symbolism also. In the greater church 
 at Etchmiasdin, however, we find four apses projected from a large square, 
 which, with the internal arrangement of piers and arches, indicate the 
 Greek cross. The entrance to the church is through the western apse. 
 
 In several Byzantine examples, and especially in those of Armenia, we 
 observe the eastern triple apses to be so treated as to show very slightly on 
 the exterior ; and in some buildings, as the cathedral of Ani, their existence 
 is simply indicated on the outside by niches sunk in the east wall. 
 Speaking of the plan of this cathedral, Mr. Fergusson remarks : — " In the 
 plan * it will be well to remark the curious mode always employed in this 
 country to mark the apses externally, not by projections, but by angular 
 niches sunk in the wall, and made flush above by a small but richly- 
 ornamented arch." The apses of the gazophylakion and skeuophylakion in 
 the church of Theotocos, at Constantinople, are treated externally in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Before we leave the Greek Church, and the buildings erected in accor- 
 dance with its ritual and requirements, we may hastily glance northwards 
 at the Russian churches. Those which were erected at Kieff, the first 
 
 • Given in the Handbook of Architecture, page 973. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 238 
 
 capital, appear to have been designed by Greek architects, and accordingly 
 we find the triapsal arrangement introduced, as in the church of St. Basil. 
 In the cathedral of St. Sophia, at Kieff, we observe a remarkable range of 
 no fewer than nine eastern apses. The largest one forms the sacrarium, 
 and terminates the nave or central portion. On each side of this are three" 
 ailes, all terminating in semicircular apses. Added to these are two broad 
 lateral ailes, which are supposed to be additions to the original six-ailed 
 plan ; their eastern ends are formed into chapels, with apses, second in 
 size only to the great central one. '''' The iconostasis, or sanctuary screen, 
 is carried entirely across the interior, in front of the nine apses. In the 
 church of the Assumption, at Moscow, erected at the end of the fifteenth 
 century, we find a good specimen of an ordinary Russian church plan ; 
 it has three large eastern apses, the centre one being slightly accentuated. 
 From these and numerous other examples, we may safely conclude that 
 the semicircular apse has always been considered an indispensable feature 
 in both the early Russian churches, built under direct Byzantine influence, 
 and the later works in which Saracenic and other styles of architecture 
 are traceable. 
 
 We now enter upon the most interesting field of study in connexion 
 with the apse, wherein its progress may be traced from the simple semi- 
 circular tribune of the Roman basilica to the grandest development it ever 
 attained in the entire range of architecture. In the French cathedrals of 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find the apse in its noblest and 
 most artistic form, rising upwards to the vault of the lofty choir, pierced 
 with arches and traceried windows, glittering with storied glass, surrounded 
 with vaulted ailes and radiating apsidal chapels, amidst which varied 
 perspective and everchanging effects of light and shade are continually 
 working artistic miracles. Here we see the apse in its highest develop- 
 ment—in a form which the gaunt and windowless recess of the basilica 
 could give no promise of. One has only to inspect the first-class cathe- 
 drals of France, including, by way of contrast, the apseless cathedral of 
 Laon, to be thoroughly impressed with the fact that the apse, as there 
 treated, is amongst their greatest glories. 
 
 There is little doubt that the first churches erected in France, after the 
 establishment of Christianity, were of small dimensions, and constructed in 
 the simplest form. The fact that Constantino had adopted the basilica as 
 the model for his churches soon became known, even in the remote 
 provinces of the empire ; and it is reasonable to suppose that in France, 
 as elsewhere, the judgment hall was copied in the newly-erected churches. 
 When we examine the ancient basilica still existing at Treves, we cannot 
 help acknowledging that its plan is one which would at once commend itself 
 to the early Christian builders. The semicircular apse was accordingly 
 introduced in the earliest Romanesque churches of France, and continued 
 to be used for the most part in its original form up to the tenth century ; 
 
 * A plan of this building is given in the Handbook of Architecture, p. 980. 
 
239 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 indeed, we meet with it in only a slightly modified shape in the thirteenth 
 century, as in the church of Saint Pierre, Chauvigny, and the church of 
 Cosne-sur-Loire. Speaking of the churches erected previous to the 
 thirteenth century, M. VioUet-le-Duc says : — " It is necessary to remark 
 that the apses of the churches of Provence are generally built on a poly- 
 gonal plan, whilst those of the provinces towards the north are elevated 
 on a circular plan. In the central provinces, the Roman influence domi- 
 nated, whilst in Provence and along the Rhone and the Saone the Greco- 
 Byzantine influence was chiefly felt." 
 
 The early apses were, like the Roman tribune and those of the Byzantine 
 churches, devoid of ailes; but as we approach the tenth century we find a 
 single aile introduced, as in the church of Vignory (Haute -Marne). It 
 will be observed by the accompanying plan (Fig. 8) that not only is the 
 
 8 
 
 aile continued round the apse, but three small apsidal chapels are projected 
 from it. Even in this early example there is the germ of the remarkable 
 development the apse and its accessories were destined to receive at the 
 hands of the French architects in succeeding centuries. The treatment 
 met with at Vignory is found in several important works of the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries; for instance, in the church of Saint- Etienne, Nevers 
 (eleventh century), where the apse is almost identical in plan with that of 
 Vignory, the only difi'erence being that the centre chapel is not made larger 
 than the others. Saint-Etienne has transepts, from the eastern walls of 
 which other semicircular chapels are projected. The church of Fontevrault 
 (twelfth century) has an apse with aile, and three equal-sized apsidal chapels; 
 and transepts with two large semicircular chapels on their eastern sides. 
 The churches of Notre-Dame du Port, Clermont-Ferrand (eleventh century), 
 and Saint-Hilaire, Poitiers (twelfth century), have ailed apses with four 
 semicircular chapels opening from them; and two transept apsidal chapels ; 
 and the church of Saint- Savin (Vienne) has a semicircular apse with aile, 
 and five apsidal chapels, of three difi"erent sizes ; two additional chapels are 
 placed east of the transepts. The Abbey church of Cluny has an ailed 
 apse, with five semicircular chapels of equal dimensions, and double tran- 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 240 
 
 septs, from which several apsidal chapels are projected. In the cathedrals 
 of Cahors and Angouleme are interesting examples of the semicircular 
 apse, devoid of ailes, but with radiating apsidal chapels. The former 
 building, erected in the eleventh century, consists of a nave divided into 
 two squares, surmounted by domes, and terminating eastward in a semi- 
 circular apse nearly the entire width of the nave (Fig. 9). From the wall 
 
 of the apse are projected three small semicircular chapels. In the cathe- 
 dral of Angouleme, another domical church, we find the apse with four deep 
 and narrow apsidal chapels, an arrangement by no means so pleasing as 
 that at Cahors. The cathedral of Angers has its choir (thirteenth century) 
 terminated with a semicircular apse of its entire width, and without aile 
 or radiating chapels. 
 
 We now turn to a very interesting example, in which we find the east- 
 ward triapsal arrangement, which we have already spoken about in con- 
 nexion with the Italian and Byzantine churches. The cathedral of Autun, 
 erected about the middle of the twelfth century, consists of a nave with 
 single ailes, small square-ended transepts, and a choir with single ailes 
 terminating in three semicircular apses. The central apse is the full 
 width of the choir ; and the lateral apses are somewhat less than the width 
 of the ailes. 
 
 The triapsal arrangement never became a favourite one in France ; it may 
 certainly have been often introduced in the earliest churches, built under 
 Byzantine influence, but has almost disappeared with them. It is to 
 be found however in the ninth century church of Saint- Gen eroux 
 (Deux- Sevres), where it closely resembles that commonly found in the 
 Greek churches. 
 
 The church of Saint Urbain, Troyes (thirteenth century), is probably 
 the most noteworthy example of the eastward triapsal arrangement 
 existing in France. It consists of a nave of three bays with single lateral 
 
241 
 
 r APSE ] 
 
 ailes; transepts which do not extend, internally, beyond the walls of the 
 ailes; and a choir of two bays, with an apse its entire width, presenting 
 five sides of an octagon, and single lateral ailes of one bay terminating 
 in apses of a similiar form. The apses are well proportioned, and 
 the centre one is projected eastward of those of the ailes. It would be 
 difficult to design a plan in every way better suited for a Roman CathoUc 
 church of moderate dimensions, or to dispose three apses to more 
 advantage for the reception of the three important altars. 
 
 An interesting example of a triapsal plan of the twelfth century is 
 presented in the abbey church of Saint-Guilhem du Desert (Herault) 
 
 10 
 
 (Figure 10) ; and another and most unusual arrangement is to be seen in 
 the church of Saint-Quenin, Vaison (Vaucluse). We give plan of the three 
 
 apses (Fig. 11), which shows their peculiar disposition. In addition to 
 the internal form, that of the exterior is worthy of notice as a simple mode 
 
 B 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 242 
 
 of enclosing the three apses without involving the necessity of a complex 
 form of roofing. 
 
 Churches terminated with twin-apses exist in France, as in the twelfth 
 century church of Varen (Tarn-et-Garonne), and the fourteenth century 
 church of Notre-Dame du Taur, at Toulouse. (Fig. 12.) 
 
 12 
 
 In the eastern provinces of France, churches with double apses, placed 
 east and west, are met with ; ^ disposition not uncommon along the Rhine, 
 as we shall show when we come to speak of the German apses. The most 
 noteworthy examples are the cathedrals of Besan9on (twelfth century) and 
 Verdun (thirteenth century). The latter consists of a nave, of four large 
 bays, crossed at each end by well-marked transepts, from which deep apsidal 
 portions are projected. Both ends resemble the eastward arrangement 
 presented by the plan of the church of St. Gall (see Ahhey). The 
 western apse of St. Gall opens from the nave without the intervention of a 
 transept. Both the apses at Verdun are seven-sided and devoid of ailes. 
 
 13 
 
 Before we enter upon the consideration of the apse in its greater 
 development in the cathedrals and churches of the thirteenth and 
 
243 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 fourteenth centuries, we may briefly draw the student's attention to certain 
 small buildings in France which are planned with three or more 
 semicircular apses, geometrically disposed. In the small twelfth century 
 
 14 
 
 chapel of Planes (Pyrenees-orientales), we find three apses projected from 
 the sides of an equilateral triangle (Fig. 13). The apses are covered with 
 semi-domes, and the triangular centre portion is brought into a circular 
 
 15 
 
 form above, and domed. Connected with the abbey of Montmajour 
 (Bouches-du-Rhone), there is a chapel of the eleventh century, which 
 consists of four semicircular apses projected from a square (Fig. 14) ; these 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 244 
 
 are covered, like those of the previous example, with semi-domes, whilst 
 the centre portion is domed in a square form. A still more unusual plan 
 is presented by the church of Saint-Michel d'Entragues (Charente), a 
 building supposed to have been erected by the Templars in the twelfth 
 century. It consists of eight semicircular apses, opening from a centre 
 octagon (Fig. 15) ; the building is vaulted in the manner indicated by 
 the dotted lines on the plan. The apse opposite to that in which the 
 entrance is placed is the sacrarium, or place for the high altar, and is more 
 elaborately treated than the others. The exterior of the three western apses, 
 on each side of the entrance, is relieved by recesses and nook-columns. 
 
 The abbey church of Saint- Yved, Braisne (Aisne), presents a symmetrical 
 and very pleasing disposition of five apses on plan (Fig. 16). The main 
 
 apse terminates the choir, and extends the entire height of that portion of 
 the church ; the four lesser apses serve as chapels, and are vaulted at the 
 height of the aisles. The arrangement here observed gives a singularly 
 open efi'ect to the transepts ; and throws all the five altars into full view as 
 one enters, from the nave, under the centre tower. This church was 
 completed about the year a.d., 1216 ; but the plan may safely be attributed 
 to the close of the twelfth century. 
 
245 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 It may be accepted as a rule ^that the important churches erected in the 
 Ile-de-France and Normandy previous to the thirteenth century had simple 
 apses, or those surrounded with ailes only ; and that it was not until the 
 beginning of the thirteenth century that radiating chapels, surrounding 
 the chevetand opening from the ailes, became common. Exceptions to 
 this rule are to be found in the abbey church of Saint-Denis (Seine), which 
 has its apse with radiating chapels of the twelfth century, and the abbey 
 church of Saint-Martin des Champs,* Paris, of the eleventh century. 
 
 The apse of the cathedral of Paris, which dates from the twelfth to the 
 thirteenth century, was originally entirely devoid of chapels ; those now 
 existing having been erected in the fourteenth. In Fig. 17, we give two 
 
 17 
 
 half-plans of the apse of this cathedral ; that on the right hand of the centre 
 line representing its state in the thirteenth century, when the choir was 
 surrounded by double ailes with an outer wall pierced with windows (b), 
 and from which deep and massive buttresses projected ; that on the left 
 represents the apse in its present state. It will be seen that the fourteenth 
 century chapels were constructed, in a very simple manner, between the 
 earlier buttresses, by the conversion of the original aile wall into an arcade 
 (A), and the erection of a new outer wall pierced with large windows (c). 
 The church of Notre-Dame at Mantes, and collegiate church of Poissy 
 (Seine-et-Oise) have apses with ailes devoid of radiating chapels. Both 
 apses are of twelfth century date. 
 
 * The plan of the apse of this church is given m the Dictionnaire Raisonne de L' Architecture 
 Frangaise, vol. i., p. 7. 
 
[ APSE J 
 
 246 
 
 The thirteenth century apse of the church of Saint-Martin, Etampes 
 (Seme-et-Oise), has a single semicircular aile, from which are projected three 
 chapels, m exactly the same fashion as at Vignory (see Fig. 8). In speaking 
 of the latter, we remarked that in the arrangement of its apse and radiating 
 chapels there was the germ of the remarkable development the apse and its 
 surroundings were destined to receive in succeeding centuries. The church 
 of Vignory was built in the tenth century; and now in Saint-Martin, in 
 the thirteenth century, and in the very field where the great development 
 was m full operation, we find almost a transcript of its arrangement; the 
 only diff-erence, so far as plan is concerned, being that the chapels of Saint- 
 Martin are much deeper than those at Vignory. The choir of the cathedral 
 of Kouen, in its original thirteenth century form, had an apse with single 
 aile and three semicircular chapels, as at Vignory; the centre one of which 
 was removed m the fourteenth century when the existing Lady-chapel was 
 erected. The two lateral chapels at Kouen are placed close t'o the 
 chord of the apse ; and greater wall space is accordingly left between them 
 and the centre chapel than is possible with such a disposition as that at 
 Vignory and Etampes. Before leaving the type under review, we must 
 draw attention to the apse of the cathedral of Chartres, built in the 
 thirteenth century; it is of seven sides, surrounded with double ailes, from 
 the outer one of which seven chapels are projected. Four of these chapels 
 are extremely shallow, being formed by what may be designated a slight 
 bending outwards of the aile wall; the three others are deeper, and present 
 mternally, five sides of an octagon. This large apse has, therefore, strictly 
 speakmg, three radiating chapels and four shallow embayments; two only 
 of the latter now contain altars, whilst that between the eastern and south- 
 eastern chapels was destroyed by being broken through to obtain entrance 
 to the large chapel of Saint-Piat, erected in the fourteenth century outside 
 the apse ; the corresponding embayment held, in ancient times, the altar of 
 St. John the Baptist, but is not now used as a chapel. Overlooking the 
 four shallow embayments, we find the disposition of the several features of 
 the great apse of Chartres substantially that of the tenth century apse of 
 Vignory. Chartres has, however, double ailes, which do not exist at 
 Vignory, Etampes, or Kouen. 
 
 It would appear natural for us to continue our survey, in the same south- 
 westerly direction from Paris, and treat next of the apse of the cathedral of 
 Le Mans, another work of the thirteenth century; but as its radiating 
 chapels are much more pronounced on plan than those of the cathedrals of 
 Amiens and Beauvais, we purpose taking their apses into consideration 
 before directing particular attention to that of Le Mans. 
 
 The apse of the cathedral of Bourges* (Cher), built in the thirteenth 
 century, was very similar to that of Notre-Dame, at Paris, when in its 
 
 * The plan of the choir of Bourges cathedral is given in the Dicticmnaire Raisonne de 
 L Architecture Frangaise, vol. i., p. 234. The plan of the apse, given in page 6 of the same 
 volume, IS shown with seven chapels instead of five. 
 
247 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 original state ; but instead of having each of the five bays, between the 
 great buttresses, occupied by three windows (see B, Fig. 17), it has a small 
 chapel projected in place of the central window. The chapels of this large 
 apse appear altogether too insignificant for the other parts, and apparently 
 betray an uncalled-for timidity on the part of the otherwise bold architect 
 of this superb cathedral. 
 
 18 
 
 We now come to what may be called the French apse par excellence, 
 the type presented by the thirteenth century choirs of the cathedrals 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 248 
 
 of Amiens and Beauvais, and copied in the cathedral of Cologne, 
 erected immediately after the two French examples. Both the apses 
 of Amiens and Beauvais are substantially alike in general treatment, 
 havmg seven sides, single ailes, and seven radiating apsidal chapels; 
 the only important difference being in the increased depth given to the 
 central or Lady-chapel at Amiens (b, Fig. 18), and in the two western sides 
 of the apse terminating the choir proper (a), which are not inclined 
 mward from the lines of the choir arcade, as in Beauvais. All the seven 
 chapels at Beauvais are similar in plan. The apse of the cathedral of 
 
 19 
 
 Cologne, which we here give (Fig. 19) being clearly of French origin 
 is identical in arrangement of plan with that of Beauvais. It would be 
 difficult to imagine a more symmetrical and beautiful disposition of parts 
 than the plan of this apse presents ; and the effects produced by the 
 perspective mternally are of the richest and most fascinating description 
 There is no choir in existence more perfect in its internal proportions or 
 more varied in its effects of light and shade through the different hours of 
 the day, than that of Cologne cathedral. Its architect must have carefully 
 studied the works at Beauvais and Amiens ; and has certainly succeeded 
 m combinmg the good points of both in his own masterly work. 
 
249 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 A survey of the more important churches of France, erected in the 
 twelfth and two following centuries, shows us that in planning the apse 
 with its aile and radiating chapels, their architects proceeded chiefly 
 upon two systems. 
 
 The first is based on a semicircle, struck from centre to centre of the 
 eastern pillars of the parallel arcades of the choir, with its chord line 
 passing transversely through the centres of the same pillars. This semi- 
 circle is divided into five equal parts, and on the points between them are 
 placed the four pillars of the apse. Lines drawn from the centre through 
 these points to another semicircle, struck for the aile wall, mark the 
 positions of the external buttresses and the divisions of the radiating 
 chapels. To form a polygonal apse the semicircle is divided as before. 
 
 and straight lines are drawn so as to produce the true half of the decagon. 
 The same form is repeated for the outer line of the aile, and a chapel is 
 projected from each of its sides. 
 
 The above diagram (Fig. 20) explains this system of planning, probably 
 the simplest that could be devised. Among the important buildings 
 
 I 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 250 
 
 which have their apses designed on this system we may mention the 
 cathedrals of Noyon, Soissons, and Vezelay (twelfth century) ; Keims, 
 Seez, Tours, Bourges, and Bayeux (thirteenth century) ; and the cathedral 
 of Narbonne (fourteenth century). 
 
 The second system employs about eleven-twentieths of a circle as its 
 groundwork at the outer line of the aile (A Fig. 21), dividing it into seven 
 equal parts. Lines are drawn from the dividing points to the centre, for 
 the purpose of marking the radiation of the buttress-divisions between the 
 chapels and the positions of the apse pillars. In the generality of cases, 
 a semicircle is struck, from the centre, between two parallel lines prolonged 
 from the centres of the lateral pillars of the choir, and where this cuts the 
 
 21 
 
 radiating lines the six pillars of the apse are placed. Keference to our 
 diagram (Fig. 21) will fully explain this system. It will be observed, on 
 comparing the two diagrams, that the first mode of planning gives equal 
 divisions both in the inner arcade and at the outer wall of aile, simply 
 because the apse joins the choir at its chord. In the second system, while 
 the outer wall line is divided into seven equal spaces, the arches of the 
 apse arcade are not all one width, the two westernmost being intermediate 
 between those of the main arcade and the five remaining in the apse. Both 
 systems of planning, as above described, place all the sides of the apse in 
 an angular position to the axis of the choir. The second system is well 
 
251 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 illustrated by the apses of the choirs of the cathedrals of Beauvais and 
 Cologne, and, in a slightly modified form, in those of Amiens, Chartres, 
 Coutances, and Le Mans, all works of the thirteenth century. The 
 modification to be observed in the apse of Amiens cathedral is worthy of 
 remark ; and reference to our half plan of it (Fig. 18), will elucidate 
 the following description. The only marked difference between the 
 planning of this apse and that of Beauvais exists in the method adopted 
 of arriving at the positions of its pillars. In that of Beauvais, a semi- 
 circle was struck between parallel lines, prolonged from the centres of the 
 pillars of the main arcades ; in Amiens, more than half a circle was struck 
 between the centres of the eastern pillars (E) of the main arcade ; the result 
 of this is that the two bays (A) of the apse are not inclined, but continue 
 the parallel lines cJf the choir proper. The aile divisions (d) are inclined, 
 exactly as in Beauvais cathedral, and the chapels (c) are similar in plan. 
 
 The apse of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Caen, is planned on little more 
 than a semicircle, divided into seven equal parts at the outer line of the 
 aile, and surrounded with seven radiating chapels of horse-shoe shape 
 (twelfth century). The chapels are each lighted by two windows, and have 
 arched openings, corresponding with the windows, pierced in the walls 
 between them.* The apse of the church of Saint-Ouen, Eouen,f is 
 another exception to the usual methods of planning. The main portion 
 terminating the choir proper presents five sides of an octagon, and is, 
 strictly speaking, only a three-sided apse. The lines radiating from the 
 centre through the four angles, combined with the transverse line at the 
 junction of the apse with the parallel walls of the choir, mark out, beyond 
 the aile, spaces for five radiating chapels f the three between the four 
 radiating lines are large and similar in width, but the two lateral spaces 
 are much smaller. The result is quite satisfactory, and gives the eJffect of 
 increasing spaciousness as one approaches the Lady-chapel, 
 
 In the choir of the cathedral of Le Mans the apse appears to have 
 reached the extreme limit of its development ; in this instance it is of 
 seven sides, surrounded by spacious double ailes, and has seven deep 
 radiating chapels. The form and disposition of the chapels are unlike 
 those of any of the previously mentioned buildings. In width they are 
 about equal to the spaces between the pillars which divide the two ailes, 
 and accordingly their side walls do not unite at the line of the outer aile 
 wall, as in Beauvais, Amiens, Cologne, Seez, Reims, Noyon, and Troyes ; 
 the spaces left between them are of sufficient size to be pierced with win- 
 dows of good proportion. By this arrangement the outer aile wall appears, 
 internally, to have thirteen sides, seven large ones, from which the chapels 
 are projected, and six smaller ones containing windows. A very ingenious 
 system of vaulting, in quadrangular and triangular compartments, is the 
 
 * The plan of this church is given in Pugin & Le Keux's Sfecimens of the Architecture of 
 Normandy, Plate II. 
 
 t Plan of Saint-Ouen, Ibid. Plate XXXVIII. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 252 
 
 result of this arrangement. The six lateral chapels are about twice their 
 width in depth, are terminated with three-sided apses, and are pierced 
 with six or seven windows. The central or Lady-chapel is rather wider 
 than the others, and is nearly three times its width in depth, is terminated 
 with a three-sided apse, and pierced with eleven windows. The internal 
 effect of this great apse is not so satisfactory as of those with shallower 
 chapels, as at Amiens and Cologne. The result, however, of the deep 
 chapels, combined with the broad double ailes, is a display of great 
 spaciousness, made still more apparent by the ample lighting provided. * 
 Deep apse-chapels are not common, but we see them in the cathedrals of 
 Bazas (Gironde) and Seez, similar in proportions to those of Le Mans ; the 
 Lady-chapels in both, however, being one bay less in depth. The apse of 
 the church of Saint-Pierre-sur-Dive has five radiating apsidal chapels, 
 three of which are nearly twice their width in depth, and two rather 
 shallower. In the apse of Keims cathedral the four side chapels are 
 rather more than their width in depth, while the Lady-chapel is one and a 
 half times its width in depth. Deep Lady-chapels are of course frequently 
 met with, as at Amiens, Troyes, Bayeux, Coutances, and Rouen cathedrals, 
 Saint-Ouen, at Rouen, and in numerous other important churches. 
 
 Apse-chapels are generally planned on a circle, of which they present 
 rather more than the half; sometimes by the addition of short straight 
 sides, assuming the form of a horse-shoe, as in Reims cathedral ; or are 
 designed on an octagon, of which they show five sides, as in Amiens and 
 Beauvais cathedrals and the church of Saint-Ouen. Exceptions to these 
 two leading methods of planning are to be found in the chapels of Saint- 
 Remy, at Reims, which are practically circular ; in the deep chapels of the 
 cathedrals of Le Mans, Bazas, and Seez ; and in the apse of the church of 
 Pontigny (Yonne), where the seven chapels are laid out as irregular 
 hexagons, five sides of which appear internally. (For illustrations of all 
 these varieties, see article Chapel.) 
 
 We must not pass from this section of our subject without directing 
 attention to the class of apse presented by the fortified churches of Saint- 
 Cecily, Alby (Tarn), and the Cordeliers, Toulouse. The former building 
 consists of an immense nave (290 feet long by 60 feet wide) unbroken by 
 pillars, and devoid of ailes, terminated with a five-sided apse, also without 
 ailes. Five-sided chapels are projected from the apse and rise upwards 
 to almost the extreme height of the main vault : they are divided at about 
 one-third their height by a gallery, arched underneath. This gallery is 
 continued along both sides of the nave, in the square recesses or chapels 
 which open from each of its twelve bays ; doors in the buttresses between 
 the recesses give a continuous passage-way at the gallery level. This 
 peculiar feature was evidently designed for purposes of defence. In the 
 church of the Cordeliers, quadrangular chapels open from both the apse 
 
 * The plan of this choir is given in the Dictionnaire Eaisonne de V Architecture Fran^aise, 
 vol. i., p. 236. 
 
253 [ APSE ] 
 
 and nave, and rise the entire height of the church in the apse and along 
 one side of the nave only. The large dimensions of both the above apses, 
 the vertical continuation of their chapels, and the perfectly unobstructed 
 view which is obtained of all their features, give them a striking indivi- 
 duality.* 
 
 Apsidal transepts exist in the cathedrals of Noyon and Soissons. In the 
 former, a semicircular apse terminates both the north and south transepts 
 (twelfth century) ; neither of them is surrounded with an aile. In the 
 cathedral of Soissons the south transept only is apsidal. The apse in this 
 instance is a most beautiful specimen of early pointed architecture (twelfth 
 century) ; it is semicircular, surrounded with an aile and large triforium, 
 above which is an arcaded passage and the clerestory. Both the aile and 
 triforium are vaulted ; and their arcades consist of groups of three arches 
 in each bay, supported on single and grouped pillars, the latter marking 
 the divisions of the bays, and having for their inner members the vaulting 
 shafts which rise from the floor to the clerestory string-course, at which 
 line the vault springs. (For plans of both the above examples see article 
 Transept.) 
 
 In the Romanesque churches of Normandy, dating from the eleventh to 
 the end of the twelfth century, the semicircular apse, devoid of ailes, is 
 almost invariably found. The Norman architects appear to have adhered 
 to this primitive form more steadily than those of any other part of 
 France; and it was doubtless owing to the influence exerted by the 
 Rhenish Romanesque. There is no doubt that Normandy, during the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries, had more intimate connexion with Cologne 
 and the banks of the Rhine than any of the other provinces of France. 
 
 We find the simple semicircular apse in two of the important churches of 
 Caen, Saint-Nicholas, and the Abbaye-aux-Dames, both of twelfth century 
 date. The apse of the former is highly characteristic of the Norman 
 treatment. It is divided, externally, into five equal parts by vertical 
 attached shafts, which terminate under the cornice in short capitals. The 
 lower part of each division has a lofty arch, springing from nook-shafts of 
 slight projection ; and within the arch is a window, with a wall arcade 
 under. The upper part of each division is pierced with a small window. 
 Internally, arches, similar in general proportions to those on the exterior, 
 are constructed, consisting of double moulded members, resting on 
 grouped wall-shafts, with carved capitals. The upper part is formed as an 
 arcaded gallery, with a passage-way between the outer wall and the 
 internal round pillars. Its vault is a semi-dome, covered with a very 
 high-pitched conical roof of stone. The apse of the Abbaye-aux-Dames 
 (Fig. 22) is somewhat similar to that of Saint-Nicholas, but has its lower, 
 as well as its upper, arcade with detached shafts. It will be observed that 
 externally the sides of the apse spread laterally where they join the stair- 
 
 * Drawings and plans of both these chiirches are given in King's Study Book of Medicuval 
 Architecture and Art. Vol. I. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 254 
 
 case turrets, which are canted to receive them. Two apsidal chapels open 
 eastward from the north transept; the apse of one is shown in our plan. 
 We have already spoken of the more developed apses of the cathedral of 
 Bayeux, and the churches of Saint- Etienne (Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and 
 Saint-Ouen ; we need not again enlarge on their characteristics. 
 
 22 
 
 Whilst tracing thus briefly the development of the apse in French archi- 
 tecture, we have not thought it necessary to enter into lengthy speculations 
 as to the probable origin of its characteristic treatment, namely, with arches, 
 aile, and radiating chapels. The origin has ingeniously been attributed 
 to the connexion of the circular tomb-house with the basilican church. * 
 Supposing the tomb-house to occupy a central position eastward of the 
 original apse, the junction was affected by the removal of the western half 
 of the former and the walls of the apse, and the prolongation of the arcades 
 and side walls of the basilica until they joined the remaining semicircle of 
 the tomb-house. We do not incline to this view, and it certainly appears 
 an unduly complicated method of arriving at a very simple result. That 
 
 * This view is held both by the Rev. M. E. C. Walcott and Mr. Fergusson. The former 
 boldly asserts : — " The apse and chevet took their origin in the junction of the common cir- 
 cular tomb-house of the east end, found behind the altar, with the basilica, by the removal of 
 the intermediate walls." For Mr. Fergusson's more diffident and lengthy remarks on the 
 subject we must refer our readers to his valuable Handbovk of Architecture, pp. 618-21. 
 
255 
 
 [ A.PSE J 
 
 tomb-houses have been thus brought to form the eastern ends of certain 
 churches, and that they then formed apses to those buildings, we are fully 
 aware ; but we believe that the development of the apse from its simplest 
 ailed and chapelled forms, as indicated in the western paradise of the ninth 
 century plan of St. Gall, and at Vignory, to have been independent. Cir- 
 cular churches may have first suggested the addition of a surrounding aile 
 to the apse, but the addition seems so natural and obvious an expedient 
 that it requires no accounting for. The aile once added, and the lower 
 part of the apse wall opened into it by arches, every other link in the chain 
 of development followed, as a matter of course, along with the progress 
 of church architecture, the enlargement of the choir, and the multiplication 
 of altars. 
 
 Up to the present we have almost exclusively confined our remarks to 
 the plan of the apse, with which we have chiefly to do in this article, but 
 before we leave the fertile field of France it would be well to briefly glance 
 at the apse in its other architectural aspects. 
 
 In the early examples we have mentioned in our foregoing remarks, the 
 apse presented, internally, a large semicircular recess, pierced with small 
 windows in its upper half, and covered with a plain semi-dome ; this form 
 was practically that of the tribune of the basilica, and was retained in the 
 generality of French churches up to the tenth century. When the apse 
 was surrounded with an aile it was opened to that aile by an arcade, but 
 retained its semi-dome, as in the church of Vignory. In the early examples 
 the aile was covered with a wood roof, but later it was vaulted in, as at 
 Saint-Etienne, Nevers (eleventh century). The radiating chapels were 
 also covered with semi-domes. Externally the apses and apsidal chapels 
 were finished with projecting cornices and low conical roofs. They were 
 sometimes enriched with pilastres, engaged shafts, small buttresses, and 
 blind arcades, as in the churches of Saint-Paul, Issoire (eleventh century), 
 Saint-Pierre, Chauvigny, and the church of Cosne-sur-Loire. The poly- 
 gonal apse of the church of Thor (Vaucluse), is decorated externally with 
 long fluted pilasters, from the capitals of which spring small arches meeting 
 together, above the windows, upon ornamental corbels. The low-pitched 
 conical roof springs from a bold corbelled cornice. The external effect of 
 certain apses, with their ailes and radiating chapels, treated as above de- 
 scribed, is frequently rich and pleasing. This is the case in the churches 
 of Saint-Paul, Issoire, and Notre-Dame de Puy. * The church of Saint- 
 Eutrope, Saintes (Charente-Inferieure), has an apse of the twelfth century, 
 elaborately treated with engaged columns, windows with nook shafts and 
 moulded and enriched arches, blind arcades, corbelled cornices, and carved 
 string-courses, making altogether a singularly interesting and beautiful 
 specimen of the western Romanesque architecture of France. It is to be 
 regretted that this highly artistic style was not further developed and 
 
 * A drawing of the apse of the church of Saint-Paul is given in the Diet. Rais. de VArch. 
 mc^aise, vol. ix., p. 220; and of Notre-Dame in the Handbook of Architecture, p. 636. 
 
[ APSE j 
 
 256 
 
 employed in the construction of buildings of the magnitude of Amiens 
 cathedral, for it is probable that apses would have been produced of much 
 greater dignity and grandeur than any which now exist in the pointed 
 styles ; and they would, from such beginnings, most certainly have sur- 
 passed the fine Romanesque apses of the Rhenish churches, of which we 
 shall speak later on. 
 
 In the important cathedrals and churches of the thirteenth century, in 
 the middle and northern j)rovinces of France, the apse is invariably treated 
 both internally and externally as the true continuation and termination of 
 the choir ; all its architectural features sweep round the apse, and give a 
 perfect unity to the entire structure. As the sides or bays of the apse are 
 smaller than the lateral bays of the choir, the aile arches, triforium arcade, 
 and clerestory windows, have of course to be modified to suit, in all except 
 their heights, which remain the same. The vault is also carried round 
 without a dividing arch or break of any description. The ailes of the apse 
 are in all essential points like those of the choir, their vaults only requiring- 
 to be modified to suit the radiating compartments. The apse-chapels, 
 however, are not as a rule similar to those which open from the choir ailes, 
 even when the latter chapels exist, which is by no means invariably the 
 case. The cathedral of Le Mans is perhaps the most noteworthy excep- 
 tion ; there the choir-chapels are precisely similar to those of the apse. 
 The cathedrals of Seez, Reims, Charfcres, Amiens, Beauvais, Bourges, and 
 Rouen have no properly constructed lateral choir-chapels. The cathedrals 
 of Noyon, Soissons, Tours, Bayeux, Clermont, Limoges, Vezelay, and the 
 church of Saint-Ouen, Rouen, have choir-chapels of entirely diff'erent 
 plans to those of their respective apses. It is unnecessary for our present 
 purpose to describe the external aspect of the apses of these great build- 
 ings ; for to do so would be to describe the architecture of their entire 
 choirs, and lead us beyond the necessary limits of this article. 
 
 The almost total destruction of the early churches of Belgium, erected 
 prior to the twelfth century, renders it difficult to say anything certain 
 regarding their plans. It is very generally believed, however, that the 
 apse was not considered an indispensable feature by their architects, and 
 this opinion is supported by the remains of the tenth century church of 
 St. Vincent, Soignies, and that of St. Gertrude, Nivelles, erected during 
 the eleventh century. Both these churches have square east ends, but the 
 latter has some indications of an apse having been projected from the face 
 of its western transept. 
 
 We find two beautiful apses, of twelfth century work, terminating the 
 north and south transepts of Tournay cathedral ; these are semicircular 
 and surrounded by an aile. The arcade of each apse consists of seven 
 arches supported on round pillars, over which is a lofty triforium of the 
 same number of arches ; between these arches and the clerestory sills is a 
 small colonnade, with a passage-way behind. It will be observed that 
 there are certain general points of similarity between these apses and that 
 which terminates the south transept of Soissons cathedral. 
 
257 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 The apse of the cathedral of Bruges, built at the close of the twelfth 
 century, is five-sided, planned on the system of diagram Fig. 20, and 
 surrounded by an unusually broad aile. The five large five-sided chapels 
 were added between 1482 and 1526; they communicate with each other 
 through arches in the buttress-walls, and accordingly impart an appearance 
 of additional spaciousness to the otherwise spacious aile. The apse of the 
 cathedral of Ghent (early fourteenth century) is very similar in plan to 
 that just described ; the two extreme lateral chapels are, however, different 
 in form, being designed on an irregular pentagon, of which they show four 
 sides. The chapels were not completed until the fifteenth century ; they 
 communicate with each other, as at Bruges. The choir apse of the cathe- 
 dral of Tournay was, in the twelfth century, semicircular, like those of the 
 transepts ; it was taken down when the present choir was commenced, 
 sometime between the years 1219 and 1251. The apse now existing was 
 not entirely completed until the beginning of the fourteenth century ; it is 
 five-sided, as in the two previous examples, and has five shallow radiating 
 chapels ; the Lady-chapel presenting five sides, while the remaining four 
 have only three sides. The vaults of all these chapels unite with the 
 aile vault without the intervention of the arches usually met with over 
 the entrances to radiating chapels. The apse of the cathedral of Antwerp 
 is five-sided, surrounded by a single aile, and has five radiating chapels, 
 alike in form and dimensions. This apse is laid out, in plan, like our 
 diagram Fig. 20. In the church of St. Jacques, Liege (early sixteenth 
 century) the choir terminates in a five-sided apse without an aile, but with 
 five small radiating chapels. The other important churches of Belgium do 
 not present any unusual treatment in their apses to call for special remark. 
 
 In approaching the valley of the Khine, we enter upon another highly 
 interesting field of study, and in opening the special subject under review, 
 in this new ground, we cannot do better than quote Mr. Fergusson's terse 
 summary of the prevailing peculiarities of Khenish architecture. He 
 says : — " The leading characteristics of the German style are the double 
 apsidal arrangement of plan, the multiplication of small circular or 
 octangular towers, combined with polygonal domes, at the intersections 
 of the transepts with the nave, and the extended use of galleries under the 
 eaves of the roofs both of the apses and of the straight sides. The most 
 ornamental parts are the doorways and the capitals of the columns. The 
 latter surpass in beauty and in richness anything of their kind executed 
 during the middle ages, and, though sometimes rude in execution, 
 equal in design any capitals ever invented." Of the earliest German 
 churches, which were almost invariably circular or polygonal on plan, it is 
 unnecessary to speak beyond stating that their altars were placed in small 
 semicircular apses, projected eastwards from their aile walls. This was 
 the case with Charlemagne's cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle (774-804), 
 which had originally a semicircular apse ; it was removed in 1353, when 
 the present apsidal choir was commenced. Helena, the mother of 
 Constantine, erected, at Treves, a basilica with the usual semicircular 
 
 K 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 258 
 
 tribune at its east end ; it is probable that this, the first Christian church 
 erected on German soil, suggested the adoption of the basilican plan 
 which was almost universally used in the later Ehenish churches. Or 
 perhaps the impulse given in the tenth century along the Khine may 
 with equal likelihood be attributed to Lombard influence, which readily 
 reached the valley. Be this as it may, the basilica of Helena remained 
 practically in its original form until the eleventh century, when the present 
 basilica was constructed. While the origin of the simple basilican 
 plan does not appear a difficult problem, that of the plan with two apses, 
 placed east and west, does not seem clear. It has been suggested by 
 some that the additional western apse was added in large churches for 
 parochial use, by others that it was originally intended for a tomb-house. 
 
 Speaking of the early German basilica. Dr. W. Liibke* says: — "At 
 its eastern end there was a space enclosed by a semicircular wall, forming 
 an ajpse, and called also niche, ahside, tribune, or concha. All these 
 names were used, more or less often, for this part of the church. Towards 
 the boundary of the apse and the square space of the choir stood the altar 
 table, so that a passage was open round it, which was the more necessary, 
 as the officiating priest originally stood behind the altar, his face turned 
 towards the congregation. The wall of the apse is generally pierced by 
 three windows, of the same form as the other windows, but generally 
 of larger dimensions. The vaulting of the apse was adorned by painting, 
 with the most splendid representations ; mostly it was Christ as the 
 Saviour of the world, and as the Judge of the world, enthroned on a 
 rainbow in a vesica. 
 
 " This is the simplest form of basilica, as it came into existence in 
 Germany after the eleventh century. It was, however, chiefly the east 
 end which received the most varied additions. The commonest was the 
 addition of two smaller absides (intended for side altars) to the side arms 
 of the transept against the eastern walls. 
 
 " Lastly, it is to be remarked that sometimes in large cathedrals and 
 abbey churches there is the addition of a second choir with apse, and even 
 sometimes with transept and a second crypt, which was dedicated to a 
 particular saint, and probably intended for parochial service. Such is the 
 case in the cathedrals at Bamberg, Menz, Naumburg, and the Collegiate 
 Church at Gernrode, St. Michael and St. Godehard in Hildesheim, St. 
 Sebald at Niirnberg, and others." 
 
 The church at Gernrode, mentioned above, is probably the most perfect 
 early basilica (tenth century) existing in Germany ; it has a deep choir 
 terminating in a semicircular apse, two small lateral apses projected 
 eastward, and a large western one flanked by attached circular turrets. 
 The latter is also semicircular, perfectly plain, and covered with a semi- 
 dome internally and a conical roof externally, which abuts against the lofty 
 western portion between the turrets. 
 
 * Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages, by Dr. Wilhelm Liibke, p. 23. 
 
259 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 In our previous remarks with reference to the basilica of Helena, at 
 Treves, we said that it remained practically in its original form until the 
 eleventh century ; let us now glance at its altered plan. We find the nave 
 and ailes materially lengthened, a western semicircular apse added, and 
 two flanking circular turrets erected. The eastern apse, at this time, was 
 probably rebuilt on the old foundations ; but in the end of the twelfth 
 century the present apse was completed. It is five sided, with buttresses 
 on its six angles, a large window in each of its sides, and terminated, 
 externally, with the small arcaded gallery which is a marked feature of 
 German Romanesque architecture. It is not necessary, in a condensed 
 article like the present, to enlarge upon the many double apse churches ; 
 it is sufficient to take one good example of the best period, and we 
 accordingly select the interesting and highly characteristic abbey church 
 of Laach, the plan of which is given in Fig. 23. The arrangement may 
 be accepted as typical of the Rhenish basilica of the twelfth century ; at 
 the east end is the well-developed choir, terminated with a semicircular 
 apse, pierced with three windows, and arcaded externally ; and the 
 spacious transept, from each arm of which a semicircular apse is projected 
 eastward. At the west is a lesser transept, flanked with circular towers, 
 and having a large semicircular apse opening opposite the nave. One 
 peculiarity exists in this western apse, namely, the centre pillar which 
 carries the vaulting, and corresponds with that which marks the transept 
 as distinct from the nave. Between these two pillars the tomb of Henry 
 of Reims was erected about the middle of the twelfth century ; it is 
 probable, therefore, that the western apse was originally designed as 
 a tomb -house. The choir apse does not rise the full height of the 
 quadrangular portion, and is covered with a semi-dome : the lateral apses 
 are low and vaulted in a similar manner. The mode of vaulting adopted 
 in the western apse is indicated on our plan. 
 
 We now come to the second important variety of Rhenish churches, 
 namely, those which may be strictly called triapsal, that is, with apsidal 
 choir and transepts of similar dimensions. The finest specimens of this 
 variety are to be seen in Cologne — the churches of St. Martin, the 
 Apostles, and St. Mary in the Capitol. The church of St. Elizabeth, 
 Marburg, is also a highly interesting example, differing in style and 
 treatment from the three Romanesque churches above named. According 
 to Weale,* the apses of the church of St. Martin are the oldest, being 
 erected between 977 and 980. They are semicircular, both internally 
 and externally, and similar in size and design ; they open from the 
 quadrangular space under the great tower, have three round-arched 
 windows in their upper portions, and are covered with semi-domes. 
 Externally their walls are arcaded in two stories, and immediately under 
 the eaves of their low conical roofs they are surrounded with the small 
 
 * Belgum, Aix-la-GJmpelle, and Cologne (Handbook), by W. H. J. Weale, Member of the 
 Royal Society of Fine Arts, Glient, of the Archajological Society of Mons, &c. (1859). 
 
[ APSE ] 260 
 
 arcaded gallery almost invariably met with in churches of the style. 
 Speaking of the triapsal buildings of Cologne, Mr. Fergusson justly 
 remarks : — " The arrangement with three apses possesses the architectural 
 propriety of terminating nobly the interior to which it is applied. As 
 the worshipper advances up the nave, the three apses open gradually 
 
 upon him, and form a noble and appropriate climax without the effect 
 being destroyed by something less magnificent beyond. But their most 
 pleasing effect is external, where the three simple circular lines combine 
 gracefully together, and form an elegant basement for the central dome 
 or tower. Compared with the confused buttresses and pinnacles of the 
 
261 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 apses of the French pointed churches, it must certainly be admitted that 
 the German designs are far nobler, as possessing more architectural 
 propriety and more of the elements of true and simple beauty. They 
 are small, it is true, and consequently it is not fair to compare them with 
 such imposing edifices as the great and overpoweringly-magnificent 
 cathedral of the same town ; but among buildings of their own scale they 
 stand as yet unrivalled." 
 
 The apses of the church of the Apostles (1020-1035) are similar in 
 general design to those of St. Martin, and are attached to the body of 
 the church in the same relative position. Externally, they abut against 
 small gables, which are advanced from the centre octagonal lantern, and 
 mark the choir and transepts : at the north-east and south-east junctions 
 of the apses rise two lofty octagonal turrets. The effect of this group of 
 apses, turrets, and gables, with the central lantern, viewed from the 
 market-place, is extremely bold and pleasing. 
 
 We now come to the church of St. Mary in the Capitol, which is the 
 the only triapsal building in Cologne ailed throughout, neither of the two 
 previous churches having ailes to their apses. Although not so imposing 
 or picturesque externally, the church of St. Mary is much more satisfactory 
 internally than that of St. Martin or the church of the Apostles. The plan 
 is probably the most symmetrical and perfect of all the Rhenish-Roman- 
 esque churches*; the choir and the north and south transepts extend the 
 same distance from the centre point of the crossing, and are terminated 
 with semicircular apses of five bays, surrounded by an aile of uniform 
 width; each apse commences at the distance of two bays from the crossing. 
 The arches of the apses spring from the capitals of circular pillars, and 
 above them are the clerestory windows, divided on the inside by coupled 
 shafts. The semidomes rise from the capitals of these coupled shafts, and 
 are supported by the arches which are turned over the clerestory windows. 
 The parallel bays of both choir and transepts are vaulted, and a low dome 
 covers the crossing. The ailes throughout are vaulted. The whole of this 
 portion of the church is believed to have been erected at the end of the 
 twelfth century, f 
 
 The church of St. Elizabeth, Marburg, is a pure pointed building of the 
 thirteenth century (1235-1283), with apsidal choir and transepts (Fig. 24). 
 The three apses are alike in size and design, being five-sided, pierced with 
 two rows of pointed two-light windows, and vaulted at the same height as 
 the rest of the church. The nave-ailes are also carried up, and the double 
 
 * A large plan of this church is given by Boisseree in his Denkmale der baukunst vom 7 ten 
 bis zum 13 ten jaJirhundert am Nieder-Rhein; but it is not altogether correct. The eastern 
 apse is shown with six instead of four round pillars, and the vaulting is wrongly indicated. 
 A small plan, copied from this, is given in the Handbook of Architecture, p. 577. 
 
 f The interior has recently been "restored," and is now entirely covered with painted 
 decoration, of which the less we say the better ; we may remark, however, that everything 
 has been done to destroy the repose and dignity of this most dignified design. It was no 
 doubt originally painted, but not as it is now, we gravely surmise. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 262 
 
 tiers of windows are continued from the apses along their walls. There 
 is one feature worthy of notice on the exterior of the apses, that is 
 the passage-way formed just under and in front of the sills of both 
 tiers of windows, openings being left through the buttresses to render 
 it continuous. The windows, with the passage-way, are shown on one 
 
 half of the accompanying plan. The apses are roofed at the same high 
 pitch as the general roof. Before we leave the subject of triapsal 
 buildings, we must briefly allude to the curious triapsal choir of Mayence 
 cathedral (Fig. 25). It is placed at the west end of the building, and 
 opens from a spacious transept ; all the apses are three-sided, open from 
 the sides of a central square space, and are vaulted as indicated by dotted 
 lines on the plan. This is the only instance in Germany where such a 
 triapsal arrangement has been carried out with angular apses, but both 
 internally and externally the result is highly satisfactory. This portion of 
 the cathedral was consecrated in the year 1239. The eastern apse is 
 semicircular, and .was erected in the beginning of the eleventh century. 
 
 Parallel triapsal churches are not uncommon in Germany; from 
 amongst the best known examples may be named the cathedral and 
 the church of the Dominicans, at Katisbon, and the church of St. Mary, 
 at Muhlhausen, all of which are terminated with three apses of three 
 sides ; the church of Notre-Dame, Oberwesel, with three-sided apses, 
 only one of which shows itself on the exterior ; the church of St. James, 
 Katisbon, which has three semicircular apses ; and the church of 
 Gelnhausen, which has a main apse of three sides, and two semicircular 
 lateral ones, formed in the octagonal towers flanking the choir. 
 
263 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 Single apse churches are also common ; we may mention the cathedrals 
 of Spire and Hildesheim ; the churches of Andernach ; St. Castor, 
 Coblentz ; St. Stephen and St. Quirinus, Mayence ; and St. Lambert, 
 Hildesheim. The apses of all these buildings have no ailes. The church 
 of Halberstadt has a single three-sided apse with aile, from the eastern 
 wall of which an apsidal chapel is projected. 
 
 25 
 
 An arrangement of five parallel apses is to be seen in the church of 
 St. John, Luneburg ; the main one is five-sided, while the remaining four 
 have three sides. 
 
 The church of St. Catherine, Oppenheim, has an arrangement of three 
 apses at its east end, planned on a similar principle to that adopted in the 
 church of St. Yved, Braisne (see Fig. 16). In the German example, how- 
 ever, the apses have, strictly speaking, only three sides. * 
 
 The church of Zanten is terminated with five apses, which occupy the 
 same relative positions as those of St. Yved, but in this case there is no 
 transept, and the double lateral ailes extend to the four smaller apses, and 
 open into them. The choir apse is projected on the axis of the church, 
 while the lateral apses are placed at the angle of 45°, as in those of the 
 French example. 
 
 The polygonal apse, surrounded by an aile and radiating chapels, is 
 evidently not a feature belonging to German architecture ; it was, as we 
 mentioned with reference to the apse of Cologne cathedral, unquestionably 
 borrowed from France in the thirteenth century. The Cologne apse, which 
 we have shown to have been the result of a careful study of the almost 
 
 * Apses with three sides have, by some writers, been incorrectly called " trigonal apses." A 
 three-sided apse must of necessity have four angles ; the term therefore is obviously inapplic- 
 able to it. We are not aware that a proper trigonal apse exists, that is, one with two sides 
 and three angles. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 264 
 
 contemporary works at Beauvais and Amiens, is the finest specimen of its 
 class in Germany, indeed we may say in the world. The apse of the abbey 
 church at Altenberg is similar in plan, and was evidently copied from that 
 of the cathedral. 
 
 Before concluding our brief remarks on the German apses we must direct 
 the student's attention to the apse of the cathedral of Fribourg, in Bresgau 
 (late fourteenth century). The choir proper is terminated with a three- 
 sided apse, surrounded by an aile, which at its outer line, namely at the 
 arches of the chapels, assumes six sides — two to each side of the choir apse. 
 Six radiating chapels are symmetrically projected from the aile, and, their 
 number being even, there is no centre chapel, a feature present in all the 
 examples of apses with ailes and radiating chapels which we have de- 
 scribed.* The chapels are uniformly planned on an irregular pentagon, of 
 which they show four sides ; each chapel has two windows, divided by a 
 centre buttress-pier. The general elfect of this apse is, as might be 
 expected from its plan, unsatisfactory. 
 
 We now come to our own country, where the apse appears never to have 
 become a favourite feature in church architecture, and where, with perhaps 
 the single exception of Westminster abbey, there is no building which 
 presents one in any way copiparable to the great apses of the Continental 
 cathedrals previously spoken of. 
 
 At what time the apse was first introduced in English architecture it is 
 impossible to decide ; but if we can place reliance in Eadmer's description 
 of the Saxon church at Canterbury which was given by Ethelbert to 
 Augustine on his arrival from Eome (597), it must have been introduced 
 in the earliest Christian churches erected in our island. Eadmer was a 
 youth in the monastery school when Archbishop Langfranc began to destroy 
 the Saxon building to make way for his own cathedral ; and later in life he 
 wrote a tract, entitled De Reliquiis S. Audoeni, in which he describes the 
 Saxon church as having resembled, in its arrangements, the ancient 
 basilica of St. Peter at Eome. From his description it appears that there 
 were two apses, placed east and west ; that in the western one the altar 
 was orignally placed, with the bishop's throne and seats for the clergy 
 behind it; and that in Langfranc's time the high altar had been removed to 
 the Eastern apse.t There can be no question that Augustine, direct from 
 Eome, where the basilican form of church building was so firmly esta- 
 blished, approved of the adoption of the apse in all the churches erected 
 during his time. 
 
 In Bede's Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, direct allusion 
 is made to the " Eoman style" of church building, as having been much 
 admired by Benedict Biscop ; and we are told that he personally visited 
 
 *The cathedral of Angouleme has a semicircular apse, without an aUe, but with four 
 chapels radiating from it. This is the only French example, with an equal number of 
 chapels, we are acquainted with. 
 
 fFor a full comparison between the church, described by Eadmer, and the ancient basilica 
 of St. Peter, see Willis's Architectural History, cap. ii. 
 
265 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 Gaul for the purpose of obtaining skilled masons to erect for his monastery 
 a church of stone in that style, Benedict was a most painstaking and 
 enthusiastic church-builder, and took great interest in all matters relating 
 to church decoration and furniture. There is some uncertainty as to what 
 the Roman style is intended to signify ; but in the main we agree with 
 the views of the Rev. G. Ayliffe Poole, who says : "The introduction of 
 the arch of that form which is still called Romanesque may be supposed 
 to satisfy the phrase ji^rr to Romanorum morem, but it is difficult to believe 
 that this was unusual before this time, when we remember that there were 
 already Roman arches in abundance in the kingdom, and that the inha- 
 bitants of Great Britain could hardly have forgotten the art of constructing 
 them, which they had learned during their subjection to the empire. 
 Perhaps the difference of fashion thus expressed may be, at least partly, 
 ritual, and altogether rather of degree than of kind. Thus, although the 
 arch may have been already used in doors and windows, and between the 
 nave and the chancel ; yet if ailes were now introduced, after an arrange- 
 ment forced on the Romans by the form of an ancient basilica, and 
 afterwards adopted by them for ritual purposes, the use of the arch would 
 be greatly multipHed, and the church be better adapted for the processions 
 in which a body of ecclesiastics would often be engaged. Again, the apse 
 may, probably at least, have been introduced from Rome at this time : and 
 the habit of departing from the very scanty proportions of early Saxon 
 churches may have originated with the more frequent pilgrimages to 
 Rome of our Saxon ecclesiastics." 
 
 Bede informs us that Benedict Biscop made five journeys to Rome, 
 chiefly for the purpose of gaining information respecting the mode of 
 constructing and decorating churches. In every church in Rome he 
 saw the apse, and he is said to have admired the style of building there 
 followed; is it for a moment to be supposed that, on his return home, 
 he would omit from the churches he was so deeply interested in that 
 feature which, in all Roman basilicse, was put to the most sacred uses ? 
 We need not follow this question further ; it has been introduced only 
 with the view of pointing out the great probability of the apse having 
 been considered an essential part of an Anglo-Saxon church, perhaps prior 
 to the time of Augustine, or at least in the active church-building time 
 of Benedict Biscop (671-686).* 
 
 * The Eev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott, in his interesting paper, on " Church and Conventual 
 Arrangement," read before the Royal Institute of British Architects, gives the following 
 notes, referring to the introduction of the apse in Saxon churches :— " WilUam of Mahnesbury 
 describes a church built by Alfred the Great, evidently showing the Ehenish type, as erected in 
 a new way of building ; four piers supported the whole structure, which had four round apses 
 in its chcumference. Eddius {Gomp. to Gloss., iii., 8, 9), Precentor of Northumbria, describes 
 Hexham, built by St. Wilfred, as ' a structure of many parts, long and liigh, supported on 
 various columns, and above many subterranean chapels ; ' and Prior Eichard, in 1180, speaks 
 of ' its nave surrounded with lateral chapels, its walls divided mto three stories, its columns 
 of stone, its crypts and oratories, with passages leading to them, and the coved vault of its 
 sanctuary.' He also mentions ' porticos (or apses) at Eipon.' Alcuin describes Egbert's 
 
 L 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 266 
 
 In Anglo-Norman architecture, the apse appears, as in the works of the 
 parent style, semicircular internally and externally, pierced with small 
 windows, and vaulted. In this simple form it was doubtless introduced in 
 the generality of the lesser churches, erected during the active building 
 epoch which almost immediately succeeded the Invasion.* 
 
 The most important Norman apse existing in England is that of Norwich 
 cathedral, commenced in 1096; it is not, however, in its original state; the 
 apsidal Lady-chapel, which was projected eastward from its aile, has been 
 destroyed ; and the present clerestory and vault were erected between 1472 
 and 1499. The apse is semicircular, of five divisions, and both the main 
 arcade and the lofty triforium above have the characteristic arches and 
 other details of the period. The Perpendicular clerestory is polygonal. 
 The original arrangement of this apse is a matter of considerable interest 
 to the archaeologist. The five arches appear to have been screened, up to 
 about half their height, with stone-work ; and to have had seats provided 
 for the clergy towards the inside. In the centre arch a bishop's throne was 
 erected, more elevated than the rest ; and the altar was placed in front of 
 it, as in the early basilican tribune. A portion of the throne still remains ; 
 and the side of the screens, towards the aile, is enriched with an arcade of 
 intersecting arches. The apse has a single aile, from the wall of which 
 three apsidal chapels were projected; only the two lateral ones remain. 
 They are of an unusual plan, being circular, with apses inclined towards 
 the east. The north and south transepts originally had apsidal chapels 
 projected from them ; that of the north transept still remains. 
 
 The other important Norman apse existing is that which terminates the 
 choir of Peterborough cathedral; it was erected between the years 1118 
 and 1155, and is accordingly rather later than that of Norwich. It is 
 
 cathedral at York as ' having many apses and curved roofs.' At Winchester, St. Wolstan's 
 church had north and south ailes, an eastern apse over a crypt used as the burial place of 
 bishops, several chapels, and a cloister to the west ; and Elphege, in the tenth century, added 
 a west tower. We therefore gather from these facts that the larger Saxon churches were of 
 stone, with a central tower, ailes, triforia, clerestory, apse, and crypts, although inferior in 
 size and ornament to the Norman period." 
 
 * " In the Norman and Transitional Norman church, the grand characteristics were the 
 great length of the nave, at St. Alban's, Winchester, Norwich, Ely, Peterborough, Jorevalle, 
 and Byland : a triapsal arrangement, the choir, shorter than at a later period, ending in 
 an apse {a^:^, a bow vault, round), and the transept having an eastern apse to each wing ; the 
 latter feature appealing at Norwich, Gloucester, Eomsey, Thetford, Castle-Acre, and Christ 
 Church, Hants. . . The apsidal east end, as at Gloucester, Canterbury, Leominster {Arch. 
 Jour., X. Ill), and Norwich, often terminated in an aile opening into one eastern and two 
 lateral chapels. . . Beading had three eastern apses, and two eastern apses in each wing of 
 the transept {Archaologia, vi. 61). Battle had three eastern polygonal apses (Horsfield's 
 Sussex, i. 539). Wells and Lichfield have polygonal ends to the Lady-chapel. Eastward of 
 the choir was the presbytery, with the altar standing in the chord of the apse, and the bishop's 
 throne elevated on a platform behind it ; the circular- aile behind forming a processional path. 
 Apses are rare in the north, probably owing to the influence of lona. Of a later period we 
 have the ' French Chevet,' a circlet of piUars comprising aile and a crescent of radiating 
 chapels, as at Tewkesbury, Pershore, and Westminster."- Eev. M. E C Walcott Trans 
 B, I. B. A., 1860. ' 
 
267 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 semicircular, and was constructed without a surrounding aile, as in the 
 Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen ; but, unlike that building, it had lateral choir- 
 ailes carried up to it on both sides, terminating in chapels, which, how- 
 ever, it is believed were not apsidal. The apse of Peterborough cathedral 
 was orginally divided from the choir proper by an arch, the side pillars of 
 which remain. The wall of the apse was pierced with three rows of 
 windows, five in each row ; these have been blocked up, or altered and 
 filled with tracery, when the retro-choir and other additions and alterations 
 were made. 
 
 We have already mentioned the Anglo-Roman church, at Canterbury, 
 which, according to Eadmer, had an apse at both ends. It is highly 
 improbable that both apses existed in the original building when Augustine 
 took possession of it ; but it is very likely that the west apse was of the 
 ancient structure, and that the east one was erected by Augustine, or some 
 of his successors, for the purpose of forming a larger and more seemly 
 sanctuary. 
 
 Langfranc, the first Norman archbishop of Canterbury, no sooner took 
 possession of the See than he decided to build a new cathedral, in the 
 style of architecture he was familiar with. Previous to his call to England 
 he was abbot at the monastery of St. Stephen, at Caen, which had shortly 
 before been founded by William of Normandy, and he was accordingly con- 
 versant, as every learned ecclesiastic of the middle ages was, with the 
 most advanced treatment of the architecture of his time. His cathedral is 
 believed to have been a close copy of the church of his monastery, built 
 between 1064 and 1077, and accordingly in course of erection at the same 
 time as his new cathedral. The choir of Langfranc' s cathedral is supposed 
 to have extended only two bays east of the centre tower, and to have been 
 terminated with a semicircular apse. The shortness of this important 
 portion doubtless led to its destruction, for, within twenty years after its 
 completion, archbishop Anselm had the choir taken down and reconstructed, 
 under the superintendence of Ernulph, prior of the monastery, and his 
 successor, Conrad, who finished it with so much magnificence that it was 
 afterwards designated "the glorious choir of Conrad." This choir was 
 destroyed by fire in 1174; and that which now exists was erected by 
 the architects known as AVilliam of Sens and English William, between 
 the years 1174 and 1184. Conrad's choir extended eastward to the towers 
 of St. Anselm and St. Andrew, which were erected along with it, and still 
 remain; between these a chapel was projected, dedicated to the Holy 
 Trinity. 
 
 That the choir of Conrad was terminated with a semicircular apse of 
 seven bays is proved by the description given by Gervase the monk,* 
 which is as follows Since, therefore, the choir of Conrad, gloriously 
 finished in our time, has been miserably destroyed by fire, in order that the 
 
 * Gervas de combust, et repar. Dorob. Eccles. Decern Script. Edit Twysden, 1652. 
 Quoted in Britten's Hist, and Antiq. of tJie Metropolitical Church of Canterbury, p. 34. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 268 
 
 memory of so great a man, and so noble a work, might not perish, we shall 
 proceed to describe it. . . On passing from the great central tower, the 
 eastern pillars of the choir were seen jutting out from a solid wall, like 
 semi-pillars or pilasters. It was supported by eighteen pillars, nine on 
 each side, in a direct line, and at equal distances ; and beyond these were 
 six other pillars extended, in the form of a semicircle. Arches were thrown 
 both from the ninth pillar on each side, and from pillar to pillar, as well 
 round the circular parts as over those in a direct line ; and on these arches 
 
 was reared a solid wall, in which were several small and obscure windows. 
 On this wall was erected an ambulatory, called the triforium, and an upper 
 range of windows. The roof extended over this inner wall, and was finely 
 painted to represent heaven or the firmament. 
 
 " At the bases of the pillars surrounding the choir and presbytery was a 
 
269 
 
 r APSE ] 
 
 wall, . . which divided the choir from the side ailes, and enclosed the 
 former with the presbytery, the high altar, and the altars of St. Alphage 
 and St. Dunstan. Beyond the eastern bending of it, and behind the high 
 altar, was the patriarchal chair, made of one stone, in which the archbishops 
 were wont to sit on their festivals, during the intervals of mass, till the 
 consecration of the elements, and then they descended by eight steps to 
 Christ's altar. ... The crypt was of equal length and breadth with 
 the choir." 
 
 The form of Conrad's apse can now be very clearly seen in the plan of 
 the crypt, the larger western portion of which is unquestionably Ernulph's 
 work. We give the plan of the crypt (Fig. 26), in preference to a ground- 
 plan of the choir above, as it shows more clearly the succession of the 
 apsidal terminations from Anselm's time. The crypt, terminating in a 
 semicircular apse with seven arches (A), surrounded with an aile, and 
 flanked by the eastern transepts and the towers of SS. Andrew and Anselm, 
 is Prior Ernulph's work ; and clearly proves that the choir, built over it, 
 was also terminated with a semicircular apse, surrounded by an aile, as at 
 Norwich, from the eastern part of which Trinity chapel was projected. 
 Both the apse and chapel were destroyed by the fire, and all vestiges of 
 them were swept away by William of Sens. 
 
 The present apse, completed about the year 1184, is semicircular, of five 
 bays, and surrounded with an aile ; it has the remarkable circular building, 
 attached to the aile wall eastward of the apse, known as the Corona. The 
 form of the apse, terminating the chapel of St. Thomas,* is indicated at B 
 on our crypt plan, and that of the corona at C. This plan shows a suc- 
 cession of three apsidal terminations, such as no other crypt or building 
 in existence presents. 
 
 The chapels in the towers of St. Andrew and St. Anselm have 
 apses inclined towards the east; and the eastern transepts have each two 
 small apses projected from their eastern sides. The great transepts had 
 originally two apses on their east sides, which were removed to make way 
 for the present Perpendicular chapels. 
 
 The architectural history of Canterbury cathedral is extremely interest- 
 ing; and we may conclude our remarks with a brief summary of it, 
 so far as relates to the development of the apse. Firstly, there was 
 the ancient Anglo-Koman church, with, in all probability, one semicircular 
 apse at its west end, appointed as that of the basilica of St. Peter, at 
 Kome. Secondly, there was the same church, as modified by Augustine 
 or his successors, existing up to the time of archbishop Langfranc, with 
 both east and west apses. Thirdly, Langfranc's cathedral, with its short 
 choir, terminated with a semicircular apse, and, most probably, with 
 small apses projected from the east wall of the transepts. Fourthly, the 
 "glorious choir of Conrad," terminated with a semicircular apse of seven 
 bays, and surrounded with an aile. Fifthly, the chapel of St. Thomas, the 
 
 * Now called Trinity chapel, or retro-choir. 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 270 
 
 joint work of the two Williams, terminated also with a semicircular apse, 
 surrounded by an aile. And lastly, the Corona, which may fairly be 
 designated an apsidal building, erected by English William. There 
 is probably no church in Christendom whose apse can claim such an 
 ancient and illustrious list of ancestors as that of the cathedral of 
 Canterbury. 
 
 We now come to the only building in England in which the apse is 
 found in a developed state, approaching that of the great apses of the 
 thirteenth century cathedrals of France ; but before describing the apse of 
 Westminster Abbey, as it at present exists, we must briefly review its early 
 history ; and here we have to acknowledge the great value of the archao- 
 logical labours of the late Sir George Gilbert Scott, from whose valuable 
 Gleanings from Westminster Ahhey we have derived much of the following 
 historical information. 
 
 The earliest church of which there is any record whatever is that built 
 in the reign of King Oflfa ; no particulars of its architecture, however, 
 have reached us. It was removed to make way for the church erected by 
 Edward the Confessor and his successors. Regarding this latter building 
 we have very meagre information, but, fortunately for our present purpose, 
 what does exist informs us that it was terminated eastward with a semi- 
 circular portion. In the Lives of Edward the Confessor, among documents 
 published under the direction of the Master of the Rolls, the following 
 passage is to be found, alluding to the church erected by that monarch : — 
 "Principalis arae domus altissimis erecta fornicibus quadrato opere parique 
 commissura circumvolvitur ; abitus autem ipsius sedis dupplici lapidum 
 arcu ex utroque latere hinc et inde fortiter soHdata operis compage 
 clauditur."* Here we are informed that the principal "altar-house," or 
 choir of the church, was erected to a great height, vaulted, and terminated 
 in a circular form. From the above passage, and that from the Norman- 
 French poem quoted in the note, we may safely conclude that the choir of 
 Edward the Confessor's church was finished at its east end with a semi- 
 circular apse, most probably on the Norman model. Edward spent much 
 of his early life in Normandy, and doubtless became quite familiar with its 
 ecclesiastical architecture ; and "it is," to use the words of the Gleanings, 
 " unlikely that he should be content with the dimensions of a Saxon 
 church ; indeed, had he been so, he had one to his hand without building 
 a new one ; and as he was greatly enlarging the monastic establishment, it 
 seems probable that in rebuilding the Abbey church he would adopt the 
 scale which was becoming common in Normandy. Again, we have no 
 
 • " I may mention that the document in which this occurs was written between the death 
 of the Confessor and of Queen Edith [i.e., between 1065 and 1074). In the same volume 
 occurs a description of the old monastery, written during the reign of Hem-y III. It is in 
 Norman-French verse, and the following is the translation given : — ' Now he laid the founda- 
 tions of the church with large square blocks of grey stone ; its foundations were deep, the 
 front towards the east he makes round, the stones are very strong and hard, in the centre 
 
 rises a tower, and two at the west front, and fine large bells he hangs there.' . . . G. G. S." 
 
 Gleanings from Westminster Abbey, p. 3. 
 
271 
 
 [ ArsE ] 
 
 reason to believe that the choir of Westminster Abbey was rebuilt between 
 the days of Edward the Confessor and those of Henry III., which would 
 have been inevitably the case had its scale been diminutive ; and, if it did 
 exist through that interval, we have full proof that it was as long as the 
 present eastern arm of the church ; for the present position of the transept 
 we know to be identical with that of the Confessor's church, from the fact 
 of the remains of his dormitory abutting against it in the usual manner ; 
 while the eastward extent of the old church is defined almost with certainty 
 by the fact that the Lady-chapel was erected against it in the early days of 
 Henry HI., some years before he commenced rebuilding the church itself." 
 This brings us to the consideration of the work of Henry III., of which 
 the present apse is the most important feature. 
 
 We have, in a previous portion of this article, dwelt upon the 
 characteristic apse of French architecture— that with five or seven sides, 
 surrounded by an aile, and polygonal radiating chapels adjusted so as to 
 fit together symmetrically— it is not difficult, therefore, to detect the origin 
 of the apse of Westminster Abbey. Speaking of the system adopted in 
 planning the apses of Beauvais and Amiens, Scott remarks : — " There can 
 be little doubt that king Henry III., during his sojourns in France, became 
 enamoured of this arrangement, which in its perfected form, he may have 
 seen in course of being carried out at Amiens, Beauvais, Reims, and 
 elsewhere. It would naturally strike him as well suited to the reconstruc- 
 tion of the eastern portion of a church already possessing an apse with a 
 continuous surrounding aile. Whether this project had been formed when 
 the Lady-chapel was built in 1220, it is impossible to ascertain. This was 
 begun the same year with Amiens cathedral, and eight years later than 
 Reims, so that it is not impossible ; though the extreme youth of the 
 king would in that case compel us to transfer the originating of the scheme 
 from him to the abbot. However this may be, it is probable that it fell 
 readily into the subsequently adopted plan, as we find no disturbance 
 of the regularity of the division which would otherwise have been the 
 case." 
 
 The method adopted by the architect in setting out the apse of West- 
 minster Abbey is, however, different from that followed in any of the 
 continental churches. Did this decided departure spring from indepen- 
 dence on his part, and a natural desire to do something new, or was it a 
 clever expedient suggested by the necessity of uniting the new work with 
 the already existing Lady-chapel ? Although Scott recognises the obvious 
 fact that the apse was suggested by the great French examples, in progress 
 at the time, he does not attempt to account for the marked peculiarities 
 which it alone possesses of all works of the class. It bears no evidence of 
 being tentative, but rather of being the thoughtful work of a clever 
 geometrician, who had a certain problem to solve or some difficulty to over- 
 come. Be this as it may, it it obvious that his mere study of the apses of 
 Reims, Beauvais, and Amiens, all of which are difi'erent as we have already 
 shown, would never have suggested the method of planning he adopted at 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 272 
 
 Westminster. We strongly incline to the belief that he had the Lady- 
 chapel of his king to preserve and incorporate with the new work ; and he 
 accordingly exerted all his mathematical skill to devise a plan which would 
 best attain that end, and yet produce a perfectly symmetrical and satisfac- 
 tory result. Although we have no knowledge of the form or dimensions of 
 the Lady-chapel, we do not doubt that his labours were successful. 
 
 27 
 
 In Fig. 27 we give two half-plans ; that on the right hand of the centre 
 line (b) showing the apse of the choir, with the apsidal chapel of Henry VII. 
 attached, as at present existing ; and that on the left hand (a) showing the 
 apse as designed by the architect of Henry III., completed for the purpose 
 of displaying the symmetrical disposition of the radiating chapels, and the 
 principle, generally, upon which the apse was planned. 
 
273 
 
 [ APSE ] 
 
 In describing this apse we cannot do better than quote the passage 
 in Gleanings on the subject:— "The sides of the apse are five in 
 number, as at Reims; but instead of being five sides of a decagon, 
 the three easternmost are sides of an octagon, and the others incline 
 but slightly from the sides of the church. The great peculiarity, how- 
 ever, is in the chapels, which occupy so much more than the semicircle 
 as to do away with one of the non-radiating chapels, reducing the space it 
 usually occupies to an irregular pier, and introducing opposite to it in the 
 ailes a bay of very irregular form. I had long noticed this peculiarity, 
 though I had thought it an irregular contrivance to give greater size to the 
 apsidal chapels ; but from finding the setting out of the work remarkably 
 exact, I was led to think that some mathematical principle must have been 
 acted on, and, having had most careful measurements made and tested in 
 every way, I find this to have been the case. The system is this : the two 
 semicircles are drawn as before, the diameter of the inner one being the 
 width from centre to centre of columns; a semi-octagon is inscribed in 
 this; four* of its angles give the centres of the piers of the outer and inner 
 apses, the remaining sides of each apse being formed by spreading them till 
 they meet the main longitudinal lines. It most resembles the principle 
 followed at Beauvais, but difi"ers from it (besides the smaller number of the 
 sides) in the outer and inner apse being exactly alike in principle, and all 
 their sides equal, and both set out in regular radiating lines, instead of 
 using the transverse line adopted at Beauvais. This system has great 
 advantages : it avoids the narrowness of the apsidal bays,! so apparent in 
 most of the French examples ; it gives a beautiful gentleness of transition 
 from the main arcades into the apse, and it also gives a great boldness and 
 expanse to the chapels,— advantages purchased cheaply at the expense of 
 one of the square chapels on either side, and a certain degree of picturesque 
 irregularity in the ailes. It should be mentioned that the setting out in 
 this church is remarkable for its regularity and exactness, though the 
 drawing of an intricate mathematical figure on the ground, some one 
 hundred and twenty feet wide, necessitated some trifling deviations from 
 absolute precision." 
 
 In the half-plan (A Fig. 27) we have not attempted to restore the Lady- 
 chapel of Henry III., as such a proceeding would have been purely a matter 
 of conjecture on our part ; we have, instead, completed the plan with an 
 eastern chapel, similar to the existing lateral ones (e), chiefly with the 
 
 * " Three " is printed by an oversight in Gleanings. 
 
 t Without any desire to find fault with the writing of a distinguished author, it is neverthe- , 
 less our duty, when we find a term wrongly applied in any ctuotation we may make, to point 
 it out, and so prevent our being supposed to agree with it. In this instance the term 
 ''apsidal bays" is obviously incorrect, in strict nomenclature; for the bays in question are 
 not apsidal ; that is, they do not per se partake of the nature of apses, or have apses in any 
 way projected from them (see article Apsidal). The correct term to use, in speaking of the 
 ordinary flat sides of an apse, is apse-bays. The bays of the lateral ailes of Henry the 
 Seventh's chapel may be called apsidal bays, because the inner faces of the octagonal 
 buttresses and the curved windows between them form shallow apses. 
 
 M 1 
 
[ APSE ] 
 
 274 
 
 desire to display the perfect geometrical disposition of the several parts 
 of this apse. It is probable that the Lady-chapel was apsidal, similar to 
 those of the French cathedrals of the period, and attached to the apse in 
 the same way as that of Amiens cathedral (Fig. 18). 
 
 The form of the radiating chapels of Westminster abbey also deserves 
 notice, differing as it does from the forms adopted in all the Continental 
 buildings alluded to in this article. Indeed, we are not aware that a 
 counterpart exists elsewhere. Here, then, is another argument in favour 
 of the originality and independence of the English architect, and a fact 
 which materially increases the interest this apse must always have to the 
 student of mediaeval architecture. Scott does not draw attention to the 
 peculiar plan of the chapels in his Gleanings, which is rather remarkable, 
 seeing that he so thoroughly analysed the geometrical structure of the 
 apse, and must have been struck with the unusual shape of its chapels 
 while doing so. 
 
 Speaking of the apse-chapels met with in French architecture, we 
 remarked that they are generally planned on a circle, of which they 
 present rather more than the half ; or on an octagon, of which form their 
 walls present five sides; the circular chapels of Saint-Kemy, the deep 
 chapels of the cathedrals of Le Mans and Seez, and the five-sided chapels 
 of the church of Pontigny, based on an irregular hexagon, being the chief 
 exceptions. In Westminster abbey, however, we find the four radiating 
 chapels based on an irregular decagon, of which they show six sides. 
 The adoption of an equal number of sides places a buttress-pier in the 
 centre or axis of the chapel. The French architects avoided this in all 
 their great works, deciding that a fine window should occupy the most 
 honourable position ; and unquestionably they were right. A comparison 
 of the plan of the Westminster apse with the several plans which illus- 
 trate the French section of the present article will clearly explain our 
 meaning. We may just remind the student that the apse-chapels of the 
 Abbaye-aux-Homes, Caen, which are somewhat more than a semicircle 
 on plan, have two windows only, with a central wall-pier between them ; 
 and that the four-sided chapels of the cathedral of Fribourg, in Bresgau, 
 have also two windows, with a buttress-pier at the salient angle. 
 
 Enough has been said to point out to the student the important position 
 the apse of the Westminster choir holds in the history of the progressive 
 development of that architectural feature; and we now have briefly to 
 allude to the apse of the eastern chapel, and so complete our description of 
 the English examples. 
 
 The apse of Henry the Seventh's chapel (c) is, strictly speaking, only 
 three-sided; but as it is separated, both internally and externally, by 
 accentuated features, from the body of the chapel, it appears to be five- 
 sided— the five sides of an octagon, upon which form it is planned. The 
 radiating chapels of this apse have parallel sides, and are terminated with 
 shallow apses, formed by the windows projecting in an angular fashion (d). 
 It would be more correct, perhaps, to say that the chapels terminated in 
 
275 
 
 [ APSE-AILE ] 
 
 angular bay windows, though such features do not, in their ordinary 
 nature, belong to ecclesiastical architecture. 
 
 The following list, given in the Glossary, of the apses or their remains 
 still in existence in this country, may be useful to the student : — 
 
 "(1) Apses at the end of the choir or chancel. Berl{sMre...'Pad.worth.; Fincham- 
 
 stead; Eemenliam ; Tidmarsh (polygonal Early Enghsh). Cambridgeshire... 
 
 Iselliam. Cumberland... 'Wa,y:th.vnck. Derbyshire ... Steetley. Essex... Great 
 
 Maplestead; Little Maplestead; East Ham; Haversfield; Colchester castle chapel; 
 
 Bamborough chapel. Gloucestershire ...Tewkeshmy (polygonal Early English, 
 
 with Perpendicular radiating chapels) ; Gloucester cathedral crypt (with aile and 
 
 three radiating apsidal chapels). Hampshire... 'Winchestex cathedral crypt (with 
 
 aUe and three chapels, one apsidal) ; Nately ; Easton. Herefordshire ... Kilpeck ; 
 
 Moccas; Pencombe; Peterchurch ; Madeley. Hertfordshire... Bengeo. Kent... 
 
 Sutton (near Dover) ; chapel of S. Bartholomew (Rochester) ; Canterbury cathedral, 
 Norman crypt (with radiating apsidal chapels), and Early Enghsh presbytery and 
 
 crypt with circular corona. Middlesex ...Westminster abbey (polygonal early 
 
 Decorated) ; chapel in White Tower (with aile) ; S. Bartholomew the Great, Smith- 
 field. Norfolk... Norwich, cathedral (with aile and two apsidal chapels, the third 
 
 destroyed) ; Heckingham ; South Euncton ; Gilhngham ; Tritton ; Hales ; Castle 
 
 Rising castle (called Saxon). Northamptonshire ...Teterhoxough cathedral. 
 
 Oxfordshire... Checkendion; Woodcote ; Swmcombe. Suffolk. ..S. Edmund's Bury 
 
 (ruined), (with aUe and one apsidal chapel); Fritton; Dunwich. Sttssea;... New- 
 haven; Upper Waltham ; Battle abbey (foundations). Warwickshire... 8. Michael's, 
 
 Coventry; Bilston. Wiltshire... Manningioxdi Bruce. Worcester shire... Crj-pt oi 
 
 Worcester cathedral (with aile). Yorkshire ...Fe]is]dek ; Birkin. Scotland... 
 
 Dahneny, Linhthgowshire. 
 
 " (2) Apsidal chapels against the east wall of transepts. Lindesfame ; Eomsey, 
 
 Christ Church, Hants; Gloucester cathedral; Tewkesbury; Canterbmy cathedral; 
 Norwiah cathedral ; Castle Acre (m ruins) ; Evesham (foundations only remain) ; Ely 
 cathedral (western transept) ; S. Edmund's Bury, western transept (foundations only 
 remain); Eipon minster ; Melbourne (Derbyshire). 
 
 " Traces of their former existence may also be found at S. Alban's, Cliichester 
 cathedral, Southwell mmster, and in other examples." 
 
 The present article has been elaborated rather beyond the limits imposed 
 by the restricted dimensions of our Work ; but the number of engravings 
 necessary to illustrate it, and the wide range of the subject generally, have 
 induced us to treat it in as full a manner as possible. 
 
 The following names for the apse occur in old writings :— Absida, Absis, 
 Apsis, Concha, Exedra, and Tribuna. {Fr. Abside, Chevet, and Rond- 
 
 POINT*). 
 
 APSE-AILE. The aile which extends round an apse, and connects 
 the parallel lateral ailes of a choir. This aile has, by some writers 
 
 • " On d^signait encore I'abside par les noms de tribunal, de presbiterium, de capitium ou 
 chevet ; c'etait la partie la plus ornSe et la plus riche de I'^glise, eUe gtait pavee en marbre ou 
 en riches mosaiciues, et ses murs etaient revetus de lameUes d'or et d'axgent, ainsi que de 
 peintures. L'abside etait elevee de plusieurs degres, d'ou son nom de apsis gradata ou 
 ^rjiia "—Dict. raisonm d'arch., par E. Bosc. 
 
L APSE-CHAPEL 1 
 
 276 
 
 of eminence, been termed the Processional Path of the apse; but, 
 though in use, the term is not to be approved of.* 
 
 The apse-aile does not appear to have been introduced in any of the 
 early basilicae, and was probably first adopted in French churches at the 
 close of the ninth century ; we find it in the church of Yignory (Haute- 
 Marne), erected in the tenth century (see article Apse, Fig. 8). The 
 western paradise of the ninth century abbey of St. Gall, as shown on its 
 ancient plan (see illustration in article Abbey), partakes of the nature of 
 an apse-aile, but is imperfect, insomuch that it does not assert its relation 
 to the western apse, or exedra, by opening from it through arches. 
 
 In the twelfth century the apse-aile became a very common feature in 
 French architecture ; and in the cathedrals and important churches of the 
 two following centuries it was almost invariably introduced. 
 
 Single ailes surround the apses of the cathedrals of Noyon, Soissons, 
 Langres, Senlis, Sens (twelfth century, Eeims, Amiens, Beauvais, Bayeux, 
 Rouen, Tours, Troyes, and Clermont (thirteenth century). Double apse- 
 ailes exist in the cathedrals of Paris, Bourges, Chartres, and Le Mans 
 (thirteenth century). The apse of the south transept of Soissons is 
 surrounded by a single aile ; and both the transept apses of Tournay 
 cathedral have single ailes. 
 
 The three apses of the church of St. Mary in the Capitol, at Cologne, 
 have single ailes (twelfth century) ; and the thirteenth century apse of the 
 cathedral of the same city is also single-ailed. 
 
 In English examples, double apse-ailes appear never to have been con- 
 structed ; while single ones, in all probabiHty, surrounded the generality 
 of the larger apses, erected after the Norman Conquest. The apse of 
 Peterborough cathedral was an exception to this rule, being designed 
 without one. The Norman choir of Norwich cathedral has its aile still 
 remaining ; and the " glorious choir of Conrad," at Canterbury, had also 
 a single aile (see article Apse, p. 269). The apse of Westminster abbey 
 choir, erected by Henry III., is surrounded with an aile (see article Apse, 
 Fig. 27). 
 
 APSE-CHAPEL. A chapel of any form or dimensions, projected 
 from and opening from an apse or apse-aile. 
 
 Apse-chapels do not appear to have been introduced prior to the tenth 
 century ; for, so far as we are able to learn, they were never projected from 
 the apses of the early basilicas erected in Rome, Ravenna, and the other 
 important Italian cities ; nor do they appear ever to have been adopted by 
 the Bysantine architects. It is probable that they were first erected in 
 France, following closely on the adoption of the apse-aile which ofi'ered 
 
 * The aile or path round an apse can hardly be correctly said to pertain to a procession, or 
 consist in a procession ; nor has it any relation to the " Processional "—a book relating to the 
 processions of the Latin Church. It is the path through which processions pass, and 
 should, therefore, be called the Procession Path, not the Processional Path. 
 
277 
 
 [ APSIDAL ] 
 
 convenient access to them without any encroachment on the choir or 
 sacrarium. 
 
 In the tenth century church of Yignory, three small chapels are pro- 
 jected from the apse-aile (see Apse, Fig. 8). The cathedral of Cahors 
 (eleventh century) has three chapels opening direct from its aileless apse 
 (see Apse, Fig. 9) ; and the apse of the cathedral of Angouleme (early 
 twelfth century) has four small chapels similarly situated. 
 
 In the twelfth and two following centuries apse-chapels became very 
 general in French churches, appearing in nearly all those which were 
 planned with ailed apses, as in the cathedrals of Noyon, Soissons, Reims, 
 Amiens, Rouen, Beauvais, Chartres, Le Mans, Troyes, Tours, Seez, 
 Bayeux, Clermont, Limoges, and Narhonne ; and in the churches of 
 Saint- Etienne, Caen; Saint-Martin, Etampes ; Saint-Ouen, Rouen; and 
 numerous other examples. 
 
 The cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, was, in the thirteenth century, a 
 notable exception to the rule ; for, although its apse was surrounded then, 
 as at present, with double ailes, it had no chapels projected from them ; 
 the existing chapels having been constructed, between the buttresses, in 
 the fourteenth century (see Apse, Fig. 17). The twelfth century church 
 of Notre-Dame at Mantes, and the collegiate church of Poissey have no 
 apse-chapels. 
 
 In the Romanesque churches of Normandy, erected before the close of 
 the twelfth century, both apse-ailes and apse-chapels were, as a rule, 
 omitted, as in the churches of Saint-Nicholas, and Abbaye-aux-Dames, 
 Caen. 
 
 The aileless apses of the churches of the Cordeliers, Toulouse (thirteenth 
 century), and Saint- Cecily, Alby (fourteenth century), have chapels opening 
 from them. 
 
 In Italian churches, apse-chapels are not commonly met with ; they are, 
 however, introduced in connexion with the three great apses of the cathe- 
 dral of Florence (see Apse, Fig. 5). 
 
 In the German Romanesque churches, apse-chapels do not exist ; and in 
 the thirteenth century pointed buildings where they are introduced, as 
 Cologne cathedral, the abbey church, Altenberg, and Fribourg cathedral, 
 the evidence of French influence is obvious. 
 
 In England, apse-chapels exist at Norwich cathedral (end of eleventh 
 century), Canterbury cathedral crypt (early twelfth century), and West- 
 minster abbey (thirteenth century). 
 
 For plans of and further particulars relating to apse-chapels we must 
 refer the student to our articles Apse and Chapel. 
 
 APSIDAL. In architectural nomenclature, the term used in connexion 
 with certain structures to denote that they are either in the form of an 
 apse, or are terminated with an apse. The term does not, however, convey 
 any idea as regards the form or disposition of the apse. 
 
[ APSIDAL CHAPEL ] 
 
 278 
 
 APSIDAL CHANCEL A chancel of a church which is terminated, 
 eastward, with an apse, as that of the late Norman church of Dalmeny, 
 Linlithgowshire. In this example the apse is narrower than the main 
 body of the chancel, and is divided therefrom by a richly moulded arch.* 
 An interesting Early English apsidal chancel exists at Tidmarsh church, 
 Berkshire ; it is three-sided, with two short parallel sides, or, on plan, it 
 presents five sides of an octagon, f 
 
 APSIDAL CHAPEL. A chapel constructed either in the form of an 
 apse, or with an apse attached to it. 
 
 Examples of apsidal chapels are numerous, both in this country and 
 abroad. In England, the more important are Trinity chapel, Canterbury 
 cathedral; the Lady-chapels of Lichfield and Wells cathedrals; and the 
 chapel of Henry the Seventh, Westminster abbey. The radiating chapels 
 of the apse of Westminster abbey ; the radiating apse-chapels and the 
 ancient chapel of St. Osyth (?) in the north transept, Norwich cathedral ; 
 the chapel of St. Catherine, opening from the south-west transept, Ely 
 cathedral; the four chapels projected eastward of the north-east and south- 
 east transepts, Lincoln cathedral ; and the four chapels of the eastern 
 transepts and those in the towers of SS. Anselm and Andrew, Canterbury 
 cathedral, are all apsidal. 
 
 Among the best known French examples are the Sainte - Chapelle, 
 Paris ; the chapel of the chateau of Vincennes ; the Lady-chapel of the 
 abbey church of Saint-Germain des Pres ; and the chapel of the arch- 
 bishop's palace, at Eeims. All these examples are similar on plan, which 
 is simply a parallelogram with a polygonal apse at one end. Apsidal 
 chapels, projected from the apses, lateral ailes, and transepts of the French 
 cathedrals and abbey churches are almost countless, and it is only neces- 
 sary here to mention a few of the more important :— the Lady-chapels of 
 the cathedrals of Amiens, Keims, Le Mans, Seez, Bayeux, Eouen, 
 Coutances, and the church of Saint-Ouen, Eouen; the radiating chapels of 
 all the above buildings, and of the cathedrals of Beauvais, Troyes, Chartres, 
 Noyon, Soissons, Bourges, Tours, Clermont, Limoges, Narbonne, and 
 Alby ; the lateral choir-chapels of the cathedrals of Le Mans, Troyes, and 
 Narbonne; and the transept-chapels of the cathedrals of Angouleme, 
 Laon, and Eouen ; and the churches of Notre-Dame, Dijon ; Sainte-Foy,' 
 Conques; Saint-Sernin, Toulouse; and Saint-Paul, Issoire. 
 
 In German architecture, apsidal chapels are by no means so common as 
 in French; and their introduction, in the more important buildings, is 
 clearly due to the study of French models in the thirteenth century; the 
 apsidal chapels of the cathedral of Cologne are the most noteworthy 
 examples of this. Apsidal chapels also appear in the cathedrals of 
 
 * An interior perspective of this chancel is given in Descriptive Notices of some of the Ancient 
 Parochial and Collegiate Churches of Scotland, London, 1848; and an exterior view appears 
 m Glossary, pi. iv. 
 
 + Glossary, pi. v. 
 
279 
 
 [ APSIDAL TRANSEPT ] 
 
 Fribourg and Ratisbonne; and in the churches of Laach, Gelnhausen, 
 Oberwesel, Zanten, and Altenberg. 
 
 In Belgian architecture, apsidal chapels are to be found in the cathedrals 
 of Tournay, Bruges, Ghent, and Antwerp; the church of St. Jacques, 
 Liege, and numerous other buildings. 
 
 In Italy, apsidal chapels are still more rare than in Germany ; they are 
 found, however, in the basihca of St. Clemente, at Rome (probably twelfth 
 century additions) ; the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice ; and in the 
 transepts of Milan cathedral. 
 
 In the generality of Byzantine churches, or those erected in accordance 
 with the ritual of the Greek Church, two eastern apsidal chapels are found 
 (see Apse, p. 236). These, however, are not strictly chapels, as the term 
 is commonly understood, not being separately dedicated to saints and 
 containing their special altars. The apsidal chapels in Russian churches, in 
 some instances, differ from those above alluded to, being constructed for 
 the reception of minor altars, as in the cathedral of Kieff, which has eight 
 eastern apsidal chapels. 
 
 For plans and further details relating to apsidal chapels, see articles 
 Apse and Chapel. 
 
 APSIDAL CHOIR. A choir terminating, eastward, in an apse, 
 which is either semicircular in plan, as in the choirs of Norwich cathe- 
 dral, Notre-Dame at Paris, and the church of St. Mary in the Capitol 
 at Cologne, or polygonal, as in the choirs of Westminster abbey, the 
 cathedrals of Amiens, Beauvais, and Cologne, and the church of 
 St. Elizabeth at Marburg. 
 
 In early churches, and in those of moderate dimensions, the construc- 
 tional choir frequently consists of little more than an apse, short parallel 
 sides being added to render it somewhat more commodious. The ritual 
 choir, as in the ancient basilicse, being constructed, westward of the arch of 
 triumph, by low enclosing walls surrounding an elevated floor-space, 
 approached from the nave and other portions of the church by steps, as in 
 the church of St. Clemente at Rome. (See Choir.) 
 
 APSIDAL TRANSEPT. A transept terminating in an apse of its 
 entire width. Transepts which have merely apsidal chapels projected from 
 their sides or ends cannot be included under this term. 
 
 There are no examples of apsidal transepts in this country, but they are 
 to be found in several Continental cathedrals and churches. Amongst the 
 most noteworthy we may mention the transepts of the cathedrals of 
 Soissons, Noyon, Tournay, and Florence,* and the churches of St. Elias 
 at Thessalonica,t St. Mary in the Capitol, St. Martin, and the Apostles 
 at Cologne, St. Elizabeth at Marburg,! and the church of Neuss. For 
 plans and further particulars see articles Apse and Transept. 
 
 * See plan in article Apse, Fig. 5. f I^i^- ^^S- \ I^id., Fig. 24. 
 
[ AQUARIUS ] 
 
 280 
 
 APTERAL. The term applied to a temple or other structure devoid 
 of lateral colonnades ; it literally signifies without a pteron* The term is 
 used in opposition to peripteral, which signifies surrounded by columns. 
 
 The plan given in article Antae is that of an apteral temple. 
 
 AQUA-MARINA. A precious stone of a sea-green colour, from which 
 it derives its name. It was frequently used by the ancient artists in gem 
 engraving. (See Beryl) 
 
 AQUARIUM OR AQUARICIUM. The term used by the Komans to 
 designate a pond or tank in which live fish were kept. It also appears 
 to have been applied to the reservoirs into which the aqueducts discharged 
 their waters, and from which the public baths were supplied. The term 
 has been used by mediaeval authors in its former and more common Latin 
 signification. 
 
 At the present day the term is understood to signify an artificial 
 construction of stone, iron, and glass, so arranged and supplied with fresh 
 or sea-water that fish and aquatic vegetation can live in it, and at the same 
 time be readily seen. Generally the aquarium consists of a succession of 
 tanks, open at top, built with stone and cement at bottom and three sides, 
 in imitation of natural rocks, and fronted with thick plate glass, through 
 which the habits and motions of the fish are viewed. The tanks either 
 contain fresh or salt water, which is kept flowing from a large reservoir 
 through the entire series and back again into it. This circulation is caused 
 by machinery, which also keeps the water in a healthful state by injecting 
 air below its surface, in the tanks. Probably the most perfect aquarium on 
 this principle in England is that at Brighton. 
 
 In the Trocadero gardens of the Paris Exposition of 1878, a fresh water 
 aquarium was constructed under an open fish-pond, into which water 
 flowed from the neighbouring fountains. 
 
 AQUARIUS. The Water Bearer. The sign of the zodiac which the 
 sun enters about January 21st. 
 
 Eepresentations of the signs of the zodiac were frequently introduced in 
 architectural sculpture, stained glass, and decoration, by the artists of the 
 middle ages. (See Zodiac.) Aquarius was usually represented as a man 
 carrying a water vessel ; and the rainy nature of the month of January was 
 set forth by his pouring out its contents. He is thus sculptured in the 
 fine series which adorns the plinth of the northern of the three west door- 
 ways of Amiens cathedral. The sign was commonly associated with an 
 emblem of the month, as at Amiens. (See Months, Emblems of.) 
 
 * The term Aptebai has been incorrectly applied to buildings without any columns • for 
 mstance :-" Among the Greeks and Eomans the simplest form of the rectangular temple 
 was the apteral or 5<rrvAos, without any columns ; the next was that in which the two side 
 waUs were carried out from the naos to form a porch at one or both extremities of the 
 building."— H. M. Westropp, in Handbook of Archceology. London, 1867, 
 
281 [ AQUEDUCT OH AQUEDUCT ] 
 
 In the arch of the great west doorway of the cathedral of St. Mark, 
 at Venice, is a series of the signs, with 
 
 accompanying emblems of the months. r\^^^^X 
 
 The sign of Aquarius appears to have con- ^^^'^J^J 
 sisted of wavy lines only, representing r 
 water ; but being much defaced it is impos- 
 sible to decide whether a figure was also introduced. Two or three 
 zig-zag or wavy lines, placed over each other, form the simplest variety 
 of the sign. The astronomical sign is shown in the accompanying 
 cut, evidently derived from the ancient Egyptian conventional manner of 
 representing water. 
 
 AQUEDUCT OR AQU/EDUCT. Literally a water-conduit. The 
 term is derived from the genitive case of aqua, water, and ductus, a 
 conduit; hence the old method of spelling it, Aqueduct, is the more 
 correct one. Although the term may be applied to any channel or pipe by 
 means of which water is conveyed from one place to another, it has almost 
 exclusively been employed to designate those magnificent structures erected 
 by the ancient Eomans for the purpose of supplying their cities with 
 water. 
 
 The Greeks do not appear to have particularly directed their attention to 
 the construction of aqueducts, probably because they were not compelled to 
 do so by necessity ;i but at the same time we are not in a position to state 
 that they were ignorant of the mode of constructing them. M. Bosc^ 
 remarks:—" In spite of the contrary opinions of some authors, the Greeks 
 knew perfectly the construction of aqueducts. Ancient writers and modern 
 travellers have furnished numerous proofs. ... We give the aqueduct 
 of Samos as the first example, constructed by the architect Hypalinus, in 
 the year 687 before Christ, which Herodotus signalises as one of the 
 most magnificent works of the Greeks. M. Guerin excavated some 
 trenches to find the remains of this subterranean aqueduct, and his 
 researches were crowned with success. He has recorded the result of his 
 labours in his work entitled -.—Etude sur Vile de Samos, 1856, ch. xiv." ^ 
 
 1 " The aqueduct is mentioned by Strabo as among the structures which were neglected by 
 the Greeks and first brought into use by the Eomans. Springs (Kp^mc, Kpowoi) were sufficiently 
 abundant in Greece to supply the great cities with water ; and they were frequently converted 
 into public fountains by the formation of a head for their waters, and the erection of an 
 ornamental superstructure." -Dr. Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiq. 
 
 " Diet. rais. d'Arch. 
 
 8 In continuation of this subject M. Bosc adds :— " Posteriemrement PhSax, en 479 av. 
 J -C construisit I'aqueduc d'Agrigente; sous les Pisistrates, Athlnes eut aussi son aqueduc, 
 qui p'ortait dans son enceinte les eaux de I'Hymette et celles du Pentaique. D'aprSs Pausania, 
 (X, 37, 5), il en existait un a Ckrha, un second a Grissa en Phocide, un troisieme souterrams 
 construit sous I'empereur Hadrian, entre Stymphale et Corinthe. {Id., U, 3, 5). 
 
 Fielder nous signale celui de Chalcis {Reisen in Greich, t. I, p. 446) ; Leake {North Greece, 
 t. 4, p. 376), celui de D6m6trius de Magnesia; Hauzay {Missions en Macidoine, p. 51), calm 
 de PhHippe'; il en existait d'autres dans la Troade, a Gyrene, k Gythium et dans d'autres 
 localites." 
 
 N 1 
 
[ AQUEDUCT OK AQUEDUCT ] 
 
 282 
 
 Aqueducts may be divided into two classes, namely, subterranean and 
 visible ; the former, to which the Greeks confined themselves, consists of 
 conduits laid under ground or pierced through mountains; the latter of 
 imposing architectural structures, built for the purpose of conveying the 
 water, at a slight incline, over rivers and across valleys. The Romans 
 used both classes as circumstances dictated ; and are believed to have been 
 the first builders of visible aqueducts. 
 
 F or nearly four centuries and a half, Rome was supplied with water from 
 the Tiber and numerous wells sunk in difi'erent parts of the city ; but, at 
 last, the growth of the population and the unwholesome nature of the 
 local water rendered a larger and purer supply absolutely necessary. 
 Accordingly, in the year e.g. 312, under censor Appius Claudius Caecus, 
 the first Roman aqueduct was commenced. It was called the Aqua Appia; 
 and conveyed water from a source near the Via Praenestina, situated 
 between the seventh and eighth milestones. It consisted almost entirely 
 of a subterranean conduit, a very short visible aqueduct being required to 
 carry the water into the city. The second aqueduct was commenced by 
 censor Marcus Curius Dentatus in the year b.c. 273. It derived its 
 water from the river Anio, above Tibur, about twenty Roman miles from 
 the city, and conveyed it through a winding conduit of stone, cemented 
 throughout, about forty-three miles in length. About three-quarters of a 
 mile was constructed upon arches. This aqueduct was called the Anio 
 Vetus, to distinguish it from another one which was constructed at a later 
 date to carry water from the same river, and called the Anio Nevus. 
 Nothing further appears to have been undertaken to increase the water 
 supply of Rome during the succeeding one hundred and twenty-eight 
 years ; but in the year b.c. 144, the praetor Q. Marcius Rex commenced, 
 at the command of the senate, the superb aqueduct which afterwards bore 
 his name— Aqua Marcia. The source of its water was a stream which 
 runs into the Anio, near the present town of Subiaco, about thirty-six 
 miles from Rome. The entire length of its conduit was about fifty-seven 
 miles, nearly six and three-quarters of which were above ground. The 
 Aqua Marcia was always celebrated for the purity and coolness of its 
 water. 
 
 In B.C. 127, the Aqua Tepula was constructed by the censors Cneus 
 Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus. Its water was derived at a 
 spot about two miles to the right of the tenth milestone on the Via Latina. 
 About the year b.c 83, Agrippa repaired the Aqua Marcia and 
 constructed a new aqueduct, which he named, in honor of JuHus Caesar, 
 the Aqua Julia. Its source was some distance to the right of the twelfth 
 milestone on the Via Latina. This joined the Aqua Tepula, and delivered 
 its water, by the same channel, into the reservoir on the Via Latina, seven 
 miles from Rome ; but beyond this, the joint waters were conveyed by two 
 conduits, which as they approached the city passed over the Aqua Marcia, 
 forming with it a single structure. The three conduits were in the follow- 
 ing order: the lowest was the Aqua Marcia; the second, placed immediately 
 
283 
 
 [ AQUKDUCT OR AQUEDUCT J 
 
 above it, the Aqua Tepula ; and the upper one the Aqua Julia. All three 
 delivered their waters into a common reservoir. Still Augustus did not 
 find the supply sufficient ; and accordingly instructed the aedile, Agrippa, 
 to construct another aqueduct to convey the waters of a spring, said to 
 have been discovered by a young maiden, near the eighth milestone, on 
 the Via Collatina. The conduit takes a very circuitous route, and enters 
 Rome near the Porta Pinciana, being conveyed from thence to the Campus 
 Martins on arches. This aqueduct still supplies a large portion of the 
 city and several of the public fountains. Augustus also constructed the 
 Aqua Alsietina, or, as it has sometimes been called, Aqua Augusta. It 
 was on the right side of the Tiber ; and appears to have been designed 
 chiefly to supply his naumachia. It connected the Lacus Alsietinus with 
 the city by a conduit about twenty-one miles in length., about one-third 
 of a mile being carried on arches. 
 
 In A.D. 36, Caligula found Rome deficient of water, notwithstanding 
 the enormous supply poured into it by the seven existing aqueducts, and 
 he commenced the construction of two others, which were completed by 
 Claudius in a.d. 50. These were named respectively the Aqua Claudia 
 and Anio Novus. The Aqua Claudia derived its water from large springs 
 which rose near the thirty-eighth milestone on the Via Sublacensis. Its 
 conduit was about forty- six miles long, nearly seven of which were carried 
 on arches. At the present day the visible structure of this aqueduct forms 
 one of the most striking features of the Roman campagna. This gigantic 
 work was partially restored by Pope Sixtus V., and still conveys water to 
 the city, under the name of A qua Felice, after the conventual designation 
 of its restorer — Fra Felice. The Aqua Novus is the longest of all, having 
 about fifty-nine miles of conduit; it was also the highest, in certain 
 portions its arches measuring about one hundred and nine feet. As these 
 two aqueducts neared the city, they were united on one structure, the 
 conduit of the Aqua Novus passing above that of the Aqua Claudia.'^ 
 
 The respective heights of the above nine aqueducts, from the level of 
 the Tiber, are given by Gwilt, and may be accepted as correct : — " The 
 Anio Novus, 159 feet above level of Tiber; Aqua Claudia, 149 feet; 
 Aqua Julia, 129 feet; Aqua Tepula, Aqua Marcia, 125 feet; Anio Vetus, 
 Aqua Virgo, 34 feet; Aqua Appia, 27 feet; and the Aqua Alsietina on 
 the lowest level. The Tiber at Rome being 91*5 feet above the level of 
 the Mediterranean, the mean fall of these aqueducts has been ascertained 
 
 * " These nine aqueducts were all that existed in the time of Frontinus, who was the 
 curator of the aqueducts in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan. There was also another 
 aqueduct, not reckoned with the nine, because its waters were no longer brought all the way 
 to Kome, viz. : 10. The Aqua Crabra.— The following were of later construction. 11. The 
 Aqua Trajana, brought by Trajan from the Lacus Sabatinus (now Bracciano).— 12. The Aqua 
 Alexandrina, constructed by Alexander Severus ; its source was in the lands of Tusculum, 
 about fourteen miles from Eome.— 13. The Aqua Septimiana, built by Septimius Severus, was 
 perhaps only a branch of the Aqua Julia.— U. The Aqua Algentia had its source at M. Algidus 
 by the Via Tusculana. Its builder is unknown."— Dr. Smith's Die. of Greek and Roman 
 Antiq. 
 
[ AQUEDUCT OR AQUjEDUCT ] 
 
 284 
 
 to be about 0-132 English inches for each Roman pace (58-219 English 
 inches), or 1 in 441. Vitruvius directs a fall of 1 in 200,* but Scamozzi 
 says the practice of the Romans was 1 in 500." 
 
 The Romans did not confine the construction of aqueducts to the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rome, but also built them in the provinces of the empire, 
 where large towns required extraordinary water supplies. Amongst the 
 most important provincial aqueducts, of which remains exist, are those of 
 Nimes (the so-called Pont du Gard), Segovia, Tarragona, and Metz. They 
 constructed many others throughout Gaul, and also at Ephesus, Athens, 
 Corinth, Nicomedia, Catania, Salona, Alexandria Troas, and Syracuse. 
 It is not necessary to enlarge on all these aqueducts here; a brief descrip- 
 tion of the most interesting, the Pont du Gard, will suffice to show 
 that the Romans constructed them in distant parts of the empire with as 
 much care, skill, and labour as in the neighbourhood of their imperial city. 
 The aqueduct was formed for the purpose of supplying the city of 
 Nemausus (Nimes) from two springs, situated at a distance of about 
 twenty-five miles. Throughout the greater part of its length the conduit 
 is cut in the rock of the neighbouring hills, but is in some places carried 
 on low arched constructions. The only remarkable part of the aqueduct, 
 and that which at the present day is the admiration of travellers, and one 
 of the most striking evidences of Roman industry and skill in the world, 
 is what is called the Pont du Gard, or bridge over the Garden. It is a 
 structure consisting of three tiers of arcades ; the lower and middle tiers 
 are of large arches, constructed of massive stones put together without 
 cement ; the lower, where it passes the river, is divided into six arches, 
 while that above, extending on the banks on both sides, has eleven 
 arches of similar width to those below. The upper tier is much lower 
 than the others, and presents thirty-five arches, above which the conduit is 
 formed, t The conduit is constructed of stone, lined with a hard cement 
 about two inches thick, and covered over with dressed stone flags; its 
 dimensions, internally, are four feet in width by rather more than five feet 
 in height, and in section it resembles the letter U. The workmanship 
 throughout is of the most perfect description ; and the structure is at the 
 present day in sound condition. 
 
 All the Roman aqueducts were constructed on the same general 
 principles, modifications being made in details as circumstances dictated. 
 Subterranean conduits were invariably preferred to those above ground, for 
 several reasons ; they were not so expensive to form ; they kept the water 
 
 * Vitruvius, Book Yiii., cap. 7, where other information may be found. 
 
 t The dimensions given by M. Bosc are as follows:—" La longueur du monument, au 
 niveau de la cimaise qui couronne le premier gtage, est de 171 m. 22 c, et de 269 metres 10 
 au niveau de ceUe de I'etage superieur. La hauteur totale du pont du Gard est de 48™ , 77 
 savour: depuis le niveau des basses eaux, 20™, 12 pour chacim des premier et deuxieme 
 etages, et 8™ , 52 poixr le troisilme. L'epaisseur de la ma(?onnerie d'une tete k I'autre du 
 parement antique est de G'" , 36 au premier rang, 4'" , 56 au second et 3™ , 06 a I'^tage 
 superieur ; chaque 6tage forme done une retraite considerable I'un sur I'autre." (The m^tre 
 is 3-2809 EngHsh feet.) 
 
285 
 
 [ AQUEDUCT OK AQUiEDUOT ] 
 
 cooler ; they were less liable to be injured by the pressure of the water ; 
 and they were safer from injury in times of invasion. The subterranean 
 conduits were formed with a bottom and sides of stone or brick, coated 
 internally with a thick layer of hard cement, and arched over afc top, or 
 covered with slabs of stone set in and jointed with cement. The conduits 
 which were visible, and carried on solid masonry or on arches, were usually 
 of stone, strongly put together, lined with about two inches of hydraulic 
 cement, and arched over or covered with large dressed stone slabs, firmly 
 cemented to withstand the pressure of the water. In some cases the 
 conduits proper were in the form of lead or terra cotta pipes, laid in 
 channels prepared for their reception.* Those aqueducts constructed with 
 conduits of masonry, frequently took a winding course, and one much 
 longer than the usual roadway between its source and the city. This was 
 done to avoid the necessity of erecting extensive arcades, or to secure a 
 very gradual fall in the channel ; for, if the fall was increased beyond 
 
 * On this subject Vitruvius says :— " Water is conducted in three ways, either in streams 
 by means of channels built to convey it, in leaden pipes or in earthen tubes, according to the 
 following rules. If in channels, the structure must be as sohd as possible, and the bed of the 
 channel must have a faU of not less than half a foot to a length of one hundred. These 
 channels are arched over at top, that the sun may strike on the water as httle as possible. . . 
 If hills intervene between the city walls and the spring head, tunnels under ground must be 
 made preserving the fall above assigned ; if the ground cut through be sandstone or stone, 
 the channel may be cut therein, but if the soil be earth or gravel, side walls must be built 
 and an arch turned over, and through this the water may be conducted. The distance between 
 the shafts over the tunneUed part is to be one hundred and twenty feet. If the water is to be 
 brought in leaden pipes, a reservoir is first made near the spring, from whence, to the reservoh 
 in the city, pipes are laid proportioned to the quantity of water. . . An aqueduct which is 
 made of lead should be thus constructed ; if there be a proper faU from the spring head to 
 the city, and hills high enough to cause an impediment do not intervene, the low intervals 
 must be brought to a level by means of substructions preserving the fall durected for channel 
 aqueducts, or by means of a circuitous course, provided it be not too much about ; but if there 
 be long valleys, let it be laid according to the slope of the hill, and when it arrives at the 
 bottom, let it be carried level by means of a low substruction as great a distance as possible ; 
 this is the part caUed the venter, by the Greeks KoiXia ; when it arrives at the opposite 
 acchvity, the water therein bemg but shghtly swelled on account of the length of the venter, 
 it may be directed upwards. . . Over the venter long stand pipes should be placed, by 
 means of which the violence of the ah may escape. . . It will moreover be expedient, 
 when the level of the faU from the spring is obtained, to build reservours at distances of 
 twenty thousand feet from each other, because if damage occur to any part, it will not 
 then be necesssry to take the whole work to pieces, and the defective places will be more easily 
 found. These reservoirs, however, are not to be made on a descent, nor on the venter, nor on 
 a rise, nor, generally spealcing, in valleys, but only on plains. But if the water must be con- 
 veyed more economicaUy, the following means may be adopted. Thick earthen tubes are to 
 be provided, not less than two inches in thickness, and tongued at one end, so that they may 
 fit into one another. The joints are then to be coated with a mixture of quick Mme and oil, 
 and in the elbows made by the level part of the venter, instead of the pipe, must be placed a 
 block of red stone, which is to be perforated, so that the last length of the inchned pipe, as 
 weU as the first length of the level part may be received into it. Then, on the opposite side, 
 where the acclivity begins, the block of red stone receives the last length of the venter, and 
 the first length of the rising pipe. Thus adjusting the dhection of the tubes, both in the 
 descents and acclivities, the work will never be dislodged. . . Earthen pipes have these 
 advantages, first, as to the work; next, that if damage! any one can repak it. Water con- 
 ducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that through lead."— Book viii., cap. 7. 
 
f AQUEDUCT OR AQUEDUCT ] 
 
 286 
 
 certain limits, by the adoption of a short course, the force of the water 
 would burst the conduit at the first exposed point, and, accordingly, 
 destroy the entire work. Further than this, the Eomans constructed 
 reservoirs (piscina) at intervals along the course, which materially served 
 to break the force of the stream, and to readily direct it at any required 
 angle. These reservoirs also served to purify the water ; by being sunk 
 much lower than the conduits, any mud or heavy matter became deposited 
 before it reached the outlets ; they formed air shafts, and likewise gave 
 entrance to the conduits for repairs and cleaning. In addition to the 
 reservoirs, numerous open shafts were carried up from the conduits to 
 prevent explosions from compressed air. 
 
 At the termination of the aqueduct, within the city, was constructed the 
 main reservoir * (castellum), from which pipes supplied numerous minor 
 reservoirs throughout the neighbourhood. 
 
 This subject could be carried much further; but enough has been 
 said to fully explain the term ; and to give the student a correct idea of the 
 wonderful aqueducts of the Eomans. 
 
 M. Bosc has given some interesting facts relative to aqueducts, con- 
 structed since the fall of the Koman empire ; and as they form a suitable 
 conclusion to our article, we venture to give them in his own words :— 
 
 " Le moyen age n'a pas construit beaucoup d'aqueducs, surtout en France. Les 
 Mores en Afrique et en Espagne en ont eleve plusieurs, qui par leur beaute et leur 
 construction egalent ceux de Tantiquite. 
 
 " En Egypte, I'aqueduc du Caire a ete construit au IX« siecle ; H n'a guere que 2 
 kilometres de longueur. Situe entre I'ancienne et la nouveUe viUe, il sert a alimenter 
 les fontaiaes publiques et I'arrosage des jardins. 
 
 "En ItaUe, nous en mentionnerons trois principaux. L'aqueduc de Caserte, qui 
 amene de 50 kilometres les eaux dans le chateau de Caserte, est une ceuvre vraiment 
 remarquable et qui vous saisit par son aspect grandiose. Le pont de cet aqueduc, 
 haut de 66 metres, long de 309 metres, se compose de trois rangs d'arcades 
 superposees ; I'etage inferieur en compte 19, celui du miHeu 28 et I'etage sup6riem- 
 43. L'aqueduc de Caserte coupe le mont Garzano au moyen d'un tunnel qui n'a pas 
 moins d'un kilometre, et il traverse la vallee de Maddaloni sur le magnifique pont que 
 nous venons de decrire. Cet aqueduc a ete bati par VantaneUi. Les deux autres 
 sont : l'aqueduc de Civita-CasteUane, et celui de Spolete, avec ses arcades en ogive, 
 eleve par Theodoric, roi des Ostrogoths, au-dessus de la Moragia. 
 
 " En Portugal, les Mores ont construit un aqueduc a Elvas, qui temoigne de leurs 
 connaissances ; Us ont donne pen d'epaisseur aux constructions; aussi l'aqueduc 
 d'Elvas, au Ueu de se developper en hgne di'oite, est-il forme par des Hgnes brisees, 
 sur quatre rangs d'arcades superposees, 
 
 * " When they (the conduits) are brought home to the walls of the city a reservoir (castel- 
 lum) is built, with a triple cistern attached to it to receive the water. In the reservoir are 
 three pipes of equal sizes, and so connected that when the water overflows at the extremities, 
 it is discharged into the middle one, in which are placed pipes for the supply of the pools and 
 fountains ; in the second those for the supply of the baths, thus affording a yearly revenue 
 to the people; in the third, those for the supply of private houses."— Vitruvms, Book vih., 
 cap. 7. It wiU be seen from this that the public pools and fountains were supplied only by 
 the overflow water from the main reservoirs set apart for the service of the dwelling-houses 
 and the pubhc baths of the city. 
 
287 
 
 [ AQUEDUCT OR AQUiEDUCT J 
 
 "En France, il en existe de fort remarquables, dont quelques-uns, celui de 
 Roqtiefavoin-, par exemple, peuvent rivaliser avec les edifices du meme genre batis 
 par les Romains. L'aqueduc d'Arcueil, bati de 1613 a 1624 par Jacques Debrosses, a 
 3,500 metres de longueur, dont 400 metres sont hors de terre. Cette derniere partie 
 se compose de 24 arcades, dont 8 seulement sont a joux ; elles mesurent 24 metres de 
 hauteur. Ce fut Marie de Medicis qui, ne pouvant utiliser l'aqueduc romain d'Arcueil, 
 cliargea son arcliitecte d'en construire un nouveau pour amener les eaux d'Arcueil au 
 palais du Luxembourg. L'aqueduc de Buc, situe a 8 kilometres de Versailles, a 70 
 metres de longuein: ; il se compose de 19 arcades de 13 metres de hauteur. Les piles 
 ont twelve metres de largeur sm- 4 d'epaisseur. L'ensemble de la construction est en 
 meuUere avec chaine et bandeau de roche. Bati in 1686 sous Louis XIV, cet 
 aqueduc servait a amener les eaux des etangs de Saclay et du Trou-Sale dans les 
 jardins du palais de Versailles. 
 
 " L'aqueduc de Maintenon, qui fat une des grandes entreprises du regne de Louis 
 XIV, devait amener a Versailles les eaux de I'Eure. Oe projet, con^u en 1680 par 
 Lahire et Vauban, re(?ut un commencement d'execution en 1683, mais les finances du 
 royaume, epuisees par les foUes depenses du grand roi, furent insuflSisantes pom- 
 permettre I'achevement de ce travail gigantesque ; il fut abandonne apres quatre 
 annees de travaux et une depense incalculable, car, a part le travail de 30,000 
 hommes de troupes employes pendant ces quatre ans aux travaux de terrassement, 
 on depensa 8,613,000 Uvres. . . . 
 
 "Enfin, dans le midi de la France, il existe deux aqueducs fort remarquables, 
 l'aqueduc de MontpelHer et celui de Roquefavour. L'aqueduc de MontpeUier a ete 
 construit sous Louis XIV, par I'ingenieur Sitot ; il est souterrain dans un parcours de 
 9,652 metres ; sa longueur totale est de 13,904 metres. Sur une longueur de 850 
 metres, depuis le reservoir dit des Arcades jusqu' a la place du Perou (jardin public 
 de la ville), l'aqueduc est supporte par un pont a deux etages : I'etage inferieur compte 
 63 arcades de 8 metres d'overture, qui supportent le deuxieme etage, compose de 183 
 arcades . . . L'aqueduc de Roquefavour, construit dans la vaUee d'Arc, a 
 8 kilometres d'Aix-en-Provence, se compose d'un pont a trois etages qui reunit, 
 comme au pont du Gard, deux coUines, Le premier etage comporte 12 arches qui 
 mesurent 34 metres 10 au-dessus de I'etiage de la riviere la Durance ; le deuxieme 
 etage, 15 arcades de 38 metres de hauteur au-dessus du com-onnement de I'etage 
 inferiem-; enfin I'etage superieur a 53 arches de 10 metres 90 de hauteur, au-dessus 
 du deuxieme rang. La hauteur totale de la construction est de 86 metres, sa longueur 
 de 400 metres ; les fondations ont ete descendues a 10 metres de profondeiir. Le 
 pont-aqueduc de Roquefavour, construit par Mont-Richer, temoigne des connaissances, 
 du gout et de I'habilete de cet architecte-ingenieur, qui, pom- dinimuer le poids de la 
 construction, a conserve des vides dans les reins de ses voutes. L'aqueduc de 
 Roquefavour, construit pour amener les eaux de la Durance a Marseille, a ete acheve 
 en 1848 ; c'est sans contredit I'un des plus imposants travaux d' architecture contem- 
 poraine et qui egale les magnifiques travaux romains de cegenre." 
 
 End of Volume First. 
 
TABLE OF WORDS 
 
 COMPRISED IN VOLUME FIRST. 
 
 A 
 
 A (Alpha) 1 
 
 AARON'S EOD .... 1 
 
 ABACISCUS 1 
 
 ABACULUS ..... 2 
 
 ABACUS 2 
 
 ABAISER 9 
 
 ABATED 9 
 
 ABAT-JOUR 9 
 
 ABAT-SONS 9 
 
 ABATTOIR 10 
 
 ABAT-VENT . . . . .11 
 
 ABAT-VOIX 11 
 
 ABBATIA 11 
 
 ABBEY ...... 11 
 
 ABBOT'S LODGING .... 15 
 
 ABSIS 16 
 
 ABSORBENT GEOUND . . . 16 
 
 ABUTMENT 16 
 
 ACADEMIA 17 
 
 ACANTHINE 17 
 
 ACANTHUS 17 
 
 ACCESS 21 
 
 ACCESSORIES 21 
 
 ACCOLADE . . , . . 21 
 
 ACCOUDOIR 22 
 
 ACCOUPLEMENT .... 22 
 
 ACCUBITUS 23 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ACEBEA 23 
 
 ACORN 24 
 
 ACEOLITHUS . . . . . 24 
 
 ACEOPODIUM 24 
 
 ACEOPOLIS 24 
 
 ACEOTEEIA 25 
 
 ADAM 25 
 
 ADIT . . . ■ . . . .27 
 
 ADYTUM 27 
 
 AECCLESIOLA 27 
 
 AEDES 27 
 
 AEDICULA 27 
 
 AEGICEANES 27 
 
 AEOLUS 28 
 
 AEEARIUM 28 
 
 AEEUGO 28 
 
 AES . 28 
 
 AESCULAPIUS 28 
 
 AETIAIOI 28 
 
 AETOMA . . . . . .28 
 
 AETOS 28 
 
 AGATHA, ST 28 
 
 AGNES, ST 29 
 
 AGNUS DEI 30 
 
 AGOEA 32 
 
 AGEAPE .32 
 
 AGEEEMENT 33 
 
ii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 AGEIPPA ....... 33 
 
 AIGUILLE . . . . 83 
 
 AILE OR AISLE .... 33 
 
 AILEEON 36 
 
 AIE TINT 37 
 
 ALA 37 
 
 ALABASTEUM 37 
 
 ALBA CEETA . .... 38 
 
 ALBAN, ST 38 
 
 ALBAEIUM OPUS .... 38 
 
 ALBE 39 
 
 ALBUS ...... 39 
 
 ALCHA 39 
 
 ALCOVE 39 
 
 ALEATOEIUM 39 
 
 ALEOIS 39 
 
 ALEXANDEINUM OPUS ... 40 
 ALHAMBEESQUE .... 40 
 
 ALIEN PEIOET 41 
 
 ALIPTEEIUM 41 
 
 ALKOEANS 41 
 
 ALLEGE 41 
 
 ALLEGOEY 41 
 
 ALLEEION 42 
 
 ALLEY 42 
 
 ALMEMAE 42 
 
 ALMEEY OB AUMBEY ... 42 
 ALMOND TEEE .... 45 
 
 ALMONEY 45 
 
 ALMS BOX OR ALMS CHEST 45 
 ALMS DISH OR BASIN - . , .45 
 ALMS HOUSE .... 46 
 
 ALOEING 46 
 
 ALPHEGE, ST 46 
 
 ALTAE 46 
 
 ALTAE-CLOTH .... 61 
 
 ALTAE-CEOSS 63 
 
 ALTAE-CUETAIN .... 64 
 ALTAE-CUSHION ... 65 
 
 ALTAE-DESK ..... 65 
 ALTAE-FEONTAL . . .66 
 ALTAE-PIECE .. . 68 
 
 ALTAE-EAIL ..... 68 
 ALTAE- SCEEEN .... 69 
 
 ALTAE-STEPS 69 
 
 ALTAE-TOMB 69 
 
 ALTEENATE .... 69 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ALTO-EILIEVO .... 70 
 
 ALUEA OR ALUEE .... 70 
 
 AMALTHAEA .... 70 
 
 AMATITO 70 
 
 AMAZON 70 
 
 AMAZON STONE .... 71 
 
 AMBEE 71 
 
 AMBITUS ALTAEIS .... 71 
 
 AMBO OR AMBON ... 72 
 
 AMBEOSE, ST. .... 76 
 
 AMBULATIO .... 78 
 
 AMBULATOEY 78 
 
 AMESS 79 
 
 AMENTUM 79 
 
 AMETHYST 79 
 
 AMICE 80 
 
 AMICTUS 82 
 
 AMOETISSEMENT .... 82 
 
 AMPE LITIS 82 
 
 AMPHIPEOSTYLE .... 82 
 
 AMPHITHEATEE . . 83 
 
 AMPHOEA 90 
 
 AMPUL OR AMPULLA ... 91 
 
 AMPYX 91 
 
 AMULA OR AMA .... 92 
 
 AMULET 92 
 
 AMUN-EA 92 
 
 ANACHEONISM .... 92 
 
 ANADEM 93 
 
 ANAGLYPHA or ANAGLYPTA . 93 
 
 ANAGLYPHIC 93 
 
 ANALOGIA 93 
 
 ANALOGIUM 93 
 
 ANALOGY . . . . . .93 
 
 ANCHOE 94 
 
 ANCILE 95 
 
 ANCON 95 
 
 ANDIEON 95 
 
 ANDEEW, ST 96 
 
 ANDEONITIS or ANDKON . . 97 
 
 ANDEO-SPHINX . . ... 98 
 
 ANELACE 98 
 
 ANGEL 98 
 
 ANGLE 120 
 
 ANGLE BEAD 120 
 
 ANGLE BUTTEESS ... 120 
 
 ANGLE CAPITAL . . . .121 
 
X 111 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ANGLE COLUMN 
 
 122 
 
 ANTHEOPOMOEPHISM 
 
 160 
 
 ANGLE COEBEL . . . . 
 
 122 
 
 
 160 
 
 ANGLED . . . 
 
 124 
 
 ANTICAGLIA .... 
 
 160 
 
 
 124 
 
 ANTICK . . . . • 
 
 . 160 
 
 ANGLE MODILLION . 
 
 128 
 
 ANTICUM 
 
 161 
 
 ANGLE OP VISION . . . . 
 
 128 
 
 ANTIMINSION 
 
 . 161 
 
 ANGLET 
 
 128 
 
 ANTIMONY YELLOW . 
 
 161 
 
 ANGLICUM, OPUS . . . . 
 
 129 
 
 ANTIPODIUM . . . • 
 
 . 161 
 
 ANGLO-NOEMAN AECHITECTUEE 
 
 130 
 
 ANTIQUAEIUM .... 
 
 161 
 
 ANGLO-EOMANESQUE AECHITEC- 
 
 
 
 , 161 
 
 
 131 
 
 ANTIQUITIES . . ■ • 
 
 162 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON AECHITECTUEE 
 
 131 
 
 ANTIQUO-MODEEN . 
 
 . 162 
 
 ANGULAE 
 
 134 
 
 ANTITHALAMUS 
 
 162 
 
 ANGULAE PEESPECTIVE 
 
 134 
 
 ANTITYPE . . 
 
 . 163 
 
 ANGULAE SHAFT 
 
 134 
 
 ANT WEEP BLUE 
 
 163 
 
 ANIMAL ..... 
 
 136 
 
 ANTWEEP BEOWN . 
 
 . 163 
 
 ANIMATED oe ANIMATION 
 
 145 
 
 
 163 
 
 ANKEE-HOLD .... 
 
 145 
 
 
 164 
 
 ANKLET 
 
 145 
 
 ANVIL 
 
 164 
 
 
 146 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 147 
 
 APE 
 
 165 
 
 
 148 
 
 
 , 165 
 
 ANNULAE MOULDING . " . 
 
 148 
 
 APEX 
 
 165 
 
 ANNULAE VAULT . 
 
 . 148 
 
 
 166 
 
 ANNULATED SHAFT . 
 
 148 
 
 APHEODITE OB VENUS 
 
 166 
 
 ANNULET 
 
 149 
 
 
 . 172 
 
 ANTAB 
 
 150 
 
 
 173 
 
 ANTE 
 
 151 
 
 
 174 
 
 ANTECABINET 
 
 . 151 
 
 APOCALYPSE .... 
 
 174 
 
 ANTECAPITULUM 
 
 152 
 
 APODYTEEIUM 
 
 . 193 
 
 ANTECHAMBEE 
 
 . 152 
 
 APOLLO ..... 
 
 193 
 
 ANTE CHAPEL .... 
 
 152 
 
 APONSA 
 
 . 193 
 
 ANTECHOIE 
 
 , 152 
 
 APOPHOEETA ... 
 
 193 
 
 ANTECHUECH .... 
 
 152 
 
 APOPHYGE .... 
 
 . 193- 
 
 ANTECOUET .... 
 
 154 
 
 APOSTLES 
 
 194 
 
 ANTEFIXUM 
 
 154 
 
 APOSTOLiEUM oe APOSTOLIUM 
 
 . 206 
 
 ANTEHALL .... 
 
 155 
 
 APOTHECA 
 
 206 
 
 ANTEPAGMENTUM 
 
 155 
 
 APOTHECAEEEIUM 
 
 . 206 
 
 ANTEPENDIUM . . 
 
 . 155 
 
 APOTHEOSIS .... 
 
 207 
 
 ANTEPOETICO .... 
 
 155 
 
 APOTHESIS .... 
 
 207 
 
 ANTEEIDES .... 
 
 156 
 
 
 207 
 
 ANTEEOOM 
 
 156 
 
 APPENDAGE .... 
 
 209 
 
 ANTESOLAEIUM 
 
 . 156 
 
 
 209 
 
 ANTETEMPLE .... 
 
 157 
 
 APPENSUM .... 
 
 . 209 
 
 
 157 
 
 APPIANUM 
 
 209 
 
 ANTHEMION .... 
 
 157 
 
 APPILLAGIUM . . 
 
 . 209 
 
 ANTHONY, ST. ... 
 
 . 157 
 
 
 209 
 
iv 
 
 APPLICATION 210 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE OEDEES 224 
 
 APPLIQUE 224 
 
 APPODITIUM PILAEIUM . . 225 
 
 APEON 226 
 
 APSE 227 
 
 APSE-AILE 275 
 
 APSE-CHAPEL . . . , 276 
 
 APSIDAL 277 
 
 
 
 APSIDAL CHANCEL . 
 
 278 
 
 APSIDAL CHAPEL 
 
 . 278 
 
 APSIDAL CHOIE . . . . 
 
 279 
 
 APSIDAL TE AN SEPT 
 
 . 279 
 
 APTEEAL 
 
 280 
 
 AQUA-MAEINA .... 
 
 . 280 
 
 AQUAEIUM OR AQUAEICIUM 
 
 280 
 
 AQUAEIUS .... 
 
 280 
 
 AQUEDUCT OR AQUiEDUCT 
 
 281 
 
 D. MarpiiEs & Co., Limited, Printers, Liverpool.