A Key to Civil Architefture ; o R, *the Univerfal Britijh Builder. CONTAINING The Principles and Properties of Building clearly demonflrated, with Illuftrations and Definitions, both Theoretical and Prac- tical; and a Diflertation on the Sciences appertaining thereto, as well as the Kindred Requifites of Strength, Convenience, Propriety and Beauty. Alfo a ftri£t Enquiry into The prefent Manner of Building and Mode of Finifiiing, and how far the Tafte is confiftent with Symmetry and found Reafon : LIKEWISE A New Criterion, or Univerfal Eflimator; In which are confidered the Quantity and Quality of Materials adequate to the Execution of any Building j their exa£l Value wherever appropriated ; the real and univerfal Price afiigned, proved by the Labour which is required to every Job; and practical Remarks on all the different Branches of a Building, efpeci- ally on Joiners Works ; where the moft irkfome and difficult Parts are confidered and reduced to familiar PraCtice, by the moft judicious and approved Methods. The Principles, Properties, and Confequence of all Sorts of Stairs defined, both with refpedl to Plans and Execution, as well as the Manner of gluing up all Kinds of Hand-Rails. The Manner and Method of meafuring the different Artificers Works, as prac- tifed by the moft eminent Surveyors, with their Prices to each Work. — Alfo, the Mafters Prices, and a Schedule of Prices for Tafk-Mafters, TO WHICH IS ADDED, A Treatife of Arithmetick, Extraction of the Roots, Duodecimals, Menfuration of Superficies and Solids, round and fquare Timber, &c. with Explanations alid Reafons for the Rules. THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED, With the Addition of two ufeful Plates on the Construction of Stair Cases. By T H O M A S S K A I F E, P. A. LONDON: Printed for R. Baldwin, No. 47, Pater- nofter Row. 1776. * . ' ». . ■ r * * -■ ft i • " - li . * ■ ■ * m -"• . I- ♦ THE T O READER. T HE following Iheets, now of- fered to the Publick, were the produce of my leifure hours. How far I have fucceeded in the different matters I have treated of, I leave to the candor and judgement of a criti- cal and difcerning world, defiring no approbation, but what refults from the merit of the work ; and humbly hoping, that no one will be too anxi- ous to cenfiire any point, before he hath well weighed the confequences of it. II any perfon fhould traduce me for dilcovering the fecrets of the building branch, relative to the prices of work, I mult inform him, that I confidered thefe as the firft rudiment of my plan, 5 in IV To the R E A D E R. in order to give every journeyman (which I think he has a right to) a view of the principles and profits of his bufinefs. I humbly dedicate my endeavours to all in the building branches ; and am with refpedt their Moft humble, and Moft obedient Servant, # ’Thomas Skaife. THE CONTENTS. A Page A ddition, leanre 66, 288 Architecture, a treatife of, lecture 13, 49 Arches of brick, lecture 16, 106 Arch upon a circular plan in wood, lea. 49, 237 Arches in brick, kaure 16, 109 Afhler front in tone; kaure 58, 259 Angular chimnies to meafure, kaure 14, 63 Architraves how meafured, kaure 14, 8i Arithmetick, a treatife of, kaure 64, 83 B Brick-work, a treatife of, kaure 16, to6 Brick- work how valued, kaure 16, 119 Brick-work, an univerfal ftandard for, ka. 16, 122 Bricks, how many required to wall a rod, kaure 1 6 , • 119 Backing of hip-rafters, kaure 54, 247 Bridging-joifts, their fcantling, kaure 55> 248 Beams ditto, kaure 55, 249 Building in general, kaure 8, 27 Balance, the properties thereunto belonging, kaure 2, 6 a Brick- % CONTENTS. Page Bricklayers tafk-work, lefture 6 i, 272 Building-act, differtation on, left u re 83, 364 Beauties of building, lefture 12, 45 Binding-joifts, their fcantling, lefture 55, 248 C Carpenters work, how meafured. lefture 14, 68 Carpenters Work, a treatife of, lefture 52, 241 Carpenters work, how valued, lefture 56, 250 ' Carvers work, how meafured, lefture 14, 92 Ditto, how valued, lefture 21, 148 Chimney-pieces of marble, lefture 58, 260 Chimney-pieces of {tone, lefture 58, ibid. Coping of Portland {tone, lefture 58, 259 Columns of {tone, and fluting, lefture 58, 260 Capitals carving, on {tone, lefture 58, 260 Ditto on wood, lefture 21, 149 Carcafe of a houfe, how meafured, left. 14, 60 Centring to vaults, lefture 53, 242 Centres how valued, lefture 56, 255 Ditto how meafured, lefture 14, 75 Crofs multiplication, lefture 70, 306 Cielings of platter, lefture 37, 132 Circles, lefture 79, 348 Corinthian enriched cornices in platter, lec- ture 17, • 135 Ditto how meafured, lefture 14, 87 Chimney-pieces, how meafured, lefture 14, 84 Convenience in building, lefture 10, 33 Clear-coal-painting, how valued, left. 1 8, 143 Columns, how meafured, lefture 14, 82 Columns, how glued up, lefture 44, 225 Capitals ditto, lefture 47, 235 Columns, how fluted, lefture 46, 234 Cafe of a journeyman carpenter, lefture 15, 95 Cube CONTENTS. Page Cube root, how extradted, ledture 77, 34 c Contradtions in divifion, ledture 72, 317 D Doors, how made, ledture 24, 165 Divifion, ledture 71, — — — 3*4 Ditto of decimals, ledture 73, 319 Dreflers, ledture 50, 239 Doors, how valued, ledture 24, 70 Duodecimal arithmetick, ledture 70, 306 Dorick front, how proportioned, ledture 44, 224 Dorick front, how meafured, ledture 14, 63 Dado, conftrudtion of, ledture 22, 153 Domical fky-lights, ledture 30, — 188 E Eftimating in general, with rules and obferva- tions, ledture 59, 262 F Floors of all forts, ledture 25, — 174 Floors, how meafured, ledture 14, 79 Ditto, how valued, ledture 25, — 175 Floors to frame, with binding-joifts, ledt. 56, 225 Fire-itone hearths, how valued, ledture 58, 2 61 Floors of platter, ledture 17, — 138 Frontifpieces, to meafure, ledture 14, 76 Ditto, a dilfertation on, ledture 44, 223 Frontifpieces, value of, ledture 45, 231 G Golden rule of three, ledture 75, 326 Ditto compound, ledture 75, ~ 331 Glafiers work, ledture 19, 145 a 2 Glafiers CONTENTS. Page Glafiers work to meafure, lefture 14, 88 Groins of brick, lefture 16, no Girders, their fcantiing, lefture 55, 248 Gable-ends, how meafured, lefture 14, 65 Geometry, of, lefture 82, — 356 Grounds in general, left u re 26, — 177 H Houfe-painting in general, lefture 18, 139 How meafured, lefture 14, — 90 Hip roofs, how meafured, lefture 14, 66 I Joiners-wcrk, how meafured, lefture 14, 75 Italian marble, how valued, lefture 51, 260 Joifts, their fcantiing, lefture 55, 248 Ionick cornices in plafter, how valued, lec- ture 17, 137 Ionick order, fome obfervations, lefture 1 3, 52 Introduftion to mechanicks, — 1 L Lever, a treatife on, lefture 3, 7 Lead, the value of, lefture 57, — 256 Lead, new call and laid, lefture 57, ibid. Lead- pipes, how valued, lefture 57, 257 Lime, the bell fort, lefture 16, — 120 Lime, what quantity to a rod of brick- work, lefture 16, — J2t Linfeed-oil, the value in paint, left. 18, 142 Linings, the value of, lefture 50, 239 Mafons CONTENTS. Page M Mafons tafk-work, ledture 63, — 273 Mafons work, ledture 58, -- 258 Ditto, how meafured, ledture 14, — 90 Meafnring, a diflertation on, ledture 14, 56 Meafuring of fuperficies, ledture 78, 346 Meafuring of folids, ledture 80, * 35r Modillion-cornices in plafter, ledture 17, 136 How valued, * ibid. Mouldings, a differtation thereon, ledt. 23, 157 Multiplication, lecture 68, — — * 297 Ditto of decimals, ledture 69, 304 Ditto of duodecimals, ledture 70, 306 Marble of various forts, ledture 58, 261 Meafuring the different artificers work, lec- ture 14,^ 56 Modillions of wood, how valued, ledt. 23, 162 Menfu ration, ledture 78, 345 Mechanicks, a dilfertation on, ledt. 1, 4 N Numeration, ledture 65, * 285 Nails, how many to a fquare in flooring, ledture 25, — 177 Naked floors, how meafured, ledture 14, 74 Naked floors, how valued, ledture 56, 253 Naked flooring, the price of in tafk-work, ledture 60, — 267 Naked flooring of oak, the price of, ledt. 56, 252 O Ovolos carved, ledture 21, — 148 Openings to chimnies, ledture 11, 141 O-sees CONTENTS. Page O -gees carved, ledture 21, — 148 Oak-dowelled floors, their value, ledture 25, 175 P Plate A, explanation of, — 2 75 Plate B, definition of, — 278 Pulley, a diflfertation on, ledture 5, 16 Plumbers work, how valued, ledture 57, 255 Plafterers work, a diflfertation on, ledt. 17, 130 Ditto talk-work, ledture 62, — 272 Plalterers work, how meafured, ledt. 14, 86 Painters work, the value, ledture 18, 139 How meafured, ledture 14, — 90 Properties and principles of flairs defined, ledture 31, 90 Pantiles, at what per thoufand, ledt. 16, 12 6 Plain tiles per thoufand, — ibid. Portland-ltone, the price of, ledture 58, 260 Portland paving, — — ibid. Purbeck-ftone paving, ledture 58, 261 Pilalters, how fluted, ledture 46, — 254 Partitions framed, their value, ledture 56, 251 Partitions, the price of in talk-work, ledt. 60, 2 66 Planking of foundations, talk-work, ledt. 60, 224 Pipes of lead, their value, ledture 57, 257 Painting, the expence of, ledture 18, 139 Paint of all colours, how fold, ledture 18, 140 Plates to floors, how valued in talk work, ledture 60, — 267 Propriety in building, ledture n, 35 R Rule of three diredt, ledture 75, 326 Roofs to frame with king-poll, how valued, ledture 56, 253 ' • Rafters, CONTENTS. Page Rafters, feet and eaves, how valued, led. 56, 254 Rafters, their fcantling, ledure 55, 249 Ramps, with their properties, ledure 41, 212 Round timber to meafure, ledure 81, 354 Redudion, ledure 74, — 524 S Sallies and fafh-frames, their value, led. 29, 185 How meafured, ledure 14, — 83 Slaters work, ledure 20, — 147 Subtraction, ledure 67, — . 295 Steps of Portland-done, ledure 58, 259 Steps of Purbeck, ledure 58, — 261 Scroll to a hand-rail, how drawn, led. 40, 2 1 1 Ditto, how to draw as in figure C, 279 Shutters to windows, ledure 27, 178 Square- root, how extraded, ledure 76, 334 Shutters, how hung, ledure 27, — 179 Staircafing in all its branches continued, lec- ture 31, . — — 190 Screw, a difiertation on, ledure 7, 21 Stucco, how valued, ledure 17, — 138 Sand, per load, ledure 16, 12 r Solder per pound, ledure 57, — . 257 Solids, ledure 80, — 25 1 Safhes painting, the price, ledure 18, 145 Strength in building, ledure 9, — ■ 29 T Tafkmafters prices, ledure 60, 2 66 Twift to a hand-rail, how glued up, led. 38, 205 Table of brickwork to any value of bricks, ledure 16, — 122 Timber to meafure, — * ibid. Tiling CONTENTS. Page Tiling, the value of, ledture 1 6, — 125 Tufcan order, ledture 13, — 50 Torus fkirting, ledture 51, — 240 Three, rule of diredt, ledhire 75, 326 W . Wedge, a diflertation on, ledture 6, 19 Wheel, a ledture on with ftridtures, ledt. 4, ico Wainicotting, how valued, ledture 28, 183 Weith-rail, how glued up, ledture 32, 179 A K E Y T O CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICKS. L L the liberal arts, and various ftudies, which the budding world are daily in purfuit otV may be generally comprifed under the following heads, natu- ral, divine , and artificial . To the firft of thefe is reducible, not only the government of this great Univerfe, but the knowledge of the ufual caufes of Pro- vidence in the frame of every created thing. To the fecond may be referred, the prac- tice of all thofe virtues, which can advan- tage our minds in the fearch or enquiry after their promifed happinefs. To the laft belong all thofe inventions, whereby Nature is any way affifted in her defects : thefe artificial experiments being (as it were) but fo many effays, by which men naturally attempt to relieve themfelves B from 2 A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr , from the firft general curfe inflicted upon their labours. Though different the operations, it is ft ill one caufe; whether a man be emulous of honour, wealth, or fame: I muft confefs, none of thefe motives induced me to the following undertaking, yet my readers will hardly be perfuaded, that I had no other view in the attempt, than an earned delire to propagate the fruits of my induftry for the univerfal benefit cf mankind. How- ever, if I may be allowed to alledge my reafons, I muft affirm they are centred folely in the laft obfervation ; as, I hope, my en- deavours and examples in the following work will plainly evince. I am far from the opinion of the ancient philofophers, who efteemed it a great part of their wifaom to conceal their learning from vulgar apprehenfion and ufe, thereby the better to maintain it in its due honour and refpedt : and therefore generally veiled all their arts and feiences under fuch myfti- cal expreffions, as might excite the people's wonder and reverence; fearing left a more eafy and familiar difcovery might expofe them to contempt. Hence it was, that the ancient mathematicians placed all their learn- ing in abftradted fpeculation ; refufing to de- bafe the principles of that noble fcience into mechanical experiments : infomuch, that thofe very authors amongft them, who were mod eminent for their inventions of this kind, and were willing, by their own prac- tice. The Unherfal British Builder. 3 tice, to manifeft unto the world thofe arti- ficial wonders, which might be wrought by thefe arts, as Archimedes, Dsdalus, &c. were, notwithstanding, fo much infedted with this blind fuperilition, as not to leave any thing in writing concerning the grounds and manner of fuch operations ; by which means poflerity unhappily loft, not only the benefits of their peculiar difcoveries, but, for many centuries, the proficiency of the arts in general: for when once learned ^nen for- bid the reducing them to particular ufe, and vulgar experiments, others refufed thofe flu- dies, as ufelefs and empty fpeculations : whence it came to pafs, that the fcience of geometry was fo univerfally negledted, as to receive but little or no addition for many hundred years together. The divine Plato is reported to have been a (tickler for this foolifh opinion ; advifing all his followers from proftituting mathematical principles unto common apprehenfion or practice ; and, in this fuperflition to philofophy, rather chofe to deprive the world of all his ufeful and ex- cellent inventions, than to expofe that pro- feffion to the ignorant vulgar : but his pupil Arillotle (as in many other particulars, fo likewife in this) very juflly oppofed him; and became one of the firfl authors who have written any pradtical difcourfe on thefe arts. Since him, many other authors of eminence have left maflerly works, choofing rather a general benefit, than the hazard that might B 2 accrue 4 . A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, accrue from the vain and groundlefs difre- fpedfc of thefe formal bigots ; rightly prefer- ring the reality and fubftance of public good, before the fhadows of fome retired Speculation, and ingrate vulgar opinion. LECTURE I. OF MECHANICKS. T HE word Mechanicks is thought by fome to be derived from the Greek, intimating the efficacy and force of fuch in- ventions as elucidate geometrical rules for demonrtrating motion, and the effedts of power, or force, in removing the matter of bodies ; or elfe becaufe thefe arts are fo full of pleafing variety, that they admit not of floth or wearinefs. Indeed, according to the ordinary fignification of the word, it is ufed in oppofition to the liberal arts; whereas, in propriety of fpeech, thofe arts and employ- ments may alone be called illiberal, which require fome bodily labour, diverted of caufes and fpeculation; as fawyers, fhoe-makers, tailors, 6cc. And on the contrary, that dis- cipline, which teaches and difcovers the ge- neral effedts and properties of things, may truely be erteemed as a fpecies of philofophy. But here it fliould be obferved, that this art is ufually dirtinguilhed into a two-fold kind, viz. rational and manual . The firft is that which treats' of thofe principles and fundamental notions which may concern thefe mecha- The Univerfal British Builder. 5 mechanical practices. The latter hath refe- rence to the making of all thefe inftruments, and the exercifing of fuch particular experi- ments in architecture, &c. and, familiarly fpeaking, may be termed as theory and prac- tice; both which I mean to treat of in the following (beets. The firft of thefe may pro- perly* be called liberal, as deferving the thoughts of men of erudition; becaufe fpring** ing from the honourable parentage of Geo- metry and Natural Philofophy. Not even the purfuit of Rhetorick and Lo- gick do more adorn the mind, than a tho- rough knowledge of Architecture, and me- chanick powers and practices enlighten the underftanding ; and, therefore, are they well worthy to be entertained with much greater refpedt than they commonly meet with in thefe luxurious times. The mechanical powers, by which all experiments are tried in removing the mat- ter of bodies, are generally reckoned to be fix — the Balance, the Lever, the Wheel, the Pulley, the Wedge, and the Screw ; by fome of which every divilible, impenetrable, and paffive fubftance, that hath extenfion and refinance, which are the properties of all kinds of bodies, mud be affe&ed on their univerfal principle of gravity ; gravity being that force, by which bodies are carried or tend towards the centre of the earth, and which may be faid to be in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. B 3 But, 6 A Key to Civil Architecture or. But, for the better diftin&ion, and more clear difcovcry of thefe mechanical faculties, as they are of the greateft utility to all ftu- dents of Architecture, I (ha'll fpeak of them feverally. LECTURE II. OF THE BALANCE. T HE firft invention of the Balance is commonly attributed to Aftrea, who was therefore deified by the title of the God- defs of Juftice. The particulars of the Balance are fo com- monly known, and of fuch eafy and familiar experiments, that they will not need any large explanation. The chief end of it is for the diftin&ion of the feveral degrees of ponderofiy j for the undemanding of which, we have only to note, viz. that, if the fides of the Balance, and the weights at the end of them, be mutually equal, then the beam will be in an horizontal or level fitua- tionj but, on the contrary, if either the weights alone be equal, and not their diftances, or the diftances alone, and not the weights, then the beam will accordingly decline. From thefe grounds, rightly apprehend- ed, it is eafy to conceive how a man may find out the juft proportion of a weight, which, in any point given, (hall equipon- derate to feveral weights given, hanging in different places of the beam. Within The Vniverfal British Builder. y Within the power and circumfcription of the Balance, many ingenious enquiries may be made; fuch as meafuring the weight and force of blows, the flrength of firings, or other oblong fubftances, the diflindl propor- tion of feveral metals mixed together, and the different gravities of divers bodies in the water, from what they have in the open air. But as thefe are foreign to the prefenfc defign, I fhall conclude, without farther effay on the Balance, with this obfervation, that whatever geometrical definitions may be in any wife ferviceable, relative to the Balance, I fhall fpeak of them in the different parts of pradtice, as they occur; efpecially of geo- metrical flairs. LECTURE III. OF THE LEVER. T HE fecond mechanical power is the Lever, the firfl invention of which is generally given to Neptune, the God of the Sea, and reprefented by his trident. The properties and principles of this pow- erful and ufeful inflrument bear almoft the fame proportions with the Balance, only with this difference — mark the following EXAMPLE. As the weight is to an equivalent power, fo is the diflance betwixt the weight and the B 4 centre 8 ,/?Kev to Civil ArchiteSlure ; or, centre unto the diftance and the power ; and fo reciprocally. Or thus — The power that doth equiponderate with any weight, muft have the lame proportion unto it, as there is betwixt their feveral difiances from the centre or fulciment. The meaning of the foregoing example imports thus much; that the power at the end of the Lever mull bear the fame pro- portion to the weight to be fuflained, as the diftance from the fulciment to the power you bear doth from the fulciment to the weight : — for inftance, if your Lever be nine feet long, and the fulciment at one foot, the proportion will be as eight to one ; for, fup- pofing the weight eight hundred, one hun- dred borne upon the end of the Lever, at eight feet, would equiponderate, and be ade- quate to the weight. The ground of which maxim is, the fulciment at one foot, in this proportion, being the centre of gravity. It muft be obferved, that all the varieties of motion in inanimate bodies, are fubjedt to the forces impreffed ; and therefore it fol- lows, if a body be abfolutely at reft, and un- furnifhed with any moving principle, it muft of courfe continue fo, till aded upon by fome external power. When a body is put into motion, it hath no power within itfelf to make any change in the diredion of its courfe; therefore muft move in proportion to the power impreffed. There c [heUniverfal British Builder. 9 There is not a more ufeful, nor a more ex- tenfive inftrument than the Lever, nor any fo familiarly reduced to practice. It is report- ed of the great Archimedes, that, with this Ample inftrument, he propofed to remove the greateft conceivable weight with the lead: conceivable power ; and moreover, that if he had but known where to fland and take his fulciment, he could have removed the world — this great mafs, or globe of fea and land ; which affertions, though altogether above the vulgar apprehenfion or belief r eyet had his a6ts been fo very extraordinary/ that, in compliance with an edidt made by the king of Syracufe, (to believe whatever Archi- medes fhould affirm) they were obliged to affent to this extravagant propofition; and though it were eafy to demonftrate the geo- metrical truths of thefe ftrange affertions, yet where is the ufe of fuppofing them proved by the mechanical faculties? Such grounds, though palpable to the weakeft capacity, could exift only in fancy, or idea, being far beyond the executive power of man to effedh Therefore the thought was truely extravagant, becaufe impracticable It is neverthelefs certain, if there was the greateft conceivable weight, with the lead imaginable power — fuppofe fo fmall as the weight of one man ; if we conceive the fame difpropor- tions between their feveral diffances, as in the former obfervation, from the fulciment to the centre of gravity, they would both equi- io A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , equiponderate : and if the diftance of the power from the centre, in coinparifon to the diftance of the weight, were but any thing more than the heavinefs of the weight is in refpedt to the power, it may then he evident, from the former example, that the powxr would be greater than the weight, and confequentiy able to move it. LECTURE IV. OF THE WHEEL. A MONGST the variety of artificial motions, thofe are of moft ufe and pleafure, on which, by the application of fome continued ftrength, a lafting motion is beftowed. Thefe we may properly call felf- movers, becaufe the motions of fuch in- ventions are actuated or cauled by fomething which belongs to their own frame, or at leaft by fome external inanimate agent ; as mills by wind and water ; clocks, watches, or other engines made of wheels, by weights, fprings, &c. It would be tedious to illuftrate the ex- tenfion of this mechanic faculty, otherwife than fo far as may be ufeful to the prefent defign. I fhall therefore pafs over what may be effected by its fubtlety, in every re- lped, but its power in removing the matter of bodies. The Wheel, confidered as relative to power, is in every refpedt equal to the Lever; but 'TheUniverfal British Builder, ii but the force of this faculty may be more conveniently underftood by the multiplication of feveral wheels together, with nuts be- longing to each of them. The full effect of this invention cannot be better explained than thus As the nut is to the wheel, (which may be as one to ten) fo is the num- ber of wheels and nuts to an equivalent power. One of our ordinary jacks for roalt- ing meat (which confift but of three) fully ihews what may be executed by a number of thefe movers : for, if the fly or balance, in comparifon to its axis, be but as the propor- tion of wheels to the nuts, viz. ten to one, and the whole proportionable to the weight, it is evident that, if the weight was three hundred, a fmali firing at the balance or fly would eafily draw it up ; for if the weight was three hundred, viz. 3361b. of even 1 000 lb. the fly need not be more than as one to a thoufand; for the firft axis is to be but one tenth part of its wheel ; and there- fore, though the weight be a thoufand pounds, yet unto a power that hath this advantage, if is but as a hundred at the fecond wheel ; and in this proportion flill diminifhing, at the third wheel it is but ten, and at the fly but one ; fo, if a man has a firing that will draw one pound, it is palpable he may effedt this weight : and in like manner of any other power, let the weight or magnitude be ever fo great ; it is but adding more wheels and nuts, adequate to the above proportion. Upon 12 ^Key to Civil Architecture ; or. Upon this principle was the famous en- gine extolled fo by Stevinus, and preferred by him to all Archimedes’ : it confided of wheels and nuts, though poffibly more con- fiderable in number, and might bear a greater proportion. Upon this principle an author tells us, that if there were an engine with 12 wheels, each having teeth, as alfo the axes or nuts belonging to them ; if the diameter of thefe wheels were unto each axis as a hun- dred to one ; and if we luppofe the wheels to be fo placed, that the teeth of the one might take hold of the axis of another, and that the axis of the handle (made' to w'otk it) turned the fird wheel, and the weight were fixed to the axis of the lad, he could then with eafe remove the greateft conceivable weight in the world. It appears to me, however, the mod unac- countable thing in nature, how any man, or body of men, can buoy themfelves up with impracticable notions : it is true, that expli- cations and geometrical definitions may be given of all kinds of local motion, and thofe even fo facile and obvious, that aji ordinary artificer may fufficiently underdand them, yet lhall not all the men in the world be able to execute them. Though this may feem a paradox to many, I hope to prove it clearly by example ; notwithftandiim Aridotle has endeavoured to define, that there is no conceivable weight which may not be remov- 5 ed / ^he TJniverfal British Builder. 13 ed by thefe wheels, even as much adted as can be fancied by imagination. It remains now, in order to make a per- fedt difcovery of the truth of what many au- thors- have afferted, concerning the removing the world, the drawing up by the roots the ftrongeft oaks, and many more affertions of the like extravagant kind, to enquire into the nature of artificial motion — I mean fiownefs and fwiftnefs ; for, without a right under- ftanding of thefe, a man will be expofed to many abfurd miltakes, in attempting matters, which are either in themfelves impoffible, or elfe not to be performed by fuch means as are applied to them. I think I may fafely affirm, that many, if not moft of the miftakes in thefe great mechanical defigns, arife from a mifapprehenlion of that difference which will be between the fiownefs or fwiftnefs of the weight and power, in companion to the proportion of their feveral ftrengths. Now if it were poffible to contrive an engine, whereby any’conceivable weight might be moved by any conceivable power, both with the fame brevity or fpeed (as it is with thofe things immediately ftirred by the hand) the works of Nature would be then too much fubjedted to the power of Art, and men might be encouraged, in imitation of the builders of Babel, to fuch extravagant defigns as would not become a created be- ing •, the wifdom of Providence therefore hath fo confined thefejauman arts, that what any invention la. A Key to Civil Architecture ; or > invention hath in ftrength, is abated in the flownefs of its motion : for it is to be obferv- ed as a general rule, that the fpace of time or place, in which the weight is moved, in comparifon to that in which the power doth move, is in the fame proportion as they them- felves arc to one another ; fo that if there be any great difference between the ftrength of the weight and the power, the very fame kind of difference will there be in the fpace of their motion. For inftance, if the power be unto the weight but as one to an hun- dred, then the fpace, through which the weight moves, will be an hundred times lefs, and confequently the motion of the weight an hundred times flower than that of the power. If we confider an inftrument of twelve wheels, as before-mentioned, made propor- tionable in ftrength to any imaginable weight* we fhall then find that its motion will be confiderably flower than the heavens are fwift; for, if we fuppofe the windlace to fuch an engine (prepared to fet the whole in motion) to be turned 4000 times in an hour, yet in ten years lpace the weight will not be moved one hair’s-breadth, nor one inch in a thou- fand years : the truth of this will be more eafily conceived, if we confider the frame and manner of a twelve-wheeled engine : fuppofe in each axis or nut there be ten teeth, and on each wheel a thoufand ; then the wind- lace of this engine mull be turned one hun- dred *Ibe Univerfal British Builder. 15 dred times before the firft wheel, reckoning downwards, can be moved round once, and ten thoufand times before the fecond can finiCh one revolution ; and thus through the whole twelve wheels in this multiplied pro- portion. v I will now appeal to every reader, of common reafon, whether fuch attempts or expreffions can be any thing more than the incoherencies of a diftempered brain ! For notwithftanding the beauties of mechanical manoeuvres are as inftrudting as entertain- ing, when reduced to familiar practice, yet when once proflituted, or ftretched beyond the power of art, they can no longer be confidered as parts of the fcience, becaufe they exift only in imagination. Not much unlike thefe extravagant no- tions, was that of the famous Grecian archi- tedl, who propounded to Alexander the Great, to cut mount Athos into the ftatue or figure of a man, which in his right hand fhould hold a town capable of containing ten thoufand men, and in his left a veflel to receive all the water that flowed from the feveral fprings in the mountain ; but whether Alexander, in his ambition, feared that fuch an idol might have more honour than he himfelf ; or whe- ther, in his frugality, he thought fuch a work would coft him more money than conquering the world; or whatever elfe was his motive, he refufed to undertake it : but if he had confected to fuch an extravagant attempt, (though 1 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, (though in contradiction to the opinions of all mankind) I dare affirm it never could have been executed. OF THE PULLEY. H E Pulley is of fuch ordinary ufe. that it will not need much, nor any particular defcription. The chief parts of it are divers little rundles, which are moveable about their proper axes : thefe are ufually divided according to their feveral fituations, into the upper and lower. The lower pul- lies only give force to the motions. If we fuppofe a weight to hang upon any of the upper rundles, it will then require a power, which in itfelf fhall be fully equal to the fuftaining it. The diameter of a pulley, when fixed in a date of motion, is as a proper beam or balance hung upon its centre : therefore the power mutt: be adequate to the weight, in the fame ftate as if the power and weight were fattened by two different cords, at the end of the balance. Now all the upper pul- lies being of one and the fame nature, it mutt neceffarily follow, that none of them in themfelves conduce to the eafing of the power, but only to the greater conveniency of the motion the cords by this means be- ing more eafily moved than otherwife they LECTURE V. would / Tie TJniverfal British Builder, i J V/ould be. If the weight to be faftained be above the pulley, as in all the lower lbrts it is, then the power that fupports it need be but half the weight itfelf. For example, let the diameter of a lower pulley, on whofe centre the weight is fattened, be equal to ten pounds* one end of the cord being tied to a hook, there will be but half the weight to fuftain; for the hook in this cafe is the fame as if held up with a firing, with one end in each hand, upon a proper ba- lance; and this fubduple proportion will flill remain, though an upper pulley be joined to the lower. The upper pulley alone doth not abate any thing of the weight : it is the fame thing, whether the half- weight be fuftained equal to the hook, by which one end of the cord is fattened, as the weight is altered by the lower pulley alone. Now, as one of the lower pullies doth abate half of that heavinefs which the weight hath in itfelf, and caufe the power to be in a fubduple pro- portion unto it, fo two abate the half of that which ftill remains, and caufe a fubquadruple proportion between the weight and the power; three a fubfextuple ; and fo on to as many as may be required : for they will ftill diminish the weight according to this pro- portion. Suppofe the weight then in itfelf to be locolb. the applying it to one of thofe lower pullies will make it but 500 ; two of them but 250 ; three of them I2jj, &e-. G It iS A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. It is not material to the force of this in* ftrument, whether the rundles be big or lit* tic, provided they be made equal to one ano- ther, in their feveral ftations. But it is mod convenient, that the upper ones fhould each increafe as they are higher ; becaufe by this means the cords will be kept from tangling: thefe pullies may be multiplied according to fundry fituations. By thefe examples an in* vention is eafily formed, for a man to draw himlelf up to any conceivable height ; and familiarly reduced may be of much fer- vice for particular ufes, as when occafion re- quires the reparation of cielings, towers, domes, cathedrals, &c. and this may be ef- fected with fo little trouble and expence as two pullies, one above, the other below ; to the upper one mud be fixed a hook, hung at the top, which may be done on the out- fide : the end of the cord being fixed to the centre of the top pulley, and put firft round the bottom rundle, then the top; the other end of the cord a man may have in his hand to draw himfelf up by, or to any machine that he may require for his tools, &c. The . ecution of this will require but little more halt his weight, or if the pullies be h it may be done with half that : on in the aforementioned pro- ne' : oil Sc n fa id of pullies, it is ~nt performances : S ing inflru* ments The Univerfal British Builder. 19 ments of infinite ftrength : it is reported of Archimedes, that with an engine of pullies to which he applied only his left arm he lifted up 5000 bufhels of corn at once ; and drew up a fhip with all her lading upon dry ground; and all this with a threefold pulley. But it is not poffible that thefe alone fhould ferve for the lifting of fuch a weight; be- caufe fuch an engine can make but a fubfex- tuple, or at moft a fubfeptuple proportion, between the weight and power : which is by far too little to reconcile the ftrength of a man to fuch ponderofities. — How many of thefe mistakes were it eafy to find out, if we did but know the weight of thole ancient meafures : fuppofing them to be the fame with our Englifh buffiel, which weighs 64 pounds, the whole would then amount to ^20,000 pounds, one half .of which would be lightened by the firfl: pulley, half of the remainder by the fecond ; and fo on in this fubduple proportion. And if we confider a man’s hand to be as 50 pounds weight, it is demonftrahle that it will then take at lead ten or twelve pullies to effedt it. LECTURE VI. OF THE WEDGE. T H E firfl: mechanical faculty is the Wedge, a well known inftrument, and of the greateft utility in niedling up old houfes, cleaving of wood, &c. The efficacy C 2 and 20 A Key to Civil Architecture or, and great ftrength of it may be refolved and particularized, Firft, by the form of it. Secondly, by the manner whereby the power is impreffed upon it; which is by the force of blows, or percuffion. Firft, the form of it reprefents two le- vers; and it is a general rule, that the more acute the angles are, fo much the more eafy will be their motion ; the force, from the acutenefs of thofe angles, being more eafily impreffed, and the fpace wherein the body is moved fo much the lefs. The fecond particular whereby this in- ftrument hath its force, is the manner where- by that force is impreffed upon it; which is by a ftroke or blow. The efficacy of it alfo far exceeds any other ; for though we fup- pofe a wedge to be laid or fixed in a piece of timber (in a polition for cleaving) and preffed down with ever fo great a ftrength, nay, though we were to apply the force of the other mechanical inftruments, the lcrew, pulley, &c. yet the effect would not be adequate to a blow’. The true definition therefore of this is perhaps one of the greateft fubtilties in nature, nor is it in my opinion fully explained by any author who has un- dertaken its refolution : though to me it teems no other than the celerity of the blow given to effed it. Thofe who attribute it to velocitv alone, have not given a proper definition of it ; for if this were TheUniverfal British Builder. 21 Were true, a blow given with a light weapon would exceed any other force. And accord- ing to this, how comes it to pafs that an ar- row or bullet difcharged near at hand, is much lefs forcible than at a proper didance; whereas the violence whereby they are car- ried at firft is newed, and in all probability the motion at that time the mod fwift ? The fird and greated confideration feems to me the quality and weight of the indrument by which the blow is given ; and feeondly, the fpace or di dance through which it palfes. And fird. If the infl.ru men t by which you mean to ededt the motion, be not proporti- onable to the drength or force required, the fwiftnefs or rapidity of the blow will not ferve to accompiifh it. Secondly, If the fpace or didance through which the force mud pafs be not fufficient for it to acquire the requifite celerity, it will add nothing to the died: that the fledge or indrument contain a double proportion of weight ; and therefore may be? reduced to the following example : as the weight of the indrument is to the power of the wedge, fo is the celerity of the blow to the didance required to effed it. LECTURE VII. OF THE SCREW. ^ | "'HAT which is ufually edeemed the fixth mechanical power is the Screw ; which may be called a kind of wedge, mul- tiplied or continued by an Heliacal revolution C 3 round 22 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , round about the body of a cylinder ; receiv- ing its motion not from a ftroke, but a lever or handle at one end of it ; and ufually dif- tinguifhed by the names of male and female. The male is the fore-mentioned fcrew ; the female the nut which receives it. The qua- lity of this power far exceeds any of the reft, for thofe ules for which it is generally apply- ed j as, in printing, extracting and fqueezing out the juice of fruits, &c. and in the work- ing of this inftrument the ftrength of one man will be more forcible than the weight of a whole mountain. It is alio ufed for lifting and raifing great weights, and is much more practicable than any inftrument made of wheels, pullies, &c. The great advantage of this faculty above the reft confifts chiefly in this ; the other in- ftruments require as much ftrength for the fupporting of the weight to be moved as may be equal to it, befide that other fuper-added power whereby it is out-weighed and mov^d ; lo that in the operation by thefe a man al- ways exhaufts himfelf by continued labour. For example : Any weight that is lifted by a wheel or pulley, will of itfelf recline, if there be not an equal power to fuflain it: but in the forma- tion of the fcrew, this inconvenience is per- fectly remedied ; for as much force as is com- municated unto this faculty from the power applied to it, is ftill retained by the very frame and nature of the inftrument itfelf fee- ing *The Univerfal British Builder* 23 ing the motion cannot return, but by the handle of the lever which effected it ; fo that the whole drength of the power may be em- ployed in the motion of the weight, and none jfpent in fuftaining it. The principal defeat of the fcrew is, that in a fhort fpace it will be worked to its full length ; and then it can- not be of further ufe for the continuing of the motion ; unlefs (as before obferved) it be re- turned back by the fame inftrument that worked it. Though this molt noble and eafy of all mechanick powers be not fo much as menti- oned by fome of the ancients, efpecially Arijlotle 5 yet I cannot help thinking, that mod: of the wonders performed of old may chiefly be attributed to the execution of this inftrument* becaufe no other invention could be fo applicable to time, as what might be made and contrived bv certain fcrevvs. Among the Jews we read of Solomons temple, which for its date and magnificence might have been judly reckoned among the other wonders of the world : we read of pil- lars of brals eighteen cubits high, and twelve cubits round, great and codly dones for the foundation of it. Jofepbus tell s us, that fome of the dones were iorty-five cubits long : and in another place mentions the famous towers built by Herod , wherein every done was of white marble, twenty cubits long, ten broad, and five thick ; and which was the greated wonder, the old wall itfelf dood upon a deep C 4 rifing 24 Key to Civil Architecture ; or, l’ifing ground, with the hills upon it, on the tops of which thefe towers were built, which were above thirty cubits high ; fo that it is fcarce conceivable by what ftrength fo many hones, of fuch great magnitude, were con- veyed thither. Among the Grecians we read of the E- phefian temple dedicated to Diana , w herein were an hundred and twenty-feven columns, formed of as many hones, each of them fixty feet high, and all taken out of the quarries of Jfia. Further, there were at Rome fundry obe- lilts, each compofed of fo many entire hones, feme of which were 40, fome 80, and others 90 cubits high ; moh of thefe were brought out of the quarries dug in Egypt , where they w T ere wrought into form, and afterwards, not without incredible labour and infinite charge, brought to Rome . Alio about two hundred years ago an old obelifk was erefted, which had been dedi- cated to 'Julius Ccefar : this was one intire hone, being a kind of fpotted marble ; the height of it one hundred and feven feet ; the breadth at the bottom twelve feet ; and at the top eight : it was removed at the charge of Pope Sextus the Fifth, from the left fide of the Vatican to a higher ground. The moving of this obeliik is celebrated by many writers ; all of whom fpeak of it with great y/gnder and praife, *The Unlverfal British Builder. 25 The executing in former days fuch great wonders may feem to infer, that their mecha- nical arts are now loft among the many other ruins of time ; but this cannot by any means be granted, without much ingratitude to the prefent age. — I believe if a proper examina- tion were made into the merits of fome now living, I am not perfuaded we fhould find it a want of method that difables them ; but becaufe we have not either the fame materials, or motives to attempt fuch works, or the means to effefl: them, as the ancients had. The prefent age is much more active than that of the ancients ; every man finds fo much bufinefs for the prefent, that he has not lei— fure to trouble himfelf about things which can never be of ufe to him, and therefore in many refpe&s there is a great difproportion betwixt the incitements of former times, and thofe of the prefent age with refpedt to fuch magnificent attempts. As we differ alfo much in the motives, fo likewife do we in the means of effecting them. In thofe remote days there was more leifure and opportunity both for great men to under- take fuch works, and for the people to per- fect them : whereas the world is now grown more politick and therefore more troublefome : every great man having other private and ne« ceffary bufinefs about which to employ his time and fortune. So likewife in regard to the common people, who living at that time more wildly, without being confined to par- ticular A Key to Civil Architecture-, or, ticiilar trades and profellions, might be more eafily collected upon forhe famous employ- ments : whereas now, if the king wanted to taiie an army, it would not be pofiibie to gather half the number of men that were for- merly employed about thefe magnificent buildings. We read of thirty-fix hundred thoufand tnen being bufied for twenty years in build- ing one of the Egyptian pyramids of a mil- lion that were as long in building another 3 and about the carriage of one ftone only twenty days journey, on which for three years to- gether two thoufand chofen men were direc- tors, befides many other under-labourers. In the building of Solomon' s temple there tvere threelcore and ten thoufand that bare burdens, befides fourfeore thoufand hewers in the mountains. Suppofing every one of thefe but to carry a load, there were enough to make a large mountain.— The Ephejian temple, fpoken of before, was built at the joint expence of all AJia the 127 pillars in it were made by fo many kings, according to their feveral fucceffions ; the whole work hot being finifhed in lefs time than two hun- dred and fifteen years. The abundance of wealth which was then in the pofleflion of a few individuals being now diffufed among a far greater number, th ore's s at prefent a greater equality among mankind ; and the flourifhing of arts and fei- ences hach fo ftirred up men's natural nobi- 2 lhy. *£he Univerfal British Builder. 27 lity, and made them of fuch adive and in- duftrious fpirits, as to free themfelves in a great meafure from that (lavery which thofe old and unpolifhed nations were fubjed to. From all which confiderations it does not follow that there is any defed of art in thefe latter days. For my own part, I conceive it eafy to demonstrate the mechanical arts in thefe times to be fo far beyond the know- ledge of remoter ages, that had we but the means the ancients had, we would effed far greater works with half the labour they ufed* and one tenth part of the expence. LECTURE VIII. OF BUILDING IN GENERAL. T HOUGH the word Building in a re- frained fenfe alludes only to the e- reding or raifing of an edifice ; yet the means and manner of fuch eredion mud be ef- feded by the power of fcience, well digefted in the mind of the condudor. For to build well, depends not only on the fciences of Geometry and Architedure, but alfo on a thorough knowledge of the mechanick pow- ers in general ; as well as on Hydraulics, or the art of conveying water by the law of mo- tion, through pipes or engines, in fuch man- ner as may be requifite both for ufe and con- venience. The art of building then, which is found- ed on the requifite of fome of the noblef fciences. 2S A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, fciences, requires a greater application, and more enlarged judgement, than is ufually confidered : from whence it follows that the term Builder is frequently made ufe of, and mifapplied by fome who do not underfland it. Fcr a man to be a proficient in building, in the ftrft place he fhould have a knowledge of all the materials to be ufed, both in re- fpedt to quality and quantity/ as well as all the arts of the different branches thereunto belonging : with many more relative confi- derations. Plainly to elucidate thefe requi- fites as far as may be neceffary with com- mon practice, in civil architedture, is the fubjedt of the following fheets ; and becaufe I wifh not to take up my reader’s time with a defcription of what he has to obtain, with- out an illuftration of the principles themfelves, I fhall proceed, in the fir ft place, to explain the principles of Building in general. In every ftrudture or edifice four things are to be conlidered, viz. ftrength, convenience, propriety, and beauty ; without thefe no choice of any quantity of materials whatfo- ever will in any wife contribute to the pur- pofe ; as nothing can be ered'ted with any certainty, that is wanting in the above pro- perties. It will be fuitable therefore to our defign, not only to enquire into the nature of thefe great confiderations, but aifo to elu- cidate their ufe, and point out fuch defedls as the unexperienced workman may be li- able to. L E C- Tie XJniverful British Builder. 1S9 LECTURE IX. OF STRENGTH IN BUILDING. HE firft quality to be confidered in all buildings is Strength; this diredly alludes to the ground-work, in every refped and part ; which a builder lhould have a firm aflurance of, before the firfi: ftone or brick is laid : for whatever errors may be committed in a building they cannot in any wife be fo pernicious as a defied: in the foundation. It behoves every man therefore, who is prin- cipally concerned in an edifice, to look and infped into this great particular himfelf ; it being the bafe of the fabric, he fhould be well affined of its natural folidity. If the ground be faulty, in that cafe it will be ne- ed] ary to fupply this natural defied by the power of art, which may be done equal to any ftrength required. A natural foundation is that which may be built upon without the abidance of piles, timber, plank, &c. There are different forts of ground which may be built upon, and all equally good ; fuch as done, clay, gravel, and chalk. Thefe, if the foundation be of fize proportionable to the weight to be fujf- tained, will anfwer every purpofe. An artificial foundation is that which is obliged to be made when the ground is loofe, rotten, or otherwife defedive, by the help of piles or planking, and mud be indifferent- 30 - A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ly ufed according to the builder’s judgement. If the ground be a loofe fand, and ftand up- on water but a ibort fpace from the furface of the ground, or floor of the cellars, (if fuch are built) it will be neceffary to drive piles all along the different foundations, as clofe as they can ftand, efpecially at all angles, quoins, and chimnies. With regard to the length of the piles, they muft alv/ays be re- gulated by the ftrength or body of the earth, and the weight and magnitude of the fnper- ftrudture. — For my own part, I would always choofe to make piles of fuch a length as might reach to a folidity of foil. The fcantling of piles may be as i-i4th part of their length. With regard to inner walls, it may not in every cafe be required to drive piles quite clofe all along, but at three, four, or five feet apart : between which lay bridg- ings of oak, and planking may be placed upon the whole. There are fome parts of ground where planking alone may do, and wf^ch are not of confequence fufficient to be trufted with- out. In fuch cafes the following method hiuft be adhered to. Firft, Level the ground at the bottom of the trench, and at every quoin, and betwixt, at the diftance of three feet, lay bridgings of oak the whole width of the foundation. Between and level with the top of thefe lay bricks or {tones with planking of three or four inches thick, to cover the whole ; and on them proceed, The Vnherfal British Builder, 31 proceed, obferving to bed well the planking with good loam, that the wood- work may lie folid along, and likewife particularly level. The benefits which arife from a level fouq^ elation are, I hope, obvious to every profeffor of building: for this is not only a guide keep in that ftate all the way up, but a fhrewd maxim, that when this example ftriilly adhered to, (and the materials of § proportional weight) its bearings upon the ground are equal ; and if any fettlement ihould enfue, it may then be every where alike. • With regard to inner walls, it is highly requifite that the like care be taken ; for 3 fure and level foundation is of as much con*? fequence in them as in the outward waIJs $ and though they will require much lefs, yet muff they be fecured in proportion to their feveral weights : for if fettlements fhoqlcj happen within the houfe, the whole mafs pf decorations will be difconcerted, and rendered defective to^very eye. The foundation being thus fecured, we are next to confider the other appurtenances of flrength, viz. the walls, centring-groin^ floors, bond-timbers, lintels, difcharging- pieces, tafiels, plates, girders, roof, tie-beams^ &c. which mud all bear a proportion to one another, and in every refpe or f Of the Standard of Walls , &e. And, firft, of the fize or thicknefs of walls, and depth of foundations, which chiefly de- pend on the height of the ftrudture, weight of the materials, &c. For the depth of foun- dations different authors allow one fixth of the height of the building. But this I think unnecefiaryj and inftead of one fixth, it may be one eighth part of the entire height of the fuperftrudture : the breadth of the foundation three fourths of its depth : the firft ftory two thirds of the foundation at the bottom, and from that diminifh one half brick every ftorv y J upwards* This I have found in the courle of my own experience to be the beft ftandard that can be calculated ; though even this has its exceptions in peculiar cafes, as when the foundations are bad, and the confequence of the building will not afford a fufficient natu- ral foundation to be made. In fuch a cafe the fize of the foundation may be augment- ed at the difcretion of the builder. Obferve however, that the foundations fhould diminifh upwards, and that regular fet offs fhould be made on both fides, fo that a perpendicular line may be drawn through the foundation and middle of the wall at the top of the building, that folid may reft upon folid. There are many furveyors and builders who argue againft regular fet-offs on the outfide of a building, alledging, that they are only re- ceptacles for water, and as fuch oftentimes preju- *The Vniverfal British Builder. 41 prejudicial to the ftories below. But thefe are weak arguments, when compared to the ftrength of the building, which muft be de- fective when fet-offs are only made on the - infide. The eaves and cornice prevent any water lodging upon the facios, &c. on the outfide, except what happens by a lateral Shower, which is very rare, and too trifling to be noticed. I muft confefs, it has been the cafe in mod of the new buildings about town to make no fet-offs on the outfides for fome time ; but in this the builders greatly miftook their in- tereft, (efpecially thofe who built for fale) as a houfe properly fet off on both fides will not require to be So ftrong by one fixth of the quantity of materials, which amounts to a considerable fum in a large building. The next point of propriety is the height of ftories, and their order, which Should di- minish upward, though in fome particular cafes they cannot, as when the moft magni- ficent rooms are appropriated to the fecond or third ftory : where this happens, great care muft be had of the foundation, and fomething more added to the ftrength of the walls in the lower ftories. Of the Propriety of Chimnies. In the conftru£fcion of chimnies care Should be taken to ereCt burrs in the foundation for the piers, left the fuper-incumbent weight caufe deftruCtive Settlements ; that the open- ings 42 A Key to Civil Architecture y or 9 ings of the chimnies be proportional to the fize of the rooms, and the funnels made pro- portional to the openings : by thefe means there is good probability of being relieved from that great difturber of peace in a family, a fmokey chimney. This particular was quite unknown to the ancients ; even Palladio only gueffed at its properties. One would think that practical experiments would long ago have reduced this fyftem to a certainty ; but, alas ! we are ftill in the dark, and may con- tinue fo, and leave it to be found out by the next century. The beft calculations I can make for chim- nies, and which in general I have proved to be anfwerablein almoft every cafe, are by the following table adapted to the fize of all the rooms that may occur in common practice. The reader will obferve that this table is calculated from rooms fuppofed to be fquare. When a room is otherwife, I bring it fquare in the following manner: Add the length and breadth together, and take half for the fquare of the room. For example : If a room be 14 feet by 10, add them together, and they make 24; look for 12 the fquare of the room in the table, and you will then find the height of the opening to be 3 feet 3 inches, breadth 2 feet 6 inches, and depth 1 foot 5 inches, and fo of all the reft. The method of finding the depth of chim- nies is to add the height and breadth toge- ther, and take one fourth for the depth. For 5 The TJniverfal British Builder. 43 For Example: Ft. In. 5 : 9i iol the fi zcl Suppofing to the above dimensions of 3 feet 3 in- ches by 2 feet 6 inches, I fet them down as in the mar- gin ; this will make 5 feet 9 inches, one fourth of which is 1 foot 5 inches, the exadt depth of the chimney. The proportion of the funnels is got from the depth of the chimnies, and fhould be al- ways three fourths of the chimney’s depth for the fquare of the fide. A Table of the Size of the Openings of Chimnies . Square of Breadth of the Height of the Depth of th Rooms. Opening. Opening. Chimney. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. 6 I 6 3 O I 14- 9 2 0 3 *4- I 34 12 2 6 3 3 I 5 3 0 3 44- I 74 18 3 6 3 6 I 9 21 4 0 3 74- I 104. 24 4 6 3 9 2 04. 27 5 0 3 i<4 2 2-r 3° 5 6 4 0 2 4 In order to fupply the defeat of ftrength |which every opening occafions, difcharging pieces 44 A Key to Civil Architecture ; er, pieces of timber ftiould be laid acrofs the breaft to take off the weight : in the end of the breaft muft be laid returning pieces, or what is called taffels, which are of infinite fervice. If the building be within the bills of mortality, and no taffels or difcharging pieces can be applied without incurring the danger of the penalty, arches of brick muft be turned in the breaft to anfwer the purpoie. Of Windows and their Openings . The openings of windows have been as little enquired into as the fize of chimnies, although of material confequence ; for if a room be too glaring with light it is as defec- tive as if it had too little : a ftandard of pro- priety therefore ftiould be attained, in order to render this agreeable fenfation as pleafing as poflible. However an error committed in this particular may be more eafily difpenfed with, than the offenfive evaporation of fmoke. The following is a general rule. Let the dimenfions of a room be given, viz. Length, breadth, and height : Multiply the length and breadth together, and the produd by the height, the fquare root of the laft produd will be the quantity of light re- quired. For example : Suppofe The TJniverfal British Builder. 45 Suppofe a room were 19 feet 19 by 14, and 12 feet high, I »4 firft multiply them as in the • margin, the length by the 76 breadth, and the product by 19 the height, and extradl the ■— — * fquare-root of the laft pro- 266 duct, which gives 56 fquare 12 feet, the real quantity of light — required. I 3192 1 56 2 5 106 1 692 636 5 6 The next thing is to difpofe or appropriate the light into a number of windows. In the above cafe, for a room of 12 feet high a win- dow fhould be about 8 feet. The 56 divided will make 28 feet each ; for two windows which will anfwer the dimenfions of 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches, and be adequate to the intent. The fame likewife of any other di- menlion whatfoever. LECTURE XII. OF BEAUTY IN BUILDING. T HE engaging enchantrefs Beauty is of a noble defeent ; her kindred are all fa- mous in building, both in plans, elevations, and 4 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, and fedtions. She is the elder After of Tafte, begot of Elegance by Propriety. Such an ex- traordinary charadter fhould produce ftriking effedts, which certainly is the cafe when her votaries purfue her fteps with dexterity. The peculiar graces which are attributed to Beauty, are freedom, eafe, and perfpi- cuity, which in reality are fo connedted that no feparation of them can be obtained without deftroying their effedt. If a man would arrive at a proficiency in this article, he muft firft ftudy the three be- fore-mentioned qualities, viz. ftrength, con- venience, and propriety, before he can be a judge of it : for this much is certain, a build- ing may be ftrong, convenient, and even a- bound with proper inftrudtions and juft di- menfions, and yet not pofiefs one of thefe rare embellilhments. Some of my readers may perhaps be at a lofs to know what I mean by Beauties ; where they may be applied ; of what they confiftj and how to be attained. It may not be amifs therefore to hint at its properties ; though fuch an analyfis would require the pen of the greateft proficient of fciences, yet have they hitherto palled it over as trivial, without that copious defcription which the fubjedt naturally requires. I muft confefs, I fhould be extremely glad if my giving a few hints could animate fome abler pen to eluci- date this quality in its ftriking colours : how- ever, at prefent I fee ne reafon why the fub- jedt *The Univerfal British Builder. 47 je°° To meafure Roofing. The principles of this fort of work meafu-r red by the fquare, may be reduced to the fol- lowing rule, whether true pitch, or the ends gable or not, viz. Multiply the building's length by the length of the rafter, and twice that produCt will be the contents in feet ; then cut off as before obferved, and the work is done. See the operation ; If 74 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or , If the rafters be what is called true pitch* viz. three-fourths of the width of the building, then to the above 50 building of 20 feet wide the raf- 15 ters will be 15 feet, which being - — « multiplied into 50, the length, the 250 product is 750 feet ; this again being 50 multiplied by 2, gives 1500 feet, the » — - contents, which cut off as before, 750 and you will find 15 fquare in the 2 foof to the above dimensions. 15,00 To meafure a gable-end in carpenters work is the fame as in brick-work, viz. multiply the width by half the perpendicular, the pro- dudt will be the fuperficial contents in feet. Note, the fame rule will ferve for meafuring the hip-ends of roofs, only making the length of the rafter as the perpendicular. Rafters, feet and eaves boards, are meafu- red by the foot lineal ; gutters and bearersj)y the fuperficial foot. How to meafure naked Floors by the Square.. The length and breadth are to be taken from the outfide of the plates : if none be made ufe of, as in fome countries, they are then to be omitted, and the joifts laid in the naked wall ; in this cafe you muft allow 9 inches, or elfe meafure the full extent of the joifts, and from thence compute the fquares contained by the above examples; the fame The Univerfal British Builder. 75 pf cieling-joifts, partitions, battering the walls, &c. allowing the dedu&ions of doors, windows, &c. if agreed upon, otherwife not. How to meafure Centres . Centres are meafured by the fquare ; the dimenfions taken from the fweep of the arch, and the length of the place. Small centres to doors and apertures, &c. are meafured by the foot fuperficial. Carriages to flairs alfo are meafured by the O ^ * fuperficial foot ; the leading pieces or firings by the foot folid ; trufiing of girdles by the foot lineal ; door-cafes of timber by the cube foot ; lintels, bond timber, difcharging- pieces, &c. all by the cube foot ; weather boarding by the fquare ; and trunks by the foot. The feveral prices and real value are mentioned in the practice of carpenters work. To meafure Joiners Work. The meafurement of Joiners work is at- tended with more difficulty than all other artificers work befides, merely owing to its extention, or great variety of practice ; at the fame time it is the lead underflood of any, chiefly through a want of attention, or ju- dicious enquiries into the length or confe- quence of time which every piece of work takes in the execution. Could this be once afcertained, the whole might as eafily be re- duced to a fyftem as any other work. In jo A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. In defining the real principles and proper- ties of this branch of bufinels, I (hall be as particular as the fubjed may require, both with refpect to time and the mode of meafure- ment, in order to render the defign as eafy and ufeful as poflible, both to profeflhrs of building, and others who may be defirous of making themfelves fully acquainted with the pra&ical requifites, as well as the manner of meafuring an edifice. The work done by joiners in a building may be reckoned or fettled in the following fhort terms, to be every thing that is worked with a plane; therefore will need no farther explanation than what may be affigned in the different works as they occur. And firft, of frontifpieces. How to meafure Frontifpieces. Frontifpieces are meafured and valued by the fuperficial foot, every part of them being meafured feparately, and all bearing a dif- ferent price. But the beft way of giving the learner an idea of this fort of workmanship will be to fet down the different meafure- ments by fuppofition, as before obferved of brick-work. Firft take the Of the Ground^and Jambs* dimensions of the Ft. In. grounds at twice, 7 o Lengthy viz. firft to the By 1 4 Width £ tWice ' height of the door 7 'be TJniverfal British Builder. 77 door for the two jambs, and from thence to the top of the pediment, which mull be taken to the ex- tent of the height and width, mak- ing no deduc- tions for the fan- light, nor what is cut, off at the top, to form the pediment, on ac- count of the trouble and la- bour that attend them. Firft I take the fuppofed length and width of one front, ftile, or jamb, and fetit down as obferved next the ground, above or under the pediment ; then I take the columns, lhaft, bafe, and cap. for the length, and the girt round the column for the width; the Grounds from the top of the door and the pedi- ment. Ft. In. 5 8 Width. 4 o Height. Columns with bafe and cap. 7 3 Length' i 9 Girt twice. Subplinth, o Length 7 . 4 Breadth l tW,Ce ' Trunks or grounds for the architrave, frieze, &c. 1 6 Length? . r .- o (twice. 2 2 Girt 0 Architrave. 2 6 Length 7 . 6’ Breadths wlCe * Level cornice to the top of the facio. o Length' 10 Girt twice. Scima Redta level that mi- tres to the pediment. 1 3 Length 2*- Girt. fub- 7$ A Key to Civil Architecture ; of, iubplinth, length Length of Cornice on botll and breadth ; the trunks that hand perpendicular a- bove the {haft of the column, for the architrave, frieze, and cor- nice, to reft upon the next archi- trave. Level cor- nice ; the fcima redta, which mi- tres totheraking- mould of the pe- fides of the pediment. Ft. In. 9 Length, 2 Girt. Mutules, or Blocks level, 6 Ditto raking. 5 Impoft ‘ound lining the Jamb- ■s. o Length. 6 Girt. diment; with the Jamb-linings, bead* and length of the cor nice on both fides of the pediment ; level blocks or mutules, raking ditto ; impoft ; jamb - linings, bead, and flufh ; circular fopheat ditto* and door- cafe; all meafured cubical. The ov~ lo double mea- fure. For fan- light, when mea- fured by the foot, take the width of flufh. o Lengtl 8 Breadth ii twice. Circular fopheat, bead, and liufh. 5 o Length ( Double i 8 Breadthomeafure. Door-cafe. 7 4 Length ?Scantling 4 o Width 5 4 by 3. Ovlo round the circular head. 5 o Lengthy Double 2^ Girt Smeafure. the The Univerfal British Builder, yg the door and the height of the crown. Obferve alfo in girting the import, that you take from the grounds, and ex- tend the line all round the face of the moulding, and like wife the fame with refpedt to the ovlo. Ft. 3 Fan-light. In. 6 Width. 9 Height. Door, bead, and flufh. 7 ° 3 6 Cover boards and bearers. 6 o Length, i 6 Breadth. Though the above dimenfions are contin-* gently fet down without propriety to their re- fpedlive proportions, yet the manner will ferve to inftrudt the learner the fame : after the meafurements are thus taken, the mode of fquaring them will become familiar ; the different prices to all the dimenfions are c.on- fidered in the practice of frontifpieces. To meafure Floors. Floors are meafured by the fquare; the di- menfions of which are the full extent of th® rooms both ways. Obferve in meafuring floors, that you make no deduction for the flab at the fire-place ; the reafon is, that the putting round the border is always confidered as equal to that part of the floor being laid out. What part of the floors is laid into the windows, clofets, &c, muft be added. How 8 o A Key to Civil Architecture ; br t How to meafure Dado. Dado is meafured by the yard ; the dimers fions of which are thus taken, viz. For the breadth, take from the floor to the under- lie of the capping ; the length is the round of the room, allowing an inch more at every angle; the length and breadth being multi- plied together, give the contents in feet ; after which divide the product by 9, and the quo- tient will be the number of yards* Obferve to dedudt chimnies and doors. In meafuring dado for labour to tafk- mafters, it is ufual to meafure from the floor to the top of the capping, and only girt the furbafe mouldings to the front of the dado. This mode of meafurement was firfl invented as an abridgement to the price of mouldings, being matters that afford more profit to the journeyman than any work in the bufinefs : it is however a method that cannot be attefled, notwithftanding cuftom hath now made^it almofl: familiar to us. . The reafon the dimenfions are thus taken for the width of dado, is, that it is cuftomary to confider the fkirting at the fame price; and as the dado does or fhould go as low as the top of the fkirting, there can be no error in . fuch mode of meafurement. When dado and fkirting are of different prices they muff. be meafured feparate. iiow The Univerfal B ritish Guilder. 8i How to meafure Mouldings . Mouldings are all meafured lineally or fuperficially by the foot : when the former, you have nothing more to do than take the length ; when the latter, you muft girt all the face of the mouldings with a ftring for the breadth, and the round of the room for the length : afterwards dedudt doors and chimnies. Sur-bafe mouldings are always girt over the face and round the capping ; the bafe mould- ing is girted as much as feen, and half an inch more allowed than is feen for the re-bate which (lops the fkirting. Architraves are taken with a ftring over the top and down both jambs for the length, and girted round the face and back to the wall for the breadth. Cornices are meafured by the foot fuperfi- cial, and girt as much as is feen for their breadth: the round of the room for the length; and fo of all mouldings worked by hand. All houfe plain mouldings are meafured by the lineal foot. Wainfcotting is meafured by the yard ; the height of the room for the breadth, and the girt or round of the room for the length. Obferve in this to deduct doors and windows. Torus fkirting is meafured by the fuper-* ficial loot ; the breadth of which is got by a ftring girting the moulding to the -floor ; the round or extent of the place being taken for G the 82 ^Key to Civil Architecture i or, the length. Obferve, that this fort of fkirt- ing to flairs is always allowed double mea- fure ; the fame alfo of raking, dado mould- ings, &c. if ramped, as the hand-rail of the flairs. 5Tc> me af ure Doors . Doors have different rules of meafurement ; fome being taken by the foot, others by the yard. All framed doors are meafured by the foot; batten and ledged doors by the yard. If they be what is called double doors, that is, framed and moulded on both fides, they are accounted as fingle meafure, and a price fli- pulated accordingly. The dimenfions are the neat height and width. Doors that are only moulded on one fide, are called meafure and half y batten and ledged doors fingle meafure. All fquare framed doors are fingle meafure. How to meafure Columns . Columns of the Ionick, Corinthian, or Compofite orders are all taken feparately from their bafes and caps ; firft, the fhaft, then the bafe and the caps likewife, being all of dif~ ferent prices. In taking Corinthian, Compofite, or Ionick capitals, the method is to girt round the aba- cus for the width, and the length of the capi- tals from the neck for the height : fome take only the girt round the abacus*, confidering them Fhe Univerfal British Builder. 83 them as fo many feet without any height $ others eftimate them per piece. Alfo in meafuring fluted columns, I firft take the fuperfices, and afterwards the la- bour for the fluting, at per foot lineal. Door-cafes and jamb-linings are meafured and valued by the fuperficial foot. The length of the two jambs and the width of the opening is the length. For the width of the lining girt down the rabbit for the breadth. Angle meafure. How to meafure Window- Shutters. Window-diutters and back-linings are all meafured by the foot ; the front Ihutters as meafure and half. If they be framed only on one fide, the back-flaps and back-linings are to be deemed Angle meafure, whether framed, Audi, or fquare. Backs, elbows, and fopheats, are by the foot Angle meafure. Grounds to windows by the foot fuper- ficial. All other grounds in general by the foot run. T 1 meafure Safjes and Frames. Sadies are meafured and eftimated by the fuperficial foot ; the dimenfions thus taken, viz. the two heights of fafhes are added for the length; and the width of the frame for the breadth. Sometimes the faflies and frames are valued together ; when fo, the G 2 exterior 84 A Key to Civil Architecture *, or, exterior parts of the lath-frame are the' bounds of dimeniions. Sometimes fafh-frames are done per piece. All circular headed fafhes are allowed only double meafure. In fome counties they have a method of girting' all the bars of fafhes both ways ; but this is obfolete, and ought t-o be abolifhed every where. How to meafure Chimney-pieces. Chimney-pieces of wood are meafured by the foot fuperficial and lineal, according as they be finifhed. Firft the grounds per foot fuperficial. If the chimney-piece have no ornaments about it, the architrave, friezes and cornice may be taken as other mould- ings, in the manner of the former obferva- tions on frontifpieces. If thefe be terms at the fides and ornaments, thefe mu ft be va- lued feparately. So likewife of ornaments in the frieze, flutings, frets, &c. in the cornices' which are per foot run, and a price fet-ac- cording to their value. Truffes and terms are frequently done at per piece. How to meafure Stairs . Stairs are meafured and valued by the footr the dimeniions taken by a line bended or girt- ed down s the rifer and tread over the nofings, from top to bottom for the length ; the breadth is the width or length of the flep. Common flairs are fometimes done at fo much per flory. Hand- l&e Univerfat British Builder. 85 Hand-rails to flairs are fometimes meafured by the foot fuperficial, fometimes by the foot lineal. When the former, the rail is girted round for the breadth and the ftreight part of the rail for the length. With refpedt to ramps, twifts, fcrolls, &c, they muft be taken feparate, becaufe they are always double meafure. The twifts and fcrolls three times; the banifters and newels at per foot run, the firings per foot fuperficial, girted as other architraves ; brackets at per piece. Sometimes hand-rails to flairs are valued with the brackets, firings, and banifters, by the fuperficial foot, and the dimenfions taken in the following manner: For the breadth take a firing, and girt from the top or mid- dle of the rail down the banifters, and over the firing for the width; the length of the rail from top to bottom is the length. But for the particulars of flairs in every refpedt, muft turn to the pradtice of them. The reader muft obferve, in taking the different dimenfions, to be particularly care- ful in his book, to keep every work feparate. The beft method of meafuring joiners work through a whole houfe, is to keep a length or leaf for all forts of work of one price, .and only make obfervations on the different ftories. 9 2 Suppofe 86 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. Suppofe the following to be a fketch of leaves. Dado ground-floor. Ft, In. 48 6 L. ) Eaft 2 5 B, ) parlour 36 4 L. > Weft 2 5 B,^ parlour 39 3 L - 2 5 B • | Hall 5B.'S Stud y Mouldings Bafe and 48 6 L.’] 3 B. to ditto, impoft. •0 s? 3 ? “ s rr Sur-bafe. 48 6 L. 5 B. j 39 4 B. " 3 L- Weft parlour 39 4 L- 5 B. J 30 3 Bafe 3 3 a 3 Sur-bafe 5 36 7 Bafe "j 0 3 j 36 7 Sur-bafe 0 5 J 1* Architiaves to ditto. Architraves to Win- dows, 18 o I 085 Windows. [Sol. | ^ o 8i twlce ! §, — — - y^ Ditto doors, | 2 . ‘7 3j tl O g f t wice j Ej Window. 18 __V Door/ Stud 7 - ■7 In the above manner it will be requifite to place the dimenfions, fo as to avoid perplex- ity, keeping other leaves for floors, window- fhutters, &c. and every floor feparate $ by which means you will avoid an infinite deal of trouble when you come to fquare the di- menfions. How to meafure Plajlerers Work. Plafterers work hath in the manner of its meafurement (in fome particulars) as much variety The Vniverfd British Builder. 87 variety as joiners work, efpecially in orna- mented cielings, which require great under- standing, as well as extenfive pradice, to come at a juft criterion for the different enrich- ments, which are all taken and valued by the foot lineal and fuperficial. 'Sometimes they are done at a fixed price per cieling ; but a man muft have great experience to guefs at a mat- ter of fuch confequence by the bare infpedion of a drawing ; although it is certain we can- not do otherwife than guefs at the value of fome particulars, fuch as figures, deities, tro- phies, &c. which always vary with the fub- jecd. However, the firft thing to be taken is the plane of the cieling, which is by the yard ; next the cornice, frieze, enrichments, &c. which muft be girted as joiners work j the round of the room being the length. Having done this, proceed to take the or- naments upon the cieling, in the following ■order ; firft, take all the mouldings lineally, whether carved or plain. If any of the mould- ings be caft, they muft be noticed : if any of the mouldings are oval, circular, ,&c. they are to be confidered as meafure and half. Some take circular and oval mouldings Angle, allowing a price accordingly. Then take all the fweeps of foliage as fuperficial. In the following manner take the length and width of the fquare in which the ornaments are conr tained, and, according to their value, ftipulate the price, as you goon, to every fort of work. To avoid perplexity, if there be any golicchi, Jp 4 or 88 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or, or frets above three inches wide, they muft be taken fuperficially, otherwife lineally. Ribbons over mouldings are run trophies, and all large conjunctions, taken per foot fuperficial : figures are ufually valued by the piece ; all enriched friezes, feftoons, &c. by the foot fuperficial ; if friezes be caft, they are valued in the cornice ; belexion mould- ings by the foot lineal ; large pannels of fluc- .co by the foot ; all walls and plain cielings by the yard ; all circular work is confidered as meafure and half, or fingle, and a price ac- cordingly : Ionicks, Corinthian, and Com- pofite caps taken per foot fuperficial. Ob- serve in meafuring walls to make deductions for windows and chimnies. *lo meafure Glafers Work . Glafiers works are meafured by the foot ; the dimenfions taken in feet, inches, and parts of a foot : it is requifite therefore that glafiers fhould underfland decimals ; though, for my own part, I fhould propofe duodeci- mals, being quite as correCt, and much more familiar and concife to learners. The two following examples will prove what has been advanced on this particular * the one by decimals, the other by duodeci- mals : and although they both anfwer the in- tent, I think to learners the duodecimals ought to have the preference* SuppofQ *£he Univerfal British Builder. 8g Suppofe a piece of glafs leaded were to be 3 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches : By decimals. By duodecimals. Ft. In. Ft. In. 3 > 5 ° 3 6 1 , 50 1 6 17500 1 9 0 35 ° 3 b 5,2500 5 3 By the former method (by decimals) it ap- pears that the light of glafs is 5 feet and 25 parts, being equal to one-fourth of a fooc ; and by duodecimals 5 feet 3 inches, which is one quarter of a foot. The reader will ob- ferve, that in meafuring fafh-windows there is no occafion to take dimenhons of more than one fquare ; that multiplied by the number of fquares in a window, will give the con- tents ; which once got, requires no more than to add or multiply by the number of windows in the ftory, or of one lize, and that fufhciently refolves the queftion. In fome counties the glafiers only meafure the exterior part of the glafs for length and breadth, allowing nothing for the thicknefs of the bars : but this is an exorbitant way, gnd ought to be eradicated. How 9o A Key to Civil Architecture 3 cr s Hove to meafure Painters Work, Painters work is meafured by the fame rules as joiners, with this difference only, that they door (Should meafure all edges where the bruth goes. But furveyors are not always fo particular, and frequently allow no more meafure to painters than joiners, except in cafe of doors, window-fhutters, &c. which with painters are always double meafure, the fame as any thing elfe is painted on both fides: all wainfeot, dado, moulding, doors, fhutters, jamb-linings, architraves, &c. are meafured by the yard ; cornices of all forts, and fingle fldrting by the foot fun ; frontif- pieces, &c. by the foot ; falhes, lafh-frames, cafements, window-lights, &c. are done per piece. How to meafure Mafons Work . Mafons work is all meafured by the foot, though with the difference of cubical, fuper- ficial, and lineal. Firft, with refpedl to the cubical method, which is u&d for all blocks of done, marble, &c. and which is in the manner of work always confidered as fuch, when the thicknefs of the (tones exceeds 2 inches ; all under this ftandard are meafured as fuperficial. When (tones exceed the folid standard of 2 inches, they are firft meafured folid, and afterwards fuperficially, for the workmanship. Alio columns, pilafters, cor- nices, facios, ruftics, &c. The fuperficial 4 meafure \ The Univerfal British Builder. 91 meafure takes in all the pavings, floors, hearths, flabs, mantles, jambs, covings, &c. and the general dimenfions of all labour ; the run or lineal foot is ufed for all fmall abftradt- ed mouldings, fome carvings, frets, orna- ments, &c. It is to be obferved, that mafons girt all their mouldings as joiners do, and take their dimenfions in feet, inches, and parts. The greateil difficulty in meafuring mafons work is in chimney-pieces, on account of the various modes and prices, and the number of the different dimenfions. But fee the follow^ ing example : The way to meafure mafons work for la- bour is to meafure what appears out of the wall, and (by many) the under bed of every courfe. The fame likewife of all keys and bonds through the wall, as well as of chim- ney-pieces. Firft, take the dimenfions of the flab ; then the mantle, or head-ftone, being both of one length ; add the two widths together, allow- ing an inch for the under-edge of the mantle more to the breadth. Secondly, take the length of the jambs, allowing an inch more to the length than is feen, for what goes be- hind the flab. If there be nofings and flips to the jambs, take the length as obferved, and girt all that is feen for the width : next take the fire-ftone hearths, covings, &c. and meafure all that appears in fight. If the frieze, cornice, and ovlo be marble, they muft be girted as the joiners do their work : the fame 9 2 ^ Key ^ Civil Architecture or , of ornaments, frets, terms, flutings, &c. and all valued accordingly. r* mcafure Carvers Work . Carvers work is all meafured by the foot fuperficial and ILneal : by the former all ca- pitals to columns, large ornaments, feftoons, foliage, flutings, frets, &c. the latter is ufed for all fmall mouldings, ribbons, hufks, &c. and the dimenflons taken in the fame manner as obferved in plafler cielings. TCo meafure Slaters Work . Slaters meafure their work by the fquare, the fame as tiling, both with refpeCt to hips, vallies, double eaves, courfes, &c. This ar- ticle therefore needs no farther comment than what has been already advanced. * Having finifhed the diflertations and (trie- tures on mechanick powers, with the prin- ciples and properties of building in general, the five orders of architecture, art of meafur- ing the different artificers works, &c. I lhall now proceed, and relate what is neceffary to be obferved in the practice of different works as they occur in time and place. But before I begin, it will be proper to fettle a criterion touching the univerfality both of the prices and eftimations of the feveral works in a building, as well in the very remote parts of the kingdom, as thofe more contiguous to the capital. The Univerfal British Builder. 93 capital, which I adjuft by one general ftand- ard. Though the manner of fixing and ftating a matter of fuch confequence, and feemingly fo full of exceptions, may appear an impofii- bility to fome who have not enquired ratio- nally into its principles ; yet I hope to evince to every workman of experience, that one fchedule of prices with refpeCt to labour will ferve, or at leaft ought to ferve for every city and principal town in the kingdom. Vari- ous objections, I own, may be alledged againft this univerfal fyflem, but not one fufricient to overturn it. LECTURE XV. A new Plan for fettling the Prices of Work done in a Building , all upon one Footing , both in London and every capital Town in the Kingdom . W HOEVER my reader is, whether architect, furveyor, matter, or com- mon journeyman, though he may fmile at an attempt fo extravagant, I humbly beg for a moment a fufpenfion of his ridicule, till he maturely weigh this matters after which, I am fully perfuaded, he will find fewer objec- tions to its feafibility than he at firfi: imagined. If I confider the matter right, this great point has but two queries to be determined, which once anfwered will totally deftroy every ob- jection. The firfi; is, whether a mafter in the country 94 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, country (if his work be executed as well) fhould have a lefs price than is paid for the fame work when done by a London mafter in town ? The fecond is, whether a journey- man in the fame cafe fhould receive the fame wages of a country mafter as are paid to jour- neymen in town ? To the former of thefe queftions I anfwer, yes ; to the latter, no ; and will endeavour to prove it. But before I give my own decifion, I beg to introduce the opinion of a perfon of fome abilities in one of the capital profeffions in building, re- lative to this univerfal fcheme. “ My friend," fays he, “ this plan of allowing as great prices to country mafters as thofe in London will never anfwer, becaufe they are not liable to half the expences, nor does their work coft them half the fum in point of labour, on ac- count of the fcanty wages which are given in the country, all over the kingdom ; they fhould therefore have a price ftipulated by a country furveyor, according to what the work may deferve.” Something of this kind I know runs in the notions of mod people who think upon it. That mafters in the country are not liable to luch great expences as mafters in town, I very readily grant, both with refpedt to yards, houfe-rent, and ftowage for their different materials ; nor has a country mafter in gene- ral half the bufinefs of a London one and what is ftill more to his difadvantage, he is not required to finifli his work with half the expedition# *fhe Univerfal British Builder. 9.^ expedition. It is therefore upon this topiek we {hould bend our thoughts : If a maker in* London can employ the year round 15 or 20 men, which may be called the medium* (being as many above as under this number) and a maker in the country employ but 7 or §, and both have their work at one price, we fhall then find that the London maker will have it in his power to live confiderably bet- ter, notwithkanding the difference of ex- pences, as well as the advantage of wages, which fome think to be very great. Every man of bufinefs, whether in town or country, kiould be fupported by his bufi- nefs, and reap fuch an allowance or emolu- ment from his profefiion as may enable him to guard againk the contingencies of a family, and in fome fort equal his indukry. If it were poflible for a country maker to have as many jobbs as the makers in London ufually have, and all required to be forwarded with the fame expedition, their prices ought to be con- fiderably lower but as that is a circumkance which never can happen, the reafons are ob- vious, that in this firk refpeit no difference can be made without a vifible injury, as will palpably appear upon enquiring into the dif- ference of wages. Secondly, that men in the country kiould not have the fame wages as journeymen in town, is evident from their want of experi- ence both in the methods and nature of work. The reader, I hope, does not fuppofe that I would 9 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, would propofe country wages to a man of the firft merit in his profeffion. A man thus qualified, who hath had feven or eight years pradice in London among the moft capital of his branch, and has not imbibed any but ju- dicious methods of working, and been in the full practice of fuch for fome time, will be worth as much wages to a country mafler as a town one, and in reality more $ Specially if he be empowered to forward his mailer's bufinefs by his own advantageous methods. Though there are many good workmen in the country who have never feen London , yet thofe compared to men of the above experi- ence, will in every point of pradice be more deficient in the courle of a week’s work than the difference of wages, fuppofing the one to have four lhillings or five fhillings per week more than the other. — I fpeak not this from {peculation, but undeniable fads ; having myfelf been and examined into the nature of pradice in almofl every town in the king- dom, where l have ever found, that if the mailers were allowed the fame prices with mailers in London , notwithstanding the dif- ference of men's wages, when oppofed to the fame number of men, a London mafler would have had the above advantage in point of pro- fit; favingonly this provifo, that the men from London mail: be good, and fuch as have had the foregoing advantages. It is true, that there are hundreds of men in London fo bad, that one would think it almofl impoffible to fellow *The XJniverfal British Builder. 97 fellow them, or even fuppofe that they could have ferved a proper time to any bufmefs ; and how to account for this otherwife than from a want of attention to their real intereft, or proper good, would almoft puzzle the greateft philofopher. For it is certain, that all trades and employs are fo familiarized, and have at their heads fuch noble inttruCtors, that with clofe application even the weakeft capacity may be pofleffed of fuch points in practice as will enable him to deferve the common wages. Thofe that arrive at a greater pitch of merit flhould be rewarded ac- cording to their induftry. There is one thing which ought to be men- tioned to country journeymen, that is, the little refpeCt they pay to comparifons and ar- guments touching men of London experience; for, fay they, we have worked with men from London at fuch and fuch gentlemen’s houfes, but could not find any material difference be- tween them and us who had never been there. This I believe to be often the cafe, and re- flects great weaknefs on the London matters, for fending to any country jobb, men who were not really proficients in their branch ; for when matters want a number of men to go into the country, they feldom enquire far- ther into their characters than in regard to their {lability. And if carpenters have got a cheft of tools, away they are fent to finitti fomething in a peculiar manner to what could in any wife be done by country-men, when H perhaps 9 8 A Key to Civil Architecture', or T perhaps fome of thefe very men had not been? fix months in town. It ought to be a fixed rule in matters never to employ a man for a country jobb who had not approved himfelf an excellent workman y and moreover, he fhould be of fome remote county or fhire to that the work is done in, to fubvert the proverb of a prophet in his own country having no honour. I hope from thefe hints, that no reafonable man will ftart an ar- gument againft the queftions above ttated, but freely allow a right for country matters to have the fame prices as matters in town. I do not mean fuch as are exadted by fome matters, but fuch as may be confidered as juft ones. I believe, upon a thorough review of the wages both in town and country, we {hall not (upon the whole) find much difference. In certain refpedts the country matters have the advantage, efpecially in fome parts of carpenters work, fuch as roofing, flairs, fatties, floors, but in many other branches of building, they get ccnfiderably lefs by, through a want of experience in the journey- men (notwithttanding their low wages) than the matters do in London ; not but there is room enough in both places for the journey- men’s wages to be raifed ; and if this fcheme be not (liortly put in execution, I am per- fuaded the confequences will be very alarm- ing to all matters in the building branch. It 5 the Univerfal British Builder. 99 It was .a piece of the weakeft policy in the matter carpenters the laft time the journey- men ftruck for an advancement in wages, which was about ten years ago, that they did not comply with their eafy demands ; they would not then have had occafion to fear the prefent mode of architedts engroffing the whole bufinefs into their own hands, which feems to be the general plan, if lome ftep be not immediately taken to prevent it ; and none feems fo promifing as to advance the journey- men’s wages. The capital architedts and fur- veyors who have adopted the plan of finding all materials, and of allowing only even prin- cipal matters a fort of prices like tafk-mafters for executing the work, do this through a knowledge of the exorbitant advantages which arife from work at the original cuftomary prices ; and as this method is put in pradtice by the firft men in the kingdom, the inferior furveyors, in order to be in the failiion, will foon follow their example ; not that I mean to infer, that cuttomary prices are exorbitant. If journeymen’s wages were fettled in pro- portion, the prefent luxury of the times would not admit of abatements in any pro- feflion. The reader will obferve, that fince the prices were fettled for all works in the building branch, (though they every year vary in fome particulars) every bufinefs is improved in point of pradtice above one third ; nay, in feveral points and parts, the work is done for one half the expence to matters which it coft H 2 therm loo A Key to Civil Architecture * 7 or 0 them twenty years ago, and all through the affiduity and ftady of the journeymen, though the mailers will not give them any more wages ; which fets them upon an exait par with the furveyors in point of difpofition ; each driving to engrofs the whole. The lat- ter not being content with the great allow- ance of five per cent, for the works they fur- vey, but wanting to double it by the advan- tage of finding materials y and as they have it in their power to colour their proceedings to the gentlemen with a view of parfimony, there is no doubt of their carrying their point in every refpedl ; this will only be paying the mailers in their own coin, for their avaricious difpo- fitions, in condemning to a life of flavery and indigence men of abilities, from whom they derive their chief fupport. For, confidering the prefent exorbitant price of provifions, and every other incident to life,, no man who has a family to maintain can by fixteen {hillings a week more than exilt $, nor a fingle man ever get a coat to his back, unlefs (if I may be allowed the phrafe) he fpares it out of his belly : therefore what better thamfiavery can we call it ? and yet at the fame time the mailers enjoy a profit (which refults chiefly from thefe mens labour) equal to the fortunes of fome of our nobility. Though this may feem llrange to fome, I have had undeniable fails of many mailers in the building branches, whole bufinefs is worth 2000/. per annum 7 at this time. I appeal therefore to every feeling heart* The Untverfal British Builder, ior heart, whether this be not a matter of great •confideration, and in no refpecd beneath the attention of legiflature. If it were not that I might be thought too particular, I would date the cafe of a carpen- ter, and leave the world to judge of the fe- verity of his fituation; and how unthinking a father mud be, who propofes any emolu- ment to a fon who is apprenticed to this in- genious, and well deferving the name of li- beral art, if he has not almod as much to put him in pofieflion of, as will be a fupport to him without bufinefs. Every man, in the country in particular, from whence mod of the journeymen in town generally have their origin, in the railing of a family fuits his childrens occupations ac- cording to their drength or genius ; though, at the fame time, he with favourable incite- ments makes his will a fort of choice of their own. The boy that feems athletic and fen- fible, or quick at learning fchool-exercifes, he propofes for a carpenter, and fays, if he turns out well, that there is no doubt but he will make his fortune. — Yes, adds the fond father, I make not the lead doubt but he will have as much bufinefs as Mr. Whole-deal, our neighbour, and cut as great a figure in the world. All this he fettles without alr lowing for the lad cafualty ; and no confi- deration of the improbability of his getting to be a mader at all, without great intered gnd large connections, provided only he gets H 3 tQ 1 02 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or, to be what is ufually called a good hand in his bufinefs. Well : — We will fay the lad is bound ap- prentice, for which his father gives 20/. finds him in his clothes,' and perhaps wafhing ; and fome fathers are alfo obliged to find their fons tools during their fervitude. But this we will omit ; and take the expence of his ap- prenticethip, clothes, fpending-money, and the 20/. he gives to be infirudted in his bull- nefs, to amount to near 100/. — and when he is out of his time, through the little pradtice allotted to apprentices, and the many requi- htes to be attained before he can have any idea of this extenfive branch (fave only a little ufe of his tools,) he is almoft as much to feek as when he firfl went apprentice ; except with this difference, that he has learnt as much as gives him reafon to know that he muft learn ten times more before he is fit to be a mafter. Thus he commences journey- man, with a view of getting his bufinefs, and works for a year or two in the country ; ftill be finds himfelf far fhort of what he wants, and nothing now will lerve but coming to London ; for there, fays he, I fhall have prac- tice enough, and fee through the whole of my bufinefs three or four times a year. When he gets to London , the great objedt is a cheft of tools, which he either muft be poffefled of, or he cannot be forwarded in the lealt in his bufinefs, — If his father be in circumftances, application is made, and ten guineas are re- mitted The Univerfal British Builder. 103 mitted to procure him the neceflary imple- ments ; having got thefe, he naturally goes to a good fhop, there by degrees he creeps on for perhaps two years before a good jobb is put into his hand ; if he be affiduous, and turns it quick out of hand, he is kept at that fort of work as long as he flays there : he then naturally removes to another place, and fees different methods ; but not having capa- bility, or pra&ice to judge for himfelf, is led by the dictates of every foreman, till by clofe application to his room, learning to draw all the time, and with a continuance of ieven years in London , lie is enabled to fay, that he is a good journeyman, and can execute well any defign or drawing given. By the time this is done, nine years are elapfed after his apprenticelhip. Perhaps his father may be dead ; the fituation he propofed for him, occupied by another ; the connec- tions and families whofe intereft he depended on, fcattered, and no likelihood of doing any good in the country ; the filial tendernefs too of his parents, by long abfence, is probably abated; and as there is no chance of his being a mafter there, his friends advife him to do fomething in London . But fuppofing this not to be the cafe, and that there be a chance of his being a mafter in the country, when he is qualified, as every man will (if there is a poilibility) naturally tend towards home, where his friends or intereft lie, efpe- cially if he lives to a thinking age : the gay H luxuries 104 ^#Key to Civil Architecture; or , luxuries of the town may indeed for a time attradt, and lull a man into a dream of infen- iibility ; but once awaked from this, his thoughts immediately turn upon his happi- nefs, which can in no wife be eftablifhed but where his intereft lies. — Suppofing the above, therefore, not to be the cafe, yet all this time, if he has the opportunity before obferved, he is not in the lealt qualified for the undertak- ing. “ Why not ?” fays the father; “ if he can do any thing well, he is certainly fit for a matter.” To this I anfwer. No. For as to the principal requifites of a matter, he is ttill quite at a lofs for them ; fuch as efti mat- ing the confequence of building in general, knowing the value of the different artificers works, their modes of meafurement, and the eftablifhed maxims of practice in all the branches; without which he will ever be at a lofs : — and how to come at thefe is almoft: as difficult as tfie pradtical part of his bufinefs. — There is no way to make himfelf matter of them, but at a great expence ; or unlefs he be qualified to commence clerk to fome great ihop, where he may have the advantage of over-hawling his matter’s books and con- nedtions. By fuch an opportunity purfued with diligence, and by comparing the remarks within his own experience, he may in time fbh out fufticient knowledge to enable him to pradtife as matter, if he have wherewithal to putti himfelf forward. But then there is the hazard again of procuring bufinefs, and other incidents ffhe Univerfal British Builder. 105 incidents in life, before a man can be affured centre ; the real point of camber arches iS got from the above proportion. Firft, divide the height of the arch into three parts ; one of which is the dimenfions for the fkewing ; a line drawn from that through the point at the bottom to the perpendicular of the mid- dle of the arch, gives the centre, to which all the reft muft be drawn. There are many other difficult jobbs in brickwork : fuch as groins, niches, circular arches upon circular plans, &c. all which I fhall mention in their time and place. And, firjl , of Brick-groins . A groin is the interfering or meeting of two circles, &c. upon their diagonal eleva- tions drawn on the different fides of a fquare, or any other figure, and whole principle of ftrength lies in the united force of elevation ; divided by geometrical proportions to one certain gravity ; which is the centre to which all the bearings tend. The difficulty that attends the execution of a brick-groin, lies in the peculiar mode of appropriating proper bond at the interfering of the two circles as they gradually rife to the crown, to an exar point ; in the meet- ing or interfering of thofe angles will be formed a kind cf rib in the inlide, which fhould be particularly ftraight and perpendi- cular to a diagonal line drawn upon the plan. There is no definition of a thing of this fort, either by lines or defcription, equal to what < The Universal British Builder, i 1 1 what will occur to the learner in the pra&ice of them. After tfye centres are fet, let the bricklayer apply two or three bricks to an angle ; by thefe means he will effectually fee how to cut them as well as the requifites of bond. There is nothing fo certain as practice for the folving any difficulty ; it is by this axiom that every proof is founded, and without it the molt flagrant idea of lines, and theoreti- cal fpeculation, will in many cafes be defec- tive ; becaufe a falfe notion, or a wrong con- ception, may lead the wifeft man into an error. It is upon this principle of practice I pro- pofe to bring my analyfls to the underltand- ing of the molt illiterate ; by eradicating all fuperfluous lines fet down by archite&s*. and only pointing out fuch rules of reafon and practice as may fuit the weakeft to proceed by. Though I mult own that lines are the bales of all mechanick powers, arts, and practices ; yet there are hundreds of ufeful members of the community who never have it in their power to acquire the properties of one ; however with practical i nit ructions they may make ufeful journeymen, and be taught to do any thing tolerably : but thefe inftructions mull be given them in a manner fuited to their capacities and (as I before ob- ferved) by practical rules. To pretend to ffiow numbers of brick- layers lines for doing their work, you may as well 3 12 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, well (hew them Arabic : the fame may be faid of hundreds of carpenters, &c. If it were poffible for journeymen to underhand beyond what I have mentioned, we might long have bid adieu to all commentators $ feeing Palladio has left us rules fufilcient for men to work by. But thefe would not ah- fwer the purpofe of the ignorant ; nor has any author yet, either ancient or modern, been clear enough for a common journeyman to underhand them ; there being always fome points, which are the requifites that lead directly to the matter omitted ; and which but few, that have an inferior genius to the author himfelf, can find out ; yet are they fimple enough in the main ; but for want of being particularly noticed, have hitherto ef- capea thoufands. To fet all thefe matters in a proper degree of light, is the purport of the following defign ; and I fincerely wifh it may have as good an effect as it is univer- fally intended. But to return to the groins. The work- man mufc obferve, that the manner of turn- ing groins with refpedt to the fides, is the fame as in other arches and centres, except in the angles, which muft be traced for their properties, as I have obferved by apply- ing the bricks; and if the arch is to be rub- bed and gauged, you muft divide each arch into an exad: number of parts, and extend the lines till they meet in the groin : by thefe means you will eafily find the curve for the 4 angle. T/je XJmverfai British Builder. 113 angle, from which you muft make your tem- plets : obferve, in fixing the centres, that the carpenters raife them fomewhat higher at the crown, to allow for fettling, which fre- quently happens ; fometimes by the preffure upon the butments, at others from the length of the crown. Obferve allb in building of vaults, that the piers or abutments be of fufficient firength 5 all abutments to vaults, whether groined, or only arched, ihould be one fixthof the width of the fpan ; and if there be any great weight to be luftained, bridgings of timber fhould alfo be framed to difcharge the weight from the crown of the arch : after a vault or groin is finiihed, it is highly necefiary to pour on a mixture of terrace, or lime and water, on the crown ; and to give it fome little time to dry, before you ftrike the centres, in or^ der to cement the whole together. Rough groins have no more value put upon them than common vaults, which are included at per rod with common brick- work, except the angles of groins, which are meafured after the run lineal, and fometimes allowed for by furveyors at is. per foot ; many maAers even charge is. 2d. But as the fluff is reckoned and valued in the com- mon meafurement, and a man will cut and turn 10 feet run in a day, 8d. per foot fhould be the Aipuluted price for rough groins: which will p< y for the wafte of fluff, and allow a fufficitnt profit to a mafter* I Groined 1 14 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ■ Groined vaults rubbed and gauged are worth is. per foot fuperficial, and the run of angles 2S. 6d. Of a Niche in Brick-work, A niche is the inner or concave quarter of a globe, and ufually made in walls on the exterior parts of a building, to place figures or ftatues in. The practice of this in brick- work is the moft difficult part of the pro- feffion, on account of the very thin fize the bricks are obliged to be reduced to down at the inner circle, as they cannot extend be- yond the thicknefs of one brick at the crown or top 5 it being the ufual, as well as much the neateft method, to make all the courfes Handing. The moft familiar way to reduce this point to practice, is to df£w the front, back, &c. and make a templet of pafteboard, after you have divided the arch for the number of bricks. The reader is to obferve, that one templet for the Handing courfes will anfwer for the front, and one for the fide of the brick ; and at the top of the ftraight part, from whence the niche takes its fpring, you muft remember to make a circle of the diameter of 8 or 9 inches, and cutting this out of pafteboard alfo, divide it into the fame number of parts as the outward circle; from which you will get the width of your front- templet at the bottom. The reafon of this inner circle is -to cut off the thin conjunc- The XJniverfal British Builder. it$ tion of points which muft all nnifh in the centre* and which in bricks could never be worked to that nicety; it being impoffible to cut bricks with any accuracy nearer than half an inch thick : the bricks muft be lying with- in the inner circle. It will be neceflary to have one templet made convex, to try the faces of bricks to, as well as the fetting of them when they are gauged. The ftone you rub the faces of the bricks upon, muft be cut at one end in the exadt form of , the niche, or it will be impoffible to face them proper. The bevel of the flat fides of the bricks is got by dividing the back into the number of parts with the front, and all ftruck to the centre ; from the circle of the front of one brick fet your bevel, which will anfwer for the fides of the whole. Obferve* that the bricks hold tlfeir full gauge at the back, or when you come to fet them you will have much trouble. Jobbs of this kind are very rare, and when they happen, fhould bear a price equal to their value, which ought not to be lefs than is. per foot, and allowed double meafure. A Circular Arch upon a Circular Plan. There is not that difficulty in an arch of this conftrudtion in brick work, which is ufually thought of ; the principal thing to be conftdered, is the fcheme for ftriking the front of the bricks, which when once pro- I a perly 1 1 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, perly underftood, will render the practice ex- ceedingly familiar. There is another confideration alfo to be obferved, which is the foffit of the bricks to thefe arches, and which mud bear the exadt gauge behind as before, in order to fecure the ltrength and key, that the arch may have no inclination to a centre other-wife than what tends to its gravity. The bed pradtical me- thod I can give, is, after you have divided the arch, and fettled your bond in front, to make two moulds to the fweep of the wall, then fix two uprights of wood a little above the top of the arch ; one at the top, and the other to be moved down to the top of the courfes as they gradually rife : after which with a rod, with a prick in the end, clapped clofe tc'thofe two ribs, ftrike the top-fides of every brick ; the under-fide may be marked by the preceding brick; and in this manner proceed all the way, till you get to the top, which will give the exadt curve required to the wall and perpendicular to the ground plan. A cimma elliptical arch, upon the above plan, may be executed in the fame manner refpedting the front, and foffit likewife. Arches which fplay in the jambs, and rife both to one height, mult be reduced to prac- tice in the following manner : Fir ft, divide the arches on each fide into an exadt number of bricks ; and having drawn the width of the wall and laid down the arches on both fides, let The Univerfal British Builder. 117 let fall perpendiculars from the different ends of the bricks on both fides, and draw paral- lel lines into each by the fplay of the wall, which will give the exadt fize of the bricks in the foffit, and likewife the fplay of the face of the bricks on both fides. Of the Quantity of Materials to a Rod of Brick-work . The requifite quantity of materials to a rod of brick-work, which is the ftandard for valuing, as 'Well as taking dimenfions; the mailer’s prices, and thofe ffipulated by fur- veyors, come next within our notice, as well as the juft calculation for London , and every capital town in the kingdom, diverted of all the errors of furveyors, and extravagant exac- tions of fome mailers. And firft, it will not be amifs to mention, that a rod is a meafure of 164- feet, which multiplied into itfelf contains 272 feet and one quarter to one brick and a half thick, which is the ftandard by which the price is fixed : let the wall conlift of what num- ber of bricks foever in thicknefs, they are always reduced to a fyftem by the following rule : Multiply the fuperficial contents of the wall by the number of half bricks it contains in thicknefs $ and divide that product by 3 ; the quotient will be the contents in feet, to the ftandard. — Laftly, divide that quotient by 1 3 272, 1 1 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, 272, the number of fuperficial feet in a rod, and the laft quotient will be the contents in rods, and the remains feet. See the example : Suppofe the dimen- fions of a wall to be 64 64 6 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 24 6 6 inches, and 3 bricks — ■ thick, firft multiply 64 256 feet 6 inches by 24 feet 128 6 inches, the product will 32 3 be 1580 3, which I mul- 12 tiply by 6, the number of half bricks the wall con- 1580 3 tains; the product is 948 1 6 feet 6 inches, which I divide by 3, the number 3 f 9481 6 j 316 of half bricksin the ftand- 9 ard ; the quotient is 3 163 and 2 parts ; which I di- 4 vide by 272, the number 3 of fuperficial feet in a rod ; — thelaft quotient is 11 rods 18 pd 71 feet. 18 272 ] 3160 2 | it 440 272 $68 When- 5 * T&? Univerfal British Builder . 119 * Whenever it happens that 68 j 168 J 2 there are large remains of feet, 136 you muft divide them by 68, — — - the number of feet in a quarter 32 of a rod, which will bring you nearer, if you have but one number : if many, add them all together : and this rule will ferve for every fubjedt. According to a wall of the above dimenfions, the quantity of reduced brick- Sq. Q^Ft. work is 1 1 fquare, 1 quarter, 1 1 1 3 and 3 feet, as in the margin. Note, Though a rod contain 2724- feet, the quarter is always rejected : divide then by 272, which is near enough for brick-work, as a quarter of a foot, fluff and labour, can- not be worth more than two-pence, which is too trivial to mention in an eight pound mat- ter. The fame of the parts of a foot to be divided, as in the above example. Having given an example of meafuring brick-work, in order to come at the value we muft confider the quantity as well as the quality of the materials along with the exadt time it takes to execute it. And firft, of materials : The reader is to obferve, that to every rod of brick-work, 4400, and of fome (as bricks vary much in fize) 4500 bricks are required, with one load of lime, or 32 bufhels of lime, and two loads of fand, which is the neareft general calcula- tion that can be made. I have, notwithftand- ing, feen bricks of fuch a fize that 4000 of I 4 them 1 20 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, them would have walled a rod ; but thofe are rarely to be met with : we muft abide there- fore by the foregoing number. The fame likewife of lime and fand, which may vary a little according as they are in goodneis. There are two forts of lime ; the one made of chalk, the other of ftone : the latter in point of ftrength and quality deferves much the preference. There are alfo different forts of fand, and equally good ; but that which ought to be preferred for building is river- fand, and is much the beft in a ftrong cur- rent. Of this you may put three parts of fand to one of lime that is made of flone ; if of chalk, only two of fand, and one of lime. There is a kind of white pit-fand in many counties ; but it is not fo good as red. The reader is to obferve, that with regard to materials no univerfal ilandard can be found, becaufe bricks and lime vary in every county ; I (hall fix a price therefore for a rod of brick- work in London , and afterwards make a table to ferve the country, according as materials vary in value. But firft we are to enquire into the labour which a rod of brick?- work requires. The reader will allow, that in order to fet- tle a general plan for labour, we muft either account the mean proportion of time, or fti- pulate the beft wages to the leaft that reafon can allow; which, to a good journeyman of yj. per day, will take four days, and the like quantity or length of time to a labourer, be- 4 fides* L’he Univerfal British Builder, 121 fides, making the mortar, &c. The reader is next to obferve, that bricks in London are from 1 1 . to i/. io s. per thoufand; we (hall not hefitate therefore in this, but take a mean of l /. 5 s. for the ftandard-price, and reckon lime at §d. per buftiel, and land at 4J*. per load ; which are about the neat prices. The reafon I choofe to mention lime by the buihel, is to give a clearer light into this matter than I ihould by calculating it either by the bag or hundred, becaufe every county hath a juft knowledge of the buihel, and few of bags and hundreds. But to the point : 4,500 bricks, at 1/. 51. per 1000, JT. s. d. are — — • 5126 32 bufhels of lime, at 5/. o 13 4 Labour of trowel-hand at 3J-. per day, 4 days, — * o 12 o Ditto for labourer at 2 s. 080 Making the mortar to ditto, o 3 o 7 810 By the above calculation we find that 7/. 8 s. 10 d. is the neat price which a mafter pays out of his own pocket, befides the lofs of tools, as (hovels, fcreens, the wear of cords, poles, puttocks, &c. which are always upon the wafte, together with boards, his own time, and the lying out of his money; for materials therefore of the above quality a mafter in juftice ihould have per rod 8/. ioj*. But in order to come at a real ftandard of .prices for brick-work in any county, I beg 122 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, the reader to have recourfe to the following table, calculated as univerfal, allowing the matter for lime, fand, and making the mor- tar, i /. 3J*. and for labour i/. $s. An univerfal 'Table of Brick-work, allowing il. 3s. Mortar , and il. 5s. Labour . s. £• s - £• j. d. At 10 2 8 is 4 13 O 1 1 Do. 4 '7 6 12 Do. 5 2 0 13 Do. 5 6 6 14 Do. 5 11 0 15 Do. 5 15 6 16 Do. 6 0 0 17 Do. 6 4 6 18 Do. 6 9 0 19 Do. 6 J 3 6 20 Do. 6 18 0 21 Do. 7 2 15 22 Do. 7 7 0 2 3 Do. 7 1 1 6 24 Do. 7 16 0 2 5 Do. 8 0 6 26 Do. 8 5 0 2 7 Do. 8 9 6 28 Do. 8 H 0 29 Do. 8 18 6 30 Do. 9 3 0 The above table is calculated country, and ought to be the to ferve the ftandard in town. The Univerfal British Builder. 123 town, when there are no extraordinary ex- ceptions, fuch as fronts with particular breaks, which are attended with much trou- ble, &c. If a mailer-bricklayer eilimate his work all at one price, as fronts, foundations, and party-walls, one part will make amends for the lofs of another But the price ihould be what I have mentioned prior to the table ; though mailers would grumble at it, becaufe allowed only 1/. per rod profit, which I think very fufficient ; for by this rule, if a mailer can but employ 12 trowel-men the year round, his bufinefs will be a good 500/. per annum , allowing 100/. for bad debts, and keeping up his fcafrolding. Whether this be fufficient or not I leave to the judgement of the world. — But I fay, if from fuch prices (which are confiderably lefs than many mailers have) thefe genteel profits arife, what (hall we fay to 10/. and 12/. per rod, which I have known many bricklayers charge for common brick-work ? but the lail is exorbitant, and ought to be utterly abo- liihed. There are, indeed, particular jobbs, fuch as warehoules of a particular height, which iland clofe to the < Thames> where one labourer is not half fufficient to ferve one bricklayer, and where double the trouble is required to eredl the fcaffold, &c. In fuch cafes 12/. per rod may not be amifs. I would A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, I would not willingly infer, or be fuppofed to infinuate, that the above prices fhould be lowered ; but will take the liberty to fay, that if a matter be allowed 9/. or 10/. per rod, he ought to augment his journeymen’s wages ; a thing which ought to be maturely confidered in every branch of building. I make no doubt but fome people will wonder how I can fo eafily reconcile the giv- ing as much for labour to a country matter as a London one, in a bufinefs like a brick- layer, and fo eafily attained. To the perfon who makes this objection, I give the follow- ing anfwer : that there is a flight in brick- work as well as in every other pradice, and that bricklayers in London fhould do one third more work than in the country is ever defired : befides, with refped to labourers and their prices, which in London are confi- de, rably more than the country, and with juf- tice too, that is another point to be confidered; for could we have a country labourer in Lon- don, we fhould find he would not be able half to ferve a bricklayer without a year’s experi- ence. A rod of brick-work in the country is, by men who have not had London prac- tice, 54 days work, and in fome places 6 ; nay, I have even known a bricklayer in the country, and one who was efteemed a good workman, to be 8 days walling over a rod, £pd all this time a labourer to attend him ; which, if we rightly confider, will produce the The TJniverfal British Builder. 125 the country matters lefs profits by much, and not leave work for half the number of men. From a gentleman who finds his own ma- terials, fcaffolding, &c. a matter fhould have from 1 /. 8j*. to 1 /. i6j\ per rod labour; ac- cording to the goodnefs of the work. The ftandard price by many furveyors is 1 /. ioj\ The matter’s prices, where no furveyor is con- cerned, are from 1/. 16s. to ]/. i8j. This will allow for men to have 3^*. 6 d. per day, which ought to be the journeymen’s price, as bricklaying is but an half-year bufinefs. Of Tiling . There being nothing in the practice of Ti- ling beyond what a journeyman may have ac- quired in the courfe of his apprenticefhip, and as things of more material confequence will ihortly come within our defcription, I beg to be excufed fpeaking further on this fub- jedt than in regard to the quantity : and that the principal judgement of it lies in the peculiar pitch of railing the eaves, fo that the tiles may lie clofe at the bottom-edge. There is alfo fome little difficulty in laying a valley with plain tiles ; but after the practice of one or two, it is eafily acquired. The fame alio in regard to paving with bricks. Plain tiles to a fix inch gauge will take to cover a fquare feven hundred and fixty, one peck of tile-pins, two buttiels of lime, five bufhels of fand, five hundred nails, one bundle of laths, and one day’s work of a trowel 126 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, trowel hand,, and at lead one labourer. We will allow the plane tiles per thou fan d to be from jys. to 2 2 s. but will here reckon them 1/. per ditto. d. 700 plain tiles are * — *5 0 2 bujfhels of lime, at $d. 0 10 5 bulhels of fand we will call 0 6 400 of nails, at 37 d. One bundle of oak laths, is. 0 ? J / a lod. of firr ij*. 3 d. 5 3 Hair — — 0 2 Bricklayer, one day 3 0 Labourer, ditto — - 2 0 One peck of tile-pins 0 8 £• 1 4 of By the above calculation we fhall find the neat price a fquare of plain-tiling ftands a mafter in is 1/. 43*. 7 d; to a piece of work therefore of this gauge, we muft allow a maf- ter per fquare ll.gs. — to a feven inch gauge, 1 /. 6 s . — to an eight inch gauge, iL 3^. Pantiles are from. 3/. to 3 L 10s. per thou- fand, 1 50 of which will cover a fquare. Gut- ter-tiles from jij*. to 15^. per hundred. Dutch glazed pantiles from 12 s. to 16 s. per hundred. If we reckon 100 pantiles there- fore at ys. 150 The TJniverfal British Builder. 127 S. d. 150 will be — — 10 6 100 nails — — 0 5 Lime, hair, and fand, for pointing, 1 6 Laths to a fquare — 1 B To tiling and pointing, a trowel-man and labourer, one day, 5 o 19 1 nw- 1 j » Thus we find the advance-money to a lquare of pantiling is 19 s. id. the matter's price therefore fhould be 1 /. 4 s. and with Dutch pantiles 1/. I2j*. The matter's prices for plain tiles are for a 6 inch gauge. 1 1 1 O By furveyors, — 1 8 O To a 7 inch ditto, matters. 1 8 O Surveyors ■ — 1 6 O Old plain tiling ripped and new laid, from 1 $s. to iSs. per fquare. Pantiling with old pantiles, ioj*. or 1 1 s. Of Paving. S. d. Paving with place-bricks laid flat, and without mortar, per yard, 1 27; Ditto with mortar, — 1 5 Note, 32 bricks will pave 1 yard, 64 edge- ways. Paving 128 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. S. d* Paving with white brick i New Flanders brick-paving per yard, (Note, Flancjers bricks are il. is. per thoufand) — 3 9 inch pavement-paving, per yard, 2 For all rubbed and gauged arches, either of red or gray flocks, the mailer’s charge per foot fuperficial, is from is. 4^. to is . bd. Note, a good journeyman will rub, gauge, and fet in putty, one day with another, 8 feet$ the materials to ditto are worth per foot fu~ perficial 47 d. Thus we (hall find by this fort of work a mailer may well afford to advance the wages, Surveyors allow per foot Plain facios per foot rubbed By furveyors fornetimes only Mailer's charge - — Brick cornices per foot fuperficial Some charge S. 1 1 0 1 3 5 i. 4 o 10 2 6 Q Having faid thus much much of bricklayers work, I ihall mention two or three neeeffary matters to journeymen, and proceed with my next ledture ; which is, firil, that they have refpedt to the building in general 5 and be not backward in affi (ling with bond timbers, lin- tels, wood-bricks, difcharging-pieces, taffels, &c. but put all in their proper places, which they fhouid be as well apprized of as the car- penter. Hhe Univerfal British Builder. 129 penter, both as to confequence and place. The firff place of bond-timber, in every ftory, is for the Ikirting or bafe-moulding to be fixed to ; the next for the fur-bafe. This is of ufe as to ftrength. In the next place there (hould always be a chain of bond-timber between the floor or Itory-plate, and the fur-bafe ; to run quite through the windows, &c. well bound in the angles ; and not cut off in the win- dows, till the houfe be covered in; befides it will be of ufe in the windows to fcaffold upon. Secondly, that the bricklayers omit not to try if their work be level every four or five courfes ; a matter of great confequence, as well for the ftrength of the fabric, as the be- nefit of the carpenters, in laying on their plates for the floors ; that infide walls be as flraight as thofe without; chimnies, quoins, and breafts, perpendicular : that they be particularly care- ful in fetting fafh- frames, if they (land in the wall, both as to regular margins from the outward part of the wall, as well as exadtly perpendicular : for on this laft article depends all the beauty of the infide work; every thing being fixed from, and guided by the fafh- frame : thus the lead defeat in this often caufes flutters to be framed of different widths, as well as obliges the carpenters to make unneceflary furrings. And laftly, of the beauty of walling ; this depends on a regularity of bond, an exadt point, and cleanlinefs of execution ; with re- K gard 1 30 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 7 gard to a regular bond, I mean the exadt uni- formity which one courfe bears to another : fo that the heading-joints, both of header and ftretcher, may aooear ftraiVht one above ano- ther, from the top to the bottom ; and fo’ re- gularly broke every other courfe; that the joints be of a regular thicknefs all the way up, and not bigger than -I of an inch : that the fronts under windows do not exceed in thick- nefs the infide of the fafh-frame, to prevent the carpenters from fhaking the whole front by cutting away for their dado : that they be alfo careful to tie the angles of the building, thefe being the pillars and ftrength of the whole. L E C T U R E XVII. OF THE PRACTICAL PART OF PLASTER- ERS WORK. T KE plaftering branch is practically -con- ^ fidered under two heads, relative to the diftindtion of workmen, viz. ornament, and what are called cornice hands $ both hav- ing an extenfive field for cultivation. To the former of thefe ingenious departments is referred the ftudy of all nature, to the latter the exaCt -fym me try and beauty of architedlure. The principal thing in the pradtice of com- mon plaftering, is a thorough knowledge of the quality of materials ; and how far they are fubjedt to the inclemency of weather , be- caufe on this particular depends the compo- c iition rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 13 i fition of the fluff; and how to apply a certain quantity or gauge of plailer, to a quantity of lime and fand, lo that it may anfwer in all feafons of the year. Thofe who would defire fo have their work appear found and firm, will pay a refpedt to this particular ; for it is certain, that in winter, or very damp weather, fluff will require a double gauge of plafrer, more than the exadt quantity neceffary to be applied in all common fluff for cornices, ciel- ings, &c. which is the ground of all works of this fort ; and if in any wife defective, will be too powerful for the fetting or finifhing of putty, that is applied over the whole ; and which fhculd appear without crack or blifler. Plafler is of a very aftringent quality; fuch of it which is good, is an immediate cement, like terras. But though work be forced by an augmented quality in unfeafonable wea- ther, for my own part, I would prefer a good feafon for natural drying, to any thing con- fined by artificial means, and would con- fider one bag of plafter in May worth ten in January or February, either for cornices or thin boiling of ornaments. The way and time to mix plafler with fluff, is to do it when you lay it on ; in which cafe it will have all its ilrength. Plafterers themfelves know well enough the ufe and mode of mixing their fluff; but as I prcpofe my book to be of univerfal benefit, I beg leave to mention two or three things relative to the quality and quantity of materials, which may be ferviceable to many K 2 work- i%2 A Key to Civil Architecture*, of, workmen who do plafterers work in the country, though beneath the notice of an eftablifiied plafterer. The mode of appropriating (luff for the firft coat of cielings, is to take one quantity of lime to three of fand. Note, the beft fand for cielings, walls, &c. is red pit- fand ; which is of a rough conjundive quality, and the leaft fubjed to crack of any. For ftucco, or what is called finifhing, mix one of lime, and ano- ther of fand; the beft for ftucco is river- fand, being much fharper, and fets, as is required, much harder; for in all work of this kind it is expeded to appear as fmooth and firm as ftone. For cornices, the certain quantity (hould be one gauge of plafter, and four of lime ; of fand three to one of the whole ; the lime, fand, and hair firft made ; the plafter to be applied juft before it be laid on ; and the fame for the boffings of cielings, &c. Plaftering is a moft ufeful invention, and has greatly the preference of wood, for cor- nices, &c. on account of its unity with walls and cielings; but we fee it often lofe its effed, when mixed with wood, as in bafe mould- ings, &c. The intent of appropriating caft mouldings of plafter with wood, is to load a room with a profufion of ornaments, and at little more expence than if done with wood plain ; but things of this kind will not bear examining; and for my own part, I think every ingenious maa The Univerfal British Builder. 133 man would rather approve of half the quan- tity of ornaments well executed in wood, fuitable to, and of a piece with the reft. Be- lexion mouldings, well executed in plafler, have a noble effect in halls, ftair-cafes, &c. and are much preferable to any thing of the fame value, that can be invented. Thefe, with fome well difpofed ornaments. See. in them, would, in my opinion, be the greateft beauty in the prefent mode of finiihing many capital rooms. To the immortal credit of the prefent age, it may be affirmed, that this branch of bufi- nefs is in its full meridian of luftre, both with refpedt to fymmetry and compofition ; and it may juftly be faid, that the ancients were in no wife comparable with the prefent age for their tafte in ornaments ; on which head the Meffrs. Adams deferve particular honour; being themfeives the originals of many capi- tal defigns, which almoft beggar defeription ; from the fpring of which the whole mafs of furveyors, and petty mixturers, have found matter to fupply their own want of genius and invention. It is much to be lamented, that thefe great men fhould miftake their path in fome re^ fpedts relative to the propriety of their cor- nices ; which greatly lofe their force for want of a little more projection: that fymmetry, and happy arrangement which we frequently lofe by the diftance, would be quite pcrfpicu- pus, were but a little more added to the above K 3 partis 134 d Key to Civil Architecture ; or, particular. I a 1 moll wonder that fuch excel- lent judges of beauty never found the ill ef- fedts of this deficiency; but whether they have or not, it is beyond a doubt, that their works in general are the moft capital of the age. Of the Value of Ornaments . The value of ornament-plaftering cannot well be afcertained without a fight of the drawings; or rather of the cielings, &c. when finished. However, as far as may be fervice- able to the learner in eftimating a jobb, I will endeavour here to afcertain them. And firft, the reader is to obferve, that all ornaments on cielings are valued by the foot; and it may not be amifs likewife to note* that if the cieling be lightly enriched with foliage of fmall relief, intermixed with mouldings of various figures, it may be valued all together by the foot fuperficial ; the dimenfions being taken from the outward fquare of all, at 3^. per foot. But this is an uncertain wav, aird cannot be ufed by any but thofe who are judges at fight. The only real method therefore is to value all the different works feparate, as be- fore observed in the meafurement ; and thefe are, or may be done at the following prices ; s. Plain mouldings in cielings, at per foot run — - — -00 2 *- Inferior enriched mouldings to ditto, call — ■ — 003 Superior enriched, call 004 Ditto The Univerfal British Builder. 135 £>• s - Ditto run upon the cieling, with various enrichments, from yd. to 013 Foliage, at per foot fuperficial, frgm 2s, to — o 3 6 Large pieces of ornament in the middle of a cieling, at per foot fuperficial — — 040 Trophies, cafes of arrows, &c. per foot fuperficial — 050 Figures, deities, &c, per piece, from 1/. to — 20 o o Gollocci and frets, at per foot fu- perficial, 6 inches wide 020 Ribbons and rofes fuperficial, at 016 Large ornaments of feitoons and flowers — — 0 3 9 Small frets, at per foot run, from 6 d. to — — 010 The reader mufl be content, in ornament cielings, to know the real value of the works I have mentioned, as it would be of little validity to prove alTertions which he does not fee, or may be unacquainted with ; therefore to make it advantageous to him, it will be highly requifite to ftudy this matter farther himfelf. Of the Value of Plajler- cornices. In the value of Plafter-cornices it may not be amifs, firft, to enquire into the quantity of materials, for a better proof of what I K 4 propofe 136 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, propofe to advance relative to the price allow- ed by furveyors, and what is alfo charged by mafters. And firth of full enriched Corinthian cor- nices, which confift of various ornaments, carvings, &c. and fhould be all made of the bed plafter, which is little lefs than one pen- ny per pound. The neareft general calculation that can be made of plain cornices, on account of their number of variations, is, to every foot of plain cornice the materials, making, &c. ftand the mafter in 4 d. — To a full enriched cornice, modillions, &c. is. — The labour to a foot of Corinthian cornice, as I have made the following calculations from whole rooms, with the labourer’s time, laths, nails, duff, lime, and plafterer’s time, are as follow : S. d* To labour — • * 09 Stuff — — 10 It cannot be amifs therefore to allow the intrinfick value per foot fuper- ficial to be — — 2 0 Some furveyors are pleafed to allow 1 6 Others vouchfafe to give — 22 Some I have known generous enough to offer a good plafterer per foot fu- perficial — — ■ « 12 Some of the capital mafters in town, for fully enriched cornices of the Co- rinthian or Compofite order, allow from 2 $+ Sd . to — 3 q Ionick ! The Univerfal British Builder. 137 Ionick cornices, fully enriched, are S. d. worth — — 1 9 All plain cornices are worth to a matter, per foot fuperficia], to find fcaffolding 1 2 Though they are done fo low as 08 Dorick friezes, fjvith ox-heads and pro- per enrichments, may be ettimated per foot fu perficial, at — 46 Cornices to ditto, with mutules and bells 1 9 Surveyors 4 s. and — 1 10 Enriched friezes, from is. per foot, to 5 o Caft friezes, with foliage of 4 inches, meafured in the cornices, at is. 6 d. per foot — — 16 Belexion mouldings enriched, at per foot run — — 0 4 Corinthian and Compolite capitals, per foot fuperficial — 5 0 Chimney-pieces, at per foot fuperficial 2 o Ionick capitals in platter, per foot fu- perficial — — 1 46 Surveyors allow, in fome cafes 5 o Terms to chimney-pieces, per foot fuperficial — — 26 Friezes to ditto enriched — • 36 Of Plain-cielings , V/alls % Stucco , &c. The quantity of materials either to cielings or walls ever varies, becaufe it depends in a great meafure on the conduct: of the carpen- ters, bricklayers, &c. The Following is the neareft general calculation for every three-coat cieling, or lathed walls : We 138 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. We muft allow 5^. for materials, fuch S. d . as laths, nails, lime, plafter,fand, &c. for labour, if the mafter find fcaf- folding, 6 d. more, which brings the intrinfick value per yard to o 10 Every deling therefore well floated, &c. is worth • — — 12 Mafters charge the above price Surveyors from 9 d. to — * 12 Infide work upon laths, fuch as walls, &c. — — 10 Walls floated for paper, &c. — 08 Stucco, per yard, well finiftied on laths 1 9 The materials to a yard of ftucco, are worth, upon laths o 10 Walls floated and finiftied with ftucco 1 6 The materials are worth per yard o 74 Note, mafters charge for finishing upon laths — - — - 2 2 Upon walls — 1 10 Surveyors allow from is. 2 d. upon laths to — — 2 43 Upon walls, from is. to — 17 Gray plafter floors are worth per fquare, if 2 inches and an half thick 2 14 Surveyors allow from 2 L 2 s. to 2 10 Red ditto are worth per fquare 3 8 Surveyors allow from 2/. iSj*. to 3 5 The learner is to obferve in laying plafter- fioors, to put a margin of wood round the room, T he Univerfal British Builder. 139 room, which muft be taken up as foon as it is fet, to give room for fweliing ; for if plafter of fuch a thicknefs be laid and confined, it will rife in' b lifters before it is half dry, and render it totally ufelefs. > 5 . d. Plafter-framing, asovloand flat, per foot o 6 Ditto circular foffits, meafure and half Framed and raifed pannel in plafter o 9 For white-wafhing with whiting-fize, work, and materials, per yard # 02 Ditto whiting of new work, per ditto o 14 LECTURE XVIII. OF PAINTERS WORK. T T OUSE - Painting is a branch fo common JLjL that it needs no comment ; I fhall not therefore take up my reader's time beyond what is neceflary, to enquire into its value. And, firft, of the colours of paint that is, or in fome cafes may be ufed in a building; which are as follow : Wainfcot colour Stone ditto Lead Pearl White Dead white, or flatting Chocolate Mahogany Cedar Walnut-tree Pea Fine fky-blue Mixed with Pruflian blue Orange Lemon Pink Bloffom 140 A Key to Civil Architecture*, or, Bloffem colour Brown Fine deep green Yellow Black The preceding are all* the colours that can be requilite for painting either houfes, fhops, &c. Thefe colours differ fomewhat both with refpedt to price and quality ; therefore muft have a ftipulation according to their value and quantity, in point of execution ; as it is certain feme colours will paint confiderably more than others, which I fhall endeavour to fhew. Firjly of the Trice of Colours . £• Firft primer ground in oil is fold at per hundred — Or per pound — — • Second primer at ditto Beft white-lead ground in oil, at per pound — c Pearl, lead, cream, ftone, wainfcot, at per pound — 1 c Chocolate, mahogany, cedar, wal- nut-tree, ground in oil, at per pound — — o Sky-blue, orange, lemon, pink, bloffom, ftraw, Pruffian blue, from 8 d. to — o Fine deep green, per pound o Black, brown, yellow, per pound o 16 o 16 d. o 4 4t o 6 4 The Univerfal British Builder. 141 The reader is to obferve, that all houfe- painting muft at leaft be done three times over, fometimes four ; the caufe of which I fhall mention hereafter. Of the Quantity which one Pound of Paint will do over . Firft primer ground in, or made thin with oil, will paint, when properly mixed, 1 8 fquare yds. Second primer muft be mixed ftronger, r pound mixed with oil, will paint 10 fquare yards The beft white-lead, ground in oil, and properly mixed for the finifhing, will paint 8 yards Thus if we add the three quan- tities together, and divide by 3, we fhall find that one pound of paint properly mixed will prime and finifh 12 fquare yards, as in the margin. We have only to add therefore the oil for mixing, and the put- ty, and we fhall find the real value to a yard of painting ; which once got, we fhall proceed to the labour, to folve the whole. Suppoling then that to one pound of paint to be appropriated for painting to its extent, at three feparate times, viz. for the firft pri- mer, fecond ditto, and finifhing, we allow three half-pints of oil, which is more than neceflary, and one pound of putty for flop- ping, See. add thefe to the value of the paint, for Sq. yds. 18 10 8 3 I 3 6 1 12 3 6 142 A Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or, for 12 yards, and we {hall eafily come at the value of the whole materials, viz. S . d. To one pound of paint — 04 Ditto of putty — — 04 Three half-pints of oil, at is. per quart o 9 The above being added together, as in the margin, we find the charge of materials for 12 fquare yards is ij*. 5^. which is fomewhat lefs than 14 d. per yard. An d 7 iext of the Labour to a Tard of Painting . The neareft calculation of the labour to a yard of painting, is as follows : — A man who will work any thing fmart will do Yards. Firft primer per day — * 70 Second ditto, and flop with putty — — 30 And finifh about — 40 If we add therefore the three * numbers together, and divide 3 | 140 j 46 by 3, as before, we (hall have 12 the exadt quantity that a man will begin and finifh in one day, 20 which as in the margin is 46. 18 ^he Univerjal British Builder. 143 A journeyman’s wages in this bufinefs are 3 s. per day ; thus if we divide 46 yards by 36 pence, (the journeyman’s wages) we ihall find, that a mafter has every yard of painting, three times over, done for lefs than id. to which if we add 1 id. materials, the intrinfick value of a yard of painting is 2 ~d. for which mailers charge from 6 d. to 8 d. I am far from inlinuating, that any mafter fhould lower the cuftomary prices; but yet cannot help obferving, that I think it a great error in furveyors to allow a bulinefs like a painter’s, which neither requires thought nor fpeculation, fuch extravagant profits ; and joiners, in many refpe&s, not fufficient to pay their men half adequately to their merit. Surveyors allow for out or infide-work, three times in oil, from 6 d. to yd. per yard. The profit of every yard, allowing for diffi- cult jobbs, is 3 d. A man for a continuance, painting 40 yards per day, or fuppofing 30, or even 20, a mafter muft clear by every fuch journeyman, at thefe prices, 5 s. per day. Many mafters employ 20 men ; the profits therefore arifing from them are obvious to every one. The real price of painting three times d. in oil fhould be When clear-coaled Flatting with turpentine Flatting with nut-oil Some 144 -A Key to Civil Architecture ; dp, Some of my readers may not know what either clear-coaling or flatting is ; I ihall en- deavour therefore to inform them, as well as of their ufe. Clear-coaling is a body of colour ground in, or mixed with fize, and done after the fecond primer, in order to give ftrength to the colours, and make them Hand the fem- blance they are meant to do. But I cannot recommend it ; for damp weather will affedt it ; and if the colour intended be white, or at all light, it will always turn yellow. This compofition, or what is called clear- coal, is a great enemy to joiners ; for let them finish their work ever fo clean, if the men be not very careful, clear-coaling fpoils it all, efpecially the mitres, &c. Flatting is done with a mixture of oil of turpentine, or nut-oil. Its intent is to fecure the colour, and it is ufed for finifhing ; and when done, leaves thepaint quite dead, without glofs. This is of great confequence to thofe who like to have their rooms continue white, as nothing elfe can be appropriated to fland the weather. All common colours are done at the fore- going prices, and allowed as fuch by fur- veyors: blues, greens, bloflbm, pink, orange, ftraw, olive, pea-colour, fhould be is. per yard, at which they are allowed by furveyors. There is nothing like this difference in the quality of materials or labour, to augment the prices 6 d. per yard , but when thefe co- lours The Univerfal British Builder. 145 lours are ufed, it is generally for little abflradt- ed jobbs, which ihould be paid for according to the time and trouble. d. Safla-frames are allowed, per piece, at 1 4 Might be done for — 10 Safhes allowed per fquare o ii. Window lights from 2 d. to o 5 Infide-painting, twice upon old work, per yard — * — 04 Modillion-cornices,per foot run, from 4*/. to ■ — — 09 Plain outfide-cornices, per foot run o 3 Frontifpieces, per foot fuperficial o 2 Chimney-pieces, per foot fuperficial o 2 Hand-rail, banifters, firings, newels, . ,&c. per yard — — o 10 Hand-rails alone per foot run o 2 Horfe plain cornices, per foot run o 1 All torus fkirting in halls, garrets, &c. per foot run — — o 14- Skirting up flairs, per foot run o 2 LECTURE XIX. OF GLASIERS WORK. G LASING is a branch of the leafi diffi- culty of any in a building, therefore is judicioufly enough joined to the paiftter, be- caufe neither require the executive part of men of merit. The value of glaiiers work is as follows : L Crown- 2 146 -«4Key to Civil ArchiteSiurc ; or, Crown-glafs meafured neat for fafhes, ^ according to the fize of the fquares, per foot fuperficial — o Safhes glafed with London crown glafs, puttied on both fiaes, as is requifite, per foot fuperficial Safhes glafed with Briftol crown-glafs Ditto, with Newcafile glafs Ditto, waved or jealous glafs, per foot fuperficial — - Ditto, plate-glafs, according to their lize, from 1 foot to 2 foot panes from 5s. to — ■ *— Ditto from 2 to 3 and 4 foot panes fuperficial, are from 6s. per ft. to Glafing with crown glafs, fquares in lead-work, per foot — Ditto the materials to a foot of this work are worth • — Taking down leaded windows, fcowering, foddering, banding, and putting in again, per foot fuperficial — d. 117 27 ,-L 10 8 o a •// 9 0 a 3 Note, 25 lb. of window-lead are fufficient for 100 feet fuperficial, when f worked. — Note alfo, that lights and circular fafhes muft be valued as fquare, on account of the trouble; and to glafiers, in fome cafes, meafure and half. LEC- \ The Univerfal British Builder. 147 LECTURE XX. OF SLATERS WORK. S LATERS work differs but little in prac- tice (excepting the preparation of the dates) from tiling ; its greated beauty is in the regular appropriating the different gauges; fo that they appear in bond, and arrange- ment equally draight. There is fome diffi- culty in fitting a valley ; but the great prin- ciple is the exadt form of fetting the firft courfe, or railing it behind, not to excefs, but to a certain pitch, fo that all the fucceed- ing ones fhall appear clo£e, and not be defec- tive in refpedt to the inner parts for pointing. *'VThfcre are many forts of date in ufe, viz. what is called Can-quarry, Tavidock fcantle, and Wedmoreland ditto, and fome others, though not frequently ufed. The latter is much the bed, being by much the larged, but fhould not be appropriated except for very large^buildings ; or at lead, fuch as are of fufficient drength for their weight. £• s. The price of doing theie per fquare is, from 2/. 13J. to — 3 0 Tavidock fcantle is fomething lefs ; and rather inferior in quality ; and ac- cording as they are in goodnefs is done from 2/. to — 2 10 Can-quarry are the word, and modly ufed, the price from iL i6x. to" 2 8 L 2 Ditto 148 A Key to Civil Architecture 3 or, Ditto for temples, and fcheme roofs 2 12 Among the new buildings there is a worfe flate than any of thofe here mentioned, called Welch flate, which is done per fquare, from i /. 8 j*. to i/. ] 3J*. OF CARVERS WORK. HIS beautiful and ingenious branch is fubjed to the fame efifed as ornament- plafter, with refped to its value ; no fettled or ftipulated price can be fixed on a matter of fuch mutable compofitions, which conftantly varies with every frefh defign, — However, I fhall give fome few hints to the learner. And firft, with refped to carving on mouldings for all forts of framing : Ovlo to deal-framing, carved with S. d. eggs and tongues, per foot running meafure ■*— * — * 04 Ditto on mahogany or wainfcot o 6 O-gee framing in deal, carved with feven-leaved grafs — 04 On mahogany and wainfcot o 6 Small o-gee to framing on deal, three- Large ovlos to doors, with ribbons and rofes, or eggs and darts, per Ditto, flates, new ripped and laid 1 1 LECTURE XXL leaved grafs foot run o 8 Large The JJniverfa! British Builder. 149 Large quirked o-gees, with various S . d. carvings — ■ — 07 Small aftragal mouldings to doors, per foot lineal — — 0 3 Small fluting to facios, per foot lineal o 5 Two inches long — • - — 06 Friezes, fluting, 6 inches wide and up- wards, at per foot fuperficial 1 6 Fluting the railings upon the pannels of mahogany doors, per foot run o 8 Carving Corinthian capitals, per foot fuperficial — — 90 Ionic, k ditto — — • 60 Compofite ditto — — 9 p Ornaments in alto-relievo, to friezes well executed, from $s. per foot fuperficial to — — 106 Ornaments to friezes in baflo- relievo, from 2 s - P er foot fuperficial to 7 6 Feftoons, per foot fuperfi. from 4 s. to 8 o Figures are all valued at per piece As carvers find no materials, and have no advantages but what refult from their labour, I (hall not pretend to fay any thing with re- fpedl to the time of execution, feeing it is a bufinefs, well known to be upon as eligible a footing, with refpedl to profits, as any in the building branch. The above prices are fuch as are allowed by many furveyors. L 3 THE THE PRACTICE O F JOINERS WORK THE PRACTICE O F JOINERS WORK. LECTURE XXII. OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DADO* D ADO is the die or entire part of an order, between the bafe and cornice of the pedeftal ; and by architects is attributed to that plain part of a room between the bafe and fur- bafe mouldings. This fort of work, in large rooms, fhould never be made of thin- ner fluff* than what is called whole- deal. The chief thing to be confidered in the practice of dado is, the manner of putting it up, which requires fome thought in order to fecure it from cafting ; the method of keying only being found inefficient, without a pro- per manner of placing the keys. There are a great 154 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or, a great many ways of doing this : but the beft, in my opinion, is as follows, viz. when you key your dado, leave the keys long enough at the. broad end to reach the joifts, or floor 5 and put the broad-ends of them downwards, for this reafon ; that there is a proclivity, or tending downwards in all work, which can never be detrimental to dado thus done ; for if the key goes to the floor, there it flops ; and if it fhould (hrink, the proclivity of the dado will ever keep the work ftraight. If the broad ends were upwards, the dado might drop from the keys, and render them of no ufe. In putting dado round windows, mind to keep up the front of the elbow a little, that after the mouldings are on, and capped, the fhutters may open eafy. Dado in all angles muft be grooved, and well nailed ; obferve alfo, that no nails be put in the bottom-edge of dado; let it receive no faftening but what it has from the keys ; if it be confined both at the top and bottom, dt is fure to break. Obferve, of dado for circular rooms, that you do not adopt the wretched methods of contract-mongers, and taik-mafters, of glu- ing your dado up and down ; the right me- thod of gluing circular dado, is to make a faddle to the fweep of your wall ; if it be a large fweep you may make a fineer half an inch thick, and bind it upon the cylinder or fad- dle ; after glue backings to the fweep behind : rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 155 leave it a few days to dry, and ftrike your work for putting up. There is a method ufed by many of groov- ing dado, for circular pats on the back, at one, two, or three inches apart after, bending it to the faddle, and then glue it in pieces to the grooves, which if well done will anfwer the purpofe ; — fome people faw a number of faw- carfs into the back, and bend it to the faddle as before; after which they glue it in tongues or fillets into the grooves made by the faw, and then ftrike it for putting up. But for good found work the former method deferves the preference. With regard to long lengths of dado, be careful in breaking the heading-joints, and do not, like the tafk-mafters, make a heading- joint quite through. As to the height of dado, the window is to be the guide; leaving the fame margin when the capping is on, as there is from the fhutter to the bead ; when there are backs and elbows, the dado may be put up at plea- fure, or to the fancy of the builder. Some architects propofe a fifth part of the height of the room ; but this will not fuit very low, nor very high rooms. I think dado fhould never be higher than 3 feet 9 inches, nor lower than 2 feet 6 inches. If rooms were all about twelve feet high, a fifth part would do very well ; and fo on to a room of 15 feet high ; when they run above this pitch, for every 6 inches in the room’s height, I would add 1 56 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or> add one inch more to theheight of the dado. If there bp columns or pilafters, the dado fhould in every refpedi be fubfiervient to the pedeftal of the order, S. d. The price of this work, charged by matters, is, per yard, with materials, from 4 s. 6 d. to — 56 Surveyors allow for dado of whole-deal, per yard - — 46 Inch and half ditto — 50 Of inch ditto, per yard — 40 *■ : - — - ? The real value of dado is as follows : The fluff to dado, allowing watte, fhould be to a matter per foot 27 d. nine feet of which is — 1 10 Glue and nails to ditto and keys, per yard — — 04 Labour to ditto, per yard — 010 3 o Some people will wonder how I can fix jc d. per yard for labour; I beg fuch to un- derftand, that this is the neat price a matter pays out of his pocket for fuch work, as proved by the following example : A journeyman of 17^. or 1 $s. per week will glue up fix twelve-feet lengths per day, plane them the fecond, and put them up the third, with cafual breaks, &c. We find therefore that two lengths are one day’s work to begin and The Univerfal British Builder. 157 and finifh ; which two lengths, when put up, may be fix yards ; and which, allowing the mafter 3 s. per day for his man, is but 6 d. the other 4 d. per yard I allow for keying ditto, which makes in all 10 d. S. d. The univerfal price therefore of dado of inch and half deal, is — - 50 Whole-deal fhould be per yard 4 6 Inch ditto — — 42 Circular dado is double meafure, and paid extra for the faddle or cylinder which it is glued upon. LECTURE XXIII. OF MOULDINGS IN GENERAL. T HE guide and matter-piece of all archi- tedlure depends folely on the magni- tude and compofition of mouldings ; thefe are •the leading touches of art, which give force and beauty to whatever is intended ; every thing, of whatever fort or nature, takes its femblance, or changes its efFedt, from the power that is contained in thefe governing principles : how cautious, therefore, (hould every artifl: be in the deligning or compofing of mouldings, fince that on thofe alone de- pends that fplendid eafe, required to attradt the beholder's eye, and enliven the form of imitative nature. The 1 5 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or> The great and mod fenfible difference be- tween ancient and modern architecture, is wholly comprifed in the compolition of mouldings. Notwithstanding fo great and didinguifhing an article to the beauty of all work, as mouldings are, we daily fee fuch productions of this fort, that one would al- mod be perfuaded to think that there was no caufe for them but cudom, nor any proper- ties belonging to them but the form, which might be extended or contracted as ideas or fancy might guide the pen of the artid ; and, I believe, there are many that conlider them- felves as adepts in architecture, who vary but little from the above obfervation. Thofe gentlemen who fatisfy themfelves with opinions of this fort, are as far from the comprehenfion of fymmetry, and real effeCts, as the difference between right and wrong. I own, there is a third for variety peculiar to the Engliih nation, which mud be fatisfied, or the works of art (like the continued form of a worn-out fafhion) would quickly decline, and be difgudful : it is highly necelfary there- fore to drive at invention, to gratify the mu- table tade of fuch a people. But even this Should be done within the rule of propriety ; for excefles in any art are difgufting. The invention of many new members of mouldings were well concerted and intro- duced, by the original authors of them ; but they are now prodituted to fuch a pitch of ex- travagance, that! almod wonder the inventors 5 do The Univerfal British Builder. 159 do not leave this by-road, (which they firft ventured upon, and made familiar and fmooth, to their lafting praife,) and find out fome other iimilar path, in which they may move on, for a time, without let or moleftation. The field of nature will never be exhaufted, nor propriety lofe its power of guidance ; whatever therefore bears a refemblance of the former, within the circumfcription of the lat- ter, is confident with fymmetry, and hath the advantage of found reafon to fortify the in- vention. Any thing eftranged from the above, deviates from the real fenfe of all mouldings ; which are intended to give force and elegance to works, wherever applied. The prefent tafte of mouldings (as introdu- ced by numbers) differs much from this ; for, inftead of giving force and beauty, they in many cafes diminifh the natural grandeur, for want of proper dimenfions. Any moulding, of whatever fort or nature, above the eye, fhould have a projection, that the whole effeCt of the different members may be plainly difcovered, otherwife they ferve to no purpofe. It will be of little ufe to load a cornice with beads, and other fimilar quirked mouldings, if they lofe their effeCt by the diftance. I muft allow, neverthelefs, that mouldings defigned in the above manner in many cafes are pleafing, but they muft be ju- dicioufly appropriated ; for the learner is to underftand, that inftead of lefs, thofe mould- ings require more projection than others ; the quefticn l6o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9 cfueftion not being how thofe things will or do appear clo/e to the eye, but we mult con- lider the diftance at which they are to be viewed ; with the altitude, and natural point of fight. If thefe circumftances were ma- turely confidered, I believe we ihould find* that cornices of all forts ought not to confift of any one of the above particulars ; — archie traves to doors, windows, &c. as well as bafe and fur- bafe mouldings, doors* window-fhut- ters, belexion and other mouldings clofe to the eye, may have thefe introdudlions : — - cornices to rooms of all forts fhould be free; but if they muft be fubjedted in other refpedts to the tafte of the times, the learner is to ob- ferve, never to exceed the following bounds, viz. To make the cornice lefs than i-aqth part of the height of the room, nor to pro- ject lefs than two thirds of its height : and if the mouldings laid down by fome eminent architects be notfufficient for his tafte, I muft leave him in other refpedts to his own fancy l with this point in view, not to out-ftretch the modefty of the above proportions. Of the Practice of Mouldings . The working, or rather the taking-off mouldings from drawings, is a matter of fome confequence to learners ; I (hall not fpare therefore to be as plain and particular as pof- fible, to render this familiar to the weakeft capacity : but muft obferve to the ftudent, if he be a ftranger to this matter, that it will be fbe JJniverfal British BuitDER. i 6 i be requifue to proceed ftep by flep by the fol- lowing example* (as defcriptions in writing are fometimes troublefome to remember) and then in this, as well as all other points of practice, he will be aflured of fuccefs. Example of taking off Mouldings . Before you begin, draw a line clofe to the face of the moulding, (not interfering with any of the fillets) next from this face-line draw another line fquare at the extreme top and bottom of the moulding, which will give the width of your (luff to be planed up; from the face-line draw a line parallel, for the thicknefs of the fluff; next continue all the lines of the drawing into this firft face-line ; and at the projection of each annulet, or fillet, let fall perpendiculars into the face-line too,} which will fhew the wood to be taken out for working your fquares ; the fame for fpring- ing both at top and bottom. Having done this, ftrike a line acrofs your piece of wood, and with your dividers begin either at the top or bottom of the drawing, and take off thefe feveral marks of interfe&ion, pricking them upon the piece of fluff for the moulding ; as likewife the fpringing both at top and bottom ; then fet your gauges to the feveral pricks* and run them all along the piece ; proceed afterwards to work it, firfl taking oft the' fpringing, and fet it upon the fame pofition for working, which it muft be in when put up ; by thefe means you will fink all your M fquares \ 6 i A Key to Civil Architecture ; or* fquares level. If there be an o-gee in the drawing, obferve with your dividers to draw the curve of the hollow into the face-line, the fame as the fillets, which will be your place for pricking off upon your fluff, and the ex- tent of the hollow ; thus if your round be well fitted, and worked txadlly to the line, your kindred hollow, will work the round to an interfedlion of the grealefb*nicety. v There is no other moulding, but this, that requires any obfervation in tine taking or prick- ing off. O-gees and faint hollows are the only difficult mouldings ; with refpedt to the latter, whenever they occur, it is always upon a plane face, as architraves, &c. in which cafe, you muft always leave a fillet at the bottom of the hollow, and rabbit the archi- trave, or other plane, where it is to be applied, becaufe it would be impoffible to work a moulding of this fort to an edge with any ac- curacy. Of the Value of Mouldings . S. d . Mailers charge for all flraight mould- ings, as bafe and fur-bafe, plain cornices, &c. with materials, per foot fuperficial, from is. 2 d. to I 6 Surveyors allow in general — 12 Dentel cornices by mailers — 18 Surveyors — - — 15 Block or modillion cornices, per foot, mailers — — 18 Surveyors The Unfaerfal British Builder. 163 S. d . Surveyors in many places - — * 14 Blocks and modillions at per piece, according to their fize, from i^d. to — • * — 06 Small block cornices are valued all to- gether, %t — — ..19 Dorick entablatures all together;- with mutules, triglyphs, &c. at per foot fuperficial, 4 mailers — 26 Surveyors, * from 2s. 2d . to — 24 But thefe are ufually valued fmgly, the cornice at is. 2d. the triglyphs and mutules at per piece, which an- fwers the fame purport. Architraves, at per foot fuperficial, by maflers f — — 10 Surveyors, from 8 d. to — 10 The univerfal price of mouldings is as fol- lows. To every fuperficial foot of moulding may be reckoned, in general, ^ of a foot of fluff. In fome cafes it will require more, and others lefs, w r hich, of good whole deal, as none elfe fhould be * S', d, ufed for mouldings, we will call o 3 Brads, glue, &c. — o 17 The whole materials to a foot fuper- ■ ficial, are — • 04* The labour to all mouldings worked by hand, (as the others are not worth notice) hands M2 a matter 164 A Key to Civil Architecture \ or* S. d. a matter in near 4 d. per foot, which makes the labour and materials per foot — — . q The univerfal price therefore of all ffraight mouldings fhould be per foot fuperficial — — ■ 10 To prove the labour, 4 lengths of 10 or 12 feet, in two-membered mouldings, are one day’s work, which may girt about three inches each, and make twelve feet in the whole, which, at 4 d. per foot, is 4^. above a journeyman’s wages. Circular mouldings are very badly regu- lated, having no more than double meafure, which is in every cafe too little, both for ma- terials and labour. The real value of circular work fhould be at leaft trebled and, in many cafes, double meafure, and double price. Architraves, double-faced, to matters ihould be the fame as mouldings, both fluff and la- bour having the fame proportions. Single faced architraves are made of thin- ner fluff, with a moulding glued upon them; the materials are not worth more than 2 d. per foot; the labour to ditto, d» id. more ; the real value therefore fhould be to matters, per foot o 64 Many matters charge for this work o & Surveyors allow from 5 d. to o 8. LEC- The Univerfal British Builder, 165 HE nature of a door is too obvious to need a comment ' y I fhall immediately .proceed therefore to relate what is neceffary to be obferved in the practice of them. Moil: kinds of doors fhould be put into the hands of the beft workmen, for they are a part which require great execution y being always in ufe, they fhould be made particu- larly found, firm, and well handled, becaufe they are ever oppofed to the eye ; the great principle of chief merit lies in the ploughing, and flicking the moulding upon the frame ; for without mafteriy performance in thefe two points, all the care taken in planing the fluff, mortifing, tenanting, &c. will be of little ufe ; becaufe in thofe two parts lie the great efforts to a well executed door. There are different ways of putting a door together, but the beft and fureft is done after the following example. When you have planed up your fluff, and mortifed the fliles and rails all the width, pro- ceed to ploughing and flicking^ and cut out what is called the haunching after ; the me- thod adopted by numbers, of haunching the fliles and rails before you plough or flick them,, is a latent notion, invented by fome who were fonder of ftudied maxims, than LECTURE XXIV. OF DOORS- 1 66 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, fort to a clean door, lay in the mortife, and tenant, the maxim would be good ; but as it depends iolely upon the parts before men- tioned, it is obvious, that our particular care ffould be to thefe principles ; which cannot fo well be done to a certainty with the haunch- ing cut out firft ; befides the inconvenience of fpoiling the plane, by knocking the end again ft the notches. — There are others who pretend to be more fure and wife than the laft mentioned, that put their work together fquare, and plane it off on both fides ; then proceed to plough and flick, &c. but thefe are more intolerable than the other ; having not one argument to fupport it ; for if the fluff be reduced irregularly, (which mu ft be the cafe when thus done) the moulding muft con- fequently be fo on one fide, and palpably void both of truth and beauty. There is another observation in fcribing, which it may not be amifs to mention, which is the common error many young men daily commit for want of thought, the attempt of fcribing a fquare or the level fillet of an ovlo on doors, or other framing of this kind : I would beg of thofe who follow this method, to abolilh it, and confider the inconfiftency of mitring two level pieces of equal thicknefs, and to lap one upon the other with a fcribe. As all framing is founded upon thefe prin- ciples, it is unneceffary to fay more of the pra6f.ce of common work; though it may be requifite to lay feme little of bead and fluff; after The Univerfal British Builder. 167 after which I fhall proceed to the value ot doors, with fome remarks touching maho- gany and wainfcot ones. A bead is a moulding which cannot be otherwife framed than by a mitre; hath there- fore a limit or certain extenfion, for every rail or muntin ; and is not like work that is fcribed together, which may be moved to any length within the circumfcription of the eye. The beft method of framing bead and flufh for learners, is, to mitre the work fquare, in this date to put in thepannels, and afterwards fmooth all off together ; then take it feparate, and ftick the bead ; if the pannels be marked, and put to their places, and the bead well ftuck, you may be allured of making clean work. Of Mahoga?iy Doors. Mahogany and wainfcot doors differ from common deal framing on account of the nicety of the mortifes and tenons ; which require great care, no pins being ufed in thefe forts of work, which fhould therefore be made as fmooth as if the whole were executed by a plane. The manner of putting it together is the fame in every refpedt befide as other fram- ing ; except the double margin in the middle, which mufl: always go through the top and bottom rail; the top and bottom rail - mufl: alfo be continued, and inftead of being mor- tifed, that part where the mortife fhould be, mufl: be left as a tenant; and the doubie- M 4 margined 1 68 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9 margined ftile mortifed in this place, and flip- ped on, both at the top and bottom. The true meaning of this method is more forcibly to fhow the effedt of folding-doors, which could by no means be done, if this double-margined ftile were to be tenanted in- to the top and bottom rail ; and the bead run acrofs the grain of the wood. A mahogany door well executed, is, per- haps, one of the neateft pieces of workman- fhip that comes into the hands of joiners. There are many forts of them ; but I fpeak of the beft ; fuch as are worth in the labour only io/. or 12/. making $ numbers of which are in this metropolis, as well as in many noblemen and gentlemens houfes in the coun- try. As thefe fort of doors are unknown in fome parts of 'the kingdom, I (hall take the liberty to defcribe one of them. The beft fort of mahogany doors are cafed, having deal within both ftiles and pannels ; and are made in the following manner : Firft, upon the edges of the ftiles and rails, glue flips of mahogany, of an inch and a quarter each round the pan- nels alfo muft be put a margin of the fame, ibrqewhat broader than the railing, and neat- ly mitred at the angles ; when they are raifed and fineered, a fmall aftragal-moulding is put npon the top of the railing of the pannels ; They mnft Jikewife be croft-banded at both gads, and all the pannels fluted round upon the railings ; the ftiles and rails ftneered as the pannels; rfhe Unfa erf al British Builder. 169 pannels : the reafon of applying the deal, is, for the advantage of fineering ; having more attra&ion than any other wood. It is almoft impoffible to fix a price for one of thefe doors, without infpe&ion, more than the labour ; becaufe it chiefly depends upon the value of the fineers ; which are from is. to ior. per foot, and more ; we mu ft confine ourfelves therefore folely to the labour. A mahogany door, well executed in the above manner, is worth, per foot fuperficial, to a mafter, in labour only, 22/. 10s. 6 d. and will take a journeyman near nine weeks work ; one of thofe doors with the materials is worth 20/. To the learner, who is not acquainted with the nature of fineering, I muft recommend to be particularly careful of his glue ; as moft of the errors that happen in fineering, are caufed by laying on the glue toq thin : glue for ma- hogany fineers fhould be at leaft of treble ftrength to what is commonly ufed for rub- bing of joints ; he fhould alfo be careful that no water get under the fineer, and that the iron with which the work is heated be not moved to any dry place, but where the glue lodges; keeping ftill wetting every part where there may be occafion to move it. There are other mahogany doors, fome fineered and others folid, from 2 s. 6 d. per foot to the above price* Mahogany ijo A Key to Civil Architecture > or> S. d. Mahogany doors folid, and flat pan- nelled, are worth, with the mate- rials, per foot — — 26 Surveyors allow, according as they are in goodnefs, from 2 s. to — 2 9 Mafters charge — 3 0 Thofq which are fineered vary accord- ing to the price of the materials, &c. Wainfcot doors are ufually made with dou- ble margins in the middle, raifed upon the pannel, with an aftragal moulding, and crofs- banded, as mahogany ones, S. d. Any executed in the above manner are worth, per foot fuperftcial 3 6 Surveyors allow to ditto — 3 6 Mafters ditto — * — 4 o Ditto, with flat pannel, per foot iuper- ficial — — 2 3- The materials to a wainfcot door, with raifed pannels on both tides, are worth per foot of good Norway oak, glue, &c. — 14 Ditto, flat pannelled — o 10 The labour to a wainfcot door, raifed pan- nel, double-margined, crofs-banded, and an aftragal mitred round the top of the raifing, is about a fortnight’s work; ditto, with flat pan- nel, 6 days; common doors, ovlo, and flat pannelled on both tides, are 2 * days work. 5 " T’he TJniverfal British Builder. 171 S. d. To a mafter are worth, per foot fu- perficial, with materials — 1 4 Some furveyors allow — 16 Mafters charge — - — 16 Ditto, with raifed pannels on both fides well done/are worth • — 1 10 Surveyors allow from is. yd. to 20 Mafters charge of good fluff, well done — — 20 The labour to one of thefe doors is four days. Bead and flufh doors of deal, 2 inch fluff, work on both fides, are worth per foot fuperficial — 16 Surveyors allow from is. to — x 6 Many mafters charge — 16 For bead and flufh, 2 inch fluff of wainfcot, work on both fides, fur- veyors allow from is. 9 d. to 22 Mafters charge — — 2 2 The labour to one of thefe is 6 days. Bead and flufh doors, on one fide, per foot, are charged by mafters, at • — — — o 10 Surveyors allow from yd .. to 010 The labour to one of this fort is 1^ day. Ditto, ovlo and flat pannel, of whole- deal, work on one fide, fquare back, the mafters charge o 10 Surveyors allow from bV. to 010 The 172 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, S. d. The materials to whole-deal doors, ovlo and flat pannel, are worth per foot fuperficial — 0 34* The labour to one of this fort of doors is 14. day. This fort of work, ftuck with an o- gee, or any other moulding the fame. For whole-deal fquare-framed doors, and flat pannelled, furveyors al- low, per foot Angle meafure, from 5 d. to — — 07 Matters charge — — * o 7 The labour to one of thefe doors is one day’s work. The materials are worth per foot o 2 *- The univerfal price thould be per ft. o 54 For whole-deal ledged doors, ftuck with a 4 o-gee ploughed and tongued, furveyors allow, per foot fuperficial, from 8 ^. to ♦ — I o Matters charge from 10 d. to 1 1 The materials for one of thefe doors, of good yellow deal, nails, &c. are worth per foot fuperficial o 5 The labour to ditto, lA day; which may be about 3*/. per foot more; the univerfal price therefore ihould be per foot 9 id. The learner is to obferve, that tjie ledgings or frame of one of thefe doors is mortifed and tenoned together, and the frame fo contracted, when < Tbe Univerfal British Builder. 173 when nailed on, as to leave a rabbit both on the fides and the top for a flop againft the door-cafe. „ For whole-deal doors, plain, with a * bead upon the edges, and battens nailed upon the back, for ware- houfes, &c. furveyors allow, per foot of yellow deal, from 5 id. to o 6 f Matters charge — — -07 The materials for one of thefe doors worth, per foot — o The labour 1 day’s work. The uni- verfal price therefore fhould be, per foot — - — o 64 All half-inch batten doors are worth per foot, fluff and labour o 3.1 Some matters charge ~ 0 44* Surveyors allow from 3 d. to o 44- For large coach-houfe doors, &c. yel- low deal, of 24- inch fluff* bead and flufh in front* and filled with flufh behind, or framed fo, the matters charge per foot - — 20 Surveyors allow from ijv 6 d. to 20 The materials to this fort of work are worth, per foot — o 74 The labour to thefe doors is worth, per foot, 10 d. the univerfal price therefore fhould be, per foot 1 8 1 LEC. 174 Key to Civil Architecture ; or, i LECTURE XXV. OF FLOORS. A Floor is the plain area, or fuperficial content of a room ; of thefe there are divers forts and qualities, as of Norway oak, clean deal, fecond beft ditto, battens of three forts, white deals, &c. but the beft are of oak. There is nothing very particular in the prac- tice of floors ; though it may not be improper to make two or three obfervations : the firft is, when the workman prepares his boards to be very careful not to fhoot the edges too much under : for, if that be done, they are then fure to creak, a thing very difagreeable : the next is, that he be particularly careful, that the joifts next the walls be diredtly ftraight, and that the boards in thofe places (when laid) be of an exadt thicknefs, and ftraight acrofs ; for if there be any defedts, they are fooner difcovered at the ends of the boards than ii\ the middle befides, there is the difadvantage of their remaining fo, becaufe they cannot fo well be fmoothed off. The next thing is, when you plough and tongue the ends of the heading-joints to lay that tenoned firft ; in fo doing you will have two-thirds of the board to nail through ; whereas if you lay the ploughed one firft, you have but one third ; befides, you will have the difadvantage of making both your joints with a rabbit-plane, which is troublefome. «*' The The Unlverfal British Builder. 175 The next obfervation is, when you lay a dowel-floor, to be fure to bore for the dowels, and utterly abolifh the tafk-mafters method of punching the edges ; alfo, when you mark them, do not be over anxious in giving too much draught to the pins, for by fo doing you will not only take away the efficacy and flrength, but likewife bruife, and render the heading joint more defective than if it were not clofe at all. With regard to the number of dowels, if the joifls be no more than 10 inches apart, one dowel between every joiffc will do ; if 12 or 13 inches, there muft be two, and of oak floors three. The matters charge for dowel-floors jT. s. of Norway oak, from inch and eighth to inch and quarter fluff, per fquare yard, is — 5 10 Surveyors from 4/, 10s. to — • 55 The materials, dowels, &c. are worth per fquare yard, of good Norway oak, inch and quarter fluff — 3 3 The labour to a fquare of wainfcot- floor, well done, is fix days work ; the univerfal price therefore fhould be per fquare — — 4 15 For clean deal- floors, clear of fap, the matters charge per fquare, from 4/. sos. to — — - 70 Owing to a particular value they fometimes fet on boards of an un- ufual length, which they get clean to lay through without any head- ing-joints. I have i /6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; £. I have known a matter In London charge for particular boards, per fquare — — io The fluff unprepared coft i id. per foot ; and the matter had kept it by him feven years, to ferve a par- ticular occafion. Surveyors allow for clean floors of deal, from 3/. 151*. to 4 The boards and dowels to a fquare fhot, clear of fap, are worth per fquare — * * — 3 Labour to ditto, 47 days ; the uni- verfal price therefore fhould be 4 Second beft ditto, doweiled, matters charge — — 4 Surveyors from 3/. to — • 4 The materials are worth per fquare 2 Labour, four days ; the univerfal price fhould be per fquare 3 For common ftraight joint floors, the matters charge per fquare fhot, clear of fap — • 2 Surveyors allow from 1 /. 1 $s. to 2 The materials of fhot clear of fap, are worth per fquare — 1 Labour to ditto, 24 days ; the real value therefore fhould be per fquare — » I For common folding-doors of white deal, the matters charge from it. 10/. to — — 1 4 s< 10 *5 o *5 o o 5 *5 2 o IO 18 l 3 Sur- The Univerfal British BuildefL 177 £• s. Surveyors allow from 1 /. 5 s*. to 1 13 Good white fluff appropriated for floors, is worth per fquare, whole- deal — ■ — 1 5 The labour to ditto, two days ; the univerfal price therefore fhould be at lead — — 113 Note, the nails and furrings are included in the materials to all the above prices. The quantity of nails to all floors is as fol- lows : To folding and ftraight-joint floors, every fquare will take 250 nails ; dowelled ditto, 130. LECTURE XXVI* OF GROUNDS IN GENERAL. G ROUNDS are the level or plane fur- faces on which all works are fixed, and require but little execution; though it is re- quifite all thefe things be noticed in the put- ting up; becaufe on the juft and ex ad: form of grounds, depends the confequence of many material matters'; fuch as the hanging of doors, window-fhutters, &c. as well as the fixing of architraves, mouldings, See. Grounds to doors muft always be ploughed on the edge, if not mortifed to receive dado, if any be ufed. In making grounds to windows, care fhould be taken that they are not bevilled too much, N left 178 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or , left that fliould be an impediment to the back- fhutters ; which is very frequently the cafe. Grounds to windows ftiould be reduced to J- of an inch upon the edge, and ftiould not be bevilled more than -L more, unlefs the window-fliutters be in fpacious buildings, and run from 12 to 16 inches wide; in fuch cafes there is no difficulty. Grounds in general are charged by mafters, and allowed by furveyors, per foot, from 27 d. to 37 or , thicknefs of the joint of the hinge ; then drive in brads at thofe pricks; to which put the fhutter, and fcrew it to ; and when open- ed, it will exactly turn to the place required. S d Window-fhutters are but very indiffe- rently paid for ; the matters charge per foot for front (butters, ovlo and flat pannel, bead and butt on the back — — I o Surveyors allow from ic d, to I o The materials to window-fhutters, ov- lo and flat pannel in front, and flufh bead behind, are worth per foot fu- perficial, with glue, &c. — ° 4 The labour to ditto, hung double, to a matter is worth per foot gd. there- fore the price of front- fhutters: (hould be — — r 3 Ovlo and flat in front, and fquare be- hind, hung Angle, fhould be mea- fured with the back-flaps and lin- ings ; if they be framed, and all reckoned as Angle work, at per foot fuperflcialy if well done, the charge fhould be — — 10 There is no way either for matters to be paid for their trouble, or gentlemen to have their work w'dl done, unlefs this way of fet- tling the matter be adopted. The method by furvevors of meafuring front fhutters at value and half, and back-flaps but Angle meafure, at Tdhe Univerfal British Builder, i 8 i at the price of io d. the former, and yd . the latter, will in no wife pay the labour and half the fluff. For fuppofing a window of 18 feet, the making the {butters, fitting in, and hanging ditto, is at lead five days work; which we will call only The fluff, glue, &c. confidering the difadvantage of cutting to wafle, is worth, per foot all together, 3 ^d. which is — I will fay, to front fhutters 9 feet, at 1 od. * — — Back-flaps, nine more, at yd. ditto S. d. *3 4 4 11 18 3 7 6 5 3 I 2 9 We find, by the above obfervations, that the labour of making and hanging fhutters to a window amounts to i8j\ 4 d. and that the price allowed by many furveyors is only 12 s. gd. with materials ; I will appeal therefore to every fenfible man, if this matter does not require a better flipulation. Some people may think that five days la- bour is more than thefe things will take ; and fo it is with fome men ; but we are not, in labour, to judge from the bed workmen, but take the cafual run in a (hop ; and if we do N 3 that. * 1 82 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, that, I believe we (hall find, in a window well done, but little variation from the time before mentioned. Talk- m afters, indeed, would do it in three days ; but work fo done is of little ufe, when compared to, or placed near, fomething of the fame kind from a ca- pital fhop. The real price of window-fhutters fhould be fettled according to the following example : Inch and half fhutters, fluck with o- ^ gee or fancy moulding mitred toge- ther, flat pannels with moulding round ditto, flufh and bead, or ftuck with an ovlo, &c. fhould be per foot Angle meafure — 20 Ditto, railed in front on the pannel, with aftraga! moulding upon it 2 3 Ditto, fluted upon the railing • — 36 Back fhutters to ditto, framed bead and. flufh — 1 q All common window-fhutters, fronts and back-flaps framed, fhould be valued all together at per foot fuper- ficial, with materials — - I Q Common ovlo fhutters, fquare behind, back-flaps plane, per foot all toge^ ther — • — - o iq Thefe prices are as low as any mafter, that does reputable work, can afford, to live by. L E C~ rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 183 LECTURE XXVIII. OF WAINSCOT TING. W AINSCQTTING, in this refined age, is quite obfolete, and feldom ufed, except in fludies, or offices for fervants, &c. I ffiail omit therefore faying any thing of it more than its value. d . For wainfcotting with yellow deal, fiat pannel, per yard, mafters charge from 4 s. 6 d. to — 50 Surveyors allow from 3 s. 9 d. to 46 The materials, whole-deal, and 1. pan* nels, are worth per yard, glue, nails, putting up, &c. — 26 The nett labour to a yard of vvainfcot is, on the neareft calculation, valu- ed at is. 2d. the univerfal price therefore ihould be at leaft 4 Q For fquare wainfcot, whole white- deal pannels, of 4- ftuff, mafters charge from 3^. to — 3 6 Surveyors allow from 2 s. lod. to 3 3 The materials to a yard of white-deal, fquare wainfcotting, are worth 2 o Nett labour to ditto, i\~d. the ge- neral price therefore fhould be per yard — — 33 For 2 inch partitions, fquare, and fiat on both fides, mafters charge per yard — - — 46 N 4 Surveyors 184 A Key to Civil Architecture 5 or, S. d. Surveyors allow per yard from 4 s. to 4 6 The materials to a yard of this fort of work are worth, per ditto, about 2 6 For the labour to ditto, at the neareft calculation, a mailer mufl pay, is, is . 6 d. the univerfal price therefore cannot be lefs than ■ — 46 For fquare wainfcot, framed Audi for hanging canvas againft, for paper, &c. the maders charge — • 29 Surveyors allow from 2s r. 4 d. to 28 The materials to a yard of this are worth — — 16 Nett labour to ditto is. the univerfal price therefore of this fort of work fhould be • — • — 2 9 Of Backs and Elbows. Thefe are a good invention of wainfcotting, appropriated to the backs and elbows of win- dows, and framed after the manner of the lhutters, which make not only the windows of one connected form, but alfo give more room, by the advantage of the projection of all the bafe and fur-bafe mouldings, which flop againfl the architraves, and in this cafe go down to the floor, or finiih upon a fquare plinth the height of the fkirting. This; Hhe TJniverfal British Builder. 185 5 . d. This fort of work is but poorly paid for ; the price charged by matters is, per foot — — o 64- Surveyors allow from 5 d. to o The labour to one foot of this work is 3 d. nett ; the materials are worth, per foot, ovlo and flat, 3 the univerfal price therefore to matters fhould be 77 d. or l — o 8 LECTURE XXIX. OF SASH-FRAMES AND SASHES. S ASH-Frames are a part of the bufinefs eafily underftood, and require but little fkill in the execution ; the principal care Ihould lie in the dividing the pulley-piece, fo that there be room for the fafhes to move ; obferve alfo, that if your faihes are to be hung with iron weights, the pulley-block Ihould be put within three inches of the top ; elfe, if your frame be lhort, you will not have room, on account of the length of the weights. Ob- ferve likewife, with regard to the inflde lin- ings, that they be not lefs in width than 44- inches. By fo doing you will oftentimes pre- vent a great deal of unneceflary trouble in hanging the back- (butters, and alfo have fuf- ficient room for bars, &c. Sadies, well made, require good execution, and fhould always be put into the hands of men 3 86 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, men of merit and experience, becaufe they are a part of the branch that is ever oppofed to the eye, therefore fhould be made particu- larly clean ; efpecially that fort which is duck with an adragal and hollow. There are many particulars to a well-made fafh, which the learner mud be apprized of; firft, the planing up the duff ; fecondly, the fettingout; thirdly, the mortifing; fourthly, the filiidring, and flicking the moulding ; and, fifthly, the great principle or mader-droke, which is the wedging up ; for on this de- pends the beauty, or real effedt. The learner is to underdand that the chief merit of a fafh is attributed to the draightnefs of the bars*, and luperficies, which may be to- tally di (concerted by an unneceffary blow at one fingle wedge, though the whole work to it befide be ever fo welhdone ; great care there- fore fhould be taken of this matter, as well as the forementioned obfervations. There are many ways of putting an adragal fafh together ; the bed method is to mitre the whole moulding, not through into the mortife, but a little lower than the face of the moulding, on both fides, to the extreme point at the top. The rail or bar which is tenanted mud be mitred, as if for fcribing ; and then cut un- der with a faw, from the point to the tenant. Obferve, in doweling fafhes, that the dowels be not fhorter than four inches. Safhes The Univerfal British Builder. 187 S. d. Safihes and frames are generally valued together, from is. 2 d. per foot to 20 For fafti-frames with oak-foils, pulley- pieces and outfide linings of ditto, inlide ditto of deal, the matters charge, with aftragal fathes of good Norway oak, from ij*. 6d. to 20 Surveyors allow from is. Ad. to 20 The materials of fath and frames to- gether, to the above particular, are worth per foot — 07 The nett labour to ditto, fafti hung double, is about — o 6 The real or univerfal price therefore per foot together fhould be — 14 Aftragal fafhes alone are worth per foot, with materials, and well made o 9 Ditto, ftuck with an ovlo — * 07 The mafters charge for the former 1 o For the latter from lod . to — on For fafti-frames, with oak pulley- pieces and foils, the out and infide linings deal, the head fineered, and oak fafhes, ftuck with an ovlo, the mafters charge — 1 9 Surveyors allow from is, 3 d. to 18 The materials are worth per foot o 6 Labour — . — 05 The price therefore fhould be 1 3 For deal fafti-frames and fafhes the mafters charge per foot — 10 Surveyors allow from nd* to — 10 The x 88 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, S • d. The materials are worth per foot o 4 The nett labour 3 -\d. the genuine price therefore per foot fhould be o 10 Deal fafhes alone are worth per foot to a matter — — 0 5 Salhes to fronts of fhops, of mahoga- ny, ftuck with an aftragal and hol- low, to a mafter are worth per foot fuperficial — — 10 Mailers charge from is. to — 1 3 Surveyors allow from lod. to — 10 The materials to mahogany falhes are worth per foot o 6 Ditto, all fhop-fronts that are made out of the common method, fuch as odtagon, figures, &c. are worth per foot — . — 18 The nett labour to ditto ~ on Circular figures double meafure. Ditto, of wainfcot or deal, the fame as common falhes, to a double price. LECTURE XXX. OF DOMICAL SKY “LIGHTS. A Domical fky-light is a part of the branch which requires a great deal of practice, or at leaf!: if it be put into the hands of a perfon unacquainted with its principles, he Ihould be a tolerable adept in other par- ticulars of pradtice, as well as have a profound knowledge of lines ; not that there is any 4 thing T^he Univerfal British Builder. 189 thing very extraordinary belonging to it, more than other circular work, after the confe- quence of the weather is guarded againfl, which mufl be maturely confidered before he cuts one piece of fluff. The belt method of doing this fort of work, in my opinion, is to make fliles of the upright ribs, (though it be not the common rule) as having by this a better opportunity of rabbit- ing the rails, which muft be done for the upper end of every pane of glafs, fo that the pane above lhall reach over 2. of an inch, for the clearer effedt of difcharging the water. The mode of making a fky-light, in point of workmanfhip, is to make them exadlly domi- cal within, and flick them as another falh, making the fluff no thicker at the bottom than the top ; the outfide (for my own part) I would always make flraight with the glafs both ways, and cut the fliles out in notches, which will appear like flripes one above an- other, as the , dome naturally rifes ; if the plan be an exadl circle, and have a concen- trick crown, one templet will do for all the ililes. The way to get the fize of all the rails, to every different fweep, as the dome diminifhes to the crown, is, firft, draw the lize of two ribs, with the outfide marked to the glafs; and on thofe ribs fet out the fedtion of all the rails ; from which draw perpendiculars into the ground-plan, which will give you the ex- a£t fize of every circle to the crown ; to every ©ns 190 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9 one of thofe it may not be amifs to make moulds, which will more pertinently point to the learner the length, of the rails, becaufe upon each mould, and at every Aile he can fet out the exadt fize of the fluff, and there- by be furer of his lengths ; when thefe things are once got, he may proceed with the fame accuracy as in other circular works. S. d. The value of a domical fky-light, if meafured Angle, is worth to a ma- tter per foot — • — 56 Materials to ditto, of wainfcor, per foot — — 20 Of deal — • — 18 Safli- makers can afford them confiderably cheaper. LECTURE XXXI. OF STAIR-CASING. O F all things to be confidered in a build- ing, there is nothing fo material as flairs, nor any thing that requires half the abilities, either to plan or execute. Thefe may therefore juftly be called the mafter-piece of accommo- dation in every edifice ; for, on a proper dif- pofition, or difpofal of flairs, depends (in a great meafure) not only the ftrength and beauty, but the chief eafe and deportment of the whole ftrudture. A < TheVniverfal British Builder, igr A whole volume might be written upon this fubjed, and, when done, fo various and extenfive is the manner, as well as mode of ex- ecution, that this very effential point muff at laft be unavoidably left to the builder’s judg- ment, without it were poffible to define every plan and fituation that could in any wife hap- pen ; a thing totally beyond the power of art. However, it will not depreciate the judge- ment of any architect, to give this point a particular confideration, before one flone or brick be laid ; and not (as many do) leave an article fo material to the whole, to be jumbled up without either grace or freedom. Many people are of opinion, that there is no difficulty in flairs, provided there be room enough. I mart allow, that to the workman it is much eafier, when the place affigned is fpacious, the flories high, and entirely void of impediment ; but, at the fame time, it is alfo to be obferved, that it will re-quire a mafterly thought in the architedl, to allow fuch a vacuum or opening, without endanger- ing the ftrength of the llruclure ; this parti- cular is to be maturely confidered, and not for the fake of fo neceffary a part facrifice the confequence of the whole building : though (on the other hand) it would be the height of imprudence, to conftrud, or defign one in- elegant or infufficient to the purpofe ; and by endeavouring to avoid one error, plunge into iimilar abfurdities ; it is upon thefe principles therefore that our judgement fhould operate ; fludying 5 192 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ftudying firft their intent, properties, and con- venience; the nature of the building will per- tinently point out the mode of execution, and what will be adequate to the reft of the works propofed ; the whole of which, more than the executive part, muft depend, and that folely, upon the builder, or furveyor’s judge- ment. Several rules and precepts might be laid down, concerning the form, as well as ma- nagement of ftairs ; fuch as to have a liberal light againft all cafualtics of flips and falls ; that the head-way, or fpace above, be in every refped free and lofty ; that half paces be judicioufly diftributed, and at competent diftances ; that the breadth of fteps be never more than feventeen inches, or lefs than eleven ; and, that they exceed not by any means feven inches in height, in order to prevent our legs from labouring more in elevation than diften- lion ; that to prevent encounters by the way of calling, ftairs fihould never be lefs in lati- tude than four feet fix inches ; and many more of the like obfervations might be made, though they cannot be ftridly adhered to, for this fpecial reafon, that every fituation of ftairs is tied down to the rules of difcretion, and under the nectfiity of providing againft its own inconveniences. Now though it may not be amifs, for every furveyor or builder, in the firft defigning of a houfe, to confider the nature of the work itfelf; what fort of ftairs have the beft effed, both The 'TJniverfal British Builder. 193 both in form, and when executed ; he per- haps might avoid, in fome meafure, thofe technical contracted plans, which are treble the expence of elegant flairs, and which often deflroy that gracefulnefs which fhould con- fift in an analogy, or correfpondence, with the beauty of the whole building. It is from the forementioned obfervations, that the principles of flairs will ever be a matter of the firft confequence in every age and to every fludent ; for unlefs it were pof- fible to communicate wifdorn, fome people would not be benefited by a volume written upon the fubjedl of planning flairs. There are many more obfervations, touch- ing the practice of flairs, which I fliall treat of as they may occur to my memory ; omit- ting nothing that may conduce to the benefit of mankind, to whom I humbly dedicate my endeavours. Though there be as great a variety of forms of flairs, as there are fituations ; yet their principles of practice are generally reduced to three, viz. geometry, bracket ditto, and thofe called dog-legged flairs. Geometry flairs are of that conflru&ion which feems, to the illiberal and vulgar, to have no fupport for the Heps, having neither carriages, nor leading-pieces to bear them ; the properties of which I fliall hereafter de- fine. Bracket ditto, are fuch as have firings and newels, and are fupported by carriages and Q leading- 194 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or, leading-pieces of timber ; the bracket of which is mitred to the end of the rifer of the flep, and finishes upon the firing-board, which is moulded like an architrave, &c. What are called dog-legged flairs, are fuch as have no vacuum or fpace between the lead- ing or returning flight, but wind round one newel to the top ; thefe, if there be room, have alfo leading-pieces for their fupport ; if not, they are fometimes fixed into firings on both fides, and put to the bearers for the winders. LECTURE XXXII. OF THE PRACTICE OF STAIRS. B EFORE I begin to define the practice of flairs, I beg the reader to diveft him- felf of all fuperfluous notions, fuch as the un~ connected lines laid down by many architects, as well as the fludied maxims praClifed by numbers, and follow the fenfe of his own rea- fon, clofe with the inflrudtions I fhall point out, and I make not the leafl doubt, but he will (after he has maturely weighed the prac- tical methods I fhall here give) be capable of executing any thing that may occur in the courfe of the whole. If he be totally unacquainted with this matter, I mult entreat of him (if it may not be convenient to take my inflruClions to his bench) to ftudy them till he know them by heart ; Univerfal British Builder. 19^ heart; by To doing, he will have the advan- tage of purfuing his work without let or mo- legation* LECTURE XXXIII. OF THE PRACTICE OF DOG-LEGGED STAIRS. T HE elevation of dog-legged flairs de- pends folely upon the nature and the fize of the place they are to be fixed in, fuch as the length and width of the plan, as well as the heights of the different (lories ; but the chief article to be confidered is the height 5 for let the plan as to length be ever fo fhort, you mud have a fufficient tread for the fleps ; the advantage therefore for getting up mud be taken in the half-fpace, which may be di- vided into any number of winders required ; for the better underflanding of which, mark the following examples. Firft, Upon a board make a fcale the flze of the ground plan, viz. the length and width; in the middle of the width fet out the newels; and this done* you will have the length of the fleps. 2dly, Divide your length to the half-fpace for the number of flraight fliers, both going to the half-pace, and returning from it, to the firft flory ; then leave the half^pace till you have divided your height. jdly. By the fide of the ground-plan con^- tinue up your newels ; and, having divided O 2 the 196 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, the height into the neared number of fleps you can have, count the number of draight fliers, both going and returning; the remains,, to make up the height of the dory, mud be had in the half-pace, equally divided. 4thly, Continue the lines of the width of the fleps upon the plan of the fird draight flight, and likewife meet them from the dif- ferent heights marked upon the newel, which will form the fedtion of the ends of the fleps ; afterwards, to the treads, fet on the projec- tion of the nofings, and with a draight edge, draw a line clofe to them, which will be the upper edge of the flring ; next fet out the width of the flring, allowing for the thick- nefs of leading-pieces, laths, and plader, &c. Then draw the fide of the rail parallel to the flring, two feet wide upon the fquare, with knee, &c. if there be one, and this will complete the geometrical fedtion of the fird flight. ^ 5thly, Count the number of winders in the half-pace ; at the top of which draw a bafe line, equal to the length of your returning flight ; which may, perhaps, confid of one or two lefs than the fird flight, as may be convenient for the advantage of the landing ; proceed then with drawing the fedxion in every refpedt as before. The ufie of drawing the fedtion of flairs is only to give the learner a clearer light into the nature of fetting out his newels for mor- tifing, which may be done equally as well ; b y T he Univerfal British Builder. 197 by fetting out the height and width upon a rod : but this is only to be done by people who have had fome practice, or at lead; are in pofieflion of fertile ideas. When you ufe only a rod without drawing the fedion, as before obferved, count the height of the fleps in the fird ftraight flight ; from which fet out the width of the mortife downwards,- next fet out the height of the winders, and the fird ftep of the returning flight, with the rake of the nofings, which will give you the top of the mortife for the returning flight ; and proceed with the red as before. The learner is to obferve, with regard to fixing his middle newel, that the noting of the fird winder be exadly fiufh with the in- fide newel, that the whole thicknefs may be put into the half-pace ; alfo on the returning flight, that the nofing of the fird draight flier be flufh with theoutfide of ditto into the half- pace : and this order mud be followed with refped to newels in all flairs whatfoever. LECTURE XXXIV. OF SETTING OUT A NEWEL FOR TURNING. r “T“^HE way to make a proper limit for the J[ bottom of the turning, is to take the rake of the fleps nofings, allowing thicknefs of the capping ; and where that falls upon the infide of the newel, is the mark for turning : O 3 the 198 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, the newel of the returning flight muft have the addition of one ftep in height, and then the rake of the pitch-board, or noflngs, as before obferved. OF SETTING OUT A CAP, AND MITRING URST, draw the width of the hand-rail. and add to this the projection of the mouldings on both Tides, for the outward di- ameter of the cap ; to which draw a circle ; then fet within this circle the projection of the mouldings transferred from the firaignt rail, and draw inner circles to the different mem- bers ; and alfo from the ffraight rail draw the fame lines of projection into thofe circles ; and where they interleCi, will be the points for mitring the cap, drawn by a ftraight edge to the point, through different interfeCtions ; then cut out the piece neatly, flick it in again with glue, and fend it to the turner’s, B RACKET -Stairs differ nothing from what has been already defined of dog- legged ditto, with regard to newels and firings; only thofe have a well-hole between the lead- ing and returning flight; fome fquare, others LECTURE XXXV. DITTO SQUARE, BEFORE IT BE SENT TO THE TURNER’S. LECTURE XXXVI OF BRACKET-STAIRS. circular The Univerfal British Builder. 199 circular or oval ; and, inftead of the ends of the fieps fitting to the firing-board, (as be- fore obferved) the fixings are cut for the re- ception of the fieps ; not through any motive of ftrength and bearing, but for ornament, that the bracket may be fixed, and mitred to the end of each rifer, againft the firing, with the nofings of the fieps continued round, which covers the joint of the bracket to the end of the ftep, and hath a beautiful efifed: when well executed. The fame method, with regard to drawing the feCtion of flairs, as before obferved, i would ftill propofe to learners in every refpeCt, both for firings and rails, as well as ramps and fcrolls, which will anfwer every point, both with refped to knees, ballufters, &c. There is no difficulty in thefe flairs more than the clean execution ; ballufters exactly dove-tailed into the ends of the fieps, within the nofings properly divided ; the rifers all glued to the covers, with backing-pieces glued on the infide of the ftep ; and, when put up, the under fide of the ftep nailed or fcrewed into the under edge of the rifer ; and, when finifhed, put on the brackets of ftrength under the fieps, well nailed to each leading-piece. I muft inform thofe who are unacquainted with the method of gluing rifers to fieps, that the beft method is to make a frame, or tem- plet, to fix them in, with a place cut out for the projection of the nofing; afterwards glue Q 4 on 200 A Kf,y to Civil Architecture ; or, on the hollow under the nofing, and work them when together. I hope the reader will underftand what I mean by a templet; it is only fixing two up- right pieces in any thing, with notches cut out of each, the exaCt projection of the nof- ings, to which put the front edge of the ftep, and then glue the rifer to the cover clofe to the above pieces, &c. OF GEOMETRY STAIRS. HE pradice of geometry flairs, which hath ever been confidered as a m after- piece of art, is founded upon as great a prin- ciple of ftrength, as is requifite for the con- fequence of the invention ; which is only to carry a certain weight, or vibrating pondero- ftry, in any cafe inferior to the power that fuftains it. In order to prove this, we have only to meafure the length of the ftep, and weight of ditto and rifer, added to what we propofe to go into the wall ; then meafure in the nature of continued quantity, as I have already de- fined in the lefture of the lever, fimilar to the following example. The power that equi-ponderates with any weight, muft have the fame proportion unto it, as there is between their feveral diftances: if a ftep therefore be four feet clear, and fix LECTURE XXXVII, inches T’he Univerfal British Builder. 201 inches into the wall, the weight upon the end in the wall muft be as eight to one. Suppofe we fay the weight of the ftep and rifer, with the weight of a man, which we will call 20 ftone ; that multiplied by 8 gives 20 hundred, for the power to fuftain a man upon the end of one ftep naked in the wall ; but we muft confider that three fourths of this weight will be taken off* by the fupport of the under ftep : if we divide 20 therefore by 4, we fhall find, that 5 cwt. or yolb. placed up- on the end of every ftep loofe in the wall will be fufficient to Qfarry the weight of any man, without either wedge or nail ; provided any thing be placed to keep the fteps in their proper pofition ; but what is this trifle in comparifon to the preflure of a wedge, and the weight of a wall, or truffing of a parti- tion ! which, with interftices properly framed, will be adequate to the confequence of any flairs thus conftrudted. The reader is to obferve, with regard to fteps of longer bearings than 4 feet, that it will be neceffary to augment the thicknefs of the covers, according to the following pro- portion. All fteps of four feet clear fhould net be thinner than i-I i nc 'h ftuff* and for every fix inches more of length, one eighth more fhould be added to the thicknefs ; alfo that geometry fteps go into the wall one tenth part of their length. There 202 A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr 9 There are a kind of geometry flairs which wind round a column or pillar, whofe bearing or certain gravity tends to one centre $ thefe mud be a little mortifed into the pillar, the rifer about an inch, and the tread as much as the fquare of the end of the cover will re- quire, to be juft clear at the points. Thefe forts of flairs are moft frequently ufed for pulpits, &e. and would almoft hang with the common fupport at the top and bot- tom however, the additional bearings into the pillar are of great fervice. The method of putting thefe fteps together, if they be clean worked on the under tide, is to dovetail the rifers into the cover : and when put up, fcrew the flep to the under edges of the rifers all the way up ; afterwards fit in pieces of wood, neatly matched, in the holes made by the fcrews ; the brackets are mitred to the rifer, and the nofing of the flep conti- nued round. This is much the cheapeft way of doing geometry flairs ; but there is a great defedl of weaknefs in the brackets hanging m the above manner, loofe as it were, and hav- ing nothing to fupport them from every ca- fualty ; yet to me the ancient method of moulding the fteps underneath, in the form of the bracket, is heavy, unnatural, and very expenlive, efpecially to winders. There is another method made ufe of by fome, which is the putting up blocks, and fcrewing them well together ; and after co- vering them with rifer and tread, inftead of brackets. T’he Univerfal British Builder. 203 brackets, framing the under fide of them, fo that each ftep appear as folid : thefe fort have not a bad efledl, were it not that the expence is fo very extravagant. The bed and fimplell method of making geometry flairs, is, to put up a firing as in others ; mitre the bracket to the rifer, and finifh to the firing ; then lath and plafler un- derneath, and finifh with light belexion mouldings of plafler; alfo if the building be elegantly finiflied, it may not be amifs to in- troduce a light ornament in baffo relievo. It is neceffary here to obferve, that the ri- fers of 2 inch fluff, to geometry flairs of this fort, would greatly add to their folidity. I think it needlefs to fay any thing more relative to the properties or practice of flairs, feeing the forementioned hints, with a little experience, mufl be fufficient to a very ordi- nary capacity ; I fhall inflantly proceed there- fore with my remarks on the nature of hand- rails, &c. HE manner of gluing up a twill to the fcroll of a hand-rail, hath ever been (by workmen) elleemed a mafler-piece of the branch, and is considered by numbers as an incomparable flroke of art ; in order therefore to render this part of practice as clear as pof- fible to the different capacities of workmen in general, I fhall be as circumfpedt as the fub- LECTURE XXXVIIL OF HAND-RAILS TO STAIRS. 204 A Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or, jed will allow, through an earned defire that no man may lack any thing in my power to communicate. The firft thing the learner ffiould confider, is the nature of a fcroll; its extent, and the caufe of the twift. Thefe things once under- flood, the practice of it will be obvious, and rendered very familiar. Whoever was the firft inventer of a fcroll to a hand-rail, I will affirm, that he was a man of enlarged ideas; and, though the invention be rather inade- quate to an elegant ftrudure, and inferior to fomething which might be propofed for the purpofe, it is, notwithflanding, judicioufly contrived, and hath an eafe in its mode of finishing, which will ever render it an objed of notice in every age, A fcroll is the periphery or circumference of a number of circles in a declining ftate, each lefs than another ; to draw this therefore it requires nothing more than to find out the centres, from whence lines laid down to va- rious points, fhall have given differences ; which, when once found, will always be the centers required to form the volute; and may be either extended or contraded in number at the difcretion of the workman, or as the fize of the plan may require. The caufe of the twift is the geometrical elevation of the hypothenufe of a right- angled triangle, which muft of courfe turn up when moved from its dired line of elevation ; and will be more or lefs according to the height The Univerfal British Builder. 205 height or raking- line of the pitch-board, the pitch-board being the right-angled triangle before mentioned, which is made from the height and width of the ftep ; and being cut diagonally, gives the hypothenufe or rake of the rail. The intent and nature of a fcroll, is to finifh upon a level the raking of the rail ; which, if not brought to this conclufion, mull: either be ended in a newel, or would finifh on the ground ; becaufe every raking-line hath an intent or tendency to a point of reft ; there- fore, in this cafe of a hand-rail, it is wittingly flopped in its courfe, and brought to the above judicious conclufion : fo that in the Ample practice of this, the learner has nothing to confider but the height he hath to rife, which is one flep, from the level part of the eye to the height of the pitch-board, which will di- rectly meet the raking of the ftraight rail, and muft be effected with an eafy decline, in the natural winding ftate, to the very edge of the fcroll. To the gluing up this there are three prin- cipal things to be confidered : The firft is the matching or appropriating the fluff, fo as that the ftraight rail and grain of the twift (hall unite, and appear as if cut out of one entire piece of timber. The fecond point to be confidered, is the fituation of the raking part, and how much is added to it by the elevation, which bears the fame 206 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or* fame proportion as a raking moulding to a level one. The third and laft confideration is the fall- ing of the twift from the ftraight rail to the eye of the fcroll, which muft be done in fuch a manner that it lhall appear with eafe and beauty. People who have had practice in gluing up hand-rails, muft have acquired every tenet relative to it, and have no occafion to gather the leaft inftructions that may or can be pro- pofed by any author. To folve this particu- lar for pradtice, to thofe who have not, is the great fource of this article ; I will propofe therefore the fimpleft method in art and na- ture, in order to form a proper conception adapted to the weakeft capacity. LECTURE XXXIX. A DEFINITION OF GLUING UP HAND-RAILS WITHOUT LINES. S UPPOSING a man have a thing of this fort to do in a remote part of the king- dom, where there is not an architedi>book in poffeflion either of the mafter or himfelf, and the whole idea they can form of the matter, is, that upon the firft ftep the hand-rail turns round to an eye or cap of a newel, and forms a fcroll, to fuch a perfon I propofe the fol- lowing method: After he has put up the fteps, and cut out the firft by his eye to the beft appearance he can. IT he Unrjerfal British Builder. 207 can, let him plane up the ftraight part of the hand-rail, and lay it down upon the nofings of the fteps : fecondly, let him alfo cut by his eye a mould to the fize he propofes his hand-rail, obferving to give the eafieft turn to the rail he can ; not abridging the fweeps, but bringing them down within two inches of the front of the ftep, then turn them round to the eye, after the beft manner he is able : thirdly, let him cut by this mould a piece or block for the eye thicker than the depth of the fide of the rail, by fo much as the thicknefs of the pitch-board is, from the bafe line to the rake, two inches from the firft point ; which will be as much as the rail hath to fall, from the fquare of the twift to the eye: fourthly, let him get out one or two pieces to make out the width of the twift, and glue them againft the fide of the ftraight rail, and to this block, which will make the whole ; obferving that thefe pieces, which make the twift, are to be cut with the pitch- boards raking-line; which, when glued, or proffered to, will be anfwer- able to the block and ftraight rail, and alfo give the rife of the twift. When thefe pieces are held againft the rail, the learner will find, that he will want wood upon the top-fide of the ftraight rail, and the under-fide likewife ; thefe muft be glued on, or left upon the ftraight rail folid before it be planed up ; I fay, if he glue the pieces on, and cut the outfide of the rail by his eye, as near as he can, fquare from the ground-plan. 20 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , and from the outlide fquare the top of the rail, and gauge the width and thicknefs, from thele two tides, neatly cut by his eye, I do aver' this method will do ; and, if he hath a good eye, will have a pretty eftedt without ever a line. Though fome adepts in the practice of hand-rails would laugh at fuch a method, I beg leave to tell them, that I have laid down the lines to feveral people, and fhewed them their properties, yet have not been able to make them underftand, without having re- courfe to fome timilar practices of this kind; not that I propofe this fcheme to men who have either feen, or have the leaft conception of flairs, or hand-rails ; but to learners who have had no pradtice, and who may not have the leaft idea of it. To people w T ho have a knowledge of buti- nefs, there are other confiderations : Firft, the raking-mould, which muft be made acf- equate to the length and width of the twifted part when held upon the rake, and perpendi- cular to the ground-plan; likewife the mould for the back or fall of the twift, from the ftraigh't part to the level part of the eye, both outfide and intide. Many people ufe no mould for the infide of the rail, but make the top or back of the rail fquare from the outfide. But this method is not fo good ; for if it be done in that manner, when you mould the rail, the fall from the ftraight 4 The Unive7'fa! British Builder. 209 flraight part will be too rapid, and caufe a fort of lamenefs. The next method, or matter to be thought of, is the fquaring of the pieces before they are glued on, which may be eafily done, and is a common pradlice ; and when they are glued on, to be fini died and moulded, one joint is left open to be broke, for the better convenience of working the fcroll. The way to find the raking-mould for the curve or turn of the twilled part of the hand- rail, is, firft to draw the ground-plan of the rail, and thereon represent the pieces which are to make the fcroll, or twilled part of the rail ; upon the ground draw the width of the firll Hep ; then laying the pitch- board down flat upon the plan of the firft ftep, the bafe of the pitch-board againll the rail, draw the width of the rail into the raking part of the pitch-board, which will give the width of the end ; likewife draw the height of the turn of the twill through the pitch-board, and fquare from the raking-line ; and draw diffe- rent lines from the plan drawn through the raking part, and take off the feveral alliances with your dividers, from the bafe of the pitch- board to the plan, and transfer them from thence to the raking part, in the manner of an angle-bracket ; and you will have the rak- ing mould required. But things of this fort are much better un- derllood by lines, or infpedlion, than defcrip- tion ; in cafes therefore of this fort, as well as P for 2io A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, for the method of drawing a fcroll, I refer my reader to thofe drawn, with their manner of performance, as ihewn by architects. Obferve, that if you make ufe of a raking- mould, (though many do without) you muft make it of pafte- board, in order that it may bend to the declivity of the rail ; other- wife you cannot fo well mark the top of the rail by it. By the raking-mould your pieces are to be cut for the turn and width of the rail ; the mould for the fall of the twift, and regular curve for the top of the rail, are done in the following manner. Upon the ground-plan, where your twift begins upon the ftraight rail, divide the out- ward curve-line into any number of parts, and transfer them upon a ftraight line; at the end of thefe place the pitch-board, which you will underftand is the height you have to rife; then divide the raking-line of the pitch-board into any number of parts, and likewife the remainder of the ftraight line, from whence you began the firft part you transferred from the plan ; afterwards draw interfeftions of ftraight lines, which will exa&ly give the curve of the under fide of the rail ; and fet up the depth of the fide of the rail parallel to this, and you will have the curve of the whole twift ftretched out ; with this mould you are to cut your pieces both at the top and bottom ; alfo the ftraight part of the rail that begins to turn up, right away to the level of the eye, and your work will be properly fquared The Univerfal British Bvi-lder. 2tt fquared before it is put together ; obferve that in the gluing of them, you do not let them twitting one to another, and likewife perpen- dicular to the plan. LECTURE XL. THE METHOD OF DRAWING A SCROLL. T HE method of drawing a fcroll is to form a circle equal to the width of two fleps, divided into eight parts : from the cen- tre draw a leffer circle, for the fize of the eye, larger than the width of the rail by the addi- tion of the mouldings, as a cap to a newel i from the firft draw a tranfverfe diameter, and through the centre again draw a conj ugate one ; then from the outfide of the inner circle, to the large one of two fteps, divide the upper part of the conjugal diameter into eight parts* for the diminishing fcale ; from the outward circle, upon the lad mentioned diameter, draw a line to the outfide of the ftraight rail to the point of the tranfverfe diameter, fet the other point of your dividers, and defcribe a fweep to the diagonal line, which will be the width of the fcale ; the eight parts drawn through this, to the point of the diameter at the outfide of the rail, will give the different parts 3 all to be fet upon the diameters, or eight parts, as they follow of courfe ; when fo much is done fet your divider from the centre of the eye, to the outward part of the circle, and move it to the firft eighth part, next the P 2 ftraight 212 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ftraight rail, making a mark in the eye ; and likewife from the diameter, or a little above upon the ftraight rail, fet your point, and find the mark in the laft made, which will be the centre for the firft eighth part ; then proceed with the fecond ; and fo on to the eye. If this be not plain enough, I muft refer the reader to the drawing of a fcroll. Obferve, that there is no neceffity to make a fcroll equal to two fteps, nor to follow the manner I have faid of the fize of the eye ; either of which may be made larger or lefs, as fancy inclines the artift ; only confider the fize you make the outward circle, and from that to the inner one, divide the fcale into any number of parts you choofe to diminish by, and draw, or divide the greater circle into the like ; proceed then as before ; fometimes a fcroll is made equal to a ftep and a half ; fometimes but one ftep ; and fometimes but a quarter of a revolution ; according to the tafte of the furveyor or builder* LECTURE XLL OF RAMPS. A Ramp is a portion of a circle ; the cen- tre of w T hich being formed by a fquare line drawn from the rake of the rail, and the level of the knee at the top of the half pace continued to this line, gives the centre for drawing the curve of the ramp, which is in height the rife of two fteps fometimes in parti- The TJnmerfal British Builder. 213 particular cafes, fuch as where there are winders, ramps rife three or four fteps; but thefe have a bad effedl, owing to the upper part of the ramp having almoft no curve. Ramps, if poilible, fhould be cut out of the fame plank with the flraight rail ; in the laft mentioned cafe, the ramp muft be glued on to the flraight rail. LECTURE XLIL OF GLUING UP HAND-RAILS TO CIRCULAR PLANS. T HE many various forms and modes of difpofing, to the belt advantage, a de- crepit or bad concerted plan for flairs, often draws a fertile genius to wreflle with incon- veniences more deftru&ive to his tranquillity, than matters apparently of much more con- fequence. Stair-cafing may juftly be called an art of peculiar tendency, becaufe the more labour is fpent in the execution of its particular parts, the more it is fubjedted to bad caufes and ill eftedts, from the very motives that fhould add grace and freedom to the nature of it, which is in the manner of the hand-rail, and can never by any fcheme be made pleafing if flretched into any irregular form, as upon plans that confifl of a compound or mixture of fleps, fuch as winders and fliers. Stairs of this fort cannot, by any power in wifdom and nature, be made to have either a 2i4 AVLky to Civil Architecture ; or , pleafing or a good appearance ; yet it will not be poflible always to avoid them. It is greatly to be lamented, that the diffi- culty required to execute all irregular plans to flairs, fhould not make furveyors more care- ful in the difpofing of them, feeing they have not one good quality either in circumftance or mode to recommend them ; and yet fo in- fatuated are the builders of this age as to things of this fort, that we fcarcely fee one good building, but it is merely contrived for a pile of thefe unnatural productions. However, lince thefe alone are the tafte of the times, it is fit we thould endeavour to point out the moft iimple and judicious me-» thod for executing their hand-rails. There are many ways of gluing up a hand- rail to a circular, oval, or elliptical plan ; but the beft, in my opinion, if we have but little ground or opening, is, to do it in thicknefies after the following manner : firft, glue up a cylinder of plank to the fize of the well-hole^ and having rounded it to fit the plan, draw upon it the feCtion of the ends of the fteps. If it be an entire circular plan, a ftraight edge will touch all the nofings, and the rail will be in a proper natural rifing pofition < but if we have any ftraight fliers before the winders, and the fame after to finifh the ftory; the rail, inftead of retaining its natural figure, will, through its own inconveniences, be transformed to the fhape and almoft figure of an S } for the learner is to obferve in hand- 5 rails The Univerfal British Builder. 215 rails of this fort, that an additional length is obliged to be given to the handlers, in the circular part upon the winders, in order to remedy the defect which is cauled by th$ fudden elevation of the fleps ; and which for diflenfion, or breadth of covers, throws us above our natural pofition both in afcending and defcending, and obliges us, for the be- nefit of having hold of the rail, to have re- courfe to the above experiment ; for without this, we fhould be in danger of falling over the rail in the above-mentioned part ; that very place therefore, which fhould in reafon (to give a pleafing appearance to the rail) be loweft, is for the motive above-mentioned unavoidably and indifpenfably confined to be the highefl. There are fome neceffary obfervations re- lative to the practice of thefe rails; the firfl is, the confideration of the matching of the fluff, which is to be contrived and cut out of one entire piece of timber, and the fineers all appropriated to the fame places they are cut off, in regular fucceffion ; obferve alfo, that in the getting this timber cut, you maturely fludy the fize wanted both ways ; and re- member, that to a rail of two inches and a half, it will require a piece of timber fix inches wide, to allow for the faw-carffs and planing up, efpecially if the opening doth not exceed two feet. There is another obfervation, relative to the depth of the fluff* for the fize of the rail, P 4 which 2 1 6 A Key to Civil ArchiteSlure ; or , which requires fome thought, if the plan con- fift of winders, and flraight fliers to finifli the (lory; for the learner is to obferve, that the turn required to the rail, both to the winders and from them, is lubjeded to a caufe which he never would think of, till either pradice or inflrudion convinced him ; therefore that it will be highly requifite for him to leave an inch more breadth to the fineers, than the depth of the rail ; the ground of this maxim is, that no body of fineers applied one upon another in a riling flate, if they be turned from their natural courfe, either up or down, but will vary in the laying, as much as the difference of the two twills, between the firft mentioned flate of riling, and that which the rail is turned to when continued to the fliers; and perhaps, according to the ground of the opening, one thirty-fecond part of an inch ; if your rail, therefore, require to be glued in twenty-four or more inches thicknefs, you will be fo many half-fixteenths of an inch out of fquare in the turning part, (more or lefs, according to the plan, and number of fineers required ;) this width then mud be given to the fineers before they are laid, to be fquared off afterwards. In order to lay fineers upon a cylinder, ob- ferve the following example : If you have no convenience for doing this, and are obliged to make ufe of bed- fere ws or wedges, lay all your fineers together upon tha cylinder, and ferew them down all the way dry, and l)ay- The Univerfal British Builder. 217 Jng prepared pieces of wood to lie acrofs the rails at 9, 10, or 12 inches apart, with holes bored through them fo as to anfwer to be clofe to the rail ; oppofite to thefe bore holes again in the cylinder, fit to receive them. If the cy- linder be of plank fluff, this will be fufficient attraction ; but if thinner, I would propofe the fetting your cylinder upon (tools, or legs, for the convenience of getting underneath, and put the fcrews through the under-lide, making ufe of the nuts upon the top for con- finement ; having then loofed one half, take the afliftance of two men, one to hold up all the fineers, the other to lay them down fuc- ceilively as you glue them, and afterwards all hands to be fixing the fcrews ; this, if well done, will be the mod judicious method of making any rail of this conftruCtion ; and having fo done, proceed as above, to the other half. The reader is to obferve, that if the rail be for a regular plan, either circular or oval, he will have no occafion to augment the width of his fineers more than is juft neceffary for clearing off, becaufe the rail will come off the cylinder ready fquared. With regard to the number of fineers to form the adequate thick- nefs, you muft be fomewhat particular, in order to have a few (havings to plane off the outfide ; becaufe where the fcrews are applied, the fineers will naturally be clofeft, and con- fequently leave hills between, which will want planing off when (truck. 2i 3 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, The learner is to take notice, that if he hath not Ieifure to wait till the rail be dry, (which, in the beft weather, will require three weeks) he may proceed as before, and glue down another by the fide of it. Many of the profeflion argue againft rails of this fort, and give a preference to gluing them up folid > but I cannot fide with them in opinion. To an opening of three feet and a half, or four feet, where the rail may be cut out of one entire plank, that may be a feafible me- thod. The great point of matching the fluff* to fmall-grounded plans (glued up folid) will ever raife objections to the reCtitude of this mode of appropriation, befides the danger of io many joints, and all glued acrofs the grain, which creates a fault in the ftrength, and is in no wife equal to the purpofe. However, if the learner be infatuated to this method, the beft way that I can propofe for the execution of it, is, ftill to make ufe of a cylinder, and either cut the top off to the pofition and rife of the fteps, and fquare from the perpendi- cular of it, which will be adequate to the ground ; or elfe cut out the pieces, and fit them fide-ways to the cylinder, by the nofings of the fteps, as you would do with the fineers. This work may be done without the trou- ble of making a cylinder, by finding or mak- ing a mould for the backing of the rail : but there is a great difficulty attends this praClice, and it is hardly to be found correct. Every author The ZJniverfal British Builder. 219 author who hath attempted the manner of laying this down, is in point of difgrace; none having arrived at a proficiency, nor is it to be well done without pra&ical allufions: As I lay down no lines, and a defcription without them would, in this particular, be no fervice to the learner, I muft beg his ex- cufe, and refer him to the true methods al- luded to ; which, when once he is in poflfef- fion of, will furnifh him with comprehenfions for any other fubjedt of this fort. I beg likewife to obferve to the learner, that if the plan confift of fliers and winders, in the fneeting or joining of thefe two parts he will be careful to give the rail as eafy a turn as poffible, and not diredtly follow the fteps ; alfo that he leave wood both at the top and bot- tom fide of his fineers, at the joining of the twift to the fcroll (if it be a regular circular plan, it will require very little) and with the fcroll proceed in every refpedt as to a ftraight rail. With regard to firings to circular ftairs, I would not propofe the gluing them up in fineers, but folid ; efpecially, if the plan be only circular at one end ; in fuch a cafe glue them up and down in the manner of the cy- linder 5 and cut to the fedtion of the fteps, at the upper edge 5 and at the bottom in a re- gular rifing ftate, as in the ftraight part. Strings to circular ftairs are worth per foot 4/. bd* LEC- 220 A Key to Civil Architecture or, LECTURE XLIII. / OF THE VALUE OF DOG-LEGGED STAIRS. OR common dog-legged flairs, S. d. with bearers and firings includ- ed, the mailers charge from 9 d. per foot to — * — 10 Surveyors allow upon an average about 8 \d. or — — 09 The materials to ditto of yellow deal, bearers, firings, nails, &c. upon the nearefl calculation are worth o 3^- The nett labour about 2 d. the univer- fal price therefore may be, per foot fuperficial — — o 7 Rails and baniflers to ditto, of inch deal, planed fquare to reprefent iron, are w T orth per foot, if balluflers be included, newels turned, capped, &c. — — < The labour to ditto is worth to a ma- iler — — Mailers charge, when valued this way, per foot — — : Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to : J Some furveyors meafure the rail fuper- ficial, including newels, at per foot : and allow per ballufler, with cap- ping, &c. - — - — Which comes partly to the fame money. 6 If tte Univerfdl British Builder. 221 S. d. If the newels be not turned, nor cap- ped, the price is, .or fhould be, per foot — — 1 9a Ditto turned balluflers of 2 inch fluff, per piece — — 07 For bracket-flairs of flrong fluff, per foot, the maflers charge — 1 3 If of fecond-befl rifers and covers 1 5 Surveyors allow to ditto, from ij*. to 1 4 The materials to ditto are worth, per foot, 5 d. the nett labour well done, about 4^* d. the univerfal price therefore fhould be, per foot, ij*. or I I The firings meifured at the above price; the architrave at lod . per foot luperficial. The brackets, if plain, per piece o 9 If carved, from ij*. 6 d. to — 26 For ditto of clean deal, per foot fuper- ficial, the maflers charge, from ij*. 6 d. to — — 20 The furveyors allow from ij*. 3 d. to 18 The materials according to the ground of the tread, if very good, are worth per foot — — 08 Labour to ditto about 6 d. we cannot fix the price therefore at more per foot than — — 1 5 Architraves and brackets as before. Geometry-flairs, of clean deal, with a firing, are worth per foot fuper- ; * ficial from 2 J*. 6 d. to — 3 o Thefe 222 A Key to Civil Architecture $ or, S. L Thefe forts both the mafters and fur- veyors in common are unacquaint- ed with, it being rare to lee one done this way. The materials to ditto with rifers of z inch fluff, good fcrews, &c. are worth per foot fuperficial, if they be wedged in a plank in the wall, from 9 d. to — — i o Labour to ditto is worth to a mafter i io Geometry-ftairs moulded under the Heps, according to the bracket, are worth per foot, from y. to — 3 6 The materials to ditto are worth 2 o Labour to ditto — — * r o For mahogany hand-rails, fcroll and ramp, the mafters charge per foot fuperficial, from 3.;. to — 46 according to the goodnefs of the The mahogany to ditto is worth per foot, of Jamaica wood, b^d. of rat- tan, $d. labour to ditto is about 2J*. per foot ; the real price therefore lhould be per foot — 3 6 Surveyors allow from 2 s. 6 d. to 40 For all circular rails double meafure, which in feme refpedls is too little, as weith-rails, or fo ; if the fur- veyors will not be perfuaded out of their humour, and will allow no more ^he Univerfal British Builder. 223 S. J. more than double meafure, the price fliould be per foot — 76 Labour to ditto Angle meafure 7 6 Allowing alfo is. per foot for the cy- linder, deal rails, fcroll and ramp, worth per foot — • — 2 0 Matters charge for ditto — - 2 3 Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to 20 LECTURE XLIV* OF FRONTISPIECES. T HE word Frontifpiece imports the fore- fide or entrance of a door, ufually made richer and more beautiful than the reft of the exterior work. There are many diffe- rent forts of thefe ; but the mod elegant are fuch as are made according to the defigns of one of the five eftablilhed orders, invented and delineated by the ancients. The moil confiderable of them for the purpofe is the Dorick, on account of the large projections of its cornice, which prevents the inclemency of the weather from attesting thofe who may have occafion to wait at the doors for admit- tance ; a matter of very great confequence* The manner of appropriating the orders to frontifpieces, is to lay afide the pedeftal, with all its appurtenances, and let the bafe of the column finilh upon the firft ftep with a fub« plinth. Th« 224 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. The method of proportioning the Dorick order to frontifpieces, is to let the whole be guided by the proper fymmetry of the door, in the following manner : Make the height of the door equal to two diameters ; after- wards divide the width of the door into four parts, and one will he the diameter of the co- lumn ; the height of the column, bafe, and capital will be equal to 8 diameters; the ar- chitrave, frieze, and cornice are 2 diameters high ; the pediment is in height two-ninths of the width ; the Dorick column diminilhes one-lixth of the diameter at the bottom. The Tufcan door may be divided alfo into four parts, one of which is the diameter of the column ; the height of the column, with bafe and capital, is equal to 7 diameters, the entablature 2, which make the whole height 9 diameters, the pediment as before. For the lonick front, the door's width mud be divided into 9 parts, two of which are the diameter of the column ; the height, with bafe and cap, is 9 diameters, and 2 the height of the entablature, which makes the whole 1 1 diameters high ; the proportion of the pe- diment the fame as before. To proportion a Corinthian frontifpiece, divide the width of the door into 5 parts, one whereof is the diameter of the column ; the height, with bafe and capital, is 10 diameters ; the entablature 2 ; the height of the pedi- ment 2*9ths of the width, 4 The ¥he Univerfal British Builder. 225 The general proportions of the Compofue order are the fame as the Corinthian. The component parts to each front may be had by confulting the orders, as a defcription here would not make any addition, or be at all clearer than may be feen by infpedion. The practice of frontifpieces may be reckoned equal to any thing in the bu finels *, it may not be amifs therefore to point out its proper- ties, and where the difficulties lie, fo that the learner may proceed with judgement and ac- curacy. The defign being fixed upon, and the fe- veral mouldings laid down at large, with the pitch of the pediment, diameter of the co- lumn both at the bottom and top, with the cap and bafe drawn from them, 6cc. the fir ft thing the learner fhould turn his thoughts up- on, is the gluing up the columns, which can- not be trifled with ; for thefe being badly ex- ecuted, will totally eclipfe the beauty of the whole ; notwithftanding, the vaft mafs of mouldings, and decorations, fuch as the tri- glyphs, mutules, frets, caps, bafes, &c. as well as the circular-foffite, and jamb-lining, which, are all very efifential points, and muft be done well in their place, to render it an objedfc w r orthy the notice of the publick. And firft of the columns. The learner is to obferve, that the cufto-* mary method of gluing up columns, is to di- vide them at the bafe and cap into eight parts: which when done will (hew the thicknefs of Q_ the 226 -^Key to Civil Ar elite St ure ; or, the fluff required ; to find this, draw the lines acrofs through the circumference, and after- ward lay down the lines clofe by the outfide of the circle, both at the top and bottom of the column, which will fhew it in an octa- gon flate, and point out the width of the itaves both at the top and bottom ; this width will vary as much as the column diminifhes on one fide ; when you have got the width of the Haves at the top and bottom, you muff then confider that the natural intent of all columns is to be reprefented fwelling, (either from the bafe or from one third of the fhaft : but for fronts of doors I approve of the for- mer method, or at leaff within one foot of the bottom;) and cannot be got otherwife than by diminifhing the outfide of the Haves equal to one fide of what the column dimi- nifhes to the top ; the firfi thing therefore, after the Huff is fawn out, is to diminifli the Haves by a board cut for the purpofe intended. As the diminifhing a column is a fecret to fome, I fhall endeavour to point out a clearer and more judicious manner than was ever of-* fered to the publick before. Firfl, draw a circle for the fize of the co- lumn below; and within it another, which will be the fize of the top ; and having drawn a line through the middle, for the diameter upon it, where the inner circle cuts, draw a line fquare into the outward circle, which gives a portion of what the column dimi- nifhes ; then, having got a board equal to the length j The Univerfal British Builder. 227 length of the fhaft, divide it into any num- ber of parts you pleafe, fuppofe eight; next with your compaffes divide that portion of the outward circle (which the fquare line cuts off) to the diameter into eight parts alfo; and draw lines from each into the fquare line, all tend- ing to the centre of the circles, which will give the fcale. Afterwards take off each part, and transfer them into the diminifhing board, from the flraight edge, driving in brads at each point, about which bend a regular thin lath, which will form the diminifhing-board required. Obferve, when you diminifli fluff, if you are pinched for thicknefs, that you need not plane it all off at the top end ; for it matters not whether it be taken off the top or the bottom. To that it do but fit the templet above-mentioned ; and be but at each end pricked off and planed to a regular thicknefs, 1 that the pieces of cants, which mufl be glued on the infide for ftrength, fit the infide of the ftaves. Having gone io far, fet your bevil to the edge, and make a little templet to fit the outfide of two by the drawing when together, in order to try them, when you joint the edges ; and glue them at firft two and tWo together; then glue them in halves, and after- wards glue the two halves together, which will complete the whole; for a frontifpiece you may not perhaps want more than 7 ftaves, in which cafe you are firft to glue 6 together by two's, afterward one more, or joint them Qjs one 228 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , one againft another in fucceflion as you do other joints. The learner is to obferve, that if the iron of his joining-plane be not particularly fquare,, when he comes to round his columns, his joints will be open, which will have a very difagreeable appearance, befides being very defective in point of ftrength. The method of rounding a column is, to cut a board circular the lize of the bafe, and another the lize of the top, and nail them on to each end, having bored holes to put pins through at each end, hang them in a creel, by the fide or on the top of the bench, for the advantage of turning them round ; plane them to the templets at each end, and by the diminilhing board for length, and your work is done. Bafes and caps are fometimes glued up as columns, and fometimes got out as folid of different thicknelfes ; the latter method is much the flrongeft, though attended with more expence ; obferve in this laft method, that the thicknefs of the fluff be always equal to the moulding, and the joints always in quirks and fillets. ( Having done the columns, bafes, and caps, the next matter of material confequence, is, the fronton or pediment, which is fuperior in fize to the level work, in proportion to the pitch ; the moulding and other decorations therefore will require to be made adequate to the purpofe. The The Univerfal British Builder. 2 29 The fimpleft way to find the fizeand curve of a raking-moulding, is, firft, to draw the level one ; from which, fet out the height of the pediment, and draw lines parallel from the level fillets by the raking-linc, and paral- lel to each other at the top end ; in any part of the raking lines, draw the fize of the mould- ing, equal to this width, with the projections of the level moulding ; afterwards draw a line through the face of each, the fame as you would do to draw the curves of an o-gee or fima nedta ; and, having divided this face- line into any number of parts, draw them fquare from this 1 aft-mentioned line into the moulding, and transfer them to the raking part, which will give the points for tracing the curves ; this may be done full as well by pricking off the curves in the middle of the level moulding, and transferring them to the raking one ; and, after finding a centre that will ftrike three pricks, will draw the raking curve required. The way to cut a raking- mould to mitre to the level one, is, to make a pitch-board equal to the rife of the pediment, and putting it in- to the mitre box, fet the moulding upon it; then cut it in the fame manner as another mitre. The way to mitre a little o-gee round the block, and mutules in a pediment, is, to make a fmall jack for the purpofe to fhoot them in, and glue them on before they are put to the pranceer; the learner is to obferve, that there Qj muff 230 A Key to Civil Architecture •, or , muft be three forts of mouldings to cap a block upon the rake, which bears this analo- gy; as the level moulding is to the raking one, lo is the raking ditto to the returning one of the top, and found in the fame manner as the other; now as the putting together the diffe- rent works well, can only be acquired by practice, for any further explanation on that head, I mud refer the reader to it, as it is im- poffible to communicate execution. Of a circular Cofit e to a F rontifpiece. The beft method of gluing up what is called the (tiles of a foffite, is to do them in two widths, and break the joints ; if they are to be (tuck, that is, framed, you mud be care- ful to turn the grain with the edge all one way, for the advantage of (licking the mould- ing, and to fineer the (files the thicknefs of the fquare of the plan ; the beft way of con- fininga fineer upon any concave circular-work, fuch as the above (files, or fuch as may be wider, is, to plough a couple of fuch pieces, and having nailed one faft upon one end firft, afterwards thruft the fineer round with the end into this plough-grove, which will give the exa£t length ; then, when you have laid on your glue, thruft it in as before, and put^ ting on the other piece likewife, nail it faft down upon the other end, and if your fineer be long enough, the glue will all be properly fqueezed out without any other force. If The Univerfal British Builder, 231 If the foffite be plain, I would only make a fineer, and cut out ribs to bend it upon, with rails acrofs equal to the width, then proceed as before obferved ; after the fineer js on and dry, glue backings on the outfide, which is much the readied way, and will an- fwer the purpofe well ; the jamb-linings are the fame as to any other framing. LECTURE XLV. OF THE VALUE OF FRONTISPIECES. F FRONTISPIECES, if valued properly, fhould in every refpedt and part have a different price. S. d. Firft, the jamb-linings, which fhould be made particularly well, if of flat pannel, are worth per foot to a ma- iler — — . Of raifed ditto — » — - Of bead and flufh — — The materials are worth per foot, whole yellow deal — Surveyors allow, and mailers charge for them when well done, from lod. to — — For the ground to a front, the mailers charge, per foot — Surveyors allow from 6d . to — The materials are worth 2 ~d. the la- bour 3 d. the price therefore may be cu 0 5 1 4 o 8 0 7t \ 7 If o 272 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, S. d. If the columns, bafe, and cap, be va- lued together, which is the cuftom with fome, the mailers charge per foot from ij*. 9 d. to — - 26 Surveyors allow the fame, according as the work is executed ; but the moft general price is — 20 The materials, to ditto, are worth per foot fuperficial, including the core of timber, which fhould be put through all columns, to take the weight off the bafe and cap o 9 The nett labour, with expence of turning, per foot ■ — * o 8t If f r bales, are folid, and the labour altogether well done — • o 1 r The real price therefore fhould be per foot fuperficial — • — • 110 For all level mouldings, the maflers charge - — — - 1 2 Surveyors allow from is. to - — 12 The raking mouldings — * 1 3 Mouldings of all frontifpieces, as they are, or at lead lhould be, all of good yellow deal, are worth per foot • — — — 10 The architrave and cornice, with frieze taken together, is worth per foot with the triglyphs, bells, &c. 2 6 The materials to ditto, are worth per foot — — o 6 The at the bottom' 8 10 S-2I46 1— « 1 \ fhould be .10 12 is h 9 - Jf of oak at bottom. If at the top. In. In. In. In. 8 by 9 7 by 8 9 ioi. 8 9 10 124 9 10 Small 2$o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, Small Rafters. Length. Scantling. Ft. In. In. 8 , 3 t by at 10 44- at 12 Jt 24 Purlines in large buildings (where they arc framed into principal rafters) fhould be 9 inches by 8 $ in fmall buildings, when laid into the collar-beams, 4 by 57; railing-plates, and all wall-plates fhould be 9 by 5 ; lentils and difcharging-pieces, 9 by 6 5 bond-tim- ber, 6 by 24- ; taffels ditto. LECTURE LVI. OF THE VALUE OF CARPENTERS WORK. inoft judicious method of valuing carpenters work, is to eftimate it by- the cubical foot at the following prices : S. d. All warehoufes, ftorehoufes, and other large buildings, that require large fcantlings of timbers, may be valued per foot cube for the timbers, at 16 With a charge for the labour, fuch as it may properly deferve. For carpenters work done in large buildings of the firft clafs — 1 7 Ditto per foot cube Ditto The Univerfal British Builder. 251 S. d. Ditto of the fecond and third clafs of buildings — • — 18 To buildings of the fourth and fifth clafs, the timbers may be at per foot — — 1 9 All bond timbers and lintels, per foot cube'at — - — - 19 Labour to all common roofs to a ma- iler is worth per fquare — 9 0 Ditto to kingpoft roofs, with purlines 12 o Floors wfith binding and bridging- joifts are worth per fquare 8 6 All common floors at per fquare 8 o All partitions at per fquare — » 80 All timber framing is worth per foot cube for labour to a mailer, from 47 d. to — — c 8 All framings of timber, fuch as fla- blings, &c. planed, are worth per foot cube, labour only, to a mailer >vhen of fir — — 1 3 Ditto of oak — — 16 Extra work of trufling of girders at per foot run of oak — 08 Ditto of fir — — * 07 New oak framing at per foot cube 3 6 All old oak wherever appropriated is va- lued at the price of new fir. The 252 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. The following is the Price and Value of Carpen ters Work by the Square . X- s . Framing of floors, with binding- joints, and all materials of oak, from 2/. 15^. to — — 3 10 when the timber is valued in fcant- lings at 3J*. per foot. Surveyors allow, when girder, bind- ing-pofts, bridgings, and cielings ditto, are, of oak, from 2/. ioj*. to 3*5 Note, the materials to a fquare of the above floor are worth, when the oak is cut to fcantling, at 2 s. 8 d. per foot — — 28 Labour to ditto ioj*. therefore 3/. 5J*. per fquare is as little as can be al- lowed. As materials of every kind vary in e- very county, I muft beg my reader to abide by the labour in this par- ticular for the country, and value his fluff at a fair appraifement. For floors of fir, with binding-joifts, the matters charge per fquare from 1 /. ioj*. to — • — 22 Surveyors allow about — ■ 1 16 The materials at is. 6 d. per foot in fcantlings are worth — 14 Labour to ditto 8 j*. 6 d. the price there- fore fhould be about — 1 18 For HheUniverfal British Builder. 253 For common naked floors of fir, the mafters charge per fquare, from 1 /. 8 s. to — — 1 iS Surveyors allow about the fame for thefe as the bridging floors ; be- caufe the quantity of materials run near the fame; the latter rather more. The price of thefe floors is not extra- vagant, when of fir, being per fquare at — — 1 18 The nett labour to them is about 6 s. the mafters charge — 9 o Surveyors allow 8 s. 6 d. which fliould be the univerfal price for labour. For framed partition fcantlings 4 by 3, the mafters charge per fquare, from il. to — — 1 5 Surveyors allow per ditto — 10 The materials are worth, of fir, 12s. the labour to a mafter 8 s. therefore we will call it — — 12 Ditto trufledpartitions, labour is worth per fquare — — o 10 All bond-timbers, lintels, difcharging- pieces, &c. are charged at is. 9 d. per foot cube. For framing of king-poft roofs, with purlines, &c. per fquare of fir, the mafters charge — — 3 10 Surveyors allow from 2/. 15^. to 3 o The 254 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. The materials per fquare of this fort of framing are worth about zl. 3.^ the nett labour ioj*. the price there- fore fhould be — The labour only of this work to a mafler is worth per fquare For common roofs with a ridge- tree the mailers charge per fquare, with all materials, from 1 /. 15^. to Surveyors allow according to pitch from 1 /. 10 s. to — The materials to a fquare of this fort of roofing, with raifing-plates, tie- beams, ridge, &c. are worth Labour to ditto to a mailer is worth gs. the price therefore is low enough at — * — Extra work to truffing of girders, beams, &c. at per foot run, of oak Ditto of fir, per ditto — Bridged guttering, of whole deal, is worth per foot fuperficial Ditto with oak bearers — Rafters feet and eaves-boards for date, per foot fuperficial - — For door cafes, framed of fir, rab- bitted and beaded, at per foot cube, mailers charge — Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to £• s* 2 i 3 0 rq 2 o 1 16 1 6 I *s s. d. 0 8 0 7 0 6f 0 74- 0 4t 2 8 2 8 The TLhe Univerfal British Builder. 255 S. d . The labour to one is worth per foot cube is. and the materials 4 by 4 1, to a door of 6 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 3 inches, are worth ij*. Sd. the price therefore of 2 s. Sd. is little enough ; the beft way of valuing thele is to meafure them fuperficial, at 4 d. per foot. For centring for groins, per fquare, matters charge — • 120 Surveyors allow from 9J. to — no The materials waited, See. may be valued at — — 60 The labour to making, finking, &c. to a matter is very well worth 6 s. therefore the ftandard is 120 Framed quarter-paces to ttairs per foot, with materials, from 8 d. to 10 Leading pieces of fir, per foot cube 2 o LECTU RE LVIL OF PLUMBERS WORK. P LUMBERS work is all valued by the long hundred or 112/b. and bears price according as it weighs per foot, from \lb. to 12 lb. ditto, being of different forts, fuch as fheet lead, and milled ditto ; the former is ufed for gutters, platforms, and the cover- ing of roofs ; the latter for the ridges of houfes, hips, tops of cornices, &c. I think 2 56 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or \ I think it but of little ufe to enter here in- to the quality of lead, (which is of various forts) feeing the plumbers have an opportu- nity of giving you what fort they pleafe. The plumbers method of doing their bufi- nefs is to value their work at fo much per hun- dred ; and afterwards charge you the time for laying, and finifning, which I think is a very weak as well as indolent method, and fit only to encourage their men in idlenefs. £■ s. The price plumbers charge for 7 lb. to the foot, is, from it. 2 s, to 13 Surveyors allow * 1 2 The value of lead, confidering the wafte in the melting, is worth per hundred about jgs. 1 /. 2 s. therefore is fufficient. I think it a folly in furveyors to allow more per hundred for lead of 10 16 . or 1 1 lb. per foot, than 7 lb. which is the general rule, let the plumbers cuftom be what it will. The true and genuine method of valuing plumbers work, is, to ftatethe price for fheet- lead of any weight above 7 lb. to the foot at 1 /. 3J*. per hundred, which will allow is. per hundred laying, and this is quite fufficient. Milled lead is of a thinner and finer quality, and fhould be per foot laid and foldered at per hundred The price of calling and laying lead is from 3/. to — 5 0 3 6 o The Univerfal British Buil Carting old lead, and the plumbers making up the deficiency Water-pipes, from^i inch to 8 inches bore, folder and labour included — ■ — Rain-water pipes, and pumps, per hundred — — Water-pipes of large bore per yard or hundred weight. The cuftomary allowance by plum- bers for old lead is 14 s. All dimenfions between thefe bear an exad: proportion. The price of ftop-cocks are per lb . Ditto, fetting on folder and labour at per cock, of an inch and half diameter — Ditto, 4 inch, at per cock S D£R . 257 jr. s. d. 049 170 1 8 o Safh-weights at per hundred 1 1 Solder per pound 8 ~d. or 0 0 The price of foldering water-pipes is 2J*. bd. per joint to — 1 2 One of .1 inch bore is — 0 2 1 inch ditto - — 0 3 14 inch — — 0 3 2 inches — — 0 4 3 inches — 0 6 4 inches ■ — 0 9 5 inches — 0 12 6 inches — 0 15 7 inches — • 1 0 74 inches — 1 1 o 8 o o 3 0 One o 2 5% A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, £- s. d. One inch ditto — 050 Brafs cocks, of an inch and half diameter, with bofles, folder, and fetting on, per cock 070 Ditto, of inch, per cock — 040 Ditto, i- inch, per cock — 030 LECTURE LVIIL OF MASONS WORK. E jTAVING already faid fo much of the |_ principles and properties of building, I hope my reader will excufe a differtation on Mafonry, as the volume is already ftretched beyond the intended fize. For it is a noble art, and takes its date from the days of Jabel, the fon of Lamech, who invented the firft houfe of ftones and trees. Mafonry hath in its pradtice every definitive principle of geometry, and is not furpaffed by any of the liberal arts. The way by which mafons value their folid work, is, firft to coniider the cubical mea- furement of the ftone, and the work as fu- perficial, reckoning nothing for what is not i'een, and accounting all ftone under 2 inches as fuperficial ; what exceeds this fize or 3 inches, they reckon as folid meafure. For T'be Univerfal British Builder For key and adder fronts, of Portland- done, the maders charge per foot fuperficial — — Surveyors allow from is. 3 d. to Befides meafuring the folidity of the key-dones, or bonds, which go through the wall, and are charged per foot cube The value of materials to a foot of key and adder work, confidering the fawing and veins which are often detrimental in the opening of a block of done, that cannot be feen before, is worth, with materials for fetting, per foot fuperficial 9 d. labour to fquaring, rubbing, fitting, &c. is worth 6d . the price therefore al- lowed by furveyors is not in the lead exorbitant at Plain-work, fuch as curbs to iron- rails, &c. are charged at per foot fuperficial — — The done at per foot cube — Houfes for iron-bars, cut in ditto, at per piece — • — Portland adragal deps are worth per foot fuperficial — — — The folidity of the done as before. Ditto plain deps, per foot fuperficial Portland coping, a foot wide, per foot run — ► 2 59 S. d. 1 6 1 6 3 9 1 6 1 o 3 0 o 2 1 10 S 2 Mouldings 260 A Key to Civil Architecture \ cr 9 S. d. Mouldings of Portland-ftone, of all forts, at per foot fuperficial i 7 Circular ditto 1 g The ftone meafured as folid. Slips and mantles to chimnies, of Port- land ftone, are worth at per foot fuperficial 1 o Ditto, fuperficial moulding to chim- nies with ftone, per foot 1 8 Portland flabs at per foot Portland paving at per foot fuper- ficial — — The fhafts of columns, of Port- land ftone, per foot fuperficial Bafes and caps to ditto — Ditto columns fluted, and cabled of ftone, labour only — The ftone valued as before. Dorick entablatures of ftone at per foot fuperficial — Carving the capitals of Corinthian and Compofite orders at per foot fuperficial Italian marble at per foot cube Plain work on ditto, as flips and mantles, at per foot — Slabs of ditto at Dove marble in flabs at per foot Mouldings of chimney-pieces, &c. of any fort of marble at per foot £• s. d. o i o 016 012 03° 019 o 56 on o 1 1 o 040 046 050 fuper- The Unfa erf a l British Builder. 261 .0 s. .5 d. p fuperficial, from 3^. 6 d. to The marble valued extra. Marble, of different forts, muft be valued according to its quality, and is from )/. is. per foot cube to — 7 o q Small mouldings of marble at per foot run, from 6 d. to — 010 Portland geometry fteps are worth per foot fuperficial with fetting o 10 o The ftone for the.fe.muft be valued at per foot 036 On account of the variety of blocks that muft be opened be- fore they can be all got found. Fire-ftone covings with niaterials at per foot fuperficial s — p l 2 Ditto in hearths per ditto — - oil Purbeck fteps, at per foot run with ftone — p 2, 6 Purbeck paving in random-courfes, at per foot p 9 74- Old purbeck paving at per foot fquared and new laid 002 The reader may perhaps wonder why I have not proceeded in mafonry with the va- lue and labour as in other work. I own it was my intent, but hearing of the laudable defign now on foot of the mafters railing the mens wages three fhillings per week, I there- fore made the digreflion, knowing well that S 3 their 262 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, their prices will not be in the lead extrava- gant when that is put in execution ; I hope, therefore, as my whole motive is defigned for the benefit of mankind, I Ihall be freed from all afperfions in the above particular, by de- viating from my general plan. LECTURE LIX. OF ESTIMATING IN GENERAL. I T is almoft unneceffary to mention eftima- ting in general, as I have been fo parti- cular in all the component parts of a building, which might by the learner be eafily put or compiled together; however, to prevent eve- ry argument that may be offered, touching my negledt, I fhall propofe the fimplefl and moff concife method in my power, that the learner may have no doubt of my fully acqui- efcing in every particular of my propofals, as well as of my ardency to ferve him in every article that occurs to my memory. Many furveyors have, or propofe methods for eftimating, by knowing the exterior di- menfions of a building, that is, guefling at the expence by the number of fquares the houfe contains ; but this is a very uncertain rule, and can never be followed with any de- gree of certainty, unlefsall buildings were finished in the fame manner, and confided of no other variations than the fize of the ftru.c- ture ; in fuch a cafe a proper criterion might * " Be The Unherfal British Builper. 2,63 be formed ; but, as this never can happen, it is obvious that any examples of this nature laid down can only (like the artift, who pre- tends to the world, he hath a knowledge adr. equate to the uncertain changes of fortune in the calculation of lotteries) amufe, without the leaft benefit or advantage. The only and general rule required in efti- mating a building, is, to be well apprifed of the intent, both refpedting the fize of every part and particular, as well as the manner of execution ; without a juft notion of thefe prin- ciples, the greateft judge in nature can only guefs at the expence; thefe things being fixed, the drawings will point out the fize of every part, and the prices before mentioned, ap- plied to every particular, according to the dif- ferent dimenfions, will form a near certainty for the whole. If the learner have no drawings given, and only an idea propounded by the gentleman, what fort of a ftrudture he would choofe, and what expence he has fettled within himfelf, that it fhould be finished after fuch and fuch a manner; let him firft make a drawing of the plan and elevation, (having previoufly ex^? amined the ground for the confequence of the under-filings) by which he will be able to come at the expence of the piling, planking, &c. if any be required ; let him proceed then, to take the value of the foundation, fuch as digging and carrying away the earth, next the brick- work, ftone, &c. in the foundation, S 4 which 4 A Key to Civil Architecture ; er , which are eafily calculated, as I have before obferved, according to the height of the build- ing; then the expence of the brick- work only, in thebafement ftory, is to be confidered, with the outward and inward walls, the vaults, cels-pools, &c. next the brick-work in the firft ftory, or ground -floor ; and fo from ftory to ftory, to the top of the edifice, topping of chimnies, &c. with all the arches, tiling, and every other incident in bricklayers work. Secondly, according to the fize of the houfe, let him calculate the fcantlings of the different timbers in every ftory for the floors, as well as the lintels, wood-bricks, difcharg- ing-pieces, bond-timbers, &c. what is mea- lured cubical, and what by the fquare, as well as door-cafes, centres, both for vaults, openings, and apertures, not omitting the trimmers, whether arched or coach-headed, roofing, plates, tie-beams, guttering, board- ing, rafters-feet, or any vacuum, where a piece of timber may be required. Thirdly, the fafti - frames and fafhes, throughout the whole houfe, Fourthly, the covering, whether lead, flate, or tile, &c. Fifthly, the joiners work in every room, on every floor, the quality as well as quantity of materials, not forgetting the furring of walls, floors, &c. bracketing to cornices, glue, nails, and every other incident ; like- wife, the flairs in every refpedt and part, ac- cording to their bearings, whether with or without The TJniverfal British Builder. 265 without carriages ; nails, fcrews, glue, tem- plets, cylinders, &c. the cafualty of removing lumber and other incidents, which may retard the progrefs of his practice. Sixthly, the plafterers-work after the fame manner in eyery room, with the gentleman's propofals of ornaments, decorations, &c. making allowances for the inconveniences that generally attend the progrefs of the work, by fcaffolaing, &c. Seventhly, the mafons work both without and within, fuch as fteps, adders, facios, coping quoins, rufticks, pavings, floors, hearths, jambs, mantles, coverings, caps, carvings, &c. all according to their different flze and value ; omitting nothing in this bu- finefs more than the reft. Eighthly, the painters work all throughout the houfe ; every floor feparate, and let every part and portion that hath variations be ftridtly nominated : the number of times required to be done ever, with obfervations of fronts, and other work that is paid by the foot, whether run or fuperficial. Ninthly, the glaflers work in every refpedl and part the fame as in other branches. Tenthly, the carvers work alfo in every article, which muft be moft ftridtly confidered in every point, becaufe of the great expence attending this beautiful branch. Eleventhly, the plumbers work, both touching the capping of cornices, fronts, fa- cios, gutters, hips, vallies, fixtures, pipes for fuillage. 266 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, fuillage, pumps, drains, water-clofets, &c. foldering, and every other incident required. The fame of fmiths work, paviours, &c. which will caufe any expence. When thefe matters are all well noticed, fum up the whole, to anfwer the llcetch given; if you run above the ftipulated price, fuch contraflions in the mode of finifhing muft be made as will reduce your plan to the gentle- man’s propofals, if he will not be otherwife reconciled to what the purport of his inten- tion amount to. The beft and moft fure way to be perfedl, and that to a ftrifl: nicety in every particular, is to make drawings of every room and part with the ornaments prefixed, as well as the fe&ion, plan, and elevation of the whole : alfo, mark every room, and every branch to each apartment or floor ; and in fumming up the whole, take care to allow a fufficiency for cafualties, that in the execution you may not greatly exceed the ftipulated fum, and thereby incur the gentleman’s difpleafure. LECTURE LX. SCHEDULE OF PRICES TO TASK-MASTERS. Of Carpenters c Cafk Work . K ING-poft roofs with purlines S. d, &c. and fixing on the irons at per fquare — — 9 Q Ditto common roofs per fquare 6 6 Bridged ■the Univerfal British Builder. 267 S. d. Bridged floors, with binding joifts in- cluded, at per fquare - — 80 Common naked floors per fquare 5 6 Cieling ditto per fquare — ^ 6 6 Trufled partitions — - 3 6 Common partitions per fquare 4 6 Plates, bond- timbers, difcharging pieces, lintels, &c. at per hundred feet run — — 3 o Centring to vaults rough — 46 If groined — - 5 6 Centres to apertures at per foot o ll. Bridged-gutters at per foot fuperficial o 3 Ditto vally-boards per foot — O if All framing in a building may be taken together at 4 d. per foot cube talk-work. Rafters-feet and eaves board per foot run ■ — o i-l Framing the carcafes of houfes per fquare — — 6 6 Door-cafes per foot — ° 14 If rabbitted and beaded - — • 02 Bracketing to plafter cornices run o 14 Clean dowelled floors per fquare 17 o Second belt ditto • — • 15 o Straight joint ditto of board — 8 o Ditto with battins — - 10 o Folding-floors per fquare — 60 Eurring-joifts per fquare — 12 Lifting-boards per lift — o 04- Doors 248 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or, S. d. Doors ovlo and flat on both fi.de s per foot — — o 6 Ditto ftuck on one fide fquare back o 34. Doors with fancy-mouldings quirked per foot — — ° 7 Aftragal- mouldings on the pannels to ditto at per foot run — • 02 All window- (hatters per foot ovlo, and flat, fquare behind, hung Angle o 6 Ditto hung double — 07 If ftuck with a quirk moulding. Bead and flufti behind, and hung double, are worth per foot o 10 Aftragal-mouldings on the pannels to ditto • — 02 Back-fhutters framed fquare — o 34. If bead and but hung double o A.f Plain clamped back-fhutters per foot o 2f Framing linings — o 3 Doors bead andflufh, &c. both fides, per foot o 8 Ditto beaded on one fide — 0 5 Bead and flufti fliutters to outfide work o Safties and frames with oak-cafings, foils, beads. Sec. together — 0 7 Ditto with mahogany fafhes o 8 f Fir falhes and frames together per foot — 0 5 Venetian and Palladian window- frames and fafhes at per foot 2 o Mouldings of all forts at per foot o 6 Columns at per foot o 10 Pilafters T?he Univerfal British Builder. 5 . Pilafters ditto — * o Fluting columns, or pilafters, the flutes at per foot run — o If cabled as far as the length of ditto o Dorick friezes at per foot fuperflcial o Dorick blocks plain per foot o Raking ditto — — o Ditto with enrichments - — — 2 Frets 6 inches broad, per foot 2 Small frets per foot run — • o Fluting of facios per foot run o Friezes fluted and bead per foot run ; the plane of the frieze at per foot fuperflcial o The beads and flutes run at o The method of meafuring ditto, is, to take the length of one flute, and multiply the number of flutes in the frieze. Terms to chimney-pieces per foot fuperflcial o Gluing up Ionick caps for carvers at per piece — 2 Corinthian ditto per foot fuperflcial o Dado per yard * 1 Torus Ikirting per foot — o Up itair-cafes double meafure. Horfe-plane courfes per foot run o O-gees per foot run — o 269 d. 6 10 6 8 6 o 6 5 9 6 6 s Dog- 4-jw Ijo A Key to Civil Architecture j or$ £• s. Dog-legged flairs at per ftory i 8 Bracket ditto per foot fuperficial o o Ditto with clean fteps — o o Newels at per foot run — - o o Strings at per foot fuperficial o o Ballufters per piece — - o o If dove-tailed — o o Geometry-flairs moulded under- neath as the bracket, per foot o o Or per ftep — — • o 10 Steps hung in the wall at per ft. o o The firing at per foot, if upon a circular or oval plan o i i o 4 % 5 4 6 3 4 9 6 8 6 There is a method of making geometry- flairs without a fixing, though thev be not moulded underneath the fteps. This is done by mitring the bracket, and fixing it to the end of every ftep, before they are put up, and leaving them long enough to exceed the width of the under-fide of the ftep, fo as that the fucceeaing one fhall take and lie upon this, in regular form all the way to the top ; after they are up, you may flioot flraight the under edge of the brackets, which will appear like the under edge of a firing ; you may alfo put up a fillet on the infide, which will bear the ends of the laths, and be a kind of ftiffening to the brackets, or artificial firing. Thefe are much the cheapeft of all flairs, and may be done to any plan, with a ^The TJniverfal British Builder. 271 good appearance, by fixing a neat afiragal moulding to the lower edge, juft under the nofings. The learner is to obferve, that thefe brackets need not be longer than will be adequate to receive the furrings, and the laths and plafter. The reader will excufe my making this di- greffion, as I had omitted mentioning thefe lort of flairs in their proper place ; however, I will fhelter my negledt under the old pro- verb, that it is better late than never. d. Thefe fort of flairs are worth per foot, labour only, when hung in the wall * o 74- Plain brackets to flairs per piece o 6 Circular ditto — — 10 Mahogany hand-rails to flairs to cir- cular plans, glued in thicknefles, are worth at per foot fuperficial 7 o The cylinder, either done by day, or allowed per foot, the run of the circular part of the rail — 04 All twills to fcrolls * — 50 Straight rail of mahogany — - 1 3 Ramps double meafure, or - — 26 Deal ftraight rail — 10 Twift to ditto 4 o Shelves per foot — — o 34- Linings of all forts o 24 - All plain linings to door-cafes o 3 . LEC- 2^2 A Key to Civil Architecture cr 9 LECTURE LXI. OF BRICKLAYERS TASK-WORK. ^~T“^HE mailer to find all materials and fcaf- I folding. £. s ‘ d ‘ Common brick-work, per rod Chamberarches, rhombed, gauged f 3 o and fet, per foot — • o I o Circular ditto o 1 2 Ditto to a niche per foot — A circular arch upon a circular o 3 6 plan double meafure — o 2 o Brick cornices per foot fuperficial O 2 6 Plain tiling per fquare — o 5 o Ditto pan-tiling pointed — * o 5 o LECTURE LXII. OF PLASTERERS TASK-WORK. S. d. A LL cielings, per yard — o 5 -ZjL Ditto walls with three coats on laths o 5 Ditto two coats floated — o 4 Walls floated per yard — o 3t Stucco per yard — o 8 All plain cornices per foot o 4i Ditto fully enriched — I o Common block cornices per foot o 8 Dentil ditto o 7 * LEC- T/je XJniverfal British Builder. 273 LECTURE LXIIL OF MASONS TASK-WORK. S OMETIMES mafons fet their men tafk- work, though it is but feldom ; I thall therefore mention two or three prices in parti- cular cafes, and Which may be a better method of calculation than what they generally go by in talk-work. The mafons method of taking work is by the piece in many jobbs, as frontifpieces, &c. but I think it rather an irregular mode of proceeding, without one advantage to recom- mend it. Frontifpieces of the Dorick order, when done by the piece, may be charged from ic/. to 22 guineas, according to the enrichments which are upon them; but the beft way is to meafure them by the foot fuperficial, and value the different works after the following prices. s. d. The columns at per foot fuperficial 0 8 Bafes and capitals per ditto Fluting and cabling columns in Port- land-ftone, the run of the flutes at 2 9 per foot O 5 All mouldings at per foot O 7 4- Friezes to Dorick cornices per foot 5 0 Mutules level at per piece 4 0 Raking ditto — — T 4 6 All 274 ^ Key to Civil Architecture j of, S. I All the plain work per foot o 5 Portland fteps per foot run o 7 Geometry ditto, and fet off, per foot run o 8 Paving with Portland ftone, per 100 feet, from $s. to — • 80 Purbeck in random-courfes per 100 4 6 Old Purbeck taken up, new fquared, and re-laid, at per 100 feet 3 9 Key and afhler fronts per foot o 4 Holes cut for iron palifades per piece o 17 As feldom any other branches are done tafk- work, I beg the reader, when he hath other forts of work, and not thofe above mentioned, to have recourfe to the other parts of the book, where the labour required is proved, and get as much as he can for them. Expla- *The XJniverfal British Builder. 275 Explanation of Plate A. F IGURE A reprefents the ground plan of a ftaircafe of circular difpofition, from the mode of executing which every difficulty may be gathered or fuppofed, that can occur in any fimilar circumftance. Figure C, the templet, faddle, or cylinder, on which the hand-rail is to be glued, in fuch manner as is defcribed in my le&ure on weith- rails. B reprefents the profile of the fteps, both in the height and circular part, with the hand- rail ftretched out upon them. The fha- dowed part in figure A flhews the diameter of the cylinder, and by drawing the perpendi- cular lines from the nofings of the fteps, and joining them upon the cylinder, as is marked by the dotted lines, you will have the feCtio- nal line of the rail when laid upon the cylin- der. Obferve the places where the want of difienfion, or the contraction of the covers to the winders againfl: the circular part, leaves the two obtufe angles ; thefe mud be foftened or rendered eaiy by interfeCtion of lines, as is lhewn by figure M. Take notice alfo, that thefe are the places I have fo particularly men- tioned in my leCture on thofe forts of rails, to leave wood enough upon the breadth of the fineer for the fide of the rail, as every thick- nefs will gradually gather. T 2 Figure 2j6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. Figure D is the plan of a fcroll, on which are (hewn the pieces of wood to be glued to form the rifing of the twift, which may be cut one way to the fhape of the dotted lines in the plan before they be glued together. The figures E, F, and G are thofe pieces to be glued to each other in the following man- ner : H reprefents the lower part of the ftraight rail which forms part of the twift; as in figure H, draw the line a c, then fix your dividers in c, draw the arch line a b, which divide into four equal parts, and then draw lines as to the centre c , which will /hew how much the twift falls in each refpedtive piece : from hence you may gain the maxim of exactly matching the grain of the wood, that when they are all united by glue and worked, they may appear as if the whole fcroll, ftraight rail and twift, were cut out of one en- tire piece; next draw the arched line in E, and transfer from 4 to 3 in H, to d in E, which will /hew how much the twift fallsin that piece. Then take from 4 to 2 in H, and transfer to e in F ; this will /hew the fall in the fecond piece. Laftly, take from 4 to 1 in H, and transfer to f in G, which is the laft fall, and muft be glued to the level piece in the eye as 6 in figure D ; when thus much is done, take the different bevils from the pitch-board K, and apply them to each piece at the infide of the fcroll, as 1 & 1, 2&2, 3 & 3, 4&4, and keep them fair at the in- fide as you glue them together, which will guide "The Univerfal British Builder. 277 guide the rail to a proper fall, and anfwer when elevated dire&ly to the ground plan. The bevils being given both ways, after you have fquared the outfide of the rail, bend your mould or templet round, as defcribed in plate B in figure E, which will (hew how much fuperfluous wood mud be taken off* the back of the rail. I think it unneceffary to fay more, as infpe&ion and a little practice will render this matter plain to any capacity. The next thing is the raking -mould in figure I, to draw which lay down one quarter of the ground plan of your fcroll, as at g in figure I, then divide the under-edg^ of the pitch-board into any number of parts, which continue from the raking-line to the outfide of the rail as in h /, l k , &c. to the bottom of the pitch-board. Next take from m to i in your dividers, and transfer them to /on; take alfo p k and trans- fer to lo 9 and fo on to all the reft ; and if you be doing this at large put in brads at each point, and bend round a lath fo as to form the outfide, then proceed as before for the in- fide, and your mould will be complete and of diretft length, anfwerable to the ground plan. Though it be neceffary to point out thefe things to the learner, in order to fatisfy him as to the priftine elements of this piece of workmanftfip, yet I cannot help obferving, that a raking-mould is of very little ufe to a perfon who has any idea of the matter, as it is a ftanding maxim with me, that the man who T 3 has . 278 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , has the heft eye, will ever be the firfi man at forming either a fcroll or twift, or any other difficult point in weith-rails. A brief Definition of Plate B. F IGURE A in plate B is the plan of a regular ftaircafe upon a fquare opening. B in ditto ffiews the fedtion of the two flights, with the manner of fixing the firings, carriages, leading-pieces, newels, &c. and how to find the knees, and flrike out the ramps. To find the knees and ramps: Firfi: draw a line to touch the nofings of the fteps, as the dotted lines, then from that line to the back of your rail fet off 2 feet 1 inch, or 2 feet 2 inches fquare, from the raking of the fleps, as is fhewn in the plate. Next, continue that line to the front of the firfi newel, as at a ; likewife to the firfi; newel upon the half- pace, as at b , then take the diftance a c upon -the firfi newel, and transfer it to b d; afterwards, apply the rife of one fiep above d, which will give the height of the ramp. To find the centre for ftriking the ramp: Firfi, continue the level line upon the top of the knee at pleafure, as at e , then mark where the raking-line of the rail touches the front of the newel as at f on which place fix one point of your compaffes and extend the other point to g, defcribe the arch h which ffiews the bounds of the ftraight rail, there place 5 y° u ? j The TJniverfal British Builder. 279 your fquare, and draw a line to meet at e, which is the centre for ftriking the ramp. How to draw a Scroll , as in Figure C. If the learner cannot execute this by Leo* ture XL, let him obferve the following : Having drawn a large circle, as in C, equal to the width of two fteps, draw an inner one equal to the fize of the rail with the moulds ings ; then divide the large circle into eight equal parts, fo as to ftrike one eighth part at one time, next draw the diagonal b c 9 and having fixed your dividers in c 9 defcribe the arc d c , which arch line divide into 8 parts, and from the centre draw them through into the line d b 9 which forms the fcale to dimi*- nifh the fcroll by in the following order: Firft fet your dividers from b to f upon the fcale, and transfer it to no upon the great circle, which is the firft eighth part - 9 fet them then from b to g 9 and transfer to p q 9 then b h to r s 9 and fo on till you come to z ; next fet your compafles in the centre a 9 extend the other point to f on the fcale, and with that diftance fet the point upon o, then upon c , and make a mark in the eye where they fall, which will be the centre for defcribing the firft eighth part from e to o 9 after this proceed with the next in the fame manner, fetting your compafles from the centre a to g upon the fcale ; draw the fweep from 0 to q 9 and fq from q to s in the lame manner till you T 4 havQ 280 A Key to Civil Architecture, See. have deferibed the whole. The inner circle mud be drawn in the fame manner, and from the fame centres, only muft flop at each cen- tral line and not be continued to the dotted lines. A little infpedion it is hoped will render this very familiar. D is the pitch-board, on which are right lines, as at E, for the falling of the twift ; obierve in c where the twift begins, as at 10, and ends at 9, which girt with a line, or di- vide into parts with your dividers, transfer them on a ftraight line as at b a in D ; then take the pitch-board and apply it to a, as in the figure, afterward divide the raking-line of the pitch-board from d to c in any number of parts, and from e to b in the like number, and draw the interfedions of right lines, which will form the curve for the fall of the twift. When the outfide of your rail is made to ftand diredtly over your ground plan, apply the mould b to 9 in plate C, which will extend to c round the rail, the mark by the edge, and take off the wood fquare from the outfide ; afterwards gauge for the width and depth, and when cut away properly your work will be complete. A A TREATISE O F ARITHMETICS Adapted to and propofed for Students in the BUILDING BRANCH. • » “ r A TREATISE o F ARITHMETIC K. LECTURE LXIV. INTRODUCTION. A rithmetical is a Greek word, and imports an art or fcience that teaches the ufe and properties of figures, or the right art of numbering and denoting any given quantity withproper chara&ers, and to exprefs them by words, which is called Notation. There are many kinds of Notation by which quantity is exprefled, but what I mean in this leCture to treat of, is figural, or the manner of expref- ling quantities by the ten Arabick characters, viz. i, 2 , 3 , 4> 5 > 7 > 9 > Arithmetick is divided into three parts, two of which are properly called natural, and the third artificial : The 284 A Key to Civil Architecture or. The firft is that kind of Arithmetick which is called Vulgar, and is the doCtrine of whole numbers, and the mod plain and eafy, be- caufe every unit, or one, (which is called an integer) denotes or fignifies one entire thing, or quantity, of fome kind of fpecies j as a done, a rule, &c. The fecond, is the doCtrine of broken quantities, or parts of units, or integers, which is called Vulgar- fractions ; and wherein the unit, or integer, is divided into a number of even or uneven parts : as for example. If a foot be the given or propofed unit, or integer, and be divided into twelve inches, then one inch becomes a fraction or twelfth part ; two inches one-fixth, three inches one- fourth part thereof. This part of arithmetick may be confidered either as pure, confiding of fractional parts only, each lefs than an unit ; fuch as quarters, halves, &c. or of integers and fractional parts intermixed ; as one and a half two and one third-part of one, &c. The third part, which is called Artificial, is alfo called Decimal-arithmetick, which is an artificial method of working fractions and broken numbers, in a different, and (by fome thought) much ealier way than that of Vulgar- fraCtions. Decimals take their name from the Latin Decern, or ten, into which every integer is fup- poied to be divided 5 and in many cafes every fub? The Univerfal British Builder. 285 fub-divifion is again Tub-divided into ten lefier parts, &c. Suppofe one foot in length to be an integer, or unit given, and let it be divided into ten equal parts, we then fay the foot is decimally divided ; and if every tenth part be decimally divided again in the like manner, then the foot will be divided into one hun- dred parts, and is faid to be centefimally di- vided. LECTURE LXV. OF NUMERATION. N UMERATION is accounted the firft: part of Arithmetick, and is to know how to read a fum of figures exprefied in writing; or to write down any fum to be exprefied ; to the doing of which there are four things ne- ceflary ; firft to know the number, which is nine; fecondly their (hapes, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of which the firfl to- ward the left hand ever fignifieth one ; the fecond two, the third three, &c. thirdly to know the value of their places ; lafily, how their proper fignification is attained thereby. The value of their places is thus : when two,- three, or more figures ftand in one fum, that is, without any point, line or comma be- twixt them, as 321, that place next the right- hand where the figure 1 ftandeth, is called the place of unity, or units, and the figure 1 ftandeth in that place for 1 only, and the figure 2,86 A Key /a Civil Architecture \ or, figure 2, when it is found in that firft place* ftands only for 2, and fo of all the reft. But in the fum 321, above exprefled, the figure 2 in the fecond place, and every place, contains the value of that place before towards the right hand ten times ; therefore the figure 2 doth not in this fecond place fig- nify 2, but ten times 2, that is 20 ; and fo the figure of 3, if it had been in that fecond place, would have fignified ten times 3, that is, 30, but being here in the third place, it fignifies ten times 30, that is, 3C0, and fo the whole fum 321 is to be read three hun- dred and twenty one. It is hereby feen how their proper fignifica- tions, which were three, two, and one, are altered by being thus placed, and the fum, which would but have been fix, is three hun- dred twenty and one. In like fort, if there had been more places, as feven, the value is quite through increafed ten times, by being a place more towards the • 00 left hand, as in the fum ijiiiii 5 the figure 1 in the fecond place ftands for ten times one, that is, ten ; in the third for ten times ten, which is one hundred ; in the fourth for ten hundred, which is called a thoufand ; in the fifth for ten thoufand ; in the fixth for ten times ten thoufand, which is an hundred thou- fand ; in the laft, or feventh place, for ten hundred thoufand, which is called a million $ and fo on, if there were more places. Ob~ ferve ¥he TJniverfal British Builder. 287 ferve the fame order to infinity, beyond all earthly value. Now, to read this readily, mark a prick over the place of unity ; another the third from it, and over every third, ftill towards the left-hand 5 for fo thofe points will be over the places of units, thoufands, and millions ; and then beginning at the laft figure that is at the left hand, read one million, and becaufe the three following towards the right fignify properly one hundred and eleven, but the prick belonging to them lying in the place of thoufands, call it one hundred and eleven thoufand 5 and the three remaining being un- der the point over unity, fignify one hundred and eleven 5 but all three points, read toge- ther in one fum, make one million one hun- dred and eleven thoufand one hundred and eleven. In like manner, if this number 87654352, were given to be read (according to the for- mer direction) make pricks over every third figure, beginning with the firft figure to- wards the right hand, (which is the place of unity) and then will your number ftand thus, 876543525 then for the ready reading of them, (becaufe the third prick fignifies mil- lions) call all the figures toward the left hand from that prick, millions, which in the ex- ample are 8 and 7, begin and fay 87 millions 654 thoufand 352, which at length are eighty feven millions fix hundred and fifty four thou- fand 2 88 A Key to Civil Architecture y or 9 fand three hundred and fifty two ; and fo of any other number. LECTURE LXVI. OF ADDITION. A DDITION is the gathering or coher- ing of two or more fums, either of one or of divers denominators, into one fum, which is called the aggregate, total, or grofs fum. In addition of numbers of one denomination, the order is to fet the numbers to be added, one diredtly under the other ; that is to fay, units under units, tens under tens, hundreds under hundreds, thoufands under thoufands. RULE. Having placed your numbers to be added in due order one under another, draw a line under them, and begin at the lowermoft fi- gure toward your right hand, and add that to the next figure above, and the fum of them to the next figure above that, proceeding in this order till you have added the line together ; which when done, confider hpw many tens are contained in that line ; and for every ten carry one to the next column ; but if there be any odd digits, you muft fet them down be- neath the ftroke, juft under the line you have added together ; having thus finiihed the ad- dition of one line, proceed to the next ; and from thence to the third, and fo forward be there never fo many. The following will make this plain. 4 Ex- The Vniverfal British Builder, rft; Example the firjl , of whole Numbers . Let the feveral fums given to be added be 9874, 6436, 1423, 6788 ; having thus placed them under one ano- 9874 ther, as in the margin, draw a line 6436 under them; then begin your ad- 1423 dition at the lowermoft figure to 6788 the right hand, fay 8 and 3 is eleven, and 6 is feventeen, and 4 24521 is twenty-one, there is 2 tens and 1 remaining, I place the 1 under the line, and carry the two tens to the next row, faying, 2 which I carry and 8 is ten, and 2 is twelve, and 3 is fifteen, and 7 is twenty-two, in which row there are two tens to carry, and 2 remains which I place as before ; again pro- ceed to the next column, faying, 2 andyis nine, and 4 is thirteen, and 4 is feventeen, and 8 is twenty-five, fet down five and carry two again to the next, faying, two I carry and 6 is eight, and 1 is nine, and 6 is fifteen, and 9 is twenty-four, which fet down under the margin; fo the aggregate or grofs lum is twenty-four thoufand five hundred and twen- ty-one. In the addition of divers denominations, this is to obferved, viz. place all the num- bers of the fame denomination one direftly under another, as inches under inches, feet under feet, yards under yards, fquares under U fquares; 2 <5® A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, fquares $ then draw a line under them, and begin your addition with the fmalleft number or leaft denomination firft, always obferving how many times the next greater denomina- tion is contained in that leaft ; and for every time carry one unit to the next place, as be- fore you did the tens, taking care to fet down the remains if any be ; then add the next de- nomination together, taking care how often the next greater denomination is contained in that, and fo proceed be they ever fo many, from parts to inches, inches to feet, feet to yards, yards to fquares, rods, poles, or perches. As all the parts of addition are built upon the fame reafon, fo the method of pointing may ferve as a general rule, when any deno- mination is to be added, and this may be done without defacing the figures. EXAMPLES. Let the feveral denominations to be added be fet down as in the margin, fuppofe the work of different rooms done be as follows : Yds. Ft. In. To dado on the ground floor 127 7 6 To ditto one pair of flairs 162 5 3 290 3 9 Proceed and begin at the inches, faying, 3 and 6 is nine, which I write under the inches, and as 9 inches is lefs than a foot, you have nothing The Univerfal British Builder. 291 nothing to carry to the next denomination, but fay 5 and 7 is twelve; now as nine fquare feet are a yard, you muft fet the remainder three under the denomination of feet, and carry one to the next column, faying, 1 and 6 is feven, and 2 is nine, which fet down and fay 1 and 1 is 2, which makes 290 yards 3 feet 9 inches. A furveyor having meafured and fquared the different dimenfions of brick-work, fet them down for addition as follows ; Rods Ft. To foundations, vaults, See . 6 5 ° The feveral walls in the firft ftory 9 80 Ditto to the fecond — 8 43 Attick-ftory — * 6 84. Gable-ends and chimnies ~ 1 3 1 4 The reader is to obferve that a rod of brick- work is 272 and 4, therefore he muft prick at 272 feet ; if not fo much, fet down the remains of feet, and add up the rods, and thefe examples may ferve for every thing elfe of whatever denomination. U 2 Addition 292 A Key to Civil Architecture \ or * Addition of Feet and Inches . Ft. 53 42 82 Note, for every 12 Inches carry one to the feet. Addition of Tards, Feet , and Inches . Yds. Ft. In. 12 9 4 ] Note, as nine feet are a yard, 7 4 3 > foat every nine feet you muft 33 6 2 J carry 1 to the yard as in the example. 34 1 9 Addition of Lime and Sand. Hun. Bags. Colled intor 3 14 Rule, for every 25 one fum thefe \ 4 06 / bufhels carry one feveral quanti-1 5 12 f to the hundreds, ties of lime, viz. I 3 13 J which add as in- * — tegers. 16 20 Note, twenty-five bags, which ought each to be a bufhel, is accounted one hundred of lime in London ; and in many countries 30 bulhels is called a load. Of The Univerfal British Builder. 293 Of Sand . Loads, Collet Into one fum thefe feveral quanti- 29 ties of land. L16 27 26 Bufhels. 04 ■jRule, for every 18 J 5 / bufhels carry 1 12 I to the loads, and 18 J add them as — whole numbers. 100 13 Note, a load of fand is 18 heaped bufhels. ^ Addition of Bricks . Loads. Bricks. Note, 500 f 2 148 }Rule, for every bricks are aload, J 6 193 f 500 carry 1 to add thefe feveral ) 4 050 ? the loads, and quantities into! 7 240 j add them as one fum, viz. — — wholenumbers 20 131 Of Timber and Plants . Colled into one fum the fe- veral quanti- ties, viz. Yds. Ft. f 7 33 8 40 5 2 3 4 12 I For every 50 carry one to the loads, and add them as whole numbers. 26 08 Note, 50 feet folid make one load. 294 ^ K- ey to Civil Architecture ; or t j ' Of Solid Yards . Yds. Ft. 7 °4) 2 22Q Note, for every 27 carry one 6 15^ to the yards. 4 13S 21 o Having done fo much of addition, I fhall conclude the ledture with this obfervation, that one load of earth is one folid yard. A hundred weight of lead, nails, iron, &c. is 1 12 pounds 5 a hundred weight of deals or nails fix fcore or 1 20 lb . A bundle of five feet laths 100, and of feet ditto 120, which fhould be 1 inch and broad, as it is expedted a bundle of laths of whatever length is to cover the fame ; for what is wanting in length is made up in number. LEG- The TJniverfal British Builder, 295 LECTURE LXVII. SUBSTRACTION. Of Feet , Inches , and Parts . Ft. In. Qr. Ft. In. Qr. From 274 7 2 364 2 4 Take 153 51 173 8 4 1 2 1 2 I 190 6 O Note, that in inches you borrow twelve. Suf rail ion of Yards, Feet , and long Inches . Yds. Ft. In. Yds, Ft. In. 40 7 6 23 2 6 3 2 4 2 J 3 4 7 o3 3 4 09 o 1 1 Note, as you borrow 12 at the inches, and carry one to the feet, jfo you borrow 3 at the feet and carry 1 to the yards. SubJiraStion of fquare Yards andfq. uare Yds. Ft. Yds. Ft. 47 5 82 7 3 6 9 43 8 10 5 33 8 Note, here at the feet you borrow 9 and carry one to the yards, becaufe 9 fquare feet make a fquare yard. Sub- 296 A Key to Civil Architecture ; sr, Snbjl ration of fetid Yards . Yds. Ft. Yds. Ft. 55 l 7 78 18 43 29 53 20 ir J 5 24 25 Here, as 27 feet is a yard folid, fo you bor- row 27 at feet, and carry 1 to the yards. Of Squares of Flooring, &c. Square feet. 94 11 *3 7 2 Square feet. 26 4 19 40 80 39 6 64 (r „ 1 Here, as 100 fquare feet make one fquare, fo at the feet you borrow 100, and carry 1 to^ the fquare. As there is nothing more in fubftra&ion to be obferved than the denominations of which you borrow, I lhall think thefe examples fuf- ficient, and proceed to multiplication. 2 LEC- Tie Univerfal British Builder. 297 LECTURE LXVIII. OF MULTIPLICATION. M ultiplication is that part of arithmetick which teacheth how to increafe one number by another, fo that the number produced by their multiplication fhall contain one of the numbers multiplied, fo many times as there are units contained in the other. Multiplication may fitly be termed a com- pendium of addition, for that it perfo’rmeth at one operation the fame which to effeft: by addition would require many. For inftance, if it were to know how many 4 times 8 is, to perform this by addition I muft fet four figures of 8 one under another, and by adding them together I (hall find that the total will contain 32. But this by multiplication is with far more brevity, as by examples hereafter fhall appear. Before you enter upon the practice of mul- tiplication, it is neceflary to remember the product arifing by the multiplication of any of the nine digits by any other of the fame, as readily to know that 3 times 4 are 12, 6 times 7 are 42, 8 times 8 are 64, &c. &c. In multiplication it is necelfary to know the product of any two of the nine digits or figures ; for which purpofe the following table muft be ftudied till you have it by heart. Multi 2298 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. Multiplication Table. I 2 , 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO I I 12 2 4] 6 8 10 12 u 16 18 20 22 24 3 6 9 12 T 5 18 21 24 27 3 ° 33 3 6 4 8|i2 l6 20 24 28 3 2 "36 40 44 48 5 10 15 20 25 3 ° 35 40 45 5 ° 55 60 6 12 18 24 3 ° 3 6 42 48 54 60 66 72 7 *4 12 28 35 42 49 5 6 6 3 ' 70 77 84 8 l6 24 3 2 40 48 5 6 64 72 80 88 96 9 18 27 36 45 54 6 3 7 2 81 90 99 108 IC 20 3 ° 40 5 ° 60 70 80 90 IOO I IO 120 1 1 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 I IO 121 132 12 24 36 48 60 72 1 'O 1 O 1 ^ 1 OO 1 1 08 120 132 144 In multiplication three things or terms are to be obferved, that is to fay, the multipli- cand, the multiplier or multiplicator, and the product. The The Univerfal British Builder. 299 The multiplicand is the number to be mul- tiplied. The multiplier is the number by which the multiplicand is multiplied. And The product is the number which is pro- duced by the multiplication of the multipli- cator and multiplicand together. Thus if it were required to multiply 9 by 6, here 9 is the multiplicand and 6 the mul- tiplier, and thefe numbers multiplied make 54, which is the produdt ; for 6 times 9 is 54, or 9 times 6 the fame. In multiplication it matters not which of the two numbers is the multiplicand, or which the multiplier, for the produdt produced by either will be the fame. But the common way is to make the greater number the mul- tiplicand, and the leffer the multiplier. RULE I. The numbers to be multiplied mud be fct one under another, viz. the multiplicand (or greater number) above, and the multiplier (or leffer number) below ; the laft number of the multiplier under the laft figure of the multiplicand; then draw a line under them, and having learnt the preceding table by rote, multiply every number of the mul- tiplier into every number of the multipli- cand, and fet the feveral products under the line; then having finifhed your multiplica- tion, draw a line at the bottom, and add all the produdls together, and the fum of thefe pro-. joo A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, products will be the general produdl, as by the following examples will appear* Example the Firjl. Let it be required to multiply 872 by 6 ; firft, I write down 872, the multiplicand; and under it 6, the multiplier ; then under them I draw a line as in the 872 margin; then I multiply 6 into every 6 digit of the multiplicand, faying, 6 times 2 are twelve; place 2 under the 5232 line diredtly under the 6, and for the ten keep one in your mind to carry to the next figure ; then I fay 6 times 7 are 42, and one I carry makes 43 ; then fet down 3, and keep 4 in your mind for the four tens to carry to the next, faying, 6 times 8 are 48, and 4 I carry make 52, which fet down, and the work is done; and the produdt is 5232. Example the Second Let it be required to multiply 5753 by 24; fet them down as before, and pro- ceed in the fame manner, faying, 4 times 3 are 1 2, place 2 under the 4, and carry 1 ; 4 times 5 are 20, and 1 I carry makes 21 ; fet down 1, and carry 2 ; then 4 times 7 are 28, and 2 I carry make 30 ; fet down o and carry* 3 ; then 4 times 5 are 20, and 3 I carry make 23, which fet down alfo ; then be- gin with the 2, faying, 2 times 5753 24 23012 1 1 506 138072 3 are 6, which T 'he Univerfal British Builder. 301 which place under 1 ; then 2 times 5 are 10, fet down an o, and carry 1 ; and 2 times 7 are*i4, and 1 I carry makes 15; fet down 5, and carry 1 Hill : then 2 times 5 are ten, and 1 I carry makes 11, which finilhes both the digits. This done, I draw a line under them, and add the two fums together, which make 138072 as in the margin. Examples for P raff ice* 43672 7 6 43 2I 5 87462 200 4°°3 100 8734400 22929645 8746200 30572860 30595789645 In the firft example I have contracted my work by placing the 2 of the multiplier under the unit of the multiplicand, which fhould al- ways be done when the other figures to the right-hand are all cyphers. In the fecond I make a contrail by omitting the cyphers in the multiplier, and multiplying only by the 3 and 4 ; but when this is done, you mull be careful to fet down the firll figure of your re- mains dire&ly under the place of your multi- plier. In the third example I have contracted my work by adding the number of cyphers in the multiplier to the multiplicand for the product, becaufe one neither multiplies nor divides. Ex- 302 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, 'Examples for Practice • Multiplication of integers may be performed without giving any trouble to the mind, by carrying on the tens as in the firft examples fhewn. Mind the operation. Multiply 97643 by 4, as in the 97643 margin; fay 4 times 3 is 12, fet 4 down 12, as is obferved in the ex- — ample; then 4 times 4 is 16, fet 1 3221 12 at top next the 12 to the left-hand, 6846 and 6 at the bottom under the fe- - — — cond figure in the multiplicand ; 390572 then 4 times 6 is 24, which fet down, 2 at the top and 4 at the bottom ; then 4 times 7 is 28, which fet down as the reft ; then 4 times 9 is 36, which fet down as be- fore, and add the two fums together, and you will have the true produdt required. And this example will ferve, let the multiplier confift of any number of figures whatfoever, * Mon P’he Univerfal British Builder. 303 More Examples for Praffice* Let 53568 be multiplied by 24, as under. 535 68 24 Multiply 83647 b y 33- 83647 33 212232 0204 IOI I 16 0602 201 121 4982 201 121 4982 1285632 2760351 Note, thefe examples are the fame as the firft, only twice repeated ; obferve, when the product of any figure is lefs than ten, place a cypher before it to the left as below, by the product of 2 in the firft figure ; if after it is lefs than 10, fet the produd at the bottom, and a cypher at the top. See the operation. 78492 82 In order to prove this, ob- ferve the operation by the common way: 78492 82 1 1 0104 4688 5637*6 6422 156984 627936 6436344 6436344 Having 304 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, Having thus finilhed the multiplication of integers, the reader is to obferve that there is this analogy in it, viz. as an unit is to the multiplier, fo is the multiplicand to the pro- dud; for fuppofing one load of rough timber cofts 40 {hillings, how much will 10 loads coft ? RULE. If 10 loads be multiplied by 40 {hillings, the produd 400 {hillings, as in the margin, being confidered as an unit, bears the fame proportion to 40 {hillings, the multiplier, as 10 loads, the multiplicand, doth to 400 (hillings, the produd. LECTURE LXIX. OF THE MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. I Will not in this place treat upon the pe- culiar excellencies or antiquity of this fort of arithmetick, but immediately proceed to a few examples, and then finifh my treatife on multiplication with duodecimals, or what is vulgarly called crofs-multiplication with ali- quot parts. Multiplication of decimals, both in placing the multiplicand and multiplier, is the fame as multiplication of integers, only when the work is done, you are to obferve, with a daih of your pen, to cut off as many places 10 40 40a The Univerfal British Builder. 30^ places of decimals in your product, as there are places of decimals both in your multipli- cand and multiplier ; and in cafe of want in your produCf, prefix cyphers to the left-hand. It may be well to oblerve, that it will be convenient to make that number the multi- plicand which contains the molt places, though fomettmes it may perhaps be lefs in quantity ; fecondly, that if the multiplicand and multiplier be both decimals, that is, be both parts of integers, the produdt will be de- cimals ; thirdly, if the multiplicand and mul- tiplier be mixed, that is, integers and deci- mal parts of integers, the produft will be mixed ; and, laftly, if the multiplicand and multiplier be mixed, and the other be a de- cimal, the product will be fometimes mixed, and fometimes a decimal. Example 1. Of Decimals alone. • 57 6 4 v 3 2 Example 2. Example 3. Of Integers and Multiplicand mixed. Decimals. Multiplier a Decimal. 4-3 6z 5 27.5462 2.13 .234 11528 17292 4 0 34 ^ .4219248 1 3 0 875 43 62 5 8725O 9.292125 I IO1848 826386 55 ° 9 2 4 6.4468108 In example the 1 ft, of decimals alone, the product is .4219248 parts of an integer di- X vided go6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9 vided into 10,000,000, becaufe the denomi- nator of every decimal confifts of as many places of cyphers annexed to 1, as there are places in the decimals. In example the 2d, there being 6 decimal places in the multiplicand, I have therefore cut off 6 places of figures from the produd, and the product is 9 integers, and 292125 parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000 parts. In example the 3d, I have cut off 7 places of decimals, 4 in the multiplicand, and 3 in the multiplier, and the produd is 6 integers 4468108 parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000 parts. LECTURE LXX. OF DUODECIMALS, OR WHAT IS VULGARLY CALLED CROSS-MULTIPLICATION. A S in decimal-multiplication the integer is divided into 10 parts, fo in duodeci- mals it is divided into 12 parts, as a foot into 12 inches, ora (hilling into 12 pence ; in the following example fuppofe the integers to be feet and the decimals inches; this kind of multiplication may be performed as well by taking the aliquot, or even parts of 12, out of the multiplicand, (as will be immediately jfhewn) as by multiplying the multiplier into the multiplicand; but before I proceed to pradice, obferve, that the aliquot (which are tfhe Univerjal British Builder. 307 the even) parts of a foot, are as follow, viz. in 12 there are 6, which is the half of afoot, and muft be fo taken in the example ; three times 4, four times 3, four times 2, fix times 2, eight times 1^, and twelve times 1. In this kind of multiplication there is a great variety ; and as I think it the moft fa- miliar, concife, and eafy rule extant, for mea- furing, I (hall give various examples for prac- tice, and leave the reader to take which he moft approves of ; but before we begin, ob- ferve the following table. When the multiplier is multiplied into the multiplicand, note. Feet multiplied by feet, give feet. Feet multiplied by inches, give inches. Feet multiplied by feconds, give feconds. Inches multiplied by inches, give feconds. Inches multiplied by feconds, give thirds. Seconds multiplied by feconds, give fourths. Example ift. Here I multiply the 6 feet and 3 inches by 4 feet 4 inches, (which gives feet and inches for the produdt) faying, 4 times 3 is 12, fet X 2 o under 308 A ¥Lky to Civil Architecture ; or i 0 under the inches, and xarry one to the feet ; then 4 times Ft. In. Pts. 6 is 24, and one I carry makes 630 25, which I fet down as in 440 the margin; next I multiply — 6 feet 3 inches by 4 inches, 25 o o faying, 4 times 3 is ; 2, which 210 1 fet down under the place of — * feconds, or parts, as obferved 27 1 o in the table, and carry one to the inches, faying, 4 times 6 is 24, and one I carry is 25, which are 2 feet 1 inch, which fet down as in the example, . 'Example 2d. Example 3d. Example 4th. Ft. In. Pts. 9 7 ° 63© 57 6 ° 249 Ft. In. Pts. 460 640 27 O O 160 Ft. In. Pts. 1 83600 624OO 49 9 o o o i 4 7 0^0 59 10 9 28 6 o o 2 11 2 o 51 4 6 2 o The following examples are another me- thod of multiplying feet, inches, and parts, by multiplying the multiplier into the multi- plicand. Ft, The Univerfal British Builder. 309 Ft. In. Pts. Ft. ^n. Pts. Ft. In. Pts. 1.6 4 6 864 943 o 4 in. 06 in. o 7in. 556451(320 5559 Thefe examples may be ufed when you want to multiply feet, inches, and parts, by inches; or any aliquot part of a foot, as in the above examples, which are 16 feet, 4 inches, and 6 parts, multiplied by 4 inches, by placing the multiplier one place farther to the right-hand, and then multiplying as in whole numbers : the fecond and third examples are the fame. To multiply Feet and Inches by taking the Aliquot Parts . Now, fuppoung your dimenfion of feveral rooms of mouldings, or any thing that is mea- fured by feet and inches, as in the margin ; 263 feet 6 inches Ft. In. by 26 feet 6 inches ; it would be 263 6 too much for the head to fay 26 26 6 times 6, as in the firft example ; — - therefore I multiply the feet into 1578 o the feet firft, faying, 6 times 3 526 o is 18, fet down 8 and carry 1 as 13 1 9 in whole numbers ; and 6 times 13 o 6 is 36 and 1 I carry is 37, fet down 7 and carry 3 ; then 6 6983 9 times 2 is 12 and 3 I carry is 15, which fet down ; then begin with the 2, faying, 2 X 3 times 310 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, times 3 is 6, which fet down under the mul- ti olier as in whole numbers; 2 timevS.6 is 12, i fet down 2 and carry one ; then 2 times 2 is 4 and i I carry is 5, which is the whole. Now as they are multiplied into themfelves, inftead of multiplying the feet and inches, take the aliquot part of a foot for the inches, which in this example are the half, being 6 inches, faying* the half of 2 is 1, which fet down directly under the figure you fo divide, and the remains, when there are any, carry to the next inferior part, as from feet to inches, inches to parts, &c. and every integer fo re- maining muft be reckoned as 12 from feet to inches, and the like from inches to parts, &c. But to proceed, I have faid the half of 2 is 1, then the half of 6 is 3, and the half of 3 is 1, and 1 remains, which I carry to the inches, and call it 12, which added to the 6 inches in the multiplicand makes 18 ; then I fay, the half of 18 is 9, which I fet down under the inches, and proceed to take half of the mul- tiplier 26 feet by 6 inches, in the multiplicand, which has not as yet been confidered, faying as before, the half of 2 is 1, and the half of 6 is 3 ; the reader will obferve, that the 6 inches in the multiplier were before taken, therefore place the feveral fums in proper order as in the margin, and add them together, and they will make the produdt 6983 feet 9 inches. It matters not whether feet be firft multiplied, or aliquot parts taken, fo that their refpedive products be all duely added together. Example . *the TJniverfal British Builder. 311 Example . Ft. In. 345 3 16 4 Example . Ft. In, 946 6 44 2 Example . Ft. In. Pts. 433 6 o 23 7 o 2070 o 345 ° 0 0115 1 0004 1 5639 2 37 8 4 O I299 0 0 37840 O 8660 0 0 OO J4I I or 44 6 0 00022 O 0108 4 6 001 1 6 0 41787 I 10223 4 6 The above examples will, I hope, be plain enough by infpe&ion, and need no more than this obfervation, that if the aliquot part be 1 1 feet 9 inches, or 7 inches, I take them at twice, as in the laft example of 7, which I took at 3 and 4, being both aliquot parts of a foot, as before mentioned. To multiply feet, inches, and parts, by feet, inches, and parts, when the feet in the multiplicand and multiplier do not exceed twenty. X 4 RULE. 312 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , RULE. Firft, place the feet of the multiplier under the parts of the multiplicand, and the inches and parts to the right hand, and proceed to multiply as in whole numbers ; only with this difference, carrying 12 for the remains. * — See the examples. S3 4208 44 4414 Having thus given various examples of feet, inches, and parts; I fhall only obferve, that thefe being well underflood will make the menfuration of either fuperfices or folids eafy and delightful to every capacity. As fome works are meafured by the yard and feet, I fhall juft give a little inftrudtion in this fort of meafurement, and proceed to divifion. Multiplication of Yards and Feet . Obferve, that yards multiplied by yards produce yards ; when yards are multiplied into feet, every 3 feet make a yard, and the Ft. In. Pts. 864 Ft. In. Pts. 12 6 4 632 3 6 4 remains T’he Univerfal British Builder. 313 remains more than 3 are long feet ; what I mean by long feet, is, 3 feet in length, and 1 broad. Feet multiplied by feet produce parts of a foot ; which are fquare feet, 3 of which make a long foot. — See the example in the margin. Firft, the yards being mul- tiplied as integers, proceed to take the feet, which I do thus, as one foot is one third of a yard as aforefaid, I take the third of 463 yards 2 feet, which is 154 yards 1 foot, B as at B ; fecondly, as 2 feet C are two thirds of a yard, I D take the third twice of 223 yards, which is 74 each, and place them as in the margin ; and when added all together you have the true product, which is 93551 yards, 1 foot. 463 2 223 1 1389 926 926 J 54 1 74 74 i. — , 9355 1 * L E C- 314 Key to Civil Architecture ; or, IVISION is the reverfe of multiplication, for that turns fmall denominations into greater, but divifion turns greater into fmaller, and threfore is no more than a compendium of fubflraftion ; for as many times as the di- vifor can be fubftra&ed out of the dividend, fo many units are in the quotient. In whole numbers, of which only I Hi all yet fpeak, Divifion is the afking how many times one fum is contained in another ; and the number which anfwereth to that queflion is called the quotient. Secondly, the number containing is called the dividend. Thirdly, the number contained, or by which the divi- dend is to be divided, is called the divifor ; and as often as the dividend contains the di- vifor, fo often doth the quotient contain unity; fo that as multiplication is a compendium of many additions, divifion is a compendium of many fubftradtions. There are many ways by which this diffi- cult rule of divifion may be wrought, but fome much eafier than others to be performed; therefore, as eafe and perfpicuity are the fun- damental principles on which I build all my defigns, I (hall endeavour, in this as well as every other ledture, rather to inftrud: the ig- norant, than point out new modes and ftudied maxims, to acquire the felf-praife of the al- LECTURE LXXI. OF DIVISION. ready accompli Ihed. Divi- *fhe Unlverfal British Builder. 315 Divifion in general is performed by this analogy; as the divifor is to 1, fo is the di- vidend to the quotient ; which I (hall illus- trate by the following examples. Example the Firjl . If it be required to divide a floor which contains 436 feet into Squares, as one Square contains 100 Square feet, place them as in the margin ; 436, the dividend, as at B ; then making a divifion, place it at ioo, as A ; then make another, and placing it as at C, Seek how often 100 is contained in 436 feet, which is 4 times ; Set down 4 as at C, for the quotient ; multiply the 100 that is the divifor by the quotient 4, faying, 4 times o is nought, which place under the 6, and fay, 4 times o is nought again, and place an o under the 3, then fay, 4 times 1 is 4, which place under the 4 as in the example; then make a line at the bottom of thefe num- bers, and fubftradt from the dividend, faying, o from 6 and there remains 6, o from 3 and the remains are 3, and 4 from 4 you cannot, which leave 36 remains, that is to fay feet, as in the margin ; thus the work is 4. Square and 36 feet. In like manner is all divifion of whole numbers wrought ; at lead: my me- thod is fo. ABC 100 I 436 I 4 400 3 6 2 Example 316 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, Example the Second. Let 675 feet of dado, wainfcot, or any other fuperficial work, that is meafured by the yard, be brought into yards ; as 9 fquare feet therefore is a yard we di- vide by 9 ' y place them as in the margin, and proceed as be- fore -y feek how often 9 can be had in 67, and you will find it to be 7 times, which is 63 ; note down this under 67, then making a line under them fub- ftradtas before, t faying, 3 from 7 and there remain 4, which place in the margin, after this bring down the 5, and place that next the 4 to the right hand, and it makes 45 for a new dividend ; then feek how often 9 can be had in 45 ; 5 times 9 is 45, which place under 45, the new: dividend, and fubftradt as before, and your work is done, the whole being juft 75 yards. Note, If the dividend confift of eight or. ten figures, you muft frill proceed till you have brought down all the figures in the di- vidend, as in the two foregoing examples. But fee the following. Let it be required to divide 876543 by 647. 9 ! 6 75 i 75 6 3 45 45 00 EX- The TJniverfal British Builder. 317 EXAMPLES. 49 1 564987 1 1x530 49 74 49 2 59 245 148 H7 17 647 | 876543 | 1354 647 2295 1941 3544 3235 3°93 2588 5°5 LECTURE LXXIL OF CONTRACTIONS IN DIVISION.' W HEN the divifor is 10, 100, 1000, or 10000, cut from the dividend the fame number of figures to the right-hand as there are cyphers in the divifor ; and the fi- gures remaining to the left will be the quo- tient required ; thus 6784 di- vided by 10, I cut off one 1,0 J 678 J 4 figure to the right-hand as in — — • the margin, and the quotient is 678, and four tenths the remains. And 318 A Key to Civil Architecture *, or , And if 984367 fquare feet were to be brought into fquares, or di- vided by 100, I only cut 100 j 9843 | 67 off two figures to the right of the dividend, as in the margin, and the work is done, which is nine thoufand eight hundred and forty-three fquares and fixty-feven feet. But fee thefe examples by the common way. Example 1. 10 | 6784 | 678 60 70 84 80 4 Example 2. 100 1 984367 1 9843 900 843 800 43 6 400 3 6 7 67 And fo of 1000, and alfo of 10,000. The way to prove divifion is to add all the produdts refulting in the whole work together, in the fame order as they iiand in the work, and the fum of them (adding the laft remain- der, if there be any) will be equal to the di- vidend. The Unfaerfal British Builder. 319 vidend. Or this way ; multiply the quotient by the divifor, and to the product add the remains if any, and if your work be true, it will be the fame as the dividend. DIVISION OF DECIMALS. S divifion of whole numbers is the hard- eft of the fourfpecies of arithmetick, fo the divifion of decimals is the moft difficult of the four kinds of decimal arithmetick; but in this, as in the reft of my undertakings, I fhall endeavour to make it plain, eafy, and familiar to the weakeft capacity. The general varieties which happen in the divifion of decimals are principally the fol- lowing ; firft, to divide whole numbers and fractions ; fecondly, to divide whole num- bers by mixed, or mixed numbers by whole; thirdly, to divide a greater fradtion by a lets ; and laftly, to divide a lefier fradtion by a greater. Divifion of decimals is performed in every refpedt as whole numbers ; only there is fome difficulty in difcovering the true value of the quotient ; the following is a ge- neral rule. The places of decimal parts in the divifor and quotient, being accounted together, muft always be equal in number to thofe in the di- vidend ; and therefore as many figures as are cut off in the dividend, fo many muft be LECTURE LXXIIL cut 320 A Key to Civil Architecture ; of, cut off in the divifor and quotient. Or thus; cut off as many figures in the quotient as will make thofe cut off in the divifor equal to thofe in the quotient; with this obfervation, that if there be not fo many in the quotient, to add cyphers to the left-hand, and alfo, that if your dividend be an integer, or have lefs cut off than is in the divifor, to add cyphers to the. dividend, till they be equal ; this gene- ral rule admits of four cafes. CASE I. Where the places of decimal parts in the divifor and dividend are both equal in num- ber, as in the example, where both divifor and dividend are mixed numbers, then the quotient will be all whole numbers. Example . 45-3 26 I 564 2 -435 [ 124 45.3026 1 1 0983 9 0652 203315 1 81304 2201 1 CASE The Univerfal British Builder, 32J CASE II. Divide 6458.271 by 573 > as in the margin ; here the dividend is a mixed number, and the di- vifors are integers, and as here are 3 decimals in the di- vidend, and none in the divifor, there- fore cut off 270 the laft 3 figures in the quotient, and the quotient will be 11.27. 573 I 6458.271 | 11.27 573 . 728 373 1552 1146 4067 4011 CASE III. Divide .84 by .0324. -0324 [ .8400 | 26 as in the margin here 648 the dividend is whole numbers, and the divifor 1920 a decimal; and feeing 1894 that 84 the dividend confift but of two places, 126 I therefore add two cy- phers to it, making it 8400, thereby both di- vidend and divifor may be made fractions ; and by their being both of equal number of places, by cafe the firft, the quotient is integers ; Y when 322 A Key to Civil Architecture-, or, when there are not fo many places of decimal parts in the dividend as there are in the divifor, then annex cyphers to the dividend to make them equal, and the quotient will be all whole numbers* as in cafe the firft. CASE TV. Divide 4653 by 645 | 4653000 j 612 645, as in the mar- 3870 gin ; now here the dividend being inte- 783° gers, and the divifor a 7710 decimal, to bring out — integers in the quo- 120 tient I add 3 cyphers to 4653, the dividend. and the quotient is 412 and 120 remains ; but if, after the divifion is finifhed, there are not fo many figures in the quotient as there ought to be places of deci- mal parts by the general rule, then fupply the defeat by prefixing cyphers before the figures produced in the quotient ; as for example ; divide .421563 by 24. nowhere the dividend is a decimal, and the divifors are integers, whofe quotient is .17545 ; but as there are 6 places in the dividend, and but 5 in the quotient, therefore according to the general rule I prefix a cypher before the quotient 17545, making it .017545, which is the true quotient required. 2 4 ■the Univerfal British Builder. 323 24 ] .421543 | .017545 24 181 168 *35 120 156 144 123 120 3 From the preceding examples it is to be obferved, firft, that when the dividend is fu- perior to the divifor, the quotient is either in- tegers, or decimals and integers ; and laftly, that when the divifor is fuperior to the divi- dend, the quotient is a decimal ; and this, in both cafes, holds good in other examples. Y 2 LEG- 324 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, LECTURE LXXIV. OF REDUCTION. R EDUCTION is nothing more than a two-fold compofition of multiplication and divifion, for the ufe of changing a quantity out of one denomination into another, as a lefs into greater by multiplication ; or a greater into lefs by divifion : as for example ; if it be required to know how many fuperficial inches are contained in 7264 feet, multiply the feet by the number of inches in a fuperficial foot, and the produdt will be the contents required. EXAMPLE. 7264 144 29056 2QOc6 7264 1046016 In The Univerfal British Builder. 325 In 1046016 inches how many fquar e feet ? To bring this to its former ftate, you muft divide by 144. 144 J 1046016 ] 7264 1008 380 288 92 1 864 576 57 6 OOO As there is no other difficulty in this rule but to obferve the denomination to which you are to reduce the given fum or quantity, I (hall not trouble the reader with any more examples of this fort, but conclude with the following obfervation, that when we would reduce fquares, rods, yards, feet, or any other denomination, we muft find out the two quantities, and reduce one by divifion, the other by multiplication. 326 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or * EXAMPLE. To reduce fquares into feet, multiply the number of fquares by 100, the number of fquare feet in a fquare, and the produdt will be feet ; to reduce feet into fquares divide by 100, and the quotient will be fquares: to reduce yards into feet, multiply the yards by 9, the fquare feet in a yard, will be the num- ber of feet ; to reduce feet into yards, divide by 9 ; to reduce loads of timber to folid feet, multiply the loads by 50, the folid feet in a load of timber, and the product will be the contents ; to reduce folid feet into loads, di- vide by 50, the quotient is the load; and fo of any thing elfe, whether money or meafure- ment ; but this rule is fo obvious, that it needs no more inftrudtions. I fhall therefore proceed to the golden rule, or rule of three in whole numbers. LECTURE LXXV. THE GOLDEN RULE ; Or, RULE OF THREE DIRECT. T HIS is one of the moll ufeful and mod fimple rules in arithmetick, and for its uncommon utility, deferves a golden name ; its ufe is when there are three numbers given to find a fourth, which fhall have the fame proportion with them as they have one to ano- The Univerfal British Builder. 327 iher ; and is therefore properly called the rule of proportion. This rule is diredt, indirect, and compound. Firft, the fingle rule of three diredl finds a fourth number in fuch proportion to the third, as the fecond is to the firft ; or, as the fecond is to the firft, fo is the third to the fourth. But four numbers are in proportion, and call- ed proportional, when as the firft is to the third, fo is the fecond to the fourth ; as, if there were given 2, 3, and 4, to find a fourth, which may be to 3, as 4 is to 2, that is, double, and that fourth number is 6 ; this is called the proportion diredt ; and the rule whereby it is done, the diredt rule. There is alfo another proportion which is called reciprocal ; which is, when as the firft is to the third, fo is the fourth to the fecond; as 3, 4, 6, and 2, and is called the rule of three reverfe ; by diredt proportion, the pro- dudt of the two middle numbers multiplied together, is always equal to the produdt of the firft and laft multiplied together, which ferves not only as a proof, but as a ground of the rule, which rule here follows. RULE, Multiply the fecond term or number by the third, and divide the produdt by the firft, the quotient will be the fourth number required. 328 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, EXAMPLE, Let the three numbers given be 2, 6, 3 ; multiply 6 by 3, the produdt is 18 ; then di- vide 18 by 2, the quotient is 9, which is the fourth number in proportion with 2, 6, and 3 ; for as 2 is to 3, fo 3 times 2, which is 6, are to 3 times 3, which make 9 ; and thus the product j 8 being divided by 2, and the quo- tient 9, caufe that the product of 2 into 9 ihall be alfo 18 ; and confequently, if 2 be the firft of the four proportional numbers, and 6 and 3 the two middlernofh, then 9 is the laft. RULE To know when to ufe the diredt or the re- verfe rule.confider if more require more, or lefs require ftill lefs, then ufe the diredt rule : but if more require lefs, or lefs more,then ufe the reverfe rule. But this will be eafily under-^ flood by the following examples, EXAMPLE I. If the diameter of one circle be 7, and its circumference 22, what is the circumference nf another circle whofe diameter is 14 ? The TJniverfal British Builder. 329 Firft, place your num- bers as in the margin 3 fe- 7 : 22 :: 14 : 44 condly, multiply 14, the 22 third number, by 22, the — When the fourth number is thus found, place it next after the third number, with two dots of feparation between them. The fame kind of feparation is to be obferved between t}ie firft and fecond 3 between the third place 4 dots. Thefe points of feparation will then is to fo is to bear this analogy, as 7 : 22 : : 14 : 44. The points are to exprefs the words as they are placed above them. If the circumference of a circle be 22, whofe diameter is 7, what is the diameter of another circle whofe circumference is 44 ? Here the nature of the queftion requires the two firft numbers to be placed the reverfe of the foregoing example 3 for as there the fourth fecond number 3 and di- vide their produ£f 308 by 7, the firft number; the quotient 44 is then the fourth number, and the true anfwer required. 7 i 3° 8 i 44 28 28 28 00 EXAMPLE II. number 330 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , number required was the circumference of a circle, fo here on the contrary, the diameter of a circle is required ; but the manner of working, by multiplying the third number by the fecond, and dividing by the firft, is the fame here as before, as feen in this example, where the quotient 14 is the diameter re^ quired. 22 : 7 : 44 : 14 7 22 1 308 [ 14 22 83 88 o Now as in both thefe and all other ex- amples in the rule of three diredt, the fourth number is always equal to one more than the" fecond $ fo in the rule of three diredt, the fourth number is always lefs than the fecond- And as the fourth number in the diredt rule is found by multiplying the fecond and third numbers together, and dividing their pro- dudt; fo, on the contrary, in the indiredt rule you multiply your firft and fecond numbers into one another, and divide their produdt by the third, as follows* E X- The Univerfal British Builder. 331 EXAMPLE III. If 10 men can perform a certain quantity of work in 30 days, how long time will 20 men be in performing the fame ? RULE, Multiply 30, the fecond number, by 10, the firft, and their product, which is 300, di- vide by 20, and the quotient, which is 15, is the anfwer required. Men. Days. Men. Days. 10 : 30 : : 20 : 15 10 20 1 300 1 15 20 100 100 o Of the Golden Rule compound . In the golden rule compound there are always five numbers given to find a fixth in proportion to them ; which numbers muft be fo placed as that the three firft may contain a 332 A Key* to Civil Architecture % er, fuppofition, and the two laft a demand ; and that you may place the numbers truely, al- ways obferve that the firft number be of the fame denomination with the fourth, the fe- Cond of the fame denomination with the fifth, and the third with the fixth required. EXAMPLE. If 8 men in 36 days lay 48 fquares of floor- ing, how many fquares can 6 men perform in 28 days ? RULE. Firft, ftatethe queftion, as below j fecondly, multiply the two firft numbers, viz. 36 into 8, whofe product is 288, as alfo the two laft is 168. Men. Days. Men. Days. 8 : 36 6 : 28 8 6 288 168 Now the anfwer to this is found by the rule of three diredt, by making 288 (the produdl of the firft two) the firft number ; the third given number, 48 fquares, your fecond; 168 (the produdt of your laft) your third number. 288 The Unherfal British Builder. 333 288 : 48 : 168 48 I J 344 l] 672 288 | 8064 | 28 57 6 2304 2304 OO The anfwer is 28 , that is 28 days, which is equal to 8 men in 36 days. 7# the Golden Rule . As the four numbers are proportionals, that is, the fourth is to the fecond as the third is to the firft, therefore the fquare of the two means (which are the fecond and third) is always equal to the fquare of the two ex- tremes, (that is, the firft and the laft ;) that is to fay, if the produA of the firft and the laft numbers, multiplied together into each other, be equal to the produdt of the two mid- dles, the work is right, otherwife not. So 334 A Key to Civil ArchiteSiure ; of 9 So 8064 the prod aft of 288 168 28 48 2304 *344 57 6 672 A I 8064 | B | 8064 | 1 68 multiplied into 28, which are the two extremes of the above example, as at A, is equal to 8164, the product of 28 multiplied at 288, the two extremes of the fame example, as at B ; hence it is plain, that when the given numbers in the foregoing three varieties of the rule of three are truely ftated, (and which, indeed, is the only difficulty in the whole) the manner of performing the operation is very eafy. LECTURE LXXVI. THE EXTRACTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT. E XTRACTING the fquare root is no more than finding the fide of a geome- trical fquare, whofe area is the fide multiplied into itfelf. For example ; 25 is a fquare num- ber, which is produced by 5 being multiplied into 5 ; fo in like manner 16 is a fquare num- ber, produced by 4 multiplied by 4. The 1 fide *The Univerfal British Builder. 33^ fide of any geometrical fquare is called its root. I have added a table of fquare num- bers, whofe roots are the nine digits, and which, being nothing more than part of the multiplication table, I doubt not by the time the reader has got thus far, but he will have it by heart. EXAMPLE. Let 625 be a root given to find its 4 fquare root. 1- 2> 3- 5 - 6- 7 8- 9 - 1 4 9 16 2 ? 3 6 49 64 81 RULE. Multiply 625 into itfelf, as at b c , whofe product is 390625, the fquare number re- quired, and whofe root is thus extracted, viz. Firft, place a point above the firft figure to the right-hand as at n> and at every other figure to the left-hand as at d and e 9 and obferve as many points as this fquare number contains, fo many places of figures the root will con- fift of. Secondly, make a crotchet at the right-hand of the fquare number as in divi- fion ; and note, that every two figures fo pointed 336 d Key to Civil Architecture ; of, pointed are called a punctuation. Thirdly, find in the table the neareft fquare number that is contained to the left-hand, viz. in 39, which is 36, whofe root is 6, place 36 under 39, and its root 6 in the quotient, then fub- ftradting 36 from 39 , the remains are 3, which place under 36, as in the exam- ple ; this is your firfl work, and is not to be repeated. Fourthly, bring down the next punc- tuation 06 and join it to the remains 3, making 306, which P 12 c 625 b 62 5 3 I2 5 1250 375 ° e d n • • • 390625 . 3 6 3 °- 6 £ 24 4 / 62 124.5 I 6 22.5 6225 O GO O X js your firft refol- vend, and on its left- llde make a crochet as in divifion, to fepa- rate the divifor from the dividend. Fifthly, double the root 6, which makes 12, place this at the left of the refolvend, as at p ; then rejecting the laft figure in the refolvend, which muft always be done as at g , fee how often the divifor 12 is contained in the remaining two figures in the refolvend, which is twice, therefore place 2 in the quotient at f, and alfo 2 at Hhe XJmverfal British Builder. 337 at the right-hand of the divifor at b f and multiply 122, the divifor, increafed by 2, that is by 2 in the quotient, the produdt will be 244, which place under 306 the refolvend, this being fubftradted from it, the remains are 62 ; which being done, bring down the next pundtuation, and join it to the remain- der 62, making it 6225 for afecond refolvend, and then proceed as before, viz. double the quotient 62, which makes 124, place this on the left of the fecond refolvend ; then fee how often 124 is contained in the laft refolvend (the laft figure as before rejected) which is 5 times, place 5 in the quotient, and alfo to the right of the lad divifor ; then multiplying the divifor by 5 as before, place the remains under the refolvend as at x ; then fubftradting from the refolvend, you will find no remains, which fhews that 390625 is afquare number, whofe root is the 625 required. Note, if the fquare number confift of more pundtuations, you mud ftill bring them down, and proceed in every refpedt as before. Se- condly, if at any time, when you have mul- tiplied the number ftanding in the place of the divifor by the figure laft found in the quotient or root, the produdt be greater than the refolvend ; in fuch a cafe, you muft put a figure lefs by one than the former in the quotient, and multiply by it as before. Third- ly, if at any time the divifor cannot be had in the refolvend, then place a cypher in the Z quotient, 1 33 % A Key to Civil Architecture •> or, quotient, and alfo on the right-hand of the divifor, ( and to the refolvend bring down the next punctuation for a new refolvend, with which proceed as before. Whenever it hap- pens after extraction is made, that there is a remainder, the number given is called a furd or irrational number, and its root cannot be exaCtly obtained, although by adding a cy- pher you may come as near the truth as pof- 12.649 E X A M P L E. If it be required to extraCt the root of 160, the fird punctuation here bing 1 , the fquare of one is 1, which place under .1 , then fubfiraCting 1 from 1 there remains o, accordingly fet 1 in the quotient, and to o bring down the next punCtua- 246 [ 1600 tion 60, making the re- 1476 mains c6o. Secondly, — fay, double the quotient 252.4 | 12400 10096 x makes 2, which place for your divifor as in the lad example 5 now as 2 is contained three times in 6, after rejecting the o as before taught, being the lad figure in the re- folvend to the right-hand ; I fay, to place 3 in 2528.9 J 230400 227601 2799 T'/je Vmverfal British Builder. 3^9 in the quotient and divifor would make the latter 23, which being multiplied by 3 would be 69, that is more than 60, the firft refol- vend, and therefore cannot be fubftra&ed from it ; in fuch a cafe then as I have before ftated, place a figure lefs but one in the quo- tient, that is 2, and alfo the fame on the right of the divifor 2; then multiplying the divifor 22 by 2 in the quotient, the produdt is 44, which being placed under the firft re fol vend 60, and fubftradted from it, the remains are 16. Thirdly, to the remains annex two cyphers, and make it 1600 for a fecond refolvend ; then, proceeding as before, the next figure in the quotient will be 6, and 124 remains, to which annex two cyphers more, making the remains 12400 for a third refol- vend, and proceed in like manner by conti- nually adding two cyphers every time to each remainder till you have increafed the figures in the quotient to as many places as may be required ; in this I have increafed them to three places, which I apprehend to be near enough for any bufinefs. Z 2 If 340 A Key to Civil Architecture ■, or . If it be required to extradt the fquare-root of 4096. EXAMPLES. •' • 4096 1 64 3 6 • • • 678960 1 823 64 124 [ 49.6 49 6 162 1 38.9 3 2 4 OO O 1643 J 656.0 49 2 9 i6 3 3 • • 676 | 26 4 5728*4 | 238 4 46 J 27.6 27 6 43 I * 7 - 2 12 9 00 c 468 1 4 384 3 8 44 54 ° LEC- The Univerfal British Builder. 341 THE EXTRACTION OF THE CUBE-ROOT. Cube number is that which is produced by multiplying any number into itfelf, and its product again by the lame number, thus 64 is a cube number, produced by 4 multiplied in 64. A cube is a folid figure, contained under fix equal fquares, and may fully be reprefented by a dye. Of cube numbers there are three diftindt kinds or fpecies, viz. fingle, compound, and irrational. Firft, fuch are called fingle cube numbers as are made of any one fingle num- ber, or fignificant figure multiplied twice into itfelf, as 1 multiplies nothing, and is both root and cube ; but 2 times 2 is 4, and twice 4 is 8, fo that 2 is the root, and 8 the cube; alfo 3 times 3 is 9, and 3 times 9 is 27, here 3 is the root, and 27 the cube ; and fo of all the 9 digit numbers, as in tlie following table. LECTURE LXXVII. EX- 342 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or , P L E. E X A M f | 4 multiplied 9 | into itfelf 10 > produceth 2 S > the fquare 3 6 numbers. 49 64 l 8 ij and that mul- tiplied again into the fide cube bers. num- i 8 27 64 125 216 3 T 3 512 729 Compound cube numbers are thofe vvhofe roots confift of more figures than one, as if 12 be the root, then 12 times *2 is 144 the fquare, and 12 times 144 is 1728, which isa foot cube of timber, &c. Irrational cube numbers are thofe whofe ex aft cube cannot be found either by whole numbers, fractions, or decimals. EXAMPLE. Let 262144 be a cubed number given to find its root. Firft, point the firfi: fi- gure to the right- hand, then every third figure toward the left-hand as at b d. Secondly, look at your table of cubed numbers, and find the near- eft cube number to 262, which is 216, whofe root is 6, d b • • 262144 ] 64 2 16 r 108 46144 Refolvend, u 43 2 288 w 64 46144 00000 place The Univerfal British Builder. 343 place 6 in the quotient, and 216 under 262, and fubftradting 216 from 262, the remains are 46 ; bring down the next punctuation 144, and annex them to 36, making it 36144, which is your firft refolvend. Now to find a divifor by which you are to divide this refol- vend, its two laft figures excepted, which muft always be done, proceed in the follow- ing manner, viz. Firft, fquare the quotient 6, which is 36, treble this makes 108, and is the divifor required as at r ; then feek how often you can have 108 in 461, rejecting the two figures to the right, as obferved 4 times, which is equal to 432, place thefe un- der the refolvend 461 as at u , and fet 4 in the quotient. Secondly, treble 6 the firft figure in the root equal to 18, which multiplied by 16, the fquare of 4, the laft figure in the quotient makes 288, place this under 432, in one place to the right-hand as at w ; alfo cube 4, the laft figure in the quotient, which is equal to 64, which place under 288, one place more to the right-hand, as at r ; then the three fubducends 432.288, and 64 being added together as they ftand, their fum make a fubtrahend of 46144, which being fub- ftraCted from the firft refolvend, their remains are nothing, and this (hews that 262144 is a £iibe number, whofe part is 64, £4 E X- 44 Key to Civil Architecture ; or . EXAMPLES. n’ 0 592 ! 49 H6363 183 [ 527 64 12 5 48 | 465.92 43 2 972 721 53641 75 ! 213-63 150 60 8 15608 2951 103823 [ 47 64 4 8 I 398-23 3 6 3 39823 — i > OOOOO 8112 1 5755- 1 83 5678 4 76 44 343 5755i s 3 coooooo 117649 I 49 64 48 I 536-49 432 9/2 729 53649 OOOOO E X- The TJniverfal British Builder. 345 EXAMPLE. 1 10592 | 48 64 ‘ 48 | 465.92 3 ^ 4 7 68 49 2 4 6 57 2 O 0020 LECTURE LXXVIII. OF MENSURATION. T HE reader is to obferve of the following treatife, that every quantity is meafured by l'ome other quantity of the fame kind, as a line by a line, a fuperfice by a fuperfice, and a folid by a folid; and the number which fhews how often the lefler, called the meafuring unit, is contained in the greater, or quantity mea- fured, is called the content of the quantity fo meafured: thus, if the quantity to be meafured be a fuperfice, whofe dimenfion is 8 inches by 6 , and the meafuring unit an inch each way ; then as many times as the unit is con- tained in the above redtangle, which muft be m 8 times 6, viz. 48, is the number of fuper- ficial 5 346 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ficial inches contained, from whence it is eafy to conceive, that any fquare or redtangular figure may be found by repeating the number of parts into which the length is divided by the fide of the meafuring unit, as often as there are parts in the breadth of the fame, whether inches, feet, yards, fquares, &c. for it is in familiar fpeaking but multiplying one fide by the other, and the produdt is the area required of all regular figures. How to meafure the Area of a Triangle . RULE. Multiply thebafe by half the perpendicular, let fall or ftruck fquare from the bafe, or what is called the hypothenufe, to the point of the right angle, and the produft is the contents required. Suppofing the 25 bafe of a triangle to be 25, and half 9 the perpendicular let fall 9, multi- ply them as in the margin, and the 225 product is the content required. The TJniverfal British Builder. 34 7 To find the Contents of a Trapezium-figure, f whofie Sides are parallel, though of unequal Length . RULE. Add the two fides together, and take half for the length ; multiply that by the width, the product will be the con- 27 tents required. Suppofing the 2 fides 16 added together to be 54, and the width of the plane 16, 1 place them as in the 162 margin, and the produdt is the con- 27 tents required. ■ 43 2 To find the Content of any unequalfided Figure . RULE. Divide it into triangles, and meafure it as before taught ; then add the feveral fums to- gether, and thefe will be the contents re- quired. Having fhewn how any right-lined fuper- ficial figure may be computed, it may be pro- per to fay fomething with regard to the area, and circumference of a circle. It is well known, that to determine the true area of a circle, and to find a right line exadt- l Y 348 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ly equal to the periphery or circumference thereof, has been looked upon by mathema- ticians as abfolutely impoffible ; I hope the learner therefore will be content with luch methods as fhall be near enough to approxi- mate any thing required in the building branch, and have been thought fo, not only by Archi- medes, but every author fince. LECTURE LXXIX. OF CIRCLES, Hr* HE diameter of a Circle bein { g given to ^ find its Circumference. RULE. As 7 is to 22, fo is the di- ameter tc the circumference. Suppofe the diameter to be 9 feet, firft multiply the diame- ter 9 by 22, the product is 198, which divided by 7 gives 28 feet and 2«7ths of a foot for the circumference. The 22 9 7 I 198 | 28 *4 5 6 The Univerfal British Builder. 349 The Circumference of a Circle being given , to find the Diameter . RULE. Multiply the circumference by 7, and di- vide by 22, the quotient will be the contents required. The Diameter of a Circle being given , to find the Area , or J up erficial Contents . RULE. As 7 is to 22, fo is the fquare of the femi-diameter to the fuperficial contents. Suppofing the femi-diame- ter to be 4 feet, that fquared 16 is 16, which multiplied by 22 22 give 352, and that produft di- — — vided by 7, the quotient is 32 49 feet, the area of the circle 32 required. — 7 I 35 2 I 49 2$o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. How to meafure any Part or Portion of & Level. RULE. Multiply half the arch-line by the femi- diameter, and the product will be the fuper- ficial contents. c Pofind the fuperficial Contents of a Cylinder . RULE. As 7 is to 22, fo are the 12 diameter and length of the 5 fide multiplied one by ano- ther, to the fuperficial con- 60 tents of the outfide of the 22 cylinder. Suppofing the - ... diameter to be 5, and the 120 length 12, thefe multiplied 120 together make 60 ; and a- — gain multiplied by 22, the 7 J ! I 3 20 1 18 produdt is 1320, which di- 7 vided by 7 give 188 feet, the fuperficial contents. — Note, 62 This may be done by girt- 5 6 ing the cylinder for the width multiplied by the 60 length. 56 4 3 * The TJniverfal British Builder. 351 To meafure the Superfice of a Dome or Globe . ' RULE. Multiply the diameter by the circumfe- rence, and the produdt is the contents re- quired. How to meafure a Pyramid . RULE. Add all the four fides of the bafe together, and take half the fum multiplied by the height, which will be the fuperficial contents required* LECTURE LXXX. OF SOLIDS. S OLID figures or bodies are fuch as con- (ift of three dimenlions, viz. length, breadth, and thicknefs, as ftonc, timber, earth, or any other folid body whatever. The difference in the meafurement of fnperfices and folids is this ; in the former you have only to meafure the length .with the breadth; in the latter you have to multiply that product by the thicknefs, as in the following ex- ample. 1 Sup- 352 A Key to Civil Architecture ; o?> Ft. In. Suppofing a cubical figure to i 6 be i foot 6 inches by i foot 6, i and 2 feet deep, firft multiply i — foot 6 inches by i foot 6, accor- 9 ding to duodecimals, and the 1 6 produd: by 2 feet, the depth, the — — contents 47 feet folid. 2 3 2 6 o o 4 6 All regular folid bodies that are above a foot in the fquare may be meafured by duo- decimals, being much the fimpleftand readied: method. Suppofing a piece of fquare timber to be 2 feet 6 inches by x foot 3 inches, and 9 feet long. EXAMPLE. Ft. In. Firft multiply 2 feet 6 inches 2 6 by 1 foot 3, and that produd: by 1 3 the length, then the laft produd: will be 29 feet 7 inches 6 parts, 7 6 the content required. 2 6 3 3 6 9 29 7 6 To r The Univerfal British Builder, 353 To meafure the foiid Contents of any Scantling of Timber under a Foot . Multiply one fide by the other, that is, fquaring one end, and multiplying that by 12 gives the foiid inches in one foot long ; after- wards multiply that product by the number of feet the piece contains in length, and the product will be the contents in inches ; then divide by 1728, the cubical inches in a foot, and you will have the foiid contents in feet. EXAMPLE. Suppofe a piece of tim- 3 ber the Xcantling of which 8 is 8 by 3, I fay, 8 times 3 — is 24, and multiplying that 24 by 12 gives 288 foiid 1 2 inches; next multiply the length 25 into 288, and 288 divide by 1728, this gives 2 5 4 foiid feet of timber, and 288 foiid inches, which is > 4 - 4 ° fomewhat lefs than a quar- 57 6 ter of a foot. 288 A a 10 354 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9 7 o find the folid Contents of a Pyramid . R U I, E. Firft find the fuperficial contents of the bafe, or biggeft end, and that produdt being mul- tiplied by one third of the height, the pro- dud: will be the fuperficial contents. The fame alfo if the bafe be a triangle. LECTURE LXXXI. OF MEASURING ROUND TIMBER. I T is cuflomary in meafuring round timber, if a tree be regularly fhaped, to girt it in the middle with a firing, for a mean be- tween the two ends ; the firing then muft be doubled four times for the girt. Thus if a tree be 32 inches in circumference the girt is 8 inches. RUL 6 The Univerfal British Builder. 35^ RULE to meafure it. Square the girt, and. 8 multiply that by 12, 8 and the product by the — . length, and divide by 64 172S, you will then 12 have the contents re- — — . quired, as in the mar- 768 gin, which is 1 1 folid 25 feet and 192 folid inches, — — ■ that is to fay near 4 of a 3840 foot 1536 1728 j J9200 | 11 1728 1920 1728 192 Note, If the timber girt be above a foot, you may meafure by duodecimals, which is much the belt and eafieft method. See the following A a 2 EX- A Key to Civil Ar chit e 51 lire ; or, ' 'EXAMPLE. Suppofe a piece of round tim- ber or ftone to be in girt i foot 3 inches, firft fquare that, and multiplying the product by the laft product, you will find the contents required to a length of 8 ieet ; and fo of any other di- menfion. 1 3 i 3 9 1 3 169 8 12 6 o LECTURE LXXXII. OF GEOMETRY. C GEOMETRY is that fcience by which jf we compare all quantities together that have extenfion, being the bafis of building, and on which almoft every art depends. Geometry is both fpeculative and practical ; the former elucidates the properties of lines, figures, and angles ; the latter teaches how to apply or reduce them to practice in architec- ture, &c. Extenfion is confidered by length, breadth, and thicknefs. A line is that which hath length without breadth. The bounds of a line, or extremes, are called points, and have no magnitude or extenfion to be divided to our fight. When extenfion, called quantities, is confidered as lengths. The TJniverfal British Builder. 357 lengths, they are only called lines. Thofe with lengths and breadths are called furfaces. A right-line is that which lies evenly between its extremes, or every where tends the fame way. An angle is the opening or inclination of two right-lines meeting each other in a point. An acute angle is that which islefs than a right angle. An obtufe angle is that which is greater than a right angle. Two right lines are fa id to be equidifiant, when perpendicu- lars are any way taken and are of equal length. A right-lined plane figure is that whofe bounds are right lines. All plane figures bounded by three lines are called triangles. A right-angled triangle is that which has one right angle, whereof the fide oppofite to the right angle is called the hypothenufe. An equilateral-triangle is that whofe fides are all equal. A fcalene-triangle is when all the three fides are unequal. A rectangle is a fquare whofe fides and angles are equal. Parallelogram, whofe angles, if right, are called redtangles. A trapezium is an irregular four-fided fquare. " A circle is a figure bounded by one line, called its periphery or circumference. Every right line pafiing through the centre of a circle, and terminating in the circumfe- rence, is called a diameter. A a 3 An 358 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, An arch of a circle is any portion of the periphery or circumference. The chord or fubtenfe of an arch is a right line joining the two extremes of that arch. A fegment of a circle is a figure contained under a femi-circle. A femi-circle is a figure contained under any diameter, and the part of the circumfe- rence cut off from that diameter. A fedtor of a circle is a figure contained under two right lines drawn from the centre to the circumference. The radius of a circle is the diftance of the centre from the circumference. Thefe figures and bounds mentioned are part of one of the great principles of geometry, being diftinguifhed into three parts, viz. pof- tulates, axioms, and definitions. The former being demands or fuppofitions, intimate, that from any given line or point another right line may be drawn. That from any centre or diftance, or with any radius, the circumference of a circle may be defcribed. Alfo, that the equality of lines and angles to others given be granted as poffible for one right line to be perpendicular, or parallel to another, at a given point or diftance j and that every magnitude hath its half, quarter, third, fourth, &c. The fecond principle is axioms orfelf-evi- dent truths, as that every whole is greater than its half. Or, That The Univerfal British Builder. 359 That every whole is equal to all its parts. Alfo, that if to equal things equal things be added, the whole mult be equal. That all right-angles are equal to each other, and if from equal things equal things be taken, the remains will be equal. The third and Taft principle is definitions, which are the explications of fuch terms, fi- gures, and words, as concern a propofition in order to render it intelligible and plain to the underftanding, that every objection in demon- ftratipn may be comprehended without diffi- culty. By a propofition is underilood fomething propofed to be done or defigned. Alfo, when a problem is named, fomething is propofed or intended to be done. A theorem is when fomething is offered for demonftration. A lemma is a premife demonftrated with a view to render what follows, and what was firit intended plainer. A fcholium is, when remarks or obferva- tions are made upon fomething going before. A corollary is a truth gained from fome pre- ceding confequent truth or demonftration. The proper defign of a definition being to fhew and explain the term or thing defigned, fo as to give a precife and competent idea thereof, it is certain the exa& meaning of every term made ufe of in a definition ought to be perfectly underfiood, or at lead fhould A a 4 be 360 A Key to Civil Architecture , &c. be better known or more commonly received than the term to be defined. It was from this motive that I have made free to nominate fome of the principles of geometry, in order to ani- mate the ftudent to the fearch of it, which, if purfued with vigour, will give fuch fatisfac- tion from the juftnefs of its reafoning, as is only peculiar to the fubject, and create a thirft for the fpirit .of its profundity. Having faid fo much, and extended this volume beyond its intended fixe, I mull: beg t!ie reader's pardon for any miftakes commit- ted either through deficiency of language, or errors of the prefs, and that he will turn his thought upon the extenfion and real meaning of the fubjedt. I hope alfo he will at lead: acknowledge my intent was good, and if thofe who may be unacquainted with many of the matters fpoken of, will but take upon them- fclves to fcudy as much for their own advan- tage as I have done for the general benefit of mankind, I am perfuaded they will not think their labours loft. A A DISSERTATION ON THE LATJ5 BUILDING ACT, With proper Rules and Diredlions for every CLASS of BUILDING. A DISSERTATION ON THE LATE BUILDING ACT. LECTURE LXXXIII. B UILDING is a Science truely fublime, and of fuch an important nature, that the moft florid pen would but convey a faint idea of its excellence ; efpecially if we con- fider the benefits that arife from its many ad- vantages. I fay, if we confider thefe, we fhall not find the fubjedl too trivial for the univer- fal ftudy of our firft feminaries, nor their mode of ere&ion beneath the guidance of a Britifli Senate, who have fo lately undertaken the reformation of many grofs and unpardonable abufes which cuflom had introduced among us, and which were every day growing worfe for want of animadverfion. Not but the late Aft '364 A Kev to Civil Architecture ; or, ACt of Parliament is replete with errors, not* through defign, but in many cafes for want of a juft knowledge of the difadvantages that nmft arife to many peculiar bufinefles, by granting benefits to others which cannot be avoided, unlefs we give fcope to invention, and inftitute fome other mode of building. One of the moft inconfiderate claules in the adt is, the prohibition of frontifpieces of wood, which could never enter the thoughts of any body but a mafon, who could not bear to fee any thing executed in wood that might yield fo great a profit to his own trade in ftone. If frontifpieces of wood were in any wife de- trimental, their being fet afide would be an a£t of prudence ; but as they are not, I think it a point of unparalleled cruelty to oblige a builder to give 25, 30, or 35/. for a frontif- piece, when he might have one of wood, fu- perior in elegance, for half the money. If houfes were to take fire on the exterior parts, frontifpieces might be of differvice; but as this rarely or never happens, they cannot be dangerous : befides, in point of fecurity, they can at any time and in any cafe be taken down in three minutes. There are many matters of much more confequence in a build- ing not reftrained, and which are replete and pregnant with danger. This ftrikes me with an immediate thought, that a mafon muft have propounded and devifed the adt — for no publick advantage — but the peculiar emolu- 4 menf TAe Univerfdl British Builder. 365 ment of his own branch ! For it is well known that mafons have a greater profit upon frontif- pieces than any thing in their trade, through a want of knowledge in furveyors of the exad labour that is required in matters of this fort. An aft to prevent many errors in building, was long a defirable matter, and of fome mo- ment. If it had made its appearance ten years ago, it would have been the means of faving many unthinking men from the dif~ grace of a prifon ; and preferved numbers of, now diftrefled, families from lading ruin and poverty. The terrors of a fine, in cafe of non-com- pliance to an eftablifhed ftandard made by parliament, would have deterred numbers of builders in Marybonne , and other out-fkirts of the town, from attempting matters which they had neither the experience to execute nor means to carry on. Many, to my certain knowledge, turned builders who never ferved their time to any bufinefs, and without the poffeftion of one requifite in the fcience, un- lefs a third of money may be called fo : thefe, hurried on by their paffions, laid out ground without underdanding, contrived rooms with- out meaning, built walls and chimnies with- out thought, which were of no other ufe but to enhance the price of timber, by cutting piles upon piles and fixing them in unnatural order, as if they had been juft ereded to mako up the row without form or fervice ; uncon- nected 366 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, nedted and ill concerted ; void of grace, flrength, and convenience and to the lad- ing fhame of the London builders, it may be juftly affirmed, that there are hundreds of buildings about the town, which are of lefs value when finifhed than the materials were before ufed. But thofe defedts will be all prevented in future, by the prefent adt, which has allufion not only to the flrength of walls, but alfo the confequence of foundations. For a more clear conception, however, of this adt, it may be requifite to enquire into the merits of every clafs of building, with fome flridtures thereon, feparately as they occur. Of the First Class of Building, ns dire died by Adi of Parliament . IT is enadled that every publick place of j[ worfhip, and every building for diftilling and brewing of liquors for fale ; every build- ing ufed for carting of brafs or iron, for refin- ing fugar, making glafs for chemical works for fale ; every building for making of foap, melting of tallow, for dying, for boiling tur- pentine ; and alfo every warehoufe or building whatfoever, not being a dwelling houfe, now or hereafter to be built, (except thofe build- ings of the fifth, fixth, and feventh clafles) which fhall exceed three clear dories above ground, exclufive of garrets (which are not 2 to T!he Vniverfal British Builder. 367 to be confidered as a ftory) {hall be thirty-one feet from the ground to the top of the para- pet. And every dwelling-houfe now built, or hereafter to be built, with the offices there- unto belonging and adjoining or connected, otherwife than with a fence wall, or covered paffage, open on one or both fides when finifhed, and which {hall exceed the fum of eight hundred fifty pounds, and contain more than nine fquare of building, is deemed the firft clafs of buildings. To which firft clafs it is enadled, that all foundations to the outward wall, or to any addition thereto, muft: be built and remain of the thicknefs of two bricks and a half at leaft, and may be regularly diminifhed on both fides to two bricks: the footing muft be nine inches at leaft, and be wholly below the cellar floor, two inches at leaft ; and every outward wall from the faid foundation muft be continued two bricks to the one pair of flairs floor, and from thence to the raifing or gutter-plates, one brick and a half ; the para- pet to be one brick to the coping. Alfo, that all recefles to this clafs of building, for clofets, bookcafes, &c. that may be left or cut in ex- ternal walls, have one brick thick in the back at leaft, and be arched ever the fame ; alfo, that the foundations of party walls in this firft clafs of building, likewife all additions, &c. muft be of the thicknefs of three bricks and a half at the bottom, and regularly diminifh on 368 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, on each fide four inches to the top of the faid foundation, which fhall be in height one foot, and two inches below the cellar floor, and from thence lhall be continued with two bricks and a half to the ground floor ; after- ward, in two bricks to the floor of thehighefl: room in the houfe, and from thence with one brick and a half through the roof, and above the fame, one foot fix inches. Aifo, if at any time you are building a houfe of the firfl: clafs, and the adjoining one fhould be of the third or fourth clafs only, you mull: in that cafe build the party wall the fame in every refpeCt with the directions for the firfl: clafs of buildings. The above claufes in the adt of the firfl: clafs have very few faults, and little room for complaint, except the inconvenience of being obliged to call on every occafion the furveyors to juftify their proceedings; for it cannot be imagined that any fenfible man would pro- pofe to build walls of lefs magnitude than the above dimenfions, though it has frequently been done by men of defperate undertakings. A prudent builder mud be well apprized of the fatal confequence attending fuch ginger- bread ftrudtures. The walls, in point of propriety, lack fiib- dance; and if the fize of the building were augmented above this proportion, I will be bold to affirm, would be inadequate to the purpofe : this will very plainly appear by ex- amining The Univerfal British Builder. 369 amining my ftandard of walls, which are as light as any building ought to be. Of the Second Class of Buildings . T HE fecond clafs imports that every {ta- ble, or other building, not ufed as a dwelling-houfe, now built, or hereafter to be built, which {hall exceed two clear {lories, and not more than three out of the ground, and {hall be twenty-two feet, and not ex- ceed thirty-one feet from the ground to the top of the parapet; and alfo, every dwelling- houfe now built, or hereafter to be built, which with the offices, &c. (as mentioned in the firft clafs) when finifhed {hall exceed the value of 300/. and not more than 850/. ditto, and {hall contain five fquares of building, fhall be deemed the fecond clafs of buildings. To which fecond clafs of buildings all the footings or foundations muft be built of the thicknefs of two bricks at leaft, and may be diminilhed two inches of a fide ; the height of the faid foundation muft be nine inches, and two inches below the floor of the cellar ; and fuch outward walls muft be continued one brick and a half to the one pair of flairs floor, and from thence with one brick to the pa- rapet. The party walls to the fecond clafs and all additions, &c. muft be of the thicknefs of B b three 370 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, three bricks and a/ half at lead, and may be diminished on each fide of the faid foundation to the fet off on the bafement dory four inches ; the height of the foundation mud be nine inches, and below the Surface of the cel- lar floor two inches ; from the fet off on the foundation to the ground floor two bricks and a half, from thence to the two pair of flairs floor two bricks, after that in one brick and a half to the top through the roof, and one foot fix inches above the back of the rafters* Of Buildings of the Third Class. T O the third clafs is enabled, that every flrudture, whether warehoufe or ffable, not being a dwelling houfe, now built or hereafter to be built, which fhall exceed one clear dory, and fhall not be more than two, and more than thirteen feet, and not exceed twenty-two feet from the Surface of the ground to the top of the parapet ; and alfo every dwelling-houfe either now or hereafter to be built, with the offices, &c, (as mentioned in the fird clafs) which when finifhed fhall ex- ceed the Sum of one hundred and fifty pounds, and not exceed three hundred, and Shall run above three Squares and a half, and not exceed five Squares of building, fhall be deemed the third clafs of buildings, and Subject to fuch rules and redridtions as is Specified in the faid ait. With Tie Unherfal British Builder. 371 With refpedt to the external and party Walls : And fir ft, of the foundations to out- ward walls with all additions; . they muft be built of the thicknefs of two bricks, and may be diminifhed upwards of two inches of a fide, the height not lefs than fix inches, and wholly two inches below the furface of the cellar floor, and from thence to the ground floor be one brick and a half, afterwards muft be one brick continued to the top of the parapet. The foundations of the party walls muft be three bricks in thicknefs, and may be dimi-* nifhed four inches on each fide to the top of the faid footing ; the height of the founda- tion muft be nine inches, and two inches be- low the furface of the cellar floor, from the foundation to the underfide of the ground floor, two bricks from thence to the top of the roof, and one foot fix inches above the back of the rafter in a brick and half. Inf. riiclions as to the Fourth Class of Buildings . X 70TE, that every (table, warehoufe, or _ building not being a dwelling-houfe, now or hereafter to be built, which fhall not exceed one clear ftory, or may not be more than thirteen feet from the ground to the top of the parapet ; and alfo every dwelling-houfe now or hereafter to be built, which, with the offices, &c. fhall not exceed the value of one B b 2 hundred 372 A Key to Civil Architecture $ or 9 hundred and fifty pounds, or may not exceed three fquares and a half of building, fihall be confidered under the fourth clafs. All the foundations to which of external walls muft be (and all additions thereto) two bricks, and may be diminished on each fide two inches ; the height of the foundation to be fix inches at leaft, and two inches below the floor, from thence muft be continued one brick and a half to the underfide of the ground floor, and afterward one brick to the top of the parapet. The foundations of the party walls muft be of the thicknefs of two bricks, and may be diminiftied two inches on each fide of the wall, the height of the foundation nine inches, and two inches below the floor of the cellar, from thence to the ground floor one brick and a half and to the top of the building, and one foot fix inches above the back of the rafter the fame. All the above obfervations and inftrudtions being abftra&s from the ad:, will ferve as a guide to builders in not exceeding the limits; but for my own part, I would admonifh every man of reafonable thinkings, not to abide by the above dimenfions. In other refpedls than the party walls, all the reft I would confider- ably augument in thicknefs, being, as I before obferved, too flight in proportion to the dif- ferent heights. 4 The The Vniverfal British Builder. 373 The builders are to obferve that thefe ftand- ards of outward walls are not calculated as juft ones, but are pointed out as the veryfar- theft limits which juftice ought to allow; and likewife to prevent builders (through inexpe- rience ) from exercifmg their faculties in fchemes which will in no wife anfwer their purpofe nor the publick’s. InJlruB ions for the Fifth Class ofB uildings . A LL dwelling-houfes, ftables, or ware- houfes (except fuch buildings as are particularly nominated in the firft and feventh claffes) which are at any diftance from four to eight feet from any publick way or road, and are detached from any other buildings not in the fame pbfieffion, from fixteen to thirty feet, by any other means than a fence or fence-wall, fhall be deemed the fifth clafs, and may be built of any dimenfions, of ftone or brick, without reftridtion as to the walls, which are left entirely to the builder’s own judgement. Inf rnB ions to be obferve d in the Sixth Class of Buildings. r | the fixth clafs every ftable, warehoufe, dwelling-houfe, or other building (ex- cept fuch ftrudtures, not being dwelling- places, as are particularly declared to be of the firft clafs) which is at the diftance of eight feet at leaft from the road, and thirty feet B b 3 from *74 ^ Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or, from any other building not in the fame pof- fefiion, only by a fence-wall, /hall belong and may be built of any materials or dimen- lions whatfoeyer. Directions to be ofrferved as to tjoe Seventh Class. A LL windmills or watermills, and every building fituated without the cities of London and Weftminfter, and the liberties thereof, ufed for work /hops, or drying places for feltmongers, curriers, tanners, leather- dreflers, oil-cloth painters, buckram-ftiffeners, wooLftaplers, throwfters, callico minters, whitfters, whiting-makers, glue, fize, and parchment-makers, fo long as they fhall be ufea for the trades above-mentioned, fhall be deemed the feventh clafs of buildings, and may be built of any materials or dimenfions what foe ver. Inf rutl ions for Offices to Buildings \ Obferve that every office built or to be built, belonging to any building of the fir ft, fecond, third, or fourth clafs of buildings, if they are apart from the main building, or fhall be connected only by a fence or fence- wall, or covered paffage, open upon one or both fides, fuch office fhall be confidered ac- ' cording to the clafs and dimenfions it belongs to, and be built agreeably thereto* 'The Univerfal British Builder, 375 Of Party Walls between Houfe and Houfe . Where any adjoining houfe is rebuilt, the owner of the adjoining houfe is entitled to half the old materials and half the fcite of the party- wall when pulled down. If a houfe confift of five ftories or more, the party walls muft be fubjedt to the direc- tions of the firft clafs of buildings, notwith- standing the houfe may not be in manner of the firft clafs. Note alfo, that every party wall built to any dwelling-houfe containing four ftories, muft be built after the fecond clafs, notwith- standing fuch building may not be of the fe- cond rate. If the owner of any building fhould pull down the fame, and the adjoining houfe fliall be of the firft, fecond, third, or fourth clafs of buildings, or be four ftories high, and if in fuch cafe the old party wall flaould not be of the thicknefs of two bricks at the leaft from the foundation to the underfide of the ground floor, and from thence to the top of the build- ing of the thicknefs of one brick and a half, fuch party wall, when either of the adjoining houfes or buildings to which the fame be- longs muft be rebuilt, is in that cafe confider- ed a ruinous wall and muft be pulled down, Alfo obferve if any timber be lying in any cafe through a party wall, and upon rebuild-? B b 4 ing 376 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ing the adjoining houfe, the owner of fuch party wall fhall refufe to let the faid timbers be cut off, fo as to leave fix inches brick- work againft the fame ; in fuch a cafe every wall fhall be confidered as ruinous, and muft be taken down and rebuilt. Likewife all timber partitions (when either of the adjoining houfes are rebuilt, or fhallhave either of their fronts abut againft fuch timber partition) muft be taken down, or two thirds of the fronts on either fide taken down to the breflimer or one pair of (lairs floor, and after- wards have a party wall built according to the rules or clafs that fuch a building is within. Obferve that no end or flank walls what- ever can remain as party walls for any adjoin^ ing building, unlefs fuch wall fhall contain the proportions of height and thicknefs above the foundations, and be of the fame materials as is before mentioned of fuch a clafs as the building Jfhall be in. Alfo, in cafe any dormer window, or any other eredtion whatever, fhall be raifed or fixed on the flat of any roof, or building within four feet of any party wall, then fuch party wall muft be built up againft fuch erec- tion and muft extend two feet wide and to the full height of fuch eredtion. No openings of whatever nature muft be made in any party wall except for communi- cation from one tier of warehoufes to another, or liables, and even then there muft be doors of The JJniverfal British Builder. 377 of wrought-iron one quarter of an inch in the pannelsj and alfo jambs and cells of ftone: neither muft there be any timber whatfoever near fuch an opening ; neither muft any re- cedes be made in any party wall except flues for chimnies, and fuch timbers as are ap- pointed. No row of warehoufes that (hall be built muft exceed thirty-five fquares of building, but muft have party walls agreeable to the clafs of buildings they belong to ; nor muft any row of ftables be built that fhall exceed twenty- five fquares but muft have party walls alfo. No timber whatfoever fhall be laid into party walls, fave bond timbers, ends of gir- ders, beams, purlings, trimming or binding joifts ; all fuch timbers too muft have eight inches and a half of folid ftone or brickwork at the ends and fides, except the ends of fuch timbers fhould lie oppofite to each other. In that cafe they muft have four inches of brick- work betwixt the ends in the centre of the wall. All breffimers and ftory pofts may be let into any party wall, but not more than two inches. Obferve, that you may cut into any party wall for the purpofe of letting in ftone fteps or ftone landings, or for placing in bearers for wooden ft airs, fo that they be eight inches and a half from any flue or chimney, or four inches from any timbers of the internal finifh- ings *$78 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or, ings of the adjoining houfe. You may alfo oat into any party wall to inferc crofs walls, or piers, provided they be not more than fif- teen inches wide, or more than four inches deep, and you muft not make any recefs nearer than ten feet from any other, and no party wall muft be cut into which fhall difplace, injure, or endanger any of the timbers, chim- nies, flues, or of the adjoining buildings. You may alfo cut off the footing of any party wall for the advantage of building another y/a 11 againft the fame, but you muft be care- ful to under-pin the fame diredly underneath. Pub lick Pajfages. All publick paflages under any building Hiuft be arched over with brick orftone, and if of a building of the firft and fecond clafs muft be a brick and a half thick ; and in the third and fourth clafs one brick, and if there be a cellar under the above paffage, it muft be_ arched over as above. Backs of Chimnies in Party Walls , where they are not Back to Back . — Firjl Clafs . The backs of all chimnies in the cellar ftory muft be one brick and a half thick, and all above the backs muft be one brick thick ; no perfon therefore can make any backs unlefs the w*dls are of an adequate thicknefs. Chimnies, '■ *Tke TJniverfal British Builder. 379 Cbimnies Back to Back . — Firjl Clefs. When it fo happens that chimniesfall back to back, there muft be a two brick back in the cellar ftory, and in each chimney on the ground floor one brick and halt, and in every other chimney to the top there muft be one brick backs. Chimney Backs in the Second, Fhird, and Fourth Clafs. Where the backs happen to fall as above in the cellar ftories, there muft be one brick and a half back, and all above one brick back throughout the houfe. Of Chimney Flues in Party Walls . The breaft of every flue in the cellar ftory fhall be one brick, and between every funnel or flue there muft be half a brick ; and all funnels or flues muft be pargetted within and without, except the outflde, which may be againft fome vacant ground; in fuch cafe you muft be fare to white in fome lafting manner the rim of every flue, funnel, or fire place. Backs of Cbimnies net in Party Walls . — - Firjl Clafs . All chimney backs that are not in the party walls in this clafs muft be in the cellar ftory, one brick and a half in the back, and all above one brick. Of 380 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or. Of Second, Third, and Fourth Clafs ditto , All the chimney backs in the circumfcrip- tion of the laft mentioned clafles of building muft be one brick at leaft from top to bottom, Obferve of chimney breads in general, that no difcharging pieces are to be nearer than eighteen inches of the trimmers. Note alfo, that all hearths in every room muft be eighteen inches wide and one foot more in the opening of the chimney. Of the Chimney Flues in Party Walls intended to he built . Suppofing any perfon fhould be poflefled of ground adjoining to any party wall about to be built, and is defirous of having any rebates or recedes left in the faid party wall (intended to be built) agreeably to adt of parliament; or to have any chimney or chimnies, flues, &c. built and carried up with the faid party^ wall, fuch perfon fhall give notice in writing under his or her hand, particularly mention^ ing every fuch chimney, &c. to the builder or builders, or any of them, before fuch party wall fhall be begun to be built; in which cafe, the wall muft be conducted in a workman- like manner, and according to the requeft of the perfon giving fuch notice, and fuch per- fons are liable to pay for the fame as well as for a proportionable part of the wall. No The Vniverfal British Builder. 381 No Timber near the Chimney . Obferve that no timber whatever is to be placed within two feet of any oven, ftove, copper, (till, boiler, or furnace ; nor muft any bond timber be placed within nine inches of any opening of a chimney, or within five inches of any flue to any chimney. Likewife be careful not to fix any chimney fronts or grounds of wood, nearer than five inches to the opening of the chimney, or in- fide of the jambs. All fuch frames and door cafes muft be fixed in reveals, and all ftory pofts and bref- fimers may be let into party walls not more than two inches ; and all corner pofts muft be of oak twelve inches fquare at leaft, or you muft build ftone piers. Alfo obferve that no chimney muft be built upon timber, except what may be required for the foundations, piling, planking, &c. Of Timbers on the ontfide of Buildings . All dormers, turrets, and other ere&ions, placed on the outfide of buildings upon roofs, or flats, in the firft, fecond, third, fourth or fifth clafs, muft be covered with fiate, tiles, tin, copper, or lead. All outward decorations of balluftrades, balconies, porticos, cornices, facios, windows, &c. and all other external projections of the firft. 382 A Key to Civil Architecture ; e'n firft, fecond, third, and fourth clafs ; and likewife every frontifpiece to any building of the firft clafs, either now or hereafter to be built, or any addition to fuch building, muft externally be of brick, ftone, ftucco, lead, or iron, burnt clay or artificial ftone ; except the cornices and drefiings to (hop windows ; alfo every covered way or roof upon any por- tico, &c. is not to exceed the original line of the houfe, and fuch covered way muft be co- vered with lead, ftone, flate, tile, copper, or tin ,* nor muft in height exceed (as well as any dreffing to any fhop window) above the till of the one pair of ftairs window. Nor muft: any rain water fall or drip into any publick ftreets, except from cornices, fa- cios, porticos, &c. but muft be conveyed by pipes and trunks into the channel ftones of the drains; and wooden trunks to be ufed no higher than the brefiimers. No bow windows or other projedions to be made in any fquare or publick ftreet, fave fhop fronts, &c. beyond the line of the ftreet. Nor muft any ftall-board projed in any ftreet (thirty feet or more) a greater width than one foot fix inches, nor in any ftreet lefs than thirty feet wide more than thirteen inches, to be meafured from the upright line of the building. Of Old Plajiered or Wooden Buildings : All timber or plaftered buildings may be repaired from time to time as ufual ; but if * The Univerfdl British Builder. 3S3 at any time they fhall be taken down as low as the breflimer, then they muft be built of brick or (lone, with proper party walls, ac- cording to adt of parliament. Alfo remember that every building which was begun before the 24th of June laft, and not being of the materials as directed by the late a