A
Key to Civil Architefture ;
o R,
*the Univerfal Britijh Builder.
CONTAINING
The Principles and Properties of Building clearly demonflrated,
with Illuftrations and Definitions, both Theoretical and Prac-
tical; and a Diflertation on the Sciences appertaining thereto,
as well as the Kindred Requifites of Strength, Convenience,
Propriety and Beauty.
Alfo a ftri£t Enquiry into
The prefent Manner of Building and Mode of Finifiiing, and how
far the Tafte is confiftent with Symmetry and found Reafon :
LIKEWISE
A New Criterion, or Univerfal Eflimator;
In which are confidered the Quantity and Quality of Materials adequate to the
Execution of any Building j their exa£l Value wherever appropriated ; the real
and univerfal Price afiigned, proved by the Labour which is required to every
Job; and practical Remarks on all the different Branches of a Building, efpeci-
ally on Joiners Works ; where the moft irkfome and difficult Parts are confidered
and reduced to familiar PraCtice, by the moft judicious and approved Methods.
The Principles, Properties, and Confequence of all Sorts of Stairs defined, both
with refpedl to Plans and Execution, as well as the Manner of gluing up all
Kinds of Hand-Rails.
The Manner and Method of meafuring the different Artificers Works, as prac-
tifed by the moft eminent Surveyors, with their Prices to each Work. — Alfo,
the Mafters Prices, and a Schedule of Prices for Tafk-Mafters,
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
A Treatife of Arithmetick, Extraction of the Roots, Duodecimals,
Menfuration of Superficies and Solids, round and fquare Timber,
&c. with Explanations alid Reafons for the Rules.
THE SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED,
With the Addition of two ufeful Plates on the Construction
of Stair Cases.
By T H O M A S S K A I F E, P. A.
LONDON:
Printed for R. Baldwin, No. 47, Pater- nofter Row. 1776.
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THE
T O
READER.
T HE following Iheets, now of-
fered to the Publick, were the
produce of my leifure hours. How
far I have fucceeded in the different
matters I have treated of, I leave to
the candor and judgement of a criti-
cal and difcerning world, defiring no
approbation, but what refults from
the merit of the work ; and humbly
hoping, that no one will be too anxi-
ous to cenfiire any point, before he
hath well weighed the confequences
of it.
II any perfon fhould traduce me for
dilcovering the fecrets of the building
branch, relative to the prices of work,
I mult inform him, that I confidered
thefe as the firft rudiment of my plan,
5 in
IV
To the R E A D E R.
in order to give every journeyman
(which I think he has a right to) a
view of the principles and profits of
his bufinefs.
I humbly dedicate my endeavours
to all in the building branches ; and
am with refpedt their
Moft humble, and
Moft obedient Servant,
#
’Thomas Skaife.
THE
CONTENTS.
A Page
A ddition, leanre 66, 288
Architecture, a treatife of, lecture 13, 49
Arches of brick, lecture 16, 106
Arch upon a circular plan in wood, lea. 49, 237
Arches in brick, kaure 16, 109
Afhler front in tone; kaure 58, 259
Angular chimnies to meafure, kaure 14, 63
Architraves how meafured, kaure 14, 8i
Arithmetick, a treatife of, kaure 64, 83
B
Brick-work, a treatife of, kaure 16, to6
Brick- work how valued, kaure 16, 119
Brick-work, an univerfal ftandard for, ka. 16, 122
Bricks, how many required to wall a rod,
kaure 1 6 , • 119
Backing of hip-rafters, kaure 54, 247
Bridging-joifts, their fcantling, kaure 55> 248
Beams ditto, kaure 55, 249
Building in general, kaure 8, 27
Balance, the properties thereunto belonging,
kaure 2, 6
a Brick-
%
CONTENTS.
Page
Bricklayers tafk-work, lefture 6 i, 272
Building-act, differtation on, left u re 83, 364
Beauties of building, lefture 12, 45
Binding-joifts, their fcantling, lefture 55, 248
C
Carpenters work, how meafured. lefture 14, 68
Carpenters Work, a treatife of, lefture 52, 241
Carpenters work, how valued, lefture 56, 250
' Carvers work, how meafured, lefture 14, 92
Ditto, how valued, lefture 21, 148
Chimney-pieces of marble, lefture 58, 260
Chimney-pieces of {tone, lefture 58, ibid.
Coping of Portland {tone, lefture 58, 259
Columns of {tone, and fluting, lefture 58, 260
Capitals carving, on {tone, lefture 58, 260
Ditto on wood, lefture 21, 149
Carcafe of a houfe, how meafured, left. 14, 60
Centring to vaults, lefture 53, 242
Centres how valued, lefture 56, 255
Ditto how meafured, lefture 14, 75
Crofs multiplication, lefture 70, 306
Cielings of platter, lefture 37, 132
Circles, lefture 79, 348
Corinthian enriched cornices in platter, lec-
ture 17, • 135
Ditto how meafured, lefture 14, 87
Chimney-pieces, how meafured, lefture 14, 84
Convenience in building, lefture 10, 33
Clear-coal-painting, how valued, left. 1 8, 143
Columns, how meafured, lefture 14, 82
Columns, how glued up, lefture 44, 225
Capitals ditto, lefture 47, 235
Columns, how fluted, lefture 46, 234
Cafe of a journeyman carpenter, lefture 15, 95
Cube
CONTENTS.
Page
Cube root, how extradted, ledture 77, 34 c
Contradtions in divifion, ledture 72, 317
D
Doors, how made, ledture 24, 165
Divifion, ledture 71, — — — 3*4
Ditto of decimals, ledture 73, 319
Dreflers, ledture 50, 239
Doors, how valued, ledture 24, 70
Duodecimal arithmetick, ledture 70, 306
Dorick front, how proportioned, ledture 44, 224
Dorick front, how meafured, ledture 14, 63
Dado, conftrudtion of, ledture 22, 153
Domical fky-lights, ledture 30, — 188
E
Eftimating in general, with rules and obferva-
tions, ledture 59, 262
F
Floors of all forts, ledture 25, — 174
Floors, how meafured, ledture 14, 79
Ditto, how valued, ledture 25, — 175
Floors to frame, with binding-joifts, ledt. 56, 225
Fire-itone hearths, how valued, ledture 58, 2 61
Floors of platter, ledture 17, — 138
Frontifpieces, to meafure, ledture 14, 76
Ditto, a dilfertation on, ledture 44, 223
Frontifpieces, value of, ledture 45, 231
G
Golden rule of three, ledture 75, 326
Ditto compound, ledture 75, ~ 331
Glafiers work, ledture 19, 145
a 2 Glafiers
CONTENTS.
Page
Glafiers work to meafure, lefture 14, 88
Groins of brick, lefture 16, no
Girders, their fcantiing, lefture 55, 248
Gable-ends, how meafured, lefture 14, 65
Geometry, of, lefture 82, — 356
Grounds in general, left u re 26, — 177
H
Houfe-painting in general, lefture 18, 139
How meafured, lefture 14, — 90
Hip roofs, how meafured, lefture 14, 66
I
Joiners-wcrk, how meafured, lefture 14, 75
Italian marble, how valued, lefture 51, 260
Joifts, their fcantiing, lefture 55, 248
Ionick cornices in plafter, how valued, lec-
ture 17, 137
Ionick order, fome obfervations, lefture 1 3, 52
Introduftion to mechanicks, — 1
L
Lever, a treatife on, lefture 3, 7
Lead, the value of, lefture 57, — 256
Lead, new call and laid, lefture 57, ibid.
Lead- pipes, how valued, lefture 57, 257
Lime, the bell fort, lefture 16, — 120
Lime, what quantity to a rod of brick- work,
lefture 16, — J2t
Linfeed-oil, the value in paint, left. 18, 142
Linings, the value of, lefture 50, 239
Mafons
CONTENTS.
Page
M
Mafons tafk-work, ledture 63, — 273
Mafons work, ledture 58, -- 258
Ditto, how meafured, ledture 14, — 90
Meafnring, a diflertation on, ledture 14, 56
Meafuring of fuperficies, ledture 78, 346
Meafuring of folids, ledture 80, * 35r
Modillion-cornices in plafter, ledture 17, 136
How valued, * ibid.
Mouldings, a differtation thereon, ledt. 23, 157
Multiplication, lecture 68, — — * 297
Ditto of decimals, ledture 69, 304
Ditto of duodecimals, ledture 70, 306
Marble of various forts, ledture 58, 261
Meafuring the different artificers work, lec-
ture 14,^ 56
Modillions of wood, how valued, ledt. 23, 162
Menfu ration, ledture 78, 345
Mechanicks, a dilfertation on, ledt. 1, 4
N
Numeration, ledture 65, * 285
Nails, how many to a fquare in flooring,
ledture 25, — 177
Naked floors, how meafured, ledture 14, 74
Naked floors, how valued, ledture 56, 253
Naked flooring, the price of in tafk-work,
ledture 60, — 267
Naked flooring of oak, the price of, ledt. 56, 252
O
Ovolos carved, ledture 21, — 148
Openings to chimnies, ledture 11, 141
O-sees
CONTENTS.
Page
O -gees carved, ledture 21, — 148
Oak-dowelled floors, their value, ledture 25, 175
P
Plate A, explanation of, — 2 75
Plate B, definition of, — 278
Pulley, a diflfertation on, ledture 5, 16
Plumbers work, how valued, ledture 57, 255
Plafterers work, a diflfertation on, ledt. 17, 130
Ditto talk-work, ledture 62, — 272
Plalterers work, how meafured, ledt. 14, 86
Painters work, the value, ledture 18, 139
How meafured, ledture 14, — 90
Properties and principles of flairs defined,
ledture 31, 90
Pantiles, at what per thoufand, ledt. 16, 12 6
Plain tiles per thoufand, — ibid.
Portland-ltone, the price of, ledture 58, 260
Portland paving, — — ibid.
Purbeck-ftone paving, ledture 58, 261
Pilalters, how fluted, ledture 46, — 254
Partitions framed, their value, ledture 56, 251
Partitions, the price of in talk-work, ledt. 60, 2 66
Planking of foundations, talk-work, ledt. 60, 224
Pipes of lead, their value, ledture 57, 257
Painting, the expence of, ledture 18, 139
Paint of all colours, how fold, ledture 18, 140
Plates to floors, how valued in talk work,
ledture 60, — 267
Propriety in building, ledture n, 35
R
Rule of three diredt, ledture 75, 326
Roofs to frame with king-poll, how valued,
ledture 56, 253
' • Rafters,
CONTENTS.
Page
Rafters, feet and eaves, how valued, led. 56, 254
Rafters, their fcantling, ledure 55, 249
Ramps, with their properties, ledure 41, 212
Round timber to meafure, ledure 81, 354
Redudion, ledure 74, — 524
S
Sallies and fafh-frames, their value, led. 29, 185
How meafured, ledure 14, — 83
Slaters work, ledure 20, — 147
Subtraction, ledure 67, — . 295
Steps of Portland-done, ledure 58, 259
Steps of Purbeck, ledure 58, — 261
Scroll to a hand-rail, how drawn, led. 40, 2 1 1
Ditto, how to draw as in figure C, 279
Shutters to windows, ledure 27, 178
Square- root, how extraded, ledure 76, 334
Shutters, how hung, ledure 27, — 179
Staircafing in all its branches continued, lec-
ture 31, . — — 190
Screw, a difiertation on, ledure 7, 21
Stucco, how valued, ledure 17, — 138
Sand, per load, ledure 16, 12 r
Solder per pound, ledure 57, — . 257
Solids, ledure 80, — 25 1
Safhes painting, the price, ledure 18, 145
Strength in building, ledure 9, — ■ 29
T
Tafkmafters prices, ledure 60, 2 66
Twift to a hand-rail, how glued up, led. 38, 205
Table of brickwork to any value of bricks,
ledure 16, — 122
Timber to meafure, — * ibid.
Tiling
CONTENTS.
Page
Tiling, the value of, ledture 1 6, — 125
Tufcan order, ledture 13, — 50
Torus fkirting, ledture 51, — 240
Three, rule of diredt, ledhire 75, 326
W .
Wedge, a diflertation on, ledture 6, 19
Wheel, a ledture on with ftridtures, ledt. 4, ico
Wainicotting, how valued, ledture 28, 183
Weith-rail, how glued up, ledture 32, 179
A
K E
Y
T O
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICKS.
L L the liberal arts, and various
ftudies, which the budding world are
daily in purfuit otV may be generally
comprifed under the following heads, natu-
ral, divine , and artificial .
To the firft of thefe is reducible, not
only the government of this great Univerfe,
but the knowledge of the ufual caufes of Pro-
vidence in the frame of every created thing.
To the fecond may be referred, the prac-
tice of all thofe virtues, which can advan-
tage our minds in the fearch or enquiry after
their promifed happinefs.
To the laft belong all thofe inventions,
whereby Nature is any way affifted in her
defects : thefe artificial experiments being
(as it were) but fo many effays, by which
men naturally attempt to relieve themfelves
B
from
2 A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr ,
from the firft general curfe inflicted upon their
labours. Though different the operations,
it is ft ill one caufe; whether a man be
emulous of honour, wealth, or fame: I muft
confefs, none of thefe motives induced me
to the following undertaking, yet my readers
will hardly be perfuaded, that I had no
other view in the attempt, than an earned
delire to propagate the fruits of my induftry
for the univerfal benefit cf mankind. How-
ever, if I may be allowed to alledge my
reafons, I muft affirm they are centred folely
in the laft obfervation ; as, I hope, my en-
deavours and examples in the following work
will plainly evince.
I am far from the opinion of the ancient
philofophers, who efteemed it a great part
of their wifaom to conceal their learning
from vulgar apprehenfion and ufe, thereby
the better to maintain it in its due honour
and refpedt : and therefore generally veiled
all their arts and feiences under fuch myfti-
cal expreffions, as might excite the people's
wonder and reverence; fearing left a more
eafy and familiar difcovery might expofe
them to contempt. Hence it was, that the
ancient mathematicians placed all their learn-
ing in abftradted fpeculation ; refufing to de-
bafe the principles of that noble fcience into
mechanical experiments : infomuch, that
thofe very authors amongft them, who were
mod eminent for their inventions of this
kind, and were willing, by their own prac-
tice.
The Unherfal British Builder. 3
tice, to manifeft unto the world thofe arti-
ficial wonders, which might be wrought by
thefe arts, as Archimedes, Dsdalus, &c.
were, notwithstanding, fo much infedted
with this blind fuperilition, as not to leave
any thing in writing concerning the grounds
and manner of fuch operations ; by which
means poflerity unhappily loft, not only the
benefits of their peculiar difcoveries, but,
for many centuries, the proficiency of the arts
in general: for when once learned ^nen for-
bid the reducing them to particular ufe, and
vulgar experiments, others refufed thofe flu-
dies, as ufelefs and empty fpeculations :
whence it came to pafs, that the fcience of
geometry was fo univerfally negledted, as to
receive but little or no addition for many
hundred years together. The divine Plato is
reported to have been a (tickler for this foolifh
opinion ; advifing all his followers from
proftituting mathematical principles unto
common apprehenfion or practice ; and, in
this fuperflition to philofophy, rather chofe
to deprive the world of all his ufeful and ex-
cellent inventions, than to expofe that pro-
feffion to the ignorant vulgar : but his pupil
Arillotle (as in many other particulars, fo
likewife in this) very juflly oppofed him;
and became one of the firfl authors who have
written any pradtical difcourfe on thefe arts.
Since him, many other authors of eminence
have left maflerly works, choofing rather a
general benefit, than the hazard that might
B 2 accrue
4 . A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
accrue from the vain and groundlefs difre-
fpedfc of thefe formal bigots ; rightly prefer-
ring the reality and fubftance of public
good, before the fhadows of fome retired
Speculation, and ingrate vulgar opinion.
LECTURE I.
OF MECHANICKS.
T HE word Mechanicks is thought by
fome to be derived from the Greek,
intimating the efficacy and force of fuch in-
ventions as elucidate geometrical rules for
demonrtrating motion, and the effedts of
power, or force, in removing the matter of
bodies ; or elfe becaufe thefe arts are fo full
of pleafing variety, that they admit not of
floth or wearinefs. Indeed, according to the
ordinary fignification of the word, it is ufed
in oppofition to the liberal arts; whereas, in
propriety of fpeech, thofe arts and employ-
ments may alone be called illiberal, which
require fome bodily labour, diverted of caufes
and fpeculation; as fawyers, fhoe-makers,
tailors, 6cc. And on the contrary, that dis-
cipline, which teaches and difcovers the ge-
neral effedts and properties of things, may
truely be erteemed as a fpecies of philofophy.
But here it fliould be obferved, that this
art is ufually dirtinguilhed into a two-fold
kind, viz. rational and manual . The firft
is that which treats' of thofe principles and
fundamental notions which may concern thefe
mecha-
The Univerfal British Builder. 5
mechanical practices. The latter hath refe-
rence to the making of all thefe inftruments,
and the exercifing of fuch particular experi-
ments in architecture, &c. and, familiarly
fpeaking, may be termed as theory and prac-
tice; both which I mean to treat of in the
following (beets. The firft of thefe may pro-
perly* be called liberal, as deferving the
thoughts of men of erudition; becaufe fpring**
ing from the honourable parentage of Geo-
metry and Natural Philofophy.
Not even the purfuit of Rhetorick and Lo-
gick do more adorn the mind, than a tho-
rough knowledge of Architecture, and me-
chanick powers and practices enlighten the
underftanding ; and, therefore, are they well
worthy to be entertained with much greater
refpedt than they commonly meet with in
thefe luxurious times.
The mechanical powers, by which all
experiments are tried in removing the mat-
ter of bodies, are generally reckoned to be
fix — the Balance, the Lever, the Wheel, the
Pulley, the Wedge, and the Screw ; by fome
of which every divilible, impenetrable, and
paffive fubftance, that hath extenfion and
refinance, which are the properties of all
kinds of bodies, mud be affe&ed on their
univerfal principle of gravity ; gravity being
that force, by which bodies are carried or
tend towards the centre of the earth, and
which may be faid to be in proportion to the
quantity of matter they contain.
B 3
But,
6 A Key to Civil Architecture or.
But, for the better diftin&ion, and more
clear difcovcry of thefe mechanical faculties,
as they are of the greateft utility to all ftu-
dents of Architecture, I (ha'll fpeak of them
feverally.
LECTURE II.
OF THE BALANCE.
T HE firft invention of the Balance is
commonly attributed to Aftrea, who
was therefore deified by the title of the God-
defs of Juftice.
The particulars of the Balance are fo com-
monly known, and of fuch eafy and familiar
experiments, that they will not need any
large explanation. The chief end of it is
for the diftin&ion of the feveral degrees of
ponderofiy j for the undemanding of which,
we have only to note, viz. that, if the
fides of the Balance, and the weights at the
end of them, be mutually equal, then the
beam will be in an horizontal or level fitua-
tionj but, on the contrary, if either the
weights alone be equal, and not their diftances,
or the diftances alone, and not the weights,
then the beam will accordingly decline.
From thefe grounds, rightly apprehend-
ed, it is eafy to conceive how a man may
find out the juft proportion of a weight,
which, in any point given, (hall equipon-
derate to feveral weights given, hanging in
different places of the beam.
Within
The Vniverfal British Builder. y
Within the power and circumfcription of
the Balance, many ingenious enquiries may
be made; fuch as meafuring the weight and
force of blows, the flrength of firings, or
other oblong fubftances, the diflindl propor-
tion of feveral metals mixed together, and
the different gravities of divers bodies in
the water, from what they have in the open
air. But as thefe are foreign to the prefenfc
defign, I fhall conclude, without farther effay
on the Balance, with this obfervation, that
whatever geometrical definitions may be in
any wife ferviceable, relative to the Balance,
I fhall fpeak of them in the different parts
of pradtice, as they occur; efpecially of geo-
metrical flairs.
LECTURE III.
OF THE LEVER.
T HE fecond mechanical power is the
Lever, the firfl invention of which is
generally given to Neptune, the God of the
Sea, and reprefented by his trident.
The properties and principles of this pow-
erful and ufeful inflrument bear almoft the
fame proportions with the Balance, only with
this difference — mark the following
EXAMPLE.
As the weight is to an equivalent power,
fo is the diflance betwixt the weight and the
B 4 centre
8 ,/?Kev to Civil ArchiteSlure ; or,
centre unto the diftance and the power ;
and fo reciprocally. Or thus — The power
that doth equiponderate with any weight,
muft have the lame proportion unto it, as
there is betwixt their feveral difiances from
the centre or fulciment.
The meaning of the foregoing example
imports thus much; that the power at the
end of the Lever mull bear the fame pro-
portion to the weight to be fuflained, as the
diftance from the fulciment to the power
you bear doth from the fulciment to the
weight : — for inftance, if your Lever be nine
feet long, and the fulciment at one foot, the
proportion will be as eight to one ; for, fup-
pofing the weight eight hundred, one hun-
dred borne upon the end of the Lever, at
eight feet, would equiponderate, and be ade-
quate to the weight. The ground of which
maxim is, the fulciment at one foot, in this
proportion, being the centre of gravity.
It muft be obferved, that all the varieties
of motion in inanimate bodies, are fubjedt
to the forces impreffed ; and therefore it fol-
lows, if a body be abfolutely at reft, and un-
furnifhed with any moving principle, it muft
of courfe continue fo, till aded upon by fome
external power. When a body is put into
motion, it hath no power within itfelf to
make any change in the diredion of its
courfe; therefore muft move in proportion
to the power impreffed.
There
c [heUniverfal British Builder. 9
There is not a more ufeful, nor a more ex-
tenfive inftrument than the Lever, nor any fo
familiarly reduced to practice. It is report-
ed of the great Archimedes, that, with this
Ample inftrument, he propofed to remove the
greateft conceivable weight with the lead:
conceivable power ; and moreover, that if he
had but known where to fland and take
his fulciment, he could have removed the
world — this great mafs, or globe of fea and
land ; which affertions, though altogether
above the vulgar apprehenfion or belief r eyet
had his a6ts been fo very extraordinary/ that,
in compliance with an edidt made by the king
of Syracufe, (to believe whatever Archi-
medes fhould affirm) they were obliged to
affent to this extravagant propofition; and
though it were eafy to demonftrate the geo-
metrical truths of thefe ftrange affertions,
yet where is the ufe of fuppofing them
proved by the mechanical faculties? Such
grounds, though palpable to the weakeft
capacity, could exift only in fancy, or idea,
being far beyond the executive power of man
to effedh Therefore the thought was truely
extravagant, becaufe impracticable It is
neverthelefs certain, if there was the greateft
conceivable weight, with the lead imaginable
power — fuppofe fo fmall as the weight of
one man ; if we conceive the fame difpropor-
tions between their feveral diffances, as in
the former obfervation, from the fulciment
to the centre of gravity, they would both
equi-
io A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
equiponderate : and if the diftance of the
power from the centre, in coinparifon to
the diftance of the weight, were but any
thing more than the heavinefs of the weight
is in refpedt to the power, it may then he
evident, from the former example, that the
powxr would be greater than the weight,
and confequentiy able to move it.
LECTURE IV.
OF THE WHEEL.
A MONGST the variety of artificial
motions, thofe are of moft ufe and
pleafure, on which, by the application of
fome continued ftrength, a lafting motion is
beftowed. Thefe we may properly call
felf- movers, becaufe the motions of fuch in-
ventions are actuated or cauled by fomething
which belongs to their own frame, or at
leaft by fome external inanimate agent ; as
mills by wind and water ; clocks, watches,
or other engines made of wheels, by weights,
fprings, &c.
It would be tedious to illuftrate the ex-
tenfion of this mechanic faculty, otherwife
than fo far as may be ufeful to the prefent
defign. I fhall therefore pafs over what
may be effected by its fubtlety, in every re-
lped, but its power in removing the matter
of bodies.
The Wheel, confidered as relative to
power, is in every refpedt equal to the Lever;
but
'TheUniverfal British Builder, ii
but the force of this faculty may be more
conveniently underftood by the multiplication
of feveral wheels together, with nuts be-
longing to each of them. The full effect of
this invention cannot be better explained
than thus As the nut is to the wheel,
(which may be as one to ten) fo is the num-
ber of wheels and nuts to an equivalent
power. One of our ordinary jacks for roalt-
ing meat (which confift but of three) fully
ihews what may be executed by a number of
thefe movers : for, if the fly or balance, in
comparifon to its axis, be but as the propor-
tion of wheels to the nuts, viz. ten to one,
and the whole proportionable to the weight,
it is evident that, if the weight was three
hundred, a fmali firing at the balance or fly
would eafily draw it up ; for if the weight
was three hundred, viz. 3361b. of even
1 000 lb. the fly need not be more than as
one to a thoufand; for the firft axis is to be
but one tenth part of its wheel ; and there-
fore, though the weight be a thoufand pounds,
yet unto a power that hath this advantage,
if is but as a hundred at the fecond wheel ;
and in this proportion flill diminifhing, at
the third wheel it is but ten, and at the fly
but one ; fo, if a man has a firing that will
draw one pound, it is palpable he may
effedt this weight : and in like manner of any
other power, let the weight or magnitude be
ever fo great ; it is but adding more wheels
and nuts, adequate to the above proportion.
Upon
12 ^Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
Upon this principle was the famous en-
gine extolled fo by Stevinus, and preferred
by him to all Archimedes’ : it confided of
wheels and nuts, though poffibly more con-
fiderable in number, and might bear a greater
proportion. Upon this principle an author
tells us, that if there were an engine with 12
wheels, each having teeth, as alfo the axes
or nuts belonging to them ; if the diameter
of thefe wheels were unto each axis as a hun-
dred to one ; and if we luppofe the wheels to
be fo placed, that the teeth of the one might
take hold of the axis of another, and that
the axis of the handle (made' to w'otk it)
turned the fird wheel, and the weight were
fixed to the axis of the lad, he could then
with eafe remove the greateft conceivable
weight in the world.
It appears to me, however, the mod unac-
countable thing in nature, how any man, or
body of men, can buoy themfelves up with
impracticable notions : it is true, that expli-
cations and geometrical definitions may be
given of all kinds of local motion, and thofe
even fo facile and obvious, that aji ordinary
artificer may fufficiently underdand them,
yet lhall not all the men in the world be
able to execute them. Though this may
feem a paradox to many, I hope to prove it
clearly by example ; notwithftandiim Aridotle
has endeavoured to define, that there is no
conceivable weight which may not be remov-
5 ed
/
^he TJniverfal British Builder. 13
ed by thefe wheels, even as much adted as
can be fancied by imagination.
It remains now, in order to make a per-
fedt difcovery of the truth of what many au-
thors- have afferted, concerning the removing
the world, the drawing up by the roots the
ftrongeft oaks, and many more affertions of
the like extravagant kind, to enquire into the
nature of artificial motion — I mean fiownefs
and fwiftnefs ; for, without a right under-
ftanding of thefe, a man will be expofed to
many abfurd miltakes, in attempting matters,
which are either in themfelves impoffible,
or elfe not to be performed by fuch means
as are applied to them. I think I may fafely
affirm, that many, if not moft of the miftakes
in thefe great mechanical defigns, arife from
a mifapprehenlion of that difference which
will be between the fiownefs or fwiftnefs
of the weight and power, in companion to
the proportion of their feveral ftrengths.
Now if it were poffible to contrive an
engine, whereby any’conceivable weight might
be moved by any conceivable power, both
with the fame brevity or fpeed (as it is with
thofe things immediately ftirred by the hand)
the works of Nature would be then too
much fubjedted to the power of Art, and
men might be encouraged, in imitation of
the builders of Babel, to fuch extravagant
defigns as would not become a created be-
ing •, the wifdom of Providence therefore hath
fo confined thefejauman arts, that what any
invention
la. A Key to Civil Architecture ; or >
invention hath in ftrength, is abated in the
flownefs of its motion : for it is to be obferv-
ed as a general rule, that the fpace of time
or place, in which the weight is moved, in
comparifon to that in which the power doth
move, is in the fame proportion as they them-
felves arc to one another ; fo that if there be
any great difference between the ftrength of
the weight and the power, the very fame
kind of difference will there be in the fpace
of their motion. For inftance, if the power
be unto the weight but as one to an hun-
dred, then the fpace, through which the
weight moves, will be an hundred times
lefs, and confequently the motion of the
weight an hundred times flower than that of
the power.
If we confider an inftrument of twelve
wheels, as before-mentioned, made propor-
tionable in ftrength to any imaginable weight*
we fhall then find that its motion will be
confiderably flower than the heavens are fwift;
for, if we fuppofe the windlace to fuch an
engine (prepared to fet the whole in motion)
to be turned 4000 times in an hour, yet in
ten years lpace the weight will not be moved
one hair’s-breadth, nor one inch in a thou-
fand years : the truth of this will be more
eafily conceived, if we confider the frame and
manner of a twelve-wheeled engine : fuppofe
in each axis or nut there be ten teeth, and
on each wheel a thoufand ; then the wind-
lace of this engine mull be turned one hun-
dred
*Ibe Univerfal British Builder. 15
dred times before the firft wheel, reckoning
downwards, can be moved round once, and
ten thoufand times before the fecond can
finiCh one revolution ; and thus through the
whole twelve wheels in this multiplied pro-
portion. v
I will now appeal to every reader, of
common reafon, whether fuch attempts or
expreffions can be any thing more than the
incoherencies of a diftempered brain ! For
notwithftanding the beauties of mechanical
manoeuvres are as inftrudting as entertain-
ing, when reduced to familiar practice, yet
when once proflituted, or ftretched beyond
the power of art, they can no longer be
confidered as parts of the fcience, becaufe
they exift only in imagination.
Not much unlike thefe extravagant no-
tions, was that of the famous Grecian archi-
tedl, who propounded to Alexander the Great,
to cut mount Athos into the ftatue or figure
of a man, which in his right hand fhould hold
a town capable of containing ten thoufand
men, and in his left a veflel to receive all the
water that flowed from the feveral fprings in
the mountain ; but whether Alexander, in
his ambition, feared that fuch an idol might
have more honour than he himfelf ; or whe-
ther, in his frugality, he thought fuch a work
would coft him more money than conquering
the world; or whatever elfe was his motive,
he refufed to undertake it : but if he had
confected to fuch an extravagant attempt,
(though
1 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
(though in contradiction to the opinions of
all mankind) I dare affirm it never could have
been executed.
OF THE PULLEY.
H E Pulley is of fuch ordinary ufe.
that it will not need much, nor any
particular defcription. The chief parts of it
are divers little rundles, which are moveable
about their proper axes : thefe are ufually
divided according to their feveral fituations,
into the upper and lower. The lower pul-
lies only give force to the motions. If we
fuppofe a weight to hang upon any of the
upper rundles, it will then require a power,
which in itfelf fhall be fully equal to the
fuftaining it.
The diameter of a pulley, when fixed
in a date of motion, is as a proper beam or
balance hung upon its centre : therefore the
power mutt: be adequate to the weight, in
the fame ftate as if the power and weight
were fattened by two different cords, at the
end of the balance. Now all the upper pul-
lies being of one and the fame nature, it
mutt neceffarily follow, that none of them
in themfelves conduce to the eafing of the
power, but only to the greater conveniency
of the motion the cords by this means be-
ing more eafily moved than otherwife they
LECTURE V.
would
/
Tie TJniverfal British Builder, i J
V/ould be. If the weight to be faftained be
above the pulley, as in all the lower lbrts
it is, then the power that fupports it need
be but half the weight itfelf. For example,
let the diameter of a lower pulley, on
whofe centre the weight is fattened, be equal
to ten pounds* one end of the cord being
tied to a hook, there will be but half the
weight to fuftain; for the hook in this cafe
is the fame as if held up with a firing, with
one end in each hand, upon a proper ba-
lance; and this fubduple proportion will flill
remain, though an upper pulley be joined to
the lower. The upper pulley alone doth not
abate any thing of the weight : it is the fame
thing, whether the half- weight be fuftained
equal to the hook, by which one end of the
cord is fattened, as the weight is altered
by the lower pulley alone. Now, as one
of the lower pullies doth abate half of that
heavinefs which the weight hath in itfelf,
and caufe the power to be in a fubduple pro-
portion unto it, fo two abate the half of that
which ftill remains, and caufe a fubquadruple
proportion between the weight and the
power; three a fubfextuple ; and fo on to as
many as may be required : for they will ftill
diminish the weight according to this pro-
portion. Suppofe the weight then in itfelf
to be locolb. the applying it to one of thofe
lower pullies will make it but 500 ; two of
them but 250 ; three of them I2jj, &e-.
G
It
iS A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
It is not material to the force of this in*
ftrument, whether the rundles be big or lit*
tic, provided they be made equal to one ano-
ther, in their feveral ftations. But it is mod
convenient, that the upper ones fhould each
increafe as they are higher ; becaufe by this
means the cords will be kept from tangling:
thefe pullies may be multiplied according to
fundry fituations. By thefe examples an in*
vention is eafily formed, for a man to draw
himlelf up to any conceivable height ; and
familiarly reduced may be of much fer-
vice for particular ufes, as when occafion re-
quires the reparation of cielings, towers,
domes, cathedrals, &c. and this may be ef-
fected with fo little trouble and expence as
two pullies, one above, the other below ; to
the upper one mud be fixed a hook, hung
at the top, which may be done on the out-
fide : the end of the cord being fixed to the
centre of the top pulley, and put firft round
the bottom rundle, then the top; the other
end of the cord a man may have in his hand
to draw himfelf up by, or to any machine
that he may require for his tools, &c. The
. ecution of this will require but little more
halt his weight, or if the pullies be
h it may be done with half that
: on in the aforementioned pro-
ne' : oil Sc
n fa id of pullies, it is
~nt performances
: S ing inflru*
ments
The Univerfal British Builder. 19
ments of infinite ftrength : it is reported of
Archimedes, that with an engine of pullies
to which he applied only his left arm he
lifted up 5000 bufhels of corn at once ; and
drew up a fhip with all her lading upon dry
ground; and all this with a threefold pulley.
But it is not poffible that thefe alone fhould
ferve for the lifting of fuch a weight; be-
caufe fuch an engine can make but a fubfex-
tuple, or at moft a fubfeptuple proportion,
between the weight and power : which is by
far too little to reconcile the ftrength of a
man to fuch ponderofities. — How many of
thefe mistakes were it eafy to find out, if we
did but know the weight of thole ancient
meafures : fuppofing them to be the fame
with our Englifh buffiel, which weighs 64
pounds, the whole would then amount to
^20,000 pounds, one half .of which would
be lightened by the firfl: pulley, half of the
remainder by the fecond ; and fo on in this
fubduple proportion. And if we confider
a man’s hand to be as 50 pounds weight,
it is demonftrahle that it will then take at
lead ten or twelve pullies to effedt it.
LECTURE VI.
OF THE WEDGE.
T H E firfl: mechanical faculty is the
Wedge, a well known inftrument, and
of the greateft utility in niedling up old
houfes, cleaving of wood, &c. The efficacy
C 2 and
20 A Key to Civil Architecture or,
and great ftrength of it may be refolved and
particularized,
Firft, by the form of it.
Secondly, by the manner whereby the
power is impreffed upon it; which is by the
force of blows, or percuffion.
Firft, the form of it reprefents two le-
vers; and it is a general rule, that the more
acute the angles are, fo much the more eafy
will be their motion ; the force, from the
acutenefs of thofe angles, being more eafily
impreffed, and the fpace wherein the body
is moved fo much the lefs.
The fecond particular whereby this in-
ftrument hath its force, is the manner where-
by that force is impreffed upon it; which is
by a ftroke or blow. The efficacy of it alfo
far exceeds any other ; for though we fup-
pofe a wedge to be laid or fixed in a piece
of timber (in a polition for cleaving) and
preffed down with ever fo great a ftrength,
nay, though we were to apply the force
of the other mechanical inftruments, the
lcrew, pulley, &c. yet the effect would not
be adequate to a blow’. The true definition
therefore of this is perhaps one of the greateft
fubtilties in nature, nor is it in my opinion
fully explained by any author who has un-
dertaken its refolution : though to me it
teems no other than the celerity of the blow
given to effed it.
Thofe who attribute it to velocitv alone, have
not given a proper definition of it ; for if this
were
TheUniverfal British Builder. 21
Were true, a blow given with a light weapon
would exceed any other force. And accord-
ing to this, how comes it to pafs that an ar-
row or bullet difcharged near at hand, is
much lefs forcible than at a proper didance;
whereas the violence whereby they are car-
ried at firft is newed, and in all probability
the motion at that time the mod fwift ? The
fird and greated confideration feems to me
the quality and weight of the indrument by
which the blow is given ; and feeondly, the
fpace or di dance through which it palfes.
And fird. If the infl.ru men t by which you
mean to ededt the motion, be not proporti-
onable to the drength or force required, the
fwiftnefs or rapidity of the blow will not ferve
to accompiifh it. Secondly, If the fpace or
didance through which the force mud pafs
be not fufficient for it to acquire the requifite
celerity, it will add nothing to the died: that
the fledge or indrument contain a double
proportion of weight ; and therefore may be?
reduced to the following example : as the
weight of the indrument is to the power of
the wedge, fo is the celerity of the blow to
the didance required to effed it.
LECTURE VII.
OF THE SCREW.
^ | "'HAT which is ufually edeemed the
fixth mechanical power is the Screw ;
which may be called a kind of wedge, mul-
tiplied or continued by an Heliacal revolution
C 3 round
22 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
round about the body of a cylinder ; receiv-
ing its motion not from a ftroke, but a lever
or handle at one end of it ; and ufually dif-
tinguifhed by the names of male and female.
The male is the fore-mentioned fcrew ; the
female the nut which receives it. The qua-
lity of this power far exceeds any of the reft,
for thofe ules for which it is generally apply-
ed j as, in printing, extracting and fqueezing
out the juice of fruits, &c. and in the work-
ing of this inftrument the ftrength of one
man will be more forcible than the weight
of a whole mountain. It is alio ufed for
lifting and raifing great weights, and is much
more practicable than any inftrument made
of wheels, pullies, &c.
The great advantage of this faculty above
the reft confifts chiefly in this ; the other in-
ftruments require as much ftrength for the
fupporting of the weight to be moved as may
be equal to it, befide that other fuper-added
power whereby it is out-weighed and mov^d ;
lo that in the operation by thefe a man al-
ways exhaufts himfelf by continued labour.
For example :
Any weight that is lifted by a wheel or
pulley, will of itfelf recline, if there be not an
equal power to fuflain it: but in the forma-
tion of the fcrew, this inconvenience is per-
fectly remedied ; for as much force as is com-
municated unto this faculty from the power
applied to it, is ftill retained by the very
frame and nature of the inftrument itfelf fee-
ing
*The Univerfal British Builder* 23
ing the motion cannot return, but by the
handle of the lever which effected it ; fo that
the whole drength of the power may be em-
ployed in the motion of the weight, and none
jfpent in fuftaining it. The principal defeat
of the fcrew is, that in a fhort fpace it will
be worked to its full length ; and then it can-
not be of further ufe for the continuing of the
motion ; unlefs (as before obferved) it be re-
turned back by the fame inftrument that
worked it.
Though this molt noble and eafy of all
mechanick powers be not fo much as menti-
oned by fome of the ancients, efpecially
Arijlotle 5 yet I cannot help thinking, that
mod: of the wonders performed of old may
chiefly be attributed to the execution of this
inftrument* becaufe no other invention could
be fo applicable to time, as what might be
made and contrived bv certain fcrevvs.
Among the Jews we read of Solomons
temple, which for its date and magnificence
might have been judly reckoned among the
other wonders of the world : we read of pil-
lars of brals eighteen cubits high, and twelve
cubits round, great and codly dones for the
foundation of it. Jofepbus tell s us, that fome
of the dones were iorty-five cubits long : and
in another place mentions the famous towers
built by Herod , wherein every done was of
white marble, twenty cubits long, ten broad,
and five thick ; and which was the greated
wonder, the old wall itfelf dood upon a deep
C 4 rifing
24 Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
l’ifing ground, with the hills upon it, on the
tops of which thefe towers were built, which
were above thirty cubits high ; fo that it is
fcarce conceivable by what ftrength fo many
hones, of fuch great magnitude, were con-
veyed thither.
Among the Grecians we read of the E-
phefian temple dedicated to Diana , w herein
were an hundred and twenty-feven columns,
formed of as many hones, each of them fixty
feet high, and all taken out of the quarries of
Jfia.
Further, there were at Rome fundry obe-
lilts, each compofed of fo many entire hones,
feme of which were 40, fome 80, and others
90 cubits high ; moh of thefe were brought
out of the quarries dug in Egypt , where they
w T ere wrought into form, and afterwards, not
without incredible labour and infinite charge,
brought to Rome .
Alio about two hundred years ago an old
obelifk was erefted, which had been dedi-
cated to 'Julius Ccefar : this was one intire
hone, being a kind of fpotted marble ; the
height of it one hundred and feven feet ; the
breadth at the bottom twelve feet ; and at
the top eight : it was removed at the charge
of Pope Sextus the Fifth, from the left fide
of the Vatican to a higher ground. The
moving of this obeliik is celebrated by many
writers ; all of whom fpeak of it with great
y/gnder and praife,
*The Unlverfal British Builder. 25
The executing in former days fuch great
wonders may feem to infer, that their mecha-
nical arts are now loft among the many other
ruins of time ; but this cannot by any means
be granted, without much ingratitude to the
prefent age. — I believe if a proper examina-
tion were made into the merits of fome now
living, I am not perfuaded we fhould find it a
want of method that difables them ; but
becaufe we have not either the fame materials,
or motives to attempt fuch works, or the
means to effefl: them, as the ancients had.
The prefent age is much more active than
that of the ancients ; every man finds fo much
bufinefs for the prefent, that he has not lei—
fure to trouble himfelf about things which
can never be of ufe to him, and therefore in
many refpe&s there is a great difproportion
betwixt the incitements of former times, and
thofe of the prefent age with refpedt to fuch
magnificent attempts. As we differ alfo much
in the motives, fo likewife do we in the means
of effecting them.
In thofe remote days there was more leifure
and opportunity both for great men to under-
take fuch works, and for the people to per-
fect them : whereas the world is now grown
more politick and therefore more troublefome :
every great man having other private and ne«
ceffary bufinefs about which to employ his
time and fortune. So likewife in regard to
the common people, who living at that time
more wildly, without being confined to par-
ticular
A Key to Civil Architecture-, or,
ticiilar trades and profellions, might be more
eafily collected upon forhe famous employ-
ments : whereas now, if the king wanted to
taiie an army, it would not be pofiibie to
gather half the number of men that were for-
merly employed about thefe magnificent
buildings.
We read of thirty-fix hundred thoufand
tnen being bufied for twenty years in build-
ing one of the Egyptian pyramids of a mil-
lion that were as long in building another 3
and about the carriage of one ftone only twenty
days journey, on which for three years to-
gether two thoufand chofen men were direc-
tors, befides many other under-labourers.
In the building of Solomon' s temple there
tvere threelcore and ten thoufand that bare
burdens, befides fourfeore thoufand hewers
in the mountains. Suppofing every one of
thefe but to carry a load, there were enough
to make a large mountain.— The Ephejian
temple, fpoken of before, was built at the
joint expence of all AJia the 127 pillars
in it were made by fo many kings, according
to their feveral fucceffions ; the whole work
hot being finifhed in lefs time than two hun-
dred and fifteen years.
The abundance of wealth which was then
in the pofleflion of a few individuals being
now diffufed among a far greater number,
th ore's s at prefent a greater equality among
mankind ; and the flourifhing of arts and fei-
ences hach fo ftirred up men's natural nobi-
2 lhy.
*£he Univerfal British Builder. 27
lity, and made them of fuch adive and in-
duftrious fpirits, as to free themfelves in a
great meafure from that (lavery which thofe
old and unpolifhed nations were fubjed to.
From all which confiderations it does not
follow that there is any defed of art in thefe
latter days. For my own part, I conceive
it eafy to demonstrate the mechanical arts in
thefe times to be fo far beyond the know-
ledge of remoter ages, that had we but the
means the ancients had, we would effed far
greater works with half the labour they ufed*
and one tenth part of the expence.
LECTURE VIII.
OF BUILDING IN GENERAL.
T HOUGH the word Building in a re-
frained fenfe alludes only to the e-
reding or raifing of an edifice ; yet the means
and manner of fuch eredion mud be ef-
feded by the power of fcience, well digefted
in the mind of the condudor. For to build
well, depends not only on the fciences of
Geometry and Architedure, but alfo on a
thorough knowledge of the mechanick pow-
ers in general ; as well as on Hydraulics, or
the art of conveying water by the law of mo-
tion, through pipes or engines, in fuch man-
ner as may be requifite both for ufe and con-
venience.
The art of building then, which is found-
ed on the requifite of fome of the noblef
fciences.
2S A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
fciences, requires a greater application, and
more enlarged judgement, than is ufually
confidered : from whence it follows that the
term Builder is frequently made ufe of, and
mifapplied by fome who do not underfland
it. Fcr a man to be a proficient in building,
in the ftrft place he fhould have a knowledge
of all the materials to be ufed, both in re-
fpedt to quality and quantity/ as well as all
the arts of the different branches thereunto
belonging : with many more relative confi-
derations. Plainly to elucidate thefe requi-
fites as far as may be neceffary with com-
mon practice, in civil architedture, is the
fubjedt of the following fheets ; and becaufe
I wifh not to take up my reader’s time with
a defcription of what he has to obtain, with-
out an illuftration of the principles themfelves,
I fhall proceed, in the fir ft place, to explain
the principles of Building in general.
In every ftrudture or edifice four things are
to be conlidered, viz. ftrength, convenience,
propriety, and beauty ; without thefe no
choice of any quantity of materials whatfo-
ever will in any wife contribute to the pur-
pofe ; as nothing can be ered'ted with any
certainty, that is wanting in the above pro-
perties. It will be fuitable therefore to our
defign, not only to enquire into the nature
of thefe great confiderations, but aifo to elu-
cidate their ufe, and point out fuch defedls
as the unexperienced workman may be li-
able to.
L E C-
Tie XJniverful British Builder. 1S9
LECTURE IX.
OF STRENGTH IN BUILDING.
HE firft quality to be confidered in
all buildings is Strength; this diredly
alludes to the ground-work, in every refped
and part ; which a builder lhould have a firm
aflurance of, before the firfi: ftone or brick is
laid : for whatever errors may be committed
in a building they cannot in any wife be fo
pernicious as a defied: in the foundation. It
behoves every man therefore, who is prin-
cipally concerned in an edifice, to look and
infped into this great particular himfelf ; it
being the bafe of the fabric, he fhould be
well affined of its natural folidity. If the
ground be faulty, in that cafe it will be ne-
ed] ary to fupply this natural defied by the
power of art, which may be done equal to
any ftrength required.
A natural foundation is that which may be
built upon without the abidance of piles,
timber, plank, &c. There are different forts
of ground which may be built upon, and all
equally good ; fuch as done, clay, gravel,
and chalk. Thefe, if the foundation be of
fize proportionable to the weight to be fujf-
tained, will anfwer every purpofe.
An artificial foundation is that which is
obliged to be made when the ground is loofe,
rotten, or otherwife defedive, by the help
of piles or planking, and mud be indifferent-
30 - A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ly ufed according to the builder’s judgement.
If the ground be a loofe fand, and ftand up-
on water but a ibort fpace from the furface
of the ground, or floor of the cellars, (if
fuch are built) it will be neceffary to drive
piles all along the different foundations, as
clofe as they can ftand, efpecially at all angles,
quoins, and chimnies. With regard to the
length of the piles, they muft alv/ays be re-
gulated by the ftrength or body of the earth,
and the weight and magnitude of the fnper-
ftrudture. — For my own part, I would
always choofe to make piles of fuch a length
as might reach to a folidity of foil. The
fcantling of piles may be as i-i4th part of
their length. With regard to inner walls, it
may not in every cafe be required to drive
piles quite clofe all along, but at three, four,
or five feet apart : between which lay bridg-
ings of oak, and planking may be placed upon
the whole.
There are fome parts of ground where
planking alone may do, and wf^ch are not
of confequence fufficient to be trufted with-
out. In fuch cafes the following method
hiuft be adhered to.
Firft, Level the ground at the bottom of
the trench, and at every quoin, and betwixt, at
the diftance of three feet, lay bridgings of oak
the whole width of the foundation. Between
and level with the top of thefe lay bricks or
{tones with planking of three or four inches
thick, to cover the whole ; and on them
proceed,
The Vnherfal British Builder, 31
proceed, obferving to bed well the planking
with good loam, that the wood- work may lie
folid along, and likewife particularly level.
The benefits which arife from a level fouq^
elation are, I hope, obvious to every profeffor
of building: for this is not only a guide
keep in that ftate all the way up, but a
fhrewd maxim, that when this example
ftriilly adhered to, (and the materials of §
proportional weight) its bearings upon the
ground are equal ; and if any fettlement
ihould enfue, it may then be every where
alike. •
With regard to inner walls, it is highly
requifite that the like care be taken ; for 3
fure and level foundation is of as much con*?
fequence in them as in the outward waIJs $
and though they will require much lefs, yet
muff they be fecured in proportion to their
feveral weights : for if fettlements fhoqlcj
happen within the houfe, the whole mafs pf
decorations will be difconcerted, and rendered
defective to^very eye.
The foundation being thus fecured, we are
next to confider the other appurtenances of
flrength, viz. the walls, centring-groin^
floors, bond-timbers, lintels, difcharging-
pieces, tafiels, plates, girders, roof, tie-beams^
&c. which mud all bear a proportion to one
another, and in every refpe<S adequate tp the
whole.
And firft of walls, whofe great principle of
ftrength lies in the peculiar caufe of their
crecnon f
32 A Key to Civil Architecture ; of,
ere&ion, which is to fupport a certain weight
to be appropriated, and therefore of courfe
mud be made fufficient for the purpofe in-*
tended. In order to reduce this iyftem to a
certainty, we mud firft be acquainted with
the height and width of the ftrudture, by
which means we fhall be able to fix a ftand-
ard for the thicknefs of walls. But as this
laft oblervation comes within the limits or
rule of propriety, I fhall finifh this ledlure
with the following obfervations, viz. That
after the foundation is fecured, to continue
this quality of ftrength the walls mud be all
built perpendicular ; for then they are in their
full pofitions of ftrength. The timbers mult
likewife be all of fufficient fcantlings, pro-
portionable to the iize of the building, and
have fufficient lengths of bearings in the
walls, the bond-timbers being ail bound in
the angles and fixed, till the roof is on, in
one continued chain round the building; the
girders every one laid upon piers if poffible,
with binding pieces of timber underneath,
and centres of brick turned over the tops of
them : and if the girders be of great lengths
they mud alfo be truffed.
The roof mud he lb contrived that all the
walls may bear a proportionable fhare, neither
too heavy nor too light. If too heavy, the
lateral preffure of the rafters will tend to fhove
out the walls : if too light, it mud of courfe
be in danger from every ftorm. The railing-
plates muft be well tied at the angles, and
the
; The Univerfal British Builder. 33
the whole building fecured at proper places
with tie-bearh$, &c. And to crown the work
with ftrength, 'the walls fhould have fuffi-
cient time in building, left the fuper-incum-
bent weight crufti the work -beneath, and
caufe premature lettlements, the fare way to
ruin and deftrudion.
LECTURE X.
OF CONVENIENCE IN BUILDING.
H E word Convenience hath an extent
five meaning, and imports, that a
building fo contrived fhould be advantageous,
warm, pleafant, and ufeful, according to the
intent propofed, the perfon you build for, or
ufe to which it is appropriated.
If a perfon of rank builds, for fuch the
archited fhould be particularly circumfped
in regard to the fituation, and take every ad-
vantage to obtain the moft pleafing effed,
both as to place and profped ; efpecially in
the country, where there generally is room
enough for invention, and no check upon the
fancy, or reftraint to the moft pregnant ge-
nius, in embellifhing his defign with every
beauty of art and nature, fuitable to the jper-
fon and adequate to the place. In town,
things of this nature cannot in every refped
be adhered to, as we are frequently confined
in our mode of building through the incon-
venience of the place, and therefore cannot
fo eafily ftrike upon that happy groupe of con-
D
fiftencies.
34 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
fiftencies, which, when properly united, will
ever render a ftru&ure plealing, of whatever
fize or dimenfions it be. However, if a
place can by any means be obtained for the
purpofe, I would recommend for a perfon of
rank a wide airy ftreet contiguous to fome
fquare, with a fufficient number of avenues
leading to public places, that no danger or
hinderance might arife by the meeting of
carriages.
When fuch a place is fixed upon, care
fhould be taken in the defign, that the exte-
rior parts of the building have fomething
more diftinguiihing than the common mode,
both as to form and execution, and not infe-
rior to the rank of the perfon you build for.
The interior parts fhould be eafy, conne&ed,
and fuitable to their different purpofes. The
ftairs contrived in a familiar place, and in the
midft of the rooms above and below, that an
eafy entrance may be had to every apartment.
The anti-chamber alfo fhould be as conve-
nient as poffible to the ftairs, that ftrangers
may not be incommoded. The bed-cham-
bers neither too large nor glaring with light.
The back-ftairs fo contrived, that fervants
may pafs to their own apartments and places
of bufinefs without impediment, from the
beft rooms; and that water-clofets be con-
ftrudted in proper places, and without the
lead annoyance ; the cefs-pools and drains
made of a fufficient magnitude ; water had
familiar
The Umverfal British Builder. 35
miliar to the kitchen, and every thing that
can be obtained with refpe<ft to profpeCt from
the windows, &c. to render the whole plea-
fant, ufeful, and in every refped: adequate to
the intent.
The fame rules ftiould be obferved in every
other building, whether it be for a merchant,
trader, or manufacturer. Firft, the neceflary
appurtenances muft be noticed ; then what
elfe of beauty may be thought confident with
the defign, muft be added, with this main
point in view, not to out-ftretch the purfe
and intent of your employer.
LECTURE XI.
OF PROPRIETY IN BUILDING.
T he term Propriety is not fo much as
mentioned by Andrew . Palladio , nor
any author extant ; all hitherto having con-
tented themfelves with thinking that what-
ever is beautiful muft be proper. But this
I deny ; and want no greater vindication
of my diffent than a thorough examination
into the prefent ludicrous mixture of frag-
ments, which are all efteemed incomparable
beauties, though in reality they have not one
property to recommend them.
It is contrary to my plan or intent, to de-
preciate the defign s of any furveyor, or pri-
vate workman; but I muft point out the
common errors of the age, left the young 2nd
inexperienced fhould fnatch the gorgeous bait,
D z and
36 A Key to Civil Architecture j cr $
and imbibe fuch a puerile fyflem of incon-
fiftencies as may take them more time to
eradicate than leifure to acquire. — Now
though there are many very elegant defigns
which border upon, or rather were the ori-
ginals to the prefent (hades of what is called
Tafte; yet thofe abound in moft of the
merits which I define to be propriety, which
is the exadl bounds fixed for the finishing all
forts of work, and the real fubftance of ju-
dicious experiments, that have been made by
altitudes and geometrical calculations, to
find the moft approved proportions of unity
which one member bears to another in an
indivifible ftate ; fo that ftrength and beauty
may be circumfcribed by its power, and have
a certain criterion or limit for their extenfion.
To attain a right underftanding of this is
one of the firft principles that fhould attradf
the attention of every ftudent or profefTor of
building ; for it is the only guide to perfec-
tion, and without it no proficiency can be
arrived at. In many bufinefTes and employs
propriety is no more than the refult of fancy,
which hath a change or different effedt upon
almoft every eye. But building is not fubjedl
to this mutable ftate ; for when once a plan
and elevation is given, and its intent and con-
fequence known, the judicious workman of
himfelf fhould proceed without the affiftance
of architect or furveyor. By one who is well
apprized and ftudied in the principles of
building, every part and principle of a build-
ing
*The Univerfa! British Builder. 37
ing may be reduced to a fydem, and hold
fuch an affinity with nature, that harmony
and arrangement may be fecn through the
whole, light and eafy, and yet fubjeCt to the
drift rules of architecture.
This many of our men of modern notions
will not believe, becaufe they will allow no-
thing magnificent that is not compofed of the
prefent jargon of mutabilities.
I mud confefs I am far from confidering
the ancients or their fenfe of building as in
the lead compatible with the natural and
fplendid eafe we fee in many of our modern
productions. The feveral ages of improve-
ments, and different effays in every century,
mud have made fome progrefs for the better,
or their works and labours would have de-
ferved fevere criticifm. However, it cannot
be affirmed, that the five orders of Architec-
ture have received the lead addition for many
ages: their compofitions are fo judicious, na-
tural, and linking, and bear fuch a propor-
tion with reafon, that it has furpalfed the abi-
lities of every commentator, either to add or
diminish, without eclipfing the beauty of the
whole.
Many have attempted this great undertak-
ing at this time, and daily leave lading fpec-
tacles of their weaknefs and judgement.
This is done with an intent (as they call it)
to lighten the orders ; the projection of their
different members being by far too heavy for
fche fplendid work of the times. But herein
D 3 is
*8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
J
is their miftake; for I will be bold to affirm
in the prefent cafe, that whatever is taken
from the projections adds weight to the whole
in a double proportion. In order to prove
this, I will only defire my readers (if they
are unacquainted with this great matter) to
make two drawings of any of the five orders
of Architecture ; one according to the pro-
jections and dimenfions of Scamozzi , Palla-
dio , &c. and another with the projections of
the prefent times, and you will find the laft
mentioned will be much the heaviefl : for it
is a ffirewd maxim in Architecture, that
whatever is added to the head takes from the
weight of the body. I have feen others, in
order to take off the weight incurred by re-
ducing the projections, add one diameter more
to the fhaft, and the like addition to the pe-
deflal. But this was mending the matter
with a witnefs ; for then they were under
the- fame predicament with refpect to the
height of the mouldings ; and in order toTe-
medy one defeCt, plunged into numberlefs
abfurdities.
The proportions of the orders are of fuch
fenfible magnitudes that nothing artificial can
furpafs them. I fincerely with, that every
profeflbr of Architecture was convinced of
this; for inftead of gaudy, we ffiould then
fee magnificent productions ; and for arts
and fciences, juftly vie with the world, and
bid the greateft nation defiance*
z I do
*the Univerfal British Builder, 39
I do not mean by what I have advanced to
cffert, that an Archited fhould be confined
to produce nothing but the works of the an-
cients. No ; I muft beg my reader to under-
ftand, that I have the greateft veneration for
tafte and improvement, and hold that to be
the great fupport of the individual : but I
would not extend this beyond the rule of pro-
priety ; I would not, becaufe it is the faftiion
to wear a club to my hair, ftretch that be-
yond the bounds of reafon, to the enormous
.iize of my leg; nor, becaufe it is the tafte
of the times, to make fmall cornices and
large friezes to my rooms, to be in the very
pink of the mode, make all friezes and p.o
cornice at all, which, to the difgrace of
beauty and propriety, is now almoft the cafe.
There is a fenfible medium or ftriking effed
in all the works of art, like the perfection of
nature, which cannot be exceeded. But this
is within the limits of beauty, which I (hall
mention hereafter : wherefore I (hall only
propofe a ftandard for the propriety of walls,
the confequence of light, lize of chimnies,
&c. and then give fome obfervations on the
beauties of building. — What proportions
of unity the prefent tafte of building has or
will bear with propriety, I fhall mention in
my criterion of pradice feparately as they
.occur.
40 A Key to Civil Architecture > or f
Of the Standard of Walls , &e.
And, firft, of the fize or thicknefs of walls,
and depth of foundations, which chiefly de-
pend on the height of the ftrudture, weight
of the materials, &c. For the depth of foun-
dations different authors allow one fixth of
the height of the building. But this I think
unnecefiaryj and inftead of one fixth, it may
be one eighth part of the entire height of the
fuperftrudture : the breadth of the foundation
three fourths of its depth : the firft ftory two
thirds of the foundation at the bottom, and
from that diminifh one half brick every ftorv
y J
upwards* This I have found in the courle
of my own experience to be the beft ftandard
that can be calculated ; though even this has
its exceptions in peculiar cafes, as when the
foundations are bad, and the confequence of
the building will not afford a fufficient natu-
ral foundation to be made. In fuch a cafe
the fize of the foundation may be augment-
ed at the difcretion of the builder. Obferve
however, that the foundations fhould diminifh
upwards, and that regular fet offs fhould be
made on both fides, fo that a perpendicular
line may be drawn through the foundation
and middle of the wall at the top of the
building, that folid may reft upon folid.
There are many furveyors and builders who
argue againft regular fet-offs on the outfide of
a building, alledging, that they are only re-
ceptacles for water, and as fuch oftentimes
preju-
*The Vniverfal British Builder. 41
prejudicial to the ftories below. But thefe
are weak arguments, when compared to the
ftrength of the building, which muft be de-
fective when fet-offs are only made on the
- infide. The eaves and cornice prevent any
water lodging upon the facios, &c. on the
outfide, except what happens by a lateral
Shower, which is very rare, and too trifling
to be noticed.
I muft confefs, it has been the cafe in mod
of the new buildings about town to make no
fet-offs on the outfides for fome time ; but
in this the builders greatly miftook their in-
tereft, (efpecially thofe who built for fale) as
a houfe properly fet off on both fides will not
require to be So ftrong by one fixth of the
quantity of materials, which amounts to a
considerable fum in a large building.
The next point of propriety is the height
of ftories, and their order, which Should di-
minish upward, though in fome particular
cafes they cannot, as when the moft magni-
ficent rooms are appropriated to the fecond
or third ftory : where this happens, great
care muft be had of the foundation, and
fomething more added to the ftrength of the
walls in the lower ftories.
Of the Propriety of Chimnies.
In the conftru£fcion of chimnies care Should
be taken to ereCt burrs in the foundation for
the piers, left the fuper-incumbent weight
caufe deftruCtive Settlements ; that the open-
ings
42 A Key to Civil Architecture y or 9
ings of the chimnies be proportional to the
fize of the rooms, and the funnels made pro-
portional to the openings : by thefe means
there is good probability of being relieved
from that great difturber of peace in a family,
a fmokey chimney. This particular was quite
unknown to the ancients ; even Palladio only
gueffed at its properties. One would think
that practical experiments would long ago
have reduced this fyftem to a certainty ; but,
alas ! we are ftill in the dark, and may con-
tinue fo, and leave it to be found out by the
next century.
The beft calculations I can make for chim-
nies, and which in general I have proved to
be anfwerablein almoft every cafe, are by the
following table adapted to the fize of all the
rooms that may occur in common practice.
The reader will obferve that this table is
calculated from rooms fuppofed to be fquare.
When a room is otherwife, I bring it fquare
in the following manner: Add the length
and breadth together, and take half for the
fquare of the room. For example : If a
room be 14 feet by 10, add them together,
and they make 24; look for 12 the fquare
of the room in the table, and you will then
find the height of the opening to be 3 feet 3
inches, breadth 2 feet 6 inches, and depth 1
foot 5 inches, and fo of all the reft.
The method of finding the depth of chim-
nies is to add the height and breadth toge-
ther, and take one fourth for the depth.
For
5 The TJniverfal British Builder. 43
For Example:
Ft. In.
5 : 9i
iol the fi zcl
Suppofing to the above
dimensions of 3 feet 3 in-
ches by 2 feet 6 inches, I fet
them down as in the mar-
gin ; this will make 5 feet 9
inches, one fourth of which
is 1 foot 5 inches, the exadt
depth of the chimney.
The proportion of the funnels is got from
the depth of the chimnies, and fhould be al-
ways three fourths of the chimney’s depth for
the fquare of the fide.
A Table of the Size of the Openings of
Chimnies .
Square of
Breadth of the
Height of the
Depth of th
Rooms.
Opening.
Opening.
Chimney.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
In.
6
I
6
3
O
I
14-
9
2
0
3
*4-
I
34
12
2
6
3
3
I
5
3
0
3
44-
I
74
18
3
6
3
6
I
9
21
4
0
3
74-
I
104.
24
4
6
3
9
2
04.
27
5
0
3
i<4
2
2-r
3°
5
6
4
0
2
4
In order to fupply the defeat of ftrength
|which every opening occafions, difcharging
pieces
44 A Key to Civil Architecture ; er,
pieces of timber ftiould be laid acrofs the
breaft to take off the weight : in the end of
the breaft muft be laid returning pieces, or
what is called taffels, which are of infinite
fervice. If the building be within the bills
of mortality, and no taffels or difcharging
pieces can be applied without incurring the
danger of the penalty, arches of brick muft
be turned in the breaft to anfwer the purpoie.
Of Windows and their Openings .
The openings of windows have been as
little enquired into as the fize of chimnies,
although of material confequence ; for if a
room be too glaring with light it is as defec-
tive as if it had too little : a ftandard of pro-
priety therefore ftiould be attained, in order
to render this agreeable fenfation as pleafing
as poflible. However an error committed in
this particular may be more eafily difpenfed
with, than the offenfive evaporation of fmoke.
The following is a general rule.
Let the dimenfions of a room be given,
viz. Length, breadth, and height : Multiply
the length and breadth together, and the
produd by the height, the fquare root of the
laft produd will be the quantity of light re-
quired. For example :
Suppofe
The TJniverfal British Builder. 45
Suppofe a room were 19 feet
19
by 14, and 12 feet high, I
»4
firft multiply them as in the
•
margin, the length by the
76
breadth, and the product by
19
the height, and extradl the
■— — *
fquare-root of the laft pro-
266
duct, which gives 56 fquare
12
feet, the real quantity of light
—
required.
I 3192 1 56
2 5
106
1 692
636
5 6
The next thing is to difpofe or appropriate
the light into a number of windows. In the
above cafe, for a room of 12 feet high a win-
dow fhould be about 8 feet. The 56 divided
will make 28 feet each ; for two windows
which will anfwer the dimenfions of 8 feet
by 3 feet 6 inches, and be adequate to the
intent. The fame likewife of any other di-
menlion whatfoever.
LECTURE XII.
OF BEAUTY IN BUILDING.
T HE engaging enchantrefs Beauty is of a
noble defeent ; her kindred are all fa-
mous in building, both in plans, elevations,
and
4 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
and fedtions. She is the elder After of Tafte,
begot of Elegance by Propriety. Such an ex-
traordinary charadter fhould produce ftriking
effedts, which certainly is the cafe when her
votaries purfue her fteps with dexterity.
The peculiar graces which are attributed
to Beauty, are freedom, eafe, and perfpi-
cuity, which in reality are fo connedted that
no feparation of them can be obtained without
deftroying their effedt.
If a man would arrive at a proficiency in
this article, he muft firft ftudy the three be-
fore-mentioned qualities, viz. ftrength, con-
venience, and propriety, before he can be a
judge of it : for this much is certain, a build-
ing may be ftrong, convenient, and even a-
bound with proper inftrudtions and juft di-
menfions, and yet not pofiefs one of thefe
rare embellilhments.
Some of my readers may perhaps be at a
lofs to know what I mean by Beauties ;
where they may be applied ; of what they
confiftj and how to be attained. It may not
be amifs therefore to hint at its properties ;
though fuch an analyfis would require the
pen of the greateft proficient of fciences, yet
have they hitherto palled it over as trivial,
without that copious defcription which the
fubjedt naturally requires. I muft confefs,
I fhould be extremely glad if my giving a few
hints could animate fome abler pen to eluci-
date this quality in its ftriking colours : how-
ever, at prefent I fee ne reafon why the fub-
jedt
*The Univerfal British Builder. 47
je<ft fhould fink into oblivion, becaufe people
more capable than myfelf have not entered
upon it.
The Beauties of building do not confift in
the profufenefs of ornaments, the ftrength of
its different members, nor in the well-exe-
cuted parts of the different artificers works in
general ; but in the perfpicuous compofition
and harmony which with freedom one part
bears to another, touched again with fuch
an excellency of proportion that every par-
ticular may feem to have a natural prime ex-
iftence of its own, fuitable to the purpofe,
and yet in every refpedt adequate to the
whole defign ; no latent or ftudied maxims
in peculiar fafhions, which deviate from the
delicacy of the arrangement, can be entitled
to a place in the compofition of Beauty ; fuch
are crude and puerile notions, whereas Beau-
ty is the dexterous refult of found judgment,
and cannot in any wife be attained but by
propriety. In order therefore to acquire a
knowledge of this, the learner muft firft ftudy
the principles of building in general, the in-
tent and fituation, for what the edifice is to
be adapted, its appurtenances and relative con-
fequences ,• and from thence endeavour to
make the defign anfwerable to the purpofe,
the particular works anfwerable to the defign ;
and to let it confift of fuch well-chofen and
lively embellifhments as may add dignity
and elegance to the ftrudture, fuch as final 1 be
in
4 S A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
in no wife foreign either to the place or in-
tent.
It is greatly to be lamented that we fee
architects capable of defigning what they
pleafe, or of ereCting any thing to any pur-
pofe, and yet negleCt this powerful charm,
not fo much through a want of the know-
ledge of its peculiar graces, but through an
idle notion of following the dictates of time-
ferving novelifts : whereas if they would en-
deavour to follow the fenfible dictates of their
own reafon, I make no doubt but we ffiould
daily fee more ftriking proofs of their genius.
The fertile invention of an Adams can with
propriety form what compofitions he pleafes :
being in full poffeffion of tafte, he can make
her dictates fubfervient to his will ; but I
would caution inferior geniufes, how they
ftep forth in the fame dangerous path.
Though there are (it mufl be allowed) very
graceful attractions, and feemingly a very
extenfive field here to roam in ; yet the leait
impediment mufl of necefiity difeoncert their
ideas, and plunge them into fuch a labyrinth
of confufion, as will require fome difficulty
to efcape without inevitably deftroying the
point in queftion.
L E C T,
^heUnherfal British Builder. 49
LECTURE XIII.
OF ARCHITECTURE.
A rchitecture is one of the nobieft
of the liberal fciences, and deduces its
Origin from the time our firft parents made
an arbour to cover themfelves againft the in-
clemency of the weather : its firft principle
is geometry, a mod: excellent knowledge, as
being the bafis and foundation of all build-
ing. The maxims of geometry are both fpe-
culative and practical ; from the firft are de~
monftrated the properties of lines and angles ;
the latter teaches how to apply them to prac-
tice in architecture, fortification, &c.
The word Architecture is now underftood
in a more improved fenfe, and imports the
conftruCtion of an edifice either for private or
public ufe, according to fome or all the five
eftabliihed orders invented by the ancients,
following their proportions, enrichments,
and ornaments, in a manner every way
fuitable to the fize, ftrength, and beauty
of the work intended, and as they are laid
down by the molt celebrated artifts, and all
of them called from their places of invention,
which are as follow, viz. Tufcan, Dorick,
lonick, Corinthian, and Compofite.
As there are not many noble treatifes of
architecture extant, I fhall not take up much
of my readers time with a theoretical defi-
E nition
ro A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,-
nition of the five orders ; nor can I, accord-
ing to my prefent plan, allow it, my opera-
tion of pradtice being fo extenlive : therefore
I ihall only mention lome few particulars re-
lative to their rife and confequence, and pro-
ceed with my remarks of meafuring, and o-
ther things of ufe for the affiftance of thofe
for whofe ufe this plan is propofed, who in
general are the working part of mankind.
Of the Tuscan Order .
The Tufcan order had its original in 7 'uf-
cany , a province of Italy , from whence the
name is derived. It is much the plaineft of
all the orders : notwithftanding, it hath
great beauties if we confider its ufe, and ap-
ply it where ftrength is required. The juft
proportions and well-defigned form of this
order (wherever it is well appropriated) are
both ftriking and elegant, though fimple ;
yet its fignificancy may juftly vie with^the
richeft. The column with its bafe and ca-
pital fhould be in length 7 diameters, the
entablature 2. The Tufcan column fhould
diminish one fourth of its diameter. The
proper manner of placing this order, is at
the bottom of the ftructure ; in which cafe it
hath its real appearance, being of fuflicient
ftrength to fupport the reft of the orders a-
bove, or as many as may be thought confif-
tent#
Of
The Unkierfal British Builder. 51
Of the Do rick Order .
The Dorick order took its rife from the
Dorians , a Grecian people who dwelt in
jMa. This order, though little inferior in
flrength to the Tufcan, is neverthelefs fre-
quently ufed without its pedeftal, in places
where little elfe but beauty is required.
Though it may be faid to have certain defi-
ciencies in fome of its component parts, yet
upon the whole it is a mafierly compofition.
Many commentators have differed from
Palladio in a few particulars of the entabla-
ture belonging to this order ; and if any
thing they have come near that great mat-
ter, we may allow fome of them a fhadow
of merit here.
The Dorick entablature is a well-defigned
and noble piece of architecture ; the orna-
ments and enrichment of bells and triglyphs,
&c. in the frieze and planceer of its cornice
are fo mafterly, that they are incapable of
additions. Many in the execution of this
order have, inftead of the triglyphs, fubfti-
tuted flutes, &c. but to very little effeCl. If
thofe that took thefe liberties had but known
the ineftimable treafure of the beauties they
had been rifling, they would have been con-
tent to follow the dictates of the greateft
judges that ever lived, rather than offend
the eyes of every man of judgment and fpe-
culation with their own paltry variations.
E 2
The
I
52 J Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
The Dorick order may be applied to the:
firft ftory of a building, and is generally ufed
fo without the leafl deficiency. Its column,
bafe, and capital may be made 8 diameters
high, and diminilh one fixth.* It is the beft
order that can be made ufe of for the fronts^
of doors, &c. on account of its large pro-
jections, which anfwer every purpofe in pre-
venting the weather from affeCting thofe who-
have occafion to wait at the doors of houfes
till they can gain admiflion ; a circumftance
which Ihould be maturely confidered, becaufe
the rain is ufually more rapid and violent un-
der the eaves of the edifice, owing to what-
is difcharged from the cornice of the houfe
fct-offs, &c.
Of the XoNiCK Order .
The Ionick order was firft invented in*
Ionia , a province in Afia. Of this beautiful
order was built one of the feven wonders of
the world, viz. the noble temple of Ephefus r
dedicated to Diana , wherein were 127 co-
lumns, all of fo many entire ftones. The
height of this column, bafe, and capital is
9 diameters, and diminifhes one fixth of the
width.
The greateft beauty in this diftinguifhing
order of architecture lies in. the flendernefs
of the fhaft of the column, and is rendered
itill more fo by the flutings, which in this
order have a pleafing effeCt ; the volutes or
rams-horns of the capitals are alfo excellent
additi-
<The Unfaerfdl British Builder. 53
additions, as well as all its mouldings, enrich'
ments, &c. which are little inferior to the
Corinthian. This order is in its proper ftate
when placed upon the Doric, and the Corin-
thian upon this.
Of the Corinthian Order.
The Corinthian order is the moft noble
and beautiful of all the orders, and took its
original from the the city of Corinth . This
rich piece of architedture may juftly be call-
ed perfect, as being beyond the power of
art or genius to improve. Its merit confifts
not only in the diftinguifhing order or ar-
rangement of any peculiar part, but in the
harmony of the whole ; being fo well adapt-
ed, fo proportionably juft, that art and nature
combined muft allow, in this grand compo-
fition, their meridian alrnoft rivalled. One
of the chief ornaments in this order is the
capital of the column, whofe height is equal
to the diameter of thecolumn below, and com-
pofed of leaves to the number of 16 ; between
which rife fmali fterns or ftalks, that form
the volutes, and fupport the abacus, which
may be underftood as the top moulding or
covering of every capital.
The Corinthian column with bafe and ca-
pital lhould be 10 diameters high ; and when
fluted confift of 24, and be made half as
deep as broad. The fillets or fpaces between
mult be one third of the width of the flute :
and the bell or face under the leaves muft
Hand perpendicular under the bottom of the
E 3 flutes $
54 AYLky to Civil Architecture ; or,
flutes; in which cafe folid is under folid,
The Corinthian pedefial is one fourth of the
height of the column, and the entablature
one fifth, which confifis of architrave, frieze,
and cornice.
Of the Composite Order .
This order received its rife from the an-r
cient Romans, who find invented it, and has
its name merely becaufe it is a mixture, or
compofed of the Ionick and Corinthian or-
ders, or rather of the whole five.
By fome it is reckoned the moft regular
and beautiful of all the orders : but thofe who
are pleafcd to give it this appellation, do it
either through want of judgment, or, not en-
quiring into the merits of it, fuppofe that to
be beft which is compofed of the beauties of
the whole. It is certain, that the parts of
the Compofite order are in a capital light in
their refpeftive places; but as they now (land
are rather puerile and unconnedted, and may
be Ailed an immature compound of confif-
tencies, void of grace, and barren of inven-
tion. Why I call them confiAencies, I
would have my readers underAand: The
members which form this order are in their
nature beautiful; but being applied or flretch-
ed beyond their real effedt, become ludicrous,
wanting form and propriety. I cannot fay
this order refiedts .any peculiar merit on
the compofers, though it is much better than
any thing we fee invented in our days.
The
T&e Univerfal British Builder. 55
The compofite order is ufually placed up-
®n the Corinthian : but in that fituation it
muft appear to difad vantage, having no pro-
perties of its own to recommend it ; and
thofe which it doth confift of are fo feebly
adapted, that it is the height of imprudence
to place this order in any date, unlefs quite
abftradted from the reft; nor can it with the
leaft propriety be ufed on the outfide of a
building. Its column with bafe and capi-
tal is ten diameters, and ihould not, if placed
upon the Corinthian, diminifti more than
one fixth of the diameter below.
It would be well to conftder the nature of
the orders in general, efpecially with regard
to the propriety of their ornaments, when
appropriated to the outfide of a building. In
my opinion, the chief elegance of a ftrudture
confifts in its plainnefs, and it would add
much to the dignity of every building where
the orders are introduced, if no ornaments
were applied but where their want might be
thought a vifible defecft. For my own part
I cannot think, that either carvings or flu-
ting of columns have the leaft (hare of beau-
ty when placed on the exterior part of a
building. Ornaments of this fort to me appear
rather ftudied decorations than natural effects*
I am very confcious that fome of the great-
eft judges of the age would ftrenuou.fly con-
tradict this opinion ; but I am full as con-
fident that thoufands will think with me.
When they have leifure to give this great par-
E 4. ticular
z t 6 ^ Key A? Civil Architecture er,
ticular a thought, and judge from appear-*
ances, I would only afk any perfon of reafon-
able abilities, whether the vaft profufion of
ornaments lavished on fome of the public
buildings (which have lately made fuch a
noife in the world) be any addition to them ?
whether they are not more gaudy than grand ?
and whether they do not lofe their natural
magnificence by thefe fuperfiuous introduc-
tions ?
I am lorry that it Ihould fall in with my
defign to defcant upon the works of any
great author ; but the reft would have their
faults pointed out, becaufe it is in their power
entirely to new mould the fyftem of bufinefs a
and lead the unthinking people from the e-*
vidence of their own underftanding.
LECTURE XIV.
OF MEASURING.
M EASURING is the art of finding
contents of fuperficies and folids; and is
that part of geometry, or rather pra&ical ma-
thematicks, which elucidates fome determi-
nate quantity, appointed to be a ftandard or
common gauge for things to be denominated
by; as to their length, breadth, and thick-
nefs : as a rod is a common meafure for brick-
work ; a fquare yard, or foot, for defining
the contents of carpenters, joiners, plafterers
work, &c. which once underftood, and
where tp be properly appropriated in the
different
*fhe Untverfal British Builder. 57
different artificers works, according to their
nature and cuflom, needs no more than com-
mon arithmetick to perform, though at pre-
lent deemed a my fiery of fuch high eftima-
tion as to form a trade of the firft confe-
quence ; notwithflanding there is little more
in it than what any common fchool-mafter
is capable of ; unlefs it be required that a
meafurer fhould flipulate the prices of the
different works he runs over.; in which cafe
he muft be well acquainted with the feveral
branches of building, as well as the quality
and quantity of materials * a matter which
many of our modern furveyors are totally
ignorant of, and which refleds great indig-
nity on their profeffion : as being one of the
principal efforts to the fcience of furveying,
and of much more importance than fine draw-
ings, which are too frequently the main ob-
ject of the gentlemen of this art. For if
they are but tolerable adepts in this particu-
lar, they think but little of any thing more $
for with regard to the prices and value
of work, they fay they can eafily acquire
them by getting the eflimates of different
workmen for the drawings they have to exe-
cute ; out of which with little trouble they
{hall be able to fix different ones of their own.
But how little is a perfon of this fort to be
depended on, either with regard to the
conflrudion, or furveying of an edifice of
confequence ? and yet to the difgrace of ar-
chitecture, we have men who ftile themfelves
5 architects
5*8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
architeds and furveyors, that are hardly ca-
pable of building a warehoufe, without num-
berlefs errors ; and at the fame time if a
workman of found judgement, endowed with
the requeues of tafte and long experience,
were but to propofe his opinion, though ne-
ver fo elTential to the point, it would be at
the hazard cf his place, for even thinking to
didate to the genius of a man of lpeculation,
and one who is capable of making a drawing
handfome enough for a print-fbop.
It is greatly to be lamented that there is
not a proper Standard or certain pitch of per-
fedion in this as well as many other learned
profeffions, for a man to arrive at before he
can be pronounced either an archited or fur-
veyor, the one much inferior to the other ;
and that thofe who have not merit enough to
the former might be deemed the latter, and
thofe who have not pretenfions fufficient for
either might be termed meafurers. A gen-
tleman would then know whom he has to
apply to for mailer! y com poll tions and un-
dertakings ; there would be a vifible diffe-
rence in their profeffions* though at pre-
fent they are considered as fynonymous. If
there were fuch a reftridion upon the pro-
feffors of architedure, and none were allow-
ed the name but fuch as had a thorough
knowledge of the liberal fciences, as well as
a proper depth of reafoning on their effeds,
how few (in comparifon to the numbers who
aflume the appellation) ' would be deemed ca-
pable
tfhe Vniverfai British Builder. 59
pable of taking their degrees; though we
have many fit to take the chair upon the 00
cafion, as well as others to be cenfors.
But I beg my readers pardon for this di-
grefiion, and will inftantly proceed with my
remarks upon meafuring ; a matter of fome
moment to every workman who may hope to
be a mailer.
The principal thing in meafuring (as I be-
fore obferved) is the nature and cuilom of it ;
that is* what is allowed as work to a ftandard
price allotted, what is work and half, double
work,, &c. Of thefe there is the greatefl
variety in joiners work, which hath almoft
as many variations as different forts of work.
When a perfon is well apprized of the cuf-
tpms of the different inflruments and modes
of dimenfions, he muff confider the moft ad-
vantageous way of fetting down his menfura-
tions, fo as to avoid confufion and perplexity.
In his book of dimenfions he muff be care-
ful to feparate with difference the various
forts and manners of execution with which
the work is done, as well as the different
apartments to which they belong, and every
branch diftindtly. But in order to furnifh
rny reader with as plain and concife a method
as poffible ? it may not be amifs to give a
fketch of a book of meafurements, and of all
the common incidents that can occur in a
building.
And firff, of brick-work, the rule of
meafuring which is by the rod of fixteen
feet
6o ^ Key to Civil ArchiteSlure ; or,
feet and an half fquare, to one brick and half
thick, which is the ftandard of all common
brick work.
The ufual way cf meafuring a building is
to begin firft at the foundation, from thence
at the firft ftory, and fo on to the top, taking
every ftory feparate, with their additions, de-
ductions, &c.
Example of Foundations .
Take the length of the front and one end,
and double it for the length ; and obferve,
if you take the length of rthe front from out
to out, you muft take the ends from the in-
iides of the front and back walls ; next take
the height of the foundation, and write them
down in the following order, to be fquared
at leifure.
Foundation.
Ft. In.
146 o Length.? x
6 6 Height, i 4 *
bricks.
As all foundations fhould diminifh upwards,
ill order to come at the real thicknefs of the
wall, count the number of bricks at the top,
the fame at the bottom, and add them to-
gether, and take half the thicknefs.
EXAMPLE.
'J’he Univerfal British Builder, 61
EXAMPLE.
If the foundation at the bottom be 5*
Bricks thick, at the top 37 ;
thofe added together (as in 5 oL
the margin) make 9, the 3
half of which is 47, the real — — —
thicknefs of the wall, which 9 o
is fet down as above. *
4 07 bricks-*
Next take all the party-walls, burrs fur
ehimnies.
Foundations of party-walls.
Feet.
2 6 Height.' } 3 bricks 4 times.
The above dimenlions are the fuppofed
length and height of one party-wall 3 bricks
thick ; but for brevity I fay 4 times, there
being four crofs foundations of the fame di-
mensions. In like manner take every thing
within ground ; then take the bafement ftory,
confuler the fet-offs both on the fronts and
ends, and from the firft length deduct or take
the dimenlions over again.
EXAMPLE.
The firft is the Bafement ftory.
length and height of Feet,
the bafement ftory; 145 Length.! , r . .
next dedud the win- 1 o Height, f ^ 1 iCKSo
dows
6 2 A Key to Civil Architect lire ; dr,
dows and doors in
the front. In taking
the dedu&ions of
windows, I think it
the mod familiar
method to calculate
the whole opening
from the floor to the
top, and after add
the pieces under the
fafh-frame, becaufe
of the different thick-
nefs. — See the ex-*
ample.
Next take thebreafl
of chimnies as they
projed into the
rooms, which the
reader will obferve
are all to be meafur-
ed as folid, on ac-
count of the trouble,
and pargetting the
infide. The method
is to take the height
to the turning of the
the trimmer, and the
width of the brealt,
and afterwards to
count the number of
bricks it is in thick-
nefs ; then dedud
the opening.
Dedudions of window#*
Ft. In.
9 5 7 4 bricks- — 6
3 43 times.
To add under windows#
3 411 brick — 6
2 6 3 times.
Dedud front door.
7 0 1 4 bricks.
3 Jli
Dedud windows back
front.
8 10 1 4 bricks — 3
3 43 times.
To add under windows
as before.
3 4
4 5
Kitchen chimney to add.
9 o Height. 3
6 6 Width, {bricks.
The opening of chim-
ney to dedud.
4 '5} 3 bricks -
And
5T he Vniverfal British Builder.
And in the fame manner proceed with
every deduction of inner rooms in every ftory,
and the addition ofchimnies, &c.
In taking the dimenfions of vaults, firft
meafure the abutments to the fpringing of
the arch, and afterwards bend your rods
round the arch for the width. The length
O
of the place is undoubtedly the length. If
the vault be grounded, after you have mea-
fured the fuperficial contents, you mu ft alfo
meafure the run or angles of the groin, which
are always confidered at lead: as fuperficial
feet extra, and fometimes an additional price
allowed for them, which fhall be hereafter
noticed in the practice of brick-work. There
is one thing in the dimenfions of end- walls
to vaults which ought to be mentioned, that
is, the rifing the crown of the arch ; to which
part the height of the end walls muft be
taken. No allowance either for fluff or la-
bour muft be made for the want of the decli-
vity of the arch, on account of the additional
trouble of cutting and wafte of bricks. The
fame thing is alfo to be obferved with refpedt
to arches over doors ; no deduction muft be
made for them, becaufe of the trouble. The
dimenfions alfo for the height of fuch deduc-
tions are not to be taken higher than the
fpringing of the arch.
As the meafuring cf chimnies in angles
may be attended with, or feem a difficulty
to thofe who are unacquainted with the me-
thod, I propofe the following rule for their
pradice. MuU
6 4 A Key to Civil Architecture j sr.
Multiply half the breadth of the front of
breaft by the height, and that product by the
number of half bricks contained in the half
breaft, (as to width) and divide the laft pro-
duct by 3, the contents will then be the con-
tents in feet : out of which the opening is to
be deducted, as in fquare chimnies. See the
example.
Ft. In.
Suppofe a chimney io o
3 3
2
6
O
3 °
0
3 2
6
0
8
3 1 260
O
0 | 86
24
20
18
that ftands in an angle
to be 6 feet 6 in. in
breadth, the height of
theftory to feet, I place
them as in the margin,
and multiply half the
breaft, which is 3 ft.
3 inches, and after-
wards multiply that
product by the number
of half bricks the half
breaft contains, which ”
we may fuppofe to be
8 ; then I divide the laft produdl by 3, the
number of half bricks in the ftandard of brick-
meafurement, which gives the above dimen-
fion 86 feet of reduced brick-work ; after
this you are to deduft the opening, as in
other chimnies. By the above example all
other angle chimnies may be meafured.
By the foregoing method all forts of com-
mon brick-work are meafured ; in every ftory
the
Tie Univerfal British Builder, 65
Ihe fame, according to the thicknefs, re-bates,
and deductions of the feveral walls, keeping
every (lory feparate till you come to the top
of the edifice; eftimating the chimnies as
folid all the way up ; the parapet walls ac-
cording to their thicknefs and dimenfions ;
and doing the fame by gable-ends and pedi-
ments. Thefe laft mentioned articles may
want fome explanation with regard to the
manner of meafurement.
RULE.
Multiply the length of the bafe by half
the perpendicular, or the perpendicular by
half the bafe, the product will be the fuper-
ficial content. For inftance : Suppofe a
gable-end, the bafe of which is 18 feet,, the
perpendicular or height 13 feet 6 inches, I
fet down 18 feet, the bafe, and multiply
by 6 feet 9 inches, the half of the perpen-
dicular, the produCt is 121 feet 6 inches,
the fuperficial content ; then count the num-
ber of half bricks it contains Ft. In.
in thicknefs, and proceed in 18 o
every refpeCt as in other work* 6 9
I think it needlefs to fay more 6 "o
concerning the meafurement of jo 8 o
common brick-work. Y^~h~o
The manner of reducing walls to the fland-
ard thicknefs, is particularly mentioned in
the practice of brick-work. The meafuring
gauged work, fuch as arches, facios., cornices,
F &c.
66 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
£cc. is as follows ; and all valued by the fu~
perficial foot.
Idle molt familiar way of meafuring a
fkew-backed arch, is to take the length of
the top and bottom, and add them together
for the length, the height of the arch for the
breadth. Circular arches muft be meafured
as is fet forth in my menfuration of circles,
&c. Cornices of brick are meafured as to
length, and the mouldings girt with a firing
for the breadth, Facios are meafured fuper-
ficial.
In taking the dimenfions of brick-work it
is ufual to take and give within the compafs of
an inch. For inftance : If your length or width
runs better than half an inch, you take the
full inch ; if under half an inch, nothing*
For example :
If a wall be 74 feet 6 inches, and rather
above half an inch more, you call it 74 feet
7 inches ; but if rather lefs than the half inch,,
it will only be allowed as 74 feet 6 inches.
In meafuring of arches, &c. it is necelfary
to meafure to the part of an inch.
The next work done by bricklayers is ti-
ling, which is meafured by the fquare of ten
feet each way, and multiplied into itfelf con-
tains 100 fu perficial feet. There is no diffi-
culty in taking the dimenfions of, or in mea-
furing tiling; only take the length of the
roof between the gable-ends, and from the
ridge to the eaves for the width ; multiply
the one into the other, and divide the pro-
duct
*T/je Univerfai British Builder. 67
du£t by 100, or cut off one or two figures to
the left hand for fquares. For example: If
the number of feet contained be hundreds,
cut off one figure for fquares, the reft are feet.
If the number of feet be thou-
fands, then cut off two figures to Sq. Ft.
the left for fquares (as in the mar- 4,23
gin.) —
Suppofe the fide of a houfe con-
tained 423 feet, then cut off the
4, which is 4 fquare ; there re-
mains then 23 feet. The fame is 13,02
to be obferved of thoufands of feet, *
as in the margin.
The reader is to take notice, that deduce
tions muft be made for chimnies, and alfo in
plain tiling. If there be a double courfe at
the eaves, 4 inches more muft be added to
the width. With regard to hips and vallies,
dormers or windows, where valley- tiles are
ufed, the run of the angles, vallies, and hips
muft be taken : and for every foot in length a
foot fuperficial muft be added to the meafure-
ment, on account of the trouble that attends
them in pradlice.
If your roofs be hipped, take the length at
the bottom of the fides, and not meafure the
ends ; for it is a maxim, that the two ends
make out the want of the fides.
The laft of bricklayers work to be meafu-
red is paving ; which is done by the yard, and
contains 9 fuperficial feet. In this fort of
meafurement there is no difficulty only take
F 2 the
68 A Key to Civil Architecture \ of,
the length and breadth of the place in feety
and multiply them together, then divide the*
product by 9, the quotient will be the con-
tent in yards, and the remains feet : after-
ward make the neceflary deductions,- and
your work is complete.
How to me afar e Carpenters Work .
For Carpenters work two modes of mea-
furement are in ufe; the one by the fquare,
the other bv the cubical foot. The former is-
J
now aknod obfolete, except with refpeCt to*
labour. However, for the benefit of the
learner, I (hall treat of both the methods, and
leave the dudent to adopt that which pleafes
him bed — or which is- mod approved of by
his employer: For as it will not require
much application, he may eailly make him-
felf acquainted with both.
With refpeCt to the merits of the two dif-
ferent manners of meafuring carpenters work
I will not take upon me to decide, (as they
are both replete with errors,) but approve of
that mod which comes neared to the truth,
or feems mod equitable. In meafuring by
the fquare for the real value to a dandard
price, you mud in many cafes err, becaufe in
large buildings the fcantlings will require to
be proportionably augmented, and without a
price, according to them, the mader will be
vifibly injured. Again, on the other hand,
if the buildings run lefs, the common prices
by the fquare will be too exorbitant : and the
5 fame
Tie Univerfal British Builder. 69
fame with refpedt to cubical meafure. If a
matter have the fame price for buildings with
large fcantlings as fmall ones, he mutt be
extravagantly paid for the former 5 the reafon
is, that fmall buildings take above twice the
expence to faw the timber.
The method I practice is to value all car-
penters work by the cubical foot, accords
ing to the fcantlings and the quality of the
timber, and afterwards fettle a proper price
for the labour according to the nature of the
work. This I have ever found the mod
feafible mode, and the neared to a certainty
of any thing I can adopt for the purpofe.
The method of meafuring carpenters work
by the cubical foot is as follows : Suppofing
it a floor, -firft take the dimenfions of the
plates, fuch as the length, breadth, and thick-
nefs ; next the girders (if any) ; then the joifts,
whether binding ditto or -common. la
meafuring of joifts, having got the length of
one, take the different fcantlings, and if they
vary much, take a medium for your dimen-
fion to the length of one, afterwards count
the number of joifls in the tier which will
give the quantity of timber in that fpace 1
proceed then in like manner with the red.
EX-
yo A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
EXAMPLE.
Suppofe a floor to be 24 feet by 15 feet 3
Firft take the'
Plates. length of the plates
Feet. with what goes in-
rp . ^25 Length. to the wall, which
i wice| ^ ^ Scantling, makes 25 feet, the
j [6 Length. fcantling 6 inches
u 1CC l 6 : 3I Scantling. by 34, the length
of the end ]6 feet
Deduct for the chimney by 6 : 3.1 twice 3
5 feet in length. afterward deduct
5 feet in length to
the fame fcantling for what is omitted for the
chimney. This is a juft way of taking and
letting down dimenlions to be fquared at lei-
sure, but rather too tedious. In order there-
fore to avoid prolixity in this fort of meafure-j
ment, I would advife my pupil to the follow-
ing method of fetting down the different
lengths together upon the wafte part of his
book, afterwards adding them up for one
length and noting them in the fetting down
in the following manner, viz. having fet down
the different lengths, as in the 25
margin, and after adding them 25
together and taking the deduc- 16
tion, the remainder will be 77 16
feet of plates in length, the — — —
fcantling 6 inches by 31, which 82
write down as under. Dedudt 5
77
Plates
6 by 3I- Scantling.
Girder to ditto.
Ft. In.
16 3 Length.
ii 4 - by 94. Scantling.
Common joifts to ditto in
the half tier.
Ft.
182 : 6 Length.
9 by 3 4 - Scantling.
The XJniverfal British Builder. 71
Plates in dining-room. Next take the
Ft. girder, which we
7 7 Length. will fay is (with
the allowance of
9 inches at each
end intothe wall)
25 feet 3 inches
fcantling, ni.
inches by 94. ;
place this as in
the margin.
The common
joifts, allowing 4
inches tenont into
the girder, and 4
inches into the
wall, we will fay
are in length 12
feet 2 inches, the fcantling 9 inches by 3 ;
the length of one being then 12 feet 2 inches,
and the number of joifts in the tier 15, we
are next to multiply them toge-
ther for one length, which is 180
feet 6 inches, placing them as be-
fore. If the other tier run to the
fame dimenfions, you may write
down twice. Obferve alfo, in cafe of • — —
trimmers of fire-places, if the length 182 £
of the trimmer be not fufficient to * .
make out for the want of the joifts
cut off in the faid fire-place, the proper de-
ductions mu ft be made, and the trimmer
&dded.
F 4 In
15
12
2
180
72 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
In the above manner proceed to take the
timbers in roofs, partitions, lintels, bond
timbers, difcharging pieces, wood bricks,
door cafes, breflumers, ftory ports, bridgings,
planking piles, leading piles, carriages to
flairs, turning pieces to chimnies, &c. It
may not be amifs here to obferve, that in
taking the wafte of timbers, half meafure-
ment only is to be taken for fluff returned,
filch as bonds through windows, which are
cut off, turning pieces to chimnies, flooring
needles, &c. and in fome cafes of centring as
to trimmers, &c. Therefore in the taking
the dimeniions of thefe, it will be neceflary
to note them accordingly.
Thus much will lerve to inflrud the learngr
relative to the mode of meafuring carpenters
work by the cubical foot; the method of
fquaring dimenfions fhall be fhewn hereafter :
alfo the proper price for work of this fort,
both with and without labour, will be treat-
ed of in the value of carpenters work. For
meafuring by the fquare obferve the following
methods.
And firft, of the carcafe 0 f a framed build-
ing ; the method of meafuring which is to
take the length of one fide, and one end, and
double it for the length, and that fum mul-
tiplied by the height taken from the bottom
of the cell to the upper fide of the raifing
plate, the produdt will be the contents in
feet, which being divided by joo, or cut off
as before obferved, you will then have the
real
The Univerfal British Builder. 7 3
real number of fquares the houfe contains,
which is the rule of meafurement for all
timber-buildings, roofs, naked floors, &c.
EXAMPLE.
Suppofe a houfe 50 feet long, 25 feet high,
and 20 feet wide, how may fquares are con-
tained ?
Firft add 20, the width of one
end, to 50, the length ; that multi-
plied by 2, gives 140, the length;
which being multiplied by 25, the
height, the product is 3500 feet ; this
being cut off as before obferved, the
real contents are 35 fquares of fram-
ing. Note that to a houfe of thefe
dimenfions, in meafuring the car-
cafes of houfes no deductions are to
fbe made for windows, doors, &c.
the extra labour to fuch being more
than adequate to the value of the
openings. To
5 °
20
70
2
140
II
700
280
35 >°°
To meafure Roofing.
The principles of this fort of work meafu-r
red by the fquare, may be reduced to the fol-
lowing rule, whether true pitch, or the ends
gable or not, viz. Multiply the building's
length by the length of the rafter, and twice
that produCt will be the contents in feet ;
then cut off as before obferved, and the work
is done. See the operation ;
If
74 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
If the rafters be what is called true pitch*
viz. three-fourths of the width of
the building, then to the above 50
building of 20 feet wide the raf- 15
ters will be 15 feet, which being - — «
multiplied into 50, the length, the 250
product is 750 feet ; this again being 50
multiplied by 2, gives 1500 feet, the » — -
contents, which cut off as before, 750
and you will find 15 fquare in the 2
foof to the above dimensions.
15,00
To meafure a gable-end in carpenters work
is the fame as in brick-work, viz. multiply
the width by half the perpendicular, the pro-
dudt will be the fuperficial contents in feet.
Note, the fame rule will ferve for meafuring
the hip-ends of roofs, only making the length
of the rafter as the perpendicular.
Rafters, feet and eaves boards, are meafu-
red by the foot lineal ; gutters and bearersj)y
the fuperficial foot.
How to meafure naked Floors by the Square..
The length and breadth are to be taken
from the outfide of the plates : if none be
made ufe of, as in fome countries, they are
then to be omitted, and the joifts laid in the
naked wall ; in this cafe you muft allow 9
inches, or elfe meafure the full extent of the
joifts, and from thence compute the fquares
contained by the above examples; the fame
The Univerfal British Builder. 75
pf cieling-joifts, partitions, battering the
walls, &c. allowing the dedu&ions of doors,
windows, &c. if agreed upon, otherwife not.
How to meafure Centres .
Centres are meafured by the fquare ; the
dimenfions taken from the fweep of the arch,
and the length of the place.
Small centres to doors and apertures, &c.
are meafured by the foot fuperficial.
Carriages to flairs alfo are meafured by the
O ^ *
fuperficial foot ; the leading pieces or firings
by the foot folid ; trufiing of girdles by the
foot lineal ; door-cafes of timber by the cube
foot ; lintels, bond timber, difcharging-
pieces, &c. all by the cube foot ; weather
boarding by the fquare ; and trunks by the
foot. The feveral prices and real value are
mentioned in the practice of carpenters work.
To meafure Joiners Work.
The meafurement of Joiners work is at-
tended with more difficulty than all other
artificers work befides, merely owing to its
extention, or great variety of practice ; at
the fame time it is the lead underflood of any,
chiefly through a want of attention, or ju-
dicious enquiries into the length or confe-
quence of time which every piece of work
takes in the execution. Could this be once
afcertained, the whole might as eafily be re-
duced to a fyftem as any other work.
In
jo A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
In defining the real principles and proper-
ties of this branch of bufinels, I (hall be as
particular as the fubjed may require, both
with refpect to time and the mode of meafure-
ment, in order to render the defign as eafy
and ufeful as poflible, both to profeflhrs of
building, and others who may be defirous of
making themfelves fully acquainted with the
pra&ical requifites, as well as the manner of
meafuring an edifice.
The work done by joiners in a building
may be reckoned or fettled in the following
fhort terms, to be every thing that is worked
with a plane; therefore will need no farther
explanation than what may be affigned in the
different works as they occur. And firft, of
frontifpieces.
How to meafure Frontifpieces.
Frontifpieces are meafured and valued by
the fuperficial foot, every part of them being
meafured feparately, and all bearing a dif-
ferent price. But the beft way of giving the
learner an idea of this fort of workmanship
will be to fet down the different meafure-
ments by fuppofition, as before obferved of
brick-work.
Firft take the Of the Ground^and Jambs*
dimensions of the Ft. In.
grounds at twice, 7 o Lengthy
viz. firft to the By 1 4 Width £ tWice '
height of the
door
7 'be TJniverfal British Builder. 77
door for the two
jambs, and from
thence to the top
of the pediment,
which mull be
taken to the ex-
tent of the height
and width, mak-
ing no deduc-
tions for the fan-
light, nor what
is cut, off at the
top, to form the
pediment, on ac-
count of the
trouble and la-
bour that attend
them. Firft I
take the fuppofed
length and width
of one front, ftile,
or jamb, and fetit
down as obferved
next the ground,
above or under
the pediment ;
then I take the
columns, lhaft,
bafe, and cap. for
the length, and
the girt round
the column for
the width; the
Grounds from the top of
the door and the pedi-
ment.
Ft. In.
5 8 Width.
4 o Height.
Columns with bafe and cap.
7 3 Length'
i 9 Girt
twice.
Subplinth,
o Length 7 .
4 Breadth l tW,Ce '
Trunks or grounds for the
architrave, frieze, &c.
1 6 Length? .
r .- o (twice.
2 2 Girt 0
Architrave.
2 6 Length 7 .
6’ Breadths wlCe *
Level cornice to the top of
the facio.
o Length'
10
Girt
twice.
Scima Redta level that mi-
tres to the pediment.
1 3 Length
2*- Girt.
fub-
7$ A Key to Civil Architecture ; of,
iubplinth, length Length of Cornice on botll
and breadth ; the
trunks that hand
perpendicular a-
bove the {haft of
the column, for
the architrave,
frieze, and cor-
nice, to reft upon
the next archi-
trave. Level cor-
nice ; the fcima
redta, which mi-
tres totheraking-
mould of the pe-
fides of the pediment.
Ft. In.
9 Length,
2 Girt.
Mutules, or Blocks level,
6
Ditto raking.
5
Impoft
‘ound
lining
the Jamb-
■s.
o Length.
6 Girt.
diment; with the Jamb-linings, bead* and
length of the cor
nice on both fides
of the pediment ;
level blocks or
mutules, raking
ditto ; impoft ;
jamb - linings,
bead, and flufh ;
circular fopheat
ditto* and door-
cafe; all meafured
cubical. The ov~
lo double mea-
fure. For fan-
light, when mea-
fured by the foot,
take the width of
flufh.
o Lengtl
8 Breadth
ii
twice.
Circular fopheat, bead, and
liufh.
5 o Length ( Double
i 8 Breadthomeafure.
Door-cafe.
7 4 Length ?Scantling
4 o Width 5 4 by 3.
Ovlo round the circular
head.
5 o Lengthy Double
2^ Girt Smeafure.
the
The Univerfal British Builder, yg
the door and the
height of the
crown. Obferve
alfo in girting the
import, that you
take from the
grounds, and ex-
tend the line all
round the face of
the moulding,
and like wife the
fame with refpedt
to the ovlo.
Ft.
3
Fan-light.
In.
6 Width.
9 Height.
Door, bead, and flufh.
7 °
3 6
Cover boards and bearers.
6 o Length,
i 6 Breadth.
Though the above dimenfions are contin-*
gently fet down without propriety to their re-
fpedlive proportions, yet the manner will ferve
to inftrudt the learner the fame : after the
meafurements are thus taken, the mode of
fquaring them will become familiar ; the
different prices to all the dimenfions are c.on-
fidered in the practice of frontifpieces.
To meafure Floors.
Floors are meafured by the fquare; the di-
menfions of which are the full extent of th®
rooms both ways. Obferve in meafuring
floors, that you make no deduction for the
flab at the fire-place ; the reafon is, that the
putting round the border is always confidered
as equal to that part of the floor being laid
out. What part of the floors is laid into the
windows, clofets, &c, muft be added.
How
8 o A Key to Civil Architecture ; br t
How to meafure Dado.
Dado is meafured by the yard ; the dimers
fions of which are thus taken, viz. For the
breadth, take from the floor to the under-
lie of the capping ; the length is the round
of the room, allowing an inch more at every
angle; the length and breadth being multi-
plied together, give the contents in feet ; after
which divide the product by 9, and the quo-
tient will be the number of yards* Obferve
to dedudt chimnies and doors.
In meafuring dado for labour to tafk-
mafters, it is ufual to meafure from the floor
to the top of the capping, and only girt the
furbafe mouldings to the front of the dado.
This mode of meafurement was firfl invented
as an abridgement to the price of mouldings,
being matters that afford more profit to the
journeyman than any work in the bufinefs :
it is however a method that cannot be attefled,
notwithftanding cuftom hath now made^it
almofl: familiar to us. .
The reafon the dimenfions are thus taken
for the width of dado, is, that it is cuftomary
to confider the fkirting at the fame price; and
as the dado does or fhould go as low as the
top of the fkirting, there can be no error in
. fuch mode of meafurement. When dado and
fkirting are of different prices they muff. be
meafured feparate.
iiow
The Univerfal B ritish Guilder. 8i
How to meafure Mouldings .
Mouldings are all meafured lineally or
fuperficially by the foot : when the former,
you have nothing more to do than take the
length ; when the latter, you muft girt all
the face of the mouldings with a ftring for
the breadth, and the round of the room
for the length : afterwards dedudt doors and
chimnies.
Sur-bafe mouldings are always girt over the
face and round the capping ; the bafe mould-
ing is girted as much as feen, and half an
inch more allowed than is feen for the re-bate
which (lops the fkirting.
Architraves are taken with a ftring over the
top and down both jambs for the length, and
girted round the face and back to the wall for
the breadth.
Cornices are meafured by the foot fuperfi-
cial, and girt as much as is feen for their
breadth: the round of the room for the length;
and fo of all mouldings worked by hand. All
houfe plain mouldings are meafured by the
lineal foot.
Wainfcotting is meafured by the yard ; the
height of the room for the breadth, and the
girt or round of the room for the length.
Obferve in this to deduct doors and windows.
Torus fkirting is meafured by the fuper-*
ficial loot ; the breadth of which is got by a
ftring girting the moulding to the -floor ; the
round or extent of the place being taken for
G the
82 ^Key to Civil Architecture i or,
the length. Obferve, that this fort of fkirt-
ing to flairs is always allowed double mea-
fure ; the fame alfo of raking, dado mould-
ings, &c. if ramped, as the hand-rail of the
flairs.
5Tc> me af ure Doors .
Doors have different rules of meafurement ;
fome being taken by the foot, others by the
yard. All framed doors are meafured by the
foot; batten and ledged doors by the yard.
If they be what is called double doors, that is,
framed and moulded on both fides, they are
accounted as fingle meafure, and a price fli-
pulated accordingly. The dimenfions are the
neat height and width.
Doors that are only moulded on one fide,
are called meafure and half y batten and
ledged doors fingle meafure. All fquare
framed doors are fingle meafure.
How to meafure Columns .
Columns of the Ionick, Corinthian, or
Compofite orders are all taken feparately from
their bafes and caps ; firft, the fhaft, then the
bafe and the caps likewife, being all of dif~
ferent prices.
In taking Corinthian, Compofite, or Ionick
capitals, the method is to girt round the aba-
cus for the width, and the length of the capi-
tals from the neck for the height : fome take
only the girt round the abacus*, confidering
them
Fhe Univerfal British Builder. 83
them as fo many feet without any height $
others eftimate them per piece.
Alfo in meafuring fluted columns, I firft
take the fuperfices, and afterwards the la-
bour for the fluting, at per foot lineal.
Door-cafes and jamb-linings are meafured
and valued by the fuperficial foot. The
length of the two jambs and the width of the
opening is the length. For the width of the
lining girt down the rabbit for the breadth.
Angle meafure.
How to meafure Window- Shutters.
Window-diutters and back-linings are all
meafured by the foot ; the front Ihutters as
meafure and half. If they be framed only on
one fide, the back-flaps and back-linings are
to be deemed Angle meafure, whether framed,
Audi, or fquare.
Backs, elbows, and fopheats, are by the
foot Angle meafure.
Grounds to windows by the foot fuper-
ficial.
All other grounds in general by the foot
run.
T 1 meafure Safjes and Frames.
Sadies are meafured and eftimated by the
fuperficial foot ; the dimenfions thus taken,
viz. the two heights of fafhes are added for
the length; and the width of the frame for
the breadth. Sometimes the faflies and
frames are valued together ; when fo, the
G 2 exterior
84 A Key to Civil Architecture *, or,
exterior parts of the lath-frame are the'
bounds of dimeniions. Sometimes fafh-frames
are done per piece. All circular headed
fafhes are allowed only double meafure. In
fome counties they have a method of girting'
all the bars of fafhes both ways ; but this is
obfolete, and ought t-o be abolifhed every
where.
How to meafure Chimney-pieces.
Chimney-pieces of wood are meafured by
the foot fuperficial and lineal, according as
they be finifhed. Firft the grounds per foot
fuperficial. If the chimney-piece have no
ornaments about it, the architrave, friezes
and cornice may be taken as other mould-
ings, in the manner of the former obferva-
tions on frontifpieces. If thefe be terms at
the fides and ornaments, thefe mu ft be va-
lued feparately. So likewife of ornaments in
the frieze, flutings, frets, &c. in the cornices'
which are per foot run, and a price fet-ac-
cording to their value. Truffes and terms
are frequently done at per piece.
How to meafure Stairs .
Stairs are meafured and valued by the footr
the dimeniions taken by a line bended or girt-
ed down s the rifer and tread over the nofings,
from top to bottom for the length ; the
breadth is the width or length of the flep.
Common flairs are fometimes done at fo much
per flory.
Hand-
l&e Univerfat British Builder. 85
Hand-rails to flairs are fometimes meafured
by the foot fuperficial, fometimes by the foot
lineal. When the former, the rail is girted
round for the breadth and the ftreight part of
the rail for the length. With refpedt to
ramps, twifts, fcrolls, &c, they muft be
taken feparate, becaufe they are always double
meafure. The twifts and fcrolls three times;
the banifters and newels at per foot run, the
firings per foot fuperficial, girted as other
architraves ; brackets at per piece.
Sometimes hand-rails to flairs are valued
with the brackets, firings, and banifters, by
the fuperficial foot, and the dimenfions taken
in the following manner: For the breadth
take a firing, and girt from the top or mid-
dle of the rail down the banifters, and over
the firing for the width; the length of the
rail from top to bottom is the length. But
for the particulars of flairs in every refpedt,
muft turn to the pradtice of them.
The reader muft obferve, in taking the
different dimenfions, to be particularly care-
ful in his book, to keep every work feparate.
The beft method of meafuring joiners
work through a whole houfe, is to keep a
length or leaf for all forts of work of one price,
.and only make obfervations on the different
ftories.
9 2
Suppofe
86 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
Suppofe the following to be a fketch of
leaves.
Dado ground-floor.
Ft, In.
48 6 L. ) Eaft
2 5 B, ) parlour
36 4 L. > Weft
2 5 B,^ parlour
39 3 L -
2 5 B
• | Hall
5B.'S Stud y
Mouldings
Bafe and
48 6 L.’]
3 B.
to ditto,
impoft.
•0 s?
3 ?
“ s
rr
Sur-bafe.
48 6 L.
5 B. j
39 4 B. "
3 L-
Weft
parlour
39 4 L-
5 B. J
30 3 Bafe
3
3 a 3 Sur-bafe
5
36 7 Bafe "j
0 3 j
36 7 Sur-bafe
0 5 J
1*
Architiaves to ditto.
Architraves to Win-
dows,
18 o I
085
Windows.
[Sol. | ^
o 8i twlce ! §,
— — - y^
Ditto doors, | 2 .
‘7 3j tl
O
g f t wice j Ej
Window.
18
__V
Door/ Stud 7 -
■7
In the above manner it will be requifite to
place the dimenfions, fo as to avoid perplex-
ity, keeping other leaves for floors, window-
fhutters, &c. and every floor feparate $ by
which means you will avoid an infinite deal
of trouble when you come to fquare the di-
menfions.
How to meafure Plajlerers Work.
Plafterers work hath in the manner of its
meafurement (in fome particulars) as much
variety
The Vniverfd British Builder. 87
variety as joiners work, efpecially in orna-
mented cielings, which require great under-
standing, as well as extenfive pradice, to come
at a juft criterion for the different enrich-
ments, which are all taken and valued by the
foot lineal and fuperficial. 'Sometimes they
are done at a fixed price per cieling ; but a man
muft have great experience to guefs at a mat-
ter of fuch confequence by the bare infpedion
of a drawing ; although it is certain we can-
not do otherwife than guefs at the value of
fome particulars, fuch as figures, deities, tro-
phies, &c. which always vary with the fub-
jecd. However, the firft thing to be taken is
the plane of the cieling, which is by the
yard ; next the cornice, frieze, enrichments,
&c. which muft be girted as joiners work j
the round of the room being the length.
Having done this, proceed to take the or-
naments upon the cieling, in the following
■order ; firft, take all the mouldings lineally,
whether carved or plain. If any of the mould-
ings be caft, they muft be noticed : if any of
the mouldings are oval, circular, ,&c. they
are to be confidered as meafure and half.
Some take circular and oval mouldings Angle,
allowing a price accordingly. Then take all
the fweeps of foliage as fuperficial. In the
following manner take the length and width
of the fquare in which the ornaments are conr
tained, and, according to their value, ftipulate
the price, as you goon, to every fort of work.
To avoid perplexity, if there be any golicchi,
Jp 4 or
88 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or,
or frets above three inches wide, they muft
be taken fuperficially, otherwife lineally.
Ribbons over mouldings are run trophies,
and all large conjunctions, taken per foot
fuperficial : figures are ufually valued by the
piece ; all enriched friezes, feftoons, &c. by
the foot fuperficial ; if friezes be caft, they
are valued in the cornice ; belexion mould-
ings by the foot lineal ; large pannels of fluc-
.co by the foot ; all walls and plain cielings
by the yard ; all circular work is confidered
as meafure and half, or fingle, and a price ac-
cordingly : Ionicks, Corinthian, and Com-
pofite caps taken per foot fuperficial. Ob-
serve in meafuring walls to make deductions
for windows and chimnies.
*lo meafure Glafers Work .
Glafiers works are meafured by the foot ;
the dimenfions taken in feet, inches, and
parts of a foot : it is requifite therefore that
glafiers fhould underfland decimals ; though,
for my own part, I fhould propofe duodeci-
mals, being quite as correCt, and much more
familiar and concife to learners.
The two following examples will prove
what has been advanced on this particular *
the one by decimals, the other by duodeci-
mals : and although they both anfwer the in-
tent, I think to learners the duodecimals
ought to have the preference*
SuppofQ
*£he Univerfal British Builder. 8g
Suppofe a piece of glafs leaded were to be
3 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches :
By decimals. By duodecimals.
Ft. In.
Ft.
In.
3 > 5 °
3
6
1 , 50
1 6
17500
1
9 0
35 °
3
b
5,2500
5
3
By the former method (by decimals) it ap-
pears that the light of glafs is 5 feet and 25
parts, being equal to one-fourth of a fooc ;
and by duodecimals 5 feet 3 inches, which is
one quarter of a foot. The reader will ob-
ferve, that in meafuring fafh-windows there
is no occafion to take dimenhons of more than
one fquare ; that multiplied by the number
of fquares in a window, will give the con-
tents ; which once got, requires no more
than to add or multiply by the number of
windows in the ftory, or of one lize, and that
fufhciently refolves the queftion.
In fome counties the glafiers only meafure
the exterior part of the glafs for length and
breadth, allowing nothing for the thicknefs
of the bars : but this is an exorbitant way,
gnd ought to be eradicated.
How
9o A Key to Civil Architecture 3 cr s
Hove to meafure Painters Work,
Painters work is meafured by the fame
rules as joiners, with this difference only,
that they door (Should meafure all edges where
the bruth goes. But furveyors are not always
fo particular, and frequently allow no more
meafure to painters than joiners, except in
cafe of doors, window-fhutters, &c. which
with painters are always double meafure, the
fame as any thing elfe is painted on both
fides: all wainfeot, dado, moulding, doors,
fhutters, jamb-linings, architraves, &c. are
meafured by the yard ; cornices of all forts,
and fingle fldrting by the foot fun ; frontif-
pieces, &c. by the foot ; falhes, lafh-frames,
cafements, window-lights, &c. are done per
piece.
How to meafure Mafons Work .
Mafons work is all meafured by the foot,
though with the difference of cubical, fuper-
ficial, and lineal. Firft, with refpedl to the
cubical method, which is u&d for all blocks
of done, marble, &c. and which is in the
manner of work always confidered as fuch,
when the thicknefs of the (tones exceeds 2
inches ; all under this ftandard are meafured
as fuperficial. When (tones exceed the folid
standard of 2 inches, they are firft meafured
folid, and afterwards fuperficially, for the
workmanship. Alio columns, pilafters, cor-
nices, facios, ruftics, &c. The fuperficial
4 meafure
\ The Univerfal British Builder. 91
meafure takes in all the pavings, floors,
hearths, flabs, mantles, jambs, covings, &c.
and the general dimenfions of all labour ; the
run or lineal foot is ufed for all fmall abftradt-
ed mouldings, fome carvings, frets, orna-
ments, &c. It is to be obferved, that mafons
girt all their mouldings as joiners do, and take
their dimenfions in feet, inches, and parts.
The greateil difficulty in meafuring mafons
work is in chimney-pieces, on account of the
various modes and prices, and the number of
the different dimenfions. But fee the follow^
ing example :
The way to meafure mafons work for la-
bour is to meafure what appears out of the
wall, and (by many) the under bed of every
courfe. The fame likewife of all keys and
bonds through the wall, as well as of chim-
ney-pieces.
Firft, take the dimenfions of the flab ; then
the mantle, or head-ftone, being both of one
length ; add the two widths together, allow-
ing an inch for the under-edge of the mantle
more to the breadth. Secondly, take the
length of the jambs, allowing an inch more
to the length than is feen, for what goes be-
hind the flab. If there be nofings and flips
to the jambs, take the length as obferved,
and girt all that is feen for the width : next
take the fire-ftone hearths, covings, &c. and
meafure all that appears in fight. If the frieze,
cornice, and ovlo be marble, they muft be
girted as the joiners do their work : the fame
9 2 ^ Key ^ Civil Architecture or ,
of ornaments, frets, terms, flutings, &c. and
all valued accordingly.
r* mcafure Carvers Work .
Carvers work is all meafured by the foot
fuperficial and ILneal : by the former all ca-
pitals to columns, large ornaments, feftoons,
foliage, flutings, frets, &c. the latter is ufed
for all fmall mouldings, ribbons, hufks, &c.
and the dimenflons taken in the fame manner
as obferved in plafler cielings.
TCo meafure Slaters Work .
Slaters meafure their work by the fquare,
the fame as tiling, both with refpeCt to hips,
vallies, double eaves, courfes, &c. This ar-
ticle therefore needs no farther comment than
what has been already advanced.
*
Having finifhed the diflertations and (trie-
tures on mechanick powers, with the prin-
ciples and properties of building in general,
the five orders of architecture, art of meafur-
ing the different artificers works, &c. I lhall
now proceed, and relate what is neceffary to
be obferved in the practice of different works
as they occur in time and place. But before
I begin, it will be proper to fettle a criterion
touching the univerfality both of the prices
and eftimations of the feveral works in a
building, as well in the very remote parts of
the kingdom, as thofe more contiguous to the
capital.
The Univerfal British Builder. 93
capital, which I adjuft by one general ftand-
ard.
Though the manner of fixing and ftating a
matter of fuch confequence, and feemingly
fo full of exceptions, may appear an impofii-
bility to fome who have not enquired ratio-
nally into its principles ; yet I hope to evince
to every workman of experience, that one
fchedule of prices with refpeCt to labour will
ferve, or at leaft ought to ferve for every city
and principal town in the kingdom. Vari-
ous objections, I own, may be alledged againft
this univerfal fyflem, but not one fufricient to
overturn it.
LECTURE XV.
A new Plan for fettling the Prices of Work
done in a Building , all upon one Footing ,
both in London and every capital Town in
the Kingdom .
W HOEVER my reader is, whether
architect, furveyor, matter, or com-
mon journeyman, though he may fmile at an
attempt fo extravagant, I humbly beg for a
moment a fufpenfion of his ridicule, till he
maturely weigh this matters after which, I
am fully perfuaded, he will find fewer objec-
tions to its feafibility than he at firfi: imagined.
If I confider the matter right, this great point
has but two queries to be determined, which
once anfwered will totally deftroy every ob-
jection. The firfi; is, whether a mafter in the
country
94 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
country (if his work be executed as well)
fhould have a lefs price than is paid for the
fame work when done by a London mafter in
town ? The fecond is, whether a journey-
man in the fame cafe fhould receive the fame
wages of a country mafter as are paid to jour-
neymen in town ? To the former of thefe
queftions I anfwer, yes ; to the latter, no ;
and will endeavour to prove it. But before
I give my own decifion, I beg to introduce
the opinion of a perfon of fome abilities in
one of the capital profeffions in building, re-
lative to this univerfal fcheme. “ My friend,"
fays he, “ this plan of allowing as great
prices to country mafters as thofe in London
will never anfwer, becaufe they are not liable
to half the expences, nor does their work coft
them half the fum in point of labour, on ac-
count of the fcanty wages which are given in
the country, all over the kingdom ; they fhould
therefore have a price ftipulated by a country
furveyor, according to what the work may
deferve.” Something of this kind I know
runs in the notions of mod people who think
upon it.
That mafters in the country are not liable
to luch great expences as mafters in town, I
very readily grant, both with refpedt to yards,
houfe-rent, and ftowage for their different
materials ; nor has a country mafter in gene-
ral half the bufinefs of a London one and
what is ftill more to his difadvantage, he is
not required to finifli his work with half the
expedition#
*fhe Univerfal British Builder. 9.^
expedition. It is therefore upon this topiek
we {hould bend our thoughts : If a maker in*
London can employ the year round 15 or 20
men, which may be called the medium*
(being as many above as under this number)
and a maker in the country employ but 7 or
§, and both have their work at one price, we
fhall then find that the London maker will
have it in his power to live confiderably bet-
ter, notwithkanding the difference of ex-
pences, as well as the advantage of wages,
which fome think to be very great.
Every man of bufinefs, whether in town
or country, kiould be fupported by his bufi-
nefs, and reap fuch an allowance or emolu-
ment from his profefiion as may enable him
to guard againk the contingencies of a family,
and in fome fort equal his indukry. If it were
poflible for a country maker to have as many
jobbs as the makers in London ufually have,
and all required to be forwarded with the
fame expedition, their prices ought to be con-
fiderably lower but as that is a circumkance
which never can happen, the reafons are ob-
vious, that in this firk refpeit no difference
can be made without a vifible injury, as will
palpably appear upon enquiring into the dif-
ference of wages.
Secondly, that men in the country kiould
not have the fame wages as journeymen in
town, is evident from their want of experi-
ence both in the methods and nature of work.
The reader, I hope, does not fuppofe that I
would
9 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
would propofe country wages to a man of the
firft merit in his profeffion. A man thus
qualified, who hath had feven or eight years
pradice in London among the moft capital of
his branch, and has not imbibed any but ju-
dicious methods of working, and been in the
full practice of fuch for fome time, will be
worth as much wages to a country mafler as
a town one, and in reality more $ Specially
if he be empowered to forward his mailer's
bufinefs by his own advantageous methods.
Though there are many good workmen in
the country who have never feen London , yet
thofe compared to men of the above experi-
ence, will in every point of pradice be more
deficient in the courle of a week’s work than
the difference of wages, fuppofing the one to
have four lhillings or five fhillings per week
more than the other. — I fpeak not this from
{peculation, but undeniable fads ; having
myfelf been and examined into the nature
of pradice in almofl every town in the king-
dom, where l have ever found, that if the
mailers were allowed the fame prices with
mailers in London , notwithstanding the dif-
ference of men's wages, when oppofed to the
fame number of men, a London mafler would
have had the above advantage in point of pro-
fit; favingonly this provifo, that the men from
London mail: be good, and fuch as have had
the foregoing advantages. It is true, that
there are hundreds of men in London fo bad,
that one would think it almofl impoffible to
fellow
*The XJniverfal British Builder. 97
fellow them, or even fuppofe that they could
have ferved a proper time to any bufmefs ;
and how to account for this otherwife than
from a want of attention to their real intereft,
or proper good, would almoft puzzle the
greateft philofopher. For it is certain, that
all trades and employs are fo familiarized, and
have at their heads fuch noble inttruCtors,
that with clofe application even the weakeft
capacity may be pofleffed of fuch points in
practice as will enable him to deferve the
common wages. Thofe that arrive at a
greater pitch of merit flhould be rewarded ac-
cording to their induftry.
There is one thing which ought to be men-
tioned to country journeymen, that is, the
little refpeCt they pay to comparifons and ar-
guments touching men of London experience;
for, fay they, we have worked with men from
London at fuch and fuch gentlemen’s houfes,
but could not find any material difference be-
tween them and us who had never been there.
This I believe to be often the cafe, and re-
flects great weaknefs on the London matters,
for fending to any country jobb, men who
were not really proficients in their branch ;
for when matters want a number of men to
go into the country, they feldom enquire far-
ther into their characters than in regard to
their {lability. And if carpenters have got a
cheft of tools, away they are fent to finitti
fomething in a peculiar manner to what could
in any wife be done by country-men, when
H perhaps
9 8 A Key to Civil Architecture', or T
perhaps fome of thefe very men had not been?
fix months in town.
It ought to be a fixed rule in matters never
to employ a man for a country jobb who had
not approved himfelf an excellent workman y
and moreover, he fhould be of fome remote
county or fhire to that the work is done in,
to fubvert the proverb of a prophet in his own
country having no honour. I hope from thefe
hints, that no reafonable man will ftart an ar-
gument againft the queftions above ttated,
but freely allow a right for country matters to
have the fame prices as matters in town. I
do not mean fuch as are exadted by fome
matters, but fuch as may be confidered as juft
ones.
I believe, upon a thorough review of the
wages both in town and country, we {hall
not (upon the whole) find much difference.
In certain refpedts the country matters
have the advantage, efpecially in fome parts
of carpenters work, fuch as roofing, flairs,
fatties, floors, but in many other branches of
building, they get ccnfiderably lefs by,
through a want of experience in the journey-
men (notwithttanding their low wages) than
the matters do in London ; not but there is
room enough in both places for the journey-
men’s wages to be raifed ; and if this fcheme
be not (liortly put in execution, I am per-
fuaded the confequences will be very alarm-
ing to all matters in the building branch.
It
5 the Univerfal British Builder. 99
It was .a piece of the weakeft policy in the
matter carpenters the laft time the journey-
men ftruck for an advancement in wages,
which was about ten years ago, that they did
not comply with their eafy demands ; they
would not then have had occafion to fear the
prefent mode of architedts engroffing the
whole bufinefs into their own hands, which
feems to be the general plan, if lome ftep be
not immediately taken to prevent it ; and none
feems fo promifing as to advance the journey-
men’s wages. The capital architedts and fur-
veyors who have adopted the plan of finding
all materials, and of allowing only even prin-
cipal matters a fort of prices like tafk-mafters
for executing the work, do this through a
knowledge of the exorbitant advantages which
arife from work at the original cuftomary
prices ; and as this method is put in pradtice
by the firft men in the kingdom, the inferior
furveyors, in order to be in the failiion, will
foon follow their example ; not that I mean
to infer, that cuttomary prices are exorbitant.
If journeymen’s wages were fettled in pro-
portion, the prefent luxury of the times
would not admit of abatements in any pro-
feflion. The reader will obferve, that fince
the prices were fettled for all works in the
building branch, (though they every year vary
in fome particulars) every bufinefs is improved
in point of pradtice above one third ; nay, in
feveral points and parts, the work is done for
one half the expence to matters which it coft
H 2 therm
loo A Key to Civil Architecture * 7 or 0
them twenty years ago, and all through the
affiduity and ftady of the journeymen, though
the mailers will not give them any more
wages ; which fets them upon an exait par
with the furveyors in point of difpofition ;
each driving to engrofs the whole. The lat-
ter not being content with the great allow-
ance of five per cent, for the works they fur-
vey, but wanting to double it by the advan-
tage of finding materials y and as they have it
in their power to colour their proceedings to the
gentlemen with a view of parfimony, there is
no doubt of their carrying their point in every
refpedl ; this will only be paying the mailers
in their own coin, for their avaricious difpo-
fitions, in condemning to a life of flavery and
indigence men of abilities, from whom they
derive their chief fupport. For, confidering
the prefent exorbitant price of provifions, and
every other incident to life,, no man who has
a family to maintain can by fixteen {hillings a
week more than exilt $, nor a fingle man ever
get a coat to his back, unlefs (if I may be
allowed the phrafe) he fpares it out of his
belly : therefore what better thamfiavery can
we call it ? and yet at the fame time the
mailers enjoy a profit (which refults chiefly
from thefe mens labour) equal to the fortunes
of fome of our nobility. Though this may
feem llrange to fome, I have had undeniable
fails of many mailers in the building branches,
whole bufinefs is worth 2000/. per annum 7 at
this time. I appeal therefore to every feeling
heart*
The Untverfal British Builder, ior
heart, whether this be not a matter of great
•confideration, and in no refpecd beneath the
attention of legiflature.
If it were not that I might be thought too
particular, I would date the cafe of a carpen-
ter, and leave the world to judge of the fe-
verity of his fituation; and how unthinking
a father mud be, who propofes any emolu-
ment to a fon who is apprenticed to this in-
genious, and well deferving the name of li-
beral art, if he has not almod as much to put
him in pofieflion of, as will be a fupport to
him without bufinefs.
Every man, in the country in particular,
from whence mod of the journeymen in town
generally have their origin, in the railing of
a family fuits his childrens occupations ac-
cording to their drength or genius ; though,
at the fame time, he with favourable incite-
ments makes his will a fort of choice of their
own. The boy that feems athletic and fen-
fible, or quick at learning fchool-exercifes,
he propofes for a carpenter, and fays, if he
turns out well, that there is no doubt but he
will make his fortune. — Yes, adds the fond
father, I make not the lead doubt but he will
have as much bufinefs as Mr. Whole-deal,
our neighbour, and cut as great a figure in
the world. All this he fettles without alr
lowing for the lad cafualty ; and no confi-
deration of the improbability of his getting
to be a mader at all, without great intered
gnd large connections, provided only he gets
H 3 tQ
1 02 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or,
to be what is ufually called a good hand in his
bufinefs.
Well : — We will fay the lad is bound ap-
prentice, for which his father gives 20/. finds
him in his clothes,' and perhaps wafhing ;
and fome fathers are alfo obliged to find their
fons tools during their fervitude. But this we
will omit ; and take the expence of his ap-
prenticethip, clothes, fpending-money, and
the 20/. he gives to be infirudted in his bull-
nefs, to amount to near 100/. — and when he
is out of his time, through the little pradtice
allotted to apprentices, and the many requi-
htes to be attained before he can have any
idea of this extenfive branch (fave only a little
ufe of his tools,) he is almoft as much to
feek as when he firfl went apprentice ; except
with this difference, that he has learnt as
much as gives him reafon to know that he
muft learn ten times more before he is fit to
be a mafter. Thus he commences journey-
man, with a view of getting his bufinefs, and
works for a year or two in the country ; ftill
be finds himfelf far fhort of what he wants,
and nothing now will lerve but coming to
London ; for there, fays he, I fhall have prac-
tice enough, and fee through the whole of my
bufinefs three or four times a year. When
he gets to London , the great objedt is a cheft
of tools, which he either muft be poffefled of,
or he cannot be forwarded in the lealt in his
bufinefs, — If his father be in circumftances,
application is made, and ten guineas are re-
mitted
The Univerfal British Builder. 103
mitted to procure him the neceflary imple-
ments ; having got thefe, he naturally goes
to a good fhop, there by degrees he creeps
on for perhaps two years before a good jobb
is put into his hand ; if he be affiduous, and
turns it quick out of hand, he is kept at that
fort of work as long as he flays there : he
then naturally removes to another place, and
fees different methods ; but not having capa-
bility, or pra&ice to judge for himfelf, is led
by the dictates of every foreman, till by clofe
application to his room, learning to draw all
the time, and with a continuance of ieven
years in London , lie is enabled to fay, that he
is a good journeyman, and can execute well
any defign or drawing given.
By the time this is done, nine years are
elapfed after his apprenticelhip. Perhaps his
father may be dead ; the fituation he propofed
for him, occupied by another ; the connec-
tions and families whofe intereft he depended
on, fcattered, and no likelihood of doing any
good in the country ; the filial tendernefs too
of his parents, by long abfence, is probably
abated; and as there is no chance of his
being a mafter there, his friends advife him
to do fomething in London . But fuppofing
this not to be the cafe, and that there be a
chance of his being a mafter in the country,
when he is qualified, as every man will (if
there is a poilibility) naturally tend towards
home, where his friends or intereft lie, efpe-
cially if he lives to a thinking age : the gay
H luxuries
104 ^#Key to Civil Architecture; or ,
luxuries of the town may indeed for a time
attradt, and lull a man into a dream of infen-
iibility ; but once awaked from this, his
thoughts immediately turn upon his happi-
nefs, which can in no wife be eftablifhed but
where his intereft lies. — Suppofing the above,
therefore, not to be the cafe, yet all this time,
if he has the opportunity before obferved, he
is not in the lealt qualified for the undertak-
ing. “ Why not ?” fays the father; “ if he
can do any thing well, he is certainly fit for
a matter.” To this I anfwer. No. For as
to the principal requifites of a matter, he is
ttill quite at a lofs for them ; fuch as efti mat-
ing the confequence of building in general,
knowing the value of the different artificers
works, their modes of meafurement, and the
eftablifhed maxims of practice in all the
branches; without which he will ever be at
a lofs : — and how to come at thefe is almoft:
as difficult as tfie pradtical part of his bufinefs.
— There is no way to make himfelf matter
of them, but at a great expence ; or unlefs
he be qualified to commence clerk to fome
great ihop, where he may have the advantage
of over-hawling his matter’s books and con-
nedtions. By fuch an opportunity purfued
with diligence, and by comparing the remarks
within his own experience, he may in time
fbh out fufticient knowledge to enable him to
pradtife as matter, if he have wherewithal to
putti himfelf forward. But then there is the
hazard again of procuring bufinefs, and other
incidents
ffhe Univerfal British Builder. 105
incidents in life, before a man can be affured
<of getting a proper provifion for a family.
Thus juft at the time when other profef-
fions, which have opportunities and circum-
fiances in life, are thinking of retiring, a car-
penter and joiner has learnt only juft enough
to fet up matter; and all this time the perfon
mentioned mull be cut out for bufinefs, void
of every principle of extravagance, or he could
not arrive to it in any time during the courfe
of his life, but be confined to a ftate of fervi-
tude and hard labour as long as he lives ; which
is the unhappy cafe of hundreds at this time
in London . Numbers, to my knowledge,
who have moft of the capabilities mentioned,
and have undergone the fame regimen to at-
tain them, are now working for the poor pit-
tance of feventeen or eighteen (hillings per
week ; and becaufe they miftook their path,
and entered into a flattering ftate of happinefs
by marriage, before they were well apprized
of the fatal confequences, are now configned
to all the horrors of poverty and defpair,
never to be relieved till death.
Any reafonable man, who will properly con-
sider the above-mentioned cafe, will rather
approve than condemn my undertaking, for
endeavouring to give every journeyman a
knowledge of the principles and advantages of
his bufinefs. None but the mafters can dif-
like it; and only thole of them who are not
content with a tradefman’s profit. But let
yvho will difapprove of the plan, I am con-
106 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
fcious of the rectitude of my intention, and
have long confidered it as an indifpenfable duty
to do thus much for the univerfal benefit of
mankind.
LECTURE XVI.
OF THE PRACTICE OF BRICK- WORK#
T N L B utility and common practice of
building all our edifices of brick, both
in London and the country, arifes from mo-
tives too obvious to need explanation ; it
being generally allowed that brick is much the
cheapeft, as well as the mod: eligible fub-
flance that can be invented for the purpofe,
both in point of beauty and duration, and in-
ferior to nothing but wrought-ftone.
The great principle in the practice of brick-
work lies in the proclivity, or certain motion
of abfolute gravity, caufed by a quantity
or multiplicity of fubftance being added or
fixed in refiftible matter ; therefore naturally
tends downwards, according to the weight
and power imprefled. From which obferva-
tions, the requifite inferences may be drawn,
and fuch remarks made, as may enable the
journeyman to eredt his works with fuch ac-
curacy that no bad confequences can attend
them, and, moreover, fo as to avoid unnatu-
ral fettlements.
And firft, it may not be amifs to confider
the motive of the above-mentioned proclivity;
which is chiefly caufed through the yielding
mixture
*fhe Univerfal British Builder. 107
mixture of the matter of which mortar is
compofed, and cannot well be reduced to any
fyftem of certainty ; becaufe the abfolute
weight of a brick, or any other fubftance laid
in mortar, will naturally decline according to
the fubftance or quality of it ; wherefore par-
ticular care fhould be taken, that it be of a
regular quality all the way through the build-
ing ; and likewife that the fame force be ufed
to one brick as another ; I mean the ftroke of
the trowel 3 a thing, or point in pradice, of
much more confequence than is ufually
thought : for if a brick be aded upon by a
blow, fuch blow will be a greater preflure
upon it than the abfolute weight of twenty
bricks ; and before thefe can be properly laid,
in form and arrangement, with the advantage
of the weather in a favourable feafon, they
may be fo dried or confolidated that no fet-
tlement can enfue from other defeds than
that of an over-fight in the foundation, which
muft be adhered to, and prevented by the
methods laid down for foundations, in my
Ledure of ftrength. The many bad effeds
which arife from mortar not being of a pro-
per quality, fhould make mafters very cautious
in the preparation of it, as well as the certain
quantity of materials of which it is compofed,
that the whole ftrudure may be of one fub-
ftance.
There is one thing which often caufes a
bulging in large flank-walls, efpecially when
they are not properly fet off on both fides 3
that
lo8 A Key to Civil ArchiuBurc ; or,
that is, the irregular method of laying bricks
too high on the front edge ; this, and build-
ing the walls too high on one fide, without
continuing the other, often caufe the above
defeats. But of the two evils this is the leaf!: ;
and bricks, if any thing, lhould incline rather
to the middle of tht wall, that one half of
the wall may be a fhore to the other. But
this method again, when tGO much followed,
will be more hurtful than beneficial ; be-
caufe the full width of the wall doth not take
its abfolute weight, but entirely removes the
fpecific gravity from its firft line of direction,
which in all walls fhould be perpendicular and
united ; whereas if the above method be
ftretched to excefs, and the walls have a fuper-
incumbent weight to bear adequate to their
full ftrength, a disjunctive digrefiion is made
from the right line of direction ; the con-
junctive ftrength becomes divided ; and in-
stead of a whole or united fupport from the
w all, its ftrength is feparated in the middle^
and takes two lateral bearings of gravity;
each fufficient for the purpofe; therefore,
like a man over-loaded either upon his head
or (boulders, it naturally bends and ftoops to
the force impreffed : in which mutable ftate
the above grievances ufually happen.
Another great defeCt we frequently fee in
the fronts of houfes is in fome of the prin-
cipal ornaments of brick-work, fuch as
arches over windows, &c. and which is too
often caufed by a want of experience in the
rubbing
7 ’he Untverfal British Builder, log
rubbing of them ; this is the mod difficult
part of the branch* and ought to be very
well confidered.
The faults I mean, are the bulging or convex
fituation we often fee arches in, after the houfes
are finiflied, and fometimes loofe in the key
or centre bond. The firft of thefe defects,
which appears to be caufed by too much
weight, is in reality no more than a fault in
the practice of rubbing the bricks too much
off on the infides : for it fhould be a (landing
maxim (if you expeft them to appear ftraight
under their proper weight) to make them the
exadl gauge on the in fide, fo that they bear
upon the front edges : by which means their
geometrical bearings will be united, and all
tend to one centre of gravity.
The latter obfervation, of camber arches
not being fkewed enough, is an egregious
fault ; becaufe it takes greatly from the beauty
of the arch, as well as its fignihcancy. The
proper method of fkewing all camber arches
fhould he one third of their height. For in-
ftance : If an arch be 9 inches high, it fhould
fkew three inches; one of twelve inches, 4;
one of 15 ditto, 5 ; and fo of all the num-
bers between thofe, Obferve, in dividing
the arch, that the quantity confifts of an odd
number : by fo doing, you will have proper
bond; and the key-bond in the middle of the
arches: in which flate it mud always be,
both for ftrength and beauty. Likewife ob-
ferve, that arches are all drawn from one ,
centre ^
no A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr>
centre ; the real point of camber arches iS
got from the above proportion. Firft, divide
the height of the arch into three parts ; one
of which is the dimenfions for the fkewing ;
a line drawn from that through the point at
the bottom to the perpendicular of the mid-
dle of the arch, gives the centre, to which
all the reft muft be drawn.
There are many other difficult jobbs in
brickwork : fuch as groins, niches, circular
arches upon circular plans, &c. all which
I fhall mention in their time and place.
And, firjl , of Brick-groins .
A groin is the interfering or meeting of
two circles, &c. upon their diagonal eleva-
tions drawn on the different fides of a fquare,
or any other figure, and whole principle of
ftrength lies in the united force of elevation ;
divided by geometrical proportions to one
certain gravity ; which is the centre to which
all the bearings tend.
The difficulty that attends the execution
of a brick-groin, lies in the peculiar mode of
appropriating proper bond at the interfering
of the two circles as they gradually rife to
the crown, to an exar point ; in the meet-
ing or interfering of thofe angles will be
formed a kind cf rib in the inlide, which
fhould be particularly ftraight and perpendi-
cular to a diagonal line drawn upon the plan.
There is no definition of a thing of this
fort, either by lines or defcription, equal to
what
< The Universal British Builder, i 1 1
what will occur to the learner in the pra&ice
of them. After tfye centres are fet, let the
bricklayer apply two or three bricks to an
angle ; by thefe means he will effectually fee
how to cut them as well as the requifites of
bond.
There is nothing fo certain as practice for
the folving any difficulty ; it is by this axiom
that every proof is founded, and without it
the molt flagrant idea of lines, and theoreti-
cal fpeculation, will in many cafes be defec-
tive ; becaufe a falfe notion, or a wrong con-
ception, may lead the wifeft man into an
error.
It is upon this principle of practice I pro-
pofe to bring my analyfls to the underltand-
ing of the molt illiterate ; by eradicating all
fuperfluous lines fet down by archite&s*. and
only pointing out fuch rules of reafon and
practice as may fuit the weakeft to proceed
by. Though I mult own that lines are the
bales of all mechanick powers, arts, and
practices ; yet there are hundreds of ufeful
members of the community who never have
it in their power to acquire the properties of
one ; however with practical i nit ructions
they may make ufeful journeymen, and be
taught to do any thing tolerably : but thefe
inftructions mull be given them in a manner
fuited to their capacities and (as I before ob-
ferved) by practical rules.
To pretend to ffiow numbers of brick-
layers lines for doing their work, you may as
well
3 12 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
well (hew them Arabic : the fame may be
faid of hundreds of carpenters, &c. If it
were poffible for journeymen to underhand
beyond what I have mentioned, we might
long have bid adieu to all commentators $
feeing Palladio has left us rules fufilcient for
men to work by. But thefe would not ah-
fwer the purpofe of the ignorant ; nor has
any author yet, either ancient or modern,
been clear enough for a common journeyman
to underhand them ; there being always fome
points, which are the requifites that lead
directly to the matter omitted ; and which
but few, that have an inferior genius to the
author himfelf, can find out ; yet are they
fimple enough in the main ; but for want of
being particularly noticed, have hitherto ef-
capea thoufands. To fet all thefe matters
in a proper degree of light, is the purport of
the following defign ; and I fincerely wifh it
may have as good an effect as it is univer-
fally intended.
But to return to the groins. The work-
man mufc obferve, that the manner of turn-
ing groins with refpedt to the fides, is the
fame as in other arches and centres, except
in the angles, which muft be traced for
their properties, as I have obferved by apply-
ing the bricks; and if the arch is to be rub-
bed and gauged, you muft divide each arch
into an exad: number of parts, and extend
the lines till they meet in the groin : by thefe
means you will eafily find the curve for the
4 angle.
T/je XJmverfai British Builder. 113
angle, from which you muft make your tem-
plets : obferve, in fixing the centres, that
the carpenters raife them fomewhat higher at
the crown, to allow for fettling, which fre-
quently happens ; fometimes by the preffure
upon the butments, at others from the length
of the crown.
Obferve allb in building of vaults, that the
piers or abutments be of fufficient firength 5
all abutments to vaults, whether groined, or
only arched, ihould be one fixthof the width
of the fpan ; and if there be any great weight
to be luftained, bridgings of timber fhould
alfo be framed to difcharge the weight from
the crown of the arch : after a vault or groin
is finiihed, it is highly necefiary to pour on
a mixture of terrace, or lime and water, on
the crown ; and to give it fome little time
to dry, before you ftrike the centres, in or^
der to cement the whole together.
Rough groins have no more value put
upon them than common vaults, which are
included at per rod with common brick-
work, except the angles of groins, which are
meafured after the run lineal, and fometimes
allowed for by furveyors at is. per foot ;
many maAers even charge is. 2d. But as
the fluff is reckoned and valued in the com-
mon meafurement, and a man will cut and
turn 10 feet run in a day, 8d. per foot fhould
be the Aipuluted price for rough groins:
which will p< y for the wafte of fluff, and
allow a fufficitnt profit to a mafter*
I Groined
1 14 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
■ Groined vaults rubbed and gauged are
worth is. per foot fuperficial, and the run
of angles 2S. 6d.
Of a Niche in Brick-work,
A niche is the inner or concave quarter of
a globe, and ufually made in walls on the
exterior parts of a building, to place figures
or ftatues in. The practice of this in brick-
work is the moft difficult part of the pro-
feffion, on account of the very thin fize the
bricks are obliged to be reduced to down at
the inner circle, as they cannot extend be-
yond the thicknefs of one brick at the crown
or top 5 it being the ufual, as well as much
the neateft method, to make all the courfes
Handing.
The moft familiar way to reduce this point
to practice, is to df£w the front, back, &c.
and make a templet of pafteboard, after you
have divided the arch for the number of
bricks. The reader is to obferve, that one
templet for the Handing courfes will anfwer
for the front, and one for the fide of the
brick ; and at the top of the ftraight part,
from whence the niche takes its fpring, you
muft remember to make a circle of the
diameter of 8 or 9 inches, and cutting this
out of pafteboard alfo, divide it into the
fame number of parts as the outward circle;
from which you will get the width of your
front- templet at the bottom. The reafon of
this inner circle is -to cut off the thin conjunc-
The XJniverfal British Builder. it$
tion of points which muft all nnifh in the
centre* and which in bricks could never be
worked to that nicety; it being impoffible to
cut bricks with any accuracy nearer than half
an inch thick : the bricks muft be lying with-
in the inner circle. It will be neceflary to
have one templet made convex, to try the
faces of bricks to, as well as the fetting of
them when they are gauged.
The ftone you rub the faces of the bricks
upon, muft be cut at one end in the exadt
form of , the niche, or it will be impoffible to
face them proper. The bevel of the flat fides
of the bricks is got by dividing the back into
the number of parts with the front, and all
ftruck to the centre ; from the circle of the
front of one brick fet your bevel, which will
anfwer for the fides of the whole. Obferve*
that the bricks hold tlfeir full gauge at the
back, or when you come to fet them you will
have much trouble.
Jobbs of this kind are very rare, and when
they happen, fhould bear a price equal to
their value, which ought not to be lefs than
is. per foot, and allowed double meafure.
A Circular Arch upon a Circular Plan.
There is not that difficulty in an arch of
this conftrudtion in brick work, which is
ufually thought of ; the principal thing to be
conftdered, is the fcheme for ftriking the
front of the bricks, which when once pro-
I a perly
1 1 6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
perly underftood, will render the practice ex-
ceedingly familiar.
There is another confideration alfo to be
obferved, which is the foffit of the bricks to
thefe arches, and which mud bear the exadt
gauge behind as before, in order to fecure the
ltrength and key, that the arch may have no
inclination to a centre other-wife than what
tends to its gravity. The bed pradtical me-
thod I can give, is, after you have divided
the arch, and fettled your bond in front, to
make two moulds to the fweep of the wall,
then fix two uprights of wood a little above
the top of the arch ; one at the top, and the
other to be moved down to the top of the
courfes as they gradually rife : after which
with a rod, with a prick in the end, clapped
clofe tc'thofe two ribs, ftrike the top-fides of
every brick ; the under-fide may be marked
by the preceding brick; and in this manner
proceed all the way, till you get to the top,
which will give the exadt curve required to
the wall and perpendicular to the ground
plan.
A cimma elliptical arch, upon the above
plan, may be executed in the fame manner
refpedting the front, and foffit likewife.
Arches which fplay in the jambs, and rife
both to one height, mult be reduced to prac-
tice in the following manner : Fir ft, divide
the arches on each fide into an exadt number
of bricks ; and having drawn the width of the
wall and laid down the arches on both fides,
let
The Univerfal British Builder. 117
let fall perpendiculars from the different ends
of the bricks on both fides, and draw paral-
lel lines into each by the fplay of the wall,
which will give the exadt fize of the bricks
in the foffit, and likewife the fplay of the
face of the bricks on both fides.
Of the Quantity of Materials to a Rod of
Brick-work .
The requifite quantity of materials to a
rod of brick-work, which is the ftandard for
valuing, as 'Well as taking dimenfions; the
mailer’s prices, and thofe ffipulated by fur-
veyors, come next within our notice, as well
as the juft calculation for London , and every
capital town in the kingdom, diverted of all
the errors of furveyors, and extravagant exac-
tions of fome mailers.
And firft, it will not be amifs to mention,
that a rod is a meafure of 164- feet, which
multiplied into itfelf contains 272 feet and
one quarter to one brick and a half thick,
which is the ftandard by which the price
is fixed : let the wall conlift of what num-
ber of bricks foever in thicknefs, they are
always reduced to a fyftem by the following
rule :
Multiply the fuperficial contents of the wall
by the number of half bricks it contains in
thicknefs $ and divide that product by 3 ; the
quotient will be the contents in feet, to the
ftandard. — Laftly, divide that quotient by
1 3 272,
1 1 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
272, the number of fuperficial feet in a rod,
and the laft quotient will be the contents in
rods, and the remains feet. See the example :
Suppofe the dimen-
fions of a wall to be 64 64 6
feet 6 inches by 24 feet 24 6
6 inches, and 3 bricks — ■
thick, firft multiply 64 256
feet 6 inches by 24 feet 128
6 inches, the product will 32 3
be 1580 3, which I mul- 12
tiply by 6, the number of
half bricks the wall con- 1580 3
tains; the product is 948 1 6
feet 6 inches, which I
divide by 3, the number 3 f 9481 6 j 316
of half bricksin the ftand- 9
ard ; the quotient is 3 163
and 2 parts ; which I di- 4
vide by 272, the number 3
of fuperficial feet in a rod ; —
thelaft quotient is 11 rods 18
pd 71 feet. 18
272 ] 3160 2 | it
440
272
$68
When- 5 *
T&? Univerfal British Builder . 119
* Whenever it happens that 68 j 168 J 2
there are large remains of feet, 136
you muft divide them by 68, — — -
the number of feet in a quarter 32
of a rod, which will bring you
nearer, if you have but one number : if
many, add them all together : and this rule
will ferve for every fubjedt. According to a
wall of the above dimenfions,
the quantity of reduced brick- Sq. Q^Ft.
work is 1 1 fquare, 1 quarter, 1 1 1 3
and 3 feet, as in the margin.
Note, Though a rod contain 2724- feet,
the quarter is always rejected : divide then by
272, which is near enough for brick-work,
as a quarter of a foot, fluff and labour, can-
not be worth more than two-pence, which is
too trivial to mention in an eight pound mat-
ter. The fame of the parts of a foot to be
divided, as in the above example.
Having given an example of meafuring
brick-work, in order to come at the value we
muft confider the quantity as well as the
quality of the materials along with the exadt
time it takes to execute it.
And firft, of materials : The reader is to
obferve, that to every rod of brick-work,
4400, and of fome (as bricks vary much in
fize) 4500 bricks are required, with one load
of lime, or 32 bufhels of lime, and two loads
of fand, which is the neareft general calcula-
tion that can be made. I have, notwithftand-
ing, feen bricks of fuch a fize that 4000 of
I 4 them
1 20 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
them would have walled a rod ; but thofe are
rarely to be met with : we muft abide there-
fore by the foregoing number. The fame
likewife of lime and fand, which may vary a
little according as they are in goodneis.
There are two forts of lime ; the one made
of chalk, the other of ftone : the latter in
point of ftrength and quality deferves much
the preference. There are alfo different forts
of fand, and equally good ; but that which
ought to be preferred for building is river-
fand, and is much the beft in a ftrong cur-
rent. Of this you may put three parts of
fand to one of lime that is made of flone ; if
of chalk, only two of fand, and one of lime.
There is a kind of white pit-fand in many
counties ; but it is not fo good as red.
The reader is to obferve, that with regard
to materials no univerfal ilandard can be
found, becaufe bricks and lime vary in every
county ; I (hall fix a price therefore for a
rod of brick- work in London , and afterwards
make a table to ferve the country, according
as materials vary in value. But firft we are to
enquire into the labour which a rod of brick?-
work requires.
The reader will allow, that in order to fet-
tle a general plan for labour, we muft either
account the mean proportion of time, or fti-
pulate the beft wages to the leaft that reafon
can allow; which, to a good journeyman of
yj. per day, will take four days, and the like
quantity or length of time to a labourer, be-
4 fides*
L’he Univerfal British Builder, 121
fides, making the mortar, &c. The reader
is next to obferve, that bricks in London are
from 1 1 . to i/. io s. per thoufand; we (hall not
hefitate therefore in this, but take a mean of
l /. 5 s. for the ftandard-price, and reckon lime
at §d. per buftiel, and land at 4J*. per load ;
which are about the neat prices. The reafon I
choofe to mention lime by the buihel, is to
give a clearer light into this matter than I
ihould by calculating it either by the bag or
hundred, becaufe every county hath a juft
knowledge of the buihel, and few of bags and
hundreds. But to the point :
4,500 bricks, at 1/. 51. per 1000, JT. s. d.
are — — • 5126
32 bufhels of lime, at 5/. o 13 4
Labour of trowel-hand at 3J-. per
day, 4 days, — * o 12 o
Ditto for labourer at 2 s. 080
Making the mortar to ditto, o 3 o
7 810
By the above calculation we find that 7/.
8 s. 10 d. is the neat price which a mafter pays
out of his own pocket, befides the lofs of
tools, as (hovels, fcreens, the wear of cords,
poles, puttocks, &c. which are always upon
the wafte, together with boards, his own
time, and the lying out of his money; for
materials therefore of the above quality a
mafter in juftice ihould have per rod 8/. ioj*.
But in order to come at a real ftandard of
.prices for brick-work in any county, I beg
122 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
the reader to have recourfe to the following
table, calculated as univerfal, allowing the
matter for lime, fand, and making the mor-
tar, i /. 3J*. and for labour i/. $s.
An univerfal 'Table of Brick-work, allowing
il. 3s. Mortar , and il. 5s. Labour .
s.
£• s -
£•
j.
d.
At 10
2 8
is 4
13
O
1 1
Do.
4
'7
6
12
Do.
5
2
0
13
Do.
5
6
6
14
Do.
5
11
0
15
Do.
5
15
6
16
Do.
6
0
0
17
Do.
6
4
6
18
Do.
6
9
0
19
Do.
6
J 3
6
20
Do.
6
18
0
21
Do.
7
2
15
22
Do.
7
7
0
2 3
Do.
7
1 1
6
24
Do.
7
16
0
2 5
Do.
8
0
6
26
Do.
8
5
0
2 7
Do.
8
9
6
28
Do.
8
H
0
29
Do.
8
18
6
30
Do.
9
3
0
The above table is calculated
country, and ought to be the
to ferve the
ftandard in
town.
The Univerfal British Builder. 123
town, when there are no extraordinary ex-
ceptions, fuch as fronts with particular
breaks, which are attended with much trou-
ble, &c.
If a mailer-bricklayer eilimate his work all
at one price, as fronts, foundations, and
party-walls, one part will make amends for
the lofs of another But the price ihould be
what I have mentioned prior to the table ;
though mailers would grumble at it, becaufe
allowed only 1/. per rod profit, which I think
very fufficient ; for by this rule, if a mailer
can but employ 12 trowel-men the year
round, his bufinefs will be a good 500/. per
annum , allowing 100/. for bad debts, and
keeping up his fcafrolding.
Whether this be fufficient or not I leave to
the judgement of the world. — But I fay, if
from fuch prices (which are confiderably lefs
than many mailers have) thefe genteel profits
arife, what (hall we fay to 10/. and 12/. per
rod, which I have known many bricklayers
charge for common brick-work ? but the lail
is exorbitant, and ought to be utterly abo-
liihed.
There are, indeed, particular jobbs, fuch as
warehoules of a particular height, which iland
clofe to the < Thames> where one labourer is
not half fufficient to ferve one bricklayer, and
where double the trouble is required to eredl
the fcaffold, &c. In fuch cafes 12/. per rod
may not be amifs.
I would
A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
I would not willingly infer, or be fuppofed
to infinuate, that the above prices fhould be
lowered ; but will take the liberty to fay, that
if a matter be allowed 9/. or 10/. per rod, he
ought to augment his journeymen’s wages ; a
thing which ought to be maturely confidered
in every branch of building.
I make no doubt but fome people will
wonder how I can fo eafily reconcile the giv-
ing as much for labour to a country matter as
a London one, in a bufinefs like a brick-
layer, and fo eafily attained. To the perfon
who makes this objection, I give the follow-
ing anfwer : that there is a flight in brick-
work as well as in every other pradice,
and that bricklayers in London fhould do one
third more work than in the country is ever
defired : befides, with refped to labourers
and their prices, which in London are confi-
de, rably more than the country, and with juf-
tice too, that is another point to be confidered;
for could we have a country labourer in Lon-
don, we fhould find he would not be able half
to ferve a bricklayer without a year’s experi-
ence. A rod of brick-work in the country
is, by men who have not had London prac-
tice, 54 days work, and in fome places 6 ;
nay, I have even known a bricklayer in the
country, and one who was efteemed a good
workman, to be 8 days walling over a rod,
£pd all this time a labourer to attend him ;
which, if we rightly confider, will produce
the
The TJniverfal British Builder. 125
the country matters lefs profits by much, and
not leave work for half the number of men.
From a gentleman who finds his own ma-
terials, fcaffolding, &c. a matter fhould have
from 1 /. 8j*. to 1 /. i6j\ per rod labour; ac-
cording to the goodnefs of the work. The
ftandard price by many furveyors is 1 /. ioj\
The matter’s prices, where no furveyor is con-
cerned, are from 1/. 16s. to ]/. i8j. This
will allow for men to have 3^*. 6 d. per day,
which ought to be the journeymen’s price, as
bricklaying is but an half-year bufinefs.
Of Tiling .
There being nothing in the practice of Ti-
ling beyond what a journeyman may have ac-
quired in the courfe of his apprenticefhip, and
as things of more material confequence will
ihortly come within our defcription, I beg
to be excufed fpeaking further on this fub-
jedt than in regard to the quantity : and
that the principal judgement of it lies in the
peculiar pitch of railing the eaves, fo that the
tiles may lie clofe at the bottom-edge. There
is alfo fome little difficulty in laying a valley
with plain tiles ; but after the practice of one
or two, it is eafily acquired. The fame alio
in regard to paving with bricks.
Plain tiles to a fix inch gauge will take to
cover a fquare feven hundred and fixty, one
peck of tile-pins, two buttiels of lime, five
bufhels of fand, five hundred nails, one
bundle of laths, and one day’s work of a
trowel
126 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
trowel hand,, and at lead one labourer. We
will allow the plane tiles per thou fan d to be
from jys. to 2 2 s. but will here reckon them
1/. per ditto.
d.
700 plain tiles are * —
*5
0
2 bujfhels of lime, at $d.
0
10
5 bulhels of fand we will call
0
6
400 of nails, at 37 d.
One bundle of oak laths, is.
0
? J
/ a
lod. of firr ij*. 3 d.
5
3
Hair — —
0
2
Bricklayer, one day
3
0
Labourer, ditto — -
2
0
One peck of tile-pins
0
8
£• 1
4
of
By the above calculation we fhall find the
neat price a fquare of plain-tiling ftands a
mafter in is 1/. 43*. 7 d; to a piece of work
therefore of this gauge, we muft allow a maf-
ter per fquare ll.gs. — to a feven inch gauge,
1 /. 6 s . — to an eight inch gauge, iL 3^.
Pantiles are from. 3/. to 3 L 10s. per thou-
fand, 1 50 of which will cover a fquare. Gut-
ter-tiles from jij*. to 15^. per hundred.
Dutch glazed pantiles from 12 s. to 16 s. per
hundred. If we reckon 100 pantiles there-
fore at ys.
150
The TJniverfal British Builder. 127
S. d.
150 will be — — 10 6
100 nails — — 0 5
Lime, hair, and fand, for pointing, 1 6
Laths to a fquare — 1 B
To tiling and pointing, a trowel-man
and labourer, one day, 5 o
19 1
nw- 1 j »
Thus we find the advance-money to a
lquare of pantiling is 19 s. id. the matter's
price therefore fhould be 1 /. 4 s. and with
Dutch pantiles 1/. I2j*.
The matter's prices for plain tiles
are for a 6 inch gauge.
1
1 1
O
By furveyors, —
1
8
O
To a 7 inch ditto, matters.
1
8
O
Surveyors ■ —
1
6
O
Old plain tiling ripped and new laid, from
1 $s. to iSs. per fquare. Pantiling with old
pantiles, ioj*. or 1 1 s.
Of Paving.
S. d.
Paving with place-bricks laid flat, and
without mortar, per yard, 1 27;
Ditto with mortar, — 1 5
Note, 32 bricks will pave 1 yard, 64 edge-
ways.
Paving
128 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
S. d*
Paving with white brick i
New Flanders brick-paving per yard,
(Note, Flancjers bricks are il. is.
per thoufand) — 3
9 inch pavement-paving, per yard, 2
For all rubbed and gauged arches, either
of red or gray flocks, the mailer’s charge per
foot fuperficial, is from is. 4^. to is . bd.
Note, a good journeyman will rub, gauge,
and fet in putty, one day with another, 8 feet$
the materials to ditto are worth per foot fu~
perficial 47 d. Thus we (hall find by this fort
of work a mailer may well afford to advance
the wages,
Surveyors allow per foot
Plain facios per foot rubbed
By furveyors fornetimes only
Mailer's charge - —
Brick cornices per foot fuperficial
Some charge
S.
1
1
0
1
3
5
i.
4
o
10
2
6
Q
Having faid thus much much of bricklayers
work, I ihall mention two or three neeeffary
matters to journeymen, and proceed with my
next ledture ; which is, firil, that they have
refpedt to the building in general 5 and be not
backward in affi (ling with bond timbers, lin-
tels, wood-bricks, difcharging-pieces, taffels,
&c. but put all in their proper places, which
they fhouid be as well apprized of as the car-
penter.
Hhe Univerfal British Builder. 129
penter, both as to confequence and place.
The firff place of bond-timber, in every ftory,
is for the Ikirting or bafe-moulding to be fixed
to ; the next for the fur-bafe. This is of ufe
as to ftrength. In the next place there (hould
always be a chain of bond-timber between the
floor or Itory-plate, and the fur-bafe ; to run
quite through the windows, &c. well bound
in the angles ; and not cut off in the win-
dows, till the houfe be covered in; befides
it will be of ufe in the windows to fcaffold
upon.
Secondly, that the bricklayers omit not to
try if their work be level every four or five
courfes ; a matter of great confequence, as
well for the ftrength of the fabric, as the be-
nefit of the carpenters, in laying on their plates
for the floors ; that infide walls be as flraight as
thofe without; chimnies, quoins, and breafts,
perpendicular : that they be particularly care-
ful in fetting fafh- frames, if they (land in the
wall, both as to regular margins from the
outward part of the wall, as well as exadtly
perpendicular : for on this laft article depends
all the beauty of the infide work; every thing
being fixed from, and guided by the fafh-
frame : thus the lead defeat in this often
caufes flutters to be framed of different
widths, as well as obliges the carpenters to
make unneceflary furrings.
And laftly, of the beauty of walling ; this
depends on a regularity of bond, an exadt
point, and cleanlinefs of execution ; with re-
K gard
1 30 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 7
gard to a regular bond, I mean the exadt uni-
formity which one courfe bears to another :
fo that the heading-joints, both of header and
ftretcher, may aooear ftraiVht one above ano-
ther, from the top to the bottom ; and fo’ re-
gularly broke every other courfe; that the
joints be of a regular thicknefs all the way up,
and not bigger than -I of an inch : that the
fronts under windows do not exceed in thick-
nefs the infide of the fafh-frame, to prevent
the carpenters from fhaking the whole front
by cutting away for their dado : that they be
alfo careful to tie the angles of the building,
thefe being the pillars and ftrength of the
whole.
L E C T U R E XVII.
OF THE PRACTICAL PART OF PLASTER-
ERS WORK.
T KE plaftering branch is practically -con-
^ fidered under two heads, relative to
the diftindtion of workmen, viz. ornament,
and what are called cornice hands $ both hav-
ing an extenfive field for cultivation. To
the former of thefe ingenious departments is
referred the ftudy of all nature, to the latter
the exaCt -fym me try and beauty of architedlure.
The principal thing in the pradtice of com-
mon plaftering, is a thorough knowledge of
the quality of materials ; and how far they
are fubjedt to the inclemency of weather , be-
caufe on this particular depends the compo-
c iition
rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 13 i
fition of the fluff; and how to apply a certain
quantity or gauge of plailer, to a quantity of
lime and fand, lo that it may anfwer in all
feafons of the year. Thofe who would defire
fo have their work appear found and firm,
will pay a refpedt to this particular ; for it is
certain, that in winter, or very damp weather,
fluff will require a double gauge of plafrer,
more than the exadt quantity neceffary to be
applied in all common fluff for cornices, ciel-
ings, &c. which is the ground of all works
of this fort ; and if in any wife defective, will
be too powerful for the fetting or finifhing of
putty, that is applied over the whole ; and
which fhculd appear without crack or blifler.
Plafler is of a very aftringent quality; fuch
of it which is good, is an immediate cement,
like terras. But though work be forced by
an augmented quality in unfeafonable wea-
ther, for my own part, I would prefer a good
feafon for natural drying, to any thing con-
fined by artificial means, and would con-
fider one bag of plafter in May worth ten in
January or February, either for cornices or
thin boiling of ornaments. The way and
time to mix plafler with fluff, is to do it when
you lay it on ; in which cafe it will have all
its ilrength. Plafterers themfelves know well
enough the ufe and mode of mixing their fluff;
but as I prcpofe my book to be of univerfal
benefit, I beg leave to mention two or three
things relative to the quality and quantity of
materials, which may be ferviceable to many
K 2 work-
i%2 A Key to Civil Architecture*, of,
workmen who do plafterers work in the
country, though beneath the notice of an
eftablifiied plafterer.
The mode of appropriating (luff for the firft
coat of cielings, is to take one quantity of
lime to three of fand. Note, the beft fand
for cielings, walls, &c. is red pit- fand ; which
is of a rough conjundive quality, and the leaft
fubjed to crack of any. For ftucco, or what
is called finifhing, mix one of lime, and ano-
ther of fand; the beft for ftucco is river- fand,
being much fharper, and fets, as is required,
much harder; for in all work of this kind it
is expeded to appear as fmooth and firm as
ftone.
For cornices, the certain quantity (hould
be one gauge of plafter, and four of lime ; of
fand three to one of the whole ; the lime, fand,
and hair firft made ; the plafter to be applied
juft before it be laid on ; and the fame for the
boffings of cielings, &c.
Plaftering is a moft ufeful invention, and
has greatly the preference of wood, for cor-
nices, &c. on account of its unity with walls
and cielings; but we fee it often lofe its effed,
when mixed with wood, as in bafe mould-
ings, &c.
The intent of appropriating caft mouldings
of plafter with wood, is to load a room with
a profufion of ornaments, and at little more
expence than if done with wood plain ; but
things of this kind will not bear examining;
and for my own part, I think every ingenious
maa
The Univerfal British Builder. 133
man would rather approve of half the quan-
tity of ornaments well executed in wood,
fuitable to, and of a piece with the reft. Be-
lexion mouldings, well executed in plafler,
have a noble effect in halls, ftair-cafes, &c.
and are much preferable to any thing of the
fame value, that can be invented. Thefe,
with fome well difpofed ornaments. See. in
them, would, in my opinion, be the greateft
beauty in the prefent mode of finiihing many
capital rooms.
To the immortal credit of the prefent age,
it may be affirmed, that this branch of bufi-
nefs is in its full meridian of luftre, both with
refpedt to fymmetry and compofition ; and it
may juftly be faid, that the ancients were in
no wife comparable with the prefent age
for their tafte in ornaments ; on which head
the Meffrs. Adams deferve particular honour;
being themfeives the originals of many capi-
tal defigns, which almoft beggar defeription ;
from the fpring of which the whole mafs of
furveyors, and petty mixturers, have found
matter to fupply their own want of genius
and invention.
It is much to be lamented, that thefe great
men fhould miftake their path in fome re^
fpedts relative to the propriety of their cor-
nices ; which greatly lofe their force for want
of a little more projection: that fymmetry,
and happy arrangement which we frequently
lofe by the diftance, would be quite pcrfpicu-
pus, were but a little more added to the above
K 3 partis
134 d Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
particular. I a 1 moll wonder that fuch excel-
lent judges of beauty never found the ill ef-
fedts of this deficiency; but whether they
have or not, it is beyond a doubt, that their
works in general are the moft capital of the age.
Of the Value of Ornaments .
The value of ornament-plaftering cannot
well be afcertained without a fight of the
drawings; or rather of the cielings, &c. when
finished. However, as far as may be fervice-
able to the learner in eftimating a jobb, I will
endeavour here to afcertain them.
And firft, the reader is to obferve, that all
ornaments on cielings are valued by the foot;
and it may not be amifs likewife to note* that
if the cieling be lightly enriched with foliage
of fmall relief, intermixed with mouldings of
various figures, it may be valued all together
by the foot fuperficial ; the dimenfions being
taken from the outward fquare of all, at 3^.
per foot. But this is an uncertain wav, aird
cannot be ufed by any but thofe who are judges
at fight. The only real method therefore is to
value all the different works feparate, as be-
fore observed in the meafurement ; and thefe
are, or may be done at the following prices ;
s.
Plain mouldings in cielings, at per
foot run — - — -00 2 *-
Inferior enriched mouldings to
ditto, call — ■ — 003
Superior enriched, call 004
Ditto
The Univerfal British Builder. 135
£>• s -
Ditto run upon the cieling, with
various enrichments, from yd. to 013
Foliage, at per foot fuperficial,
frgm 2s, to — o 3 6
Large pieces of ornament in the
middle of a cieling, at per foot
fuperficial — — 040
Trophies, cafes of arrows, &c. per
foot fuperficial — 050
Figures, deities, &c, per piece,
from 1/. to — 20 o o
Gollocci and frets, at per foot fu-
perficial, 6 inches wide 020
Ribbons and rofes fuperficial, at 016
Large ornaments of feitoons and
flowers — — 0 3 9
Small frets, at per foot run, from
6 d. to — — 010
The reader mufl be content, in ornament
cielings, to know the real value of the works
I have mentioned, as it would be of little
validity to prove alTertions which he does not
fee, or may be unacquainted with ; therefore
to make it advantageous to him, it will be
highly requifite to ftudy this matter farther
himfelf.
Of the Value of Plajler- cornices.
In the value of Plafter-cornices it may not
be amifs, firft, to enquire into the quantity
of materials, for a better proof of what I
K 4 propofe
136 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
propofe to advance relative to the price allow-
ed by furveyors, and what is alfo charged by
mafters.
And firth of full enriched Corinthian cor-
nices, which confift of various ornaments,
carvings, &c. and fhould be all made of the
bed plafter, which is little lefs than one pen-
ny per pound.
The neareft general calculation that can be
made of plain cornices, on account of their
number of variations, is, to every foot of
plain cornice the materials, making, &c.
ftand the mafter in 4 d. — To a full enriched
cornice, modillions, &c. is. — The labour to
a foot of Corinthian cornice, as I have made
the following calculations from whole rooms,
with the labourer’s time, laths, nails, duff,
lime, and plafterer’s time, are as follow :
S. d*
To labour — • * 09
Stuff — — 10
It cannot be amifs therefore to allow
the intrinfick value per foot fuper-
ficial to be — — 2 0
Some furveyors are pleafed to allow 1 6
Others vouchfafe to give — 22
Some I have known generous enough
to offer a good plafterer per foot fu-
perficial — — ■ « 12
Some of the capital mafters in town, for
fully enriched cornices of the Co-
rinthian or Compofite order, allow
from 2 $+ Sd . to — 3 q
Ionick
! The Univerfal British Builder. 137
Ionick cornices, fully enriched, are S. d.
worth — — 1 9
All plain cornices are worth to a matter,
per foot fuperficia], to find fcaffolding 1 2
Though they are done fo low as 08
Dorick friezes, fjvith ox-heads and pro-
per enrichments, may be ettimated
per foot fu perficial, at — 46
Cornices to ditto, with mutules and bells 1 9
Surveyors 4 s. and — 1 10
Enriched friezes, from is. per foot, to 5 o
Caft friezes, with foliage of 4 inches,
meafured in the cornices, at is. 6 d.
per foot — — 16
Belexion mouldings enriched, at per
foot run — — 0 4
Corinthian and Compolite capitals, per
foot fuperficial — 5 0
Chimney-pieces, at per foot fuperficial 2 o
Ionick capitals in platter, per foot fu-
perficial — — 1 46
Surveyors allow, in fome cafes 5 o
Terms to chimney-pieces, per foot
fuperficial — — 26
Friezes to ditto enriched — • 36
Of Plain-cielings , V/alls % Stucco , &c.
The quantity of materials either to cielings
or walls ever varies, becaufe it depends in a
great meafure on the conduct: of the carpen-
ters, bricklayers, &c. The Following is the
neareft general calculation for every three-coat
cieling, or lathed walls :
We
138 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
We muft allow 5^. for materials, fuch S. d .
as laths, nails, lime, plafter,fand, &c.
for labour, if the mafter find fcaf-
folding, 6 d. more, which brings the
intrinfick value per yard to o 10
Every deling therefore well floated, &c.
is worth • — — 12
Mafters charge the above price
Surveyors from 9 d. to — * 12
Infide work upon laths, fuch as walls,
&c. — — 10
Walls floated for paper, &c. — 08
Stucco, per yard, well finiftied on laths 1 9
The materials to a yard of ftucco, are
worth, upon laths o 10
Walls floated and finiftied with ftucco 1 6
The materials are worth per yard o 74
Note, mafters charge for finishing upon
laths — - — - 2 2
Upon walls — 1 10
Surveyors allow from is. 2 d. upon laths
to — — 2 43
Upon walls, from is. to — 17
Gray plafter floors are worth per fquare,
if 2 inches and an half thick 2 14
Surveyors allow from 2 L 2 s. to 2 10
Red ditto are worth per fquare 3 8
Surveyors allow from 2/. iSj*. to 3 5
The learner is to obferve in laying plafter-
fioors, to put a margin of wood round the
room,
T he Univerfal British Builder. 139
room, which muft be taken up as foon as it
is fet, to give room for fweliing ; for if plafter
of fuch a thicknefs be laid and confined, it
will rife in' b lifters before it is half dry, and
render it totally ufelefs.
> 5 . d.
Plafter-framing, asovloand flat, per foot o 6
Ditto circular foffits, meafure and half
Framed and raifed pannel in plafter o 9
For white-wafhing with whiting-fize,
work, and materials, per yard # 02
Ditto whiting of new work, per ditto o 14
LECTURE XVIII.
OF PAINTERS WORK.
T T OUSE - Painting is a branch fo common
JLjL that it needs no comment ; I fhall not
therefore take up my reader's time beyond
what is neceflary, to enquire into its value.
And, firft, of the colours of paint that is, or
in fome cafes may be ufed in a building;
which are as follow :
Wainfcot colour
Stone ditto
Lead
Pearl
White
Dead white, or flatting
Chocolate
Mahogany
Cedar
Walnut-tree
Pea
Fine fky-blue
Mixed with Pruflian
blue
Orange
Lemon
Pink
Bloffom
140 A Key to Civil Architecture*, or,
Bloffem colour Brown
Fine deep green Yellow
Black
The preceding are all* the colours that can
be requilite for painting either houfes, fhops,
&c. Thefe colours differ fomewhat both
with refpedt to price and quality ; therefore
muft have a ftipulation according to their value
and quantity, in point of execution ; as it is
certain feme colours will paint confiderably
more than others, which I fhall endeavour to
fhew.
Firjly of the Trice of Colours .
£•
Firft primer ground in oil is fold
at per hundred —
Or per pound — — •
Second primer at ditto
Beft white-lead ground in oil, at
per pound — c
Pearl, lead, cream, ftone, wainfcot,
at per pound — 1 c
Chocolate, mahogany, cedar, wal-
nut-tree, ground in oil, at per
pound — — o
Sky-blue, orange, lemon, pink,
bloffom, ftraw, Pruffian blue,
from 8 d. to — o
Fine deep green, per pound o
Black, brown, yellow, per pound o
16
o
16
d.
o
4
4t
o
6
4
The Univerfal British Builder. 141
The reader is to obferve, that all houfe-
painting muft at leaft be done three times
over, fometimes four ; the caufe of which I
fhall mention hereafter.
Of the Quantity which one Pound of Paint
will do over .
Firft primer ground in, or made
thin with oil, will paint, when
properly mixed, 1 8 fquare yds.
Second primer muft be mixed
ftronger, r pound mixed with
oil, will paint 10 fquare yards
The beft white-lead, ground in
oil, and properly mixed for the
finifhing, will paint 8 yards
Thus if we add the three quan-
tities together, and divide by 3,
we fhall find that one pound of
paint properly mixed will prime
and finifh 12 fquare yards, as in
the margin. We have only to
add therefore the oil for mixing, and the put-
ty, and we fhall find the real value to a yard of
painting ; which once got, we fhall proceed
to the labour, to folve the whole.
Suppoling then that to one pound of paint
to be appropriated for painting to its extent,
at three feparate times, viz. for the firft pri-
mer, fecond ditto, and finifhing, we allow
three half-pints of oil, which is more than
neceflary, and one pound of putty for flop-
ping, See. add thefe to the value of the paint,
for
Sq. yds.
18
10
8
3 I 3 6 1 12
3 6
142 A Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or,
for 12 yards, and we {hall eafily come at the
value of the whole materials, viz.
S . d.
To one pound of paint — 04
Ditto of putty — — 04
Three half-pints of oil, at is. per quart o 9
The above being added together, as in the
margin, we find the charge of materials for
12 fquare yards is ij*. 5^. which is fomewhat
lefs than 14 d. per yard.
An d 7 iext of the Labour to a Tard of Painting .
The neareft calculation of the labour to a
yard of painting, is as follows : — A man
who will work any thing fmart
will do Yards.
Firft primer per day — * 70
Second ditto, and flop with
putty — — 30
And finifh about — 40
If we add therefore the three *
numbers together, and divide 3 | 140 j 46
by 3, as before, we (hall have 12
the exadt quantity that a man
will begin and finifh in one day, 20
which as in the margin is 46. 18
^he Univerjal British Builder. 143
A journeyman’s wages in this bufinefs are
3 s. per day ; thus if we divide 46 yards by 36
pence, (the journeyman’s wages) we ihall
find, that a mafter has every yard of painting,
three times over, done for lefs than id. to
which if we add 1 id. materials, the intrinfick
value of a yard of painting is 2 ~d. for which
mailers charge from 6 d. to 8 d.
I am far from inlinuating, that any mafter
fhould lower the cuftomary prices; but yet
cannot help obferving, that I think it a great
error in furveyors to allow a bulinefs like
a painter’s, which neither requires thought
nor fpeculation, fuch extravagant profits ; and
joiners, in many refpe&s, not fufficient to pay
their men half adequately to their merit.
Surveyors allow for out or infide-work,
three times in oil, from 6 d. to yd. per yard.
The profit of every yard, allowing for diffi-
cult jobbs, is 3 d. A man for a continuance,
painting 40 yards per day, or fuppofing 30,
or even 20, a mafter muft clear by every fuch
journeyman, at thefe prices, 5 s. per day. Many
mafters employ 20 men ; the profits therefore
arifing from them are obvious to every one.
The real price of painting three times
d.
in oil fhould be
When clear-coaled
Flatting with turpentine
Flatting with nut-oil
Some
144 -A Key to Civil Architecture ; dp,
Some of my readers may not know what
either clear-coaling or flatting is ; I ihall en-
deavour therefore to inform them, as well as
of their ufe.
Clear-coaling is a body of colour ground
in, or mixed with fize, and done after the
fecond primer, in order to give ftrength to
the colours, and make them Hand the fem-
blance they are meant to do. But I cannot
recommend it ; for damp weather will affedt
it ; and if the colour intended be white, or at
all light, it will always turn yellow.
This compofition, or what is called clear-
coal, is a great enemy to joiners ; for let them
finish their work ever fo clean, if the men be
not very careful, clear-coaling fpoils it all,
efpecially the mitres, &c.
Flatting is done with a mixture of oil of
turpentine, or nut-oil. Its intent is to fecure
the colour, and it is ufed for finifhing ; and
when done, leaves thepaint quite dead, without
glofs. This is of great confequence to thofe
who like to have their rooms continue white,
as nothing elfe can be appropriated to fland the
weather.
All common colours are done at the fore-
going prices, and allowed as fuch by fur-
veyors: blues, greens, bloflbm, pink, orange,
ftraw, olive, pea-colour, fhould be is. per
yard, at which they are allowed by furveyors.
There is nothing like this difference in the
quality of materials or labour, to augment
the prices 6 d. per yard , but when thefe co-
lours
The Univerfal British Builder. 145
lours are ufed, it is generally for little abflradt-
ed jobbs, which ihould be paid for according
to the time and trouble.
d.
Safla-frames are allowed, per piece, at 1 4
Might be done for — 10
Safhes allowed per fquare o ii.
Window lights from 2 d. to o 5
Infide-painting, twice upon old work,
per yard — * — 04
Modillion-cornices,per foot run, from
4*/. to ■ — — 09
Plain outfide-cornices, per foot run o 3
Frontifpieces, per foot fuperficial o 2
Chimney-pieces, per foot fuperficial o 2
Hand-rail, banifters, firings, newels,
. ,&c. per yard — — o 10
Hand-rails alone per foot run o 2
Horfe plain cornices, per foot run o 1
All torus fkirting in halls, garrets, &c.
per foot run — — o 14-
Skirting up flairs, per foot run o 2
LECTURE XIX.
OF GLASIERS WORK.
G LASING is a branch of the leafi diffi-
culty of any in a building, therefore is
judicioufly enough joined to the paiftter, be-
caufe neither require the executive part of
men of merit.
The value of glaiiers work is as follows :
L Crown-
2
146 -«4Key to Civil ArchiteSiurc ; or,
Crown-glafs meafured neat for fafhes, ^
according to the fize of the fquares,
per foot fuperficial — o
Safhes glafed with London crown
glafs, puttied on both fiaes, as is
requifite, per foot fuperficial
Safhes glafed with Briftol crown-glafs
Ditto, with Newcafile glafs
Ditto, waved or jealous glafs, per foot
fuperficial — -
Ditto, plate-glafs, according to their
lize, from 1 foot to 2 foot panes
from 5s. to — ■ *—
Ditto from 2 to 3 and 4 foot panes
fuperficial, are from 6s. per ft. to
Glafing with crown glafs, fquares in
lead-work, per foot —
Ditto the materials to a foot of this
work are worth • —
Taking down leaded windows,
fcowering, foddering, banding,
and putting in again, per foot
fuperficial —
d.
117
27
,-L
10
8
o
a
•//
9
0
a 3
Note, 25 lb. of window-lead are fufficient
for 100 feet fuperficial, when f worked. —
Note alfo, that lights and circular fafhes muft
be valued as fquare, on account of the trouble;
and to glafiers, in fome cafes, meafure and
half.
LEC-
\ The Univerfal British Builder. 147
LECTURE XX.
OF SLATERS WORK.
S LATERS work differs but little in prac-
tice (excepting the preparation of the
dates) from tiling ; its greated beauty is in
the regular appropriating the different gauges;
fo that they appear in bond, and arrange-
ment equally draight. There is fome diffi-
culty in fitting a valley ; but the great prin-
ciple is the exadt form of fetting the firft
courfe, or railing it behind, not to excefs,
but to a certain pitch, fo that all the fucceed-
ing ones fhall appear clo£e, and not be defec-
tive in refpedt to the inner parts for pointing.
*'VThfcre are many forts of date in ufe, viz.
what is called Can-quarry, Tavidock fcantle,
and Wedmoreland ditto, and fome others,
though not frequently ufed. The latter is
much the bed, being by much the larged,
but fhould not be appropriated except for very
large^buildings ; or at lead, fuch as are of
fufficient drength for their weight.
£• s.
The price of doing theie per fquare is,
from 2/. 13J. to — 3 0
Tavidock fcantle is fomething lefs ; and
rather inferior in quality ; and ac-
cording as they are in goodnefs is
done from 2/. to — 2 10
Can-quarry are the word, and modly
ufed, the price from iL i6x. to" 2 8
L 2 Ditto
148 A Key to Civil Architecture 3 or,
Ditto for temples, and fcheme roofs 2 12
Among the new buildings there is a worfe
flate than any of thofe here mentioned, called
Welch flate, which is done per fquare, from
i /. 8 j*. to i/. ] 3J*.
OF CARVERS WORK.
HIS beautiful and ingenious branch is
fubjed to the fame efifed as ornament-
plafter, with refped to its value ; no fettled
or ftipulated price can be fixed on a matter of
fuch mutable compofitions, which conftantly
varies with every frefh defign, — However, I
fhall give fome few hints to the learner. And
firft, with refped to carving on mouldings
for all forts of framing :
Ovlo to deal-framing, carved with S. d.
eggs and tongues, per foot running
meafure ■*— * — * 04
Ditto on mahogany or wainfcot o 6
O-gee framing in deal, carved with
feven-leaved grafs — 04
On mahogany and wainfcot o 6
Small o-gee to framing on deal, three-
Large ovlos to doors, with ribbons
and rofes, or eggs and darts, per
Ditto, flates, new ripped and laid
1 1
LECTURE XXL
leaved grafs
foot run
o 8
Large
The JJniverfa! British Builder. 149
Large quirked o-gees, with various S . d.
carvings — ■ — 07
Small aftragal mouldings to doors, per
foot lineal — — 0 3
Small fluting to facios, per foot lineal o 5
Two inches long — • - — 06
Friezes, fluting, 6 inches wide and up-
wards, at per foot fuperficial 1 6
Fluting the railings upon the pannels
of mahogany doors, per foot run o 8
Carving Corinthian capitals, per foot
fuperficial — — 90
Ionic, k ditto — — • 60
Compofite ditto — — 9 p
Ornaments in alto-relievo, to friezes
well executed, from $s. per foot
fuperficial to — — 106
Ornaments to friezes in baflo- relievo,
from 2 s - P er foot fuperficial to 7 6
Feftoons, per foot fuperfi. from 4 s. to 8 o
Figures are all valued at per piece
As carvers find no materials, and have no
advantages but what refult from their labour,
I (hall not pretend to fay any thing with re-
fpedl to the time of execution, feeing it is a
bufinefs, well known to be upon as eligible
a footing, with refpedl to profits, as any in
the building branch. The above prices are
fuch as are allowed by many furveyors.
L 3
THE
THE
PRACTICE
O F
JOINERS WORK
THE
PRACTICE
O F
JOINERS WORK.
LECTURE XXII.
OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DADO*
D ADO is the die or entire part of an
order, between the bafe and cornice of
the pedeftal ; and by architects is attributed to
that plain part of a room between the bafe
and fur- bafe mouldings. This fort of work,
in large rooms, fhould never be made of thin-
ner fluff* than what is called whole- deal.
The chief thing to be confidered in the
practice of dado is, the manner of putting it
up, which requires fome thought in order to
fecure it from cafting ; the method of keying
only being found inefficient, without a pro-
per manner of placing the keys. There are
a great
154 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
a great many ways of doing this : but the
beft, in my opinion, is as follows, viz. when
you key your dado, leave the keys long enough
at the. broad end to reach the joifts, or floor 5
and put the broad-ends of them downwards,
for this reafon ; that there is a proclivity, or
tending downwards in all work, which can
never be detrimental to dado thus done ; for
if the key goes to the floor, there it flops ;
and if it fhould (hrink, the proclivity of the
dado will ever keep the work ftraight. If the
broad ends were upwards, the dado might
drop from the keys, and render them of no
ufe. In putting dado round windows, mind
to keep up the front of the elbow a little,
that after the mouldings are on, and capped,
the fhutters may open eafy.
Dado in all angles muft be grooved, and
well nailed ; obferve alfo, that no nails be put
in the bottom-edge of dado; let it receive no
faftening but what it has from the keys ; if
it be confined both at the top and bottom, dt
is fure to break.
Obferve, of dado for circular rooms, that
you do not adopt the wretched methods of
contract-mongers, and taik-mafters, of glu-
ing your dado up and down ; the right me-
thod of gluing circular dado, is to make a
faddle to the fweep of your wall ; if it be a
large fweep you may make a fineer half an inch
thick, and bind it upon the cylinder or fad-
dle ; after glue backings to the fweep behind :
rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 155
leave it a few days to dry, and ftrike your
work for putting up.
There is a method ufed by many of groov-
ing dado, for circular pats on the back, at one,
two, or three inches apart after, bending it to
the faddle, and then glue it in pieces to the
grooves, which if well done will anfwer the
purpofe ; — fome people faw a number of faw-
carfs into the back, and bend it to the faddle
as before; after which they glue it in tongues
or fillets into the grooves made by the faw,
and then ftrike it for putting up. But for
good found work the former method deferves
the preference.
With regard to long lengths of dado, be
careful in breaking the heading-joints, and
do not, like the tafk-mafters, make a heading-
joint quite through.
As to the height of dado, the window is
to be the guide; leaving the fame margin
when the capping is on, as there is from the
fhutter to the bead ; when there are backs
and elbows, the dado may be put up at plea-
fure, or to the fancy of the builder. Some
architects propofe a fifth part of the height of
the room ; but this will not fuit very low,
nor very high rooms. I think dado fhould
never be higher than 3 feet 9 inches, nor
lower than 2 feet 6 inches. If rooms were
all about twelve feet high, a fifth part would
do very well ; and fo on to a room of 15 feet
high ; when they run above this pitch, for
every 6 inches in the room’s height, I would
add
1 56 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or>
add one inch more to theheight of the dado. If
there bp columns or pilafters, the dado fhould
in every refpedi be fubfiervient to the pedeftal
of the order,
S. d.
The price of this work, charged by
matters, is, per yard, with materials,
from 4 s. 6 d. to — 56
Surveyors allow for dado of whole-deal,
per yard - — 46
Inch and half ditto — 50
Of inch ditto, per yard — 40
*■ : - — - ?
The real value of dado is as follows :
The fluff to dado, allowing watte,
fhould be to a matter per foot 27 d.
nine feet of which is — 1 10
Glue and nails to ditto and keys, per
yard — — 04
Labour to ditto, per yard — 010
3 o
Some people will wonder how I can fix
jc d. per yard for labour; I beg fuch to un-
derftand, that this is the neat price a matter
pays out of his pocket for fuch work, as
proved by the following example :
A journeyman of 17^. or 1 $s. per week will
glue up fix twelve-feet lengths per day, plane
them the fecond, and put them up the third,
with cafual breaks, &c. We find therefore
that two lengths are one day’s work to begin
and
The Univerfal British Builder. 157
and finifh ; which two lengths, when put up,
may be fix yards ; and which, allowing the
mafter 3 s. per day for his man, is but 6 d. the
other 4 d. per yard I allow for keying ditto,
which makes in all 10 d.
S. d.
The univerfal price therefore of dado of
inch and half deal, is — - 50
Whole-deal fhould be per yard 4 6
Inch ditto — — 42
Circular dado is double meafure, and paid
extra for the faddle or cylinder which it is
glued upon.
LECTURE XXIII.
OF MOULDINGS IN GENERAL.
T HE guide and matter-piece of all archi-
tedlure depends folely on the magni-
tude and compofition of mouldings ; thefe are
•the leading touches of art, which give force
and beauty to whatever is intended ; every
thing, of whatever fort or nature, takes its
femblance, or changes its efFedt, from the
power that is contained in thefe governing
principles : how cautious, therefore, (hould
every artifl: be in the deligning or compofing
of mouldings, fince that on thofe alone de-
pends that fplendid eafe, required to attradt
the beholder's eye, and enliven the form of
imitative nature.
The
1 5 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or>
The great and mod fenfible difference be-
tween ancient and modern architecture, is
wholly comprifed in the compolition of
mouldings. Notwithstanding fo great and
didinguifhing an article to the beauty of all
work, as mouldings are, we daily fee fuch
productions of this fort, that one would al-
mod be perfuaded to think that there was no
caufe for them but cudom, nor any proper-
ties belonging to them but the form, which
might be extended or contracted as ideas or
fancy might guide the pen of the artid ; and,
I believe, there are many that conlider them-
felves as adepts in architecture, who vary but
little from the above obfervation.
Thofe gentlemen who fatisfy themfelves
with opinions of this fort, are as far from the
comprehenfion of fymmetry, and real effeCts,
as the difference between right and wrong.
I own, there is a third for variety peculiar to
the Engliih nation, which mud be fatisfied,
or the works of art (like the continued form
of a worn-out fafhion) would quickly decline,
and be difgudful : it is highly necelfary there-
fore to drive at invention, to gratify the mu-
table tade of fuch a people. But even this
Should be done within the rule of propriety ;
for excefles in any art are difgufting.
The invention of many new members of
mouldings were well concerted and intro-
duced, by the original authors of them ; but
they are now prodituted to fuch a pitch of ex-
travagance, that! almod wonder the inventors
5 do
The Univerfal British Builder. 159
do not leave this by-road, (which they firft
ventured upon, and made familiar and fmooth,
to their lafting praife,) and find out fome other
iimilar path, in which they may move on, for
a time, without let or moleftation.
The field of nature will never be exhaufted,
nor propriety lofe its power of guidance ;
whatever therefore bears a refemblance of the
former, within the circumfcription of the lat-
ter, is confident with fymmetry, and hath the
advantage of found reafon to fortify the in-
vention. Any thing eftranged from the above,
deviates from the real fenfe of all mouldings ;
which are intended to give force and elegance
to works, wherever applied.
The prefent tafte of mouldings (as introdu-
ced by numbers) differs much from this ; for,
inftead of giving force and beauty, they in
many cafes diminifh the natural grandeur, for
want of proper dimenfions.
Any moulding, of whatever fort or nature,
above the eye, fhould have a projection, that
the whole effeCt of the different members may
be plainly difcovered, otherwife they ferve to
no purpofe. It will be of little ufe to load a
cornice with beads, and other fimilar quirked
mouldings, if they lofe their effeCt by the
diftance. I muft allow, neverthelefs, that
mouldings defigned in the above manner in
many cafes are pleafing, but they muft be ju-
dicioufly appropriated ; for the learner is to
underftand, that inftead of lefs, thofe mould-
ings require more projection than others ; the
quefticn
l6o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
cfueftion not being how thofe things will or
do appear clo/e to the eye, but we mult con-
lider the diftance at which they are to be
viewed ; with the altitude, and natural point
of fight. If thefe circumftances were ma-
turely confidered, I believe we ihould find*
that cornices of all forts ought not to confift
of any one of the above particulars ; — archie
traves to doors, windows, &c. as well as bafe
and fur- bafe mouldings, doors* window-fhut-
ters, belexion and other mouldings clofe to
the eye, may have thefe introdudlions : — -
cornices to rooms of all forts fhould be free;
but if they muft be fubjedted in other refpedts
to the tafte of the times, the learner is to ob-
ferve, never to exceed the following bounds,
viz. To make the cornice lefs than i-aqth
part of the height of the room, nor to pro-
ject lefs than two thirds of its height : and
if the mouldings laid down by fome eminent
architects be notfufficient for his tafte, I muft
leave him in other refpedts to his own fancy l
with this point in view, not to out-ftretch
the modefty of the above proportions.
Of the Practice of Mouldings .
The working, or rather the taking-off
mouldings from drawings, is a matter of fome
confequence to learners ; I (hall not fpare
therefore to be as plain and particular as pof-
fible, to render this familiar to the weakeft
capacity : but muft obferve to the ftudent, if
he be a ftranger to this matter, that it will
be
fbe JJniverfal British BuitDER. i 6 i
be requifue to proceed ftep by flep by the fol-
lowing example* (as defcriptions in writing
are fometimes troublefome to remember) and
then in this, as well as all other points of
practice, he will be aflured of fuccefs.
Example of taking off Mouldings .
Before you begin, draw a line clofe to the
face of the moulding, (not interfering with
any of the fillets) next from this face-line
draw another line fquare at the extreme top
and bottom of the moulding, which will give
the width of your (luff to be planed up; from
the face-line draw a line parallel, for the
thicknefs of the fluff; next continue all the
lines of the drawing into this firft face-line ;
and at the projection of each annulet, or fillet,
let fall perpendiculars into the face-line too,}
which will fhew the wood to be taken out
for working your fquares ; the fame for fpring-
ing both at top and bottom. Having done
this, ftrike a line acrofs your piece of wood,
and with your dividers begin either at the top
or bottom of the drawing, and take off thefe
feveral marks of interfe&ion, pricking them
upon the piece of fluff for the moulding ; as
likewife the fpringing both at top and bottom ;
then fet your gauges to the feveral pricks*
and run them all along the piece ; proceed
afterwards to work it, firfl taking oft the'
fpringing, and fet it upon the fame pofition
for working, which it muft be in when put
up ; by thefe means you will fink all your
M fquares
\ 6 i A Key to Civil Architecture ; or*
fquares level. If there be an o-gee in the
drawing, obferve with your dividers to draw
the curve of the hollow into the face-line, the
fame as the fillets, which will be your place
for pricking off upon your fluff, and the ex-
tent of the hollow ; thus if your round be
well fitted, and worked txadlly to the line,
your kindred hollow, will work the round to
an interfedlion of the grealefb*nicety. v
There is no other moulding, but this, that
requires any obfervation in tine taking or prick-
ing off. O-gees and faint hollows are the
only difficult mouldings ; with refpedt to the
latter, whenever they occur, it is always upon
a plane face, as architraves, &c. in which
cafe, you muft always leave a fillet at the
bottom of the hollow, and rabbit the archi-
trave, or other plane, where it is to be applied,
becaufe it would be impoffible to work a
moulding of this fort to an edge with any ac-
curacy.
Of the Value of Mouldings .
S. d .
Mailers charge for all flraight mould-
ings, as bafe and fur-bafe, plain
cornices, &c. with materials, per
foot fuperficial, from is. 2 d. to I 6
Surveyors allow in general — 12
Dentel cornices by mailers — 18
Surveyors — - — 15
Block or modillion cornices, per foot,
mailers — — 18
Surveyors
The Unfaerfal British Builder. 163
S. d .
Surveyors in many places - — * 14
Blocks and modillions at per piece,
according to their fize, from i^d.
to — • * — 06
Small block cornices are valued all to-
gether, %t — — ..19
Dorick entablatures all together;- with
mutules, triglyphs, &c. at per foot
fuperficial, 4 mailers — 26
Surveyors, * from 2s. 2d . to — 24
But thefe are ufually valued fmgly, the
cornice at is. 2d. the triglyphs and
mutules at per piece, which an-
fwers the fame purport.
Architraves, at per foot fuperficial, by
maflers f — — 10
Surveyors, from 8 d. to — 10
The univerfal price of mouldings is as fol-
lows. To every fuperficial foot of moulding
may be reckoned, in general, ^ of a foot of
fluff. In fome cafes it will require more,
and others lefs, w r hich, of good
whole deal, as none elfe fhould be * S', d,
ufed for mouldings, we will call o 3
Brads, glue, &c. — o 17
The whole materials to a foot fuper- ■
ficial, are — • 04*
The labour to all mouldings worked by hand,
(as the others are not worth notice) hands
M2 a matter
164 A Key to Civil Architecture \ or*
S. d.
a matter in near 4 d. per foot, which
makes the labour and materials per
foot — — . q
The univerfal price therefore of all
ffraight mouldings fhould be per
foot fuperficial — — ■ 10
To prove the labour, 4 lengths of 10 or 12
feet, in two-membered mouldings, are one
day’s work, which may girt about three
inches each, and make twelve feet in the
whole, which, at 4 d. per foot, is 4^. above a
journeyman’s wages.
Circular mouldings are very badly regu-
lated, having no more than double meafure,
which is in every cafe too little, both for ma-
terials and labour. The real value of circular
work fhould be at leaft trebled and, in many
cafes, double meafure, and double price.
Architraves, double-faced, to matters ihould
be the fame as mouldings, both fluff and la-
bour having the fame proportions.
Single faced architraves are made of thin-
ner fluff, with a moulding glued upon them;
the materials are not worth more
than 2 d. per foot; the labour to ditto, d»
id. more ; the real value therefore
fhould be to matters, per foot o 64
Many matters charge for this work o &
Surveyors allow from 5 d. to o 8.
LEC-
The Univerfal British Builder, 165
HE nature of a door is too obvious to
need a comment ' y I fhall immediately
.proceed therefore to relate what is neceffary
to be obferved in the practice of them.
Moil: kinds of doors fhould be put into the
hands of the beft workmen, for they are a
part which require great execution y being
always in ufe, they fhould be made particu-
larly found, firm, and well handled, becaufe
they are ever oppofed to the eye ; the great
principle of chief merit lies in the ploughing,
and flicking the moulding upon the frame ;
for without mafteriy performance in thefe two
points, all the care taken in planing the fluff,
mortifing, tenanting, &c. will be of little
ufe ; becaufe in thofe two parts lie the great
efforts to a well executed door. There are
different ways of putting a door together, but
the beft and fureft is done after the following
example.
When you have planed up your fluff, and
mortifed the fliles and rails all the width, pro-
ceed to ploughing and flicking^ and cut out
what is called the haunching after ; the me-
thod adopted by numbers, of haunching the
fliles and rails before you plough or flick
them,, is a latent notion, invented by fome
who were fonder of ftudied maxims, than
LECTURE XXIV.
OF DOORS-
1 66 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
fort to a clean door, lay in the mortife, and
tenant, the maxim would be good ; but as it
depends iolely upon the parts before men-
tioned, it is obvious, that our particular care
ffould be to thefe principles ; which cannot
fo well be done to a certainty with the haunch-
ing cut out firft ; befides the inconvenience
of fpoiling the plane, by knocking the end
again ft the notches. — There are others who
pretend to be more fure and wife than the laft
mentioned, that put their work together
fquare, and plane it off on both fides ; then
proceed to plough and flick, &c. but thefe
are more intolerable than the other ; having
not one argument to fupport it ; for if the fluff
be reduced irregularly, (which mu ft be the
cafe when thus done) the moulding muft con-
fequently be fo on one fide, and palpably void
both of truth and beauty.
There is another observation in fcribing,
which it may not be amifs to mention, which
is the common error many young men daily
commit for want of thought, the attempt of
fcribing a fquare or the level fillet of an ovlo
on doors, or other framing of this kind : I
would beg of thofe who follow this method,
to abolilh it, and confider the inconfiftency of
mitring two level pieces of equal thicknefs,
and to lap one upon the other with a fcribe.
As all framing is founded upon thefe prin-
ciples, it is unneceffary to fay more of the
pra6f.ce of common work; though it may be
requifite to lay feme little of bead and fluff;
after
The Univerfal British Builder. 167
after which I fhall proceed to the value ot
doors, with fome remarks touching maho-
gany and wainfcot ones.
A bead is a moulding which cannot be
otherwife framed than by a mitre; hath there-
fore a limit or certain extenfion, for every
rail or muntin ; and is not like work that is
fcribed together, which may be moved to any
length within the circumfcription of the eye.
The beft method of framing bead and flufh
for learners, is, to mitre the work fquare, in
this date to put in thepannels, and afterwards
fmooth all off together ; then take it feparate,
and ftick the bead ; if the pannels be marked,
and put to their places, and the bead well
ftuck, you may be allured of making clean
work.
Of Mahoga?iy Doors.
Mahogany and wainfcot doors differ from
common deal framing on account of the nicety
of the mortifes and tenons ; which require
great care, no pins being ufed in thefe forts
of work, which fhould therefore be made as
fmooth as if the whole were executed by a
plane. The manner of putting it together is
the fame in every refpedt befide as other fram-
ing ; except the double margin in the middle,
which mufl: always go through the top and
bottom rail; the top and bottom rail - mufl:
alfo be continued, and inftead of being mor-
tifed, that part where the mortife fhould be,
mufl: be left as a tenant; and the doubie-
M 4 margined
1 68 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
margined ftile mortifed in this place, and flip-
ped on, both at the top and bottom.
The true meaning of this method is more
forcibly to fhow the effedt of folding-doors,
which could by no means be done, if this
double-margined ftile were to be tenanted in-
to the top and bottom rail ; and the bead run
acrofs the grain of the wood.
A mahogany door well executed, is, per-
haps, one of the neateft pieces of workman-
fhip that comes into the hands of joiners.
There are many forts of them ; but I fpeak
of the beft ; fuch as are worth in the labour
only io/. or 12/. making $ numbers of which
are in this metropolis, as well as in many
noblemen and gentlemens houfes in the coun-
try.
As thefe fort of doors are unknown in fome
parts of 'the kingdom, I (hall take the liberty
to defcribe one of them. The beft fort of
mahogany doors are cafed, having deal within
both ftiles and pannels ; and are made in the
following manner : Firft, upon the edges of
the ftiles and rails, glue flips of mahogany, of
an inch and a quarter each round the pan-
nels alfo muft be put a margin of the fame,
ibrqewhat broader than the railing, and neat-
ly mitred at the angles ; when they are raifed
and fineered, a fmall aftragal-moulding is put
npon the top of the railing of the pannels ;
They mnft Jikewife be croft-banded at both
gads, and all the pannels fluted round upon
the railings ; the ftiles and rails ftneered as the
pannels;
rfhe Unfa erf al British Builder. 169
pannels : the reafon of applying the deal, is,
for the advantage of fineering ; having more
attra&ion than any other wood.
It is almoft impoffible to fix a price for one
of thefe doors, without infpe&ion, more than
the labour ; becaufe it chiefly depends upon
the value of the fineers ; which are from is.
to ior. per foot, and more ; we mu ft confine
ourfelves therefore folely to the labour. A
mahogany door, well executed in the above
manner, is worth, per foot fuperficial, to a
mafter, in labour only, 22/. 10s. 6 d. and will
take a journeyman near nine weeks work ;
one of thofe doors with the materials is worth
20/.
To the learner, who is not acquainted with
the nature of fineering, I muft recommend to
be particularly careful of his glue ; as moft of
the errors that happen in fineering, are caufed
by laying on the glue toq thin : glue for ma-
hogany fineers fhould be at leaft of treble
ftrength to what is commonly ufed for rub-
bing of joints ; he fhould alfo be careful that
no water get under the fineer, and that the
iron with which the work is heated be not
moved to any dry place, but where the glue
lodges; keeping ftill wetting every part where
there may be occafion to move it.
There are other mahogany doors, fome
fineered and others folid, from 2 s. 6 d. per
foot to the above price*
Mahogany
ijo A Key to Civil Architecture > or>
S. d.
Mahogany doors folid, and flat pan-
nelled, are worth, with the mate-
rials, per foot — — 26
Surveyors allow, according as they are
in goodnefs, from 2 s. to — 2 9
Mafters charge — 3 0
Thofq which are fineered vary accord-
ing to the price of the materials, &c.
Wainfcot doors are ufually made with dou-
ble margins in the middle, raifed upon the
pannel, with an aftragal moulding, and crofs-
banded, as mahogany ones,
S. d.
Any executed in the above manner are
worth, per foot fuperftcial 3 6
Surveyors allow to ditto — 3 6
Mafters ditto — * — 4 o
Ditto, with flat pannel, per foot iuper-
ficial — — 2 3-
The materials to a wainfcot door, with
raifed pannels on both tides, are
worth per foot of good Norway
oak, glue, &c. — 14
Ditto, flat pannelled — o 10
The labour to a wainfcot door, raifed pan-
nel, double-margined, crofs-banded, and an
aftragal mitred round the top of the raifing, is
about a fortnight’s work; ditto, with flat pan-
nel, 6 days; common doors, ovlo, and flat
pannelled on both tides, are 2 * days work.
5 "
T’he TJniverfal British Builder. 171
S. d.
To a mafter are worth, per foot fu-
perficial, with materials — 1 4
Some furveyors allow — 16
Mafters charge — - — 16
Ditto, with raifed pannels on both
fides well done/are worth • — 1 10
Surveyors allow from is. yd. to 20
Mafters charge of good fluff, well
done — — 20
The labour to one of thefe doors is
four days.
Bead and flufh doors of deal, 2 inch
fluff, work on both fides, are worth
per foot fuperficial — 16
Surveyors allow from is. to — x 6
Many mafters charge — 16
For bead and flufh, 2 inch fluff of
wainfcot, work on both fides, fur-
veyors allow from is. 9 d. to 22
Mafters charge — — 2 2
The labour to one of thefe is 6 days.
Bead and flufh doors, on one fide,
per foot, are charged by mafters,
at • — — — o 10
Surveyors allow from yd .. to 010
The labour to one of this fort is 1^
day.
Ditto, ovlo and flat pannel, of
whole- deal, work on one fide,
fquare back, the mafters charge o 10
Surveyors allow from bV. to 010
The
172 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
S. d.
The materials to whole-deal doors,
ovlo and flat pannel, are worth
per foot fuperficial — 0 34*
The labour to one of this fort of doors
is 14. day.
This fort of work, ftuck with an o-
gee, or any other moulding the
fame.
For whole-deal fquare-framed doors,
and flat pannelled, furveyors al-
low, per foot Angle meafure, from
5 d. to — — 07
Matters charge — — * o 7
The labour to one of thefe doors is
one day’s work.
The materials are worth per foot o 2 *-
The univerfal price thould be per ft. o 54
For whole-deal ledged doors, ftuck
with a 4 o-gee ploughed and
tongued, furveyors allow, per foot
fuperficial, from 8 ^. to ♦ — I o
Matters charge from 10 d. to 1 1
The materials for one of thefe doors,
of good yellow deal, nails, &c.
are worth per foot fuperficial o 5
The labour to ditto, lA day; which may
be about 3*/. per foot more; the univerfal
price therefore ihould be per foot 9 id.
The learner is to obferve, that tjie ledgings
or frame of one of thefe doors is mortifed and
tenoned together, and the frame fo contracted,
when
< Tbe Univerfal British Builder. 173
when nailed on, as to leave a rabbit both on
the fides and the top for a flop againft the
door-cafe. „
For whole-deal doors, plain, with a *
bead upon the edges, and battens
nailed upon the back, for ware-
houfes, &c. furveyors allow, per
foot of yellow deal, from 5 id. to o 6 f
Matters charge — — -07
The materials for one of thefe doors
worth, per foot — o
The labour 1 day’s work. The uni-
verfal price therefore fhould be,
per foot — - — o 64
All half-inch batten doors are worth
per foot, fluff and labour o 3.1
Some matters charge ~ 0 44*
Surveyors allow from 3 d. to o 44-
For large coach-houfe doors, &c. yel-
low deal, of 24- inch fluff* bead
and flufh in front* and filled with
flufh behind, or framed fo, the
matters charge per foot - — 20
Surveyors allow from ijv 6 d. to 20
The materials to this fort of work are
worth, per foot — o 74
The labour to thefe doors is worth,
per foot, 10 d. the univerfal price
therefore fhould be, per foot 1 8
1
LEC.
174 Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
i
LECTURE XXV.
OF FLOORS.
A Floor is the plain area, or fuperficial
content of a room ; of thefe there are
divers forts and qualities, as of Norway oak,
clean deal, fecond beft ditto, battens of three
forts, white deals, &c. but the beft are of oak.
There is nothing very particular in the prac-
tice of floors ; though it may not be improper
to make two or three obfervations : the firft
is, when the workman prepares his boards to
be very careful not to fhoot the edges too much
under : for, if that be done, they are then
fure to creak, a thing very difagreeable : the
next is, that he be particularly careful, that
the joifts next the walls be diredtly ftraight,
and that the boards in thofe places (when laid)
be of an exadt thicknefs, and ftraight acrofs ;
for if there be any defedts, they are fooner
difcovered at the ends of the boards than ii\
the middle befides, there is the difadvantage
of their remaining fo, becaufe they cannot fo
well be fmoothed off.
The next thing is, when you plough and
tongue the ends of the heading-joints to lay
that tenoned firft ; in fo doing you will have
two-thirds of the board to nail through ;
whereas if you lay the ploughed one firft, you
have but one third ; befides, you will have
the difadvantage of making both your joints
with a rabbit-plane, which is troublefome.
«*' The
The Unlverfal British Builder. 175
The next obfervation is, when you lay a
dowel-floor, to be fure to bore for the dowels,
and utterly abolifh the tafk-mafters method
of punching the edges ; alfo, when you mark
them, do not be over anxious in giving too
much draught to the pins, for by fo doing
you will not only take away the efficacy and
flrength, but likewife bruife, and render the
heading joint more defective than if it were
not clofe at all. With regard to the number
of dowels, if the joifls be no more than 10
inches apart, one dowel between every joiffc
will do ; if 12 or 13 inches, there muft be
two, and of oak floors three.
The matters charge for dowel-floors jT. s.
of Norway oak, from inch and
eighth to inch and quarter fluff, per
fquare yard, is — 5 10
Surveyors from 4/, 10s. to — • 55
The materials, dowels, &c. are worth
per fquare yard, of good Norway
oak, inch and quarter fluff — 3 3
The labour to a fquare of wainfcot-
floor, well done, is fix days work ;
the univerfal price therefore fhould
be per fquare — — 4 15
For clean deal- floors, clear of fap, the
matters charge per fquare, from 4/.
sos. to — — - 70
Owing to a particular value they
fometimes fet on boards of an un-
ufual length, which they get clean
to lay through without any head-
ing-joints. I have
i /6 A Key to Civil Architecture ;
£.
I have known a matter In London
charge for particular boards, per
fquare — — io
The fluff unprepared coft i id. per
foot ; and the matter had kept it
by him feven years, to ferve a par-
ticular occafion.
Surveyors allow for clean floors of
deal, from 3/. 151*. to 4
The boards and dowels to a fquare
fhot, clear of fap, are worth per
fquare — * * — 3
Labour to ditto, 47 days ; the uni-
verfal price therefore fhould be 4
Second beft ditto, doweiled, matters
charge — — 4
Surveyors from 3/. to — • 4
The materials are worth per fquare 2
Labour, four days ; the univerfal
price fhould be per fquare 3
For common ftraight joint floors, the
matters charge per fquare fhot,
clear of fap — • 2
Surveyors allow from 1 /. 1 $s. to 2
The materials of fhot clear of fap, are
worth per fquare — 1
Labour to ditto, 24 days ; the real
value therefore fhould be per
fquare — » I
For common folding-doors of white
deal, the matters charge from it.
10/. to — — 1
4
s<
10
*5
o
*5
o
o
5
*5
2
o
IO
18
l 3
Sur-
The Univerfal British BuildefL 177
£• s.
Surveyors allow from 1 /. 5 s*. to 1 13
Good white fluff appropriated for
floors, is worth per fquare, whole-
deal — ■ — 1 5
The labour to ditto, two days ; the
univerfal price therefore fhould be
at lead — — 113
Note, the nails and furrings are included
in the materials to all the above prices.
The quantity of nails to all floors is as fol-
lows : To folding and ftraight-joint floors,
every fquare will take 250 nails ; dowelled
ditto, 130.
LECTURE XXVI*
OF GROUNDS IN GENERAL.
G ROUNDS are the level or plane fur-
faces on which all works are fixed, and
require but little execution; though it is re-
quifite all thefe things be noticed in the put-
ting up; becaufe on the juft and ex ad: form
of grounds, depends the confequence of
many material matters'; fuch as the hanging
of doors, window-fhutters, &c. as well as
the fixing of architraves, mouldings, See.
Grounds to doors muft always be ploughed
on the edge, if not mortifed to receive dado,
if any be ufed.
In making grounds to windows, care fhould
be taken that they are not bevilled too much,
N left
178 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
left that fliould be an impediment to the back-
fhutters ; which is very frequently the cafe.
Grounds to windows ftiould be reduced to
J- of an inch upon the edge, and ftiould not
be bevilled more than -L more, unlefs the
window-fliutters be in fpacious buildings, and
run from 12 to 16 inches wide; in fuch cafes
there is no difficulty.
Grounds in general are charged by mafters,
and allowed by furveyors, per foot, from 27 d.
to 37</. which is a fair price, if the grounds
to windows be included ; if not 27 d. ftiould
be the price. Grounds to windows ftiould be
%d. double meafure.
d.
All grounds to chimnies are charged,
by mafters., from 6 d. per foot fuper-
ficiaK to — — o 87
Surveyors allow from 5^/. to — 08
The materials to chimney-grounds,
with glue and nails, are worth per
foot, 4 d. labour to ditto, to a ma-
iler, A.d. the real price therefore
fhould be — — 08
LECTURE XXVII.
OF WINDOW-SHUTTERS.
^"“I^HERE is nothing particular in the prac-
tice of fhutters, more than has already
been faid of the framing of doors, unlefs they
be made flat pannel, which is the prefent
pra&ice,
The Univerfal British Builder. 179
practice, with an aftragal moulding mitred
round, about the diftance of the fuppofed
railing : what I mean by difficulty here, is to
advife the learner to be careful to fecure his
pannels, left they fhould caft, which will caufe
fome trouble when he comes to put on his
mouldings ; the beft method of doing this is
to plough fome pieces the thicknefs of the
pannel ; and, when you have planned and
finifhed them, put thole pieces to the ends,
till you have put on the mouldings : this may
be done as well after fhutters or doors are to-
gether ; but the other is the cleaned way, as
will appear in practice.
Of the hanging of Shutters.
There is fome difficulty in the hanging of
{butters to learners, I {ball endeavour therefore
to be as clear as poflible in this particular.
If ffiutters be hung double, that is to fay,
cut in the middle, they mu ft always be hung
the whole length firft, and then taken down
and cut ; obferve alfo with regard to this laft
particular, that you do not cut the joint by
the range of the middle bar, but fquare from
each outward ftiie, till they both meet in the
middle ; the reafon of this is obvious. If the
fath-frames fhould incline either way, they
will not open, if cut otherwife than fquare.
In order to hang fhutters at the firft trial,
obferve the following method : Firft, fet off
the margin from the bead on both fides : after-
wards prick upon the fafh-frame half the
N 2 thicknefs
i8o A Key to Civil ArchiteBure •> or ,
thicknefs of the joint of the hinge ; then
drive in brads at thofe pricks; to which put
the fhutter, and fcrew it to ; and when open-
ed, it will exactly turn to the place required.
S d
Window-fhutters are but very indiffe-
rently paid for ; the matters charge
per foot for front (butters, ovlo and
flat pannel, bead and butt on the
back — — I o
Surveyors allow from ic d, to I o
The materials to window-fhutters, ov-
lo and flat pannel in front, and flufh
bead behind, are worth per foot fu-
perficial, with glue, &c. — ° 4
The labour to ditto, hung double, to
a matter is worth per foot gd. there-
fore the price of front- fhutters:
(hould be — — r 3
Ovlo and flat in front, and fquare be-
hind, hung Angle, fhould be mea-
fured with the back-flaps and lin-
ings ; if they be framed, and all
reckoned as Angle work, at per foot
fuperflcialy if well done, the charge
fhould be — — 10
There is no way either for matters to be
paid for their trouble, or gentlemen to have
their work w'dl done, unlefs this way of fet-
tling the matter be adopted. The method by
furvevors of meafuring front fhutters at value
and half, and back-flaps but Angle meafure,
at
Tdhe Univerfal British Builder, i 8 i
at the price of io d. the former, and yd . the
latter, will in no wife pay the labour and half
the fluff.
For fuppofing a window of 18 feet,
the making the {butters, fitting in,
and hanging ditto, is at lead five
days work; which we will call only
The fluff, glue, &c. confidering the
difadvantage of cutting to wafle,
is worth, per foot all together,
3 ^d. which is —
I will fay, to front fhutters 9 feet, at
1 od. * — —
Back-flaps, nine more, at yd. ditto
S. d.
*3
4
4
11
18
3
7
6
5
3
I 2
9
We find, by the above obfervations, that
the labour of making and hanging fhutters to
a window amounts to i8j\ 4 d. and that the
price allowed by many furveyors is only 12 s.
gd. with materials ; I will appeal therefore
to every fenfible man, if this matter does not
require a better flipulation.
Some people may think that five days la-
bour is more than thefe things will take ; and
fo it is with fome men ; but we are not, in
labour, to judge from the bed workmen, but
take the cafual run in a (hop ; and if we do
N 3 that.
*
1 82 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
that, I believe we (hall find, in a window
well done, but little variation from the time
before mentioned. Talk- m afters, indeed,
would do it in three days ; but work fo done
is of little ufe, when compared to, or placed
near, fomething of the fame kind from a ca-
pital fhop.
The real price of window-fhutters fhould
be fettled according to the following example :
Inch and half fhutters, fluck with o- ^
gee or fancy moulding mitred toge-
ther, flat pannels with moulding
round ditto, flufh and bead, or ftuck
with an ovlo, &c. fhould be per
foot Angle meafure — 20
Ditto, railed in front on the pannel,
with aftraga! moulding upon it 2 3
Ditto, fluted upon the railing • — 36
Back fhutters to ditto, framed bead
and. flufh — 1 q
All common window-fhutters, fronts
and back-flaps framed, fhould be
valued all together at per foot fuper-
ficial, with materials — - I Q
Common ovlo fhutters, fquare behind,
back-flaps plane, per foot all toge^
ther — • — - o iq
Thefe prices are as low as any mafter, that
does reputable work, can afford, to live by.
L E C~
rfhe Univerfal British Builder. 183
LECTURE XXVIII.
OF WAINSCOT TING.
W AINSCQTTING, in this refined age,
is quite obfolete, and feldom ufed,
except in fludies, or offices for fervants, &c.
I ffiail omit therefore faying any thing of it
more than its value.
d .
For wainfcotting with yellow deal, fiat
pannel, per yard, mafters charge
from 4 s. 6 d. to — 50
Surveyors allow from 3 s. 9 d. to 46
The materials, whole-deal, and 1. pan*
nels, are worth per yard, glue, nails,
putting up, &c. — 26
The nett labour to a yard of vvainfcot
is, on the neareft calculation, valu-
ed at is. 2d. the univerfal price
therefore ihould be at leaft 4 Q
For fquare wainfcot, whole white-
deal pannels, of 4- ftuff, mafters
charge from 3^. to — 3 6
Surveyors allow from 2 s. lod. to 3 3
The materials to a yard of white-deal,
fquare wainfcotting, are worth 2 o
Nett labour to ditto, i\~d. the ge-
neral price therefore fhould be per
yard — — 33
For 2 inch partitions, fquare, and fiat
on both fides, mafters charge per
yard — - — 46
N 4 Surveyors
184 A Key to Civil Architecture 5 or,
S. d.
Surveyors allow per yard from 4 s. to 4 6
The materials to a yard of this fort of
work are worth, per ditto, about 2 6
For the labour to ditto, at the neareft
calculation, a mailer mufl pay, is,
is . 6 d. the univerfal price therefore
cannot be lefs than ■ — 46
For fquare wainfcot, framed Audi for
hanging canvas againft, for paper,
&c. the maders charge — • 29
Surveyors allow from 2s r. 4 d. to 28
The materials to a yard of this are
worth — — 16
Nett labour to ditto is. the univerfal
price therefore of this fort of work
fhould be • — • — 2 9
Of Backs and Elbows.
Thefe are a good invention of wainfcotting,
appropriated to the backs and elbows of win-
dows, and framed after the manner of the
lhutters, which make not only the windows
of one connected form, but alfo give more
room, by the advantage of the projection of
all the bafe and fur-bafe mouldings, which
flop againfl the architraves, and in this cafe
go down to the floor, or finiih upon a fquare
plinth the height of the fkirting.
This;
Hhe TJniverfal British Builder. 185
5 . d.
This fort of work is but poorly paid
for ; the price charged by matters
is, per foot — — o 64-
Surveyors allow from 5 d. to o
The labour to one foot of this work is
3 d. nett ; the materials are worth,
per foot, ovlo and flat, 3 the
univerfal price therefore to matters
fhould be 77 d. or l — o 8
LECTURE XXIX.
OF SASH-FRAMES AND SASHES.
S ASH-Frames are a part of the bufinefs
eafily underftood, and require but little
fkill in the execution ; the principal care
Ihould lie in the dividing the pulley-piece, fo
that there be room for the fafhes to move ;
obferve alfo, that if your faihes are to be hung
with iron weights, the pulley-block Ihould
be put within three inches of the top ; elfe, if
your frame be lhort, you will not have room,
on account of the length of the weights. Ob-
ferve likewife, with regard to the inflde lin-
ings, that they be not lefs in width than 44-
inches. By fo doing you will oftentimes pre-
vent a great deal of unneceflary trouble in
hanging the back- (butters, and alfo have fuf-
ficient room for bars, &c.
Sadies, well made, require good execution,
and fhould always be put into the hands of
men
3 86 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
men of merit and experience, becaufe they
are a part of the branch that is ever oppofed
to the eye, therefore fhould be made particu-
larly clean ; efpecially that fort which is duck
with an adragal and hollow.
There are many particulars to a well-made
fafh, which the learner mud be apprized of;
firft, the planing up the duff ; fecondly, the
fettingout; thirdly, the mortifing; fourthly,
the filiidring, and flicking the moulding ; and,
fifthly, the great principle or mader-droke,
which is the wedging up ; for on this de-
pends the beauty, or real effedt.
The learner is to underdand that the chief
merit of a fafh is attributed to the draightnefs
of the bars*, and luperficies, which may be to-
tally di (concerted by an unneceffary blow at
one fingle wedge, though the whole work to
it befide be ever fo welhdone ; great care there-
fore fhould be taken of this matter, as well
as the forementioned obfervations.
There are many ways of putting an adragal
fafh together ; the bed method is to mitre
the whole moulding, not through into the
mortife, but a little lower than the face of
the moulding, on both fides, to the extreme
point at the top.
The rail or bar which is tenanted mud be
mitred, as if for fcribing ; and then cut un-
der with a faw, from the point to the tenant.
Obferve, in doweling fafhes, that the dowels
be not fhorter than four inches.
Safhes
The Univerfal British Builder. 187
S. d.
Safihes and frames are generally valued
together, from is. 2 d. per foot to 20
For fafti-frames with oak-foils, pulley-
pieces and outfide linings of ditto,
inlide ditto of deal, the matters
charge, with aftragal fathes of good
Norway oak, from ij*. 6d. to 20
Surveyors allow from is. Ad. to 20
The materials of fath and frames to-
gether, to the above particular, are
worth per foot — 07
The nett labour to ditto, fafti hung
double, is about — o 6
The real or univerfal price therefore
per foot together fhould be — 14
Aftragal fafhes alone are worth per
foot, with materials, and well made o 9
Ditto, ftuck with an ovlo — * 07
The mafters charge for the former 1 o
For the latter from lod . to — on
For fafti-frames, with oak pulley-
pieces and foils, the out and infide
linings deal, the head fineered, and
oak fafhes, ftuck with an ovlo, the
mafters charge — 1 9
Surveyors allow from is, 3 d. to 18
The materials are worth per foot o 6
Labour — . — 05
The price therefore fhould be 1 3
For deal fafti-frames and fafhes the
mafters charge per foot — 10
Surveyors allow from nd* to — 10
The
x 88 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
S • d.
The materials are worth per foot o 4
The nett labour 3 -\d. the genuine price
therefore per foot fhould be o 10
Deal fafhes alone are worth per foot to
a matter — — 0 5
Salhes to fronts of fhops, of mahoga-
ny, ftuck with an aftragal and hol-
low, to a mafter are worth per foot
fuperficial — — 10
Mailers charge from is. to — 1 3
Surveyors allow from lod. to — 10
The materials to mahogany falhes are
worth per foot o 6
Ditto, all fhop-fronts that are made
out of the common method, fuch as
odtagon, figures, &c. are worth per
foot — . — 18
The nett labour to ditto ~ on
Circular figures double meafure.
Ditto, of wainfcot or deal, the fame as
common falhes, to a double price.
LECTURE XXX.
OF DOMICAL SKY “LIGHTS.
A Domical fky-light is a part of the
branch which requires a great deal of
practice, or at leaf!: if it be put into the hands
of a perfon unacquainted with its principles,
he Ihould be a tolerable adept in other par-
ticulars of pradtice, as well as have a profound
knowledge of lines ; not that there is any
4 thing
T^he Univerfal British Builder. 189
thing very extraordinary belonging to it, more
than other circular work, after the confe-
quence of the weather is guarded againfl,
which mufl be maturely confidered before he
cuts one piece of fluff.
The belt method of doing this fort of work,
in my opinion, is to make fliles of the upright
ribs, (though it be not the common rule) as
having by this a better opportunity of rabbit-
ing the rails, which muft be done for the
upper end of every pane of glafs, fo that the
pane above lhall reach over 2. of an inch, for
the clearer effedt of difcharging the water.
The mode of making a fky-light, in point of
workmanfhip, is to make them exadlly domi-
cal within, and flick them as another falh,
making the fluff no thicker at the bottom than
the top ; the outfide (for my own part) I
would always make flraight with the glafs
both ways, and cut the fliles out in notches,
which will appear like flripes one above an-
other, as the , dome naturally rifes ; if the
plan be an exadl circle, and have a concen-
trick crown, one templet will do for all the
ililes.
The way to get the fize of all the rails, to
every different fweep, as the dome diminifhes
to the crown, is, firft, draw the lize of two
ribs, with the outfide marked to the glafs;
and on thofe ribs fet out the fedtion of all the
rails ; from which draw perpendiculars into
the ground-plan, which will give you the ex-
a£t fize of every circle to the crown ; to every
©ns
190 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
one of thofe it may not be amifs to make
moulds, which will more pertinently point to
the learner the length, of the rails, becaufe
upon each mould, and at every Aile he can
fet out the exadt fize of the fluff, and there-
by be furer of his lengths ; when thefe things
are once got, he may proceed with the fame
accuracy as in other circular works.
S. d.
The value of a domical fky-light, if
meafured Angle, is worth to a ma-
tter per foot — • — 56
Materials to ditto, of wainfcor, per
foot — — 20
Of deal — • — 18
Safli- makers can afford them confiderably
cheaper.
LECTURE XXXI.
OF STAIR-CASING.
O F all things to be confidered in a build-
ing, there is nothing fo material as flairs,
nor any thing that requires half the abilities,
either to plan or execute. Thefe may therefore
juftly be called the mafter-piece of accommo-
dation in every edifice ; for, on a proper dif-
pofition, or difpofal of flairs, depends (in a
great meafure) not only the ftrength and
beauty, but the chief eafe and deportment of
the whole ftrudture.
A
< TheVniverfal British Builder, igr
A whole volume might be written upon
this fubjed, and, when done, fo various and
extenfive is the manner, as well as mode of ex-
ecution, that this very effential point muff at
laft be unavoidably left to the builder’s judg-
ment, without it were poffible to define every
plan and fituation that could in any wife hap-
pen ; a thing totally beyond the power of art.
However, it will not depreciate the judge-
ment of any architect, to give this point a
particular confideration, before one flone or
brick be laid ; and not (as many do) leave an
article fo material to the whole, to be jumbled
up without either grace or freedom.
Many people are of opinion, that there is
no difficulty in flairs, provided there be room
enough. I mart allow, that to the workman
it is much eafier, when the place affigned is
fpacious, the flories high, and entirely void
of impediment ; but, at the fame time, it is
alfo to be obferved, that it will re-quire a
mafterly thought in the architedl, to allow
fuch a vacuum or opening, without endanger-
ing the ftrength of the llruclure ; this parti-
cular is to be maturely confidered, and not
for the fake of fo neceffary a part facrifice the
confequence of the whole building : though
(on the other hand) it would be the height of
imprudence, to conftrud, or defign one in-
elegant or infufficient to the purpofe ; and by
endeavouring to avoid one error, plunge into
iimilar abfurdities ; it is upon thefe principles
therefore that our judgement fhould operate ;
fludying
5
192 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ftudying firft their intent, properties, and con-
venience; the nature of the building will per-
tinently point out the mode of execution, and
what will be adequate to the reft of the works
propofed ; the whole of which, more than
the executive part, muft depend, and that
folely, upon the builder, or furveyor’s judge-
ment.
Several rules and precepts might be laid
down, concerning the form, as well as ma-
nagement of ftairs ; fuch as to have a liberal
light againft all cafualtics of flips and falls ;
that the head-way, or fpace above, be in
every refped free and lofty ; that half paces
be judicioufly diftributed, and at competent
diftances ; that the breadth of fteps be never
more than feventeen inches, or lefs than eleven ;
and, that they exceed not by any means feven
inches in height, in order to prevent our legs
from labouring more in elevation than diften-
lion ; that to prevent encounters by the way
of calling, ftairs fihould never be lefs in lati-
tude than four feet fix inches ; and many
more of the like obfervations might be made,
though they cannot be ftridly adhered to, for
this fpecial reafon, that every fituation of
ftairs is tied down to the rules of difcretion,
and under the nectfiity of providing againft
its own inconveniences.
Now though it may not be amifs, for every
furveyor or builder, in the firft defigning of
a houfe, to confider the nature of the work
itfelf; what fort of ftairs have the beft effed,
both
The 'TJniverfal British Builder. 193
both in form, and when executed ; he per-
haps might avoid, in fome meafure, thofe
technical contracted plans, which are treble
the expence of elegant flairs, and which often
deflroy that gracefulnefs which fhould con-
fift in an analogy, or correfpondence, with
the beauty of the whole building.
It is from the forementioned obfervations,
that the principles of flairs will ever be a
matter of the firft confequence in every age
and to every fludent ; for unlefs it were pof-
fible to communicate wifdorn, fome people
would not be benefited by a volume written
upon the fubjedl of planning flairs.
There are many more obfervations, touch-
ing the practice of flairs, which I fliall treat
of as they may occur to my memory ; omit-
ting nothing that may conduce to the benefit
of mankind, to whom I humbly dedicate my
endeavours.
Though there be as great a variety of forms
of flairs, as there are fituations ; yet their
principles of practice are generally reduced to
three, viz. geometry, bracket ditto, and thofe
called dog-legged flairs.
Geometry flairs are of that conflru&ion
which feems, to the illiberal and vulgar, to
have no fupport for the Heps, having neither
carriages, nor leading-pieces to bear them ;
the properties of which I fliall hereafter de-
fine.
Bracket ditto, are fuch as have firings and
newels, and are fupported by carriages and
Q leading-
194 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
leading-pieces of timber ; the bracket of
which is mitred to the end of the rifer of the
flep, and finishes upon the firing-board, which
is moulded like an architrave, &c.
What are called dog-legged flairs, are fuch
as have no vacuum or fpace between the lead-
ing or returning flight, but wind round one
newel to the top ; thefe, if there be room,
have alfo leading-pieces for their fupport ; if
not, they are fometimes fixed into firings on
both fides, and put to the bearers for the
winders.
LECTURE XXXII.
OF THE PRACTICE OF STAIRS.
B EFORE I begin to define the practice
of flairs, I beg the reader to diveft him-
felf of all fuperfluous notions, fuch as the un~
connected lines laid down by many architects,
as well as the fludied maxims praClifed by
numbers, and follow the fenfe of his own rea-
fon, clofe with the inflrudtions I fhall point
out, and I make not the leafl doubt, but he
will (after he has maturely weighed the prac-
tical methods I fhall here give) be capable
of executing any thing that may occur in the
courfe of the whole.
If he be totally unacquainted with this
matter, I mult entreat of him (if it may not
be convenient to take my inflruClions to his
bench) to ftudy them till he know them by
heart ;
Univerfal British Builder. 19^
heart; by To doing, he will have the advan-
tage of purfuing his work without let or mo-
legation*
LECTURE XXXIII.
OF THE PRACTICE OF DOG-LEGGED
STAIRS.
T HE elevation of dog-legged flairs de-
pends folely upon the nature and the
fize of the place they are to be fixed in, fuch
as the length and width of the plan, as well
as the heights of the different (lories ; but the
chief article to be confidered is the height 5
for let the plan as to length be ever fo fhort,
you mud have a fufficient tread for the fleps ;
the advantage therefore for getting up mud
be taken in the half-fpace, which may be di-
vided into any number of winders required ;
for the better underflanding of which, mark
the following examples.
Firft, Upon a board make a fcale the flze
of the ground plan, viz. the length and width;
in the middle of the width fet out the newels;
and this done* you will have the length of the
fleps.
2dly, Divide your length to the half-fpace
for the number of flraight fliers, both going
to the half-pace, and returning from it, to
the firft flory ; then leave the half^pace till
you have divided your height.
jdly. By the fide of the ground-plan con^-
tinue up your newels ; and, having divided
O 2 the
196 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
the height into the neared number of fleps
you can have, count the number of draight
fliers, both going and returning; the remains,,
to make up the height of the dory, mud be
had in the half-pace, equally divided.
4thly, Continue the lines of the width of
the fleps upon the plan of the fird draight
flight, and likewife meet them from the dif-
ferent heights marked upon the newel, which
will form the fedtion of the ends of the fleps ;
afterwards, to the treads, fet on the projec-
tion of the nofings, and with a draight edge,
draw a line clofe to them, which will be the
upper edge of the flring ; next fet out the
width of the flring, allowing for the thick-
nefs of leading-pieces, laths, and plader, &c.
Then draw the fide of the rail parallel to
the flring, two feet wide upon the fquare,
with knee, &c. if there be one, and this will
complete the geometrical fedtion of the fird
flight. ^
5thly, Count the number of winders in the
half-pace ; at the top of which draw a bafe
line, equal to the length of your returning
flight ; which may, perhaps, confid of one
or two lefs than the fird flight, as may be
convenient for the advantage of the landing ;
proceed then with drawing the fedxion in
every refpedt as before.
The ufie of drawing the fedtion of flairs is
only to give the learner a clearer light into
the nature of fetting out his newels for mor-
tifing, which may be done equally as well
; b y
T he Univerfal British Builder. 197
by fetting out the height and width upon a
rod : but this is only to be done by people
who have had fome practice, or at lead; are in
pofieflion of fertile ideas.
When you ufe only a rod without drawing
the fedion, as before obferved, count the
height of the fleps in the fird ftraight flight ;
from which fet out the width of the mortife
downwards,- next fet out the height of the
winders, and the fird ftep of the returning
flight, with the rake of the nofings, which
will give you the top of the mortife for the
returning flight ; and proceed with the red as
before.
The learner is to obferve, with regard to
fixing his middle newel, that the noting of
the fird winder be exadly fiufh with the in-
fide newel, that the whole thicknefs may be
put into the half-pace ; alfo on the returning
flight, that the nofing of the fird draight flier
be flufh with theoutfide of ditto into the half-
pace : and this order mud be followed with
refped to newels in all flairs whatfoever.
LECTURE XXXIV.
OF SETTING OUT A NEWEL FOR TURNING.
r “T“^HE way to make a proper limit for the
J[ bottom of the turning, is to take the
rake of the fleps nofings, allowing thicknefs
of the capping ; and where that falls upon the
infide of the newel, is the mark for turning :
O 3 the
198 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
the newel of the returning flight muft have
the addition of one ftep in height, and then
the rake of the pitch-board, or noflngs, as
before obferved.
OF SETTING OUT A CAP, AND MITRING
URST, draw the width of the hand-rail.
and add to this the projection of the
mouldings on both Tides, for the outward di-
ameter of the cap ; to which draw a circle ;
then fet within this circle the projection of the
mouldings transferred from the firaignt rail,
and draw inner circles to the different mem-
bers ; and alfo from the ffraight rail draw the
fame lines of projection into thofe circles ; and
where they interleCi, will be the points for
mitring the cap, drawn by a ftraight edge to
the point, through different interfeCtions ;
then cut out the piece neatly, flick it in again
with glue, and fend it to the turner’s,
B RACKET -Stairs differ nothing from
what has been already defined of dog-
legged ditto, with regard to newels and firings;
only thofe have a well-hole between the lead-
ing and returning flight; fome fquare, others
LECTURE XXXV.
DITTO SQUARE, BEFORE IT BE SENT
TO THE TURNER’S.
LECTURE XXXVI
OF BRACKET-STAIRS.
circular
The Univerfal British Builder. 199
circular or oval ; and, inftead of the ends of
the fieps fitting to the firing-board, (as be-
fore obferved) the fixings are cut for the re-
ception of the fieps ; not through any motive
of ftrength and bearing, but for ornament,
that the bracket may be fixed, and mitred to
the end of each rifer, againft the firing, with
the nofings of the fieps continued round,
which covers the joint of the bracket to the
end of the ftep, and hath a beautiful efifed:
when well executed.
The fame method, with regard to drawing
the feCtion of flairs, as before obferved, i
would ftill propofe to learners in every refpeCt,
both for firings and rails, as well as ramps
and fcrolls, which will anfwer every point,
both with refped to knees, ballufters, &c.
There is no difficulty in thefe flairs more
than the clean execution ; ballufters exactly
dove-tailed into the ends of the fieps, within
the nofings properly divided ; the rifers all
glued to the covers, with backing-pieces glued
on the infide of the ftep ; and, when put up,
the under fide of the ftep nailed or fcrewed
into the under edge of the rifer ; and, when
finifhed, put on the brackets of ftrength under
the fieps, well nailed to each leading-piece.
I muft inform thofe who are unacquainted
with the method of gluing rifers to fieps, that
the beft method is to make a frame, or tem-
plet, to fix them in, with a place cut out for
the projection of the nofing; afterwards glue
Q 4 on
200 A Kf,y to Civil Architecture ; or,
on the hollow under the nofing, and work
them when together.
I hope the reader will underftand what I
mean by a templet; it is only fixing two up-
right pieces in any thing, with notches cut
out of each, the exaCt projection of the nof-
ings, to which put the front edge of the ftep,
and then glue the rifer to the cover clofe to
the above pieces, &c.
OF GEOMETRY STAIRS.
HE pradice of geometry flairs, which
hath ever been confidered as a m after-
piece of art, is founded upon as great a prin-
ciple of ftrength, as is requifite for the con-
fequence of the invention ; which is only to
carry a certain weight, or vibrating pondero-
ftry, in any cafe inferior to the power that
fuftains it.
In order to prove this, we have only to
meafure the length of the ftep, and weight of
ditto and rifer, added to what we propofe to
go into the wall ; then meafure in the nature
of continued quantity, as I have already de-
fined in the lefture of the lever, fimilar to
the following example.
The power that equi-ponderates with any
weight, muft have the fame proportion unto
it, as there is between their feveral diftances:
if a ftep therefore be four feet clear, and fix
LECTURE XXXVII,
inches
T’he Univerfal British Builder. 201
inches into the wall, the weight upon the end
in the wall muft be as eight to one.
Suppofe we fay the weight of the ftep and
rifer, with the weight of a man, which we
will call 20 ftone ; that multiplied by 8 gives
20 hundred, for the power to fuftain a man
upon the end of one ftep naked in the wall ;
but we muft confider that three fourths of this
weight will be taken off* by the fupport of
the under ftep : if we divide 20 therefore by 4,
we fhall find, that 5 cwt. or yolb. placed up-
on the end of every ftep loofe in the wall
will be fufficient to Qfarry the weight of any
man, without either wedge or nail ; provided
any thing be placed to keep the fteps in
their proper pofition ; but what is this trifle
in comparifon to the preflure of a wedge, and
the weight of a wall, or truffing of a parti-
tion ! which, with interftices properly framed,
will be adequate to the confequence of any
flairs thus conftrudted.
The reader is to obferve, with regard to
fteps of longer bearings than 4 feet, that it
will be neceffary to augment the thicknefs of
the covers, according to the following pro-
portion.
All fteps of four feet clear fhould net be
thinner than i-I i nc 'h ftuff* and for every fix
inches more of length, one eighth more fhould
be added to the thicknefs ; alfo that geometry
fteps go into the wall one tenth part of their
length.
There
202 A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr 9
There are a kind of geometry flairs which
wind round a column or pillar, whofe bearing
or certain gravity tends to one centre $ thefe
mud be a little mortifed into the pillar, the
rifer about an inch, and the tread as much
as the fquare of the end of the cover will re-
quire, to be juft clear at the points.
Thefe forts of flairs are moft frequently
ufed for pulpits, &e. and would almoft hang
with the common fupport at the top and bot-
tom however, the additional bearings into
the pillar are of great fervice.
The method of putting thefe fteps together,
if they be clean worked on the under tide, is
to dovetail the rifers into the cover : and when
put up, fcrew the flep to the under edges of
the rifers all the way up ; afterwards fit in
pieces of wood, neatly matched, in the holes
made by the fcrews ; the brackets are mitred
to the rifer, and the nofing of the flep conti-
nued round. This is much the cheapeft way
of doing geometry flairs ; but there is a great
defedl of weaknefs in the brackets hanging m
the above manner, loofe as it were, and hav-
ing nothing to fupport them from every ca-
fualty ; yet to me the ancient method of
moulding the fteps underneath, in the form
of the bracket, is heavy, unnatural, and very
expenlive, efpecially to winders.
There is another method made ufe of by
fome, which is the putting up blocks, and
fcrewing them well together ; and after co-
vering them with rifer and tread, inftead of
brackets.
T’he Univerfal British Builder. 203
brackets, framing the under fide of them, fo
that each ftep appear as folid : thefe fort have
not a bad efledl, were it not that the expence
is fo very extravagant.
The bed and fimplell method of making
geometry flairs, is, to put up a firing as in
others ; mitre the bracket to the rifer, and
finifh to the firing ; then lath and plafler un-
derneath, and finifh with light belexion
mouldings of plafler; alfo if the building be
elegantly finiflied, it may not be amifs to in-
troduce a light ornament in baffo relievo.
It is neceffary here to obferve, that the ri-
fers of 2 inch fluff, to geometry flairs of this
fort, would greatly add to their folidity.
I think it needlefs to fay any thing more
relative to the properties or practice of flairs,
feeing the forementioned hints, with a little
experience, mufl be fufficient to a very ordi-
nary capacity ; I fhall inflantly proceed there-
fore with my remarks on the nature of hand-
rails, &c.
HE manner of gluing up a twill to the
fcroll of a hand-rail, hath ever been
(by workmen) elleemed a mafler-piece of the
branch, and is considered by numbers as an
incomparable flroke of art ; in order therefore
to render this part of practice as clear as pof-
fible to the different capacities of workmen in
general, I fhall be as circumfpedt as the fub-
LECTURE XXXVIIL
OF HAND-RAILS TO STAIRS.
204 A Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or,
jed will allow, through an earned defire that
no man may lack any thing in my power to
communicate.
The firft thing the learner ffiould confider,
is the nature of a fcroll; its extent, and the
caufe of the twift. Thefe things once under-
flood, the practice of it will be obvious, and
rendered very familiar. Whoever was the
firft inventer of a fcroll to a hand-rail, I will
affirm, that he was a man of enlarged ideas;
and, though the invention be rather inade-
quate to an elegant ftrudure, and inferior to
fomething which might be propofed for the
purpofe, it is, notwithflanding, judicioufly
contrived, and hath an eafe in its mode of
finishing, which will ever render it an objed
of notice in every age,
A fcroll is the periphery or circumference of
a number of circles in a declining ftate, each
lefs than another ; to draw this therefore it
requires nothing more than to find out the
centres, from whence lines laid down to va-
rious points, fhall have given differences ;
which, when once found, will always be the
centers required to form the volute; and may
be either extended or contraded in number at
the difcretion of the workman, or as the fize
of the plan may require.
The caufe of the twift is the geometrical
elevation of the hypothenufe of a right-
angled triangle, which muft of courfe turn up
when moved from its dired line of elevation ;
and will be more or lefs according to the
height
The Univerfal British Builder. 205
height or raking- line of the pitch-board, the
pitch-board being the right-angled triangle
before mentioned, which is made from the
height and width of the ftep ; and being cut
diagonally, gives the hypothenufe or rake of
the rail.
The intent and nature of a fcroll, is to finifh
upon a level the raking of the rail ; which, if
not brought to this conclufion, mull: either be
ended in a newel, or would finifh on the
ground ; becaufe every raking-line hath an
intent or tendency to a point of reft ; there-
fore, in this cafe of a hand-rail, it is wittingly
flopped in its courfe, and brought to the above
judicious conclufion : fo that in the Ample
practice of this, the learner has nothing to
confider but the height he hath to rife, which
is one flep, from the level part of the eye to
the height of the pitch-board, which will di-
rectly meet the raking of the ftraight rail, and
muft be effected with an eafy decline, in the
natural winding ftate, to the very edge of the
fcroll.
To the gluing up this there are three prin-
cipal things to be confidered :
The firft is the matching or appropriating
the fluff, fo as that the ftraight rail and grain
of the twift (hall unite, and appear as if cut
out of one entire piece of timber.
The fecond point to be confidered, is the
fituation of the raking part, and how much is
added to it by the elevation, which bears the
fame
206 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or*
fame proportion as a raking moulding to a
level one.
The third and laft confideration is the fall-
ing of the twift from the ftraight rail to the
eye of the fcroll, which muft be done in fuch
a manner that it lhall appear with eafe and
beauty.
People who have had practice in gluing up
hand-rails, muft have acquired every tenet
relative to it, and have no occafion to gather
the leaft inftructions that may or can be pro-
pofed by any author. To folve this particu-
lar for pradtice, to thofe who have not, is the
great fource of this article ; I will propofe
therefore the fimpleft method in art and na-
ture, in order to form a proper conception
adapted to the weakeft capacity.
LECTURE XXXIX.
A DEFINITION OF GLUING UP HAND-RAILS
WITHOUT LINES.
S UPPOSING a man have a thing of this
fort to do in a remote part of the king-
dom, where there is not an architedi>book in
poffeflion either of the mafter or himfelf, and
the whole idea they can form of the matter,
is, that upon the firft ftep the hand-rail turns
round to an eye or cap of a newel, and forms
a fcroll, to fuch a perfon I propofe the fol-
lowing method:
After he has put up the fteps, and cut out
the firft by his eye to the beft appearance he
can.
IT he Unrjerfal British Builder. 207
can, let him plane up the ftraight part of the
hand-rail, and lay it down upon the nofings
of the fteps : fecondly, let him alfo cut by
his eye a mould to the fize he propofes his
hand-rail, obferving to give the eafieft turn to
the rail he can ; not abridging the fweeps,
but bringing them down within two inches
of the front of the ftep, then turn them round
to the eye, after the beft manner he is able :
thirdly, let him cut by this mould a piece
or block for the eye thicker than the depth of
the fide of the rail, by fo much as the thicknefs
of the pitch-board is, from the bafe line to the
rake, two inches from the firft point ; which
will be as much as the rail hath to fall, from
the fquare of the twift to the eye: fourthly, let
him get out one or two pieces to make out the
width of the twift, and glue them againft the
fide of the ftraight rail, and to this block,
which will make the whole ; obferving that
thefe pieces, which make the twift, are to be
cut with the pitch- boards raking-line; which,
when glued, or proffered to, will be anfwer-
able to the block and ftraight rail, and alfo
give the rife of the twift.
When thefe pieces are held againft the rail,
the learner will find, that he will want wood
upon the top-fide of the ftraight rail, and the
under-fide likewife ; thefe muft be glued on,
or left upon the ftraight rail folid before it be
planed up ; I fay, if he glue the pieces on,
and cut the outfide of the rail by his eye, as
near as he can, fquare from the ground-plan.
20 8 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
and from the outlide fquare the top of the rail,
and gauge the width and thicknefs, from thele
two tides, neatly cut by his eye, I do aver'
this method will do ; and, if he hath a good
eye, will have a pretty eftedt without ever a
line.
Though fome adepts in the practice of
hand-rails would laugh at fuch a method, I
beg leave to tell them, that I have laid down
the lines to feveral people, and fhewed them
their properties, yet have not been able to
make them underftand, without having re-
courfe to fome timilar practices of this kind;
not that I propofe this fcheme to men who
have either feen, or have the leaft conception
of flairs, or hand-rails ; but to learners who
have had no pradtice, and who may not have
the leaft idea of it.
To people w T ho have a knowledge of buti-
nefs, there are other confiderations : Firft,
the raking-mould, which muft be made acf-
equate to the length and width of the twifted
part when held upon the rake, and perpendi-
cular to the ground-plan; likewife the mould
for the back or fall of the twift, from the
ftraigh't part to the level part of the eye, both
outfide and intide.
Many people ufe no mould for the infide of
the rail, but make the top or back of the rail
fquare from the outfide. But this method is
not fo good ; for if it be done in that manner,
when you mould the rail, the fall from the
ftraight
4
The Unive7'fa! British Builder. 209
flraight part will be too rapid, and caufe a
fort of lamenefs.
The next method, or matter to be thought
of, is the fquaring of the pieces before they
are glued on, which may be eafily done, and
is a common pradlice ; and when they are
glued on, to be fini died and moulded, one
joint is left open to be broke, for the better
convenience of working the fcroll.
The way to find the raking-mould for the
curve or turn of the twilled part of the hand-
rail, is, firft to draw the ground-plan of the
rail, and thereon represent the pieces which
are to make the fcroll, or twilled part of the
rail ; upon the ground draw the width of the
firll Hep ; then laying the pitch- board down
flat upon the plan of the firft ftep, the bafe
of the pitch-board againll the rail, draw the
width of the rail into the raking part of the
pitch-board, which will give the width of
the end ; likewife draw the height of the turn
of the twill through the pitch-board, and
fquare from the raking-line ; and draw diffe-
rent lines from the plan drawn through the
raking part, and take off the feveral alliances
with your dividers, from the bafe of the pitch-
board to the plan, and transfer them from
thence to the raking part, in the manner of
an angle-bracket ; and you will have the rak-
ing mould required.
But things of this fort are much better un-
derllood by lines, or infpedlion, than defcrip-
tion ; in cafes therefore of this fort, as well as
P for
2io A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
for the method of drawing a fcroll, I refer my
reader to thofe drawn, with their manner of
performance, as ihewn by architects.
Obferve, that if you make ufe of a raking-
mould, (though many do without) you muft
make it of pafte- board, in order that it
may bend to the declivity of the rail ; other-
wife you cannot fo well mark the top of the
rail by it. By the raking-mould your pieces
are to be cut for the turn and width of the
rail ; the mould for the fall of the twift, and
regular curve for the top of the rail, are done
in the following manner.
Upon the ground-plan, where your twift
begins upon the ftraight rail, divide the out-
ward curve-line into any number of parts, and
transfer them upon a ftraight line; at the end
of thefe place the pitch-board, which you
will underftand is the height you have to rife;
then divide the raking-line of the pitch-board
into any number of parts, and likewife the
remainder of the ftraight line, from whence
you began the firft part you transferred from
the plan ; afterwards draw interfeftions of
ftraight lines, which will exa&ly give the
curve of the under fide of the rail ; and fet
up the depth of the fide of the rail parallel
to this, and you will have the curve of the
whole twift ftretched out ; with this mould
you are to cut your pieces both at the top and
bottom ; alfo the ftraight part of the rail that
begins to turn up, right away to the level of
the eye, and your work will be properly
fquared
The Univerfal British Bvi-lder. 2tt
fquared before it is put together ; obferve that
in the gluing of them, you do not let them
twitting one to another, and likewife perpen-
dicular to the plan.
LECTURE XL.
THE METHOD OF DRAWING A SCROLL.
T HE method of drawing a fcroll is to
form a circle equal to the width of two
fleps, divided into eight parts : from the cen-
tre draw a leffer circle, for the fize of the eye,
larger than the width of the rail by the addi-
tion of the mouldings, as a cap to a newel i
from the firft draw a tranfverfe diameter, and
through the centre again draw a conj ugate one ;
then from the outfide of the inner circle, to
the large one of two fteps, divide the upper
part of the conjugal diameter into eight parts*
for the diminishing fcale ; from the outward
circle, upon the lad mentioned diameter,
draw a line to the outfide of the ftraight rail
to the point of the tranfverfe diameter, fet the
other point of your dividers, and defcribe a
fweep to the diagonal line, which will be the
width of the fcale ; the eight parts drawn
through this, to the point of the diameter at
the outfide of the rail, will give the different
parts 3 all to be fet upon the diameters, or eight
parts, as they follow of courfe ; when fo much
is done fet your divider from the centre of the
eye, to the outward part of the circle, and
move it to the firft eighth part, next the
P 2 ftraight
212 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ftraight rail, making a mark in the eye ; and
likewife from the diameter, or a little above
upon the ftraight rail, fet your point, and find
the mark in the laft made, which will be the
centre for the firft eighth part ; then proceed
with the fecond ; and fo on to the eye. If
this be not plain enough, I muft refer the
reader to the drawing of a fcroll.
Obferve, that there is no neceffity to make
a fcroll equal to two fteps, nor to follow the
manner I have faid of the fize of the eye ;
either of which may be made larger or lefs,
as fancy inclines the artift ; only confider the
fize you make the outward circle, and from
that to the inner one, divide the fcale into
any number of parts you choofe to diminish
by, and draw, or divide the greater circle into
the like ; proceed then as before ; fometimes
a fcroll is made equal to a ftep and a half ;
fometimes but one ftep ; and fometimes but
a quarter of a revolution ; according to the
tafte of the furveyor or builder*
LECTURE XLL
OF RAMPS.
A Ramp is a portion of a circle ; the cen-
tre of w T hich being formed by a fquare
line drawn from the rake of the rail, and the
level of the knee at the top of the half pace
continued to this line, gives the centre for
drawing the curve of the ramp, which is in
height the rife of two fteps fometimes in
parti-
The TJnmerfal British Builder. 213
particular cafes, fuch as where there are
winders, ramps rife three or four fteps; but
thefe have a bad effedl, owing to the upper
part of the ramp having almoft no curve.
Ramps, if poilible, fhould be cut out of
the fame plank with the flraight rail ; in the
laft mentioned cafe, the ramp muft be glued
on to the flraight rail.
LECTURE XLIL
OF GLUING UP HAND-RAILS TO CIRCULAR
PLANS.
T HE many various forms and modes of
difpofing, to the belt advantage, a de-
crepit or bad concerted plan for flairs, often
draws a fertile genius to wreflle with incon-
veniences more deftru&ive to his tranquillity,
than matters apparently of much more con-
fequence.
Stair-cafing may juftly be called an art of
peculiar tendency, becaufe the more labour is
fpent in the execution of its particular parts,
the more it is fubjedted to bad caufes and ill
eftedts, from the very motives that fhould add
grace and freedom to the nature of it, which
is in the manner of the hand-rail, and can
never by any fcheme be made pleafing if
flretched into any irregular form, as upon
plans that confifl of a compound or mixture
of fleps, fuch as winders and fliers.
Stairs of this fort cannot, by any power in
wifdom and nature, be made to have either a
2i4 AVLky to Civil Architecture ; or ,
pleafing or a good appearance ; yet it will not
be poflible always to avoid them.
It is greatly to be lamented, that the diffi-
culty required to execute all irregular plans to
flairs, fhould not make furveyors more care-
ful in the difpofing of them, feeing they have
not one good quality either in circumftance
or mode to recommend them ; and yet fo in-
fatuated are the builders of this age as to
things of this fort, that we fcarcely fee one
good building, but it is merely contrived for
a pile of thefe unnatural productions.
However, lince thefe alone are the tafte of
the times, it is fit we thould endeavour to
point out the moft iimple and judicious me-»
thod for executing their hand-rails.
There are many ways of gluing up a hand-
rail to a circular, oval, or elliptical plan ; but
the beft, in my opinion, if we have but little
ground or opening, is, to do it in thicknefies
after the following manner : firft, glue up a
cylinder of plank to the fize of the well-hole^
and having rounded it to fit the plan, draw
upon it the feCtion of the ends of the fteps.
If it be an entire circular plan, a ftraight
edge will touch all the nofings, and the rail
will be in a proper natural rifing pofition < but
if we have any ftraight fliers before the
winders, and the fame after to finifh the ftory;
the rail, inftead of retaining its natural figure,
will, through its own inconveniences, be
transformed to the fhape and almoft figure of
an S } for the learner is to obferve in hand-
5 rails
The Univerfal British Builder. 215
rails of this fort, that an additional length is
obliged to be given to the handlers, in the
circular part upon the winders, in order to
remedy the defect which is cauled by th$
fudden elevation of the fleps ; and which for
diflenfion, or breadth of covers, throws us
above our natural pofition both in afcending
and defcending, and obliges us, for the be-
nefit of having hold of the rail, to have re-
courfe to the above experiment ; for without
this, we fhould be in danger of falling over
the rail in the above-mentioned part ; that
very place therefore, which fhould in reafon
(to give a pleafing appearance to the rail) be
loweft, is for the motive above-mentioned
unavoidably and indifpenfably confined to be
the highefl.
There are fome neceffary obfervations re-
lative to the practice of thefe rails; the firfl
is, the confideration of the matching of the
fluff, which is to be contrived and cut out of
one entire piece of timber, and the fineers all
appropriated to the fame places they are cut
off, in regular fucceffion ; obferve alfo, that
in the getting this timber cut, you maturely
fludy the fize wanted both ways ; and re-
member, that to a rail of two inches and a
half, it will require a piece of timber fix
inches wide, to allow for the faw-carffs and
planing up, efpecially if the opening doth not
exceed two feet.
There is another obfervation, relative to
the depth of the fluff* for the fize of the rail,
P 4 which
2 1 6 A Key to Civil ArchiteSlure ; or ,
which requires fome thought, if the plan con-
fift of winders, and flraight fliers to finifli the
(lory; for the learner is to obferve, that the
turn required to the rail, both to the winders
and from them, is lubjeded to a caufe which
he never would think of, till either pradice
or inflrudion convinced him ; therefore that
it will be highly requifite for him to leave an
inch more breadth to the fineers, than the
depth of the rail ; the ground of this maxim
is, that no body of fineers applied one upon
another in a riling flate, if they be turned
from their natural courfe, either up or down,
but will vary in the laying, as much as the
difference of the two twills, between the firft
mentioned flate of riling, and that which the
rail is turned to when continued to the fliers;
and perhaps, according to the ground of the
opening, one thirty-fecond part of an inch ;
if your rail, therefore, require to be glued in
twenty-four or more inches thicknefs, you
will be fo many half-fixteenths of an inch out
of fquare in the turning part, (more or lefs,
according to the plan, and number of fineers
required ;) this width then mud be given to
the fineers before they are laid, to be fquared
off afterwards.
In order to lay fineers upon a cylinder, ob-
ferve the following example : If you have no
convenience for doing this, and are obliged to
make ufe of bed- fere ws or wedges, lay all
your fineers together upon tha cylinder, and
ferew them down all the way dry, and l)ay-
The Univerfal British Builder. 217
Jng prepared pieces of wood to lie acrofs the
rails at 9, 10, or 12 inches apart, with holes
bored through them fo as to anfwer to be clofe
to the rail ; oppofite to thefe bore holes again
in the cylinder, fit to receive them. If the cy-
linder be of plank fluff, this will be fufficient
attraction ; but if thinner, I would propofe
the fetting your cylinder upon (tools, or legs,
for the convenience of getting underneath,
and put the fcrews through the under-lide,
making ufe of the nuts upon the top for con-
finement ; having then loofed one half, take
the afliftance of two men, one to hold up all
the fineers, the other to lay them down fuc-
ceilively as you glue them, and afterwards all
hands to be fixing the fcrews ; this, if well
done, will be the mod judicious method of
making any rail of this conftruCtion ; and
having fo done, proceed as above, to the other
half.
The reader is to obferve, that if the rail be
for a regular plan, either circular or oval, he
will have no occafion to augment the width
of his fineers more than is juft neceffary for
clearing off, becaufe the rail will come off the
cylinder ready fquared. With regard to the
number of fineers to form the adequate thick-
nefs, you muft be fomewhat particular, in
order to have a few (havings to plane off the
outfide ; becaufe where the fcrews are applied,
the fineers will naturally be clofeft, and con-
fequently leave hills between, which will
want planing off when (truck.
2i 3 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
The learner is to take notice, that if he hath
not Ieifure to wait till the rail be dry, (which,
in the beft weather, will require three weeks)
he may proceed as before, and glue down
another by the fide of it.
Many of the profeflion argue againft rails
of this fort, and give a preference to gluing
them up folid > but I cannot fide with them
in opinion.
To an opening of three feet and a half, or
four feet, where the rail may be cut out of
one entire plank, that may be a feafible me-
thod. The great point of matching the fluff*
to fmall-grounded plans (glued up folid) will
ever raife objections to the reCtitude of this
mode of appropriation, befides the danger of
io many joints, and all glued acrofs the grain,
which creates a fault in the ftrength, and is in
no wife equal to the purpofe. However, if
the learner be infatuated to this method, the
beft way that I can propofe for the execution
of it, is, ftill to make ufe of a cylinder, and
either cut the top off to the pofition and rife
of the fteps, and fquare from the perpendi-
cular of it, which will be adequate to the
ground ; or elfe cut out the pieces, and fit
them fide-ways to the cylinder, by the nofings
of the fteps, as you would do with the fineers.
This work may be done without the trou-
ble of making a cylinder, by finding or mak-
ing a mould for the backing of the rail : but
there is a great difficulty attends this praClice,
and it is hardly to be found correct. Every
author
The ZJniverfal British Builder. 219
author who hath attempted the manner of
laying this down, is in point of difgrace;
none having arrived at a proficiency, nor is
it to be well done without pra&ical allufions:
As I lay down no lines, and a defcription
without them would, in this particular, be
no fervice to the learner, I muft beg his ex-
cufe, and refer him to the true methods al-
luded to ; which, when once he is in poflfef-
fion of, will furnifh him with comprehenfions
for any other fubjedt of this fort.
I beg likewife to obferve to the learner, that
if the plan confift of fliers and winders, in the
fneeting or joining of thefe two parts he will
be careful to give the rail as eafy a turn as
poffible, and not diredtly follow the fteps ;
alfo that he leave wood both at the top and bot-
tom fide of his fineers, at the joining of the
twift to the fcroll (if it be a regular circular
plan, it will require very little) and with the
fcroll proceed in every refpedt as to a ftraight
rail.
With regard to firings to circular ftairs, I
would not propofe the gluing them up in
fineers, but folid ; efpecially, if the plan be
only circular at one end ; in fuch a cafe glue
them up and down in the manner of the cy-
linder 5 and cut to the fedtion of the fteps, at
the upper edge 5 and at the bottom in a re-
gular rifing ftate, as in the ftraight part.
Strings to circular ftairs are worth per foot
4/. bd*
LEC-
220 A Key to Civil Architecture or,
LECTURE XLIII.
/
OF THE VALUE OF DOG-LEGGED STAIRS.
OR common dog-legged flairs, S. d.
with bearers and firings includ-
ed, the mailers charge from 9 d. per
foot to — * — 10
Surveyors allow upon an average about
8 \d. or — — 09
The materials to ditto of yellow deal,
bearers, firings, nails, &c. upon
the nearefl calculation are worth o 3^-
The nett labour about 2 d. the univer-
fal price therefore may be, per foot
fuperficial — — o 7
Rails and baniflers to ditto, of inch
deal, planed fquare to reprefent iron,
are w T orth per foot, if balluflers be
included, newels turned, capped,
&c. — — <
The labour to ditto is worth to a ma-
iler — —
Mailers charge, when valued this way,
per foot — — :
Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to :
J
Some furveyors meafure the rail fuper-
ficial, including newels, at per foot :
and allow per ballufler, with cap-
ping, &c. - — - —
Which comes partly to the fame
money.
6
If
tte Univerfdl British Builder. 221
S. d.
If the newels be not turned, nor cap-
ped, the price is, .or fhould be, per
foot — — 1 9a
Ditto turned balluflers of 2 inch fluff,
per piece — — 07
For bracket-flairs of flrong fluff, per
foot, the maflers charge — 1 3
If of fecond-befl rifers and covers 1 5
Surveyors allow to ditto, from ij*. to 1 4
The materials to ditto are worth, per
foot, 5 d. the nett labour well done,
about 4^* d. the univerfal price
therefore fhould be, per foot, ij*. or I I
The firings meifured at the above
price; the architrave at lod . per
foot luperficial.
The brackets, if plain, per piece o 9
If carved, from ij*. 6 d. to — 26
For ditto of clean deal, per foot fuper-
ficial, the maflers charge, from ij*.
6 d. to — — 20
The furveyors allow from ij*. 3 d. to 18
The materials according to the ground
of the tread, if very good, are worth
per foot — — 08
Labour to ditto about 6 d. we cannot
fix the price therefore at more per
foot than — — 1 5
Architraves and brackets as before.
Geometry-flairs, of clean deal, with
a firing, are worth per foot fuper-
; * ficial from 2 J*. 6 d. to — 3 o
Thefe
222 A Key to Civil Architecture $ or,
S. L
Thefe forts both the mafters and fur-
veyors in common are unacquaint-
ed with, it being rare to lee one
done this way.
The materials to ditto with rifers of z
inch fluff, good fcrews, &c. are
worth per foot fuperficial, if they be
wedged in a plank in the wall, from
9 d. to — — i o
Labour to ditto is worth to a mafter i io
Geometry-ftairs moulded under the
Heps, according to the bracket, are
worth per foot, from y. to — 3 6
The materials to ditto are worth 2 o
Labour to ditto — — * r o
For mahogany hand-rails, fcroll and
ramp, the mafters charge per foot
fuperficial, from 3.;. to — 46
according to the goodnefs of the
The mahogany to ditto is worth per
foot, of Jamaica wood, b^d. of rat-
tan, $d. labour to ditto is about 2J*.
per foot ; the real price therefore
lhould be per foot — 3 6
Surveyors allow from 2 s. 6 d. to 40
For all circular rails double meafure,
which in feme refpedls is too little,
as weith-rails, or fo ; if the fur-
veyors will not be perfuaded out of
their humour, and will allow no
more
^he Univerfal British Builder. 223
S. J.
more than double meafure, the
price fliould be per foot — 76
Labour to ditto Angle meafure 7 6
Allowing alfo is. per foot for the cy-
linder, deal rails, fcroll and ramp,
worth per foot — • — 2 0
Matters charge for ditto — - 2 3
Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to 20
LECTURE XLIV*
OF FRONTISPIECES.
T HE word Frontifpiece imports the fore-
fide or entrance of a door, ufually
made richer and more beautiful than the reft
of the exterior work. There are many diffe-
rent forts of thefe ; but the mod elegant are
fuch as are made according to the defigns of
one of the five eftablilhed orders, invented
and delineated by the ancients. The moil
confiderable of them for the purpofe is the
Dorick, on account of the large projections
of its cornice, which prevents the inclemency
of the weather from attesting thofe who may
have occafion to wait at the doors for admit-
tance ; a matter of very great confequence*
The manner of appropriating the orders to
frontifpieces, is to lay afide the pedeftal, with
all its appurtenances, and let the bafe of the
column finilh upon the firft ftep with a fub«
plinth.
Th«
224 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
The method of proportioning the Dorick
order to frontifpieces, is to let the whole be
guided by the proper fymmetry of the door,
in the following manner : Make the height
of the door equal to two diameters ; after-
wards divide the width of the door into four
parts, and one will he the diameter of the co-
lumn ; the height of the column, bafe, and
capital will be equal to 8 diameters; the ar-
chitrave, frieze, and cornice are 2 diameters
high ; the pediment is in height two-ninths
of the width ; the Dorick column diminilhes
one-lixth of the diameter at the bottom.
The Tufcan door may be divided alfo into
four parts, one of which is the diameter of
the column ; the height of the column, with
bafe and capital, is equal to 7 diameters, the
entablature 2, which make the whole height
9 diameters, the pediment as before.
For the lonick front, the door's width mud
be divided into 9 parts, two of which are the
diameter of the column ; the height, with
bafe and cap, is 9 diameters, and 2 the height
of the entablature, which makes the whole
1 1 diameters high ; the proportion of the pe-
diment the fame as before.
To proportion a Corinthian frontifpiece,
divide the width of the door into 5 parts, one
whereof is the diameter of the column ; the
height, with bafe and capital, is 10 diameters ;
the entablature 2 ; the height of the pedi-
ment 2*9ths of the width,
4
The
¥he Univerfal British Builder. 225
The general proportions of the Compofue
order are the fame as the Corinthian.
The component parts to each front may be
had by confulting the orders, as a defcription
here would not make any addition, or be at
all clearer than may be feen by infpedion.
The practice of frontifpieces may be reckoned
equal to any thing in the bu finels *, it may
not be amifs therefore to point out its proper-
ties, and where the difficulties lie, fo that the
learner may proceed with judgement and ac-
curacy.
The defign being fixed upon, and the fe-
veral mouldings laid down at large, with the
pitch of the pediment, diameter of the co-
lumn both at the bottom and top, with the
cap and bafe drawn from them, 6cc. the fir ft
thing the learner fhould turn his thoughts up-
on, is the gluing up the columns, which can-
not be trifled with ; for thefe being badly ex-
ecuted, will totally eclipfe the beauty of the
whole ; notwithftanding, the vaft mafs of
mouldings, and decorations, fuch as the tri-
glyphs, mutules, frets, caps, bafes, &c. as well
as the circular-foffite, and jamb-lining, which,
are all very efifential points, and muft be done
well in their place, to render it an objedfc
w r orthy the notice of the publick.
And firft of the columns.
The learner is to obferve, that the cufto-*
mary method of gluing up columns, is to di-
vide them at the bafe and cap into eight parts:
which when done will (hew the thicknefs of
Q_ the
226 -^Key to Civil Ar elite St ure ; or,
the fluff required ; to find this, draw the lines
acrofs through the circumference, and after-
ward lay down the lines clofe by the outfide
of the circle, both at the top and bottom of
the column, which will fhew it in an octa-
gon flate, and point out the width of the
itaves both at the top and bottom ; this width
will vary as much as the column diminifhes
on one fide ; when you have got the width
of the Haves at the top and bottom, you muff
then confider that the natural intent of all
columns is to be reprefented fwelling, (either
from the bafe or from one third of the fhaft :
but for fronts of doors I approve of the for-
mer method, or at leaff within one foot of
the bottom;) and cannot be got otherwife
than by diminifhing the outfide of the Haves
equal to one fide of what the column dimi-
nifhes to the top ; the firfi thing therefore,
after the Huff is fawn out, is to diminifli the
Haves by a board cut for the purpofe intended.
As the diminifhing a column is a fecret to
fome, I fhall endeavour to point out a clearer
and more judicious manner than was ever of-*
fered to the publick before.
Firfl, draw a circle for the fize of the co-
lumn below; and within it another, which
will be the fize of the top ; and having drawn
a line through the middle, for the diameter
upon it, where the inner circle cuts, draw a
line fquare into the outward circle, which
gives a portion of what the column dimi-
nifhes ; then, having got a board equal to the
length
j The Univerfal British Builder. 227
length of the fhaft, divide it into any num-
ber of parts you pleafe, fuppofe eight; next
with your compaffes divide that portion of the
outward circle (which the fquare line cuts off)
to the diameter into eight parts alfo; and draw
lines from each into the fquare line, all tend-
ing to the centre of the circles, which will
give the fcale. Afterwards take off each part,
and transfer them into the diminifhing board,
from the flraight edge, driving in brads at
each point, about which bend a regular thin
lath, which will form the diminifhing-board
required.
Obferve, when you diminifli fluff, if you
are pinched for thicknefs, that you need not
plane it all off at the top end ; for it matters
not whether it be taken off the top or the
bottom. To that it do but fit the templet
above-mentioned ; and be but at each end
pricked off and planed to a regular thicknefs, 1
that the pieces of cants, which mufl be glued
on the infide for ftrength, fit the infide of the
ftaves. Having gone io far, fet your bevil to
the edge, and make a little templet to fit the
outfide of two by the drawing when together,
in order to try them, when you joint the
edges ; and glue them at firft two and tWo
together; then glue them in halves, and after-
wards glue the two halves together, which
will complete the whole; for a frontifpiece
you may not perhaps want more than 7 ftaves,
in which cafe you are firft to glue 6 together
by two's, afterward one more, or joint them
Qjs one
228 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
one againft another in fucceflion as you do
other joints.
The learner is to obferve, that if the iron
of his joining-plane be not particularly fquare,,
when he comes to round his columns, his
joints will be open, which will have a very
difagreeable appearance, befides being very
defective in point of ftrength.
The method of rounding a column is, to
cut a board circular the lize of the bafe, and
another the lize of the top, and nail them on
to each end, having bored holes to put pins
through at each end, hang them in a creel,
by the fide or on the top of the bench, for
the advantage of turning them round ; plane
them to the templets at each end, and by the
diminilhing board for length, and your work
is done.
Bafes and caps are fometimes glued up as
columns, and fometimes got out as folid of
different thicknelfes ; the latter method is
much the flrongeft, though attended with
more expence ; obferve in this laft method,
that the thicknefs of the fluff be always equal
to the moulding, and the joints always in
quirks and fillets.
( Having done the columns, bafes, and caps,
the next matter of material confequence, is,
the fronton or pediment, which is fuperior
in fize to the level work, in proportion to the
pitch ; the moulding and other decorations
therefore will require to be made adequate to
the purpofe.
The
The Univerfal British Builder. 2 29
The fimpleft way to find the fizeand curve
of a raking-moulding, is, firft, to draw the
level one ; from which, fet out the height of
the pediment, and draw lines parallel from
the level fillets by the raking-linc, and paral-
lel to each other at the top end ; in any part
of the raking lines, draw the fize of the mould-
ing, equal to this width, with the projections
of the level moulding ; afterwards draw a
line through the face of each, the fame as
you would do to draw the curves of an o-gee
or fima nedta ; and, having divided this face-
line into any number of parts, draw them
fquare from this 1 aft-mentioned line into the
moulding, and transfer them to the raking
part, which will give the points for tracing
the curves ; this may be done full as well by
pricking off the curves in the middle of the
level moulding, and transferring them to the
raking one ; and, after finding a centre that
will ftrike three pricks, will draw the raking
curve required.
The way to cut a raking- mould to mitre to
the level one, is, to make a pitch-board equal
to the rife of the pediment, and putting it in-
to the mitre box, fet the moulding upon it;
then cut it in the fame manner as another
mitre.
The way to mitre a little o-gee round the
block, and mutules in a pediment, is, to make
a fmall jack for the purpofe to fhoot them in,
and glue them on before they are put to the
pranceer; the learner is to obferve, that there
Qj muff
230 A Key to Civil Architecture •, or ,
muft be three forts of mouldings to cap a
block upon the rake, which bears this analo-
gy; as the level moulding is to the raking one,
lo is the raking ditto to the returning one of
the top, and found in the fame manner as the
other; now as the putting together the diffe-
rent works well, can only be acquired by
practice, for any further explanation on that
head, I mud refer the reader to it, as it is im-
poffible to communicate execution.
Of a circular Cofit e to a F rontifpiece.
The beft method of gluing up what is called
the (tiles of a foffite, is to do them in two
widths, and break the joints ; if they are to
be (tuck, that is, framed, you mud be care-
ful to turn the grain with the edge all one
way, for the advantage of (licking the mould-
ing, and to fineer the (files the thicknefs of
the fquare of the plan ; the beft way of con-
fininga fineer upon any concave circular-work,
fuch as the above (files, or fuch as may be
wider, is, to plough a couple of fuch pieces,
and having nailed one faft upon one end firft,
afterwards thruft the fineer round with the
end into this plough-grove, which will give
the exa£t length ; then, when you have laid
on your glue, thruft it in as before, and put^
ting on the other piece likewife, nail it faft
down upon the other end, and if your fineer
be long enough, the glue will all be properly
fqueezed out without any other force.
If
The Univerfal British Builder, 231
If the foffite be plain, I would only make
a fineer, and cut out ribs to bend it upon,
with rails acrofs equal to the width, then
proceed as before obferved ; after the fineer
js on and dry, glue backings on the outfide,
which is much the readied way, and will an-
fwer the purpofe well ; the jamb-linings are
the fame as to any other framing.
LECTURE XLV.
OF THE VALUE OF FRONTISPIECES.
F FRONTISPIECES, if valued properly,
fhould in every refpedt and part have a
different price.
S. d.
Firft, the jamb-linings, which fhould
be made particularly well, if of flat
pannel, are worth per foot to a ma-
iler — — .
Of raifed ditto — » — -
Of bead and flufh — —
The materials are worth per foot,
whole yellow deal —
Surveyors allow, and mailers charge
for them when well done, from
lod. to — —
For the ground to a front, the mailers
charge, per foot —
Surveyors allow from 6d . to —
The materials are worth 2 ~d. the la-
bour 3 d. the price therefore may be
cu
0 5
1 4
o 8
0 7t
\
7
If
o
272 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
S. d.
If the columns, bafe, and cap, be va-
lued together, which is the cuftom
with fome, the mailers charge per
foot from ij*. 9 d. to — - 26
Surveyors allow the fame, according
as the work is executed ; but the
moft general price is — 20
The materials, to ditto, are worth per
foot fuperficial, including the core
of timber, which fhould be put
through all columns, to take the
weight off the bafe and cap o 9
The nett labour, with expence of
turning, per foot ■ — * o 8t
If f r bales, are folid, and the labour
altogether well done — • o 1 r
The real price therefore fhould be per
foot fuperficial — • — • 110
For all level mouldings, the maflers
charge - — — - 1 2
Surveyors allow from is. to - — 12
The raking mouldings — * 1 3
Mouldings of all frontifpieces, as they
are, or at lead lhould be, all of
good yellow deal, are worth per
foot • — — — 10
The architrave and cornice, with frieze
taken together, is worth per foot
with the triglyphs, bells, &c. 2 6
The materials to ditto, are worth per
foot — — o 6
The
<The Univerfal British Builder. 233
S. d.
The method of valuing thefe, is, to
value the blocks or mutules at fo
much per piece, plain blocks from
9 d, to — — 1 o
Thofe with bells in them, from 2 s. to 3 6
The frieze, at per foot, from is, 6 d ,
to - — - — ■ 2 o
All the mouldings at per foot — 1 3
The bearers and cover-boards at per
foot — - — 06
The fhaft of the columns, per foot
fuperficial, at — — 1 6
The bafe and cap, per foot, at 26
The fub-plinth, and plinth of the bafe,
together at — - — 0 7
Frets under the planceer of the rak-
ing part, per foot — 20
Flutings, upon the facio, per foot o 6
The above prices, which are the medium
of many furveyors prices, are near enough,
and not extravagant ; the quantity of fluff
for mouldings hath already been conlidered,
therefore need no further explanation.
Fan-lights to frontifpieces are made
from 2J*. per foot to — 46
Sometimes they are paid by the piece, but
this is an uncertain way.
LEC-
234 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
LECTURE XLVL
OF FLUTING COLUMNS OR PILASTERS,
T HE way to fet out a column for flut-
ing, is, to divide it at its bafe into
ninety-fix parts, giving one to the fillet, and
three to the flute, which will juft make in
number twenty-four flutes, and twenty-four
fillets.
The way to gauge a column for fluting, is,
to fix a parallel piece to the' middle of the
column, and turning it round to every prick,
or part, as you have fet it out, run the gauge
ftraight along as in other work.
The method of gauging a pilafter, having
divided it into twenty-nine parts, and given
one to the fillet, and three to each flute, is,
to make a gauge that will run half of them at
once, and afterwards turn it to the other fide
for the other half: if the pilafters diminilb,
you muft make a gauge with pricks equal to
the whole, cut out to fit the width of the pi-
lafter at the bottom, and, where it begins to
diminifh, turn the gauge a little a-lkew, and
continue fo to the top, obferving to keep the
points of the notchings of the gauge clofe to
the outfide of the pilafter on both edges, thus
will your flutes be regular, and diminifti pro-
perly. With regard to cabling columns and
pilafters; fome people have a method of work-
ing cables in the folid, with a plane made for
4 the
The Univerfal British Builder. 235
the purpofe ; but, for my own part, I do not
approve of it, becaufe it doth not work clean.
Columns fluted and cabled require the addi-
tion of nine-pence per foot, or three-pence per
foot run, of every flute and cable.
LECTURE XLVII.
OF GLUING UP CORINTHIAN OR IONICK.
CAPITALS.
T HERE is nothing very difficult in this
work, except judgement in appropriat-
ing the pieces to their proper places, and ap-
plying the grain of the wood the fame way the
ftaves glued up ; the belt way to find this, is
to draw the fize of the capital, with the leaves,
abacus, &c. and their proper proje&ions,
which will point out the length and thicknefs
of each piece. The fame alfo of the Compo-
fite capital, &c.
Of Chimney-pieces .
Chimney-pieces are a great addition to
rooms, and require clean execution ; the
mode of proportion affigned to them, is the
dexterous refult of fancy, which at prefent is
in high eftimation. There are many elegant
and judicious defigns published, which might
ferve as a ftandard for this fort of work ; but
cuftom having long ago bid defiance to pro-
priety, and now ftalking abroad without let
or moleftation, what I have before faid of
mouldings
236 A Key to Civil Architecture or,
mouldings fhould ferve as a direction for
chimney-pieces as well as the reft of works
of this kind.
S. <L
For chimney-pieces the mafters charge
per foot Jr. to - — — 18
Surveyors allow from 9 d. to — 16
All plain chimney-pieces worked by
hand are worth per foot — - 10
Ditto with breaks 1 3
With dentils — — 16
Fret dentils are charged per foot run o 6
Common fillet dentils per foot run 04.
Frets to friezes to ditto per foot run 2 o
Fluting in friezes, 6 inches wide, per
foot — — 26
Fluting upon facios per foot run o 8
Flutings and beads in friezes are per
foot run — — < 02
As chimney-pieces are a particular work,
the above prices are in general fuch as take
the medium, both with refpedt to the mafters
charging, and what furveyors allow ; I fhall
not enquire therefore too ftri&ly into their
merits, becaufe they are fo very tedious, and
take much time to execute.
LE C.
"The Vniverfal British Builder. 237
LECTURE XLVIII.
OF A CIRCULAR SPLAYED SOFFITE IN A
STRAIGHT WALL.
A Circular fplayed foffite in a ftraight
wall hath no great difficulty, when a
proper curve is found for the ftiles ; the fol-
lowing method is without exception.
Firft, draw the lines by the fplay of the
wall till they meet at a point ; afterward
transfer the length of thefe lines to another
place ; and having divided the circle of the
arch into equal parts, and transferred them on
to a fweep ftruck by the above radius, the
Rile is found ; when bent round, it will be
the exa curb for the outfide of the wall ;
then fet off the ftile, and proceed as in other
circular work.
LECTURE XLIX.
A CIRCULAR SPLAYED SOFFITE IN A
CIRCULAR WALL.
A Circular fplayed foffite in a circular wall
is upon the fame principle as the above,
though it require more judgement in the ex-
ecution.
EXAMPLE.
Firft lay down the curve of the wall, with
the fplay of the jambs, and transfer them as
before $
238 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
before ; then divide the circle into any num-
ber of equal parts, and transfer them to the
curve flruck by the centre, from the fplay of
the jambs; afterwards draw the lines all to
the centre; then draw a fquare line clofe to
the front of the outward curve of the wall ;
and, having drawn the arch a little below the
windows opening, continue lines perpendi-
cular from the parts the arch was divided
into, to the fquare-line laid clofe to the curve
of the wall, and the fweep {truck by the cen-
tre and fplay of the jambs, which will give
the points for tracing the curve ; this when
held upon the fplay, and bent round, will ex-
actly anfwer the purpofe : the outfide being
once got, proceed with the belt: advantage*
Things of this kind very rafely happen ;
when they do, they fhould be put into the
hands of men of great experience, and found
judgement. No reafonahle value can be fixed
to this work : the method is to meafure them
four times ; but this is too little at the conr-
mon prices. This method will do in point
of fluff ; but if the work be framed, the
prices fhould be per foot ij*. and fubjedl to
the above meafurement. In jobbs of this
kind, the furveyors are obliged to learn the
quantity of materials and labour of the ma-
ilers, and fettle a price accordingly.
LEC-
fhe Univerfal British Builder. 239
LECTURE L.
OF DRESSERS.
D RESSERS fhould be always made of
white deal very clean: there is no-
thing required in theie but their value.
S. d .
The maflers charge for 2 inch dref-
fers per foot — — 12
Surveyors allow from is. to — 12
The materials are worth per foot o 6
Labour to ditto 4 d. therefore is. per
foot is very real’onable — - I o
Columns to ditto are worth per foot,
3 by 3, per piece — 16
Mailers charge for ditto from is. 6 d .
to — — - 2 o
Drawers are worth per foot, of deal, o
Runners to ditto per foot lineal o 2
Shelves to dreflers are worth per foot,
of whole deal — — 1 7
Common horfe-plane cornice to ditto
per foot run — • — - 0 3
Of Slit -deal Linings .
All flit-deal linings are worth per yard,
of white deal, ploughed, tongued,
and beaded * — • — • 22
Ditto of whole yellow deal 3J. 10 d. or 4 o
Bracketing
240 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
S. d.
Bracketing to plafter cornices per foot
run 5 d. if 6 inches fquare ; if but
4 inches ditto — 04
LECTURE LI.
OF TORUS-SKIRTING.
T ORUS-Skirting is worth per foot yd.
Ditto to flairs double meafure.
As there is a difficulty in putting this up
to flairs, I fhall give my learner a method,
which, if he purfue with accuracy, he will
in this point never err.
EXAMPLE.
Firfl make two templets, one with the no-
li ng cut out, fo that it may go clofe to the
rifer ; the other the width of one of the higheft
Heps made parallel ; lay the fkirting-board
clofe to the notings of the fteps : then with
the templet againfl the rifer mark all the
lines for the rifers, and with the parallel
board ftrike out the lines to fit upon the
treads; obferve alfo, if the covers be a little
caff, to fet your compaffes to the part, and
from the top-edge of the board prick off the
deficiency downwards ; and having procured
a piece of one of the nofings, mark on the
board as is required for every flep ; thefe ex-,
adlly cut will fit at the very firfl time ; if not,
it is of little ufe ; becaufe a fecond fcribing
either
*The TJmverfal British Builder. 241
either up or down alters the nofings and the
general tenor of the whole, which cannot be
any way fo well executed as at the firft time.
Of ‘ Trunks .
S. d.
Trunks of good yellow deal, well
pitched, are worth per foot from
3 od. to — — 10
Labour to ditto — < ~ o 3^
LECTURE LIL
OF CARPENTERS WORK,
T HOUGH Carpenters work muft be al-
lowed and confidered as the principal
fource of ftrength in every building, yet the
practice of it is lefs irkfome and difficult than
many other of the interior parts of a ftrudture,
efpecially in London, where it is a rarity to
fee what may be called a piece of good car-
pentery work : not but there are many capi-
tal jobbs in this branch, though they feldom
occur, except it be in the country, at the
manfion-houfe of fome nobleman, or gentle-
man, whofe chief pleafure it is, to ered:
fomething noble, to ffiew their regard for
their paternal eftates.
There is nothing very material in the prac-
tice of carpentry, more than what demon-
Urates itfelf by a drawing ; I (hall not take
up my reader’s time therefore with what he
R may
2 4 2 A Key to Civil Architecture ; cr,
may efteem as trivial obfervations ; but only
give fome few hints of the particular methods
and properties, and proceed with the value
and coniequence of materials.
Firft of foundations, as it is the carpenters
bufinefs to fettle the particular under-filings,
and fuhtradion, touching the folidity of the
ground.
With refpeft to piles, or planking, I would
advife the builder to have a particular care both
for the benefit of others, as well as his own
work ; and weigh well the confequence of the
fuperftrudure by the intended fize and height,
in order, if poflible, to prevent premature fet-
tlements, as well as the under conduds or
conveyances of fuillage, cefs-pools for the
foil, &c. that they likewife be in no-wife
detrimental to the natural grounding of the
foundation.
When his mind is at reft with refped to
the bafis of his building, he mu ft then turn
his thoughts to the centring for the vaults.
Thefe are of various forms ; but the ftrongeft,
in my opinion, is the circular ; for if the
bricks or ftones to thofe were cut wedge-wife,
and difpofed in the form of an arch all from
one centre, fuch bricks and ftones could in
no wife fink downwards, for want of room to
defcend perpendicular ; becaufe all folid ma-
terials muft defcend diredly downwards, gra-
vity having a natural tendency to the centre
of the world, and nature performing all her
works by the fhorteft lines j neither can the
5 hutments.
*rhe Xlniverfal British Builder. 243
butments of a femicircular arch fuffer fo much
as one made flatter, becaule the roundnefs of
it will rather incline the weight to reft upon
than fhove them out.
Thereis no difficulty eitherin the making or
[ fetting of centres, but what every man who
: hath Served a time to the bufinefs mull natu-
‘ rally know; yet I {hall not omit to acquaint
I my reader, that the mod familiar method of
fetting centres, is, to cut pieces of quarter
equal to the length at the top and bottom,
and fet the bearers upon wedges, for the con-
venience of eafily ftriking them ; alfo if the
vault be groined, to keep them up conflder-
ably in the middle, to prevent a defeat in ap-
pearance by the fetting of the arch ; a thing
very common in arches or vaults of a great
fpan.
As forne young men may be unacquainted
with the nature of ftriking out centres, the
following is a certain method, for every part
or portion of a circle whatsoever.
EXAMPLE.
Firft draw a bafe line equal to the width of
the arch you intend ; from the middle raife a
perpendicular equal to the height, and like-
wife continue it below the bafe line'; then
from the height to the point of half the width,
draw an hypothenufe, in the middle of which
fet to your fquare, and draw a line into the
perpendicular, which will be the centre re-
quired : and fo of every other circle.
R 2
An
244 ^ Key to Civil Architecture ; of.
An elliptick may be (truck with a trammel
for a rough arch ; but the mod exa£t and bed
method is to divide half the width and the
height into any number of equal parts, and
draw interfedtion of lines, which will form
the arch defired.
The centres being done, the next thing that
requires the carpenter's thoughts, is, the
plates for the floors to red upon in the walls*
which are of the greated fervice imaginable,
both with refpedt to drength, and form in
practice ; alfo, if the building be of no con-
fequence, and require binding-joifls, confider
well the nature of them, both with regard to
fcantling and difpofltion, and that they by no
means exceed 3 feet 6 inches apart, or 4 feet
at the farthed, to prevent too great a fcantling
for the bridgings.
The practice of this work is familiar ; the
binding-joids are mortifed into the girder Audi
with the under fide, and fo much below the
top as will allow the thicknefs of the bridgings
to be equal with the top of the girder ; the
binding-joid mortifed near the under edge,
for the cieling-joids at one end, and to flip
into a chafe-mortife at the other.
Partitions come next under our examina-
tion, but require no difficulty : the principal
thing in partitions lies in properly placing the
braces, fo that they may in fome meafure ferve
as a kind of butment or flay one to another;
where thefe are ufed, they are both of drength
in fupporting the upper floors, befides which
*The ZJniverfal British Builder. 245
•they are a tie to the building by the top rail
being dove-tailed upon the plates, though this
ihould not be too frequently ufed, as being
lefs ferviceable than partition-walls ; having
mentioned thefe things, we will not doubt
but the ingenious carpenter will, from the
hints before given, remember the adjuncts of
ftrength and convenience, fuch as bond-tim-
bers, lintels, difcharging-pieces, taffels, &c.
and have them fet in their proper places, for
the advantage of putting up his own work,
and therefore turn our thoughts to the great
confideration of every building, which is the
roof, and hath a two-fold meaning, both of
equal confequence. The firft is, the juft
notion of the benefits intended, which is a
ftielter or covering from the inclemency of the
weather; the fecond, the extremity of the
properties of this covering, which requires
fome thought, that they may not be inconfi-
derately applied either as too heavy or too
light ; both of which I have in my ledture of
ftrength hinted at, the former having the com-
mon objection of prefling too much the under-
work ; the latter (though of lefs danger)
being always fubjedt to the power of a ftorm.
With regard to the height of the pitch of
roofs, the natural effedt of the climate Ihould
be the only guide; for if the fituation where
we build be cold, and fubjedt to heavy falls
of fnow, the pitch ihould be particularly
higher, to give a fall to the gathering-weight ;
though, I think, the common pitch, under-
R 3 flood
246 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ftood by every workman, will be high enough
for any part of this kingdom ; and fomewhat
under it will do for the cities and large towns,
efpecially for pan-tiles.
The principal thing in the practice of roof-
ing, is the fcarfing, or raifing of wall-plates,
to find the length and backing of the hip-
rafters, to contrive the truffes, that they may
take part of the weight from the beams of the
principals, and alfo be a fhore to the length of
the rafters ; alfo, to lay out the different lkirts
of the roof in ledgement, in order to find out
the real length of every piece, as well as the
quantity of fluff required.
LECTURE LIII.
TO FINP THE LENGTH OF A HIP-RAFTER
TO ANY ANGLE.
TT'IRST, upon your drawing, lay down the
JL principal you hip the roof to, and make
a line through the middle of the plan, which
is the bafe of the ridge ; then draw the bafe-
]ine of your hip; from this bafe-line, in the
point of the baie of the ridge, raife a perpen-
dicular, and prick off the height of the pitch
of the roof, from which prick, to the outward
point of the bafe line at the angle, draw the
hypothenuie, whi£h will be the length of
the rafter required; afterward fetoff the thick-
nefs at the top and bottom, and you have the
form of the hip-rafter with the bevils at each
end.
5 The Univerfal British Builder. 247
LECTURE LIV.
HOW TO BACK A HIP FOR ANY ANGLE.
RAW a line acrofs the angle of the roof.
parallel from each corner, at any dis-
tance; in the middle of this line (which will
be upon the bafe of the hip) fet the point of
your dividers, and extend the other to the
neareft place againft the infide of the hip juft
laid down, then turn your dividers to the bafe-
line toward the ridge, and make a mark,
which being drawn to the outward points of
the parallel line, will give the backing of the
hip required.
I think it needlefs to fay any thing concern-
ing the method of mortifing and tenanting
roofs together, or of truffing of girders, or
fcarfing of plates, feeing Langley and others
have fo largely defined thefe things ; that an
immediate recoiirfe to them will (hew how
they are done, and, moreover, things of this
fort are always much plainer by infpedtion
than defcription.
It may not be amifs to mention that tie-
beams fhould not be more than ten feet apart,
and well pinned down upon the plates ; the
ftrength of a dove-tail being inefficient for
the ftrength required ; and that the pieces
appropriated to tie the angles, be of fufficient
fcantling, well pinned down alfo, to keep
every part in due form, and adequate to the
purpofe.
LEC-
248 A Key to Civil Architecture j or^
LECTURE LV.
OF THE PROPER SCANTLING OF TIMBERS,
Scantling of Girders ,
F the length
of a girder<
of fir be
Of Binding Joifts.
Ft. In.
If their length f ^ 6 by
Ft.
In.
In.
12
94 - t
y 84.
14
1 1
9
16
12
I of
18
J 3
12
20
22
• 1
14
I2f
24
1 5
J 3
26
16
* 34 -
be
\ iU 7
[12 8
In.
S
s
5
Obferve, that no joift lhould exceed 12
feet in length, and that it be laid 6 inches in
the wall.
Of Bridging Joifts .
Ft. In.
Len S th l 4 4 by
In.
3
4
Common
fhe JJniverfal British Builder. 249
_ Common Floorings where neither Binding or
Bridging Joi/ls are ufed.
Ft.
Length •
10
1 1 ■
12.
Their fcantlin
fhould be
In.
' 7
8
- 9
by
In.
3
3
3
Of Fir Beams.
Length.
Scantling.
*
But if of oak.
Ft.
In. In.
In.
In.
3 °
6 by 7
7
by 8
45
9 8-
X
z
10
to
12 11
J 3
l 5
Principal Rafters .
‘
Ft.
In.
In.
In. Irj«
1 Their fcantling
6 by 7’
I 3 C 5 5
;o 36
> at the bottom'
8
10
S-2I46
1— « 1
\ fhould be
.10
12
is h 9 -
Jf of oak at bottom.
If at the top.
In.
In.
In.
In.
8
by 9
7
by 8
9
ioi.
8
9
10
124
9
10
Small
2$o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
Small Rafters.
Length.
Scantling.
Ft.
In. In.
8
, 3 t by at
10
44- at
12
Jt 24
Purlines in large buildings (where they arc
framed into principal rafters) fhould be 9
inches by 8 $ in fmall buildings, when laid
into the collar-beams, 4 by 57; railing-plates,
and all wall-plates fhould be 9 by 5 ; lentils
and difcharging-pieces, 9 by 6 5 bond-tim-
ber, 6 by 24- ; taffels ditto.
LECTURE LVI.
OF THE VALUE OF CARPENTERS WORK.
inoft judicious method of valuing
carpenters work, is to eftimate it by-
the cubical foot at the following prices :
S. d.
All warehoufes, ftorehoufes, and other
large buildings, that require large
fcantlings of timbers, may be valued
per foot cube for the timbers, at 16
With a charge for the labour, fuch
as it may properly deferve.
For carpenters work done in large
buildings of the firft clafs — 1 7
Ditto per foot cube
Ditto
The Univerfal British Builder. 251
S. d.
Ditto of the fecond and third clafs of
buildings — • — 18
To buildings of the fourth and fifth
clafs, the timbers may be at per
foot — — 1 9
All bond timbers and lintels, per foot
cube'at — - — - 19
Labour to all common roofs to a ma-
iler is worth per fquare — 9 0
Ditto to kingpoft roofs, with purlines 12 o
Floors wfith binding and bridging-
joifts are worth per fquare 8 6
All common floors at per fquare 8 o
All partitions at per fquare — » 80
All timber framing is worth per foot
cube for labour to a mailer, from
47 d. to — — c 8
All framings of timber, fuch as fla-
blings, &c. planed, are worth per
foot cube, labour only, to a mailer
>vhen of fir — — 1 3
Ditto of oak — — 16
Extra work of trufling of girders at
per foot run of oak — 08
Ditto of fir — — * 07
New oak framing at per foot cube 3 6
All old oak wherever appropriated is va-
lued at the price of new fir.
The
252 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
The following is the Price and Value of Carpen
ters Work by the Square .
X-
s .
Framing of floors, with binding-
joints, and all materials of oak, from
2/. 15^. to — — 3 10
when the timber is valued in fcant-
lings at 3J*. per foot.
Surveyors allow, when girder, bind-
ing-pofts, bridgings, and cielings
ditto, are, of oak, from 2/. ioj*. to 3*5
Note, the materials to a fquare of the
above floor are worth, when the oak
is cut to fcantling, at 2 s. 8 d. per
foot — — 28
Labour to ditto ioj*. therefore 3/. 5J*.
per fquare is as little as can be al-
lowed.
As materials of every kind vary in e-
very county, I muft beg my reader
to abide by the labour in this par-
ticular for the country, and value
his fluff at a fair appraifement.
For floors of fir, with binding-joifts,
the matters charge per fquare from
1 /. ioj*. to — • — 22
Surveyors allow about — ■ 1 16
The materials at is. 6 d. per foot in
fcantlings are worth — 14
Labour to ditto 8 j*. 6 d. the price there-
fore fhould be about — 1 18
For
HheUniverfal British Builder. 253
For common naked floors of fir, the
mafters charge per fquare, from 1 /.
8 s. to — — 1 iS
Surveyors allow about the fame for
thefe as the bridging floors ; be-
caufe the quantity of materials run
near the fame; the latter rather
more.
The price of thefe floors is not extra-
vagant, when of fir, being per fquare
at — — 1 18
The nett labour to them is about 6 s.
the mafters charge — 9 o
Surveyors allow 8 s. 6 d. which fliould
be the univerfal price for labour.
For framed partition fcantlings 4 by 3,
the mafters charge per fquare, from
il. to — — 1 5
Surveyors allow per ditto — 10
The materials are worth, of fir, 12s.
the labour to a mafter 8 s. therefore
we will call it — — 12
Ditto trufledpartitions, labour is worth
per fquare — — o 10
All bond-timbers, lintels, difcharging-
pieces, &c. are charged at is. 9 d.
per foot cube.
For framing of king-poft roofs, with
purlines, &c. per fquare of fir, the
mafters charge — — 3 10
Surveyors allow from 2/. 15^. to 3 o
The
254
A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
The materials per fquare of this fort
of framing are worth about zl. 3.^
the nett labour ioj*. the price there-
fore fhould be —
The labour only of this work to a
mafler is worth per fquare
For common roofs with a ridge- tree
the mailers charge per fquare, with
all materials, from 1 /. 15^. to
Surveyors allow according to pitch
from 1 /. 10 s. to —
The materials to a fquare of this fort
of roofing, with raifing-plates, tie-
beams, ridge, &c. are worth
Labour to ditto to a mailer is worth
gs. the price therefore is low enough
at — * —
Extra work to truffing of girders,
beams, &c. at per foot run, of oak
Ditto of fir, per ditto —
Bridged guttering, of whole deal, is
worth per foot fuperficial
Ditto with oak bearers —
Rafters feet and eaves-boards for
date, per foot fuperficial - —
For door cafes, framed of fir, rab-
bitted and beaded, at per foot cube,
mailers charge —
Surveyors allow from is. 6 d. to
£• s*
2 i 3
0 rq
2 o
1 16
1 6
I
*s
s.
d.
0
8
0
7
0
6f
0
74-
0
4t
2
8
2
8
The
TLhe Univerfal British Builder. 255
S. d .
The labour to one is worth per foot
cube is. and the materials 4 by 4 1,
to a door of 6 feet 6 inches by 3
feet 3 inches, are worth ij*. Sd.
the price therefore of 2 s. Sd. is
little enough ; the beft way of
valuing thele is to meafure them
fuperficial, at 4 d. per foot.
For centring for groins, per fquare,
matters charge — • 120
Surveyors allow from 9J. to — no
The materials waited, See. may be
valued at — — 60
The labour to making, finking, &c.
to a matter is very well worth 6 s.
therefore the ftandard is 120
Framed quarter-paces to ttairs per
foot, with materials, from 8 d. to 10
Leading pieces of fir, per foot cube 2 o
LECTU RE LVIL
OF PLUMBERS WORK.
P LUMBERS work is all valued by the
long hundred or 112/b. and bears price
according as it weighs per foot, from \lb. to
12 lb. ditto, being of different forts, fuch as
fheet lead, and milled ditto ; the former is
ufed for gutters, platforms, and the cover-
ing of roofs ; the latter for the ridges of
houfes, hips, tops of cornices, &c.
I think
2 56 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or \
I think it but of little ufe to enter here in-
to the quality of lead, (which is of various
forts) feeing the plumbers have an opportu-
nity of giving you what fort they pleafe.
The plumbers method of doing their bufi-
nefs is to value their work at fo much per hun-
dred ; and afterwards charge you the time for
laying, and finifning, which I think is a very
weak as well as indolent method, and fit only
to encourage their men in idlenefs.
£■ s.
The price plumbers charge for 7 lb. to
the foot, is, from it. 2 s, to 13
Surveyors allow * 1 2
The value of lead, confidering the wafte in
the melting, is worth per hundred about jgs.
1 /. 2 s. therefore is fufficient. I think it a folly
in furveyors to allow more per hundred for
lead of 10 16 . or 1 1 lb. per foot, than 7 lb.
which is the general rule, let the plumbers
cuftom be what it will.
The true and genuine method of valuing
plumbers work, is, to ftatethe price for fheet-
lead of any weight above 7 lb. to the foot at
1 /. 3J*. per hundred, which will allow is. per
hundred laying, and this is quite fufficient.
Milled lead is of a thinner and finer
quality, and fhould be per foot
laid and foldered at per hundred
The price of calling and laying lead
is from 3/. to —
5 0
3 6
o
The Univerfal British Buil
Carting old lead, and the plumbers
making up the deficiency
Water-pipes, from^i inch to 8
inches bore, folder and labour
included — ■ —
Rain-water pipes, and pumps, per
hundred — —
Water-pipes of large bore per yard
or hundred weight.
The cuftomary allowance by plum-
bers for old lead is 14 s.
All dimenfions between thefe bear
an exad: proportion.
The price of ftop-cocks are per lb .
Ditto, fetting on folder and labour
at per cock, of an inch and half
diameter —
Ditto, 4 inch, at per cock
S
D£R . 257
jr. s. d.
049
170
1 8 o
Safh-weights at per hundred
1
1
Solder per pound 8 ~d. or
0
0
The price of foldering water-pipes
is 2J*. bd. per joint to —
1
2
One of .1 inch bore is —
0
2
1 inch ditto - —
0
3
14 inch — —
0
3
2 inches — —
0
4
3 inches —
0
6
4 inches ■ —
0
9
5 inches —
0
12
6 inches —
0
15
7 inches — •
1
0
74 inches —
1
1
o 8
o
o
3 0
One
o
2 5% A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
£- s. d.
One inch ditto — 050
Brafs cocks, of an inch and half
diameter, with bofles, folder,
and fetting on, per cock 070
Ditto, of inch, per cock — 040
Ditto, i- inch, per cock — 030
LECTURE LVIIL
OF MASONS WORK.
E jTAVING already faid fo much of the
|_ principles and properties of building,
I hope my reader will excufe a differtation on
Mafonry, as the volume is already ftretched
beyond the intended fize. For it is a noble
art, and takes its date from the days of Jabel,
the fon of Lamech, who invented the firft
houfe of ftones and trees.
Mafonry hath in its pradtice every definitive
principle of geometry, and is not furpaffed by
any of the liberal arts.
The way by which mafons value their folid
work, is, firft to coniider the cubical mea-
furement of the ftone, and the work as fu-
perficial, reckoning nothing for what is not
i'een, and accounting all ftone under 2 inches
as fuperficial ; what exceeds this fize or 3
inches, they reckon as folid meafure.
For
T'be Univerfal British Builder
For key and adder fronts, of Portland-
done, the maders charge per foot
fuperficial — —
Surveyors allow from is. 3 d. to
Befides meafuring the folidity of the
key-dones, or bonds, which go
through the wall, and are charged
per foot cube
The value of materials to a foot of key
and adder work, confidering the
fawing and veins which are often
detrimental in the opening of a block
of done, that cannot be feen before,
is worth, with materials for fetting,
per foot fuperficial 9 d. labour to
fquaring, rubbing, fitting, &c. is
worth 6d . the price therefore al-
lowed by furveyors is not in the
lead exorbitant at
Plain-work, fuch as curbs to iron-
rails, &c. are charged at per foot
fuperficial — —
The done at per foot cube —
Houfes for iron-bars, cut in ditto, at
per piece — • —
Portland adragal deps are worth per
foot fuperficial — — —
The folidity of the done as before.
Ditto plain deps, per foot fuperficial
Portland coping, a foot wide, per foot
run —
► 2 59
S. d.
1 6
1 6
3 9
1 6
1 o
3 0
o 2
1 10
S 2
Mouldings
260 A Key to Civil Architecture \ cr 9
S. d.
Mouldings of Portland-ftone, of all
forts, at per foot fuperficial i 7
Circular ditto 1 g
The ftone meafured as folid.
Slips and mantles to chimnies, of Port-
land ftone, are worth at per foot
fuperficial 1 o
Ditto, fuperficial moulding to chim-
nies with ftone, per foot 1 8
Portland flabs at per foot
Portland paving at per foot fuper-
ficial — —
The fhafts of columns, of Port-
land ftone, per foot fuperficial
Bafes and caps to ditto —
Ditto columns fluted, and cabled
of ftone, labour only —
The ftone valued as before.
Dorick entablatures of ftone at per
foot fuperficial —
Carving the capitals of Corinthian
and Compofite orders at per foot
fuperficial
Italian marble at per foot cube
Plain work on ditto, as flips and
mantles, at per foot —
Slabs of ditto at
Dove marble in flabs at per foot
Mouldings of chimney-pieces, &c.
of any fort of marble at per foot
£• s. d.
o i o
016
012
03°
019
o 56
on o
1 1 o
040
046
050
fuper-
The Unfa erf a l British Builder. 261
.0
s.
.5
d.
p
fuperficial, from 3^. 6 d. to
The marble valued extra.
Marble, of different forts, muft be
valued according to its quality,
and is from )/. is. per foot
cube to — 7 o q
Small mouldings of marble at per
foot run, from 6 d. to — 010
Portland geometry fteps are worth
per foot fuperficial with fetting o 10 o
The ftone for the.fe.muft be valued
at per foot 036
On account of the variety of
blocks that muft be opened be-
fore they can be all got found.
Fire-ftone covings with niaterials
at per foot fuperficial s — p l 2
Ditto in hearths per ditto — - oil
Purbeck fteps, at per foot run with
ftone — p 2, 6
Purbeck paving in random-courfes,
at per foot p 9 74-
Old purbeck paving at per foot
fquared and new laid 002
The reader may perhaps wonder why I
have not proceeded in mafonry with the va-
lue and labour as in other work. I own it
was my intent, but hearing of the laudable
defign now on foot of the mafters railing the
mens wages three fhillings per week, I there-
fore made the digreflion, knowing well that
S 3 their
262 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
their prices will not be in the lead extrava-
gant when that is put in execution ; I hope,
therefore, as my whole motive is defigned for
the benefit of mankind, I Ihall be freed from
all afperfions in the above particular, by de-
viating from my general plan.
LECTURE LIX.
OF ESTIMATING IN GENERAL.
I T is almoft unneceffary to mention eftima-
ting in general, as I have been fo parti-
cular in all the component parts of a building,
which might by the learner be eafily put or
compiled together; however, to prevent eve-
ry argument that may be offered, touching
my negledt, I fhall propofe the fimplefl and
moff concife method in my power, that the
learner may have no doubt of my fully acqui-
efcing in every particular of my propofals, as
well as of my ardency to ferve him in every
article that occurs to my memory.
Many furveyors have, or propofe methods
for eftimating, by knowing the exterior di-
menfions of a building, that is, guefling at
the expence by the number of fquares the
houfe contains ; but this is a very uncertain
rule, and can never be followed with any de-
gree of certainty, unlefsall buildings were
finished in the fame manner, and confided of
no other variations than the fize of the ftru.c-
ture ; in fuch a cafe a proper criterion might
* " Be
The Unherfal British Builper. 2,63
be formed ; but, as this never can happen, it
is obvious that any examples of this nature
laid down can only (like the artift, who pre-
tends to the world, he hath a knowledge adr.
equate to the uncertain changes of fortune in
the calculation of lotteries) amufe, without
the leaft benefit or advantage.
The only and general rule required in efti-
mating a building, is, to be well apprifed of
the intent, both refpedting the fize of every
part and particular, as well as the manner of
execution ; without a juft notion of thefe prin-
ciples, the greateft judge in nature can only
guefs at the expence; thefe things being fixed,
the drawings will point out the fize of every
part, and the prices before mentioned, ap-
plied to every particular, according to the dif-
ferent dimenfions, will form a near certainty
for the whole.
If the learner have no drawings given, and
only an idea propounded by the gentleman,
what fort of a ftrudture he would choofe, and
what expence he has fettled within himfelf,
that it fhould be finished after fuch and fuch
a manner; let him firft make a drawing of
the plan and elevation, (having previoufly ex^?
amined the ground for the confequence of the
under-filings) by which he will be able to
come at the expence of the piling, planking,
&c. if any be required ; let him proceed then,
to take the value of the foundation, fuch as
digging and carrying away the earth, next
the brick- work, ftone, &c. in the foundation,
S 4 which
4 A Key to Civil Architecture ; er ,
which are eafily calculated, as I have before
obferved, according to the height of the build-
ing; then the expence of the brick- work
only, in thebafement ftory, is to be confidered,
with the outward and inward walls, the vaults,
cels-pools, &c. next the brick-work in the
firft ftory, or ground -floor ; and fo from ftory
to ftory, to the top of the edifice, topping of
chimnies, &c. with all the arches, tiling, and
every other incident in bricklayers work.
Secondly, according to the fize of the
houfe, let him calculate the fcantlings of the
different timbers in every ftory for the floors,
as well as the lintels, wood-bricks, difcharg-
ing-pieces, bond-timbers, &c. what is mea-
lured cubical, and what by the fquare, as
well as door-cafes, centres, both for vaults,
openings, and apertures, not omitting the
trimmers, whether arched or coach-headed,
roofing, plates, tie-beams, guttering, board-
ing, rafters-feet, or any vacuum, where a
piece of timber may be required.
Thirdly, the fafti - frames and fafhes,
throughout the whole houfe,
Fourthly, the covering, whether lead, flate,
or tile, &c.
Fifthly, the joiners work in every room,
on every floor, the quality as well as quantity
of materials, not forgetting the furring of
walls, floors, &c. bracketing to cornices,
glue, nails, and every other incident ; like-
wife, the flairs in every refpedt and part, ac-
cording to their bearings, whether with or
without
The TJniverfal British Builder. 265
without carriages ; nails, fcrews, glue, tem-
plets, cylinders, &c. the cafualty of removing
lumber and other incidents, which may retard
the progrefs of his practice.
Sixthly, the plafterers-work after the fame
manner in eyery room, with the gentleman's
propofals of ornaments, decorations, &c.
making allowances for the inconveniences
that generally attend the progrefs of the work,
by fcaffolaing, &c.
Seventhly, the mafons work both without
and within, fuch as fteps, adders, facios,
coping quoins, rufticks, pavings, floors,
hearths, jambs, mantles, coverings, caps,
carvings, &c. all according to their different
flze and value ; omitting nothing in this bu-
finefs more than the reft.
Eighthly, the painters work all throughout
the houfe ; every floor feparate, and let every
part and portion that hath variations be ftridtly
nominated : the number of times required to
be done ever, with obfervations of fronts, and
other work that is paid by the foot, whether
run or fuperficial.
Ninthly, the glaflers work in every refpedl
and part the fame as in other branches.
Tenthly, the carvers work alfo in every
article, which muft be moft ftridtly confidered
in every point, becaufe of the great expence
attending this beautiful branch.
Eleventhly, the plumbers work, both
touching the capping of cornices, fronts, fa-
cios, gutters, hips, vallies, fixtures, pipes for
fuillage.
266 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
fuillage, pumps, drains, water-clofets, &c.
foldering, and every other incident required.
The fame of fmiths work, paviours, &c.
which will caufe any expence.
When thefe matters are all well noticed,
fum up the whole, to anfwer the llcetch given;
if you run above the ftipulated price, fuch
contraflions in the mode of finifhing muft be
made as will reduce your plan to the gentle-
man’s propofals, if he will not be otherwife
reconciled to what the purport of his inten-
tion amount to.
The beft and moft fure way to be perfedl,
and that to a ftrifl: nicety in every particular,
is to make drawings of every room and part
with the ornaments prefixed, as well as the
fe&ion, plan, and elevation of the whole :
alfo, mark every room, and every branch to
each apartment or floor ; and in fumming up
the whole, take care to allow a fufficiency
for cafualties, that in the execution you may
not greatly exceed the ftipulated fum, and
thereby incur the gentleman’s difpleafure.
LECTURE LX.
SCHEDULE OF PRICES TO TASK-MASTERS.
Of Carpenters c Cafk Work .
K ING-poft roofs with purlines S. d,
&c. and fixing on the irons at
per fquare — — 9 Q
Ditto common roofs per fquare 6 6
Bridged
■the Univerfal British Builder. 267
S. d.
Bridged floors, with binding joifts in-
cluded, at per fquare - — 80
Common naked floors per fquare 5 6
Cieling ditto per fquare — ^ 6 6
Trufled partitions — - 3 6
Common partitions per fquare 4 6
Plates, bond- timbers, difcharging
pieces, lintels, &c. at per hundred
feet run — — 3 o
Centring to vaults rough — 46
If groined — - 5 6
Centres to apertures at per foot o ll.
Bridged-gutters at per foot fuperficial o 3
Ditto vally-boards per foot — O if
All framing in a building may be
taken together at 4 d. per foot cube
talk-work.
Rafters-feet and eaves board per foot
run ■ — o i-l
Framing the carcafes of houfes per
fquare — — 6 6
Door-cafes per foot — ° 14
If rabbitted and beaded - — • 02
Bracketing to plafter cornices run o 14
Clean dowelled floors per fquare 17 o
Second belt ditto • — • 15 o
Straight joint ditto of board — 8 o
Ditto with battins — - 10 o
Folding-floors per fquare — 60
Eurring-joifts per fquare — 12
Lifting-boards per lift — o 04-
Doors
248 A Key to Civil Architecture -> or,
S. d.
Doors ovlo and flat on both fi.de s per
foot — — o 6
Ditto ftuck on one fide fquare back o 34.
Doors with fancy-mouldings quirked
per foot — — ° 7
Aftragal- mouldings on the pannels
to ditto at per foot run — • 02
All window- (hatters per foot ovlo,
and flat, fquare behind, hung Angle o 6
Ditto hung double — 07
If ftuck with a quirk moulding.
Bead and flufti behind, and hung
double, are worth per foot o 10
Aftragal-mouldings on the pannels
to ditto • — 02
Back-fhutters framed fquare — o 34.
If bead and but hung double o A.f
Plain clamped back-fhutters per foot o 2f
Framing linings — o 3
Doors bead andflufh, &c. both fides,
per foot o 8
Ditto beaded on one fide — 0 5
Bead and flufti fliutters to outfide work o
Safties and frames with oak-cafings,
foils, beads. Sec. together — 0 7
Ditto with mahogany fafhes o 8 f
Fir falhes and frames together per
foot — 0 5
Venetian and Palladian window-
frames and fafhes at per foot 2 o
Mouldings of all forts at per foot o 6
Columns at per foot o 10
Pilafters
T?he Univerfal British Builder.
5 .
Pilafters ditto — * o
Fluting columns, or pilafters, the
flutes at per foot run — o
If cabled as far as the length of ditto o
Dorick friezes at per foot fuperflcial o
Dorick blocks plain per foot o
Raking ditto — — o
Ditto with enrichments - — — 2
Frets 6 inches broad, per foot 2
Small frets per foot run — • o
Fluting of facios per foot run o
Friezes fluted and bead per foot run ;
the plane of the frieze at per foot
fuperflcial o
The beads and flutes run at o
The method of meafuring ditto, is,
to take the length of one flute,
and multiply the number of flutes
in the frieze.
Terms to chimney-pieces per foot
fuperflcial o
Gluing up Ionick caps for carvers at
per piece — 2
Corinthian ditto per foot fuperflcial o
Dado per yard * 1
Torus Ikirting per foot — o
Up itair-cafes double meafure.
Horfe-plane courfes per foot run o
O-gees per foot run — o
269
d.
6
10
6
8
6
o
6
5
9
6
6
s
Dog-
4-jw
Ijo A Key to Civil Architecture j or$
£• s.
Dog-legged flairs at per ftory i 8
Bracket ditto per foot fuperficial o o
Ditto with clean fteps — o o
Newels at per foot run — - o o
Strings at per foot fuperficial o o
Ballufters per piece — - o o
If dove-tailed — o o
Geometry-flairs moulded under-
neath as the bracket, per foot o o
Or per ftep — — • o 10
Steps hung in the wall at per ft. o o
The firing at per foot, if upon a
circular or oval plan o i
i
o
4 %
5
4
6
3
4
9
6
8
6
There is a method of making geometry-
flairs without a fixing, though thev be not
moulded underneath the fteps. This is done
by mitring the bracket, and fixing it to the
end of every ftep, before they are put up, and
leaving them long enough to exceed the width
of the under-fide of the ftep, fo as that the
fucceeaing one fhall take and lie upon this,
in regular form all the way to the top ; after
they are up, you may flioot flraight the under
edge of the brackets, which will appear like the
under edge of a firing ; you may alfo put up a
fillet on the infide, which will bear the ends of
the laths, and be a kind of ftiffening to the
brackets, or artificial firing.
Thefe are much the cheapeft of all flairs,
and may be done to any plan, with a
^The TJniverfal British Builder. 271
good appearance, by fixing a neat afiragal
moulding to the lower edge, juft under the
nofings.
The learner is to obferve, that thefe brackets
need not be longer than will be adequate to
receive the furrings, and the laths and plafter.
The reader will excufe my making this di-
greffion, as I had omitted mentioning thefe
lort of flairs in their proper place ; however,
I will fhelter my negledt under the old pro-
verb, that it is better late than never.
d.
Thefe fort of flairs are worth per
foot, labour only, when hung in
the wall * o 74-
Plain brackets to flairs per piece o 6
Circular ditto — — 10
Mahogany hand-rails to flairs to cir-
cular plans, glued in thicknefles,
are worth at per foot fuperficial 7 o
The cylinder, either done by day, or
allowed per foot, the run of the
circular part of the rail — 04
All twills to fcrolls * — 50
Straight rail of mahogany — - 1 3
Ramps double meafure, or - — 26
Deal ftraight rail — 10
Twift to ditto 4 o
Shelves per foot — — o 34-
Linings of all forts o 24 -
All plain linings to door-cafes o 3 .
LEC-
2^2 A Key to Civil Architecture cr 9
LECTURE LXI.
OF BRICKLAYERS TASK-WORK.
^~T“^HE mailer to find all materials and fcaf-
I folding. £. s ‘ d ‘
Common brick-work, per rod
Chamberarches, rhombed, gauged
f
3
o
and fet, per foot — •
o
I
o
Circular ditto
o
1
2
Ditto to a niche per foot —
A circular arch upon a circular
o
3
6
plan double meafure —
o
2
o
Brick cornices per foot fuperficial
O
2
6
Plain tiling per fquare —
o
5
o
Ditto pan-tiling pointed — *
o
5
o
LECTURE LXII.
OF PLASTERERS TASK-WORK.
S.
d.
A LL cielings, per yard —
o
5
-ZjL Ditto walls with three coats on
laths
o
5
Ditto two coats floated —
o
4
Walls floated per yard —
o
3t
Stucco per yard —
o
8
All plain cornices per foot
o
4i
Ditto fully enriched —
I
o
Common block cornices per foot
o
8
Dentil ditto
o
7
*
LEC-
T/je XJniverfal British Builder. 273
LECTURE LXIIL
OF MASONS TASK-WORK.
S OMETIMES mafons fet their men tafk-
work, though it is but feldom ; I thall
therefore mention two or three prices in parti-
cular cafes, and Which may be a better method
of calculation than what they generally go by
in talk-work.
The mafons method of taking work is by
the piece in many jobbs, as frontifpieces, &c.
but I think it rather an irregular mode of
proceeding, without one advantage to recom-
mend it.
Frontifpieces of the Dorick order, when
done by the piece, may be charged from ic/.
to 22 guineas, according to the enrichments
which are upon them; but the beft way is
to meafure them by the foot fuperficial, and
value the different works after the following
prices.
s.
d.
The columns at per foot fuperficial
0
8
Bafes and capitals per ditto
Fluting and cabling columns in Port-
land-ftone, the run of the flutes at
2
9
per foot
O
5
All mouldings at per foot
O
7 4-
Friezes to Dorick cornices per foot
5
0
Mutules level at per piece
4
0
Raking ditto — —
T
4
6
All
274 ^ Key to Civil Architecture j of,
S. I
All the plain work per foot o 5
Portland fteps per foot run o 7
Geometry ditto, and fet off, per foot
run o 8
Paving with Portland ftone, per 100
feet, from $s. to — • 80
Purbeck in random-courfes per 100 4 6
Old Purbeck taken up, new fquared,
and re-laid, at per 100 feet 3 9
Key and afhler fronts per foot o 4
Holes cut for iron palifades per piece o 17
As feldom any other branches are done tafk-
work, I beg the reader, when he hath other
forts of work, and not thofe above mentioned,
to have recourfe to the other parts of the book,
where the labour required is proved, and get
as much as he can for them.
Expla-
*The XJniverfal British Builder. 275
Explanation of Plate A.
F IGURE A reprefents the ground plan of
a ftaircafe of circular difpofition, from
the mode of executing which every difficulty
may be gathered or fuppofed, that can occur
in any fimilar circumftance.
Figure C, the templet, faddle, or cylinder,
on which the hand-rail is to be glued, in fuch
manner as is defcribed in my le&ure on weith-
rails.
B reprefents the profile of the fteps, both
in the height and circular part, with the hand-
rail ftretched out upon them. The fha-
dowed part in figure A flhews the diameter of
the cylinder, and by drawing the perpendi-
cular lines from the nofings of the fteps, and
joining them upon the cylinder, as is marked
by the dotted lines, you will have the feCtio-
nal line of the rail when laid upon the cylin-
der. Obferve the places where the want of
difienfion, or the contraction of the covers to
the winders againfl: the circular part, leaves the
two obtufe angles ; thefe mud be foftened or
rendered eaiy by interfeCtion of lines, as is
lhewn by figure M. Take notice alfo, that
thefe are the places I have fo particularly men-
tioned in my leCture on thofe forts of rails,
to leave wood enough upon the breadth of the
fineer for the fide of the rail, as every thick-
nefs will gradually gather.
T 2
Figure
2j6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
Figure D is the plan of a fcroll, on which
are (hewn the pieces of wood to be glued to
form the rifing of the twift, which may be
cut one way to the fhape of the dotted lines
in the plan before they be glued together.
The figures E, F, and G are thofe pieces to
be glued to each other in the following man-
ner : H reprefents the lower part of the
ftraight rail which forms part of the twift;
as in figure H, draw the line a c, then fix
your dividers in c, draw the arch line a b,
which divide into four equal parts, and then
draw lines as to the centre c , which will /hew
how much the twift falls in each refpedtive
piece : from hence you may gain the maxim
of exactly matching the grain of the wood,
that when they are all united by glue and
worked, they may appear as if the whole fcroll,
ftraight rail and twift, were cut out of one en-
tire piece; next draw the arched line in E,
and transfer from 4 to 3 in H, to d in E,
which will /hew how much the twift fallsin
that piece. Then take from 4 to 2 in H, and
transfer to e in F ; this will /hew the fall in
the fecond piece. Laftly, take from 4 to 1
in H, and transfer to f in G, which is the
laft fall, and muft be glued to the level piece
in the eye as 6 in figure D ; when thus much
is done, take the different bevils from the
pitch-board K, and apply them to each piece
at the infide of the fcroll, as 1 & 1, 2&2,
3 & 3, 4&4, and keep them fair at the in-
fide as you glue them together, which will
guide
"The Univerfal British Builder. 277
guide the rail to a proper fall, and anfwer
when elevated dire&ly to the ground plan.
The bevils being given both ways, after you
have fquared the outfide of the rail, bend your
mould or templet round, as defcribed in plate
B in figure E, which will (hew how much
fuperfluous wood mud be taken off* the back
of the rail. I think it unneceffary to fay
more, as infpe&ion and a little practice will
render this matter plain to any capacity.
The next thing is the raking -mould in
figure I, to draw which lay down one quarter
of the ground plan of your fcroll, as at g in
figure I, then divide the under-edg^ of the
pitch-board into any number of parts, which
continue from the raking-line to the outfide
of the rail as in h /, l k , &c. to the bottom of
the pitch-board.
Next take from m to i in your dividers, and
transfer them to /on; take alfo p k and trans-
fer to lo 9 and fo on to all the reft ; and if you
be doing this at large put in brads at each
point, and bend round a lath fo as to form
the outfide, then proceed as before for the in-
fide, and your mould will be complete and of
diretft length, anfwerable to the ground plan.
Though it be neceffary to point out thefe
things to the learner, in order to fatisfy him
as to the priftine elements of this piece of
workmanftfip, yet I cannot help obferving,
that a raking-mould is of very little ufe to a
perfon who has any idea of the matter, as it is
a ftanding maxim with me, that the man who
T 3 has .
278 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
has the heft eye, will ever be the firfi man at
forming either a fcroll or twift, or any other
difficult point in weith-rails.
A brief Definition of Plate B.
F IGURE A in plate B is the plan of a
regular ftaircafe upon a fquare opening.
B in ditto ffiews the fedtion of the two
flights, with the manner of fixing the firings,
carriages, leading-pieces, newels, &c. and
how to find the knees, and flrike out the
ramps.
To find the knees and ramps: Firfi: draw
a line to touch the nofings of the fteps, as the
dotted lines, then from that line to the back
of your rail fet off 2 feet 1 inch, or 2 feet 2
inches fquare, from the raking of the fleps, as
is fhewn in the plate. Next, continue that
line to the front of the firfi newel, as at a ;
likewife to the firfi; newel upon the half- pace,
as at b , then take the diftance a c upon -the
firfi newel, and transfer it to b d; afterwards,
apply the rife of one fiep above d, which will
give the height of the ramp.
To find the centre for ftriking the ramp:
Firfi, continue the level line upon the top of
the knee at pleafure, as at e , then mark where
the raking-line of the rail touches the front
of the newel as at f on which place fix one
point of your compaffes and extend the other
point to g, defcribe the arch h which ffiews
the bounds of the ftraight rail, there place
5 y° u ?
j The TJniverfal British Builder. 279
your fquare, and draw a line to meet at e,
which is the centre for ftriking the ramp.
How to draw a Scroll , as in Figure C.
If the learner cannot execute this by Leo*
ture XL, let him obferve the following :
Having drawn a large circle, as in C, equal
to the width of two fteps, draw an inner one
equal to the fize of the rail with the moulds
ings ; then divide the large circle into eight
equal parts, fo as to ftrike one eighth part at
one time, next draw the diagonal b c 9 and
having fixed your dividers in c 9 defcribe the
arc d c , which arch line divide into 8 parts,
and from the centre draw them through into
the line d b 9 which forms the fcale to dimi*-
nifh the fcroll by in the following order:
Firft fet your dividers from b to f upon the
fcale, and transfer it to no upon the great
circle, which is the firft eighth part - 9 fet them
then from b to g 9 and transfer to p q 9 then
b h to r s 9 and fo on till you come to z ; next
fet your compafles in the centre a 9 extend the
other point to f on the fcale, and with that
diftance fet the point upon o, then upon c ,
and make a mark in the eye where they fall,
which will be the centre for defcribing the firft
eighth part from e to o 9 after this proceed
with the next in the fame manner, fetting
your compafles from the centre a to g upon
the fcale ; draw the fweep from 0 to q 9 and
fq from q to s in the lame manner till you
T 4 havQ
280 A Key to Civil Architecture, See.
have deferibed the whole. The inner circle
mud be drawn in the fame manner, and from
the fame centres, only muft flop at each cen-
tral line and not be continued to the dotted
lines. A little infpedion it is hoped will
render this very familiar.
D is the pitch-board, on which are right
lines, as at E, for the falling of the twift ;
obierve in c where the twift begins, as at 10,
and ends at 9, which girt with a line, or di-
vide into parts with your dividers, transfer
them on a ftraight line as at b a in D ; then
take the pitch-board and apply it to a, as in
the figure, afterward divide the raking-line of
the pitch-board from d to c in any number of
parts, and from e to b in the like number, and
draw the interfedions of right lines, which
will form the curve for the fall of the twift.
When the outfide of your rail is made to ftand
diredtly over your ground plan, apply the
mould b to 9 in plate C, which will extend
to c round the rail, the mark by the edge, and
take off the wood fquare from the outfide ;
afterwards gauge for the width and depth, and
when cut away properly your work will be
complete.
A
A
TREATISE
O F
ARITHMETICS
Adapted to and propofed for Students in the
BUILDING BRANCH.
• »
“ r
A
TREATISE
o F
ARITHMETIC K.
LECTURE LXIV.
INTRODUCTION.
A rithmetical is a Greek word, and
imports an art or fcience that teaches
the ufe and properties of figures, or the right art
of numbering and denoting any given quantity
withproper chara&ers, and to exprefs them
by words, which is called Notation. There
are many kinds of Notation by which quantity
is exprefled, but what I mean in this leCture to
treat of, is figural, or the manner of expref-
ling quantities by the ten Arabick characters,
viz. i, 2 , 3 , 4> 5 > 7 > 9 >
Arithmetick is divided into three parts,
two of which are properly called natural, and
the third artificial :
The
284 A Key to Civil Architecture or.
The firft is that kind of Arithmetick which
is called Vulgar, and is the doCtrine of whole
numbers, and the mod plain and eafy, be-
caufe every unit, or one, (which is called an
integer) denotes or fignifies one entire thing,
or quantity, of fome kind of fpecies j as a
done, a rule, &c.
The fecond, is the doCtrine of broken
quantities, or parts of units, or integers, which
is called Vulgar- fractions ; and wherein the
unit, or integer, is divided into a number of
even or uneven parts : as for example.
If a foot be the given or propofed unit, or
integer, and be divided into twelve inches,
then one inch becomes a fraction or twelfth
part ; two inches one-fixth, three inches one-
fourth part thereof.
This part of arithmetick may be confidered
either as pure, confiding of fractional parts
only, each lefs than an unit ; fuch as quarters,
halves, &c. or of integers and fractional parts
intermixed ; as one and a half two and one
third-part of one, &c.
The third part, which is called Artificial,
is alfo called Decimal-arithmetick, which is
an artificial method of working fractions and
broken numbers, in a different, and (by fome
thought) much ealier way than that of Vulgar-
fraCtions.
Decimals take their name from the Latin
Decern, or ten, into which every integer is fup-
poied to be divided 5 and in many cafes every
fub?
The Univerfal British Builder. 285
fub-divifion is again Tub-divided into ten lefier
parts, &c. Suppofe one foot in length to be
an integer, or unit given, and let it be divided
into ten equal parts, we then fay the foot is
decimally divided ; and if every tenth part be
decimally divided again in the like manner,
then the foot will be divided into one hun-
dred parts, and is faid to be centefimally di-
vided.
LECTURE LXV.
OF NUMERATION.
N UMERATION is accounted the firft:
part of Arithmetick, and is to know how
to read a fum of figures exprefied in writing;
or to write down any fum to be exprefied ; to
the doing of which there are four things ne-
ceflary ; firft to know the number, which is
nine; fecondly their (hapes, which are 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of which the firfl to-
ward the left hand ever fignifieth one ; the
fecond two, the third three, &c. thirdly to
know the value of their places ; lafily, how
their proper fignification is attained thereby.
The value of their places is thus : when
two,- three, or more figures ftand in one fum,
that is, without any point, line or comma be-
twixt them, as 321, that place next the right-
hand where the figure 1 ftandeth, is called
the place of unity, or units, and the figure 1
ftandeth in that place for 1 only, and the
figure
2,86 A Key /a Civil Architecture \ or,
figure 2, when it is found in that firft place*
ftands only for 2, and fo of all the reft.
But in the fum 321, above exprefled, the
figure 2 in the fecond place, and every
place, contains the value of that place before
towards the right hand ten times ; therefore
the figure 2 doth not in this fecond place fig-
nify 2, but ten times 2, that is 20 ; and fo
the figure of 3, if it had been in that fecond
place, would have fignified ten times 3, that
is, 30, but being here in the third place, it
fignifies ten times 30, that is, 3C0, and fo
the whole fum 321 is to be read three hun-
dred and twenty one.
It is hereby feen how their proper fignifica-
tions, which were three, two, and one, are
altered by being thus placed, and the fum,
which would but have been fix, is three hun-
dred twenty and one.
In like fort, if there had been more places,
as feven, the value is quite through increafed
ten times, by being a place more towards the
• 00
left hand, as in the fum ijiiiii 5 the figure
1 in the fecond place ftands for ten times one,
that is, ten ; in the third for ten times ten,
which is one hundred ; in the fourth for ten
hundred, which is called a thoufand ; in the
fifth for ten thoufand ; in the fixth for ten times
ten thoufand, which is an hundred thou-
fand ; in the laft, or feventh place, for ten
hundred thoufand, which is called a million $
and fo on, if there were more places. Ob~
ferve
¥he TJniverfal British Builder. 287
ferve the fame order to infinity, beyond all
earthly value.
Now, to read this readily, mark a prick
over the place of unity ; another the third
from it, and over every third, ftill towards
the left-hand 5 for fo thofe points will be over
the places of units, thoufands, and millions ;
and then beginning at the laft figure that is at
the left hand, read one million, and becaufe
the three following towards the right fignify
properly one hundred and eleven, but the
prick belonging to them lying in the place of
thoufands, call it one hundred and eleven
thoufand 5 and the three remaining being un-
der the point over unity, fignify one hundred
and eleven 5 but all three points, read toge-
ther in one fum, make one million one hun-
dred and eleven thoufand one hundred and
eleven.
In like manner, if this number 87654352,
were given to be read (according to the for-
mer direction) make pricks over every third
figure, beginning with the firft figure to-
wards the right hand, (which is the place of
unity) and then will your number ftand thus,
876543525 then for the ready reading of
them, (becaufe the third prick fignifies mil-
lions) call all the figures toward the left hand
from that prick, millions, which in the ex-
ample are 8 and 7, begin and fay 87 millions
654 thoufand 352, which at length are eighty
feven millions fix hundred and fifty four thou-
fand
2 88 A Key to Civil Architecture y or 9
fand three hundred and fifty two ; and fo of
any other number.
LECTURE LXVI.
OF ADDITION.
A DDITION is the gathering or coher-
ing of two or more fums, either of one
or of divers denominators, into one fum, which
is called the aggregate, total, or grofs fum. In
addition of numbers of one denomination, the
order is to fet the numbers to be added, one
diredtly under the other ; that is to fay, units
under units, tens under tens, hundreds under
hundreds, thoufands under thoufands.
RULE.
Having placed your numbers to be added
in due order one under another, draw a line
under them, and begin at the lowermoft fi-
gure toward your right hand, and add that to
the next figure above, and the fum of them to
the next figure above that, proceeding in this
order till you have added the line together ;
which when done, confider hpw many tens
are contained in that line ; and for every ten
carry one to the next column ; but if there be
any odd digits, you muft fet them down be-
neath the ftroke, juft under the line you have
added together ; having thus finiihed the ad-
dition of one line, proceed to the next ; and
from thence to the third, and fo forward be
there never fo many. The following will
make this plain.
4 Ex-
The Vniverfal British Builder, rft;
Example the firjl , of whole Numbers .
Let the feveral fums given to be added be
9874, 6436, 1423, 6788 ; having
thus placed them under one ano- 9874
ther, as in the margin, draw a line 6436
under them; then begin your ad- 1423
dition at the lowermoft figure to 6788
the right hand, fay 8 and 3 is
eleven, and 6 is feventeen, and 4 24521
is twenty-one, there is 2 tens and
1 remaining, I place the 1 under the line, and
carry the two tens to the next row, faying, 2
which I carry and 8 is ten, and 2 is twelve,
and 3 is fifteen, and 7 is twenty-two, in
which row there are two tens to carry, and 2
remains which I place as before ; again pro-
ceed to the next column, faying, 2 andyis nine,
and 4 is thirteen, and 4 is feventeen, and 8
is twenty-five, fet down five and carry two
again to the next, faying, two I carry and 6
is eight, and 1 is nine, and 6 is fifteen, and
9 is twenty-four, which fet down under the
margin; fo the aggregate or grofs lum is
twenty-four thoufand five hundred and twen-
ty-one.
In the addition of divers denominations,
this is to obferved, viz. place all the num-
bers of the fame denomination one direftly
under another, as inches under inches, feet
under feet, yards under yards, fquares under
U fquares;
2 <5® A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
fquares $ then draw a line under them, and
begin your addition with the fmalleft number
or leaft denomination firft, always obferving
how many times the next greater denomina-
tion is contained in that leaft ; and for every
time carry one unit to the next place, as be-
fore you did the tens, taking care to fet down
the remains if any be ; then add the next de-
nomination together, taking care how often
the next greater denomination is contained in
that, and fo proceed be they ever fo many,
from parts to inches, inches to feet, feet to
yards, yards to fquares, rods, poles, or perches.
As all the parts of addition are built upon
the fame reafon, fo the method of pointing
may ferve as a general rule, when any deno-
mination is to be added, and this may be done
without defacing the figures.
EXAMPLES.
Let the feveral denominations to be added
be fet down as in the margin, fuppofe the
work of different rooms done be as follows :
Yds. Ft. In.
To dado on the ground floor 127 7 6
To ditto one pair of flairs 162 5 3
290 3 9
Proceed and begin at the inches, faying, 3
and 6 is nine, which I write under the inches,
and as 9 inches is lefs than a foot, you have
nothing
The Univerfal British Builder. 291
nothing to carry to the next denomination,
but fay 5 and 7 is twelve; now as nine fquare
feet are a yard, you muft fet the remainder
three under the denomination of feet, and carry
one to the next column, faying, 1 and 6 is
feven, and 2 is nine, which fet down and fay
1 and 1 is 2, which makes 290 yards 3 feet
9 inches.
A furveyor having meafured and fquared
the different dimenfions of brick-work, fet
them down for addition as follows ;
Rods
Ft.
To foundations, vaults, See .
6
5 °
The feveral walls in the firft ftory
9
80
Ditto to the fecond —
8
43
Attick-ftory — *
6
84.
Gable-ends and chimnies ~
1
3 1 4
The reader is to obferve that a rod of brick-
work is 272 and 4, therefore he muft prick
at 272 feet ; if not fo much, fet down the
remains of feet, and add up the rods, and
thefe examples may ferve for every thing elfe
of whatever denomination.
U 2
Addition
292 A Key to Civil Architecture \ or *
Addition of Feet and Inches .
Ft.
53
42
82
Note, for every 12 Inches
carry one to the feet.
Addition of Tards, Feet , and Inches .
Yds. Ft. In.
12 9 4 ] Note, as nine feet are a yard,
7 4 3 > foat every nine feet you muft
33 6 2 J carry 1 to the yard as in the
example.
34 1 9
Addition of Lime and Sand.
Hun. Bags.
Colled intor 3 14 Rule, for every 25
one fum thefe \ 4 06 / bufhels carry one
feveral quanti-1 5 12 f to the hundreds,
ties of lime, viz. I 3 13 J which add as in-
* — tegers.
16 20
Note, twenty-five bags, which ought each
to be a bufhel, is accounted one hundred of
lime in London ; and in many countries 30
bulhels is called a load.
Of
The Univerfal British Builder. 293
Of Sand .
Loads,
Collet Into
one fum thefe
feveral quanti- 29
ties of land. L16
27
26
Bufhels.
04 ■jRule, for every 18
J 5 / bufhels carry 1
12 I to the loads, and
18 J add them as
— whole numbers.
100 13
Note, a load of fand is 18 heaped bufhels.
^ Addition of Bricks .
Loads. Bricks.
Note, 500 f 2 148 }Rule, for every
bricks are aload, J 6 193 f 500 carry 1 to
add thefe feveral ) 4 050 ? the loads, and
quantities into! 7 240 j add them as
one fum, viz. — — wholenumbers
20 131
Of Timber and Plants .
Colled into
one fum the fe-
veral quanti-
ties, viz.
Yds. Ft.
f 7 33
8 40
5 2 3
4 12
I For every 50 carry
one to the loads,
and add them as
whole numbers.
26 08
Note, 50 feet folid make one load.
294 ^ K- ey to Civil Architecture ; or t
j '
Of Solid Yards .
Yds. Ft.
7 °4)
2 22Q Note, for every 27 carry one
6 15^ to the yards.
4 13S
21 o
Having done fo much of addition, I fhall
conclude the ledture with this obfervation,
that one load of earth is one folid yard.
A hundred weight of lead, nails, iron, &c.
is 1 12 pounds 5 a hundred weight of deals or
nails fix fcore or 1 20 lb .
A bundle of five feet laths 100, and of
feet ditto 120, which fhould be 1 inch and
broad, as it is expedted a bundle of laths of
whatever length is to cover the fame ; for what
is wanting in length is made up in number.
LEG-
The TJniverfal British Builder, 295
LECTURE LXVII.
SUBSTRACTION.
Of Feet , Inches , and Parts .
Ft. In. Qr. Ft. In. Qr.
From 274 7 2 364 2 4
Take 153 51 173 8 4
1 2 1 2 I 190 6 O
Note, that in inches you borrow twelve.
Suf rail ion of Yards, Feet , and long Inches .
Yds. Ft. In. Yds, Ft. In.
40 7 6 23 2 6
3 2 4 2 J 3 4 7
o3 3 4 09 o 1 1
Note, as you borrow 12 at the inches, and
carry one to the feet, jfo you borrow 3 at the
feet and carry 1 to the yards.
SubJiraStion
of fquare Yards
andfq.
uare
Yds.
Ft.
Yds.
Ft.
47
5
82
7
3 6
9
43
8
10
5
33
8
Note, here at the feet you borrow 9 and
carry one to the yards, becaufe 9 fquare feet
make a fquare yard. Sub-
296 A Key to Civil Architecture ; sr,
Snbjl ration of fetid Yards .
Yds.
Ft.
Yds.
Ft.
55
l 7
78
18
43
29
53
20
ir
J 5
24
25
Here, as 27 feet is a yard folid, fo you bor-
row 27 at feet, and carry 1 to the yards.
Of Squares of Flooring, &c.
Square feet.
94 11
*3 7 2
Square feet.
26 4
19 40
80 39 6 64
(r „ 1
Here, as 100 fquare feet make one fquare,
fo at the feet you borrow 100, and carry 1 to^
the fquare.
As there is nothing more in fubftra&ion to
be obferved than the denominations of which
you borrow, I lhall think thefe examples fuf-
ficient, and proceed to multiplication.
2
LEC-
Tie Univerfal British Builder. 297
LECTURE LXVIII.
OF MULTIPLICATION.
M ultiplication is that part of
arithmetick which teacheth how to
increafe one number by another, fo that the
number produced by their multiplication fhall
contain one of the numbers multiplied, fo
many times as there are units contained in the
other.
Multiplication may fitly be termed a com-
pendium of addition, for that it perfo’rmeth
at one operation the fame which to effeft: by
addition would require many. For inftance,
if it were to know how many 4 times 8 is,
to perform this by addition I muft fet four
figures of 8 one under another, and by adding
them together I (hall find that the total will
contain 32. But this by multiplication is with
far more brevity, as by examples hereafter
fhall appear.
Before you enter upon the practice of mul-
tiplication, it is neceflary to remember the
product arifing by the multiplication of any
of the nine digits by any other of the fame,
as readily to know that 3 times 4 are 12, 6
times 7 are 42, 8 times 8 are 64, &c. &c.
In multiplication it is necelfary to know
the product of any two of the nine digits or
figures ; for which purpofe the following table
muft be ftudied till you have it by heart.
Multi
2298 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
Multiplication Table.
I
2 , 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
I I
12
2
4] 6
8
10
12
u
16
18
20
22
24
3
6
9
12
T 5
18
21
24
27
3 °
33
3 6
4
8|i2
l6
20
24
28
3 2
"36
40
44
48
5
10
15
20
25
3 °
35
40
45
5 °
55
60
6
12
18
24
3 °
3 6
42
48
54
60
66
72
7
*4
12
28
35
42
49
5 6
6 3 '
70
77
84
8
l6
24
3 2
40
48
5 6
64
72
80
88
96
9
18
27
36
45
54
6 3
7 2
81
90
99
108
IC
20
3 °
40
5 °
60
70
80
90
IOO
I IO
120
1 1
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
I IO
121
132
12
24
36
48
60
72
1 'O
1 O
1 ^
1 OO
1 1 08
120
132
144
In multiplication three things or terms are
to be obferved, that is to fay, the multipli-
cand, the multiplier or multiplicator, and the
product.
The
The Univerfal British Builder. 299
The multiplicand is the number to be mul-
tiplied. The multiplier is the number by
which the multiplicand is multiplied. And
The product is the number which is pro-
duced by the multiplication of the multipli-
cator and multiplicand together.
Thus if it were required to multiply 9 by
6, here 9 is the multiplicand and 6 the mul-
tiplier, and thefe numbers multiplied make
54, which is the produdt ; for 6 times 9 is
54, or 9 times 6 the fame.
In multiplication it matters not which of
the two numbers is the multiplicand, or which
the multiplier, for the produdt produced by
either will be the fame. But the common
way is to make the greater number the mul-
tiplicand, and the leffer the multiplier.
RULE I.
The numbers to be multiplied mud be fct
one under another, viz. the multiplicand (or
greater number) above, and the multiplier
(or leffer number) below ; the laft number
of the multiplier under the laft figure of
the multiplicand; then draw a line under
them, and having learnt the preceding table
by rote, multiply every number of the mul-
tiplier into every number of the multipli-
cand, and fet the feveral products under the
line; then having finifhed your multiplica-
tion, draw a line at the bottom, and add all
the produdls together, and the fum of thefe
pro-.
joo A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
products will be the general produdl, as by the
following examples will appear*
Example the Firjl.
Let it be required to multiply 872 by 6 ;
firft, I write down 872, the multiplicand;
and under it 6, the multiplier ; then
under them I draw a line as in the 872
margin; then I multiply 6 into every 6
digit of the multiplicand, faying, 6
times 2 are twelve; place 2 under the 5232
line diredtly under the 6, and for the
ten keep one in your mind to carry to the next
figure ; then I fay 6 times 7 are 42, and one
I carry makes 43 ; then fet down 3, and keep
4 in your mind for the four tens to carry to
the next, faying, 6 times 8 are 48, and 4 I
carry make 52, which fet down, and the work
is done; and the produdt is 5232.
Example the Second
Let it be required to multiply 5753 by 24;
fet them down as before, and pro-
ceed in the fame manner, faying,
4 times 3 are 1 2, place 2 under the
4, and carry 1 ; 4 times 5 are 20,
and 1 I carry makes 21 ; fet down
1, and carry 2 ; then 4 times 7
are 28, and 2 I carry make 30 ;
fet down o and carry* 3 ; then 4
times 5 are 20, and 3 I carry make
23, which fet down alfo ; then be-
gin with the 2, faying, 2 times
5753
24
23012
1 1 506
138072
3 are 6,
which
T 'he Univerfal British Builder. 301
which place under 1 ; then 2 times 5 are 10,
fet down an o, and carry 1 ; and 2 times 7
are*i4, and 1 I carry makes 15; fet down 5,
and carry 1 Hill : then 2 times 5 are ten, and
1 I carry makes 11, which finilhes both the
digits. This done, I draw a line under them,
and add the two fums together, which make
138072 as in the margin.
Examples for P raff ice*
43672 7 6 43 2I 5 87462
200 4°°3 100
8734400 22929645 8746200
30572860
30595789645
In the firft example I have contracted my
work by placing the 2 of the multiplier under
the unit of the multiplicand, which fhould al-
ways be done when the other figures to the
right-hand are all cyphers. In the fecond I
make a contrail by omitting the cyphers in
the multiplier, and multiplying only by the
3 and 4 ; but when this is done, you mull be
careful to fet down the firll figure of your re-
mains dire&ly under the place of your multi-
plier. In the third example I have contracted
my work by adding the number of cyphers
in the multiplier to the multiplicand for the
product, becaufe one neither multiplies nor
divides.
Ex-
302 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
'Examples for Practice •
Multiplication of integers may be performed
without giving any trouble to the mind, by
carrying on the tens as in the firft examples
fhewn. Mind the operation.
Multiply 97643 by 4, as in the 97643
margin; fay 4 times 3 is 12, fet 4
down 12, as is obferved in the ex- —
ample; then 4 times 4 is 16, fet 1 3221 12
at top next the 12 to the left-hand, 6846
and 6 at the bottom under the fe- - — —
cond figure in the multiplicand ; 390572
then 4 times 6 is 24, which fet
down, 2 at the top and 4 at the bottom ; then
4 times 7 is 28, which fet down as the reft ;
then 4 times 9 is 36, which fet down as be-
fore, and add the two fums together, and you
will have the true produdt required. And
this example will ferve, let the multiplier
confift of any number of figures whatfoever,
*
Mon
P’he Univerfal British Builder. 303
More Examples for Praffice*
Let 53568 be multiplied
by 24, as under.
535 68
24
Multiply 83647
b y 33-
83647
33
212232
0204
IOI I 16
0602
201 121
4982
201 121
4982
1285632 2760351
Note, thefe examples are the fame as the
firft, only twice repeated ; obferve, when the
product of any figure is lefs than ten, place a
cypher before it to the left as below, by the
product of 2 in the firft figure ; if after it is
lefs than 10, fet the produd at the bottom,
and a cypher at the top.
See the operation.
78492
82
In order to prove this, ob-
ferve the operation by
the common way:
78492
82
1 1 0104
4688
5637*6
6422
156984
627936
6436344
6436344
Having
304 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
Having thus finilhed the multiplication of
integers, the reader is to obferve that there is
this analogy in it, viz. as an unit is to the
multiplier, fo is the multiplicand to the pro-
dud; for fuppofing one load of rough timber
cofts 40 {hillings, how much will 10 loads
coft ?
RULE.
If 10 loads be multiplied by 40
{hillings, the produd 400 {hillings,
as in the margin, being confidered as
an unit, bears the fame proportion to
40 {hillings, the multiplier, as 10
loads, the multiplicand, doth to 400
(hillings, the produd.
LECTURE LXIX.
OF THE MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS.
I Will not in this place treat upon the pe-
culiar excellencies or antiquity of this fort
of arithmetick, but immediately proceed to a
few examples, and then finifh my treatife on
multiplication with duodecimals, or what is
vulgarly called crofs-multiplication with ali-
quot parts. Multiplication of decimals, both
in placing the multiplicand and multiplier, is
the fame as multiplication of integers, only
when the work is done, you are to obferve,
with a daih of your pen, to cut off as many
places
10
40
40a
The Univerfal British Builder. 30^
places of decimals in your product, as there
are places of decimals both in your multipli-
cand and multiplier ; and in cafe of want in
your produCf, prefix cyphers to the left-hand.
It may be well to oblerve, that it will be
convenient to make that number the multi-
plicand which contains the molt places,
though fomettmes it may perhaps be lefs in
quantity ; fecondly, that if the multiplicand
and multiplier be both decimals, that is, be
both parts of integers, the produdt will be de-
cimals ; thirdly, if the multiplicand and mul-
tiplier be mixed, that is, integers and deci-
mal parts of integers, the produft will be
mixed ; and, laftly, if the multiplicand and
multiplier be mixed, and the other be a de-
cimal, the product will be fometimes mixed,
and fometimes a decimal.
Example 1.
Of Decimals alone.
• 57 6 4
v 3 2
Example 2. Example 3.
Of Integers and Multiplicand mixed.
Decimals. Multiplier a Decimal.
4-3 6z 5 27.5462
2.13 .234
11528
17292
4 0 34 ^
.4219248
1 3 0 875
43 62 5
8725O
9.292125
I IO1848
826386
55 ° 9 2 4
6.4468108
In example the 1 ft, of decimals alone, the
product is .4219248 parts of an integer di-
X vided
go6 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
vided into 10,000,000, becaufe the denomi-
nator of every decimal confifts of as many
places of cyphers annexed to 1, as there are
places in the decimals.
In example the 2d, there being 6 decimal
places in the multiplicand, I have therefore
cut off 6 places of figures from the produd,
and the product is 9 integers, and 292125
parts of an integer divided into 10,000,000
parts.
In example the 3d, I have cut off 7 places
of decimals, 4 in the multiplicand, and 3 in
the multiplier, and the produd is 6 integers
4468108 parts of an integer divided into
10,000,000 parts.
LECTURE LXX.
OF DUODECIMALS, OR WHAT IS VULGARLY
CALLED CROSS-MULTIPLICATION.
A S in decimal-multiplication the integer
is divided into 10 parts, fo in duodeci-
mals it is divided into 12 parts, as a foot into
12 inches, ora (hilling into 12 pence ; in the
following example fuppofe the integers to be
feet and the decimals inches; this kind of
multiplication may be performed as well by
taking the aliquot, or even parts of 12, out of
the multiplicand, (as will be immediately
jfhewn) as by multiplying the multiplier into
the multiplicand; but before I proceed to
pradice, obferve, that the aliquot (which are
tfhe Univerjal British Builder. 307
the even) parts of a foot, are as follow, viz.
in 12 there are 6, which is the half of afoot,
and muft be fo taken in the example ; three
times 4, four times 3, four times 2, fix times
2, eight times 1^, and twelve times 1.
In this kind of multiplication there is a
great variety ; and as I think it the moft fa-
miliar, concife, and eafy rule extant, for mea-
furing, I (hall give various examples for prac-
tice, and leave the reader to take which he
moft approves of ; but before we begin, ob-
ferve the following table.
When the multiplier is multiplied into the
multiplicand, note.
Feet multiplied by feet, give feet.
Feet multiplied by inches, give inches.
Feet multiplied by feconds, give feconds.
Inches multiplied by inches, give feconds.
Inches multiplied by feconds, give thirds.
Seconds multiplied by feconds, give fourths.
Example ift.
Here I multiply the 6 feet and 3 inches by
4 feet 4 inches, (which gives feet and inches
for the produdt) faying, 4 times 3 is 12, fet
X 2
o under
308 A ¥Lky to Civil Architecture ; or i
0 under the inches, and xarry
one to the feet ; then 4 times Ft. In. Pts.
6 is 24, and one I carry makes 630
25, which I fet down as in 440
the margin; next I multiply —
6 feet 3 inches by 4 inches, 25 o o
faying, 4 times 3 is ; 2, which 210
1 fet down under the place of — *
feconds, or parts, as obferved 27 1 o
in the table, and carry one to
the inches, faying, 4 times 6 is 24, and one
I carry is 25, which are 2 feet 1 inch, which
fet down as in the example,
. 'Example 2d. Example 3d. Example 4th.
Ft. In. Pts.
9 7 °
63©
57 6 °
249
Ft. In. Pts.
460
640
27 O O
160
Ft. In. Pts.
1
83600
624OO
49 9 o o o
i 4 7 0^0
59 10 9 28 6 o o 2 11 2 o
51 4 6 2 o
The following examples are another me-
thod of multiplying feet, inches, and parts,
by multiplying the multiplier into the multi-
plicand.
Ft,
The Univerfal British Builder. 309
Ft. In. Pts. Ft. ^n. Pts. Ft. In. Pts.
1.6 4 6 864 943
o 4 in. 06 in. o 7in.
556451(320 5559
Thefe examples may be ufed when you want
to multiply feet, inches, and parts, by inches;
or any aliquot part of a foot, as in the above
examples, which are 16 feet, 4 inches, and 6
parts, multiplied by 4 inches, by placing the
multiplier one place farther to the right-hand,
and then multiplying as in whole numbers :
the fecond and third examples are the fame.
To multiply Feet and Inches by taking the
Aliquot Parts .
Now, fuppoung your dimenfion of feveral
rooms of mouldings, or any thing that is mea-
fured by feet and inches, as in
the margin ; 263 feet 6 inches Ft. In.
by 26 feet 6 inches ; it would be 263 6
too much for the head to fay 26 26 6
times 6, as in the firft example ; — -
therefore I multiply the feet into 1578 o
the feet firft, faying, 6 times 3 526 o
is 18, fet down 8 and carry 1 as 13 1 9
in whole numbers ; and 6 times 13 o
6 is 36 and 1 I carry is 37, fet
down 7 and carry 3 ; then 6 6983 9
times 2 is 12 and 3 I carry is 15,
which fet down ; then begin with the 2, faying, 2
X 3 times
310 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
times 3 is 6, which fet down under the mul-
ti olier as in whole numbers; 2 timevS.6 is 12,
i
fet down 2 and carry one ; then 2 times 2 is
4 and i I carry is 5, which is the whole.
Now as they are multiplied into themfelves,
inftead of multiplying the feet and inches, take
the aliquot part of a foot for the inches, which
in this example are the half, being 6 inches,
faying* the half of 2 is 1, which fet down
directly under the figure you fo divide, and
the remains, when there are any, carry to the
next inferior part, as from feet to inches,
inches to parts, &c. and every integer fo re-
maining muft be reckoned as 12 from feet to
inches, and the like from inches to parts, &c.
But to proceed, I have faid the half of 2 is 1,
then the half of 6 is 3, and the half of 3 is 1,
and 1 remains, which I carry to the inches,
and call it 12, which added to the 6 inches
in the multiplicand makes 18 ; then I fay, the
half of 18 is 9, which I fet down under the
inches, and proceed to take half of the mul-
tiplier 26 feet by 6 inches, in the multiplicand,
which has not as yet been confidered, faying as
before, the half of 2 is 1, and the half of 6 is
3 ; the reader will obferve, that the 6 inches
in the multiplier were before taken, therefore
place the feveral fums in proper order as in
the margin, and add them together, and they
will make the produdt 6983 feet 9 inches. It
matters not whether feet be firft multiplied,
or aliquot parts taken, fo that their refpedive
products be all duely added together.
Example .
*the TJniverfal British Builder. 311
Example .
Ft. In.
345 3
16 4
Example .
Ft. In,
946 6
44 2
Example .
Ft. In. Pts.
433 6 o
23 7 o
2070 o
345 ° 0
0115 1
0004 1
5639 2
37 8 4
O
I299
0
0
37840
O
8660
0
0
OO J4I
I
or 44
6
0
00022
O
0108
4
6
001 1
6
0
41787
I
10223 4 6
The above examples will, I hope, be plain
enough by infpe&ion, and need no more than
this obfervation, that if the aliquot part be 1 1
feet 9 inches, or 7 inches, I take them at
twice, as in the laft example of 7, which I
took at 3 and 4, being both aliquot parts of a
foot, as before mentioned.
To multiply feet, inches, and parts, by
feet, inches, and parts, when the feet in the
multiplicand and multiplier do not exceed
twenty.
X 4
RULE.
312 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
RULE.
Firft, place the feet of the multiplier under
the parts of the multiplicand, and the inches
and parts to the right hand, and proceed to
multiply as in whole numbers ; only with
this difference, carrying 12 for the remains.
* — See the examples.
S3 4208 44 4414
Having thus given various examples of feet,
inches, and parts; I fhall only obferve, that
thefe being well underflood will make the
menfuration of either fuperfices or folids eafy
and delightful to every capacity. As fome
works are meafured by the yard and feet, I
fhall juft give a little inftrudtion in this fort
of meafurement, and proceed to divifion.
Multiplication of Yards and Feet .
Obferve, that yards multiplied by yards
produce yards ; when yards are multiplied
into feet, every 3 feet make a yard, and the
Ft. In. Pts.
864
Ft. In. Pts.
12 6 4
632
3 6 4
remains
T’he Univerfal British Builder. 313
remains more than 3 are long feet ; what I
mean by long feet, is, 3 feet in length, and
1 broad. Feet multiplied by feet produce
parts of a foot ; which are fquare feet, 3 of
which make a long foot. — See the example
in the margin.
Firft, the yards being mul-
tiplied as integers, proceed to
take the feet, which I do thus,
as one foot is one third of a
yard as aforefaid, I take the
third of 463 yards 2 feet,
which is 154 yards 1 foot, B
as at B ; fecondly, as 2 feet C
are two thirds of a yard, I D
take the third twice of 223
yards, which is 74 each, and
place them as in the margin ;
and when added all together you have the
true product, which is 93551 yards, 1 foot.
463 2
223 1
1389
926
926
J 54 1
74
74
i. — ,
9355 1 *
L E C-
314 Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
IVISION is the reverfe of multiplication,
for that turns fmall denominations into
greater, but divifion turns greater into fmaller,
and threfore is no more than a compendium
of fubflraftion ; for as many times as the di-
vifor can be fubftra&ed out of the dividend,
fo many units are in the quotient.
In whole numbers, of which only I Hi all
yet fpeak, Divifion is the afking how many
times one fum is contained in another ; and
the number which anfwereth to that queflion
is called the quotient. Secondly, the number
containing is called the dividend. Thirdly,
the number contained, or by which the divi-
dend is to be divided, is called the divifor ;
and as often as the dividend contains the di-
vifor, fo often doth the quotient contain unity;
fo that as multiplication is a compendium of
many additions, divifion is a compendium of
many fubftradtions.
There are many ways by which this diffi-
cult rule of divifion may be wrought, but
fome much eafier than others to be performed;
therefore, as eafe and perfpicuity are the fun-
damental principles on which I build all my
defigns, I (hall endeavour, in this as well as
every other ledture, rather to inftrud: the ig-
norant, than point out new modes and ftudied
maxims, to acquire the felf-praife of the al-
LECTURE LXXI.
OF DIVISION.
ready accompli Ihed.
Divi-
*fhe Unlverfal British Builder. 315
Divifion in general is performed by this
analogy; as the divifor is to 1, fo is the di-
vidend to the quotient ; which I (hall illus-
trate by the following examples.
Example the Firjl .
If it be required to divide
a floor which contains 436
feet into Squares, as one Square
contains 100 Square feet,
place them as in the margin ;
436, the dividend, as at B ;
then making a divifion, place it at ioo, as A ;
then make another, and placing it as at C,
Seek how often 100 is contained in 436 feet,
which is 4 times ; Set down 4 as at C, for
the quotient ; multiply the 100 that is the
divifor by the quotient 4, faying, 4 times o
is nought, which place under the 6, and fay,
4 times o is nought again, and place an o
under the 3, then fay, 4 times 1 is 4, which
place under the 4 as in the example; then
make a line at the bottom of thefe num-
bers, and fubftradt from the dividend, faying,
o from 6 and there remains 6, o from 3 and
the remains are 3, and 4 from 4 you cannot,
which leave 36 remains, that is to fay feet,
as in the margin ; thus the work is 4. Square
and 36 feet. In like manner is all divifion
of whole numbers wrought ; at lead: my me-
thod is fo.
ABC
100 I 436 I 4
400
3 6
2
Example
316 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
Example the Second.
Let 675 feet of dado, wainfcot, or any
other fuperficial work, that is meafured by
the yard, be brought into yards ; as 9 fquare
feet therefore is a yard we di-
vide by 9 ' y place them as in
the margin, and proceed as be-
fore -y feek how often 9 can be
had in 67, and you will find
it to be 7 times, which is 63 ;
note down this under 67, then
making a line under them fub-
ftradtas before, t faying, 3 from
7 and there remain 4, which
place in the margin, after this bring down
the 5, and place that next the 4 to the right
hand, and it makes 45 for a new dividend ;
then feek how often 9 can be had in 45 ; 5
times 9 is 45, which place under 45, the new:
dividend, and fubftradt as before, and your
work is done, the whole being juft 75 yards.
Note, If the dividend confift of eight or.
ten figures, you muft frill proceed till you
have brought down all the figures in the di-
vidend, as in the two foregoing examples.
But fee the following.
Let it be required to divide 876543 by 647.
9 ! 6 75 i 75
6 3
45
45
00
EX-
The TJniverfal British Builder. 317
EXAMPLES.
49 1 564987 1 1x530
49
74
49
2 59
245
148
H7
17
647 | 876543 | 1354
647
2295
1941
3544
3235
3°93
2588
5°5
LECTURE LXXIL
OF CONTRACTIONS IN DIVISION.'
W HEN the divifor is 10, 100, 1000,
or 10000, cut from the dividend the
fame number of figures to the right-hand as
there are cyphers in the divifor ; and the fi-
gures remaining to the left will be the quo-
tient required ; thus 6784 di-
vided by 10, I cut off one 1,0 J 678 J 4
figure to the right-hand as in — — •
the margin, and the quotient
is 678, and four tenths the remains.
And
318 A Key to Civil Architecture *, or ,
And if 984367 fquare feet were to be
brought into fquares, or di-
vided by 100, I only cut 100 j 9843 | 67
off two figures to the right
of the dividend, as in the
margin, and the work is done, which is nine
thoufand eight hundred and forty-three fquares
and fixty-feven feet. But fee thefe examples
by the common way.
Example 1.
10 | 6784 | 678
60
70
84
80
4
Example 2.
100 1 984367 1 9843
900
843
800
43 6
400
3 6 7
67
And fo of 1000, and alfo of 10,000.
The way to prove divifion is to add all the
produdts refulting in the whole work together,
in the fame order as they iiand in the work,
and the fum of them (adding the laft remain-
der, if there be any) will be equal to the di-
vidend.
The Unfaerfal British Builder. 319
vidend. Or this way ; multiply the quotient
by the divifor, and to the product add the
remains if any, and if your work be true, it
will be the fame as the dividend.
DIVISION OF DECIMALS.
S divifion of whole numbers is the hard-
eft of the fourfpecies of arithmetick, fo
the divifion of decimals is the moft difficult
of the four kinds of decimal arithmetick; but
in this, as in the reft of my undertakings, I
fhall endeavour to make it plain, eafy, and
familiar to the weakeft capacity.
The general varieties which happen in the
divifion of decimals are principally the fol-
lowing ; firft, to divide whole numbers and
fractions ; fecondly, to divide whole num-
bers by mixed, or mixed numbers by whole;
thirdly, to divide a greater fradtion by a lets ;
and laftly, to divide a lefier fradtion by a
greater. Divifion of decimals is performed
in every refpedt as whole numbers ; only
there is fome difficulty in difcovering the true
value of the quotient ; the following is a ge-
neral rule.
The places of decimal parts in the divifor
and quotient, being accounted together, muft
always be equal in number to thofe in the di-
vidend ; and therefore as many figures as are
cut off in the dividend, fo many muft be
LECTURE LXXIIL
cut
320 A Key to Civil Architecture ; of,
cut off in the divifor and quotient. Or thus;
cut off as many figures in the quotient as will
make thofe cut off in the divifor equal to thofe
in the quotient; with this obfervation, that
if there be not fo many in the quotient, to add
cyphers to the left-hand, and alfo, that if
your dividend be an integer, or have lefs cut
off than is in the divifor, to add cyphers to
the. dividend, till they be equal ; this gene-
ral rule admits of four cafes.
CASE I.
Where the places of decimal parts in the
divifor and dividend are both equal in num-
ber, as in the example, where both divifor
and dividend are mixed numbers, then the
quotient will be all whole numbers.
Example .
45-3 26 I 564 2 -435 [ 124
45.3026
1 1 0983
9 0652
203315
1 81304
2201 1
CASE
The Univerfal British Builder, 32J
CASE II.
Divide 6458.271
by 573 > as in the
margin ; here the
dividend is a mixed
number, and the di-
vifors are integers,
and as here are 3
decimals in the di-
vidend, and none in
the divifor, there-
fore cut off 270 the
laft 3 figures in the
quotient, and the
quotient will be
11.27.
573 I 6458.271 | 11.27
573
. 728
373
1552
1146
4067
4011
CASE III.
Divide .84 by .0324. -0324 [ .8400 | 26
as in the margin here 648
the dividend is whole
numbers, and the divifor 1920
a decimal; and feeing 1894
that 84 the dividend
confift but of two places, 126
I therefore add two cy-
phers to it, making it 8400, thereby both di-
vidend and divifor may be made fractions ; and
by their being both of equal number of places,
by cafe the firft, the quotient is integers ;
Y when
322 A Key to Civil Architecture-, or,
when there are not fo many places of decimal
parts in the dividend as there are in the divifor,
then annex cyphers to the dividend to make
them equal, and the quotient will be all whole
numbers* as in cafe the firft.
CASE TV.
Divide 4653 by 645 | 4653000 j 612
645, as in the mar-
3870
gin ; now here the
dividend being inte-
783°
gers, and the divifor a
7710
decimal, to bring out
—
integers in the quo-
120
tient I add 3 cyphers
to 4653, the dividend.
and the quotient is 412
and 120 remains ; but if, after the divifion is
finifhed, there are not fo many figures in the
quotient as there ought to be places of deci-
mal parts by the general rule, then fupply the
defeat by prefixing cyphers before the figures
produced in the quotient ; as for example ;
divide .421563 by 24. nowhere the dividend
is a decimal, and the divifors are integers,
whofe quotient is .17545 ; but as there are
6 places in the dividend, and but 5 in the
quotient, therefore according to the general
rule I prefix a cypher before the quotient
17545, making it .017545, which is the true
quotient required.
2 4
■the Univerfal British Builder. 323
24 ] .421543 | .017545
24
181
168
*35
120
156
144
123
120
3
From the preceding examples it is to be
obferved, firft, that when the dividend is fu-
perior to the divifor, the quotient is either in-
tegers, or decimals and integers ; and laftly,
that when the divifor is fuperior to the divi-
dend, the quotient is a decimal ; and this, in
both cafes, holds good in other examples.
Y 2
LEG-
324 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
LECTURE LXXIV.
OF REDUCTION.
R EDUCTION is nothing more than a
two-fold compofition of multiplication
and divifion, for the ufe of changing a quantity
out of one denomination into another, as a
lefs into greater by multiplication ; or a greater
into lefs by divifion : as for example ; if it be
required to know how many fuperficial inches
are contained in 7264 feet, multiply the feet
by the number of inches in a fuperficial foot,
and the produdt will be the contents required.
EXAMPLE.
7264
144
29056
2QOc6
7264
1046016
In
The Univerfal British Builder. 325
In 1046016 inches how many fquar e
feet ? To bring this to its former ftate, you
muft divide by 144.
144 J 1046016 ] 7264
1008
380
288
92 1
864
576
57 6
OOO
As there is no other difficulty in this rule
but to obferve the denomination to which you
are to reduce the given fum or quantity, I
(hall not trouble the reader with any more
examples of this fort, but conclude with the
following obfervation, that when we would
reduce fquares, rods, yards, feet, or any other
denomination, we muft find out the two
quantities, and reduce one by divifion, the
other by multiplication.
326 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or *
EXAMPLE.
To reduce fquares into feet, multiply the
number of fquares by 100, the number of
fquare feet in a fquare, and the produdt will
be feet ; to reduce feet into fquares divide by
100, and the quotient will be fquares: to
reduce yards into feet, multiply the yards by
9, the fquare feet in a yard, will be the num-
ber of feet ; to reduce feet into yards, divide
by 9 ; to reduce loads of timber to folid feet,
multiply the loads by 50, the folid feet in a
load of timber, and the product will be the
contents ; to reduce folid feet into loads, di-
vide by 50, the quotient is the load; and fo
of any thing elfe, whether money or meafure-
ment ; but this rule is fo obvious, that it
needs no more inftrudtions. I fhall therefore
proceed to the golden rule, or rule of three in
whole numbers.
LECTURE LXXV.
THE GOLDEN RULE ; Or, RULE OF THREE
DIRECT.
T HIS is one of the moll ufeful and mod
fimple rules in arithmetick, and for its
uncommon utility, deferves a golden name ;
its ufe is when there are three numbers given
to find a fourth, which fhall have the fame
proportion with them as they have one to ano-
The Univerfal British Builder. 327
iher ; and is therefore properly called the rule
of proportion. This rule is diredt, indirect,
and compound.
Firft, the fingle rule of three diredl finds a
fourth number in fuch proportion to the third,
as the fecond is to the firft ; or, as the fecond
is to the firft, fo is the third to the fourth.
But four numbers are in proportion, and call-
ed proportional, when as the firft is to the
third, fo is the fecond to the fourth ; as, if
there were given 2, 3, and 4, to find a fourth,
which may be to 3, as 4 is to 2, that is,
double, and that fourth number is 6 ; this is
called the proportion diredt ; and the rule
whereby it is done, the diredt rule.
There is alfo another proportion which is
called reciprocal ; which is, when as the firft
is to the third, fo is the fourth to the fecond;
as 3, 4, 6, and 2, and is called the rule of
three reverfe ; by diredt proportion, the pro-
dudt of the two middle numbers multiplied
together, is always equal to the produdt of
the firft and laft multiplied together, which
ferves not only as a proof, but as a ground of
the rule, which rule here follows.
RULE,
Multiply the fecond term or number by the
third, and divide the produdt by the firft, the
quotient will be the fourth number required.
328 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
EXAMPLE,
Let the three numbers given be 2, 6, 3 ;
multiply 6 by 3, the produdt is 18 ; then di-
vide 18 by 2, the quotient is 9, which is the
fourth number in proportion with 2, 6, and
3 ; for as 2 is to 3, fo 3 times 2, which is 6,
are to 3 times 3, which make 9 ; and thus the
product j 8 being divided by 2, and the quo-
tient 9, caufe that the product of 2 into 9
ihall be alfo 18 ; and confequently, if 2 be
the firft of the four proportional numbers, and
6 and 3 the two middlernofh, then 9 is the laft.
RULE
To know when to ufe the diredt or the re-
verfe rule.confider if more require more, or lefs
require ftill lefs, then ufe the diredt rule : but
if more require lefs, or lefs more,then ufe the
reverfe rule. But this will be eafily under-^
flood by the following examples,
EXAMPLE I.
If the diameter of one circle be 7, and its
circumference 22, what is the circumference
nf another circle whofe diameter is 14 ?
The TJniverfal British Builder. 329
Firft, place your num-
bers as in the margin 3 fe- 7 : 22 :: 14 : 44
condly, multiply 14, the 22
third number, by 22, the —
When the fourth number is thus found,
place it next after the third number, with two
dots of feparation between them. The fame
kind of feparation is to be obferved between
t}ie firft and fecond 3 between the third place
4 dots. Thefe points of feparation will then
is to fo is to
bear this analogy, as 7 : 22 : : 14 : 44.
The points are to exprefs the words as they
are placed above them.
If the circumference of a circle be 22,
whofe diameter is 7, what is the diameter of
another circle whofe circumference is 44 ?
Here the nature of the queftion requires the
two firft numbers to be placed the reverfe of
the foregoing example 3 for as there the fourth
fecond number 3 and di-
vide their produ£f 308 by
7, the firft number; the
quotient 44 is then the
fourth number, and the
true anfwer required.
7 i 3° 8 i 44
28
28
28
00
EXAMPLE II.
number
330 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
number required was the circumference of a
circle, fo here on the contrary, the diameter
of a circle is required ; but the manner of
working, by multiplying the third number by
the fecond, and dividing by the firft, is the
fame here as before, as feen in this example,
where the quotient 14 is the diameter re^
quired.
22 : 7 : 44 : 14
7
22 1 308 [ 14
22
83
88
o
Now as in both thefe and all other ex-
amples in the rule of three diredt, the fourth
number is always equal to one more than the"
fecond $ fo in the rule of three diredt, the
fourth number is always lefs than the fecond-
And as the fourth number in the diredt rule
is found by multiplying the fecond and third
numbers together, and dividing their pro-
dudt; fo, on the contrary, in the indiredt rule
you multiply your firft and fecond numbers
into one another, and divide their produdt by
the third, as follows*
E X-
The Univerfal British Builder. 331
EXAMPLE III.
If 10 men can perform a certain quantity
of work in 30 days, how long time will 20
men be in performing the fame ?
RULE,
Multiply 30, the fecond number, by 10,
the firft, and their product, which is 300, di-
vide by 20, and the quotient, which is 15,
is the anfwer required.
Men. Days. Men. Days.
10 : 30 : : 20 : 15
10
20 1 300 1 15
20
100
100
o
Of the Golden Rule compound .
In the golden rule compound there are
always five numbers given to find a fixth in
proportion to them ; which numbers muft be
fo placed as that the three firft may contain a
332 A Key* to Civil Architecture % er,
fuppofition, and the two laft a demand ; and
that you may place the numbers truely, al-
ways obferve that the firft number be of the
fame denomination with the fourth, the fe-
Cond of the fame denomination with the fifth,
and the third with the fixth required.
EXAMPLE.
If 8 men in 36 days lay 48 fquares of floor-
ing, how many fquares can 6 men perform in
28 days ?
RULE.
Firft, ftatethe queftion, as below j fecondly,
multiply the two firft numbers, viz. 36 into
8, whofe product is 288, as alfo the two laft
is 168.
Men. Days. Men. Days.
8 : 36
6 : 28
8
6
288
168
Now the anfwer to this is found by the rule
of three diredt, by making 288 (the produdl
of the firft two) the firft number ; the third
given number, 48 fquares, your fecond; 168
(the produdt of your laft) your third number.
288
The Unherfal British Builder. 333
288 : 48 : 168
48
I J 344 l]
672
288 | 8064 | 28
57 6
2304
2304
OO
The anfwer is 28 , that is 28 days, which
is equal to 8 men in 36 days.
7# the Golden Rule .
As the four numbers are proportionals, that
is, the fourth is to the fecond as the third is
to the firft, therefore the fquare of the two
means (which are the fecond and third) is
always equal to the fquare of the two ex-
tremes, (that is, the firft and the laft ;) that
is to fay, if the produA of the firft and the
laft numbers, multiplied together into each
other, be equal to the produdt of the two mid-
dles, the work is right, otherwife not.
So
334 A Key to Civil ArchiteSiure ; of 9
So 8064 the
prod aft of
288
168
28
48
2304
*344
57 6
672
A I 8064 |
B | 8064 |
1 68 multiplied into 28, which are the two
extremes of the above example, as at A, is
equal to 8164, the product of 28 multiplied
at 288, the two extremes of the fame example,
as at B ; hence it is plain, that when the given
numbers in the foregoing three varieties of
the rule of three are truely ftated, (and which,
indeed, is the only difficulty in the whole)
the manner of performing the operation is very
eafy.
LECTURE LXXVI.
THE EXTRACTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT.
E XTRACTING the fquare root is no
more than finding the fide of a geome-
trical fquare, whofe area is the fide multiplied
into itfelf. For example ; 25 is a fquare num-
ber, which is produced by 5 being multiplied
into 5 ; fo in like manner 16 is a fquare num-
ber, produced by 4 multiplied by 4. The
1 fide
*The Univerfal British Builder. 33^
fide of any geometrical fquare is called its
root. I have added a table of fquare num-
bers, whofe roots are the nine digits, and
which, being nothing more than part of the
multiplication table, I doubt not by the time
the reader has got thus far, but he will have
it by heart.
EXAMPLE.
Let 625 be a root
given to find its 4
fquare root.
1-
2>
3-
5 -
6-
7
8-
9 -
1 4
9
16
2 ?
3 6
49
64
81
RULE.
Multiply 625 into itfelf, as at b c , whofe
product is 390625, the fquare number re-
quired, and whofe root is thus extracted, viz.
Firft, place a point above the firft figure to the
right-hand as at n> and at every other figure
to the left-hand as at d and e 9 and obferve as
many points as this fquare number contains,
fo many places of figures the root will con-
fift of. Secondly, make a crotchet at the
right-hand of the fquare number as in divi-
fion ; and note, that every two figures fo
pointed
336 d Key to Civil Architecture ; of,
pointed are called a punctuation. Thirdly,
find in the table the neareft fquare number
that is contained to
the left-hand, viz. in
39, which is 36,
whofe root is 6,
place 36 under 39,
and its root 6 in the
quotient, then fub-
ftradting 36 from 39 ,
the remains are 3,
which place under
36, as in the exam-
ple ; this is your
firfl work, and is not
to be repeated.
Fourthly, bring
down the next punc-
tuation 06 and join
it to the remains 3,
making 306, which
P
12
c 625
b 62 5
3 I2 5
1250
375 °
e d n
• • •
390625 .
3 6
3 °- 6 £
24 4
/
62
124.5 I
6 22.5
6225
O GO O
X
js your firft refol-
vend, and on its left-
llde make a crochet as in divifion, to fepa-
rate the divifor from the dividend. Fifthly,
double the root 6, which makes 12, place
this at the left of the refolvend, as at p ; then
rejecting the laft figure in the refolvend, which
muft always be done as at g , fee how often
the divifor 12 is contained in the remaining
two figures in the refolvend, which is twice,
therefore place 2 in the quotient at f, and alfo
2 at
Hhe XJmverfal British Builder. 337
at the right-hand of the divifor at b f and
multiply 122, the divifor, increafed by 2,
that is by 2 in the quotient, the produdt will
be 244, which place under 306 the refolvend,
this being fubftradted from it, the remains
are 62 ; which being done, bring down the
next pundtuation, and join it to the remain-
der 62, making it 6225 for afecond refolvend,
and then proceed as before, viz. double the
quotient 62, which makes 124, place this on
the left of the fecond refolvend ; then fee how
often 124 is contained in the laft refolvend (the
laft figure as before rejected) which is 5 times,
place 5 in the quotient, and alfo to the right
of the lad divifor ; then multiplying the divifor
by 5 as before, place the remains under the
refolvend as at x ; then fubftradting from the
refolvend, you will find no remains, which
fhews that 390625 is afquare number, whofe
root is the 625 required.
Note, if the fquare number confift of more
pundtuations, you mud ftill bring them down,
and proceed in every refpedt as before. Se-
condly, if at any time, when you have mul-
tiplied the number ftanding in the place of
the divifor by the figure laft found in the
quotient or root, the produdt be greater than
the refolvend ; in fuch a cafe, you muft put
a figure lefs by one than the former in the
quotient, and multiply by it as before. Third-
ly, if at any time the divifor cannot be had
in the refolvend, then place a cypher in the
Z quotient,
1
33 % A Key to Civil Architecture •> or,
quotient, and alfo on the right-hand of the
divifor, ( and to the refolvend bring down the
next punctuation for a new refolvend, with
which proceed as before. Whenever it hap-
pens after extraction is made, that there is a
remainder, the number given is called a furd
or irrational number, and its root cannot be
exaCtly obtained, although by adding a cy-
pher you may come as near the truth as pof-
12.649
E X A M P L E.
If it be required to extraCt the root of 160,
the fird punctuation here
bing 1 , the fquare of one
is 1, which place under
.1 , then fubfiraCting 1
from 1 there remains o,
accordingly fet 1 in the
quotient, and to o bring
down the next punCtua- 246 [ 1600
tion 60, making the re- 1476
mains c6o. Secondly, —
fay, double the quotient 252.4 | 12400
10096
x makes 2, which place
for your divifor as in the
lad example 5 now as 2
is contained three times
in 6, after rejecting the o
as before taught, being
the lad figure in the re-
folvend to the right-hand ; I fay, to place 3
in
2528.9 J 230400
227601
2799
T'/je Vmverfal British Builder. 3^9
in the quotient and divifor would make the
latter 23, which being multiplied by 3 would
be 69, that is more than 60, the firft refol-
vend, and therefore cannot be fubftra&ed
from it ; in fuch a cafe then as I have before
ftated, place a figure lefs but one in the quo-
tient, that is 2, and alfo the fame on the right
of the divifor 2; then multiplying the divifor
22 by 2 in the quotient, the produdt is 44,
which being placed under the firft re fol vend
60, and fubftradted from it, the remains
are 16. Thirdly, to the remains annex two
cyphers, and make it 1600 for a fecond
refolvend ; then, proceeding as before, the
next figure in the quotient will be 6, and 124
remains, to which annex two cyphers more,
making the remains 12400 for a third refol-
vend, and proceed in like manner by conti-
nually adding two cyphers every time to each
remainder till you have increafed the figures
in the quotient to as many places as may be
required ; in this I have increafed them to
three places, which I apprehend to be near
enough for any bufinefs.
Z 2
If
340 A Key to Civil Architecture ■, or .
If it be required to extradt the fquare-root
of 4096.
EXAMPLES.
•' •
4096 1 64
3 6
• • •
678960 1 823
64
124 [ 49.6
49 6
162 1 38.9
3 2 4
OO O
1643 J 656.0
49 2 9
i6 3 3
• •
676 | 26
4
5728*4 | 238
4
46 J 27.6
27 6
43 I * 7 - 2
12 9
00 c
468 1 4 384
3 8 44
54 °
LEC-
The Univerfal British Builder. 341
THE EXTRACTION OF THE CUBE-ROOT.
Cube number is that which is produced
by multiplying any number into itfelf,
and its product again by the lame number,
thus 64 is a cube number, produced by 4
multiplied in 64.
A cube is a folid figure, contained under fix
equal fquares, and may fully be reprefented by
a dye.
Of cube numbers there are three diftindt
kinds or fpecies, viz. fingle, compound, and
irrational. Firft, fuch are called fingle cube
numbers as are made of any one fingle num-
ber, or fignificant figure multiplied twice into
itfelf, as 1 multiplies nothing, and is both
root and cube ; but 2 times 2 is 4, and twice
4 is 8, fo that 2 is the root, and 8 the cube;
alfo 3 times 3 is 9, and 3 times 9 is 27, here
3 is the root, and 27 the cube ; and fo of all the
9 digit numbers, as in tlie following table.
LECTURE LXXVII.
EX-
342 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or ,
P L E.
E X
A M
f
|
4
multiplied
9
| into itfelf
10
> produceth
2 S >
the fquare
3 6
numbers.
49
64
l 8 ij
and that mul-
tiplied again
into the fide
cube
bers.
num-
i
8
27
64
125
216
3 T 3
512
729
Compound cube numbers are thofe vvhofe
roots confift of more figures than one, as if 12
be the root, then 12 times *2 is 144 the
fquare, and 12 times 144 is 1728, which isa
foot cube of timber, &c.
Irrational cube numbers are thofe whofe
ex aft cube cannot be found either by whole
numbers, fractions, or decimals.
EXAMPLE.
Let 262144 be a cubed number given to
find its root. Firft,
point the firfi: fi-
gure to the right-
hand, then every
third figure toward
the left-hand as at
b d. Secondly,
look at your table
of cubed numbers,
and find the near-
eft cube number to
262, which is 216,
whofe root is 6,
d b
• •
262144 ] 64
2 16
r
108
46144 Refolvend,
u 43 2
288 w
64
46144
00000
place
The Univerfal British Builder. 343
place 6 in the quotient, and 216 under 262,
and fubftradting 216 from 262, the remains are
46 ; bring down the next punctuation 144,
and annex them to 36, making it 36144,
which is your firft refolvend. Now to find a
divifor by which you are to divide this refol-
vend, its two laft figures excepted, which
muft always be done, proceed in the follow-
ing manner, viz. Firft, fquare the quotient
6, which is 36, treble this makes 108, and
is the divifor required as at r ; then feek how
often you can have 108 in 461, rejecting the
two figures to the right, as obferved 4
times, which is equal to 432, place thefe un-
der the refolvend 461 as at u , and fet 4 in the
quotient. Secondly, treble 6 the firft figure
in the root equal to 18, which multiplied by
16, the fquare of 4, the laft figure in the
quotient makes 288, place this under 432, in
one place to the right-hand as at w ; alfo cube
4, the laft figure in the quotient, which is
equal to 64, which place under 288, one
place more to the right-hand, as at r ; then
the three fubducends 432.288, and 64 being
added together as they ftand, their fum make
a fubtrahend of 46144, which being fub-
ftraCted from the firft refolvend, their remains
are nothing, and this (hews that 262144 is a
£iibe number, whofe part is 64,
£4
E X-
44 Key to Civil Architecture ; or .
EXAMPLES.
n’ 0 592 ! 49 H6363 183 [ 527
64 12 5
48 | 465.92
43 2
972
721
53641
75 ! 213-63
150
60
8
15608
2951
103823 [ 47
64
4 8 I 398-23
3 6 3
39823
— i >
OOOOO
8112 1 5755- 1 83
5678 4
76 44
343
5755i s 3
coooooo
117649 I 49
64
48 I 536-49
432
9/2
729
53649
OOOOO
E X-
The TJniverfal British Builder. 345
EXAMPLE.
1 10592 | 48
64 ‘
48 | 465.92
3 ^ 4
7 68
49 2
4 6 57 2
O 0020
LECTURE LXXVIII.
OF MENSURATION.
T HE reader is to obferve of the following
treatife, that every quantity is meafured
by l'ome other quantity of the fame kind, as a
line by a line, a fuperfice by a fuperfice, and a
folid by a folid; and the number which fhews
how often the lefler, called the meafuring unit,
is contained in the greater, or quantity mea-
fured, is called the content of the quantity fo
meafured: thus, if the quantity to be meafured
be a fuperfice, whofe dimenfion is 8 inches
by 6 , and the meafuring unit an inch each
way ; then as many times as the unit is con-
tained in the above redtangle, which muft be
m
8 times 6, viz. 48, is the number of fuper-
ficial
5
346 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ficial inches contained, from whence it is eafy
to conceive, that any fquare or redtangular
figure may be found by repeating the number
of parts into which the length is divided by
the fide of the meafuring unit, as often as
there are parts in the breadth of the fame,
whether inches, feet, yards, fquares, &c. for
it is in familiar fpeaking but multiplying one
fide by the other, and the produdt is the area
required of all regular figures.
How to meafure the Area of a Triangle .
RULE.
Multiply thebafe by half the perpendicular,
let fall or ftruck fquare from the bafe, or what
is called the hypothenufe, to the point of the
right angle, and the produft is the
contents required. Suppofing the 25
bafe of a triangle to be 25, and half 9
the perpendicular let fall 9, multi-
ply them as in the margin, and the 225
product is the content required.
The TJniverfal British Builder. 34 7
To find the Contents of a Trapezium-figure,
f whofie Sides are parallel, though of unequal
Length .
RULE.
Add the two fides together, and take half
for the length ; multiply that by the
width, the product will be the con- 27
tents required. Suppofing the 2 fides 16
added together to be 54, and the width
of the plane 16, 1 place them as in the 162
margin, and the produdt is the con- 27
tents required. ■
43 2
To find the Content of any unequalfided
Figure .
RULE.
Divide it into triangles, and meafure it as
before taught ; then add the feveral fums to-
gether, and thefe will be the contents re-
quired.
Having fhewn how any right-lined fuper-
ficial figure may be computed, it may be pro-
per to fay fomething with regard to the area,
and circumference of a circle.
It is well known, that to determine the true
area of a circle, and to find a right line exadt-
l Y
348 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ly equal to the periphery or circumference
thereof, has been looked upon by mathema-
ticians as abfolutely impoffible ; I hope the
learner therefore will be content with luch
methods as fhall be near enough to approxi-
mate any thing required in the building branch,
and have been thought fo, not only by Archi-
medes, but every author fince.
LECTURE LXXIX.
OF CIRCLES,
Hr* HE diameter of a Circle bein { g given to
^ find its Circumference.
RULE.
As 7 is to 22, fo is the di-
ameter tc the circumference.
Suppofe the diameter to be 9
feet, firft multiply the diame-
ter 9 by 22, the product is 198,
which divided by 7 gives 28
feet and 2«7ths of a foot for
the circumference.
The
22
9
7 I 198 | 28
*4
5 6
The Univerfal British Builder. 349
The Circumference of a Circle being given , to
find the Diameter .
RULE.
Multiply the circumference by 7, and di-
vide by 22, the quotient will be the contents
required.
The Diameter of a Circle being given , to find
the Area , or J up erficial Contents .
RULE.
As 7 is to 22, fo is the fquare of the
femi-diameter to the fuperficial contents.
Suppofing the femi-diame-
ter to be 4 feet, that fquared 16
is 16, which multiplied by 22 22
give 352, and that produft di- — —
vided by 7, the quotient is 32
49 feet, the area of the circle 32
required. —
7 I 35 2 I 49
2$o A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
How to meafure any Part or Portion of &
Level.
RULE.
Multiply half the arch-line by the femi-
diameter, and the product will be the fuper-
ficial contents.
c Pofind the fuperficial Contents of a Cylinder .
RULE.
As 7 is to 22, fo are the
12
diameter and length of the
5
fide multiplied one by ano-
ther, to the fuperficial con-
60
tents of the outfide of the
22
cylinder. Suppofing the
- ...
diameter to be 5, and the
120
length 12, thefe multiplied
120
together make 60 ; and a-
—
gain multiplied by 22, the 7 J
! I 3 20 1 18
produdt is 1320, which di-
7
vided by 7 give 188 feet, the
fuperficial contents. — Note,
62
This may be done by girt-
5 6
ing the cylinder for the
width multiplied by the
60
length.
56
4
3 *
The TJniverfal British Builder. 351
To meafure the Superfice of a Dome or Globe .
' RULE.
Multiply the diameter by the circumfe-
rence, and the produdt is the contents re-
quired.
How to meafure a Pyramid .
RULE.
Add all the four fides of the bafe together,
and take half the fum multiplied by the
height, which will be the fuperficial contents
required*
LECTURE LXXX.
OF SOLIDS.
S OLID figures or bodies are fuch as con-
(ift of three dimenlions, viz. length,
breadth, and thicknefs, as ftonc, timber,
earth, or any other folid body whatever. The
difference in the meafurement of fnperfices
and folids is this ; in the former you have only
to meafure the length .with the breadth; in
the latter you have to multiply that product
by the thicknefs, as in the following ex-
ample. 1
Sup-
352 A Key to Civil Architecture ; o?>
Ft. In.
Suppofing a cubical figure to i 6
be i foot 6 inches by i foot 6, i
and 2 feet deep, firft multiply i —
foot 6 inches by i foot 6, accor- 9
ding to duodecimals, and the 1 6
produd: by 2 feet, the depth, the — —
contents 47 feet folid. 2 3
2
6
o
o
4 6
All regular folid bodies that are above a
foot in the fquare may be meafured by duo-
decimals, being much the fimpleftand readied:
method.
Suppofing a piece of fquare timber to be
2 feet 6 inches by x foot 3 inches, and 9 feet
long.
EXAMPLE.
Ft. In.
Firft multiply 2 feet 6 inches 2 6
by 1 foot 3, and that produd: by 1 3
the length, then the laft produd:
will be 29 feet 7 inches 6 parts, 7 6
the content required. 2 6
3 3 6
9
29 7 6
To
r
The Univerfal British Builder, 353
To meafure the foiid Contents of any Scantling
of Timber under a Foot .
Multiply one fide by the other, that is,
fquaring one end, and multiplying that by 12
gives the foiid inches in one foot long ; after-
wards multiply that product by the number
of feet the piece contains in length, and the
product will be the contents in inches ; then
divide by 1728, the cubical inches in a foot,
and you will have the foiid contents in feet.
EXAMPLE.
Suppofe a piece of tim-
3
ber the Xcantling of which
8
is 8 by 3, I fay, 8 times 3
—
is 24, and multiplying that
24
by 12 gives 288 foiid
1 2
inches; next multiply the
length 25 into 288, and
288
divide by 1728, this gives
2 5
4 foiid feet of timber, and
288 foiid inches, which is
> 4 - 4 °
fomewhat lefs than a quar-
57 6
ter of a foot.
288
A a
10
354 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or 9
7 o find the folid Contents of a Pyramid .
R U I, E.
Firft find the fuperficial contents of the bafe,
or biggeft end, and that produdt being mul-
tiplied by one third of the height, the pro-
dud: will be the fuperficial contents. The
fame alfo if the bafe be a triangle.
LECTURE LXXXI.
OF MEASURING ROUND TIMBER.
I T is cuflomary in meafuring round timber,
if a tree be regularly fhaped, to girt it in
the middle with a firing, for a mean be-
tween the two ends ; the firing then muft
be doubled four times for the girt. Thus if
a tree be 32 inches in circumference the girt
is 8 inches.
RUL 6
The Univerfal British Builder. 35^
RULE to meafure it.
Square the girt, and. 8
multiply that by 12, 8
and the product by the — .
length, and divide by 64
172S, you will then 12
have the contents re- — — .
quired, as in the mar- 768
gin, which is 1 1 folid 25
feet and 192 folid inches, — — ■
that is to fay near 4 of a 3840
foot 1536
1728 j J9200 | 11
1728
1920
1728
192
Note, If the timber girt be above a foot,
you may meafure by duodecimals, which is
much the belt and eafieft method. See the
following
A a 2
EX-
A Key to Civil Ar chit e 51 lire ; or,
' 'EXAMPLE.
Suppofe a piece of round tim-
ber or ftone to be in girt i foot
3 inches, firft fquare that, and
multiplying the product by the
laft product, you will find the
contents required to a length of
8 ieet ; and fo of any other di-
menfion.
1 3
i
3 9
1 3
169
8
12 6 o
LECTURE LXXXII.
OF GEOMETRY.
C GEOMETRY is that fcience by which
jf we compare all quantities together that
have extenfion, being the bafis of building,
and on which almoft every art depends.
Geometry is both fpeculative and practical ;
the former elucidates the properties of lines,
figures, and angles ; the latter teaches how to
apply or reduce them to practice in architec-
ture, &c.
Extenfion is confidered by length, breadth,
and thicknefs.
A line is that which hath length without
breadth. The bounds of a line, or extremes,
are called points, and have no magnitude or
extenfion to be divided to our fight. When
extenfion, called quantities, is confidered as
lengths.
The TJniverfal British Builder. 357
lengths, they are only called lines. Thofe
with lengths and breadths are called furfaces.
A right-line is that which lies evenly between
its extremes, or every where tends the fame
way. An angle is the opening or inclination of
two right-lines meeting each other in a point.
An acute angle is that which islefs than a
right angle. An obtufe angle is that which is
greater than a right angle. Two right lines
are fa id to be equidifiant, when perpendicu-
lars are any way taken and are of equal length.
A right-lined plane figure is that whofe
bounds are right lines.
All plane figures bounded by three lines are
called triangles.
A right-angled triangle is that which has
one right angle, whereof the fide oppofite to
the right angle is called the hypothenufe.
An equilateral-triangle is that whofe fides
are all equal.
A fcalene-triangle is when all the three
fides are unequal. A rectangle is a fquare
whofe fides and angles are equal.
Parallelogram, whofe angles, if right, are
called redtangles.
A trapezium is an irregular four-fided
fquare.
" A circle is a figure bounded by one line,
called its periphery or circumference.
Every right line pafiing through the centre
of a circle, and terminating in the circumfe-
rence, is called a diameter.
A a 3 An
358 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
An arch of a circle is any portion of the
periphery or circumference.
The chord or fubtenfe of an arch is a right
line joining the two extremes of that arch.
A fegment of a circle is a figure contained
under a femi-circle.
A femi-circle is a figure contained under
any diameter, and the part of the circumfe-
rence cut off from that diameter.
A fedtor of a circle is a figure contained
under two right lines drawn from the centre
to the circumference.
The radius of a circle is the diftance of the
centre from the circumference.
Thefe figures and bounds mentioned are
part of one of the great principles of geometry,
being diftinguifhed into three parts, viz. pof-
tulates, axioms, and definitions. The former
being demands or fuppofitions, intimate, that
from any given line or point another right line
may be drawn.
That from any centre or diftance, or with
any radius, the circumference of a circle may
be defcribed.
Alfo, that the equality of lines and angles
to others given be granted as poffible for one
right line to be perpendicular, or parallel to
another, at a given point or diftance j and that
every magnitude hath its half, quarter, third,
fourth, &c.
The fecond principle is axioms orfelf-evi-
dent truths, as that every whole is greater than
its half. Or,
That
The Univerfal British Builder. 359
That every whole is equal to all its parts.
Alfo, that if to equal things equal things
be added, the whole mult be equal.
That all right-angles are equal to each other,
and if from equal things equal things be taken,
the remains will be equal.
The third and Taft principle is definitions,
which are the explications of fuch terms, fi-
gures, and words, as concern a propofition in
order to render it intelligible and plain to the
underftanding, that every objection in demon-
ftratipn may be comprehended without diffi-
culty.
By a propofition is underilood fomething
propofed to be done or defigned.
Alfo, when a problem is named, fomething
is propofed or intended to be done.
A theorem is when fomething is offered
for demonftration.
A lemma is a premife demonftrated with a
view to render what follows, and what was
firit intended plainer.
A fcholium is, when remarks or obferva-
tions are made upon fomething going before.
A corollary is a truth gained from fome pre-
ceding confequent truth or demonftration.
The proper defign of a definition being to
fhew and explain the term or thing defigned,
fo as to give a precife and competent idea
thereof, it is certain the exa& meaning of
every term made ufe of in a definition ought
to be perfectly underfiood, or at lead fhould
A a 4 be
360 A Key to Civil Architecture , &c.
be better known or more commonly received
than the term to be defined. It was from this
motive that I have made free to nominate fome
of the principles of geometry, in order to ani-
mate the ftudent to the fearch of it, which, if
purfued with vigour, will give fuch fatisfac-
tion from the juftnefs of its reafoning, as is
only peculiar to the fubject, and create a thirft
for the fpirit .of its profundity.
Having faid fo much, and extended this
volume beyond its intended fixe, I mull: beg
t!ie reader's pardon for any miftakes commit-
ted either through deficiency of language, or
errors of the prefs, and that he will turn his
thought upon the extenfion and real meaning
of the fubjedt. I hope alfo he will at lead:
acknowledge my intent was good, and if thofe
who may be unacquainted with many of the
matters fpoken of, will but take upon them-
fclves to fcudy as much for their own advan-
tage as I have done for the general benefit of
mankind, I am perfuaded they will not think
their labours loft.
A
A
DISSERTATION
ON THE LATJ5
BUILDING ACT,
With proper Rules and Diredlions for every
CLASS of BUILDING.
A
DISSERTATION
ON THE LATE
BUILDING ACT.
LECTURE LXXXIII.
B UILDING is a Science truely fublime,
and of fuch an important nature, that
the moft florid pen would but convey a faint
idea of its excellence ; efpecially if we con-
fider the benefits that arife from its many ad-
vantages. I fay, if we confider thefe, we fhall
not find the fubjedl too trivial for the univer-
fal ftudy of our firft feminaries, nor their mode
of ere&ion beneath the guidance of a Britifli
Senate, who have fo lately undertaken the
reformation of many grofs and unpardonable
abufes which cuflom had introduced among
us, and which were every day growing worfe
for want of animadverfion. Not but the late
Aft
'364 A Kev to Civil Architecture ; or,
ACt of Parliament is replete with errors, not*
through defign, but in many cafes for want
of a juft knowledge of the difadvantages that
nmft arife to many peculiar bufinefles, by
granting benefits to others which cannot be
avoided, unlefs we give fcope to invention, and
inftitute fome other mode of building.
One of the moft inconfiderate claules in the
adt is, the prohibition of frontifpieces of wood,
which could never enter the thoughts of any
body but a mafon, who could not bear to fee
any thing executed in wood that might yield
fo great a profit to his own trade in ftone.
If frontifpieces of wood were in any wife de-
trimental, their being fet afide would be an
a£t of prudence ; but as they are not, I think
it a point of unparalleled cruelty to oblige a
builder to give 25, 30, or 35/. for a frontif-
piece, when he might have one of wood, fu-
perior in elegance, for half the money.
If houfes were to take fire on the exterior
parts, frontifpieces might be of differvice; but
as this rarely or never happens, they cannot
be dangerous : befides, in point of fecurity,
they can at any time and in any cafe be taken
down in three minutes. There are many
matters of much more confequence in a build-
ing not reftrained, and which are replete and
pregnant with danger. This ftrikes me with
an immediate thought, that a mafon muft
have propounded and devifed the adt — for no
publick advantage — but the peculiar emolu-
4 menf
TAe Univerfdl British Builder. 365
ment of his own branch ! For it is well known
that mafons have a greater profit upon frontif-
pieces than any thing in their trade, through
a want of knowledge in furveyors of the exad
labour that is required in matters of this fort.
An aft to prevent many errors in building,
was long a defirable matter, and of fome mo-
ment. If it had made its appearance ten
years ago, it would have been the means of
faving many unthinking men from the dif~
grace of a prifon ; and preferved numbers of,
now diftrefled, families from lading ruin and
poverty.
The terrors of a fine, in cafe of non-com-
pliance to an eftablifhed ftandard made by
parliament, would have deterred numbers of
builders in Marybonne , and other out-fkirts
of the town, from attempting matters which
they had neither the experience to execute
nor means to carry on. Many, to my certain
knowledge, turned builders who never ferved
their time to any bufinefs, and without the
poffeftion of one requifite in the fcience, un-
lefs a third of money may be called fo : thefe,
hurried on by their paffions, laid out ground
without underdanding, contrived rooms with-
out meaning, built walls and chimnies with-
out thought, which were of no other ufe but
to enhance the price of timber, by cutting
piles upon piles and fixing them in unnatural
order, as if they had been juft ereded to mako
up the row without form or fervice ; uncon-
nected
366 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
nedted and ill concerted ; void of grace,
flrength, and convenience and to the lad-
ing fhame of the London builders, it may be
juftly affirmed, that there are hundreds of
buildings about the town, which are of lefs
value when finifhed than the materials were
before ufed.
But thofe defedts will be all prevented in
future, by the prefent adt, which has allufion
not only to the flrength of walls, but alfo the
confequence of foundations.
For a more clear conception, however, of
this adt, it may be requifite to enquire into the
merits of every clafs of building, with fome
flridtures thereon, feparately as they occur.
Of the First Class of Building, ns dire died
by Adi of Parliament .
IT is enadled that every publick place of
j[ worfhip, and every building for diftilling
and brewing of liquors for fale ; every build-
ing ufed for carting of brafs or iron, for refin-
ing fugar, making glafs for chemical works
for fale ; every building for making of foap,
melting of tallow, for dying, for boiling tur-
pentine ; and alfo every warehoufe or building
whatfoever, not being a dwelling houfe, now
or hereafter to be built, (except thofe build-
ings of the fifth, fixth, and feventh clafles)
which fhall exceed three clear dories above
ground, exclufive of garrets (which are not
2 to
T!he Vniverfal British Builder. 367
to be confidered as a ftory) {hall be thirty-one
feet from the ground to the top of the para-
pet. And every dwelling-houfe now built,
or hereafter to be built, with the offices there-
unto belonging and adjoining or connected,
otherwife than with a fence wall, or covered
paffage, open on one or both fides when
finifhed, and which {hall exceed the fum of
eight hundred fifty pounds, and contain more
than nine fquare of building, is deemed the
firft clafs of buildings.
To which firft clafs it is enadled, that all
foundations to the outward wall, or to any
addition thereto, muft: be built and remain
of the thicknefs of two bricks and a half at
leaft, and may be regularly diminifhed on
both fides to two bricks: the footing muft be
nine inches at leaft, and be wholly below the
cellar floor, two inches at leaft ; and every
outward wall from the faid foundation muft
be continued two bricks to the one pair of
flairs floor, and from thence to the raifing or
gutter-plates, one brick and a half ; the para-
pet to be one brick to the coping. Alfo, that
all recefles to this clafs of building, for clofets,
bookcafes, &c. that may be left or cut in ex-
ternal walls, have one brick thick in the back
at leaft, and be arched ever the fame ; alfo,
that the foundations of party walls in this firft
clafs of building, likewife all additions, &c.
muft be of the thicknefs of three bricks and
a half at the bottom, and regularly diminifh
on
368 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
on each fide four inches to the top of the faid
foundation, which fhall be in height one foot,
and two inches below the cellar floor, and
from thence lhall be continued with two
bricks and a half to the ground floor ; after-
ward, in two bricks to the floor of thehighefl:
room in the houfe, and from thence with one
brick and a half through the roof, and above
the fame, one foot fix inches.
Aifo, if at any time you are building a
houfe of the firfl: clafs, and the adjoining one
fhould be of the third or fourth clafs only,
you mull: in that cafe build the party wall the
fame in every refpeCt with the directions for
the firfl: clafs of buildings.
The above claufes in the adt of the firfl:
clafs have very few faults, and little room for
complaint, except the inconvenience of being
obliged to call on every occafion the furveyors
to juftify their proceedings; for it cannot be
imagined that any fenfible man would pro-
pofe to build walls of lefs magnitude than the
above dimenfions, though it has frequently
been done by men of defperate undertakings.
A prudent builder mud be well apprized of
the fatal confequence attending fuch ginger-
bread ftrudtures.
The walls, in point of propriety, lack fiib-
dance; and if the fize of the building were
augmented above this proportion, I will be
bold to affirm, would be inadequate to the
purpofe : this will very plainly appear by ex-
amining
The Univerfal British Builder. 369
amining my ftandard of walls, which are as
light as any building ought to be.
Of the Second Class of Buildings .
T HE fecond clafs imports that every {ta-
ble, or other building, not ufed as a
dwelling-houfe, now built, or hereafter to
be built, which {hall exceed two clear {lories,
and not more than three out of the ground,
and {hall be twenty-two feet, and not ex-
ceed thirty-one feet from the ground to the
top of the parapet; and alfo, every dwelling-
houfe now built, or hereafter to be built,
which with the offices, &c. (as mentioned
in the firft clafs) when finifhed {hall exceed
the value of 300/. and not more than
850/. ditto, and {hall contain five fquares of
building, fhall be deemed the fecond clafs of
buildings.
To which fecond clafs of buildings all the
footings or foundations muft be built of the
thicknefs of two bricks at leaft, and may be
diminilhed two inches of a fide ; the height
of the faid foundation muft be nine inches,
and two inches below the floor of the cellar ;
and fuch outward walls muft be continued one
brick and a half to the one pair of flairs floor,
and from thence with one brick to the pa-
rapet.
The party walls to the fecond clafs and all
additions, &c. muft be of the thicknefs of
B b three
370 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
three bricks and a/ half at lead, and may be
diminished on each fide of the faid foundation
to the fet off on the bafement dory four
inches ; the height of the foundation mud be
nine inches, and below the Surface of the cel-
lar floor two inches ; from the fet off on the
foundation to the ground floor two bricks and
a half, from thence to the two pair of flairs
floor two bricks, after that in one brick and
a half to the top through the roof, and one
foot fix inches above the back of the rafters*
Of Buildings of the Third Class.
T O the third clafs is enabled, that every
flrudture, whether warehoufe or ffable,
not being a dwelling houfe, now built or
hereafter to be built, which fhall exceed one
clear dory, and fhall not be more than two,
and more than thirteen feet, and not exceed
twenty-two feet from the Surface of the ground
to the top of the parapet ; and alfo every
dwelling-houfe either now or hereafter to be
built, with the offices, &c, (as mentioned in
the fird clafs) which when finifhed fhall ex-
ceed the Sum of one hundred and fifty pounds,
and not exceed three hundred, and Shall run
above three Squares and a half, and not exceed
five Squares of building, fhall be deemed the
third clafs of buildings, and Subject to fuch
rules and redridtions as is Specified in the
faid ait.
With
Tie Unherfal British Builder. 371
With refpedt to the external and party
Walls : And fir ft, of the foundations to out-
ward walls with all additions; . they muft be
built of the thicknefs of two bricks, and may
be diminifhed upwards of two inches of a fide,
the height not lefs than fix inches, and wholly
two inches below the furface of the cellar
floor, and from thence to the ground floor be
one brick and a half, afterwards muft be one
brick continued to the top of the parapet.
The foundations of the party walls muft be
three bricks in thicknefs, and may be dimi-*
nifhed four inches on each fide to the top of
the faid footing ; the height of the founda-
tion muft be nine inches, and two inches be-
low the furface of the cellar floor, from the
foundation to the underfide of the ground
floor, two bricks from thence to the top of
the roof, and one foot fix inches above the
back of the rafter in a brick and half.
Inf. riiclions as to the Fourth Class of
Buildings .
X 70TE, that every (table, warehoufe, or
_ building not being a dwelling-houfe,
now or hereafter to be built, which fhall not
exceed one clear ftory, or may not be more
than thirteen feet from the ground to the top
of the parapet ; and alfo every dwelling-houfe
now or hereafter to be built, which, with the
offices, &c. fhall not exceed the value of one
B b 2 hundred
372 A Key to Civil Architecture $ or 9
hundred and fifty pounds, or may not exceed
three fquares and a half of building, fihall be
confidered under the fourth clafs.
All the foundations to which of external
walls muft be (and all additions thereto) two
bricks, and may be diminished on each fide
two inches ; the height of the foundation to
be fix inches at leaft, and two inches below
the floor, from thence muft be continued one
brick and a half to the underfide of the ground
floor, and afterward one brick to the top of
the parapet.
The foundations of the party walls muft be
of the thicknefs of two bricks, and may be
diminiftied two inches on each fide of the wall,
the height of the foundation nine inches, and
two inches below the floor of the cellar, from
thence to the ground floor one brick and a
half and to the top of the building, and one
foot fix inches above the back of the rafter
the fame.
All the above obfervations and inftrudtions
being abftra&s from the ad:, will ferve as a
guide to builders in not exceeding the limits;
but for my own part, I would admonifh every
man of reafonable thinkings, not to abide by
the above dimenfions. In other refpedls than
the party walls, all the reft I would confider-
ably augument in thicknefs, being, as I before
obferved, too flight in proportion to the dif-
ferent heights.
4
The
The Vniverfal British Builder. 373
The builders are to obferve that thefe ftand-
ards of outward walls are not calculated as
juft ones, but are pointed out as the veryfar-
theft limits which juftice ought to allow; and
likewife to prevent builders (through inexpe-
rience ) from exercifmg their faculties in
fchemes which will in no wife anfwer their
purpofe nor the publick’s.
InJlruB ions for the Fifth Class ofB uildings .
A LL dwelling-houfes, ftables, or ware-
houfes (except fuch buildings as are
particularly nominated in the firft and feventh
claffes) which are at any diftance from four to
eight feet from any publick way or road, and
are detached from any other buildings not in
the fame pbfieffion, from fixteen to thirty feet,
by any other means than a fence or fence-wall,
fhall be deemed the fifth clafs, and may be
built of any dimenfions, of ftone or brick,
without reftridtion as to the walls, which are
left entirely to the builder’s own judgement.
Inf rnB ions to be obferve d in the Sixth Class
of Buildings.
r | the fixth clafs every ftable, warehoufe,
dwelling-houfe, or other building (ex-
cept fuch ftrudtures, not being dwelling-
places, as are particularly declared to be of
the firft clafs) which is at the diftance of eight
feet at leaft from the road, and thirty feet
B b 3 from
*74 ^ Ke y to Civil Architecture ; or,
from any other building not in the fame pof-
fefiion, only by a fence-wall, /hall belong
and may be built of any materials or dimen-
lions whatfoeyer.
Directions to be ofrferved as to tjoe Seventh
Class.
A LL windmills or watermills, and every
building fituated without the cities of
London and Weftminfter, and the liberties
thereof, ufed for work /hops, or drying places
for feltmongers, curriers, tanners, leather-
dreflers, oil-cloth painters, buckram-ftiffeners,
wooLftaplers, throwfters, callico minters,
whitfters, whiting-makers, glue, fize, and
parchment-makers, fo long as they fhall be
ufea for the trades above-mentioned, fhall be
deemed the feventh clafs of buildings, and
may be built of any materials or dimenfions
what foe ver.
Inf rutl ions for Offices to Buildings \
Obferve that every office built or to be
built, belonging to any building of the fir ft,
fecond, third, or fourth clafs of buildings, if
they are apart from the main building, or
fhall be connected only by a fence or fence-
wall, or covered paffage, open upon one or
both fides, fuch office fhall be confidered ac-
' cording to the clafs and dimenfions it belongs
to, and be built agreeably thereto*
'The Univerfal British Builder, 375
Of Party Walls between Houfe and Houfe .
Where any adjoining houfe is rebuilt, the
owner of the adjoining houfe is entitled to half
the old materials and half the fcite of the party-
wall when pulled down.
If a houfe confift of five ftories or more,
the party walls muft be fubjedt to the direc-
tions of the firft clafs of buildings, notwith-
standing the houfe may not be in manner of
the firft clafs.
Note alfo, that every party wall built to
any dwelling-houfe containing four ftories,
muft be built after the fecond clafs, notwith-
standing fuch building may not be of the fe-
cond rate.
If the owner of any building fhould pull
down the fame, and the adjoining houfe fliall
be of the firft, fecond, third, or fourth clafs
of buildings, or be four ftories high, and if in
fuch cafe the old party wall flaould not be of
the thicknefs of two bricks at the leaft from
the foundation to the underfide of the ground
floor, and from thence to the top of the build-
ing of the thicknefs of one brick and a half,
fuch party wall, when either of the adjoining
houfes or buildings to which the fame be-
longs muft be rebuilt, is in that cafe confider-
ed a ruinous wall and muft be pulled down,
Alfo obferve if any timber be lying in any
cafe through a party wall, and upon rebuild-?
B b 4 ing
376 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ing the adjoining houfe, the owner of fuch
party wall fhall refufe to let the faid timbers
be cut off, fo as to leave fix inches brick- work
againft the fame ; in fuch a cafe every wall
fhall be confidered as ruinous, and muft be
taken down and rebuilt.
Likewife all timber partitions (when either
of the adjoining houfes are rebuilt, or fhallhave
either of their fronts abut againft fuch timber
partition) muft be taken down, or two thirds
of the fronts on either fide taken down to the
breflimer or one pair of (lairs floor, and after-
wards have a party wall built according to the
rules or clafs that fuch a building is within.
Obferve that no end or flank walls what-
ever can remain as party walls for any adjoin^
ing building, unlefs fuch wall fhall contain
the proportions of height and thicknefs above
the foundations, and be of the fame materials
as is before mentioned of fuch a clafs as the
building Jfhall be in.
Alfo, in cafe any dormer window, or any
other eredtion whatever, fhall be raifed or
fixed on the flat of any roof, or building
within four feet of any party wall, then fuch
party wall muft be built up againft fuch erec-
tion and muft extend two feet wide and to the
full height of fuch eredtion.
No openings of whatever nature muft be
made in any party wall except for communi-
cation from one tier of warehoufes to another,
or liables, and even then there muft be doors
of
The JJniverfal British Builder. 377
of wrought-iron one quarter of an inch in the
pannelsj and alfo jambs and cells of ftone:
neither muft there be any timber whatfoever
near fuch an opening ; neither muft any re-
cedes be made in any party wall except flues
for chimnies, and fuch timbers as are ap-
pointed.
No row of warehoufes that (hall be built
muft exceed thirty-five fquares of building, but
muft have party walls agreeable to the clafs of
buildings they belong to ; nor muft any row
of ftables be built that fhall exceed twenty-
five fquares but muft have party walls alfo.
No timber whatfoever fhall be laid into
party walls, fave bond timbers, ends of gir-
ders, beams, purlings, trimming or binding
joifts ; all fuch timbers too muft have eight
inches and a half of folid ftone or brickwork
at the ends and fides, except the ends of fuch
timbers fhould lie oppofite to each other. In
that cafe they muft have four inches of brick-
work betwixt the ends in the centre of the
wall.
All breffimers and ftory pofts may be let
into any party wall, but not more than two
inches.
Obferve, that you may cut into any party
wall for the purpofe of letting in ftone fteps
or ftone landings, or for placing in bearers for
wooden ft airs, fo that they be eight inches
and a half from any flue or chimney, or four
inches from any timbers of the internal finifh-
ings
*$78 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
ings of the adjoining houfe. You may alfo
oat into any party wall to inferc crofs walls,
or piers, provided they be not more than fif-
teen inches wide, or more than four inches
deep, and you muft not make any recefs nearer
than ten feet from any other, and no party
wall muft be cut into which fhall difplace,
injure, or endanger any of the timbers, chim-
nies, flues, or of the adjoining buildings.
You may alfo cut off the footing of any party
wall for the advantage of building another
y/a 11 againft the fame, but you muft be care-
ful to under-pin the fame diredly underneath.
Pub lick Pajfages.
All publick paflages under any building
Hiuft be arched over with brick orftone, and if
of a building of the firft and fecond clafs muft
be a brick and a half thick ; and in the third
and fourth clafs one brick, and if there be a
cellar under the above paffage, it muft be_
arched over as above.
Backs of Chimnies in Party Walls , where they
are not Back to Back . — Firjl Clafs .
The backs of all chimnies in the cellar ftory
muft be one brick and a half thick, and all
above the backs muft be one brick thick ; no
perfon therefore can make any backs unlefs
the w*dls are of an adequate thicknefs.
Chimnies, '■
*Tke TJniverfal British Builder. 379
Cbimnies Back to Back . — Firjl Clefs.
When it fo happens that chimniesfall back
to back, there muft be a two brick back in
the cellar ftory, and in each chimney on the
ground floor one brick and halt, and in every
other chimney to the top there muft be one
brick backs.
Chimney Backs in the Second, Fhird, and
Fourth Clafs.
Where the backs happen to fall as above
in the cellar ftories, there muft be one brick
and a half back, and all above one brick back
throughout the houfe.
Of Chimney Flues in Party Walls .
The breaft of every flue in the cellar ftory
fhall be one brick, and between every funnel
or flue there muft be half a brick ; and all
funnels or flues muft be pargetted within and
without, except the outflde, which may be
againft fome vacant ground; in fuch cafe you
muft be fare to white in fome lafting manner
the rim of every flue, funnel, or fire place.
Backs of Cbimnies net in Party Walls . — -
Firjl Clafs .
All chimney backs that are not in the
party walls in this clafs muft be in the cellar
ftory, one brick and a half in the back, and
all above one brick.
Of
380 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or.
Of Second, Third, and Fourth Clafs ditto ,
All the chimney backs in the circumfcrip-
tion of the laft mentioned clafles of building
muft be one brick at leaft from top to bottom,
Obferve of chimney breads in general, that
no difcharging pieces are to be nearer than
eighteen inches of the trimmers.
Note alfo, that all hearths in every room
muft be eighteen inches wide and one foot
more in the opening of the chimney.
Of the Chimney Flues in Party Walls intended
to he built .
Suppofing any perfon fhould be poflefled of
ground adjoining to any party wall about to
be built, and is defirous of having any rebates
or recedes left in the faid party wall (intended
to be built) agreeably to adt of parliament;
or to have any chimney or chimnies, flues,
&c. built and carried up with the faid party^
wall, fuch perfon fhall give notice in writing
under his or her hand, particularly mention^
ing every fuch chimney, &c. to the builder
or builders, or any of them, before fuch party
wall fhall be begun to be built; in which cafe,
the wall muft be conducted in a workman-
like manner, and according to the requeft of
the perfon giving fuch notice, and fuch per-
fons are liable to pay for the fame as well as
for a proportionable part of the wall.
No
The Vniverfal British Builder. 381
No Timber near the Chimney .
Obferve that no timber whatever is to be
placed within two feet of any oven, ftove,
copper, (till, boiler, or furnace ; nor muft
any bond timber be placed within nine inches
of any opening of a chimney, or within five
inches of any flue to any chimney.
Likewife be careful not to fix any chimney
fronts or grounds of wood, nearer than five
inches to the opening of the chimney, or in-
fide of the jambs.
All fuch frames and door cafes muft be
fixed in reveals, and all ftory pofts and bref-
fimers may be let into party walls not more
than two inches ; and all corner pofts muft
be of oak twelve inches fquare at leaft, or you
muft build ftone piers.
Alfo obferve that no chimney muft be built
upon timber, except what may be required
for the foundations, piling, planking, &c.
Of Timbers on the ontfide of Buildings .
All dormers, turrets, and other ere&ions,
placed on the outfide of buildings upon roofs,
or flats, in the firft, fecond, third, fourth or
fifth clafs, muft be covered with fiate, tiles,
tin, copper, or lead.
All outward decorations of balluftrades,
balconies, porticos, cornices, facios, windows,
&c. and all other external projections of the
firft.
382 A Key to Civil Architecture ; e'n
firft, fecond, third, and fourth clafs ; and
likewife every frontifpiece to any building of
the firft clafs, either now or hereafter to be
built, or any addition to fuch building, muft
externally be of brick, ftone, ftucco, lead,
or iron, burnt clay or artificial ftone ; except
the cornices and drefiings to (hop windows ;
alfo every covered way or roof upon any por-
tico, &c. is not to exceed the original line of
the houfe, and fuch covered way muft be co-
vered with lead, ftone, flate, tile, copper, or
tin ,* nor muft in height exceed (as well as
any dreffing to any fhop window) above the
till of the one pair of ftairs window.
Nor muft: any rain water fall or drip into
any publick ftreets, except from cornices, fa-
cios, porticos, &c. but muft be conveyed by
pipes and trunks into the channel ftones of
the drains; and wooden trunks to be ufed no
higher than the brefiimers.
No bow windows or other projedions to be
made in any fquare or publick ftreet, fave
fhop fronts, &c. beyond the line of the ftreet.
Nor muft any ftall-board projed in any
ftreet (thirty feet or more) a greater width than
one foot fix inches, nor in any ftreet lefs than
thirty feet wide more than thirteen inches, to
be meafured from the upright line of the
building.
Of Old Plajiered or Wooden Buildings :
All timber or plaftered buildings may be
repaired from time to time as ufual ; but if
* The Univerfdl British Builder. 3S3
at any time they fhall be taken down as low
as the breflimer, then they muft be built of
brick or (lone, with proper party walls, ac-
cording to adt of parliament.
Alfo remember that every building which
was begun before the 24th of June laft, and
not being of the materials as directed by the
late a <ft, may be finifhed, and afterward repaired
as occafion may require with the fame fort of
materials as the originals, except the cover-
ing of roofs, dormers, and flats, which muft
be fubje&ed to the former rules.
All buildings of the fifth and fixth clafs
not agreeable to the formentioned rules, and at
proper diftances, are liable to be pulled down,
as publick nuifances.
Any perfon prefuming to build, or alter an
old building contrary to the general fenfe and
tenor of the adt, and thereof convinced by the
oaths of two or more witneifes, before any
two or more juftices of the peace where fiich
buildings fhall be fituated, fuch will be deem-
ed a nuifance, and the builder thereof mud
enter into a recognizance in fuch fum as the
juftices lhall think fit, for either demolifhing
the fame or amending it according to the fore-
mentioned rules, or on refufal be fent to a
common jail until the above terms be com-
plied with.
384 -A Key to Civil Architecture ; or^
The following is a Schedule of the Fees fipulated
for Surveyors .
For every building of the ift clafs 3
And to every alteration or addi-
tion to ditto 1
For every building or houfe of
the fecond clafs 3
And every addition or alteration
to ditto 1
For every building or houfe of
the third clafs « — 2
Alfo every alteration to ditto 1
For every houfe or building of
the fourth clafs — — 2
And every alteration or addition 1
For every houfe or building of
the fifth clafs 1
Alfo for every addition or altera-
tion to ditto — — o
For every building or houfe of
the fixth clafs * — — 1
For every addition or alteration
to ditto — o
For every building of the feventh
clafs o
And every alteration or addition
to ditto — o
s .
d.
10
0
•
T 5
0
3
0
10
0
10
0
5
0
2
0
1
0
10
0
*5
0
1
0
10
6
10
6
5
0
If
^The Univerfal British Builder. 385
If any workman fhould begin any buildings,
or wall, or fhould cut into any party wall
without giving notice to the furveyor of the
diftridt, or otherwife refufe to admit the fur-
veyor to infpeCt the fame, fuch perfon fo of-
fending (hall forfeit double fees, and more-
over forfeit the fum of twenty pounds, and the
building not being diredly agreeable to the
adt, fhall be demolished or amended.
The furveyor, in fuch cafe, is to give notice
to the juflice of the peace, and he fhall order
it to be amended or utterly demolifhed.
Obferve that every building is to be fur-
veyed within fourteen days, and the furveyor
mull make oath that it is according to a£t of
parliament.
Every journeyman whatever doing anv
thing contrary to the rules is liable to pay
50/. or Suffer three months imprifonment.
The above directions are as fhort and cir-
cumflantial as the nature of the aCt would ad-
mit, and I fincerely wifh, that every work-
man as well as builder would make them-
felves thoroughly perfect in the different
claffes of building, as well as the reftriCtions
therein nominated, and not be too indolently
negligent, through a view or perfuanon that
the aforementioned particulars will be repealed
the prefent fitting of parliament. As no per-
fon concerned in the building branch (being
convicted) is exempt from punifhment, fo
every man ought to be Studious for his own
C c intereft.
386 A Key to Civil Architecture ; or,
intereft, as none can plead ignorance in an af-
fair which is made publick to the world.
It is notwithflanding an affair greatly to be
wifhed by all the working parties of the
branches, not that the adt fhould be repealed,
but that the prices of furveyors fhould be
taken off, it being there that the principal
grievance lies, and which will, I am afraid
(if not enquired into) be the deftrudtion of
many induftrious ‘families. It was certainly
a great overfight in parliament not only to lay
builders under grievances, but alfo to inforce
a tax upon them ; though it might not have
been amifs with refpedt to new buildings, as
a terror to thofe who knew not how to build
at all : but it was furely a cruelty to tax the
proprietors of buildings already eredted, and
which may wanton every occafion foine little
repairing. The generality of mankind will
think it very hard to make a little alteration
in a building of the firft clafs which may nof
amount to two or three pounds, and be obliged
to give 1 /. 1 5 j*. for the furveying of it; I fay,
this very exorbitant exadtion will prevent
hundreds of houfekeepers and proprietors from
doing numberlefs jobs, with a continuance.
That is the chief fupport of two thirds of the
working part of mankind in the building
branch, there being numbers of jobbing maf-
ters who employ fifteen or twenty men the
year round, that will fhortly be reduced to
one or two. If a tax had been with propriety
levied.
The JJniverfal British Builder. 387
levied, it fhould furely have fallen upon thofe
benefited by it — the fire-offices — for it is cer-
tain if the prefent a£t be continued, a policy
of infurance will not be of half the value it
ufed to be ; yet no other feafible method per-
haps could be thought of, except government
had been pleafed to have taken the furveyors
under their prote&ion. However, if fome
other method of payment be not fbortly de-
vifed and appointed, the builders will, I fear,
be in a terrible fituation, and hundreds of
them reduced to practices which they have
neither the will to perform, nor inclination
to attempt.
FINIS
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